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V 



/A 



r 



OCIETY OF ARl 



:n- ttnion. 



NTERNATIONAI KXHIBITIOI 



XXI. 

rO NOVEMBER 14, 1873. 



lY GEORGE BELL AND 60: 
COVENT-GARDEN. 



THB 



iMN AL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, 

OF THB INSTITXjnONS IN UNION, AND 

llOIAL EECOSD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS; 



Sbmiob.] 



FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 22, 1872. [No. 1,044. Vol. XXI. 



ICBBDINeS 07 TEE SOCIETT. 



Ton oBDniABT xEsnire. 

% KofTember 20th, 1872, Msjor-G^eral 
>Wli.MOT, B.A., F.B.S., Chairman of 
in the chair. 

^hOowing Oindidates were propoeed for 

M Members of the Society : — 

.Wmiuiiv Bow and Bromley Ixistitate, E. 
Iwrad C 73, Strand, W.C. 
Jmnm Alfred, 2S, Cuumbury-iqiiare, N. 
G«cn«» It ArtiUeiy-lane, Biahopsgate, S. 
^7, Wm^nn Button, Weat-view, IcUey, York- 
John Colej, 38, RnaMll-Bqaare, Brighton. 
Ber. WflUam, Kildwick, Leeds. 
J. R^ 1, Ladgate-hill, KG. 
Frederick, 32, Cheapaide, KG. 

Alphiona Charles, 4, A^ctoria-road, Eilbnni, 

D. Griffith, Bridge, Cardiffan. 
Pmha, En^ene, 19, SackriUe-street, W. . 

^ 7, Oatherine-coiirt, E.C., and 
Dccfn, Twickenham. 
Arthnr John, Penihyn-lodge^ Cambridge- 



Henry, Bamingham-Norwood, 
Noriblk. 

99, Ethelbnrga-honse, 70, Bishopsgate- 
withm, £.C. 
, Samuel Donn, 9, Bnckingham-road, Shore- 

r, Alfred, Lancaster-honse, 39, Finchley New- 
N.W. 
r. Geoig* BaU Eirington, West Ferry-road, 

R. 
Bohsft Gidiard, Gragg's-wood, Bawden, 

r. Lord Bonald Sutherland Leyeson, H.P., 
l-hooae, St. James's, S.W. 
John, 63, Leadenhall-street, E.C. 
r, G. W^ Lower Shadwell, E. 
,Muor Charles. F.R.G.8., 62, Springfield-road, 
iVwood, N.W. 
Birhard, Manchester. 

Fredsick Seband, 5, Whslebone-terrace, 

.iaaes, 9. Htncing-Une, EC. 
, John, BslTador-hoiise, Bishopsgate, EC. 
., Jo Mfh, 191, fiishopsgate-Btreet Withont 



Isaac, Albert, 27, Somerford-grove, Stoke Newing- 
ton, N. 

Johnston, David W., Dalriada, Belfast. 

King, Nathaniel, 2, East-street, Worthing. 

King-Harman, Captain W. H., B.A., Royal Artillery 
Institution, Woolwich, S.E. 

Lanyor, Captain William Owen, A.D.C., Craigton, 
Emnton, Post-office, Jamaica. 

Lees, Colonel Nassau, LL.D.,ConseiTatiTe Qub, S.W. 

Leishman, John B., 26, Kensington-gardens-square, 
W. 

Lutscher, Peter, 8, Austin-friars, E.C. 

Lyell, Robert, 30, Brunswick-gardens, Campden- 
hill,W. 

Harks, Murray, 395, Oxford-street, W. 

Macleay, Alexander Donald, Carlton Qub, S.W. 

Meakin, John Forster, 84, Baker-street, W. 

Morgan, George Victor, 39, Blackheath-hiU, Kent. 

Nidiolson, Henry, 3, Montague-place, Russell-square, 
W.C. 

Oswin, Frederick, 2, Weymouth-street) Portland- 
place, W. 

Page, Carles Albert, 38, Leadenhall-street, E.C. 

Parry, Edward, 290, Camden-road, N. 

Parsons, J. R., 95, Wigmore-street, Cavendish- 
square, W. 

Partington, Edward, Woolfold, Bury, Lancashire. 

Phdps, F. W., 10, Albion-grove, Bamsbury, N. 

Prothero, Alfred John, 45, Great Marlborough-street, 
W. 

Randle, Howard, Buxton College, Forest-lane, West 
Ham, E. 

Ratdiff, Daniel R., Mossley-bill, LiverpooL 

Rail, Theodor, 148, Buckingham-palace-road, S.W. 

Renny, Rev. James, M.A., Ph.D., Bamet. 

Rose, Henry, 8, Porchester-square, W. 

Sadler, F. A. Tumford-hall, Cheshunt, Herts. 

Schadit, Theodor, Wismar-house, Lee-terrace, S.E. 



Sevmour, W.J)igby, Q.C., LL.D., 2, Dr. Johnson's- 

buildings, 
Shelford, William^ 7, Westminster-chambers, Victoria- 



)uildings, Temple, E.C. 



street, 6. W. 
Skelton, Thomas Alfred, 37, Essex-street, Strand, W.a 

and Southampton. 
Smith, Reginald Masters, Queen's Bench Officey 

Temple, E.G. 
Stewart, Charles P., 92, Lancaster-gate, W. 
Thomson, Walter, Beheea, East Indian Railway, 

Bengal. 
Vandersee, Henry, Clifton-lodge, Elgin-crescent^ 

Notting-hill, W. 
Wagstaflf; James Poole, Highbury-lodg^e, Islington, N., 



and Manor-park, Potton, Bedfordshire. 

rhitehe 

N.W. 



Whitehead, 



»r-partr, 
W^. H., 



OntariO'lodge, 10, Kilbum-priory, 



Williams, Edward, 23, Birchin-lane, E.C. 
Windover, C. 8., 32 and 33, Long-aore, W.C, and 
Sandford-hall, Huntingdon. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, November 22, 1872. 



Wylie, Andrew, Prinlaws, Leslie, Fifeehire, N.B. 
Zimdan, Conrad Edward, 28, Red Lion-square, W.O. 

And ab Honorabt Couivspondino Mbmbbub. 

'^cheffaray, His Excellency Don Jos^ K.G.C., St. M. 

and St. L., Minister of Education, Public Works, 

Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Calle de 

Olozaga, No. 13, Madrid. 
Fontan^ The Most Illustrious Don Antonio M., 

Director-General of Statistics. Airriculture. Industry, 

and Commerce, Calle de Alcal&. No. 7, Mndrid. 
Martos, His Excellency Don Cristino, E.G.C.M., 

LL.D., &o.. Minister for Foreign Affairs, Calle de 

Serrano No. 20, Madrid. 
Merelo, Bis Excellency Don Manuel, E.G.C.I.C.. &c., 

Under-Secretary of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, 

Calle del BarquUlo, No. 13. Madrid. 
Bits, Dr. Wilhelm Carl, 12, Edmer-strasse, Bremen. 

The OHAiBicAir then gare the following 

ADDBBSS. 

In undertaking the dutiee of Chainnan of 
Oonnoil, I labour tinder great disadyantage in 
•uooeeding one like Lord Henry Lennox, M.P., 
who BO aoly filled the post for several years in 
snccession, and by his seal for the interests of the 
Society, and his position in the Legislature of the 
country, as well as by his personal qualities, was 
able to serve the Society so efficiently. I am, 
However, encouraged by knowing that tne Council 
is composed of those that earnestly desire to 
forwara everything that falls within our legitimate 
sphero, many of whom have long been connected 
with it, and whose names are associated with the 
•otave woric carried on by the Society for several 
years past. I trust, therefore, that the cdming 
year may see us following the example of those 
that have preceded us, and effecting much for the 
public good. 

The principal duty which devolves upon me at 
thb, the opening meeting of the one hundred and 
nineteenth Session of the Society, is that of laying 
before vou a statement connected with the 
principal matters that ihe Council has under con- 
sideration. Before doing so, I have to follow our 
established custom, and name to you a few of those 
more or less active members of the Society whose 
loss by death during the past year we have to 
deplore. 

Among these no name will be more familiar to 
members and readers of the Jowmal^ than that of 
the late Mr. William Bridges Adams. 

As a youth he was ol delicate constitution; 
but, having completed his education, he for a 
time found oocupataon in the workshops of 
his father, who was a carriage builder in Long 
Acre. He soon, however, left the workshop to 
study engineering and mechanics, under the late 
Mr. John Farey, then an active member of our 
Society, and at a later period Chairman of the 
Mechanical Committee. 

Fnder Mr. Farcy's tuition, Mr. Adams soon be- 
came thoroughly familiar with the structure of 
machinery, and the most economic means of apply- 
ing it to industrial pupoaes. But his health 
failed, and he, as a lart Mid afanost hcpeleas re- 
•ooroe, left this ommirj lor South America. He 
remained abroad for some years, and ultimately 
established his oonstitvtian. While in America, 
Mr. Adams tan^ the natma the Englirii method 
c< Baking candka, nd he treated taOow under 



steam pressure, separating the stearine fro 
and other matters. Long years after his i 
England, he saw a similar process patoi 
applied to the n^anufacture of candles 
country. 

Mr. Adams was a man of keen observai 
an original thinker, and much that he sa 
abroaahe endeavoured to apply forthebene 
countrymen at home. He had especial 6] 
with tiie labouring classes, and forme 
schemes for ameliorating their condition. 

When again settled in England, Mr. A< 
commenced carriage building ; but the rai 
was approaching, and as it came on, be 
the iimuenoe it was destined to have, for ) 
least, upon his business, and he aooordin 
up ordinary carriage building for the pv 
establishing works on a large scale, for 
struction of railway carriages and plant b 
of machinery. These wOTks he located at J 
Bow, and there achieved some of his grea 
cesses, and met also with his greatest mis 
He hsul the entire re8ponsR)ility of the cn^ 
concern at Bow, but nothing whatever to 
the monetary department ; and without L 
ledge he was made liable under bill tra 
for a sum of money that utterly mined hi 
he was, in the highest sense of the word, 
honour, and met his liabilities by giving 
shilling he possessed for the benefit of his • 
It is due to his memory to state, that 2 
missioner Fane, in delivering judgment, 
case of Mr. Adams was one of great mi 
he appeared to be a man of great dilig 
talent, and of very economical habits 
considered him as well entitled to a c 
of the first class as any bankrupt who had 
in his court. 

If there was any one period in the lif 
Adams, when there was the least trace of 
his nature, it was only made visible wbci 
stances led him to refer to the ruin which 
brought upon him, and when he felt that i 
through the fire he had not sacrificed the 
of honesty and self-respect to that of 
aggrandisement. 

During his residence away from 'En, 
was more than once in imminent peril 
wreck, and his mechanical knowledge waj 
brought to bear in the relief of his fellow 
It was during one of these occasions of 
he saw the ship's carpenter '* fish " a m 
had been splintered by the storm ; and v 
ducting his business at Fairfield Works, 
invented the fish-joint for rails, thus ada 

Cciple to railways which he had seen a 
■d ship. Although circumstances, 
ticulars of which he huss himself publishci 
netring, led him to part with his ii 
the fi^- joint for raOways. so that 
obtained any advantages from it, yc 
to whom he gave shares in the pateni 
large sums of money. By this as well as 
other inventions, Mr. Adams has made tl 
world very greatly his debtor. He has 
thai world golden seed ; while it is a 
ought not, in justice, to be forgotten 
reaped no harvest. He died a poor man 
I The question ie arisinfr in many mind 



it would not be a just and gene r ou s act o 
of the railway community, who have n 




JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, NovmiBia 22. 1872. 



to re^, the fruits of Mr. Adams' 
» to allow his widow and ohildren 
in thoae fruits ; for he nuffht have 
in the words used by BaskerviUe, when 
to bis friend Dr. Franklin, " After having 
the repatation of exoellenoe in the most 
L to mankind, of which I have 
, is it not to the last dec^ree 
that I cannot oven get bread by it ! * 
Roberton Blaine died on the 13th of 
, 1871,* after a severe illness. He was a 
vrcll known for his skill and 
in all matters connected with the law 
t. When the Society took up the 
of artiatid copyright, with a view to the 
of the law, he joined the Society's Com- 
■d worked ably aad energetically upon it. 
bin w^as drawn by him as a labour of love, 
y, aftcsr seven years of continued 
up by the government. Under the 
, in the House of Commons, of the 
Chano(»llor, then Attomey-(>enoral, and 
Westbury, then Lord Chancellor, in the 
ci L«ordA, the Bill became law in 1862, and 
it oopjright w^s secured for the first time 
photographs and drawings, which, up 
had no legal protection whatever. 
I aubsequently made a county oourt 
had juat been transferred from Lincoln 
, -when he was attacked by a severe 
hich he never recovered. He 
of the Society of Arts in 1857, 
elected upon the Council, where 
nt and independent views, coupled 
J genial and courteous manner, 
pc««enoe always aoceptable. 
Croaaley, Bart, M.P., died on the 
, at his seat, Bellevue, Halifax. Sir 
•on of Mr. John Crossley, an enter- 
manofactorer at Halifax, was bom 
at an early age entered his father's 
in wiiich he became joint-partner with 
BTB. John and Joseph Crossley. 
have been great b^efactors to 
of Halifax, where they employ above 
, and have recently erected and 
cd an Orphanage for the mainten- 
on of 400 children, besides con- 
Bumifiocntly to other benevolent under- 
Bb- Francis Crossley presented to his 
in 1857, a handsome park and 
, and he bmlt a row of almshouses 
, whose support is provided for by 
Ho was elected a member of the 
in 1856, and co-operated most use- 
I Council in its action relative to the 
of labourers* dwellings, a subject to 
had given great attention in his own 

W. H, Sykes, M.P., in November, 1856, 

■n address in this room, as Chairman of 

The great interest he evinced in all 

the welfare and advancement of 

"at home and in India, and the 

hstook in the discussion on questions 

and social advancement in this 

him perwmally known to, and cs- 

ly who now hear me, while his 

of every cause calculated to ad- 

of the community at large, 

for so doing was affor&d 



him as Member for Aberdtoen» is well known. Ha 
was elected a member ol the Society of Arts in 
1855. 

Biohard Westmaoott, B.A., F.B.S., inherited bis 
artistic taste and powers from his father, the cele- 
Inrated sculptor, toe l^e Sir Biohard Westmacott. 
Bom in London, in the year 1799, he was brought 
up under his father's eye, and in 1820 he went to 
Italy, where he spent some five or six years in 
studying the g^eries of and^it art. Soon after 
his return to England, in 1827, he began to exhibit 
at the Boyid Ac^emy. In 1838 he was chosen an 
associate of that body, to the full honours of which 
he was admitted in 1849, and ten years later he 
was appointed Professor of Soulx>ture. He had re- 
tired some years from the active work of his pro- 
fession, but was well known both as a lecturer and 
a writer on artistic subjects, upon which he con- 
tributed largely to our cyclopsedias and other 
serial publications. In the year 1867 he gave a 
course of Cantor Lectures before the Society, on 
** The History and Theory of Sculpture," which 
many present will, no doubt, remember to have 
listened to with ^easure. 

In Mr, C. H. Fielder, a young membw of the 
Society, was lost one whom its sphere of action had 
brought into activity. Beinff the secretary of an 
Indian tea company, he waB,by joining our ranks, 
induced to seek our co-operation in promoting the 
objects in which he was interested. His contribu- 
tion of a paper to our Society's JbiiriMi/ led to greater 
attention being paid to the science of tea culture, 
to the improvement of tea manuals, and the award 
of medals by this Society and the Agri-Horticul- 
tural Society of Bengal. His premature death 
brought to a dose what promised to be a useful 
career. 

The late Samuel Morse was less connected with 
us, as one of the inv^itors of telegraphic in^- 
provements, than by the circumstance that, when 
studying in this country in his earlier career as an 
artist, he received one of the prizes which the 
Society had for so long a i)eriod granted for the 
encouragement of art. 

Amongst the better known of those other 
members whose loss the Society has to deplore, 
relative to some of whom notices have armeared 
from time to time in the Journal^ are Tnomas 
Howard, Joseph Pease, John Piatt, M.P., the Earl 
of Lonsdale, James Stansf eld, and Alderman Hale. 

The Cantor Lectures, which have become an 
important feature in the Society's yearly action, 
and have, night after night, for several Sessions, 
brought together crowded audiences in this room, 
will be contmued this Session, and it is hoped that 
the subjects selected will prove not less interesting 
and instructive than those treated in former years. 
It may be mentioned, with some justifiable pride, 
that the substance of one of a past series has 
formed the text-book for the Government exami- 
nations in the subject treated, and that of another 
has led to the establishment of a professorship at 
the Boyal Academy. 

The large attendanoe that these lectures attract 
show how highly the valuable labours of the able 
men that have delivered them are appreciated. 
They form, in fact, a oondse account of the present 
state of knowledge on the subjects treated, and 
therefore cannot fail to be of great interest to our 
members. 

The first oourae this Sesacm will be on ''The 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, NovKMBEa 22, 1S71 



The ossonce of beef was importod i 
tablets of various sizes, intended. :£oi 
soups, or in combination with rice, aa.^ 
other farinaceous substances, veg-etf 
diments ; little more was then re<5 
dissolve the tablets in a sufficzieiil 
water, and the soup was ready for m 
like other concentrated meat e 
quired some little skill and jud^me 
of the cook, or i>erson using it, to zna 
acceptable ; and, therefore, thougli | 
it has not become, to any apprecia. 
article of commerce. 

In 1845, the year of the terrible i 
land, owine to the failure of the po 
Society had placed at its disposal, to 
a prize, the sum of £105 ** for tlie i 
mixture of a material for a wholeson 
and palatable bread, to be sold at a 1 
used as an'economical substitute for w 
biscuits, or potatoes." The prize 
and the minutes of our Society 
April, 1846, a new sort of bread an* 
Timothy O'Brien, baker, of Dublin, 
by the Society through C. E. Tre^ 
Secretary of iiie Treasury (now Sir 
velyan). The Society had bread mad 
by Mr. Day, according to the receipts 
Mr. O'Brien, and the secretaiy r^or 
Trevelyan had informed him tnat Mr. 
a highly respectable master baker; 
manufacturing bread similar to that 
Society on an extensive scale; and 
exerted himself in a very praisewortt 
endeavour to overcome the prejudices c 
and assist the Government in their 
alleviate the distress of the peasantry 
Mr. O'Brien submitted samples ( 
various kinds to the Committee of 
The first sample was made of white 
and wheaten flour, the proportions be 
meal to lib. of flour. 

The second sample was made of ji 
meal and wheaten flour, in the same 
The biscuits were of two kinds, made 
materials and of like proportions with 
Eighteen other persor*^ also submiti 
since the Society's foundation ; and as some atten- of breads, or sent in ' receipts for the 
tion has been g^iven to the subject outside the bread, but no baker in London wou]< 
Society, during the last four or five years, I have breads proposed except Mr. Day, who 
thought that it might be well to state briefly what after liu-. O'Brien's receipt, 
the lS)ciety itself has done since the new era of its After a lenffthy consiaoration of th 
existence was inaugurated. 

In 1844, beef ana mutton were mere refuse pro- 
ducts in Australia. A leg of mutton coidd be 
bought for 6d., and a barrow full of the inferior 
joints for a like sum, indeed in some cases they 
might be had for the trouble of fetching. At 
that time sheep and oxen were grown for 
their wool, skins, bones and fat ; some attempts 
were certainly made to reduce the lean of meat 
into a solid condition as a portable soup, and to 
export it to this country, but, previous to 1845, 
all these attempts failed, owing to the charring of 
the gelatine in the reducing pans. In 1844-5, how- 
ever, the use of the water-bath was introduced, 
and the objectionable burnt flavour of the concen- 
trated product was, to a large extent, got rid of ; 
and in 1845-6 the Society awarded its Qt>ld Isis 

Medal to Mr. G. Warriner, for the preparation and ' come^in reference to any new food-subsfa 
importation of the essenoe of beef from Australia, great difficulty in the way of much b< 



Practical Applications of Optics to the Arts and 
Manufactures, and to Medicine," by Dr. C. Meymott 
Tidy, Joint Lecturer on Chemistiy, and Professor 
of Medical Jurisprudence at the liOndon Hospital; 
it will consist of five lectures, to be delivered on 
Monday, the 25th instant, and the four subsequent 
Monday evening. Other courses will also be given 
during the Session; one, by the Rev. Arthur Kigg, 
whose course last Session on Mechanism excited so 
much interest, will be " On the Energies of Gravity, 
Electricity, VitaKty, Affinity, Li^t, and Heat, 
especially with reference to the Measurement and 
Utilisation of them." 

The Food Committee of the Society has alres^ly 
brought forward much valuable and interesting 
information, and will continue its labours. The 
high price of meat at the present time renders the 
subject of its inquiry just now of more than ordi- 
nary importance. 

Count Bumf ord, in his essay on Food, says : — 
*' As providing subsistence is, and ever must be, 
an object of the first concern in all countries, any 
discovery or improvement by which the procuring 
good and wholesome food can be facilitated must 
contribute to increase very powerfully the comfort, 
and promote the happiness of society." The Society 
of Arts from its foundation has ever beld a like 
opinion, in confirmation of which I would refer 
those who do not know the early history of the 
Sociebr's labours to the Transactions which it 

?ubli^ed previous to its incorporation by Boyal 
Iharter in 1847. 

I may, however, state that the Society caused 
our own people to learn the art of catching turbot, 
which a cenhiry since they were ignorant of. The 
turbot were caught on our own coasts by the 
Dutch, by whom they were supplied to the London 
market. 

.The Society did very much both to improve and 
increase the supply of fish generally to the London 
markets, and upon this work it spent several 
thousands of pounds. It also spent large sums 
upon the cultivation of root crops and vegetables, 
and in the introduction of new sources of supply 
it has never ceased action. 

The question of Food Supply is not in any degree 
less important now than at any previous period 



was resolved by tne Committee to awai 
Gk)ld Medal of the Society to Mr. ' 
acknowledgment of the excellerice of 
and of the merit of his exertions for th< 
of the same objects for which the pveu 
Society was originally offered. 

It will be seen from the foregoing tb 
Indian com was not used either in Irel 
country as a bread-making substance ; ai 
use was proposed during a period of 1 
people were greatly prejudiced against 
at times, so great was the excitement of 
that many refused to eat it. Since tha 
use of Indian com has become almost 
and it may be doubted if any baker coi 
found in the United Kingdom who does 
to a greater or less extent. Prejudice t< 



JOOKNAL OP THE 800IETY OP ARTS, Novbmbkb 22, 1872. 



, and we should not forget that, 
the beginniiig of the present 
&e peasantry in some parts of England 
Mt eat potstoes. 

"as also recommended to be offered for 
tbe mode of averting the evil which 
£rom the deterioration of the potatoes 
as eeed, pointing out the source from 
the best seed may be obtained ; and a short 
ordered to be prepared, calling the 
bftion of agriculturists throughout the country 
pa state of the potato crops, and suggesting 
ifarroatioo of local committees to assist the 
classes, and proTide seed for the next year. 
Society's Gk>ld Medal was also offered in 
, for tne importation of any new plants 
lo be a nsefnl substitute for the potato erop ; 
Society subsequently published an account 
called the "Gold of Pleasure," or 
satiea. This plant is a native of the 
parts of Siberia, and does not exhaust 
; it may be grown after the com crop, and 
%a sown wi^ aU sorts of clover. Mr. W. 
; y.TfcS., the introducer of the plant into 
resolved to offor it to the Irish farmer, 
£Dce of the calamitous state of the 
fnym tlie failure of the potatoes, flax, and 



ttid of Pleasure is a cruciferous plant, 

Kxyth stalks, and the seed in husks, but 

a without fibre ; its seed is more valuable 

for cattle than linseed, and a fine oil is 

from it. It yields a crop of about 40 

of seed per acre (see "Transactions," 

53), bnt no large amount of attention 

been paid to its cultivation, either in 

in this country. 

address given by the late Mr. Harry 
^when acting as the Chairman of your 
the opening of the 100th Session of this 
sion was made to the British possessions 
as a source of our food suppUes. Why, 
should Australia export only the wool of 
and boil down the carcases merely for 
r? Is it inix>08sible to preserve the flesh, 
I V» export it rn a satisfactory condition to this 
"*~r, where butchers* meat is not over-abun- 



1857, the Council had placed at its 
by Sir. W. C. Trevelyan, Bart., the sum 
to be awarded as prizes for essays on the 
of the Marine Algse, and their Pro- 
Food and Medicine for Man and Domestic 
;*• and on the 14th February, 1862, a paper 
before this Society, by Mr. Edward C. C. 
lupon the " Economic Application of Sea- 
Previous to the paper being read, the 
1 been awaraed to Mr. Stanford, 
report of the late Mr. Thomas Graham, 
l e txmi mending the communication for re- 
that though the investigations of Mr. 
did not lead to the probable utilisation of 
of oar coasts as articles of food for the 
Bsvorfheless, the results of his investigation 
novelty and importance as to render it 
that a new source of industry would be 
In flkse islands. 

of the opinion thus expressed, 
of the communication requested per^ 
fa w HMAa w it from the Society for the 
«C mcmxingf by letters patent, tiie dis- 



coveries therein made known ; this he was allowed 
to do, and works on an extensive scale have ever 
since been in operation on the coast of Scotland. 
The communication referred to will, be found at 
page 185, Vol. X. of the Society's Journal, 

The prize of Sir W. C. Trevelyan thus again 
remained in the hands of the Society, and the 
Council were authorised to offer it for award in 
such directions as they thought most likely to be 
useful to the community. 

They accordingly offered it in the Session of 
1863-4, for an analogous subject, viz., as a prize for 
** Preserved Fresh Meat" in the following terms : — 
** The sum of £70, placed at the disposal of the 
Council by Sir W. C. Trevelyan, Bart., with the 
Society's Medal, is offered for the discovery of a 
process for preserving fresh meat better than by 
any method hitherto employed, applicable to the 
preservation of meat in countries where it is now 
almost valueless, so as to render it an article of 
commerce, and available for stores on shipboard.'* 

The Council from that time has never ceased to 
pursue its inquiries in relation to the food supply. 
A Food Committee was appointed in 1866, and 
year by yecu: it has reported on the progress made 
towards the solution of that all-important question. 
Although the Committee have not at present felt 
jiistified in recommendinfi^ the award of the prize, 
^et great national good has resulted &om the 
mvestigations which have been carried on, and 
from time to time it has felt^itself in a position to 
commend and recommend oertaiu classes of pre- 
served food products, such as the Australian meats, 
and the Swiss and English preserved milks, which 
were previously imknown to commerce, for accept- 
ance by the public. The people have been greatly 
benefited by the yearly importation of Australian 
and other preserved meats in tins, and the 
increasingly large importation indicates that 
the prejudice against them is passing away. 
It is« also gratifying to note that a very 
marked improvement is taking place in the pre- 
paration, due, it is not unreasonable to conclude, to 
the labours of our Committee. The importation 
of cooked meat does not, however, solve the great 
and important problem of fully utilising the vast 
herds and flocks now almost wasted in other parts 
of the world. 

The Council and the Food Committee still look 
forward to the early solution of the problem in 
Australia or elsewhere, viz., how to preserve meat 
fresh and in carcase during its transport from 
the port of shipment to the markets of this 
country. The economical production of ice or 
its equivalent of cold has hitherto appeared to 
be the chief obstacle to the realisation of the 
desired result. When the investigation began, some 
six or seven years since, the quantity of ice pro- 
duced per ton of coal consumed did not amount to 
more than four or five tons, and the displacement 
of cargo on ship-board was excessive; but by 
recent improvements in the processes of evapora- 
tion and condensation, that quantity of ice or its 
equivalent has been ndsed to 15 or 20 tons. 

It has been reported within the last few weeks 
that the c^culty in tiie way of the economical pro- 
duction of ice or its equivalent had been surmounted 
in Australia, and that cargoes of fresh carcase meat 
have been shipped from Australia to New Orleans, 
and preservea fresh during the voyage, notwith- 
stanobig that the temperature of the atmos- 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novbmber 22, IS "3 



ghere ranged as high as 90 deg. The Council 
ope to leam that this statement is borne out by 
fact, and to find themselres in a position to award 
the prize so long since offered, a prize which they 
have now the j^easure of announcing has been 
increased to £100, by a further donation of £30 
by Sir W. C. Trevelyan ; to this also will be added 
the Society's Cold Medal. 

While on the subject of food, let me point out 
that the International Exhibition to be held next 
year includes this as one of its divisions; and at the 
request of her Maiesty^s Commissioners, the services 
of the Society's Food Committee have been enlisted 
on behalf of this section of the Exhibition, the 
particular portion undertaken by the Society being 
that of '* grocery, drysaltery, and preparations of 
food," the other portions being in the cnarge of the 
Boyal Agricultural Society and the Boy^ Horti- 
cultural Society. In order the more effectually to 
secure a complete representation of this class of 
objects, the Food Committee has sought and 
obtained the assistance of a numerous body of 
gentiemen specially conversant with the various 
articles of commerce included in this section. A 
strong Committee of Advice has been formed, 
through whom, it may be confidentiy expected, a 
valuable and injitructive collection will be obtained, 
and a display prepared that will exorcise an im- 
portant influence in promoting an improved supply. 

Creat changes have already been made during 
the past two years in relation to the structure and 
use of our common roads, and long and im- 
portant discussions have, from time to time, taken 
place in this room as to the expediency of introduc- 
ing tramways on the roads of our principal cities 
and towns. The question of expediency has now 
been settied by the fact that tramways have be^i 
introduced, and are at work in London and in many 
other parts of the country, and some attempts have 
been made to combine tiie system of tramways 
with an improved construction of the road surfaces 
themselves. 

Much, however, still remains to be done before 
we shall attain to a perfect combination of rail and 
road surfaces. Asphalt, tar-concrete, wood, stone- 
pitching, macadam, and iron have all been tried, 
separately, or in combination with the iron trams ; 
out until we obtain a good durable surface, capable 
of general and economical application, we can, it is 
to be feared, do but littie to improve the cleanliness 
of our streets and roads. 

The questions of the surface-covering of road- 
ways, carriage-ways, and foot-pavements, involve 
those of the economy of tractive force. They 
also involve many sanitary questions — as to the 
dust and dirt produced, and the means of 
cleansing, which nave yet to be determined for 
the guidance of Local Administrations. In re- 
ference to these, the Coimcil has voted a sum of 
money for the determination by a dynamometer 
of the different tractive forces required on different 
sorts of pavement — ^the old granite pavements, 
boulder and macadam, and wood, and tne di£foirent 
species of asphalt pavement. Our member, Mr. 
Amos, who has had great experience in the use of 
the dynanometer, has liberally undertaken to con- 
duct these trials for the Society. I regret to say that 
be has had a serious illness, which has delayed these 
trials, but he is, lumpily, now recovering, aoid hopes 
to enter upon them shortly. The new and improved 
machine to be used in the experiments ia now com- 



pleted. The investigation, beiii^ 4 



ordinary conditions of roadways 
few difficulties, and is likely to l>e 
more correct results than if an atta 
to determine the larger question oi 
all surfaces and declivities. Should 
asphalt paving become common, -w^i 
a very great improvement in the oo 
venience of omnibuses and other pixl 

The Council have also taken &1 
analyses of the mud produced by tli. 
vehicles on the different sorts of pav 
may be said to be analyses of the did 
dust generated by vehicular trafiBlo, t 
the population, as well as spread ott 
An analysis of the mud from the old 
ment in the City gave more than o< 
horse dung, 17 per cent, of abraded 
rest a mixture only too likely to X>€ 
disease of the tuberculous organs. 1 
position is produced by the pe: 
brought to bear on the several d 
pavements, will be shown by an 
the Council propose before long;* t 
pleted. Corresponding experiments 
us from Paris, to be made at the Ax 
by Mens. Tresca, of the Institute. 

And h^re I would take occasion 1 
bequest by our late member, Mr. Tho 
of £500, which the Society has recc: 
and the interest of wl^h is to be 
the purpose of presenting pmodi< 
or mediu to the author of a tre^ 
properties of steam generally, or any 
ticularly, as applied to motive poi^ver, 
of air or permanent gases, or vapours, o 
so applied, or to t£e invention of s( 
valuable process relating thereto." 
has accoraingly included in the list i 
which it isprcparing for issue, a prize i 
with Mr. Howard's bequest, and it is 
that the attention of men of science, ei 
others, will be directed to the sok 
problem, how a motive-power engine 
structed so* as to admit of its being us^ 
tivo power on the tramways of our coi 
without creating a nuisance, and witl 
advantage to the public generally. 

Had tiie conclusions enunciated in 
sions of the Society on the expedic 
adoption of telegrajjiiic commnnicatioi 
the postal system of the country, been 
when attention was claimed and due f ( 
tion and action, an immense sum 
would have been saved to the public, 
by this time have had the advantage < 
telegraphic rates, such as those Ton 
with immense advantage to Arts, Mai 
and Commerce, in Switzeriand, Belj 
Germany. The same conclusions had, 
been f ormularised and presented f or atten 
the department itself, but without effect. 
year's inattention and delay may be said t 
the public not less than half a millioD 
until the adoption of the prindplefi in <l 
respects the inland telegraphs. Tbo 
principles are applicable to the ocean i 
' and it is to be remembered that there i 
largo cost accruing during the delay of 
tion of those same principles, an adoption 
we are to keep pace with Continental ^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, November 22, 1872. 



fa» dcdared inevitable. In the former case it 
VM represented tiiat tiie goyemmeiit oould do 
wkitt tradiBig oompaniee oocdd not do ; that the 
gvnonuDmt oonld utilise numerous existing postal 
aCoas, and an immense postal service; that it 
eoald make extensions of stations with a prc^, 
«r d ihm cost of the senrioe, whioh the trading 
cooM not do without lose ; that it might 
reductions of tsriib, and sustain temporary 
of income, whkdi could not be done by 
teading companies ; that it, by unity of manage- 
ment, as well as by utUiring existing establi^- 
oould eSect saTmgs which mig^t be divided 
the public and ^e diar^olders. All this, 
done in respect to the inland telegraphs, 
tMy applicable to the ocean telegraphs. 
Thiem ehsnges waro indeed comprehended in 
the origiiial sdkeme, but were left out for want of 
tisMi. It ig to be borne in mind that the saving of 
time by the inland telegraphs is of hours and days, 
but by the ocean telegraph of weeks and months ; 
sod social messages being oomparatrvdy few, or of 
•o account, in oeean telegraphy, it may be set 
down that, as a rule, every telegram moves at least 
cae trmnsaoticm in manufactures and commerce, 
•ad that this new power of movement is applicable 
toi^KUvids of six hundred millions annually of 
iaraorts and exports. The chambers of oommerce 
viu appreciate — have, ior the most part, appre- 
ciated--the importance of the movement unaer- 
taken by the Society. 

IVe following declaration has already been signed 
I7 more than forty merchants, shipowners, and 
m support of the movement : — 



*" Wr, the undanigiied merchants, shipownen, shipbroken, 
*aA ■jtrats^ trading u hereunder stateo, are of opinion that 
i^ ts apce»"«ry for the improvement of commerce, that, as 
ftfamd by the Society of Arts, the ocean telegrapns shoold 
W lihaD Ky cbe govemmemt as part of the (?en««l noctal 
niam of the empiro, to he used at lower ratoaof otiaiig:e 
wa thoae now made by the trading companies. And 
•V cnress our conftdent belief that at snch lower rates as 
^*f bem proposed to begin with, of one shilling a word to 
Cmda, or Dntnh Nortii America, and to the Umted States, 
«i d 2a. 6d. per word for massages to India and to the 
Aa^nlkn otttoniea and New Zealand, we shonld expend a 
fn«bBr amount of money than we now do in ocean telegraph 



h may have been in pursuance of such an opinion 
tkat some of the companies have already aaopted 
• tytlem of -wxsrd tele^^phs, which is a check to 
ths pvaetioe of ** padong " — a practice created by 
deartutea. When uie colonies are made aware of the 
aoneaaent and ita objects and means, they cannot 
keaitate to join it. The charge for Australian 
tilagiums of £9 a message is one that must be pro- 
lufaHory of almost all social messages, and of all 
te mesoftg ^ ES for the largest transactions. 

Lord Henry Lennox, in the House of Commons 
hil seaaian, gave notice of amotion for a committee 
oa the subject, and will doubtless contmue to press 
tka q aa rti on forwud next session of Parliament. 

The Gooncil have reason to hope that the actual 
artabHshment of national scholarships for music, 
t» ba oonipeted for in many of the counties of the 
^nlad Kmgdom, wiU take place in the course of 
A»«Bsaing year. From the list of upwards of 80 
«fcaenbers may be named the following : — Sir 
Vtm fiali« Baft., has promised to devote £1,000 
t» the foandBtio& of a scholarship, when the 
MsHooal Tndning School for Music is established, 
tobecaHed the &dtaire Saholanhip. Ifr. Frank 



Morrifion will subscribe £50, for five years, for an 
Invemesshire Sdiolarship. Mr. C. Minton Camp- 
bell will give £60, for five years^ for a Stafford- 
shire Scholarship. Mr. Hawkshaw, C.E. , promises 
£25, for five years, for a Sussex Scholarship. Mr. 
H. A. Hunt promises a donation of £100. The 
Marquis and Marchioness of Westminster will sub- 
scribe £ 15 annually. The Marquis and Marchioness 
of Lansdowne, £5 5s. annually. The Musical 
Committee will be requested to advise in reference 
to the necessary details for regulating the holding 
of these scholarships, and the CouncQ have specif 
satisfaction in announcing that H.B.H. the Duke of 
Edinburgh is personally mteresting himself in iAie 
plan. 

Although the Cotton Supply Association of 
Manchester has seen fit to bring its labours to a 
dose, after a career of great utility, there still 
remains mtich to be done for the promotion of 
cotton culture. The same reasons which prompted 
the formation of that association, long before the 
American war, still exist, and the culture of cotton 
is far from having reached its proper extension in 
India, Queensland, and our other colonies, countries 
in the development of which our Society has 
always taken great interest. 

The Councu will endeavour to supply that 
organisation which may be necessary, and that 
may perhaps best be done by the formation of a 
Cotton Supply Committee. 

The Council readily consented to give the co- 
operation of the Society to the Cotton Department 
of this year's International Exhibition, and it is 
in a great degree by this means that the successful 
display of raw material in every shape was effected, 
ana particulariy in the large collection of living 
plants. This latter feature has given an example 
whioh it is hoi)ed will be successfully followed in 
the next year's exhibition of silk, when the 
hatching of many varieties of worms can be 
observed on the spot. 

The India Committee and Silk Supply Com- 
mittee will still continue to occupy themselves 
with their respective subjects. GJreat attention is 
being given, both in Australia and at the Cape of 
Qooa Hope, to silk-growing. Last year, it wiU be 
remembered, the Society's Gold Medal was bestowed 
on Mr. Chubb, for silk cocoons grown in Queens- 
land, the quality of which met with high approba- 
tion from the Mi&cclesfield Chamber of Commerce. 
Information has just reached the Society of samples 
which have lately been sent over from the Cape of 
Good Hope, the quality of which is spoken of in 
the highest terms of commendation by the manu- 
facturers of Macclesfield. The formal report is 
expected very shortly, and will be published in 
the Journal. One of the great difficulties the 
silk grower has of late had to contend with is 
the silk worm diseeuie and the difficulty of obtain- 
ing eggs uncontafninated with it. The world is 
ransacked for healthy seed, as it is termed ; and 
how to breed healthy worms is a great desideratum. 
An enterprising laay, a Queensland colonist, has 
lately come to Europe in search of a solution of 
this problem, and has just gone back with informa- 
tion, by means of which she hopes to render 
Queensland a source ftrom whence we may expect 
to draw our supplies of healthy seed. It apx>ear8 
that, after repeated unavailing attempts in various 
directions, she heard of a gentleman in Switzer- 
land who had suoeeded m so treatingthe worms as 



8 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Notimbeb 22, 1872^ 



to reach the object sought. She at onoe placed 
herself in communioatioii with him, and naving 
made herself thoroughly acquainted with the 
system employed, has gone back to the colony to 
carry it out, in full confidence that in a short time 
success in this direction will crown her efforts. 

The success of the Society|s exertions in obtaining 
the constitution of an agricultural and industrial 
organisation of the goTemment departments in 
India, will render the study of the various pro- 
ducts of our empire of more importance, and give 
scope for the exertions of our India Committee. 
One advantage resulting from our labours is that, 
by means of the correspondents of Indian journals 
in London, the various objects discussed are widely 
made known to those locally interested by the 
press of India. 

The subject of fibres is one of great importance 
in reference to the supply of raw material for 
various manufactures, and the Council will con> 
tinue to give to it the same active attention as 
during late years, and they trust the efforts they 
have made in Turkey will lead to practical results. 
The action of the Society in respect of improving 
the convenience and accommodation of steamers 
employed in the Channel passage, has stirred up a 
great amount of feeling in favour of the object ; 
and this not only among the general public, which 
suffers so much from its horrors, but among those 
connected with and interested in the existing 
arrangements. It is hoped that, without waiting 
for the long-talked-of improvement of the French 
harbours,* much may be done in the way of general 
arrangement, and ventilation, and shelter, that 
wiU materiallv add to the comfort of passengers. 

The Council, by special invitation of one of their 
members, Mr. Bessemer, visited that gentleman's 
house on the 9th inst., to witness a series of ex- 
periments, made with a working model of his in- 
vention for overcoming the effects of the motion 
of vessels at sea. The success which has already 
attended Mr. Bessemer's endeavours to effect im- 
provements in various branches of industry, leads 
to the hope that he will ultimately succeed in ac- 
complishing the object in view. 

The proposals of Captain Dicey and of Mr. 
Mackie, for modif3nng the structure of vessels, are 
also b€dng watched with great interest by the 
Council, who are glad to find that the South- 
Eastem Railway Company have already placed an 
improved vessel on the Channel, by which the com- 
fort of passengers is increased. 

The great success which attended the Review 
of Schools held last summer, under the inspec- 
tion of H.R.H. the President of the Society, and 
the gratification which was afforded by it te the 
boys, make the Council deprecate the idea of not 
carrying out the same plan auring the next season ; 
but the expense attending it is such that unless 
special contributions are made for the purpose, 
they will hardly be justified in doing so. Those 
in charge of schools where drill is sytematically 
carried on, cordially agree in its great value as a 
means towards the cultivation of mental and 
moral discipline, and it is te be hoped that this 
display of what is being done in this direction may 
continue te be brought before the public. 
A conference was held in August last, xmder 

• By the ParlUmenUry notice* Just limied, there appears one by 
the Bonth-Eutern Railway Company, to empower them to raise 
Mpital tat the ImprortDent of Boolofoe harbonr. 



the presidency of H.R.H. Prince 
attended by eminent manufactarexn 
bers of City Companies, to oonsi 
portant que^on of Technological £ 
and the Society has this year tu 
inaugurate a system which vrill, p 
mat^y supersede the system, of 
established at the instance of the la.t 
Chester. These latter it had been ttxi 
the Council te discontinue this Session 
ceived firom several of the principal Xi 
Union with the Society so earnest 
against this course, that they decide<i 
certain number of the subjecte foi 
The establishment by the governments 
tions for the National Schools, and b^? 
sities of Oxford and Cambrid!ge of ±1 
aminations, will no doubt ultimately in 
action on the part of the Society : 
direction unnecessary. The Council h 
fore, turning its attention to the de^ 
such a system of examinations as si 
promote an extended technical kno^ 
arts and industries of the country, i 
give rise te a further development o 
In many of the continental cities ti 
exist, but in En^^land we have not b 
sessed any such mstitutions, if we excc] 
of Mines and the College of Chemistry 

The want of such schools is daily u 
more and more felt in each of our ni£ 
centres, and it is the desire of the Cow 
gurate such a system of action, throug 
of Institutions, as may ultimately lead t 
done in relation te industir which ha4 
being, done for the gcoieral education < 
workpeople of the Imited Kingdom. 

With the help of committees of 
specially conversant with various I 
manufacture, the Council has alread 
programmes explaining the mode in 
proposed te hold examinations in tl 
technology of the manufactures of 
paper ; and similar programmes for silj 
carriages are in corrse of preparatio 
mention that these examinations will 
into three parts. Tht> first includes tho 
of science, a knowledge of which is 
requisite as a foundation for sound U 
struction, taking into consideration 1 
limited opportunities for obtaining 
education in this country. The second 
to the technology of the manufactt 
special application of the various b 
science to it, and the third to the praoti 
the manufacture itself. 

The requisite knowledge, as resped 
part, will be tested by the May FiTaminai 
Science and Art Department, while for 
technology, special examination papers 
The practicied skill will be judged by the 
the candidates' employment in the m 
itself. 

These technological programmes willb 
in the various centres of industxy, and t 
hope this Session to make a begimiing ] 
at least, of the manufactures just menti 
the system is as yet so new, and the tecli 
cation of the English artisan so imperfect 
are not sanguine of obtaining a 
candidates tiie first year. 




JOURITAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABTB, Hovmbmi 22, 1872. 



9 



IW CooDczI hftte, from time to time, had imder 
aramailentioii theimproTement of the Journal^ 
dcuw coatemplate some alterations, which, they 
p, win nnder it iiior« interesting and instructive, 
*rll ■■ mam attiaotiye in t3rpe and appearance. 
gHk>t be remcmhered tiiat the JounuU is |«inGi- 
It a ncard of the Society's proceedings, and 
bs. It ^e md of each year, the volume of 
Sranactions.** All other matter is subordinate 
&1S, aid kw to take its chance of the varying 
Bmtt of sfeoe in any week which the Society's 
ta^'iiii;^ proper leave available for it. The 
rW in DO way competes, nor is it intended to 

Sifr% vith cammeraal journals, which can 
J devote a definite number of pages to each 
» k rnhject with which they undertake to satisfy 
I t3w<:»5 of a iramerous body of readers. 
Flk* csttiogne of the library has been re-arranged 
I Djiv oonrenient form for reference, and about 
i thxmsmd additional entries have been inserted, 
b wiQ diow that we po^eas many valuable books 
inreted with our work, and that a most useful 
luiici(« is iTsilable for the information of the 

ftpHisjh Sr William Bodkin, from a gentle- 
|viu) does Dot wish his name to appear, the 
■»] \m received the very liberal offer of £500, 
W* uod in such a way as they may consider 
il. f T scfoie means of economising uie use of 
i f|r ordinaiT domestic purposes, without 
tocttiB;? its emeiency. 

IVireat nse in the price of coal has again 
Mt^ tics qoestion ULore. prominently before 
I {fhljc, ana the Council cannot but express 

Ei-imir&tion of the practical philanthropy 
W ors^ a private individual to contribute 
isnaoly tofi^rds an attempt at its solution. 
k rut iBtondHl to entertain any proposals which 
t «na}4e only for the mansions of the rich, or 
N^lztion to cooking for large numbers, but 
ir. tildnf^ a room as the place for experiment, 
^ <*T praes for grates suitable for existing 
f^J^ v^di ^mU fulfil the conditions of 
^^ nd TcotOating, or of cooking in combi- 
^vith these. But though thus inviting the 
wirturere of grates, among others, to compete, 
a'-fcrinui tiiat any widely-spread and real im- 
^*^ni depends mainly on the designers and 
w-n ofhoQses* Tear after year we hear of the 
fcritttlt, owing to the extravagance and waste 
^jlaable material, in producing a miserable 
■^^nfip for w armth said comfort in ordinary 
^inn sod year after year we see the same 
► «>^*'iianDOQsfire-plaoee and chimneys, in many 
fa r«ijtnictai without even the application of 
l^na winch experience shows to he the best, 
■? op on every side. However much we may 
^ titit boilderi will, some day or other, have 
karaige to ^xike out a new line altogether, we 
MJy at present advise, with rega^ to the 
JfT ^ntin^ed to us, t^iat it be awsjded in con- 
vith the arrangement of houses already 
^ Utat the improvetnents dhould be of snoh 
that tiie dweUingB of the many should 
toproftbythenu 

^ipoa the subject of prises given by in- 
*to the Society lor special objects, I may 
Rft to the bequest of Mr. Thomas Howard 
^ ! food miss <^Emd by KrWalterTrevelvasL 
\f^ me Uie opportoity of pointing out brw 
> »6 Society & indebted to the libeni^if . 



* — -" 



its members, and of eipnjsabkg a hope that some 
of those iut<m! gted in any paztacular inquiry will 
follow such noUe exmmpkft. 

The Albert Gold MedaL estab&hed in B^^nory 
of H.B.H. the Prinnp Consjirt, Prpa-i^^rt of tii#» 
Society during «rhteeai yeare. :» awTcri*-! MrL^aiI}x 
for ** distingxnsb^d m^iri in prT=i:*tiZLir Art*. 
Manufactures, cc CrcrrrEi'^iraf ," A# y^ ar- awur*, 
this medal ba^ jnfa l»t*?ai awards t ' % r^^'ii'^rafia 
whose name i* w^ C kn: wx am mr tin *^" . "' mn^ 
enterprifiins' of iJl HEiiinf zjt m*- m-Tr- -^^Trj-fir. ir 
the manui*.tTE^ cif s:^*^ — ini : r <^*-Ta*gi;f wiati 
have redounded. n:n ini.j ti ii» I'wx jt^^r^jni^ 
advantage^ to lii*- airtaniiu- weLjtx am *-i*» na^tijix^ 
honour (for a natiTnis hiii'mr^z. ir ij* 1. 1- -Trru'-i* 
success of hCT" sooii . bzl ikl-*: t' tii* ••-?Ts*rr -: ul 
countries wh'T^ art? azii u.imnsi^Tir'-^ i.^ n xi*^ 

The Gold MedaL in f=n"ii£nEi ■- j: t„** -i-r-ii^r ^ 
Dr. Fothergill's wZl. i* ti:L' j-'hr .^-'■-l i-*- ^- 
production of an i3ic:»iL'*^»T:c:L' a*^ t ^^►"' •- ^^ t 
render the ledgers of "crrTr.'miii nt-a^ - .s*i-jr *. ., 
ordinarilv indestroctf:*!*: : - ±:r\ 

• - _ 

The Silver Medal, in nriii*Tinf^ ■'* 'iij- -r^ - 
Mr. John Stock, is tins y%^ -r-'-v - t- :^ . - 
artists, for the be«t c&nf*-'* it-ixri*- 1 i:i-- • -- --* - 
on any of the eheLs cr-m.i.Tl^ i*^ i 
pose. 

I may mention ttit,": ^ii* 1 izr:! £ 
lowing prises for r^-^^^-i •.-. ■» " 
nected with wiiiA Li-* ui 

One prize of £->- ije iii 
any descrrptioB. 

Two prizes of £3*. en-a fr 'V 

Two prizf^ of jII - *^ -i i-.r tv . 

It will not t* <:«:s '.-f '■-n^ * 
the Council bar*- tizK^rzr^^^ t 
sider the oonditi'^t itl* j^r v n, -t - !»• ,- • ' -c 
the Society may b^ afw--"-^.*-: t ■* t:.- '*•■• ^.- 
hibited in tiw? Ic^'^Tncr-^Tiit.. i.r.- •*r i :i 
Thouj^ aware of tjij^ t*-?^ ;cr-.«r - .^^ . j^ 
required in ffoVii iLtiLJ ig icrr iiLin»---i« i - - - 
as shall famish a t»-*hi'vj% *frJ"'^ 
properties and v:il'^*r f jt 'j^jzx. 
Council expect ti^ct *o>;i**: Ti^:^.. 
obtained from the 4Kti*raiinai5» > 
various sampU-*- 

The Council will ^Lcr-" ^ js«» - 
for premiums, atd in ll*^^:^.•r 
upon them, it is awsr* ^luriF'e*^ ' " 
proposed to be p^t f ^r-ir ^^ x 2=1 
somewhat diffifr-jt .»* ?*t-j^"t 
stances the t > T :g 
known sub«tair>t 
industrial aru is a 
present u**^ '-"^t ^-w^-i -^ 
they are c^i*^''^ r ■•tss 

to devel'^T- Ki-t. . -=^^ 









^-^ 



1 n. 



-r * 



indostrk^. "^ s_ -- 
eoonoxisBiiir 





or 
jok 

S ia 

_ 3I1 be- 

in some 

tuepure 

*1^ a.b8«'ijc^. 



10 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novbmbeb 22, 1871 



BGience — engineers, manufactuieTs, colonists, and 
tillers of the soil — ^will combine witii men of capital 
to bring about the desired results. 

I hare now briefly laid before you a statement 
of some of the pbjects that will be dealt with 
by the Society during the coming Session. It 
appears to me uiat each year adds to the importance 
and responsibility of the duties belonging to it. It 
is true our work cannot hope to possess the interest 
that attaches to societies whicn, havinff a specific 
and defined object in view, can annually present 
the evidences of progress towards perfection. But, 
on the other hand, were is no limit to ihe number 
and yariety of questions on which we can profitably 
confer, nor of appliances, the improvement of which 
we may forwam. Our country is passing through 
another phase of its history, a period of 
change which cannot but be deeply interesting, 
and ought to be full of hope for the future. Manu- 
factures in which this country stood for many years 
predominant and almost alone, are now bein^ 
abundantly produced by other nations. Coal ana 
iron, the raw materials of industry and wealth, 
are rising in price at home, while they are being 
more abundantiy produced abroad. Educated 
skill is acknowledged to be an important element 
in commercial success and national character. It 
behoves us not to rest in past success, but that our 
members should do their utmost to help forward 
every class of society, and to i:idte them in the one 
common object of social improvement. We are 
fortunate in having amongst us men gifted with 
those gifts of intellect, wealth, or enlightened phi- 
lanthropy, in the energetic use of which they can 
advance the cause of national prosperity, and bring 
blessings to themselves and others. Ijet us hope 
that the coming Session may fulfil the earnest 
wkhes of the Council in these respects. 



The Chairman then distributed the following 
medals and prizes, which had been awarded during 
the last session, viz. : — 

His Botal Hiobnbss tkb Piungb Consort's Prize 
OF TwxNTT-FivB QuiMXAS to William Pollitt, aged 
20, Salford Working Men's College, clerk, who bus 
obtained the following First-class Certificates : — 

1869 — German — First-class Certificate, with Second 
Prize. • 
„ English History — First-class Certificate, with 
FlMt Prize. 
1870— Book-keepiDg— First-class Certificate. 

„ Logic — First-class Certificate, with Second Prize. 
1871— Latin— First-class Certificate, with First Prize. 
„ English Language — First-class Certificate, with 
Second Prize. 
1872 — Domestic Economy — First-class Certificate, with 
First Prize. 
Metric System — First-class Certificate, with 

Second Prize. 
Mensuration — >Fiist- class Certificate. 

GoLi) Medal to Hamilton's Windsor Iron Works 
(limited), of Liverpool, for the best iron ship's life- 
boat. 

Gold M^dal to Messrs. Woolfe and Sons, Shadwell, for 
the best wooden ship's lifeboats 

Silver ^edal to Monsieur Dormoy, for bis revolving 
rabble, ibr use in the common puddling fuma( e. 

For papers read during tho session the Society's 
Silver Medjo/^ 



it 



»i 



To R. Johnstone, Esq., for hia paper exx 

tions on the Esparto Plant'* 
To Peter Land Simmonds, Esq., for his 

and their Uses." 
To the Rey. H. Highton, M.A., for hij 

" Telegraphy without Insulation^ a i 

International Coinmunicatio&." 



BETHHAL OBEEV lOFSBl 

The following declaration is in 
signature, and has already been si| 
Any Member of the Society desdroirs 
name attached thereto, is requited t< 
with the Secretary of the Society of 
him authority for that purpose : — 

1. We, the undersigned members i 
and members of the Society for the Eli 
of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerc 
attention of Her Majesty's govern 
remarkable proof of the public desii 
tion and pure enjoyment afforded by 
tion of works of Art and Science, -wri 
shown by the opening of the I 
Museum. 

2. This museum, established in 
poorest and busiest districts of L«c 
men, women, and children are mosl 
employed, has been frequented during 
by more than 700,000 visitors, a m 
probably exceeds that of the visitoj 
other metropolitan museums and gal 
the same period. 

3. The un4ersigned submit that t 
could never have come into uscfal ej 
have been instrumental in conf erriB^ g 
on the people, without the aid of Parli 
they desire to press this fact upon the c 
of Her Majesty's government, with tl 
they will submit to Parliament th 
essentially national of voting incre« 
facilitate the establishment of musenn 
and galleries of Science and Art in larg 
population, wherever aneh localities ai 
bear their share in the cost. 

(Signed) 

Abel, F. Am F.R.S., Vice-Pres. 
Akrojd, Col. Edward, M.P. . . Halifax. 
Amory, John Heathcote, M.P. ' • Tiverton 
Hartley, G. C. T., Member of CouneiU 
Bath and Wells, Bishop of 
Bazley, Sir Thomas, Burt., M.P. Manche* 
Beaumont, Somerset A., M.P. . . Wakefiel 
Bessemer, Henry, Member of Oouneil, 
Bodkin, Sir W. H. (Aesiat,^ Judge) Viee-Pres. 
Bourne, Lt-Col. James, M.P. . . Evesham. 
Brocklehurst, William C, M.P. . . Macclepfi* 
Brooks, WilliHm Cunliffe, M.P. . . Cheshire 
Carpenter, WiHiam B., M.D., LLD., F.li.S. 
CaMels, Andrew, Member of CcumU. 
Cawley, Charles Edward, M.P. . . Salford. 




JOUBNAL OP THS SOOIBTY OF ABT8, Noyubir 22, 1871 11 



MhtA^ Memiir of OMmeQ. 
fmmher 0/ (htmeil. 
Q^ F.R.G.8. 

James* M.P. . . Norwioh. 
V Bir Bnikl, Btft^ Vie^Prtt. 
pvwTemple, Kight Hon. \ t,^„*./h. 
&, M.P. rM».iV«i. .. / HMits(8.) 

pie. Dr. Donald, H.P. .. Bath, 
ft Dodler, Lord, Viu-Ftu. 
Lord 
Sobartian S., H.P. .. Strond. 
ah- Charica W., Bart, M.P. Chelsea. 
EQbertM.P. .. .. Hertfoid. 

CkofR^ M-P Birmingham. 

JoaepbuH.P Stockton. 

« Major, R.E., Jtfmt^fr of Qmneil. 
John S. W. 8. B^ M.P. . . Wareham. 
Mnjor £., K.E. 

iMvard B., M.P. .. Penryn & Falmouth. 
- Wilmot, Major-General F., R.A., F.R.S., Chair- 
»f Ut Cbmacif. 



Weymouth. 



Kaitnxia of 
FVeeLuid 

^^!*"'.^'*.^'} Kildare County. 
aiarie8,if.P.'* .. Waball. 

EaH 
Lord Ronald Leveson, M.P. 



Henr y. M .P. 

Hon. Wilbraham, M.P. Cheshire (Mid.) 



Jjteot-CoL W^., M.P. 
CharleeJ. T., M.P. .. 
Admiral the Earl of 

John, M.P 

J. Snowdon, M.P. 

John, M.P. 

John James 

Sanuie!, M.P 

Cbandos Wren, M.P.. . 
waiuos, Ja.lr. • • 
fiiglit Hon. Sir Wm., ) 

~ M.P. i 

John, M.P. . . • • • • 



Lord Henry Qeoi^ C. \ 
"*-, Vie9'Pre»» .. ) 
Ead of 
Earl of 

r. Wflliam, M.P 

J. R., M.P 

Peter, M.P. ^. 

John, MJ). 
r,8miel,M.P... 



Bolton. 
Weymouth. 

Durham. 

Bolton. 

Merioneth. 

Hereford. 

Bedford. 

Chiteshead. 

Wigan. 

Chiohester. 



Lamheth. 
Staffordshire (£.) 
Linlithgow. 

BristoL 






; Vioe- Admiral Erasmus, C.B., F.R.S., Member 




Admiral the Right Hon. Lord Clarence, K.C.B., 
'wf Ottmeil. 

on, Bt. Hon. Sir J. S., \ Ti-**:*-.:*!. 
M.P., F»«r-rr«. .. 1 Droitwich. 

^ Lore Jones, M.P. . . . . Carnarvonshire. 
JoMph WhitweU, M.P. . . Durham (S.) 
I, Robert, C.B., Member of Oouneil. 
Saorael, Ftcf-i^. 
'a Bishop of 

j^ DaTid, Barty M.P. Qreenwioh. 
^, saddidcv Lord 

AiiaBBi. Lieat.-OoL A., F.RS., Member of Council. 

-MV^ Doogiaa, M#P Shrewsbury. 

' ad. Duke of 

iniliam,M.P Bath. 

^,- _ Lt-CoL Robert B., M.P. Grantham. 
«hsn ,.1^ Oarieton, Member of CounciL 
WaiK, Tbootas, Vice- Free, 

'9mt^Sim»m, F.R.M.S. 




Ware, James T., Auditor, 
Weetbury, Lord 
Westminster, Bfarquis of 
Whatman, James, M.P. 
Whitwell, John,M.P... 
York, Archbishop of 
Toung, Frederick 
Zetland, Earl of 



• • 



Maidstone. 
KandaL 



THE ASPHALTS. 
Dr. L. Meyn, of Halle, has recently published an 
account of this new and highly important material, 
which is recognised as the most complete and impartial 
hitherto given. The following is a translation of a part 
of the pamphlet : — 

To prevent misunderstanding, he says, it may be as 
well to state, that when we speak of asphalt-stone, wo 
mean the natural asphalt, or porous limestone, saturated 
with bitumen or mineral tar, which is capable of beingp 
worked to a tough, hard mastic — ^not the raw bitumen 
itself^ which is frequently called asphalt by mineralogists, 
nor the various artificial compositions, which go by that 
name, but have widely different properties. 

The use of the true asphalt is not mentioned in any 
technical treatises, except in the pamphlets issued by 
the asphalt companies, and the valuable manuals oi> 
bailding materials written by Bemhard Oriibner,. 
architect and professor of architecture at Berlin, and 
by Rudolph GK>ttgetren, architect, and professor at the 
Polytechnic School at Munich, and even in these worka 
only three of 300 pages of the former, and seven of the^ 
668 pages of the latter, deal with the subject, and,, 
moreover, dwell more on the artificial than on the 
natural asphalt. Some confusion must also be caused 
in the minds of the readers by the authors regarding 
the raw bitumen (which is called ** asphalt *' sometimes- 
by mineralogists) as identical with asphalt-stone. The 
subject will never be properly understood until the 
artificial mixtures of bitumen with other materials re- 
ceive their proper name of ** mastics," and that substance 
only which is prepared from natural bitumen and 
bituminous stones melted together is called asphalt 
mastic We shall therefore follow the example of the 
distinguished engineer, L6on Malo, who prefaces his 
work on '* Asphalt," in the ** Annales des Ponts-et- 
Chauss^," 1861, by a dassiflation of these different 
natural products. We differ, however, frx>m him on. 
several important points, and especially we consider 
him to be mistaken in including coal and bituminoua- 
slate among the a^halts. 

Coal belongs, it is true, as does asphalt, to the smalli 
group of combustible minerals, but does not belong 
to the bituminous substances any more than peat or 
bituminous slate, which usually only becomes so by 
distillation. Coal and peat form a claiBS by themselves,, 
being produced by an accumidation of organisms, which 
still retain in part their external form and even their 
internal structure, by which feature thev may be dis* 
tinguibhed from Uiose substances which, though resem- 
bling coal in many respects, have arisen from organic 
fluids. 

We may dismiss at once, as a merely accidental 
resemblance, the fact that some kinds of coal — those more 
especially which are used for the manufacture of coke 
and gas — may be melted, as this so-called melting is, 
in fact, disintegration, and cannot be repeated. 

It is, however, extremely difficult to distinguish be- 
tween that kind of coal called jet, which is found in some 
of the recent geological formations, and some of the purct 
hard, bituminous substances, on account of the absence 
of stractural forms ; but still cases like that at Bentheim 
are very rHre, when it is doubtful if the substance to be 
worked is bitumen or coal, and then it may be generally 
decided by the geological position. 



i& 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF AKTS, N6viiiibbe 22, 1872. 



The analyeis of the ▼arioos msphalt minerals prove 
them to be oxidised forms of petroleum or napntha. 
Their presence, therefore, pre-snpposes that of petro- 
leum, or, rather, they consist of petroleom which has 
absorbed a certain quantity -of oxygen. 

After these observations, the following classification of 
bitumens and bituminous stones will be intelligible. 
We need only mention that paraffin and the crystallised 
carbonates, though belonging to the same class, have not 
been included iu the list, because of their comparative 
ficarcity. 

The puro bituminous substances are as follows: — 

1. Naphtha, or rock oil. 

2. Petroleum. 

3. Mineral tar, or maltha. 

4. Mineral pitch, or asphalt. 

Naphtha (formerly called rock oil by apothecaries), an 
almost colourless fluid, with a bluish opal tint, and 
volatile at a temperature fiir below the boiling point 
of water, is evidently the source of all other bitumens, 
in all of which it may be detected in the first stages of 
distillation. It is very rarely found in its pure state, 
except in the regions about the Caspian Sea. Usually it 
occurs in the crevices and interstices of porous stone, 
into which it has been condensed after the heat of the 
earth*s surface has distilled it from the rocks which con- 
tained it. 

At first it was believed that naphtha was produced by 
the distillation of deeply-buried coals ; but eventually 
the oil springs discovered underneath the coal formation 
led to the opinion that it was principally distilled from 
the animal organisms scattered through the rocks, in 
fact, the remains of countless ages of different animals. 
On Uiis point, however, there are so many different 
opinions that it is unnecessary to enter further into it 

On being exposed to the air, naphtha undergoes a ma- 
terial change ; it assumes a brown colour, with a green 
tinge, gains in specific gravity, is less liquid and less 
volatile at a low temperature, and, when evaporated, 
leaves a tough, pitchy residuum, containing a small pro- 
portion of fine, earthy matter. It is then called petroleum. 

The various sources of petroleum need not be 
-enumerated here, as they are well known. When it 
has been for long exposed to the air, it is converted 
into maltha, or tar, though it is very difficult to draw a 
line between these two substances. 

Wherever a petroleum spring has emerged firom the 
ffround for any length of time, maltha or tar will be 
found near the surface, owing to the oxidisation of the 
oil from exposure to the air. The springs may, in fact, 
be traced by the existence of the tar. Tar is almost in- 
variably found impregnating a sandy stratum, very 
rarely in a pure state. A spring of tar has been dis- 
covered however in the old volcanic region about Clermont 
Ferrand, in France, which is rich in naphtha and tar in 
the sandstone rocks. As a rule, however, the oxidisation 
of the petroleum has only been completed in the sand 
and loose sandstone, through the interstices of which the 
^ can gain access to the oil. 

Thus, at most of the sources of petroleum, tar may be 
lound in the sand. At HoUe (in Ditmarschen), over 
an immense bed of petroleum there is a layer of light 
diluvial sand, saturated with tar, twenty feet deep, which 
may be cut like cheese. Also in the sand about the 
Hanoverian petroleum springs, in a part of the tertiary 
sandstone at BchwtfSweiier and Bechelbronn, in Alsace ; 
at Seyssel, in the department of 1* Ain ; and at Bastennes, 
in tha department of Landes (a region which bears a 
strong resemblance to the Liineberg heath). The sand 
on the heath is bituminous, and, for some time, tar was 
extracted for comm^xdal purposes in the following 
manner:— 

The sand is washed or boiled in water ; when the tar 

rises to the surface it is skimmed ofi^ and heated again, 

-^1 any remaining water. According to its deg^ree 

hness, it is then either heated in an open cauldron, 



to drive out the volatile oil, or else distilled in rata 
in order to preserve the oil. The residuum is sk lij 
black, shining substance of unexampled toughness, wt 
is the asphalt or mineral pitch, the most import&nt 
gredient in the manufacture of asphalt stone, bein^ 
vehicle by which it is dissolved into asphalt mastics. 

The asphalt stone consists of limestone, saturated 
the same way as the sand) with tar, the charactei 
which differs only from that found in sand In appeaz 
somewhat tougher ; this may arise, however, from 
fact that in the sand the tar oovers only the separs 
grains, whilst in the limestone the smallest interstices 
80 completely filled, and the two substances so com pi el 
united, that heat and water are alike powerless to sepsu 
them. 

Nature has, however, rarely produced this substai 
which is so valuable for industrial purposes. It is foi 
in the g^reatest abundance and perfection in the Jaraj 
limestone in the Val de Travers, at Pyrimont, n 
Seyssel, on the Khone, and the neighbouring local it 
Volant and Chavaroche, where it is obtained bv Biini 
In the same category may be included the bitninin 
limestone of the Alpine Lias mountains, near Seefield 
Tyrol, the tertiary freshwater limestone of Lobsan, 
Alsace ; also the yellowish- white Jurassic limestone 
the Dalmatic island of Brazza, whose dolomitio bai 
are saturated with 7 to 8 per cent, of bitumen to a de 
of 12 ft., so that it might be quarried. 

The most important discovery of the kind in Earop 
that atHolle, near Heide, in Ditmarschen, of a bitumin 
limestone 1,000 ft. in extent, in which the bitumen i& 
closely united with the limestone as is the case in thai 
the Yal de Travers or Seyssel, but contains, according 
the opinion of the Paris Asphalt Company, too mucli p 
petroleum for direct application (owing to its posit 
under 120 ft. of diluvial soil). It is, however, ho] 
either that by exposure to the air part of the parole 
will be lost, and part so far oxidised as to prodao 
perfect asphalt stone, or that on further investigat 
some limestone may be found containing 'a larger p 
portion of tar and less petroleum, or that some mei 
may be discovered of extracting a part of the petrolei 

From this tar, or maltha, and its combinations, we co 
at last to the asphalt of mineralogists, or pitch, wh. 
contains various different ingredients, some hard s 
brittle, others tough and soft, quite pure, or mixed w 
earthy matter. It is found in its purest form in the int 
stices of the older rocks, into which it has been distil 
drop by drop, or somewhat less pure in clefts of the ro 
as for example in the chalk formation near Munster. 
is rarely found in such quantities as Klaproth describei 
Avlona, in Albania, or as the pitch lake of Trinidi 
The existence of asphalt in the Dead Sea is a fact 
which we have to rely on the hearsay report of travellc 
rather than on direct scientific observation. The tra 
tion originated with the Greek and Roman writers, w 
asserted that the asphalt fioated about islands on 1 
Dead Sea ; and in later ages the Biblical narrative 
Sodom and Gomorrah has strengthened the impressi^ 
The American naturalists who have examined the local 
find, however, that these descriptions do not hold go 
in the present day ; that only in the long interv 
between earthquakes asphalt occasionally oozes out 
the ground and is washed ashore. This Oriental asphe 
or ** Jew's pitch," though invaluable for the manufacti 
of certain varnishes, is too costly, as well as too britt 
for building purposes. The pitch lake at Trinidad is 
more practical importance. On this island, situal 
opposite the mouth of the Orinoco, thero may be se 
in the midst of the most luxurious vegetation a lake 
the pitch, which flows out like streams of lava into t 
sea, and forms promontories and reefs. On the ed^e 
this lake, the asphalt is thoroughly hardened by oxidie 
tion and the gradual evaporation of its oily ingredicn 
under the rays of the burning sun ; towards the middl 
however, the sun still has power to soften it^ and it ci 
only be crossed on foot in the r^y season. 



JOURNAL OF THB SOOHTFT OF ABTS, NovncBn 22, 1872. 



18 



ran 




qaantxtj d asphalt is exported from 

l«f Oftba, mider the name of *' Ohapapote," 

ion aiphaltfe'* the aonrcea of which are little 

HMkstC^papote asphalt containa (dke that 

* " 27 per oent. of earthy matter, and the 

ai Bodi aa 35 per cent. Under the same 

ad froD the nine rt^ona, a remarkably pure, 

Maid tar is sent over to ^Enrope. 

* porposea, we are therefore restricted 

r of sources, for we leave the bitu- 

I fl^ of the qnestion, as in it the formation 

ii not always completed. 

cnauned the properiies and daasification of 

ibitamena, we proceed to the history of the 

[Biia aitide of industry. 

bn finom the ancient authors that Babylon was 

rWt with asphalt, and from modem authors that 

aortar was need for the walls of Nineveh. 

^ It Babylon was prepared with tar found 

^saatribotuy of the Euphrates. 

^8^ a Greek physician, was the first to make 

k^ia Buope the advanta^ of asphalt as a build- 

' *, ia 1712, and he also discovered the existence 

a Ahtn in 1737. When visiting the Yal de 

{the chief valley running up into the Jura from 

laf Ki ufc h i tel j on an official mission from the 

iGovanaient, m 1711, he met a G^erman adven- 

* Jost, who, with some of his countrymen, 

flome of the wofU tough, combustible rocks 

I of the valley, and, finding them worthless as 

^«tt tiying in vain to find a use for them. 

^ was interested in the subject, examined 

" -^^ of the valley, and found that the same 

I pfotruded everywhere ; he also discovered 

ji^^in the neighbourhood of Blois de Cioix, 

^■hijidad at onoe its probable use and value. 

^■•Pjjto the King of Prussia (under whose pro- 

5""Wiitd was at that tune) for a monopoly of all 

»W8 which he might discover in the princi- 

^tf Ssafehitd. After due and careful inquiry, 

fiaDted the request, and thia concession was 

lofthe asphalt trade. 

tiEninQB commenced his works and experi- 

piadwis ableto interest several sagacious and 

Vacn in his -undertaking, and to induce them 

^?>Boai works under his direction to be executed 

ilhs wrfe ss of which brought the material 

Botioe and^ favour. He published his ex- 

. . jin various small pamphlets, which 

Iki 1721. the title of one of which is, *'Disserta- 

^ |jg| » lte , ou ancien Oiment nature!, ddcouvert 

"M^" ann^ au Val de IVavers, dans le 

'Mfidiltel, parle Sienr E. d'Eirinus, Professeur 

[* Sodeor sa Medecine ; avec 1h mani^ de 

^lif* *"" ^ !"«"« q'lo ■o' lo hois." We 
'wMtter than quote his own words on the pre- 
"'^^Ae Val de Travera asphalt:— 

'ho, on his long and numerous journeys 

B^BBveopportunities of pursmng the study of 

^■JiweiTed from several i^igning sovereigns, 

from H.M. the King of Prussia, very 

MBOMBons for the working of any quarries 

■Bifsr in the domain of the said sovereign ; 

, dinorered in the Yal de IVaven, in the 

JifHeofchatel, a bed of asphalt quite equal 

.^ *• that of Babylon or the Valley of Siddim, 

■ 2|* known to the learned, he thinks it 

, "■•ke its properties and advantages better 

••ly Vahho in the following pa^ : — 

. 'J*f*5Jwy, aoft, clayey consistency, tougher 

[■•Jj •J""l's than pitch, asphalt reaists the in- 

iF *"» ^uid water to such an extent as to be 

FttteUs for covering all kinds of oonstruc- 

^1M wood and stone* work against decay, 

^ cavaffss of time, for it renders it 

^^_. en when exposed to wind, wet, 

imUsm of temperatore, aa has been 



practically proved in various parts of Burgundy, Keuf- 
oh^l, and Switzerland. 

*' The preparation of this cement is very easy. Tho 
stone must be idighUy warmed till it can be coarsely 
powdered ; a small quantity of pitch is added, to mak^ it 
thinner and more soluble, then the whole is melted 
over a slow charcoal fire. The surface on which the 
asphalt is to be applied must be perfectly dry and 
slightly warmed, and rather more ptch must be added 
if used for wood than for stone, in which latter case 
the proportions are 101b. of asphalt to lib. of pitch. 
If the oenient is required to be more fluid, more pitch 
must be aaded. Jf rosin is used, the asphalt will be 
harder, and offer more resistance to the sun's rays,, 
but the pitch makes it tougher. The asphalt may be 
smoothea afterwiutls ivith a warm iron. Great care 
must be taken that the surface on which it is to be 
spread is perfectly clean, otherwise defects will be 
found in the work, which are not due to the material 
but to the mode of application. If, owing^ to the 
frothing of the asphalt during the preparation, any 
bubbles ^ould be formed, all unevennesses may be- 
removed by rubbing a little cold tallow on the part, 
and then passing a hot iron bar once or twice over it."^ 

Eirinus followed up these publications by official 
documents, in the years 1716 to 1719, in which he- 
states tibat, between the years 1714 to 1716, in numerous 
cisterns and wells, the wood and stonework has been 
successfully joined and covered with asphalt ; also, 
that a platform and a warehouse have been paved, to 
the perfect satisfaction of the owners. He also mentiona 
that at Basle he joined together, with the asphalt 
cement, two pieces of solid rock, which were subse- 
quently thrown from an upper story on to the street 
below without separating again, and he gives other 
instances of a similar kind. 

These facts will not surprise any one acquainted with 
the works which have since been executed in th» 
asphalt. 

To what perfection Eirinus and his pupils carried the- 
workin^ of their new material, is shown by a notice of 
the engmeer Henri Foumel, who mentions that in tho 
house of a M. Coulin, in Couvet, one of the lovely 
villages of the Val de Travers, he found a flight of step» 
— which dates from this period — ^in which all the uppner 
steps, wluch are of stone, are worn into holes; while 
the lower steps, which have been, of course, most used, 
being coated with asphalt, are almost entirely unim- 
paired. 

Like other inventors, Eirinus was not to beneflt by 
the discovery which restored to the world a building 
material that had been lost for 4,000 years. M. de la 
Sabloni^re, Treasurer of the Swiss Confederation, put 
himself in communication with him, in order to ext^id 
the undertdring, and on achieving his object he 
neglected the originator, allowed himself to be reg^arded 
as the inventor, and reaped the profits, obtaining, on the 
2l8t Febxuary, 1720, a ten years monopoly of the Val de 
T^vers asphalt in France, and exemption from dutiea 
and tolls. 

Buffbn mentions, in his " Natural History," that the 
basin of the large fountain in the Jazdin des Plantes 
was covered wi& asphalt, and he was full^ satisfied 
of its durability, as it was still water-tight after 
a lapse of thirty-six years. As this work was executed 
in 1743, the Val de Travers asphalt must have 
been still in request; but gradually it seems to have 
fallen into disuse, for in the vear 1735 Eirinus 
had left the Val de Travers, ana settled in Alsace, 
where, living in retirement, he discovered the asphalt 
at Lobsan. The quarries of the Val de Travers fell into 
private hands, who worked them more and more ex- 
clusivcdy for the oil which was distilled from the asphalt, 
of which Eirinus also had taught the medicinal and com- 
mercial value ; and so it happened that at the beginning 
of tiin present century, theinventionandthe inventor were 
equally foigotten. 



14 



JOURNAI* OF THE SOCIETY OF ABT8, Nornras 22, 1872 



In the yirar 1902, MHph.U fctone wiu discovered a' 
Seyssel, near Oeneva. In the sandatone formation, which 
extends throughout that part of the valley of the Rhone 
where it forms the boandiiry between France and Savoy, 
bitumen is found, scattered in *'pot8," as it were, accord- 
ing to the consistency of the sandstone strata, which are 
almtiet perpendicular, and rise in places to a height of 
^U to 300 metrfs above the level of the river. In the 
bf'ginning of the present century, the unrepaying process, 
which bad been carried on for some time, of extracting 
the tar from the sandstone, was suddenly superseded by 
the discovery (if a bed of limestone, saturated wiUi ten per 
<cent. of tar, which, though apparently occupying a limited 
area, seemed to promise a noh supply for mdostrial purposes. 
The idea was started anew of preparing mastic out of 
powdered bitumous limestone, mixed wiUi five to ten per 
cent, of tar, and was given out as an original discovery, 
all the previous experiments in that material having 
fallen into oblivion. But instead of using it for the 
ampler purposes to ^hich Eirinus had confined himself, 
the new discoverers were led away, by the adaptability 
of the asphalt, to promote its use for many purposes for 
which it was quite unfitted ; hence the popularity which it 
first attained was succeeded by a reaction, and the Seyssel 
asphalt was eventually spoken of with as much contempt 
as it had been received with enthusiasm. 

This mistaken application of the mnterial led to a long 
series of failures, which ended with the complete ruin of 
the company, and the purchase of the quarries and works 
by Count Sassenny, in the year 1832, who had satisfied 
himself^ by careful observation, that, under proper 
management, there was a great future in store for the 
asphalt, of which he must be looked upon as the second 
founder ; his name therefore may be coupled with that 
of the Oreek Doctor Eirinus. 

The Count at once perceived that the cause of the 
fulure of the^ works had been that the material was used 
for constructions for which it was unsuited, and which 
were executed at a distance, by unskilled workmen, whose 
mistakes were laid to the charge of the asphalt, and he 
bentall hisenergies to remedy these errors of management 
He ascertained practically what were the purposes for 
which the asphalt could be best employed, and improved 
several of the prooeseas, and, in consequence of his ex- 
perience, he dt*voted himself exclnsivf^ly to producing a 
oontinuous and homog^eous material, which was made 
in blocks, and also the tar necessary to melt it He 
esteblisbed an aUlUr for the inf^truction of work- 
men in the best methods of workings and applying 
the asphalt, and no govanment works were executed 
oxoept under the direction of these skilled artisans. 
He was rewarded for his care; in a few years the 
asphalt regained its former reputation ; market places 
and public buildiners were paved with it, and in all the 
French fortresses the stonework was protected against 
the dMmp by a coating of asphalt The celebrated foot- 
path of the Pont Rovale, the fine pavement of the Place 
de la Concorde, at Paris, as well as many pavements at 
Lyons, and covering of the casemates and corridors of the 
Fort of Vincennes, date from that period. 

At Seyssf I, minernl tar was first substituted for common 
pitch (whirh Eirinus had used), an improvement brought 
about by the circumstance that tar was found in the same 
neighbourbood as the asphalt stone. Another improve- 
ment was the addition of some of the coarse sand found 
in the bed of the Rhone, which gave additional 
hardness and solidity to the asphalt mnstic. An addition 
of one-tenth or even one-fi(Ui of coarse sand, besides im- 
proving the consistency, rendered the material much 
oheaper, especially at a distance, where the costs of 
transport were surh a serious item in the expense. 

It was found also that, for public footpaths, a 
sprinkling of coane sand on the surfiice, firmly melted- 
up with the asphalt rendered it stronger, and enabled it 
to offer greater resistance to Qui constant wear of the 
trnffio. 



Europe and the United States. In. S^ P^ 
used for the pavement of the texraoe c 
Palace. 

It is of course imiKMsible now to mtty 
provements are entirely due to Coant 6 
only know that, on the works coming mui 
the undertaking prospered at SeyvseL 

The process of laying down the a«pliaJ 
undergfone no material alteration since 
Eirinus. By the courtesy of the Aspha 
Paris, the writer is enablea to give the fo 
as to the process. 

The asphalt must be laid on an eve 
without any hollows in which water ootij 
attempt to lay the asphalt on sand, flAg 
failed, as the unevenesses caused it to be i 
rapidly in some parts than in others. JLn 
concrete is the most economical and leliali 
The concrete must be perfectly dry before 
poured on, otherwise the steam generated 
fluous moisture will produce babbles and fa 
concrete will not harden if it is covered Uh 

The mastic is SMit from the worics in bl 
25 kilos. They are broken up into pieo 
siae of the stones on macadamised roads, e 
cauldrons with about half the total qnantit 
which is to be added eventually (about fi 
c^it of the weight of the mastic). One q' 
to be added at discretion, if the mastic app 
and the last quarter is added with any fxy 
asphalt. The temperature is kept np to o 
under 170® Celsius. When the mastio it 
melted and stirred up, the molten mass in 
is covered up and kept over the fire, and hai 
is added firs^ without stirring, as it sinks i 
by its own weight This is the only way 
sand can be added without chilling the inl 
mastic. Then the second half of the sand 
the same manner. At this point it may b 
mass is sufficiently bituminous, or if the r 
the tar is required. When the whole mixti 
and has been brought up to the required 
(whioh may be easily seen, by any water drc 
sur&oe being immediately carried oflf in steal 
ladle can be plunged in and withdrawn v 
particle adhering), it may be applied to 
which is to be covered, stirred all the time h 
should all sink to the bottom. 

The mastic is laid on with a wooden 
peculiar form, which is first thoroughly warn 
mastic should adhere to it At the vario 
the asphalt must be poured on with large 
order to unite the surfaces efiectually, whici: 
properly joined without this precaution, 
neglected. A slight and rapid presrare is tl 
to smooUi the surfaoe. 

Too often the asphalt receives after this oi 
scattering of sand, it being thou^t that it s 
to roughen the asphalt But this is not the 
pose of this part of the process, as the sand 
ply the place of that which sinks down, and 1 
the surface soft and liable to melt under the i 
sun. The workmen should therefore scatter at 
fully, and stamp it down quite equally on all ] 
footpaths at Paris are covered with a layer o 
six inches in depth, and 3 kiloa of bitumen, wit 
of washed, dried, and sifted sand aUowed to 
of the mastic 

Formerly, the asphalt was mixed ind pn 
cauldrons, with portable iron stoves, on the s] 
it was to be laid down ; this was found, howe^ 
an inconvenient obstmotion to the street trafl 
plan was adopted of preparing the asphalt in t 
and bringing it in the oaaldtoBs into the a^wt 
It is difficult to ascertain exacthf how king a 
pavement, ezecnted oa the best pnaoiples, ind i 



The asphalt was used in most of the laige cities of I materisli, will lait» bat forty jeni' siperiam 



JOURNAL 



15 



to aboat 30 to 25 yeua, if it is from six 



r, 



^ the immgnae demand for asphalt, 
ineoeasfaUv aet on foot, in 1838, by the 
; al Bechelbfonn, in Alaace, a locality 
wn to abound in bitumen (aa had 
by Kirinos), and where a bed of bita- 
««■ brought to light 

Uie long-forgotten as^halt-beda in 
came before the notice of Count 
kad firen oxer the works at Seyssel into 
if a oompany. He speaks of them as 
Vkai my attention was first directed to the 
ft» a^thalt of the Val de Trayers, I could 
» fbat they were not taken from the best 
S^mlI qoarriea, so complete was their 
I ad not, howerer, Tenture to embark in 
ws^oat making due inquiries. Accom- 
ahle ongineer, Henri Fuumel, I investi- 
geological formation of the Val de 
myself that it contained a very rich 
similar to that of Seyssel, only of a 
obntaining 2 per cent, more bitumen, 
quality, as it saves the necessity for 
it of tar. The ftsphalt-limestone 
ptedl J along both sides of the valley, 
the enormous mjisses wlijh mark the 
to the right and to the left, one 
faowsacb a supply could be exhausted." 
y ancceeded in purchasing the monopoly, 
a Urge company at Paris. Thus the 
companies of the Val de Travers, 
Miwholbponn (oi Lobaan) were instituted 




tha high estimation in which the 

the aonicipal authorities in large and 

to pave all the footpaths with a 

owtn^ to the immense cost of transport, 

me than expensive, in spite of the 

the three companies. The high 

the general adoption of tJbe 

each a temptation to adulteration 

imitations were brought out under 

Idlure of which impaired the reputation 

article. 

ionnd impossible to produce artificially the 
M ee n tiie limestone and the tar, even if 
limestone is boiled up with pure mineral 
treated like the natural asphalt stone, in 
*% fbatnnce is obtained which resembles the 
and even in smell, but is proved to 
durable. In the natural asphalt, the 
evidently in the first instance satu- 
tf^niUmiii, which, in the course of ages, has 
~ B the interstices of the stone ; hence tho 
are as closely united as is possible with- 
ibination, and the sun or the cold only 
thinnest crust on the immediate surface. 
tension of the railways, and consequent 
I if the cost of ti-ansport, the true asphalt was 
lliftifcoper use, at least for large works, and 
pteeeertain extent, to drive the artificial imita- 
~ fte field. 

1S43, a bed of asphalt-stone, similar to 
Travers and of oeyssel, was discovered 
the town of Hanover ; and Herr Hem- 
similar works with such success that 
considered worthy to be classed 
above named localities ; indeed^ in the 
;Sdubition superiority was assigned to the 
over that of the older companies. The 
of the streets of the town of 
to its excellence. The fact that 
border the great Qerman plain 
the district of Hanover are rich 
tar, gave great facility to the 



■lUds 



When, however, the granite or tUe foot-pavements 
were gradually substituted for the asphalt, as, for 
examfde, at Berlin, it became necessary to seek some 
other means of employing the asphalt. The solution of 
the problem was found in the paving of the streets in large 
towns, a work requiring unlimited quantities of the 
material, which the railways now placed within reach. 

The experiment was tried of laying down broken free- 
stone on a bed of sund, and filling up the interstices 
with molten asphalt mastic. It proved unsuccessful, 
however, fur when cold the mastic was too brittle for 
the purpose ; and if the wheels of the carriages struck 
against and broke one of the comers of the stones^ 
a hole was formed which gradually widened, and 
was very diflicult to mend, in Lyons 10,000 cubic 
metres of roadway were covered with a layer of asphalt 
about two inches in depth, upon a subitratum of con- 
crete of about 4 inches, and this was found to answer 
admirably, but was so costly that in other towns tho 
municipalities were obliged to content themselves with 
covering in that way the places where the most crowded 
tboroaghfares crossed, and the spaces in front of public 
buildings, where it was important to deaden the noise of 
the traffic. In these cases it was found desirable to furrow 
the surfice, to prevent accidents to the horses, which were 
never long enough on the asphalt to get used to tho 
change from the rougher roads ; but in Lyons, where the 
asphalt is more general, this precaution has been found 
unnecessary. At Vienna the great Aspem-bridge has 
been covered with a double layer of asphalt (from Seefeld^ 
in Tyrol), the lower part more dastio, the upper harder. 
It was not considered necessary to furrow the surface, 
and there has not been any iocreaie in the number of ac-> 
cidents to horses in consequence. 

The Limmer asphalt seems particularly suitable for 
this purpose, being rather softer and more oily than that 
of Switzerland or iSavoy. In the heat of the summer it 
receives the impression of the carriage wheels, and for 
this reason it has always been found necessary to mix 
with it some of the dryer asphalt of Vorwohle for the 
foot pavements. 

A solid foundation is first prepared with mortar, which 
is covered with a layer of coarse asphalt two inches 
thick, and containing 10 per cent, of tar, and beaten 
down till it is quite hard ; then a layer, one inch thick, of 
asphalt, consisting of 75 per cent, of mastic, 3 per cent, 
tar, and 22 per cent of coarse sand. 

A similar kind of composition was used in Hanover 
for the fiooring of the cavalry stables, the saving in 
straw, cleanliness, and freedom nrom smell being found to 
be a great advantage. 

But even this kind of road was so expensive that the 
municipal authorities were forced to look about for some 
other method, as none of the old pavements were at all 
efficient with the constantly increasing street traffic. In 
paved roads, the single stones were apt to be displaced,, 
the edges chipped off, and the interstices widened, so that 
the dirt of the street could lodge in them and become the 
source of noxious miasma. The macadamised roads 
(adapted, it is said, in Paris, to prevent the erection of 
barricades) were still worse, causing a sea of mud in wet 
weather, and a cloud of dust when dry. Asphalt was 
thiis the best resource, and at lastthoy hit upon the right 
method of applying it, a method indicated by the nature 
and properties of the stone, which is so soft that in the 
quarries the hole for the blasting can be made with a 
carpenter s gimlet, and the asphalt can be cut into 
shavings with a pocket-knife. This property gives great 
trouble in working it during the summer, aS tha hammer 
frequently flattens the atone instead of breaking it, and 
in very hot weather even blasting is powerless unless 
done with nitro-glyoerine ; while in winter the blows 
of the hammer sound muffled, as if striking a soft block 
of gypsum. 

From this peculiaritv it was inferred that the asphalt 
was admirably qualified to be beaten down into a pave- 
ment ; and this opinion was confirmed by the state of the 



16 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, November 22, 1872. 



roads and paths in the quarries of the Val deTravers itself, 
on which the small pieces falling from the earts were 
constantly pressed down and flattened by the cart-wheels 
passing and re-passing, till they at last formed a firm, 
solid, elastic surface, on which the horses oould drag 
their loads with great ease, and which did not seem to be 
worn out by the traffic. The author noticed these roads 
in 1856, without knowing that this plan was so soon to 
be applied to the streets of towns. M. Henri Coulaine 
put this idea into practice in the department of the Maine 
et Loire, and described the result in the ^'Annales des 
Ponts-et-Chauss4es." 

{To be continued.) 



CHANNEL PASSAGE. 



The inventions intended to prevent sea-sickness by 

mechanical means have been verv numerous. Chairs, 

couches, &c., hdve been hung in gimbals, and supported by 

ball-and-socket joints, or some similar contrivance. The 

earliest patent on the subject appears to be that of Pratt 

(1826) in which a spring mattrass was fixed on a *'swing- 

tng frame." A later invention (De Manara, a.d. 1853) 

proposes to attach balloons to seats, in such a way as to 

keep them always horizontal. Another (Ritchie, a.d. 

1866\ describes a platform, resting on water in a tank, 

and having its edges attached to the edges of the tank 

by macintosh, or similar fabric. Differing from all the 

above was a plan, patented in 1866, by M. Simpson, in 

which the body of the patient is firmly fSnstened down to 

the ship itself, a method which has been found of 

occasional but not very great service. One scheme 

•even bears some sort of resemblance to that of Mr. 

Bessemer. In 1854, L. Wertheimber patented some 

improvements in apparatus for preventing sea-sickness. Uus to be repeated at the birth of every ne 
The first of these consists of a movable platform, to ^^Ktant invention, and endeavour to convince 
which chairs or couches maybe attached. A cylinder ' '" " ^ ^*-- ^ -^- ^%--^ 



Mr. Bessemer, writing to the Time9 in r^ 
jector, says : — 

** It may appear strange to the uniaitia. 
nevertheless a fact, that the most sacc« 
several inventions which I have had the ^c 
make are just those which have been dasc 
practicable and worthless by the do^mati^ 
of anonymous writers. I have in my pos» 
portfolio, which I filled many years a^o with. < 
the press, and which contain the sa^e sl\ 
which dozens of so-called scientific men a 
terested writers, vied with each other in 
vehement declaration and specious arg^amo 
steel process was impracticable and utterly 
in fact, the mere dream of a wild enthusiasl 
world at large were solemnly warned to ha.^ 
do with. £id these gentlemen been 8ucc<^ 
efforts to stay the progress of this invent i< 
they would nave profited by so doing ; bu 
would have lost more than ten millions 
annum, which my invention now saves. 

" It is a curious coincidence that the hydrau! 
which, in my steel process, enables a boy U 
five tons of fluid metal, and govern and i 
heavy mechanism at a distance of 60 feet frc 
ratus, and pour out a flue stream, or let fall 
flood of incandescent metal into the rec< 
identical form of hydraulic apparatus whicl 
using to control my ship saloon ; and, afte 
duction and employment for the last ten y 
peculiar mechanism in every country in 
appears to my simple mind to be just one of 
on which I am able to form an opinion, an< 
which I can rely. 

*^ After this digression I will return to th< 



•communicates with a steam boiler, and a platform is 
secured to the upper end of a piston rod in the cylinder. 
'* Steam is admitted to the cylinder by a four- way cock, 
which may be opened and shut by a self-acting con- 
trivance, so that when the ship sinks into the trough of 
the sea, steam is admitted beneath the piston, and the 
plntform is caused to rise ; on the contrary, when the 
vessel ri^es over the crest of the wave, steam is admitted 
above the piston and the platform descends. "^ Thus a 
motion opposite to that of the vessel is obtained. Another 
arrangement ** consists of three cylinders, one placed 
forward and two at the after part, connected with each 
other by pipes." The second part of the invention 
'^consistsof a platform or chair, &c., which is supported 
by a bracket attached to an upright shaft ; this shaft 
passes through a hollow standard." The upper part of 
the shaft carries a rack in which gears a pinion, fitted 
with a handle, and ** a rising and faUing motion is g^ven 
to the platform by moving the handle to and fro." Or 
the platform may be moved " by a perpendicular shaft 
or lever attached to a pinion gearing with a toothed 
rack." In the third modification the effect is attained 
" by interposing elastic bodies between the person and 
the deck." Older, however, than any of the foregoing 
is an invention mentioned in a curious old work, pub- 
lishfd in 1677. and named *^Aero-Chalino8, or a Register 
for the Air." In it a sort of chamber is described, in which 
air might be rarefied or condensed, or otherwise changed 
for the use of invalids, so that they might have change 
of air without leaving home. Of this same chamber the 
writer aiys: — "Possibly, if the same might be made 
«se of on board ship, it would (with the additional con- 
trivance of a chair or bed, hung after the manner of a 
sea-compass) prevent that very troublesome affection 
whereto fresh men are subject, called sea-sickness, and 
consequently become very serviceable to such whose 
imployments engage them to undertake voyages into 
very remote parts, and there to reside far from their 
own countries." 



cannot see, or will not accept, the facts that i 
others. 

^ Your correspondent enumerates five distil 
motion in a steam vessel which he considers i 
provide against, but he is careful not to ei 
completely the disagreeable, tremulous motio 
by the engines will be prevented by the com 
tion of the suspended saloon, the supports of 
on massive beds of india-rubber, and thus p 
sharp vibratory motion of the engines from b 
mitted to the saloon, which will, in conseqi] 
all the ease and quiet of a C-spring carriage, a 
with a cart without springs, when rolling 
London stones. Neither has he pointed ot 
that the fearful thud with which the sea t 
sides of the ship in a gale is directly transmit 
couches of the passengers in all ordinary stc:^ 
and that these concussions cannot possibly \ 
the gurgling waters be heard, in a saloon wh 
rated from the sides of the vessel by a distan 
feet. He is equallv oblivious of the advanta£^< 
by a saloon of 20 feet in height, thoroughly 
by artificial means ; nor does he think projter 
the high speed of these ships, which will sav 
hour of this disagreeable journey. 

** But let us consider the so-called *five w< 
movements* which ^Mechanicus' imagines t* 
sources of sea-sickness. Is he not aware that 
bination of two separate motions at right angl 
other is capable of generating curves and tw 
merable ? In the simplest form of pentogrn 
are two straight-line motions at right angled 
other ; these motions acting in uninon will de^r 
variety of curve and twist that the hand of 
trace, and, in like manner, the two simple mot 
ship — viz., her pitch, and the roll which is 
angles to it, will give rise to aU imaginary com 
of motion, especiiuly the sort of screwing or 
motion so much felt at sea, and which is raerel.^ 
bination of these two elementary ones. Bat tH 



JOURITAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novbmbir 22. 1872. 



17 



B^ 



kMtttyollgmph its cross slide, and all its magic 

Eemn; itcaa oo longer delineate a map or trace 
Mte viDdings of a quaint signatare ; all i^is 
Imb naahed. and one simple straight line is all 
Ike iaitniitteot is now capable of forming. And so , 
^ littBBi; if we take away from the ship, or, rather, 
tbssBipmled part of it, one of its primary motions 
foU). w« break the charm, and all its wonderful 
of dncribtng innumerable and most uncomfortable 
■illossse, and there will remain only the one 
notion of {ntching in a straight line, 
flrftamoss ' is entirely mistaken in supposing that 
IIbvuImb does not or cannot deal with the pitching 
pdoBof tke ship, for the pitch is just as capable of 
kf ivmnad by tile hydranlio apparatus as tne roll ; 
datkiSB particular Channel boats, it is the opinion 
tMrt miaent naral men — men who have commanded 
b hip^ itaamskips for years— that a ship of 350 ft. 
^ le^tk in the Channel, with a low freeboard, and 
Iriaf it 20 milflo per hour, will only pitch to a very 

ftpBaQgie; tad when we place a saloon of 50ft. in 
llAmtfae centre of such a vessel it follows that the 
bd&g oaly one-seventh of the length of the vessel, 
sell at the extreme ende of the sjtloon will be only 
■ ■iialh of the pitch at bow and stem of the ship, 
pettcli notions are also greatly lessened by her 
Mw eoBstroction and hi^h speed ; and, further, it 
tot Wmembered, that this extremely small amount 
[ l^c^ng Bkotion at the ends of the s^oon will ooour 
ttti ntnnMly slow speed of one- seventh only of the 
tail! vkich the bow and stem end of the vessel pitches, 
■iiwe win be nearly inappreciable. 
*ii to the absolote bodOy rise and faU of the ship, 
' BSk >n agreed that in large vessels this motion is 
>d]r BOBsll. so small in fact that it mav be entirely 
0<t as a element of sea-sickness. What so often 
BBO-proloKiona] men on this point is the ascent 
^^^j MBt of the ends and sides of the ship when she 
m^ tad rolla simultaneously at a g^reat angle. 
L^ fcoith,^ or onwud motion, pore and simple, 
jjy ' Mfrii a nicn a * haa pressed into his service, will 
Hf not make any one sea-sick. Were it so, pray, 
^ikkdimDanage to ride on horseback, or venture 
2Jj«d of twenty miles per hour in a railway carriage 
F% w * onward movement P Then we have the fifth 
This is supposed to be a purely crab-like 
Only imagine a vessel of great length going 
tt the rate of twenty miles per hour, and ^nlily 
^nt to tiie right and then to the left of her course, 
■!» aakfi people sea-sick. There simply is not, and 
■it be. aay such cross motion in a vessel moving at 
22j»fei per hour. The whole of the extremely 
2J~J^ "f*** ^^ curves described by the bow of a 
^** "I ^Hid onward motion may be generated by 
^*«^ined action of rolling and pitching, each at 
■J"*! diatanoes, and at periods that do not accord ; 
2*«« it be found necessary to neutralise both the^e 
•™» by the hydraulic controlling apparatus, there is 
■« fti naUcit difficulty in applying it to both these 
*"*^ of the ship." 



SCHOOL BOARD WORK FOR LONDON. 

^^ popolation of London, as shown by the census 
■«« the 2nd April, 1871, was 3 265.005. The 
JJ"'of the School Board, working in conjunction 
JPl** Hegirtrar^General, ascertained that of these 
SjJJT were duldren between the ages of three and 
ff**' taking the next step in the process, it was 
555*'* of this number 97. 307 were being educated 
or in sdiools whertt^Si^e weekly fee exceeded 
^ and vers thus renhov^ed from the operation of 
^ ttst an additional 9,101 were inmates of 
"^ ' I leSDrmatories, or asylums. This left 
Ibt whom elementary schools were re- 1 




quired, and of whom 398.679 were attei^ling, and 
176,014 were, for various causes all set forth in the 
bulky returns, not attending schools. Again, with 
respect to ages, 139,095 of the children requiring ele- 
mentary schools were between the ages of three and 
five, and 435,598 between the ages of five and thirteen. 
Of the total of 176,014 who ought to be at school, but 
were returned as absent, it was found upon investigation 
that only 95.975 had valid excuses for stopping away ; 
and the addition of the remaining 80,039 to the 398,679 
already attending elementary schools within the mean- 
ing of the Act gave the London School Board 478,718 
children, for whose *^ efficient " education they become 
responsible. 

This position being determined, it next became neces- 
sary to ascertain what accommodation existing schools 
provided for the education of these children. A return 
obtained comprehending particulars of every school or 
department of a school at which elementary education is 
the principal part of the education there given, and at 
which the ordinary payments in respect of the instruc- 
tion from each scholar does not exceed ninepence a 
week, showed that the metropolis contained 3,130 such 
institutions, providing in the aggregate accommodation 
for 370,960 scholars. One hundred and fort^-five new 
schools, or enlargements of schools were projected, and 
when these were completed a total accommodation would 
be provided for 413,233 scholars. This was so tar satis- 
factory that it appeared to show Uiat, out of a population 
of upwards of three millions only a trifle over 65,000 
children, some of them under the age of five, were left 
unprovided with schools. But when the test of efficiency 
came to be applied, the proportion was woefully increased. 
More than one-half of the existing schools (1,876) were 
condemned as being inefficient, reducing the accommo- 
dation by 63,907. These figures, as compared with the 
number of schools condemned, suggest, what is the fact, 
that the institutions found wanting were chiefiy petty 
undertikings known to the Education Department as 
*' adventure schools,*' and represented with greater or 
less accuracy by the Academy for Toung Lames at the 
East-end, the loeale of which was a kitchen that also 
served the purposes of dining and bedroom, and the 
principal of which was fEiin to indicate her acquiescence 
with a document offered for her signature by affixing the 
primitive design known as a "mark." Deducuons 
having been made in this direction, it resulted that 
there were in the metropolis 1,149 efficient schools, 
accommodating 312,925 scholars, and 250 schools par- 
tially efficient, accommodating 37,995 scholars, giving a 
total of 1,399 schools, providing education for 350,920 
out of the 478,718 known to require it. 

A further and final deduction had yet to be made, in 
order to arrive at the precise amount of schi^ol accommo- 
dation rec^uired for the given number of children. 
478.718 children might require places at school, but it is 
not reasonable to suppose that every one of them would 
be in regular atten(unce ftom day to day. l*he Board, 
accordingly, with that well-directed energy which marks 
the whole of this important ihquiry, procured a return 
from thirty of the largest schools in London, setting 
forth the absence of scholars day by day for a whole week. 
The aggregate return showed that on the average 5*09 
of the number on the rolls were, from temporary causes, 
absent day by day. The Board, hoping that under the 
action of their bye-laws this proportion may be decreased, 
deducted five per cent, from the number of children who 
might attend school, in order to arrive at the numbers 
for whom accommodation would be absolutely necessary. 
On this basis of calculation, schools with a constituency 
of 478,718 children should have accommodation for the 
average attendance of 454.783, and there being existing 
accommodation for 350,920, it follows that the London 
School Board ficd themselves face to face with the 
necessity for building schools for 103,863 children. 

Of the ten divisions which form the Metropolitan 
School District, the moat necessitous is Tower Hamleti, 



18 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, NoviiiBia 2t, 187^. 



wliich, reqairiog ac«omiDod*tMm for 71,031 childrea, haa 
TOoviaion for oi^y 47,3 1 7. Lambetli wante aohool idaoea 
for 76,962 children, and haa provided 64,697; Hackney 
wanta room for 56.906, and haa pionded for 34,851 ; 
Finabory wanta 58,049, and haa 44,914; South wark wanta 
35,230, and haa 22,526 ; Greenwich wanta 32,673, and haa 
28,884 ; Chelaea wanta 30,204, and haa 26,932 ; Maryle- 
bone wanta 57,616, and haa that number aM but 3,140 ; 
Weatminaler ia abort of the total accommodation neoea- 
sary by only 959 ; whilat the City actually haa an exoeea 
of accommodation amounting to 1,418. The School Board 
have boldly decided at once to proTide achool accommo- 
dation for 100,600 children, and have apportioned that 
number amongst the ten divisions, in some cases, urged 
by special reasons, recommending accommodation in 
excess of the actual deficiency, and in others asking the 
district to be temporarily content with leas than its full 
need. Thus Chelsea, whidi wants new schools for 3,272, 
will have s(;hools built for 4,900 ; Finsbury, which wants 
13,185, will get 10,600; Greenwich, which wants 3,789, 
will get 6,650 ; Hackney, which wants 22.055, will get 
20,000 ; Lambeth, which wants 22,265, will get 18,450 ; 
Marylebone, which wants 3.140. will get 7,900 ; South- 
wark, which wants 12,704 ; will get 11,200 ; Tower 
Hamlets, which wants 23,962, will get 19,400; and 
Weatminster, whose modeat necessities would be met by 
provision for 959 scholars, will get the round thousand. 



C0SSB8P0HDEHCB. 



CHANNEL STEAMERS AND SEA SICKNESS. 

Sw, — In one or more of the leading journals, it ia 
stated that a Mr. Mackie haa, throe years ago, patented 
a system of tubular ship, which, it is thought, will offer 
better accommodation woA more freedom from aea-sick- 
ness than the public now enjoy. 

I desire to state to the public, through our Journal^ 
that, in 1864, 1 designed a similar vessd, with two hulls 
instead of three, to lessen skin friction, and my system is 
almost identical with that of Mr. Mackie and Captain 
Dicey. 

In corroboration, I beg to say that, in 1867, 1 was an 
exhibitor at the Conversazione of Civil Engineers, also 
at the Society of Arts, when a medal was offered for 
improved vessels for channel communication, and that 
mj drawings have been hanging in the Polytechnic In- 
stitution many jears, and ore there still. Captain 
Dicey's scheme is so similar to mine that I have con- 
nected myself with hia enterprise in the English Channel 
Steam Ship Company, and we hope to show the English 
public on the Thames and on the sea, the result of our 
endeavours, which we intend to be as successful as our 
former experiments have been, and wealso intend to have 
steady cabins, sofas and chairs, on and in which the 
public may luxuriate without the necessity of any 
apparatus to preserve their eq^iilibrium. — I am, &c., 

Akgelo Sedley. 
92, New Bond -street, London. 



ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 



So, — As several suggestiont have lately been made 
by correspondents to the Journal with regard to a sub- 
sftitute for coal, it will mot periiape be out of place for 
m» to give some particulars reapecting the utilisation 
of the refuse burk of the tan-yard for fuel in Italy. 

The bark, taken in a wet state. from the tan-pita, ia 
kneaded by the feet, and compressed into circular 
monlds by boys, so as to form cakes or discs of about 
eight inohei in diameter and one and*a-half thick, and 



which are dried on covered raoki \>y siaa j 
the atmoqihare. 

These cakes are manufactured at mos 
Northern Italy, and a boy, on tko ava>r 
1,000 per day. 

The retail price in the principal towns v 
to twelve francs per thousand, and thia i 
used for economising wood, with 'whiclx 
burnt. — ^I am, &o. 



EXHIBITIONS. 



Vienna Izhibition. — Signor Natale Bfl 
prising restaurateur of the Galleria Vittori< 
at Milan, has just obtained the concession ol 
metres of space at the Vienna Exhibition, 
tends opening an Italian restaurant, and 
thus have an opportunity of tasting tho fa. 
alia Milanese, maeheroni alia Napolitana, an*: 
dishes peculiar to the Italian cuisine. XI 
will be dressed in the picturesque costooacd 
Tuscany, and Brianza. 

The "^eBBa Exhibition and French A 
project is now under the consideration of 
most eminent French artists in connection « 
International Exhibition, to be held next y&» 
It is proposed to attempt an exhibition — » 
the great one— of all the most reofiariuble 
have been produced by the FreiMsh school 
past ten years, in order to set French art bel 
Europe with all possible ^lat The sncoeas 
depend on the good Will of the possessora 
these works. 

Lima EzhibitioiL — The three most imp 
spe<»alpremiums awarded at the recent Lima 
are to Doctor Don Manuel A. Fuentes, for tl 
the building ; to Don Demetrio Olavezoya, fo 
duction of meriilb dleep into the country ; a 
Pedro Ruiz, for a famous cl^ck shown, which 
scribed:— ''It was 50 feet 7 inches in height, 
2 inches wide. It marks the weeks, the seai 
and centuries. It shows the course of the sun 
and the eclipses ; hoists up and lowers duily tl 
flag, and presents pictures commemorAtive of 
events in the history of Peru. It strikes the 
quarters of hours, and finally plays certaii 
stated periods." 

Art Exhibition at VaraaiUes.— Versailles, t 
seat of government, is about to have a grand 
of pictures and other works of art. The opport 
good one, and the Society of the Friends of . 
Seine-et-Oise, who organise the exhibition, ha^ 
very liberal progpramme. Each invited artist i 
to send as many works as he may please, and tl 
of the works is left entirely to himself. Mor 
exhibitois are not to be put to any expense 
even for package ; the works are merely to be » 
office of the Moniteur dee ArU, in Paris, and t 
sentative of the society will have them conveys 
sailles and properly placed. The exhibition U 
in the Salle du Jen de Paume, of historic oelebri 
siduring that there, besides the 750 deputies, 
whom reside with their families at Versaillej 
large number of officiala, a large military foit 
oonstant succession of vWtors from all parts, 
hibition is likely to be ^,'ainently successful, ei 
when it is considered that the town is almo6t 
destitute of any oUier attraction whatever in th 



JOUSNAL OF THE BOOIETT OF ABTS. Notembbr^ 29. 1872. . 21 



L OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Xo. 1,045. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 29, 1872. 



fmra^aoekhfa^btuddrm^tothtStentmy^ 



hcmdot^ If.C 



piocEBDnros of teb society. 




HOOHB OBDDrABT XESTDTe. 

Wednesdsj, November 27th, 1872, J. HiNDE 
fiUClR, £mi., M.P., Q.C., in the chair. 

Ibe foQowizig Candidates were proposed for 
dHtuD as Members of the Society : — 

ttw. P. F., 127, Leighton-road, N.W. 
Mr, Owiw C. 24, Oflferton-rood, Clapbam, S.W. 
BodkiB, Frederick Bdwin, Merton-lane, Highgate, N. 
IM, C^it limgton, B.N., J.P., Fra^eld, Mill- 

booki mr SotiUuunpiofL 
gsniiQB, John Bodnuuu 13, Begent-itieet^ aW. 
W^tBobert Pardj, Brighton-villa, Proqiect-hall, 

Bttf SHood Lincoln, 68, Harold-house, Finohley- 
N.W. 

Arthur, 172. Wapping High-stieet, E. 

ragh, D. W., 1, Saffolk-Tilla, Breakspeare's- 

Upper Levisham. S.K 

~ Eeorj Bichard, 3, Bose Bank, Manningham, 

.Mn, The Orwell Wovks, Iptwioh. 

Frederick J., Linooln-houae, Broad-green, 

[ikrid, 27, Hiaoinff-lane, RC. 

l.IintoU, 29, Somerleyton-road, East Brixton, 

rLieat-Col., J.P., Bombajr and Baroda Bail- 
Wptny, 45, ^Tubnry-circtis, E.C. 
[lobert, P.RS^ C.E., 21, Whitehall-place, S.W. 
Broad Oak-park, Wonley, near Man- 
'. and 2 Pall-mall, Manchester. 
HflOTf, 71, New Korth-xoad, K. 
John, Armlej-honse, High-street, Bromley, 

i Darid Heywood, Land Mortgage Bank of India, 
fOangc-alley, Cornhill, KG. 
^ Hcaiy, 44, Finabory-circos, E.C. 

Beabao, 18, Clarewood-terrace, East Brixton, 

John, HiU-aide, Primrose-hill-road, K. W. 
•I^iperread 



^ttCHNICAL EDUCATION AND THE 
MEANS OP PROMOTING IT. 

Ij Thomas Vebster, Q.C., F.B.8. 

eduoatkm constitatee a branch of the 

ion of the education of thepeoplepecu- 

Uie chartered objects of this ancient 

. sad to which its attention has from time 

^heen directed. The meaning of the term, 

^ to which it relates, the position of those 



more peculiarly affected, and the means of promot- 
ing it, have given, and will continue to give, rise to 
much discussion. Hie commencement of the 119th 
session of this Society appears to present a con* 
venient opportunity of renewing a discussion on 
the subject of the conference at the dose of the^ 
last session, in the hope that a step in advance may 
be taken and maintamed, that some distinct pro^ 
ffress may be made in that which has been aptly 
aescribed ** as having for its aim to dignify 
industry, to fructify capital, and to bring tho 
means of living into harmony with the true ends 
of life.'' 

Although I can hardly hope to add much to what 
has been already said on this subiect, some service 
to the cause may be rendered by drawizig attention 
to the more salient points upon which a large 
amoimt of common assent exists. 

Technical education must be understood as 
having reference not only to a special kind of in- 
struction, but to the requirements of a particular 
class of the community. 

Its necessity has been forced upon us by the 
conditions in which we are placed, as to which, in 
the opening address of the present session, the 
Chaiiman said : — ** Our country is passing through 
another phase of its history, a period of chanee 
which cannot be but deeply interesting, and ought 
to be fuU of hope for the future. Manufactures 
in which this country stood for many years pre* 
dominant and almost alone, are now being 
abundantly produced by other nations. Coal and 
iron, the raw materials of industry and wealth, are 
rising in price at home, while they are being more 
abundanuy produced abroad. Educated skill is 
acknowledged to be an knportant element in com- 
mercial success and national character. It behoves 
us not to rest in past success, but that our members 
should do their utmost to hdp forward every class 
of society, and to unite them in the one common 
object of social improvement.*'* 

It cannot be doubted that thoughtful men have 
been much struck by the contrast which exists be- 
tween some continental nations and this country 
as to general and special instruction. The cause of 
this has given rise to much speculation. The fol- 
lowing opinion of Dr. Yeats is deserving of con- 
sideration: — ** I incline to think that the early 
attention paid to general and to technical instruc- 
tion by the Swiss, the Dutch, and the Oermans, 
was a result of circumstances over which they had 
little or no control, rather than a matter of fore- 
sight and deliberate choice. The desire to provide 
liberally for numberless orphans, the victims, of 
war, led the rulers of those nations to think deeply 
on tiie subject of education. The best men de- 
voted theinselves to it, and made it of necessity a 
ouestion of national concern. It progressed won- 
derfully after the interest excited by the philan- 
thropic labours of Pestalozzi, at Stanz; Franke, 
at Halle; Yon Turk, at Potsdam; and Yon 
Fellenb^g, at Hofwie. One enthusiast succeeded 
another ; endless experiments were tried, for the 
pupils were passive, and public opinion was 
favourable. At length the axiom, *Man is a 
being to be educated, and becomes human only in 
proportion to the culture bestowed upon him,* was 
generally received, and soon acted upon. Peda- 
gogy rose to the rank of a science, and men like 



9 1«V>- ''W* 



• *-» addren, 2Stti NoTember, lOTl. 



90 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Notmbib 22, 1872. 



North America and Earopa Then the readers of the morn- 
ing papers in America will be able to learn at tbe break- 
fast-table aU that oooorred tbe previons day at Paris, London, 
Madrid, Berlin, New York, Melbonrae, Calcntta, and 
Yokohiuna. ' 

Fuel Economy. — Peat in Italy. — ^The peat deposits 
in Italy oover an area of upwards of 40,000 hectares (m ronnd 
numbers 100,000 acres), and average in thickness from fiye 
te six metres, although in some places, as in the Roman 
Campagna, deposits 25 metres, or 34 yaras, in thickness are 
to be met with. Up to the present time, from the impossi- 
bility of compressing the peat to a greater density than from 
200 to 300 kilogrammes per cubic metre, it has been impos- 
sible for this fuel to compete with foreign ooal in Italy. 
Signer Giovanni Moeo, after a series of patient and careful 
experiments, has succeeded in making machinery by which 
peat coal of a density of 1,000 kilogrammes, about one ton, 
per cubic metre can be produced, and sold at from 16 to 18 
irancs (12s. to 148.) per ton. Experiments on tbe Lombard 
railways show tbe value of Signer Mozo*s invention, which, 
with the present high price of coal, cannot fail to be a most 
important one for Italy, tending to free her from tiie im- 
mense tribute (40,000,000 francs yearly) that she pays to 
other nations for fuel, and to enable her to develop her 
natural resources. 



For the meetings previous to dxr 
following arrangements have been noLaxl 



BUBSCBIPTIOHS. 

The Miohaelmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Darenport, Financial 
Officer. 



THE UBSABT. 

The following works hare been presented to the 
library: — 

Phormium Tenaz as a Fibrous Plant. Edited by 
James Hector, M.D., F.R.8. 

Report of the Oommissioners appointed to inquire into 
the preparation of the Ph^rmium fibre or New Zealand 
Flax, and also further papers relating to the same. 

The Metrio Calculator. By Bicb^id Eickard. Pre- 
sented by the author. 

Retail Traders and the Co-operative Stores (a pamph- 
let). By Jeremiah Head. Presented by the auUior. 

Twentieth Annual Report to the Council of the City 
of Manchester, on the Working of the Public Free 
Libr^iriee, 1871-2. 

Light Railways (a pamphlet). By Henry S. Ellis. 
Presented by the author. 

Census of Victoria, 1871. Part 3, Ages of the People. 

Statistics of tiie Colony of Victoria, for the year 1871. 
Part 4, Law, Crime, &c. 

Commision de la Flora Forestal Espa&ola, Resumen 
de los trabojos verificados, por la misma dorante los 
afios de, 1869 y 1870. Presented by his Excellency Don 
Jos^ Merino Ballesteros. 

A Collection of Publications of the Sociedad Economica 
of Madrid. Presented by his Excellency Doi^ Job6 
Merino Ballesteros. 



OBDDTABY XBETIHG8. 

' The following are the dates of the Wednesday 
evening meetings, the chair being taken at eight 
o'clock : — 

1872. November — — — 27 

„ December 4 11 18 — 

1873. January — — 15 22 29 

„ February 6 12 19 26 

„ March 6 12 19 26 

» April 2 — 16 23 30 

„ May 7 14 21 28 



KoTSMBBB 27. — '*0n Technical Edacati 
Means of Promoting it." By Thomas 'Wj 
Q.C., F.R.S. On this evening the chair ^ 
by John Hindb Palmbb, Esq., M.P., Q.C. 

Dbobmbbb 4. — **0n the Manu&ctore of 
by Machinery." By J. A. Huoosir, Esq. 

Dbcbmbbr 11. — " On Gkdvanic Batteriee 
Rev. H. HiOHTON. 

Dbgbxbbb 18. — '*0n Russia, her Induj 
merce, and Means of Communication." Hy 
Elsq., Professor of Mercantile Law, Kxn 
London, and one of the Deputies to the I 
Statistical Congress at St. Petersburg. 



CAKTOB LSCTirSES. 

The first course of Cantor Lectui 
ensuing Session will be on " The Praci 
cations of Optics to the Arts, Manufa 
to Medicine,^' by C. Meymott Ttdy, 1 
Lecturer on Chemistry, and Professor 
Jurisprudence at the London Hospita 
consist of five Lectures, to be deliver 
foUowing^ Monday evenings, at eight o' 

Lbgtvbb I. — Monday, Novbicbb& 25ti 

The Law of the Intensity of Li^ht in its 
to Photometry— Lighthouse Illummation. 

Lecturb II. — MoiTDAY, Dbcbkbe& 2in 

Lighthouse Illumination fcontinuedj — Ap 
Reflection — Lenses and their varieties — Thi 
tion to Medical Purposes, &c. 

Lbctubb III. — MoxDAT, Dbcbmbbr 9ti 

Applications of Optics in the Arts, illosti 
Science of Photography. 

Lecturb IV. — ^Monday, Decbxbbr 16t 
Polarised Light, and its Practical Applical 

Lbcturb V. — Monday, Dbcbmbbr 23r] 

Spectrum Analysis as Applied to Mt 
illustrated in the Bessemer process, and to J 
the Detection of Blood. 

A Bwond course will be given d 
Session, by the Rev. Arthur Kigo, 3 
the Energies of Gravity, Electricity 
Affinity, &ght, and Heat, especially 1 
enoe to tlie Measurement and U tilisatioE 



MEETIHOS FOB THE EHSUIHO W 



Moil. 



•SOCIETT OF ARTS, 8 Cantor Lector 
** On Practical AppUoatioiit of Optics 
Manafactures, and Comiii»ce.** 

Actuaries, 7. Mr. Sprague, on ^ Rcrerrionary 
as Secnritiei for Loans." 

Social Science Association, 8. Rer. E. Abl 
Proposed Examination of First-grade St 
UnlTersities." 

Royal Oe^ graphical Society, 8). 1. Major I 
Ansteo, ** Survey of the Oaro Hills and As 
Uylas " 2 Account of tbe Looshal Coa 
Reports of the Surveyors. 

Institute of Surveyors, tf. Mr. Amndel 
Mines and Minerals.** 

TvM ...Civil Engineers, 8. Mr. WUliam Anders 
Aba-el- Watlf Sugar Factory, Upper Egypt 
London Instimtlon, 4. Professor Bntberford, 
tion of the Body.** 

WfD. .. BOOIETY OF ARTS, 8. Mr. Thomss ^ 
F.R S , ** On Technical Edacatlon sod 
Promoting it.'* 
Society of Telegraph Engineers, 8. Mr. W 
on ** Lightning.* 

FBI ...M.Arehitectaral Anodatioa, t^ 



JOOBNAL OF THE. SOCIETY OP ARTS, Notbhmb- 29, 1872. 



21 



mm. OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



So. 1,045. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JfOVEMBtJB 29, 1872. 



MA$8$eiibfaikmidhiaddnmdtothtJ9iartiary, 
^ ^K, AMpH, Lo9dm, W,C. 



ttocBssnros of the societt. 



OOOIB ORDnrABT MKETIHe. 

C^'^-M^xfy Xorember 27th, 1872, J. Hende 
S^., M.P., aO., in the chair, 
lollownig Candidates were proposed for 
M Htsober^ of the Society : — 

,f.P, W7, Lei^iton-rotd, N.W. 
,QMnf a, 24, Offerton-road, Clapham, 8.W. 
fti i mck Edwin, Merton-lane, Highgate, N. 
,ft|t Lttigiom B.N., J.P., Ereahfield, MiU- 
T Sotithmnpton. 

, Jolm Bodznaiw 13, B^gent-ftreet, 8.W. 
Itjwrt Pardy, Brighton-villa, Proq^ect-hall, 
■■tow.B. 
BBMd Tinoolnj 68, Harold-house, Finohley- 

Aiftv, 17Z Wapping High-stieet, E. 

D. W., 1, Suffolk-villa, Breakspeare's- 
Levi^ianij S.E. 

Bichaia, 3, Rose Bank, Muminghazn, 

iM^Hid OrweU Weeks, Ipswich. 

fMerick J.y linoobi-hoase, Broad-green, 

27. Hincing-lane, E.C. 
i,Iintott» 29, somerleyton-road, East Brixton, 

iIisat-OoL, J.P., Bombay and BarodaBail- 
vft^ flnsbtiry-circus, E.C. 
• P.R.8^ C.E^ 21, WhitehaU-place, 8.W. 
Bfoad Oak-park, Wonley, near Man- 
3 BUl-mall, Manchest^. 
r, 71, New North-road, N. 

Armley-hoose, High-stzeet, Bromley, 

> IMd Heywood, Land Mortgage Bank of India, 
"^i^ie^aej, Cornhill, E.C. 
r&uy, 44, Finibury-circiis, E.C. 
*^ * 18, Clarewood-teriace, East Brixton, 

tMn, HiU-side, Primroee-hiU-rood, N.W. 
^Bfvread 



90BMIOAL EDUCATION AND THE 
lOAHB OF PKOMOnNO IT. 



* tkus Webster, ac, P.B.8. 

: edacatioii oonstitiites a branch of the 

I of the edaoation of thepeoplepecn- 

kibe <diartered objects of this ancient 

ite which its attention has from time 

idbected. The meaning of i^e term, 

bl»iHiieii it relates, the posilion of tho^e 



more peculiarly affdoted, and the means of promot- 
ing it, have given, and wiU continue to give, rise to 
much discussion. The commencement of the 119th 
session of this Society appears to present a con- 
venient opportunity of renewing a discussion on 
the subject of the conference at the dose of thet 
last session, in the hope that a step in advance may 
be taken and maintained, that some distinct pro- 
gress may be made in that which has been aptly 
aescribed *' as having for its aim to dignify 
industry, to fructify capital, and to bring the 
means of living into harmony with the true ends 
of life.'* 

Although I can hardly hope to add much to what 
has been already said on this subject, some service 
to the cause maybe rendered by drawing attention 
to the more salient points upon which a large 
amount of common assent exists. 

Technical education must be understood as 
having reference not only to a special kind of in- 
struction, but to the requirements of a particular 
class of the community. 

Its necessity has been forced upon us by the 
conditions in which we are placed, as to which, in 
the opening address of the present session, the 
Chairaian said : — ** Our country is passing through 
another phase of its history, a period of change 
which cannot be but deeply interesting, and ought 
to be full of hope for the future. Manufactures 
in which this country stood for many years pre* 
dominant and almost alone, are now beingr 
abundantly produced by other nations. Coal and 
iron, the raw materials of industry and wealth, are 
rising in price at home, while they are being more 
abundanuy produced abroad. Educated skill is 
acknowledged to be an important element in com- 
mercial success and national diaracter. It behoves 
us not to rest in past success, but that our members 
should do their utmost to help forward every class 
of society, and to unite them in the one common 
object of social improvement.*'* 

It cannot be doubted that thoughtful men have 
been much struck by the contrast which exists be- 
tween some continental nations and this country 
as to general and special instruction. The cause of 
this has given rise to much speculation. The fol- 
lowing opinion of Dr. Yeats is deserving of con- 
sideration: — *' I incline to think that the eariy 
attention paid to general and to technical instruc- 
tion by the Swiss, the Dutch, and the Oermans, 
was a result of circumstances over which they had 
little or no control, rather than a matter of fore- 
dght and deliberate choice. The desire to provide 
liberally for numberless orphans, tiie victims, of 
war, led the rulers of those nations to think deeply 
on the subject of education. The best men och 
voted theniBelves to it, and made it of necessity a 
Question of national concern. It progressed won^ 
derf ully after the interest excited by the philan- 
thropic labours of Pestalozzi, at Stanz ; Franke, 
at Halle; Von Turk, at Potsdam; and Von 
Fellenberg, at Hofwie. One enthusiast sneoeeded 
another ; endless exp er im ents were tried, for the 
pupils were passive, and public opinion waa 
favourable. At length the axiom, *Maa is a 
being to be educated, and becomes human only in 
proportion to the cuHore bestowed upon him,' was 
generally received, and soon acted upon. Peda- 
gogy rose to the rank of a science, and men like 



• Tba dMlmaa'f 



aMb If onober, isn. 



22 



JOUBKAL'OF TSE 800IETT OF ARTS, Notexbxb 29, 18!^. 



Wilhelm von Humboldt beoaine miniftov of edu- 
cation."* 

Admirable as, aeeording to tiie testiBumy of all 
wbo have examined into the matter, is the general 
and primary education m many foreign countries, 
and much to be imitated by us, doubts may be 
entertained cw to whether their strictly called trade 
schools affoid the best solution of me difficulty, 
and supply the existing want. The admonition 
that unless dieap and efficient practical instrac- 
tion in the principles of soienoe, and their applica- 
tion to ihB industrial arts, be immediately and 
abundantly provided for workmen and work- 
womoi, the better classes of |>roduotions will be 
monopolised or materially interfered with by 
foreign countries, and that to this country will be 
left the production of the cheaper and coarse 
goods ana wares — a position due to cartel, ma- 
chinery, and energy of labour — cannot be disre- 
ffarded. Mr. Brassey, in his '* Work and Wages," 
inclines to the opinion that these charaoteristies 
may suffice for the maintenance of our position in 
the markets of the world ; but this oumt not to 
oontent us. Our position is widd.y diffarent in 
many respects from Continental counhies, and from 
the United States. We har?e a large number of 
eTJuting educational establishments of the highest 
charactOT, adapted to the requirements of one por- 
tion of ihe community; we shall have shortly, 
thanks to the untiring energy of patriotism, a 
universal system of primary education adapted to 
another portion of tne community, hitherto neg- 
lected. We have manufacturing establishments of 
the highest character, which hitherto have had the 
command in most of the markets of the world. 
The question is, how can this be maintained. 

The expression of some politicians, in vogue a 
short time ago, in reference to a kindred subject, 
of ^'levelling up and levelling down," will illustrate 
what I wish to convey as respects the educatonal 
establishments for the two portions of the com- 
munity. The great middle-class, constantly re- 
cruited from the upper and lower classes, re<|uire 
the adaptation of those establishments to f aoihtate 
that operation. Deeply sensible as I am, from 
actual experience, of tlie deficiencies of our 
older and nobler institutions in this respect, and of 
the anxiety now existing to adapt them, as fi^ as 
possible, to the requirements of the times, I look 
with great hope to the commcm schools of the 
Idngdom as the true foundation upon which to 
•xaase the su}>er8truoture of technical education. 

The evid^[ice of Mr. A. Fi^d,t as to the United 
States, corroborates this view. He says : — * ' I think 
the diflerence between the way m which the 
American workmen will turn out an article that is 
wanted, and the way that an English workman 
will turn out an article that is wanted, is to be 
described in this way. The Englishman has not 
the ductility of mind, and the readiness of ap- 
prehension for a new thing that is required; he 



IS unwilling to change the methods wmch he has 
been used to, and if he does change them, he makes 
demands of price bv trade rules which aetuallv 
opj^ose the chan^ oi the article, or certainly attach 
to it something m the shape of a fine, or an extr& 
demand beyond a fair price for the making of an 
article. An American readily produces a new 
< ■ ' ■ ' ■ II ■ ■■ I 

* F^w»rraMltotli«8AoUlSelMMAMo«UtloD,Febniaiy Ifl.UtS. 
t Before the CoMnittMLoa fi|ai«itMi} bmmmsmtMth Jane, I8O8. 



article. He understands eveiythin| 

him as well as a man £rom a oolleff< 

would. He helps the employer by h 

ness and intelligenoe, and, in cos 

readily attains to any new kno'wh 

assisting his employer by thoroughly 

ing what is the change that is needed 

h\m on the road towards it. On the 

have -a man who willingly assists me 

am going, knowine some thing^s 'wb 

know myself; ana, on the other 1 

a man who stops me on title road, ^ 

own ign<»:ance in the way of my kx 

hausting me by the efforts I am f orc< 

get past him while he stands before me 

of the path. Having been fighting 

English products in my own trade duri 

residence abroad, I have had graduall; 

my conviction what the difficulties as^ 

meeting with. This last year, havi 

extensive tour in the United States < 

by land, not so much for my immed 

purx>oses as for the sake of obtain 

information connected with the com;; 

manufactures of the two countries, as 

otiier social subjects, I have come 1 

plete opinion, that the cause of 

oifEerenoe between us is to be found i 

tion of the workmen on the two sides 

On one side, in fact, there is an 

absence of education, and that i 

difference. There should be an im| 

the primary education of the Englii 

and also given to the workine men. ' 

education and the primary education 1 

of one whole. We must have the 1 

ing in order to get what we want. I 

matter of fact, that what is mosi 

primary education, or rather a gei 

education, beginning at the bottom. 

we could get that we should find tha 

of ihe edifice which come at the to 

arrived at more easily ; but we shoul 

parts of the edifice too. And I do i 

that we should be doing a work of sup 

and what would not -really help us i 

direction, should we at once promote t 

education of all those who were ready 

The Ajnerican workman has received 

scientific education ; he has it chiefly 

study. He has received, to begin wit 

education, something quite different fr 

call primary education in this ocuntr}! 

tion that puts h^^n on a level with 

higher position than what we call iJke 1 

class, on a level, indeed, with almost 

middle class. And with his mind so 

readily applies himself to acquire soiec 

tion." 

The history of this movement must n< 
passed over in silence. '* The isBmediat 
the subject," as stated by Dr. Yeate,* " ( 
among other matters, the reports of 
jurors at the time of the Great hitematio 
tion in Paris, 1867, andcorrespondenceai 
fir(»n, such as Dr. Lyon Playfair'a letie 
to Lord Taunton, chairman of the Soho 
Oommission; the letters of theBntiBh 

• See j?»per fend |>ef ore SooiM Scteooe 4«N«lAtioQ, 
18T3. 



MBKAL OF THB SOCIETY- OF ABTS, N«VBKBKt 29, 1872. 



23 








t in soieiioe ; the reports of work- 
onals of ^e chambers of com- 
Mttons addressed by the "S^ce-Presi- 
iObooI ci Educadon to the chambers ; 
tnlmed from Birmingham, Notting- 
Kendal, &c. ; the particular 
Tomiff, of Bathffate; Brs^g, of 
, B^ikyand Behrens, ofBradfora ; and 
r. Lycsk Flayiair; the evidence adduced 
tjfr. flssndflon's Gk>mmittee of the House of 
i; aid the excellent report on the import- 
til As ntroduction of technical education into 
widi the courses of study pursued in 
[flflhools of Germany, France, Belgium, 
Ae., by Mr. Bobert (Hll, manufac- 
member of the South of Scotland 
^tfComineroe.'* 

rf fte flnt steps in comiection with this 

«•§ a inquiry by a Committee of this 

kfte years 1853-7, and the issue of two 

Ike next step of importance actually 

I Htm qipointment of the Committee of 

of ikrts on Technical Education, 26th 

tof that Committee leads to the follow- 
: — 1. That the basis of all sound 
ion is science taught efficiently 
to the various employments of 
foch instruction is essentially distinct 
[ AiH or handicraft, such as required for 
lie obtained in the workshop, which, as a 
1V> given in connection wil^ institutions 
)n. 3. That the term "technical" 
Imhe a wide and comprehensive mean- 
[llkas been occasionally assigned to it, so 
•fanost every department of acquired 
the limitation to be placed on this 
fkniher illustrated by a consideration 
»vbiohit does not apply, as, for instance, 
y of the properti^ of matter, attrac- 
•nd repulsion, of the laws of the 
I sdences, astronomy, mechanics, 
^Ai f t rirtt y, magnetism, heat, li^ht, &c. 
NM**l6(mnicid/' in a wide ana extensive 
rMij^t be applied to almost every depart- 
*"Mil»1edgB. Thus we hear of technical 
^Mking technically, and, as observed in 
tf the Committee of this Society on 
idacition, those words, in their most 
Hm^ include all manner of instruction 
ly the workman for his craft, by 
llHtUcr for his business, by the pro- 
■n for his practice. In these terms 
^Woded those most admirable of all 
sthl^cs, gymnastics, and school 
nport limits its application to the 
J« %mal meaning of the original Greek 
i^Wk, ■aoording to Bichardson, relates to 

^teiwtrioted sense the term will be used 
'•ilHctSon which may be further illus- 
'^nlbniioe to the contrast which is drawn 
Mtttd nature, in which, according to the 
_wfc flmeatonian Society of Engineers, 
•*art** those things m which we 
•* nature." 
[<tf the industrial arts is thus laid 
( tad technical education is limited 
In maAters bearing some special 
' } ia other words, to the i^pUca- 
IjplOper to practical things. 



m^i 



Here again, however, some limitation may be 
necessary, and may aid us in makin g what is 
included more intelligible, by considering some 
matters not included. 

Between discovery and invention a wide dis- 
tinction exists; the former relating to the dis- 
closure of the properties of matter and the laws by 
which it is governed, as of attraction, cohesion, 
repulsion, electricity, gravity, heat, light, 
magnetism ; the latter to the appHcation of those 
laws. 

Technical education, as above defined, is based 
on instructi6n in the application of such know- 
ledge; it starts, so to speak, with that which was 
created or made for man, not with what has been 
created or made by man. 

Air, light, and matter are such as made by the 
Creator. No skill or labour of man can alter their 
properties, but such skill or labour can adapt and 
apply them to tiiie uses of his fellow creatures. Ta 
this consists invention, and in the knowledge thereof 
consists technical education. 

A further distinction exists between the fine and 
industrial arts. The products of intellectual 
labour embodied in a book, a design, a picture, 
a poem, or a sculpture, is the embodiment of the 
particular mind. No two minds would produce 
the same thing ; the distinction between faces in 
the human race is not more remarkable than the 
distinction of mind — no two are identical. But 
inventions, or the creations of man in the industrial 
arts, may be identical, being all founded on laws or 
properties of matter as impressed by the Creator. 
In considering technical education, all reference 
to the fine arts is excluded ; instruction may direct, 
intensify, or improve natural gifts, such as find 
scope for their exercise in the fine arts ; but pro- 
gress in the industrial arts, to which alone technical 
education has reference, depends mainly upon the 
results of training. 

Thus, then, we are brought face to face with the 
subjects of technical education, which, as has 
been already observed, may be defined to be 
instruction in the application of the laws of nature 
and of natural agents to the requirements of 
mankind in the industrial arts. Assuming the 
foregoing definition or exposition of technical 
education, the question arises as to the means of 
promoting it. At this point it becomes important 
to consider the agencies in existence or available 
for the purpose. First and foremost, then, is 
primary education, that is^ instruction in reading, 
writing, and numeration, with linear or plane 
drawing, as introductory to geometry. 

At this point of the education of the people I 
would take mv stand. Speaking from no small 
experience of tine years wasted in studies for which 
no mental capaci'hr exists, I would coimsel educa- 
tionists to consider whether some separation or 
classification of minds, in reject of their capa- 
bilities, is not practicable. 1 do not mean to 
suggest that at an eariy stage, say after the 
acquirement of the first rudiments of education 
next after primary education, it may be possible to 
ascertain what the particular mind is best fitted 
for, but I contend that by a very simple process it 
may be ascertained for wnat the mind is not fitted. 
For instance, some minds would never rise beyond 
mensuration in plain figures, or ihe cono^tion of 
an area, comprehended between lines, that is to 
say, of space, m two dimensions. Minds so limited 



2i 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, Novbmbbb 29, 1872. 



may become excellent accomitants or surveyon, 
but can never become mathematicians. The faculty 
of passing, as it has been expressed, from squares 
to cubes, is a faculty of the highest order. At 
this stage of education the natural sciences come 
in ; many of those who could never become mathe- 
maticians, may become observers, botanists, geolo- 
gists, physiologists. The faculty of observation is 
innate, in the nature of an instinct to be improved, 
developed, but not to be given or created by culture. 
The necessity of technical education for the people 
is forcing attention to the deficiencies in the general 
education of those to whom competition in prizes 
is the incentive to labour, and who cannot have 
the same incentive to labour as the mass of the 
people. 

It is, says Dr. Quain,* apparently not considered 
that there are faculties of the mind of a high order 
besides those by the exercise of which distinction 
is obtained in the favoured studies of our schools 
and colleges. It is not considered that many young 
people, though they have little aptitude for those 
favoured studies, might acquire in other pursuits 
the best results of education — ^knowledge and 
mental power — while some might attain even to 
distinction. Were the scheme of instruction in 
early life less '* narrow," did it include subjects 
which require for their cultivation faculties other 
than those employed in even the most successful 
study of grammar, and classical languages, and 
ancient philosophy, no small proportion of that 
large number who are everywhere stated to be 
listless and indisposed to mental labour, would, in 
all likelihood, be saved intellectually, as Faraday 
was — ^would find, as he did, ** an anchor*' in some 
branch of naturfd science. 

The ** anchor *' which Dr. Quain supposes would 
be found by some process of nattufal selection 
T>y the few who are free to choose anv path in 
life, will, by force of circimistances, be found for 
those who take to technical instruction as the edu- 
cation for their position in life. 

This instruction will afford to the children of the 
poorest the stimulus which prizes supply to the 
highest ; not that the former should be excluded 
from prizes, but in the continuous system of edu- 
cation which, it may be hoped, lies in the future, 
and which is the natural supplement to the fiat 
that every child bom into the world shall receive 
the elements of primary education, it is not too 
much tohox>e — to adopt an expression of an eminent 
philosopher — ^that an education begun in the gutter 
may end in our universities. 

Whatever causes may have been in operation, it 
<!annot be denied that the conviction at which we 
have now arrived as to the necessity of technical 
education has been forced upon us. The question 
may be asked how it has come to pass that tech- 
nical instruction, which has so long existed and 
flourished on the Continent, has been neglected by 
us, to whom it is equally important. The follow- 
answer to this question has been given by Dr. 
Yeats :t — " We have suffered less on our own soil, 
and directly, from the horrors of war than they, 
and therefore, perhaps, have been less humble and 
painstaking. Ihuing their protracted struggle for 

• See "On Some Defeeti !n General Ednotion.** By Richard 
Qnalii, F.R 8., Prtddeat of the Royal CollacTO of Sorgeooa for iS69. 
pp. 74-6. 
f Paper read 19th February, 1872, before the Social Science Aaeo- 
\aotkt on ** JUpecti and Proqtects of Teohoioal Ednoatton." 



Uberty, we subsidised their troops, and thus 
tracted much of a load of debt the interej 
which is weighing us to the earth, while the^ 
comparatively free from such incumbrance, 
maintain our credit we had to make inonc 
discover and utilise the properties of niatter, i 
our neighbours have been well and wisely add 
ing themselves to the development andapplio 
of the powers of the mind." 

Without dissenting from the views emreew 
such an authority, I am inclined to think tha 
true reason of this neglect is to be found ii 
fact that hitherto we nave done well enough. -^ 
out this instruction. 

Mr. Brassey, in his book on "Work and "W* 
has furnished interesting statistics as to the re] 
prices of labour in this and foreign countries, 
the amount of work done, and as to the cost < 
production, arriving at the conclusion tlia 
lower rate of wages is more than compenaat* 
the improved machinery, skill, and energy c 
operative. This may be true as regards soi 
the industrial arts ; but it should be remcml 
that we derived many of our manufactures w 
from foreign parts, and that France and Ghsn 
still enjoy, almost to the exclusion of this cov 
some manufactures, as, for instance, silk vc 
by reason of the preparation, spinning, and ^ 
ing of silk being still a domestic and hand n 
facture, not yet brought under the dominie 
capital and machinery, a result which "would 
baoly be followed by the transference of that n 
facture to this country for a limited period, 
the adoption by the foreigner of similar f 
ances. 

Mr. Samuelson, who has given special attc 
to this subject, thus speaks of the question of f o 
competition:* — ** I think that the importai 
the question of foreign competition, as affi 
the policy of a Patent-law, has been soin< 
underrated. In the year 1867 I visited S-w 
land, and I was suiprised to find how succca 
our inventions in spinning machinery are c 
there, the result being that our trade in spi 
machinery, so far as certain neutral marko* 
concemed, more especially the South of Gkjx 
and North of Italy, has been transferred e 
entirely to the Swiss." 

The superiority of the Swiss, especially in c 
descriptions of handicraft, as jewellery and wu 
has been often the subject of remark, as illust 
of the results of the admirable system of eletti€ 
and technical instruction existing in that coi 
l^milar results are referred to as due t 
admirable system of teaching in Saxony. 

Differences of opinion exist as to the effect, 
their generally superior education has on pi 
tion, but it can hardly be doubted that the o 
ence so clearly expressed by Mr. A. Field 
the character of American workmen -will 
counterpart in Continental workshops. 

The change which has taken place in the p< 
of the industrial arts in this country durix 
last century cannot be denied, and ought th 
be lost sight of. During that period do 
manufacture has given place to the absorbin, 
overwhelming inmiences of capital and macl 
The country has become one great ^w^or 

• Ertdenoe before Select Committee of the Uooae of Com 
the Patent Laws, 18th April, 18T3. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Notikbik 29, 1872. 



floatioTi of miad to whicli referenoe hsa been made. 
There is no aeoemary coimection between ""^n'ml 
aldll and mental culture. 

Having, then, by an ezhaiutdTe process, arriTed 
at what technical education is not, and as to certain 
means which are STaiiable and suitable for its 
promotion, a few words maT be added as to the 
principles upon which it should be founded. Upon 
reading, writing, and numeration, it will be 
unneoessaiT' to say a word. I adopt the word 
numeration rather than arithmetic because I know, 
from the experience of others, as well as my own, 
that much tune is unnecessarily wasted at an early 
stage in teaching, or trying to t«acb, portions of 
that subject which the mind is wholly incapable 
of appreciating, applying, or using in future life. 

li^m the first step in numeration, that is, 
addition, subtraction, divisioii, Tulgar fractions, 
and decimals, I would pass to plane drawing and 
geometry, some of the simpler propositions of 
which may be taught with great advantage before 
entering on Euchd or any complete system of 
geometry. From plane drawing and geometry 
the youth should pass te elementary mechanism, 
chemistry, physics, and the other natural scienoea. 
At this stage the principles of selection should be 
mode, and technical education, that is, instruction 
in the elementary knowledge of particular trades 
begin. I>ast of all would come the education of 
the special trade or workshop, which no teaching 
can supply the place of. 

The existing educational establishments may take 
port in such a division of instruction. 

First, the Universities. Instructioii at these 
ancient seats of education was, till recently, purely 
theoretioal ; that is to say, mechanics, for instance, 
were taught with referenoe to an imaginary, and 
without reference to on actual, stete of things. 

The late Canon Mosoloy, * one of the founders of 
the Applied Science Department at King's College, 
Zjondon, and the originator of the Bristol Trade 
School, insists on the importance of teaching in* 
dustrial science to the industrial classes, rather 
than mere science which is not applicable to any 
useful industry, and illustrates it by the teaching, 
as existing in his time, at Cambridge. The laws 
of motion were then taught without reference to 
friction, all bodies being supposed to be perfectly 
smootlk — an imaginary state of things, applicable 
lo industry whatever; whereas industrial 
ice is that kind of science which takes into 
account all the conditions of the industry to which 
uiience is applied. The theory necessary for 
this is geometry of the most elementary character, 
which might be dealt with by scale and compasses 
without an^ theoretical knowledge. 

Another illustration may be derived from the 
theory of " work," and of the work done by heat, 
subjects within the reach of competent capacity, 
without any theoretical or matbematical teaching, 
but which, till lateljr, found no place in the teoch- 
■ — of our universities. 

limilar illustrations may bo drawn from hydro- 
statics, chemistry, electricity, magnetism, and the 
other natural sciences. The extension of lectures 
... . given on these subjects at existing educational 
estat£shments to the people, would be the first step 

the right direction for " technical education." 

• Hh itMouw bctbn BilKt Commlttn m Scl«ilia« lulnietin, 



M 



JtoUfelTAL OF TMB SOOklitT Ot' All*B;-NaviMBK» ^9, 18T2 



One difficulty is in the want of smtaUe teadiers. 
Tea^^iin^ is a gift, an art, an iiistinot. Its jxywer 
may be unproyed, but cannot be acquired. It iras 
said of one of the most successful scmoolinasters of 
my sdiool days, "he tausht so well because he 
knew so little. * He had me capacity of imbuing 
the boys wilii what he knew. Here, liien, is 
tilie first difficulty to be encountered and dealt 
with — an adequate supply of suitable teachers. 

The following evidence of Dr. Frankland before 
Vr. B. Samuelson's Committee on Scientific 
instruction is especially deserving of attention : — 
•' There is a great deficiency of teachers in science 
schools, and in order to meet that deficiency the 
government now gives payment upon results to 
teachers who have not passed the teachers* exami- 
nation, but have simmy taken a first or second 
grade as pupils, and tlat is obviously a matter of 
momentary convenience only. It would be very 
undesirable that this scientific instruction should 
be stopped for the want of teachers altogether. I 
woula prefer rather that it should be carried on 
with comparatively inferior teachers. The attempt 
to carry it on with inferior teachers would be 
liable to lead to discouragement on the part of 
those taught ; but still, taking that evil into con- 
sideration, I think tiie SMlvantage of awakening a 
desire for science teaching in the country would 
more than overbalance it ; by bringing the boys and 
workmen into contact with scientific teaching 
at all, which has hitherto, been quite exceptional, 
tilere would be a considerable gain. There would 
now be a greater number of persons who would 
offer to teach than there would otherwise have 
been. The present schools are sufficient, or about 
sufficient, for the supply of the actual demand for 
instruction in chemisby, judging from the number 
attending those schools at the preset time. That 
is not at all a healthy state of things — the fact of 
the demand being so small. Tou may contrive 
the best possible institutions for imparting 
instruction in science, but if nobody, or only a 
few, come to avail themselves of it, your labour is 
in vain. I feel that the growth of this desire must 
be somewhat slow, and hence it is that I say the 
institutions now existing would probably be quite 
sufficient if they were amplified in the 
direction of technical and scientific instruction. 
Thereby the country would be benefited in a 
material sense. I cannot conceive that it would be 
possible for us to maintain our position as a manu- 
facturing country, unless something of the kind, 
in a very marked degree, takes place, and that 
before long, impart from any moral or general 
considerations, 1 think that, in a mere economical 
point of view, instruction in my special branch 
should be more generally diffused. We know that 
the two great chemical inventions of this country 
during i^e last 20 years have been made by men 
who have been specially trained in chemistry, I 
mean the invention of the manufacture of paraffin 
from coal, by Mr. Young, who was trained in the 
laboratory of Professor Graham, the present 
Master of the Mint ; and, secondly, the invention 
of the manufacture of the aniline colours from 
coal-tar. This invention was made in the first 
place by Mr. Perkin, who was a trained student 
m the College of Chemistry. Those are tiie only 
two great chemical inventions that havebeenmade 
in tms country during the past 20 yean, and they 



haveyery greatly increased the inaTinfflK 

come of the country. They have startec 

important braBcAnes of industry, whscli hf 

attoined to colossal x>roportionB. I hat 

had occasion to go tim>ugh a large 

chemical manufactories in Lancashire, 'vi 

not visited for the past eleven years, « 

very much struck to find that the proce 

were in use at that time were still emp 

in exactly the same form, that, in i 

branches of manufacture had stood aln 

lutebr still ; the only new invention tha 

was beginning to be used was one for tb 

of sui]^ur from masses of alkali waste. 

vention, which is important both in < 

and sanitary respects, was made by a j 

man chemist, trained in the Polytechnic 

Cassel, I believe, but, at aU events, havin 

a scientific training in Germany. Tl 

think that science-training, imparted 

who are likely to become managers o1 

works, or proprietors of chemical works 

very highest importance to the natio! 

purchasing the inventions of foreigners, 

think that purchased inventions can, as 

effectively carried out in a manufactory 

manager is not himself a well-trained ma 

of introducing a new branch of manufac 

consequently, that the mere buymg ol 

right will not take the place effectively < 

ventive spirit in proprietors or managers 

cal works. A scientific invention must 

tifically applied, or else it will be almost 

fail— at au events, commercially. It is w 

that one of the great obstacles to success 

tion on the part of men of science who w 

manufactures, consists in their possibility 

their processes fairly carried out in the 

manumctories. If they themselves turn 

turers, there is little difficulty ; but at pre 

are no points of contact between the pui 

tific man and the purely mechanical wo 

the manufactory. There are many 

but they generally turn out fai 

much so, that if a new patent 

out nobody believes in it, and witl 

because the probability is that it is ^ 

Many of those attempts are prosecute 

teeth of scientific principles ; there is a er 

of thought and a great waste of time in thi 

in that direction. Many people who are 

out ability set themselves to solve a probl 

is obviously impossible under the condi 

insist upon the necessity of a general knoi 

the principles of chemistry preceding the 

tion of those principles. I should not ai 

teach the practice of any art or trade, ii 

laboratory or elsewhere, in connection wi1 

college, but I should give special courses ol 

tion upon those particular branches oi 

which bear upon the technical pursuits of 

afterwards. In the case of brewers, for 

it would be very desirable to develop, ii 

struction of those men, what has be^ di 

with regard to fermentation, the conditioi 

which it takes place, and the modificati(^ 

it undergoes horn various causes, thin| 

would be almost useless to general stnden 

all events, would lead to too much detaO ii 

instruction in science, but which would 



iOUKSAL OF THE fiOOIBTY OF ARTS, IToyviiBBE 29, 1672. 



27 




idsiUe fonen wlio were going into thai particular 

imk ^hm ue the directions in wluob applied 

iterwoflMbemost valuable to technical students. 

liioMtlbe mechanics and oheznistry of brew- 

1^, I ihoild Mszcely think that* it would be 

WtsUetogointoth«actaalpractioe of themazm- 

Mare; ftit would be Tery much more atiiokly 

md flSdesfly kanied in a brewery, to which i 

ibooM prasome the student would go on completing 

Hi i ngti u e ti o n in ihe college. Supposing there 

w t<n or twelTe different systems of machmery as 

^gfied to brewing, I consider it desirable that i^e 

•mal dxmld he made acquainted with those 

Wmad systams, also with those systems which 

Iminiied out to be failures ; in fact, any Imow- 

]|%eiriDdi can be imparted with greater effect in 

Mut-Tooms than in manufactories ought to be so 

lifsted. The pupils who enter my college 

JBBiSy oome amiost totally unprepared ; they 

an foite unacquainted with the elements of science 

■riYiSi tiie modes of thought, I might almost 

',«la^ are necessary in beginning me study of 

Oondng to me at 16 or 17 years of age, uieir 

education has been tolerably good as to 

and in a few cases as to mathematics it is 

; bntthe cases where it is good are rare. A 

of fteTazious scientific schools in the metro- 

yfa^icli are supported by the ffovemment would 

llwiiKiUve of a very consideraole advantage ; it 

%hiHaot only give to the united institution a 

tal aoBplfite staff of professors, but it would 

Jf^ ^ students to pursue their studies with 

fcloa of time, for the present students of the 

Jly cf (jbemistry have to go about a mile to the 

ikn of Practical GFeology in Jermyn-street, to 

iBotoreB on physics and xm other branches of 

i; tiiBt is a considerable loss of time. It 

k mnch better if their instruction could all 

in one building. But the other point, 

ibis establishment of a more complete staff 

saors, would be the main advantage that 

kndned by this fusion. 

daaaes in connection with the Science and 

on the wbole, have exercised a 

beneficial influence on the scientific 

of the country ; a large number of 

iBBoed tram the School of l^Ones, who 

to different parts of the country, 

Ittva formed centres around which a ^ood 

vf ooQatend science has subsequently been 

The evidence afforded in the examina- 

ii now just passed, shows that a great 

tf iKful instxnotdon is given in those pro- 

nisviilHiuebeforeMr. B. Samuelson's committee 
valuable information in connection 
tttinbjeet which cannot be referred to on 
asion* I cannot, however, omit to 
^^ fion to the evidence of the late Mr. 
•tefto the effect that some knowledge of 
^^gfci &ibe worktop should precede or be 
" IWBUUB with technical teachmg, and that 
Meolty is to find competent teachers, 
what South Ken^igton has done. 
Sdiool is naturally referred to 
lb history and success, as stated by 
fei late Canon Moseley, one of tl^ 
ift fte education of the people, is most 
imBs tlie spooial attmtion of 
iiialbia nuostton 
rXwmld refer to tlwialNnxn of the 



Science and Art Department of the Council of 
Education, which has done, and is doing, a great 
woik, as the recent report shows. With reference 
to the elementarv instruction to adults and l^e 
duldren of the middle classes, it has not reached 
the vounger portion of the artisan or the children 
of the weekly wage class. The report of Capt. 
Donnelly to Mr. Samuelson's committee culs 
especial attention to this subject. 

Its teaching is thus described by Mr. Coomber :— 
''We teach chemistry, organic and inorganic, 
theoretical and applied mechanics, and experi- 
mental physics, including electricity, mamensm, 
and heat; we do not teach acoustics and li^^> 
inasmuch as our pupils have no use for them. We 
also teach descriptive geometry, by which I mean 
the description of planes and solios, and apply it 
to the construction of maohinerf and buildinj^, and 
mathematics. We have not done that subject so 
thoroughly as we shall do it in the future, inas- 
much as our teaching adapts itself to the examina- 
tions of the Science and Art Department, and it is 
only just now that those examinations are beginning 
to take a really practical character ; previouuy th^ 
had been merely initiative.'* 

The character of technical instruction will vaiy 
with the locality, and to the careful appreciation of 
and action on tnis the success of the Bristol Trade 
School was mainly due. 

There exist in the great centres of industry, men 
now occupying the position of engineers, manageis, 
and foremen of establishments, well qualified to 
become teachers and instructors in their reOT)ective 
arts. On this point I can speak with confidence. 
Professional experience has, from time to time, 
made me acquainted with men who are essentially 
"experts " in their particular art, who, as witnesses, 
have shown their capacity and talent for teach- 
ing, by the power of giving evidence in litigated 
cases. This source of supply has not been con- 
sidered, but I believe a large number of already- 
trained teachers might be found, who, from their 
known character in the particular locality, would 
at once command a class, even without the certifi- , 
cate of the Council of Education, or of any other 
department. ^ ^ 

The payment of such persons out of public funds 
in the first instance, might be matter of arrange- 
ment, but I beHeve that payment by results would, 
in general, be sufficient as a supplement to payments 
by the pupils themselves. 

For file proper development of such a system 
technical examinations, or examinations in techno- 
logy are essential. , . -l t. 

And here I would venture to ask what has been 
done in furtherance of the object of the meeting 
held in this room in July last, presided over by 
Prince Arthur, and in wbicb tbe Lord ChanoeUor 
Hatherley and other eminent persons took part ? 

At that meeting an important suggortion wm 
made as to the part wbicb the City guilds might 
take in the movement. Their ^tiesas to appren- 
tices are still most beneficially exfiwrfsed, and I 
gladly take this opi)ortunity of calling attention 
to the suggestions then made m m«mbers of thote 
guilds as to the funds at their disposal for aflordbis 
most material assistanoe. 

The instruction of their ^^prentioea in, to m^ 
extent, under their oontrtj, ind ^ mmnbcn c< 
tbese old institutions may be rsnindM thai - " 
duties in the edncatioii of tbsir 



I 



28 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novbmbie 29, 1872. 



oliarged by >i»^n<1ifig them over to masters who may 
be indifferent to their advancement. The complaint 
before Mr. Samuelson's Committee of the want of 
instruction generally of apprentices is well deserv- 
ing the attention of these integral elements of the 
corporation of this great city. 

Reference should be made to the recent 
minute of the Science and Art Department, 
whereby persons are allowed to become teachers 
in evening classes up and down the country, who 
have passed the May examination, but have not 
passed any special teachers' examination, or received 
any special certificate for teadiing. This has been 
highly approved by persons of competent authority 
as a step in the right direction. The success of a 
man as a teacher — as remarked by Mr. Coomber • 
— 4oes not depend on the number of certificates he 
gets, but upon his work. If he makes his work 
tell, he gets pupils, and if he does not, all the cer- 
tificates in the world will not bring him any. 

This, so to speak, free-trade in teaching appears 
deserving the attention of our educational authori- 
ties, and, if accompanied by a system of examina- 
tions in technology, and by payment by results, 
may become a mighty engine in the technical edu- 
cation of the people. 

The following extract from the evidence of Mr. 
Buckmastert is specially deserving of consideration 
in connection with the subject. He says: — **I 
think we ought, if possible, to give more attention 
to the teaching power of those engaged in giving 
instruction, for it is not always the man who has 
passed the best examination in scienoe that is the 
most successful teacher, and if he should fail in 
teaching, from want of ability to communicate his 
knowledge, it is exceedingly difficult to re-or^mise 
a class vmen it has once been discontinued. It has 
occurred to me that we might in some way attach 
more importance to the man being able to commu- 
nicate wnat he knows, by granting him a teacher's 
certificate independently of his having passed an 
examination in science. I think, before a man 
undertook the instruction of a class, he should give 
a lesson in the subject which he proposes to teach 
before some person who is compet^t to form a 
judgment on nis teaching power and manipulation, 
because experiments frequently form a very im- 
portant part of the instruction. Again, * * teachers 
should go to some model school, for the purpose of 
learning to teach and experiment. There would be 
no necessity for that in the case of men who had 
already passed an examination as elementary 
teachers, because there you have a guarantee, but 
with the others you have no guarantee. 

" If it were understood that men would be 
examined as to their power of teaching before 
receiving payments, they would make it part of 
their business to become good teachers, and you 
would have more efficiency. Although there might 
be a falling off for a time, I thiim that in the 
long run there would be a recovery whidi would 
compensate for it, and there would also be an 
enthusiasm upon the part of pupils, which no man 
can create unless he knows how teach." 

The testimony of Professor Clifton, supported by 
others of high authority, leads to the conclusion 
that the instruction in arithmetic is generally of 



• Evidence, 28th May, 1868, before Committee on Bdeatiflc In- 
ttniotlon. 

t AM,artJolx,iei8. 



the most elementary and imperfect kind. 
instruction in the whole of arithmetic 
what is beyond many minds, and coc 
opinion that far too much is attempted^ 
algebra and higher geometry should take 
of a large portion of the teaching of a 
all which, however, is wholly unnecesi 
foundation for technical education. 

The same high authority confirms 
opinion, formed on long experience at 
versity of Cambridge more than thirty i 
viz., that it is not expedient to attem] 
cal instruction by the ordinary teacher 
fessors. It was my good fortune in ea 
hear the lectures of the late Professor Fs 
ahnost forgotten, and of whose system 
aware of existing record.* He possessed 
qualification of a combination of the hi^bc 
matical attainments with practical scie 
lectures were an exposition of principles, i 
by their practical application in the 
manufactures of the country. With th 
skilled assistant, operations and proce 
carried on before your eyes by means of 
actual machines, consfructed out of 
adapted for the purpose, on a com^ 
system of mechani(»l construction. 

Lectures at the universities will, of 
and most properly, be mainly directed 
mathematical theory — not, indeed, to tl 
sion of experiments, but to the exdusio 
technical knowledge which is essential to 
education. It is, I conceive, essential 
special functions in education that ti 
should be directed to instruction in th 
matical, physical, and natural sciences, le 
applications of these sciences to subject 
trskding or professional in other hands. The 
of course, possess collections of appar 
laboratories of every description, in whi 
the aid of skilled professors, students ni 
sue the applications of prindples, but pi 
or trades, as such, cannot be &ught or le 
with effect, t 

The art of lecturing, so as to secure the 
and attendance of an adequate audience, 
gift, which, though it cannot be acquired 
much improved by practice. 

The Society for the Diffusion of Usefu 
ledge published a '* Manual of Lect 
Mechanics' Institutes," also a series of '* 
Diagrams of Machinery," and took the 
in providing a series of models for lectui 
structed somewhat on the system ado 
Professor Parish, already referred to ; bul 
couragement was not adequate to justify 
on the part of a society having no public fx 
dependmg on the subscriptions of a few 
men, and self-supporting. The authority 
Science and Art Department would do 
follow out some such system in aid of led 
theprovinces. 

The neglect of drawing, at the earliest 
the use of a pencil by a child, may be regai 
great defect m our system of teaching, w 
educational authorities have done much to 



• Any person who ooold inpply thU woqM itndfr tant 
to teaching. 

f See erideooe of ProfeMor Clifton upon Committee (» 
InitTDoUoo, iMfa Hay, 18ft. 



MfTRNAL OF THE aOCKSTT «F ABVS, MotrnsBv Sf, 187a. 



ea 




be mggeBled why « ohild skuidd 
lOBotriosl ind awobunioal dgaw^ 
!■ CTtwyinnn niinly with iBmadag to wnte ? 
mmi,m9mm,miihiM-ihB powser^ baadJiag ^ 
fH AidiioipKnn of fanmiiiig' ta draw wodUi be 

Se^pl to oe dkcipline of learaiair to wnte. 
—t eftte wm^ fiat elBmeniwy knowiedge 
■dedtfod bf oon^^etent iwthority to be a great 
luoertoiberaooessofaitisaa stadeots. 

&« Sileei Committee of the House of Cominoiis 
MiSoeotifio iBftraetiooi reoommend in their report 
ftit bittiQcAm in drawing should be given in 
aohools. The dinepurd of such 
iastnictioii as a braaoh of general 
ii nupnaing. Drawing is a naiyeraal 
laym; it is easier of aoquirenient than writing. 
%«»ve of a mler, pencil, aadoon^asses, a cbild 
Mf bfcome self -educated, and acquire a handicraft 
tf ewntial service in after life. 

13ie exclusion of drawing and geometry from the 
■ftjedi of examination by the Coun^ of this 
bae^ou tbe recent revision of the subjects of local 
^lam^uja, is, in my <^)inion, greatly to be 
giMed. Eaoooragement in this acquirement 
iBttku be given to those who can never attain 
pikMoly either in reading, writing, or azithmetio; 
M^ om tdl what ii»y be the aid to devetop- 
Mi iffoby afforded to the natural bom talent 

IM noQ Hnear drawing and geometry as the 
l^lAuIstion of instruction, and as affording, at 
ifli^dtvBDoed stage, the means of separating and 
pi^yar minds into orders or classes, so as to 
^fai«a to the utmost, aocording to the powers 
l>il«ii^ it is endowed, 
btbnatedal world, the subdivision of lab<Mir 
to the atmost practioable limit, but it does 
ippnr to have entered into the oonsideration 
of edoootion^iBts that the mentid world 
of a nnilar subdivision. 

as regards free-hand and mechanical 
nay serve to illustrate my meaning. It 
to be difBoult to draw the line of division 
art and science in the fine arts. The kno w- 
^^ of the human figure, that is, of the bones and 
py a^ is said to be pore soienoe, but the 
tai^ then is matter of art, whieh may be 
with great effect without any knowledge 
which is, however, essential to a 
1^— — art. The practioe of the Sdenoe and 
pPy rtment further illustrates Ihis, in which, 
P*&| to the evidence of Mr. Cole,* a certificate 
pj* hig^iest grade of our art-teachers compre- 
F**ia alffity to teach practioal geometry so far 
panwB^gjf ooncemed, but it is optional that a 
soqnalified shonld take a special certificate 
drawing, which includes drawing 
•8 well aa drawing for caipentry and 
Moretjiildren in parish schools, aooording 
Mgh authority, take the earliest oerti*- 



iwing than in what is called 

■d tewii^; the mAmg a triangle or an 

m^kamoalfy is easier than drawing it with 

The same authority, after illustrating 

from our art schools the course of 

AilL Schneider's school at Creuzot, of 

^^awing; that is, without measurement 

iar drawing, and mechanical draw- 

mIoUowb:— ''The bust ia, thai a 




« Sticnflfle lailncttai,90tii Apifl, I86a 



man who ia no artist bumt veiy socm aofuiie thv 
power of doiw drawing whieh is done hf maasoro^ 
BBLNit, and which does not involve dexterity of 
hand; he -wQL gpiad away for a year or two to ba 
able to do that; but the moment you come to 
somethinff that implies an instinct in art, th^ 
number of those who have that aptitude is vei): 
much Induced.'' 

'' The ohild is father of the man." Why should 
not the detection of this aptitude or inap^tade be 
made at the earliest stage <^ eduoationP One school 
was referred to by the same authority as eiristing 
in this country in whioh this was done, that is, 
beginning with A, B, C, and'going on with read- 
ing, writing, and arithmetic ; why, I would ask, 
should not such elementary instruction in drawinff 
go on oontempozaneou^y or simultBaeously wiw 
the ordinary Momentary instructi<Mi ? 

The establishment and maintenanoe of museuiui 
of inventions, or of the industrial arts, in the 
principal towns, would contribute mxtc^ to the 
oause of technical eduoation. The feeling in lavovr 
of such museums is shown by their existence in an 
imperfect form in many of our prina^>al towns, 
and by the spasmodic attempts from time to tune 
made for their estaldLshment. 

One main cause of the failure, or imperfcnt «6^ 
complishment of these well-designed attempts has 
been the want of system and connection witii the 
education of the country. This subject has received 
liitleattention, but is thus spokxm of by Mr. Wright: 
— '* The only ^art. of the report of the Schools 
Enquiry Commission which has not been favourably 
reoeiwad in Birmingham is, that the Commissionen 
do not recommend any portion of the funda to be 
Implied to mere elem^itary teaching* Qenerally, 
the inhabitants are in favour of some portion of it 
being a^>lied to elementary education. As iar aa 
I can gather, I should say thai we are generally 
in favour of having a museum on an efficient and 
comprehensive scale. We think that it would^ be of 
great use, and* we think that if the govenunent 
were to supply us with the latest and most apiiroved 
scientific instruments, and send some of Hw aUest 
professors as lectiuers, to stimulate our pe(^e, 
and if they would ^so employ some one m con- 
nection with the metal trades to give information 
with regard to new disooveries om the Continent 
and in oiffei^it p^rts of the world, that would be 
of tiie groatest possible use. Such lectures very 
much help the trade of Birmingham, and not only 
would help the txade of Birmingham, but they 
would be a national good. For instanoe, if an 
eminent teacher like Dr. Percy were sent down to 
give a series of lectures on the laws of combustion, 
or on metallurgy generally, we think it would be 
veiy useful." 

GQie Pateot-offioe Museum at South Kensington 
of tiie Commissioners of Patents, founded on 
models principally collected by or the property 
ol Mr. Bonnet Woodcroft, may be pointed 
to as a type of the establishments which are ro» 
quired. This museum is sot only wholly in« 
adequate for the porpoee, but it is starved amidrt 
abundant funds avuhible for the purpose. ^* 
teresting and instmotrre maefaines and modds wte 
witiih^ for went of adequate room, though 
roxmded with unoccnpied_ space available 
saitabtefor the 
tiieoaamgeof 
the progress of the natin a , as, for 




80 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIBTT OF ABTS, N<mniBU 29, 1872. 



Kewoomen steam engine, oonstmcted by Smeaton 
in 1766, and nine years ^rior to Watt, for the 
Garron Company, and which, at the instance of 
Sir Francis Pettit Smith, the curator of the musenm, 
was presented by the Carron Company for preser- 
vation in the museum of the Commissioners of 
Patents. 

The starved and neglected state of this museum 
has been the subject of frequent observation. Its 
history was recounted before the Boyal Commission 
on Patents ; it was the subject of inquiry in 1864, 
by the Select Committee of the House of Commons, 
presided over by Mr. DiUwyn, and recommended 
as a legitimate application of the surplus of the 
fees levied on inventors ; and again m 1871 and 
1872, by the Committee presided over by Mr. 
Samuelson, when it transput that the so-called 
reading-room was actually not screened off from 
the public part of the museimi, and denied the 
warmth necessary, not only for the comfort, but 
the existence of the readers in severe weather, and 
this in the face of an accumulated surplus, during 
the last twenty years, of nearly a million of the 
monies of inventors, and of an annual surplus of 
£60,000 a year available for the purpose. 

The existence of such a state of things is almost 
incredible— urgent requirements, ample funds, 
and nothing done. ' 

Inventors, like teachers, the greatest benefactors 
of mankind, if not a despised class, have received 
but little recognition of services or funds. 
The apathv, not to say indifference and oppo- 
sition, of those who are placed above the neces- 
sities of life, can only he successfully overcome 
by the exertions of a Society like this. Its 
voice has been raised effectively on many occa- 
sions, and must not be silenced untu some 
paternal government has not only recognised, but 
shown its recoffnition by acting on the axiom, 
that technical eaucation is essential to industrial 
progress* 

The Earl Granville, at i^e annual celebration of 
the 101st year of the existence of this Society, at 
the Cryvtal Palace (the suspension of which cele- 
bration, in common with many others, I deeply 
regret) compared this Society to the Zouaves, as 
ready to go mto action without knowing how they 
were to get out of it — as a body full of resource. 
The noble Earl then pointed to a museum of in- 
dustrial arts as naturally arising out of the Exhi- 
bition of 1851, of which it must never be forgotten 
that this Society was the parent. 

The m|>irit by which those observations were 
animated still subsists amongst us. With the view of 
deriving some practical conclusion from the fore- 
going, I would suggest as follows : — 

1. Aid, assistance, and encouragement, by appa- 
ratus, drawings, and money to en)erts, in any de- 
partment of the industrial arts, to become lecturers 
and teachers in the loccJity in which they are 
placed. 

2. Local examinations in technology, certificates 
and money prizes for proficiency, and payments on 
results. 

3. Theestablishmentandmaintenanoeofmuseums 
of industrial arts, for the education of the people in 
technical knowledge. 

4. Authority to municipal corporations and local 
boards to expend money raised by rates in supple- 
menting the foregoing objects. 



The experience of many present 
other experiments in furtherance of 
objects. ' The Society of Arts cannot 
itself of the duties and responsibility of I 
in connection with technical education y| 
thing effective has been done ; and so 8 
country has been aroused on the subject, 
in the work will not be wanting. 

The voice of the earnest men who, in 
session, obtained a grant of twenty millu 
extinction of slavery and the first grant f c 
education, has been responded to by the 
the declaration of the jLegislature that e 
bom into the world is entitled to, and 
ceive, primary education ; but the tedu 
cation essential to its advancement has 
secured by wise practical measures, f ostei 
Society. 

DISCUSSION. 

Dr. Teats said the question of general cultui 
been discoased, but that of speoal culture, o 
educatioD, seldom, or not so often, at any rate 
portanoe warranted. One bearing of tet^nica 
was this, that it raised the whole working pc 
nation. It had been said that it would i 
triumph to the political economist if he coii 
every consumer into a producer, and that the 
triumph would be to increase each producer's 
power. The advocate of technical educatioi] 
would go considerably beyond this. Erery pe 
what a difference it made in the managei 
family when each one was fully interested in 
own occupation, and the same principle might 
into the workshop. Anv proprietor or mai 
ftiotory could say what a difierenoe it made in 
Uon of those under his control, mental, n 
physical, when they were directly interested 
tiiey were abonti as compared with men 
only instruments, watchers of instruments, 
of machinerv, and who, under the system 
division of labour, had no Intimate occu] 
the whole of their being. They might 1 
eyes constantly occupied, but neither the 
hands, or heitfts were fully employed, 
of tedmical education were not merely prom 
means of gaining a livelihood, but, f&r more 
they were endeavouring to aid the workman 
living^-mentally, morally, and physically — an( 
of no greater want in the present age. In 
danger of neglecting it became more apparent < 
O&^itidists were becoming the possessors of i 
which superseded the men who, 20 or 30 years a 
make ana keep in order the instruments with v 
wroaght, and in making their tools they ma 
selves. The machinist of the last generatio 
keep his own tools sharpened and tempered, be 
modem establishments, all that was done for 
as a consequence, the men being set simply 
pieces of machinery, became indlffsrent tp i 
human beings, they greatly deteriorated. Onl] 
the foreman of a large concern told him it wai 
ful the difFerence between the men of the pr 
and those of thirty years ago ; only a short 
viously, a man had come to him saying that a 
latiie, worth £400 or £600, was spoiled and bro 
on investigation, it appeared that the man ] 
put to work at this lathe from one exactly a 
principle, but differing slightly in detail, and 
forgotten or omitted to put one of the leading ^ 
gear, he fancied the lathe was out of order, 
system of apprenticeship was being set aside, a 
was no substitute for it, which he considered wai 
pitjr, especially as there was an immeueamoant 
to be duM^ if men only knew how to srt about 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOlETT OP ABTS, Notubbb 39, 1873. 



31 



adMBB\ m 9ftKj nHwmj there wee aa immense waete 
Ufmtmthtf^Boeniioaoitketm^ in the transmission of 
thsteB (0 the pomt where it was utilised, in the loss 
of MfiuD the wisie steam, and in the imperfect con- 
^netiaB of the engines ; heeides all whicl^ there was 
tt issMHe tmoant of dead weight carried, amoonting 
to fiaethiog like two or three tons for everj passenger. 
If OSS or all of these things were altered, great re- 
daetioa in fires might he eoeoted, but not without. 
TVbb things were all well known, but no one 
bdv bow to mnedy them, nor where to go for 
tifcifmiti<in M to what had been attempted, what 
ki tukd, what it was no use attempting, and in 
T^ dhectioii efforts might most usefully be di- 
Rttid. And he saw no possibility of improvement 
gaul f^ihliihTnents were set on foot m which the first 
priscipki were thoroughly taught. Tears ago he read 
» liit of premiuffls offend by the Society of Xrts for de- 
ni«nta in neariy every branch of manufacture, but he 
*u cot iwire that many of them had been applied for. 
i^j»i of times he had heard the desirability of a good 
■liititate for the present pen and ink pomted out — 
noflthiog which should be available at all times, and in 
ttj ehMte, hot ss yet nothing had come of it During 
Ike Kfi of fmMt a number of French tavant were called 
tofdhff to deliberate as to some means of overcoming 
fta difcdti«e nnder which the population were labour- 
be, eipidaUy in the matter of food and fuel ; but 
ttiaeot tt axne of these men were in various branches 
ef nMsibk, they had to ooniiBSs their incompetence to 
■Ml with Ilia Amplest and most practical points, never 
MTi^tsned their attention to them. Now that was 
^ymwu wanted, especially in England, without 
^vtiog ftr the p o s smo or a siege. Faolities were re- 
^ired kr tite diffbsbn of knowledge already gained, but 
*|*tidb the great mass of working men were in total 
VBVBoe. the Patent-office had been referred to, but 
■Maedtohimto be tieated by inventors very much 
M tkt Qiort of Choicer^ was by owners of real property 
^jj itstohe avoided if possible. Any one with money 
MtpstmtsaythiDg, bat he ooIt was suocessftil whio 
"* ft > power of purchasing all before him, unless, 
^■ihe were strong and onprindpled enough to over- 
Mi WMTthiag end everybody. 



^,— , o to a referenoe in thepi^perto 

*Q ^ idlds, said he was sorry to find they were not 
9|MBa^ ss they might to aid technical education. 
mniBigo, in the uuildhall, he got a resolution 
^i^inommending the then Lord Mayor to take the 
*4i aCo consideration ; and similar resolutions had 
~p td lince, but hiUierto nothing had oome of it, 
2|°^Ibmi were entertained that something might be 
^'M we present Lord Mayor. His predecessor 
"" tofether a number of representatives from the 
liilds, and various meetings were held i^ the 
^■boQBB, but he believed no definite conclusion 
^'ABe to, though something might be done with 

k ^u^^S^'^'^^'*^ which had about £10,000 a-year at 
■ «YQ«1 ; and if the Mercers' Company, who had 
""■osgeoieBt of it, and who were represented at the 
^|Bt Goalraioe on this subject in the summer, would 
■ntheaslterin hand, and turn, the College into an 
■^^^n lor terhni<ml education — perhaps in a 
■■«* l ofi Uty h e thought it would be a great 
^^ to the community. He did not agree with Mr. 
"wstttj^thst rdianoe should be placed in the old 
Pj^j^ and colleges taking this matter up, but 
pv to the opinion expressed by Mr. Scott Bnssell, 
Mt a wc h pboes classics and mathematics would 
^*Mew and dwarf the teaching of the natural 



p»* one principal point had been to a 

^ yfaiit o verlooked, via., the importance of having 
P* ^**f« * His n^ive boontry alEorded a good ex- 
^^-'-^ al^ be done to overcome diffloolties. 
' wcin affo to eiAahlish a ■ftiuv^i foi* 



technical education in Gk)thenburg, there being then no 
available establishment in Germany ; the future teachers 
sent to the Eoole Pol^rteclmique, m Paris, where, being 
— men who had received a university education — were 
supported by their own f;ovemment, they learned those 
branches of science which it was desiied to teach in 
(Germany. As soon as theyhad acquired a thorough know- 
ledge of these, the ^vemment established a school on 
the model of the Polytechnique at Stuttgard, and this was 
the focus of technical education in Germany. In con- 
nection with this was estabUshed a system^ extending to 
the very lowest grade, so that every child, from the 
lowest to the highest, might partake of its advantages. 
Instead of connecting this school with the University of 
Tubingen, the government thought it better to give it 
the atation of a universitv, so that its professors ranked 
equally with those of Tdbingen. One of the airangements 
was that each department was divided into two grades, 
upper, and lower, and provision was made for educat- 
ing teachers. This was of prime importanoe— for until 
teachers were raised in public estimation and received 
better pay, systems of examination and everything else 
would be of very little use. It seemed to him that 
beginning with examinations was commencing at the 
wrong end ; some knowledge ought to be put into the 
children's heads before they were examined. And ha 
must say that, in his opinion, the middle classes required 
assistance of this kind as much, if not more, than the 
lower. It was absurd for employers of labour to be less 
educated than the men under them, yet it was really 
this class of persons — managers and so on— which, he 
believed, was most backward in technical education, 
when they were compared with persons holding the same 
positions abroad. 

Mr. W. Botly, from his personal knowledge of manu- 
factures, was able to corrolx>rate what had been so well 
said by Dr. Teats jss to the difference between the me- 
chanics of the present day and their predecessors. Iik 
the cutlery trade it was formerly the practice for one man 
to conduct the entire manufacture ; forge the blade, file 
it, harden and temper it, grind it, glaze and polish it^ 
and finally fit it to the handle ; now every process was a 
separate branch, and no man oould do anything but that 
to which he had been ao o nst o med. 

Mr. Edward Hall hedged leave to direct attention to 
the importance of enlisting the oo-operation of trades 
unions in the matter of technical education. It waa 
w^ known that these bodies intended to ke^ up the 
standard oi wages, and that, of course, involved tha 
necessity of keying up the standard of work. Henca 
they ought to be most active promoters of the education 
of other members in their various crafts. At any rate, 
in connection with each trade there ought to be a system 
of education, or, at least, a jnuseum containing specimen* 
of everything relating to the knowledge of the craft* 
Another important means of technical education would 
be, he believed, visits to works in progress. He had 
initiated something of this sort a few years ago in con- 
nection with engineering and building works in which 
he was most interested, and from the success which had 
attended his efforts he was convinced that much more 
might be done in the same way. 

Xi^ Doimelly, B.E., in answer to the question of Mr. 
Webster as to what the Society of Arts was doing in 
this matter, said that arrangements were being made 
for examinations to be held next May in four or five 
different branches of industry — in the manu&cture of 
paper, of cotton, of silk, of steel, and in carriage-build- 
ing. The Society would provide funds for the exami- 
nations, but of course it must depend mainly on the 
different industries interested as to what development 
these examinations would take, for unless they came 
forward and gave prizes, it cooJd not be expected that 
any great number of persons would offer themselves 
for examination. He was much obliged for the sug- 
'geftion of Gresham OoUage as a sooroe from whidli 



r 3p 



JQjCWNAI* as TBE 



09 ABX8, HomosK 39, S83q 



i 



tanda might be denvfid^ and aagr fiuther MgaettioBi 
of the same land woold be Teiy accaptaUe. Heocrald 
not aee the force of the objeetioa tiuit they ipeie be- 
ginning at the wrong end, considering that thece were 
flo many organiaations now at wqtk thxoaghout the 
country by means of which <^«A*iii*iJ Inatruction ooald 
be attained. With segaxd to ----- 



_^ _, the Sdanoe and. 

Art Department did attempt, and in'Mme dMprwe siic- 
oemfoUy, to introdooe it into elementary tchoola, though 
ho hoped more would yet be done in the same direction. 
He bSieved the main point to be aimed at waa to induce 
different guilda and trading^ companiea to place money 
at the dispoeal of the Society for the bui^hnm of re- 
warding sttcceflffid students, for by that means an 
immense, iomiediate, and practical stimulua would be 
given to technical instruction, and there was no need 
to wait for any large system beii^ introduced before 
■setting to work. 

9r, Bllis said there were tiiree principal points which 
flhould be kept in Tiew in considering this matter. First 
atitii every man who had distinguiriied himself, possessed 
a natural talent, which talent could not be created, 
though it might be discovered and cultivated. There- 
fbre setting young people to work at anything for which 
-^ey had no aptitude, was as bad as teaching music to a 
person whose organs of hearing were defective, and in- 
Tolved an enormous waste botii of time and money. 
Secondly, tliat children should not be set to study matters 
for which they had neither taste nor capacity. Thirdly, 
it was of great importance to discover in what direction 
a child's telent lay, and this could always be done by the 
watchful eye, ottin in the hours of recreation. After all, 
4UI had been well said, one of the greatest difficulties was 
to find persons with a capacity for teaching. 

Professor TMrntat remarked that the action now being 
taken by the City companies in this matter was merely 
a revival, for one of them had been fighting this battle 
fbr the last 20 years, though they were only now accom- 
plishing the object they nad in view. The Turners* 
'Company, of which he was a member, had taken a pro- 
minent^art recently in recognising technical educa- 
tion. Tne Museum of Patents having been mentioned, 
he might say that, on visiting it recently with some 
friends from the country, they had occasion to lament 
^ absence of anr catakgne giving a description of the 
•articles exhibited; and w& x«gard to museums 
.generally, he had been much struck only that morning, 
on visiting the British Museum, with the fact that its 
.great eduoational advantages were so little appreciated 
by the pnfalio. In the mineral department he counted 
twenty people, tiiongh it would hotd 600 without inoon- 
Tenienoe ; whilst in another portion of the building, 
equsJly commodious, there were only fifteen. Yet than 
wasj^no difficulty in ^piining access. Some years ago the 
^Socoety for Promotmg Ohristian Knowledge took a 
prominent part in promoting technical education by 
publishing a series of maps. They were, however, very 
little known, and had recently been given up. It so 
haf^>ened, however, that, having shown them to the 
late Mr. Stephenson, he waa so pleased with them that 
he left the Society £2,000, which considerably more than 
•covered their cost. A sinall case, which he had plaoed 
on the table, illustrated another branch of the subject, 
Tiz., the importance of a knowledge of mineralogy. 
During the last twenty years many things had beim 
thrown away which were commercially of the greatest 
ydue. The first description of the gold-fields of 
Australia was given in this room some twcua^y-two yean 
a^o, and only four yeara sincethe first description of the 
diamond fields of South Africa. Interested persons said 
that diamonds did not exist there, that when they were 
found they wera of no value ; and the most recent para- 
graph going the round was that no more were to be 
found. Well, in the case on the table was a apeoimen 
of a South African diamond in the matrix; b^ its side 
vas a photograph of the dig^pings, taban withui iix» last 



fov months, wheva there wove 60,000 1 
and soBM of thadiamondsdisceveoad wii 
a piece. The person who took the phi 
o w« stated that he had found diamoai 
i^istaniMt of 200 nules; he still continnfA^ 
there waa every probahilify that ihej ^ 
miles fiirther. i 

Hm flteratary said, in reforenoe to m 
City companies in this matter, he was i 
would be pleased to learn that the OM 
pany had, in ap|»recisition of the woric i 
now entering upon, intimated tiieir h 
tributing to tiie fiinda of the Soda 
annually. 

Mr. George Martin said the art of teaif 
important subject. Having been for tl 
engaged in teaching teachers, he had hai 
able experience in Uie matter. He shoulc 
if the Society would take up this ques^ 
smidl a way, though, unfortunately, the 
was seldom to be acquired, being gene 
the teacher, as poetry was with the poe 
time, an indifferent teacher might be i 
and he should like attention to be called 
the London and other school boards enti 
art of teaching, depending entirely up( 
of the mastor or mistress. However, i 
man or woman who obtained the hi^ 
proved themselves the very worst of tea 
of teaching, therefore, should be more 
couraged, and studied, and govemmei 
appointments according to the result of e 
not according to the certificate of the mi 
Kreat pity that so many men and worn 
able to engage in this work, should be 1 
ployment, and only oertificaied persons e 

Tha Chairman said it waa impossible 
importance of the subject, and all must 
debted to Mr. Webster for the v«ry ci 
which he had dealt with it, aa well as to 
who had taken part in the disoomion. 
him during the disoosston, as it always 
subject was mooted, that two of the gre 
the way of success were, first of all obtai 
amount of funds, and the next a suffit* 
skilled and quaHfled teachers. One of tl 
suggestions was that just made, that 
should be directed to those who had 
teaching than to tiiose who were greal 
means of the scientific knowled^ which 
Mr. Martin, however, was not quito correc 
to the course adopted by the Science a 
ment of the Privy Council. In the cast 
schools, it was no doubt true that certi 
only were taken for public instruction, 
report for 1872 he found it mentioned that 
teachen in connection with tbeScience and 
on results, which was the great test of sue 
for instruction of artisan cmseee during 18 
£18,830. It was obvious therefore that t 
in that direction had been in accordance 
doubt was the opinion of all present, 
state of afBun it seemed that f£e Privy < 
principal body to which everyone lookc 
motion of the education of the x>eople. 
hdp thinking however that that bod^ 
common expression, for two many irons i 
the cattie plague and numerous other ' 
ferred to this body, and there seemed a 1 
upon it all sorts of additional duties. He 
fore that the time was come when there 
En^and a ministsr of pnbUo instruction, 
in franoe and elsewhere. Looking t 
importance of education, and the various i 
it ramefied, not merely the mental but 
option in TflpioBi ^ n nff fHiw> andflnssn goi 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOOlETT OP ARTS, Novembbr 29, 1872. 



8S 



a im mtMj thne that there waa » reaponsible 

noiAe ish u he had referred to. However, in 

thi limn of such a miniBter, it vaa ri^t to 

Ml tld the Friry Council was doing a 

p^iml to promote teaching in acience and art, for 

«l qbIj bid they raiaed the Urp;e emn of nearly 

HtfiWi for Rfoha in teaching artiaans, but they had 

rtpraent nnkr their control 908 ichools in the adenoe 

hfutani, edacattng 38,000 atudenta. Of oonne that 

w BoCking at all in proportion to what the oonntry 

aqnnd, bi^ thaie matters were supported by public 

^iBti, tad efcryooe knew tiie difficulty in these days 

STcaaoBy in getting large sums of mona^ Toted for 

■TtfaiBf like aew purposes. At the same time, though 

hriiuBat oogfat to be the proper guardian of the 

m^ paiM, when a aohject of this great national 

mpataaMi wbich would amplT repay any expenditure 

■nmi etas befote it, he thought it was not wise 

momy^ or prudent parsimony, to grudge a Tote for 

mA fvpoMt. In 1871 only £176,000 was roted for 

ttiMJcet, whidi might seem a large sum, but, in pro- 

|Btioe to vhit was required, it was by far two smalL 

I7i >IIO if thit was eipended in schools of science and 

■t a emsMtioa with the Privy Council, leaving the 

■vpi Id Iw expended for other purpoees, such aa the 

fauigi fla H UMom. He had only mentioned aa yet 

AtsMibercfitadents in the science department, but 

dU totlat WIS the art department, which waa also of 

■aadotUt inportuioe, and he found that for 1871 

Am w«t Sliooo students under that department 

Ae iBoaBt of Isea paid being upwards of £23,000. 

ll ewqnUtnw. as had been aaid by Mr. Webster, that 

^ o^^of tedhaiical educatioci might become a branch 

tf tbo f i wiaij education of the country, and he did 

*rt M hew tbe ochoola oould be maintaineil unless they 

*»• m to tome extent, on the same footing aa the 

j'wliij education of the oountrv, viz., that there 

■■■UW School Boards or some local bodiea to superin- 

W ika. with the power of imposing rates for their 

gp^^t was not, perhaps, borne in mind that in the 

■Mtny Edncation Act of 1870, there was a clause 

y fcjhg Sc hool Boards to contribute to the maintenance 

« Uicrial ichools whenever necessary. If these 

ndiooli were so important a bianch of ele- 

odueation, and this were one of the means by 

_^ wy could be supported, it would be most desirable 

7*fco dy in any amendment of the Act, a clause and a 

Mtdja lintiuu, enabling School Boarda throughout 

2**^^ to contribute to the maintenance of schools 

y ^"fafail edocstion. In the meantime, however, 

|h yj»i hnoet dependent on voluntary effort, which 

^lUy been found in the case of elementary eduoa- 

■•bk anything but sufficient. A system of rating 

j*liwsfemd neoesaary, and no doubt the aame thing 

y^ ba^ to be done for technical education. The 

fc^rf Aits had done, snd was doing, much in this 

**tioa^ttd this was, of course, voluntary ; and ao, to 

*P*it citmt, was that which waa done by the Privy 

^ool He was glad also to find that aome of 

^•••llby eorpomtions in tiie City of London were 

21^ the aeoeasity of appljring a part of their 

gM t o umnar purposes. In the report of the Privy 

^■don this subject, the Plasterers' Company was 

•■"••d at having given prises to succeasful competi- 

P^v the arta connected with the embellishment of 

J"^^ nd the Paper Stainers had done the same, and 

»ft»OnafhmsVeTs* Company. The Society of Arts, 





*2*Bnir hid slready stimulated aome of these bodies 
y^ i^tniing in a way which was in reality only a 
to the original design of their originatora. 
vthuble obaervation of Mr. Webster's was that 
■ exhibiting inventions and models of machinery 
^■■ittportanoe as an educational means; and so 
yjw«i if properiy manag«^ but he must aay that 
* y^ llu se nm at South KensiDgton was a disgrace 
^y*w»try>aad to those, whoever they were, who 
far Hi eooditko, lor it was praotioally 



useless. Allusion had already been made to the want of 
a catalogue, but even if that were supplied it would be 
almost impossible to get at and examine anything you 
wanted, owing to the way in which the various models 
were huddled together. The American Patent Museum 
formed a striking contrast to this, being one of the most 
splendid establishments in the country. Now, it so hap- 
pened that the Commissioners of Patents — ^the Lord 
Chancellor, the Master of the Bolls, and the two law 
officers of the Crown for the time being — ^had year by 
year, from 1859 down to 1872, drawn attention to tiro 
aefective state of the Patent Museum, and the necessity 
for improving it Jn fact, the report for 1872 quoted a 
paragraph nom that of 1859, stating the objects 
and uses of such a museum, and saying that 
the Committee were in postession of a large number 
of valuable models which remained in theis 
cases simply because room could not be found for 
them at South Kenaington. It was, therefore, evident 
that Parliament, in voting the civil service estimates, 
ought to allot a sum of money for the purpose of placing 
this institution in a proper condition, especially when it 
appeared that the aggregate surplus of fees paid by 
inventors over the expenses of the ratent-office amounted, 
from 1859 to the end of 1871, to nearly a million steriing, 
that for 1871 alone being upwarda of £70,000. Tet, in 
£aoe of this, he read in the newspapers of that date that 
the Attomey-Oeneral told a deputation from Liverpool, 
which recently waited upon him, that he and the other 
officers of the Patent Department had applied to the 
Chancellor of the Exchequer for a sum of about £120 
for the purpose of the Museum, and even that waa 
refused. He did not sav that there was no reason for tha 
refusal, red tape or otherwise, but it certainly looked 
rather extraordinarv. He concluded by proposing a vote 
of thanks to Mr. Webster for his valuable paper. 

The vote having been passed, 

Mr. Webster, in repl^, said there was every reason to 
hope that the universities were beginning to reooffnise 
the natural sciences at their true value. Trinity College, 
Cambridge, for instance, had recently elected tw» 
fellows for their attainments in this branch of know- 
lowdg^e. He agreed with Mr. Mast, that beginning 
technical education with examinations was not the 
proper and natural method, and in a new country he 
should advocate beginning with instruction ; but they 
must take into account exisiting drcumstanoes, and he^ 
believed that a good system of examinations would in 
this country, and at the present day, really encourage 
and advance technical education. He also agreed that 
the trades' unions might greatly aid in the work, if 
they would adopt the principle that a man should be 
paid according to his sloll, and on no other system. 

Mr. Hyde Olarke writes :— ** As time did not allow a 
fuller discussion of the important subject, I beg to offer 
a few observations with regard to the history of this 
subject The invention of technical education in France 
was greatly owing to the wants of the revolutionary 
wars, which prompted the formation of the Polytechnia 
Institutions and the establishment of other measures. 
The public efforts for technical education can scarcely 
be limited to 1853, as already in 1836 it was fully recog- 
nised in the agitation and the Parliamentary B^rt on 
which were founded the schools of design, as the pre- 
liminary step to the full course of instruction afterwards 
resumed in 1853. Technical education alone is not 
sufficient to account for the competition of the Swiss^ 
because this must be attributed partly to the employment 
in watchmaking and other trades ; and the arguments of 
Dr. Yeets are applicable to those countries in which 
tecbniad education is most developed as well as to 
England. The same defective apfdication of heat and 
oonstmction of locomotives, alleged in England, is identi- 
cally to be recogniaed in Switserland, Germany, Belgium, 
1^ France, while it is to be observed that the looo- 



3if 



JOUBNAL OF THE BOCIBXY OF JiWIB, Horanw £9^ 2fi7J 



noiive «yftein was dovulpped in Engliigd originally, and 
it haa continued to be the chief aeat of railway derelop- 
menL Without in an^ degree underrating teohnioal 
education, the necoMity of which oann^ be too 
atrongW advocated, it ia neoeesary to point out that 
aome of the oonae^uenoee mutt be attributed to other 
cauaei. Oonaami>tion muat, indeed, be regarded aa 
much aa production, and in thia req>eot it la the de- 
fioienoiee of coomiercaal education whush teod to retard 
the progress of our trade in foreign countries. Some of 
our oenipetiton bestow more attention than we do on 
the adaptation of manufactures to the requiremeota of 
the local eonsumers, and others reaoh the trading olnssos 
by making themselves acquainted with the language of 
the people, a matter too much neglected among oursalves." 

Tha Bar. Arthir Bigg writes as fbllowa:— ^If in 
addition to opinions expressed this evening, in reference 
to * Techniciil Bdncation and the Means of Promoting 
it,' facts resulting from actual work in the cause, ex- 
tending from 1839 to 1669, are likely to be of interest, I 
will supply a few. What wvs being done in 1860 is 
Tery olearly and truthftilly expressed in a letter to the 
OkesUr Cowrmnty where I saw it fat the first time. This, 
however, is too long lor quotation here. The date of 
the letter is September, 1860. Beoalling tlM views and 
azperiencee of the past, I may state — 

^ 1. That school workshops in Heu of a nanufiiotcny 
do not succeed. 

**' 2. That, supplementary to school insCmotion, they 
are as usefbl, ai^ perhaps more useful than museums 
and phjrsioal laboratoriea, 

**3. Hiat models of apparatus, and experiments aa 
«noh, and ending there, are delusions ; tiiey do not carry 
witti them intellectual development. 

** 4. That of the numerous models and apparatus made 
at Chester for school instruction in technics, England 
has had little— much has been sent to Australia and 
America. 

*^6. lliat there is much truth in the somewhat 
npparent anomaly to which Mr. Webster alludes, in 
writing of one of his schoolmasters, * He taught bo well 
I>ecau8e he knew so little.' 

'* 6. Surely the time has arrived when men of action 
should operate and opinions be silent. The importance 
of technical instruction was with me a fact, not an 
opinion, more than thirty years ago. Alas '.very little 
indeed has been the progress. If the next thirty years 
do not see a much more rapid development than the 
previous thirty, some generations must pass away before 
^gland has that which can properly be called techni- 
cal instruction in her school^" 



There were exhibited by Professor Tennant some 
interesting specimens of diamonds from the C^pe of 
<jk)od Hope, as well as some photographs of the diamond 
'fields there. 



A rich naphtha 
province of Caserto, near 
oy a Milanese firm. 



has been diacoyened in the 
aples, and ianow being worked 



M. Marechal, the well-Jmown glaBS-paisiter, Inte 
Af Mets^ whose Brodaotions havaattraotod attention at aavei^ 
intomalianal exaibitit 



Bar-le-Buo. 



itions, haa removed his eatablishmtnt to 



AHJTIALIHTRMrATTOgAIi: 



The offices of the Oonmiiinonen «re^ 
sington-gore, Xiondnn, W., Mi^or-Qcnl 
secretary. 

THE "EXHIBITION OF t 

Tha fint meeting of the Committal 
Velvet w«B held on Friday, the 22iid | 



It ia propond to utiliae the tranrivajra in the early 
iMura of the moming, before dw passenger trafllo begins, by 
vnnning on the linss suitable soawnger waggons, by which 
the dirt and rsfase of Che strsets oould be osnisdaway to a 
distance. 

The General Connoil of the Seine haTO reoently 

vejeeted a projeot submitted to them by the prefect, for 

«nitiBg the liaes of the eaat, north, and houtfa by a ^ort 

.anburban line by Nenilly, St. J>eoia, and Pastin; and they 

jeeommend, in preference, a mora oompcahsosive acAsma of 

' H. Lssi«e far a oomplate sndieliag line. 



Cooper, Bart, in the ohair. The £cS\om 
wers oarned uaanimoaaly :-~" That it bi 
to bar Migeaty'a Comndssioneni to mtt] 
every objeci of new silk mannfactore oi 
bition slmnld have the names of the bm 
of the place of manufMsture attached \ 
oombinationB of other materials with slU 
future of piece goods be admitted withaiU 
goods." 

The first meeting of the Committee on 
on Monday aftanuxm, at Stanhope-lodgii 
gore. 

It was resolved that the materials knov 
aa "homogeneous metal " poasesa pnmer 
aooapted aa oharacteriatio of steel, and ah 
be included in an Exhibition which 
varieties of steel ; but that malleable oi 
more appropriately included in the JSxhil 
Iron, in 1879. 

The Committee reoommended that 
Commissioners should take such stopa 
necessary to secure the exhibition of allcla 
that conaist of ateel united to cast-iron, eitl: 
or otherwise. 

The Coaunittee agxeed to advise her 3U 
missionars to invite, from the War Depai 
of all specimens of steel used for military p 
Committee also suggested a complete re]: 
tha various processes of manufiioturin^ 
hooks, and ateel pena, and they recon 
invitationa should be sent to the most eo 
fiBcturers in the country to lend modela 
illustrating generally the manufiictnze of a] 

The first meeting of the Committee far • 
held on Batorday laat, when it was annoiu 
Coachmakers' Company had appointed a 
mittee to aasist her Majeaty's Commisaic 
coring a good representation of oaxriagea. 
present at the meeting, the Duke of B< 
Fiancia Qordmi Lennox, Mr. J. V. Hoope 
Peters, and Mr. T. C. Starey. Major-G 
C.B., Mr. Cole, C.B., and Oapteui Ci 
attended the Committee. 



A meeting of the Committee of Adrice 
for the class of Cooking, to be represented s 
hdd on Tuesday, at Stanhope-lodge, Ken 
the Hon. F. Leveson-Gower in the cnair. T 
' resolved that oookinj| for agricultural labou 
upper and lower middle dasses, as well 
suitable for the army and navr, for pan 
prisoners, should be repreeentea as far aa 
was also resolved to communicate with 
principal makers of kitshen ranges, stoves, 
tus, with a view of ascertaining whether tile 
apparatus in action. The Conunittee reooo 
that an attempt should be made to represex 
modes of cooking aa practised by the Frenc] 



The first meatuig of the 
sirumsote took plaee onT ne ada y aftsnMcn, 
todflB^ KanaJngtonjigoowL Aaoogit tiiois ] 



JOntK&L OP TBE 8O0IETT OF AITTS, Notubbr '3d, 1879. 



8fi 



r JLa ; Mr. B. Qona, F.R.a ; 

Cooper, Mr. J. Luke, F.R.S. ; Mr. T. 

E^BundBm, Dr. G. T. Ori— i, Dr. W. 

0^. H. J. Doosnlle, CB. After d»- 

of tiie «zhifattioii. 



p>opQndtlMit,Man in t eioeti Dg a dd ition to 

mm^ikft Boyal Odkfo of SorgeoBB, and 

cr privste ooUeolon, ihoiild be re- 

naeet enrgrioel iaafeniiiieDts end ep- 

thit the iteliaii govenmeat ehonld be 

thad tkoee receBltjr rec o vered ft«m tbe 

la eddtlMii to otber bMineee the 

that piAltoity ihoiild be gmn 

of cof i nnt ofttfoae to tiie medioel 

iu d i i au el w e mboie of tbe GonMiuttee 

loflrt mstniinent mekere to give early 

tWir tDteotion to eahibit ipeeimeBB of 

in the Bibihitioa of 1873. 



of the Oonnnittee on Beoeat 
aad Biacoreriee, was held on 
cea ,8t Stenhope-lodge, Kenstngton- 
Cbon praeent were Major-Oeaeral H. 
^; Dr. a W. Siemens, F.R.S. ; Dr. E. 
A,; Dr. D. 8. Price, Mr. J. Hams- 
?. Beyer« Mi^ DoaneUy, RK, aad 
iUbb. it wae oonaideced that the elaea 
of objeeti, the excellence of which are 
Ooaaittee of Selection to be so great 
Mn^e that their introdnetion to the 
^ J debjed nntil the proper year for their 
\m iwhatrial maan&etnre. The Com- 
■s apecinl mbjeets for exhibition in 
■KMse ob premrmg stone or of render- 
le, esr of porifyu^ water, or of 
I vood er medal tj machmery, Ac. The 
idiiiiwidu, it la anaoged, most be aentin 
«f Jsnaary, 1873, and the gooda do- 
"* «<MbicL ia7S. 



001 icspondent of the 3¥sMe has tiie 
htfcmied yonr readers that a pnblic sub- 
made to aeeare tbe representation 
the ExhibitJon of 1873. The govent- 
lo place on the Bstimatee the sum of 
poeiB, but in the meantime h i» neces- 
sater into«imngements ibr a permanent 
* igton with Victoria and Qaeensland. 
■ebacnption, which is fatriy taken up, 
feer averee from doing what they con- 
|da^ of go V ernmen t. 



mum 



of 



»» 



tXHIBITIOHS. 



. — The commisaion of the Chamber 
jfiuiei chacrgedwiththedntyof examin- 
paodoots offeied for the e^diibition, has 
iaat of its laboan, and is now engaged 
^ito Kaee. Aa in the fine art, so m the 
the applicatioDS far exceed Uie space 
1 the oommiasion is acting with the full 
" M»l AaaemUy will Tote a sufficient 
of sappleaaoitary gaUeriee,for, aa^ 
uassaion, **ni the presence of the 
whidh are being made by other 
M the atmost importance that FrNich 
le all the importance that belongs 
I the anperioii^ of her exhibition." 
vand moreorer they are ai^lioable 
hsiidee Franca, who will certainly 
'^ — ^iBboththadiviiionaofactaod 
t Hla at tha Bolel Cteny^ aad 



Aaarieaa Szhibiton at Tienna.— Some of the 
American exhibitors are complaining because Gongreaa 
refused a grant towards tbe defbiying tiieir expenses. 
There is even some talk of renewing the appeal unsuccess- 
fully made to Congress last year for funds. Most of 
the papers, however, express the opinion that the ex- 
hibitors, who may expect the chief profit, may also &irly 
be called on to defray all the expenses of transporting 
their goods to Europe, and the general opinion seems to 
be that the^ will find it well worth their while to do so, 
and that m consequence America will be tolerably 
well represented. 

OompeUtiye Exhihitioa of Broue Work.— Periiap» 
there is no class of otaamental art in which the French 
enjoy such unquestioned pre-eminenoe as in the produo* 
tion of bronzes, and especially such as are suitable for 
interior decoration. The bronae founder, fitter, and 
chaser are three of the highest class of workmen in 
Paris, and the bronaists take great pains to encourage^ 
and improve their art. Amongst other means to thia 
end, there is an annual competition for priaea, which 
takes place in the winter ; that for the prirseQt year ia 
just announced to open on the first day of December. 
On the present occasion, the priiee are for chasing only ; 
they consist of two prizes, named after tbe donor M. 
Crozatier, each of the value of £20, for a drawing of 
figures and one of ornament, and of two Yilleinaen 
prizes, of £12 each, for the best examples of figure and 
ornamental chasing. This interesting exhibition haa 
usually been held in one of thegalleriesof the Conserva- 
toire des Arta-et-Metiers. It is a purely workman** 
exhibition, and, although of course very limited, ia 
perhapa one of the most thoroaghly practical and 
valuable of the many competitions and exhibitions that 
take place in Paris. It should be added that it is due 
entirely to the initiative of the artistic bi^nze manu* 
footurea of the dty. 

¥«iaiUaa lzhlblltiOB.->A]thongh the historio Jen de 
fVmme is literally eacmnbered wHh the mass of worka 
of art sent for exhibition, the Society des Amis des Arts^ 
under whose direction the undertaking has been or- 
ganised, deterarined that ^ere should be no fUrther 
delay, and opened the gallery on Sunday last to the 
members of tiie society and a number of invited guests* 
The works received amount to more than seven hundred 
in number, being about half as many as there were at 
tiie last Paris salon ; but what is far more important than 
quantity, the collection includes a large number of ex-^ 
cellent works, and tbe exhibition will doubtless attraot 
large numbers of visitors. The presence of many 
famous examples of painting and sculpture, shut up for 
years in private collections, adde to the value of the pre- 
sent exhibition ; the ** Ariadne" of M. Millet may be 
mentioned as a prominent object of interest 



THE ASPHALTS. 

{Ctmifmmed J¥vm page IS.) 

The first specimen of ^is kind of road was laid down 
between Bordeaux and Rouen, in the neighbourhood of 
the town of Saumur. A layer of broken stones, such as 
those used for a macadamised road, was laid down, and 
over that asphalt broken up snuiU, to the depth of one 
and a-half inches, which would appear, to anyone well 
acquainted with the nature of the material, to be an 
eminently practical method. Experience was, however, 
to show otherwise. At first the new streets seemed to be 
a complete success, for the asphalt soon became firm and 
solid ; tbe stones were crushed down and the malleable 
asphalt filled up the interstices. The surface yielded to 
the pressure of the carriage-wheels without cracking, 
the impression made by each horse or carriage being 
eflhoed by the tncoeediDg one, and it did notappear to be 



n 



86 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novembbe 29, 1872. 



affficted by sammer or winter, least of all bj wet, and the 
■oflest parte of the rocui were found most dorahle. On 
the strength of this fayoorable experience, many roads 
and bridges were covered in the same way, near Saumur, 
Angers, Tours, and Briare, and on the great bridge over 
the Loire at Saumur it was found that the two arches 
which were covered with asphalte were water-tight, 
whilst the 17 others let the water through, although 
carefully covered with hydraulic mortar. 

In time, however, the drawbacks of this system became 
apparent. The crushed granite of the macadam sub- 
stratum, mixed up with the asphalt, destroyed its con- 
tinuity, and by preventing it from forming an unbroken 
surface allowed it to be permeated with dirt and water. 
This method could not be therefore said to be satisfactory. 
The final solution of the problem is due to the eninneer, 
H. A. Merian, of Basle, who conceived the idea of laying 
down powdered asphalt in a warmed state on the street, 
and applying a strong pressure, so as to form at once an 
impermeable elastic surface. He tried the experiment on 
a part of the high road between Serrieres and Travers, 
with such success that, in spite of the insufficient founda- 
tion on which it was laid, that part of the road has re- 
mained unimpaired to this day. 

The French engineers soon followed the example of 
H. Merian, and although they cannot dispute the right 
of the Swiss to the first invention, yet they may claim 
for France the honour of having taken the lead in every 
useful application of asphalt 

In the same year, M. Daroev, Inspector-General of the 
Font8-et-Chauss6e0, published a treatise on the different 
descriptions of street pavements in London and Paris, 
in which he advocated the plan of laying the cold asphalt 
down on the macadam foundation. Under his direction 
several of the boulevards at Paris were thus paved ; but 
floon the drawbacks to which we have alluded were per- 
ceived, and M. Daroey acknowledged the superiority of 
the compressed hot asphalt powder, which has a tendency 
to cohere, whilst in the case of the cold-broken asphalt, 
considerable resistance is offered to the union of the 
abraded particles. In Paris, the hot compreased asphalt 
was first tried in the Rue Berg^re, near the Conservatoire 
de Musique, and its success decided the authorities to 
pave the Place du Palais Ro3ral in the same way, and 
subsequently many streets in different parts of Paris, in 
none of which has the pavement yet had to be renewed. 
The following is the process of preparing the asphalt 
pavement, as described oy M. L^n Male : — 

** The asphalt stone is brought direct from the quarries, 
and broken up into small pieces about the size of those 
used for macadamised roads, it is then heated over a 
stove, in a drum-shaped iron vessel with feet, till it 
crumbles into powder ; and in order that the powder may 
not lose its heat, the whole appiaratus is conveyed on to 
the street where it is to be applied. Then a foundation 
of * b^ton ' is laid, about four inches deep, which may, 
however, be thicker or thinner, according to the nature 
of the soil." 

On some ground, a road which has been macadamised, 
for example, the substratum of concrete may even be 
dispensed with entirely, whilst on a loose soil it may be 
made as thick as six inches. When the b^ton has 
hardened, and been cleaned, it should be smoothed to the 
proper curve. The arch of the roadway ought not to 
be greater than is absolutely necessary to drain off the 
rain-water, in order that the horsra may not slip on 
the incline at the side. The powdered asphalt is then 
spread over the surface, to a depth of sixteen to twenty 
inches (according to the amount of traffic it is to bear), 
and stamped down; a roller of 2,600 to 3,000 kilogrammes 
weight is then drawn over it, to make the pressure per- 
fectly even. Two hours later the road b readv, and 
may be opened to carts and carriages. M. L^n Mh1o*s 
remarks apply exclusively to the Seysiel asfthalt, as, at 
that time, the other companies had not yet embarked in 
this undertaking, and it was not till 18A6 thatanamnlga- 
matioa took pUoe, under ths nams of '* Oompagois 



G^6rale des Asphaltes," from the manid 
which, in 1869, the writer has gathered 
facts : — 

The company is now in entire poaseesiofl 
works and quarries, and has a capital of ti 
millions of francs. The works hare be 
Pyrimont, where the Geneva Railway 
established a special station. Every year 
cwt of the mastic and 150,000 cwts. of pc 
pared,, and 150 workmen employed. Six 
however, these figures will doubtless hai 
increased, the asphilt roads being more in 
1852, 800 metres of road were laid down 
1856, 8,000 metres; in 1866, nearly 100,00€ 
280,000 metres, all principally in the qua 
the Bue de Eivoli and the boulevards, from 
to the Rue Poissonni^re. 

But even though the Gompagnie G6n6ral< 
took the initiative in extending the use < 
street pavement,, yet it seems as if it vi 
leave the field to the Val de Trarers Coi 
stone from that quarry is superior for the h 
roads to that of Seyssel, which contains onl; 
of bitumen, whilst that of the Val de Tra 
from 11 to 12 per 100, and hence is toughe 
The bituoiinous fresh-water limestone of 
not seem to possess enough solidity to be 
a continuous mass without the addition, of 
gredient. 

The asphalt stone of Limmer and of A 
do not appear suitable for this mode of ap 
former b^ng too oily and the latter toe 
necessary toughness to be obtained without 
The writer was shown roads paved witl 
stone and with the three kinds of asphalt — th 
asphalt, the asphalt-macadam, and the as 
of these only the mastic road oould b4 
thoroughly successful. Under these circ 
was omy natural that the general attenti< 
turned to the Val de Travers, and on the 15 
1 870, the government of the canton of Neufc 
the concession of these auarries to an Engl 
entitled the " NeufchHtel Bituminous Rod 
which devoted itself exclusively to the pavi 
and roads, supplying various local oompan 
terials for the purpose. Such companie 
formed in Great Britain and Ireland, w] 
annually 200,000 to 2,000,000 cwts; on 
America, with a consumption of 40,000 to 2,C 
in South America, with an annual consumpl 
to 600,000; for Austria. Hungary, and Rouu 
tively, with a similar consumption of 40,0( 
cwts! Similar contracts have been made 
Italy, Holland, Belgium, and Germany. 

As a great deal has been said about the d 
horses on the asphalt roads, it may be as 
the experience in France in this respect, w 
equally to the three kinds of asphalt roads. 
At Lyons, which has long had mastic roa 
of cavalry horses fell on a street of compret 
This accident arose from the circumstan 
asphalt had been laid on an old macadam re 
therefore that considerable arch which is 
and dangerous for the asphalt road. The ca 
in a long line, those horses near the side 
slipped on the steep incline. 

At Marseilles, where the asphalt roads fn 
hour to the town were made with a very pf 
there has been no increase in the number o 
though the traffic is enormous. A very slii 
the road is quite sufficient to allow the rail 
fbom such a smooth surface. 

It is also not advisable to lay the asph 
street with a gradient greater than 1 in 60, 
London some streets luving a gradient c 
and even to 1 in 46, have been covered w 
wittiont any apparent danger. Itiiofcoorst 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Notmibwi 29, 1872. 



87 




iiUt to gd tokj aocurate infonnation about the 
of Mddents on the streeta, general yague im- 
being worthleM ; bnt in Bans the nnmber of 
I vhich were obsenred to fiill in the Rue Neove des 
(kfodatM, during two months were as follows : — ^In the 
mo; which wu payed with sandstone, in bloeks, from 
FotiiiwblesQ, one horse in 1,308 fell; on the latter, 
vhieh wta corerad with arohalt, one in 1,409, so that 
tte lalanee in» in £iyoQr of the asphalt. 

In mov or frost a^halt is not so slippery as granite, 
boQg in itnlf warmer, and also more easily warmed 
hf the ilightert rajs of the snn ; hence, Uie ioe is 
suie ^w in foraung, and quicker in melting, than 
oagmxts. 

S hu been prored that the greatest nnmber of 
■fiodsati to hones happen when the asphalt is not 
dened, fat the sorface is nerer muddy or greasy, 
oaifi with forage matter, and this ought to be 
coBtfni^ wsihed off with water, which is plentifully 
Ul on m Paris, and to some degree in London. At 
nj points where this cannot be done, a slight sprinkling 
ef eosne tad will prevent the horses slipping. This is, 
^ earn, only a temporary remedy, but yaluable in 
<SM of eoMigaicy. It is one of the great advantages 
^ My^ however, that it is so eanly and cheiply 



OMidersble alarm has been excited as to the danger 
of the uphalt taking fire in case of a conflagration. We 
thttk, h owerer. that these objec^ons may be met by 
>snii>Bg the foUowing cirenmstanoes : — 

Dsrisf the Commune in Paris, in 1871, the fires oom- 
■tsod byinoeDdiariea were never known to have been 
y*jb y BMsns of the asphalt pavements. In Lond(m, 
^ *fin o mt M w«e made on this point by heaping wood 
ea the Tsl de levers pavement and setting fira to it 
^fviSB the fire was at its fiercest, the burning embers 
vttt nked swi^,and only a fsw fSseble flames were seen 
|BtMe i^oB the paTsment, and they went out directly 
«th«ro«nseoQfd. 

Is the itshles of the Paris Oomibus Company the 
ceMoft is immediately over the stables, and in order to 

CKi (he com against the effluvium from the stables 
to* of the loft was covered with a thick layer of 
^•>^«H, and in five different oonfiagrations this floor 
* theoourse of the flames until help could be pro- 



h hsi also been found that a wooden floor covered 
^^1^ was entirely protected against a fire which 
yy ttd on the ai^halt ; for although this material 
*7j^ * volatile bitumen, which is inflammable, and 
■w^part of the bitumen escapes as gas, and bums 
*JJ*«^y. yet the mass of lime and coke which re- 
™'i>nffioient to protect the wood completely against 
"taee, 

I^iiiig a oonfUgration in the works at Seyssel (owing 
»tht banting of a ketUe of boiling tar), the asphalt 
w timed the course of the fire, and when the wooden 
I iad walls were burnt and the asphalt ceiling 
^o*n with a crash, it entirely extinguished the 
ibeaetth. 
^■Oy* the conclusions that have been arrived at by 

I ^S*****^ "^ London are : — 

l^Ihat the prime cost of the asphalt road is the same 
■«^s granite pavement. 

1 That, with the present prices, the annual cost of 
■""^jsnce is a trifle greater than the granite. 

>• That, at the end of seven to ten years a granite 
J^ent ia worn out, whilst the asphalt is still in 
r"wwr good condition. 

i That the asphalt, when taken up, ma^ be always 
^l^^un for the same purpose or for msstio. 

*"Jttperi«noe in Pans shows : — 

1.^ asphalt costs, in the first instance, one-third 
•™ the stone pavement 

^2** ^ annual cost of maintenance is three- 
f^jnoi leas than that of a macadamised road. 

''^ these fiacts it will not be difficult for any 



municipal authorities to dednee the great advantages of 
the asphalt pavement 

" In the destruction of some ancient fortifications, sup- 
posed to have been Boman, near Pyrimont, about for^ 
years ago, the stones appealed to have been similarly 
oemented, and so ^reat was its tenacity, that the worla 
were with groat difficulty' pulled down, and not without 
the use of gunpowder. This circumstance led to a 
singular and important discovery, for the fact of which, 
as follows, we are indebted to a gentleman named 
Perrigny, a native of that neighbourhood. During the 
removal of the above ancient remains, it was observed 
that the cement bore a great resemblance to the asphaltic 
mass or mountain in the park of Pyrimont, about five 
miles north of Seyssel. This led several persons present 
to think of making a similar application of it Amongst 
others was a relative of M. Perrigny, whose dwelling on 
the bonks of the Rhone was so very damp that the lower 
part could not be appropriated to any use whatever. This 
person considered that its application might succeed in 
keeping out the wet, every other remedy that he had 
tried having failed. The experiment was accordingly 
made, and succeeded bejrond his most sanguine expecta- 
tions. This circumstance, among other early trials of 
its properties, speedily led to its very general adootion 
in that vicinity, where the working of this material has 
become of great importance, and where the presence of 
the bituminous aspbult is so great as to appear almost 
inexhaustible ; and although but recently worked to any 
great extent, yet its properties as a cement appear to 
have been long known. It already constitutes the chief 
wealth of the country, which was previously half 
wUd."* 



CHANNEL PASSAGE. 



Mr. Bessemer's lettisr to the Timetf on this subject, 
has called out further correspondence. In the paper of 
Saturday last there are two letters, one from Admiral 
Elliot, advocating the ship designed by Captain Dioey 
in opposition to the Bessemer-Reed plan; and the 
second frt>m Colonel Strange, also discussing the com- 
parative merits of the two inventions. The matter con- 
tained in Admiral Elliot's letter is mainly personal. 
Colonel Strange endeavours to show that there are no 
advantages gained by Captain Dicey's plan which are 
not included in that of Mr. Bessemer, except in so far as 
that the former improvements refer to the whole vessel, 
the latter onl^, or in chief part, to the saloon. In 
summing-up his oondusionB, Colonel Strange says : — 

** The point at issue between the two rival schemes is 
reduced to a very narrow compass. Both Captain 
Dicey and Mr. Bessemer agree in regarding the rolling 
action of ships as that against which direct special pro- 
vision idone need be made. Captain Dicey provide 
against it by his twin-ship principle, which secures the 
advantages of abnormal breadth of beam without as he 
believes, any of that loss of speed which the same breadth 
obtained in the usual way would occasion ; while Mr. 
Bessetner seeks the same object by means of a swinging 
central saloon, whose secondary oscillations, generated 
by pressure of wind, shifting of load, and of centre of 
suspension, are controlled by a hydraulic apparatus 
of peculiar construction. Both agree also in employing 
only indirect means, such as length, highspeed, and con- 
formation of bow, to diminish pitchmg. ^ Experience 
will show which inventor has a|)proximated most 
closely to a solution of this interesting problem. My 
belief is that Mr. Bessemer will practically annihilate 
rolling, and that Captain Dicey wUl reduce it to an im- 
portant, but not to so great sn extent Against this, 
nowever, he may justly claim that such immunity from 
rolling as he confers on his ship will be enjoyed equally 
by every one on board of her, while only the favoured 

• Extract from page 3 of the pamphlet written by F. W. Simmt, 
C.E., oa '* Tha AaphalUo Maatlo or Cement of ScyneL** 1858. 



JWTBKAL OF THK SOCIBTT 97 ABTS^ M^ysmbr Sd^ 1872. 




Bafferings we know bo well. Bot wkat wUl be 
the net result in either caae f I believe diminution and 
■Bevintion oplj-*-iiot pi e wwillu n of w m t Ukntm ^ Mental 
elements are conctmed «8 vracAi, msA in mamy eases 
mere, than those nechanieal oonditiotit whieh alone wfn 
be d^t with hj en g ineers and naval arehilectB. ' It will 
be interesting to learn w%feh will be nrasl reHshed by 
the inner man — ^be natural but much diminished motion 
of the Dicey ship, or iSbie sort of mm^natural motion of 
the Bessemer. Most people who have had, however 
Httle, experience of the intra^atural motion now so 
Mly secured by Channel s te am ers, will probably Uhe to 
try the non-natmral for a change." 

On Tuesday a letter from Mr. Beed was published. 
In this he points out what he considers the faults of the 
pioey ship : — '' First, where one of the primary objects 
ia to secure small draught of water, and therefore light- 
ness of structure, the plan in ^estion renders a very 
unusual weight of hull necessar}-, because it gives the 
ship four sides instead of two, and introduces a heavy 
superstmoture for the purpose of yoking the two half 
ships effectually together ; seeondiv, unless the super- 
struuture is extremely well designed and very strougly 
built, it will not keep the two half ships together in 
a heavy stonn, and their separation would be fatal to 
both ; tiiirdly, there is great reason to 8uppo;»e that two 
half ships <n equal sixe and large proportions, placed 
thirty feet a|>art, and yoked together, however propelled, 
would be circumstanced very unfavourably for high 
■peed, because of the interference with each other of the 
waves of displacement in retreating hfmi the inner 
bows. Fourthly, there is also much reason, and 
some experience, to soppose tint audi a vessel, pro- 
pelled by an interior wheel, would be under very 
^reat additional disadvantages as regards the obtain- 
ing of extreme speed — snch vessds ha?t«, hi iWct, inled 
from want of speed ; and, flflhly, the Diocy Mp, b«hBg 
made (by the separation of the twin portions) of very 
unusual breadth frtnn stem to stem, is peculiarly urn- 
adapted for entering: tbn nannw hartxrars of Galais and 
Fou%8tone in bad weather. I will only fbrther add 
t^at the experiment whidi Admiral Elliot pfomises with 
a twin Dicey steamer no bigger altog^ither than a 
*Citreen' boat, will throw Mttle or no 1^^ upon any 
one of ihe above questions ; and ttie very faot that mrah 
a vessel is being pmpared for the purpose of proving to 
the public that the Dicey ^ip is right, when great sice 
and speed are to be realised, strongly inclines me to 
beHevo that its advocates have neither considered nor 
understood the real difficulties that will oppose their 
success and frustrate their good intentions. In seeking 
to reduce rolling they have looked past other equally 
impoitant conditions." 

Thence the writer passes on to describe his own ship. 
The presi^nt discomforts of the passage, he says, are 
almost wholly doe to the small sise of the vessels now 
in use, a sise necessary if they are to be turned round in 
the existing harbours. This drawback will be avoided 
by the new double-ended ship. The many serious diffi- 
culties offered by the oonstruclion of such a vessel have, 
Mr. Reed thinks, been overcome in the new ship. 

New structural armngements have been necessitated 
in order to support the Bessemer saloon, the extra 
weight, however of which '* is, in fact, not great." The 
duplicate sets of paddles are admitted to be an evil, but 
this is made up for by extra steam power. Besides, they 
have their compensating advantages, espedaJly that of 
securing the ship against total (Usablement by engine 
accidents. 

As to the low freeboard, Mr. Heed maintains that this 
i s not a disadvantage in short seas Uke those of the 
Channel, however mischievous it might be in long 
rolling seas. Even if it were, he says* the low freeboaiS 
oan easily be got rid of by prolon^ng the upper deck 
and the sides to the extremities— an inexpensive addition. 
The great advantage of the low freeboard is stated as 



Mltnis:—*' Although tho ship is 860 fe 
watofv she is only 250 long above the wal 
is sspsscd to the wind ; so that not only a) 
the nric, which other long ships will be 
being blown aoross the harbour entrance 
we «£all positively be better off than sma 
this respect, because, while we shall ba' 
titely snail surface ecposed to the wind, ' 
a greatly lengthened surfrK» immersed ix 
resist the leeway resulting from the wi 
On the whole, Mr. Beed thinks that the i 
sucoess for the peculiar purpose for v 
intended : — '* For my part, I do not pat b< 
a perfect remedy for sea-sickness in all case 
think she will be found a sufficient remedy 
*of Dover. Her advantages seem to me t 
will be large enough herself to escape all b 
movements as regards lifting bodily and pi 
moderate pitching which she would other wi 
will be diminished by the low ends, and wh 
it will scarcely be ft* It at all in the oentml 
rolling of the ship, which is the only rem 
ment of importance, will be perfectly neutr. 
Bessomer's hydraulic arrangements. In c 
the ship will be fast, capacious, ^ell-f umial] 
ventilated." 



THE EDUCATION OF WOMl 

The first annual meeting of the Nationi 
Improving the Education of Women of 
was held on Tuesday afternoon last, at the 
Society ; Lord Lyttelton (in the abaence of 
and Ettiiek, who had first been annoimoed, 
prevented, by domestio trouble, frmn aCbendi 
The Chairman alluded to the droumatane 
oaUed the Unian into sBstenee. and spoke 
it has akeady commenced. He also ann 
the first school company scheme would b 
January, at Dmham-honse, GMsea, the 
the eataWishment of good and l asasMa bl y < 
tion for the elaai afaeraa that whioh was ) 
by the JOemeBtary Edwation Act. Mr. C 
moved the adoption of the repoit, the ele 
PvincesaLouise, Marobioaess of Loi«e,ea pre 
long list of disting^iebed persons as vice-pr* 
members of the oentral committee for the e 
He stated that some misconoepCions were pre 
the wealth of Dulwich College. Hereaft 
their wealth would no doubt be very great 
present time they were paying out betweei 
£5,000 for pensions to the old eorporation. 
Christie, C.B., seconded the resolution, an 
the extension of the subject matter of women 
to the same Hmits as ^e education of men. 
Caoon Barry moved the second resolution— 
meeting, feeling the inadequacy of the snpj 
schools for girls, pledges itaelf to pi 
establishment of such sch^ols^ and also 
measures for extending to women the 
higher education beyond tho school peri> 
This was seconded by Mias Davies, 
of the experience specially derived from 
nection with Qirton College. She hoped t 
would soon be really qualified for the wor 
ing, and that at the same time that v 
receive the appreciation it deserved. She 
by giving some information respectiag Girt 
at Hitchm, and stated that the new coUego, it 
would be ready for occupation by next Hidsu 
Payne moved the third resolution :— '* That tl 
feeling the necessity of thorough tniniag fc 
and of some recognised test of their effiden 
itself to promote measures for the attainmc 
objects." The speaker produced, to the am 
his audience, a number of replies to sn advert 
high*claa female teacher. These, he said, 



JOUIHAL or TH&.fiOOZEfY 09 ABM/MoTumA SB. taxO. 



SO 



te r. AzUw Moooifld HiA XQMliitioo. A v«t»of 
iMlo Iks ihiiiiiiiii, Bovod ^ lixs. Gx«5r,4kMr- 
vmof the GMtail GaDEHBlltatb eoaofaidAd tlM -bto* 
(■fingi. Lord LytteUon, in xosponding, said if Parlia- 
Mt Mt tMMtt ImoflbBd OB the heibd tbe Endowed 
iMOumakmon, m ifc was sot imqprokaUe it mi^t 
A^ U iMM. be awit liftpnr to gii« Bore attealion 
ikn be hai been hitherto aUq to do to the •fain of 



C0SBB8POVBBVOB. 



CHAKKEL PASSAQK 

Sor-In jonr JbunuU last week, Hr. Sedlejr aays 
ftii he hee leea it itated that I haye patented a 
i^ntea of tnVoIar ship, and claima that system as 
ka Of the diMunOari^ between his and mj plans, 
that if 00 doubt Of the Talue of Mr. Sedley's plans 
*4Br thtt* are eefeml, with sereral different oatea, 
ha^oa the walls of lAie Polyteehnio — ^I haTesoch an 
c f is i iaib t T s m ha a r tily giadheco n side r s C aptain Bioey's 
wen flMoaMt with hia own than mine, and that he 
k^ thodiiae, associated himself with ^e twin-ship 
fcmoplfr— a plan eonddered hy myaelf ten years ago, 
■ad nJMted ae baTing &tal constractive defects. Steps 
inbaaftitei to pvt mj aystem into praotieo» and I 
atna to abide by hard and tangible fiicts, and not upon 
BBttiaatiTa datk 

Jhnt tftat three years of time, and a very oonsider- 
•bb am «f iBoney, in experimente, in order to satisfy 
mrif I bad a right and true thinff to put before the 
Itt Br ooafliat would be eoomierdaUy profitable, and 
ailt fein'tnest If Mr. Sedl^faad WOTked aaaincerely 
n I k«« kt ffridie appreciation, his ideas would ha^e 
hm m veU known that hio attempted ciy of plagiarism 
«itU bave been wnored. 

iftboSoeislj orAita will give me one night in their 

' ail usstiagSi aa I hara aaked, the members will 

tbfl fall opportunity of seeing how thoroughly 

"iat ia ev«y priaotple and in every detail my 

^liefrom Mr. Sedley's, or any other plan yet put 

MfeRtbe vorid. — I am, ^kc., 

8. J. Maokh. 
^Miiy^trMt, 9r«t Oeorgo-ftreet, WeetmliMv, 
aftch MoTemtwr, 1872. 

f^^^f^ new model of my latest detiffn for my 
^VadBHsage ataamsn, to one-quarter inoh scale, 
?* w^ aiy offioe, aa abore, on Monday and follow- 
m ^ of next wtekf and open to the inspection of 

*f Mabsn of the Society who will fiaTonr me with a 
tilL 



OBITXrABT. 



^^AiBewrlag.~In the Chairman's address of last 
^Me wen mentioned the names of those eminent men 
*Ktt loa the Society has had to deplore during the 

Cymr. Ahnoafc before this addreas was in print we 
aacthernuDetoaddtotiiefist Sir John Bowring 
MQa&tarda^ laat, November 28rd. Hia is one of 
fp***** wbneh links our own generatioB to the one 
2t*^kJ^i^ emies «s bade to the days of Bentham 
V lanei MUL Among that set which, a generation 
j^T" <**flT known as represented br 1^ W^t- 

t*Me>lr*Nw, Sir John Bownng oooupied a foremost 
ledesd, he WM for some time editor of the 
^jMLto a gsaal sKtaBt, its gmdiiig apirit But 
y*»yqrooe among the Tarious empbyments of Sir 
J^^^w «^iatittijUjr a many-^dded man* Po^ 
.tjA- •_ ^! ., , . *' to ex- 



cellence in all, and If Im did net m, ef»ry line attain 
the first place, in all he surpassed mediocrity, in most 
he adiiered a decided snoeeos. Bom m 1762, it was in 
1986 that he oooMMed hia pelitiaalltfo, bat hia litemzy 
caieer beoan soms yaaiB before. He published a 
volume of translations from the Bnasian in 1JB21, 
and this was followed by several other works, chiefly 
translations of poetry. In 1826 he became Editor 
of the Weatminster Jteview. After his return to 
Iteliament he devoted himself more ea pe cia Hy to 
politics, and this led to his employment abroad, notably 
m China, to which country he was sent on diplomatio 
missions on several occasions. His last €mplo3rmsat of 
this sort was in 1861, when he was sent to Ital^ on a 
oommission. From that time till his deatli he oontumed 
his literary labours— labours which, thongh wady m- 
termpted by his political work, were never wholly die> 
continued. Even within Hie last year he had oontributed 
to some of our magazines. He became a member of the 
Society in 1869, and in the year of his Section read 
a paper on "China, and its Belations to Bzitiah 
Commerce.*' This paper will be found in the /oiewe/, 
ToL viii., p. 19. Besides this, he at all times took a 
general interest in tiie w<»k of the Society. 



aBBBBAL BOTBt. 



Paenmatio Cluui&el Postal DispatoL— A proposal has 
been brought forward by Mr. Edward Martm, to lay down 
a pneumatic tube, like those used in oonneotion with postal 
tekgiapba, aoroaa the channel from Shakspeare's Cliff to 
Cape Grienez. The tube is to be of small diameter, and the 
ipeeiages to be photographed on films of collodion, in the 
aawMt way as those sent mto Paris by pigeons during the 
siege. The idea is a very ingenious one ; but we are not 
aware that there is any likelihood of its being carried out. 

Mildew in Cotton Goods.— Tins subject was discussed 
at a spedal meeting of the Manchester Chamber of Com- 
merce last week. The preeident, Mr. Hugh Mason, 
suggested the appointment of a committee to go into the 
whole question as to sizing, steaming:, and ill-ventilated 
ships. Another member made snggestioBS to the effect that 
a committee should be appointed with instructionstor^KMrt 
upon the question, snd that buyers diould be recommended 
toiequire from maaufactarsrs a writlsa contract thaS no 
deleterious ingredients were contained in the sizing, kaviag 
the manufacturers full liberty to use whatever amount of 
sizing they thought proper. An opinion was also expressed 
that 99 per cent, of the mildew resulted from chemical 
admixtures in the size. The question having been dis- 
cussed at great length, the direotom of the chamber WOTe 
requested to take up the consideration of the cause of 
mUdew, and report to the members at an early period* 

InmwBfa in 9ew Totk.— The continued prevalence 
of the horse disease in New York city has, to a great degree, 
rendered useless the ordinary means of public transportation. 
Mai^ of the mn and stage lines have ceased running alto- 
ffetber, and others send out a reduced number of vehicles. 
Under these circumstances, various prqjects are discussed for 
affording a means of conveyance between distant points of 
the city. A line of dieap steamers plying on either side of 
the island, and touching at oonveniect ati e ct s, is suggested, 
the plan to be similar to that of the penny boats on the 
Thames. Especially has fresh attentioa been directed to a 
motive power for street trams, and the city authorities have 
passed an ordinance allowing the use of engines on csrtain 
roads for a limited period. Under ttiis authority, the Be* 
mington steam street oar, from lUon, New York, is seon to 
be put to work on one of the New York lines. As the hue 
selected is one presenting especial difficulties in the way of 
grades, curves, &c, it is ssipeeted that the powers of the 
etsamer will be fully teated. 



There wiB been BKhdUtion of SoiaaDaadAit 
!■ Bnmbiff in 



40 JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF Al^TS, Notbmbie 29, 1S72. 



SXAimrATIOVB, 1$78. 

The attention of oandidates is drawn to an error 
in paragraph 55 of the Programme. After the 
wordfi " accidence," the words " and in passages " 
should be inserted. 

THELIBKABY. 

The following works have been presented to the 
Library: — 

Gibraltar's Value, by " Fras," 

The Policy of Eestrictive Measures, or Quarantine 
as applied to Cholera and CatUe Plague, by Oteo, Foggo. 

(M Improyements in Iiocomotive Exigines, by Appli- 
ances for the use of Heated Air in combination with 
Steam, by Richard Eaton. Presented by the Author. 

La Mosai'que de Lillebonne. Extrait des Publications 
de la Society Havraise d'Etudes diveises. Presented by 
Chaa. Boesler. 

Catalogues of Works of Art, &c., exhibited at the 
opening of the New Library and Museum of the Corpo- 
ration of London, Noyember, 1872. Presented by J. 
Anderson Rose. • 

A Description and List of the Lighthouses of the 
World, by A. G. Findlay. Presented by the Author. 

A German Class-book for Beginners, by Chas. Fischer- 
Fischart. Presented by Messrs. Oliver and Boyd. 

The Strength of Materials and Structures, by John 
Anderson, C.E., LL.D. Presented by the Author. 

The following have been presented by the American 
Statistical Association :— 

Annual Reports on Education in the State of Massa- 
chussetts and Boston. 

Reports on the Statistics of Labour, Board of Health, 
Productions of Lidustry, State Charities, Census 1865, 
Fire and Marine Insurance, and Life Lisurance of the 
State of MMBsachussetts. 

Fire Department of Boston. 

Agriculture of Massachussetts, by C. L. FUnt. 



OEDDTABT XBETIireS. 

The following are the dates of the Wednesday 
evening meetings, the chair being taken at eight 
o'clock : — 



1872. December 

1873. January 

February 

March 

April 

May 






4 11 18 — 

- — 15 22 29 

5 12 19 26 
5 12 19 26 

2 — 16 23 30 

7 U 21 28 



CAVTOB LBCTUBEa 

The first course of Cantor Lectures for the 
ensuing Session will be on ** The Practioal Appli- 
cations of Optics to the Arts, Manufactures, and 
to Medicine,^* by C. Meymott Tidt, M.B., Joint 



Leoturer on Chemistry, and Profeasor o 
Jurisprudence at the London Hospital, 
consist of five Lectures, to be deuVen 
following evenings, at eight o'doek : — 

Lbotubb II. — ^Tuesday, Dbgbmbbil 3nD 

lighthouse Illumination ("coniinuedj — App 
Reflection — Lenses and their yarietiai — The 
tion to Medical Purposes, &e. . 

Lbctubb IIL — MoMDAT, DmcaMBMSL 9tb 

AppUoations of Optics in the Arts, illnstr] 
Science of Photography. 

Lbctubb IV. — Momdat, Dbcbxbsr 16ti 
Polarised Light, and its Practical Applicat 

Lbctubb V. — Monday, Dbcbmbbb 23bi] 
Spectrum Analysii as Applied to Ma 
illustrated in the Bessemer process, and to ]S 
the Detection of Blood. 



Members are requested to take notio 
next Lecture by Dr. Meymott Tidy 
place on TUESDAY evening, the 2nd ] 
mstead of Monday, as originally annonx 



For the meetings previous to Christmas, the 
following arrangements have been made : — 

Dbcbmbbb 4. — "On the Manufacture of Horse-nails 
by Machinery." By J. A. Huoobtt, Esq. On this 
eveniug the chair will be taken by F. J. Bbamwbll, Esq. 

Dbcbmbbb 11. — "On Galyanic Batteries." By the 
Bev. H. HiOHTON. 

Dbcbmbbb 18. — '*0n Bussia, her Industries, Com- 
merce, and Means of Communication." By Lbonb Lbti, 
Esq., Professor of Mercantile Law, Kmg's College, 
London, and one of the Deputies to the International 
Statistical Congress at St Petenburg. 



KSETIHQ8 FOB THE JSSBJJIMQ WJ 

Moir. ....Entomological, 7. 

Britaah Architects, 8. Mr. B. Fletcher, <* On A 

Medioal,8. 

ABiatic,8. 

Victoria Inititute, 8. 

Booial Science Aasooiatfon, 8. Mr. P^«der 

that i>axt of the Bepoart which deals -witb 

■tmotion of the Comaj OooitB." 
Society of Engineera, 7|. Mr. W. H. Fox. 

RaUwayBiakee." 
Yietoiia Inatitiite, 8. Mr. Gfaariee Brooke 

and Energy." 

TUB8....60CIETY OF ABTS, 8 Gkntor Leeture 

** Practioal Ax»plicati(mfl of Optioa to the 

faotures, and to Medicine." 
Civil Engineera, 8. Diecostion upon Mr. 

Paper '' On the Aba^-Wakf Sugar Fkctor 
Pathological, a 
AnthropolofincaL 8. 
BiUical Archseology, 8^. Mr. Geo. Smith, '< 

fbrm Inacription ocmtaining the Qiald^u] 

the Deluge.*' 

WBD....80CIETT0F ABT8 8. Mr.J.A.Hagsi 
Manuikoture of Horae Kails by Madiinery. 

Geological. 8. 1. Mr. Henry Hicks, ** On t] 
Bocks in the neighbourhood of St. I)ai 
Wales, and their fossU contents." 2. Bei 
'* On the Phospbatio Nodules of the Gietac< 
Cambridgeshire." 3. Mr. W. Johnson Soil 
Ventricuutidfe of the Cambridge Upper i 
Communicated br the Rer. T. G. Boaney 
Mackintosh, ** Observations on the mot^ 
Boulders of the Noith-vest of ie«g^«**^ aa 
borders." 

Microscopical, 8. 

Pharmaceutical, 8. 

Obste^cal,8. 

London Institution, 7. Mr. F. Held, *' On 
Industry." 

THtmB...Boyal, 8&. 

Antiquaries, 8^. 

linnsBan, 8. 1. Mr. Tbomtm Allia, *'0n thi 
the ApttrygV S. Bev. O. P. Ounbodge, 
and Bare British Spiders." ^ 

Chemical, 8. Mr. Cf. Banundsbog, " On a 
Power of Phorahonras and Hypophosphc 
and their Salts.^' and ** On Hypqphosphate 
A. H. Church, "New Anafjns of son 
Arseniates and Fhoshatet." 

Boyal Society Oub, 6. 

FBI Geoloffists* Association, 8. 1. Mr. D. C. Di 

Coal Seams in the Pennian at Iftxm, Shroi 
Remarks on the Supposed (Hadsl Climate of £ 
Period.' S. Mr. Udeb Evans, " Note on a V 
atFinchley." 

Fhilologioal, 8^. 

Ax«luBdogioal InBtituta, 4. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Deoembbb 6, 1872. 



41 



JOOlillilL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

No. 1,046. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, DECEMBER 6, 1872. 



' ^<U|pM, London, ir.C. 



Anouii 



BT THE COUHCIL. 



MWIIC Vn OF GOAL FOB DOMESTIC PUBP08E8. 

M nferenoe to the sum of £500 placed at the 
I of the Comicil through Sir William Bod- 
, by t geDtleman who does not wish his name 
)9ffai, for promoting, by means of prizes or 
economy in the use of coal for domestic 
the Council hare decided to offer the f ol- 
praei:— 

L For a new and improved system of grate 
fa) erirting chimneys as generally con- 
▼ikich shall, with the least amount of 
best for wanning and ventilating a 
Tk Sceieiy's Gold Medal and Fifty Pounds. 
11 lor a new and improved system of grate, suit- 
kkexistuig chimneys as generally constructed, 
«liU with the least amount of coal, best 
' for oooking food, combined with warming 
liaOating the room. — The Society's Gold Medal 
\fft9 Poundt, 

^m the best new and improved system of 

which shall, by means of gas, most 

•nd economically warm and ventilate 

-The Sociefy'e Gold Medal and Fifty 

^itthe best new and improved system of 

which shall, by means of gas, be best 

i for co(ddng, combined with warming and 

flie room. — llie Society^ e Gold Medal 

'• any new and improved system or 

not included in the foregoing, 

Mill efficiently and economically meet 

' icqairements. — The Society's Gold Medal 

^f^fmids, 

^_^5*>wl reserve to themselves the right of 
^aU or any of the above prizes, as the 
^*ipXBted by them may determine. 

artidofl must be delivered not 

tte Ist of December, 1873, with a 

*> ftdr being tested, and subsequently 

' * the London International Exhibition 

pvriicolars as to place of delivery and 
^pMflnt s wlQ be published as soon as 
thdlyiettled. 



FBIZS FOB STEEL. 

The Council have resolved to offer its Gold Medal 
to that man uf acturer who shall produce and send 
to the London International Exhibition of 1873 
the best specimens of steel, suitable for affording; 
increased security in the construction of looomotive> 
and marine engines and boilers, and for other 
engineering purposes. 

The conditions of the competition and further 
particulars will be published subsequently. 



NOTICE TO MEMBSBS.— nrDIAK VIEWS. 

An exhibition of views of Indian temples, idols, 
and illustrations of every-day life, by means of 
photographs, taken by Captain Lyon during his 
residence in India, shown by means of the magic 
lantern, will take x>lace before the members of ihe 
Society on Friday evening, the 13th instant, at 
eight o'clock. 

Captain Lyons sends the following explanatory 
statement : — 

** Now that, thanks to the opening of the Suez 
Canal, India is every day becoming more accessible 
to the tourist, as the yearly-increasing number 
fully testifies, the moment seems appropriate to 
try and give the general public some idea of what 
is passing there every day, as I saw it myself, and 
thus endeavour to put those who are forced to stay 
at home as nearly as possible on a par with those 
more fortunate ones who are free to roam wherever 
their inclination leads them. It is a curious 
fact that, notwithstanding there is hardly a family 
in England who has not a near relative in some way 
connected with India, still the interest generally 
entertained both for the people and the coimtry is 
much smaller than what is felt for any other of our 
possessions. It is also observable that though 
many of our fellow-coimtrymen are now settled as 
tea-planters on the slopes of the Himalayas, and 
as coffee-planters on the slopes of the Neilgherries, 
still none ever talk or think of the country as their 
home, as those settled in Australia or any other of 
our colonies so invariably do, but their whole desire 
seems to be to get together as quickly as possible 
a little money to enable them to return to England. 
Six years ago, in a lecture which he gave to this 
Society, Mr. Fergusson accused a large audience 
of iterance regarding India, and using the words 
**Ymiana Mundapa, &c., doubted whether any 
of those he was addressing knew what he was 
talking about, nor did he endeavour to enlighten 
them, out abandoned the attempt as hcmeless, as 
he felt the task could not be accomplished, even in 
forty lectures, without an amount of definition and 
illustration impossible to contemplate. Vereriiui^ 
less, this attempt I am about to make in the iUus- 
trations I propose to esLhibit on Friday, the 13th, 
in the Sodety^s Booms, with verbal explanations, 
and I fearlessly undertslce that not ooa ahaJl l/iave 
the room without undentandiiig tlv; nu^iMingr <tf 
all the words Mr. Fer^:tisoo vaed, s« w#'f] •• 
others besides. Agam, let me mik hf/w 




42 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETY OF ARTS, Dmihbbb 6, 1872. 



in this country have ever made the acqnaint- 
of the iFod G«neea, though in some 

M -r -v J. J.' _* I-* 



ance 



parts of India representatioiis of him are as 
common as milestones on an English high road. 
To him also I propose to introduce you, and, at 
the same time, explain why, according to the 
Hindoos, he is so handsome both in form and 
face. It may seem like putting the cart before 
the horse to show you a god before the people 
who worship tiiat god; but, being in India, we 
must do as the Hindoos do, and, without doubt, 
such would be the course adopted by a true Brah- 
min. I do not propose to enter iirto a long and 
dry discussion on tne Indian people, where they 
come from, &c., but my object being to try and 
create some interest in my audience for India, I 
shall endeavour to convey the in fo rmaiioii I have 
to impart in as g-Trmfpng and cheery a manner as I 
can ; and I promise most faithfully not to describe 
the whole of the 330,000,000 deities which are said 
to be worshipped there, more especially as, even 
at only one minute to each god, it would take 600 
years to complete the list. I will ask you first to 
come with me to Madras, and will show you the 
steamer you will arrive in, the boat, if the surf is 
high, in which you will be asked to land; the car- 
riages from which you can select one to convey you 
to your hotel; the streets as you would see them if 
you were there ; and the natives squatting at the 
comers of the streets exactly as I saw them; 
ih/e picota, or machine which is used to inundate 
the patddy, or rice fields, to gr6w the rice which 
BO many of us eat here at home. I will introduce 
you to ihe native jugglers, justly renowned 
throughout the world ; and I will show you also 
those extraordinary beings, the snake charmers, 
whom I have seen handle a wild cobra in a manner 
to make one's blood run cold, when it is remembered 
that two hours is about the limit one can expect to 
live after a bite from one of those fearful reptiles. 
Leaving the town of Madras, we will go to Trichino- 
poly, and visit the two celebrated temples on the 
island of Seringum, and we will look at Mundapa 
and Teppa Kolaes, and find out what they are, 
and what they are for. We will go to Madura, the 
Bome of the Hindus, and see a mundapum which 
cost one million sterling, and we will see there the 
golden lotus tank, which the Brahmins say is fed 
by the waters of the Ganges, which passes 1,000 
miles under the sea for that purpose. Continuing 
our journey south, we will stop at StreeveUiputtur, 
and see the finest Juggernaut ceo* in the south, and 
accompany the god on his yearly peregrination. 
Again, further south, there is a little bijou of a 
monolith, which is nearly, if not quite, the most 
beautiful in the whole of India, and which, if you 
like to believe it, I can positively assure yon, on the 
authority of a Brahmin high priest, was excavated 
and carved in the short space of twelve hours. 
Thence, with a peep at Cupid, at Tinnevelly, we 
hurry on to Bamisseram, the most sacred temple in 
India, some say even more so than Benares. Con- 
cerning its sanctity, a poem has been written, 
called the Ramayana, which fills an enormous 
volume, but less thftn five minutes will give 
you the pith of it; explain to you all about 
Adbam's bndge ; and then we will visit these most 
marvellous corridors, 4,000 feet in length, and 
with a long-drawn penpective and an effect of 
light and sSade that the world itself oaimot excel, 



if it can equal. Here the Hindu pilgrim fini 
his pilgrimage, which he began in Scinde, i 
thousand miles away. The hardships he underj 
while travelling on foot from north to scut] 
India, those only acquainted with the country 
realise, to say nothing of the penances to whio 
condemns himself, such as prostrating himself 
length at the end of every mile and remaij 
for several minutes with his face buried in 
dust, having an iron cage riveted round his 
before he starts, and only to be removed on 
arrival at this sacred spot. Here is rest at last 
has peartormed his pilgrimage ; he has conqn 
all oifficulties ; he has gained his goal ; he I 
forward to worldly blessings and immediate h 
tude after death, and he forgets all he has m\ 
gone in the remembrance that he has earned 
right to be permitted to wander and repose in i 
sacred precincts. Here we will leave him, 
turning northwards and following the coast, 
for (me moment at Avadea CoviU, which, th< 
one of the smallest, is one of the most wonder 
carved temples in India, its chief peculiarity' I 
that the stone forming the pillara is so hard tiu 
chisel can be found to cut it in these degen' 
days. Our next halt will be Tanj ore, with ita i 
nificent tower, 300 feet in height, and the celebi 
stone bull of Shiva, weighing 80 tons, which a 
grim brought in his pocket 600 miles. Still fvc 
north, and close to Madras, we shall 
Mahavellipore, or, as it is commonly called 
Seven Pagodas. It is doubtful if the world 
produce anything more remarkable than 
monoliths here to be found; and the mor 
examine them and the whole place the grew 
our astonishment ; while, at the same time, 'W 
lost in conjecture as to the motive or purpcM 
which such an amount of labour and time has 
spent in forming these marvellous structur<>i 
no record exists as to when or by whom they 
executed. Not one among the many works h 
has been finished, and all seem to have been tu 
taken at once by some enthusiastic raja) 
by people under some strong religious iin| 
and all stopped simultaneously, either by his < 
or some other catastrophe. 

Time will, I fear, not permit us to go fui 
and so I must defer to another opportunity fl 
to the Neilgherries, or Blue Mountains, wit 
beautiful cascades and pretty scenery. The I 
Dowlat, built by Tim)oo Sahib, and owne<i 
occupied by the late Duke of Wellington, sa 
all to resemble, and by many to surpaa 
Alhambra. These, as well as the exqui 
carved temples of Mysore, and all the 
wonderful mosques and other monument 
Bombay, I hope to be permitted to show y( 
some future occasion, if, as I trust, I sha 
successful on Friday in creating sufficient int 
in India and her temples and people to 
what I shall then show instil in all a desire i 



more. 



At the last meeting of the College of 
oeptorn a scbeme waa approved of for a courw of Ic 
on the Theory and Practice of Edncation. Tbe det> 
the course were not decided on, but it is tn be tried 
experiment for the years 1873 and 1874. There are 
examioationB connected with the lectnres, and, >^ P" 
the students will have opportunitiet of ■Itsnding >^ 
order to gain practical experienoe. 



JODRKAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, Dboucbx^ 6, 1872. 



43 



PIMKSSIVOS OF THE SOCIETT. 



THIBD ORDIHAET lUETDIG. 

faiiiiew3ajr,Deocmber4th, 1872, the Rev. Aethub 
fiuexBtbeohur. 

The foUowing Candidates were proposed for 
dtrtion as Members of the Society : — 

Amy, AIii«nnan Thomas, J. P., Church-rd., Edgbaston, 

iUnBuifhtOL 
BUir. Ridiiiti, 9, Minoiag-Une, E.C. 
Bwvd, l*hiUp Augustas, 131, Kegent-streefc, W. 
Buj«h, J«me^ the Graoge, OvenUea, uear HahTitx. 
Bi^wmta, Ffrderic Himgerford, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., West 

HuoniEAlilu. 
Bf^wtf, William Henry, M.A., 27, Grace's-road, Cam- 

bnw.H^S.E. 
Oi^i^k, James, High-bank, Prestwich, near Man- 



Oil»«r, Elvaid, 25 and 26, Spenoer-street GosweU- 

ft^fi fci rh , Sigismand Maurice, limo-street^chambers, 

liTBf itr.cL ff-Oi 
I>w*, fl. J^ », Bfnton-street, W. 
ti, Jortu, Kiga-villa, the Grove, Clapham-road, aW. 
Frtlj^ TWuor, 2, Park-?illa, Lonadale-rodd, Barnes, 

S.W. 

Oibb. Gw«. 19, Pembridge-square, Bayswater, W. 
aaLa>X C F.. jnn., B.A., Hendoa-hall, Middlesex. 
l^rum, Eivard John, 2, Saffolk-lane, Cinnon-st, E.C. 
^ Mjiir. Prsa^ia, Osborne-lodge, Bexley-heath, Kent, 
luk. Vtfli., 3, Soffolk-lane. Cannon-street, E.C. 
Mc^, Alfred Robert, SI, P^hnereton-buildings, Old 

Ansdninet. EC. 
IJH^ C^Joatl Millington H., E.E, Alversdiffe, 

Aif^nufca, Hants. 
WJttad^ Hermann, 3, Great Tower-street, E.C. 
■«; Arthiff Anderson, C.E., 62, Choumert-road, 

Jki'tj. Jahn, West-house, Halifax. 
*WieT. Xaihan, Park-road, Halifax. 

^ following candidates were balloted for and 
^«lfieted members of this Society. 

Adjn«.VuIimm, Bow and Bromley Institute, K 
B*i liloaod C, 73. Strand, W.C. 



^.Kv^*nw« Alfred, 28. Canonbury-sqnare, N. 
toniaj, Waiiam Hutton, West- view, Ickley, 



York- 



Oower, Lord Boviald Sutherland Leveson, M.P., 

Stafford-house, St James's, S.W. 
Guest, John, 63, Leadenhall-street, E.C. 
Htlfpenney, G. W., Lower Shadwell, E. 
Harding, Majur Charles. F.B.G.S., 62, Springfield-road, 

St. John's- wood, N.W. 
Haworth, Richard, Manchester. 
Hempleman, Frederick Subaud, 5, Whalebone-terrace, 

Stratford. 
Henderson, James, 1, St. John's-gardens, Kotting-hill, 

W. 
Hernaman, John, Salvador-house, Biahopsgate, E.C. 
Ingledew, Joseph, 191, Bishopsgate-street Without, 

EC. 
Isaac, Albert, 27> Somerford-grove, Stoke Newing- 

ton, N. 
Johnston, David W., Dalriada, Belfast 
King. Nathaniel, 2, East-strest, Worthing. 
King-Harman, Captain W. H., R.A., Ro3ral Artillery 

Institution, Woolwich, S.E. 
Lanyon. Captain William Owen, AD.C, Craigton, 

Kingston, Post-offioe, J^tmaica. 
Lees, Colonel Nassau, LL.D., Conservative Club, S.W. 
Leishman, John B., 26, Kensington-gardens-square^ 

Lutscher, Peter, 8, Austin^friars, E.C. 

L>ell, Robert, 30, Brunswick-gardens, Campden- 
hUl,W. 

Marks, Murray, 395, Oxford-street, W. 

M'lcleay, Alexander Donald, Carlton Club, S.W. 

Meakin, John Forster, 84. Baker-street, W. 

Morgan, George Victor, 39, Blaokheath-hill, Kent 

Nicholson, Henry, 3, Montague-place, Russell-square, 
W.C. 

Oswin, Frederick, 2, Weymouth-street, Portland- 
place, W. 

Page, Charles Albert, 38, LeaAenhall-street, E.C. 

Parry, Edward, 290, Camden-road, N. 

Parsons, J. R., 95, Wigmore-street, Cavendish- 
square, W. 

Partington, Edward, Woolfold, Bury, Lancashire. 

Phelps, F. W., 8, Albion-grove, Bamsbury, N. 

Prothero, Alfred John, 45, Great Marlborough-street 
W. 

Randle, Howard, Buxton College, Forest-lane, West 
Ham, E. 

Ratchff, Daniel R., Mossley-hill, liverpooL 

Rau, Theodor, 148, Buckingham-palace-road, S.W. 

Renny, Rev. James, M.A., Ph.D., Bnmet. 

Rose, Henry, 8, Porchester-square, W. 

Sadler, F. A. Tumford-hall, Cheshunt, Herts. 

Schacht, Theodor, Wismar-house, Lee-terrace, S.E. 

Seymour, W. Digby, Q.C., LL.D., 2, Dr. Johnson's- 
buQilings. Temple, E.C. 

Shelford, William, 7, Westminster-chambers, Victoria- 
street, S.W. 

Skelton, Thomas Ahred, 37, Essex-street, Strand, W.C. 
and Southampton. 

Smith, Reginald Masters, Queen's Bench Office, 
Temple, E.C. 

Stewart, Charles P., 92, Lancaster-gate, W. 

Thomson, Walter, Beheea, East Indian Railway, 



CraAii John Coley, 38, Russell -square, Brighton. 
^^ KsT. William, Kildwick, Leeds. 
Ctutt, J. R^ 1, Ludgate-hill, E.C. 
5^. Fwdsrick, 82. Cheapside, E.C. 

»«ir»» Alphkms Charles, 4, Viotoria-road, KUbutn, 

A. »% , 

^»i«i D. Griffith, Bridge, Cardigan. 

^ w^"*^ Eocene, 19. SickviUe-street, W. xuuuiboo, 

P T? '^"^'***'*'» 7, Catherine-court, E.C, and Bengal. 
^m Diep, Twickenham. j Vandersee, Henry, Clifton-lodge, Elgin-crescent, 

W*a Arthur John, Penrhyn-lodge, Cambridge- " " 

^A, Twickenham. 

bJ^^- W"l^Jam Henry, Bamingham-Norwood. 
^wt, KuT<olk. 

f^. U«orge, 90. Elhelburga-honse, 70, Bishopsgate- 
^^wt^wtthin, EC. 

^|^*8ft»i«l Dunn, 9, Buokingham-rd., Shoreham. 
*«^. Alfrsd, Laaosster-house, 39, Fiachley New- 
-JHK.W. 

*J»7*y. George Bell Errington, West Ferry-road, 
liaiwdl,E. 

^^^^Robert Oichard, Cragg's-wood, Rawdon, 



Notting-biU, W. 
Wagstaff, James Poole, Highbury-lodge, Islington, N., 

and Manor- park, Potton, Bedfordshire. 
Whitehead, W. H., Ontario- lodge, 10, Kilbum-priory, 

N.W. 
Williams, Edward, 23, Birchin-lane, E.C. 
Windover, C. S., 32 and 33, Long-acre, W.C, and 

Sand ford-hall, Huntingdon. 
Wylie, Andrew, Prinlaws, Leslie, Fifeshire, N.B. 
Zimdars, Conrad Edward, 28, Red Lion-square, W.C. 

And as HetronART Cok&ibpondino Mbmbbbs. 
Echegaray, His Excellency Don Jos4, K.G.C., Sc M. 



u 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Dbcimbeb 6, 1872. 



and St. L., Minuter of Education, Public Works, 

Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Galle de Olozaga, 

No. 13, Madrid. 
Fontanuls, The Moat lUuatriona Don Antonio M., 

Director-General of Statistics, Agriculture, Industry, 

and Commerce, Calle de Alcaic, No. 7, Miidrid. 
Martos, His Excellency Don Cristino, K.G.C.M., LL.D., 

&c., Minister for Foreign Affairs, Calle de Serrano, 

No. 20, Madrid. 
Merelo, His Excellency Don Manuel, K.G.C.LCm &o., 

Under-Secretary of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, 

CaUe del Barquillo, No. 13. Madrid. 
Bitz, Dr. Wilhelm Carl, 12, Eomer-strasse, Bremen. 

The Paper read was — 

MANUFACTURE OP HORSE-NAILS BY 

MACHINERY. 

By J. A. Enggett, Esq. 

It will be in your recollection that the orator of 
ancient history, when desirous of displaying the 
utmost of his powers, selected for his weme the 
subject on whicn there was the least interest, and 
on which there could be but little to discourse, 
that his genius might thereby display itself in his 
ability to fascinate and interest his audience on a 
subject that possessed no power of its own to fix 
the attention. . Now, should any one have reached 
this room this eveninff impressed with the idea 
that any such motive has influenced the author of 
the paper on '* Horse-Nails," I beg at the outset to 
disclaim all powers that may be attained by pro- 
found learning or brilliant eloquence. Not, 
indeed, that I have no desire to make the subject 
of this paper interesting, and, if possible, to 
elevate it; but, after throwing out my feeble 
efforts, I candidly confess that I cannot rise above 
my subject, and I have never before found horse- 
nails so tough and unyielding. It might be 
interesting to give some brief history of horse- 
nails, by way of introduction ; but ibese shapeless- 
looking articles, of late years having their origin 
in some outside villages of the black country, and 
then passing a short and neglected career in 
streets and gutters, never rising above a stable 
floor, and, finally, after a month's hard toil 
and severe knocking about, deposited for 
their final rest on the old iron heap — where can 
we find the chronicles of such an obscure and 
uneventful history ? And if history be silent, we 
can hardly turn to poetry or art for information ; 
and yet was there ever a picture-gallery opened 
where the blacksmith and his forge nas not found 
a place ? And not only in modem paintingfs, but 
also in ancient art we find tbe smith and his forge, 
as well as even his method of shoeing; and, indeed, 
there can be no doubt that, amongst bis many other 
excellent qualities, the village blacksmith of Long- 
fellow possessed industry enough to make the nails 
he could obtain by no other means ; and whatever 
music Handel's harmouous blacksmith might have 
made, it may be accepted as a fact, though not re- 
corded, that he also made his own horse-nails ; the 
truth being that until recently the trade in horse- 
nails scarcely existed, those who used tibem making 
their own. Indeed, it may be said, that not 
until the manufacturing disteicts of the Midland 
Counties began to assume the aspect which has 
acquired for them the title of the Black Country, 
could the manufacture of horse-nails be called a 
trade; of late years, however, horse-nails have 



become an important branch of indiu 
leading article in trade, the consumpti 
being very large ; and when it Ijb cons 
each horse has in its four hoofs 28 o 
and that these nails are wearing^ oi 
and all night, and require renewing 
every monui, and that in Great Britain ] 
there are at the present time not less 
million horses, representing a demand 
a thousand million nails per anlium, tj 
entitled to take rank with others in 
and influence, and being a leadings artic 
ral and universal demand, it is one als< 
there is great competition, and, consequ« 
are all those inmicements to produc 
article ; there is, of course, the produc 
inferior article, and there is the period 
tion of workmen's wages, and, consequ< 
are the usual strikes, and, to vary it, 
lock-outs, resulting in the exercise of j. 
the part of the public, who are redu 
necessity of waiting for their nails unt 
get them. These disputes, instigated b^ 
are delegated to other delegates to adju 
instead of mutual interests producing n 
mony, all this goes on periodically, fu] 
that the horse-nail trade is of some sta 
reputation, and claims a share in tt 
which has been so long distracting the gi 
and homes of oiu* industry all over tli 
Such events as these in the horse- 
have produced their inevitable res^ 
is to make the article dear, anotl 
make its supply very irreg^ular, 4 
very scarce, and lastly, and of more & 
porfcance, to make the quality very uno 
will not, therefore, be suiprising, puttinj 
going facts together, and considering i 
all other kinds of small articles, such 
carpenters' nails, steel pens, needles, p 
and eyes, and a host of other such smaJ] 
with success produced by machinery, tj 
should have been made to induce mac 
somb means or other, to rectify the defe< 
and uncertainties of the hand-made hors 
attempts have been made, and indeci 
quently, that one might almost say tha 
always being made, and it may be 
question — how is it that all previous 
have failed ? — for failed they have. Is it 
the powerful prejudice in the minds of 
who use these nails, so that they refuse 1 
machine-made nail ? The feeling existii 
nails produced by machinery is certain 
enough to damp the spirits of the mc 
prising inventor. But this cannot be t] 
for there are so few of the nails madi 
chinery (at least those patented duj 
century) that have reached the hands oj 
sumer. The failure of many of the patent 
the nails made have not reached the han< 
consumer, has been in the machinej 
And we believe that the secret of son 
failures during this century is to he fou] 
simple fact, that the mechanic or engineoi 
had the inventive powers to construct a nei 
of making horse-nails by machinery has ha 
entirely ignorant of what his machinery 
required to produce. The high qualities £ 
liar properties requisite in a hone-nail (j 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OP ABT8, Diowbik 6, 1872. 



4ff 



t^Ins tiun tins standard is wortihless) can oidy I 
b* aKertsined after some considerable practice in 
intfT Hone-nails. 

Kow, olthongh I am fully conscious that the 

imtlemeii whom it is my honour to address this 

^xmng hare a biowledge and command of a yast 

nmnber of Tery important subjects, I feel sure tiiey 

win forgire me if I assume for a few moments that 

tlwy We not also horse-nails at their finger-ends. 

Id 8 few words, therefore, before I describe our 

proems of making nails, I would endeavour to show 

▼hst this ungainly, awkward-looking nail must be, 

and do. and suffer during its short career. You, 

probably, need not be informed that if a 

«rp«iter wanted to fasten a piece of 

ffon, weighing some few poiinds weight, 

to protect an object that was constantly hemg 

tooi, knodked, and thumped on stones, he would 

«Aer bolt or secure that iron on with screws let 

m ftndi, taking care that their heads were protected ; 

the idea of nails, witii big countersunk heads and 

foial] absnks, driven in, would be impossible; but, 

M it if also impossible to insert screws or bolts into 

uif' boof of a norse, it becomes necessary to make 

It po«ble not only to fix the shoe securely on with 

» nail, bttt also to l^eep it there without getting 

loosediinnga period of about 30 days. Todothissuc- 

««ftiDy, a nau must be, not only properly adapted in 

J** properties to hold its position when in its place, 

bat be also of such a quality as to enable it to find its 

portion, and the difficulty that occurs is, that these 

Jj^ properties are in a measure antagonistic. 

*w part of the horse's hoof into which a nail 

2^8, is, as you are aware, a homy substance of 

™fPot degrees of toughness, some noofs being ex- 

*^*^iBgiy hard, the conmion phrase being ** as hard 

waabogany." Into this hani substance a nail must 

P^^«trate imder the blows of a hammer, and for 

tail dnty the nail must be perfectly rigid and stiff, 

jo^prevent any " buckling," whidi may lame the 

«*« (a not unfrequent occurrence, and against 

'[^ Qstrn^, by some oversight, has not made pro- 

^*i«).Xow,you probably knowthatiron possessing 

^^ ri^d and hard properties is not iJie iron to 

^d being bent at sharp angles, its tendency 

"SB? to break ; but it is absolutely necessary that 

■ ^ sbould be bent to a sharp angle, some half 

^ kom the point, to clinch it in the hoof. If 

^fe be not done, or if in doing it the nail should 

'^ in the bend, the inevitable result will be that 

w nail, after it has been at work for a short time, 

^ bfcome loose, and drop out. There is also 

"^^itber part of the nail wnich, though not re- 

^^Tfd to bend, is more frequently the cause of a 

»W coming off. You will observe that, where the 

">uxrt«rwmk of the head terminates, the shank^ 

wfflpttatrrely slender, begins abruptly at an 

«W. It is at this part of the nail that the 

^^on between the iron shoe and the hoof is 

'^^''ted, and where the nail finds least support 

^^roanding it ; and, consequently, where the nail 

^^ ^ the strongest, there, in consequence of 

"0» ttgle formed by the countersunk, is the nail's 

•*«kert part. But the form of the nail here, as 

31 «tiier parts, is inevitable ; the count rsunk is to 

'^ the shoo, while the small shank is to penetrate 

y^y rf. and there is nothing short of the very finest 

""crintion of charcoal iron, worked in the best 

?*RbK manner, that will stand this test ; anything 

m tkan this degree of perfection wiU result in an 



imperfect and unsound nail. Enough, it may be 
said, as to the quality of the nail, but, unfortu- 
nately, not so ; we have not even come to the 
point, and if ever there was a point of difficulty it 
IS certainly to be found in the point of a horse-iiail. 
A nail with an imsound point, if attempted to be 
driven, will 'probably lame a horse ; so that if all its 
other qualities are perfect, the nail unsoimd at this 
point is worse than useless, it is dangerous, and in 
^e hands of a careless farrier may ruin a horse. It 
has always been difficult to obtain a sound-pointed 
nail in those made by hand, and hitherto impossible 
in those made by machinery. This question of the 
point has had most careful consideration in our 
factory ; a few weeks ago we desired to ascertain the 
relative value between our nails and those made 
by one of our first-class hand-makers as to soiind- 
ness of point ; the experiment was made at the 
time for our own satisfaction, andnot forpublication, 
but we are happy to state the result. Of the hand- 
made, one in ten proved unsound at the point, while 
after testing upward of 100 of our nails we dis- 
continued the experiment, as there was not a single 
nail of the entire himdred but was perfectly 
soi2nd. There are three causes that may result 
in failure to an inventor seeking to produce 
horse-nails by machinery. One is in some 
fundamental defects in the principles on which 
he has constructed his machinery, which, though 
producing highly satisfactory nails, nevertheless, 
either wears Out or knocks itself out in its 
work ; another, that already alluded to, the 
nails produced being worthless, in consequence of 
the inability of the inventor to comprehend the 
qualities so essential in a sound nail, but I should 
feel favoured if, on this occasion, I have permission 
to state a third, and that is — ^want of capital. My 
father, during an experience of forty yeiurs in con- 
nexion with the business of a farrier, acquired a 
perfect knowledge of what a horse-nail should be; 
but during that period (it not being a fortune- 
making business) he never acquired a fortune ade- 
quate to produce and launch out patent machinery 
for making horse-nails. For upwards of ten years 
my father and I have laboured at machinery for 
this purpose, but for the first four years to a very 
limited extent ; and when, six years ago, we had 
arrived at what we considered some degree of 
success, we laid our plans before. Messrs. Moser, of 
Southwark, and they were at once taken up with 
confidence and energy, and during the lengthened 
period we have worked with this firm, fimds have 
been liberally supplied, and, of course, a large 
amount has been expended, or I should not be in 
a position to lay before this Society, as I hope now 
to do, a perfect system of making horse-nails by 
machinery, having at the same time in our posses- 
sion high testimondals from all parts of England 
of their sux)eriority in quality, form, finish, and 
regularity, which no hand-'made horse-nail has ever 
attoined. 

I will now endeavour to describe the process of 
making what we call our H.P.-horse-nail, from the 
fiat rod of iron until it is ready for the market, 
having reference to the diagrams. 

The iron employed we import from Sweden, and 
it is known as the best Sweetish charcoal nail rods. 
These rods are flat^ being about ^ inch wide by ^ 
inch thick, according to the size of the nail, and of 
convenient lengths, about 2 feet 6 inches. 



46 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP AETS, Dsobicbbb 6; 1672. 



The first process in our system of manufacture 
consists in rolling these rods to a form suitable for 
the manufacture of the nails, by the machines which 
have to operate in the subsequent stages of the 
process. This rolling is the most important ope- 
ration as regards the quality of the nail, and I will 
endeavour minutely, but as briefly as possible, to 
describe it. 

The heating of iron for making horse-nails has 
a most important influence on the quality of the 
nail, by wnatever process the iron may be worked. 
Unsound points in hand-made nails are of frequent 
occurrence, not tom the quality of the iron, nor, 
indeed, from want of skill in working the iron, 
but from want of judgment in heating it, the rods 
beinf frequently overheated or burnt — not suffi- 
cientiy, perhaps, to destroy the body of the nail ; 
but when the farrier has to hammer a flne p(Hnt to 
the nail for driviog, the iron, instead of coming up 
sharp and sound, becomes rough and spongy, and, 
imder a powerful lens, will appear l£ke a coarse 
brush, and the nail is said to be hollow-pointed. 
Now, as we have also to heat the rod, it may be 
fairly asserted that we nm the same risks ; but I 
wish to show, and that in a few words, that this is 
not the case, and the reason that it is not is, th&t 
we are able to employ for the heating of our rods 
a Siemens furnace. Itis quite unnecessazyhere to 
describe this valuable furnace, and I will only show 
how the iron cannot be burnt. For our puipose we 
keep the gases in the furnace in a reducing state, and, 
owing to the non-oxidising nature of the flame, it is 
impossible to bum the iron ; m^t it we may, bum 
it we cannot. This statement is the result of ex- 
periment; we have overheated our rods imtil a 
portion has melted away, and those rods, when 
rolled, have produced perfectly sound iron, un- 
injured in every respect as to quality, but reduced, 
of course, in weight. 

With the exception of the annealing and cc^our- 
iog (to which I shall presently refer) this rolling of 
the rod is the only part of our process in which the 
iron is worked hot. 

The flat rods, six in number, are placed in a 
Siemens furnace, which is kept at an exceedingly 
high temperature, and in which the rods are 
brought to a welding heat in about 30 seconds. In 
this state they are withdrawn from the furnace, and 
tossed iu quick succession down an inclined taper- 
ing shoot, which communicates with the rolling 
mul. The rods slide down, of course, on their flat 
side, but are required to enter the rolls on their 
edge. On ariving at the rolls, and about their 
centre, which they must unerringly strike, they 
come in contact with the edges of the rolls, which 
are bevelled on the periphery, and by this arrange- 
ment the rolls at once turn the rod on its edge, 
and carry it through the mill at a speed of 1,000 
feet per minute. The rolling-mill haa a solid list- 
ing for its base and stands^ds, in these are fitted 
the bearings, which, you will observe, are of con- 
siderable length, Kunning on thcfic bearings are 
the shafts of the mill, made of steel ; to these shafts 
the rolls are fixed by means of keys and nuts ; tiie 
lower shaft is driven by a coupling attached at 
one end, the opposite end of both upper and lower 
shafts having a pinion keyed on, so wat the upper 
shaft is driven by the lower one. 

The roll on the lower shaft is perfectly pUun, «^w1 
of a width that exactly ooarxMpandf to taezoU on 



the upper shaft; the upper roll, hoinrevc 
number of recesses formed at intervals on ite 
which correspond to the bulbs on the ro 
they leave the mill (each bulb or proJ€K;ti< 
wards becomes the heads of two nails], aUo 
the recesses on the roll that form theee futu 
The space on the surface of the roll prod 
shank of the nails, and this space is tumcc 
an eccentric form, that the required taper oi 
from head to point is attained. Each of tb 
which is only the required width of the nai 
on to a collar or flange, the side of the u] 
having its bearing against the solid flang 
lower roll, and the bottom roll bearing ag^ 
flange of the upper roll ; but the tendenc 
iron, when passing through the rolls, is to 
the rolls, and into the aperture thus crci 
iron for a certainty enters, and though the 
may be so fine that it cannot be discc 
g^uaged, the iron, when delivered, has on 
fin or feather. To obviate this defect, on the 
shaft an iron collar is placed, against which 
of the top roller works, and is thus prcveni 
spreading in the horizontal direction, and 
the fin on the rod. These rolls are 7 inches in d 
and travel at the rate of o40 revolutions pei 
To assist the iron freely leaving the 
all times a stream of coal tar is kept co 
running on the rolls, which, falling while 
rod is passing through, creates a carbc 
deposit upon the rolls, protectxQg them 
from any friction that mi^ht be caused by 
in its transit through, ana thus jurevcntin 
in addition to whidb, the tar also forms a 1 
between ihe rolls and flanges, and prevei 
heating to any appreciable extent. One 
rods is rolled in nine hours by two men ai 
boys, the two men being required to feed 
frcmi the furnace, and the boys to straigl 
rods as they leave the mills, and deposit 
troughs to be removed to the next machin< 

The second machine consists simply of t 
plain rolls, two feet diameter, between wl 
rods are passed, that the bulbs or pro 
which are now flat may bo reduced to 
nearly square, and somewhat nearer the f* 
quired for the head. This machine is wo: 
two gii'ls. The third machine is the 
machine. This consists of a frame, throi 
centre of which passes a shaft, havine at ( 
driving pulleys, at the other a slide, which 
a reciprocating motion from a crank pin od 
of the shaft. By this machine the rod is divi< 
nail blanks. The cutters arc so arranged that 
descent of the slide two blanks leave i 
There are two pairs of cutters, one pair divit 
bulb in the centre, thus forming two heads 
at the same time, the other pair of 
separate the two shanks at an angle reqi 
produce the tapering point of the nail ; and 
any slight discrepancy occur in the kngih 
rods between the heads, so that the shanki 
turn out of various lengths, a third pair of 
descends simultaneously with the other U 
thus removes any excess of length. 

When separated from the rods, the naJ^ 
remain on the machine, and, to remove thcti 
oiprocating arm, working alternately ^ 
cutters, pushes the blanks down an inolii^ i 
oeiving DoxeB. The machine is worked by s 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Deoibmbm 6, 18T2. 



47 



ulto cats 32,000 nail blanks x)er day. The 
tfanfe at thiB stage have a somewhat rough 
ftom the scale on the sorface^ as also 
iNni « abup, and, to a slight extent, a rugged, 
fdn. To remore the injury in the wear of the 
wmupeat machiiies that might be caused by this 
taik and rough surface, the nail blanks are 
|bc«d in a rwolTing rumbler, which is nothing 
Bore than a plain iron cylinder three feet in 
<fisiieter, and into which one ton of nail blanks is 
placed, and left there until, by mutual friction, they 
ae^m apofeetly smooili mnrfmce, and, at the same 
tea, tiw point oomee into a slight diare of im- 
ftuvuHii, its flhaipnesB being rounded off and 
^ras dean and smooth, the blanks are 
cm to the heading machine, where the heads 
~ into the counter-sunk shape required. 
BMclmie consists of two vertical &ames, be- 
tvoBi whieh, and near the base, revolves a die 
this roller contains twelve pairs of <^e6, 
an intermittent motion communicated by a 
rod connected to an eccentric on the 
of the machine. In these dies the 
Uaak B placed as the roller revolves, and as 
tt» di» rise towards their top centre, they are 
' together by means of a pair of grippers 
"to levers at either side of the machine, 
the nail blank, which dropped loosely into 
dftei, is now firmly held, while the vertical 
jhw, which contains the heading punch, de- 
ipM, axid forces the head of the naU blank, 
projects some half-inch out of the dies, 
iato the dies, thus bringing the lump of iron 
r about thrco-sixteenths of an inch square 
Miklf an inch long — into a tapering or counter- 
■4 fonn. The roller, to enable the top die to 
fArn this operation, watts an instant, and then 
Wio&eitits rotation, and, as the plunder with its top 
WiMPDds, the pair of dies in tlie roller are simul- 
^Msl J loosened, so that as the roller revolves, the 
■Wrop from the die8,the dies being loosenedby the 
■!■, and advanced by the ratchet motion. While 
ViJi going on the dies following are being sup- 
pU vitb nail blanks, and so the operation is 
It may be added that should the blanks 
to leave the dies, as they occasionally do in 
oc of the heavy pressure that has been 
IJyen them, a mechanical hammer is provided, 
■M nnartly tapping the dies, the blank im- 
•fctely leaves its position. This machine is also 
JI^W by a young woman, who feeds it with 
•WBaailsper day. 

*W beaded bla^iks, in consequence of being 
l**d cold, are rendered somewhat hard in the 
■■4; it fii therefore necessary, before they enter 
■■^■t machine, to anneal them in a muffle, 
nanlariy to our other furnaces on Siemens' 
principle. The blanks arc allowed to 
1^1 itty fllowly in the pots, thus becoming ex- 
•fcrij" dnctile. 
wahav© now arrived at the last mechanical 
in vhich the form of nail is finished. This 
tf similar in type to the heading machine 
__^_ "* " its motions being communicated by 
*Mlpa«mg Uirough bearings at the upper part 
'^ ttda frames ; a cam upon tiiis sha^ woiks 




••■M pjhmger, the lower part of which contains 
w>^ q JB, nd which, being the reooired form, 
yya fte front or face of the nau ; there are 
^Hwft toil al dJCTwhioh give the nail the required 



shape on the sides. These dies are fixed in slides, re- 
ceiving motion by means of levers from arms fixed to 
the plunger, and actingon the levers by frictionrolls. 
The die forming the back of the nail is a chilled cast- 
iron table, in which are twelve studs ; this table or 
roller has an intermittent motion, communicated 
by a ratchet from the driving shaft at one side of the 
machine. The headed blanks are placed on the roller 
with their heads resting against the studs, the 
roller carrying them forward, and bringing them to 
their position exactly beneath the upper die, wliere 
they remain while the plunger descends, and the 
lateral dies operate on the sides of the blank; tiiese 
lateral dies, after this their first operation on the 
side of the blank, now partially retire, while the 
plunger, with the top die, passing down between 
them, shapes the niail on its face, then, as the 
pli2nger rises, the lateral dies again come forward, 
pressmg the blank a second time on its side, and 
finishing the shaping as the roller or die-table re- 
volves with a ratchet motion ; the nail (for it is no 
longer a blank) drojw by gravity at tne opposite 
side of the machine. Again, this machine, tike the 
others, is worked by a young woman, the daily 
production being about 21,000 nails. The me- 
chanical operations are now completed, but pre- 
viously to sending the nails into tiie market, tiiey 
require a final tempering and colouring. This is 
done by heating them in enclosed pots in the an- 
nealing muffle, and withdrawing them at a bright 
red heat, after which t^ey are spread over a large 
floor, where they are left to oool. 

This last operation gives to the nails their proper 
amount of rigidity, while they retain that perfect 
ductility they acquired in the first operation at the 
rolling-mill. It also produces upon the nails a 
coating of oxide, termed scale, preventing rust, 
and gives to them a good colour and marketable 
appearance. 

The nail is now completed, and ready for the 
final pointing, which it is to receive at the hands 
of the farrier previous to being driven into the 
horse's hoof. 

Before you are a niunber of tests, bearing, we 
think, ample testimony to the quality of the nail. 
It may be thought that these samples are easily 
prepared for an occasion like the present, but I 
think an inspection of them Twhich I invite) will 
convince any one that it would not be easy to pre- 
pare such samples from bcui, or indeed slightly 
inferior, quality of material ; nay, I will go so far 
as to say it cannot be done. It is impossible to 
select nails, especially to test in this way, in conse- 
quence of all our nails being the same. These 
nails, tested as you see, are taken from the bulk, 
and there are other nails here not tested, and 
should any persons desire to have those tested in a 
similar manner, he may take away a few for that 
pmpose. 

The nails tested have all been worked cold ; the 
shanks that are beaten out are as thin and sound on 
the edge as the blade of a knife— no crack whatever ; 
others are twisted into screws, others are pointed 
and clinched, as they would be when in the horse's 
hoof ; and on the bend or angle they have been 
drawn out cold and pointed, the point coming out 
sharp and soHd from the very bend. We think we 
are speaking quite within the limits of truth when 
we say that tne quality of this iron cannot be sur- 
passed, and is not produced elaewheie in this 



48 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Deobmbkb 6, 1872. 



oountry . We attribute its perfection to three 

oauses : — First, it is the best Swedish charcoal iron ; 

secondly, it is heated in the Siemens furnace ; and 

lastly, and certainly not the least importuit, it 

passes through our rolling mill, already described. 

In conclusion, I beg to thank you, Mr. Chairman 

and gentlemen, for uie honour you have done me 

in so attentively and patientiy following me 

tiiroughout this paper, and 1 trust you will as 

kindly forgive the b&mishes you may have noticed, 

and attribute them to what may have been appeurent 

to you — some want of experience in addressing a 

meeting like the present. 

Specimens of the various bars and nails in the 
dififerent stages of their manufacture were then 
handed round to the members. 



DISCUSSION. 

The ChtirmaB said he hoped there were gentle- 
men in the room who were sufficiently interested in the 
Suestion — and indeed everyone who kept a horse was 
eeply interested in it — who would give Uie meeting the 
results of their experience in the subject before them 
and of the art of manufacturing nails for horse-shoes 
generally. 

Xr. '^imsoa said there was little to add to the paper, 
but that the name of the engineer who assisted to bring 
this beautiful machinery to perfection had not been 
mentioned. He was not certain whether this machinery 
was the same as what had been constructed by Mr. 
Jabei James* of Lambeth. If it was the same, it was 
only due to him that his labours should be mentioned 
and his servioes in connection with it reicqjnised. He 
made the remark entirely of his own accord. 

Th« Chainnaa remarked that if there were any gentle- 
men acquainted with the process needful for the woeing 
of horses, perhaps they would kindly criticise these nails. 
If they could suggest any way in which they could bo 
improved, or if uey could point out any defects* they 
would be conferring a benefit, not only upon the essayist, 
with regard to this particular mnnufacture, but upon 
society in genend. He thought there was something 
very remarkable about the ductility as well as the useful- 
ness of the nails. There was one question which must 
have presented itself to the minds of most of them, as it 
did to his. In the ordinary mode of mnking the nails, 
even from the best of iron, it was usual to allow a blast 
of air to fall upon the iron, so as to promote a chemical 
change, which has ^dways been thought to be highly 
beneficial to the iron. There was an entire absence of 
that in the process before them ; and the question he 
^ould like answered was how far the absenoe of this was 
likely to be beneficial or injurious to the progress of the 
manufacture. Hitherto it had been thought beneficial, 
and it must be within the knowledge of manv of them 
that that was the usual mode in which nails of this 
chaimcter were made. 

Xr. Botly said he should like to know whether these 
nails were applicable to every manufacture of horse-shoe. 
Beeause first they had the old one. requiring eight nails 
to each shoe ; then they had another, requiring no nails 
at all; and then they had another improved shoei, whcv« 
there were only flTe nails required. There was Qray*s 
patent, and two or three others. He presumed they 
woqU be applicable to erery description of ahoe. The 
madiinay which had been deecribed to them was ex- 
oeedingly fine, and of beautiful construction as well as 
of great ability. Another question was this. In the 
winter, when snow or ice was on the ground, our horses 
were *• roughed;- were thcM nails apnhoible to that 
opention, whidi ths bUckMnith gaaenO^ psrlbratd to 



prevent the horses filling P As to the excellei 
iron used, he could speak to that himself. Sw 
was superior to everything that could be got 
quarter. It was the most superior of all in its t 
and, indeed, in every way. 

Xr. Brodsrick said he had heard it stated, 1 
not know it of his own knowledge, that farr 
not use the nails — that no amount of hammor 
make them sufficiently hard at the points to g 
hoof. He would like to know whether this 
had been heard ^f, for that was most importani 

Xr. Cattrall had examined the nails wHicli 
made both by hand and by machinery, and he 
to the conclusion, as far as the short space o 
had had to examine them enabled him, that tb 
by machinery were very much superior to t 
were hand-made, not only in a chemical point 
but also in a mechaDical. He considered thai 
fact of the influence of the oxygen from th<* 
blow«pipe upon the hand-made nails was such 
got a chemical change which was in no way < 
to give elasticity and toughness to the nails. ' 
a chemical reaction which took place' on the i 
the nail, and the chloride and the oxide of iron 
duced in a more condensed and solid form ; w 
the machine-made form that was avoided. CTon 
a tougher nail was produced, and the quality o; 
was more fully established, and therefore roucl 
to the nail made by hand. With regard to 
of the nail, the machine-made nail appeared 
to be somewhat finer in appearance than t 
made ; but nevertheless, if the quality of the 
superior to the hand-made nail, he was appro) 
and he had come to that conclusion from a v 
and extensive practice in the trade — that it v 
require so much labour by the famer who had 
it He should like very much to give the m 
practical trial at one of his own forges, and 1 
then be in a position to speak more fully as to 
value. 

Xr. Stanley thought it would be better for i 
to speak who had used them. He had tried 
them, and found them rather too soft. Th 
could not hammer them hard enough to 8tan< 
the horn ; whether that could bo remedied he 
know. The quality of the iron appeared to 1 
almost too soft. 

The Chainnaa asked what was the process of 
ing. 

Xr. Stanley replied thht it was the use ol 
hammer upon them on a very small anvil, 
dririi\g them into the foot 

Xr. Dollar said he was able to speak practi 
the subject Last week the firm of Messrs. li 
him forty of the nails. He carefully examine 
and had one of his horses shod with Uiem. It 
fair to the general body of nail-roak»s that h 
emphatically contradict the statemoit made in t 
witA regard to the class of nails generally use 
point of the nail was a very important pi^ oi 
he found five of the nails sent him pointed '* loo 
the hand-made nails in general use there wai 
^ loose** pointed nail in every hundred. That i 
say from his own practical experience. The xne 
**p( inting'* was the getting rid of the scale and ^ 
readv to go into the horse's hoof. The machii 
nails ^ buckle.*' and in the fbr«.foot of the ho 
whi^ they were driven several of the points w< 
come out* He saw the horseshod, and saw the ( 
defects. As to the woMring, he could not toll : 
had been only done four days. He thought tl 
a delect in the making of the nail, the iron beir£ 
rolled. Judging from a common-seose vie^ 
matte, ha thought the BM^inery did not suppl 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETY OP ARTS, Deoihbbr G, 1872. 



49 



iia iku rt» nqnired to give to it the oeiM««MT Btiff- 
am Qt Bukine-Duda luili ware like thorn hand- 
m^unk ID tka aakmg of whieh ths blow-fiipa had 
ha a>i tinlT vmi. Thej wcrq not Miff enough. The 

^pt MM of the BaiawMBTery thing tfa*twae wuted, 

« Iff »■ t^iauuiea weiit- 
Ii. Ctafau Hid he ahouM like to ask the last 

ifakR netlHT the naiU made bj h^md were Dot 

Kr. Mlw Bid thef were not annealed at all. They 
MnJ li jtllha inn l.>ncerliiin tBmpenilura — what they 
tuaJ 1 lo» •fldin? heat. Thon the iron v»» worked 
■dtaicUrupusiible, Hiid laid down at red heat and 
rib»J u pjal. They then ec;ilud well, and if made 
haUi>b<<3tSvdJiih iron, they hud ^inii/e white, Bilvery 
M|Mi ii-. ir uKuii too wtircD under the blow-pipe, 
Iki Mb cjma off and they had a nuty blue colour. 

jid the 

article 
t bcidly 



nails vera too bard, too raft, too thick, anil too thin. In 
fact, the list of comptaints of ihiit kind iroold scarcely 
be credited. On the other hund, they had a large num- 
r reporta. and the Litest numlwr by Eir were quite 
furourable to tbeir nail. Gentlemen who had used tbeir 
Diilahod ordered tbemorerdnd over again. In the first 
nafeincB some of the nail* were too aofl, tut they found 
fter the report* came in that they could remedy that to 
any point thoy pleaned in the QniJ coleariag, and tem- 
pering, and beating, wbich whb done in cloaed pits, and 



the DHile 



re then 



ly. 

factored 
rolling- 



d flxe-1 
dcecrip- 



IS wa« obtained, and by a lower heat a, softer degree 
a obtained, and the action of the oxygen upon the 
.la at the various he:ita produced a harder or a solter 
.1, and tbe nails that they had manufactured and 
coloured to-day were as nearly as possible the proper 
tornpcrature. so th^tt he would not e«y but what it might 
have been sn in the first instxnci! ; it was not so noiF. 
^ regards tbe pointing, they realty required less point- 
ng IbiiD tbe hand-made naila. He bolieTed there was 
lot one, Teterinary surgeon who would not say ^ut he 
iften found it necessary to knock off the point- He be- 
lieved that even to shue one horse one could scarcely go 
through that operation, taking the thirty-two nails, 
without knocking oflf mora than one poinL Thoir 
wore better to work upon, because they were a 
thicker at the point. Mr. Dollar vas unfiivour- 
impressed on aeveral accounts. He had had a 
horse shod with them, and he statod that Svs nails were 
^>ae at the point. Now, in pointing these nails a little 
porience was required in the mnntpulation by the man 
irho painted tiiem. Of course, it was impossible to 
miike them absolutely the sauia as those made by hand, 
although they bad approached it. Theit' nail did not 
equire bitting quite so hud. It required striking more 
igbtly, and by that means he felt sore they would 
lot Snd one in a hundred bad. He also went 
nto the question of tbe iron rolled not being so 
stiff as the iron hammered. The iron which was 
id by tbe band-made maker, a> had been already 
stated, had a blast of air allowed to pky upon the point 
of tbe nail, and he objected to too much of this oxygen. 
Thjit did the nail no barm at all. The only action it had 
tras that the blast of air kept the iron hotter while it was 
being hammered out — consequently -the nail camo out 
and was dropped into tbe box hotter than if it had no 
blast npon it. The iron itself was no worse at all. The 
only reason fbr its coming harder was, tb-it tho hammer- 
ing it at a lower boat hiid a tendency to injure tbe iron, 
making it brittle instead of ductile. He also spoke of tho 
wjiy in which the iron woscbiingcdbythe smaller makers. 
Consequently, the hand-made nail was likely to be mado 
of inferior iron; but they were not likely to run any risk 
of deterioration. Another gentleman raised a question of 
rolled Fenui bammerod iron. They obtained tbe beat 
iron that could be obtained ; they bought the flnest 
Swedish iron that could be obtained. They bad testi- 
moni^ils from all partji. He would add that, by the 
new process, nails could be made of any degree of stiff- 
ness ordunibitity, without becoming brittle. If a simple 
were sent, he would engage to turn oat a batch of nails 
of precisely the same temper. 

Ths Gb«liBLan s^iid it resti^d with bim to ask tbe meet- 
ing for their tbanka to Mr. Huggett tor his valuable 
paper, but, before doing so, it might be well, perhaps, to 
suggest an answer to a qiiealion that bad been put, 
namely, why the blow-pipe was used ott those naits 
which were hand-made. «iid what the effect of dis- 
pensing with it was likoly to bnvo. Tho blow-pipo 
was uaed, as they knew, for tho purpose of main- 
taininjl- the heat during the procesa of its use. It was 
liable to oiidiio the nail parily. If there was any one 
present at uU connected with weliiing operati<'D*, ha 
would know it was wanted U> prevent that oxidation ; 
it was ncceas.iry to form a kind of gloss Over the iron 
thrown off, so as to keep tho oxidation from tho p -'' 



60 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Dbobubbr 6, 1872. 



• 

^n to be welded. It strack him, theoreticallyf the dis- 
pensing with this blow-pipe arrangement was likely to 
produce a very satiafactory result, because there would 
be no liability for particles of oxide of iron 
entering into the point. As to the hammering of 
the points, clearly they were prepared by a different 
manufacture, and would require a different scale. Only 
experience could determine what that mode should be. 
Every one was familiar with the working of steel, and 
that steel purchased in two different shops might require 
two different treatments ; and it was very frequently 
found that what was called the same steel, purchased at 
intervals of two or three weeks, must be treated dif- 
ferently. As to the hammering, any one who at all 
understood the question would see that these would 
probably require a lighter blow than the others, from the 
process by which they had been made. 

A vote of thanks was then given to the lecturer, and 
the proceedings closed. 



ANinjAL INTEBHATIONAL EXHIBITIONS. 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Mujor-G^eral Scott, C.B., 
secretary. 

The Committee on Steel as Applied to Railway Pur- 

Soses met for the first time on Thursday afternoon, at 
tanhope-lodge, Kensington- gore, Mr. John Rams- 
bottom being in the chair, and the following members 
being present: — Mr. W. Adams, Mr. W. G. Beattie, Mr. 
A. McDonnell, Colonel C. S. Hutchinson, R.E., Mr. F. 
W. Webb, and Lieut.-Col. F. H. Rich, R.E. Mr. Cole, 
C.B., and Captain Grover, R.E., attended the meeting. 
The Committee considered the objects and scope of the 
proposed Exhibition, and agreed to notify them to the 
principal manufacturers of steel tyres, rails, nxles, 
springs, girders, &c. They recommended that sufficient 
space should be allotted to the London and North- 
Western Railway Company for a complete representa- 
tion of the steel products of the Crewe works. Among 
the promised objects were instenced a curious American 
steel fire box, and a Bessemer stoel rail 30 feet long, 
which was in the International Exhibition of 1862, and 
has since been continuously used at Crewe without turn- 
ing. It was suggested that specimens of steel which had 
stood work would be peculiarly interesting. It was 
stated that the Society of Arte has offered a large gold 
medal for the best specimen of steel in next year's Inter- 
national Exhibition. The Committee adjourned till the 
7th January, 1873. 

The first meeting of the Committee on Class 10, Sur- 
gical Instruments and Appliances for the London Inter- 
national Exhibition of 1873, was held at three p.m., on 
Tuesday, the 26th November, at the offices in Stanhope- 
lodge, Kensington-gore ; Mr. Caasar H. Hawkins, 
F.U.S., was voted to the chair; and among those 
present were, Mr. J. Hilton, F.R.S. ; Mr. Prescott G. 
Hewett ; Mr. R. Quain, F.R.S. ; Mr. W. White Cooper ; 
Mr. J. Luke, F.R.8. ; Mr. T. W. Nunn ; Mr. E. Saun- 
ders; Dr. G. T. Gream; Dr. W. S. Playfair, and Dr. 
H. J. Domville, C.B. 

Captain G. E. Grove, R.E., acted as secretary to the 
Committee, and Mr. H. Cole, C.B., was present as the 
representative of her Majesty's Commissioners for the 
Exhibition of 1851, under whose auspices the current 
series of Axmutd International Exhibitions is being 
carried on at South Kensington. 

The Committee was informed of the steps which had 
already been taken towards notifying the particulars of 
next year's International Exhibition to the manufac- 
turers of Surgioal Instruments and Appliances at home 
nd abroad. 



The following resolutions were then passed 

" 1. That the individual members of tliis < 
undertake to interest instrument-makers on t 
of exhibiting improved surgical instraxnent 
pliances, and will request them to give an eai 
tion to the Committee of their intention to coi 
the Exhibition of 1873." 

»* 2. That the Royal College of Surgeons 
public bodies, or private collectors, should be n 
lend the ancient surgical instruments in their 
that steps should also be taken to obtain a ^ 
the Italian government of the ancient sur^i 
mente recovered from the ruins of Pompeii 
similar applications should be made to oth 
governments who possess similar collections.*' 

** 3. That a communication should be forwai 
medical journals, and to the Journal of the 
ATt9^ explaining the objecte of the proposed \ 
of Surgical Instruments and Appliances, and 
instrument makers and others to contribute 
Applications to exhibit should be forwarded 
3l8t January, 1873, and the goods deliver 
11th March, 1873." 

With reference to the last paragraph of re 
it was suggested that the Spanish govemmeni 
particular be communicated with ; and th 
public bodies in England the Royal Medico-C 
Society, the Obstetrical Society, and the Uni 
Edinburgh should be applied to. 

A letter was read from Dr. Henry D. Noyei 
York, offering a case of opticsl appliances fc 
ocular diseases, and it was prop<Med that 
missioners should, when acknowledging it, su{ 
he should try to interest the American in 
makers in next year's London International Ex 

After the transaction of some more business 
mittee adjourned until Monday, the 23rd Decc 

The second meeting of the Committee, for 
Velvet, was held on Tuesday last, the 3rd 
The Committee decided upon specially ii 
large number of firms connected with the i 
to exhibit, so as to complete the repn 
of all branches of the trade, and certain 
undertook personally to ensure a comp 
representation of foreign manufactures. Th 
present Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart., chairman ; 
Bennoch, Mr. Cassells, Mr. F. Cobb, Mr. 
wick, Mr. Higginbotham, Mr. Arthur Le 
LintUhack, and Mr. Tucker. Mr. Cole, C.B., fl 
Clayton, R.E., attended the Committee. 



Amongst recent additions to the Carriage De 
Earl Onslow has promised to lend an old fam 
belonging to his father. Her Majesty has also 
to send a state coach to the Exhibition, and the 
of the House of Commons will send his. 



During the past week a telegram has been reo 
the Commissioners from the Japanese Qovemmi 
ing for a considerable grant of space (about 20( 
20} for the exhibition of the proauots of that 
Japan will, in consequence, probably be well repi 
especially in the deputment of silks. 

In accordance with the memorandum publiA^ 
Jul^, the Commissioners have been negotiatii 
various foreign academies and artistic societies 
view to the examination of works of art in their re 
countries, and their transmission, properly cerl 
the Exhibition. Official relations have now beei 
lished with different bodies in the following coon 
Holland (Societies of Arts) ; Denmark (Artistio i 
Copenhagen); Germany (Kunst Yerein); 1^1 
Academ^ ; Switserland (Societiei of Artisti}* 



|70DItNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dmbkbw 6, 1872. 61 

BILK QBOWINQ AND BEELINa IN 8TBIA. 

The principal pTodactioni of Syria kvailable for 
aiport are silk, cotton, wool, oil, Heune leed. millet 
Med, Indian com, wheat, barley, tobacco, madden, 
■poDges, fruits, &a. They ore exported from the porta 
of Latakio, Tripoli, Beyront, SidoQ, Tyre, Acre, Coiflk, 
and Jaffa. The falling off apparent in the year 1870-71 
la due to deficient harveata, and the stoppage of Ihe 
ordinary export trade of ullc to Fiance ia conaequenca 
of the war. According to the report made by Vice- 
Ckinial JKga upon the commerce and ogricolture of the 
Velayet of Syno, this article is cultivated cbieQy in Mount 
Lebanon, the plain of Beyrout, and Tripoli. A small 
qaontity ia also produced in the Latakia, Gidon, and 
other mstricts. - The averafte production of cocoons it 
satimated at 1.600.000 to 20,000,000 okes, valued betwe«n 
£600,000 aod £600,000. Prior to 1840, the naUte 



method of reeling prevented any considerable quantity 

Dg exported to Europe, and ibe surplus crops vi 

t cbieBy to Egypt, Morocco, Bagdad, and Turk 



s of the silk 

and cotton goods used for npper garments by the richer 
classes, — an industry, however, which hu been mach 
diminished by the competition of European looms. The 
introduction of a better system of reelingr is due to a 
French gentleman, who, in 1840, establuhed the first 
silk foctwy on the French method on Mount Lebanon. 
The improvementconsistedinstifiingtbe cocoons iottead 
of hurriedly reel^g them while fresh, in diminishing the 
diameter and in creating and regulating the speed of 
the reels, and in the employment of staun inatetul of 
wood for heating the bastos into which the cocoons ore 
plunged, whereby unifonnity in the thickness of the 
thread is attained. The native way of spinning pro- 
duces a thick, coarse thread, of varying size, and there- 
fore onodapted to European looms. The new system 
has obtained to such a degree, that at the present time 
there ore 85 silk-ipinniog fabrics, containing i,00O 
basins, in the country, besides a few catablistuDenta 
which are engaged in the slifiing and drying of the 
cocoons for exportation in their natural state. O! these 
factories, about a dozen are in the hands of foreigner*, 
chiefly Frenchmen, while the remainder have been 
eslabUshed and are being worked by natives, who have 
thus shown themselvn apt to learn and ready to profit 
by the instruction conveyed into the coontr; by Euro- 
pean enterprise. About three-fourths of the cocoons 
produced are spun in the above factories, and the raw 
silk sent almost exclusively to France for the use of the 
Lyonnaise looms ; while the remainder is partly ex- 
ported to Europe, and partly retained for home con- 
sumption, being spnn in the coarse, native way, aaitable 
for the manufactures of the countty. Beyond a small 
quantity of waste silk, none appears to have been sent 
to England for some years, the manner of reeling not 
appearing as yet to have ocoommodated itsdf to 
English machinery. The factories obtain their sup- 
plies of cocoons ^m the peasantry in the surrounding 
districts, to whom the rearing of the silkworm is the 
chief resource ; butthelittlecare giventoits cultivation, 
and to prevent the spread of the disease, which first 
made its appearenoo in 1851, raises gi«at doubts as to 
the future of this mMt important ptoanctioii, at all times 
liable to constant risks trma climoteric influences, unless 
someUiing is done to improve the sytten), and remedy 
the disease. 

The silk year lasts, in ordioarr times, ten months, 
from Jane to the end of April. It, however, depends 
upon two things, viz., prosperity in France on the one 
side ; and, on the other, an abundant crop in Syria, per- 
mitting pnrchasea to be made at advai^ageons prices. 
The dimtion of the spinning averages from eight 
and a half to nine months. The factories give 
employment to numbers of persons of every age, 
sax, and religion; audit is estimated that above £iO,000 
■re aannaUy ezpmidBd in wages in Mount Lebanon alone. 



52 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Deoembto 6, 1872. 



The ten French oatabluhments in the country employ, 
for instance, in the aggregate, from 1,200 to 1,250 persons. 
In three of them girls form nearly nine-tenths of the 
tota^ number of hands. In the others the proportion of 
the women is insignificant, and they are only employed 
at harrest time for assorting cocoons. The girls are 
from nine to eighteen years old, after which age they 
remain at home, and cease to hire themselves. In those 
establishments where the two sexes are employed, a strict 
surveillance is exercised over them. The native work- 
man is found generally to be very intelligent, and to 
take readily to spinning. The girls show rare patience 
and application, and evince greater skill than the boys. 
The character of both is docile. The largest proportion 
of nationalities among the employ ts are Maronites, and 
the remainder Greeks, Catholics, and Druses. No Moslems 
are employed. The Druses are found useful as messengers, 
labourers, and for out-door work in general, the charac- 
teristics of the race unbefitting them for sedentary occu- 
pations. The work is from sunrise to sunset, with three 
stoppages for food and repose. Silence is imposed, and 
disputes and misconduct punished by fines. The total 
value of the ten French factories in the Lebanon is esti- 
mated at from £72,000 to £80,000. This, with the value 
of the seventy or eighty others in the country, will give 
an idea of the importance of the Syrian silk trade and 
the capital laid out. In the year 1871, great success 
attended the hatching of the seed, so much so as to 
necessitate the destruction of a proportion of the worms 
for the want of a sufficient quantity of leaves. The crop 
of cocoons was, therefore, greater than in former years, 
but the quality and yield was barely an average, atrophy, 
the result of insufficient food, being the cause, and the 
cocoons were consequently only partially developed in a 
large proportion. The white mulberry tree is, necessarily, 
an important feature in the Lebanon and the silk-producing 
districts generally. The trees are planted in rows, about 
four paces from each other. During the first eight years 
they give a greater or less quantity of leaves, after which 
the produce remains stationary, if properly cared for, 
otherwise the yield soon begins to decrease. Much 
attention, however, is given to the cultivation ; the land 
is ploughed three or four times a-year, weeds are extir- 
pated, and irrigation practised. In May, in the plains, 
and in June in the higher lands, the first crop of leaves 
is gathered for the nourishment of the silkworm, and 
the branches are cut ofif. In the autumn the second crop 
is gathered, and serves as fodder for sheep and cattle. 



PATENT LAWS IN JAPAN. 

Amongst the recent innovations in Japan is the intro- 
duction of a patent law. As the whole text of this 
instrument is not very long, we append a translation, 
furnished by the Forsign-office to the Commissioners of 
Patents^ Journal: — 

Msy 35, 1871. 

Henceforward exclusive perminsion to trade in newly- 
invented articles of all kinds wbatitoever will be granted to 
the inveoturs ; in consequence whereof, should any person 
residing in any part of the oountry be desirous of obtuning 
such exclusive permission, the application shall for the pre- 
flCQt be made to the Home-office, in accordance with the 
regulations which follow. 

Patents shall be granted for a term of years to all 'persons 
who increase the conveniences of life, who newly invent any 
chemical apparatus, machiuery, utensils, or furniture, 
weapons, woven fabrics, ftc., or who improve existing 
furniture or ntensils. 

The term of years shall be fifteen years, ten years, or seven 
years, according to the value of the invention. 

Any person desirous of obtaining a patent shall send in his 
application to the loosl authorities of the district in which he 
resides, accompanied by a d^^scription, drawings, &c., which 
shall be forwarded to the Home-office, and the Home-office 
shill irtsue the patent 

The objects of the invention or the improvement shall be 
-oarcf ally drawn in cross-sec^on and plan, and in the case of 



machinery the parts must be numbered or U 
cordance with the description, so that everyt 
clearly comprehensible at a single glance ; an 
the invent ir and of his surety must be attachec 
ings. Models may be furnished of articles of 
inps cannot easily be made. 

When the diM!ument containing the patent i« 
Home-office the local authorities shall deliver i 
obtained a receipt from the inventor and his sv 
A duty of five rio (£1 Is. 3d.) shall be pai^ 
advance during the period for which the pate 
int> the hands of the local authorities. 

The duty may be increased or diminished, ac 
nature of the invention. The amount shall hi 
the Home Department hs soon as it is collectcMi 
No duty shall be puid until six months hav« 
the granting of the patent, that period being a 
inventor to try wheth«»r the sale be remnneiufc 
he has ascertained that it is remunerative he vi 
year's duty to the local authorities. 

If from the trial made during the first six m 
turns out to be unremunerative, the application 
drawn at the option of the patentee, but in can 
cation be made after the expiration of the sis 
duty for one year already paid in advance \ 
turned. 

The applications sent into the Home-ofRei 
consideration according to priority of arrival. 

Where the invf^ntion of another has simply t 
the application must distinctly state the name \ 
inventor and the nature of the improvement 
invention in respect of which an apphcation is n 
a prior invention by another individual, but s 
in construction or use, the points of difierenoe n 
laid down in the application. 

No patent will be granted for articles of gea 
ence, though the inventor be known beyond ib< 
mistake, and be yet alive, if the invention has I 
use for several years previous to the applicatioi 
Separate patents will not bo given to each ii 
may have combined with others to produce an i 
a single patent will be issued in the name of ai 
of the company. 

The owner of a patent may freely dispose of i 
as sceins fit, during the period for which it has 
and both parties shall make application to 1 
endorsed upon the patent 

The patentee is at liberty to establish brand 
own name, or to teach others how to make the art 
by him. 

Should the patentee die before the patent es 
leave the patent to a relation, but application 
to have the transfer endorsed thereon. 

The Home-office shall publicly notify in ea^ 
patent has been granted to such and such a p4 
and such a place, giving also the names of tht 
province, and the scat of the local authority, ii 
of his having invented such and such on articl 
Should the patentee inctir such losses duric 
years as he is unable to make good, if the art 
inquiry is found to be of indispensable publi< 
extension may be granted. 

Each separate article must bear the words '' I 
sanction," together with the name of the inves 
Fines shall be imposed on persons who tn^ 
use of a patentee's name, or who, not being in t 
of a patent, moke use of the term *' by gove 
tion.'^ 



ANALYSES OF LONDON MD 

With reference to the analyses of stree 
that the Society has now under considerat 
be worth while to refer to former experia 
same sort. Amongst some of the most im 
those undertaken in 1866-67 by Dr. Lethe 
not, we believe, attempt to discriminate 
different sorta of mud from different pavem 
collected mud from the stone-paved streets 
and subjected it to analysis. The avemge^ 
of moisture was found to be 35*3 per cent, oi 
of the mud in the driest weather^^^^ ■ 
weather, 70 to 90 in wet weather. Wlllft w 



JOORWAl OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbobmbbr 6, 1872. 53 



PATENTS ON BRUSHES, &c. 
Bloe-booki BTs 10 sddom read that we moke littls 
apology for estrMtmg the foUowiog, which forms the 
iutraductioD to a lecant Tolume, " AbiidgmeoU or 
SpecificstiODB BeUtiag to Brnthing uid Sweeping," 
published hj the Pfttont Oflioe :— 

With regard to the mann&ctute of hnuhea at pKsent, 
there aro, of courae, aa many metiiodi aa there are do- 
•criptioni of bnuhea. Speaking geaerally, it may be 
■aid that braihea are of two kinds, tboee compowd of a 
■ingle toft or fibre, and those of miuiy tufta ut in a 
" stock " or back. Of the first sort, the simplest are Ihe 
" pendta," or small brnsbes used by artiita. The smaller 
aorta of these are act in a quill, the larger in a metal 
tube. The fibrea used are the hair of the camel, goBt, 
squirrel, sable, marten, badger, Slc, and, for tbe larger 
siEfl, bog's bristles. In tho process of manufacture a 
■dihII bundle of hair ia tied tosether, car« being taken 
that the hairs are arranged to ^rm a point in the centre 
of the brush ; this is pushed to a aufficient lent^h 
through the large end of the qoill or tube. The 
quill has been moistened, and contracta aa it driea, 
so as to bold fast the hair j or if a metal tube 
is uaed, it is slightly compreascd upon the hair. 
In larger brushes, made of a single tuft, a mass of 
hair is secured by binding or otherwise, and the 
handle driven into it through the briatlea. This 
prooeas has, however, numerous Taiiationa. In the 
■econd class of bnishea a suitable back is preparod 
and bored with holes to receive the tofts of bnatUa. 
These " knots " are generally formed by tying a bundle 
of Gbrsa ti^Uier and dipping it in cement ; after 
which each knot ia placed in the hole prepared for 
il. In brushes which are sufficiently abort to admit of 
the hair being doubled, "wire drawing" is used. A 
tuft of bristles is drawn through each hole by a wire 
passed across its middle, and the doubled and is thus 
forced in. This process, aa well as those alluded to 
before, is capable of nomerous modifications, the sketch 
here given being aa brief and general as possible. 

The most common material for brushes is procured 
from the briatlea of the hog, which are imported into 
this country principally frnm Russia. Various vegetable 
Bbres are aJso emjjayed, aa •ell as animal hair of nearly 
avery description. The war with Russia is said to have 
interrupted the supply of bristles, and to have given a 
xmaiderable impulse to the introduction of various vege- 
lable substitutes. In 1870 the value of brooms and 
brushes exported was £S6,28T, that of thoM imported, 
£26,035. lliemlue of the bristles imported in the same 
rear»aa£d6e,7e7. 

Among vegetable fibres employed are Uiose of the 
Ueiican aloe. Bruahee of fibre are apedally suitable 
'or lime- washing, because the alkali doea not aflect 
iitm aa it does briatlea. Vegetable fibre ia also 
nixed with bristle for purposes of adulteration ; chew 
lut less serviceable brushes being made of the tuixea 
natcrisls. 

Most of the different parts of bmthe* aie now made by 
nachinery, and machinery has even been applied to the 
complete process of brush-making. One of the moat 
eceot improvements connected with the sul^ect consista 
if an American machine for trenching, wiring, andin- 
ertiog bristles in brush backs.' 

In the way of history, not much ia to be gathwed 
.bout our sobject. That brooms for cleaning and sweep- 
ng pacposes have been known since the very earlieet 
leriods. and by the rudest and most undvilised people, ia 
ertain enough. Amongst tbe relics belonging to the iron 
gr, disentombed from the peat-mosses of Sleswick. 
rera found two birch-brooms, t curious msnifeatationa 



64: 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS> Deombbb 6, 1872, 



of ancient tidiness. The remains amongst which these 
brooms were found probably belong to the second or 
third centmy, as is evidenced by Boman coins mixed 
with tiiem. In classical writers, from Bomer down- 
wards, we find, as might be expected, casual references 
to these domestic implements. They would not be of 
snflSdent importance to cause more than an accidental 
and careless notice. Thus we find (Horoor, Od. xx., 
1. 149], when Euryclea is clearing away the remnants 
of the suitors' feast, she bids the slayes : — 

Later on we find similar allusions ; Sophocles (An- 
tigoue, 409) and Euripides (Hecuba, 363) both use the 
word traipu in the sense of sweeping, though it might be 
too much to assume that a broom was necessarily to be 
employed. Aristophanes is rather more definite. In 
his Pax (1. 69) he makes on6 of his characters address a 
comic prayer to Zeus : — 

^n Zcv, ri wort fiov\t6ti irottiy ; 
KoeriBov rh K6fnifia ' /i^ *KK6p€i r^v *£AX(i8a.t 

Eupolis, moK 9, uses the same word ; but there is little 
use or interest in multiplying such references. We may 
mention that Theophrastus (H. P. 6. 1. 3.) speaks of the 
<rroi/9^ or ^^y, a shrubby plant (Pot$rium spinoaum, 
Linn.) used to make brooms ; hence (rToififjs trvByAiv^ 
Hipponax (Bergk's **Lyrici GrsBci"), 42. 8. It appears 
that the tails of animals were commonly used as substi- 
tutes for brushes, just as they are now. 

In Latin authors we find similar casual references. 
It is stated that the best Roman' brooms were made 
of palms, others of twigs of difierent sorts. Plautus 
(Menoechmi, 1. 1. L) has the word penieulw^ which 
Festus translates " a small brush for removing dust." 
A 'character named Peniculua, a parasite, begins a 
speech: — 

*' Javentas nomcn fecit Pcnfcnlo mlhl 
Ideo qala mentam qu&Ddo edo det«rgeo/*{ 

In the same play (2. 3. 40.) the word occurs again. 
Scopa or scopae also meant a broom. *'Scopa8 dis- 
solvere/* " To undo a broom," i.^., to throw everything 
into confusion, is a proverb used by Cicero (Or. 71. 235). 
Plautus, too, uses the word (Stich, 2, 2, 23). 

Munditlas volo fitrl ; efferte hoc scopas. § 

and in the same scene (11. 27 and 51) again. 

Scopnla is used for a little broom (Cato, R. R. 26). and 
in some sort in contradistinction to penicillus in Colu- 
mella (12. 18) ; — the author is speaking of preparations 
for vintage — *' Deinde penicillo detergitur et fcrvent- 
issima pice infusa novo alio rutabnlo et scopula pica- 
tur.'l 

Pliny appears to be the earliest writer who speaks 
definitely of a brush made of bristles. He recommends 
as a remedy for bums (N. H. 1. 28. c. 71.) "Setarum 
.... penicillis tectoriis oinis cum adipe tritus/'IT 

Elsewhere (N. H. 1. 33. 7), in speaking of colouring for 
a wall, ho aays, " Parieti siccato cera Punica cum oleo 
liquefacta eandens satis inducatur."** A similar receipt 
is given by Vitruvius (Lib. 7. c. 9.), " Ctram Punicam, 
xgni liqupftictam, paulo oleo temperatam, parieti seta 
inducere."tt 



• " Come now, let some of yon make haste and sweep the honso." 

+ " O Z'-UB, whatever dost thou mexm to do ? Pat by the besom, 
don't sweep Greece clean out." 

% ** The boys have dabbed me *Braah,* because I sweep the table 
clean at all my meals." 

2 " I want the place cleared up, go fetch a broom." 

11 " Then It [the wlnc-vat] is brosbed out with a brr>om, and boll- 
I ng pitch h p«)iired in, aoa spread over it with a >patnla [some 
tmearinK instrument ia meant by nUobulum] and a brush." 

H **lbeaah of bristles from plasterers biuslies ground up with 
grease." 

•• " Let Panfc wax. dissolved fn oil, b« laid on hot with a brash 
upon the wall when it is «lry.*' This Punic wax was ordina' y yellow 
wax, p'»rlflcd and bleached —See Pliny, N.H. 1 xxl., c. 49. 

H ** To lay on the wall with the bmsh a coating of Panic wax 
vMltcd on the flr*, Md alithtly tMapcrsd.iiith oU.** 



To trace any further the history of sndi oommi 
articles afl brooms would be practically imposaible. 
does not even seem possible to discover the origin of i 
ordinary wire-drawn brush. Like most artidee in dal 
use« the brush is below the dignity of history. 

Turning to painters' brushes, we find that» as far 
they can be traced back, they seem to have been of \ 
same construction as at present. Borne Chinese artii 
even now, use a bamboo with one end split up into fl 
ments, but, according to a paasage in Morrises 
Chinese Dictionary,! hair-pencils were invented by { 
Chinese about 300 b.c. A<s Homer speaks of pii 
ing upon ships, we may conclude that arti{ 
brushes of some sort were in use in EuH 
previous to his time, while the paintings 
Egypt prove even greater antiquity. Esekiel (b.c. € 
too (zxiii. 14.), speaks of '* men pourtrayed upon ! 
wall, the images of the Chaldeans pourtrayed with i 
milion, etc." It is hardly needful to argue t^t 
existence of painting proves the use of the hrt 
Certain descriptions of wax colours were laid on ik 
the style {cestrum, ypa^(s) made of metal and poiu 
at one end, but other colours were applied with the 1 
I pencil {penicillwy tiroypaipls). Smith's Dictionazy 
I Antiquities, under the article Piotura, refers to a w 
of Zahn|| in which a Figure of Painting, discovered 
the so-called Pantheon at Pompeii, is described. 1 
figure holds in her left hand a palette and brual 
Pliny in his account of painters and painting (Nat. B 
books xxxiii., xxxiv., andxxxv.) frequently speaka ofj 
brush as a common implement. In relating the e^ 
of Protogenes and Apelles (N. H. L 35. c 36.) 
says, " Arrepto peniculo; lineam ex colore di 
summsB tenuitatis per tabulam."^ The word pex&id 
or penicolus occurs frequently m the books alluded 
and other authors (Quintilian, lib. 2 ; Cicero, Ad \ 
miliarcs, 9. 22 ; Marcian. Dig. 33., 7, 17.) use it c^ 
sionally. Pliny (b. 35., c. 41.) speaks of a xnethoi 
painting ships, in which the melted wax was luid 
with a brush. 

A few details have been preserved respectinj? 
brushes used by mediaBval artists. Mrs. Mernl 
in her work on the subject, § has translated s 
passages bearing on the subject. 

In the Public Library at Brussels there is jn^sei 
a MS., II written in 1635, by Pierre le Brun, a pni^ 
in which a description of various matters connected i 
the art of painting is given, and many technical t^ 
explained. In the first chapter " De la Platte I 
ture," the following passage occurs : — ** Les pino 
sent fait d'un poil doux toutefois qu'il ait nno r6ai$| 
pour 88 tenir droit et faire une pointe assez fterme 
peindre, les poils d'ouris [ours] y sont tft«s l| 
moustoil, foines et autrca semblables ; on se sert aus 
petite bruissttle fait d« soye de pourceau (ou coci 
L'on a aussi des pince lUx fait do poil do poieson 
adoucir." 

This is translated hs follows by Mrs. Merri field 
" The pencils are made of a soft kind of hair, but M 
has sufficient resistance to keep itself straight, ^ 
make a firm point for painting ; the hairs of he^n 
very good, so are those of martens and similar anii 
Small brushes made of hog's or pig's briatUMi are 
used, and pencils of fishes' hair** for softeningr.** 

In two fifteenth-century miniatures, reproduce 
Mrs. Merrifield, the artist is represented with a I 



* ** Dictionary of the Chioese Laagnge." Maeao. 1 si s . 
daction, p. ix. 

+ *' Die schonsten Ornamcnte und merkwUrdi^tco ^«xu»]i 
P«impeil Herkulanum und Stabice." Berlin. l^'i«. 

X ** Snatching up a brush, he drew across the board vtt 
colour a Une of the atmott fioenets." 

\ ** Original Treatlws .... on the Arts of Paintlas.'^ i^ 

1849. ^ 

II No. 15,652. It is qnoted aUeniO in Mrs. H«rtfi«u, x^ 
etieq. 
H IblJ. p. 770. 
•• Fnbably tml% tat. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Dbcbicber 6. 1872, 



55 



KpfNRDtiy r^embliog those in use at present. In each 
«ak» a tnj fall of brushes is figured by the artist's 



h » HS. preserred in the Library of the University 

a rj4aa,* entitled, ''Ricette perfar ogni sorte di colore," 
^ inccipt for boiling hair. 

* P*r ftrt crino hoUito beUitt'^. — Si pigla le came e 
nie. fiOfv di boTi, OATallif vache, vitelli, ma averti che 
h »f9 de' eavalli noo sooo bone. ' Si pongono in acqua 
fiMc% e si lara socio non le resti untume ne sozzure 
UTBC di poi falls fillare in corda poi si pone in parollo 
mr) di liacsK, e si £a boUire per 6 hore.'* 

I1tt» is traniUted by Mrs. Merrifield f :— <' To make 
nocUfsit boiltd hair : — Take the manes, forelocks, and 
Sua of oxen, horses, cows, and calves (but remember 
ftifc ths Uils of hones are not good), place them in 
&^ VBtsr, amd wish them so that there may not re- 
•un say gx««se or dirt ; then string them on a cord, 
j£«-viids pat them into a vessel with ley, and let them 
M ft^ six hoozB." 

Thii tecflu to show that painters of that time were 
lU^tnl to make their brushes for themselves, as, indeed, 
**•'* W probttble enough. 

In saoftber pirt of the same MS.} directions are givan 
ftr laUzof a brash for '^ graining" by inserting hogs' 
IwUaii&b> a flat back of wood. 

Ik« tm of Washes for purposes of the toilet seems to 
li s mapswtively modem invention. Combs are very 
ocMBt Taey are found of ivory and bone, in barrows, 
^jtish. fiosan, and English. Savage nations used — 
Mi is» even at the present day — fish-bones for combs. 
KfTpttsB sad Qrrak combs have been discovered 
h*>is sf boxwood, and we hear of ivory combs 
pvaBong the Bomans. Wright^ tells us how the 
wail iivwden used to comb their Imir daily, to the 
M|nt ef the more slovenly English ; and elsewhere || 
li^SMM wiiferr f^v€a a picture from a ISth century MS. 
litfik Bipiuiuita a lady combing her hair. The author 
tf lit wlneal history of Jean IV., Duke of Bretagne, 

** Lbs f fe aa eoi s estoient bien peign^."1T 

I litWsMBediesof the Bestoration period are many 
to the custom practised by beaux, of curling 



_ the peruke, at a time when men of frfsbion 

htfB viga» was even at public places an act of 

The combs for this purpose were of a Imge 

^4 tfury and tortoiseshell, curiously chased and 

and were, carried in the pockets as con- 

• tbe souff-box at Court."** 

«I1 such notices it does not appear that any 

of the hair-brush. Nor is it till we get 

IstiBKS much more recent that we find this now 

toilet implement ever mentioned. In 1770 Peter 

vrt/ie a ** Treatise on the Uttir," in which he 

^*^ iaB directions for bair-dtesaing of every sort. Ue 

frtqumtJy of combing it, but never alludes to 

it. In the same year also a airnilar woik was 

by I>avid Ritchie, but he likewise, whilt^ 

'if full directions about combing the hair, does 

»}rak of brushing it. H^d bair-brnshis been in 

n} Bie, th^ee two writers would probably have men* 

^ri thtm. That they were known is made evident 

ttkb (uUowing extract from Owen's Dictionary of 
> lad &i«ices, dated 1763, in which it is said that, 
••Ant-bniehee pay a duty, on importation, of Is. S^^^d. 
m pQ« or twelve doxen ; whereof Is. l^d. is dmwn 
wk en exporting them. Comb-brushes pay 28. &iVif^* 



fJk-Bf 



rWmmr^ Domestic ManMra, 

^^^ ftierh wers carefbllj combed.** Quoted ia Lacroiz** 
4»la€4«anvc*a** Paris, l8«l. 

•^BiHsry of Mu^*' vol. ir., p. 4«^j 



Ijoadon. ]882. p. 60. 




for the same number, and of this 28. 3d. is repaid. 
Head-brushes pay Is. Sy'^j'^l. the dozen ; rubbing-brushes 
3^^^. the dozen; weavers' brushes ll^'^d. for the 
same number, in all of which a proportionable 
drawback is allowed. However, it is to be observed that 
brushes are among the number of goods prohibited to be 
imported." Swift, in a remsricably coarse set of verses 
called **The Lady's Dressing Room," published (or 
written) in 1730, mentions among other articles a brush, 
but one apparently only to be U3*-d for cleaning comhg. 

^* Notes and Queries" (1st series, vol. xL, page 299), 
gives an extract from the '* Annual Register " of 1773, 
which goes to show thjit hair-dressing was a ** pitiful 
and womanly " employment, "not fit for young men to 
foUow." 

Of shaving-brushes we can speak with more definite- 
ness. On October 7th, 1814, a correspondent wrote as 
follows to the Gtntletnan* s Moffoane : — *' I am old enough 
to remember when the operation of shaving in this 
kingdom was almost exclusively performed by the 
barbers ; what I spenk of is some threescore years ago, 
at which time gentlemen shavers were unknown. Ex- 
pedition WHS tht-n a prime quality in a barber, who 
smeared the lather over his customers' faces with his 
hand, for the delicnte refinement of the brush had not 
been introduced. The lathering of the beard being 
finished, the operator threw 00* the lather adhering to 
his hand by a peculiar jerk of the arm, which caused the 
joints of the fini^ers to crock, this being a more expedi- 
tious mode of clearing the hand than using a towel for 
that purpo«e ; and the more audible the crack the higher 
the shaver stood in his own opinion and in that of hi» 
fraternity." 

This note was in answer to one alluding to a passage 
in Stubbe's "Anatomie of Abuses," printed in 1583. The 
passage refers to the barbers of the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth, and is quoted as follows in the 0entleman*9 
Magaiine for September, 1814, p. 207 : — "And when they 
come to washing, oh how gingerly they behave them- 
selves therein. For then ihaU yoor mouth be bossed 
with lather, or some that riseth of the balles (for they 
have their sweete bttUes wherewith all they use to 
washe), your eyes closed must be anointed therewith 
also. Then snap go the Jingera^ /«/ bi^uvdyj Ood wot^* 
&c. 

Hone, in his "Everv-day Book," vol. 1, p. 1,267, refers 
to these pnssages, and quotes ^m Lyly, who speaks of 
the **" knacking of the hands " by a barber ; from Green, 
who describes a barber ** that can snap his fingers with 
dexterity ;" and from Ben Jonson, one of whose 
characters. Morose in the " Silent Woman," desires a 
quiet barber, who *' hath not the knack with his shears 
or his fingers." 

Smith, in his "Topography of London,"* says: — "The 
entertaining and vtuertible Mr. Thomas Batrich, barber, 
of Diury-lane, informs me that before the year 1756 it 
was a general custom to lather with the hand ; but that 
the French barbers, much about that time, brought in the 
brush." 

In confirmation of this, it may be added that Handle 
Holme, who wrote on heraldry in 1688, gives a list of 
barbers' instruments, in which a shaving brush is not 
mentioned, though a clothes brush is. 

J. Jenning's ** Family Cyclopoedia " (1822) speaks of 
a " stomach -brush " as **a curious instrument, which 
excited considerable attention about the middle of the 
last century, but which has never been much used ;" 
** nor can we say a great deal in its favour." No further 
description is given. The same authority recommends 
the use of the tooth-brush ; " some medical men dis- 
approve of the use of tooth-brushes, whilst others as 
strongly recommend them," and considers the hair-brush 
and nail-brush alike usefiiL 

Curiously enough, in many lang^uages the word for a 
brush and the matter removed by its use are the same. 

• SflilUi (J. T.> •« Topography of Loadoo.** LMdon : ItlSi p. SS. 



56 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Dkoember 6, 1872 



In old English even the word bmah used to signify dust 
or dirt. Chaucer has : — 

**AAd erer among, the brush away the pikid 
From her clothes here and there." 

The Greek x^fn/Mt means both '^refuse*' and a '* broom.*' 
For instances of this in other languages, reference may 
be made to *' Wedgwood's Dictionary of English Ety- 
mology." The true derivation of the word is, however, 
certainly to be connected with ** bristle." 



COEEESPOHDEHCX 



INTERNATIONAL TELEGRAPHY. 

The following appeared lately in the Dat'/y N^ews : — 

Sib, — ^Your article of Saturday last induced me to 
procure and read Sir James Anderson's pamphlet on the 
above subject. Perhaps you will allow me to make a few 
remarks on it in the interest of the public. Sir James 
writes wholly and avowedly as a representative of the pre- 
sent cable interests, and argues, in the first place, that low 
tariffs are inconsistent with high dividends to the present 
companies. In this he is probably right ; but when he goes 
on to claim that government should protect them from 
competition, and grant them a virtuxl monopoly in order 
to keep up a high tariff; or else should purchase their 
cables at a fancy price, and then give the public the 
benefit of a low tariff, the justice of what he says is by no 
means so evident. It would be a generous, and might 
be a wise policy — wise in the highest sense, for generosity 
is the highest wisdom — in consideration of what they 
have effected, to repay them for their expensive lessons 
in the school of experience, for their mistakes, for the 
large sums spent by way of promotion money, for the 
extravagant cost of cables, made not for cash, but 
in exchange for shares of a doubtful value — it might 
be wise to do this in order to get rid of the incubus 
of the present interests; but that he should venture 
to advocate a prohibition of competition and a 
monopoly in their favour, is startling, and I do not 
think wise on his part. Now a few words on the 
scientific part of the question. Sir James Anderson 
denounces the laying of mere cores, or cores lightly pro- 
tected, and advocates cables, if anything, stronger, 
heavier, and more expensive than the present ones. 
That it would be an advantage, eateris paribtUy that 
the cables should be stronger there is no doubt ; greater 
absolute weight might also be an advantage, if ships 
could be found large enough to carry them ; greater 
specific weight would probably be a disadvantage ; 
but it by no means follows that they should be 
more expensive ; on the contrary, they may well 
be very much less expensive. The core of cop- 
per and g^tta-percha is an element at once of wcuIe- 
ness and of high cost, and a long and costly series of 
experiments has proved that this core may be dispensed 
with altogether ; or even if not altogether discarded, may 
be rendered effective for a small fraction of the present 
expense. I have no hesitation in saying that cables 
oqually effective might be laid at from one-half to one- 
quarter of what the present lines have cost. Nothing can 
better prove the mischief of a high tariff than Sir James 
Anderson's own statement, that the present costly 
messages are almost wholly commercial or political, and 
that the cables are seldom used for domestic or personal 
communication. When we consider how many English- 
men have dear friends and relatives in the colonies and 
in foreign countries who cannot get an answer to a letter 
for weeks or months, what statement could be more 
damnatory^ than that the present tariff, and all tariffs 
hitherto tried, are too high for such a use P Surely the 
private ioterests of shardiiolders to the amoimt of ten or 
twelve millions of money ought not to be allowed to pre- 
vail against thegreatdaims of oivilisation and humanity, 
nor should the det^ring influence of an association of 
capitalists be able to bar the way against the progreM 
of soienoe.— I am, fto., Elsct&ioub. 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 

Sir, — ^In my remarks during the dis^ 
** Technical Education," I perceive, from 
that I was misunderstood on a few points, 
to '* Gothenburg," a town in Sweden, but t 
burg, a kingdom in Southern Germany, thai 
and the " Polytechnische Schule" in Stutt 
the centre of technical education of Worten 
not of Germany. 

For the insertion of these corrections i 
number of the Joftmal I shall feel greatly 
I am, &o., O. 

Belgnve College, 148, Backlnghsm Palsce-road, 3. 

December 2ad, 1872. 



Sir, — Permit me to add a few words with 

Mr. Webster's excellent paper on Technical 

on behalf of primary schools, especially the 

districts. One of the greatest difficulties ii 

get children in any way to associate their schi 

with what they see around them and have to 

daily work ; there is no reid life in it. It is tfa 

their elders. Learning is " great medicine,' 

despised and sometimes held in awe, but seldoi 

appreciated. There can hardly be a better or 

remedy for this than some suitable branch oi 

teaching. The Education Department give 

grant for two "extra subjects." and one of 1 

well be some technical matter taught in tfa 

manner which Mr. Webster so well advoc 

than Uie crudities which so often imms for 

subject. But the woxk must be begun with t 

and what I would specially urge, therefore, i 

of the Society with and upon the training coll< 

over, technical education, properly given, be* 

ing the readiest means of conveying some prt 

of scientific method, both to the teachers 

taught, should further help to bridge over tfa 

that there now often is between the teach< 

shrewd but illiterate people who, in the reni< 

especially, must often be their only noigl 

should be their chief support. The latter ki 

nothing of books, and can only understand 

the concrete ; the former know nothing but 

and so abstract it from all its surroundings » 

any *' practical " conclusions impOMible. T< 

their country neighbours are thus often as oi 

Well chosen technical matters should afft» 

ground for the beginnings of an intercourse 

not fail to be of tho greatest advantajje in e' 

education, and in this, as in many other caa 

first step which costs most. — I am, &c., 

Rowland B 



CHANNEL PASSAGE. 



Sir,— I have read Mr. Mackie's letter in 
of November 29th. Will you kindly allow i 
to it? 

I will pass by his personalities and reroaii 
similarity and the value of my drawing??, i 
Polytechnic, and apply myself to what he ten 
tangible facts, and not to imaginative data. 

I may say I have spent fifteen years in eo 
t? put — so he calls it^a real good thing 
public, and not a " mare's nest." 

The following facts may be relied npon, 
authenticated : — 

In 18d4 I designed my firrt treble fa(»H 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, DsonfBift 6, 1872. 



57 



tufflibttd four jpttddles, as shown by Bir. Maekie in 
tb^nqiHuid in 1862 pat my ideas into practice by 
mhaa^ of Simmons, of Pntney, a boat (30 ft. long 
If 1ft. vide) haTing a flat floor and flat sides ; on to 
tfcs I joBcd two halls, one on either side, with the 
lMt$ betwwo, in the tunnels. 

Hus bott vas tried on the Thames* in the presence of 
Bat faiuk, lod the result was I was cordially laaghed 
tbimj vant of success. I next tried the four- wheel 
Ml vitkoDe holl only, discarding the outer hulls and 
^■nels, tbii time at Kingston, not wishing to risk 
my •gun. Posh, the boat-builder, assisted at the 
^■UKot; t^iin no suocess. The reason was obvious ; 
m fawt paddle-wheel churned up the water, the after 
■ft smtvBd in the water as churned ; the consequence 
nMt»Hdle drugged the other and the boat as wAll. 

SBMttuittiffle I have devoted myself to twin boats, 
■«»tibiory, and in 1867, 1868. 1869, and 1870 by 
wiktiii, in Tuioos places, the model of the vessel I am 
Vvadtoating. 

I>Binf the Ittt two years I have built and engined, at 

aowa hoixj cost, a twin boat, 60 ft. by 18 ft., which 
beAortlyfeMJy. 
fcfcftjtttting in the engines I subjected her to 
^ jmgh Qsage, besides floating her with one hull 
■ siitf and the oth^* empty ; in this way she is 
"•^ by anchoring one huU down to the shore with 
"^ickKao as to leave the other to lift with the tide, 
•kieh eircnmstances no strain has occurred. 
ing the gales we have had the last fortnight, 
Ijing opposed to the full fury of the south- 
od tides, and has ridden them out easily, 
»«!• impossible to stand on a steamer of similar 
^mg alongside. All as stated herein can be 
'M kf many. I think I may now say, with 
that I have worked sincerely for public 
St no small cost to myself of time and 
mi in ssiociating myself with Captoin Dicey I 
"^ done right for the public and myself also, 
•ad twin boats are not new; of these boats 
■eiiUe example of fedlure is that of the Oemini, 
■i on the Thames, from London to Qravesend, 
UTMitago. This boat iaUed because the hulls 
Qose together, the paddle-wheel in the centre, 
' *M no cabin accommodation. Since that lime 
bays been in use on the Clyde, New York, 
r Bhine, and elsewhere, with varying suc- 
And lastly, there was the beautiful Swan 
^•a exoi^vely lively example, which rolled 
mh a manner that sometimes she forgot her- 
T^Uy. at last, lost her head. I will conclude 
■at I atiU adhere to the last paragraph in my 
r lo you, in which I state that Captain Dicey 
^JB will cany out the experiment, which we 
mmnd public attention ; also, that I wish Mr. 
'''fwd toocess with his new model, 
lam. Sir, 

Yoor obedient servant, 

«.l^*_ A. SlDLBY. 

w*««B«a<4fiK«t,2ad December, 1872. 



TELEGRAPHIC EXPERIMENTS. 

"In knowing experiment may interest your 

'M)n Xovember 4th the cable from Dover to 

^ y W oken by a ship's anchor, al)out five 

[y* ^wr. By the kind permission and co-opera- 

Jb. Bondeattx, the engineer of the Submarine 

"^Oompany, I placed my instrument, as shown 

■^^fte Society of Arts, between the end of 

"i st IX>ver and the water-pipes of the town. 

I we oouhl distinctly read every message 

--•Bd, Gslais. and Dover, on the Dover- 

^I«*c*-GalaiB cables. The explanation was 

n^U the electrical current whioh went 

Tk m m waler-pipesy went on to a second 



earth formed by the end of the broken cable, and in its 
passage made signals on the instrument. Thus, the 
enormous fault formed by the Dover water-pipes was 
not sufficient to prevent a susceptible current of elec- 
tricity passing on to the broken end of the Dover and 
Boulogne cable. 

We also asked the French operator at Boulogne to 
send a current through the broken cable, and got a feeble 
result ; but as we were not able, without special author- 
isation from the French government, to get him to put 
on such batteries and instruments at Boulogne as were 
necessary, and the remaining cables were fully occupied 
with messages, we did not follow out this portion of the 
experiment. The first experiment, however, shows what 
an enormous fault may exist without preventing the 
action of the delicate instrument which was described in 
a former number of your Journal, — I am, &o., 

H. HlOHTOIC. 

Putoey, Not. 13th, 1872. 



SUBTERRANEAN HYDROLOGY. 

Sir, — The subject of subterranean hydrology, alluded 
to by Mr. Leon Jourd'hui, in his letter to the Journal 
is certainly one of g^reat importance, and one that has 
met with but little attention. The thanks of all hydraulic 
engineers would certainly be due to your correspondent, 
if ho could help to throw a light upon this hitherto dark 
subject; and I would venture to suggest to him the 
advisability of reading a paper, giving a brief outline of 
the investigations of Paramelli and others, and the prac- 
tical results that have been obtained in this branch of 
science. 

There is, perhaps, no country in the world where the 
subterranean waters are utilised on so iai'ge a scale as in 
Northern Italy ; and the rich plains of Lombardy owe a 
great deal of their fertility to the fontanelli, or springs, 
which are especially prized for the irrigation of Uie 
mareite^ or winter meadows, from the great stimulating 
effect of the water on vegetation, due to its high tempera- 
ture. The importance of this sort of irrigation speaks for 
itself when it is stated that the volume of water supplied by 
fontantUi in Northern Italy is estimated at 3,000 cubic feet 
per second, of which the value in money in round 
numbers would amoimt to not less than a million sterling. 
The search for water in Italy is a matter of mere chance, 
although it is met with, more or less abundantly, at a 
short distance below the surface of the earth. But the 
certainty of finding abundant springs anywhere is not the 
case ; and, although the existence of springs is said to bo 
indicated by certain signs, such as dampness of the soil, or 
a mist resting on certain spots at night and morning, it 
is often the case that the excavations for a foimtain-hoad 
have to be abandoned, and a search has to be made else- 
where, either from water not being found sufficiently near 
the surface to be available for irrigation, or from the 
springs being too small to insure an adequate return for 
the expense to be incurred for making the necessary 
channel to lead the water into the land. 

It would occupy too much space to g^ve particulars as 
to the formation of fontanelli in Italy, and I must refer 
those interested in this subject to the late Captain Baird 
Smith's report upon " Italian Irrigation," where a good 
account of these springs may be found. 

If it were possible to ascertain, with any degree of 
certainty, the position of hidden subterranean streams of 
water, it may readily be imagined the immense value 
that such a knowledge would be, not only in Italy but in 
many other countries, such as Australia, Africa, and 
Spain, where large tracts of land are literally parched 
up during the summer months from scarcity of water. 

I consider it to be the duty of those who possess such 

knowledge to make public the result of their researches 

for the benefit, not only of themselves, but also for all 

mankind. — I am, &0', 

P. Lb Nbvb Fostbb, Jon., C.E. 
Mortara, LomeUlsa, Italy. 



oS 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS^ Deowibke 6, 1872. 



ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 

Sib, — ^With reference to the letter of "Anglo-Italian," 
in the last number of the Journal, describing a method 
adopted in Italian tan-yards for utilisiDg the spent-bark 
or tan as fuel, permit me to point out that upwards of 
fifty years ago the same process was common in English 
tan-yards, and, for aught I know, may prevail still. I 
recollect well seeing the tan thus made into balls by 
hand, and dried in racks, in the tan-yard of a relative, 
who, I may add, used no other fuel than this in his 
kitchen, except, perhaps, at times adding a log of wood. 
This fire was made on the hearth without any grate, and 
it answered adndrably for both warming and for cooking. 
Better dinners than used to to be served at my relative's 
table could not be desired. If I recollect right, the fuel 
was also sold to the people of the village at a low price. — 
I am, &c«, A Sexagenarian. 



NEW ZEALAND FLAX. 



Sir, — In the Journal of the Society, of the 22nd of 
November, I have seen the address which was so ably 
delivered at the first ordinary meeting, on Wednesday, 
the 20th inst. The benefits the Society have conferred, by 
the means adopted for bringing to public notice subjects, 
which would otherwise have failed to attract attention, 
are therein fully set forth ; and the progress made in 
assisting the food supply by the introduction of Australian 
meat, Indian meal, bread, &c., fully show how desirous 
the Society is at all times to develop any industry calcu- 
lated to prove of ultimate benefit. It touches lightly 
upon plans adopted for the promotion of the cotton cul- 
ture and silk supply, and then states : — *' The subject of 
fibres is of great importance, in reference to the supply 
of raw material for various manoSactures, and the Council 
will continue to give to it the same active attrition as 
during late years, and they trust the efibrts they have 
made in Turkey will lead to practical results." 

I would venture to draw your attention to the fibre 
now being produced in large quantities from the plant 
Fhormium tenaXy in our oolony of New Zealand. For 
msay yean past this fibre has been known as a fibre, 
when properly prepared, adapted for making very strong 
rope ; it is only, however, within the past four years that 
it has been an article of regular importation into this 
country. I notice in the Journal that works referring 
to Fhormium tenax have been presented to your library ; 
and I think your Society would greatly benefit this 
important branch of industry in one of our far-ofi* 
colonies, if you would cause notice of the progress therein 
recorded to *be extracted from these works, so that our 
manufifLCturers may learn ihat a fibre which, lees than 
two years ago, was considered perfectly useless for any 
textile fabric, is now in a fair way to prove of very great 
Talue, not only for making the coarse material fitted 
for colonial use, such as wool -pucks, corn -sacks, 
&c., but, when used as a mixture, will greatly 
improve and strengthen fabrics similar to those 
which have hitherto been composed of ordinary fiax and 
Hussian hemp. Your Journal published a letter from 
me on the uses of the Fhormium fibre, on the 2nd 
August. Since that dnte Mr. A. K. Forbes, of Hatton 
Mill, Arbroath, has manufactured further fabrics from 
the "native dressed" fibre, for Dr. J. G. Featherston, 
the agent-general for New Zealand, and from fibre pre- 
pared by myself. On page 19 of "The Report of the 
Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Preparation 
of the Fhormium Fibre," you will find that, so late as 
13th June, 1871, one of our leading Dundee manu- 
fiictorers gave it as his opinion, that this fibre ^* is not 
suitable for fine fabrics of cloth, and for common purposes 
it would have to compete with jute, which is much more 
easy to manipulate." Mr. Forbes has now worked up 
■ very large quantity of the fibre, and from his- practical 

:perienoe, he having gone beyond the stage of expeci- 



ments. gives it as his opinion, that if cloth were made 
in New Zcahmd from ^e Fhormium fibre, it would entirely 
supersede jute for consimiption on the spot, though heie 
in England it could never compete with it. When the 
works on the Fhormium fibre, now in your bbrary, 
have been carefully perused, I think it will be admitted 
that there is every prospect of this fibre eventttally 
becoming of great service to our manufacturers; although 
no doubt the prejudices and antipathy which th«;y, as a 
body, always exhibit against the intruduction of any 
fibre which is new to them, and therefore requires more 
care and attention at their hands, and occasionally a 
slight alteration of machinery, will prevent that rapid 
development of its uses, to which its merits must lead 
in a few years, in spite of any adverse opinions which 
may be oflerod. — I am, &c., C. Thobki. 

16, Mark- lone, E.G., Londoo, 
November 23rd, 1872. 



STORING POTATOES. 

Sir, — Will you kindly permit me, through the Jourtal^ 
to say a few words on the subject of storing potatoes 
for winter use ? The plan that I have adopted, with 
invariable succ^'ss, during the last eight years, hai 
been, to sprinkle the fioor where I int^-nded keepioj 
them with fine, unslaked lime, over which I spread i 
layer of potatoes, four or five inches in depth ; I thes 
sprinkled again with lime, and added another layer oi 
potatoes ihe same depth as before, and thus continued 
till the whole were disposed of. The limo I use is about 
one- fortieth pai-t by measure of the potatoes. 

I have found that potatoes thus treated have nevei 
become infected with disease, and wh»Te disease wai 
already existing it has not spread ; besides which, th 
quality of the potatoes has been rather improved thai 
otherwise by the treatment, especially where they wen 
watery or waxy. At a time of scarcity like the presenl 
every precaution ought to be used by which such 
valuable article of diet may be preserved from decay.— ^ 
am, &c., J. BoYB. 

8hrew«bary, Nov. 21st, 1872. 



DEAF AND DUMB INSTRUCTION. 

Sm, — ^I wrote to the Journal in August, 1871, callui 
the attention of the Society of Arts to the oral instructio 
of the deaf and dumb, and since then several letters c 
the subject have appeared in its pages, and a paper bJ 
been read, followed by an animated discussion. 

The association which was formed for the purpose j 
furthering the general adoption of this method of ii 
Btructing deaf mutes, has in the meantime commentX 
active operations, and during the past summer a dl 
school has been opened at 12, Fitzroy-sqaare. Thepr 
gress made by the pupils, even in the short time tb( 
have been there, is very great, and I trust that those 
your readers who feel interested in the subject will p« 
it a visit, so that they may judge for theuibt'lves, and, 
a subsequent period, see what progress shall have be< 
made by individual pupils. The school is open for publ 
inspection every Wednesday afternoon, and a fiords i 
opportunity for everyone to judge of its merits by 
personal inspection, an opportunity which I hope w 
be taken by many of your readers and th^^ir friends. 
I am, &c., Lionel Van Ovbjc. 

34, York-terraoe, RcgeaVt-pork, November astb, 1872. 



We have received from Meesrs. Cassell a coi 

plete set of their Ttchnteal Educator. In it is ctmiprise^ 

vast variety of information on iubjects the most di»<«imili 

information, mdeed, which it would be diffioult tohghtup 

) in any othsr work of which we ara awavo. 



JOURNAL OF THE BOdTTY Cff" ja!T=r Ti 



OBRVAKT. 




ir l«di WiTwt —The nent £di2 aBoiiB^ tr 
& Dttid McLeod it too frerii in paUie m a itje^ iar ± 
l» W MCMHYT farvt to do more tfau BCBtioc tiwi n. !»• 
Tkta«*kilo»e of oor vMmbera, and an active nembs^ 
flf Ae SociftT*! IndiaB riiiiiwirtiiii Sir DonaH ^«v t. 



trj:' r e* a.t "■= -t» "* 



•« -• 



m d the kte GcBcnl Mcleod, of the BeniTkl EnpxweA 
ai a giiaiijM of DoMld M cLaod, of G«net. Um^ 

Ant. Ha vaa bom in 1810, and, after i M ueiijae jo^ 




1.^ 



•batieo at Edinborgh and at Haikyborr, entavL tbs 
BiBpd€ivii8arvioaiBl8t8. Inl84ShebecnpiB^s- 
talt nd eoUeeCor atBenarea, and yj^**— ^i nn— i.^ 
MovoftbePaojaabtn 1864. HewaaatLaLcRdiziixir 
fte grater part of tlie Indian UotinT, and bu£ tbt 
Iiiii«iat noiUBinaliipoftbePniijaobfrtMP Iflfir dnwr 
to IITtt. He vaa nocoinated a OovfaaiaB of tfac Ctido- 
of &e Btt^i (aril Dirision) in I860, and a Kaieiiz of u»- 
Order of tbe Star of India on the reconstmrtTLiii of nht 
Order, m IS66. He became a member of the Soai^rv it 
the VgiBBiD^ of the present year. 



.— Ta- Is 
■ m:;.mga~ t* i*to 

i: tiiaK tr-j- a*^ 

T»-* tiui a 111* m-z^ij. u- ^ursM." *-!■• 
.UKT* ■«ti:« -onp iM? 



■ajf 



1j:».-» 



>fS^A 



re» 



ftBXSSAL MOTia. 



fwtemd Baw Keat— The first conaijnimcajt of fr^ 
y^ IB joioU from abroad was safcJy Twired in L-mdn. 
*mn|f tk^ p«kt vpek. The moat was shipped at M«r>- H-^ 
"I the 12th instant. Yesterday a Itmch took yUf^ et tiif^ 
<^«nsoo'»trwl Hotel, in order to test the coodm.c t f ♦in 
■at Ai the great difficulty has hitherto bem U* t-ltsE. 
9c Best anoooked, the experiment should go far :» htnit 



ecr* It ii-^ *-.:. ij*xaaac tb ^ la. ^sr- h»c* -lu T'^T'^*:."* 
set- B^w v-^ — 'm^ a. ?,r»r«--^ -r T -':i'-s. ic* n .-n 

.** ti^nw wr- iH^ A* Til* JL"- la ^ — -.-r tw* :w*it «:»^-*^ 
IOC > ii.*L A~-. T^ "ri**"^ » 3!- rti5*':r wl*- s' 



■x:.v ^ 







ijr :irir *M^- 



i *i.e * ct 



Oiil ii Italy.— The hi^h price of fuel in Eeritnd 
^■w t» have given an additional impetus to o<)*3-rL_xrivr 
2 1^- A cumpany has just been formed for th* purp »* 
w^wor kiay the carbtiniferous formatiun in the Tini.:rr 
lften«,i& Che ialand of Sardinia, over an area of aboui jJm. 



■f -r^ 



ttt Nipla'i Lilirary at Liage and Antwerp.— The 

"•ffc't Library at Liege contains at present ^j.oll 1» -k*, 

•ItMl Tolmne*. all of them bound. Smce 1869 the library 

■j^brn iBrr(>«M<l by 2,144 works, compriMd in 4.C^oS 

'*■■■. The Municipal Council allows the instiiution a 

g"* «* 700 francs annually, and the number of students at 

■J"* inrlwive of readers in the buildinfr) has amounted to 

3^ am and 1,064 women. At Antwerp, we Uam, the 

f™"*«aden» at the People's Library has increased bv 

waTOnn? • total of 922» The«» readers mar be rUesed 

Ii Jottwir-From 10 to 16 years, 256 ; from 17 to 25 yean., 

W: fiSB » ta 36 vears, 168 ; from 36 to 60 years, 177 ; 

•■••W50 y««r*, 41. As regards sex— 825 men and 97 

*]««- Aoortrdinf? to their oocupations— 145 students at 

5*«^ n>U«1ce*, 90 clerks, 550 artisans, 17 soldiers, &c, 

rhe rceHpta nd expensea almost balance each other, and are 

*« 1,000 frsaca. 



tiflwty SUtiitiet in Italy.— The Alta Italia RaU- 
•^ CoBpany has 648 locomotive engines at work on their 
Oei, aad 4$ in construction. The number of passenger 
•^nj^ owned by this company is 1,799, and 194 more 
••rajr The goods waggons made for the present traffic 
■J*»J42 m number, and 33 more are building, together with 
; rw4««ijitw». The Southern Railway Company owns 
*•« •giaea, 679 pasaeoger-carriages, and 2,338 goods 
•ad thtir ndHng atock will shortly be increased by 
- six pMaenger-carriages. and 340 goods waggons 
. ,._^ -*- T^ ^"^^ l«glh of line at preaent opened 
**fy ^ M» WlflOKtwa, and the traffic is worked by 
^ im mm^wn, 3^ p aas eng cf c aii i sges, and 16333 goo*i 
■•»■•. The mliiag stock now in cooraa of ooDstmction 
• V tacrnaa. 200 p a mngir -carriagea, and 2fi66 gooda 



c*-Tr z?.^*!'::*. *ri wt i u b:irr.Ni 
LLC .'»'.rirf »-'C - :: .v-i)U3:sk ;5 : 'artd 

t-st ».'**.i'^ c 1* r, ■■ ivtrx dr«wa i« Fnwtce t.^ th^ *« *r-ou« 
--■-:":-,'* : the wrro w Se f aad la th* n^ rchUKit S,x>4 \\( 
"lL* Gi^i S*T» ;— ».tre :; f rm* w^»t J.v^k* *'m '^i itk<r an 
is.Tr> r.« jnc'*t ir. the n;^*>t yt th<» »vv*t>. Th'>* 1** of 
TiTrtl, . r * ' -^'- , a* tb* r^ THic-iit^** oaH -t» onvrrs a pp^v-y 
n^^j-W i'Y^*l t.t lb* «h > art* *>f Kmnoek The w^-'ed it*isf ts 
ihf ^^T.* .*'-*« of h. tan»«t*» a plant without nv^tis whh'K 
5 .'j^ in w.»' »I nv'i n of the wave* and euTpMxts, S^mmlmjiiK 
t*k*n in th«« !«e« ii.theyvArs IS>1--, fthowdi^tlK«Ti«r\ingfmm 
2,*F>:i t.. 7,UK' M t tTV!^ SL 1-eps * o,»pU»n in Iho V>r«rh aavY» 
who ha* carefully i^tudiid the sublet, is i\f o)\iuum that th>a 
vareik, or £r»oro-n. a-'< it is als.» oaIuhI, might l>e utilirc^l for 
agricultural and industrial purpv»es more trttililv than thrtt 
which is found on the ct>«»ts of Kun»i>e, and be su|r>;^^t«« 
that it might eithor be brxwght home in oompro**tHi bun«i)< m, 
, or that ve*ij»els might carry the neeeesaty app^rrtlus to Imitu 
' ilon the ppot, and bring home only the mhIh and linllne 
irfaich it contains. He argues that tbia wtmld be a biota- 
tire occupation ; for iodine, which is now obtained only 
from the weed thn)wn on our coasts by the pea, (a dear, 
and promises to bo still dearer, on acctiunt of its employ- 
ment in the production of a grern piguii>nt. It is said to 
be conuined in such small quant itlos lu »»ra-water that 
thirty millions of pounds of the hitlor only gives one 
pound of itidine. The idea of utlllnlug lhi« hiign np^ ut 
vareck certainly deserves the conslUorntiim of pructlcAl luvu. 




The contonary of Linniinia*»« (\oi\ih will Ik> ot^h~ 
bratod at StookhoUn on the 10th of Jatitiary, IHT.I, whan a 
statuo of thi» greaf. Hwodinh natural I t^t will Im unvnIliMl. Ma 
died at Upsala (in the university of wbii^h eltv ha waa for 
many years ProfcHMur of Botany), iu iba •lity-mgbtk yoar of 
his age. 

We learn from the Mechanic^ Mnpatinn tlmt it 
portion of the Now York Central Park has vt*9n\ aelnrted firr 
the location of memorials to tha lovenU'TS of all aall'rtist 
One of these memorials la to ba erorTt4id to ftllaa Howa^ 
^ The InTentor of the flMrtay Maahina/' 



60 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbobmber 6, 1872. 



NOTICES. 



EXAHirATIOHS, 1878. 

The attention of candidates is drawn to an error 
in paragraph 55 of the Programme. After the 
words " aocddenoe/' the words *' and in passages '* 
should be inserted. 



8TTB8CSIPTI0H8. 

The Michaelmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed '* Coutts and Co.,*' and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Dayenport, Financial 
Officer. 

TEE UBBABT. 

The following works haye been presented to the 
Library : — 

Jahresberichte der Handels, und Gtowesbekammem in 
Wiirttemberg fiir das Jahr, 1871. 

Annual Report of the Vigilance Association. 

The present position of Science in relation to the 
British Government. By G. Gore, F.R.8. Presented 
by tho author. 

Scientific Education. By G. Gbre, F.R.S. Presented 
by the author. 

Scientific Instruction, its Aims and Methods. By G. 
Gore, F.R.S. Presented by the author. 

The Further Extension of Birmingham Industries. 
By G. Gore, F.R.8. 

Proceedings of the Boyal (Geographical Society. 
Noe. 3 and 4 of vol. 16. Presented by the Society. 

The following Report has been purchased for the 
Library: — 

Eighteenth Report of the Postmaster-General on tho 
Post-office. 



OBDIVABT MEETIK08. 

The following are the dates of the Wednesday 
evening meetings, the chair being taken at eight 
o'clock : — 

1872. December — 11 18 — 

1873. January — — 16 22 29 

„ February 6 12 19 26 

„ March 6 12 19 26 

„ April 2 — 16 23 30 

„ May 7 14 21 28 

For the meetings previous to Christmas, the 
following arrangements have been made : — 

Dbcbmbbr 11.— '<0n Galvanic Batteries." By the 
Rev. H. HioHTON. 

Dbcbmbbr 18.— "On Russia, her Industries, Com- 
merce, and Means of Communication.'' By Lbone Lbvi, 
Esq., Professor of Mercantile Law, King's College. 
London, and one of the Deputies to the International 
^atistical Congress at St Petersburg. 



nrDiAir meetdio. 

On Friday, the Idth instant, at 8 o'clock, Capt 
Lyon will exhibit his Photographic Transparendee 
illustrative of Indian Architecture, Idols, azu 
Every-day life. 

CAHTOB LECTURES. 

The first course of Cantor Lectures for Hk 
ensuing Session will be on ** The Practical Appli 
cations of Optics to the Arts, Manufactures, m 
to Medicine,** by C. Meymott Ttoy, M.B., Join 
Lecturer on Chemistry, and Professor of Medici 
Jurisprudence at the London Hospital, and wi 
consist of five Lectures, to be delivered on tl 
following evenings, at eight o'clock : — 

Lbctubb III. — Monday, Dbcbmbbr 9th, 1872. 

Applications of Optics in the Arts, illustrated in U 
Science of Photography. 

Lbcturb IV. — ^Monday, Dbcbmbbr 16th, 1872. 
Polarised Light, and its Practical Applications. 

Lbcturb V. — Monday, Dbcbmbbr 23rd, 1872. 

Spectrum Analysis as Applied to Mana&ctun 
illustrated in the Bessemer process, and to Medicine 
the Detection of Blood. 



MESTIEOS FOB THE ENSUING WEEK. 



Mox. 



.SOCIETY OF ABTS, 8 Cantor Lecture. Dr.Ti 
** On Practical ApplJcationB of Optics to the Arta, Mil 
fkctures, and to Medicine." 

Institute of Surveyors, 8. Mr. W. Stnrge. " Statist] 
Notes on the Pnoes of Agricultural I^odnce, TaU 
and Rent, fhnn the early part ot last century to 
present time, with Bemarks on the Present Aipcc 
the Labour Question." 

Farmers* Club, 8^. Mr. H. H. Jenliins, '* Some Oompi 
tive Results of Lar^e and Small Farm Systems in ] 
vidinff Food for the People." 

Boyal Oeomphical, ^. 1. Mr. R. CrawfbnL ''O 
]m>jected Railway Route over the Andes, from 
Araentine Republic" S. Capt. Lindesay Br 
** Guatemala and Yucatan, and their Ruined Gitiet 

Medical, 8. 

Tubs. ...London Institution, i. Prol Rutherford, '*The Kntii 

of the Body." 
Royal Medical and Chirur^cal, 8|. 
Civil Engineers, 8. 1. Renewed Disonspion on *' The i 

el-Wakf Sugar Factory." S. Colon<>l W. H. Gr«t 

** An .^WKX>unt of the Practioe and Results of Irriga 

in Northern India." 
Photogn^>hic, 8. 

Wso. ...800ISTT ^OF ABT8 8. Rot. H. Hightoo, ' 
Galvanic Batteries." 
Graphic, 8. 

Royal literary Fund. 8. 
Royal Society of Literature, 4|. 
ArohaBologtcal Association, 8. 

Thum... Royal, 8^. 

Antiquaries, 8^. 
Royal Society Qub, 6. 
Mathematical, 8. 



Fri SOCTB'^ Y OF ABTS, 8. An Exhibition of Fhott 

phic Transparencies, iUnstrative of Indian Architee 
Idols, and Every-day Life, by Captain Lyon. 

Architectural Association, 7^. Mr. O. Bafly, "Hit 
Illustrated by Stained Glass, and ExempliBed ix 
Windows of Long Melford Chordi, Suffolk." 

Astronomical, 8. 

Quekett Gub, 8. 

I Sat Boyal Botanic, 3f . 



rAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Dhoeicbbe 13, 1872. 



61 



J( 



OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

Ko. 1,047. Vou XXI. 



FRIDAY, DECEMBER 13, 1872. 



- ^^^ 



^HH IH. 



BT THB coTnrcn. 



pone TO or coal tob domsstio pitbposes. 

in& nienooe to tlie sum of £500 placed at the 
|l|«iIor the Council through Sir William Bod- 
hj i gentleman who does not wish his name 
pfttr. for promoting, by means of prizes or 
eoonomy in the use of coal for domestic 
tike Comidl have decided to offer the f ol- 

hi ft sew and improved system of grate 

to existing chimnejra as generally con- 

wfaidi shall, with the least amount of 

Bfver best for wanning and ventilating a 

.-TV Societi/'$ Gold Medal and Fifty Poundi. 

Ar ft new and improved system of grate, suit- 

diimneyB as generally constructed, 

Mi with the least amount of coal, best 

cooiking food, combined with warming 

the Toom.—The Society's Gold Medal 

fte best new and improved system of 

vbich shall, by means of gas, most 

nd economically warm and ventilate 

Society's Gold Medal and Fifty 

hthb best new and improved system of 
iriiidi shall, by means of gas, be best 
Ivoooking, combined with warming and 
tbe Tdom.—The Society's Gold Meda 

'<* mj new and improved system or 

not included in the foregoing, 

daO efficiently and eoonomically meet 

ni?nranait8.~2il^ Society's Gold Medal 

fmtds. 

'|3«ibQ reserve to themselves the right of 

!•& or any of the above jMiiee, as the 

by them may determine. 

aiiides must be delivered not 

fa 1st of December, 1873, with a 

-^fa» hsnig tested, and subsequently 

lAl loodon International Exhibition 



Further particulars as to place of delivery and 
other arrangements will be published as soon as 
they are finally settled. 



PBIZS FOB STEEL. 

The Council have resolved to offer the Society's 
Gold Medal to that manufacturer who shall produce 
and send to the London International Exhibition of 
1873 the best specimens of steel, suitable for affording 
increased security in the construction of locomotive 
and marine engines and boilers, and for other 
engineering purposes. 

The conditions of the competition and further 
particulars will be published subsequently. 



TECHNICAL EZAMIHATIOHS. 

The Programme of Examinations in the techno- 
logy of the Arts and Manufactures of the country, 
in reference to which notices have already ap 
peared in the Journal^ is now ready for issue. 
These examinations will be held annually, in con- 
junction with the examinations of the Science and 
Art Department, and due notice will be given of 
the particular subjects selected each year. 

The 1873 Examinations wiU be held in the 
technology of Cotton, Paper, Steel, Silk, and 
Carriage-building. Candidates, in order to obtain 
certificates in any of these subjects, must pass the 
examinations of the Science and Art Department 
in certain sciences, which are specified in the pro- 
gramme as bearing upon the particular art or 
manufacture. In addition to these, special papers 
will be set in the technology of each manufacture 
by examiners appointed by the Society of Arts. 

The examinations of the Science and Art Depart- 
ment will be held during the first three weeks of 
May, the technological paper being worked on the 
evening of the 14th May. The dates of the Science 
subjects are given in the Science Directory, pub- 
lished by the Science and Art Department. 

In order that these Examinations may really be 
successful in promoting technical education in this 
country, it is desirable that encouragement should 
be given to candidates by the offer of prizes and 
scholarships. With this object the Council appea} 
to the trade guilds of the city of London, to mer- 
chants and manufacturers, and to members of the 
Society generally, to aid them by contributing to 
the prize fund. 

IMPEOVED CABS. 

The term of ** three months* regular use in the 
streets,'* hitherto put forth as a condition of this 
competition, has been reduced to ** ono month," 



62 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dboembbb 13, 1872. 



PBOCEEDIHOS OF THE SOCIETT. 



FOXJBTH OBDINABT MEETING. 

Wednesday, December 11th, 1872, lieut.-Col. A. 
Stbanoe, B.A., F.S.A., Member of Council, in 
the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Bell, Qeom William, 114, Chancery-lane, W.C. 
Carillon, «rohn Wilson, Wonnhill, Buxton, Derbyshire. 
Comer, William Mead, F.II..G.S., 104, LeaUenhall- 

street E.C. 
Dewes, William Petitt, Ashhy-de-la-Zooch. 
Eliot, Major-Qeneral John, Limpsfield, Surrey. 
Goodenough, Capt. James, R.N., United Service Club, 

8.W. 
Hari er, William H., jun., Protestant Grammar School, 

New Shoreham, Sussex. 
Kirton, John W. 73 B^Igrave-road, Birmingham. 
Muir, Edwin, C.E., Canal Wharf, Rochdale. 
Neal, John, 44, 46, and 48, Edg ware-road, W. 
Raiser, L., 6, Hereford-square, South Kensingtpn, W. 
Russell, Thomas, Saracen Foundry, Glasgow. 
Sanford, Percival, 8, College-gardens, Dulwich, S.E. 
Tates, Richard, 80, Falmouth-road, New Kent-road 

S.E. 

The following candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected members of this Society. 

Allison, F. F., 127, Leighton-road, N.W. 

Baker, George C, 24, Offerton-road, Clapham, S.W. 

Bodkin, Frederick Edwin, Merton-lane, Highgato, N. 

Browell, Capt. Langton, R.N., J.P., Froshtield, Mill- 
brook, near Southampton. 

Carrington, John Bodman. 13, Regent-street, S.W. 

Clement, Robert Pardy, Brighton-villa, Prospect-hall, 
Walthaojstow, E. 

Cocks, Stroud Lincoln, 68, Harold- house, Finchley- 
road, N.W. 

Couch, Arthur, 172, Wapping High- street, E. 

Greenhough, D. W., 1, Suffolk-vDla, Breakspeare's- 
road, Upper Lewisham, S.E. 

Halstead, Henry Richard, 3, Rose Bank, Manninghum, 
Bradford. 

Head, John, The Orwell Works, Ipswich. 

Johnson, Frederick J., Lincoln-house, Broad-green, 
Croydon. 



Jones, David, 27, Mincing-lane, E.C. 
way Company, 46, Finsbury-circus, E.C. 



Kennedy, Lieut.-Col 



ncmg-lf 

., v.x., 



Bombay and Baroda Rail- 



Lord, David Lintott, 29, Somerloyton-road, East Brixton, 
S.W. 

Ogle, Richard, Broad Oak-park, Worsley, near Man- 
chester, and 2 Pall-mall, Manchester. 

SaiBon, Henrv, 71, New North-road, N. 

Saunders, John, Armley-house, High-street, Bromley, 
Middlesex. 

Selton, David Heywood, Land Mortgage Bank of India, 
17, Change-alley, Comhill, E.C. 

Tayler, Henry, 44, Finsbury-circus, E.C. 

Tnggs, Reuben, 18, Clarewood-terrace, East Brixton, 

Whitftiar, John, Hill^de, Primrose-hill-road, N.W. 



The Paper read 



GALVANIC BATTERIE 
By the Ber. H. Highton, K.A. 

I shall not attempt to give any ultin 
nation of the phenomena of galyanisxn. 
to me that it is true wisdom in science 
tempt to do more than to give an intc] 
comprehensive classification of the 
themselves. Deeper theories may boj 
useful in suggesting experiments, & it 1 
mind that those theories must always b 
and mere matters of guess, and, at 1: 
provisionary. Thus Maxwell has shov 
laws of hydraulics may be applied \a 
currents, though he cautiously and wis 
us against supposing that it follows fro 
there is any real electric fluid similar t 
fluids. It would have been well if other v 
scientific men had been content to f oU 
ample. In the same way I should ob 
assumption of any ultimate theory of 
beyond the mere intelligent and classifi 
sion of the laws of the pnenomena. 

In the kindred subject of heat, I thin.' 
jury has been done by asserting that it i 
of motion," which has introduced man; 
visionary ideas. If the word '* motion' 
simply as a translation of the Greek w( 
which includes nearly all kinds of chan 
also be meant that a chan^ of tempe 
mode of motion in the ordmary Englii 
the word, the assertion is, in a certain e 
but deceptive; if it be meant that sij 
without change of temperature, is moti 
kind, this is not only extremely doubti 
believe, absolutely untrue.* With rega 
vanism, then, I would merely sav tha: 
appear that wherever there is a dhemio 
also a galvanic action, which only requi 
arranffemonts to be made for exhibiting 

Perhaps the simplest method of pi 
galvanic current is by the formation oi 
sition of water. Thus, if we have twc 
platinum, the surface of one of which 
with a film of hydrogen, and the other wii 
on making a metallic connection betwee 
a galvanic current passes, and the hyd 
oxygen imite and form water. Convert 
take two metals, one of which has a gres 
for oxygen than the other, and place thei 
then, on metallically connecting them, t 
separated into oxygen and hy£rogen, tl 
uniting with the more oxidizable meta 
hydrogen being evolved on the surface <^ 
metal, and a galvanic current flows. I 
vou both these actions by actual experi 
both cases one pole of the battery is sai^ 
positive and the other negative, and 
passing between the two is commonly o^ 
vanic current. 

Take, again, the simplest of all fc 
galvanic battery — zinc and carbon, witB 
as it is called, of dilute sulphuric ad^ 



• Aristotle, In hfi " Phytlos,'* loggesti an bDp«j 
wfaloh might with sdvantage be itodied by our modM 

the inbjeot of heat. He says (**Phyti4a** V., 1. &•) 

pe^^M whiteoctt it not a mode of motioo, bot wbiM 
analogy heat nod cold are not modes of motion, bat bll 
Ing are so— that is In the AriftoteUsn sense of tbt *M 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbobmbbu 13, 1872. 



63 



tken ; tke OMjgen of the water unites with the 
ibe. aad fonns oxide of zino ; the sulphuric acid 
wokB with the oxide, and forms a sulphate of 
ne^ and ^ hirdrogen is evolyed on the surface of 
ftc otrbon. This double chemical action gives 
m&amoK dectridty than the single action, as 
inses* 

Kow, it » 1 well-known fact that chemical 
ttBhinatimi^ firequently produce heat, and it 
k ilso a vell-kziown fact that an electrical 
mamA in paseing through a homogeneous con- 
ivtor ilio produces heat; and it is an exceedingly 
temting problem to ascertain what relation 
Ae belt of the chemical combination bears to the 
IwitpffNlnfffd in the conductor of the current. An 
iMMH|itioii of this kind requires the most delicate 
Hd fl^enaTe apparatus, much more delicate and 
qpfisve than I possess ; but in searching into the 
Inadiof the most trustworthy experimenters on 
Kb poiBt, szid comparing the results obtained 
IrtMB, I hftTe arriyed at the following conclu- 

i IWt, in all cases of galvanic action, the heat 
,mM in the battery, juus that in the exterior 
fcd> ii exactly equal to the heat produced by 
pekooasl action. 

X Ibat, in most cases, a certain xx>rtion of that 
iMi^ retained exclusively in the battery, besides 
Pjftii due to the internal resistance of the 
gjay , and is not transmitted through the 

L Ibit the potential of the battery varies, not 
the total chemical heat produced, but 
v^ the proportion which that part of the 
TUeh is transmitted through the circuit bears 
total chemical heat produced by the action 
'elements of the battery. Indeed, the poten- 
flf a battery is exactly proportional to the 
nft of heat transmitted through the circuit by 
init of the atomic weight of t£e metal or other 
teaoe consumed or chemically changed. Thus, if 
ttta two batteries, one of zinc, smphuric acid 
[iriwQ, and another of zinc, sulphuric acid 
r, the heat evolved by the sulphoxida- 
zinc is the same in both cases ; but the 
of the former, and consequently the heat 
the circuit, is greater ; — what becomes of 
BDoe? Is the heat in some mysterious 
W? No ; the surplus heat is not evolved in 
at aO, but remains in the liquid of the 
nless for the production of electricity. 
; II an exceedingly remarkable circumstance 
fts only battery yet examined in which the 
ttfll titt heat produced is transmitted through 
BTOBt» is fliat form of the Daniell's battery in 
BBQi in a solution of sulphate of zinc, is 
^^ positive, and copper, in a solution of 
"ti of copper, for the negative, and in which 
ii^iuric aad and oxygen are transferred from 
pv to the zinc. 

BBC, strong sulphuric acid and platinum, 

^*«xtha of the heat produced is transmitted 

fte circuit, but this varies somewhat with 

of the acid ; with iron in sulphate of 

in sulphate of copper, only about 

■re transmitted ; with copper in nitrate 

inl tilyer in nitrate of silver, about 

hit way we accotmt for the circum- 

irHi the same positive metal, the 

iiHfli the character of the negative 



.%a sia 



metal, less of the heat of the oxidation of the 
positive metal being transmitted through the 
circuit,, and more retained in the battery itself. I 
may as well say that I obtained these results by com- 
paring some well known experiments of M. A. 
Favre with some very importsmt ones of M. Soret, 
which are scarcely known at all. I will illustrate 
this by showing you the amount of current derived 
from the oxidation of iron in conjunction with 
tsarbon, silver, and copper respectively. 

But the whole subject of tibe relations between 
heat and electricity is one which re<]^uires deep and 
accurate investigation. M. Favre, m France, and 
Dr. Joule, in England, are the principal experi- 
menters on this subject, and having spent very much 
time in carefully examining the published records 
of their experiments, I have no hesitation in saying 
that the conclusions they deduce cannot be acceptea 
till they are repeated and varied with the most 
careful precautions, either by themselves or by 
others. It is much to be regretted that the com- 
mittee of the British Association appointed three 
years since to investigate and report on the ques- 
tion in which these points are involved, and since 
reappointed from year to year, have not yet made 
pubhc a single syllable by way of report as to their 
proceedings or conclusions. 

I will only make one observation more before I 
leave this part of my subject, and that is, that 
chemical actions which produce cold create a 
galvanic current, and therefore produce heat, as 
much as those actions which primarily produce 
heat. Thus, copper and carbon, acting on water, 
produce a current exactlv the same in Mnd as zinc 
and carbon, although the heat produced by the 
oxidation of copper is less than the cold produced 
by the separation of the hydrogen and oxygen of 
the water. Again, you will see that while the 
combination of sulnhuric acid with water, which 
produces heat, proauces a galvanic current, the 
combination of acetic acid and water, which pro- 
duces cold instead of heat, produces also a galvanic 
current of exactly the same kind as the combina- 
tion of the sulphuric acid and water. Let me then 
show you these facts by actual experiment. And I 
may note, by the way, that it is a curious circum- 
stance that the combination of many acids and other 
substances with water, while they produce a contrac- 
tion of volume, at the same time produce cold, not 
heat. In the combination of an alkali with an acid, 
which also produces much heat, you will see that 
a strong ealvanic current is produced, and in this 
case the Alkali, like the water in the former case, 
acts as the positive, and the acid as the negative. 
These circumstai^ces, with many others, illus- 
trate the fact that the view of heat, as given 
in Tait's "Thermodynamics" and other better- 
known treatises, namely, that there is a certain 
absolute zero of temperature, fixed at — 272 C, 
where heat finally ceases to exist (just as there is a 
certain absence of motion when a body is at rest), 
and that all heat above this point is equivalent to 
a certain amoimt of mechanical force, is a view 
utterly erroneous; that, on the contrary, any 
variation of temperature, either upward or down- 
ward, involves mechanical force, and that the true 
zero of temperature is, when all contiguous bodies 
are of equal temperature, just as the true electrical 
zero is when all contiguous bodies are of an equal 
medium of electrical tension. 



64 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Dbcembbr 1.3, 1872. 



But I now turn to the more practioalview of the 
subject. And here let me begin by saying that, in 
order to understand practically the action of a 
battery, the most essential thing of all is thoroughly 
to comprehend what is called Ohm*s law. I have 
no hesitation in saying that the discovery of Ohm's 
law was to electricity not a whit less important, 
indeed, I should say more important, than Newton's 
law of gravitation in astronomy and general 
physics ; in fact, it has been like the rising of the sun 
to travellers groping their way in darkness. It 
is now, of course, universally acknowledged as the 
great law of electrical action, though, I need hardly 
say, that, when first enounced, it was received by 
the scientific men of the day with the utmost scorn, 
and actually denounced as the wild ravings of a 
madman. J3ut Ohm was then an unknown man — 
now his name is a household word with all electri- 
cians. This great law then is, that the quantity 
of electricity passing through each part of a circuit 
in a given time is proportional directly to what is 
callea the potential or electro-motive power of the 
elements, and inversely to the total resistance of 
the circuit. Thus, to express it algebraically. 

Again, the resistance of the circuit consists of 
two parts — the internal resistance of the battery, 
and the resistance of the rest of the circuit. Call- 
ing these B* and R", we have the equation, 

^ R' + R"' 
and in the practical comprehension of this 
equation under the different circimistances to 
which it is applicable consists the whole difference 
between a good and a bad electrician ; everything 
as regards the relation between batteries, the work 
they nave to do, and the cost of doing it, depends 
upon this equation. If we have many similar cells in 
a battery, say n cells, then the equation becomes 

^•"nK'+R"* 
Q represents the amount of chemical action 
going on in a ^ven time in each cell, and if R" be 
small, it is plam that, though with many cells we 
get many times the waste of zinc and other elements 
of the battery, we get no addition to the current ; 
on the other nand, if R" be large, we want a good 
many cells to produce the same cmrent , and, in 
fact, as I said before, in the practical application of 
this equation to every varymg case lies the whole 
art of the proper or improper use of a battery, and 
the art of using such batteries as are properlv 
suited to the object desired to be attained. It will 
be obvious, from what I have said, that the main 
points of merit in a battery are — 

Ist. A large potential, or electro-motive force. 

2nd. A small internal resistance, for where there 
is much internal resistance a large part of the 
power of the battery is wasted in itself, in over- 
coming — ^if I may so speak — ^its own friction. To 
these two points I may add two more, viz : — 

3rd. Constancy, or a power of keeping up an 
action nearly umform. 

4th.^ Permanency, or the power of working for a 
long time without attention or fresh making up of 
the oattery. 

When I say that the heat produced in a given 
time — and in some cases the magnetic power — ^is as 
the square of the quantity, and not simply as the 



quantity, you will see at once the groat im 
of having a large potential. 

The two instruments I have here will 
show the first three points in different I 
namely, the potential, the internal resista 
the constancy for at least a short time. 1 
manency must, of course, be a matter of 
ascertain. The first instrument, a galvs 
with a large resistance, will, I think, show pi 
better than any other the potential of a 
By either observing the degree of deflect 
the same resistance, or the resistance throuj 
the same degree of deflection is produced 
a good practical idea of the potential of a 
And this is really all we want ; an exact th 
determination is valueless, as it is always 
more or less, from moment to moment. 

I will now show you the practical pot^^r 
large number of combinations. Let us i 
convenient standard, zinc in sulphate of zin< 
in sulphate of copper. 

It is more convenient in practice, thougl 
larger than the British Association unit, wb 
call a **Volt," in which the negative is c< 
nitrate of copper. 

You see the degree to which it attains ; 
us compare with this the following elemen 

Zinc, diluto sulphuric acid, platinum. 

Do. ao. carbon. 

Do. do. silver. 

Do. do. copper. 

Do. dilate sulphuric (||) * nitric acid, platinum (o 

form). 
Do. do. (JD nitric acid, carbon (or 

form). 
Do. a mixture of dilute sulphuric and diromic a 

carbon, without a porous c\ 
recommended by R<»coe and 
Do. dilute sulphuric acid (||) carbon and mixed 

and chromic adds. 

I add a little permanganate of potasli 
negative, and you see the potential raised 
Now I will show you some forms of my o^^ 

Zinc, solution of potash (|D carbon packed in a a 

carbon, precipitated 
peroxide and of va 
with dilate sulphur 

Zinc, common salt (||} .. do. do. 

Next what is in most respects, I think, t 
convenient, and best, and cheapest in acti 
the power produced) of all batteries : — 

Zinc, common salt (II) ..carbon packfd in p 

carbon, peroxideofujii 
with a mixture of s 
nitric, and chromic a 

The potential of the first of these then i? 
see, very hi^h, much higher than a Gro 
Bunscn, indeed, nearly fifty per cent. 
The second and third also considerably 1 
the third is very constant, very endurini 
from the peculiar chemical action of u 
terials, emits none of those poisonous 
fumes which have so seriously and permanei 
jured the health of many who have used th< 
or Bunsen batteries. Now we will try the jk 
of iron instead of zinc ; this, you will see, ii 
three- fourths that of zinc, so that four cells 
will be about equivalent to three of zinc 
iron is about one-third the price of zino. 

• The mark (!l) it intended to denote a porous dUpbnr^' 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Decembbb 13, 1972. 



68 



nndileis liable to be affected by local action, it 
Todd seoin aa if there was great advantage in 
idf iroiL But as every pound of iron consumed 
vrli take a little more acid and manganese than the 
CDC 'that is in the ^oportions of eight and seven), 
and the internal resistance of four cells will bo more 
thm that of three, there is, on the whole, probably 
an* niiich eocmomy in using iron. Here is another 
brttay in which no acid is used, and in which the 
potential is as high, or nearly as high, as a Grove, 
md very constant in its action. It is zinc, 
•"ohtkm of salt, (||) carbon, and the peroxide of 
mci^ranesc, with a mixed salt of sodium, tin, and 
iierrary. For telegraphic purposes, where the 
w of add is thought objectionable, I know no 
brtter fonu. 

But instead of xinc or iron, or indeed any metal, 
irr mj use any oxidizable liquid, and collect the 
fifMcity derived from its oxidization by means 
of « etfbon plate. The cheapest, probably, of all 
a conuDon salt ; you see this gives a very fair 
poleitisl. in ftict not very short of a Daniell. 
Afiii, take sulphate of protoxide of iron, a very 
dwp maferial, which may be kept in a state 
of protoxide by placing in it pyrites or other 
wlplidf of iron, whicn is a material almost 
Tilodess. Cyanide of potassium, you will see, 
girw igood potential ; also hyposulphite of soda, 
ud folphide of soda or potash. You will observe 
tUt the potential of this last is very much greater 
tbn a Ibniell, and approaches that of a Qrove. 
WjAide of calcium — a waste material in many 
pl«»»—fi;ive«s very good potential. Again, brandy 
ttd water, sugar and water, milk, flour and water, 
•ii «< which, being oxidized by the oxidizing ma- 
*«i«fa of the negative side of the battery, produce 
» eoonderalde giUvanic current. Indeed, with 
thae kinds of materials the battery plays the 
^ part as the stomach and lungs of the animal 
My* the negatire part of the battery supplying 
«T)F« to oxidiae the food materials of the positive 
P«t. jot as the lungs furnish oxygen for oxidising 
^feod nipptied to the stomach and brought into 
■BWonm the blood. You will observe that 
^•d tee are more easily acted on, and give a 
■TO potential, than brandy and water or flour 
™ *ater. But before I conclude this part of my 
•^JH I ought to show you the potential of some 
^«r «f the common forms of battery, namely, 
«^ l^oHaston, the, Smee, and the Le Clanch^. 
^^■•tII tee they are much inferior to some of the 
2*»1 have shown you, besides having other dis- 
"Jotifw which I shall show you in due time, 
^efl, let me next show you the internal resistance 
J™«*tftancy of some of the common forms of 
**^. In order to show this properly, we must, 
*f^OB», t^e elements of an equal size. 'Riis 
'*'?"nnciit is a gml vanometer of very smaU internal 
!**^tMoe, so that, practically, it shows you what 
■ th* internal resistance of the battery, as that 
> the aain dement of resistaace. Of course the 
P*^^!^ also affBcts the result, so that the degrees 
■w^instnmient will practically show you the 
^*u**d result of potential and small resistance, 
*«» a large amount of current, with a small 
is required ; and the loss of power in a 
(I caaaot oiEord time to show you the effect 
!f* MJ^or duration) will give you some idea of 
*lv eoDstancy . 
uiiijvsttake that modification of the Daniell 



now used in the Post-ofiice and generally for tele- 
graphic use. You have seen that it stands loW ifi 
the scale for potential ; and you will now s^e ihut 
for sinall internal resistance it stands very low Indeed, 
but that its constancy for one minute at least is per- 
fect. But still the amount of electricity produo^a in 4 
minute is so very small that it ought to remftixi 
constant, there being so little exnenditure of for<)# 
in the time. Now, compare with thil two formf 
of battery introduced by myself for telegrftphifl 
purposes — zinc in salt or dilute add for posinv0, 
and carbon placed in granulated carbon KS\a test' 
oxide of manganese with dilute acid for neganvet 
You will see the comparatively enormouslv large 
quantity of electricity which this produces ; though 
in the course of a minute, where there is no re«istanoe, 
it, of course, partially exhausts itself, the peroxide 
not being able to fiimish oxygen rapidly etiotlgh 
for the supply ; but, after a short interval of restj 
it recovers its full potential. On the London ati j 
North -Western Rmlway ton of these cells Wef^ 
found to work to Manchester equally well witk 60 
of the ordinary sulphate of copper batteries ; toot 
of course, that the potential is six times as large— 
indeed, it is not more than double — ^but indamp And 
wet weather, whore there is much leakage from tho 
wires, the small internal resistance of these bat- 
teries enables them to supply enough electricity to 
make up for the leakage, whereas the larger internal 
resistance of the Daniell batteries prevents them from 
supplying in a given time more than a comparatively 
small given quantity, which will not bear much 
loss from leakage. I am glad to say that this form 
of battery is being fast adopted for railway UM. 
Then we try the Wollaston — a small potential, (^ 
small resistance, and a very rapid fall of -poWer; 
then the Smee — a small resistance, fair potential, 
and, in consequence of the rapid escape of hydro^ 

fen, considerable constancy. To this batten^ the 
ydrogen fumes are a great objection. Next, try 
the Le Clanch^, a fair original potential, moderate 
resistance, and rapid fall of potential. Next, the 
form I mentionea before as introduced by myself, 
with a higher potential than the Le Olanch^, and 
much more constant, though, like the Le Glaaeii^, 
used without an acid, ana therefore quite as per- 
manent. It is simply a solution of common salt with 
a combined salt of sodium, tin, and mercury in the 
negative. Thiscombinationhasthe peculiar property 
of being able to extract rapidly the oxygen frooi 
the peroxide of maganese. The tin causea in tune 
a little local action, but if it be left out, the merevrr 
by itself cannot so rapidly extract the oxygen, sua 
the local action caused by the tin is veij small 
indeed. Next the ** Ghx>ve,'* a high potential, Tflvy 
little resistance, even an inoreaee of potential aa 
the liquid gets warm; Bunsen the same ; but both, 
after a short time, producing intolerable poiaonoHB 
fumes, which produce dangerous inflammatien of 
the lungs, take away the voice, and when a moa'a 
system has once been injured by them, act spon 
the lungs on subeequent occarions witii the utmott 
rapidity. For myself, I am now so senaitrve to 
them, that I cannot expose myself to them for even 
a few minutes without losing my voice and my cheat 
getting seriously affected; bendes, they are ftu* 
from permanent, as a few hours exhaust their power. 
Next, I try the bichromate battery, without porooi 
cells; small resistance, high potential, but soon 
losing ita power, ^nve and waatefnl 



66 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbobmbbb 13, 1872. 



in use, destroying itself by a single night's 
action. Next, the bichromate, with a porous cell, 
high potential, moderate resistance, moderate 
constancy, but very expensive in use. Next, let 
me take my own form, which, for general practical 
use — as for induction coils, for keeping up a 
powerful magnetic action when required, and ouier 
such puix>oses — I think is far superior to all others. 
Zinc m salt, carbon packed in granulated carbon 
and peroxide of manganese, filled in with dilute 
sulphuric add, mixed with a little nitric and 
chromic acids. Here is very high potential, as I 
showed you before, moderate resistuice and great 
constancy. I have had them standing for months, 
used occasionally, and losing but httle of their 
original potential. 

For electro-plating, in power, convenience and 
long endurance, they exceed all others. Some 
electro^-platers prefer iron as the positive, some zinc ; 
for each nas his own peculiar preferences and modes 
of working; but they are now becoming largely 
adopted, having more than the power of the Bun- 
sen, without the inconveniences, and lasting, I may 
say, 30 times the length of time. Some electro- 
platers have had them in daily use for two months 
at a time. The chromic acid has the e^)ecially 
valuable property of absorbing all nitrous mmes. 

To show you the power of the batteiy, here is 
an electro-magnet magnetised by a single cell. I 
will defy the strongest man in this room to separate 
the soft iron keeper from the magnet. 

Where very g^reat constancy and a very large 
current of electricity is not required, the nitric and 
chromic acids may be omitted, and then the local 
action becomes next to nothing ; but with the latter 
a moderate-sized battery of a single cdl has been 
used for platine six dozen forks at once. 

I am amdd that I have occupied you too long, 
but, as it is, I have been obliged to compress my 
matter unduly, and to omit many points on which 
I should have wished to dilate. 



DISCUSSION. 

The Chairman said that the effects of galvanism, like 
all other nataral phenomena, depended upon certain 
fixed laws, but these admitted of an almost infinite 
variety of combination, and possibly some gentlemen 
present, whose studies have been directed to this matter, 
might be able to add to the knowledge which had 
been so interestingly conveyed by the reader of the 

SBj)er. Or if there were any points on which anyone 
esired further information, he had no doubt Mr. 
Highton would be happy to afford it if possible. 

Xr. H. Bawlinson, O.B., said it was often stated in 
papers, though not so often now as formerly, that some 
one had invented a method by which galvanism would 
take the place of, and supersede, steam. He should like 
to know if Mr. Highton oonld inform them whether 
there was any possibility or probability of this being the 
case. 

•TIm Bev. Mi, Highton said that so much had been 
written on this subject, by Yoole and others, that he 
coiUd only repeat what he had already stated, that he 
believed their conclusions required further experiment 
before they could be finally accepted. If, however, 
they were conclusive, it would appear that the power 

groduced by any force was simply the equivalent of the 
eat produced, and in that case certainly the consump- 
tion of zinc or iron could scarcely ever be compared in 
cheapness to that of carbon. However, they must await 
e report of the oommittee appointed by the Britidi 



Association three years ago to examine the subject of the 
mechanical equivalent of heat, which, in reality, involved 
this whole question. He did not himself thmk the ex« 
periments of Messrs. Favre and Joule oonld at present be 
accepted as conclusive. 

Xr. John Fordred asked what form of battery wu 
most suitable fiur telegraphic purposes. 

The Bav. Mi. Highton said it would depend on the 
character of the work to be done. If the battery were 
to be used bv a country nostmaster, who knew nothing 
about it, and only wuntea it perhaps once or twice a-day, 
the best form would probably be the Le Clanchd, or the 
one with a mixture of sodium, mercury, and tin ; bat i( 
on the other hand, it was required for an office where it 
could be properly attended to, he should recommend 
sine in salt, with dilute acid, peroxide of manganese, end 
carbon as the nenitive. This was used very sucoeasfully 
on the Midland, xiorth Western, and Brighton linee of 
railway. 

The Bev. Wm. Law said he had found, in using t 
Highton battery, that the acid rose up through the otrbon 
by capillary attraction, and corroded the binding icrew, 
thus interfering with the action. He had lately found 
the action of a battery of this kind, with rather short 
carbons, almost suspended through the deposition of sa 
oxide on the end of the binding-screw in this way, and hi 
would like to know what was the best way to remedy 
the evil. The plan he had found most efficacious was U 
deposit a collar of copper on the top of the carbon \f) 
electrotypio action, then to solder a stout strip of coppei 
upon it, and then dip the whole of the top, just oovcffin( 
the collar, in boiling paraffin. The result was that the 
parafiin penetrated the carbon, and to a great exten 
preserved it from the action of the acid. If there ww 
any better method of preventing the evil he had men 
tioned, he should like to know it. 

The Bev. Hr. Highton said the plan described would b 
succtosful to a certain extent, but not altogether. Proh 
ably the best method would be to platinise or cove 
with gold electrically the point of the binding-screi 
which pressed upon the carlK>n. 

The Bev. Xr. Law said he had tried platinum ooUsit 
but he found there was a curious indescribable salt gem 
rated by the action of the add. 

The Bev. Hr. Highton said perhaps the most effectui 
way was to dean the binding-screws every time the 
were used. He had never found any corrosive action i 
the course of a single evening. 

The Chairman, in proposing a vote of thanks to K 
Highton, said the Society of Arts lent itself more to tl 
dissemination of a practical knowledge of sdence, i 
^applied to the use of mankind, than to Uie dissominatic 
of philosophic theories, and certainly it had Uioroughl 
fulfilled its functions Uiat evening in having obtain< 
from Mr. Highton so valuable an addition to its stock* 
knowledge from the result of his long labours and de* 
study of this most interesting and useful subject. 

The vote of thanks being carried unanimously, 

The Bev. Hr. Highton briefiy acknowledged thecomp 
ment, and the meeting separated. 



We notice, in last week^s Building JVetrs, i 
interestinfr sketch of the growth and progress of the Socie^ 
We would draw spedal attention to Uie remarks on I 
Eudowment Fund, the value of which we are glad to set 
cordially appredated by our contemporary. 

The Bessemer Steamboat Company (Limits 
has recently been intruduced, with a capital td £250,000, 
shares of £50 each. The company has for its object to i 
the above-mentioned vessels between this oountry i 
various parts of the Continent, the same to be hereai 
desided upon* 



OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dzoeubbb IS, 1872. 



«7 



rATIOHAL SZHIBITIOirS. 



lb 



of tlie Gomminioiien are at Upper Ken- 
Loodoo, W^ liiijor-(}eneral Soott, C.B., 



liM iMclifig of the Committee on steel was held 
hi IWifhition-ofllcee, Btanhope-lodffe, Upper Ken- 
j^BMon, Qo Monday, the 2dth November, 1872. 
Mir. Gbapbell, R»A^ was TOted into the chiur, and 
H*e« ment were F. A. Abel, Esq., F.R.8. ; 
tmma, Eeq^ L.L.D., F.R.S.E. ; G. Asprer, Esq. ; 
M t lo^ R.E. ; J. Latham, Esq. ; E. J. Reed, 
|,U; J. Gordon Smith, Esq. ; and Captain A. C. 
kVjBJL Sir WOliam G. Anderson, K.C.fi., and 
rKGobtC^n attended the meeting on behalf of 
rifaJBify'i Commissionen ; and Captain G. E. Grorer, 
* iMSfnwiit as Secretary. 

Oi i wittt i u was infcwmed of the progress which 

Wea made in preparing for next year's £x- 

A in eonseqaeooe of the high importance 

^ may members of this Conmuttee to the 

of steel aa oaed for railway purposes (such 

i%^i«s» ftc), the locomotiye superintendents 

iiuways in tho kingdom, together with the 

of Baflways under the Board of Trade, had 

'. to fiiTour the Commissioners with advice as 

I food exhibition of this class of manufacture. 

will hold their first meeting on the 



IflesCt, C.B. (the aecretary of the Royal Com- 
bi leottitly visited Sheffield and discussed the 
■kftitko with the leading manufMcturers in 
of whom had promised their cordial 
ia the scheme. 
^■1^1 1 jiij^' the question of a proper definition of 
lOtBoiittee agreed that the materials known in 
M "homogeneooB metil" possess properties 
»«a^>ted as characteristic of steel, and should, 
•Wiacliided in an exhibition which embraces 
isf stesl, but that malleable cast-iron will be 
ly indoded in the Exhibition of cast- 

j Mrifc d that an applications to submit objects 
wsxhibition should be made before the 31st 
U73, and that the objects should be de- 
ifti 10th of HaKh, 1873. 

|Bf tcalptors (presided over by Mr. Durham, 

hdd on Monday, at the Royal Albert-ball, 

,^Mpsce proposed to be devoted next year in 

^Mof-gtUery to British sculpture. After 

[■> J*os a reoulution was passed approving of 

^ the ConmuUee adjourned to Uie 9lh of 



of Ripon presided last Friday, at the 
over a meeting of the General 
. appointed by her Migesty*s Com- 
% ths Exhibition of 1861, to cany out the 
^ of Annual International Exhibitions. 
M^tsmt Sir William Anderson, Sir Francis 
Jv. Bdgar Bowring, Mr. Cole, Mr. Gibson, 
•ad General Scott, secretary. 

fcr Cooking and its Science held its 

[stOen-lodge, on Saturday, December 7» 

tiaunary list of cooking processes 

It was resolved to print and 

tich member, in order to obtain 

[ikm purpose of preparing a detailed 

' yn desirable to show the pre- 

The following gewe- 



men were present :— The Hon. F. Leveson Gower. M.P., 
Chairman; Mr. FoUett Synge, Mr. James Bateman, 
F.R.8. ; Professor Voelcker, Mr. F. B. Alston, and Dr. 
Bird wood. Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., and General Scott, 
C.B., attended the meeting on behalf of her Majesty's 
Commissioners ; Mr. E. Craigie, Deputy-Commissioner, 
and Lieut. H. H. Cole, R.E., were present, the latter as 
secretary to the committee. 

The Committee for Implements for Drinking and for 
the Use of Tobacco and Narcotics of all Kinds held its 
first meeting on Thursday, December 5, at GK)re-lodge, 
and discussed the limits which had been put on this 
section of the Exhibition in view of not encroaching on 
the classes of Glass, Goldsmiths* Work, &o., to be repre- 
sented as Industrial Classes in future years. A sub- 
committee was formed to advise on the formation of a 
display of ancient implements, and to examine the appli- 
cations already sent in to lend old implements. The 
following gentlemen were present: — Dr. Thudichum, 
Mr. W. Bragge, F.8. A. ; Mr. F. W. Moody, Mr. Thomas 
Whitehead, and Mr. Henry Durlacher. Mr. Henry 
Cole, C.B.y attended on the part of her Majesty's Com- 
missioners, and Lieut. H. H. Cole, R.E., was present as 
secretary. 

REPORT ON TOBACCO PIPES. 

It is the intention of her Majesty's Commissioners to 
exhibit specimens of all kinds of tobacco pipes, tobacco 
grinders, &c., made before 1800. 

The following report on the subject has been drawn 
up by M. Berger : — 

1. There exist but few special collections of pipes, or, 
in genera], of smoking apparatus. After making every 
research, I cannot cite more than two collections : — 1st. 
The first has been bequeathed to the town of Douai, hy 
an amateur named Berthoud. 2nd. The second is to be 
found at Paris, and belongs to M. le Baron Wattevillei 
chief of the Dep6t des Livres to the Minister of Public 
Instruction. A third collection exists, it is said, or has 
existed, in New York. 

2. The several ethnographical collections of costumes 
and of domestic or other instruments which are to be 
found in Europe might furnish some interesting specimens 
of pipes. 

3. I think that the flint and steel (briques) and to- 
bacco pouches should, of necessity, form an integral 
part of the collection of pipes whidi will be brought 
together. 

4. I can only mention a very few works to con- 
sult. Amongst others : — '* The Smoker's Museum," by 
M. Cardon, manufacturer of pipes at Paris, Boulevard 
de Sebastopol. ''The Art of Smoking," a poem by 
Barthelemy, where may be found some curious notes. 
*' The review of the Society of Antiquaries of Zurich." 
In this collection is to be found a memoir upon th« 
ancient forges of the Jura Bemois, where mention is 
made of the custom of smoking as having already 
existed amongst the Romans. These people are said to 
have smoked aromatic herbs, such as the thjrme or the 
wild thyme, as well as the dried leaves of the walnot- 

I tree. 

j 6. There do not exist, as far as I remember, any iai- 
plements of smoking dating from an age so rpmote ; it 
appears, however, that certain Swiss ooUectiona poMCM 
some, and they also contain some analogous inatmmcnfta 
{L*.^)oqu€ de* LacHttres). 

6. I have examined in detail the coUi!ctioD of fibs 
Baron de Watteville. His oldest pipes are 
and date from before the conqocat by Cortes. 
pipes are of complicated foniia, tn bard daj- 
wood. 



7. I need not dwell vpoo the infinite imwkis ** T^ 
able and interestiDg spetimeas that tha Ea^ TL »I 
extreme East can nimsh. These eamatom aa» 



68 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Deoembbe 13, 1872. 



speak, the coantries of smokers and fine pipes, from the 
simple Turkish short pipe, of hardened mud of the Bos- 
phoros, to the Chibouk of Syout clay, with amber mouth- 
piece, enriched with precious stones, to the Narghilh6, 
ornamented with Persian enamel, to the pipes of 
Armenia, of which the bowl rests upon rollers in order 
to aroid all trouble to the smoker, who breathes the smoke 
from its long tube. There are also the bell-shaped pipes 
of Bagdad, of Bussorah, of Tiflis, the cocoa-nut water- 
bottles of Damascus, of Mecca, &c. Collections, without 
trouble, of the various types from India, the Indian 
Archipelago, and the English colonies, can be made also. 
The Chinese, Coreean, and Japanese pipes, fox smoking 
tobacco, opium, and hachish, will afford a collection easily 
to be found and completed. The Western European 
countries offer forms of infinite variety. France alone 
oaa furnish for each of her provinces pipes of which the 
forms can be counted by thousands, in wood, in metal, 
in porcelain, in meerschaum, in clay, &c. 

8. It is possible to procure pipes of the time of Louis 
XIV,, numerous specimens of which have been found 
in the bed of the Seine, some of thorn enclosed in cases 
of stamped or embossed morocco, with secret opening. 
These pipes are generally of ordinary clay, the bowls 
very small, reminding one of Dutch pipes. 

9. France offers also a kind which is indigenous, I 
mean ** political pipes." There has not been a politician 
in France, since the commencement of the century, 
whose features have not been moulded in clay to form, 
a pipe-bowl, either in the form of a portrait or a carica- 
ture. Certain parts of these figures are enamelled, and 
remain white when the pipe is coloured. I have been 
told of a person who for more than forty years has 
bought all the pipes of this kind which have appeared ; 
■I0O, that an amateur has succeeded, with the help of 
certain directors of prisons, in procuring the pipes which 
the more celebrated condemned criminals have smoked 
fbr the last time before death. He possesses notably the 
pipes of the condenmed communists {Troubles de la 
Oimmwu). 

10. The pipes of the east of France, called Ftane- 
Cburtoitea, of which the central manufactory is, and has 
always been at St. Claude, are perhaps the most varied. 
They greatly resemble the Swiss. These last are 
generally in porcelain, in wood, and in chamois, and 
uard-hom; they vary in nearly every canton, though they 
approach the Qerman pipe in the district of the Tyrol, 
and assume the Piedmonteee or Savoy forms as they 
approach Italy. The German pipes can, by themselves, 
eonstitute a collection, perhaps as numerous as those of 
the East. ^ Art is not wanting in them, and we find in 
Vienna pipes in amber which are real ehefa-d^ awsrt in 
delicate carving. Pipes of hard roots, twisted in the 
most extraordinary shapes, are in vogue in the Harz and 
Bohemian mountains. I need not speak of the pipe of 
the German student, which, in the German universities, 
plays a part at least as important as his rapier or his 
DooKS. Belgium and Holland will furnish but little else 
than the long pipes of white clay, with fine and delicate 
■terns, straight, bent, or turned in spirals. Spain, 
Portugal, and Italy prefer the cig^r and cigarette to the 
pipe too much to furnish any special types. Greece 
offers but few specialities in the way of pipes. I know 
of several, however, in carved wood, of workmanship even 
more original than that of the Swiss and Tyrolean 
manufacturers. One, amongst others, which represents 
Bellerophon overthrowing the Chimera, is to be found 
in the collection of the Baron de Watteville. Hussia 
and Scandinavia, on the contrary, have a curious arsenal 
of smoking implements. There are Russian pipes, 
which were hidden in a walking stick, at the period 
when the Imperial edicts prohibited smoking. The 
Siberian pipes in ivory, in which the inhabitants of cer- 
tain districts smoke dried poisonous mushrooms ; the 

Eipes of the Cossack of the Don, with his steel (cased) 
1 leather attached to the stem. Pipes of graphite of 
tfie Ooial ; the nnall metallic pipes of the Laplanders. 



11. Other parts of the world abound wit 
different models, of which the nomenclati 
form an entire book. The principal specimei 
found represented in the ethnographical co 
the chief cities of Europe. We wrU quote i 
The Indian Calumet, in red rock of Arka 
pipes of New Guinea, which remind ns of thi 
style. The double-stemmed pipes of the Ga 
pipes of the Upper Nile." The common pi 
Egyptian fellahs. The pipes of the Hot 
which the stems are formea of a bnlFa horn. 
of Lagos (Central Africa), in the f^de 
Onidda. The pipes of Bosnia, in clay damai 
silver. Pipes of Madagascar clay. Pipes of 
Pipes of Pudor (Senegal). Wooden pipet 
Marquis islands. North African pipes with 
&o., &o. 

12. It is necessary to remember that the fc 
such a collection of pipes will cause a very c 
amount of work and occupy a good deal of time, 
ment of closing this note, I hear of the eztsten* 
Lntin work, published at Lyons, and bearing 
ing title: Tabacologia; hoc est Tabaci seu 
descriptio Medico-Chirurgico-Pharmsceutie< 
prteparatio et usus in omnibus ferme oorpoi 
incommodis. Per Johannem Neandram \ 
Philosophicum et Modicum. The author quo 
sages from ancient writers which may rel 
custom of smoking. 



CHANNEL PASSAGE. 



In an article on the rival schemes for ohani 

boats, the Enginter speaks rather diaparaging 

Captain Dicey's and Mr. Bessemer's. C 

Dicey's twin-ship, it says : — *' It ia quite p< 

such a ship will roll very little, but we have b 

hitherto that rolling was as much a question 

of centre of gravity as of beam, and it is not 

to see that circumstances might arise under ^ 

tain Dicey's ship would roll excessively, not I 

was too narrow, but because she was too wid< 

case, we have no hesitation in stating tt 

opinion the inventor has adopted the won 

device of several to prevent rolling. It ma 

there are other advantages of a totally differenl 

proper to the double-ship system. If so, i 

know what they are ; but wo do know thst 

objections to the system of the utmost weighl 

of our readers will take the trouble to set out 

the kind, and to make a few calculations, thej 

that the strains to which the bridge work, or c 

girders, will be exposed, are of the most 

character. There is no conceivable direction 

strains will not take, and from the nature < 

they must one and all be dealt with by sheer b 

There can be no such thing as introdurimg 

diameter to take a strain in one place which : 

to go undealt with there, could only be met 

bar 4in. in diameter in another place. Of cou 

not pretend to maintain that Captain Dicey < 

his ships fastened securely together, but we 

tain that security can only be secured by the 

enormous weight of iron and at a great expenfi 

the means of propulsion, nothing can by posa 

worse than the location of the paddles, as ev 

neer knows. If great beam is really necessarVi 

Channel steamer of the future must have it 

paddles should he kept outside the. hull and bei 

well forward and well aft, where the beam of I 

narrowed, they would little, if at all, an^c^^ * 

The floats should be fixed at a slight angle with 

no as to drive the water awky from t^®"^*.?,! 

80 much capacity would be sJforded by th« »^ 

tiie nnuaed space wasted in the \nmMh ^ 



JWIRNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Deobmbeb 13, 1872. 



69 



X. 



^i^ 



lUifiMilf ftft oRM»-bridfe girden, that the draught 
rfwIviM Im miMh reduced oyer any thing practi- 
«A«iftM DioeF ihip. In one word, a hoat aeoft 
I^M vUe, lod drawing 7ft. or 8ft. of water, and 
0rf Ij two pin of paddles, aa far asunder as they 
eoonueatly be placed, woold be in every respect 
tony double-bodied craft which it is possible 

tn Iks obttrrations npon Mr. Bessemer's plan 

I BoiecoBpIiaieQtary : — ^* Mr. Bessemer's proposed 

«e tepii mmj^j as a model of misplaced inge- 

Ai tmrjfmb u acquainted with the general con- 

of luf patent suspended cabin, it is unnecessary 

it faUy here. It will in his proposed Channel 

a splendid suspended saloon, 50ft. long, 

I, and prevented from feeling the roll of 

\ff hydraolic brakes, worked by a species of 

en whose energy, fidelity, and skill, the 

«f the passengers £rom sea-sickness will alto- 

On the inventor's own showing, Mr. 

bsen unable to grapple with the pitching 

^,tBd he has therefore got Mr. £. J. Reed to 

Ms ihip 10 long and so low at the ends that 

LMt pitoL Mr. Beasemer disposes of the rolling 

Ul Reid gets rid of pitching and ascending, 

far aa these two motions are concern^ 

to be no sea-aickness, and yet we venture 

the Bessemer aaloon will not save many 

to tbe voysger that could not be just as weU 

' ^ other means. Those who have had most to 

i tbt am know beet that it is not the rolling 

^ dUp tkit gives greatest trouble to an uneasy 

^ ' ii it the pitching. These can be avoided 

a|^ a position somewhere amidships. The 

influence is the bodily up imd down 

ihip. It is the apparent sinking of the 

foot that elicits the direst groans and 

t^ iharpest pangs. With this motion Mr. 

'i smpmded cabin cannot deal. That it will 

M pefioos from uneasiness, and to a certain 

ftoBots comfort, we do not wish to dispute. 

k wHl lor ever banish sea-sickness is a propo- 

'"*^^ t heavy gale in the Channel would effectu- 

in half an hour." 

sums up aa follows, and advocates a plan 
of all : — *^ Plainly stated, our opinion on 
bfect is, generally, that no complex devices 
sn required to render the passage from 
ittbis comfortable, if not delightful. All that 
lilt vtssel of such length that she will not 
^srnpidly ; and of such beam that she may 
' (Steluragh the centre of gravity stands very 
"bined in a way well understood with 
or fina, will reduce rolling to a point 
iSeMe to do harm. A long easy roll will 
»tit ttie weakest stomach. As regards pitch- 
]ftAtdi immunity will be secured by placing 
' ifts mid-length of the ship, instead of at the 
lers. The boat must be double- 
Were such vessels put into competi- 
ir*s or Captain Dicey's it would be 
M hr MB accoounodation was concerned, 
|RM»ly be all alike; that the Bessemer 
be found the most comfortable by a 
ilmiah people, and that, on the 
'Umjie ship would keep the best time, re- 
■snrtwisnoe and first cost, bring in the 
(to hor owners, and, in a word, satisfy the 
of the public better than any 
now discussed. It happens, how- 
can take out a patent for the only 
and, therefore, no one will supply 



t«(tibei 



m^mmj qvaJ 



tieal objections no answer can be 
■applied by experiment. If it is 
iKperience, that all that is required 
' te Mlt on the plans prq^osed by 



the En§ineer, bo much the simpler and better, but it will 
be at least as well to wait and see how the new vessels 
behave in a rough Channel sea, before we condemn them 
off-hand. 



SIDA RETUSA. 



With reference to this fibre, which was shown in the 
last International Exhibition, Messrs. Noble, the well- 
known fibre brokers, report as follows : — 

** We have f^xamined the fibre ; it will be of great 
value, provided there is a Urge quantity that may be 
sent from Queensland, so that is is worth the while of 
spinners to devote themselves to it. 

** There is in the fibre value of upwards of £30 per ton 
if sent clean and free from * woody stalk.' 

"We would recommend you only to steep it, and 
crush out as much of the wood as possible, and send 
it ; it will then bring from £11 to £ 1 2 per ton, andit will 
rise in value according to the way it is cleaned ; but as 
labour is scarce, we think it is tho best way to send it 
rough at first ; if you find that labour becomes more plen- 
tiful you can clean it more; the difference consists in the 
amount of labour expended, when properly understood, 
and saving of expense in freight in what would be 
wasted. 

" But do not trouble yourself about it unless plenty 
can be produced in the country, as little lots would 
not brinff their real value. 

" To show you that quantity will be sure to work its 
wa^, we may mention one article of similar though in- 
ferior quality — Jute from India. Thirty seven years ago 
a little was brought into this country, only about 3,000 
bales a year, of SOOlbs to the bale, andit was pronounced 
as worthless except tor adulterating, but I recommended 
it to come in quantity. It has made for itself a market, 
made the fortune of Dundee, and last year there was 
imported 1,600,000 bales." 



TRADE-MARKS IN AMERICA.* 

The annexed abstract of the law and practice of theM 
trade-marks has been prepared by George Haseltine, 
LL.D., for publication in the Society's JowntU, 

The subject of a *' registration" may be either a lawful 
trade-mark, to which applicant is already entitled by 
use, or one he proposes to adopt. The name alone of a 
person, firm, or corporation cannot be the subject of a 
registration, nor a trade-mark registered or used by 
ol£ers for the same class of merchandise. The claim to 
a registered trade-mark connected with any unlawful 
business, or injurious articles, or for which protection 
was obtained fraudulently or with intent to deceive the 
public, cannot be maintained. 

The applicant for a registration must, according to law, 
be a person, firm, or corporation, domiciled in the United 
States, or in a foreign country where similar privileges 
are granted, by treaty or convention, to American citizens. 
But the office has decided that Englishmen may regiiter 
trade-marks on the supposition that English laws e^ord 
similar privileges to foreigners, in the absence of treaty 
or convention, which supposition is erroneous, and, 
strange to say, no treaty or convention exists between 
the two countries on this subject. 

The application for a protection is made by filing in 
the Patent Office the applicant's name, residence, and 
place of business, a particular description of the goods, and 
the class of merchandise to which the trade-mark is to 
be applied, a description of the trade-mark, with fac- 
similes, the duration of prior use, declaration under oath 

• The only Ameriran legislation upon trade-m^rks 1« contained 
in the Patent Act of July 8ih, 18T0, section 77 to B4 inolosire, prior 
to which date this subject was regulated by common law, and there 
was no registration. Though the mode of obtaining redress for in- 
fringement is prescribed by the Act, the common law remedies ar« 
preserved, sad may be enforoed, evea la the absenoe of reflstraUM. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Deobubkb 18, 1872. 



to ownership, and correctness of the description and 
illastrations filed. When the applicant is a firm or 
corporation, some member or officer mast make the 
declaration. 

The duration of the i-egistration is thirty years, subject 
to a renewal for a like term if application is made six 
months before the expiration of the original term. No 
provision is made for extension beyond sixty years, when 
the proprietors must resort to their common law rights 
and remedies. The registered trade-mark used on 
articles manufactured abroad will not be effective 
unless protected by registration at the place of produc- 
tion. The official fee for the original or renewed term 
is twenty-five dollars, or about five pounds. The law 
provides for a remedy in the courts of law and equity for 
inftingement. The registered trade-marks may be trans- 
ferred the same as copyrights. 



RAISED MAPS FOR THE BUND. 

Maps for the blind have hitherto been such expensive 
and Clumsy curiosities that, practically speaking, they 
can scarcely be said to have existed. Some persons, in- 
deed, who ought to have known better, have gone so far 
as to assert that the blind are incapable of learning 
geography. But on a close examination of all the facts 
of the case, it will be found that this assertion — if it 
means anything at all-^can only mean that without 
globes or maps, and without any regular oral instruction 
.either in physical or political geography, the blind make 
but very poor progress in this branch of study. It can- 
not, of course, be maintained that loss of sight is any 
help either to a man or a child in acquiring a knowledge 
of the surface of our globe. But as it is abundanUy 
clear to every intelligent observer of the sightless and 
their ways, that blindness does not prevent its victims 
from guiding themselves through crowded and intricate 
streets, it may fairlv be presumed, until clearly proved to 
the contrary, that they are capable, when helped by good 
teaohifag and suitable appliances, of acquiring a very 
useful amount of geographical knowledge. So far as the 
ec^periment has yet been made in the case of individuals, 
or on a somewhat larger scale in a few of the more ad- 
vanced institutions for educating the blind, the results 
have been thoroughly satisfnctory. In order to render 
the attainment of these results more easy and certain, as 
well as to encourage the managers of schools for the 
blind to give their pupils more general and systematic 
instruction in this branch of knowledge, the British 
and Foreign Blind Association has just issued two relief 
maps of England and Wales, the one political or elemen- 
tary, and the other physical. 

In both of these maps the whole of the land is raised 
clearly and unmist^ikably above the level of the sea, so 
that the finger of the blind pupil will at once tell him 
whether he is on terra firma or on the treacherous deep. 
The rivers are marked by decided depressions in the 
surface of the land, and in order that the blind explorer, 
whenever he comes upon a river, may at once know in 
which direction the stream is fiowing, the side of the 
depression which represents the right bank is made 
vertical, while that which represents the left bunk is 
■helving. 

In the elementary map the divisions of the counties 
are marked by raised lines, and when, as so often 
happens, counties are divided by rivers, the raised 
boundary line is always carried along the right bank of 
the stream, thus making the distinction between the 
right and left bank still more marked. All the more 
important towns are marked by numbers in the French 
dotted system, and these numbers are explained by an 
index, printed in relief and also in black and white, so 
that they can be used either by the sighted or sightless. 
Wherever two or more important towns come together, 
and where, therefore,^ if both were marked by embossed 
numbers aome confusion might arise from the crowding 



of signs, one only of such totms is numbered, 
position of the others is indicated by single dot 
system of numbering and grouping the tov 
been found possible, although the map is i 
veniently large, to indicate the exact positioi 
243 places. The principal headlands und ba 
dicated by numbers, which are embossed upon 
a distance of half-an-inch from the coast. Th 
half-an-inch has been left in order that the i 
pass round the coast line without being inte: 
the roughness of the dots which represent th< 
The places upon the coast thus marked are a 
number. The whole of both maps is eng 
printed in the ordinary way, so that where th( 
mdications fail, the blind student may be hel 
eyes of a friend or teacher. 

The physical map represents, with Tray c< 
accuracy, all the chief diversities of surface, re 
not only the prominent hills and valleys, b^t 
ing the general slope of each district. ^ In th 
places are not numbered, but the positions of 
are indicated by single dots. 

From these particulars it will be dear tha 
pains have been taken to render these maps s 
possible, and it is to be hoped that they will i 
troduced into all our schools for the blind. I 
issued at a low price there is no reason wh^ < 
in a class should not have a map before hm 
lesson is proceeding, and thus be enabled to s 
the verbal explanation of the teacher b^ta 
spection. In addition to this, the pupil will b 
means of the embossed index already mention 
pare his lessons alone, and will thus be enot 
habits of self-reliance, which are in some dang 
undermined when the pupil has nothing to de; 
but the oral instruction of the teacher. 

The maps are intended as the commencei 
series, and it is to be hoped that the British ai 
Blind Association may be able to complete it. 



COBBBSPOKDEHOB. 



A TWINBOAT IN THE HURRICAIi 
SUNDAY NIGHT. 

Sir, — As Captain Dicy*s twinboat has been 
ject of a contest in the 2Vm«f and other papas, 
amusing and instructive to some of your i 
know how a twinboat, 60 /eet long, behaved in I 
tempest which raged at high-water, about I 
in Battersea-reach. This, for a mile and-a-1 
a broad expanse, over which the gale howl 
raising a sea that, in the short space of thre< 
of an hour, sank, within the writer's view, sevt 
one or two lighters, many boats, two lsrg< 
boat-houses, about 70 feet long, two dummies i 
and, to end the list, the writer's new steamei 
9fL, which, in the short space of five minatd 
saloon and paddle-boxes swept dear away, 
less than ten minutes more, was sunk by a 
waves. All this took place whilst a hondrc 
were looking on. 

The twinboat was lying broadside expose 
full force of the gale. liuckily, her moorings 
although she was deluged by the waves and the 
half-filled, she rode out the gale, with an oeci 
slight that it was easy enough to move sboa 
deck, and by her means two small yachts w^n 
and placed in safety, but in a terribly diispK" 
dition. .^ 

The force of this storm was something temfl 
masses of water were carried over the river w 
high, into the gardens in lindsey-row; a^a 
habitants say they can only recollect ons P*^ ^ 
in fury, and that was many yean ago. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOGIETT OF ARTS, Dboskbkr 13, 1872. 



71 



3S 



Oi flHHMlMO of the twinboat on the Monday, 

BriMf Ml kmad iajored in any way, except that the 

W «i a littU du&d in parta. The croaa-yirden 

#0ri BB MQ of wrenching or diatortion ; but ^e 

lufeiii efiMitiy made diatrening efforta to get free, 

IftH €f tk iloBit had battered a apace out of the river 

M MM 3ft. aqaare by 9 in. in depth, though no 

tmtfty M beiofe aUted, had occurred to the hull. 

I IW tviaboat it 60 ft. over all, 18ft wi4e, and at the 

■te^bttflKhkall 18 about 33 inchea wide* — ^I am, &c., 

A. Sbdlby. 
m >n BoBd^tntl, 10th December, ISTX 



CHANNEL PASSAGE. 

Sbt-I k^ lately creased from Boulogne to Folks- 

■i^nikid an opportunity of trying the acoommoda- 

ftiMii by the South-Eaatem Company*8new boat, 

iMwt EAiard, which haa been fitted with a covered 

) lad dt These coverings have windows on the 

practicdlv form deck-Cttbins. There were more 

I tkf« handred p^tssengera on botrd, and it blew half 

I of wind vith occaaiunal showers. There was, of 

I At aniil plentiful amount of sea-sickness, but 

tborooghly prott^ted from the wet, and the 

perfect. Take it altogether, there was a 

eoMnt in the way of comfort as compared 

rvojages. The lower cabin, too, was decidedly 

I; bst there is still room for further improve - 

LiaCihtion there, as well as with regard to the 

aader the deck coverings. I would sug- 

> order and discipline should be maintained 

of places by the passengers and the 

of the luggage. However, what haa been 

>^ vsy of improving the existing boata is a step 

10^ direction ; nnd I congratulate the company 

Hi thsy have already accomplished, looking for- 

fepafoUy Ibr still further amelioration of the 

of this passage. — I am, &c., 

FlUX StTXMBBLT. 



GEVBSAL VOTES. 



tte 



first report of the Wealden exploration states 
9mt\ otwaotes have been met with, but the borine is 
fwadiaf at a depth of 96 ft in a bed of haid blue 
7m committee will be recommended to reduce 
of the bore. 

has been pnt forward in America, 

viRs be extended to all the lighf houses on the 

a pyrtem of ngnaU be arranged to be exbibited 

to give notice to passing vessels of ap- 

or ehanges of wind. 

that some 6,000 or 7,0001b8. of Aus- 

iVMotiy ooined by the French Mint, proved so 

tiK the pieees cwn be easilv broken, and have, 

ilted. This is attributed to the presence 

I of antimony and arsenic, extremely diflS* 

its which are known to produce a similar 

I or alloys subjected to the molecular changes 

of the dies in the coining press. 

[w^M that an agneement has been come to 

"^^frBsriwor Bo«rd and the South-Eastem and 

fcftifc , and Dover, to promote in Parliament a 

rlbotiiig the traffic between Dover and Calais, 

*iai Boulogne respectively, into a single route 

''tiBoolflgna. In favour of tbe proposal, it is 

r boata can be emploved, and the passage 

a few minutes more than is required now. 

whaling bark, the Java, of New 
Jed with an upright five-horse power 
9 wd in cutting up whales and dischuging 
rtopssils, if required, etc. This is expected to 
iBfiBg of lima and labour, as it usually re- 
ar mtok, men to cut up a whale, while, with 
'Mi,nx mencanesaily attendtoit. The 
la the forecastle, occupying a space ten 
Ilwfflbe the first ever csrried to sea in a 



A Vniversity of Arts and Trades.— According to the 
Seimtifie Amerieattf a prominent citizen of Toledo, Ohio, 
has matured a plan, and presented to the city a building site 
for the establishment of a ** University of Arts and Trades," 
for the promotiou of knowledge in these and the related 
sciences by means of lectures aud oral instruction ; of models 
and representatiTe works of art ; of museums of the mechanic 
arts, and of whatsoever else may serve to furnish artists and 
artisans with tbe best facilities for high culture in their re- 
spective occupations, in addition to those furnished by the 
public schools. 

Echoes in Public Buildings. — ^The Atneriean Mailway 
Times describes a novel method which has been adopted to 
prevent the recurrence of an echo in tbe new court-house at 
filoomington. A Mr. Carlock suggested that tbe stretching 
of small wires at a proper height and at suitable distances 
would be of great beoefit. This whs tried, and tbe eifect 
proves to be a vast improvement. The theory is, that the 
wires (tio small as tu be hardly visible) bre^tk the sound- 
waves and prevent tbe reveroeration, hithertj the chief 
obstacle and annoyance. Three or four wires only, oronsing 
tbe room, were found sutficient to effect this wonderfiu 
change. 

The Oas-Stoksrs* Strike.— The Meehanic** Magatin$ 
sums up the result of the gas-strike : — ** The only ultimate 
results of their ill-judged proceeding will be to stimulate 
invention in the tluree-fold path, firstly, of improvementa 
in storage and the prevention of waste by leakage ; secondly, 
of superceding manual Ubour to a larger extent by the aid of 
steam and meciianical appliances; and, thirdly, of super- 
seding gas itself as an illuminating agent, to a considerable 
extent, by the utilisation of hydrocarbons, snd by the practical 
adaptation of the magnesium, oxy -hydrogen, or electric light. 
In all these respects there is an almost unlimited field." The 
production of what is called ** air-gas," t.f., air passed through 
a liquid hydro-carbon, is carried on to a considerable extent 
in America. For lis^hting purposes on a larger soale» how- 
ever, it is said not to be found very efficient. 

Xr. Abbot on Examinations. — At a recent meeting of 
the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science 
a paper was read, by the Rev. £. A. Abbot, on ** llie Pro- 
poaed Examination of First Orade Schools oy the Universi- 
ties." Of this scheme Mr. Abbot is a strong advocate, and, 
amongst other arguments, he remarked on the immense 
number of separate examinations nowgoingon simultaneously 
throng hthe country. Of course, he referred mainly toolasdcu 
schools, but the general idea is equally applicable to all 
examinations. After enutuerating numerous examinations 
for the younger boys— such as thoae for the Army, Navy, 
&C., — he proceeded as follows :—" Later on, for boys of 18 
or 19, impend other conflicting and multitudinous examina- 
tions for the army, for the civil service, and for matricula* 
tion examinations for different colleges. At Trinity College, 
Cambridge, and, 1 believe, at almost all the colleges at 
Oxford, there are distinct entranoA examinations, most of 
them requiring the preparation of special books. It is not 
impOMible that in one class a master may have a doz?n boys 
or more preparing for twelve different examinations of this 
kind, in addition to their ordinary school-work. Surely the 
universities as well as the schools would derive benefit from 
a simpVr system, diminishing this tenrible waste of examining 
labour, and enabling teachers at the universities, instead ol 
continuing school studies and school tests, to turn their atten- 
tion to objects worthier of their powers. To sweep away, 
then, thia multitude of conflicting examinations, to establish 
two efficient Cests for all boys in England, one for boys at 16, 
tbe other for boys at 18 or 19, and to give these tests a sub- 
stantial value by obtaining their recognition, either as pra- 
liminary or as complete tests for entrance to the university 
and to tbe legal ana medical professions ; and to do all thia 
without destroying the freedom and individuality of our 
teaching, and the wholesome differences of our |mblio 
schools--this must surely seem an object so obviously 
desirable, that the only question is whether it can be 
attained.*' Mutaio nomtne de tefabula narratur^ and diere 
are many opportunities for amalgamating examinationa, and 
tibereby saving both time and power. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbobmbib 13, 1872. 



Photographi of the Koon. — Some remarkable photo- 
graphs of the moon have just been produced and exhibited at 
the Paris Observatory. They were prodaced by means of a 
powerful telescope and afterwards enlarged, and even small 
indentations and irregularities of surface and outline are per- 
ceptible ; moreover, these views are stereoscopic. The earth 
not being large enough to subtend the necessary angle, the 
photographers of the Observatory, having obtained one 
picture, were compelled to wait until the muon herself had 
moved into a favourable position to take the second. The 
first photograph was taken on the 16th of September, 
1868, and the second on the 13th of the present month oi 
November. 

A Haw Export — ^The ship Miltiadta, "bound for Lon- 
don, has on board a shipment of 100 tons of bone dust 
prepared for exportation in an altogether novel manner, and 
one which promises to come into extensive use. The manu- 
facture of Done-dust and other animal manures has greatly 
increased in Melbourne since meat-preserving operations 
commenced. By means of strong pressure the crushed bones 
are moulded into cakes of 6 in. square and 3 in. thick, some<* 
thing like flooring tiles, each cake weighing a little over 6 lb. 
These bone-dust tiles are just adhesive enough to admit of 
their being handled freely, thrown about like bricks if neces- 
sary, and are yet so free that when required for use thev can 
readily be crushed or melted by the application of a little hot 
water. A ton weight of the manure measures twenty-six 
cubic feet, and contains 352 of the cakes. If the consign- 
ment per Miltiades is well received, the export of compreraed 
b<me-dust will probably prove a valuable addition to tiie oom- 
merdal resources of the colony. — Melbourne Argttt, 

Coal in the Faro Iilet. — ^The report received of the 
results of the examination of the coal measures in the island 
of Sudero, is veiy favourable. The exploring expedition sent 
out from Copenhagen was conducted b;^ M. Johstrupp, the 
Professor of Mineralogy at the University of Copenhagen, 
assisted by a Silcsian mining engineer and two practical 
miners. The coal seams at Proestifildet are said to be of 
considerable extent and thickness. Fifty tons have been 
brought away for trial in various applications, with steam- 
generators, and for making gas, &c. If found of good quality 
It would be necessary for the government to construct a 
fuitable port and accessories, bimdings, and miners* dwel- 
lings. 



VOTICES. 



SXAMIVATIOVS, 1878. 

The attention of candidates is drawn to an error 
in paragraph 55 of the Programme. After the 
woras " accidence," the words '* and in passages " 
should be inserted. 

SUB80BIPnOV8. 

The Michaelmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
Older, crossed ** Coutts and Co.,'* and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
Officer. 

THE LIBRABT. 

The following works have been presented to the 
library:— 

Memoirs of the Boyal Astronomical Society. Part 11., 
Toh 39. Presented by the Society. 

Quarterly Weather Report of the Meteorological 
Office. Part I., January to March, 1872. Presenter by 
the Committee. 

Memoir of the Late John Brogden. By B. Smiles. 
Presented by the author. 

Statistics of the Colony of Victoria for the year 1871. 
Part y. Accumulation. 

The Age of Tin. A pamphlet on Tinned Meat, 
V, &c, 



muM Kssmre. 

This Evening ^Friday), at 8 o'clock, Capt. Lya 
will exhibit nis Photographic Transparenci^ 
illustrative of Indian .Architecture, Idols, afl 
Every-day Life. 

OBDIVABT XEEinrGB. 

I 

Wednesday evening, at eight o'clock. Thenes 
meeting will take place on : — 

Dbcbmbbr 18. — **0a Hossia, her Industries, Con 
merce, and Means of Communication." B^ Lsoin Let 
Esq., Professor of Mercantile Law, Emg's Oollegi 
London, and one of the Deputies to the Intemationi 
Statistical Congress at St. Petersburg. 



OAVTOB LECTUBE8. 

The first course of Cantor Lectures for tl 
present Session is on ** The Practical AppUcatioi 
of Optics to the Arts, Manufactures, and 1 
Medicine," by C. Meymott Tidy, M.B., Joii 
Lecturer on Chemistry, and Professor of Medici 
Jurisprudence at the London Hospital. It oonsis 
of five Lectures, the last two of which wiU 1 
delivered on the following evenings, at eigl 
o'clock : — 

Lbotukb IV. — ^MoKDAT, Dbobmbsb 16th, 1873. 
Polarised Light, and its Practical Applications. 

Lbctubb Y. — Monday, Decbmbbb 23bi>, 1872. 

Spedtrum Analysis as Applied to Manu&otun 
illustrated in the Bessemer process, and to Medicine 
the Detection of Blood. 



XEETnrOB FOB THE SVBUIVG WSSK. 

Hov SOCIETY OF AET8, 8 Cantor Lecture. Dr.T) 

** On the Practical Applications of Optice to the Aj 
Mannflmtnres, and to Medicine/' 

Britiah Aichitects, 8. Mr. Heathoote, **Notet on 1 
Ardbitecture of Chaiter.** 

Medicaids. 

Asiatic, 8, 

Tubs. ...London Institmtion, i. Vtot Butherfiord, "The Notdt 

of the Body." 
Civil Engineers, 8. Annual Qeneral lieetii«. 
SUtistical, 7). Mr. £mert Seyd, "On Bank of &i^ 

Statistics.'^ 
Pathological^ 8. 
Anthropological, 8. 

W1D...JOCIETT OF ABT8 8. Prof. Leone Leri. " 
Bussia, her Industries, Commerce, and Means of Cc 
mnnication." 

Geological. 8. 1. ICr. C. J. A. Meyer. " Foitber K< 
on the Ponfleld Section." S. Mr. J. Lucas, "On 
Origin of day-Ironstone." 8. Mr. W. Johnson Bol 
'* On the Coprolites of the Upper Oreensand FOrmsti 
and on Flints." Oommunioated by tiie Bar. T. 
Bonney. 

Boyal Soaety of Literature, 8i. 

TBUBS...Boyal, 8|. 

Jinnswan, 8. Dr. Masters, " The General FriMipk 
Plant-construction." 

Caiemical, 8. 1. Mr. B. Lodwig Mayer and Dr. C. I 
Wright, *' On the Polymecides of Moiphine and tl 
DeriVatiTee." 9. Hr. E. Nicholson, "Analyw 
Water of the Biver Mahannddy." 3. Oommunicsl 
from the Laboratory of the London lastitotion. 
Dr. H. B. Armstrong. 4. Mr. J.L.DaTiea, "On 
tallised Coffee Sulphide, Ac" 

ynmismatic, 7. 

Philosophical dob, 8. 

Zoological, 4. 

FBI Fbilologioal, B\, 






JOCBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP AETS, Dioianit 20, 1872. 



73 



JOUIIIBL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

So. 1,«8. Vol- XSI. 



FRIDAT, DECEMBER 20, 187?. 



chemtc*! acience. and to the beoeGto derived from ^haC 
BcitDenie LyArti, MuDufnctuitis, and Cominerce." 

Id 1S70. to M. Fer.inBDil de Lmsepa, " fur servioM 
rendered to Arta, MHOufiictureB, and Osmmerce, by th* 
reiiliaittioD of the Suei Canul,'' 

In 1871, to Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., "for Lie important 
•erviuea in promoling Arts. Manufactures, and Com- 
rarrce, eapecially in aiilinK Ihe eetobliBhoieDt and develop- 
menC of iDteiniilioaHl EihibitioTia, the Departuient of 
Suience and Art, and the Seulh Konatngton MuBeum," 

BEWASIM TO I5TBST0BS. 
A aaggestioD has been brought before t&e - 
Council, and ia now under considenttion, whether 
some steps should not be taken to form a fund in 
order to commemoroto servioes rendered by in- 
Tentors and manufaoturerB to nations,! industry 
and progress. It is proposed that modala should 
be granted to inTentore, and that on endeavour 
should be made, by the presentation of busts, 
pictures, or memorial tablets to public institutions, 
to establish some public record of such services. 
Any suggestions as to the execution of the project 
will be gladly received by the Council. 

FBIZB rOB STEEL. 

The Council have reeolved to offer tbe Society's 
Gold licdal to that manufacturer who shall produce 
and send to the London International Exbibition of 
ISTSthe best spedmensof steel, suitableforaffordiDg 
increased security in the construotion of locomotive 
and marine engines and boUers, and for other 
engineering purpoaos. 

The conditions of the competition and further 
partictdars will b« published subsequently. 

TECKBIOAL EXAKDTAIIOVB. 

The Programme of Examinations in the techno- 
logy of the Arts and Uanufacturesof tlio country, 
in reference to which notices have already ap- 
peared in tiie Journal, is now ready for issue. 
These examinations will be held aunually, in con- 
junction with the examinations of the Science and 
Art Department, and due notico will bo given of 
the particular subjects selected each year. 

The 1873 Examinations will be held in the 
technology of Cotton, Paper, Steel, Silk, and 
Carriage-building. Candidates, in order to obt^n 
certificates in any of these subjects, must pass the 
examinationB of the Science and Art Department 
in certain sciences, which are spetafied in the pro- 
gramme as bearing upon the particular art or 
mannfactuie. In addition to these, special papers 
will bo set in the technology of each manufacturo, 
by examiners appointed by the Society of Arts. 

The examinations of the Science and Art Depart- 
ment win be held during the first three wooks of 



74: 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Deobmdbr 20, 1872. 



May, the technological paper being worked on the 
evening of the 14th May. The dates of the Science 
subjects are given in the Science Directory, pub- 
lished by the Science and Art Department. 

In order that these Examinations may really be 
successful in promoting technical education in this 
country, it is desirable that encouragement should 
be given to candidates by the offer of prizes and 
scholarships. With this object the Council appeal 
to the trade guilds of the city of London, to mer- 
chants and manufacturers, and to members of the 
Society generally, to aid them by contributing to 
the prize fund. 

nrsTiTunrai. 

The f oUowing Instittftson has been received into 
Union since the last asmounoement : — 

Aflhby de la Zouch, Young Hen's Mutual Improvement 
Society. 

XOnCX TO MEXBBB8.— BA8T UmiAM YSXWB. 

The second and concluding portion of the Pho- 
tographic Transparencies, illustrative of Indian 
architecture, idols, and every-day life, by Captain 
Lyon, will take place this evening, Friday, the 20th 
of December, at 8 o*clock. 

Captain Lyon sends the following explanatory 
statement : — 

Words fail me to express my gratification at the very 
kind manner in which my humble efforts were received 
last Friday night, and this has emboldened me to try a 
second time^to find an audience who will not grudge an 
evening to see and hear something more of the noblest 
appanage of the British crown, containing, as India does, 
140 millions of inhabitants. 

This time let us start again horn Madras to the north, 
and, taking the rail towards Bombay, stop at the 
Tarputry station, and there visit a small ruined temple, 
which, like Avadea, Govill, and Tinnevelly, is built of 
the same hard dark stone, and is, if possible, even a 
greater marvel of Indian patient labour and skill. 

Oar route from thence will take us to the Cauvery 
River, and as it is not much out of our way, we must 
stop to see the Hoginkul, or smoking rock. There this 
splendid river, nearly a mile wide, suddenly disappeMS, 
to emerf^e in a succession of falls lower down, and the 
spray thus caused, as seen from a distance, has exactly 
the appearance of a column of smoke, rising many feet 
into the air — hence the name. Being now on the Mysore 
plateau, 2,000 feet above the sea, we will visit the Deria 
Dowlut, the Indian Alhambra, built by Tippoo, and 
owned and inhabited afterwards by our great Duke. 
Thence a short night's journev will bring us to Bailoor, 
where in the temple we shall find stone so exquisitely 
chiselled that it is scarcely possible to believe it is not 
Danish wood carvings we are looking at, very small 
but wonderfully delicate. The more <m» examines it 
the more one is j>uzzled to understand how any one could 
have even imagined, much less attenapted, such a task ; 
and yet here before us it has not only been attempted 
but accomplished, in such manner that no one who had 
not seen it would believe it possible. Luckily this 
temple is most sacred, so much so that no one is ad- 
mitted while certain daily ceremonies are being per- 
formed; and this has saved it from the iniquitous 
spoliation which we shall find at Hallabeed, twelve miles 
further on, where we go next This ruin is aU that 



remains of the large capital of this distr 
called Dwara Samuora, a city whose nivalis, 
circumference, can, some say, even still be i 
only quite lately that the jungle which, ooi 
rounded this temple has been cleared, awa; 
to it thus become easy. It has long^ been 
the Brahmins, and no worship is ever per£ 
and it has consequently been allowed to 
loafers from all parts having for several y 
sole visitors, who, armed with hammeisB, ha^ 
to break off and carry away for sale many 
the exquisite little figures which formerly 
walls. At last, but unfortunately not in i 
much of its beautiful details, though, sooi 
prevent its ialling to the ground, the g^ve 
awoke, and having built a wall around it, i 
the roof, have appointed police to guaxd it i 
spoliation. In tnis temple as in that of 
one great peculiarity we shall remark ia the 
between the east and west sides. The fon 
long, contains not less than 2,000 carved el< 
is covered over its whole length with friezes, 
bas-reliefs, as we shall see. The latter cent 
nearly six feet high and 400 feet long, in wi 
with the minutest elaboration of detail^ ever 
Kindu Pantheon finds a place. Shiva, wit] 
repeated at least fourteen times, and 'V 
oftener ; and I fdiall be able to introdaoe tc 
two whom you have not seen or heard of bef 

As a marvellous exhibition of patient humi 
fearlessly assert the world cannot produo 
Nor is it for industry alone that this bmildin j 
able. The mode in which the Eastern fac 
up by the larger masses, so as to give height 
light and shade, is a better way of accompli 
the Gothic architects attempted by their tn 
these friezes were spread along a plain si 
would lose more than half their effect, bu 
artistic combination of horizontal with vei 
and the play of outline and of li^ht and 
surpass anything in Gothic art. The effec 
what the medisBval architects were often ain 
never attained so perfectly as has been done at 

As we are now so close to the Neilghen 
Mountains, let us leave the fearful heat for a fi 
and, ascending the excellent road up the side * 
find ourselves in a delightfully cool temperatui 
still within eight degrees of tiie Equator. The 
of waterfalls, caused by tiie river, which fmlk 
in the short space of two miles, is quite as pr 
to be found in Europe. We will also make ac 
with the Todas, the aboriginal inhahitanti 
mountains, and I will show you the only fi 
world where the oak and orange tree ma> 
growing side by side. Here also you will se^ 
heliotrope four feet high and many years old 
a curious fact, that though I have known as ii 
degrees of frost at night in those hills, the 
never killed, as is invariably the case in this c 

From the top of these hills, we must ta! 
greater jump than Hanooman, the monkey g 
plished, as I explained last Friday, and we wi 
the middle of one of the most interesting spot 
namely, the ruins of Yijianuggur or BcSeinugj 
usually called. This city, of which a laxge 
the walls are still standmg, covered an arei 
square miles, and for upwards of 20t) yean 
whole power of the Hussalman armies. Tbei 
find a small temple dedicated to Hanooman, 
curious as well as interesting to compare wbfl 
of this Hindoo city with iU rival, the Mahome< 
called Beejapoor, which we will next visit 1 
note the same dreary desolation, every trace 
habitations having almost entirely disappearf< 
same time we cannot fail to remark that in t) 
the beautiful stone temples alone remain to 
unqualified admiration, while in the bttor 



MVBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Dbobmbbb 20, 1872. 



76 




grandeur, except the splendid 

wkUk it was the custom of the monarchs 

Wi^Ba^ thdr lifetime, to recei?e their bodies 

fether on to the north, in the Baddhist 

iflSad»i I vill show you wood-work as old as the 

[cn^uid a wooden umbrella made 1,900 years 

Ihi toftl city of Ahmedabad we shall have only 

to aiain tbs two beautiful windows in an old 

mompm ; and I propose to ask you to be the 

Esther Ihiase lor^y representations of Indian 

eat out of hard grmnite, or a window at Beeja- 

ir the Kzeen of the Taj, bear off the palm in 

ittfllptaie. We cannot pass the Jains and their 

iUQof Shntroonije, with the many temples massed 

^«aataining 3^600 images of marble and alabaster, 

ttdboft riflit, if it is only to pay our respects to 

\fla»of their first Tirthankars or deities. Thence, 

lAet jomp, to Allahabad, the capital of the 

iWtf^ 00, ever on to the Ghinges, that sacred 

, kU is iQch Teneration by the Hindoos that many 

■ fntfo' to be drowned in it to living away from 

IRivQ loUow it for a few miles, and rapidly see 

" U Oiwapore, as well as the residency at llnck- 

i^boa &r too well known, and posseesed of too 

I w^ shI, sn interest to need any further com- 

isa Thenoe to Agra, to see Uie Taj-Mahal, 

mausoleom of Shah Jehan, built of white 

tTtkid, with precious stones, to erect which, like 

st Hadura, cost one million of pounds 

jad thus we have an opportunity of comparing 

and Hindoos spent their enormous 

E yon to leave India without a peep at 

rkce; tody ku^ily, I have a maharajah, or 
will be only too charmed to make your 
as he invariably is to receive all white 
who, M&er treating them royally, informs 
i*he vill you, on Friday night, that you are 
capital fellows," to have come to see 



lives OF THE SOCIETY. 



BRH OBOIVAItY ICEBIINa 

r, December 18th, 1872, Lord ATiFRED 
Member of Council, in the chair. 

Candidates were proposed for 
iMemben of the Society : — 



Ma, 15, Hans-place, Chelsea, S.W. 
■^ Qapham-common, S.W. 
^^6. P., 11, Grosvenor-creecent, Edinburgh. 
liail-Qenetal Sir Arthur Johnstone, K.C.B., 




56, Old Broad-street, E.C. 
^33, Highbuiy-grove, Highbury, N. 
•Admiral Sir Frederick E., Baii, C.B., 
. liowndes-square, S.W. 
I fidtotd, Lenzie by Glasgow, 
idsukton, Bickley, Kent. 
hv,4i, Oiiswell-street, E.G. 
tMaUfWfd, 13, Qoeen's-gate-gardens, S.W. 

candidates were balloted for and 
of this Society : — 

Thrnnaa, J.P., Church-rd., Edgbastoo, 

^ % ICneing-lane, £.C. 

131, Begent-etreet, W. 
Oveoden, near Halifaz. 



Bowman, Frederic Hungerford, F.B.A.S., F.G.S., West 

Mount, Halifax. 
Brewer, William Henry, M.A., 27, Grace's-road, Cam- 

berwell, 8.E. 
Chadwick, James, High-bank, Prestwich, near Man- 
chester. 
Culver, Edward, 26 and 26, Spencer-street, (kwwell- 

road, E.G. 
Dettelbach, Sigismund Maurice, Lime-street-chambers, 

Lime-street, E.C. 
Dore, H. J., 39, Bruton-street, W. 
Eck, Justus, Riga- villa, the Grove, Clapham-road, S.W. 
Frolich, Theodor, 2, Park-villa, Lonsdale-road, Barnes, 

S.W. 
Gibb, Gkorge, 19, Pembridge-equare, Bays water, W. 
Hancock, C. F., jun., B.A., Hendon-hall, Middlesex. 
Layton, Edward John, 2, Suffolk-lane, Cannon-st, E.G. 
Le Mair, Fran(;oiSf Osbome-lodge, Bexley-heath, Kent. 
Nash, Wallis, 2, Suffulk-lane, Gannon- street, E.G. 
Roche, Alfred Robert, 31, Palmerston-buildings, Old 

Broad-street, E.G. 
Synge, Colonel MiUington H., R.E., Alverscliffe, 

Alverstoke, Hants. 
Wedekind, Hermann, 3, Great Tower-street, E.G. 
West, Arthur Anderson, C.E., 62, Ghoumert-road, 

Peckham, S.E. 
Whitley, John, West-house, Halifax. 
Whitley, Nathan, Park-road, Halifax. 

The Paper read was — 



iv.riiDi: 



CE^ 




RUSSIA, HER INDUSTRIES, Ci 

AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 

By Leone Levi, Esq., 

Professor of Mercantile Law, King** College, London, and one of 
the Deputies to the Internartonal Statistioal Congreas at St. 
Petenbuig. 

The holding of another session of the Interna- 
tional Statistical Congress called me to St. Peters- 
burg this year. We met on former occasions at 
Brussels, Paris, London, Vienna, Berlin, Florence, 
and the Hague, and everywhere we were received 
by the government of the country with great 
honour and hearty hospitality. The Russian, 
government offered every facility for our journey, 
and I accepted the invitation, to the Congress, 
and attended it as one of the deputies for 
the Statistical Society. As for the choice of 
route, it practically rested between a sea route 
by Sweden, and a land route, either by 
Koenigsberg and Eydkuhnen, or by Berlin and 
Warsaw. I decidea to go by the land route via 
Warsaw, and to return by Stockholm, Copen- 
hagen and Hamburg, and on Saturday, August 
10, I, accompanied by my good wife and two 
dear friends, went from Liondon, via Harwich, 
to Rotterdam — ^by an excellent boat, it may 
be, but witii more on board than she was 
fit to cany with comfort; from Rotterdam to 
Utrecht ; thence to Hanover and Berlin, and from 
Berlin by Bromberg to Warsaw. Utrecht is a 
quiet and handsome town, Dutch in character, and 
beautifully clean. At Hanover I saw the effects 
of the change of dynasty ; and Berlin, since I last 
visHed it, has become an imperial city, richer than 
ever in museums and monuments, but too many, 
alas ! devoted to military heroes. 

Warsaw, the ancient capital of Poland, I was 
glad to see, though I could not hdp feeling regret 
for the down-trodden city, where Kosciusko fought 
with so much valour for the liberty of his country. 
Yes, there she was, on the banks of the Vistula, 
with her paleu^es turned into barracks, and^ber 



76 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, December 20, 1872. 



monuments diverted from their intended purposes. 
But there is life in Wa^^saw, and there is a good 
deal of trade and industry. In 1869 the exports 
and imports of Poland amounted to about 
£17,000,000, the exports consisting principally of 
rye, wheat, timber, flax, and bristles. The rail- 
way has rendered Warsaw the best point of transit 
between Austria, Prussia, and Bussia. From 
Warsaw our route was due north, almost a 
straight line to St. Petersburg, about seven 
hundred miles in length, and thus we had 
ample opportumties of seeing a considerable por- 
tion of Kussian territory. But how different from 
the usual English scenery! For miles and miles 
scarcely anything interesting attracted our notice. 
Before us was an mterminable plain, not a hill to be 
seen, not even a valley. Surely nature is capricious 
in her gifts. Go to Italy, Switzerland, or Scotland, 
and you find the towering mountain, the precipi- 
tous rock, the fearful torrent, land and water, 
defying by their grandeur and sublimity the ability 
of the greatest artist to reproduce by the pencil or 
tiie chisel. Go to Kussia, and travelling seems 
monotonous to a degree; but do not think that 
Bussia is so imif ormly flat. The Ural mountains, 
which form a natural frontier between European 
and Asiatic Bussia, the Caucasus mountains also 
separating Europe from Asia, in the south, the 
Carpathian mountains in Bessarabia, and the hills 
of Finland, are all of considerable height. 

What we noted on the road was the poor aspect 
of the agriculture, the sandy soil, the stunted trees, 
the rarity of farmhouses, and the almost total 
absence of sheep. Ho"f^ barren everything 
looked ! For agricultural purposes Bussia has 
been divided into seven distinct regions. The 
northern region, from the Gulf of Bothnia, to the 
northern part of the Oural Mountains, including 
Finland, Archangel, Wologda, and Olonetz, have 
very little of tiOago land. The region of the 
Alaounes heights, or the plateau which separates 
the basins of the Dnieper and the Volga, is 
mostly forest land. The tillage land is not 
very fruitful; the meadow land scanty. The 
Baltic region, including Livonia, Courland, and 
Esthonia, is not very fertile, though somewhat 
better cultivated. The lower region, including 
some of the provinces through which we passed, has 
a very poor soil, and is principally forest land. The 
Carpathian region, embracing Ukraine and Little 
Bussia, is the most fertile part of the empire. 
There is the region of the Steppes, including 
Bessarabia, Kherson, and Astrakhan — a land 
without trees, seldom watered by refreshing rain, 
yet eminent as pasture land. The Central region, 
comprising Kostroma, Moscow, Kijni, Wladimir, 
is rich in cereals. And the Oural region, in- 
cluding all the eastern part of European Bussia, 
has a soil generally fertile. To show the difference 
between other regions and the one over which we 
passed, while Tula, Kursk, Vorones, Tambov, and 
Kief have from 00 to 70 i>er cent, of tillage land, the 
provinces on our wa have at most 40 to oO per cent. 
If, then, we did not see any rich soil, or any well 
cultivated land they do nevertheless exist in Bussia. 
Does not Bussia supply us yearly with large 
quantities of grain ? In 1861 only 12 per cent, of 
our imports of grain came from Bussia ; in 1871, 
the proportion was 35 per cent. In 1861 the total 
imports were 37,646,000 cwt., and from Bussia 



4,540,000 cwt. ; in 1871 the total imports 
44,362,000, and from Bnssia, 15,670,0€0 
The meadow lands of Bussia are principally 
Finland and Archangel, in the north, and 
the Don Cossacks and Caucasian provinces in 
south. In these provinces Bussia has a large stc 
of some 25,000,000 head of cattle, and 45,000,( 
sheep. As for horses, the great centre of horse-bi 
ing seems to be at the very border of the ' 
Mountains. Bussia is stated to have 18,500,( 
horses, when the United Kingdom has oi 
2,600,000. The great difficulties which hith( 
have hindered the agricultural progress of fiussii 
have been serf labour, want of capital, want d 
intelligence, bad roads, and great distanofl| 
Now serfdom, in principle, at least, is abolisliedl 
and the railways are providing new means o 
access to far distant provinces. May we not hop* 
that, with these, capital and intelligence ma] 
also find their way thither, and that togethe 
they may tend towards the devdopmtnt o 
resources far exceeding our present expectS' 
tion P It has been calculated that, whib 
Belgium and the Netherlands produce 14 hectolitre 
of com to every hectare of arable land, aw 
England 13 hectolitres, Bussia produces onlj 
6 hectolitres. "What if, by the means indicated 
the productiveness of land could be doubled 
With her immense area Bussia might replenish th 
granaries of Europe with the greatest ease. 

But fancy travelling in the interior of Bussia i 
sumptuous railway carriages — how different « 
compared with the time when Bichard Chancell( 
accidentally got into the Bay of San Nicholas, o 
the White Sea, landed near Archangel, then on! 
a castle, and travelled on sledges to ihe Czar \ 
Moscow ! The first-class railway carriage in Knffi 
is really liixurious. It is a saloon, with all tl 
necessaries, and some of the elegancies, of such i 
apartment. It is furnished with looking-glass* 
heated by porcelain stoves, and lit by lam] 
and candles. Along the sides soft divans a 
ranged, which, by a simple process, are turn) 
into beds. But they are in no hurry in Euss^i 
while here we travel at the rate of 30 to 40 mil 
an hour, there the ordinary rate is from 15 to 
miles an hour. From St. Petersburg to Moeco 
430 miles, wo employed 17 hours. The fares in t 
Bussian railways are lower, of course, than in ti 
country. The average fares on the five prind] 
lines are as follows : — 



St. Petersburg to Moscow 
„ Warsaw 

Moscow to KIJ 1... 

\Ug& U) KuDuburg 

Odc&sa 



Copec* per Vcr»t. 


Prnr<» t 


trKnft 


1st 


2iiti 


3rd 


Iht 


liU 


Class 


( Inss. 


Cla«. 


( as>8 


< Ia8^. 


310 


211 


77 


1 40 


o55 


2-96 


2 20 


092 


1 :^ 


1 1« 


4-9 


2 27 


113 


1-33 


1 (ff 


AiiH 


2&9 


1 73 


I 96 


1 22 


2 95 


2-21 


106 


1 33 


100 



a 





« 

u 




The division of claff cs in the BuFwan railw 
is much more distinct than in the English n 
ways. The third-class passengers are mo* 
peasants, clad in the most miserable mnnnir, i 
many with viFagcs almost forbidding. * 
stations are commodious, and the bufitts ^ 
furnished, nor are the prices so extravagui 
high as is often represented. On the wh 
Bussia is in a fair way of bein^ larj 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dkokmbeb 20, 1872. 



77 



hj railways. On the Ist Septem- 
titfre were in Russia 11,138 versts, 
j»$51 miles of railway, and the capital 
tbem was 918,000,000 roubles, equal 
),000. In the United Kingdom the 
iTBsted in 1870 was £530,000,000. The 
paasengers carried in Russia was only 
I. agiinst 330,000,000 in this country. 
Basdan lines have a government 
of from 4i to 5J -peic cent, interest, 
actiud dividends paid on the shares 
in 1870 to from 5 to 7J per cent. Two 
\j seem eminently profitable, viz., the 
jiBiixan line, which gave 17^ per cent., and 
*t-Kiew Ihie, which gave 31 J per cent, 
son to the comptanics is generally for 
[to BO years. Very few lines now belong 
To Russia the railways are of the 
■possible advantage. From Moscow, the 
tu, you may now travel east as far as 
Mountains, north to St. Petersburgh, 
dg&berg and Warsaw, and south to 
>1, and Astrakhan. And it is 
opUted eventually to extend the railway 
(Wal Mountains, through Siberia, to 
Tet I doubt whether railway proi)erty 
Itable in Bussia for many years to 
be the ultimate result, llie mass ' 
ition in Russia are too poor to travel 
not accustomed to it ; the passport 
feres with it. There is nothing, more- 
feed the lines midday, so few are the 
population and traffic. And Russian 
mostly of grain and other bulky 
cannot stand much freight, and can 
tnntported by water communication, 
be remembered that excellent means of 
tionexistinRussiainher enormous rivers 
The Vistula, at Warsaw, looked beautiful, 
rolga, which we passed near Moscow, is 
ten times the length of the Thames, 
^canal communication, moreover, between 
and the Caspian Sea, between the 
the Black S<a, and between the White 
Caspian. Only it is unfortunate that 
lakes, and rivers, aye, even the 
are closed by the ice for about 
in the year. How important, then, 
file railway system into the very heart 
In winter the railway must of 
iDonopolise the whole traffic of the 

* long way between Warsaw and St. 
requiring at least thirty hours of con- 
so we determined to rest at 
chief town of the ancient Duchy of 
,* but bow poor did ehe seem to be I 
15^ rituated, in the hollow at the foot of 
Mid contains many objects of interest ; 
mle. the towns and villages of Russia 
'■ad badly built. The houses are mohily 
[i *be streets wretchedly paved. In many 
fer, the towns are not the spontaneous 
^«>de and industry, but the capricious 
of civil administrators or military 
Tbc only towns of any importance 
■*8t Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, 
jJijfBijpi. In 1867 the entire population 
ia£ni|nre was not less than 82,000,000, 
Kotefaly less than 5,000,000 was 



urban population. But -why should St. Peters- 
burg bie tne capital of Russia ? Some cities have 
become capitals from the fact that the sovereign 
from time immemorial resided in them. Some 
owe their position to their favourable situation, 
and some to the fact of their containing the largest 
number of persons. St. Petersburg can claim 
neither of these titles. She is at the very extremity 
of the empire ; she has none of the prestige which 
Moscow possesses, and she has but a smaUpro- 
portion of the population of the kingdom. While 
London has about 100 persons to every 1,000 of the 

Population of the kingdom ; Lisbon, 61 ; Copen- 
agen, 59; Athens, 55; Dresden, 55; Paris, 45; 
Berlin, 27 ; Constantinople, 22 ; Vienna, 14 ; St. 
Petersburg has only 7 to the 1,000. St.Petersburg 
is the capital of Russia simply because Peter the 
Great wmed it ; but a force greater than that of the 
emperor points to Moscow as the natural centre. 
But St. Petersburg is doubtless a beautiful city. 
As we entered the station in St. Petersburg an 
officer from the Congress communicated to us that 
the mimicipality offered to us its hospitality ; that 
hotels had been provided for the convenience of 
members, and carriages placed at our disposal, so 
we drove at once to the Hotel Bellevuo, on the 
Newski Prospect. And what a sight was before 
us in that street, more than three miles in length, full 
of bustle and animation. As a city St. Petersburg 
stands in favourable comparison with Berlin for 
life and cheerfulness. The magnificent Neva, 
which winds through the town, is infinitely su- 
perior to old Father Thames, though no forest of 
masts meet you at any of the quavs. A pure sky 
and a dry atmosphere arepreferaDle to our ever- 
lasting damp and fog. Tne low drowskies, with 
Ivan ever at hand, carry you over the otherwise 
tumble-down pavement with the greatest celerity. 
Something out of the common-place civilisation of 
Paris and London meets you at every comer. 

It was the 2 Ist of August when we arrived 
at St. Petersburg, when we found the tempera- 
ture warm and genial. The thermometer was 
from 65 to 70 in the shade, and otherwise the 
climate was clear and dry ; yet now and then 
we felt extremely cold; and I understand that, 
owing to such variations, the climate is very 
trying to health. Hence the general habit of 
wearing long heavy coats and closed up dresses at 
all times ; hence the hermetically shut up windows 
and doors in the warmest days. But i have not 
seen St. Petersburg in winter, when the Neva is 
frozen, when snow and ice take possession of her 
streets for months together, when the drowsky is 
replaced by the sledge; when the fur clothing, the 
fur collar and sable hat, constitutes the costume of 
ladies and gentlemen. The temperature in Russia 
is regulated more by the longitude than by the 
latitude. The more eastward we go the greater 
is the difference between the temperatiirc of simimer 
and "winter. 

In matters of food and drink wo had little dif- 
ficulty. Our first care was to eschew altogether 
the water of the Neva, which, containing a certain 
quantity of magnesia, generally proves relaxing, 
especially to strangers. But, otherwise, no better 
food could be had than was supplied to us at the 
principal hotels. Our rouble dinner at the Belle- 
vue was superior to any three-shilling dinner in 
London, and the wine was excellent. At a dinner 



78 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dkobmbbb 20, 1872. 



^t Moscow we had different descriptions of Russian 
wines, principally from the Crimea, and they were 
much appreciatea. Mr. Beckwith, in his excellent 
report on fermented drinks at the Paris exhibition, 
said that the white wines of the Crimea are clear 
and dry, with a slight muscatel flavour and good 
body ; and the red resembles very old port, bereft, 
however of its strength. In Mr. Beckwith's opinion 
these wines are very suitable to our climate. M. 
Tegobonski gave the production of wine at about 
42,000,000 ^lons, of which 8,000,000 come from 
the province of Stravropol, 8,000,000 in Bessarabia, 
22,000,000 gallons in the Trans-Caucasian provinces, 
and the rest in the Crimea, the Cossacks, Khenan, 
Podolia, and Astrakhan. In Russia, Germany, and 
othem northern countries, the people generally eat 
black rye bread — very uninviting ; but remember 
that, with the dryness of the climate, a portion of 
black bread, and other elements containmg vege- 
table acids, are absolutely necessary to prevent 
scrofula, more especially among young people. 

But we must regard Kussia this evening n'om an 
industrial and not from an aesthetic aspect, and in 
80 doing we must guard ourselves from considering 
the industries of Russia as limited entirely to 
the urban population. On the contrary, there 
are villages in Russia in which all the peasants 
are weavers, tanners, shoemakers, locksmiths, 
cutlers, &c. In Russia the peasant works for the 
manufacturer without quitting the village, and 
carries on himself the chief part of the com- 
merce of the interior. I was informed that 
there is no peasantry more hard working than 
the Russian peasantry, and that the women are 
constantly employed not only in household duties, 
but in agricultural work, inweaving, bleaching, and 
many l£ings which in England are done by ma- 
chinery in factories and in manufacturing towns. 
Primarily, no doubt, Russia is an agricultural and 
not a manufacturing country. But, after all, agri- 
culture is the greatest source of wealth to 
any country. Englsmd is by far the most indus- 
trious and the most mercantile country in the 
world. She supplies the whole world with her 
manufactures. She has the largest mercantile 
marine. Her power rests on her commerce and 
industry. Tet, with all this, the rosidts of the 
income-tax shows that the income of all her 
industry is only about equal to her income 
from her agriciilture and real property. Still 
greater is the supremacy of agriculture in Russia. 
In truth, Russia is wanting in some of the principal 
conditions for industrial prosperity. 

Look at the map of Kussia. She has no sea- 
ooast of any importance. On the far east there 
are the vast plains of Siberia. On the west she 
has Eastern Frussia, quite as deserted and agri- 
cultural as Russia herself. On the north she has 
the glacial Pole; on the south none but semi- 
barbarous states. Add to this a population 
almost entirely composed of peasants ; no coals in 
any quantity, or, at any rate, scarcely worked at 
all ; very little capital ; and evenr agent of manu- 
facture extremely dear. What chance can Russia 
have in commerce and industry in competition with 
these sea-girt isles, or with well-favoured France 
or Italy ? A mill in Russia costs double that of a 
mill in England. Bricks are dearer, and double the 
quantity is used to render the building substantial ; 
mortar costs double, and so does aU machinery. 



Consequentiy, but little factory labour 
duced into Russia. What there is, morc< 
a large extent imder the direction of £n 
Germans, Alsatians or other foreigners 
enterprise, British directors and overseer 
the best factories. In the south of 
is the same. Vice-Consul Stevens, of ] 
reported that the chief ganger at th< 
quarries at Alcxandrovka is an English 
oirector of the extensive Tchemom* 
factory in Pattawa is the same ; so are th 
tending engineer of the Russian Steam >i 
Company at Odessa and his assistant ; ani 
pany s chief engineer in the Don mines ; 
Sevastopol; their boiler-master, their 
painter, and the heads of other departmeo 
Englishmen. The English, the French, the 
and the Greeks have a large share in the 
of Russian trade and industiy. The Bus 
wants in power and in originality. It 
able to execute than to direct — ^to imitf 
than to lead. I visited a cotton printin 
in Moscow directed by an Alsatian, anc 
that the labourers were Russian peasants, 
from the country when agricultural labc 

gracticable, to recruit the earmngs of tl 
uch peasants are usually hired in gi 
head of which assumes the management < 
penditure of the whole number. They li 
not say, at very small cost, and at any tii 
ceases in towns, they return to the count 
are not in Russia as 'in this country, ni 
mechanics, spinners, or miners depei 
their livelihood on the buoyancy of t 
manufacture. There is rather an intermi 
agricultural and industrial labour, and con 
an utter absence of the artisan class, 
carious existence of which we have so 
lament in this country. 

But let us enter into some details, 
article of industry which naturally intc 
country is cotton. Cotton is not pre 
Russia, and her imports in 1867 consist^ 
2,600,000 poods, or about 100,000,0001b 
cotton, and 150,000 poods of cotton ys 
Luinley, in his report on the trade and 
ture of cotton in Russia, gave the m 
cotton spinning and calico weaving maui 
in the government of St. Petersburgh, 
at 95, with 1,691,224 spindles, 16,U 
looms, and 8,040 horse power; and Mr 
in his valuable report on the Russian U 
us that the whole quantity of cotl 
manufactured in Russia is used as fc 
1,400,000 poods for printed cahco, 
poods for nankeen, red fustian, and 
red goods; 100,000 poods for plush, 
remaining 500,000 poods for varioi 
cotton and half-cotton fabrics. Rusd 
neries supply the weaving mills with 
low and medium quality ; foreign 
alone employed for cotton tissue of 
description, such as fine calico, jacct^ 
muslin. The manufacture of tiie comni 
of cotton fabrics, namely, calico, naii^ 
fustian, and handkerchiefs, intended cbicfl] 
ing andprinting, forms abranchof peasant 
supported by the capital of manufacturer 
and particularly by that of owners of W^ 
The consumption of cotton goods in Bus 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF AKTS, Decembkk 20, 1872. 



hi krp. Sappoaing 00,000,000 peoaanta to 
(M^ 10 EKhines, or about 8 yardB ooch, 
m nM pi™ about 480.000,000 yarfs. Add 



Tnlup of imports and exports amoimtcd ,to 
3;i9,000,000 roubles. In 18C0 it ruaobed 5i):!.000,000 
roubles. Among the exports, gruiii, hemp and 
attjt. are by tor tho most import^utt. Among tbe 
imports, cotton and metuls stand foremost. An 
important ehnngo is obscrvablo in the foreign 
commerce of Eussiu, in consequence of the ei- 
tenfiion of railwaya. In 1859 the foreign exports 
by sea amounted to 130,000,000 roublos, and by 
land to 22,000,000 roubles, or about 18 por 
cent. In 1869 the osports by eea amounted to 
190,000,000, and by land 95,000,000, or 50 per cent. 
Whilst bnlhy goods are sent by sea, lighter goods 
penetrate by land, chiefly&om Prussia and through 



frontier. It should bo noted here 
tiiat, while the commercB of Russia with Kuropean 
States has largely increased, her commeroe with 
Asia has actually decreased of late. The 
Asiatic portion of the Hnssian trado is small oM 
compared with the European, and yet considerable 
interest attaches to it, first on account of the 
primitive manner in which it still conducted, and 
secondly, in conscqnonoe of tbe intimate relation 
whi<;h exists between the extension of trade and 
the constant enlargement of tbe Russian empire. 
By incorporating Turkestan, Hussia has come Terv 
near British India, and now she has commercial 
treaties with tho Khan of Khokand and the Ameer 
of Bokhara and Dschiti Tchar. But what does it 
matter by what influence it is brought about, pro- 
vided these States are rendered accessible to trade 
and civilisation P 

Beingin a certain sense the guests of the Emperor 
of all the Ruasias and of his august government, 
we wcn> honoured with numerous invitations to 
receptions and excursions. One day we went to 
Cronstadt and Feterhoff. Another day we had a 
sail round the islands, and were entertained in 
one of the palaces of the Princess Helena, which at 
night was beautifully illuiuinatcd. What we most 
appreciated in these receptions was not so much the 
suiuptuouaness of the entertainments, as the con- 
sideration shown in maldng us what the English 
think they alone understand, but what other 
nations know quite as well — I mean "eom- 
fortable." To put us at case— to anticipate our 
wants — to endeavour to speak our language — to 
put every individual and every thing in tho right 
place, that is the perfection of hospitality. 

The grandest excursion of all, however, was to 
Moscow, whoso municipoUtywas as courteous as that 
of St. Petersburg in supplying- members of congress 
with hotel accommodation and carriages during their 
stay in the city. At first sight Moscow is by no 
means attractive. It seems an old city, badly paved, 
and with irregular buildings. But from such a 
height as the Sparrow-hill — the very ground 
whence Napoleon obtained his first glance of 
Moscow — the sight of the golden minarets and 
stanr domes before you is quite unique and 
startling. According to airangemont, we visit«d 
the Polytechnic Exhibition at Moscow, an excellent 
one of its kind. I was not able to inspect it wfth 
any core or minuteness, especially as we visited 
the exhibition in great numbers, hut it was apparent, 
first that Russian industry is by no means in such 
a backward stat« as is generaJly supposed ; and, 
second, that British industiy was most imper- 
fectly represented. The exhibition — consisting 
of a nuniW of pavilions alongside the garden 



80 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbobmbee 20. 1872. 



of the Kremlin — did not seem to have much 
imity, whilst it was altogether destitute of a 
general coup-cTcetl ; yet it possessed many objects 
of great interest and attraction, and day by 
day we saw it visited by large numbers of 
people. 

At Moscow, as well as at St. Petersburg, but 
more especially in the latter place, I found British 
merchants of the highest respectability, numbering 
in all probably some 3,000, the living representa- 
tives, I suppose, of the Bussia Company, with its 
agency at St. Petersburg, under the title of the 
British factory, founded by charter of Philip and 
Mary, about 300 years ago. The original charter 
con&rmed by Act of Parliament granted that, **A11 
the main lands, isles, ports, havens, creeks, and 
rivers of the mighty Emperor of all Eussia and 
Gh'eat Duke of Mufdcy, &c., and all and singular 
other lands, dominions, territories, isles, ports, 
havens, creeks, rivers, arms of the sea, and all and 
every other prince, ruler, or governor whatsoever, 
be or they be before the said late adventure or 
enterprise not known, or by the foresaid merchants 
and subjects of the said King and Queen by the 
seas not commonly frequented, nor any part or 
parcel thereof, and lying northward, northeast- 
ward, or northwestward, or in the said letters 
patent is mentioned, should not be visited, fre- 
quented, nor haunted by any of the subjects of 
uie late King and Queen omer than of the said 
company and fellowship and their successors, 
without express licence, agreement,* and consent 
of the governors, consuls, assistants of the said 
fellowships and commonalty.'' That no such 
permission is now required to trade in Russia is 
well known, yet, singular to say, charges are still 
made by the Bussia factory on British shipping 
using the port of St. Petersburg or Cronstadt, D^ing 
first a charge of 3^d. per ton for the maintenance 
of the British Episcopal Establishment at that 
place and in aid of the poor's fund, and, second, 
a charge under the head of Company's Agent, 
which amoimts to l^^yd. per ton. A few yeax% 
ago some effort was made by the Hull Chamber 
oi Commerce to procure the abolition of these 
charges, when it appeared that the tonnage duty, 
denominated Church Money, amounted, on an 
average, to only £2,200 per annum, and the 
agent's only to £956. But the charge, though 
light, is not less condemnable. The British factory 
has, in reality, long ceased to exist or to be need- 
ful ; and I imagine that the British merchants in 
St. Petersburg, or such of them as are Episco- 
pedians, should themselves pay for the church, and 
that the British government should pay for the 
agency, without taxing trade and shipping for such 
purposes. Generally, I need scarcely say, English 
merchants in Bussia are as safe and protected as if 
they were in England. It should be remembered 
that the government of Bussia now is not the 
arbitrary government that it was in former days. 
True, the Czar is autocrat absolute, but he does 
not act alone, and far less capriciously. He has a 
council of responsible ministers ; he has a house 
of lords, of his own creation, doubtless, but yet 
able and willing to render him advice ; he has a 
holy synod, and he has governors in every province, 
able to feel the pulse of public opinion, and with 
*nll power to meet the exigencies of the moment. 

'd do not think that public opinion does not 



find itself vent in Bussia. There are newspapers 
in Bussia, though much under the power of tli© 
State. The sUent protest under wrongs, the 
murmurs of the oppressed, the aspirations of the 
enlightened cemnot be smothered even in Bussia. 
But in truth Bussia is tranquil at this moment, 
and the Emperor has the heart of the people with 
him. Nowhere did I see any parade of mihtary 
force, as we are wont to see in turbulent Paris or 
in imperial Berlin. As for the people, it is, I fear, 
as yet in a low condition. The mass of the 
peasantry recently emancipated has scarcely risen 
from the position of sOTfdom. The industrial 
classes are ill-paid, ill-fed, and in the depth of 
ignorance. The middle classes scarcely exist in 
Bussia. The nobles do not exercise much whole- 
some influence. The priests hold aninferiorposdtion 
to what we are accustomed to in this country. Some- 
thing is, however, done for the education of th© 
peojJe. There are nine universities, three lyoeums, 
23,000 schools, and nearly 1,000,000 students in 
the public schools in Bussia. The freedom ol 
serfdom is a most significant fact, the fruit ol 
which will one day appear. What may be the 
future of the Bussian people, when free and edu^ 
cated, we cannot say. Meanwhile, trade is in^ 
creasing, the country is progressing, and th^ 
railway opens up the countnr in a wonderfo] 
maimer. As far as I can see, I venture to say th< 
Bussia of the future will be far different in powefl 
and enlightenment, in commerce and industry 
from the Bussia of the past. 

Ere I close, permit me to express my owi 
sense and the sense of every foreign membe 
of the International Statistical Congress, o 
the kindness shown us by the Bussian govexn 
ment on the occasion of our visit to Bussia 
Would that England received in like manner mei 
of science from other countries when they come t 
her soil. It would be well if her example wei 
more conspicuous for a liberal exx>enditure iha 
for a niggard economy in all matters which con 
cem the promotion of science and art. WouJ 
that the same co-operation on the '^Bxi of tl 
officers of State could be secured for the meetin 
of scientific congresses in London as is so rcadil 
obtained in other countries. Perhaps it may n 
be in vain that her messengers to Bussia, to Ital; 
to Holland, and to every state where the lute 
national Statistical Congress has been held, a 
able to report that a reception the most courtcot] 
the most hospitable/ the most considerate, is ever 
where accorded to men of science when they me 
together for the elucidation of great question 
either of social economy or of scientific importan< 



DISCUSSION. 

Kr. Hyde Clark said it would, no doubt, be ncce] 
able if he referred to the purt taken in the Mos^i 
Exhibition by the Society of Arts. It was perfectly tr 
as had been sIm ted, that the objects B<'nt from t 
I'ountry to that exhibition were very few indet^. but 
ht^ld in his hand a list of prizes awarded to Kzatrl 
exhibitors, embracing, with that liberality which. P 
fessor Levi had referretl to. mr^dals of gold, silver, « 
bronze to a considernble nninber. It was, of coursti 
matter of regret to all pnrtit'S that En^^lisih indnH 
was not better represj^nted ; but ho had ho{H'd that V 
I feasor Levi would have dealt a little more largely ^ 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Deoember 20, 1872. 



81 



ti» MHM «f tlitf deficiency. Ko doubt one great in- 
^MBWtl^ tUMBon tariff^ and he thought it a pity 
m tki Mgitet to the (Statistical Congress did 
■fttdltthe oppoctimitj of pressing upon the Russian 
tke importance of modifying their ar- 
in Ihii respect, and pointing out how 
titds was impeded by these difficulties. 
1^ oihir iaportaat point had been referred to, 
m. UmI Eagliah mamonctureis and merchants were 
b» littb in tba habit of consulting the require- 
pB^ of the population of the various countries 
iMb wtich this country had commercial relations, 
mi BO doubt it was of the greatest importance 
M t^ representatives of commercial houses abroad 
Wild W aoqofldnted with the foreign languages, so that 
ftif sigit be better able to observe the habits of the 
|aiih» tsd carry home such information as would 
iMJiimihiHiniiH here to conform to the habits and 
tafBRAdtts of the various classes of people who 
fmlt fa) be all customers of England, and in this way 
to the propagation of civilisation through- 
ftivwld. It was, he believed, the fact that the 
bid profited greatly by the Moscow Exhibition, 
hti iocreased the amount of their trade with Russia 
fc MBst^oence. No doubt this was partly owing, as 
"" ' Levi had stated, to their being better situated 
pt6af access to Russia by through railway accommo- 
To complete the brief description which had been 
of the Moscow Exhibition, he might refer to the 
MCJont giren in a recent number of the Journal 
Socaetj bj Professor Archer. He was informed 
S w itt ar y that sixty-five English exhibitors had 
' iwaids, in the shape of either gold, silver, or 
wdsls, which was very gratifying to all parties 
Ib condnaion, he must be^ leave to object 
ittttAKTrations of Professor Levi with regard to the 
Company ; for, although he was always anxious 
the cause of g^at principles in political 
bo was afraid that some persons were too 
1o etiTf principles so far as to forget details, 
vfe had been in foreign countries, where there 
■ tsy of these old factories established tmder the 
flf Philip and Mary, or Elizabeth, found the groat 
of them in various ways. In sucli cases the corn- 
bad bten enabled, year after year, to provide for 
KHmwita, not only of the resident English popu- 
kit of those strangers who resorted to the place, 
and that if the merchants of St. Petersburg 
to voTBhip according to the Church of England 
pay for it themselves ; but he did not think 
the general opinion in St. Petersburg, even of 
Wlooging to the denomination, and it must be 
* that the funds of such instiiutions were 
•at only to religious matters, but to the support 
''^ and to the care of the graveyards in which 
fengtn who were unfortunate enough to die 
^•(w fflterred. 
Mson, as one of the few English exhibitors, 
ftst the learned Professor had not been able to 
^ with the government of Russia to facilitate 
tbii country, for, unfortunately, it took longer 
pt goodi by sea to Moscow than to send them to 
In Ikct, three or four months was not an un- 
« for the transit of goods to occupy, and it 
*Mh be seen that such a state of things tended 
to ^t^ but to retard trade. The delay took 
■b4*MB Cronstadt and St. Petersburgh ; but what 
%Bwt of it he could not ascertain. He was one 
fat&aate individuals who had the honour of a 
whidi, no doubt, he would receive if he 
. far it» for he found that was the condition 
ft^wmikl bo sent to him ; the explanation offered 
ftddbition was such a severe loss to the 
ftii ttwy oou]d not afford to give the gold 
^ Ihnr had so generously awarded . He quite 
1t> IwuipUun given by Professor Levi as 
of fli6 country, having traversed a great 



part of the same district^ and it was certainly one of the 
most monotonous conceivable ; at the same time, he believed 
that if he had gone south of Moscow he would have seen 
a vast difference in the nature of the country. 

Br. Collier said he, also, was an exhibitor at Moscow, 
and had renuiined in Russia more than five months, 
not staying in one spot, but travelling through the whole 
country, so that he was capable of forming ageneral 
opinion of Russia, the country, and its people. With re- 
gard to the scenery, it must be remembered that you 
could not judge of it from a railway, which was generally 
made in the most direct line from point to point ; and 
the line referred to in the paper happened to pass through 
the least cultivated portion of the country. To judge of 
a country by the barren waste passed through in that 
way would be both illiberal and unjust. He had a very 
high opinion of Russia, having met there a degree of in- 
telligence, and a class of men, which he had not met 
with in any other part of the world, either in England, 
France, Germany, or America, of which place he was a 
native. He there met with men who understood what 
they were talking about, and who possessed a degree of 
modesty and quietness which was not characteristic of 
the Western nations. He was happy to say that he had re- 
ceived a grand gold medal for some machinery which he 
had exhibited, invented by himself, through the medium 
of the Society of Arts. It was a design for the manipula- 
tion of flax and hemp by means of the hands, being the 
first, he believed, of the kind There were two ma- 
chines, one for scutching the flax by means of the feet, 
the otiier being used for breaking the flax prior to 
the scutching. As to the cost of the medal, 
he was not at all fearful. Besides, the award 
itself was really all that was valuable, and if a man had 
that he did not need the medal itself, for he did not want 
to wear it on his breast. He had had the pleasure of 
associating with all classes of the people, and of shaking 
hands with the Emperor. Whilst in Russia he visited 
probably one of the greatest sights that could be seen, 
viz., the great fair at Nijni, where there were collected 
about 450,000 persons from all parts of the eastern em- 
pire. He was happy to say that he associated with them, 
drinking tea and coffee with the Turks, Arabs, Tartars, 
and every kind of people, and with a little Russian which 
he picked up, a little French, and some other languages, 
together with the help of signs and tokens, they managed 
to understand one another. In fact, wherever a man 
travelled, if his manners were gentlemanly and courteous, 
he would always find friends. With regard to the 
Moscow Exhibition itself, he considered it a model of 
perfection, for though it was not very large, he saw things 
there which he had never seen elsewhere, though he bad 
visited every large International Exhibition since the 
one in London in 1851, and had exhibited in them all 
with the exception of that one. The Moscow Exhibi- 
tion, however, was more perfect in character, and more 
systematic than any he had seen, and for instruction and 
education, as Professor Archer had stated, stood in the 
first rank. With regard to transit of goods, he had had 
them sent to him from England, and they reached 
Moscow in two weeks, and he could not understand, there- 
fore, the delay which other gentlemen had experienced. 
Of course, there was a certain class of people in Russia 
who required to be paid, as there were all over the 
world, and if you wanted their good offices you must 
put your hand mto your pocket to obtain them. 

Mr. James Warden said he could confirm the state, 
ment as to the delay. He had been to Cronstadt and 
St. Petersburg, and he believed one explanation of it 
was to be found in the fact that almost all the steamers 
were too large to go up to Cronstadt. On inquiring of 
his agent in St. Petersburg for some goods which had 
been sent off some time before he himself started, he was 
told it was no use to think of London expedition in 
Russia, for all the men who looked at the goods first 
would require a week to think over what they should do 



^ 



82 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Deomibbb 20, 1872. 



■* I 



with them. He believed, on an average, a month's time 
was often occupied in the transit, and that at leust three 
parts of that time was occupied between the two places 
mentioned. With regard to the Custom obstructions, it 
was his experience that the officials were not only paid 
by the government, but each one expected to be paid by 
every one who came in contact with them. He should 
like to ask, if time would allow, that the list of awards 
be read. 

The Secretary said the list was rather a long one, but 
it would be published in the Society's Journal on Fri- 
day. 

Mr. Head said he had travelled throughout the length 
and breadth of Russia, and had much pleasure in endors- 
ing almost everything which had been said by Professor 
Levi. With regard to the difficulties of trading with 
Bussia he did not personally think it was on account of 
the increase in tariff, but it arose more from the want of 
adaptation by English manufacture to the wants of the 
country. Twenty years ago a large proportion of the 
Russian trade was done in England ; the Russians came 
over here, were pleased with what they saw, and bought 
largely ; but now things are alU'red, and if Englishmen 
wanted to trade with Russia they must go into the 
country and mix with the people, as they did with other 
men ox business ; they must speak some language which 
they understood, and, in fact, suit themselves to their 
customers. The Germans had taken a great deal of 
trouble to adapt their manufactures to the country, and 
in this respect, no doubt, they had stolen a march upon 
England. He had been also present at the Moscow 
Exhibition, which was certainly a very interesting one, 
although he could not quite endorse all that Dr. Collier 
had said. For instance, he did not think the Russians 
were equal to some other nations with regard to the 
trials which took place and the awards made. No doubt 
that arose in a great measure from their not having so 
much practice and experience; at some future time, 
probably, this would be improved. It certainly behoved 
England to cultivate trade with Russia, as far as pos- 
sible, for he believed there was a great similarity between 
the two nations. Each was a trading people and an 
aristocratic people, and each, he believed, had a great 
future before them. It was very pleasins^ also to find 
that an Englishman, wherever be went in Russia, was 
received as well, if not better, than any other foreigner. 

Mr. Christopher Cooke asked if it were the fact, as had 
been been stated, that when an Englishman arrived in 
Bussia his books and papers were taken away by the 
police, and that, in fact, only a certain kind of books 
were admitted at all. It had also been said that if a 
person even had anything wrapped in newspapers to 
form a parcel, the papers were destroyed as a matter of 
course. If such was the case, it was very desirable that 
it should be known. 

Mr. Warden said he believed it was not so. 

Mr. Nicholson said it was impossible to get an English 
newspaper in Russia. He had one forwarded to him 
every oay while he was there, but not one reached 
him. 

Dr. Collier said he saw the Times every day. 

Sir Charles Dilke, M.P., said the fact was newspap^ 
could not be obtained by private individuals in Russia, 
but they might be got through a recognised agent. Under 
such circumstances foreign papers were seldom inter- 
fered with, though it did sometimes happen that a 
whole column or more would be obliterated. A strict 
censorship was exercised over books also, but occasionally 
a few were allowed to pass. As a general rule, however, 
they were rigidly excluded, and if a traveller had any 
quantity with him, they would be taken away at the 
m>ntier, forwarded to St. Petersburg for examination, 
and probably returned to him on application. He should 
to ask on what authority tue statement was made of 



there being 1,000,000 scholars at school in EossiA, as hftj 
considered it rather doubtful. In 1866 there were onlfi 
300,000 children at school, and in 1869, 800,000, and ao|^ 
statistics from the Russian education bureau mostbt, 
received with the greatest suspicion. There bad nereCi 
been any real educational census, and no adequattj 
returns were received from the Russi ;n parishes. Ha 
very much doubted, from on examination he had madl 
in many villages and towns, whether there were 41 
many under instruction now as there were before thi 
abolition of serfdom. Previous to the change, a larg% 
number of schools were kept up by the great pnt* 
prietors which had now been abandoned, whilst veryfetf 
new ones had been established in their place. UnleB% 
therefore, Professor Levi had some private informatiott 
to corroborate the government returns, he must take leavf 
to doubt their accuracy. 

Mr. Clay, having resided some years in St Petei»> 
burg, as the representative of the United States, sail 
the course of trade was altered from what it had beeftj 
Formerly the English trade was almost all in the handl! 
of British merchants resident there, but now ho undef*' 
stood that Russians in the interior ordered goodi) direm 
from England. 

The Chairman, in moving a vote of thinks to Pro-i 
fessor Levi for his valuable and interesting paper, sail 
there was no doubt that Russia, like all European 
nations, had a great future before her. She had enor- 
mous resources and an enormous extent of territorfJ 
including about three-quarters of the Korthem portioa 
of the globe, and, therefore, seeing the influence whidt 
she could bring to bear on the Uade and policy of tbs 
East, it was of the utmost importance that cverjthiog 
connected with her should be .thoroughly known aod 
ventilated as far as possible. Great thnnkd were there- 
fore due to Professor Levi for the paper he had road. 
and many of the statements it contained were of rather 
a startling character. For instance, it appeartd that 
the importations of grain from Russia to Engltnd h:td 
increased from 12 to 35 per cent, of the whole sinc« 
1860, which was a most remarkable fact, and showed 
how much we depended on Russia for our food supply. 
Again, it was shown that the produce in coal had bten 
very largely augmented, and seeing that the last returr 
was nearly ten years old, there was no doubt that « 
still greater increase would appear if later figures wen 
accessible. Now, wherever coal was abundant, it w» 
a sign of prosperity, cheap fuel being the life and sou 
of manufacturing industry. No doubt, therefore, ai 
the supply of coal increased, so would Russian industry 
and, according to the principles of free trade, by whid 
every nation ought to produce that which it cooli 
most favourably, she would supply England with good 
which would be paid for in manufactures, which th 
latter country was better calculated to produce. It 
therefore, would augur well for the peace of the worl* 
that the prosperity of Russia should continue and in 
crease. 

The vote of thanks having been passed, 

Professor Levi replied to the various observation 
which had been made. With regard to Mr. Hyd 
Clarke's observations, he had only to say that the dele 
gates to the Statistical Congress went to Russia for 
specific purpose, and coidd not properly mix themselvc 
up with pohtical or other questions. But in any cajn 
seeing that England continued to raise about twenty-fiv 
millions by customs duties, which impose so many n 
strictions on trade, she did not ofier a very good examp] 
of free trade to others. Speedy transit was no doubt ( 
g^reat importance, and he sympathised with Mr. Nicho 
son's complaint in that respect^ and, indeed, even in tl 
case of passengers there was often a g^reat deal of delaj 
A new route had been suggested, which might eventual] 
prove to be of importance. Cronstadt is closed for four < 
five months in the year, by reason of the Baltic bein 



OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbobmbbb 20, 1872. 



83 



m tiiggested that goods might be sent 
Iwedtin. which port was always open, 
to Stockholm. A little beyond 
a small place, in salt water, which 
'• and, again, a little beyond Cronstadt, 
ler small place, also in salt water, between 
oommonication might be had throughout 
: VIS propoeed to make a good harbour at 
plaoeB, and establish a line of communica- 
goods might go direct to St. Petersburg 
without stopping. With regard to the tax 
by the M>-called Russian &ctory on British 
^trhat he objected to was the levying of a tax 
It day on all traders for purposes which ought 
for in other ways. If it was an old 
■9 Ur. Hyde Clarke had said, it woidd be 
With regard to books and papers, his own 
had been most iaroutable, not having re- 
■hghtest annoyance in that respect, but 
txavelling under exceptional circumstances, 
inntatioa from the Russian government, 
away all difficulties; but a friend of 
not poaaeas this advantage, had met with 
civility, and his books were not interfered 
wu said that yon could not leave Russia 
pennit, but neither he nor his friend had 
to be the case, Warsaw being the only 
where their passports were inspected, and 
an exceptional locality. No doubt the 
was a very bad one, but it existed in 
4a well as Roitsia. He should be very glad 
I, particularly the internal passports, 
great hindrance to progress and improve- 
ooold not answer Sir G. Dilke's question as 
statistics satLBfaotorily, the figures 
from official sources, and he could not, there- 
tor their correctness ; but, after all, a million 
of a population of 80 millions was not a 
Britain having probably as many out 
I aullioai. He had himself seen many schools 
fin fM^tories, where the priest came to instruct 
Those who had been in Russia, even a 
>, could n'jt well realise the altered position 
at the present time. 



ANHUAL DTTERNATIOHAL BXHIBITIOHS 



ISDIHGS OF INSTITUTIOHS. 



Vorkiag Men's Club. — The 
meeting of this club, established 
with the Society of Arte) in Old Pye- 
Vlctoria-street. Westminster, was held on 
[•ftoiiig, under the presidency of Sir R. W. 
those present were the Rev. Dr. Bar- 
r. I^. Paterson, and Miss Cooper. A report 
«Uch spoke in most satisfactory terms of the 
[tf the dub, and the work it had effected during 
CouTMs of gratuitous lectures had been 
fts various institutions in connection with 
tn in a floorishing state. After addresses 
and other gentlemen present, a very 
broken up. 



survey of Palestine is now 
boannaction with the Palestine Explora- 
towaxds its completion are urgently 
of the fund. 



^was made, on November 22nd, in 
i4 a Remington street tntoUon engine and oar. 
the horses everywhere were g^reatly 
the trial was very suo- 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-General Scott, C.B., 
secretary. 

His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales presided on 
Monday, at Marlborough-house, over a meeting of her 
Majesty's Commissioners for the £xhi]>ition of 1851. 
There were present — His Royal Highness the Duke 
of Edinburgh, his Royal Highness Prince Arthur, 
his Serene Highness the Bake of Teck, Earl Granville,, 
Mr. Ayrton, Sir William Anderson, Major-General Sir 
T. M. Biddulph, Sir Francis Grant, Sir Francis Sand- 
ford, Mr. Edgar Bo wring, Mr. Cole, Mr. Gibson, Mr. 
Hawksley, Br. Playfair, Mr. Thring, and Major-General 
Scott, secretary. 

Theseoond meeting of the Committee for Carriages was 
held last Friday, at Gore-lodge, Mr. Peters in the chair. 
Applications for the exhibition of 127 carriages were laid 
before the Committee. It was announced that the time 
during which cabs intended for competition for the 
prizes offered by the Society of Arts must have been 
running, had been reduced from three months to one 
month. The Committee resolved to fix an early dav in 
January on which to meet the Committee appointed by 
the Coachmakers* Company to assist her Majesty's 
Commissioners. Mr. Cole, C.B., and Capt. Clayton, 
R.E., attended the committee. 

The Committee for the dass of Cooking held its third 
meeting at Gore-lodge, on the 14th December, and re- 
corded a recommendation that her Majesty's Commis- 
sioners should provide a kitchen, with an adjacent 
refreshment-room, and set them apart for the sale and 
consumption of those descriptions of cooking prepared by 
the advice of the Committee, and that a competent 
superintendent of cooks should be engaged for the pur- 
pose. The following gentlemen wore present — Mr. 
James Bateman, F.R.8., Dr. Thudichum, Mr. F. B. 
Alston, and Captain Home, R.E. Mr. Henry Cole, C.Bv 
was present on behalf of her Majesty's Commissioners ; 
and Captain Grover, R.E., and Lieut. H. H. Cole, R.E.,. 
attended the meeting. It was decided to hold an ad- 
journed meeting on Saturday, the 18th of January, 
next. 

On Tuesday the third meeting of the Committee for 
Silk and Velvet was held. The committee recommended. 
Uie formation of a sub-committee of ladies, who would 
interest themselves in obtaining a collection of old silks.. 
A number of applications from manufacturers at Derby,. 
Coventry, Leek, and Leicester, was laid before the com- 
mittee. There were present. Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart, in 
the chair ; Mr. Blakely, Mr. Cassells, Mr. Hyde Clarke, 
Mr. Cobb, Mr. Corbi^re, and Mr. Lintilhac. Mr. Cole, 
C.B., and Captain Clayton, R.£<., attended the com- 
mittee. 

The second meeting of the Committee on Recent 
Scientific Inventions and New Discoveries took place on 
Wednesday last at the offices, Gere-lodg^ South Kensing- 
ton. Mr. C. B. Yignoles, F.R.S., was voted into the chair, 
and among those present were Mr. F. A. Abel, F.R.S.^ 
Major Frank Bolton, Professor E. Frankland, D.C.L.^ 
F.R.S., Professor T. M. GKxxleve, M.A., Major-Gteneral 
H. D. Harness, C.B^ Mr. J. Hick, M.P., Dr. D. S. 
Price, F.R.S., and Mr. C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
Major-General Scott, C.B., Secretary to Her Majesty's 
Commissioners, attended the meeting, and Csptain 
Grover, R.E., was present as secretary to the Committee. 
The Committee oonsidered the applications received 
since their last meeting, and suggested certain recent 



84 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dkcbmbbr 20, 1872. 



iDventions of importance and interest, which should, if 
possible, be represented in the London International 
ExhibiUon of 1873. 

The return of fine art sales in 1872, registered through 
the ofiBoial price clerks, has been published as amounting 
to £10,000. But this does not include what was effected 
through the French and Belgian commissions, or privately 
by artists. The total amount of sales is estimated as 
amounting to over £30,000. 



EXHIBITI0K8. 



MOSCOW POLYTECHNIC EXHIBITION, 1872. 

The following is the official list of Awards to English 
«xhibitor8 : — 
Earl of Tankerrille — Honorary Prize of the 1st Class, 

with the Signature of H.I.H., the Grand Duke Con- 

Btantinc. 
J. Colman, Norwich — Honorary prize Ist class. 
Macclesfield Chamber of Commerce — Honorary prize, 

2nd class. 

William Blews and Sons, Birmingham — Grand gold 

medal. 
J. and T. Brocklehurst and Sons^ Macclesfield — Grand 

gold medal. 
J. £. and W. Christy and Co., Stockport — Grand gold 

medal. 
Clayton and Shuttleworth, Lincoln — Grand gold medal. 
Bamet Solomon Cohen, London — Grand gold medal. 
J. and J. Colman, Norwich (for rice starch) — Grand 

gold medal. 
Dr. R. H. Collyer, London — Grand gold medal. 
DickinB and Co., Manchester — Grand gold medal. 
James Dalziel Dougall, London — Grand gold medal. 
English Condensed Milk Company, London — Grand 

gold medal. 
John, Charles, and John Field, London — Grand gold 

medal. 
Jx. Garrett and Sons, Sazmundham, Suffolk — Gkand gold 

medal. 
Oreenwood and Batley, Leeds— Grand gold medal. 
The Kirkstall Forge Company, Leeds — Gusmd gold 

medal. 
Langton and Bicknells, London — Grand gold medal. 
1). Leonardt and Co., Birmingham — Grand gold medal. 
Merr^ weather and Sons, London — Grand gold medal. 
C Mitchell and Co., Newcastlo-on-TjTie — Grand gold 

medal. 
Piesse and Lubin, London — Grand gold medal. 
I^tt Brothers and Co. (Limited), Oldham — Grand gold 

medal. 
Price's Patent Candle Company (Limited), London — 

Grand gold medal. 
Xlansome, Sims, and Head, Ipswich — Grand gold medal. 
Thomas Tapling and Co., London — Grand gold medal. 
Whitley Partners, Leeds — Grand gold medal. 
Wouldham Cement Company, Wouldham, Kent — Grand 

gold medal. 
William Younger and Co., Edinburgh — Grand gold 

medal. 

M. J. Yalente Allen, London and Oporto — Gx>ld medal. 
The Broughton Copper Company (Limited), Manchester 

— Gold medal. 
C. Budde and Co., Birmingham — Gold medaL 
Clarke and Dunham, London — Gold medal. 
Allen Everitt and Sons, Birmingham — G^ld medal. 
John B. Gkiusby and Co., Birmingham — Gold medaL 
Jenson and Ni^olson, London — ut>ld medsd. 
Frederick Smith and Co., Halifax — Gold medal. 
William Soper, Beading^Gold medal. 



Swainson, Birley, and Co., Manchester — Gold 
Watts, Blake, Beame, and Co., Newton Abl 

medal. 
Wood and Ivery, West Bromwich — Qold med 



Bryant and May, London — Grand silver meda 
Samuel Clarke, London— Grand silver medal. 
J. and J. Colman, Norwich (for com floui 

silver medal 
W. W. Comes and Co., Macclesfield— Gn 

medaL 
Critchley, Brinsley, and Co., Macclesfield— Gr 

medal. 
Enghert and Bolfe, London — Grand silver md 
Fortnum, Mason, and Co., London — Grand sil^ 
Grant, Chambers, and Co., London — Grand sil^ 
J. 0. Nicholson, Macclesfield — Grand silver m 
Potts, Wright, and Co., Macdesfiold— Grai 

medal. 
John Kabone and Sons, Birmingham — Gra 

medal. 
Josiah Smale and Son, Macclesfield — Grand sil^ 
Charles Ssmdford Windover, London — Gra 

medaL 

Baxter Brothers, Dundee— Silver medal. 
J. and H. Bermingham, Leek — Silver medal. 
— Blight — Silver medaL 
W. Bullock, Macclesfield — Silver medal. 
Cox Brothers, Dundee— Silver medaL 
J. 6. Fry and Sons, Bristol — Silver medaL 
J. and F. Howard and Sons, Bedford — Silver n 
Donald NicoU, London — Silver medaL 
William James and Henry Thomson, Londoi 
medal. 

J. H. Burke, Dublin — Bronze medal. 

H. S. Cropper and Co., Nottingham — Bronze i 

A. A. Davis and Co., London — Bronze medal 



The Vienna Exhibition. — ^It is stated that g 
barations are now being made at Vienna foi 
ception of foreign visitors to the Exhibition. J 
ence of representatives of the Austrian and 
railways has recently taken place, with the i 
arranging a special reduced scale of railway fan 
from the Exhibition, and it is intended to open 
the different Vienna railway stations for | 
visitors with lodgings. It is also said that 
department is to be set aside in the Exhih 
women's work. It will be divided into four 
one for work from women's schools, one for li 
work, one for industrial and artistic work, as* 
literary work. From India we learn that the Yi 
sanctioned an expenditure of a lac of rupees for 
pose of purchasing and forwarding Indian pnxi 
articles of art and manufacture to the Vienna £i 
Bombay gets £1,600; Bengal, £1,800; Madraa, 
Punjab, £1,200 ; North-Westem Provincee, £lj 
80 on. 

Santiago Exhibition. — The interest which ^ 
in this Exhibition in Chili is increased by the i 
about 2,000 persons arrived over the Sonthem i 
daily to visit the Exhibition. The indei 
Intendente of Santiago, Don B. V. Mackenna, eD( 
no doubt by the brilliant success of this testiral 
and industry, had decreed two other local shot 
held, one in December, of flowers and plants of < 
and hothouse culture, the other of fruits and rcK 
from March to April, 1873. The National S< 
Agricultore is preparing to send a coll^io^ 
various agricultural productions of Chili to Vieq 
year. 

Intemational Exhibition In ndladelphii is 
In an official notice, issuing from Mr. W. "« 



JOORXAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dioembek 20, 1872. 



Biutiooer, Philadalphia, it is notified tht. 
r of tha iadependence of the Cnited 
jai 1876, ii to ba celehrsled by a 
■ <f tbt pndact^ art*, md induatrieB of the 
rod o( lis .orld. _ Thiai* in iccordanca with 



is a form orcow-niilkiiif; nppnnttiu, the invention nf M rt 
Kepvil. It fonai^ts of n bhihU. doublti- acting force puii>|>, 
the iDdia-rahber suction pip« of which ii fltt«d with 3 
nuTnber of ailvor tubca, closed nt onn end, but with 0|ien- 
inga ttt Ibe aide. Into eaih teat of the udder iiiii«ertiid 
ona of theae tubpa, Hnd tha pump is then worked by 
hand, the milker sitting on a ituol behind. It ia alHted 
Ihat twenty cows per hour onn bo milked by it. 
Moit of tha piwviuus machines of this sort are of 
American inrention, and in the atalea they are, we 
belieie, nsed tu some pxtent. The great objection to 
them baa been that thej tend to exert ■ootlOD on an 
empty odder. 

An invention that anpplies a mnch-needed want ia tha 
8flf-actinir railway cnttle drinking-tmiigh, eihibitrd by 
Meeara. Ruahton, Proctor, and C". The apparatus ^.kl« 
np the whute length on one aide of an ordinsrv cattle 
train, and nunaiata of a aerifi i>( trougha, each about 20 
feet long. I'be trough ia ilung u^ii one end of ■ piiir 
of beama, each supported in tbe crntre, Hnd fitted nt the 
other end with a weight, ao proporti^ined that, when tho 
trough ia empty, it ii alung up vrrtii'ally. The upper 
end of the beam is below, and it (yinimunicatrs with a 
pipe-joint which tarns in trunnions. On water lu'ing' 
let on, it flows into the trouKh np through tha hollow 
arm, deatroys the balnnre, and brings the trough to th» 
ddflof the tracks, within resi^h of tbn osttle. 

We may mention also the ingenioni wall Bleam> 
Kine shown by Ueasn, Tangye, Meaars. I^wrence'* 
refrigeratota, and Ur. tlant«r'« potato raiser, aa aUshow* 
ing conaidtmble noielty of inrention. 



CHAH KEL PASSAOK. 



I^st week we publiahed aome comtnenti of the Sngl- 
ir upon tha riral achemea for the Channel Faawge. 
Bince then Enginierinff hni taken np the diacnssion on 
the opposite side lo thti Enginter. Oui oonlampiirary 
■lys the BeaseauT and tbe Dicey achemea " take the 
harbonraaa they are, and nndertake — what has generally 
been despaired of — to prodno* ahipt capable of Koing in 
and out of thoM harboars in all weathers, and what 
shonld be at the •■me time (try oommodiooa, *ny 
swin, and vary easy aea-boata. We wish the pro- 
moters of biith Bchemes— and the public geDemtly on 
both aidf« of tbe Chann>^l will yUo wiah theo— euccei* 
UuHr nodrTtaking. and we are n<rt without hope that 
I rhall are both Beercfuer ahipa and Diecy ship* 
nning between England and the Continent, and 
npetine fairly and •tx their merita for the public 
bTOSr. Such a competition would be an eoonnona boon 
< lo EngLind and the wki'leof Earopr. and we areioclrned 
I to betwre that with the iocntuoi tralfie it would bring, 
I it would prove a rcmanpratire S[iecnlatioa for 1»th 
I partiea. lie Di-'vy twio-tbip sib'-me. and Iha Bimmitr 
. ■■iitciug-ealooo acfaffne. Iuto earb diatinct adTaolaKe* 
aad diaadnntaca of their own which the other dnea not 
poawia. and if three wern properly appreciated by tha 
adT'<atca of the reapcctire urhttaf, we shonld aee Ina 
of tlut spirit of sotagoninB whirh has perrad'd enree vf 
the IrtlrTt that have appeared in the daily papcaa on tha 



£iyiiH(riaf thasrFplHlalheoliij<«tiaaaniaedbrtha 
Eifimti- : — *- Ttwy carreetly d mji l« the Dioay ship ■« 
bane likn a long abaUow .evl nt in klvca aloag tha 
■iddle lia« plane Im and a/i.>nd hanl^( tha two tnlrw 
muH^ mmmirr. and thea naitfd by otjb giidfn ta 
abore the witer. Tbe* aLn ci*'^ the total blcadtb. 7d (t^ 
tonrrtiT- m so hr aa t^t wu the bnadth at oac tiaa 
eootfn^jlfd. altboorh we b^licre it haa aiMe htra 
l-*»d aliin>^ to iacreaae it f, MfL TW Imcth, 
wkirh tk*T ri" ■• tb« aij. •■>.;-*« ts Eerrectiaa m 
.V^ MCfLia in t*^:-'' ^'-'fft. !>,*■ they rin tha 
jialavK ivut '-f ir' Iwq £*lT>«<.r rhcahip. ijrthe istrnir 
':«*Mbh'<ihelEBr#L>* : '■ '» £'fr. wb-rcaa. ia fe-t.it 
MUMtAfL The pt M- Mma nl the pad fTw they pre aa 



86 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Decembbb 20, 1872. 



one near the bow, and the other near the stem, and add, 
*■ as to the means of propulsion, nothing can by possibility 
be worse than the koation of the paddles, as every 
engineer knows/ As a matter of finct, the paddles in the 
Dicey ship are amidships and abreast of each other." 

The writer then proceeds -to discuss at oonsiderable 
length the merits of the various schemes. Amongst other 
matters he states that Mr. Dioey's scheme resembles, in 
its essential features, Mr. Sedley's design, submitted 
some years sinoe to the Society. The reason that the 
Society declined to make the award — a fact which £npi' 
neering considers ^*not to their credit" — was merely that 
the model sent in did not comply with the required 
•oonditions, and so never entered into the competition 
^taU. 



SCIENCE AND GENERAL TEACHING IN 

FRANCE. 

The opening of the winter courses of lectures at the 
Conservatoire des Arts of Paris affords a fitting oppor- 
tunity to speak of some of the means of sdentifio edu- 
cation offered to the working classes amongst our nearest 
neighbours. The programme includes courses by such 
distinguished professors as MM. Mangon, Tresoa, 
Tr^lat, and Beoqnerel, on mechanics, chemistry as 
applied to the arts and to agriculture, spinning, weav- 
ing, and dyeing, ceramic manufacturers, physics, the 
Talue and appli^tions of materials, &o. 

AH these courses of lectures are public and gratuitous, 
and the attendance of workmen and apprentices is very 
Inrge. M. Tr61at, architect, who lectures on the strength 
of materials and their value as regards durability, 
elegance, and art, has an audience of five hundred 
persons, alnrast all of the working classes. M. 
Mangon attracts a considerable number to his lectures 
■on agricultural labour and the management of animals. 
M. Becquerel's ooursa is the most attractive on ac- 
oount of the physical experiments, the great amphi- 
theatre in which it is given, capable of holding a 
thousand persons, being completely filled. LasUy, the 
lectures on geometry and other exact sciences are well 
attended by smaller but serious bodies of listeners. All 
these lectures are delivered in the evening, and the 
professors have the use of all the apparatus in the 
Conservatoire, and the use of several well-fomished 
laboratories. 

Bordeaux is following Paris in the wise course of 
scientific instruction for the masses. Its municipal 
oouncil has adopted the conclusions of a report drawn 
up by Professor Raulin, who has for a long time innsted 
on the necessity of establishing special scientific classes 
in all the schools of the city, whether clerical or lay, 
and recommended that one professor should be ap- 
pointed who should give lessons of one hour each in two 
or three schools per day. The municipal council 
adopted these proposals without one dissentient voice, 
and voted the necessary funds, namely, £96 for the pay- 
ment of the professor, who is required to possess a 
•diploma of the Nornud School of Cluny, or the degree 
of bachelor in science; £24 for laboratory expenses, 
and £16 for each of the fifteen schools in the city, for 
the purchase of scientific material, &c. It is proposed 
that this system of scientific teaching shall also be 
applied in the schools of small towns and villages by 
means of travelling professors, whose lectures, it is well- 
■aid, will be as viduable to the schoolmasters as to their 
pupils. Further, it is argued that the presence of such 
• professor, with his stock of apparatus and other 
necessaries, will give rise to the establishment of other 
courses for the benefit of those who are ready to pay 
moderate fees for such instruction. 

The efforts made by the authorities of Paris during 

the past session have attracted the attention of the 

Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, to which body 

^e report of M. Gr^ard, Inspector-General of the 

' ^enity, has been presented. fVom tlus document it 



appears that vast increase has been made in 
scholastic arrangements. Two hundred and ninety fii 
common scdiools, of which one hundred and fifty-ti 
are for g^ls, have been opened, the city of Puns 
the department of tho Seine having prorided new pkc 
for twenty thousand children of the two sexes, tnd I 
work of extension is still proceeding. The cttj 
Paris has certainly set an adunirable example ; in 
of the condition of its finances at the present moment,! 
has devoted more than thirty millions to the s^ 
budget, a sum three times larger than that voted 
former years, and it is engaged in establishing a pri~' 
normal school for female teachers, a project Mt 
some time since by M. Jules Simon. 

The opening for the session is just announced of 
Ecole I^bre des Scienoei Politiques, which deaai 
notice. This consists of a course of lectures byjomei 
Uie first professors in France, MM. Levasseur, 
and Janet, of the Institut of France, amonicst 
The subjects announced for this session are:~r 
and ethnography, the history of diplomacy, oompaitt 
statistics, comparison of mUitiuy establisbmeoU, "^ 
parative penal legislaticm, administrative and fini 
organisation and practice in France, political econoi 
and history of theories of social reform. 



COEESSPOVBEKOX. 



THE SANITARY CONDITION OF BERLIN, AKI 
WORKS FOR ITS IMPROVEMENT. 

Sir, — ^I had recently occasion to visit Germany, an^ 
to view the sanitary condition of Berlin, and exiimid 
some plans for its improvement. As a member of tin 
First General Board of Health in England, and i 
former Metropolitan Sanitary Commissioner, I wi 
requested by the chief magistrate to give my opinion o 
them, which I did— submitting, however, the facts « 
which my conclusions are based for competent and inde 
pendent examination. As neither of the chief prindple 
involved — that of constant removal of putrcsdW 
matter from amidst habitations, or that of tl 



stagnation pi such matter, by disconnected work*- 
nor their comparative expense, nor their comparati^ 
results, are very clearly understood here, exc«»pt by 
few practically conversant with sanitary science, wl 
have, by very special attention, succeeded in masterii 
them, I am induced, by their great importance, to subni 
here such explanations as I was enabled to give of the 
in Berlin. It is to be observed that the question of t 
unity of well-adapted parts of complete sanitary worl 
which is in issue at Berlin, must for sanitary progr< 
be soon in issue in London, where the prime agent \ 
cleanliness— the supply of water— is in the bands 
seven independent trading companies, under conditio 
which grievously restrict its use and lower its quali 
Here there is no methodised adaptation of the capillar 
of a system — the house drains — to the branch sewe 
which, with the roads, are under thirtv-six independ» 
jurisdictions, those of the vestries, and where tho tm 
mains are under another body, the Metropolitan Hoc 
of Works, with a restricted and inadequate area i 
incongruous functions — under conditions utterly del 
mental to efficiency and economy. — I am, &c., 

Edwin Chadwics 
East Sheen, Surrey. 

I am confident that, on oompetent and indepent 
examination, it will be found that sanitary sdenoe 
in late times been so far advanced as to enable 
contracts to be made for the attainment of large 
results by sanitary works. As a rule, local oooditioi] 
disease may be inferred from death ratea, as c 
parative death rates may oertamly be intercd by tl 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbobmber 20, 1872. 



87 



* J vtth them from comparative local conditions. 
j*i» u/ Berlin cannot be aware of these condi- 
U me caD attention to the chief statistical 
' j of determiniog thom. The local conditions 
^•^ rift k^nJy on infantile life, as children feed, 
I i ttic principally on air ; and a? their con- 
La ud death rates are to the least degree in- 
0-d hj occapatiozis, by mig^tion, immigration, 
i od/7 eaases which affect the death rates of 
lit bfe, tbe death rates of children who die within 
i fint jear after birth, serve as the most im- 
pnmarj indications of sanitary conditions. 
•d deith-ratea for a whole city as have been 
to me by the able chief of the Statistical 
Dr. Schwabe, I never before met with. 
ku^ unhealthy rural districts of England 
-rata of children in the first year of existence 
isfliethan 1 in 12, or 1 in 14. In the least nn- 
r vbaa districts in England there dies 1 in 8, and 
ilfttiiin the first year after birth. It has been a 
to Manchester that 1 in 5 dies within the first 
[that half of all bom there are dead soon after 
j6u; bat in Berlin 1 out of every 3 dies 
tkt fint year, and half of all bom are in their 
vithin two years and a-half after their birth. 
71 31,263 children were bom, and 10,072 died 
I M jtn. In the year before that tlie death-rate 
la3i«ndin the year before that 1 in 3*1. 

rUut Tirious contributory causes may be speci- 
itdthisexeeisive infantile mortality, and amongst 
tnaia paiental habits and treatment of children, 
r It the epidemics and the death-rates which 
of local conditions, it is very certain 
:Dewly-married couple entering into them, 
:«au¥ptionabIe their habits may be, will lose 
rt^ildien by foul-air diseases before they have 
bife of matnrity. In such air the mother's 
ril cUdbirth will be increased, and if a serious 
la^Bzing a surgical operation, befall the father, 
KBcUa with disease, his chances of recovery 
*~>lhird less than in a pure atmosphere. And 
veakly children have been shorn down 
rifors have attained maturity, the insurable 
frf death of those who survive their twentieth 
i M years— more than ten years less than 
Im unhealthy urban conditions. The 
fbs lethal causes upon the population of 
to be increasing. The mean age of all 
, men, women, and children, is 29 years, 
of deaths to the population, 23 per 
iv« of this statistical measure of the in- 
forces — the mean age of death — I may 
weD-obierved mean ag^e of death of all 
) v«nen, and children of one entire middle 
cleanly, frugal, and well-to-do, re- 
ly good habitations — the ** Society of 
■sfifty'two years. But the mean age of all 
(vhich has a better natural site than 
1866, 22-47 years ; in 1867, 21-63 years; 
lonly 19*54 years ; whilst the proportion 
ipppolation was 39 per 1,000. The death 
' in the ill-conditioned sab-districts of 
ly occupied by the wage-classes, have 
[iiM; batin the model workmen's dwell- 
ndimentary sanitary principles have 
Jhfl dttth-rates have been reduced to 17 
'■ichyet to do even there against sur- 
liifloence. 
^■•Hi Croydon and Bedford, where works 
rf constant removal of refuse, and its 
MId the land on the system adopted at 
^Wia operation, I find that at Croydon, 
^unuaut, the deaths of children within 
jj^l. Alter the improvement they were, 
^■fttowtom, I in 10 ; and at Bedford, 
^Iii0 before the improvement, by the 



[•i»««li 



The medical cheers and managers of large institutions 
for the reception of destitute children in our metropolis 
' testify that as the drainage, paving, smd sanitary condi- 
tions of the lower districts h ive been improved, the type 
of the children received from them has also improved. 
They are more healthy, stronger, and more easily trained 
to productive service, and of a more promising future. 

Now, looking at the death-rates in Berlin, and 
the large proportion of them due to foul air and 
miasmatic diseases, and to diseases of the respiratory 
organs — considering what might be done compared with 
what has been done, by sanitary improvements — it 
may be confidently averred that, with the aid of such 
sanitary measures as have been carried out ia 
London for the regulation of common lodging-houses — 
especially for the prevention of overcrowding and the 
discontinuance of cellar dwellings — the reduction might 
be extended fully one-third, or, in other words, a 
saving might be effected of ten thousand lives an- 
nually in Berlin, and that, too, with a reduction of 
existing pecuniary charges upon the population. For 
it is to be noted that every preventible death 
represents, on an average, full twenty oases of pte- 
ventible sickness, involving excessive and prematura 
disability and loss of wages on the part of the working 
hands, involving also the cost of medical treatment^ 
whether paid by them or not, and also the cost of multi- 
plied burials. 

On an estimate of these private expenses attendant on 
heavy death-rates, similar to those of Berlin, in several 
of the least healthy towns in England, it appeared that 
not less than from two fx) three pounds per annum per 
head of the population would be required as insurance 
to cover them all. Making every allowance for lower 
rates of wages and of expenses, I believe that some ten 
thalers (or 30s.) per head of the population per annum would 
be found to be below the total and collateral expenses of 
the excessive sickness Mnd death-rates in Berlin. The 
heavy death-rates involve svuh. loss of civil productive 
force, as there would be in a military force if two recruita 
had to be reared and kept from infancy in order to obtain 
one effective soldier, and the one effective soldier reared 
lasted little more than one-half his time before he died 
or was permanently invalided. * 

The proper test of works for sanitary improvement is 
their reduction of the death rates. Whilst England may 
well be consulted for examples of success obtained under 
the guidance of sound sanitary science, examples may be 
presented there, and in London particularly, of g^eat 
waste incurred without any equivalent sanitary re- 
sults. This has arisen from the fact that sanitary 
scienpe is a new science, which has not hitherto 
entered into the education of engineers and archi- 
tects, who do not pretend to any knowledge of it, 
and who are apt to lead towns to the prosecution of 
works separately, which separately are at best only of 
partial efficacy ; for sanitary results are only to be ob- 
tained by works combined for action as one machine 
working on one master principle. This principle is, 
immediate removal and constant circulation, against 
stagnation and intermittent removal, occasioned by 
disjointed work. Thus additional supplies of water, often 
equal to an additional rainfall, are carried into houses 
by steam-power and pipe distribution, but the houses 
are there left without suitable provision for the removal 
of the foul or waste water, and thus the evils of damp 
foundations are aggravated by it, and also by the disuse 
of pumps which had served to keep down the 
subsoil water. With the introduction of such 
supplies, the water-closet system has been extended as a 
means of removing putrescible matter. But, for want 
of suitable self-cleansing house drains and sewers, 
putrescent matter is commonly detained and spread 
beneath the houses and streets — into which the noxious 
products of decomposition escape. In London we found 
putrescent matter detained in ill-made house^ drains, 
and in upwards of a thousand miles of large, ill-made 



88 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, December 20, 1872. 



sewen, giving off the noxioas prodacts of decompoBition 
into streets and houses ; and from these extended cesspools 
the putrid water is yet for the greater part only re- 
moved annually to prevent their heing choked up. 
In Paris the putrescent matter is retained mostly in 
fixed fosses, which act as hulhs of a retort, giving 
off tho products of decomposition through the neck 
of the retort into the houses or the streets. In this 
condition nearly three qutirters of a million of cuhio 
metres of matter are constantly detained there, and only 
removed annually after it has heen rendered compara- 
tively useless as a manure by excessive decomposition. 
But in Berlin the putrid matter is spread in the 
channels of the streets, which make it, and my courier, 
as well as all the other couriers accustomed to con- 
duct travellers over the Continent, declares it to he 
the most stinking capital in Europe, the one in 
which they and visitors the Iciast desire to remain. 
An inhabitant of the newly-built portion of Ham- 
burg, where the new system of house purification has 
been carried out, declares to me— and I can well believe 
it — that they can smell by their clothes any person who 
comes from Berlin ! 

I find there are many persons in Bprlin strongly opposed 
to the extension of the water-closet system, as being 
en aggravation of the existing evils — an opinion 
which would not be unreasonable if the condition of 
stagnancy and putridity were a necessity. But my 
colleagues of the Metropolitan Sanitary Ck>mmi8sion of 
Health, and of the First Greneral Board, agreed with 
myself that any such stagnancy was not a necessity, and 
we obtained by trial works demonstration that, by 
properly-adjusted tubular drains and canals, everything 
IS removable immediately and constantly before decom- 
position can commence, and that where land may be ob- 
tained for its reception, the fresh, or undecomposed 
manure of the morning may be distributed in water upon 
the soil before noon. This principle of constant circu- 
lation in place of stagnation — long defended by the old 
engineers, may now be seen in action, with varieties of 
adaptation, at Rugby, Croydon, Romford, Bedford, 
Watford, and especially Aldershot, on sands less 
promising than those in the vicinity of Berlin. In all 
these places,' where the work of internal " canalisa- 
tion," as it is called, is completed, and well done, there 
is no stagnation, and no smell of decomposition, and 
there has been a marked reduction of heavy sickness and 
^leath-rates from foul-air disease. 

The work of the sanitary engineers may be tested by 
the smell. Wheresoever there is the smell of putridity 
there is stagnant deposit, and defective work. To an 
■extent, the work may be tested by the recurrence of 
typhus and some other forma of disease. It has been 
■declared positively, at Croydon and several places where 
works on this principle have been con8tru<led, that 
wheresoever there has been an outbreak of typhus, or 
«ouie other forms of the miasmatic diseases — that kill 
upwards of 8,000 pfrsons annually at Berlin— it has 
been invariably found that there had been some stoppHge 
or stagnation in the drainage of the house or the sewer, 
from defective work, or carelessness, and that traps 
were chiefly needful to guard against accidents or 
occurrences of this kind. By the constant removal 
and the direct application of the fresh manurial water 
to the land from the outfall, the cnnalisation dt^feet 
of the old method of irri^:ation being avoided — 
namely, supersaturation of the surface or evapora- 
tion and waste — there is much less smell than ev^n 
from ordinary kitchen garden culture, and unpre- 
c« d« ntly heavy production is obtained. From the sands 
at Aldi-rshot (which appear to mo to be inferi(»r to those 
cear Berlin), with high and diverse culture, heavy and 
superior kitchen garden crops are obtained, and that land, 
previously not worth ten, or even five, shillings an ace, 
has been let in portions with the manure at twenty 
' o pounds an acre. 

^eral years* action of an internal system of "canalisa- 



tion " on correct principles in the newly-built portion of 
Hamburgh had disproved the allegations of the inap- 
plicability of that system in Germany during its long 
winter. And now the sanitary improvement of Dantcig, 
based on the principle of constant circulation, in super- 
cession of the old system of stagnation, designed bj 
the engineer, Mr. Weiber, and adopted, through the 
wisdom and firmness of Grovemor Winter, and executed 
by Mr. Aird, the contractor, has provided a demonstn- 
tion of the practicability and superior eligibility of 
the water system of removal for Germany. The 
working of the measure, as stated to me, is in 
its chief points in exact coincidence with the ex- 
amples to which T have referred. Between two and three 
thousand water closets have been connected with the 
canals in the streets, and foul smells, instead of bein; 
augmented, are reduced and the air greatly purified, &n4 
the people are impatient to have the house connectioni 
completed. There has not yet been time for a full 
ipanifestation of sanitarj^ results. The narrow old 
streets, the construction of the old houses, and thd 
privation of light and air, would prevent me from 
looking forward to that city as a foremost examplfi 
of sanitary improvement. But I am happy to 
learn from a friend, an oflBcer of the army stationed 
there, that so marked have already been the re« 
suits obtained, that General Manteuffel has sent to 
thank the governor. Von Winter, for the improve* 
ment the works have effected in the health of th^ 
soldiers, especially of the recruits. And there can be nn 
doubt that in these works Governor Winter will hare 
erected powerful defences or mitigations against thefutuit 
it^vages of the cholera. The external distributioD o| 
the manurial matter by engine power is proved 
to be Available throughout the winter, and at 
mere sand, which has heretofore yielded little, fivj 
heavy crops of Italian rye g^ass have been obtained, in^ 
a sixth is anticipated. The distribution of the manum 
liquid (though I do not think the best method h« 
b^n selected) is reported to be inoffehsive. Whei 
we talk oi fresh sewage, and sewage without smel^ 
it is understood that we mean without the smell 
decomposition, which is distinct from such smells a 
those which all effete matter has more or less. li 
England, the decomposition of such manures received i] 
water is only found to commence, in ordinary weatha 
in about four days, but with properly instructed worki 
the manure of Berlin would be as it is at Rugby, CroydoB 
Watford, and now at Dantzig, on some portion of lwi<i 
generally amidst roots, in half a day. 

Such are the illustrative facts, which I might great^ 
extend, to which I would refer, and would gladly ee 
examined, as justificatory of the opinion 1 feel bound t 
express on the plan prepared by Mr. James Holbrecht 
the chief officer ot woiks, for the improvement of Berlii 
as being sound in sanitary piinciple, excellent i 
general design, and calculated, perhaps, with sen 
improvements in detail, to render Berlin the fore 
most in sanitary administration in Europe. 1 thin 
he has done well in treating it in five sections ; each ( 
which may bo said to be as it were an enlarged an 
possibly improved Dantzig. Berlin bting very muc 
of it on a dead flat, the convergence of tho main sewe: 
or canals to five pumping stations will give the com 
mand of almost any inclinations and powers of rapi<U 
cleansing; sweeps may be found necessary for i 
whilst the radiation of the delivery of the manurii 
water in diff'ertnt directions will favour diverse culture 
of difft rent species of food under difl'erent aspects, 
the principle of constjint circulation be duly carried on 
it will do for the health and strength of the popuUtic 
what it has done in such instances us those to which 
have referred in England. 

1 think it due to observe that it marks the laroentab 
ignorance prevalent on the subject that the principle 
constant removal by "canals/* as they are called, sboa 
be opposed by the old one of the retention of stagnaj 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, Dkobmbkb 20, 1872. 



89 



ittmkmiibi pcfiodlcal lemoTal by hand labour and 
talillMi-~a iyttem 'vrhich is elsewhere considered 
ud is beinf^ abandoned. Apart from all 
odicr objections to it, the adyocates of this 

r»aBB«l he aware of its comparative expense. In 
Dm expenae of sach remoral is more than three 
fn bead of the population per annum. In 
tbe ooDtract price of similar work, performed 
• yeir. wu more than three shillings "per head 
1^9 popoktion. In epidemic periods, when we 
fte Gcs^ Board of Health had absolute power, 
kmd it neottsaiy to order that all excrementitious 
ikodd be n-moved daily, notwithstanding the 
iiUTtsc of labour and expense. In Paris the 
of tbe tab system proper, or of the rt moval 
acb Batter in tuba at long intervals, is sixty 
pir boose per annum. Can the advocates of this 
h^ tj^tm be aware of the annoyances of the periodical 
' rf Rxteen thousand tubs ? In Paris regulations 
t fat the prevention of the escape of the noxious 
of decomposition, but they never succeed. Call- 
sttbf oiEceof a railway depHrtment, I felt opprewed 
fti bonible emell pervading the place, and on in- 
vbkt operation of vidange could be going on 
I«u informed that the smell was regular and 
tbtrc, from the removal of the cabimtt 
' Tbe operations of the vidange at night there, 
\, all the regulations for the application 
Aisfcctsati, are noxious and most detestable, and 
kn|nRBg that any people pretending to refine- 
~ ' tts mbmit to them, 
irtihdicd {oinciples it will be found that there are 
B»cosvenient, so simple, of checking the decom- 
ad vuteof putrescible matters as its immediate 
aad diffusion in cold water — ^that there are no 
sndso effective foritsremoval as immediate 
iairater through self-cleansing drains, even with 
of steam-power ; and that there are no means 
it and diffusing it in land so economical 
M in suspension or solution, in water. And, 
Ibit the means of a direct application to land 
mikble, all detentions for manipulations, for 
desncations, solidifications, disinfections, 
t mere waste and failures,^ as proved in the 
tod reports of official commission after com- 
Ai against direct applications, the greater part 
KbeiD«8 are proved to be mere quackeries, 
ti tbe expense, water being carried into houses, 
'~^'«i being made, as is nece8»<ary, for removal 
of the waste or foul water, the connection 
closet with the street sewers, the com- 
li tbe system may commonl^ be well accom- 
l» about a ahiUing per annum per head 
V HpaUtion. The estimated expense of the 
liuiuIiMition, and of the direct external dis- 
■■tropnaed by the Berlin chief oflScer of works, 
■• twos p^ bead of the population, which would, 
cotail nn annual charge of eighteen pence or 
• tbaVt per head of the population. It is stated 
S[* •* D»BiBg ihe f xpense of the house connections 
■ B«a''i»c»tniiderable." I do not know what that 
bat one of our sanitary engineering in- 
^bofxsmined tho present systeui of drainage 
«|witd that the new systim might be applied 
•84 tveryihing be carried away not monthly, or 
isrbotfjy, but instantly, at a bjjs cost than that 
'Wliuf Bj-stem. This has been done in England 
*t Banbiirgh, and i» doing in Dantzig, and 1 have 

■ay be en n better done in Berlin. 

fcte be observed, on the financial question, 

^bfttimcanplete sanitary works impose additions 

ea, which are fruitless in sanitary economy 

and ifffctive works conduce to the improve- 

^ ^»^ pioperty. Thus, in the instance of the 

■ Mibii|, where the mortality had been once 

l%b as hi Berlin, some incomplete works left 

' *" ef 28 in a thousand. By complete 



fdttr^t 



works of canalisation, the death-rate was reduced 
to 16 and 17 in a thousand. It was recently announced 
publicly by a landlord of some house property 
there, that his rents, and those of other owners there, 
had been advanced twenty-five per cent by the sanitary 
improvement. Much of this improvement in the value 
of house-property attendant on complete sanitary works 
is due to the less frequent non-payment of rents, to 
less frequent expenses of excessive premature and pro- 
tracted disability, arising from less frequent sickness, 
fewer cases of destitute orphanage and widowhood, and 
fewer funerals. What may be the expenses of funerals 
in Berlin I do not know, but certainly the eventual 
saving of eight or ten thousand of them annually would 
add a large contingent of money saved for complete 
works of prevention. 

To these general statements I must add that, where 
all beneath has been cleared of putrifying matter by a 
system of constant cleansing, and reductions in death- 
rates have been effected, fever has still lurked in those 
ill-paved and ill-cleansed districts where putrifying tilth 
has been allowed to remain on tho surface. Advances are 
now being made in London, as in Paris, in the use of im- 
permeable and smooth asphalte pavements, which at once 
save horse-power and reduce the dust of abraded stone and 
iron, and oy better cleansing reduce the dung dust, 
which is so injurious to the lungs, and also keep down 
damp and the miasma of excrement-sodden subs^oils. 
Hygienists testify that where the new asphalted pavings 
have been laid down and kept clean, as they ought to be, 
by water, large contributions are made to the public 
health, and especially to the health of children. The 
appropriate drainage of such roads offers new and 
economical facilities for the improved drainage of houses. 
It will also be found, on examination, that this ma- 
terial affords, by asphalte tramways, cheaper and better 
means of transit, open to all, than iron tramways, and pro- 
vides means of relief, by improved suburban transit, to 
the great evil of iotemal overcrowding. 

For the efficient action of complete works for the 
cleansing of a city, the entire public control of the water 
supply of the city as a public service, unclog^ed'by ques- 
tions of trading profits, or the clashing of an independent 
authority, is found to be necessary. I advise the 
Berlin municipal council that the earliest steps 
ought to be taken for bringing the whole of tho water- 
service under direct public control, by the compulsory 
purchase of the rights conceded to the water company, 
which has performed a public service now no longer 
needed. 

It is to be earnestly hoped, for the sake of the example 
to other cities of Germany, and in the interests of sanitary 
progress and civilisation, that the seat of the Government 
of the new and great German Empire may no longer 
be allowed to be distinguished amongst the capitals of 
the civilised world as a seat of filth and pestilence. 

Since my return, I have received, in answer to some 
inquiries, the following polite communication, and, as to 
results already achieved, most important information, 
from the chief magistrate at Dantzig : — 

" flerr Ober BUrgermeister Geheim Bath von Winter 
presents his respects and high esteem to Mr. Chadwick, 
whose great efforts and successful agitation in favour of 
the amelioration of the sanitary condition of populous 
places in general, and the introduction of the present 
system of drainage of large towns in particular, by 
which all putrescible niatt« r is constantly and efiectually 
removed out of the boundaries of towns and cities, and 
directly applied to the land, is well known to me. 

** Herr von Winter regrets exceedingly that Mr. Chad- 
wick, on his recent tour through Germany, was unable, 
from want of time, to visit bis good old town of Dantzig, 
and would have been very glad to show to Mr. Chadwick 
what progress towards the amelioration of the sanitary 
condition of this town has been made, by the introduc- 
tion of the system of canalisation, now nearly com- 
pleted. 



90 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dbgkmbbb 20, 1872. 



'*Mr. Chad wick says, with trath, that 'ezer.ution of a 
good design is laborious and difficult,' and more par- 
ticularly is this sentence applicable to places like Dinteig, 
in which not only narrow streets and peculiar construc- 
tion of the houses render the execution of the desijra 
most difficult, but whore also climatic impediments of a 
severe nature have to be overcome. 

** Herr von Winter is aware that the removal of the 
sewage from towns through a system of canalisation is 
only one item in the sum of the general improvements of 
the snnitarv condition of such towns, and expects, there- 
fore, from its introduction into Dantzig, no more than a 
great amelioration of the same; but his constant 
endeavour is to adopt all available means which may 
offer to accomplish a radical alteration in this highly 
important matter. Ho will therefore be glad to receive, 
from an authority of such experience and standing as 
Mr. Chadwickf any hints regarding the subject. 

*' In answer to the questions asked by Mx, Chadwick, 
Herr von Winter begs to state — 

*' 1. It is already an established fact that quarters in 
houses and streets, into which the canalisation has been 
introduced, are much more in demand, and command 
in consequence a much higher rental, not only on 
account of the great comfort they offer, but also from 
the often-acknowledged fact, that the higher rental is 
more then compensated for by the improved health of the 
residents. 

** 2. The system is only too short a time in operation to 
allow us to judge of its effects upon special forms of 
diseases ; but it may be stated that, although cholera 
has several times been imported into Dantzig, yet it has 
not taken the form of an epidemic since the opening of 
the canalisation. 

" 3. The public in general is now so much in favour of 
the introduced measure, that now, at the end of the first 
year of its operation, there are already 2,2o2 houses dis- 
charging their sewage and foecal matter into the street 
sewers. (It was opened on the 16th December, 1871, 
on which day only twenty houses were connected with 
the sewers.) It was only with the greatest difficulty 
that sufficient labour could be obtained to carry out the 
above house-fittings and connections with the sewers. 
It can be stated, without fear of contradiction, that the 
whole population of Dantzig is in favour of the system, 
and the most vehement opponents are now most ui^ient 
in their demands to have their houses joined to it. 

4. As regards the application of the sewage to the 
land during the frost, experience is as yet wanting. The 
first crop of rye-grass was sown on the 2nd of May of 
this year, upon a barren piece of sandy soil close to the 
sea-shore ; from it has been taken six crops during the 
summer. 

" 6. Storagpe reservoirs for the sewage are as yet not 
thought necessary, because the extent of the irrigation 
fields, and the nature of the soil on them do not seem to 
require them. 
** Dantxig, November 30, 1872.** 



1709, when he finds the first notice of it, but it seemi 
never to have been extensively worked, whether firom its 
being of inferior quality or for other reasoot. It evi- 
dently is of a much later date than the coal fielda of the 
North of England, and belongs to the Miocene 
period. — I remain, &c. . 

W. C. TaEvsLTAsr. 
WalUngton, NewcMtle-oa-Tyne, 16th December. 1^72. 



COAL IN THE FARO ISLANDS. 

Sm, — In reference to the notice in the Journal of the 
Society of Arts of the 13th instant, on •* Coal in the Faro 
Islands/* 1 may mention that many years Hgo (in 1821) 
I visited those islands, and gave the Boyal Society of 
Edinburgh a short notice on their mineraln^ry, with sec- 
tions of the coal beds, printed in their '* Transactions" 
(vol. ix. 161, and plate xxix). The coal was only 
slightly worked at that time by some of the neigh- 
bouring inhabitants for their own use. The thickness 
of the seam in Suderoe varied from a few inches up to 
five or six feet ; it was associated with a good deal of 
petrified wood of coniferous trees. There were also 
thin beds, but not worth working, on the islands of 
Myggenaes andTindholro. According toLandt " (De- 
Bcription of the Faro Islands," page 71), the coalbea of 
Suderoe has been several times explored since the year 



CERTIFICATES UNDER THE ELEMEXTABY 

EDUCATION ACT. 

Sir, — All who are concerned in the work of primary 
eifucation are well aware of the difficulty which exists 
in obtaining '* certificated teacbers," and that this difficoUy 
is likely rather to increase than to diminish for some 
time to come. It will hardly be denied by those who 
take a practical view of the subject, that some valid t£it 
of the fitness of the teachers whom it recognises for the 
important duties which they undertake, should be ap- 
plied by the executive government, and the chief 
question is how far the tests required by it are fitting 
reasonable, and fairly within Uie reach of the dsMes 
from whom elementary teachers must be drawn. 

The growing conviction of the paramount importance 
of the special faculty of teaching, including the power 
of keeping order and commanding the attention of 
pupils, has caused great changes to be made in the re- 
vised and subsequent codes up to that of 1870, which 
have tended much to increase the misapprehenaionft 
which prevail on the whole subject. My object it to 
state as clearly and briefly as possible the various wayi 
in which certificates can now be obtained, premismg 
generally that government does not ordain any specific 
course of education. Responsibilities of this nature are 
laid upon local boards, or may be assumed by privtite in- 
dividuals. The education department U^sU the work 
done, and in the case of schools under regular inspection 
awards a grant in aid for specific results. 

There is not at present any government college for 
the training of teachers, but the last blue book shoved 
thirty-six of such institutions in England and Wales 
under inspection, to all of which must be attachod 
(sec 83) a working school as a practising department 
The final examinations, which are conducted by govern- 
ment, are in no way " competitive ". The sacceasfol 
candidates are arranged in four divisions. All in the 
first three of these are considered as baving given proof 
of adequate attainments, and though their relative pro- 
ficiency is fairly recorded, all alike are eligible for cer- 
tificates of the second class, but these are not granted 
till their special competency as teachers baa been proved 
by actual work. Two favourable reports must be earned 
on a school which must have been under their charge 
for not less than three months at the time of the fint 
inspection, the second being held a year afterwardi. 
No one can by any means at first get more than a 
second class certificate for ten years, which con be 
raised to the first class by good service only, as P'^^y^ 
by results — of course not taking merely the ** pasies " of 
pupils. It is the especial duty of an inspector to weigh 
all advantages and disadvantages under which a teacher 
may labour; still, upon the capacity shown for mling 
and teaching a school his repoil must be based. ^^ 
placed in the f mrth division are considered as deficienfi 
in personal acquirements, and can receive only a certifi- 
cate of the third class; they are not quUified to takSi 
*^ pupil teachers " or apprentices, and thus are pnuaticallf 
confined to small or subsidiary schools : but many 
valuable teachers, especially for small country school^ 
may find their place in this class. 

Although these examinations are held at the traiap 
ing colleges, they are open, not only for those wh« 
have been one (or two) years in residence, but equall| 
so to any one, not less than twenty-one years of agl^ 
who has either served with credit an apprenticeship « 
*< pupil teacher" in a regularly inspected school, o^ 



MURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, DEoraraia 20, 1872. . 91 





of tn elementary school upon which a 

WftA m obtained from H. M. inBpector, 

^ iB m alike qnalifiiid to sit for examination 

■ pim Tilid proof of aptitude for the spedal 

•fJMhIsg. 

i§ regudg the admiamon into training coUegee 
govcrament are oonoemed in the matter. 
pnpO teachera who haTe Bxiccessfully com* 
^ flo^agementa, "but any one, over eighterai 
_ , intending ioaa JSde, to follow the profea- 
af lachtog, majr ait lor the mtrance fiyf^n^inatifm. 
* B may be apprenticed for five to two years 
teachers of the first or second class provided 
ift Utt last year of their service they are eighteen 
~wn, and for the shorter term pass the annual ex- 
pnscribed for the later years. Their capacity 
S and school keeping is an essential part of 
reports on tiieir progress, 
■taaee" ezaminaiion may serve also other 
thaa gaining a right of admission into 
tsQeges^ Those who pass it are qualified to 
He as atsistants in public elementaiy schools 
an annual grant in aid (reckoning on the 
staff as equal to two pupil teachers), without 
to annual personal examination (sees. 79 and 
if their woric in this capacity is £avour- 
upon by H. M. inspectors in their 
of the school in which they are em- 
i^y a»y« on attaining the age of twenty-one, 
ttsff examination for certificates as before ex- 

end of 1873 (see. 69), teachera over thirty- 

old, who have been enga^red in teach- 

jtmn, maj obtain a third claw oer^cate 

I Mnmal eumination, simply on the favourable 

m H. M. inspector on their school, which, 

■nst have been for some reasonable time 

'charge, and they must obtain also good cer- 

t«f chaiacter, Ac. from the managers of it. For 

l«f ia&nts only, thirty years is accepted as the 

Sit would be a great mistake, however, to 
any one can teach infants. This early 
J is moat important, though a very moderate 
if niere learning may be requisite for it. 
teachers will be secured for public ele- 
U xxEMer this section, and though the cer- 
Itbt tliizd claos does not enable them to take 
' — which is on the whole a reasonable 
is no reason why a teacher of old 
character should not have the aid of 
L* It may be worth considering whether 
T admission should not be kept permanently 
itcsta at present imposed are so low as not to 
than the qualified certificate which only is 
«>t personal examination. But there 
reason why any one who can show a 
waU-taaght school should not get a corre- 
, vrttfteate for the results shown. Probably 
rvn^ eome in by these means, but these few 
"[•f the beat of those beyond the limits of ordi- 
^ p» and would be a valuable element in the 
eoBUttunity« 

be quite unlkir to compare such as these 

bsBt fisTOorahle specimens of certificated 

Rooking broadly to average results testi- 

^ ongly in favour of some special train- 

aa regards the interests of good order 

than of merely learning. It is the indi- 

tMoa of children — now required for all 

liiBOit strongly shows the comparative 

»«f the nuyonty of untrained teachen. Apt 

"-laaoOj teagbt ; success with a Urge average 

-- — irjona condition being duly considered, 

of the ef&ciency of the teacher of a 

•ebooL 

m tendency ibr all examinationi 
hot it will be seen tiiatany one who 



shows competent knowledge and aptitude for school 
keeping may in one of the ways explained obtain a 
cerUficate without any great difficulty. In the very 
nature of things any examination must be prepared for 
with a certain amount of care and trouble, but the at- 
tainments, especially for third class certificates, are of a 
very moderate kind. It is indeed possible that a good 
teacher may fail through want of nerve, but surely 
there can be very few who are really efficient who 
could not fulfil the conditions required, and of these it 
may very truly be said that "hard cases *' would make 
very bad law. 

One word in conclusion as to the standards laid 
down in the code (sec 28). They comprise little more 
than reading, writing, and numeration, but let no one 
suppose that even these can be well taught by merely 
mechanical means. The ultimate failure of those who 
teach down to tho lowest letter of the standards is as 
certain in this as it would be in any other profession 
where real work was evaded in such a spirit Children 
merely ** crammed" for the first standard will be 
crammed with still more difficulty and uncertainty for 
the second, and so on. The school system is as yet half 
formed. As soon as proper means of registration are 
established every man's work will be tra^ble. Chil- 
dren can no more be taught even to read, write and 
cypher efficiently, without developing their general in- 
telligence, than so many automata can be made to do 
these things. The code merely lays down certain 
standard t^ts. The mode of teaching, so as to enable 
children to pass these tests, is left to the free discretion 
of teachers and managers. Their very simplicity ren- 
ders evasion for any length of time all the more cer- 
tainly impossible if inspectors do their duty, and though 
no system can always succeed in keeping bad workmen 
out, the periodical examination of ** results " will tend 
naore and more every year to drive out workmen of such 
a character. — Yours, &c., 

E. H. 



GE9EEAL VOTSCL 



Aretic Ezploraition. — On Monday afternoon a depu- 
tation had an interview wiUi the Finit Lord of the Admiralty 
and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, at the Admiralty, 
Whitehall, with reference to the renewal by England of 
North Polar exploration. The deputation included Sir 
Henry Rawlisson, Sir Henry Holland, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. 
Hooker, Sir Oeoige Back, Admiral CuUinson, Admiral 
Richards, Admiral Ommanney, Captain Sberrurd Osbom, 
B.N., Mr. Clements Markbam,and Mr. Major. Mr. Henry 
Bawlinson, President of the Royal Geological Society, read 
a memorial, ahowing the great advantages that would accrue 
to science from the proposed expedition. He produced letters 
from several scientific societies, referring to numerous ques- 
tions in physical geography, geology, natural history, ter- 
restrial magnetism, anthropology, and meteorology, which 
would in all probability be settled by it ; and alluded to the 
excelknt effects such expeditions had bad, and would have, 
upon our fleet and seamen. In the discussion which fol- 
lowed, it wan stated that two steam whalers would be ample 
for the purpose contemplated, and that a contribution of 120 
men would be sufficient. The ships would be provisioned 
for three years, and, according to Captain Sherrard Osbom, 
about three summers and two winters would have to be 
passed in the Artie regions. The Chancellor of tbe Ex- 
chequer promised to consider with his colleague all that 
had been ur^d, and to read over tbe papers and documents 
which had been left with them for consideration. 

Faotery Aet in twitnrlaad.— The following, accord- 
ing to the School Board Chromele, are the principal clauses 
in tbe Factory Bill presented to the Cantonal Council of 
Luoem:— **No child under twelve years of age may be 
employed in factory labour ; children over fourteen no longer 
than six hours a day ; those of schooling age may not be 
cmpkyyed at all during sdbo<d houn ; no infants are to be 



92 . JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dboembbe 20, 1872. 



aflmitted into factories where poisonous matter is used ; no 
ni^j^t labour of any kind shall bo permitred in any factory, 
except by the express permihsion of the Cantonal Council ; a 
day's work for adults will consist of no more than twelve 
hours." 

Paris Academy of Seiences. — At the last meeting of 
the AcHdemy of Sciencps the president spoke of the part pro- 
posed to be taken by France in the obfervations of the ap- 
proHching transit of Venu*«. A«tn»nomers are to be sent to 
Falestioe, to the banks of the Red Sea, to Pekin, to Jeddo, to 
the Isles of Bourbon and of SiiiDt Paul, CampbelKs island, 
New Caledonia, and, probably, to Honolulu and Noukahiva 
The Lalande prize hns been awarded to Mr. Hugg^ins, for his 
remarkable spectroscopic htudies, and especial Iv for his appli- 
cation of the spectroscope to the analysis of the movements 
of the stars. The president alno enumerated at some length 
the services which Mr. Huvgins ha^ rendered to science by 
his studies of the stars and comets, and the discovery of the 
existance therein, of several metals and gases. 

Salmon From the Pacific Statei. — According to the 
San Franciaeo Bulletin tbere continues to be an active de- 
mand for salmon, especially in tins. The export trade in 
this article has assumed an important character. In the fiivt 
nine months of the year there were 27,000 packages shipped 
hence by steamers and sailing vessels, valued at 195,000 dol- 
lars, against 23,000 packages, valued at 168.000 dollars, for 
the same time in 1871. The shipments to Eastf'm markets 
by railroad amounted to 2,249,000lbs., sgainst 545.0001bs. last 
year. The markets supplied were never so numerous as now. 
There is a regular demand for this fish in Australia, England, 
and several of the Atlantic States cities. A (xjnsig^ment of 
100 barrels was sent to Pern a short time ago. To-day the 
Panama steamer took 60 cases for Kinirston, Jamaica, a new 
market. The future of this trade is quite flattering. 

The American Seal Lock. — This is a new lock, in which 
the key-hole is covered by a seal which is a small sotiare 
piece of glass, held in position by grooves in which it slides. 
The ^'seal" covers the nole through which alone the spring 
catch is acoes>«ible, and this oanmit be released untQ the seal 
is broken. The "seal " itself is a piece of conunon window 
glass, marked on the back with a letter and number, and also 
with various irregular dots and splashes, in a sort of choco- 
late coliiur. The lettering and numbering are conducted on 
the same principle as on the Bank of England notes, so that 
no duplicate of a seal will ever be made ; and the dots and 
splashes are accidental in shape and position, being sprinkled 
on at hap-hasard. Before the seals are cut the entire sheet 
is ph<itographed, and the printed photograph is perforated 
like a sheet of poetage-stamps. The purchaser of the seals 
is supplied also with photographic /a«-«ifnf^, so that he can 
send one of these to any person whose business it may be to 
verify the security of a package. 

A Remarkable Teit Plate.— One of the devices used by 
microscopists to test the correctness and power of their 
lenses consists of a glass plate, upon which lines of exceed- 
ing fineness are engraved by thH diamond. For this purpose 
a small ruling-machine is used, sll the parts whereof must 
be made with unusual nicety. In Europe the test plates mnde 
by M. Nubert, of Prussia, have lonjc been celebrated for 
the fineness of their rulinfr, and in this country those of Mr. 
L.M. Rutherford, of New York city. The expense of the best 
Nobert plates have been 100 dots, each, and the finest rulings 
heretofore done have been 120,000 lines to the inch. There 
are few microscopists who have ever been able to see or resolve 
the lines of those plates, owing to the difficulty of properly 
lighting the plate. Dr. Woodward, of the United States army, 
is amoDgst those who have succeeded in doing so. He has not 
only seen them but he has photographed the fine lines. Pro- 
fessor F. A. P. Barnard, President of Columbia College, in 
this city, has lately received from Nobert a new test plate, 
ordered some two years ago, at an expense of 200 dols. which 
surpasses in fineness of its ruling anything heretofore pro- 
duced. It is slip of glass S^in. long and l^in. broad, in the 
centre of which the unassisted eye may discover what appears 
to be a mark perhaps the fiftieth of an inch in width ; but 
when placed under the micn>scopo this mark is found to 
be composed of a great number of parallel lines. The plate, 
in fact, contains twenty test bands, that is to say, twenty 
aerien of lines. Each series contains such a number of lines 
as will occupy, or more than occupy, the field of view of the 
microscope. The fineness of each band or series varies from 

ratio ot 3,000 lines per square inch up to 240,000 per square 



inch ; this last band contains double thennmberof liDeserer 
before ruled on a test plate. N< btrt is said to have re- 
marked, on Bfnding this plate, that if the niicrosctpi^t, on 
seeing these lines, found thst they were not >\ifficieiitly fine 
he would engage to rule a still finer plate. When Profefwr 
Bamaid succeeds in seeing thtm, doubtless he will Itt ns 
Yino'w,^ Seientijic American, 

Cape Diamonds. — In relation to Mr. Tobin's recent 
paper on the "Diamond Fields of South Africa," Mr. 
Streeter, of Conduit-street, sends us word that he recdyed a 
collection of diamonds, some in the matiix, which he will hi 
glad to show to any members of the Society. 



NOTICES. 



EXAMINATIONS, 1878. 

The attention of candidates is drawn to an error i 
in paragraph 56 of the Programme. After the i 
words ** accidence,'* the words ** and in passages" 
should be inserted. j 

8XTBS0BIPTI0N8. 

The Michaelmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed " Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
Officer. 

THE UBEABY. 

The following works have been presented to the 
library: — 

Our Work in Palestine, being an account of tbe 
different expeditions sent out to the Holy Land by tke 
Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund, m* 
sented by the Committee. 

Catalogue of the British Contributions to the Moscow 
Polytechnic Exhibition. Presented by Me8arB.J.M. 
Johnson and Sons. 

The following works have been purchased foU 
the Library : — 

Theory of Heat. By J. C. Maxwell, M.A. 

Liddell and Scott's Smaller Greek-English Lexicon. 

Grasse's Italian Dictionary. . 

FlUgers G^erman and English Dictionary. Compile 
from the London edition by C. E. Feiling and J 
Oxenford. 

CANTOB LECTTTBES. 

The first course of Cantor Lectures f or tlu 
present Session is on ** The Practical Applicationi 
of Optics to the Arts and Manufactures, and t^ 
Medicine," by C. Meymott Tidy, M.B., Jon^ 
Lecturer on Chemistry, and Professor of Medica 
Jurisprudence at the London Hospital. It consist 
of five Lectures, the last of which will be delivered 
on the following evening, at eight o'clock : — 

Lbctu&b V. — Monday, Decbmbbr 23rd, 1872. 

Spectrum Analysis as Applied to Manufactaw) 
illustTHted in the Bessemer process, and to Medicine il 
the Detection of Blood. 



MEETIN08 FOB THE ENBTTINO WEEK. 

Mow 80CIETY OF AKTS, 8. Cantor Lecture. Dr.Tid 

** On the Practical Applications of Optios to tlie Ai 
and Hanufactorea, and to Medicine.*' 
Medical, 8. 

Fri Quckett Club, 8. 

Sat Boral Institution, 8. ProfoMor Odling, *<On Air u 

Water," 



JDUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Dbcbhbbb 27, 1873. 



onnelTea coming into Hadrai. Thsre ia the iteaoMr 
juBt u ahe appeare aooa after dajrlight off Uis n»ds. 
Madraii ha* no harbour whateTer, anil aa evsrj captaiiL 
arrivet ag earl; at posaible to get awaj* before night ; aa 
■oon aAar daylight aa he can he ca^ anchor in tha 
rood*, and if ;oa come on deck in the morning van viU 
MM round the vessel the boats in which 700 viu be ex- 
pected to land, one of which joa are now looking aL I 
leave you to imagine the elfect when an Engluh ladjr 
sees for tha flrat time 20 or 30 of Uieee fellowa in tha 
morning. The boat ia called a oatamann, and it It ttw 
only chance yon have of landing if the surf ia high. Ton 
are laahed to thia thing, and they briug you to ahors. 
The aea waahea right over you, but, a« the water i« 
warm, except that yon do not tike the ducking, it doea 
not much hurt yoa. Theae fellowa are off the boat, an il 
in the water, and on to the boat again in a momenL 
Although they tay the aea abounda ia sharks, thev are 
never eateu, and they actually aay the sharks wlQ not 
tonch a bUck man. 

Well, the Srat thing you do, having landed, la to go to 
an hotel, and find youraelf a carriage. There are Uvee 
kinds you can choose from. There is the old palanquiik, 
pot upon vheela, called the palanquin ooach, which ia 
what Europeans generally lue. The horse looks sorry, 
but be can go; every hone baa hia ghora- walla to attend 
him, and a woman too. You buy the gbora-walla and the 
woman when you buytbe horaa, Itiatbeman'a buainesa 
to clean and feed thohorae, and the woman'a to cot graaa 
forhim. The next carriage ia called a ahigrampoo. Ton 



pay la. 6d. an hour for this, and have to pay beforehand, 
and whether the pony goes or not it ia all the aame. Tha 
Hindoo has no idea of time ; he prefera tliat the pony 



indy— no spring*. The bullocks come from 
Myaoro, and are admirable goer*. The native standing 
by the side ia the owner, and the other ia tha fellow that 
drives. The natives are all vain, and want to be photo- 
graphed, and are sure to stand wherever thej a 



£ir before we tee something of thia aort at the o 
nearly every street — an almost naked barber, engaged in 
''le act of shaving, all for one peony. They aay they 
re moat wonderful fellowa at it. liiey actually shave 
Bople while they are asleep. I found them very in- 
iSerent hands. If they are not engaged in that, tbess 
very fellows are shaving tlie natives' heada. It ia won- 
derful to relato that, althongh there ia tha moat intense 
heat, tlie natives invariably shave their liair olT. They 
~tyit cools them. You never hear of a amp dtiaUil. 

We will now torn into the main strest of Modru. 
The large building to the left la a aort of emporium, 
where everything la told. The building on the right it 
the Bank of Uaifraa, Passing through thia, at the end 
we come to the bazaar, and we will iuat pass through a 
corner of it and see one or two of the shops, such a* 
everybody ia obliged to uae if he ia not prepared to go to 
one of the few Europeans in the place, llieru you see tha 
cap used by the natives as a suliatitute for a hat — it ia 
nothing but a piece of linen folded in a peculiar ahapa 
YoD tee the two men who are making Uieae caps are 
wearing similar ones. Another shop is that of a native 
tailor. The native* themselvea never wear much that 
requirea any shaping, and, conaequently, Ibeie is little 
for thorn to do in the way of cutting out But they ars 
wonderfully good hands, nevertheleaa. They are also good 
imitators ; give them anything and they will copy It. 
The story is told of a cricket matoh which was played at 
Oovemment-hoosa, Calcutta, at which alt the great people 
and the ladies were preaent. Ooo of the aidjM-de-camp 
who waa to play thought he would have a new pair of 
nnmentionablea, and ao be sent off for a native tailor, and 
told bim to make him a pair exactly aimilsr to his old 
ones. Kest momiog, when they came home, true to 
tjme, they were oopacked, and he proceeded to examina 
them. There were the old ones and there were the new 



94 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Deobmbkr 27, 1872. 



ones, too, and the native had made them exactly the 
lame as the others; there was a patch on one knee, 
and eyery splash of dirt, and everything exactly the 
same. 

Having passed these, we soon get to the hotel, hoping 
to find peace and rest. But when the Peninsular and 
Oriental steamers come in everybody knows it, and 
hundreds of the natives are on the look out to get money. 
They see what hotel you go to, and then begins the cry 
for backsheesh — nothing but backsheesh, ^ut first of 
all let us look at the picota, the machine that is used 
for drawing water. There it is, and the natives run 
idong the top of the long pole to press it down, and then 
they turn round and run backwards and forwards, keep- 
ing the machine at work all day ; and in the rice season 
it is very disagreeable, and even perfect purgatory, to 
live near where one of these machines are, and hear the 
two bits of wood rubbing together, and going on ** cah, 
cah " all night and all day. It drives you almost mad. 
'Woe betide the unhappy fellow who gets a bed near one 
of these picotos. 

Arrived at the hotel, yon find a lot of fellows asking 
for backsheesh, and playing drums. You give them 
some money, only too glad to be rid of them. They are 
succeeded by fellows who play tricks with some stuff 
dipped in turpentine, through which a man jumps back- 
wards and forwards. When they are gone, they are 
succeeded by a conjuror who shows you the way to get rid 
of your wife if you have got one, or, if you have not, the 
way you can if you get one and don't Hke her. He ties 
the woniiin up tightly in a net first, and, when he has 
done that, he puts a basket on the ground. He then 
takes the top on, and proceeds to put her into the basket. 
There is the unhappy wife in the basket. The little boy 
{days the tom-tom, beating it all the time, the fellow 
standing looking on. As soon as the woman is packed up, 
he covers up the basket, and seizing a sword, he plunges 
it in. The woman shrieks and yells frightfully, the blood 
pours out in torrents, the ladies who are looking on faint, 
■and the gentlemen curse and swear, and pull him away. 
When they tear open the basket, they find it empty, and 
the woman comes out of the house where you are staying 
and asks for backsheesh. This fellow is succeeded by two 
other jugglers, who spread a cloth before yon over the 
sand, and in some mysterious way cause a ^e large 
branch of the mango tree to appear, and grow up under 
the cloth. It is a curious fact, that in Egyptian history 
we read of the same trick with the lotus tree as this with 
the mango tree. 

Now we come to the snake charmers, the most 
wonderful race of men in the whole of India. They 
take up a cobra, the most deadly of all reptiles, and 
still hardly ever are bitten. There is the photograph 
of these snake charmers before you. The snakes 
are never still. The poison-bag is in the roof 
of the mouth; and, by curtain means, this bag is 
pressed, and the poison ejected. But when you re- 
member that two hours is about the limit one lives after 
the bite of a cobra, you cannot help wondering at the 
carelessness of these fellows. And though now-a-days 
they sa^ that by injecting certain alkali, ammonia, or 
Bomethmg of the kind, into the blood, the bite can be 
onred and the poison destroyed, yet still, in the wilds of 
India, who would be able to do this in the short space of 
Ume allof^^ to live after having been bitten F There is 
one little animal alone that enjoys exemption from the 
fearful bite of the deadly cobra. It is a favourite amuse- 
ment to some people to watch the struggle. They will 
tum^ a large cobra loose in the room, and then im- 
mediately place a mongoose before it. The mongoose 
instantly attacks the cobra, and a desperate fight ensues, 
the cobra bites the mongoose over and over again, but 
the poison seems not to have the slightest effect on it, 
and the battle will certainly result in the death of the 
cobra. If the mongoose dies, it is from sheer loss of 
blood and exhaustion, and not from the effects of the 

-oison, as thousands can testify. Dr. Short has held for 



many minutes the mouth of a cobra fixed on to a mon- 
goose, but it has got up and run away, without any 
hurt. What peculiar antidote he possesses science has 
not yet been able to discover. 

Having now taken a cursory view of Madras tnd its 
people, and the jugglers, such as they are, we pass on to 
consider their religion and their templef . 

First, I must teU you that the word temple does not 
exist in India. It is merely a word imported by ui. The 
word they use is Devila, and means the House of God. 
A temple does not consist of one, but four component 
parts. What we generally call a pagoda is nothing bat 
the gopurum, answering to the Egyptian pylon over the 
door. Hie four parts of each temple are the pojmnm, 
or door ; the tnandapuntj the ieppa kolum^ or tank ; the 
vimanum, or sanctuary. 

Now, I propose to showyou these, and give you lome 
idea of what they are. We will take the train at night 
from Madras, and at twelve next day we find oorselres 
at Trichinopoly, close to which is one of the largeet and 
finest temples in all India. The view is taken from the 
gateway at the south entrance. The pyrmids are called 
the gopura, and mark the entrance into eac^i separtte 
court. The houses are inhabited by 8,000 Brahmins, who 
are not all necessarily priests ; but, like the tribe of I^vi 
amongst the Jews, from whom the priests were token, 
so among the Hindoos the priests are taken from among 
the Brahmins. The others hold their shops in the temple. 
There are 21 of these gopura, the large gopurum to the 
right is 300 feet high. The next view gives the 
gopurum more in detail, and shows it exactlv as it is. 
The lower part is of stone, the upper part of brick, tnd 
this is covered with figures, representing different scenei 
in their holy hifltory. Sometimes these gopura are 
very much more ornamented than others ; but thej are 
always for the same purpose, that is, to cover the 
entrance into the different parts of the temple. 

We now come to a mundapum. A mundkpum may be 
composed of simply eight stones. Take four stones and 
put them upright in the ground, about eight feet high ; 
put the other four along the top, and you have got a 
mundapum, and such exist in thousands all over India ; 
and, whether elaborate as this is, or perfectly plain, 
whether square, or round, the result is the same, and you 
have a mundapum. In this case each pillar is one single 
block of granite, out of which those fig^ures 15 feet high 
have been carved; it is covered with a flat stone roof, it 
constitutes one of the finest mundapa in India. 

We next proceed to look at a teppa kolym, or tank, u 
ou see here. The god not only is treated in eversr way 
ike a human being, but he must have his excursion in the 
water, and his ride in the car — 21 times he goes round that 
centre pavilion you see in the middle. On the left and 
on the right you see mundapa, afid the small gopumm 
covers the entrance into the sanctuary. 

I may as well tell you that the sanctuary is nothdng 
but an oblong building, perfectly plain, dark as pitch, 
not the smallest glimmer of light being admitted. No 
European is ever allowed to enter it, except a prince of 
royal blood, and he must enter it alone ; and if any 
other European, or heathen, or low caste man, dares to 
put his foot inside the sacred portals the temple must be 
abandoned, or the man must die. Such is the rule ol 
the Hindoos. 

I will just show you, in passing, the interior of I 
mundapum — that is a very plain one— one of those wf 
just saw the outside of. Ihi^t curious thing in th* 
middle, called a fiag-staff^ was used formec^y to marl 
the distance a man was allowed to approach towards thi 
sanctuary. He was not allowed to pass nearer than tba] 
But gradually it has fallen into disuse, and now he ma* 
walk within three or four yards of the aanctnary dooi 
It is so dark, thoug^h, that nothing can be seen. 

Passing from Trichinopoly we here leave the railway 
and have to choose the way We will trarel. Titers ar 
three ways before us. We can go on bon^Niek, aa^ 
starting an hour before stinrise, and gmlli^^iti|f tU th 



I 



fAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dkormbrb 27, 1872. 



95 



■ccompliflh 12 or 14 milesnt the 
wagr, which is more comfortable by 
\ma, carried by men on their 8houf« 
ikm)t rerj easily. But if you are 
t miipirtmne, for more bearers are re* 
l^tnd, consequently, more money to pay 
ii DOW almost obsolete, except in the 
' 10 jcia are obliged to fisdl back upon 
. which I will show von. That is the 
I yoo hare to trayel all oyer the south of 
the few spots where there may be 
DS is occupied by natives; turn them 
be surd you sleep with one eye open, 
iTol very lar. If you close vour eyes 
ly stop, and the bullocks will lie 
too, and the man will get under 
I you will be lucky if you get over two 
twenty. I hare known a natire go 
his own Tillage, and come back to his 
a yon awoke, thinking you were 20 
and routed him out &om his own 
ioi where it was, he would tell prou it 
or nine miles off, but you saw it was 
the same bullocks, which you ought to 
before getting that distance, 
are plenty of roads in India, and 
e goTernment pay enormous sums 
jjepair. The contractors a^ natives, 
in good order for five or six miles 
the Europeans are likely to drive, 
^w bad roads they would make a row ; 
execrable than they are farther 
big enough and deep enough to bury 
I onen be 24 hours doing 12 miles, 
on to liadura, the Rome of India. It 
and most noted places, and has 
temples. The first building we 
is a mundapum. Opposite the 
mnndapa are what are called the 
of which you see one here. There 
out of a single block of granite 15 
with one hand, and with the other 
come unless you are properly pre- 
on the head of a cobrti — whether 
iph of the Hindoo religion over the 
it, is a question I dare not go 
to mention that one subject among 
set them all arguing. However, 
I this, we see one of the most beautiful 
whole of India. It is a mun- 
built hj the last king of Biadura 
It cost one million of money, 
to buld. The story is, that 
doin|f so was that he asked the 
pay him a visit. The god said he 
>ut he had not a house fit to receive 
at once set to work and built what 
he is long since dead and gone, the 
days every year to pay a visit 
It is 333 feet long and 84 feet 
ndered by all to be one of 
It is built of pure grej 
in it to the right and left is 
natives always whitewash them to a 
eac^ side are representations of the 
rs. Ton see him on the nght 
beside him his two wives. The 
Kayak married a daughter of the 
The d!ay after he brought her home 
this magnificent building, which was 
walldng through iC as she did 
asked her why she had not spoken, 
[iighi of it. She answered that her 
•table for his horses. In a fury he 
•tabbed her in the side, and it is 
fSSUx wae cut, and they sculptured I 
Hial tbe hole appeared in the side ; ' 



and although they changed the pillar three times, every 
morning after they found the hole still there, as a 
warning to passionate husbands to keep their tempers. 
One of the pillars outside this temple, being very much 
exposed to the weather, is consequently much diunag^ed, 
It represents Vishnu giving his sister in marriage to 
Shiva, and every year there is a ceremony of marriage 
performed. But while the ceremony is going on a 
brahmin invariably sneezes, and as that is an omen of 
bad ausi>ioes, the marriage is postponed, and as this has 
been going on year after year, it probably will to all 
eternity. That sneezing puts a stop to it. 

The outside of this celebrated mundapum is similar to 
that we saw before at Trichinopoly, the two side piUan 
being carved differently, the one on the right being 
Ravana, the celebrated giant, who was condemned to 
bear a mountain on his back in punishment for his sins. 
Exactly opposite is situated the celebrated temple, of 
Madura, the richest in India, with an income of £4,000 
a year, and an enormous quantity of priests. The 
difference between this and the other at Irichinopoly is 
that this is all covered over, while that is uncovered. 
That one is very poor, while this is enormously rich. 
I ought to have said a few words here respecting Hindoo 
wor&ip. There is not a single Hindoo temple dedicated 
to the worship of the one God, and they have no represen- 
tation of Him. He is something too awful for that. Thev 
never address Him except through a priest, or one of his 
personifications, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. These 
are the three principal deities. Brahma is Creation, 
Vishnu is Preservation, and Shiva Destruction. And 
although it is said that there are 330,000,000 gods in 
India, yet the simple truth is, all these are only names 
given to one or other of these in any particular place 
where the god is worshipped. He is always named for 
some act or other which he is supposed to have per- 
formed at or near the place of worship. One or other of 
these tiiree is the god, and there are 330,000,000 names 
of these gods. That is the whole secret of the Hindoo 
religion. 

Passing into this celebrated temple, we come to the 

f olden lotus-tank, one of the most celebrated tanks in 
ndia. It is supposed that in this temple originally there 
was no tank, and so Shiva was obliged to make a passage 
under the sea to allow the water of the Ghinges to come 
a thousand miles and supply this tank with water. 
Alongside this tank there was a bench, and there was a 
sect of holy men who had a right to sit upon it. This 
bench had the peculiar faculty of elongating itself at 
pleasure, or becoming shorter, as the case might be, and 
therefore, when anybody applied to be admitted a mem- 
ber of this holy sect he was ordered to sit on the bench. 
If the bench elongated he was to be received as a 
member; if the bench became shorter he went head 
over heels into the water, and could not become a 
member ; and as the water was in a very foul state he 
did not have a ver^ pleasant bath. 

Our next view is of Yali, In every temple you find 
that monster personified. What he is or what he means 
nobody seems to know. The Brahmins may know, but 
they will not tell you. They simply Bay "That is a 
YflS." 

Now we come to the palace of Madura. It formerly 
covered a square mile of ground, and was a most splendid 
biuldinff. Every pillar you see is 60 feet high. There 
is very little of it left now, and what little there is, is 
used as a court of justice every day in the season.. 
The nextview will give you a better idea of this wonder- 
ful place. It is taken from the inside, looking outwards, 
and gives a side-face view of the square, three sides of 
whiiSi still stand. The interior of one of the colonnades 
also gives a very g^d idea of the grandeur of the 
place. 

Leaving Madura, we start on our real trip to the south 
where we are quite out of the region of civilisation, and 
where we can get hardly anything to eat but eggs, or 
murghi, or fowL 



96 JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, December 27, 1872. 



The first place we halt at is Secondermali. Here is one 
of those rocks of granite so frequent in the south. 
The story goes, Uiat this was a place dedicated to the 
god Subryamanya, who was a son of Shiva, and when he 
was bom, he showed such a restless spirit and created 
such a disturbance in heaven th^t Shiva gave him this 
mountain to live upon. 

Leaving here, we have 20 miles further to go, and 
•hall airive at another sacred temple, where we shall see 
the Juggernaut car, the finest in the south of India. It 
is 30 feet high, and all made of ebony. You must 
imagine that vou are encamped imder tents, not far ft^m 
the temple, Wnen you find the whole place one mass of 
living beings, before daylight. Let us accompany them. 
You see the women in gsda attire, and the men dressed in 
•vary imaginable costume, the children yelling, and the 
dogs barkmg. Arrived at the temple, you first see the 
nautch girls dancing away, and mrowing themselves 
into all sorts of attitudes. The door of the temple opens ; 
the Brahmins come out bringing their god blazoned with 
jewels. They pass underneath the car, and then appear 
on the top ; thousands of people are surrounding it on 
everr side; the rope is Uirown to the people, and 
hunoreds catch hold of it, tugging away till the 
ponderous mass begins to move. The yelling and 
■creaming is tremendous, and no words of mine can 
give you the smallest idea of the scene as the car starts. 
Ascending the hill it slowly works its way, the whole 
mass of people following, till at last it arrives at the 
top where the descent commences ; and at this spot it 
was that formerly the fanatics, wrought up to a frightful 
state of enthusiasm, as the huge macnine began to 
descend the hill, on the other side of the temple, and 
before anybody knew of their intention, would throw 
themselves down on their backs, and opening their legs, 
received that ponderous mass right over their bodies. 
The whole scene is one which no words of mine can give 
any description of, and although the government sends 
a large body of police, it is even now almost impossible 
to prevent the suicides, so sure do the people feel that 
they thereby secure to themselves an entrance into their 
heaven. 

This view shows the car more in detail, and gives you 
a better idea of its size and shape, and how it was made. 
Every bit of it is carved into a god, and is most beauti- 
fully executed in the ebony wood. It is made out of 
d^ht or ten old small cars which existed before. One 
Hmdoo asked leave of the Brahmins to take all these 
and break them up, and make this splendid car out of 
them. 

Passing on, we come still further south, to a place 
called KalDogoomulla, another of those extraordinary 
rooks rising perpendicularly from the plain, common in 
the South. The temple is quite modem, and of no 
great merit, the beautiful one being on the other side 
of the hill ; though very few have seen it, for you are 
told that is the only temple. Nine-tenths who go here 
firmly believe there is nothing else to see but what you 
■ee there; whereas, there is in. reality one of the most 
beautiful little bijous in the whole of India. You 
see how the granite has been cut, and that square 
block has been finished into a temple out of the hardest 
granite that is known. It is one of the most remark- 
meces of labour the world can show. There it stands. 
Kobody knows of it, and the natives will not let you see 
it if they can possibly help it. And still it would be im- 
possible to imagine anything more lovely than that solid 
block of g^ranite. Nobody knows b^ whom it was done or 
why it was done, or if they do it is impossible to get them 
to tell vou. The story is told of a rich native who com- 
mencea building the temple on the other side, when his 
son was so disgusted at the slowness of the work that he 
disappeared one night, and when the father came round 
the rock in the morning to look for him, found that in 
one night; unaided and alone, he had cut out the rock 
nd built the temple. *' There," says the son, "that is 

'lat I call work ;" and the father was so furious on 



seeing that his son had surpassed him, that with a blot 
of his hammer, he felled the son to the groond. The 
gods sent a cobra to destroy the fkther, but the ton 
seized the cobra and saved the father's life. No wonhip 
is ever performed in it It lies almost unknown, and 
^et is one of the most beautiful pieces of workmstuhip 
m the whole world. 

We go still further, to Tinnevelly, where we stop to 
look at Kama Deva, the Indian Cupid. When he wu 
born he had a quiver and five arrows bom with him. 
On his asking the old god Brahma what the arrows wen 
for, he was informed that to him. was given the power to 
shoot at people, and wound their hearts with love, and ; 
so populate the world ; that everybody he shot at would 
be innamed with love. So he shot at old Brahma him- 
self before he could get far away from him, and, of coone, 
hit him, and 149,000 children were the result Brahma 
became so furious at thii — for who would like to have that 
number of children P— that he told Kama Deva that the 
next god he shot at he should be slain ; but afterwards, 
this being forgotten by him, he shot an arrow, and no 
Sooner had he nit Shiva, than Kama Deva died. 

In the same temple is another god ; but 1 must stop 
for one moment to describe the piBars at the entrance to 
the temple. There are four, each twenty feet high, 
carved out of a stone so hard that no chisel can be 
got now to touch it. The natives tell a ridicnloas 
story in connection with it, and say that they used to 
put a leaf of a certain plant to it, and the stone became 
as soft as clay, and could be moulded. However, the 
fact remains, that our chisels will not touch this stone, 
which many yearb ago theirs carved this temple out of. 
It has the peculiarity that, if we take Josephus's 
history of the Temple at Jerusalem, and compare it with 
this, we could almost fancy that we saw before us the 
Temple of Jerusalem as described bv Josephus. Every 
court in it and every part of it is precisely and 
identically the same, but, unfortunately, this is very 
low, and inft^sted with rats and bats, which makes so 
overpowering a stench that you are glad to get out of it 

We now strike across to the sea-bhore, and on going 
a little to the north we cross a smaU arm of the sea, and 
come to Hamisseram, which has the most celebrated 
temple in the south, if not in the whole of India. 
This temple is dedicated to Bama, as the name 
signifies, and is considered by some to be more holy 
than Benares. The story goes that Kama was prime 
minister to one of the Kamnad rajahs, and for some 
reason or another he was baniphea across the water 
with his wife and brother, and he built himself a hut 
on this island. Havana then governed Ceylon, and 
his. sister proposed to Kama that she should become 
his wife, and she pestered Rama to such an extent, 
that at last he cut 00" her nose. She went back to 
her brother and showed what had happened, and her 
brother sent an army to attack Rama. However, he soon 
disposed of him and his 14,000 giants. Ravana, on 
hearing this, got one of his people to assume the form 
of a deer, and told this .deer to pass close by the hut 
where Rama lived, and tempt him to pursue him while 
he stole Seeta, Rama's wile. Ravana appeared and 
carried ofi" Seeta. Rising in the air like a bird, with 
Seeta in his arms, he met *' Tutayoo," the sacred bird. 
The result was that there was a conflict to recover 
Seeta, and an army of monkeys was sent to seek for ber. 
The monkey ff met the giant, who told them be had seen 
Seeta. Ravana seized the monkey by the tail tiU he told 
him where Seeta was gone to. Rama then called a 
council, to know what he was to do, and he was advised 
to send Hunooman, a monkey god, who hdtt the 
wonderful power of jumping 600 miles at one leap, intd 
Ceylon. He went and asked to be admitted into thu 
presence of Ravana. This was denied him, and he wad 
immediately seized, but he killed the people whc 
were sent against him. Ravana in a rage ordered hii 
tail to be set fire to, and then Hunooman in revefig^ 
jumped from house to house, setting eix th^ pUoe on fii^ 



JOURNAL OF THB SOCIlirrV OF AllTS, DfeoEUbBtt 27, 18T2. 97 



mh vent Aftbt doing it he found Seeta, and told her 
ttAlhaa knew where she was, and asked her in 
nUlt how he wai to put out his tail. Seeta told him 
k mk apon it, and in attempting to do this he 
Uoflied his &ce, and said that when he got home 
*tt Mch a Uack face all the other monkeys would 
Itog^ at him. Whereupon Seeta promised nlm that 
iQ BM other monkeys &ould hare black faces too. 
Wil^ he went hack, and assembled all his army of 
nOQieyt, and Rama assembled an enormous army too, 
kit VIS at a loss to know how he was to lead his army 
MTOM the tea, and he was told to pull up the neigh- 
loaxiDg moootains and cast them into the sea. Hunoo- 
«M collected fire mountains, each sixty-four miles in 
cDCttt&raice, carrying one on his head, one on each 
|hoiUef, and one under each arm. and plunged them 
iab fte ite. Then he collected all the stones, and put 
tai oo the bank, and every stone was marked 
B A H A, and the stones fitted into their places at once, 
vA that the bridge was made. Having got across, the 
Wife benn, and a more frightful battle was never 
fooiht At last, having destroyed a great many giants, 
ote OUDS 4,000 feet high and 2,500 feet round. Rama 
At IiA managed to defeat him, and get possession of 
8«t*, tad when he got into Hamisseram, by some 
vooderfol means two shadows appeared, a mark of 
goill of the deepest dye, and he was ordered to offer up 
nae being to appease the gods. He immediately 
offffoi op Seeta, about whom he had made all this 
B^ Vit she came out scathlees out of the fire. 

ft«* eotridors are eon^dered the finest in the south. 
iMiDar It tha cod marks the entrance to the sanctuary, 
laif an 100 iset lonff, each pillar is one block of solid 
JJJPtoiie. Unfortunately, from its being white- 
J«wi mneh of the beauty is hidden. If at any future 
■r il Aoald be olesned, it will, of course, be in a better 
"•^erfptaserrmtion therebv. 

Tmi gives an ides of the strange way the Hindoos 
J^tPs th« paiart in their temples. The figure iA 
••"■gbot that of a juggler, and yet he is carved out 
tf yt oithe pillars in ono of the most sacred temples in 
gfi^^The aide aisle of the temple of Bamisseram is 
twMIong; the window at the end is five feet high, 

2? SIT **"** "^ ^^ }^ length. When we consider that 
■MfflMi are of granite, and the enormous time it must 
■••ran to build such a temple, and carve such a 
J^'*W corridor, t think you will agree with me that 
l^^twork which the world can hardly excel. Four 
g* wd fe et b the aggregate lenolh of the corridors. 
P*w^ is situated at the e^ of the sea, and 
|J^*Jj[ w0 pilgrim after his long and toilsome march 
•^MVO ttilea irom the north. Only those who know 
2* wan travel i3 can conceive what he must have gone 
FjHk; when he leaves the Oanffes he is laden with 
Mfla^ooB of which he is bound to leave at every temple 
P*" Mrivas here, and leaves the last, and here he 
JjNfcr nst But he has no rest jret, for the Brahmins 
Ml hfaa to the tea, and the actions they make him 
P mogh at daylight are very absurd. Then, be- 
^*<^ hsra and Ceylon, is a long sand-bank, seven miles 
J^l^kich formerly was a portion of the land, and 
y^tf ^ this the pOgrim is condemned to wade to a 
■^P* Wit on a rock. At last the Brahmins have 
■■ivith hiffl, and he finds rest and repose here. He 
2jjbi through the splendid corridor late in the 
•'Wn^— in the dark night — and knows he has earned 
m Mt to remain. He feels that he has insured to 



012 



^^ — -- he rtitode heroaffcer, and, he hopes, prosperity in 

Lit iT* *^ lo*v« him, and turning north again, fol- 
^Sffi^ wm a t line till we arrive at a very small temple 
JWfc'nw Covil, bet on first arriving we hardly know 
V*JV»al the temple. It is cut out of nearly the same 
mJV "^ '^^^ttnartXiy. Here are some more curious 
others there is the figure of Vishnu 
uftmsi and the story is that there 
Hog who did not believe in a god. 



ahd who was always Aayih^ that thei'e Was no such thing 
as a god. He had a very good Son, who u^ways told him 
that there was a god, and everlasting discussions took 
place between them about it. At last one dliy, when 
the discussion was very hot, the father in a fit o^ fury 
kicked a large took, and Said *' tf there is a ffod let him 
come out, and then I will believe in hitn. The god 
immediately appeared, Seized the unhappy father with 
his many arms, and mdde cords of his entrails. He is 
supposed to be Vishnu in his Seventh incarnation. 

J&ongsido of these are two more pillars, wi^ sculp- 
tured figures, one of a Woman, supposed to be a cele- 
brated dancer. So proud did she become of her 
powers, that she offered to lay a waget of 100 rupees 
that no ono could compare with her for dancing, jlie 
day was appointed, and the judges assembled, and she 
danced to their perfect Satisfaction. There was a pause, 
and everyone was waiting to see who Would come to claim 
the 100 rupees, when the figure you see there appeared, 
and placing himself in a certain attitude, challenged Uie 
womail to do so too, when she declared^ herself van- 
quished. He then married the woniaii. He could do* ho 
less. 

Leaving this temple, we get a view In the distance of 
tho beautiful goparum, or gateway, with which it is 
adorned. There is only one spot at which it is possible 
to get a good view of it. It is justly considered one of the 
very best in India, though rather Stout for its height 

We now approach Tanjore, the next richest after 
Madura ; but it has this peculiarity, that, whereas the 
Madura temple literally s warms with people, Tai^ore 
temple is quite deserted. Roaming through its enor- 
mous enclosure you never ineet or see a soul, and 
it always remains exactly as you see it there, with- 
out an individual near it. It is justly renowned for 
its riches and beauty. On the right, under that 
mundapum, is a large bull. It Is the bull of Shiva, and 
the finest in tho south of India, of 80 tons weight, and iS 
cut from one single block of hard granite, and said to 
have been brought 500 miles in a pugrim*s pocket. The 
story goes that OB came in the shape of a pebble, and being 
put there, began to grow, and grow, and grow. He 
was in the habit of going out every night and doing so 
much damage that Shiva was asked (Shiva always had A 
bull) to prevent it, and he drove a nail in his head, and he 
there remains fixed for ever. Another story is that when 
the English came they took it and stopped his growth. 
However, the fact is certain, our engineers have measured 
the bull, and havo declared that that stone is 80 toils in 
weight, though by what means it came there is a mys- 
tery to everybody ; for probably in the 1 1th century it 
must have been a difficult matter to bring a stone now 
weighing 80 tons, which mUst have weighed more before 
it was carved, for 500 miles. 

The globe on the large goparum of Tanjoro is laid to 
be a solid block of stone, and the only means known to 
the natives in tho Uth century by which they could get 
a block of stone such a height, was 'by an enormous 
earthwork, up which they rolled the stone; and they 
show you a neld seven miles off, and actually tell ^ou 
that was the Spot where the earthwork began. They Aa^ 
that was built because the Rajah of Tanjore was in the 
habit of going to Trichinopoly to worship there, ana oUd 
day they tried to poison him, so he said hd would not 
go any more, and consequently built that temple. 

The next view is one of the prettiest little bijous to be 
met with. It is dedicated to Subrymanya, and the 
carving on it is just as sharp as if it had only been done 
nine days ago, instead of in the 11th century. The 
trough is a most beautiful piece of workmanship. I should 
havo told you that every god is treated exnctly as a 
human being ; he is washed and dressed, and laid down to 
rest, anointed with oil, and so on ; and the oil runs by 
that spout into the reservoir, where the pilgrims either 
come to fill their bottles and carry it away, or it is dried 
up_by the sun. 

on, we come within A short distance ot Madras 



98 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, DsoBMBBa 27, 1872. 



to the Seven Pagodas. Nothing excites one's astonish- 
ment so much as this place, llie rocks have been dirred 
here, bat why they were done, or by whom, nobody has 
any idea, nor can anyone form a oonoeptioa for whnt 
purpose the whole work was undertaken. Nothing is 
finished. No worship is performed there, and indeed 
the place is yisited but by very few. So wonderful is 
the apathy caused by the dimate, that though it is 
within afew miles of Madras, and the canal enables us to 

go there in one night, still you would be astoni^ed at 
ow very few have seen it The natives have a story of 
the cause of this place being sculptured, and left in its 
present state. They say that a rajah in some distant 
country got workmen together to build a temple, and did 
not intend to pay anvtmng to the men. They #i» masse 
rebelled, rushed to the sea-shore, seised a lot of boats, 
and went to sea, when the waves drove them ashore at 
this spot, and here for twelve years they remained, and 
to keep their hands in they amused themselves by 
carving these stones. At last the nguh, finding out 
where they were, sent an army and brought them oack. 
It may have been by the rajah dying, but that is the 
story how the whole thing ceased. Everything is begun 
— nothing finished. 

Here again we have a large rock carved, 40 feet long 
and 20 feet high, on which are certain representations, 
and these, it is said, show that serpent worship ezUted 
here. Here is also a figure which is a personification of 
Vishnu. Passing from here, we will go to the sea-diiore, 
to take a more general view of the whole thing. You 
see the rocks hs they appear from the sea-shore. The 
sides and backs of the caves are carved mto the most 
beautiful bas-reliefs, one of which I will proceed to bhow 
you. 

As we go in, this curious carving appears on the 
right. The story goes that a certain giunt perforated 
a penance, and lived for 100 years on water, 100 years 
standing on his head, 100 years with one leg in the air, 
and 100 years with one arm in the air. After that he 
asked Brahma to grant him his request. Brahma said 
he would do so, and he asked that he might be omnipo* 
t-jnt, and that no animal of those he named should be 
able to destroy him. Brahma granted his request, and 
he immediat^y ascended to heaven and turned out all 
the gods, and sent one this way and another that, and 
turned the whole thing topsy-turvy. When Brahma 
caoie to examine the contract he found that a pig had 
been forgotten to be nnmed,and Shiva wasa^ked to ussume 
the form of a pig aud destroy him. The next bas-relief 
is Vishnu, supposed to be lying at the bottom of the sea, 
for it is said that when the Deluge came on. Vishnu was 
lying at the bottom of the ocean, and a lotus sprung 
from his body, out of which came Bruhma. 

The next bas-relief, which is considered one of the 
most beautiful in India, shows the goddess Parvatee 
killing the demon Doorga — from which she afterwards 
assumed the name of Duorga. He came over Brahma 
also in a weak moment and obtained from him supreme 
sovereignty. He turned all the gods out of heaven 
---the sun would not shine, the moon would not shine, 
rivers would not run, clouds would not rain, and every- 
thing went wrong. The result was, the gods applied to 
know what was to be done. Shiva said he would send 
his wife to kill the demon. The demon had an army of 
100,000,000,000 elephants, 100,000,000 chariots, and 
10,000,000 horses, and with these she had to fight. 
But at the end, by great good luck, she overcame them, 
one after another. The demon then assumed a man's 
form, with a bufialo's head, and hurled stones and moun- 
tains at her, but she advanced too quick upon him, 
hurled her arrow at him, and killed him. 

Close by is the temple on the edge of the sea which 
Southev has immortalised in verse. This temple gave rise 
to the legend of the submerged city of Bali, of which 
there is not the slightest shadow of foundation. It is 
terribly destroyed by the sea— winds and waves are re- 
ducing it to ruin aa fast as poMible. 



Close by are the celebrated rocks supposed U 
only ruins of the Budahist temples, lliere 
large buulders of granite, an elephant 14 fuit 
liun 10 feet, and a large bull, carved out of one 
this beautiful grey stone. 

Bel'ore finishing, I must ask yon to nndersta 
Indian caste is. It is compared to our aocieC) 
reality is very different from it. A high caste 
matter what his position, though he may be a be| 
perform the most extraordinary offices, stfll alti 
the right of entr^ into the houses of Uie richest 
and is welcomed wherever he goes, and always 
well. On the other hand, a low caste man, thoo 
millions of money, is never allowed to enter a 
Among the high caste are the faJdrs. There is o 
as I saw him. He confessed to me that water hi 
touched his body, his nails had never been cut, 
never been shaved, and his hair was bound up w; 
and was a solid mass of dirt and filth, and yet t 
was received with open arms in the magnificent 
of the rich natives, where he was always welcome 
as I saw him I show him to you. Ladies and 
men, I have the honour to wish you good night. 

A vote of thanks was then proposed to Captai 
and carried by acclamation. 



CAHTOB LEcnmss. 

The first lecture of the first coarse of 
Lectures for the present Session, '* On the Pi 
Applications of Optics to the Arts and Mannf s 
and to Medicine,*' was delivered on Monday 
25th, by C. Meymott Tidy, Esq., M.B. 
Lecturer on Chemistry, and Professor of 1 
Jurisprudence at the London Hospital, j. 
few preliminary observations, the Lecturer t 

1 will turn on my electric lamp, which we si 
piinciptilly in the course of our lectures, and 
beam ot light from it to pass through the room. TJ 
two points to which I am anxious to draw your at 
about the beam of light which issues from the J 
The first fact that } ou will notice is this, that ev 
oomes out of -our lantern that can possibly g 
And the second point is, that the rays, as tht 
from the lantern, appear like a divergent c 
light. You see the rays, as they pass trom the \ 
come out like the vauee of a tan, the light bei 
centre from which the vanes radiate. ThoAe are i 
great facts for you to notice with respect to the 1 
light from our lamp. 

I need not tell you that the amount of Hght g 
decreases as the distance from the source o: 
increases. The nearer you are to a light the mo; 
you get. I think that is fairly well known, 
have not light enough, you draw the candle nt 
you, and I think, at any rate, you will see the e: 
tion of thiB fact when you look at the rays fi 
electric lamp, in the divergent character ol 
rays. You noticed the large space that was occu; 
the light from the electric lamp when it was thr* 
the opposite wall, and the comparatively small tpt 
those rays occupied nearer the centre from wh 
light proceeded. 

But now we must go a step further. It is not < 
that we should state that the amount of light de 
as the distance increases ; we must examine the ex 
which regulates this decrease of light, with re^ 
distance. It observes a definite law — a law pc 
independent of the source of light, for it maU< 
whether the light comes from the sun, whether it 
from our electric lamp, or whether it proceeds : 
candle, the law regulating the decrease of light in 
to distance is perfectly definite. It is eaMlMi ^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Dkoembbr 27, 1872. 



99 



Ik4 tbe inteonty of the li^bt diminishes as the square 

ofttn^ifUnoe firom tht» laaunous source increases. And 

I wny is3r,with respect to this law — this law of inverse 

•q^m—that it is not in any respect peculiar to light, but 

tkt it it a law which governs all radi mt forces. In 

uttra thsrs is a vary strange unity of plan. I put 

la&dk, for inatiDoe, one foot off my paper, and I g«t a 

OBfeia iOKMint of light. I take my paper two feet off, 

odlbsTwoot half the light which I had at one foot 

frn tke cmdle, but only a quarter of the light. Or, to 

pot it ia another way, I have a cartain amount of light 

ma. ths lamp at a distance of say two yards from my 

Mer. I hhog the piper within one^ardof the light, and 

J bn ioat umr times as much light on my paper as 

vb« 1 vu two yards off. I want to make that law 

psiaethr dear, and I will endeavour to do so in another 

v«f. I hare here the lime-light. I will turn it on and 

gtl I beun from it, as it will answer our purpose for this 

apensMQt better tlun theelectrio light I have here two 

cttds^vkidi are exactly the same size, about one foot 

iqun. I will hold one card as nearly as I can half 

*ij bitvesD the light and the screen, and the size of the 

iMow thst I obtain is just four times the size of 

tbccud. If I hold the card one-third of the distance 

^ the lamp, I then obtain a shadow nine times the 

*»»-ihree times ihe size each wav. As you see, agiin, 

itiitheaquie of the distance. But this is the point I 

*ut joa to remember — when I hold the card half way 

the ihadow is four times the size of the card, but the 

^aoiitof light thrown upon the card in thut position 

*o«ldW the amount of light that, in the other case, wuuld 

h tfntd. orer a part of the screen four times the bize of 

Ihi teri, if the card did not intercept it — so that, you 

■B* it 11 i&venoly — the shadow is four times the size, 

^ the aaoant of light is only one-fourth. I hope that 

a fiitt clear. The same thing may be shown in a variety 

^ **fa For instance, if I took a card four times the 

ue of thst one I used before, and hold the small card 

^viy between it and the light, you will find that the 

^«do« of the small card exactly covers the large one. 

»«adi then for the Uw itself. 

^ «t anit go a little further than this, and must 
>u« Qarnme — Knd it is most important that we should 
J* »-<ot merely the law. but the application of that 
l^^^hich is oar subject It is most important that we 
■*>|^be «ble to measure the exact amount of light in 
* ■■>. You know that complaints about gas are very 
'^Oml We are constantly being told of the bad 
W^<f the tad smell, of the bad light Some old- 
*^^*id people will even venture to tell you that it 
f^istgifQ the light of a dip. Now I think, bearing 
a maA the law that I have stdted to you — the decrease 
" te Ught, as the square of the distance increases — it 
■M nike joa that we put our gas lights in a very 
"'^edcv position. If we had candles, lor instance, do 
It?.^^ we should put them up there at the top of 
«tnMf Bo you think, bearing in mind this law 
Jf^^tcie iquares, we should put our candles in our 
wMlBf-raoBis half way up towiirds the ceiling P I am 
^T ■*dk disposed to think that if coals continue at 
y^fwiiiut extravagant price, we shall before long 
wbriig Big our gas on to the table, and trying a little 
^v'BBy in that way. Now, I want to examine, as for 
*tttts sllows, the Tarious forms of apparatus which 
■**Wb contrived from time to time tor the purpose 
"■■■iiiiig the relative intensity of light. They are 
*•*•■ isder the name of photometers — not in any way 
\pf^ name. The ^t is, we can only measure the 
wfcgii intqisity of light, not the absolute. It is the 
yj— hip between one light and another that we 
y fc*; a nd I most say tlus, that there must always 
jMentsia amonnt of discrepancy in the results ; for 
''■•M, that it is very rarely that two persons are 
^lAtn any form of photometer find that their 
I exacUv coincide. It seems to me that a real 
^roold be such an instrument as enabled us to 
I pndacta of the action of light; but in the 




present state of our knowledge I suppose this is per- 
fectly impossible, bee luse, as i shall endeavour to show 
you in my third lecture, it is not the luminous rays 
with which we are at present concerned that produce 
anylhiug like poudorablu results. 

Now then for photometers. The first and simplest 
was that proposed by that celebrated man, Count llom- 
ford. He measured the intensity of light by the relative 
depth of shadow ; and the way he did it was this. He 
took a candle and a lamp, or any source of light that he 
was about to examine, and threw a shadow of some object 
on to a sci*een from both these lights. Each shadow, of 
course, is illuminated by the opposing light, so that the 
illumination of the screen due to each light will be the 
same. I have represented it to some extent on this diagram. 
Here is a candle, and here is a lamp, and there is the 
shadow of a stick on the screen from both the lamp and 
the candle. He takes care that those two shadows 
should, with regard to the depth, be identically the 
same. He then measures the distance of the candle frx>m 
the stick, and also the distance of the lamp from the 
stick, and then, in accordance with this law of inverse 
squares, he is able to say for a certainty the illuminating 
power of that lamp relatively to the candle. For instance, 
if that candle is one yard off and the lamp is three yards 
off, when the shadows are the same, in obedience to the 
law of inverse squares the lamp gives the light exactly 
of nine candles. I have contrived here a method of 
showing this. I have a transparent paper screen, and I 
have placed behind it a stick, and you will notice I am able 
to throw the shadow of the stick by means of a gas-light, 
and also by means of a candle, on that screen. You see 
that if I raise that gas-lamp to its full height one of 
those shadows will increase in intensity. Now, I wHl 
lower the gas-flame very much, and you see the shadow 
of the Candle is more intense than the shadow from 
the gas flame. Thus, by the relative intensity of 
shadows Count Romford was enabled, to a certain 
extent, to calculate the relative intensity of light 
The next step in the history of photometry was 
an instrument designed by Ritchie. He calculated the 
light-giving powers of the flame, not by the depth of 
the shadows, but by the intensity of the illumination. 
I will try to illustrate this method by a large apparatus 
which L have here, designed by my friend Mr. Hart 
I have here two paper discs, and I place a light behind 
each. On the left we have a ctndle, and on the right we 
hive a gas lamp. We will bring them now both to 
equal distances from the screens, and you see how very 
different the inten^tity of the illumination appears on those 
two screens. It is perfectly clear, therefore, that the gas 
lamp on the right gives a great deal more light than the 
candle. Now let us try to equalise them. What must 
We do ? We bring our candle nearer, until we get it to 
a point where these two discs are illuminated as nearly as 
possible to the same extent. I grant you we should 
probably disagree, a great many ot us, as to where that 
point is exaetiy situated, and there is the difficulty I 
mentioned just now, that you cannot get two people 
to agree exactly. I want you to notice the difference 
in the distance of these two lights. Let us suppose 
that these two screens are illuminated alike, and now, 
by taking down the screen, and showing you the lights 
themselves, you see what a lon^ way ofl* the gas lamp is 
compared to the candle, which is very near to the screen. 
That shows you that the amount of Ifght depends in a 
great measure on distance. If I measured, as I could 
do, the exact distance of those two lights, I should be 
able to calculate with the greatest ease possible, very 
nearly the reUtive amount of light that the gas flame 
gives in comparison with the candle. The latter b about 
seven inches from the screen, and the candle about 35. 

The next photometer was that designed by Wheatstone, 
which consists of a silvered bead, or rather a little 
convex mirror, placed on a little disc, and so con- 
trived that it can be rapidly rotated. If you hold a 
candle near it you see a little picture of the flame of 



loo 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, DaoBMbBft 27, 1872. 



the candle, a very small image of the candle in the headi 
and when ^t ia rotated rapidly, this little image of tha 
candle forms a most beautiful and most curious line of 
lightf owing to the power possessed by the retina of re- 
taining an image for some time after the object is re- 
moyed. If you have two candles, one on one side and 
one on the other, instead of one image you get two 
images, and if one candle gives more light than another, 
01" if you have a lump on one side and a candle on 
the other, the lamp giving more light than the 
candlCi you get one of these little images when you 
rotate it, very much more intense than the other. This 
is Represented on a diagram which I have here. It is 
& drawing of Wheatstone's photometer. There is the 
little bead, and there is the handle by which we rotate it, 
ftnd you also see represented the lines of light formed 
by the little bead as it rotates. They ore represented 
iherb as one being more intense than the other, and 
therefore we should have to move the apparatus near to 
that light which gives the less intense imago, and bring it 
to such a point that the two images should be precisely 
the same. Then on measuring the distance of the candle 
And the lamp, and again bearing in mind the law of 
inverse squares, we are enabled to tell the relative 
intensity of the flame. Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested 
this mode for the purpose of studying the vibration of 
tods in that marvellous instrument of his which we know 
as the kaleidophone. 

I now pass on to another photometer of more value, 
for, I am sorry say, these are not of very much practical 
use; they are difficult to manage, and, as I said be- 
fore, there is a great deal of disagreement between 
|)eople as to when the light is placed at such a point that 
the illumination on the one hand, or the shadow on the 
olhet, are identical. We come now to the photometer 
of Btinsen. When you take a piece of paper and make 
ft grease spot upon it, and then place a light in front of 
that gtease spot, vou seem to see the grease spot as a 
dark spot on a light ground ; but if, instead of that, you 
place the candle behind the grease spot, you see it as a 
light Spot Ob a dark ground. Thus you see the dif- 
forence between reflected and transmitted light. Now, 
inpposing 1 have exactly the same amount of light on 
6ach side of that grease spot, I should not see it at all. 
That is Bunsen's photometer ; and I must tell you that 
this is the form of photometer that is ordinarily em- 
}>loyed now-a-days, or some modification of it, in testing 
^ras. I have here, by the kindness of Mr. Sugg, one of 
{ne Bunsen photometers, which you may see in all its 
details. It is a form which has been improved and 
^ modified by my colleague and friend, Br. Letheby. It 
consists of a running car, carrying a piece of paper with 
ft grease spot on the middle and two little mirrors, one 
on each side, by which you are enabled to see both 
tides of the paper. But I will show it you in a dificrent 
jray, and on a somewhat larger scale. Here I have a 
lon^ piece of board, and a large model of Bunsen's 
hhotometer; you see the grease spot in the centre. 
This apparatus fits on the board so that it will move 
ftlon^ freely. On each side there is a large mirror, bv 
Irhich you can see the exact state of the paper on both 
tides. Xow I am about to iluminate this on the one side 
l^ith the lime light, and on the other with the electric 
light, and I want you to see whether we can calculate, 
Oil a somewhat large scale, the illuminating power of our 
two lights. You see at once, when it is in the centre 
of the plank between the two lights, how much more 
intense the electric light is than the lime light, so that I 
have to move it a very long way before the grease spot 
disappears. I cannot get it to disappear entirely, for 
you cannot, on this large scale, perform the experiment 
exactly, but you see the principle well illustrated. 
Tou see in one mirror the reflection from one light, 
ftnd iti the other the reflection from the other; 
fttid when you lose this spot altogether, and nothing more 
is Seen thsoi the reflection of a plain piece of paper, then 
it is that the point is reached at which the same amount 



of light exists on both sides of the paper, 
several other forms of this photometer. Oai! 
in gas testing is a sperm candle bumihic at i 
120 grains per hour. Mr. Crookea propost-H 
because it was perfectly certain that candl<»i 
very unsatisafctory in practical working, and 
very difficult to obtain candles that bum a 
Therefore Mr. Crookes proposed burning a j 
five parts of alcohol and one of benxoL, 1 
given specific gravity, for comparison. No 
idea was a good one, but alas for the im 
of all things human, if the fluid of the 
thus rendered invariable, how enormously 
how practically impossible, it is to construct a 
light of which should be invariable, and it 
having the fluid invariable unless you hare th 
variable too. Several other things hAve beet 
from time to time for photometers, as, for exam 
ing light to pass through a certain number i 
the amount of light being determined by the i 
glasses through which it would pass. Here ai 
ber of pieces of red glass, of different longth 
might be able to seethe light of a candle th re 
them, but not through seven. That of course 
made a mode of testing illuminating powet 
say also that polarised light has been sag£ 
photonletric purposes, but I hope to describe t) 
of testing the illuminating power by means of 
light in another lecture. 

1 suppose a tallow candle was the first kind i 
light ever used. For half a century after t 
stone Lighthouse was built, twenty- fbur can 
the only light employed. Then we read o 
faggots of wood, burned in an open chaffer 
open coal fires ; and here is a diagram, taken fti 
old book, showing how it was used at the IsL 
just at the entrance of the Frith of Forth, uj 
Here you see the coal for the fire being dra 
baskets. But these methods were inconveni 
light was ever visible in the direction in 
was most wanted, because of the wind blowing 
light that did show was best seen on the h 
the sky, where there was no occasion fbr it T 
did science do ? A given light being takes 
could not increase the quantity of light, but 
direct those rays which when in a wrong 
into a right one. A candle, for instance, is 1 
dow ; I cannot increase the quantity of light 
that candle, but inasmuch as its rap are bei 
off in every direction, I can take the rars 
on the side where they are not wanted, and mi 
go in a direction where they are wanted. Thl 
science can do. 

If I allow a light to fall upon a mirror, ^ 
very well that that light is driven back, just i 
case of a billiard ball, which rebounds when 
against the table. Thus I allow a beam I 
electric lamp to fall upon this mirror, and. as 
the lip^ht darts off into another part of tJ 
That IS the old «Tack o'Lantem. There is the i 
of the light, and I need not tell you that tfa 
reflection is that the angle of incidence, or t 
that the incident ray makes with the perpe 
is equal to the angle that the ray of reflect 
makes with the perpendicular.- 

Now there are dificrent kinds of mirrois. 1 1 
used an ordinary pl&in mirror, and you saw 
light was driven off. But if I take a differeni 
mirror — a convex mirror — notice how the mys 
spread out, and what a large surface I oan ilhu 
in^ fact, nearly the whole room. That convei 
spreads the rays out ; drives them apart But 
I take another form of mirror; as for insti] 
concave mirror. In this case I get a squeezinj 
rays together into a focus. Thus, you see, the r^ 
a concave mirror are squeezed together in 
beautiful manner, whereas, with a convex mirr^ 



TY OF AKTS, Dhoiiujeb 27, 1872, 101 

>mB way Ien»e8 toe oombinations of priBins, nnd inumacb as 

he; a priam is a refracting iiuttumant, it follom tbat lenaM 

hey also are refracting JDatrumenls. That ia one point at 

which I wiab to arrive- 
due Maw the lens ia, of all ioBtruraeDts at our disposal, the 
'ays most powerful with which wears acquainted fDnanding 
oat raf ■ in the direction in whioh we want thsm to tiard ; 
hilt iaSniUily more pDworful thui our teQsctor. Fur inalaniMU 
'1 — if I bring tbo electric lamp in front of the screen, and 
ited place in front of it a [atge lens, I shall be able with 
tor. no Tory great difficulty to build up an image of the 
ited light that wo are using. Or I may du the same thing in 
•oat a niin:h sinipter way. Fcr instance, 1 may take an 
you ordinary lens, such as I hare here, and build upon the 
are screen an image of the flams of the candle, in front of 
ban which I hild it. Uera we have the lena gathering to- 
ing gcther the rtiys which are being given off from the 
lasB candle — a portion of them rathar— and forming them 
its Into an image of the candle on the screen. Ton thai iw 
olio what a powerful means the lens ii of taking thn rayi 
nds that would otherwise be lost, and making them trarel m 
iee, the direction wu wish. I will give yon one more illiutrk- 
ght tionemployingapholographonglasswhichhas been sent 
lys, me by a somewhat celebrated photographer. FLuiing it 
Ixin in tho lautom and throwing a light upoa it we can, 
ave by means of a lens held in front of the photograph, 
ity, so guide all the rays of light as to build up on iha lereen 
BJty abcaatifni.eiact. and magnified image of the photograph 
the ' in whiuh every line and shads is duly repreaented. 
;kel ! This shows tho power of the lena in directing the 
>ted rays of light aa if they were our slaves. The prnctieal 
nly applications of the lens to diffsrent forms of lighthooae* 
I and such like, and in partioular to medic«l pnrpOM*, I 
It b proposo to bring before you in mj next lecture, 
low 



I ANNUAL INTERSATIOHALEXBCIBITIOHS. 



The offices of the Commissioners ore at Upper Een- 
■ sington-gore, London, AV., Mij or- General Soott, C.B., 
' secretary. ^^^^ 

Uer Majesty's Commissioners h^tre resolved to inclnds 
in each Annual EihibiUon of the Fine Arts a represen- 
tation of the works of one or more artists who have di«d 
J in tho preceding ten years. Special space will ha set 
1 apart for snch a represGotHtion. It is resolved that th« 
I works of Messrs. Phillipand Crcswick shall be eihihit«d 
io 1873. 

The second meeting of tbe Committee for Utensils tot 

I Drinkbg- and Implements for tho use el Tobacco, &a., 
> was held at Qore-lodge, on Thursday, 10th December, 
' 1872. Numerous applications to lend ancient objects 

were read, and a recommenilation wns mado to invite the 
I contribution of modem utensils of a now character, and 
I specially suitable fgr different wines, liquuis, Jcc. The 
' following gentlemen were present: — Mr. W. Brogge, 

Mr. HodenSmith, Dr. Thudichum ; Mr. John Evans in 
; tho chair. Mr. H. Cole, O.B., attended on behalf of her 
I Majesty's Commissioners, and Lieutenant H. H. Cole, 

■" ' ., was present. 



The governors of the Southcra American States 
have rpcenllj hi^ld a convsnlioo al Alicia, O^^rgia, Io pro- 
molo the coMlruction of a continuous lioo of walef oouimunl- 
ration, by nataral and artiliciiil cbannelt. from St. l/mfs. 
Miwouri, to Bavannah, Georgia, n distance of about 1,800 

The Question of coal "uplorationa continues to 
fxcilc a good deal of into- ' Victurla. Tbe ArMotlna . 

■ Repoblio lias also offered ' 26,000 dollars tor tbe 

' disooverj of a workable ^I0aI. 



102 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Deobmbkr 27, 1872. 



EXHIBITI0H8. 



Sxliibitioii at Kilan.— The National Industrial 
Association propose holding an Exhibition at Milan next 
year. The prog^ramme is not yet published, but it is 
probable that it will embrace silk, woollen, and cotton 
manufactures. 

Vienna Szhibition. — ^We understand that a recent 
deci^ of the Austro-Hungarian Government will set at 
rest the doubts that have been entertained in many 
quarters as to the danger of new inventions, not pro- 
tected by patent rights, being pirated or imitated. The 
director-general of the Exhibition is authorised and 
instructed to issue special certificates to exhibitors — 
certain stipulated fonnalities having been complied with 
— which shall secure to them all tiie legal privileges and 
protection required. 



THE "CROPPER" PRINTING MACHINE. 

In the recent report on printing machines in the 
International Exhibition, published in the Journal, we 
^ve an engraving of this machine, but owing to the 
inventor's not having sent in to us full pHrticulars, we 
did not g^ve a detailed description of it. We therefore 
supplement the report by the following particulars, lately 
received: — The objections urged by printers against the 
platen machines already in use, are, that they are com- 
plicated in construction and fragile in build ; and, 
further, that they do not give a peifectly fiat impression, 
inasmuch as the type- bed has a segmental circular 
movement to the platen. The ** Cropper " machine is 
intended to dispose of these objectionable features. The 
platen is in a verticU position, and is a fixture, so that 
It gives a resisting power at the moment of impression. 
The tympan, which is pivotted on the upper edge of the 
platen, rises to be fed, and falls against the platen to 
receive the impression. The type-bed is carried forward 
in parallel horizontal slides ; the impression, therefore, 
must be perfectly flat. The impression screws are in 
front of the operator. A new ink-duct is also applied 
to this machine. It is regulated by a single screw, and 
supplies the ink only to the edge of the ink-disc. 



VOYAGE OF THE "CHALLENGEP^** 

As very little has yet been extensively published about 
the exploring ship Challengers and the objects which it is 
hoped will be attained by her voyage, perhaps the 
following description of her may not be out of place. It 
is extracted from a very interesting article on the sub- 
ject in Ocean Highwaye^ to which we may refer those who 
wish for further details. 

Of the ship itself, we learn that : — 

'*0n the main-deck, the captain's usual after-cabin is 
divided equally in two, fore and aft, one side being de- 
voted to the director as his private cabin, the other being 
that of the captain ; from these a ladder descends to the 
general mess-room. Before the private cabins is the 
captain's state cabin, outside of which is the analysing- 
room and the commander*s cabin on the port-side, 
corresponding to which, on the opposite side, is the 
chart-room and the cabin of the navigating-lieutenant. 
Further forward, and separated from these last, are, on 
one side, two photographing-rooms and a cabin for one 
of the scientific staff, and on the other side a chemical 
laboratoi^ and an officers* bath-room. On the lower 
deck aft is the general mess-room, flanked on either side 
by officers' cabins, as is usual ; and outside the mess- 
looi&i on either side) are cabins and meta-rooms for 



engineers and warrant officers as far forward 
engine-room hatch. The magazinf'a, instead 
devoted to the iteual 'vile compound,' ore ded 
more peaceful uses, although one of them will o 
scarcely less dangerous article than gunpowder 
600 gallons of alcohol ; the after-magazine bei 
with about a hundred-and-twenty thousand fkl 
line for sounding and other purposes, that for t 
being made of the best Ituian hemp, which, i 
only eight- tenths of an inch in circmnference, ii 
of bearing a strain of half-a-ton. The sin 
stowed well down, in the shape of 600 iron caj 
one hundred- weight each, and sixty leads of 1 
weight, fitted with cups or tubes for bringixig uj 
specimens." 

As to the scientific outfit, as it may be termec 
ship, " for hydrography, she. is furnished as if 
solely intended for surveying, the supply of ins 
being ample to meet all requirements and ci 
For deep-sea investigation, the line and wei] 
enumerated above, the iron sinkers being for tl 
gaging apparatus and very deep water. They 
thus : — Each sinker is perforated, and is cast so \ 
three, or four can be used, according to the i 
depth, current, &o. ; a rod, having a tube at t 
end and a stiff spring near the upper end, i 
through the sinkers, and by means of an iron rj 
wire attached, is suspended to a button whio 
through the spring ; the weight of the sinkers 
the spring bade. As soon as the wire is Blacken< 
weights striking the ground, it is thrown off tli 
by the spring, and the rod drawn back, leai 
weights. A butterfly valve at the lower end of 
retains the bottom specimen forced into it. T 
are fitted with a short tube with valve, or a < 
cover, for moderate depths, say under 1,500 fiith 
are brought up. To prevent loss of leads an< 
number of india-rubber accumulators are fi 
each being five feet long, and capable of exte 
twelve feet, with a strain of about fifty pou 
number of these are arranged in accordance ^ 
strength of the line and the strain, so that, 
heaving-in, the ship suddenly rises to the sea, tl 
does not come on the line until the aocamolatot 
their full tension, and in falling to the sea the} 
their normal position ; they are also useful as 
mometer. A drum and wire, as suggested i 
soundings by Sir William Thomson, is also o 
the mode of measuring the depth being by rej 
dials connected with the wire as it runs out. 
this mode of obtaining the depth prove suoo 
great advance will have been niade towards p< 
in the mode of sounding, as the friction of the 
passing through the water is comparatively nil. i 
instrument for ascertaining the depth of the w^ 
spective of the quantity of line ou^ has be^i de 
Mr. Buchanan, and as it differs from the pressurt 
hitherto tried, and which have proved fSulures, 
describe it. A large bulb and stem, similar in 
the full bulb and stem of the deep-sea thermoi 
filled with water freed from air as much as posst, 
the stem fits telesoopically into another stem a 
inch long. At the lower end of this short st 
round biub filled with mercury, the water and i 
joining. The two stems are kept together b 
india-rubber tubing, the elasticity of which ena 
smaller tube to move in and out sufficiently to i 
requirements of the increase in bulk of the liquid 
increase of temperature, and the contrary. A st^ 
cator with frictional bars is within the tube, ai 
ttiermometer. When pressure is applied, the 
liquid, mercury, compresses the water snd raJ 
indicator. The instrument has been tried ii 
Lomond, and also to a high pressure in the cyli 
a hydraulic press, and found to act well A 
engraved on the tube, the value of which h« 
ascertained by aotoal experiments txa depth, i^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Deobmbbb 27, 1872. 103 



fat tmntHotk for temperature. We believe another 
p^tmuL k alio preparing one on another principle, 
vMA il ■ much to be hoped, will be ready for the 
CUtafir, ts the importance of being able to asoer- 
liiiteABpth, irretpeotiTe of the measured line, cannot 
h fw Mtimated where strong currents prevail, as in 
tfeOilfjtmm. 

*Tm mb-ciuTent observations a quanti^ of small line 
mi VBS if tapplied. The current*drag, being suspended 
%lhslioeor wire,]ssunk to the required depth and the 
m» ittiched to a float, by which means the direction and 
htm of the carrenfe is obeerved. 

Wa hsTs already alluded to the self-registering mazi- 
■ sMiailiimara thermometers. These are constructed 



WKr. Cuelk, from a deai^ bv the late Dr. Vf. A. 
MtBei^ F.&.S., who, by covering tne full bulb with an 
Mt« gba eisiiig, nearly filled with alcohol, removed the 
from the full bulb, and reduced the error by 
to so niHll a quintity as to render the instru- 
Mst Derfect Three dozen of thuse valuable— 
B^ i&ftloabls— instruments are supplied. 
' Il adrfilion to these thermometers there is an apparatus 
1 by Mr. Siemens, F.R.S., and called a * differ- 
thmnometer,' tor observing the temperature of 
tW vikr at ths various depths on tM-ird the ship. The 
Mhffi o( its action is not easy to explain ; but depending 
Mit^M^ on tvo insulated wires and the indication of 
*Mio4i galranometer, it is to be feared that, however 
|rtct in principle, it is scarcely adapted for shipboard, 
■M a«^be in the very calmest weather. 

"thsdificulty of proonring water from great depths 
fensljtkal purposes is very great. This is obviuus, for 
■y nmd sent down 3,000 fathoms for water would 
hsvfiibesran outward pressure of upwards of three 
mA i half teas to the square inch on being brought to 
^mikt» (soflioient to perforate the brtiss}, and, with- 
M it en be to thought up, the conditions for chemically 
Mfag tre not the same, as by the very expansion, 
^rtiasji of the gases m^iy escape as the pressure lessens 
• muBf ip; and, although we may be enabled to 
tikfl water, there will still be a doubt of its con* 
pots. For the purpose of procuring this water 
depths* three kinds of instruments have been 
; SM is simply a brass vessel with a valve or 
^1* tither end, which are kept open, allowing the 
yg * free passage through on going down, but closing 
Cnk^ the instrument is drawn the other way. Another 
■■i^|«ikma invention of Mr. Buchanan — it is a brass 
^^ a tap at each end, which is open on going 
ITS simultaneously closed by means of pros- 
oia plats attached to a connecting rod of the taps 
Med the other way, and when the pressure 
■i on the plate has been sufficient to close the 
^tCdls, and thus prevents further resistance in coai- 
ft^ lfctmrtace. Provision is made for expansion on 
""^•i si piessare. 

*Akoit thfee dosen dredges, of various sixes, for deep 
^^^^"^i^ water, are on boud, and a large quantity of 
^■Mbs Cor dredge-ropes. Aoonmulators are also fitted 
fw Ike dew sea-line, to prevent the sudden jerk, by 
ft nek, oarrying away the line, and stages are 
Ppposely for working them. A donkey-engine 
i it both dredges and suunding-line. 
"Xk. Kosely has consulted one of the best authorities 
filing ia England (Dr. Boarder, of Plymouth], in 
^Mto nets and general fishing apparatus, and has 
^^^pUbyhim with trammel, trawl, shrimp, prawn, 
^4Mr««0Ctuf the best construction ; also with lobster 
2^ Mug lines of all sixes, and evtny tempting species 
^ yHritl bait Harpoons, fish grains, biixi-nets, bags, 
ywjl; buttsrfly mad bat nets ; traps for hawks, 
gMsthti, rata, and mice. Wardian cases for send- 
nlfc fhnis home, and hundredweights of paper for 
Ihsm dfy, have also been procured ; and were 
V the w of implements and stores for pre- 
thi aniflMl aad vegetable world, we should 
•ditioaof the * Highways' to complete 



it. The list of articles furnished for the chemical labora- 
tory would in itself nearly fill a pase with its baths, 
retorts, combustion tubes, analytical apparatus, &c. 
Bottles and tubes are provided by the thousand, and 
labels by tens of thousands." 

The ship is commanded by Oaptain Nares, an officer 
of experience in Arctic exploration and in surveying 
work. The scientific staff is composed of Professor 
Wyville Thomnson, F.R.S., at the head of the expedi- 
tion ; Mr. H. N. Mosely, M.A. ; Dr. Yon WiUempes 
Suhm and Mr. John Murray^ naturalists ; Mr. Buchanan, 
chemist ; and Mr. Wild, artist. 



THE LAVENDER COUNTRY. 

• 

Some short time since, a very interestlDg account of 
the growth of lavender in England was published in 
the Journal of Applied Sennce, As this forms quite 
a special industry, and one which has had very little 
attention ever paid to it, it may be worth while to extract 
some passages from the article in qut-siiun. 

It seems that the lavender country lies in Surrey, . 
about Wallington. The plant has also been grown in 
Cambridgeshire, but nowhere else in England with much 
success. In the Surrey district, thnre are about 350 
acres of land devoted to lavender. Only a moderate ap- 
plication of manure is necessary at the outset in the 
autumn, when the planting takes place ; and, after the 
first year's harvesting, the plants have grown to such 
dimensions that every other row has to be taken out, and 
every other plant in the row that remains. The three 
years* growth are the first to come to maturity, and Uien 
the second, and then the third. The harvest takes place 
in August. The cutting, which is done by the sickle, 
appears an art of itself which affects the crop in the 
future year. The labourers are followed by women and 
girls, who immediately pack and tie the lavender up in 
mats, to protect it from the rays of the sun, or otherwise 
the quantity of oil to be extracted would be reduced 
before it could be taken in hand at the distillery. The 
distillery process is carried on upon the spot. Beneath a 
brick-built shed stands a row of stills, with what are called 
worm-tubs attached to each still. Upon the ground -fioor 
the furnaces are being attended, and the percolator 
watched, as a trickling noise indicates that the oil is 
being extracted by the process going on. Above the 
furnaces are the stills, of dimension^ sufficient either to 
contain half a ton or a ton weight of herbs, and the build^ 
ing is spacious enough to admit of carts bein^ driven 
in for the purpose of unloading. The still is filled 
Uirice in four-and-twenty hours, namely, eight hours to 
a run. The men get upon the upper floor, remove the 
still-head by a lever, then take the lavender from the 
mats and tread the stalks down with their feet until the 
copper is tightly filled to tho brim. Liquor at boiling- 
heat is then taken from the top surface of the worm-tub, 
although at the bottom and lower surface the water is 
quite cold, and the furnaces are set to work. The 
worm consists of piping attached to the head -of the still, 
and passes round and round the tub which contains the 
cold water. The men watch the bringing oyer of the 
still — that is, the moment when the liquor begins to flow 
over the hcAd into the worm. Directly it does so, they 
know that the oil is running, and immediately damp 
down the furnaces. The boiling liquor from the herbs, 
by passing through the tubing immersed in cold water, 
becomes condensed, and the oil separates frum the water 
and runs into the percolator at the foot of the worm- tub. 
This bringing over is the most critical point in the 
whole operation; then great attention and experience are 
needed, otherwise the herbs, both stalk and fiower, might 
be taken into the worm, and the oil be spoiled. So well 
practised, however, are the men employed^ that what it 
called a ** run foul ** is scarcely known during the whole 
of the distilling season. From t^' * ^ "-^ •»* 



1(H 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOXETY OF ARTS, Dhoiimibr 27, 1872. 



placed in dark glass bottles with short necks, containing 
4 lb. to 71b. eadi, ready for merchandising. When one 
lot has been distilled, tbe still top is remoyed by tbe 
lever, and the charge taken out with long forks. The 
steam and vapour that arise are very great — for the 
iminitiated quite overpowering ; and what is termed the 
"walk" being very heavy, the men themselves have to 
labour hard to get out the refuse, which is thrown just at 
the back of the building for manure. The coppers are 
filled up again with herbs, fresh water is pumped ipto the 
worm-tub to supply what has been taken off the surface 
for the still, ana to replace what has passed off in the 
evaporation that has always been gomg on, and the 
process again goes on. The quantity of oil extracted 
from a ton of lavender varies according to the influence 
of the season; from 151b. to 16 lb. is considered a fair 
average, very seldom it reaches 9 lib., sometimes not more 
than lOlb. The distilling lasts about two months, from 
the first week in August to the second week in October, 
according to the abundance or otherwise of the surround- 
ing crop. 



OENSBAL irOTES. 



National Health Society.— We learn that under the 
above title a sociery bas been formed, which has for its object 
to help every man and woman, rich &ud poor, to know for 
himself, and to carry out practically around bim, tbo best 
conditions of healthy living. The steps at present proposed 
are the holding of monthly meetings for the readingof papers; 
the estabhshi&g of classes for instruction in various branches 
of sanitary science ; the delivery of free popular lectures ; and 
the formation of a reference library and an information ofEoe. 

Indian Koney Orders.— We take the following from 
the Asiatic :— " We have heard of the disagreeable hitch that 
seems to occur periodically in the money-order system 
between England and India, and now it appears that u con- 
ference has been held at Simla on the subject of amalgamat- 
ing the Indian Telegraph and Postal Department. We 
understand that Mr. Honteith has already submitted to 
government a report in which, while admitting the utility 
of the measure so far as expenditure is concerned, he has 
observed that the success of the scheme in England furnishes 
no guarantee of its success in India, the circumstances oif ^e 
two countries being quite dissimilar. There are, no doubt, 
many difficulties in the nature of the proposed changes, but 
if eflected, it is to be hoped that the present defects in the 
postal service between England and India may not be 
puralleled in the new department of the public service." 

Hew Zealand Institute.— The last number of JVa^nr* 
gives an account of this society. It was established by an 
Act of government, in 1867, and is at the head of all societies 
in the colony devoted to the promotion of ** science, literature, 
or art." These societies are incorporated or affiliated with it, 
and include the Otago Institute, the Philo^iopbical Institute 
of Canterbury, the Auckland Institute, the Wellington Philo- 
■ophical Society, and the Nelson Association for the Promo- 
ti<m of Science and Indtstry, representing all the leading 
provinces of New Zealand. The ordinary membership 
amounts to 600, and includes all the leading colonists residing 
in different parts of the several provinces. The institute 
possesses a museum, laboratory, and library, which, with the 
works therein, are so organised and utilised for the benefit oi 
the general public that they constitute in combination an 
important "Technical College," located at Wellington— a 
formidable, but friendly, rival to the recently established 
"University of Otago,"^* which aims at becoming, among 
other things, an eminent school of applied science. The 
college is aJso the head-quarters of the Government 
Oaological Survey, the chief members of the staff of which 
are professors to the Technical College, the lectures being of 
two kinds, general and practical. The former include natural 
history (zoology and botany, with their relations to physical 
geography and geology), and the elements of experimental 
science rphyeics, chemistry, and mineralogy). The practical 
are, m the meantime, confined to mineralogy and chemistry 
§ince the New Zealand Institute was established, in 1867, i 



has published no less than four bulky annual voluq 
tainmg papers mostly of a scientific kind, makziy < 
contain suostantial contributions to science. 

Goal m Dahnati».— The coal mines of Honte-I 
situated at a short distance from SevenioQ^ in TWiT^rvi^ 
recently been purchased by the Public Works Conu 
Turin, who propose working them at once. The aiu 
ducMon is estimated at 200,000 tons. Theoommitta^ 
laying down a railway from the mines to the coaat, 
coal will then be shipped for the ports of AnooD», ] 
Venice, or Trieste, in steam colliers belcm^ing 
company. 

Paper f^m Bamboo-itemi. — The culms or i 
the bamboo have now become an important pttper 
The Americans have for some time imported time 
from the West Indies, so as to reduce the balk, i 
their paper-mills. In China Uie bamboo ia lar^rely 
paper. In the Jamaica papers it is stated that the 
Pulp Company have leased the Enfield estate8,in the 
St. Elizabeth, for the purpose of carrying oa the 
facturinr enterprise. The full amount oi capital 
scribed tor locally, and paid up in a few days. Ml 
La Rue and Co. are said to be among the largeet aiiur 

Preserving Charred Papers.— Hr. £. H. Ho< 
Lowell, Mass., has suggested a very useful and pracl 
of preserving and givmg toughness and flexibility t4 
paper, which has proved to be of much importan 
identification and copying of valuable documents, ct 
conflagrations such as the recent Boston and Chid 
mities. We have seen specimens of oharred papers i 
notes, thus treated, that can be handled witm ii 
The printing upon the charred bank notee can be rem 
cemeid. The preserving process oonsists, ve be] 
pourinr collodion upon the surface of the charre 
The collodion forms a thin transparent film, and dries 
minutes, when the process is complete. — Scumt\fie A 



NOTICES. 



BITBSOBIPTIOHS. 

The Christmas subsoiiptiQiis »re du 
ahotild be forwarded by cheque or Potf 
order, crossed ** Ooutts and Oo.," and mmA 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Dayenport, Fi] 
OfiScer. 

TBZ LIBBABY. 

The following works have been presented 
Library: — 

Prisoni and Reformatoriee at Home and Abroai 
the Transactions of the International Co^greaa 
sented by Edwin Pears, Esq., LL.B. 

Take my Advice ; a Book for Every Ho^e, 
complete and trustworthy information cm evei 
^rtaining to daily life. By the late Editor of 
Family Friend." Presented by James Bla< 
and Co. 

A New Decimal Metrical System. By W. D 
force Manu. 

A Table, givingthe Relative Values of DifiTerent J 
of Food in Common Use. Compiled by Chas. 
F.C.S. Presented by Messrs. J. and A. Churchi^ 



=c 



XBimres fob the sHsinve wesk. 

Ti7BS....BoyalIiistitatk>n, 8. T v ot tsmt Odling, juvenile 
on " Air and Gas." 

Tmms...BoyalInatituii(m,8. r ro fte esoc OdllaA juvcnfl* 
on "Air and Gas." — -w*« 

Sat Jtoyal lastitiitkm, 3w Frofsivr Odlm. fotenile 

on "Air and Gas." 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jahcabt 8, 18T8. 



1^ 



OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,060. Vol. XXI. 



UDAT, JANUARY 3, 1873. 






ilOIVOS or THE BOCIETT. 



LBCTUBE OH INDIA. 

ij ereningf December 20th, Captain 
the second and concluding lecture on 
>, Idols, and Every-day Life,** 
bj photographic transparencies with the 



Igroo, in describing the views, said : — ^Ladies 

, — Pletse imagioe yoarselTes on board 

Baring entered Malta harbour on our 

let Qt look for one moment at Malta. It 

btlle island, and it is the fashion now-a-days 

It is a large rock, which they sa^ 

nadually wearing away below ; when this 

finished the whole thing will collapse. The 

ftU Tery steep, as you see, scarcely any por- 

being traTersable by carriages. It is very 

back of un elephant, sloping down towarcU 

the fleet is there the town is remarkably 

•ulors love the Maltese, and the Maltese 

or rather their money. Perhaps owing to 

tho harbour being so very deep close up to 

the reason of the story of Uie mushroom. 

Malta, with one jump wo And ourselves in 

■ time we will stop for a minute, taking 

Alexandria, go as far as Cairo, and from 

distance is very short to the desert, where we 

8phhix. AU about Egypt is so well known 

not repeat it. There is the Sphinx. Not 

a lady, on seeing that view, asked what it 

told it was the Sphinx, die said, ** Oh, 

it*s on the right-hand side of the road from 



|Hi eemg 
v:it*soi.^ 
CMSOtmix. 

tisw is the large pyramid . Every stone you 
^J^ tbay only look the size of bricks, is four 
, M(i S9 to 30 long. The entrance is on the left, 
occupies a space about equal to Lin- 
sod is 450 feet high. 
ftoa Egypt, we arriye at the north of Madras, 
at to the south. We shall first visit a 
Borth-west of Madras, on the railway 
to .Bombay. It is called Tarpntry. It is 
I tinjp of the river, which constantly over- 
, iM^fas ago, when the river overflowed its 
ifl^pie was 10 feet under water, the conse- 
nt the whole of the brickwork gave way 
and the large, splendid gopurum was 
l%e stone is of a hard, dark green 
of hornblende and trap stone. The 
at anything in India. The gateway 
fci eosUe the rajah to come in mounted 
he came to worship. The southern 
J If eten flner than the northern. 
|9 Aitmy and is one of the places 



where religious ceremonies took place in honour 
of the god. Some 20 or 30 men, called Sunyasees, a 
sort of nkirs, bound themselves by vows to go through 
certain operations. On the first day all the people 
assembled, aud it was made a ffreat holiday, and the 
operations on that day consistea of making a bamboo 
stage 15 to 20 feet high. On this they mounted. Under- 
neath were placed bags of straw, and knives and sharp- 
pointed spears above ; and on these they jumped from the 
htiight alKive, of course without being hurt, as the bags 
invariably tumbled down. But thny pretended to do it to 
show the wonderful power of Shiva m preserving them. 
On the seoond day they lit fires, and when the tires were 
in full blase they walked through them with naked fee^ 
stamping on the embers. The third day was a bye- 
day, and the fourth was the grandest day of all. They 
dedicated it to two very curious ceremonies. The 
operator was generally the village blacksmith, and the 
people came in ffrnat numbers to see the operation, whidi 
consisted in slitting all their tongues yrith a sharp 
lancet or knife, for which they paid the sum of two 
annas or threepence. Into this slit they used to put all 
sorts of things covered with cotton, to which they applied 
a light, and then began to dance. Then, in the aiter- 
noun, they went through the ceremony of making holes 
in their sides. Into these holes they put Ions pieces of 
bamboo ; and sometimes two oUier people held each eikl 
of the bamboo, and then all three b^an to danoe. At 
other times, they lighted each end of the bamboo, and 
danced whilst it burned. 

The ceremonies of the fifth day our government have 
now put a stop to, which consisted in their prostrating 
themselves before the gud. In the meantime a bamboo 
was struck in the ground at a height of 12 feet. Across 
this, horizontally, was fastened another bamboo, tied in 
the middle to the top of the pole, with the horizontal 
bamboo revolving round the other. While these m^ 
laid flat on their faces, a Brahmin took some flour in 
his h&nd and slapped them on the back or the shoulder, 
and immediately two flesh hooks were run through, one 
through each shoulder, where the mark of the Brahmin's 
hand was. To these flesh hooks were tied two cords, 
which were then attached to one end of the horizontal 
bamboo, while a cord fastened to the other end of ^e 
bamboo being immediately seized by six or seven men, 
they swung uie man with great rapidity, in a diameter 
of 30 feet, round and round. You will hardly believe 
when I tell you that these Hindoos smoke, laugh, and 
sing while going round. One cannot imagine anything 
more extraordinary or horrible, but our government has 
put a stop to it, as fEir as possible, though if they can do 
it on the sly they will. 

From here we must take another jump to the Cauvery, 
a magnificent river, about a mile wide at the spot I 
am going to show you. Wonderful to relate, it suddenly 
at this spot iisappears, and completely runs under t)ie 
trees of the large island, and you can walk on the ground 
above it, and cannot make out what on earth has 
become of it, and the only part that remains visible is a 
smaJl fall, called the Gk>at*8 Leap FaU. This place, li]ce 
ever> thing wonderful and magnificent, is very sacred to 
the Hindoos, and they make a pilgiimage to it. The 
river in reality passes through a lot of rocks, and comes 
out in a succession of water-falls further down ; theore 
the spray, rising from the falls many feet into the air. 
causes a cloud which has the appearance of a column ot 
smoke. Hence the name Hoginkul, or smoking rock, 
which the natives call it. 

We next see the river as it appears just below the fall. 
It is impossible to get a view of the place itself just 
there, because the water will not allow you to approach 
it ; but we get a view of the river as it runs down and 
comes into the small space you see. We are now almnet 
on the plateau of Mysore, 2,000 feet aSove th ) sea. We 
follow the river, ana visit a scnall summer palace, bui^t 
by Tippoo Saib shortly before his death, called Bi-na 
Do wlut. It is considered very much like the Aihar ' 



loe 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jakdabt 8, 187S. 



mnd is indeed called the Indian Alhambra. It was 
bought by the Dake of Wellington, and inhabited by 
him when he was here. In those days it was not in the 
least unhealthy, but now it is the most deadly spot in 
India. The inhabitants of the place haTe mostly died 
Out. No European dare sleep in it on any consideration, 
mad yet a few years ago it was perfectly healthy, so 
Extraordinary are the changes in the climate. Another 
view of it will show you that nothing can be more 
beautiful than the painting of this palfu». It appears 
to be gilded as well as coloured in the most charming 
odours, but the oombination is so wonderful as to deceive 
you. There is no gilding at all. It -is done by an Indian 
method of taking paper and covering it with glue, drying 
it in the sun, and polishing it with a smooth stone, 
when it has exactly the appearance of gilding. The 
small portico is where Tippoo used to sit to administer 
justice to those few who were allowed to come near him 
when he was reposing in this palace. All round the 
palace is a handsome verandah, and nothing can be more 
beautiful. It is painted in the most exquisite colours 
possible, and besides that, in all the little panels there are 
pictures of different scenes in Indian history. 

A short night's journey brings us to Bailoor, where 
we shaU find one of the most bMutiful* if not the most 
bcAutiful, temple in Mysore, perhaps in all India. Every 
part of it is quite different, and everything is very 
minute. It is more like the Jain Temple, and was 
built by a race of kins;s who had been Jains, but were 
converted to the worship of Shiva, and the temple par* 
takes a ^reat deal of the old religion. The small 
frames, with the figures inside, are cut out of solid stone 
in complete relief, and with nothing to support them 
but the base on which they stand. Behind them is 
another complete row of figures. They are so arranged 
that the hands touch the frames and the feet the bottom 
on which they stand. Unfortunately, the whole is 
covered with whitewash, which is constantly renewed, 
and for the carving to be seen as it ought, the white- 
wash must be removed. At the same time, however, it 
preserves it. The white mass below is in reality another 
wreath or roll of figures, one more beauUful than the 
other. All the figures are in complete relict and 

C*eit)ed right through. The holes you see are in solid 
ocks of stone, thiiue inches thick, pierced right through 
to give light to the interior. It is said that the interior 
is most wonderfully carved, but no other temple that I 
Imow of in India is carved in the inside of the sanctum. 
They are all perfectly plain, the whole of the decoration 
being lavish^ on the outside. One of the peculiarities 
of tnis temple is, that the east and west sides are 
perfectly dissimilar, and unlike any other we have 
seen. Five little shrines form the west side. Under- 
neath, along the lower part, are elephants; above 
them are the emblems of the kings who reigned and 
buUt it. Inside is a small image of the god, and the 
opening is for the priest to enter and anoint that image 
in the way I described last week, which they always do. 
The whole carving, both of this and every other part, 
morb resembles ivory than anything else, and if one 
does not handle it, so exquisitely is it chiselled, it is 
scarcely possible to believe that it is not wood, so 
wonderfully small and delicate is the carviog. The 
natives always put the elephant at bottom, next to them 
that nondescript animal widch is always considered next 
in streDgth, and then the other animals rising in stiength 
according to their idea, whether they are able to sup- 
port the incumbent weight or not. 

We now arrive at Hallabeed. This temple was so 
buried in. the jungle that it was almost impossible to 
get near it. The jungle is infested with tigers, ele- 
phants, snd serpents, and it was almost a matter of life 
and death td approach it, and the only persons who visited 
it were a lot of loafers, who used to come around with 
hammers to break off the exquisite little figures and 
-17 them away, and sell them in different parts of 
m. 700 feet is the length of the frieses on the 



eastern side (which contains not len than 2,000 car 
elephants), 400 on the other. The Parthenon frieses 
only 550 feet long. Here, a^ain, we have the eleph 
at bottom — above the men originally mounted on hor 
and you see the way they have becoi mutilated and 
horsemen disappeared — ^in fact, the men and the ho 
themselves in some places have gone. Abore that 1 
procession of men; above that, again, high up, 
birds ; next, under the balcony, very much like thoft 
Bailoor, but not nearly so well executed, are b 
beautifiil frames ; and just above that, again, are 
holes cut to admit light and air to the interior. 

Now see the western side of this temple. Here, ^ 

we have what we saw at Tanjore, the treugh and 

spout, and the hole where the lingum or image of 

god was placed — the spout to brin^ out the oil, an( 

trough to catch it — there to remain till dried up b^ 

sun, or carried off by pilgrims. It has long been 

sorted bv the Brahmins, and no worship is eTer 

formed there, and the government has buUtawaUri 

it, and appointed police to look after it, and pn 

further spoliation. The effect that the natiTes 

produced here by the curious sinuosities is very beau 

and no doubt better than anything the Gothic arch 

attempted by their transepts. If those friezes bad 

put on a fiat surfSace they would have lost an imi 

deal of their effect, but placed there, the artistic com 

tion of horisontal and vertical lines, and the play oi 

line and shade, far surpass anything in Qothi 

Everv god of the Indian Pantheon finds a place 1 

temple. Some gods, such as Shiva or Parvatee, are 

teen times represented, and Vishnu seventeen time 

Here we shall make acquaintance for the first timi 

Krishna, who was a very wonderful god, and about 

the natives are never tired of telling stories. One 

about him is, that he slew a giant who had 16,000 

all very beautiful. Krishna appropriated every < 

himself, and began by keeping them all togetht 

found that did not answer, so he buUt a house for 

one of them. He had that wonderful power of beio 

to go everywhere at the same time, and he visited 

lUl, so that every wife thought Krishna was her f 

spouse, and belonged to her alone. One day a fri 

his asked Krishna whether he, having 16,000 

could not spare him one, and Krishna said by all 

he might go and take his choice. His friend « 

the house of one, and found Krishna and the lady 

comfortably drinking tea. He then went to th( 

and found Krishna again seated with that lad 

so he went to about one thousand of them, wl 

gave the thing up in despair, as he saw he ha( 

chance. 

From here we make a very Ions jump to th 
gherry hills. They are quite at the nir ena of the 
of Mysore, and rise 3,000 feet higher on the f 
shall go up, that is to say, Coonoor is 6,000 feet ab 
sea. It is impossible to give those who do no 
what India is an^ idea of the delight one f 
setting up to the hills, after the heat and doeen 
fearful horrors of the plains below. As we wine 
we keep to the road, every step your pony ta 
air feels cooler, until, when we arrive at the 1 
sense of relief with which we draw our breath 
lungs expand, only those who have experience<i 
know what it is. Instead of following ^e ro 
will ask you to leave that and take the rivf r, 
dint of tremendous climbing, we shall be able t 
it, and find a lot of beautifnl water-foils, untU fi 
at the top and see Coonoor. 

On our way up we find a curious rock, calle* 
name of the native who is supposed to have dl 
it. Like all wonderful things, it is worahippe< 
natives. There it stands; nobody knows a 
about it, except that it is called and worship] 
god. ConsequenUy, no one is allowed to atl 
ascend it^ The first waterfidl, or rather the la. 
the river reaches the plain, and joins the larg 



;NAL of the SOOlETTf OF ARTS, Jasoabt t, 1873. 



107 



lU, from an English gentleman, 

and tamed it into a coffee pUn- 

>wed the land, and became known 

estate. Scrambling along up the 

ofl^ we shall see the Falls of the CftTes, 

cave ondflr the rock, which goes in 

I distance. The iiTer makes a slvup tarn 

' ,andoomesintothe pool in the manner 

Law fidl was called from an engineer 

op the fiMe of the hill, and in doing so 

unin^ it after himself. The fall, or 

ts called the Bandyman's Grave. 

ime of the Indian cart which carries all 

, and the man is called the handyman. 

sga on the top of the Qhauts, the river 

and in the night carried off the bandy, 

the bandymtn, and their bodies were not 

considerable time after, and then they 

this pool ; hence the name — ^the Bandy- 

The river on the left parses underneath 

and comes out about 100 yards lower 

much the same manner as we saw the 

little time time ago. That place is called 

a |daoe celebrated for pic-nics by the 

years, bnt the leeches took possession 

were obliged to give it up, as they 

it companions at a picnic, and they 

there. 

I top of the Ghent, we get our first view of 

are of helio^pe, four feet high, 

all the year round, and consequently, as 

very frvprant. Not ten yards from 

only place m the world where the oak 

tree can be seen growing side b^ side. 

tier place in which the two will thrive to- 

leak was bronght there and planted by an 

the orange grows on the spot. 

very small place, and is situated just on 

Ghaut, 6,000 feet above the sea. The air 

ly cool, and yon really begin to enjoy 

hills. 

of the station is given in the next view, 
see the houses scattered all over the 
house baa its compound or enclosure, the 
to the left* The hill in the distance, 
is c^ed the Droog. When Tippoo oyer- 
r, he took possession of that place, fortified 
his head-quarters. From there he used 
soldiers, who took the people prisoners, 
ig, before his breakfiist, Tippoo had some 
led. and made to walk on to the edge of 
fell down a precipice, 2,000 feet, into that 

• 

miles long, brings us to Ootacamund ; 

peep at the house, or small cottage, of one 

(liahmen use when they come up to the 

an»l 60 days' leave. It is a curious 

the English people enjoy the hills, it 

{penianent g<x>d. £ven if they stay there a 

does not return ; but the moment they 

they lose the good effect. Although 

degrees of the equator, I have seen 

frost at night, but the flowers are never 

jeKmate. however, is not the same as home. 

lia England is better tiian two or three 

HOs. 

jrhich we enter Ootacsmund is planted 

we came there and took possession 

not a tree near. A large tree near the 

Oharing-cross, and this is the first Aus- 

was planted, forty years ago. Every 

phmted after it The English hotel 

Englishman, is excellent, and as good 

and there is not a place on the hills 

spend your time better. The'helio- 

and other flowers, are some of 

e&ce and 15 feet high; and 



although, as I have observed, there is ten or twelve 
degrees of frost in winter, it never seems to do them any 
harm. They abound with a profusion of blossom yon 
can hardly cxedit. In the distance is Dodabet, the highest 
point, 8,000 feet high, and where the astronomers were 
sent to observe the eclipse of the sun that took place a 
few months ago. 

The Lake of Ootacamund is not a natural lake. A smaU 
stream runs through it, which they have dammed up^ 
and made the lake. A road goes round, which is the 
Rotten-row, and round that everybody rides. It ii 
exactly two miles. 

The highest waterfiill on the hills is on the other side 
of those we saw just now. To all appearance the 
water comes out of the rock, but it is not the case. 
There isa natural channel behind that ridge of rock, and 
the water, passing through the channel, strikes the rock 
on the left, and consequently comes out Not fax from 
this is a spot most celebrated for tigers, end on which 
an enormous outlay has been expended, the government 
cutting the jungle down for the purpose of planting it 
withc&ncona. When I was staying there with the 
superintendent who lives on the top of the hills, he told 
me that onlv the day before, within 150 yards of his 
house, he had wi^ed a tiger playing with two cubs on 
the road. 

The next view gives you an idea of the hills in thdr 
natural state, just as they were when we found themr— 
perfectly uncultivated, with an immense quantity of 
grass. A small path winds up to the nght and passes 
over the hill to the plains below. The next view 
shows vou the houses ox the Todas, a most extraordinary 
race of men. They live in those little tiny houses yon 
see there. The larger house to the right is the house of 
the servant-man, who looks after their houses, though 
they are all very dirty. They are round buildings, and 
the only aperture is two feet mgh, and they go in on their 
hands ana Imees. An extraordinary custom prevaili 
amongst them in regard to marriage. On one orother 
marrying, his wife has to become the wife of all, and, 
consequently, the other brothers cannot marry until she 
dies, and therefore the race is fast dyin^ out They 
wear no other covering but a blanket, which they pass 
from one to the other, as they are excessively poor. It 
is said that we had robbed them of the hills; but 
that is not true, for we pay them a yearly sum of 
money for the use of the hiUs. They are very ouiet 
people, and poss e s s a magnificent herd of buffaloes, which 
are so fierce that it is very dangerous for strangers to 
approach them, and so powerful that they charge and 
gallop down any single tiger — and the tigers seem to 
know it too. A curious story is told of one of 
them, that he wanted a sum of money — about four 
rupees, or eight shillings, and he went into the 
basaar, and asked a native to lend it him, and he aneed 
to do so on the Toda paying buck two annas, or ttiree- 
pence, interest every week, nothing being said as to how 
long this payment was to continue. The man went on 
p^yingi ftn<i ^^ 1"^ ^ missionary found it out, and dis« 
covered that he had actually paid 16 rupees, and that 
be still continued to pay it Whereupon the missionary 
offered to advance him the money to pay the whole sum, 
but the man refiised, and still preferred to go on paying, 
saying he liked the arrangement, and had got accustomed 

Here we will take leave of the hills, and take a jump 
right over the Mysore plateau to one of the most inte- 
resting spots in all India, and alight at the ruins of a 
city whiiSi formerly covered an area of seven square 
miles, and of which a large portion of the walls are 
still standing, though every sign of habitation has long 
since disappeared. The ground is now cultivated, few 
buildings being left, and those chiefly temples, except 
the elephant-stable, which I shall show you, though 
as to this there is great discussion, but I see no reason 
why it should not nave been so used. The room and 
entrance-gate are large enough to admit that anim^ 



108 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, Jakcabt 3, 1878. 



the little room beiag occupied by the man who takes 
charge 6f the elephant. The very walls and masonry 
are something really wonderful, not a bit of mortar 
being used. The stones are placed one on another, 
and, except you see it, it is impossible to credit 
the work which is involved in it. Every little particle 
of excrescence on the lower stone has been provided for 
in the upper one, and the two stones appear as if they 
had been made into one. Not far off is a small temple, 
dedicated to Hunooman, about whom we heard so much 
the other nisht, and who you remember was able to 
jump 600 mUes at one bound. When he was bom he 
was the son of Pavana, the god of the winds. He said 
he was hungry, and as it happened to be in the middle 
of the day, and the sun was shining, he took a fancy to 
eftt the sun, and bounded up to heaven. On arriving 
there the sun fled to Indra, and he drove Hunooman 
out of heaven. Whereupon Pavana, the god of the 
winds, was so furious at this, that in return he filled all 
the gods with wind, and save them the colic, and turned 
them out of heaven, and would not let them in again 
till they had restored Hunooman. The other side of 
the temple shows the beautiful carving very minutely. 
The interior is completely empty, and, being deserted, 
one is enabled to examine it, and finds it perfectly plain. 
But there is one peculiarity in it, unlike every other 
temple. Originally all the floors were covered with enor- 
mous slabs of granite. For 200 years this city, called 
Yijianugguror Beejnuggur, contested the supremacy of the 
Mussulmans, holdmg their army in check, and prevent- 
ing their advance to the south When the Mussulmans 
at iHSt took it^ — they knew that it was one of the richest 
temples in India — strange to say, they could never find 
one particle of treasure in the whole of it. They searched 
every comer, and entered every place, and began by 
raising the enormous slabs of granite which are in that 
temple, five inches thick, and eight and ten feet lon^, 
but found nothing ; and these enormous slabs are still 
poised in the air, just as the Mussulmans left them when 
they looked for the treasure. Afterwards some one told 
them that fire would effect the same purpose, and, conse- 
quently, they lit enormous fires, and split them, but 
never found anything, and what became of the 
treasure nobody ever knew. Unlike all the others, the 
outside walls are sculptured in a way that reminds you 
more of Nineveh then anything else. The next view 
shows you the inside of the wall of the temple, and the 
scenes depicted on it are from the Kamyana. the poem I 
told you of the other night, desoribing the fight between 
the gods for the possession of Seeta. The slabs are of 
enormous size, and were no doubt beautifully sculptured, 
but the weather in that climate is such that it has had 
a very serious effeet upon the walls outside, even more 
than it has inside. The outside of the temple again 
depicts scenes fiom the Ramyana, and you observe the 
elephants, then the horses a little higher up, then 
dancinff men and women higher up still. Fifty yards 
from the temple is a very extraordinary monolithic 
trough. It is 41 feet long, by three feet deep and three 
feet wide. The Mussulmans turned up this also, to look 
for treasure. Everything, in fact, in the whole place 
they more or less disturbed when they took the city. 

There is only one more temple that is worth notice, 
and this is about two miles from the city. There are two 
ihundapa, one on the right, one on the left, and in the 
centre is the car,^ and, wonderful to relate, the car is 
made out of a solid block of stone, mounted on wheels. 
The pillars of the porch are of one solid block of granite, 
10 feet high, and the little, tiny, small pillars are cutout 
in clear relief from the other part. EquiUy wonderful, 
there are also in this temple animals with a ball in their 
mouth, something like the balls the Chinese cut out. 
completely detached from the remainder, but which it is 
impossible to take out. It must have been cut out of the 
same block of stone, and though it may be turned round 
any way it cannot be got out of the mouth of the animal. 
As to the car, whether it ever really moved is doubtful, 



although the wheels revolve perfectly on theiY 
Underneath it has been built up, for rear of ita t 
down. The story is that the car really move 
that the gods took their yearly drive in it, bat 
only be a story, for it is impossible to suppose that 
of that size could bear the weight of the okf. 
temple itself was dedicated to Nitoba, about 
they say that he was originally a Brahmin, or good 
who took a fancy to go a pilgrimage. He was c 
to take with him his wife, and father, and mothei 
had only one beast, on which he put his wii 
occasionally rode himself, leaving his faCbe 
mother to trudge on foot. On arriving at thi* 
he lodged at me house of a Brahmin, and I 
house he found the Brahmin making his wi) 
care and nurse his father and mother in a mann^ 
different from what he had done. The night b 
there he had a vision, and it was told him that it 
use to go on a pilgrimage as long as he treated his 
and mother in the way he did, that no pUgrimago wc 
him any good, and that the best thing for him wa£ 
his host what he should do. The host told him 1 
better live with him a year, and see how he treaj 
father and mother. He did, and changed his a 
accordingly, becoming a saint, and this temple wa 
in his honour. 

From here, 200 miles to the north, we find the 
Bejapoor, the Mahommedan capital for 200 years, • 
the time the Mussulman armies were there, tryin^^ 
to the south, the Hindoos being determined to stdi 
if they could. The difference between the cities i 
curious. In the one. as you have seen, nothing n 
but the beautiful stone temples, every vestige of 1 
habitation being gone. Here the only build in 
maining are the splendid mausoleums which it w 
fashion of those kings to build during their li 
to repose in after death. No doubt it was an ex 
plan, but it had one disadvantage, that if by any < 
the king happened to die before it was compl«;t^, 
Was no place to bury him in, for each king had 
enough to do to build his own before he dit^L, Hnd 
not complete the other. Outside this town (whii h 
rival of Vijianuggur or Beejnuggur) with every i 
leum that these kings built, they built a small n 
alongside it, and this is the mosque of Ibrahim Roe 
the other side is the tomb. The peculiarity of the t 
that nobody has yet been able to discover how tht 
is supported. Our engineers have actually aski 
government to be kind enough to allow them to 
to pieces, in order to discover what supports it. Ot 
the government objected ; but, springing out of 
stone roof, there it stands, and by what means it i 
Mud why it does not come down, nubody can mail 
It ought to, but it does not. All runnd this buildii 
verandah, immediately outside the room in wbi* 
body reposes. Formerly nothing could excee 
beauty of that verandah. The stone is grey. The 
of the Koran is supposed to be engraved in relief < 
walls. It was all gilded, and between the lette; 
painted a most beautiful, lovely azure blue ; id 
effect of the gilded letters on a blue ground an 
grey stone was something beautiful beyond all ck 
tion. Unfortunately, now, except in one or two 
which were carefully covered up, every sign of 
disappeared, but the natives there show you the bit 
gold as it originally stood. Inside the room is 
the body reposes. The window above is a solid 
of stone, which has been carved into Arabic letters 
every one knows are difficult enough to write ; bu 
the natives have cut away the whole of the stone, h 
nothing but the Arabic letters, and sev.;ral verses 
Koran are cut in tracery over that window, each wi 
having different parts of the Koran engraved on 
you see there. 

I will show you further on two or three pi« 
tracery, which are so beautiful that I must leave 3 
judge, for it is [impotsible for me to My, which is 



JODKIf AL OP THE 800IETY OP AETS, Jakuary 8, 1878. 



109 




Dt or theie. The other may he more 

I tliif U the more wonderf al. They are roally 

•iMt bot a Hintioo ooiUd oarve, Munulmans 

it fiir boieath their dignity to attempt any- 

the city, we find on the walls immediately 
vhiftwu, until the Woidwioh ^Mnfant'* wafl 
the Urg«^t gun in thn world. A native, 
f &. h%b, itsoding be«ide it gives yoa an idea of ita siae. 
B» eoilndiciloiis itoriea ure told aa to the fnars of the 
adiiw aboil this gun. Not long ago the rajnh ordered 
ftsgtatobtlred, for the purpose of seeing what hfirm 
l«oaU dd^ and every native went out of the city, and 
$mm wpftt at ttr as twelve miles away. Close hy was a 
tet tad, Urn wu fiUod with water, and so frightened 
wm Ids Han who lad to fire the gun that he jumped 
Im tha Uak and remained there until the gun went off, 
X« bflB hippeopd. I should tell you the mjah himself 
VMiMd tvi'nty miles off. 

. TMhsr en into the city is a heantiful huilding^ which 
km VBAdtrfnlly oirved that it is hard to imagine that 
ll adij it of iUme. The story of its erection is very 
Oqs of the kings was affected with a very 
lisuase, and applied to all the doctors and ma- 
te cure him, hut they could not However, one 
rsUie? more acute than the rest, told him he 
bs oertsin of recovery if, the following morning, 
A* ^fsi 100,000 to the first person whom he saw, 
ttiaiffidaa of coum intending himself to he the 
fta. The king passed a restless night, and found him- 
Stfiilhs window earlier than the magician expected, 
yhlthssav a miserahle heggar, whom he sent for, and 
kvhiBlie gave thia enormous sum. The heggar imme- 
ftUftiiill this little building, for what purpose nobody 
Ma^. The carving is so beautiful, and the colour of 
fts doM ■> peculiar, that it is much more like wood, 
Mf iiujbody would think of takiag out his knife to 
M 4 10 esrtain are they that it is wood. 
^fitUsforther on is a larire mosque, called the Jumma 
n^dJbDt never finished. When the city was taken, it was 
'i;thaquantityofgold and silver in it was something 
The whole of the floor was covered with the 
ic ever> bit of which was taken awty, and 
ftmains. Tho largo dome covers the centre of the 
every four pill^ira support little domes, which 
IN >^> tiacefu! appearance inside. The view of tho 
MftiiUe, immediately under the big dome, also shows 
^fniisr effect the little domes have on the interier. 
illisaB brcn whitewashed, and, consequently, looks 
^> i fct wful than if the stone had been left as it 
•4Wf was. 
ftlnfrom thew we take the rail, and find our- 
■Nrt jUrlne, which is the first place we have seen 
tcally and truly Buddhist. Unless the seven 
Slodras is so, there is no Buddhist temple 
>there are only Buddhist caves. This cave 
hdore our Saviour's time, and tho whole of tho 
Arfjulsood : and you see there the wooden rilis, which 
havetrUd to eay have bocn put up since; but 
ba a questiun that they were originally put 
of our Saviour, and have stood there until 



^Jjp into the history of Buddht is very long and 
^%M <>reiting. The peculiarity is that it made such 
■ WiAmfal stride when it first began, and always by 

C^ IjnsM. There is no record, of any description, 
m^Jf^ ^v** f^J religious persecution by the 
M&Mt, But there was a persecution against them 
^Mhiftsduaiss and Mohammedans, no doubt, as they 
cpelled from India. But the Buddhists 
sever uaed force, and yet, in n marvellously 
oftinMa after 8*ikya Muui, who called him- 
Bttddha, tho bulk of the population was 
to hk w»y of thinking. He lived 500 ye irs 
^ 3 hal thfl religian did nut make any 
Aw9k^ 250 years after the death 
*^Bndrihist» and saot preAcheis 





all over thef cotmtry. From that hour the progress wnf 
simply marvellous, until the Brahmins got frightened, 
and began the persecution which drove them to the east. 
And yet there were 400,000,000 of them, while all the 
other religions of Europe do not number 300,000,000. 

The interior of the cave is the next view. Tho pillars 
on each side Hre carved out of the solid rock. Inside 
the dngobas are preserved relics. The form is considernd 
^ be very much like that of the first early Christian 
church, the dagoba occupying the place of the altar. 

From K'lrlee, the name of the cave to the south of 
Bombay, we must mnke a large jump to Ahmedabad^ a 
city to the north, where I want to sho^r you two 
lovely windows in an old desecrated mosque. Thevare cut 
out of square blocks of granite, three inches thica, which 
had been built into the wall, and had been so carved 
that the branches and leaves of the tree have been pre- 
served most perfectly in all the tracery. For beauty 
there is no comparison, except, perhaps, the screen of 
the Tnj, in the whole of India ; but whether the win- 
dow you saw before is more wonderful I must leave you 
to judge. In the other window you saw several trees, 
hut in this there is but one, covering the whole window. 
The height of the window is eight feet, the length about 
fourteen. Inside, originally, was a mosque^ but it has 
long been deserted. We took possession of it, and it is 
now used as a court of justice. 

We can hardly pass by tho Jains and their 
wonderful templea without a few words. There 
can be hardly a doubt that the founder of the Jain 
religion was the preceptor of Buddha. The Buddhists do 
not aUow it, as they do not like the idea of their founder 
requiring a preceptor. But Mahavira was the precep- 
tor of Buddha. Out of small things what vast results 
ensue. Mahavira fancied and taught that to be an 
ascetic and found a religion, it was necessary to go about 
in a state of nudity. Buddha, being a wise man, saw 
that that would not do, and on that point they separated 
and founded different sects. The Jains disappeared to 
revive when the Brahmins drove out the Buddhists. 
But the Jain religion is far too good for the Hindoo. 
It is rciilly excellent, and almost — if not quite — as good 
as anything in tho Koran. The greatest sin they believe 
is to kill — to kill anything, it does not mutter what — 
and the next greatest sin is to walk carelessly, as thereby 
you destroy much life. Their ideas of time are very 
peculiar. It is divided into two cycles; and the^ 
imagine it a serpent coiled up. The world, in their 
idea, is coming down from the head to the tail, and 
when it reaches the tail it is to be destroyed ; but the 
number of million years it is to take for t^is purpose I 
really can hardly tell you. 

At the tf;p of the hill of Shntronye, which is their 
saored hill, we see a view of their temples as they are 
massed together. It is a hill 1,600 feet high, set in the 
middle of the plain, and these J.tins bought it; and 
being chinfiy engaged in commerce, and many of th^n 
being bankers, they beoame enormously rich, and as 
they grow in their riches so they add to the temples 
which they began in their poverty. There are said to 
be 3, GOO images of marble and alabaster in those 
temples. 

We now get a view of one of their temples. It was a 
YOry fine temple, beautifully carved in stone, but tor 
some reason or other they have taken into their heads 
latily to cover up all the temples with a coating of 
plaster of Pasis over the stone work and they polish 
this, and it then becomes the beau ideal of a Jain te^iple, 
and very soon every templo will be hidden* 

Inside this temple is one of their first Tirthankars, or 
deities, called Rishabh. The body is of alabaster; round 
it is all marble ; the black spots you see are all precious 
stones, some of them being of immense value. The carv- 
ing is grotesque, but beautifully done. On each side is 
an inferior deity. 

Rishabh, according to them, lived 840,000 years.. Ho 
was at 200,000 years a young man in all his glory, and he 



110 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, Jakuaet S, 1878. 



then became a king, and reigned for 630,000 years, and 
for 10,000 on]y was an aacetic, and nowhe is worahipped 
as the first god bv all the Jhains. 

We now pass from the west of India into the north- 
west provinces, and on arriving at Allahabad, the capital 
ol the north-west provinces, we see the different customs 
amongthe people^ and among the first things we observe 
IstheEka. Hie richest men all nse it. The covering over 
it is so small that it is of no use for keeping off the sun. 

The next view gives yon a pictore of the native 
servants, such as those who wait upon us, eating their 
rice. They have taken off their shoes, and uncover 
their feet, leaving their heads covered, unlike us, who 
do just the reverse. The man who stands behind is 
called a beesty, and under his arm is the skin in which 
he brings the water. Servants are divided into two 
castes, high and low, and the distinction is kept up in 
very g^reat strictness, so much so that you have to em* 
plov two beesties for the two classes of servants ; for 
no high-caste beesty would bring water for a low caste 
servant, and no high-caste servant would take water 
from a low-caste beesty. Oonsequently the multiplication 
of your servants is something terrible ; it is impossible to 
break through the everlasting caste. Wenextseeoneofthe 
shops where are sold the things which are used all over 
India for carrying water, and you also obsorve a lot of 
pebbles which the natives use instead of small change. 
Instead of giving you money they give you these 
pebUes. To look at, they appear to be nothing more 
than what you can pick up on the roadside, and which 
you fancy you could pass to them. But it is perfectly 
useless to try, for they instantly detect it, and if you 
were to offer them a handful, they will always pick 
the right ones out, though to the eye of everybody else 
they are exactly identicaL 

Among every class of men you find always some who 
gain asceiidancy over their fellow-creatures. 

The next view will show you the custom of holding a 
durbsff to decide on the price of the different articles for 
the cooling week. They are cloth merchants, holding 
their dur&. They have agiiin taken off their shoes, 
and the man who has just arrived, and has one shoe off, 
is an excellent type of the budmaash, the men who did 
so much harm in the mutiny. His countenance will 
show you he is a man of immense influence among them. 
The others were waiting his arrival, and just as he 
arrived I was able to catch him. They are most difficult 
fellows to deal with, and were, in fact, the cause of the 
whole of the mutiny. 

At Allahabad we find ourselves on the Ganges, the 
sacred river. There is nothing to equal the veneration 
in which the Hindoos hold the nver. It is hardly possible 
to conceive it. They have all sorts of stories as to the 
river being a goddess, and who was the father and who 
the mother. The reason probably is that the river rises 
in a most extraordinary manner. On the top of the 
Himalayas it comes out a large powerful stream from a 
tunnel of ice, and consequently nobody knows its source, 
and from the time it is first seen right down to its 
mouth it is sacred to the Hindoos. The difficulties our 
government have had to contend with to put a stop to the 
wholesale murder which goes on here, I can hardly explain 
to you. Every family that has got a member of it, muo or 
female, atalldecrepid or diseased in any way, they take 
down to the banks of the river at low-water, and, 
gathering up the mud, they fill the eyes and ears and 
nose and mouth with it, and there leave them to be 
swept away when the water rises. There are many 
instances on record of Englishmen finding those who 
have thus been left, and having taken tbem home and 
got them washed, and, in fact, restored them to life 
again, but th.ey have met with nothing but abuse and 
curses for so doin^. The native says t^t he will be dis- 
owned by his ikmily as having lost caste, he having been 
^-^ ^here to die a sacred death, and if he comes Imu^ to 
la nobody, and passes a miserable life, isolated 
ryone. 



Following the Ghmges to the north, we arrive at Oiim« 
pore, the first place of interest in the mutiny. We see 
the screen round the well into which the unhappy women 
and children were thrown. Since this phctognph vai 
taken a large figure has been ^laoed over the welL Un* 
fortunately, the stone it is built o( both the screen sod 
covering of the well, is so very soft that, although it is 
so beautifully done, it will never stand the effects of the 
climate. 

Leaving Oawnpore, forty miles will brin^ u to 
Lucknow, where we shall see the entrance mto tiie 
Residency, called the *'Baily Gate." AU the history 
of the mutiny is too well known to need deecrip> 
tion from me. The gate is named after the nllsot 
defender of the place, before we relieved the 
Residency and saved the garrison. The shot maita 
cover it, and the more we look at it the more msrfeUonf 
it appears how so small a bod^ of men oould have held it 
as tney did. The Residency itself is exactly as we took 
it, the government just repairing it to keep it from CdliBg 
to the ground, it was in a room in the tower thit 
Sir Henry Lawrence lived, and it was here, wstohmg 
for aid to come, that the ball struck him down, sad 
thus laid low as gallant and brave a man as Engk&d 
ever boasted of. 

Time will not allow us to go further, but huny on 
to Agra, and see there that wonderfol building celled 
the Tij-MahaL The first view will show yon the 
entrance-gate. It is situated on the Jumna. It is the 
celebrated mausoleum of Shah Jehan, which he built 
for his wife, of white marble. The other, which he built 
on the other side of the river, was to be of black, hot, 
unfortunately, he died before the black marble wif 
finished, consequently he is buried elsewhere— nobody 
knows where. Insidej we get a view of the Tai, which is 
built, as I have said, of white marble, inlaid with preoioai 
stones. The only fkult found wiUi it is that the miuireti 
are too short, not being higher than the dome. Inside it 
is verv dark, and I found it difficult to get a photograph 
of it, out b^ perseverance I managed todoso. Eadi sUb 
of marble is six feet high, four feet wide, and four inebes 
thick. It is another instance of the marvellous power 
and industry of the Hindoos. All the inlayiug tost ii 
seen are precious stones, which are placed together 
in such a way that the first letters form verses of the 
Koran. It is the same with the flowers. On the tomb 
you see inside every bit can be read by the MahommedsBi 
there, the first letter of each stone being used to fons 
the y&ne in the Koran. It cost one nullion sterixofi 
and thus we see how the Mahommedans qient thar 
enormous wealth. 

We can hardly leave India without one peep st s 
native prince, and so I propose to show yon a Jiahs- 
rajah or Emperor. His £ather possessed a very large 
tract of counU'y when we took India, and he was acute 
enough to see that sooner or later we most conquer the 
country, and as bis people were nothing but a band of 
robbers, and lived by the depredation and plunder which 
they oould commit on the natives, he, with hie army of 
200,000 men, made overtures to join us, and in those 
days we listened to his overtures, and promised him that 
when we took the country, to him should be granted bii 
estates for ever in fee simple. I need haraly say we 
have kept the promise. This is his son. He is ww 
educated, and speaks English well. He is devoted to 
Europeans, has English schools and teachers, and if he 
were not so much under the infiuence of the Brahmins, is 
really a good fellow. He treats you royally when you 
visit him. He has built a splen^d palace, in whidi hs 
lodges you, and feeds you with any amount of food you 
can possibly want free of all charge, and when yon go 
away he will tell you, as he would were he here now, that 
you were a set of fine fellows — capital fellows— to ha?e 
done him the favour to come and see him. 

A vote of thanks was proposed by Lord Alfred 
Churchill, and passed with aodamatioii, to Gi^tata 
Lyon for his deeply interesting and ;initniotiv« koCoM* 



JKMJBirAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Janoary 3, 1873. 



Ill 



»» 



of tlie firjt courae of Cantor 
pmant Sasnon, "On the Practical 
Optic3 to the Arts, Manufactures, 
was deliyerei on Tuesday, Doc. 
rorr Tidy, Esq., M.B., Joint 
and Professor of Medical 
at the London Hospital. Tho 



we examiaed, first of all, the law 

of light with regard to distance, and 

it ob^red the law that all radiant force 

lofioTerse aqoares. We then examiaed 

[ealoalatiag and esUmiting the relative 

life hj means of instrumeats which I 

' caUied photometers, though not a par- 

I name. Then, lastlj, I drew your atten- 

fwas able, to th9 several methods which 

, for orerooming that law of the decrease 

where we find it necessary. It is at 

take up my lecture to-day. We found 

of overcoming the decrease of 

and refraction. It woold have 

! we had had time, to examine how 

% how she applies it to all force, and 

same time, she marks the limits of that , 

limits extend to all force as welL 

to consider the applications of these 

> principles of reflection and refnuv* 

mumination, and to other circum- 

may require them. The first method 

^ of throiring light to a distance was 

(the Oatoptric system), made of 

silvered glass, fixed into a hollow 

of plaster of Paris. I need not say that 

inasmuch as it proved to be a 

After this we find the use of 

I have already drawn your atten- 

object of this kind of reflector, and 

over an ordinary one. I told you 

reflector, after having conveyed the 

oat, whfldreas, by the use of a parabolic 

in the diagram, all the rays 

These parabolic reflectors, I believe, 

northern lighthouses, at any rate, 

the light employed being either fixed, 

inuous, or else revolving, the angles 

the sides are illuminated. Now, it 

rdlecting or catoptric system does not 

the dioptric, the system of lenses, or 

There are a great many diffi- 

of the reflecting system, hunce, in 

%i the present time, we adopt 

rather than the system of mirrors. 

shown you the power that a lens 

op the light rays, gaiding them in 

re think fit, and building up an 

horn any object that may be placed 

of a large lens, yon* see, I can i 

a most ntagaificent image of the 

iWfaieh we are operating. There is the 

ad its power of building up rays. 

imperfection of all things human, 

a marvellous power of guiding 

^es. What are they ? 

two. First of all, nature 

ia nothing per- 

nothing perfectly trans- 

sre hare a very large lens, as is 

flhunination, the resolt is that 

HffA rays are absorbed by the 

part of the illaminating 

«bjeotton*the absorption 






of the light rays by the glass. The second objec« 
tion is of a diSbreat kind. U a fortunately, at best the 
lens is a very imperfect instrument. I have here, for 
instance, my lime light, anl I will first of all throw 
upon the screen a disc of light without any diaphragm. 
You see that I obtain upon the screen a brilliantly 
illutninatei disc of considerable size. Now I will put in 
front of this lens, — anl a very well made one it is — a 
diaphragm, in order to stop out all the rays except those 
which come from the exact centre of the lens. In doing 
so, I shall scarcely in the least degree, however, diminish 
the size of my disc of light, although, by using the dia- 
phragm, I shall probably cut off more than one-half of the 
lens. Now, let us examine this question a little more fully. 
First of all I will put into the lantern a picture^«n or* 
dinary view, and by focussing it carefully you notice 
how marvellously sharp it appears on the screen. Now 
I will remove the diaphragm, and you see I do not 
increase the size of my disc, although I am using more 
of the lens in its production. But you will note this, 
that immediately upon my removing the diaphragm 
I get a certain obscurity in the image — it is not nearly 
so sharp now as when tho diaphrai^m was in front 
of the lens. The size of the disa is not increased, 
although I am now using the whole lens, whereas I was 
only using hdf, but I do n >t g<)t the extreme sharpness 
of the image that I did when I only employed the rays 
that came from the centre of the lens. Now what is 
the explanation of this? I think you will see at 
once that the rays which come out of the centre 
of the lens are not working in harmony with those 
rays which come from the edge of the lens ; in short 
they are antagonistic one to the other. Shut out one 
set of the rays,^nd you then get a perfectly sharp 
picture ; allow the other set of rays to come into play 
and immediately we get a certain amount of blurring. 
That is the meaning of tho diaphrappm ; and this antago- 
nism between the rays of light is what we know as 
spherical aberration by refraction, in contradistinction 
to spherical aberration by reflection. I shall revert to 
this ag^n, with reference to other defects in lenses. 

It is in this difficulty that science is appealed to, and 
askel, What can you do for us P And let me say this, 
that when definite questions are asked of science they 
are very seldom asked in vain; it is the indefinite 
questions that science fails to answer. To compensate, 
then, for the evils of this spherical aberration. Buffon first, 
then Brewster, and afterwards Augustine Fresnel, built 
up thesa magnificent lenses, called polyzonal lenses, ring 
within ring, each at its proper adjustment. Here I have 
a magnifloent lens, which h is been kindly lent me by 
Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham. You will see at once 
what is its character. The dotted line in the diagram 
shows the size of the lens under ordinary circumstances, 
and you see it would be of an enormous thickness, so that a 
large amount of light would be absorbed, but by cutting it 
down and forming a series of zones, each to its proper 
angle, with a convex lens in the centre, you get all 
the advantages of the large lens, whilst you lose but 
little of the light. Here is the lens in the centre, and 
here is zone upon zone, building up Chance's magnifi- 
cent lens. Here is another lens of the same kind, 
which has been kindly lent me by Captain Doty, which 
Uluatrates the same thing, though it is in another form; 
still you see it retains the poljrzonal character. Here 
is the round part in the centre, and here are the zones 
building up a lens, which has the power of sending 
the light an enormous distance, whilst it is not to a 
great extent diminished. It is not part of my subject 
to-night to enter on the vexed question of the best oil 
or the best light for lighthouse illumination, whether 
vegetable, mineral, or anim-il oils are best, but certainly 
mineral oils, as sui^gested by Captain Di>ty, have, td my 
mind very great advantages overall others ; but I do think, 
that the time is not very far off^we may hope so, at any 
rate — when we shall have some cheap electnc li^ht that 
may be generally employed in lighthouse illumination. 



»* 



112 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ART8, Jaucart 3, 1873. 



Unfortunately our electric light at prfsent is very 
troubletome and expensive, and could scarcely be 
ordinarily employed tor such a purpose. But, with all 
our powers of lighthouse illuininution. fogs have satlly 
interfered with lighthouses. I might have shown you 
how even the rays of the electric lamp are obscured by 
a little steam. 

With respect to lighthouse illumination, I would draw 
your attention to the nature of a flnme Looking at the 
flame of hu ordinnry candlo, you notice it occupies a very 
oonsiderable space, and it is very import int todftermine 
that point of the fltme which poAsesst'S the greatest in- 
tensity, inasmuch as it is necensary, in order to obtain the 
best possible result, to Hdjust thnt centre of intensify to 
the Hxis of the bns. It has been suggested by Mensrs. 
D. Hud T Su^venson. the enifinecrs to the Scotch Iight> 
houses, that this might be done by photography. If 
you look at a flumii it in almost impoRsiblH to toll the 
point of the greatest intenMity, but they propose to 
estimate thnt by t«king photographs at different ex- 
poHures. For instance, you tike the flame of a three- 
inch burner, nnd you take a photoarraph of it by an 
ex(K)8ure of one second. Mt^ssrs. Stevenson say that 
that part of the flnme will appear upon the plnte 
that hits the greatest intensity ; then, keeping the 
camera at the sinie distinco from the il.itne, thoy 
photograph it again with two seconds exposure, and get 
of course a more perfect image. Then they proceed to 
take photogrrtphs with three seconds, four, six, twelve, 
an<l twenty-four seconds' exposure. That pirt of the 
flume corre8pofi<ling to the photograph, tiikcn by the 
shortest t»xposuro, is supposed to be the point of the 
grentest intensity. 

A plug in the centre of the flame is then raised to 
this point of the flame. The flume is then placed in the 
proper position in the lamp, and the operator looks 
through the light and the lens iind arranges it so 
that the horizon should be in an exact line with 
the centre of the lens and the plug, which is in the 
luminous centre of the flame. But I am bound to 
say, I think there is a flaw in this. It strikes me that 
Mnssrs. Stevenson have mistaken the luminous centre 
of the flume for the centre of the actinic rays. It is 
not the luminous centre that they get pictured, for we 
know very well that the greatest actinic power does not 
c«rr«ipond to the most luminous part of the flame. 
We know, for instance, that in a spectrum — and this 
I shall point out in another lecture — the greatest 
light power of the spectrum is somewhere about the 
yellow ; certainly not where there is the greatest ac- 
tinic power, and therefore it seems to mo that in this 
process they have determined the point where there are 
the greatest amount of actinic rays, but I do not admit 
that that corresponds to the part of the flame which 
contains the greatest number of luminous rays. 

An application of reflection has been suggested by Mr. 
Skelton to our ordinary street lamps, a specimen of which 
arrangement is on the table, and there is also on the walj 
an illustrative diagram Of course it is a bad system that, a 
in an ordinary lamp, the rays of the light should be thrown* 
into the sky, where we do not want them, and it is ad- 
visable, nowadays especially, that wo should get as 
many of tho rays as we possibly can upon the pave- 
ment, where wo Ho want them ; and I certainly think 
that this lamp of Mr. Skelton's is a decided improve- 
ment upon our old-fashioned lamps. I need not tell 
you, with respect to parabolic mirrors, that they are 
very largely used in cirriage lamps, and in the lamps 
placed in front of and behin«l railway trains. Moreover, 
in lighting staircjises, we often employ a combination of 
parabolic mirrors, so as to throw the light in two direc- 
tions at the same time. 

Plane mirrors have their applicition in domestic 
economy to secure a better supply of light in dark 
places, and on dark davs. Then, ajjain, there is another 
practical application o^ reflection. The angles of crystals, 
yon know, are measured by what is cfdled a reflecting 



goniometer, where a ray of light is usM as 
Another praotif^l application I can onlv joit 
for it is too well known to need descnption 
is the reflecting telescop'». Then there is o 
cation of reflection to the ayta which I tl 
not be entirely forgotten. It is that 
known as Brewster's kaleidoscope, and ia 
larg« ly at the present day for the purpose of 
patterns and so ibrth, that I think it certainl 
to be mentioned as one of the practical appi 
optics to the arts. I do not know whether I 
ceed very well in an attempt to throw a la] 
object on the screen, for it is a very difficn] 
do, but I will do my best by means of the 
lantern. You see the feather which I use i 
over and over again, forming many very 
patterns. 

Nor has medicine profited nothing by refl 
struments. There are dark parts in the body, 
of the reach of our ordinary powers of observ 
the means at our disposal f(»r the detection 
such, for instance, as the back of the eye. B 
has shown us how, by reflecting instrumeDl 
even dive into these. Here, for instance, we 
beautiful instrument known as the ophthalm 
instrument for examining the eye. Here ii a 
cave mirror, in tho centre of which is a littlt^ 1 
light is reflected by this concave mirror, sntl <iii 
the eye. The operator looks tiirough that 1 
and by means of a lens, such us yon see here, he 
the b ick of the eye (the retina), and is able ; 
discover any morbid changes that are ^ 
Thus you see our medical knowledge becei 
accurate, as science supplies ns with moro 
methods of diagnosis. And it is a well acin 
fact now, that you must know what a dis»*aw 
you attempt to battle with it. Again, here 
that beautiful instrument, the laryngoscope, k 
ing the throat. Here is one which, in the 
my friend and colleague. Dr. Morell i 
has given us a literature in a few years upon 
about which formerly little was known. H« 
you see a concave reflector is employed for 
the rays of light to the baek of the throat ; 
is another little reflnctor, which we place in % 
juHt under the uvula, in order to direct those ri 
wards, to change the direction of the ray 
in by the Concave mirror ; and in this way, 
are enabled to discover diseased conditions i»t 
cords, and of the parts a-lJHcent; and, whal 
by the aid of this instrument we are enabl« ( 
remedies to parts that were formerly out of 
altogether — remedies, let me Bay, that hai 
most efficacious, and that would never have be^ 
of, but for this most useful application of 
medicine. 

The most perfect refracting instrument is thi 
is a true optical instrument. In front of the 
is a transparent window for the rays to ent^ 
rays are gathered up by a magniflcently tr 
lens, whidh is more convex anteriorlv than pc 
This lens is made up of concentric layers of 
refracting power. Then we have a magnificfi 
to receive the image, which ia an extension oi 
nerve that conveys the message it has receivi 
brain, and the brain translates that measage i 
You ask me how ? I do not know. It is j^^' 
very spot where the optical instrument of t 
surpasses the optical instrument of homan 
have here a model of an eye, which will gi^-' P 
rate, some idea of its construction, and will comi 
illustrate its action. Here you see is the «iii 
for nature knew about spherical abt-rrati 
before we did. The diaphragm is eail*^ 
Here is the pupil through which the rays *> 
her© we have, at the back, the retina, which in 
is a bit of oiled paper. Now if I place this «!« 



*HJRIf AL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. January 3, 1873 



113 



inm where I am, and in auch a direc- 
or retina, is towards you, and then 
1 4f it a candle, I shill be able, by means uf 
li the image of the candle apon the retina, 
ly I shall be able to obtain a fairly good 
so that yoa ma^ all see it. It is a small 
bsaotifully distinct. Yon will hIso notice 
of the candle is inverted. Now that 
yoa would see in the eye. If yon 
ny eye, for instance, yon would see on 
hnife of the audience in this room, 
see them all with their heads down- 
are a great m^iny questions arising out 
ia it we see thinKS in their proper po- 
ang belioring F do we see things in 
ibon ? Numerous theories have bet^n 
this, but none of them, I believe, 
>ry. Uuwever, I think our artificinl 
to yoa one circumstance which I want 
r, and that is, that it is es8<»niial to 
that the object should be accurately 
the nerve screen of the eye. This 
ly focasiied now upon the retiqa, but 
lena in the slighttst degree you will 
candle is no longer accorately focusaed. 
)t see it distinctly. In onler to have 
yoa must have the object accurately 
» eye screen. But sometimes we find 
the eye is too good a refractor — it bends 
lOvh ; or perhaps the other media of the 
tive— or perhaps the axis of the eye 
Several of these things may happen, 
oircamstances you do not gtt a pt- rfect 
ject you are looking at u^n your nerve- 
rays come to a focus m front of the 
to the great refractive power of the 
•ome other ouuse I have named. Tne 
a blurred, unfocussed unjge upon the 
tead of a sharp image, l^s is illus- 
diagram which I have here, where yon 
haa come to a focus, instead of on thp 
in front of the retina. This is what 
sight, or myopli. Short sight, there- 
tike rays of light coming to a focus before 
serre^aereen. Now, what is the reuiedy 
uf all, the person who is short-sighted 
to his eyes, and I think the reuson 
be perfectly plain. It throws the point 
further back, the eye, under such 
ang adaptt:d to brinv divergent rays 
atit pinUlel ones. But of course we know 
% thifl method of holding a book within a 
the eyes is not very agreeable, and we 
it Dj other means, nnmely. by lenses, 
sight, which wo are now considering. 
come to a focus in front of the retina, we 
leos. A concave lens has the opposite 
I mirror. The concave mirror squeezes 
hat the concavo lens draws them apart ; 
viU at ome explain to you, the reason for 
in short sight. It is well illus- 
_ Here the point A oomes upqn 

ti9*«, which is too highly refractive, and the 
i meet at this point in front of the screen. 
IB the path of the rays a concave lens, 
iMf > OQt* and by means ot different powers 
(many can) to meet in any desired 
them to a focus exactly upon the 
the action of the concave lens on 
if to throw the point of inter- 
MM to bring it on to the retina. 
of things may exist. Nut only may 
a refractor, but it may not be a 
; or, for instance, the eye might 
1 0^W1 top shallow, iuit the reverse of 
— ODmiMfiring • and here we have a 
y<ftimii of the rays coming to 



a point in front of the retina, they, if they could go on, 
would come to a focus behind the retina, further back, 
as represent! d in another diagram, where you see the 
raytf meeting behind the retina* This constitutes what 
is called presbyopia^ or long sight. In short sight the 
rays meet in front of the retina ; in long sight the rays 
would meet behind the retina. This is the first and 
earliest sign of impaired nutrition — the impaired accom- 
modative power — from, perhaps, most often a less yielding 
state of the lens. And now what is the remedy for this P 
Just as a boy who is short-sighted brings his p>iper near 
to him in order to throw the i-ays further ba<-k, the 
person who is luag-sightt^d hulds his book a lung way 
off to bring the poiot of interaeeti«m more forward. 
And as in the case of short-sight we use a concave 
lens, in order to spread the ruys further out, so in 
the case of lung sight we use a convex lens in order 
to bring the 'rays upon the retina in front of where 
the focus otherwise would fall. These are the two 
principal kinds of lenses, and you see nt once thr ir praotical 
application. Perhaps it may be worth while before we 
pass on to show you the extraordinary power of the con- 
vex lens in pulling rMys together. I will do so by 
placing a L<r^e convex lens in the path of the rays 
from the electric lamp, and you see at oiue how power- 
fully they are converged. I should say thitt we always 
employ double o<mvex, or double concive lenses; but Wolj 
laston suggested what he called periseopic, or concavo- 
convex lenses. He thought that^ by this means, a very 
much wider range of vision could be obtained — hence the 
word periscooic. But this is perfectly unnecessary, 
beiauso, even m an ordinary convex or concave lens, a 
very small part of the lens is used. I believe the use of 
these poriscopic glasses has been entirely discontinued 
in EngLtnd, and, I believe, on the Continent also. 
Lenses are ma^le of every strength, because some people 
are more short-sighted or long-sighted than others. On 
the table is a mitgntfit ent set of lenses kindly lent me by 
Mr. Baker, optician, of High Hoi born, amongst which 
you will see convex and concave lenses of every size and 
every focal .length, suitib'e for every kind of sigh^ 
Here is a lens which is conrave to a most extraordinary 
degree, and there is another, whieh is almost, if not 
quite, a plain piece of glasa just suitable for some young 
gentleman who wants it for but one reason. 

I will pass on to some few circumstances connected 
with the eye that are mutters of very great importance. 
The eye, you know, has the power of adapting itself to 
objects at all distances, though not at the same 
time. It is known as the power of accommodation. 
In all probability, this ia brought about by a 
change in the lens, through the action of the ciliary 
muscle. I believe this to have been tolerably well 
proved by Helmholtz. The action is best seen in the 
eye of a pig ; but I do not know that there is any 
difference between that eye and the eye of a man. I 
suppose I need not say much to you about the desira- 
bility of having two eyes; but let me just, in passing, 
say that two eyes are necessary to estimate distance 
and to detect solidity. One eye does not see the same 
object as the other eye does; we see different objects 
with the two eyes. For instance, if I h«>ld my hand 
up with the edge in front of me, and shut the left 
eye, I see a large part of the bnck of my hand ; 
but if I shut the right, I see a large part of the 
front; and it is the union of. these two pictures that 
produces the idea of solidity. That is the history of the 
stereoscope, whether it be the reflecting stereoscope, as 
was first suggested, or the refracting stereoscope, with 
which we are now so familiar. It is the union of 
these two images that produces this idea of solidity in 
the 8tere«)scope ; and it is perfectly certain that when a 
person failrin seeing the perfect solidity of the two pic- 
tures in the stereoscope — for those two pictures are dif- 
ferent — the stereoscope becomes a most valunble instru- 
ment for proving that there is some defect in one 
'of the two eyes. Then, again, it ia a well-know© 



lU JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Januaby 3, 1873^ 



ftict that the eye sees an object after it has been 
displaced, or after the object has disappeared ; that 
is to say, the image lingers on the retina for some 
time, perhaps as much as one-seventh of a second. I 
might bring forward numberless experiments in proof 
of this. You are, probably, all familiar with the thauma- 
trope of Dr. Paris, in which, by turning round a little 
bit of card rapidly, you see, at the same moment, the 
images on both sides of the card. Here, again, is a large 
induction coil, by which I can light up this glass tube ; 
and on turning it rapidly round, sdthough there is only 
one tube, it appears as ii there were several. I want to 
show you one or two experiments, to lead you up 
gradually to another point in connection with this sub- 
ject of considerable importance. I have here a large disc, 
on which are painted a number of black balls. I will 
mount this on a stand, so as to throw upon it the Ix^am 
of our lime-light. And you will have no difficulty in 
understanding at once how, -^hen I rotate this disc 
rapidly, you seem to see all these balls mingling to- 
gether, producing the appearance of a single shaded line. 
Now I want to draw your attention to another very 
curious effect. Instead of throwing upon this disc the 
Ume-light, I will illuminate it by an electric spark pro- 
duced from a battery of four or five cells. Now, on rotat- 
ing it once more, you will see that with the intermittent 
Ught produced by the electric spark the balls all appear 
Beparato, and you do not get the effect of the shaded 
line, whereas with the continuous light irom the lantern 
you see the lines instead of the black balls. Thus, you 
see the difference produced by the sudden flashes of light 
and that produced when it is continuous. I can pro- 
duce these flashes of light in another way. Instead of 
using a disc, I will use a large wheel, placing it in 
front of the screen. Then in front of t^e lime light I 
will place a small disc, in which there are two apertures at 
op|)08i to portions of the circumference of the disc, through 
which the lime-light will illuminate the wheel, and throw 
its shadow on the screen. If the wheel is rotated rapidly, 
allowing the disc in front of the lime light to remain 
stationary, so that the light comes continuously through 
one of the apertures, you are not able to see the spokes 
of the wheel ; but now, instead of allowing this con- 
tinuous light to fall upon the wheel. I rotate the diso 
so as to produce rapid flashes of light through the 
apertures, you see all tne spokes re-appear, producing this 
very remarkable effect. At one time the wheel appears 
to stand^ still, whilst, by varying the velocity at which 
the diso is rotating, it actually appears to be turning in 
an opposite direction to that in which it is really being 
driven. It has been a question of some interest in 
jurisprudence, and has been raised over and over again, 
whether a flash of lightning, such, for instence, as I had 
from the electric spark, is sufficient to recognise a 

Eerson by. Again and again cases have occurred which 
ave been brought before the law courts in which a 
person has seen a thief, for instence, merely during 
a flash of lightning. My own opinion is that there can 
be no doubt there is: It has been gravely asserted, too, 
that the image of a man's murderer might be discovered 
on the retina of the murdered man if examined sufficiently 
soon after death, that is to say, owing to this lingerinsr 
of the image upon the retina. I need scarcely say this 
is a pure myth, and it is sadly to be re^rretted that clever 
men who propose such absurdities should not devote 
themselves to work of more importance than proposing 
such outrageous suggestions. 

There is another peculiarity of vision which has re- 
ceived an enormous amount of attention of late — ^that is to 
Bay, what is known under the name of astigmatism. In 
a normal eje the curve of the cornea, whe&er measured 
obliquely, vertically, or transversely, is the same. It is 
like a well- made watoh-glass— perfectly symmetrical. 
The eye, however, may be well formed and yet the romea 
be unsy mmetrical, presenting different curves accordingly 
M the anterior surface be measured vertically, trans- 
T«rwly, or obliquely. Hence we have different reirac- 



tions depending upon which meridian of the eye 

light rays fall, and as the result the impoas 

these rays meeting in a focus. This abnorms 

the eye distorte objects more or leas. Now I 

and see whether we can show yon a picture dis 

means of an astigmatic lena, so as to try and 

artificial astigmatism. To show yea how these 

curvatures distort the picture, we will Uin 

the screen the picture of an ordinary vlev 

I teke an astigmatic lens, that is, one with 

curvatures, which we will place in front of thi 

and you will see at once a amount of diatorj 

place; the lines are 'not straight^ but app 

certein extent, askew. In an ordinary c^ 

maoism we get a certein sharpness of visioi 

the same time, a distorted image produced by 

of the cornea. I refer to this because a p 

lately ])een written by a somewhat eminent o^ 

surgeon, Mr. Liebreich, to whom, it is^ only rig 

ophthalmic science was, in the first instance, 

debted, endeavouring to prove that the &ults g 

(that greatest of painters) during his last years 

to this astigmatism, from which Professor 

imagines he suffered. He supposes that Tome 

in drawing were entirely due to this abnor 

of the eye. Now, with all due respect to 

Liebreich, I cannot help thinking tnat he 

mitted a g^eat mistake. Supposing Turner 

astigmatic, it was a matter of no importance. 

drew and painted as he saw. liot me pal 

extreme case. Supposing he was painting 

and, owing to some peculiarity of his eja 

him upside down. Of course, when he ptii 

he would paint him in the position in i 

saw him. But, inasmuch as to my eye ihi 

would be in the right position, as a matter of 

the picture that Turner drew would be in I 

position to my eye, though not to his. loaf 

the object to my eye was not distorted, no mo 

the object that he had painted on his canva 

torted. In the same way, if he saw a tree that 

him askew, and painted it askew, I look at 

I see it is not askew any more tiian his 

It seems to me that Mr. Liebreich has I 

that we do not see with Turner's e| 

that the eye with which Turner saw was i 

eye with which Turner painted. And I th 

cisely the same thing may be said resfMct 

Liebreich*s criticism of Mulready's later picti 

counting for the peculiar colouring by thecl 

colour that the lens undergoes in some cases 1 

If Mulready saw a sunset as a deep bine, 1 

his colours a deep blue, but inasmuch «■ ^ 

the sunset is not a deep blue, but a deep t 

matter of necessity the colour which Mnlrea4 

would be to my eye a deep red too. The on 

is that Mulready saw and Mulready painted ^ 

same eye. He saw perhaps with a differenl 

mine, but if he has closely imiteted the objfi 

painting, you may depend upon it the colour wil 

same to me. I do not think, therefore, 

moment that Mr. Uebreich has thrown sj 

whatever on the peculiarities of style of tl 

greAt English painters. Of course, it is * ^ 

portent matter to correct this astigmatisffl^ 

this purpose we use peculiar lenses— cylin^^ 

as they are called — some 'of which I ^?_®. 

axis of which is placed before the eye, bo tn» 

of the glass may correspond to the meridian w 

refraction, a ooncavo-cylindrical or a convM 

drical glass* being used, according to whether tb< 

is short or distant sighted. I have ^^J 

large quantity of cylindrical lenses, which Mr. l* 

sent me. In astigmatic patients it is a matt*' 

considerable difficulty, and sometimes a very 'c 

cess, to find out the exact glass that will suit. 

all these cases it is most essential yoo shoaJa od 



JOUBVAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ARTS, Jaotiry 3, 1873 



115 



taiBf piir of speotaolea, bat should haye some- 

a|M»BOCB aocnimte. It is most difficult some- 

ft» penon with proper lenses, bat still, here 

■, ind rery imiK>rtant they are as praotical 

of opiict to medicine. 






■UinrTBRVAnOHAL IXHIBITIOHS. 




of the Commiflsioners are at Upper Ken- 
London, W., Major-(}eneral Scott, G.B., 



Ibjetfi Gomfflissioners for the Exhibition have 
jil» euibtt next year, nnder the class of Food, all 
llfMfd modem ntenails for drinldng and for the 
In order to add to the interest of this 
if ths dais of food, the Committee are already 
' m mcnnng an exhibition of ancient utensils of a 



kaMl^«'8akaud Velvet Fabrics,*' the foUowing 
sdded to those already circulated for the 
isud :— '' Every object of New Silk Manu- 
I lor exhibition must have the names of the 
and of the place of manufacture attached 



aeeting of the Committee on Surgical 
and Appliances was held on the 23rd 
St I o*do(^ in the Offices, Qore-lodge, South 
Amongst thoae present were— Mr CsBsar 
■ -I F.fi^. (in the chair). Sir Wm. Fergusson, 
|lft&. Dr. P. Aflen, Mr. W. Bowman, F.R.S., 
iJMsQ^ Carter, Mr. W. White Cooper, Dr. 
Jbrnills, B.N., Dr. Arthur Farre, F.R.Sm Dr. 
■M, Mr. PresooU G. Hewitt, Mr. J. HUton, 
lb. J. Hinton, Profetor J, Marshall, F.R.S., 
ViHian, Dr. W. a Playfidr, Mr. R. Quain. 
Md Mr. Edwin Sannden. Letters received 
Boyal CoU«ge of Surgeons and the Hoyal 
■mgioal Society were read, and it was stated 
if tibs leading surgical instrument makers in 
Paris, and other capitals, had signified 
to contribute. It was suggested that the 
Ao«]d be brought before the notice of the 
tel Association, at its meeting in August, 
Ownnitt e e resolved to recommend the ^yal 
to invite corresponding members in 
and, after the transaction of general 
till Monday, the 20th of January, 



1ZHIBITI0H8. 



«i< FlBe-«rta TrtatnrM Exhibition at 
"^Mpaning of the new infirmary premises at 
jiicih have been erected at a cost of nearly 
Jlli be orlebrated at Easter by an exhibition 
scale. The inhabitants of this 
are making great efiforts in oonnec- 
~ ' ig, having already raised, by 
neariy £25,000. An industrial 
machinery in motion, is also being 
exhibition of coal-cutting machines 



. — ^The Jfeibottrm Argw reports 

Jtthe fonrth Melbourne Exhibition of 

•ad Works of Art, on the 6th 

tl^hnftdetailt about tfiis and the previous 



exhibitions, which show the progress made by the 
colony of Victoria during the last few years. The first 
Melbourne Exhibition was held in 1854, during the gold 
fever. The excited state of tbe country, and the consequent 
disinclination to steadv work, were by no means favour- 
able to the progress of arts and manufactures. The few 
manufactures and trades previously called into existence 
by the wants of a small commercial and pastoral com- 
munity had been crushed by the great advance in wages, 
and the population, which was increasing at ,an exo^- 
ingl^ rapid rate, was dependent almost entirely on 
foreign countries for its articles of consumption. The 
contents of the exhibition had, therefore, little of a 
special character. The statistics of the period show that 
the manufactories were limited to the following list : — 
34 saw-mills, 5 iron foundries, 16 breweries, 17 coach 
factories, 40 flour-mills, 10 tanneries, 9 fell-mongeries, 
1 boiling-down establishment, 1 rope-w|lk (in Ce^ong), 
4 wine-presses, 1 chaff- cutting-machine, 1 steam- wash- 
ing machine, 2 sausage-macmnes, 1 pottery, 12 candle 
manufactories, 5 cordial ditto, 7 soap ditto. 22 soda-water 
ditto, and 1 bone-dust ditto. The next Victorian Exhi- 
bition was held in 1861, in connection with the London 
Exhibition of 1862, and showed that a great change 
had been silently spreading over the country in the 
intervening seven years. The population nad become 
more settled, and several new industries had started into 
life. The number of inhabitants had risen from 
273,685 to 540,322, and the manufactories from 152 to 
429, giving emplo3rment to nearly 4.000 persons. The 
great Intercoloniid Exposition of 1866 showed, for the 
first time, that the foundations of a large export trade 
had been securely laid, and of 2.956 exhibitors 1,479 
were Victorian. The present exhibition is exclusively 
confined to Victorian products, but gives satisfactory 
proofs of the continued mdustrial progress of the colony. 
From the returns of the Registrur-Qtjneral, it seems that 
in March last there were 1,137 manufactories in the 
colony, employing 13,866 men and 2,630 women, and 
using machinery and plant of the approximate total 
value of £2,428,470. The list includes 43 agricultural 
implement manufactories, 59 iron, brass, and copper 
foundries, 22 meat-curing establishments, 27 boihng- 
down establishments, 69 tanneries, 30 clothing manu- 
factories, 9 pianoforte manufactories, 2 cutlery works, 1 
ty|>e foundry, 1 paper manufactory, 2 glass manufac- 
tories, 2 glass-works, 10 rope and twitie manufiictories 
13 ship and boat-builders, and 18 bone and chemical 
manure manufactories. 

Vienna Exhibition. — ^It is announced in the Journal 
OJiciel thAt, besides the sum of 1,200,000 francs (£48,000) 
voted by the French Assembly for the expenses of the 
French Section of the Vienna Elxhibition, a sum of 
500,000 francs (£20,000) has been granted to enable the 
French Commission to assist the numerous French 
exhibitors in paying a rental imposed by the Austrian 
Commission for the space granted to them. It will be 
interesting to see how British exhibitors appear at 
Vienna, being practically left to their own resources, 
and getting no help from the British government, 
which has ignored Uie cost Austria incurred in 1851 and 
1862 in London. An interesting lecture on the Vienna 
International Exhibition of 1873 was recently delivered, 
iMiys the Eastern Budget^ by Herr Julius Hirsch, to the 
Lower Austrian Industrial Society. The lecturer 
observed that the number of exhibitors who have 
applied for space in the new building far exceeds all 
expectation. From Germany alone there will be four 
times as many exhibitors as there were in the Paris 
Exhibition ot 1867, and the number of Austrian 
exhibitors is 17,000— a number greater than that of 
the English and French exhibitors at their last 
exhibitions in London and Paris respectively. The 
applications for space at length became so numerous 
that it was found necessary to make the machinery 
department half as large again as was originally 
intended, to cover in the court-yards, and to buil^ 



118 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETT OF ABT8, Jahoabt 




rays are thH truly active agents in the production of the 
green colQoring-matter, the chlorophyll of the plant. 
Ton know, too, how some forms of acacia dose their 
leaflets on the decline of light, and again re-open them 
in the morning. They wiu not do wat under the in- 
fluence of yellow glass. Ton know how many flowers will 
open their petals as light comes on, and dose them at its 
departure. There is very little doubt that that is due to 
actinism. Experiment proves that even the power of the 
leaves in retaining the oarhon for the tissue of the plant 
and giving us bade the oxygen, is in a great measure due 
to these peculiar rays that we regard as essentially 
chemical. Thus, you see in nature every plant serves a 
purpose of an actinometer. 

Just excuse a momentary digression. When I sat 
down to put these lectures tether I made up my 
mind not to make them too scientific. I considered 
that very likely I should meet a kind of double 
audience — one part coming, perhajps, to catch a few 
■tray ideas and listen to a few scientific details, and 
one part coming to be amused and to have their eye 

f leased durini^ the hour the lecturer had at his disposal, 
must ask the one class to bear with mo when I enter a 
little into scientific details, and I must ask the other dass 
to pardon the introduction of experiments with which 
they are quite as familiar, if not more so, than I am 
myself. In this way I hope to satisfy both parties. 

I want just to show you, btffore going any further, the 
peculiar action of these rays at the violet end of th^spec- 
trum. To do this, I will take a plate which has been sensi- 
tised, and I will expose one-half of it in the red end of the 
spectrum. Then 1 will expose the other end in the violet 
end. I will place upon on ) side of this plate a small piece of 
paper, in order that you may know which part belongs to 
the violet and which belong to the red. Now we will throw 
our spectrum once more on the screen, and, taking the 
plate which 1 have here prepared, I exposn it to the violet 
end of the spectrum for ten seconds. Ton will notice this 
end has a little piece of paper on it. Now I will put the 
other end into the red ezid of the spectrum, and then I 
will develop the plate and throw an image of it on the 
screen by means of the oxy-hydrogen light, and I think 
you will at once see the difference between those two 
sides of the plate. Of course, the li^ht is a little spread 
just in the centre, but you see by the piece of paper which 
was exposed in the violet end, how the light has acted, 
whilst that part in the red end has not acted at all. Thus, 
you see at the violet end of the spectrum we get a very 
positive action, which we entirely fail to obtain in the 
red end. It is these rays which are concerned in photo- 
graphy. 

Now let me explain to you that the electric light 
is loaded with these rays. - I will bring the poles 
again in contact, and show you some peculiarities 
01 these rays before we go any further. I will 
do so by bringing in the path of these rays some 
petroleum which I have in a bottle, and you will see a 
marvellously benutiful fluorescent effect due to this 
peculiar snt of rays. The same is true of a solution of 
quinine, which I dare sav some of you have noticed, 
and in both cases the effect is very much enhanced by 
holding in front of the light a piece of violet glass. 
Here, again, I have a piece of uranium glass. There in 
nothing very wonderful in the glass itself, but directly I 
hold it in these peculi*ir rays which are coming from the 
dectric light, a very beautiful effect is produced. Now 
I want to draw your attention to one other circumstance, 
which is very interesting in some ways, because T have 
one of the very earliest specimens in illustration of 
this experiment I have here a set of tubes, which 
are well known now as BecquereVs tubes, containing 
hodies that will seize these rays, and give them out at 
their leisure. If I hold these tubes, containing powderp 
of various kinds, in the electric light, we are enabled U> 
get a certain number of these rays bottled up, thes* 
powders givinsr out these rays at tiieir leisure. This 
iBBtroment which I am now using, and which you see 



shines quite plainly in the 

hundreds of times, and still t 

of shining in the dark. Thi 

long as twenty-eight minut 

light; and if you hold ther 

nesium light they will oontin 

like seventeen minutes, so t 

magnesium light has anytl 

actinic rays that the dectric*] 

I have already stated that ' 

first that attracted the attont 

action of light upon them. 

white leather was Uie first th 

the purposes of obtaining a. 

here a piece of oommonwhitc 

small quantity of a solution o 

a piece of cotton wool I will 

leather. Now I will hold th 

first of all, and if this does no 

the dectric light. You see, 

soon darkens it, and a few sec 

effect. I believe this was the fii 

the action of light upon the 

chloride of silver was precipi 

dried in the dark, these plate 

receive the pistiure by the ' 

imftge. Neither Wedgwood 

fix the impression, and the c 

abandoned. In 1814 — for I c 

until that year — Jose|^ Nice 

upon the action of light upc 

wards joined by Daguerre, 

out the process which is kn 

guerrootyping,** in July, 183 

the first, I believe, who pro 

the camera-obscura. A gr 

experiments with this insti 

failed. The camera- obscui 

darkened box with a small ] 

pencil of rays reflected &on 

trated in this diagram. I: 

aperture in the box. You 

placed at a distance firom t 

the image is inverted. I ca 

ment here. I have a candle 

of which is a large piece of 

aperture, and I have no dc 

piece of ground glass in fro 

candle — an inverted imag 

science has done to improve 

and to render it usefid. T 

front of it a convex lens 

beyond the principal focus 

have already explained to ) 

The camera-obscura, modit 

instrument of our schoolbc 

The mirror camera, an in 

fleeting telescope, of Henu 

land by Beanl for dagt 

introduce the lens into t 

see we get a very mut 

flame than we had previ 

threat improvement. All t) 

imperfect optical contrivanc 

tions of achromatic lenseade 

issue by Petzval, Voigtland 

Grubb, and oUiers, who 

photographing other than i 

I do not intend to trou 

achromatism further than t 

constructed for photograph 

chemical or actinic rays as 

with the visual rays, becac 

we focus it by means of t 

take a picture of it, it is tl 

•«n the plate. The camera 

I repreaentation of a good m< 



n 



r— (*} 



■A 




t 



^ 



^ 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jahuaby 10, 1873. 



117 



Xmii OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,061. YoL. ZXI. 



FRIDAY, JANUARY 10, 1873. 



I fir (kt fltofi^rfir rtiwiM fttf ffrfdlnttiirf ftt flWt StettUKm.^ 



nUieiBOIHGS OF THE SOCIETT. 



GAHTOB LSCTUBES. 

Ae third lecture of the first course of Cantor 
for the pfresent Session, "On the Practical 
of Optics to the Arts and Mann- 
and to Medicine,'* was delivered on 
r, Dec 9th, by C. Meymott Tidt, Esq.» 
JoiBi Lectorer on Chemistry, and Professor 
Jur i sprudence at the London Hospital. 



•diisct of our lecture this evening is the 
~ •ppltcation of optics to the Arts, as mattrated 
iHifciaphy» that home art-sdence, the younger 
^if tm arts. I need say nothing of its importance ; 
Wall prepared, I am sore, to admit it. It gives us 
not of man's devising, of the earth 
, and of the worlds we do not inhabit. Though 
branches of sdenoe take advantage of its 
^ is it that probablysome remember the first 
m June, 1802, by Wedgwood and Davy, of 
ly on the possibility of prodacing an image by 
»«e«tain salts of sQver." We are right, I ttiink, 
tiieee two great men as the pioneers of 
r. They had two great difficulties to contend 
of iJl they were unable to prevent the 
of light on the salts of silver, and the 
their inability to remove that which 
aetoally concerned in the production of the 
» early experiments in photography were 
^4 eooducted on white leather— and I can quite 
rAaft these experiments were suggested by a lady, 
jMarittg her evening toilet, staining a white 
XOB csn understand how the silver came into 
I need not enlarge more upon that, la the 
tsf tawing, common mlt is used, and this coming 
' h hmar caustic, formed the argentic 
tamed black under the direct influence 

as far as I can, the history 

and &e various applications of optics to 

, , think we may fiurlv beg^ by inauiring 

it k that comes mto play in the proauction 

ft. We have here our electric Limp, and I 

fbtt in the path of these magnificent rajrs a 

jou see that I am enabled to produce 

jtrom on the screen. There is our 

I shall have to speak of this spectrum 

leetore, and I shall therefore only draw 

to one or two peculiarities of it at the 

Bear in mind colonr is not an inherent 

\% body. I mf>«n that the true paint is light. 

tnd er green, simply because the dye placed 

of absorbing all rays wiUi the 



exception of those rays that produce the colour. For 
instance, to illustrate this a litUe more fully, I have here 
two pieces of ribbon, one green and the other red. 
I will place this red ribbon for a moment in the red of 
the spectrum, and you will notice of what a brilliant 
red colour it appears. Now I will place it in a part 
where there are no red rays for it to reflect, and instantly 
my red ribbon becomes black. I will repeat the same 
experiment with a piece of green ribbon, which, held in 
the green rays of the spectrum, is of a brilliant green 
colour ; but on passing it into the red, where there are 
no green rays to reflect, it instantly becomes black. 

But there is something in this spectrum, beyond 
what you see, and we muHt examine it a little further. 
Tou see there the light-giving power of the spectrum, 
but at the red end of the spectrum there is a snower of 
rays that you do not see ; they are the heat-rays of the 
spectrum ; and Tyndall, with the extraordinary inge- 
nuity he possesses, has of late taught us how we can, as 
it were, filter these heat-rays, and obtain them apart 
from the light-rays. To use his own words — for I am 
not going further into this subject, "* In the region of 
dark-rays beyond the red the curve shoots up in a steep 
and massive peak — a kind of Matterhom of heat — whicn 
dwarfs by its magnitude the portion of the diagram re- 
presenting the luminous radiations." But nature is 
never irregular. If she puts a shower of rays on one 
side she always balances it by a shower of rays on the 
other. That is her law ; and so at the other end of the 
spectrum there is a shower of rays that are essentially 
chemical, the chemically active rays, and it is with these 
rays, still rays that you do not see, that we are concerned 
this evening. They occur in the most refrangible part 
of the spec^m, and are called the actinic rays. 

Now, in my first lecture I drew your attention to the 
subject of photometry, and I told you photometry was 
at present imsatisfiujtory, inasmuch as all our photome- 
ters were relative measurers of light, ana that at 
present we had no positive data whatever upon which 
we could decide the absolute illumination. I said it 
could not be done until we could measure and weigh 
the prodnett of the action of light. That would give 
us a perfect photometer. Fortunately, however, we 
have xnade considerably greater progress in the measure- 
ments of the chemical or actinic rays. Here we get 
something like absolute results. It is a very well 
known fiict that equal volumes of hydrogen and chlorine 
combine under the influence of these actinic rays, and 
this mixture of hydrogen and chlorine thus forms a true 
actinometer. There is another method of calculating 
the intensity of the actinic rays, — it is by means of a 
solution of oxalate of iron and ammonia. This solution 
is decomposed by means of the actinic rays, the salt is 
decomposed, carbonic acid is liberated, and the amount 
of carbonic acid thus liberated becomes at once the 
measure of the work done. A large number of actino- 
meters have been suggested where the principle of com* 
parison is employed, but they are very imperfect- 
instruments indeed ; still, at the same time, being very 
simple they are generally employed in the place of more- 
complicated forms of apparatus. In these tmt actinome- 
ters a piece of sensitive paper is gradually unwound by 
clockwork, and during ite passage in the darkened 
^apparatus it passes under an open slit, so that from 
sunrise to sunset a record is made, the paper being more 
or less tinted. It is a very well-known feu^t that the 
actinic power of light varies marvellously during the 
day. I remember some time ago, when engaged in 
photographic experiments, a day that was exceedingly 
bright, in which it was almost absolutely impossible to 
get a single print, and I remember drawing the atten- 
tion of some other photographers to it, and they too had 
noticed exactly the same thing. 

The chemical actinity of light, however, plays a very 
important part in the economy of nature. Every plant is 
Hn actinometer, if we only knew how to read its in ica- 
tions. I think there is very little doubt that the actinic 



118 



JOURNAL OF THE SOGIETT OF ABTS, Jawart 10, 167Jw 



rays are thn truly active agents in the production of the 
ffreen colooring-matter, the chlorophyll of the plant. 
Ton know, too, how some forme of acacia doae their 
leaflets on the decline of light» and again re-open them 
in the morning. They wiU not do wat under the in> 
fluence of yellow glass. Ton know how many flowers will 
open their petals as light comes on, and dose them at its 
departure. There is very little doubt that that is due to 
actinism. Experiment proves that even the power of the 
leaves in retaining the carhon for the tissue of the plant 
and giving us back the oxygen, is in a great measure due 
to these peculiar rays Uiat we regtmi as essentially 
chemical. Thus, you see in nature every plant serves a 
purpose of an actinometer. 

Just excuse a momentary digreesioa. When I sat 
down to put these lectures tether I made up my 
mind not to make them too sdentific. I considered 
that very likdy I should meet a kind of double 
audience — one part coming, perhaps, to catch a few 
■tray ideas and listen to a few scientific details, and 
one part coming to be amused and to have their eye 

f leased durini^ ihe hour the lecturer had at his disposal, 
must ask the one dass to bMur with mo when I enter a 
little into sdentific details, and I must ask the other dass 
to pardon the introduction of experiments with which 
they are quite as familiar, if not more so, than I am 
myself. In this way I hope to satisfy both parties. 

I want just to show you, btffore going any further, the 
peculiar action of these rays at the violet end of thaspec- 
trum. To do this, I will take a plate which has been sensi- 
tised, and I will expose one-half of it in the red end of the 
spectrum. Then I will expose the other end in the violet 
end. I will place upon on ) side of this plate a small piece of 
paper, in ord«'r that you may know which part belongs to 
the vioI«'t and whi«h belong to the red. Now we will throw 
our spectrum once more on the screen, and, taking the 
plate which I have here prepared* I exposn it to the violet 
end of the spectrum for ten seconds. Ton will notice this 
end has a little piece of paper on it. Now I will put the 
other end into the red ezid of the spectrum, and then I 
win develop the plate and throw an image of it on the 
screen by means of the oxy-hydrogen light, and I think 
you will at once see the difference between those two 
sides of the pUte. Of course, the light is a little spread 
just in the centre, but you see by the piece of paper which 
was exposed in the violet end, how the light has acted, 
whilst that part in the red end has not acted at all. Thus, 
you see at the violet end of the spectrum we get a very 
positive action, which we entirely fail to obtain in the 
red end. It is these rays which are conoemed in photo- 
graphy. 

Now let me explain to you that the electric light 
is loaded with these rays. I will bring the poles 
again in contact, and show you some peculiarities 
of these rays before we go any further. I will 
do so by bringing in the path of these rays some 
petroleum which I have in a bottle, and you will see a 
marvellously beautiful fluorescent effect due to this 
peculiar set of rays. The same is true of a solution of 
quinine, which I dare sav some of you have noticed, 
and in both cases the effect is very much enhanced by 
holding in front of the light a piece of violet glass. 
Here. HgHin, I have a piece of uranium glass. There it>, 
nothing very wonderful in the glass itself, but directly I 
hold it in these p«'culi'ir rays which are coming from the 
dectric light, a very beautiful effect is produced. Now 
I want to draw your attention to one other drcumstance. 
which is very interesting in some ways, because T have 
one of the very earliest specimens in illustration of 
this experiment I have here a set of tubes, which 
are well known now as Becquerers tubes, containing 
bodies that will seize these rays, and give them out at 
their leisure. If I hold these tubes, containing powders 
of various kinds, in the electric light, we are enabled to 
get a certain number of these rays bottled up, thee» 
powders giving out these rays at tiieir leisure. Tliis 
instnunent which I am now using, and which yon see 



shines quite plainly in the dark, I 
hundreds of times, and still the tubea r 
of shining in the dark. This effect B( 
long as twenty-eight minutes when 
light; and if you hold them in the 
nesium light they will oontinme to si: ' 
like seventeen minutes, so that I d^ 
magnesium light has anything til 
actinic rays that the deotric-light po<* 
I have already stated that the salt 
first that attracted the attention of * 
action of light upon them. I told 
white leather was the first thing tb 
the purposes of obtaining any dis' 
here a piece of common white leatl 
small quantity of a solution of nitr 
a piece of cotton wool I will write 
leather. Now I will hold this in 
first of all, and if this does not av 
the dectric light. You see, the 
soon darkens it, and a few second 
effect. I believe this was the first e 
the action of light npon the sal- 
chloride of silver was precipitat 
dried in the dark, these plates b 
reodve tiie pisture by the int 
image. Ndther We^^wood n 
fix the impression, ana the ex, 
abandoned. In 1814 — for I dc 
until that year — Jose|^ Nice] 
upon the action of light upoi 
wards joined by Daguerre, u 
out the process which is kn' 
guerreotyping," in July, 183* 
the first, I believe, who prt^ 
the camera-obscura. A gi 
experiments with this inst 
failed. The camera-obscu 
darkened box with a small 
pencil of rays reflected fro 
trated in this diagram, 
aperture in the box. Yi 
placed at a distance frou 
the image is inverted. J 
ment here. I have a can 
of which is a lai^e pioci 
aperture, and I have ii" 
piece of ground glass in 
candle — an inverted ii 
Bcicuce has done to iim 
and to render it usefti 
front of it a convex 
beyond the principal l 
have already expluinc 
The camera-obicura, 
instrument of our &• 
The mirror camern^ 
fleeting telescope, ot 
land by Beand fti 
introduce the lenH 
see we get a v^ 
flame than we h.t' 
great improvement, 
imperfect optical e^ 
tions of achromaii ' 
issue by PetEvaL A 
Grubb, and otb 
photographing ot ' 
I do not in ten 
achromatism furt ' 
constructed for f* 
chemical or actir< 
with the visual t 
we focus it by i 
lake a picture • 
I ««n the plate. 
I repreaentation 



.*' 



V 10, 1873. 



121 



r •■ 







^ " IT i# 14 ... 

^ / ' fir •' / 



/ 






' I 



"/ 



/ ' 



/ . 



ron of art 

' country. 

. a vase for 

invention ; 

priate place 

year, on ac- 

iiatenal. 



) members of 

at for Bogges- 

^ artides: — 1. 

u roasting and 

aashing, chips, 

jlettes, etc. 6. 

, apple, currant, 

broths of mutton, 

Baking androast- 

is of cold mutton, 

zed meat — ^Austra- 

;n confectionery — 

allege dumplings ; 

A and butter, sago, 

puddings of bread, 

it, puff ^aste, short 

.. 14. Rice, how to 

ding; loose, for curry. 

16. Vegetables. 17. 

(baked or boiled), pie 

oaked or boiled) ; how 

^r frying. 18. Uses of 

aet crusted apple pud- 

dding, lemon pudding, 

raisin pudding, currant 



r Majesty's CJommissioners 

astruments and Appliances 

South Kensington, there 

t itive collections of ancient 

d by celebrated surgeons in 

>le, steps have already been 

V. Castellani, of Rome, repro- 

A' a surgical instruments dis- 

> w exhibited in the Museum of 

t the implements used by the 

. also be well represented. Mr. 

omised to send those used for 

uiu Brodie. Mr. T. Wormald 

>* longed to Mr. Abemethy. Mr. 

wo, and it is believed that there 

s and private collections, curious 

i^trumeuts which would show the 

iirgery, and form a most interest- 

ries, if collected together next 

it ion and professional study. The 

. specimens can obtain all necessary 

cases, &c., provided to exhibitors, 

Secretary of the Royal Commission, 



^t,■| 



of the Committee on Steel as applied 

took place January 7th, at the offices, 

Kensington. Mr. John Ramsbottom 

i-hair, and among those present were 

the North London Railway, Mr. W. 

South Western Railway, Lieutenant- 

n, of the Railway Department, Board 

t'^nant-Colonel Rich, of the Railway 

ird of Trade, and Mr. P. W. Webb, 

ind North Western Railway. Major- 

< J. B., secretary to the Royal Commmis- 

1 the meeting. Among the applications re- 

ting was one to exhibit a comnlftti^j^Aa of 

til way purposes, as made by M~ 

North Western Rail way w 



■,.>i 



*. r 



120 JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 10, 1873. 



ordinary albamiiiized paper a piece of laoe. I submit 
fhat to the action of light ; again the iodide of silver 
becomes altered in the places that are exposed to the 
light, and. as you can understand, we get a complete 
picture oi the lace. Further than that I need not go, 
because entering on the question of the influence of gold 
and such like salts would be going more into chemical 
questions than optics, with which we are concerned. I 
snould like, however, to draw your attention to some 
magnificent photographs which I have here. For in- 
stance, this magnificent landscape picture of Mr. Earl's 
is probably one of the finest ever done. 

1 have already alluded to the employment of bitumen 
by Niepce, and this leads me to speak of the action of 
light on other materials than the salts of silver for the 
production of photographs. The chromium salts, in com- 
bination with organic mntter, are the most important of 
these. In 1838 Mungo Ponton showed that a solution 
of bichromate of potash and sulphate of indigo on paper 
was rendered insoluble by exposure to light, therefore 
an object having degrees of light and shadow, placed in 
contact with such a surface and exposed to light, rendered 
a negative transcript on washing away the unaltered salts. 
I had intended to have tried some experiments with 
bichromate, but time is going too rapidly. Here we 
have a piece of paper covered with bichromate and a little 
gelatine (organic matter of any kind will do), and a piece 
of lace has been placed over it. You see the alter- 
ation of these salts under the action of light. Follow- 
ing up this idea, Becquerel made numerous researches 
on the combinations of the bichromates with organic 
matter. Poitevin extended these researches, and suc- 
ceeded in obtaining transfers for the lithographic press. 
If the piece of paper exposed just now were damped, the 

felatine in admixture with the bichromate would im- 
ibe water on those parts unacted upon by light. It is 
▼ery curious that light has no action on this mixture of 
bichromate and gelatine when wet, hence it is necessary 
for the film to be dry, and, even stranger still, those parts 
of the film on which the light has impinged are no 
longer capable of taking up water, and inasmuch as 
lithographic ink will stick to a dry surface, or at any 
rate a surface nearly so, such parts would t^^ke up the 
transfer ink from an inked stone or roller. Here 
you see I am doing this. We are dabbing this with 
JQthographic ink. This is a piece which was exposed 
this morning to the action oi light, and here you see 
the parts that are acted upon by the light taking the ink 
most beautifully. Thus we get a picture in black or 
'Coloured ink on the gelatine, and if this were laid on a 
plain grained lithographic stone, a transfer might be ob- 
tained for printing. 

Poitevin also mixed pigments with the bichromate 
and gelatine, and found that the light acted on 
these black and other coloured surfaces, rendering 
the gelatine insoluble where the light had been per- 
mitted to pass through the negative, or other object 
partly intercepting the light. When this already 
uniformly coloured surface was placed in water, the 
parts unacted upon were washed away, leaving the im- 
pressed parts as a coloured image. For simple line 
subjects Poitevin's process gave highly satisfactory 
results^ but in the gradation of light and shade, as given 
by photographs from nature, the process failed owing to 
the half-tones being but very imperfectly rendered. The 
reason of this was that the gelatine mixture next the 
support was still in a soluble condition, not having 
received any light through the dark coloured pigment, 
and therefore the material would be fixed only in those 
piuisin which the light had been able to penetrate the 
entire depth of the gelatine and bichromate layer. 
The Abb6 de Laborde appears to have been the first to 
point out the cause of the loss of half-tones in Poitevin's 
process, but it remained for an Englishman to discover 
the true remedy. Blair, of Perth, proposed to allow 
♦iie light to act from behind the support. This was the 

cret. The slightest action of light now became fixed, 



and as it penetrated, so in proportion did the bichromate 
fix more pigment, giving greater and increased depth 
and vigour to the picture. The theory was now pLun, 
and practical improvement followed. Fargier acted upon 
bichromate, colouring matter and gelatine, in the ori- 
ginal manner, but after doing this he coated the snriaoe 
with a strong film of collodion. He then floated the whole 
in water until the film floated off the support In thii 
way he changed the support from glass to collodkm, 
the advantage of which was that he avoided the blarring 
efifect produced by the light passing through the support. 
The great objection, however, was that the film bemg bo 
slender it was next to impossible to produce large pictorei. 
Again an Englishman, Swan, came to the rescue. He 
formed a layer of gelatine and colouring matter only, 
applying the bichromates afterwards by floating it on t 
bichromate solution. After drying and exposing under 
the negative, it was cemented to a support of paper with 
indiarubber solution. In thi^ way the picture was en- 
closed between two supports, through one of which 
water could permeate, and eventually be removed. Other 
improvements by J. R. Johnson have rendered the pig- " 
ment process what you see in the beautiful spedmens 
kindly lent me by the Autotype Company. I have prints 
on the teble produced in the lithographic-preas from 
films of gelatine containing resinous matters supported 
on very thick glass plates. These specimens show the 
gTe&t perfection to which this method has been brooght 
by J. R. Sawyer, of the Autotype Ck)mpany. Other pic- 
tures by the Heliotype process, printed from films of 
gelatine, by direct pressure in a common printer's letter- 
press, are before you, but, as t^e surface is similar to a 
lithographic one, you cannot use common type at the 
same time with these, which is a great disadvantage. I 
have also some examples of the Dallastype process. 
Here are some beautiful specimens of microscopic ohjects, 
some curious reproductions, tables of figures, a page of 
the Times, marvellously distinct, reduced to 3^ and 6 
inches. Theae are all printed from blocks, a specimen of 
which you see here. They can be printed at the same 
time as the ordinary st tnding type. 

The uses of phott^graphy are numberless. A summary 
of them would be the work of an evening. 

Medicine has profited by it. Now-a-days we photo- 
graph our cases of interest, and this brings them back to 
us, when similar cases occur, with a far greater accuracy 
than could be done by any painter's brush. We hate, 
a^in, some astronomical photographs; those worlds that 
are far distant to us, even they yield to our sensitive 
film. Hero, for instance, are the spots in the eim beauti- 
fully photographed, showing even the actual structure of 
the sun ; and here are some of the moon. 1 would also 
direct your attention to Rutherford's large photographi 
of the moon on the wall, which are really most mar- 
vellous specimens of this kind of work. 

Here, again, we have a microscopic photograph, which 
illustrates how rays from even the minutest objects (»n 
be reproduced with marvellous beauty. Here, for m- 
stance, is one showing numberless forms of infosonal 
insects. The lens collects aU the rays, even from theae 
minute objects, and presents them to us in the wonder- 
ful manner you see there. Thus you see our light rays— 
distance being no object at all— are our picture carriers. 
The lens collects and arranges the rays as they come 
under its refractive infiuence. Then chemistry rteps in, 
and, " like a giant refreshed with wine," we obtain at its 
bidding fairy -like scenes with a more permanent exist- 
ence than even nature gives them. 

Works of art, curiosities of nature, fossils telling of 
ages long gone by, monuments of art raised by human 
industry, the industry of men decayed and forg«»tten,tltf 
living formsof existingraces, ftt)m the aborigines whom no 
mission voice has reached, to the great and mighty crowd 
of the civilised world, monarchs on their thrones, the jfcor 
in their cotteges, old and young — all these forms the Icn* 
has gathered up with mathematical accuracy, dividing 
off the rays it required fr^m those Burroonding thiim 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jakuaby 10, 1873. 



121 



that the picture msLy be handed over 
iar him to reader that permanent which 
»Mf o/ Itfht would diasipate. 
Itecndtiosto know how many in this room 
in pbotography ; some, I know (for pro- 
mmt of u hare nude attempts), have done ftir 
IfaMdabble. I beg to appeal to them to bear me 
[ia >hat I mj, that photog^phy hua proved a great 
of the people; the world has grown wiser 
iSiiiiiHaee; and let me say, if it ia still forUier 
r4«VBloped (and who ooold sappose otherwise), that 
can only resolt from porsoing it in a 
Ij nieotillo spirit, and with strictly scientific 

; it ti only right that I should acknowledge 
I am indebted firom first to last in this 
t» tbs kind and oourteoos assistance of my 
■ Mr. Hirt. 



manufacturer may distinguish himself as a patron of art 
by his alliance with the artistic talent of the country. 
In the fine art section the artist may exhibit a vase for 
its beauty of painting, or form, or artistic invention ; 
whilst a similar vase may appear in its appropriate place 
among the manufactures of the appointed year, on ac- 
count of its cheapness or the novelty of its matenal. 



lALDTTERKATIOHAL EXHIBITIONS. 



oiees of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
London, W., M%jor-Genaral Scott, C.B., 



ftOowing special note on the Fine Arts Division 



IW attsntioQ of artists and manufacturers is 

called to Division I. of the subjects chosen for 

of Annual International Exhibitions. Hitherto 

of works of fine art has been too much 

to the display of pictures and sculpture, dis- 

' froci purposes of utility ; and it may be doubted 

' a picture on enamel or on pottery, destined to 

' to a piece of furniture, or a sculpture in wood 

fiir a piotore-frame, however great its merits, 

iod any place in the exhibitionv of the Royal 

of Looion, or in any of the numerous other 

of the works of artists. Still leas would a 

ihawl or a Persian carpet, the chief excellence 

dapsatied upon its combination of colours, find 

^«f those exhibitions its proper place. 

ijU a complete septration of artistic work from 

if stility may iiuleod be said to be only the 

of mjdem times ; for in the ancient and 

p«rv>is the highest art is to be found in 

with the moanest materials of manufacture. 

IS painted on vases of clay subjects which 

by their beauty of composition and skilful 

i and the finest works of Raffielle were designed 

(or haaj<ings to be made of wool. 
■ iabsnded th%t these exhibitions shall furnish 
of stimuliting the revival of the appli- 
artist's talents to give beauty and refine- 
^ •nry dfiseription of object of utility, whether 
^ V aooununitaL 

mfttsannal exhibitions every work in which fine 
tadiafBMa foatore will find proper provision made 
Painting, on whatever surface, or in any 
in every description of material^ 
•U kinds — architectural design as a fine 
^Bsoription of textile fabric of which fine art 
foatore — in short, every work, whether 
.'W plaoaure. which is entitled to be considered 
j*faaiiUence firom the artistic point of view, may 
^^ is the exhibitions under the division of fine 
' the mannfartorea which fall within Division 
tbsea brought under review in a series of ten 
art division will recur annu tlly, so that 
pQtsble enoouragement may bo given to 
las application of art to objects of utility. 
' "tiA workm in, moreover, will ba able to 
^of Afldt as his own production, and every 



A memorandum has been sent round to members of 
the committee for Cooking, with a request for sugges- 
tions on the treatment of the following articles : — 1. 
Toast making. 2. Muffins. 3. Chesnut roasting and 
preparation. 4. Potatoes — Boiling, mashing, chips, 

Suddings, steaming. 5. Eggs — Omelettes, etc. 6. 
auces (?) — Melted butter, breiul, oyster, apple, currant, 
onion, ^g, etc. 7. Soups (?) — Beef tea, broths of mutton, 
chicken, barley, etc. 8. Fisn. 9. Meat — Baking and roast- 
ing before fireis and by gas, etc. ; hashes of cold mutton, 
beef, rabbit, and chicken. 10. Preserved meat — ^Austra- 
lian meats. 11. Salads. 12. Kitchen confectionery — 
Fried puddings, pancakes, fritters, college dumplings ; 
baked puddings of bread, plum, bread and butter, sago, 
rice, tapioca, millet, batter ; boiled puddings of bread, 
and custard. 13. Pastry — Pie crust, puff paste, short 
crust, common pie cmst for meat. 14. Rice, how to 
use it — Boiled as in dumplings, pudding; loose, for curry, 
11. Bakin^^ — of bread, cakes, etc. 16. Vegetables. 17. 
Uses of dripping — For puddings (baked or boiled), pie 
crusts, cakes, apple dumplings (baked or boiled) ; how 
to clarify drippmg or waste fat for frying. 18. Uses of 
suet in puddings — Boiled suet, suet crusted apple pud- 
ding, jam pudding, treacle pudding, lemon pudding, 
sultana raisin pudding, plain raisin pudding, currant 
dumplings. 

It has been suggested to Her Majesty's Commissioners 
that in the class of Surgical Instruments and Appliances 
of this year's exhibition at South Kensington, there 
might be included representative collections of ancient 
instruments, or of those used by celebrated surgeons in 
different ages. For example, steps have already been 
taken to obtain, through A. Castellani, of Rome, repro- 
ductions of the well-known surgical instruments dis- 
covered at Pompeii, and now exhibited in the Museum of 
Naples. It is hoped that the implements used by the 
old English surgeons will also be well represented. Mr. 
Charles Hawkins has promised to send those used for 
lithotrity by Sir Benjamin Brodie. Mr. T. Wormald 
h'is offered those which belonged to Mr. Abemethy. Mr. 
Liston's will also be shown, and it is believed that there 
exist, in many museums and private collections, curious 
and ancient surgical instrumeuts which would show the 
I progress of the art of surgery, and form a most interest- 
ing and instructive series, if collected together next 
April for public exhibition and professional study. The 
possessors of any such specimens can obtain all necessary 
particulars as to the cases, &c., provided to exhibitors, 
on application to the Secretary of the Royal Commission, 
Gore-lodge, 8.W. 

The 2nd meeting of the Committee on Steel as applied 
to railway purposes took place January 7th, at the offices, 
Gore-lodge, South Kensington. Mr. John Ramsbottom 
was voted into the chair, apd among those present were 
Mr. W. Adams, of the North London Railway, Mr. W. 
G. Boattie, of the South Western Railway, Lieutenant- 
Colonel blutchinson, of the Railway Department, Board 
of Trade, Lieutenant- Colonel Rich, of the Railway 
Department, Board of Trade, and Mr. F. W. Webb, 
of the London and North Western Railway. Major- 
General Scott, C.B., secretary to the Royal Commmis- 
sioners, attended the meeting. Among the applications re- 
ported to the meeting wasone to exhibit a complete seriesof 
steel goods for railway purposes, as made by Mr. Webb, in 
theliondonand Nor^ Western Railway locomotive works 



122 JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, jAiWAaT 10, 1878. 



ai Orewe, oonBiating of locomotiTe boiler complete, with 
fire-box, and tubes and samples of the ores, flaxes, and 
foels employed in their manafaotnre. The Directon of 
the Gbeat Sonthem and Western Railway, Ireland, will 
flilse eixhibit oast steel or«nk«iixles, springs, &o., 8S used 
by their engineer, Mr. McDonnell, and a rf^ry complete 
illastration of this important application of steel will be 
represented by the chief railway companies in the 
kingdom. 



EZHIBITIOITS. 



7IENNA UNIVERSiOi BXHIBITION OP 1873. 

NonoBS TO British Exhibitors. 
Ptoncnoir op Industrial Dbsioks and IinmmoNs. 

A special law for the protection of objects exhibited 
at the Universal Exhibition in Vienna, in 1873, sanc- 
tioned by his Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty, and 
dated 13th Norember, 1872, has been promulgated and 
published in the official Wiener Zeitung of the 28th 
November, 1872, No. 273, and in the Imperial Law 
Oautte of the same date, LVIII., No. 169. Her Majesty's 
Commissioners have caused the following translHtion of 
the law to be prepared for the information of exhibitors 
in the British section. 

By order, 

P. CuNLiTFB OwBN, Secretary. 
41, ParUament-street, London, December, 1872. 

With the concurrence of the two houses of the 
Beichsrath I hereby decree as follows: — 

Art. 1. Every Austrian and everv foreigner who ex- 
hibits any object or objects in the Universal Exhibition 
of 1873 at Vienna, which may be suitable. Hccording to 
the provisions of the law of August 15, 18)2 {Imperial 
Law Gazette, No. 184). and the two laws of December 7, 
1868 {Imperial Law Gazette, Nos. 230 and 237). to be 
granted a patent or protection as to security of trade- 
mark or design, can obtain for the same from the 
Director General of the Universal Exhibition a ^'certifi- 
oate of protection " {nehutz-certijieat). An application to 
that effect must be addressed to the Director-Gkneral at 
a date previous to the opening of the Exhibition, or 
before the installation in the Exhibition of the object or 
objects after that date, and be accompanied by an exact 
description of the same, and (so far as is required for 
explanation) by double copies of plans or drawings, or 
two specimens of the trade-mark, design, or model, as 
the case may be, enclosed in two separate cases or 
envelopes. If the application be made through an agent 
or other authorised person, the letter of authorisation 
most be added likewise. 

Art. 2. The ** certificate of protection " will be issued 
free of expense, by the Director-General of the Universal 
Exhibition, and be countersigned by an official appointed 
fbr that purpose by the Hungarian ministry, and will 
secure to the applicant, from the date stated therein, of 
the admission of the respective objects into the Exhibition 
-^or if the application should have been nuuie alter that 
date, from the day of making the application — until the 
3Ui December inclusive, the same rights and privileges 
which a patent obtained in the regular course, or 
a duly obtained registration for the proteotion of a 
trade mark, design, or model would grant him. The ex- 
hibitor is reserved the right to apply to the appointed 
■nthorities, before the day of expiration of the ^'certificate 
of protection " for a patent, or the protection of a trade 
mark or design, for the same object or objecti, according 
to the provisions of the laws mentioned in Article 1. 

Art. 3. No appeal or oomplaintwill be admitted against 
the decision of the Director-Qeneral respecting the 

^anting or refusal of such ** certificate of protection." 
tho Taliditgr of aayof tfaa •'oeitifleateB of pro- 



tection " should be dispvtsd, the oon^wtsat aathoiitifls 
will have to decide the qMstion aeoocding to thsioditi&g 
laws of protection. 

Art 4. A double register will be kept by the Direefcor- 
General of the Unlvenal Exhibition of the appUoatioiii i 
for '* certificates of proteetion '* and of the certificatw 
iwoed, of which, after the dose of the EodubitioB, oas j 
with the aforesaid api^cations and a copy of the d»- 
seriptions attached to them, as also of the trade mariB, 
designs, and models, will be lodged with the Imperiai 
and Roy^ Ministry of Commerce ; and the other, Mth 
copies of the application and other appendices, with the 
Royal Hungarian Biinistry for AgriouUare, ladoitrf, 
and Ck)mmerce. 

Art. 6. The '* certificates of protection " issued will Im 
pubhshed in the Austrian and Hungarian Qjfkial OeettUt, 
The infpeotion of the register of "certificates of jto- 
tection" is open to every one, bat the descriptiuui, 
plans, models, &c., will be kept secret, if it be so deiited 
m the application. 

Art. 6. The Minister of Commerce is charged with 
the execution of this law, (Signed), 

F&ANE JOSBFH, M.P. 

(Countersigned) Aubespbbo, M..P. 

BAMBaJNS, M.P. 
GSdifUJ, 13th Norember, 1873. 

CuSTOM-HOtrSB RSOVLATIONS. 

He fbllowing rescript of the Imperial and Rojal 
Austrian Ministry of Finance, with regard to the Curton- 
house regulations to be observed in respect of goodt itni 
from for«ign countries to the Vienna Universal Exhi- 
bition,1873, dated August 9, 1872, and pubUahed io ths 
Imperial Law Gazette, XLV., No. 127, has been com- 
municated by his Excellency Baron Von Schwan- 
Senbom. Her Majesty's Commissioners have caoied 
the following translation of the rescript to be piepued 
for the information of exhibitors in the British section. 

By order, P. Cxtnlif/s Owik. 

L The frtmtier Custom-house offices are instroeted to* 
direct (without opening the paoking^cases and parcel^ 
all Exhibition gOKods whioh arrive, accompanied by das 
certificates of admission from the respective foieifn 
exhibitions commissions, to the chief custom* hooM 
office stationed in the Exhibition grounds. A lii^ 
with details of contents of packing-cases and parosUr 
must aooompHny every consignment forwarded by eadi 
exhibitor, which list will be attached to the permit &r 
thegoodSb 

2. The chief Exhibition Custom-house office ei- 
amines and removes the seals of each consignment, and 
books all the lists specifying the goods arriving with 
the permits, and delivers the goods to the re^ectirs 
foreign commissions, whose duty it is to keep an tuixi 
account of the goods handed over to them, and to sabmit 
the same when required to the Cu8tom«-house authorities 
for inspectii»n. 

3. The list of details ef contents which is to aocoopany 
each packing case and parcel need not contain a descrip- 
tion of the goods sucli as is required by the cuatoas 
tariff ; it will be sufficient that the gooas are sptoiM 
according to their commercial denomination, as to kind 
and quantity. It will be the duty of the chiei CubIub* 

i house office to amend the lists of detaijs by the addition 
of the exact tariff classification to which the goods 
belong, and to complete the entries in the regiiter in 
accordance therewith. 

4. No goods are allowed to leave the ExhibitiGn and 
its precincts without a proper permit. Such permits 
will be issued by the commission of the country whcaoe 
the goods have been sent, and must have attatoht^ to 
them, in order to be valid, the seal of the chief Custom- 
house office in proof of having been offi'-iaUy dealt with; 
tho permits for foreign goods will be distinguished by 
their diffsrent colour from those fbr inland goods. 



JOITRNAL OF THB SOCIETY OF AETS, Jatoabt 10, 187S. 



123 





dflii mhkk art bcaoff aeot back to the 

mail be dlinctod oy the-Johief Gustom^wufie 

Id the aspeetive frontisr onstom hooMS, and 

brtpenttt. 

41 Isflr ^oBiii vhieh Tvnaiii in AuBtiia or TLvaagary, 

vitbin tt« tyciae daatzict of Viesiia, import dnt^ 

VKW% duly mMi be paid respoctively, 

to the charges made by the ohief Quatom- 

aAtr wMmiiitJon of ^ goods. 

7. nsEihtiiitaon goods and owBon oftheaaaeaie 

in tbe fint iaatanee. for the onstom and 

i; asd, DCKt, Ibis iifapoDttbiUtj devoWea upon 

gn oa mmi a M ooB. Thu raaponaibiiity 

to tke lorwavdiofl: aganU wtei they take 

A QMcpltiacd diaerepandiM boiweon the actual eon- 
bif dte lasfcagoB and parcola as to the quantity and 
l«llfeffoodsaad the list «f details; as well as the 
lOTsl of -floods from the TSihihition 
laad groonds, and ^bo th^ uianthorised sale 
of goads in the Exhibition baiklinga and 
•iU be dealt with aeeeidang to law. 
ik. Tskaeeaand goods manufiiotiired of tobaooo axe not 
p^BtMl to be sold in tbe Exhibition buildiags, nor are 
tkfy sfl std to be bcongfat away foraosh a purpose from 
€hr Eihibstioo. 

10. Foreign Exfasbitios oljeds wUch have not been 
fBMBted to tbe shief Oastom«hoiise office for the pur- 

EoCobteimiigthe ncoessary permit far their expocta- 
■ihin thme months alter the dose of the Exhibitioo, 
bs liabfe to the payment of in^Mrt duty, and, if 
saijeet to the consnmption excise duty, to the 
of Itu^also. 

(Signwi) Lassbb, MJP. 






IHE DUBLIN EXHIBTTTON AND IRIBH 
IXDU8TBIB8 AND MANUFACTURES. 

npQtis and lists of awards of the j«ries of the 
k&bibitionof 1672 enables a oomparatare esU- 
fts be fanned of the statistics and progress in some 
yjf^ kading industries since the last International 
held in 1865. The recent exhibition did not 
lo be iatamational, and, with the exception of 
•xhibits, was almost purely national. 
ik» <fkd«aTOiir was made to give preference to the 
of auoh ol^iects as were espeoially identified 
and calculated, by their being placed in 
with other prodactions, to stimulate and de- 
bmndies of manufactaring industry in the 
are most capable of advancemeiit. The 
tatrut Gallery eontained upwards of 400 
tf tba flBoat oelobnited and distinguished indi- 
with the public transactions of 
extending over thrio centuries. 
y five months were occupied in the 
exhibition — which originated in in- 
in spite of its opening very late in 
and having also to contend agpainst an epi- 
hi Tbibiin, nnpreeodently wet westher and other 
yet it must be considered on the whole as 
The Junes awarded 206 medals, and 93 
of man t. -F rem the reports of the juriessopie 
facts are brought out on the condition and pro- 
of the littding Irish mannfectnres. 
of the natnral products shown were of tiie 
of SDorit, oomparing most-fkvourably with 
«f like nrtioks contributed to former exhi- 
Tbo pratervod meats, emenoes, soups, and 
■ Ad i ru were remarkfibly good. The jurom 
lbs MBSls teodsr, well flavoured, and from their 
iffPSpamtiQD their nutritions properties were 
Now that home resources prove 
meet the great and rapidly increasing de- 
food, ooloaial and foreign preserved 
fiBSffit ihamselvas from many quarters. 



igApaiiod 
tesely fiv« 






What is oallsd advanced oivilisatiofi in our ooontry 
tends to diouni^ Ae agciealtuoal population, who have 
long sabsisted chiefly on vegetable food, whilst oities 
and towns, whose peoide love end desire animal food, 
rapidly increase in number aod-sise. Such preserved 
meats may not be so palatable to most people as freshly- 
dressed home productions ; but if sufficient quantities 
can be snppled at prices reasonably below these of home 
produce, ti^ey will probably meet with a large coDOump- 
tion, espeoially amongst the middle mid artisan classes. 

Amongst the most important of \he national produc- 
tions was the magnificent collection of raw and manu- 
factured minerals of the Mining Company of IreSaad, 
embracing coal, culm, lead ores, pif^, lAkort and pipe 
lead Qead alloys which resist the actum of soft wi^er), 
silver cake, patent shot and oxides of lead used as 
paints and for other purposes. This company not only 
raise large quantities of coal and ores in varioos parts 
of Ireland, but they also import argentiferous lead ores 
for the purpose of jmelting both Irish and foreign ores at 
their great works, Ballycorus, ooun^ of Dublin. An 
importent industry has lately acquired large proportions 
in Ireland, namely, the manufacture of tlko cheaper 
adds, bleaching powder, salt cake, and artifioial 
manures. A very large capital is embarked in this 
manufacture, which ^ords employment to several 
thousand persons. From Dublin large quantities of 
bleaohing powder and salt cake are m ont h l y eaqpotted to 
England, Scotlmid, and the Continent. The value of 
the artificial manures made in Ireland last year ooidd 
not be less than £600,000. 

A very fine oollection of products from sea-weeds was 
shown by the Manure Salts Company of Xrolandf-and 
several interesting products of sewage, &c, with sea- 
weed charcoal by Mr. Stanfc^ of Glasgow. The ktter- 
ccdlection was of especial interest now that the station 
of the question of sewi^ utilisation is engaging the 
attention of many corporations, companies, and private 
individuids. 

The slatM shown by the Eillaloe Slate Company were 
of excellent quality, and equal, if they do not excel, the 
best Welsh slates. The Ventnor ^te Company idso 
showed slates of good quality, and with a very pretty 
greenish and bluish shade, which would produce a good 
efiect in roofing churches, &c. Tbe speeimens of Donej|al 
stone shown attracted much attention. The granate 
blocks were exhibited just as they were found in the 
quarries, in slabs, with even, natnral surfaces, and almost, 
if not quite, ready for the builder. The polished red 
granite is qmte equal to that from Aberdeen. TheBelfost 
Portland Cement Company ccnt^buted a large number 
of samples of their production ; the articles liiown were 
in every respect excellent. A group of marble pillars 
or clustered columns of various Irish marbles, with Caen 
stone basement and cap, carved in natural foliaae, and a 
font in tiie same style, with various Irish marble shafts, 
admirably displayed the wealth of the native quarries, 
and.^wed the ease with which -such materials can be 
adapted to useful and decorative purposes. The^^reat 
beauty of the marblss and the high polish and finish they 
bad rocetved, displayed to great advantage the g^n and 
black marbles from the quarry near Middleten, in the 
county of Cork, which is worked by Messrs. Sibthorpe 
and Son. The latter is little inferior in brilliancy, 
variety of shade, and contrast of colour and tone to 
jasper. For this reason it has been technically named 
Irish jasper. The practical value of Irish marbles, and 
the high polish they are capable of taking, were further 
successfully illustrated by specimens of marble pavement 
and by a portion of the altar railings lately erected in 
the chapel of Trinity College ; this last showed tbe rare 
quHlities of solidity joined to graoe and the appearance 
of lightness. 

It is a curious fact, that although no pottery works 
of any importance are known to have existed in Ireland 
prior to the establisbmoit of the works of MessM. D. 
MoBimey and Co., at Bellesk, Dublin was, in ^the earlv 



124 ^JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 10, 1873. 



portion of this centoiy, famous for the admirable decora- 
tions, china, and porcelain obtained at amannfaotory then 
established in that city by DonoTan. Excellent speci- 
mens of porcelain, from different manufactories, aeco- 
rated in JDonovan's establishment, and generally bear- 
ing his name and trade-marks, were shown in the loan 
museum of the exhibition, and such articles obtain a 
high price in the market This establishment was closed 
and its contents dispersed on the death of Mr. Donovan, 
who, however, reaused a large fortune in his life-time. 
This art (which had apparency ceased to exist in Ire- 
land) has been again introduced into the country, and 
inainl^ through the exertions of Mr. Herbert Cooper, it 
is rapidly improvingin excellence and regaining its former 
local ftune. Some of the decorations of the Belleek ware, 
by the pupils of the Queen's Institute, are admirable 
works of f^ the subjects selected with judgment and 
executed wiUi taste. 

Messrs. Earlj and Powell, of Dublin, exhibited works 
of great merit in stained glass windows, equalling mosaic 
in their effect. The composition is clear and well-calcu- 
lated for distinctness of effect at a distance — an object 
of great importance in Isige cathedrals, where graduated 
shadows and finely penciUed tinting are somewhat less 
effective. 

In the class of textile fabrics, &c., Irish productions, 
considering the limited nature of her manufactures, were 
effectively represented. The number of textile f&ctories 
in Ireland exceeds 240, of which 154 are employed on 
flax, 64 on woollen and worsted, and 14 on cotton. 
Although the number of factories is only about half those 
in Scotland, yet the spindles employed are about the 
same, somewhat over 1,000,000, the power-looms em- 
ployed 19,000, agsdnst 33,000 in Scotland, and the 
opmtives 62,000, against 89,000 in North Britain. 

Beviewing the comparative merit of Irish skill in the 
last exhibition and that of 1865, the jury report consider- 
able improvement in the leading branches of manufac- 
ture for which the country is remarkable, viz., linens, 
poplins, and lace goods. In the great staple trade of 
the north the exhibition was comparatively limited, but 
the quality and finiili of the goods shown were excellent, 
and fullv maintained their established reputation. Of 
the productions of Hie Dublin looms, poplins, terrys, 
and brocatelles, the jury speak most highly, and without 
attempting to draw any distinction of merit between 
the several exhibitors. They spedallv nctioe the 
curtain brocatelles of W. Fry and Co., and the terrys of 
Fry and Fielding, which they consider equal if not 
superior to anything of the class manufactured in Lyons, 
the principal centre for that branch of the trade. The 
various descriptions of laces and other fancy work con- 
tributed by convent and other industrial schools compare 
£ivourably with the highest dass of skilled work of 
France, Bel^um, and Nottingham. In noticing the 
several descriptions of fine lace sent from the industrial 
schools of Ireland, attention is drawn by the jurors to 
Mrs* Palliser's pamphlet, '* Notes on the History of Lace." 
While giving credit to the industry and great research 
of the talented authoress, they complain of the complete 
igfnoxBnce of &cts as manifested in her reference to Ire- 
land. Mrs. P^iser states *' That a normal school was 
opened in Dublin in 1856, and that it contained 24 
pupils.*' Further on she sa^s, *' Brussels flowers, Valen- 
ciennes, crochet, tatting, Irish point, were aU made with 
gfreat aptitude and precision, but the fabric was not 
remunerative, and consequently languiehed.'' Again 
she remarks, '* With g^eat facility for making it, lace 
working has little chance of success in Ireland." The 
jury admit that from about 1848 to 1858 an immense 
amount of French labour found employment throughout 
several counties in Ireland in working what are called 
" served muslins," and that this class of work has lan- 
^iflhed not only in Ireland, but also in Scotland, where 
rig^ated ; but this has arisen solely from change of 
n, and not from the effect of high wages or its un- 
Uty to Irish labour. Had the authoress visited 



^is exhibition, and inspected the snineTOiis contrilutiona 
of fine laces, she would have found hn noUs cs lidiiiid 
to be erroneous and inappropriate. FiDsUy the jiuon 
report that at no time within the period Btated b} Hn. 
Palliser has the Irish lace trade been eo rtimmtratiTe or ^ 
in so flourishing a condition as at present. 

Irish woollens were respectably represented in 
friezes and tweeds. 

The collection of philosophical instruments andrnven* 
tions of a scientific nature shown, was not extenuTs or 
varied. It, however, presented some objects of intereit 
and specimens of excellent workmanship. One of theie 
was the Rev. Mr. Jillit's optical saccharometer, beaatifall^ 
constructed by Messrs. Spencer and Son. of Dublin. Thu 
instrument was not shown for the first time, but a* 
perienoe having proved its practical value, it is deserring 
of special notice. By passing a beam of polanred 
light alteruHtely through a saccharine solution of a 
standard strength, and through the solution to >e 
tested, the strength of the latter can be found with a 
facility and accuracy not hitherto attainable, the error 
even of a single observation being less than the 200th of 
a grain for a cubic inch. The same principlaand me* 
chuiism are applicable to a wide range, and the instra- 
ment may be described as one by which the ratio of the 
rotatory power of any transparent fluid to that of a 
standard fluid may be accurately defined. 

A model of the highest interest was shown by Ut^ 
Howard Grubb, of Dublin, illustrating the manner ia 
which he and his father, Mr. Thomas Gmbb, made 
their great Melbourne telescope, showing how it is 
mounted, and displaying its many nov3 and moit 
valuable adjustments. The Melbourne Newtonian re- 
flector is the largest and most powerful instrument which 
is at present placed on equatorial mounting. The sT^em 
of equipoises, so difficult in a machine of such weight 
and sixe, the manner in which the huge speculuB is re- 
lieved from strain in its varying positions, and ths 
ingenious bearings of the axis, which give steadineei 
to the ponderous fabric without unnecessary friction, 
and enable the clockwork to move it with smoothiiea» 
and facility, are all very high examples of meebanical 
ingenuity. 

The manufacture of carriages is a m«st important 
branch of industry, and one in which the Irish depart- 
ment has specially excelled. The competition, thoigh 
limited in numbers from want of spaee, was of 
a high character, and the jurors notice with pleasnie 
an improvement in the general style of the Dnblin 
builders. 

The collection of jewellerv and bog-oak omsments in- 
dicated improved taste and increasing manufacture in 
Dublin, especially the former. There were also nioie 
exhibitors than at the Exhibition of 1865, whose designs 
and workmanship were wholly Irish. In musical instro- 
ments a noticeable feature was the exhibition of two 
cottage pianos, made in Dublin, by Messrs. Oonn and 
Sons. It is so many ^eare since any such had been 
manufactured in the city tiiat the fact is now ahnost 
forgotten, and few are aware that this effort is <>i^7^\^ 
vival of what once succeeded, and ought to succeed 
again. The jurors state these specimens are most eu' 
couraging, and taking the combination of tone, appear^ 
ance, and very moderate price, they seem well fitAed to 
meet a growing demand. 

In the class of photography the collection, thongh not 
affecting to be completely representative, was full of 
interest, beauty, and instruction. The frames of Irish 
views, by Mr. JPayne Jennings, might challenge compe- 
tition with those of any other photographer for beauty, 
softness, and artistic feeling Good Bianipulation is b^w 
taken for granted. The extension of photography has 
made it as easily attainable as any mechanical calling. 
Taste and art must be added if it is now aoughi 
to deserve special commendation. Vulgarity is ^^ 
natural danger of photography — to rise Hbovo it w 
the desideratum by which alone it can become, if not 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOHZTY OF ARTS, Jatoary 10, 1878. 



125 



utM(«lliutiit'«iiacfta and fttting iwiptrntjuid 



lirifli Mktrf BKhibHicii.— Mr. Wilke, Oomol- 

Ownl forOtmnm^, writes to ^be Timet to say tiiat the 

(S«BiB Fitherj Sooetjof Berlin propoeeSf with the sane- 

Hmuii tappott of the goTemment and under the iin- 

aidBto patronage of his Imperiid Highness ^e Orown 

MMe^tohoid an ezhihition in that city during the ensuing 

■■tksf Mareh and April, to which the mannftusturers 

nitlben of all ooontnes who are in any way eonnef^ted 

«itb fiibag sad fisheries are inrited to send specimens 

M ^at Buiafaotttrea, inrentionSt and improTements. 

Fivtber p«itieii]«m may he obtained upon application at 

tfc> CjMsk t e ■ G eneral of the German Empira, 6, Blom- 

Ml-ikvat, London-wall, £.0. 

MtOmxm lildMtlQB.— This exhibition was opened 
a SoT ea ber 6. It was held in connexion with the 
Imian Intemstional Exhibition of 1873. New South 
Wala vwreprasentedat the first of the series of Exhi- 
k&Msia 1871, and Qobonsland contributed to the second 
ia 1S73 ; bat it was considered that the arran^fements 
fcrlfeLAeiion International Exhibition of 1873 gave 
Totorik, ud the Australian colonies generally, a better 
^pwtvnitj for the display of their wares than either of 
^ two preceding ones. Accordingly the Victorian 
^^v^vmat&t, on the 30th Mty last, appointed a Gom- 
OMMD to oarry out the Exhibition. TheGommissioners, 
Magsbtaioed a rote of £3,000 from Parliament, at 
Wftt to work to make the necessary prorision for the 
oiifcitiao of utioleo in Melbourne, which should be 
v^f far dupment to London early in December. They 
we wt at the outset with the difficulty of confining 
te«s)iifcita within the narrow limits prescribed by the 
I^B^ International Gommissioners. out as they were 
^ait»ti of OTgaaisin^ an exhibition which should elFec- 
My ispiuunt the iodnstries, products, and resources of 
^*te% they determined that the display 'Should be 
^m tsomevhat larger scale, and it was arranged that 
^Acrtitides should be admitted, some for exhibition in 
^'*ft<*inw only. In the sUk and relret section not 
^wnek was shown, as sericulture is yet in a yery un- 
^>*<^ed state in the colony. The steel manufactures 
•*c«ki7 were good, but did not show many speciali- 
^ &XB6 of the carriages shown were excellent speci- 
*aiif workmaaship, riTsUing in this respect anything 
^^U appear at South Kensington next spring, and 
^^•■^auny local articles which we may perhaps 
MS is London. The number of the exhibits was not 
P"i 1^ show of agricultural products was good, 
^mlneed considerable increase in the production of 
^ maaarss. Amongst the articles of food, of 
^ pf isei f o d meats were speciaUy noticeable. 




™^qi«lit3r to be forwarded by anv one exhibitor. 
iwBaiH of thisoonceanon was that the display of pre- 
*»«d nests was very large, and formed one of the most 
** mMe fe atures of the exhibition. Nearly all the 
■^jP»WBrriag oompanies in Victoria were represented, 
■■lulkiQnie Gompany, as ^e oldest and most pros- 
g^ tiking the lead. The wines diowed great im- 
^'"■•■t upon festner years, and will probably attract 
*^ *t the International Exhibition. Many admi- 
*"li rangrs for oeoking were shown, but periiaps 
*■•• VkAj to attract attention in Europe. 



Tftefiwl Jftpanase line of railway was in- 
^n*^ oa Nii». 15th. It connects Teddo, the capiul, 
r* ** *pwt^o T Yo k oha m a ; and within a brief period will. 

/f«»a<*ed, he supniemeaied by a complete system of 
"'V»>ais cgtsamaiestion. 



MimSTEEIAli INQTJIRY INTO THE CON- 
DITION OP MANUFACTURES IN ITALY. 

DtsnuoiB OF TOE AiassANOBiA, TuBnr, and Omoio 

GSAMBBBS OF GoMMBaCB ; PaOYXNOEB OF TuBnTy 
NOYABO, AlBSSANDRIA, A2fD CuNBO. 

At the close of the year 1871, the Commendatoro 
Gastagnola, Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and 
Gommerce, instituted a commission to inquire into the 
condition of the manufactures in the kingdom of Italy, 
and stody the best means for improring and da- 
yeloping them, in accordance with the wants of tile 
times. These requirements are now radically changed 
by the issues of the late disastrous war between France 
and G^ermany, and especially from the fact of the former 
country haring entrap into a policy regarding the 
importation of goods from other States, which renders it 
essential to modify the customs dues. This may be 
considered as one of the most important steps taken by 
the government of lato years, and it has been welcomed 
throughout the kingdom, and facilitated in a wonderful 
manner by the parties interested, so that there can be 
only one opinion as to the opportuneness of the happr 
idea so ably carried out by the gentleman to whom it 
has been confided. 

The Commission of Inquiry, nominated by the Minis- 
try, and presideti over by the Oommendatore Luzzatti, Sec* 
retary-G^oieral (Under-Secretary of State) of the Ministry 
of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, with Senator 
Rossi, well known as manufacturer of cloth at Schio 
(Vicenza), has already held its meetings in succession 
in many of the principal cities of Italy, among which 
are Genoa, Venice, and Milan, and now at Turin, which 
served for the several provinces of ancient Piedmont. 

Seven days were occupied by the meetings of the 
Commission at Turin, which were held from ike 20th to 
the 27th October last, in the magnificent hall of the 
Carignan Palace, the President of the Turin Chamber 
of Commerce taking his seat as one of the members of 
the Commission. 

The readers of the Journal will rememher that no 
sooner was the union of the various prorinces of Italy 
effected, than the chambers for the Parliament, which 
assembled in the ancient Carignan Palace, became too 
small for the purpose, so that the building had to be 
enlarged by the addition of another wing, whidi, inpoint 
of architectural beauty, is unrivalled among au the 
modem edifices in the country. It was not completed when 
Rome, which Cavour declared to be the only rightful 
capitiU of Italy, had already become the seat of govern- 
ment ; and it is worthy of remark that the first debates 
which were held in the hall were those on the pro- 
motion of the manufacturing interests of Italy. On 
the platform were the members of the Commission, 
while the manufacturers were successively called upon 
to reply to the questions put to them, for the purpose of 
enlightening the government upon the subject of modi- 
fying and improving the laws regulating their mutual 
relatfonship. It was, to a great extent, a technological 
Parliament ; and the information elicited will certainly 
be fruitful of great results, so that the noble city of 
Turin may boast of once more having taken part in the 
deliberations of the central government. 

It may be asked how it is that public opinion had 
been so long dormant, and it is surprising that so many 
competent men have now come forward for the fir^ 
time to give their substantial adrice upon a thousand 
deteils regarding manufacturing interests, which are of 
inestimable value to direct the government in legislat- 
ing; and it is to be regretted that the public do not 
seem to have made that legitimate use of the periodical 
press, by means of correspondence, which would have 
unquestionably caused the country to develop far more 
rapidly and surely, and have aided the Parliament in 
framing the laws, one by one, as they were made. 
We earnestly hope that the citizens will learn the im- 
portant lesson of making ote more largely of the power 



126 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 10, 1873. 



they hold in their hands for doing good, by fnalring use 
of the newspapers to make known their ideas. 

The inqnines of the €k)mmis8ion referred principally 
to the inflaence of taxation generally on manufactures, 
and more especially the import and export dues of 
the Custom-house, and those levied by the towns, known 
as municipal or octroi rates, received at the gates of all 
towns having a population above 20,000 inhabitants, 
and employed for local expenses. Then came the eco- 
nomical condition of workmen ; the cost of carriage by 
railway, and the inconveniences experienced from the 
way in which goods are carried by railways, and the tari£b 
they employ. Much other valuable information was 
also elicited, showing how some branches of manufac- 
ture were susceptible of great improvement, while 
others had small chance of success, notwithstanding all 
the efforts made in their favour. For several years 
paper currency has existed, and every ministry, in 
arriving at power, has promised to return to gold 
coinage, from which, in point of fact, Italy is further 
off every year, on account of the yearly deficits; 
but it has been abundantly proved by the late meeting, 
that the exchange on gold, which is no less than two 
shillings in the pouno, is in reality the greatest boon 
to the greater part of the manufacturers in Italy, what- 
ever it may be to the consuming portion of the popula- 
tion, and is equivalent to a protective tax of ten per 
cent. In this manner it is probable that paper money 
will be continued for many a loug ^ear, or until some 
quite unforeseen chauge takes place in the condition of 
Europe. We may now turn to the results of the investi- 
gations into special industries. 

Silk, — In the course of the last two years, the wages 
of workpeople in the ribbon trade have risen about 20 
per cent. There are about 300 ribbon looms in 
Hedmont; but before the treaty of commerce with 
France, concluded some years ago in order to keep in 
good favour with the Napoleonic govemmeut, that num- 
ber was double what it is now, so that it would appear 
that without protection this branch of manu£BU!4;ure can- 
not compete with St. Etienne, in France, and it was 
suggested as essential that the present import duty 
should be increased from 1^ to 6 per cent., and that the 
duty should be paid according to weight, instead of 
ad valorem as at present. In the united silk-ribbon 
miUsin Turin, the silk is dyed in the building. There are 
190 power looms, half of mese being looms for common 
ribbons, and half Jacquard looms, for figured and fancy 
ribbons: they have also 180 machines for silk and 
woollen fabrics. Most of the power is furnished by Ihe 
nill-Btream passing through the premises, but an 
auxiliary engine is erected, which is required in seasons 
of drought. About 350 women and girls, and 50 men are 
employed, at wages varying from 1 J to 2| francs per diem. 
The velvet looms in Turin were 50 in number before 
the treaty of commerce with France, and are now 
reduced to 25 ; the workmen have consequently emigrated 
largely to France, and wages have increased by nearly 
one-half. 

A, great deal of discussion took place upon the neces- 
sity of a greater subdivision of labour in the manufac- 
ture of suk stuffs. Workmen are obliged to be able to 
make all kinds of goods, according to the demand, as is 
indeed too frequently the case in Italy with most 
branches of manufacture. At Como, however, only one 
class of silk goods is made, viz., plain silk, and this is 
decidedly preferable, and has been found to work well. 
A great difficulty is experienced in obtaining good de- 
signers and good dyers ; so that oip to this time a con- 
siderable quantity of raw silk is sent to France to be 
dyed, and then returns to be spun and woven. Solei's 
celebrated silk manufactory, which was founded in Turin 
a century .ago, has 100 looms, of which two-thirds are for 
rich damasked stuffs, unrivalled in point of beauty and 
taste, and too little Imown out of Italy, where they are 
much esteemed. This manufacturer has a retail shop 
in the town for the sale of his products. 



Baw silk is now subjected to such a hm^wy 
duty in France that it is next to impossible to c* 
in that market, but it is sent to England and Oei 

Wool. — ^The spinning of woollen yams is oarxie 
various towns of Piedmont. The late wsir in. i 
has proved very beneficial to its development^ l>u 
are many obstacles to be contended witiu 

In the manufacture of woollen goods, the treaty c 
merce with France was pronounced to be injurioi 
the price of carriage in Italy by railway fax* too 
on tne other hand, the paper currency has prove 
advantageous, the more so on account of tlio t 
tions in the price of the gold necessary for payn 
purchases abroad on the part of tradesmen. It « 
suggested that it was a matter of great momex 
mul-streams should be more carefully attended to 
to give a more constant supply of water, wliich 
fails during the seasons when the Alps do not i 
water. The large woollen mills erected in Taiin 
or two ago by Ghbilloppo, of Biella, dispose of 200 
power furnished by the mill-stream, and poeso 
looms, of which 300 are still idle from want of 
hands, the population of the city being new 1 
class of work. 

Silk Spinning and Silkioorm-r earing. — ^The pr 
skilled labour in the spinning mills of Piedmoni 
per cent, less than in France, and this is higlily \ 
tageous to this trade. Some towns levy a hurtful 
the entrance of fuel ; for instance, in Asti, it is 7 
per ton ; this tax it would be desirable to remove, 
price of fuel is high in itself at all times. It "wai 
sidered advisable to increase the production of ^ 
silkworms, as these furnish the best silk for twist 
since so heavy an import duty has been establisj 
France, it might be attemptea with advantage to ] 
market for this article at Genoa, instead of sendixii 
hitherto, to Marseilles, often to be exported again^ 

It was suggested that scientific research into tb 
worm disease was too exclusivelv directed towari 
worms themselves, whereas probably the crauflo 
disease might be attributed to the leayes of tli« 
berry tree. Silk weavers will not suffer materia 
the French tariffs just introduced under the xc] 
it is rather the silk manufcicturers who have to vnb 
the disastrous consequences of the treaty of oomr 
and many of them have been compelled to doM 
business. 

Tanning Leather. — Owing to the improyementa 
duced in the manufactories in Piedmont, theimpoi 
of morocco leather has become very '""gr^'flffBTit ; 
was considered advisable for the progress of thi^ 
ness to increase the duties on leaUier, and diminial 
on hides, although it may be remarked that skin 
the wool on are exempt from all import doty. B 
hides are largely imported from India and 
America into Genoa, while Italian hides may be 
dered as supplying about half the demand. Sin 
late war, a considerable exportation of cattle has b 
these are sent to France by the Mont Cenis tunn« 
the price of meat in northern Italy has conseq^ 
increased by nearly one-half ; but, howeyer he« 
heightening the price of food, it was not consider 
very injurious to the leather manufacturer. II 
stated that the railway tariff for leather was &r too 
and needed reduction ; and with reelect to tanniuj 
terials it was found impossible to procure them 
places beyond Home. Fifteen hundred workm« 
engaged in the manufacture of leather in the i 
bourhood of Turin ; the price of wages has inc] 
20 per cent, of late. 

Xidand Lamb-skin Olovet. — This mannfactnre flou 
and a considerable exportation takes place to F 
and South America ; but the constant exportati 
animals to the former country is yery much felt^ ai 
creases the price of the article. Gloves made in * 
and Milan, though more expensive than those ma 
Naples, are incomparably better. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIlrfY OF ARTS, January 10, 1878. 



127 




9f JceowU BookM is oarriod on with 
Mb, tad the work tamed out is in no re- 
to that which comes from France; but the 
of the goods by railway proyes a great 
totbeeiteosion of this trade. 
Afcfwy.—It was objected that the GrOYemment had 
•cbooli for printing in the military peniten- 
of 6*f0iu and Gaeta, and Uiat these interfered 
with priTate enterprise. Large government 
wen likewise stated to be very objectionable, 
g; at thsy necessarily do, all competition, the 
s» Si a new gtipolation had been made that all the 
should be executed in the city of Rome itself, 
» ky no means necessary or advisable. Railway 
bf quick trains for printed matter are very high, 
employed both too great and too irregular. 
and venerable editor Pomba stood up 
of his profiBSsion, asserting that printing 
s iboal art, although it was the custom of the 
to look upon it as a mere mechanical one, 
isoon to open a printing office was now ob- 
\rf application to the police-office, instead of sub- 
4s oiDciidates, as was once the case, to a vigo- 
esuainatjon of capacity. To the same cause he 
theintrodnotiofi of many establishments un- 
b( the art they exercise, in which the most de- 
sad pernicious kind of literature is prepared 
L Us also alluded to the &ct of his having pro- 
the (brmation of a vast central depot for all 
pnitBd in Italy, to be erected, provided he sue- 
' in obtaining sufficient snpport m Florence, and 
booksdlers could apply when they want any 
whstever, sure to find a few copies at once, with- 
1b gnat trouble and expense of corresponding with 
publisher, a facilitation peculiarly neces- 
iis ooantry where there are so many centres for 
snd scientific publications, and where books 
io ooe city are almost unknown in many others, 
vast of snch a depot. 

. — ^The lithographic stones come from 
; the stooM found at Bassano and near Pavia 
■bees in Italy are not at all suitable for the 
Ink and colours are also procured from Gkr- 
Bbinm of labour is one of the most essential 
IB this ait» for the draughtsman who has to 
Mything is materially iinured. Hitherto it has 
Ml necessary to keep fixed hours, whereas in 
§m artistic work is done at the houses of the 
each of whom is known for his expertness 
kaaches. lithography was consider^ as an 
■apbyment for females, and is likely to be 
to them. The artists employed are Swiss, 
German. Italians are not yet procurable 
, as they do not think it sufficiently sure of 
smplovxnent. A good school of design for 
Ihs srt of litiiography was considered as highly 
■id the president took up the idea very favor- 
Boafaing to consider it. The lithographic 
as Torineee. Devon's lithographic estabUsh- 
linm city, probably the largest in the country, 
Miworkment and has 30 hand presses and 5 
with a steam engine. He turns 
of work except maps, which it appears no 
office in the country is able to execute 

.|^ i f — i Mr ii ii . — ^The price of labour has increased 
[Hi sWsl 25 per cent, but the paper currency has 
/'. &v^ble/bypermi^Vmakersto com. 
' oliMBr countries. Two requirites were much in- 
^ the regulation of the mill streams, and the 
fsf nilvay taiiA on paper. 

this trade is felt greatly the want of 

among the worlmien, which, with the 

/i& France, rendersthe exportation of fumi- 

'iapoanble for the present. Unfortunately. 

^sf ditigii Ibunded by Professor Giusti fell to 

*ibitit WIS pcoposed to re-establish it, inorder 



that art should be instilled intd all objects of common 
use, down to a simple lock and key or a stirrup. In such 
a manner alone could Italy hope to maintain her mu- 
tation for art, which is now much neglected. The 
town dues on the introduction of new furniture at 
the gates varies considerably according to the place ; 
thus in Turin it is 24s. shUUngs per ton, in Florence 
12s., in Rome 40s., in Naples £20! This abso- 
lutely prevents manufacturers in other parts of Italy 
fr^m introducixig their goods for sale in so large a city. 
Martinotti, of Turin, employs 140 workmen, half of 
whom by piece-work and the rest by time ; the men get 
as much as three francs per diem, and the value of the 
furniture made is about £6,000. A still larger manu- 
fEictory, furnished with the most improved machines, 
exists in Turin, and belongs to Levera, Brothers. 

Umbrella Manufacture, — These are now made exclu- 
sively of Italian materials ; thus, the silk comes from 
Como, the sticks and iron work from other towns of 
Italy. The high price of gold has greatly favoured the 
manufacture in the country. 

Pianofortes, — Upwards of 800 pianofortes are yearly 
manufactured in the city of Turin, which supplies 
almost Uie entire Italian markets, besides their being 
largely exported to South America. These instruments 
are sold at prices varying between £12 and £60, but not 
higher ; they are generally sold with the names of 
foreign makers, for which they frequently pass current 
with the public. The import duties on the materials 
employed was considered as prejudicial, on account of its* 
high rate, and as thus demanding reduction. Wages- 
have increased 20 per cent, within the last year. 

Agricultural Implements and Machinery, — This manu- 
facture is thriving, though exercised but on a small scale,, 
and for certain articles, so that it is quite of second-rate 
importance. Mechanics accustomed Jto this particulav 
branch of work are difficult to procure, so that each 
manufacturer has to train them himself. When divi- 
sion of labour will have become practicable, the- 
makers will profit largely. Great difiScolt^ is experi- 
enced in the high price of coals, but this mi^ht to some 
extent be overcome if they were sent by railway from 
France, the more so as iron ore is abundant throughout 
Northern Italy. The municipal dues on coke and nu- 
merous other materials employed in the manufacture 
vary so considerably in the (ufiferent towns, that the 
heads of £eM3tories stand on very unequal footings ; and it 
was considered that a remedy could be easily applied by 
introducing a law applicable to the entiro kingdom, 
that all towns should levy a fixed duty on certain 
raw materials employed in manufacture, but especially 
on fuel, for these are worked up in the towns, but im» 
mediately afterwards sent off to all parts of the country^ 
including districts outside the octroi limits. 

Fhiloaophical and Scientific Instruments, — A large 
quantity of nautical instruments, such as quadrants^ 
sextants, ship's compasses, &c., made in Tuiin^ 
have fr^uently been sold in G^noa by tradesmen 
with the name of English manu&ctures, even to the- 
government, for the use of the royal navy, for 
that service will only purchase such articles as are made 
in England. Theodolites with English names on theab 
are lixewise manufactured here, such is the value of 
a name. The forced paper currency has greatly favoured 
this manufacture. Telegraphic apparatus employed oa 
the Italian railways is entirely purchased abroad, 
whether at Vienna or in Switzerlfuid, but Allemanno, of 
Turin, asserted that he was perfecU^r in a condition to 
supply this branch of the public service with instruments 
as good as those obtained from other countries. 

Weights and Measures, — The principal manufactory of 
these articles in Turin, belonging to Decker, employs 
100 workmen ; but weights and measures are also im- 
ported, and these are sometimes employed in the rail- 
way stations. 

Printing and Lithographic Presses, — ^The only mann- 
^ factory of these in the kingdom is in Turin, an'' "^ ' 



128 



JOUBNAL OF THE BOCIETY OP AETS, Javuabx 10, 1878. 



boMMM protpen ; for wheieaf only ^0 prewBi were made 
aimnally prefvione to the war in France, 160 are now 
tnmed out, not to mention Acoeoioriee for printing 

Maihntff'pUmty Iron Bridf«$^ Boilert^ ^e. — ^It was ftated 
Ihnt if the import dnties on rolled iron of Tarions fonne, 
•nch as are employed lor these purposes, were rsduoed, 
the whole of the plant for railways could easily be made 
in Italy. The differential tariffs for the oazriage of goods 
for distances exceeding 600 kilometres, or 3l6 English 
miles, has proved very beneficial in enabling manu- 
^EU^torers to supply plant for Southern Italy. 

Cards far Woiliim and Cotton Manufacture, — >It appeared 
4hat the duties on the raw materials employed, such as 
leather and iron wire, was double that for cards ready 
made and imported from abroad, and it was suggested 
that this anomaly should cease — the more so as iron 
^nre made at Leooo (Como) was not sufficiently good 
for the puipose, and it was necessary to employ English 
wire. Leather and its substitutes are also imported into 
Italy, the peculiar kind used being iax bett^ made in 
other countries. 

£arthemoare Stoves, — It is customary to use stOTes for 

burning wood made of refractory clay, and Uiese are 

mauut'aoinred on a very extensive scale for Northern 

Italy, at <Castellammonte (Turin), but the patterns are 

4dl onoient, and absolutely doToid of taste, so that it was 

etated to be extremely necessary to establish a school of 

design for the instruction of Uie workmen of the little 

town of Gastellammonte, which lives entirely by this 

art, and where excellent refractory clay is procured. 

Young men Aould also be instructed in chemistry, to 

enable them thoroughly to understand the processes of 

firing and glasing — this last having been hitherto beyond 

the reach of the makers — and the proper manipulation of 

the materials employed. 

Briek'makinp. — Chinaglia's continuous brick-kilc, 
patented and worked in Turin, combines Uie various 
•operations of drying and baking, and can be worked with 
the inferior kinds of fuel to be obtained in the country, 
lignite, turf, and even artificial fuel, an economy result- 
ing of about 40 per cent, over the common kilns. By 
extending the use of ornamental bricks for the fr^Mite of 
houses, instead of the plaster generally employed, this 
art would be greatly benefited, but hitherto the price of 
carriage by railway is too high to permit of brioln being 
conveyed long distances — ^for instance, beyond Bologna 
— in spite of the differential tariffs for goods sent up- 
wards of 600 kilometers. 

Beet-root ^a^or.— Prof. Peyrone, who has lately 
(analysed many samples of beet-roots, spoke rather dis- 
•couragingly of the prospects of introduoing the manu- 
facture ot beet-root sugar into Italy, mentioning that an 
establishment of this kind, commenced many years ago 
near Naples, and another in the Tuscan provinces, had 
<x>mpletely failed, on account of the poor results of the 
sugar. He was convinced that there was no deficiency 
of saooharine principles, but he urged that, on account 
of the abundance of chlorides and nitrates in the soil, a 
oonsidtrable proportion of the sugar was uncrystallisable, 
and would be only fit for making alcohol.* The com- 
mission invited Prof. Peyrone to maturo well his studies 
on the suliject, the moro so as a word from such an 
authoiity would go fu to shake public opinion, now 
turned so energetically to the manufieboturo of sugar in 
this country, and as numerous companies aro starting 
up on all sides, both for making beet-root and sorgho 
4rogar. 



* This ia th« opinloD of a good chenilft, and d«Mrv«t matare 
«oiuid«ratioo in the choice of the aoil ; but probably it U too abeo. 
lit* °**"y •oil* are extremelv saline, others agala are very defi- 
cient in nitrates and chlorides. Mumeroos manotactoriesof beeUroot 
•ogar are sprln^afT op. One near Arerio, beyond Florence, and 
another new* Anacni ( Borne), give promising results. The Couuneo- 
'Utore Derlncenti hss likewise introduced the cultivation, near 
*raino,on the AdrJailo coast, in his estate, and experimented on the 
lafMtnre. Beet- root is belog gro» nln many places as an exi'eri- 
Vaad aot a few oompotut penons are rwy laogaiat of laooaH. 



Bonm for Mmmre. — ^TtMie are exMrlsd at pmeol 
but when th^ are more iqipvedatsd for the piepan 
tion of artificial manorss by the extraetioQ of th 
phosphates, the w^KirtatMo will be replaced by iaaporti 
tion, as has taken plaoe in Gecmany, owing to the labou 
of loebig. 

TJko Govormment M oe k t mi u U Works for ike S^pip • 
tke Army, in Turin, tnms out some £180,000 woiUic 
work yearly, the city having subscribed £8,000 tomud 
the erection of the building, in order to oUain it withi 
its jurisdiction. The direotur, Coktnel Delia Ci,ooo 
siUcnred that it would be highly advantageous to orgioM 
similar establishments in each military distriot, by vfaio 
about 60 centres of manufMsturo would be at cnoe oretts 
in the kingdom. Begarding the materials empbys^ 
the needles for sewing machines aro pnrohased abroad 
the varnished leather and sheet iron, the iron win an 
varnished pieces of steel for harness idl come from otlM 
oountries. 

Trade in Cloth, WooUon^ and otkor Goods^lt wi 
stated that the manufacture of these goods had bee 
greatly facilitated by the extension of tmll-streama, u 
the employment of hydraulic power, and by the faioe 
paper currency. Carriage by railway was declaied t 
be far too expensive, so that a case sent to Salerno, m 
far beyond Naples, costs moro than a similar one M 
from Leeds to Turin. The division of labour, snd t) 
specialisations of manufactories, wero again much h 
sisted on, as essential to the prosperity of this busineii 

Gtass Manmfaoture, — In the litUe town of Intn, on U 
Lago Maggioro (Novara), glass is still made, while mo 
of the oUier manu&ctories have been dosed, owing 1 
the scarcity of fuel, rather than to the want of skill 
the workmen. Oommon glass vessels aro imported fro 
France at. very low prices. Window glass of smill m 
is made at Intra ; luge sheets aro imported. 

Faper Mamtfacture. — ^English, Fronoh, ^wias, ai 
Gkrman workmen aro employed in this manufactoi 
which would succeed far better wero it not for t] 
immense exportation of rags to America, to avoid wku 
it was stated as important to inoraaae the export dol 
Great complaints were made against the railways for ti 
way in which they driver goods. JE^vary kind of p^ 
is made, including that with 25 per cent of wm 
During the last ten years the importation of paper b 
diminished about one-third. 

Iron Manufacture, — ^It was stated to be advisable 
take off the import duty on Swedish iron in the n 
state, to enable it to be' worked up in Italy. It « 
also said that steel paid too heavy an import duty, » 
steel implements too little. 

File Making, — The cemented steel employed csxmot 
obtained sufficiently good in the country, but the imp 
tax weighs too heavily on the makers. Laurenti, 
Turin, employs 140 workmen in his file works, m 
mentioned that, sinoe the late war, this business h 
greatly increased. 

The director of the mnnioipal taxes levied at t 
gates of Turin alluded to the fadlitiee afforded in tl 
city by the drawback on oertatn articles sent ont 
the town again ; thus on many food and oheoucal pa 
ducts the sum allowed as drawbaok, during sou 
thing moro than two years, amounted to half a milli 
pounds sterling. No tax is levied, as is the case in otl 
towns, on many raw products used in the manutectur 
and seconds flour for the labouring rlsnsnn ia now exeo 
from. dues. 

Gold Laoe and JW s is uV yf .— The gold and ailvar ia na 
up in France ; the yams aro spun in Italy. Trimmix 
aro also largely imported. 

Cotton Manufacture, — Borne cotton oomea frtnn Amer 
to Piedmont. Indian raw cotton has found a ready n 
and comes from Bombay to (>enoa, vik the Bues Oaxi 
in Italian steamers. Southern Ital v also famishes oott 
to the sub-alpine provinces. Half the yams employ 
aro introduoed from England, especially the finer kin 
It is difficult to compete beyond iiamher40, although 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 10, 1873. 



129 





atfhiglias80mM>meraTecaaefl. It was 

1,100 tons of yam were spun in the 

at £1,500,000. Water is the motive 

emplojed, fdel being too expensiye for 

Mof theyear. The spinning machineiy 

it was nniyenaUy pronounoed to be a foUy 

eactee it in Italy, and therefore the import da^ 
icdncCioB, to permit spinners to compete witn 
aUtariral as Manchester. By paving daty 

^^ erf wife rrjw , increasing in propcniion to the 

ths si a m i fi ictarers could compete more easily 

Thepaper currency has permitted spinners who 

their mills, to open them again. A sciiool is 

Bd for instruction in weaving. A Manchester 

wd do &r more work in a cotton mill than a 

■ta% although he certainly has higher wages. 

Hi* hand, wages have increased 10 per cent, of 

AImI tkree-fomrtbs of the cotton goods sold in 

sn af En(^ish make. Now that Alsace forms 

i^ Ihi Otfnun empire, the manufactory of Anneci 

Itepnpoae to print cotton goods, which was im- 

8» loog as Mulhausen belonged to France, on 

if the toeaty of commerce wiUi that country. 

'^ '*s carpet manufactory at Vinovo (Turin), 

m a chfne s ; he makes carpets with foreign 

Bd, but has not succeeded in getting 

Rngtish carpets compete very serioudy 

9 in the country. The ad vaiormn du^ 

in ooflntradi ct ion to opinions expressed on 

bat with heavy penalties in cases of 



-fisy* 




Stmp 099dt. — ^Flaz yams from numbers to 

I in the town of Foirius (Turin) ; higher 

an obtained frmn Belgium, Kngland, and 

The hempen yams are exdusivefy national. 

, is given oot to the workmen at their own 

\1mf nnmber about 1,200, and employ exdu- 

of antiquated construction. 
. b— The tptings and axles of the wheels of 
isrs pcooarcd from England. Oarriages are 
B abvoad on a very small scale. In the case 
common veh i dea, everything is made in 
i in the other manufiMtoriea of the country, 
r (k m Hu md 8omp, — ^These are made with 
lla|mfereiiee to tallow, as it furnishes glycerine 
k Half the tallow used in the large 
' of Lnim Brothers, in Turin, is frumished 
itself; the rest is imported from Russia 
Aa there is a great expense to incur for 
, Iwayv these goods cannot be sentto Southern 
'M the ZMirthem provinces they sustain the 
1 if Belgian and Dutch stearine candles. The 
iiqMrted to America. One hundred tons of 
I eoqilojjred in the same manufactory in the 
I, of which 300 tons are sold in Piedmont. 
sC woricmen is 200, and the increase of 
WMi to per cent 

i#iir#. — WHh the establishment of a 
ttie art of dyeing, it was considered 
^^^^™ with other countries in such a town 
(w wiua), where the manufiusture of woollen 
[ *]iyy qtBPsiTely carried on, and has increased 
i^Mslhs last ten years. It appears, frt>m the 
■is, that it was considered impossible to 
^9bo4b, wfaidi require great skill m worldng 
IS a baiter class of cloth is made with success. 
JiM mannfaotory of Rossi, in Turin, the 
"ed was purchased in France. It was 
could produce oil from seeds, not only 
. ticn, but also for exportation, and that 
tjjirf dsBirable to have a market for oil-seeds 
Owft oil-cake is now much employed in the 
nid flf Bologna, where it is sent, but that 
littaDlotdfy unsaleable. If the coat of 
heavy, oil seeds could be brought by 
India. 
\ Tntkcii government having oom- 







menced a monopoly of matches, numerous French manu- 
facturers will probably emigrate, and, the supply they 
formerly sent to America ceasing, Italy will be able to 
compete in that distant market, so that it may be said 
that this manufacture is now in the most favourable con- 
dition. It would be requisite to put an export duty on 
bones, on account of the phosphorus they contain. Eight 
hundred workmen are employed in the manufactory of 
De Medici, in Turin, and a branch at PiolesL Matohes 
are now exported by hitd to Austria, while the movo- 
ment used formerly to be in the contrary direction. 

J)ye Extroeti, — A manufactoiy of this new branch of 
industry has just been opened at Susa (Turin). Hitherto 
France furnished this article to Uie spinner. 

Carriage by Railway. — ^After baring heard so many 
complaints and observations against the system of work- 
ing the railways and the tariffs by goods trains as now 
in use, the commission invited Commander Amilhau, 
director of the North Italy Railway Company, to explain 
his rie ws regarding the anomalies asserted to exirt, hoping 
that if they were well founded it might lead t» the 
removal of the inconveniences, and fadutato the intro- 
duction of modifications advantageous to the country at 
large. It may be mentioned that the North Italy Rail- 
way posseses all the lines from the Mont Cenis Tunnel 
to Florence and Pisa, with the railway from Turin to 
Venice and the Austrian frontier bevond XJdine, also the 
line from Alexandria to Genoa and the French frontier 
near Nice, and the innumerable branches in all thi» 
populous part of Italy. 

Commander Amilhau said that the price of coals had 
increased formidably, so that whereas they cost 34 firancs- 
per ton {£1 7s. 2d.), they must be now procured at nearly 
double that amount, whence, he asserted, that it was im- 
possible to diminish the tariff without compromising the 
existence of the company. In carriage of goods, the 
fixed expenses were a lar^e item, so that the company 
gained tar less on the cama^ for short distances than 
for long ones. The mean distance run by the trains is 
64 miles, asninst 87 on the lines of the South Italy- 
Railway. The rolling-stock consists of 800 locomotivo 
engines, 11,000 waffgons, and 2,600 carriages. The line 
from Turin to thi Mont Cenis Tunnel has proved very 
productive, giring just £1,000 per mile, or 40,000 francs 
per kilometre ; but the reason why goods from (Geneva 
and the rest of Switzerland sent to the Mediterranean 
coast are shipped at Marseilles instead of at Gknoa, is 
that the French lines (Paris to Lyons and the Mediter- 
ranean) charge only 42 francs per ton from Geneva to 
Marseilles, and for the short distance from Gkneva to 
the Mont Cenis Tunnel, 29 francs, leaving onl^ 13 francv 
for the carriage thence to Gknoa, which is absurd. 
Thus, the noble tunnel of the Alps is well-nigh cut out 
of the main line of traffic with Central Europe, and Italy 
loses all the Swiss transit trade, which will be only 
secured definitively by the St Gothard line, now being 
made. 

The North Italy Company purchases the engines, 
rails, and metals abroad. Of ttie £400,000 it lays out 
in other materials, £340,000 is spent abroad, and £60,000 
in Italy. 

^tfi#.— The province of Alessandria, where wines are 
grown on a larger scale than in any other, produoes 
1,000,000 hectolitres, or 22,000,000 imperial ^ons, of 
which 25,000 are made by the Italian Vinicole Company, 
at Asti, founded, with a capital of £120,000, within the 
last year. Italy furnished 1,146,000 bottles of wine 
exported to South America during the year 1871, and of 
this quantity it was stated that two-thirds were sent 
from the province of Alessandria. The Cavaliere 
Manfredo Bertone di Sambuy, who has a great reputa- 
tion as being one of the first wine growers in Itely, 
considered that it was necessary to extend the knowledge 
of the grapes themselves, as when the innumerable 
varieties of g^pes are mixed together, instead of care- 
fully keeping them apart, an inevitable consequence is 
that the wine made is of inferior quality. The manipu- 



180 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jawhabf 10. 1873. 



Ifttien of the grftpas requives mndb ffreaiar oare Hhtm. i« 
bertowed od it by the ommuta. He aaBured the Oom- 
Biition Ihat «oieDtifio labomtones might he very good 
IB their ivfty, hot that the •■■eatinl point wasie teach in 
pntotioAl eofaMlfl, to be eatahliahed rather in the mmi 
JUetriots thanin the towns. Wine ahould be made on 4» 
•pot 'by theaen^eral growers, and not b^ pensoaaooenpyang 
ihemaelyas exdnsirely with this basuiesa, who puMtkase 
licapes on all aides, as a miituie of the Tarioua qaalities 
IS too apt to take place in the latter case. Onoe made, 
wine could beeold to those whose oecapation is to mami- 
fActose and psspare it for the aoTe^ markets, each 
«aimlry having a diiierent taste, wines exported to 
England being unsaleable if sbipped to So«^ Ameiioa. 
The export doty levied on wines is one fr^nc for every 
hsetolitee, or 14)d. for every 22 impMial gallons, when in 
baarels, aad 66 centimes on eveiy case of 12 bottles, 
^nal to one hal^enny per bottle, so that bottled wine 
«an with diffionl^ be exported. It is not, however, the 
«am paid on wine CKported in barrds whidi is to be 
ooanpkined of^ «o mnch m tiie £M)t of the opening of 
these barrels at the Custom-heuse, where a certain quan- 
tity is sure to run out letting in aoonesponding aoMHisit 
of air, which spoils the whole of the wine left behind. 
When propeily mada aloohol should never be mined 
with the wiBQ, whit^ has sufficient spirit in itself. 

r«r«u^M.-— The export duty on vermouth is very in* 
iurioBS to Uus manufooture, nor is it possible to decide 
how muoh spirit it generally requires to be added to the 
wine. This article ia a epeciality of Piedmont and 
France. The exportation is chiefly to South America, 
the licvant, and India. One house exports dOd,000 
Htres, or 11,<MMMM)0 «raUons. The trade with foreign 
countries appears to be not muoh less than twenty ^^old 
v?hat it was a fsw yean age. 

Vopfitr Miming ^ tke VcUlty o/jUaim,^¥n9l is not aoaree 
Cor the mooMnt, but in the couise of a few years the trees 
will be alllielled if metallurgy is extended there. Though 
there is a mining school at Aosta, there are no stud^iits 
in it, for these who are employed in these mines have not 
sufficient geotral instruction to avail themselves of it. 

jirtiijieial Fiowera — From £80.000 to £100.#00 worth 
<kf arteUksial flowers, and elements composing them, such 
as pistils, stamens, leaves, Ac, are imported into Italy. 
The duty was declared to be too low on the made flowers, 
being only eight franos per kilogram. Hitherto the 
elements employed are exclusively of foreign make. 
•&ano, «f Tarin, makes about £4.000 worth of artificial 
flowers, whieh are sold in Itnly ; the artistic beaut> of the 
work he turns out is snoh that they are in no w»y inferior 
to the best made in Franoe, and they are highly esteemed 
in this country. 

EaHbmwmr$ — Basio, of Mondovi, Cuneo, employs 120 
workmen, many of whom frequent evening schools, and 
are docile and disciplined. Owin? to the low import 
duly, French pottery competes greaUy with that macbin 
the country. 

SoTffko Suyar.-^-Thi^ sorgho plant is now onltivatod 
atChiuasso, Turin, where 1,300 tons of sorgho canes will 
be treated this«eason. Last year already eight tons of 
sug^ir were manufiEictufcd by this company, and 30 tons 
of treacle. The mean price of the sorgho canes is thirteen 
ahillings per ton. A hectare of ground yields 500 francs* 
worth of sorgho in mean, which is equal to £8 per acre. 

finch weretiie diief resultsof the inquiry at Turin. The 
readers of the Journal will bear in mind that these notes 
are placed in the same order in which the inquiries were 
made, whence there is no classification, and it would have 
been a gratuitous labour to attempt to alter the arrange- 
ment. Although referring exclusively to a part of Italy, 
containing about 4,000,000 inhabi^nts, this part is un- 
questionably one of the most interesting, advanced, and 
prosperous m sn industrial point of view, and the inform- 
ation is equalled in importHnce only by what was elicited 
at the Milan meeting of the commission. Hence it will 

t iail to be read carefully in England. It is to be 
ed likewise that it may lead to inoreased ^ 



relations hetwaeo tiie two oonatriss, by showing ^sta^^ 
vast field is opened for the esnploynient of capital, wd^" 
what rapid ttndea in indnstiiii progfees are bemgsMis. 



■»n 



14 



IJ 



-'J 



.\ 



'**' 



EDTCIATIOlilAL CONFEREKCE. 

A onulweiioe, caUad by ths Social Sessnoe A 
and the Sohoilastio Bei^atratioii Assodation, sod tim • 
sisting of teachers and others intereslpd in sdosititf^ .-u 
was held on Tuesday and Wednesday in theTooMsoT lis : j 
Sooiety, whidi were lent for the purpose. Losd NafHf :3 
and Ettriok presided. I^ object of the co n fawace «« .. 
to consider questioes affeoting mainly the «duo8boa4i.-j 
the middle (dasses. 'i 

Mr. Bsrrow Rule said private aohools wen in Aug* 
of being, to a large estent, snpeiseded, snd it «ti Ikl 
duty of all friends of education to 4o what they cooMli 
ntiliae all efficient existing tiaehem. He advogrtcdlii 
passing of a Bcgistntion Act, and proposed a fiill «M 
would provide the advantages of centralisation, '^^^ 
would m no way tend to oreate a monopdv ; and «til| 
not interfere with the liberty of individual maftsn. « 
the stimulus of private and public ent si prise. H«prs* 
posed that the mf^^Mire should iadnde agenawls cbalijl 
council, to cotnast of six persons of ««peFiisoe,noaiisii4 
by the Pi ivy Council— one re pre sentative each tea A^ 
principal universities, a representative eadi kmn tti 
College of Pieeeptom and the Ednoational Insfeilits« 
Scotland, and seven representatives of registwsd yw^ ^ 
chosen from their own body, viz., three for EogM .^ 
two for ScotJand, and two for Ireland. 

In the discussion which foUowed, ths ^l'^'*^.^ 
gentlemen took part i — ^^Ir. <Fitch, Mr. O. Bvitingaj ^^ 
Oppler, Mr. PsyB**, the Bev. A. Bing, Mr. WsymeiJ ^^ 
the Bev. Brooke Lambert, Mr. W vies. F.G.B.. sod H^ 
Mast. The last two f^entlenMNa proposed, and the inaiti| ^,^ 
carried, the ibllowing resolutien :— ** HiaMheOosattU^I^ 
of the Scholastic Begiatralion Association be t*''^ 
to sketch a Bill whi^ when accepted by the Asa 
shall be placed in the hands of a member of 
lor introduction in the House of CoBsaons, with the 
of being eaaeted into law ; and thai the Cooaeil (tf 
Social Science Assooiation be requested to afiicd tl 
co-operation, and use their infiuenoe for the asme «)^ 

The discussion in the afternoon was '*0q thsoeov^.^ 
bility of the Inspection and Systemalso fisamioalicai 
Endowed Schools. The oonferenoe weaprendtd overs ' 
the Bev. A. Bigg. The subject was then intvodnoidt ^ 
Mr. Wajmiouth, who quoted from the Endowed ScW 
Commissioners' B«*port to show the inefficient itots * ' 
many of ^e endowed schools in the country. Insp-cM 
and ezaminattion in endowed schools was also sdvooii ^ 
by Mr. Pears, on the growid that it was an eiseMg ' 
machinery for keeping schools np to the naik. M 
Porter, Mr. Hastings, and others, took pert intWdn ■ 
cussion. On the motion of the Bev. Brouke I«*>*'j| 
seconded by Mr. Waymouth, it whs rssolved, '^thst fli ^ 
meeting calls the attention of the two societies rrpft 
sented here to the importance of elaborating sooie pi* < 
for the examination of endowed schools." 

On Wednesday the first proposition discn«ed wss" 
**That Uie local examinations condncted ^^* 
Universities of Oxford and Osanbridge Bh(»uld SKUndt 
all the pupils, and to all the sa b j eots taught in •■« 
school examined." The Bev. Br. Abbott head-natfe 
of the City of London Hohool, introduced the qu«*iit 
He advocated an ectension of the Oxford and Csvbcidg 
examination, so as to constitnte a leaving exa min^'* 
as in Gtennany, conducted by the c}aas<masten of te 
grade and second grade schools, under ^e sup*rvi«a 
of sn examining branch, and open to all eandidstst 
The Bev. A. Bigg spoke on the same queation. 

Mr. C. H. Lako, B A., read a second paper on Ik 
question — **In order to bring these exaninatioos witha 
reach of the whole aohool, is it not absolutely m osa wf t 



>^T1ttIAL OF THB aOOIErTY OP ABT8, Jawab* 10, 1873 



131 



' '*'^W''^S: LT-r^u^*?' ^ "» '^"»"y <«" "f »!»«'* e^en^ 



ftxafnin a- one's r^ach. 



l^r th^ R«^ A ^?7 J® may Boggwt that bewdes the publwhed 
" pZ.^ iLr ■P^*^*****^^ >twlf. ^e have a weaHy— not a monthly— 
"^ears, Mr. pablication, which gives u» an abridgment of the specifi- 



'i'iUy the 
•m of 



• y 
riv 



*ni {, 



, .y.*»' 



"ti »a of 

logJtlly- 

",.r ''i^ adequate 
-'^ in teach- 

J t:i h, nnd others took part, and 

,,«m< re«olutiong w«e accepted :- 

I inir of ancient endowments, pre 

'T. for the enoonrageinentof takited 

'rJZ%o^M be able to prosecnte their 

■ ** '^ fS^aa th0r ^^'^^ on condition of 

^y *^ vrtoaimo*! examination." " That 

^^°*^ I^toiU to **»^'' ™* obetwsles in the 

« ao^ ""Pflfcaf ad«o«*tio«U energy in private 

'^•^'^g?!; li«B • rig** to demand that aU 
*.^ ^^Miditio» of pecogniticn, paw a oer- 
"^rfSr aoholart at a pablic examin»- 
^^^^109^"^^ a vote citiiaaketo 



^jjgBlCAl^ PATENT OFFICE. 

^filgat'oBoB hm recently begnn to 
■ ■iJfiiTf** io a eerial (brm. A book is to 
^tSiinir the entire specifications and 
f^^r^ diawinge of aU patents. No 

5SmiWK!»t«« ^^ y®^ **®**^ received by 
■"f j^H^ bnt ftoiD the account pven it 
*"*'^2SSi series. The technical journals 
^'^^^oofdiogly in<*»'^"« in a little jubila- 
•^V^oonnt, and depreciating the work of 

says that: — **The speciflca- 
f^i^!^A pat«nt» are issued in volumps 
'•5*^Siak Miohee, each weighing some 4J 
mil^MP^ s pubHcatii^n occupies about fifty 
TT^^ alooe, the drawinffs b«ing bound 
TaStionalvoloraes— 16X22X3 inches 
\J^ff|iiag about fifteen pounds each, 
^^^^t ot a year's issue reaches 976 
T^|r!S-tmi of prinW matter, all of 
*\Tqjjyi for the description of 3,000 
'^Jot a whi» dearer or ftiUer than our 
j*m voluiM^ On the above Englit*b 
it noiild lequtre about five hui^red 
'^^iMng in the aggregate over two 
"^MO&OB the same number of patente as 
_j llr 5 r^ eouotry, and which Commis- 
M to prist in thirteen comparatively 
10 ibe compMTative expoise of the 
ignnf is necessary. Aa a matter of 
y^gaatioiia miigiit as well remain 



jjaUon a few days after the specification is made public. 
True, we admit that these abridgments are not in all 
cases very well drawn, as they are made by the inventon, 
who have no special object in rendering them clear and 
' »d ; but, at all events, they B«rve as excellent guides to- 
rn tents of the specifications. Then we have th» 
nt classified series of abridgments, which, not 
' m^' m ido by the inventor but by qualified persona 
I • M|.]uy<Ml by the office, are in most instances extremely 
I v-iliMble records of ea-h special class of inventions. Not 
only has the American Patent-office nothing like these, 
but it has not even yet published all its specifications of 
former years. 

As to our publications being *• out of almost every one'a 
reach," there are thirteen complete sete of them distri- 
buted amongst the principal cities of America; and any 
Americfim inventor has only to go to one of the thirteen 
public libraries where these are preserved to obtain the- 
fullest possible information about every EngHsh patent 
that has ever been taken out on any subject whatever. 
The American Commissioners of Patents have over 
and over again acknowledged the value of our pub- 
lications, especially of the olaseified abridgments. In 
comparing the American and English patent offices; one 
thing is fdways forgotten, that in America many inven- 
tions are made the subject of a patent which with us axe 
merely registered. Hence the average length of an 
American patent is much shorter, and a greater number 
can consequently be oontuned in a smaller space. In 
spite of this, however, the weekly volume, at hitherto 
published by the States Patent-office, giving the entire 
specifications and dm wings, is quite as bulky as a volume 
would be composed of a week's English speoificationft 
similarly bound up. 

The arrangements of our own Patent-office are flnr 
from perfect, but we are deeidi^ty very considerably 
ahead of any other nation in this respect Wo have 
published, and accessible, a specification of every patent- 
that has been granted since specifications were first filed 
to the present time ; we have indexes that certainly^ 
in some cases, require revision and amalgamation, bnt 
are, for the most part, as elaborate and exhaustive as they 
can be made ; and we have smitll and cheap books giving 
a clear and brief account of all inventions reinting to* 
special subjects. To none of these can our friendly rivida 
across the Atlantic lay claim at preeent. Perhaps their 
known energy may enable them to overtake us, but they 
may wait awhile before they begin to boast. We are 
ahead of them still. 



0ns Streven reports that, the King of Bavaria ha* 
accorded his sanction to the plan of establishinir a school of 
art and iodustry for female ntudenta. In this institution no 
other studen*!* are to be admitted but those who have com- 
pleted their fifteenth year aad Huooeeded in passing their 
examination in elementary drawing. A monthly fee of 5s., 
will be chai^iped. 

The Amerioans have adopted a novel method of 
showing their appreciation of Mr. Bessemer's services to- 
g^'i'^nce. In the midst of one of the richet»t iron and oital die- 
tncts in Cincinnati they have begun to build a new city, 
which, fr>m its geographical position and local advantage^ 
will probably become one of the largest centres of trade 
in America. To this city they have given the name of 
Bessemer. 

The Prensh government is about to despatch 
a scientific million to expl'^re Central China. The mission 
is to be under the direction of M. Darby de Siersaint, French 
Consul at Canton. 

Aa exceedingly rich vein of copper, penetrating 
to a depth of 40 teet below the surface, has been diseo versa 
al Hope, Pennsylvania. 



132 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 10. 1878. 



CAVAlfiLA TOBACCO. 

The port of Cavalla, which, twenty-fire years ago was 
hardly, if at all, known to the commercial world, has of late 
years been gradually gaining in importance, and is at the 
present time one of the chief oatlets of the products of Mace- 
donia. According to the account g^ven by Vice-Consul 
Cortazzi this place has considerably gained since the to- 
bacco grown in the district — the staple commodity of the 
country — has been introduced into Germany, Russia, 
Italy, Austria, the Banubian Principalities, and Eng- 
land, all of these countries consuming considerable 
quantities of the article, which, though all produced 
from the same seed, is of different qualities. The qudities 
preferred by Germany, Austria, and Italy are grown in 
the districts 6f Drama and Sarishaban ; that of Drama 
is known by the name of " Bashi-baghli," owing to the 
leaves, some fifteen or twenty, being tied together by the 
stalks when being made ready for shipment ; and ** Bas- 
sama/' in which Uie plant is pressed together when under- 
going a similar process. It is, however, only an inferior 
sort of these descriptions, costing from 5Jd. to 9d. per 
pound, that finds its way into the above countries. 
The best quality, of a dark red colour, is more or less 
exclusively sent to Constantinople, to Russia, and to the 
Danubian Principalities, this latter quality realising on 
the spot from Is. 6d. to 2s. 4d. per pound. The annual 
produce of Drama, including Bashi-baghli, and Bassama 
IS estimated at from 2,100.000 lbs. to 2,450,000 lbs., that of 
Sarishaban to 1,400,000 lbs. The crop of 1871, an ex- 
ceptional year, was, however, calculated to yield over 
2,800,000 lbs., being more than 140,000 in excess of the 
crop of 1870 ; and that of Sarishaban 1,900.000 lbs., is 
about 70,000 more than the preceding year. Other de- 
scription of tobacco is also exported to these countries, 
such as the '* Mountain Bashi-baghli" and *' Demirli," 
(ferruginous), from the nature of the soil in which it 
grows. This latter quality is also called *^ Pravista," 
Pravista, three hours' distance from Cavalla, being the 
Bame of the district where this tobacco is grown. It is 
considered much inferior to that of Drama, fetching on 
the spot ^m l}d. to 4d. the pound. It is, however, this 
quality of tobacco, owing to its yellow colour, and, per- 
haps, its price, that is sought for in the English market. 
Kearly 1,600,000 lbs. were shipped to England in the 
course of the year 1871, being 685,000 lbs. more than in 
1870. The annual crop of Demirli is reckoned at 
2,000,000 lbs., though the yield of 1870 did not nearly 
reach that figure, while the crop of 1871 greatly exceeded 
it, being likewise of superior quality. The district of 
Sarishaban also furnishes nearly 500,000 lbs. of hill and 
plain tobacco, called " Ghubek." It is highly prized at 
Constantinopks Smyrna, and in Turkey generally. It 
is of a gold colour, and varies in price from 39. to 7s. a 
pound on the spot. Some 50,000 lbs. weight of this quality 
goes to Austria, 60,000 lbs. to Russia, and 11,000 lbs. to 
the Danubian Principalities. Yenidjeh district gives 
about 3,500,000 lbs. of the same class tobacco as Sarish- 
aban, the pick of which is sent to Constantinople and 
Russia, vid Odessa. Some 900,000 lbs. of the inferior 
sort goes to Austria, and the remainder to the Danubian 
Principalities, and to the various parts of the Empire. 
The district of Cavalla, owing to its gravelly soil, and 
hill rnnge, it is presumed, gives but an inferior sort of 
Bdshi-baghli tobacco, of which the last crop consisted of 
about 280,000 lbs., selling at from 2d. to 3d. per lb., 
with a few exceptional qualities at 6^. per lb. The 
charges on tobacco for transport from the villages, 
brokerage, lighterage, store-rent, weighing, and com- 
mission, amount, on the average, to about 4d. per lb. 
The sweepings of the warehouses, together with rejected 
leaves, called " refuse," amounting to about 900,000 lbs. 
every year, is sold at 2d. to 3d. per lb., and is chiefly 
shipped to Austria, Malta, Egypt, and Germany. 

The weight of the whole tobacco crop grown in 1871 
amounted to 11,200,000 lbs., and the quantity shipped 
was 7,600,000 lbs., valued at £37,825 sterling. Austria 



was the largest purchaser, 3,800,000 lbs. ; Englmd i| 
1,598,000 lbs. ; and then Torkev, 1, 155,000 Iba. Throi 
out the province of Drama there are 326,000 acr( 
land cultivated, of which 75,000 acres are under tobj 
and an estimated population of 156,000 persona. 1 
the exception of a road to the town of Drama — a 
tance of twenty miles^from Cavalla — of which sii 
miles has been made only at intervals alon^ the 
and, consequently, of no practical use, there am 
public works in progress to improve the oommnnica^ 
The establishment of a bank or a brunch bonk « 
be a great boon to the country. As matters at pi^ 
stand the feirmers are at the mercy of noacrup^ 
usurers, who advance money to them on their croj 
the rate of from 25 to 35 per cent, and as the seci 
is valid, they seldom, if ever, incur losses. These p4 
also advance sums of money to the peasants, char^ 
them 8 to 12 per cent, per month, taking a lien i 
man's house, his cow, his ass, his rude implem^il 
husbandry ; in short, on any conceivable articlt) 
can be converted into money. 



EDUCATION OF THE WORKING CLASSES 

BORDEAUX. 

Bordeaux has for more than a century been rem 
able for its efforts to secure sound instruction fo^ 
working classes, and recent events have given the 
deserved prominence in this important woric 

In 1783 a private association was formed at Bozdi 
under the name of the Sooi6te du MusSe d'ln^m^ 
Publique. The Bevolution dispersed its members 
broke up the society, which, however, was repbtci 
few years later by the Socilt6 Plulomathique. | 
was in the year 1808. 

This society was established by sixty-nine pii 
persons, many of them members of the bar, and 
a kind of miniature Institut de France, being diil 
into four sections, for letters, sciences, music 
archSBology. This society not only established nam^ 
classes of public lectures, when there were no svich ii 
whole province, but it awarded prizes for works 
duced in art, science, and literature. This aociety | 
acquired considerable reputation, and the govemij 
frequently had recourse to its advice on commf^ 
and other subjects, such as the reclamation of the M 
lands of the Gironde, the cultivation of sabntituti.^ 
indigo, hospitals, experimental farms, steamboats^ 
breeding of silkworms, &c. Its importance had gr 
to such a df'gree in 1821 that the then newly-establii 
Linnsean Society solicited and obtained its patntnl 
Under the restoration it greatly extended its plan. < 
menced a course of commercial law, and instituted ei 
public courses of instruction on general physicak I 
chanics applied to the arts, the history and iitentui 
France, botany, astronomy, geography, geology, I 
mineralogy. These courses then formed the only \4 
superior education in Bordeaux, and the general gor^ 
ment contributed nothing towards them. 

In 1827, the society took another important step 
organised an exhibition of works of art and industrT| 
the whole region, still known as the Bordelaise, aod i 
eluding six departments of France, an undertakiog tj 
surrounded with immense difficulties. Since that tiol 
has organised eleven, if not more, exhibitions, gradu^ 
extending them to all the departments of France and 
Algeria and the colonies ; and finally, in 1863, inclatl 
Spain and Portugal in the progranmie. Moreover, h 
1850 it awarded prizes to workmen as well as to manul 
turers. These exhibitions were on an important sc^ 
the last counted three thousand exhibitors, and tb 
hundred thousand visitors passed the doors in ^ 
months. The cost of this exhibition to the socil 
amounted to £8,000, which was not quite met by | 
money received. 

The essential work of the society has been p>p>^ 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IETY OP ARTS, January 10, 1873. 



133 



[and 



anoe the year 1838, when Bordeaux 
^ri& three facilities by the ^OTemment. 
its efforts to give practical instruction 
sns OMt with all kinds of difficulties, 
had four hundred pupils of all ages, and 
•ueceeded in establishing classes for pro- 
wdl as primary instruction, drawing schools, 
Hbrary, only open, however, on Sundays 
Iti progress grew faster than its means, 
the Bsnictpal authorities placed at its service 
old Palace de Justice. ^ 185 1 it had made 
in its professional instruction, having 
of geometry, mechanics, masonry, 
cafainet^making, ic., all combining prac- 
and two years later it was enabled to 
and physical courses, and to divide its 
into three sections, for mechanical, 
and freehand drawing. These courses 
, only for young men of fifteen or more 
but in 1863 the society organised other 
of twelve to fifteen years of age. 
tha years 1864 and 1867, the adiUt classes 
ted by five new courses of instruction, 
cs, naval construction, commercial 
the English language. Next some elc- 
were establi^ed for females, and a 
economy for the working classes. 
ent of the present year the society 
to such an extent that it had twenty-two 
sad twenty-four courses of instruction, at- 
thaa two thousand pupils and students, 
being about £600 per annum. It must 
howevo', that Uie honoraria paid to the 
extremelj modest. 

is now enaUed to extend its operations 
one of its members, M. Fieffe, bequeathed it 
000, to be spent principally on the erftc- 
tchool» which is now completed, and 
the aooommodation required. The pro- 
e institution has therefore been materially 
ii now divided into three distinct sections; 
and general ; 2, commercial ; and 3, pro- 
The first of these sections oom- 
ooorMS, five for women, four for 
sad ei^ht for adult males ; the commercial 
' ht in number, and include geography 
German, and Spanish languages, 
sections, which are being greatly 
twelve courses, namely, physics, 
mechanics, xpachine drawing, civil con- 
ure, ornamental drawing, the cut- 
tod stone, plan drawing, and industrial 
y has no workshops for the apprentice- 
but it possesses experimental shops, well 
tods and other means of instruction and 

programme has increased the expendi- 
Sociflty to about £1,200 per annum, thus 

Franct. 

13,950 

m of coursee 3,000 

and oonferenoes 1,000 

sxhibition 500 

■poQSM 9,200 

•ay 2,350 

(£1,200). Francs 30,000 

fo step the tociety has created, at last, a 

a of gratuitous professional education, for 

neglected of the working classes, which 

madnally to elevate themselves, and fur- 

ito indnMry ; and this is about to be com- 

gnnt of special diplomas awarded after 

industrial and social institution 



Ithe 



exists nowhere out of Bordeaux, and the society enjoys 
a well-earned reputation. It is composed of six huniirud 
members, united less by a scientific than a social object 
— the hope of resolving the important problem of the re- 
conciliation of the working classes, and thereby ensuring 
the peace and prosperity of society. 

WbatHver may be the amount of success achieved in 
a social view, there can be no question of the great 
debt which the working classes of Bordeaux owe to the 
Soci^te Fhilomathique. 



PAPIN'8 DIGESTER. 



The constantly-increasing prices of food and fuel have' 
recently caused public attention to be directed in a very 
decided manner to the question of economy in cooking. 
Attempts are being made to combine with economy in 
fuel such methods of cooking as shall prepare the food 
in a palatable and easily assimilable form. In view of 
the prizes recently offered through the Society of Arts 
by an anonymous donor, it will perhaps be of interest 
to refer briefly to that long-neglected piece of apparatus 
known aa Papiu's digest^. The principle upon which 
it is based ia exceedingly simple. The temperature of 
boiling water is not constant, but depends upon the 
atmospheric pressure. Thus, at the summit of a high 
mountain, where the pressure is low, ebullition takes 
place at a much lower temperature than it does at the 
sea-level. As a matter of experiment, it is found to be 
quite impossible to perform certain culinary operations 
in very elevated regions, because the heat of boiling 
water is not sufficiently great. These remarks only 
apply to the boiling of water in open vessels, but by 
using a tightly-fitting lid we have the power of causing 
wat^ to ^il at any temperature we choose, the confined 
steam creating an artificial pressure « within the closed 
vessel. The digester, then, is nothing more than a 
st*^m-tight saucepan or boiler, furnished with a safety- 
valve to prevent explosions, and some means of var^'ing 
the pressure (and with it the temperature) at which it is 
considered desirable to work. 

The description of this apparatus was first given to 
the world by the illustrious inventor, in 1681, in a work 
entitled '* A New Digester or Engine for softening Bones, 
containing the Description of its Make and Use in these 
Particulars : viz.. Cookery, Voyages at Sea, Confectionary, 
Making of Drinks, Chymistry, and D3ring. By Denys 
Papin, M.D., Fellow of the Royal Society. London: 
Printed by J. M. for Henry Bonwicko, at the Red Lyon 
in St. Paul's-churchyard, 1681." The work appears to 
have created some sensation, as a French translation 
was published in Paris in the following yeir, and in 
1687 the author issued " A Continuation of the new Di- 
gester of Bones, &c." Papin, like most inventors, appears 
to have had a very exalted opinion of his contrivance, by 
the help of which, he says, ** the oldest and hardest 
cow-beef may be made as tender and as savoury as 
young and choice meat." His public spirit would not 
allow him to seek the protection of letters patent, for 
he says, ** I have not therefore thought it right, in a 
thing of so general use, that a man by virtue of a 
patent should hinder oUier people from working, that 
may perhaps have more skill in doing things good and 
cheap ; and £ have instructed Mr. Mayor, a founder, in 
Old Bedlam, how to make these engines of cast brass, 
so that any body may see them and buy them of him/ 
That Uie apparatus was used was quite certain, for we 
find that Evelyn in his " Diary," under date April 12, 
1682, describes a supper at the Royal Soci'^ty, all the 
viands being cooked m Papin's digester. He says : — 

*' I went this afternoone with several of the Koyall 
Society to a supper which was all dress' d, both fiHh and 
flesh, in Monsieur Papin's digesters, by which the 
hardest bones of beefe itselfe and mutton were made as 
soft as cheese, without water or other liquor, and with 
lesse than 8 ounces of coales, producing an incredible 



134 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS^ Januaby 10, 1878. 



qtmitttj of gravy ; and for dose of ill a jelly made of 
Uie bones of beefs, the best f4>r clearness and good relish 
and the most deliokms that I had ever seene or tasted. 
We eat pike and other fish bones, and all without im- 
pediment; bat nothing exoeeded the pig^ns, whieh 
tasted just as if baked in a pie, all these b($ing stew'd in 
their own juice without any addition of water save what 
swam about the digester, as in balfuo ; the nntural juice 
of all these proTisions, acting on the grossdr substances, 
reduced the hardest bones to tendeme««e ; but it is best 
descanted, with more ptirtioulars for extractini^ tinctures, 
preserving and stewing fruite, and saving fuel, in Dr. 
Fapin's booke, published and dedicated to our society, of 
which he is a member. . . . This philosophical 
supper caused muuh mirth amongst us, and exceed- 
ingly pleas'd all the company. I sent a glass of the 
jelly to my wife, to the reproach of all that the ladies 
ever made of the best hartshorn." 

Papin appears to have made innumerable trials with 
his apparatus, and his two books, which together mnke 
up a quarto volume of about 180 pages, consist mainly 
of a record of his various experiments. So anxious was 
he to g^ve the public all possible information as to his 
engines, that he arranged for a series of public demon- 
strations which he announces in these words: — ^*I 
undertake to let people see them try'd once a week in 
Black Fryars, in Water-lane, at Mr. Boissonet's, over 
against the Blew Boot, every Moonday. at three of the 
clock in the aftemoone." He has certainly succeeded 
in handing down his name to posterity in connection 
with the digester, and he is, we think, much better 
known as the inventor of that apparatus than as a pro- 
found natural philosopher who was in intimate scientific 
relations with most of the eminent »avant$ of his day. 
As a proof of the estimation in which he himself held 
his invention, we may remark that in his portrait in the 
Aula at Marburg •(where he was professor fbr some 
years) he is represented with a eopy of his *'New 
Digester" in his hand, the plate of the apparatus being 
oonspiottously displayed. 

With regard to the economy of the digester as com- 
pared with the ordinary modes of cooking, we are not 
aware that any tmstworthy experiments have ever b«?en 
made. The only compsratiTe trials which we remembf^r 
to have met with are those published by Professor 
Junichen in the Sepfember number of Dingler*s ^o/y- 
Uehmaehn Joumnl (Vol. 265, p. 412). BRs results are 
given in the following table: — 





Ordinary 
laaoeptui. 


Fftpln's Dt- 
geeter. 


Per-centage of 
aaving. 




Time 
in minutes. 


• 

9 
V 

249 

2 82 

1-43 

1-7 

17 

0-69 

SIS' 

25 

2 52 

312 


Time 
in miuut«i. 


Gas in 
cubic feet. 


Time. 




^^i^^^^M 


Gas. 


Beef 


159 

117 

53 
92 
113 
27 
167 
162 
13« 
147 


43 
38 
20 
34 
48 
9 
62 
46 
43 
57 


55 
108 
06 
68 
0-77 
22 
1-22 
78 
58 
97 


72 05 
67-.S2 
62-3 1 
63 04 
67 52 
62 50 
6rt-H6 
71-60 
67 91 
61 22 


77 91 


Prk 

Potatoes 


61 70 
65-03 


Split peM 

Hadoot beans ...... 

Damsons 

Pears (whole) 

„ in flUcet) ...... 

Applet (in sUeef)... 
Cbestoats 


62 94 
54-70 
62 71 
61-27 
68 80 
76 98 
68 91 



The experiments appear to have been performed with 
care, and Professor Junichen gives full d^^tails of the 
circumstances under which they were carried oat. Q-is 
was mmA as the heatinqr medium, from the g^reat facility 
which it oflR»red for comparing the quantity of he it con- 
sumed in the various experiments. Por nil practical 
purposes, however, we have nat the sli^fhtest hesitation 
■~ nronounoing the results as utterly illuwry and worth - 
The same vessel appears to hiv»* been employed 
lioat, bat when osed as a saucepan it was simply 



closed by an ordinary loosely-fltttng lid. It wai of « 
copper, but only held seven decilitres, or aboat a pixit - 
and a-quarter. It is obvious then thit ProfeMor 
Juniehen's results are those of a mere laboratory ex- - 
periment, and it needs very little knowle*!^ of tlis 
culinary art to perceive t^at potatoes boiled for an hoar 11 
all but seven minutes, would be reduced to a perfect palp. 
Again, all cooks know that pork requires to be boiled 
for a long^ time than bee^ but Professor Juaidua 
finds otherwise. Further, we should very much like to 
know what sort of beef it is that requires two houn sad 
forty minutes to boil, when cut into pieces which would 
go comfortably into a pint pot. We have also to reouik 
that two hours seems an unoonscionable time for boiling 
a piece of pork which ctmld not well weigh more thtii a 
pound and a-half. The pressure at which the digester 
experiments were made was five atmospheres — the tem- 
perature corresponding to such a pressure being 152 (X, 
or 316 F. Here, again, we are constrained to point 
out th^t Professor Junichen is by no me ins actinj^iairlf '- 
by reckoning the time — not from the commenoement of 
ebullition at the ordinary presstire with the safety ralve 
open, but from the period at which the steam jnst lifts 
the valve when screwed down to the pressure of fifs 
atmospheres, that 306** Fahr. It is obvious that the re- 
sults with the digester are fer too favourable, tfl no 
account has been taken of the ' time expended or g0 
consumed while the temperature was being raised fir^ 
212" to 306**. It would be perfectly easy to ctlcalatB 
what this would be, but Professor Juniehen's experi- 
ments are not of sufficient value to merit farther 
criticism. He appears to have commenced with a fore- 
gone conclusion, and to have done his best to make oat 
a good case. 

In spite, however, of the known advantages of tin 
digester it has never found much favour, at least in thii 
country. Several patents have been taken out in Frsttoe 
far im|m>vementB in its oonstruction, and judging froa 
the feet of the pot 'Ou^ feu being* in constant use among * 
the poorer classes of J^Venchmen, the digester ought to 
be more commonly used there. We may remiik thit 
the apparatus usually sold in the sbops in this oonntry ars 
perfectly inefficient, and are no more capable of '"wftes- 
ing bones " than they are of softening cannon-balls. Bi 
the first place they are not strong enough to withstand 
the necessary pressure, and, secondly, there is happilf 
no means of loading the valve to attain such a pressors. 
In one which we examined the other day, we fomid that 
the valve was one inch in diameter, and taking its weight 
into account steam would escape when the presaare was 
6} ozs. on the square inch. This would aiake no ap- 
preciable difference in the temperature of ebullitioQ, far 
less so indeed than would be brought about by ths 
ordinary barometric oscillations. It would, of course, bs 
perfectly easy to attach an ordinary spring prastuv- 
gaug^, but we warn those who may be inclined to make 
experiments with such an apparatus, that it mtist not be 
entrusted even to the very best " plain cook " who etsr 
spoiled a dinner, unless, indeed, provision be made for 
limiting the pressure which may be applied. Even then 
there is the risk of the safety-valve sticking in its seat, 
which it is very liable to do, in consequence of the cor- 
rosive action of the acids, generated by the decomposition 
of fat, or by rusting. It is, moreover, a matter of diffi- 
culty to inspect the progress of the operation of cooking 
in a digester, as the sudden releasing of the lid woald 
result in a great gush of steam, and the cert-iin projection 
of the contents of the vessel up the chimney. Hoiy 
cooks have a great fancy for frequently taking off the 
Kd of the saucepan, just to see now the contents aro 
" getting on." To such the digester would not be a 
welcome adjunct. 

All these objections, however, vanish when it is s 
question of the introduction of high-pressure oookittg 
apparatus into large public establishments suuh as gaols, 
lunatic asylums, workhouses, and so forth. Th«ve,of 
coarse, the apparatus would be nnder the costrol of s 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOISTT OF AETQ, Jahitaet IP. 1878. 



186 



•.^jAopiier, sad seed not be attMxUd with any 
tbn that doe to an ordisaij higfy^umun 



C0EES8POVDEVCX. 



v«)rfiin oomossTON for prom otikg 

pLlfiOLOtfOiL AND IKDUfiTEiAL IN- 

I— *Q» ««k of floB Goatmitaioii oontiiisoe to be 
fhoB lie ■ereiiteeii idiools of art eatab- 
a niwoa parts of the cokmy. Thieo hsve all 
by kcal eSoet, and have been aided by the 
, ttCxibuting AinoDg them the annual grant 
IjMal far that porpoae by the legialature. 
( ■ ■l i ii i on abo procure for distribation, as hx 
Saitd fimda at their diapoaal will allow, casts 
iv drawing fronu 
ftkeiduMds ha¥eproperiy^ceitificated maiten; 
mwoi n wdl ofi^ bat haye to engage the best 
; thit can be obtained. 

giTCB to the achools is in aocordaace with the 
> ftfolatioa of the Oommieaioo : — '* That in order 
the ettahliahment of Schools of Art and 
iftiv^hoot the colony, there shall be paid, from 
placed at the disposal of th« Commission by 
to every school which is c^mdncted 
t| riiri| j k i approved by the Commi^on and open ' 
an aliowBDoe of two shillings and six- 
qotfUir for each pupil who shall have attended 
At least eight times during the quarter." 
I am, &c., 

Samvbi. H. Bobbkts, 
Hoo. CorrespoDding Member Society of Arts. 
,XM«Qber7,1872. 



6E9EBAL VOTES. 



Edvsatlon BUL — ^The new Bill has passed 
Koaaa of Lrgialatiir«, but as it has some most 
PtfucutB iB the Upper House, it will, no doubt, 
ibeiv. 

fatAialaidr, — A university has been estab* 

This has grown out nf a movsmeiit set 

^dinenting bodieti fur the formaticm of a union 

^^JaimtTttction in the hj^ber branobea of learniog 

rtfvltd. The basis of the bsw institution bat* 

upon. The mscbinery for raising 

[■IkaildiDg has sot yet bean aetin motiun, but 

his wiUingneas to give 
'krtlMolyeoL 

i IHseoTtry at Sanaa. — ^An important dis- 
' been made in the Esqatline quarter sf Roiuf . 
Marofand the renains <^ a house were fuuad, 

silmft'sd to sons liofa eitiseD. The walU 
with beautiful frcaooaa; the pavement in 

Bisrhle, aad a portion is in mosaic. Under 
is a fonntain in a niche deooratsd with shell 
!•• a bam in marble. 

ttm JbU AmK^tmx teohastiml faeiety.-- 

•"vninfc cmoerts will be given by this society 

. lAfcut Ban, when instrumental and i ocal per- 

^jr ^ fall srdMfkira «f the societv, and other 

w Hks piao. Thcwe conearts will be held on 

%Mih January, Wtdnesday, 6th March, Frida} 

iSil Friday, 2nd Mi^, 1873, at 6.S0 p«m. Bono. 

> have the privilege uf arteadmg the four 

A^lioMiatia for hiinoraTy membership should be 

1^^ te leeummeodatiun of a member of the 

fiode^ or of a proprietor of the Royal 

I of the Suciely of Arts who desire tn 

obtain forms from the 




But af KariMi at Ab TbMUra af fialagiuk— A bust 
of the celebrated oundwaior Mariani haa jaat besa plaead in 
the green- room of the bologna Theatre. The work 
eaecnted by the sculptur Vena, of Faenia. 

with Aaida «a fitooa.— At a 
of the Manchester Lilsraiy and Philaaophioal So- 
ciety, Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R^., said that he, like 
others, had observed that the particlsa of stoae mast liabla 
to be in long contact with rain from town atmospheres, in 
BngUnd at least, were most subject to decay. Believing 
the acid to be the cause, he su|>pesed that the eoduranoe 
of a silidous stone might be somewhat measured by 
measuring its resistance to adds. He proposed, therefore, 
to use stronger solutions, and thus to appruaoh to the action 
of long periods of time. He tried a raw eo^erimeute, and 
he sayawtth promisiug results. — Builder, 

A Hew System of ** Fiasco Paiatiaff."— Mr. Charles 
T. Kemmer, of Newsrk, Nvw Jersey, has taken out a patent 
for a method of paiiiting which consista in the appUcatiun of 
**liniH^-oil fresco paint" to a surface of muslin in the 
form of a thick film, which may be easily removed and 
then cemented to the selling or waU. The film is composed 
of six coating of psint^^ The advantages claimed fur the 
syiitem are— that decorations may be worked out at a BMni&- 
factory, without causing ioconvenieDoe in housea ; that the 
fihn ia elnstio aad do«e not eraok ; and, above vll, that aa the 
praoeas can be senduotsd in osid weather, when in 
goud workmen are without empkiynumt, it bcoomes 
eGonomioa].— ^^IrsM^ap^. 

A Cheap FoaL — The Iowa papers recommend people 
to use their cirn for f ueL The Cotmdl Bluff$ JfonpareH 
Mys : — *t We are glad to see that many of our dtiseiis an 
taking advaotsfre of the low price of com to lay in beavj 
supplies of it for fueL We have experimented with it 
duriDg last week, and find that it is an admirable suhstitutt 
for both w«K)d and c«»al, and that at present prices there is 
both economy and cowfurt in its uss. A ton of cum, 33 
bushebs at 17 ceuts pr bushel, is 6 duls. 60c. We consider 
this equal to a cord of hard wood, as supplied and measured 
in our market, at 7 dote. ; the cutting of this cord, I dol. 
60c. ; total 8 dols. 60c. ; thus makmg a saving of nearly 
3 dols. a cord. For kitchen fuel it is superior to wood, ex- 
cept hickory, and cheaper than that. It mHkes a very hot 
fire with a great deal of bkee. We judge that three t.ns of 
com are equal to the heat of one ton uf hard csaJ, while in 
ecimomy m its use it is equal to one and a half tuns oi coal . 
In i«mall families and small bouses there is alwavs a great 
waste of hard osal, while there is noite in the use of com. 

Effeet of Boap-water on Incandescent Metal.— Mr. 
W. F. Barrett stated before the British Association that bav- 
iuK occasion to cool a red hot copper ball, it was plunged into 
a vessel of water in which be had just washed his hands. 
The hall entered the water without any hissing or perceptible 
evolution of steam ; and on being removed seemed as brigbt^y 
iocandesient as before. Desiring to experiment fwr^btrmffui 
rhis phenomenon, other metal halls were tried with the same 
result. The s<»apy water was then replaced by fresh water ; 
but upon plunging an incandescent ball into this, the hissing 
was loud and the evolutii^n of steam copious. The author 
draws from thew experiments the inference that the preserve 
of the soap in the water contributed to the formation of the 
spheroidal state. Furth*^ ob«ervati«<n showed also that 
albumen, glycerine, and organic mattow gseerally fa<^tattd 
its tM-currenc^. He gives the following directions for re- 
producing the experiment :— Pour a little aoap »ol»*Jjoy *^*^ 
.1 large beaker of water, and then by means of a hooked wwe 
lower into the liquid a white hot metal hall, several pounds 
in weight, and best, of coppt-r. The ball smoothly enters the 
water, and glows white hot at a depth of a foot or mare 
beneath the surface. Notwithstanding **>« 5^'*"^/^*'; 
bydr. static pressure, it is seen to be surrouaxdrd by a shell of 
vapour, pei haps half an inch thick. The vapour sheU is 
bounded b> an envelope that rsaembles hamiBhed silver, and 
bas a mnst striking appearance. In fact, the h.>t ball blows 
« soap bubble of steam, from the limiting surface of wbidi 
he light is tt.taUy reflected. As the ball «««ls the shdl 
becumes thinner and thinner, and finally collapses, when 
-mniediately there fitllows a loud rep<»rt, volumes of steam 
tre given off, and often the vessel is broken by the violence of 
Ae action. Fi»lli.wing out the same idea the author seeks to 
establish, the Enoinoer thinks mcotTHStly, a poastble rela- 
tionship between his phsnoBMBoa and otrtaia boiler aaftf 



134 



JOURNAL OF TIT^" ■ 



10, 1873. 



qoMitltj of gnvy; and for 
the bones of beefe. the bf^^t f 
ftwi the most delicious th it 
We e«t pike and othor HhU 
Podwnent; but not him,' . 
tattedjustasifbaked im 
theirown juice wit ho "t . 
•warn about the dii^. >' 
of all these proTi8i.)n-< 
jBducedthe hardont ;. 
<»e«canted, with moi 
preserving and f.r. - 
-•^fPm's boobs P'> 
^^»ch he is . 
•upper caiH.'d 

i^J^y to mv 
over 



. ~-0b BenderiDg Wood 

. — ** On Guilds and their Fnncta 
. _-% fieq., LL.D. On tliiB eTenxD 
Q.C^ will preside. 



n 



of'" 



.da v|iMitioii: 

-. <%. M tu eaable 

•i.fhwid, and the 

4» .. Ubiir respectiTe 

'i^Ah'^ as FbsL— Antonio 



.^MM^ wntes respecfiiBf tka 
^ «.,i^ M fool, that from l^ 
. ^|j:» i>i sprat hark 
.«*»a^ power 800 kilono' 



^- ^«L TlMhMtiDgpoMrolMAt 
< .^-^<M(aaI to 3,400 hflat>uwla.«Mlfr 
^ a .14MMMM inooly 2,400. A 
12kiJo«or 



V0TICE8. 



SnSGSIPIIOliL 

Hm CbnetaiMB eahecdptMma 
suuuld be forwarded bj c^«ipH 
.xUijr, ofoswd ** Coutta aMd Oa^ 

liile to Mr. Swnuel 

Uflicor. 



Tbe fonowmir 



CAVTOB LICTUBBS. 

Tbs second course of these lectures, via 

on the Energies of the ImponderaU 

. z^pedal reference to the Measurement aitd 

— laun of them/' will be delivered, by t 

-^ AsiHlTB BiQQ, M.A., on the foUoivizi^ e 

^ ^ at eight o'clock : — 

I Lbctubi I. — ^Monday, Fbb&ua&t 3bz>, 1 

fbr I On the Sources, Inter-relations, and Measure) 
^ .^ A gold Energies — Units of Measurement. 

f-mm Dutch I 

I LicTfjnx II. — Monday, Fsbrvamt IOtb, J 

On the Energy of Ghttvity, with especiid. refiE 
the M es amom ent and Utilisation of it. 

Iacttbb m. — Monday, Fbb&uajlt 17th, ] 

On the Energy of Vitality, with especial refa 
ths Measurement and UtiliMttion of it. 

Iacttbb IY. — Monday, Fbbbuajlt 24th, 11 

On the En^gy of Affinity, with especial refier 
S s ggfwtions for Estimating and Utilfwing it. 

LacnTHs Y. — ^Monday, Mabcs 3rd, 1873 

Ola ike Energy of Electricity, with espedai re 
t» Ihi Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

LscxvBS YL — ^MoNDAY, Mahch 10th, 187 

Ola Ihi Energy of Light, with especial refereooe 
HMHTCSMnt and Utilisation of it. 

Lacxvaa YIL — Monday, Makch 17th, 187> 

Om Ihi Eawgy of Heat, with especial reference 
MeaaaRaaenl aM Utilisation of it. 

Memben are entitled to attend these le^ 
free, and to admit two friends to each of th^ 




MUTUKW FOB THE SHBUIVG WSK 



JowMTfromKidtotoTedio/' 2.M1J.E. 
"^JuKtaA of Fujijama" (Japaa). S. Mr. 
M^OaSckM. ** TVip ia Madia£^(Ja» 
AwociatiQo,8. Mt.bTQ 



t* 



Buodiconti W IbM^ 
CM. Yok^lafttl. 

e ■^>.iiav SiMiifci » n»Mt»tiW. ISms 1 

M 1MI» >jaaJ?sia, linadwe^K. 

Toi. It 






I 









■ k 



»•«,«.« .i,4*v h^v* )yv«r aTT^npr^. 

Kir t' *v **%-vr,:np IWv- 



*.N 



oC Gtarreyoni, 8* 1. 
Sag«n* Puer, *< ICnea and ICaoMlo- 
B. J. CaaUe, *• TlteOrigin of Parochial Bditt" 

aad ClunixfiraL 8&. 
CNflE^JBcen^S. 0»Ioim1 W. E. Gresfibed, 
«ad Bcantta of lajfatioa ia 

3. Prot ]tatliaftBd,**Oii 
oftlieBody.** 
8. 

..MCmT OF ABT8. 8. Mr. C W. Vbcent, 

ofKHmrik, Iceland.'' 

T. Mr.a.P.BodPBn,"Op 



OntlMSeoaDfi 



•ti 




■** '* * 



Ki 



".1 



I. Mr. Orimahaw, *' ObEUitIh^^ 
*'OnthoHL 

3. Mr. TCttMOey.** On the Vanadate* 0^' 

4. Mr, C r, Kn«ac*t. •'OntheftwMtioBofi 
«f dPdraia hf ttaActisn of Amnknntted Bj 

SadiaMCkloride." 
^ ^ a. 
lb ^*twtj Clabi, 6i. 
kilMtiMkn^S. Dr.D^aB,"OnOxid>tiaD. 

re lfc-»»: T%«tit«tMii, a Dr. WilliaiD 



S.*r 



i^^ ^>U and New liOmimtorki at the B0J>1 



Ia«i*itction, 3, Dr. Ed^nud A- Tttfoaxk 






*> 






JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, Jahuaey 17, 1873. 



137 



■■jM of the society of arts. 



No. 1,052. YoL. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JANUARY 17, 1873. 



< AdMi^ Lcmdom, W,C, 



UIOVVCElEEnTS BT THE COTTHCU. 



FBIZS FOB STEEL. 

I. Tbe Council has resolved to award the Gk>ld 
Ifcdil of thfi Society to the manufacturer who shall 
•nd send to the London International 
itkm of 1873 the best collection of specimens 
iteel niitahle for general engineering purposes. 
1 Ibe specimens exhibited must include a com- 
Ohistiation of the applications of the varieties 
Aed sobmitted. 

1 Eadi manufacturer should send with his 

a statement of the nature of the tests 

hi ^plied to each kind of steel submitted, and 

tiie results of such tests. 

i The samples tested are to be exhibited 

with duplicate samples, or portions of the 

amples; these will be submitted to tests 

tiie Council consider it desirable. 

1 T^ Council reserve to themselves the right 

the premium, in the event of the 

exhibited not being sufficiently men- 

r,lS73. 



nmsBivas of the societt. 



nZXH OBDIHAET XEXTIHO. 

IsdHsday, January 15th, 1^73, Baron GaAirr, 
|Alb,F.8JL, M.E.I., in the chair, 
fts following Candidates were proposed for 
u Members of the Society : — 
Bmj Cothbert, li.A., Slapton, near Dartmoor, 

OeoigQ IliomAS, 33, Bordett-road, E. 
' Hiiqais 0^ Blenheim, Woodstock. 

lUckley, F.G.S., Norihside, St. John's, 

Movgan, P.B.G.S., Junior Athenssum 

John F., 24, Holland-park, W., and 33, 
Stnnd^W.G. 
Bobert, 87, (Hang^-xoad, Bennonds^, 




Givry, Victor, 23, Old Bond-street, W. 

Hill, Thomas G., 4, Kensington-Mrk-gardens, W. 

Inglis, Bobert William, 26, Weighton-road, South 

renge-park, 8.B. 
Knight, Charles Joseph, 7, York-terrace, N.W., and 14, 

Argn^U-street, W. 
Ladenil, Morel, 13, Camden-road, N.W. 
Mannel, Robert, 19, St. Dunstan's-hill, E.O. 
Mappin, Walter S., 19, Stanley-crescent, Kensington- 

park-gardens, W. , ,^ „ 

Palmer, Joseph, F.B,G.S., the Grammar School, Wells, 

Somerset. 
Stewart, P., Middle Temple, lfi.0. 
Stewart. Dr. William, 23, Sack^ille-street, W. ; Cordon, 

Kewburgh, K.B. ; and Paraguay. 
Tilley, Samuel, 10, Finsbury-place south, E.C. 
Vallentin, James, 65, Cow Cross-street, KG. 
Wheeler, — , 4, City-terrace, Peterborough, 

The following candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected members of this Society : — 

Bell, QeoTge William, 114, Chancenr-lane, W.C. 
Carillon, ,k)hn Wilson, WormhiU, Buxton, Derbyshire, 
Comer, William Mead, F.B,.G.S., 104, Leadenhall- 

street. E.C. 
Dewes, William Petitt, Ashby-de-la-Zouch. 
Eliot, Major-General John, Limpsfield, Surrey. 
Goodenongh, Capt James, B,N., United Service Club» 

S.W. • 

Harpar^ William H., jun., Protestant Grammar Schoolt 

New Shoreham, Sussex. 
Eirton, John W. 73 Belgrave-road, Birmingham. 
Muir, Edwin, C.E., Canal Wharf, Rochdale. 
Neal, John, 44, 46, and 48, Edgware-road, W. 
Raiser, L., 6, Hereford-square, South Kensington, W. 
Russell, Thomas, Saracen Foundry, Glasgrow. 
Sanford, Percival, 8, College-gardens, Dulwich, S.E. 
Yates, Richard, 80, Falmouth-road, New Kent-road 

S.E. 



The Paper read 

ON THE SULPHUB DEPOSITS OF 
KRISUVIK, ICELAND. 

By Charles W. Yineent, 7.O.8., 

The canton of Krisuvik, in the district of Gull- 
bringu, in the south-west comer of Iceland, haa 
long attracted great interest, on account of its 
boiling mud cauldrons, hot springs, and above all, 
its "living" sulphur mines; these are all arranged in. 
lines, evi&ntly corresponding to the g^t yoloania 
diagonal line stretchang from Cape Keykjanes to 
the Lake of Myvatn. At the present tinae the 
greatest amount of volcanic activity is manifested 
at the southern end of this line, in the district 
some peculiarities of which I now propose to bring 

before you. 

In the last century it was the northern end of the 
volcanic dii^onal, near about Myvatn, where, ac- 
cording to the Icelandic records, the kind of pseudo- 
volcamo action was most vigorous, by which the 
boiling sprinffs are set in operation and the sulphur 
deposits areformed; but a violent eruption of the 
mud volcano Krabla, to a great extent buried the 
then active strata beneath enormous masses of 
volcanic mud and ashes, so that the energy has 
been probably transferred along the line south- 
wards. 

The Krisuvik springs are in a valley beneath 
some highmountaans (see plan; theshadedportion 
represents the sulphur beds surrounding the active 
springs). They are reached by a trade, so 
narrow that there is no more than room to 



IftS 



JOURNAL OF THE BOGIETY OF ARTS, JiinTlST 17, 1873. 



enable horaee to pate ftlong it — serosa the brink 
and along the side of ■ vast hollow, termed 
the " kettle." Following this mde track, the 
" Ketilstip," the aununit of the range of hilla, is 
reached which overlooks ErisuTik. In the nudst 
of a green and extensive morasa, interspersed with 
a few lakes, are cauldrons of boiling mud, some of 
tiiem la feet in diaiueter, numberless jets of steam, 
and boiling mud issuing from the ground, in many 
instances to the height of six or eight feet. Sir 
George Mackenzie (who was accompanied by Sir 
Henry, then Doctor, Holland, now the President 
of the Boyal Institution), in his justly-cplebrated 
"Travels in Iceland, in 1810," gives a vivid word- 
picture of the scene. "It is impossible," hewrites, 
" to convCT' adequate ideas of the wonders of its 
terrors. The scusation of a person, even 'of firm 
n a support which feebly sustains 



him, where literally fire and biimstone sn< ii 
cessant action, having before his eyes tiemen 
proofs of what is going on beneath him, envel 
in thick vapours, his ears stunned with thnndt 
noises. Tljese con hardly be expressed in vi 
and can only be conceived by tboae who have 
perienced them." 

The photographs which I have the honw 
exhibit are many of them taken from painl 
the spot by Mr. Waller, a ncphe 



to his difftinpiished relative. I have obtoiiKd 
liini corroboration of many facts which, thi 
they might be expected to bo noted by a che 
or phymcist, do not lie within the ordinary i 
tioij of an artist. 
On the other side of the mountains subtcm: 



'%«<fs' 




heat is also manifested, and hot springs, accom- 
panied by sulphur-beds, are also found ; but they 
nave not been as thoroughly examined as those in 
the valley, and are represented as being less active. 
Mr. S^jTuour, who has spent many months at 
Erisnvik, tolls me that the sulphur beds on thi.s 
side have been submerged by the clays washed 
down by the winter rains, and are, for the most 
part, now completely overgrown with grass. On 
digging beneath the surface, however, &b sulphur 
e^Ui is found to be only a short distance down , 
and on analysis the per-centage of sulphur in one 
bed, 116 yards long, running up the side of the 
monntain, was discovered to range between 64 and 
6fi"5. Here the earth was completely cold, and all 
furtiier deposition of eulphur appeared to have 



In the valley it«elf the sp „ 

visible at the surface, beinff so completely w"^ 
by the earth that it is oidy by picnang linw 
the crust of iudiunted sulphur earth, lis' ^ 
presence is discovered. Sometimes tha rap''' 
is made unpleasantly aware ot the insecuffoa' 
of his footing by falling through, and tliiu op 
ing up a fresh thermal spring. The Isto 
William Hooker, when virating this pi*^' 
endeavouring to escape a sudden gust of stron, 
odorous vapour, jumped into a mass of sm 
liquid hot earth and sulphur — and bnl io^ 
presence of mind, in throwing himseU fls^ "1 
the ground, would have sunk to a cowidc« 
depth ; as it was, the difficulty of extneatuig m 
j 0^ waa very oonsiderable. 

The Burfsoe of the ground is coverea in ™ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 17,> 1875. 



139 



^aamwA^atnstat two to three feet in depth 

of fimtkpare sulphur ; and in the valley, where 

tbf ^MB jeU are protected from the extreme 

ntiaae oi the wind, the sulphur is deposited 

iofenU^ evHolF over the whcue surface. If it 

wm not for the erer- varying direction of the 

ffmi the sulphur would^ Captain Forbes is of 

qiimao, be preaipitated in regular banks, but it 

ktfdly ever falls for twenty-rour hours in one 

iiw^ou, the wind capriciously distributing the 

ikiv^r in eveiy direction. 

It hu been suggested by those who wish to 
M&» the immense sulphur-producing power of 
ihwimdeifal locality, that chambers snouldbe 
nctdd (^ Qeorge Mackenzie), or walls built up 
[T^. F^^kins), by which means the force of the 
Rrmd bong broken, the sulphur would be quietly 
loktai to the ground, instead of being earned up 
& ^ides of Uie hills, and thus more widely 
isnihuted. 

With little variation the general appearance 
if th*' " solfataras '^ over the space of twenty-five 
bikit along the volcanic diagonal is much alike : 
11 «irTition about two feet high and tliree feet 
I ihuuecer, which is composed of a dark-bluish 
ibii iwdd clay, forms a complete circle round 
h- juaath of a medium-sixed spring. The water is 
nertimes quiescent, and sunk about two feet 
nthin the ^>6rture ; at other times it is ejected, 
rnh ^reat hissing and roaring noise, to the height 
Ifriinfive to eight feet. At all times clouds of 




N*i Kronsly impregnated with sulphuretted 
Ij^upa and sulphurous add gas, issue &om the 
*^Jbotii of v?liicli, during an eruption of the 
■*frf. we greatly augment^ in quantity. From 
Br dark coloured and elevated margin of the 
*(iii^ the jellow crust of crystallised sulphur 
fci'iid* a great distance in every direction. 
^^'xaia of steam ascend from nimiberless points 
ltk> whoLt district, which are thus impregnated ; 

ethos it is ^t, apparently for ages past, sulphur 
beea gradually noaped up in this locality till 
^ an aotoaUy hills, which, as far as they have 
J^beeo pierced, show sulphur earth to be their 
^ Martttuents. Hence they have acquired the 
Ntt of tiie Sulphur Mountains. 
^^ aafl ii of different colours, but most gener- 
Pjtte^ fi is, in the vicinity of the springs, a 
P^JiHfli, leas plastic than clay, and more 
PJWBWhen. 

^7>*inBavations are made into this earth, it is 

BMi h» composed of multitudinous layers, of 

^tiljioloari or shades of colour, each layer 

~%Mf^ distiootly divisible from those above 

!**%■» % fiioo^ frequently no more than an 



It is much to be regretted that the good ex- 
ample set by Olaf sen and Povelsen of investigating 
the nature of the earth's crust round about the solfa- 
taras, by piennng the soil, has not been more 
frequently carried out. In the summer of last 
year one of the suggestions which I made for the 
instruction of an expedition to this place, was that 
boring implements should be taken out and ex- 
tensively used ; but accident prevented the neces- 
sary appliances being forthcoming at the right 
time. I believe, however, that one of the chief 
features in the expedition which is to set out in 
March, will be the thorough examination, to as 
great a depth as practicable, .of the strata in 
various parts of the Sulphur- valley. 

The spring chosen by Olafsen and Povelsen 
as the subject of their first experiment, was 
one which had made its appearance since 
the preceding winter, and which was just 
beginning to be surrounded by other mud 
springs, and jets of steam. The ground was still 
covered with lovely verdure, and charming flowers 
were abundant, even at the very verge of the 
cauldron of hideous hue and odour. A short dis- 
tance from this opening they established their 
boring apparatus. The sequence of the layers 
was as foUows : — 

1. Three feet of reddish-brown earth, of a fatty 
consistence— of the ordinary temperature ; at the 
bottom heat was perceptible to the touch. 

2. Two feet of a firmer kind of earth, nearly the 
same in colour as the first layer, unctuous to the 
touch. 

3. One foot of a lighter kind of soil. 

4. Five feetof a very fine earth of differentcolours, 
the first two feet being veined red and yellow, with 
streaks of blue, green, red, and white intermingled. 
The lower portion of this earth was somewhat 
firmer tiian that which covered it. The heat of 
this thick bed was so great that the soil extracted 
by the auger could not be handled until it had been 
for some time exposed to the air. 

6. One foot of a compact greyish blue earth. 

6. In tapping this bed, which was 4 ft. 9in. •in 
thickness, and consequently at a depth 'of about 12 
feet, water was first met with. It was found by 
comparison that the level of the water in the boil- 
ing mud spring coincided at this time with that of 
the water thus discovered. The heat was now very 
great, and a constant hissing and bubbling could 
be heard as proceeding from the bottom of me hole 
whidi had been made. 

7. Nine inches of greyish blue earth. 

8. One foot six inches of a similar unctuous earth, 
containing mcmy small white stones. This was the 
hottest layer of any yet pierced; the buzzing, 
humming noise was now much louder than before. 

9. Three feet of the same kind of clay, but much 
harder and more compact ; this layer was also full 
of small, round, white stones. 

10. Sixinche8ofaviolettingedearth,veryffreafly 
to ^e touch. In this bed tne heat semobly di- 
minished. 

1 1 . One foot six inches of red and blue day inter- 
mingled. The heat continued to diminish very fast, 

12. One foot of reddish-looking day, the tem- 
perature remaining about the same. 

13. Six inches of yellow and red day. 

14. One foot of a greenish coloured earth, much 
less coherent than t£e previous layers. Here the 
heat again began to increase. 



140 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 17, 1873. 



15. One foot six inches of blue clay, filled with 
small pieces of white tufa. This bed was much 
hotter them either that above or that below it. 

16. One foot three inches of soft blue clay. 

17. Nine inches of an earth, easily pulverised 
when dry, which, whilst moist, was of a violet 
colour; on exposure to the air, however, this 
rapidly changed to a chocolate brown. The heat 
was again augmented as the centre of the bed was 
approached. 

At thirty-two feet the full length of the boring 
implement was used up ; but from the set of the 
country in the vicinity, the experimenters believed 
they were close upon basaltic rook, when the heat 
probably ceased. 

In digging for the peculiar kind of brown coal 
which iSiey call ** surturbrand " (a kind of fuel very 
much resembling Irish bog-oak, which can be used 
for like puri>oses), the inhabitants frequently go as 
deep as 28 feet. They report that before rea^iing 
this depth they frequently pass through three or 
four beds of blue, yellow, and brown day, and 
almost invariably find that the layers of blue 
clay are much hotter than suty of the other 
strata. 

A second trial of the soil was made in the neigh- 
bourhood of some recent springs, further to the 
the east. The activity of the agencies at work 
here appeared to be greater than in the former 
case, and to have been longer in operation. The 
whole surface was thickly covered with sulphur, in 
a finely-divided state ; there was much gypsum, 
and a large efflorescence of feathery alum. Thou- 
sands of very minute holes were discoverable on 
close examination, through which continuous jets 
of steam, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphtirous 
acid gases were emitted. 

An attempt was made to dig with spades ; but 
the soil was found to be so hot, whilst the footing 
was at the same time so insecure, that it could not 
be persisted in. A spot some distance further ofiF 
was therefore pitchea upon, where the earth was 
firmer and colder. The borer pierced through 
six feet of blue clay with great facility, the 
lowest portion being extremely hot. After this 
depth the earth became rapidly softer, at the 
depth of 7 feet the same peculiar bubbling 
noise before noticed was heard. Continuing to 
bore, the bottom of the hole appeared to be in a 
state of ebullition, a boiling liquid being ejected 
in the narrow space around the handle of the 
augur with extraordinary violence, and no sooner 
was the tool withdrawn than a thick black fiuid 
was ejected from the orifice to the height of several 
feet. A short time afterwards the jet ceased, the 
subterranean fire appeared to have expended its 
fury, but it soon recommenced with redoubled 
activity to dart forth fresh jets of steam and black, 
muddy water, continuing to boil and dance with 
hui slight intermission. It appeared, therefore, 
evident that the result of this experiment was the 
premature formation of a fresh hot spring, which 
would otherwise have been, perhaps, a consider- 
able time in forcing its way to the surface. 

It is somewhat to be regretted thatno one amongst 
the numerous eminent men, men accustomed to 
experimental investigations and acute observers, 
wno have since traversed this region, should have 
-Sveitigated the question of the origin of these hot 
^ngs and sulphur deposits from the point of 



view which was thus displayed by these careful 
and painstaking philosophers. 

The phlogistic theoiy being generally accepted 
in their day, and the chemistry of the earths and 
metals being in a very undeveloped state, we can* 
not now accent to its full extent the explanation 
they put f orui of these phenomena ; but the facts 
they disclose appear to me to be of the higliest 
value, and to afford a clue which, if care- 
fully followed, may lead to discoveries of nxnch 
importance in the domain of volcanic energy. 

The conclusion they drew from their investiga- 
tion is, that the hidden fires of Iceland dwell in the 
crust of the earth, and not in its interior ; that the 
boiling springs and the mud cauldrons certainly 
do not derive their heat from the depths of our 
globe, but that the fire which nourishes them is to 
be found frequently at only a few fe^ below the 
surface, in fermenting matters, which are de- 
posited in certain strata. 

By their theory the gases from the more central 
parts of the earth penetrate these beds by sub- 
terranean channels, and so set up the chemical 
action, producing fermentation and heat, tlicse 
channels also forming the means of inter-conunu- 
nication between the separate sites of activity, and 
equalising and transferring pressure. 

To return to their facts. They further observed 
that the heat is invariably found to bo greatest in 
the blue and blueish-grey earth ; that these 
earths almost always contain sulphuric acid; 
that they contain also sulphur, iron, alum, and 
gypsimi ; and lastly, that finely-divided particles 
of brass-coloured pyrites are visible througbont 
the whole of the beds when heat exists. 

Sulphuric acid is found in the hot beds alK>ve 
and below that which is the hottest, but this latter 
manifests no acidity that is sensible to the taste. 

Sulphuretted hydrogen is continually evolved 
from the clays containing the brass-coloured 
pyrites. Silver coins dropped into a hole made in 
these strata become rapioly reddened, and brass 
becomes quite black it held over it for a sbort 
time. 

Lastly, not only does the heat increase and 
diminish in various successive layers of the earth, 
in the neighbourhood of the active spring's, but 
the locality of the boat, as might be expected 
from their previous observations, travels very con- 
siderably in different years. 

The solfatara of Kjisuvik, with the mountains 
about it, is shown in the accompanying sketeh bv 
M. Eugene Boberts. It apx>ear3 from afar to 
occupy the place of an ancient crater, but, as vre 
have already seen, it is not near the crater, about 
the centre of the drawing, but at a considerable 
distance from the old volcanic centre, that tb© 
thermal springs and sulphurous exhalations havv 
their present origin. 

Wherever they may have been previously, the 
springs are now situated between two mountains, 
the one Badstofer, on the right, originally <x>nj— 
posed of lava, the other, Vesturhals, on tno left, 
of basaltic formation. Both, by the action of tb^ 
thermal springs, are undergoing a process of dis- 
integration and reconstruction. 

The kind of hills which form the solfataras, prcv- 
perly so callM, increase in extent day by £iy ; 
by the addition to the disintegrated rock of «iij ^ 
phtir and of sulphurous and su^hurio acids. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, Jihdabt 17, 1878. 



141 



IV jtBaw valphja e&rth oontains about four 

eeat. of free (ulphnrio acids ; Bomotiines a little 
Mro^iloric add, and a variety of Bulph&tea, 
a n^t be lupposed. Treated with dutilled 
■nv, tbe filtwed aolatian reddens litmus strongly; 
01 liSSiaa ot aoetste of lead a floconlent pre- 
apMt a proiosxA, which, when heated witii 
■rtno. disoigBgea Eulphorons acid. 

Ik ndphur it found in many different conditiana, 
totfvtltenKMt part in the tame finely-divided, 
vtutiifa-rdlow form in which it is precipitated 
tna nlphimtted hj^rogen solutions. Where 
it tmaaa rther states, crystallised in tears 
CbtarfiBeof the rocks, or coagulated in veins, 
a oo moont ot its having undergone subsequent 
Wijji OfitspritnaTyoriginbythedecompoaitian 
of nt^iTctted hydrogen, there is in my opinion 



Prof. Bunsen visited Erisuvik in I84S ; his 
opinion is that sulphurous acid is evolved from the 
earth's interior, which, oxidised either at the 
surface by the atmosphere, or at subt«rranean 
depths by atmospherie oxygen dissolved in cold 
water, is converted into siu^urio add. The snl- 
phurio odd thus generated u diffused among the 
constituents of the deoompoaed beds. This process 
repmsents the first stage of the fumerole action, 
which is manifested in the naniar or solfatara d 
Krisuvilt. 

Sulphur is now generally regarded as emanating 
from the stage of intermittent lethargy of a volcano, 
and the sulphides of iron, copper, arsenic, zinc, 
selenium, &c., fall in the same category as sulphur ; 
they arc secondary, not primary, formations. In 
the stage further off we have the host of sulphate* 
produced by the oxidation of the sulphur into sul- 



U2 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 17, 1873. 



steam- jets were invariably accompanied by large 
quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen. The subter- 
ranean action in this country does not appear to 
have continued long enough to produce beds of 
sulphur and sulphur earths, but has, nevertheless, 
been of sufficiently long standing to build up geyser 
tubes of so great a length that the internal pres- 
sure has formed other vents, rather than lift the 
immense colimui of water above it. 

The water of the springs contains sulphuretted 
hydrogen, lime, soda, alumina and a slight amount 
of magnesia ; some of these are only occasionally 
at the boiling point, £ind these, when the tempera- 
ture is reduced below 150° Fahr., deposit great 
quantities of the sesquioxide of iron, which lines the 
insides of the funnels, and covers the surface of 
the ground wherever the water flows. If the re- 
action consists in the decomposition of iron pyrites, 
and the sulphur is carried sufficiently far off to 
prevent its re-combination with the iron to form 
iron sulphate, the formation of the iron sesquioxide 
is fully accounted for. 

As a rule, the groups of hot springs are, as in 
Iceland, in the lower valleys, and either along the 
margins of streams, or nearly on a level with me.n. 
The grand area where they occur is within the 
drainage of the Yellowstone, where a space of 40 
miles in length with an average width of Id miles, 
is either at the present time, or has been in the 
past, occupied by hot springs. 

That the quantity of sulphiuic acid here pro- 
duced is very large, is proved by the immense 
quantity of idum which is found, for the streams, 
tne mud, the earth are thoroughly impregnated with 
it. The fimnel-shaped craters from which the ' 
boiling mud is ejected, are so similar to those of 
£risuvik that the figure on page 139 will answer 
for both places. The circular rim varies from a few 
inches to several feet in diameter. Sometimes these 
afe clustered close together, yet each one being 
separate and distinct from the others. 

The foregoing are the most prominent facts con- 
nected with the development of sulphur from 
the earth in the elementary state. The full explana- 
tion of all the phenomena accompanying it appears 
to me to be the key by which the great secret of vol- 
canic energy may be ultimately unlocked. Atpresent 
it appears to be doubtful whether the sulphur re- 
sult from the decomposition of metallic sulphides, 
by heat and water combined, or by sulphuric acid 
formed by the oxidation of sulphurous acid. In 
the one case, the whole action is so far within our 
reach, that it should not be an insurmountable 
difficiilty to establish the point as to whether the 
whole action does not depend on the percolation 
of water into beds of pyrites surrounded by other 
beds which are non-conductors of heat. 

The other view, viz., that the sulphur proceeds 
88 sulphurous acid from a lower depth, is on account 
of the more complicated action required, far from 
being as satisfsictory to my mind as the more 
dmiue supposition above. 

Until boring experiments have been made, con- 
ducted with great care, and to considerable depths, 
no positive conclusion can be arrived at. It is also 
an element in the question of much imx>ortance, to 
discover whether the beds penetrated by the 
water are already heated, whether the water is 
heated before it reaches the sulphur-bearing 
stxata (the days contaiiiing p3nite8}, or whether 



both are not alike cold till they have been for son 
time in contact. 

Less than a quarter of a mile from the hot sprinj 
is a lake, G^eslravatn, formed by the filling up of ( 
extinct crater. This the inhabitants describe as beii 
fathomless (Mr. Seymour, last year, found i 
bottom at five and twenty fathoms). The dopt 
is, at any rate, very considerable. Although i 
close to a spot where the ground is, even at t1 
surface, scorching to the feet, the water in tl 
lake is ice-cold. Sir Greorge Mackenzie also r 
marked a somewhat similar fact. On the side 
the sulphur mountain, amidst the seething, stem 
ing hills of almost burning earth, a spring 
clear cold water was met with. To my mind tie 
facts are most in accordance with the view ih 
the action is local and self-dependent. 

The Krisuvik sidphur mines have been work 
at various times, but want of proper roads, ai 
ignorance of the proper method of extracting ai 
refining the sulphur, have prevented their pro| 
development. The Sicilian mines can be work 
at a considerable profit, where, more than 3 
feet below the surface, beds are mot with cc 
taining only 15 per cent, of sulphur. At Krisuv 
absolutely on the surface, clays are met wi 
which contain from 15 to 90 per cent, of sulph 
Under proper and careful supervision their futi 
should be prosperous. 

Two Oerman gentlemen, under the auspices 
the Danish government, worked these mines 
the early part of the last century, and 
much was exported to Copenhagen during I 
time the excavations were carried on, thai 
sufficiently large stock was laid up to serve 
consumption of Denmark and Norway from 1' 
to 1753. 

Horrebow describes the sulphur mines as bd 
actively worked from 1722 to 1728, to the gr 
advantage of the inhabitants, who reaped mi 
profit from its extraction. 

By his aocoimt of their mode of prosecuting i 
enterprise, the sidphur does not appear to h 
been refined in the island, but exported in its on 
state. The less active mines were chosen 
cutting into. He says : — There is alwavs a la 
of barren earth upon the sulphur, which is 
several colours, white, yellow, green, red and bl 
When this is removed the sulphur earth is < 
covered, and may be taken up with shovels. 
digging three feet down the sulphur is found 
proper order. They seldom dig deeper, beca 
the place is generally too hot, and requires 
much labour, also because sulphur may bo 1 
at an easier rate, and in greater plenty, in 
proper places. Fourscore horses may be loadei 
an hour's time, each horse carrying 250 pou 
weight. The best veins of sulphur are known 1 
kind of bank or rising in the ground, whid 
cracked in the middSe. From hence a t] 
vapour issues, and a greater heat is felt thai 
any other part. These are the places they ch< 
for digging, and after removing a layer or tw 
earth, they come to the sulphur, which they find 
just imder the rising of the ground, when it 
sulphur) looks just uke sugar candy. The far 
from the middle of the bank the more it cnuni 
at last appearing as mere dust. But the midd] 
the bank is an entire hard lump, and is with ci 
culty broken through. The brimstone, when 



JOURNAL OF THE< SOOIKTT OF ABTS, Jahoakt 17, 1S73. MS 



se 



tifceiMC, is 90 liot that it can hardly be handled, 
bat gfOWB cooler by degrees. 

b t«o or three years these veins are again filled 
irittubhor. The death of the person at Copen- 
h^cB wno had the sole and ezdusiye privilege of 
moiibig sulphur from Iceland put an end to 
vfat ^d iiromised to be a very thriving industry, 
IkiiihabitsntB continued to collect t£e sulphur 
«fth for some time after its exportation had 
SBMed ; utd many of them lost considerably by it, 
htfi quantities lukving been gathered which they 
nerer sble to dispose of. 
Aeending to Dr. Perkins, the sulphur mines were 
vorked by the Danish GoverDment for fifteen 
but the method of purifying adopted was 
TBjrvnperfcct. The sulphur earth was heated in 
ins louers, and when the sulphur was melted fish 
«S WW added, and the whole mass stirred up. On 
ifiowiof the mixture to stand for a time, the earthy 
lonned a soap on the top« of the molten 
this bein^ removed, tolerably pure sulphur 
cd behind. 

In 1832, these mines were visited by K. von 

lilda, the celebrated geologist, by whose advice 

I Iknish merchant, named Kruntynon, purchased 

%rm. He only worked them for a short period. 

fte mhkhur earth was collected without much 

Rjrnd being paid to the relative richness of the 

, kik It was taken on the backs of horses to 

'fcittsfiord, and thence shipped to Copenhagen. 

JW Mst of transport l»ought the sulphur to too 

V^ * price to render the undertaking successful. 

In 1A57, political matters caused the attention of 

fcr Majf'sty 's government to be directed to finding 

I WW eouroe of sulphur supply. Commander 

J. E. Commorell, of her Majesty's ship Snakcy was 

*at to Icelan<l by the Lords Commissioners of the 

ifcnrmltT, to vifit and report upon the capabilities 

tf tlie niinf^ of Krisuvik and Husavik. He found 

Ibt th«* nearest safe port to the Krisuvik beds was 

Biraafiord ; this port is 14 miles from the sul- 

tbrds by the present roads, and nine miles 
Beikjavik. The harbour is well sheltered, 
M irood anchorage qf seven or eight fathoms 
W emblem length from the beach ; it at present 
^fj9 MB much traffic as Beikjavik. The road from 
fitrik might be much shoHened, and a tramway 
Bill abo be laid down. During the past year a 
■rvi^' hmf been made and plans drawn for a rail- 
*2 ^ tramway to Havnanord. 

fW aetual extent of the sulphur beds it is quite 
^^■■hU to caleulate ; 47 have been already dis- 
Vvemd. The deposit of sulphur Commander Com- 
Batfi powmally saw he describes as amounting to 
tan- ttoamndii of tons, and, all the mines being 
kviaCs called a '^living'* state, the sulphur taken 
•ir m reproduced in two or three years. He 
Ikifas that suh>hur in a p\ire state could be 
iJMd at Havnanord for £1 per ton. 
tte ndphnr at Myvatn, though great in quantity, 
Kl» connders, at too great a distance from a 
{■Isf embarkation to permit its extraction being 
oowith any dianoe of compeiing with that 
~ ivik mines. 

steps were taken in the matter by 

Government, the polrdoid complications 

ltd to the expedition having been removed ; 

of Rnglish merchants having been 

%» these rich deposits hr the highly favour- 

of OomaaAnder dommerdl's remarks^ 




renewed attempts are being made to render com- 
mercially available the immense sulphur-producing 
power which the Krisuvik solf atares undoubtedly 
possess. To some of these gentlemen I am greatly 
indebted for much valuable information, put at my 
disposal for the purposes of this paper, and amongst 
them I have specially to tender my thanks to Mr. 
Bamsdale ana Messrs. Thome, of Gracechurch- 
street, and particularly for ihe xme of numerous 
and carefully-selected samjdes of the sulphur earths 
which were freely placed at my disposal. These 
samples I hope to make the subject of a future 
paper. 

Since writing the foregoing x^i)er, I mentioned, 
in the course of conversation with Sir Henry 
Holland, the conclusions which are derived from the 
examination of all the trustworthy facts relating 
to the sulphur deposits. This led him to examine 
entries in nis unpublished diary, made at Krisuvik 
in 1810. The theory which he then conceived so 
thoroughly agrees with all that has been learnt 
respectmg the phenomena in question, that I, 
with his kind permission, print an extract from 
his note book : — 

** The theory of these sulphureous springs (if 
spring they may be termed) at Krisuvik is an in- 
terestmg object of inquiry. They are situated in a 
countnr de^edly of volcanic origin. The high 
ground on whidithey appeariscomposed prindpaUy 
of the conglomerate or volcanic tufa, which has 
before been noticed. The source of the heat which 
can generate permanently so enormous a quantity 
of steam must, doubtless, reside below this rock ; 
whether it be the same which produces the vol- 
canic phenomena may be doubted, at least if the 
Wemerian theory of volcanoes be admitted. It 
certainly seems most probable that the appecutmces 
depend upon the action of water on vast beds of 
pyrites. The heat produced by this action is sufficient 
to raise an additional quantity of water in the 
form of steam, which maJces its way to the surface, 
and is there emitted through the difPerent clefts in 
the rocks. The sulphates of lime and alumina, 
appearing upon the surface, are doubtless produced, 
in process of time, by these operations. In corro- 
boration of this view it may be observed, that the 
quantity of steam issuing from the springs at 
Krisuvik is always greater after along continuance 
of wet weather, and that whenever earthquakes 
occur on this spot it is during the prevalence of 
weather of this kind.'* 

The learned and now aged author expressed 
the highest gratification that the views which he 
formed at 22 years of age should possess so much 
value so many years after. 

At the conclusion of the paper, 

The Chairman called on any gentleman present who 
might have any remarks to make on the subject, but, as 
MO one responded, he at once proceeded to propose a vote 
of thanks to Mr. Vincent for his able and mstructive 
paper. 

The vote having been unanimously passed, the meeting 
was dissolved. 

During the reading of the paperlJir. Tinoent illustrated 
his subject by several experiments showing how the 
deposition of sulphur might have been effected. He 
also showed a spectrum obtained by burning some of the 
sulphur earth, and it appeared that the thallium lip* 



144 JOUBNAL DP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jakuaet 17, 1878. 



became visible in tbe spectrum. Specimens of the varioas 
Bulpbur-yielding earths from Iceland were exhibited, and 
Dr. Clement Le Neve Foster ^owed samples from the 
Italian siUphur districts. 



CAVTOB LECTXrBES. 

The fourth lecture of the first course of Cantor 
Lectures for the present Session^ '* On the Practical 
Applications of Optics to the Arts and Manu* 
factures, and to Medicine," was deHvered on 
Monday, Dec. 16th, by C. Meymott Tidy, Esq., 
M.B., Joint Lecturer on Chemistry, and Professor 
of Medical Jurisprudence at the London Hospital. 
The Lecturer said : — 

The question must have occurred to many of us — 
What IS light P We know its eflfects, but can we 
expl^ its origin? By Newton's powerful support, for 
a long time the creed of scientists was the theory 
of enussion. This was their idea : — Light was the 
emanation of an imponderable substance, of extreme 
tenuity, shot out, as a cannon-ball from the cannon's 
mouth, from the soarce. To accept this theory, 
you must belieye that light is material. It is strange 
to think how one who was so eminent an experimenter, 
so accurate a worker, so maryellous a thinker, could 
have been the disciple of an old thA>r3r, one utterly 
destitute of an experiment in its support, and so ardent 
a disciple, moreover, that at last we are tempted to regard 
him as its apostle. The theory of undulation has this 
great argument in its support, that the phenomena of 
light are explicable upon a mechanism similar to that 
by which the vibrations of elastic media are known to be 
propagated. It supposes the existence of an ether, 
filling aU space and aU material interstices. The vibra- 
tion of this ether constitutes light. This theory is almost 
universally received at the present time. I cannot, of 
course, show you the vibrations of this ether, but in the 
case of sounding bodies — and there is a close analogy 
between light and sound — these peculiar motions are, in 
a way, tracenable even by the eye. 

I want, if I can, to make this idea of undulation — wave 
motion — ^dear to yon. 1 have here a tuning-fork--a very 
ordinary one— upon a resonant case. If I strike it, yon 
can all hear it sounding. I have placed upon ita little piece 
of zinc-foil, which is cut to a point. Then I have here a 
piece of glass, blackened by being held over a candle flame. 
I^ow, the mechanism of a sounding-fork is perfectly 
simple. When a tuning-fork sounds, in the first instant 
the prongs are within uieir natural limits, in the next 
instant they are outside their natural limits. If, then, 
whilst this tuning-fork is sounding, I draw the piece of 
zinc-foil attached to one of the prongs rapidly along this 
blackened glass, I shall produces magnificently wavy line ; 
In order to show the effect, I will, niter doing so, put the 
glass into the lantern, and throw the picture of it on the 
screen by mea^s of the lime light. You see the wavy line 
that I have thus produced I want you to imagine this to 
illustrate the light wave, although of course it repre- 
sents a sound wave. Now, let me explain that when 
sound travels from the source of sound to the ear, the air 

f article does not travel ; it is only the force that travels, 
f you are out in a boat you say, *' here is a wave coming," 
but the particles of water do not move, it is the force 
that moves. One particle communicates its force to its 
counter particle, and so the force travels on and on. If 
we were to examine tbe water wave, we should find that 
the^ motion of the particles of water was up and down, 
whilst the passage of the force was in a wavy line, 
such as is represented on this diagram. What I want 
you to see is, that the motion of a wave is the motion 
of force» and not the motion of a partide. 



Now, let us study those undulations a litt*-*^ 
what I am drawing your attention to wi* 
sound and water is equally true, I believe 
of light. You throw a stone into wt 
know those magnificent series of rings th 
little waves produced by the stone fid^ 
surface. They are constituted by depres 
ridges in the water. We call them crer 
and a wave we may regard as constituted 
furrow. Let me put th^t to you dearly, 1 
in England that we regard a wave as r 
crest and furrow. We speak of so many 
necessary to produce a given note, but *> 
they would speak of just double the nun 
because there the crest is regarded as a 
row as a wave ; therefore one of our wa- 
be regarded as two. Our stone, the: 
these little rings. Let us throw a see 
little distance from the first. That w 
series of rings, and rings will come acr' 
is no real antagonism between these 
Nature has quite settled what shoul 
beforehand. Let a crest of one series 
the crest of another series of wav 
heightened. And the same is true 
furrow comes across furrow, the 
But supposing a furrow comes 
then P Why this happens, that t> 
This is an unalterable law of wav^* 
presented it in a diagram here, whr 
across crest, and furrow across fur 

This law is not confined to wal 
its counterpart in sound waves, 
waves, we have a series of cond( 
and a series of rarefactions of i* 
gram represents a sound wavo 
partides are pressed into doser 
of necessity, there are some air 
out. If you could see the si;' 
between my mouth and your • 
are a numhier of partides comp- 
necessity, there are a number o '* 
condensation and the rarefy < 
sound wave. On the Contin 
condensation or a rarefaction 

Now let us suppose tha^ 
sound, as represented in 11 
tuning-fork at exactly one v 
tuning-fork, and they arc 
The length of the wave in 
same. In this case cond' 
rarefaction meets rarefacti 
fied. Just as in the < 
furrow meets furrow, or < 
enlarged. But, again, ) 
forks, so that one bIik 
behind the other. What ' 
across rarefaction, and rn 
they destroy each other, 
go a step further. Lei 
at a half-wave, and ni> 
other, but let it strike :• 
behind the other. Wi 
We find that there c 
overtakes rarefaction, * 
sound begins again, ai 
so we get a note interr • 
me show you what 1 
pipes. They both fi< 
than the other. W'l 
that point where I kr 
overtoke the rarefa* 
what musicians call ' 
they sound together 
ove^kes rarefacti* 

Nowit is time t) 
two waves again» : 



?(ii 



/OUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 17, 1878. 



145 



\huf 



flf tW eUMTMl particles ooindding' with oon- 
nrefifcctioQ with nre&ction ; what do 
it iatemification of the light. But let the 
W in antagonism — let the condexitation of the 
pvkklet come aoroes rarefaction of the ethereal 
and darknen results. Darkness is therefore 
coanterpiirt of silence. But suppose these 
interfere with one another by some fraction 
bslf'ondnlttion, what do we get then? Colour. 
I Rgwd darkness as one end of the line and light 
oCh^ cndf bnt the line between is colour. 
Toq msr 53y it is all Tery well asserting the nbra- 
of tkit ether, and building up theories upon it, but 
«tiJcn<v htve we of this ether at all ? We are 
*ioflT without eTidence — eyidence. I grant, as 
opon a ilender thread, but still the slender 
extMa opon which the eyidence is hung. To sup- 
it MDSi^uce in not to my mind a greater speculation 
othftT things in natural science. Heat can be 
intritcuam. Why? It is found that heavenly 
awet with redi^tince. Why ? 
m» suppose that I were to make a section of 
of ordmary white light, say the light from our 
I «b->u!d find that the vibrations of the ether 
Ii)(ht are transversal to the direction of pro- 
la sound the vibrations of the air are in the 
m of the propagation. Let me draw your attention 
«tiaxrrun, which represents the idea of a section 
ny of common light and the transversal vibrations 
(ih^real particles. This assumption as regards 
n jnsrifiei by experiment, and this I hope to 
na diiwtly. I will just draw your attention to 
tiid models, which were made by a very cele- 
nnn, Mr. Woodward, for Dr. Pereira. That is 
of a ray of common light, those black spots 
ling the ethereal molecules. Now, can we split 
of common light up, so as to make all the vibra- 
one pUne go one way, and all in another plane 
opposite, the pl^os still being kept at right 
? Hpro we have a magnificent substance, car- 
trf Kmf, known as double refracting spar. For 
if I put it over my writing, everything appears 
Hero I have another and perhaps a better 
I gentrally see people single, but if I look 
this, everybody appears double. I have split 
«f light up into two parts. What more have 
} All the particles vibrating in one direc- 
> one way, and all the particles vibrating 
«iktr, go in the opposite. Now I will endeavour 
QpoQ the screen a picture of a little diamond- 
You see that that is single, but I will 
double refractor in front of my lime-light, 
viU at once see that our diamond-shaped orifice 
I will show you directly, that these two rays 
distinct, perfectly disimilar, and that they 
by the vibrations of something or other, 
il may be, vibrating in exactly opposite direc- 
BbCh these are polarised beams, so th&t a polarised 
VBfhs defined as one where all the vibrations of 
xa one plane, not in all planes, as they aiv in 
This may be represented in a great many 
Mwanl re p r es e nted it by these card models, 
^omt know that there is a much better illustration 
in the wriggUngs of an ordinary toy snake, 
how a serpent moves about — he always moves 
ia one direction only. 
•n other means of obtaining these polarised 
Itos is a wonderful substance known as 
Here is a beaatiful specimen, one that be- 
^pr. Petetra, and this has the remarkable power 
ooe set of rays, and allowing the other set 
Here is a model of our tourmaline, 
tmlj the rays in one direction can possibly 
tKe mys in &e other direction bein^ cut off 
~ ban. It is a model only, but still it re- 
^ w^at is the peculiar action of the tour- 
fldy allowB the rayi in one plane to pass. 



And if we take a second model, and place it so that those 
two sets of slits correspond, it will let the light pass, but 
if I place them so that one set comes across the other, as 
I am dbing now, as a matter of necessity it will cut off 
both sets of rays. I have here two pieces of tourmaline, 
both of which are movable, so that I can bring them so 
that their axis may correspond, or be at right angles to 
each other. You can understand that when they corre- 
spond the light can pass, but as soon as I turn them 
so that they come at right angles to each other, we get 
intense darkness. Here they are, and you see we have 
an intense blackness in the centre, where one comes 
across the other, but the light comes through at the two 
sides, where they do not cross. Now, if we go on tum^ 
ing till the axes correspond, we get the light coming right 
through. 

The same effect is produced b^ allowing a ray of lig^t 
to fall upon a blackened mirror (not a silvered mirror, 
mind, but a blackened rairrur), at a giren angle, that is, 
you produce a polHrised beam of light. So, again, where 
a ray of light falls upon ordinary glass at a certain angle, 
one part of the light is transmitted, and one part is re- 
flected. It is split up into two parts ; ond again both 
beams are polarised, both the part reflected and the part 
transmittea. 

Now oomes a more extraordinary part of our story. 
Having produced a polarised ray, we have the power of 
splitting it up into two pirts. We can split it up by 
placing a double refractor in front of it ; such a body, for 
instance, as selenite. Mind it does not then vibrate like 
common light, but ont) set of waves vibrates at right 
angles to the other set of waves, as you see represented in 
this model. One we know as the ordinary ray, and the 
other we know as the extraordinary ray, the ordinary ray 
forming an angle of 90® with the extraordinary. These 
traverse the crystal ; they pass through our thin film of 
selenite, and they pass through it in different directions. 
But here is the point, they pass through it with different 
velocities. We get one wave lagging a little behind the 
other wave. Wo are doing with light what we did with 
sound — we have split the ray up, but the ordinary ray 
goes through much faster than the other ray, and that is 
the secret of the interference. You may say traversing 
a plate of selenite as thin as paper could not make any 
difference ; but I beg you will remember that God hangs 
the greatest weights upon the smallest wires. Let us go 
on with our story. We have two rays ; and we have one 
ray passing through at a little different pace to the 
other. Now what we want to do is this. We want to 
make the one which is a little behind come across the 
other — we want to make one interfere with the other. I 
now place in front of this selenite a double refractor, and 
what happens ? I split up both rays, the one that lags 
behind and the one in front, and the half of the one that 
lags behind goes off to the half of the other, and the half 
of the other one goes off to the half of iho lagging behind 
one, and they meet, and interfere one with the other, and 
as a result we get colour. For instance, I will throw first 
of all on the screen a picture of an individual some of you 
may recognise. 1 will place in front of it our double re- 
fractor, and two images become visible. Then I cause 
interference between the two rays, and colour results, 
producing as you see, at the same time, a double coloured 
image of the gentleman. But the colours are different. 
The colours that are coming through one part of my 
double refractor arc very different to the colours that are 
coming out of the other part. Look at the two heads, 
one is green and the other is red ; they are two different 
rays. Surely that is sufficient to show you that theao 
two pictures are somehow or other different sots of rayi. 
Let me turn my double refractor round, and then the two 
will change. I can bring it to a point where there is no 
colour, and on carrying it round ag^n, the colours are 
reversed to what they were before. 

Now, I want to go a step further, and show you that 
though these colours are different, they are, after all, but 
the breaking up, so to speak, of white light I am nov^ 



146 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jauoaet 17, 1873. 



about to place my diamond-shaped orifice in the apparatu^ 
once more, and to place behind it a film of selenite. I 
will put my double refractor in front, and now I get two 
diamond orifices, without colour at present. By turning 
it round, I get the two diamond orifices coloured, one 
being green and the other red. Again, I can enlarge the 
size of my diamond spot so as to make one of those 
little coloured diamond spaces come across the other, and 
let us see the result. We shall produce white light where 
they meet. You see where the green overlaps the red ; 
where one ray uomes across another ray it is white. 
These are the complementary tints, and this illustrates, 
I^think, moat beautifully the overlapping of the two rays. 
For our experiments to-night it is advisable that we 
should merely have one set of vibrations ; we do not want 
a double refractor, and I shall, therefore, employ for the 
rest of the evening what is ordinarily known as a Kiool's 
prism ^that is a double refractor cut diagonally across 
and then cemented together with Canada balsam, the 
substance having the property of diverting one set of 
rays and only allowing one set to pass. I want you to 
see, even with this NicoVs prism, the changes produced 
by the different sets of vibrations that pass through it. 
We shall find thatVe get the same effect as I have 
already produced with the double refractor, the red follow- 
ing the green, and then the green following the red in the 
interval, between which there is no colour at all. At one 
point you see there is a want of colour ; then turning it 
we get green, and turning it a little further we get red ; 
a little further again and no colour, all this owin^ to the 
different sets of vibrations, and whether the longitudinal 
or horizontal vibrations pass the prism. The varieties 
of colour depend upon the degree of retardation hs the 
light passes through the selenite. You can understand 
this very well — ^that the changes of colour will be entirely 
due to the extent that one ray lags behind the other ray. 
For instance, I take a ooncave lens of selenite. It has 
been groundL, so that the centre is very thin, whilst the 
■ides are tl^iok. You can understanii, of course, that 
there is a greater amount of retardation at the edges than 
the centre, and we shall therefore ^ a different series of 
tints introduced. We will throw thison the screen. There 
you see the different tints produced by that concave lens, 
the result of these differences in thickness ; or, again, I 
might take a wedge of selenite, such as I have here, instead 
of the lens, and there again we get different colours, due 
to the different thidmess of the selenite ; and by usin^ two 
wedges, and turning them round, you see how beautifiilly 
the colours vary where the different rays interfere with 
each other. It is on this principle of different thicknesses 
of a film of selenite that we are enabled to produce all 
these beautiful results. Here are several designs, which 
I will show yon, illustrating the beautiful colours which 
are thus produced, all of which are due to the different 
thicknesses of the selenite and the different degrees of 
retardation of the rays. Polarised light, I need not 
tell you, from these experiments becomes a delicate and 
most exquiste test of doable refraction. This is a 
matter of considerable importance. For instance, glass, 
after it has been blown, has to be annealed, that 
is, to be slowly cooled. There is a marked difference 
between glass that is cooled rapidly and glass that is 
cooled slowly. When this cooling process is carried out 
with due care we find that the glass is much stronger than 
when it is cooled rapidly ; there is a molecular difference, 
and I think that our polarised light will tell us what 
that difference is. For instance, I put apiece of com- 
mon glass into our polarising apparatus. Here is a piece 
of ordinary well-annealed glass ; we will allow our 
KicoVs prism to be on, and I do not suppose we shall 
get any effect at all. We will turn the Nicol's prism 
round and round, but I do not suppose we shall get any 
change. That glass is not a double refractor ; therefore 
it does not produce two sets of rays. But if the 
cooling process had been hurried the glass would be 
'e to fly, as we call it, at the least toucS. We have a 
kable iUustration of this in the oommon toy known 



as Prince Bupert*s drops. They are made of glsss that 
has been cooled rapidlj ; when it was in a meltM, state it 
was allowed to drop into water. The external sor&oe, 
of course, was cooled much more quickly than tbe in- 
terior ; and you see how easily it will fly. I will brc^k 
off the end of it, and the whole thing has gone to powder. 
That is badly-annealed glass. But here is the most 
extraordinary fact of all. When it is in this state it ii a 
double refractor. Here is a piece of glass, which hat 
been cooled rapidly. I will throw it on the screen again, 
using a Nicol's prism, and let us see what we get Look 
at the colour, and see how magnificent it in. On tunimg 
the prism round you see the l^utiful changes of colonr 
which take place. All this is due to the rapid cooling 
of the glass. Polarised light in this way becomes a mar- 
vellous test by which we can prove whether glass be well 
or badly annealed, and I need not say that this is a matter 
of considerable importance to the optician, inasmuch as 
lens and prism glass should be particularly well annealed 
and possess very uniform density. Certainly, if it 
possesses the slightest effect of a double refractor, it is 
not fit for optical instruments. 

Now, I think we can find out very easily what is the 
explanation of this effect, namely, liiat it is due to un- 
equal tension. For instance, I will throw upon the screen 
a piece of ordinary glass, and I will place it in a screw 
frame, so that I can screw it up and produce unequal 
tension in the glass. First of all, in its ordinary state, 
you see we get no effect of colour, but if we screw it 
up tightly, at one point you see a little colour beginning 
to form ; it has thus become a double refrractor, inai* 
much as there is more pressure upon one part than then 
is at another. On undoing the screw, away goes th< 
colour at once, and this proves that tho action on th( 
place which produces the colour as a double refrartoi 
IS due in some way to unequal tension in the glass. Dr 
Brewster suggested polarisation as a test of temperature 
for, he says, ** Every tint in the scale of colours has I 
corresponding numerical value, which becomes a correcj 
measure of the temperature of the fiuid.*' Now, we find 
that a great many animal and vegetable substances an 
double refractors. For instance, in starches, in Tntt U\ 
moit, arrowroot, and potato stardi, we find a black cros 
when they ere looked at by means of a polarisd 
beam, this black cross being replaced by a whit 
one in the other position of uie prism. It is right ii 
point out, however, that in Portland arrowroot a» 
wheat starch no cross is visible. Of animal structure 
a slice of a nail of the finger or toe is a capits 
polarising object. 

Now, what I have drawn your attention to, is what \ 
known as plane polarised light. But we have oth« 
forms of polarised light. In plane polarised light wt 
suppose that the particles, the atoms, the molecules c 
ether, are vibrating in parallel straight lines, but we hav 
what is known as elliptical polanaed light, where th 
particles of the ether describe ellipses, the planes of th 
ellipses being perpendicular to the direction of the rt} 
Again, we have what is known as circular polarisatiox] 
where the axes of the ellipses are equal. Circular polarise 
light is of two kinds — what we know ordinarily as right 
handed or left-handed. We mean by right-handed 
where you turn the analyser tnom left to right, an 
the colours descend in Newton's scale; whilst in tfa 
case of left-handed polarisation, when we turn th 
analyser from right to left, and in this case, agaii 
the colours descend in the order of Newton*s scali 
There are two things necessary to convert plane polarise 
h'ght into circular polarised light. First of all, it ! 
necessary you should have two systems of lominoi 
waves, of equal intensity, polarised perpendicularly i 
each other ; and secondly, that the difference in tbe pat! 
of these two systems should be of an odd number < 
greater undulations. These are the two essentials fl 
Uie production of circular polarised light 

I should like to show you two or three illiistntiot 
of what I mean. I will diow.you a 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jahuabt 17, 1873. 



147 



tetariUil 



k Aiilntkni of drcalar polarisation. You 

cbaoeefl of colour produced by the 

Anted ligoL There are wome fiaaidfl 

tke ame power as quarts, although in 

^igrea As* for instance, a concentrated 

d CUM sugar, possesses this property, 

m tbe liighest degree, bat still it has onl^ 

W tfe povtr that qu«rtz possesses. This 

. of Um plus of polarisation reyeals differences 

ooopofitioo of bodies, where chemical analysis 

ij tub to do so. I cannot, nnfortnnately, enter 

|t teriptiao of the different forms of apparatus 

tat this porpose, bat I most tell yoa that 

%kt becoiMS a most Taloable means of deter- 

dtf tmoont of sugar present in agiven liqaid, by 

\ to vhteh the polansed beam is turned. If, for 

jM were to fill a tube with ether water, or 

jtm voold find no effect produced by a polarised 

tanediiiely you introduce a solution of sugar 

taba you get a difference immediately. If you 

tibt vith some actire body, the eztiaordintry 

it oBce leuppesrs, and to extinguish it you must 

inaJjser either to the right or to the left. Now 

itkpOBBL With oane sugar you must turn the 

to the right* and the amount of rotation 

eifher with the length of the tube or the 

•f the Bohition. Thus polarised light is at the 

■e used ss a teat of the rtrength of sugar 

Btt whilst csne sugar is left" handed, gn^ 

ii|hl-bsiided. They act in different directions. 

ins, if tfasfe is cane sugar and grape sugar in a 

pshriMtioa oaly shows the amount of cane 

I m gnpe sum that is over and abore iHiat is 

lo neatnuise the other. Hence, in our ezperi- 

«t tie obliged to calculate the amount of 

Imrv M, in ocder to know the amount of cane 

tiiit is newassry in order to neutralise it. 

i; vben we make a strong solution of cane 

|ad fobjcct it to heat, especially in the presence 

icii it loses its crystaUisshifaty, and then 

canoasly encmgh, a lefi-haiuled power; 

this orjstallisability, raanufoctursrs 

cTBua of tarUur inxthe p rep ar ation of their 

In sugar re0ning, the object is 

sjmp get beyond the first aero, or, m 

esre has to be taken nerer to eony ert 

iito uDcnrstallisable sugar. The raw sugar 

iWyi kinds, the treacle being uncryitdliBable. 

ia Older to make these ezperimenti susoess- 

Hes«ary to decolorise the sugar, by filtering 

la littJe animal charcoaL There is no difikul^ 

Ike experiment. Again, directly cane sugar 

it loses its right-hand polarisation, 

kA-haaded. 

suggested to employ this p ro ws s in 

IKsbetesis a disease, one of the peculiarities 

h a large quantity of sugar in the urine. 

ilJBs tutna the plane of polarisstioQ to the 

lifts otsot depends mpon the amount of snpar 

Of esoie the yalue of the degrees ofpolansa- 

It ssosrtatned by experiment. The urine 

Wisd by >"»*^y witii acetate of lead, and 

I^aot think it is of yery much use, because 

w^sad, I think, better means of examining 

lattkalt pi o c ess uid a tedious one, and, what 

urine possesses the property of 

Further, with req>ect to ue yola- 

all are ctrcnlar polarisers, except oil of 

i oil of bitter slmonds. Isomerism has no 

,«tt pdlaxjsation. It is well known, for 

tvpentine, lemon, and bemmot are 

but turpentine is left-handed, whilst 

i are rijriit-handed. ^ Nor are oils 

Mfint if# it Aniseed is left-handed, 

ate rigbt-hsnded— aU from the 

klsft-haadsdr 



ANinrAL IBTEHHATIOHAL JBXUIBITIOHS. 



tktths 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Hajor-General Scott, C.B.« 
secretary. 

The third meeting of the Gonmiittee for Carriages was- 
held on the 9th of January, 1873, for the purpose of con- 
sulting with a special Council, appointed by tho 
Worshipful Company of Coachmakers. There were 
present--The Duke of Beaufort in the chair. Lord 
Arthur Somerset, Mr. Holmes, Mr. G. K. Hooper, 
Mr. Peters, Mr. Starey, Mr. Thorn, Mr. Thrupp, and 
Mr. WoodalL Applications to exhibit more than 200 
carriages were laid before the CoundL 

Her Majesty's Commissioners haye decided to offer 
to art societies, which haye no fixed plaoes for the 
exhibition of their works, spaoe where the works of eachi 
society may be exhibited together. 

The Committee on Cooking has lately published a 
list of works on that subject, with the prices annexed. 
The list contains 121 entries. 



The following are the rules for the admission of 
persons during the arrangement of the Exhibition : — 

1. Ko person whateyer will be admitted into the- 
building unless he is the bearer of a pass or day ticket 

2. Fasses, for the period spedfled thereon, will be- 
issued as follows, at the disoetion of the executive 
sunerintendent for general management, and under such^ 
orders as he may mm. tine to time issue : — 

US To exhibitors or their sgents. 

{6) To workmen employed by exhibitort of ma* 
chinery. 

(e) To workmoi emjdoyed by foreign commisrioners. 

{a) To workmen and others employed by Her Ma- 
jesty's Commissioners. 

3. A British exhibitor requiring a pass must apply to^ 
the superintendent of the galleries in which his cohibits 
will beplaoed. 

4. Foreigh coounisnonen must apply for passes for 
their exhibitors and worionen to the deputy-commissioner 
for foreign galleries. 

6. Day-tickets will be iisaed by the sup e rinte nd en ts 
of galleries as foDows: — 

7«} To British exhibitors or tiieir agents. 

(i) To wofkmen enqiloyed by exhibiton^ when it 
is absolutely necessary that they should mttr the 
bmldiBg. 

6. Passes and day-tickets most be shown on entering- 
and leayin|^, and whenever demanded within the build- 
ing. Expned passes snd day-tirkrts will be taken by 
the flOffTir ftf ipeis. 

7. Pftsses snd dsy-tidnts sis not tzanifotshle. 

8. Eyery pcoon not p rope sly snthori se d, fonnd in 
the building; or conyeyiag or l e m of lu g sny srtade from 
one pert of the bvildnig to saothflr, will be lishle to be 





ol s^rkind csn be taken 



to 



giysnmto custody* 

9. Ko bundles or 
out of the building 

10. An penoos sng tow or eotton 
yide a slate or metal box to **'"i**V thir 
moyed fooin the ^»— «MSM r 

11. AU sm-^-^ •— ** 

12. Every poBon is farfaidden to introdaee sny 
Inofor mstches or 1^ ol s^ kiod Into As bvklia^. 




The 




goods 



Rgifi£iy tte 
fsUkbed bjIUL 



Ii8 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Janctabt 17, 1873 



1. Every foreign package, or unpacked object, on 
arrival, ia to be aaaigned a rotation number, and entered 
in the foreign register. 

2. The rotation number will be marked on each case, 
or the labels of unpacked objects, in red. 

3. In registering cases, etc., particular care is to be 
taken that the marks on each case are entered, with 
the name and address of the delivering agent. 

4. All foreign packages will be unpacked in the unpack- 
ing shed, between the hours of 8 and 4, and in the pre- 
sence of the Customs House officials only, unless special 
permission is obtained to proceed without their pre- 
sence. 

5. The labels must not be removed from objects until 
they have been catalogued, and the catalogue numbers 
entered in the register. 

6. All paper, matting, etc., used for packing, must be 
preserved in the place nppointed for it, the property of 
«ach company being stored separately ; but hay, straw, 
and sawdust must be burnt, or otherwise destroyed. 

7. All cases placed in store must be perfectly empty, 
and must be aistinctly labelled with the name of the 
<X)untry to which they belong. 

8. When any breakage occurs, a written report should 
be at once drawn up, signed by two or three of those 
present, and forwarded to the Executive Superintendent 
for general management. 

9. The delivery orders for foreign goods will be re- 
ceived from the executive superintendent for general 
management, and on the arrival of the goods they will 
be compared with the orders and initialed by the deputy 
commissioner fQr foreign oountries, who will ^en return 
them to the executive superintendent for general man- 
agement. 

10. No foreign goods are to be allowed to leave the 
unpacking shed until a delivery order has been received 
or made out for them. 

11. Objects of fine art will be taken from the unpack- 
ing shed to the fine art gallery ; those belonging to classes 
of manufacture will be sent to those parts of the building 
which are allotted for the various classes. 

12. When goods are sent by the deputy commissioner 
for foreign countries to the various superinteoadents of 
classes, a delivery note must accompany the goods, and 
the receipt on the counterfoil must be filled in by the 
class superintendent to whom the goods are sent, and re- 
turned to the deputv commissioner for foreign oountries. 

13. Foreign gooas, sent in by foreign commissions, 
having been actually accepted for exhibition, no class 
superintendent is permitted to reject, or pass on to any 
other class superintendent, goods sent to him by the deputy 
commissioner for foreign countries, without reference to 
the executive superintendents. 

The rules for the reception of foreign and colonial 
goods are as follows : — 

1. AH foreign goods (with the exception of those 
specified in rule 2) must be delivered at the east goods 
entrance, in Exhibition-road, on the appointed days, 
viz. : — 



Saturday, 
Monday, 
Tuesday, 
Wednesday, 

Thursday,'' 6th 



>» 



»> 



Friday, 

Saturday, 

Monday, 



1st March ( Paintings in oil and water 
3rd „ ( colours 

5th \\ } Sc^Pt«ro 

i BeproducUons and stained 
i glass 
Fine art furniture and all 
decorative works 
7th „ I Substances used as food 
„ I, Architectural designs 

8th 



»» 



( Fii 
„ I Su 



$} 



10th 



I) 



( Engravings, &c. — Tapes- 

( tries, &c. 

I Cooking and its science 

( Steel, cutlery, and edge 

i tools 



Tuesday, 11th 



** 



>» 



Wednesday, 12th 



i» 



f> 



>» 



»» 



»> 



»» 



Monday, 



19th 
7th April 



>i 



Surgical instromenti ui 

appliances 
Machinery and raw nu 

terials 
Scientific inventions 
Designs for decorttii 

manufactures 
Silk and velvet fabricfl 
Carriage 



If necessary, these days may be anticipated, but m i 
case may they be overstepped. 

2. Foreign and colonial comroissioneTS, havii 
annexes, may deliver the goods of their respectii 
countries at their own doors. 

3. No packages can be opened except in the presrai 
of the Customs* House officials, unless special penniM< 
is obtained. 

4. Foreign and colonial commissioners orezbibito 
who wish to have an agent of their own pieaont durii 
the unpacking of their goods must cause him to atui 
at such hours as may be appointed from time to tiin« I 
the officers of the Exhibition. 

5. To every object sent for exhibition a label, 
proper form, must be securely attached. All particalfl 
on the label must be in English, and the number on t 
label must correspond with the number in first colas 
of ddivery order (see rule 6) ; for pictures and worki 
art— label form No. 196; for industrial objects ai 
sdeatifio inventions — label form No. 19. 

6. Delivery orders, an. form No. 31, must be sent 
each commissioner or exhibitor. All particulars nu 
be entered in English, and the numbers in the tl 
column must correspond with the numbers on the lab 
(see rule 6). These delivery orders should be bcnt 
post to the Secretary before the 1st March. 



The Food JourntU, commenting on the proceeiiogs 
the Committee on Cooking, remarks that '' in them 
find no notice of one of the most important questiou 
the present day, especially for families of small i 
moderate means, namely, how to prepare tinned me 
and other preserved provisions in the most ecouomi^ 
agreeable, and wholesome forms. Considering the i 
portanoe of this subject we have no doubt it wul rtce 
special attention. 

*' With respect to the mention of (he cooking of 
French poor, it may be remarked that French coot 
is a system equally applicable to the poor and the ri 
The b^t knowledge that the Commission could imf 
from France under the head of cookery would be- 
that which applies to the cooking for any one cU« 
other, but the modes of carrying on the various op« 
tfons, such as boiling, roasting, stewing, frying, and 
preparation of gravies and sauces. The differei 
between dishes for the poor and dishes for the rich r 
gist in little more than the greater or less cost of 
ingredients and condiments, and the lavidi or cat 
use of butter, &c, For instance, the oooking of ^ 
tables is almost identical in all classes, and to tc 
English women how to make the most of garden s 
would, indeed, be a valuable lesson. The treatmfn' 
dairy produce in the various forms of omeJetet, cen/\ 
platf fromage d la crkiM^ and the hundred other I 
dishes of the French cu%nn$^ many of which bare \ 

5iven by competent hands in the columns of the ^ 
oumal, would form an attractive as well as a osefol 
hibition." 



The Engineer published, as a supplement to 
last number, a brief ** Dictionary of Engineering Term 
Italian English, and English Italian." This dictioD^ 
published in book form, as a sheet of sixteen pages, ^t> 
it can be folded into a pamphlet. The idea is a good 
•and appears to have been oamuUy worked out 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, Januaet 17, 1878. 



149 



EXHIBITIOVS. 



MOSCOW POLYTECHNIC EXHmiTION. 

Tbe foDowing list of awards has been received 
iioBL the Committee at Moscow, accompanied by a 
rftterexprasmg regret that the former list shotdd 
kve been tent imperfect : — 

HOKOEABT AdD&ISS OF THB FiBST ClABS,* 

With the Bgnature of the Qrand Duke Constantiae. 



^ooetj for the Encourage- 

acst of Aria, Manure- 

tntt, uhI Commerce, 

Loadoo 

Ik2k UofeiiiD, London j 

tCkdwick, Edwin, C.B. I 



fDe-Winton, Major 
tFoater, P. Le Nexe, M.A. 
fMurray, Andrew 
fOwen, Philip Conliffe 
fScott, Mafor-General H. 
y. D., C.B. 



HoSOkJUlT ADDILK88 OF THB SbCOKD ClASS.* 

^ Berg. Alexander, Imperial Biusian Consol-Gfeneral) 
LmAoL 

DiPix>MA or Thaxxs. 



iichcr, ProfcMor, Edin- 

*Birtl.y, G. C. T. 

rfiKUad,FnDk 

KWkIi, Andrew 

♦Ckrke.Uyde 

^Heary.CB. 

Cilntn asd Glendanning, 

Xor^ich 
DitoQ, Albert, London 
l^QiBcM-jor „ 
B«>fc», I/r., Kew-gardena 
hfaH, — , If) 

HiMia^/6abriel 



fLawrence, Edwin 
fLennox, Lord Henry G., 

M.P. 
fLIoyd, Sampaon 8. 
fMarthall, W. P. 
fOwen, Professor, F.R.8. 
fPoDOve, Key. Basil 
tReograye, Samuel 
Scrirenor, G. H., London 
Stair. Earl of 
fTeulon, Seymour 
Wataon, Dr. Forbes, Indian 

Museum, London 



HesOlART PUZXS OF THB FxBST ClASS,* 

^>th the signatore of the Grand Duke Constantine. 
?«*■». J^ Norwich Lawes, James Bennett, St. 



^^wJioa of Machinery, 
O. Cnnnell & Co. 



Alban*s 
Tankenrille, Earl of 



HOXORABT PbIZBS.* 

^ Gciient Mnaenm 

«?*AM Chamber 
G 



of 



Piatt, Brothers & Company, 

Oldham 
Tapling, Thomas, & Com- 

puny, London 

Thb Gband Gold Medal. 

Collyer, Dr. R. H., London 
Colman, J. and J., Norwich 

(mustard) 
Colman, J. and J., Norwich 

(rice starch) 



^^wyCirrisge Company, 
«S WilBam, and Sons, 



*«kWnwsL J. and T., 
^«i8osaHacdeflfield 
■•^Caiarlea, and Co. 
*nassection) , Sheffield 
^•iD, Chtrlea. and Co. 

^^J section), Shef- 

■n 

'^. J. E. and W. and 
^ London and Stock- 

^^ud Shuttkworth, 

^% Band Solomon, 



Cnghton and Co. (f) 
Curtis, Parr, and Maddley, 

London 
Bickinsand Co.,Manche6ter 
Dougall, J. Dalxiel, London 
Elliott Bros. „ 

English Condensed Milk 

Company, London 
Field, J. C. and J., Patent 

Candle Works, London 
Garrett, Richard, and Son, 

Saxmundham 
Greenwood & Batley, Leeda 



*i»timiiliitM^_ 

^ ll Mfc M i ^ stcmy tf Arts Committee for the »x>U)»toa. 



Green and Sons, Wakefield 
Hick, Hargraves, and Co., 

Bolton 
Homsby and Sons (f) 
Keen, Kobinaon, Bellyille, 

and Co., London 
Kirkstall Forge Company, 
Landscrona, Swenska Com- 
pany (P) 
Langton and Bicknells, 

London 
Leonardt D., Birmingham 
Lloyd's Re^ster of British i 

'and Foreigm Shipping 
Lossen and Sons (f) 
Mather and Pktt, Salford 
Merryweather and Sona, 

London 
Mitchell, C, and Co., New- 

castle-on-T)'ne 
fNlcoU, Donud, London 
Owen and Company, Patent 

Wheel Works 
Piesse and Lubin, London 
PlaUBros. and Co., Limited, 

Oldham 
Poohin and Company, Man- 
chester 
Pooley, Henry, and Sons, 
Liyerpool 



Powell and Leland, London 
Price's Patent Candle Co., 

London 
Probyen and Son (?) 
Ransomes, Sims, and Head, 

Ipswich Crural section) 
Ransomea, Sims, and Head, 

Ipswich (technical sec.) 
Reuss, Ernst, Manchester 
Rimmel, Eugene, London 
Robey and Co., Lincoln 
Ruston Company (P) 
Siemens, C. W., F.R.S., 

LL.D., London 
Sommerville, — (?) 
Tapling, Thomas, and Co.^ 

London 
Thompson, Lincoln 
Whitley Partners, Le«ds 
WiUan and Mills, Black* 

bum 
Woodbury, Walter B., 

London 
Wouldham Cement Co., 

London and Wouldham 
Young's Paraffin Light and 

Mineral Oil Co., Glasgow 
Younger, W. and Co., Edin- 
burgh 



Trb Gold Mbdal. 



Allen, M. J. Yalente, Lon- 
don and Oporto 

Broughton Copper Co., The, 
Manchester 

Budde, C. and Co., Bir- 
mingham 

Clarke & Dunham, London 

Evnitt, Allen, and Sons, 
Birmingham 

Gausby, J., and Co., Bir- 
mingham 

Howard, James k Frederick, 
Bedford 

Illingworth, R., Bradford 

Jenson, J., and Wilfred 
Nicholson, London 

Leroy and Co., London 

Naish, Osborne, and Eden, 
Birmingham 

Thb Gbamd SiLysR Mbdal. 

Baynes, — Glasgow 

Beyington & Sons, London 

Bryant and May „ 

Cassell, Petter, and Galpin, 
London 

Clarke and Ca, London 

Clarke, Samuel ., ,^ 

Colman, J. and J., Norwich 
(rice flour) 

Comes, W., and Co., Mac- 
clesfield 

Critchley, Brinsley, k Co., 
Macclesfield 

Engert and Rolfe, London 

Fortnom, Mason, and Co., 
London 

Grant, Chambers, and Co., 
London 



Ormerod, Miss Eleonore 

London 
Shand, Mason, and Co., 

London 
Smith, Frederick, and Co.,. 

Halifax 
Soper, William, Reading 
Storey, Isaac, and Sons,. 

Manchester 
Swainson, Birley, and Co.,. 

Manchester 
Watts, Blake, Beame, and! 

Co., Newton Abbot 
Windoyer, C. Sandford^ 

London 
Wood and lyery. West 

Bromwich 



Hattersley, George, & Son» 

Keighley 
Hewitson and Co., London 
Kelsh, — (f) 

Massey ana Co., Manchester 
Nicholson, J. 0., Maccles- 
field 
Ormerod, Miss, London 
Potts, Wriffbt, and Co., 

Macclesfield 
Rabone, John, and Son, 

Birmingham 
Reeyes and Sons, London 
Sandberg, C. P. „ 
Smale, J., k Son, Maccles- 
field 



Baxter Bros., Dundee 
Bermingham, J. and H., 

Leek 
Blythe, J. and A., London 



Thb SiLyBR Mbdal. 

Bullock, W., Macclesfield 
Cochrane, Adam L., Gala- 
shiels 
Coz Bros., Dnnd*» 



160 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Januabt 17. 1873. 



Cndfl^a Solid Pea Soup 

(Hewitson & Go.) 
Fry, J. S. and Sona, Bristol 
Gerrard, Edward, London 
Howard, J. and F., Bedford 
tKicoU, Donald, London 



Manchestar 
Ormerod, Misa „ 
Sumner, John« and Go. 
Thompaon, W. J. and H., 

London 



Thb Bbonzb Mkdal. 

Kendleas, R., Leeda 
NidioUa and Son, Birming- 
ham 
Tangye Bros., Birmingham 

(Signed) G. Stchubov8kt, 

Pres. imp. 800. of Friendi of Nat. Sdenoe, Anthropology, 

and Ethnology. 

N. Sabnoxk, Secretary. 



Burke, J.' H., DuUin 
Gropper, H. S. and Go., 

Nottingham 
Davis, A. A. & Go., London 



KIOTO EXHIBITIOK. 



The following interesting account of a Japanese exhi- 
bition, recently held at Kidto, has been forwarded to the 
Foreign-office by her Majesty's charg6-d'a£fairea in 
Japan. It waa drawn up by Mr. Lawrence, of her 
Majesty's Legation, and waa transmitted for the infor- 
mation of the Science and Art Department, by direction 
of Earl Granville : — 



M<nr, Patrick, Grane,&Co.| residence of their foreign visitors pleaaiuat, and 

much to be regretted that the number of Eluropeau 
ao small. 

The exhibition waa opened on the 17th of Aprils 

the intention of leaving it open for fifty daya. Th^ 

waa, however, extended far another thirty daya, i 

waa not finally cloaed until the end of July. At tl 

of June only 200 fbreignera had visited Kidto, m 

only had gone on to Otau, ao that aa a financial sp^ 

tion the exhibition was a failure. The price fo 

admiaaion of foreignera waa one rid (aboat four shill 

and for Japaneae 1 J boo (about la. 6d.). The atteti 

of the latter waa never very large, the price of adm 

being too hi^h for the maaa of the people. Then 

project, notwithstanding, to have anoth^* exhibid 

Kioto, on a grander s^e, next sprin^^, and to bi 

place expreaaly for it, inatead of having it, as tli 

one, in three aeparate buildinga appertaining^ to the 

great temples of Ghidnin, Kenninji, and Niahi Hon^ 

Uie laat over two milea diatant from the other twci 

The objecta expoaed were arranged with rcrr 

order aa to age or country. At the entrance to iH 

hibition at Ghidnin waa an ancient gilt ahrinft, inti 

to be carried in proceasions, in juxtapoaitioai wj 

wooden horae, covered with European horse-cloj 

A French achoolmaater,* reaident in Kioto, who h&<j 

employed in the direction of the Exhibition in P^ 

1867« was anxioua to assist the directors, but th 

loath to consult him, as doing so would have 

ignorance. Very few European goods were e; 

Some merchants of Kobe wished to send some 

but very little encouragement was given to them. I 

of the articles were from Kioto or the neighbooi 

and, with the exception of those belonging to the M 

and a few other people, were for sale, and could he I 

away at the time of purchase. ' 

At Ghidnin the principal things exhibited w< 

Ancient armour ; weapons ancient and modem ; 

fittiogs ; raw silk from different provinces of Jap4 

best being from Ki6to ; hemp ; paper of all tl^ 



The idea of an exhibition at Kidto originated with 
seven merchants, and the authorities eagerly took it up, 
in the hope of attracting people to Kidto, the population 
of which has much decreased since the departure of the 
Gourt and the many people connected with it, for Yedo. 
A proclamation was published all over Yamashiro, the 
province of which Kidto is the chief town, ordering 
people to send their goods to be exhibited ; letters were 
addressed to the neighbouring states, requesting that the 
exhibition should be made known, and permission was 
solicited from the government at Yedo to open Kidto to 
foreigners. Nine officials, four of whom had already 
been named commissioners to the Vienna Exhibition, 
were appointed directors, and interpreters were sent for 
from Kdb6 for the benefit of foreign visitors, who, it 
was expected, would arrive in crowds, and spend a great 
deal of money. The authorities were the more induced 
to believe this because last winter an Italian gentleman 
got permission to visit Kidto, and he and a French mer- 
chant who accompanied him spent large sums in bronzes, 
lacquers, &c. 

Great preparations were made to receive visitors. The 
numerous houses destined for the pri«at8, and the guests' 
apartments of the Temple of Ghidnin, were made over 
to two enterprising Japanese, who set up an hotel. A 
Frenchman from Kdb6 waa also allowed to open an 
hotel. A large nimiber of men, dressed in European 
style, with *' guard " worked in the cuff of their coats, 
were stationed in the streets, to act as guides to Euro- 
peans, and protect them in caae of need, for which, 
however, theie was no occasion, ns a population more 
peaceably inclined, or better disposed towards foreigners 
than the present population of Kidto it would be im- 
possible to find. Performances by dancing girls in the 
theatre were provided for the amusement of foreigners, 
and the pleasure grounds belonging to a large residence 
were converted into a sort of public garden. Foreigners 
were also permitted to visit the places of interest in the 
neighbourhood, such aa the tea district of Uji, Kara, an 
ancient capital of Japan, and Otsn, on Lake Biwa, a 
town aeven miles off, and the resort of pleasure parties 
firom Kidto. Before the exhibition was thought of, in 
order to accustom the people to foreign style of living, 
the Kidto authorities had ordered a European restaurant 
to be built at Otsu, on the shore of the lake, and on the 
ground where the castle formerly stood. When the ex- 
hibition was resolved on, this restaurant was converted 
into an hotel, and, aa a further attraction to viaitora, on 
fine nights there waa a diaplay of fireworka. In £act, 
the Kidto aothoritiea did all they could to make the 



ferent kinds made in he country' ; silk and cotton ^ 
brocade and velvet of Kidto, manufactured, some 
former 8s. per foot, the latter 4s. per foot ; t&i 
ancient and modem, the former mostly Chinese 
was naked for one piece representing- the d^a 
Sherka) ; dresses of ceremony ; ancient and moden 
coverings — amongst these and the armour were 
things of historical interest, such as s^vords. ai 
yebosbi (cap worn by nobles) belonging^ to Taik*'* 
and other Japanese heroes ; trays, baskets, &c-. 
from the fibre of the Wcsttria from Minakuchi 
Omi ; ditto from the wood of the fern from Oka 
Enshu. 

At Kenninji : — Ancient and modem utensils in 
and gold, of Kidto and Osaca workmanahip ; vtr 
specimens of the old and new gold lacquer, Ividt«> ; j 
fittings and small ornaments in sbalEudo, a mixti 
copper and gold ; small vessels, s^ich as drinkinf; 
and pots, in sabari, a mixture of silver, ppwtrr 
copper. Tbe difficulty and labour of muia^ 
metals being great, a small utensil, in sabari, wbtd 
the app>carance of polished bronze with a ting« of > 
is worth from £8 to £40. Modem enamel, clnift 
from the province of Owari. This is imitat^ frm 
old Ghinese enamel, and is little esteemed ; a pli 
saucer is sold for 6s. Ancient bronzes, some of grea 
from temples ; modem bronzes of Kidto, msnuXac 
in imitation of the old ; musical instruments ; p 
work; sweetmeats; porcelain and pottery 
Kujomidzu in Kidto, and specimens fronx S«b 
Banshu, Owari, Bizen, and Karadzu, which last 
most valued by Japanese ; Japanese coins of all 
from the old silver coins, said to be 1,000 years old^ 
which pieces were broken when small snzns wcl 
quired, to the modem coins of the Osaca mint. ! 
At Nishi Hong^anji, the portion of this temple { 
np to this exhilmion was f (^merly the habitation a 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 17, 1873. 



151 



Jim^ m chifif prtost, in the Bhuddist priesthood. 
XbenoaiMe betatifully deooiated, the oeilings, sides, 
mlp Ml Ma wallfl being painted, gilt, and carved. Several 
mam hn vez« fall of lUnstrated manuscripts, silk and 
f^iaoOk ancient and modem, with figures or poetry 
~ ' 'at tbem, and intended for hanging on walls of 
or honses. Some with Chinese characters were 
oftba handwriting of Mikados. There were 
1 greit muoj scrolls with hirds and animals, in 
rt|ff^eeotatioa of which the Japanese artists excel. 
ffii>iem manufoctares wore fans, lanterns, dolls of 
i tad Kioto manufacture. There was also a col- 
iA minfiala, fossils, coral, crystal, and jade oma- 
ud flint and crystal arrow-heads from the pro- 
cfNtfflbn. 

(Signed) C. W. Lawrence. 



MiWtiin. — In addition to the general con- 
I fawn Prance, the city of Paris will be a con- 
exhibitor ; the Municipal Council has voted a 
'yul to £4,000 for expenses, and hns appointed a 
' eoniutsBon, consisting principally of architects, 
■^and school inspectors. The city will show, 
€thcr thinf^ plans in relief, photographs, and 
giofits principal monuments, churches, theatres, 
«hools, &o., together with plans of intended 
t The city exhibition will form an independent 
0^ the French section. We know that the 
'oi BritiBh exhibitors inscribed is large, and in 
^tyuiUMits of manofSacture — agricultural imple- 
1. ftc i n s tanc e t hey will make a fine show, but 
^Britain, as a qatkm, will, we fear, look very small 
^ 1 5ezt year. Is it too late to ask why the first 
! exhibition to he held in Austria is regarded so 
Ijr onr government and authorities ? They made 
*' I riiov in many respects — not in all— at the Paris 
^ m. in 1867 ; if lees is done for Vienna in 1873, it 
k tt Aiploiaatie slang, be " worse than a crime, it will 



THE TRADE OF FINLAND. 

ifl^fioropean countri<^ Finland appears to he of 

' iweat origin. Whilst on the b'inlers of the 

BK«n there existed reguUted societies, founded 

iVnidans, Greeks, and Etruscans ; and whilst 

(^ iodastry, and civilisation flourished there, 

^mi in all probahility, under water, forming 

■pus of the waves of the Polar Sea and the 

, ok ntpposition is borne out and justified by 

oUervations. For centuries back certain 

nd d«pression8 of the surface of the shores 

' Mo^Msrved, so much so as to render excellent 

^^jWMBhlft. and to convert gulfs Hud straits into 

r W. Along the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia, 

^,> >y from Wasa to Tomea, the rising of the 

Mnrding to ohsorvatioos, is 4*5 feet in a 

. ' •M* in the southern part of the country, 

^tottjT, on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, the 

HMt attain two feet in the same period. A 

J^ltts formation of the country immediately 

■ fts aspect of the hottom of a sea partially 

■««• f«cesMs being still filled with water. The 

><4i of the country, including all the lakes <ex- 

*«Lmoda), is upwards of 6,367 geographical 

**>J^that IS to say, about two-thirds of the 

* *_"» Poe, and a little more than the late 

^j^BMohy. It was annexed to the Russian 

J>j^^ year 1809, aod enjoys its own govem- 

^2^^^ ^"^ lands under the title of the Grand 

Matoatad between SQ*' 48' and 70'' 6' north 

M««ea S8<» 3d' and oO"* 2' longitude of 

th» Baver Taaa, wkich ooastitutas the 

f% Id Hangoodd, the southermost point 

it 1,230 kilos.^ and from east to 



west, on the other hand, the extreme width is only 650 
kilos. ^ A country so far north as 60° cannot he expected 
to be richly favoured by nature ; at the same time, with 
the exception of Scandinavia, no other country, lying 
in the same latitude, enjoys so mild a climate. The 
isothermal line, indicating the mean annual temperature, 
traverses Finland at 66"^ north latitude, whilst east- 
ward, through European Russia, it descends to 60°, and 
in Siberia to 54^, and to the westward, in Labrador, it 
does not attain even 50^. Nowhere, except in Norway, 
does agriculture extend so far to the north as in Finland. 
Cornfields are to be found on the borders of the Muonio, 
68^, and on the southern shores of the Lake Eoari, 69". 
Naturally, in a country of such vast extent, the climate 
in the north varies greatly from that of the south. The 
forests consist of the red pine, fir, and birch, and in 
the southern parts the oak, lime, and ash may occasion- 
ally be seen. Finl'tnd is more populated and cultivated 
than any other country in the same latitude. The 
population in 1865 reached l,843,2o3 persons, whereaa 
Norway and Sweden, at an extension situated below 
60^, and equal to one and a-half the area of Finland, 
had together 1,615,000 inhabitants, and the three 
Russian Governments of Archangel, Olonitz, and 
Wologda, covering an area of 23,842 geographical square 
miles, or more than three times the surface of Finland, 
have only 1,555,660 inhabitants. Out of this population 
of 1,843,253 persons, the Finnish lani;uage is spoken by 
1,500,000, the Swedish by 250,000, and the Russian by 
4,000. In the northern districts there are about 1,000 
Laplanders, and here ^nd there Bohemians. 

According to regulations in existence, no statistical 
^report of the articles imported from and exported to other 
countries, excepting Russia and Sweden, is published ; it 
is, therefore, extremely difficult to obtain correct figures 
as to the value of the goods exchanged with the various 
foreign countries. Mr. Consul Campbell has been enabled 
to supply this deficiency of information from a reliable 
source, by which it appeurs that Finland draws her 
principal imports from Russia, and next thereto from 
Grermany, Grent Britain, Sweden, end America. In 
exchange for her imports Finland has little more to 
offer than the produce of her forests, of which Great 
Britain receives by far the greatest share, and it may he 
stated that the value of the timber exported from Fin- 
land equals nearly one-half of the total export of the 
country. In the year 1864 there were 13,558,954 cubic 
feet of deals and boards shipped, and in 1870 32,220,766 
cubic feet The forests, however, are becoming from 
year to year more and more exhausted. Prices in the 
interior have advanced at least 30 per cent, within the 
last seven years, with every probability that, seven years 
hence, they will be 30 per cent, higher than now. The 
most, as well as the best, of the red pine shipped at 
Helsingfors, Frederickshavn. and Lovisa is cut in the 
forests of Wiitosaari and Rautslompi. about 300 milea 
from the coast The trees are floated in single blocks 
through rivers and lakes until they reach Kaapokosld, 
the northern end of the great Pajane Lake, where they 
are collected and formed into rafts containing from 
1,500 to 2,000 each, which rafts are towed by steam- 
ships of a peculiar construction either to the railway 
station at Lnhtis, for shipment at Helsingfors, or to the 
river Kymene, for shipment at Frederickshavn. Almost 
all the timber exported is converted into deals and boards 
for shipment, through the agency of steam and water 
saw-mills situated near the coast. In the export of tar 
and pitch no important increase is observable. In the 
year 1850 151,936 harrels of tar and 4,636 barrels of 
pitdi were exported, and in 1865 the quantity increased 
to 193.722 barrels of tar and 15,063 barrels of pitch, and 
in 1870 receded to 137,285 barrels of tar and 4,100 barreli 
of pitch. 

The export of these articles is almost exclusively from 
the towns Ijring on the Gulf of Bothnia, and foremost of 
them stands Uleaborg, from which port alone one-third 
of the whole expert of the Grand Duohy is effected 



162 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Januabt 17, 1878. 



T>iiriDg the last throe yean a oonsiderahle increase has 
taken place in the export of batter, and in 1870 the 
quantity reached 3,895 tons, the whole of which found 
its way to the Ocraian markets, vift Lubeck. Perhaps 
in no European countrjr has the agriculturist a more un- 
€ort<iin or more unpropitious climate to contend with than 
in Finla.id«andMr. Campbell remarks that during his six 
years' residence in the country he has had the misfortune to 
see on two occasions the most magnificent crops of grain 
which a country could produce totally ruined through 
a single night's frost occurring in the month of July. 
The last total failure of the crops occurred in 1867, 
when the country suffered from a dreadful famine, but 
since then it has been blessed with abundant harvests, 
and is now enjoying great prosperity. 

The most important public improvement which has yet 
been carried out in Finland, and one which will confer an 
incalculable benefit on the country, was completed in the 
autumn of 1870, namely, the construction of the line of 
railway connecting the port of Helsingfors with the 
capital of Russia. The line was built by the Finnish 
C^vemment imder the superintendence of Finnish on-^ 
gineers, and is allowed to be the cheapest railway in 
Russia. A new line is projected from Ruhimaki, a 
station on the St. Petersburgh line, to Hango Udd, 
the south- western extremity of the Grand Duchy. In 
the average of winters the harbour of Hango tldd is 
only impeded by ice during two or three months, 
whereas the port of St. Petersburgh is usually closed 
for five out of the twelve. TTbe promoters of the 
Hango lino are of opinion that their railway, when com- 
pleted, will, during the time the river Neva is closed, 
draw the exports and imports from and to St. Peters* 
burgh by that route. The enterprise may prove sue- 
cesHful, but experience of these regions shows that this 
part of the Baltic and Gulf of Finland are unnavigable 
iM'ther for steam or sailing vessels during the months of 
December, January, February and March. 



LABOUR IN GREECE. 



From the backward condition of the Hellenic Kingdom 
and the poverty of the population, the dnly localities in 
Greece where there would seem to be any likeb'hood of 
there being an opening for English skilled labour are — 
Athens, the capital, with its port, the Pirsaus, and its 
out-port of Ergasteria ; the two sea-ports of Syra and 
Patras ; and Corfu, or other towns in the Ionian Islands. 
Mr. Watson, our representative, residing at Athens, 
assumes that a skilled British artisan, who is not desirous 
of living in a southern climate, would not be disposed 
to emigrate from England to Greece, unless by so doing 
he should hope to secure one of two advantages— namely, 
that by coming to Greece he might see his way to 
bettering himself in the items of his food and drink, his 
clothing, lodging, and amusements; or that he might be 
justifiea in expecting to be in a position enabling him to 
• lay by money. Native Greek skilled labour is greatly 
inferior, in almost every branch, to the average English, 
French, German, or Italian labour in the corresponding 
branches, the departments in which Greek workmen 
show most skill being stone-cutting and shoe-making. 
The Greek population are for the most part essentially a 
poor community, in addition to their not being ac- 
customed to any higher degree of civilisation or any 
superior style of workmanship to what Athens presents. 
Thf se considerations would induce the great majority of 
persons resident to prefer indifferent native workman- 
ship to greatly superior foreign skilled labour, provide 
the former could be procured for less cost. It would, 
therefore, appear to be scarcely worth the while of such 
British artisans as may not be able altogether to distance 
native workmen in the quality of their workmanship, to 
endeavour to compete with ttiem at Athens, unless, 
indeed, such British artisans are prepared to accept the 
same amount of remuneration as is given to Greekmem- 



bers of the same craft. It wonld not, for instance 
worth the while of an English shoemaker, or mu £n^ 
mason, to exercise his calling at Athens, unless he a 
see his way to benefiting himself by accepting ^ 
there the prices given to a Greek shoemaker or ms 
The journeyman cabinet-maker receives per day i 
3s. 4d. to 3s. 9d. ; the mason, carpenter, and h^ 
painter receives per day 3s. 9d., the latter during 
months in the year, and for the two months of Ai^ 
and September he receives, per day, about 5s. 6d. 
average expenditure of a Greek mason woul^ 
19s. fid. per month, and of an artisan somewhat hi^ 
estimated at about 38s. per month. There sire, at Atb 
or in the neighbourhood, a not very large oumbe 
French, English, German and Italian, or other fori 
skilled workmen employed, either in connection with 
Piraeus Railway, with the Athens Gks- works, wiUi r( 
making, or with one or two other undertakings. Tl 
are also some French hairdressers, tailors, &e. Thi^ 
a Germanoabinet-maker, and there is also a ^reoch p 
layer, both of which latter employ some journeymen. \ 
English engaged are chiefiy menskilled in making or «i 
ing machinery. At the lead-smelting works of Laorio^ 
Ergasteria there are employed about 2,T)00 workmej 
all, of whom 78 are foreigners — 30 being Frenchmax| 
Italians, and 18 Spaniards. The latter receive froaj 
to 6s. 8d. a day, the Frenchmen and the Italians raj 
less : whilst the living of all costo them about 2s. ai 
per person. The native workmen receivo about 2a. di 
and can provide for themselves for 8d. a- day. It i 
seem somewhat singular that, whereas all the prodaj^ 
Laurium, amounting in value to more than. £1S<^ 
annually, is exported in British vessels to Engl^ 
there should be no British hands employed in tj 
works. I 

The bulk of the •population of Athens, as well « 
other places in its neighbourhood, being, as has been i 
poor and unaccustomed to better workmanship than 
country produces, put up with Greek arUsans, w 
charges are lower than those of foreigners would 
but Athens contains a Court and a diplomatic 
consular body, the members of which daily feel 
absence of the ordinary comforts to which they have 1 
accustomed in other countries. There are residezi 
Athens, under ordinary circumstences, a French, 
English, a Russian, an Austrian, a Prussian, a Tuil 
and a United States' minister, all of whom on their an 
have in a great measure to furnish their houses i 
abroad, but who would, of course, prefer to em| 
upholstei^rs and cabinet-makers for the purpose if t 
could find men in the country capable of snppl] 
their wants. Mr. Watson mentions the circumka 
of a Greek gentleman, whose state of health mafe 
convenient for him to pass the winter at Athens, ha« 
brought, two years since, three house-p'tinten i 
England, on contract (paying their passage mon«-y t 
outwards and homewards), to decorate his winter r 
dence. It appears that these three men, who were hi; 
skilled artisans, preferred to return to Bngland rit 
than remain in Athens. But Mr. W«itaon han hetn 
formed by several persons resident, in whose jndj^ 
he places reliance, that there now existn an op««in£; 
Athens for a limited number of skilled British trtiiH^ 
He has consulted on the subject with various p?r^ 
established, and with several employers of workmen, i 
these have replied to his inquiries : — '* Do not dise^ 
age English artisans from coming to Athens. 8tej 
skilled men might make their way here very well." 1 
demand, however, for English labour would seem td 
only for men skilled in making, managing, or repauj 
machinery, and for locksmiuis, bell-hangers, h(y\ 
decorators, sign-painters, and cabinet-makcrB. A« 
the quality of worxmanship in Athens, tho inconvmiiM 
expense, trouble and in fact the impoasibility of gett 
any repairs done to houses at the worst season of 
year are very harassing to the occupant — wiih re<| 
to looks, door-handles, vamiahing, ice. ; and la AihsQ 



JO0BNAL OP THE SOOIETTV OP ARTS, jAsn*aT 17, 1873. 



TtaMltiJ CBBilition it nttarly diagraeefal. AiKinaAiu 
III ManiE fbniitan tlifl pomesaor of empty nxiitii bu 
UpntueU mIh — vhen Chsae oocar — inah itrticlm tu 
ni b pventsd, vitlioiit regard to hti taste or to their 
•-jn^imliiii; with each other. Tbe Oermui cabineb- 
DbiaiiAai onable to exeoata an order under moiithi, 
:ud Usf th« itata of thingi it would be a boon to the 
Endnlntd portioD of the oominiiDity if some Engtiih 
cSu of Uu eimfti indicated, could be made to lee 
no nj to emigiata to Athens with profit to them- 
r-na H in that caie •ome of the blanki io the akilled 
d^B narkit would profakbly be gradually filled ap ; 
M^ wm ■ Mt«r qnality of ikilled labour introdnoed 
Ho Onter, it might be hoped that a taste for better 
nUuuhip would thus be^ an long, created amongit 

Ttt uail dailj rontine for a Bnropeaa artiian io 
iHm, ifha be a bachelor, ia to take a cap of ooDae, 
nU «HU bread, on riting in the mamiiig-; to breakfott 
> Ulb Wbre noon. when, at the nmehatel where he 
"J 'ioai, a meal it pat before him conaiating of 
"Jt. ntli bnad, boiled beef, with one vegetable, and 
ut otlw Jiik. The bntchen' meat ii not of a very 
swniing or taptinff quality, but a person board- 
I* It laj bolel for a flied inin par day reoeirea at 
< ■■il ■ MlEdeat quantity of fifod to satisfy his appetite. 
rtiK:let)gpplie* regetablea, inoluJ ins spinach, canli- 
1 im, liHBitoea. onions, potatoea, and French beans in 
•""n^OBi : fruit likewisa in greet plenty, includin? 
r*!^ ■ppls. peua. melons, orangdS and fli^ ; whilst 
*« u villiin the reach of all cUuei at a very obesp 
*^ • <lsuilily lasa than a pint being, ai a rulo, supplied 
■ vk tuaJ u each person. The Earopean artisan, after 
■> ihisiaiit mid-day metl snuh ai jndicited, resumes 
>■ ijil: Butil nearly sunset, vhen he ratoms to his 
^v-koow ftir another maaL of one hot diab with bread 
•1 "iM. With regard to the facilities which an artiaan 
"all And iu AthMtl for clothing himself, the climate, 
iru b« Mid. siceptiog daring the months of Ddcember 
"i ^taiuy. is a very mild one, his clothing, therefore, 
^i kite to be of a vary mn<di less heavy description 
■inchH is worn in nortliem climatet. Of theamonnt 
<iialrin which an artisan would find in his lodgings, 
^ i> tittle to say, farther than that in a eonthem 
Kiu ihit iton ia, perhapa. not so very important as in 
'■itlwii cliiaate. One can procure, as a general rule, 
*^ii [oom, imfnmiahHt, or a furnished room in a 
Mfl, aUch, undn' ordinary drcumstancea, can be 
**'"il Dare or less comfortabla, English artisan* 
^^ tul a langoage strange to them spoken, and, 
^ tbi cucptioo of a few engineers cmmected with 
■* "Jni, ihey would find scarcely any of their 
U>> muiiiyiiiea. At Athens, however, there is a 
"** LojiiiuQ. at Iho Pimas a BritUh ConsuUte, 
jMliTt a an English as wall as a Roman Catholic 
2"*- At the University reading room, any respect- 
J" ^*"ni Bisy have a daily opporlanity of perusing 
^Utimrfl, finriM, the Sptelalor, the SalurJay JUvitic, 
^&«of chare*. Under ordinary circumstances the 
■^•^Um would be about £5 per month, which aati- 
^'iMsnat make ellawanoe for much recrsaticn, nor 
■^ poMible event of illnnai. As to what remains of 
euningi to an English artiiiin established in 
1 hU 



it beobmes generally known to the oomtnnnity that 
there is such a workman, and dnringsnch time lie mnat 
be prepared to provide for himself from his own resonroet. 
In conclosiou, Mr. Watson strongly reoommendi that 
no English artisan shonld go to this country who is not 
of Daiformly sober hatrita. Whilst several Englishmen 
and others have done as well as they could have reason' 
ably expected, the majority of foreign artisana and work- 
men who have tried their fortunes in Greece, have suc- 
cumbed to the temptation of intemperance, whii^h the 
intense beat of summer, and the cheapness of the 
conntry wines and spirits, combine ta present to men 
who are, by the nature of their occupations, forced to 
undei^ severe phyaiotl exertion. 



The dispute relative to the messurenient of vesseU 
passing through the Suet Canal, has given rise to the 
adoption by the French government of the English 

mode of calculating the toniuge of veesels. 

In France at present the volume of a marine ton is 
fixed b^ an ordnance, which is nearly 200 years old, at 
42 cubic feet. The method of gauging vessels was fixed 
by Lagrange, at the end of tbe last century, but an 
ordnKnce of 1837. which ia etill in eETact. roduced the 
olHciiJ tonnage by about a sixth, or to little more than 
half the capacity of the vessel. 

The English commercial ton. of SO to 62 cubic feet, 
corresponds very no irly with tha French ton of 42 cubic 
feet; and, as tha officii! measurement is taken on the 
bisLd of 100 cubic feet, the result was much the same a* 



countries; the French authorities usauoio a theoretical 
form for all vessels, while the English lake note of the 
effective form of the veakeL 

" The English official tonnage," says the Miniater of 
Agriculture and Commerce, in bis report, " has this ad- 
vantage over the French gauge, that it is aJwaya in pro- 
portion to the effective capaoit; of tbe veasel ; and, with 
respect to deductions mode for steam vessels, the ad- 
vantage i« also in &vour of tbe English method, by 
which the dedaotions ace baaed on the actual apace 
occupied by (he machinery. &c, while in Fiunce thev 
are fixed uniformly at two-fifths of the whole tonnage. 

Uoat maritime nations have adopted the English 
method of measurement, and the Minister recommended 
that France should do the same, and in accordance with 
that recommendation the president of the republic hoa 
issued the following decree ; — 

Art. 1. — Trading vessels ore to be measured aflor 
the method applied in Euglund, Sx. The dimenaious 
serving- fur the calculation of tbe tiinnage are to be ex- 
pressed in metres, &c., and their product divided by 283 
cubic metres. The number of tons thus obtained to be 
cut with a chisel on both facea of the main beam of the 

Art. 2. — The decree to coma into force from the lat 
June, 1S73. All vessels built after that date to Im 
meoauced before such divisions or parti^ons are set up 
within the ship, to. 



In our report lart week of the Educatioiial Con- 

frreuce, held by the Social Science Association and tbe 
Srbolistia Ragistrstion Assooialian, the noma of the Rav. 
A>iharHI«g was inadvertently tubstilated for that of Uav. 
Dr. Bigg, PHocipol ut the Weslayan Training CoU^p. 



Il has been fuuod to surpass in durabililT all other anti< 



166 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 17, 1873. 



Traetion Engines in Germany. — A regular lervice of 
traction eogines on the common roads has lately been 
organised by M. btemmnller,of OummerBbach, for the carriage 
of goods Mtween that place and Cologne, a dietanoe of 12 
German leagues, and also between Gnmmersbach and Lenness, 
a distance m six leagues, and according to all accounts these 
lines are giving great satisfaction. 

Extract of Meat. — Professor Artus, of Jena, savs the 
Journal of Applied Seiena f'recommendB a new metnod of 
making extract of meat, which possesses the advantage 
above that of Liebig of retaining the albumen, gelatine, 
and fat, which are all removed by Liebig* s process, and 
which would seem, from recent experiments, to be the only 
really nutritious elements of the meat. For tUs purpose an 
extract of meat is first made with cold water by means of a 
very simple apparatus ; this dissolves out the soluble salts, 
the albumen, tmd part of the gelatine and creatine. The 
meat, after having undergone this process, is then boiled for 
an hour in a Papin's digester, and the liquid pressed out 
The fat is skimmed off its surface, and this extract is mixed 
with the cold extract, and the mixture is then evaporated at 
a proper consistence in a sand-bath, or better, in a vacuum 
apparatus. This certainly seems a much better way of pre- 
paring an extract of meat than any of the methods which ne- 
cessitate the throwing away of the most valuable of its con- 
stituents. 



HOTICES. 



8ITB8GBIPTI0K8. 

IJhe Chrifltmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed " Goutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Dayenport, Financial 
Officer. 

BSP0BT8 OK THE LOKBOK IHTEBHATIOKAL 
SZHIBinOV 07 1878. 

The reports which appeared in the last volume of 
the Journal on the various sections of the above 
Exhibition, are now published complete in a 
pamphlet form (price 2s.), and can be obtained 
at the office of the Society. 

THE UBRABT. 

The following works have been presented to the 
library: — 

Society of Engineers. Transactions for 1870. Pre- 
sented by the Society. 

The Philologiod Character and (Genius of the Modem 
Greek Language. A Lecture by Professor J. Stuart 
Blackie. 

The Parliamentary Buff Book for 1871 and 1872. By 
Thomas K. Roberts. Presented by the Author. 

OBBDTABT MSETDTOS. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetmffs have been arranged. 

Jakuabt 22.-^ On Rendering Wood Lioombnstible." 
By D. 0. Macombbb, C.E. 

Janvabt 29.— <' On Guilds and their Functions." By 
John Tbats, Esq., LL.D. On this evening Thomas 
Wbbstbb, Esq., Q.C., will preside. 

Fbbritabt 5. — ** On Ships for the Channel Passage.** 
By Lieut-CoL A. Stranob, F.R.S. 

CAHTOB LECTUBS8. 

The second course of these lectures, viz., seven, 
" On the Energies of the Imponderables, with 
especial reference to the Measurement and Utilisa- 



tion of them," will be delivered by the 
Abthub Biqo, M.A., on the following eve 
at eight o'clock : — 

Lbgturb L — ^MoNBAT, Fbbbua&t 3&i>, 187 

On the Sources, Liter-relations, and Measnremi 
Energies — Units of Measurement. 

Lbctdbb II. — ^Monday, Fbbrua&t 10th, 18 

On the Energy of Gravity, with especial refer 
the Measurement and Utili-^on of it. 

LlGTURB III. — MOKIAT, FbBBUASX 17tH, 1( 

On the Energy of Vitality, with espeoisJ refen 
the Measurement and UtiliMtion of it. 

Lbctc&b rv. — Monday, Fbbrua&t 24th, IS 

On the Energy of Affinity, with especial rde i 
Suggestions lor Estimating and Utilising it. 

Lbcturb Y. — Monday, Mabch Skd, 187^ 

On the Energy of Electricity, with especial rei 
to the Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Lbcturb YI. — Monday, Mabch IOth^ 187 

On the Energy of Light, with especial reference 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Lbctubb YIL — ^Monday, Mabch 17th, 18^ 

On the Energy of Hent, with especial reference 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Members are entitled to attend these Iq 
free, and to admit two Mends to each of thti 



XSETIV08 FOR THE SN8VIHQ WSZK 

Mox. ...BriUsh AitshitectB, 8. 

Medical, & 

AnAtic,8. 

Viotoria Institute, 8. 

Sodal Sdenoe AModation, 4. Mr. John 
Defect* of the Sanitary ProTisknia of the 
18 and 19 Vic., c 122, frith SogscHtii 
Amendment.*' 

TDBS....Bo7al Inititntion.8. FTot Buthexfixd. **Fkw 
Motions of the Body." 

Civil Engineers, 8. I>isca8sion oa OoloBel Qfl 
Paper, **OnIiTigatk(a in Kortbem India.** 

Pathological, 8. 

Anthropological, 8. Annnsl Meeting. 

Zoological, (4. 1. Bev. John T. OuUdc, *< On th^ 
fioation of the ^cAaKneMnoK.'* 2. MTTBa^brndl 
**C>n a certain class of cases of vmriaiAe pi 
colouring in insiMits, &c." 8. Mr. A. H. Gazr^ 
the visceral anatomy of the Bomatzmn Ba 
{Cermtorhintis ntmuUrmtiM)." 4. Mr. A. dTI 
** Notes on the Birth of a Sumatnui. "Rii^^y^ ^'^fm] 

Boyal Colonial Institute, a iAt tlie Hucas | 
BociBTY or Abts.) Lcffd Burr, M.P., **On th^ 
ington Treaty, a Balance of Adrantagea, Ac 

Btatutical Society, 7}. 1^ Dr. Ouy, -^On John 1 
Bs Statist." 2. Mr. Francis Oalton, ** On the j 
Supplies from Town and Countxy FanuHiei 
Population of Futue Generatiooa." 

Wbd. ...SOCIETY OF ARTS. 8. Mr. Maoombcr, " On ] 
ing Wood Inoomhusahle." i 

Boyal Society of literature, 81. 

ArduBological Aswodation, 8. 

Geological, 8. 1. Mr. J.F. CampbelL **OntfacOU 
of Ireland.** 2. Mr. D. Markmtorti, •* Olievntd 
the more remarkable Boulders of tlM Mofth^l 
E^land and the Welsh Borden." a, Mr. J. 
** On the Origin of Clay Ironstone." 

TBUBS...8ociety for the Encouragement of Fine Arts. 6. 
Boyal, 8lt. , ^ 

Antiquaries, 8s. 
Boyal Society Club, 6. 
Boyal Institution, 8. Dr. Debus, ** Ozidaticm." 

Fax Bojal Institution, 8. PMt Birks^ ** Analoctea of I 

and Moral Science." 
Boyal United Service Institution, 9. Ooaunad 

Dawson, ** On Powdei pttssmca in the aft-tan 0\ 
Architectural AssorJation, 74. Mr. Solmnn, ** J& 

of some Old Churches in Moith Hants." 
Philological, 8^. 
QoekeUaab,8. 

Sat Boyal Instltation, 

Polities.** 
Bo^al Botanic, 81. 



«i 



8. Dr. fteoaaa* 



ti 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jabdaby 24, 1873. 



167 



^RNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,053. Vol. XXL 



FRIDAY, JANUARY 24, 1873. 






AO0VS( 



BT THE COUVCIL. 



I 



SCHOOL SFFICIEHCT. 



the CoQDcil haye the pleasure of annoimcing that 
ftey bsTe received a commnnication from Mr. 
Joim Backle» placing at their disposal the sum of 
IttO to be offiored as a prize to the Head-Master 
'tf any school conducted on the half-time principle, 
1^ dball, within a time to be fixed, produce the 
pednt number of well-trained pupils at the least 
ttit per head for their tuition. The Coimcil to 
Ix the time to be allowed for the competition, the 

of the examination, and the tests of 

training. 

tie offer has beoi referred to a Committee to 
the details. 



PBIZB YOS STEEL. 



Lihe 



GooncO have resolved to award the Gk>ld 
of &e Society to the manufacturer who shall 

tad send to the London International 

of 1873 the best collection of speci- 

ef steel suitable for general engineering 

1 The specimens exhibited must include a com- 
iShistmtion of the applications of the varieties 
'•Mnbmxtted. 

Eidi manufacturer should send with his 
a statement of the nature of the tests 
'■§ applied to each kind of steel submitted, and 
iHx xesults of such tests. 

ilhe samples tested are to be exhibited 
: vith duplicate samples, or portions of the 
iples; these will be submitted to tests 
itte Coimcil consider it desirable. 

a oeComicil reserve to themselves the right 
[JwUing the premium, in the event of the 
nidbited not being sufficiently meri- 



700B COnCITTEE. 

The Committee met on Wednesday last, at 4 
o'clock. Present : — ^Mr. Benjamin Shaw, in the 
chair. Mr. F. A. Abel, F.R.S., Mr. Hyde ttarke. 
Sir Antonio Brady, Rev. J. E. Hall, Mr. W. H. 
Michael, Br. Pitman, Mr. Samuel Redgrave, Mr. 
E. C. Tufnell, and Mr. J. A. Youl. 

The Committee had before them, sent by the 
Central Queensland Company, a specimen of meat 
from that colony, prepared under Fryer's Patent, 
which consists in placing the meat in tins her- 
metically soldered down and subjected to heat in 
an atmosphere of steam imder pressiue. 

The Committee directed the following minute 

to be recorded. 

Without expressing a final and decided opinion on tho^ 
process (which from a single specimen they are scarcely 
warranted in doing), the Committee are of opinion that 
the specimen before them compares favourably with the 
meats that they have previously oeceived from Aastralia 
prepared by other processes. They regard the products 
of this new method as in many pomts encouraging, and 
hope that they may have further opportunities of examin- 
ing its results. The meat is peifectly fresh and sweet, 
but ^HS in other oases of Australian meats) somewhat 
insipid from over-oooking. In this instance the flavour 
and moisture have been transferred to the jelly to too 
great an extent. Like all other tinned meats, it seems 
likely that the flavour could be improved if the duration 
of exposure to heat could be shortened without endanger- 
ing the preservation. The Committee would surest 
that the Company should remit to them a duplicate 
series of five tins, prepared at various durations of heat 
exposure, in order that they may be better able to form 
some jutigment as to the amount of time most conducive 
to the success of the process. 



PEOCBBDIHOS OF THB SOCIBTT. 



SEVEE T H OBDDTABT KEETIEO. 

Wednesday, January 22nd, 1873, T. R. Tufnell, 
Esq., Treasurer for the Society, in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Bannister, Robert Hope, 80, King William-street, E.C. 
Waldu'k, Henry, 4, Warwick-court, Holbom, W.C. 
Watt, Philip B., 3, Bilbie-street, Nottingham. 

The following candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected members of the Society : — 

Colebrook, John, 15, Hans-place, Chelsea, S.W. 
DcMn, James, Clapham-common, S.W. 
Henry, Wm. O. P , 1 1, Grosvenor-creeoent, Edinburgh. 
Lawrence, Lieut -General Sir Arthur Johnstone, K.C.B.^ 

Fox-hills, Chertsey. 
lawson, John, Halifax. 

Mavnard, Frederick. 55. Old Broad-street, E.C. 
Muzio. Augnatus, 33. Highbury-grove, Highbury, N. 
Nicholson, Vice- Admiral Sir Frederick E., Bart., C.B., 

15, William -street Lowndes-square, S.W. 
SandemHn, Richard, Lenzie by Glasgow. 
Scott John Chastleton. Biokley, Kent. 
Smith, Arthur, 44, Chiswi^ll-street E.C. 
Taylor, John Edward, 12, Queen's-gate-gard^ps, S.W. 

The Paper read was — 



168 JOURNAL OF "THE BOOIETY OP ARTS, JAVuin 24, 18TO. 



ON EENDEEING WOOD INCOMBTJSTIBLE. 
ByD. 0. Xaoomlwiy C.S. 



Mania snzromided by what in foxmer times ba/re 
been cidled the four elemfinto, viz., earth, air, 
water, and fire, but modem science has demons 
strated that earth is composed of many earths — 
air, a compound of at least two gases ; water, a 
compound of hydrogen and oxjrgen; and fire, only 
the {MToduction of light and heat during com- 
bustion. For onr present purpose, however, it is 
most conyenient to consider iiiem as original 
elements, and as such they are all intimately 
connected with onr subject <^ this evening, viz., 
rendering wood incombustible. 

To the earth man is indebted for food, dothing, 
and tiie mineral and metallic substanoes, whi(£, 
together with the rocks and carbons, form the 
bases of cdl the improvements and progress of the 
world. 

Air, which forms ttie vital principle of Kfe, and 
upon the purity and abundance of which depends 
our health, and the total loss of which is death, is 
not less important, inasmuch as modem science 
is rapidly converting it, by condensation, into a 
oontrollaDle motive-power. 

Water, which forms the far larger portion of the 
surface of the globe we inhabit, as well as of our 
own bodies, and of all animal and vegetable life, 
seems to have< been the parent of fJl the other 
elements, for it dates its existence in chaos, and 
claims priority by the creating hand of the great 
God of the universe. Of all the elements it seems 
the most wonderful in its functions and trans- 
formations. It descends in genial showers to water 
the thirsty earth, or it deluges a world and sweeps 
man and beast away in its course. It is invisibly 
absorbed in the atmosphere, and it is poured down 
in the destroying water-spout. It floats the navies 
of the world, and it swanns with curious animal 
and vegetable life. You may bum it, or extin- 
guish a burning with it. It softens, permeates 
and cooks our food, quenches our thirst, and sup- 
plies the greatest modem power of the civilised 
world. You may bum, evaporate and scatter it 
abroad, but you cannot really waste a drop of it. 
You only change its condition. It is in the vapour, 
the atmosphere, and the world yet. 

But fire is the friend, the slave, the master 
and the consumer and conqueror of man and 
his works. Although the true definition of fire 
may be merely ** solid or gaseous matter at a 
high temperature;" yet by fire we imderstand 
the activity of heat, when siroported by an 
amount of atmospheric air sufficient to consume 
or disintegrate those bodies to which it is applied, 
or with which it comes in oontaet. If we look 
above by day (when fog and clouds permit) we see 
the great source of light and heat, 95 millions of 
miles distant, and modem research px>vee it to be 
a monstrous globe of active fire, flashing its flamen 
out bundles of miles from its body. If we search 
below the surface of our earth, we find the tem- 
perature rising (as we sink our shafts) one degree 
for every sixty feet, until at 2,600 feet deep (could 
we reach it) lead would melt, at 74 miles cast-iron, 
and at 190 miles rocks would be fused, and every 
''wn substance become liquid ; the ^hin crust of 
irth is passed, and heat reigns supreme. 



within the reach of man, guided by reason and 
scienoe, the ineans of in a gr^measmv ccntnlliiig 
this destructive element, and rendering it obedient 
to our wills, a powerful auxiliary of progress in all 
the arts that minister to man's happiness, his 
warmth, comfort, and satisfaction. But it is not to 
be overlooked that the higher we advance in 
civilisation, the more boldly we stretch out into the 
fields of invention, progress, and improvement, the 
more intimate we oeoome with the daily use and 
contact of this element. 

Man in an uncivilised state requires heat for two 
purposes alone — warmth and cooking his food. 
In the countries under the tropics, where ihe sun 
furnishes heat in abundance, and ripens the abundant 
fruits of the earth, artificial fire isbut little needed. 
In high northern latitudes, likewise, it is not a 
little singnlar that only a snoall portion of the fat 
of those animals which are used for food and for 
clothing, furnishes all that seems to be required for 
light and warmth ; and the inhabitants of those 
apparently inhospitable regions enjoy all the oom- 
forts of home ana kindred, with an increased attach- 
ment f or their birthplace and climate, compared with 
the natives of more genial skies and brighter lands. 
In the construction of the habitations of man, 
when the worid was young, the materials nearest 
at hazul were the trees, buwes, leaves and grasses 
which the temperate zone produced. These, as they 
became dry by exposure to the sun and air, became 
highly inflammable, and we may well suppose were 
often destroyed, even with the scanty use of fire of 
that period. But as man increased in numbers and 
began to build cities, he sought for more solid 
and durable materials. Stone, where it could be 
found in abundance, and imbumed brick of clay 
or mould, as the best substitute for stone, was 
used, until wealth, taste, and love of the beautifol 
began to be develox)ed in the use of marble and 
precious stenes, a6 the interior of tombs, palaces, 
and pyramids testify. But ever and always the 
use of wood was predominant, as is proved by the 
fact that cities have been destrojred by fire from 
the earliest ages of antiquity. Indeed, it is 
scarcely possible to know how all the interior doors, 
casings, carvings and adommente of every kind 



could possiUy have been wrought in any other 
material than wood. And so it nas been in every 
a^, and so it has come down to the 19th century. 
We do not mean te say that iron, stone, brick or 
plaster may not be used throughout a church, a 
palace, a house or a store, but tiie cold and rigid 
nature of either of these materials, to say notiimg 
of the enormous cost, will probably always exclude 
them from imiversal use in interior ornamentation, 
and most certainly in furniture. 

In the use of wood for any and all constructions 
for human habitations there are mainly but two 
objections, its liability to be destroyed by 
time and by fire. And it is not a little curious 
that attempts te preserve it from the slow destruc- 
tion of the former of these have been Ibe first tc 
engage the attention of mankind, while to im- 
munity from the rapid and fearful effects of the 
latter there has hardly been given a thought, 
Perhaps we may find a solution to this in the fad 
that f^m the earliest ages mankind seem to have 
been impressed with the idea that wood in build' 



ings, when onoe ignited, must continue to buni 

until it is extinguished by the oppofdte element 

with all this a kind Provideno/ has plaoed Hence we find at an early day in the history oi 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIBTY OF ARTS. Jawabt 21, 187ft. 



Iff9 



: 



]ap towns and dties, that some rude methods 

KM adopted for this purpose, and reservoirs 

jpraBftAig and preserying water were contriyed 

adawL But perhaps the miiYersal impression 

ttfl vood must be kept and continued combustible 

o order to be used as fuel, for warmth, for light, 

lod for cooking, may have had something to do with 

Qm Apathy in rendering it incombustible. The 

£icoTei7 of coal is quite modem, and that of 

mineral oil, and the illuminating and heating 

properties of other hydro-carbons, still more so. 

tatonfore, let it be understood that in all our 

sseoetiifal means of rendering wood incombustible, 

(oougli must be left in its natural state to kindle 

oorooal-fires. 

Keariy all fires originate in one or more of the 
foflowing causes, electricity, spontaneous com- 
bostioQ, friction, carelessness in nandling or con- 
tnUinj^ the element, and incendiarism. 

No disastrous fire can be kindled where there is 

BO wood that is combustible in the building in 

«Uch it originates ! To render any &re in- 

jvioQs to a great extent it must have a certain 

&ttoimt of ateiospheric air, and this produces a 

fiune. A fire may smoulder for an almost indefi- 

site length of time, in certain combustible 

Bttterials, engendering gases, but it assumes a 

^•D^ffoos conditian oxdy, when, by a supply of air, 

it bu^ into a flame. If any method can be de- 

tind to prevent this flame, where there is no 

ttplonve material, not one building in five 

tWaand could be destroyed. As stone, iron, 

kick and plaster will not of themselyes ignite, 

&ore is only one building material to guard 

4gBin^, and that is wood. But unfortunately 

aood is the very maf.mal which is, and must be, 

wd to a great extent in the construction of the 

■tenor oif our buildings. The doors, window- 

&>mei and casings, the floors, base, ceilings, lath- 

Wk, and nearly all our furniture, are formed of 

n&e kind of wood. 

The wood once kindled into a flame, and this flame 

i^Wd to get headway, our plaster partitions, our 

Acetone or brick walls, and iron, tile, or slate 

*ift rapidly melt, disintegrate, and give way 

ofe the intense h€)at. A conmion &ce in a grate 

•fce-place gives but about 800 degrees of heat, 

Hhcrpasing in intensity as it gains in volume, 

*J«i rises to 1,070, which heats iron to redness, 

■iw communicates instantaneous flame to 

•••4 or other combustible matter, and at 2,754 

^pBCs iron melts, and granite didntegrates and 

•»^es to atoms. 

^Wttps in the general use of stone, brick, iron 

jBd piaster, the City of London is as securely 

wat as any city in the world, unless we may 

JJJt Paris and Florence. But we have no 

Jjtter ttandard by which to judge of the security 

iL'^L-?*^ and its presumed exemption from 

■^ destructive element, than the experienced 

WpDcat of its inhabitants, as proved by the 

•*nt of money they are willing to pay yearly for 

^Wial ezenption from this loss. The amount 

i?i2^ insured during the past year by 52 

*J>«n»nce companies in the City of London 

■ta leam from the Law Fire Insurance Society's 

•*»«! for 1873, was £463,235,000 sterling. 

^>«mBnt paid on this, at the medium rate of 

Bteiof 28 ahillrngs on a thousand pounds, was 

^^ vhai is the nature of an insurance 



against flreP It is merely a contract by an 
individual with a company to share with such 
company a portion of his loss by fire, for 
doing which the individual x>c^ys to the com- 
pany a certain sum in cash in advance, which 
thus for a time, and to a specified amount, 
becomes a partner in any loss by fire which may 
occur on the premises auiing one year. If a fire 
does not occur during the year, the amount thus 
paid is a dear gain to the insurers and a dead loss 
to the insured, except in the feeling of safety and 
content which the consciousness of such bargain 
must give, a feeling which, perhaps, fully repays the 
insured, for no prudent man will allow valuable 
property to go uninsured. Insurance companies, 
then, are a necessity and a blessing ; but can none 
of the calamities and losses by fire be nutigated or 
diminashed Y It may be possible to ascertain 
exactly what has been the real loss of property in 
the City of London, and even in the whole of 
Qreat Britain, during the past ten years by fire, 
but I have not been able to get figures suffi- 
ciently accurate to put before you. At all events 
the amount must oe very large. I happen to 
know what it has been durmg the last two 
years in the United States of America, including 
the Chicago and Boston fires, and it amoimts to 
something over £55,000,000 sterling, or more 
than 275,000,000 dollars. This is a low estimate of 
the money vaJue, to which must be added the loss of 
human life and the hmnan sufiEering. 

There are many substances which maybe used to 
render cotton or linen fabrics partially or wholly 
incombustible for a period of time, but recently the 
tungstate of soda has been most frequently 
applied in a liquid state for this purpose. An 
external wash of minerals mixed with clay, lime, 
and charcoal has been applied to rough wood-work, 
and this for a season will effect the object. But 
none of these, nor the manner of applying them, 
satisfactorily answers the great question — Can all 
kinds of timoer for ship-building, oeams for house- 
carpentry, and the finishing of dwellings, ware- 
, houses, and stores, and wood furniture, ber^idered 
incombustible on a large scale, so cheaply as to 
render the use of such wood and lumber economical 
for the ten thousand purposes to which it is applied P 
No superficial application, no washing over ^ter the 
work IS finished, no painting, will answer this imi- 
versal want. The nature of the wood must be 
changed at a period when it is capable of being per- 
meated with a liquid, vapour or steam, that will 
effectually and for ever prevent such wood from 
becoming inflammable. It is not possible, nor is 
it necessary, to prevent wood from carbonisinpf 
when exposed to a high degree of heat. But if it 
can be so prepared that it will not break out into 
a flame, the object will be obtained, for no fire can 
ever be made extensively or rapidly destructive 
unless by actual fiame, which spreads the element 
to all combustible material that it meets with. 

As I have said before, there are many methods 
(some of them secured by patents) to render 
timber indestructable by time, especially the 
timber of piles for wharfing and foundations, 
or of railway-sleepers and cross-ties for telegraph 
poles, &c. Many, and perhaps all these methods 
nave been, and will continue to be, successful. 
But it is known to all of you, probably, 
that the material applied for this purpose only 
penetrates the timber a trifle beyond the 9«r- 



160 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jahuart 24, 1873. 



face, deeper, howerer, at the ends than 
the sides of the timber, and is always applied after 
the wood is fitted for use. Heated coal-tar, resin, 
or other hydrocarbons, are the substances generally 
made use of, and these will, if properly prepared, 
prevent moisture from penetrating, but we must 
remember that all hydrocarbons are much more in- 
fiammable than dry wood itself, and therefore 
nothing of this kind will avail us in rendering wood 
incombustible. We are now again brought round 
to the recurring question, — Can all kinds and 
qualities of wood be cheaply rendered incombustible 
before they are sawed up mto the various shapes 
and sizes in which we find them in our timber and 
lumber yards ? After many years of investigation 
and experimental labour, I now think this question 
may be answered in the affirmative. 

Nearly all the vegetable world draws most of its 
moisture from the earth. The " pores" of wood, 
as they are usually called, carry up at certain 
seasons of the year nearly pure water from the 
roots, through the body and branches to the new 
shoots and leaves. Under the power of the microscope, 
these pores or tubes, in some trees to the number of 
a million to the square inch, can be traced in a 
continued unbroken series, conveying the moisture, 
by capillary attraction and the natural laws of 
heat and evaporation, upwards and downwards 
through the trunk of the tree, adding a ring or 
circle of growth for every year of age in all the 
various woods of which we make use for building 
and other purposes. 

When the tree, taken in its live and growing 
state, is cut down, the process of cvapQration or 
seasoning commences. At this time tdl the pores 
of the troe are distended, and at certain seasons 
are full of sap. To expel this sap from the pores 
while the log is in its natural state, and te intro- 
duce the substance which will render the wood for 
ever incombustible, is now the desideratum. 

All timber in seasoning ** shrinks," or is con- 
tracted. This is entirely owing te the expulsion 
of the water from the sap-tubos, and the conse- 
quent contraction of the walls of these tubes. 
Now, when the water is expelled by evaporation, 
if it has contained any substance held in 
solution, a portion of that substance will be left as 
a deposit upon the walls of these sap-tubos or cells. 
If this substance is of an incombustible nature, 
although it were so thin as te be invisible te the 
naked eye, yet, as it is equally spread upon both 
sides of each partition of the tubes or cells, it 
renders the entire log, and consequently every 
plank, board, or lath cut from the log, incom- 
bustible. 

It will be apparent te all, then, that after the 
sap-tubes have been emptied of the moisture 
which has been the sustaining aliment of the tree, 
and they have collapsed, or nearly closed up, no 
immersion in liquid, even thous^h it should be kept 
at boiling point for an indefinite length of time, 
will thoroughly and uniformly permeate the wood 
so that the centre of a lopr or plank will be as per- 
fectly saturated as the outside. 

The following is the manner which I have adopted 
for the purpose of expelling the natural sap or 
moisture from the green timoer, and introducing 
the liquid which will render such timber for ever 

*>^v incombustible. At an elevation of about 

ot above the log, I have a reservoir con- 

-^f say 500 gallons, with a depth of liquid 



of at least eight feet. From this reservoir a two- 
inch pipe descends perpendicular te the log. The 
log, which is double the length ci the boards 
intended to be cut, is sawcS nearly in two, 
transversely, at its centre, leaving a strong "curb** 
or joining piece on the underside — ^not cut through. 
By raising the centre with wedges, or a screw, 
tlus transverse cut will be opened, mostly at the 
top, but partially down to the boUom. Into the 
cut I in&oduce a cord or wire, prepared for the 
puipose, and lay it around the cut just inside the 
c>ark of the log, bringing the ends together, to 
meet at the top. Now, by removing the wedges, 
or turning the screw down, the two ends of the 
log will close again tightly, with the exception of 
perhaps a sixteenth of an inch, according to the 
size of the cord or wire, which is held so tight as 
to prevent the escape of any liquid. 

I then bore a hole on the top of one of the logs, 
towards the cut, at an angle of 45 degrees, so that 
it will fit just into the cut, and into this I intro- 
duce the bottom of the vertical tube, which is con- 
nected with the reservoir above, the tube being 
diminished in size at the bottom to allow 
it to fit tightly into the bore, which reaches 
the cut just inside the cord at the top. When 
ready, I open the stop-cock at the top of 
the tube, and allow the full pressure of the 
40 feet of liquid to flow into the pipe. The 
space at the ends of the two logs is instantly 
filled, and the pressure is very great, forcing 
the liquid into every pore of the timber each 
way alike. In a short time the natural sap 
is forced out of the ends of the log, and is fol- 
lowed by the prepared liquid, which is equally 
limpid. As soon as the latter begins to appear 
at the ends, a proce3s which takes but a few 
hours, the process is ended, the preparation i& 
shut off, the logs are divided, and are then 
ready to be sawed into boards, joists, laths, &c„ 
and the stuff will season, in the usual way. The 
weight of the timber is very littlo increased as com- 
pared with other stuff not prepared. But the 
whole of the timber is thus permeated from centit^ 
to circumference, and will not blaze at any 
amount of heat to which it may be exposed. 

I have thus adopted a method by which, 
without the use of steam or machinen*, a powerful 
agent can be brought to effect the dislodgement of 
the natural sap, throughout an entire tree, ho^jrever 
large (and perhaps the larger the better), when cut 
into sections, wlule by the same power, and in a 
few hours, I supply its place by filling the pores 
or tubes with a prepared liquid, which will render 
the wood incombustible without changing its 
colour, strength, or softness. I have been asked 
what effect this process will have ui)on th« dura- 
bility of timber. I cannot say that it would last 
for ever, but we have the strongest reasons 
for believing that it will protect from all decay by 
moisture, fungus, or salt water. Of one thing: T 
am certain, — timber prepared in this wuy will 
never be attacked bv worms or borers; and the 
white ant, so destructive to timber in warm clim atcs, 
will not touch it. The importance of this, in re- 
lation to ship-building, is second only to that of 
the impossibility of its destruction by fire. 

One of the shrewdest of journalists, a man 
of world-wide fame who has just passed away. 
said, more than thirty years ago, that there isren* 
three g^reat desiderata in the civilised worid which 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jamuabt 24, 1878. 



IGl 



heboped to lire long enough to see accomplislied. 
Tltf nnt was, the connection of England and 

Aamea by telegraph wires under the ocean ; the 
leeoad, the utilising of the waste screenings and 
di4 of mineral coal; and the third, the rendering 
ihip tod building timber of all kinds incombustible. 
He did live to see the two first wishes i^lised. 
Cad it be that the last is not within the power of 
an to aocompliih ? Because a thing has not been 
(ioM, is that a vaHd reason that it never can be? 
Woald Rjich a deduction be in accordance with the. 
^t of the ago ? 

Ilere are three substances which, combined in 
F^per proportions, will accomplish this object, 
.ii I have said, however, seasoned wood of any 
)M cannot, for the reasons mentioned, be made 
Q^^^stroctible by fire. The external surface may 
^ A certain extent be rendered incombustible. 
^^«»)ned wood can only be affected by im- 
!B99oa, and that only partially, as a few 
Stamens which I have here will show 
r»a- Please bear in mind that any wood, 
•''HI if foUy prepared, can, when steadily exposed 
t'» I high heat, be carbomsed, changed into char- 
o»l; but if it cannot be fanned into a flame, if 
^ iotrodaction of air will not cause it to break 
(^ into a blaze, no dans^er need bo apprehended 
^ it ; even incendiarism, the worst and most i 
rmiiiag of all crimes, cannot fire a dwelling, a 
v^oose, or a ship ; and is it not worth all the 
^iod expense it may cost in introducing such 
•^ napfovement when we remember the vast ■ 
**oomX of Efe, property, and suffering it must | 
•»«' In relation to the expense of the process, 
1 beheve, after much inquiry as to material, &o., 
"^ oo a large scale all woods may be rendered 
^'toombttfb'ble by an increase of not over 20 per 
'^ on the cnrdinary price of the same timber 
^ hmbet in its natural state, perhaps for 
"^ less than this. As I do not come before 
M w^ a patent, I trust I shall be excused 
ts? dmiwion of any further detail of the pro- 
y^ «nd the more inasmuch as it would be 
^*^T possible for any individual to properly 
*"< the process without some of the experience 
**! «itlay to which I have myself been subjected. 
1 sitaQjioirever, be g^lad to confer with any gentle- 
aoa vho may see in this improvement great 
*ii^ to commerce and the building art, and a 
**^ tonta of preventing the loss of human life. 

^'.^ eonclomon of the paper Mr. Macomber 
"^^^ nma bit* of wood and shaving that had been 
'^^ *>y hia proceas. and shuwed thit they did not 
J**-, th^h they could he oarHoniaed by exposure to 
^ Ht Bud that he had not been able to procure a 
^"' of f^net^ wood thiU he could treat, and in conae* 
I- *» the flpeciiiiens shown had not been thoroughly 
'^^v^PAtad, bat only coated with the liquid on the 

DISCUSSION. 

m Chaim^a th<m cilled on any gentlemen present 
*^'Qi^t iLave any remarks to make upon the paper. 

J^ J*ita aftii thnt the very object in drying the 
f^*r vv to ^ti rid of the aap. and if in this process 
i>{md V IS inserted, and iobk the place of the aap, 
*^titf drria^ procesa then oommenced, he would like 
*>a»v what eOact it would have ? 

*^ tatk aaid that it seemed to him the very 
^^^ tt» Icetare had been lost for the want of a 



piece of green wood. He was quite sore that if notice 
had been g^iven, the Society would have supplied a piece 
of green wood, so that they might have seen the effoot, 
for those little piecea of wood which the lecturer had 
burned indicatwl nothing, as they were dry, and con- 
tained no sap. The very essenoe of the process, as he 
understood, was to expel the sap and insert something 
elae, whereas in those pieces of wood there was com- 
paratively no sap. 

The Chairman observed that it would not only have 
been necessary to provide a piece of green wood, but to 
have made a tube 40 feet high, with the necessary 
apparatus besides. 

ICr. E. 0. Symons said the description df the lecturer 
was one which an^ body could understand, but the 
difficulty was this— it was all very well to say that this 
process could be accomplished — ^he believed it could be 
done effectually— but could you get people who had to 
do with the wood in its green state in Norway and Den- 
mark and other parts of the world, to apply the process 
to the timber that they send over here for use. The 
change could only be brought about when the wood was 
green. The timber for ship-building was brought from 
foreign countries, and when it arrived here it was not in 
a state to receive the process. If the apparatus were 
erected where the tree was felled, then it might be done 
effK^tually, but he feared that would be the difficulty. 

Mr. Yapp said he could not help thinking that the 
objection of the last speaker was a very serious one. 
But there was another point, and that was as to the cost, 
which the lecturer had said would be about 20 per cent 
He was not a practical man in such matters, but he 
feared that a process which cost 20 per cent, was one 
that was scarcely ever likely to be adopted. 

Kr. Pearson said he would like to know whether the 
effect of the process on the wood was such as to offer any 
difficulties to the workmen in the use of their tools. If 
yon apply any of the many substances which would 
make wood in(H>mbastible you might be afterwards met 
by Uie objection that it spoilt the workmen's tools. 
Would it prevent fine work being executed P Would 
the timber so prepared allow of atmospheric changes P 
Was thnre any great increase to the weight of the wood P 
These were all important questions he would like to hear 
answered. Whatever the process might be, if the 
lecturer would undertake to say that it did not dull or 
injure the tools, and that the wood could be cut through 
equally well, that it would undergo an^ atmospheric 
change, that it does not splinter or give dangerous 
wounds, and that the wood was not iniured at aU — all of 
which questions were quite independent of the one of 
cost (which must always be expected in every attempt to 
meet a great want of this kind), he felt that the process 
was one of very g^reat value if it could be done. There 
was no difficulty whatever, if you want to render wood 
incombustible, in exhausting the sap and then taking 
a soluble silicate and drawing that up into the pores ; 
you then get every fibre of the wood affected. But, on 
the other hand, if you used a pure silicate, it was certain 
to offer obstruction to the tools. 

Kr. Botly said, in Norway and Sweden, and even in 
our own country, the timber was brought down ^m 
the copse or wood where it was felled great distances, 
and at great inconvenience and much cost of labour, 
pirticularly where it had to traverse, as in some cases, 
heavy clay lands, and he felt, therefore, that it was aU 
a question of cost. To force the liquid in at the proper 
time it appeared to him necessary that some means 
should be devised by which it could be done cheaply, for 
after all it would resolve itself into a question of pounds, 
shillings and pence. And then, when it was remembered 
that the wood must be conveyed to a certain central point 
in the green state before the liquid could be applied, it 
seemed to him impossible that the prof*ess could be brought 
into operat^'**— -* *— •* so he shonld fear — from the very 
consider 'd expense it would cost. 



162 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jahoary 24. 1873. 



The Bw. Edwd OoUey snid that, as to the exptmae. 
Ibr hk i>a?t he would not care if it cost 100 per cent., if 
yon could make — say the roof of Oanterbury Gnthedral, 
or the shelyee on which valuable books stood in the 
public libraries, or the wood -work in the noble hiUIs of 
colleges at Oambridge and Oxford, and the mnay other 
'valuable buildings in the country, and their contents, so 
iax as the wood- work was concerned — ^inoombustible. 
He thought if it cost 500 per cent, to compiss it, 
ciyilisation, and the generations yet to come would be 
largely the gainers, so that he should be ver^ glad if 
the process could be so carefully looked into and 
examined by scientific men, to see whether it was or was 
not effective. He thought it possible that green woctd 
could be imported with the ends cemented in some way, 
80 that when it arrived here the process rould be carri^ 
on and the wood manipulated in the necessary mnnner, 
80 as to render it incombustible, and, by-and-bye. he 
doubted not the expense might be so far reduf^ed that the 
merchnnts could affurd to supply the a^lvantasrea to wood 
used for ship-building and ordinary buildings. Itwasclear 
that from the very nature of the sap in the tree, botany 
had provided all that was necessary to render the wo<id 
incombustible by admitting of the insertion of liquids in 
the way described ; and the real question was whether 
there was in the combimition which was U8e<l, whatever 
it might be, that which a committee of scientific men 
who might examine the matter would sty accomplinhed 
the end in view ; and he would like to know whether the 
lecturer would be willing to submit the matter to such a 
committee to test it. If chemists would tell us whether 
the liquid thus prepared and forced into the tree would 
tender the wood incombustible, then it could bn seen 
whether it would be worth while to go into the experi- 
ment. But if timber could be prepared for all these 
uses, beginning with the more valuable ones of rnndtning 
the rooro of our cathedrals and public libraries inoom- 
hostihle, there would be a very large gain to civilisation 
and the future. If it were once decided that the process 
wms able to do this, he thomdit the economy of the queiB- 
tion would take care of itself. 

A Member asked whether it was likely to make any 
difference to the colour of the wood. 

Mr. XMt said he had a little acquaintanee with 
Norwegians and Swedes, and he could say, if it could 
be proved that they would get 20 per cent, m tre, they 
would try all their skill to do it. If the secret were let 
oat they would soon show that they could work the 
piooess. 

Xr. Yardley said that however desirable it misrht be 
to preserve our public buildings, he was afraid the 
process would hanily compass th^t if it coull only be 

giplied in the green state of the wood ; and if it increases 
e specific gravity of the wood there would be a still 
greater difficulty, for it was well known that lumber was 
sometimes floated down a river, and if they could not 
float the rafts down there would be almost an insuperable 
objection to the application of the process. 

The Bev. E. CoUey snid he would like to know what 
would be the effect of wnter on the preparation, and 
whether storms would soak it out, and idso what the 
effect of a long continued heat would be. 

Mr. IfMomber, in answer, said it had given him very 
great pleasure to hear the various questions that had 
been put and the objections that had been made. He 
had hoped to elicit this very discussion. If he were to 
go to the place where the wood comes from, where the 
man cuts down the tree and saws it into lumber, and 
then floats it down the river, and brings it here ; if he 
were to speak to him, he would say, very naturally, 
"What do those say who use it? I do not use this 
wood ; I only cut the tree, and I sell it eventually to the 
^tisens of London, and they use the wood. If they 

nt it made incombustible go to them." A question was 
as to whether timber so prepared oould be worked as 



easily as before, and whether the workmen would find it 
more difficult, or dangerous in splintering, and wbetksr 
there was Hnythiui? thnt would dull the tools or uvTeofe 
them woridng. He could answer distinctly to all theie 
questions, no; it does not; neither does it change tlie 
colour. In regard to the weight — for that ia a veiy 
pertinent and important thing— it is about two and 
a-half per cent, heavier — not more than that A piece 
of wood unprepared, weighing 100 lbs., would perhaps 
weigh 2^ lbs. more ; of course it would float the lameai 
before. He had midiogany, oak, and other ahavingi 
tWe, which he had tried to bum, and they had aeeo 
the result. Now then as to the dry or green. Hii ovn 
conviction was that you could not render dry wood in* 
combustible. He could put an outside surface on. and all 
the bulling and heating yon could give it would noiauffioe 
to penetrate the wood and render it inotimbaatible 
throughout the whole ; and he took the br'»ad groand, 
that imless it was wholly incombustible it was worthies. 
In answer to the objectiona which had been made that it 
must be green timber, gentlemen must understand (hst 
he never dreamed that his pr<K3ees should be carried into 
effect in London or any other city of the world. It moit 
be done where the tree grows. This process miut ba 
applied at the place where the timber comes firom, and his 
own conviction was that it coull not be done when 
it WHS brought here for it was invariably cut, an-i than 
it was dry. To sum up, he added 21 per .oent. to the 
weight, he did not injure the workmen or the tooUhe 
worked with. He did not by this process injore ot 
colour the wood. It might be applied to every kind ot 
wood. He had not thought it necessary to go into the 
soientiflc part of the qunstion, although he had ^ 
opinions of eome of the learned men who had itoiied 
this mntter and thoroughly examined it, and had writtan 
upon it One of them who had written on the antijed 
said the sap of the vine during the bleeding season rose 
with such force that it could support a great prrtan» 
Timber could be thoroughly penetrated with liquor t\ 
that time, and rendered incombustible. 8anaure had 
proved that the sap was forced upwards by what wai 
known by the name of irritability, and that when tjj 
sap was received at the mouth of the treee, the moot! 
contracts. Other writers adopt this opinion. Nov J 
this be so, the^ could take the timber precisely at thi 
time and then insert the liquid, and it would jMpnetrat 
the whole of the wood, and he wished it to be distinctly 
understood that the timber must be taken when it ^ 
green, and tiien have the pro'^ess carried on. Hi 
had no idea tliat anybody in London could tnke drj 
timber and apply his process, and do it permnnenU; 
through the whole— not at all. The reason he did nfl 
get a stick of green timber was that he could not have we 
any method there by which he could have f<»rced th 
liquid into the stick. If he could have done eo he ^(m 
have shown the process. He had no means there h 
which he could force the sap out and force this Hqoj 
into its place. This timber will season just as quicks 
and in the same time and under the same circum(ittnc< 
as thonirh there had not been this process applied to^ 
His object was to call public attention to the matter. B 
read to-day of twenty-two persons being burnt to d<*t 
in a most horrible way through the fire in theatol 
setting fire to the railway cars. They were lit*-™!' 
roasted alive. If those railway cars had been built 
wood prepared with this material it never could ha' 
happened. He did not propose this as a snddt>n thin 
but he hoped to live to see the time when they would k 
in their timber yards two kinds of timber, one the same 
now, and the other incombustible, and he believwi th 
the cost would be less even than the 20 per cent— h< 
much he dared not say. Twenty years ago it could t 
have been done even for- 60 per cent., because then t 
price of the materials was so high, but now, by the p< 
greas of manufacture and the arts, they had at lastooi 
to such a price that it would be eoonomv to oas it. T« 
for instance tongstate of aodt^ used for liaeo, whi 



JOUEBTAL OF THE 800IBTY OF ARTS, Jakuaet 24, 1878. 



168 



^Om&y pe?«BtB a dnst ttking five. That is 
wA a MQmg a poimd, aad, therafero, oonld not 
h wd tcmomkkOj, If ererythiog was. not xwdy 
likiBd ht oonld nci talk of 20 per oent» or even 
if IM. Hip m m e to tlie wm^mt does not in the leatt 
Act the wood. He had boom boarde whioh had been 
for two months in water. That whs one of the 



hit vtji of spesoning green wood, the tap was drawn 
aiaadthewitwenuaea. It was not affected, so fw as 
ke knev, either bj time or water. But he wished 
partiedtrij to io^reas npon tiie andienoe that ship 
iBikv, and lor the hnll <^ the ship, oonld not 
k bored as it was, or to snoh an extent In 
Md«B nliawfws the white ant would destroy a 
MAiBf ia abont two and a-half jeara. He would 
iMtdutiiietly that the white ant would not tondithia 
ittfl. It was not poisonoos to the hands, nor harmfol 
t»te health, nor injur io na to the tools. He did not like 
le mj poeitiTely, bat hia impression was that the wood 
«^ teeaen a little more rapdly. He would sny dis- 
tiaetljr, tiiat no ezposore, ancieeqaeat to the perroeatmg 
of it, wedd have any effoot whatever npq^ the wood, 
tf it did aaytfung at all it woold be on ttv msrhoe, 
vUch iroold be tMen off by the plane the first time. 

Bif. IL Mley again asked whether the lecturer 
aerid cooaent to a committee being appointed. 

lb. Kaeomber said the prooeaa must be applied in a 
pkce fitted op for the purpoae, and there waa some idea 
thitaith a thinff would be arranged. Another society 
hid iumd to hare the paper read belbre it, and he 
voald loggcsl that the two aocietaea might combine for 
thiparpoee, and a committee be appointed. 

The Chalnnan said he waa quite sure that every one 
vcoU eoQcar with him in moat cordially tendering their 
Il^u^ to Mr. Uacomber for hia very interesting paper, 
iDd the admirable manner in which he had answered 
^ Tuioos questions put to him. It must, he waa quite 
«B«, be very gratifying to Mr. Maoomber that his paper 
^ dinted so many remarka from so many gentlemen 
FRKOt He was a&aid it would not have been so, aa 
tbt iphere of criticism had been so very much curtailed, 
^f^m the scientific partof the queation waa notgone into, 
^ Xr. Macomber had forbom giving them an account 
<||the auteriala which he used, ao that one of the most 
^*?^rt>ot elements had been eliminated. He h&rdly 
Wt ustified in saying anjrthing in the way of criticism, 
u* kid DO connection with the timber trade, but it 
^ndk him, when he heard that the timber was to be 
^ h hilt, or nearly so, that long timber was much 
B^nloable than short timber. For instance, if they 
*^ ti tfcke it for ship-building purposes — which was 
^"^^the most important uaea to which it could be 
*>HH hecaoie tho aaving of life from fire at aea was 
■ sneoaely important — it waa absolutely indispensable 
""^"^ pupooes that it should be 30 feet long, and he 
ted very much whether they could find timber 
kei long. He was afraid that there would be a 
Maal difficult^r to get a fine straight tree sufficiently 
*■( to admit of its l«ing cut in half for the purpose of 
^king it incombustible. Besides which, the timber 
^•^•m cut for anv particular owner or user, but cut 
ataW lengths and sent here, and when it waa re- 
build to be oaed the purchaser went to the docks and 
rad oat the largeat timber he could find suitable for 
■"jagp oat. However, he felt the great desirability of 
■■8 «ich a process. 

J^lf^Hm Wti^Uag^ in seconding the vote of thanks. 
*■ tkat it aeeoed to him it waa not their duty as 
^^ of the Society of Arts, which was established 
^ the very purpose of enooursfing improvements in 
^*ti a>d nann la c Uu es, to throw objeotioiis in the 
Sf^^a lecterer who came there with a new p t ooe a s . 
Tjf^aelysl see daylight on the snbjeot, bat neither 
T*^an mny other mAj&cU which, when at first 
V"^*M, w«a aeiwish gnat objectioBS. It would be 



fationi 



remembered that a late Prime Minister had said, when 
it was proposed to cross the Atlantic by steam ships, that 
so absurd was it he would eat the boiler of the first ship 
that crossed. He thought every enconrag^ement and 
facility ought to be thrown in the way of the lecturer, 
who came forward with a new prooeaa, instead of tho 
reverse. 

The Chairman said he thought it was consistent witk 
his duty as chairman to invite the observations and 
criticisms of the members on the subject, that they might 
the better elicit the truth and see the practical value of 
the process. 

Mr. Maoomber 'said he felt gratefrd to ^e Chairmaa 
and to everyone for the obaervationa and the objeotioBS 
that had been made. Hia object in reading tlM paper 
was to elicit each remarks. There was no reason at all» 
when the magnitnde of the work would allow it, why 
ateam-power ahould not be need to force the liquid into 
the wood ; and there was no diffioolty, if sufficient power 
were used, of inserting the liquid at the end instead of 
attheoeotre. 

CAHTOB LECTVSS8. 

The fifth and last lecture of the first coarse of 
Cantor Lectures for the present Session, ''On the 
Practical Applications of Optios to the Arts and 
Manufactures, and to Medicine," was delivered on 
Monday, Dec. 23rd, by C. Meymott Tidy, Bs^. 
M.B., Joint Lecturer on Ch^nistry, and Professor 
of Medical Jurisprudence at the London Hospital. 
The Lecturer said : — 

In the year 1675, Sir Isaac Kewton presented to the 
Royal SoiAety his memorable paper on optics. Sir laaao 
had described himaelf as a child gathering up pebbles 
on the sea shore. Be it so. What a wonderful child it 
was, picking up the pebbles, and what wonderful 
pebbles they were that the child picked up. 

Three great facts were established by Sir Isaac Newton 
in thia paper. First of aU, that the ray of aunlight having 
paaeed through a trian^ar piece of glaaa — called a 
prism — ^was broken up mto a band of several colours 
blending in beautifrd harmony from red to violet — what 
we know as the spectrum. This effect was produced 
because diffierent colours have different deg r ee s of r»- 
frimgibility, the violet being the moot refrangible^ aad 
the red the leaat ao. The aecond fact eatabliahed by this 
paper, waa Uiat thia splittin^-up process oould only be 
tdfected once—Uie interposition of a second prism made 
no difference— it could not further decompose one of the 
coloured rays of light ; thus the red, on passing throng 
a second prism still remained red, and the green, green. 
And the thirdfoct established, waathta—that theaec^ours, 
if brought together again, reproduced white light Thus, 
analytically and ayntheticaily — I mean by the prooeas 
of pulling down, and by the process of building up-^ 
Sir Is*u&c Newton proved the composition of white light. 
These were Newton's pebbles. Would to Ood there 
were more children searching the beach. 

And now, ioat to make my atory aa fur aa I can com- 
plete, we will lopeat Newton'a ezperimenta — though 
unfortunately not quite aa Newton performed them, 
from circamstanoes you can quite underataod. We 
ahall, however, have a very good aobatitute for sun- 
light in our electric lamp. We will turn our light on, and 
first of all we will fbeua the alit on the wall on the 
oppoaite aide, by meana of thia large lena, and now we 
will btiag into the path on the raya our prism. (The 
le<Aurer l^re showed a spectrum with one prism.] 

Now, the second point that I might show is, that the 
interpoeition of a second prism causes no further ohaage. 
Then? is our spectrum [illustrating it on a white seraan 
by a spectrum shown with two ~" "* ' 



161 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Januart 24, 1878. 



IB 



Now, the second point I just want to show yon, 
that if I reverse the position of one of the prisms, we 
shall then get a recombination of the colours, and therf 
you see the slit over on the other sides of the room 



just as before, produced by a second prism placed in 
the opposite direction to the first. 

Now I want to show you again the reoomposition of this 
spectrum. I will throw upon the screen, by means of our 
lune light, a diagram of this spectrum, which we shall 
be able to rotate rapidly, when owing to the power the 
retina possesses of retaining an impression for some time, 
we shall get a blending of all those colours, and the con- 
consequent reproduction of white light again. nSxpcri- 
menting by rotating the disc on the screen.l Ihere we 
haye a very fair picture of our spectrum. Now we will 
rotate it rapidly, and yon appear to lose all the colours^ 
and to see a perfectly white disc. This is a repetition 
on a some what largn scale of Newton's experiments. 

Now, I want to show it you in another way. Instead 
of employing a transparent disc, I will throw the lime 
light upon the painted disc you see there [exhibited in 
the room]. We shall get — when it is rotHted — a kind of 
grey disc, because unfortunately we cannot paint colours 
quite so well as nature can. But whilst this is rotating I 
shall throw upon it the spark from our induction coil, 
and you will then see when I cut off the lime light the 
colours re-appear again though the disc will be in rapid 
motion. 

Now we will cut off our lime light, [experimenting 
with the electrio spark each colour was plainly 
seen]. Now you see other curious effects— the most 
extraordinary combination of colours. That is as 
for as I can go with this part of my subject. Why all 
these coloured rays meeting the eye produce the effect 
of white light is a difficult subject to discuss, and 
would lead me into a physiological question as deeply 
^teresting as it is painfully abstruse. Fortunately it is 
not our subject. Let me merely point out that the 
mixture of other colours have the same power of pro- 
ducing this effect of white light, as for example indigo 
and yellow, blue and orange, and notably the three 
colours, blue, red, and yellow. 

Now in this spectrum there are three g^reat powers 
resident — three special properties— our spectrum is really 
a trinity in unity, lliere are, first of all, luminous 
rays in the spectrum, and the luminous rays in 
their maximum exist in the yellow part of the 
spectrum. Then there are beat mys in the spectrum, 
and these exist in their maximum in and beyond 
the red, as was first of all pointed out by HerschtU, 
in 1800. Then, thirdly, theie are the chemical mys in 
the spectrum, which, I have pointed out, exist in their 
nrazinaum in and beyond the violet; they are in- 
tensely energetic in inducing chemical action, as in 
causing the decomposition and the combination of 
chemical substanoee. This was originally noticed in 
the early part of the present century, by Bitter and 
Scheele. But the spectrum from our electric lamp 
is different from the spectrum of the sun — there are peculi- 
aritiee in the sun*s spectrum that were not noted by 
Newton. They were not, indeed, noted until the year 
1802, more than 130 years after Newton*s time, and the 
honour of the discovery of the black lines in the solar 

rtmm belongs to WoUaston. I perfectly admit that 
discovery attracted at the time but very little atten- 
tion from the scientific world. It whb in the year 1814, 
twelve years after WoUaston first discoy(>red them, that 
Fraunhofer re-discovered these lines. WolUston had 
asserted that thero were but seven lines in the spectrum, 
and he said that these seven lines divided the spectrum 
into seven parts, and that they were placed between 
the seven colours of which the spectrum was com> 
posed. It was, I say, in 1814, that Fraunhofer showed 
that this was a mistake, that the black lines did not 
correspond to the spaoes between the colours, besides which 
^aonhofer noted and mapped no less than 676 of them, 
noted, moreover, that these bands were always obtain* 



able from sunlight, from moonlight, from Han sod 
Venus, and so forth. But when he examined the fixed 
Htars, which are self-luminous, then he found that be ob- 
tained different appearances, fie concluded that what- 
ever produced these black lines, for I must say that m 
none of Fraunhofer^s papers did he ever actually state 
what he believed these lines were due to, he says that 
whatever produced these lines, it is clear their otigin it 
something beyond our world and beyond its gaseous 
envelope. 

Now, it was long sgo noticed that different bodies gsTe 
different coloured flames when they were burnt This 
wss even noted before the time of Fraunhofer. I might 
take as an illustration of this, and it is a fairly good one 
of its kind, the light produced by different chloridfs, 
dissolved in spirit. I use chlorides because they are solable 
in spirit There is our lithium, copper, and so forth 
[burning different solutions on cotton wool]. I think 
there is little or no doubt that the light that a flame 
gives ia due to the solid matter in the flame. I have hew 
a beautiful burner, that has been kindly lent me by Mr. 
Bellow, in which the rotation of the solid matto' of the 
flame is mos^ beautifully seen, owing to a peculiarity in 
the form of the burner. He states that it may be used 
very well for testing the illuminating power of ^ 
simply. I presume, from the amount of light a flame giT« 
being due to the amount of solid matter which is in the 
flame. 

Now it was in the year 1822 that Brewster first of i^ 
examined the spectra from these differently coloured 
flames, fed with different kinds of solid matter, and he 
found this fact, that in doing so he could only obtain bits 
of spectra, and he suggest^ that Uiese localised bands, 
proiiuoed by these different kinds of material in the flame, 
might very well be used as tests of the substance under 
examination. And now-a-days you know the s^P^ 
sition of Brewster is a fact accepted by all scientific 
men. 

We will throw upon the screen, for instance, a dia- 
gram of a number of spectra, in which you will see the 
different effects produced, to which I shall not, un- 
fortunately, have time to do more than refer to to-day. 
[fiere a diagram of certain spectra was thrown on the 
screen.] There you see a diagram showing tl^e 
peculiarities of those spectra. Here we have the 
spectra of lithium, of sodium, of strontium, of barium, 
but they are different spectra, by which you are able to 
recognise, with the greatest ease, the various materials 
that are present. 

We must not forgot at this point to acknowledge the 
debt we owe to Professor Kirchoff, to whom we are in- 
debted for the rare originality which has presented as 
with a new analytical a^eot. far more sensitive thnn the 
test glass admits of,— no le«<s than the 1-180 millionth oi 
a grain of soda, or 1-160 millionth of a grnin of lilh»i 



being recognisable by means of their spectra. ^<' 
must we forget, moreover, that it was the means by 
which Bunsen and Kirchoff, in 1860, proved the ex- 
istencb of two new metals, ccnsium and rubidium, ii 
the waters of Durkheim, in Rhenish Bavaria. Here wi 
have a diagram representing the peculiar spoctrnm ol 
coesium, one of Bunsen*8 metals. Nor mnst we fbrgM 
moreover, that it was by this method that Croukee, ii 
1862, discovered that curious metal thallium. Thallium 
a specimen of which I have here, is a cumulative poison 
It is detected with the greatest ease in the stomtch b; 
means of spectrum analysis. As a toxicologist, 
certainly feel disposed to say, would that other thin; 
were as easily found, but alas, I am afntid the ease wit 
which it is discoverable would be a sad source of dang< 
and dincttssion. A jury is not satisfied with tl 
millionth of a grain. 

Well, now I think I will try and throw one or two 
these spectra on the screen. As a mutter of oonIe^ th« 
will be imperfect And first of nil suppose we tal 
sodium. We will put a small particle of sodium chlori 
between the poles. [Experimentiog with eodium in i 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Janitart 24. 1878. 



16ff 



kat] Ibtn joa fee the sodima band beaatifollj 
ibvi. Toftt jeUow baiul k entirely due to Bodium. 
SoAnf dMwitii whickwe are acqutuAtod will prodaoe 

Se« tium I will endeavour to siiaw yoa the Bpectraia 
d lilkiiui. Uolbrtaiiately it is of no oae my changing 
tin pole ia tb» case, umply beoauae in all lithiam we 
ikll gffc oar fnend eodinin. It is one of those never- 
{■fiay frieoda* that imfortttBately sometimes stioks by 
«9 very much closer than you want. We will put a 
maH qaiBtity of lithium between the poles. [Here the 
ipeeCnm of liihium was clearly shown on the screvn.] 

Hoir then we will experiment with mixed chlorides. 
Ton ne how beantifully distinct those bands are. We 
Ian ckloridss here of sodium, barium, lithium, and all 
aocti of things mixed together. 

N9V we inll pat a small piece of thallium on the pole, 
I ?erj lOftU pitjoe will answer the purpose, [Here the 
ipMtnni of thallium was sem on the screen.] Here we 
^ other things as well, but there is the peculiar band 
<i thiUiiun. It was by that peculiar green band which 
ps fBc^ that Crookes diacoyered the presence of this 
onraeliL 

Bat 1 must not stop to go on with these experiments. 
Skhrv, asd line, uid €X>pper, all produce exquisite effiocts 
vbea ihovn by this means, and by it we are able to tell 
t^prasQce. 

Nov labttanoes gaseous at ordinary temperatures 
ihoimfart a peculiar light when heated by the electric 
■pok, tad thsM gases, whok -examined by the spectros- 
ofi* giT9 distinct baotds. I can show you what I mean 
\ij ttimg a few tubes, whach I have had made for 
tW perpoM of experiments; they contain a small 
^Mstitjr of different gases. There you will see the 
vAaai eoloafs produced by different kinds of gases, and 
70a caa ondentand that these gases in this way give 
l^ifcssl cffiots, just as the different kinds of solid bcMliee 
b the iiiime produced different kinds of light, and just 
m thsA too produce different kinds of spectra when ex- 
■■■Bd by means of the spectroscope. [Experimenting 
Stakes with efectvie spark.] 

i^>ihibl7 ^^^^nm avs few spectra that are so interesting 
^tte Qsrhoii speetonoi. You know there is a celebrated 
^*i kt manufacturing steel, which we know as the 
'''■"■■I preiess. Bj this process 5 tons of cast iron 
^^toav«(ted into steel in something like 20 minutes. 
^t^bon oontsins a great deal of carbon, and in the 
'^VMir psoosss the carbon is got rid of by bummg it 
^ ^ the white hot iron by a blast of atmospheric air. 
I QBly jut want to enter into the principles of the process 
^ ibov JOB how spectrum analysis has been applied to 
^ IWaoIten cast iron is placed in a large retort [shown 
^.A^MgMm] lined with refractory clay. This converter, 
uit ttcaUad, turns upon a pivot. Through this pivot a 
^piMn in connection with a very powerful blowing 
'fpvttBi, by which air can be blown into the bottom 
* t^iMnntus, through a blow-hole, into the molten 
^^ Kow then, what does the air do ? Itbumsootthe 
atAoe, th« heated gases issuing in the form of a flame 
»>B tbfl oonverter, whilst the molten iron is being burnt, 
^^it is very important to stip that blowing process 
v^k the time arrives. Ten seconds too soon or ten 
H^w tsolats^ and the charge is spoilt. Intheonecase 
]*^^me it so thick yon cannot pour it into the ladle 
f^ to leoeive it, and from that to the moulds ; in the 
^ou% trom the presence of the carboa,it is so brittle 
Jwh csnablcs ondar the hammer. But how are you to 
^^ the exact moment? That is the qoestiim. £x- 
^^^iss, I gnat yon, does goide the worker, but 
JJH^5"** ** ^ ^'^^ thing (so our older friends never tire 
vtMlisc 08), and this I am confident o^ laud experience 
f^.FMasa, it will not weigh down the scale, when we 
J^ a the opposite pan exact sdentifio experiment, 
smsr flaase, as it issnes from that oonveiter^ is 
by the aid of the. speotroaoope. Nnmeioas 
^^,^--a>B rii^bl% sodina, potassiwm, lithium, iron, 
'7*^>09ni ailrogeo, and carbon, &c Allof atoddeByaU 



in a second, the carbon lines disappear, and that is the 
moment when the air blast must be turned o^ for the 
carbon is burnt off itnd the iron is converted. 

We most now go back again for a few minutes, if yoa 
please, to our dark lines in the solar spectrum. In the 
yetir 1832 Brewster examined the spectrum after having 
allowed it to pass throught nitrous acid, when he notieed 
this fact, that he obtained certain dark bands, and he 
came to the conclusion that the dark bands were pro- 
duced by the absorption of the light by means of tblf 
nitrous acid. I am not at all certain whether I can 
repeat his experiment, but still I feel disposed to try. 
There we have one spectrum. Now, when I bring this 
coloured gas into the spectrum these dark lines are visible. 
That is, I believe, one of the earliest experiments made 
with respect to the absorption bands [experimenting with 
nitrous acid]. And Brewster noticed, moreovw, this, 
that the dark line, which we know as the D line, cor- 
responded with the yellow line that was obtained by 
sodium. We might show the same fact in several cases. 
If I was to take the iron lines produced by burning iron 
I could show that these lines had their exact counterimrt 
in the solar spectrum. Here we have the iron lines and 
there the solar spectrum. Now observe the lines, and 
you see how wonderfully they correspond with the dark 
lines in the solar spectrum. Now he found that upon 
allowing the spectrum of the lime light to pass through 
the vapour of sodium, instead of a continuous spectrum 
he observed a dark band in the very spot where the 
yellow light from sodium should appear, that is to sa^, 
that when the light passed through the vapour of any 
body the vapour ot thi^ body had the power of absorbing 
the very light that the body itself produces. Sodium, 
for instance, produces a deep yellow band when it is 
burnt. I hnve shown you that if you pass the light 
through sodium vapour that sodium vapour absorbs that 
part of the spectrum that soda produces. So yon see 
how he came to this conclusion, that these bands in the 
sun's spectrum were produced by the vapour of bodies 
that had the power of absorbing the very ught that these 
bodies would themselves produce. I will venture to try 
and see whether I can obtain this absorption spectrum of 
sodium. Instead of using burning sodium I am about 
to employ a quantit}r of the vapour of the sodium, which 
I shall burn in a little iron vessel in my lamp. Of 
course these things are very easy to obtain when we do 
them on a small scale, but on a large scale they are 
always attended with some difficulty [experimenting 
with sodium]. There is the black absorption band of 
sodium. 

I want now to show you that this power of absorbing^ 
certain parts of the spectrum is not for a single noment 
confined to gases. For instance, if I take this liquid 
which I have here, which is perfectly colourless (it is a 
solution of didymium), and hold this in my spectrum, 
I shall be able to show you the power that liquids have 
of absorbing certain portions of the spectrum. Now I 
will hold in the spectrum this solution of uranium, when 
we shall get at once well-marked absorption bands 
[experimenting]. 

I want now just to refer to one illustration where this 
is of rery great importance, and that is in the case of 
blood. Blood was exainined by Hoppe, in 1862; hj 
Stokes, in 1864, and since that time by Sorby, for this 
power of liquid^ in absorbing parts of the spectrum shows 
itself here as a matter of great practical moment. The 
instrument used for the purpose of blood analyses is an 
instrument invented by Sorby, and brought to perfisction 
by Sorby and Browning. It is known as the micro- 
spectroscope. Investigation has proved that the colour- 
ing matter of blood differs very materially, from that 
which was described by Lecanu as hsBmatin. It differs 
|n two particulars. First, the colouring matter of Uie 
blood is soluble in water, which hmmatin is not ; and, 
seeondly, it is capable of oxidising and deoxidising itsdf 
with ease. The colouring matter of the blood is what 
^re latOT' ^^^'^ «he name of croorin, or hssmoglobtn 



168 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jasxixry U, 1873. 



6. Exhibitors have to supply the poU^s for the nmia 
shaft, as well as an j other gear amd driving bands, at 
their own cost. 

The pulleys to be applied to the main shafting are to 
be made in two parts fur sere wine together. 

These pulleys are to be fastened to the main ehafting 
in such a way that no injury is done to the shafts. 

7. The preservation, cleaning, and oiling of the main 
shaftH will be fooad by the ch^f manap;er, but exhibit- 
ore will hare to attend to the preserratioa aad oiling of 
the gear supplied by them, as also to the pKeaarvatlQa of 
their straps. 

Before applying such gear the exhibitor has to submit 
the plans of his intended arrangement. 

The chief manager reserves to himself the right, for 
the sake of uniformity of arrangement, to mdxe any 
necessary alterations in these plazis. 

8. The daily hours during which machinery can be 
worked will be published beK>re the opening of the Ex- 
hibition. 

Exhibitors have to notify the names of the persons 
whom they intend to intrust with the working of, and 
attending to, the machinery. 

Nobo ly except these attendants will be allowed to work 
the machinery. 

9. All machinery intended to be worked must, at the 
expense of the exhibitor, be guarded by railings or other 
proper means, in order to protect the public from injury. 

10. Machinery and apparatus fit for the special service 
of the Exhibition may be sapplied by exhibitors for this 
express object, and will be ranged as objects of exhibition 
in group 13. 

Among such machinery and apparatus may be here 
specified: — 

Steam engines, portable engines for driving the main 
ehafting in the Machinery Hall, and those used for 
service outside the Machinery HalL 

11. Exhibitors supplying such machines and imple- 
ments, intended for special service during the Exhibition, 
will enjo^ special privileges, to be agreed, as occasion 
may requiro, between them aiid the chief manager. 

12. For the convenience of exhibitors, a small shed 
-containing a turnery shop, fitting shop, grinding shop, 
smithy, and copper smithy, will be airuigad within the 
Exhibition grounds. 

In these workshops, according to the means at' hand, 
small work or repairs may be executed. 

The administration of the worki^ops is 'under the 
•control of the chief manager, and work eutmsted to them 
for execution will be charged according to a tariff fixed 
by the chief manager. 

13. The stipulations of the general regulations remain 
in fall force in addition to the stipulations oontained in 
these special regulations. 

l^e President of the Imperial Commiarion : 
Abchdukb Rbokieb. 
The Chief Manager : 

BaBOIT DB SOHWABZ-SBirBOBir. 
42, PratertteMBe, Vienna, December, 30, 18T2. 

The Builder of last week gives an account of the £z- 
idbition building, from which we eztxact the following: — 

" Hie extraordinary building erected in the Prater at 
Vienna for the approaching international exhibition pro- 
ceeds apace towards completion. As regards the con- 
struction of the building, the oommission adopted a {dan 
designed as early as 1845 bythe architects of the Vienna 
Opera, Siocardsburg and Von der MiUL This plan, 
entirely differing from all those of fonner eshibttions, 
was followed. It offers not only a better light for the 
objects exhibited, and allows of extension of the covered 
area aooording to tiM wants of exhibiton, but makes the 
employment oif many hnndreda of workmen at the — «>^ 
time m the different galleries, witiioot hindering one 

-Hither, posrihle» and p<ffmits of the goods of the various 
tea bang deporited in thoir nfpectiy»fpM« iRtbout 



interfering with their neighbours, which droomatance 
must effect considerable saving of time, an important 
point in this case, as time is so short Seven thoosand 
workmen went to work at unoe, an army which to keep 
in order requires no ordinary amount of tsfit andenargj. 
Wa^^es, of course* rose in Vienna to an enormoos extant. 
A simple labourer earned 3 fiorins (68.) a-day ; brick- 
layers mlule from 62 to 56 florins (over £5^ per week: 
and large numbers of workmen were broogiit from all 
parts of the empire — ^Tyrolese, AlbaniaBS, Czechs, &c. 

** To the architect Hasenauer was confided the execn- 
tion of the plans marked out twenty yean ago, the 
original designers having^ departed this life. The 
origimility of this plan consists m the application of the 
so-called ' herring-bone ' system, which resembles some- 
what the architecture of the EsouriaL From a gigantic 
longitudinal gallery, 906 metres long, and 26 m^tiea 
broad, branch out at right angles, and at regular 
intervals, sixteen cross-gallerieB, 206 metres long and 16 
metres broad. In this wise twenty-four courts, doaed 
on three sides, and having the same length as the croaa- 

falleries, and a breadth of 36 metres — for this is the 
istance betwe^i the cross-galleriee — ^are formed on both 
sides of the great gallery. On this plan, the architect, 
Hasenauer, u>unded his division of the principal building, 
dividing it into a large quadratic central construction, and 
a smaller building at each end, whidi latter enclose each 
an octagonal court. The centre, again, of the central 
buildi&g will form a grand rotunda, ooniSkructed entirely 
of iron, whose erection by the firm of Harkort inayl>^ 
considered a triumph of modem ^igineering. Thii 
rotunda is the idea, as we have before said, of Mr. Scott 
Russell, who takes a great interest in this part of theEx- 
hibition works. The span of this dome, roofed by a 
new method, amounts to more than double that of the 
greatest domes of the world, vis., 108 metres. The width 
of the dome of St Paul's is only 36 metres; that of 8t. 
Peter's is only 49 mtoes wide ; that of ihe London Ex- 
hibition building of 1862 was only 60 metres. Tbew 
figures alone give us an idea of Uie imposing dioienfloni 
of the gigantic cupola, which has been erMted witbout 
any outside scaffolding, and the shell of which waa 
hoisted and fixed by Harkort*s engineer, H. Steiger. 

" Behind the longitudinal axis of the Exhibition build- 
ing rises the treble gallery for the machinery, of about 
the same dimensions as tlM Exhibition boilding i^opsrt 
in the construction of which its ulterior destmation tii 
warehouses for the new city has not been lost sight ot 
During the Exhibition the machinery will be in full 
activity, and the great space allotted to it will be oC 
immense advantage to the exhibitorB of machinery frosi 
all countries. 

"Opposite the southern cross front of the principtl 
building is an annexe in four rows, the Hall of Arts. Iq 
the middle will be a double row of rooms, with amplA 
skylight, for the reception of more important works ol 
art, while at both sides, in smaller galleries, will be ex^ 
hibited the smaller art-treasures. New modes of Ught^ 
ing. which have already been tried on a small soal^ will 
be nere employed. Tastefully hud-oat gardens wul fill 
the space between the HaU of Arte and the Palace oi 
Industry, which will serve at the same time as plaoes foi 
exhibitmg objects of the plastic art. A oovered gtUen 
leads from the Hall of Arts to the left, at both ends ^ 
which are ptmUom^ to contain a new feature, *Ex|)0Bi 
tions dee Amateurs.' It is the intention to induce pnvai* 
collectors to exhibit their treasures here. Near the Hsl 
of Arts large palm-houses and gigantio aquaria will fin 
their place* 

'^Admittance into this world of wcmdera will be gained 
beeidee the thirty-two entrances at the frontal sides c 
the cross-galleries of the Exhibition, by four nrincipi 
portals, to be decorated in the most aplendid style vhid 
art can derise. Ona of these pedAla leads from th 
prindpal road of the Prater to the Bzlubition. OnpaM 
ing Oiis wide gale, a park, profaaehr deoamled wil 
ho9tMU and 6MiaiM,liM betiwesn tti^bahoUar and th 



JO0BNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jaotabt 24, 1878. 



169 



ta9fi^#li CB both ndea of the way stand puviUomt 
Ifl fc iii l i if im o|ipo«te to one another. Close to the 
■tpiMli ftt kit it the building for the commisaion ; 
y At qdH tbt post-office ; farther on to the left the 
mAi srftB jory ; to the right that of the Imperial 
iailf. Qm to these bufldinga, fiiurther to the right, 
01* fthflo, erected by the Sultan, the Khedive, the 
Mm ef Boomtnia, &c., at their own expense, with 
listol flpIeodQiir, which will leave those of the last 
^ F*"****"" hr behind. Even Japan, besides China 
il fibtm, has lately asked for space of 4)000 square 
for htf ipedal exhibition. 
A mam ef baildings has thas been undertaken, for 
iiietioQ of which over 28 millions of bricks were 
ivMfx. To ftcilitate and accelerate this mighty work, 
inm laei of nils woe laid down from the two principal 

Biof VioBBa.to the area of the Exhibition, else it 
iflthsTe been possible to do so much in so short a 



:, 



i4iiitilHi that the whole of the space in the Vienna 

at the disposal of the British Royal Com- 

hu been allotted, and that the arrangements at 

piedode the possibility of obtaining a further 

t«B Wttlf of the numerous addititmal applicants 

Host of the leading industries of the 

rill be well represented, and it seems to be 

Itbtdsnog the exhibition some modification may 

is the Austrian tariff, the protective character 

a many instances precludes extended com- 

'. rditioBt with this country. It appears that the 

^tifinhy in connexion with the agricultural and 

haOs has been how to accommodate the 

ittinber of exhibitors in the space assigned. The 

I •fieiil catalogue of the British section, which is 

' kiafcnnatioii of a useful diaracter not afforded 

instances, will be printed and published for 

[lUi(%*> Oommiasioners by Messrs. J. M. Johnson 

Ita, of Castle-street, Holbom, who are also the 

' of the Austrian Imp<tfial Commission for 

of Brittsh, Colonial, and American adver- 

ia the German official catalop:ue. These are 

[vifptblica^ns that interf«t British exhibitors, 

m will be necessary with regard to applications 

"^HoDsnts in projected ** guides'* and other 

works which (Annot possibly be sold in thj 



IMbdutrial £xhibitio& Building. ~ This 

I h to be on a very large scale, the Architect in- 

Tbe incorporators in 1870 purchased eight 

od bound by Ninety-eighth and One Hundred 

Stuwtt, and Foarth and Third Avenues, for 

ti>k. (worth now 2,400,000 dels.). The legis- 

■M empowered the incorporators to close 

Aveaoe so as to occupy the entire space. 

De» to erect a permanent building for the 

indsde of every kind of product and nutnu- 

•be a perpetual World's Fair, like Sydenham 

^i*li*aad«d by botanical i^ardens, museums. &c., 

I* the Paris Jardin des Plantes. Here will be 

tts sits, manufactures, farm productions, and 

is iamttons from every country in the world. 

f^*yg petial Exposition Universale — a constant 

[yftiiw lur. They propose to rent space to 

Rv eae doIUr per square foot per annum. As 

■Mf wiD eontain 1,600,000 square feet, this will 

'*_M£ng will be five storeys high, crowned 

^^jbsMtd root the whole mounted by a magni- 

*.^*sd glass dome — ^the largest in the world. 

|vQl be 450 feet in diameter, and will rest on 

'0f eolttmns. Each state and territory will 

■^ The anex of Oie dome will be an ob- 

als doBM wfll be grander than Sir Christo- 

WmA dona of St. Paul's, and higher 

ABgsb'a great czown of the Dnomo in 



SULPHUR IN SICILY. 

The following article is an abstract of a very interest- 
ing memoir bySignor Mottura, of the Qeolo^cal Survey 
of Italy, entitled " Sulla formazione terziana nellazona 
solfifera della Sicilia," and published in the '* Memorie 
del R. Comitate Geologico d'ltalia," vol. i., 1871. 

The rocks which crop out in the sulphur districts are 
as follows : — 

PuoeENB. 

14. Sandstone, conglomerate, sand, and marL 
13. Coarse limestone, called calcareous tnfiu 
12. Blueish marl. 

Uppeb Miocene. 
11. Marly limestone, with foraminifera, called truho, 
10. Saccharine, crystallised, and foliated gypsum. 
9. Sulphur-bearing limestone, tufa, and gypsum. 
8. Compact limestone, somewhat siliceous. 
7. Tripoli, with fish remains, divided sometunes by 
a marly magnesian limestone like the trubo, 

MtDDLB Miocene* 
6. Quartzose and micaceous sandstone, with corals,, 
sometimes intercalated with salt marls ; conglomerates* 

LowEB Miocene. 

6. Rock salt _ . . 

4. Blue marls, with salt and gypsum, containing petro- 
leum and bituminous matter. 

3. Rudda^ or saponaceous earth ; concretionary lime- 
stone, with fiint. . 

2. Ferruginous and gypseous day, with oituimnous. 
shale and arragonite ; sands and ferruginous sandstone. 

£0GENB. 

1. Nummulitic limestone, alternating with limestone^ 
containing fucoids and jasper, and shale. 

The fossils contained in the Eocene and Lower and 
Middle Miocene rocks prove these beds to be of marine 
origin. The Upper Miocene is mainly a lacustrine for- 
mation, whilst the Pliocene, again, is marine. It seems 
that at the end of the Eocene epoch elevations took 
place, forming a part of the old Eocene ocean into an 
inland sea, like the Caspian Sea, for instance, which waa 
gradually evaporated. With the sediment brought 
down into it mechanically were deposited successively 
the various salto contained in solution in the sea water 
in the inverse order of their solubility. The first de- 
posits were ferruginous, then carbonate of lime was. 
precipitated, after that gypsum, and finally rock salt. 
These beds were then covered by ordinary manne de- 
posits, as the sea seems to have again entered the inland 
basin. Perhaps the area was depressed, or it is possible 
that, owing to the extent of the evaporation, it already 
lay much below the general sea level, and on the re- 
moval by some means of the barrier, the sea flowed in 
once more. In some places elevation must have oc- 
curred, as pebbles derived from the Eocene and Lower 
Miocene rocks are found in the Middle Miocene beds. 
At the end of the Middle Miocene period the area waa 
raised and lakes were formed, in which were deposited 
the different rocks named in the above list Ihe tnpoU, 
siliceous limestone, sulphur rock and gypsum are proved 
to have been deposited in lakes, because they contain 
no marine fossils, and plenty of remains of fish belong- 
ing to lacustrine species. 

The sulphur rock is a slightly marly limestone as- 
sociated with sulphur. Sometimes the sulphur is dis- 
seminated through the limestone, in other cases there are 
thin alternate layers of limestone and sulphur. The 
number of seams varies according to the loadity ; the 
seams are separated by partings of black marl from 20 
inches to 6 ff«t thick, and some of the seams attain a 
thickness of 28 feet. The total thickness of all the 
seams put together in one case reaches 100 feet, but the 
average thickness of sulphur-bearing limestone is only 
10 to 12 ^ty and the ore contains, on an average, 20 to 



170 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF AHTS, Jaotabt^ 24, 187S. 



21 per cent of Mphnr. If abstnoliom is made of all 
Bobfltances other than sulphur and limestone, the per- 
centage is 24 ; in oth«r words, the proportion m^ich the 
ardphur bears to the limestone is as 24 to 76. 

At theiroaterc^ the seams are thoroughly deoompoaed ; 
the sulphur, in p r o e cnc e of carbonate of lime, oxygen, 
and moisture, becomes oxidised, aad p r o du c es sulphuric 
acid, which decomposes the limestone and forms g3rpsum. 
Ko sulphur, therefore, is seen at the surface, out you 
have a whitish earthy friable rock, the briseale of the 
Sicilian miner. The ooounence of this bruoak is a sue 
indication of the existence of a sulf^nr asam ; it is to a 
sulphur seam what the ffossan is to a lode or mineral 
vein. 

It may be calculated that Sicily possesses 60 to 66 
millions of tons of sulphur unexcavated. The present 
anoutil production is 160,000 tons, but as it must be 
reckoaed that one-third of the sulphur in the ore is lost 
in the process of extraction by hquation in kilns, the 
yearly production corresponds to 240.000 tons extracted 
from the earth. At this rate it would take from 200 to 
^30 years to exhaust the salphur in Sicily. All the sulphur 
seama, however, will not last as long as this ; at least one- 
third of the mines will be exhausted in a period of fifty 
to eighty years. 

It has already been shown that the sulphur ore was 
deposited in lakes, as it is associated with lacustrine 
foMsils. The sulphur ore may have been deposited in 
two different ways. The first hypothesis is that it was 
formed by the decomposition in lakes of sulphuretted 
hydrogen and bicarbonate of lime, brought in by springs 
containing these substances, in proportions correspond- 
ing nearly to their chemical equivalents. The second is 
that the springs coming into the lakes contained sulphide 
of calcium in solution. It must be supposed that 
bituminous matter, acting on the gypsum contained in 
the Lower Miocene beds, and aided by the internal heat 
of the earth, which is felt nearer the surface in volcanic 
regions than elsewhere, reduced the sulphate of lime to 
sulphide of calcium. If water was present at the same 
time, sulphuretted hydrogen and bicarbonate of lime 
would be produced, and would be carried away in 
solution. On arriving at the lakes, the oxygen of the 
air would oxidise the hydrogen of the sulphuretted 
hydrogen, sulphur would be precipitated, and a slight 
evaporation would cause the decomposition of the 
bicarbonate and deposition of the carbonate of lime. 

If no water was present at the time of the reduction, 
carbonic acid would be evolved, and the sulphide of 
calcium would remain behind. This sulphide of calcium, 
acted on afterwards by water, might be dissolved, or 
else give rise by its decomposition to hydrate of lime 
and a sulphydrate of sulphide of calcium. In one way 
or another all the calcium and all the sulphur would 
pass into the lake in solution. Here the solutions would 
be acted on by the atmosphere, and in either case a pre- 
cipitate of carbonate of lime would be formed, and a 
polysulphide generated. The polysulphide would also 
be finally decomposed in presence of the atmosphere, 
producing carbonate of lime and sulphur, which are 
precipitated, and so eventually all the sulphur which 
was in the sulphide of calcium would be precipitated as 
sulphur, and all the calcium as carbonate of lime. 
In this precipitate the sulphur would be to the 
carbonate of lime in the proportion of 24 to 
76. When sulphuretted hydrogen in solution is brought 
down by springs, much of the gas escapes as such, and 
the proportion of the sulphur deposited to the carbonate 
of lime is very small, but when the sulphuretted hydro- 
gen is generated very slowly by the decompofdtion of 
sulphides in solution, the oxygen of the air oxidises the 
hydrogen at once, and no sulphuretted hydrogen 
gas escapes. As much of the Sicilian ore contains the 
sulphur and carbonate of lime in the proportion of 24 to 
76. it is highly probable that this ore is due to the de- 
composition of the sulphide of calcium in the 
lakes themselves. Although the sulphur is &oetly a 



ino deposit, yet it is derived indirBctlyi^Pom tin 
sea, as Bischoff says, beoanse the gypsum beds which 
lumiahed the sulphide of calcium are a msrine d^Miit 
It is Tery possible tiiat the sulphur of volcsiios and 
solfataras may be derived from the sune souzoe. The 
eruptions of volcanos are often attributed to sea-water 
penetrating through flssores to heated rocks and pro- 
ducing large quai^ies of steam of enonnous tension. 
The sea-water contains a considerable quantitj of 
organic matter, which, aided by heat, would reduce the 
sulphate of lime to sulphide, and from this wooH be 
generated the sulphureUed hydrogen which ia met with 
m the exhalations of volcanos and solfiitans. This 
gas is decomposed in presence of the oxygen of the air, 
and a deposit of sulphur formed. 



"WHOLESOME HOUSES." 

A long letter in the Tiwtes of the 9th instant, by Kr. 
Bawlmson, tbm well-known sanitary engineer, aaddotling 
with the above subject, has since originated oonsidenUe 
discussion. The advice given b^ Mr. Rawlinson wia ai 
f(^ows: — "Ventilate your dram if there is one, asd 
ventilate your staircase by openings ut the roof or sky- 
light, or at some upper window. Open, and preserrQ 
open, all chamber flues ; secure means of changing the 
air in bedrooms, and, if sickness occurs, remember that 
fre^ air (change of air) is absolutely more required iii 
sickness than in robust health ; remember also that delij 
cate persons, adults or children, require well-ventilatea 
rooms both by day and night, but more especially throngl 
long winter nights. Health must be a matter of persopal 
care; homes can only be preserved healthy by nnceaain| 
personal care. The most perfect apparatus may beef n( 
effect through misuse, as also through neglect It m*^ 
be said, ' All this is the work of thearchitect or boildcf ; 
and the t^iant may say, ' You surely do not expect m 
to do such work ! ' I can only reply that architects anj 
builders, as a rule, do not make provision for ventilatiod 
but that by perfection of workmanship iu Weet-ea 
London houses they do make provision for prnventiBj 
ventilation.'* 

Flue ventilation he strenuously opposes. *' Practicalll 
the mode of ventilation cannot be too simple. Air i 
never so fresh as when it comes into a houee or ro(rt 
direct; there is some deleterious property in fla«>s whtcj 
takes the life out of the air passed through. This hi 
been found to be the case in flue- ventilated hospitals 
and, after the experiment has cost many lives, flue veos 
lation has been abandoned and open windows resoits 
to. We want only Uie usual fire-grate and an ope 
widow. Mxnu&ctured air never can be fieahair, an 
therefore all stoves, hot water apparatus, or other mod( 
of warming houses by close stove fluef and pipes, mast 
factoring and pouring in artificially warmed air, oa« 
offensive sensations, and to delicate constitotions piove 1 
be unwholesome. The open fire is no doubt the too 
costly, because most wasteful of fuel, but it is the nwi 
cheerfuL Here, again, however, delicate and lightly 
clothed persons complain of cold during frost; * they a] 
roasted on one side and frozen on the other.' Why « 
they not put on more clothing f A lady can sit ia hi 
shawl, and elderly gentlemen in topcoats. Better the 
expedients than to submit to overheated rooms, warm 
by dried and fiue-transmitted hot air, which oafits tl 
lungs for external temperatures." 

Such are some of the principal reoommendatioi 
grvpn, and they have at least the ^ne of simplicity. 

This letter called up a numb^ of answers, many ed 
plaining of the bad state of London houses genefaD 
and giving special instance of defecta» For the mi 
part the writers agreed with Mr. Rawiinson in 1 
remarks upon the drains and sewvra, but differ^ ^ 
him as to the means of ventilation to be employed. I 
Drj'sdale, writing frtnn Liverpool, slates very d«ifaut4 
a medical objection. '* Medu^ men hold thai in i 



JfXJBSAh OF THE SOCIBTT OF ARTS, January 24. 1873. 



171 





the efieot of the intninoB of oold 

J i^'oriooi to tho delicate, the yomig, 

'. and ptobably to all sleeping persons, 

Mfatliriy impore air, which is sufficiently warm 

^wietd, the infirmity oonaist of aotaHl miasma. 

the discomfort uid aotoal unhealthiness of 

tMjit^ sU noh {dans of hole-in-the-wall and open- 

iwiilstiiHi haTo hitherto heen abandoned as 

sad win oTor oonfeinae to be rejected in a 

like sua.'* 

doQlor« Dr, Hardie, of Manchester, relerring 
Jlr. iswtinsBm'a raaiarks on flae-ventilation, asks 
m the dBleterioaa piopertiee referred to. and in 
bo^aUls was the plan abandoned because it was 
to fife ? He alao aaks for some particdlan as 
to Ibi prtieokr plan adopted in those oases. **0f 
vsm,'* i^ Dr. Hardifli, **it ia well known ttiat stoves 
Miiir vluoh bss been caperbeated in fomacee frequently 
hm t diay ee a ble, parched, and snlphnrous smell. 
"^ Ibtii snly owing to the bad oonstmction of the 
sad nsed not, nor does not, exist in all cases." 




FIRE-PKOOF HOUSES. 



JkBiRB Powers, the scnlptor, takes occasion from 

^ 1 fits to put in a word for reform in hnnse- 

Hfl wiitra from Florence to a New York 

-*I hsTe the highest reepect for the ability and 

r Bj countrymen. Indeed, they snrpaM, in the 

lO ^Bbet nationa in this regard ; but, neyerthe- 

ee have a few things to learn, and among them is 

stke, not a house, but a whole dty, fire-proof; 

BB in-proof boose can be made in the midst of 

coaboitible boiklingB. Indeed, there is no safe 

«31 vtthstuid the heat of a fumaco. The very 

Fipfimelt, or eramble into dust, if not from inner 

^ hmk from outer flames. Therefore, to be fire- 

bofldinga, oar neighboars' booses must also 

; sad this calls for nranicipal laws regulat- 

and the oonstmction of buildings, and 

be required. First — ^The abandonment of 

^sd fioofs. Second — ^The floors to be made of 

m scaling down all Tentilation in case of fire. 

hya floor of wood on bricks. Third — ^The 

be metallic or of stone. Fourth — ^The rafters 

Uke the joists of the floors, to be all bricked 

patting on the slates or tile. But it may be 

inoi joists and rafters take fire P Tee, they 

eftsQ do take flre here in Florence. But with 

W^ laid with mortar upon them the fire 

' need not hurry to such a fire ; hours, indeed, 

_ B before they reached it. I b'ive known an 

if Beariy two days burning of the end of a 

tttder a fire-place, and yet the beam not burnt 

^e|ily diarred. The fire cannot get through 

^k^ it would s»Km find its way through a 

IM; tnd th<m, with yentilation, it would soon 

Wprret In short, the wholo building would 

aiiv within half an hour. Brick floors do not 

y fc% bqt they prevent otmflagrations. No city 

■^B«t with brick floors, nor has a house been 

the City of Florence during my residence 



STEAK VERSXrS FIRE. 

Adtertimr gives, from a report made to 
■M company over twenty years ago. some 
^^ spiilication of steam to the extinguishing 
IB, it is said, poeseast^ decided advantai^OB 
^itis net so li;*ble to injure goods or furni- 
it CHI penetrate to places which the latter 
i^ to ra«oh. The experiments were mad< 
thrMgh whi«'h snitible pipes and con- 
oommnnicating with the difEsrent 



rooms. A box of waste cotton was ignited in the second 
story, making a fierce blaze. Steam was turned on, 
fillioff first the upper stories and finally reaching and 
completely extinguishing the blMxe. After trying this 
experiment with dry cotton several times, lamps were 
lighted and placed in various positions on Ihe stairs and 
floor, with the wicks very high, producing strong flames. 
It was remarked that each lamp, as the steam reached it, 
was immediately put out. Steam, it was shown, could be 
let into any and every part of the mill in much Ihss time 
than water could be with the best arranged water supply. 
In case of fire, the steam is attached to or upon ev^ry 
surfnce in all positions, and will follow fire into every 
recess, hole, or criuk. It will, in fact, precede the fl>i<fies, 
and, covering everything in its course with water, prevent 
th^ spread. 



FADING OF PHOTOGRAPHS. 

At the last mating of thn Photographic Society of 
London, a paper was read by Mr. Edwnrd J. €kver, on 
*» The Fading of Albumeniswd Pictures." The ohject of 
the paper was to show how albumen prints flxed in 
hyposulphite of soda mig^t be rendered permanent, 
and to explxin upon chemical principles why alba men 
prints SO fixed are permanent. No change whatever, 
Mr. Gayer snid, is requisite in the usual mode of toning 
the albumen print ; the only change is in the mode of 
using the hypo-bath, which is as follows : — ^Dissolvn one 
ounce of hyposulphite of soda in eight ounces of water 
in a perfectly clean glass bath, and having taken it into 
the dark room, immerse in it one print, not more than 
eight inches square, for ten minutes, or at most a quarter 
of an hour ; then take the print out and rinse it in two 
waters for a few minutes befdre removing it from the 
dark room ; afWwards let it receive the usual W)i8hing 
in plenty of water, the latter operMtion being performed 
in the daylight. The hypo- solution is now thrown 
away, as it is quit^ useless for fixing a second picture. 
According to Mr Gkyer's statement, aft«r ten yenrs* ex- 
perience of this process in India, prints treated as 
abovedeseribed havealwaysremHinedunalteredand fresh- 
looking, while those treated in the ordinary way have 
faded sooner or later. Each print requires a separate 
hypo-bath, and it is also eesentiil to the suoceea of this 
process that the fixing and first wnshings should be done 
in the dark room. It is also necess try that the si^e of the 
print should be in proportion to the quantity of hypo- 
sulphite of soda used to fi< it. An ounce of hyposulphite 
of soda in eight ounces of water is the proper strength 
of solution ; and this quantity will snffioe only for one 
print eight inches squnre, which should not be allowed 
to remain in the solution for more than a quarter of an 
hour at the most. The temperature of the bath is hIso a 
matter of some importance, the best temperature being 
from 60** Fahr. to 80® Fahr. 

The chemical explanntion of why these conditions are 
essential is briefly that chloride of silver, although per- 
fectly insoluble in pure water, is easily soluble in a solu- 
tion of sodium hyposulphite; but the hyposulphites 
of silver thus formed are extremely unsttble. Chloride 
of silver forms two series of double Raits with an 
alknline hyposulphite, such as the hyposulphite of soda. 
Of these sodio-argentic hyposulphites, the flrst dissolve 
easily in water ; the second are nearly insoluble, and the 
insoluble snlt once formed in the photograph, it cannot 
be washed out of it, and. decomposing sooner or later, 
destroys the picture. It is the ohjei't of the new process 
to prevent the formation of this insoluble salt m the 
print, and to prevent the decomposition of the soluble 
sodio-argentic hyposulphite while the photograph is in 
the hypo-solution. 

The Chicago Tribune says that there are 
more wooden buildings in that city now than there were before 
the flre. 



172 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIEITY OP ARTS, Jasuakt 24, 1878. 



■Td 



SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN FRANCE DURING 

THE PAST YEAR. 

The French academies have the excellent habit of 
commencing, or rather of prefacing, the work of a new 
year by a review of the acts and deeds of the departed 
one. 

M. Faye, the retiring president of the Academy of 
Sciences, has performed wis task with respect to the 
scientific history of 1872. 

The catalogue of the minor planets, said M. Faye, 
had been increased by several new bodies, bat the most 
important discovery in astronomy was due to M. 
Janssen, and applies to the sun. This star is certainly 
surrounded by an indefinite atmosphere, formed of 
extremely rarified gas, the hydrogenous nature of which 
is similar to that of the protubemnoe. Here we have a 
capital fact, which excludes entirely the hypothesis of a 
void in the interplanatory spaces. The theory of the 
superior planets hiis attained a high point of perfection 
through the labours of M. Le Verrier. The elucidation of 
the phenomena which we have observed on the surface 
of the sun has made a great step in advance. The aid 
of other aavanU in this order of research promises an 
early solution of the physical constitution of the sun, 
unless some unexpected discovery, such as often takes us 
by surprise, should put to -the rout all the hypotheses 
which seem at present to be gaining probability. 

The labours of meteorologists ^ve borne excellent 
fruit. The cause of meteorites is likely to be ascer- 
tained before long ; it is already known that showers of 
falling stazs replace certain comets that have disap- 
peared. 

Important improvements have been made in the 
photographic processes applied to astronomv; very 
large and excellent pictures of the moon have been ol>- 
tained instantaneously. 

The study of the polar auroras progresses satisfac- 
torily, thanks to certain of these phenomena which 
have appeared with unusual magnitude. 

The origin of atmospheric electricity seems to be 
yielding before the sustained efforts of the physicists. 

New and curious effects have been observed in 
physical science; empt^ tubes have been found to 
become luminous by friction ; magnetic currents are 
developed under the influence of electric agents ; even 
capillary attraction has made an advance. Important 
improvements will hence result in the construction of 
lightning conductors. 

In Algeria geodesy has been advanced by the efforts 
of distinguished officers ; the meridian will be prolonged, 
at the same time that its known errors will be rectified. 

In the science of acriHl navigation, attempts have 
been mme to direct aerostats at an angle to the current of 
the wind ; this is the commencement of the command of 
the air. 

^ In chemistry, there has been important progress : a 
highly permanent gas, cnrbonic acid, has been decom- 
posed in considerable quantities by electricity alone. 
Ozone, or active oxygen, is obtained in abundance under 
the influence of ele*"tricity conducted by charcoal. Other 
gases seem to promise to submit to the same influences. 

Ferments, which have been the despair of chemists, 
hnve been the objects of new study on the part of an 
illustrious savant, the consequence of which has been to 
determine the great question in dispute. 

In its applications, science has not remained inactive. 
The extraction of gold and silver from pyrites is now 
effected with facility. A new method of decorative 
p'iinting, and another for the reproduction of designs, 
have entered the domain of art. Humanity may con- 
gratulate itself in the success obtained in preventing fire 
from choke damp. 

In agriculturo, the means of combating the philloxera 
have received great attention. Several processes now 
exist for the extirpation of this destructive insect, and 
there is reason to hope that they will prove efficacious. 



Phosphate of lime, in a form in which pUnts < 
assimilate it, is a substance of the highest importancfi 
agriculture; we know now the mode of dstermini 
the quantity. 

Many forage plants have been imported from Afi 
into France, an unexpected acquisition, which can] 
fail to bear good fruit. 

Mechanic^ applications have been extended ; «e a 
possess an isochronio mgulator ; the paths of obk| 
projectiles are far better understood than they wez«. 

It would prove a long task if an attempt were in^ 
to record all the scientific novelties which hare iveH 
the annals of the learned world of late ; the above ui 
pretends to be a rough outline sketch. 

With respect to present operations of tiie Acaded 
it was announced that the Commission appointed 
arrange the observations of the coming transit of Vd 
had taken all possible measures for tho succen of i 
French expeditions. M&f. Elie de Beaumont « 
Dumas, the two permanent secretaries of the A&idefl 
had been appointed to replace MM. Lsn^Mr « 
Delaunay, members of the Commission, deceased. Un 
savants and artists had been consulted, and mach i 
portant information had been obtained from u' 
officers and hydrographers. The Commisiioa court 
on t^e further aid of the Minister of Marine vitT 
view especially to the stations at the Island of Boad 
and at Sydney. It was announced that a larjfre j 
of the required instruments would be ready tlm 
and everything would be ready for the depnrtnre of 
four expeditions to the two hemispheres, withoat cor 
ing the secondary expeditions. 



GLASS SPINNING. 



The latest improvements in spinning glass tre das 
the Vienna manufacturer Bruufnut. who exhibited i 
talent is this specitJity in 1850, at Pesth. After rnii 
fold trials, he discovered a composition which msjl 
made at any time into curled or friszled yarn. ^ 
frizzled threads surpass in fineness not only the fin 
cotton, but even a single cocoon thread, and they spH 
at the same time almost as soft and elastic as silk list. 1| 
woven glass flock wool has quite recently been un^ 
a substitute of ordinary wool wrappings for p*u<H 
suffering from gout, and its use for this pnrpow a 
been, it is stated, successful. Chemists and apothe(^ 
have found it useful for filtering. The smooth thr« 
are now woven into textile fabrics, which are made in 
cushions, carpets, table-cloths, shawls, necktii-s, cw 
collars, and othex garments, &c. They may be ni«dt 
weaving the figures in brocaded silk or velret. A« 
material for fancy dresses, tapestry, for cofering fu" 
ture, for laces, embroidery, hosiery, Ac, the gl*«« V** 
will probably, at some future time, occupy « promiD«i 
place. Owing to its brilliancy and ihe splendour o( i' 
colours, it is the most l>eautiful material for drewini w 
hair, neck, and head. In s<»ftness, the glass yarn awa 
approaches silk ; and to the touch, it in like ibe db^ 
wool or cotton. It possesses remarkable strength; «^ 
it remains unchanged in light and warmth, and w nj^ 
altered by moisture or acids. Spots may resilily *^ 
removed by washing. Being non-mflainmable snl^ 
combustible, it is especially valuable for making •«* 
materials for ladies. Clothes of glass fabrics arn moc 
warmer than those of cotton or wool ; at the sanw tjiw 
they are of low specific Rravity. Thev are al»>**"^ 
for veils, as they repel the dust remaikably ^"' . ^l 
composition of the material is still a secret w4w 
spinning requires extrordinary "dexterity and *f"*v 
attention. This part of the business is said to w ver 
trying to the sight. It is sUted that, with a whwi ' 
a diameter of five Austrian vanls, one 0Ff*J"f. 
able to spin 3 000 yards per minute. The cloth [^^^ 
is equal to about eleven dntchms avoir'lupois) tf »"'" 
2 florins 93 cents, gold. Some manufitctures of gta« 7*^ 



JOUHNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 24, 1873. 



173 



«n rii li the fonowing prices : — Bedouin taasals from 
^tek; Mgle fiMthers from la. 6d. to 38. 6d. ; oetrich 
tn^ ftom 8l to 8«. ; bonqaeta, 3f. ; coffa, 68. 6(1. ; 
yarn Mcktiea, 28. to 188. ; gentlemen's necktiet from 
:ji to k 9d. ; watoh-chains from la. to 48. ; chignons 
tioakto 188.; triainingB, la. 6d. and npwarda per yard; 
Ikiia' cloths from 6d. to 9d. per jmrd ; ladi*^' hata from 
1 V 6i to £3. In oonclasion, we mar atate that the 
iataka Minuter of Commerce has already orgnniaed 
c^xJi for glaai-spianing in the principal aeata of glaaa 
aoiitetare in Bokemia. — Journal of Appli$d Science. 



THE SILKWORM IN JAPAN. 

T^ Itiltan silkworm breeder, Chiap«)llo, who was 
iukf eoftblcd to travel in Japan, and visit the ailk dis- 
Kto of Boihio, seldom entered by Europeans, publishes 
t« mt«re8tiog particulars in the Moniteur d$* Soits. 
i^u^ vtt greatly aurpriaed by the almoat complete 
»ui (tf nralborry treea. AU mulberry plantationa in 
Ikrt 8ik*prodiKtng prorince are hedgea formed along 
iri^itioQ canals, sixty to aeventy centim&trea distant 
bo (Mb otiiar ; the single bushes are separated by u 
b^tuKe of from forty to fbrty-fl re centimetres. Great 
aniittkeain properly manuring and watering theae 
^«^ tin the fifth year. The Japaneae couMcler 
k kves firooi boshas four to five years old the best 
^fcirtboie worms which are preserved for propa^i* 
^ ecptdally for those coming from the region 
Mevl by the rivers F'aquama and Sirostaz. Besides 
k wmI msaore from the land generally, they give to 
■b bwh from time to time a few spoonfuls of finer 
Mp^ especially one prepared from a finh guano. 
m colour of the eggs ia said to be influenced by the 
bJ of mtnore osed; the latter, as well as the degree of 
touii&g, ii also stated to affect the produce. This 
^utecue uto the food of the silkworm is a striking 
wi in the silkworm culture of the Japanese, which 
**Mti iharply wiUi the careleasness practised in this 
^*ct b^ £aropean growers. The same care is 
^>*rt^ m choosing animals for propagation, and a 
K^a^hod is employed for selecting the strongest, 
^^0^ in temporarily exposing the cocoons to the 
■i»nee of eold, whereby the w<*aker ones naturally 
U(^. Another characteristic in J < panose silkworm- 
^"^ ii that twice the room is given to each worm 
^ » lUuwed for it in Europe. The detection of 
■»)»4 laioali is also worthy of notice. If a reddish 
h^i *t>petn on the head, the worm is killed. Some 
tin-tibtfe for centuries been famous for the excellence 
« liwr dkvonns, snd their eggs are largely used in 
"^^'F»psgation.--Xa/»ia>irf JFater, 



THE "RAMIE PLANT." 

^^ -^nr York Sun gives an account of the " ramie 
f*^' to the cultivation of which considerable attention 
^^'« being pjud by the planters in some parts of the 
J 'y- Thii plant grows well in Florida, Georgia, 
J**i Cwolini, and, in fact, almost nny where from 
^^ W degrees, southward to the Gulf of Mexico. 
' Ifaoisna some of the planters are replacing the 
J^-uae with ramie, which does not require replant- 
^'itntada comparatively little labour in cultivation, 
H^sttiU BO great exp^nsH for machinery to prepare it 
^^'^ So Car as known, it has no insect enemies, 
**** w less balky and more easily transported than 
r^ *sd it is sure of a ready aale at remunerative 
r^ At present the fibre sells in England for 240 
r^Ptttoa of 2,000 lb., or 8f c. per lb. Ramie, which 
^ laova IS Chinese grass, is a plant of the nettle 
F^t tad grows spontaneously in Britiah India, 
JrJ'^a'a, Mid other eastern countries. The fibre, 
^"^ "*BS its eommercial product, is the inner bank of 
* *««, aad when exposed to view by separation from 



the husk, presents a brilliant pearl-white lustre. Accord- 
ing to the Sun, this fibre is longer and more uniform 
than any other except silk ; it is stronger and more elastic 
than hemp or -flax ; takes colour as wedl as a good quality 
of silk ; and when properly perpared from the raw 
material may be spun into fine yams, suitable for mixing 
with wool in the manu&icture of delaines, worsteds, and 
other light fabrics. Without admixture it can be woven 
into £abrics which, it is said, will surpass the finest linens 
in beauty, strength, and durability. The ramie fibre has 
also a felting quality superior to either fur or wool. 
Most of the ramie now s«nt to market is very imperfectly 
prepared, the fibre being generally mixed with frag- 
ments of the outer bark, which injures its appearance, 
and lessens its marketable value. This is probably the 
result of inexperience, and the want of suitable appliances 
for cleaning ic. Improvements are required to be made 
in the present imperfect methods of preparing that fibre, 
and Uien producers will realise much higher prices for 
their crops. 



CO&EESPONBENCB. 



THE SULPHUR DEPOSITS OP KRISUVIK, 

ICELAND. 

Sir, — The compiler of the Journal of yesterday's date 
must have been as much puzzled how to word the report 
of the proceedings on Wednesday evening last as i am 
to understand it, for, though present, I did not hear the 
excellent paper read which is given at length in the 
Journal, nor do I think that more than a tenth of the 
information which it contains was brought before the 
meeting ; but I believe that the whole time was occupied 
by experiments showing how the deposition of the 
sulphur might have been effected. 

As I happen to have been for some years concerned in 
the working of some of the Sicilian sulphur mines, to 
which reference is made in the Journal, I have made 
several trips to the island, and have spent some months 
there, and had some of the statements in the printed 
paper been made at the meeting I should certainly have 
taken the opportunity, offered by the Chnirman, of dis- 
cuiising them, and should have brought forward some 
facts to show that the conclusions drawn by the author 
of the paper were based upon incomplete data, so far as 
Sicily was concerned. — ^I am, &c., 

W. Shxlford, M. Inst. C.E. 

7, We>tmlnster-chamberK, London, S.W., 
ISth Jmnuarx, 1873. 



SiE, — I notice in the account of Mr. Vincent's lecture 
some remarks which, escaped my attentitm on Wednes- 
day evening, concerning the similarity of origin between 
the sulphur deposits of L^eland and those of Sicily. This 
similarity in mode of formation is a point which seems 
to me very doubtful. The Icelandic bed described by 
Mr. Vincent is one now forming at the surface of the 
earth, and is very similar to that of the well-known 
solfatara no-tr Naples, where sulphur is daily being 
deposited by fumaroli, as at Krisuvik. only on a much 
smaller scale. The Sicilian sulphur, and that of the 
Romagna, appear to be of subaqU'-ous origin, and the 
sulphur scams are probably old l>ike bottoms. This is 
inferred to be the cast* from the perfect stratification, not 
only of the beds accompanying the sulphur, but also in • 
many cases of the eulphur seam itself, and again frt>m 
the fossils they contain. 

The mode of deposition, however, does not affect the 
commercial value of the sulphur beds in Iceland; indeed, 
it is of course better to have such a rich bed as Mr. 
Vincent describes near the sur&ice than a seam with 
only 20 per Cfut. of sulphur, as in Sicily, at some depth 
underground. — I am, &c., 

Clxhsnt Lb Nbvb 'J'""-'^" 



m 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jahuary 24, 1873. 



DR. TIDVS LBOTUREa 

Bni, — ^I think a note should be made that there ia an 
inaccnracy in Dr. Tidy's lectare, printed in jour Jottnuil 
(p. 118), in that patt which follows the description of 
** short sight.*' It is even now a common mistake, and 
it is ▼ery important that it shoaH be qnite abandoned. It 
is hardly yet rooted oat of popolar handbooks, and it 
spreads amonj^ them as if there were nothing to check 
its g^wth. The error to which I allnde is the confusion 
of hypermetropia with presbt/opin. And it is not an 
innocent error, for it leads somn people still to conclude 
that as a young person cannot have presbyopia he can- 
not want convex glasses, whereas the want is very 
common and very argent indeed, even in childhood. 

The following extracts from the lecture to which I 
refer apply to hypermetropia : — ** The eye too fiat, or the 
eye-bdl too shsllow, just the reverse of (myopia) what 
we have been considering" — ^rays (generally) would 
oome to a focus behind the retina." 

And these to presbyopia : — *' Th'e lens .... not .... a 
sufficiently good refractor .... impaired accommodative 
power .... from, perhaps, most often a less yielding 
state of the lens .... the person holds his book a long 
way off to bring the point of intersection more forward." 

In either case *' we use a convex lens in order to bring 
the rays upon tiie retina, in front of where the focus 
otherwise would fall," but under quite different circum- 
stances. Dr. Tidy only mentions presbyopia in con- 
nexion with the extracts I have made from his printed 
lecture, but this disease is not the reverse of myopia, nor 
are presbyopic eyes necessarily flat or the eye-balls 
shallow. Hypermetropia is a congenital defect, whereas 
presbyopia, of coarse, is a disease of old age. 

I am« kc, J. F. STBaixvuLD. 

U, Upptr Brook-ttrMt, W. 



PHORMIUM FIBRE; OR, NEW ZEALAND FLAX. 

Sir, — In my letter to you of 27th July, 1872, pub- 
lished in your Journal of 2nd Aagost, 1872, and in my 
leiter of 23rd Norember, published in your Journal of 
December 6th, 1872, I drew attention to the above- 
named valoable colonial fibre, as also to some of the 
uses to which it had been applied in connection with 
textile manufactures. Since that date I have had yams 
Mid doths made in other places than Arbronth, and so 
soon as they come to hand I wiH send some samples to 
the Society, so as to mark the progress which is still 
being made ; but in the meantime I think it advisable 
to send h few samples of articles already manufactured 
from the Phormium fibre, so that any who may still be 
sceptical as to the adaptability of this fibre to ordinary 
purposes, may satisfy themselves of its usefulness by 
personal examination of the accompanying samples : — 

1. Is the ** native dressed " fibre. 

2. Coarse long leaves and fine leaves of the plant, 
grown in New Zealand. 

3. Brown fibre, extracted from the coarse leaves. 
Finer fibre, extracted from the fine leaves by me. 

4. A piece of rope, made by Messrs. Frost, Brothers, 
forme. 

5. Two pieces of cloth, made from yeccn. First attempt 
by Mr. Forbes to spin Phormium fibre. First attempts 
by Messrs. £. Parkw and Co., to weave Phormium fibre 
yam. 

6. Two pieces of cloth, showing how well the Phor- 
mium mixes with Ri^a flax. The proportions here are 
25 per cent. Phormium and 76 per cent. Riga. 

7. Strong canvas, pure Phormium fibre. 

8. Coarse sheeting, pure Phormium fibre. 

9. Sacking cloth or wool pack, pure Phormium fibre. 
The yam made from the tow of fibre prepared for rope- 
making. 

10. Light sacking, pure Phormiam fibre. The yam 
made from rather fine tow. 



II. Brown twill cloth, pure Phormiam. Tarn 
from fibre, similar to the finer fibre, in sample No. 



12. Scotch twilled sheeting 

13. Lineo 

14. Damask towelling 



Theee are made 
from Phormiam, i 
drsised. Sapplu 
Dr. Ff 

8aiiq>leNo. 1. 

15. Damask towelling, entirely of Phormium fl 
The weft from my fibre. Sample No. 3. The % 
frtmi native dressed. ^ 

As I before explained, nntQ I met Mr. Forbetj 
efforts to get the Phormium fibre span were onsucce^ 
for although many gave me favourable opinions o^ 
usefulness of the fibre for rope and twine, they ns 
all expressed adverse opinions as to its ever b 
adapted to textile purposes. The sacking or wool i 
is perhaps the most interesting to the New Z-^ 
colonist, as it is easy of production, and does not req 
any special alteration in exis^ag machinery. 

Hoping theee specimens may be the means of tnd 
the pnbhc generally more acquainted with the f 
mium fibre, and thus benefit oar New Zealand colon 

I am, &c, 

C. Thob3< 

If, MarkJsae, London, Jan. 90th, 187S. 

[The specimens may be seen at the Society's rooa 



OBITVART. 



lonvsl Bobert Orsret, late M.P. flor Liverpc 
The Society of Arts, in common with Liverpool nii< 
public at hurge, have had a special loss in Mr. Or 
He was specially disting^uished by his clear -view 
mastery of the true principles of railway refon 
postal telegraph reform, as well of the lending prin^ 
affecting the prosperity of our mercantile marine, tf 
stated &at only his pre-occupations for the time oi 
latter question had prevented him taking an active 
during Uie last Session in support of the prim 
advocated by the Society for putting the ocean, 
graphs on the footing of the inland postU telcsg^ 
and his special aid on that question during the px 
session was anticipated. He held to the opinion tl 
was essential to the improvement of those means of 
munication that they should be plnced on a p 
footing. He would have agreed that it woai 
practicable on that footing to reduce the C(»< 
the transit of goods and passengers by one^l 
and of ocean messages by more than one-half, and. 
too, with a surplus in aid of the revenue, and thtt^ 
foreign trans>ictions would be accelerated to a 
extent by weeks and months, and colonial sooi*^ 
would be actively maiatnined. It has been sof^ 
that the electors of Liverpool, of whatsowr po^ 
party, would at the time consult their own welfare 
what is due to a great commercial city, by aeeW 
successor to him of special capacity and waighft^ tc3 
aid on those great neutral questions. 



Mr. Joseph Knott, of the firm of Knott aa^ 
steel maoufaotorers, of the Hifrhfleld StMlWntk*, ta 
tentad an invention for eoonomismir fuel and pf ^p 
smoke. The patent onnsints of brimnng together tw«» ^ 
pherio prtsMures, which meet in the firs, and cr«sls» it 4 
a perfect oombostioa. 

The American cotton crop of 1872 ^rill 
Bidmnbly exoeni that of last ynur. Thf. aona^e this ^ 
8.666,604, an inoTMise of 946.306 mtm ov«r lavt yciar! 
avemge yield per aom lai*t }ear wan 386 of a b«l«, r 
thfl total yield 2,974,361 bales. At this rate the orop ^ 
3,290,000 bales. 



JODBFAL OF THB SOOIBTrT OP ABTff, JJihuabt 2^ 18TS. 



176 



OMBBAL VOTB& 



taiiilr tf KQiis tfe* OMtOBlMtiMi^It am)6Mi' 
B A Smm ytftt OmX in maar oomoMaM of theCtBtao. 
iav, pirtl7 OQ •o&iODl of tbe itaitiBg of new ebeete 
^\»id partlj in oonaeqaenoe of Urge qoantitiea being 
kkN< fee eo ifai M tin n, milk is amntij to bo had for 
trnt^M pnpoNt at any prioe. Tbe goTenunant council 
»^««fanrcMnkBOMd tha Dipa^aant of FVilttkal 
umj 10 iavMCigata tba 



iiv WwiMif RMiM.— MM . Samal and Barowon 
to flMaUnMoBtid, Bija tba Ckrmiqm4$VIndmtri$^%, 
»Mbodof blaiebi^ aaiaal taiitila fabrics by oiaans of 
M« iihtHa of tbt solphnrets of sodiooi and potaasium. 
iwt pwdactt ict ia a rsiiikabls manner in reworing tbe 
^iipnpviagalk and in saonriagwiMl. In pradioe, 
ibant<aie,thebatbtb«ild ba-boUtng^; in tba aeeun^ 
L ?"**"" "* ^ ^ alkaMne anlpbnret abonld not exceed 
I ^ftoetat Tba mnre difficolt it may be to remoTe 
IpamiptfpMa tba silk, tba la»8 tha solnHon abonld 
nlphucdad ; in aoma inataaota tba protoaalphnval 
irkiaplc^ TbainvantorsbaTeal^ouied, inthaaame 
■w, tkt ilamnate of aoda and potash. 

6t iNpiM of tha St. Qotluurd Pats.— From a cir- 
br poMiM by tba gnTammant of tbe Canton Ticino, 
IidtnMd lo tba other Swiaa oantoog, it appeara that 
luabtr ol poor traTellen who received aMisUnce at the 
rnoftfae^ Oothud b«t««en the 1st October, 1871, 
I HS^fMcmber. 1872, waa 8,160. These perM>n8 reoeiTed 
Ku ruifD* ol food and anch articles of dothinir aa were 
pr*d Ihttolal ezpendimre amoonted to 9,974 '60frs., 
»»npto«o<nmtiBg to 9,870*4X)fn., showing a deficit of 
^ hi this hospice has no fnnds of its own, the 
> «/ nlifffiag poor travalleia is to a certain extent re- 
• ad it dcpsads chiefly on a small gnat from the 
TidM sad private oontrihnturs. 

' Cuil tefw.— The repurchase of the State canals 
L^ ^i***™ foTwnment seems now to be completely 
The Opimwtu of B'ime statea that on the 24tb a 
« «w Mgmd at FlfireDca between the Italian 
J»« O^npeay, represratMl by the President, the Com- 
i^Cmoti, and Gtivemment by the Ministers S«»)la 
[wpoh, bj whinh the Canal Cavour, and other canals 
^»cto Uw company, will beooiue the property of the 
nt enet onoditiuoa have not aa yet been made 
I Mi it it Med that tha ahaiehi»ldera will receive five 
fotM in exchange for theirsharea^ to tha valne of 
J***"! per aanum, aqaal to 3^ per cent, on tbe 
wt Qipital of 25,000,000 franca, so that each share 
l** '"*• ^'* ** exchanged for renttf yielding a yearly 

tetting. — ^Thia hnaioetB has always been 

hainaO nnmber of hands, and though there are 

<*!'■• in London, tha bulk of the work is per- 

7tb Ditch aft Am^rdam. The master cutters 

itvojwsrsof woodarful pro sp er i ty, which the men 

^■•IvBd to shnrK. We hi-ar f hat workmen refuse 

■pfteuUen, and are ounstantly insisting on a rise 

vova pay ; And it is said that ordinary j<»nmeymea 

>•» enniiifr £io, and more skilled bands JB20 par week, 

■•art. Ths cbatg^ f«r cutting are now aa much aa 

^?"^«a Iha weight of tha rough otaae, instead of 

tT|*> The maeiipiily the oottefs poaaasa is being 
^ MMt of by them, and the workman now oftvn 
\^„ ?L^ ^""^ •nu>M stones at any price. The 
g^^^ootting variea acoordiag to the shape of the 
>Bd it frv^inently happi>na that in order to 
or^ot, andao pniduoe a more perfect brilliant, 
■■* advisihie to cut away large pieces from the 
M^^ Wook : thsM cnttiors ars called " cleavage," 
J^P^ stODes are valuable, aa they are eaaily made 
^brilH Mti or noa diamonds. Tba practice of 
Jf*^*^*"** ^f^ aa to tha elaavagp, aome keep- 
k^J^^wewonld cttttinfrs off cli>th sent to him to 
2{ *yh oth ers are eonfici>*ntiiius enough to return it 
^■■■d els s ver oi«nmsnds far high<>r wages as a 
"^ * nw Mttter or pidisber, aa na his judgment 

ths fonn and lisa of ths 



Xillvayi in It^aad SwitMrlaad. — ka Italian writer 
on political economy, in comparing the indnstry and oom- 
knsroe of Italy -and* Switxerlaod, atatea that, in 1871, in the 
latter country thafe were 1,391 kils. of railway open to traffic, 
yieklmg a groas annual rsvenus of 39,234,689 nrs., end that 
at thia rata Italy ahould have. 13,960 kils. of line» with 
392,000,000 f ra. gross revenue. Instssd of this, Italy has 
only 6,425 kils. of railway, with a grosa rtvenua of 
107,915,562 fn. 



I 



Tndnitrfri »■■■— a IHkB.— The NatioBal Indus* 
trial Aasoeiatfon ate now making great efforts to establiah 
aa indnslrial mwenmat Milan, in coenes tto nwith the aohool 
for industrial drawiagv and aoomonssion baa been appointed 
for the puf poe e of promoting thia undertaking, end to pro- 
vide the aam^ea and models, fte., rsquirsd in such sn 
establiahment The exhabilion to be held in tha coming 
antamn at Milan, by this sasocistion, is alieedy anno nno ed 
to be devoted m *« tbe history of Ubeur," sad not, ss waa 
ststsd in a foranrnmbsrol thia / sw rea/ » teambgace silk and 
other manufaptnrss, 

Wnrtambnrg Sehool. — We learn firom tha School 
Board Chronicle that in Wurtemhurg, a kingdom with a 
population eoualling two-thirds of ths population of London, 
there are, chiefly nutintained at the expense of the State, aa 
many elementary schools ^m parishea ; as auxiliaries to these 
there are 450 industrial schools, 523 farming schools, and 108 
trade schools, in which lads of twelve and upwards are fitted 
for husbandry and handicrafts. There are 76 industrial 
academies, a great agricultural college at Hohenheim, a great 
building-tradps college at Stutgardt, and a polytechnic imi- 
vOTsity at Stutgardt. 

Curious Xnsieal Iiiitnimtntt« — ^A curious collection 
of musical instruments has beenpreeentedto the Conaervstoire 
of E'aria by M. V. Scboiloher, a member of tha National 
Assembly ; it consists of forty-nine articles, few of which are 
known in Europe. Amongst others may be noted: — A 
Darbouhahf a drum with an earthenware body, a twoostringed 
violin, formed of a calabash and copper caatinets, used for 
the dsnoes of thn Alm^, in Egypt; sn Arab shepherd's 
pipe, made of an Egjotian reed, and resembling a bautbois ; 
a mandoline of gn^t beauty of form, used hy thM bayaderaa 
of Smyrna ; a Uarab quio'qma^ formed of strawplat ; a yoiof 
in wood, and anoUier from nayti, made of tin and coloured ; 
an instrument resembling a anuill harp, in bamboo ; Merinan 
flute and small guitar ; a long Carab E<rfiaa harp, made of 
bamboo; a viohn with a carved head, U8<^ to accompany 
modem Greek rhapsodies ; a Greek shepherd's flute ; a large 
carved harp with twelve choHs ; a very curious instrument 
called an auduigtu^ a drum from Gambia, three feet hisrh, 
and upon which the mnsioian sits and beats with both handa ; 
large guitars ('T banj«is) made on calabsshes, with five and 
six strhigs, from Gambia, Senegal, and Gabon ; a flute from 
the last-named coantrv; flntea or bautbois, made of various 
reeds, and a variety ocf drums from Senegambia. 

Pftftn in th* Boston Ftre^ — Curious results, says the 
EnginefTy have followed some of the experiments made upon 
charred p a p e rs and doouRisnta, aad theexaminationaof books 
in safea which proved worthlesa in ths great firs at Boston. 
It has been found that what paper-makers call poor paper, 
paper considerably '^clayed,'* stood the beat test Farch- 
ment paper, used for bonds and legal documents, shrivelled 
up exceedingly, and Uie print blistered so that it could be 
read when wrttingwaa illegiUe. So it waa with the engraved 
work on notes. The gilding on the account hooka bumed, 
and charred showed out as bright and clear aa when the books 
wers new, which brings up the question if to inlroduoe gilt> 
edged account hooka would not be well, on the ground that 
the gilt would stay the psssage by firs of the pagea wtthin. 
Books crammed into a aafe, so that it waa difllcult to gat 
them out, sufiered considerably less than those that were sat 
in Imisely, and in some cases came out from safes in which 
everything else were worthless, so far preserved that the 
figures on their piges » uld be deciphered. With charred 
papera, which could not be made tranaparent by any Ugfat 
whatever used, it was found, after the employment of vitriol, 
oxalic acid, chalk, frlyoerine, and other things, that anything 
that moiataned them to a certain atage— to which it was 
ddicats work to get aad not paao— made the Unas, wofds, and 
figurea legible through a magnifying glass* It hss been the 
almost universal experience that lead pencil marks show out 
all riirht where ink marks cannot he distinguished. The 
sneosss of the use of nhotography has already bean noted. 



176 



JOUBNAL OP THE 600IETY OP AETS, Janiubt 24, 1878. 



OtnAdian Graphite.— Some exceedingly fine Bamples 
of grapbite are on view at St Clement's-hoiiM, imported hj 
Mr. Harvey. They ftre from a minend property near the 
vilUge of Backingbam« on the River de Liviere, a tribntary 
of the Ottawa, in Canada, and which, from the appearance of 
these specimens, should be one of the richest in the world, 
as certainly nothing: equal to Uiem has been seen in this 
country, that we are aware of, since the famous Bussian 
plumbago blocks shown in the Oreat International Exhi- 
bition of 1862, hv M. Alibert The lodes on this Canadian 
property are said to be fourteen in number, some of them 
six feet to ten feet in width ; and, aooording to the report of 
Mr. Henwood, at least 6,000 tons could he annually raised 
from tbem. One of the specimens shown measures 2 feet 
by 16 inches by 4 inches, although it is now considerably 
less than it was by reason of fragments broken away. The ore 
has been assayed by Messrs. Johnson and Sons, and found 
to contain 97 ^.cent. of plumbs^. In addition to the veins 
of pure grapmte, the mountain m which they exist consists 
of a sort of gneissio rook, in which plumbago is largely 
disseminated, Uie rock yielding, when crushed and washed, 
10 to 60 per cent of that substance. It is stated that 10,000 
or more tons could be raised yearly from this source. 



NOTICES. 



SITBSOBIPTIOirS. 

The Christmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed ** Ck>utt8 and Ck>.,'' and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
Officer. 

BSP0BT8 Oir THB LONDOIT IHTEBKATIOirAL 
EXHIBITIOir OF 1872. 

The reports which appeared in the last volume of 
the Journal on the various sections of the above 
Exhibition, are now published complete in a 
pamphlet form (price 2s.), and can be obtained 
at the office of the Society. 

THE USEABT. 

The following works have been presented to the 
Library : — 

Transactions of the Institation of Naval Architects, 
Vol. 13, presented by the Institution. 

The Euphrates Vtdley Route to India, a paper read by 
W. P. Andrew, F.R.G.S., before the British Association, 
1872. Presented by the Author. 

New Zealand Exhibition, 1865. Reports and Awards 
of the Jurors. Presented by P. L. Simroonds, "Eaq, 

The Colliers' Strike in South Wales : its cause, pro- 
gress, and settlement, by Alex. Dalziel. Presented by 
tiie Author. 

Patents and Patentees of Victoria, Vol. 1 to 4. Pre- 
sented by the Government of Victoria. 

Abstracts of Specifications of Patents, applied from 
1854 to 1866, Ac to Bu. Presented by the Goyemment 
of Victoria. 

Kos. 16 to 19 of the Reports of the Science and Art 
Department. (Two copies.) Presented by the Depart- 
ment* 

ORDDTABT XBSTDIOS. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o*clock. The fol- 
lowing moetmgs have been arranged. 

Jakvart 29.— '*0n Guilds and their Functions." By 
John Tbats, Esq., LL.D. On this evening Thomas 
WsBSTsm Esq., Q 0., wUl preside. 

Fbbrvart 5.— 'On Ships for the Channel Passsffe." 
By lieut-Col. A. Stbakob, r.B.8. 



OARTOB LS0TUBS8. 

The second course of these lectures, rix., sev 
'' On tiie Energies of the Imponderables, ^ 
especial reference to the Measurement and Utili 
tion of them," will be delivered by the B 
Abthtjb Bigo, M.A., on the following evenii 
at eight o'clock : — 

LscTUBS I.— Monday, Febkuabt 3sd, 1873. 

On the Sources, Inter-relations, and Measurement] 
Energies — Units of Measurement. 

Lbctubb II. — Monday, Fsbruaby 10th, 1873. 

On the Energy of Gravity, with especial referenc 
the Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Lbgturb III. — Monday, FsBmuAitT Uth, 1873, 

On the Energy of Vitality, with especial refert^no 
the Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Lbctubs IV. — Monday, Fsbbuahy 24tb, 1873. 

On the Energv of Affinity, with especial refereno 
Suggestions for Estimating and Utiliung it. 

Lbctubb V. — Monday, Mabgh 3bd, 1873. 

On the Energy of Electricity, with especial refeK 
to the Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Lbctubb VI. — Monday, Mabch 10th, 1873. 

On the Energy of Light, with especial reference Xc 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Lbctubb VII. — Monday, Mabch 17th, 1873. 

On the Energy of Hent, with especial reference tc 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Members are entitled to attend these Icct 
free, and to admit two friends to each of tl 
Tickets for this purpose are issued with this Jow 



XBSTDIOS FOB THB BHSTTDTO WEBX. 



Kov. ...Bodsl Sdenoe Assooiatioii, 8. Mr. 

the Folif7 of PermittiDg Lsads to be bdd by Cox 
tions, or otherwise, on Pen>etaal Usee." 

Ihstitate of Survejors, 8. Mr. W. Stm^es. ** Bta«i 
Notes on the Prires of Agrionltursl rrodvoe, Li 
and Rent, from the early part of the Last Cent 
the P rese n t Time." 

Boysl United Service Institution, 84. Ueot -O 
Strange. FB8., ** Proposed Method of Mou 
Heavy Ordnance at Sea on the pxindple of the Bee 
Saloon." 

London Institation, 4. Pro fe e a or Dancan, **n 
Geography." 

Boral 0<Higraphical Society, 8^. 1. Ilaj.-Ges«r 
Frederick Ooldamid, ''Sistau, with an aeco«xsi 
Joomey from Bander Abbaa to If eibed, throng 
province." 3. The Freeident, ** Note on th* Cos 
tive Oeoflrraphy and Ethnology of Sietan.*' 

Entomologir«j, 7. Annual General Meeting. 

Actoariee, 7. Mr. T. B. Spragne, ILA., to opes 
CQssion on **The 1st, Snd, and 3rd Sohfedoles 
* life Assurance Companies' Act, 1870.' " 

Medical, 8. 

Tubs. ...Medical and Ohimrgieal, 8|. 

CivU Engineers, 8. Mr. John liOxof, •« CylEuiTi 



Columnar Foundations in 
Stonework." 
Boyal Iniititution, 8. Vrat Bothertbrd, "Force 
Motions of the Body." 

Wbo. ...80CIE1 T OF AR 1 8. 8. Dr. John Te«t% '* On 
and their Functions.** 

TBuas...Boyal Institution, 8. Dr. Debus, '* Oxidation.** 
Boyal. 8ft. 
Antiquaries, 8ft. 
Philosophical Chab, S. 

Social Science Assooiatioii, 8. Mr. W. T. B. Bnaue 
the Beorganisataon of our Judicial Qystesn.** 

Fai Boval Institution, 9. Mr . Dannreatber* ** Kni 

Futuje" 
Boyal United Service Institution, 3ft. Major 



'Marches. 



tf 



Bat Boyal Institution, 

FoUtiea.** 



Dr. FttmoMa^ ** Oom] 



JOUBHAL OF THE SOOIETy OF ABTS, Jamvauy 81, 1878. 177 



M^ai^ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

Ko. l,06L Yoh. ZXL 



FRIDAY, JANUARY 81, 1873. 



WJO, 



[TB BT XHB OOUVCIL 



TMmmiwieAL vxAvuiAnoira. 

Tbe Progimiiune of Exaounatioiis in the 
Tedmobgy of the Arta and Manof aotures of the 
u4m^, in reference to which notices have already 
ippeired in the Journal^ is now ready for issue, 
ud Bftjr be had on application to the Secretary. 
Ikae fTMninatiOM will he held annually, in oon- 
jnction with the examinations of the Science and 
in Department, and due notice will be given of 
tlK ptrticolar subjects selected each year. 

lo 1673 Examinations will be held in tiie 
tochnobgy of Cotton, Paper, Silk, Steel, and 
Ctrriage-bmlding. Candidates, in order to obtain 
ttztificstes in any of these subjects, must pass the 
cmninations of the Science and Art Department 
& oertain sciences, which are specified in the pro- 
pvzisie as bearing upon the particular art or 
T jn nf s ctu re. In addition to these, special papers 
*iQ be nt in the technology of each manufacture 
^ euiaiaers appointed by the Society of Arts, 
■od certificates of three grades will be awarded : — 
** Haoore," " Advanced,'* and "Elementary." 

Theexaminationa ol the Science and Art Depart- 
■cit will be held during the first three wedu 
^ Hty, the technological paper being worked on 
tbe eiaiiig of the 17th May. The dates of the 
^^^icoit tabjecta are given in the Science Di- 
'^^^^t poUidied by the Science and Art Depart- 



'^ following Prizes are offered by the Society of 
^inesfih of the five subjects moitioned abvoe : — 

To the best candidate in Honours, £10. 

To the best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 

T^thehest candidate iniheKletnftntary Grade, X<^. 

I& order that these Examinations m^y really be 
■TBiMfiil in promotjng t>echnical education in this 
^*tiy. it is desirable that enoouaiieiDeBt diould 



^ given to candidates by the offisr of additional 
B&es snd schohirships. With this object the 
^^mtdl appeal to the C<Hnpanie§ of the <Xty of 
l^doQ, to mercdiants and roanufaotmars, and to 
•tt»hBn of the Society general]/, to Hid fb«ni 
l>T€QQtrihiitingto the priaa fond. 



The Council invite tiie aid of masters and man- 
agers in promoting these examinations by encour- 
aging their workmen to take advantage of them. 
An explanatory handbill, suitaUe for being sus- 
pended in factories and woikshops, may be had on 
application to the Secretary of the Society of Arts, 
Adelphi, London, W.C. 



PBIZX vol ilEBL. 

1. The Council have resolved to award the Gold 
If edal of the Society to the manufacturer who shall 
produce and send to the London International 
Exhibition of 1873 the best collection of specimens 
of steel suitable for general engineering purposes. 

2. The specimens exhibited must include a com- 
plete illustration of the applications of the varieties 
of steel submitted. 

3. Each manufacturer should send with his 
specimens a statement of the nature of the tests 
he has applied to each kind of steel submitted, and 
give the results of such tests. 

4. The samples tested cure to be exhibited 
together with duplicate samjdes, or portions of the 
same samples ; these will be submitted to tests 
should the Council consider it desirable. 

5. The Council reserve to themselves the right 
of withholding the premium, in the event of the 
specimens exhibited not being suffidenUy meii- 

m ■ 

UfBTlTUTIOVS. 

The following Institution has been received into 
Unnm since the last announcement : — 

Watford, Pablic Library and School of Science and Art. 



PBOCEEDIVGS OF THE SOCIEIT. 



SI0HXH MMVABT XBBllVe. 

Wednesday, January 29th, X873, Thomas 
WSBSXEB, Esq., Q.C., F.B.S., in the chair. 

The ffdlowing Candidates were propoted for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Davies, William Henry, 61, Tregunter-roac^ South 

Kensington, S.W. 
May, Herbert, 210, High Holbora, W.C. 
Price, Eev. Newton, Watford. 
Quick, Joaepb, 29, Great George-street, S.W. 
Quick, Joeepb, jun., 29, G^reat Gkorge-street, S.W. 
Sobanschie^ Alexander, 39, Clifton-gardens, Maida- 

▼ale, W., and St Petenburgh. 

The following candidates were balloted for ond 
dnly elected monben of the Society : — 

Baiaes, Harry Culhbeit, M.A., Blapton, near Dardnoor. 
Blnndell, George Thomas, 83, Bonteit-road, B. 
Bhmdfbrd, Maranis of; Blenheim, Woodstock. 
Browne, fi. Macklay, F.G.B., Horthsde, Si JohiTi, 

Sevenoaks. 
Browne, Wm. Morgan, F.B.GJ3., Junior Athensm^ Cliih. 



178 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jahuabt 81, IWS. 



Oonoadden, John F., 24, Holland-park, W., and 33, 

Wellington-ttreet, Strand, W.O. 
Foster, Wm. Robert, 87, Grange-road, Bermondaey, 6.E. 
Givry, "^ctor, 23, Old Bond-street, W. 
Hill« Thomas G., 4, Kensmgton-park-gardens, W. 
lugUs, Bobert William, 26, Weighton-road, South 

]raige-park, 8.£. 
Knight, Charles Joseph, 7, York-toxaoe, N.W^ ind 14, 

Argyll-street, W. 
Lademl, Morel, 13, Oamden-road, N.W. 
Manuel, Bobert, 19, Bt Duustan's-hill, £.0. 
Mappin, Walter 8., 19, Stanley-crescent, Kensington- 

park-gardens, W. 
Palmer, Joseph, F.B.G.8., the Grammar School, Wells, 

Somerset. 
Stewart, P., Middle Temple, RO. 
Stewart, Dr. William, 23, Sackirille-street, W. ; Gordon, 

Kewburgh, N.B. ; and Paraguay. 
THlley, Samuel, 10, Finsbury-plaoe south, E.G. 
Vallentin, James, 56, Cow CrMS-street, E.C. 
Wheeler, John, 4, City-terrace, Peterborough. 

The Paper read was — 
GUILDS, AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 



By John Teats, LL.D, 

The " Guildhall " is one of the most common 
ardiitectaral monuments of our own and of con- 
tinental towns, but the guilds themselves are less 
conspicuous ; indeed they almost elude observa- 
tion. Yet they belong to the longest-lived and 
most time-honoured of the many noble institutions 
bequeathed to us bv our forefathers. They did 
good work in their day ; thev organised industry, 
tiiev accumulated capital, and exercised undoubted 
auuiori^. We may therefore usefully inquire 
how and why they originated, what vidssi^ides 
thcry underwent, what were their characteristics, 
and what the causes of their decline ; lastly, whether, 
in form or in^ function, any of them still survive or 
can be re-animated. If so, from a careful com- 
parison of the circumstances amid which they earned 
their wealth and prestige, with those amid which we 
live and labour, some course of action may perhaps 
suggest itself, calculated at a future tune to 
revive, if not fairly to renew, their dignity and 
popularity. 

Should such be the case, we shall all rejoice ; 
for old friends restored are likely to prove more 
faithful than new friends made ; at any rate, tiiey 
inspire more confidence. And in these days, when 
a feeling of uneasiness pervades society respecting 
overt organisations and secret combinations, 
national or international, it seems to me that a 
resuscitation of the spirit of tibte fatiiers of the 
ancient guilds, as directors and promoters of in- 
dustrial progress, and a re-opening of the portals 
of our great g^dhalls, for other purposes than 
for pomp and festivity, would do mu^ towards 
dispelling commercial anxiety, banishing social 
distrust, and substituting for the shadow the 
substance of a wide-spread and powerful trade- 
union. 

Within the limits of a single hour it is impossible 
to survey the whole field of inquiry before us. I 
purpose taking social and economic points of view 
chiefly, and avoiding the direct influence of the 
guilds on the development of skilled labour. Such 
a course is the more eligible, since I have already 
devoted myself* elsewhere to this important part 

-*^!,r Jf*,^!?^- ^^^ of Commtrot, or tbt DerelopmeDt of 
suited Labov.* YlitM«ndCo. 



of the subject, and indicated the main souroes 
information, ^glish and continental. 

This evening I will refer to few other th 
writers of our own day, and especially to tiie li 
Mr. Toulmin Smith, whose posthumous woi 
edited by his daughter, with a preliminary eas 
by Dr. Lujo Brentano,* was published in 1870 
the Early EngUsh Text Society. 

The first question for consideration is, wbit 
the meaning of the word guild ? 

Different authorities trace the etymology of 1 
word to two distinct sources. Bosworth, wh< 
derivation is most generally accepted, coimecti 
with the Anglo-Saxon Terh geidanygyldan, gM 
to pay ; and the noun geid^ gyld, yield, paynM 
— a word which has other derivates in Danege 
Wergild, and kindred words. The other derivat 
is tliat mven by Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood, i 
says, ** fi is a mistake to connect the word w 
the Gterman geld, payment. The real derivftt 
is to be found in the Welsh gwyl,^ a feast 
hoHday." 

As cognate words Mr. Wed^ood mentions 
Danish and Platt-Deutsch ytlde, feast, oomgu 
and tiie Dutch gtdde, of like signification. VFi 
out attempting to decide between these riews^i 
sufficient here to observe that there is in the fc 
and the connotation of the word itself sofBd 
warrant for either etymology. The guild meml 
were almost universally required to makesti 
lated payments upon admission to the fratern 
and at regular intervals afterwards. They ^ 
also accustomed to meet periodically, and to o 
brate their meetings convivially. To give bi 
single illustration of both points. In the oi 
nances of the Gtiild of Garlekhith, London, it 
laid down that every member " shall give at 
entry, to the common box, vj s. viij d. ;* that i 
member *' shall pay every year, at four time 
once in the vear, ij s. ;'* and that all the mem 
of the brotherhood " shall every year come 
hold together a feast. (" 

But uie origin of the institution is of hij 
importance than that of the name. *' The ftu 
mental idea of the guild was that it was an as 
tion for mutual hdp made by the people tl 
selves, when and as they found the need of it 
j Dr. Bi«ntano says, **The essential nature oi 
1 guild is to be found in the family, and devel 
I there even to the highest degree. **|| Individ 
connected by the ties of kinship, gave to 
other assistance, and shared in common com 
and religious rites. But as society grew, am 
exigencies became stronger, men felt the ni 
sity for a more extensive brotherhood than 
limited circle afforded. Dwellers in the 
neighbourhood, or followers of the same c 
began to band themselves together to n 
tain their independence, and to render 
receive aid when needed. As neighbour 
fellow-craftsmen they recognised and aclc 
ledged their obligations each to each. They u 
for no aggressive purposes ; but to afford a si 



• Thii gratlemftii hat llkewfM wrlitoD *«Dfe Aite<t«rfi.( 
Oegenwart ;- »• Zor Krttik der Enflltohen Oewerk-Vereine, 

•f A oloter ApproxlD>A«ion In f«>nn to oar modern «t>rd i 
found in the >\ eltb gwiedd, henqoet, feut 

t •• Engllfth Onlldi," pp. 3 A 4 In quotinf firm ibt w(^« 
•umtet, the orthography hat been modernlMd, bat the coow 
nf the aenteooei retained. 

\ **En|tHth Guilds'* lnt,p. zz?!. 

D uQa Onilda,** Ao., p. 6. 



JOURI^AL OP THE SOOIBTY OP ARTS, Jahuaet 31, 1873. 



179 



rffEiqni^, 



iMil«tf4Blp, to form what may not inappro- 

MlfballBd a mutual benefit sodety. With 

'iBtiifiBfr all their regolationa were framed, 

b it «U their distinctiye ceremonies pointed. 

, it it verj interesting and important to ob- 

tbt thd guilds originated in na authorita- 

rkpootion, no legislative enactments, but that 

r wuv t DAtuFsl outgrowth of the circumstances 

\ their members found themselves situated 

tbey were " made by the people them- 

, when and as they found need. 

.ij^droamstaDoes point indubitaUy to Eng- 

iMthe birthplace of the guilds.* The earliest 

rl^pl oodes refer to them, and there are still 

'; aBoids relative to the guilds, which prove 

r» sod testify to £e wide-spread and 

lold they had taken amongst our 

The laws of Alfred (ninth century), 

I ftiQ esriier code of Ina, King of Wessex 

I oentory), refer to ihe guilds as institu- 

J^ existing. Stow, the antiquary, says of 

^ikin{j(nmg men's) guild of London, that 

•5 old as the time of Edg^. Domesday 

tnakes mention of two guilds at Oanterbuiy, 

1 i Guildhall, whence the existence of a guild 

^ hf infioenoe, at Dover.f 

ftifl more direct proofs of their early 

» as an English (or Saxon^ institution 

There have beea preservea the guild 

i or regalati<Mis of a guild at Abbotsbury, 

> tad endowed by one Oroy, a nobleman of 

c'l retsnoe, and tiierefore dating from the 

' half of the eleventh century ; of another 

w SsBter ; of a third at Cambridge ; and of 

^h at Woodbury ; — all of about the same 

la addition to these, there exist in the 

atchiTes numerous returns, made by the 

Been, relative to their several fraternities 

t m complianoe' "with an order of one 

Miaments of Bichard 11. Of the euilds 

Bide letoms, one, that of St. John of 

' of the Hanshouse, claims to have origi- 

I ^ twelfth century, having received its 

^>& Thorstan, the Archbishop of York;$ 

I the Kalenders of Bristol, to have existed 

t Ae last (the Norman) conquest of Eng- 

lladds to this, '* the beginning of which 

[id then exceed the memory of men ;*' || 

' that of the Holy Cross of Stratford- 

•ngns its origin ** a tempore cujus 

ttemoria non exLstit" (to a time 

^flie memory of man reacheth not).5| 

| Wi& flgnomi»<, Herbert, in his *' Historv 

^•jJw Great Livery Companies,'* says (vol. 

■iKn is «* little doubt of the Sadlers b^ng 

Anglo-Saxon guild, and consequently 

QA record of all the present livery 

Iftcts may serve to show the antiquity 

• in England. Not less certain is it 
. ^nn tofmdently numerous to give a 
■d to be a characteristic feature of, early 

* English life. Spread everywhere 

*^ p. ix-, Hote 1. 

•Ortldi,- ini., p. XT. H Meq.; Toroei't •• History 
m," vol. ill., p. 96 ; Kemble • *' Saxons in Eng 
I: lock's **Cbaroh oToor F»tbefi,**ToLil., p. 39ft 

dtad. • 

MM. 



I j^fljl_ 



throughout the land, from Berwick to Exeter, and 
from Norwich to Worcester, their periodic festivi- 
ties, their pageants and processions, gave rise, 
according to Canon Bock, to no small part of the 
sports and pastimes which won for our country its 
epithet of ** merrie England.''* Each considerable 
town had many Qxiilds; scarcely a village, however 
small, seems to have been without one or more. The 
volume called the ** English Quilds," already re- 
ferred to, contains twelve returns from guilds in 
Norwich, a like number from guilds in Lynn, nine 
from guilds in Bishop's Lynn, and six from guilds 
in Lincoln. At the tmie of the Bef ormation, when 
the decree for their supwession was sent forth, 
there were ten guilds at Windham, seven each at 
Hingham and Swaffham, and no less than seven- 
teen at Great Yarmouth.t 

It seems dear, then, that from the eleventh oen- 
tury to the sixteenth, the guild was a chu»cter- 
istic institution of the country ; while prior to the 
eleventh century, and «s eurly as the seven^, 
numerous traces of its existence are to be found. 

Two broadly distinct classes of guild existed, 
and were recognised as such, in the eyes of the 
law in England, the social or religious guilds, 
and the craft or trade guilds. So far were they 
considered distinct, that the Parliament already 
referred to caused to be issued two writs, one for 
each class of guilds. Based ultimately on the 
same princinle — ^that of a reciprocal interchange of 
friendlv offices between their members — the two 
diiSered in this — ^that, except when specially insti- 
tuted on exclusive principles (and such ioLstanoes 
were rare), the former were restricted to no one 
class or craft; while the latter, as their name 
indicates, were particularly connected with some 
one craft or bnmch of a craft. Of the two, the 
social guild was the earlier institution; the craft 
guild could not and did not arise until called for 
by the expansion and increased vitality of industry. 
A third species of guild, socially less, but poli£- 
cally more, important than the two already named, 
were the ^uilos-merohant, which '*were neither 
wholly social nor of a craft,"} though in 1389 some 
of them answered to the writ for craft guilds. 

We will first proceed to notice the social guilds. 
Though, as a second title, they have been called 
religious guilds, it would be erroneous to suppose 
that Uiey were in their essential features Qocle- 
siastical foundations. The priest was not excluded 
in his private capacity, but *' the guilds were lay 
bodies and existed for lay purposes. "§ What theee 
purposes were, is graphically depicted in the re- 
turns made by the ffuild officials in 1389. Here 
are set forth their oojeots, their regulations, their 
ceremonies, their property ; some in the language 
of the scholar of tnat age, others in the quaint but 
expressive vernacular of the common people. A 
few quotations may prove of interest. The primary 
reason for its formation is thus ^ven in the 
ordinances of the guild of Qarlekhith. It was 
formed * ' for the amendment of their lives and souls, 
and to nourish more love between the brethren and 
sistren of the brotherhood. "|| So, too, the guild 
connected with St. Stephen's Church, Coleman- 
street, was instituted ** by the good men of Cole- 



• «* Church of our Ftsthen," vol. IL, p. i 
i ** Charch of ciur FAthtrs,** t*>1. li., p. 
t *' English GuUds," Int., p. zxtU. 
I JM,, Int., p. xrrllU 
UiNd-.p. 3. 



418. 
iOS,Note48. 



180 



JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTSJ'AinjABT 81, 1873, 



maa-street, in noarishmff of lore and of oliarit;^ 
amongt^emsehres, and in help to them that fall into 
poreit^.*'* And these are no solitary examples. 
Nowhere are to be found indicationB of aggressive 
puiposes, but everfwho^ tiie clearly expressed in- 
tention of striying after morality of life, and the 
spread of brotheny lore. Religion was invoked 
to hallow and secure the bond of union. Many 
guilds were spedfioally c<nmeoted with an adjaoent 
church. Thus the gmlds of St. Eatherine, and of 
St. Fabian and St. Sebastian were '* founden in the 
chureh of St. Botulf, without Aldrichesgate** 
f A}der8gate).t Their houses or halls, too, were 
frequently in or overlook±ug the churchyard.} In 
this churdi the guild membm periodically attended 
religious services, and provision was made for the 
burning of lights, the chanting of masses, and other 
oo^emonies x>eculiar to the creed of the age. Not 
less regard was paid to the temporal welfare and 
ebjoyment of tiie brotherhood. Common festivities 
were regularly shared in^ Mnple provision was 
made for the sick and poor of the order, tiiose cases 
only being excepted where poverty was the out- 
oome of crime. Nor were they charitable only at 
home. Not a few of the guilds made either per- 
manent or occasional provision for the poor of the 
Tidnity, svniported educational institutions, and 
gave doles for various other purposes. Some ex- 
tended their core to works of a more or less public 
diaraoter and utiHty. They devoted a portion of 
tkeir revenues to the repair and adornment of 
SMired edifices, the erecrticm of schools, the con- 
fitfenietion and repodr of vralls, roads, bridges 
and resting-places for wayf at^nrs, ^e decent burial 
of tiie dead, the recovery of the bodies of the 
drowned, lusntaoaioe in oases of fire asnd shipwreck, 
ti!ie visiting of prisoners, the performance of re- 
ligious isterludee, Ac., fte. A noteworthy feature 
of the guilds was the spirit of " law-abidmgness *' 
whi<^ animated their members. In their (Hxli- 
naaces they express their desire to conform with 
the law of the land, to do not^nng in oontraven- 
tion of tiie king's authority, and to support tiie 
liberties of their town. Fines were instituted for 
unruly members ; expulsion was the punishment of 
the frequent offender. Candidates for admission 
were required to be of a fair character. Litiga- 
tion was checked by a wise ordinance, which often 
iqppears in the guild regulations, that all matters of 
di^mte between members of the same guild should 
be referred in the first imrtonce to the guild 
offioOTS, whose consent was necessary before the 
case could be carried further, after tlieir own arbi- 
tration had failed.§ ^ 

At a time when mumh. discussion is taking place 
08 to woman's proper position in society, it will be 
in te rest in g to notice what our ancestors of ^e 
OMituries or more ago thought, and how they 
acted with regard to this problem in one point at 
least. In a lar^ majority of cases the guild 
members were "brethren asttd sistren." Women 
were not only admitted to sen equal share in the 
^vileges of t^e fraternity, but sometimes even 



• " Obnrchof our F*thori,** vol. It, p. 406, Note 62. 
4 ** EnglUh Omids,** pp. 6 and ». 
t " Chnroh of oar others/* vol. if., p. 436, Note 93. 
i In the Tolome, ** Bng IMi Oolldt,'* smpTe and ooneliBlve etl- 
denoe on all the pohitelren e mi ni e iated may be fonnd. WHh regard 
io the performaooe of religion pUyt, see Canon llof^s wort: 
Iready eited, vol. iL, pp. 43$, Ao. ; and the Ordhunoe of the QtiM 
the Irfvd's Prayer at Tork, **£ngUah GoUds," p. 23». 



took part in its manafi;ement. Clergy and Miji 
rich and poor, were aHke adidssible to the gml(k 
but the members for the most part consisted oi 
" the rank of common and middling folks."* That, 
however, the wealthier and more powerful classes 
were not excluded from at least honorary member^ 
ship, we learn from facts like the following:— thai 
Henry TV, and his grandson were enrolled a^ 
members of the Guild of the Trinity at Coventry j 
and that Henry VIII., his Queen, Cardinal Wols^j 
the Dukes of Norfolk and Buckingham, wtyi 
others of high rank, were members of the Ginld oi 
St. Barbara of St. Katherine's Church, "nexi 

the Tower."t 

The guilds must, no doubt, have varied mnchi^ 
size and wealth. Many counted their members bj 
thousands, notably so the great guilds of S^ 
G^eorge at Norwich and of Corpus Christi al 
York.J: Their wealth consisted of lands, housed 
money, guild and ecclesiastical vestments an^ 
furniture, missals, &c. The returns made by th< 
guild officers as to the possessions of the brotherl 
hoods give generally vmat seem low estimates c^ 
the value of their property, allowance being ma^ 
for the greater purchasing power of money th^ 
when compared with the present time. But pw 
haps a scrupulous exactitude was hardly to bj 
expected when the guilds, as must have been w«| 
known to them, lay under suspicion, and whs 
their wealth was regarded with a covetous eye. 

Each guild was autonomous. Its oificen w^ 
elected annually. There were generally an tl^ 
man, two wardens or stewards, a dean or bea" 
and a clerk, to each guild. The business of 
brotheihood was transacted on appointed d& 
known as " morning speeches," oi which fo« 
were usually held every year. 

How strong a hold this institution had xm 

Engli^ mediffival society may be seen from tl 

length of its duration, which fell Httle shcwtj 

nine hundred years. The guilds were looked nw 

with suspicion at the time of the gj^^^ uprisingj 

the lower orders imder Wat Tyler and otb^ 

leaders. But the government of that time pttow 

at the first step towards their suppression. T| 

second parliament of the year 13^, which satj 

Cambridge, issued two writs, one addressed to U 

social, the other to the craft guilds, requiring frij 

every guild a complete statement of its origin,J 

ordinances, its property and charters, if any W 

been granted it.§ The dynastic struggle whK 

occupied the latter half of the fifteenth oentaj 

gave the guild a renewed lease of life. But ti 

reformation overthrew the social guilds, as it <l 

also the monasteries. By the Acts of PariisnieB 

37 Henry VIII. c. 4, and 1 Edward TI. c. U,^ 

suppression and ^he confiscation of their P^^ 

were decreed. To the enthusiasm of the ^^^'^ 

who saw in them a support to the Romish cre« 

was united the greed of a new nobility, eager 

add this fresh spoil to thewealth they hadacqunj 

by the overthrow of the greater foundations. T 

Act of Henry VIII. gives as a ground for the cd 

fiscation "the maintenance of these pre^ 

(Scotch) wars ; " while that of Edward VI. ha 

• OrdinaneM of the Qolld of St. Mldmel-on-UwHilU l^ 
«*EngUhQulldt,"p 178. 

+ ** Church of oor F»th«r«," toI. II., p. ill, note W. 

J "Bn»lUhOandi,»»Int.. p. XJ3CU . , uw^d 

\A eopy (traotlated) of eMh of these writ! b glnn in i^ 
GoUdB,*' pp. 12T— 131. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, January 31. 1873. 



181 



I §0 ''foadstioii of grammar schools.'* * In 
R rt u<Mit ooimtries the guilds were sup- 
] #tUs epoch ; but the revenues were else- 
^ jHBilN' ftpphed to charitable and educa- 
Mi. Not aU Protestants, however, looked 
Mtisfoction upon the destruction of 
mstttotion. Blomefield, in his** History 
*• my% ** As the poor of the parish were 
ipstikav in ^e jolly doings of the guilds, 
qiM^aoQ whether their revenues were not 
^peottben than they have been since they 
^•aoiiriy seiaed." 
to the social guilds were the ffilda merca- 
' -merchant, or citizen gmlds. They 
i from the social guilds in being confined to 
rpolations, and in t^e political imx>ort- 
•A Aey acquired in their later develop- 
In wbat has not inaptlv been called 
rjywril age of club law, the towns were 
" to the violence of powerful nobles whose 
««fe within or adjacent to the walls, to 
ftvm robbers without, and to oppression 
fte tothorities within. The inhabitants 
to here coalesced with success against these 
of their peace and security ; and as a 
of their success the guild members 
» tiie ruling class, and ** guild law 
the law of the town."t The existence of 
l|nUg may probably be refeired to Saxon 
I ttoQ^ the period of their power did not 
"~ the I2th and Idth centuries. Thus 
Hys, '* If we admire and glory in these 
of popular freedom, firm in success, 
teW defeat, steadfast in council, steadfast 
fdo, steadfast even under the seignorial 
^ in the seimorial dungeon, let us yet 
«v meed of tnanks to ^ose still older 
of the dignity of man, duly honouring 
of the tenth century, who handed 
noUe inheritance to the less fortunate 
of the twelftii. " Again, the same writer,§ 
' <if the tenth-century guilds, says, * ' These 
wUd upon this solemn principle; they 
[w^ bniiheriioodB between man and man, 
■ad fortified upon *ath and wed' 
^pledge), and in them we consequently 
'ne ^erms of those sworn communes or 
\ which, in tlie time of the densest 
r^rtncsSt oflered a noble resistance to 
nd baronial tyranny, and formed the 
of popular liberty." 
of government of the gfuilds-merchant 
r Molations resemble so closely those of 
i>it*^^hat it ia unnecessary here to dwell 
^""liject. At first craftsmen as such were 
1 from the guilds-merchant. Then later 
Iriction that every guild-member must 
^ foil citijsenship of the town, and this 
*p maQy depended npon the possession 
t «r other property of a fixed value within 
Isdictton. The effect of this property 
WW in tbno to exclude the poorer 
d to make the guilds-merchant close 
of the wealthy burgher class. Dis- 
'^png \n>, and struggles ensued. In 
I w twain generally was that the civic 



Ab^ PL 99^. 

*■ Tol. iL, pk. 31X 



'■•■fcject. 



corporations were opened to craftsmen, and thus 
the civic liberties did not at all suffer ; while on 
the continent the craftsmen were aided by the 
sovereigns to overthrow the guilds-merchant ; and 
this accomplished, the story of the horse, who was 
aided by the man to overcome the stag, was played 
over again, with consequences which might be seen 
in the different courses taken by political freedom 
there and in our own cotmtry. 

The powers possessed by the guilds-merchant in 
their best days were, in tiie words of Kemble,* 
** in truth, royal. They had their own alliances 
and feuds, their own jurisdiction, courts of justice 
and power of execution, their own markets and 
tolls, their own power of internal taxation, their 
personal freedom with all its dignity and privileges, 
and to secure these great blessings they had t£eir 
own towers and walls and fortified houses, bell and 
banner, watch and ward, and their own armed 

militia."t 
The second great class of guilds is next to be 

noticed. The craft or trade guilds, as their name 
points out, were societies whose sphere was limited 
to the workers in one ciuft. They were scarcely 
less numerous than the social guilds ; for in most 
towns each trade had its gmld. The Collegia 
opt/teum of Boman times have been hj some re- 
garded as the originals of the craft guild. It has 
been supposed, too, that t^ey had tueir origin in 
those bodies of slave-handicraftsmen, which in 
royal and episcopal burghs were controlled by 
officials appointed by the king or bishop. But 
most probably these unions originated nrom no 
servile source. J While the majority of the crafts- 
men were slaves, the few freemen who followed 
the' various trades were members of the citLEen 
guilds. In the course of time the number of free 
handicraftsmen increased by the infiux into the 
towns of strangers, who had no connexion with 
the existing g^uilds, and by Hie expulsion of the 
poorer guild members as the burgher class increased 
in wealth and power. Strife arose between those 
who held rule in the towns and the numerous 
mechanic class, which was excluded from civic 
privileges. Combination was the only weapon 
wilii which the latter could hope to wage a success- 
ful contest. The principle was not new; examples 
of it existed on every side ; their opponents owed 
their position to combination, and retained it only 
in virtue of their union. To combine was there- 
fore a natural course of action for the ctaftsmen. 
Their success was remarkable both in England and 
on the Continent. Craft guilds began to make 
their appearance between the eleventh and the 
thirteenth centuries, and before the end of the 
fourteenth they had secured an equal share in the 
government of the towns, or had ousted their 
opponents entirely. 

The maintenance of the independence of the 
craftsmen against the wealthy burger class was 
thus the primary raiaon cPHre of the craft guilds. 
But when once firmly established, when their 
struggles had resulted in success, it was natural 
for them to assume the control of the trades 



• ** Ssxons In England,'* toI. H , p. 313. 

f For a fbll enumeration of the powers olalmed by these ooreora- 
tlons, see * Bnfflish Onnds,** pp^ 3T0->412, where will be fonnd 
the ordinances drawn np by the goild merchant of Woroefter, in 
I46f. 

t ** On Guilds,** Ao., p. 60 clJfff. 



132 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. Januabt 31, 1873. 



with which they were severally connected.* This 
they accordingly did, and were at a later period 
established in their assumed powers by royal 
authority. Of these changes a writer already 
quoted saysf : — " The reign of Edward III., the 
great dawn of the fine arts and of commerce, gave 
birth to an entire re-constitution of the trading 
fraternities, which, from now generally assuming 
a distinctive dress or livery, came to be called 
livery companies. The alterations under this re- 
oonstitution were numerous. Aijiongst the prin- 
cipal may be reckoned their change of name from 
guilds to crafts or mysteries, and the substituting 
for the old title of alderman that of master or 
warden. A more important chan^ for the interest 
of the companies was their bemg at this time 
generally chartered, or having t£ose privileges 
confirmed by letters patent, which they had before 
only exercised through sufferance and on payment 
of their fermes,** 

In their form of government the craft guilds 
closely resembled the social guilds. At the head of 
each was an officer known, as Herbert says, at first 
by the, name of alderman, afterwards by that of 
master or Warden. The guild officers were for the 
most part elected by the fraternity itself, though 
sometunes the warden was appointed by the king, 
bishop, or civic authorities. The two species of 
guild had many regulations in common ; as, for 
example, the payments made by the members, the 
provision for sickness, old age, and poverty, the 
common religious ceremonies, and the periodical 
convivial gatherings. Their intimate connexion 
with the various crafts gave, however, a peculiar 
character to some of the ordinances of the craft 
ffuilds. The spirit in which these ordinances were 
Sramed was for the most part a healthy one. They 
were designed to suppress trade frauds ; to ensure 
skill and care in the workmanship ; to secure the 
use of proper tools; to provide for the due re- 
muneration and recreation, and the permanent em- 
ployment of the craftsmen ; to check injurious com- 
petition ; in short, to establish the principle that the 
work done should be a credit to the craft, and 
mutually advantageous to the producer and the 
consumer. It must not be denied, however, that 
some of the regulations were conceived in that 
narrow protectionist spirit which only a deeper 
knowledge of economic philosophy than their ag^ 
possessed is competent to correct. 

A few examples quoted from the old ordinances 
themselves might not be out of place here. The 
fullers of Bristol! assign as a reason for the for- 
mation of their guild, '* to put out and do away 
with all kinds of bad work and deceits, which divers 
people not knowing the craft from time to time do, 
by which defects the town and craft are fallen into 
bad repute in many places, wl;ere the said cloths 
are put to sale, to the great reproach and hindrance 



• In the " Growth and VI itnltodM of Commerce " (p. 376), we 
reed : — "The commoner and more neceswrv trades werj the first to 
form gnilds; »uch wen* weavers and cJothworkes, furriers, llnen- 
WMvers finhmonirers, tailors, riovers, tanners, butchers, and bakers. 
As wealth and luxury Increased, other traden entablished guilds, »uch 
as Jewellers, cooks. confectioneni,irold :»rd 'apestry workers, spectacle 
makers, ol'Ck and wstch'nakers The devotional npirlt, as well as 
thf" passions and vices of the middle ages, gave rise to special trades; 
in this way the patertiosterers. or m kers of roearleii, and the dl e- 
ootteni, were added to the number of gnilds. The numbt^r Taried 
greativ in difTTent towns and countrie*; alUe** crafts, in one place 
united Into a sl-ple cnnipa>iy, were in another 8U» divided " 

+ " History of the Twelve fJreat LI very Companies," vol. 1., p. 28. 

t «' English Gnilds,** pp. 284 <t se^. 



of the said craft.'* Hie regulations fi;o on to 
provide for the apx>ointmentof four sMff<£er8,wbo 
are ** to search every house of the said craft twice 
a week, and oversee all defects in the said dotb, 
if such there be.*' Further on is forbidden a tnck 
of the trade, which consisted in putting a finish in 
Bristol upon inferior cloths fulled in the adjoming 
country districts. Wages are fixed at ** fourpenoe 
a-day from the first Monday in Lent till the Feast 
of St. Michael, and threepence a-day from the 
Feast of St. Michael till the first MondEay in Lent. 
It is also ordained that servants shall be engaged 
for a year. The Tailors* Guild of Exeter* framed 
lengthy ordinances for the control of the craft. 
They fix the rate of wages, and the time of holi- 
days; regulate the number of workmen and 
apprentioBS each master may have ; insist upon all 
the craftsmen belonging to the guild; check 
irregular trading and underhand competition; 
pumsh delinquents by fines, the stocks, and ezpnl- 
sion ; arbitrate between craftsmen and customm, 
&c. Thus, a contumacious member is put in the 
stocks ** by the space of a day and a night." A 
craftsman who ** for lack of cunning ** wasted the 
cloth entrusted to him to be made into a gown, ii 
mulcted in Hie value of the doth. 

When at their highest point, the wealth and powei 
of the guilds were considerable. ' Edward III. wai 
himself a member of the linen Armourers' Guild of 
London. In London and other large towns the guild 
members were sufficiently numeroustoformsepante 
companies of the mimicipal train-bands, marching 
under their own coloiurs, and commanded bj tbeil 
own aldermen. Herbert speaks of a oontest 
between the members of two of the London liverj 
companies, in which there were five hundred com^ 
batants on each side, and which was not suppreflseiS 
until the authorities interfered, and thirteen of th< 
ringleaders were executed. The Tailors* Guild oi 
Exeter, mentioned above, carried on a long stroggh 
with the corporation of that city in the reign ol 
Edward IV. The royal authority was invoke^ 
and the guild charter was cancelled, but the tailorl 
cared nought for this, and eventually the coipora* 
tion was glad to come to an agreement.! 

One point of contrast between the old craf 
guild and its modem analogue the trade-union 
»iould be noticed. Trade-unions are sodetiefl ol 
workmen, while the craft guilds included mastexi 
and worlanen alike. It is necessary, howeyer, U 
disting^sh between the master of modem times 
the wealthy capitalist at the head of a great con 
cem, employing workmen by the hundred or enei 
by the thousand, and the master of mediaeva 
England. To be a master it was necessary to havi 
been first an apprentice, and then a journeyman 
and it can easuy be seen that sudi masteis woul< 
rarely be large capitalists. While this state o 
things lasted, workmen who would in all proba 
bility become masters, and masters who had beej 
workmen, were actuated by similar motives, ai^ 
therefore worked together harmoniously. As th 
masters became capitalists this community of ii] 
terests died out, and from the time of Elizabet 
the guild declined, and now its modem lin^ 
descendant, the livery company, has too often pr< 
served little of the cnaracter of the parent insti 



• ** English Oailds,* p. 321. 
t/6Ml.,p.S12. 



JODBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP AETS, Jahuaey 31, 1875. 188 



tdiott but its oonviTiality aod the distributioii of 
fone antiqiisted ohatities. * 

ffidierto the course of the muratiTe has not 
(kurted from tiie history of the Enfi^lish guilds. 
Amf notice may now lie taken of ^e g^ds of 
fcni^ coimtries. Dr. E. Brentano thinks that the 
nse of the continental gnilds was less early and 

Bore hampered than was the case in England, t He 
rtfcfi to the capitularies of Charlemagne and other 
nwBsrchs as proof of the hindrances Uirown in the 
TO of miion, and of the restrictions under which 
mdk |nild8 as wct© allowed to exist were placed. 
Bnt thoe are yarious reasons for supposing that 
thii opposition was at any rate but of a temporary 
cktncter. At Bavenna a fishers' guild existed as 
ttriy M 943. llie Easterlings or steel-yard 
notlifflits of Lcoidon were a band of foreigners 
vko carried on the trade between England and 
the Bahio countries, and they had their guild, 
flatet says, of older date than the Cnihten Ghiild 
of Ixmdon, already mMitioned.J It is the more 
pobaMe supposition that this guild of the Easter- 
mg« was not a copy of a Saxon institution, but a 
'wt to a |)raotice with which its members were 
wtsady familiar. Amongst the Teutonic nations 
01 the Continent especially, the guild was a 
pwnanent institution, prominent by the ntuneious 
g^ which existed, and also by the power to 
whAtibey attained. Thus, in 1 130, the Hezlagh, 
w Great Guild of Sleswig, went so far as to put to 
«»th Nicholas, King of Denmark, in revenge for 
the maider of their alderman, Duke Canute. The 
«0'*aiit Guild of Cologne was of noted strength, 
J?dfoaght strenuously and successfully for the 
Jjwrtiei of their town against both aristocratical 
«w eodesiastical authority. As further examples, 
tt wul be sufficient to mention the facts that no less 
wan twenty.fiye Bilesian towns furnished members 
^ tF^ Tailors' Gnild ; and that the German 
Jtlaf fonned four great fraternities, which had 
»^Bnib«F for their centre, and whose ramifications 
*j«ded all over Germany, and even into Cour- 
MM and Iivoni&.S In proof of the rapid develop- 
wat of industry at this period, particularly in 
""^^ I venture to quote the following, though 
■**^^i«t of an episode. 

^ PBOorded that there were in 1104 sword 
jWttm Hagdebure, Strasburg, and the Nether- 
™«».»ho abo made breast-plates, shields, and 

• TWtti* I* oompanln of Loodoo, tfrwatj-tom In nomber, were 
«Jij* «f tke mmiieiiM] and iub9eqaenUy of the i«rliameDUry 
tTZl^^ for the barg«8Mi were ui flrrt exoloslTely confined to 
j^jwm of^ wioM tnutea* oomponlet. Th« followlif to the 
JjTjiWt* tbe prcMot day, a few having beeome exUoct since 
ZSri •f«i— Apothccari«8, Armourwi and Brazier*, Baken, 
2ri.'~*«»*kei»» Blartenithf, Bo^yen, Brewert. Broderert, 
2r^ I??*^ Canwiters i lockworkrii, CLothworkert, CoMh- 
™^ Md Coaeh-haneMmakers, Cooks, Coopers, Cordwainert, 
;*»*«. CUm, DtetlUen, Drapers, Dyers, Fknmaken, Farriers, 
rmmoaffcra, Flrtehers, P onders, Rnamework-knttleTfl, 



SSTl.^**^ Cl»«-«e'l*'»» Olt»ler», Oloirers, Gold and 
r^*«*-dr»weii, Goldtmiths, Or cere, Ganmakert. Haber- 
JTJHwjjtr^ iMiboIdcrs, fronmongen Joiners, Leather-sellers, 
t2r^M™*f"**«»*» Lorimers, Mtkers vt Playing^sards, 
iZ^ "wwfs, Mcrefaant-tailon, Magicians, Neediemakers, 
Sy (otNrwtoe Palnter-statners). Patteomskere, Pewterers, 
22JJ. FtejBbeti, Ponlterera, Ssdiers, Baiters, BoHir.ners. 
^rv^ Sklnnen, Bpeetacle-makers. Staiioncra, Tallow- 
tZZZl SfH. **" Bricklayers, Tlnplate-workers, Tomers. 
Cfe? X?*?*^ Wax chandlers. Weavers, v» heelwrights. 
Wr!r4v "; J?«»^ twelv«t from their superior Importance, are 
Si i£f ^^ ^^^^^ Companies " They are the Men ers, 
^r*„"J*5*^. "•>»»««»<?•"» Goldsmfths, Skinners, Merchiuit. 
JJJ» Mftertuhen, Batters, Ironmongen, Vintners, and Cloih- 






i ■Oao3|£j?ir'"''® ^'^ ^''•^ CompMles,' vol. l.,p. 10. 



helmets ; in 1285 there were in Nuremberg, gold- 
smiths, blade-forgers, cutlers, sword-cutlers, and 
girdlers. The most able smiths were to be found 
in Styria and Solinsen; and in 1392 it was reported 
that there was a depdt of Styrian iron goods in 
Bremen, whence they were exported to Bussia and 
Prussia. In 1368 the smiths alone formed 15 out 
the 17 guilds that were in Auffsburg. The lock- 
smiths were highly distinguished for &eir excellent 
workmanship m door-keys, clasps, knockers, and 
rails, such as are still to be seen on the church- 
doors at Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Freiberg. 
Windlass-makers appeared in Augsburg in 1453 as 
a peculiar department of smiths, and coppersmiths 
in 1363. These latter appeared in Nuremberg in 
1386, in which town we also find wire- workers 
and braziers in 1321 ; in 1328 workers in tin; in 
1360 coiners and wire-drawers; and in 1370 
needle-makers. In Breslau, as well, we find 
needle and pin makers in 1390. Bell-founders 
and great g^un makers had their chief seats in 
Augsburg and Nuremberg. In 1399 Hugo, of 
Nuremberg, cast in Augsbu^ an alarm-bell of 40 
owt., and m 1469 Nicholas Hilger cast sreat bells 
in IVeiberg. Heavy artillery was already known 
in 1356, and in 1372 the council of Augsburg 
ordered the casting of 20 cannon. Qnnners 
appetu^ in Nuremberg in 1403. In this town 
there were also peculiarly skilful brass and copper 
smiths, and metiu founders, who, as Peter Vis^er, 
for examj^e, executed the most magxiificent works 
of art. These crafts, indeed, were early known in 
Germany, proof of which exists in the renowned 
brazen gates of Augsburg, Mentz, and Hildesheim, 
which belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 
Gk>ld and silver smiths appeared likewise in the 
time of Charlemagne, and m Henry I.'s reign there 
lived an exceedingly clever eoldradth at Mentz. 
The gold plates adorned wiw jewels on the old 
manuscripts of the Gospels were also the work of 
goldsmii£s; and in the thirteenth century there 
were found in use amongst the knights and their 
ladies costly dLasps and girdles, and harness for 
their horses, richly ornamented with gold and 
silver. In Augsburg, in 1276, goldsmiths were 
employed in the mints, and in 1370 there were 11 
masters of this craft in Nuremberg. In Vienna 
they appear for the first time in 1350. Artisans of 
this cr^, too, prepared the most artistic and 
valuable church utensils, some of which are still 
preserved in the treasuries of Berlin, Vienna, and 
Munich. Besides these, it is said that there were 
in Nuremberg, in 1373, diamond-polishers ; in 
1383 silver-melters; in 1387, gold and silver 
burnishers; in Breslau, in 1470, gold-beaters; and 
in 1324, in Augsburg, tin- workers. Germany was 
at that time rich in the precious metals, which 
were abundantly supplied by the mines of Freiberg 
and Schneeberg. 

To resume. Though less important, the guilds 
are still numerous amongst the Latin nations of the 
Continent. The town of Montreuil, in Picardy, 
had an ancient gueude (guild) as early as the 
eleventlr century, and in 1126 Louis VI. granted 
a charter to the Guild of 8t. Biquier, in Ponthieu. 
Herbert* tells us t hat t^e guilds were much 
encouraged by Louis Vll. and other French kings, 
'*as a check to Uie insolence of their over- 
grown vassals, the dukes and counts, &c., and to 

• ** History of ih» Twelr* Gnat Lirery Companies,** p. 21. 1 



in 



JOURNAL OF THE BOOIETY OP AETS, Jahuae^ 31, 1878. 



protect sucli subjects as lield of the latter from 
their eztrayaKant powers." To such an extent 
was the guild system oamed that Pans alone is 
said to have had more iiian flfbr guilds. In Italy 
it has been already mentioned uiat there was a 
Fishers' Ghiild at Bayenna as early as the first half 
of the tenth century ; and as to their numbers, we 
learn that there were seven trade guilds at Fisa ; 
eighteen at Bergamo; twenty-one at Florence; 
and twenty-six at Bologna.* 

The continental guilds, especially -those of Ger- 
many, seem to have come down to a considerably 
later time than did tiieir Bnglish congeners. In 
France the guilds were finally overturned by the 
Bevolution of 1789, while "m Gennany several 
bureaucratic enactments brought them piecemeal 
to death, and the last remnants were destroyed by 
the North German Industrial Ck>de of 1869.'*t 
The following passage, extracted from the report 
of Mr. Crowe, the Britifi^ Consul in Saxony, has 
an interesting bearing on the guild system of that 
coimtry. ** In Saxony the domestic as distin- 
guished from the factory system was longest 

preserved In no country was the corporate 

spirit of the earlier times more instinct with life, 
and nowhere was it found more di£Boult to com- 
pass the abolition of the guilds. Till ten years 
ago there was scarcely a man of any craft who did 
not necessarily belong to a guild .... The measures 
which reaUy imdermined the guilds were passed 
to facilitate the establishment of factories; the 
causes which precipitated their fall were the con- 
struction of railways, the consequent extension of 
markets, and the demand for cheaper and better 
wares. As the factory system expanded, the 
guilds shrank, and the population outgrew the old 
and stationary corporations. From 1840 to 1850 
the factory system arose. From 1850 to 1860 the 
guilds languished. In 1861 they were abolished 
by law." 

Closely connected with the subject of the guilds 
is that of their modem analogues — the trade- 
unions. Enough has been already said to show 
that the principle and practice of labour-combi- 
nations is not in itself the novelty, dangerous or 
beneficial, which it is sometimes asserted to be. 
As a national institution this is one of our oldest; 
and if for a time it fell into desuetude, the present 
century has witnessed its revival with a new 
power and a promise of long-lived vitality. like 
their mediaeval forerunners, trade-unions are 
societies which have a double object, to provide 
regulations for some one branch of trade, and to 
form amongst its members a mutual benefit 
society. It is the union of these two objects, 
declared iucompatible by the opponents of the 
system, which has given an opportunity for much 
of the vituperation cast upon the institotion. But 
that such a imion has heretofore existed, the 
statutes of every craft guild prove ; and that such 
a imion has not been as pernicious as its enemies 
predict that it must necessarily be, is proved by 
the longevity of the old guilds, and by the har- 
mony which long existed Mtween the masters and 
men of the crafts thus united. 

As Eng l and was the birthplace of the guild, so 
it has been of the modam association, and the 
aoene of its most extenalre develoimient. It was 

• «?''^»^'^«*^*«*^«' OommnetT (J. Te»<B),pp. l«f , ST». 
•< On Ooildt,** fto., p. 19t. 



an aggravation of the oLroumstanoe niiioh m 
than any other contributed to the dadine of 
craft g^ds, that gave rise to the trodo imic 
As already diown, the growing pow^ of the oi 
talist rendered it impossible for the oc^ goik 
exist in its original ju>nn. Contrary to old cost 
and legislation, masters ceased to l>e men who ] 
passed through the grade of appra&tioe t 
journeyman. The lase of the cotton masuifao^ 
the employment of steam-^wer, and Hie inj 
duotion of costly machinery, made the posMsl 
of a large capital still more indispensable to 
master. Prices of all commodities had lisen, ^i 
wi^ges had relatively fallen. Labour wm 
longer the -coadjutor, but rather the bond-sei^ 
of coital. The more intelligent of the ta 
populations began to perceive the power 
resistanoe which combiiiation would give thi 
Some funds they had, collected for mutual-M 
ance purposes, for friendly societies aze ofc] 
date than trade-imions. The first efibrts of 
new unions were directed agaiDst the vioktias 
the Act, 5 Elizabeth c. 4, which limited the oil 
ber of journeymen and apprentices each mij 
was allowed to keep. It was only at a later pei^ 
when they felt their power, that trade-uu 
began to frame regulations relative to wages, he 
of labour, &c., and to organiBe strikes as a u 
of attaining their ends.* 

Two generations ago trade-unions were scm 
known. Amongst the earliest were thoee for 
by the dothwo^ers of Leeds, in 1802 ; by the« 
wrights of Liverpool, at the olose of the eight* 
century ; and by the hatters, at a somewhat ea 
date. In their iof ancy they were illegal, and ' 
compelled to carry on their operations nadiB 
guise of friendly societies, in <»der to cva4l 
provisions of tiie Act against comhanati^ 
workmen (39 & 40 Geo. HI. c. 106). In 18^ 
received partial legal recognition, which haa 
still further extended by recent legisl^on. | 
last twenty-five years their development ha% 
on with extraordinary rapidity. The /brtti 
Review of December, 1867, says :— " % 
unions are already a distinct power in the ) 
and are rapidly advancing to a foremoA 
amongst national institutions. Nearly ^ 
these are now ^read over the kingdom, Tsm ; 
through every coimty, and ensconced in eTelj ^ 
and almost every trade." Since this ^^. j> 
the movement has extended to the *f!y^ 
labourers. But not only are these society 
coming truly national; some are forming' 
national connections, and others are likdy 
the lead thus set. The IntemationAl 
Men's Association was avowedly formed 
object of uniting tiie labourer and artisift 
in every country, for the purpose of rnuti 
oaee of need. The assomaticm, under its 
leaders, has, however, assumed rather a 
than an industrial character, and as sn<^ bw^ 
nection with our subject. ^ ^ 

Accepting the existence of the instttin 
an undeniable and potent fact, it ^ J 
ficient for our purpose to point out ^f JH 
not a few particulars in which trade-unianM 
learn a useful lesson from the old or aftj 
They mi^t more oloaely iuntaie their im 



s'-* 



^'i 



•«« On eoDOi,** Ad., 19.111 «J« 




JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. Januaey 31, 1878. 



185 



ol acts of lUeeality ; they might exhibit 
Jtti mora of that coaritable spirit of the old 
pH, whioh looked beyond the immediate in- 
pk of their own fraternity ; they might con- 
kft tiiemaelTes, as their predecessors did, with 
lb hsvine for their oojeot intellectuad and 
U, M weU as material advanoement ; and last, 
liot least, they might emulate their zeal for 
idpcng uf honest, man-like work, and for 
|«bfi£ng of fradulent tricks, too common in 
ktnde. Hr. Holvoake has well said in a 
ft to the Poll MaU Gazette, dated July 4th, 
k— " We haTe strikes against receiying low 
WL Those are no strikes against doing bad 
K AU over the land a good deal of work is 
■bd to shabby, so bungling or dishonest, that 
Mde^iradatiim to be connected with it. If it 
wovn that a unionist was a more reliable 
km than any other, that he could be de- 
b oa to do good work, and could not do 
I ^ he pat his character into his work, a 
■Kt wooj^ be the most popular of work- 
Lsid wages would stand higher than any 
bsdon could ndse them. It ought to l>e 
w^skb for employers to find men who will 
lie any shabby work. It is a sort of crime 
■I the honoar of industry, a fraud by con- 
mm imon the purchaser.** 
hi ue foregoing matter it may be learned 
He guilds originated ; how they became in- 
piL and to some es^ent what vicissitudes 
pa la w ea t. Let us now inquire further into 
characteristics, and the causes of 
intemal and external, that we may 
I Id focm rational conclusions as to their 
■ad future usefulness under circumstances 
; frqei those of the past. 
■BM8 assigned to the several guilds did not 
dottly designate the occupations of the 
fe; and some guilds seem to nave been of a 
[■pniiifn character. They assumed occa- 
f Ihom and functions dependent on social 
HMa ate cti n g their inner as well as their 
k The epiwets '* religious" and " social" 
Mi be regarded as terms convenient for use 
KiwmrlTrn rather than as invested with 
■btarical significance. In the writs of 
nt the social guilds are spoken of as 
Baii brotherhoods ; " the craft guilds as 
■band crafts.*' Among the members of 
wjifkB expression '* craft'* and **crafts- 
■ktiia one most commonly used. 
MmWb of all the guilds was primarily 
■■■ttBt, and next organisation for the 
^Mhil aeouri^ and progress, as these were 
HiriDod and interpreted. In connection 
Hiifaiiiistration we find conservatives and 
pfe sad usually a party favouring the one 
Hir aa the interests of the present or the 
■Mftid, That these interests would not 
^ifufcably adjusted we might naturally 
■toi the discords that ensued between 
^Hkaot to have been so long-lived or so 
^Hhnr were in the middle ages. In M. 
^■rf^ "Monks of the West" we find 
^Hbci tibe picture; in M. Levasseur's 
^Kfta WoirUng Qasses in France," * 

cbi^tn Ti, '*QoereI)et mtre certelns 
VLy Ilrre t., otepitre It., ** Abas des 
l" pp. 77— 10«; Vbt alio lfvr« vi . 
► Oolb«t,»»pp.lf»-* 



a work crowned by the AeatUmie des Sciences 
morales et poUliques in 1859, the reverse. But the 
most notable feature in their administration is that 
of Service, as opposed to self-assertion. The 
members entered into a bond of mutual service ; 
and masters and men passed through prescribed 
forms and periods of servitude as apprentices and 
journeymen before appealing as producers, in an 
individual or a corporate capacity, to the com- 
munity at large. Length of service conferred 
privilege, and was generally accompanied by dis- 
tinction. Great care was taken to implant in the 
mind of every craftsman notions of duty, while 

Suestions of right were for the most part left to 
tie decision of the guild. 

Again. Guilds were co-operative associations, 
in the best sense of the term ; and very successful 
in promoting harmony amonj^ the members, as 
weU as in upholding the dignity of the craft. 
"Brethren and sistreir ' lived andlaboured together, 
did many works of charity, and the former as 
craftsmen left behind them masterpieces of skill. 
In those days an artisan could attain to other 
distinction than a hi^h rate of wage ; his name was 
inscribed on the guild-roll, and perhaps emblazoned 
in the guildhall as a brother and a master. Thus 
in the guild records there was longevity ; and no 
small aegree of fame might be won by honest 
merit. 

In proportion as this family feeling declined, the 
guild deteriorated, and at the core. Numbers be* 
came the test of strength. Combinations were 
entered into for purposes of compulsion. Political 
and religious stnfe ensued ; and then, as now, it 
was proved that associations are more potent for 
evil tiian for good. The guilds, no doubt, were the 
origin of the Bhenish and the Suabian Leagues, — 
through their affiliations, — and, finally, of the 
great Hanseatic. How dose was the connection 
between them can never be known, until after the 
completion of the publication of the archives of the 
last, now in progress. 

Lastly. In their best day, too much reliance was 
probably placed by the members of the guilds on 
their collective rather than on their individual 
efforts. As the seminal principles of integrity and 
truth germinate in the breasts of single members 
of a community, so pro&^ress has mostly its starting 
point in the strong will of some one man, whose 
intuitions and whose sense of duty command 
respect and insure him followers. In uie adminis- 
tration of the affairs of the guilds, we meet with 
instances of repression as weU as of promotion. 

Several external causes contributed to the decay 
of the guilds. Periods of peace were followed by 
pleuty and the spread of domestic industry. A 
knowledge of facts increased, physical phenomena 
began to be observed, science revived, men 
travelled more, language improved, ^he use of the 
compass was introducea, gunpowder was invented 
and the art of printing. This laat afforded the 
means of intercommunication not only among 
distant nations, but between periods of time the 
most remote, Witiiin three or four centuries a 
thousand signs of progress appeared ; finally there 
came the application of steam as a motive power, 
and thenceforward mental labour was brought 
into competition with manual labour. 

Prior to this period, handicrafts existed in almost 
every householo. To man had been assigned from 



186 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP 4JBTS, Jaotary 31. 1878. 



time immemorial the taaks of proyiding shelter, 
fuel, and food ; to woman the fumiflhing of cloth- 
ing and the preparation of meals, with other 
domestic duties. Bteam led to the development of 
the factory system, depending on division of 
labour, ana on a long series of processes for the 
completion of products ouce the work of a family. 
Since then women have ahuost lost their natui^ 
diare in the responsibilities of earning a livelihood ; 
they have ceased to spin or to make garments, and 
men to weave; but in relegating to machineiy 
their monotonous and often ill-remunerated toil, 
they have either risen in the moral and social scale, 
or have failed to do so from causes ultimately 
amenable to control. Through an alteration in 
the conditions of production, manuid effort has 
been in a great measure superseded by mechanical 
and chemical skill, the result of mental labour. 
Hand- work has become bead- work; the former 
has declined and the latter improved in pecuniary 
value. To the latter, therefore, the attention of 
every worker in the community must now be 
turned. This brings us to the practical portion of 
our subject, the ag^icy of the guilds on the future 
training of workmen and workwomen. 

As we have already seen, the oraft guild did, 
aforetime, largely take dxatKe of industrial educa- 
tion. This was, mdeed, its mrst care. Apprentices 
were regularly enrolled, and provision was made 
for their instruction. Journeymen likewise were 
constrained to improve themselves in the mysteries 
of their craft. What would be called examinations 
in our day, were periodically held in different parts 
of the country, and frequently, too, comparisons 
were instituted between the work of native artisans 
and of foreigners, not always to the advantage of 
the former. Many of our Grammar-schools owe 
their existence to the guilds, and higher institu- 
tions profited by their liberality.* 

Such work has of late years been sadly neglected, 
if not wholly abandonea ; yet surely it ought not 
to be. Aid is required from every quarter to render 
labour more productive. To make it so com- 
mercially, the labourer should, as before, be 
trustworthy, intelligent, and skilful ; none of these 
qualities are, however, innate. He must be well 
trained while young, and self-taught or further 
taught later in life. €k>od schools may be erected 
by the State, and the Science and Art Department 
may continue its noble exertions, supported by 
Working-men's Colleges, Mechanics' Institutes, 
and other voluntary efforts ; but there is still a 
want of strictly technical training, that can 
perhaps only be met by the establishment of Trade 
Schools in tne principal centres of industry in our 
country — ^the whole appertaining? to and ramifying 
from a Technological and Trade University belong- 
ing to the metropolis. Is there not work here for 
the guilds, and a suitable investment for some of 
their funds ? 

Manufacturers and other large employers do not 
see their way to turning workshops into places of 
study ; although they are quite willing — ^many of 
them — ^to admit that an increased knowledge of 
raw material and of labour processes is essential to 
our national prosperity. In this state of things 
the Society of Arts oomes forward to contiDue ^e 
course initiated by the guilds of old, and through 
a carefully devised system of examinations, to pro- 

• "Blitorx of th§ Twolfv Qml LItmt OompMikf,*' toI. U. 



vide for the easy co-opeiatkm of their 
or representatives around us. It asks no i^oe 
relative to guild or trade^union, but saya, Yirt 
*' If there be anywhere in our sheds or iirork^ 
our laboratories, or our foundries, a Stepli 
or a Brunei, a Whitw<»th, or a Ffurbaim, a ] 
or a Paraday* struggling and concealed, led 
come forward., and, at little cost to hiiaae. 
worth shall be made knowxu We vecogEiuael 
order and every grade of merit, be it tkkat i 
operative, the foreman, or ihe mana^por, aa 
ready to give to each the atiunp of validity.*' 
In thus giving soope to natur^ gcsmu. 
offeriug a fair field to individual industry, thj 
hofh justice and generosity. The level of j 
mediocrity, which some are anxious to mai] 
may be occasionally disturbed, but the whole 
munity will thereby be benefited. Amang a l 
tude subsisting by labour there will ^waj 
young and oM, skilled and unHkilled, mt 
character and men of no character ; and t^^ 
equalities of ocmdition will assert theixia^ ves p 
ably or otherwise, as droumstaiioea may <h 
Through the examinations of the Society of i 
an opportunity is afforded for every man of i 
to vindicate his claims ; they must, i^iciii, b 
valuable alike to employers and emplove^j 
deserve the hearty support of the one askd the i 
The subjects they embrace are those rei&rved 
the Census of 1^61, voL iii., p. 30, as the bJ 
theindustrialdivisionsof the population — ^mat^ 
machinery, processes, products. T3ie diatuu 
they offer are no mean ones ; but still the 
source of sati^aotion must ever he» to yoiuu 
old, the *'m«iM •ibttomcia redi,^^ theoonsGioq 
of having done our duty. 



DISCUSSION. 

Mr. LawrsBoe thought it would not be imiolcvi 
ixxt them to know that a few of the City jnwnfiii 
still exercise very great trade povGCS. Hie Gotda 
Compsay, for instonoe^ had the sole power ef ma 



* The Society of ArU publkhed, some time a^o. B«fkaita 
Condition of the IndoittUl Classes on the Coatioent. It aff 
me that an imm«i8e tenrioe would be rendered to the caw 
dnstrial edacatlon, and gen««ll7 to that of the -^trMwtl -r i 
elevation of labour, were the goTemment to pabUah ia a oh« 
aoceasible form the esiay of Dr. W. F^, on the new ciu/^ 
of the people aooordlog to their emplo3rmeBts (Appenrfijr 
Report on the Ceotut of 1861, pp. 226—233). Thic aeeou tlH 
desirable since we may expect the Census of 1871 eliortly, sk 
to see in it the principles of that olaaatficatloo ftiUy tmnk 
\Vhile on this point let me draw attootioo also to voL rl, fri 
Report on the Paris Universal ExhibitlQa, 166T, ooatainlof \ 
turns relative to the New Order of Merit. At pa^ s of this i 
and most valoahls reoord we read : — ** Art. aS. A di*tiafft er 
reward is instituted in fav6nr of the persons,— tabllshmwt^^r I 
ties which, by a special organisation, or spedal iiiatitutieas»ha^ 
▼eloped a spirit of harmony among sllthfrsnnn nprrsfisglaTTii 
work, and have provided for the aateriaU moral a^lsic)^ 
well-being of the workmen. These mwards conaist of Ims prii 
the total value of 100,000 fhtnes (X4,000) and twenty hoan 
mentioas. One grand prlie of liO^OOO flrsocs may, ia addlti 
awarded to the person, establlshmeot, or looallty, <Usti«r 
under this bead by a very exceptional superiori y.'* Ftatthcr 
in this direction may be fuODd io Mo. 2, of th« Beports c< 
frei e iarifs ofRmbsssy and L< girton for l^YO; an^^l ■ a wort. 
author, the Hon. T. L. HovelUThurlow, under Uic title uf ** \ 
onions Abroad, and Hints for Home Legislation,** reprtated f 
report on the Amsterdam £xhihltioa of I>(MDestle Bcoaomy & 
Working Classes. Evnry line in that valuaMe doowaeiit, 
p. 200—247, deserves the most attentive study. Prom ^ DM G 
bewesea Im Koeaigreiohe Bayan, dieaelts des Rhetns ■• (t4 
have prepared brief digesits, showing the aottoa of tfae Oi 
Legislature on nutters retiiting to t« Jmifial txaining : e^^ eatu 
ing the duties of masters towards apprentipeft; the rtqatreiac 
the State with regard to these ; the podtioa of a J«iffa« 
mechanic or arti»o, Ac, *o.,M hart «iBttl«d thsia tat « 
time and spaoo.— ^. T» 



JOUBNAL 0¥ THE BOOIETT OF ABTS, Jahua&t 31, 1873. 



187 





th« Fiifamoii|(en'*Ooiiip«k7 of impeot- 
Md the (Sty Corporation, wiahing lately to 
powers of inapeoting the quality of the 
diat they coold Hot obtain the neoewary 
had to apply to the Fithmon^ers' Company 
^IbeA in tiie matter, and it was ultimately agreed 
tm. additional inspectors should be appointed by 
to exercise the rvqoisite superrision. Until rery 
the Stationers' Company possessed the sole 
«£ pehhshing almanacs. Of other companies,' the 
sad Stainen held peculiar i»iyileges as to 
on the trade within the City, and although 
wholly abolished now, it still possessed lai^ 
It was the old rule that all painters should 
■sishfm. Amongst artists, Hogarth and Holbein 
fcaluogud to that company, and recently some of our 
artists had loined the company, being anxious 
their talents to this g^ild. Of other guilds 
di^, it must be borne in mind that the ]»t>- 
of tiie law was really a close guild. Barristers 
9 sole and entire power of an appeal to the judges, 
who should be permitted to plead, and of pre- 
i man pleading. He might mention, as to 
t companies, that the Sldnnecs and 
Tai&ac% which were of ancient date, never 
tD maei withont quarrelling, the question being 
llie Skinners or the Hercant Tailors had the right 
They applied to the Court of Aldermen 
or thrve oontnries ago about it, and it, after hearing a 
discQsaiaii, decided that the Merchant Tailors should 
to the tSkinnerB' Company every year a dinner and 
that the Merchant Tailon ^ould appear 
tho lial in the odd jrear and the Skinners first in 
a yaars, or vice v€rta, he forgot which, and so it 
in the •^tn»n»^*^^ even to the present time, one 
fini one year and the other the next And the 
still eoatinnes, so that this dedaion of 300 years 
tkeeffeotof creating peace between them, for now 
tvD ooBpanies in the City worked more in harmony. 

g the corporations recently established, which ^^^ ^^^ ^ ^ 

MspMsal powers r«prdin^ trade, might be mentioned i y^ i^teroommunication *^and 
flK of the apothecaries, which ha4 aJao the power oon- ' 
upas it by PaiUament of licensing those who 
query on that pc^easion. He thought there was 
y in cartam cases to do this, and to confer 
pofpsnon oertain oorporations. The Iron- 
Company, to whidi he belonged, had left to it, 
J0O y«aa ago, a sum of mosey to purchase 
idasM firom Barbary. They redeemed 10,000 
sitegether, but none had been redeemed since 1814, 
jflriHk Booay had sinoe grown to such an amount, that 
■Ulii DOW an income of something like £7000 a year, 
B&^ tibey had no use. But they did not uae this 
6r their own pnrpoaes, or abuse the trust in any 
1 t*»t***""g there was no likelihood of their pnr- 
lay oMTs white slaves, they applied to parlia- 
ts know what should be done with the money. 
tiiat £6 a year was given to something 
hmwrnti* aohoola over the country. But he 
a more uaelaaa way of apending auch a laige 
foald hardly be conceived, as it covdd acaroely he 
howevar glad the various achoola were to 
a *^^-^ that any of them would suffer 
iftfi0ydUnotveoeivethe£6. Hethou^ there 
ter porposea to which it might be applied. He 
they might well employ the money in training 
fta *^T*>"T^' adnoation <^ the trade, for, taken in 
it was veally the laigest trade stilL 
remarked that he thought the etymology of 
m ef Saxon origin. The very name of guild 
hy Oorman merohants. He did not think 
laid on the fact that the guUds 
'? origin. The guilds were 
to protect trade within the 
Jaat aa the guSUa were mainly proCeotive, ao 
did-tradaa-onioaa raaemblo them. If we 
the ■ o o ia t i ai eciatitig now with the* 



preaent ciroiunBtanoea, it would be their duty to reconcile 
the masters with the workmen. The sdlution of the 
difficulties which presented themselves would not simply 
be met by instituting examinations and the spread of 
technical education, but in the reconciliation of the con- 
flicting interests between masters and men. 

Mi. Campion said he had raised his voice in Guildhall 
with a view of getting the City Companies to do some- 
thing for the promotion of technical education, and also 
to do what was part of their functions, namely, the regu- 
lation of all matters that conceraed the prosperity of the 
different trade and the intercommunication oetween 
masters and workmen. With regard to trades unions 
it seemed to him that there was this difficulty, that the 
trades unions must of necessity have an antagonistic action 
— they must be antagonistic, whereas the guilds were of a 
harmonising tendency. They ought to bring together 
the masters and workmen, and endeavour to nudce their 
interests one and the same for the whole trade, and it 
was to be hoped that then it would not be simply for 
the benefit of the whole trade but of the community at 
large, llie action of the p^ds had often been pro- 
tective against the community, and if their action was 
revived he hoped it would be for good, and that some- 
thing practical would be brought about. But owing 
to various circumstances it was the common practice in 
the City companies to introduce the members by patri- 
mony. Although he was a member of the Haberdashers* 
Company he never was one, and his father never was. 
The companies seemed to be largely filled by that 
means with men not belonging to the particular craft of 
the company with which they were connected, and no 
doubt that would present a serious difficulty in working 
out the powers and privileges in the future. When 
there came to be an association of the diffierent guilds 
t(^ether, and the^ were actuated by the same spirit, and 
assistance was given by one to the other, he thought 
they might work for results. He believed there were 
five or six thousand liverymen, and amongst them were 
men of all trades and professions; and he thought 

proper arrangement 
some sort of united action might be brought 
about. The Turners' Company had been getting a 
large acquisition of strength lately, for many men of 
abUity, engineers and others, who knew a great deal 
about turning, had ^'oined the company, and he thought 
Uie company was hkely to do a great deal of practical 
work. Dr. x eats had alluded to we fact that in the first 
instance they were voluntary associations, but in London 
they seemed, if voluntary in their inception, very early 
to have gone to the Court of Aldermen, and £rom them 
to have got a charter or authorisation lopg before they 
got it m>m the Crown. From that has arisen the fact 
that Uiey possessed larger power of territorial action than 
they would othwwise have had. There were only a few of 
the guilds which were confined to the City proper (as he 
had already shown hjr a list he had published in the Citif 
Fress), Most of their charters carried them three, five, 
twenty miles further, and some few companies extended 
all over England. The Gunmakers Company extended 
to idl England. They had their proof-houses in London 
and Birmingham. He believed it was that reason that 

enabled the Fishmongers to take in hand the supervi- 
sion of the fish markets, for, otherwise, under the City 
authoritiea, it would have been confined to fish caught 

within the City walls. 

Xr. SiMBMids was glad the paper had bean read be- 
fore the Society of Aiii, whidi had abaady moved very 
strongly in the direction indicated by the paper. Mr. 
Lawrence had alluded to aome of the City companies. 
He should very muoh like to know what their revenues 
and reaonroM wens, sad how they were applied. He 
thou^it it would be found that thove was very much 
that could be done advantageously in aid of the views 
whioh the Sodaty was ao aozions to oairy out If they 
(te VBf JMnattfltttoi ^ lh» m4 ok^^^^^f the 



188 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 31, 1873. 



titles which they bore, very much would be done- to the 
arts, commerce, and manufactures generally. It was 
true that latterly action had been taken by some 
of them, particulu-ly the Turners* Company, with a yiew 
of carrying out the special objects of the craft. The 
Turners, Coachmakers, and a few others had done so, 
but this was a very small modicum of what was 
anticipated would be done by these great companies in 
this great metropolis. It must not be forgotten that here 
was the centre of commerce, and that they had very 
much technical education to carry out. A great deal 
might be done, and he thought one main object should 
be to have a trade museum in the City. While the cor- 
poration had been spending large sums in building a new 
library and an antiquarian museum, they had done 
nothing towards the establishment of a trade museum in 
the very centre of commerce — a museum of trade products 
in their various states of manufacture, so that foreigners 
and others could inspect the oils, the woods, the resins, 
and all those various commodities, which they had now 
no opportunity of seeing. There was a great necessity 
for a museum which should contain all these various and 
numerous articles, of which we are the great importers 
and retailers to all the Continent, and for which there 
was at present no department whatever. It had been 
said that we had a museum at Kew, and at Jermyn-street, 
and so on, but these were not for commercial purposes. 
They were for scientific purposes. The traders who 
come over here to buy had no opportunity of seeing 
what suited them unless they attenaed a particular sale. 
Tear by year large sums of money were spent by the 
colonies in sending contributions of their various pro- 
ductions for the international exhibitions and so forth, 
and these were afterwards wasted or dispersed. They 
had offered them to us, but there was no place 
in which they could be deposited. The colonies would 
willingly contribute towards such a museum, and if it 
were esteiblished there should be a good central museum, 
which would contain a most valuable collection of pro- 
ducts, and these could be examined by merchants and others 
from all parts of the world, so that a great deal of the 
annoyance would be saved which was caused by goods 
being sent which were imsuitable or not of the kind re- 
quired. If the merchant or the buyer had an oppor- 
tiinity of seeing the articles, what were the applications 
of them, their uses, names, prices, and so forth, there 
would be a great gain. A very large and important con- 
tribution might be received from the coloniei) towards 
such a museum, and it might be helped by these City 
Companies who had such hirge funds at their disposal, 
and by the bankers and brokers who would come to the 
aid of such an institution. He believed such an object 
would ultimately be accomplished. At the present tune 
there were very few places indeed where an examination 
could be made of the various products used in trade. 
If a young man wished to enter a broker's or a merchant's 
ofiSce, he knew nothing of the products likely to come 
before him, and there was no possibility of his becoming 
acquainted with them in the absence of such a museum 
as the one he proposed. 

Mr. Tracy observed that a great change had come 
over society since these guilds were established. If 
wo wished to see good craftsmen, we must have good 
apprentices. In the olden time there was a control by 
the g^ds over the apprentices, but all that was gone. 
When the guilds disappeared, with them disappeared the 
control over the apprentice, and now no one could tell 
anything distinct about the power which it was supposed 
a master had over an apprentice. The proper and the 
necessary authority they had over the apprentice was 
gone. Kow there was no means of bringing them be- 
fore a proper authority, and no one knew exactiy what 
the proper authority was. Kow-a-days, masters for the 
most put take apprentices and teach them one particolar 
brandi or portion of a teade. But there is no means 
of learning whether the master is an honest man and 
taught the appMntioe^ or whether the apprantioe knew 



his' work. There was no pasdng any examiiut 
If there was any necessity for controlling a 
and the breaking what might be called an mu 
spirit — and we are all disposed to that — what wei 
be done P The master does the best he can, and ei{ 
lets the apprentice go, or he drags through his time, 
at the end he knows nothing. It ought to besettld 
Act of Pai-liament what a master can do, and whi| 
apprentice can do to «• nforce the law against the m^ 
it he does not teach him properly. But it wonlij 
much better if it could be done by guilds. In tk^ 
time their used to be in-door apprentices, bat he ^ 
much doubted whether there were any now. Ha^ 
did not live at their places of business, as they fonuj 
did, for it had become the custom for them to have 
town and country residence, and consequentiy there c< 
not be the same supervision. 

Mr. E. Hall said it seemed to him that of late y( 
they had lost ground in the progress of handicrafti 
technical education, through not availing themselTcj 
such bodies as the existing trades-unions. The qiKit; 
was what could they do at the present time. He nrg\ 
that trades-unions, instead of attempting to keep ul 
standard of wages, should keep up a standard of w^ 
It was right that thev should acknowledge that stter 
had been made by Mr. Applegarth and others, who 
commenced drawing classes, to advance technical ed 
tion, but each 6ne of these attempts fell to the gra 

?artiy through the apathy of the workmen thi:msd« 
hey might have museums in connection «^ 
their crafts, in which might be exhibited spedsi^ 
of the various materials with which they vorb 
and models explaining the various constructions | 
roofs, frames, floors, and so forth. All these might I 
contributed by the workmen themselves, at an ezce^ 
ingly small outlay on the part of each contrib ' 
They were justified in expecting that trades- 
should devote some portion of their funds to such 
object. That admirable man, Mr. Twining, ' 
established a museum at Twickenham, had in 
museum specimens of different processes of work. 
example, house-painters' work. He showed there 
work appeared when there was simply one coat of 
two coats of paint, and so on, and he showed what wu 
work. Everybody who was acquainted with the ma 
was aware that there was a good deal of bad work dooeb 
using a coat of size instead of paint, and, as he had heii 
remarked, the man who does that deserves six monthfi 
the treadmill. The result was that the complete wot 
perished in a very short space of time. If there wa« 
proper feeling on the part of the craft as to the ftanov 
of work, if proper excellence of work were maintiiM 
by trades-unions, that sort of thing would be impoSBiw 
Moreover, the architect would be ready to look ^P°°3 
craftsman as his natural ally instead of finding ^ 
carrying out the supposed interest of the contractor^ 
would draw a great distinction between the maiBj 
builder who had been apprenticed, <^ ^ ^ 
perly learnt the whole of his trade, «^^ 
modem contractor, who was simply a proTi««^ 
money, and thou^ he might do good by ^ 
ploying a certain number of men, it was to ^ JP^ 
tioned whether he did not do a considerable aaw^ 
of harm in thus recognising and permitting ^'^^T^ 
public If you could get a proper standard, «^^ 
the public a better means of ludging of the work, »■ 
partnerships of industry would boast of *'**°*'^?2Sj?I 
gross. And such partnerships were not at all <"f"^jj^ 
was seen in the establishment of Leolair,in I^*'^^?^ 
not only fully obtained its most important ^^^ 
Beouring harmony between master and workmfflijwi ^ 
also an admirable system of education in tfas ^'^x^. 
had heard that there was a great defidenoy ^^.r^ 
of cabinet-makers. It was a serious thing " /^l^ 
were going out of the oonntiy, as the reosiw "J^^ 

exports tended to show was the case, V^'^^^^'^Lt 
whea the wwk which had beea exhibited at (iu> ^'^'^^ 



JBDBMfAL OP THE BOOIBTT OP ARTS, Jahuaby 81, ISW. 



189 



KwuBngton waB taken into 
He hoped it wtB not so, as these exhibi- 
ta hjgfi itMMisrd of woak in the taade, 

tbonglit J)r, Teati had not soffioiently 

ito the monioipalchanoter of these ^;ailds, 

>ftniyitionw1 fonotioas whioh many of the lai^ 
'0 Mrfonned, and who ezpenaed very oon- 
I of money in the advanoement of education, 
I ftni tctms iD^ beno^pially, and whioh would 
' te Bide more bemmfirial stiU. In conseqaenoe 
Imd drcnfnetanoes now-a-days one rery great 
lis aii-veclaiMQ was that their work was not daily 
' 1, M it nied to be when the master had the 
' always nnder his eye in his own home, and 
ivkle oonduct under his control. Gentlemen 
' from their bnainses now, and the apprentices 
not under the masber*s eye. 

.IVWllobiofTed that the Tarious diarters were 

' lor mdal purposes, and it was of great im- 

ttlit they should eai^ out the spirit as well as 

r<f their duuters. The grand ^object of these 

teU be, as ranch as possible, to encourage the 

SOS of teehaioal education. In doing so they 

m tiBfif carrying out tiieir objects, and for whioh 

* *» were Offiginally granted. A charter was 

t at a matter of oourse, but a petition had to 

d, itating the grounds on which Uiey applied 

aOiiding to tiie decay into whioh that par- 

tiaie or mystery had fallen, and that it was 

1 6r flte porpose of upholding and protecting that 

' r trade. Through the changes which had taJcen 

tt( iety their oompulsory powers were taken 

I bat there was still left to them the power 

good workmanship. There still 

in their hands very great power to 

•it the spirit of their charters. By 

|*ii they would not only be conferring great 

DBi Qo the country at large, but it wo^d tend 

> iwiTe the influence of these guilds, and put an 

K rode and rou^ modes of strikes and lock- 

i he did not hesitate to denounce as unwort by 

ia which we lived. At last it might end in the 

t<f ooaneils of arbitration for the settlement of 

If they could only be prevailed upon 

»1hu question, the existing guilds had aframe- 

'■^^ ~~' about such a desirable end. 

((to.) thought the question ought to 

t wokiy and solely from a practical point of 

•BDurtunate thing was that, so far as he knew, 

IffBiUb had wandered from the original object 

were instituted. In Bristol, his native 

I an old though not immemorial society, 

tlaBeTed still did adhere to its original object 

><tt Society of Merchant Venturers, estab- 

thi purpose of encouraging mercantile pro- 

-^ he belieTed they had strictly adhered to 

^iv vhidi they had been created* and a most 

^Mtf it was in promoting the wellSare of that 

riDciety, whether a guild or not, shoidd devote 

^^eoiotion of the real practical welfare and 

>4f Bat body of persons with whom they were 

Hiay wero all originally founded for tihe 

inwnraging workmen in their particular 

<■! shhouph it was scarcely possible now 

«Hh indiridnal company to devote itself 

Jj^ fils intsNSt of that partioalar dass in 

[wsttoh they ware inoocporated, he confessed 

^^«hy, with their great powers, and influence, 

ithsf Blight not oombme together, and pull 

sns pansveDiig and energetio effort to 

"~^*~ the intorasts of trade and mercantile 

ednoation, and if they were to 

; thase {guilds in name, oorpoarationain 

of this greatflit possiUe service to 

itiiialfim. 



[ofluiqne 
brVoBging 



Xr. X. B. Xdson regretted the subject could not be 
continued for another evening, as it was of suoh an im- 
portant nature. He found that the higher kinds 
of fine arts were patronised and encouraged, but the 
poor meohanician, and the apprentice was not very 
much encouraged, and he felt that the efforts of these 
guilds should be directed so as to encourage mechanical 
art. In New York, before a man could toke charge of 
the boiler of an engine of only 6-horse power, he must 
pass an examination, and the boiler too must undergo an 
examination. But how different was the case here. He 
was surprised, on going up the river on the steam-boats, 
to find lives so cweleuly guarded, no life-preserver, no 
li£B-boat. And he was a£raud, if the en^eers were put 
to the test, they would hardly know the difference between 
one guage and another. 

Br. Ysati, in reply, thanked the gentlemen who had 
spoken, for the obs^vations they had made. He was 
glad to learn from a paper whidi had been handed to 
him, that the Haberdashers' Company were about to 
expend a very large sum for schools, to aooommodate 
12,000 children, in addition to large sums abready laid 
out. He had also received a note from Mr. A. Sonnen- 
scbein, in which it was mentioned that theMeistersangers 
were guild poets, and tiiat even in war there was a re- 
semblance of ranks with those in the guilds ; thus page 
and apprentice, journeyman and squire, knight and 
master, were parallel. As to trades* unions being neces- 
sarily antagonistic, he did not think it. The matter 
arose from mutual misconceptions. The establishment 
of a museum would be a great move towards the erection 
of a trade university. If the trades unions were to have 
a high standard, then the pay ought not to be according 
to time, but according to work. 

The Ohairman, in proposing a vote of thanks to the 
lecturer, said it would not become him, at that late hour 
of the evening, to detain them by any remarks of his, 
but he thought perhaps he should differ with Dr. Yeats 
ns regarded the origin and history of these guilds. He 
did not think England was their original source. He 
should rather look upon these guilds as ecclesiastical, 
social, and trading, in their earliest stages — ^perhaps first 
as representative of the association which Christianity re- 
presented; 2ndly, caused by •social wants; and Srdly, 
founded when Edward III. established our commercial 
relations. But now we have to deal with the question 
of what use we can make of these wealthy repre- 
sentatives of the City companies. There snould be 
something like a union formed amount them. Let the 
leading men combine in the guild-union or trade-union 
— call it what you will, although there is a great differ- 
ence between the ancient and the modem. In the old 
guild you had a combination of the masters and work- 
men. In the trades-union you have only workmen 
combined as against capitalists. That is a new state of 
things entirely. The real question is in what way can 
these wealthy institutions best promote the objecto for 
which they were brought into existence. We are in an 
entirely new state of things, and we must adapt our- 
selves to it. In conclusion, he would observe, that in a 
work of four volumes, published by Dr. Teats, and in 
Smile's ** Lives of the Huguenots," would be fiounda 
vast amount of information on the sulyoct, and this, 
with the paper read before them, probably contained all 
that had oeen written on the subject. 



It is estimated by H. H. Busson that there are 
nearly 18,100 milaa (Eogliah) of railways in Europe, whioh 
have coat a groas total m 424 milliona aterling, appoortioned 
as follows :— The United Kingdom, 7,670 miles, oostmg about 
a94i millions; Pranos, 2,619 miles, 64 millions; Pnusia, 
2,870 miles, 26| milliana; Qermany (variona atatsa), 2,175 
miles, 21 miUiooi ; Awtria, 1,400 miks, 16 millioas ; Russia, 
712 miles, 11^ millions; Belgium, 600 mUss, 10 millisos; 
Italy, Sardinia, and other States, BIO nules, 11| millisfla. 



188 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, January 31, 1873. 



tiUes which they hore, very much would be done to the 
arts, commerce, and manufactures generally. It was 
true that latterly action had been taken by some 
of them, particularly the Turners' Company, with a view 
of carrying out the special objects of the craft. The 
Turners, Coachmakers, and a few others had done so, 
but this was a very small modicum of what was 
anticipated would be done by these great companies in 
this great metropolis. It must not be forgotten that here 
was the centre of commerce, and that they had very 
much technical education to carry out. A great deal 
might be done, and he thouj^ht one main object should 
be to have a trade museum in the City. While the cor- 

5 oration had been spending large sums in building a new 
brary and an antiquarian museum, they had done 
nothing towards the establishment of a trade museum in 
the very centre of commerce — a museum of trade products 
in their Tarious states of manufacture, so that foreigners 
and others could inspect the oils, the woods, the resins, 
and all those various commodities, which they had now 
no opportunity of seeing. There was a great necessity 
for a museum which should contain all these various and 
numerous articles, of which we are the great importers 
and retailers to all the Continent, and for which there 
was at present no department whatever. It had been 
said that we had a museum at Kew, and at Jermyn-street, 
and so on, but these were not for commercial purposes. 
They were for scientific purposes. The traders who 
come over here to buy had no opportunity of seeing 
what suited them unless they attended a particular sale. 
Tear by year large sums of money were spent by the 
colonies in sending contributions of their various pro- 
ductions for the international exhibitions and so forth, 
and these were afterwards wasted or dispersed. They 
had offered them to us, but there was no place 
in which they could be deposited. The colonies would 
willingly contribute towards such a museum, and if it 
were established there should be a good central museum, 
which would contain a most valuable collection of pro- 
ducts, and these could be examined by merchants and others 
from all parts of the world, so that a great deal of the 
annoyance would be saved which was caused by goods 
being sent which were unsuitable or not of the kind re- 
quired. If the merchant or the buyer had an oppor- 
tanity of seeing the articles, what were the applications 
of them, their uses, names, prices, and so forth, there 
would be a great gain. A veir large and important con- 
tribution might be received urom the colonies towards 
such a museum, and it might be helped by these Citv 
Companies who had such large funds at their disposal, 
and oy the bankers and brokers who would come to the 
aid of such an institution. He believed such an object 
would ultimately be accomplished. At the present tmie 
there were very few places indeed where an examination 
could be made of the various products used in trade. 
If a young man wished to enter a broker's or a merchant's 
ofiSce, he knew nothing of the products likely to come 
before him, and there was no possibility of his becoming 
acquainted with them in the absence of such a museum 
as the one he proposed. 

Mr. Tracy observed that a great change had come 
over society since these guilds were established. If 
we wished to see good craftsmen, we must have good 
apprentices. In the olden time there was a control by 
the guilds over the apprentices, but all that was gone. 
When the guilds disappeared, with them disappeared the 
control over the apprentice, and now no one could tell 
anything distinct about the power which it was supposed 
a master had over an apprentice. The proper and the 
necessary authority they had over the apprentice was 
gone. Now there was no means of bringing them be- 
fore a proper auUiority, and no one knew exactly what 
the proper authority was. Now-a-days, masters for the 
most part take apprentices and teach them one ptrticnlar 
branch or portion of a trade. But there is no means 
-f learning whether the master is an honest rnt^i and 
^htthe «pP*«nt>Mb or whethw th«appraitioe knsw 



his work. There was no passing any examinations. 
If there was any necessity for controlling a lad, 
and the breaking what might be called an unruly 
spirit— and we are all disposed to that — ^what was to 
be done P The master does the best he can, and eitlier 
lets the apprentice go, or he drags through bis time, and 
at the end he knows nothing. It ought to be settled by 
Act of Parliament what a master can do, and what bm 
apprentice can do to enforce the law against the master 
if he does not teach him properly. But it would be 
much better if it could be done by guilds. In the old 
time their used to be in-door apprentices, but be Tery 
much doubted whether there were any now. Maatflrs 
did not live at their places of business, as they formeriy 
did, for it had become Uie custom for them to have tlM 
town and country residence, and consequently there could 
not be the same supervision. 

Mr. E. Hall said it seemed to him that of late yean 
they had lost ground in the progress of handicrafts and 
technical education, through not availing themselves of 
such bodies as the existing trades-unions. The question 
was what could they do at the present time. He argued 
that trades-unions, instead of attempting to keep up a 
standard of wages, should keep up a standard of work. 
It was right that they should acknowledge that attempts 
had been made by Mr. Applegarth and others, who bad 
commenced drawing classes, to advance technical educai- 
tion, but each 6ne of these attempts fell to the ground, 
partly through the apathy of the workmen themaelTea, 
They might have museums in connection with 
their cra&, in wbich might be exhibited spednkens 
of the various materials with which they worked, 
and models explaining the various constructions of 
roofs, frames, floors, and so forth. All these might be 
contributed by the workmen themselves, at an exceed- 
ingly small outlay on the part of each contributor. 
They were justified in expecting that trades-uniona 
should devote some portion of their funds to aocb an 
object. That admirable man, Mr. Twining, who 
established a museum at Twickenham, had in that 
museum specimens of different processes of work. For 
example, house-painters' work. He showed there bow 
work appeared when there was simply one coat of paint, 
two coats of paint, and so on, and he showed what was bad 
work. Everybody who was acquainted with the matter 
was aware that there was a good deal of bad work done by 
using a coat of size instead of paint, and, as he had hoard 
remarked, the man who does that deserves six months at 
the treadmill. The result was that the complete work 
perished in a very short space of time. If there were a 
proper feeling on the part of the craft as to the standard 
of work, if proper excellence of work were maintained 
by trades-unions, that sort of thing would be impoasibla. 
Moreover, the architect would be ready to look upon the 
craftsman as his natural ally instead of finding bun 
carrying out the supposed interest of the contractor. He 
would draw a great distinction between the master 
builder who had been apprenticed, and had pro- 
perly leamt the whole of his trade, and the 
modem contractor, who was simply a provider of 
money, and though he might do good by em- 
ploying a certain number of men, it was to be qaes- 
tioned whether he did not do a considerable amoont 
of harm in thus recognising and permitting frauds on the 
public If you could get a proper standard, and give 
the public a better means of ludging of the work, thea 
partnerships of industry would boast of considembk) pro- 
g^ress. And such partnerships were not at all difBcolt, ss 
was seen in the establishment of Leolair,in Paris, which 
not only fully obtained its most impctftant object of 
securing harmony between master and workmen, but wvs 
also an admirable system of education in the craft. He 
had heard that there was a great defidenoy in the ttsda 
of cabinet-makers. It was a serious thing if that tzsde 
were going out of the ooontxy, as the recent taUee of 
exports tended to show waa the caaa^ particolsriy ao 
when the work whiflh bad been e»hibit<d at the Scicnos 



JMJSVAL Of THE SOOIBTT OF ARTS, Jaituakt 31, 1878. 



189 



iiHUibiiioQ 4t Sonth Xoonngton waa taken into 
He hofped it ma not so, u theee exhibi- 
LAhigiiatMidard of wodc ia the Imde. 



Urben 
•hind 



ttioaglit Dr. Taati luid not raffioiently 
^ I to the mnnicipal character of these ffoilds, 
I ^i&icational ftmotions whioh many of the iai^ 
*H paKfiyrmed, and who expended very con- 
I of money ia the advanoement of education, 
\ Urn acting moat benefioiallv, and which would 
be made moie bwinfinial stilL In conaeqnenoe 
mtA dnmrnrtanQes now-a-da3ra one yery great 
imct-woricmenwaa that their work was not daily 
' t, ■■ it oaed to be when the master had the 
i ftlvaji nnder his eye in his own home, and 
little conduct onder his control. Gentleman 
|i>if from their bnaineas now, and the apprentioea 
Jy not under the master's eye. 

l^vaD ohsenred that the various charters were 

* fcr metal pvrpoaee, and it was of great im- 

tlMt tkey should can^ out the spirit as well as 

of their eharten. 'Hie grand ^object of these 

rilOtU be, as ranch as possible, to encourage the 

iott ot teehnioal education. In doing so they 

b» amply eairying out their objects, and for which 

dbften were originally granted. A charter was 

' ^ u a matter of course, but a petition had to 

L lUting the grounds on which they applied 

uA allading to the decay into whioh that par- 

tode or mystery had fallen, and that it was 

^tii« porpoee of upholding and protecting ^lat 

\u tnd«. Throng the changes which had taken 

in »riety their cofnpulsory powers were taken 

tmt there was stall left to them the power 

'ing good workmanship. There still 

ia their hands yery great power to 

«rt the spirit of their charters. By 

ii Ihey would not only be conferring great 

M on tike country at large, but it wo^d tend 

nrife the influence of these guilds, and put an 

thtae rude and roogh modes of strikes and look- 

^<h he did not hesitate to denounce as unwort by 

ia which we liyed. At last it might end in the 

cf councils of arbitration for the settlement of 

it>K. If they could only be prevailed upon 

tiiis question, the existing guilds had a frame- 

^ * about such a desirable end. 



Ikft 



*w this que 
^■ringing 



Jbs 



((I.C.) thought tiie question ought to 

siainly and solely from a practical point of 

[As ann^tunate thing was that, so far as he knew, 

~lgvilds had wandmd from the original object 

'hey were instituted. In Brittm, his native 

VIS an old though not immemorial society, 

iWheved still did adhere to its original object 

Miat Society of Merchant Venturers, estab- 

|« tha purpose of encouraging mercantile pro- 

-«Bd he b^ered they had stricUy adhered to 

'icr which they had been created, and a most 

Ri^ it was in promoting the welfSEure of that 

r«ociety, whether a guild or not, shoidd devote 

B pronotion of the real practical welfiure and 

^ that body of persons with whom they were 

M. They ware idl originally founded for ti^e 

^aoooutaging wcnrkmen in their particular 

Sid ahhoo^ it was scarcely possible now 

•Mh mdindual company to devote itself 

jU the intspast of that particular class in 

|k vhich th^ ware inooqporated, he confessed 

"^is why, wKhthflir great powers, and influence, 

J fihay might not oombme together, and pull 

Jr jne peneveciag and energetio effort to 

Hy the intemis of trade and mercantile 

: tsdiniaal education, and if they wave to 

these guilds in name, oorporationt ia 

of w greatest posiible secvioe to 



JCr. X. B. Sdion regretted the subject could not be 
eonttnued for another evening, as it was of such an im- 
portant nature. He found that tiiie higher kinds 
of fine arts were patronised and encouraged, but the 
poor mechanician, and the apprentice was not very 
much encouraged, and he felt that the efforts of these 
guilds should be directed so as to encourage mechanical 
art. In New York, before a man could take charge of 
the boiler of an engine of only 6-horae power, he must 
pass an examination, and the boiler too must undergo an 
examination. But how different was the case here. He 
was surprised, on going up the river on the steam-boats, 
to find lives so ciffelessly g^uarded, no life-preserver, no 
life-boat. And he was afraid, if the en^neers were put 
to the test, they would hardly know the difference between 
one guage and another. 

Br. Yaati, in reply, thanked the gentlemen who had 

SSDoken, for the observations thev had made. He was 
ad to learn from a paper whicm had been handed to 
m, that the Haberoashers' Company were about to 
expend a very large sum for schools, to aoeommodate 
12,000 children, in addition to large sums already laid 
out. He had also received a note from Bir. A. Sonnen- 
schein, in which it was mentioned that theMeistersangers 
were guild poets, and that even in war there was a re- 
semblance of ranks with those in the guilds ; thus page 
and apprentice, journeyman and squire, knight and 
master, were parallel. As to trades' unions being neces- 
sarily antagonistic, he did not think it The matter 
arose from mutual misconceptions. The establishment 
of a museum would be a great move towards the erection 
of a trade university. If the trades unions were to have 
a high standard, then the pay ought not to be according 
to time, but according to work. 

The Ohairmaa, ^n propoaing a vote of thanks to the 
lecturer, said it would not become him, at that late hour 
of the evening, to detain them by any remarks of his, 
but he thought perhaps he should differ with Dr. Yeats 
as regarded the origin and history of these guilds. He 
did not think England was their original source. He 
should rather look upon these guil£ as ecclesiastical, 
social, and trading, in their earliest stages — ^perhaps first 
as representative of the association which Christianity re- 
presented; 2ndly, caused by 'Social wants; and 3rdly, 
founded when Edward III. established our commercial 
relations. But now we have to deal with the question 
of what use we can make of these wealthy repre- 
sentatives of the City companies. There should be 
something like a union formed amount them. Let the 
leading men combine in the guild-umon or trade-union 
— call it what you will, although there is a great differ- 
ence between the ancient and the modem. In the old 
guild you had a combination of the masters and work- 
men. In the trades-union you have only workmen 
combined as against capitalists. That is a new state of 
things entirely. The real question is in what way can 
these wealthy institutions best promote the objects for 
which they were brought into existence. We are in an 
entirely new state of things, and we must adapt our- 
selves to it. In conclusion, he would observe, that in a 
work of four volumes, published by Dr. Yeats, and in 
Smile's '* Lives of the Huguenots, would be found a 
vast amount of information on the subject, and this, 
with the paper read before them, probably contained all 
that had oeen written on the subject. 



It is estimated by U. H. Boason that there are 
nearly 18,100 miles (Englisb^ of railways in Europe, whioh 
have coat a gross total of 424 millions sterling, apponrtioiied 
as foUowa :— The United Kingdom, 7»670 miles, oostmg about 
S64i milUons; France, 2,619 milss, 64 millions; Pnuaia, 
2,870 milts, 96| miUions; Oetmany (various statas), 2,176 
miles, 21 milUoDS ; Aoslria, 1,4M miks, 16 miUioas ; RuMa, 
712 mUss, m miUloBs; Belgium, 600 miles, 10 miUisos; 
Italy, Sardinia, and other States, ^10 ndles, 11| millisaf^ 



190 JOlrtlNAL OP THE SOOIETY OF ABTS, Jahuam 81, 187S. 



ASSTJAL nrTEBSATIOVAL KXHIBIIIOVS. 



The oflSoes of the Commisaionen are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-Qeneral Soott, O.B., 
Becretafy. 

The Society*fl Committee for advising her Majesty's 
Commissioners in reference to the display of substances 
used as food (section, Gkt>cery and Drysaltery) met at the 
Society's Rooms on Friday, the 24th January. There 
were present :— Sir Antonio Brady, in the chair, Dr. H. 
A. Pitman, Dr. A. Campbell, Professor R. Bentley, 
Messrs. F. A. Abel Hyde Clarke, R. M. Curtis, James 
Duncan, W. Hall, Reginald Hanson, T. Hicks, E. W. 
Lamer, F. Machin, J. Manley, W. H. Michael W. 
Reed, P. L. Simmonds, Seymour Teulon, W. Tapp, 
and J. A. Youl ; attended by Mr. E. J. Cndgie, Deputy 
Commissioner, and Mr. P. Le Neve Foster, Secretary. 
The Committee, acting as a Committee of Selection, 
took into consideration the list of applications from 
intendiDg esdiibitors, and reports from the several 
Committees. 

The first meeting took place yesterday (Mr. Dubrei^ 
in the chair) of the Committee of French gentlemen 
who have a^^reed to promote an adequate representation 
of French art and industry this year. The Committee 
consists of MM. Corbidre, Devdze, Dogmn, Dromtd 

girecteur du Comptoir d'Escompte de Paris), Ghiudet, 
zaid, Lebeau, Lintilhac, and Roux j^Chancelier de 
TAmbassade de France). The Committee took into 
consideration the numerous applications to exhibit 
which had been already received from French manu- 
fiicturers, and Uiey personally undertook to endeavour 
to make the representation as complete as possible. 



EXHIBITIONS. 



Yiennft Exhibition. — ^The French conumssion reports 
that its exhibition of works of art will occupy as much 
space as those of all the other European nations toother, 
Austria, we presume, excepted. The French pictures 
and objects of art will fill four large and as many smaller 
galleries. The space devoted to French exhibitors 
amounts to 1,000 metres in the grand rotunda, 7,000 
metres in the galleries, 1,000 metres in the courts, 5,000 
metres in the machine gallery, besides a large space in 
the park. The courts, which are open, are now being 
covered in the French section, and in front of them wiU 
be established the French restaurant. Taking recent 
events into consideration, the efforts made by the French 
government in regard to the Vienna Exhibition reflect 
most favourably both upon its commercial good sense and 
its patriotism. The Oazetts of January 24 published a 
list of exhibitors in the British section, exclusive of fine 
arts. The number is in all 742. 



PLAN OF THE VIENNA EXHIBITION. 

By the courtesy of the proprietors of Iron we are 
enabled to publish the accompanying map of the Vienna 
Exhibition. Iron is the new name under which the 
Meehaniet' Magazine is now appearing. Though not the 
first started, the Meehaniet* Magatine was, at the time of 
the change, considerably the oldest of our techniCHl 
journals. After a career of half a century it has taken 
a new name and a new condition, but if it only suoceds 
in maintaining the traditions of the Magazine^ the new 
paper should have nothing to fear. While feeling a cer- 
tam regret at the decease of an old friend, we have no 



LABOUR IN GERMANY. 

The effSscts of the war upon Germany may bo tAmm 

in the course of the reports written nom tbot' oonx] 

Mr. Cope, the Britidi representative, rewiding' at 1>4 

stadt, notices how the enormous sums pud by fVaiuj 

Germany have had the effect of deprec i nl iT i g tiba -n 

of money. Prices which already, before the wmr, ha^ 

the ten years from 1869 to 1869, enormously riaen« h 

increased since that event The sort of nigbtmare, ; 

black cloud which hung over Hessian GermAZiy. tbit» 

the ever-present dread of a French invasion, bas, by 

defeat of the French armies, and the pushing back of 

frontier by the annexation of Alsace and park of L 

raine, been removed, and the consequence of a fecS 

of security has been a rise in the price of land, aind m 

especially of houses, and therefore of rente ; tbis, ad< 

to the higher taxes, caused by the reorganieatian of i 

army, has tended to make everything dearer, and pres 

very hard upon people with small fixed penaioixe; i 

others, such as owners of houses, merchantB, maniil 

turers, producers of food, &o., recoup thesnaelvee by a 

ing more for what thev give in exchange fofr man 

and, of course, the working man, if an artisan 'wocki 

for himself^ asks more for what he makes ; if woiki 

for a master, demands higher wages. The rise in pn 

presses, Uierefore, most heavily upon employes wi 

fixed salaries, persons with fixed incomes ; and it o^ 

be remembered that the people thus living in Genna^ 

are usually living on much smaller incomes than t 

same dass in England, and that, from the nobility, m 

general rule, only takin^^ service under the State, u 

not supplementing their incomes from the ehufC 

law, or trade, the class living on small inooa 

is a numerous one. In the Grand Duchy of fiCesse wh 

can be done is done to improve the working man. Ed 

cation is provided for his children free of char^ and I 

apprentices and working men desirous of improva 

themselves there are winter schools, where bo<^-keepa 

mental arithmetic, &c., are taught; and similar scjkoc 

are open in summer for women and girls. Of the b^ 

called out to fill up vacancies in the rsnks of the Hessr 

division in 1870-71. out of a total of 4,642 only 14 m 

without a school education. There are also the so-csS 

<* Handwerhn-Schulen," or schools of design, for artisBi 

These were first started with a surplus of not quite £1 

which remained from the receipts of the first Indostai 

Exhibition, in 1837 ; and two schools were stalled asi 

experiment, one with fifty pupils and another wd 

twenty-eight, and tiiese were found to answer so i^ 

that now there are fifty-two of these schools, with 2,1^ 

pupils attending them. Go-operative societies and bSi 

fit clubs, msnnged by the working men tiiemselves, cd 

in comiiderable numbers; also saving banks of will 

the artisans seem to avail themselves more and xaB 

each year. Although there are complaints of the wve^ 

good workmen, Mr. Cope adviSes no British workmsal 

emif^rate to this part of Germany on a specnlstfl 

search for work. In tiie first place he would ne. 

be able to live as cheaply as the Qermans, s»< 

would not, therefore, be so well off; and, ssoos^l 

as the man who would come abroad to look fbrwM| 

would be very unlikelv to be a first-dass workman, wb' 

could always get full employment at home, hewea^j 

probably not be so useful to tne master employing bit 

as the best native workman, and would, therelbie, so 

be worth so much wages. Of course, a man having | 

distinct contract from a known employer of laboor vool \ 

be in a different position, but he should always ^P^ 

for being sent back home, with his journey paid, if h , 

found the place or climate did not suit him, even if h 

had to take lower wages at first in order to get this ooa 

dition inserted ; and he should take oare to have the om 

tract properly legalised by a consul, in Orsat Britsin. o 

the country he is going to. But, with our colonies opa 



hesitation in wishing our new one a long and prosperous I to him, with the present influx of English into Soofi 
career. l America, and, laslly, with the United Ststas, peopled t) 



19^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Januabt 31, 1873. 



COMMERCE AND TRADE IN SIAM. 

The recenUy-published Consular Re|x>rt on this oountry 
gives some details about its ooaimeroial progress. The 
exports in 1871 were above the average of the last 
five years. The rice crop suffered from want of rain, 
and prices ruled high. Some of the export trade has 
been taken away by the port of Sdigon, which has con- 
siderable advantages as regards the export of rice to 
China. Its g^reater proximitv admits of less freight, and 
consequently, when prioes in both countries are the 
same, buyers naturally prefer the nearer market. There 
is also telegraphic communication thence to Hong Kong, 
where the greater part of the speculators in the grain 
reside. Lastly, they have got rid of the oorv6e system, 
and thus fdl the inhabitants are free to work for them- 
selves, and this is not yet the case in Siam. 

The attention of the government has been repeatedlv 
drawn to the want of telegraphic communication witn 
the outside world, but as yet without much result. It is 
believed, however, that the government now intend to 
run a line from Bangkok to Fenang. 

In regard to the corv6e system, the great evil of Siam, 
— difficult as its abolishment wiU be,for the government, 
as at present administered, could not be worked without 
it — still it is a mere question of time when the people 
shall be rid of it. The government is aware of its great 
evils, and is anxious to tree the country from the 
oppression. There is little doubt that what most 
Europeans are pleased to call the inherent laziness of 
the Siamese is merely the natural effect of making man 
labour without reward. Numbers of Siamese now com- 
pound for throe months* labour due to their lords, and 
work with Europeans throughout the year. Those who 
had beeoi for some time under Europeans of energy and 
probity, work as hard, and are as regfular in their conduct 
as the natives of any warm climate, and will do in one 
day as much work as an ordinary Siamese, working 
under the corv6e system, will do in three. The Siamese 
officials are becoming so well aware of this fact, that 
many of them, when they have anv real work to do, 
prefer to compound with the men told off to do it ; and 
with the money thus obtained hire labour at the market 
rates. 

If the export of rice does not continue to progress, 
there are strong grounds for believing that the production 
of BUg^r will be largely extended. The steam-ploughs 
upon the Indo-Chinese Company's estate have turned out 
a great success, and have enabled the company to get a 
large amount of land under cultivation at less than half 
the rate they would have been obliged to pay had they 
employed Chinese hand labour. From the deeper culti- 
vation of these ploughs better crops are alfK) expected, 
and also an earlier puuiting of the cane. Till now, the 
cane-growers have been in the habit of planting in Maroh 
and April ; and as the cane is cut in December and the 
three following months, it is baroly ripe, and does not 
contain the same amount of saccharine matter that cane 
fully twelve months in the ground usually produces. 



PROPERTIES AND USES OP KIESERITE. 

Kieserite is a mineral composed of snlph'^te of magnesia 
and water, which occurs to the extent of 12 per cent, in 
the salt deposits of Stassfurt, Germany. It differs from 
Epsom salts by its difficult solubility in water and smaller 
I>ercentag^ of water of crystallisation. 

The first attempts to economise kieserite wero made 
in 1864, when it was proposed to employ it in the 
preparntion of sulphate of potash. Since that time the 
applications have greatly increased, and it has now 
become an important article of commerce. The largest 
quantity of the raw material is sent to England, whero 
it takes the place of the sulphate of magnesia, formerly 
nufactured from dolomite, or Grecian magnesite, in 
u printing. Another portion of kieserite is converted 



into Glauber salts, which on aooonnt of its freedom firom 
iron, aro highly prized by g«s manufacturers. 

Manufiioturers of Uanefixe employ kieserite instead of 
sulphuric acid to precipitate the sulphate of bariam from 
chloride of barium, and in all similar cases where it is 
proposed to proparo a difficultly soluble sulphate, tliA 
kieserite can be advantageously used. Kieserite is re- 
commended as a substitute for ff^psum in agricultare« ma 
a topniressing for clover, and is largely employed in 
England for this purpose. It is proposed to use kieeerite 
in the manufacture of alum. Thero is a mineral called 
bauxite, which chiefly consists of the hydrated ozid^ of 
aluminum ; this is easily dissolved in hydrochloric acid. 
Cheap potash salts and the calculated quantity of kieeerite 
are added ; alum crjrstaJlises out of the solution, suod 
chloride of magnesium zemaius in the moUier liquid. 

The uses indicated above aro wholly inadequate to 
consume the enormous quantities now obtained from, the 
Stassfurt mines. MUuons of pounds of kiesante axe 
annually brought to the sur&oe, and it is beoomin^ a 
serious question to know what to do with it. If itoould 
be used as a substitute for gypsum in building materials 
and cements, its cheapness would at once commend it to 
notice. Experiments looking to this application have 
been tried. 

Two equivalents of kieserite and one equivaleiit otf 
caustic lime were stirred to a paste in water. The maae 
hardened, but remained granular and brittle. On. 
calcining it, however, again pulverizing and moistening 
with water, it set to a solid marble-like mass, wluoii 
could be applied to many useful purposes. It is propoaed 
to employ this material for ornamental decoratioiia in 
die interior of houses, and in general for the manufacture 
of cements and as a substitute for plaster of Paria. 

Kieserite appears likelj to prove a valuable aoceasion 
to our supply of useful minerals, to be ranked by the side 
of kainite, a potash mineral also found at Stassfurt, 
and now laigely imported into the United States. — 
Seientijlo Amtriean* 



COBBESPOHDEVCE. 



FIRE INSURANCE. 

Sm, — At pa^ 169 of the Journal of the Society of ^ris^ 
I find a stiuihng statement, for which apparently the 
Law Fire Office is responsible. 

Will you be so kind as to communicate to Mr. 
Macomber that the amount of premium paid to the 
London Fire offices was £648,528, not £16,644,000. — ^I 
am, &c., 

Gborob Wif . Bbll, Secretary, 

Law Fire Insurance Society. 
114, Cbanoery4ane, London, W.C., 
27th January, 1S73. 

[We have received the following from Mr. Macomber : — 
'' LoLStead of stating that £463.236,000 is the amoont 
insured in the City of I^mdon, this amount should be 
applied to the entire Metropolis, and the premium on 
this sum should appear as £648,628."] 



SULPHUR IN SICILY. 

Sir, — ^The annual produce of sulphur in Sidiljr, as 
given by Signer Mottura in last week's Joum^i^ is 
160,000 tons. If Signer Giordano's figures are correct, 
this amount is too sinall by some 60,000 tons. I find in 
the Journal of ths Society of Arte, vol. zviiL, p. 876. that 
Signer Giordano st<ites that the annual value of aolphar 
produced in Sicily in 26.000,000 francs, which, at the 
price he gives, of 120 francs per ton, comsponda to 
126,000 tons. — ^I am, &c., 

Zotrow 



192 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, January 31, 1873. 



Anglo-Saxons, within a few days* sail, it is impoaaible to 
conceive a British workman emigrating to Germany, 
except on a distinot contract giving him profitable terms. 

Upon a general view of the distri Dution of Wurtembnrg 
industry, ont of a population of 1,746,328 inhabitants 
fifby per cent, are employed in agricoltore, and 269,077 
in other kinds of industry. It has been calculated that 
the capital of the nation, by aid of the labour population, 
returns a revenue of ten per cent. From the account of 
the mode in which labour is distributed among the 
different branches, it appears that 44,344 persons are 
employed in the preparation of food. Four establish- 
ments, employing 325 hands and 5,200 spindles, are en- 
gaged in spinning flax. Linen is mostly hand-sown 
in Wurtemburg; this trade employs 19,507 work- 
men and 19,379 looms. The number of power-looms in 
present use is twenty-seven. Seventy-five establishments 
are engag^ in spinning woollen yam, employing about 
60,000 spindles and 2,200 workmen. Three manufactories 
for carding wool employ 20,000 spindles and 13,500 
workmen. Seventy- four worldng with 527 hand and 31 
power-looms, and emploving 1,114 hands, are employed 
in the manufacture of woUen tissues. Twenty-two 
working with 444 hands and 45 power-looms, and occu- 
pying 886 workmen, are exigaged in the manufacture of 
flannels and mixed stuffs. The cotton-spinning emplovs 
upwards of 270,000 spindles and 3,850 operatives, and the 
annual producUon of this branch of industry was esti- 
mated in the :^ear 1861 at upwards of £1,000,000 sterling. 
The calico i»rinting, established at Heidenheim, produces 
annually 150,000 pieces of calico for foreign exportation. 
There are upwards of 60 manufactories employed in the 
oonstruolion of machines, thirty-four establishments in 
working in the precious metals. Besides these there 
are many large manufactories working in all olnssee of 
iron, bronne, and sine, and employing a large portion of 
the industrial population, the number of which does not 
appear in the official returns. Dt has been estimated 
that 2,660 hands fire employed in tanneries, and 21,000 
in shoemabing. There exist 20 paper maiiii^Eictories in 
Wurtemburg; and the book trade at Stuttoardt is re- 
ported to produce annually £300,000 stening. The 
severe trial which all indus^ underwent in Qennany 
during the late war was espemlly felt in Wurtemburg, 
owing to its vicinity to the scene of the flrst hostilities. 
The crisis was, fortunately, of short duration, and the 
restored confi^nce consequent on the flrst successes of 
the Gterman army, helped to bring labour back to its 
usual channel; but the effects of the disturbance 
of the^ labour market cannot even yet be said to be 
so entirely forgotten as to admit of pronouncing the 
present state of labour a normal one. The effiBCts of the 
political changes in (Germany which followed, although 
slower in making themselves felt, are of a 
more ioiportant character. The foundatien of a 
United German empire breke down many barriers 
in the way of a free development of German industry. 
Speaking, therefore, in general terms, the condition of 
the worsing man has undoubtedly improved, and in 
comparison with the condition of the same class in 
Saxony, the Lower Rhine Provinces, and Alsace, where 
wages are considerably lower, and provisions, if any- 
thing, dearer, it is decidedly a favourable one. An 
intending emigrant will find that labotir of an ordinary 
description wUl command wages varying from Os. to 
188. a week, and that skilled labour will command wages 
from 25s. to 458. a week ; that, with the exception of 
skilled labour, e,g, as overseer, or to superintend the 
starting of any branch of business, or as a good calico 
or cotton piinter, there is little opening for Enj^ish 
labour. 

The aauber of persons- empli^r^ in the various 
branchss df industry at Bremen' is not so great as might 
be expedt^from the total nttnber of inhabitants oraial 
city. The poaitioa of Bremen in relation to the Giermaa 
'^ostoms* Wnioa,^ as also- the small demand from the 
Tly-popoJated dlstiAoU of ibto neighbouring pronfeces 



of Hanover and Oldenburg, prevent the indnstrial in- 
dustry of this city from attaining anything like import- 
ance. The various kinds of work are, as a rule, well 
performed, but the superior class of workmen and 
artisans are not so skilful as the same kind of 
persons in England. Mr. Consul Ward thinks tlie 
chief faults of the working classes at Bremen axe 
slowness, and an indifference as to completing their work 
within a given time ; the latter circumstance is probably 
caused by the want of sufficient competition. The 
artisans, moreover, shows a deficiency in artistic akin 
in the execution of their work, which, though of a durable 
and solid nature, is generally wanting in taste. All the 
more elegant articles of industry found at Bremen are 
imported from other countries; articles of British in- 
dustry are in great request, on account of their superior 
finish and taste, and in many cases on account of their 
comparative cheapness. It is, however, probable that the 
increasing demands and greatr^r pretensions of the in- 
habitants, as compared with former years, will urge the 
'Bremen artisan to attend more to the outw»rd appear- 
ance of his work, and also to modem requirements. 
Should the restrictions placed at present upon the de* 
velopment of the industrial interest by the isolated posi- 
tion of Bremen with reference to the German Costoma 
Union be removed at a future day, a further impulse 
would be given to the advancement of the industrial 
classes in this city ; on the other hand, it should, 
perhaps, be added that the Bremen artisans are, in one 
sense, very independent in the performance of their 'work 
— more so probably than in other cities where manu- 
factories have taken the place of manual labour. At 
Bremen a workman engaged in some special trade or 
industry does not merely perform one single part of an 
article, but he generally executes the same in its entii^ety . 
This fact of his being oblig^ to carry out the working 
of each article from beginning to end, gives him also a 
greater iatereet in his work, and enables him to put more 
of his owfi character into it than if he had only per- 
formed a part of it. Strikes among the industrial rTnnnn 
are hardly known. Mr. Ward believes that althoug-h an 
English artisan or workman coming to Bremen vrould 
live almost as well as in England, on lower wages, and 
in a climate similar to that of his own country, he 
would probably find a rather narrow field for developing' 
his skill, and silso a disinclination on the part of a large 
portion of the population to adopt new ideas in nu&ttexa 
of industry as in various other subjects. 



ANILINE BLACK AS A DYE FOR OOTTOK 

GOODS. 

Chemists have long tried to make use of the beautifol 
black precipitate produced by the action of bichromate of 
potassa for the solution of certain aniline salts as a dye 
for calicoes, but without success ; if the solution ^ras 
concentrated, the black was soon precipitated to the 
bottom of Ihe bath ; if, on the other hand, it was dilute^ 
the black, owing to the absence of a sufficiently powetrf ul 
oxidation, was not formed at all, or in insufficient 
quantity. 

This trouble it was attempted to remove by cooling 
down the solutions nearly to zero. But this produci^d 
another difficulty, the chromate of aniline crystitlliaing 
out at that temperature when the solutions were snffi. 
ciently concentrated to produce the desired dye. \Vher- 
ever these spots existed in the cloth, on suhseq^ucnt. 
drying a mutual reaction took place between the con« 
stituents of the chromate of aniline, causing sach a ri^o 
of temperature as not un&equently to set fire to the 
-oloth. 

To ovtBfDome these various difficulti«s the follow^inff 

v eapsd hnts «wre adopted: — By means of a horizonbu 

brush, to which a reciprocating motion was given in a 

vertical direction, the solutions, efther together or ono 

afUBr the other, were cast upon the cloth, while ti^htl v 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jjkhuary 81, 1878. 



198 



ii tiM form of a fine tpraj. Bj ihk aeant, 
ftpidly the iwctkm took place, it ooold not 
^ ^ » mtfl the eolations were intiniately mixed 
Mp« the oloth, thektttr being at the same time 
wettsd witii rt. 
I litte feond to be most suitable for this naetion 
i fBlpbUe, hydrochloride, and the nitrate. No 
ii obtdaeble with the aeetate^ and the tartrate, 
and dtiate are more or less unfitted for the pro- 
of a food ooloor. If a too nearly neutral sola- 
«si there is great di£Bcalty in producing the 
>; if the tohilioiis are too acid, the black is formed 
that the soliitions have not time to mix saffi- 
ad to penetrate the cloth. As the result of 
wmg im e nts with hydrochloric, sulidraric, and 
is^ alts, the following conclusion' was arrived at, 
Ihe eraployment of neutral aniHne salts was 
1 The bi-acid aniline salts, especially the 
give good lesolts. Of the tri-add salts the 
de is the beet. 3. The sulphates give a 
Ibek; the Inrdrochloric and nitrio add salts 
• Msek with a bhie lostiv. 4. Bqual volumes of 
) and bi-hjrdro^ilcride of aniline give excellent 
& The bi-<duro«iate of potash solution must be 
containing not less than 80 gxaamee of 
ftehtie. 

Idnk'^irMa is first produced on passing the doth 
jtbttMsp-bath. After washing it thoroughly this 
> JBle pne black. By printing the doth with fittty 
m, pre v io wa to the application of the dye- 
vhite paAterason a Uaok ground can be 
'inn. 



UnLffiATIOK OF WASTE COAL. 



. onthitsikhjectby Mr. W. H.Wahl, intfae 

of the Frank&n Institttte of Pennsylvania," 

myi: — '* The processes for the utilisation of 

waste consjjt universally in the employ- 

of a foreign material or materials, which shall 

tW purpose of a cement to bind the loose 

of the waste together. The cements here- 

and have been both of mineral (incombustible] 

f orpuiic (comb osti ble) character. In the ma- 

of iutanoes, aa is usually the case with a 

of intention just ripening into importance, the 

tMefsachprooessesdispU^ a characteristic igno- 

<Qr lefty iadifiference to, the conditions of the 

they profess to solve. The number and variety 

rhioh have been secured b^ inventors, 

rUMBientB, or to aid in the cementation or oom- 

ihvell calculated to surprise one unfieuniliar with 

^ — if such an expression is allowable when 

IliPlitent Office records — of the subject The 

AaHoe substances and their silicates seem to 

I Wea held in special favour, since they repeat them- 

^ vith tome modifications, in several places. Lime, 

or with some subsequent chemical alteration 

nte, sulphate, or silicate, is claimed ; or plaster 

isr hydnaUc cement » used directly. Clay must 

\U named. Among orgaido substances may be 

pitch, coal-tar, resin, the Trinidad bitumens, 

^ petioleum residues, dextrine, glue, Qrahamite, 

vhfle as accessories, employed either to assist 

or oombustion, we have sawdust, chafif, 

cow-dung, starch, sand, saltpetre, and other 

(too Bunerous to^mention. Oomparatively f^w 

prnr i f ss us have ever reached a pobHc trial, as, 

■« diiTMu it, and of those which have reedved 

BODe have been more than indifferently 

fljfhsr hom inherent defidendee or from 



blood. 



t* 



Mlexpott of iron and steel in 1 872 areniged 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS IN FRANCE. 

The engineers of Foots et Chauss^es and the 
mining engineers of France have always held highly 
important positicms, and although opinion has been 
divided respecting the policy which concentrated all the 
public works in the hands of these two bodies of scientific 
men, there can be no doubt that their systematic training 
has done much towards devating engineering sdence. 
A third body is now about to be called into existence in 
the special interest of agriculture* This step was de- 
termined in 1870, but circumstances have delayed its 
being taken until the present time. The Minister of 
Agriculture has announced that in future diplomas will 
be granted to agricultural engineers. Candidates must 
in the first place have passed through one of the recog* 
nized agricultural schools, and have obtained, after nomi- 
nation, a certificate of agricullural instruction, or other- 
wise submit to a similar examination to the preliminary 
certificate. In order to obtain the diploma of engineer, 
the candidate must present a memoir giving a systematic 
monog^ph of a locality or of an agricultural establish- 
ment, and also answer satisfactorily the questions put by 
a jury on agriculture, teehnical soology, acoounts, the 
economic sdences, mathematics, physics, chemistry and 
natural history as far as they relate to agriculture. The 
jury may also demand proofs of the candidates if it see 
fit. The memoirs are to be sent in in the month of 
October, and the examination to take place on the first of 
December in each year. 

Conddering the great and (Nressing importance of all 
matters connected with drainage, irrigation, and manur- 
ing, in the thickly populated countries of the old world, 
this new step on the road of technical eduoatioB deserve* 
spedal attention. 



THE FRENCH EGG TRADE. 

A correspondent of the Grocer writes as follows upon 
this subject : — ** The French egg trade is a thing of com- 
parativelv recent date, the number imported in 1856 
being only 117,230,600, against 658,000,000 imported in 
1872. Hence the number has very nearly quintupled 
within the last sixteen years, yet it is remarkable that 
the price has in no way deereased ; for, while the average 
price of the year in 1856 was 5s. 8d. per 120, in 1870 
and 1871 it averaged 6s. for the same number; and, 
indeed, an average for the last five years shows whole- 
sale price almost always slightly over the figure of ten 
for 6d. If this price can be obtained for imported eggs, 
it is plainly not for want of a good market that Uie 
English leave so much of this trade in the hands of 
foreigners. There is no doubt that one cause of the 
g^reat poultry productions of France lies in the large 
class of small proprietors or farmers, to which in this 
country we have no similar body. Such small pro« 
prietors, each having a few acres, are in the ver^ best 
position for keeping fowls, their occupation not being too 
large to allow of the most complete oversight without 
any very expennve buildings or outlay in labour. It 
is by collecting e^gs from a large number of these small 
raisers that the immense totaU above remarked upon 
are chiefly derived, though there are a certain number 
of larger producers. These latter, however, are chiefly 
concerned in the raising of chickens for the market, and 
have very little comparative influence on the eg^ supply. 
Of this latter the English trade is only a part, the Frendi 
being far more of an egg-eating nation then ourselves— 
so much so, indeed, that it has been computed every 
Parisian consumes 160 eggs annually, though whethtt* 
this calculation be accurate it is very difficult to say." 



A substance called Ceresine, obtained as a by- 
product in purifyinf^ ozokerit for the maoufacture of 



paraflbe, is now used m Vienna as asubstitate for bees*-wsx 
in certain medioinal preparations. 



198 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, F«3BUAKr 7, X873. 



The following candidates were balloted for and 

duly elected members, of the Society : — 

Bannister, Bobert Hope, 80, King William-street, E.G. 
Waldnck, Henry, 4, Warwick-oonrt, Holbom, W.O. 
Watt, Philip B., 3, BilbienitreQt, llottingham. 

The Pai)er read was — 

SHIPS FOB THE CHANNEL PASSAGE. 

By Lieut. Col. A. Strange, F.B.8., 

Inq>ector of ScieDtifio Instramenti to the India GoTernment. 

I believe that the object of the Council of 
the Society of Arts, in asking me to read 
a paper on this subject, is that of promoting 
puolic discussion of it. They did not, I hope, ex- 
pect that I should be able to throw any original 
ught on it. Nor, were I able — ^which I certainly 
am not — should I attempt to do so on this occa- 
sion. My efforts will be directed chiefly to bring- 
ing together the various methods which are about 
to be tried practically of giving increased comfort 
to those who have to cross the Channel, in order 
that the promoters of each may, if so minded, help 
us to compare them impartially, and thus both 
prepare the public mind for a new state of things, 
and also themselves derive possibly some of those 
advantages which are generally found to follow 
open debate. 

I need say very little to persuade you that there 
is room for improvement in our present means of 
crossing the Channel. The siun of human misery 
accumulated in a generation by the horrors of that 
short vovage is beyond calculation and beyond 
words. When a boy at school, some 40 years ago, 
my par^its lived on the Continent, and I had to 
cross frequently every year for my holidays. After 
leaving school I spent 26 years in India. When I 
returned to Europe I found the Channel steamers 
almost exactly what I remembered them in my 
youth — improved, no* dq^ubt, in speed, but in 
nothing else worth mentioning. The same cockle- 
shell tossing about, the same pitiless deck exposure, 
the same fetid cabin atmosphere, the same utter 
absence of special accommodation fit for those 
willing to pay for it, the same disgusting filth and 
brutal disregard of the commonest decencies ; and 
all these evils in kind, far from having imdergone 
mitigation in degree, absolutely aggravated by 
the crowding of passengers, baggage, and goods, 
which the railway system has, since I was a boy, 
poured into these vile floating receptacles. 

I should qualify the very strong expressions I 
have hero used by acknowledging that some little 
effort has recently been made to improve existing 
Channel steamers. In the autumn, the Albert 
Edward, belonging to the South Eastern Railway 
Company, had a little awning spread over the 
deck, which is, so far as it goes, an improvement, 
but it is very slight. 

It is, perhaps, known to many of the audience 
that a committee of this Society, of which our 
gallant chairman is a member, has been for some 
time accumulating evidence on the subject of the 
Channel passage, which has been published in the 
Journal of the Society. While this evidence ex- 
hibits much diversity of opinion on the numerous 
remedial measures proposed, nothing is more 
striking than the general consent of impartial 
^^t^esses as to the main cause that has retarded 

-iproYement->namely, the refusal of the railway 



companies to consider anything but the qixestioi 
of dividends — and to rejeot any scheme for sixb 
stantially increasing the oomfort of the pul^lic, t^ 
whom they owe their privileges and very exiartezioc 
if it threatened any immediate expenditure, Iiott 
ever great the prospective gain by increairiiig' pas 
senger traffic, might promise to be. I do not ixitezii 
to dwell on this unquestionable fact. But, spealdiii 
on the Channel passage, it is not out of place tlra 
I should record, in connection with it, one of tlii 
numerous instances in which our gigantic priT-^t^ 
railway monox>olies have signally failed to fiiI6 
their obligations to the pdblic — ^failures -wlxicli 
affecting safety to life as well as comfort and. con 
venience — ^have now produced a stnmg^ l>ody oi 
opinion favourable to the transfer of i^ul^!v^.ys t^ 
the State. I shcdl merely add, that for tlie con^ 
trivances for improving the Channel pAssage 
forming the subject of this paper, we are indel>ted 
I believe, solely to private enterprise and indi^duai 
invention, and in no degree whatever to tlie ixd^ 
tiative or encouragement of the various railiw^^ 
companies who have so long supinely penuitte< 
us to suffer such grievous misery. 

A few introductory words on the subject of soa^ 
sickness seem necessary in order to €?stiiiiat^ 
properly the various expedients by which it is pro 
posed to mitigate or prevent it. I am not i 
physiologist, and shall, therefore, not presnine t< 
dogmatise on a malady the causes of wLicli are 
I believe, to some extent in dispute ainoii^si 
physiologists themselves. A distingiushcKi snrgteon 
whose opinion I recently consulted for the purpo^ 
of this paper, told mo that he believed the luain 
cause to be the forcing back of the blood upon thd 
cerebellum, that part of the brain in immetiiat^ 
connection with the spinal column, throufrh -whicl 
the abnormal disturbance was communicaterl tr\ 
the stomach and other organs. My learned f rii^'ii^l 
did not adopt the more popular explanation thai 
the mechanical pressure of the diaphragm was tb*! 
chief cause of sea-sickness, and he gave me hii 
reasons for holding the above views, which I f«u 
to repeat, lest, in my ignorance, I should misst«itrj 
them. The brain theory, as I may call it, certainly 
seems supported by the fact of the well-Vnov^ni 
intense mental prostration and distress whieli is :i 
peculiar feature of sea-sickness. Others attacl 
some importance to optical causes, and beli«»ve thai 
the sight of swinging objects in motion helps t^ 
aggregate, if not to produce, the malady. X onc^ 
tried an experim^it, which, from its beariix^ or 
this supposed cause, I may briefly descrihe. 

Some years ago I was about to cross, in an opt-r 
boat, the harbour of Kurrachco, in Scin<Io» t*; 
Manora-point, on which the lighthouse stands 
A lady who was of the party announced that sL< 
should be sick directly the boat was pushed off« J 
suddenly remembered, in this emergency, having 
read of a mode of preventing sea-sickness, vvhich 
although I felt no faith in it, I thought '^eortb 
irymg. It consisted in grvmg the lady a tumbles 
nearly full of water, which she was to keep stead v 
so as to spill none of its contents. She folXowtxi 
my instructions, and at the end of our passAxre 
which only occupied a few minut«s, she declared 
that for tne fiist time in her life, under sixmlaj 
circumstances, she had ezi>eriei¥M)d no TmrairiTiceji 
whatever. The explanation is probably that oi 
illusion caused by tne quiescence in the tumbler o^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pebruart 7, 1873. 



199 



lliDiigh such an illusion can hardly be 
to be of long duration, even if the experi- 
dd be continued, it yet seems to indicate 
means which can be adopted to cheat the 
lifO thinking that the ship is not in motion 
seiriceablo. 

whether the disturbance of the victim be 
ional, mechanical, or mental kind, or of 
ibined. no doubt can exist that as a whole 
iased mainly and primarily by the motions 
Tt«eL Let us, therefore, consider what 
motioiiB are. They are principally of two 
— angular and rectilinear. The angular 
are:— 1. Pitching. 2. Boiling. 3. Hori- 
or azimiithal swaying. 
•rectilinear motions are : — 4. The longitudinal 
» of the ship on her course. 5. Lateral 
^ 6. Upward and downward motion of 

Im these motions there are others affecting, 
ship u a whole, but her structure. Such 
Temporary vibration caused by the concussion 
res, and 8, Continuous tremor caused by the 

of her engines — if a steamer. 
ihAll be able at once to eliminate several of 
JBiotions, and so materially reduce the number 
[haTf to be counteracted. 
4, The longitudinal advance of the ship, may 
a«de first, because if we are to ffet across 
^1 at all we cannot dispense wim it; and, 
r, because our experience of it in land 
Qg proves that ii has nothing to do with 
sickness. No. 5, Lateral drifting, being a 
» wedsely the same in kind, though much 
degree, can have still less to do with the 
r. in an omnibus, for instance, we are sub- 
to this lateral motion without bad effect. 
\^ Horizontal or ajdmuthal swaying, must 
flte same effect as No. 5, Lateral drifting — 
la. no effect at all. 

the Jeffects of Nos. 7 and 8, Vibration 
Djor, respectively, to be considered at a 
penod. we come now to No. 6, Upward and 
nvd motion of translation, which requires 
ccosideration. The usual definition of 
of translation is that it is the motion of a 
Atodng continuously or oscillating back- 
ed forwards in a direction parallel to 
Thp solar system, though composed of 
rotating on their respective axes, and 
in nearly circular orbits, has also a 
progreasivo motion in space sensibly 
*!• in direction. This bodfly movement, 
Ji^pito distinct from the others — is a motion 
The piston of a fixed steam-engine 
'wtictl motion of translation upwards and 
within the cylinder. In this case 
no other motion to complicate or mask 
of ianalation. An example of rectilinear 
of translation, combined with angular 
ii afforded by the piston of steam-engines 
WriTliting cylinders, such as are generally 
~ ' for marine puri)06e8, and to bo seen in 
tpony steamers plying on the Thames. In 
^itte the motion of translation of the 
y^^ tnd down in the cylinder, as in the 
bat its inclination with respect to 
tt t}ie same time, constantly vary- 
Mflfllfttion of the cylinder along 
Bring tiie angular oedllation of 



the cylinder to a stcuidstiU, and we have only the 
rectilinear motion left, as in the fixed engine. 

In a ship we have ihe same movements as in an 
oscillating engine cylinder — the varying angular 
inclination caused by pitching or rolling, which- 
ever we may be considering, and the rectilinear 
translation caused by the heaving of the waves up 
and down vertically. This may, perhaps, be even 
more clearly illustrated by means of the beam of a 
Cornish pumping-engine. As always made, the 
beam possesses longitudinal angular motion only, 
analogous to the pitching of a ship. But let us 
imagine the centre or point on which the beam 
turns to be placed at the top of a piston-rod work- 
ing lip and down vertically in a cylinder. This 
would give to the beam translatory motion in 
addition to the angular motion. Further, let us 
suppose the centre or joint, instead of acting in 
one plane only, to have a rocking motion at right 
angles to the length of the beam, then that would 
represent the rolling of the ship, and we should 
thus have all three motions — pitching, rolling, and 
translation, acting on one and the same beam, 
simultaneously, as in a ship. 

No propos^ has yet been made for getting rid 
of the vertical tranalatory motions of ships, nor is 
it conceivable how this can be done. I have, 
however, dwelt upon it, because much confusion of 
thought exists regarding this particular motion, 
as to which I may have more to say presently. 

"We have now reduced the moiaons to which a 
ship, as a whole, is subject, to two of our list, 
namely, No. 1, Pitching, and No. 2, Rolling. I 
shall now proceed to examine the various projects 
which have been made public for reducing or pre- 
venting these two motions. Of all the projects 
now before the public none attempt to deal with 
more than the two motions. 

I believe one of the first in order of time is that 
of Mr. Sedlcy, a model of which is now before 
you. The basis of Mr. Sedley's construction is 
identical with that of Captain Dicey; and as I 
understand these two inventors, instead of opjpos- 
ing each other, have judiciously entered into 
aUiance, I shall presently consider them together. 
Another plan was put forward by Mr. Madde 
some time ago. I made a cursory examination of 
his model, exhibited at one of the soirees of the 
President of the Royal Society. The impression 
left on my mind being rather vague, I expressed a 
wish to make a comparative examination of Mr. 
Mackie's and Captain Dicey*s model in these 
rooms, side by siae, before writing my present 
pajKsr. But this was not agreeable to Mr. Mackie, 
and I am still a good deed in the dark about his 
ship, and cannot safely attempt a description of it/ 
This is, however, at present of the less importanc€ 
that no steps have yet, I understand, been taken 
to bring his principles to the test of commercial 
application. I beheve, however, that Mr. Mackie 
proposes to reduce the motions of the ship more 
by her dimensions than by any special peculiarity 
of form ; and we all know the influence of size in 
this matter, other things being equal. 

I now come to the Sedley-Bicey ship. She also 
is to be much larger than the present Chckimel 
ships. The dimensions given by Captain Dicey* 
are 400 feet length, and, as I understand him, 75 

• Joumai cf the SocUty qf Am, Sth March, ISTa. 



200 



JOXJBNAL OF THE SOOIETY OF ABT8, Febuuaet 7, 1873. 



feet beam over all. Poedbly these fig^ores have 
since been modified, but it is more with the prin- 
ciple than the size, though that is important, that 
I am at present immediately concerned. The 
principle is avowedly borrowed from the native 
boats to be found at Ceylon and on the western 
coast of India. These have two long beams fastened 
firmly athwart ships, and projecting^ many feet on 
one side. To the extreme extern^ ends of these 
beams is fastened a log of wood or outrigger 
parallel to the boat. When the wind is on the 
outrigger side, this beam, acting as a counterpoise 
at the end of a long lever, prevents the boat being 
capsized on the opposite side. When the wind is 
on the boat side, tne outrigger acts as a supporting 
or resisting float, and prevents the boat capsizing 
towards it. These boats aie well known for their 
safety in a sea which without the outrigger would 
swamp them, and they are said to have much less 
rolling motion than ordinary boats of even much 
larger size. They carry a very wide spread of 
canvas. 

Captain Dicey's arrangements for carrying out 
this principle on a lar^ scale maybe thus described : 
Let us imagine a ship 400 feet lone, and 40 feet 
beam, divided right through from end to end in the 
direction of her length, and let us suppose the in- 
terior sides of the two halves thus exposed and open 
to be covered in with wood or iron ; these interior 
sides of the two halves would then be quite flat, 
and their exterior sides would be of the original 
form of the ship. Now let the two halves be sepa- 
rated until the two interior sides are 35 feet apart 
from end to end. Next let a continuous bridge of 
iron girders be made to span and firmly connect 
these two halves. We should thus have obtained 
an area for deck and saloon and cabin accommoda- 
tion 400 feet long, and 75 feet across at its widest 
part. The engines are to be amidships, and the 
paddles, two in number, are to work in the space 
between the two half-ships. You will observe 
tiiat Mr. Sedley's model, now before you, re- 
sembles what I have briefly described, except with 
regard to thepaddles, which he places outrnde the 
hiSf-eliips. Tnis, of course, ^ves him less space 
for entering harbours. Which position of the 
paddles is best for speed, is a question, I believe, 
still to be decided. Captain Dicey prox>ose8 to have 
rudders at either extremity of both half-ships, to 
obviate the necessity for turning in harboiu*, which 
would, in some cases, be impossible with such long 
ships. The pair of rudders in actual use, will, of 
course be geared together. Capt. Dicey estimates 
the draught of water of a ship of the foregoing 
dimensions to be only 6 feet, which will admit of 
her entering existing harbours on both sides of the 
Channel. 

It is evident that Capt. Dicey aims at mitigating 
only two motions to which ships are subject, 
namely, pitching, by great length and possibly 
peculiar form of bow ; and rolling, by abnormal 
extent of beam. The motion of translation, what- 
ever it may amount to, will be of the whole 
amount due to a ship of the intended size and 
immersion. Capt. Dicey's plan may, therefore, be 
described as aiming at its object by means of 
external form only. 

I come now to Mr. Bessemer's plan for diminish - 
ig a ship's motion. This constitutes as great a 

oarture from ordinary usage as Capt. Dicey*s, 



and is probably even more orU;inal. The ship' 
which is the design of Mr. E. J. Beed, C.B., late 
Chief Constructor to the Navy, is to be 350 feet 
long, with a beam of 45 feet, and she is estimated 
to draw 7 ft. 6 in. of water, which is the same as 
the draught of existing Channel steamers. The 
two chief aims of her external form are high 
speed and diminished pitching. As to the fint, 1 
need only say that there is nothing to prevent the 
concentration of every known expedient, so far as 
form is concerned, for attaining this object It u 
intended to reduce pitching to a minimnm hy 
giving to the bows a form such as will cause the 
ship rather to cleave through the waves than rise 
to them or over them. 

It is for the diminution of rolling that Mr. 
Bessemer, like Captain Dicey, has introduced novel 
arrangements. Mr. Bessem6r*s suspended saloon 
has a&eady been very frequently described, but 
my paper would be incomplete if it did not ex- 
plain tne main features of this remarkable in- 
vention. 

The saloon, for a ship of the size I have men- 
tioned, will be 70 long, 35 feet wide, and 20 feet 
high. It will be placed in the middle of the ship. 
Instead of bein^ an immoveable section of the ship 
it will be a distmct structure, supported at its two 
ends by cylindrical pivots, resting on supports 
firmly connected with the body of the ship, the 
line joining the two pivots bemg parallel to the 
ship s keel. These pivots being placed a little 
above the centre of gravity of the whole mass, the 
saloon will be free to adjiist itself to the horijcontsl 
position, however much the ship may lean OTer. 
So far t^ere is no novelty of principle, thou^ 
perhaps this is the largest structure ever so sus- 
pended. The hammock and swinging cot are on 
the same principle. And such a suspension would 
entirely fulfil its purpose but for three disturbing 
infiuences — namely, 1. The action of the wind op 
the outside of the saloon. 2. The shifting about 
of the weight of the large number of passengeil 
it will acconmiodate ; and, 3. The effect of th« 
ship's own movements. 

The first two disturbing causes are too obvious 
to require more than naming. The third ncedl 
some explanation. A box chronometer and a bin' 
nacle compass are suspended in a manner era^ 
more complete than, but still similar to, Mr. Bes^ 
semer's saloon. If we place a binnacle compass ii 
its box on the table, and gently tilt the box, w< 
shall find that the compass preserves perfectly it^ 
horizontal position. If we now walk quickly will 
the box about the room, or wave it to and fro| 
tilting it at the same time, we shall find thai 
although the compass preserves generally its hori- 
zontality, yet it is never quite quiescent, but swayj 
backwards and forwards, to an extent less than tb< 
tilting perhaps, but still quite appreciable, and 
varying with the suddenness and veloci^ witl 
which we wave or carry about the box. This arise* 
from the inertia of uie suspended compass pre- 
venting its at once adapting itself to the rapidly* 
changed position of the point of suspcnsioii. I^ 
first lags behind its true position, and then is car- 
ried by its own momentum beyond it. In this waj 
swaying motions are conmiunicated to the compas^j 
known as secondary oscillations. Any suspended 
body is subject to the same phenomenon — amongst 
others, the pendulums of large clocks, which, n 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, Pmbwabt 7, 187* 



201 




from a Tery firm support, will have 
otrr ni ati on i Tery desttnctiye to accurate 

Herschel eaadeayoured to counteract 

in the ease of a swinmig cot by intro- 

certain aminffements. His invention, de- 

in the Joumeuoi this Society, displays the 

you misht ex]pect from a man of his 

and no doubt it is very fairly effective in the 

a oot, aiMl diminishes the swaying motion. 

would not be applicable to so large a stnic- 

' a saloon, nor will it fulfil the intention ^ 

Mr. Bonsemer's invention pretends to do. 

in Mr. Bessemer's suspension, 

les it from all others, consists in 

for controlling the three disturbing 

I have mentioned, whilst giving tiie sus- 

body entire freedom to assume a generally 

tel position. There are many modes of 

I tins which might be more or less effectual. 

I paiwng over pulleys and worked by wind- 

iuv manual power, or lateral pressure-screws, 

I be api^ied with some effect. The phm 

1 by ICr. Bessemer differs entirely mm. 

It woold occupy too much of my space to 

? it in detail — ^nor could I expect to make 

Ipsrts intelligible without a number of draw- 

' modelB, such as could not be studied with 

by a public faceting. The following 

aoooont, furnished by the designer, and 

in an able article, by Mr. Merrifield, in the 

number of the Popular Journal of Science^ 

Bee for present purposes: — **A toothed 

of large mameter, is secured to the main 



I 



of the saloon structure, and beneath it 
bed-plate firmly attached to the floor 
ifeip. On this bed-plate are two hydraulic 
to which a double-ended ram is fitted, 
part of the ram being provided with 
giHir into the sector. Therefore, when 
is in a state of rest, the sliding in and out 
lams will cause the saloon to move on its 
with a gentle but powerful motion, 
■orements, however, are controlled by a 
delicately-balanced equilibrium valves. 
be seen that when the ship is rolling 
power of acting on the saloon enables 
to retain the saloon constantly in a 
vertical position, while the floor of the 
I tmnx and filling beneath it. The essential 
|sf tins arrangement is that the hydraulic 
han not to put the saloon in motion, 
to prevent it acquiring any motion, 
r, ihe vis ine^ iuB of a structure like the 
wjneh will weigh some seventy or eighty 
greatly assist in resisting the initial 
to mo^on. 

appellation of '* steersman *' given by Mr. 

to the man who operates on the hydraulic 

is not happily chosen, and has led some 

to ray knowledge, to imagine that the 

e ^iparatus is in some way connected with 

rio^ of the ship. The man in question, 

'ttyled, stands, in Mr. Bessemer's working 

■ftiS'wdl, formed in the centre of the saloon, 

•% long horizontal lever which acts on the 

front of him is a spirit-level, sufficiently 

iB&ate any tendency in the floor of the 

it is fixed, to depart from the 

Keeping his eye on the level. 



he instantaneously checks any such tendency by 
giving a slieht motion to the lever one way or the 
other, accoiSing to the indications of tiie level. In 
Mr. Bessemer's comparatively small working model 
the shifting of the weight of two heavy men from 
one side to the other would, if the saloon were 
devoid of controlling apparatus, certainly disturb 
its equilibrium, but I f6und that the man at the 
level had perfect control over that amount of dis- 
turbing cause. 

Mr. Bessemer claims for this apparatus, and I be- 
lieve justlv, a quickness of action, smoothness, and 
facility of manipulation, combined with power, 
superior to any other agency now known. He has, 
moreover, long employed the same principle on a 
large scale for other purposes connected with the 
steel manufacture, and hiEw, therefore, that confi- 
dence in its efficiency which experience alone can 
give. 

Mr. Bessemer's ship is to be propelled by two 
distinct engines, outside the ends of uie saloon, and 
each driving a pair of paddles, the centres of which 
will be 106 feet apart. 

Two of the disturbinfi^ effects to which ships are 
liable, enumerated in l£e early part of my paper, 
may now be referred to, namely. No. 7, ** Tempo- 
rary vibrations caused by the concussion of waves," 
and No. 8, " Continuous tremor caused by the 
working of the engines." Mr. Bessemer's arrange- 
ment seems well cidculated to reduce to a n^iniTnnm 
these two effects, both of them distressing, the first 
to the timid, the second to the sick, whose suffer- 
ings are generally believed to be agnavated by the 
incessant trembling of a powerful steamer. The 
suspensory supports of the saloon will be furnished 
with thick beds of india-rubber, which will deaden 
tremor ; and a space of five feet all round between 
the saloon and the ship will prevent the wave 
shocks against her sides from being felt by the 
isolated passengers. 

I must now once more advert to the motion of 
translation of ships. It is evident that none of the 
projects I have described have any direct tendency 
to diminish this motion in the slightest degree. 
The question is, what does this motion, separated 
from all others, amotmt to ? We are sing^uiarly in 
the dark here. Every one speaks of the maUgn 
influence of the '* up and down motion " of a ship 
at sea. In the discussion on a paper read by me 
on the 27th ult., at the Boyal United Service 
Institution*, no clear apprehension of this motion 
seemed to exist even on the part of the scientific 
naval officers who spoke. This troublesome trans- 
latory motion seems doomed to be confounded with 
pitclung ; and whether or not it affects the bodily 
comfort of those exposed to it, it seems certainly 
to obfuscate the mental powers of most people who 
write and speak about it. 

They are apt to forget that the up-and-down mo- 
tion so much and justly complained of, is largely due 
to the angular pitching and rolling. For, to revert 
to the illustration of the beam of a fixed steam- 
engine, the piston-rod is seen to rise and fall ver- 
tically under the infiuence of the angular pitching, 
so to speak, of the beiun, and yet there is no trans- 
latory motion here. 

I have not met with any investigation of the 
amount of the translatory motions of ships, nor do 

• On a propoMl to mount bMTj naral gniu oa tiM prlooipl* of 
tht B«»ein«r Mloon. 



202 JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF AETS, Pbbbuabt 7, 1873. 



I believe that any exact observatioiis upon it have 
been made, the difficulty of eliminating all 
angular motion in a floating body standing proba- 
bly in the way of such observations. But any one 
may notice that a small light floating body, such 
as a cork, will be raised and lowered vertically to 
the whole extent of the ripple on which it is 
borne, the motion of translation being exactly 
equal to the height of the ripple or wave, whereas 
a large ship in the same water will not be moved 
perceptibly. This clearly indicates that the extent 
of the motion in question depends on the relation 
of the height of the wave to the size, weight, and 
immersion of the body exposed to its action. In 
the case of a large ship, the fraction of the wave 
height through which she will be raised bodily 
will probably bo very small. Mr. Merrifield, in 
the article I have before alluded to, estimates that, 
in the case of Mr. Bessemer's ship, the motion of 
translation may amount to five or six feet. He does 
not, however, ffive the data on which this estimate 
is founded. When it is remembered that in the 
Channel, ships are exposed more to chopping cross 
seaa than to large regular waves, su<^ as those 
met with in the open ocean, I am inclined to 
think the estimate an extreme one in the case of 
the Channel ships we are considering. 

With reference to that, I may just mention that 
the height of the great Atlantic waves was mea- 
sured with great care, years ago, by Dr. Scoresby, 
and he gives their mean height to be — as well as 
as I can remember, speaking from recollection — 
28 feet. That is a very extreme case in the ocean 
where waves attain their maximum height. Now, 
I doubt very much if Channel waves ever attain 
half that height. They always appear to be very 
much higher than they really are, but nothing is 
more deceptive. Its impetuosity rather tends to 
create the illusion of height, just as a fleet race- 
horse always looks larger in galloping than when 
standing still. Now, if Channel waves are never 
more than 14 feet in height, I should very much 
doubt whether the larger ship would rise or fall 
six feet. However, that is mere conjecture. 

It is only right I shoidd mention, before 
leaving Mr. Bessemer*s ship, that although in the 
first specimens to be built he only proposes to con- 
trol tne rolling motion, he expressly states that 
his invention can be extended to control the pitch- 
ing also. I have seen his fully detailed drawings 
for this more complete arrangement, which, if 
carried into practice, would, by eliminating both 
. angular motions, enable us to measure with some 
certainty the amount of the vexed and vexing 
rectilinear translatory motion. 

It need hardly be said that both Captcun Dicey 
and Mr. Bessemer seem fully alive to the necessity 
for providing the thorough ventilation, protection 
from weather, and commodious accommodation 
which their large ships are so well suited to afford. 

I may here allude to another proposal for cross- 
ing the Channel, which was laid before the public 
in this room, under the auspices of the Institution 
of Naval Architects, by the famous engineer, Mr. 
Scott Bussell. Everybody who was present must 
remember the lucid and also very entertaining way 
in which he described his plan, which consisted in 
having large ships, wiUiout any peculiarity of 
form but such as would make them good sea-boats 
—large ships o^Ntble of haying a train on boaxd^ 



so large that no existing harbour would have ao- 
commodated them. He proposed to create a 
harbour, or, as he expressed it, make an iabnd 
some distance off shore, about a ndle, I think. It 
was a circular island, with the centre scooped out, 
and an entrance to it, and this scooped-out portion 
of the island was to be large enough to receive his 
ships. There was to be a viaduct to connect the 
island harbour with the shore. His ships were to 
run into the circular harbour, land their passengen 
and goods on the edge of the island, and they were 
then to be conveyed by train to the Continent. 
That was, substantially, I think, his scheme, and 
no doubt it offered great advantages. But it is some 
time since it was promulgated here, and I have 
not heard anything of it since, and whether it is 
to be carried into effect, I know not. 

It is difficult to institute a comparison be- 
tween two arrangements differing so completely 
in principle as Capt. Dicey's and Mr. Bessemer's. 
And I think, perhaps, it will be best to leave 
their relative merits and demerits to be brought 
out by the discussion for which I have endea- 
voured, as impartially as possible, to provide 
the material. I may, however, help to give 
useful direction to the discussion by naming some 
points in each of the new ships, regarding which 
differences of opinion have been publicly expressed. 

In Capt. Dicey*s shipsy- it is apprehended ihsi 
the narrow passage in which the paddles woA 
will permit free way to the water, and that high 
speed will therefore not be attainable. I have 
heard that experiments have been made on this 
point, and perhaps those who have made them 
may be present to tell us with what result 
Another objection is that the Dicey ship has four 
instead of two wotted sides, and that the additional 
water friction thus generated will also retard her. 
I, however, expect to hear that this retardation 
will be overcome by additional engine power. A 
third objection, insisted on very forcibly by Mr. 
Reed, in the TimeSy is that the connecting bridge 
will be subject to great and perhaps dangerous 
strains. No doubt uie strains will be far greatei 
and of a much worse kind than those of ordinarj 
ships, and I must confess that I shoidd not like t<l 
cross the Atlantic in her in a gale of wiad unti] 
her character was well-established. But a contrive 
ance must be judged by its avowed object, and th« 
ti^dn-ship is not intended for the Atlantic but th< 
Channel, where very high seas do not occiu*. 

As to Mr. Bessemer's ship, the main objectioi 
deserving of notice is that, one pair of paddles bein^ 
in the wash of the other, her speed will not bo whai 
is expected. It is, however, certain that her tw< 
engines and four paddles combined will gi^* 
greater speed than one engine and two paddles o 
the same power. The question is, how much gaii 
will there be, or, in other words, is the gain econo 
mically obtained, or would a single engine o 
greater power give the same speed at a lower cost 
It is also but fair to point out that only tho oocu 
pants of the saloon will enjoy tho whole bene^t o 
Mr. Bessemer's suspension. I conclude that the; 
will have to pay tor the privilege, and that thofi 
in the unsuspended part of the Slip will pay Icsj 
The question is, therefore, a commercial one, whio 
experience alone can solve. 

1 will conclude by expressing my oonvictifll 
that both ships will secure an amount of com 




JOURS AL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Fkbeuabt 7, 1878. 



203 



ioct m Chaimel-Groflring hitherto undreamt of, 
nd my "hope that both inyentors will reap the 
fobsUntiAl and honourable reward of which their 
lAboun in 00 good a cause are fully deserving. 



DISCUSSION. 

&• ttMTimn asked tiie inventors of the vaxious 
cka«t to oomd forward and give the meeting a de- 
•cnfitioii of thoir pUna. He hoped each inventor would 
taiatb himself ftricUy to an aooount of hia own in- 



Ir. 1. 1. Xidd«, in responding to the invitation of the 
dhaiiitto to desoribe the model of his ship, said that he 
vn varf glftd to eomtdj with the request and should con- 
isskii naarks sitaplj to his own plan. He did not allow 
ha nodal to come here to be compared. It was utterly 
mpMnble to compare unlike things. Every invention 
AooldsttBd on its own merits. The lecturer had said that 
m ilafi lud j«i been taken to place his plan before the 
wii That was incorrect. Negotiations wore in pro- 
fiHiv ud vhen it did oome before the public he felt it 
voold be ilike satisfiictory to the world at large and to 
Ibinwho lapported it. His attention had long been 
Andsd to tkiii subject ; and he had seen every vessel 
■•1 far the Channel passage, from the old ^b Roy to 
^Aikrrt Sdward^ which was the last4mprovement. He 
M far a bn^ time been studying both the requirements 
^fihifiud passengers, and his earnest endeavour had 
kaa.imcA h*) patented his plan in 1869. at all cost, at 
d imo«nt of iiidttstry, and with all his ability, to bring 
Jfapwfaetion. In 1869, when big ships and big 
•^•«!twt:re before the world, ho said, when this Society 
Wnmnsti^tion into the matter, and an exhibition 
) ^ asfei* with the view of improring vessels on such 
••■a 1» felt he could design a vessel which should 
^ Si aoeh between existing harbours as big ships 
'•■k aew htfbours. Magnitude was one element 
il^K be •itemed essential to success. It was abso- 
•% MKQtial that a vessel should be what it was 
to be fur the Channel passage, namely, safe, 
and fpr«dy. We must begin with certain dimen- 
popQttionate to the waves she woald have to en- 
«he must be long enough to take her bearing 
, And on no occasion to be off the bearing of 
She should not be made thoroughly steady in 
^Rion of her length only, but in her beam also. 
" 'e was bold enough to make the attempt to design 
tvoad «noogh always in any weather to take her 
upon two waves, because he considered if a 
b« short of the size of the wave that she would 
vHh the incline of the wave, and would not be a 
•»a«*l. whereas if the vessel got a steady grip 
t*o w»TQs then the roll would be limited to the 
of diflference between the two inclines. Another 
•is tkat a Teesel, to go between existing harbours, 
■cttobe a tidal-service rfnp, but, if possible, or as 
•• potable, should be a time-service ship, going at 
■ faior of the day all the year round, except at Tow 
ti4«i, when the water was unusually low, and for 
vtisiiai night either bemadeorignorea. Now, to get 
sai biMdth upon a shallow draught, not exceed- 
^>^8ht of 6 feet 6, in a ship as broad as 80 or 90 
Jsft wilfnl to cons tr uct a diip,not on the ordinary 
■vrs strength oonsista in the skin of the ship, 
■^ks|* open by transverse girders, but on a 
•^ The smalleet amount of material which 
in the s^ongest form is the box girder, and 
* to use flie tubular bridge system, making 
oacv Hence he started to build his ship 
bottom. He took a flat, or nearly flat, 
ly towaida the centre, as a solid 
to boOd. Upon that he could put 




«%^j% tta 



that form gave him the greatest amount of buoyancy. 
He then determined to make the saloon an integral part 
of the ship, because in making it so, he coald make it 
a« two superposed box girders, which would give his ship 
great strength. He took the space below deck for 
the whole of the middle hull for boilers and engines, 
and he had two outside hulls in the vessel, in which 
he could put cargo and baggage. He had thus con- 
sidered the working of the ship, the baggage, and cargo. 
The passengers he put in a saloon above deck, where 
they could get air, the saloon being of the utmost dimen- 
sions, and of the g^reatest comfort that he coiUd possibly 
give to it. When he had such a ship as this, he found 
he had three difficulties to encounter. That, taking this 
ship as 90 feet, if he put to it two paddle-boxes of 15 
feet, he had 90 feet plus 30, or 120 feet altogether; 
if he had to take such a vessel into a narrow-mouthed 
harbour, he should not like to do it. If he put 
screws, he would be working them in a depth of 6 ^t 
6 in., and if he adopted the turbine system he felt that 
was a very slippery affiiir for a big ship with a flat 
bottom. But Uiere was a great deal to be done in this 
ship which did not occur in an ordinary ship, and it 
occurred to him why should he not put the paddles 
inside the ship and work them inside tubes, and io 
convert them into a species of centrifugal pumps, and 
he would get a power of propelling the ship accoxding to 
the veloci^ he could impart to the currents. He could 
thus put in two extra giiders to form the tubes or water 
passages, and this way give the easiest means for Uie 
water to get in and get away, and the result came to 
this, that he coold, at the same time, increase the 
dimensions of his saloon. The places all round his 
saloon he could convert into private cabins, some 
12 or 14 feet square, and furnish with every comfort, 
keeping the interior of the saloon as a grand 
promenade, and yet gain, in the matter of propulsion, 
very great advantages. It had been argued against 
his system that he had an extra friction upon the 
sides of these tubes. He knew he could not pass the 
water without an amount of friction, but he knew also 
that the friction of one piano surface over another was 
friction of the smallest amount in its character. If then 
he got any gain upon that which was the most serious 
resistance that a vessel had to encounter, namely, the 
head resistance, then, he contended, he got an advantage 
for his ship. If you take a vessel 90 feet wide, it was 
clear that the water would have to be driven off 45 feet 
on each side. If he inserted tubes on each side it was 
quite clear that those tubes would relieve the bow wavo. 
He had a right, therefore, to deduct the loss from the 
gain, and to claim the balance of gain in favour of his 
ship. As to the mode of propulsion, he was aware he 
laboured under many difficulties. It was a common 
practice to estimate forces by known rules which are in 
ordinary practice, but as the water passing through 
the tubes is water in motion, that water was under a 
different condition to what they had in solid water 
outside a ship. This mode of construction had, there- 
fore, given him a new mode of propulsion, and the 
perfecting that new mode, he believed, would be one of 
the successes of the boat. But there was another gain 
which his system gave. The larger the Channel ships were 
made, and the faster they were driven, the more need 
was there to provide against danger and collision, and 
the 83rstem of construction he had adopted had resulted 
in greater safety. The girders were strong enough to 
support the vessel as a tubular bridge. As long as the 
inner one remained intact, although you might fill the 
other compartments of the vessel, the middle compart- 
ment was enough to float the ship. If the vessel 
were run into, she might be cut into abeam 25 
feet in depth, and that would not stop her on her 
voyage. The vessel, the model of which was on the 
table, was designed to bo propelled with four paddlej 



204 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Fkbhuabt 7, 1878. 



deal with. The water here is confined, and whether you 
work the four or six simultaneously, and drive it out at 
the end, or drive it out hy paddles at accelerated 
speeds, the result comes to the same. By deflecting the 
currents of wafer you have the strongest and most 
forcihle steering power that can be put to any 
vessel. The system of vessel can be made ocean-going 
so as to cross the Atlantic or Pacific, and it can be 
made ca^mble of carrying the most powerful batteries 
ever carried in any Ship, and of resisting the attacks 
of torpedoes. It could also be made use'of for fishing 
vessels, and the absence of JwHsh would makf^it 
most useful for canal purposes. The dimensions of the 
proposed Channel vessel were 400 feet in length, 80 in 
beam, 6 feet 6 in. draught; the paddles were 24 feet in 
diameter. He would desire to say, however, that upon 
the question of details, and with regard to the propuU 
sion, he could not go into these details as freely as he 
would, as the vessel was not yet fully before the public. 

Mr. B. Bawlimon asked whether Mr. Hackie meant it 
to be understood that the water driven out by the force 
of the paddles would propel the ship as a rocket was 
propelled. 

Mr. Mackie replied that the vessel would be a sort of 
double-water rocket, if he might use the term. 

Mr. Bessemer said that in reference to the plan which 
he had lately brought out, he would like to mention the 
foot that about twdve years ag^ his attention was first 
attracted to the question. At that time the plan he had 
in view differed very considerably from that he recently 
brought forward. Originally he had hoped to make a 
vess^ stddy on the ocean, simply from her peculiar 
construction. After a full consideration of the plan, as 
it then occurred, he saw what he believed an insuperable 
difficulty to achieving that object with success. The 
difficulty was this, that if he could succeed in so forming 
a vessel that would lie upon the water as quietly as 
a railway train upon the rails, simply moving forward, 
she would be very much like a pier or break- 
water, that the motion of the waves would dash 
against with an impetuosity that would destroy her; 
and this resisting power to motion on the water 
would cause water to leap up as it does upon a 
sea wall, which offeni a steady and solid resistance 
to a moving object. That idea, therefore, was entirely 

Jiven up, and it was not until his passage ftt>m Paris, in 
uly, 1867, in which he suffered very severely, indeed 
in which his life was afterwards despaired of. in conse- 
quence of a severe attack of sea-sickness, which did not 
leave him until twenty-two hours after he was on shore 
— it was not until then that he became most desirous of 
being able to alleviate for the future the sufferings oc- 
casioned to so many by the Channel passage. The first 
step that he made was one of simple suspension, 
ana when he used the word suspension he was afraid it 
was one of those terms which admit of more than one 
construction, and, indeed, have been very imperfectly 
imderstood. One scarcely says that the beam of a steam 
engine, supported on an axis, is suspended, although it 
may be truly so. He soon found that this simple sus- 
pension was subject to two or three drawbacks, so im- 
portent as to require a means of checking them, 
whenever a pendulous body has ite centre of motion 
moved laterally, the pendulum will naturally move 
backward and forward in consequence. Now there 
is no sudi absolute fixed centre in the ship that that 
centre must be said to move backward and forward ; 
the result woidd be naturally a motion of the saloon on 
this suspended point, in conseqiience of this centre 
moving mMDside to side. Then comes the impossibility of 
having a laiw saloon with passengers equally poised on 
1>oth sides; iMhis were possible for one moment, it 
rould cease to bkso the next. That is also a reason why 
imple suspensio^M'ould never be effective. A^in, if 
he Mdoon projeotsSf > ^^ i> desirable that it might to 



the wind would be very powerful upon it. Asaloen 
exhibiting to the wind a sur&ce of 70 ft. by 7 or 8, with 
a strong breeze blowing, of 16 to 20 lbs. to the 
square foot, would have a pressure of some three tons 
upon it ; that would produce oacillation when the wind 
ceased, and the saloon would react again. It became 
evident that some means must be obtained of correctinff 
this tendency, and itlso that the amount of force reqoiied 
to do so woiUd be very considerable. It would be quite 
possible that tlie saloon might be some 6 or 7 tens out of 
oalanoe by the leaning of the passengers over the aide of 
the ship to look at a passing vessel, or that a strong wind 
might give three tons pressure in the same direction. 
Hence, at least, ten tons of force would be requisite to 
counteract it. Now, in order to do so, he employed a 
hydraulic apparatus, which consisted in attaching to the 
axis on which the saloon was supported, a quHdrant with 
teeth upon it, gearing into a rack, the ends of which 
are made into two ordinary hydraiUic rams. When 
these are worked, an amount of force is brought 
to bear upon either end of these rams, varyug 
from 20 to 30' tons. There he had an amount 
of controlling force greater than these accidental 
circumstances could bring upon the saloon. Then 
were very few cases in which forces so varied were 
required as in this case, where a very slight motion of 
the vessel would cause it to roll over on one side. In 
governing these very irrepilar motions some apparatus 
was required capable of instantaneous adiuatment, and 
of diminishing at once the large amount of force rtquired, 
or applying the more gentle force as the case might be. 
Immense facility for doing that was afforded by the uk 
of an equilibrum valve, so easily moved that it could be 
opened or shut to an extent that would allow the water 
pressure to act. There is no violent effort on the part 
of the man who directe the level position of the floor. 
The kind of valve that he had employed would berttbff 
tedious to describe, but while it would admit the 
largest amount of water, to give 20 or 30 tons pressare in 
a second of {time, it could be easily movea so as to 
give half a ton only if necessary, so that it was cap- 
able of absolute adjustment as the case needed. The 
man who operat«?s has in front of him a curved spirit- 
level ; the bubble is visible and dose before his eyes, and 
as the tendency of the saloon might be to move in either 
direction, the slightest motion of this bubble is obserraUe 
to him, and when an opposite motion of the babble is 
observed, he checks ite motion and brings it back again 
to the centre, by which he knows the horizontality of the 
cabins floor is mainteined. In that way, in his aoiill 
model saloon, only capable of holding eight or ten 
persons, the controller had been able for three boors at 
a time to maintain the level without the smallest diffi- 
culty, while the vessel was rolling at an angle of 14 deg. 
each way, so that under no condition did it differ over 
one degree, and generally f^m one-third to half a 
degree is all the deviation. With reference to the many 
motions that we aro all subject to on board ship, there 
were few persons, except those well acquainted with the 
subject, who would not be surprised to know from how 
very few primary motions the whole of these more 
complicated motions were derived. Those who were 
acquainted with what was known to turners as the oval 
"chuck" would very well know that two motions at 
right angles to each other will describe in what is known 
as rose-engine-tuming, an immense variety of camf, 
and an almost endless intricacy of lines orotnug eack 
other. If we reflect on what has been done already l>y the 
movement of two cross lines by Jacob Perkins, so loo| 
gone from us. but whose work will ever remain with o^ 
we shall see this. If we look at the back of an AmerioM 
bank-note, we shall see an infinite number of beaotiM 
curves, all intersecting each other, and wre sboiUd be b0 
prised to leara that every one of then n^BMM 
curves can be and are given by the atnttl^ f^'Sfl 
of two slides at right angles to <wha||||||^ Jg 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, Pebrttaby 7, 1878. 



205 



It n^t angles. A tracer was placed on one, and 

a mp, or anything else on the opposite side, and with 

^ uDplmnent yon coold describe the most intricate 

fonni known, not a series of lines described on a plane 

jor&oe, bat yon coold prodace it on that instm- 

msnt Now, he likened that instroment very much to 

(be two motions of a vessel, since it is certain that 

every ibnn that can be described by any portion 

of a ^p at sea, can be delineated by those two 

simple motions when combined. The first or pitching 

ma&tm msy be likened to the yertical slide, and the 

rolling motion is equivalent to tiie cross slide, and 

tben in combination, not keeping time with the 

umber of vibrations in a minute, and neither of them 

tnrelling at equal distance. The result is that they 

resolve themselves into spirals or screws. The bowsprit 

of 1 T«asel will describe in any variety of curves that are 

bovn. But, tiking this instrument again, suppose we 

tiire the crow slide from it. Now, what we have 

n.'suinin;^ is tho one motion only ; that instrument so 

ripiM«i of de.5cribing every variety is now reduced to 

tfau, thit it can m ike an up and down line [describing] 

— t nnglp straifirht lino is all it can produce when deprive J 

af 005 of its C'lements. From that he reasoned, if we 

hire 1 ship with this pitching motion retained, and if 

^ coal'l t\ke the whole of the rolling motion out of the 

■hip, wo should have what had been done with the 

pnti^ph when taking away the cross slide, and then 

iH the power of combining these cross motions with the 

op-md-down motion would cease. Therefore, all that 

ii n^Mwary is to counteract these two motions — the 

wtchinj and rolling motion of a vessel — which might 

t; done by two separate movements, that was by 

tppjyins a pair of axes at right angles. In the vessel 

4«ifni!d by Mr. Reed for tho Channel passage it 

▼u not thought advisable to do so, because in the 

Huimfil wo had to deal with very short waves, and 

» t«k1 whose length was 350 feet, would ride on three 

Tires at a timo, and would not be capable of pitching 

to a very great extent. In order to lessen even that 

vamA of pitching a low free board was needful. In 

W^aching a wave in frt>nt of her, if her bows were 

u high as the rest of the vessel the lar^e amount of 

'^itiog power we idiould have would tend to make her 

^ uTots it or up over it, producing motion in the ship, 

^t with this low free board she would plough the wave 

•si carry port of the water upon her low free board, so 

Ikit rile could not rise so much fer having a heavy 

*n^t of water resting upon it. Hence a considerable 

*»xait of reduction would take place in the pitching. 

H< nitendcd to employ an amount of engine power 

*^b woolj attain a speed of not less than 20 miles an 

^. A vessel moving at that speed, would pitch less 

^noso the would sooner be on another support after 

leivia^ one. Hence he had three means of reducing the 

^^vy amount of the pitching of the vessel, but were 

*u t ^Turth means, which still further counteracts that 

* br as the passengers wore concerned. The en^ine- 
Mw* was dirided and placed fort and aft of the saloon. 
f'&Etto it had been the custom to put the passengers 
^"triM each end of the vessel. In his vessel of 350 feet 
*fi H' he placed the chief saloon, which was 50 feet 
^, tod which was therefore one-seventh of the length, 

* file centre as the vessel pitches and ascends, it 

* T>^ clear that each ena of that compartment 
^ttboa would only move one-seventh the distance the 
^■JttOTed. Hence, you not only reduce the amount 
JfftAing, but you gamed besides a reduction of that 
■'^♦▼eaith by the fact of their occupying the centre 
^^ Ajp. Tnerefore, the actual amount of motion 
JJJ^iM be given at tiie extreme end was so small as 
y ^**!'* ^ desirable to provide a double axis for a 
f yjWWh g the Channel, although for a ship intended 

* •■^a* ttM Atlantic it womd bo necessary to do 

tEti next Wednesday, 
the dSacuision. 




iKBiA oomunxB. 

A oonferenoe took place on Friday, January Slst, 
Major-General Sir Henhy Creswiok RAWLmsos" 
in the chair. The paper read was : — 

THE PROGRESS OF INDIA DURING THE 
LAST FOURTEEN YEARS. 

Bj J. H. fttoeqneler, Btq. 

It has been observed by a sagacious writer that con- 
quest has ew been the easiest and most frequent of 
man's aohievements ; the consolidation and administra- 
tion of conquests the most difficult and least successful of 
his genius. It is common to man to reeognise the do- 
stroving agendes of fire and sword, and to yield to the 
might of the stronger hand the possession and subjuga- 
tion which make the law of conquest ; but he will not so 
readily accept or acknowledge a legislation the principles 
of which conflict with the customs, laws, and religion of 
his race. 

A very little reflection, and an appeal to the records 
of history, will establish the truth of the foregoing pro- 
position. Illustrations of its force occur in the conquest 
of Britain bv the Romans, of Mexico by the Spaniards, 
of Central Asia by the Greeks, of Greece by the Turks, 
of Poland by the Russians, and, in a more remarkable 
degree, of India by the Mahommedans, in the first 
instance, and by the English at a much later period. 
Seven hundred years after the invasion of Hindustan by 
the Moslems the Hindoos still struggled to maintain 
their religion and their lands; and for more than a 
century the English vainly strove to associate equitable 
dominion over the whole coontry with the supremacy 
of the sword. The Romans, the Greeks, the Spaniards, 
and the Saracens had a hard task in contending with one 
code of laws and one religion at variance with Uieir own ; 
the British rulers of Indiia have had to do battle with a 
multitude of antttgonistio creeds of vast antiquity — ^with 
the fierce fanaticism of the Mahommedan as weu as the 
stubborn bigotry of the Hindu — ^with a system of laws 
devised for the subjection of the minds of men, as well 
as the control of their actions — and with usages which, 
sanctified by time, and tolerated by a narrow and crafty 
policy, had, though repugnant in themselves to humanity, 
justice, and common sense, acquired the force of law. 
The marvel, therefore, is not that the gigantic empire of 
India had not been entirely Anglicised when the bjuU' 
veraement of 1857 suggested a change of policy, but 
that so much had been accomplishei since the battle of 
Plassy, in 1757, towards the introduction of the science 
and civilisation of the West. From the first hour of 
their acquisition of territorial possession down to the 
last act of annexation, the British rulers have had at one 
and ihe same time to employ force of arms in wars of 
retaliation and *' settle" provinces which had, at a com- 
paratively recent date, fallen under their sway. The 
operations were so manifestly incompatible, though 
occurring at wide intervals of teiritory, that the extinct 
government of the East India Company may fairly be 
credited by the historian with a large share of the 
merit of paving the way for the operations of its suc- 
cessors. 

The work of the past fourteen years must be viewed 
in detail before any general conclusions con bo drawn 
as to its influence on the British raj of the future. It 
is not too much to say — but more cannot be fairly pre- 
dicated — ^that the seed sown by the former rulers, or as 
much of it as remained intact after the fearful uprooting 
of 1857, is now fructifying to a remarkable and most 
g^ratifying extent. 

After the re-adjustment of a largo portion of the dis- 
tracted provinces, and. the establishment of greater 
security in the permanent employment of a considerable 
body of European troops, the Government appears to 



ao9 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIETY OF ARTS, Pmbuaby 7, 1873. 



haTe direoted ita attention to the institation of a com- 
prehensiTe syitem of ednoation. Nothing ooold be 
aooompliflhed during the eighteen months or more 
which were occapied in stamping oat the Sepo^ mutiny, 
but in 1859 a vigorous adoiinistration, deriving its power, 
its means, and its inspiration from an enlightened council 
in England, under a special Secretary of State, put a 
well-devised machinery of instruction in operation, and 
here we have the results : — 

In 1859-60, a few hundred schools, and two or three 
colleges in Bengal, mustered but 40,738 pupils. 

In the foUowmg official years the number increased ; 

1860-61 49,654 

1861-62 52,895 

1868-64 83,679 

1864-65 ^ 103,114 

1865-66 111,281 

1866-67 134,640 

1867-68 145,142 

1868-69 171,709 

1869-70 186,400 

1870-71 215,000 

The foregoing summary comprehends all classes 
of schools, those conducted exclusively under the 
auspices of government ; private schools independent 
of assistance ; schools aided by government grants ; 
vernacular schools ; colleges for tne special education of 
youth in law, medicine, and civil engineering; and 
schools for the education of native females. The latter 
constitute a very interesting and novel feature in the 
scheme of education, and cannot £ul to exercise, ulti- 
mately, a very material influence over the households 
and characters of the Hindus and Mahommedans. In 
1859-60, there were but two such schools in Bengal, the 
pupils numbering only 367. In 1868-69 there were 240 
girW schools, and the returns showed a daily -attendance 
of 9,035 ! 

Education under the Madras government does not ex- 
hibit the same splendid results ; but stUl the 8;^stem has 
been progressive. There were 25,048 pupils in all the 
sdiools in the Presidency in 1860-61 ; but ten years later 
the number had quadrupled. 

In Bombay, native education received its first impulse 
under the enlightened government of Mr. Elphinstone, 
earnestly followed up by that of Sir John Malcolm. No 
wonder, therefore^ that the Presidencv schools started in 
1860 with 35,984 pupils. This numoer was augmented 
by 10,000 in each of the three successive years; but in 
1865-66 it sprang from 65,802 to 94,002, and at the 
close of 1870 there were no fewer than 167,904 youths 
and girls receiving education. 

Two years after the transfer of the government of 
India to the Crown, the colleges and schools in the 
North-West Provinces contained 153,000 pupils. At 
the end of the decade, dating from 1860, there were 8,524 
government and other schools in existence, attended by 
201,000 boys and 10,000 e^ls. Colleges had been esta- 
blished at Agra, Benares, and Bareilly,and were flouridi- 
ing in 1864-65. But the general mpgress of the educa- 
tional institutions in the North-WMt IVovinces had 
neither been as marked nor as steady as the advance in 
other quarters, for famines, local disturbances, and the 
transfer of the management of an immense (the Saugor) 
district, had naturally caused fluctuations in the means of 
parents and the attendance of the children. 

In the Central Provinces education has moved onwards 
in spite of the many disadvantages attending the en- 
deavour to set the machinery in motion. Their boundary 
was scarcelv defined until the Province of Nagpore had 
been united with the Saugor and Nerbudda districts. 
Down to May, 1862, no state education had been intro- 
duced, and the instruction of the people in the vernacular 
had been neglected by the native powers. Vigorous 
"neasures were at once adopted by the executive when 
Tairs had become a little settled, but the business of 
Ittcation WM so much inlerruptad by fitmine and 



disease that it was not untQ the dose of the official yesr 
1864-65 that the district officers had the oomge to 
summarise the efforts that had been made to pint 
schools in the provinces. It was then found that that 
were 32,926 pupils attending, with more or lea nga* 
larity, the normal, the town, the village, the indigenoiu, 
the missionary, and the female sshools. From thit 
starting point the increase has been manifest; esdi lOC- 
ceeding year exhibited an augmentation o{ twelve 
thousand pupils until 1869, when sickness and agricnl- 
tural distil partially checked the progress of educa- 
tion. StiU, in 1870, the number of youth of both eexu 
receiving instruction was 77,798, and from that period 
the augmentation has been satisfactorily renewed. 

Sanguine men, whose wishes are the parenta of Uieir 
thoughts, may scarcely be satisfied with the general resolU 
of the exertions of the looal government of the Central 
and North- West provinces. Let them, then, ponder the 
reply given by one of the chief men in a pergunnah to 
a Commissioner on a tour, who remonstrated with him on 
the paucity of pupils :—** Ah, Sahib, it seema small to 
you, but I look upon it as this out of nothing. 1 re- 
member the time when we had to take a letter ten milaa 
to get it read *, now there is hardly a village in this 
pergunnah in which you will not find some one who is 
able to read." 

In the foregoing summary of the results of the educa* 
tional measures taken in the Bengal, Madras, and 
Bombay presidencies, the Central and North -West pro- 
vinces, no mention has been made of the universiiiea. 
Hie influence they have had in accelerating edocatioD, 
by exciting the ambiUoki of young Hindus and Ma- 
hommedans, may be conceived. A sketch of their pro- 
gress is not unnecessary in this place. 

The University^ of Calcutta, modelled on the system of 
the London Umversitv, was established in 1857. It^ 
operations were disturbed b^ the Sepoy mutiny. The 
code of bye-laws and regulations was revised in 1859-60, 
introducing changes in the entrance examinations, the 
effect of which was to raise the standaid of English. 
For the entrance examination of December, 1859, there 
were 705 candidates ; in December, 1860, the oomber 
rose to 809. More than one-half the number passed. 
From 25 to 40 youths went in for degrees, selecting lav, 
physic, and civil engineering. It had been espocially 
provided that the examinations should not include ob- 
jects connected with religious belief. AflUiated institn- 
tions were under the management of persons of erery 
varietv of reli^ous persnanon, as in England. The 
candidates oonnnued to increase in number until, in 
1865-66, they had risen to 1,500. That number has beeo 
augmenting in a proportionate ratio ever since. In 
December last there were 500 candidates for the first 
arts examination, and 200 passed. Of the 2,144 foi 
the entrance examinations, 938 were successful. The 
same result has attended the establishment of th< 
Universities of Madras and Bombay. They datetheo^ 
existence from that of the institution of Uie Calcath 
University. Every year the number of youths whc 
present themselves for examination has increased, and i 
their means kept pace with their ambition, there is ni 
doubt they would appear in greater force. But thi 
anxiety of the poorer classes of students to obtain smal 
Government appointments, as soon as possible, render 
them indifferent to the attainment of more knowledg 
than will sufEioe for the accomplishment of that obiect 

The establishment of a Medical College at Caloattf 
during the administration of Lord Wiuiam Bentinc 
(in 1834), has fully realised the moat sanguine expects 
tions. Boldly throwing aside all religions prejudice an 
caste restraint, numerous Hindu and other youth 
took to the study of medicine and surgery, and th 
public service is now suppUed with, native jftoteaaooM 
ability of a very reflpeotable order. 

Down to the year 1859 comparatively little advance ha 
been made in the education of the people in the Madn 
tefiitory. Th/dUMAnmPtmdi&ooytuy^inmkms^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Fmbuaby 7, 1873. 



207 



piiiwl/t boRM the •obriqoat of ** the benighted," 
viMto tht apethetio indifferenoe of the maasee to all 
Iwmiga Bot immediately prodaotive of peciiniary 
**The CM bono principle^ in ita nanoweat 
vii that which had moat weight." Three nni- 
f aaminatiooa took place in 1860, when 23 
Mboatriciilatad. The Preaidencj College had then 
ifia to make &ir nrogreaa. The Medical College had 
■IB wtaNtrfwd, and waa attended by 156 atodento ; and 

fc«e, noreoter, 56 atudenta in Uie Primary Mediod 
A dril engineering ooUege had been eatab- 
HM, iiid there were 214 pupila in a school of indaa- 
Ud iita An tmpalse was given to edacation by the 
wmBBwi of Fort 8t Oecrge ; the natirea adopted 
Ivid^ ilKritT, and we have aeen that from 25,048 
Mibat the doae of 1860-61, the nnmbera had riaen, 
mm, to 105,455. 

Tie Bonbaj UniTersily held ita first matriculation 
2nd October, 1859, when, out of 126 candi- 
11 paeaed. A saoond examination waa held in 
1860, when, oat of 45 candidatea, 14 from the 
pim uauit coUegea paoaed. The candidatea are now 
Miftaed by hondreda, and the roatricolationa are pro- 
^ti i i i et ely nnmerooa. So popular had the nniyeraity 
mtn^ very aoon after ita eatabliahment, that the 
Vp^tee College, the Grant Medical College, the 
^fwrnaent Iaw Sdiool, and the Poonah College 
■Mijy all of whidi had their origin under the rule of 
plMt India Company), applied for affiliation. But 
"* ^*" ' inatitations ofWeatem India did not 



H^ A«t with thoae ooUegea and achoola. A college 
iB ■irt ie o ed for Ahmedabad ; an Engineer and Me- 
^ ' ' lebool waa opened at Poonah, and now auppliea 
to the Pablio Worka department the 
lad Moaictpal oommitteea. Mention may idao 
of the central achool of the Elphinatone 
** decidedly the beat achool in the Bombay 
. .'* (it numbered 550 pupila twelre yeara ago), 
htmk OoQege achoola, and aeveral of the achoola 
■It Nor ahouid the philanthropic efforta of Sir 
Sbmob and other natiye gentlemen be forgotten. 
Ai edanational eatabliahmenta founded by their 
Jfcaaee have auoceeded. 
[^y,<M il the utmoat encouragement haa been given 
B N^ti ooi where the Engliah language haa primary 
B Pfcw tiop, the Madriaaa and Mahommedan coUegea at 
VHk ha?e proapered, and the Sanacrit College haa 
VMi^ileeted. 

' ^A^ DOW to the pf o g r e a a that haa been made in 

in thoae parte of the empire which, 25 

Wk ^vwB in open hoatility to the Britiah govem- 

VMahboraly reaiated all the friendly efforta of ita 

"iiighboun to introduce a better ayatem of 

A perfect triumph haa been aohieyed 

and Britiah Burmah, and aatia&otorv 

to be recorded of Dude and Hydrabad. 

j»fta period of the annexation of the Ininjab to 

^^^ pnaneariona, learning of any kind waa 

inded by the Sikha. Runjeet Singh himaelf 

Mfiag^ and writing in contempt, and ia said to 

■Jt me royal aooounta by cutting notdiea in a 

To iadooe an ariatooraoy, raised and foatered by 

*jJB ^ to rapieoiate the wue of letters, waa a taak 

•ilbBfy difficulty. The auoceaa of the enterprise 

•f «haied amongst the nobleat reaulta of a aound 

f. Some conceaaiona to the pride of the 

Md bigoted ohiefii were indiapenaable. Henoe 

lia the achoola were aeparated into two olaaaea, 

of whidi waa filled by (he aona of the *' upper 

v% eligible for the Gbvemor-Ghneral's duriMur. 

s ayailable of the number of pupila 

Ifea aohoola in the Pux^b prerioua to the 

it is stated that, in 1850-60, they exceeded 

^ loutha receiring education in the preriona 

^fMlily of the inataruotioa generally imparted 

^ Wtii^ yvry hiffh oharMter, for it appears 

lit 9t IM iobook waa the range of 



education aufficiently extensiye to qualify atudents for 
the Uniyeraity examinationa. And one of them waa at 
Delhi (comprehended in the adminietration of the 
Punjab), and the other at XJomtair. As elsewhere, 
ftunme and the coat of prorisions exerdaed % pernicious 
influence on the attendance of the pupila during 1860, 
but, neyertheleea, the number stood, in March, 1861, 
at 38,602. A normal achool for teachera had been 
eatabliahed, and at the period in queaUon counted 431 
undergoing preparation, of which number 334 were 
Mahomedana and the reat Hindus. Two missionary 
schools were at the same time flourishing^ one at Lahore^ 
and the other at Bawul Pindee^a fact of some signifi- 
cance when the character of the population ia taken into 
consideration. To these gratifying circumstances are to 
be added the still more important fact of the eatablish* 
ment of 38 female schools, containing altogether 812 
girls. 

Tracing the progreaa of the Punjab achools chrono- 
logically, we find that in 1862 there were 42,192 youths 
of both sexes receiying instaruotion, and three yeara later 
the numbw had increased to 76,213« in spite of the oyer 
recurring obstacles of drought, and ita oonaequentacarcity, 
and the rayages of cholera and other diseases. The 
prejudices of the Sikh noblesse were waning rapidly, 
but the aemindars found it difficult to reconcile their de- 
sire to see their children educated with their claims upon 
their oflEiprin^ as assistants in the cultiyaUon of the soil. 
Tliey complamed, too, of the growing indifference of 
the boys to rural pursuita — ** they would not plough, and 
required a aenrant." A curioua and short-sighted pre- 
judice existed against their girls being taught to write. 
The parents had no objt^tion to their learning to read, 
but could not possibly see they would oyer make good 
use of (Mdigraphy. 

Though the education giyen in the Punjab was chiefly 
in the yemacular, no fewer than 11,269 pupils were 
learning English in 1865, exactly double the number of 
those who were drinking at the *' well of pure Engli sh 
undefiled " in 1863. Candidatea for matriculation in the 
Calcutta Uniyeraity now preaented themaelyea, and in 
1867, four out of aeyenteen students passed for the first 
Arts examination, and 22 out of 84 for the matriculation 
examination. A greater number would no doubt 
haye competed, had the youths not found that the 
scholarriiipa were less lucratiye than goyemment clerk- 
ahipe. 

By the end of the official year 1866-67 there were 
102,388 pupila in the Punjab schools, and in the two 
following years the number had swelled to 141,666. In 
the year 1868*69 education had token a further stride, 
for a uniyersity college now took root at Lahore, a 
central museum was opened — ^which in two years at- 
tracted nearly 30,000 yisitois — while six yemacular 
periodicada atarted into exiatonoe, sixty-one printing 
preaaaa were set up, and aa many aa 425 booxs were 
published. 

The year 1870-71 did not exhibit any remarkable pro- 
greaa. Seyere acardty and sickness again assailed the 
people, aoid depleted many sdiools of their attendanto. 
A difficulty in obtaining the senricea of proper teachera 
for the female schools was experienced, and it was neces- 
sary to cloae many of the eatablishments, that the tutors 
might form tm adequate staff for those which were re- 
tained. In spite of all these interruptions, the returns of 
the year showed that no absolute decreaae had taken 
place in the number of pupils. The acceaaions had nearly 
equalled the depletions. 

The peaceful occupation by the British of a consider- 
able pi^ of Burmah dates only frx>m 1852. This does 
not comprehend the Tenasserim proyinces, which had 
been for a generation in our possession. The education 
of the peo^ of Britidi Bunnah had, down to 1858, been 
left pretty much to the Burmese themselyes and the 
American missionaries, who had boldly token a stand at 
Bangoon and other parts. There waa, consequently, 
wide Boqpe fior the exertioni of the goyemment on the 



208 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Fbbeuaey 7, 1873. 



<^ia]ige of adfltiinutratioii, and aoeordiiigly we find that 
the schoolB for mstruotioii in the Bnglid^ laagaage had 
already aoquirod a footing in 1869. The pnpils of those 
-edaoational eatabliahmentf maintained hy the 8ooietj-fbr 
the Propagation of the Gospel nambOTed 120 in tiie 
icouvse of eight montiiSf and in the IbUowing year no less 
than 245 were in regular attendance. By the end of 
1861-62 schools had heen established in every town and 
eyery village on the coast and in the monntainons dis* 
tricts of Karen, and 4,838 lads were drinking at ^ tiM 
Pierian spring." At the close of 1866 a material advance 
had taken place, and ten female schools were founded ; 
7,080 pupils were being taught in 1867, and from that 
time onward the progress has been so steady that by the 
last returns there were 178 schools receiving aid hmna 
government and 272 unaided. 

The province of Oude has been a greater sonrceof trouble 
to the promoters of education than any of the conquered 
districtiB. The obstinacy with which all the endeavours 
of the British authorities to persuade the Nawabs to 
govern discreetly were resisted until the annexation of 
the territory, — forced upon the government of Lord 
Dalhousie — found its parallel in the repugnance of the 
talookdars to recognise any system c^ education. 
Grants in aid of schools having been made in 1860-61, 
four schools for the sons of talookdars and other landed 
proprietors were established, but they could not boast, 
in the aggregate, of more than 327 pupils at the end of 
the year. The vernacular schools mustered about 1,200 
boys. The tour following years saw a oomplete stagna- 
tion in the matter of instruction, and it was not until 
the year 1867 that the eyes of the talookdars were 
opened to the importance of patting their <Aaldren on 
the high road to knowledge. Thenceforward the 
growth of education was rapid. At the close of 1868 
there were 625 schools in ozistenoe — village, private, 
and vernacular town schools — besides 24 feniale schools. 
A year or so later the male schools had increased to 642, 
the female to 38 ; and the total number of pupils was 
30,683, of whom 653 were girls. Another year added 
10,000 to the total number. Moreover, a college, named 
after the lamented Lord Canning, and eetalHkhed in 
1864, had begun to work well. Normal sehools fbr 
masters and mistresses were advancing ; 20 p re ss e s had 
been established at Lucknow, 17 of which were devoted 
to vernacular printing ; and a museum, opened a sh«rt 
time previously, had received 138,504 visitors in 
1869-70. 

It would be gratifying if this sketch of wkMk has been 
accomplished towards enlightening the youthful mind 
in India could close with a £iivottrable report of the pro- 
gress of education in the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. 
The old medisBval idea that a gentleman can do very 
well without education has operated in that quarter as 
an incubus upon the efforts of the government officers. 
Nevertheless there were 72 government schools in 66 of 
the larger towns, and the higher classes of people are re- 
ceiving a certain amount of private instruction, but no 
organised system of state education existed. Through 
the exertions of the enlightened Sir Salar Jung a great 
change for the better is operating. 

Coorg has scarcely advanced sufficiently to make it 
necessary to enter into details of progress. It is satis- 
factory to know, however, that the state of ed«catioa is 
encoura^g. 

Glancmg at the results of the past twelve years in the 
department of public education, it must l>e conceded 
that, if the advances made by the people in overv direc- 
tion have not been commensurate with the wishes and 
efforts of the rulers, they have been sufficiently rapid 
and oomprehensiv« to entitle tiw government to all 
praise for the liberal encouragement it has girsQ to the 
movement, and the exertioBs its officers have msde to 
carty out its views and behests. Difficulties apparentlT 
usurmountable, have been overoome — the active oppcsi- 
on of some classes to a system of ednoation, whieh tlMj 
>prehended would uproot their n^on— the jimtusw 



of others, who could not perceive the inestimabls sdtan- 
tages in more than a narrow peonmaxr risw, of the 
blessings and power whidi are deriraUe from the pones- 
sion of knowledge— proved formidable obstadsito the 
soeoess of the enterprise vigorously commenced in 1859. 
And, therefore, so far from ^ere being ^mid of Bor* 
prise that move has not been accompluhed, it is ai 
astomshing as it is gratifying that so much has been 
really done. 

Summarising the results as far as they are sfloerttin- 
able, down to 1870, it appears that there were at tluit 
da*e: — 

115,000 ( y-S^iX".":*. r^»t } BengdPr«d«cy. 



105,500 
167,904 
211,000 

77.798 
150,000 

12,000 (siy) 

40,680 



i> 

>» 
It 



}> 



ft 

if 

>l 
>» 
i» 
i» 
»» 



t» 



Madras 
Bombay „ 
N.W. Proriiu«. 
Central 



t» 



Punjab. 
British Bannsh. 
Onde. 



979.882 



In roond numbers one million youths were receirisg 
. education in British India in 1 870. The following yetit 
may probably have added a quarter of a million to the 
number.* To a Pruasian or an American this may not be 
a startling proportion of a population of 241 millioni; 
but when the condiiion of society in the East is examined, 
when it is considered that three-fifths of the i>eoi>le arc 
too poor to spare time from their daily pnmiite in the 
fteld^ and tkie towns to attend schoolB ; when it is borne 
in mind that we are in India in the rather unacceptable 
character o£ conquerors and forugn ruleis, wboee earlie^ 
aAievfissemtB date from little more than a century back, 
it will be allowed that we have neither mispent oar time 
nor been nig^gacdly in the application of the revenaea 
raised irom Um people to the people's substantial benefit. 

The expense attending the establishment of ecfaooli, 
colleges, and universities has of course been enormooi. 
Professors of History, PoHtieal Economy, Chemistry, 
and most of the other sicences which enter into a scheme 
of sound education have had to be sent from England, on 
large salaries and at a oonsiderahle charge for pMng« 
money and outfit. Many hundreds of the prindiMl 
establishments have been maintained entirely bv the 
government, others are *^ aided " by montUy or 
aanuad gamts, because they are not yet self-sastaimng. 
Yoimg natives who aspire to the bar, medicine, and 
surgery, and the engineering colleges, are brought to 
Kngjand, receiviBg government sdiolarships for three 
years, and are then provided with passsge back and 
equipment on a very hberal scale. The cost of all thii 
effort to expand the mindsof the people may besetdown 
at neary 70 millions of rupees, or about 7 milUonf of 
pounds sterling. Bnt it l^ no means represents the total 
outlay. Since the year 1858, no less a sum than three 
hundred thousand pounds has been spent on the 
patronage of useful publications, the establishment of 
mnsenms and scdiools of art, the enoourageoMnt of 
new^MUMrs in the vemaoular languages ; the study of 
Orientu languages genorall v ; the translation of valuable 
and rare documents and books, arohsoological rossaich^ 
meteorological obserratioas, and the fonnatioii of public 
libraries. And much of this is continued annually to 
Uushoor. What more can be said P What more could 
hare been done in the same space of time P 

It has been maintained, & an adnriimble paper on 
^'Popular Education in India," by Hr. WiUiam Taylor, 
road in this HaU two yoars ago, that Uttle has been 
aooomfJiHhod £or the " moral" eduoatioo of the peo^e. 
His views were supported bjr 1^ late Ismsnted oir 
Donald Hacleod and other enlightened men. But it ii 

•The retarasfrom every part of the arapke fbr ISTUTS aolkivlM 
been received and pablUhed, I have bMO obliged to be oOU- 
fled with tlie restdts doira to the end of the preTtousoOstsl year. 



r JOURNAIi OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pbbruaey 7, 1873. 



209 



It qiMtJDB bow fiix we dare to Tenture upon mora 
^mtim. handed, on our own notions aa disciplefl of 
bkiim ity. Perhaps we bad better be content at 
matt vith tbe inteUectoal culture of the peoplOi leav- 
rtfct hiifhei object to follow aa a matter of course. 
haa a rerirw of what has been accomplished for tbe 
hDcctoal idTSBoement of tbe people we naturally turn 
AMoHenUon of material progress, and this brings us 
I ihicb of tbe bistoryof Indian railways. The contrast 
!vKo the p«ce at wfaicb the old stage-coaches used to 
mi is England, and tbe rate of spe^ maintained by 
icc4em rulway carriage, is a frequent and amuaing 
kjert of fpeoilation among complacent men of the 
ncDt gcaentioD. There are still a few of the loudatoret 
fwuidHwbo lore to dwell upon tbe comparatiye 
Biity of tbe oM forms of locomotion, and to disparage 
» ippetiiooe and power of tbe ateam engine ; tbe popu- 
tna of tbree cbeenuts and a grey, the dapper 
rbaao tad bis trusty aaaociate, tbe custodian of the 
dI lafR, tie yet freui in their memories, and tbey 
n rral, with unaccountable pleasure, the hasty sup- 
ROB tbsToadand tbe nnfiniabed breakfaats, from 
■k ihgj were summoned by the bom of tbe guard. 
' IhrsB Ruminta of a bygone time are in a miserable 
' aod all sane men rejoice that we have ex- 
tea miUa an hour, cooped up for an entire night 
A jeaniej ftom London to Bath, for forty miles in tbe 
f§ ffaoa of time, in a firat-daaa carriage, with plenty 
Jiriit, vanntb, and elbow-room. 
SiBgiag tbe rmiM, wbat infinite cauae of rejoicing 
^ vbosi lot is caat in India must recognise when 
ncal penonally, or read of, tbe tedious methoda of 
' n ase throughout that portion of the Britiflb 
Aovu to tbe commencement of the laat fifteen 
tad e?en to a later period. Two and three milea 
iria a palankeen, or twelve to fifteen miles a day 
utb, vere the limits of our locomotion. 

daring tbe railway mania in England of 1845-6 
fti idaa was conceiTed of supplementing tbe estab- 
of a regular intercourse with England vid the 
Sn, hj railways that should trarerse India from 
" to the Upper Prorinces, and from Bombay 
fte pemasula. Confidence in the feasibility 
Mtfrpciae led men to subscribe their capital, 
tt^ needed a guarantee that they should receive 
lied interest for their outlay, in consideration 
vcatoring upon an undertaking which was sure 
^jWwcb fruit to tbe goremment and the people. 
pWgKtiTe ** moral " advantages were to pay for tbe 
■mMi "material *• sacrifice. Five per cent, per 
*« Ibe interest guaranteed for 99 years, and it 
iqdrttd that if in any one year tbe net receipts 
' tttfic fxceeded tbe guaranteed interest the surplus 
be dirided between tbe government and the 
until the charge to tbe government for 
ia (be earliest years was repaid, after which time 
^^JjKceiptB were to be distributed among tbe 
ift|Vi Utti. Thia #a8 a capital bargain for the share- 

I lit infioimaries to cutting the first sod occupied a 

time. The land on the contempb^ted lines 

■ wWBTeyed ; the value of the property invaded to 

■" ■i The cost of labour, indigenous and 

^itbe expense of tbe iron, which was to come 

■jy lid ; the price of the wood for sleepers, and 

HJ"4 tsniagea; tbe quantity and quality of tbe 

S??T^^ tbe locomotives, were all matters of serious 

OQBiideration. At length tbe work was 

^ but ten years passnl away before 120 miles 

M bsm opened. That line extended fh>m 

^jfjmegunge, a coal district. 

^ ttc ss tablishment of railways proceeded as 

jMlMdatieoa, tfie caaualties among tbe work- 

■pliaifol obstade presented by tbe mutiny 

fShmz Tbe Great Indian Peninsula line 

— after the East India, and in 1864 

A been opened. Brancbea were 



established to cennect this railway with others, one of 
which has its starting point at Madras, and another 
formed part of tbe East India. 

By the year 1865, 1, 127 miles of tbe East India Railway 
were completed, and 811 miles of the Great Indian Penin- 
sula. Emboldened by the success attending tbe incipient 
operations of the two great lines, others were opened by^ 
different companies on tbe same terms, while some wen^ 

{>rojected by the government on its own account, these- 
atter being distinguished from tbe guaranteed concerns 
by the appellation of ** State railways." Before 1866 
railways were established between Madras and Bangalore, 
Bombay, Baroda, and Central India ; Kurrachee and the- 
Punjab; Delhi to Umritsur; Negapatam to Tricbinopoly, 
while others ran from Calcutta to tbe eastern and south* 
eastern parts of Bengal. 

While tbe introduction of tbe railway system into- 
India was pending, very many persons expressed their 
doubts if the natives would ever be induced to adopt the 
line as a commendable mode of locomotion. It waa^ 
expected that they would demur to tbe cost and the con* 
tact of opposing castes, and that it would take a long 
time to convince the producers and merchants that the 
acceleration of the speed in the transport of their goods* 
from place to place would more than compenaate them 
for the additional expense of carriage. The native of 
India is proverbially indifferent to the value of time, 
and could not endure to part with his money for an^ 

frospective advantage that appeared to be remote, 
t waa further doubted that native functionariea at 
isolated stations could be depended on for watchfulness, 
courage, and integrity ; while European agency, it waa 
thought^ would be too costly for its general entertain- 
ment. 

All these scruples and apprebensions were rapidlr 
dissipated. The natives adopted the railways with 
alacrity. 

The number of passengers conveyed by the several 
lines, as far as they bad been completed, was : — 

In 1869 3,112,60(> 

„ 1861 4,266,940 

„ 1864-5 (tbree years later) tbe number 
had increased so much that the 
returns gave a total of 11,781,689 

More' than 94 per cent, of whom bad travelled in the- 
third-class carriages. Each aucceeding year beheld 
an augmentation of one million passengers : — 

In 1866 12.867,000 

„ 1867 13,738,472 

Equally progressive was the traffic in gooda. All tbe* 
staples which formerly found their way to the coasta 
through trackless lands were npw conveyed b^ rail, 
and tbe commerce of tbe country increased prodigiously* 
Bombay and Kurrachee were the ports which derived 
tbe earliest benefit f^m accelerated inland traffic. Tbe 
population of the former town, which in 1846 did noi 
exceed 250,000 persons, is now only second to London 
in tbe number of its inhabitants ; and Kurrachee, which 
was little else than a dep6t for tbe meagre produce of 
the Punjab, sent lazily down the Indua in clumsy boats^ 
is at this date a populous city, with all tbe features and 
appliancea of a presidency town. Much of the latter re- 
sult is due to tbe liberality and efforts of Sir Bartle Frera, 
who, while commissioner in Scinde, opened out 600 milea 
of roadway for focilities of commerce. 

Next to Bombay and Kurrachee, the use of Jubbulp<»e 
as an entrep6t of merchandise is to be noted. Jubbulpore 
is the Alexandria of tbe east and west of India, bemg 
placed at the junction of the two railway systems of 
Hindustan. A large portion of tbe trade of the Kortb- 
West Provinces passes through it It is worthy of note, 
as indicative of wbat may be expected from tbe diversion 
of shipping from the Cape of Good Hope route to that 
of the Sues Canal, that in the first two months after the 
completion of tbe line 43,000 maonds of grain and 400 



214 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, February 7, 1873. 



more than 2,000 years-^what can yon teach them P' Bat 
what cotton did they grow P It scarcely deserved the 
name, showing the want of improved systems of cnltira- 
tion and better seed. Another difficulty was the want of 
tenant-right. The natives of Bombay, who were large 
cultivators, had no settled tenure of their holdings at aSl, 
but every year an officer came and settled what rent they 
were to pay. No country on earth could grow any- 
thing under such circumstances. The Cotton Supply Asso- 
ciation, therefore, had to become politicians, and to insist 
on some kind of tenant-right being given, and now a most 
satisfactory system of thirty years' leases had been 
introduced. Madras, however, was still going on in 
the old way, and the result was that, with regard to 
industrial occupation, it remained the lowest presidency 
in India. It would even have been better to adopt the 
Bengal settled tenure, than to have no tenant-right at 
all ; for although it was said there that, though the land 
had increased in value from four millions to nine, this 
balance had become merely the benefit and the property 
of the zemindars, still the land was improved, and it was 
better than leaving things in the wretched state in 
which they were before. In consequence of the civil 
war in the United States for four years, England sent 
105 millions sterling to India in payment for cotton. 
This gave an immense stimulus to cultivation, and the 
system of entire dependence on native bankers was 
broken off, the condition of the ryots was greatly 
improved ; and this of course was the first step towards 
a peaceable and prosperous condition of affairs. These 
improvements had been greatly owing to the increased 
attention which English people had paid 'to Indian 
affairs, and he only wished they would do so still 
more, because in a country of that kind there were 
always officers and residents who wanted to go on in 
the old-fashioned way, and thought nobody knew any- 
thing who had not been there. He remembered that 
when he first approached the question he talked to old 
residents with the greatest possible reverence, but when 
he came to know them a little betfc^r, he found that one 
perhaps had lived all his days in Calcutta, another at 
Bombay, had never been fifty miles away from either 
place, and did not really know so much as he did himself 
by careful reading. Tne progress of education had been 
mentioned, and it was exceedingly satisfactory, and the 
same had been said of the railway system. But no 
mention was made of the bungling way in which the 
lines were laid out. This arose from the inspecting 
genius being a militHry one ; one part of the army being 
stationed at one spot and one at another, a railway was 
made to connect them, without any regard to tho re- 
quirements of the civil population, and thus in Madras 
there were large populous towns lying six or eight miles 
from the railway; supplementtl linrs were therefore re- 
quired to give these centres of population the advantages 
of railway accommodation. Irrigation, again, was a 
matter to which Government had not paid sufficient 
attention, and in fact, seeing that it had spent 100 
millions on the railways, ho thought it was time 
they should turn their attention a little more 
to the systems of water carriage and irrigation. 
Large portions of India were very much like Egypt, which 
it would be in vain to attempt to cultivate without irriga- 
tion. The improvement in the cotton production would 
have taken place long ago if this matter had been taken 
np. But how had Sir Arthur Cotton been met in his en- 
deavours, after devoting nearly the whole of his life to 
the subject P He had shown, in the most positive manner, 
the immense benefit following from irrigation, and when 
it was carried out the results could not be qtiestioned ; 
but still his efforts were stopped because the money 
had all gone on the railways, and it was said that no 
more could be spared for this class of public works. He 
thought it would be better to stop further outlay on 
railways, for the present, and devote more to the water 
system. He was happy to say that, though the Cotton 
Supply Association had come to an end, the Mancherter 



Chamber of Commerce had, to some extent, taken np its 
ground with regard to India, and he hoped stiU more 
would be done. The lecturer^ in alluding to tchocls, bad 
not referred to those under missionary control, which, he 
believed, were very extensive, and were devoted rather 
more to moral and religious subjects than the govern- 
ment ones. In conclusion, he hoped that tho more 
enlightened principles on which India was now being 
governed would continue to produce a rapid and pro- 
gressive extension of tho benefits which had been 
described. 

Kr. Hyde Clarke could not quite concur either with 
Sir. Cheetham or with Mr. Stocqueler with regard to the 
want of interest shown by this country in India. Mr. 
Cheetham had given one of the beat proofs of interest 
felt by this country in the rapid development which had 
taken place in India. He rather thought all who htd 
been connected with India demanded fur that cf^untry 
a greater degree of attention than it was pos&ible for 
anyone in England to give ; for there were so many 
claims on the people's attention at home that it was 
totally impossible to answer to the call sometimes put 
forward, and give undivided attention to India. The 
friends of India must, therefore, bo contented with 
going on creating an enlightened public opinion with 
regard to it, and still more m creating in India itself an 
opinion in response and in accord with the public opinion 
at home, so' that all may work together for the object 
which all had in view — the advancement and welfare of 
that immense population. Considering the difiBculties 
to be encountered in all such exertions from the preju- 
dice of the populations, and those affecting the governing 
classes, everyone ought to feel gratified with the result 
which had been laid before them. All those familiar 
with such countries knew that the people were preju- 
diced against schools and schooling ; and it was im- 
possible for a maa to live long in such oountiies witbont, 
to a great degree, partieipa&ig in the prejudioies snd 
feelings of the Booi(4y by which he wtis encompa»e4 
Making allowance for those things, he thought hopefol 
views ought to prevail, though, aX the same time, bti 
looked almost with dismay at the figures wbi^ 
had been put forward, showing that only one in 240 (^ 
the population was receiving edaoetion. That cerJ 
tainly was a proportion enough to appal any fri^a^ 
of education, and must be vastly alt^^red before i 
was possible to relax educational efforts. Agsi^ 
when it was said tho State had expended aboil 
90 millions on railways, so far from agreeing ^tl 
Mr. Cheetham that their haivd ought now to be stayH 
he could not help calculating the proportion wbid 
this amount bore on population, and he found it repti 
sented on an average an investment of about 8s. a head 
in fact, it was les« than the return for one year's expctrt i 
cotton. So far, therefore, from stopping railways i 
order to promote irrigation, ho thought there was ti 
greatest reiison for pushing on both, for railways woul 
enable irrigation to be better carried out, whilst on tt 
other hand irrigation would help to feed the traffic of (fc 
railways. He regretted that on such an occasion \ 
could not abstain ft-om repeating what hehnd snid befot 
and calling attention, particularly from Indians, to tl 
example of the United States. If the circumstano 
I were not the same in many respects, they were the *at 
as to the necessity for means of locomotion ; and to lin 
the expenditure on this account to the small amou 
or 88. or four rupees a head, was absolutely o 
of the question. Indeed, if the roeult of Engli 
government depended simply upon what some seimtd 
think — a large ekpenditure on railwavs — discouraj 
ment, rather than exultation, ought to be the predoii 
nant feeling. But there were varioua other acts whj 
showed that immense benefit had been conferred u| 
the population. One of the most apparent and impo 
ant was the great increase in the price of labour, wh| 
was now four and five fold in many Muia what it wa^ 
few years ago. He would not rerer to the Uxge sti 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, FnmtTAn 7, 1878. 



211 



(he prerioiis year were not io satis&ctorj b^ £80,000* 
Thdtbiolateamoant of the population of Bntifih India 
Us been aaoertained to exceed two hundred and forty 
millkmi^ bat of that number only 186^ pay rerenue to 
the supreme gorernment — the remainder are tributary 
to natire princes, under English adminiataration, or 
entirely independent nobles. 

lltt main sources of revenue are primarily, of course, 
the land, and after that salt, opium, stamps, customs, and 
aciM. The Post-office roTenue is considerable, though 
fioctaating, sometimes exceeding and occasionally falling 
filiort of the cost of the establishment and carriage. And 
Ihia brings us to the mention of one of the best tests of 
I people's progresB. 

"A natittn * writes more letters only when the necessi- 
tiee (at intercourse increase ; and a stestdy augmentation 
in the Post-office returns tells the same tale for its in- 
tellectual advancement that a rise in the exports and 
imports does for its material prosperity. Now, as 
>f irds India this story has, during the past ten years, 
Wna constantly brightening one. An inspection of 
the returns from 1S62 to 1871 inclusive shows that the 
p^jple resort to the Post-office more freely, and are 
vimng to pay a larger total sum for the facilities which 
it affords. Thus in 1862 the number of letters received 
fur delivery by tho post-offices throughout British India 
uooonted to 42| millions ; in 1867 it had crept up to 54 
nolliona, and during the succeeding four years it rapidly 
advanced to over 77 millions. This is the return for 
ISTlfor the whole empire. If we turn to the particular 
prdrinoes, we find Bengtd, as re^ds the rate of pro- 
ereti, at the head of Uie list. In 1862 the number of 
fetten posted in Lower Bengal was 8} millions, and in 
U71 it had risen to seventeen millions and a-half, or 
more than double. The Punjab stands next, and shows 
m increase from under five millions in 1862 to over 
sioe millions in 1871. British Burmah exhibits an 
*fi^ progress, though on a much smaller scale. The 
North- West Provinces hold an honourable place half-way 
dovn, and show a rise from eleven to seventeen millions. 
Madias exhibits an increase from 7j^ to llf millions, 
sad Bombay £rom neariy ten to fifteen and a-half. 

Ib etch case the rise has been much more rapid 
^Bcag the last four ^ears than in the preceding six. 
Daring the second period the Post-office augmented the 
viigfat which could be sent for half an anna ; and this 
BMBue at once told upon the public Tho returns in 
vfHf part of the empire showed an immediate increase, 
ad daring the period which has since elapsed, the 
ttmas has been more than maintained by a permanent 
iUtieity which even tho most ardent promoters of the 
ifcaag« did not venture to predict." 

U it too much to say, in the face of these startling 
B*Bni& that tho education given to the people has really 
?«etntod into their daily acts, quickening their in- 
^u^^ooe, stimulating their intercourse with their fellow 
Ba,aad opening up those new thoughts, new ambitions, 
^ new conceptions of life which belong to a higher 
^.-riliflUion ? I humbly think the conclusion is in- 

There is still one subject, in connection with tho con- 
ttbn and security of tho people, on which a few words 
tt^ be said — tiio administration of justice. 

1 v?ry forward step appears to have been^ taken in 
ftf t^istitation of high courts of justice, presided over 
kfjodgea well versed in the principles of British juris- 
ftadenee, fur the courts which administered a compound 
•4 conflicting system, in which the acts and rcgula- 
Ikv of the government, and other local considerations, 
W« imperfrctly amalgamated with the statute and 
on nw of Great Britain. Litigation has not been 
Jid ftmong tho natiTea by the introduction of a new 
tad new forms of practice. On the contrary, it 
augmented, for the people in the "Upper 
' )vince8, having more confidence in the 

••• CaJflotta Eng1Tthwaa«*» 




integrify and laaniing of British practitionen than they 
possessed in the pleaders and judges of their own nation^ 
have freely resorted to the new courts, in the assurance 
that their cases would receive equitable treatment, and 
that bribery and corruption were next to impossible. 
The expense of the new courts, in the erection of suit* 
able buildings, the salaries of the judges, and the 
multiplication of law officers of tho crown, &c., has 
been considerable, but it has been more than counter- 
balanced by the stamp duties on legal documents, which 
have added materially to the state revenue. 

The administration of criminal justice has not tended 
much to the suppression of crime, but the detection of 
ofienders has been rendered infinitely more facile. The 
people now cheerfully co-operate with the police in 
unravelling the webs woven by conspiracy, in fathoming 
the depths of ofience, and apprehending the perpetrators 
of foul and vicious outrages upon the peace and stfety 
of the public. There has been a very great diminution, 
if not a total extinction, of female infanticide; and hnnian 
sacrifices, which onoe had the sanction of native society 
and the supposed support of religion, are abolished. 

It would be easy to expand this paper. Much remains 
to be said upon the subject of the spread of medical 
science in'Inoia, superseding the empiricism of the east 
by the skill of the western ptaotttioners, and largely' 
contributing, with the establishment of hospitals and 
dispensaries, to the improvement of the health of the , 
people and the reductaon of the returns of mortality. 
Vaccination has done wonders in checking the ravages 
of a fearful disease. The extension of the electric tele- 
graph ^rstem is particularly note- worthy, the enlarge- 
ment of the canals in the north-west, and the roads- 
everywhere, assisting traffic aad oont^buting to the 
irrigation which partially counterpoises drought; the 
vast multiplication of other public works, the penetra- 
tion of coal mines, the enoourag^ement of topographical 
surveys, and the promotion of river traffic — especially on 
the Ganges — are likewise deserving of mention and of 
unqualified praise, but there ,are limits to human 
patience and to the faculty of listening to details 
couUur de rost (however they may merit the 
favourable hue), and therefore I bring the paper to 
a dose. I think that it has been established, by the 
authoritative facts I have accumulated, that during the 
past 14 y&%rs England has done her duty to India in the 
way of education, railways, the encouragement of trade 
.and manufacture, the art8> sciences, and literature, and 
the administration of justice. To this I might add that 
she hiis been throughout tolerant of religious uaai^os,. 
solf-sacrificing in the establishment of adequate military 
protection, and faithful to her obligation to respect the 
vested rights of the people brought under her govern- 
ment. 

DISCUSSION. 

At the close of the Paper, 

The Secretary read the following letter from Mr» 
Edwin Chudwick, C.B.: — 

" Dbar Mr. Foster, — I regret that I cannot avail 
myself of the invitation to be present at the India Con- 
ference, to hear the paper read by Mr. Stocqueler. I 
* beg, however, to submit that any account of the progress 
of India will be wanting in an important element which 
omita to set forth the sanitary progress made as a 
guarantee and promise of future advances in the im- 
provement of the physical and moral condition and the 
productivo power of the population. 

*' If anyone conversant with the subject will read the 
report, just issued, on the measures adopted for sanitary 
improvements in India from June, 1871, to June, 1872^ 

I he will find abundant grounds for this statement. 
^* 1 would remind our good friends, the old Indians, 
that the death rates in the army were in their times 60 



212 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pebeuaet 7, 1878. 



and more per 1«000 in placet where the^ are now Utile 
more than one- third of that. This is chiefly due to the 
labours of the Indian Army Sanitary Commissiun — that 
is to say, to labours wisely and steadily directed by 
officers of special aptitudes and qualifications in sanitary 
science, and giving their undivided attention to the 
prosecution of the work. These labours, if they are 
ouly supported by the council and government of India 
in this country, in the application of the best sanitary 
experience of the West through the local governments 
to our Indian civil populations, will effect, though 
probably not for some time, as large results as have 
oeen obtained in the army, but still considerable trans- 
formations of the physical and moral condition of those 
civil populations under our dominion in the East. 

" It would be out of place to distinguish particular 
achievements in that branch of service, out we have one 
distinguished instance, just reported, which I would beg 
to mention as of the greatest promise in sustaining that 
dominion which, it is to be hoped and believed, will 
prove the most beneficent, the most liberal, and, with all 
its shortcomings, the best for the people of India — the 
dominion of the British empire. 

'*01d Indians, with little knowledge of sanitary 
ficience, have forebodings that the British people 
«annot settle in India. They refer to the fact that 
European children die out there. Now I have paid par- 
ticular attention to this point, vis., the treatment of 
children in India and the tropics, and I have generally 
found that the sanitary treatment of children, which is 
deplorably bad here, is generally worse there. Have we 
not places in England, such as Manchester and Liver- 
pool, where half of those bom are in their graves soon 
after their fifth year P Have I not shown recently that 
in Berlin, half those bom are in their graves before 
their third year P I could indeed point out insanitary 
urban conditions in the West, where generations die out 
rapidly, where no lineage can be counted, and where the 
population is only sustained by immigration. In con- 
trast to such excessive infantile moitality here, have 
we not examples that in well-managed orphan asylums, 
the so-called children's diseases have been in great 
measure banished, and their death-rates reduced below 
one-third of the rates generally prevalent even among 
middle-class populations P I contend that the like sani- 
tary precautions would be efficacious in withstanding the 
greater disadvantages of the general climate in the un- 
cleared and ill-cultivated districts of India. 

'* I have had stated to me numerous instances of indigo 
planters and others, whose families have attained even 
to a third geneiation, apparently with g^od promise of 
succession ; but in the recent sanitary report from India 
to which I have referred^ there is a conclusive corrobora- 
tive example, arising from the application of sanitary 
science to the care of children in an orphan asylum in 
Calcutta. 

"Dr. Fayre reports as follows: — 'The very small 
mortHlity, as well as the small amount of sickness, proves 
that the European child, under proper hygienic con- 
ditions and careful physical training, may live and thrive 
in the plains of Bengal almost as well as in its native 
country. It is not merely in the absence of any serious 
disease and the low death-rate that this is manifested, 
but in the vigorous healthy appearance of the children 
generally. During the period of six years there had 
not been a single case of cholera, and the only death 
from dysentery, which is the disease peculiarly to be 
dreaded in Calcutta, was that of a girl, aged five, in 1863, 
and this was rather a case of dysenteric diarrhoea in a 
naturally delicate child. Two cases only of modified 
small-prix are recorded, and there has never been any 
tendency in the disecue to spread. The children have 
all been protected by vaccination. A few cases of 
genuine typh<»id or enteric fever had occurred, and one 
death ; the other forms of fever had been of the simple 
continued form, or mild manifestations of the influence of 
nalaria. Whooping oough had been altogether absent. 



There were a few cases of simple skin disease of a 
tractable kind. Of acute Inflammatory disease, whether 
of the head, chest, or abdomen,* there has been almost 
none. Diseases of the liver and spleen, whether from 
malaria or other causes, have been also singularly few, if 
not altogether absent. Pulmonary and bronchial com- 
plaints have been very few and slight.' 

** Much as has been done here, sanitary science majr yet 
do even more than this for the protection of infant life in 
India. But compare this with the fact of a reoeot 
report lamenting smcerely a death-rate nearly ten timef 
greater of soldiers* children, as inevitable for European 
children there ! 

" I may refer, as respects adults, to the account which 
I append of what has been done for the protection of 
adults by Lord Mark Eerr, in the abolition of the Delhi 
sore among soldiers, as a pro^ of what may be ac- 
complished for civil populations, and what in truth moit 
be accomplished, for it is not enough to improve the 
sanitary condition of barracks alone in order to protect 
soldiers completely ; the protection must be extended to 
the camps and cantonments, and also to the sites and 
houses occupied by adjacent civil populations. 

"Hence the seats of the British army maybe 
made the seats of security for the population againit 
worse foes than predatory human enemies. The ques- 
tion arises, after such examples of sanitary successef, 
whether the like distinctions that are given for achie?e- 
ments in destroying life shall not be required to he con- 
ferred for achievements in the art of preserving life. 
Compare an tfdiievement in military serrice, in the 
repulse of an incursion of marauders, with an achieve* 
ment such as thtt above recited, in the preservation of 
the lives of children and of a race, or of one such ai 
that described in the letter given in the report from 
Loid Mark Kerr, of the rescue of an adult— civil as 
well as military — population for ever from a perpetoal 
painful plague of boils ! — I am, &c, 

"Edwin Chadwicx." 



The following is the letter abone referred to, from Ix>rd 
Mark Kerr, on the Delhi sore:—" Before my arrival in 
India I had heard of the existence of certain boils and 
sores in many Eastern cities, which, having once been 
places with enormous populations and all Uie require- 
ments of wealth and luxury — well-drained, well- watered, 
and adorned with numerous trees and gard^is— had in 
the process of centuries become, for the most part deaen 
wastes — their canals and watercourses choked up, and 
their only vegetation unwholesome weeds, I knew such 
to be the case at Bagdad, Aleppo, and other places. 
When I arrived at Delhi I found the inhabitants— and 
those with whom I, as a brigadier- general, was moft 
concerned, the garrison — both European and native, to 
a great extent suffering from boils, sores, and unsightly, 
fungus-looking growths on their hands and limbs ; and 
I found Delhi, within the walls, a surface of barrpnneai, 
covered here and there, for the space of two miles in 
length and 600 yards in breadth, by foul weeds or heaps 
of demolished buildings, with wells and water-ducts 
choked up. I informed the viceroy and the comma nd«"- 
in-chief of the state of things, and of my intention to 
plant trees and grass, so as to remove the cause of evil. 
I had previously obtained the Ueutenant-goveniOT'a 
sanction and funds sufficient for the purpoee. One cir- 
cumstance confirmed me as to my opinion of the cau&<^ 
of evil, and induced mo to make a trial, which still 
further strengthed this opinion. The men of the cavalry 
regiment stationed near the Cabool-g^te, amongst tnK< 
and grass, were entirely free from an}' sore ; and I sent 
out those of the rest of the garrison of the 82nd regim<^t 
and the 12th native infantry (unfit for duty from ihti 
sore) under canvas amongst the trees and veHure of \ht\ 
old cantonments, with the most satisfnctory results, thij 
worst sores becoming, after the first week, greatljl 
ameliorated, and the slightest cases n^tuming to dot^ 
''day by day at the same time. I coatinued pUntiBg M 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pibruart 7, 1878. 



213 



beouM oleaied, Aod I reitored mn aqueduct, 

tilffl tikM vmter to gardens in Durriangunge from 

'de of the Chandnee choke. I left £idia in 

1864. I informed hia Boyal Highne« the 

jofOuabridge, on my azrival in London, of what I 

ad of mymgnine hopes of success. Since 

ha?e from time to time heard luch satisfactory 

1 of tbs j^rowth of the trees and gazdens in Delhi, 

gndoal diminution of the cases of sore, that I 

, on heanng that the commander-in-chief was 

seaap of exercise at Delhi, to come out and see 

1 am most truly rejoiced to find the disorder 

Uie eod of these eight years idmost disappeared 

De&L I am aware that other reasons are now 

[toieeomit for the cure of the sore, but not even 

^ ot the stamping out of the contagion can account 

taflo-appesranoe of fresh cases amongst either the 

or Eanqwan population. Without wishing to 

idit iir myself in the matter, I am very anxious 

F aperisooe of this city of Delhi should be made 

I Sor the benefit of other regions in India, where 

"" pan irrigation and draining, with judicious 

tad gardoiing, would, I firmly believe, remove 

' loree and such like evils, but prevent the 

of Bioce serious and even fatal acourges. 

" Mabx Ka&ft, Major- General. 
H«i4-(2art«n Camp, Jumaiy leth, 1872.** 



absolutely startling. At that time India was a scene of 
strife, discord, and oppression, whereas now peace and 
tranquillity reigned throughout the land. 

Xr. Stoeqnaler said he had not paid much attention 
to the changes which had taken place in the sanitary 
condition of India during the last thirty or forty years, 
but the^ did not appear to differ in a general way from 
those with wkiich he was familiar when in that country. 
One^ thing had struck him very forcibly, and that was 
the immense importance of good drainage. It was some 
twelve years since CoL Ochterlony, who was stationed 
on the Keilgherry hills, recommended that English 
regiments, on their first arrival in India, should be sent 
np there to make roads, and one of the Highland regi- 
ments was accordingly sent there. The men were 
enffaffed in hard work, making the roads, exposed to the 
full heat of the sun, and not one man was in ho^pital 
during that period. Onlv the other day, however, in 
the Timet of India, he read a letter from a correspondent 
in the Keilghernr hills, who stated that the condition of 
that district had been wonderfully altered since soldiers 
had been removed from there, owing to the absence of 
good drainage ; in fietct, the climate was now so bad that 
no man could live in it for a week without being sub- 
jected to disease. 



Taaghan, C.B., asked where the statistics 

to bj Iir. Chad wick were gathered from, for he 

to his remarks with some astonishment, as 

certainly opposed to his experience in India, 

I thU, however careful one might be with 

I tad whatever scientific appliances were brought 

.it was impossible to render the climate absolutely 

to infint life. 

said, as &r as his «xperienoe and in- 
vent, Mr. Chad wick's statistics were hardly 
bfthefiicts. He thought the instances named 
^aMptianaL The evils which we had to contend 
[hdia were the climate, the heat, and other dele- 
which ooold not be provided against 
of piecantioii. Tike great objects which 
kept in view in the sanitary measures that 
^•itMstvely introduced of late, had been, first, 
' >diaiiiage; and, secondly, to provide sanitaria; 
I VIS no doubt that the mortality amongst the 
t forces, adult as well as children, had been 
■ished. One cause of this improvement was 
I keeps were removed at times to the hills, and 
ilrDdoeed a wonderful improvement in the 
m^ army. Where, howevtir, the troops )kad 
'pd to remain in an unhealthy dimate, as at 
the mortality was as great as it ever had 

said the quotation given by Mr. Chad- 
'from Dr. Fay re, who represented the mortality 
•sylams as almost as small as in England. 

Taaghan said he must dissent from the con- 
IvriTed at 



was of opinion that, whatever care was 
^ impoBsible to overcome the evil effects of the 
' ladia. The data given might be taken from 
asjrlnm amongst the hills, and he certainly 
^«a iaipoesibility to make infant life as secure 
of Bengal as in the climate of England, 
stated the amount of exports and imports 
of 107 millions sterling ; but he remembered 
^ jtars ago they amounted 'to something lees 
«. At that time the revenue of India was 
^hoat 13 millions, whereas it was now 52 
jMiths population, which was now 240 millions, 
^f supposed to be about 180 millions. 
lutUier than the period referred to in 
thirty years ago, the change was 



Xr. John Ohestham said he had no Indian experience 
personally, but for some 15 years he had been brought 
much into contact with those who had, and with whom 
he acted in the investigation of our government of India. 
He thought the lecturer had not sumoiently attended to 
the cause of the progress. In 1857 the constant fluctua- 
tion in the production of cotton in the United States led 
several gentlemen in Lancashire to consider if any steps 
could be taken to lessen our dependence on that countxy, 
and hence the establishment of the Cotton Supply Asso- 
ciation, which had lately, much to the dissatis&ction of 
many persons in India, terminated its existence. Now 
there was one principle which, more than any other, he 
believed, had led to we results the lecturer Mcribed of 
our Indian government, viz., the bringing of the public 
opinion of England to bear upon it. In 1867 he re- 
membered the interview he had with the governors of 
India, the President of the Board of Control, and the 
East Indian directors, when he found old-fashioned 
notions governing all their actions. He was then 
told that the reforms which were submitted 
for their carefid investigation would, if carried out, 
deprive England of that great country ; but his answer 
was, without hesitation, we had better lose India than 
misgovern it. After fifteen years' experience, he was 
happy to say that nearly every one of those recommenda- 
tions, which were then stigmatised as impracticable, had 
been carried out. After a careful investigation of every 
country in the world which produced cotton, it was 
found that there was one greet obstacle to its increase 
everywhere except in India, that obstacle being the<want 
of population. India was the only country where there 
was an abundance of labour, which, if it could be stimu- 
lated, was capable of producing vastly increased and 
improved results. What was wanted, therefore, was to 
introduce Englishmen and western civilisation into 
India, but this was in direct opposition to the policy 
which had long governed Indian affairs, so much so that 
no Englishman not connected with the Civil Service was 
welcomed in the country. In fact, in 1857 it was the 
law, and he believed it was still the same, that the 
government of Bombay could deport, on twenty-four 
hours* notice, any Engluhman not m their own service. 

Oeneral Yanghan said that law had long since been 
abrogated. 

Xr. Chestham — ^It thus happened that the very men, 
and the only men who could do the work required were 
tabooed and kepf out of the country for fear of ruining 
it. Another objection which met their ears was this: — 
** Oh, the ryots in India have been growing cotton for 



218 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP AET8, Pbbeuaey 14^ 1873. 



attachment to her Majesty the Qaeen were so 
well known. The power that sooh a body pos- 
seseed in aiding and stimulating iiie efforts of 
those who sought to encourage tecnnical eduxsation 
among our artisans could not be overrated, and he 
was glad to think that the influence of the Coaoh- 
makers' Company had been thus exercised. There 
were some among them who might remember a 
Conference held at the Society of Arts last year, 
under the presidency of his brother, Prince Arthur, 
when a scheme was suggested, Aowing how the 
resources of the great City companies might be 
most beneficially applied in that direction. He 
trusted that the labours of that Conference might 
have the success they deserved. He accepted with 
much pleasure the beautiful medal which nad been 
presented to him, and he thanked the Master for 
the kind expressions of which he had made use. 
He hoped that in some manner he might be for- 
tunate enough to serve the company to which he 
had that day been admitted. 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 



TBHTH OBSnrABT XEBTIire. 

Wednesday, February 12th, 1873, Vice- Admiral 
Erasmts Ommanney, CB,, F.B.S., Member of 
Council, in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Baker, John Marcombe Bromley, Hortensia-villa, 

Southsea. 
Parr, Henry, Beoley, near Redditch. 
Boberts, Benjamin, ComwalModge, Anerley, S.E. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
didy elected Members of the Society : — 

Davies, William Henry, 61, Tregunter-road, South 

Kensinf^ton, S.W. 
May, Herbert, 210, Hijch Holbom, W.C. 
Price, Rev. Newton. Watford. 
Quick, Joseph, 29, Great George-strwt, S.W. 
Quick. Joseph, Jan., 29, Great G^rge-street, S.W. 
Sohansohieff, Alexander, S9. Clifton-gardeiis, Maida- 

vale, W., and St. Petarsburgh. 

The discussion upon Lieut. -Col. A. Stblange's 
pi^>er, *' On Ships for the Channel Passage," ad- 
journed from the 5th inst., was resumed by 

Capt. Diesy, who snid Colonel Stranire had so folly 
explaine*! the outline of his scheme that he had lefi 
him but little to add. The defects in Channel transit 
were principally owing to the railways, who have h 
monopoly of the trantit, and are not entilj moved, 
unless by Act of Parliament. There was no doubt 
the shallowness of the French harbours had been 
the grent obitade to irapniTtoment, and ftpon the 
tmie he (Capt Dioey) took this mMtter up, now 
some years since, be saw that nothing bat finJb- 
bottomed vessels would meet aU the zequiffeinenf s ef the 
case, as only flat-bottomed vessels oould be construetatt 
of sufficiently light draft of water to enter the ports at 
aU times of tide. It was well known that quite flat- 
bottomed vessels were the most unoomforta^»le of all 
TeB8(*]s in a sea-way, they rolled and Jnrked so 
suddenly. Some years ago three or ftiur flat- 
bottomed Tessels were sent out to the Government 



of India for service on the coast 
vesrols was about 170 or ISO feet long* 
leet beam, and they rolled in a most unoomforta) 
Those who have not been to sea could hardly and<| 
how it was possible that one vessel should roll 
another very uncomforta>»ly ; the one rolls slo^ 
gracefully, the oUier suddenly and with a jerk, 
so that sailors who have been accustomed to an 
vessel, when they go on board a flat-1 
will get as sea-sick as those not used to tlie 
fncts suggested the necessity of adopting 
fiy pilmi- to the outrigg(*r of the Tndian Te—fili 
by Colonel Strange. Some of these oa tt igRer 
between 200 and 300 tons, and when at 
the open roadsteads of India, while ordinary^ 
of 2,000 or 3,000 tons are rolHng bo ' 
it is impossible to stand on deck wiihoot hoh 
these small vessels are as 8ti*ady as poanble. T%< 
now proposed will be about 200 feet long, 26 feet 
the two httlls^ and each hi^ haTing 19 te 
Although this is reducing the size originally 
it will not curtail the cabin aooommodatioUf as th< 
is to be carried from side to side, doing awmy 
passage you see at the side. This will 
under cover about 400 passengers. Colonel 
mentioned that Mr. Reed was of opinion tlat 
could not be oonstnu'tbd on this pnaoiple ml 
strong without greatly increasing the draft of 
He (Capt. Dicey) believed that the strength 
WHS greatly over-estimated. Thf» vessels wvreinerol 
with li^ht frame- work and plating, drawiiiK r-^ 
feet of water, offering but little resistance to 
The strength and weights had all been f 
calculated, and it had been found that a ▼eaeel 
proposed will bear such a strain, that if 
placed on the pier at Dover, she would bear the 
in mid-air ; and if turned over on the deck she w< 
bear the weight of the other. Now, it wmm a< 
likely that the vessel would be called on to ba«r| 
strain as this. There would bo nine feet in the 
girder in the narrowest or wt^kest part, while the-' 
of the Hccommodation would form a doable bnxi 
throughout, the forepiot of the cabins formiiMr 
a hnrse-shue shape, the ends stretching the whole 
of the accommodation, and the iron girders 03 
from the outsMe of one vessel to the outside of 
the plating of the inner aides beiaf carried 
form the arch. Some di*ubt had been raiaed 
whether the sea would not strike under thia m 
if it did not injure it, cause a g*raA thi 
Now it should be recollected that the seua if 
part of the English Channel are short c-h^ 
seas, and never likely to rise so high bf twe«»ii 
veMels as to touch the an h way. Alaay years a|c« 
an officer in the Enterp* ise, the first steamer thi 
to India round the CapH of Good Hope; 
employed as a transport for troops, and all 
HccommodHtion being octupied, the ship's offictTs* 
were placed before and abaft the paddle-boxea, 
their cabins, as it were, overhung the sea, 
tended Hbout 12 feet out from the ship's side, 
she went to sea full of coal and troops, they w< 
more than 6 feet above the wnter. She was freqi 
in heavy gnU^s of wind, and oensequeotly hick 
no instance occurred of the paddle-box cabins 
damage. The Hrchway of this tunnel would he 
more protected and double the height abovo tha 
therefore there need be no fear of inconveni< 
the Sea 8triking up under the tunnel. Doubts 
h«>en raised as to whether a vessel of this 
would steer as well as the ordinary v s ss ol ; it ist 
the wash of the paddles impinging on the side 
I ire vent her turning as readily as an ordinary 
This hnd not been found to be the case in tiie 
thai had been tried in the river; she answevvHi 
as readily and came round as quickly as any other 
and perhaps the best proof of tUs wa% tbat a 



len angine povM, aad wcudd ocwt l«a to bnild. The 
piddle* being between two hnlli, thera wai no obstmo- 
Hon wbioh wonld come in ike w«f whilst approuihiiag 
piera or muariog*. 

Mr. A. J. Sadler tben draw ktteotion to a diagnm on 
the wall, illoitntting hie own-plan, which wu unilar to 
Oiptain Dioej'e, and he had also a model on the tnblo. 
The bottom of hie leasel waa divided into seven wsMr* 
tight compartment*, the balk-heade fore and aft hting 
emptj, the next two containiaK two aaloonH 70 feet in 
lengUi, and the intwmediate one being ocoupied by the 
enginn and boilsic. There Was an engine of 300 horee 
power in each hull, and the length of ^s boat, which ha 
deaigned in lfl6S, whb tOO fget, oocb hull being 20 feet 
wide and 20 fret high. Above them wita plaued another 
v»eel, >buwn in croas-seotion, reating bodily upon two 
holla or pontooDfl. This apper veaael was deeigned for 
the accommodation of the public, beyond tho aaloona 
already menliooed, and inoluded two large aaloona, 140 
feet by 40. and fourteen privnte aaloona on each aide- 
Be calculated that a Teuel like that, and wilh a power 
of about 600 hurse-power nominal, working up lo 3,000, 
would reach a apeed of aometfaing libc 20 milea an hoar. 
Tbe diagram also abowed a am«l] veaael, which waa now 
being tried. SO feet lonK> eadi hull being 2 feet 6 in. 
beam, and the high-water line of each hull being about 
3 feet wide. Between them were placed a couple of 
paddle-whevia S feet in diameter, 2 feet 4 in. wide, and 
with S or 7 in. floata. A email tngine plneed in her waa 
hoped to have been 20 hone power, bnt unfortunately 
it waa not more thnn 6 or B, and conaeqaently the speed 
anticipated could not be obtained ; but a new engine 
WHa now obtained, and abe waa doing remarkably well. 
Oapt. Dicey, who had had grrat experience in theae 
natlen, had got la much aa seven miles an hour mean speed 
in abll water, and they hoped to do belter still. There 
was alao a drawing showing the position of the veaael at 
every atate of the tide during the last year and a-half, 
and tbia proved qnite clearlj that she did not etrain, aa 
had been auggeati-d she would. Shu had also been tried 
wilh one hull full of water, the other being empty, but 
even in that position she hud been perfectly aafe. With 
regard to the connection between the two, Ur. Meni- 
field had stated, some time ago, that there would be 
great difficulty in making this connection perfectly rigid 
without inimena« weight. The wei^tat of these two 
hulls together waa two and a-ha]f tana, and the whole 



reight of the connectiona, which were perfectly 
rigid, and had not atirred an inch since they had 
been put in, was only Ave cwt. In tbe terrible gale 
which bad oocnrred a abort time ago, this little 
boat waa moored in auch a position aa to be exposed to 
the full force of the atorm, the wavea having a reach 
of a mile and a-half, and breaking full upon her side; 
neverthelesa ahe rode it out. though every other boat in 
the vicinity went down. This showed, at any ralu, that 
such H Hyttem of construction waa not incompatible willk 
a reaiaUuice to tbe break of a powerful wave. There had 
alao been a notion expressed that sufficient water cunld 
not be got in between tbe bulla for the nse of the paddle 
wheels, and that it would be drawn in at the side under 
ihe hulls. Nothing of this sort bad, however, been 
observed in tbe trials which hud betn made, though 
careful attention had been paid to the point. In 
fact, there bad been no trace at aU of the water 
-having b^n drawn in at tbe aide of the vessel. 
He Ihongbt, with Capt. Bicey'a arrangement for 
inoreesitig the widUi between the two hulls, there 
would be quite apace enough for the paddles to 
work well, and in this respect it was anperior to hia 
own, as also in having the paddlea inside. His own 
model was originally Ciina'ructed in order to compete fiv 
the priEee ODrred by Ur. John F>iwler fi>r vessela 
for tbe Channel trafflc, tbe cunditiona of whidi com> 
petilion aeemed to necvaailate an enormona tonnage, 
•mnething like 12,000 tons, and this led him to 
Uio ides of getting tid of a gnat deal of th* niparin- 



220 



JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pbbiiuary 14, 1873. 



emnbent weight by adopting the two hulls. The figures 
had been worked out for him by a naval architect, tmd b> 
them it appeared that a Tessel 400 ft. long, built as he 
had described, would not weigh more than 1,400 to 1,600 
tons, including 600 passengers on board, and that the 
diaft would not be more than five or six feet, whilst by a 
proper amount of boiler and engine power there would 
De no difiSculty in getting almost any speed. No doubt 
there would be a little more skin friction in a twin boat 
than with a single boat, but, from what he had seen and 
the experiments he had made, he fancied it wuuld be a 
mere trifle. The boat steered wonderfully well, was 
▼ery easily worked, and could be readily brought up to 
a most awkward comer, where she usually lay. In con* 
elusion, he had pnly to say that Captain Dicey and him- 
self were working harmoniously together, seeking only 
the public benefit, and he had no doubt that if they were 
socoessful their endeitYours would be appreciated. 

The Chairman having invited a general discussion on 
the whole of the matters which had been brought 
ibrward, 

Mr. John Grantham, C.E., after quoting a passage from 
Capt. Tylf r*s report to the Board of Trade some years ago, 
in which he mentioned a scheme which he (Mr. GrHnthtum) 
had proposed to the South Eastern Railway, as his 
warrant for speaking on this subject, said that when 
those plans were prepared, some six years ago, plans which 
up to this time he beUcved were not wholly unacceptable 
to the South Eastern Company, it whs generally con- 
ceded that the vessel required must be a very long one, 
that she should go very fast, steer at both ends, draw 
very little water, and have great power. The reason 
whv those plans were rejected by the zailway company, 
and reported against by Captain Ty ler, was because of 
the length, the draught of water, and the steering, and 
it was consoling to him to fiud that every plan since 
proposed had adopted those very points, and that 
they were now universally accepted by pra(;tical men 
in dealing with this matter. Some begnn with 
a length of 600 feet» and some went d<jwn 
to 350, whilst the length hn had proposed was 400 fet^t. 
Referring now to the schemes which had been put 
forward, he wuuld first allude to Captain Dicey's and 
Mr. Sniley'e, on which he had ftilt some delicacy in 
speakinflT before, because he had been professionally con- 
sulted bv financial m«'n with regard to them, and his 
opinion nad been very unfavourable. He, therefore, re- 
frained from expressing it puV»li(!ly. Both Capt. Dicey 
and Mr. Beasemer hNcl been most liberal and kind in 
showing him their plans, and, therefore, he was reluctant 
to say a word unfavourable to them, but at the same time 
he thought a public duty was imposed on every one to 
speak out openly on the subject, tor if people were 
willing to risk tht^ir money to the extent of £6 *,000or 
£80.000 in building a vessel suitable for the Channel 
service, it was of the grcatfst importance to the public 
that the first attempt should not be unsuccessful. In 
fact, he believed one of the excuses put forward by the 
railway companies for not building proper vessels whs, 
that there was such a variety of opmions upon the sub- 
ject that no one could tell whnt was best to bo done. For 
that reason he thought they should keep to acknowledged 
principles, and not try experiments until it was con- 
dusively proved that a vessel built upon those acknow- 
ledged principles would not answer the purpose required. 
With regard to douMe ships he had had some practical 
experience, for it so happened that the first vessel which 
as a b'^y he put his foot upon was a twin vessel, one built 
by his father for the Irish lakes. He had sailed in her 
many times, and watched the prim i)ile, and from that 
time downwards he had never lost sight of the question, 
whether a twin vessel, in any form, would meet the re- 
quirementsof the case. His father's vessel was no crirerion 
togob^ ; but at the same time the properties she developed 
ffave him the idea that those properties, though they might 
be greatly ameliorated, were inseparable from that con- 



struction ; and two of them, whidi were inherent ii 

system, were these :^Df all the vessels he bad tiodd^ 

was Uie most uncomfortable, rolling more thso aire 

he ever tried ; and in the next place, no speed cod 

obtained from her compared with ordinary ve»4& 

quite ag^reed with Captain Dicey that she $t&an 

mirably, for the force of the water conung fitn 

paddle-wheels direct on to the rudder made hwa 

her helm remarkably well. She was also quite i 

and would bear any amount of canvas. On tiieie{ 

twin vessels no doubt possessed advantages. 8ioee 

he had seen some vessels built for the Forth and i 

Canal, by Sir William Fairbaim ; they had straigki 

and he believed two or three diJOferent formf whv 

to test the principle whether speed could be ofata 

They were extremely light, being built on voy eb 

lines, and great power was applied, bat thej n 

failed in speed. As far as he knew, they were 1 

tried in rough water. A vessel was afterwarda bi 

the Clyde, by a company got up for the purpoJ 

she was also abandoned on account of her slo* i 

With regard to Mr. Bessemer's plan, he feared 

it would not bear close examination. There i 

plan of the vessel on the wall, showing that iM 

to have fifty feet at each end cut away, asd 

little freeboard, the effect of which, he belWcd, 

be that she would go level and cut throogh the 

but this would result in the waves hreakiog vith 

violence on the deck, and striking the fore pert of tin 

with such power that the shock of the sea apon bo- 

be much greater than with a vessel of the ordioaiy 

struction. In the mxt place, the cutting sway at i 

end bad the effect of reducing the length nom i^ fe 

feet, and as the deck would be cut up by the o^K>H 

the hatches, and the middle entirely occupiedM 

moving saloon, the deck, except as regarded V^ 

would be entirely destroyed. Now, it sppesred tt 

that one of the great features in a Channel rawif 

be that she should not only be able to acoommodall 

passengers comfortably, but also to take on dt«k u 

luggage, which should be lowered by cranee, and « 

require a conpiderable area. Unless that were pi* 

for, one of the principal requirements in theae larg«1! 

would be lost sight of, because rapid tranait from tW 

to the ship, and from the ship to the train, waa enef 

jnain elements of the qutstion. He believed, thai 

that commercially this plan would be a miat^k^ J 

vessel would not carry what was required. Th**l 

would the swing cnbin obviate sea-sicknwj 

opinion was it would not. It did meet j^% 

motions very painful at sea — the rolling mdtion-* 

believed the plan to prevent pitching cojild not bed 

out, and in that respect she would be like anjj 

vessel. Then, would the cabin itself be a 

sea-sickness? He thought the motion of 

which h.'*d been described by Colonel SU 

one which could not be got over, and it 

most sickening of all motions* and not only »• 

would be felt more painfully in a large stlooo 

small one. Only imagine a snloon, 60 feet '^'^t 

feet wide, suddenly sinking below one's feet »m1« 

again from six inches up to six feet, m Mr. *"*■ 

thouffht possible. There was not a head J^."**"! 

which could stand such a motion without bemg J 

Tlien there was this great defect, that the »wnw 

circumscribed that the passengers conW m 

what every one who was eick longed to w 

down. This required a spHoe of at lea«» ^ 

for each passenger, and the ^»'"*"*?"J^ 

cabin described would not give this kind ^ ****^ 

tion for more than about 60, leaving the o^<^/J" 

provided (or. For these reasons he U^ "T 

meitsinlly this scheme would be a ""'"^Jj^^ 

judgment there was no necessity for soy ®' ja 

schemes, for a vessel of 800 to 400 f«>t ^'^^"^ 

acknowledged and recognised P^^P^^JJJJjoa 

every purpose. He was not speaking » riiwwt 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Pebruaby 14. 1873 



221 




vluoli an J one might learn from, namely, 
AlAMrioui itautteFi, many of which were tniveraing 
pNn«^ iMi qaite aa rough aa the Ohnnael, and yet it 
lint vdl kooim &ct that there waa constantly a band 
l^ffq^aad Jadi«a dancing and amnmng themaelvea the 
vay. In conclusion, he hoped that an appeal 
go forth from that meeting moat eameatly to Uie 
oonp anie i to proride the public with something 
tkaa the miaenble accommodation they*at present 
•d; he was sure there was nothing to prevent 
dmng ao, and at the same time it would greatly 
M to th^ir own intereats. 

&: C ▼. Harriflald, F.B.8., stated, in response to a 
■jpat fiiithon the former occasion by Oolonel Strange, 
ifroapdsoo which he beliered th>tt in rough weather 
' motion of 5 or 6 feet might be expected in any 
totally irrespectiTe of any rolling or pitching 
u Theresoltofhia calculations, at first only rout^h, 
Isftifwanis repeated more accurately, tended to show 
taking the theory of the oscilkting sea wave 
B to mathematiciaaa as the trochoid^ sea wave, 
it«kiag a wave 9.5 feet long and 10 feet high on the 
*^ a particle on the aui&ce would have a vertical 
of 10 feet If that particle were at the mean 
of 6 fset 8 in. below the surface, the vertical 
liim voold be, on aa exact a calculation aa he 
nanoably make, 7 feet 11 in., say 8 feet. That 
tiathe free ocean, and there was no doubt that when 
tiilaeBM of the bottom waa felt, the oscillation would 
tttiBiwbat Im, but in anch a case as was supposed he 
iMtthiok it would be less than 6 feet. "He had not 
any ex^vagant wave, 95 feet being about one- 
ths kttgth^ he had actually observed from the 
Pier at Brighton. The particle he had supposed 
W vnder the bottom of the ship, and the wave 
' ifwa the ship would be intermediate between that 
dM oae on the aurface. It waiB true that a ship of 
" ^bt«adth would not be exactly in the position 
Ffttvk piMed upon the wave, but even on aueh a ship 
~ ' ' osdllation of 6 or 6 feet was what might quite 
ly be expected in rough weather. Between 
laod BansgHte the waves would g«nerally be leas, 
the sandbanks of the North Sea broke up the 
^ypf mnch, but when yon came to Boulosme and 
t « the other journey, it was a very different 
' ^ prictically aU you h>td to break the sea whs the 
put of the channel between Cherbourg and 
^ expanding into a broader bay within, which 
' ^ wtrea to expand themselves over a larger sur- 
i^Bakinif to a certain extent a very imperfect harbour. 
D, when a vessel was ridng and falling from 
it had a certain amount of inertia of its own, 
I edition would not be always confined to what was 
' to tfit ware ; it waa liable to a certain kind of ac- 
vid what th'it W'luld amount to when the 
^4M happened to agree it waa diffi<mlt to aay. If 
'JyMtrictei oaiitlations happened to agree in time, 
^>sf ioittNid of oscillating to and fro might go round 
*•*!. Tnia he illustrated by the ficility with 
*sa noibrella awung between the fingt^rs oy the 
^ Bight be caused to deacribe a complete circle, 
^^t very slight motion of the han 1 svnchronising 
Skh momentary oscillation. With regard to 
IKcey's ship he must remark that it diff'^red 
<r froGD the outrigger canoe use<l in the Sooth 
*^ich was not a double vessel at all, but simply 
~'j'*«»iying ballast to windward, the wind in that 
"Wag alwaya one way. The log, by its weight, 
■* ^^ hfted out of the wtter, hut if a fl^w of 
-•■J to taka the canoe aback, having very little 
kitwQoUl sink at once, and the canoe would go 
^Mdingly in the Fiji Islands, where the winds 
JJ^^A so eertain as m the trades and the men- 
JJ'Wni da G Jh*, the log of wood became con- 
^*atecon>lsm4U b-mt, beside the other, but even 
J*** W4 a doable canoe. He ag^reed with much 
' ' by Hr. Grantham on the sulject of 



twin vessels, for though he had, in the first place, been 
rather impressed in favour of this mode of construction, 
all his subsequent knowledge and experience had led 
him to the contrary opinion. His more recent experience 
of this class of vessel was in connection with Mr. 
Sterling's yacht. He always found her very steady, 
whether under sail or not ; but still Mr. Grantham's 
testimony to the contrary ought to have great weight ; 
and not only did Mr. Grantham's experience go to that 
effect, but several French engineers, with whom he had 
conferred, expressed an opinion directly adverse to any 
increase of steadiness from such a mode of construction. 
There was no doubt about the steering. He had never 
said they would not steer well in calm water, but that 
they answered the helm sluggishly, in consequence of 
the enormous si le that had to be turned round, and that 
would be especially the case in a head sea. There were 
two bows for the sea to strike against instead of one, and 
not only that, but in many caaea the sea would glance off 
from one inner side and strike the other. Captain Dicey, 
he thought, rather showed a disposition to set up giants 
of his own for the purpose of knocking them down. He 
(Mr. Merrifield) had never said the two hulls could not 
be joined together rigidly, but that it must be done at 
the expense of weight, which was something serious. 
The remark with regard to the laahing of two boats had 
not much force, because with a long spar you might have 
less strain on the lashing, but much more on the spar 
th'm if a shorter one were used. Captain Dicey andTMr. 
Sedley seemed somewhat at issue on the question of 
speed, the latter contending^ for a twenty mile speed, 
while the former spoke of 15 knots, which he did not 
consider a great speed. It waa not a great speed con- 
sidering the requirements of the Channel passage, but a 
low speed ; but, when considered as a speed at which you 
were to make considerable sacrifices — surface friction 
and double wave displacement — it was a very serious 
speed. It was, in fact, double the speed at which the 
screw colliers ordinarily worked ; and it took eight times 
the amount of coal per hour to go 15 knots that it did to 
go 7^. Therefore he considered 15 knots a good speed, 
considering the advantages to be thrown away, but 
not as compared with what it was desired to realise. 
He'had only one more remark to make, and that was, 
that he could not follow Mr. Mackie in his little 
geometrical measurement. He did not see how the wave 
off the bow could come through a canal with the water 
alrea^ going through it from the front. With regard to 
the efl^t of putting in two paddles on a side, all those 
who bad any real knowledge of tho subject admit it to 
be a defect — a defect deliberately incurred for certain 
structural reasons. It was generally admitted that one 
paddle working in the wake of another was a defect, but 
that defect was very much enhanced by the way that 
Mr. Mackie proposed in a confined channel. As to the 
low bow. proposed in Mr. Reed's design for the Bessemer 
saloon ahip, he would himself not use that. He would 
rather prefer to have it continued to the full height. 

Capt. J. E. Davis, B.N., said he would not have ventured 
to spe^k on thn subject had he not consulted others who 
were better able to judge of the matter, and finding they 
agreed with him. he would give his opinion. It would 
be presumption in him, in the presence of so many engi- 
neers and shipbuilders, to speak one way or the other as 
regards the engineering part of the question. He spoke 
simply as a seaman ; he thought seamen ought to have a 
voice in it as well as others. Not only was he a seaman, 
but he waa a pilot for that portion of the Channel 
which these vessels were intended to cross, and therefore 
he knew something of the place these ships would have 
to go to. and the work they would have to do. He had 
no interest in any of them ; he did not hold any shares, 
neither did he intend to, and therefore he could apeak 
without bias. He was a seaman, and a sea-sick one, and 
10 his sympathies, as fkr as that went would be with Mr. 
Bessemer's plan. But he thought Mr. Mackie's was the 
beat plan bdBore thenu He did not pot mooh fiuth in 



222 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, PsaiRVAaT 14, 1878. 



speed ; sailors knew too well what that meant. Steam 
was got up at a certain time, with picked coal, picked 
engineers, and picked men at a measured mile. He 
candidly snid he did not think that the double vessel 
would answer. Captain Dicey s><id the sea would not 
strike the c^abin underneath. He said it would. With 
regard to the Besffemer cabin they all knew the dimen- 
sions of it. That would not cure uckness, he was sure. 
In Hr. Bessemer's plan thev had a cxbin of a certain 
length, and so on, and they hiI knew it was only intended 
for those who could pay well, but he would ask what 
were those to do who could not afford to pay to go into 
that cabin ? Every sailor he had asked looked upon Mr. 
Be8semer*8 caldn as a sort of hobby, and a rather ex- 
pensive one. Thf'y did not believe in it One or two 
points had struck him as a pinctical man. If you took 
a compass and measured an arc of 14 degrees from the 
point to the outer edge of the cabin it would strike the 
bottom. If you meHSured the arc from the top of the 
deck to the top of the skylight it was 16 degrees, and if 
the ship rolled more than that it would take the top 
of the sk^'light off. Then, again, the steersman was 
down below. Now in ordinnry steering the man at 
the helm watched the waves, and anticipating each wave 
he moved the helm accordingly, but the steersman below, 
or leveller, or governor, or whatever he was called, could 
not see the waves, and if he were to attempt to act 
according to the movement of the cabin, he might give 
his ^dder a little turn the wrong way, and the wave 
might be coming the other, and so upset all his calcula- 
tions. Then another point was as regards the harbour. 
It was a very difficult thing indeed for the ordinary boats 
to get into Boulogne Harbour in bad weather. If one- 
third of the vessel got in and then a heavy sea struck 
her, what was to prevent her being dashed against the 
pier and knocked to pieces ? For ships such as these 
considerably more space would be wanted. He said Mr. 
Mackie's cabin was too high. Its breadth over Mr. 
Bessemer's amount(^d to 14 per cent. That was a matter 
of great importance as to safety and as to maintaining 
equilibrium. As to which of the models was best for the 
Channel passage it would be impossible for them to 
decide. There were great merits in each. It would n«it 
be decided at the Stock Exchange ; the almighty dollar 
would not decide it ; no opinion of theirs would decide 
it. It would depend wholly upon the public to say whi<'h 
was best, and they would have the best, though he 
thought that, as practical men, nine sailors out of ten 
would say that for the future passage-boat across the 
Channel, of these three now before thtm, the Mackie 
boat was best. 

Xr. J. Oldileld Chadwiek was surprised to find that 
Colonel Strange had neglected to mention Mr. Fowler's 
scheme of the ChHnnel passage, which had been called 
Noah^s Ark. They had had the opinions of scientific men 
and he would venture to speak smaply as a layman and a 
landsman. The matter could only be decided by 
practical experience. With regard to Mr. Be»semer*8 
saloon, a good deal would depend upon actual experi- 
ence ; as to Mr. Mackie*s, he thought he was engaged 
in a vain attempt to manufiacture power. It was stid 
that the water would act in propelling the boat as a 
rocket. All the force would be due to the engines ; the 
picking up of water at the bow and dischaiying it at the 
stem was not the most profitable work of the engines. 
The four frictional suriares instead of two must inevit- 
ably cause a great diminution of speed. Now. the two 
requisites for the Channel paf>sage were steadiness and 
speed. Whatever was done, the passage must, to the 
majority of persons, be a very disagreeable and painful 
affair. If, therefore, the journey could be diminished by 
even a few minutes it whs an enormous advantage. As 
to Cant. Bicey's nhip. in the event of any accident, the 
faot of each hull being only half a hull instead of a whole 
would only add to the diaaster. With regard to Mr. 
Bessemer's saloon, that in all its lines and arrangements 
^.^ I y^Q^ the view to the greatest ' " 



"Even if it should not prove to be all that was ttpnAti 
for it, the ship would be an enormous advantage. If he 
succeeded in keeping the ship steady and horisonta], 
within perhaps one dt'gree, it would be an immense gain. 

Mr. CoiTton remarked that Mr. Ckantham and others 
had said that there should be nothing but well-estab- 
lished principles, which meant simply old ships under 
new forms. He would venture to lay before them what 
might be <!alled a monstrous form, but one which he wai 
sure would accomplish better than the other plana the 
end in view. 

The Chairman s^id that it could not be allowed for 
any further models to be introduced, as there would be 
no end to the discussion. 

Mr. Corjrton said then he would just state bis objec- 
tions to these plans. It was a great objection to attempt 
to steer at both ends, for the means of propelling the 
ship and steering the ship were in the engine-room. 
Why do ships roll ? As long as the sea was troubled 
ships would roll, and the great point was ti> prevent the 
accumulation of rolling. Ships rolled because they were 
built symmetrically — they were built like pendulums. 
The ship rolls and a sea strikes her, and every saiktr 
knew that if the wave struck her at the same period of 
oscillation, that ship was doomed. It was to obviate 
that that be would have proposed a plan that would not 
only have increased the speed, but prevented the scca- 
mulation of rolling motion. If any gentleman wished 
to see his model they could do so by visiting the patent 
museum, where he had deposited it. Ihis accumulation of 
rolling had been proponed to be got over in two ways. Mr. 
Bessemer's scheme was to have a man at a wheel, to 
balance us all over to France and back again. Anothir 
way was by double boats, which, as far as experience hsd 
determined, had been shown to be a mistake. He bsd 
been out sailing in the south-west monsoon from OaUe 
Harbour with a Portuguese pilot, who told him thai be 
did not dare to leave the ship for 36 hours at a stretch 
without being able to overhaul her. 

Mr. Eobert Bawlinson, C.B., considered there was one 
very important aspect quite apart from the struotare <" 
the ship, and ihnt was the sanitary arrangements. The 
cabin, with its 62 feet width, would be the moA 
unsatisfactory place to put anyone in. It whs the si^t 
of sickness about them that often made peo|»le sick. He 
thought if ever^those vessels put to sea, the passengws 
would wish they were in the old boats again. 
It was said that these models were very strong 
because they had been tested. Rtperiments of that kino 
proved nothing. The strength of the material of which 
these vessels were constructed was not increased by the 
size, but the strain on them was fearfully increased. A 
model worked on the Thames might apparently hear any 
strain, but when you came to put hundreds of tons open 
her, you must either have a very enormously increased 
arrangement of beams or your vessel would come to 
grief. Then, with rej^ard to the steering, every captam 
and pilot knew when he had a vessel going throuf^h heavy 
waves, he could not leave the tiller or take his eye off 
the waves, as the ship was always inclined to go out of 
her track. He thought the double skin friction would 
be a very retarding |»ower. Those who wanted to know 
what friction is, if they had seen the boats that were put 
upon the canals, with a length of 83 feet Mud six feel 
beam, and 18 inches dm ft, would hnve seen that on 
being suddenly stopped they would hardly go three 
times their lenKth. However, if you choose to pay for 
the cohI you may overcome that. He was quite satisfied 
that the thing required was not Inrge-cabmed ve«els, 
but v«4sse]s that should cross safely, evenly, and steadily, 
allowing the passengers plenty of good deck aooommoda- 
tion and a number of small cabins. 

Captain Charles Chapman said, as far as the appearance 
of the b^>ats went, the whole matter was strange to him, 
but, like Oapt. Davis, he was a seaman, hiiving been at 




JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP AI^TS, Pebruabt 14, 1873. 



223 



tm man cr len all hia life. He could therefore speak 
vkk iQiatf accortu-y aa to what the waves woald do. No 
tbeorj in cnsatiun coold tell you what they would do 
oader certain circnmatanoes. They sometimes did 
vhatthsy liked and you could not hinder them. The 
|i%<t object was to keep a Yessel always abore the water, 
» Uut Hhe should go over the water as comfortably as 
ibedKild. and to keep her dry. There was only one way 
Id prtvuttt so askknees t:ffiBCtually, he was confident, and 
(hat wttito atop aahure. It might be modified, no doubt, 
aad boaU coold be ao oonBtruuted as to cause less. Every 
mikit in the world knew what a good sea-boat meant 
If jtn built a boat that would not rise to the wave, the 
«iv« woald most aortrly go over her. It would do one 
or tba other. The water must either go over or under a 
buit« and if she does not riee to it she is a bad sea-boat. 
Qa had been ten timea round the world^ and seen nearly 
vmy Dock aod comer in it, and h<» thtirefore considered 
kasi^tf justified in saying that he knew something as to 
vkit tbe lei would do. He had cummHuded every kind 
«f v««eJ, trom a aloop to an ironclad, aod the reisult of 
\a» experience was that a vessel must either let the sea 
foover btr or under her, and all the known ingenuity 
«f au vould not alter the fact. He hnd no doubt that 
ftrte TetMls on the whole were good. He should likii to 
a» all the various plans tried at sea. It was a noble 
ftiaf lor these gentlemen to come forward and pro- 
|0nDith«Qriv« of this kind for «xperiment, and it was 
Mat unfair for anybody to say that they ought not to 
ki iMicd. If Engftshmen had nut the pluek to go and 
4iy«oiiM!thing they hnd nev«r trie«l before they ought to 
W uhuDed of themaol ves. Hh thought sailors ought to 
biiv )i Tvice in the matter. He lud cruesod tho Channel 
lottu of timfs, and it was imposaible fur the ingenuity 
tf nan to cootrive anything more mi^rnble than the 
OiuxBt4 boats. They were as miterable as they could 
K ud a disgrace to the country. The ladies at 
halt ought to be taken care of. He was not liable 
to ockncsa, because he had tuo much of tbe sea, 
ht It almost m^tde him sick to be in one of tbe 
1 boAts. He would sooner go down into the 
of a collier brig than into the cabin of one of 
(funnel boats. The public uught to put their 
in their pockets, so that these ships might be 
What WHS tbe use of going on with a whole lot 
P ''urtj, dirty, miserable little craft, on which you had 
^ M fogitt to aling a cat, or even to be sick ? Therefore, 
•thought there was great honour due to those gentle- 
Ma who bad brought the matter forward. He could 
Mt Bj vhich was the best, but they ought all to be 
^fMloi, and anyune who tried to put a stumbling- 
Wtm the wuy of improvement was t">o conservative 
k Ail day. A double boat would do as well as any 
4ft« boat at sea, inasmuch as it could now be made 



) 



^«f Artngth. Any amount of sthrngth can be put, so 
to beu-any amuunt of Btr>«io ; but he did not think 
i taytiody in the world would ever bring furth a ship 
. "^^wld not have some motion. If any plan would 
wit, Mr. Beasemt-r's would. He had often slept m a 
M or hammock, and even though the cot was still and 
[^ Aip ««a rolling about, there was always some 

Ir. liMn aakod if there was any possible means by 

l^^ifk a ihip cookl be ki^pt steady, and allud»^ to the 

^noQi tipcHioents which had been made in America, 

altoWisaB's 



. B.V., said that the first condition 

-^ vas sise, which was obtiinod by length, 

I Jj*<fth, lad depth of hold. Another means 

lyjp motive power. Steadint^ea could be obtained 

[*2^ to the gr»«test possible nicety by accele- 

*^ ^ valodty in certain seas. For example, he 

•• ^ 6,000 miles from New Zealand in perftct 

ud without sickness, because in that sea he 



S*"^*^ * *PMd of eight miles. If he had re- 
**k t» iM be iroidd haim had moie mekamt. 



It was due to that particular sea. Now, one object 
was to provide a very large ship. It was also 
sought to give a very high power, which would 
give great velocity, and that in certain seas 
would give great stability. That was the real 
or main feature. Without professing to go into any 
of these plans particularly, he believed Mr. Bessemer 
WHS doing a great service to the country, whether his 
plan was rii(ht or wrong, or whether Mr. Mackie's was. 
They most likely would initiate a new ship. Indirectly 
they had already been the means of an important move- 
I ment by the railway companies, who had laid a Bill 
before Parliament with the object of improving the 
Channel communication. This in his opinion, would, 
but for Mr. Bessemer, never have taken place. The 
lecturer had given them eight causes of sickness in 
his paper, but he had omitted one. He had been 25 
years at sea, and his last voyage was one of 76,000 nriles, 
and he had never been sick ; but when he crossed the 
Channel on the 3rd of October last, he really thought 
thtire was a combined effort for the purpose of making 
him sick. Whether he stayed on deck or went below, 
whether he went here or there, he saw nothing but 
sea-sic-kness. It was not always caused by motion; 
people suffered from it through bad smells. The 
passage across the Channel from Dublin to Holyhead 
was pleasant enough, and fur this simple reason, 
the boats were la^er, the draught of water was 
greater, and the passage was longer. Mr. Reed had 
pubUshed a letter in the Timis admitting the fact 
most impartially that one evil of the Chann^ boats wae 
their smallness. They were well-constructed, but were 
tuo little. These boats before them would have that 
power of size which would give them steadiness in the 
I watfr, and they would also have the power of speed, 
which would give them still greater steadiness. But 
there was a dangerous element in aiming at two high a 
speed. These vessels were 400 feet long, and 20 Imots 
' an huur meant a voyage at three minutes to the mile — 15 
miles an hour meant four minutes to the mile, and in 
the Channel that meant great risk of collision. And 
the queetion was whether you want such g^eat speed 
s«> long as you get the regularity. The boats cross- 
ing the Chitnnel are said to go 15 miles an hour. 
He htid never known that. These vessels, having increased 
momentum, would be able to cross the Channel at more 
uniform speed. He had in his possession a letter 
' from the captain of one of the packets running between 
Dublin and Holyhead; they have an average of 13 knots 
* an hour in summer, but the smaller boats never will. 
Once he was uff the coast of New Zealand, and he found 
it needful to increase thernte of spe^-d. Before doing so he 
asked a lady who waa in the ship if she would come and 
dine, and she said she could not, as ahe was too sick. He 
said he wuuld spenk to tbe clerk of the weather and make 
it smoother for her. He was then under two b«>iler8 
instead of four, and he ordered the others to be lit. By- 
and-bye she came to dinner, and asked him what it was 
that had mHde it so calm. He had simply increased the 
velocity. He would not say that that woald meet all the 
conditions of steadiness, but it would give one great 
element of it. namely, momentum. In the Dover channel 
they uiu>t not forget the draught of water was only 32 
' £fithoms, and the distance only 21 miles. 

Lord Alfred Ohnrehill remarked that last summer he 
went from London to Boulogne in tbe old MoMeih, a 
vessel of 400 tons, built for the Hamburgh tntdo, and 
the CHptatn of th« vessel assured him she w^s almost too 
Urge for the harbour of Boulogne. The «-ntranre was 
extremely tt/^rrow, and entering at low wat^r with a 
vftnd blowing, a vetsel would steer will. Th© 
ffxpressiiin he nwde use of was, "ahe smells the 
ground." He thought tb#Te whs a gr^at deal in 
that. If tli»«y eauie to have vessels of tueh enormo^ 
l^gth there, very great danger would result in 
•Dturing the harbour. There whs a very nasty 
ootiUe the harbour, «od if ft Tessel of this Had 




221 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Fbbhoabt 14, 1878. 



thrown upon that with a heavy sea, very serious damage 
might accrue. The Holyhead boats were too large. 
They were decked and covered forward, so that they went 
right through the sea, and then there was a passage of 
60 miles. The great inconvenience of the Channel 
passage arose from the crowding of too many passengers. 
As a preliminary matter, what ought to be done was, 
instead of having one boat for each train, there ought to 
be two or three, to go over in comfort. They ought, 
however, to try theuBO vessels, and he sincerely hoped 
they would succeed. The scheme which most took his 
£ftnoy was Mr. Mnckie's, but, as he said before, the first 
thing was to get the railway companies to put on more 
boatf. 

On the motion of Xr. Webster, Q.O., the meeting was 
then adjourned to Wednesday week, the 26th February. 

Xr. O. Peaeoek (Regent-house, Starcross) wished to 
send a model of his invention, but the offV*r came, un- 
fortunately, too late. He thus describes his vessel : — 
** It is a very novel idea, founded on the Peruvian balsa, 
which vessel is composed of a series of logs of light wood 
with a platform above them, on which they carry their 
perishable cargo along the coast perfectly safe and dry, 
the tippling waves passing under the pLitform. I have 
passed them in a large steamer I commanded in the 
Pacific, going along steadily — no rolling, no pitching 
motion — whilst my steamer has been rolling her paddles 
nnder. I sent in a letter to the Shipping and Mereantiie 
Gazette some months ago on the subject, and Mr. Beed 
wrote me to say my paper was very valuable." 

Xr. Xdmnnd Hunt (of Glasgow) sends the following: 
— " Colonel Strange, when desoribing^r. Bessemer's pro* 
posed suspended saloon, and referring to a box chrono- 
meter, very denrly points out how the latter is liable to 
* secondary oscillations,' which are to be overcome in 
the case of the saloon by hydraulic controlling apparatus. 
But this controlling apparatus is to be made to operate 
by a ' steersman,' who is to regulate his action by ob- 
serving a spirit level. The whole thing, therefore, 
teems to depend on this ' spirit level,' and I have been 
surprised that no speaker nor writer on the subject has 
as yet, so fiu- as I am aware, given this essential part of 
the apparatus any consideration. Ihe liquid m the 
level tube must be subject to * secondary oscillations ' 
of the same kind as those afifecting the chronometer or 
the saloon. It is, perhaps, possible that the spint level 
may not experience such large oscillations as to seriously 
Q|ffect its intended use ; but it is clear that the oscilla- 
tions will increase iust as the irregular movements of the 
' ship become g^reater and more violent, when iuCTeased 
controlling action requires to be exerted, and wh^n 
there is tho more need of a really steady guide. So iar 
as I have been able to make out ^m the publii«hHl 
descriptions, Mr. Bessemer's experiment at Denmark-hill 
was not such as to test the action of the spirit-level 
in circumstanoes in which it would be acted on by move- 
ments tending to produce secondary oscillations." 



ANKTJAL DTTEBHATIOHAL SXHIBITI0H8, 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upp«T Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-Gtneral Scott, C.B., 
secretary. 

A committee has been formed of the representatives ot 
some of the colonies, for the purpose of considering the 
erection of a General Colonial Annexe, in connection 
with the current series of Annual International Rzki- 
bitions. It held a meeting on Friday afternoon, in Gore- 
lodge, at which the Eight Hon. Hugh C. £. Childen, 
M.P., took the chair. 

The Committee for the School of Cookery met <m 
Saturday, and resolved to have a hundred rv^pce pre- 
pared for cooking, in the best way, one hundred disbes 
particularly suited to all classes with income* not ex- 
ceeding £500 a year, such dishes to be the subject of 
demonstration in the school. 



We hear that an improved cab has just been 
tried in Leeds. It is arranged to carry four persons in the 
same space as an ordinary hausrim. has clean and 8af«« en- 
trance and exit, plcmty of windows warrantf^ not to chatter, 
and is from 1 cwt. to 2 cwt. lighter than the ordinary 
Haoqem. 

The following is the progress of the Hoosac 
Tunnel to January I, 1873:-Op(*ned from east-end, west- 
ward, 13,196 ft; and fn^m went-^nd, eastward, 8.706ft; 
making the toUl l«ngtb op«>ned 21,902 ft. There is 3,129 ft. 
remaining to be opened, being 319 ft. less than two-thirds of 
one mile. 

Beoent researches, by Mr. W. Galloway, show 
that a sound wave may cau>« the flame inside a safety lamp 
to be transmitted to the rztomal «*xpliirive atmimphere. This 
•hows a aew and nnsuspectcd eouroe of explosive danger. 



On Monday a meeting of noblemen and gentlemen at 
Marlborough House was presided over by H.R.H. the 
Prince of Wales. The following g» ntlemen were pre- 
sent : — 'I he Marqdis of Westmiuhter. Yiar^unt Powers- 
court, Lord Ronald Leveson Gower, Mr. 8. AddinxtoD, 
Capt. W. Baldwin, Mr. A. H. Bniwn, M.P.. Mr. E- U 
S. Benson, Mr. E. J. Coleman, Mr. F. W. Coeena. Mr. 
P. Dobree, Mr. H. W. Enton, M.P., Mr. J. Field^i. M.P, 
Mr. J. Johnson, Mr. J. Kelk, Mr. C. Lucas, Mr. A. Mor- 
rison, Mr. O. P. Matthews, Mr. J. N. Mappin, Dr. Lvon 
Playfair, M.P., Mr. Quilter, R.A., Mr. 8. RedgraTe,^r. 
Snowdon Henry, M.P., Mr. W. Smith, F.8.A., Mr. W. 
Waring, and Mr. H. W«ring. The objt.ct of the m»^ting 
was to create a permanent organisation for pitimotiiig 
the exhibition of the best modem British pi<>tures, upoo 
a system somewhat similar to that suct-essfully pmsoed 
for more than half a century by the British Institatioo. 
General Scott read the following memorandnm : — 

1. The British Institution was estMblitshed in Pftll-man, 
for the exhibition of pictures, in 1805, and continued in 
existence until the year 1867. 

2. Two exhibitions were generally held daring tbs 
year, one of ancient masters, and the second of modern 
paintings. The works by ancient masters consisud 
wholly of loans made by patrons of art, who also con- 
tributed largely to the exhibition of modem works. 

S. With the modifications necessitated by the rhasgo 
of circumstanct'S, it is pro^iosed to revive the system of 
thn British Institution in the Annual International Ex- 
hibitions. The Royal Academy has recommenced an 
exhibition of works by the old masters, ft is propowd 
in the International Exhibitions to coll»-ct only the worb 
of contemporary painters in oil and water colours. Thii 
is a field of action which is not covered by any eristinf 
institution. 

4. There is no doubt that the systematic e xhibitioo of 
the best contemporary works will be highly important 
to the progress of art, will be instmctive to the public, 
and it is noped will be even useful to the patnmi of 
modem art. 

General Scott then explained of whnt cksses of 
paint inits the exhibition of 1873 would consist 

The Marquis of Westminster exprened bis williognca 
to act on the committee and to lend pictures, and serHral 
gentlemen spoke in the same sense. A genenl f^ing 
was expressed that the proposed limitation of ten .Tssrt 
was too short, and that it ought to be extended to st 
lenst twenty-five. The noblemen and gentlemen \hnL 
agreed to form themselves into a committee, which shoold 
meet shortly to disouss further details. 

The Society's Committee for adviiing her Majsity'i 
Commiinoiien in veferaioe to tiie display of sabstnMi 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Pmroirt li, 1873. 



sdabod (Mctioa, Qraemf »aA DrTS&lCer;) met at 
IhSooMT'iRoaauaaPridtty, ttie7cti£'«briurj;. Ther" 
IS* tnant Sit Aatooio Bndy. in the cluir, L^inl 
IIM OnUL tad Uema. U. M. dntU, Junes Dnn- 
M. W. lUL B-^liiuld Uu«an. T. tlicka. F. Jl4ohii 
1 1. Uiaief. P. U SiinmoDila. tieymour Txalon. Q. W. 
Lff.A.SM«>ii, S. Palmar, T. F. BlaokweU, F. W. 
bnotUwhl Silgiriak a Cooper ; aUeo'led by Mr. B . J. 
liafu, D-pUT ConiinwoasT, and Mr. P. Lt NisTa 
Ibfcf, SKntirf. The Cdmmittee. uting ■• » Com- 
I coiuidardtioa the Rpplica- 



■■TTTTHTTTOWft 



rt with a committee of e: 



1 waiofL ■■ j«iL u3 nil ouuiDs wisn ibo DitacurTsooe of tho 
BprsKutitiw of the Ba;al Himgirun BlmuiTf, in wltlali 
oDuuitiee espDcially ujethauJcSi cheBiiilry, Borgioal And 
irdicul •cii'aoa, ircliiteotute, iihyaicii, agriculture, auchuii- 
vl and cheoiL.id techaolugy, And akemuitLle knowledgs ihAlJ 

Theiie ■iperta, in ao for w they are not already nrom, ai 
mperial and rojuiJ ufflcinli, have tu d'-ciare qd uath, in the 

pa-4 j udgmaDt and keep •ei:recy. 
Their :..u....L J. 



tuniliflr vitb the rea{wcti 
lUcst^of protec 



MR' 
declt 
the termi uf ihs rrapectiTB special 1 
either fur pnitectiuo b* ■ paivnt, ui 
irk*, pal[enu, or laudolt. The !> 
lilt coDtequaaliy be returned. Appli 
prutrctiuD pteneni^ lu Ibe iJiiaf uwi 



bef^rantrdfarobjecti which 
iwahnrubalnrereCeEnd 



applies 






mot. 



ifortl 



fur lartificalM 
iter expintion 
lui UI prir-Huiutuua, luaL la, aiLer the openinv 
tion, UI if the objecte have been iatiaduoed 
n opeuiaif, aftrr the liue uf auob talw [n- 
,11 be nluBed wilhiiut eF^ii exaaiiiiing tbe 
purpuM ul statinK whctlur they are i^Dahfled 



AXTICLI II. 

, (he chief managn 
. ucl rfnotly in ac- 
wiih ibe DtDizial appointed fur tliia pnrpoae by the 
tuyul Run^^rian MLnUlry. 

Tbe csriidciitr* of prutwiion will be luued free of eipoiie 
y the chief manager uf (be UuivurmU Sitaibitian, and 
'>UDten>it(ned by the aforeuid dtjleicate uf tbe Royal Ilua- 
nrian Miniatry, and mmi ountuo, nccordiug tu the form 
iCisuDio atmexcd,* iba name and nwidDtiia u[ the applicmt, 



been made by him, i 
cts, tba kind of priib 

he prulpctii-n bcgioi 
le mentioned m Art. 



-, if the applioi^ 



;ri^tioa of tt 



«, of a regular patent, or 






i«i (whether patent, 
i), Qoally ihe day oa 
ired according to the 
luday whaaiteiJiirea. 
EabibitioD aWl not 
idorcd (0 bim by hulderi "t ceriiHcales 
lu period of (beir validity* and with 
of Art. It. conoanung Ihe 

ippliuinM muat be r ' 



lie Bpecial palant and pi 
A refuaaf shall alao b< 



certifloato 
jf protautlua vbo appliei to the chief menaf^ of tba 
L'aivenal Kihibiiion with a complaint agaiaet thiid penona 
vn account of encruach menu made np^m hia legal right of 
pruiDutiun, ks eucb compUtiota are io b- Judffed hy IheoHii- 
pctent authorltiea drafted in theapeciol pat^^nt and prolectioa 
laws. In order to aacorUiin (bo fauU uf the caK the aald 
.oritii'S »hatl apply to the chiff nmniiEer of the Univeraal 
ibi'ioD for the tnmsmiaaion uf an auihentio copy of the 
BpacificatioQa, trade marka, pattemi, ur modala upon whiuh 
the certi&catee uf pritection are fouadud, and tba chief 
manager ahall, without ubJHCtjon, and itating at tbe name 
time whether aacrecy i« to be kept or nut, drliver the (aid 
copy under condition of its subaequ-'ot return, and after 
baring tBe tact nuted in the regiater (aeo Art. IV.) 

AnnoLB III. 

rHflcata of n 

miut be 

be coB- 
ignaled in tbe Falent 
and ProteMioa lAva will, aoootding to Art. I., ban to 

Such ciidplBints, if prcocnted to the chief manai^rof the 
Uni\-enial Exhibition, ahtdl not be accepted by bim; he 
■hall, however, direst the plaintiA lu th* competent 



The traoimiutoa of the apeciBcaliuna, trade marka,pat' 
• modfis, on which Ihe coutviied certificate* of 
a are tonnded, (o the legal Biitl>orllie> to jndge the 

nn to be IIImI Dp U appMideil at lb* ud ot the mculaUoiu 



226 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Fmruart U, 1873. 



cue, sluiU be proceeded with aoooidiiig to the tnalogons 
rules of Art lY . 

A&TICLB IV. 

For the certificate of protection rnmted, end the retpec- 
tive appHcatioDB, a special register shall be kept in duplicate 
at the office of tne cnief manager of the Universal Exhibi- 
tion, wherein the certificates of prutection shall be enteT«d 
prsTioos to their delivery under consecutive numbers, with 
the date on which they were granted, and the other essen- 
tial data pointed out in the regulations. Art II. ; besides it 
■hall be noted in a column of remarks whether the applica- 
tion contained a demand of secrecy for the specification, re- 
spectively the trade mark or pattern. 

The number under which the application has been recorded 
shall be marked, not only on the certificate of protection, 
but also on the respective applications and on the oovers of 
boUi copies of the specification, respectively of the trade 
mark, pattern, or model. 

The applications, as well as both copies of the above- 
mentionra appendixes, shall be kept safe on file in successive 
oMer aooordmg to the numbers of record. 

After the oToee of the exhibition, that is, at the latest on 
the 15Ui November, 1873, the chief manager shall transmit 
one copy of the record, together with the respective appli- 
cations, and one oopy of the specifications, respectivelv of the 
trade marks, patterns, or models presented with the iHune, to 
the Imperial and Royal Ministry of Commerce, and the other 
oopy of the annexed documents above mentioned, through 
the dele^te of the Rojral Hungarian Ministry, to the Royal 
Hunganan Ministry of A^culture, Industry, and Com- 
meroe, for the purpose of bemg preserved in the archives of 
patoits of both countries. 

A&noLB y. 

Every case of granting a certificate of protection is to 
be published without delay by the chief manager of the 
Unrversal Exhibition in the ofBoial part of the WUner 
Zeitunff ( Vimna Oazette). 

The analogous publication thereof in the Hungarian 
official Oautte, will be efiiscted by the delegate of the Royal 
Himgarian Ministry. 

The inspection of the reoord of the certificates of protec- 
tion granted is open to everyone without restriotioB, but Uie 
inspMtion of the respective specifications, designs, m«idels, 
ftc, will be permitted onlv it the owner of the certificate 
did not ask for secrecy in his application. 

A&Tioui YI. 

Any doubts which might ooeur, in spite of the preceding 
regulations, with regard to the application of the present 
law, shall be submitted to the decision of the Minister of 
Commerce. 

^^^ Banhakb, m.p. 

The great oircnlar roof of the Vienna Exhibition has 
been fixed in its plaoe, and the building ia now finished, 
with the exception of some unimportant supplementary 
works. Iti connection with the exhibition an inter- 
national agricultural show ia to be held. The show will 
last in aU fh)m May Slst to September 27th. 



Parii Annual Exhibition of the Workf of Living 
Artiiti.— The opening of the talon of 1873 is announced 
for the 5th instead of the Ist of May, the usual day, and the 
closing for the 25th of June. The regulations are almost 
identical with those of last year. It may be well to 
remind English artists that the talon is open to all the 
world, subject to the censorship of the jury. All works 
intended for exhibition must be sent in free of all 
charges and addressed to M. le Directeur dee Beaux- Arts, 
an Palais des Champs-£lys6es, between the I9th and 26th 
of March, both days incfuaive. No one ia permitted to 
■end in more than two works in either, or any, of the 
sub-divisions of architecture, painting and drawing, 
■culpture, and engraving and lithography. 



v-^' ^o^vel Imw been awarded a prize of 400 dols. 

■"y the Fwmoh Academy of Sciences, for designing an 

apparatus for keeping grain in a vacuum, or rather within a 

vessel in which the air is so rarefied as to kill any grani- 
Torous insect. * * 



ON PHOBMIUM TENAX. 

By P. L. Bimmonds. 

For several years past much has been published in tlie 
Society's Journal respecting the so-called New Zealand 
flax, a descriptive misnomer which both growers and 
dealers desire to change, in order no longer to tnislfd 
manufacturers by the idea that it is CHlculated to com- 
pete with the true flax. Hence the botanic name 
Phormium has come to be generally adopted in the 
colony, and is being also used in this country among the 
flbre brokers and merchants. Notwithstanding what 
has already been published, there is ample room for 
more discussion and information, which may tend to 
ultimate benefit ; for certainly among the important 
fibres of the future that will ere long take a very pvt>* 
minent place in commerce, are the so-called New Zea- 
land flax and the China grass or nettle. When we con- 
sider what strides have been made in the production and 
consumption fur fibrous purposes of jute, Manila hemp, 
and cocoa-nut coir, we nave an earnest of the future. 
What Hie fleece has become to Australia, that may the 
Phormium tenaxhe rendered to New Zealand. The de- 
mand for the one will be quite as great as the demand 
is for the other. The green leaf but once transformed 
into mercantile flbre, the power of production would be 
so extensive and its cost so moderate, that New Zealand 
would spring into one of the most commercial and wealthy 
of England's colonies. 

I cannot do better than supplement what has already 
been published by additions from the Jury Reports of 
the Otago Exhibition, the report of the Commiasion of 
Inquiry in the colony (for which Mr. W. BuUer, now 
at home, is zealously acting) and from varioua works 
and notes. 

The plant grows indigenous and abundantly through- 
out the whole of the New Zealand group and Norfolk 
Island. It flourishes best in valleys and low marahy 
situations, although it also grows in high, rocky ioila, 
and likewise on the seashore, within the influence of 
the sea spray. It is of a very hardy character. Thirty 
thousand acres of the wild plant have been repeatedly 
met with at one spot, and by culture the plant ia neces- 
sarily improved. The boga and rough ground of IreLuidy 
the west coast of Scotland, all our African ponemocs 
and West India Islands, New South Wales, and other 
parts of Australia, are particularly adapted to the 
Phormium ttnax. Its introduction has also been recom- 
mended for the Mississippi Valley and other parts of 
North America. It appears, however, to flounah best 
in an insular position. 

Some thirty years ago. the plant was cultivated in 
France, where the flbre was known as Soie vestal ; and 
bell-ropes, cords for window blinds, handkerchielk, and 
other manufieictures of a silky appearance and most 
pleasant wear were made of the material. 

Mr. C. Thome has been most active in his exertions 
to utilise, commercially and practically, this fibre ; and 
his recent letters prove that the prejudice and unfiivonr- 
able opinion of specimens are not rounded on fiict, since 
useful yam, coarse sheeting, damask towelling, brown 
twill doth, Scotch twilled sheeting and linen, canvas 
and cloths for sacking, have been made from it under 
his superintendence. 

An interebting set of specimens of Phormium, showing 
the native method of preparing the fibre and of dyeing 
it black, were sent to the nrst London Exhibition in 1861 
by a native chief ; and another very valuable and sngses* 
tive set of specimens of the fibre and its tow, byMr. 
E. W. Trent, of Old Ford, which he described as having 
been cleaned and separated by machinerr invented by 
himself without any stripping ; it included fishing-lin^ 
rope, and other articles, and received honourable mention* 
Mr. Donlan, of St. PeterVsquare, Hammeramith^ also 
showed samples of Phormium in diiSerent stages of pre- 
paration, with specimens manufactured from iH * * 



JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pibruart 14, 1873. 



227 



Whjtlow tnd Son also showed PhoriDiiiin cleaned by 
DichiiieTj ; and Mr. J. Caradus the flax and twine and line 
Dade of it ; while several other exhibitors showed flax 
m Tvioiis stages and of different qoMlitiet. 

¥nm the enrliest period of EuropeHn settlement in 
Kev Zealand, the value of the native flax has been re- 
cogniied, and it has always been regiirded as one of the 
moet importsint natural prodactions of the colony. The 
deanbtlity of opening ap a profitable export trade in the 
pRptfed fibre led to numerous attempts on the part of 
tht ntUers to discover a method of preparing the fibre 
W » process less laborious and wasteful than that adopted 
bx th« Haories. The Government of the colony, im- 
pem d with the importance of the subject, voted a large 
boons for the production of 100 tons of fibre of mercantile 
tilo' which soould leave a profit on the process. From 
I nmty of causes the numerous experiments which 
htTB been made do not appear to have been attended 
vith foaplete suroeas, and the Government reward still 
m&fei&i Qoclaimed. 

The firat European who drew attention to the value of 
tb« Pkormium tetutx was the great navigator, Captain 
Cook, vho spoke of it as something superior to either 
fl»x or hemp. To the natives this plant was almovt as 
v^h&hle and necessary as the cocoanut palm is to the 
«TiM of the Sooth ^ea Islands, or as the bamboo is to 
the (^inrse. With the leaves cut into stripe, they bound 
toK«ther the fnunework of their houses and the defensive 
PtHktdiog of their pahs. Clothing, baskets, fidiing-nets, 
Um, and sftik fw their canoes were manufeu^ured from 
the fibre ; whilst from the seeds and roots of the plant 
thrr pxtncted useful medicines. As the islands became 
bmer known to Europeans, and trade was opened up 
vith the native tribes, uie prepared fibre formed an im- 
pcstuit srtide of exchange. Specimens of it had been 
fcrvinlad to England, where they created much interest. 
ttd it was regarded as an article the exo^ence and 
K^ndsBce of which might possibly render the British 
ttBofretoreTB independant of the supply from Russia. 
A n^nLir trade soon sprang into existence, the natives 
fUUy exchanging the pepared fibre for European 
(oBBBodities. So profitable did the Maories find this 
^oach of industry, that they employed laige numbers 
•f thor women and slaves in the cleaning of the flax; 
tt^ there was luurdly a single village in flax-growing 
^iBtncts in mhich the manufkcture of flax was not 
bniedoD. 

la 1828 there was imported into Sydney, from New 
^*^)»ad. for shipDient to England, 60 tons of prepared 
^^ tvnsging in value £30 per ton, or £1,200. In 
l!tlO the quantity increased to 840 tens, worth at the 
ttM estimata £16,800, whilst in 1831 it reached to 
M)6? tons, worth £21,240. The ofllcial records show 
^« Rndoally the export of Phorminm has fallen off 
«ta of late years. In 1868 and 1864 thev were re- 
^«d at about £2,000 per annum. In 1855, owing to 
^ Kaaisn war, they rose to £5,500, then they gradually 
^ Utin to lew than £1.500, and £2.000, and from 1861 
^ 1)^ icaroely ever reached £260. Within the hist five 
? ttn it has again become an article in the trade returns 
«< the colony. In 1867, 127 tons, valued at £4,256, 
J^ exported; in 1868, 534 tons, worth £8,187; in 
*^, 2*028 tons, worth £45,245 ; in 1870, 5,471 tons, 
•^ 1133^78. I have not the official figures for the 
* two years yet. 

kw ^ appears to be extensively used in the 
t^ fcr stofling mattresses ; and a sample of curled 
g* far seatbg, &c., was shown at the Otago Exhi- 
2^ The exhibitor stated that the sample shown was 
'**^ from a bed that had been in constant use for ten 

5 tnd which still preserved its elasticity. Mr. 
Baa, of Donedin, exhibited a quantity of pre- 
^^IWa for rope, twine, and other coarse purposes, and 
|^*s^ Jvrott oonaiderBd would be suitable for sptn- 
r^^9 Wirhiiniij into coarse and medium yarns. The 
kiidoplB is as fbllows :— The leaves are passed 
tiMlmroOsny under ft heavy preonire^ which 



bruises the outer skin ; they are afterwards steeped in 
water, and allowed to ferment for several days, until the 
gum becomes dissolved. The leaves are then squeezed 
through smooth, iron rollers, which expunge the glu- 
tinous matter, and are afterwards steeped for several 
hours in a weak alkaline lye, then washed in dean water, 
and finally dried, when the fibre is ready for the hackler. 
Mr. HoneymNU has also tried with success the process of 
stamping or beating the leaves by means of iron-shod 
** stamps," worked with revolving cams. The leaf is 
drawn gradually forward by a pair of holding rollers in 
front of the beaters, three or four leaves bemg passed 
under each stamper at a time. The produce of fibre in 
the processes described is in the proportion of about one 
ton to four tons of green leaves, exclusive of waste fibre 
and other refuse, which would be valuable to paper* 
makers. 

Among a variety of specimens shown by Mr. J. A. Smith, 
of Hawke*8 Bay, at the Otago Exhibition, illustrative of 
the applicability of the fibre for various branches of 
manufacture, were'some Auckland- dressed flax, clean but 
not flne, worth £20 per ton ; flne-dressed fibre, worth 
£40 per ton ; and some very fine, worth £70 per ton. 
Tbe last-mentioned sample was as fine as the best Belgian 
flax, and capable of being spun and manufactured into 
very fine fabrics. This was proved by a sample of 
beautifully fine cambric, which rivalled in its appear- 
ance the choicest productions of the looms of franco. 
Samples were also exhibited of stout canvas for steam- 
boats, and of sailcloth of various qualities, as well as 
white twilled stuff for cavalry trousers. A sample of 
sewing thread was also shown, which equalled the best 
thread used ordinarily by tailors. The jurors of this 
class of goods observed, in their report, *' It is impossible, 
after an inspection of the varioua specimens exhibited, 
to doubt ihe applicability of the fibre of the JAon/itum 
tenaz to the various purposes of the British manu- 
facturer ; and the evidence thus afforded should serve aa 
a great inducement to perseverance in the development 
of the valuable national resource which the native flax 
supplies." 

With regard to papermaking material the Phormium 
tenax must ^gain occupy a flrst place. Not only is the 
flbre adnurably suited to the purpose, but it is the more 
valuable inasmuch as the refuse particles of fibre, alter 
its preparation for spinning purposes, are available^ for 
the manufi&cture of paper. In the event of the cultiva- 
tion of the Phomuum there will always be a^ large 
quantity of damaged, and, what would otherwise be 
waste, leaves which would be valuable to the paper- 
maker. Paper was made of it more than thirty years 
affo, and its special peculiarity is tenadty — a property 
which must give it value for documents and printings 
intended to stand a great deal of wear and tear. Iso 
better paper could be used for bank-notes or for the 
printing of valuable standard works. 

Mr. J. Murray, in his pamphlet printed on paper 
made from its leaves, states that the ship AUanta, which 
plied between Southampton and the Channel islands, 
was completely equipped with cordage and rigging 
made of it, and, he adds, he has seen twine, yam, lines, 
sailcloth, sacking, bea-tick, &c, made of Phormium 
(enux, and also fiibrics of various kinds, affording de- 
monstrable evidence that its fibre is susceptible of being 
woven into tissues of the most delicate description, or 
manufactured into material of the strongest and coarsest 
kind. Captain Harris's yach^ a perfect gem of naval 
architecture, was supplied with a mainsail composed 
of three varieties of New Zealand flax. 

From the report of the New Zealand Flax ComnussioD^ 
it appears by the census returns that during the year 
1870 there were 161 mills in operation, with an aggre« 
gate of 342 stripping machines, employing 1,450 horse- 
power, and 1,766 persons, the produce being 4,427 tons of 
fibre. Towurds the close of the year, however, the fall 
in the value of the fibre had so discouraged the proprietors 
that ft laxge number (tf the mills were doaed. 



228 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, FaBRUARY U, 1873 



Although there have been no material alterations in 
the various processes of manufacture, yet as labour has 
become more skilled, and experience has suggested modi- 
fications in the machinery employed, there hHS been a 
marked improvement in the genexm quality of the fibre 
produced. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

ELEOTRO-DEPOSITING COPPER UPON IRON. 

Bj W. H. Wftlom, F.0.8. 

When, in an experimental course of chemical training, 
the student is directed to dip a blade or spatula of iron 
into a solution of the sulphate or other simple salt of 
copper, and he finds it come out coated with a brilliant 
covering of the bright red or rather pink metal, he is 
apt to observe to himself, *^ how easily this is done, and 
what a perfect coating this appears." The perfection of 
the coating however is an illusion, and, however pretty 
it may Iuok, its value for practical purposes is absolutely 
nothing ; it may often be wiped off the iron, and even 
when, by cleaning the metal previous to its immersion, 
some degree of adhesion is obtained, it is only in 
patches, and the coating itself is porous ; in a short time, 
moreover, it completely ceases, and it is never thicker 
than a film. 

The wisdom of our forefathers is a broad and deep 
foundation, which has formed, and continues to form, a 
Satisfactory basis for the acquirement of fresh experience 
and new facts. In utilising this wisdom, it is not well, 
however, to be too conservative in our principles. While 
bearing in remembrance, with gratitude and deep re> 
spect, the great debt that the present owos to the past — 
worn intellects, failing health, early death, such are some 
of the results of the drudgery, litdo assisted by the aids 
of science, that workers underwent in past times — we 
must not forget that the true law of order and develop- 
ment is proyrcMy and that the future has more to Reveal 
to us than we have received from the past. Nowhere is 
this more evident than in the history of manufactures, 
ospecially in that of electro 'metallurgy. From the time 
when the workers in the copper mines employed Nature 
to *' transmute" iron rods into copper (by immersing 
them in a cupreous stream), to the present time, there is 
just such a change as between the wisdom of those times 
and the practical results of these times. For those of 
old revelled in doubtful superstitions ; we now delight 
in realities that will stand the application of well-devised 
tests. 

An interpretation of results, which prominently 
reveals the weakness of past times, is shown by a story 
respecting a gilt cup that Dr. Edward Browne drank 
fieom, in bis travels in Hungary, in the latter pnrt of the 
seventeenth century. This cup was made of copper, 
which had been obtained from ** two springs of a vitnolat 
water which turn iron into copper, called the old 
and the new Ziment," and it bore the inscription *' Copper 
I am, but iron was of old ; silver I carry, covered am 
with gold." 

Although, at the present time, the principal amount 
of copper is obtained from the pyrites, or other ore, solely 
by smelting, a certain quantity is obtained from cupreous 
liquors. For instance, the Tharsis Company, at Widnes, 
one of the most rising manufacturing towns in Lanca- 
shire, derive their copper from cupreous cinders, received 
from the adjacent chemical works ; these cinders are 
.ground, calcined, and lixiviated, and the resulting solu- 
tion has the copper precipitated from it in huge tanks by 
the immersion of scrap iron therein. The tanks are 
forty- eight in number, and each contains several thousand 
gallons. In this application of the experiment heading 
the present paper, however, every care is taken to prevent 
the in>n from becoming coated or enclosed with copper; 
but attention will be presently directed to the opposite 
requirement, namely, tnat of providing the iron irith a 
perfect coating of copper which is impervious, and which 
completely encloses the iron. 



I have thought fit to begin at the beginning, and 
for that purpose to notice, in full, a means of coat- 
ing iron wiUi copper^ which, is imperfect and only 
partially dependent upon the principles of electric 
science for its results, but which, is theoretically and 
chronologically prior to the more perfect methods 
since employed. Whether the coating obtained by 
the immersion of a piece of iron in a salt of copper is 
the result of the action of electric forco ab imtio^ or 
whether merely chemical affinity begins the process (the 
iron being eager to take the place of the copper in the 
solution, and so throwing out the copper as a metal), 
one principle is now certainly known — nanudy, that 
from the time that the first particle of copper takes its 
place upon the iron, the contact of the two metals in the 
cupreous liquid causes the power of a galvitnic current 
to come into action, and so hastens the further deposit 
of copper ; but the copper being deposited inconsequence 
of the solution of the iron at some part of its surface, 
and that surface becoming practically less and leas, as 
tho deposition goes on, the thickness of the coating ii 
limited, unless some of the iron is laid bare from time 
to time. We now see that this method of covering iron 
must always result in a non-adherent coating, and aach 
must be the consequence of any process in which the 
exterior coating is obtained by the solution of Um 
underneath metal. 

The problem of coating iron with oopper, by tDeana of 
a chemical solution, resolves itself, first, into finding out 
some solution of copper which will not of itself precipi- 
tato upon iron immersed therein ; second, applying such 
an extraneous infiuence to the solution as will cause the 
copper to fiy to the surface of the iron with the requiaite 
mechanical force. No acid or neutral salt of copper 
will answer this purpose, for, although iron will nut 
readily give way to mechanical force, its power to resi«t 
chemical fiorce is very weak, and the above-mentioned 
requirements render necessary the use of a cupric solu- 
tion which has an alkaline reaction. Solutions thai 
do not precipitate their copper upon the immersion of 
iron therein, may contain oyaaide of potassinni, to- 
gether with alkaUne carbonates, or with ammonia or 
ammoniaoal salts ; solutions thus made aio used at the 
present time to coat iron with a film or oulouiatioa oi 
copper by many English and foreign eleotro-metallar* 
gists. The force or influence brought to betr upoa xJbA 
article to be coated is that of electncity, derived irom « 
source distinct from the depositing solntion, and appU*^ 
so as to keep the iron sur&ce in an electro-negiOivi 
state. This may be accomplished by connecting th< 
iron with the zinc of a suitable galvanic arrangemei^ 
If a piece of copper of similar axe to the iron be oonnecliW 
to the copper, platinum, carbon, or other negative plat 
of the battery, and immersed in the solution opposite ti 
the iron article, it will complete the galvanic arran^ 
ment, and, by dissidving in the solution, keep op th* 
copper in the solution in proportion as it is thrown ou 
or deposited upon the article to be coated. Thus the \w\ 
primary conditions of successful coatings first, in regmx^ 
to the non-action of the solution upon the article ; axk 
second, Uie employment of an extraneous power to fura 
and determine the metal upon the iron, ntm fulfiU^sj 
and« granting that the proper strength of solution j 
attained, and the proportional amount of electric pow« 
supplied in a given time, it would seem that the rvsol^ 
ing coating would be perfect, both in adhesiun to t^ 
cleansed iron and in solidity of metallic covarinK ; an 
if the laws that obtain in electro-ooating metals ^ 
means of acid or neutral solutions were the samo Ii 
alkaline solutions, undoubtedly the msnlt would \ 
practically speaking, perfect. 

Unfortunately for the adoption of this happy %m 
easy-going method, alkalinfl solutions of oofipsr ^ 
not follow the same l&ws in tbeic behaviour, aa4^ 
the influence of elsetricity^ sa add oc nsutar>tl soli 
tions. Tha criterion of ths qosUty of the dspoaili 
metal, as established by Smee^ is no longer t^ 



JOUBKAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Fibruary 14, 1873. 



229 



ilfeiitne tolotions are employed. Hydrogen 
I t^tmkta and pbyncista well, in being the in- 
'itiHV^anl for the eetimiition of vapour density 
ntlBnif propottil^nfl ; find Sm^e's <>lH88iral re- 
m the electrolysis of simple metallic snlts gave 
"I tltt lightest body in nature might also be 
fer the vfigfatj purpose of indicating tbe 
rcfeetro-dmsits. This hope had apparently a 
ht»« in the &ct that in the salts of the com - 
'hfnerer thf>Te is no tendency to evolve 
daring deposition, a hard, scanty, crystalline 
■•de. When hydrogen is not evolved, but 
I if iftriy reached, a practical reguline, soft, 
fBMlalKe coating appmrs; and when hydrogen 
•loNtd, a spongy, highly porous, and amor- 
IJ'JI^ "*■• " produced. Smee^s laws also 
""1 tolations of the simple salta, but when 
I an treated with alkalies, so as to yield 
wWch, by the further addition of an alkali 
red, the hydrogen test of the zeguline 
rrf tbe BMtal no longest exists. The metal ap- 
"rtaa, iltboogh hydrog^en is evolved, and even 
■■want of metal in solution is exceedingly 
rUxk powdery deposit occurs, but only a more 
^ of bright metal. This has been hailed bv 
tors as a fortunate circuraiitanco, for i 
ritffTstnght. to indicate that alkaline solutions 
•orkad with a greater latttuile — so far as 
' Mtal in solution is concerned — and there- 
^ \m care in management than the ordinary 
EVKid lohitinn. It is evident however, that 
ni^blkctous^and that to produce a solution which 
trely reguline and non-porous metal 
no hydrogen ought to be eT<»lved. 
SMn from two considerations. First, 
be evolTed, it must be at the expense 
^poww* ^ the whole of which should 
in deponting metnl ; second, the bubbles of 
r*T»rt from the surface from which they have 
~Vt the oMtallio deposit by creatinir pores, 
' fcrm minute tnbes, which are electrotyped 
■lijs costing proceeds, and which result in a 
*w fetmaticm analogous to that of tubercles 
Iff ooosnmpCiTe patients. As a consequence 
' fiirts, the perfection of a ooatinir of 
woo rests upon the possibility of the pro- 
^aastalKo covering by means of an alkaline 
does not give off gas during deposition. 
"^ of attainment, because, in ordinary 
k the pnint at which hydrogen is given 
^woioTed, if removed at all, from the point 
^ical deposit is obtMined. Takinor these 
iention, the author has found that Uie 
^ _^ 7* y ^ obtMin such a solution is to take 
|2"jrty of oxide of copper is in solution, and 
itself is kept in a saturated or nearly 
• in respect to cnprio oxide. This is 
i(Ms Pktent, 8pecifi«^tion No. 3930. of the 
^ charging the Sfdufion, say cynnide of 
^<th eroride of copper to saturation, and 
«s oxide, which it will still diwolve; if any 
[^« trial, ammonide of copper is added to 
-■^■■(hatnot enouirh to make the solution 
'■• isliition is allowed to stand for twenty- 
"^^JfiWe free cyanide of potassium is then 
isle of this is. that tbe cupric ammonide 
^oxygen to the cathode, sufficient to 
JJfitMgsn that would otherwise be evolved ; 
% the euprio ammonide has entered into 
wmbination with the potassic cyanide. 
tM^^OMlioii of salts firom which ammonia 
^' ^jgth s application of heat, and the whole 
^•'■uis employed in depositing copper in 
When BO hydrogen is evolved, the 
Nf siy thioknev that is required. 
•tossy a frw words upon a portion of 
r ^fc fa h i m the ease of ooatii^r irony is 



of the highest importance — the cleansing of the iron 
prior to its immersion in the depositing bath. The 
author prefers to pickle the artiile in dilute sulphuric 
acid, say one part of acid to twenty parts of water, then 
to scrub the wet metal with sand by means of a brush, 
and to wash the acid cooipletelv from the metal by run- 
ning water, the article being kept under the water the 
whole time to prevent oxidation. This will suffice if the 
arti<le is small, but if it is of large size, the chance of » 
thin film of rust forming on the exposed metal during 
washing is much increased, and the beet plan is to scruo 
it, as soon as it is thoroughly washed, with a portion of 
the depositing solution. It does not interfere with the- 
perfection of the result, even if the denoeiting solution 
cryatallises on tke surface of the iron, for a few seconds* 
immersion in the hot solution of the depositing tank,, 
before completing the electric circuit, takes it all off, and 
the article is in a fit condition to be coated. It is recom- 
mended to use a hot solution, for it aids electric con- 
duction, producing a quick deposit, and drives all the- 
(M'cluded air out of the pores. This latter point is very 
important in the case of cast iron. If the cast iron be 
porous, and be more like a cinder than a metal — which is 
sometimes the case — great care must be taken in cleaning, 
and a weak alkaline copper solution, with intense batterer 
power, must he used for a few minutes prior to the appli- 
cation of the reguline coating in another bath, to obtain 
a conducting surface all over the iron surface, tho 
artii'le being scrubbed before immersion in the final bath. 
Thus we have traced the history, theory, and practice 
of coating iron with copper from Uio so-called transmu- 
tation of the ancients to the alkaline solutions that have 
been employed, with evolution of hydrogen gas, both 
here and in Franco, to give a film or coloration to iron ; 
thence to the process by which true copper is deposited 
without gaseous evolution and waste of battery power. 

CHEAP DISINFECTANTS. 

As the result of a series of experiments with disinfect- 
cants, Herr Eckstein, of Vienna, strongly reccommend» 
chloride of lime as the cheapest and best. Bleaching 
powders rapidly decompose all hydrogen compounds, 
such as ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphide of 
ammonium, phosphoretted hydrogen, and these are 
the gases which occasion miasma. It arts rapidly by 
liberating oxygen, and its chlorine violently decomposes' 
organic matter. At the same time bleaching powders 
are cheap and accessible. In order to avoid the incon- 
venience often resulting from the liberated chlorine, the 
device has been tried of enclosing the bleaching^ 
powders in a bag made of parchment paper. By the 
principle of endosmose and exosmose. the full effect of 
the liberated chtorine is attained without any inoon* 
venience to the occupants of the house. 

Herr E-kstein made comparative experiments with 
different disinfectants, for two years, with the following* 
results: — 1. Two pounds of sulphate of iron dissolved 
in water and poured into a saucer at first liberated 
sulphuretted hydrogen, and after twelve hours no longer 
produced any effe<?t. 2. A solution of sulphate of copper 
behaved in the same way. 3. Two pounds of crystaU 
of green vitriol retained its action for two days. 4. A 
mixture of sulphates of iron and copper and carbolio 
aHd lasted two days. 6, Sulphurous arid was suffocat* 
ing. and ceased to act in one day. 6. Carbolio acid 
produced a worse smell in the house than the bad gases of 
the sewer. 7. Two pounds of sulphate of iron in a 
parchment bag retained its valuable property longer than 
wh^ exposed free. 8. TwopoundsofchlorideofUmeinA 
parchment bag continued to purify the air for nine days. 
9. Permanganate of soda was successful as long as it 
lasted, but is too expensive. 

Enelosing chloride of lime in a parchment hag, and 
suspending it in an out-house, or leaving it in a sewer, 
is reoommended by the experimenter as the best disin- 
fectant. 



280 



JOUENAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, Pebruaet 14^ 1873. 



ANCIENT COOKING UTENSILS. 

With refeience to the cooking Bection in the ap- 
proBohing Exhibition perhaps some notices of the variuus 
appliances used at different periods, ancient and modem, 
may be not without interest. The present article will 
deal with the cooking apparatus of ancient times. 

The earliest implements of all primitive nations seem 

to hnve been much the same. In the East, processes of 

cooking were always affected by ceremonious and religious 

observances. Eaau's mess of pottage is one of the 

earliest specified dishes. It was probably made of 

vegetables boiled up with oil or fat, or with, a sort of 

broth made from bones and gristle. A similar mess is 

now common in the East. Amongst the Hebrews the 

n\ent seems to have been most c^immonly boiled, either 

in water or milk, and the meat and broth to have been 

served separately; salt, spices, and other flavouring 

ingredients were employed. Rousting on a spit was also 

a mode of oookingy but one less common than the other. 

The Paschal lamb was roasted whole, but probably the 

Hebrews, like the modem Arabs, roasted their meat in 

small pieces, on spits stuck in the ground, and occasionally 

turned as the process went on. Birds were rousted 

whole, and doubtless a common dish was formed of 

luf.usts toasted on a spit. The Persians npw bake kids 

and lambs in an oven ; perhaps the Hebrews did the same. 

Fish were generally brciled on the embers or cured. The 

h^earth was formed of stones, with other stones to support 

the cooking>pots. Of the utensils, we hear of cauldions, 

frying-pans, basins, and flesh-hooks or foiks. 

Wilkinson gives details ot the cooking processes carried 
on by the ancient Egyptians. Alter the conquest of the 
country by the Persians, habits of luxury seem to have 
been introduced, and the Egyptians had the chAmctt r of 
being profligate and luxurious, and given to an im- 
moderate love of the table. From various representations 
in the tombs, a tolerably complete picture of an Egyptian 
kitchen has been obtained by the author above mentioned. 
We see the slaughter of the animal, whose blood was 
often caught in a vase for purposes of cookery. The 
m»at was boiled or roasted. The boiling was effected in 
a large cauldron, supported on a tripod, over a fire the 
heat of which was kept up by bellows worked by the feet. 
The broth was meantime skimmed with a spoon, or stirred 
up with a large fork. These cauldrons are represented 
ot various sizes, and were probably used for stewing or 
boiling. Sometimes they are supported on stones over 
Ihe tire. For roasting, a fpit wt*s used, sometimes over 
a fire contained in a grato of special form. Faggots of 
wood »ind charcoal seem to have been the usuhI fuel. 
Bound balls, apparently of eome charcoal or other com- 
position, were also employed. For pounding up various 
ingredients a mortar was employed. 'Siphons seem to 
have been commonly used for drawing off liquids out 
of tho various receptacles in which they were con- 
tuined. 

Pastry and bread were made in the kit(hen cr in an 
adjoining room. Both seem to have been of veiy various 
kinds and t-hapes. The foims of animals were not un- 
6tqueutly imitated in paste, but the commonest shape 
appeals to have been a long roll. The dough was 
kneaded by the hands and ftet. Seeds weie often 
sprinkled over the roll, as is now done in modern Egypt. 
A sort oi macaroni was made of thin paste, stiiT^d with 
a vooden spatula, and drawn out by pointed sticks. This 
was baked on a flat pan over the Are. 

Turning to the oldest Europe an civilisation, that of 
Gieece, we find that the art of cooking was carrieu to a 
considerable height. The LHcedspmoniens of course were 
frugal and temperate in their habits, and it is said that the 
Beooiians were gross and coarse in their feeding a« in all 
elte. 1 he Athenians, at least in the palmiest da\a of 
the republic, were noted for their simplicity in matters 
of eating, but Corinth was luxurious in her feasts. 
However.' it was in Sicily that the cooking art was 
chiefly cultivated, and Sicilian cooks were ever in gBtatMt 



request. Even the literature of the art was not mtt 
Plato, in his " Oorgias," speaks of a Sicilian bJ 
cookery, and there were many oCbefS on the iJ 
chief amongst them the TaarpoKtyim of Areheatnu^ 
livdy and tolerably complete account of this lut-sj 
book is given in the elder Diaraeli^s '' Curiositiei of U 
ture." Athenssus also gives abundant partkaUn i 
Greek cookery. Theordinary meal at Athens vasgoj 
cooked by the female slavea, under the direeiioa d 
mistress of the house, but for apeciai oeoasioiis i{ 
usual to have professi(mal cooks (jt/iympiy. Thm 
a great number of theae, and the beet of thesi, m i 
noticed, were Sicilians. They stood with their nti 
at a particular part of the market-place, and is ta 
part were cooking vessels and crockery for ssk cr 
We have not been able to light upon anything 1 
list of cooking utensils used in Ckeece, but w« 
perhaps be justified in supposing that they did sot gi 
differ from those in use in Boman houses, which vt 
presently describe. The bread waa aometiBies ma 
home, but more generally brought from the ifnan 
or bread-sellers. It was of various aorta. Th« tvo 
common were the /u^o, a kind of frumenty or hA 
(the p¥<rr^ fid(a was ot barley and wine), and the ordi 
whea^n or barley bread. 

Of the Eouian kitchen and its ap pu rtenaacei 

an excellent account in one of the ezcurens to "^ 

Becker's *' Gallus," a book which, it is haidlj 

to say, anticipates any researches into Boouui 

economy. In earlier years the eulim or 

(kitchen) was simply the atrium or principal room o 

house. As luxury increased, a separate cIuiidW 

provided, and it was placed at the bnck of the hem 

all evtnts in towns In the country, Idlchenan* 

still continued to be the same Some oiP the dty htt 

were large, and instances arc mentioned of thfir 

adorned with fresiot^s. A usual ornament over tb« 

was a snake. Paintings of the Lares, the godi 

whose protection was the household furniture, v 

cc>ntmon. The hearth or fire-plaoe seems to bet 

a low, flat platform of brick or stone. It «at et 

dividtd by partitions. The flues w«» short. 

or brariers were also employed, these latter l«iD|^ 

able. In the richer houses there would fieq 

pistrinum or bHke-h«>ui*e close to the kitcbeo. 

poorer classes bought their bread from a poUie 

The ovens in this bnke-house were rouad, ieven « 

feet deep and broad, and were heated by s fire b^k^ 

flues were pipes of clay about ten inches in dbnitjw 

As for the utensils, when we remember the nw 

variety of a Roman bMuquet under the eini»ire, «• 

hardly doubt that as many tiifferent cooking wsirhr 

requited as in a modem kitchen. There wmo ■ 

(a//et7a^, which were hung over the fire, i»nd b*a « 

{testa) or not as r» quired ; seething pots {twmU, <•* 

Insana) of earthen wn re and metsl, sometime ''^^^ 



pans (sartagifies^ ptttipo), flat and shallow; «*» 
special thhpe» the miiienpti^ i-hapfd like a '""'^ 
tall narrow vessel for heating wster rapidly, wj 
attlhcp«a^ a vessel with a receptacle below tor ois 
charcoal. Then there were tiipods for ^^WPJ 
vfSfels over the fiie; gridirons (eftif^*))^^ 
{tola), Bome of these ot osier; funnds (**.^'^ 
H^metimes of glat^s; sieves {cribr^) ; spoons ^ * 
(Uuiftt and tru<t)\ knives (ri///ri <v^i««»«)' °? 
( piia) ; coal-frcoi.ps {pfu%<e hatUh); sittl-J*^ ('^** 
Vessels, of course, for holding and carrying '"Jj**" 
were of various sorte^ with and without b«»ow* 
wftanum was a square table on which the wsUr « 

In large establisbmenta the work of the kitrliM 
divided amengst a whole crowd of rf*^^^'*^^ 
{pittotta), pastrycooks {drnkiarii), cooks (''WJTJ 
makers ^flr^omy, confectioners />/«rt»>'«'^/'*Tr| 
The marveUoua leeults of that lahoon ^^**jTi 
remarked upon. We hear of sneh dirf>»»* *7^ 
loaatod and half boilfid, vegetablsi oook«d ■■« * 



JOURNAL OF THE BOCIET¥ OF ARTS, FssauuT 11, 1873. 231 

n very poor opinion. He uka what uae we oan nake of 

the fnct Ihiit dead lenvea nhfln crushed may bemadu into 

rt of oseleM bluttmg--pBpar. "Until," lays ha, "I 

Hime imporlant nnd uaeful work written and \ Tinted 

upon the new Katisbon pnper, my want of cunfidem'S in 

tlio invontion will continue." Itiabut fair to thsHuthor 

to aa^ that this wBH written in December, 17GJ, theumo 

ear in which ScbuBura' firaCexperimonte were publiiihed. 

1 13 proh.ible thut Si^hsiffoFB' early epecimena were not of 

cry ({ood quality, though they mnat haTe bsen bad in- 

'o have merited the appellation of "a sort of uaeleM 

ig-paper." Nc ' ' " 

having obtained tbe a 

•n iker. wbu acted both as bia 

jchufiera learnt tbu urt of making paper. It woa hia 

chiuf employment, he saya, in the winter oveninga, and 

he gives a glowing deacripUon of the pleasure which his 

jiperiments affbrded him. With true Qerman tediona- 

aess bo enters into iiU his difficulties and suceesses, and 

;ivos the reader the brnefit of his impcessiona at almost 

2Vtry stag* of bis work. / 

The rurcat of SchiiSera' books is, without doubt, his 
Eiuiiii in Muiltr'ciia datt die Btuin I'apiernrleH t»i» 
1'appdiBi.Ui, SaHiny'dttern, Maafaj/enw.s.vi. stch tlltrdingt 
aach :h Tapllm u'lermahlen lad gtbrauckea latlin, which 
was pablished at Rutiabon, in 1772. It iaaUtxe quarto - 
volume, coDUining twelre specimens of wall-paper, 
manufMCtnred by his method. The pattern apiHiara to 
have been produced partly b^ block- printing aiid partly 
''y stencilliDg, Prom an artistic point of view they are 
mply execrable, but the quality of the paper is by no 
luana bnd, though much too thick and hr.avy [or the 
purpose for which it wra intended. This bciok is. as wa 
' re said, very uncommim, and, so far as we are aware, 
I not be»n noticeii by any previoos writer. We think 
.. due to Schaffers lo a«y that his books are of extreme 
interest, showing as Ihty do how much was accomplished 
by nn enthusiastic iimntrara century ago. They an not 
altogether bene.ith the notice of thcaewho are now. as he 
was then, seeking for aubiUtutes for rags as a material 
for papi-r- making. 
1 In LTHG a sm.dl duodecimo volume, containing the 
I (E-trrei da Har^uu dr. VMetic, wna printod in London on 
I paper made fiom the bark of the lime tree, the quality 
of which is hardly anpi^rior to that made by RchaffV-rs. 
At the end of th.! volume are inserted apecimena of paper 
I made from marshmallow. ntttles, heps, moss. TesiiB, 
'] Ihiattcs. conferva, and hark of various kinds, Suib as 
I UiFil of the oak, ositr. elm. &c. The copy at the Patont- 
I office Library contains a specimen of straw paper of 
j fair qualily, apparenlly inserted by a former posaessor 
; of the volume, on which is written "papier fabHqu£ 
. avi'C de la paille. in 1824, pr^s de Jouaret [H. Dppuis 
j pres do 40 irns j'en ai le fait avec de la paille auaei «t 
de plusieurs autiea fabriquSs avec dtverses plantea." In 
some ?ases the apper>ded specimena ahow a decided 
improvement upon those made hy ScljuHers, but in 
otbore the quality is inferior. The paper upon which 
Iho body of tbe work is printed was made by Leorier 
Deliale, whose name ia appended to the dedication. It 
ia stated by Munsi II, in his "Chronology of Paper- 
making " (4th edition. Albany, 1870), th-t these Hxperi- 
menta wero cattied out at Bruges. In 1808 we find that 
a l^'rench paCrnt was firanled to Lforier Delisle fur an 
improved pnp/ec de liel-f. Or paper for preventing 
forgery. Whether these two persons are identical wo 
are unable to ascertain. No hint of the method 
employed tor producing Iha paper is given in the work 
in queation, whieh is aiiiiply an uninteresting collection 
of letters and poems, for which the aathor richly 
deserves Ihe fate of Cin«a in " Julius Ciesar." We may 
remark that there is a subsequent sditiun of the same 
work printed on i.rdinary jiaper. 

Oi> the Ind of August, ISOO, MaUiias Eoaps took out 
a patent for " manufacturing paper from sWaw, hay, 
thutles, waste and refuse of nemp and flax, and dif- 



232 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pbbbuiby 14, 1873. 



ferent kinds of wood and bark." No speoifloatioii 
of thu patent was enrolled, but in Febroary of the fol- 
lowing year another patent was fpttnted to &oops for 
the same object In September, 1800, be published 
anonymously an '^ Historical Account of the Substances 
which have been used to describe events and to convey 
ideas, from the earliest date to the invention of paper. 
Printed on the first useful paper manufactured solely 
from straw/' It is an octavo of 91 pages, and is dedi- 
cated to the king. The appendix is printed on paper 
made from wood alone. Koops* paper is thinner than 
thit made either by Schaffers or Liorier Delisle ; and, 
alluding to the former, he sajrs, " notwithstanding thnt 
this author theorised on the subject with great ability 
he accomplished nothing satisfactory by his experi- 
ments, which only tended to prove that various vege- 
tables could probably be so mollified as to make useful 
paper with the addition of a small quantity of rags ; 
neither himself, nor any other person who has fol- 
lowed him, has over been able to make it at all 
without rags, or fit for printing, writing, paper- 
hanging, or other purposes." These remarks appear 
to us to be scarcely just to his predecessors. Koops 
brought out a second edition of his book in the 
year following. It was printed on paper "manu- 
Pictured from straw sol^y, in a more improved 
state, although not yet brought to such a state of 
perfection as it will bo. made in a regular manufacture, 
which must bo entirely constructed for such purpose." 
The paper is rather better than that used for prmting 
the first edition. Koops was also the inventor of a pro- 
cess for re-manufacturing old paper, the ink of which was 
greviously discharged, according to a process fcir which 
e obtained a patent in 1800. H<) says in the second 
edition of his book, p. 250, ** I have had the satisfaction 
to witness the (establishment of an extensive piper manu- 
fiGu:tory, since the first of May, 1800. at the Neckinflrer Mill, 
Bermondsey, where ^y invention of re-manufacturing 
paper is carried on witn g^at success, and where there 
are already more than 700 reams weekly manufactured 
of DArfecUy clean and white paper, made without any 
adaition of rags, from old waste written and printed 
paper." The manufactory was afterwards removed to 
Thames Bank, Chelsea, where it terminated unsuccess- 
fully. The Gentleman's Magazine for Novftmber, 1808. 
contains a notice requesting ladies, shopkeepers, and 
others not to destroy rags, '* which are now 7d. a pound." 
They are also urg<>d to keep envelopes of letters, and 
waste paper of all descriptions, pnntnd or written, 
since it may be re-manufactured. It is uncertain 
whether this refers to Koops* process, but in the 
Magazine for October, 1810. there is a letter stating thut 
"paper made from old paper re-manufactrtred whs f«»nnd 
so unfit for us^, that it is presumed the manufacture has 
entirely cased. The builHngs used for it, somewhere 
about Rotherhilhe, were all sold." 

The latf^st attempt which we shall notice is that mnde 
by the celebntod William Cobbett. In 1828 that author 
gave to the world his amusing ** Treatise on Cobbett's 
Uom," a book which was written partly with the object 
of showing how to ** drive the accursed soul-degradinir 
potato out of the land, into which it n^^ver ought to have 
oome," and to substitute for it the Indian com or maize. 
Amongst the various uses to which that cereal can be 
applied, Cobbett instances the manufacture of paper 
pulp ; and to show that he is not merely theoretical, he 
caused some paper to be manufactured from the st>ilks, 
and used it for printing the title-page and contents of 
his book. The quality is very fair, and the shade of 
colour correspond)^ to that now known as '* toned," but 
the uniformity of the texture is impaired by the presence 
of small fragments of epidermis. It does not appear 
from Cobb*itt's book who the maker was, and no hints 
are given hs to the process by which it was produced, 
but a writer in the Meehnniet* Magazine of September 
20th, 1834 (vol. xxi. p. 426), states that it was made by 
% Mr. Rowland. It is said that Cobbett employed the 



same kind of paper for priating a number of his 
*' Political Register," but we have not been able to 
verify this statement. 



MANCHESTER MILDEW. 



The Manchester Chamber of Commeroe haa just 
received a letter from the Shanghai General Chamber 
of Commerce respecting '* mildewed shirtings," which 
will probably open the eyes of those oonoemed in the 
matter to the fact thnt, after all, honesty is perhtpa the 
best policy, and that there is a point beyond which 
swindling cannot be carried without its evil effect 
recoiling on its authors. The chairman of the Shanghai 
Chamber, writing on the 17th of December, 1872, calls 
attention to the wid^^spread deterioration by mildew of 
cotton piece goods imported to China from Bfancheeter. 
The losses from this cause have for some time been very 
large, but towards the end of 1871 parcel after parcel of 
g^y shirtingtf, prin<'ipally if not wholly consisting of 
second and lower qualities, were rejected by the Chinese 
buyers as ''spotted," and during the past year the e\'il 
has become so general that, in September last, it was 
estimated that 75 per cent, of the entire stock of gray 
shirtings and T-doths in Shanghai were unmerchantable 
as sound goods. The trade was in fact completely dis- 
organised. The cause of the deterioration is, there is 
strong reason to believe, owing to the use of **8ixe*' in 
undue quantity and of a nature deleterious to the fabric 
employed to work up inferior cotton, and to increaae the 
weight of the doth. The results of the extensive 
importations of unsound goods into China are that 
large quantities of cloth are forced off at reduce 1 and 
irregular prices, by which means the tone of the market 
is lowered, and the value of even sound good* is 
depreciated. Bales are no longer, as was onoa the 
case, accepted unopened on the faith of the sample, 
but the wrapptirs have to be cut into in otder 
that the condition of every package may be ascertaiaed. 
The inconvenience, delay, and loss arising from this 
practice is obvious. The trouble and waste of time en- 
tailed by the necessity of minute inspection, thn ftviqiieat 
re-sales of rejected paronls, and the nncertainty ma to 
the completion of any sale until full examination of the 
contents of the packages has been made, all r^ present a 
positive burden on the trade. The destruction of tho 
packages is, moreover, a loss to the native mHr«>hant, who 
can never airain pack his koo<Is so securely for inland 
transport. More important, perhaps, than all is the fad 
that the confidence of native deilers and merchnnts in 
foreiini goods is shaken ; for they are no longer snre ol 
carrying their pumhases to the end of a long journey ii 
a merchantable condition. Suc^h general want of confix 
denne in the soundness of foreign cotton gt>tds most 
tend, it is urged, to render them unpopular amoof^ th.< 
Chinese, and, considerinir that foreign imports, thoujrl 
ch»»aper, have ^reat difficulty, even under favourable 
circumstances, m competing with tho more dorablt 
native manufactures, the trade is not in a position tc 
bear any additional burden. Although, thereforf*, Wxi 
first losses from mildew f .11 upon the importing; mer 
chant, while tho manufacturers appear to escape alto 
ffether, yet such an uneoual distribution of the mapoa 
sibility cannot continue, if for no better reasnn th m thai 
the mafirnitude of the losses will soon put it beyond tHj 
power of the merchants to be ir them, were they e^*«r m 
willing. The result will therefore ultimately sffect tK 
Manchester manufacturers as seriously as the Obixi 
merchants, and the latter urge the Manchester Chambo 
of Commerce to join with them in a strict investii^tioi 
into the circumstances, with a view of pnttinsr an end ti 
*'a crying evil affecting not only the int«*mts of tlk 
most important branch of British industry, but alao tlij 
honour and reputation of British commerce." That i 
should be f*tund necessary to address this remorstr^nc 
to such a city as Manchester is not the least dintrct^ju 
part of the afiBur.— Pa// Mall Gasetie. 



fURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, February 14, 1873. 



233 



"WHOLESOME HOUSES.' 

Writbg to the Timet a short time back, Mr. G. Jen- 
fliiffi Bftk^ the following valanble and practical re- 
Bini:—** Vt^ntilatioii, to 1m certain and perfect should 
WMtvnl— iii<lependent of d<K>rs or windows, tight-6t- 
tBf or otherwise, and on no account should external air 
It sdaittod through *oold air gnttings,' or warmed 
mv tad oTfT again bj hot- water pipes. The source of 
nlj ihoold be the purest attainable, and as well known 
MUM gttt or water supply « but, unlike either, impossible 
If dtnagsment, requiring no thought or attention, d i j, 
l^bt, or Kstoo. 

"Aa this perfect Tenttlation can be insured without 
difing induences, without expensive or complicated 
■BiftBients, and with a saving to the country annually 
tf thMnnda of tons of cohI Umt are now burnt waste- 
ftQr.giring no returns white ver, I trust you will nant 
IM the apses to make this apparent ; but, before doing 
•bMfireplftoesand chimneys are the UHtural vents of 
•inosHk and necessary to the cheerful open fire— one 
tf lbs deaghts of an English home — I would desire to 
■J i few vords in relation to both. 

"OiMof the first authorities on chimney's about a 
WtBjunct was Count Romford, who did much to im- 

rthcm by reducing the throat immiMiiately over the 
He diininiahed the draught from the then ill-fitting 
"Ml »ad windows, which our forefathers endeavoured 
J^MntMMcC by the interposition of folding screens and 
g^bicM settles. In a published work by the G«)unt 
' that 90 per cent, of h«at p*isses wastefuUy 
Bp every chimney, leaving only 10 per cent, fur 
iea into the room. 
L'^I^vs never heard this estimate even questioned : 
ij^illsvin^that we now g^t 'Owing to improveihent 
><«} i5 per cent. %f the^radiated heat in the imme- 
Mghboorhood of the fire, 75 per cent, of heat still 
■ wtitefiilly away ; in other words we expend 328. 
tea of co«l to get 8s. worth of doubtfid heat Ctim- 
thii &«rful waste, this tottd loss, with the economy 
W in oar manufacturing districts. 
^iWflnt thought and duty of an engineer is to get 
^ tjks botkr thai may be planned or fixed under his 
the grsatast possible amount of steam with the 
•BKmnt of coal ; notliing is wasted ; every thinir 
d, even the exhanstnd steam is employed to heat 
■■^ vster, nther than lower the pressure within the 
■ by jraniping in c«»ld. 

iJhw, if it be desirnble. on the score of economy, to 
" At feed Water necessary to a boiler, surely it is 
^ dcHrable as regards, not only economy, but 
«nd c<»mfort, that the air necessary to a room 
W varmed before admission. This I do, and 
^^12 years I have done, by the followin:? arrange^ 
*hif-h requires ' no thought or attention day, 

uiy fireplace, in an old house or a new one, I 

*t«ni ootti chHmber, htviog a throut or pasHagn 

"^ it for the escape of smok^ and vitiated air. The 

cetu chamber is six inches deep, strongly made. 

*ftsse sufficient to cover the whole of the fireplace 

sad to take a 4| inch bearing on the front, back, 

vslls. finishing fair with the front of the 

bfBMt. 

tbimnsy I employ is circular in form, 10 inches, 

^<W» ia disfneter, encLised in a square case 14 and 

^tWBs 16 indi^ square, both bf iog of terra cottn, 

•i thmogh a die at one operntion, like common 

and then cut to convenient leni^hs for use — 

otheiB bevelled, to ennble the bricklayer to 

flss in any required direction. With these 

Atsithe diimney, commencing at the chamber 

itvthsireplare, and terminating at any point 

ttieavfsaadri'l^of thebuildinir. Above this 

'^^' is continned, and completed with plain 

kpipM^ enclosed in brickwork in the usual 

M the level at which the air chamber flues 



terminate I fix in the external wall an air brick of a siae 
proportioned to the requirements of the room, hall, ward, 
or other enclosed space, and firom this source, or from a 
specially constructed air main, the fresh air fiows down 
the spHce .round the smoke flue into the terra cotta 
chamber covering the fire, then up to and through 
openings formed by preference on either side of the 
chimney breast, as near t6 the ceiling as the cornice will 
permit. • 

*< The success of the ^irangement I have attempted to 
describe is now beyond dispute. Thousands of chimneys 
as I write ore warmiligthe fresh air as it passes to supply 
the exhaust within the rooms they are connected with, 
raiiiing the temperature from 32 to 61 degrees, thus 
utilising the heat that inordinary chimneys passes waste- 
fully away, the chimney shaft being to the room what hot- 
water pipes are to a vinery or oonservatorv, with this 
difference, that the supply is always fresh and continuous 
for hours after the fire is out, the circulation being of 
course less rapid and temperature lower as the chimney 
coels. The arrangement also secures ventilation, with 
or without fire or Tight, and perfect joiner's work tends 
to increase the supply and circulation of fresh air.*' 



NEW GAS COMPANY. 



A new gas company is now attracting considerable 
attention. Its object is to produce from water a gas 
capable of lighting and heating. The patents under 
which the process is to be carried on are those of Mr. 
Ruck. A practicable model gas manufactory has been 
built at Battersea, and experiments have been there 
exhibited of the working of the process. Steam is 
decomposed, by highly-heated coke or charcoal, into 
free hydrogen, mix^ with carbonic oxide and carbonic 
acid gases, and some sulphurretted hydrogen, which last 
is separated from the gas, but the carbonic gases remain, 
unless when the carbonic acid is removed by the help 
of caustic soda. The resulting gas is to be used for 
heating purposes only, as hydrogen gas in burning gives 
little- light but much heat. But the gas is also to be 
converted into gas for illuminating purposes by being 
chnrged with petroleum vapour, which is said to form, 
with the hydrogen, a more or less permanent combina- 
tion, and a rich hydro-carbonaoeous gas, yielding a 
light equal to 16*6 candles, burning 120 grains of sperm. 
The heating gas and the gas for light must either be 
separately prepnred and distributed in two separate sorts 
of pipes, or else provision must be made for carburetting 
the gas at every point where it U to be U8"d. 
Either plan appears open to grave objections. The 
decomposition of water or steam by hijfhly-heated 
carbonaceous substances into hydrogen and oxy- 
carbonaceous gases is not new. Some account of whnt 
has been done appeared in a former number of this 
Jtmntal (May 6, 1859). Of the various attempts that 
have been made, the most successful was that of Mens. 
Gillard, who produced hydrogen gas from super-heated 
steam, and utilised it for lighting purposes by igniting it 
under a cap of fine platinum wire sause. This cap was 
ripidly raised to a white heat, and diffused an intense white 
light. An objection m-ged against th« new gas is, that 
the fuel required to generate the steam would produce 
directly as much or more heat than can be obtained by 
combustion of the gas. How far this objection is valid 
can only be decided by practical experience. The 
great difficulty is the carburetting process, and if the 
new company have got over that, they will have con- 
ferred upon the public a very serious benefit, by render- 
ing it indepenfient of the fiuctuations of the coal supply 
and the vagaries of coal owners. 



A drop of an alcoholic extract of Brazil wood 
pitiduces on flour adulterated with alum a greyish blue or 
greyish violet spot. 



284: 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, February 14, 1873. 



NATIVE GUANO COMPANY, 

Two reports have lately been made to the Metropolitan 
Board of Works, by Mr. Baealgette and Mr. Keates, 
relative to the experintental operations of the company 
at Crossness. Ihe comraercial and financial results are 
treated by Mr. Bazalgette, and the chemical and sanitary 
considerations the report of Mr. Kentes discnsses. Be- 
tween the 27th of August and the 30th of November, the 
time allowed for the investigation, 11,672,737 gHllona of 
sewage were experimented npon, being about 1- 343rd 
part of the averHge flow of sewage discharged at Cross- 
ness, and 1* 686th part of the sewage of London. The 
quantity of A. B. C. mixture used in thd shape of alum, 
clay, charcoHl, lime, and blood, amounted to 166 tons 14 
cwt. Iqr. 131bB. ; and the sewage treated, assuming it to 
produce 100 grains to the imperial gallon, 74 tons 8 cwt. 
3 qrs. 16 lbs., making a total of 241 tons 3 cwt. 1 qr. 1 lb., 
giving, in the shape of dried residue, called native guano, 
133 tons 7 cwt. 11 lbs. There was also in the tanks the 
equivalent of 8*34 tons of gU)«no. The total expenditure 
amounted to £89d 3s. 3d. This gives the cost of manu- 
facture at £6 6s. 4d. per ton, exclusive of rent, interest 
on capital, and other incidental items. 

About 80 tons of the deposit were sent across the river 
to Messrs. Sillars, to mix with fish manure. Two or three 
tons of it were put upon a small quantity of land rented 
by the company at Crossness; about ten tons remained in 
a wet state banked up upon the ground, about '40 tons, 
in a dried state, were in the company's sheds, and a few 
tons were sent away in small quantities as samples ; but, 
with the exception of a tew shillings, says Mr. BHZ^lgette, 
the company's books showed no returns in the shape of 
sale of manure. 

As to the ohemical part of the question, there were 
three points to be considered : — The effect of the treat- 
ment of the sewage by the A. B. C. prooeM as a means 
of clarification and defecation ; the posibilHy of com- 
pleting the preparation of the manure without creating 
offensive efiluvia, which might prove a nuisance to the 
muTonnding neighbourhood ; the value of the manure 
produced from the precipitated solid matter. 

On these three points the conclusions of I^Ir. Keatc) 
were: — That the effluent water was, on the whole, very 
ffood. The A. B. C. treatment so far clarified and de- 
fecated the sewHge that, looking solely to the physical 
condition and chemical composition of the water pro-, 
dnced at Crossness, it was in a fit state to be 
admitted into any ordinary river without producing a 
dangerous degree of poll ution. It was however remarked 
that the extremely dilute state of the sewHge from 
incessant rain made these results not entirely conclusive. 
During the prepHration of the manure, inclu<iing the 
storing of the moist cakes of mud from the process, and 
the final drying in the drying cylinder, no oflensive 
effluvia were emitted, and taking the exp^-rience of 
Crossness as a guide, it appears that the A. B. C. process 
may be carried on up to the completion of the manure 
for the market without producing any nuisance. 

The value of the manure, Mr. Keates considered a 
question for practical experiment rather than chemical 
analysis, but on the whole he stated that in his opinion 
it could not be estimated as above 208. per ton. 



PERUVIAN PETROLEUM. 

The northern coast of Peru has important deposits of 
mineral oil, in the department of Piura, which is 
bounded on the north and north-east by the republic of 
Ecuador, and the centre is situated a little to the south 
of Tumbez, in the province of Ayavaca. The workings 
have not as yet acquired the importance which seems 
destined for them, as only four weUs have been opened. 
The petroleum extracted amounts to about 3,000 gallons. 
Mr. Larkin, a citizen of the United States, is the director 
of the wcrks, representing a society whose hfad-quMxterB 
are at New York, but which was organised in virtue of 
a concession made by the authorities of Piura. The 
charter, however, has yet to be confirmed at Lima, so 
that this new branch of industry cannot attain the 
dimensions intended until this formality has been com- 
pleted. 

The mineral oil is to be found in other places, and 
varies greatly in depth. Sometimes it is to be found near 
the surfiice ; at others it is necessary to dig for some five 
hundred feet. The district which is crossed consists of 
sand, alternating with beds of pebbles. These are 
recent deposits. Layers of sandstone, of potters* clay, 
and schist succeed them ; these are occasional!}^ inter- 
rupted by chalky substances. All these rocks are friable 
— they crumble on ejiposure to the air The stratifi- 
cation is very regular ; they are generally towards the 
south-east, at an angle of about ten degrees. 

The petroleum seems to come from the schist, which 
is full of fossils, but the geological formation to whioh 
they belong has not been determined. 

There are certain differences between the mineml oils 
of Tumbez and Pennsylvania. The former does not, so 
to speak, give any paraffin, but yields, by distillMtkai, 
more than sixty per cent, of kerosene, and nbout twenty- 
five per cent, of a heavier oil for machinery ; of the 
fifteen per cent, remaining the principal portion is tar, 
the proportion of oil of naphtha being unituportant. 

The explorati(»ns are situated near the sea, which ia 
always culm here. The workmen are Indians, and they 
earn about half- a- crown a day. Hitherto the petroleum 
has not been refined, but a factory has been erected, 
which will begin to work as soon as the company's title 
has been secured. The price of the raw oil when shipped 
cannot yet be determined. Mr. Larkin professes to have 
delivered his merchandise in London at £1 per forty 
gallon cask. Two cargoes have been sent to England 
and a third to Australia. The kerosene is worth half-a- 
crown a gallon, with a tendency to depreciation. 

If the coast of Tumbez is as rich in petroleum as ia 
8uppose<l, it will fumiah the Pacific repuMics with 
mineral oil ; it will support Australia, and ^-ill be able to 
dispute the sale of the proceeds of Pennsylvania and 
Canada in the markets of Great Britain and Cttlifomia. 
— Annates du Commerce Extuiettr. 



In order to render moulds of plaster or gutta- 
percha used in elecfrutyping cundoctit-g, the use «f a solution 
of 1 gramme silver nitrate, 2 grammes water, 2*5 grammes 
ammonia (sp. ^r. 0*96), and 3 grHmmes abtiulute alcohul, is 
reconm^ndt^d ; befi»re the eoat is quite dry, it ia exposed to a 
current of sulphuretted hydrogen. • 

During the year 1872, 1,179,433 bales of cotton 
were shippfd irom tbeibree ports of Hombay, Kurraehee, and 
Carwar, against 1,168,407 bHiea in 1871. It is estimated that, 
inulusive of native utates, about three millifus of aures were 
'**t year under cotton cullivMtion, against three and three- 

arter miluons in the previous year. 



CORRBSPOKDEHCB. 



ECONOMY IN THE CONSUMPTION OF COAX. 

Sir, — Findmg the Society of Arts* in the interest ot 
the public, are HCtively seeking the means of ecououtifrin^ 
the consumption of fut 1 in the shape of coals, I Uike tlii» 
opportunity of informing you that, having long lieem of 
opinion th»t common white chalk w<iuld prove a vaUoab^ 
heat raiser and retainer, and would to a conaidvimble 
extent save the consumption of coal, I commenovd 90tn» 
experiments with my stHHm boUers some years ngo, bqtt 
the prejudice of my engineer nnd stokers prevented any 
success worth speaking of. Within these last few w«eka, 
however, I have commenced my experintents anew, aiMi 
hnve succeeded perfectly in making a saving of ne*rl^- 
26 per cent, in coal. 



JOUENAL OF THE SOOIETT OP ABT8, Pibruaby 14, 1878. 235 



IW the y»xiom parpoMS of my baainett I employ two 

Hatf h^im-pomtt boilera, whsuh. arn k«pt up from twelve 

U ofiMt houa 9Tery di^y at a presMire of forty noands 

tf itfiiin to the eqoare inch. To aocompliah thift I have 

Wo f^ niBe yean past compelled to consome weekly 

«ifkttonf of coals; 8ince I have commeDced with chalk 

nd cmis I hare been able to raise the same amount of 

AuB villi tix (on* of ooala and one ton of chalk, the 

mh coiliDg 36s. par ton (Welsh) und the chalk 9s. par ' 

te, thsi uTiag on this small consumption £3 3s. per 

TBek, or nndy 25 per oent. I can find nothiDg objec- 

limbi* or detrimental in this une of chalk ; on the con- 

Wn. I ftnd it a gieiit preventor and consumer of smoke, 

od that the putent fire-bars I use are kept clear from 

<fi&bn; tad the chalk, when contracted into lime, is 

W oirka^ bat makes fair limewash for walls, stables, 

Mdp»«>r«» M<i i« andoubteilly a goud disinfectant if 

«afl(n>«l to the dost- bin. The chalk requires only a 

IttJ* fstn cue in stokinfc. For domestic purposes I feel 

«hM it «iU DTOTe hinhly useful, eepeually in kitchen 

»P^ Ufg* close stovea, or any kind of furnace, the 

«h dnvUek for use in the dwelling house that might 

mm votU be the probable spilling of any of the lime on 

Ib^wpits io reraoTing the ashes, and this, of course, a 

Mr au« woald prevent. 

f^«I th*? istense heat the chalk gives off in consump- 
w.rui utisfied for locomotive enginea it would prove 

• vaomow benefit reducing the weight of fuel to be 
•ni^, imi preventing the suffocating smoke from the 
"«»• »if n]X occasionally suffer from in ridlwHy 
fcfrljBc. These remarks will also apply to the heating 
■fill rptoin and sea-going steam vessels, and, indeed, 

• »*<* all instances where fire is the gi«at active 

lUTptwo lumaoes at work daily at my factory, No. 
^™wTy-pl«ce Xorlh, near Finsbury-squire, where I 
ibeha|ipT to ibow the operation to yourself fiiends, 
7 artiber of the Society of Arts, between the hours 
^m ths imvning and four in the aftei noon, and shall 
|M to ifford any ezplanutiun or ioibrmation that 
t^Tvquired. 
[tfiik. Sir, you will admit that at no time has this 
b«-n more important thnn the present, when the 
vi i.vx\ has risen more than cenL per cent, with a 
wppir from the pits. I believe the plan may be 
■wiani-e tnoui^h t» the public to obtain for me the 
f ?"W mednt which 1 should greatly prize if I 
J^ndfrcd worthy to reeeiv© it, for my Hpplication 
••ilBle for coal of an abundant and CHsily obtained 
" I am, &(•., 

Gbo. Batty. 
I "» f«TMMat, FtMboiy, Dec 20th, 1872. 



Australian Patent Office. — We learn from the 
Australian Mechanic that ihe Patent nnd Registration 
offices at Yictoria are ti be united. The scheme has 
been for some time under consideninon, but it has now been 
carried into effect by the Huo. J. W. Stephen, the present 
Attomey-Oi-nenil. The bill for uniting the offices is now 
before tns Upper House. 

ProgTWi ef Om Lighting is Hew South Walet.-- 
During 1872 another tiwu in ttiisctiloDy has been lighted with 
gas. It is over 20 years since Sydney, the metitjpolis, vras 
lighted ; it is ten years since West MaitlHud was HghtHl ; 
and five ye*irs since NewoiwUe was lighted ; and now 
Bathmvt, which is the largest inland town, and, being 
situated in the centre of a large mineral district is rapidly 
rising in importance. The works are the- property of the 
engineer of the Australian Oaaligbt Company, Sydney, and 
are constructed to supply at present about 30,000 cubic feet 
perday. They have bt^u erected under the Duperintendeoce 
of Mr. J. Anderson Ward, a sun of the owner. An Act of 
Parliament has been obtained. The town was lighted for 
the first time on the 13th of May last u>d the event was 
celebrated by a public dinner given by the proprietor. A 
company has been formed to light Parramatta, another 
small town. An Act has btfen pas*^, and the works are now 
in progress. — Jourtial of Gaa JLightwg. 



OBVEBAL 90TE8. 



J«bi€tl Sehocl for Edinburgh.— A preliminary 
C**J\ l*r^»» fHToumble totbeeiitabliiihment of a tech- 
J^'^Ed'nburgh ha« been held, under the presid^-ncy 
•"■d P!iivc»f . ReM»lotioziS were adopted to the effect 
^■^•w*'! w»8 deeirable, and that a p..rtion of the 
™b»oI Henut*i« Hoepital might very properly be 
•< i^ laaintf^nance. A committee was appointed 
me matter. 

•« CoA« in Ceylan— The total value of 

Cjf ho in 1837 waa estimated at 600,000 dola., 

'Jy^^tJ^*"* over 94,000,0001bs., W4»nh fully 

Jw». Within the iHst 16 yt-nrs the number of 

■•ny reas^d from 404 to l,tK)4; nnd the extent 

^^ IfuiD 80.000 to 200.000 aersa, which is 

cofce cultivated by the natives in their 

id to cover 60,000 acres. There are now 

Itetitifins. requiring 200,000 Ctxdtea to cul- 

cop^ and worth for the land, maehinerv. 
— 36,000,000 dole. ^ 



>4ltU 



Self-working Ship Ventilation and Ship Pun^iapw-*- 

An invention of great advaotaiEe to Bhips has been success* 
fully tried at Plymouth. Foul water and foul air in the 
lower part of the ship are both pumped out by the mere roll- 
ing of the ship. Two iron cylinders, connected below by a 
tube, are placed one on each side of the vpsnel. From each 
cylinder a pipe det^cenda into the air or fnuer that is to be 
pumped out, and a similar pipe rises as an ontlft above. The 
oyliuders are filled with quicksilver, .and being connected 
below, as alreadv stated, each rwU of the ship produces an 
alternate ri»o and fall oi the quicksilver, creates thereby a 
vacuum, into which the bilge-WHter rushes, aud is pumped 
out at the vent in a coutiouous stream. Tbe cylinderD wluuh 
expel air are filled with water; but their action is the same as 
here described. — Builder, 

Paper Wheels. — We learn from the monthly scientific 
paper in Chambers's Journal that the^^e are made by treating 
waste-paper, or papnr-pulp, or vegetable fibre with chloride 
of zinc, and subject imr it to presHure, whMvby it becomes 
hard and tough. The hardno^s and toughness may be varied 
accordiuir to the i»trength of th(^ bath of ziiic solution, and 
the material prttduced will be flexible as leather, or rigid as 
w«iod. It takescolour readily, and cm be ui«ed as flwor-doth ; 
it is a substitute for leather, both soles and uppers ; can be 
faahiuued inti» gas-pipee, hand lea fur whips, for taws, and 
many kinds of ttntls; into but tona, combs, pulleys, and so 
forth, and into large sbt'Ots fur roofing. It pn^miees to be 
useful for ornamental purpi'se^; perhaps, for coats and 
t^ou^er8 ; and paper already manufactured may be toughened 
by beiog passed, unsized} through the chloride of zioo bath. 

Veans for Colouring Faraflne, fto., blaok.-r-The 
Frankfort Jahresbcricht idts physikaliscJten Va'eincstsouiaXnB 
tbe following curious ni>te: — '^Foralong time past maun- 
facturers of candles, wax, steariiie, or parafine, a» the case may 
bo, have been trying to discover a means for colouring them 
a deep black (with a view to ppeiial occasions, such as mneral 
ceremonicH^ by a simple method so as at the SNmc time not to 
injure tbe brilliancy of their light. The re^ult can now be 
AttMlKcd by melting tho ►ubsiances coinpoitiDg the candles 
into a vesHcl con taiiiing peeled and bruised nuts of Anarca- 
dium {Anarcadium Ori^ntalc)^ where they are to be 
allowed to diyest for a few niinutfs. This fruit contair>s a 
liquid vegetable oil, of a black ndour, whieh unites itself 
intimately with tbe matter ot which the candles are formtd 
without prejudicing their powers of illumiaation." 

Tatmaniaa Iron.— Experiments in smelting the 
Tasmanian iron oto from the Ilfracombo beds have been 
snccesMfully made. The iron is i»aid by competent judges 
to be equal to any produced in Europe. A small bell was 
cast, and is ni»w on view at the Bshibitien. The remainder 
of tbe ore was run in prepared pig miiulds weighing about 
lowt 28lb. eacdi, and one ** sow^' of aht>ut 3c wt. An in- 
fluential company has got a leatie of a large tract of the iron 
Country, and smelting operations will be begun without 
delay. — Melbourne Age, 



236 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, February 14, 1873. 



NOTICES. 



BUBSCBIPTIOirS. 

The Christmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, F in a n c i al 
Officer. 

BEPOBTB ON THB LOHBON XHTSBHATIOITAL 
EXHIBinOH OF 1878. 

The reports which appeared in the last volume of 
the Journal on the various sections of the above 
Exhibition, are now published complete, in a 
pamphlet form (price 2s.), and can be obtained 
at the office of the Society. 

THE LIBBABT. 

The following works have been presented to the 
Library: — 

Census of Victoria, 1871. Part 4, Religions of th® 
People ; and part 5, Education of the People. 

The JournfU of the London Institution. Vols. 1 and 
2, 1871 and 1872. Presented by the Institution. 

Report of H GrHud Banquet given to David Chinery, 
Esq., F.B.G.S., lato Chargd d'AfFaires of the Republic 
of Liberia. 

Our 8»^amen ; an Appeal, by Samuel Plimsoll, M.P. 
Presented by the author. 

The Antiquary. Vol. 2. Presented by F. W. Monk. 

Ot-meiiiuukine Wochenschript. Vol. 22, for 1872. 

Bulwich College and the Endowed S^jh^iols Commis- 
sioners. By Jolm R. Adams. Presented by the author. 

OBDDTABT KEETIH08. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

FsBRUART 19. — **0n the Virginias; their Agricultural' 
Mineral, and Commercial Resources." By Major Hotch- 
KI88, late C.8.A., enidneer in charge of the survey of 
Virginia by the Washington and Lee University. On 
Uiis evening Sir Antonio Brady will preside. 

Fbrhuary 26. — Discussion on Lieut.-Colonel A. 
Stbamgb's paper, *' On Ships for the Channel Passage/' 
adjourned nom Wednesday, the 12th. On this evening 
Viue-Admiral Erasmus Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S., will 

preside. 

March 5.—" On Gas-lighting by Electricity, and 
Means for Lighting and Eztinicuishing Street and other 
Lamps." By W. Ll yd Wisb, Esq. 

Makch 12. 

Makch 19. — " On Certain Improvements in the Manu- 
facture of Printing T^pes." By J. R. Johkson, Esq. 

DTDIA OOMMHTSE. 

A Conference will be held this evening ^Friday), 
February 14th, at eight o^clock, when Mr, J. M. 
Stogqueleb will open the discussion with a further 
paper, supplementing the previous one, '* On the 
Progress of India during the last fourteen years." 
Major-Oeneral Ntjthall, late Political Agent at 
Munnipore, will preside. 

The next Conference will be held on Friday, 28th 
instant, when a paper will be read by T. Kooeb 
Smith, Esq., aromtect, on ** Architectural Art in 
India." Jamss Ferqt788017, Esq. , D.C.L. , F.B.B. , 
will preside. 



A Conference will also be held on Friday, Mawh 
14th, when W. T. Blanfoed, Esq., of the Indian 
Geological Survey, will read a paper on "The 
Mineral Resources of India." 

CAHTOB LE0TURE8. 

The second course of these lectures is " On tbc 
Energies of the Imponderables, with eepecial re- 
ference to the Measurement and Utilisation of 
them," by the Eev. Arthtjk Rigo, M.A. The re- 
maining lectures will be delivered on the foUowing 
evenings, at eight o'clock : — 

Lbcturb III.— Mokdat, Fbbruaky 17th, 1878. 

On the Energy of Vitality, with especial wfenjDce t» 
the Measurement and Utilisation of it 

Lbctubb rV.— Momdat, Fbbkuabt 24th, 1878. 
On the Energy of Affinity, with e8|)eci^ reforaice U 
Suggestions for Estimating and Utilising it 

LxcTUBB v. — Monday, Mabgh 3bd, 1873. 
On the Energy of Electricity, with especial reference 
to the Measurement and Utilistttion of it 

Lbcturb VI.— Mokdat, March IOth, 1878. 
On the Energy of Light with especial reference to the 
Measurement and Utilisation of it 

Lbcturb VII.— Monday, March 17th, 1878. 
On the Energy of Hent, with especial reference to the 
Measurement and Utilisation of it 



KESmrOS FOB THE EVSUIVO WEEK. 

MoK....BOCIFTY^OF ARTS, 8.,^C«nt.ir ^f^^^'^ 
Wm, •• On the Energies of the imponderabM " ^^ 

Boyal United Service lustitation, b* 1. Own"?*? 
OvpriMi Bridge. R N . "Fleet Rrolatino* u>aVam 
Tiwtiot." 2 Vice-Admina Byder, **Toww'«Bp«e- 
Indicator and Qovtroar.** 

Entinnolngical, 7. 

British Arefaitecto, 8. 

Medical. 8. 

Asiatic, 8. 

Victoria Institute, 8. ^ « /v_ ul^^mI 

London Institution, 4. FrofBtsor Dnnesn, " On nfmm 
Geography." 

Toes.. ..aril Engineera. 8. Renew*^ Discnssiofi oo "Hjelfitit." 
Gauge f.ir the BUte Bailways of India ** „ ^ . «m 

StatisScal. 7t Mr R H. Inglis PdgimT^"Oa BBT 
CirculnUon. with some Bankinv Btatistici." 

PathokiKical. 8. 

Anthropological, 8. ., . ^ 

Zoological. 8^. I. Professor O. J. AlUnsa. * »^^ 
the Hydroida onUeoted during the <«>*^^i*^ 
H.M8. Poratpine. 8. Mr. W. K. P»tfk«..";On^ 
thognathous Birds." 8 Mr. A. H Oarrnd. »««;•• 
the Anatomv of the Binturon; [ArrHrpt o Wj^r— f) - ^ 

Boyal Institution, 8 Prof. Butherfbrd, "Fates im 
Motions of the Body.'* 

WKD....8nCIBlY OF ARTS. 8 ,lgior HotdhW-rJ^I 
Virginias ; their AgricoltunO, MUisrsl. ««lOt«»<W" 
Besnums.** 
Meteorological, 7. 

THi7iis..Jtoys],8A. 

Antiquaries, 8}. ,, __.ji« y 

Boral Institution, 8. Dr. Annstxonf, "Focmiws «■ 

Oi^udc Substances.** 
Uoncean, 8. _ — « . . — — 

Chemical. 8. 1. B. B. Dale and Dr. C. 8J«*J52r 
" <>n Aurine.** Beseirches on the Action of ttMJJJ 
Zino Oouple on Organic Bodies. «. Dr. <««JJ*'^JS: 
A. Tribe? -On Iodide of Ethyf 8. Mj; W 
"Btdidiflcation of Nitrous Oxide**, 4 »[vJ5^,** 
"Wright, •' Action of Hydrochkrio Acid Oft CoddB*. 

Kamismime, 7. 
Boyal Bodety Qub, 6. 

Fu Philological,^. 

Boyal Inttitatum, 9. 

at a Distanoe.*' 
Geologioel, 1. Aoniial Meeting. 

Bat Boyal Botanic,^. 

Boyal Institvtioii, 
F^itks.'* 



PrtfcsBor casAMsiw***^'*** 



Dr. Reastt. «OoBpr^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETY OF ARTS, Februart 21, 1873. 237 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,057. Vol. XXI. 



ii 



FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 21, 1873. 



/•rtheSocitl^ahmtldbeaddrttttdtothiStaritary, 
, Adilphi, lAmdm, W.C, 



AIIOUSGEMEVTS BT THE COUNCIL. 



lECEVOLOGICAL SXAMUTATIOHS. 

Hie Programme of Examinatioiis in the 
Ttchnology of some of the Arts and Manufactures 
ii tbe Goontry is now ready for issue, and may be 
hid on a^^tlication to the Secretary. 

The sobjects selected for 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
Silk, Steel, and Curiage-building. Candidates, in 
•.rder to obtain certificates in any of these subjects, 
BUBt pass ihe examinations of the Science and Art 
I^)tttiiieiit in certain sciences, which are specified 
in the programme ; and in addition to these, special 
p^ten will be set in the technology of each manu- 
bcture by examiners appointed by the Society of 
iitB, and certificates of three grades will be 
•wried :—" Honours," "Advanced," and**Ele- 
iKotiry." 

Tbeexsminations of the Science and Art Depart- 
(Kvt will be held during the first three weeks 
flf Miy, the technological paper being worked on 
tb ereniog of the 17th May. For the dates of the 
SMnoe subjects candidates are referred to the 
Bonce Directory, published by the Science and 
Alt Departmfflit. 

TVe following Prizes are offered by the Society of 
ixti in each of the five subjects mentioned above : — 

To the best candidate in Honours, JBIO. 

To the best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 

To thebest candidate in the Elementary Grade, £5. 

In order ihaX these Examinations may really be 
"coesBfol in promoting technical education in this 
toantiy, it is desirable that encouragement shoidd 
be giren to candidates by the offer of additional 
paa and scholarships. With this object the 
CovBol appeal to the Companies of the City of 
Imluii, to merchants and manufacturers, and to 
Si*lMr8 of ike Society generally, to aid them 
>TMBtnbatixig to the Prize Fund. 

& following special additional Prizes are 
*wd:- 

ByWyx^ham S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 
^U best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, 
AfvUanofactore: — 

APriieof £3 

APristof £2 



By G. N. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 
Building : — 

A f rize of £3 

A Prize of £2 

A letter has been received from Colonel Akroyd, 
M.P., promising to contribute £5 in prizes when- 
ever Examinations are held in the Technology of 
the Worsted Manufacture. 

The Council beg to announce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund : — 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners. . £10 10 

Dr. Grace Calvert, F.R.8. (annual) .... 660 

Sir DHniel Cooper, Bart 6 

R, L. Chance, Esq 6 6 

The Council invite the aid of masters and man- 
agers in promoting these exeuninations by encour- 
aging their workmen to take advantage of them. 
An explanatory handbill, suitable for being sus- 
pended in factories and workshops, may be had on 
application to the Secretary of the Society of Arts, 
Adelphi, London, W.C. 

PBIZB FOB STEEL. 

1. The Council have resolved to award the Gold 
Medal of the Society to the manufacturer who shall 
produce and send to the London International 
Exhibition of 1873 the best collection of specimens 
of steel suitable for general engineering purposes. 

2. The specimens exhibited must include a com- 
plete illustration of the applications of the varieties 
of steiel submitted. 

3. Each manufacturer should send with his 
specimens a statement of the nature of the tests 
he has applied to each kind of steel submitted, and 
give the results of such tests. 

4. The samples tested are to be exhibited 
together with duplicate samples, or portions of the 
same samples; these will be submitted to tests 
should the Council consider it desirable. 

5. All persons using steel for general engineer- 
ing purposes, who are not manufacturers of such 
steel, are also invited to exhibit specimens on the 
above terms and conditions. 

6. The Council reserve to themselves the right 
of withholding the premium, in the event of the 
specimens exhibited not being sufficiently meri- 
torious. 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETT. 



XLEVEHTH OBDIKABY KEETINO. 

Wednesday, February 19th, 1873, Sir AinOKio 
Bbadt in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 



238 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Febeuary 21, 1378. 



THEIR AGRICUL- 
AND COMMERCIAL 



Barton, R. Harvev, 2, Great St. Helen's, E.C. . 
Booth, John BiUmi?ton, J.P., Ov«rleigh-hou8e, Preston. 
Barton. H., Newport Monmouthshire. 
EckatPin, Miss, 10, Prince's-square, Bayswater. W. 
Messel Louis, 34, Wiltshire-road, Brixton. S.W. 
Munn, Major WilliamAugustus, Churchill-house, Dover. 
NeviU, Charles William, J.P., Llanelly Copper W-orks, 
Llanelly, and Westfa, Llanelly. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected Members of the Society : — 

Fitujames, Frank, 67, Thistle-gjove, S.W. 

Johnston, William, M.D., F.G.8., 6, Gloacester-terrace, 

Wevmouth. 
Kay-Shuttleworth, Ughtred James, M.P., Gawthorpe- 

hall, Burnley, Lancashire. 

The Pai)er read was — 

ON THE VIRGINIAS; 
TURAL, MINERAL, 
RESOURCES. 

By Major Jed. HotchkUi, 

Of Staunton, Virginia (late C.8.A.), Engineer In charge of the 
barvey of VirghUa by tho WasUogtoa and Lee UnlTonlty. 

The States of Virginia and West Vir^nia, that 
prior to 1843 formed the State of Virginia, aate so 
mtimately and naturally associated in their geo- 
graphical relations, and in the development of 
their resources, they require to be treated as one in 
a paper like ihe present ; in fact, the only available 
census returns of the United States, those for 1860, 
from which statistics upon these subjects can be 
drawn, are made for the whole area of the two 
States, and more, that census alone shows what the 
capabilities of these regions are. 

The Virginas are situated between 36 deg. 
30min. and 40 deg. 40min. of N. lat,, onposite 
Spain and PortugeS. Their area is, in round num- 
bers, 64,000 square miles (42,000 in Virginia and 
22,000 in West Virginia), some 6,000 square miles 
more than that of England and Wales. 

The population of the two was, in 1860, 1,596,318 
(Virginia, 1,219,630; West Virginia, 376,688); in 
1870 it was 1,667,177 (Virginia, 1,225,163; West 
Virginia, 442,014). The white population of 
Virginia, in 1860, was 691,773; in 1870 it was 
712,089. That of West Virginia, in 1860, was 
355,526, and in 1870 it was 424,033. The blacks, 
in 1860, in Virginia were 527,457, and in 1870 they 
were 512,841. In 1860 West Virginia had 21,162, 
and in 1870, but 17,980. 

The territory of the Virginias is naturally divi- 
ded into seven distinct belts of country, extending 
throughout it from south-west to north-east, 
parallel with the general trend of the Atlantic 
coast. These belts, taken in the order in which 
they succeed each other, from the Atlantic, north- 
west, to the Ohio, are: — 1st, the Tidewater 
Country; 2nd, the Middle Country; 3rd, Pied- 
mont Virginia ; 4th, the Blue Ridge ; 5th, the 
Valley of Virginia ; 6th, the Appalachian Country; 
7th, the Trans- Appalachian Country. 



of it, a hundred miles in width, and over L2^ 
in length, making an area of about 13,000 



TiDEWATEB COTJNTEY. 

The Tidewater country of Virginia embraces ten 
or more of the large peninsulas that have ihe 
1,500 miles of their abundant outline washed by 
the tidal waters of Chesapeake Bay and of that far 
western indentation of the middle Atlantic coast 
known as the Virginian Sea. This section is, most spring, and the accessibility of this sec^oo hn^ 



nules. It is the Tertiary plain of the Atlantic, 
region of Eocene and Miooene clays, marls, aiod' 
sands, bordered by recent formations. The tidal 
creeks penetrate far into each separate peninsola, 
so that the navigable waters on opposite sides ore 
often less than a mile apart, and the water- 
sheds never rise more than a hundred feet. 
Most of these waters are deep, and in some of the 
broad estuaries, as Hampton Roads, Elizabefii 
river, the York, and elsewhere, the largest vessde 
afloat can easily reach the wharves or find eafs 
anchorage ; in fact, the navies of the world oooU 
find a common harbour in Hampton Roads, frav 
from ice at all times and completely land-loGke>d|| 
and when the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Atlantic 
Ohio, and Mississippi railways shall have completai 
their western connections, as they soon will, aal 
other railways in contemplation are finished, d 
terminating near this great harbour, it is but fsir 
to suppose that one or more of ^e worid*s w«l|» 
known commercial cities will grace the tenniml : 
lobes of these Virginia Moreas. 

The population of the 36 counties that may bt 
classed in the Tidewater division of the State wa^ 
in 1860, 421,308. Of t^ese 203,944 wei« whites, aal 
217,364 blacks ; in 1870 there were 198,345 whiftif 
and 216,981 blacks, a total of 415,326, a lossoi cm 
and three-sevenths per cent on the entire p<qyQlt» 
tion, of two three-fourths of the whites, and a M 
of blacks of two-sevenths of one per cent. HI 
Tidewater region is one where it costs but a 
effort to live, so abundant are the resources of 
waters, and therefore numbers of negroes from< 
parts of the State congregate there. Of the 
million acres in this section two and a-half werej 
cultivation, and two and three-quarters more 
enclosed, leaving nearly three millions for 
waters and unfenced woodlands. 

The waters here are as valuable as the lanS 
if not more so, for the abundant scale ij 
shell fisheries there found. The cultirat 
of oysters is a business as regulaily carried 
as the cultivation of the soil, and it is 
that 30,000,000 bushels were taken from TirgiJ 
waters during the past year; the small State 
was collected on over twenty million 
Grreat numbers of herrings, shad, and ni 
other varieties of fish are annually taken, 
demand for the oysters of this region extends o^ 
the United States and Canada, and bow Emtf 
comes in for a share of the production of W 
himdreds of square miles of Virginia's oysfci 
plantations. 

In some of these X)eninsii]as there are largeswamp 
—like the Gh'eat Dismal — raluable for the fls 
cypress, pine, oak, and other timber in and arooill 
them, and for that which will yet be mined frOB 
them. The rank cane vegetation of their bordsB 
now furnishes a vast supply of material for d« 
manufacture of paper. Large forests of pine, thi 
well-known Virginian yellow pine, one of the mo* 
durable of woods, still abound, and the trade 
this section is very large in this and other kmdi 
timber. The lumber-ships run to the vicinity Oi 
the steam saw-mills upon the shores for thfll 
cargoes. Wood is also sent from lier« in gTMd 
qiiantities to the cities of the North. 

The character of the soil, the early opening Oi - 





JOimNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Fbbbuart 21, 1878. 



239 



■id»it the cariysisrket garden for the large oities 
d ^ AtlsBtic border ; am already the products of 
i oaU portioxi of the country around NorfoUc 
hsDg an ftimaAl return of more than 20 million 
ieXLoB. Especially ia this region noted for the 
BPDiiactioD of peaches, pears, and strawberries ; the 
ig thnres also, and bears abundantly. 

The kods along the rivers are Tcry fertile, 
lad rehim large orope of wheat, Indian com, 
biih potatoes, sweet potatoes, pea nuts, peas 
kos, hmdej, and oats, a considerable quantity 
d tobaooo; even 13,000 bales (of 4001b8. 
«di) of cotton were raised hero in 1860, and 
htga ooantities have been made sinoe. Stock of 
dl DBiu do well, and ^^hen root culture is intro- 
haoL and itd attendant sheep rearing, and the 
kttb ire improved by the use of the fertilising 
wri* that there abound, there is no reason why 
Hk region may not became as fertile as the famous 
ftitivy lands of England. 

The mineral wealth of this secticm is in its green 
mi. ind other marls that abound in all parts of 
ik There are some deposits of iron ore in various 
piices, but their extent is unknown. 

The Middle Country. 

Tbe Middle country of Virginia has very nearly 
flk form of a right-angled triangle, its base of 
1ft* ailes restiag on the North Carolina line, and 
tttwuiin g from the Piedmont to the Tidewater 
ywn; the right an^e is on the east ; the perpon- 
PwUr fxtends northward, past the heads of the 
Milo^ers. 180 miles to the Potomac, while the 
^ypot^Qse of 220 miles runs with the broken 
yy* of the South- west mountains at the eastern 
mnsr of the Piedmont country. The area is 
jlwt 12,000 squaro miles, or 7,680,000 acres, 
P*W into 21 counties, each nearly the size of 
jlvmoathshire^ 

Thff lOddle country is a region of primary and^ 
•^iwirphic rodcB, gneiasoid and granitic, with 
^■oewu, tidoose, argillaceous and chloritic slates, 
5p™? *t high angles, generally to the east, and 
a ftrike corre^K)nding to the trend of the 

HiUin rangpes. 

0»a- the eastern portion of this triangle lies a 
^oad triangle, of what Professor Rogers calls the 
p4fle ncondary formation, a series of sandstones, 
■»J<% &C., neariy horizontal in stratification, 
ne vhole forms a great, moderately undulating 
pm. baring an average width of 80 miles, rising 
TO a height of 200 feet at the granite rim, that 
Jib the limit of the Tidewater region, to 500 or 
•■> It the base of the South-west mountain. 

The ^reat variety of composition in the basis 
•fk» au given a corresponding variety to the soils 
■ this nart of Virginia, and they are foimd 
l**««dof all degrees of fertility, from the poor 

a or light brown ridges, forming the water- 
^ o t the priocipal streams, to liie rich, dark 
M^ lands along the streams themselves. 

*tt»oie places tbe epidotic or greenstone rocks 
MiNiiiiiiiie, and make neighbourhoods famed for 
■I latihty of their soils. The tobacco of this 
^»tt especially noted for its fine quality, and 
^.J'fc wi for the perfection of its ripeness, 
•■^J it vsry desirable to grind into flour for 
JPJrtiai to warm dimatas. Extensive forests, 
Jgjff'^^ <)*^ *^>^ pines, caver large portions 
?*N*JBtey* If a foTOst of oak is cut aown, it 
*SMmM \j an almost impenetrable one of 



pines exdusivdy — and if tliese are cut down a 
forest of oaks and similar wood succeeds, almost 
equally thic^ — making the '* Wildemesses" of this 
region. The native grasses there are sedges 
(CaHces) ; the other kinds must be cultivated* 
While tiiere are quantities of fertile lands in the 
Middle country, still much of it must await im- 
proved methods of husbandry, and the use of the 
marls and limes so convenient to them on both 
sides ; their proximity to the tidal waters and large 
cities will reclaim and make them fertile, as it has 
similar lands in New Jersey and elsewhere. The 
climate is generally mild, and only for a short time 
during the summer is it disagreeably warm. 

The population of these 21 counties, in 1860, was 
300,643— the whites 134,142, the hlacks 166,501. 
In 1870 it was 294,971— the whites 132,572, and 
the blacks 162,399. Th# loss on the white popula- 
tion was 1 per cent., on the black 2^ per cent. ; on 
the whole, 1 J per c&ai. 

The improved lands were 2| million acres, so only 
one-third of the land was in some sort of cidtiva- 
tion, another third was enclosed, leaving one-third 
as wild land. The value of the farms was 64 
million dollars, about 12} dollars per acre. The 
farming implements were valued at IJ millions — 
l-38th of the value of the land. The live stock, 
41.000 horses, 12,000 mules, 54,000 cows, 24,000 
oxen, 78,000 sheep, 135,000 cattle, 233,000 swine— 
577,000 in all — were valued at 8 million dollars ; 
the nine leading cereal crops, including potatoes, 
yielded 13 million bushels, 3 of wheat, 6^ of Indian 
com, 2 J of oats, J of Irish, and \ of sweet potatoes 
— over 43 bushels to each inhabitant. The wool pro- 
duced was 277,000 pounds, the butter 1,733,483, 
the cheese 4,0<X), the beeswax 19,000, and the honey 
245,000. The value of domestic manufacturesreached 
304,000, and the animals slaughtered were vcdued at 
2i million dels. The flax raised was 33,000 pounds, 
and its seed 1,500 bushels ; there were 4,000 bushels 
of clover and grass-seeds, and 42,000 tons of hay ; 
the orchards yielded 48,000, and the market-gardens 
56,000 dollars* worth, and 11,000 gallons of wine 
were made; the tobacco crop was 74 million 
pounds, or 246 to each of the people. The returns 
give rice, cotton, hops, hemp, silk cocoons, &c., as 
produced in the region. The value of staple crops 
I and smimals slaughtered amounts to over twenty 
I million dollars, two-thirds of its value to each 
I acre for the year. These results show the capacity 
: of this section for production in a very f avour- 
! able Ught, they also indicate what may be done 
again upon the same acres, and what may be ex- 
pected when the other two-thirds of the country 
is improved. No part of this section is more than 
ten hours from market by freight or goods trains, 
and most of it is within three hours of tidal waters, 
advantages of great value to the producer. 

The mineral resources of the middle country are 
very great and valuable. The edge of the belt, 
as before stated, is a granite rim rising some 200 
feet above the tide waters, setting boimds to their 
further flow inland, furnishing nne water power 
by the falling of the rivers over it, and sites for 
commercial and manufacturing towns. This grey 
granite is of the very best quality for building 
purposes ; 15 million dollars' worth of it are now 
being quarried for the buildings for the Depart- 
ment of State, in course of erection at Washington. 
Occupying basins, or depressions in the granite, 
aane sever^ coal fields belonging to the New Be^^ 



240 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pebruary 21, 1873. 



Sandstone, or Oolitic era, extending in detached 
oval masses from near Richmond to the south- 
west ; the principal one is known as the Richmond 
coal field, coyering some 150 square miles. 

In the part of una field upon the north side of 
James river five seams of coal have been opened, 
varying in thickness from two and a-half to eight 
feet, givingan aggregate of more than 20 feet, as 
at Carbon Hill. On the south side of the river, 
at Midlothian, three seams have been opened, 
varying in thickness from 4 feet to 40, making 
from 50 to 60 feet of coal (the sections show the 
location of the seams at each of the places named). 
One of the seams on the north side, from two and 
a-half to six feet thick, is a natural coke (the coal 
having been coked by the intrusion of a trap dyke) 
known as carbonite; the other seams are coking 
coals, highly bituminous, as they should be, for 
they are young coals, and therefore fat, as the 
adage says, and admirably adapted to gas-making. 
For this purpose the mines are extensively worked. 

Professor Hull, in the last edition of his work 
on the "CoalFieldsofGreatBritain,"says:— **The 
Richmond coal-field contains several beds of 
valuable coal, one of which is from thirty to forty 
feet in thickness, highly bituminous, and equal to 
the best coal of Newcastle." 

These mines are admirably located for commercial 
purposes, and the coals are highly commended by 
all that have used them. The other fragments of 
the Middle country coal-field have not been de- 
veloped, except perhaps in Prince Edward 
■county. 

Midway in the middle country is a strip of land 
from 15 to 20 miles in width, and running for two 
hundred miles through the state ; that has long 
been known as the ** gold belt" of Virginia. The 
rocks of this belt are the slates, traps, steatites, &c., 
of the Primary, dipping at high angles, generally 
to the east, and striking wiui the belt. Inter- 
stratified with these arc numerous veins of gold- 
bearing quartz, magnetic, hematite, and specular 
iron ores, and sulphurets of iron and copper. It 
may be safely asserted that there is a great abim- 
dance of each of these valuable minerals through- 
out most of the leng^ of this belt. Large amounts 
of gold have been taken from it, esi)ecially where 
it is crossed by the Rappahannock and the Jamei, 
and their tributaries ; and practical men state that 
if the same skill and capital were employed in work- 
ing these as there is in working the California mines 
the results would be as satisfactory. Small quanti- 
ties of gold are constantly being obtained from 
surface washings. The veins of iron ore are 
numerous, some of the magnetic ones having a 
thickness of four feet ; the beds of hematite ore, 
particularly those upon either border of the belt, 
as along James river, where it runs parallel with it, 
and in the Wilderness, near the Rappahannock, 
are very thick and extensive. The first successful 
furnaces in America, those of the Colonial-Governor 
Spotswood, were supplied from the latter beds. 
Tnere are also large oeds of this ore where the 
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway crosses the belt, and 
iron is manufactured there at this time ; from the 
same vicinity the sulphurets of copper are also sent to 
market. The introduction of cheap coal, just begin- 
ning, will surely lead to the smeltmgof these abun- 
dant and valuable ores, so well situated for markets. 
The slates of the whole Middle country are very 
xoellent for all purposes, notedly those from its 



western border along James river, in Buckingham, 
where they are extensively quarried for roofing, 
flagging, mantles, &c. ; for marbleizing they aro 
considered the best known, and the slabs can be 
obtained of almost any required dimensions. In 
Fairfax county chromate of iron is found, and in 
Buckingham an extensive deposit of kyanito. 
Some of the rocks of this region furnish a grey or 
light brown soil ; this is naturally poor. Others, 
like the epidotes, which contain a marked amount 
of lime, furnish a dark and fertile soil. The sand- 
stones of the imposed middle secondary are valu- 
able for building purposes, as are also the "brown 
stones" of the Red sandstone, which are extensively 
quarried at Manassas. The infusorial earth, 8<t 
abundant at Richmond, is valuable as a polishing 
material. 

Piedmont Virgixia. 

Piedmont Virginia, is composed of the tier of 
13 counties, lying adjacent to, and east of. 
the Blue Ridge, a belt of country some 250 niile« 
long and 25 wide, having an area of over 6,000 
square miles, or four million acres; a torritorj' 
eight times the size of your Surrey. 

The eastern base of the South-west mountains 
(which belong, by their character, to the Piedmont) 
is about 500 feet above tide. These irregular 
mountains are from 500 to 800 feet higher, but 
they are generally very fertile and well adapted to 
cultivation to their very summits ; and on these are 
many old residences, like Monticello, the noted 
home of Jefferson, that overlook the great plain of 
the Middle country on the east, and have the grand 
forms of the Blue Ridge to bound the view on the 
west. The country between these mountains and 
the Blue Ridge is made up of numberless beautiful 
valleys, surrounded by hills and ridges, having* an 
endless variety of forms. This intermediate re^on 
is from 600 to 800 feet above tide, gradually rising 
to the long valleys that run into the Blue Ridg^, 
which boldly mounts more than 2,000 feet abovi- 
them. 

In 1860 there were in cultivation nearly two 
million acres, and about the same quantity of 
woodland was embraced in farms, leaving from 
one-half to three-fourths of a million acres for 'wiW 
land ; this was mostly on the eastern slope of th<» 
Blue Ridge, which belongs to these counties. Tho 
value of the land was 64 million dollars — about 
seventeen and a half doUars per acre. 

The population in 1860 was 202,282, of whiob 
90,064 were blacks ; in 1870 the numbers ijrort' 
198,943, the blacks being 83,024, so the whites 
had increased three and a-third per cent., and the 
blacks decreased eight and a-half. The numbers to 
a square mile in 1860 were 33. 

Much of this country is known as the Red Laii<l 
district, from the colour of its soil, formed from tht.- 
disintegration of the azoic rocks of the BIuo Rid^^ 
and the Piedmont itself, which are gneissoid, coii> 
taining talc, chlorite, iron pyrites, and hornblende. 
The soil is very fertile and easily cultivated, but s<> 
friable it requires careful attention to ko^ it from 
wasting by the action of the elements. Tnc "vhoh 
region is quite broken, and has heavy ridgoe an<1 
hills, but it is exceedingly romantic, and nothing 
can exceed the beauty of the rounded cododcvl 
valleys, locally known as "coves." The wat(>rs 
are abundant and good ; the forests are coinp08«*<1 
of many fine trees. The whole is a remise 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pbbruabt 21, 1873. 



241 



liidiioiity a ainkizif down of the mountainB into 
Aft plaiitt, a mingling of ^eae surface elements 
Ud the most pictoresqae and yet symmetrioal 



The prodactions attest the exuberant fertility 
tilkt soil The value of the farming implements 
■mlojed was only one and a-half million dollars, 
«i^ <me-forty-tliird of the value of the land, 
tt* banes were 44, the mules five, the milch cows 
ft the oxen 14, the other cattle 90, the sheep 115, 
•d the swine 212 thousands, or over a half million 
kad of Kve stock, two and three-fifths to each 
fB90n, worth over seven and a-half million dollars. 
Thtm ilaaghtered had a value of two million 
Ukn, a dollar to each acre cultivated. The 
vJMit raised was two and one-fifth millions, the 
Qo ooe qoarter, the Indian com five and a-half , 
tw osts one and three-quarters, and the potatoes 
\livh, and sweet) nearly half a million hushels, in 
all, OTer eight million hushels of cereals, or forty 
hAds to the individual. The tohacco crop was 
9m twQity-four million pounds, or 120 per capita, 
^ re^on being well suited to crops requiring 
he GiiltiTAtion. The wool sheared was one-thira 
of » BilKon pounds. The buckwheat and barley 
■we tweire, and the clover and grass-seeds fifteen 
ftwsMid bushels. The wine made was 106,000 

^the orchard products valued at 106,000 
tnd that of the market gardens at 12,000 
Wkn. No country is hotter adapted to the fruits 
I*' tea^rate climates. The butter made two 
j3Kfflx, snd the cheese ten thousand pounds ; 
IJMOO tdns of hay were cut, 17,000 pounds of 
■np, 58,000 of flax, 1,300 of hops, 215,000 of 
•jewii,ind 331,000, of honey were produced. The 
J»Mtic manufactures were estimated at 164,000 
•fljw. The oensus gives returns also of the pro- 
»tio& of maple sugar and molasses, sorghum 
•«, silk cocoons, and rice. The lowest esti- 
of the value of production from agriculture 
_^^ ■ will give over sixteen million dollars, or 
wty dollars to each one of the population, and 
■n the value of each acre cultivated. 

AtTirious places in the Piedmont, mines of lead 
gi hirytes have been opened, and it is well known 
W thoe is an abundance of plumbago, manga- 
and fire-dav, but the character of these has 
been properly tested, except perhaps at War- 
; on the James, where extensive deposits of 
?uiese have been opened. 
^ stratification of this section is generally 

K^'^, striking north-east and south-west with 
Bln9 Eidgo and South-west mountains, the 
J^^^Wiei of the Piedmont, and dipping steeply 

■ tht east. In this stratification are fine quarries 

■ rooSuj^ aad other slates, as in Amherst county, 
J* th« James River gap, and at Keswick, east of 
jw&iath-west mountains, on the Chesapeake and 
Jw Baflway, for the eastern boundary of this 
J*i* very properly at the eastern base of the 
yft-west mountains, where a stratum of what has 
J^e^Qed Secondary limestone extends in detached 

masses nearly through the state, and 
two very distinct qualities of soil and 



^^. From tiie prevalence of schistose rooks 
■ ■ pn>bable that numerous localities will be 



^where gooi slates can be quarried. 
^yriayi for brick-making everywhere abound, 
WUuhi are g^enerally made from the excavations 
■[•teiiag. 

before raferrei to, from itj loca- 



tion is very valuable, and at numerous points it is 
quarried for lime ; on the James it may be cut as 
a dark marble. 

There are some good building stones found 
among gneissoid sandstones and trap dykes ; and 
the epiaotic and granitoid rocks and &e schists 
make good rubble work. 

The most valuable minerals in the district will 
probably be found to be the magnetic, micaceous 
and specular ores of iron that are found inter- 
stratined virith the form itions, and in good work- 
able seams. The want of mineral coal has 
prevented their use hitherto, and so no effort has 
been made to test the quantity of the ore ; but 
now that the way is open for coal from the 
Kanawha fields, these ex^emely rich ores will be 
in demand to work with the softer hematites from 
the Valley and Appalachian country. The lines of 
outcrop of these ores can be traced on the surface 
often for miles; and horse shoe nails have often 
been made, in a blacksmith's forge, directly from 
the ore. In 1868, one-seventh of all the iron 
made in the United States was from these very ores 
found in the extension of this belt into New 
Jersey. It will be seen that the lines of traffic are 
well located for the development of these ores. 

In the north-east, a lenticidar mass of New Bed 
sandstone is imposed on the ordinary formation 
of the district, introducing another variety of 
soil and of good building material. 

In the range of low hills known as the Catoctin 
mountain, in the north-east, and even nearer the 
Blue Bidgo, is found a brecciated marble that has 
obtained some repute as an ornamental stone. 
The disintegration of the rocks of this section 
furnishes a constant renewal of the fertility of the 
soil, and in this it has a source of wealth of untold 
value. 

The Blue Bidge. 

The Blue Bidge is one of the most interesting 
features in the Piedmont and Valley landscapes of 
Virginia. It extends for more than three hundred 
miles diagonally across the state, varjring in width 
from three miles, at the gorge made by the Poto- 
mac in passing through it at Harper's Ferry to 
more than twenty in the southwest, near the Ten- 
nessee line, where it expands into a broken con- 
cave plateau, drained by New Biver, not far from 
where that singular stream takes its rise at the 
culminating point of the Appalachian system. 
The general elevation of the Blue Bidge at the 
Potomac is 1,800 feet above the tide, that increases 
to the south-west until, at White Top, on the Ten- 
nessee border, it reaches 5,000 feet ; it is generally 
about 2,000 feet above the great Atlantic plain on 
the east, and from 1,000 to 1,500 above the Vir- 
ginia Valley on the west. It is very irregular in 
the outline both of its contour and of its relief. 
From a distance it presents the appearance of a 
wavy Hne of the deepest blue, but near at hand it is 
resolved into swelling domes, connected by long 
ridges, meeting between the high points in gaps or 
notches, while long spurs, many of them miles in 
length, are sent out in all directions from the 
general range, but more especially on the eastern, 
or longer shipe, these in turn often sending out 
other spurs, the whole giving a wonderful develop- 
ment of surface and exposure, and a peculiar 
adaptation to special cultivation. 

The Blue Bidge, geologically considered, •- 



242 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, FaBRrARY 21, 1878. 



Azoio, or Primary, in its enstexn slopes, generally 
so in its summits, and often in some of its western 
spurs; made up of schists and granitoid and 
epidotic rocks — a region of gre^istones. it may 
very properly be called ; for wherever it is the 
misfortune of a Nulroad to have to tunnel through 
it (as the Hoosac, that has been in progress for 
twenty years) the core, or section of the mountain, 
is mostly of greenstone. This mountain was the 
shore of a primeval ocean that extended west- 
ward* over the valley of the Mississippi ; and 
we find upon the westward flank of this moimtain, 
as the backbone that holds it in shape, the 
Potsdam sandstone that once formed the shore 
and bed of this old ocean, and that now stands as i 
broken ridges or foot-hills, buttressed back to the 
mountain in a singular way. 

Some 3,000 square miles, or two million acres, 
of Virginian territory pertain to the Blue Ridge 
—a region twice the size of your Sussex — most of 
it covered with a fine growth of original oak, 
hickory, chestnut, and tulip-poplar forest, with 
here and there a valuable grazing or fruit farm, a 
patch of Hghtcr green on the sides or summits. 
These greenstone rocks, as is well known, crumble 
into soils rich in colour and in the elements of 
fertility — soils especially adapted to the wants of the 
vine, such as most of the world's great vineyards 
are situated upon. The forests of the Blue Ridge 
abound in grape vines of a large size and very 
productive — the originals of -the Catawba, Norton's 
Virginia, and other weU-known American grapes ; 
and thousands of gallons of brandy are annually 
dktilled from these by dwellers along the mountain 
— ^in fact, during the late war, one man made 
11,000 gallons in one season. Recalling what was 
said of the topography of this range, it will be 
seen that almost any aspect can be chosen for a 
vineyard; the soil has a special adaption to the 
vine, the latitude — that of France — gives length 
of season, while the elevation, above the ** frost 
line** of the valleys, secures the maturity of 
the grape — an indispensable requisite for the pro- 
duction of good wine. Numerous vineyards are 
now in suocessfid operation ; at Belmont, near 
Front Royal, is one, covering some seventy-five 
acres, that has now an annual yield of 20,000 
gallons of wine, the pure juice of the grape, and 
10,000 gallons of brandy, the viues that are in full 
bearing yielding from 300 to 500 gallons of wine 
to the acre. The grapes are notably rich in 
saccharine matter, and diseases of the vine are 
tmknown. Nearly a million acres here are adapted 
to this culture, and offer a pleasant and profitable 
field, and a virgin soil in a most genial climate for 
this leading industry. 

This section has also an established reputation 
as a fruit-producing one, — its apples, pears, peaches, 
and other temperate climate fruits attain a 
flavour and perfection rarely equalled elsewhere ; 
its Albemarle pippins commana prices that have 
induced the planting of large orchards of that 
single variety. It is no uncommon thing for 600 
bushels to be gathered from an acre, and an 
English eighteen pence per bushel would yield a 
large profit to the orchardist. The day is not 
distant when Blue Ridge apples will form a staple 
article of export to Europe, and one of the greatest 
blessings that can be conferred upon any people is 
an abundance of cheap fruits to take the plaoe of 
atimulating drinks. Four railways and two canals 



now pass idirough or over the Blue Rid^pe, 
oti^rs are in progress, making all parts 
accessible. The great convulsion ol nature 
cracked the Appalachian mountain system, thn 
opened a channel for New River and its cont 
tion, the Great Kanawha, depressed the n 
eastern part of that system, and sunk the At 
plain ; so that New York is near the foot < 
Blue Bidge, and the real shore of the ocean is < 
sea a hundred miles ; ihis convulsion disturbs 
levels, and made water-sheds in the valleys ; i 
find l^e higher drainage ridge of the At 
slope beyond or west of the Blue Ridge ; an 
Potomac, the James and the Roanoke, that r 
that higher range, and in the Virginia V 
break through the Blue Ridge to reach the w\ 
New River and the head waters of the Tci 
run to the westward ; still the Blue Ridge 
rise to many fine rivers. 

The expansion of the Blue Ridge in the 94 
west, as before stated, gives some 2,000 m 
miles, divided into three counties, that cont^ 
in 1860, a population of 24,500, of which 
1,380 were blacks. In 1870, the populatian 
28,558, an increase of 17 per cent. This sj 
population had improved or cleared but 
eighth of the country, and that had on^ 
average value of 6 dollars per acre. A gUn 
some of the results of this people's industry 
give a good idea of the agricultural resourc 
the Blue Ridge. They had 5,000 horses, 2^ 
cattle, 30,000 sheep, and 37,000 swine, valo^ 
three-fourths of a million dollars. The c« 
raised were 880,000 bushels (peculiar in 
28,000 bushels were buckwheat, snowing the e 
tion of t^e region). The tobacco produced 
455,000 pounds ; 34,000 bushels of Irish and J 
of sweet potatoes ; the wool clipped was 56,000 
the orchard products were worth 30,000 dd 
the butter produced was 260,000 and the d 
15,000 pounds ; the hay crop for the 85,000 
of stock was only 9,000 tons fa striking comi 
on the mildness of the cUmate) ; 32,000 ponn 
flax and 3,000 bushels of flax seed ; 800 galloi 
molasses, and thousands of pounds of sugar 
the maple ( 4cer saccharinum) ; 30,000 poun 
honey; the value of domestic manufactures, 
results of the home spinning-wheel and li 
62.000 dollars ; and the animals slaughterpd 
worth 190,000 dollars, not to mention the ] 
beans, barley, clover, and grass seeds, hops, h 
wine, and other productions credited to the 
the census. It will be readily seen that there 
here a large surplus over the wants of the pe^ 
a great and cheap production per capitt. It 
been successfully proven that in no portion of 
United States, except distant Texas, can cattl 
as cheaply reared as in this section, where \ 
are less than two days by rail from the sea. 

The mineral wealth of the Blue Ridge is g1 
and destined to be quite important, from it8 n 
ness to the sea-board. In tiie ranges of foot 1 
lying along the western base of these mowxU 
the whole 300 or more miles of their lengthi 
found very extensive deposits of brown hemi 
iron ores of the beat character, giving from 6 
65 per cont. of metallic iron in the yield of 
furnace. It is not correct to say that these de^ 
are continuous, and yet they have been so rc^ 
found, when sought after, as almost to justifT 
use of that term« In some places they «i^ ^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, FEBanABT 21, 1873 



243 



bned in the JthriM of the mountain ; at others 
Ihey ihow themselTos afl interstratified masses, 
WDianaing far Umg distances to the formations of 
Ae diithci, as near where New BiTer leaves the 
ttdgt, ai Radford Fomaoe, where the stratum is 
«pcr airtj feet in thickness, while at other places 
Ife oiv, XB a soft state, forms hill-like masses, as 
it th» Shenandoah Ironworks, in Rockingham. At 
oac (Jaoe in Bockbrid^, where the stratification 
if aearij votieal, stiikmg with the momitain, this 
on appean as a hard central stratum, forming 
Ife ocft of a spur more than 600 feet above its 
Ittt. The western flank of the table-land in the 
watk-frest is known as the Iron Mountain, from 
ifeqiaantitj of this ore there exposed. There are 
HBiiiuus niznaeea bow in blast, and others are 
kia^ bwh, akn^ the line of these deposits, 
t m httg cfaarooal iron of a high charact^, such as 
aov readilj commands 60 dollars a ton in the 
Gntad States, using the timber of the Blue Badge 
iv iaeL One of these had a yield of 65 per cent, 
if iroa from Hie ore put into the furnace in the 
IBB of aaeason. 

Betveea ibeae hanatite ores and the main ridge 
■ toood a massive and somewhat persistent deposit 
if ipM&lar ironstone, yi^ding from 20 to 30 per 
of BetaiHc iron ; this had not attracted any 
until lately, when it has been advanta- 
naed^ mixed with the richer hematites, as 
it MooBt Tozrey fnmaoe, in Augusta. 

h the primary rocks of the Blue Bidge there is 
vcryvbcro a very considerable quantity of copper 
*• of good quality. At a point near Luray this 
4N WW milled and sent to Connecticut, at one 
fiav vith aatisfiactory results. Prom the fact 
Hit the Ducktown oopper mines, in this ridge in 
^■leawe have been successfully worked, it is pro- 
JjUe that like valuable ones may be opened in 



b the flame ranges of hills, with or near the 
^Bacite ores, are important beds of manganese of 
■|i exodfent quality, as has been proven by the 

eohtaiiied for considerable quantities of it that 
been sent to Europe from points near the 



Ob the dopes and at the foot of these hills are 
MBorooB deposita of fire-clay. At one place, in 
^ ^g w ta, this kaolin is used in the manufacture of 
ttpiad quality of Boddn^iam ware. The demand 
vin-biicka will soon be so great in that region 
te it Boat lead to a larg^ use of these abundant 

_ne disintegration of the fine-grained and 
l%Uj-flili(aoB8 Potsdam sandstone has formed 
of the finest and sharpest pure sand in the 
of the western slope, well adapted for use 



csr, 



b (he Bouth-weet, beyond New Biver, in Wythe, 
^ootiyiiig western ranges of the Blue Bidge con- 
^ nfaBsive deposits of lead and zinc ores, pro- 
^Md by competent authority to be of the best 
^^' Lsad mines have ^eaje been worked for 
IM than a hundred years with great profit, but 
ysiD aMM as extensively as the oluaucter of the 
^viti will justifx* Some two million pounds 
I^Wm were produced there daring the late 
^ Ks use has been made of the zinc ore, 
tilers aeema to be no doubt of its richness 




aonts mineral deposits an the eastern 
but, from what has been staled, 



it may be concluded that its summits and eastern 
slopes are especially adapted to tillage, pasturage, 
and the cultivation of fruits, while the western 
slope abounds in mineral resources favourably 
situated for mining and manufacture. 

It is proper to add that the Blue Bidge and its 
slopes mark the gen^:al boundary, with some ex- 
ceptions, southward, of the natiu^ sod-forming 
nutritious grasses — ^the grasses that belong to com- 
paratively cool climates, such as are the pride and 
the unfailing sources of fertility and wealth to 
these United Kingdoms. East of the Piedmont the 
grasses must be constantly renewed by cultivation, 
and then they yield abundantly. 

The Valley of ViEGnaA. 

West of the Blue Bidge lies the Valley of 
Virginia, 320 miles in leng&, and averaging 25 in 
width ; it is the central porticm of what is known 
as the great Appalachian valley, a belt of Silurian 
limestcme land, extending for 1,500 miles from 
the St. Lawrence to the Alabama, famed for its 
fertility and for the surpassing beauty of its 
scenery. The Virginia VaUey is better known by 
the names of its sub-divisions, as the Shenandoah, 
James, Boanoke, New Biver, and Holston valleys, 
which succeed each other, in the order given, from 
the Potomac or Maryland line, in the north-east, 
the boundary of Tennessee, in the south-west. 

The whole Valley is longer than the distance from 
London to the northern extremity of England, 
and its five million acres of land could be divided 
into moi^ than 29 counties the size of your famous 
Middlesex. 

Banges of remarkably long, straight, narrow, 
and steep mountains, parallel and standing in 
edielon, form the western boundary of the V^ey, 
having various local names, as the Little North, 
Walker's Cbnch, &c., but known by the general 
term of Kitatinny, the Indian name, meaning *Hhe 
Endless," from tiie appearance of the ranges when 
viewed from a distance. 

The Valley, as the result of a combination of 
river basins, is composed of a series of ascending 
and descending planes, rising from levels of from 
600 to 1,000 feet to those of 2,000 or 2,500. These 
slopes are dther north-east or south-west, but the 
whole Valley has a very decided inclination, besides, 
to tiie south-east, the western edge being generally 
500 or 600 feet higher than the eastern ; it follows 
from these data that the streams, obeying two forces, 
fiow eastwardly, and their united waters find a 
channel at the very western bases of the mountains 
until they can force a passage through them. A 
moment's reflection will suggest that a country 
arranged as t-.hJM is, and havmg an ample water 
supply, must furnish a wealth of water power 
almost beyond estimate, and drainage and irrigat- 
ing resources that leave nothing to be desired. It 
is well to add that the comrses of the streams, like 
all those in limestone coimtries, are very winding, 
in some cases five times the length of the air line 
distance from source to mouth. This distributes 
the fall of the water through longer reaches, and 
presents it to more of the country. 

The rocks of the Valley are those of the Lower 
and Upper Silurian —blue and grev limestones, 
slates, shales, and sandstones — the first layers of 
deposition in i^e sea that had its eastern shores at 
the Blue Bidge, a sea that had ** life abundantly,*' 
uid has left, among other lenudns, ita great oortl 



214 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Fbbruabt 21, 1873. 



reefs to form belts of land of unrivalled fertility. 
These rocks do not present themselves as a hori- 
zontal plane, or a sloping one to the west, but they 
have been forced up until they stand at an angle 
of some 45*", dipping generally each way from the 
middle of the valley as an anticlinal, and present- 
ing their edges in Imes of strike extending north- 
east and south-west, often unbroken for miles. 
UX)on these upturned drain slopes are the deep clay 
and other rich soils. The result of the conviusions 
that have upheaved these rocks is a broken and 
undulating country^ — a great valley, as a whole, when 
looked down upon, but a great number of vaUeys 
when considered in detail. Time forbids entering 
into the particulars of the bold and j)ecidiar topo- 
graphy of this pleasant region. 

The average elevation of the Valley is not greater 
than that of the plain that forms a large part of 
the state of Ohio. At the same time, its mountain 
boundaries guard it from the fierce winds that 
sweep over the west, leaving death behind them, 
and brei^ the force of the (mill ocean winds from 
the east. 

As before stated, the Virginia Valley contains 
some five million acres of land ; 1,700,000 of these 
•re improved, or cleared, and in grass or under 
cultivation, and 1,800,000 more are embraced in 
farms, so barely one-third of the country is under 
any kind of cultivation. These lands in farms 
were valued at 73 million dollars, or about 20| 
dollars per acre. The white population was 
174,190; the black, 43,200; in ^, 221,350, or 
about 28 to the square mile. In 1870, the white 
population had increased five per cent., and the 
black decreased over eight per cent., giving 
226,080 as the population (the decade having 
embraced the four years* war, during which the 
Valley was the field of active operations). 

The census returns, dry figures, give the only 
evidence that is conclusive as to the productive 
capacity and resourees of this region : — 1,700,000 
acres, the area of Lincolnshire, under cultivation, 
with 221,350 inhabitants, using agricultural imple- 
ments worth seven millions, one-tenth of the 
value of all their lands, reu^ 58,000 horses, 2,000 
mules, 49,000 milch cows, 3,500 working oxen, 
101,000 other cattle, 139,000 sheep, 254,000 swine, 
606,500 in all, valued at eight million dollars, while 
the animals slaughtered were worth 1,850,000 dols. 
The clip of wool was half a million pounds, and 
the flax reared 66,000, and from these the domestic 
manufactures were worth a quarter of a million 
dollars. The crop of cereals — ^wheat, Indian com, 
rye, oats, and buck-wheat — ^was eleven million 
bushels, 3| of it wheat and 5^ com. The potato 
crop (Irish and sweet), 370,000 bushels ; orchard 
products were worth 115,000 dollars. The butter 
produced was 2f million pounds, and the cheese 
80,000; hay, 120,000 tons; clover seed, 27,000 
bushels ; grass seed, 25,000 ; maple sugar, 55,000 
pounds; and molasses, 13,000 gallons; honey, 
171,000; and tobacco, 3,000,000 pounds (although 
the people of this section are averse to the cultiva- 
tion of •* the weed *'). It would weary to give the 
production of wax, sorghum, silk, hemp, hops, 
garden products, wine, barley, peas, beans, cotton, 
and other items that make up the 48 columns of 
the census returns and present handsome show- 
ings for the valley, proving its adaptation to a 

•de rwige of varied agricultural production. 
\ 1-142 of the population of the United State* 



it had 1-107 of the horses, 1-174 of the cows, 
1-146 of the other cattle, 1-156 of sheep, 1-132 of 
swine, 1-135 of value of stock, raised 1-57 of the 
wheat, 1-152 of the com, 1-115 of oats, 1-145 of 
tobacco, 1-190 of orchard products, 1-120 of wool, 
1-167 of butter, 1-158 of hay, 1-35 of clover seed, 
and 1-112 of value of animals slaughtered, and 
had 1-95 of land in cultivation, with 1-91 of the 
value of farms. 

This was the balance-sheet of agricultural pro- 
duction in the VaUey — a surplus for more than two 
million people — ^when the great war began ; and 
I hope you will pardon me for the long detail, as 
it wOl enable you to understand whv it was called 
the ** backbone of the Confederacy, why ** Stone- 
wall*' Jackson had opportunity to make it and him- 
self famous for ever ; and why an order was issued 
to lay it waste, so that a crow flying over it must 
carry his haversack. 

The mineral wealth spoken of in connection with 
the Blue Kidge, along its western flanks, belongs 
as well to the Valley — for the approaches to, and 
outlets from, its mines, are into the Valley, and its 
motive power and agricultural resources will bo 
used in their exploitation. 

Limestone, as before stated, forms the basis of 
the VaUey. Of this there are many varieties to be 
found in the upturned strata of a formation several 
miles in thickness. There are dark marbles, 
hydraulic limestone for cement, fissile and flaggy 
for architectural purposes, and others that mause 
fine agricultural lime, or good stone for fluxing 
in the manufacture of iron. Since there is but 
little limestone, and that of an inferior quality, in 
the 175 miles between the Blue Ridge and the sea, 
there will always be a great demand for these lime- 
stones and their products in this large intervening 
territory. 

The edges of the great sand rocks that rise 
beyond the VaUey in long and almost unbroken 
ridges, like the crests of successive waves, outorop 
in tne Valley in broken fragments of rounded hills, 
or short, low ridges, but situated in lines ranging 
with the mountains ; sometimes they become great 
double ranges, rising in the Valley and dividing^ it 
into two parts, extending, like the Massanuiton 
in the Shenandoah Valley, for forty or fifty miles, 
and comparing in height and magnitude with the 
Blue Ridge itself. In the vicinity of these ranges of 
hills and in ** the doubles*' of the Valley mountains 
are found extensive deposits, or pockets, of brown 
hematite iron ores, generaUv soft or cellular in struc- 
ture, smelting r^dily and producing an iron of 
great tenacity. There are not less than four of these 
lines of pockets in the Valley in Augusta county, 
and the out-crops and fragments upon the surface 
indicate that they are general tliroughout the 
region. There have been some furnaces that have 
drawn their supplies from these ores, but the 
timber of the VaUey has been too valuable to use 
for such purposes. Now that coal is accessible, 
these very fine and rich ores wiU attract attention. 
The clays of the VaUey, almost everywhere, make 
fine hard bricks of a dark colour, owing to the 
presence of so much iron in them. 

In the vicinity of these ore beds are found 
valuable deposits of umber, and considerable 
quantities of it have been used in the manufacture 
of paints. 

There are found on the eastern side of the main 
Kitatinny mountain, thxoughout its extent^ de- 




JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, February 21, 1873. 



2I5 



iKb«d ud broken frngments of what some oall 
fat proto-carbomfenHis, and others the false ooal- 
Dfuares (overlying the old red sandstone it is 
kI]., tvoo^sfai into these topographical relations 
w a giest downthrow of the bigh^ formations, 
nase fragHwnti are generally of Sknall extent, as 
B AmgoBU^ yet they famish two or more seams 
i gooi spmiHtnthracite coal, but so disturbed and 
subtd u to be of little value. In the New River 
Ma is found, on the contrary, a very well- 
levr'luped ooal-field of this era, containing, among 
Atrx two rerj accessiblo seams of good coal, 
wrrin^ in thiclmess from two to three and a-half , 
m from dx to nine feet. The better part of the 
yd k tbou^t to be the thirty miles of the length 
rf it lying north of New River, in Montgomery 
•■aitT ; henoe the whole is often spoken of as the 
Mon t pnm tt y coal*field, but very good openings 
btv br«n made through 100 miles in length of a 
ax&t^hat narrow belt along the west side of the 
wUej. These ooals have only been used for 
4»Kftir purpoees, bxit the proximity of the great 
^MDktite iruB deposits, hereafter mentioned, must 
»*n Irt*! to their trial for manufacturing purposes. 
11«* pnjfitable area of this field may bo roughly 
^Htuked at 100 square miles. 

in Washington and Smyth counties, on the 
^rth fadt of Hoistaii river, are extensive beds, of 
ptM tbickn»s, of gypsum, or plaster of Paris, of 
^ bcrt character for agricultural and other 
l^^aw, nnd it ia much used as a fertiliser, 

TbUt apoQ the grass lands, 
the lame region are deposits of rock salt, that 
kwt bwn penetrated more than a himdred feet in 
*^" x: wlls to supply brine to the extensive 
■wki at Sahville. The annual production there 
»t*ty large, and the salt bears an excellent re- 
^■fetioiL Doriag the late war the larger portion 
•the islt used in tbe Confederacy for a long time 
■fc ftuamfactured at SaltviUe. The area of the salt 
Mi pltstcT field is unknown, enough is known, 
"^, to justify the belief that it is large. 
th» fomts of the valley are great park-like 
gWi of many kinds of oak, hickory, locust, 
■■at, and yellow pine, with chestnut upon the 
>^ lands, with little or no undergrowth, and the 
Apparently, of one great seeding, so uniform 
th* tret« in siae and height. The timber of 
■•tww is of a very superior qtM^ty for manu- 
■*fn»g junposes, and the traditional regard of 
Bftmhahiteiits for fcnests has kept more than half 
■ tk« vabiable farming lands in woods. When 
oonatiy was settled, tradition says it was an 
' pttine-Kke region, covered with tall grass, 
•^owiding in bufialoes, deer, and other game, 
^>it hnotiiig^ground of tiie Indians, which 
*"»tt»lly burnt over to keep down the growth 
■hw, and whieh they only parted wiSi after 
1 Uoody stmgglea. The white man kept down 
tree, and the roreets sprang up. He remem- 
the diiBoultieB he experienced in getting 
*ad timbsr from the distant ridges and 
and eheriihed the cn^ so bountifully 
1^ ^ the Qietit HvsbsndBian, and now, after 
P.Y*tti, few oountiies oan offar a finer harvestol 
*ovii timber. 

^•lisy is an extremely rich farming and 

venoQ, oovered with natural grasses, 

r wi bhie graw Ukat forms perennial 

*Md lor ttMBir ftettraing ^alitaes ; ita 

ahow that it is unsmpiMed lor tllMe 



purposes ; and lying as it does in the midst of great 
mineral wealth, it must soon have ample demands 
for its products. 

The climate of this Valley is the happy medium 
between the extremes of north and south, and may 
be characterised as the mild temperate. 

TiiE Appalachian Country. 

The Appalachian portion of the Virginias succeeds 
the Valley on the west. It is a belt of country 
over 360 miles long, varying in width from 20 to 
50 miles, having an area of over 13,000 square 
miles, or eight and a-half million acres, — one and 
three-eighths of a million more than great York- 
shire, or equal to a fourth of Scotland. This 
territory is about equally divided now between - 
Virginia and West Virginia. In general terms 
it may be described as a series of com- 
paratively narrow and long parallel valleys, 
separated by ranges of mountuins, as a rule 
equally parallel, long, and narrow, and of con- 
siderable elevation. In crossing some sections of 
this belt at right angles there would be found as 
many as twelve prominent ranges of mountains 
and valleys in a space of 50 miles, each valley 
watered by a very considerable river. More than 
half of this region is drained by tributaries of the 
Potomac and the Monongahela, flowing due north- 
east ; the other half by those of the James, New 
River, and the Tennessee, mostly flowing due south- 
west. 

The heads of the valleys are some 2,500 feet 
in elevation, and they descend to from 800 
to 1,500. The mountains, the repeated outcrops 
of the great waves of the upper Sihiriau 
and Devonian sandstones, are from 3,000 to 
4,000 feet in altitude, while the valleys, the 
denuded edges of the softer interstratificd lime- 
stones, slates, and shales, have a general height of 
1,500 feet. The elevation and arrangement of the 
mountain system secure to this region a constant 
8upi)ly of moistiu-e ; the character of the rocks, a 
soil of great natural fertility, especially where 
they are the soft and highly f ossilif erous limestones 
common to the formations here developed, while 
the depth and direction of the valleys guarantees 
a high, summer-day temperature. These given, 
nothing is wanting but cultivation to make sure 
ample grass, Indian com, and root crops, and for 
these the valleys of this region are famous, especially 
those of the South Branch of the Potomac and the 
Clinch and Powell's rivers. It has long been the 
beef-protluoing region of the eastern portion of the 
United States, and from it the best cattle are ob- 
tamed 

The population of the ten Virginia counties in 
thisbelt^s 68,600 in 1860, and 72,635 in 1870 ; that 
of the ten West Virginia counties was 73,836 and 
75,874, a total of 142,336 and 148,509 in the same 
years, a gain of some 4} per cent. The negro 
population of tho West Virginia portion of tho 
region was 7,631 in 1860, and 4,3u5 m 1870, a 
loss of neariy 43 per cent. Tho average to 
a square mile in 1860 was 20, but most of tho 
population is located at three centres, the oxtremo 
north-eastern and south-eastern parts, and on the 
waters of the Greenlwier branch of New Biver. 
south of the central portion, where the limestonr 
valleys are widened, and where highways have loy 
been opened; there are hundreds, almost thousai-** 
of square milee ut thie region, espeoiaUy c 



24G 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Febbuakt 21, 1873. 



head waters of Cheat and Greenbrier rivers, covered 
by dense unbroken forests of pine, black spruce, 
cheny, maple, hickory, and oak, where the 
traveller on the great turnpike roads built by 
Virginia across and through these mountains in 
all directions, will find but one or two clearings in 
a day*s ride. 

The great forests of the mountains of New York 
and Pennsylvania are rapidly disappearing (a single 
one of the counties of the latter state, no larger 
than these, having sent 500,000,000 feet to market 
last year, that was sold at an average rate of 20 
cents per cubic foot), so the day is not far distant, 
in this railway building age, when these great 
bodies of timber must come mto the market. It is 
no uncommon thing to find a hundred or more 
hickories, white oaks, tulip poplars, or wild cherries, 
upon an acre, each of which will exceed two feet in 
dmmeter, and afford a shaft of that size, without 
a branch or limb, of sound and merchantable 
timber 40 or 50 feet in length ; the pines and 
spruces wiU furnish longer ones.- 

The improved lands were 1,287,802 acres; the 
unimproved in farms 3,982,975, so only one-third 
of the 5^ million acres claimed to be in fcmns was 
cleared — a fact readily accounted for when the 
custom is known that tiiere prevails of fencing in 
forest land for grazing stock cattle, or claiming the ^ 
whole country as a range. In reality not more 
than one-eighth of the country is cleared. The \ 
average price of the land in farms was seven and 
three-quarter dollars per acre. 

The United States Patent-office, when the De- 
partment of Agriculture formed part of it, ascer- 
tained officially that a steer that at three years old 
cost 25 dols. in New York, 24 dols. in Ohio, 15 dols. 
in Illinois, and 12 dols. in Iowa, would only cost 
8 dols. in the mountain regions of Vii^nia. This 
shows the great advantage this region must have 
in rearing stock of all kinds, for the first cost is not 
half the average of the states named, while most 
of . them are from twice to four times as far from 
the great markets. 

The climate of the valleys of this region is a 
very agreeable one, and very favourable to the 
health of man and beast. The isotherm of 55 deg. 
passes diagonally across this region. At Lewis- 
burg, at an elevation of 1,800ft., Sie average of the 
spring months is 54 deg. Fahr., of the summer 
73 deg., the autumn 56 deg., and the winter 
35 deg., giving an annual mean of 65 deg., or 
about the same as Baltimore and St. Louis, and 
higher than that of Philadelphia or Cincinnati. 
These may be taken as fair means for the elevated 
valleys. The spring and winter winds at Lewis- 
burg are generally south and south-west. The 
rain-fall is from 32 to 36 inches in this section. 
The mortalitv statistics of 1850 show that the 
comparative deaths of this region are as 96 to 238 
in the Mississippi Valley proper, 125 in the New 
England States, 101 in the North- Western States, 
and 92 in California. It should be remembered, 
too, that the population of the Virginian moun- 
tains is an old and fixed one, while that of the 
west is constantly filled up with a picked people. 

Time forbids more than a elance at the produc- 
tions of the Appalachian region. It had in 1840 
over 608,000 head of live stock— four and a-half to 
T^ ^^® ^ i^ people— valued at seven million 
dollars. The cereals produced were over seven 

dlion bushels, or 50 bushels to eaoh inhabitaiit, 



at the same time large quantities of tobacco, Has, 
&c., were cultivated, and millions of feet of timber 
sent to market. 

General Sherman states that he made his w^- 
known march, with a great army, from the moan- 
tains of Tennessee to the Atlantic seaboard, without 
a commisariat, by having the census of 1860 in 
hand, and choosing his line of advance by it« state- 
ments of production. In like maimer large armiee,- 
in the early part of the late war, subsisted on the 
sparsely-settled vaUeys of these mountains, and 
constant supplies were drawn from these unfailing 
sources during its continuance. 

The mineral resources of the Appalachian bdt 
are very great, especially in iron ores of a superior 
quality, and favourably situated for mining. The 
ranges of mountains adjacent to the valley 
generally consist of a groat sand rock, that dips at 
a high angle to the eastward, forms that face of the 
mountains, and gives them a bold, sharp, and 
ragged crest line ; under this rock, on the wostem 
slope of these ridges, is a softer red shale or sand- 
stone dipping in the same direction, and thia is 
generally succeeded by a stratum of brown homatite 
iron ore from 20 to 50 feet or more in thickness, 
and extending to imknown depths, apparently 
coinciding in extent with the associated strata. 
The softer shales and sandstones between the 
crest of the mountain and the iron ore 
weather away and leave the iron ore exposed in 
many places as a series of knobs or shoulders ; on 
the western side of the mountain, at a somewhat 
lower level than its top, as the ore is softer than 
the 8€Uid-rock, so the mountain has a shallow 
trough, or ** double,** as the people of the country 
call it, along its summit, sometimes extending for 
miles, and furnishing a way for a road-bed. Some 
of these blufiis or knobs of iron ore are 25 or 30 ft. 
in height, and of large dimensions, as at Elizabeth 
Furnace, on the line of the recently opened Chesa- 
peake and Ohio railway. These peculiar features 
are repeated as often as the successive waves of the 
same formations come up, so there are sonietixne«( 
three or four parallel ranges not far apart, 
each bearing these valuable ores upon 
their backs, and indicating the rich burden, 
by the same topographical feature revealing the 
iron deposit to the eye as far as it can see the out- 
lines of the ranges. The limonite ores contain 
from 74 to 83 per cent, of sesquioxide of iron, and 
often from 1 to 10 per cent, of sesquioxide of 
manganese, adapting them well for use in tin'^ 
manufacture of iron or steel by Bessemer*s process. 
These ores are found both massive and porous, and 
sometimes decomposed into beds of great thickness, 
as a thoroughly pulverised mass, as at Longdale. 

In some of ttie valleys are found pockets of red 
hematite, and in the low limestone mils masses of 
brown hematite. It is difficult to conodve of the 
quantity of these superior ores that must exist in th ese 
long ranges of mountains, extending for hundreds of 
miles, or to estimate the importance and wealth they 
will give to Virginia now that they are made aoceaai^ 
ble by railway and are brou^t by the same means in 
communication with the great coal-field of the 
Kanawha basin. The iron now made hero in 
charcoal furnaces from these ores readily conunand^ 
the highest price in the market as car-wheel iron. 
Furnaces are in process of erection for 
iron with the splint and other coals from the fioli 
before mentioned* 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pebkuart 21, 1873. 



217 



to the iron ore is generally found a 
lUok itntom of good fire day, and this is suc- 
nded by a higUy fossiliferoas limestone, con- 
boiii^ to the dip of the other rocks, con- 
MB^ ninety- fonr per cent, of carbonate of 
hik Tfaii is a superior flux for use with 
li adjacent ores, and for burning into lime, 
thiiow loot hills lying west of the limestone are 
iMk tUtet, ooatainmg Bev&rol per cent, of petro- 
■B fwhidi, it has been suggested, mi^t be 
Bnea in some way) and aluminous shales, en- 
Imd^ sodnks of snlphuret of iron. These shales 
ic ued in some places in the manufacture of 
hoL 'Rm springs that flow from these various 
■Hnl itnta are strongly impregnated with their 
■pnties, and at interviab throughout the belt 
■dkalybeate, alum, sulphur, and other medicinal 
■nags held in high repute as remedial agents. 
■09 are many kinds of valuable building stones, 
tmt d than of great beauty, as the weU-known 
ieh brown Tennessee marble that abounds in the 
Mki«Dey. 

MiBf of the TaUeySy as before stated, are lime- 
hne, the rocks belonging to the Devonian and 
Wb-carbonifierous formations. All these are noted 
tor thnr fertility, and the limestones are the best 
i tbecr kinds for all purposes. 

fidt-v«Us have be^ bored, and some salt made 
b «nnl places in the south-west, in Mercer and 

iJb RNDe of the western ranges, especially the 

WW fafofcen one known as the Foor Valley Bidge, 

W^g jut east of the Great Conglomerate, uie 

M of the coal measures that forms the Cumber- 

pd Domtain, the boundary between Kentucky 

M Tirginia, and its extension as the Great Flat 

tod other mountains, is a very persistent 

of fossil red hematite iron ore, locally 

as dyestone, because sometimes used for 

Bg poxpoees. This stratum is conformable 

Bib-oanxnuferous rodcs, and is remarkable 

the fact that it extends from Alabama to 

Toik, from 1,200 to 1,500 miles. It is known 

fte latter state as Clinton ore, and is so highly 

' it is taken hundreds of miles to the Penn- 

famaoes. In the last-named state a seam 

k, e^t inches thick, is held to be very valuable. 

tetom of ore in Virginia is from 28 to 38 

I in thickness, and very fovourably situated 

WBiamig. Still little or no use has been made 

« ft» ai no railways have been completed to the 

jpoo w here it is exposed. No ore can be more 

•w^bly iitaated for manufacture, for it is not 

•» tbaa ima or five miles through the Cumber- 

■ll moontain to ihe Kentucky coal, and 

*jy g farther to the north-east this ore is 

Md on Qoe side of a narrow mountain and 

■••oal on the other, with water - gaps at 

2^ points between them. Large quantities 

^w are made in Tennessee from these ores, 

2"«tb«y yidd from 60 to 75 per cent, of metallic 

*^ tbiaoce is generally found as a solid stratum, 

M 1^ ^k colonr, and so full of fossil remains 

f|^jo<>klikeamere mass of encrinal and crinoidal 

r*™J% *be whole so soft in the quarry that it 

■■» cut into blocks or slabs with a saw, or hewn 

^ n axe; sometimes it resents itself as a 

or oolitio mass. The value of these 



QF*^dm8its is very great, and the interest 

^^^■lifijtud in these ores — (a late number of 

^^iRtf CM 2Vad^ J{0ot«i0, of London, states 



that English capitalists even are about to work 
the poorer seam in Pennsylvania) — ^must lead to 
their development, not only in the south-west but 
in the central parts of the region under considera- 
tion, where they are known to be well developed. 
Nitrous earth is abundant in the caves of this 
region, and quantities of saltpetre have been made. 

Teans- Appalachian Couotey. 

The remainder of the Virginias may be caUed 
the Trans- Appalachian country, although the term 
is not strictly correct, for this is really the western 
slope of the Appalachian region itself — ^tho descent 
from the outcrop of the Chreat Conglomerate, the 
base of the coal measures, to the trough of the 
Ohio river. Nearly the whole of this territory — a 
hundred miles in width from south-east to north- 
west, and averaging 175 miles in length from 
south-west to north-east, an area of 17,500 square 
miles (over 11 million acres) — ^is underlaid with 
coal ; it is carboniferous. The general elevation 
of the eastern mountain border is 2,500 feet ; that 
of the edges of the plateau along the Ohio about 
900 feet; uie Ohio itself, at the mouth of the Great 
Kanawha, is only 550 feet above tide at New 
Orleans, 1,800 miles distant by the Ohio and 
Mississippi. 

This Trans-Appalachian region can be best 
undesstood by regarding it as a great plane, 
inclined to westwi^ at a low angle, from which 
the diannels of the streams have been eroded to a 
great depth in forming canons, in many places a 
thousand feet deep, so that navigable waters 
penetrate to the very heart of the plateau, so most 
of the country is on a much higher level than the 
principal streams ; still, there are great bottoms — 
level alluvial lands — along the rivers, of wonderful 
fertility, walled in by the lofty escarpments of the 

Slateau, and having conditions of climate and pro- 
uction belonging to places many degrees farther 
south. All of this renon but about 1,000 square 
miles — ^the counties of Wise and Buchanan, in the 
south-western part of Virginia — is in West 
Virginia. The population of the Virginia portion 
was 7,301 in 1860, and 8,562 in 1870— a gainof 
over 17 per cent. The population of tiie West 
Virginia portion was 302,852 in 1860, and 367,140 
in 1870, a gain of over 21 per cent.; a rapid 
increase, but readily accounted for when it is 
known that during the decade petroleum and 
other great interests were developea. 

The negro population was 13,5;53 in 1860, and 
13,625 in 1870, a very small gain, but accounted 
for by the fact that the nep;roes had left the moun- 
tain region and gathered mto the towns along the 
Ohio. The negroes do not constitute l-25th of the- 
population. The average of population to the 
square mile was 22 in 1870. The negroes in the 
Virginia portion were 123 in 1860, and 115 in 1870. 
Tae improved lands were 1^ million, and the 
unimproved, in farms, 6 million acres, a total of 
7 1 millions, valued at 6} million dollars, an average 
of 8f dollars per acre. There were over 3 million 
acres not held in farms — ^wild lands, generally 
owned in large tracts for their undeveloped mineral 
or timber resources, so not more than one-sixth of 
this large territory is under cultivation, leaving 
enough unused to make ten counties the size of 
£^land*s Suffolk. 

The production of cereals was 10 million bushels. 
More wan half of this was Indiaii com, but the 



248 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, FKBBUAwr 21, 1873 



wheat, oats, buckwheat, and potato cax>ps were 
large. The average wae 33 bushels to the person. 
The live stock numbered 8q5,000» yalued at 8^ 
million dollars, giving 2 J animals to each indi- 
vidual. This section produced several Tnillion 
pounds of butter and cheese, large qnantitieB of 
tobacco, and tiiousaiids of gallons of wine. Its 
agricultural capacity is very great, and nowhere is 
the husbandman more fully rewarded by bountiful 
harvests of everjrthing that will grow in temperate 
climates, while domestic animals are reared witii 
but little expense, and thrive well. It is most 
favourably located between the great maricets of 
the east and the west. 

The mineral resources of the Trans- Appalachian 
region are very great. Especially is it rich in the 
abundance of cannel, splint, and bituminous coals, 
one or more of these vuieties being found under 
16,0(X) square miles of its territory. The great 
AppalacUan coal-field extends from northern 
Pennsylvania to northern Alabama, an irregular 
oval area, widest on the line of the Kanawha river, 
which crosses it at right angles. This part of the 
ooal field is one-quarter larger than the groat coal 
fields of the British Isles. 

On the eastern border the seams of the lower 
€oal measures are found, having an exposed 
aggregate thickness of some 50 feet in the gorge 
of New River — the line of the Chesapeake and 
Ohio Railway— a canon from 1,200 to 1,500 feet 
below the general level of the country. One of 
these seams is over six feet thick, furnishing a good 
coking coal; another seam of block coal is four and 
a-half feet thick. There are several other seams, 
three and four feet in thickness, furnishing bitu- 
minous coals of good quality. These seams have 
only a moderate inclination to the north-west, and 
axe all above the river and railroad level. These 
lower measures descend more rajudly than the 
rivers, and so pass beneath the water level some 
50 miles from their eastern outcrop. The strata of 
the upper coals come to the honaon as the mouth 
of New River is c^pproached, and not far b^ow the 
junction of that river with the Gauley to form the 
Great Kanawha. At Armstrong's Creek, a section 
in the 600 feet of bluff above the level of the 
Kanawha, shows 13 seams of coal varying in thick- 
ness from two and a-half to nine feet, with an 
aggregate of 61 feet. Below this place, at Cannel- 
ton, on the other side of the Kanawha, there are 
five seams of coal open, in the 1,300 feet of the 
face of the bluff, aggregating 29 feet. More than 
100 feet of stratified coal has been proved here. 
The seams vary from 8 to 14 feet in thickness, and 
embrace gas, shop, splint, and cannel varieties. 
The seam producing the cannel is doable, giving 4 
feet of cannel and 2| of splint coal. This cannel 
will yield 60 gallons of oil to the ton of 2,000 lbs, 
A section on Cabin Creek and vicinity, ten miles 
below Cannelton, by Prof. Ansted, gives 68 feet of 
coal, in some 13 seams, varying in thickness from 
2i to 11 feet; 22 feet of these seams are cannel 
and from 7 to 11 splint coal. At Campbell's Creek, 
still lower down the river, in the 400 feet of bktff, 
are 6 seams, from 4) to 6 feet thick, that famish 
2d leet of ooaL This ooalis peculiar in its fonna- 
tion. Near ClMty Court-house, on Blk river, the 
coal strata are from 4} to 11 feet thick, making 41 
feet of coal in the 600 feet of bluff ; 19 feet of the 
coal being splint amd 6 oannel. At the aonth of 
'oal-idv«r a stmtom ofooal, from 4 to 8 iMt ihi«k, 



is found at a depth of 300 feet : of ooune the oti&e^ 
seams are foond there also, but at greater depths* 
These may be considered fair samples of the sectioafl 
throughout this great coal-field, ample ena%i^k tu 
satisfy the wants of untold generatii»s, and ao ac- 
cessible as to require no special skill in miTiiTvy nor 
expenditure for drainage and ventilation. The 
Baltimore and Ohio Bailway, with its Parkersbnr^ 
and Wheeling arms and numerous brancshea, novi*! 
crosses the northern part of this field and opeats it; 
to markets. The Chesapeake and Ohio Hailvraj^ hnn 

iust crossed it in the south, where the Gr^st Miner 
las *' torn asunder the mountains,'* and mrell aawl 
wisely cut an open gangway, more than a thoiuiand 
feet deep, across the rich strata, exposed them tr» 
daylight, and at the same time made wAy for tbt- 
ra&road, at very low grades, tocarry this ''^ bottled 
simshine " to the great markets. The coals found 
here are used in making iron without coking, and 
the choice for any special purpose is very grest. 
the quality being unexceptionally good. 

On the Little Kanawha river are some of the 
most abundant oil wells in the country, and ndUiouK 
of gallons arc annually exported from thein. lu 
the same region is mined a solidified petrolciuu, &< 
it were, highly valued for the manufacture of 
lubricating oils. 

The salt-bearing rocks underlie this region, an<l 
these have been penetrated by artesian vrells at 
various points, especially on the navigable strewDas, 
and large quantises of salt manufacto*ed. On the 
Groat Kanawha, above Chaiieston, the capital of 
West Virginia, from two to three TnilHnai bashd^ 
of the very best salt are annually manufactoivd. 
One establishment, tiie Snow-hill, produeiz&g :< 
half -million bushels, draws a brine that giv^e« n 
bushel of salt to 45 gallons, from 9 wells fronx SOt) 
to 900 feet deep, and mines the coal to evapox^ate it 
from ihe hills that overlook the works. Biromini' 
is made from the waste at the same point. The 
iron ores peculiar to the coal meainres are found n 
all parts, and these, though yielding but 30 jter 
cent. — ^like most of the ores from which fSxi^tand 
manufaetm-es her seven Tnillion tons annually, tbt> 
half of the world's production — ^wiU undouhtlMih^- 
be utilised and worked with the 60 per ocart. or^ 
of the Appalachian b^. Fire-clays are also fountl 
in the coal region, and valuable building stone* at\> 
abundant, especially sandstones, having' ^rcat 
durability and yet easily wrought, adnunh]^- 
adapted to the construction of extensive worici:. 
Clays for brick-making abound, as w«ll as s^>od 
building and glass-making sands. 

Few countries surpass this in the qu an t i ty and 
quality of its timber. The original forests of birch, 
walnut, majde, white and yellow tulip>pc^dar, 
oaks, and some pines furnish trees of great siao «nd 
length, and perfectly soimd. There is an abund- 
ance of water-power, and alrea^ miltionf^ of feet 
are annually produced. It would, raquire a volume 
to give an adequate idea ol the resources of the 
Virginias and ii their availability in every ivny. 
It may be truthfully said there is no oouatrj that 
more nearly resembles in tkesa renwots the 
epitomieed world that is found in Gdeat "m-itisn. 



DISCUfifilOlT. 

Mr. Hyis darks satd it was hardly n^ec Mar yte look 
for a word of sympathy for Yirginia, h eo m iss 
oUiBsfy caansciei wtlh thia coantij a 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, February 21, 1873. 



249 



jIUMi villi SeotUnd was effected. That connection 
" ~ n loog^ u even to hare extended during the early 
of Um hiatoiy of the Sooit'ty, and in common with 
ODttnirt it reoeired the foetering ooansels of the 
of Arts. At that period Virginia more than once 
{lickims sdTocated within these walla, and by the 
of the Society. It might even be auid that at the 
when the eonnection between Virginia and thit* 
Mrr took place there was a greater amoant of sym- 
m iiith the rnose of independence here than there 
IB th« pforinces of America which established that 
jf^dmce. They sympathised with Virginia in every 
|vitndit was that feeling which had led English 
to inrot large soms fur the benefit of the State 
ThoieinTestments were still further increased 
bte war« by those who visited the country and saw 
MBiroBi of the land, and the character of its citizens. 
iKHty had beoi among the first to invest its funds 
bonds. So fiir as Virginia was concerned, 
I Ml it his doty, as the Secretary of the Council of 
feigB finadholders, and also as Secretary of the Com- 
h»ol Vir.intui fiondholdere, to say that the feelings 
Msfideoce wftt not disturbed at the present moment, 
^tkt Vii^'ma was in soch a position of financial 
that it Ttry much aff«)cted the possibility of any 
kings for file development of its re sources being 
bed in EngUod. Virginia must set her affairs in 
p Ufcre iht could apply to England for further as- 
■MS. It could scarcely be said that it was the fault 
^ovB dtixens that this had not been done, because 
iHVetnBent bad on various occasions come forward 
m op«9 uKrter of the just rights of Uie creditors, 
|letfao«fht the docnmenta and addresses which had 
littMished did great honour to that country. The 
'*^dae to the people of this country had not been 
tad iHbough decisions had been given by the 
in Tirginia in fivoor of the creditors, they had 
|ot the benefit of them, and at tho present 
l^'^fv vas a conference sitting at Richmond, 
the legislators and the creditors of 
<*tei whose decision might be announced by 
at toy mommt, offering a compromise. It 
dsty, he considered, nnder those circumstances, 
the ittmtion of Major Hotchkiss, as a repre- 
• of Virginia, to the state of the case, so that he 
pw opoo his fellow-citi£ens to taJce all the 
B<ceaiary to restore the position and reputation 
■>Bte. At the present time, no less than ten of 
J^lwra States, which had been precipitated into 
throiigb the late war, were more or lees scenes 
■nd the amount of money due whs pro- 
pat foffering. It was in Virginia that the 
*• of the people of this country had been most 
•»i therefore, they looked to that stato to set an 
' to the others. There were many people in 
^»^y interested in Virginia, who had the 
^enre to promote th« welfare of the country, 
» drrelop iu great reM>urce8. With regard to 
■"w, he looked forward to the day when it would 
*•« of the great ports. If that was to be dune, 
«J; be accompb'sned by Virginia upholding her 
TOQse credit was a capital beyond natural 
«nd wm greater than money. 

. "^^Mted, FJt.8., said it was nearly 20 years 
*I Sir" Virginia, and examined some of its 
"J/Jn««- The last speaker had referred to a eub- 
Jfttthe thought had better not be discussed, as it 
^ occupy a great deal of time and do no 
9^' He could speak personally and 
*^to the nature of the coal-fields alluded to, 
Wh^rfV^ ^* ^' ^ gTOHt»*st resources of mineral 
l^t' '^^Wniijand one which would no doubt prove 
Ifci^'*" the most important of all. They might 
s^W notion of the real value of this coal-field bv 
?2*Pin»on between Virginia and England, 



¥^ 



Mii g^*^J^? ^y the aame size. In Virginia the 
I ^^■■iiiluil tcroai the country ftom north-east ' 



to south-west, — as if two-thirds of England were one 
coal-field, — the coal not being difficult to work, involving 
very few mechanical difficulties with water, and 
scarcely any danger from explosions. The communi- 
cations by railway were quite equal to those of 
England. It was true the coal-fields did not come 
actually to the coast, but they reached almost to the Ohio ' 
and thu Missisifippi. and he felt sure that the Mississippi 
itself would ultimately be as great a highway for America 
as the Atlantic was for Englnnd. There being easy com- 
munication with the AtlHutic coast, he did not think it 
was too much to expect that in course of time Virginia 
would send over coals to England if the labour question 
remained as it then existed. At the present time they 
exported coal largely from Newcastle, from the neigh- 
bourhood of Liverpool, and South Wales, and he saw no 
reason why some of the great Appalachian coal-fields 
should not export co^ with equal convenience to Europe 
as we did to New York. For a very long time past the 
whole of the gas burnt in New York had been made of 

(English coal, notwithstHuding the facility they had for 
getting it from their own country ; but if the price in- 
^ creased much more they would have to use their own. 
As to the existence of coal in Virginia there could be no 
question, but it had never been properly worked ; indeed, 
there was no coal-field which was more important, and,, 
although there were places where the seams were thicker, 
there were none where they were more accessible or of 
a better quality ; and he did not think it was alwayt 
the case that the thickest seams were the most 
valuable. The coal-fields in the Appalachian range 
were nearly all horiaontal, intersected by convenient 
valleys, and could be worked from numerous points at 
the same time with ease, and might be looked upon as 
inexhaustible. As soon as they were opened up, the 
country would be in a position to put themselves oefore 
the world in such a way that all recollection of the past 
misdeeds, referred to by Mr. Hyde Clarke, would be 
entirely forgotten. Virginiii was also rich in iron fields 
of every variety and quality, and he saw no reason 
whatever why, if the same amount of energy and in- 
telligence wore applied to the manufacture of iron as in 
England, Virginia should not take precedence, in the 
present state of tho labour market, m that important 
manufacture. Something of this kind must inevitably 
take place, unless things were altered, of which he saw 
no chance ; and in this respect Virginia had the chance 
of being one of the most important states of Amerii^, and 
one of uie wealthiest countries in the world; for, although 
up to a comparatively recent kind it had been neglected, 
there was no roason for it so far as the physical condi- 
tion of the country was concerned. No country had 
greater resources of wealth ; for besides coal and iron 
Uiere were other minerals, gold having been obtained 
in many districts with advantage, and it was certainly 
not yet exhausted. There was also copper, limestone, 
marble, salt, and other earthly minerals, which he 
would not allude to. With all these advantages, ho 
looked forward to Virginia being one of the countries of 
the future, and he was happy in being able to lend what 
Hssistance he could in pointing out these matters, because 
he had visited it at a time when it was much less 
populous than it was now, and had foreseen that when 
the coal was worked it must rise in importance. 

Mr. Thos. Sopwith, F.B.8., desired to draw attention 
to the maps by which the paper had been illustrated. 
The large map of Virginia, showing topographical 
features, was quite a model of its kind, and some smaller 
maps which he had seen, also by Major Hotchkiss, one 
only of which had been engraved and published, were 
of the same excellent character. Some years ago he 
had occasion to make himself acquainted with the Vir- 
ginia coal fields, and the information which then reached 
him entirely accorded with what had now been stated. 

Mr. Ohristopher Cooke asked whst was the climate of 
Virginia, as he had heard it stated, though he believed 



250 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pebruart 21, 1878 



erroneouely, that it was unhealthy; also if there was a 
g< cd system of landed property, with registration of 
title. 

Mr. J. Bowron (Newcastle) said that two years ago 
he spent some months in Virginia, more particului ly for 
the purpose of investigating its min<*rMl resourct-a, ^^^ 
he could concur in all the remarks of Professor Annted. 
There was no douht of the regularity of the coal -fields 
throughout the whole of Western Virginia, while the 
country was so intersected with valleys that it whs very 
easy indeed to open up at any point coal seams which 
could be readily identi6ed with the same seams occurring 
20 or 30 milfs o£f. He himself followed one seam a long 
distance, and its regularity he could hardly have 
believed if he had not traced it On approaching the 
Appalachian region he found such immense deponits of 
by d rated hematite ore as he had nHver seen elsewhere, 
though he was familiar with deposits of a similar kind 
in Cumberland and also in Spain. Besides these 
resources, the capability of Virginia as a paper-producing 
country were greater than he believni existed any- 
where else. It had the materials at hand for pro- 
ducing those chemicals for which, at present, America 
depended mainly on England, being well supplied with I 
metallic sulphurets, salt, limestone posst^ssing 98 per ' 
cent, of carbonate of lime, manganese, pure water, >ind 
coa), and having these, it could not Lick anything for 
chemical manufactures ; and it possessed b» udes such a 
growth of non-resinous trees and plants, suirHble f*>r the 
manufacture of paper, that he had no h«'Mtation in say- 
ing that the one state alone could easily supply piper 
for the whole of the civilised world. 

Mr. Vewton said he had twice recently visited Virginia 
and Wt'stem Virginia, for the purpose of ascertaining its 
suitability as a colony for English agrirultunHts. Ho 
found that the land was richer than in England, and the 
climate better ; land could be bought for little m-Te than 
one year's rent in this country ; every crop (hit would 
grow here might be cultivated ther**, and some especial 
ones besides; there were as good markets, and every 
necessary could be obtained at a lower pric^ In fict, 
all that an a nglish farmer wanted whs a little capital to 
start with, and he could not fail of doing well there. 

Mr. Stheridge, F.B.8., referring to the recent 
statement of Sir William Armstrong, that und^r 
the present prices of coal England was paying wh it 
was equivalent to an annutl tax of £45.000,000 
on that article, drew special attention to the rich 
mineral resources of Virginia, and exnressed his 
opinion that unless some solution of the diffi rulty could 
be found at home — and there whs no absolute ncr^essity 
for such famine prices, s»^eing that at the present rate of 
consumption our own coal-fields would not be exhausted 
in less than 600 ywirs — Virginia would, at no distant d ite, 
be found supplying the whulo world with coal Hnd iron. 
He recommended everyone who was int^^reated in the 
coal question — and very few were not in these days — to 
peruse the Report of the Royal Commisjiion on Coal 
supply, which would be found very instructivH ; and 
tniDtod that something would be done before long to 
bring about a moro satisfactory state of things in the 
labour market. 

Colonel Montgomery 'TT.S. A.), 8«id the mineral resources 
of Virginia did not lie wholly ia the future, for at the 
presf^nt moment negotiations were g' ing on for the 
supply of Virgini in coal in the London market, as well 
as to France and Belgium. Virginia could contract to 
deliver coal in London at 20 per cent, under present 
prices, and still retain a profit of 20 per cent. AH that 
was required was a little English capit •!, Hnd he had no 
doubt this would bd forthcoming, to the great advantage 
of both countries. 

A Gentleman inquired if an EngHshman could hold 
land in Virginia. 



The Chairaan said he could }«nsw(r that qafStko 
in the hflfimiative, as fisr as regan^s Viiginia. In W«it 
Virginia it was necetisary lor for^gneis to hold Is&dfl 
through a trustee. 

Miger Hetehkisi^ in replying to the vsrioot ohser?«- 
tionsand queittions, SNid it was as imposdhle to give sn 
exhaustive account of Virginia in an hour Msit would Iw 
to do HO with regard to England in the Mme time. 
As to the public debt, he would simply my tbat the 
population of Virginia c<•n^i8ted of 600.000 bUcka and 
700,000 whit<4, and 600 000 of the hitter were un* 
doubt^^ly in fHVour of paying the interest not only upon 
two-thinls of its bond debt, but upon the whole if need be. 
And the voice of the people would make itself heard. 
The Courts hxd deiided that cooponi should be 
received for taxes, Hnd the state had bucked 
out of its false position, and effaced from the statute 
book the law which said that, should not be. 
A eonferenee was now being held between the bond- 
holders and the reprt-sentadves of the state, for the 
purpose of settling, not the terms, but the time of pay* 
ment. The last census of the United States had with it 
a map of wealth, showing in golden fiitures the wealth 
of its people. Golden streuks stretched acn«8 from New 
York to the Mississippi, and Chicago, and St Louis, and 
Cnlifomia. but the southern portion of the country was 
represented by a tabula rasn ; fnr diff«*rent, how«vi^,w»l 
the eensus of 1860. nor would it bear the tanie appear* 
ance in 1880. Vir^jrnia had been called " a neglected 
state," but it was not so in 1860. There was no Und 
the sun shone upon which poured into the lapeof iti 
people sueh abundam-e of wealth. It had no need 
to look abroad for people to occupy it; it w»8 self- 
supplyinif and Pelfsup|iorting by means of iia own 
agriculture. When that was swept away by the war- 
its present capital was destroyed, but there still remained 
its magnificent mineral rniioiiTces and prolific soil aa the 
bHsis upon which to rebuild. Already in one of the 
centre counties of tho Valh^y, whii-h was literally e««P* 
with the broom of destruction — the torch h»ving been 
applied to every manufaetory, n»ill, granary, iind even 
to many of the dwellinur-houses— the travi?ller mifiht 
p«ss throujfh it withtiut fin ling a trace of the war. IW 
peitple, with their own unaided hands, had recuperated 
and r«^Btored it and were now beginning to lay arid* 
their earningf) to pay th^-ir debts. The same sentiment! 
whiih prevailed in Ens^Lmd swayed the hearta oi 
the Virsrinians, and befoie long, he would TentuiJ 
to pre^iirt that she would be rest*»rO'l to fnl 
credit in the commercial world. The developmen^ 
of manufa^ttures in one district h«d already doubla 
the amount of taxable property, and the same won* 
hippen elsewhere. It was said to be a good thinj 
in any country to own th»» species of propert\ which wj 
held by the m ijority. Unforturmtt'ly, in Virginia tfl 
majority held land, and they disliked levying a taxupO 
it, 8 1 that at present th« tax was not more than one- half p< 
cent, from that source, but that would bo in^'reased 
necessary to meet the demands of the state. Still, as n 
hnd said, the amount of taxes had doubled in one count 
through the develt>pinent of manufactures, and by thl 
m^ans the interest on the Ivmds and all other cUw 
would be paid. That this view was held by the pnbl 
appeared from the fat^t that members of the present legi 
laturo. which would expire next May, had bt-en "^J^ 
as uu worthy stewards, when recently candidates for offic 
on account of the rannner in which they had dischirg< 
th.* truat before confided to them. With regard to holj 
ing land, a law had betn pisaetl placing foreinnwe CO tl 
same footing in this respect as citizens, and it was « 
I p^'Cted that the law of We«t«'m Virginia would be assm 
i lat« d to it ; but in the latter state foreian Undowae 
were put on the sime footing as resident foreigners. Tl 
' question of climate was fully dealt with in the pap< 
thoUi<h, from want of time, he had omitt»l reading 
It was a healthy country, and its people were heelthy 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, FKeauARY 21, 1873. 



251 



tbi HMi m Eagluhm«Q. Troe, the lover oountry 

■ a p«rt of the year raihar unhetithy Ut per^ans 

bnterwi tkere, if f>tvuur«ble looations 

me i^e\:Cai, awAj tr<jm the swiunpa »ni milariouti 

Bcl^ thi*re was nothing to compl tin nf. Tnrough 

Ifce «^(U% Piadmont^ anl the v^llHy and ojoun* 

liijM, the clifnatQ wouli coiopare wiih thnt 

ooaaUy in the wurid. If time hftd permitted. 

hare liked to sty somt^thing ahoat the 

pasition u£ Vir^nii, but he would con- 

hifiatf to meutioniaf^ the rrtilwny svtstem. The 

o( aloKMl eT<)ry portion ttf th^ United Stites 

Ikk4i place a* the result of devtdopint^ through line:) 

•Ay; azMl Virj^nia embirk'd in ihi-* euterpiisH 

A after railwaya were iavtontad ; iad^ed, some of 

ri d e i t line* in the world w»'r«; to he found thHr**. 

Vu^^iaiins h.id now nionvth in 1,300 mile:* of rr>m< 

nflwfty, aa shown on the lar^e mnp, there beio^ 

duui three distinct lint'S of i-oinmunicHti»n Mcro^is 

itm ttwn east to west, beaideji bnuieht^ intersect* 

■d thf mineral resourt^rt ut right angles he m^^n- 

be^ii^ other liites running north and south. 

cihpTt wtffo in couTHo of c »n:*tru«*ii »a, in f lot, the 

f kiiL;* were having a fight there, and when th(»y 

^MBe, the state would be ts the Almighty int^n le I 

be, one of the most flourishing countries in the 



laul. 



„ ia proposing a rote of th-mks to 
■far Uotchkiaa, said he had rect'Otly visited Virginia, 
iI«MM re«dily endonte m11 that had bet»n said as to its 
feBMSiAstaral adranbiges. 



It t^ close of the meeting a model of an improved 
for lowering an I floating ships* bo its at st-a, 
fkawQ ani dea^'ribrt-l by the invent- »r, G. E. 
M.D., foroierlv A-^siit mt-Sargeon, H.N". The 
▼ill bo found at pag« 253. 



The second meeting of the Sub-Committee on a 
Colonial Court in connt'ction with the current series 
of Annual International Exhibitions in London, was 
hell 14th Fe»iruary, at the Royal Commissioners' Office, 
Gore-lodge. South K'^nsington. The Right Honourable 
liugh C. E. Childers occupied the diair. 

The Permanent Fine Arts Committee held its second 
meftmj'', at the Albert- hall, on Saturday, the 15th of 
Februiry. The following gentlemen attende<l : — Mr. 
8. Addintrtm. Mr. T. O. B rlow, A R.A ; Mr. E. L. S. 
3'nzon, Mr. H. Bol(;kow, M.P. ; Mr. F. Cosens, Mr. B. 
D.>bree, Mr. H. W. Eiton, M.P. ; Mr. C. Lucis, Mr. II. 
O'Neill, A.R A.', Mr. J. Pender, MP.; Mr. S. Red- 
trrve, Mr. J. Reiss, Mr. W. Smith, F.S.A. ; Mr. Charles 
W^irinif, Mr. W. Waring, and Mr. Kemp Welch. Mr. HL 
C.»le. C.B.. attended on behalf of her M«jesty*s Commis- 
sioners. It was resolved that, as the French Commission 
does not propmje to net this year, a special effort should 
be made to show the best French pictures possessed by 
English gentlemen. Sub-committees were formod for the 
representation of foreign paintings, specially those of 
French artists, for the represf»ntation of British oil 
puntinsfs, specially works by Phillip, R. A., and Cres- 
witk, R.A., and for the representation of British wator- 
colrmrs. The Committee decided to recommend that 
there should be no limit of date as to the execution of 
these works. 

The third meeting of the Committee appointed to pro- 
mote an adequate representation of French Art and 
Industry in the forthcoming International Exhibition, 
was held on S itnrday Jiftemoon. the 15th of February, 
at the Roy.il C »mou3sioners* Offices, Gore-lodge, South 
Kensinj^ton, at 4 p.m. M. P. Dutreil, of the French 
Embassy, occupied the chiir, and among the other 
members of the committee present were — MM. A, 
Casella, J. Lebeau, E. P. Lintilhac, C. Waring, &c. 



muL 



nrrsasATioNAL tOiOBiTioirs. 



of the OimT»iMion*»r8 are at "Upper K**n- 
Iji!Hiioo, W., Mij or- General Scott, C.B., 



first meetins^ of the C irnmittee for the exhibition 
ft. Spirits. Beer, an I other drinks, and r<*b uco, 
hdd at Gure-Iod^, K.»'nHington. on the 12Lh insr.. 
preaent — Lord Slv«duiersdale (in the ch lir), 
Hon. £. Drammonl, CmoooI C. Biring, Mr. J. 
F.R,3., F.SA. ; Mr. H. VI<ittheir4sen. Mr. 
Mr, C. U. Ktyser, and Mr. E. Chirring- 
Mr. Cjle, C.B., als«> attendel, and Mr. E. J. 
d'^ptttycom iiis-iionrtr, who acted as secret try. 
eaaunitt^ discu-ised the gen>^rd course to he pur-* 
Mfifestel certain arrangem^^nts f>r affording the 
iensry Ctcility of acquiring some knowledge of the 
ive prooeeees of manufa>-turc, formed themselves 
sob-committees, and then adjourned. 



The fourth meeting of the Committee on Surgical 
Itistrumeiits und ApiJiances took place on Monday, 17th 

I February, at the Itoyal Commissioners' Offices, Gore- 

, lodife, S.W. The members present were— Mr. CsBsar 
n. Hawkins, F.R.S. (in the chair), Dr. P. Allen, Mr. 
R. Bru lenell Carter, Uj-. W. White Cooper, Dr. H. J. 
Domville. C.B. ; Dr. Arthur F^rre, F.R.S. ; Mr. J. 

I Hilton, F.U.S. ; Mr. Liebr«ich, Mr. J. Luke, F.R.S. ; 

I Dr. A. G. M .ckay, Mr. J. Marshall, F.R.S. ; Mr. T. W. 
Nunn. Dr. W. S. Playfair, Mr. R. Quain, F.R.S. ; and 
Mr. E. S.unders. The committee, after trftnsacting the 
general business of the meeting, consilered the applica- 
tions, ra »re than sixty in numbtjr, which had already 
been received. They adjourned until Monday, the 17th 
March, tlie date uf receiving the goods being Tuesday, 

I the 11th March next. 

I The sixth meetinar of the Committee for Silk and 

I Velvet was held on Tuesday, the 18th Februtry, Sir D. 

Cooper, Burt., in th« chair. There were also oresent — 

Laly Dorothy Nevill, Mr. Blakely, Mr. D. Chadwick, 

t M.P. ; Mr. P. Graham, Mr, A- Lewis, Dr. Mann, Mr. 

C. A. Peters, anJ Mr. Tucker. 




ri 



favrth meeting of the committee for Ancient 

wm held on Fridity. the 14th February. There 

Qt Mr. C. Dmr\' F«»rtnum (ui the chdr) Mr. 

Mr. Franks, Mr. Mo^Mly, Mr. Sod-n Sinitb, 

Thompson. The c*«mmittee having considertfd 

moeived t** exhibit ancient sdks and 

that while English and French silks 

oaatnry arks well ntpresented, and Italian 

^ y eto are inrtiaily represented, th^re is no 

Ml of aacit9Qt silk-« and vulvHts from China 

(tctoatal oountritm, Spain. P irtugal, and 

•pecioeoj of the o4d Gk»noeaa velvet 




Her Majesty's Commissioners have resolved that the 
season tiokeis to the exhibition shall also give adcoisHion 
to the daily musie^l p.-rformances in the Royal Albert 
U .11. These will consist of concerts of a high sUndard, 
directed bv Mr. Barnby, Hud performances on the great 
orgtn by Mr. Best and Dr. Stainer. The tickets will 
be ready f -r sale on the Ist March, and will be issued at 
a guinea each. 

The following are the rules for the reception of British 
goods : — 

1. The entrances for the reoeptioa of goods will be as 
follows :— 1, east entranoe, in Exhibition-road ; 2, west 



252 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IBTY OP ARTS, Pkbruaby 21, 1873. 



entrance, in Prince Alberi's-road ; 3, south entrance, in 
Exhibition-roMd. 

2. All objects mast be delivered at the bnilding, at 
the entrances speciOed, and on the days named below: — 
Saturday, Ist March, and Monday, 3rd M^irch, class 1, 
paintings in oil and water colours, drawings, &c., west 
entranco; Tuesday, 4th MHrch, and Wednesday, 5th 
Miirch, class 2, sculpture,' east entrance ; Thursday, 6th 
March, class 7, reproductions, west entrance; Thursday, 
6th March, class 1, stained glass, west entrance; 
Thursday, 6th March, classoi 2 and 6, fine art furniture 
and all decorative work, west entrance ; Friday, 7th 
March, classes 2 und 6, fine art furniture and all decora*' 
tivo work, west entrance ; Friday, 7th March, class 12, 
substances used as food, wine, &c., tobacco, implements 
for drinking, and utensils for the table, east entrance; 
Friday, 7 th March, class 4, architectural designs, west 
entrance; SaturJay, 8th March, class 3, engravings, 
west entrance ; Saturday, 8th March, class 5, tapestries, 
west entrance ; S;iturd;iy, 8th March, class 12, cooking 
and its science, west entrance ; Monday, 10th March, 
class 12, cooking and its science, west entrance; Monday, 
10th March, class 9, steel, cutlery, and edge tools, west 
entrance; Tuesday, Uth March, class 10. surgical in- 
struments and appliances, east entrance; Tuesday, 11th 
March, machinery and raw materials, west entrance ; 
Wednesday, Tith March, scientific inventions, west 
entrance; Wednesday, 19th March, class 8, silk and 
velvet fabrics, &e., east entrance ; Monday, 1 7th April, 
class 11, carriages, south entrance. 

3. Ail objects must be delivered to the officers appointed 
to receive them, unpacked and ready for immediate in- 
spection, and free from all charges for carriage, &c. The 
only exception to this rule will be in the case of 
machinery, which may be sent in cases, but must be un- 
packed by exhibitors. 

4. Pafiking cases of exliibitors of machinery must be 
removed from the buildings as soon as the goods are un- 
packed. 

6. To every object a label, form No. 19 (for Fine Art, 
form No. 19a), must be securely attached. The number 
on this label must correspond with the number of the 
object in'first column of delivery order (see rule 6). 

(N.B. — It is recommended that labels be attached to 
objects by wire.) 

6. Drilivery orders (form No. 31), duly filled in, must 
be sent in with the exhibits. These forms must contain 
a complete list of all objects submitted for exhibition, 
and the numbers in the first column must correspond 
with the number on the labels (see rule 6). 

7. The doors will be opened at 8 a.m. daily, and will 
remain open until 4 p.m., except for one hour, viz., from 
12 to 1 o'clock. 

[Note. — Exhibitors of pictures and sculpture need not 
conform to these rules so far as they relate to forms of 
labels and deliirery orders. A written label must, how- 
ever, be attao.hed to each picture or work of sculpture, 
and a note, giving list of works sent in, must accompany 
them.] 

rhe following? are the conditions of tender for the 
privilege of taking and selling photographs : — 

The contractor will have the privilege of taking 
general views of the Royal Albert HrIL the Exhibition 
Buildings, and the Gardens of the Royal Horticultural 
Society, as well as of the interiors of the several galleries, 
and portraits of visitors, together with the right of sell- 
ins" the photograps within the exhibition. 
^ Her Majesty's Commissioners will allot not less than 
six spaces for the sale of the above-mentioned photo- 
gruphs. 

The contractor will also have the privilege of taking 
photosrraphs of objects, upon producing the written 
authority of the exhibitors ; but, without their express 
permiasion in writing, the contractors will not be per- 
mitted to copy, by means of photography or of any other 
process, the works of the several exhibitors. 



No pictures, statues, or other objects 
from their places for the purpose of bein^ pliot 
without a special order from one of ^lie 
superintendents. 

The contractor will have the opportanity oi 
an arrangement with the publishers of tbe offi 
logues to supply them with photographs for the 
of the illustrated edition, which they have the 
publishing. 

All buildings, fittings, and furniture necess^i 
above-mentioned purposes shall be supplied I 
the expense of the contractor, subject to tho 
control of the Secretary of Her Majesty's 
sioners. 

The contract shall continue in force until oi 
after the close of the exhibition, namely, till 
day of November, 1873. 

Tenders must be sent in not later than th, 
February, 1873. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners do not bind th 
to accept the highest or any tender. 

The following rules for the sale of specifnens 
(not including tobacco) manufactured in the bu 
illustration of process or machinery are issued I 
Commissioners : — 

1. Ohjeets eomumed in the building {bjf ta* 
y;iaitor8 to th$ Exhibition. — In this case the < 
must fix some charge, to be as moderate as ho 
for the consumer to pay. This charge must be i 
by the executive, as a part of the chari^ made 
paid to the refreshment contractors, who have 
right of supplying all that comes under the 
refreshments. 

2. Objects manufactured in the building in illust 
the process which the visitor purchases and carries < 
trial. — Every proposal, as to amount and price, 
approved by the executive. 

The following prizes are offered by the Con 
Coachmakers and Coach Harness Makers for oom 
among persons engaged in the trade of ooach 
being masters, foremen, workmen, or apprenti^ 
for freehand or mechanical drawing applicHbIti 
riages, or parts of carriages, or the ornamentation 
— ist prize, the company's silver medal and i 
prize, the companv*s bronze medal and £2 ; for p 
mechanics, 1st prize, the company's silver met! 
prize, the company's bronze medal. Each of th 
said prizes will be accompanied with the ccrtil 
the comp'iny. The awards will be made by the 
and Art Department at the examinations held ( 
nection with the Department) throughout the c 
Information on this point may be obtained at ani 
schools of art. The company, in addition, ol 
following prizes : — For drawings of carriages or 
carriages to the scale of one inch to the foot, for a 
tion among foremen, workmen, or apprentic*^ 'i 
in tho trade of cOichmakini;,open to natives of Ei 
Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, or any British * 
viz., 1st prize, the company's silver medal nnd £ 
prize, the company's silver medal and £2 ; Zrd 
the company's bronze medal and £1. Each of thi 
prizes will be accompanied with the certiffcate 
company. The awards will be made by judges n<'>n 
by the court and being members of the court 
freedom of the City of Lmdon and of the compni 
be presented to such successful candidate as the ^ 
may recommend to the court as having disttnff 
himself sufficiently to entitle him to such an hi 
upon his satisfying the court as to his gener&l 
character. The drawingfS for competition for the 
prizes to be sent free to the hall of the cos'^ha 
(Noble-street, Cheapside, London) on or before th^ 
of March, 1873. so that they may be adjali<^tiMJ 
the 1st May following, in srder (if possible) th^ 



JOURlf AL OF THE SDOIETY OP ARTS, FsBRUARt 21, 1873, 



253 



pot 



t^ftlL 



■•teviBgi may be exhibited in the oarriAge depart- 
plorthe forthcoming Intematioiiiil Exhibition, ^ath 
pHv^riiii The drawings are to have a distinctive 
upon them before being sent in, and are to be 
ied br a letter containing the name, age, occu- 
and address of the competitor, which letter is to 
oied in an envelope beitring the b ime mark as 
]d«ced npon tho drawings. These letters will not 
sf^cned antU the judges have made their award. The 
sent will remain the property of the competitor, 
ible to be rt^tained for a time for exhibition in 
Care, however, will be taken of them, bat the 
17 will not hold itself responsible for their safety. 
tee nutst remove their drawings at their own 
within a week after being called upon to do bo. 

licay ud V«Tj Amateur Fine Arts Exhibition.— 
[ aMtiag of the Committee was held at the Royal 
^ett-hall, Fabniarj 14. to consider the roles and to 
■ai* on the apace to be oocapied by the collection. 
wrre present — Captain his Royal Highness the 
of EdmboTi^h, R.N. ; Captain Coant Gleichen, 
Admiral Hon. J. R. Dnimmond, Colonel Colville, 
' EUioit, A«lmiral Oliver, R.N. ; Admiral Ewart, 
CokMiel Crealock, and Major Donnelly, R.E., 
Mr. H. Cole also attended on the part of her 
'*s Commiaaioners and the Exhibition. It was 
thHt the oollection should be exhibited in the 
Fietoro Gallery. 





EXHIBITIONS. 



VBiTvnal Exhibition. — A meeting of Her 
hfMty's Commissioners was held at M'trlborough 
Esse on Saturday, the 15th instant, under the Presi- 
o€ Hie Bojal HiKhnees the Prince of Wales, K.G. 
wrre preamt — H.8.H. Count Gleichen, the Mar- 
«f Ripon, K G. ; the Earl Cowper, K.G. ; Lord 
Oordon lisnnox, M.P. ; Lord Acton ; the Right 
&lgh C. £. Childers. M.P. ; Sir Anthony de 
Bart.; Sir Francis Grant, P.RA. ; Mr. 
A. BraMey, M.P. ; and Mr. P. Cnnliffe Owen, 



IXATIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

^^k* Birwriwfkmm Daily Pott of Tuesday, 11th Jnuu^ry, 
the fuUowing remarks on the subject of the 
I examination : — ** The examinntions of the 
of Arts have long been deservedly popular 
Ihe stadents attend ini; the science and other classes 
mith the Birmingham and Midland. In • 
and similar clusses in other local institutions, 
one common obj*^t in view — namely, to advance 
more particularly scientific education, in rela- 
ito iadostry. Considerable disappointment was fnlt 
'be announcement was made by the Council of the 
of Arts of its intention to discontinue these ex- 
Strong reprear^ntations from many s^-ientific 
'*na (among otners from the Birmingham and 
Inslitttte) induced the Council of the Society of 
to take a wis^r course." After a sketch of the 
the article proceeds : — '* The manufacture of 
or paper mny not be locally of special in- 
the manu&oture of steel in Birmingham is 
■fasorbing the pnxl notion of rutting and edge 
Hhe town has two or three important pap^r miUs ; 
MTiiags bmlding it has manufactories of import- 
Is thMS three Inst-nnmed suWjects, let us hope, 
students will enter the lists as competitors. 
the techn<rtofpcal examination as a test of the 
ittodies which lead up to it, wo amnnt help con- 
^ Ihe Society of Arts on being the pioneer in 
iftbsikrmatteni. Should the council of the society 





receive encouragement by a fdr number of students pre- 
senting themselves as competitors, the list of subjects, as 
opportunity offers, will be increased, and will embrace 
subjects for examination more especially connected with 
Birmingham manufactures and their specialities — such 
as working in gold and silver, brass, copper, and bronze, 
electro- metallurgy, the manufacture of acids and alkalies, 
&c. A very large number of students Hre directly in- 
terested in these manufactures, and competitors in this 
locality may therefore be expected to be numerous when 
the subjects last named are introduced on the programme. 
It will be well to bear in mind that the Society of Arts is 
cosmopolitan in its aims and objects. It was impossible, 
in its first programme of technological examinutions, to 
embrace all the manufactures of this country. Examiners 
are not easily got, and besides, it must be remembered 
that the society is entirely dependent for support on yearly 
subscriptions. These considerntions will show that it is 
impossible to do more than it has done on the present 
occasion. For a hundred and twenty years tho society 
has encouraged Art and manufacturing industry, and has 
been the pioneer of many important improvements, 
socinl and eduoitional, through its original examinations, 
and it now afi'ords the means of testmg the knowledge 
gained through its instrumentality. We venture to 
think that among the many good works the society has 
done it never did a better than in tiking * occasion by 
the hand,' and beginning a system of ' technological 
examinations.' The programme of. these examinations 
will Soon be accessible at the Midland Institute, and in- 
tending student competitors would be well to procure a 
copy and study it." 

The Birmingham Daily Gazette also says: — "The 
deservedly popular examinations of the Society of 
Arts, so largely taken advantage of bv the students 
attending the Midland Institute, and otner societies in 
our town and other towns, have had a new element 
added thereto in the present session, 1873, viz., techno- 
logical examinations. The feature is a novel one, and 
is the natural outcome of previous elementary studies, 
which will be tested by their examination as to practical 
results. The manufacture of paper, stOHl, sc, and 
carriage building, will appeal in a greater or less de^rpe 
to Birmingham industrial students, and it is obvious 
thit in succeeding years the Society's programme will 
include other subjects for examination of local interest, 
as the manufacture of glass, metal working in all its 
departments, which will appeal more din^ctly to a 
greater number of Birmingham students. The only 
return the Society of Arts can have is by numerous 
students presenting themselves as competitors. Money 
prizes (liberal) form the reward of the successful. In- 
tending competitors would do well to procure a copy of 
the programme from Mr. Edwin Smith, at tho Birming- 
ham and Midland Institute. Study it well, and * go in ' 
for examination." 



IMPROVED APPARATUS FOR LOWERING 
AND FLOATING SHIPS' BOATS AT SEA 

The object of this invention, which is by Mr. George 
Edward Nicholas, M. D., Wandsworth, formerly Assistant- 
Surgeon, R.N., is to secure safety with greater facility of 
use and expedition than is attainable by the ordinary 
boat '' tackle" in present use. 

• *Its novelty consists essentially in the employment of a 
cradle, atta<'hed to and suspended from a frame, by 
means of which and a suitable tackle, the boat, resting in 
the cradle but not attached to it, is lowered and floated 
without the intervention of any detaching or other 
mechanical appliance whatever. The whole apparatus is 
made of iron. 

The frame consists of two long vertical arms, con- 
nected together by transverse bars, to secure strength 
and rigidity. These arms arc hinged at their lower ends 



254 JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Februauy 21, 1873. 



to the ship's side at a suitable distance (about one-third) 
from the water-line, parallel with and beneath the davits 
ordinarily in usOf and carrying the cradle suspended by 
pivots between their upper ends. The latter have eyes 
or rings to receive the hooks of the blocks of the tackle 
employed in lowering the frame. The frame is shaped 
to the ship's side, except at its upper third, where it 
curves outwards until its upper ends come under the 
line of the davit blocks. Immediately below the point 
where it curves outwards, it is held in position, when 
secured for sea. by a pin (or it might be a chain and 
hook) passed in front of each of the vertical arms. 

The cradle is formed of a longitudinal bar of suitable 
strength, its shape corresponding with a longitudinal 
midship section of the boat, which it is intended to carry, 
the upper points of its vertical rods being bent at right 
angles, and pivoted through the upper ends of the 
vertical arms of ttie frame, so that whatever the position 
of the frame be, the cradle is free to maintain its 
horizontal position. Two crutches are tixed to the bar 
transversely, at about the distance of a fourth part from 
the stem and stern of the boat r^pectively, and shaped 
to the form of the boat at those parts, so that the boat, 
when in situ, rests by the whole length of its keel 
on the longitudinal bar, whilst its displacement laterally 
and longitudinally is prevented by the position of 
the crutches in relation to the shape of the boat. 
Although its several parts are mentioned for the pur- 
pose of description, the frame, as a whole, is free to move 
as a single lever, ^t is lowered by means of a tackle 
rove through three double blocks, one of which is hooked 
to the davit's head, another to the upper end of the frame, 
opposite which a third is attached to the standard or 
upright part of the davit. This tackle is used in addition 
to the ordinary tackle employed for hoisting the boat, 
which is done in the usuhI manner, with this difference 
only, that the cradle is first brought into its original 

Eosition by means of its own tackle, then the boat is 
oisted to the davit's head, and then readily powered 
into its cradle, where it is secured for sea in the usual 
manner. 

The frame being hinged by its base to the ship's side, 
and being controlled in its upright position by the lower- 
ing tackle only, it is obvious that when the latter is 
eased off, the frame with the cradle carrying the boat 
will move upwards nnd downwards, causing its upper 
ends to describe a half-circle. By such motion also it is 
equally obvious that the boat will be conveyed in its 
cradle to the water, dn reaching which the boat will be 
floated, while the cradle, continuing on its cour«e, will 
pass now rapidly in consequence of its acquired mo- 
mentum from beneath the boat as well as away from the 
line of the boat's flotition ; the latter effect being assisted 
by the curve given to the upper ends of the frame for 
that purpose. 

Among the many advantages claimed for this invention 
by its author are simplicity of action, facility of use, and 
expedition, combined with safety in the manning, the 
lowering, and the floating of the boat. By its use the 
boat can receive^its crew, &c., from the ships' deck, and 
can be at once set afloat by simply lowering away its 
tackle — a proceeding which can be effected either from 
the ships' deck or from the boat itself. It can be adapted 
without displacing any of the parts of the ordinary 
apparatus now in use. 



SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION. 

8ince the last quarterly report^ troublesome ^«^ 

have delayed this undeitikinif. On the very d^*^ 

meeting in Jemiyn-street in De<-euiber last, lb*- < 

tool broke off close V* the eilg**, l»^Hving a flat chi**^ 

wide tapering up to 2 in.) at the bottom of the Iw 

fortnight was lost in the eiide>iV(mr to extract ii 

Bosworth's ingenuity and patifnce were sor* ty 

but he at last succ^^eaed in bringing it to the t« j* 

depth of about 96 ft. 34 ft., c.on!»i>ting of nari-* » « 

of calcareous shale, altcruiting with argill»M"e«3t»i 

stone in layers from 4 to 6 in. wi-n* paased thrrmi^ 

on January 28, at 131 ft. from the uurface, a b* .'i -i 

solid white gypsum, 4 ft. in thirkness, was rutc^*! 

perforated, the new trifi«i drilling tool brin^na: \t 

cores. This is the firnt time a bed of gypear» 

character has Ixen found in 8iis«ex, and it iin>>»*>»l 

cates the presence tif Purbeck beds. "If e-». 

hitherto unknown to exist in Sussex are nowr mJ 

our geological inforHiatiim, and the 8cienti6c iwoi 

have its interest re-awnkeneil to thia, the fir-st 

attempted in England for purely scientific jxj 

Boring is atwlious and expenaiv*^ pr«ic^8s, Hnd • 

that the preliminary c "St of machinery hHB • xb 

the treasury. S:ibKcripti«»ns aru eime?«tly r*^ti»i 

complete the second sum of £1,0(10 promiited on ct>«l 

that £2,000 be raised. Mr. H-nry Willett, Amobi 1 

Brighton, wiH be pieAaed to rec»-ivB any aatita i 

purpose. It would be n great disaster ind^-f-d 

boring had to be stopped for wnnt of fmide ; but i 

sure that when the state of m ittera is made knu 

the friends of science Mr. Willett will soon have to 

a full treasury. — Mat me. 



Upwards of £12,000 have been subscribed to- 
wards a fund fur the eittabliKhnient in Olasgow of a Techni- 
cal College, in which the difftrent branches of practical 
engineering, spinning, weaving, &c., are to be taught on 
scientific principles. 

The crude ammonia salts, resulting from the 
purifioation of coal j^as, are said to have been found to con- 
tain sulphocyaoHtes, which reuder them unfit for manure. 
In some cases the amount of sulpbocyanate of ammonia 
present was suflicient to destroy the crops where it was 
applied. 



SCIENCE AND ART MTJSEUMS IN N^W 1 

New York Hppeiirs to He pro^rressing rapi-'ly i 
creation of new buildings for the aoconunirfiaii 
science and art. 

The new Natural History Museum is to he ^ 
long by 600 wide, and will l»e the largest bnil* i 
America. £100 000 was voted l»»«t winter h 
legislature to commence it, and 200 naien ar*' nl 
blasting for its foundiuions. It is eventually ti 
£2,000,000 sterling?, and fifteen yeHrswill beoctu;i 
its construction. This great building is to e«*v* r 1 
acres of gro/.nd. >«nd is to b« situated on Mootit 
squnre, facing Kivhth Avenue nnd Cenintl-paTk. 

The front portion is ^» be finished dire* tly, an 
back portion is to be finished from time t*i ti( 
needed, and as appropriations 8ni made for it 
mat(*rial is to be grnnite. The building is to H 
stories high, with students* rooms in the upp»*r i 
and rooms and shelves for specimens illustrating nj 
history, Boology, botany, wnd mineralogy on tii*- in 
floors. A grand entrance is U) be uiade into Ct^ 
pr<rk, where now is Seventy-ninth-street. This « 
called the Central entrance. The carriage entrane*^ 
be on Seventy-seventh and Kiuhty-first atrrets. 
plans were drawn by Calvert V«nx and J. Wrey M 

The architecture of the buildins? u* to be a til 
French Jtenaissance, similar to the Luxomboui^ ol 
buildings around Fontairieblean. 

Another great building is to be the new Art Mns 
Tt is to ultimately cover about ten a* res, ^nd »ben li"J 
it will be 800 f«-et long and 600 feet wide. U ui 
built in CentrHl-p»irk, between the Cniton Be^r^""* 
Fifth-avenue, diiecUy opposite Kighty-second-tJrerl 
will cover a ^e<•tion in the park as far as irom Eij^htl 
street to £ighty-fbiirth-«treet. £20,000 is alrtA'il 
propriated for its commenoem«'nt. 

The Iront portion it to be bu^lt in the spring, 
the back portion will be built from year to }« 
wanted ; £100,000 will be spent this season on the I 
' building. 



JOUBNAL or THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, February 21, 1873. 



255 



THB 8T. GOTHARD RAILWAY. 

A* BBcbixk«ry to be oaed for pif>rcing the St. Gothard 
in a Ibrward Bt«tn. The laiv^i tiirhinf« for 
the sir>coiDpr*>asoiB are b*^Dg made hy MeMis. 
, Wy«i^ and Co., the well-known engineers of 
k, who are also eonetracttinf^ the heavy portions 
xir-coinpreaaorfi, whilet the nnir« delicate pnrte 
the hafkda of M. PlninpnlHis of Geneva. Tht' 
<rf the temporary machinery, made in Belgium 
k win te aa^ anlil the permanent machinery in 
), htm htmtk somewhat retu^e>l on account of the 
*imrf ioo4a durtrifr the Utt few montha. 
Wrxpminents wiih some Anirin- American tunnel- 
lery at Girtif^m. are said to have given moAt 
resnlta, and there afema to he no doubt of 
WiDc adopted for the tunnt^Uim; of the St. Gothnrd. 
*0 qvflition reapecting the purchise of the mMchinery 
ftWHt ated at the Mont Cenia tunnel seem at laat t<» 
h^a »«ti&fietorily amns:e<l on both Bidns. M. 
the oontiMctor, bein^ exonerated from the agree- 
by which ha wa» bound to pun;ha«e hU the plant 
the Italiao Govamment. It appears now that it is 
advisable to retaia the air-compressors ut 
he and Miadane, and M. Favie has agreed 
to take a qonntitj of pipes that were used for the 
of the compn Wf d air. the reservoirs, earth 
ami a»me nf the «ild tunnelling machines. 
luiTaBcement in the tunnel at the north ai<ie, at 
ap to the 31at IXm-emher, was at the rate of 
^SO per day, the beading hem diiven in the hardest 
the total btiieth driven up to that date heing 
vetieo. The numher of persons employed at 
rd is iihout 100. 
At Airolo. the rock noet with is somewhat softer, and 
ni»tr»a were tini>i«-l]ed up to the close of the year, 
tki* end th«* mammry is also begun, and from 170 to 
pterins are employed. 

"■»*Tj«of V9prr aeeciiption of rock that is met with 

the excMvati«m of this tunnel will be kept, so as 

In eiJlt-rtiuna, sets of which will, on their vom- 

». be given to th*^ Italian and German Govern- 

aad to aome of the technical acho<»ls in Switzer- 

At the f'ffieea of Goschenn and Airolo a corn- 

i«3sraphi**i«l record of the strnta met with 

th«* tunnelling o|*erMtion8 will be kept, as a^so a 

of tho daily meteorological obaervationa that are 



C0&BE8PONDE9GS. 



THE MACKIE SHIP. 

—It is said that good looks are the best letters of 
nendati'in ; if so the Mackie boat is well recom- 
(ar it must he evident to all that her lines are 
WcfuL Also she possesses the look of swiftness in 
WH, like the ft»nn of the swhUow or dolphin ; and 
■y he more in this than met-ta th« eye, for when 
»• a really good rifle or piece of ordnance. th«y are 
to have a *^ varmint'* look about them — like a wasp 
if they could sting. So, as t*» awif>.n*'8S, the Mackie 
a promising expression of speed. And, as 
bMUty, in the prev;ileni-e of ugliness in the 
netal monsters that have l^«tely been put on the 
whi<^ even the genin.^ of Vandevelt could not 
yactureaquo, it is quite refireshing tf» And offered to 
*Ww and favour so graceful a production as this 
lo her science do*-8 not seem to have awdlowed 
in m> many of our late marine prt^ductions-' 
to have gone hand in hand with her. — 

Epsilon. 




of four parte borax and three parts 
«i»lnh««s ia pUi«4 to b» a* ttsefttl aatnn^atats 
ftadcriag fafarica firs-pruof. 



OSJrS&AL HOTB& 



in ChiaA. — It is stated that the Chinese are 
abuut to c^aateuct 100 miles of railway, as an experiment ; 
if i>U''b he the case the Celestial Empire will be an immense 
field forengiGsering enterprise, and it is to be hoped th^ our 
engineers will not be behind-hand in availing thems^ves 
of it. 

Wood Polp. — Prince Bismarck's paper millfl at Varzin 
cannwC meet the English demand for the pai^te board which is 
manufactured from pine W(»od in them. The present mills 
work up annually 600 cord:} of wood, and a new factory is 
being built which will consume in this production 1,500 
cords. The prince has purcbHsed adjacent forests, which 
will napply him with Taw materials for this manufacture for 
years to cume. 

Swedish Matches. — The manufacture of safety 
matclivs in Sweden has developed itself the last two years in 
a remarkable manner, for, whereas uutil lately the town of 
Jonkopiug stood alone in this respect, supplymi? the whole 
of tbe Continent, and several of the safety match-makers in 
England, there have now sprung up sioiibtr, thoagh smaller 
establisbments in many of the provmcial titwns, wbich drive 
a very brisk trade, and are scarcely capable of meeting the 
ever-inrrea8ing deroaDd for this match. The quantity 
exported in 1871 was 8,351,028 pounds, ot which more than 
half went to England. 

Export of Cattle firom Italy to France. — During the 
firMT nine months of the present year, tbe number of bead of 
cattle sent from Itidy to France waa a« follows:— Bollooks, 
40.630; cows, 23,400; calves, 8,000 ; sheep, 100,000 ; pigs, 
46,000 ; fihowing a great increa>^ on the exports from Italy 
durinif previous years. The gieeter part of the cattle is sent 
to Frnnce from Piedmont via the Col de t'end^t, and the re- 
matader pninoi pally from the inland of Sardinia, where it is 
shipped for Marseilles. The increasing demand for Uvo 
Btdcic in France has tended to raise the price of meat in 
Italy. 

Oysten. — Mexican oysters, it is said, can be imported 
to San Francisco at a cheaper rate than eastern oysters can 
be bought in New York. The San Freiicisco Bulletin 
says :— *' FromGuaymna to Acapnlco, on the Mexican coast, 
almost every bay, inlet, and es'uary abounds in oysters of a 
lar»re size, and equal in flavour to those of the Atlantic 
coHRt, and these shell-fish spawu, mature and die un- 
disturbed by man. This iiuiiicnse stock of bivalves could 
easily be made to supply the Califonjia market, and return 
a haTidsome profit to parties engaging in the enterprise. 
Oyitters can be placed on board the Mexican steamers at 
Mazatlan at lest* than 15 dollars per ton, and the freight- 
char^ to this port is only 10 dollars per ton, making a totsl 
of 25 dollars." 

Lava as a Building Katerial. — ^Tho lavas, says the 
Building News^ are extensively used in many parts of tbe Con- 
tinent for building purp.ses. Tbey are generally highly 
silicated, the principal rock of the kind, known as trachyte, 
containing 50*67 per cent, of silica. ThiH term is generally 
adopted for volcanic r«tcki» having a rou^rh felspathic base 
formed of sanidine, oligedase, with augiie and miea, silica, 
or hornblende. When it contains cryatiilH or graina of free 
quariz or sanidioe, it becomes trachyte or porphyry. 
Trachyte is, as a rule, of a light grey colour, occurring in 
sheets or thick beds altematimr with bahalt, or, as in the 
district of • Auvergne, forming the central cones of volcanoes. 
Th«- lavas of Central France have been employed from the 
time of the Romans in churches and bridges ; while that of 
Andemach, obtained from imbterranean caverns at Nieder- 
raendig, is now chieflv used for the well-known millstones, 
and is exported to all parts of Europe and Britain. The 
utilieation of the lava rocks fur this purpose is of very 
ancient date, the com-mills found at: Pompeii being fonaed 
of ancient lava-sheets obtaiafsd frum Vesuvius. 

Extraction of the Precieas Metals firom Copper Pyrites. 
— Tbe inoombastible residue from copper pyritM, after tbe 
sulphur has been burnt off in the prooeeu of vitriol making, 
is powdered, mixed with commoa salt, and then roasted in a 
reverberatory furnace. The mass is then treated with water 



256 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Febeuart 21, 1873. 



acidnlatfH] with hydrochloric acid. The solation contaiDB the 
chloridfs of copper, silver, and g<*ld ; the insolable ferric oxide 
is used for the fettling of iron puddling: furnaces. The 
precious metals are precipitated oy addition of a soluble 
iodide (solution of kelp, for iniktanee). M. Claudet has found 
that the iodide of silver is much lef>s soluble than the chlt^de 
in a solution of salt, and that the precipitate obtained by the 
addition of an iodide to the hydrochloric solution contains 
nearly all the silver and giAd present in this burnt ore. 
Hydrochloric acid is then added*, to remove all traces of copner 
from this precipitnte, and the gold and silver are reduced oy 
metallic acid. Th« iodide of zinc solution obtained is used 
for the precipitation of a fresh quantity of silver. The copper 
remaining in the mother liquor after the separation of the 
gold and silver is precipitated by metidlic iron. Works have 
been established at Widnes Docks, Lnnoishire, for carrying 
out this process ; in the course of one year 16,300 tons of 
burnt ore were subjected to this treatment, and yielded 10,715 
ounces of silver and 102 ounces of gold. — Iron, 



C 4 



NOTICES. 



SirBSCBIPTIONS. 

The Christmas subscriptions 
should be forwarded by cheque 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
Officer. 



are 
or 



due, and 
Post-office 



BEF0BT8 



ON THE LONDON 
EXHIBITION 07 



INTERNATIONAL 
1872. 



Mineral Resources of India," Sir Louis 
E.C.B., will preside. 

The report of the last India Conferencae- 
poned tiU next week. 

CANTOB LECTUBE8. 

The Second Course of these lectures is 
Energies of the Imponderables, with esj>c? 
ference to the Measurement and Ufi1if«i 
them," by the Rev. Akthub Riog, M.A. * 
maining lectures will be delivered on the £ol 
evenings, at eight o'clock : — 

Lecturb IV.— Monday. February 24tk, 1 
On the Energy of Affinity, with f«pecial refej 
Suggestions for Estimating and Utilising iL 

LscTURB V. — Monday, March 3ia>, I87i 
On the Energy of Elwttricity, with esped*! Ti 
to the Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Lbcturb VI. — Monday, March 10th, 18 
On the Energy of Light, with especial refrreor 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

Lecturb VII. — Monday, March 17th, IS 
On the Energy of Heat, with especial leferexici 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

The Third Course of Cantor Lectures i 
present session will be ** On Wines; theij 
auction. Treatment, and Use," by J. 
ThtjdioHTJM, Esq., M.D. The Course -will i 
of six lectures, the first of which will be eri 
Monday evening, the 21st of April, the rem 



The reports which appecured in the last volume of , _ • - j- 

the Journal on the various sections of the above , five on the Monday evenings succeeding 
Exhibition, are now published complete, in a 
X>amphlet form (price 2s.), and can be obtained 
at the office of the Society. 



OBBIKABT XSETIHGS. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged :— 

February 26. — Biscnsrion on Lieut-Colonel A. 
8tranob*s paper, *' On Ships for the Channel Passage,** 
adjourned from Wednesday, the 12th. On this evening 
Vice-Admirul Erasmus Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S., will 
preside. 

March 5. — " On Gas-lighting by Electricity, and 
Means fur Lighting and Extinguishing Street and other 
Lamps'* By W. Ll' yd Wisb, E^sq. On this evening 
Oapt. P. H. Colomb, R.N., will preside. 

March 12. — "On Signalling at Sea, with special 
reference to Signuls of Distress." By Capt. Colomr, R.N. 

March 19. — " On Certain Improvements in the Manu- 
facture of Printing Types." By J. R. Johnson, Esq. 

March 26. — ** On the Edible Starches of Commerce, 
their Production and Consumption.*' By P. L. 
SiMMOKDS, Esq. 

April 2. — 

April 9. — No Meeting, 

April 16. — " On the Condensed Milk Manufacture." 
By L. P. Mbrriam, Esq. 

IKBIA COMMITTEE. 

A Conference will be held on Friday, 28th instant, 
at 8 p.m., when a paper will be read by T. BooER 
Smith, Esq., architect, on *' Architectural Art in 
India.'* James Feboubsok, Esq., D.C.L., F.B.S., 
will preside. 

A Conference will also be held on Friday, March 
14th, when W. T. Blanford, Esq., of the Indian 
(Geological Survey, will read a paper on ''The 



MEETINGS FOB THE EHSHniO WEEK 

Mox. ...80IETY OP ARTS, 8. Cantur Lecture. 

Bifig, ** On the Energies of the )iapoiider«Ur« ^ 
Inititute of Surveynra, 8. Mr. R. B. Qranthawt, * 

Agriraltural Bulwafs." 
London InatltaUon, 4. Professra' Dimoui, ^ I 

Geography.*' 
Royal Geographical, 8). 1. Mr. J. Th«iminQ. ** A 

in Sontht-m Formnc^.'* 2. The IVeaideiit, **£ 

Badakhahan and Wakhan." 
Medical, 8. 
Aotuariea, 7. Mr. Samuel Brown, *' On the Mean 

of Man." 

Tubs. ...Medical and Chirurgical, 8^. 
Civil E^rigineers, 8. 
Royal Institution, 8 Pro! Ratherftxrd, ** The F<x 

Motions of the Body." 
East India Association, 3. (At the Hocas op tbs I 

OF Arts ) 

Wed..,.80CIEiY op arts, 8. Adjourned diaru« 
Lieut. -Col. Btraage's paper ** On 8hq>a for the C 
Pa*saRe." 

Oeoloffical. 8. 1. Dr. James Bryce, *' On the J 
Rooks of 8kye and RaoMay." 9. Mr. I>. Uuk 
** Observations on the more remarkable Booklni 
Korth-Weet uf England and the Wehh Ba 
3. Mr. J. Lucas. ** On the Origin of Caay-inxostd 

Royal Society of Literature, 8^. 

ArchsDoIogirtal Association 8. 

Bociely of Telegraph Engineers, 7^. Adjourned i 
sion ** On Telegraph Poles." 

London Institution, 7. Mr. R. H. Scott, ** On t^ 
of Recent Meteorological Inquiry." 

Thum... Royal, 8^. 

Antiquaries, 8^. 

Royal Institution, 3. Dr. Armstrong, " On tbe Af 

Formation of Organio Substances." 
Royal United Service Institution, 8. GsplaiaJ.G 

*• Shot and RheU. and Bow to use Them." 
Philosophical dub. 6. 

Pri SrCIETY OP AHT8, 8. India OmfcWMe. J 

Roger 8mith. " On Architectural Art in Indja" 

Roysl United Serri^ Institution, 8 Captsb 0^ 
** Manteuffel's Campaign in the East of Ftanor-^ 

Royal Institution, 9. General C^ Bsmy C Btvl 
" On Livingstone's Explorations in AfrJca.** 

Qnekett Qub, 8. 

Sat Royal Institntion, 8. Pmfbnor W. X. (XMsr^* " ^ 

PhUosophy of the Pore Sdmcts." 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Phbedaet 28, 1873. 267 



lURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,058. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 28, 1873. 






AnOUHi 



S BT THE COUKCIL. 



TBCHVOLOOICAL SXAMUTATIOn. 

The Progrminiiie of Examinations in the 
Logy of some of the Arts and Manufactures 
the country ia now ready for issue, and may be 

^>plication to the Secretary. 
The mbjecta selected for 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
Steel, and Carriage-building. Candidates, in 
to obtain certificates in any of these subjects, 
pass the examinations of the Science and Art 
^nt in certain sciences, which are specified 
> the programme ; and in addition to these, special 
will be set in the teshnology of each manu- 
by examiners appointed by the Society of 
and certificates of three grades will be 
: — "Honours," "Advanced," and**Ele- 



♦» 



The examinationa of the Science and Art Depart- 
will he held during the first three weeks 
May, the technological paper being worked on 
e^cnxn^ of the 17th May. For the dates of the 
subjects candidates are referred to the 
IHrectory, published by the Science and 
Departm^it. 
The following Prises are offered by the Society of 
Alts in each of the fire subjects mentioned aboYe : — 
To the best candidate in Honours, £10. 
To the best candidate in the Advanced Gh^e, £7 . 
To the best candidate in the Elementary Qrade, £5, 

In order that these Examinations may really be 
in promoting technical education in this 
', it is desirable that encouragement should 
g;iven to candidates by the offer of additional 
and scholarships. With this object the 
appeal to the Companies of the City of 
JjcBuAaiL, to merchants and manufacturers, and to 
■Minbers of the Society generally, to aid them 
\fj oootribixting to the Prize Fund. 

The following special additional Prises are 



By Wjmdham S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 
best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, 
Manufacture: — 

APriseof £3 

APriseof £2 



By G. N. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 
Building : — 

A Prize of £3 

A Prize of £2 

A letter has been received from Colonel Akroyd, 
M.P., promising to contribute £5 in prizes when- 
ever Examin ations are held in the Technology of 
the Worsted Manufacture. 

The Council beg to announce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund : — 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners. . £10 10 

Dr. Craoe Calvert, P.K.8. (annual) .... 6 6 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart 6 

B. L. Chance, Esq. 5 5 

The Council invite the aid of masters and man- 
agers in promoting these examinations by encour- 
aging their workmen to take advantage of them. 
An explanatory handbill, suitable for being sus- 
pended in factories and workshops, may be had on 
application to the Secretary of the Society of Arts* 
Adelphi, London, W.C. 



PRIZE FOB STEEL. 

1. The Council have resolved to award the Gold 
Medal of the Society to the manufacturer who shall 
produce and send to the London Intemational 
Exhibition of 1873 the best collection of specimens 
of steel suitable for general engineering purposes. 

2. The specimens exhibited must include a com- 
plete illustration of the applications of the varieties 
of steel submitted. 

3. Each manufacturer should send with his 
specimens a statement of the nature of the tests 
he has applied to each kind of steel submitted, and 
give the results of such tests. 

4. The samples tested are to be exhibited 
together with duplicate samples, or portions of the 
same samples; these will be submitted to tests 
should the Council consider it desirable. 

5. All persons using steel for general engineer- 
ing purposes, who are not manufacturers of such 
steel, are also invited to exhibit specimens on the 
above terms and conditions. 

6. The Council reserve to themselves the right 
of withholding the premium, in the event of tho 
specimens exhibited not being sufficiently meri- 
torious. 

COMMITTEE OE THE MEAHS OF PBOTECTIHO THE 
METBOPOLIB AOAIlf ST COKFLAOEATION. 

The Committee met on Friday, February 20th. 
Present — ^Mr. A. J. Kay Shuttleworth, M.P., in the 
chair; Col. Marcus Beresford, M.P. ; Mr. E. Chad- 
wick, C.B. ; Lord Alfred Churchill, Major-General 
Eardley-Wilmot, F.E.S. ; Lord George Hamilton, 
M.P. ; Mr. John Holms, M.P. ; and Mr. Sey- 



258 



JOURF AL OF THE BUUlii/rx UJ?' jlklo, rsBBUABT «>, j-o. 



mour Teulon. Mr. W. P. Keynolds, manager of 
the London and Sontiiwcffk Insoranoe Company, 
and Mr. J. Quick, G.E., engineer to the Sonthwark 
and Yauzhall and the Qrand Junotion Water Com- 
panies, attended and gwre evidenoe, which will 
ahorU J be published in the Jimrmal, 



BETHlTAL^BSSir XUSSUX. 

The following declaration is in the oourse of sig- 
nature, and has alreadj been signed w below. 
Any Member of the Society desirous of having his 
name attached thereia is lequired to oomwnioate 
with the Secretary of the Society of Arts, and give 
him authority for that purpose : — 

1. We the undersigiied members of ihe Council 
and members of the SeeAety for the Enoonragement 
of Arts, Manufactures, and Commeroe, request the 
attention of Her Majesty's goyemment to the 
remarkable proof of tlie public desire for in- 
struction and pure ei^oym^it afforded by tiie 
examination of works of Arts and Science, which 
has been shown by the opening of the Bethnal- 
green Museum. 

2. Tl^s Miiseum, established in one of the 
poorest and busiest districts in London, where 
men, women, and children are most laboriously 
employed, has been frequented during three 
months by more than 700,000, visitors, a number 
which probably exceeds that of the visitors to all 
the other metropolitan museums and galleries 
during the same period. 

3. The undersigned submit that this museum 
could never have come into useful existence, and 
have been instrumental in conferring great benefits 
on the people, without the aid of Parlicunent ; and 
they desire to press this fact upon the consideration 
of Her Majesty's government with the hope that 
they will submit to Parliament the policy so 
essentially national of voting increased means to 
facilitate the establishment of museums, libraries, 
and galleries of Science and Art in large centres of 
population, wherever such localities are willing to 
bear their share in the cost. 

(Signed) 

Abel, F. A., F.R.S., Vit^Fn%. 

Akroyd, Col. Edwnrd, M.P. . . Halifax. 

Amory, John Hf^Hthcote, M.P. . , Tiverton. 

Arkwright, A. P., M.P Derbyshire (N) 

Backhonse, Edmund, M.P. . . . . Darlington 

Baines, Edward, M.P. Leeds 

Ballesteros, His EzceUencj Job6 Merino 

Baring, Thomas. M.P Huntingdon 

Bartley, G. C. T., Mmm^ tf OomtciL 
Bath and Wells, Bishop of 
Bazley, S r Thomas, Birt,^ M.P. Manchester 
BoUy, William 
Boyes, J. 

Brady, Sir Antonio 

Brassey, Thomas, M.F., Mfmdir\jj^^^^ 
ofChmea ., ,JHs^in«t 



Beaumont, Somerset A, M.P. .. Wakefield 

Beflsemer, Henry, Mmi»r of OomeU 

Bodkin, Sir W. H. {A»sUt..Judg9), Vict-Prm. 

Bourne, Lt.-Col. James, M.P. . . Eveeham 

Brocklehuret, WUliam C, M.P. . . Maocleafield 

Brooke, Edward, Auditor 

Brooke, William 

Brooks, William Ganlifie, M.P. Cheshire (E) 

OampbeU, Archibald, M.D. 

Carpenter, WiUiam B., M.D., LLJ)^ F.&B. 

Carter, Robert, J. P. 

Cassels, Andrew, M$mh0r of Oo^mcU, 

Cawley, Charles Edward, M.P. . . SalfOTd 

Churchill, Lord Alfred, Member of OnmeiL 

Clarke, Hyde, M§mher ff Cbtmeil, 

aements, R. G., F.R-Q.S. 

Cockerell, W. 

Cole, Hemy, C.B., rieo-Frea, 

I ole, Rev. A. R.. M.A. 

Colmaa, Jeremii^ James, M.P. . • Norwioh 

Cooper, Sir Danial, Bart, Vieo-Frm. 

Dalrymple, Dr. Donald, M.P. .. BaA. 
De L'lsle & Dudley, Lord, Vioe-Fru, 
Denman, Lord 

Dickinson, Sebastian 8., M.P. . . Btrovid 
DittM^ Sir Charles W., Bart, M.P. Chekea 

Dioisdale, Robert, M.P Hertford 

Dixon, George, M.P Birmingham 

Dodds, JoMph, M.P. . . . . . . Stockton 

Donnelly, Maj<^, R.E., Memhmr tf O o umtiL 

Drax, John 8. W. S. E., M.P. . . Wareham 

Du Cane. Major E. F., R.E. 

Dude, Earl of 

Dyk«s W. H., M.P. .. ... .. Kent (Bfid.) 

Eardley-Wilmot, Major-General F., R.A, F.RS., CU\ 

man of the Couna'l. 
Eastwick, Edward B., M.P., . . Penryn 4 FalMorf 
Ebury, Lord 

Edwards. Henry, M.P., . . . . Weymouth. 
Egerton. Hon. Wilbraham, M.P. Cheahire (Mid.) 
Ev(«ns, C. J. 
Exeter, Marquis of 
Filliter, Freeland 
Finnie, William, M.P. 
Fitz-G«>ra]d, Rt Hon. Loid O. ) 

A.,M.P j 

Fitzwilliam, W. S. 

Forater, Charles, M.P. 

Forteseue, Earl 

Fortescue, Hon. Dudley F., M.P Andover. 

Fowler, R.N., M.P Penryn. 



AyisMre (N.) 
Eildare Coaniy. 

WalssO. 



Gower, Lord Ronald Lev6eoB,M.P. Svtiieriaiidskire 



. . 



. . 



. . 



Gray, Lieut-Col. W., M.P. 
Hambro, Charles J. T., M.P. . 
Hardwicke, Admiral the Earl of 
Hawee, WiUinm. Vie^FToa. 
Henderson. J<»hn, M.P. 
Henry, MiUhell, M.P. 
Henry, J. Snowden, M.P. 
Hick, John, MP. 
Holdsworth, John James 
Holland, Samuel, M.P. 
HeskynSi Chancba Wien, M.P. 
Howaid, JaiaeB, M.P. 
Hutt Right Hon. Sir Wm., 

K'O.B., M.P. • a 
Kinnuvd, Lord 
Laird, John. M.P. 
Lancaster, John. M.P. 
Lawrence, Edwin, Trtantrer, 
Immefx^ Lord Henry Geoige 0. \ 

G., M.P., Vice-Firga, > 

Lichfield, Earl of 
Longford, Earl of 
LyttelUMH Loid 



. • 



« . 



. . 



) 



BoltoB. 
Weymouth. 



Ditfham. 
Galway. 

LdBOMhirt (S.B.; 

BoltoD. 

Merionethfhire. 

Hereford. 

Badfbfd. 

-OsUfliMi^ 

Birkenhead- 
Wigsn. 

Cbiobeiter. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF AKTS, Fsbet^let 26, 1878. 



259 



McAiCkw, Wnikm, M J". . • ,. Lambeth. 

IbClHB, J. R., M.P. Suiffbrdshire (E.) 

Mrl^gM, Peter, H.P. « • • • f JwHihgoir. 

IQkr, JokB, M.D. 

Mariey, 8aia ae l» M.P.. . .. •• Bnatol. 

Odpuumj, Viee-Admind EiMnnu, C.B., F.R^, Mmitr 

OKfliD, Vieoaaiit 

PM, Adminl the Bight Hon. Lord Chaenoe, SLaB., 

itey, Lore Jooei, M.P. . . Oemarvonahire. 

Fmm» JoMph WhitwoU, M JP. .. Durham (8.) 

Pbtttf, T. B^ liLP Bochdale. 

BavhiiMo, im.:Geii. Sir Henry, K.C3., Vtm^Prft. 

BawhMOO, Bobert, C.B., ifinM^ o/ CbipnW/. 

Bedgnve, Semuel, Vie^Prm, 

fiofm, Ber. WiUiam, VU9-Pru, 

tmm^ Earl K.G. 

8t David'a. Biriiop of 

Sabjoiona, Sir Dtevid, Bart, M.P. Qreenwioh. 

SaroJwo, BemhArd, M.P. . . Banbury. 

Saye and 6eK Lend 

Sbott Etobaoa J. 

Sodth, W. H., M.P. Westmineter. 

9|Ma,B.J. 

SlauMuu, Jaaiae C., M.P. . . . . Sonth Shielda. 

SloM, J. B^ C^irman fd the CJorporation Art GkJlery 

lad ladoatrial Mnacnm Committee, Birmingham, 
filnight, DoQgUs, M.P. . . . . Shrewsbtuy. 
aUnfB, Li0at.-Ck*L A., F.B^, Mfmber of OouneU. 
flitelaid, Doke of 

nte, air Wiliiun, C.B., M.P. . . Bath. 
TtewB. Ueat.-CoL Sir Bobert \ n«^v„M^ 

IUMJ>.K.aM.a... .. } Cambridge. 
I^Ul, £. Ckrfeton, Membm- of Qmneil. 
Twmaf, ThofSB^ Vie»'Pres. 
VnleT, Oom^oa, F.B.M.S. 
Vugtao, Henry 
Tna, Locd 
¥aid, W. a^ Chairman of Sdiool of Art Committee, 

KflttJagham. 
Win^ Juaee T^ AwHior. 
Wartbwy. Loid 
WmteiiMter, Marqais of 
WktBHn, Jamea, M.P. . . . . Maidatone. 
Wldttinfiun, Bev. B. 

VhitvcU, John, M.P Kendal. 

Wihon, £«rl of 

Wiigidd, Sir Charlea, M.P. . . OraTeeend. 

^wk, Archbiflhop of 

Tcoff, Fralaxiek 

Zellaad, Eaxl of 



FiocESBnros of the societt. 



nmiA oomiTTXx 

Aeonferenoe took place onFriday, Febraary 14ih, 
^jor-Q^neral Nxjthall in the chair. Mr. J. H. 
Stogqusleb opened ^e diaouBsion with a second 
Fsper, supplementing the prerions one, on — 

PBOGBESS IN INDIA. 

la Iht piper which I had the privilege of reading in 
"■kaO, I pc ccnari ly left untouched eeveral subjeota of 

Ciatereat in oo&Declion with the advance that had 
^ Bade in aoWng the problem of good government 
^Ms, baoauae it waa deanrable that my hearers and 
dioaM not be wonied with fignrea and details. 



I am flattered and pleaaed in being inrited to reanme the 
Bubject, for I may now hope to render it as complete as 
the information aeoeegihle to me will pwmit. 

In the letter from Mr. Edwin Cbad wick, whidi the 
aecretary, Mr. Foater, read to the meeting, it was justly 
Temarked that any aoootmt of the progress of Indki 
would ftdl short in a foremost element which should 
omit to set forth the sanitary progress made aa a 
guarantee and pix>mise of future sdvanceein the improve- 
ment of the phyatoal and moral oondition and the nro- 
dootive power of the population. I was quite sensible of 
the omiasion in my paper of any mention of the sani- 
tation of the past fourteea yaars, but it was unavoidable, 
tor I did not obtain access to the liitest report of the 
measurea adopted to remove or check disease until two 
days after the meeting. If I had merely given the iwAi^ 
aa far aa they had fallen into my possession, I shoukl 
have ftdled to render justice to the untiring efforts of tito 
government and its omoera down to the middle of the past 
year. 

Another point, to which little or no reference was made 
in the former p iper, concerned the water communications 
and irrigation of the land, aflRsdiog aa they do the com- 
merce and agricnlUire, and, therefore, the reveaues of 
the country. Here, also, I was at fault, or lacked a 
sufficiency of information. I trust now, in some measure^ 
to supply the past deficiencies. 

For some weeks past there has been considerable 
ferment in political cirdea respecting the ulterior 
purposes of Busaia in her advance upon the Khanate of 
Kbiva. The impreasiun is strong that this is only one 
step further in the attempt to accomplish a long- 
cherished object — that of the invasion of British India. It 
is merely a revival of the old bui^bear which periodically 
awakens apprehension in the East, and in which I for 
one cannot nhare. 

But there is really a danger in Bussian advances into 
Central Asia, which it is not prudent to ignore. The 
nattvee of India, iterant generally of geog^phy, 
unaware of our military faculty of reeistance, acquainted 
through their histories, tn^tions, and ballada with the 
successful inrottds and usurpations of Mahmood the 
Ohuanevide, Zinghis Khan, Timour Leng, and B^ber^ 
will believe in the probability and success of a Bussian 
invasion, so loni^ aa we allow ourselves to apprehend 
it, and withhold from them the means of gaining the 
knowledgfe which would diaabuae them of this idea, an 
idea which will always furnish a weapon to the disloyal 
against the British ng, whenever opportunity occurs lor 
its display. 

ilence it becomes a duty we owe, alike to ourselves 
and to the people of India, that the qualitv of the 
civilisation we offer shall be of the most solid and exalted 
character compatible with our means, consistent with 
our reputation for intelligence and integrity, and ap- 
parently the beat calculated to confer happiness upon the 
ruled. Opinions are, of cour8f>, antagonistic relative to 
the most effectual method of enli»{htening the natives of 
India. " Kducate them — cover the country with a net- 
work of schools,*' says one class of earnest advocates of 
improvement, ''and begin with the higher classes;" 
" educate the people by all means," cry another body of 
patriots and philanthit>pists, ** but begin with the lower 
classes, and work upwards ;" '* teach them English in the 
first instance," exclaim tome enthusiasts; '* leave Englieli 
to the last, and b*'gin with the vernacular," urge their 
zealous opponents; ''let the morals of the people be your 
primary object of consideration," aay many anient friends 
of the advancement of the masses; "give them the 
sdiencps first, and their capacity to receive moral truths 
will follow as certainly as the day follows the night," is 
the doctrine maintained by many more. This last pro- 
position is admirably put by Mr. Arthur Howell, of tiie 
Bengal Civil Service, in an address to the Social 
Science Association, at Calcutta, in March, 1870 : — 
'* It should be remembered," says Mr. Howell, " that 
although the government system does not directly im- 



260 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Febeuaey 28, 1873. 



part the principles of Christiamly, yet the whole course 
is negatively Christian, in that it excludes everything to 
which Christianity is opposed. I would go further, and 
maintain that instruction in the natural sciences, which 
should form an important part of the curricula of our 
schools, will make the first breach whereby the armies of 
truth will march into the strongholds of supnerstition, 
and so give the best, and, indeed, the only aid to the 
missionary Uiat the government can give without the 
slightest deviation from its strict policy of neutrality." 

I do not see why all the systems proposed should not 
be tried at one and the same time. In fact, the govern- 
ment appear to me to act upon the principle already, for 
do they not establish and encourage schools for the high 
and the lowly P Are not English and the vernacular 
simultaneonsfy taught ? And does not a study of the 
natural sciences inevitably tend to the destruction of the 
geograpMcal theories on which the faith of the Hindu 
is built, and so open bis mind to the contemplation of a 
religion in which the culture of the heart takes prece- 
'dence of the inculcation of ceremonial virtues, and the 
observance of forms of penance P But enthusiastic 
Christian friends of the people, wlfb deem the eternal 
beatitude of their proteges of more consequence than 
their mundane prosperity, insist upon the priority of 
moral teaching. They speak with the courage of con- 
viction. A noble audacity overides their discretion. 

'* Hitherto," says a writer in the Calcutta Review, 
'^ the religion of all the countries which have attained 
the highest civilisation has been some form or another of 
Christianity, and clearly this circumstance is not merely 
matter of accident. The principles of living and the 
motives to intellectual activity which are characteristic 
of Christianity must necessarily have place in an advanced 
progressive civilisation." 

Acting upon this dogma, we should approach the 
threshold of proselytism, and alarm the consciences of 
the pupils and their parents. Besides, we raise a dis- 
putable question among ourselves as to the beet form of 
instruction and conversion. ** Your orthodox v is not my 
orthodoxy; your morality is not my morality, ' argue the 
champions of that kind of preferential teaching. 

Now, I do not pretend to anjr pet theories of my own 
on any of these points of diflFerence — though I may 
have my preference — but there is one measure in connec- 
tion with the civilisation of the people on which I do 
not think sufficient stress has been laid — I mean the edu- 
•cation of the women of India. I hold that to be the 
grand preliminary to the enlightenment of the men — the 
great fulcrum on which^he lever of their moral elevation 
must rest. 

It has been said — indeed, it may be affirmed every 
day, and Englishmen have happily the means at hand 
of endorsing the assertion — that in moral influence 
woman is unquestionably superior to man. *' Woman's 
character produces a wider and more powerful impression 
on man than man's character on woman. She makes 
him better or worse, according as she is good or bad, for 
what she is he more or less becomes. Where women 
are educated and trained to virtuous habits, men rise in 
Hie scale of civilisation ; where women are cribbed and 
confined, shut out from the gateways of knov^'ledge, and 
treated mainly as the ministers to man's lusts, man 
deteriorates and decays." Now, though the women of 
India have very much descended from the position they 
oecnpi^ in social life before the Mahomedan had planted 
his foot at Lahore or Delhi, and the terrible Mahratta 
horsemen had spread desolation in provinces, and up- 
rooted domestic relations in a thousand quarters, we may 
hope that the elements of goodness, and even of great- 
ness, still abide in their gentle bosoms. If the Hindu 
men will not accept the moral tenets of Christianity, let 
them take to the study of their own teachers in respect 
to the sex. It is one of the most commendable features 
of the institutes ^ of Menu, that the peculiar care of 
woman is invariably inculcated. He insists upon 
tenderness and affection, and denounces violence in 



emphatic langua|fe. Other sages have followed in hia 
footsteps. *'Stnke not, even with a blossom, a wife 
guilty of a hundred faults." And these and similar 
manly injunctions had their fruits in giving women 
their proper position and influence. Several of them, 
placed by the accidents of birth in the possession of 
power, manifested great wisdom and aoministrmtive 
ability. We read tbat in the thirteenth, seventeenth, 
and eighteenth centuries women reigned; and, in contra- 
diction to the axiom that **when women rrign men 
govern," those females jealously kept the reins in their 
own hands. The reign of Ahalya B^, a Uahratta 
woman, of superior mind, occupies one of the bxightest 
pages in Indian history. For thirty vears she governed 
many millions ; and Sir John Malcolm, than whom no 
one had more closely studied the history of the people of 
Central India, said of her, " She appears to have been 
one of the purest and most exemplary lulers that ever 
existed, and affords a striking example of the practical 
benefit a mind may receive from performing worldly 
duties under a deep sense of responsibility to ita 
Creator." Other examples might be cited of able 
female rulers. The Begum Sumroo, who died some five- 
and-thirty years ago, had many fine qualities ; and the 
present B?gum of Bhopal, with whom Lord Northbrook 
has lately had an interview, is a veir superior person. 

But in spite of institutes and dogmas, injunctions, 
entreaties, and threats — in spite of the protection afforded 
by the British govemment^notably in the abolition of 
suttee and the suppression of the cruel practice of 
female infanticide, which touched the tenderest cliord in 
woman's nature, the women of the East have unquestion- 
ably fallen from their ancient estate, and receive hard 
measure at the hands of their lords and masters. It is 
an ascertained fact that in 1871 there were no fewer 
than 244 cases of wife murder in India—not amomgst 
tho lower classes and violent Mahomedans only — but 
amongst the Brahmin and Bajpoot castes, who are told 
in the M&h&barhat that *'of all sins killing women is 
most heinous." 

Let us eflace this monstrous outrage ; let us raise the 
Hindu and Mahomedan women from their abject and 
degraded condition, and convert them into mighty in- 
struments for the intellectual and moral elevation of 
their fellow- creatures. How this is best to be accom- 
plished will be a subject well worthy the attention of 
the government, and not lees befitting the ministers of 
oar Queen than other noble acts of statesmanship. I 
believe that if English and American ladies of the 
Nightingale and Carpenter stamp were encouraged to 
acquire a philological knowleage of Hindoetanee, 
Guzeratte, Tamul, or Mahratta, to begin with — leaving 
a colloquial acquaintance with one or other of the lan- 
guages to a later period, and amidst the opportunities oi 
direct inttrcourse with the people — they would soon fit 
themselves to undertake the direction of native fenaale 
schools. And if the Government would apply the niag- 
nifying- glasses of an enh'ghtened statecraft to the claitr s 
of the educators, make them a liberal allowance in pro- 
motion of their studies, send them out to India in a 
manner befitting their lofty mission, and give them 
handsome salaries, there is no doubt that a firm foun- 
dation would be speedily established for the civilisaticn 
of the whole empire. The position and duties of 
govemefses and schoolmistresses in England have not 
been sufiiciently honoured to impart much zeal to my 
countrywomen in the work of education, l.ut during a 
five years' residence in the United States of America, 1 
was in the habit, almost daily, of visiting the public 
schools, and there beheld numerous ladies of gentle birth 
and breeding engaged in the solemn duty ot imparting 
to thousands of their own sex the rudiments of material 
knowledge, and impressing upon them the value of moral 
conduct in the affairs of life. From among such women 
— if our own country does not supply the adequate ^wr* 
tonnel — man^ admirable instructresses might be selected. 
For some time past the American mission in Burmah 



JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pmruabt 28, 1873. 



261 



m eijoyvd the eo-oporation of nicb penons, and I 
heGr« Um ranlU h^ve been rery faTonrable. 

I «0v spanMdi the sabjeot of sanitary improyements 
rinrii ber Sii^ettv's government have very properly 
wiqiA eo d ed in their acheme of jprog^reas. 

Img the great wars of the French Revolation the 
IfatXipokoo vas m%de responsible for all the evils that 
Aetad Ea^and. The wit^ authors of the "Rejected 
Uirtam ' ask— 

" Wbo makes ibt qii»rteni lo&f mod Luddites rise f 
Wiio uns the batciten* shops with large bloe flies !" 

laaifiarte,of coarse. 

"* Bmc Boaa|«rte, filled with deadly ir^ 
itU one by one the play houses on fire !* 

iii bt too, caused all the fogs, the storms, and the 
tkrrbititioiis of nature, as weU as the enhanced price 

5oir, I win not go the length of saying that the 
sttci of the goremment of India ascribe to tide Viceroy 
•I Serrctviit of State all the mischiefs of which the 
pti no himself is the real author, but they certainly 
Dsader them bound to mitigate the evil resulting from 
Saitic iofloiAces ; and those authorities have cheerfully 
m^aised the obligation. 

bwcmld be a *^ tedious difficulty" to ^o back to the 
fmad when the people and the troops in India were 
MnntiTely uncart for. Health statistics were not 
■aa IB ro^e prior to the mutiny of 1857, and for two 
r three yetn subsequent to that disastrous occurrence 
IftBCB faSered from the miserable accommodation in 
iMib^of barracks tliat had hastily been run up to 
MM ttie exigenciea of £he moment. So large an influx 
tf EBTopein troops had never been anticipated. From 
itjnr 1860 only can we, therefore, date the introduc- 
baof That has been appropriately called 'sanitation' 
knfiTence to the European troops. At a later period 
ftOtremment Sanitary Uommission was created, which 
0fisd itadf to the formation of municipal bodies in 
ii^ towns, and the establishment of a system of 
psanl purification. 

b ii tuinecossary to go into any details as to the 
insMBpIojed at the instance of the Commission, and, 
Mqnia dmUy of that body, by the medical officers of 
isirn^, to prevent or mitigate disease among the 
HDRy. 

^Dnuiay, cleanliness, diet, clothing, all had their 
PM in the S'lnittfy operation, and here we note the 
**^ In 1861 there were nearly 24 deaths per 
PMrnd men from cholera, five-and-a-half per thousand 
^■dracntcry and diarrhoea, and six -and- three-quarters 
M Uwt, In I860 the cholera deaths had fallen to 
;•» tad one-tenth. Five years later (1870) they had 
Macei to less than one in a thousand, while the 
from bowtd complaints had been reduced to two 
^^tbotttind. Fevers, however, had remained stationary 
ij*|»fh«jt the decade. It seems impossible to check 
,*«,(brthey are the inevitable result of the tempora- 
ls apoeore, and personal excesses. Indeed, a new 
l"Jsof ferer, called dengue, of unaccountable origin, has 
s^m the last few months visited each Presidency, 
•■fflf onch saffering without destroying human life. 

Is th« chief towns of India, and especially the presi- 

"^ cities, much had been accomplished through the 

l ^yr ^^ the munieipalities. A better system of 

I gy gg was introduced. The cremation of the dead 

I gfa of Hindus had been brought within proper 

I **■■'* obscured from view, instead of being exhibited 

* ■• bsakt of riven and the seashore, ofifending alike 

y^ist ni the nostrils of the citizens. Large numbers 

^**i(ui and scaveng^en were employed to remove 

^ w other offensive accumulations in the streets, 

**jfcjt the floating carcases of those pious Hindus 

JjMId been cast into tbe Hooghly ; and care had been 

' iifepfove the channels which conveyed drinking 

^^ abodes of men. The rate of mortality con- 

declined; and in a very recent exhaustive 



publication it is stated, ''The Calcutta of 1861, probably 
the most unsanitary city in the world, differs most 
essentially from Calcutta in 1871, which bears fiivourable 
comparison with London, and actuallv exceeds in healthi- 
ness some of the principal cities in England." Similar 
statements are made in reference to Madras. In ten 
years, sickness, according to actual returns, had been 
reduced by one-half of its original prevalence, and deaths 
by three-fourths. Bombay has been less fortunate, 
owing chiefly to indifferent drainage ; still it is shown 
conclusively that the annual mortality stood at one 
death in every 25 persons in 1864, and at one in 40 
in 1871. 

It were much to be desired that similar favourable state* 
ments could be advanced in regard to the millions 
occupying the country districts. The melancholy truth, 
however, remains, that the people continue in almost 
precisely the same condition thev were in a hundred 
years ago, and in some districts have changed for the 
worse. Epidemics of disease and endemical disorders 
continue to afflict the multitudes, and the scourge will 
not cease while they are permitted to make their dwel- 
lings and the ground about them, and the reservoirs 
whence they draw their water supplies, receptacles for 
every form of filth. How they are to be checked is the 
problem. There are thousands of villages scattered over 
the empire, and it is supposed that it would require an 
immense augmentation to the strength of the police and 
a well-organised and vigilant health-preserving establish- 
ment to control the actions of the inhabitants. The ex- 
Sense would be enormous, but even with a debt of one 
undred millions sterling pressing on the resources of 
the country it must somehow be mcurred. I am sure 
the government is impressed with its urgency ; but I 
humbly think that if, instead of applying the revenue to 
the structure of elaborate works to promote effectual 
drainage, more advantage were taken of the materials 
which nature has plac^ at our command, the effect 
would probably be better and the cost contemptible. 
Why should it not be obligatory upon the head men of 
the villages to cause excavations to be made, a short 
distance from the dwellings of the ]>eople, cast every 
kind of filth into them, and then cover them with the 
earth that had been displaced? This would utterly 
prevent impure exhalations and, at the same time, fer- 
tilise the soil. We boast now of our latrines, and it was 
considered a great advance in sanitary matters when a 
patent was taken out, a few ^ears since, for machines 
adapted to domestic purposes, in which pulverised earth 
did the duty which water had previously performed. 
But if we look into Deuteronomy, chap, xxiii. and verses 
12 and 13, we shall find that expedients were employed 
in the time of Moses, on exactly the same principle, and 
with an avowed sanitary and respectful object. In the 
rainy season the water would form a decomposing 
agent in the same pits; and where neither water 
nor earth are susceptible of application, surely fire 
might be called into action profitably? Heaps of 
offS, ordure, decayed vegetation, fish-bones, and 
other refuse, might be heaped up and converted into 
a bonfire, at least once a week, at the simple expense 
of a lucifer match and a very little labour. If the con- 
flagration evolved some noxious gases they would neither 
be so offensive nor so perilous as the malaria engendered 
by the preserved filth. However, these are speculations 
to which Science might oppose objections, and it may 
be presumptuous on my put to throw them out. But I 
believe in well-directed efforts of any kind. Call me an 
optimist if you will. I am content to hold to the doc- 
trine enunciated by the pedant in Voltaire— 2bii/ ett 
pour U mieux dans ce meiiUur de mondes powibles. 

It has been objected that the cotton trade of India 
still languishes, and that a possible competition with the 
United States of America is impeded by the want of 
adequate water and other carriage. It would be abject 
flattery to say that the government of India has done aU 
that can be accomplished in the conBtruction of canals. 



L. ,.,.._ 



262 



JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Pbbrdart 28, 1873. 



xoadfl, and railways. The &ct stares yu in the fiuM that 
only about one-fourth of the surface of India is yet col- 
tiratedy owing, as Colonel Kennedy has well put it *, 
to the deficiency of reads for the conveyance of produoe 
to market. But my purpose is, and has been, not so 
much to point out what remains to be done, but to dempn- 
■trate that much more has been accomplished under the 
new order of things than the government has had credit 
for with the British public generally. It wns, if my 
recollection serves me, some tmie in 1841 or 1842, that 
that sturdy old soldier, Sir Oharles Napier, riding over 
some of the cotton districts, and meeting a few crasy 
carts laden with bales of cotton, which the cacti and 
other thorny plants caught occasionally in their fond 
embrace, exclaimed^ **How short-sighted is the East 
India Compnoy's government in delaying to make 
proper roads for the conveyance of the cotton to the sea- 
board ! Cotton is the Englidiman's strength, yet he 
looks to foreigners for his supply when he might have it 
from his own pix>vinces. One of these days America 
will play the Dalilah and cut off Sampson's hair. 
Some great moral convulsion, or a failure of crops, will 
stop the supplies, and the spindles and looms of 
Manchester will cease to work. Then tiie govern- 
ment of India will sit on the stool of repentance — 
a little too late." The old soldier was an 
inspiied proj^et. Twenty^ years later the Southern 
States seceded from the Union. The Northerners block- 
aded Charleston, Savannah, and New Orleanv, and the 
receipts at the ports fell from 3,656,086 bales in 1861 to 
1,960,000 in 1866. That great rebellion was India's op> 
portunity, but the scantiness of the means of communi- 
cation with the seabord prevented her seising it it the 
critical moment. GhivemmHits, like individuals, aro only 
taught by bitter experience. The lesson was not lost 
upon the rulers of India, for we find that the exports of 
ootton to England, which amounted in 1630 to only 
80,810 bales, and had reached no higher than 350,838 in 
1858, absolutely attained in 1869 to double tiiat number of 
bales. This could not have been fAte case if there had not 
been some diligent road-making. It is within my own 
recollection — ^now dating forty years back — that there 
were only three or four cotton screwsor presses in Bombay. 
At this momert there are actually 19 cotton press com- 
panies in the district and in Deccan and Guserat, with 
presses at work, besides several spinning associations, 170 
with 220,000 spindles in operation ; and nearly all these 
companies pay good dividends, lliese facts sufficiently 
indicate the presence of raw cotton ; and the logical de- 
duction is that carriage had been provided for it. But 
the government did not stop short in 1869. The con- 
struction of roads continued, coevally with sgricuHoral 
improvement, and by the latf<>8t returns the exports from 
India amounted to 117,696.128 pounds of raw cotton. 

In spite of all t^is manifest effort in a right direction, 
however, the government is alive to the nece^ity of 
energetically pushing forward the means of transport. 
With a defi( it of direct revenue from the ordinary sources 
it is difficult to provide for all the great undertakings 
planned and in course of execution, but exp* nditure is 
the inevitable condition precedent of profit, and England 
and India must patiently bear with the immediate sacri- 
fice. America, with her wonted elasti<ity, has recovered 
herself. The estimate of her receipts of raw cotton at 
the different ports for the current year amounts to 
8,700,000 bales^ — more than was produced in 1860 — a 
striking proof, by the way, of the fallacy of all the argu- 
ments in favour of negro slavery. The *' coloured man " 
works more bravely in a state of freedom than he could 
possibly have laboured in his shackled condition. With 
such a competitor we must nerve us for a mighty task. 
But we need not despair; albeit the relative difttances from 
these shores of America and India will always fiive the 
former an advantage in the markMs, let alone the better 
quality of the staple. 

• Report of Colonel J. p. Kt'pnedv on Railway Gange, cooaldered 
te relation to Iba bulk and it«lght of good* to b« conveyed. 



Let US now take a retroqiective glance at the opera- 
tions of road-makiflg during the past 14 years, ax&d on 
the exertions used in that period found our hopes of the 
fnturo. 

In 1858 there were 4,690 miles of flrst-class rosds, mad 
M,716 miles of second-class roads opened in India for 
trafiELc Atthat time the principal railwayshad not reaclked 
600 miles in length. As I stated in my former paper, there 
are now over 6,000 miles of railway in actual w o r kii ig 
order, and nearly 3,000 miles in course of com^letioii. 
This has, of course, in some measure interfered with the 
structure of ordinary roads — ^they have become leas neces- 
sary — but it must not be deemed a retrogression, or even a 
delay, in the progress of internal communication. We have 
now, or shall have in a year or two, actually thirty -ei^ht 
thousand miles of road, in one form or another, tra vera- 
able by passengers or traffic in every direction. It has 
been pleasantly said — ** mauvaise pluiaantene** would more 
appropriately designate the assertion — that the conveni* 
enoe of the military has been considered at the expense 
of cotton and other produoe. I maintain that the ikw of 
self-preservation justifies any measure that would accele- 
rate miUtary movements at a great crisis. Of what avail 
would be all the endeavours to promote sdenoe, a^^onl'- 
ture, and commerce, and advance civilisation, if ^re 
exposed ourselves to the risks of another rebellion or to 
foreign aggression from any quarter P Of whftt use 
would be t^ the means adopted for carrying produce to 
the markets, whether in India or Europe, if oar armies 
were not brought promptly to threatened points to re- 
press disorder, prevent wholesale plunder, or ^h^fir 
iuTasion? 

have spoken only of land transport and travel. Let 
uft see what has been done in respect to water carriac^ 
Ai i in speaking of this we shall necessarily touch irpon 
another great subject — the irrigation of the land. Xn a 
paper recently read before the Institution of Civil 
Engineers, Colonel Greathed, of the Hoyal Cngineczs, 
treated of irrigation in India so exhaustively that I 
could say little which has not been anticipated by that 
distinguished officer, if I were to attempt to enter into 
minute details. 

Nature has done something for India in supplying her 
with noble rivt-rs. the Gunges (the Holy Gunga of tK^ 
Hindus), the Jumna, the Neibudda, the Godavery, the 
Kistna, the BrHhmapootra, the Irrawaddy*, nzid othecs, 
whidi run in every direction of the wide continent, hut 
th(*y have been insufficient, even with the addition oif 
htrndrtds of large tanks and wells which receive 
the annual falls of rain, to supply the wants of 
the people find protect them from the eonwqut-^&cea of 
occasional droughts. At a very early period of the history 
of the country, canals were dug by the native rxUers, 
but from neglect or indifferent archit* cture th(*y appear 
to have become <-hoked up or to have fallen into deeiiettKie. 
Engineer talent has beui employed in cleaneing^ and 
reopening many of these canals with ezc< Ilent « fiec^ 
The greatest works under the Mogul princes would seem 
to have been contemptible when conifared with what 
has been accomplii»hed by the £ngli^h. The Brmt of 
theee latter great woiks are the Ganges CanaK It -wsa 
projected by Colonel Colvin, of the Bengal £i>giiie««M 
and the project whs by him beqneath<'d to the late Sir 
Proby Cautley. This was in 1836. 8ir Pioby Cautley 
aaw the advantage of the schtme, and it wa» hro«i»lxt 
under the consideration of the government for the time 
being, but the ordinary official delayp, coupkd with 
unforseen difficultiee, retarded the exe* uti«<n of the 'Wcrh 
and it was not iintil 1848 that the oi^emtions of the spad^ 
and the pick commenced. In 1854 the ciuia] w^i^ 
opened, and at the expiration of the year 1S66<67 the 
Ganges Canal consisted of 663 miles of main caoiai 
2,968 Utiles of distributing channels. That CMnal 
the state £2.196,676, but m 1867 it yielded hd" 
of £ .6.250, whii'h exceeded the receij»\s of the _ 
year by 11} per cent. The distiibutories are n^w S,07l 
miles in length, and water 767,000 aoicsi, in opu^y^f 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, FntLVAXt 38, 1873. 



2 5 



o£ (,<KN) vilUir^t* Fniilier improTementB are in 
ftogtrntf and Colonel Gkeathed compotea that after 
a fxpcwiitnre of five miUiona sterlmg, the canal, in 
oiajaiictaon with that of another, calleid the Eastern 
Jutna, will yield 13 per cent The yield ia nearly 
tttt per centaf e at this moment. Nomerotn worka of 
hmu magnitode hare followed upon the oonatmotion 
ti the great Ghmges CanaL The main object of 
all theae canala and their diatrihntoriea hae been 
tki iirigatitfn of the anrroandinp^ country, in Tiew 
lo the acocJienitioo of production, and the protection of 
tU people froao the fiuninea conaeqnent upon droughts. 
An examination of the works thus pknoed, either 
flarriid oat, or in oonrae of ezecntion, would scarcely be 
McsplaUe, aeoDg that Colonel Greathed has presented 
a ?«iy comidade Hmtmd of the whole affair. Suffice to 
•jTf th«t the entire aoope of the operationa of the 
gOTamaiant in utilising tiie (dd and oonatruoting new 
QHwK in applying the watera of lakes to pnrpoaea of 
inigatioo, ia aaaiiHng public oompanies to comf^ete 
catcrpriws for which their own capital waa found inauf- 
fiMBt, in widening and improTing harbours (eapeoially 
that of Kumchee), in clearing channels, snsh aa the 
FaanWaai, eatobliahing lighthonaea, and extending the 
■nAihiesi of the eleotno telegrHph, the government of 
ladia haa triumphantly vindicated ita diuni to be con- 
adored the eameat friend of oommeroe, and the promoter 
U the geaeral intereata of the millions of human beings 
soaBitted to its charge. 



DISCUSSION. 

Xr. lAviA Chadwiek said— I am glad to find that the 
Jutice of the representations contained in my letter, 
read at the last conference, has met with acknowledg- 
ment — Tis^ that any account of the general progress of 
India would be incomplete which omitted to notice the 
progrcsg already made, and still to be made, in sanitary 
uBproTemf nt ; and that the great importance of thia sub- 
ject has been recognised. I now beg to adduce some 
additional &cts in support of the position I took in my 
letter read at the last conference, as to the possibility of 
the preaerration of the health and strength of the 
clnJdren of European pnrents, and aa to there being 
saaitiry conditioos in which the settlement of British 
finniltes would be possible in India. I also feel mvself 
cxQed apon to say something on the foundation of the 
compUiuta nude of the general want of due recognition 
Bad enoiiuntgement to zealous s«nita&ry serTice, now 
nore than ever needed for the conservation of infant and 
baify life, te induce a higher quality of volunteering, 
wveatly required for subordinate civil as well aa 
i&iutary aervice, and to counteract the attraotiona of 
nore healthy dimes. The proof I adduced of the 
hattET preservation of infantine life being practicable, 
from the fact of its being done, aa shown by the 
complete example given by Dr. Fuyrer, appears to have 
nrpnwd arime old Indiana, and not to have been ac- 
c^iad by them, because it waa not in accordance with 
tMir observation. It is not to be conceded that their 
observatioos limit the applicationa of sanitary acienoe. 
I laigbt, if there were tune and opportunity for ita col- 
kctiou, adduce much further evidence on thia point. I 
now salmiit, however, some obtained from the very ez- 
teonve practical experience of Dr. Mouat, in Bengal, 
In answer to an inquiry of mine^ he writes as foUows: — 

** Daaa If a. Ckabwhul, — You aak me for informaUen 
«ftha health of children ia the pl^ns of Bengal, and of 
iha aioctali^ reduced in the prisoas of the same presi- 




Ihava 




the iS»rmsr, I am sorry not to have the 

ftipses availabb for imoMdiate refersnee, and 

tame to hunt for them among the mass of 

aad observationa which I imnnmulaUd dnring my 

nffciigl oasen in Tt*^*^t 



<* I was for aome yean a manager or governor of tks 
great Military Orphan Schoola at Alipese aad Kiddsr- 
pore, and of the Free Sduxd in Cwlcutta. In all of 
theee institotions there were children of European 
parentage, pure blood, and (duldrea of mixed parentage, 
the latter clasa predominating. My experieoee, writing 
from memory, fuUy bears oiS the conclusions arrivnl at 
by Dr. Fayrer, from the more limited field of obeervation 
preaented by the Europeaa Orphan Asylum, to which 
ids remarks apply. 

** In my pHper on the British soldier in India, read 
before the Boyal United Servioe Inatitution, and in my 
rough notes of a trip to B^union and Mauritius, I have 
mentioned the conditions in which European life in the 
tropics msy be maintained at a high standard, and health 
be preaerved in droumstances apparently inimical to 
both children of Europeaa parentt^ bom in India if 
they are sent from the plains to the hills^ or to Europe 
for education, during the interval betw^n infancy and 
dolesemioe, when they sre amcog Uie heahhteat and most 
vi^cMx>us of their raoe, mentally and physically ; and if 
thia be done— aucceaaion from generation to generation 
may be maintained without a break. 

'* With regard to gaols in Bengal, I am able to give 
you the exact figures. At Monghyr, with an average 
prison population of 564, a mean mortality of 98 per 
1,000 in a quarter of a century waa reduced, in 1871, to 27 
per 1,000. At Bhaugulpore, with a daily average of 44 1, 
the mean mortality of the quarter of a century, from 
1844 to 1868 inclusive, was 161 per 1,000. In 1868 it 
had been reduced to 19 per 1,000. In the presidenoy gaol 
of Calcutta the average death-rate among European 
priaoners in 1871 was 22 per 1,000, sad among native 
prisoneiB 9-3 per 1000. The reduction in the latter rate 
was from an average of 01 per 1000 ia the previous 14 
years. The detailed figures for each year are full of 
mstruction. In the 14 years from June, 1866 to 1868, 
there were 21 deaths from cholera, and but 26 from all 
other dis«'ases, among an annual average of 1 16 prisoners, 
moat of them dissipated and depraved." 

I expect that, by those conversant with sanitary science, 
the proofs that even in climates to some extent malarial, 
the children of British subjects may be conserved, at all 
events to be brought home in large proportions, 
win be considered conclusive. But besides removal 
to suitable hill districts, aa Dr. Mouat suggests, 
I may present the alternative of removal for permanent 
settlement for productive industry to plains and open 
country, under sanitary conditions, annlogoos to one of 
which I beg to present an instance. You may be aware 
that in Algeria the dfeath-rates amongst the French 
soldiers were, snd in many plnces are yet, about the 
same as the old Indian military death-rates — sixty, 
eighty, a hundred and more per thousand of mean force, 
and that the invaliding is in the like proportion. I was 
assured by a French medical officerthat a most devastating 
fover-nest in Algeria had been destroyed, snd the death- 
rate among^ the soldiers reduced to less than one- fourth of 
what it had previously been. I representni the case as 
one to be examined for the sake of our Indian army ; 
but the statement was received by the old military 
authorities with the same incredulity with which we 
have seen the statement of the preservation of 
the European children in India received here. It 
was not in accordance with their experience, and they 
did not believe it, and, although it was attested by the 
Minister of War in France, they would have it that the 
statistics must be incorrect. Lord Ripon, who was 
then Minister of War, however, considered the case to 
be one that ought to be examined, and he directed a 
committee, consisting of Dr. J. Sutherland, of the Indian 
Army SHuitary Commission, Mr. Robert Ellis, president 
of the Sanitary Commission of Madras, Ccjlonel Ewart, 
of the Engineers, and Dr. Logan, to inquire into it. 
The place was a district near Bona, caUed Boufarik. 
For strategic reasons it was thought necessary to occupy 
it in some force, but three bodiss of soldiers and thrw 



264 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Februaky 28, 1878. 



sets of coloniBts had been swept away hj malignant 
fevers. Even the Arabs could not live in it. It fell to 
an engineer, with some light of sanitary science, 
to deal with it. He subsoil-drained it, and put 
it in a state for cultivation, and newly planted it. 
A fresh water supply was brought in for the inhabitants, 
and drainage on correct principles was provided for their 
habitations. The result of this sanitation was, that the 
death-rate of the IVench soldiers was reduced to twelve 
in a thousand, or one-third lower than the death-rate 
prevalent amongst the French army of occupation at 
Rome ; and the improvement was extended in like pro- 
portion to the civil population, >and settlement was well 
ensured. But what, for our present question, was the 
effect in the rearing of children ? The commismoners 
state in their report : — " The first thing that struck us on 
entering the town was the healthy aspect of the people, 
and especially of the children. Indeed, we did not see a 
single person bearing the marks of malsoia; and some we 
saw woidd have been a credit to the healthiest spots in 
England, so far as appearances went." The main condi- 
tion achieved for settlement was this ; that the children's 
birth-rates now exceeded the children's death-rates ; 
whereas before the improvement the children's death-rates 
greatly exceeded thebirth-rate8,a condition in which settle- 
ment and succession is impossible. Mr. Ellis and others 
acquainted with India declared, as I anticipated, that the 
example was of a very general application for India, and 
that it is not enough there to drain the immediate sites of 
barracks, and camps, and cantonments, but that, even for 
mHitaxy occupation, the principles of sanitation must be 
applied to the improvement of the surrounding land, as 
was done in this instance, by opening it up in such 
manner as to avoid injury to the cultivator, and plant it 
with such vegetation as will remove from the^ soil the 
excessive products of decomposition. On this point 
the example is connected for particular examination 
and extended application with the important achiev- 
ment, which I have cited, hj Lord Mark Kerr, in 
getting rid of the old Delhi sore by an improved 
culture. I now beg leave to advert to the common 
obstructions to sanitary progress occasioned by the 
official apathy and discouragement of zeal for^ the 
work. I may observe, with reg^ard to Algeria, as illus- 
trative of the obstructive state of some official minds, 
especially of old military minds, that in that dependency, 
where there is no settlement to speak of, and which was 
in former days the granary of Europe, the country now 
is only a great field of military exercise— and failure, as 
proved in the last war — maintained at an expense of up- 
wards of three millions per annum from the resources of 
France. It might be ima^ned that the example in proof 
of the means of colonisation and relief would have been 
officially regarded with the interest of the discovery of a 
new gold mine — that the governor would have gone in state 
to see it, that all France would have heard of it, that 
the official departments in Algeria would have been put in 
action, and the engineer corps have been required to go in 
for earthworks, for culture and against the incursions of 
epidemics more destructive than hostile Aitibs, and that 
capital and commercial enterprise would be invited to the 
advantages of extended and secure seats of settlement, 
culture, and produce. Nothing of the sort. The achievement 
applicable to some of the most important parts of Algeria 
appears to have fallen dead, and to be sterile of benefit, 
except for the immediate occupants of the small space 
which had been rendered habitable and cultivatable. 
Whether the field marshal of the line, the governor 
general, was slow in seeing merit in the work of any 
officer of the OMie, or whether he had only the common 
notion that the only object of government was the old 
military one of rule by the sword, I cannot say ; but 
Uie great practical demonstration there, has been littie, 
if at all, known in France, and it yet remains unheeded 
for anj extended action. The late Emperor had visited 
Algeria, and had written a paper on me means of im- 
proving its condition by new settiements, and singularly 



he recommended settiement chiefly by Itish and by 
Oeimans— setUcment by Frenchmen having cntirelv 
failed. I saw him at the last meeting of the British 
Association at Brighton, and had some conversation 'with 
him there, on points of sanitary progress in which he had 
taken particular interest, and on which I had very satis- 
factory communications with him whilst serving on tho 
jury of hygiene at the International l^ibition in 1866. 
I referred to this great sanitary case of Boufarik, and 
ascertained that he was cognisant of it. It was not meet 
for me to inquire, and it was only to be pondered o-rer, 
how, by so high an intelligence, distinctions, croases, 
and honours should be exduaiyely reserved for perpetual 
oonfiicts with barbarous and unsettied populations, and no 
notice be taken of the conquest of disease and of the soil, 
and of the achievement of a brilliant demonstration of 
the practicability of successful settiement by French- 
men. I beg to state a parallel instance, in some respectF, 
of operations in India, which, Uiough not condacted 
directiy for sanitary results, displayed means of obtaining^ 
them. Major Dixon, of the artillery, was sent with a 
brigade of force to keep in check some robber tribes of 
a hill district called the Manwarrah, of about the size of 
the Highlands of Scotland, and he found that this robber 
population, like the Highlanders, was impelled to make 
forays on the lowlands, for want of food, and, at certain 
seasons, for want of water and means of cultiva- 
tion. He borrowed money, and employed the people 
in makinflf storage reservoirs, in clearing junglep, 
and in cultivation. He founded nearly 130 villagefi, 
in which he settled the robber population in cx>n* 
ditions of production, in which they could no longer 
afford to thieve. For the sale of their produce a manet 
was necessary, and he founded a town. Instead of ex- 
pending a revenue upon the people, he raised one ; and 
instead of occupying a brigade of force, he raised a bri- 
gade of force from the people there, and that brigade 
was loyal to us during the mutiny. It might have been 
^pected thatit would have received the particular atten- 
tion of a Governor-General, as a feat of administration 
and that attention would be directed to it throughout the 
presidencies as a subject for study and imitation, and, 
amongst other objects, for giving productive occupation 
to much of the force kept rotting in barracks, nanch 
better occupation than idleness even at hill stations. It 
is improbable that any member of the Indian Council 
ever heard of the work. It was told to me by tny 
friend and sanitary correspondent, the late Col. Saird 
Smith, of the Engineers. Whilst Major Dixon ^was 
alive I gave my mite of private effort to brin^ his 
achievement under notice in an influential quarter, 
for distinction, without success. Major Dixon passed 
away' without due notice or any distinction given 
to him, or his great work of sanitation, as well as pro- 
duction and civilisation. That example, like that of 
Boufarik, too, remains sterile, except for the population 
of the particular district, in whose memory he will live. 
Let me mention another subsequent instance of a sanitary- 
achievement. The sea-side city of Maeulipatam, about as 
large as Brighton, was submerged, one aiternoon 
by an irruption of the sea, when thirty thoii8an<i 
of the population were drowned in about two 
hours. The native chiefs and authorities wero 
howling helplessly over the ruins and the unbnried 
dead, when Mr. Robert Ellis — the chairman of the 
Sanitary Commission for Madras, without waiting for 
orders, took a steamer and got with all speed to the spot 
took command, had all the dead burned — as was accord- 
ing to custom, and the most eligible for the occasions- 
brought in a supply of fresh water — had the whole city 
more thoroughly deansed than ever it was in its li/e 
before, and put it in ^o good a sanitary condition that it 
had an immunity from a severe visitation of cholera that 
ravaged other cities. But there was no home or other 
governmental notice of this exploit^ the moral influx xice 
of which was calculated to be far greater amongst the 
native population than of batties gained against theia - 



FAL 0¥ CTB a&OmSY OV AKTS» FuBBUAar 28, 1873.] M& 



have M«a ^v«a of tk» deitraetion of a oily 



to 



and atera, and aaok. Mr. BUia» ater 
m atayiag aoonitomed oolbroaJn of 
; aatitre finviflaft thonewsanilary aerTioetn 
It to hftva beam oanAdly letaiiied and ad- 
mma othoF branok of senrioa of obsoare 
whioli tiiora is donbtlesa bettw attention aod 
I a^ sacite other reocot inatanoea of on* 
axploita, in addition to thooe of children 
What ]&ove complete than that of the 
of the priaon adminiatvatioa of 
doath'imta of 100 per thooaand 
than 20 ! In the central gaola, 
of 4,356, there were no 
eholera or amall poz^ and only two deatta 
~ lever, while daring the same year there 
deatha ten choleni, 20,483 deatha from 
and 19^467 deaUn ftom fevera anionget 
of the eiril |>opnlatiaB ontade. What it 
that the protection given by aanilation te the 
of the priaoaa« ahonld be OKteoded to the 
with which there are only mde and 
oonpled with mich obatmctiTe 
I haT« beea led to allude paitioalarly 
by the diamtiafliotion which I am anured 
» M hwe, with regard to the manner in which 
for diatingniahed civil aervioe hanre 
How they have been given there I do not 
BOW ; I moat aaaarae in the beat manner ; 
they havo not becA given ia clear and 
anch inalaoBaa aa I havo addneed. 
ivoi there or here for diatingniahed 
[t wna noted that in the Grimnn war 
were given to many of thoae under whoae 
fint amy waa loat, whilat none were given 
by whoae aanitary acienoe and art, aeeoid- 
dedaration of the Miniatwr of War in 
of Lovda, the Beeond araiy waa aavwU 
that ordinary aervioe moat be aeoored 
to ordinary integrity, that the atato 
ila fonndiUion in the heroic vtrtoea would 
aapantmetore in proAigaoy and oermptieB. 
V m onr ooaa para tively amaU wav at the 
Aftr*ao ai aoademiea^-tho beneficial at^udua 
givwi by the diatinctiona of medala and 

to diatribvto. Faetitiana 

{howBvar, onleaa thay are maaifeatly well and 

~ do more harm than good. Whan 

poyidad for diatingniahed aerviee, ia given 

it ia madj an affinait to those who have 

crriee whioh ia overlooked. 0(fiaeff» who 

diatingniahed aeoica wanld never httve 

|«f anch b oaw HiAa ii ^oy did not eidat, but thay 

at being paaaurl over, and the ezamfde haa 

inflnenee. ** Why do yon waato yonnelf on 

Tea will get no thanka for it," ia the ex* 

vrith which ainlona overworkera are aaaailed 

>t«ehdiatinetioBa ara peculiarly important for 

' <n the minda of the nativea who aee in them 

and character of thear mlera. Whatmuat 

an the native ndnda when they ohaerve that 

aa that of Maaalipataai and othacaof the 

■laotar I have recited, diaregarded, md 

* «f var or ondna fiia ot Min a «en theaa, aa they 

iMoaiadf Maat they not believe that the^ 

■iv the role of a war caata, whoae worship la 

[IhadHlroyerP Oiould not rapraaenlatiena be 

*^iiaedof raiainga belief aaaongat them of a 

^ ' of Tiahnn tha piaatavaiT 

, -J, MX (Medical OoUege, Oakntta), not 
l^vd the pr» vi o oa paper, waa not deariy ao* 
«^^ tha obfeot in view, bnt he to<^ it aa 
[^^ vdiettier tha Buropeao child ooi:dd be 
llaii ttataad and devrioped in India — th^t ia to 
rftoodd bo maintdned in a atandacd of 
ItochildnBiBBaxtype. Some re f ere n ea had 



been mado to •• brief report he wroto a fow yeaaa ag» 
upon an eneeedingly intereating inatitution, which 
ii«Il deaerved the aupport it saedved» and waa well 
entitled to more, the finropean Orphan Aaylum ia 
Oalcutta, founded, he believed, in 1816. Ita object waa- 
to provide for the orphan children of European aoldiecs, 
who were then chiefly the repreaentativea of the lower 
claasea of Eiiropeaoa in India. Sinoe then the workiag 
classea had largely increased. But the Female Orphan 
Aaylum never confined itaelf to the children of aoldieia 
until they attained the age of ton years ; and in some 
cases, he believed, after that the object was to train 
them and protect them from evil influenoes, and bring 
them up for domestic aervioe, giving them a 
good phyaioal and moral edacadon ; and in 
thia respect they were moat eminently auceessful. 
The institution was under the catc of English 
ladies in Calcutta. It trained and educated gene«dly 
70 to 80 children, and that was the average censtantly in 
the school — and they either came to Europe or, as in the 
case of the majority, went into domestic service, or be- 
came nursery govemeaaes. Statiatica enabled him to say 
that European children would live and thrive tolerabl^ 
satisfactorily ; but whether the European race could be 
established there, whether, in fact, it could colonise India, 
he had nothing to show. He was in possession of facts 
that seemed to prove the existence of a third generation, 
but he believed such cases were so exceedingly rare that 
they might be counted on the fingers. These children 
enjoy a remarkably immunity from disease, and a very 
foir standard of heuth. He believed thev were nearly 
as healthy, physically and mentally, and rather more 

Srecodous than Europeans, and that all the functions of 
fe might be fulfilled until a tolerably late period. And 
these remarks not merely applied to the hills, but to resi- 
dence in the phdns in an almost tropical region, for it 
waa only juat oataide the tropica. It must not, however, 
be asaiuaed from anything he had said that the European 
or the Engbah race oould ever eoloniae India. He believed 
they never conlddo ae. If you placed a certainnumbsr 
of Boropeans in India, and left them entirely to tham- 
sdves, and without communication with Europe, 
whether the third, fourth, or fifth generation would 
be tiM last he did not attempt to predicate. It 
was parsiy apecolative. He knew that the third 
generwtioa eaated, bnt he knew of nothing to make him 
believe, ra<iMr the lovisfoe, that the European oould over 
cdooiae Ladia. He could live there, and maintain healA 
at a very foir standsad. That insuranee cOeea put an 
tmnatuxnlly high v«ine» and made people pay mose 
than they need do, ho had no doubt. The ataodard of 
lifiB, as far aa years go, waa as good, but tha standard of 
health waa not ao good, not so physically vigorous ; yon 
were not able to do so maeh work, although you were 
called upon to do a great deal more ; mentally you were 
quite equal ; bnt sooner or later the European breaks 
down, and finds it to be absolutely neceaaar^ to return 
to thia country. Such was his experience, gained during 
23 years' residanoe in India, 13 of whioh were spent m 
Calcutta. He believed there was an erroneous unpres- 
aion about the danger of the dinuito. People think 
that if they go there they run the risk of anddealy 
losing their lives. But snoh cases were oomparativelT 
rare ; the fixed European peonlation en oj good health 
in Calcutta. On the other hand, nothing was worse or 
more dangerous to what he might call the floating po^n* 
lation ^India, the men who come and go at the begin- 
ning of the year, ouch aa soldiers. Their lives ara 
exceedingly precariooe. The ho spi t a ls were fulL But 
then it muat net be foigottoB tliey are eiroosed to all 
sorts of dangers to which the flxftd population are not. 
He believed any young peraom going oat to India had % 
iaix prospect of living. He might not live so sotia. 
footory a lifo ; it takes Mere oat of hiai, and ha woaM 
aooner be aa oMar ase^ b«t thsre was not the danger •» 
Ufo which was gSMsnUy enppoaed. He kn^^'f? 
more muslal test thna Chnt of the orphan a^yl^ "• 



266 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pbbkuary 28, 1873. 



had mentioned, because the condition of admiflsion to the 
institution was that the child should be of pure European 
blood, and no admixture with the native race ; and if 
these children can live and thrire as they do, he main- 
tained that it was possible, without r^erence to any 
ulterior puipose, for children in India to live and thrive, 
and gain, mr better than was supposed, a physical, 
moral, and mental education. 

Xr. Chadwick said Dr. Fayrer's observations applied 
to children. Could he give them any information re- 
garding the condition of adiUts in the hill stations ? 

Dr. Fayrer replied he had seen most of the hill stations, 
but he was not so well prepared to give information on 
the subject as Dr. Townsend, whom he was glad to see 
present. But he thought he could safely appeal to the 
appearance of several adult old Indians present as to 
the possibility of preserving health in India. 

Xr. B. Ward said he had heard that when people 
suffered from fever they went up to the hill stations, 
where they recovered for a time, but as soon as they 
returned they again suffered from the old complaint. 
Was that so f 

Br. Fayrer replied that Calcutta was an alluvial delta, 
and, therefore, was under the influence of what was 
called malaria, which was a mere expression of igno- 
rance. What it was he did not know, but he knew its 
effects. People suffering from it, if they go to the hills, 
improve for a time, but when thej return they suffer 
from it ag^n; they suffer from it also when they 

So to sea. The result of his experience was that 
lOugh people living in Calcutta can live and keep their 
health, India must be continually supplied with fresh 
health and fresh people frx>m Europe. 

The Chairman said he was sure they must have 
been much interested with the valuable information 
which Mr. Stocqueler had placed before them in 
his two lectures, and the statistics, which showed great 
power of analysis, and must have cost him much 
labour and research, for which he was entitled to their 
warmest thanks. He had only recently returned from 
India, after a sojourn there of over 35 years, with a 
brief interval of one year. In that time he had resided 
at Benares, Mooltan, and Lahore, and had visited the 
Himalavas and Cashmere, besides having passed 21 
years of his service in Arracan, Burmah, Assam, Cachar, 
and Munnipore. He had, therefore, had ample oppor- 
tunities of watching all the vast changes whicm had been 
effected in the moral, intellectual, and material improve- 
ment of that great country, and he must say the 
transformation had been wonderful. It had, indeed, 
been from that of a child in all the nakedlness of its 
in&ncy to the development into manhood, well clothed, 
well educated, with plenty of money in its pocket, and 
an anxious parent still watching to promote its advance- 
ment. Although this development had taken place in 
the period to which Mr. Stocqueler had alluded, that is, 
since the transfer of India to the crown, and had been 
aocomplished by three great statesmen, Lords Canning, 
Lawrence, and Mayo, nevertheless he was sure it would 
in no wise detract from their renown when he said that 
the foundation was laid before the i>eriod in question, 
and it was due to the memory of Lord Dalhousie that 
this fact should not be lost sight of. The period of his 
administration extended from 1848 to 1866. During 
these eight years he introduced comprehensive reforms 
into every branch of the public service. The Board of 
Customs, Salt and Opium, the Revenue Board, and the 
Military Board, all underwent remodelling. From the 
latter he withdrew the control of the army and ordnance, 
remodelled the stud department and the department of 
public works, and gave to each a chief of its own, 
imparting to them the unity of control and responsibility 
which is found so beneficial in the present day, on the 
principle, he supposed, " that too many cooks spoil the 
^roth.*' The cause of education received special 



encouragement tram him. Yemacular sdiooU 
established throughout the land, and goveminent 
colleges and a umversity in each presidency, besides 
grants in aid of all schools, without reference to creed 
or caste. And above all, he officially annonnoed, 
in the teeUi of native prejudice, that the edaca* 
tion of native females was considered by the 
British government to be an object of national 
importance, and on the death of Mr. Bethnne, the 
Legislative member of Council who had devoted his 
time and his money to female education, he took upon 
himself the support of the female school supported by 
that gentleman. The revenue of India was considerably 
augmented during Lord Dalhousie's administration; 
the commerce of Bombay was developed to an extra- 
ordinary extent, and that of Calcutta was doubled: 
the coasting trade from Eurrachee to Calcatta^ and 
Calcutta to Rangoon, SingajMre, and Penang', was 
liberated from every obstruction, and this gave birth to 
the establishment of the British-Indian Steam Naviga- 
tion Company, a company second only iu importance to 
the Peninsular and Oriental Company. Attention wvs 
equally bestowed on the improvement of the internal 
navigation, and steamers were placed on the Indus and 
on the Irrawaddy, from which the commerf*e of tho 
countries through which these rivers run had derived 
considerable expansion. He gave to India the boon of 
a cheap and uniform rate of postage, and Ukeviae 
procured a reduction in the rate of postage between 
England and India. Boads and canals were also pnshed 
forward with g^reat vigour in his time, and two roads of 
great magnitude were devised and completed. He 
alluded to the roads across the Arracan mountains, firora 
Dacca to Pe^-and the road across the Himala3ra &om 
Ealko to Chma. The Gknges Canal was also poshed 
forward with a spirit proportioned to its importance, and 
the main stream was for the first time opened on the 
8th April, 1864. The system of railways, which is 
working a greater and more beneficial chan^ in the 
social, political, and commercial condition of India than 
had been known at any former period, was due, alao, to 
the indefatigable exertions of Lord Dalhousie. Another 
benefit conferred on the commercial and political inter^rts 
of India by Lord Dalhousie was the electric teleg^raph. 
It was a well known fact, that in the days of Lord 
WellMley the Government of India was seven months 
without intelligence from England ; the same number of 
minutes now suffice to place the two coontries cm 
rapport. The above facts will all be found at leng^th in 
Marshman's *■* History of India ** — a couple of vxumnes 
whidi he strongly recommended to the notice of those 
who wished for a general and accurate knowledge c^ the 
progress of India down to 1867. He was a great 
admirer of Lord Dalhousie's government, and he hoped 



he should therefore be excused for concluding with the 
following quotation from that work : — '' His admisiB* 
tration marks a new and important era of civilisation 
in India. The principle of uninterrupted progres- 
sion which has since characterised the movements 
of government is due to the impulse which he comniYini- 
catod to it. To his genius is to be ascribed the gratefol 
fact that the India of 1867> or rather of this day, presents 
so pre-eminent a contrast to the India of 1747.'* ** Sm 
grasped the largest projects for the improvement of the 
country, and his views of policy were of Imperial nuq^ni- 
tude. In all his measures he exhibited a dear intellect^ 
sound judgment, and deep sagacity, while his firmness of 
purpose and resolution of character turned all thcve 
qualities to the highest account." " He communicated 
vigour to the administration by exacting a rigid pexfbnn- 
ance of duty from all under him, and he set them the 
example of his own intense application to public business, 
to which, by a noble devotion, he sacrificed leisure, ease, 
comfort, and health. He investigated every question 
that came before him with patience and diligence, and 
with a scrupulous desire to do right He marahallod all 
the arguments which could.be adduoed on both sides^ and 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETY OP ARTS, February 28, 1873. 



267 



^■yt iMocded iretghty reuons for whatever decision 
Mntd, Uie soinidiieM of which waa Beldom qaeetioned, 
'Mm W hit cqUm|Siim or by the public ia India. If he 
III m liMyfnttion for the aensitiye feelings of princes 
pA^RfntdMed andeat and e£fete dynasties, its absence 
toin nme degree compensated by his compassion for 
■fr ai w)T» » nied subjects ; and his administration was 
Bi^uiiiiiJil throughout by incessant efforts to benefit 
^peopb^ whether m our own territories or in dependent 
■■I** He bsd endeavoured to show them that the 
PhIiIIijii of the progress which had taken place in Tndia 
feiDg the kst 14 years was laid in previous years. Upon 
pt ontd foundation thus laid by Lord Dalhousie his 
■monkiTenused a noble superstructure ; and he was 

Btbe^ vould all agree that if there was anything 
I ilioald encourage and cheer on those upon whom 
piywnuneot of that magnificent empire had devolved, 
raoU be found in the results which Mr. Stocqueler 
■indesriy plaoed befSore t^em. 

^ I wraihend said his experience enabled him to 
■w with the remarks made by Dr. Fayrer, and fully 
■Mr oit lU he had said. 



. prapoeed a vote of thanks to the lec- 

^ vUch WIS duly acknowledged. 

[>■ Bs jBett proposed, and General Yaughan, C.B., 
■iM, STote of thanks to the chairman for presiding, 
pllbe proceedings dosed. 

iM Laviie sends the following:— *< As Mr 
'y hu alluded to the American mission in. 
with refoirenoe to the Karens, that wonderful 
iti^mkf chieflv inhabiting the hills of our northern 
^■7 (Uioagh round in other parts) of Pegu, I 
l^natrk for a moment, from some knowledge of the 
^ oa the continued sncoess in the golden land, of 
tmtXt schools, under European female super- 
, Dtt. The Karcms have yet to play an important 
tJB ths cifiliaAtion of the world. They are not the 
hot probably were the last people to enter 
Theyxegard themselves as wanderers from 
The country of Caride is the south-east 
Thihet, and Teen, a word signifying Heaven, 
i ^ some of the Qiinese to signify Qod, 
m Karen poetry as the name of the god of a 
iwith whom they were formerly connected. The 
t^hagiige also indicates, says Dr. Mason, '* a con- 

> vith tribes on the borders of Thibet" The 
ihsfe traditions of the creaticm, the temptation, 
' MdthediqMTsion of nations, in prose and verse, 

[waocnrate as thsy axe found in the Bible. Here, 

Kisawonderfnl people to educate. Theenejr^of 

ricsn ladies in this particular,- as regards £iren 

^J|is been remarkable, and throughout Barmah 

FlMn been the true friends of woman's elevation 

'days of Mrs. Judson, after the first Burmese 

1126, down to those of Mrs. Mason, at the oon- 

^^theseosod war and conquest of Pegn, in 1852. 

> ii ipe ct o r of government and aided schools 
W Bsv prorinoe in 1865-66, but among Uie 

iSonnese and Karen schools inspected there was 
rtt Sjinl as a bold success Mrs. Mason's Karen 
[^wBtsi, at Tamgoo, ibr the instruction of the 
of KMm mountaineOTS. In January, 1866, 
Btttsin ehieftaina sat, for the first time, as 
b^ yarded prizes to Karen young women for 
"^ m SBholanhip. There were present also 
Ml from beyond the eastern boundary and 
^thiefo from near the northern. Ko less than 
^<ne present to witness what good educa- 
B bed been aocomplished— in the mce of many 
'Ha^ Mason, one of the most gifted American 
isnr Qsme to Burmah, and whose labours are 
htaai in the annals of our Indian adoiinistra- 
L M^Uis, so in Bormah, the greatest hindrance 
■■■^■*^ oC tha men is the women. For the 



last ten or twelve years, however, through American 
ladies like Mrs. Mason devoting Uiemselves to the good 
work with untiring zeal and ability, the opposition of 
the natives themselves to female education — particularly 
of the Karens— has been subdued, and various schoola 
have at length been constructed, and are supported by 
voluntary offerings. The people are even beginning to 
show an interest in our arts, manufactures, and com- 
merce ; and doubtless, when the trade of Western China 
is opened up to the world by means of Burmah's noble 
river, the Irrawaddi, the Karens will be among the fore- 
most tribes to wheel into the ranks of civilisation. From 
America have been sent forth Woman's Union Mission 
bands and auxiliaries to India and Barmah. Mrs. Mason's 
success among the Karens would appear to be an earnest 
call to the ladies of £ngland to go and do likewise, which 
work would give them far greater glory than aiming to 
win political distinction through female suffrage at home. 
I observe that a meeting was held recently at the Hon. 
Mr. Kinnaird's, in support of a new missionary college in 
Asia Minor. Through Turkey the agents of the 
American Board of Missions have been the most success- 
ful. Mr. McCoam, in a recent letter to the papers,, 
praises them highlv. It will surely, then, not be to our 
credit if the Americans — chiefly ladies — are allowed to 
carry off the educational palm in Asia Minor as well as 
in Barmah. We must all agree with Mr. Stocqueler 
that whole troops of the fair sex from England would 
greatly &cilitate the prog^ress of education in India and 
the East." 



TWELFTH OBDIKABT MEETIKO. 

Wednesday, February 26th, 1873, Vice- Admiral 
Eaasmus Ohmanney, C.B., F.B.S., Member of 
Council, in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Barbour, William Boyle (Messrs. Barbour, Barclay, and 

Co.), Manchester. 
Baynes, Alfred Henry, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., Fairlight, 

Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex. 
Brown, Alexander Marshall (Messrs. James Finlay and 

Co.), Glasgow. 
Cowan, John Ueorge, 4, CuUum-street, E.C. 
Dehesghues, Leon, 51, Hatton-^arden, E.C. 
Qamlmm, J. B., 34, Stoke Newington-green, N. 
Forges, Jules, 17, Conduit-street, W. 
Ro^^er, John Fickersgill, 49, Harley-street, W. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected Members of the Society : — 

Baker, John Marcombe Bromley, HorteDs'a-vill% 

Southsea. 
Parr, Henry, Beoley, near Redditch. 
Roberts, Benjamin, Cornwall-lodge, Anerley, 8.K. 

The discussion upon Lieut.-Col. A. Strangers 
paper, ** On Ships for the Channel Passage," ad- 
journed from the 12th inst., was resumed. 

Mr. T. Webster, Q.C., in opening the adjourned dis- 
cussion, said there were one or two questions which had 
as yet received very little attention, although they had 
an important bearing on the subject. In the first place,, 
the height of the waves — ^it was remarkable how little 
was really known on that point. Colonel Strange had 
referred to the experiments of Admiral Sooresby, which 
had led him to the opinion that the waves in the Atlantic 
seldom exceeded twenty-eight feet in height. The 
Astronomer-Roval, in an article in the " Encyclopedia 
Metropolitana,' expressed his belief that they rarely 
exceeded thirty or forty feet; but there was a recorded 



268 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, VsBiXiJir 28, 1873. 



obaervation by Admiral Fitaroy, on boacd the Thstit^ 
showing that in a very^ extreme case waves ran to a 
height of sixty feet. This was about the state of scientific 
knowledge on this subject, and it wias sosiewhat re* 
markable that more information had not been obtained, 
especially considering there were Gunaid steamers 
«io8siDg the Atlantic under ciroinastances which would 
allow of these facts being ascertained. Anumgst other 
good resulU from the present disouasion, he hoped 
attention would be called to this point, and su^^opested 
that it might be advantageously taken up by the British 
Association. In the next place, there was very little 
^ubt that size was a great element of stability, and, 
>c$i4ris parilnttf the larger the vessel was the more stable 
she would be. Still, there were certain conditions of 
stability which were all essential, and those acquainted 
with the paper written by Canon Mozeley, in the ** Philo- 
sophical Transactions" were aware that it was Uiere con- 
•clujuvoly shown that a circular section of a vessel was the 
•one most stable of all. He was surprised, therefore, that 
there should have been so few observations made on this 

goint, but ho believed an elaborate series of ezperimenta 
ad been conducted in America, by Messrs. Winan, on 
a form of vessel in which every section was a circle. 
Then, again, there was the commercial element to be 
•considered. Many years ago, at a meeting of the 
British Association, this matter was very much dis* 
mussed, and what was called the plus resistance at the 
head and the minus resistance at the stern, were shown 
to be comparatively insignificant as compared to the 
area of the wetted section with reference to the displace- 
ment. That nrinciple had since been thoroughly 
acknowledged, both by mathematicians and practiced 
men. There, if the commercial element was to be 
isonsidered, though it might be worth while to obtain 
stability at any price, yet this must not be lost sight of— 
that the atea of the wetted section wil^ regard to the 
'displacement should be a minimum. Now, wbatevor 
might be the advantages of the doubled-hulled vessels, 
models of which had been shown, no one could deny 
that thoy sinned against the principle in a most extreme 
manner; in fact, it would hardly be possible to have a 
greater wetted section in comparison with the displace- 
ment than they disclosed. Applying these general 
principles to Mr. Bessemer*s vessel, she came under a 
totally difEerent category. Mr. Bessemer availed him- 
self of the best known form for constructing his 
vessel, and there was no reason why lie should not. 
He might have every section a cirde, or might adopt 
any other particular form which he thought best, but, 
having taken that, and, having thus arrived at the beit 
sea-going vessel, he applied his own invention to that, 
for the purpose of getting rid of one particular motion, 
▼is., that of rolling, whidi, no donbt, was moat distress- 
ing to the majority of travellers. They were much 
indebted to del. Strange for having set forward so 
plainly the different kinds of motion to which vessels 
were subject — for, speaking g^erally, the public had no 
idea of the distinction existing between these various 
motions — though, no doubt, mathenuiticians knew Uiey 
might all be regulated by certain formulaa. The pitch- 
ing motion was not provided for, but it wm a ^estion 
whether it was worth attempting to do so, and that in- 
volved the question of the height of the wevesi to whieh 
he had already referred. In conclusion, he expressed 
his satisfiiotion that the restrictions formeriy impoMd by 
Pariiament on the form in which vessels sbonkl be coa- 
struoted were now removed, so that there was no obstacle 
to the greatest freedom in this matter. 

Xr. Arthur Pagot said that about eight years ago his 
Mtention was specially directed to the subject of doublo- 
huUed vessels, as they were then called, and having a 
very long empty room at his disposal, he oonstmoted 
in it a lonff tank, and provided a hauling apparatus, so 
constructed that he could propel vessels ^ng this tank 
at a certain speed. He then oonstrocted a good many 
nodels of double-hulled vessels, in order to ascertain 



the form which would give tha4eMt resistanoo, not being 
aware at that time that any one else wsa-engiiged on the 
subject. Hia experim^tits, in one raspeott wo;ild not be 
of moch value with respect to the Se^y-Dio^ ayakem, 
becausa his experiments were oonfined to models of 
sailing boats, and his propelling power was applied at a 
point representing the oentre of the acea nf the aail to be 
carried, which would be about one-third the hei^t of 
the masts. Of coarse, the powec being appLed eX that 
height would tend to make the vessel plough, and there- 
fore, to some extent, his experiments were not reliable 
for steam power. Still, they gave results whioh, in 
some measure, bore on the point in qoMtion^ ani he 
would state the results. He found that hauling m. double 
vessel in the way described and then closingr her to- 
gether, so as to make her a single-hulled vessel of the same 
»>rm, the least increased resistance in any caoo on sin 
average was ten per cent, speaking roughly. It then 
occurred to him that as su(^ vessels ma«t require a deck* 
in any sea the resistance would be enormously increasc^d, 
and he, tiierefbre, managed to introduce into his tank 
waves as nearly as possible in proportion to the siz*) of 
the model. He then found the ten per cent, increased 
resiataaoe rose to from 26 to 60 per oeot.; ia other 
words, the speed was reduced to about half what it 
would be if the two hulls were brought together, and 
propelled as a single vesseL He, therefore, at once 
decided in his own mind that for any other method of 
propulsion except sails, a double-hulled vessel hud no 
advantage except incresised stability. Since that he had 
built seven difTermt practical worinng models of double- 
hulled vessels, and had sailed wi^ them in all weathers 
and all waters, when be fbimd that his previooa experi- 
ments obtained a singular verification. In racing his 
double-hulled craft against othen in still vaiers, he 
oould beat a certain vessd, si^ at two to one, very often; 
wfaUst raoing the same vessel in a rough sea he would 
be beaten himself. From that ha dedueed thisoone) osion , 
that unless Capi. Dicey and Mr. Sedley had trio-J their 
vess el s in very rough sea they would bo disappointed in 
the speed. In a smoo^ sea the speed woald be very 
easily diminished, but in rsagk weather the loss would 
be very great. He had been much sorpri^^ at the 
statement of one speaker, who said he luid b«en in a 
double-hulled vessel wtath rolled, for ho had worked his 
craft in all kinds of weather, so rough, in ftwit, that hv» 
had blown t^ree sets of mastsoverbosrd, and he most say 
he had nevsr experieneed the slightest degree of rolling. 
Of course, ho used tile word ** rotting'* in the soaman 
sense, not that the vessal never inclined, for, of course, 
she would ittdine to the wind when a gust oame. The 
difiRn«ioe was this, in an ordinary single4iulled ▼oesel. 
when a puff of wind caone, sha wo«ld incline to one «id«^, 
and then oscillato baekwards and forwards until shAi 
steadied ; but the dtmble-hulled craft would inoUne about 
one-sixth as much, in the first place, and when she camA 
back she would not go beyond the horisonial. The 
double-hulled svstsm, however, would give aa iznmeaee 
motion of translation. In rising to the top of a wave it 
was usual, if you were sailing dooe-hauled, nearly in 
the teeth of tiie wind^-espeeially if yon had frJezi<L 
on board who were nther delioat o i n goin^ down 
a wave to ease the tOlw, and let her down gfkUy* 
whereas if you jammed the tiller hard up and kept hei 
in the teetii of the wind, Am would godovni with a ban^i 
He had been out im roudb w aa th e i' where an ordinim 
^cht would have buriedherself ona-scxth of her leturth 
m pitting. He had jammed his tiller up as hard 
as he ooola, kept her head to the wind, and hnkOKhl 
her down with a saaaok on tho water, winoh made i 
repmrt like a osmiOD, which oosld be heard a Bkih 
off, bat he mrmr' soooaeded ia goMing har hc^ 
under, snd never shipped a greeo aaa, whilal 
alongside might be a yaoht tax times her tes^ti 
shipping ^nea ssaa firssly. At the smdo tim« h« m^^ 
say that if his ves»l were watehad from tho yttdht, t1 
wifM bt sew tint ■hf would lisa aay t wt H ^fost 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Fibruaby 28, 1873. 



269 



imn^ 



jwihx roM only four, because his vesse], haying a 
dmk undemeath, when the waTO came under her 
■Hlffo np^ unless the deck broke to pieces. There- 
& wme reason that the yacht was wet all over 
it 4ictk while his deck was dry, his Tessel rose three 
as much by the waves as tiie yacht did. There- 
ths Sedley- Dicey ship in rough weather, 
ber decks were of such a height that the waves 
bpii sot touch it — which, if the figures Mr Webster 
^tghcn were correct, seemed impracticable — must 
M have much more motion of translation up 
be down. He must say, however, that though 
■ was sometimee sea-sick, it was only when he 
■• xuSiDg — never when the vessel rose up and down. 
ptA nOmg motion he believed the Sedley-Dicey ship 
■dU prevent, and also the Bessemer. The Sedley- 
pfavf woold be the liveliest and the driest The Besse- 
Vsnat be a wet ship, from her low edge; and, from the 

Sof hnght in the bow, when the wave came she must 
|i. But there was another matter to be considered. 
lii ftiMt difficulty in all these large ships was this, that 
^■ige fthip must be enormously difficult to get in and 
S«f any of the existing harbours on the French coast. 
lyo* are starting straight for the harbour, and had 
■It bearings perfectly nght for a certain wind, a gust 
^%iad would come which threw you out entirely, un- 
to jetu went at such a speed that if you did stnk^ it 
bM be sodden death to all on board. From practical 
^Bieaee with small vessels and small harbours he was 
^~ 1 to say that it was no easy matter to hit the 
B mouth, and, comparing the two kinds of ships, 
in t!us req>ect the Bessemer would have an 
advantage. It was not the strength of the tide 
interfned, because every Channel captain knew 
Aai might eanly be allowed for, being pretty con- 
But tiie wind might vary 300 per cent in two 
and having made allowance for the wind, if it 
vou would hit the pier on the windward side, 
tt it increased in strength you would hit it on 
r nde. All these vessels, therefore, with the 
iHaa, would find enormous difficulty in hitting 
Wzbour. He had not seen the Sedley-Dicey last 
Wkt the old one had cabins at both ends, and — 
a high cabin in the middle of a vessel would not 
steering, and the longer she was, providing 
was abort, the greater hold she would have on 
wt and the greater certainty you would have of 
the harbour mouth — on the other hand, if you 
cabins on each end, the wind would liave 
power on them, and there would be great 
in hitting the harbour-mouth at such speed as 
to enable her to do it Summing up the 
«f hia experience thev appeared to be this, that 
-Dicey would be the most comfortable ship ; 
would have most motion of translation, she 
ve very little rolling, in fact, less rolling 
than the Bessemer, except in Uie cabin, be- 
t^ mere fiict of the cabin not rolling would give 
■t of the ship more power of rolling. In the 
-Dieey you would have greater difficulty in hit- 
B barboor-mouth ; and as to Uie speed, in fair 
she would have nearly the same, with equal 
expenditure of coal and engine power — 
to say, not more than ten per cent, less than 
Imt in a gale she would only attain half 

I Ckadwiek, C.B., said he would interpose in the 
from the more abrtract and h3rpothetical data 
to direct practical experience. Sir James 
,wbo had commanded twelve Cunard ships, and 
; twice commanded the Oreat JSastem, and had 
aantical experience, had stated to him that, as 
m had under all conditions a consider- 
to me. Whilst he commanded her he had 
■ay one sick to the extent of vomiting on 
1 0tw»t £asUm. Sice was the first condition to 
Sd a ship for the purpose in question. Sir 



James declared that, having examined Mr. Reed*s<plan, 
he (Sir James) would — had he been at liberty to do so— 
have gone into the commercial enterprise of such vessels, 
as he expressed it, '^with a header,'* as they were just 
what were now wanted. Mr. Grantham haa objected to 
the plan of the large saloon ship as not being novel, for 
such ships had long been in use on the American rivers, 
and had been used on the coast on troubled 
sea-water, and were highly popular. That was 
the practical example on which he (Mr. Chadwick) 
very mainlv relied for his support of the Bessemer ship. 
The American saloon vessel, fitted up with sleeping 
births and every accommodation, induced persons to ^ 
on bcMird them for residence in pleasure excurnons in 
preference to residence in hotels. The Bessemer in ques- 
tion would be largely improved in the saloon, and also 
largely improved in the construction of the ship on the 
successful American example. He had been told by the 
commander of one of them that, as a racing feat, he had 
gone at the rate of nearly twenty-two miles an hour. 
Mr. Heed expected that his vessel would go fully that 
speed, and was assured that for ordinary passage purposes 
it would be used at full twenty miles an hour. Was not 
that a great gain, a gain of a third upon the ordinary 
passage, a reduction by one-third of the anxieties and 
pains of that dreaded passage, even if those pains were 
to remain as they were ? But assuredly they would not 
remain as they were. There were objectors who insisted 
that nothing was done unless everything was done accord- 
ing to Uicir extreme suggestions. You will not prevent 
sea-sickness, they say, with an air of resentment at the at- 
tempt, and then they cite the instances of persons who 
were made sick by railway transit, and by going up hotel 
lifts. It was a misrepresentation that absolute and 
total prevention, even to the cases of the extremest sus- 
ceptibility, was promised. The express promise of their 
prospectus for the Bessemer ship was that by it sea-sick- 
ness should be reduced to the minimum ; and the two 
grreat conditions of increased size and ereatlv increased 
speed were alone sure data that more would be done by her 
than had yet been done, or than could be promised to be 
done on any plan yet advanced, for none would compete 
with her in speed. He had had in his time much to do 
with transport vessels for the transport of pauper 
emigrants, and for quarantines, and such vessels had to 
him been a sanitary study. Dr. Johnson had wondered 
that anybody would go on board a common ship if he 
could help it for it was a bad prison with a chance ofbeing 
drowned. He (Mr. Chadwick) regarded it as being an 
insanitary-conditioned cellar dweUing — ill-lighted, ill- 
ventilated, ill-warmc^ and, above all, ill-drained, having 
cesspool matter, as bilge water, perpetually shaken 
up, and evolving pestilential gas, ag^vated by tho 
vitiation of air produced by overcrowdmsf. They were 
frequently fever nests of the most dire aescription for 
animals and men, lowering health and strength, and 
attended by terrible outbursts of disease — generating 
disease of various sorts far out at sea, and at times far 
out of the reach of land importation, which contagionists 
assumed. He had recently crossed the Channel in 
one of the boats which a brutal ignorance and 
apathy to suffering provided and maintained, and 
though the crowding was not excessive, the alternative 
between the inclement weather on the deck, and the 
sickening atmosphere of the cabin beneath, was a severe 
one. "With the laree aaloon there would be, at all events, 
the ventilation and the relief of increased space. He had 
found that both Mr. Bessemer and Mr. Reed fully appre- 
ciated the insanitary conditions of the common passage 
vessel^, and were prepared to encounter them. With 
the faculties of one of the greatest and most successful 
mechanical geniuses of the age, and those of the chief and 
most successful nautical constructor of ourtime, the chosen 
president of the Association of Naval Architects, intently 
Dent upon the object, with the recognised great nautical 
ability of the admiral, who had held with honour the 
highest executive position in our Royal Navy, and 



wIBi ettlBOit commerdal men, the pMic indeed, from the well-oalculated and well-d< 



might confidently expect an improyement in conatmctioa 
and action becoming the naval poaition of the empire. 

lir l^eneer EeUnion, X.C.B., F.B.8., desired to ask Mr. 
Paget whether his experience of donble-hnlled VeaeelB, 
which he had described, was drawn in any way from 
such ships propelled by steam, or whether it was confined 
to sailing yessels; because every sailor knew that as 
long as a ship was propelled by ciinvas the force of the 
wind prevented rolling. If, however, Mr. Pag^ had 
had any experience of such a vessel under steam, his 
testimony would be very valuable, and would tend to 
show that such a ship would roll very littie, or not at all. 

Mr. Piget said his experience had been entirely on 

board a sailing vessel, but at the same time he must ask 

permission to state that he had been afloat in her under 

conditions which prevented any operation of sails to 

prevent rolling, viz., when from heavy weather she had 

been entirely dismasted, thus representing a steam vessel 

without the steam power in operation. Still he had ex- 

perienced no rolling, as was proved by a trifling incident. 

On one occasion, while he was taking his luncheon, and 

was just about to drink a glass of beer, both masts went 

by the board. Of course he immediately put down the 

glass, and set to work to get in the wreck, which he did 

efiV ctually, losing neither spar nor block, and then to his 

utter astonishment he found hi« glass of beer just as he 

had left it, not a drop having been spilled. Thut proved 

to him that if the Sedley-Dicey ship was so built that 

the beam between the hulls was properly proportioned 

to the beam of each she could not roll. 

Sir Spencer Bdbinson, thanking Mr. Paget for his 
explanation, said it would follow that the Sedley-Dicey 
ship would probably roll less than any other form of 
vessel, but, even admitting that, he did not think the 
prineiples of the Bessemer ship were at all affected. 
The Sedley-Dicey ship was, in a certain sense, a raft, 
4md the connection between the two portions must be 
extremely solid and strong, tiace Mr. Paget* s* descrip- 
tion hud shown that in the motion of translation it 
was tho deck between the two hulls which lifted the 
vessel up and down, and it therefore had to bear the 
whule weight. Now in small vessels, of course, there 
would be no difficulty in constructing the deck and 
frame of sufficient strength to meet this strain with 
safety, but what strength and weight must be combined 
in a large ship of such a construction, intended to carry 
seveml hundred passengers and hundreds of tons of 
goods F If a small vessel had been found to jump from 
he top of a wave into the trough of the sec^ with a 
noiso like the report of a cannon, which could be heard 
a mile off, it appeared to him that with a ship large 
enough to convey passengers across the Channel the 
report of such concussions would probably be heard from 
Dover to Calais,, if the vessel ever rose again after a 
shock so violent. The Bessemer ship, on the other 
hand, had been credited with very great ease of 
motion, and in particuLtr with very Tittle of that 
motion of translation which he believed was 
answerable for most of the horrors and miseries of 
sea-sickness, for as a sailor he had been accustomed to 
witness these things, though he hcul never suffered from 
sickness himself. He had seen the most audacious 
smokers and strutters about the deck come to grief after 
two or three of these motions, though they had been 
wholly unaffected by the rolling motion. Again, as re- 
marked by Mr. Chadwick, the unpleasant odours arising 
from stinldng bilge water and other matters, with the 
bad (iir and general neglect of ventilation, had much to 
do with sea-sicknesS) he believed far more than the 
rolling motion in many cases, and in the case 
of the Channel steamers, when crowded, the state 
of things in this respect was very often such 



which the constructor had prepared, frtnn hil 

the length between the crests of the wmvea, alM 

had been moat oarefnlly and acouatal^ aaeeital 

were in a position to state, almost with cettam 

her motion of translation wovld be extrema 

He said advisedly, that there was no problem | 

to the mechanicid genius of this country — if | 

by an obMrvef who had aoeorately ^^<^ 

oondiUons of the phenomena— the diffi«i 

which could not be overooma and providii 

it were worth while to do so by the akill a« 

of the mechanicians, engineers and matheinia 

this country. He was, th^^fore, not ^tatlj 

thing improbaUe, nay, almost otftain to I 

ont by the facts of the case, whenhe said that thd 

of controlling the rolling motions of the aaloooj 

accomplished by the ingenuity and talent of Im 

mer. Every mechanical difficulty which had | 

itself had been one after the other snrmovnCedi 

did not believe any difficalty would be fosnd iaj 

ling the rolUng motion <» this oabin. Vm 

dicomstances Som motioA would be vecy Hnaf 

form had been calcuhited and laid down by % 

able naval arshiteot in Europe, who waa i^epar^ 

that from her shape and dimensions alcme this 

would be reduced to a minimum. But beyond tl 

was a saloon swung by its oentre of gruvity oa 

as nearly as possible coincident with the centre oi 

of the ship, and whatever inclination the mt*rti 

these points would give to the saloou swingis 

them would be controlled by the Beasemer 

Some people did m^ accept this, saying there w« 

thing uncertain about it wbidi needed inquiry 

periment ^fore the result could be aoeepted. It 

the motion was very rapid, end that before the 

the hydraulic had got control over the salooi 

would have been moti<m and consequent sicknen 

his answer to this— and the same thing would 

by any practical seaman — was that an experienced 

man does not steer simply by the eye. There is i 

which comes upon the rudder before any per 

effect is produced upon the binnacle, so that 

helmsman steers nK»e by the toooh than by 

In the same way the man at the hydraolie wouJ 

much by the touch as by the eye. Be^ 



as 



ship could take any perceptible inclination the fti 
will be aware of what is about to take place, and 
able at once to control it One other point tow 
by Mr. Paget was in reference to the efiect of tl 
and tide on the bows of the ship. The bows of t 
might be becalmed as she enterad the harbour, i 
action of the wind on the stem would bring it 
against the harbour. Instead of having a ship tl 
height the whole of her length, it was very wii 
signed by Mr. Beed that Uie ship should be lo« 
ends. They are scarcely out of the water at • 
therefore, you have nothing whatever that can a 
wind, and the steering of the shij^ would be nh 
that great difficulty of one end being becaloMl i 
other under the influence of the wind. The npp 
of the Bessemer ship so nearly balance each other t 
difference is next to nothing. Mr. Paget also s] 
the extreme wetness of the ship. He would pro 
the Bessemer would not be extremely wet No pa 
who was under the deck of the ship below tb 
would know anything about his being and 
water so long as she was kept properly caulked 
passenger would not be affected in any way w] 
by the waves of those P^rts of the ship that are 
freeboard, and over which the water wiU flow 
The waves that meet the end of the ship can nev 
over the deck beyond two or three test, and i 
would probably be as diy as a ship could be wh* 



could not really be described. Mr. Paget ' grossing at the rater of 20 miles an hour agninst tl 
admitted that there would not be anything like and sea. He concluded by exnresiing a hope tl 
■0 much up-and-down motion in the Bessemer ship ; efforts of Mr. Bessemer and sil concsned, to n 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Pbbruabt 28, 1873. 



271 




of the Chamwl pMMgo, woidd be downed 



in easwer to en obeervation of Sir 6. 
rwoeiked ifaei a waTe to prodace the leeult he 
of would need lo he 160 leet high. 

r. 0. B. Gallowaj remaned, in respect to the Bessemer 

that fbr fifteen yeaiB he had paid some attention, 

h<d something to do with naval architecture, 

wry hr at a oonld be effected he thought the Besse- 

plin would accomplish the desired object of pre- 

tet-eickness. Also, that, as regarded the ventila- 

aihl pcerention of noxious VHpours arising from the 

'Water, this plan would accomplish the desired 

U« did not, however, think that in applying the 

Idle- wheels, and having the floats Mt n^ht angles, 

bv as rffective as they might be if the floats were 

at mn angle of 33 degrees. The first pair of 

if tht-y worked with the paddles at right angles, 

throw the water against the succf'eding pair ; but 

ioats at the angle he described this wonld not be 

imf, Wh^t^ver might be the opinion about vessels 

tnl&iig, he h«d seen ne^irly all kinds of ships, but he 

seen a ship that would not roll ; and whatever 

\m the opinion of gentlemen who claimed such 

wtit f^r the twin principle, he would say that in a 

.if the ship lived so long, she would be very 

and bo very likely to come in two. 

■aid it must not be forgotten that 
wvn^ only experimental, and could only be 
■pan tm auch, at they were so totally at variance 
frinciplea; but there were a great many points 
■t not be lost sight of. He thought the power 
r, tb0 light draught of water, and their 
stnietare above the water, made it very 
rhrthsr in a gAe they would be better or as 
as the bf>ats we now have ; and he certainly would 
^ving them without the saloons, that they might 
a Aoe op*;n deck. What had been done on the 
aikl Holyhead service might well be adopted. 
tk« BaaseiDer model, the saloon being between the 
b« thoo^ht it would not be very comfortable 
You had heat at each extremity of 
mnd with two engines at work, unless a 
nrFSBore could be maintained, there would be a 
aibcHtion. He did not desire to raise any 
Utr it was his duty rather to encourage 
■till these points must not be lost sight of. 
it was iic»t safe for any ship to exceed 240 
I in length, and unless the haroours were enlarged 
'imaaid nut be accomplished. If there were bigger 
titf*re would be plenty of good boats. He could 
in the tirade against those boats which had for 
ar thirty years done such ^ood service, and 
IkmI done us national credit in the safety and 
whii'h the journey across the Channel was 
In regard to the present service, he 
modi evil was due to the boats being so over- 
If this were remedied by more bonts being 
ihe eervioe, much of the present evil would be 



then read the following from Captain 



' t esBBot r e f r ain from sayini^ that the remarks msde 
flifc«L-0»lotiel Strange on Wednesday last, as to the 
filth. &e., of our ships does not reflect much 
s nsi, but happily the ttutement is not true, for 
lUMtiiinnllj bein - complimented on our attention 
Of course I am speaking of the Folke- 



;«y of^eot in writing to you, as a practical man, 
ovt ihf moat important feature that seems to 
npletely ignored in these discussions, vis., the 
«f the propoeed ships for the present harbours — 
LK»ya 400 and Mr. Bessemer's 360 feet. The 
fwpaees to stMr at each end, as there would not 
i to mHbc in the harbonia ; but I think he need 



not trouUe himself much about that, for a vessel of such 
a length would certainly run aback of the piers in taking 
the present harbours in bad weather. The Albert Edicani 
is about half that length, and I have, at times, entered the 
harbours with the greatest anxiety, on account of her 
length, whereas, in a shorter vessel, there would havo 
been no danger. 

'* I have had twenty-seven years* experience in these 
harbours, and I can only say that if experiments are to 
be made how people can be drowned, the way to 
secure that end will be to have ships of the proposed 
length. The best and only practicable thing to be done 
is to improve the harbours, and larger ships are sure to 
follow. 

*' I contend, as a practical man — and I have been using 
these harbours many years, every day — that ships of the 
proposed length would certainly be lost taking the pre- 
sent harbours. We should have had longer ships when 
the Victoria and Albert Edward were built if safety had 
not been a consideration." 

Kr. Bessemer, who was prevented by illness from 
being present, sent the following reply, which was read 
by the Secretary : — 

'*I was most desirous of correcting some erroneous 
views which were expressed by one or two persons in 
reference to my saloon ship ; and if it is not contrary 
to the rules of the Society, I should esteem it a very 
great favour if you would read to the meeting the 
following brief observations in reference to the points 
to which I refer. 

''Firstly, with reference to the opinions expressed by 
Mr. Grantham, I may remark that I deeply regret the 
absence frota England at this moment of Mr. Reed, whose 
intimate knowledge with every branch of ship-building 
would have enabled him at onoe to remove the objections 
to his design which Mr. Grantham has made. 

" In Mr. Reed's absence, however, I may be permitted 
to remark that Mr. Grantham's argument as to the suffi- 
ciency of deck accommodation in the saloon company's 
ship is wholly fallHOtous ; he asserts that the whole useful 
deck space is destroyed for the use of passengers, because 
we occupy with the saloen some 70 feet out of the 2d0 
feet of the deck's length. Is this gentleman not aware 
that we have, after deducting this 70 feet occupied by the 
saloon, all the ordinary deck accommodation of a vessel 
equal to 180 feet long by 40 feet beam ; have we not in 
addition to it two spaces of 70 fleet each in length by 7 
feet wide, at thn sides of the saloon ; and have we not also 
two ranges of deck cabins, each about 100 feet in length, 
extending the whole way between the fore and aft paddle- 
boxes, in addition to which there are also two large second- 
class saloons below deck, which are in a more favourable 
position than the first-cliss saloon occupies in an ordinary 
ship ? The whole of this accommodation is provided for 
second-class or dock passengers, who will bo as quiet and 
weU cared for, in this large and fast vessel, as they could 
be in the boats advocated by Mr. Grantham, for I take it 
for granted that provision for second-class passengers, 
with the advantage of a low fare, is as necessary by sea 
as on land, and we find no railway company has ever 
attempted to avoid the distinction. 

"Now, .with regard to first-class passengers, Mr. 
Grantham wholly ignores the fact that, with such a 
quiet, controlled saloon as I propose to construct, 
persons will not desire to lie down and occupy six feet 
in length of the sofas. It is well known that we propose 
to carry passengers in one hour and a quarter across the 
straits, and with about as little motion as they would 
experience in a quick railway train, and, therefore, we 
do not provide space for our passengers to lie at full 
length and be sea-sick ; indeed, the whole scheme, as is 
well known, is based on the pretention of sea-sittkness, 
and consequently there is no necessity whatever to 
*provide spaoe for persons to lie down at full length. 
Mr. Grantham might with equal justice deny the 
suffidenoy of passenger aooommodation in the next rail- 



272 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Fbbruabt 28, 1873. 



way train he happens to travel in, by objecting that 
there are not carriages enongh provided for every 
passenger to sprawl at fall lengui on the seats, and thns 
reduce the available space in the train to one- third. 

"Mr. Grantham will be good enough to remember 
that the qniet saloon has alm> four small and four large 
private rooms, for the express accommodation of the few 
very susceptible persons who might feel ill towards the 
end of this very rapid voyage. Into either of the four 
large apartments they may retire, and suffer in private, 
instead of exhibiting themselves at full length on the 
saloon sofas, basin in hand, as preferred by Mr. Grantham. 

" In any case the mere question of how many persons 
a' particular saloon will or will not hold has nothing 
whatever to do with the principle involved, and is noj 
argument against the employment of a suspended saloon* 

" Mr. Grantham says * a vessel for the Channel 

fiassage should bo able to take on deck all the passengers* 
^gS^S^'f wi^ *^^ requires a considerable area.* I do 
not agree with Mr. Grantham's views on this point, for 
I greatly object to encumbering the dock with paasengers' 
baggage, and we have accordingly arranged a special 
mode of lowerinij the passengers' baggage in small 
wheeled crates, without concussion or injury to it in any 
way, into a space specially designed to receive it below 
deck, where it will be kept perfectly dry during the 
voyage, and from which our peculiar arrangements of 
hoisting tackle will enable it to be removed with great 
ease and rapidity. 

** Mr. Grantham also expresses the opinion that the 
saloon would not be a cure for sea-sickness. Only 
imagine, savs that gentleman, a saloon 60 feet long and 
30 feet wide, suddenly sinking below one's feet, and 
rising again some six inches or six feet, by a translatory 
motion. Did Mr. Grantham ever imagine how extremely 
pleasant it would be for the passengera in one of his pro- 
posed ordinary steamera, when this translatoiy motion 
was supplemented by a pitch and a roll of eight or ten 
feet, while the cabin floor was continually presenting, in 
different directions, an angle of some ten or twelve 
degrees to the horizon ? Surely if it is impossible to 
eliminate every conceivable motion of a ship at sea, it 
will be at least a great step to bring her rolling and 
pitching motions to a minimum, and to keep the floor of 
the saloon always horizontal, so that at least a passenger 
may be able to walk about if he desires, or be enabled to 
sit on a sofa without the dread of being suddenly ejected 
from it. If perfection is not attainable, let us at least 
have all the amelioration that modem science has to 
offer, and not blindly rush on, in the old rut, without 
firat seeing what improvements are possible. 

** In conclusion, Mr. Grantham further remarks that 
'in his judgment there was no necessity for any of 
these new schemes, for a vessel built on acknowledged 
and recognised principles would answer every purpose.' 

" I quite agree with Mr. Grantham that if what he 
calls ' answering every purpose ' includes the rendering 
of almost every passenger utterly miserable, and dis- 
gusting every one with his aeighbour, that the simple 
old form of sea-going ship, which he proposes to employ, 
is admirably adapted to effect this object, and perpetuate 
the reign of basins. 

* I would next revert to some observations made by 
Captain Davis, who very modestly says, * it would be 
presumption in him, in the presence of so many 
engineera and shipbnilden, to speak one way or the 
other as regards the engineering part of the 
question.* But notwithstanding this assumption of 
humility, he proceeds forthwith to say, in refer- 
ence to my saloon, 'that it would not cure sea- 
sickness, he was sure.' Every sailor he had asked 
looked upon Mr. Bessemer*8 cabin as a sort of * hobby, 
and a rather expensive one ; they did not believe in it.' 
Perhaps Captain Davis does not consider this 'speaking 
one way or the other,' or giving an opinion on engineering 
questions ; he at least would have given me an opportunity 
of changing or modifying this view of the case, had he 



given reasons for the very decided conclusionB to which 
he and his friends have arrived. His remarks, as they 
stand, unsupported by any argument, forcibly remind me 
of the reasons given by a yoong lady on a particolar 
occasion, as recorded in the old couplet, 

* I do not like yoa. Dr. Fell, 
The reason why I cannot tell. 
But this Indeed I know full veil, 
I do not Jike you. Dr. Fell.* 

It is equally evident that Captain Davis does not like 
my saloon, and, like the young lady, finds it difficult to 
assign any sufficient reason. 

*' And, further, Captain Davis takes exception to the 
position of my steersman, or controller. He remarb, 
* The steeraman is down below, and in ordinaiy steering 
the man at the helm watched the waves, and anticipating 
each wave, he moved the helm accordingly, bat th« 
steersman below, or leveller, or governor, or whaterer 
he was called, could not see the waves, and if he vt^e to 
attempt to act according to the movement of the cabin be 
might give his rudder a little turn the wrong way, and 
the wave might be coming the other, and so upset alibis 
calculations.' 

''Now all this is an entire mistake and tot«l mis- 
apprehension on the part of Captain Davis, not only of the 
functions of the steersman but the whole mode by vbich 
he operates; in fact, the controller of the saloon could in 
no way be assisted in his duties by seeing the waves ; 
they could furnish him with no useful indiGatioiiB, but 
would assuredly distract his attention from the one point 
only to which he has to attend. He has simply to watch 
the spirit level, which is placed on the quiet floor of the 
saloon before him, and to prevent, by Uie movement of 
the handle, the air-bubble moving far from the centre in 
either direction, and bo long as he does this he knowi 
that the saloon floor continues to be horizontal, and free 
&om the rolling of the ship. 

" Captain Davis evidentlv attaches great importancs 
to the ease and comfort of the steersman, and at the last 
meeting propounded with much emphasis the following 
problem, * What will you all do if a fly settles on the 
steersman's noseP* it is to be hoped, that if thia 
calamity should happen, he would have suffideat 
presence of mind to ^ock it oflT, unless he preferred to 
let it * bide a wee.' 

" The real question which I presume Captain Dafis 
intended to ask is, what provision (if any) have you 
made for continuing the control of the saloon in caa« 
accidentally the attendant is fi-om any cause rendered 
for the time unable to attend to his duty. I wooU 
simply reply, that a complete set of valves in duplicate 
will bo placed alongside each other, and two men will 
be stationed at them, so that one can at all times relitr^ 
the other when necessary, the double set of valves renJ 
dering the apparatus controllable even under the conH 
plete derangement of one set, aiid with one of the steers^ 
men off" duty. 

*' It is at least consoling to reflect that whiterer adTcra^ 
opinions may be given as to the possibility of lessening 
or preventing sea-sickness by the employment of aus- 
pended saloons, it is certain that the substitution of l 
large class of ves^ls, engined with immense power il 
proportion to their immersed mid-ship se^on, will coot 
siderably lessen the time of transit, and conduce greatli 
to the comfort of all who travel by them. Whether al 
the advantages Uiat are anticipated from the employ 
ment of suspended saloons will be fully realised, tim 
alone can show ; but it is satisfactory to know that tb 
interesting problem is in course of solution. The ehil 
and engines are being constructed, and in a short tini 
tho results will be before the world ; to that trial I loo 
forward with the deepest interest, and with unboundc 
confidence." 

Captain Bioey said Mr. Paget had left him little to sal 
The vessel that he had was always under sail, and i 
smooth water she went very well, and there was only 
loss of about 10 per cent. He doubted whether tbfi 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIBTY OP ARTS, Pbbbuaby 28, 1873. 



273 



iibi BO^ more than that if propelled hj steam. 
^■i«(Ue InduD rirert, which was three miles hroad, 
Mf tkee doithle ▼cs ee la was propelled by steam, and 
ismifai nifie knots an hour, and however hard the 
li bifw, tnd the sea there was Tery considerable, 
B VM BO dinunntion of speed more than in an ordi* 
ly fiogl* vmei Ther had large Tessek there of the 
|tjpe» vith accommodation on deck someUuDg on the 
B^ of the Americsn vessels. These vessels were as 
i|j u coold be imagined. In these single flat- 
to(d T«iieli, drawing three or four feet of water, 
m4xn wbB ao sodden that it made people sick on the 
liih nd tike diificoltj of getting over this extraordi- 

rwxkn kad been his object all through. He had 
tkb diffioUtj there was in entering the harbours 
^ivjihaHon water with flat-bottomed boats. The 
^«»T to get over the difficulty was to have flat- 
Mi* wiUi a girder between the two hulls, which 
il kwp the vessel steady, on the principle 
^ Ojylon boat or the host of the Pacific 
■fc Anothfr objection was about the wet skin and 
\Htm of friction. That there were disadvantages 
kUI to the double vessel no one could deny. But 
III MtdTMitages that would counteract the disad- 
r The double vessel was steady, and the loss 
w>Qld be very slight compared with the great 
thit woaM be obtained by the steadiness. 
the {Munge was ten minutes longer or shorter 
?lit made very little difference. Mr. Rawlinson 
pi thit it wovdd be very unpleasant to have the 
»*> Utjjp, but he forgot that those cabins could be 
i into any nnaller number. Because it was 200 feet 
fiwii aot necessary that there should be only two 
^rf 100 feet each. You could have any size you 
^^t objections had been urged against these 
v*Mtlt entering the harbours of Calais and 
fw. He thooght that larger vessels might safely 
[s birbov you would be afraid to go into with a 
^ TWiel. The new entrance into the North Sea 
twB only 260 feet wide, with stone piers on each 
ttiUai WIS to take vessels of all sizes, while in 
fWoon there was a width of 300 feet between the 
His ugusent was, tlie larger the vessel the more 
^voold yoobe able to enter the harbour. 

Wtjwked Mr. Pagot whether all the boats he 
ftid* the experiments with were 40 feet long, or 
tftit Ugth 7 ^ 

jHti replied that they were under that length 

. • **^ ssid a length of 40 feet did not convey any 

j«f "hat a boat would do. 60 feet would be the 

J* bigth which would give you any idea. Mr. 

[■^ *id that a twin boat would lose half its speed 

"^i water or a rough sea. He differed with him 

His experience in a trip he took the other day 

•w be went over the troubled water at a rather 

Tm*^ *^^ ^^^ the still. He ran the measur^ 

[WW Weftmintter to Vauxhall, against the tide, 

»W minutes, and returned, with the tide, in 7 J, and 

[**6r, »M pretty rough then. He thought Mr. 

^■tt • pco|Msal was not a good one. Vessels of 

lJ2^'^y« wch as 8,000 tons, were not wanted for 

[J™»«1 paoage. What was wanted was light 

^«st woaU carry passengers, and not cargo ; and 

■^ M a qocfltion whether the boats were to be 160 

t* *^ **•* ^^St «o long as they got the right 

Jwl ftm. the experience on the river the long 

■JJ® 'ight thing to go straight, and fast, and 

- ^••"et may be too long, and 200 feet perhaps 

y* ^ long mt must have a decided advantage. 

1*1^ to t^ tonnage of these different vessels, no 

E kj^V ****"* ^^* *^6 respective toimage was. 

*>M hiacakmlated at from 1,000 to 2,000 tons. 

I** mage of the others wras ought to be known* 

hi«!!S*"*^ might be drawn between them| 

*^Wl, 7,000, and 8,000 tons were not required.' 



G^reat tonnage involve g^reat weight, and that required 
an enormous quantity of power to propel it. 

Mr. 8. J. Maokie, having seen that every vessel that had 
been put upon the Chaimel passage, since the old Bob 
Jtoy, had increased in size from 90 feet in length up to 
240 feet, had yet to learn that any boat was going tojbe 
made too big to go into any of those harbours. There 
was no limit to length any more than size when iron was 
the material of which the ship was to be built. There 
were certain fundamental principles which the public 
were demanding in respect to vessels used in the Channel 
service. They involved three things: — they must be 
safe, they must be steady, and they most be speedy, as 
well as comfortable for the convenience of passengers. 
The first question to settle was that of steadiness. If 
you are to have a steady boat, you must have a boat 
proportioned in certain relations at any rate— at least 
long enough to cover three waves and broad enough to 
get a bearing upon two. Captain Dicey got this in one 
way ; he got it m another. From the first he had set 
his mind to produce a vessel which should be essentially 
a ship in her character. The model upon the table was 
on quarter inch scale throughout, and therefore 
her proportions could be folly seen by everybody. With 
regard to steadiness, power or speed was an essential 
element. The momentum of a vessel of this class, driven 
at a high velocity, would be sufficient in itself to 
secure a very large amount of steadiness. That, 
as he understood it, did not mean that she was 
to lie like a rock on the water, but no seas would 
ever disrupt her. Every pound of iron going into that 
ship had been calculatea. Safety was also a most 
essential element ; and he' would ask anybody to look 
into his vessel, divided longitudinally into three grand 
compartments, and see whether she was likely to be 
sunk, and come to serious damage. As to the saloon, 
he had gone to the extreme dimensions it was possible 
to take m a ship 300 feet by 60, and 12 feet in height 
An round are private cabins, and the whole thing was 
designed to be fitted up for the comfort of all the pas- 
sengers. The saloon alone could carry 1,000 passengers, 
wi£ the comforts of a drawing-room, and if it was said 
that that was a large number, and not likely to be 
required he woidd only refer them to the report of Capt. 
Tyler to the Board of Trade in 1867 or 1868, that a 
freight as large as that could be got as well as carried. 
Mr. Reed drove his vessel with 4,600 horse-power. In 
his vessel he employed 7,000 horse-power, "and if that 
were not enough he was prepared to put more into her. 
If he were asked for economy he gave it, and if he were 
asked for comfort he gave i1^ regardless of cost, and he 
could carry passengers at an expenditure of coal of ten 
tons per voyage per hour. So that the commercial 
question of his ship was not the least element of success. 
Then as to the objections about the harbour. He knew 
all that could be said on that question, for by his system 
he had the most powerful means of propulsion, 
and he would have no hesitation to send bis ship 
any weather into Boulogne or Calais. The 



m 



question of propulsion in his vessel resolved itself into 
that one condition, which was inherent in Mr. Bessemer^s 
plan. Captain Dicey's, and his own. That was the 
experimental portion of tho work, and it was not likely, 
with the natural desire he had to state facts and things 
which could be proved or disproved, and which, so far 
as they could be estimated on a small scale and by 
experiment, had been done, that he would do oUierwise. 
He would ask why water in a tube, driven out at high 
pressure from that tube, should not be as effectual a mode 
of propulsion as any other mode. The same objections 
were urged against the paddle-boat when it was first 
brought out, and more recently when the principle of the 
screw was invented. It was said in the one case, what 
was the use of having a mill- wheel to drive a boat ? His 
intention was to avul himself of all the experience he 
could get With regard to the pitching and rolling 
motion, he had endeavoured to counteract that upon this 



L 



274 JOtJRNAL OP THE BOOIETY OF ARTS, Fmbrxjahy 28, 1878. 



geiMnd principle. The ▼enel ww flat bottimied, aad 
buoyant from eod to end. In an ordinary veatel the 
ship W4S baoyant only in the oentce. fie did not aee 
how any veiy lacge amoont of roUiog or pituhiog could 
take pl'*e6. He had spent affreatdeal of time in perfeot- 
ing his model, and his only hope was thit all the vessels 
might be upon the waters together, and then the best of 
the three would beoome the type ship of the future. 

The Ctiairmm callol upoa Colonel Strange to reply. 

OoL Strange said his paper h'id been dealt with so 
tenderly und objected to so very little, that he really had 
nothing to reply to, nothing to defend, and nothing tu 
expl (io. It was evident from all that had been heard on 
the subject that size was one of the indinpensable requi- 
sites in these Channel ships. All these ships were large 
ships coinpired to those at present in use-'^iiough they 
were not rea*ly large ships. In one dimension they are 
all small ships. They tdl wanted depth, and he rather 
suspected that theabstmoe of depth and the small draught 
of water was a disadvantageous feature, in regard to the 
chief object for which they were designed — the preven- 
tion of sea-siokneas — because, as Mr. Paget, who spoke 
so cleverly and so clearly pointed out, a yacht, 
which has a considerable draught of w<cter, was 
subject to far less motion of translation than a flatter 
bottomed vessel. It was inevitable that they should 
have that feature. They all had it in common. 
Then came the question of whether that motion of trans- 
lation was increased by this small draught of water. On 
that subject they were still completely in the dark. 
That it was that motion which caused the sea-sickness 
was a mere matter of opinion, and. as he thought, not 
warranted by any theory or substantiated by any fact. 
Many who had expressed that opinion had possibly been 
misled bv the complication of motiona that took place, 
for the effect of the motion of translation en the human 
frame was simply to raise the body up and down 
ywtioally. But the same effsot was produced by pitch- 
ing. In these vessels, owing to their great length, and the 
chamcter of the sea in which they will be, the motion of 
translation will be left as the residuum, and it will be very 
soon seen whether that is the motion whioh is so 
destructive to our comfort or not. The respect in which 
the8e inventions agreed was that they mnke almost any 
sacrifice, and exert any ingenuity, to prevent rolling. 
Only one of them pretended — he would say pretended fcnr 
the present — to annihilate rolling, and that was Mr. 
Bessemer's. They hII would diminish it, but only Mr. 
BessHmer's pretended to annihilate it. Sea-sickness 
might be caused by a complication of motions. Mr. 
Bessemer thought that if he could destroy one 
of the motions it would then be reduced to 
a simple one, exemplifying his view by alluding 
to the geometrical illustration. If you have 
absolutely only one motion, you then have a simple 
one. You have none of that twisting and twirling. 
His theory is that the up and down motion alone 
will not produce so great an effect upon the human 
frame as all the motions together, and ho had this justifi- 
cation. A swing is a simple motion, and every one 
knew the cfiffct of that. Another element in steadiness, 
besides sise, was speed. How far this would have theeffect 
could not be ascertained, for since Captain Hoeea^on 
had related the anecdote of a lady having been cured of 
her si a-siokness by an increase in the spi'cd of the ship, 
another naval officer had expressed an opinion exactly 
the contrary. But it seemed to him that speed would 
most probably diminish motion. With respect to speed, 
these gentlemen had been content to incur certain 
sacrifices to produce it, but he did not believe, if Captain 
Dicey or Mr. Mackie were called upon to design a ship 
tostart in a race across the Atlantic, they would either of 
them desiim her according to these models. Captain 
P***J candidly said he did not expect a maximum speed, 

•n u *"• ^***'«» on the contrary, inaisU that his ship 
will have great speed, but she would not have as groat 



speed M if ^lopsUed in the niaal war. He did no 
it w«9ad8i^^oaloalatedfbr«pe6d,D1ltitwucal 
for staadinest. On thesubjectof harbours he woaU* 
that there was atihe present moment before Parlii 
Bill, pfomotsd by the Dover Harbour Board in a 
tion with the South Eastern, and Qiatham snd 
Bailsray oompaniea, for the purpose of prodoctng 
bomr at Dover 600 yards long by about 300 wide, 
was a very great question wheither that harbour 
aoeommothite the traffic that these undertaking 
likely to bring to it He would, therefore, gi 
advise all intc^ted in the matter to watch tJ 
closely, and endeavour to secure a larger tmc 
accommodation at Dover, for the railway oompui^ 
not likely to allow anybody to enter the harbo< 
boats of this class. 

Mr. J. Ontntluun, C.E., sends the following:-^ 
Dicey Ust night complained that I brought ( 
some plans of my own contrary to the regaUtia 
down by the chairman. This was hardir cor 
merely read a short extract from Csptaia Tyltr'i 
to the Board of Trade on plans proposed by m* » 
years since. I did this, as I stated, to show thit 
given much attootion to the subject, and went 
complain that in a paper which, as I thought pr 
to be a review of the whole qu^tion of stsamen i 
Ch-innel, all the plans brought forward contuiw 
and, in some respects, untried novelties. I thooj; 
it should first be shown that proper vesteli h 
acknowledged principles could not be applied I 
service. I hope elsewhere to show that this can b 
I believed that in such meetings fiiir and open ci 
is invited, and Captain Dioey should not comj 
plane thus brought forward puhHuly aie soa 
*' picked to pieces." 

Models ef ships proposed for tiie CboniMl puA^ 
shown by Captain Peacock and \ry Mr. Cerytoii. i 
as a number of mod^ lent by the Royal United i 
Institution illustrative of a great varietv of fffl 
nsttive boats need in the Indian Sess and in the 
Ooean. Captain Peacock's plan was on the muJ 
Peruvian ** balsa," . and had a double bottom or | 
iron tubes under the hull, whidi wassuppoitedab 
raft on hollow vertical cylinders. 



AHHUAL IHTERHATIOHAL SXfllBITl 



The offices of the Commissioners are tt Upp« 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-Oaneral Swt^ 
secretary. 

The third meeting of the Committee on ^ 
Inventions and New Discoveries was held od ft 
20th, at Gore-lodge, S.W. The following ■ 
were present :— Mr. C. B. Vignoles, F.R S.»in «• 
Mr. F. A. AbeL F.R.S. ; Csptain Hans Ba«k j^ 
H. Colomb, R.N.; Major W. Cro«8roan,R.E^; W 
Price ; Professor H. E. Roscoe ; Mr. C. W. r 
F.R.S., D.C.L.; Mr. T. ^pwith, F.R.S.; 1 
A. Strange, F.R.S.; nnd Sir Charles WheaUto 
The committee considered the numerous ^ 
they had already received, and adjounied till W 
the 19th March, when they would meet to in' 
scientific inventions and new discoveries, wh* 
be delivered on Wednesday, the 12th Msrch. 

H.R.H. the Prinoe of Wales presided, on 
22nd, at Marlborougb-bonaei, over a inesang^ 
Majesty's Commissioners fbr the Exhibilioo 
There were present:— H.R.H. the Dakeof w 
I H.R.H. the Prince Christian, H.B.H. the l>niti 



jrOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP AETS, Fbbbuary 28, 1878. 



275 



|M,BikH.tfa*I>ttk0 of Teok, the MAiqaU of Ripon, 
|J«qiii«f LuiidowB, Earl Granville, Sir Thomas 
' r,»r liiniliim AzuUraon, Sir T. M. Biddulph, Sir 
^ •Qm^ Sir Fnocis Sirndford, Mr. Edgar Bowring, 
kCbfe, Xr. CtibRm, Mr. Hawkaley, 0r. Playfiur, Mr. 
tad Hajor-Oeiieral Scott, Beeretaiy. 

I mood meeting of the Committee for the Exhihi- 
)§i «*Wtiiea, Spuitfl, Bear, and other Drinks, and 
VM hild on the 18th instant. There were 
Lnd Skelmendale, in the chair, CoL C. Baring, 
JL M t tt hiflwen, Mr. C. Lombard de Luo, Mr. M. 
Mr. C. H. f^Tser, Mr. H. Browning, Mr. J. 
tad Mr. T. J. Barstow, Lient H. H. Cole, 
rtho ittsded, and Mr. E. J. Craigie, deputy-oom- 

bft neood a tel iBg of the Committee on Steel was 
ftkntty 24th, in the fioy al Commission Offices, 
, 8.W. TbsEe were preeent, CoL T. Inglis, in 
Xr. F. A. Abel, F.RS., Mr. C. Asjprer, Col. 
fhoj F.SJL, Mr. J. Latham, Mr. J, Gordon 
^Cbptdn A. C. Tupper, F.S. A., Mr. T. K Vickers, 
A Vioktn. The committee considered the 
which had already been received, and ad- 
tfl Mflodaj, the 17th proximo, the day for the 
«f sM goads beuig Monday, Uie 10th 
1171 

J. OUhun Barlow, the executor of John Phillip, 
ihatpQioe a catalogue of his works, and wishes 
ii confiiste, as it will assist in verifying the 
I Mtof iporions paintings have been sold of 
Ifciwork. Mr. Barlow will be greatly obliged to 
\rf pktares by this artist if they will afford him 
F, he having loat trace of some few of Mr. 
(9 v«ki. He hin already a list of upwards of 
" n§ hj John Phillip. Mr. Barlow's address is 
iVntd, Kensington. This information will 
tatift the exhibition of the works to take 
) year at tie annual International Exhibition. 



tihpity'i Commissioners have appointed Easter 
uthe day for opoiing the Esdiibition to tbe 



„ latdy appeared in the daily papers : — 

-I tniA you will allow me to reply briefly 

;oir Mlooms to the numerous inquiries 

J 4» receiving on the subject of the Army and 

"■tew Pine Arts Exhibition. The works of 

j ohtbitoa must be delivered at the Exhibition, 

ei*Tge, on the 24th March. The mles for the 

It veil as the special labels to be attached to 

I, may be obtained on application to the 

Annoal International Exhibitions, llpper 

-gere, London. I should also mention that 

/i Cotnmifsioners have kindly undertaken to 

kI5!?"'^ «n works sent from abroad which 

1 MC(|itsd ft* exhibition. — ^I have the honour to 

obedient sMrvant, J. F. D. Donnblly, 

>«td Him. Sec of Committee.'' 



HIKERS' SAFETY LAMP. 



r-lsBp has been invented by Mr. William 
^*t vbidk he has taken a patent Ho has 
^■* •W lamp in ^e following way : — He has 
^■•jHra ganse from that pud of it which 
■• flame, and replaced it by a strong lens 
\^* on one side, and a silver reflector on 
The nsult of this arrangement is, that hie 
^1%^ nkkh he estimates at twenty times 
*S ** P^'y*" "^ sufficient fer att necessary 
^lim Bsasa the temptation to expose the 
"MW light is removed. He further pro- 
i^ JB "* * ^ ^ praotioe of heating the lamp 
^«ftiteM^iB(r ifeit plae«d solowthatit 



cannot be made to approach the gauze either by the 
breath or by tilting the apparatus. The lower portion 
of the appcuratus, contuining the oil reservoir and the 
wiok, which is screwed to the part which consists of the 
gauae funnel, the bnli's-eye, and the reflector, has a 
spring-bolt attached to it, which, by means of a serrated 
arrangement, permits the screw to be turned, locking 
the two parts of the lamp together. The bolt is easily 
withdrawn by another screw, but this cannot be done 
without at the same withdrawing the wick and 
extinguishing the flame, and it thus becomes impossible 
to get a light by opening the lamp. The inventor 
claims thus to remedy the chief defects. The apparatus 
is strong, little likely to ^et out of order, and altogether 
well adiapted for the rough usnage to which a miner's 
lamp is likely to be exposed. It is more expensive than 
the forms of the lamp now in general use, but Mr. Yatee 
states ibai the saving of oil efieoted by its use will in one 
year pay the additional cost. 



CORRESPOHDEHGB. 



GALVANIC BATTERIES. 

Sib, — In my paper on *' Galvanic Batteries," read last 
December, I find that, writing from memory, I inad- 
vertently mentioned the name of M. Soret instead of 
M. Raoult. 

M. Soret has published some very valuable experi- 
ments on the relations of electricity, heat, and mechanical 
force ; but the particular experiments I was speaking of 
were not his, but those of M. Raoult. 

To prevent mi^akes, I think it right io correct the 
error into which I inadvertently fell. — Yours, &c., 

H. HlOHTON. 

Putney, Feb. 26, 1873. 



aBVB&AL HOTEft. 



The Petroleum Trade. — It is proposed to form a com- 
pany to lay a pipe from Petrolia to London, in the pruvince 
of Ontario, Canada, for the conveyance of oil, in conwquence 
of the difficulty experienced in obtaining prompt deliveries 
by railway. As the two places are on a level, pumps will 
have to be erected at inter^^ of abfmt 10 miles to force the 
oil into the next pumping place. The distance >) be over- 
ooBie is about 60 miles, and the cost is estimatad at 100,000 
dollars. 

Purifying Water in Condensers. — ^The steam con- 
densed fr}m engines always contains fat, resultinir from the 
material used for lubricnting. According to a Free<sh in- 
vention the water of ctmdansation is eolleeted in a common 
reservoir, and pumped into a receptacle provided with a 
powerful stirring appHratus, consisting of shovels, Archime- 
dean screw, &c. This rect-ptade is three-fonrths full, the 
remaining space being filled with petroleum ; the apparatus 
is set in motion fur fi%e minutes, the water being allowed 
to settle for fifty-five minutes. Five minutes* time is 
sufficient to separate all the fat which is then contained in 
the oil, and the purified water can direotlv be uaed a^cain. 
A hundred pouaos of pctrulenm will absorb fifty poundu of 
fat; it has then a spmfic gravity of 0*840, but should be 
renewed when presenting a density of 0*810. It is subse- 
quently regained by distillation. • 

H0TICB8. 



The Christmas subscriptioiw aace due, and 
should be forwarded hj cheque or Fost-c^ftoe 
order, orosaed " Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomaa Dayenport, Financial 
Officer. 



276 JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Febbuart 28, 1873. 



BEP0BT8 ON THS LOKDOK IKTEBNATIOHAL 
EXHIBITION OF 1872. 

The reports which appeared in the last volume of 
the Journal on the various sections of the above 
Exhibition, are now published complete, in a 
pamphlet form (price 2s.), and can be obtained 
at the office of the Society. 



THE UBBABY. 

The following works have been presented to the 
library: — 

A Pamphlet on Tatee' Patent Safety Lamp. Pre- 
sented by the author. 

Statistics of New Zealand for 1871, and the Agri- 
cultural Statistics of the Colony in February, 1872. 
Presented by the Government. 

The Principles of Hydrostatics. By Thomas Webster, 
F.R.S. Presented by the author. 



OBDINABY MEETINGS. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged :— 

Mabch 6. — " On Gas-lighting by Electricity, and 
Means for Lighting and Extinguishing Street and other 
Lamps." By W. Lloyd Wisb, Esq., A.I.C.E., M.I.M. 
On this evening Capt. P. H. Colomb, B.N., will preside. 

March 12. — ''On Si^alling at Sea, with special 
reference to Signals of Distress." By Capt. Colomb, R.K 
On this evening Thomas Brassey,E8q.,M.P., will preside. 

March 19. — " On Certain Improvements in the Manu- 
focture of Printing Types." By J. E. Johkson, Esq. 

March 26. — '* On the Edible Starches of Commerce, 
their Production and Consumption." By P. L. 
Sim MONDS, Esq. 

April 2. — " On Economy of Fuel for Domestic 
Purposes." By Capt. Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.S. 

April 9. — No Meeting, 

April 16. — ''On the Condensed Milk Manufkctnre." 
By L. P. Mbrriam, Esq. 

INDIA COMMITTEE. 

A Conference will be held this evening TPriday), 
28th instant, at 8 p.m., when a paper will be read 
by T. Roger Smith, Esq., architect, on ** Archi- 
tectural Art in India.'* James Febousson, Esq., 
D.C.L., F.B.S., will preside. 

At the Conference which will be held on Friday, 
March 14th, Bobebt B. Shaw, Esq., will read a 
paper on ** The Commercial Relations of England 
with Central Asia." Sir Henby Cbeswicke 
Rawlinson, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., will preside. 

At the Conference which will be held on Friday, 
March 28th, W. T. Blantord, Esq., of the Indian 
Geological Survey, will recwi his paper on " The 
Mineral Resources of India." Sir Loms Malubt, 
C.B., Member of the Council of India, will preside. 

CAKTOB LECTUEE8. 

The Second Course of these lectures is ** On the 
Energies of the Imponderables, with eCT>ecial re- 
ference to the Measurement and Utilisation of 
them," by the Rev. Abthttb Rigo, M.A. The re- 
maining lectures will be delivered on the following 
evenings, at eight o'clock : — 

LscTURB v.— Monday, Mabgh 3bd, 1873. 

On the Energy of Electricity, with especial reference 
to the Measurement and Utilisation of it. 



Lbctubb VI. — ^Monday, March lOra, 1873. 
On the Energy of Light, with especial reff^ence to il 
Measurement and Utiluation of it. 

Lecture VII. — Monday, March 17th, 1873. i 
On the Energy of Hent, with especial reference to tl 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 



The Third Course of Cantor Lectnres for tl 

§ resent session will be " On Wines; thdr Pr^ 
uction. Treatment, and Use," by J. L ^ 
THTTDiCHtTM, Esq., M.D. The Course will cond 
of six lectures, the first of which will be givcnj 
Monday evening, the 21st of April, the rewainiil 
five on the Monday evenings succeeding. 

MEETDreS FOB THE SHSUDTe WSSK. 

Moir. ...gO^IETY OF ABT8, 8. Cantor L^ctiw. Ecr. 
Bigg, " On the Energies of the ImpondawUei." 
Parmers* Club, 5^. Mr. H. M. Jenldni, " eomeOa 

farative Keeulu of Large and Small Fam %p^ 
tovidinR Food for the People." (Adjooratd d 

ctudon.) ^ . 

Bodety of Engineera, 7 J. Mr. W. H. Fox. '• Ooaticw 

Baalway Brakes" (Atmospheric and Elwtnc). 
Law Amendment Sodetr, 8. Mr. W. F. S. Damel, I 

theSeoond Beport of the Judicatore ODiomimcD- 
Boyal United Service Inatitatton, 8^. 1. Mr. N^ 

B&maby, *' Lesaon from the Hotepur-GUttoo ExpJ 

ment." 2. Captain F. H. Poore, "Taijitt for E| 

Training on boaid Ship." .^ „ , 

London £istitution, 4. Ftofesaor Duncan, 'Tbya 

Qeography." 
Boyal Inatitotion, 2. General Monthly Meeting. 
^tomological, 7. 
British Architects, 8. 
Medical, 8. 
Victoria Institnte, 8. Ber. G. W. Wddon, " Vxt Lrt 

Creation— Unity of Plan» Variety of Fora." 
Tuss. ...Boyal Institution, 8. Ptof. Bothcrfard, "Forcei i 

Motions of the Body." ,. 

Civil Engineen, 8. Continued DiiCussMm on J 

Standard Gauge and of the Metxe Gauge fo the H 

BailwavB of India." 
Pathological, 8. 

Anthropological, 8. ^ ^ .^ 

Biblical Archeeology, 6^. Bev. A. H. Styee,' w 

Synchronous History of Assyria and B*byl«u*, » 

slated Cuneiform Inscriptions." 
Zoological, 8|. ,, . 

Boyal Colonial Institute, 8. 1. Discuniflo on 3fr^ 

Bourinot's paper on **The Marine and TitihaM 

Canada." 2. Mr. W. Walker, •• On the IVjnlMO I 

ProspecU of the British West Indies." 

WiD. ...SOCIETY OF ARTS, 8. Mr. W. Uojd Wiw/j 
Gas-lighting by Electricity, and Means far L«U 
and Extinguishing Street and other Lamps." 

Microscopical, 8. Mr. E. J. Gayer, "Kotos on 
Micro-spectroscope and MQcrosoope." 

Pharmaceutical, 8. 

Obstetrical. 8. 

London Institution, 7. Lecture on *' Music" 

Thuss... Boyal, 6^. 

Antiquaries, 8^. . ^ 

linnroan, 8. Mr. G. Bentham, ** On the VwfJ^ 

Chemical, 8. 1. Dr. C. R. A. Wright, " On the AcUfl 
Hydrochloric Acid on Codein." 2. Mr. P. H"J 
••New Processes for Mercury Estimation, wiw^j 
Observations on Mercury Salts." 8. Dr. T. E. 1«^ 
" On a Method of Estimating Nitric Add." *- }^ 
Field, •• Note on the Action of Acetates upon Sol^ 
of Plumbic Salt), with Bemarks upon the SolabiU 
Plumbic Chloride." 

Boyal Society Club, 6. ., . 

Boyal Institution, 8. Mr. A. Yenum Harooort, 01 
Chemistry of Coal and ita I^oducts." 
al United Service Institution, 8. CspUin C. J( 
The Construction and Manufacture of Rifled Go 



Boyal 
•ton, 



Fri Geologists' Association, 8. 1. Mr. Jamw Ho««n, 

the Geology of Brighton." 2. Mr. John V^i 
Wetherell, " On some Foasila from the Margate On 

Philological, 8^. 

ArchsBoiogical Institute, 4. ^ , 

Boyal Institution, 9. Mr. James Dewar, *'0b thel 
perature of the Son and the Woi^ of Soaligbt." 

Architectural Association, 7|. Mr. E. C. fio 
** Middle-class Schools for Girls." 

Sat Boyal Botanic, 3). 

Boyal Institudon, 8. Ptofe«or W. K. CBff«d, " Q 
Fhiloaophy of the Pore Sdenesa." 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mabch 7, 1873. 



277 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

No. 1,069. Vol. XXI. 



A Prize of £3 

A Prize of £2 



FRIDAY, MARCH 7, 1873. 



9Mf9r&»Ma9eiM9 •tumid btoddruati to th»aienimrnt 



AIIOVffCKKEHTS BT THE COinf OIL. 



TBCHVOLOeiCAL EXAJatfATIOHS. 

The Programme of Examinations in the 
Tkhnology of some of the Arts and Manuf aotm«8 
of Uw country is now ready for issue, and may be 
bid on application to the Secretary. 

The subjects selected for 1873 are Ck>tton, Paper, 
Silk, Steel, and Carriage-building. Candidates, in 
ofdET to obtain certificates in any of these subjects, 
ffliEt pass the examinations of the Science and Art 
Ikputmsai in certain sciences, which are specified 
IB the programme ; and in addition to these, special 
papers will be set in the technology of each manu- 



By G. N. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 
Building: — 

A Prize of £3 

A Prize of £2 • 

By the Worshipful Company of Spectacle 
Makers, to the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 
in the Advanced Grade and in .the Elementary 
Grade, Manufacture of Steel : — 

APrizeof £5 5 

APrizeof £3 3 

A Prize of £2 2 

A letter has been received from Colonel Akroyd, 
M.P., promising to contribute £5 in prizes when- 
ever Examinations are held in the Technology of 
the Worsted Manufacture. 

The Council beg to annoimce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund : — 

The Worshipful Comminy of Vintners.. £10 10 
Dr. Crace Calvert, F.K.S. (annual) .... 6 6 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart 6 

B. L. Chance, Eaq 6 6 

The Council invite the aid of masters and man- 
agers in promoting these examinations by encour- 
aging their workmen to take advantage of them. 
An explanatory handbill, suitable for being sus- 










firtore by examiners appointed by the Society of ] ponded in factories and workshops, may be had on 
Arts, and certificate of three grades will be | application to the Secretary of the Society of Arts, 
ivaided:— "Honours," "Advanced," and**Ele- a^-*1t^1i; T^n^nn W.fl. 



Adelphi, London, W.C. 



iwDtaiy. 

The examinations of the Science and Art Depart- 
MBt will be held during the first three weeks 
d May, tiie technological paper being worked on 
the eremng of the Hth May. For the dates of the 
SdcDoe subjects candidates are referred to the 
Scieiice Directory, published by the Science and 

Art Department. 
The following Prizes are offered by the Societyof 

Arts in each of the five subjects mentioned above : — 
To the best candidate in Honours, £10. 
Tb the best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7 . 
Tdthebest candidate in the Elementary Grade, £5. 

In order that these Examinations may really be 
nooeasful in promoting technical education in this 
coontry, it is desirable that encouragement should 
be given to candidates by the offer of additional 
ines and scholarships. With this object the 
Ooondl appeal to the Companies of the City of 
Loodon, to merchants and manufacturers, and to 
■Bttbers of the Society generally, to aid them 
^ contributing to the Prize Fund. 

The following special additional Prizes are 

ByWyndham S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 
llttd best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, 
hj«r Hinufaoture : — 



FOB 8TEBL. 

1. The Council have resolved to award the Gold 
Medal of the Society to the manufacturer who shall 
produce and send to the London International 
Exhibition of 1873 the best collection of specimens 
of steel suitable for general engineering purposes. 

2. The specimens exhibited must include a com- 
plete illustration of the applications of the varieties 
of steel submitted. 

3. Each manufacturer should send with his 
specimens a statement of the nature of the tests 
he has applied to each kind of steel submitted, and 
give the results of such tests. 

4. The samples tested are to be exhibited 
together with duplicate samples, or portions of the 
same samples ; these will be submitted to tests 
should the Council consider it desirable. 

6. All persons using steel for general engineer- 
ing purposes, who are not manufacturers of such 
steel, are also invited to exhibit specimens on the 
above terms and conditions* 

6. The Council reserve to themselves the right 
of withholding the premium, in the event of the 
specimens exhibited not being sufficiently meri- 
torious. 



278 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mabot 7, 187S. 



COMMITTEE OH THE MEAHS OF PEOTECTTNG THE I sented ; we should find him, after his first burst 
^ll^^^*.r. «#,.-r«<i«./iA«r«r AAVArrnvr of debght ani astonishment — for such a man 

MBTE0P0LI8 AGAIH8T COKFLAOEAnON. ^^uld be both deUghted and astonished- 



The Committee met February 27th. Present — 
U. J. Kay-Shuttleworth, Esq., M.P., in the chair ; 
KlJolonel the Earl of Mountcharles; Lord Alfred S. 
Churchill; Major-General F. Eardley-Wilmot, 
R.A., F.R.S. ; Colonel F. Marcus Beresford, M.P. ; 
Mr. Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ; Mr. Seymour Teulon; 
and Mr. T. R. Tufnell. Mr. William Swanton, of 
the Metropolitan Salvage Corps, attended and 
gave information. Mr. Quick also attended and 
gave further evidence, which will a^qpear in a 
future Journal. 



FROCBBDIHOS OF TEB SOCIETT. 



IKDIA COmUTTES 

A Conference was held on Friday evening, 28th 
ult., at 8 p.m., James FEEOtrssoN, Esq., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., in the chair. The paper read was — 

ABCHITECTUBAL ART IN INDIA. 
By T. Eoger Bmith, F.S.I.B.A. 

The subject of this evening's conference, and 
which I am to have the honour of introducing to 
your notice is, as has been annomioed, Architec- 
tural Art in India. The term Architectural Art 
has been adopted as embracing architecture viewed 
as a fine art ; and with it painting and sculpture, 
when in the service of architecture — that is to say 
when employed in the decoration of buildings. 
Although tiie limiinTig epithet Modem was not 
added, yet it must be understood that the archi- 
tectural art which has marked — or is to mark — 



forming some kind of classification of these 
works of art. It is not impossible that the 
criterion he would adopt might be the degree 
in which their aspect would be familiar to him ; 
at any rate, such a criterion would be a very con- 
venient one for our present purpose. Oii this 
basis three great groups would be formed — ^the 
buildings that were entirely new and stran^, 
those with whose features liie critio had a partial 
acquaintance— and those with which he nad, I 
might almost say, a painful familiarity. These 
three groups may be very broadly classed as 
Hindu, Mahommedan, and European, and, as the 
names given to them show at a glance,* they re- 
present buildings erected imder three different 
political conditions of the country. 

The &;roup of altogether unfamiliar buildings, 
to which we have given for convemenoe the title 
Hindu, would be a very large one; and would 
appear to any European obs^ver full of novelty 
and full of variety. The truth is that several 
great groups and many smaller ones would readily 
appear were we to begin to classify these buildings 
on any other principle than that of their total un- 
likenessto anything with which Western experience 
is familiar. 

Structures enough for example, bearing the aspect 
of petrified timber constrtiction, would be found 
to form a group by themselves ; and so on with 
other features, the groups being found to ooinoidc 
with great divisions of race, territory, or creed, and 
the buildings which form them being of Jaina or 
Buddhist, or other origin, as the case may be. 
Almost imiversally, however, the absence of Uie 
arch, the prominent introduction of the bracket to 
some extent as a substitute for it, and the profuse 
employment of surface decoration, might be recog- 
nised as salient features. 

These are the proper buildings of the country. 
Many different races have worked upon them, and, 
closely examined, they will yield plenty of traces 



the period of the British occupation of the Indian 

peninsula is the main subject of our investiga- of migrations, conquests, changes of style, and 
tion. Some reference to the ancient architecture other marks of difference ; but still, the group is 
of the country must necessarily be made, but it | marked by certain broad characteristics of an im- 

mistakable character, and for our present purpose 
the architecture indigenous to the soO may bo 
considered as one great style, which may con- 
veniently be termed Hindu. 

The second division of the photographs and 
views we have supposed our critic to examine, 
would probably deUght him to a higher degree. 
He may have been filled with admiration at the 
hardy courage which has raised some of the 
domical structures of the first family, and be 
cannot have failed to wonder at the vastness of 
some of the works undertaken and carried ont; 
but he will, as a European, have felt little sym- 
pathy with the designs ; and the admiration which 
some of the details of decoration will havereoexred 
will have been extorted almost in spite of himself. 
In the second group, features which recall Constan- 
tinople, Cairo, or Granada, features derived from 
the parent stem whence sprang the Gothic of Italy, 
France, and England, will meet his eye. The 
pointed arch, although not that of Western 
Europe, yet resembles it ; the domes and traceried 
grilles of Arab architecture are combined with 
decorations entirely Indian, producing an aspect 



will be with the full recognition that I have 
little or no information on a subject which Mr. 
Fergusson has made his own, except that which 
has come to me through his publications, and 
with the equally full conviction that when your 
desire to have the ancient architecture of India 
described in this room, it will probably not be 
to myself that you will entrust the task. 

Iiet us commence our inquiry by supposing for a 
moment that an accurate and critical European 
observer, with an eye trained by some study and 
some practice as an artist (especially if the art he 
had studied has been Architecture), were for the 
first time to come in contact with the architectural 
art of India, having not previously known it (such 
a case is possible) ; and that before him were placed 
a large collection of photographs, plans, and views, 
representing a selection of the prominent buildings 
from all parts of the country, from remote times 
down to the present yeiir; and let us further 
suppose this critical observer to devote sufficient 
time to the study of the collection for him to be 

tabled to master the principal features of general 
ign and of detail in all the buildings repre- 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 7, 1873. 



279 



*l oBM fMnilinr and etraage, and one whieh will 
'kum the eye. Here we are <m the traces of a 

Ibis group consists of the buildings found in those 
pronuw whei« Mahommedan invaders obtained 
iod kept supremacy for a length of time, and 
«tee^ hrin^iing their art with them, they exercised 
it with a wise adaptation of their subsimary forms 
to thfr requirements of the climate, and a clever 
•loption of much of the amazing sldU for surface 
(leooratioD which they found ready to their hands. 

The Mahommedan buildings at Ahmedabad are 
Aa beet known of the group, and probably the 
Ust worth knowing. They have been excellently 
ihatnted by photography, and they include ex- 
lapias of grace and beauty which are hardly to 
be sarpassed in the architecture of the West. 

the remaining views of buildings, though of 
toy familiar aspect, to say the least of it, will excite 
btt admiration in ihe <mltivated and impartial 
abservcr whom we have supposed, than the mos- 
owi and tombe of the believers in the prophet. 
Ifciy are motley, they are modem, they — ^many of 
tfaen— make no p]:«t«ition to architectural charac- 
fcs, and when tiioy do make such pretentions they 
Bflfo often than not fall short of the apparent aim 
of Ihor designers. Need I say more to show that I 
m referring to the buildings dating from the 
Soropean occupation of India P 

TkisK were many reasons why these buildings 
wwBanhkely to have much merit. For long there 
VH little leisure and as little inclination to indulge 
ia ai«yieeture at all. In the pressure of conquest 
and tbe hurry of newly-established trading, such 
tas and barracks as could shelter and secure the 
•oldkiT, and such rough buildings as would suffice 
to bold the goods, were all that was attempted. 
Aa time went on the Portuguese, the Dutch, and 
& Eo^Lsh set such fcishion as there was in the 
Wdings of the country. Worse models than 
ttwee nations were building at home could not be 
■■ily «mo»ved — ^yet the European buildings in 
India were worse ; and perhaps no words can better 
«!«« the bathos to which architecture — if we 
■ty «all it so— sank in India in the early times of 
^ Britiah occupation, than to say that it fell 
•Iwrt eren of our own eighteenth century work at 
■me. 

Ooe droumstance especially militated against 
■>I»t)»ement, and prevented the fashions pet by the 
rortogaese (who seem rather to have taken such 
W as was taken) from being improved upon, a 
"'onwtance which still stands in the way of 
™opean improvement. No Englishman is a 
*ttler in India. We do not transport ourselves, 
Jf bonaes, and our modes of life to that country. 
We oily go there for a term of years, and con- 
•I'^ntiy, looking upon the whole thing as 
*«aporary, we put up with that which in a real 
*8^fl«y would soon be superseded. 

Better days, however, had to come ; and theim- 
PJI^ooe of the Viceroy and his court, and of the 
^"•n^al govemers, reqtured that some permanent 
Pjjflon for state, for the administration of 
Jfe, and for public worship and public business, 
•jjdbe made. Accordingly, in the capital, and 
7digrees in other great stations, buildings began 
■*• for dvil purposes, while those for military 
^^Mm Were oonatantly bdn^ extended and im- 
IJJji* Before we consider what was done, or 
^■■••figjit have been done, it may be worth while 



to give a moment's attention to the principles that 
ought to guide such work, and to throw a glance 
on the erocts of conquest upon architecture, not 
only in the history of India, but in some other 
instances where the great building races have been 
concerned. 

It may, I think, be fairly advanced, that in no 
country, where there were buildings of which we 
have remains, has there beeu a great political and 
social crisis such as an invasion, witiiout a per- 
ceptible record being left on the architecture of 
the period immediately subsequent to the event. 
In Qreat Britain, for example, we have a sudden 
leap taken by the architectural works of the whole 
island at the time of the Norman Ck)nquest, and 
the close sinuliarity of our eleventh-century 
churches to those of the North of France, would 
lead an observant man to guess that such an event 
as the Norman Conquest had taken place, even 
though he had never heard of it. The series of 
Edwardian castles in Wsdes is another familiar 
example of the same thing; but perhaps the most 
remarkable illustrations of what I mean are found 
in the traces of Roman invasion which are 
exhibited in Bome herself, and in every comer of 
Euro^. 

It IS not always the conquering nation which 
imposes its architecture on the conquered. The 
arts of Greece were so infinitely superior to those 
of Bome, that when Greece was subdued, 
Roman art received its first great impulse, and 
took its first great lesson. Not so, however, in the 
case of nations inferior in civilisation to the Roman. 
Among them wo can trace the footprints of the 
conquerors to the present hour. Just as the aspect 
of old moraines and iee-wom rocks enable us with 
certainty to point out spots in the valleys of Wales 
where glaciers once covered the now moss-grown 
rocks; so the straight roads and the intrenched 
camps of the Roman still remain deeply cut upon 
the face of the country, to bear witness to his 
military occupation of Germany, France, Britain ; 
and his amphitheatre and forum, his temple and 
his aqueduct, indicate to this hour the spots where 
a more permanent colony tried to provide itself 
with the appliances inseparable from the Roman 
idea of civilised life. It needs nothing more than 
a visit to the existing ruins to display to us what 
was the nature of the Latin colony in such places 
as Nismes, Aries, or Orange in France; or 
Wroxeter, Dorchester, or Silchoster in our own 
country. 

Now more than one phase of the history of India 
has a permanent record in the aspect of her buildings 
and her monuments. The Mahommedan invaders 
made their mark, as has already been observed. We 
are ourselves busily engaged at the present hour 
in writmg such a record on the length and breadth 
of the country ; and were the British occupation of 
India to terminate to-morrow, the visible tokens of 
it would survive in our canals, and our railways, 
our ports, and our public buildings, or, at least, 
the remains of them for centuries to come. It may 
then prove worth our while to compare what has 
been done by other building races in analogous cir- 
cumstances witii what we are ourselves doing or 
about to do in India. 

The custom of the Romans, in occupying com- 
paratively barbarous countries, was to transport 
their architecture with very smsdl variation, if any, 
to the new spot. The Mahommedan conquerors of 



280 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. Mauch 7, 1873. 



India did not pursue precisely the same course, 
the principal reason being that they settled among 
people of a high, and, to some extent, a kindred 
civilisation. To a highly artistic race the due 
design and suitable enrichment of such buildings 
as are devoted to public worship and public state, 
and very often to public burial, becomes a matter 
of great importance ; and the eleg^ance and adorn- 
ment of their dwellings is attended to as a matter 
of course. In the Mahommedan races artistic 
instincts were very strong; and what I have called 
the architectural arts were, without doubt, forced 
into great activity among them by the circumstance 
that plastic and pictorial art were, to so large an 
extent, forbidden pleasures. Pull as they were of 
artistic sympathies and powers, hindered by the pro- 
hibitionof the Koran from indulging in the enj oyment 
of arts of which the representation of the human 
form is the highest development, architecture 
and that style of decoration which we do not call 
arabesque, but which has a better right to the title 
than the Italian work which is usually so designated, 
were to them the sole outlet for their imaginative 
and creative power. This, perhaps, is one reason 
why, from Spain to India, Saracenic architecture 
presents so much that is charming and powerful. 
When these people came to occupy larg^ portions 
of India, however, they foimd existing an archi- 
tecture, and a power of decorative carving, which 
were very far from contemptible, and they pro- 
ceeded to incorporate many features of this national 
art with their own ; and the very remarkable and 
beautiful buildings which resulted may be taken as 
an example of that which, under the circumstances 
of invasion and permanent occupation, not without 
proselytism, a highly developed artistic instinct was 
led to do. 

The style of these works is essentially and im- 
mistakably Saracenic; there is no room for doubt 
about this. Their detail varies, however, consider- 
ably from that displayed in Saracenic works in 
other countries, in Austria or in Spain, for example. 

Now here we seem to have a guiding principle 
expressed very clearly. The leading features of the 
style of the conquering race have been retained ; 
but at the same time its details have been largely 
modified to suit the materials, the designers and 
the workmen obtainable, and the circumstances of 
the climate or country. 

It is hard to say what an English architect of 
the time when we first began to build in India 
would have had to fall back upon as the national 
English style ; and difficult to see, therefore, what 
art, meriting the name, ought to have been trans- 
planted to India had we from the first desired to 
establish there buildings of architectural preten- 
sion. In fact, we acted very much as the Romans 
acted; we built in India very much as we were 
building at home. And at the time when this 
work was begun we were building here, and conse- 
quently built there, in an entirely inartistic fashion; 
now, however, that attention has been pretty 
generally awakened here to the claims of arcnitec- 
ture as a fine art, the question has presented itself 
for solution again — what sort of architecture ought 
we to employ in India ? 

In reply to this question I believe that the 

examples I have mioted will sufficiently indicate 

the natural course. We ought, like the Romans and 

the Mahoinmedans, to take our national style with 

but being strangers, as the Bomans were, rather 



than semi-colonists like the Mahommedans, we shall 
be likely to succeed best if we are not too anxious 
to incorporate much of the art or style of tlie 
country with our own. 

We are, however, met, if we strive to apply this 
principle to practice, by the difficulty of defijiia^ 
what our present national style really is ; nay, at 
the present day it becomes dwgerous to assert that 
we possess such a thing, and I, for one, am not 
going to venture far, at least within these walls, 
into a vexed controversy on this point: On a broad 
and g^eral view of the aspect of Europe we may 
at least admit that there is a recognised modexn 
European architecture about which we may be 
tolerably certain; and while it is difficult, and 
perhaps imnecessary, to lay down the rule that 
our work in India ought to be English, there could 
not, I should have thought, be much hesitation 
in admitting that it ought to be at least European, 
and in defining sufficiently for practical pur- 
poses what European architecture means. A 
different opinion has, howeVer, been held, and the 
propriety of buildings for European use in India 
being even European in character is so far from com- 
manding general assent, that I find in a report of 
a lecture on architecture, delivered by Lord 
Napier, the conclusion arrived at that the Govern- 
ment of India would do well to consider whether 
the Mussulman forms might not be adopted 
^nerally as the official style of architecture. This 
is a fundamental point of the utmost importance 
to the discussion of the whole question, and it is 
worth while to endeavour to arrive at a sound con- 
clusion upon it, limiting our inquiry strictly to 
buildings which are intended for European pur- 
poses. 

In occupying India we have not become colonists : 
we have remained conquerors. We have not sought 
to divest OTu*selves of our national habita, or 
manners, dress, or laws, even when convenience 
would have been consulted by so doing. The 
broadcloth of the civilian, and the gold lace and 
epaulettes of the soldier, are eminently unsuited to 
tropical climates, where the natives, when they 
dress at all, wear cotton or cambric. But it is 
because they are intimately associated with English- 
men, as such, that custom has decreed the retention 
of these things. We administer justice, not 
tyranny, in India; and yet, probably, a hig^h- 
handed rule like that of an Oriental moni^rch would 
suit the 'difficulties of oiu" case and the temper of 
the native mind better than our fair but foreigin 
methods of dealing with government and law. 
Even our language is imposed by us on the courts 
of law ; and European fashions, notions, and 
principles are stubbornly kept up in many cases, 
in which, if convenience alone were consulted, an 
entire change would be made. Now, why should 
oiu" architecture be an exception to this rule? We 
go to India, Europeans with pale faces, a strange 
tongue, and unfamiliar ciistoms ; and our position 
as the foreign governing race, and as a race which 
does not settle in the coimtry, and intermarxy 
with the natives, but which has its home far away 
over the seas and retains all its personal relations 
with that home, makes such a course of conduct 
reasonable — ^in fact, inevitable. Let us, then, for 
consistency's sake, be European in our art ; for 
art, if it be true, is an expression of national 
individuality more intense and more truthful than 
custom, fashion, or government. In the stub- 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 7. 1873. 281 



with whidi we retain our nationality European architects who are skilled enough to 

•» re-semble the Romans. - They unquestionably work in exotic European styles. It may be so, and 

iK^ only cut their roads and pitched their I desire to use guarded language, because I 

mnm in Boman fashion, but put up Roman know the attempt has been made by architects of 

Mdin^ wherever they had occasion to build ; skill ; but I beg very respectfully, but most de- 

ni the rMuaining fragments of those buildings cidedly, to express my doubt as to the possibility of 

tMti^: Had the Roman governor of a province in such a feat being often accomplished satisfactorily. 

Gnl or Britain continued to be as intensely Roman To master a style of architecture so as to work in 

in )d$ exfle as the English collector remains British it respectably has hitheHo not been accomplished 

to the backbone in the heart of India. by the imaided exertions of one or two minds, but 

The reasons advanced in favour of the adoption by the concurrent power of many. Perhaps I may 

nf the Mahommedan style, or of one of the phases be met with a reference to Pugin as a man who 

of ffindu architecture, are, I think, these : — first, it accomplished a revival by his own personal powers. 

ii ttid that it is suited to the climate ; secondly. But Pugin was only the most conspicuous of a 

Ikt the natives can do it ; and, lastly, that it is, large school ; but for the literary labours of Sir 

«r an be, very beautiful. The principal and a Walter Scott, the antiquarian labours of Rickman, 

nfiomt answer, of course, is, that it may be all and the conci^rrence of many other minds working 

thcK. bat that it is not European, far less British, with him and around him, Pugin would not have 

In addition to this, however, a good answer can accomplished half of what he did ; and in Pugin 

hp bnmf^ht to each of the lines of argument which we only see the foremost man of an enthusiastic 

I ksTQ briefly summarised. band, stimulated by religious and artistic zeal, and 

Of the three reasons alluded to, by far the most going along with a rising tide of public feeling. 

paw€ffiil is the one placed first, namely, that And, after all, the Gothic revival was but a restora- 

biiaa architecture, whether Mahommedan or tiun to use among us of models and principles 

Hinda, is the ofi^ring of the climate, and, as which, if disused, had never passed out of sight or 

«aeh, better fitted than anything we can import to lost their hold upon the affections of Englishmen. 

tht rirenmstances of the country. Very true, but It is a far harder intellectual and artistic feat when 

10 k Indian food, Indian dress, Indian living, a European is asked to take such information as 

Ivfian adoiinistra^on. They are all the ofi&pring the labours of Mr. Fergusson have placed at our 

*d the cfimate, yet we cling, and very naturally disposal, and such photographs and casts as have 

disg, to the food, the dress, the manners, and come to this countiy, and to make the attempt to 

th* principles of governing to which we are ac- imbue his Westeru mind with Oriental feeling as 

<ntoined; al^ough, while we retain them in well as learning, and is told to work out under 

pnnciple, we are not unwilling to make such vari- those conditions a building for European occu- 

itioQs in detail as will tend to dimiTii«h some of pation which shall not be European. Believe me, 

the isfionTenience experienced in consequence of gentlemen, the best artist at his best can but take 

Ae peculiarity of the climate, country, and the highest place among his peers ; he is, in his 

'"'""'fljrf. Now, if it had turned out that no taste, his sympathies, and his style, the exponent 

■'dntecture to which we are accustomed in Eng- of the feelings of his race, his time, his school. 

W, or. at least, no architecture which we shomd Raffaelle was only the most noble Roman of the 

»r in Enorland without any sense of its being Roman school. Titian was the most intensely 

<m^re. could be employed in a tropical climate, Venetian of the painters of Venice. Velasquez 

the c«e would be a very difficult one to deal with; and Murillo are immistakably Spanish ; and 

^ if it can be not only argued but shown by Albert Durer as unmistakably German. True art 

*iperifnce that buildings which would not look is a very national affair, tinged most strongly by 

«rt of place in England can be erected in India, the national peculiarities of the time, the place, and 

wi wili be found perfectly suitable for us, then the people among whom the artist learns his art 

•r may, without hesitation, allow the prepondcr- and gets his inspiration ; and though you may 

*tiD? weight of the arguments in favour of giving obtain a cold, formal, lifeless design, with horse- 

• Iliiropean aspect to our art to outweigh what- shoe arches, and surf6U}e carving, and may carry 

«*rcan be urged in favour of Oriental architec- it out, you will not easily get biuldings possessing 

to« for Europeans on the score of its being the real merit in this way. It is difficult to speak 

otof the country ; leaving the question of en- critically of such experiments as have been tried in 

'Wiwging the art of the country, in those cases India without having seen them, which I have not, 

»here the building is to be devoted to the use of but the accounts which I have received of the re- 

^ na tives of tiie country, to stand on its own suits of the attempt fully well bear out what I have 

"•nto- advanced, so far as they go ; and if Mr. Emerson's 

The second reason for employing the styles of j attractive design for the Mahommedan university 

«» «wmtiy, namely, that the natives can design at Allahabad oe quoted as an exception, I am 

•d build m them, is answered by the fact that the ' inclined rather to claim it as the exception which 

tnri4-«,_^ii _.A I. , •, mi*^ <! .11. 1*1 j."L^ i_ j.t A.^ -J • 



'**>'*• will not be employed. The buildings which 
■^wnlt for European use, and with European 
Jjwiin India, have been invariably built under 
^J**n superintendence and from European 
*2p^ and always will be : and, though the 
*J"wn employed may be natives, yet that does 
^^ yfcfcth e buildings native works, any more than 
suiting in Calcutta of an 'English book by 
y^joppositors and pressmen m&es it a Hindu 
^**» n« designs of these buildings may, however, 



proves the rule, than to admit that it destroys my 
position. 

Lastly, the beauty of the best ancient examples 
is urged in favour of our adoption of some native 
style of architecture for our buildings in India. 
This agument would have ^reat weight if it were 
impossible to provide anythmg beautiful that would 
also be European, or if we were permitted to hope 
that an Oriental building, designed even by the 
best European willing to underteke it, and carried 

1 ..1 1 ji x^ 11. vir 1 x\-. ' r-L.-i.4- '^^ 



< • iridf be furnished in the native style by out either by the Public Works Department 

L._ 



282 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 7, 1873. 



India, or by any c^er agency, oould hope to 
obtain a shred of that beauty which the Mahom- 
medan, Jaina, and Hindu works — ^the offispring of 
Oriental minds, carried out by Onental hands, 
under Oriental superintendence, and with an 
Oriental lavishness of expenditure and amplitude 
of leisure, undoubtedly possess. Though our 
buildings in India can never be cheap, there will 
never be unlimited funds at command for them, 
still less unlimited time. They are wanted 
promptly, and for a definite or an approximately 
definite cost ; and this circumstance is quite suf- 
ficient to exclude those Eastern styles which could 
only be obtained in perfection by putting the work 
into the hands of an Eastern ardiitect, and giving 
him his whole lifetime to work in, and a bottom- 
less purse to draw from. 

If, then, I have at all carried you with me, you 
will, I hope, be prepared to concede that the right 
thing in designing and executing our buildings is 
that they should be English if possible ; or, if not, 
at any rate European in their aspect and general 
design, with such modifications as the climate, the 
materials, the power and training of the workmen, 
and other local circumstances render necessary. 

This being so, we must frankly admit that the 
style native to England — ^English Oothio — ^is not 
fitted to be transferred to India without large 
modification. All its forms are designed to 
be seen by a horizonteil and a faint light. It 
is essentially fitted to a cold, damp climate ; and 
while on the one hand its characteristics would 
require many alterations in order to oope with the 
glare of Indian sunshine, on the other hand its 
provisions for carrying off the gentle showers, or 
even the steady downpour of an English wet day, 
would prove quite inadequate to cope with the 
torrential rains of a tropical storm. 

We have a second style, which has become 
naturalised in England, and which has obtained a 
hold little, if at all, less strong than that of 
English Gothic — I refer to the architecture which 
is now oft'.n broadly termed classic, but for which 
Italian renaiaxance is a more appropriate and 
correct definition. This is the style of Wren's 
churches and cathedrals, of Whitehall-chapel, of 
Somerset-house, of the Pall-mall club-houses. 
This, as you of course know, is the architecture of 
the ancient Romans, revived and adapted to 
modem uses by the Italians of the 16th century. 
The Italian models were again modified to a certain 
limited extvnt by those architects who have best 
followed them in this country, in order to suit our 
climate and conditions of life. Now, in many 
respects the adoption for India of renaissance archi- 
tecture, as practised in England, would be less im- 
practicable than the adoption of English Qothic. 
The style took its rise in a sunshiny country, and 
though all the changes we have made in it have 
been introduced with a view to fit it for use in a 
colder climate than that of the land of its birth, 
still those changes have not been many nor great. 
Somerset-house might be copied in Calcutta with- 
out the attempt being wildly and utterly ■ un- 
uitable. 

The ciroamstance that the heat and the light 
are so intense in India will always occasion many 
variations in the buildinge, either Qothic or classic, 
which we put up. The windows will invariably 

"^me smaller and fewer, or, if they remain large 
open, must be screened by external shelter. 



The walls will become so thick as to ocoasioxi the 
disuse of the buttress in all Gothic structures, tlic 
roof will be flattened, and the exclusive use of tkxo 
horizontal cornice will be encouraged. 

The moment these changes are proposed in a 
Gothic structure, the Gothic of Italy and the south 
of France — countries whose sub-tropical heat is not 
unknown — ^is recalled to the memory; and vrhen 
they are made in a classic design, the Italieui re- 
naissance architecture, as practised in the sunny 
streets of the cities wh^ioe it started to over-ran 
Europe, presents itself as the true model. 

This then is the point at which we have arrived. 
We can find in the south of Europe models ^vhich 
are essentially fitted for use as guides in desij^ning' 
buildings for hot climates, and those models arc 
unmistakably European. Are they so different 
from EngUsh examples as to be unsuited for the 
purpose y I answer, imquestionably no. The 
Go^c buildings of the Soutii are, it is true, dif- 
ferent frorti our own Gothic in many parttoulars^ 
but that circumstance has not prevented them from 
becoming the models on which in the present day 
a very large proportion of buildings in the pointed 
or Gothic style of architecture arc based. An 
Englishman will, at least, recognise in Italian 
Gothic, or the Gothic of Southern France, the proto- 
type of what he had seen in course of erection at 
his university or in his city ; so that the very phase of 
Gothic most in use here at the present day borders 
closely upon that which most appropriately lends 
itself to the requirements of India. 

In the case of renaissance work there is even lees 
difference between the aspect of the buildings of 
South Italy and that with which we are familiar 
under the general name of classic, than between 
the two families of- Gothic to which we have re- 
ferred. The open loggia, a feature as fittod for 
use in India as in Italy, though almost unkno^wn 
in England, is so essentially consistent with those 
features which we have adopted, that its use involves 
nothing startling to the English eye; and the 
method by which Italian architects sought to give 
dignity tb their buildings, at the same time that 
they suited them to the climate by reducing^ the 
window-openings to a minimum, has been oopicil 
in our own metropolis by Barry, whose Reform 
Club has openings, the proportionate size of which 
is far bettor smted to a tropical glare than to 
London smoke and fog. 

One feature which English architects left behind 
when they transported Italian renaissance to thi*^ 
country ought not to be neglected in transferrin*? 
it to British India. This feature is the beautiful 
internal quadrangle or cortile, which is tho dir^^t 
lineal descendant of the atrium of a Roman hou«QC» 
and corresponds closely with the courtyard of the 
dwellings and palaces of almost all Oriental cities. 
Of the beauty, the coolness, and the comfort to bo 
found in a cortile, Italy offers endless oxaznplee:, 
perfectly worked out, and Anglo- Indian buildmg^ 
afford not infrequent opportunities of making uso 
of them ; yet the cortile is rare, if not unkno^gen , 
in the arrangement of those buildings. 

If now, having arrived at some idea of vrbat v9t» 
might reasonably do in designing ini{)ortazit 
buildings for India, we turn for a moment to 
what was done, we find that the fashions of 
building at home have been usually refleotod. only 
in a distorting mirror, in India. To borrow a. 
sentence or two from a lecture delivered 1^ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Maboh 7, 1875. 



283 



2k Batik Frere, in 1870, at the Ardutectural 
Smmiii,' "It is difficult to describe the general 
^iMiMter of oar early Anglo-Indian arohitooture; 
{teoahr obazaoteristio was extreme broadness — an 
■ttrsMBOoe of anything like distinctive features. 
niftii onijT to be accounted for by the fact that we 
met forth our representatives to receive and 
So^nre the Indian empire at about the same time 
m rt w«re bnilding Red lion-square, and the 
tar» and miles of featureless streets, roads, and 
•furet, aod the nightmare (lurches, so unlike 
mjiiamg ifHiich is dreamt of as a church, whether 
is s town or a country village. Our ancestors in 
smeqacoce left no good arohiteoture behind them 
it Id^ An ordinaiy Indian station " — I am 
«01 Qootiiig Sir Bartle Frere; I should not have 
mjaad Tsatued on so irreverent a simile — ** an 
wriaauj Indian statioii is as nearly as possible like 
• n^^toune of umbrellas in bmks and mortar, 
li tbe mataials bricks, stone, or timber, they are 
pi together so aa to afford diade and shelter, and 
MihiB^ eke.'' Of Calcutta, the so-called City of 
Itiieo*, which includes some buildings of which 
dka writers speak with considerable respect, Sir 
BtfUe Frere observes *'the palaces of Calcutta 
an pahttes of biick and stucco, built on a f ounda- 
tJDD tny math, resembling that of our own good 
ttmu of Sheemess. A hundred years hence the 
Aghih peo^ will not look with ^^reat pride on 
tk CSty of Falaoes, for the mat^iab employed 
■« not sQch as any architect would use for archi- 
tecture of a high order or intended for posterity." 
" Ih« whole of what the English government has 
^BLii for the adornment of the capital of India 
Mjbe sommed up,*' adds this experienced and 
•hiy»t€d observer, **by saying tihat very few 
oiUic bcdldingB have been erected which would 
K Qaoiidered in any small seaport town in this 
•oitry to be above ordinwy merit." 
^Ihb will be probably admitted to be a not over- 
^vn pkture ; and looking at the circumstances 
d Eaj^d at the time when this work received 
ii mitittiye, and, we must add, at the method 
•teh hu been pursued in carrying it on, it is not 
Jp to »s bow it should have been otherwise, 
w the two national styles I have referred to, and 
^jchare now practised together, to the no small 
™>rt)SBce of our architectural peace, neither was 
J* the moment available. Gothic, though not a 
"?''>tten, was a disused manner of building. Even 
« hnaift ttiose worics of the end of the eighteenth 
Ofl b(jginning of the nineteenth centui^ which 
"faUed Gothic were extremely defective, and no 
•w* existed of providing anytning better than a 
Mndimentary and imperfect attempt at a Gothic 
**gn for India, as Calcutta CiUihedral can testify. 
«UMi icnaissance, though less completely dis- 
■•iw« under a cloud ; the designs of the time 
*««t style were very weak or very extreme, and 
•™«ttmi^ as were put up in the earlier days 
« inilding in India were no improvement on their 
I P^^*n«- The healthiest architecture of the 
%^M, perhaps, tJie lingering remnant of a 
**-» of bnildiiig which had produced lofty, 
2**» Wick - hunt country houses, full of 
2 »isdow», excellently well fitted for Bng- 
^,*Bt but quite out of the question as Indian 




Jteva, Jon* Tth, 1870. 



The first artistic effort which emerged from the 
general low level to which architectural art in 
England had sunk in the eighteenth century, was 
what is tenned the Gb^ek revival. I am not going 
to ask you to travel over that chapter in our art 
history with me, though it is one not without 
interest at the proper time and place, and not 
without instruction ; but it will suffice here to say 
that when the political independence of Greece 
became a prominent idea in European minds; 
when the Elgin marbles, and the labours of Stuart 
and Bevett, and the Dilettante Society, woke all 
cultivated EngHsh taste to a sense of the exquisite 
beauty of Greek art, all our architecture ; as well 
as our furniture and our decorations, became for 
a time, revived Greek. We built Greek churches, 
Gre^ opera houses, Greek museums, Greek banks, 
and even Greek taverns, and we built little else. 
It is not, therefore, surprising that the influence 
at work at home was felt in India, the more so 
that the Greek enthusiasm took very strong 
hold of the Scotch mind, and India was for 
long (if it be not still) a kind of suburb of 
Edinburgh. 

Now, it is quite possible that the Greek move- 
ment might have prospered in India, and mig^t 
have prospered at home. There is one living 
architect of genius, Mr. Thompson, who, by his 
works, is even now showing that Greek art, 
properly used, can be applied with success to 
the buildings required for ordinary use in Glasgow 
at the present day ; but no one so practical as Mr. 
Thompson was at work on the problem in India, 
or indeed in England, and the result was that such 
buildings as were erected in the Anglo-Greek 
character were, so far as report and representations 
can guide us — ^for my own observation of them 
has been almost limited to the Town-Hall of 
Bombay — are as gloomy and inappropriate, and 
im-Greek (to coin a word for the occasion) as 
simOar buildings at home, which is saying a good 
deal. 

The mode in which public works were done was, 
it has been observed, very detrimental to their 
chances of obtaining artistic merit. All public 
works (and till latelv most buildings of any pre- 
tension have been pubHc works) have been designed 
and carried out by military men, whose education as 
engineers has, perhaps, required them, in addition to 
learning military engineering and regimental duty, 
to become acquainted with the rudiments of architec- 
tural drawing and of construction ; but has seldom 
allowed them leisure to pursue those a|*ts so ener- 
getically, or with such undivided attention, as to 
make them great architects. Far be it from me 
to assert that there are no engineer officers who 
have a claim to distinction as architects. The works 
of such men as Captain Fowke and G^eral Scott in 
England, or Colonel Wilkins and Colonel Fuller 
in Bombay, are sufficient evidence to the contrary; 
but I do assert that these are exceptions, and that 
it is not the way to get good architecture when 
you select your architect, not because he has 
studied architecture as his principal pursuit, but 
because he has studied it as a supplementary 
study, and in subordination, after such difficult 
sciences as military engineering, artillery, and for- 
tification. It must be admitted, loo^g fairly 
at the very srcat difficulties of the situation, that 
the works ymich. have been designed and executed 



284 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 7, 1873. 



by engineer officers th2x>wn on their own resources, 
far from books of reference, skilled assistants, or 
available examples, are infinitely creditable to 
their energy, skill, and resource ; but the merit of 
these buildings as works of art has unquestionably 
suffered immensely from the fact that very few of 
their designers were architects. 

With the great changes in India which followed 
upon a vastly accelerated speed of transit between 
India and Europe, the transfer of the government 
to the Crown, and the introduction of railways, an 
alteration began to be looked for, especially as a 
marked alteration was also taking place at home. 
The railway companies, in more than one instance, 
decided to send out an English architect to design 
and take charge of the erection of their stations. 
Works which English architects might advan- 
tageously take in hand began to arise in the large 
cities of India ; and the spirit of church restoration 
and town-hall btiilding, and general attention to 
architecture which had been growing in England, 
travelled rapidly enough to the Anglo-Indian com- 
munity in the Peninsula ; so that architecture began 
to be considered worth cultivating, and the govern- 
ment of India began to consider ^e advisability of 
obtaining designs for public buildings from archi- 
tects in England. 

The first church of good architectural character, 
St. John's Church, at Colaba, near Bombay, was 
erected, according to the authority from whom 
I have already quoted, by Mr. Conybeare. ** This 
church, howev^," says Sir Bartle Frere, **owes 
some of its best features to G. G. Scott, who was 
applied to to give a design for a memorial church 
t6 those who fell in the Affghan war. He gave a 
very beautiful design, but one too elaborate to be 
carried out for the money available; therefore 
another design, by Mr. Conybeare, was substituted. 
The erection of this church gave, it is added, an 
immense impulse to the spread of good architecture 
in India.'' After a time the opportunity offered 
itself to Sir Bartle Frere himself to give a far more 
vigorous* impulse in the same direction, and to carry 
out some portions of a great scheme of architec- 
tural improvement in the city of Bombay. This 
scheme was so fine and noble in its whole propor- 
tions that it well deserves description, and as those 
Earts of it which have been carried into execution 
ave consisted of buildings in the design of which 
the principles I have advocated have been adhered 
to more or less closely, Bombay may be appro- 
priately referred to as offering a fitting illustration 
of the application of those principles to practical 
building. 

When Sir Bartle Frere became Governor of 
Bombay, the fort or European and Parsee Town 
was inconveniently restricted within the old and 
massive fortifications with which it was begirt. 
Under his initiative it was decided to demolish the 
ramparts of the old fort, to lay out a large portion 
of the magnificent esplanade (a level expanse of 
grass-grown land skirting the fort) as building 
ground, to erect a series of public buildings on 
choice sites in this situation, and to obtain the 
funds for these btiildings and works by the sale of 
sites to private purchasers. The American war 
stimulated the Bombay cotton trade to an extent 
well known to you all, and vast sums, of money 
"Doured into the city. One result of this was that 

^9 Bites I have spoken of were many of them 



purchased at very high prices ; and, although the 
cost of building was enormously enhanced, still 
extensive operations might have been carried oui^ 
had not the appropriation of the funds been largely 
diverted to the erection of forts in the harbour to 
supply the protection formerly afforded by tlie 
recentiy-demolished ramparts. 

The whole scheme, in which the late Mr. TTmlpfi^ 
Forbes was an active coadjutor of Sir Bartle -Frare, 
contemplated providing Bombay with one of the 
most complete series of public buildings which say 
citv can boast ; and though, from the cause to whiM 
I have alluded, and later from the oommercial 
collapse which took place, much remains as yet un- 
accomplished, a great deal was actually done, 
and more is in progress. 

What was proposed included (pants of sites, and, 
in some cases, of partial ud m the erection of 
buildings for various public purposes ; the erectkni 
of fountains and monuments ; and grants of sites 
for ornamental fountains which private munifi- 
cence was willing to put up. It was also proposed 
to exercise some supervision over the designs which 
private individuals proposed to carry out on the 
plots thev purchased, and especicdly to encourage 
the use of arcades along the thoroughf area. This 
was in addition to provision for all the public build- 
ings required forthe purposes of the government. A 
complete scheme was prepared, and uie various sitea 
appropriated ; a portion of the proposed buildings 
were erected ; others are beine erected now. Designs 
for others were obtained, which were not carried 
out, and most of which will probably be forgotten 
and superseded before the time comes for the 
erection of the buildings ; and in some cases nothing 
more was done than to reserve a site ; and thoo^h 
more has been left for the future than those iif^ 
originated the scheme desired, still the whole thing 
has been started, a verv substantial instalment of 
what was to be done has been built, and an ex- 
cellent direction has been given to the efforts of 
private enterprise. 

A tolerably complete list of the buildings for 
which sites were reserved, runs as follows: — 
Hospital, Elphinstone College, Post-o£Bce, Tele- 
graph-office, Civil and Military Pay-offices, Gk>Tem- 
ment House, Official Besidences, High Court of 
Judicature, Secretariat, University H^, Scdiool of 
Art, Custom House, Police-court, Small Causes 
Court, Admiralty, enlargement of Cathedral, 
Markets, Public Fountains, Mechanics* Institation. 
Sailors' Home, several churches. 

In the first instance, designs for some of the 
proposed public buildings were invited in pubHc 
competition, and it is to the circumstance that a 
design of mine, submitted in that way for the 
£iux>pean General Hospital was selected to he 
carried out, that I o"wo tne oppcatunity of paying 
a visit to Bombay at the end of IB64, At that 
time the plan of laying out the new town, proposed 
by my friend, Mr. Trubshawe, the consulting 
architect to the government of Bombay, had been 
approved, and the Elphinstone College was in 
progress under him. I became associated with that 
gentleman in the preparation of plans for the 
Government House at Gunnesh ^nd, and the 
Engineering College at Poonah. We also pie- 

Sared plans for the Bombay Post-office^on a site 
ifferent from that where it is now b^g bn^t^ 
and for some of the work done to Bombay 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 7, 1873. 



285 



Ortbfidnl, M well as designs for fcnmtaans, and 
kr MMe otlker buiidings which have never got in 
Mffikipe beyond papor, including the High Conrt 
jiinHniliire Mid a large iron and glass Exhibition 




df oiher important bnildings for whiefa designs 
«w oommiaaoncd, the nmversity buildings were 
^BDg the moet prominent, and Sir Qilbert Scott 
iiBined a very efEectiYe design for them. He 
ab» dwoned a fountain, which ¥rae erected at the 
mihtir^ Mr. Cuthbert Brodriek was com- 
to su^>ly a design for the Oustom- 
f; lad Mr. Barges to design a sohool of art, 
vkck oommiasion he undertook with much spirit^ 
od pnfornkdd with remarkable com^eteness. 
T«v able arohitecta officially connected with the 
ptUic works department, Mr. Pans, who was for 
■Me time consulting architect, and Mi*. Molecey, 
«^ is still in Bonabay, wm*e of great service to 
tbe gorrnunent in the conduct of its undertakings. 
dtnmX engiDeer officers who had already shown 
aUzly iu doidgning and erecting civil buildings, 
««« oonimissicmed to undertake some of the pro- 
pond gov^^mment works. Lastly, some civil 
SKhttectfi residing in Bombay who were not con- 
laetcd with government, received commissions. 
Tla&. in addition to the names already mentioned, 
Colooel Wilkius, Colonel Fuller, Mr. Bedford, and 
sme (Hiber architects received commissions. 

Tbfr buildings proposed by private Europeans, by 

^ municipality, and by public c<»npanies, were, 

Msy of tiiem, of importanoe, and though the 

dflod which came over the fortunes of Bombay 

VM of ouurso felt most by these undertakings, yet 

Ik.' lict of works claiming notice as possessed of 

vdlatectural merit is very considerable. The 

int pUce among these is due to the Elphin- 

Ane dtcle, whi^ was one of the earliest im- 

ptanaenU in Bombay. It was designed and 

oraed out by Messrs. Scott and McClelland, and 

OBsasted of a series of buildings of a bold Italian 

maisance character for commercial purposes, 

flatly superior to anything existing in Bombay 

1& to the time of its erection. These gentleman 

ab> designed and erected the Victoria Museum. 

Tbe wodu desired and carried out by Mr. 

£mtrioQ, indudug the new markets for the 

a»iiiin|iHlity, a very large block of commercial 

liuldings for Messrs. Treacher, a fountain, and 

vnsal churches, are well worth special mention. 

7^ aoue architect is carrying out a cathedral at 

•^llaliabad in a style of Southern Gothic, excellently, 

u I think, adapted to the requirem^its of the 

dnntte and drcumstanoes of uie English oom- 

muuty. 

It is not contended that the whole of these 
^"uWinga or that any one of them are i)erfect 
Bodelf, but, taking them as a whole, itisnot, I think, 
'■"■•onablc to cmm for them the merit of being 
^R^utectnral in their design, in the durable quality 
d ths materials, and in the manner in which those 
■iteisls are used. They are essentially European ; 
I ^^^l^ strongly allied to the buildings with which 
tt m^ishman is familiar at home, and they are 
9*^Bot, 1 believe, unsnited to the climate, for their 
4^ have been selected in the arohiteotsre of 
*B>7eoantries; and while they inolnde examples 
^«ione hand of Italian renaissance, and on the 
qI Goilno, tiia two manners which divide 
the allegiftnce of Cbeat Britain, they 
I bope» sufficiently distinctive to be 



recognisable as designed with a view to the'circum- 
stanees and the climate under which they were to be 
buiH, and as being appropriate to the uses to which 
they were to be put. 

I am not in a position to say anything from 
})ersonal knowledge of the works going on in Cal- 
cutta, but I am able to produce photographs 
showing several important and characteristic 
buildings designed by Mr. Chisholm, practising 
there and in Madna, The name of Mr. Granville 
is also very favourably known ; and I can speak 
from personal knowledge of the abilities of 
two of the young architects at woric there — ^Mr. 
Bayne, who is acting on one of the ndlways, and 
Mr. White, both, I believe, in government service 
— ^while I have reason to believe that other men of 
talent and power are at work in that and other 
cities of India, though there can be no doubt that 
there is room for many professional architects in 
the Public Works Department of India, and that 
the engineers themselves would, in many cases, be 
glad to see such a reinforcement of the staff of the 
department. 

. Perhaps here I should stop, but it seems to me 
almost due to my colleagues in this work, and to 
those who may yet carry it on, that I should say 
one or two wtnrds about the difficulties which have 
to be encountered, and about the i)ossible future 
course of Anglo-Indian architecture. 

The difficulties which besetthedesigningand erec- 
tion of buildings for India furnished the subject of 
a paper, which I had the honour to read elsewhere,* 
ami they pipved quite niunerous enough to occupy 
an entire evening. The great difficulty in design- 
ing and conlaiving is, of course, to a large extent 
to cope satisfactorily with the heat and the glare, 
and to x>rovide adequate protection against the 
monsoon. Artistic effect may, on the other hand, 
be constantiy and naturally obtained by the use of 
simple and appropriate arcading for the verandah 
or wall-screen, which is required to ensure the 
coolness of the building within. The scarcity of 
good building materials, and of all the appliances 
and aids whidi can be ensured in England, gives 
rise to another difficulty, by rendering many 
features impossible, or at best extremely expensive, 
which are of constant oceurrcnoe here; and the 
architect must consider at every step that his build- 
ing will be put up where manual labour is the only 
auxiliary that is plentiful. The resource of sending 
home to England for iron- work, brass-work, terra 
cotta, glass, and even carved stone, has been tried 
again and egain, but there is great difficulty in 
obtaining exMstly what is wanted ; and probably in 
every case the less this sort of assistance is relied 
upon the better, for the risks of transit as well as 
ether sources of disappo int ment largely interfere 
with its efficiency. 

The workmanship ordinarily obtainable is again 
very rough to an £kiglish eye, and this is of some 
importance in the design of such work as masonry, 
where true surfaces are desirable both for structural 
security and for optical effect. All these difficulties 
are, however, small compared with the greater 
administrative difficulty— -how to get the work 
dcme. Many of the Government works are carried 
out departmentally, as it is called — ^that is to say, 
by placi^ them in the hands of an officer of the 
PuWc Works Department, who buys materials 



I 



• TnoMStlMis of Boyal lastftote of Bfttfih Archtteets. 



28C 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 7, 1873. 



and plant, engages labour, and overlooks and so 
erects the building. There are a certain number 
of cases where a European contractor is available. 
There have been some instances where European 
architects and engineers have successfully under- 
taken the laborious task of carrying out their own 
designs ; and there have been not a few buildings 
erected by native contractors. Whatever plan is 
adopted, the difficulties are far in excess of what 
are found in this countrv; and in the case of build- 
ings the designs of which come from men un- 
familiar with India, they must often be aggravated, 
and the prospect of a successful result endangered, 
by the fact that large portions of the designs will 
be in danger of being omitted altogether or radi- 
cally altered, as it will be found difficult, and 
believed to be impossible, to carry them out at all 
in the materials and with the appliances to hand, 
while to write home for new deteuls will involve a 
delay of six or eight weeks at least, the result 
being that designs which depend for their effect 
upon their being carried out completely are in 
great danger of being mutilated and so spoiled, by 
the substitution of some feature more within reach, 
for parts which it is decided to omit. This, which 
s a constant cause of complaint in respect of 
idesigns thoroughly suited to the resources of the 
coimtry, must occur even more frequently when 
the design is really difficult of execution. 

It seems, from all this, likely that the designing 
of buildings for India will ^ways be best left to 
men who know something of the country — chiefly 
to men resident in it ; but it ought to be entrusted 
to educated and artistic architects. In the execu- 
tion of them, a lar^e amount of effect will probably 
i n time be obtained by enlisting the skill of native 
artificers in decorative work, such as carving and 
pierced stone work ; and in treating these subsidiary 
parts, aman of genius will often succeed in designing 
enrichments such as will be not inconsistent with 
his style, and yet not so strange to the native 
craftsman as to cramp him in his work and deprive 
it of that freedom of head and eye which the best 
decoration demands. And there is one more possi- 
bility to be kept in view — Indian interiors might 
easily be rich with carving and bright with coloiu:- 
decoration. There is an infinite amoimt of scope 
open here to the decorative artist, and, among 
other things, he has the prospect of being able to 
train, if not to obtain, native painters and carvers 



wood furniture might be employed with very great 
success in adorning such wood- work as it is Par- 
able or customary to leave visible. 

To sum up the argument in a few words, most 
of our building work in the East has not beoi 
hitherto creditable to our taste, though it bean wit- 
ness to our energy and vigour. The time has come 
when it ought to be held imperative, both for the 
Government and for private individuals, to render 
their building models of good taste. In order to do 
this, their design, and the design of such decoration as 
they receive, ought to be entrusted to men of culti- 
vated architectural taste ; and the style adopted 
for them ought to be, not a direct imitation of any 
Asiatic type, but an adaptation of those European 
styles which have grown up in sunshiny regions. 
Such styles are ancient Roman, or even Greek 
(when good enough materials and workmanship 
are procurable), or the Romanesque, Gothic, and 
renaissance of Southern Italy, Southern France, 
and perhaps Spain. In treating any of these styles, 
certain features of the architecture native to 
tropical countries will have to be incorporated. 
Among such features we may enumerate the fol- 
owing: — Walls of ample thickness, often covered 
with a profusion of delicate surface ornaments; an 
absence of vertical features of large projection, 
such as buttresses, and a constant preference for 
horizontal cornices; openings usually frequent 
and ample, and often filled with exquisite pierced 
patterns ; a constant use of balconies and corbelled 
projections ; roofs often low, sometimes fiat, some- 
times domical ; piers and colimms frequent and 
numerous; and an ample space allowed for ^e 
whole building and its surroundings. 

There is but one limit to the degree to which 
these features of Eastern art maybe appropriated ; 
they must not be so freely used as to cause the 
edifice to lose its European style. Had we a dis- 
tinctive English style we ought unquestionably to 
use it in our colonies, as Rome did in hers, with 
such changes as local circumstances made necessary. 
But though this is, unhappily, not possible to us, 
there are in existence f amilar European styles well 
suited to the puipose, and it appears only reasonable 
that as our administration exhibits European 
justice, order, law, energy, and honoiu* — and that 
in no hesitating or feeble way — so our buildings 
ought to hold up a high standard of European arL 
They ought to be European both as a rallying 



to execute this part of his work. The schools of point for ourselves, and as raising a distinctive 



art have, of course, not done all that could be 
wished, but they have shown that some of the 
natives are apt students of colour-decoration, and 
there is no need of proof that they are apt at carv- 
ing. The half-lights of an Indian interior would 
give wonderful charm to good enrichments; and in 
private houses and other buildings, where no great 
attempt at external architectural effect may be 
possible, or in cases where an existing building has 
to be dealt with, there is great scope for artistic 
treatment if only the attempt is made with judg- 
ment and taste. 

In a coimtry where no wall-paper can be used, 
and where plaster is the only Duilding material 
that is almost uniformly good, fresco painting and 
distemper colouring seem to suggest Uiemselves ; 
and where natty manual labour is so cheap and 
abimdant, mosaic might, it seems, be easily mtro- 
duced into fioors and panels, while a little of the 
•'er's skill bestowed upon the familiar black 



symbol of our presence to be beheld with respect 
and even with admiration by the natives of tho 
coimtry. 

DISCUSSION. 

The Chairman then invited discussion upon the papir 
which had been read, observing that the question ap- 
peared to be whether native styles oaght to be adopted 
or European styles. That was the main question, and 
then there was a subsidiary one, whether the style should 
be Gothic or Italian. 

Mr. Xmerson did not quite agree with the conclusioa 
of the reader of the paper, that the conqueror should 
carry into the conquered nation a new styla of architec- 
ture. He thought the course pursuni by the Mahom' 
medans was infinitely preferable. They adapted their 
architecture to that of the conquered country. Enropetn 
ttTchitectore would scarcely suit the requirements of the 
country. Indeed, it was impossible lor the architectors 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mahoh 7, X873. 



287 



ET. 



to ht laiUble to the natiyes of the east, and 
boildingB were found to work well. 

teith said that Mr. Emeraon*8 obserrattonB 

^fltte consiatent with what might be seen in his 

ti tfM Elphioatone OoUege at ^mbay, and some 



C 



knh 




obserred that the original difficulty in 

was that when the Company went to India 

no architects there, and consequently every 

hta own house, every clergyman his own 

ereryone did exactly as seemed good in his 

Tb« only architect seot out from Europe, he 

th« one who built the government house 

which WHS a good building in its way. The 

of this state of things was, that people simply 

Italian orderi, so as to meet the exigencies of 

They did not know exactly how to use them, 



{ttM' aa^ pillars and so on, simply as blinds to keep 
I fm son and the excessive light And the worst 




th»t it was adopted by the natives too, and 
; TVarannne, Tanjore, and other places were 
of this, many of their buildings being in this 
|rii^ed style. It was only in the last twenty years 
ift any altoration had taken place. But the rebuild- 
I fif Boaibay had giren a great spur to the adoption 
I a batter style of architecture all over India. There 
pn ma atohitects oat there in his day. Now tiiey had 
^ to the time when really good architects went out 
hm, and the question was what should be the style 
■dh aotdd beat suit the requirements of the country. 
bebvebes he thouffht the Gk)thio most suitable. Our 
bfchss ooght to be dustinguished from heathen temples 
^mj siber boilding. By the adoption of Gbtbic forms 
chnrchea might be built in India ; only he 
,^,gesi the using the aisles more as veran- 
■ad the nave as the oongregationiil part of the 
The difficohy was that the pointed arch is 
taeonTsnieot aixsh, because in India you want a 
down to about six or seven feet from Uie ground, to 
at the glare of the sun ; and the tall pointed arch 
Jtfficnlt to use in that way; and to fill it in 
Batian screens would spoil it. The low Tudor 
I iMen used with good effect in one or two of the 
buildings, and was a capital form. It keeps 
a«t very well ; but his opinion was that a much 
rtyls was rsqnisite for public buildings, and that 
of the Italian style would be the style 
aad particolarly a low arch. They did not 
bat a low arch ; and with modification 
s^le was the one allowing plenty of space 
op blinds and things of that sort, and 
ought to be used. The solution of the 
would, he thought, be obtained, as iron came 
e osed for verandahs and so on. The natives 
very much as we use iron. They had the most 
I pieoea of stone in their buildings, cut so thin 
so li^t that it was really wonderful ; and many 
raacgestiona might, he thought, be got frY>m the 
and so a beautiral style might be produced by 
iron in screens and open work. However, 
of those questions which could only be settled 
he spot. If we settle the battle of the styles, all the 
eoali be easily settled. That was the important 
Deep shade and large areas are a necessity for 
ji In India, and wh^ver style was used they 
taAy help being effective from that circumstance. 
~ the result would be that they would soon 
m of great beauty and elegance in their 
he looked forward with great pleasure to 
which were being so rapidly effected. He 
in India Mr. Smith's paper would have the 
attention to this all- important subject, 
what was wanted, that the whole subject 
before the people of India in a reasonable 
; and he was quite sure if a few more 
written, the people would turn their 



attention to it, and very soon we should have buildings 
of greater beauty, and more appropriate to the climate. 

Mr. Bogar Smith, in reply, thanked the meeting 
for the great attention they had bestowed on his 
paper, on a subject on which so much remained 
to be said, and for the countenance with which 
they had received the views he had enunciated. 
de did not know that anything had fallen from the 
Chairman oalliug for remark on his part, but he should 
like to say, with regard to Mr. Eoaerson's observation, 
that, to a certain extent, he thought Mr. Emerson's 
work partly contradicted him, some of his churches in 
Bombay, and the cathedral, which he was going to carry 
out, showing what his predilections were. 

Mr. Hyde Clarke writes that the paper of Mr. Roger 
Smith is of great importance, because municipal institu- 
tions under the highest auspices are now attaining a great 
development, ana oonsequKutly there is the opportunity 
' for promoting the arts in India, for which the founda- 
tion has now been laid. With regard to the abandon- 
ment of everything in art to naUve style, it must be 
borne in mind that there is as much conflict as to style 
in India as there is in everything else. The Hindoo 
styles are not of one class, and are not universally pre- 
valent, and the Mussulman styles are altogether foreign, 
and are not admitted bv a majority of the population. 
The Mussulman styles, being introduced by conquering 
races (and not being indigenous, as Mr. Boger Smith 
assumes), are as much foreign as the European styles, 
and there is no valid reason against the introduction of 
the latter. Native architects and native workmen are 
already divided in style and practice, and they can and 
'do adapt themselves to the construction of works in the 
European style, and with the necessary adaptations to 
the climate. If the English are not at this time a 
colonising race in India on a large scale, that is from 
neglect of the government, because the English have 
already shown that they can successfully establish them- 
selves in the Himalayas and the other hills, and can, if 
supported, materially extend their populations. Con- 
sidering that the Mussulman styles can be adapted to 
the cold winters of Thrace and the Bosphorus, so 
the styles once prevalent in Asia Minor, Syria, and the 
provinces of Amca can be extended to any part of 
India. 







THIBTEEHTH OBBIKABT MEETING. 

Wednesday, March 6th, 1873, Captain P. H. 
COLUMB, B.N., in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Beresford, Colonel Marcus, M.P., Sheen-house, East 
Sheen, S.W. 

Danchell, Frederick Hahn, C.E., Yale-haU, Horwich, 
Lancashire. 

Darby, Stephen, 140, Leadenhall-street, E.C. 

Har^reave, James Sidney, 3, Victoria-street, West- 
minster, S.W. 

HoUingsworth, William Thomas, jun., 106, Mile-end- 
road, £. 

Imray, James Frederick, Foxgrove-road, Beckenhaoi, 
Kent. 

Eosloff, Stephen Alexandrovitch, 6, Winchester-street, 
E.C., and 8t. Petersburgh. 

Pickersgill, William C, 30, Belgrave-road, Abbey-road, 
N.W. 

Smith, Joseph, 6, Blenheim-mount, Bradford. 

Stooqueler, Joadiim Hay ward, India Office, Downing- 
street, S.W. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
I duly dleoted Members of the Society : — 



288 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maboh 7, 1873 



Barton, R. Harvey, 2, Great St Helen's, E.G. 
Booth, John Billington, J.P., OTerleigh-hotue, Preston. 
Burton, H., Newport, Monmouthshire. 
Eckstein, Miss, 10, Prince's -square, Bayswater, W. 
Meesel, Louis, 34, Wiltehire-road, Brixton, S.W. 
Munn, Major William Augustus, Churchill-house, Dover. 
Nevill, Charies William, J.P., Uanelly Copper Works, 
Uanelly, and Westfa, Llanelly. 

The Paper read was — 

ON GAS-LIGHTING BY ELECTRICITY AND 
MEANS FOR LIGHTING AND EXTINGUISH- 
ING STRLET AND OTHER LAMPS. 

By W. Lloyd Wife, A.I.O.E., M.LM.E. 

Some curiosity having been excited by various 
newspaper paragraphs which recently appeared 
relative to experiments made first in Germany and 
subsequently at Preston, in lighting gas by 
electricity, on the plan invented by Professor 
Klinkerf ues, director of the Royal Observatory a t 
Gottingen, it was suggested to me that a paper 
based upon the description originally communicated 
to me by that gentleman, might prove interesting, 
and lead to useful discussion at a meeting of this 
Socii»ty. Moreover, the Chairman of the Preston 
Gas Company, Mr. J. Billington Booth, by whom 
the English experiments were conducted, offered 
to lend the collection of apparatus now before you 
in illustration of the subject. Hence I was induced 
to undertake the preparation of this paper. 

Without pretending to say what j&an may ulti- 
mately prove the most successful, I may state that 
there are practical men who believe, and perhaps 
fewperscms willquestion that the art of Ughtinggas 
by electricity is as yet in its infancy, and has a great 
future, as applied not only to buildings, but also 
to the lighting up of large towns. 

No doubt there will be scoffers at the idea, 
as there were people, deemed authorities in 
their time, who regarded G^rge Stephenson as a 
lunatic when he spoke of locomotives travelling 
twice as fast as stage coaches, and proposed a rail- 
way over Chat Moss. Notwithstanding such people, 
however, we are making constant progress. Look 
at the wonders that have been wrought by electric 
telegraphy. Only a very few years ago the Atlantic 
■cable, now uninterruptedly worked, was an un- 
accomplished project, fraught with apparently in- 
surmoimtable difficiilties, and that had been 
vainly attempted at a ruinous cost. 

Seeing, then, such startling evidences of modem 
progress, sceptics may well hesitate to pronounce 
opinions too strongly condemnatory of any pro- 
posal which may seem to them impracticable 
because dcsignea to go extensively beyond what 
has been already carri^ into general practice. 

The subtle agent, electricity, by which such 
marvels as instantaneous communication between 
points thousands of miles apart have been 
rendered possible, wotdd seem to be peculiarly 
adapted as a medium for enabling operations to 
be simultaneously performed at many distant 
points, from anv given plaoe, and, on this account, 
has commendea itself to many inventive minds as 
the best means for n^dlj lighting gms in towns 
and large buildings; with what suooess, refmains 
to be seen. 

The advanta|;e6 to be derived from a praoticable 
system of igmting gas, without the use of an 
-exposed flame for the purpose, will be fully ap- 



preciated by those aoquainted wi^ the difficohles 
and dangers attending the ordinary nieUiodt of 
lighting gas, and the frequent aecidents arisiBg 
from the careless use of matebes aiid negligctit 
ignitions, not only in psivate bouses, but also in 
warehouses, magazines, cotton mills, and work- 
roomS) especially where the manufacture of inflam- 
mable materials is carried on. Th«« ia, also, , 
considerable inconvenience and waale in connection 
with the lighting-up of turret clocks, and the 
ignition of ga« in other plaoes difficult of aooeas, 
where, in some cases, to save the great trouble of 
lighting and extinguishing, the gas is kept con- 
stantly burning, instead of being extingmshp*! 
during the daytime. 

Then, as to street lamps, several important pointf^ 
clsdm attention. 

The old-fashioned system of carrying a ladder 
with a lighted fuse from lamp to lamp, though still 
used, I believe, in many towns, has, neveruiele6«, 
been somewhat improved upcm by the introdaoticm i 
of the lighting staff; notwithstanding tiie use of 
which, however, our present mode of street lamp- 
lighting is a tedious, wasteful, and expensive pro- 
cess. 

Not only does it involve the employment in 
every considerable town of a large staff of lamp- 
lighters, but in order that all the lamps may U 
lighted by dusk, the lighting operation has to U 
commenced some time before any lights are reallv 
wanted, so that gas is consumed to no purpoii* . 
The same rule aj^lieseonversely to the extinguish- 
ing of the limits ; hence the loss of gas night and 
morning from these causes alone in a large town i 
must amount to something considerable in tlH>i 
course of a year, especially in these days of high-' 
priced coal. 

I have read that in Bristol, where ti^ey ba%'' 
about 3,600 lamps, one man is told off for every! 
hundred, and in order to get the lamps lighted by, 
a given time, the lighters must commence tbeiij 
duties an hour previously. In Preston, wherH 
there aire sixteen lamf^-lig^ters, the number o^ 
lamps being about sixteen hundred, it oftei^ 
happens that as soon as the m^i have com-^ 
pleted lighting the lamps it is time to put tb<nid 
out, and frequently the outlying districts do not 
get lighted at all. Again, the hours during whicB 
gas light is required at any given time of the year^ 
vary considerably according to the state of th*j 
weather, and under present arrangements, in ordoi 
to be on the safe side, the Uehts have often to h^ 
kept up when they might be dispensed with. 

In manufacturing towns where, to save gas, ad^ 
vantage is taken of the early moonMght, termi^ 
nating perhaps an hour or two before dsybreokj 
many operatives are left to grope their way t<! 
work during the interval through the dark str^^t*^ 
because, under existing circumstancee, the spt'cia 
lighting of the lamps for so short a time wouI<j 
involve unwarrantable labour and expetuse. 

Furthermore, lamp-lighters' strikes — thougrb 
hazily, not of frequent occurrence— oause ver] 
serious inconvenienoe to the public when they Hi 
happen. 

It is not, however, any mere wish to snpplai^ 
the poor lamp^lijR^hter, Imt rather the want of tho^ 
addition^ mcihties for securing eflSciency an^ 
economy inimical to employing him in his prc«c r^ 
capacity, that calls for reform in the direction I 
" have indicated. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 7, 1873. 



289 



I ]MT» perhaps* be allowed here to introdnce 
|| f&mag short qaototion, not altogether 
^pDopdate at this sti^ : — 

•IwpH.:liUiig, at tho beet, is only a proeaic calling, 
I of the very last, it might well be imagined, to 
' a identifio operation. There is certainly a 
degree of personal credit attached to the 
If it were sought to express admiration at 
^ _^iy of oniuaal dexterity, the phrase, * As sharp 
ikaphgbter/ ofTeied at once a familiar and forcible 
tetMs. Toy few among us have not been brought 
I i"nM^**^ aMopanionship with this homely figure, 
nog tkmg the darkening streets with shouldered 
r, md Ump alight At times, perhaps, the intro- 
hat beoi effected rather more practically than 
J; in the way of Tiolent contact, on rounding a 
vith the projecting ladder, or in the shape of a 
K«ie at some demoniacal object executing a 
dcMrnt from an unaeen height overhead. The 
Jtrr, I«H these little detagrementi^ had always 
kk tlM flAToor of pleasant familiarity ; and although 
I htter days the migratory lamp, dancing along 
iwayt ind byways, like some Will-o*- the- Wisp 
ismptgo, has given place to the cconomicsu 
match, we are not prepared to say that the 
.-Jiest of the lamplighter will not do violence to an 
ftieadilup. His days, however, appear to be 
id, aad science, with its universal meddling, bids 
Lag to consign him bodily, ludder, lamp, and 
to the Hmbo of worn-out and disused 

most persons know that many plans 

from time to time proposed for igniting 

dcdricity, but even were I prepared to de- 

)diaa it would clearly be impracticable to do 

the limits of a paper. 

I tiD^ however, allnde very briefly to one or two, 

^ hope that some one acquainted with their 

^iisy come forward to explain them. 

yean ago Admiral Sheringham made ex- 

in Portsmouth Harbour with a view to 

_ of buoys and beacons, &c., by gas 

ihy elec&oity, but I have no particulars of 

jeart later, Mr. Simon Petit proposed 

seveial gas^lets simultaneously, or in 

VKf/A soecession, Dy providing each burner 

l^nheoroock, to be opened and closed by 

►rf an electric current, acting directly upon 

■nils of an electro-magnet or coil, or in- 

Ti hy a releasing detent, an electric spark 

\pt&A through the issuing gas at the moment 

MBgthe valve or immediately afterwards. 

^j^mi the same time Mr. Isham Baggs pro- 

ttrtsin arrangements for instantaneously 

gas by the use of frictional or high-tension 

h to also means for turning on and off 

^vhen required. 

^tner of each lamp was to be provided 

lA^im of glass, or other non-conducting 

■If puiced horizontally, having a couple of 

■Med through it, one at each side of the 

,the end of the two wires being brought 

^1* each other at a short distance above the 

5 of the burner. To the lower ends of these 

were to be attached, suitably insulated 

Bstalhc portion of the lamp, and joined 

■!<BMcting it to the other lamps in a given 

.fcml]^ were suggested for turning 

nd off, one being to provide seversd 

yv^ a common tap, to be turned on and 

'VAlMmre and vacuum in a small cylinder 



containing a piston connected to the lever of ^ the 
gas tap. 

For effecting the ignition Mr. Baggs preferred 
to use an ordinary plate electrical m aohine and a 
Leyden jar, or combination of jars, for sending the 
requisite currents of electricity through the wires 
of each circuit. 

Another plan, proposed by Mr. Denny Lane,, 
was the use of a portable battery, to be earned from 
lamp to lamp, a piece or pieces of platinum wire 
being suitably placed in proximity to the orifice 
of each burner. 

More recently Mr. Robert Cornelius brought 
out a plan for i^ting gas, by an electric 8x>ark 
generated by frictional electricity, at the point of a 
wire bent over the top of a gas burner. A chain 
attached to this wire was carried to some accessible 
point, and upon being touched by a portable 
electric apparatus, or acted upon by a stationary 
battery fixed in any convenient position, a current 
of electricity was conveyed to the pointed wire 
over the burner, and the gas issuing from it thereby 
ignited. He proposed several kinds of small 
stationary frictional batteries suited to the piirpose 
named, and also a small portable battery, in the 
form of a tube, with a metal rod, coated with vul- 
canite working loose in the inside. The tube was 
to be lined with lambs'-skin or other suitable 
material adapted for the purposes of frictional 
electricity, the depression or elevation of one end 
of tiie tube causing the metal rod to slide down- 
wards by its own gravity, so as to excite sufficient 
electricity for lighting the gas issuing from the 

burner. # 

Mr. Barbarin subsequently proposed two plans,, 
one involving the combined use of electricity and 
clockwork, a very complex arrangement; the 
other dispensing with the clockwork and electric 
currents, and employing a quicksilver closing and 
hydrogen gas, in conjimction with spongy plati- 
num, ioT igniting the gas. 

I am indebted to Mr. Ladd for the foUowmg 
information as to the lighting arrangements at 
the Boyal Albert Hall, South Kensington :— 

The lights are arranged in 30 clusters, of 5 stars 
each, each star containing 21 jets, or burners. A 
bichromate battery is made to work an induc- 
torium, or induction coil, connected to which is a 
semicircular insulated arrangement. Attached 
to this are 30 wires, which lead off, one to each of 

the 30 clusters. 

Thebumers arearrangedinsets of three, somewhat 
like a three-pronged fork, and the ends of a couple 
of platinum wires, connected with the battery, are 
fixed within a short distance of each other, near 
the orifice of the centre burner of one set in each 
star, there being a special conducting wire from 
the battery to one of the stars in each cluster, or 
30 wires in all. When the galvanic circuit is 
closed, by lowering the plates of the battery into 
the acid, a spark is caused to pass from the pomt 
of one platinum wire to the other, and thereby 
ignites the gas issuing from the burner. Since 
that burner is within lighting range of its neigh- 
bours at each side, they in turn with those next 
to them, and so on, the ignition of the gas pro- 
ceeds from one to the other all round the star. 
The platinum wires are held by iron wires, attached 
by a small block of steatite to the stem of the 
burner, and are placed slightly below the horizontal 
line of the burner orifice, so that when the gas r 



290 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ABT9, M^oh 7, 1878. 



alight the upward draught draws the flame away, 
and so prevents deposit of carbon upon them. The 
gas is turned on and off by stop-oocks in the mains 
in the ordinary way. 

Professor Klinkerfues' arrangements are based 
ux>on the use of compact platmum, in connexion 
with a galvanic battery, without the intervention 
of any coil, by the movement of the plates or of the 
electro- motive liquid by meohanioal means, or by 
gas pressure completing the galvanic circuit, the 
gas being at the same time brought into contact 
with the heated platinum wire, and thereby ignited. 
His experiments demonstrated that for this pur- 
pose less than a red heat was required, as a platinum 
wire inserted between the poies of a very small 
pair of zine and graphite, without showing the 
slightest emission of tight in a dark room, ignited 
a jet of gas almost instantaneously. 

For opening and closing the gas passage lead- 
ing to the burner, and lighting or extinguishing 
the gas as required, by simply aUering the pr^sure 
in the main, he comlnnes a bellnihaped compart* 
ment with the gas-pipe and the vessel contaming 
the electro-motive liquid in such a way that when 
the gas is at its lowest pressure the liquid seals 
the gas-pipe. By increasing the gas pressure the 
passage to the burner is opened, and by a still 
further temporary augmentation of the gas 
pressure, the galvanic circuit is completed, so that 
the issuing gas, impinging upon the platinum wire 
between the poles of the battery, is ignited. 

In its most simple form, his apparatus consti- 
tutes a hand-igniter, to be used in Ueu of matches, 
spills, or tapers for lighting gem at any burner. It 
consists of a thin, hollow glass vessel, several 
inches high, closed at the bottom, and provided 
with a cover which screws into a mounting 
attached to the neck of the vessel, so as to hermeti- 
cally close it. The cover has fixed to it, and 
carries beneath it, the galvanic pair, consisting of 
a perforated tubular piece of zinc, and a cylindncal 
piece of graphite or carbon. Above the cover are 
the electrodes, connected by a piece of platinum 
wire. The electrodes consist of two brass wires, 
one of them sci'ewed into the metal cover, which 
is in direct contact with the zinc ; the other passes 
to the carbon through the cover, from which it is 
insulated. 

In order to light gas with this simple apparatus, 
it is only necessary to incline it sufficiently to 
bring the liquid into contact with the zinc and 
carbon pair, and at the same time to hold the 
platinum wire in contact with the jet of gas 
issuing from the burner. When the apparatus 
is placed in an upright position, the zinc and 
carbon do not touch the liquid, consequently no 
galvanic action takes place, and no material is 
consumed. 

The street-lamp arrangement is designed to 
simultaneously light or extinguish a number of 
lamps from a single station. It being desirable 
that the gas supply should be shut off at points in 
close proximity to the burners, it is necessary 
that some means should be provided for opening 
aad shutting off the supply from a distance. As 
we have already seen, it has been proposed to do 
this in variou« ways, one plan being to use stop- 
coclM m conjunction with electro-magnets worked 
oygalvamc action from a common station. But 
yJ^^^ .^Hikerfues, considering that galvanic 
batteries mtended for the prediction of caloric 



i 



should be of weak renstattoe, and, theref^ 
incompatible with great lengths of oondiiGt 
wires and long duration of galvanic aetkm, ^ 
out frequent renovation of the liquid, decided 
furnish each lamp-post with its own gain 
apparatus, and to make the galvanic pair ton 
the liquid only during the short time necessary 
lighting up. In his apparatus for this porp 
the vessel containing t£e liquid is provided m 
an internal tube lea£ng to the burner, and hav 
an enlargement at its lower part, as airei 
mentioned. This tube is attadied at its tipper i 
to the cover. The gas-pipe enters the vesael at 
lower part, and terminates within the tabe. 
carbon rests upon the enlargement of tiie 
leading to the burner; and the zinc,in tiie fbnn< 
ring, which is insulated from the tube, is 
to a screwed wire or rod, surrounded at its 
end by insulating material, and passing up t' 
a suitable insulator in the cover to a 
bar, upon which rests a nut, whereby the 
held and adjusted. 

One of the electrodes is attached direotiy to i 
connecting bar, and the oth^ is insulated tpom^ 
bar and attaehed to the cover. The upper end 
the gas-pipe, situated within the tube leading 
the burner, is perforated, and a cap, adjustal>le h 
screw, which screws into the pipe, fits easily or 
it, the lower end of the cap passing down bd 
the level at which the liquid stands when the i 
is at its lowest pressure. An annular space is ti 
left between the cap and the gas-pipe, and the i 
terior of the latter communicates by the apertn 
at its upper end with the annular space. 

The action of the apparatus is as foUcrvs 
When the gas is at its lowest pressure, and '< 
surface of the liquid in the annular space be 
the gas -pipe and its cap is at or about its hi 
level, the liquid seals theiower part of that 
space, thereby preventing the passage of gas t 
the tube and thence to the burner. By sli^^ly 
creasing the pressure of the gas, it wiU fores 
liquid down in the annular space, thereby 
the level in the main vessel until the gaa is 
mitted to pass by the tube to the burner, and 
by a still further augmentation of the gas pre«si 
for a few seconds, the liquid is temporarily fon 
up in the vessel into contact with the zine, then 
completing the galvanic circle, and igniting 1 
gas issuing from the burner as it comes in cooti 
with the heated platinum wire. After thii 
effected, a slight remission of the gas pressurecaa 
the level of the liquid in the vessel to fall bet 
the zinc, thereby breaking the galvanic cirpart 
order to avoid unnecessary exposure, but with< 
shutting off the supply of gas to the burner. I 
extinction of the light is eflbcted by reducing 1 
pressure, so that the level of the liquid rvse^ 
within the annular space between the pipe and 
cap, and thereby shuts off the communicatioi] i 
the burner. The apparatus is aoeommodated | 
variations of pressure at different altitudes, by ^ 
justing the position of its t^ap and the cxt4 
to which it dips in the liquid by means of i 
screw. 

The practicability of this apparatus was fit 
publicly demonstrated by a three months' test I 
Gottingen, where it was applied to forty stnj 
lamps in the principal thoroughfares ; and the d 
Commission, of which the mayor was a m«mbj 
certified on the 21st of March last that tl 



JOURNAL OF TOE SOOIBTY OP ARTS, March 7, 1873. 



291 




illttt 



had worked eontinuoiisly to their satis- 

I will oome nearer home, and say a few 
aboat the experiments more recently con- 
at Preston before several members of the 
inolncling the mayor and the leading 
offidab. 
wDparatus was fitted to a lamp near the 
r ■ Walk, Moor-park, a mile and a quarter 
from the gas works in Glover-street, 
the apparatus was to be operated. The 
having been previously agreed upon at 
Ihe lamp should be lighted and the light 
watches were carefully coihpared, 
the feasibility of at will almost instanta- 
changing the gas pressure in the lamp 
to a definite extent, by means of a 
at woi^ far removed from the lamps, 
be reliably demonstrated. The regulator 
r-^treet being operated upon at the agreed 
the lamp a nule and a quarter distant was 
with 9carody any perceptible lapse of iime, 
boning for five minutes, as had been pre- 
arranged, and then was promptly extin- 
Thi* process was rei)eated several times, 
to the astonishment of a number of lookers- 
were not in the secret. 

experiments were tried on a lamp in 

>place, and on another in Fishergate, 

bfang in sight of each other, about a 

of a mile apart, and the same distance 

Ae gaa works. They were lighted simulta- 

by one operation on the regulator at the 

lune, and botb lights were extinguished 

whoi l^e pressure was reduced. 

several lamps used for the trial were taken 

qihazard, none of the service pipes having 

tested for defects ; nevertheless, the experi- 

were considered highly satisfactory. 

lighting simlights the foregoing arrange- 

I modified, only one battery being used for 

cioster of lights. 

veecel containing the liquid is placed in the 

and is carried by a hollow centre-pi^ce 

it, from which the several arms or branches 

•imHgfat project radially. The centre-piece 

on to the gaspipe, whose enlarged 

end passes down into the vessel" containing 

iiqfmd, the upper end of the pii>e leading to the 

-pifiw? above. The lower end of the pipe is 

by the liquid when the gas is at its minimum 

and opened by increasing the pressure, 

mac circuit being completed for igniting 

M by a t*anporary augmentation of pressure, 

lis the street-lamp apparatus. The electrodes 

•otaaled at each side of one burner only, across 

tlup platinum wire passes, and all the burners 

vxthin lighting range of each other, the 

of the gas jets are rapidly ignited. 

Ihft dip of the pipe into the liquid may bo 

as required, by simply turning the centro- 



sequisite changes in the gas pressure are 
^ br means of a suitable regulator, as well 



is lowered into the acid by a mechanical arrange- 
ment operated by hand pressure upon a suitable 
knob, by which at the same time an ordinary gas 
tap is opened, the platinum is moved over, and 
ignites the issuing gas. A spring returns the zinc 
and platinum wire to their original positions on the 
removal of the pressure from the knob. 

Professor KHnkerfues' invention is evidently 
susceptible of other applications than those I have 
alluded to. 

The length this paper has attained bids me to 
conclude. In doing so, while acknowledging your 
kind attention, I crave indulgence for the very 
imperfect manner in which my subject has been 
brought before you, knowing as I do that it would 
have gained much additional interest in the hands 
of one qualified by special experience to elucidate 
its practical details. 




dnk, or table apparatus, is an inge- 

cation, in which the battery resembles 

4MMMieslreet and sunlight arrangements, except 

^JHsAMd of there being a hydrostatic tap, and 

iNbMlRMDotiTe Hquid beingbrought into contact 

' by the pressure of the gas, the zinc 



DISCUSSION. 

Mr. Ladd said he had goae very littlo into these 
arraod^einents, yet he had had a f^reat deal to do with 
lighting gas by electricity. He had always adopted 
the induction spark for the purpose. He had fitted 
up the Royal Albert Hall, which was the largest 
building to which electricity had been applied for the 
purpose. The apparatus Uiere was of far greater power 
than was wanted. It was orig^tnally intended to light 
five jets at a time. The same principle had been carried 
out in the east laboratories of the Royal Arsen')], 
where the combustible materials are compbunded, and 
consequently no such thing as a light or a mntch of any 
kind is allowed to be brought into the building. Hh had 
adopted the same priooiple there by applying the 
electric spark and the two wires. Two platinum wires 
were set in a small block of steatite, and these were 
fixed immediately below the burner. The wires were 
connected with a coil, and as the spark passed, the gas 
wus turned on and ignited. The draught then carried 
the fl^me upwards and away from the apparatus^ 
80 that it was not possible to have a deposit 
of carbon upon the wire. After a gre «t deal of practice 
he found there was really little or nothing left to be 
desired to perfect the arrangt^ment. In the east 
laboratory there are 24 houses to be lit, all protected 
by glass underneath the burners ; a man goes d«>wn 
with a little battery and coil, and puts it against 
tho two wires outside the door, turns on the gas, 
and so lights it, and no possible danger can ensue. 
There is some littlo difficulty in lighting tho gas if 
it was enclosed in a glnsa ve^8(!l. Unless the elec- 
tricity was applied very quit kly, the gas and air 
mixeiJ, anJ you got an explosiva compound, and might 
blow the lump to pieces. A very pretty arrange- 
ment came over from America a few years ago, which 
he believed was presented to Mr. Faraday. A Uttle 
ebonite plug, lined with silk, fitt< d in a cup, and the 
wires were brought up to tho burner. All you had to 
do was to lift the plug out of the cup, and th(! gas lit. 
It was a pretty little arrangement for a single light. 
He thought there might be some difficulty in carrying 
these arrangements out, and somo objections to them 
in their present state. One was as to evaporation. 
In hot weather it would bo rather difficult to keep 
the liquids from evaporating. Sulphuri : acid absorbs 
moisture, but with diluted sulphuric acid, as this was, 
the absorption amounted to ver>' little indeed. The 
great thing to guard against was evaporation, which in 
hot weather, ho thought, would be difficult to prevent. 
Another question was as to the cold. If the winter 
were very severe, and the liquids troze there would he 
a stoppage to the gas. A separate main woala aiso be 
wanted for the street lamps, because it would not do to 



292 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Makch 7, 1878. 



tamper with the houses by increasing or lessening the 
pressure, as the case might be, to light or put out the 
lamps in the streets. In the arrangement tor the sun- 
light the evaporation would be very great, from the ex- 
cessive heat which would be brought to bear upon it. 

Mr. W. Francis remarked that any plan which would 
enable the whole of the gasgets to be lit at once would 
be u great boon, for it would prevent the escape of gas 
and the disagreeable odour arising therefrom. Also the 
effect would be very beneficial in preserving the clear- 
ness and brilliancy of the lustres of chandeliem, which 
frequently got soiled in lighting. He would also like to 
know the cost for the manner of its application to private 
houses. 

Dr. Wallace had recently come from Glasgow, where 
about 130 men were employed, and where the saving 
would be very great if the plan could be adopted. But 
the subject was not yet thoroughly brought out, and 
there was still something to learn. One objection against 
its ube for street lamps was the very deep shadow the 
glass vessels would cast. They were about five inches 
in diameter, and occupied a considerable space. He 
would Hsk, wuuld it be possible to put these vessels in 
the pillar of the lamp, and not in the globe at all ? It 
struck him the retention of the platinum wire diminished 
the illuminating power of the flame. He had not tried 
it photometrically, however. The use of separate mains 
was also an objection, but not an insuperable one, for 
doubtless it would be cheaper to erect separate mains 
than to spend, as was done in Glasgow, £5,0U0 or £6,000. 
a year. True the whole of the money would not be saved, 
because the lamp-lighters were also employed in eleaning 
the lamps. But if an hour's gas each night could 
by this means be saved, a large amount of money 
would thereby be economised. But they knew nothing 
of the cost of the apparatus, nor to what extent it was 
at present adopted. 

Mr. Copland had made a few rough calculations in 
the room as to the saving of gas and labour. Taking 
Bristol as an example, with its 3,000 street lamps, these 
lamps took one hour, morning and evening, to light and 
extinguish. Taking the number of days at 300. and the 
cost of the gas at 4s. per 1,000 feet, the City of Bristol 
paid £1,000 a year more than was necessary if they 
employed this apparatus. The evaporation of the liquid, 
he thought, would not amount to much in the course of 
a week, and fresh liquid could easily be supplied by the 
ldmp-li);hter when cleaning the lamps, if it were neces- 
sary. The evaporation would be compensated for to a 
great extent by absorption by the sulphuric acid. 

Colonel Ooodenongh inquired the cost of the apparatus, 
and if there was one of a smaller size, which off. red less 
objeetion in regard to casting a shadow. He might 
say that a gentleman was about to vihit this country 
fmm Vienna, for the purpose of introducing a plan for 
the lighting of street lamps, and when that scheme was 
before the public more information on this important 
subject would be forthcoming. 

JCr. E. Lawrence was glad to see the method of putting 
u separate galvanic battery to each gas-lamp was in- 
troduced. He objectHi to the pb*tinum wire remaining 
in the burner. The small apparatus for h^nd lighting 
was the one which most commended itself to his 
mind, where the pressure upon a button brought 
foiward a spark, and the gas ignited. The gaslamps 
nnght be wholly separate from the battery* and the ap- 
p^raius for lighting might \*e connected with it by a 
•mall tube, and this would obviate the difficulty of the 
platinum wire remaining in the flame. 

♦-> ^^' Y" ^- ^^•'^ y 0.8-. bad paid some litUe attenUon 

i^ f • V '1*^ ^^ ^«^ invenUiois and found they began 

IrIS .k •• ^^^^ ^"^ ^"^ So« iety*s JcHrnmi. of Julv, 

nf i»«^;T* ^" •^ •coountof Prt>ft«or SchiUings moit- 

hLifn^-T'"'?'^^ ^r "•^ <>f electricity. The 

•r^tiT^'ui'^fK^^r'"''" ^^ boUoi of this 

appaxatus. But the bea' - — aHOied to 



carbon, and not platinum. The next inventiosi 
of Mr. Roberts, in 1842, when he endeavoarod^ U> 
some fuses and to accomplish blasting by eltrcti'icity. 
used twenty -battery cells for that purpose. Qe ft 
that a number of charges might be fired at ox»ee, bu: 
increase of power was so great that he never Attezn; 
to fire more than one charge at one time. Tbe ncoct 
that of Mr. Staite's, in 1847, the application «f el«<*r 
to light lamps. He did it by means of pUtinoxa 
heated, and in the circuit there was cm. i 
tro-magnet, and when the current ceased, the dec 
magnet extinguished the light. The next *«-«• 
one alluded to in the paper, Profestor Sbcci 
ham's, which was similar to Mr. Staite's, axkI wati 
means* of platinum wire. Then, in 1856, tbt^re 
that of Mr. Simon Petit, alluded to in th« pa 
This invention was a very remarkable one. 
united, by means of the spark or heated platinum « 
two distinct methods. He introduced tbe ^mlvi 
battery at each particular light — that was a % 
circuit, excited by a general circuit, and tbe liglil 
was in that case simultaneous, that is to 8h>^ tfa«i op^-m: 
was, that during tbe time the light wasextingniatftttij 
electric current was traversing the lamp wire, wKidi 
like our telegraph wire, and running from lanrp to lai 
During that there was a constant current. Xho in 
ruption of the current caused an apparatus to tutu on 
gas, and also actuated a further apparatus by wbich the 
was lighted. The fault in this was the constant aoUoi 
the current in the circuit. Then there was Mr. 
Baggs* pLm. He used frictional electrimty, and 
pneumatic or hydraulic arrangements for tamini^ tbe; 
off. Whether he ever used the pressure of gas t» 
complish his purpose he could not tell. This waa ao* 
first time galvanic batteries had been mod in this m 
for there were three plans for using them between U 
and 1866, and several during the past few ycaiv. He i 
not attach much importance to the evaporatioo, beea 
the liquid was not exposed to the air, and if it eYnpom 
it must go into the gas tube, and that bein^ aa 
there could not be much loss. 

Mr. Dipnall thought the apparatus might be lowe 
into the pillar of the lamp itself, instettd of ex|tos 
it. He thought the commercial element was 
important one ; and it must not bo forv<>tten, i 
saving of £1,000 would be effected in Briatol, i 
there were 3,000 lamps, that would be only 6s. 
per lamp, and he doubted whether the coat of putt 
up tho apparatus, cleaning, and so forth, w^old 
covered by that, to say nothing of intvrrat on I 
first cost. If it could be applied to tun«t*clot 
pier-heads, beacons, light-houses, and so forth, it woi 
oe a most valuable invention. 

Mr. Fitqames asked what would be the effV-ct eboi 
there be a failure of electricity, or should damp get ii 
the apparatus ? 

Mr. Botley said that considering the enormous numi 
of street-lamps in use in London and its vicinity. mijJ II 
they were generally lit in the wint^-r at 3.45 in I 
aftt-moon, and not put out till half an hour or (rwn d 
hour after the sun had risen, the saving would not 
much less than £100,000 a year, if the 1 .mpe wt-re ot 
lit at sun-down and put out at once in the mi mil 
When the high price of coal was taken into oonsidt-^ 
tion such a yl»n as this was a great desideratum. 

Mr. PsaraaU would like to know what would be tj 
effect of an alteration of pressure, as it wns w^ kno^ 
a sudden effect was caused by the extinguishing of tJ 
lights in churches and chapisls and factories in Ur] 
towns ; the pressore on the lights burning wus tBcrca;^ 
to a vast amount. He thought that even if the pi] 
a-ere not suitable for general purposes, it might be i 
particttUr uses, and that it would be invalnak£ in c«^ 
of collision and where individual lights were re<iuir« 
as in beacons. 



K* JaMst Srswn said that the difference of preasuj 



JOUESAIsOW 



ioaxrr :w 








ng fronthe 

pt ■•d ia o«tun putt 

IviM fcrbf Uki ^d d 

of gis vbidL 

ptrtkoUri/app&sfthufr •! 
A* town vliere he 
iBitlTM to the ^*^^^*c ^ 
^ &j«iii too com 
^Kobulduil cu-nr aboot; 

I ikj all the jear itMnd, 

E3i, vbocas ftMfte £5 

i|ai reaHj required. It 

nt" They did so. «r ' 

V tl cttt The icMilt 

[hroo^forvud a plaa w^i:^ 

{ttt£a« thfa to-m^i, hf w^ra ^ aiiiiv*-! ^ 

Ifthfvveuiljrthe lighJiii^ ca«l. >*^ iL!:'Uin>.»i&-*L Z^- 

"~ fikd to kaow wik-iiher tibe 7tfiffn>cm s.« il sBcun 

few loeg it voald re^usa «-::tAuis£ >'Ciir s»iur. 

[m only tha fi^mva and fii&&^ :<r "Sbt zhzk^: t .gm- 

ftte £iiic« boin^ plata. ti^a* ri^^s^ ft snca. " ■* *■■ ij. 
■&J CDabhois the dock a£~t^ CaiCsaa-^uiiK •£ 
Cw b« aetA mtay aulea oC 
▼•Itar Inartt obapr»«d &a^ msz^yd^is ^ *--• 
^liMa to obuin a aofi ieol iw — i - v-nxai xcc Saf 
«BBSisaing to paas tliroa^ tbe tabe. '-k.-mt ta. «x> 
ad^tkt aoi alv*rt be poastiirr te £>< a 
of 9h;» as kal L*tel j baea lOtt ra*** 
mi^t be left m. dafkcf^a Axi.czia' iacz 
aeoLioaed. In aoae foadirviea tL* a£» ifcuis* 
▼vry dry and ia olbiri rrrj mcitL 'S ; v. r: 
ksitwn that rold OMtal bad aa a£-.rrr far 
and the platznum might 
tkse mi^t be rtqmred to best the fhtfi'i 
tba atmoaphere «bs drj aear ib» 

vould aoon get h^atel, bol vbpTe it 
off it might take a much locker tis-^e. vm i t^ 
■thoaritiea. a^ng the l«ffipa lit near th« T-orka. 
rtop the preaaore neceaaarj to light the fsrlhcr 




1 ir - 

1 • 



tEu. lu-^- ir*c r w* -T»— i-iL 
i'-"-C » 'LTir X* »e a"- V -L >•■♦'--:. 




itpHL irsL ^XiS 31* atT'M-,-? muj ic Tftrr r-msitr-r-i.'^- -nt- 

ni. '^ ^»§ *^*irT't aT?c -w«c 7 r*** -ii^if l^cl^ 

Siri li £:a:>aaa:i^ a 3»v ;aT^n.tj.Tt 'a? saaic •^■»»t» 

L a fma srA ost-x ^rrtT^c •> 
fxsr^tr triftl a^i i»* Ui "tri* I^^ J^ti-^irC irf t^ Brt^^nsjr 
wm i^a: ^k-y h»i hai tsu iiT-rcii.« ice***;-! :» ii*S 
l:irB. Tbe 'speaksn i:c aai ar^^ ^ul*:::-^ oee 
a&X£rY fcirlj, Kai wVr« »sj k=»«>T was r^**i-r!^ it 
had be«m gi^4e ^t lie joccart*- ia kit r^rCr. O* c..At«^, 
zl WM aa *rri*« xLu CDcli asc W »c*:k-a aVuS 
«n£i:«l a trul li was a =.i.;:ir o: ex.vri- 
=a«!Bt ti> asKTUia wi^eti.-«r tb* »ftA:^=Kata wvre 
V,nie od by the f«c4 cf f-r^u-.a.d tnxL ^ A iri*l 
c/ three axsiht ia Gxii:i^>« was cn*v a* tar 
aj theaOter hal3re£ fc<ie. At;i vbe trial ia E.i-r'anl, 
aa £«r aa it vmt. wa» m r^essf il ; ba; that wa* to N- >>t 
farthrr c-x;cnied. Tbe i*.au.isjiU.^ of ouUyin*: buo\a 
aai r>rks wmm the most impiMtant matwr to vhu^ 
the af^ptntas coali be apph^i. TbU vas a auhji^t 
which h*d caused maoh thought and UKmr to 
aianj ad^^tific men; bat as >et only ono pUn h«d 



.£l0fA Wiaa, replying, aaid hedil not think the yiric- 
fid^htia^ the Albert-hall w •& applicable for etreet 
With regard to carbon b«^g depont^ oa the 
1 virp-, the experimenta of Prol'*'«or KlinkerfiMS 
•hown th4t any aorh depnait tuok pltce when 
aaoe of the platinam wir« from the bamer wu 
Jy adjaated. Aa to the erAporatioa oftheEqoiJ, . - - « 1 1 

_ c-^pply wta f>an I to be low when the man went to **«« adopted, and thU was when) th^y had arrins^l a 
b| the LuDpa, it woold be a aimple thing to add a ^aiem of reflectora on an outlying rock with a li»;hl on 
m Bat, aa a matter of fact, daring the three ***« ahore throwing ita rays on the refltH:tow on th** rvK'k. 
pkf the ezpenment waa tried at G ^ttittgen, »hich wens then tranamiited to the spot m the soa wht>ri> 
P*waa in the wint»-r time, it was not found neceeaary . ^^ ^«" wanted. It would be a very fitnolo mattor to 
feaiah the supply. In regarl to the liability to ', c*"y a gas tube to an outlying rock» and to phoo a 
.y,a gentleman in the town had seen th«> apparatus j heacon sufficiently high to be out of the water, and thon 
k with the thermometer at sero, and therefore it ' ^ eeUbliah this apparatus, and so. by reducing or in* 
be guarded against. Sulphuric acid itself does ! crearing your pressure, to obtain orexlinguiah tho light. 
Ibdily freese, and tho quantity of sulphuric acid He hoped the mttter would bo laid b«'fun) tho propir 



fBoportioned so as to prevent freezing as far as pos- 

As to the form of the Teasel, it was not absolutely 

that it sbooM be of glass. The difficulty 

bad been mentioned as arising from an in- 

of prvarare in private houses had been 

iy orercome, and the apparatus could be 

apAi to ehaadelien. As to the shadow which might 
Mkvam, that was simply a question of detail, and could 
"^ ■naagad. The platinum wire did not reduce 
^ « was sapposed. On the contrary, it increased 
a M if it was found needful it could be kept out of the 
■Ml Ibe Bse of separate mains was P^^y obviated 
«taag«iaent which was proposeid. There was 



! 



authorities, and that something practical would bo done. 



Mr. J. B. Booth sends tho following : -In n^vh' t<> 
many questions asked last evening after the rcatiing of 
the paper on gns igniting, I miy brieay sUto th.a, from 
experiiuento which hare been made, the liquid will not 
freeie with the English winter tomperatui^ ; tho co.t 
of the application to street Umps is not expensive ; tho 
saving of gas is very considerable : tbo lamp.liijhtori 
may be reduced more than ono-half ; the npparutus is 
not liable to get out of or<ler with proper usogo. After 
a long discussion in Preston by prHcUiul pt^rsons, tb« 
^«^. wo.^ .„- ^..p.™. .„..„ ^.^ calcuklions made have shown « wring of neariy ao por 
between the works and lamps, save by tho cent, on the present cost of gns lighting. Tho apparatus 



294: 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maboh 7, 1873. 



if capable of applicatioa to all pablio and domeetic 
purposes. I shall be glad to aaswer any farther 
inquiries £rom correspondents. 



AKNITAL HrXEENATIOV AL EXHIBITIOVS. 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-Qeneral Scott, C.B., 
secretary. 

On Friday last, 1st March, 1873, a meeting of re- 
presentatives of the Australian Colonies, proposing to 
occupy the Belgian Annexe as a Colonial Court, at 
South Kensington, was held at the Royal Commis- 
sioners* Offices, Gore-lodge. The following members' 
were present: --Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart.; Sir James 
McCulloch, K.C.M.G. ; Mr. F. Button, C.M.G. ; and 
Major C. F. Roberts. 

The fifth meeting of the Committee for Ancient Objects 
was held on the 3rd March, Mr. C. D. Fortnum in the 
chair. There wore present — Mr. C. M. Campbell, Mr. 
J. Grace, Mr. H. Durlacher, Mr. Moody, Mr. Soden- 
Smith, Br. Thudichum, and Mr. R. Thompson. The 
committee inspected an interesting collection of drink- 
ing implements and utensils for the table, and of silks 
and velvets. Offers of loans of valuable ancient objects 
connected with the classes of the Exhibition were com- 
municated to the committee. 



The issue of season tickets for 1873 commenced on Ut 
of March. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners for the Exhibition have 
resolved that — 

1. Season ticket holders shall have the following 
privileges of atlmission : — 

{a.) To the Exhibition on all occasions when open to 
the public. 

{d.) To the Royal Albert-hall, where concerts of a 
high standard, directed by Mr. Bambv, and perform- 
ances on the org^, by Mr. Best and Dr. St liner, will 
be given daily throughout the Exhibitton. (See special 
musical programme.) 

(e.) To all private views. 

id.) To the galleries of the Exhibition two hours 
berore the general public. 

Visitors to the School of Cookery will pay extra. 
Admission for each hour*s instruction on Mondays, 
Tuesdays, and Saturdays, 6d. ; Wednesdays, Thursdays, 
and Fridays, Is. 

2. The charge for a season ticket, conferring the 
privileges mentioned above, lasting from the 14th April, 
1873, to 3l8t October, 1873, will be one guinea. 

3. The Exhibition will be open daily from 10 to 6. 

4. The charge for admission to the general public will 
be: — From Eister Mondny, the 14th April, to the 3l8t 
October, on Mondayi), Tuesdays, Thursdays, Fridays, 
and Saturdays, Is. each day ; on Wednesdays, 28. 6d. 
until Ist of August; afterwards. Is. The picture gal- 
leries, and some other portions of the Exhibition will 
be lighted every Monday and Saturday evenings, and 
be open till 9 p.m. Admission, after 6 p.m., sixpence. 

6. Her Majesty's CoinmiHsioners reserve the right of 
altering the prices of admission from time to time, as 
they may see fit, after giving public n«»fiee. 

6. Season tickets m;»y be had at the Royal Albert- 
hall, in Kensington-road, at the Office of the Society of 
Arts, Messrs. Novello's, No. 1. Bemer's- street, and 25, 
Poultry ; and at all the principal agents. 

7. Season tickets must be signed before presentation. 
The owners must produce them each time they enter 
the Exhibition or the HmU, and, when required, must 
<^te their names in a book. 



8. SeMon tickets are not ttmasferable, and if pr 
B«nted by any other person than the registered <>wim 
will be forfeited. Tickets lost cannot be replaced . 



EXHIBITIONS. 



Vienna Exhibition. — Advices from Cape Town sti 
that the great diamond of 288 carats which has hi 
exhibiting there is to be sent to the Vienna Exhibitioi 



C0RRE8P09DEHCS. 



CHANNEL PASSAGE. 

SiB, — With reference to the ventilation of steom-shi 
I desire to direct public attention to a letter in 1 
Lancet, 22nd ult., written by Dr. Alexander Kattr«y, 
her Majesty's ship Britannia. He hus made ob«cr 
tions during a voyage from the Cape of Good Hope 
Elngland, and he states that in t^ie American nav; 
new plan of ventilation has been adopted recently wh 
merits notice. 

I believe it is difficult to ventilate stcam-shi 
especially during rough weather, so as to neutral 
the close smell which prevails below, in small steun 
generally. As to sea-sickness, I believe— jadgins? fr 
observation and in some measure from exjKTiena 
that it prevails chiefly in shortly-built bo^t^, and wl 
they have a pitching motion, rather than when tl 
roU. Mr. W. Froude, F.R.S., is preparing a re^ 
upon this subject, which, I hope, will be publish 
A recumbent position, assumed before the moti'tni 
the vessel commences, is desirable when posidble ; ^ 
I think that in the plan of Dr. J. Chapman, for 
plying ice to the spme in sea voyages, this posit 
18 necessary. 

It has been stated recently that Calais is not act 
sible, except at the time of high tide, for the Chta 
steamers when the wind blows from the north 
north-east quarter, causing delay and difficulty, as ' 
the case with the Royal yacht in the year 1 822. 

In building ships it appears to me deairtblc th.i.t o 
partments should be used where it is possible, and { 
the American lake steamers, in which I have be* 
passenger, would be useful models for English a) 
builders to study. In America the canopy or avi 
plan is in vogue, and useful in fair weJither r« <rt-»inli 

Sea-sickness, I believe, is constitutional, and *\^^ 
much upon the health. I have heard that even X 
Nelson suffered considerably during his final voyn^ 
1805. The late Sir J. Herschel invt-ntiHl a pl^i] 
hanging hamm(»cks, so as to regulate the oscillatu.n, 
I should be glad to know what has been tliu » ir**i^ 
the invention ? It was, I think, parti tlly 8uec**A5.fo 
I am, &c., 

CiiR, Cook 
Loim1<h), Ist March, 187). 

Sir, — As Mr. Bessemer has been pemiittol t*i ( 
ment in writing on the few obsemitions 1 nindt^ t\^\ 
ing the ships fur the Channel passage, on tht* ev^xiii 
the 12th February, I ask the courtesy of a brief r^y 
him. 

I do not consider that I gave an *' opinion on cn^^^i 
ing questions." The case simply is this : — Mr. R«wv« 
invents a saloon for the sea. I do not qoeeitiou 
ingenuity of the invention (Mr. Besnemrr kno« a 
about that than I do), but I do considex I know nio 
the sea, for which he invents the machine, than lie 
and my opinion is just what I gave, namely, tlu«t 
my knowledge of the former, the latter will ni>t uti 
the purpose intended. The practical reason is (it>vi 
it provides for one motion only oat of soTerml, und. 



JOUBHAI. GT "Tfff - 





revd ny doabto of 

,«toaIM; and my 

)bepUMeAbtn 

M, WM merelj to 

b» »me Realities of 

ti D^ ware ; and I mm 

I ifitidpatoiy m ct km by 

J, »ho— contimpy to Mr. 

ntt Uu hjdmlie. I 

kibfWflMulbe 

ni tfcs iUostnlMnol 

ffonte, if not vary LiiiflVH* <■■' I 

ma or eren staad the btt of & 

i^iiffl motioa of the fasadi 

r Bubpfkrebension on si j 

ihnii a wiai 

I iD*7 aa well haTe 

1 )kxp4nii]dmg, when I 

ff vBMil would heel at 

nn, azkd also when I 

iu>o of Captain Dioey'a ttrj^ 

Slilort may hare a kind of ** mk of liraml *" 

tBg an opinion, bat it mait be ilLdwik tuer 

iwTi wri^ag; a«d if 

r«Der, in ex pn a aing kcr ci*Lj» it Itr, fti., waa 

rking in argnment, I aupt— t it wac ruiKr oovRiiuave 

ti? di>ctor himaeif ; ^nd I sar V jmrO'm^i in b-'pin^ 

li Kr. BtaacMcr will be c-qoulT skiisb^d wjih tke 

icr»ace that I, aa a aeaman .k&J mxcr uiii^ra wiio are 

ftur jadg^a than myarfT. do not b^-iiert in the pnc- 

eal (fficiency of hia aalocfl in a CrmnT.eJ an way. — 

*ff, Ac., H- Davis. 



-=^*r 2 



IZz^ 



rr * _* J*- n 



^> ««« »>* ».i».- -wr r***: *!v»i*«iia 
-xr r--*.-' .»."*** w;..!.'*!^ >»«t 

uin? Tvrw mvxi **iv**«ciH<» a«d will 
ii«nii' a ■;:>w xy»*r, stvit rtvt» Mh<»r« hi*v« 
MH' fl(c;xe»i<x<. And irilK it la honwi, ha 
JLl th ^ «>>rk« :*M» mtiiimtml vt '''«t 



Ml* IE 



tm. IMH w^moMa(ik»t4d« will irrl«fiil<» probal/lir 

it 40 



1 MiOtt^^lL Sfa» 



.^tM»Liu4 acNw^ aad ai*rur« foutl Uir niMiul 
a a: w^-cCt*. and proTida about 19,000 will** '/f 
>-i»'»« ntifcl Thfiea art* all Mttiri^ly n«w Wfffk* '^ 
t -nac irutf -r.ere ai^ b«iidp«, thoiiaiinda of »ri)w//^ »'/*■'* 
r^ra* TtfT. : 4t moetly old nHilv« worka, tliai >#*^* v*^ 
iiL;r -r«i ii»d «xt(*ndod. 
y.- puticiclAraeithor nro givwi In U*a ptp^ f*my^*i**^ 
o* ihe pro^jreaa of water-carriag*». 
ntn It mast be remembnrod Ihnt 0/*? j^/vw ^/ '<-';* * 
iiuiT a»c<^tif Mr- . cymtend with other countrj'* **/v/ ,v ,* V ^ - * •'^ 

thia« which alono can tiroti'l* /vi»;> '^^f^*.*- . * ,'/••' 
Utdy the subject of mtp^,.; -y ^/-/^h^ r*- * • * 
from the north- wftt |/r'/y,/# >* 4 ».^ - », -» /* ' . - 
illuatrate the atat/j o/ 1/**: ->•-* - - * < .-^ ' *■ 

dependa eiitir#rly w^^ »^-^ ^,^. , ^ ^ . . . , 

why Amenc4 j»'/'j'« ^r'.*^ . t, j, ^,.* * • - 
former haa wj^t^T v*t«- 
cinals. Th* -ir*^^ • ^-^ ^ 
CHrriasfe. >'*-v^ ^- t-^ ^ ^,, 
bear it, at « :*«:-^ t i « - . 
^ati/^D •\-f« t"* .,...,,* _ 
c«m»^j ; *»'H n- 
it w:.I ',*► 
b** ;. '.'^ t 
A':>T.v» 



•■"i* . « * 



t » *^ * * 



d # 



^ • 



1 i 
A Oil 



/« «*, 






K.a,— On 'Wedneeday ereoitt^, the 26th February, 
en WMM no mention made of one %nBX pecnlivirity in 
i M^ckte ehip — namely, that the bow wave, after 
itmir on either side fr m the atem, ia taken almost 
Kniiitt'Iy into the channels, and becomea the means 
IffTV*!^***^ ^^ ^^'^^ being thna relieved by alrooat all mr 
I Witer foTfninar the torrenta which propel the ship. 1 j 1'.<^^ *\^ r-^ . n 
r^ TV to call utt^^tion to thia, as it appeared to me in ' n'/..»..-.jr i t v.'--* 

Epsilox. j tnr-^it ',*,t. *-,*<„# , ^ 



«!*••. . ••« ^* 



i l^ht of an omiaaion. — I am, &c., 

S't-M. 1ST3 



»■ 



PROGRESS IN INDU. 



.^t— HavinfT l>«^n unable to attend the meetin^^ of 
^SKii-ty fr>r the diacoamon of Mr. Stoct]ae1er'8 rmp-r 
I * PrcjBrrt*** in India," I ahoold bemuf-h obliged if you 



all',*-*' fi v-**^^'* 4*. - , 

If ♦V^ 1*^ .:,^- 









f. 



» / 



* * 



/ 



'* * •- 



•'•" ,»lk 



' ^ 



obliged 

tL JS^.rd me itwm for one or two remarks. ...,^^ ,^ ^, ^^ . -. . 

Vith I efrrence to the obaervationa on female agency B^ --^ v It VT-.. /.'T/ .r,'' ^'' ' ,'' 

b Iwii«, it iw^ma to be apoken of as a thing very d*-- u^u\\ it -\*,-/. -v » - '!! 

pVv but not yet introduced. But there are at thi« ' ,.• ^4 ^ ^V ' * >^ " * • ^ . 

BE' 6< ores of ladieaof good position in England who '^si^'f: > ** 

ke'- irivfn Ih-msolvea up to this work, and, besi Ifd of "^ ' 

»i aching- tmrniDg and other schools, have accM to « v. '*- 

hiraiJi a of the upper claaaea in a great number of t<'i'*T -* 

■a'- s in all the great citiea of India, and the demand thr-* •; 

br: It acr^nrr ia rapidly extending, so that those who tw 



a *-' iF 



V. . , 



■- f 



••• 



r < 



'/ 



an. u acr^nrr la nipiaiy exienaing, so tnat tboae who tw.-r,*:.^.i. ^^ * .^- . , ^ , . ,. 
I».ffip: ywl aro overwhelmed with woik. and are c/m- b* ir.aj -ir. ; -r •• . f,- ^^ . ,^ ' ' 
!p:fjy rolling for further help. TheaeLidlea, of cour»*», w.int, tif, *t. ,• ,--1 ..* . ^ '. , 



/• 






V/ 



fe^ thrflurivee raaatera of the laniniagea necessary for alm'/nt ♦r.^.r' .y* .\\. 

» " mnranication with their pnpils. . ani \/> ohVajn */•' . r ♦* 

"•Tiih rtapect to irrigation only one work is mentione.1, Iboy c-tn V*^ irf'/».', • 

t ' » %tttrmpt ia made to show the progress of this Fninc^j ia ab*** i/# ;' t 

^'-^i if iajprovement. ; there will th>-n ^r*-. h '\* r 

IVta are now, bcsidea innnmerable smaller works, '- far beyond afiytK.f,;^ jy,n *» , ,^ 

'•• ?Tvit syateroa of river irrigation in extensive and 1 we^t, for innt-tri'^-, wi,| \^ » , 

;;"*^«1 op^ation— vii., those of the Cauvery, the j wh^ >it, and th«- e^n'rO 

ij-tna, the Ot^davery, the grand Gangea, and the immense snppli*'* of i\u'\r Uft^ "/♦'z^, wk * '^f. 

I'- ♦ works. Thoee have coet to this time nearly five supplied with a niultiiuU of ♦»- '.y# u ,\^ ,^,.^ \"* 

r^lims, faBy equal to the results of an expenditure of rincea; hut thiaeann^vt * * . ,^^ utot^C'x 

'coty milUons in En^and. They are none of them wHh re%Uy ch«ap trai* ^ w7*!f\.' 

% oGKDpIetadv bttt they are irri^ting about 2} millions give them. — I an, Su f>/^fnt*^ 



•'f f 

r M 

• * • 

'/* t ' ,» • ' * ' f • , 



'H 



296 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mabch 7, 1873.. 



GEHBEAL H0TB8. 



A Society of ArU for l^etoria.~We learn (nije the 
Auttraiian Mechanic) that « society w in oonne of formation, 
nnder the able auspices of Mr J. G. Knight, founded on the 
basis of the ** Society for the Enounragement of Arte, 
Manafactores, and Commerce," of London, established in 
1764, and having for its objects the encouragement of the 
arts, manufactures, and oomoierce of the Anstralinn colonies, 
by bestowing rewards for such productions, inventions, or 
improvements as tend to the employment of the industrial 
classes, and to the increase of trade; for meritorious 
works in the various departments of the fine arts; for 
discoveries, inventions, and improvements in agriculture, 
chemistry, mechanics, manufacturt«, and other useful arts ; 
fur the application of such natural and artificial produota, 
whether of colonial, British, or foreign growth and manu- 
facture, as may appear likely to afford fresh objects of in- 
duhtry, for extending the sphere uf Victorian commerce, and 
generally for assisting in the sdvanoement, development, and 
practical application of everv branch of science in connection 
with the arts, commerce, ana manufactures of the Australian 
colonies. 

Chalk at Fuel on BaUwayi.— With reference to a 
letter that recently appeared in our columns, we may notice 
that the London and South Western RaUway Comnany, 
having tried the experiment of mixing chalk with coals for 
consumption in fire-grates at the offices, Waterloo, and finding 
it answer, have made arrangements for a regular supply to 
the various stations throughout the line for use in the several 
offices and waiting-rooms, and have issued an order for a 
truck load of chalk to be received at all the stations. The 
way in which the chalk is used appears to be as follows : — 
First light the fire as usual with wood and coals, then put on 
a layer of chalk, following with another layer of coals. A 
fire so made lasts a long time, and throws out a good heat. 
Experiments for using chalk in furnaces have been made, 
but it does not answer so well as in an open fire-grate. In 
the waiting-room at Ouildford, chalk has been in use as fuel 
for over a week, and is said to have been found to answer 
very well. 



HOTICES. 



OBBDTABT XEETIH08. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

March 12. — "On Signalling at Sea, with special 
reference to Signals of Distress." By Capt. P. H. Colomb, 
B.N. On this evening Thomas Brassey, Esq., M.P., will 
preside. 

Mabch 19. — " On Certain Improvements in the Manu- 
facture of Printing Types." By J. R. Johnson, Esq. 

March 26. — ** On the Ediblo Starches of Commerce, 
their Production and Consumption." By P. L. 
SiMMONDS, Esq. 

April 2. — "On Economy of Fuel for Domestic 
Purposes." By Capt. Douglas Oalton, C.B., F.R.S. 

April 9. — No Metttng. 

April 16. — *' On the Condensed Milk Manufacture." 
By L. P. Mbrriam, Ebq. 



niBIA COMMITTEE. 

A Conference will be held on Friday, 14th inst., 
at 8 p.m., when a paper will be read by Bobert 
B. Shaw, Esq., on *' England and Central Asia.*' 
Maior-GteneralSirHENBY Cbeswicke Bawunson, 
P.R.S., F.R.G.S., will preside. 

At the Conference wnioh will be held on Friday, 
28th instant, W. T. Blanfobd, Esq., of the Indian 
Geological Survey, will read a paper on.** The 



Mineral Besonrces of India." Sir LOTTIB Ml^ 

C.B., Member of the Council of India, will p^ 

Members are entitled to attend, these Ccmf«J 

free, and to admit two friends to each of th^ 

CASTOB LBCTUBBS. 

The Second Conrse of these lectoreB is ^' \ 
Energies of the Imponderables, with espe^ 
ferenoe to the Measurement and Utiliai^la 
them," by the Bev. Akthxjb Bioo, M. A. 1 
mf^iTiiTig lectures will be delivered on the f oH 
evenings, at eight o'clock : — 

LbCTUEB VI. — ^MOKDAT, MjLRCS IOtk, ISil 

On the Energy of Light, with especial refer^ae< 
Measorement and Utilisation of it. 

Lectcrb VIL— Monday, March 17tm, 181 
On the Energy of Hent, with especial refercse< 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 



I 

The Third Course of Cantor Hiectares i\ 

S resent session will be **0n Wmes; thex^ 
uction, Treatment, and Use,** by J. \ 
Thudichum, Esq., M.D. The Course vrill < 
of six lectures, the first of which will be gr 
Monday evening, the 2lBt of April, the reirh 
five on the Monday evenings sucoeeding. 



MEBTDTOS FOB THE EMSUJJie 



MoK. ...SOCIETY OP ABT8, 8.^ P«»*<» I«*w«- j 

Bigg, ** On the Energies of the ImpaiM>e>mbfti«.H 
Institutiim of Sorrejois, 8. Adioanied UiscMJ 

Kr. R. B. Onntham*! paper <m^ Ptirmte Ap^ 

Bjdlways." I 

liondoa Inttitntion, 4. FrafesMr Doimsba, ** 

Geography." ^ 

Royal Geographical, Sj. 1. Mr. J. Thinn««u, " 

in Boathem FonnoM*' (Adjovnad Pap cy t . l. 

N. Thomaa.**The Oa Bivera of Weattm Aftia 
Society of Engineera, 7&. Dittcaasiaxi <m Kr. 17, I 

p^MT, on ** Continaons Bailway JBmkea*' (. 

and ^cctric). 
Medical. 8. 

Tubs. ...Medical and ChiniraioaL 6|. 

GiTflEngiiieert.8. (>>ntinaedDiMiiaaiaaEi< 

paper on ** The Indian Bailway Oaogv.** 

Photonai^iic, 8. 

Boyal In»titution, 3. Prol Butheribrd, **0»tli^ 

andMotkmaoftheBody." | 

WSO....80GIB1T0F AB18, 8. Cftpt. Colonh. &3^ 

Signalling at Be*, with apecul wJuwaw to m 

^trees.*^ ^ I 

Geological, 8. 1. *' Fro! Ansted. ** 6ii th« 8al&d 

aom« Sulphnr-depocita at Kalanmiri, aearO 



S. Mr. J. Lucas, ** On the Origiii of Ca«T-imd 
8. Dr. Dawson. ^*Kote in ^Vin^^tun «tf U^i 
rhombicum ana Lfptdodemdron gafptammtm.,'* \ 



F. W Button, **8ynopaiaof tha 

New Zealand.*' 
Graphics. 

Boyal Literary Fond, 3. Annual Heetiiiif. 
Royal Society of Literatore, 4^. 
Archnological Association, 8. 

Tin7iii..3oyal, 8^. 

Antaquaiies, 8&. 

Boyal Society Clah, 6. 

Mi^ematical, 8. 

BoTsl United SerHoelnatitatlQB, a G^^ J. p^ 1 

^The Causes of Inaocorate Shootm^ with | 

bore and Billed Guns." 
Boyal Institution, 8. Mr. A. Voiaon Haxvoort. ^ 

Chemistry of Coal and its Products.'* 



BelstiottBaf ^ 



Fax SOCIETY OF AKT8, 8. India 

B. Shaw, **On the Conancrcial 

with Central Asia." 
Astronomical, 8 
Boyal Instituticni, 9. rrofrasm ati»,>«^ ««^ 

Beeft and their Aichitwrta." — -— . vi 

Qnekettanb.S. 

BoTsl United Service IhBtitiitMm,«^. Mr.R.J Bee 
"Iron (4ad Navies." 

Bat Boyal Institution, 3. Profeaser W. K. Cliftn^ 

'* On the Philosophy of the Pia«~ ^-™wro 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mabch 14, 1873. 



297 



lAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

Ko. 1,060. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, MARCH U, 1873. 






rOVJrCEMEVTS BT XHB COUHCIL. 



zECHMOLoeiCAL szAimrAnovs. 

Tbe Programme of Fixaminations in the 
ogy of some of the Arts and Hanufactures 
oomitry is now reddy, and may be had on 

to the Secretary. 
subjects selected for 1673 are Cotton, Paper, 
8t6^ and Carriage-building. Those desiring 
become Candidates, should apply for the pro- 
without delay, as all names must be sent 
the end of March, 
following Prizes are offered by the Society of 
in each of the five subjects mentioned above : — 
the best candidate in Honours, £10. 
'o the best candidate in the Advanced Ghrade, £7 . 
o the best candidate in the Elementary Grade, £5. 

order that these Examinations may really be 
ol in promoting technical education in this 
, it is desirable that encouragement should 
grren to candidates by the offer of additional 
and scholarships. With this object the 
appeal to the Companies of the City of 
to merchants and manufacturers, and to 
of the Society generally, to aid them 
eoDtributing to the Prize Fund. 

following special additional Prizes are 

Wyndham S. Portal, Esq., to the Seccmd and 
best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, 
Manufacture : — 



A Prize of 
A Prise of 



£3 
£2 



6. N. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
Candidates in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 

A Prize of £3 

A Prize of £2 

the Worshipful Company of Spectacle 
to the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 
tiM Advanced Grade and in the Elementary 
respectively, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 

APrisaof £5 6 

▲ Friasof £3 3 

▲ Mnof £2 2 



The Council beg to annoimce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund .••^ 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners. . £10 10 
The Worshipful Company of Salters 

(annual) lo lo 

Dr. Grace Calvert, F.R.S. (annual) .... 660 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart 5 

B. L. Cnance, Esq 6 6 

The Coimdl invite the aid of masters and man- 
agers in promoting these examinations by encour- 
aging their workmen to take advantage of them. 
An explanatory handbill, suitable for being sus- 
pended in factories and workshops, may be had on 
application to the Secretary of the Society of Arts, 
Adelphi, London, W.C. 



ALBERT MEDAL. 

The Council will proceed to consider the award 
of the Albert Medal early in May next. This 
medal was instituted to reward **disting^uished 
merit in promoting Arts, Manufactures, or Com- 
merce,'* and has been awarded as follows : — 

In 1864, to Sir Rowland Hill, K.C.B., " for his great 
service to Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, in the 
creation of the penny postage, and for bia other reforms 
in the postal system of this country, the benefits of which 
have, however, not been confined to this country, but have 
extended over the civilised world." 

In 1866, to his Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the 
French, ** for distinguished merit in promoting, in many 
ways, by his personal exertions, the international pro- 
gress of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, the proofs 
of which are afforded by his judicious patronage of 
Art, his enlightened commercial policy, and especially 
by the abolition of passports in favour of British sub- 
jects." 

In 1866, to Professor Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S., for 
** discoveries in electricity, magnetism, and chemistry, 
which, in their relation to the industries of the world, 
have ao largely promoted Arts, Manufactures, and Com- 
merce." 

In 1867, to Mr. (now Sir) W. Fothergill Cooke and 
Professor (now Sir) Charles Wheatstone, F.R.S., in 
*< recognition of their joint labours in establishing the 
first e^tric telegraph." 

In 1868. to Mr. (now Sir) Joseph Whitworth, F,R.S.^ 
LL.D., *'fbr the invention and manufacture of instru- 
ments of measurement and uniform standards, by which 
the production of machinery has been brought to a 
degree of perfection hitherto unapproachcd, to the great 
advancement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. ' 

In 1869, to Baron Justus von Liebig, Associate of the 
Institute of France, Foreign Member of the Royal 
Society, Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, &c., " for 
his numerous valuable researches and writings, which 
have contributed most importantly to the development 
of food-economy and agriculture, to the advancement of 
chemical science, and to the benefits derived from that 
science by Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce." 

In 1870, to M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, " for services 
rendered to Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, by the 
realisation of the Suez Canal." 

In 1871, to Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., *'for his important 
services in promoting Arts, Manufactures, and Com- 
merce, especially in aiding the establishment and develop- 
ment of International Sdiibitions, the development of 
Science and Art, and the South Kensington Museum." 

In 1872, to Mr. Henry Bessemer, " for the eminent 



298 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maboh 14, 1873. 



servioes rendered by him to Arts, Manafactures, and 
Commerce, in developing the manofacture of sted/' 

The Council invite members of the society to 
forward to the Secretary, on or before the 12th 
of April, the names of such men of high distinction 
as they may think worthy of this honour. 

PBIZE FOB 8IEEL. 

1. The Council have resolved to award the Gk>ld 
Medal of the Society to the manufacturer who shall 
produce and send to the London International 
Exhibition of 1873 the best collection of specimens 
of ste^ suitable for general engineering purposes. 

2. The specimens exhibited must include a com- 
plete illustration of the applications of the varieties 
of steel submitted. 

3. Each manufacturer should send with his 
specimens a statement of the nature of the tests 
he has applied to each kind of steel submitted, and 
give the results of such tests. 

4. The samples tested are to be exhibited 
together with duplicate samples, or portions of the 
same samples ; these will be submitted to tests 
should the Council consider it desirable. 

6. All persons using steel for general engineer- 
ing purposes, who are not manufsicturers of such 
steel, are also invited to exhibit specimens on the 
above terms and conditions. 

6. The Coimcil reserve to themselves the right 
of withholding the premium, in the event of the 
specimens exhibited not being sufficiently meri- 
torious. 

INBIA COMMITTEE. 

A meeting of the Committee was held on Monday, 

lOtb inst. Present : — Major-General F. Eabdley- 
WiLMOT, R.A., F.R.S., in the chair, Dr. Archibald 

Campbell, Messrs. Andrew Cassels, John Cheet- 

ham, Hyde Clarke, W. 8. Fitzwilliam, F. Hendriks, 

Edwin Lawrence, W. Maitland, and J. B. Smith, 

M.P. 



PB0CBEDIN08 OF THE SOCIETY. 




TOTTBTESNTH ORBIirABT MSETIH6. 

Wednesday, March 12th, 1873, Thomas Brassey, 
Esq., M.P., Vice-President of the Society, in the 
chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
oltH'tion as Members of the Society : — 

ColomK Cnptnin \\ H., I^.N., Hurrow, N.W. 

ll«)f\ >Vi)Hiiii] IVanoi*, 30i, Goldhawk-road, Hammer- 
smith. W. 

KiokKU. Arthur. 12, Korbea-road, Penge, S.E. 

Hinith, M«tth«»w (Mi^aars. Frederick Smith and Co.) 
HallAuK, ^ orkahir^. 



Wallace Sir Richard, Bart, M.P.. 106, Piccadill:^. "^ 
Whitehead, Charles, F.R.G.S., F.S.A., Barmin^ Hoori 

Maidstone. I 

I 

The following Candidates were balloted for an 
duly elected Members of the Society : — 

Barbour, William Boyle (Messrs. Barbour, Barclay, m 
Co.), Manchester. | 

Baynes, Alfred Henry, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., Faixiisb 
Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex. , 

Brown, Alexander Marshall (Messrs. James Finlay ad 
Co,), Glasgow 

Cowan, John George, 4, Cullum-street, E.C. 

Dehesghues, Leon, 51, Hatton-garden^ E.C. 

Gamham, J. B., 34, Stoke Newington-green, N. 

Porges, Jules, 17, Conduit-street, W. 

Rodger, John Pickersgill, 49, Harley-street, W. 

The Paper read was — 

ON SIGNALLING AT SEA, WITH ESPECIAJ 
REFERENCE TO SIGNALS OF DISTRISS, j 

By Captain Colsmb, E.V. 

Sinoe I first applied myself to extending am 
improving our methods of signalling at sea, no'i 
fifteen years ago, I do not remember that pobli 
attention was ever so much directed to the mattt^ 
as it is at this moment. 

This is not to be wondered at. The subjed 
takes a narrow range, and is one of the mos^ 
technical which exists. It needed something 
a great disaster, which could in some nieasure 
traced to defective signalling arrangements, to ' 
general attention to them. 

If the eyes of those in the steamer which rajd 
the Northfleet down were not dazzled by the power^ 
ful rays of the electric light at Dungenes«, tht 
we may say that no material agency could hai 
averted the collision. But there is a very genen 
feeling that more lives might have been 8ave<l if 
the liorthfleet had possessed the power of tolling 
observers what had happened to her. 

The last sentence is important. The fact i«| 
generally admitted, but we are not agreed as to 
inferences proper to be drawn from it. 

I believe that when one wants to make a point 
which shall create a momentary but strong: im- 
pression upon the minds of listeners or readers, thf 
best policy is to employ a little exaggeratioo. | 
When, however, we do not care for the momeatarr 
impression, but desire to awake a thought which 
shall take a permanent shape, I think all exaggtra- 
tion should be rigidly excluded. Holding such 
views, I am justified in expressing my belief that 
no material agency, such as a system of signals, 
would, imder the present condition ol mercantilf 
marine, have averted a considerable loss of life in 
the SorthJUet. The time of night, the ciivum- 
stances of the case, the customs of our marine re- 
specting the use of boats, and even the way in 
which our ships are manned, with what may be 
called ** scratch crews," would all have militatiHi 
against full assistance being rendered in time, had 
the system of signab b^i^ never so perfect. 

On the other hand, I cannot permit myself to 
doubt that the general public ar^ right in sup- 
posing that some hves, at least, fell a sacrifice to 
aefective signals. 

While, however, everyone agrees that what tb^ 
Korth/ieet really wanted was power to say, " Wo 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



299 



«n making; send your boats/' I observe that 
Mnir all are agreed that it woold have answered 
■qiMliy well had she been able to say, '* There is 
■ooechin^ wrong with ns ; " or, at the farthest, 
"Tk*re is something very wrong with ns." 
Hie general and professional public are, I think. 



yd Awmy by the sound of words, and have forgotten c^ed him told him he did not know ** whether 



dMi A *' signal of distress'* cannot mean more 
dian is eonreyed by the foregoing phrases. 

The first branch of my argument will be to show 
tWt the y&rth/ieefa signals were essentially signals 
4f dbtreas, and were so understood. If this is 
pfOT^i, it will follow that had there been a more 
{wcse signal, meaning ** distress " only, the results 
wcM not have been very different. 

It is perhapM singular that there should be such 
tgmersJ i m p re ssion abroad that the NorthfleeVs 
vjnals were misanterpreted ; for I cannot discover 
m the sworn te«timony any distinct grounds for 
«ch a sumKMition ; and the direct testimony of 
iQ but I think one witness goes as far as denial 
liat they were misunderstood. 

In dnwing attention to what observers say on 
tfai matter, I must point out that where a man 
!■• umt t w d to do something, and afterwards has 
flMon to regret the omission, he would not be 
I^Bsn a he did not relieve his mind by throwing 
fts Uame of his inaction elsewhere. 

The first witness that I shall call is the master 
$i the steam-tug City of London, He says : — 
•*! WIS <Mi deck, and saw seven rockets thrown 
m I Gounted seven within a minute, and blue 
Ints were continually burning. Directly I saw 
■is teren rodrets I thought it must be a collision, 
Ml hove my anchor up directly, proceeding in the 
Awtion where they were firing.* 

This witness was cross-examined with the 
iHai L u I intention of getting him to admit that 
ilif toght have mistaken the signals to be merely 
iir ft pilot; but he had already shown by hiis 
Itttiaas that he thought differently, and would not 
|HNr eontradiot them by his words. 

The next witness is a pilot on board the cutter 
f^witM. He saw some rockets, answered them by 
ft **iaire-up," and at first, supposing a pilot was 
*aated« stood towards the rockets. ** As we were 
■siftg wvist/* he says, ** we saw six rockets at one 
■Be, with another flight of six, and blue lights. 
X mnarkM at the time that there must be a 



know what they meant." He further says that 
the captain of the Corona, the ship which was 
nearest to the Northfleety told him his watch had 
not only seen the rockets, but had heard the 
screams, yet did not know what to make of it. 
He also states that the coast-guardsman who 



»» 



next witness is the master of the lugger 

He says, **I was called up, and found a 

to leeward of us, throwing up rockets. She 

distant from us about a mile. We at first 

likod^t it was a signal for a pilot, but when we 

«w the ship throwing up rockets so fast we 

lkc«ght there must have been a collision. . . . 

We ftt once hove up our anchor, and stood 

femodsher.'* 

^M next witness is the chief boatman of the 

station. He saw nothing, but he was 

because a ship had been making unusual 

whidi could only denote something im- 

wroBg with her. Inasmuch as he got out 

i' Ui bed to see, he bears silent testimony that he 

^Mf^ the NnrthJUei distress was greater than 

vt Villi of a pilot. 

Hii witness repeats some hearsay evidence. 
fc Wg% the crew of the lugger Pilgrim told him 
that their watch **had seen the 



Une lights in the might, but did not up his superior officer. 



it was a vessel wanting a pilot, or whether there 
had been a collision." 

Such was the evidence given at the inquest, the 
earliest, and therefore perhaps the truest, testi- 
mony relative to the question with which we are 
dealing. There is a modification of it by one 
witness which must be quoted, althouffh this also 
is hearsay evidence. The pilot on board the cutter 
Princess relates a conversation between himself 
and the master of the cutter. Just before the 
collision the two noticed a steamer passing, and 
the master observed that she was ** a Bremen 
boat." The Bremen vessels are, it appears, in the 
habit of throwing up rockets on passing each 
other. When the NorthfleeVs rockets were 
observed, the pilot said, " Surely that must be 
a collision," but the master said, ** No, no; I have 
had similar chases after Bremen boats, and no 
doubt they are up to the same thing again." The 
point I wish you to note is that, notwithstanding 
this very natural doubt in these men's minds, it 
did not stay there. The pilot continues, **In this 
case we were put off our g^rd for a matter of five 
minutes, but then, when we saw the rockets going 
up one after another, we thought there must be 
something wrong." 

It appears on the whole that there was not a 
single witness called before the coroner who saw 
the NorthJUtts signals and who did not know that 
something was wrong ; or, in other words, that 
the ship using such signals was **in distress." 
Immediately after the news of this terrible disaster 
was published, there sprang up the idea that the 
loss of life was directly traceable — not to the want 
of signals in general, but to the want of a signal 
which shotdd mean ** distress " and nothing else. 
This idea grew, and is growing still. 

Accordingly, althou^ the evidence on the in- 
quest did not prove it, enough was said to set 
those who do not habitually criticise such ques- 
tion thinking that a single signal of distress was 
the remedy to be sought for. 

We can trace the growth of the idea in the 
minds of witnesses on the later inquiry before the 
Board of Trade officials; for we hear more there as 
to the necessity for a special distress signal than 
we had heard at the inquest; but it is not necessary 
to go closely into the evidence given, because, 
although a greater stress is laid on the possi- 
bility uiat a distress signal might have mitigated 
the calamity, I do not gather that any witness 
denies knowing that the signaJs made were essen- 
tially distress signals. The master of the cutter 
Princess, indeed, states that he thought a pilot was 
wanted when his attention was first attracted. 
We know from other witnesses that he did not 
continue in his belief. 

As to the coastguard, we now have the state- 
ment of the commissioned boatman who called the 
chief boatman (whose evidence I spoke of before), 
and he, as might be surmised, states that ** the 
rockets continuing, he concluded it was a ship in 
distress," and walked a mile and a quarter to call 



800 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mauch U, 1873. 



=3=: 



Then we have new evidence from the mate of 
the Princess^ who states, just as the others did, 
that he recognised the Northfleet signals to be 
signals of distress. 

On such evidence, and in spite of the prevalent 
belief, I must consider one point proved —namely, 
the Northfleet' 8 signals were generally understood 
to be signals of distress. 

I have next to show that rockets and blue-Hghts 
in any number are almost universally accepted as 
signals of great distress, although both are some- 
times used in small numbers to express smaller 
distress. We need not go far in search of evidence. 
My professional brethren know very well that, 
though in the Royal Navy we use our rockets and 
blue lights simply to attract attention, and that 
they never have been, and are not now, 
especially distress signals, yet if any ships in 
our vicinity were, in the dead of ni^ht, to begin 
firing off rockets and blue-lights indiscriminately, 
we should immediately conclude that the ship using 
them was in distress, and we shotdd at once take 
measures to ascertain the nature of the assistance 
required. 

For those who are not content to take up the pass- 
ing, and, itmaybe, superficial viewsofthesequestions 
without examination, a good deal of matter may 
be extracted from the columns of the Shipping and 
Mercantile Gazette. I shall here only mention one 
or two pieces of evidence which are quite recent. 

A Captain Lash writes, on the 5th of February 
last, to say that as his ship was proceeding up the 
Gull-stream (near the Downs) he brought to mind 
that there were some rockets on board which could 
not be lawfully earned into the dock whither he 
was bound, he therefore directed his chief officer 
to dispose of them, and the latter fired them off 
as they proceeded through the Gull -stream on the 
night in question. Two Deal luggers immediately 
foiuid their way alongside, to answer what was 
positively asserted by them to be ** a signal of dis- 
tress.'* 

In the same column where Captain Lash's letter 
appears, there is another equally important. 
Captain Drur}', master of the Chloe steamer, 
writes on the Gth of February to say that, being 
in his ship, five miles from the Tongue light-ship 
at the mouth of the Thames, he saw rockets 
thrown up in quick succession, also blue lights 
burning. It occurred to him that something 
was wrong. He ran his vessel off her course for 
half an hour to the eastward, and when he came 
up with the vessel which had fired the rockets, 
he found her to be a large steamer in want of 
a pilot. He is naturally not pleased that his 
praiseworthy exertions were thrown away; and 
when he proposes that some steps should be taken 
to avoid the same thing in future, we all sympa- 
thise with him. 

I take a third case, which I find deposed to a 
few weeks ago, by the master of the OutalpOy a 
ship of 717 tons. Being on her voyage from 
Adelaide to London, and the weather tlireatening, 
she took a pilot off the Scilly Islands and anchored 
in St. Mary's Roads. In the night of Februaiy 
1st, it began to blow hard, and ultimately, though 
the ship had two anchors down, she began to drag. 
The master then deposes thus : — *• Hove port anchor 
off the ground with the hope of bettering my 
-X)8ition. She suddenly struck heavily. Pilot 

id, * She is lost I' I told him not to give up. She 



again struck, but more lightly. It was now 1 a.m., 
of the 2nd February. Fired rocketa and blue lights 
for assistance, which were answered from vanous 
stations. At 2 a.m., a boat came alongside, which 
I sent for an anchor and chain, hoping therewith 
to heave ship off." 

By a shift of wind this ship was able to make 
her escape from her dangerous x>08ition and to sail 
into safe anchorage. 

Here we have a case where distress signals were* 
intentionally used, where they were answered, and 
where they produced assistance, only — not the sort 
of assistance which was required. 

These cases, taken quite at random, and without 
any search worthy of the name, arc, I think, 
sufficient to complete the evidence one side, and to 
prove, in the absence of rebutting evidence, that the 
signals made by the Nurthjltet would be generally, 
if not universally, understood as signals of distress. 

In order to complete the case, we must produce 
some evidence on the other side. 

I shall take first the instance of the Hantjoon. 
This ship, leaving Point de Galle harbour after dark, 
ran upon a rock, then cleared it, and was found to 
be in a sinking state in deep water. She fired off 
all the rockets and blue lights on board as mgnais 
of distress ; they were seen from the shore, but 
were interpreted as being a friendly illumination 
in honour of some guests who had gone to sea with 
her and were about to return. No assistance left 
the harbour for this ship in consequence of her 
signals, which were, therefore, entirely misinter- 
preted. 

Another case is that of the Josephine TFtliis, in 
the year 1855. This ship left the Thames in com- 
pany with another, named the Progress. The 
captains of both ships were old school-fellows 
and friends, and the two kept company side by 
side until they were off Folkestone ; there, during 
the hours of darkness, they separated in conse- 
quence of a change of wind. Twenty minutes 
later the Josephine Willis was run into by the 
Manger ton steamer, and was left in a sinking condi- 
tion. She threw up the usual rockets, which the 
captain of the Progress saw, and, supposing them 
to mean a friendly farewell, sent up rockets in 
reply, and took no further notice. Meanwhile the 
Josephine Willis was sinking, and she ultimately 
carried down with her about 70 souls. 

We have thus on the one sidr very general and 
satisfactory testimony that rockets and blue lights in 
numbers are generally understood by seamen to 
mean urgent distress, and two very remarkable 
cases where their purport was distinctly misunder- 
stood. 

If my endeavours were to prove that no change ' 
in the signalling arrangements of the moreantale 
marine was called for, there would of course be an 
end of the case here. Once I had shown that- a 
signal of distress as at present arranged ran a risk 
of misinterpretation by mtelligent observers, I bad 
also shown the desirability of removing that risk by 
the establishment of a legal and generally recog- 
nised signal of distress, which shomd mean distress 
and nothing else. 

My argument will convey us a good deal beyond 
this point, and will tend to show that however de- 
siraole the establishment of legal distress signals 
may be, it will only touch the outskirts of the ques- 
tion, and that we ought, in consistency, to make a 
much greater step in advance. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14. 1873 



SOI 



Ob the qoestioii of a distress signal, we have a 
nmf momalcms state of opinion to deal with. On 
IfaioiK ode we have to deal with the complaint — 
^ the siqmosition— »that signals of distress are 
fnmilf tuen as expressing the want of a pilot ; 
tm the other side we hare tl^ complaint of men 
rtii go oat of the way to succour a distress 
which does not extend beyond the want of a 
pOot. Both these complaints cannot possibly be 
an^lT trae. It cannot be that siimals of dis- 
kT. «l> gem>»Uy interpreted as .^tuils for a 
|ih>t ftnd« at the same time, signals for a pilot are 
foenllv accepted as signals of distress. 

ftp fact I take to be this : •♦ Want/* and " Dis- 
tm,'' are synonymous terms. When a ship is 
Beofiiiiiied as being **in distress'' she is also re- 
iB||iu8ed as possessing some want. The common 
waiKy and, therefore, the common distresses vary 
v^ th<* locaUty. In and about the Downs, for 
Httnoe, ships commonly get into distress from run- 
■m^ ajrroand, from parting their cables, dragging 
then- anchors, or fouling ; also from want of steam 
pnm. Ships are not usually in distress for want 
if a pilot there, because it is customary for them 
tepreride themselves with pilots before arriving 
A that point. 

Far down the Channel, and at any distance from 
ImL ships rarely suffer distress from want of a 

SBat they spring leaks, Catch fire, are run 
}rf othtf ships, lose their masts, or break 
Ami m their engine power. Any unusual 
dttm signal, attracting general attention to 
the diips displaying it in these localities, 
VMiId be interpreted according to the usual 
•probable caosee of distress. The sort of assist- 
IMr Qsoally demanded in the locality in question 
•wW be tuuallv forthcoming. If the locality 
VCKOQe where (ustress of any kind was unusual, 

* that ooold be hoped for would be a messenger 
boat or ship to ascertain the nature of the 

and the required assistance. 

On the other hand, we see by the instftnces of 
^Jotepkime Willis and the Rangoon, that if there 
i* eood nAson to assume a cause other than dis- 
^M for the use of alarm signals, and if the 
4*w« itself is very sudden and unexpected, 
i^Hui will not accept as a distress signal that 
*hich they would, under other circumstances, have 
^^y accepted as such. 

On a ca^e of this kind, the remedy seems at first 
%ht a very simple one — ^namely, to establish an 
^•waational signal of distress. Such a remedy 
■ppewt in the second place very easy to administer. 
A*i t for one, must acknowledge to thinking so 
*w a time. But though I cannot yet see a positive 
"^ctbn to the establishment of such a thing, I 

* a little staggered by one or two considerations. 
■*he irst pboe, there is amongst sections of the 
•Hfing interest a very distinct and strong objec- 
^to 'legalising" distress signals, and as the 
•■^^is a ptizzle to me, I shall quote my authority 
»WL The Board of Trade, in the spring of 1871 
^ |a the autumn of 1872, made some proposals 
*y distress signals, apparently as a means of 
•'"tin^ opinion. The following letter is published, 
J^bfing been addressed to the Board of Trade, 
•rthe Lood Marine Board of Newcastle :— 

** Local Marine Board, 

** Bojral Arcade, Newcastle, 
I— ^ " November I8th, 1872. 

-^J-Rflfemng to Board of Trade letter of the 2ad 
***•», forwarding a circular containing the draft of a 




set of rules intended to lead to the adoption of an uniform 
system of signals for ahipsin distress, and for ships wanting 
a pilot. The Local Marine Board desire me, in reply, to 
say that they are entirely oppoaed to the proposal in qaes- 
tion. They have given the matter very careful considera- 
tion, and they desire to repeat all that they stated in their 
letter, dated April 13th, 1871, when this same question 
was under consideration. The Local Marine Board are 
opposed to any suggestion for legalising distress signals 
by embodying them in the Merchant Shipping Code. 

"It is stated in the circular referred to, that all the 
public bodies, including the Admiralty and the Trinity- 
house, with whom the Board of Trade have corresponded 
in this matter, agree as to tho necessity for authorised 
signals of distress. The Local Marine Board are much 
surprised at the statement. They have caused most 
careful inquiry to be made in this locality amongst the 
large shipowners and Underwriters' Associations, who 
have all, without exception, decUred that no legislation 
whatever is required regarding distress and pilot signals. 

** The Local Marine Bo ird have before them a letter, 
stating that the underwriters in this locality represent- 
ing insurances to the amount of four millions sterling, 
do not advocate any change as regards distress signals ; 
and further, that if a distress signal were legalised, it 
would, in their opinion, be the subject for very great 
abuse by interested parties. 

'*The Local Marine Board are unanimous in their 
opposition to the proposal to legalise distress signals. 

"Sailors of all nations know distress sighals whenever 
and wheref er they see the same exhibited, and distress 
signals are easily understood when seen by persons on 
the sea coasts. It is extremely undesirable to hamper 
persons in distress with exhibiting strictly legal signals. 
It is only interested parties on shore that can desire the 
signals to be legalised. — I am, &c., 

** S. W. Storey Whitfield, Sec. 

** To the AssUtant Secretary Board of Trade, London." 

I think the letter wiU be to my hearers, as it was 
to me, a very surprising one. I am not sufficiently 
versed in questioxis of the shipping trade to know 
where the real objection lies, and how legal distress 
signals could bo applied to the disadvantage of 
others by ** interested parties,** but I think we 
shall all admit that it must be a very strong objec- 
tion which could call forth such emphatic langua^. 

Though I am unable to gather the thought which 
lies at the bottom of this protest, I can myself see 
a good many difficulties in the way of any purelv 
legislative action as regards ** signals of distress. 
It seems as though their use must be surrounded 
by penalties, and I have observed several writers 
in the public press look upon compulsory legislation 
and heavy penalties as lilcely to mitigate such evils 
as tho loss of life in the Northfleet. My opinion is 
that usually, when a man has thought enough to 
see the necessity for compulsion and penaltv, it 
only wants a little more thought to sljow him now 
to oiscard both and yet attain his object ; and for 
this reason I generally dislike compulsion. 

It seems, however, to be commonly understood 
that, side by side with a le^ distress signal, must 
be a law making an unjustifiable use of the signal 
penal. It is argued that without such a law the 
masters of ships would speedily grow into the habit 
of using the signal to obtain the supply of trivial 
wants. I thiM the argument is sound within 
limits. I conceive, for instance, that a ship arriving 
off a port at night with a fair wind, and wishing 
only to land maus or passengers and be off to her 
destination, is very likely indeed to use any means 
at hand to get & boat to come off. And if she were 
provided with a very conspicuous ** fire- work " or 
similar appliance which legally meant distress '* 



302 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



is not at all unlikely she would use it were she 
committing a moral offence only. . 

Supposing, however, it were made amisdemeanour 
to use the distress signed for a comparativoly trivial 
purpose, some one must prosecute, if the law were 
not to become a dead letter; and I think our 
shipping legislation shows us too many dead letters 
of a similar character, to lead us to hope for much 
in that direction. 

Damages might be recoverable in a civil suit by 
anyone who had been put to cost, inconvenience, 
or peril, by an improperly-used distress-signal, 
but I am afraid hard-headed Admiralty Court 
lawyers will tell us that such actions would not 
often be brought, and would be even less often 
won. As constantly happens in collision cases, 
the material witnesses would be scattered to the 
four quarters of the globe when the case came on, 
and there would be an end of it. 

But, supposing it were possible to enforce 
penalties, we should be landed in some difficulty, 
for we must prescribe each set of circumstances 
which may be legally included imder ** distress," 
and as there is no real boundary between the 
character of the greatest and the least want, 
we should be likely to draw an artificial one too 
widely, and so fall back on our present trouble ; 
or too narrowly, and so push our signal out of 
g^eral use. If the use of a distress-signal is very 
rare, its meaning will possibly be forgotten at a 
critical juncture. 

Lastly, there comes the dictum of an authority, 
Capt. Forster, of the Emigration Office, who tells 
us that ** A signal for a pilot, with a prospect of 
pay, often brings more assistance than the simple 
white rocket signal, * I want assistance.'" 

I think I have said enough to show that the 
subject is surrounded with difficulties, although it 
is generally assumed to be so simple, that public 
departments are accused of supiueness because 
they have not yet dealt with it completely. If 
there were no personal or moral difficidties in' 
the establishment of a universal distress-signal by 
night, there need certainly be no physical ones. 
Any pyrotechnist will give us dozens of admirable 
distress-signals, using all the colours of the rain- 
bow, and all we shomd require at his hands would 
be their distinctive character, their simple action, 
and their non-liability to spontaneous combustion 
— a liability which most red fires suffer under. 
For distress-signals in fog the maroon has been 
proposed, and hero the pyrotechnist might easily 
be left to provide us. 

In distress signals at night, as in all other signals 
at sea, certain conditions must be fulfilled. If the 
signals are visible, they should be displayed simul- 
taneously, if not to all points of the compass, at 
least over a very large arc of the horizon, as it is 
impossible to say usually from what quarter the 
required assistance may be forthcoming. If the 
signals are not permanent, means must be adopted 
for their continual repetition so as to make uiem 
practically permanent. The distance at which the 
signals can be distinguished by the naked eye, 
should be as great as it is possible to have it — not 
necessarily to be read at that distance, but because 
a thick atmosphere, which it is necessary to pierce, 
80 commonly intervenes between the observer and 
the signal. 

It may be safely asserted that there is not in any 
*rchant ships now afloat a permanent light which 



is visible all round the horizon at a greater distanoe 
than two miles in clear weather. The blue light, 
commonly used afloat, may, however, be seen ten 
miles — I have once seen a blue light fifteen miles. 
It is only this greater power which brings the 
rocket and the blue light into such favour. 

I have seen a form of permanent light* with a 
contrast of colour suggested as a distress signal, 
but to this there are several very distinct objec- 
tions. If two permanent lights be placed six feet 
apart, it cannot be determined at a mile dist-anoe 
by the naked eye, whether one or two lights mc 
displayed. Any colouring shade before a white 
light, diminishes its power of penetration t a red shade 
by about one third, and a green shade by about one 
half. It follows that either the white lights used in 
combination with coloured lights must be reduced 
in power or that the coloured lights must be in- 
creased. If either of these things be not done the 
nature of the combination will be lost to observers, 
who will see the white lights only. 

There is no question which has been more 
thoroughly tried and more absolutely condemned 
than the employment of coloured permanent li^ts 
for signal purposes at sea. The idea has l>een put 
into practice in every form, whether with one 
light and alternating colours, many lights, or few 
lights. The results have in every case proved 
valueless. 

It is different with pyrotechnic colours. In many 
cases these have proved very successful, and where 
the attempt has only been to secure one or two 
clear and distinct signals, pyrotechnic colours have 
held their own in default of a better system. 

The fog signal of distress must, of course, be a 
sound or sounds, and for these we have the gun, 
the meux>on, the stetun-whistle, and the fog-horn. 
If we consider the use of the fog-horn and steam- 
whistle already occupied, we have only the maroon 
and the gun, fired at some fixed interval or 
intervals of time ; of course these intervals may be 
prescribed. 

Now, as there are no physical difficulties in the 
way of providing an efficient distress signal, so 
the moral difficulties will not stand in the way 
when Government has made up its mind. I shall 
therefore suppose, for the sake of argument, that 
we are to have an established night and an ce- 
tablished fog signal, which shall mean ''distresB," 
', nothing more and nothing less. Let us see how 
we shall then stand. 

If there be any truth in the evidence given in 
the case of the Northfleety wo cannot' assume that 
a legal distress signal would have materially 
assisted her. All those who rendered aid to Iht 
state that they did so in consequence of her signals « 
and we have no evidence to show that anyone 
withheld his aid because he did not believe she 
was in distress. 

On the other hand we have abundant t^videnoe 
to show that no one knew or guessed that the ship 
was sinking until they saw her with their eyes. 
Her real want was power to say, *' I am sinking,** 
not to say, " I am in distress." 

Let us take another case, which I have before 
quoted — ^that of the Outalpn, You may reooUeot 
how she made the usual distress signal, bringing 
a boat alongside, which she at once sent back for 
an anchor and cable. This ship's signals suoo-eedcHi 
ais well as any merely distress signals could, but 
' they did not produce the assistance she wanted. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mabch 14, 1878. 



303 



aadibe might have been lost wliild the boat was 
ukiiig its useless jouxiieys from and to the shore. 
Vtnow ooine to the case of the Rafigoon^ whose 
flgBAb failed, and we have to consider whether 
tte woald have been much better oflf had they 
Mfloeeded. She ran npon a rock, tore a rent in 
hm skitL, floated off affain» and sank in deep water. 
B vBfi equally possible that she might have 
lenaiDed on the rock in a comparatively uninjured 
ilftte. The distress would have existed in both 
fiMK esses, but tbe nature of the assistance 
nqpnred vould have been quite different. In the 
ml cs«e she required boats, as many and as 
friekly as possible ; in the supposed case, haw- 
•6D ud anchors. Perhaps a second steam vessel 
wodd have been of more value than all the boats 
ID the harbour. 

A third thing, equally distressing, might have 
|»ppeDed. Her engines might have broken down 
in dose proximity to the rocks. The Rangoon 
■i|fbt hare been compelled to anchor in such a 
pQBtioD thfit, without the immediate assistance of 
A itcanier— which we will suppose to be in the 
W)oup--to tow her out of pem, she might have 
gone fcs pieces in a few hours. 

In all cases such as these time is the all-im- 
poftant element. Had the Bangopn's signals been 
■t oooe understood to be distress signals, the 
•■tiiorities on shore would have only done earlier 
ftst which they did later, namely, send off to see 
*^t Was the matter. Once this was ascertained, 
•fcp particular wants might have been supplied as 
tew the resources of the place went ; but before it 
»• aaeertained, what could be done ? It did not 
waw that because tbe Rangoon made a sigpial of 
dfctew ?he therefore wanted all the boats in the 
jB^our as fast as j>ossible. Nay, when it was 
wwn that she was in distress, it was not known 
ft»t she was sinking. Here, therefore, we have a 
•ip where the simple distress signal would not 
■^produced the aasistance required. 

X«t comes the case of the Josephine Willis^ 
^aA i^ one where probably a single distress 
Jpsl would have answered, because wie Progress 
■■^ at hand possessed perhaps the only means of 
•"<*ncc available, and it may be supposed she 
'wiM hare used them. But I shall revert to the 
y ' M there is a fair inference in favour of my 
™re argument to be drawn from it. 

1 aippcae that the nature of this argument is 
•ow mSdently apparent. I believe that it is not 
■ FJ^>*ug a particular signal which shall mean 
*™i^re«/' and another particular signal which 
*»fl mean ** wanting a pilot," that wo shall 
y^ in averting such losses as those in the 
^""^^p*' in future. I rather believe we should 
*^*?Sle to enable merchant ships to express to 
one another and to the shore their actual wants, 
•d no ittch vague idea as being " in distress.'* 

Ihave no objection to an alarm signal, the more 
J^ct and stajtling the better ; but if we have an 
■■na Bignal to get attention, and when we have 
•* rt are further able to say what we want and 
•j' •* display the alarm signal, I consider we 
■■•i^al progress. But if the signal expressive 
|M«r tarticalar wants is itself an alarm signal, 
'Wiltiimk we have made a further advance. 
_TwJtc or thirteen years ago we in the navy 
**«riy in the same condition as regards 
■of distress as the mercantile marine 
«i itMlf . It was then said by all our 



authorities, and also believed by me, that what 
we wanted were a few distinct, simple signals to 
express the most likely orders of the admiral, the 
most probable wants of any ships. 

I believe nearly the same idea might be ex- 
pressed by many who have thought over the 
Northjket disaster. No naval officer, however, 
who IS personally acquainted with what goes on 
afloat, is likely to say this. 

We cried out for a few simple signals because we 
had no idea that it was practically easier and 
simpler to extend to ships by night, the powers of 
signallinff they already possessed by day, than to 
provide those few signals. So soon as the former 
was done, our cry ceased, and we are at least 
satisfied with what we now have. 

The mercantile marine is as wellprovided as the 
navy for sig n alling by day. Her officers are taught 
the use of signal oooks and flags, and are placed 
in a position enabling them to express all their 
wants by signal, npt only to ships of their own 
nation, but to those of nearly all others, by means 
of the key language foimd in the International 
Code. 

In the early pages of the International Code 
there are set apart rather more than one hundred 
signals considered of urgent importance, and 
classed as " danger and dis&ess " signals. None of 
the proposed "distress signal" arrangements by 
night intend to provide for more than two out of 
these — ^namely, the signals represented by the flags 
N.C., "In distress; want assistance,*' and that 
represented by the flags P.T., "Want a pilot;*' 
and the question naturally arises, why, when tlxe 
means are at hand and known, should not ships be 
enabled to express, by night and in fog, not only 
any of these hundrea and odd wants, but any of 
the many thousand other questions, reports, and 
answers which the Code Book contains? Is it, 
in short, or is it not, possible to use this code at 
night as freely as in the day time ? 

I distinctly believe that it is, for the very simple 
and satisfactory reason that similar codes are now 
in use indifferently by day and by night in English, 
Hussian, Austrian, German, Spanish, and probably 
Italian or French ships at sea. It is true all these 
ships are men-of-war, but I \vill presently show 
that merchant ships may just as easily employ the 



same means. 



The question will now be asked, how is this 
done ? and the answer is, that it is done by the 
means proposed many years ago by such far-sighted 
men as the late Mr. Babbage and Sir Goldsworthy 
Gumey, and which I and others have been able to 
carry out to a practical issue. 

At its first introduction the progress of the 
system of signals, now known as the " flashing 
system,*' was baulked by its very simplicity. As 
it used for night signals only a smgle white 
light, provided with means to make it appear and 
disappear, it seemed abstlrd to suppose it could do 
what numbers of lights of several colours, guns, 
rockets, and blue lights had failed in doing. And 
it was only when it was found that no matter what 
was the state of the weather, and no matter how 
complicated the message, it was always quickly 
and correctly conveyed to any number of surroimd- 
ing ships, that we became aware of the importance 
of the principle we dealt with. Since that date ^' 
growth of the system has been steady and 
tinuous. Unless some method of signalling r 



304: 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maboh 14, 1873. 



now entirely hidden, bo discovered, we may quite 
safely predict a future status for the flashing 
system at night, not below that of coloured flags 
in the day time. 

The system is very easily explained and de- 
scribed. 

Flashing signals are made by the motion of any 
single object. In most instances the object is made 
to appear and disappear ; and in others it is made 
to change its position, so that one position shall 
represent the appearance, and the other the disap- 
pearance of the object. The symbols are de- 
termined by successive appearances and disappear- 
ances at regulated intervals, constantly recurring 
after a fixed pause, in a manner precisely similar 
to those of revolving or flashing lights in light- 
houses. Signals made on these principles can 
therefore be scrutinised as long as may be necessary 
to make quite sure of their purport by comparison 
with the codes, before they are answered, in the 
same way as any scries of flags hoisted together in 
the day-time may be fully examined before they 
are aclmowledged. 

Every signal-— consisting of one or more signs, 
and representing a group of letters, figures, ac, 
accordmg to the code in use — is made to recur once 
in every twenty or thirty seconds; so that an 
observer watching a signal for three minutes, may 
see it legibly repeated from six to nine times. This 
speed is found most suited to general service, and 
usually the observation of three repetitions is 
sufficient to make the signal imderstood without 
thepossibility of mistake. 

The appearances of the ob j ect are termed * * flashes* * 
and are of two lengths, termed respectively 
"short" and "long** flashes, which are used in 
combination to express the signs required. The 
long flash is about a second ana a-half in duration, 
and the short flash about half a second. 

At night these signals are in all cases made by 
the obscuration and exposure of a single light ; in 
the day-time the different apparatuses suited to 
the varying circumstances of service. 

The basis of the flashing system is numeral. 
First, because imlike flags, no repeaters are 
necessary; and secondly, because the signs are 
much more easily remembered, than when lettered, 
and as fewer signs are used, the system is simplified. 

In fogs long and short sounds arc used instead 
of long and short flashes. 

The signs are given in the following : — 



Tou will observe, therefore, that practically tl 
si^ns representing the figures from 6 to are a 
which it is necessary to commit to memory, ts 
as 8 is the reverse of 7, and the reverse of 9, th 
whole system is really learnt while we are Ulkui 
about it. 

The method of applying this system to tl 
International Code is perfectly simple. In it 
diagram given below, a portion of the code 
shown with the required addition ; it is simply 1 
place side by side with the lettered column, nihk 
IS used with flags in the day time, the numben 
column to be used with flashing flgures. Thei 
is nothing novel in the proposal, and notion 
experimental, for it is what we did for cm" davi 
coae book several years ago, and which h 
answered perfectly fever since. 



1 
2 
3 
4 



H 
H 
H 
U 



B 
C 
D 
F 



5 


H J 


6 


H i: 


7 


H L 


8 


H M 



Dangbb or Disthess. 

At*isiance. 

Want immediate aseiBtance. 

Vessel indicated wants immediate tni&timc^ 

No asaiatance can be rendered. 

We are coming to your aseiatance. 

Boats. 

Boat, or life>boat, cannot come. 
Boat in distresa. 

Do not attempt to land in j our own bcati 
Man overboard. 



Table op Flashks foe all Signal Books. 


yumeraU. 


1 - 

2 - - 

3 


6 

7 

8 


4 

6 


d - - 




In the above, the long and short marks represent 
long and short flashes, showing their proportionate 
lengths ; the proportionate interval which elapses 
between parts of a figure is shown by the spaces. 

It is convenient, but by no means necessary, to 
use one or two additional signs, such as a sig» for 
acknowledging a signal called the ''stop** or 
*' finish.** But if it be more convenient to omit 
these auxiliary signs, then we have in the above 
ten symbols everything which is required to use 
international code by night. 



Assimiing that the mercantile marine will folloi 
the navy in the adoption of flashing signals, as i 
has already followed it in the matter of coloura 
flag signals, and thus possessed itself of iht povei 
on any distressing occasion, not of using a va^ 
phrase, but of saying exactly what Vas the matttT 
or what was wanted, it is very easy to see tin 
enormous advantages gained. 

All the legislative (Sfficulties vanish to bcgi^ 
with, for however a public body may object H 
establishing a " legal distress signal,** when thiU 
is only one, no one would object to giring ship 
power to say they were on fire, they were sinking 
they wanted an anchor and cable, they wanted U 
know their latitude and longitude, and so oa 
When the two signals were equally distinct, n*] 
captain of a ship would iske it into his hc«d to 
say he was **in distress and wanted assistance' 
when he really " wanted a pilot.'* 

But chiefly we should gain this great advantage 
— a ship would be free to use any. and eun 
known means of attracting attention, becanse all 
such means would merely emphasise the words ihf 
was uttering by signal. 

Then, while we deal in the most eomplrti^ 
manner with the distress signal question, by omi 
and the same operation we throw open to tbo 
ships of the mercantile marine full powers to com- 
municate by signal at all times, and under aU or- 
ctmistanoes. 

As to distress signals, it is reasonable to Fupposf 
that copies of the early paees of the International 
Code, on an enlargea scale, might be placed on 
boards at all life-boat, look-out, and coastgnaid 
stations for public inspection ; and wo must as- 
sume that in this manner tiie boatmen, fighenoPD, 
pilots, coastguards, and all who might at difli rent 
times be called on to render to ships diiflfercnt Irindi 
of assistance, would become femiliar with the 
numbers denoting these particular wants. They 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14, 1878. 



305 



wdd coon cany in their minds the recollection 
U meant " macbinery disabled/' that 91 
*' I am mnVing," that 01 meant '* I want an 
and cable,'* or the 07 meant ** I want a 
aSot*' Most flh^ now carry the Intemational 
pide, no thtty, in the same way, would gradually 
familiT with ihe meaning of the different 






», of coarse, abimdantly plain that we can- 
ant rcTolationiBC the mercantile marine, and make 
tfccm all expert signallers at a moment's notice. 
B«t I Fee no reason why we should not begin. 
Ant^ art" thousands of men in the navy ana in 
^ army of England, setting aside foreigners, who 
cm buth read and make these flashing signals, and 
thr mauber is growing daily. Why should not 
tb^ ofiiix*r4 of the mercantile marine, who are now 
ciUlud 4in to read and make signals in the day time, 
btf c&il*'d on to undergo the very small additional 
Uboor of learning to read and make them at night 
and in fo^ '" Something like this wotdd soon make 
* bppinninj?, and I have some hopes wc may see it 
dpijM b-'forv long. 

I >h*ill, of course, be asked what sort of ap- 
pirahm I propose for the use of merchant ships 
wi;h tlii^ flaj>biug system, but if I have succeeded 
in ccnveA-iug the nature of the plan to the minds 
«f SiT audiisnce, it will be seen that i4)paratus is a 
toecoMiary condition. Anything which can bo easily 
moved and easily seen ; anything capable of mak- 
mz a lonfT and a short sound will make flashing 
■l^aalfi, and apparatus is only necessary to g^ve us 
ifcrni'ii^l ran^ or increased speed. 

For a day signal apparatus there are few things 
better than a sin^^le flag, the halyards being worked 
A the right and left hands. I have read a flashing 
igaal iiiadc by short and long puffs of steam, when 
1 euoLl hardly see the ship which used them. A 
coQapMn;? and expanding drum is also found most 
attttfac tury. A flag on a staff, such as is used in 
llto anuy by a single man, will sometimes earry a 
mneofr^ Um miles at great speed. 

When wc oome to communicating from the shore 
IB Mpi by the flashing system, wo find that in the 
ihf-tuie a series of shutters, worked like a Venetian 
l&d. prodaces the most astounding results, and 
Qnbkrt m to communieate to seaward at distances 
Or ipee Is impossible with any other plan. 

Guuiiig to fogs, I know of nothing better for 
■OBikd fri^rnals than the ordinary ship fog-horns. 
Tkiy arc largely used in the Royal Navy for this 
fviMk4.\ and any improvement effected in them 
«^ extend the range of fog-signals beyond the 
flde or mile aad a half at which it now stands in 
sifll weather. 

At ni^xt, any light capable of rapid occultation 
■» of coarse, availalde, but as our view to-night is 
Iprtieularly directed to the question of night 
^pals, and especially to signals of distress, I 
litenlly produce to you the identical apparatus I 

To fulfil our wants in the meroantile marine, 
Ai flanhing signal light must be very powerful, 
^tKf aasle, and very cheap. Long ago we 
dnteiea such a liflht by the name of the 
~'" ~ ligiit," aaid this we have here in its 
form* In onter charaeter it is a simple 

rWnfteniy maxAi as every shh) is bound to carry 

fepL b Hen oi the usual oil-lamp, or candle, 
SjHw m ihe interior an ordinary ^irit-lamp, 
■VKms Ii tXk arrangement by which I can, by 




blowing through an india-rubber tube, project 
a certain inflammable and brilliantly luminous 
powder into the flame. When I blow, the light 
appears, and when I cease to blow the light ceases. 
It is, therefore, all one whether I blow into the 
lamp or into a fog-horn — the sig^nals produced are 
identical, except that one is conveyed by light and 
the other by sound. 

Although this light has never been in extensive 
use, certam specimens have been working for some 
years past, so 'that we know a good deal about it. 
We know it is powerful ; the light in the specimen 
before us is equal to 160 candles, and is visible ten 
miles. The common blue light is only equal to 60 
candles. We 'know from its construction that it is 
as simple as a common lamp, and I have found, too, 
that when I have called suddenly on a lamp which 
had been years in use on board ship and elsewhere, 
it has never been found wantine^. We know also 
that we might fill and trim the hght now, and put 
it away for a year, and then if we wanted to make 
a signal it would be just as you have now seen it — 
ready in all respects. We Imow it is cheap — about 
£3 or £4 will provide such a light, and any ordinary 
signal will cost about twopence additional. 

Let me now apply practically the lessons I have 
been endeavouring to draw from the cases of the 
Northfleet, the liatigoonf the Josephine WiUis, and 
the Outalpa. 

The Northfieet might have been expected, had 
matters been arranged as I propose they should, 
to have used her rockets and blue lights just as 
she did use them. She would then have got the 
attention she actually did get. She would, besides, 
have displayed by the more startling and powerful 
Chatham light, with which she was provided, 
cither the figures 91, ** I am sinking," or the figures 
90, ** I want boats immediately." Some one of 
the officers would have seized upon the fog-horn, 
and would have mounded these figures towards the 
nearest ship, the Corona, Those on watch in this 
ship would probably have been in ignorance of more 
than that a ship near them was saying something 
by means of a light and a fog-horn. As they could 
not assume what was said, they would probably 
have called the pilot ; he would have been a man 
familiar at least with the figures 07, by sound or 
by light, and would have seen that whatever was 
said, it was not ** I want a pilot.". Inquiry would 
have been roused, the oflicers would have been 
called, and boats would have been sent. 

The case of the Rangoon needs no comment ; she 
would have got into communication as. to her 
actual wants with the signal station on shore, and 
those needs would have been supplied as rapidly as 
circumstances allowed. 

That of the Josephine Willis is more worth looking 
into. Nothing is far-f etched in supposing that the 
two friends, one in the Progress and the other in the 
Josephine WilUsy shoidd have amused themselves 
by carrying on those private conversations by 
flashing eignals, with which our naval officers are 
so famuiar. As they parted company, something 
like a farewell by signal would have passed between 
them. If, following on this, the captain of the 
Progress had seen the rockets, accompanied by the 
figures 91, is it to be supposed he would not have 
made the best of his way to his friend's relief ? 

Lastly, we have the case of the OiUalpa. Her 
signal 01, meaning, " I want an anchor and 
cable," we know would have been answered fro*^ 



■(TRNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



ilio Local GoTeramcnt Board, 
nave eridenoe, which will »p- 
■t Journal. 



ri.lenoe was given at former 
P. Beymolbs, manager of (he 
■■■itk tnmmmco Company: — 

' I Lhkt you haTe,u a DWDtger of fire 
' 1 1 J led tbs rUkaof flra to be provided 
xruveDtion, as veil aito be iniiiTed? 
.' arB,bolh in England and abroad. 
I' moana for cotnpuiDg a conataol 
^ppl]' of wnter in pntting out 

bee, and specially at Montreal, 
lapplj of water, and there and 
id opportunitiea of comparing 
London, where the aupply ia 



m? 

"rue one of a deputation of 

Hke a tepnaentatioD to the 

■ — thej being charged bj 

<ity of prototting life and 

Gre — aa to the dangers 

tu the meant of meeting 



iuring a hairicane. 

> the water worka 

>o beiog divided 

. eaab of (och 

■i a Chicaso. 

''ioagD, of the 




whole power of the London water sopply might, in a 
given emergency, be brought to bear upon a given 
point. We ascertained that thia tnggeition waa 
mechanically feaiible, and irai not likely to be opposed 
by the water companies, the public being at the eipenie. 
Q. — Why waa not the anggeation carried Ont f 
A.—Tbo Board of Work! saw a difficulty in making a 
requiBition of the nature augseated. 

Q. — We bava dealt with the contingency of the poa- 
aible failure of even a conatant aupply in separate aectiona. 
Have jou any information to give us aa to the inter- 
mitlent supply, or of ordinary conditions of supply, that 
affect the occmrence and spread of fires t 

A. — Yef. Fires frequently occur in streets through 
which a main runs that is not conatantly charged with 
water. Moat side-streets &om main avenues are so aitu- 
ated, and the turncock haa to be sought in order to torn 
the supply in to the side -street. Th is de^y frequently occurs 
before water can be obtained. Under a conatant aupply, 
blanches as well aa mains would be supplied with water- 
In December of 1871 a fire occurred at Caroberwell, and, 
the turncock bein^ an hoar late in attending the fire, 
the honae was destroyed. It is an evil defect of the 
present system, that the turncock must attend to give 
the companies' supply. There were, during 1872, flfly- 
eight cases where eiuier the water aupply was short, the 
turncocks fiiiled to attend, OT were late in attending, 
notwithstanding that rewatdt are given by the water 
compnniesand by the Fire Brigade in order to insure 
attendance. 

•?.— Would not the telegraph serve lo quicken the 
relief to be given in the occurrence of fires f 

A. — Yes; and there ia already communication between 
the fire-engine alationa. Much additional aid would be 
derived by communications between the police- stations 
and the brigade stations, particularly in the outlying dis- 
tricts. A auggeation to this effect was made by the Fire 
Offices lo the MetropoUtan Board of Works, hot it has not 
been carried out. 

Q. — Is the present supply of water found to be suf- 
ficient in all cases F 

A. — It ia of the very nature of a system of trading 
water aupply that it cannot be so, inasmuch as the 
supply will be only given where it il paid for. There 
are large masses of warehouses on the Surrey water- 
side, which may on the whole be snid to be unsupplied 
o any effective extent for fire- extinction 
tie warehouse keepeia only require water 
^lennaing porposea— handa or face washing 
tea are correspondingly made. Thua, while 
insee contain vast amounts of valuable 
, they are on the land side almost without 
'X; and when the tide ia low in the river, they are 
>iloh exposed to danger. An instance occarred 
King and Queen granary, at Kotherfaithe, the 
London, was destroyed, December, IBTl. 
-■■■s situate near the extreme end of the 
'district, and where that companv 
i^xtrorne point of the Southwarlc 
district. The pipes of each 
' bore, the pranure wm 

' Hnd fifty thousand 
supply such as 

^'' liiiting-engina 

^-^^ ^^ . ^ur UoBts attended, 

' " ~ ^u masses of waterside ware- 

..Dt amounts of properly, being almost 
' water. Can you state more specifically 
i;s are situate, snd to what you refer 
-aat amounts of property F 
nt on the Burrey aide of the river 
en Bouthwark and London bridgn, 
imto Botherhithe, there is an almost 
larvea having either one or leveial 



306 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



the 8hore» because the not more distinot signals 
she used actually were so. The difference would 
have been, that, instead of a boat coming off to 
know what she wanted, a boat would have come off 
toith what she wanted, namely, an anchor and cable. 
Such, then, are my views on the question of 
distress and other signals at sea. My object in 
reading this paper has not been to force them on 
the marine public, but I hope and beHeye that 
there is enough soimdness and truth about them 
to justify at least some sort of inquiry as to 
whether we may not find in these views something 
which may assist in saving life at sea. 



DISCUSSION. 

Bit James Anderson said it was many years since he 
first became acquainted with Captain Colomb's system of 
signalhng, the merits of which he both understood and 
appreciated, but at the same time there were practical 
difficulties in the way of carrying it into operation. In 
the Royal Navy, in the army, or in large and well- 
organised services, there would be no difficulty in 
adopting a system of this kind, and he had known whole 
columns of the Times signalled from one ship in the navy 
to another simply by flashing the hand across a common 
lantern, and the men learned to speak with each other 
in this way very well, not only at different ends of the 
same ship, but irom one vessel to another, at the distance 
of half a-mile or a mile. The difficulty, however, was 
not the expense of the lamps, which was no object to any 
but the most wretchedly-found ships, but the fact that, 
at the end of each voyage, the crew were paid off, and 
very often the captain and officers also, so that all were 
new at the beginning of another voyage. Many cases of 
collision, he feared, arose in this way. A great deal was 
said about the rule of the road at sea, and so long as the 
pilot was on board it was all right, but when the newly- 
manned ship got outside the pilot ground, hebelieved many 
of the unfortunate collisions which took place were caused 
by the officers and crew being unknown to each other, 
and in some cases, perhaps, from there being a little too 
much grog aboard. If you sent a man to the helm, and 

gave him an order to port or starboard the helm, and 
e had not been accustomed to these directions, but 
probably te other terms more frequently used, ten to 
one but he would make a mistake, and do the 
wrong thing first. As a rule, men who had made 
long voyages to distant parts of the world were accus- 
tomed to two or three expressions, such as '*keep her 
up," "keep her off," "luff a little more," "steady," 
and so on, and when they got into narrower waters, port 
and starboard was quite Greek to them. He had often, 
when in command of the Great Eaatemf been alarmed at 
the near approach of a large sailing vessel, and had only 
felt secure by going to windward or astern of her. The 
same thing occurred with regard to signals ; unless the 
men were accustomed to them they would be perfectly 
useless. Even with the signal flags, imless you were 
accustomed to the use of them, when they were very 
lasily distinguished and picked out from a row on dec^ 
AS wanted, to persons not constantly using them or drilled 
to the use of them, there was a great deal of difficulty 
and delay in working them. The difficulty lay not in 
the system, but in getting that acquaintance with it in 
the general run of the mercantile marine which existed 
in the Hoyal Navy. Hisownimpression wasthattheiVorM- 
JUet was lost fiem the causes above aUuded to. No 
doubt both undermanning and overloading were great 
causes of disaster, but it would be easily understood that 
in a ship with a new crew, having just parted with 
the pilot, stowed her anchors, and got ready for 
sea, when the men were clearing away the many 
"tatters which encumber the deck, the look-out duty 
^ not very efficiently performeo. In the majority 



of cases there were not men enough to do justice 
to the look-out, and it was more than likely that 
some of the men had had a little too much 
grog, and, perhaps, some of the officers also. Thii 
would cause a httle drowsiness, and then there was 
the desire for a smoke, and many other little matten, 
which would teke the man off the forecastle, or the officer 
off the bridge for the moment. He could easily under- 
stand the NorthJUtl being so run into, because he bid 
known instences to the uke effect himself, though not 
under his own command. No doubt some one 
saw that the Murillo's engines were stopped, and 
backed, and in all probability the effect of the 
blow to the steamer was so small, that her captain, 
rushing out of his cabin, and hearing what had 
happened, had a vague hope that he had not done 
much damage, and thttt he could run away as he did, 
like a cur, without being recognised. No doubt he 
thought he had given the passengers a good fright, and 
that nothing more would oe hearid of it. In Lia early 
days at sea they used to be much afraid of the ships of a 
neighbouring nation, which were generally andemiaitDcd, 
as the V were rather in the habit, if any accident happened, 
to make off and leave the sufferers in the lurch, acting 
upon the adage, " Dead men tell no tales.*' There 
was no doubt that was the reason in the mind ot 
the captein of the steamer — that he had not done (o very 
much damage, and that he might escape. It had been 
asked, why did shipowners object to the compulsory 
introduction of a danger signal ? but the answer vas 
sufficiently obvious. If anyone hoisted a danger- 
signal too hastily or inadvertently, and assistance 
put off, she would be liable for salvage, which the 
owners would not like. For instance, assuming the 
Murillo to be the steamer which caused the destrndion 
of the Northfeety the owner would be liable for the 
whole loss, which seemed rather hard, though he migbt 
be able to get a set-off. It was no wonder, therefore, 
that the last-mentioned class of persons should apeak of 
danger-signals being too hastily used. He added that 
out of a crew of 600 men very few of the men knew the 
code of signals, or cared to learn it It was mokt 
importent, in his opinion, that in every large ve«el 
there should be regular quarter-mtsters, thoronghly 
qualified to steer, who should be compelled to learn 
these signals. 

Mr. Thomas Gray, without going into the history of 
the NorthJUety said the question seemed to be whether 
by some means or other the means of making the inter- 
national code of signals available by night as well as by 
day could not be extended to the merchant service. Is 
these tinies sailors could speak any language by means 
of flags and the signal book in the day-time, arid if he 
understood Capt. Colomb rightly, he wished this to be 
brought into general use for signals at night, rather than 
have any special distress signal, to be known and acted 
on as meaning " I am sinking," or " I am in imminent 
danger." Now in this view he could not concur 
in the gallant gentleman's opinion, \yhat was 
wanted was a signal which should draw inuncdiate 
attention, and inevitably bring immediate help- 
If the flafihing signals were understood by every man on 
every ship, and could be read by every boatman on the 
coast, they would no doubt be answered, but they never 
would be carried by every ship, or be understood by 
everyone on shore, and therefore they must sometimes 
foil. It was all very well to show a beautiful lamp, but 
the use of it required an immense amount of practice, and 
why should sailors be required to practice and to use sumi 
a thing as a signal of distress which they would °®^'^ .^ 
perfect in, and which they mi^ht very easilv muddle 
altogether when in danger by misplacing the long aod 
short flashes. It had been said that rockets were geow<X 
understood as signals of distress, and in proof <» tnif 
reference had been made to ttie three vessels which saw 
and answered the signals of the Northjtttt; but tae 
fact that only three out of the great n»Bl^ 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



307 



in tbe Tkinitj imdentood them to be tnch lignals 
ibovcd thftt they were not anivenally known and acted 
oa ai agaalf of diatreif . If that were so, the ooaat- 
gnodBMn woald not hare aeen and diar^garded the 
namlL When the news of the accident arrived a 
teSegna wu immediately sent to the ipot — *' Did you 
ee thm ii^rxud% and if lo, why did you not go oft?'* 
Tbd asfver waa, ** We did lee them, and thought they 
v«re agnftls for a pilot, so did not go off.** Various 
isrfuecfl were also giren in which rockets had been sent 
Of vithont any idea of indicating danger, but in some 
OM oKRly as a pyrotechnic display. The letter from 
tb Newcastle Local Marine board had been re- 
femd to, ind he did not think it at all unnatural 
czulcr the circumstances, seeing that any general 
oKBpalflory system must include penalties for using 
9^tak of distress improperly and payment for salvage 
vrices. If this code of flashing signals system were 
tBtruioced, masters and mates must be examined in it, 
u>i tins would entail an immense deal of difficulty, and 
^oaliff many excellent men from command. And 
v^t WIS it wanted for P For one purpose only — ^to 
•^ distress. Now, a ship was not al?rays in distress, not 
nta OB eTery voyage — at any rate not vessels belonging 
to nspactable ahipowners — and therefore all this sign^ 
<ppuitM (regarding it as a distress-signal) was to be 
(uvttBtly earned about simply on the chance that it 
■^ be wanted some day. Was it ever known that a 
^^ not in general use, but only used occasionally, was 
^ iu pUce mad fit for use when it was wanted P If it 
vtre laid down that a red rocket should be used as a 
■«i^ of distress, that would throw upon owners Uie 
^(^:sit7 of sending these red rockets, which deteriorated 
^ nptdly, with every vessel. The same thin^ applied 
b tile ualung-luitems. But rockets were not mtended 
k be the main or onl^ signals of distress, as would be 
^ bf the endosore in the communication to which the 
ptvcMtle letter was a reply. It was as follows : — 

SlOHALS. — PII.OTA0B AMD DXSTBBBS. 

K Sifmit to be nuuU by Ships tcantinff a Pilot, 

/i tht JhyMwu. — The following signals, numbered 1 and 
t tbei «a^ M> displayed together or separately, shall be 
^Mid to be signals lor a pilot in the day-time, vis : — 
I '^ T* be hoisted at the fore, the Jack or other national 
mr amUiy won by merchant ships, having round it a 
P^bofdrr.oDe-ftfthof the breadth of the flag; or 
^1 Tbt IntCTttstional Code Pilotage Signal indicated by 

r *• 

^M XiykL-^The following signals, numbered 1 and 2, 
p«a aaed or displayed together or separately, shall be 
^•d to be signals for a pilot at nigh^ viz :— 
1 A bta»>tig|it cverr 15 minutes ; or 
^A bright white nght, flashed or shown at short or 
^vm iatervals, jost above the bulwarks, for about a 
fc^u* at a time. 

2. Signals of IHstresB. 

^* the Ikif^tiw. — The following signals, numbered 1, 2, 
N ^ vhaa osed or displaved together or separately, shall 
k^^tnsd to be signals of distress in the day-tmie : — 

> A pa fired as intervals of about a minute. 

- The International Code signal of distress indicated 

^ lbs distant signal, oonsifting of a square flag having 
'"^ abon or beknr it a ball or anything resembling a ball. 
J}^ Easiga Union down has been advisedly omitted, 
"^"o May fofirign flags are the same whether right side or 
^Igtad tttp; and because it is hoped that the signals now 
"^n*** BMy beoome intemationaL) 

-^^4/.— The following signals, numbered 1, 2, 3, and 
^*b« aied or displayed tog&er or separately, shall be 



to be signals of distress at night : — 
j^ Ant fired at intervals of about a minute. 
i*J"ws on the ship (as from a burning tar barrel, oil 

i Rnkats of any colour or description, fired one at a time 
»*rt^lsrtala. 
^ Btss^j^hts^bonied one at a time at short intervals. 



Every large ship ought to have a gun, and every ship 
has also the means of making flames on deck, and a 
rocket of any colour or description fired one at a time 
would be a very simple si^al. It was a very good thing 
to invent a system by which the international code could 
be used by night as well as by day, and if Capt. Colomb 
had accomplished this, he had done a great deal ; but 
something more was wanted, viz., a signal of distress 
which shall be understood by everybody, independent of 
lanterns, lamps, and any particular invention or code of 
flashes — a signal such as any ship can make, and one 
which could be made by anybody without special 
instruction, and by means usually on board. He was 
glad to say that such a system had already been accepted 
by France, Italy, Austria, and Greece, and the United 
States also would adopt it. In conclusion, ho must tender 
to Capt. Colomb every acknowledgment for the great 
services he has performed for the country in perfecting 
the flashing system. 

Capt. Dawson, B.N., said he was called upon some 
^ears ago to report upon the various systems of signals 
m use in the navy, when he found there were eleven 
different systems of symbolising signals, though only 
two were generally known. As he understood it, Capt. 
Colomb did not mean to place these lights in place ot 
the rocket, or danger signal, but only as an additional 
means of communication. In the royal navy they had 
had more experience of signalling than any other people, 
and for the last ten years they had been able to com* 
municate all their wants with the greatest ease by night 
as well as by day, a flashing lamp being used instead 
of a flag ; and it was not expensive, as an ordinary lamp 
could be used. He quite concurred in the observations 
of Sir James Anderson with regard to the necessity of 
anything of tho sort being in constant use ; and that was 
his objection to Mr. Gray's proposal, that when the 
necessity arose, this very signal, which it was suggested 
should be insisted on by the Board of Trade, would not 
be forthcoming, or, if forthcoming, would be misunder- 
stood. Capt. Colomb*s idea was that attention should bo 
attracted to the vessel by any means, no matter what, 
and then that her precise wants should be made known 
by means of the signals. No one proposed that this 
should be understood by every seaman ; it was a question 
for the officers, and, as far as his knowledge of the 
merchant service went, it would be the duty of the 
second mate to attend to it That officer would have 
only just passed an examination, and it would not 
be a very great extra burden upon him to require 
of him a Knowledge of this system of signalling, 
which would not only be useful m case of emergency 
when the ship was in distress, but constantly through- 
out her career. The only point in which he disagreed 
with Captain Colomb was in the last sentence of 
the paper, for who cared anything about seamen's 
lives, and what consequence was it to anybody how 
many were sacrificed P If a man died suddenly or by 
violence or accident, on land, a coroner's inquest was 
held to investigate the matter, but the same principle 
did not at all hold good for sailors, and therefore he 
considered the proper way to bring forward the sub- 
ject was with reference to its effect on property, be- 
cause that was a matter of real importance. If si^al 
stations were established at suitable spots, the arrival 
of vessels might be telegraphed as soon as thev came 
in sight, and the news would sometimes be of g^reat 
commercial importanoe. Some years ago he lug^ted, 
though he found that the same idea had previously 
occuned to others, that this s^rstem should oe applied 
to lighthouses, each light having a distinct number* 
which it would continually repeat, so as to prevent 
the mistakes which sometunes occurred of one light 
being taken for another. If this were done it would 
have the additional good effect that every officer of 
a ship and every ooastgnardsman would of necessity 
beoome fiimiliar with tk^ system, and thns, in case of 
distreas, there would be no delay in sending anistance. 



308 



JOURNAL OP THE'SOOIETY OP ARTS, Mabch 14, 1873 



Admiral Ommaimey, C.B., F.B.8., thoaght that they 
had lost sight of a very important thing, viz., the minute 
gnn. He quite agreed with Captain Oolomb that in the 
case of the Sorthjket the rapidity with which they 
burnt blue lights and sent up rockets m«8t have been 
evidence, to seufaring men, of signals of distress ; and 
that, if they could have fired their gun, it would hare 
been answered. Ho considered that six-pounder guns 
were not large enough for vessels of her size, as thej" 
could not be heard far enough off, and that they ought 
to carry 24-pounder«. He was in a vessel a few years 
ngOy and one dark night wished to communicate with 
the Admiral, and had it not been for Captain Colomb's 
gignuls he could not have done so ; but he was happy to 
say they answered admirably. 

A Gentleman inquired what kind of lamp was used, 
and whether, supposing a vessel lost her signalliiig 
Hmp, auL ordinary lamp could be used for tJie same 
purpose. 

Captain Ward suid that, having held office for a great 
many years in the National Life-boit Institution, he had 
continually to deal with shipwrecks, and therefore 
looked at tho question as one of preservation of life. He 
thought Captiin Colomb's system was well suited for 
men-of-war ; but simple as it was, it was not simple 
enough for the purpose of indicating danger to those 
on shore, nor did he think the men on shore would be 
aide to keep in their memories even so short a system as 
thid appeared to le. Another great objection to it was 
that in a gale of wind, looking &m the shore, all lightu 
seemed to be flashing, and that appearance would in- 
terfere with tho long and short flashes. What they 
wanted was some signal which would at once show what 
was wanted, ibr very often their boats went eut, at a 
cost of £15 or £20, in answer to signals oi distress, and 
found that the signals were for a pilot, and that their 
assistance was not needed. Referring to what Mr. 
Gray had said, he considered it was very desirable 
that they should have some means for raising 
alarm, and that every signal should bo as simple 
Hs possible, such as a red light to indicate danger 
to life, and a green light danger to property, so 
that if a red light was shown all iha life-boats available 
would go off, and if a green light, other and larger boats. 
Ho then read a letter tiom the man in chai^ of the 
life-boat station near tlie spot where the Northfltet sank, 
in which it was stated that no gun was fired, that 
rockets were sent up, that two cutters answered the 
signals, and that it was supposed they were signalling 
ior a pilot. He remembered one case where the captain 
•of a vessel sent up 30 rockets in the space of half-an- 
hour, simply for a pilot and for the amusement of the 
passengers, and he thought that if their boats answered 
such signals they would have enough to do, thus show- 
iug that some special signal for danger waa necessary. 

Kr. Ckrittopher Cook referred to -several letters that 
had appeared in the Timta, which he thou^t contained 
many valuable suggestions. 

Capt. Goodenough, B.N., said it was supposed that the 
flashing lights might be mistaken for other lights, but 
it was not so, and he had never known such a mistake 
made. Ho considered that all offioera should bo made to 
pass an examination on this subject. 

Obtain Oolomb, in reply, said that in the Navy, with 
one «*xception, where they used the Chatham light, they 
UMtKl a powerful oil-lamp, but thia was more ezpenaive. 
I r tho lamp broke down they used anything they ootild 
K<*t. One captain had written to him telling him that 
I h<iy hud lost their lamp overboard the first night, but they 

\v 5^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ acoounon lamp and a backet 
>>Hh w^gHtd to Hir James AnderaonVi remaiks, he 
thought that if that genUeman looked over his paper 
jMiMlully he would too that he had stated in distinct tenns 
» it ho quiU understood the difficulty of daalin^ with 
Iho ittafoauUlo marina. Hia argum«rtwaa^atltwaa 



quite time to make a beginning, and if ttiex ootdd 
officers to use flags in the day-time, be stLW no r 
why they* could not be taught to nae the intrma^ 
code by night. He thought the more distinct and 
they made distress and alarm signals the better, bv1 
they should supplement it bv something to ahow 
was the matter. He considered the feeling of tht* mr 
would have answered most of Mr. Gray's remarks s 
ftivour, and, therefore, it was unnecessary fur him t 
anything. 

The Chairman said the receot diwisifrar a.bandi 
showed the urgent need for some effective aag&al ol 
tress at sea. La a letter he had receivtsd thai mm 
from Captain Shuttleworth, regretting hia inability 
present, it was stated that there waa a recognised tU] 
signal, viz., a rocket ; a blue light bein^ th« pnipf^r « 
for a pilot. It appeared, however, quite evident tha 
distinction was by no means univei^aadly ucknovui 
and the question arose whether some le^slwUon «ju 
called for on the matter to prevent conf uaiun. A 
was a well-known signal of distress, and, if ke^ is u 
appeared a verv efficient one ; but even with r«#ck« 
guns, or both, it would be a great advantujgy U\ 
the additional means which had been descTii^ 
communicating the exact nature of the distre«t. 11^ 
often heard of the system, but had never befur^' #4 
in operation. It certainly appeared maxvelloiuly vi 
and, at the same time, effectual ; though possibly i^ a 
require some degree of practice before it could Im vij 
successfully. Nothing could be more simpde th«i 
ukodeof signalling with flags provided by the> in«rn*i 
code, but when crossing the Atlantic last autaj;i» 
yacht, and wishing to signal, he found it quite & btu 
to find the right flags and arrange them p:o| 
With regard to the mode of introducing Una %i 
into the merchant service, though it could not 'v 
pec ted that every seaman should loam if, hi* »*) 
difficulty in requiring an acquaintance with it ft 1 
officers; they wore oUiged to acquire Ji knovl'^ 
the system of signallisg by flags, usd Im cuI 
anticipate any difficulty in requiring;' thia very 1 
addition to the qualification. Ho was sorry tu mi 
apparent indifierenoe to this importsat mjUt*^ wi 
part of the Board of Trade, for he certain] v tlw 
a department which had under ita c^arf^ tibe pd 
tion of life at sea, ought to weleooxe all sapra 
of such a nature and offering as mecb procntap a 
one under discussion. No doubt tho SMrd ctH 
like other departments of the public service, wraj* \m'^ 
by inventors, but that was no reason why li 
valuable inventions should be rejected. Sir 
Anderson desired him to say that in his 
duty of signalling should fall upon the q« 
who ought to be regularly appointed to aU 
vessels in Ihe mercantile marine. There wrouM 
difficulty in getting this class of men, or in t 
them the management of aigoals. In ecMicIukto* 
heartilv widied success to the ^ort to introducv 
valuable system; and, with reference to a resnd 
Captain Dawson, he did not think the apparent 
of public sympathy with the sufferings of sailom i 
from anything but a want of information re^vf 
them. 

OOinnTTES ON THB XSAHB OF PSOTBGtIVG 
XSTS0P0LI8 AOADUT C0nXAa&A.tZOX. 

The Committee met on March 6th, IF^'TtJ 
three o'clock. Pioaent : — Mr. U. J. Kay *Sbui 
worth, M.P., in the chair; Mr. £. Chadv 
C.B. ; Lord Alfred Chorohill; Majofr-G^Btutt-^ 
Eardlej-WilmOt, B.A., F.B.B. ; Mr. "Robert C 
linaon, C.B.; Mr. Seymour Tenion; uui Mi 
B. Tufnell. Mr. BawUnaoBt by 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



309 



I 



PMBdnfc <A ihe Local Qovemment Board, 
imiiBed and gave OTidenoe, which will ap- 
jbiniMeqaent Journal, 



m kUoiwmg eridence was given at former 
mp bjMr. W. P. Beykolds, manager of the 
PBD and Southwark Insurance Company : — 

»Wf aninlvmed that you hare, as a manager of fire 

— coaptnteSiStiidied the riakflof fire to be provided 

raeBioret of prevention, aawell aato be insiired f 

M^ktiweair yeaiB, both in England and abroad . 

ftTe joo bad the means for comparing a constant 

iilanitteiit supply of water in putting out 

[kve been in Quebec, and especially at Montrea], 

tttas ii a constant supply of water, and there and 

~ plaeei I have had opportunities of comparing 

ittt with those in London, where Uie supply is 

Itrinteniuttent. 

iTe yoo considered the possibility of .the occur- 
raft conflagration in the metropolis, such as has 
^at Chicago and at Boston P 
*T<i,I have; and I was one of a deputation of 
e aianagers to make a representation to the 
I Board of Works — they being charged by 
hrliaineat with the duty of protecting iSfe and 
'm the metropolis from fire — as to the dangers 
i ve are exposed, and as to the means of meeting 

Win jTon be so good as to state what are the 
■ to which you consider the metropolis is ex- 

•Ihe firt at Chicago occurred during a hurricane. 

ottaiificd by the disablement of the water works. 

bu appeared to me that, London being divided 

' aeparate districts of supply, each of such 

aay m that renpect be deemed a Chicago. 

the Hwibility in London, as at Chicago, of Uie 

oc a fire at the time of a hurricane, added to 

I poisibility, under the existing conditions, 

or disablement of the sectional supply, and 

IhoK eontingenciee there might be a fire, com- 

'^ within the section, which would become a con- 

I of Tast maanitude. 

era all the deputations of the insurance com- 
thatopiniun? 
we w«r84 

the stmctopj arrangements in London, then, 
viofai as to prevent a conflagration sach as that 

London is unquestionably superior to 

•• retpeeta construction ; but tl^e extent of a 

, tioo depends very frequently on the elements— 

miha wind and frost — and if Uiey prevailed to a 

^Mt.aad at the same time the water works 

g ' ^'^w l* while a fire got a head, and raged in 

Tjiy-boilt locality, the advantages of constniction 

•egTMiy neutralised. The buildings at Boston, 

"a sot having the best roofs, were of good stone 

*^ there, notwithstanding that there was a 

J^ iQpply, the fact of a hurricane, added to an 

I nuagiX the horses, which prevented the 

*ag b roa^ht to bear for half-an-hour, tended 

"^gi a l ion m which buildings covering sixty 

kid waste. The (Governor of Massachussetts 

'JTiWrted that the value of the property 

cnseded fifteen millions sterling. 

then, upon these contingencies did you 

^r^JJggSited that the several water com- 
ff*** be requested each to lay a main of com- 
mS *¥? ^** ^^^^ neighbouring company, such 
BJ?j> M opened with the consent of the oom- 
^'•l iDder an emergency ; and that thus the 



-t«. 



whole power of the Iiondon water supply might, in a 
given emergency, be brought to bear upon a given 
point. We ascertained that this suggestion was 
mechanically feasible, and was not likely to be opposed 
by the water companies, the public being at the expense. 

Q. — Why was not the suggestion carried out ? 

^.--;-The Board of Works saw a difficulty in making a 
requisition of the nature suggested. 
^ Q. — We have dealt with the contingency of the pos- 
sible failure of even a constant supply in separate sections. 
Have you any information to give us as to the inter- 
mittent supply, or of ordinary conditions of supply, that 
affect the occurrence and spread of fires P 

A. — Yee. Fires frequently occur in streets through 
which a main runs that is not constantly charged with 
water. Most side-streets from main avenues are so situ- 
ated, and the turncock has to be sought in order to turn 
the supply into the side-street. This delay frequently occurs 
before water can be obtained. Under a constant supply, 
branches as well as mains would be supplied with water. 
In December of 1871 a fire occurred at Camberwell, and, 
the turncock being an hour late in attending the fire, 
the house was destroyed. It is an evil defect of the 
present system, that the turncock must attend to give 
the companies* supply. There were, during 1872, fifty- 
eight cases where either the water supply was short, the 
turncocks failed to attend, or were late in attending, 
notwithstanding that rewards are given by the water 
companies and by the Fire Brigade in order to insure 
attendance. 

Q. — Would not the telegraph serve to quicken the 
relief to be given in tho occurrence of fires ? 

A. — Yes ; and there is already communication between 
the fire-engine stations. Much additional aid would be 
derived by communications between the police-stations 
and the brigade stations, particularly in the outlying dis- 
tricts. A suggestion to this effect was made by the Fire 
Offices to the Metropolitan Board of Works, but it has not 
been carried out. 

Q. — Is the present supply of water found to be suf- 
ficient in all cases ? 

A, — It is of the very nature of a system of trading 
water supply that it cannot be so, inasmuch as the 
supply will be only given where it is paid for. There 
are large masses of warehouses on the Surrey water- 
side, which may on the whole be snid to be unsupplied 
with water to any effective extent for fire- extinction 
purposes. The warehouse keepers only require water 
for ordinary cleansing purposes — hands or fiice washing 
~and the pipes are correspondingly made. Thus, while 
these warehouses contain vast amounts of valuable 
merchandise, they are on the land side almost without 
water ; and when the tide is low in the river, they are 
very much exposed to danger. An instance occurred 
when the King and Queen granary, at Kotherfaithe, the 
largest in London, was destroyed, December, 1871. 
This building was situate near the extreme end of the 
Kent Company's district, and where that company 
approached an equally extreme point of the Southwark 
and Yauxhall Company's district. The pipes of each 
company being of a small bore, the pressure was 
thread-like, and the supply there given for an enormous 
building, containing one hundred and fifty thousand 
pounds worth of goods, was only a supply such as 
should be given to a £30 a-year house. The tide was 
out in the Thames, the nearest steam floating-engine 
was disabled, and by the time the larger floats attended, 
the flre was beyond control. 

Q. — You speak of large masses of waterside ware- 
house?, containing vast amounts of property, being almost 
without a supply of water. Can you state more speciflcally 
where those buildings are situate, and to what you refer 
when you allude to vast amounts of property P 

A, — ^Taking a point on the Surrey side of the river 
bank, midway between Southwark and London bridges, 
and eastwards therefrom to Rotherhithe, there is an almost 
unbroken line of wharves haviQg either one or sever*' 



308 



JOURNAL OP THE •SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maboh 14, 187S. 



Admiral Omnuuiney, C.B., F.B.8., thought that they 
had loflt eight of a very important thing, viz., the minate 
gtin. He quite agreed with Captain Oolomh that in the 
case of the Northjleet the rapidity with which they 
humt blae lights and sent up rockets m«8t have been 
evidence, to Beafaring men, of signala of distreas ; and 
that, if they could have fired their gun, it would have 
been answered. Ho considered that aix-pounder guns 
were not largo enough for vessels of her size, as they 
could not be heard far enough off, and that they ought 
to carry 24-pounder8. He was in a vessel a few years 
ngo, and one dark night wished to communicate with 
the Admiml, and bad it not been for Captain Colomb's 
EigUMls he could not have done so ; but he was happy to 
say they answered admirably. 

A Gentleman inquired what kind of lamp was used, 
and whether, supposing a vessel lost her signalling 
lamp, an ordinary lamp could be used for the same 
purpose. 

Captain Ward said that, having held office for a great 
maoy years in the National Life-boat Institution, he had 
continually to deal with shipwrecks, and therefore 
looked at thu question as one of preservation of life. He 
thought Capttin ColomVs system was well suited for 
men-of-war ; but fdoiple as it was, it was not simple 
enough for the purpose of indicating danger to those 
on shore, nor did be think the men on shore would be 
able to keep in their memories even so short a system as 
thid app€NEured to le. Another great objection to it was 
that in a gale of wind, looking firom the shore, all lights 
aeemed to be flashing, and that appearance would in- 
U^rfero with the long and short flashes. What they 
wutited wufi some signal which would at once show what 
Avas wanted, fbr very often their boats went eut, at a 
cost of £15 or £20, in answer to signals ot distress, and 
found that the signals were for a pilot, and that their 
assistance was not needed. Beferring to what Mr. 
Gray bad said, he considered it was very desirable 
that . they should have some means for raising 
alarm, and that every signal should bo as simple 
as poshible, such as a red light to indicate danger 
to life, and a green light danger to property, so 
that if a red light was shown all the life*boats available 
woul'i go off, and if a green light, other and larger boats. 
Ho th(n read a letter from the man in charge of the 
life-boat station near the spot whwe the Northj^t sank, 
in which it was stated that no gun was fired, that 
rockets were sent up, that two cutters answered the 
signals, and that it was supposed they were signalling 
iur a pilot. He remembered one case where the captain 
of a V4>8sel sent up 30 rockets in the space of half>an- 
hour, simply for a pilot and for the amusement of the 
passengers, and he thought that if their boats answered 
such signals they would have enough to do, thus show* 
iDg that some special signal for danger was necessary. 

Kr. Christopher Cook referred to several letters that 
had appeared in the Timea^ which he thought contained 
many valuable suggestions. 

Capt. Goodenough, B.K., said it was supposed that the 
flashing lights might be mistaken for other lights, but 
it was not so, and he had never known such a mistake 
made. He considered that all officers should be made to 
pass an examination on this subject. 

Captain Oolomb, in reply, said that in the Navy, with 
one exception, where they used the Chatham light, they 
used a powerful oil-lamp, but this was more expensive. 
If the lamp broke down they used anything they could 
get. One captain had written to him telling him that 
they had lost their lamp overboard the first night, but they 
had got on very well with a common lamp and a backet. 
With regard to Sir James Anderson's remaika, he 
thought that if that gentleman looked over his paper 
carefully he would see that he had stated in di^inct tenns 
that he quite undentood the difficulty of dealinr with 
the mescantile mazine* His argnment was that xt ivat 



quite time to make a beginning, and if ^b/cy oonld 
officers to use flags in the day-time, ke aa^w no i 
why they* could not be taught to nse the interaa. 
code by night. He thought the more distinct stkI 
they made distress and alarm signals the better, \M 
they should supplement it by something to showi 
was the matter. He considered the feeHs^ of tht? m« 
would have answered most of Mr. Om j^'s reouarkfi 
Ihvour, and, therefore, it was unnecessaxy for him \ 
anything. 

The Chairman said the recent disaster ahami 
showed the urgent need for some effective "g^*T « 
tress at sea. In a letter he had received th&t ma 
from Captain Shuttleworth, regretting hia iziahility 
present^ it was stated that there was a reix>^ci.ia«al di 
signal, viz., a rocket ; a blue light bein^ the proprr « 
for a pilot. It appeared, however, quite eTtdent tL^ 
distinction was by no means universally uckiko» 1« 
and the question arose whether some le|paL«tioo vi 
called fur on the matter to prevent conf aaian. A 
wds a well-known signal of distress, and, if kepi ic < 
appeared a very efficient one ; but even with ruclb 
guns, or both, it would be a great udvauta^^ to 
the additional means which had baeo d^^rlrq 
communicating the exact nature of the distress li 
often heard of the system, but had never belwrc m 
in operation. It certainly appeared marveUottBly ti: 
and, at the same time, effectual ; thongh possibly it ■ 
require some degree of practice before it could be w^ 
successfully. Nothing could be more aioaple th«i 
mode of signalling with flags provided b j the mtm 
code, but when crossing the Atlantic last aaliULiii 
yatiht, and wishing to signal, he found it quita a b^ 
to find the right flags and arrange them prcj 
With regard to the mods of introducing this m\ 
into the merchant service, though it could im4. h 
pected that every seaman should learn it, hi* «a 
difficulty in requiring an acquaintance with it fr^' 
officers ; they were obliged to acquire a knowl d 
the system of signalliiig by flags, aad 1m» o«i] 
anticipate any difficulty in requiring^ thi^ very i 
addition to the qualification. He waa aorry to 
apparent indifference to this iraportast wi^tt^'j- 
part of the Board of Trade, for he oertainljr 
a department which had nnder its ^largv tk^ 
tion of life Bi sea, ought to welcome all a«icn 
of such a nature and offering as much procB»v ■ 
one under discussion. No doubt tho Board cf T 
like other departments of the public service, ^w.u IW-v 
by inventors, but that was no reason why x 
valuable inventions should be rejected. Sir J 
Anderson desired him to say that in hia ofMAM 
duty of signalling should fall upon the quartern 
who ought to be regularly appointed to all 
vessels in the mercantile marine. There wxmlJ 1 
difficulty in getting this class of men, or in tern. 
them the management of m'gpals. In coaicltHMa 
heartilv wi^ed success to the effort to intvodure 
valuable system; and, with reference to a r^nuo 
Captain Dawson, he did not think the apparexLt 
of public sympathy with the sufferings of nafliw^ t 
fjxmi anything but a want of infonnation. re^^ai 
them. 

OOinnTTES ON TSB XSAHB OF VWOfmCTOtQ \ 
KETB0P0LI8 AOADUT C0VlXA6&A.XX<Ur. \ 

The Committee met on March 6th, 18T:: 
three o'clock. Pcesflnt : — ^Mr. U. J. Kay^Shja 
worth, M.P., in the chair; Mr. £. dkad^ 
C.B. ; Lord Alfred Chorchill ; Major-G^eiMsra 
Eardley-Wilmot, B.A., F.B.6. ; Mr. Boberfc £ 
linaoQ, C.B. ; Mr. Qerjmavsx TeolaAi 
B. Tufnell. Mr. Bawiinaan, I9- 





■ -' 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



309 



iPtMidoil of the Local GoYemment Board, 
t giMiwawl tiid gave evideiioe, which will ap- 
rk • mbseqiient Journal. 



Mowing eridence was given at former 
feigB by Mr. W. P. Reynolds, manager of the 
post tad Sonthwark Liisurance Company : — 

-Wemiaibniiedthat you have, as a manager of fire 
■ae coa p iniM, rt a d ied the riaks of fire to be provided 
Ik Biuaxcs of prevention, as well as to be insured f 
*u»,ketwtDltr years, both in England and abroad . 
**aTe you bad uie means for comparing a constant 
iatecatUeot supply of water in putting out 

Wrnn been in Quebec, and especially at Montreal, 

kttsv it a constant supply of water, and there and 

~ plaesi I have had opportunities of comparing 

lb vitb those in London, where Uie supply is 

IwiatenDitie&t. 

m joa coDflidered the possibility of .Uie occur- 
roCioooiligntion in the metropolis, such as has 
~ii It Chicago and at Boston? 
'Tt§t I have; and I was one of a deputation of 
I managers to make a representation to the 
Board of Works — they being charged by 
fyiiiaieDt with the duty of protecting life and 
^ is the metropolis from fire — as to the dangers 
i «« tie expoMd, and as to the means of meeting 

^ViQ 7(ni be so good as to state what are the 
(o which yon consider the metropolis is ex- 

•Tho fire at Chicago occurred during a hurricane. 

I^tnttiifified by the disablement of the water works. 

" hti appeared to me that, London being divided 

nil separate districts of supply,, each of such 

aay m that respect be deemed a Chicago. 

•the poeiibility in London, as at Chicago, of uie 

of a fire at the time of a hurricane, added to 

possibility, under the existing conditions, 

or disablement of the sectional supply, and 

[we eootingencies there might be a fire, com- 

[Tiihiii the section, which would become a con- 

•fif nst magnitude. 

fece all the deputations of the insurance com- 
Ithat opinion? 
•e were^ 
'thestructoialarranfrementsin London, then, 
nat as to prevent a confiagration such as that 
} 

London is unquestionably superior to 
M Rtpects construction ; but tl^e extent of a 
itioudqiends very frequently on the elements— 
'*^**ind and frost — and if Uiey prevailed to a 
-^fc^jand at the same time the water works 
ft^^"^ while a fire got a head, and raged in 
taly-bailt locality, the advantages of construction 
Issgraty neutralised. The buildings at Boston, 
Visot having the best roofs, were of good stone 
|« «Bd there, notwithstanding that there was a 
[?^ isp^y, the fact of a hurricane, added to an 
yy^^ the horses, which prevented the 
'y'g brought to bear for half-an-hour, tended 
y^ jtyrtion m which buildings covering sixty 
2? kid waste. The Governor of Massachussetts 
reported that the value of the property 
^vceeded fifteen millions sterling. 

then, upon these contingencies did you 

Koggested that the several water com- 
li be requested each to lay a main of com- 
'^^ its next neighbouring company, such 

^be opened with the consent of the com- 
as emergency ; and that thus the 



whole power of the London water supply might, in a 
given emergency, be brought to bear upon a given 
point. We ascertained that this suggestion was 
mechanically feasible, and was not likely to be opposed 
by the water companies, the public being at the expense. 

Q, — Why was not the suggestion carried out ? 

^.-j-The Board of Works saw a difficulty in making a 
requisition of the nature suggested. 

Q. — We have dealt with the contingency of the pos- 
sible failure of even a constant supply in separate sections. 
Have you any information to give us as to the inter- 
mittent supply, or of ordinary conditions of supply, that 
affect the occurrence and spread of fires ? 

A, — Yes. Fires frequently occur in streets through 
which a main runs that is not constantly charged with 
water. Most side-streets from main avenues are so situ- 
ated, and the turncock has to be sought in order to turn 
thesupply intotheside-street. Thisdelay frequently occurs 
before water can be obtained. Under a constant supply, 
branches as well as mains would be supplied with water. 
In December of 1871 a fire occurred at Camberwell, and^ 
the turncock beina^ an hour late in attending the fire, 
the house was destroyed. It is an evil defect of the 
present system, that the turncock must attend to give 
the companies' supplv. There were, during 1872, fifty- 
eight cases where either the water supply was short, the 
turncocks failed to attend, or were late in attending, 
notwithstanding that rewards are given by the water 
companies and by the Fire Brigade in order to insure 
attendance. 

Q' — Would not the telegraph serve to quicken the 
relief to be given in the occurrence of fires ? 

A. — Yes ; and there is already communication between 
the fire-engine stations. Much additional aid would be 
derived by communications between the police-stations 
and the brigade stations, particularly in the outlying dis- 
tricts. A suggestion to this effect was made by the Fire 
Offices to the Metropolitan Board of Works, but it has not 
been carried out. 

Q. — Is the present supply of water found to be suf- 
ficient in all cases ? 

A, — It is of the very nature of a system of trading 
water supply that it cannot be so. Inasmuch as the 
supply will be only given where it is paid for. There 
are large masses of warehouses on the Surrey water- 
side, which may on the whole be 8>iid to be unsupplied 
with water to any effective extent for fire- extinction 
purposes. The warehouse keepers only require water 
for ordinary cleansing purposes — hands or &ce washing 
~and the pipes are correspondingly made. Thus, while 
these warehouses contain vast amounts of valuable 
merchandise, they are on the land side almost without 
water ; and when the tide is low in the river, they are 
very much exposed to danger. An instance occurred 
when the King and Queen granary, at Hotherhithe, the 
largest in London, was destroyed, December, 1871. 
This building was situate near the extreme end of the 
Kent Company's district, and where that company 
approached an equally extreme point of the Southwark 
and Yauxhall Company's district. The pipes of each 
company being of a small bore, the pressure was 
thread-like, and the supply there given for an enormous 
building, containing one hundred and fifty thousand 
pounds worth of goods, was only a supply such as 
should be given to a £30 a-year house. The tide was 
out in the Thames, the nearest steam floating-engine 
was disabled, and by the time the larger floats attended, 
the fire was beyond control. 

Q, — You speak of large masses of waterside ware- 
houses, containing vnst amounts of property, being almost 
without a supply of water. Can you state more specifically 
where those buildings are situate, and to what you refer 
when you allude to vast amounts of property ? 

A, — Taking a point on the Surrey side of the river 
bank, midway between Southwark and London bridges, 
and eastwards therefrom to Rotherhithe, there is an almost 
unbroken line of wharves haviQg either one or several 



310 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, March 14, 1873. 



warehouses thereon. The water supplj in the mainfl along 
this entire distance is of the ineffectiye nature I haye 
already stated. When I speak of Tast amonnta of merchan- 
dise in these places, I have in mind wharves where the 
warehouses contain from £100,000 to £500,000 of Talue, 
and I know of one wharf where the Talue is nearly a 
millian. 

Q. — Does this condition of things exist elsewhere ? 

A, — Kot to anjrthing approaching the same extent, but 
it is always more or less open to arise when houses of trifl- 
ing Talue are pulled down and are replaced by large ware- 
houses. There were at the rear of Ghiy's Hospitel, a few 
years ago, a number of little houses, worth, witii contents, 
perhaps £300 a-piece. These are now replaced by large 
warehouses, often containing probably £30,000 each, but 
the water-supply is unchangea and unfit for the present 
property, so far as regards fire extinction. 

Q. — ^Who is to blame for this P 

A. — No individual or water company can be censured 
for a moment. It is the water-selling system sanctioned 
by Parliament that is faulty. So far &^m attaching blame 
to the water companies, I prefer giving expression to my 
experience that the companies generally give a most ready 
assistance to Uie fire brigade. The water companies, hav- 






Q. — I think yon hare pi^vio ua ly Bteted fhm 
metropolis wsa exgtmeA, to eonflagi aiimn* Iboai 
occurrence of two or three eventa ooBaentanei 
From your knowledge of incendiaries, would it £ 
liable to conflagration from a wilful act on eoc 
occasion ? 

A. — A great depth of wickedness nmat be nivcdv 
burning down a oiiy at such a time, but 
incendiaries do not always calculate c 
dreadful results which arise from their 
instance, a man named William Antbony eec ft 
120 places, merely for the sake of ^e abilliii^ fsr ti 
reoeiTed for giving intelligence to the Pire Briipadfl 
in some instances the fire he cansed destroyed tboa 
of pounds worth of property, and lirea ^reve iaovt^ 

Q. — It was alleged, whether trtdy or noC^ thm 
commencement of the Chicago fire ^raa the ^roA < 
incendiary ? 

A, — ^There are various representatioDa on that sal 
It was said to have been caused by a eow kiekxni? a 
lamp in the stable, but nothing aathentio is fc] 
still it is wonderful what slight caoaeo 'vrill j 
people to commit incendiarism. I knew^ of 
where the municipality offered a sill 
volunteer brigade which should be 

the oowrae o4 



ing invested sufilcient capital for laying down pipes 

adequate for the wants of small householders, can have | the first with its engine at fires m 
no temptation to take up those pipes and la^ down large year. One astute member of the 
mains, simply to provide water to extinguish a fire in a 
newly-built warehouse ; for, as a fact, the warehouse- 
keepers sometimes refuse to pay their water-rent ; they 
are without water, and the company is worse off than 
when the small householder occupied the ground. 

Q. — Have you thought of any means whereby the evils 
you adduce may be remedied ? 

A. — I think the government should undertake the 



e mad» 



practice to have his horses always hamoeeod in 
and then went and set fire to some place^ aad c€ 
got his engine there first 

Q. — With regard to the sectional aupply ; the 
of the different companies are not connected 
A. — Iso ; but I think they ought to be 
Q. — Are you aware, in the case of the gmm 
that before the impending strike, each a thingp 
water-supply, after framing some equitable scheme of , anticipated, several of the companiee united tfaf^r 
compensation to the water companies and all persons pre- in order that Ulo deficiency of one mi^ht be 
judiced by the change. The management should be in the other P 
the hands of a commission, consisting of persons fitted I A. — ^Tbey did so in some instances, 
by past experience for the office. The supply should be Q. — Do you think a similar arrangement ongfeA 
constant. As the companies now make a profit by selling \ made by the water companies ? 
water, I do not see why the government cannot sell it , A. — The fire-oflSces have made that 
without making a loss, and give the public such ad- 1 Board of Works, but they did not 
ditional advantages, without extra charge, as in their carrying it out 
cost may be represented by such profit. Q. — It ought to be compulsory, of eo mac a f 

Q. — But the warehouses you have spoken of might not A. — Yes; but compulsion would not bo n^ 
be any better off in consequence of the government sup- because I believe the companies would be 
plying the water P willing to do so if it were not for the 

A. — I have no fear on that score. The warehouse- i think, it being a matter for the pnblic 



LecM 



keepers would make known their wants, and public ! expense ought not to be thrown upon them. 
opinion would operate on the government to comply Q. — Was not there this furthefieonfiid^ratiaai, 
with all needful requirements. I public is very much interested, not mei«ly in ti»e 

Q. — Will you state what, from your observation of 1 of water for the extinction of fires, but alec in thv 



the constant supply at Montreal, you believe might be 
done with a constant supply in London ? 

A. — A hose can be supplied to a hydrant, and the water, 
by its own pressure, may, without the intervention of a 
fiire-engine, be most effectively used in the early stages 
of a fire. Many fires that under the present system, 
become serious, would thus be checked at the outset 
under a constant supply. This more immediate applica- 
tion of means for stopping fires has the effect of deterring 
incendiarism, fires having been put out before they 
have obliterated the means whereby they have been 
caused. 

Q. — You use the term hydrant; would you, then, 
discontinue the use of the water-plugs P 

A. — Yes ; the plugs are antiquated, inconvenient, and 
much less serviceable than the hydrant, which brings the 
water to the top of a hollowed iron post instead of — as 
with the plug— compelling you to probe into the ground 
for it. I would recommend that in the side of each 
hydrant there should be a small iron door ; that every 
policeman and fireman have a key to open the door, in- 
side which should be kept the key or tool for turning on 
the water ; thus turncocks would not be required at a fire, 
and no delay could arise in the obtaining water. 



of water for consumption, and that by uniting tbv 
the responsibility for impurities would be 
offenders could not easily be detected ? 

A. — T do not know that. 

Q. — ^Would it not be possible to have the nuii 
arranged as that the communication might not Kc 
stantly in operation, but brougpht into nae in th« i 
of a fire ? 

A. — That was the suggestion to the Board of 'W 

Q. — Is it not the case that Montreal, and eome • 
places, are supplied with water entirely from <»• m* 

A. — ^Yes, it IS so at Glasgow. 

Q. — If the mains had to be connected at the tzj 
the fire, would not the loss of time almoet makH 
system as bad as the present one P 1 

A, — It would not be required in the caae of an ord 
fire ; in such a case each water i*omp«iny would hi 
sufficient supply of its own. Where the ey e u^m i 
be beneficial would be in the case of ^re^t 
fiagrations, such as those which occurred at Chicoi 
Boston. ] 

Q. — You mentioned that the Board of W«B-Va ^ 
difficulty in making a requisition that the wittt^r I 
panies should beoonnected; do you know what it m 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March U, 1873. 



311 




to be almost a feeling of temerity in 
tbi companies to ask a iavour of them. 
tmnj water companies are there in 

; UiTM on the south side of the river, and 
Mi^apperade. 
Wen Dot many of the roo& of houses in 
auds of ahingld^ or other very inflammable 

W 4 

[laj of them were made of shingle, and many 
ii Cftlkd patent composition — a mixture of 
(nvd, fonning a thin coHting over a sheet 
£eh or paper. I shoold not call that a very 
tahrtanoe, nnless the sun has been acting 
nae ycMn. Then it sometimes happens that 
ii neUeii, the gravel sinks to the bottom, and 
miUniiiiable portions oome to the surface. 
»T<^ not that bo more liable to odtch fire than a 

-Xm; and when the firo in the interior of a 
ruiH the temperature to a high degree, the 
i «od fidli into the building. 

a very great fire to happen, would 
I thifig happen ; the slates will not resiat more 
tnriua temperature without splitting, and there 
\h^ vooieo rafters underneath ? 

lit z^ a £ict that many of the miins on the 
»of thf» rivtf are very small, but that by coupling 
«ol ^juthwark companies together, a better 
voai-l b« afforded ? 
^Theff« are tome parts of the district where the 
|4a Agt lie oontignous. In some cases the trunk 
ftvoeoapaiuesmn side by side in the same road, 
» ii raoa point or other in most companies where 
iBAtts approach tolerably close to each other. 

Kflit companies* mains probably could not 
■ co&oected with any other companies P 
"TWy oertainly occupy an extreme comer of Lind. 
»Wiib regard to the fire at Chicago, was it not the 
that Was a good deal of Nicholson's pavement 
kind of preparation of asphalte — was that 
"" ? 
aa not sure about that ; wood was used for 
uid footwHVS, but I do not think it added 
Sj to the fire. The conflagmtion was of such 
icCttt that these minor points were of very 
Where a conflagration takes place 
s tvrj large scale it does not matter very 
i4f what materials buildings are composed, 
t^ great fire at Hamburg the steeples of 
at aooH) distance from the fire, were seen to 
[j into flame on account of the atmosphere 
^■iteiM, and it was mentioned by persons there 
k^aght caused by the flames was so intense that 
! almost drawndo wn the side streets to wards it. 
?r&it object in all fires is to check them as 
iblo, so ss to prevent them spreading? 



^TW 



wtkat purpose yon propose that hydrants should 
at aburt dJMitmom ; might they not be fixed to 
KSta^ 

that would do, provided yon could have the 
tk» water under Government control, but other- 
ffv soeipany might remove or dispense with 
oat mod the water also. 

R a tffin a n , before the House of Commons, on 

Water, No. 2 Bill, in 1871, gave this evi- 

vu asked by the present Speaker of the Houae 

■•^ "What is your objection to the word 

^■id he Ai*l, **Plug is a word meaning a piece 

^Uk is usod for the purpose of being forced 

^ngbt outlet firom the main pipe which conveys 

^Hd t&it plugs the hole up. £very time the 

y^ be drawn from the main, that has to 

It way or another, not by way of a screw, 

il by a lever, and it flies out with a chance 



.B» 



of hitting the man on the head ; and when the water 
flows the men have to poke about with along stand-pipe, 
always getting wet before they can get it into the plug. 
That is then drawn and fastened with pegs. Aa soon as 
that is fastened they attach tho'hose to the stand-pipe." 

Q. — ^That apparatus in your opinion is not fitted for 
the purpose ? 

A. — It is a disgrace to a mechanical age that such a 
thing should exist. There are many improvements 
which have been introduced during the last 20 or 25 years 
much superior. 

Q. — Is that a correct description of tho present system 
of plugs ? 

A. — It is. 

Q. — Will you explain what is a hydrant such as has 
been introduced into the varioustowns ? 

A. — A hydrant would be a hollow iron post, about 
four feet high. There would be a screw at the outside,^ 
which would bo worked by a winch; then the witor 
would flow out from tho top. The hose of tho Fire 
Brigade would be fitted to a worm, there bring one uni- 
versal worm for the hydrants and for the hose. The 
water would rise through the hydrant by its own pressure. 

Q. — Is that the system enforced in most towns in 
England where there is a constant supply ': 

A, — No, I think not. 

Q. — It is the system in Manchester, at all events ? 

A. — In Manchester, but they do not use it in (rlasgow^ 
and there is to some extent a constant supply in Liver- 
pool, but they do not use it there. In Glasgow they 
use the plug ; they could not use the siHne plug that 
Mr. Bateman has described in Glasgow, because the 
force of water, where there is a constant supply, would 
drive the plug sky high. It is the fact of having to 
probe into the ground and search for the water which is 
BO objectionable. 

Q. — Would the pressure in London be sufficient, with- 
out the use of fire-enginep, if hydrants were used ? 

A. — Not in all cases. Fire-engines would still be 
required. 

Q. — How do you account for tho long delay in fitting 
hydrants instead of plugs P 

A. — Because of the cost. 

Q. — If there were hydrants introduced at all laxge 
wharves and warehouses, ought not there to be also high 
pressure hydrants on each floor ? 

-4.— Those are not called hydrants. A hydrant is the 
thing fixed into the ground taking the place of the plus^^ 
now in use for the emission of water. A rising main 
is a very useful thing in warehouses, but in point of fact 
these appliances in case of fire are not of the use that is 
often supposed. Fire offices do not discourage it for a 
moment, but when a fire takes place, that being an event 
which only occurs probably onee in a lifetime, the 
persons on the spot get in Huch a state of nervous ex- 
citement that they do not make use of the very means 
which have been provided. 

Q. — How many hydrants would be required ? 

j4.— Between 70,000 and 80,000. To have a perfect 
system every plug should be replaced by a hydrant. I 
should add that a perfect system means that the hydrant 
should be only so far apart that a hose could be attached 
to each two and brought to bear upon one point. 

Q. — Are the present plugs sufficiently numerous for 
that purpose ? 

A, — ^I cannot say. 

Q. — You -think the govemmont ought to undertake 
the water supply. Is that because there is no proper 
local authority in London ? 

A. — I propose government should have it, be- 
cause the area of London is so different under different 
circumstances. There is the area covered by the Board 
of Works, and the Post Office urea, and others, each of 
them different. If government had the supply it would 
extend to the whole of London, whatever it might be. 
The district served by the water companies at present 
considerably overlaps the area of the Board of Works. 



312 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



Q. —When you say the goyemment, do you mean the 
Board of Works ? 

A. — No. I should be very sorry to see it under the 
Board of Works. I do not tiiink it would be beneficiiil 
to Jjondon that the, water supply should be under that 
holy. 

Q. — What should you say if wo had a municipal 
govomment covering the whole area ? 

A. — We had great hopes of the Board of Works before 
we saw it in operation, and I should like to defer my 
answer to that Question until I saw what the municipal 
authority would be. My suggestion would be that it 
should be under some spt^cial commission. 

Q. — Would there be any dbposition on the part of the 
insurance companies to alter or modify their rates of 
insurance on warehouses which had large mains sup- 
plied to them ? 

A. — If a constantly-supplied main were found to be 
practically a preventive of disaster, competition would 
soon secure the lowering of the rates wherever it was 
introduced. But fires are found to increase year by 
year, and I do not look forward to such a thing. 

Q. — Is it the fact that after Liverpool obtained a 
constant water supply the insurance charges were 
materially reduced P 

A. — I do not think there was any connection between 
the two. 

Q. — If the sime result followed in London as did in 
Manchester, that 7 per cent, only was destroyed instead 
of 21, naturally the insurance companies would lower 
their rates P 

A. — Rates for insurance can only be dealt with on an 
average of a long period of years. I am not aware that 
the reduced per centage prevailed over any long period. 



AmriTAL nrrEBNATIOHAL BXHIBITIOirS. 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-Gcaeral Scott, G.B., 
secretary. 

The 7th meeting of the Committee for Silk and Velvet 
was held on the 11th March. There were present — Sir 
D. C)oper, B»rt., in the chair; Mr. W. Blakely, Mr. 
W. Bullock, Mr. A. Cassels, Mr. Chadwick, M.P., Mr. 
F. Cobb, Mr. A. Lewis, Dr. Mann, C tpt. Mason, and 
Mr. H. Tucker. 

The Committee for Promoting the Exhibition of the 
Works of John Phillip, R.A., and Thomas Creswick, 
R.A., met on Monday, when it was reported that up- 
wards of two hundred and fifty of these works had been 
promised, and miny others are expected. These works 
will be arranged in the East Picture Galleries, parallel 
with Elxhibition-road. 

Among the works of Art to be shown at the nex* 
International Exhibition will be a full-siz^d copy of the 
well-known B lyeux Tapestry. As this celebrated piece 
of needlework is about 230 feet in length and 22 inches 
in width, it is evident that this reproduction has been 
an undertaking of no common magnitude. At the 
suggestion of a well-known author of works on anti- 
quarian art, the plan of this work was laid down before 
the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, by 
whom it was duly authorised ; and a correspondence was 
entered into with the municipal authorities of Bayeux, 
who have chamre of the treasure which makes their city 
ao famous. These gentlemen readily acceded to the 
request that the tapt>8try might be copied by photography, 
but they would on no account suffer it to be removed 
from its place, although report says, that when the 
Uhlana were prowling about Normandy, it was carefully 



rolled up and hidden, no one knows where. Q 
Matilda's tapestry, as it is generally called, thos^ 
really needlework on linen (very like an old Bo 
*^ sampler"), is shut in glass cases, which arc ^ 
as the four sides of a long parallelograni, with an opt 
at the middle of one side, in a room which vas bd 
their reception. As the Bibliotfa^ae and TEcddi 
of Bayeux occupy the galleries above, thiajootnitlif 
only by side windows, and, in taking the pbotogi 
the difficulty of Feflecting sufficient light oa the da 
work was so considerable, that a special apparatub 
be manufactured for the purpose. Thiinki to iht 
assistance of the veneraole curator, the Abbe Lil 
and the intelligence of the English photompbH^ 
were under the superintendence of Mr. CobI&U, I 
obstacles were successfully overcome, andthe pabl« 
soon have an opportunity of judging the merits « 
largest reproduction which has yet been accoapt 
by the aid of photography. We undentmd Uit 
Frank Rede Fowke has prepared a volane of derd 
notes, in which he his given the resolU of i 
investigation into the disputed question of tbe orii 
the tapestry, explained the history of theeTeoUr 
sented, and elucidated some of the cnrioas lobjectii 
appear in the decorative borders. — Athen^ttm. 



EXHIBITIONa 



VIENNA EXHIBITION. 

We learn from Paris that negotiations ar» to beei 
with Austria for the modification of the treaty cf | 
merce between that country and France, daring m 
hibition. I 

The Government of Japan have voted a sum of i\ 
for purposes of the Exhibition, and a oommiHiaD.^ 
by a relative of. the Mikado, is to be %mi to T! 
during the Elxhibition. I 

The Managing Commission of the Vienna Exlm 
have given notice to the Spanish aathorities thit ^ 
the space allotted to them is taken up at once it « 
appropriated to France. 

The Architect says the French contnbatioM ti 
picture-gallery of the Vienna Exhibition are ni 
grand scale, including in all sixteen hundred caiu 
In order to give ^cUt to the collection, the mlu j 
prohibits the removal of pictures from the w 
galleries has been set aside, and a selection of lUa 
works have been made from the Luxembonr^ cJ 
these include, amongst others: — Biudrv, 'Fortw^ 
the Child;" Bellange, "A Review in I'SIO;" B^f^ 
" Death of Virgini i ;" Breton, "Return of theUH 
Flaudrin. "Portrait of a Girl;'* Giraud, "Slave M*^ 
Hebert, "TheCervaroUes;" L-^vy, " De ith of Orph 
March il, "Servants' Fair;" Moretu, "Orpk| 
Regnault, " Marshal Prim," and the "Mooriih E: 
tion;"Troyon,"The Return to the Farm;" !««» 
by Corot, Rousseau, &c. Cabanel, Meiswni^T, (W 
Baudry, Corot, Daubigny, and a host of other weil-»| 
I artists also contribute. The city of Paria hai m' 
\ its own special commission for the Exhibition, M I'*' 
its architect in chief, being president The nttB 
collection includes models in plaster of the churn 
La Trinity and Saint Ambroise, and of two poti 
new school buildings, examples of sculpture, and a^ 
tion of medals struck since the jrear ISio in commw 
tion of public solemnities and important eTenta 

The Stafordshire Adcertittr savs :— "Mewri. 
and Co., of Stoke-upon-Trent, have prodscf^ 
Vienna International Exhibition a magnificent 
of fine-art pottery. The collection is in every 
finest which has ever left the works, and the 
logue which follows can give no idea of 
traordinary beauty. The thoroughly artiitie 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14. 1878. 



313 





by the jn3/# mht putt process, will 
llft^ cceapy the most prominent position. They 
ptett p«r of ▼Ajset of Grecian outline, a set of three 
r m«n« y and fifteen round dishes as cabinet 
*rhe Etroocan-ehaped vases h%ve black 
dt*p«fltad thereon are fi^^re subjects in that 
poe t ical style which Mr. Solon has made 
JltuM i, Minton and Co. haye been very success- 
imitation of the exceedingly rare and costly 
II. ware, and they are sending to Vienna, in 
\ tiylv^ a lan^ centre vase, a pair of candlesticks 
pMtely m«Kiel]ed and inlaid, a pair of silt-cellars ex> 
ftrfy ftni^nd, and Marions other specimens. Mr. 
!'• woodesrfal skill as a flower and bird painter is 
ia ▼Artoua objects in which the artist h^is worked 
hucttit ander the ^laze. In this under-glaze paint- 
%o be shown a pair of tall vases and a set of round 
There ^w^l also be a large collection of articles 
with Slresrs. Minton and Ck^.'s Persian glazes, 
have reoently come so much into favour, the 
including' bri|^ht yellow, plum, and turquoise, 
te Oriental shapes. The following are among 
objects produced in porcelain: — Two 
•s, la close imitation of original Chinese 
now in the South Kensington Museum ; a pair 
40j incfaea hi^h, painted with flowers, in a very 
I style on en^unelled turquoise ground ; a set of dessert 
tely pierced and gilt, bearing female heads, 
%cic of various nations, the latter being in Mr. 
s best style, in addition there are a pair of 
l^pae lamp-holders, modelled by M. Carrier, and 
lad in celadon and white with gold enrichments ; 
noveltiea in coloured bodies, including parian ; 
ef wasos Sklter the Chinese, »ich 38 inches high, 
having a yellow ground, with peach-trees in 
, the other bearing white peonies on a black 
Very rich effects ara produced by the coloured 
\ in the case of a parian body dyed red, are 
iiaTiiiiiii of terra ootta, but having this advantage 
• body>* that being now thoroughly vitrified the 
Be le^ H^ble to catch dirt and are more easily 
ihan terra ootta. There will also be a large 
of ehina and earthenware patterns, of table, tea, 
■ad toilet ware, including many novel and 
desfpis.*' 



►RlCAr. AND AHTIvSTIC MILITARY 
MUSEUMS. 

Hotel des Invalides of Paris seems destined, 
cqttaUy f *nioos Greenwich hospital, to undergo 
^nij^r in its application. 

iKtt war the contents of the old Artillery 
I have bt<en transferred to the Invalides, and now 

tt proposes to form there a historical 

of war to illustrate military lift>, not only in 
■ft in all the countries of the world and of all 
Hias offering a material history in chronological 
the most remote times, prehistoric, Egyptian, 
in, to our own days. 

of the proposed museum are as follows : 
ire arms, from flint and bronze weapons to 
Ttfle, and cannons of the nineteenth century. 
ire arms, including armour, coats of mail, 
-Ids, &c. 

diecorditions of all countries, 
distinctions, such as speci^il arms, badges, 
Ikoooor, plumes, cocndes, the batons of mar- 
eosamanaers, epaulettes, chevrons, and other 
and honour. 

and flags, from the Cap St. Martin, the 
flag, tncludinf^ all the banners, ori- 
I, and other colours of the world. 

of all nations, 
and defensire armour of hones, with 
i^fBS, d:c. 



Like our own collection in the Tower of London, the 
cavalry armour is proposed to be set up on figures of 
men and horses. 

There is no doubt that such a military museum will 
be immensely popular, especially in France, but it will 
also have a great value in an artistic point of view. 
Artists engaged on subjects relating to war, or on mili- 
tary personages, have often to search far and wide for 
models of the proper arms, armour, and accoutrements. 
The value, to artists of the famous Me^ck collection, 
which was seen last year at South Kensmgton, was very 
great 

While on this subject, it may be mentioned that Sir 
Richard Wallace has purchased the fine collection of 
arms and armour late the property of Count Nieuwer- 
kerke, but whether this collection will remain in France, 
or be transferred to this country, is not yet sttited on 
authority, although Paris journals speak of its loss to 
France. 



NOTES OX THE QUICKSILVER MINE AND 
WORKS OF VALLALTA.^ 

The Vallalta quicksilver works are situated in the 
province of BoUuno (Venetia), at the south- western 
extremity of the Mis valley, where the two torrents, Mis 
and Pezzea, come togeUier, marking the boundary 
between Italy and the Tyrol. The works are about ten 
miles from Agordo, and 2,339 feet above the level of the 
sea. The cinnabar mine itself lies a short diatance from 
the works, on the right bank of the torrent Pezzea. 

The rocks that are met with are chiefly clay-slate, 
and a reddish porphyry ; the latter haring broken 
through the former and altered it. Those who desire to 
study the special geological conditions of the mine can 
consult the small geological map accompanying the 
original memoir, wMoh will give a far better idea than 
a tedious verbal description. We will simply note the fact 
that the metalliferous rocks are surrounded on the north- 
east b^ black and occasionally graphitic clay-slate, in 
an elhptical manner, and this part of the formation has 
been proved to be the richest in cinnabar, not only in 
the upper but also in the lower beds. Where the date 
dies away, the porphyry widens out, and the cinnabar 
becomes less concentrated, and this renders the explora- 
tions more uncertain and more costly. The cinnabar 
occurs disseminated, both in the porphyry and the meta- 
morphosed rocks, sometimes in the form of lumps or 
grains, sometimes in veins and little strings, but in- 
variably in an altogether irregular manner. The 
masses occur in the form of '* shoots,*' varying very 
much in dimensions and orientation. 

The porphyry and slaty metamorphio rocks contain, 
besides cinnabar and a little native mprcury, iron pyrites, 
gypsum, calcspar, mica, and chlorite. 

As the work consists in discovering and excavatrag 
the masses of cinnabar, Vallalta mine may be said to bo 
in a state of continual exploration. 

About a century ago traces of cinnabar, disseminated 
through the porpnyry in a valley on the right bank of 
the* torrent Pezzea, induced two Venetian noblemen, 
Nani and Pisani, to commence work there. Two old 
levels, known by their names, still testify to the work 
they did. It seems, however, that soon after beginning 
to work they were obliged to stop, on account of a great 
error —viz., that of going to the expense of carrying the 
oro to the island of Murano, near Venice, where it is 
said to have been distilled. At the commencement of 
this century, Melchier Zanchi, a Venetian of great 
natural talent and a clever miner, set to work alone to 
reach the centre of the metalliferous zone of Vallalta ; 
his plan was a very bold one, and was carried out 
eventually in 1867. Zanchi did not go on very far 

• Extracted from a paper In the Boltettino dd Club Alpino Itatiem". 
for 1871, by Caraliere O. AdIodIo de ManzoDl. 



814 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 14, 1873. 



with hiB undertakiog, as he wia obli^d to stop for want 
of meaDi. 

Later on, some persons named Schena, Fusina, and 
Nogarola, of Agorao, and Boeio of Primiero, took up the 
works abandoned by Nani and Pisani, and made some 
rude attempts to smelt the ore on the spot. 

In the year 1852 the mineral rights of Vallalta 
belonged to three p'^rtners — Fusina, Levi, a^ Bosio. 
It was then that the Venetian Mining Company ob- 
tained the permission to search for ore wherever it liked. 
This company adopted the proioct of the Grovemment 
engineer, Joseph Bauer, who afterwards became 
managing director, and, with the O'Conor adit began 
that series of works which were destined to render 
Yallnlta one of the most interesting of mining establish- 
ments. The O* Conor adit, after having been driven 196 
metres, cut the first vein in 1864, the ore being quite 
sparking with native mercury condensed at the contact 
with the slate. 

Encouraged by this success, the company b<;>ught up 
all the rights of the above-mentioned proprietors, and 
continued its explorations, not only with the O' Conor adit, 
but also above and below it. The year 1855 saw a large 
metallurgical establishment spring up rapidly and almost 
by magic in the unknown and hitherto solitary Vallalta, 
with two double cupola furnaces, a double reverberatory 
furnace, the necessary condensing apparatuses, buildings 
and houses for sundry purposes, bridges and roads. 
These furnaces failed, however, and it was not until 1867, 
with new furnaces, that the actual production of mercury 
may be said to have begun. Since then the production 
has gone on pretty regularly, although the mine suffered 
great damage from an inundation in 1860, and the works 
were pai^y washed away in 1868. In the following 
year, Uavaliere G. A. de Manzoni, the actual lessee, took 
mine and works o£f the company's hands, and continues 
to carry them on at the present time on his own account. 

The mercuriferous rock has now been worked to a 
vertical depth of 122 fathoms. It is reached by various 
adit levels, and the workings are arranged in thirteen 
horizontal floors. The deepest workings are fift^'-fonr 
fathoms below the lowest adit. The mode of proceeding 
is as follows : As soon as the existence of a mass which 
will pay for working has been proved, a winze is sunk 
through it, and then it is worked away entirely by 
successive horizontal floors. The limber employed is 
generally larch. As fast as the ore is worked away, the 
vacant space is filled up with unproductive rock, some- 
times quarried on purpose, to prevent the chambers from 
falling in. 

The ventilation is effected by means of a blast pro- 
duced by a great fall of water and carried by wooden 
pipes to the workings. 

The ore srriving from the mine is picked, and unpro- 
ductive rock thrown away ; the fine stuff or " soihIIs " is 
moistened with acidulated water, which runs away from 
the condensers, and, made up into compact lumps of nine 
pounds each, can then be treated in the cupoln furnaces. 
^ The cupola furnaces in use at Vallalta, are cxlindrical, 
lined witJi fire-brick, and 3 feet 1 1 inches in diameter by 
21 feet high. They are built in pairs. Near the base is 
an iron grating, on which the ore rests. an«i the orS is 
charged from the top by a hopper. The cover of the 
hopper hss a water-joint, so the top of the kiln is closed 
hetmetically. Before putting in a charge two men work 
away with bars of iron through the grating, and draw 
out some of the burnt ore. The charge is composed of 
ore in large and small pieces, lumps of agglomerated 
fine stuff, and charcoal in the proportion of two per 
cent, by weight. Under the action of h«it, in the presence 
of a good draught of air, the cinnabrfr is decomposed, 
and the mercury liberated passes off as vapour with the 

f products of combustion into two chambers near the 
umaoe, and thence into two rows of pipes, 3 feet 3 
inches in diaracttr, and 49 feet loni^, in the open air 
and continually exposed to an artificial min. The major 
part of the mercurv ' - ' ^ in th*.«« fnV^oa o»/i t\> - 



4 in theso tubes, and th e 



residual vapours pais through four chambert &! tb« 
of the apparatus, and then by a third tobeto the chin 
In former days there were occasionally difficalti-^ 
the mercurial vapour, which on a sudden change ii 
temperature would sometimes escape from the lower 
of the furnace and occasion thereby not only a oel 
loss of mercury, but also wrions injury to the heil 
the workmen, who oould not always be cured ]/j 
internal use of chlorate oi potash. BrsiJts, 
salphuroui acid which escaped from thechimaefi 
cised a very pernicious effect upon thesorroimdiiif \ 
tation. 

These evils have been entirely cured by mem 
most simple exhausting appamtus. To the t^ip d 
chimney is fixed a descending wooden pipe, which 
an almost horizontal pipe, and to the lover end <>f tl 
attached another vertical pipe, which leads into 3 «8 
ranean drain. A column of water if brought iot 
side of the last pipe near the top, and, ikllia^ Ha 
some 16 feet, draws with it the gases from ihv (hii 
In this manner the chimney always draws pro[»rlT, 
the amount of draught can be regulated it plcjA 
altering the quantity of water. A double ciifoUtai 
can treat as much as 160 tons of ore in 24 houn; d 
the use of wood for the condensers allows the iM 
to be drawn off at pleasure, the furnace mftv n 
alight for two years or more, in fact, until it n^ 
repairs. 

All the mercury is not obtained with its mnA h 
lustre ; the tubes and chambers contain a w>\y ^ 
from which some mercury may be extracted hj nitthi 
means on inclined planes, whilst the residue is icm 
into lumps and returned to the furnaces. 

As at Idria, it has been found most cooTenientt^ 
away the mercury in sheepskins. 

The perfection of the metallurgical proceu at Vj 
is proved by the low produce required for fp» 
working. Up to 1870 the average contectt o( M 
did not exceed half a per oent. of mercury ; tht k 
metal is less than 8 per oent. The mine ainl 1 
employ about two hundred men, the laajontTj 
miners. The miners work eight-hour i^ift«. m 
about 1 fr. 20 c. a day; moat of them possess a btUn 
Two per cent, of their wages is kept Wk, snd gc<4J 
sick club fund, the capital of which at the kguM 
1871 exceeded 18,000 francs. We will coDcIak 
notice of Vallalta by giving the quantity of ms 
produced of late years : — 

Year. Kilnj™i"'^ *^ 

1856 '^-^a 

1867 20.075 

1868 40.992 

1859 26,aU 

1860 31.581 

1861 20 720 

1862 29/iS'< I 

1863 16,800 

1864 22,400 

1866 22,960 

1866 17,0^^ 

1867 9.*v»«'.S 

1868 12,76> 

1869 IMHS 

1870 84.77'5 



15 324,856 I 

(Nearly 320 t* 

By blowing steam into molten sooric 
are produced, to which the name of " min«»I ff'* 
been given. It is proposed to use this fur 8ti«in*j 
purposes, as it hM the advantages of beiof 
mable. 

Arrangements are on foot with a view tj 
removal of the Academy of Muvic frcwn HlUlow^^P 
premises in the Royal AJbert HalL I 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IBTT OP ARTS, Mabch 13, 1873. 



816 



^=C 



lOfES (nr BOOKS. 



Bailways in America. — In an official report just pub- 
lished, Her Mi^eetj'e Secretai j of Legation ( Mr. Paken- 
ham) gives ssiae informstioa with regard to new railway 
undertakings in the United States. Three important en- 
terprises of this nature are specifically alluded to. The first 
is the Texas Pacific Rail way, commencing in Louisiana, pass- 
ing through Texas, and eontinuing west to San Die^o, 
California. This line, it is said, will STentually monopolise 



fvaiaf, M^ M, 8, Savcry, Longmanay 
i^lk prinoi^ pari of this book oonsieta of a 
ef Plant'e new gteometric chuck and the I 
of ifiitt it A great number of patteme are I ^e traflSo and accelerate tike Bilver-mining of Northern 
^j t-11 i5_--x-»-__ r ^.. ,, , . Mexico. The second work is the construction of a narrow- 

f tf liese psttems aire of ooneidemble beauty, and ^°8^ ^^^i oemmencing in Kansas, running south, and 
rMBpIiatei, hot we are ffiTen to underatand that ^^^^ " intended to reach the city of Mexico. It is aatici- 

patsd, bo werer, that this work will last a long time ere it is 
finally oompleltd. The third undertaking is the construc- 
tien of the Chesapeake and Ohio RailrMid, which passes 
through tho coal-nelds, &c., of the Kanawha Valley, and 
unitss the Ohio River with the harbour of Norfolk, on the 
Atlantic. As showing the rapidity with which towns spring 
up in America, it may be mentioned that the present 
twxainus of the rsilway on the Ohio was quite reotntly part 
of a farm of no value, whereaa now it is the town of Hunt- 
ingdon, with five miles of clean-paved streets, eeveral 
hundred lioases well built and subatautial, and a population 
of 2,000 inhabitanU. 



tied foil oirections for cutting them are appended, 
^•f tee psttems aire of coneidemble beauty, and 
BBfliatsd, bat we are given to undoatand that 
[«a be sU eat with great ease and rapidity, and 
tvajr giwi amount of practke. 

i;tiApptaL By 5. P/i«se«, if. P. Virtue 
4971— From the recent action in Parliament of 
Ur. FliaeoII'e work is now pretty generally 
Of the accuracy of the statements in it a Royal 
BOB viU loon deode ; but, if only the half of them 
turegarda the tort of ehipain which our merchant 
IfB to na, and the way in which these ships are 
'rlittR is a atrong case for redress. In any event, 
Hxfhu reason to be grateful to Mr. Plimioll for 
ImmxA 80 couragoonaly on behalf of a class 
■Mble to help themselves. The book is illus- 
1 f»t-timUt9 (taken by the heliotype process} 
ipec ftitides, &c., bearing on the question, ana 
Itkan a page of the Journal, We are not aware 
I attempt of this sort to produce /if<;-sim(/M 
V *^b means, but the idea is a good one, 
of great extension. 



M 



I 



eilBSAL HOTB& 



^tery im Tasmania. — The commenoement 
I r.^^ TasBiaBia seems likely, says a Lfunceston 
I iMowia, called the ComtcaU Chromcle^ to open up 
^*'^tetries. Messrs. Harrison and Just h^ve 
nm and in Victoria and the other colonies an 
^vh kJi asbestos is likely to be turned to very 
^eevoBtiatbe manufacture of fire-clay and fire- 
Tke incombustible character of asbestos, snd 
■»tare of tbe serpentine rock in which it is 
the atteatiou of Dr. W. H. Harrison, and 
rifrMcahng large suppliesof refractory fire-bricks 
'«' wn the poMibility of combining tbe two sub- 
* <«e incembustibls and fibrous, the other re- 
-a lach a way as to produce the required article. 
w»isid to have justified this expectation. The 
«J*L.^*^*^ will also be useful for gas retorts, 
■'^-Dw*, pipes, and other articles besides fire- 

^— At a recent meeting of the Frankfort 
Aijocjation, Professer Boettger exhibited a 
w iflk, which i« adapted to take on journeys and 
«Mli^ White blotting paper is saturated 
»t>U^, and eeveral sheets are pusted to form a 
. ■* »sated for use, a small piece is tern oft" 
■ »tthtUuk water. The black liquid which 
J"^* good writing ink. A squsre inch of the 
rj' rji «o«|th ink to last for a considerable writing, 
IJw •ottld be all that an exploring party need 
jj*- A« water is always available, the ink is 




^^■|*1 Kttle naprovements, of coloured and 
***Jjd of wood in the ordinary Venetian long 
^1* windowa Tha glass is bound round 
fc-SJ*" ^ ' ""^ heavy blinds are simply wound 
[JW» loi&ething like a dock-key. The play of 

ZP JV^ °^^ ^^^^ ^ managed so as to give 
jjJ^Otttiide at night and inside by day windows 
^im^L^^ illumbated ; and a city seen from 
U u&der suoh circumstances, would 




L 



Hew Use of Babbitt* Hair.— The Austrian Exhibition 
Gazette calli* attention to a new snd and important industry, 
namely the incorporation of rabbits* hair with wool ana 
cotton in weaving textile fabrics. Tbe shorter hairs, which 
are incapable of being woven, are readily purchased by felt 
hat makers at three thalers a pound. When properly 
prepared, tbe hair affords a good strong yam, which ii said 
to be in no way inferior to wool. If all that the Austrian 
journal says on tbo subject be true, the raising of rabbits will 
soon become an important business. No animal is better 
adapted to raising on a large scale than the rabbit; they 
multiply almost as rapidly as white mice, and are not 
confined to any particular climate. It is rather remarkable 
that this use of the hair has not been thought of before, 
partieularly when we consider how many hundred million 
rabbits are annually destroyed. The meat of the rabbit is 
agreeable and nourishing, and the skins have long been 
prized. An important industry is likely to grow out ef the 
successful introduction of rabbit-hair weaving in all 
countries. 

Venetian Olaai. — The manufacture of beads is said 
to bo threatened by the advance of civilisation amongst 
Imrbarous nations, where, until new, they have found exten- 
sive markets. It is suggested that great efforts ought to be 
made to obtain a reduction of import duties on beads in 
British India and in Egypt. The approaching abolition of 
the free port of Venice will, it is thought, be very beneficial 
to the glass trade generaely, though its effect upon the bead 
manufacture ia particular will not be much felt. 

Glass-lined Pipes. — In New York, glass-lined iron 
pipes, it is said, are being used to convey water, as the friction 
is lessened, the pipes are always clean, and the water is keop 

fure. Between the glass and iron is a layer of plaster of 
•aris, which, being a non-conductor of heat, prevents the 
water frem freezing in Jhe winter. Whether Ihis layer 
prevents the contraction and expansion of the iron from 
destroying the coating ef glass may be a question. 



It is feasible, according to Bichard Jaoobsen, 
says the Journal of the Franklm Institute, to secure carbon 
prints upon wares of plaster ar<d clay. The process is stated to 
possess exoellmt features, which will secure for it extended 
application in tbe future. For burning in such prints, the 
csrbon paper should be coated with gelatineand some fusible 
pigment instead of gelatine and India ink. 

The Victoria Education Bill has passed both 
Houses of Legislature and received the Governor's assent. 
Education is mw therefore compulsory, secular and free in 
the colony. The schools of design are continuing to be 
surcespful in Victoria, there now being twenty in various 
parts of the colony, with upwards of a thousand pupils in 
attendance. 

According to the American Manufacturer^ coke 
ceuld be shipped from Pittsburgh to Sheffield, England, and 
sold at a pruht of one dollar per ton. 



316 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mabch U, 187S, 



VOTICES. 



SUBSOBIPnOVi. 

The Christmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed " Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel lliomas Dayenport, Financial 
officer. 



BSF0BT8 OH THE LOKDOK IHTSBHATIOVAL 
EXHIBITIOK OF 1878. 

The reports which appeared in the last yolume of 
the Journal on the yarious sections of the above 
Exhibition, are now published complete, in a 
pamphlet form (price 2s.), and can be obtained 
at the office of the Society. 



INDIA COMXITIBS. | 

A Conference will be held this evening (Fri 
14th inst.) at 8 p.m., when a pax>er will bej 
by RoBEET B. Shaw, Esq., on ** £ng:luidj 
Central Asia.*' Major-Generah Sir . Hi 
Ceeswicke Rawlinson, F.R.S., F-R.G.S,, I 
preside. 

A Conference will be held on Friday, Mardi * 
when a paper will read by W. T. Bulntobd, ] 
of the Indian Geological Survey, on *' 
Mineral Resources of India." Sir Loins Mai 
C.B., Member of tiie Council of India, will pr< 

Members are entitled to attend these Confer 
free, and to admit two friends to each of then 



THE USEABY. 

The following works have been presented to the 
Library: — 

Geometric Turning : comprising a description of the 
New Geometric Chuck, constructed by Mr. Plant, of 
Birmingham, by H. S. Savory. Presented by the 
Publishers, Messrs. Longmans. * 

Report on the Cultivation by means of Sewage Irriga- 
tion of the Lodge Farm, Barking, from 3lBt August, 
1871, to 3l8t December, 1872. Presented by Henry 
J. Morg^an. 

Why Pay Poor-tatesP Why Give to the Poor? 
Why Punish Thieves ? By Edward Eastman. 

Concerning Sewage and its Economical Disposal. By 
F. H. Danchell, C.E. Presented by the Author. 

' Bulletin of the National Association of Wool Manu- 
fiactarers (Boston, U.S.) for the year 1872. Vol. 3. 

Steam in the Engine : its Heat and its Work. By P. 
Kauu£fer. Presented by the Author. 

Agricultural Returns of Great Britain for 1872. 

Another World. Presented by tl e Publishers, Messrs. 
Bell and Dalby. 

The following work has been purchased by the 
Library : — 

The Antiquary. Yd. 1. 



CAHTOB LECTUBES. 

The Second Course of these lectures » " CN 
Energies of the Imponderables, ^with e^>ecii 
ference to the Measucement and Ujihwatic 
them," by the Bey. Akthub Rioo, M. A. tJ 
maining lectures will be delivered on the f oDc 
evenings, at eight o'clock : — 

Lbcturb VII. — Monday, BiASCH 17th, 187J 

On the Energy of Heat, with especial reliBreoes 
Measurement and Utilisation of it. 

The Third Course of Cantor Liectixrea fo 
present session will be ** On Winee ; their 
Suction, Treatment, and Use,*' by J. I 
Thtjdichum, Esq., M.D. The Course ^riD c 
of six lectures, the first of which will be gii 
Monday evening, the 21st of April, the renti 
fire on the Monday evenings suooeediii^. 



MSETIHGS FOB THE SHBinve 



OBDINABY MEETIN08. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetmgs have been arranged : — 

March 19. — ** On Certain ImproTements in the Manu- 
facture of Printing l^pes.** By J. R. Johnson, Esq. 

March 26. — "On the Edible Starches of Commerce, 
their Production and Consumption.*' By P. L. 
SiMMONrs, Esq. 

April 2. — "On Economy of Fuel for Domestic 
Purposes." By Capt Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.S. 

April 9. — Ko Meeting. 

April l6.->**0n the Condensed Milk Manufiscture.** 
By L P. Mbrriam, Em}. 

April 23.— *'0n Silkworm Grain." By Mona 
Alfrxd Roland (Orhe, Switaerland). On this evening 
Andrew CAsamui, £»q., will preside. 



MoK. ...SOCIETY OF ABT8, 8. Cantor 

Rigg. *' On the Enosiea of the JmpoodcrmUcs.* 

EntomoloKicttl, 7. 

British Architects, 6. 

Medical, 8. 

Asiatic, S. 

Victoria Institute, 8. Ber. H. Mouk*. ** Ob the T« 
of a Portion of the Vegetable Kii^dom to 
the Scriptures.*' 

Tubs. ...Ciril Engineers. 8. Continued Dtscoasdoa 

Railway Gauge.*' 
Btatisticai, 7}. Bfr. B. B. Martin, •* On 

Railways by the State.'* 
Royal Infititution, 3. Prof. Ruthexfiud« ** Oa t^ 

and Motions of the Body.** 
Pahological, 8. I 

Anthropological, 8. j 

Zoological, 8|. 

WKD....BOCISTY OF ARTS, 8. Mr. J. R. Jahnaaa. ^ 

Improvemento in the Manufacture of PtSBtB^ 1 
Meteorological, 7. 

Tsuas.. JEtoyal, 8&. 

Antiquaries, 8&. 

Linniean, 8. Dr. MQcke " On the * Take AH' C| 

ease of Australia.'* 
Chemical, 8. Mr. C. W. Siemens. ** On Itob aadi 
Architectural Association, 7|. Mr. Ai»#4.*<>5^ -• { 

DeooraUon.** 
Numismatic, 7. 
Royal Society Club, 6. 
Royal Institution, S. Mr. A. Yemen Harccmrt. ' 

Chemistry of Goal and its Pnduota.** 
Sodetv for the Rnoouragemeat of tike FIim» Art«j 

Tenifiirood, ** The Fxindples and Purpose of A| 

Fax Fhilolofical, 8|. 

Royal Institution, 9. Captain E. D. "LjytJtx, * 
Mythology of India*' (iUustrated by Dinolvii 
of the Temples). 

Sat Royal Botaaie, S}. 

Bona InstitatioQ, 3. Profeanr ICax ItlD^ 
Darwin's Philosophy of Tjinguagw." 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Makch 21, 1873. 



317 



mmi OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 






No. 1,061. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, MARCH 21, 1873. 




fm-tkeSoeuty should btaddreiud to tkiStcrHan, 



^ JDOVI 



rXS BT THE C0T1NCII. 




TKEIOLOeiCAL SXAXIHATIONS. 

The Programme of Examinations in the 

of some of the Arts and Manufactures 

oountry is now ready, and may be had on 

to the Seoretary. 
wbjects selected for 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
ft» Steel, and Carriage-building. Those desiring 
Jll bcoomo Candidates, should apply for the pro- 
vithout delay, as aU names must be sent 
hhkn the end of March. 

Ibe Mowing Prizes are oflEered by the Society of 

a<^ of the five subjects mentioned above : — 

Ittfce best candidate in Honours, £10. 

C lothebest candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 

k Jotbebestcandidate in the Elementary Grade, £5. 

la order that these Examinations may really be 

in promoting technical education in this 

>t is desirable that encouragement should 

Sww to candidates by the offer of additional 

■ad Bcholarships. With this object the 

' appeal to the Companies of the City of 

to merchants and manufacturers, and to 

of the Society generally, to aid them 

''"Wwting to the Prize Fund. 

^ following special additional Prizes are 

l^Wyndham S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 

^bctt Candidates in the Elementary Grade, 

"?«Maim£iMjture:— 

I ^ Piiae of £3 

APiizeof - £2 

^G. X Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
"Gndidates in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 






A Priie of £3 * 

I A Priie of £2 

I *y ti» Worshipful . Comx>any of Spectacle 
^*"» to the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 
■*• Adfanoed Grade, and in the Elementary 
^'•^ipectively, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 



^Iteof. 
^M»«f. 



£5 
£3 
£2 



6 
3 
2 



The Council beg to announce the following con 
tributions to the Prize Fund :-— 

The^^^iiahiEfolCompanyofFishmo lo 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners. . lo 10 
Ibe VVja:^ipM Company of Salters 

(annualjrrrr: 10 10 

Dr. Crace Calvert, F.R.8. (annuHl) . . . .' 5 5 

bur Daniel Coopt^r, Bart 5 

R. L. Chance, Esq !..'.'.'!! 5 5 

The Council invite the aid of masters and man- 
agers in promoting these examinations by encour- 
aging their workmen to take advantage of them. 
An explanatory handbill, suitable for being sus- 
pended in factories and workshops, may be had on 
application to the Secretary of the Society of Arts 
Adelphi, London, W.C. 













ALBEBT MEDAL. 

The Council will proceed to consider the award 
of the Albert Medal early in May next. This 
medal was instituted to reward "distinguished 
merit in promoting Arts, Manufactures, or Com- 
merce," and has been awarded as follows : — 

In 1864, to Sir Rowland Hill, K.C.B., "for his great 
service to Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, in the 
creation of tho penny postage, and for his other reforms 
m the postal system of this country, the benefits of which 
have, however, not been confined to this country, but 
have extended over the civilieed world." 

In 1866, to his Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the 
French, '* for distinguished merit in promoting, in many 
ways, by his personal exertions, the international pro- 
gress of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, the proofs 
of which are afforded by his ^'udicious patronage of Art, 
his enlightened commercial policy, and especially by the 
abolition of passports in favour of British subjects." 

In 1866, to Professor Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S., for 
" discoveries in electricity, magnetism, and chemistry, 
which, in their relation to the industries of the world, 
have so largely promoted Arts, Manufactures, and Com- 
merce." 

In 1867, to Mr. (now Sir) W. Fothergill Cooke and 
Professor (now Sir) Charles Wheatstone, F.R.8., in 
" recognition of their joint labours in establiflhing the 
first electric telegraph." 

In 1868, to Mr. (now Sir) Joseph Whitworth. F.R.8., 
LL.D., '* for the invention and manufacture of instru- 
ments of measurement and uniform standards, by which 
the production of machinery has been brought to a 
degree of perfection hitherto unapproached, to the great 
advancement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce." 

In 1869, to Baron Justus von Liebig, Associate of the 
Institute of France, Foreign Member of the Royal 
Society, Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, &c., " for 
his numerous valuable researches and writings, which 
have contributed most importantly to the development 
of food economy and agriculture, to the advancement of 
chemical science, and to the benefits deriyud from Uiat 
science by Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce." 

In 1870, to M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, '* for services 
rendered to Arts, Manufactures, aud Commerce, by the 
realisation of the Suez Canal." 

In 1871, to Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., "for his important 
services in promoting Arts, Manufactures, and Com- 
merce, especially in aiding the establishment and develop- 
ment of (ntemational Exhibitions, the development of 
Science and Art, and the South Kensington Museum." 

In 1872, to Mr. Henry Bessemer, " for the eminer' 



318 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IETT OF ARTS, Mabok 21, 187S. 



flenrices rendered by him to ArU, Manufacfcaree, and 
Commerce, in developing the mannfactore of ateeL 

The Council invite members of the Society to 
forward to the Secretary, on or before the 12th 
of April, the names of snoh men of high distinction 
as they may think worthy of this honour. 

7000 FBISXEYAnOV. 

A prooess of fo^d p i os ai r a tion, i&e invontion of 
a French gentleman, named Be la Peyronse, was 
put in praotioe a few days nnoe, at the Groffvenor 
Hotel, in the presence of a party of gentiiemen, 
with a view to test its efficacy as a means of im- 
porting meat from long distances. The prooess con- 
sists in packing the meat in barrels or jars, and en- 
veloping it in a casing of fat thoroughly impervious 
to the air. The packing of meat in fat is not new, but 
hitherto the drawback has been the rancidity and 
tallowy condition of the fat, imparting a disagree- 
able flavour to the meat. In the present instance, 
the fat employed is prepared by a special process, 
by means of which the inventor confidently expects 
to prevent decomposition and rancidity. He em- 
ploys, according to the terms of his patent, ** mix- 
tures of alkaline carbonates (monocarbonates, 
sesquicarbonates, bicarbonates), of oxides of sodium, 
potassium, or ammonium, with some alkaline or 
earthy chlorides of sodium, potassium, magnesium, 
aluminium, dissolved and put in contact by ebulli- 
tion with the fatty matters, and thereby effecting 
the melting of the fatty matters without the produc- 
tion of acids or * greaves ;' whilst at the same time 
the fatty matters separated from the membranes 
and so treated are neutral and inoxidisable** Under 
his patent, the inventor also forms solid soups by 
the mixture of this prepared fat with flour of peas, 
beans, lentils, &c., with dry meat or fresh vege- 
tables. 

In the present instance several casks and jais 
were filled with pieces of meat, some raw and some 
very slightly cooked, the object of this being to 
expel the air, and the melted fat, at a temperature 
of 300^, was poured in, the meat being so arranged 
as not to touch the sides of the vessel. This 
caused a considerable disengagement of air before 
the fat became solid. Several of these oadts were 
subsequently sealed with the Society's seal, and 
will be sent a voyage to Buenos Ayres and back, 
as a test of the efficacy of the system. 

SILK 8!TP?LT COXXITTXS. 

The Committee met on Tuesday, the 18th inst. 
Present— Mr. A. CA88EL8 (in the chair), Mr. Hyde 
Clarke, Mr. B. F. Cobb, Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart, 
and Majoi--Gen. F. Eardley-Wilmot, B.A., F.E.S. 

The Committee had before them the following 
letter: — 






« Dbab Snt, — ^By this outgoing mail I send yom mi 
cocoons of each variety of the worms yoo aent me Im 
year, viz., white Sina, yellow Tuscan, and HilanQae ; ala 
three cartoons of grain of each of same, and I now bc^ 
to report progress. On receipt they had oommmtm 
hatching, as I informed yon in mv lart. Thej eontinua 
to come oat two or three a day of each sort fbr aboot k 
weeks, bat only lived for a week or two ; then, witkoa 
any apparent cause, died of^ much to my diaaatisfailiiBi 

''After trying tiiem fbr about six weeks with m 
succeis, I dotennined to winter them, uid keep €b 
balance until our season for silkworms began hare. A 
it tamed out, I took the wisest coarse, for on bringiQ 
the grain to light they immediatdy bq^an to hatch, an 
I believe I hatched every worm, and, what is mon 
rmu^d nearly every one, as I do not think I lost tweot 
of each varie^ until they span up. 

'' As regards the different varieties, I may nuotta 
that the * white Sina,' to my mind, is moch the best, ■» 
is the one th*«t I shall adopt as my pecaliar breed. 

'* The ' Milanese ' were pretty regular, allluMi^ aiq 
what I had expected them to be. 

<* The < yellow Tuscan* are a very mixed lot If iL 
are pure, I am astonished to see each a contraat batiiij 
the various cocoons, some being of a briglit hoff ' 
and others of a bright yeUow ; the lattery ho' 
generaUy very thin and badly shaped. 

*' I also nottoe that the cocoons of all three 
are thin, bat attribute this, in a great meaam g , to 
fact that the grain whs older than it Aould have 
through my having had to winter it. I am in 
that my next crop will be greatly improved ia 
respect, as they will be out at their proper seasoD. 

<* I shall feel much obliged if you will forward 
of the grain I now send you to the different pisal 
from which the original stock came, and, if posaibla^l 
me have a report on it. 

** I am glad, also, to inform you that I have a gd 
snpply of grain for next year. If I am succeaaftil m 
it iMhall have a large stock to ^ase to send home e#<4 
variety for sale. 

'* You will note the coat of arms I diwigned and h 
printed on the back of the cartoons, whi<& I intend 
my trade-mark should I export grMin. I ahafi alaa s^ 
my name on each cartoon, as I have done on aach^ ^ 
I now forward you. 

" To secure the different breeds being tree;, I kqit eJ 
variety in separate rooms from the time they beg^ 
hatch until they had finished laying. I cm, thei^a 
guarantee that eveiy egg is as pure as the stock w 
Uiat I receiyed from you. 

*'I cannot conclude without again thanking yoa m 
your Society for the trouble you took in procotiag^ 
and this colony sach valuable stock, and trust thai 
shall show my appreciation of your kindneeK by eaoys 
the enterprise to a suoopssful isnue in thia colony. 
**■ I have the honour to be, 
« Dear Sir, 

** Toms truly, 

*' Chas. Hobxb.'* 

The "white Sina** breed, mentioned in tike M 
by Mr. Home as acclimatising well, ia a w 
valuable breed, procured with great difficolty 
the Committee, and sent out wi^ iSb» view of i 
troducing the most vj^iptoved, deeci^tiott into i 
country. 

Arrangements were directed to be aattde ; 
rearing some of the grain at the I ntmim tioB 
Exhibition. 

The Secretary reported thai he had talnn at 
for displaying at the IntemalmBl AAfiiB 



.^L—^m 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 21, 187S. 



319 



TnMwfaotnied by MeMin. J?Mm and 
-rf WMBfawiaid, at ih» request of the Com- 
froB iQk grown and reeled at Stellenbosoh, 
rf Good Hope, under the auspices of Dr. 
, hy whoae means this industry has been 
there and the filature established. The 
tbi« grown and reeled is estimated in the 
to be equal in quality to the Lower Italian 
•nd worth 38s. per lb., and manufaoturera 
gladlj take all the silk that can be sent of 
quality. 

Daniel CSooper reported the successful results 
NdTs experiment in conyeying seed from 
to Aostnlia, and maintaining an artificial 
through tiie tropics by means of peculiarly 

refiigperators. 

great object obtained by these means is to 

fiw Maaons of the antipodes coincide with 

«f Enrc^, and ihua enable the colcmists to 

gndns or seed to the European market at 

pordiases are made for the silk campaign, 

guins to hatch naturally in the European 

and not at the time of the Australian spring 

autumn. Hitherto this has been the 

£fficulty in the disposing of Australian- 

gnin, via., that the natural time for the 

teappear was in the European autumn ; and 

iHoedbythe application of heat to hatch 

having gone through the period of hy ber- 

the worms were^ sickly and either died or 

eoooona. 
Hcfl is distributing the grain in Sydney and 
and it wiQ be a matter of much interest 
the result of the first campaign and the 
of the produce. The Mtiboume Argus 
that one of the directors of the Peninsular 
Company had promised to send one 
largest steamers to bring home the grain 
•s it was ready, but as it requires a good 
■OQB of grain to fill a 4,000 ton steamer, 
' ttkxugtB must moderate their aspirations for 
llMUil, at least ; in the meantime they may 
on their success thus far. 



FBIZS FOB 8TBSL. 

i IStt Council have resolved to award the Gk>ld 
^oftbe Society to the manufacturer who shall 
nd send to tiie London International 
of 1873 the best collection of specimens 
nitaUe for general engineering purposes. 
Ihe ^Moimens exhibited must include a com- 
of the applications of the varieties 
lobinitted. 

manufacturer should send with his 
a itstemeot of the nature of the tests 
to ea<di kind of steel submitted, and 
■wdi tests. 



4. The samples tested are to be exhibited 
together with duplicate samples, or portions of the 
same samples ; these w€l be submitted to tests 
should the Council consider it desirable. 

5. All persons using steel for general engineer- 
ing purposes, who are not manufacturers of such 
steel, are also invited to exhibit specimens on the 
above terms and conditions. 

6. The Coimdl reserve to themselves the right 
of withholding the premium, in the event of the 
specimens exhibited not being sufficiently meri- 
torious. 



PEOCEEDIHGS OF THE SOCIETTj 



INDIA OOmiTTES. 

A Conference was held on Friday evening, 14th 
inst., at 8 p.m., Sir Heioiy Cbeswigkb Baw- 
UNSON. F.B.S.,, F.B.G.S., in the chair. 

The Chairman, in opening the proceedings, said it 
ooold hardly be neceasiirv for him to go through the 
formality of introducing Mr. Shaw to the meeting, be- 
oaofle he thought most of the members present must be 
acquainted with him from his writings. He would, 
however, mention that Mr. Shaw was the only English- 
man living who hud ever visited the city of ^ashghar, 
in CeHtriil Asia. Mr. Shaw's first visit to that country 
was in the character of an enterprising man with com- 
mercial views. He took upon himself to make a journey 
from Cashmere into Thibet, a most spirited, and, be must 
Sty, a dangerous undertaking, for the mere purpose of 
seeing what commercial opening there was. It 
so happened that Mr. Hayward, who was engaged 
on a similar expedition, was there also, and they 
were together at Tarlamd, although he believed 
they never saw each other until their return. Ou his 
return to India, Mr. Shaw reported to the government 
the result of his travels, and under the enlightened policy 
of the late lamented Viceroy, Lord Mayo, he was ap- 
pointed to accompany Mr. Douglas Forsyth on a mission, 
which, though not called a political mission, was so in 
reality. On that occasion, in company with Mr. For83rth, 
he again visited Tarkand. The governor of the counti^, 
the Atalik Ghazee, was at that time engaged on a dis- 
tant ezpedit-ion, 700 or 800 miles from Tarkand, and 
under the stringent instructions which accompanied the 
mission, neither Mr. Forsyth nor Mr. Shaw were able to 
remain there till his return. Accordingly, they came 
back to Calcutta, and reported to the ffovemment 
generally on the result of the mission. Mr. Shaw, 
consequently, had great experience of Central Asia, 
not merely the experience of a traveller, but that of a 
confidential political adviser. He might also say, judg- 
ing from the papers he had sent to the Geographical 
Society, that ne was an acute observer, and a trust- 
worthy reporter, and any information that he had 
brought over might be thoroughly relied upon. 

The paper read was on — 

ENGLAND AND CENTRAL ASIA. 

By Bobsrt B. Bhaw. 

I appefiur before you this evening to cany out a 
promise which I made to the King of Eastern 
Turkistan when I visited him at his capital of 
Kashghar. That chief inquired of me particularly 



320 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 21, 1873. 



wliat were the sentiments of England with regard 
to him. I could not then tell him much on that 
point. In fact, had I told the entire truth, I 
should have had to say that the people of England 
in general knew very little about him or his 
kingdom. But I promised that I would do my 
best to make my countrymen know how he had 
brought the coimtry now subject to his rule, 
which was formerly notorious Jn Asia for its 
unruHness, into a condition of order and stability. 
I also promised to declare his friendly dispositions 
towards the English, and his desire for intercourse 
and commercial relations. 

It is a strange spectacle to see the Prince of 
the hitherto mysterious and inaccessible region 
of inner Asia stepping forward out of the dark- 
ness, and demanding that his country shall be 
received into the comity of nations. It would be 
still more strange if England did not welcome 
him ; but, fortimately, there is no fear of that. 
The favourable reception given to his overtures of 
friendship by the late Viceroy of India, Lord 
Mayo, has led to the despatch of other envoys 
from Kashghar, who have been well received in 
India, and there seems every prospect of a per- 
manent friendship being established between the 
two powers. 

But still there are many erroneous opinions to 
be got rid of on both sides. On his part he has to 
be convinced, as I endeavoured to do when I had 
the opportunity, that England has no intention of 
overstepping the mighty moimtain barrier which 
nature has placed between his dominions and ours 
— a barrier capable of the most complete defence 
against force from either side, but yet penetrated 
in such a manner by rivers, and so accessible by 
easy routes, that it forms no obstacle to peaceful 
commerce or to unopposed entrance. 

On our side we have even more delusions to part 
with. In those regions, as in so many others, war 
has its chroniclers, but peaceful progress has none. 
The brilliant exploits of great conquerers, the con- 
flicts of the military and wandering classes, and of 
their ambitious leaders, have attracted our eyes 
and blinded us to the condition and disposition of 
the mass of the peaceable and stable population 
which all the time has been pursuing its avoca- 
tions, and effacing the marks of war. One most 
striking proof of this is visible in travelling through 
Eastern Turkistan. Instead of findmg, as in 
Northern India, everj' village a sort of petty fort, 
all the houses crowded together for protection, and 
presenting outwardly a blank wall, with one or two 
narrow entrances, the traveller in Kashghar and 
Yarkand finds open farmsteads scattered about 
over a smiling land, and the villages un walled and 
straggling, an unmistakable sign that the country 
has practically enjoyed security during a long 
period. 

It is this side of the Central Asian character to 
which I desire chiefly to draw your attention. We, 
at a distince, hear of nothing but wars and 
rumours of wars from that region, till we fancy it 
a kind of volcano, always ready for eruption, 
whose crater every now and then gives forth de- 
structive lava torrents, which are only a ft ir ex- 
ample of the confusion that is raging within it. 
It is only a personal visit and a nearer acquaint- 
ance that shows us how superflcial this view is, 
and how much better the state of affairs in Central 



Asia could be compared to that of a blast furnace, 
where, although flames and apparent oonfosioi) 
reign on the top, yet the valuable metal is being 
produced below. I will first attempt to gire a 
slight sketch of Eastern Turkistan. 

In speaking of Tartary we are hardly prepared 
to hear of a well-cultivated country full of settled 
habitations, and containing flourishing cities of 
more than 80,000 inhabitants, where many of iho 
arts of civilisation are carried on. Security of life 
and property exists ; commerce is protected ; li^t 
carts drawn by horses frequent the roads ; markets 
are held on a fixed day of the week even in the 
smallest villiages. In the towns extensive bazirs, 
covered in against the rays of the sun, contain rows 
of shops where goods of every sort and from every 
coimt^ are e^bited. In Yarkand alone there 
are sixty colleges, with endowments in land, for 
the education of students of Mussulman law and 
divinity, while every street contains a priman' 
school attached to a mosque, where turbaned row* 
of young true believers may be seen and heard 
daSy at their first lessons of reading and wrilang. 
Different quarters of the town are set apart for 
the sale of different wares. In one street will he 
f oimd spread out the silks of China, in another the 
cotton goods and prints of Bussia, while a third 
will contain the robes made up of both materials, 
three or four of which form uie ordinary dress of 
the Turkis. Further on you meet with sugar from 
Bussia, tea, spices, and all kinds of foreign produce. 
In another part are the butchers, who offer a choice 
of horse-flesh, camel, beef, or mutton. The first 
is rather a luxury, but the two last are most 
abimdant, selling at about one penny a pound. 
Next are the bakers, who make most excellent 
light loaves by a process of steaming the bread. 
The sellers of country produce supply vegetabla 
of many kinds ; such as cabbage, turnip, lettuce, 
carrots, &c., besides cream, nearly as thick as that 
of Devonshire, also a peculiar preparation of curds, 
and delicious cream-cheeses. At another place you 
can get sherbet made of fruit, which you can cool 
at every street comer from stalls for the sale of ice, 
which has been pitted in the winter. There an3 
tea-shops where the great urns are ever steanimg* 
and eating-houses where business-men can ?«* 
their midday j)ilao. Elsewhere are horse and 
cattle markets; in fact it would be impossible t^i 
enumerate all. 

Eastern Turkistan (or, as it used to be called on 
our maps, Chinese Tartary) resembles a huge bay, 
with its mouth turned to the cast, and shut in ou 
every side by gigantic chains of mountains. -^ 
broad desert, thirty days' journey in extent, 
occupies its mouth, and separates it from China, oi 
which empire it was, until recently, a possession, 
This desert sucks up aU the rivers of Turkistan 
which die away in marshes and lakes, or form < 
vast jungle of scrub- wood, where they disappear 
under the sand. 

Both the northern range, which is a continuntioi 
of the Thian-Shan, and the southern, which maj 
be called the Him^ayan system, converge toward 
one another as they run westward, and unite in I 
vast protuberance, or boss, supporting the hijri 
plateau of Pamir, "which the natives call the "Bam 
i-dunya," or " Upper Floor of the World.'* 

This protuberance, however, is of irregular shap^ 
and north of it there runs back a kind of scoondari 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maboh 21, 1873 



321 



F=^ 



ptittiieiqmer comer of the great bay, to whioh 
mfikenea Eastem Turldstan. At the mouth 
JiB iDDflr bay stand the town of Tnnghissar 
' tfce city of K&shghar, the political capital of 
loocntry, as Yarkand is its commercial capital. 
\hmg vnna are poshed out under the northern 
[•oujbem ranges of mountains, between them 
tthe great denert. These arms are formed by 
[prormoe of Ehoten, on the south, and those of 
' "TuxUa, Aksu, Euch^, &o., on the north. Thus 
inhabited country resembles a orescent in 
Iform, ittconrex side guarded by mountains, 
tb eoncave occupied by desert. Its general 
"liooof 4,000 or d,000 feet above the sea-level, 
inme of the peaks around rise to an altitude 
than 20,000 feet, as well as can be judged 
actual measurement. 
talking of the northern and southern 
of Eastern Turkistan, we must remem- 
thffj are by no means simple ranges, like 
I or the Pyrenees, which can be crossed by 
> pus. They are rather complex systems of 
compoaed of many chains, and enolos- 
[Msderable countries within their valleys, 
tnd Cashmere are examples of this, 
t l^aases have to be crossed in travelling from 
Lto Turidstan, an4 of these passes only two 
than the summit of the Mont Blanc, 
northern mountain boundary of Eastern 
n is almost equally complex, excepting 
its western ena, where omy a single wall 
is left between the Kashgar territories 
I upfer valleys of the River Jaxartes, whose 
rooone is now held by the Russians. 

portion of the great mountain barrier 

Moipies, as it were, the head of the bay, 

^Auts it in on the west, is not less complex 

Numerous vfdleys penetrate into 

and from west, forming secluded hill- 

Mpacated by lofty ridges, while the inter- 

V parts are occupied by elevated steppes, in 

'(i», almost intermixedly, the streams which 

tite Oxns on the one side and the Yarkand 



The Russian advance has also blocked the mouth 
of the northern bay, containing the head of the 
Jaxartes, and the Khanate of Kliokand (or what 
remains of it) is thus enclosed between the Russian 
frontier and the mountains of Kashghar, and is 
thus entirely cut off from all communication with, 
or support &om, Bokhara. 

I will now briefly point out the principal ap- 
proaches to Eastern Turkistan, begining at Kulja, 
the scene of Russia's latest advance in this direction. 
In 1871 she occupied this district, and she is now 
only separated from Zungariabyahilly region which, 
I am credibly informed, on native authority, is 
passable for carts. Now, although Kulja is 
separated by difficult snowy mountains from 
Eastern Turkistan, yet these mountains die away 
to the east, and from that point Russia has it in 
her power to push her advance or her trade in two 
directions over level country, either eastward to 
China, or westward to Turkistan. 

Next, the Muzat Pass, leading between Aksu and 
Russian Kulja, lies over a formidable glacier, 
where I am assured that 40 men are kept at work 
in the summer roughing the ice for the passage of 
the caravans. 

The Artush Pass leads over the same range from 
Kashghar to the Russian station of Yemoje, de- 
scendmg into the valley of the Naryn (the head of 
the Jaxartes river), where the Russians have built 
a fort. Baron Osten-Sacken, who lately visited it, 
has described the route. It appears to be ex- 
tremely mountainous and difficult, crossing many 
high ridges and descending into deep gorges, but 
if we are to believe the Russian accoimts, their 
engineers have been at work on the road, and have 
ipade it passable for artillery up to the Turkistan 
h*ontier. South of that point there are no great 
difficulties, though a native fort, armed with ten 
guns, was being constructed there at the time of 
my visit to Elashghar, the king himself superin- 
tending the work. 

The Terek is the next pass. It leads into the 
still independent remnant of Khokand. It is only 



«L the other. This peculiarity makes the^rused in winter, owing to the obstacles interposed 



Honntain mass far easier to traverse from 

1^ vest than from north to south, a fact 

W an important bearing on the trade 

I ^V* 

described the mountain boundary of 
Torkirtan, it will be convenient to extend 
[■joiries briefly to the countries immediately 
Thus, on the west we may again bring 
^l^iBxpaiison of a sea running into bays. One 
L wlttgest bay, the Southern, is occupied by 
•^•i-^^aters of the Oxus, or Amoo, and the 
**y is the valley of tiie Upper Jaxartes, 
►»arcw extend back in a line parallel to, and 
» north of, those of the Kashghar River, 
(twohays, or basins, are separated by a pro- 
f moontain region, which gives birth to a 
>nd intermediate river, the Zarafshan, or 
*-«atterer,'* so called from its fertilising 
^^ucb, indeed, are drawn upon to such an 
HFeanaU, that the river it&lf is drained 
i; at its own cost the rich cultivation 

|*ffl observe that tho Russians have secured 
•^ the upper portion of the Zarafshan 
ffcit 8imarcand, and thus command the 
^*ta» Bokhara depends for existence. 



by the streams in summer. But at that season 
there is an alternative route further south, so that, 
practically, traffic is not entirely stopped for long 
at a time. This is the chief route by which 
Russian merchandise reaches Eastern Turkistan, 
and appears to have been the usual road taken 
by tho Mongol and Tartar invaders from the 
east. 

A little to the south of Yang-hissar I saw a 
deep valley, reaching into the heart of the moun- 
tains, and was informed that by it an easy road 
led across the Pamir into Kolab. The envoy from 
that principality was at Yang-hissar with a large 
camp, which had just come by that route, and his 
fine large horses seemed in no way to have suffered 
from tho transit. Apropos of this route. Col. 
Yule, whose name carries the greatest weight in 
any inquiry concerning these regions, writes to me 
as follows : — ** Don't you begin to think it likely 
that your Yang-hissar gap is the old Soric route ? 
It certainly corresponds on the Western side to the 
hill country of the Comedee." If this be the case we 
have here one of the oldest trade-routes in exist- 
ence — ^that by which, in the time of the Roman 
Empire, the goods of China reached the western 
world, acoordmg to Ptolemy ; but it is not much 



322 



JOURNAL ^F THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Maboh 21, 1878. 



used in the preseoot day, probaUy owing to 
politioal reasons. 

South of this again, or about south-west from 
Taxkand, runs a road regarding wluoh we have of 
late years been seeking and fin£ng much informa- 
tion, and to which the public attention has been 
lately drawn, I mean toe route leading through 
Walman. This, at the present moment, is periiaps 
the chief land route between the east and the west 
of Asia, or, at least, of Central Asia ; and by the 
arrangement recently concluded with Russia, it has 
been retained in the bands of our ally, the King of 
Kabul. What makes it the more interesting to us 
is the fact that it also contains a side-door into 
Ladia. The long valley of Chitral may be said to 
be the only valley leading from the level of the 
plains right up to the back-bone of the great 
mountain system which forms the watershed 
between India and Central Asia. It is the only 
route on« which there is only one pass between 
these two vast basins, and that a very easy pass. 
And here I cannot help referring to the curious 
dearth of geograi>hioal information in the English 
press. Our newapn^iers seem utteiiy to ignore the 
fact that any £nglish travellers have visited 
Central Asia. The travds of Captain Wood, 35 
years ago, have only just begun to dawn upon 
their vision. And even with regard to points dose 
to our own Indian frontier, our public instructors 
seem to be dependent for information on Berlin 
and Yienna. An extraordinaiy statement has 
lately preceded from an eminent military and 
geographical authority in the latter capital. 
Gez^ral von Hanslab states t^at the mountains 
marked in previous maps between Badakhshan 
and Ladfik do not esiUI I, who have lived in 
Lad&k, and seen peaks of 28,000 feet in the 
region between it and Badakhshan, am scarody 
inclined to subscribe to General von Hauslab^s 
opinion. 

It is true the passage of the range is easy, 
but we must not misunderstand this fact, as some 
writers lately have. In these regions such is the 
physical character of the mountains that the actualJ 
passage across the watershed is the least of the^ 
difficulties of the routes. The terrible Karakoram 
itself, as regards the actual pass, might be taken 
for a mere railway embankment to be climbed over. 
The gorges on both sides, leading to these elevated 
regions, form the real difficulties. 

Many of my hearers know the St. Qothard Pass. 
To compare great things with small, the ap- 
proaches to the passes in Central Asia are like the 
gorge of the Devil's-bridge, while the water- 
parting itself resembles the plain of Andermatt 
and Hosp^ithal, from which the descent is by a 
eontmuous'* via mala." This, enlargedinto hundreds 
of miles of road, is the character of these routes 
with few exceptions, and certainly the approach to 
Wakhan from the north is not one of uiese ex- 
oeptions. The main river Oxus, rising in Wakhan, 
afterwards turning northwards, makes its way out 
through gorges which are simply impassable, imless 
it is m exceptional years, when the rapid river 
freezes hsurd enough to bear travellers on its ice 
for a few days. cSiptain Wood*s description is not 
inviting. He met the remnants of a party of 
travellers, most of whose companions had been 
destroyed by an avalanche on this route. * * Nothing 
more was seen of them ; every man, every animal, 



was in an instant overwhelmjad and destroy e d," he 
says. 

Thus ihe caravans from the east, after leamg 
Wakhan, beinff prevented from following down Hi 
course of the Oxus, are oldiged to cross oyer the 
mountains westward, into Badakhahan. Thewhole 
of this important route, therefore, indnding tlte 
side-door into India, is within the temtory 
reserved to our allies, the Afghans, and by oar 
influence with them we can keep it open to the 
commerce and traffic of the wond, unfettered bj 
monopoly or |»ohibitive duties. * 

I now come to the last of the great routes into 
Eastern Turkistan, that which passes through the 
country of our tributary, the Miuiarajaof Guikmir. 
Although the band of mountains is here Terj wide, 
yet for purposes of roads and traffic we can wf 
that only about one-quarter of this width is le^y 
(^ an Alpine character, and through this portioB 
an excellent mule-road has been constanoted by 
the Indian govonment. Beyond that p(»nt the 
general charact^ of the country is that of roUnx 
hills and plateaux, all at a high level, bat with 
such easy gradi^its and in such a rainksB sod 
snowless climate that there are few road difficulties 
to be encountered. The worst part of it naed to be 
north of the Indus, wha« ocmsiderable elevaiiow 
and depressions were encountered, culminating m 
the great Karakoram pass, where for four or fire 
days' march the cattle were dependent on the sop- 
plies which they carried with them. But it hil 
been found that by goiBg rouxid a little ^^ 
east the heads of streams can be tamed or oroM 
at a high level, while the supply diffioultf is softf 
diminished that there is only oae dsafi mardi 
actually without gsass tor an oidinmy-sised ok»- 
van. 

To complete our view of the principal phyacM 
features of Eastern Turkistan we must oooflder it4 
rivers. These, rising in aU parts of the Baountui 
boundary, collect into two main arteries, the Bivf9 
of Yarkand and that of Eashghar (the Tumsn) 
These, again, unite further east, and finally d» 
f^pear in the desert, giving rise first to dai4 
jungles, and farther on to swamps and lakes, il 
which they are lost at a level of about 2,000 fed 
The most cultivated districts are between 4,000 anj 
5,000 feet above the sea, or the same height s 
Cashmir. The chief depression or trough of ^ 
drainage runs nearer the Northern than th 
Southern mountains. 

Central Asia, even more than Egypt, is denenden 
on its rivers. Wherever a rill of water can beWigi 
the fertility is amazing ; but all around is a how] 
ing waste. As in Hmland the very existence <i 
the country depends on the care with whidi th 
canals and dams are regulated, so it is in Centra 
Asia, only the object of the care is exactly the« 
verse. In Holland the water has to be remoTec 
in Turkistan it has to be brought cm to the to 
This fact in itself ^ill show us -Uiat tiie inhabitax^ 
of Central Asia must connst of other dsM 
besides the wild hordes of depredators of who] 
we chiefly hear. Without the constant indnsta 
of a numerous and laborious peasantry, the counts 
must have become waste m a very few ye«J 
This is more e^iecially the case in Eastci 
Turkistan, where the rsonfidl does not exceed 
few inches in the year, and where the rivers <i 
scanding from the snows of the Pamir moontail 



JDUBNAL OF TBI 80GIETT OF ARTS, March 21, 1878. 



38» 



ll|||ytffaofeB6iwofiL of cmnailw. IhftveofliSB 
aalknetf mote artifioial waAer-ooimes c roW' 
OM mother i4 diflbrant lovols to supply 
leldB, tnd the caltxraton aie even 
(m an empurioal miunier probably) 
tfe ffphon principle, by which they make 
Mien of ft canal deeoend under a roadway 
[iJM Mp again to the aama level on the otiiier 



tee is any ezoeptiofi in Central Asia to this 
off Batoral sterility OTeroome by hnman in- 
r. it ii in Badakbahan and Andijan, or the 
the head of the Ozns and Jaxartes. 
fart BMMintain rang^es atteaot the douds, 
' itiiamclnefly from the west, and compel 
ilb&eharse the waters with which tlMy are 
jai whiw from this high natural reservoir 
east and west by the rivers to 
or rather to create, the countries on each 
ttm the western flanks of these mountains 
Iknd by frequent showers, and enjoy a 
~ besnty and fertility which has been ex- 
i% all travellers. Marco Polo and Oapt. 
' tte lood in their psaises, and an Afghan 
ssed the same fact to me br 
-**B6sattfQl i» Hindostan, beautiful is 
is London (I stropose in compli- 
\h ay nationality}, but the most lovely of 
tlMikhihan.'' 

probable that these provinces may have 
tSoropeans an earlier and a stronger interest 
which they have lately acquired as being 
land betwixt India and Bussia. For 
f^ go to show that they form the 
oentie of dispersion af the great 'Indo- 
noe, or at any rate of its Eastern 
The farther back we trace the migrations 
ffindos and Persians, the nearer, in both 
^^ we get to the western slopes of the 
Mmtiuns ; and the further back we trace 
[BOW d i ver gent languages, the nearer do they 
to one another, till they at last point to 
nee of some mother tongue from which 
^^RDB most have q>rung. But in this very 
^ vfasie we had lost the traces of ihe early 
>nd Persians through the haae of an- 
we now find ancient and broken tribes 
i& nchtded valleys (the common retreat 
' noes], and speaking dialects which, 
•i cut be judged by scanty vocabularies, 
•haort as mudi of the Iniiaa as of the 
tflristics. The latter prevail 
iWakhaa, Shighnan, ^., petty hill-states 
upper Oxus, and the former among the 
IMes tooth of the Indian watershed, 
.he ooQoeived what a vast field of inquiry 
^^^xnt these flacta open up in these regions, 
Mi with whidi ^e temporary interest of 
[^^^vy <piestion i» as nothing 
»wt inat now come to the main population 
TaddstAn, whsc^ consists of two great 
_<fco waadcKing and the settled. The 
*<>9T the wh<^e of the western and 
■oufctaiiis, and of the valleys leadinjg 
B, where th^ wander about with their 
^ Bt^ is the old nomad spirit extinct 
tkat the chief of one of the smaU 
with whom I came in contact told 
^, Jhat he had been in communication 
^Mhnn of the nuiiB horde in the Alaa 



I 



fltnipe, and that they had been so inconvenienced 
and straigbt^medinthJair present pastures, that if tha 
English would only give the word they would 
move down in their thousands with tiieir families, 
their tents, and their cattle, and nomadise in 
British territory. Of course I begged him not 
to thmk of it, as we should not be at all anxious 
to receive such numerous guests. Their religion 
(though they are nomintJly Mussulmans) and 
civilisation are both of a very primitive nature. 
They chiefly trade by barter. One of them, after 
examining carefully anew *' Henry " Express rifle in 
my possession, gravdy bid me 17 head of cattle for 
it---of the lonff-haired breed called *' yaks.*' But 
even under these conditions the native traders 
make a considerable profit in the commerce witii 
these nomads, who are all dressed in outer clothing 
made of a mixture of silk and cotton of brilliant 
patterns. The Kirghiz are replaced further east, 
beyond Karashahr, b^ tribes of the same race, but 
of Sh&man or Buddhist faith, whom their neigh- 
I hours call Ealmaks. The mightiest chief of these 
I tribes is a woman, who is said to be very' rich. 
She wears such a number of gold ornaments in her 
hair that she has to be alwa^ followed by two pages 
to support the weidit. This Queen of the Kalmaks 
lately made an o&r of marriage to her ally, or 
suaerain, the King of Eastern Turkistan, whidi he 
refused on account of her religion. It is said that 
this has caused a considerable coolness between 
the two powers, and that the Xalmaks generally 
espouse the quarrel of their Queen. However, 
their interests are too much bound up with Eastern 
Turkistan to allow of a permanent estrangement 
from such a cause. 

That these rich nomads, however, would be no 
bad customers of ours is shown by a proverb 
current in Central Asia, '* Qive the Kalmak cotton- 
doth, and the Chinaman soft words,*' viz., what 
each has the greatest desire for. 

If this is ute case with the wandering tribes, 
much more is it so with the settled inhabitants, 
with their large cities, their numerous trades, 
their highlydeveloped agriculture, their productive 
country, and, above all, their mercantile energy, 
which, from the eariiest times, has led the inhabit- 
ants of these regions to confront every difficulty 
and danger of the most distant journeys in pursuit 
of gain. 

The following will show the amount of life 
and prosperity which I found prevailing amongst 
a people whom we, if we have thought of them 
at adl, have been accustomed to look upon as 
wild and uncouth barbarians, driven by the poverty 
of their own barren steppes into constant inroads 
on their more civilised neighbours. 

Once past the band of desert (varying from 10 
to 20 males in width) which slopes down from the 
foot of the mountains, the traveller enters a culti- 
vated country, where in spring — as I saw it on my 
return — a broad sea of green wheat stretches right 
and left, running into little bays and arms between 
the scattered nurmhouses and hamlets, each 
surrounded by its orchard in full blossom. So 
numerous are these orchards that they close the 
view a few hundred yards from the eye. The 
productions are nearly the same as those of Cash- 
mere. Apples, pears, apricots, peaches, mulberries^ 
walnuts, mdons, and even grapes, grow to perfec- 
tion (the vines being buried in winter on aooouni 



3^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. March 21, 1873. 



of the frost); while the chief crops are wheat, 
btirley, Indian com, and lucerne, which two latter 
are the universal feed of the horses. Cotton, flax, 
and hemp are also much cultivated, though neither 
of the latter for their fibre. 

The roads are often crowded with people. I left 
the town of Karg^alik on the morning of the 
weekly market, which is held in every viBage and 
town of Turkistan, The coimtry people were 
flocking in from all directions, bringing the pro- 
duce of their farms for sale. There was hardly 
one of all the multitude that was not moimted, 
even though it were upon a donkey. Rosy-cheeked 
farmers* wives and daughters, sometimes two on a 
horse, or mounted behind their husdands or fathers, 
and carrying their baskets of eggs or of butter : 
boys driving their flies of donkeys, and always 
riding on the hindmost ; farm-servants, taking in 
horses or cows for sale ; merchants, with bales of 
goods ; covered carts, with one horse in the shafts and 
two or three abreast as leaders ; beggars with their 
tall caps stnd with calabashes by their side (even 
they often beg on horseback I) ; all these poured past 
us in a continuous stream for several nules. Tlien 
the crowd on the road began to get less dense, but 
we could still see parties of people in single flle 
converging ^ong bye-paths towards the road. 
Now, all this population is supported on land 
which but for artiflcial watering would be a bare 
desert. Many of the rivers are s^solutely drained 
of their water for the beneflt of the thirsty fields, 
even before reaching the great Desert, which 
would, at any rate, engulf them. Canals are the 
life of the country, and are felt to be so important 
that even the ruler himself, Yakoob Beg, was, 
during my stay at Kashgar, engaged personally in 
the construction of one. He used to visit it daily, 
working often with his own hands at the excava- 
tion, to encourage his soldiers who were employed 
at the work. His care is not confined to canals ; 
new roads are being made and bridges erected by 
his orders ; rest-houses for travellers and wells in 
the desert are being constructed. Almost all these 
works are being carried out by the troops, whom he 
keeps well paid and moderately employed, thus 
turning into a channel of public utility those rest- 
less energies which formerly found vent in constant 
insurrections against the Chinese, and undid the 
labours of the industrious classes whom they now 
assist. 

I must say I brought away with me, from a 
seven months' residence among the people of 
Turkistan, a far more favourable idea of their 
character than I had arrived with. The lower 
classes are contented, industrious, and friendly 
to strangers. Their kind-heartedness was testified 
to by an unfortimate Indian who had been captured 
with his companions by some savage tribes on the 
confines of Cashmir, and brought over by 
Badakhshee slave-merchants for sale in Yarkand. 
After describing the hardships and brutalities that 
he had suflered from his masters on the road, he 
grew quite pathetic in his account of the kindness 
he had received from the peasants at whose houses 
they put up when once they entered Turkistan. 
The good-natured farmers* wives would bring him 
out warm food, most grateful to one who had been 
half -starved for many weeks ; while the children 
smuggled out blankets to wrap himself in, which, 
however, the slave-merchants would sometimes 



discover and deprive him of. Finally, on reaching 
Yarkand, he was released by the governor anu 
taken into the King's service. 

Nor are the upper classes entitled to a le» 
favourable verdict. Though, of course, tincturfd 
with a little oriental duplicity, yet, socially, no onf 
can be more pleasant. The Envoy who has just 
arrived in Calcutta, and who is an old friend of 
mine, is a type of an ag^reeable, gentlemanly, well- 
educated man ; a firm believer in his own religion 
(indeed, he is considered rather a holy man], but 
perfectly tolerant to other people's faith. 

The abolition of the slave-trade should secure 
the sympathy of Englishmen with a native Asiatic 
power whidi, entirely without pressure from 
without, and solely in obedience to its own notions 
of right and wrong, has taken a step similar to that 
which is reckoned one of the chief triumphs of 
Christianity in the 19th century. During the 
Chinese nue, there were open markets in all the 
towns of Eastern Turkistan where male or female 
slaves were exhibited for sale like cattle. One of 
the first acts of the present ruler, the AtalikGhaii, 
was to close these markets. It is traethejean> 
still domestic slaves in many households, but theirs 
is a very mitigated kind of servitude, and it was 
long before I could discover which were the shi>'es 
and which were the free servants, so similar was 
their treatment. The regular trade, however, 
with all the horrors that are necessary to supply 
it, is done away with. 

The security of life and proj)erty is veiy re- 
markable for an Eastern State. When I first went 
there I thought it necessary to be constantly armfd 
and accompanied by armed servants. The second 
time I did not even carry a revolver. Rich cara- 
vans are met on the roads, attended by two or 
three unarmed men. One only theft occurred to 
my party, and that was of a thermometer which 1 
had left outside attached to a tree, and it was 
restored as soon as I inquired for it. 

Altogether the hospitality of the Toorkis and 
their kind treatment of a stranger like me, who 
came among them without any claim whatever 
on them, render me disinclined to accept blindl.^ 
the very unfavourable accounts which the Bussian^ 
give us of the same people, whom they choose tt^ 
stigmatise as impracticable barbarians. It is ^ 
case of the lion painted by the man. That th^ 
Central Asiatics hold a different view of their rei 
lations with their neighbours is shown by th^ 
following little allegory, which was told mo ifl 
Yarkand, and which may be called the native vie^ 
of the Central Asian question : — 

One day while the Archangel Gabriel was keep- 
ing the gate of Heaven, a man presented hinisdi 
for admission. ** Who are you ?** inquired Gabriel 
** I am a Eussian," he replied, ** and desire to pre- 
sent myself before the throne of Allah.** On being 
admitted he bowed himself down and said, " Oh 
AUah, we Bussians are the only people that honoW 
thee in the right way, therefore give us th< 
dominion of the whole earth, that we may mak* 
all serve thee aright.** Allah repHed, *' Have yo^ 
not already your vast empire, which I have givel 
you ? What have you to do with more ? Qo thj 
way.'* In like manner the Englishman came, an< 
begged for universal rule. But Allah replied H 
him, ** Have you not your ships and your gun 
with which you rule the entire seas? Go, an 



JOUBNAL OF THB SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 21, 187S. 



325 




hi^ lAd If already youiB.'* Snailar answers 
«Bi mm to repreaeiitatETes of France, China, 
kk W of all oame ike Toork (or Tartar of 

lalnl Abm) and proetrated himaelf in silenoe 

bin iht throne. Allah raised him up and said, 

^Ini poor fellow, have neither empire nor 

nor dtfremess ; you are a prey to the 

." Then, turning to the Archangel 

ADah said, "Here let him rest, in the 

of my throne.*' 

tbttdsim to the character of injured innocence 

[7 aa little represents the entire facts as do 

wws of their opponents. But it is at least 

to b»Te the one to aid us in correcting the 

As yet we have never heard more than 

ade of the question. It would be strange if it 

ftDt oootain some exaggeration. 

Ve are often told now that the only way in 

Central Asia can become ciyilised and 

out to the rest of the world is by the 

of RoBsian conquest. Without trenching on 

pound, we may inquire whether the character 

present rule, at least in Eastern Turkistan, 

oat any hope of success by more peaceable 

country was ten years ago rescued from 
ky grasp of Chinese isolation, which had 
QD it for a c^itury. In 1864 it freed itself 
this foreigD paralysing yoke, and has since 
* * in a career of progress under a ruler, 
itaiik'Ghasee, who has produced the most 
bi internal order asid security, while trying 
■BhiTate friendship ^with his neighbours. 
K his Chinese predecessors, who employed 
power in keeping the country secluded from 
xmne with all other nations, the present 
ha6 abeady sent down three several Envoys 
ite OS to Tint his country ; and these advances 
Wn suitably received by us. If we inquire 
^tW immediate cause of these overtures on his 
J^ must ascribe them in a great measure to 
I produced in Central Asia by Lord Mayors 
reception of the Amir Sher Ali at Umballa. i 
are much looked up to all over those 
1 aa a military nation, and the fact that their 
[had diown siidficient confidence in the Eng> 
S kaye his own kingdom and visit the Viceroy 
' interior of India, had a most striking effect 
Ij&er native potentates, and at once opened 
*«art8 to us. That Sher Ali should have 
tt all was strange, but that he shoiQd re- 
■fchr without the English taking any ad- 
({ecn his position, this at once proved us to 
^ woatme in our magnanimi^. A few 
>*fter die news reached Kashghar, the first 
'm mtt from Eastern Turkistan to India 
OB the scene. Other predisposing causes 
^ttjhave been, but it was this (the visit of 
into Lord Mayo) that broke the ice. 
[•■Mt here forbear referring to the favourable 
^ onr Huasulman fellow-subjects in India 
^ ^ nght of all these Envoys coming 
pandentprineesof Islam to court the friend- 
I* <*r Viceroy. The Mussulman kingdoms of 
m Aia, witii Bokhara at their head, are 
jJ^pttPOTerbially as "the strength of Islam 
[■« Btt& ; •* and their conduct towards us 
Wk fie small effect in influencing the 
y fteir oo-neligionista in India 
llnraBs, it maybe asked what are the 



proQ)eot8 of profitable interooorse with the people 
of Central Ana? What are U^ir wants, aiui can 
th^ a£E6rd to jwy us for suplying them f 

Their wants are precisely those which our "Rnglii^Ti 
manufacturers can best supply — piece goods of 
all kinds, chiefly cotton, but also woollen aiul 
mixed furies, to take the place of the coarsd 
silken stufEs which they manufacture for them- 
selves. 

Tea from our Indian plantations and from China 
is in great demand, bemg a necessity of life with 
that nation. 

Judging from what I have seen of their habits 
of life, I should say the inhabitants of Central 
i^Asia would consume more cotton goods and tea 
I than an equal number of any average European 
population, while their ability to pay for them is 
vouched for by the possession of gold mines, which 
have been worked here from the highest antiquity, 
and by an extensive production of silk, which 
might be utilised in Europe either in the cocoon 
or in the reeled state. The finest of all wool, that 
of which the Cashmere shawls are made, is pro- 
duced in quantities on their hill pastures. All 
these are ught goods (in comparison with their 
value), and well adapted, therefore, for land 
transport. I have only enumerated a few of their 
chief articles, but the full list is a long' one. 

Now, it is not only the scuttled people of Eastern 
Turkistan with whom we should deal. The fabrics 
would be disseminated through all the waijidering 
tribes up to the Great Wall of China, and into the 
I western provinces of the Celestial Empire, which 
are cut off from the trade of the coast by political 
' convulsions. The Bussians, who have studied the 
question more than we have, talk of a trade 
cai>able of a vast increase over £5,000,000 sterling 
(the annual amount ascribed to their Tashkend 
trade five years ago), and also of a population of 
60,000,000, whose wants could be supplied through 
the Kashghar market. We have at present no 
means of testing the correctness of these figures, 
but the efforts made by Bussia to secure this 
market show the value she attaches to it. Now, it 
is certain that whatever natural advantages Bussia 
possesses in this respect, England enjoys more. 
We can produce cheaper goods, and we can carry 
them cheaper to market. Our railways take us to 
within 400 miles of Yarkand, while the terminus 
of Bussian cheap earriage is on the Caspian, a 
thousand miles off. The cost of transport is 20 
per cent, less from England than from Bussia into 
Eastern Turkistan. 

Now, even before the conclusion of the Com- 
mercial Treaty with Bussia, the population of 
Kashghar was almost entirely clothed in cotton 
goods from that country; but samples of their 
cotton goods which I brought back with me are 
recognised in many instances as being of English 
make. 

If, then, our English fabrics can bear the extra 
charges of being imported first into Bussia, paying 
also the Bussian customs, and the profits of Bussian 
middlemen, and then of being re-exported to 
Central Asia at a cost of transport in this section 
of the journey alone of 20 per cent, in excess of the 
whole expense of taking them out direct from 
England, now much greater would be the demand 
if we undertook this direct trade ourselves, and 
landed them in Central Asia free from all these 



326 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 21, 1873. 






extra charges. A difference of 20 or 30 per cent, in 
the price would bring our goods within the reach 
of millions of customers, who could not otherwise 
afford them. It is, therefore, obviously our interest 
to deal directly with Central Asia instead of through 
Bussian hands. But, moreover, it can never be 
supposed that the Bussians will content themselves 
with the role of disseminators of English fabrics. 
It has been calciQated that the Bussian public is 
taxed 10,000,000 of silver roubles annually in the 
price of their tea for the benefit of their manu- 
facturers of piece-goods, which can only be sold to 
the Chinese at this vast sacrifice. Now it is incon- 
ceivable that Bussia should tax herself at this ra 
to promote the growth of her manufactures, an< 
yet allow the market of Centnd Asia to be flooded 
with English goods through the hands of her own 
merchants. These fabrics are merely used to try 
the taste of their customers, and are then imitated 
at Moscow. In point of fact we know that English 
goods are strictly excluded from the provinces 
lately conquered by Bussia, and are subject to 
differential duties wherever her influence extends. 
How, then, can we delude oiurselves into the idea 
that Central Asia will be opened up to our com- 
merce by the efforts of Bussia, and that we have 
nothing to do but to stand by and profit by them? 
Yet this was a theory propounded with the 
greatest air of conviction in some of the papers 
only a few months ago. 

It is evident that if anything of this kind is done 
for us it will be done by ourselTes. And it should 
be done quickly, or we may find ourselves fore- 
stalled. We ail know the story of the elephant, 
which pushes before it a huge log to try the 
ground before venturing on it himseu. So Bussia 
pushes forward her protection tariff in advance of 
her own movements. Already she has got her 
Commercial Treaty. The next thing, judging 
b^ the past, wul be the establishment of 
differential duties in favour of her products, to 
be followed, as her infiuence extends, by the 
prohibition of English manufactures in the 
Yarkand market. Add to this the energy of her 
merchants, who are alwavs ready to incur every 
risk to secure a new market. In two years* time 
there mi^ht be no room left for English commerce in 
the last important region of Central Ana which is 
still open to us. Here is no question of military 
demonstrations or of costly works to be imdertaken. 
Where, as in Eastern Turkistan, we are assured of 
the existence of a vast substratum of peaceful and 
industrious inhabitants, with a Chief who has both 
the prudence and the power to keep in check the 
turbulent classes, the true poHcy of neighbours 
would seem to be that on which we have already 
entered ; viz., to add to the importance and in- 
fluence of the well-disposed portion of the popula- 
tion by encouraging them in a lucrative trade witii 
our own people. The moment is most opportune 
for action. The icy hold of Chinese exclusion, 
which has been on the country for a century, has 
relaxed, and the flery grasp of Bussian monopoly 
has not yet closed upon it. The Eing and his 
people are prepared to welcome us. They have 
not the traoitions of former enmity to overcome, 
like the Afghans. All depends on tiie next year 
or two. Of the two great powers which adjoin 
Eastern Turkistan one has made herself a name 
for contmual advances southward and eastward, 



while we are known as a power that has reached 
its proper boundaries, and whose motive for 
desirmg intercourse with our neighbours cannot 
be one of aggression. They are thus thrown into 
our anus, and it is in our power to weloome them, 
and open up their country not only for oorselTes 
but for adl Europe. 

This we can do in no spirit of jealousy of any 
other Power. The advantages gained by ns would 
be gained for civilisation generally. Ckrmany 
and other nations of Europe are already interested 
in the trade, and our method certainly contrasts 
favourably with that of our northern friends, 
whose way of opening up Central Asia seems to 
be to close it against a& commerce but their own. 



DISCUSSION. 

Sir Louis Mallet, C.B., said the subject which Mr. Shsw 
had drawn their attention to was, in ita commercial aspectt, 
one that must have recommended itself to their judi^- 
ments, and he could only enforce in the 8troDg%«t wsy 
the arguments he had uued, and express the hope that 
public opinion in £ngland would support any efforU 
made in the direction this paper indicated. 'I'hcre 
seemed to be some hope, from the reports in the nevt- 
papers, that the envoy from Yarkand had been received 
at Calcutta, and that negotiations might lead, at ro 
distant time, to very favourable results. He bad been 
very much surprised, as he thought many of the mt-mbc-n 
present must have been, at some of the facts which Hr. 
ohaw had brought to their notice ; and he certainly wu 
not prepared to receive such a picture of the ciriliaatioo 
which existed as Mr. Shaw had painted. Qaite enough, 
however, had been told them to make them feel that 
there was no better way in which their efforts could be 
directed, tc ward off those political dangers which some 
of them were too apt to apprehend from that quartt^r, 
than to promote peaceful intercourse with our neigh- 
bours on the northern frontier of India. 

Sir Bathsrford Aloook, X.CJB., said he had no special 
information to offer on Central Asia. His attention had 
been directed to it simply because the Chinese £mpirt: 
was a part of it He believed that a large commerce 
might be establibhed with Central Ada, which w^e might 
compete for if the difficulties with our nearest neig-hboan 
as to transit could only be got over. Nepaul, -which 

was more or less under the control of China- !«««, 

perhaps, rather than more — whenever there ^v^a anj 
attempt to open the road, always put forward the Chinee* 
authorities as being opposed to it. Until the last greal 
insurrection they mi^nt have been under some sort c : 
objection; but he behoved it was mere pretence now, uhk. 
that it would only require a decided effort of the BHtiVl 
Government for Nepaul to give way, the pretext beiri 
retboved. He sincerely hoped that, now attention hii< 
been drawn to the subject, we should not allow thxi 
country further to oppose, and compel the traveller t< 
go through hill tribes of semi-bcurbarians, and oih^i 
wild nomad tribes, before he could ever reach th 
fertile valley spoken of. The immediate result of al 
the attention which had been directed to this snbje>^< 
would be, he hoped, to cause Her Majesty's goTemmen 
to see the propriety of opening up Central Asia* 

Mr. Eastwiok, C.B., M.P., thought it should be foi 
gotten what dreadful revolutions and frightful innnna«_i^ 
had taken place in that country very li^y. The he« 
of Schlagenweit was placed on the top of a pyraxnid % 
heads in that very citv, and at Kulja, not very lon^ asi 
there was a most bloody insurrection, succeededti 
a most frightful internecine combat, after which, ^rhu 
almost the whole population had disappeared, m can 
Russia and occupied it. He fimciea Kn\}a axi^ tl 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIETY OP ARTS, Mabch 21, 1873. 



827 



'*i 





Tmlley bekmged to Tungaria. He would 
JbiAVt' Shaw who&er the Kalmaks, who crossed 
ftlM^nd were punuod by the Bossian (general and 
"^^ •rieraiinated by him and by the Kookhas, but 
pfstheless, did cross oyer and enter into the 
territory, were not beaten near there ? It was 
tint the Kalmaka came in after the late insur- 
to MOtt the Chinese, but were driven back and 
by the Mahomedan rebels. The reason 
this, was to point out how much the 
of the people depended upon who was the 
No doubt the Atalik Ghazee had displayed 
~ power ft government sinoe the day he de- 
a &fi on the Jaxartes against the Russians. He 
tsdnced tiie whole country to peace; and if his rule 
ootttinne, there was every probability of a most 
nt trade being commenced with his country. 
a whst wonld be the case if he were cut off P It was 
fl^f naoensry to recal recent events, to see how very 
In a tflDore of office a ruler had in those parts.. 
~Ktng so, it waa of immense importance that he 
be wistad and supported on the throne by our 
slliancft. There had been negooiations for a 
/hot ha should very much like to have some 
statement as to what that treaty was, and how 
VIS likaly to be supported. 

iwlww, If .P., had passed some four years of his 
in the town of Umritsnr ; and he would like to 
if it were tme that, at the present moment, there 
three different tariffs in Yarkand, the first most 
for Ifahomedans and Toorkis, the second in 
ef the Chinese, and the third in favour of our- 
f And whether it was tme Uiat Russia had sue- 
in obtaining the most fnvoured nation dause, 
VIS, Uie tame tariflT which existed for the Ma- 
f He would also like to know what were the 
leoent arrangements for goods in transit through 
and whether there was a transit duty which 
as a prohibition ? 

[&. IMariek Draw said two or three years ago a 

was nMuie between the government of India and 

of Ouihmere in regttfd to this matter. The 

I through thia territory were placed under two Com- 

ooe on the part of Cashmere, and one on the 

i«( the Britiah Government, by whom all disputes 

tts be arranged. Therefore, as regarded the inter- 

oountry of Cashmere^ there was no diflSoulty. 

he had not been in Turkistan, yet, having 

fio the frontier, he had very great pleasure in 

lua testimony to the exact accuracy of Mr. 

> aooounts. The discrepancy between the peaceful 

i of the peasantry and the massacres which 

had spoken of, was probably due to there 

jtwo races in the country. The real race of Yarkand 

l|Mealal,but there wasalsoa more warlike race, which, 

not bloodthirsty, yet had not much regard for 

la, and, in a state of turbulence, possibly they 

laillBeep their hands from doin^ violence. Sut for 

V wars past they had been qmet, and disturbance 

ifiisDoa were a considerable distance away. There- 

flbce was g^ood reason to hope that Uie Atalik 

^s rule wonld consolidate itself, and be such as to 

ill important commercial results. As to the amount 

• vmdi it was possible to develop between this 

aad Yarkand, Mr. Shaw had not gone much 

_ vet. Bat the first matter of consideration was 

OKriage. The immediate country' between the 

ftl anS Yarkand was very barren in its supply of 

■Hi^tM of grass for the carriage animals. Although 

id of late year?, the increase could not go 

^ on that account ; but they had not reached 

: yet, and it was worth while doing all that 

dona to cultivate relations with Yarkand, 

liiilBOTa the means of communication. The 

na aoi to be restricted to use one route. There 

ifO«ilii one going to the south comer of the 



Pamir, down the Chitral valley. There was only ono 
small power at the head of the valley that was likely to 
give any trouble, aud he ought, for various reasons, to 
be very severely dealt with if he did. He didnot think 
very much was to be done with envovs who came from 
Yarkand, as they were not entrusted with sufficient powers. 
The real way to effect anything wqs by an envoy going 
firom this side to Yarkand, and, being thoroughly trusted, 
as our envoys were, and going there into the presence of 
the king, he would be able to make terms and arrange 
a treaty that would bring about important results. An 
embassy was sent from Calcutta in 1870, and returned, 
for sufficient reasons, without having accomplished its 
purpose ; and for this country not to repeat it would be 
much Uie same sort of thing as caUing on a man at his 
house, and because he happened not to be at home, taking 
offence at his absence, and never calling again. There* 
fore, if any good was to be done^ it could only be accom- 
plished by the government sending an envoy a^;ain; and 
if they choae the right man, one who was distinguished 
for his tact and prudence, and gave him the necessary 
powers, there was every reason to suppose the best 
results would ensue. 

Sir Oaorge BaUbnr, K.C.B., remarked that an officer 
with whom he had conversed on the subject spoke in the 
warmest terms of the country and the climate, but not 
of the people. Mr. Shaw's description of the olimate 
and count^ was fiilly borne out by the account he 
received firom that officer. A very full and detailed 
description of Uie entire country had been published 
in an admirable work written by the late Mr. Inglis, 
and firom this book he was sure that every 
EnglieO^man who desired to know anything about the 
country would gain a vast amount of information. He 
had heard Badakshan spoken of as if it were a depend- 
ency of the Chinese empire. How far they occupied the 
country he had not been able to make out, but oertainly 
the Cmnese were in direct communication with Badak- 
shan, and there obtained those green stones which were 
used to indicate the degrees of rack in the Chinese empire. 

X^jor Bum gave the most unqualified support to all 
that Mr. Shaw had said. He was in Calcutta at the 
time Mr. Shaw wrote the letters, and also when he 
returned, bringing with him all his things, his shawls, 
and Manchester goods. Lord Mayo was deeply interested 
in the matter, and went through the entire narrative, 
for he was most anxious to encourage the trade between 
India and Yarkand. So much was Lord Mayo inte- 
rested in the matter that, he himself calculated the 
cost of transit through the different routes, arriving 
at the decision of which Mr. Shaw had told them, 
that ffoods could be threwn much more cheaply 
into Yarkand from India than from Russia. On the 
subject of sending an envoy, he might say it was not 
befitting the position of the government to send envoys 
anywhere to any native State until those native States 
had themselves first sent an envoy to us; but as soon as 
an envoy was sent to the government from Yarkand, Lord 
Mayo sent one of his most trusted civilians, who was 
accompanied by Mr. Shaw himself, to return the visit. 
Whether the visit was successful or not he was not 
prepared to say. The King was 500 miles off, and 
was not likely soon to return ; and if the mission had 
remained there, as tlie snow was coming down, the 
English envoy would have been imprisoned for five or 
six months, and this was not oonsidereid advisable. Never-' 
thelees much good was effected, as could be seen by the 
result, and now the government bad received two 
more envoys, and every encouragement hud been given 
them. There was a great deal of difficulty with Cash- 
mere, because Cashmere was as fond of trade as we 
ourselves, and the\' did not like our trade to go through 
their territory. But through the infiuence of the late 
Viceroy, Uie Maharajah of Cashmere actually did away 
with the transit duties, and gdods were now perfectly 
free in tjieir transit from Manchester to Yarkand, and 
vice rersd. 



828 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP AETB, March 21, 1873. 



Dr. A. CMipbeU said — ^It is genenlly believed that the 
BiuBians hare recently conci uded a commercial treaty with 
the Atalik Ghazee of Yarkand ; and we have juBt seen an 
envoy from the same potentate to the Governor- General 
has arrived in Calcutta. If these proceedings should lead 
to theconolosionof a commercial treaty with Yakoob Be^, 
or to placing our trade by any other means with Kashgana 
on a satis&ctory footing, I would submit ^ the great 
importuice of extending our efforts to attain the same 
end ^rther east, througn Thibet, to the capital of Lassa ; 
as, under present circumstances, we are completely ex- 
cluded from trade with that country ; and in the event 
of Russian trade and political iniluenoe being extended 
to Thibet, we might be inconveniently and dangerously 
near, for the peace and safety of Bengal, in the event of 
a quarrel with Russia, on the Afghan boundary, or any 
other Central Asian question. You are aware that our 
means of trading with Thibet is at present confined 
to Ladak, on the extreme west, where we have an 
Engli^ agent, or commissioner, and that eastward from 
our Himalayan province of Kumaon, to the eastern ex- 
tremity of Assam, we have no means whatever of fin- 
ing access for our trade, and this we owe to Chinese 
je^ousy and exclusion, intensified by our immediate 
neighbours, the Nepaulcse and the Bhootanese, whose ter- 
ritories overhang ours for an extent of 800 miles. To 
remove these obstructions, which I am most glad Sir 
R. Alcock has remarked upon, to our trade and to 
friendly intercourse with the people of these countries, 
is surely a very important work, and well worthy the at- 
tention of this Society. I shall be prepared to give any 
further information on this subject that may be required, 
and in the meantime will shortly suggest the means 
which should be adopted to further the tnds in view : — 
1st. The Indian government should establish, as a 
principle, in its futive relations with Nepaul, the necessity 
of reciprocal free trade along the whole length of her 
Indian frontier, viz., from Kumaon to Sikkim ; as hitherto 
Nepaul has enjoyed free and unrestricted access to our 
Indian territories, from eveij point of her territory, 
while she shuts us out and imposes the most vexatious 
obstacles by lev>'ing high import duties on all our imports 
from India. 2nd. That we should claim freedom and 
protection to our trade through Nepaul to the frontier 
of Thibet. 3rd. That we should obtain freedom and 
protection to our trade in Thibet from Uie Chinese 

fovemment. 4th. That we should connect the East- 
ndian railway with our own territory of Darjeeling, 
and open a road from Darjeeling through Sikkim to the 
Thibet frontier. 6th. That we should endeavour to re- 
move all obstructions to our trade from Bengal and 
Assam through Bhootan. After the arrangements I pro- 
pose are completed, I do not see why wo should not go 
mrther ahead to develop our commerce with Thibet, 
and arrange to have a British consulate at Lassa. Russian 
goods are to bo found in the bazaar at Lassa, and the 
Russians are fond of following their wares in this 
dixtction. Our English and Indian goods are also in 
great request there, and we may as well send them. 
r>r. CumpUoll concluded bv saying it was not a thing to 
be done in a hurry. But having had an experience of 
thirty years he could say that a great deal could be done 
by persistent endeavours. It took him twenty years to 
got access tlirough ^ikkim to the Thibetan frontier, but 
that access was ultimately secured, and they were now 
tttt to make roads to pass right up from Sikkim into 
TLibot, and the same could bo done with Nepaul. It 
was a vttry fitting occasion to take the mutter up. 

BIr. Bla&dfbrd (Indian Geologiotil Survey), said he had 
l»e«»n vnry Utrly on the Sikkim fronUer, and there w^t 
an «bw,hito pn»hibition of the import of tea. H 
nut imlv rtHwvua information from people in Sii 
UM ho had ho a^ thHt an ofiVr of a pretent of Sikki.» .^. 

riK"w;;d^Tl!:j;rv; iu'^'' "^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^' ^^ ^^ ^^^ 

Mr. Ihaw, rt.ply U»g to the various qucaUons and obaer- 



fie hHd 
Sikkim 
Sikkim ten 



vations that had been made, said that wit 
Nepaul he could give no information. As to Use i 
of the people of Turkistan, and their n 
Schlagenweit, to which Mr. Eastwick had alluded, ft' 
true there was a race who were violent and warlike^ 
there was also a peaceable and orderly population, tt^ 
desired to give the other side of the picture. For 
murder the present King himself had made a 
apology to him, and explained that it had not 
committed by him or his people, but by Invtulera 
Kokand, who, in endeavouring to wrest their cor 
from the Chinese, committed this murder. ^ The pr 
rulers had nothing whatever to do with it. Itda 
the only reason, he said, why an envoy had not been i 
to us, as he feared we associated his people with.it; 
having seen by his (Mr. Shaw*s^ arrival there tludfc_ 
bore Uiem no grudge, he would send an eay 
regard to Tungaria, Kulja was a portion of it. 
was an obsolete term ; the kingdom was brokea 
entirely, and was occupied by peo]pIe of a different 
they might be called the Chinese military. ^ 
Kalmuks were the same as those who were pnrancdf i 
whom Mr. Eastwick spoke. In replying to Ae 
as to the power of the ' Atalik Ghazee to 
his dynasty, he said tiie great weakness of all 
dynasties was the quarrels amongst the descendanlrj 
the reigning prince, as had been seen in the caae of T 
Ameer of Oabul. There was no room for any fean fd ' 
kind in this instance. There was one eon, who i 
chip of the old block, and was absolutely supreme, 
only other children were very much youngs-, ai 
did not think they were in Kashgar at all. As to' 
tariff of Yarkand, it was small, and was imposed by ' 
Mussulman law, and consisted of 2^ per ce]iL« 
one in forty on all goods of true believers and twice 
amount on non-b^evers. But .they were Tcry 
in levying this; and if a Hindoo trader put 
Mussulman as an agent, he would be exempt mm 
double tax. The carriage was the great diiBiciilty»i 
it must be remembered that this had hitherto been 
fined to mules and horses ; but by the recent im| 
ments in the roads, the route to Yarkand bad been 
passable by camels, and they could, therefure, 
those animals for carriage. Badakshan for a xmj 
time had certainly not belonged to China, ft 
mentioned by Colonel Yule, in his edition of Wc 
** Oxus," that the Chinese had a sort of nominal 
and the stone, to which allusion had been made byj 
George Balfour, was the green jade-stone from 
quarries, which were the only quarries in the 
which supplied it. 

Xr. Hyde Clarke hoped the important prooeedingtl 
that evening would not be allowed to rest without 
result, and that the Indian Committee would bring i 
matter before the government, in order that the 
questions might be amply discussed. TV^at Mr. 
bad said as to Tuikistan seemed to have pi 
the same impression that it had whenevc^r he 
spoken in other parts of England. The important 
ject referred to by Dr. Campbell and others, of the t 
through Nepaul, had received a very favourable 
firmation from Sir Rutherford Alcock. He recoils 
when he was honorary agent at Darjeelmg, under the ^ 
structions of Dr. Campbell, a request being made to' 
Majesty's government that there should'be some dt 
mnde on the Chinese government tb remove the ol 
on the Sikkim frontier; but it was said to be totally its] 
aible. There could be no doubt it was of the greatest i 
portance to remove from the local authorities the [ 
text of being able to siy that the Chinese prerenttd 
trade, and that must be done at Pekin. Looking at' 
whole of the subject, and the elucidation it had tecdf 
he trusted his collengues on the Indian Committee 
not fail to take advantage of the occasion to atata 
they had heard, and to endeavour to obtain 
practical measures from the government. H« 
express his personal obligations to Mr. Shaw Ibr 



/OXIRNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 21, 1873. 



329 




SmUm 







lb Pftper he had read, and the commimi- 

h had made to them, which, like all 

to trne knowledge*, had hrought forth 

from other quarters. In no respect could his 

libits in regard to hia own subject of Turki- 

!• maned by the efforts which might be made by 
as to other parts of the frontier. The more 
B wu called to the tnie relations between Uie 
ud to the inflnencea of civilisation, the more 
il bo icit a privilege to communicate those ad- 
M to the popolations of Central Asia. If it were 
mod proper work, wo most be as well able to take 
it u tl^ power which hitherto had shown very 
■Iti in that respect The more the civilising in- 
. of Rosna waa regarded, the more did it appear 
fte Tery ambiguous aspect of increase of tariff and 
"^ *M in the way of commercial relations. It was 
of the more importance that the inhabitants of 
Ana should be assisted in every respect bv the 
of this country ; for we had seen that where- 
people had been put under good auspices 
Base of the Grim Tartars, and other popula- 
sde q nate protection and assistiuice, they had 
o«t hardworking and industrious, and con- 
7 to the resources of the world instead of de- 
it 



remarked, that in the first place, it was 
Ike meeting should understind that, although 
had been until lately a Chinese possession, 
a recent Chinese possession. They conquered 
17M, and it was only since that period thst 
had been under the Chinese. At that time 
snbdne Turkistan, and marched Uieir army to 
and sent a considerable force across the 
im pnmdt of the native ruler of the country, 
as IWdakihan, and they fouj^ht a battJe 
Bvt that was the only connection in recent 
China and Badakshan. It was in con- 
of the country having been a dependency of 
ftr to mMnj years that, up to the present time, 
lid been this objection on the part of European 
to open any political relations with it. He 
that the Indian government would have been 
at an early period, as it was always the 
«l this country to acknowledge de faeto govem- 
lo have acknowledged the power of the Atalik 
bat the Russian government persistently 
that it eonid only look at Turkistan as revolted 
That was really the status until quite 
It waa only this year that Russia had seot 
to the country, who had concluded a com- 
tnatjr, being satbfied, as he supposed, Uiat after 
of power the Atalik Ghazee might be 
m btm&Jide and independent ruler. Russia 
taken tbo initiative, he fully expected that 
of the recent negotiations at Calcutta 
ttw despatch of a mission on our part, and the 
of a treaty with that power. But the conclusion 
~ treaty waa not the only thing required, 
^■s saqoired was to stir up the merchants of this 
to take advantage of it It was no use the govem- 
Iseilities unless the producers of this country 
advantage of them. The late Viceroy did 
lo his power to promote this trade. Not only 
duties removed, but all Manchester goods, 
goods, bound for Central Asia, either from 
or Turlastan, actually passed free through the 
ti the British territory. If there was abio the 
oflfaetrmDait duties in Cashmere, and a low tariff 
he thought that the merchants would really 
«mld expect The great drawback had been 
•f oarria^tf^ in consequence of the difficult 
n^i^ the caravans passed, and tho want 
Bot as time went on he believed that 
voold not go over those mountains, 
or any other tremendous pass, 
which was the natural route for 



commerce between India and Central Aeia^a route along 
which carriges could pass as well as mules and camels. 
The other route was inaccessible and impracticable on 
account of political circumstances, but he never would 
believe that with three great powers on this side the 
smnll triangle of mountains was to be left a focus of 
intrigue and insurrection. Sooner or later it must be 
reduced and pacified, and then there would be a high road 
for communication with Central Asia. He was quite 
astonished at a remark of Mr. Shaw's, that the trade of 
Russia with Central Asia amounted to £5,000,000 sterling. 
That seemed to him a most exaggerated figure, and he 
could hardly believe it without seeing the details. Their 
trade, no doubt, was very considerable, and he quite 
agreed with those gentlemen who had addressed that 
meeting, that we ought to have some fair share of it. 

Mr. Shaw said there could be no doubt that it was 
fully that— five millions sterlini;. 

The Ohairmaasaid Rassia had always endeavouxed to 
protect herself by very high tariffs, while all we wanted 
was a fair field and no favour. If the market were 
thrown open to us on equal terms with Russia, he did 
hope and trust that the enterprising spirit of our 
merchants would cause them to throw their goods into 
Central Asia with a will, and he believed it would then 
prove to this country a most -v^uable market In con- 
clusion he would only say that he had very much pleasure 
in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Shaw. He had 
had the honour of presenting the gold medal of the 
Geographical Society to him, and he said then, 
and he repeated it now, that he believed the suc- 
cess Mr. Shaw had already achieved was only an 
earnest of a greater success in the future. He was a 
young man, and his experience and qualifications were of 
such a high character as to ensure his speedy employ- 
ment if be returned to India. 

General Vanghaa, C.B., proposed a vote of thanks to 
Sir Henry Rawlinson. 



7IFTESKTH OBDDTABT XSSTIHe. 

Wednesday, March 19th, 1873, Lord ALFRED 
S. Churchill, Member of Council, in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Alexander, £., Middleton Ship-yard, Hartlepool. 
Cobbett, Edwin, 76, Jermyn-street, St. tTames's, S.W. 
Cotton, Major-G-eneral Sir Arthur, K.C.S.I., Dorking. 
Davies, Charies Langdon, 20, Threadneedle-street, B.C., 

and Widford, Herts. 
Eagle, Vincent, St. George's- wharf, Grand Surrey Canal, 

Camber welL S.B. 
Eraser, John Henry, St. George's-wharf, Grand Surrey 

Canal, Camber well, S.£. 
Goff, Captain Robert, Guards Club, S.W. 
Hodgson, B. H., 36, Onslow> square, S.W. 
Vaugban, General John Luther, C.B., 30, Pembridge- 

villas, Bayswater, W. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected Members of the Society : — 

Beresford, Colonel Marcus, M.P., Sheen-house, East 
Sheen, S.W. 

Danchell, Frederick Hahn, C.E., VAle-hall, Horwich, 
Lancashire. 

Darby, Stephen, 140, Leadonhall-street, E.C. 

Hartcreave, James Sidney, 3, Victoria-street, West- 
minster, S.W. 

HoUingsworth, William Thomas, jun., 106, Mile-end- 
road, E. 

Imray, James Frederick, Foxgrove-road,' Bockenham, 
Kent. *■ 



Wj 



JOURNAL Ot THfi SOCIETY OP ARTS, MABofl 21, 1873. 



Kosloff, Stephen Alexandrovitcb, 6, Great Winchester- 
Btreet-baildings, E.C., and St Petenbargh. 

Pickerngill, William C, 30, Belgrave-road, Abbey-road, 
N.W. 

. Smith, Joseph, 6, Blenheim-mount, Bradford. 

Stocqaeler. Joachim Hayward, India Office, Downing- 
street, 8.W.' 

The Paper read was — 

ON CERTAIN IMPROVEMENTS IN THE 
MANUFACTURE OF PRINTING TYPES. 

By J. B. JohBion. 

The impFOvements which I have to submit to 
you ihiB evening consist 

Ist. Of a complete automatic system of manu- 
facturing printing tyi>e8, the metal being fused by 
ffas at one end of the machine, and perfect letters, 
fit for immediate use by the printer, passing out at 
the other end, without having undergone any 
operations by the hand of the workman, who 
merely watches the action of the machine, cleans 
the mould and working parts at intervtds, and 
adjusts those parts when he wishes to make 
another letter of varying thickness. 

2nd. Of an alloy, or series of alloys, for the 
manufacture of printing types of a much harder 
and enduring character than those formerly em- 
ployed. 

3rd. Of a definite unit of measure applied to the 
different sizes of type, so that they may become 
simple multiples of this imit ; thus assimilating the 
manufacture of type in this ooimtry to that which 
has long obtained abroad, and supplying a want 
which has often been deplored by Enelish printers. 

Instead of proceeding to describe these improve- 
ments at once, and eacn as a whole, I propose to 
give a short history of the application of maduncry 
to English type-founding, and to describe the 
improvements before you in the order of their 
discovery. 

By this mode of treatment the matters in ques- 
tion will, I think, be better understood, and the 
value of the improvements introduced more 
correctly appreciated, than if the subjects were 
approached more directly. 

At the Great Exhibition of 1851, at which the 
arts and naanufacturcs of all nations were, with 
few exceptions, fairly represented, it was admitted 
that Great Britain, although inferior to other 
nations in some respects, stood proudly pre-eminent 
in the perfection of her seu-acting tools and 
machines, and generally in the application of 
mechanical skill to economise human labour. 

There was, however, one English art — ^that of the 
type-f oimder — whichconstitut^ amarked exception 
to the rule, and which, so far from showing itself in 
this country superior in mechanical appliances, was 
on the contrary lamentably inferior to many others 
of the world in this respect, so that the reporters 
of Class 17, when treating of this branch of manu- 
facture in England, were compelled to state that 
** Since the invention of castmg types by Peter 
Schaeffcr, a process which goes back as far as the 
origin of pnnting itself, this art has made little 
progress. 

This is the more remarkable as the cognate ai-ts 
of the paper-maker and the printer h^ ali-eady 
made giant strides to their present degree of per- 
fection. The automatic machine for making pax)cr 



continously of M. Robert, improved by our ooimtrT* 
man, Bryan Donkin, had already obtained a world- 
wide celebrity and adoption ; and by those, md 
the subsequent improvements of others, contmuoia 
paper-making had become an ahnost perleel 
manufacture, leaving but little to be smbeequen^f 
achieved. 

The great machine of Applegarth, by ^nrbioh the 
IlhtstraUd Newawas-piioteawiiianihe GxhibitiaB 
itself, proved how far English inventioa bad 
arrived m that progress of which at the last Be- 
bition the Walter machine, daily printing Qm 
Times newspax>er, was the iQtimate expreesiaa. 

While paper^making and printing had arrived at 
this enormous degree of expansion, the £nglish tyn^ 
founder was still usin^the nand-mould of Schaefler« 
invented nearly four hundred years before. WiA 
this imperfect instrument in one hand, and a aaall 
ladle in the other, the workman cast, a singfa 
letter at each operation, often with oonadowMe 
bodily exertion, so that it is allegped that the 
average produce per man was not above 4,000 y^ 
diem. 'Hiia mould had received conaiderapble im- 
provement at the hands of some ingenious Amenon, 
whose name I have not been able to leans* B| 
adding a small lever to the mould, and at 
the matrix to it, instead of swinging the 
by means of a bit of string, the operation of 
hand-caster was much facilitated, and the pre 
almost doubled. This improved instrument 
not, however, entirely displaced the old nundd 
the date in question, and henoe the obeervatioii. 
the reporters. 

It was not so in other countries. In Am 
the hand-mould had been attached to 
imitating the movements of the hand-caster, 
to this steam had been applied, and was in 
general use. By these means, not four or 
six thousand letters were cast in one day, but 
twenty to thirty thousand letters comd be 
duced. In Germany also these mechanical 
as they were termed, had become extensively eoh 
ployed. The great house of Brockhaus, of TninM 
showed their K>rm of the machine at the exhibsteoQ 
and received a prize medal for the beantifal wot^ 
printed with the type produced by it. 

In France, Henn IHdot had, thirty yeats Jflj 
viously, hadinvented hifi celebrated Polymatyp%^ 
which 200 letters were made at one stroke of lb 
machine, and this could be repeated at least twv* 
a minute. By this machine most perfect typs 
were produced, for each letter was cast «k ^ 
groove made specially for it, of the exact 
sions required. 

As all these different inventionfl — ^for there 
many different modifications of the mechi_ 
mould — ^had been patented and introdnoed i 
this coimtry, it became a curious specnlatiocu 
one not forci^ to our present object, to mnnilali 
by what combmation of circumstances Great DilUtfj 
had become so inferior to other nations in an 
so important — an art so materially afflectang 
communication of intelligence, the diffosioai 
knowledge, and education m general. 

The technical objection which was urged 
the use of the mechanical mould in all its m 
modifications, was that it was not acoorate 
for the English founder, as it oast ** big 

And here some teohnical explanation wOl 
necessary to enable you to understand the 




JOmSAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 21, 187d. 



331 



I objtetioib wiiich at that day was considered 
il to ft»1WB of the machine. It is the more 

n there may arise some discussion on 

b|dSit; lor I am under the impression, and I 

; if the ohjection was good at that day, 

kdd good now, for the error has never 
■MTMted. Yet the mechanical mould is in 
r|aflril oste. If the correction has been made, 
["big bodies" are no longer produced, how 
ik wn effiBcted ? The means are invisible to 
faOft clo0e inspection. 

^proceed to explain the term *' big body '' and 
lUrat cause of their production in the 
^kwal moulds. 

p^gnm No. 1 you have an enlarged end 
pjtm/feal types of different dimensions in one 
MB, but of uniform dimension on the other. 
WDod dimension is called the body of the type, 
lAetviible dimension the thickness. 



^ Q I 



from the mere position of the letters 
face of these tjrpes, that the **body " is by 
Bort important of these dimensions. It 
&e name or genus of the type, the 
bong special to each letter, ^us to 
af wbk^ the ** body '* is one-sixth of an inch 
ibn by common consent give the name of 
ofdy one founder having uie pretension to 
this respect from his fellows. If of the 
flne-twelfth of an inch, by similar consent, 
in this but other countries, the term* 

'* is uyplicd to it. 
be seen uiat uniformity in this dimension 
for it is only by absolutely uniform 
" tiutt we get true line. One ** big body," 
CBS tjpe larger than another in this respect, 
re la irregular line, and one irregular line 
■n file lines in that page. Hence the type- 
'ibarror of " big bodies." 

Ko. 2 you have a section of the 
of the hand-mould ab and CD, with 



L^r 



ngnm 



r»,i. 



PIC. 2. 





between them. In Fiz. 1 the mould is 

diowing 8 space in 9ie centre which 

file mould proper, into which the metal 

by the hand-caster, or injected, in the 

' monld, by a pump. The dimension in 

ifrom A to c and B to D constitutes the 

o( Ae type, and that in the direction A to B 

Bthetmokness. So long as the mould is 

' okwedandh^d firmly, true ^'bodies" are 

i; but if, as at a, fig. 2, a small particle of 

9lsdi of metal intervene, the dimension 

••ed,anda '*big1^y" results, and this 

Benilt in hand-casting is only avoided 

s nd skill of tiie wprlonen. 

^bfloome intimately acquainted with the 

H lype-foonder, both in England and in 

ttthled to say that the test by which 

bar knows tiiat his mould is clean and 

^'kome,*' is totally different in each 

kilflied respectively by a different 



sense. The English caster trusts to his sense of 
touch. He lays one half of his mould upon the 
four fingers of his left hand or upon the fingers of 
both hands, and with his thmnb or thumbs placed 
upon the upper half of the moiQd, he rubs the two 
together, and knows by the feeling produced 
whether tho metallic s\u*faces of his mould are 
clean and in perfect contact. 

The Frendi workman, with both hands, very 
slightly opens the two halves of the mould, and 
by a sudden effort snaps them together, the 
quality of the soimd enaming him to arrive at the 
same knowledge. If the sound or ** diquetLs," as 
he caUs it, on the one hand, and the touch, on 
the other, are satisfactory, the workman -proceeds 
to fill his mould with metal, and produce a type. 
If, on the other hand, they be not satisfactory, ne 
opens his mould, and removes the intruding 
particle of matter, either with his brush or his 
picker, and again tries his mould for touch or 
sound. 

It will be obvious, on a little reflection, that 
a machine can never exercise such discrimination. 
Mechanism can imitate and replace the muscidar 
motions of the body, but not the sense of touch or 
hearing. Nor can the workman attendant upon 
a mechanical mould, even with a trained ear, 
catch the "cliquetis" of the mould, amid the noise 
of its many paits, and at the rapid rate of motion 
wldch is essential to the perfect machine. His 
only chance is to watch for the appearance of 
burr on the edges of the type ; but between the 
commencement of the formation of "** big bodies," 
and that exaggeration of the opening which pro- 
duces biuT, tiiere is a large interval, and during 
that interval a great number of * * big bodies * ' are cast 
and mixed witii the others, are sent forward to be 
corrected as far as possible in the succeeding 
operation. 

The English founder accounted for the use of 
the machine in Germany, by alleging that these 
irregularities were unimportant when ca8tin|^ the 
semi-Gk)thic Gherman character ; and when reminded 
that the argument could not wply to the American 
founder, he retorted that Americans would, in 
order to have cheap new8pOT)ers, put up with 
anything provided it were rcJwfable. 

Such objections, however, could not apply to 
Didot's Polymatype. Here, as I have already 
said, no "big bodies" were produced, but the type 
was of extreme accuracy, as may be seen in the 
foundry of the Messrs. Thoret-Viret, of Paris, who 
are using the Polymatype apparatus at this dajr. 

Mr. Henri Didot, the inventor of this ingemous 
process, and of the tools of precision by which he 
was able to construct it, sold the patent-right of 
the invention, with moulds and the tools in 
question, to a M. Pouch^e, who, in partnership 
with Mr. Jennings, commenced a foundrjTi and 
cast a large quantity of type by the machine or 
apparatus, but ultimately succumbed imder the 
vigorous hostility of the associated founders. 
And here, were we assembled to discuss questions 
of morality instead of those of a mechanical or 
chemical nature, we might raise the question of 
the sad importance of calumny in all successful 
commercial competition. What would a traveller 
or salesman be worth who could not depreciate 
successfully the quality of a neighbour's goods, as 
well as extol those of his employer ? From what- 



882 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 21, 1878. 



ever cause — we have it stated on authority — ^that 
the printers would not buy Pouch^e's type, except 
at a reduced rate, yet a large quantity of it 
was purchased when Pouch^e was sold up, was 
extensively used, and only discovered to be 
Pouch^'s by a private mark. So much for its 
oft-descried quality ! 

It will throw considerable light upon the causes 
of England's exceptional inferiority in iype-f ound- 
ing, if we trace the further history of this ingenious 
mechanism, and the cause of its absence from Eng- 
land, although so extensively employed abroad. 

As the narrative involves a most extraordinary 
ohar^'of vandalism in the nineteenth century, not 
inferior to that of the poor, starving, uneducated 
workmen of an earlier date, who called themselves 
Luddites, the history shall be given in the very 
words of the reporters already quoted, one of whom 
was a relative of the inventor, and the other one of 
the most distinguished of modem English printers, 
the proprietor of the well-known ** Chiswick Press.'* 
As the story is scarcely credible, notwithstanding 
the high authority of the narrators, it may be 
thought to have been lightly made. I can, how- 
ever, assert that I know that that statement was 
made deliberately, upon ample and abundant 
evidence, and from a sense of public duty : — 

"In 1823, M. Louis John Poach6e took oat patents in 
the three kingdoms for a machine for casting type, con- 
sisting of a mould formed by a combination of steel bars, 
with grooves and matrices secured hy a frame, and a 
brace of iron upon ^ strong wooden bench, and a lever 
carrying a heavy rammer to fall down into the mould 
for the purpose of forcing a portion of the fluid type- 
metal, which had been poured out of a ladle into Uie 
receptacle between the ends of the grooves (each groove 
forming the mould of a separate type) through small 
apertures into the grooves and matrices (placed at the 
opposite end of the grooves) where the body and face of 
the letter are cast. £y this apparatus about 200 types 
may be cast at one operation, and the casting repeated 
twice in a minute, or even quicker. 

I' M. Pouch^e, having cast a large quantity of type by 
this machine, offered the type for sale, but the printers re- 
fused to purchase unless at a reduced price, and M. Pouch^ 
preferred melting it. At the sale of M. Pouchee's type- 
founding effects, a quantity of type which had escaped 
the melting was sold, and was afterwards dis- 
covered to be machine cast, by a private mark on the 
side and an after-cut nick. The machine was not offered 
for sale, but Mr. Heed, a printer, in King-street, Co vent- 
garden (related to Mr. Blake, of the firm of Blake and 
Stephenson, tjpe founders, at Sheffield), was employed 
by the type founders to negotiate with M. Pouch6e for 
the purchase of the machine, which was effected for 
about £100. The machine was conveyed to Messrs. 
Gaslon and livermore's, and destroyed, on which condi- 
tion it was purchased. There was mcluded in this pur- 
chase a valuable planing machine and cross-cutting 
machine for cutting the grooves. It was the invention 
of M. Henri Didot, to whom M. Pouch^e paid 4^,000 
francs for the patent-right in England."* 

It would appear, therefore, that if type-foimd- 
ing machinery was not used in England at the 
date of the Exhibition of 1851, it was not on 
account of its imperfections, or want of efficiency, 
but because English Trades-Unionism deemed the 
introduction of machinery hostile to its interests. 
Hence the condition of tj^-founding in 18i)l, 
at which time the Union was flounshing in 

•Jury reports of ExhiMUon of 1851, Cltfs xvU., p. 409. 



Uj 



the full vigour of triumphant 
here we have an instructive lesson in 
economy. It would appear that Trades-Ui 
when based upon a narrow, exclusive 
injurious to human pro^^ress, when 
educated men are the constituents of that 
when the imperfectly educated working 
its originators ; for here it was not the ooui' 
the workmen, but of the masters, w^ho 
the wilful act of destruction referred to, 
argument which no doubt influenced them 
powerful one with which inventors are so 
** Let well alone." In their frequent com 
their workmen the masters' Trades-Unioo* 
believe, usually come off victorious, henoe 
the chief cost of type under the hajid sy 
doubtless at a minimum ; while the seUii^ 
type to the printer, being fixed arbitrarily 
same authorities, was of course at a 
Why, then, should this satisfactory state oi 
be disturbed by the introduction of mi 

My connection with tyx)e-founding^ data 
the Exhibition of 1851, ai^d, as I have had 
siderable share in the inventions I have to 
to you, I trust that you will pardon me 
narrative becomes somewhat personal, and 
somewhat of the egotist. Being myself the 
no other form of speech is possible. 

I.— The Habb Metax^ 

At the Exhibition of 1851 a very i 
machine, of French origin, was shown, 
attempted to make printing tyx>e6 from a 
copper or zinc, by means of pressure instead 
casting. I had formed a high opinion of Hie 
bilities of this machine, and had induced 
friends to join me in assisting the in 
bring it into practical ox>eration. On doee 
tion, however, many weak points in the 
were discovered. Several difficulties nvere 
but others proved to be inherent and nna 
and the scheme was ultimately abandoned. 

I had learnt from various printers who had 
this machine, how great a boon the introd 
hard type would confer upon the trade, 
the failure of wire tyi)e machines, I co 
periments to cast type in zinc and 
alloys. I succeeded, and in 1852 took out 
for the mode of effecting this. I found, 
in a few months, that type containing zino 
oxidised in a damp atmosphere, and 
cemented together in the page. 

I then endeavoured to ascertain how 
quantity of zinc could be used, when antiznanj 
was employed, tin being used to efEiect thie 
I at last found that tin alone was cuwble <tf 
porting extreme hardness to the ordimry 
aUoy of lead and antimony, which, as usually 
in technical works, consisted of 75 parts lead 
antimony, provided that it was substituted 
the lead wholly or in part. 

To me, and to many practical foond^s in 
country and in France, the discovery 
plete revelation, unsuspected and unf orsoen* 
had long been used in making type-metal» 
had always been added to the usual aUoy, 
substituted for a portion of its constituentB : 
when so added the result is entii^y 
hardness not being obtained. The remilt is 
apparently opposite tp the otlier. The 



hoi 






JODRITAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maeoh 21, 1873. 



383 



ttf ih hu tho e£Ebct of rendering the alloy 
ijadflmt more flexible or tough, and 
^d flexibility is usually associated with 

itay WIS patented in 1854, and, on its in- 
md adoption by Mr. Ingram, to print 
Lonaon News^ caused considerable 
and put Uie founders, to use a colloquial 
^ > "on their mettle." In 1855, Mr. 
'took oat a patent for an alloy compound of 
'At tntimoiiy, zinc, copper, and nickd, the 
eontaining extraordinary metal- 
flperaiu»u to render success certain ; the 
directed to be subjected to a white heat 
of the anenic! 
English founder employed a French 
▼ho was acquainted with the hard 
MAl the Didots were in the habit of using 
ig by their peculiar process, and in 
was the hardening ingredient. An 
iKtel can be so formed, but when the 
in sufficient quantity to give the necessary 
flf hardness, the metal flows with the 
diAcolty, each matrix having to be dusted 
powdcoed pumice stone to get it to take 
■Uoj. When a smaller quantity of copper 
Nereis a separation of the compoimd 
parts, one of wMch floats above the other, 
great ineqaahty in the results, unless the 
frequently stirs the metal, and therein 
Mes its oxidation. In the mechanical 
fti pomp draws off the inferior metal from 
«d when the superior metal accunmlates, it 
fhenoule. 

iomders seem to have been superior to all 

and to have arrived, by a species of 

tt the most economical proporfions de- 

1^ the labours of the patentee, for 

he fixed the limit of hardness, combined 

J, at an alloy in which one-third of 

mbstitated by tin, giving the propor- 

50, tin, 25, antimony, 25. The first 

U^ supplied to the IHmes newspaper, 

hard metal patent of 1854, was proved 

of Dr. Frankland* to contain lead, 

, 25.72, tin, 25.84, copper, a trace. 

fe remarkable coincidence. Another, not 

, is that whereas the inventor had 

khii specification, as a test of the quality of 

vtide of manufacture produced, and as a 

— i of the decree of hardness aiTived -at, 

[fta type formed of the new alloy could be 

J a poneh with a hammer into the old 

*iftoat injury to its face, the travellers of 

a« in question were in the habit of 

hnoner in the same way to show the 

4f the new type which their employers had 

Ugation which ensued, and which, by 

d pleas dilatory and other ingenious 

"wew, extended over some years, termi- 

ilfc hiat by an utter confusion in the mind 

■Mmed in the trial, between tin added 

■dMtitDted, surrounded as the question 

rMlBmense mass of legal verbosity and 

"^hrgfily qualified by the reticence allowed 

1tn4e secrets, so that the plaintiffs were 

ft nonsuit, and, utterly ruined in 



il papers I find that the analysis was 

Rankland, WarriDi^toD, and Tookef . 



r&S 



pocket by the long litigation, were never afterwards 
able to renew the attack. 

Since that period, the hard metal, without 
either zinc, copper, or nickel superadded, has 
come into most extensive use in this and other 
countries. Without further discussion as to the 
rights of the inventor, these two broad facts remain. 
F&st. Previous to the date of the patent, only 
one kind of metal was known to the printer, 
that formed of lead and antimony (with perhaps 
three per cent, of tin, and a small quantity of 
bismuth, provided t^-lead had been used) the 
varying hardness for large and small bodies being 
given by smaller or larger quantities of antimony ; 
and only one metal was referred to in the published 
foimders* lists. Second. In 1856 two kinds of metal 
found place in those lists — the ordinary type and 
the extra hard — ^in which more costly matenals 
are employed, and for which an extra price is 
charged. 

So highly has this alloy been appreciated that 
no such compound as the ordineuy one is now 
offered to the trade for book and newspaper 
foimts. By common agreement not two, but one 
metal is now referred to in the founders' lists, that 
metal in tie first houses being imlike the old 
in its character and composition ; and any printer 
having once used the alloy I claim as my mven- 
tion, would feel aggrieved if a fount of tyi)e in the 
old alloy were now supplied to him. 

I claim, therefore, to have been the means of having 
effected a total revolution in the art of type-found- 
ing in this respect, although for the want of* the 
sinews of war I was imable to establish the 
validity of the patent. 

II. — Castlxg Machine. 

On the failure of the wire type machine, and 
after the possibility of casting the alloys of zinc 
had beeir ascertained, I resolved to make an effort 
to cast these alloys mechanically. I had in my 
employment, while experimenting upon the wire 
type machine, a very superior worlmian, Josiah, 
the son of the late Mr. Kms;, a successful piuidi- 
cutter, who had introduced to the trade many 
novel forms of letters, and who was a type-founder 
in a small way of business. Josiah King was an 
excellent " justifier,*' and had generally a thorough 
knowledge of type-founding. He had on several 
occasions offered his services to the various persons 
who had endeavoured to introduce the German 
and American machines into England ; and it was 
from him I learned the alleged defects of those 
machines, the chief of which I have discussed at 
length — that of casting *' big bodies." 

On reflection I perceived tiie cause of the defect, 
and I determined to avoid it by discarding the old 
mould, and forming one with a fixed opening, not 
requiring the workman's attention for its true 
formation. 

I ultimately adopted the form shown by the 
Diagi^am 3, where in the fig. 1 {a) and (6) are two 



FIG. I. d 



FIG.2. 



FIC.3. 




384 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maboh 91, 18T$. 



sides, with a fixed opening between them ; (c) the 
sliding body piece, and (a) the cover to close the 
mould. As the dimension from a to 6 constitutes 
the "body," and is immovable, it is obvious that 
there can be no ** big bodies." 

Having succeeded in forming a satisfactory 
working mould, all that was required was to con- 
trive the necessary mechanism to open and close it 
at the proper periods of one revolution of the 
handle, and this was efiPected by a series of levers 
placed under the small upper table supporting the 
mould, to which levers motions were given by cams 
placed upon the one single shaft of the machine. 

The matrix, when used in the mechanical moulds, 
was alleged to have torn off the "seriffis" of the 
letters cast in them when the speed was 
rapid. I prevented thid in my machine, by 
brmging the matrix, supported upon a carriage, 
to and from the mould by a motion at right 
angles to its face, and this was found thoroughly 
effBctive in practice. 

Before puttin|f my plans into execution I sub- 
mitted iiie drawmgs of them to my friend, Henry 
Hensman, Esq.,C.£., of the Bank of England, who 
cordially approved them, with the qualifications, 
however, that several of the motions were very un- 
convention€tl, and that anybody could see that the 
machine had not been contrived by a prof essionctl 
mechanic. 

On the completion of the machine, the usual 
search was made before taking out the patent. I 
found that the whole of the patents for mechanical 
moulds were based upon the use of the ordinary 
hand-mould, with one single exception, and that 
was a patent taken out many years oef ore, by a no 
less distinguished person than Mr. Bessemer. 

The mould of Mr. Bessemer was in principle 
identical with that I had devised, but m other 
respects there was not a feature in common, the 
moving parts and the general form being Singularly 




At the Exhibition of 1862, Mr. Bessemer was much 
interested in the casting machine, and called several 
times to examine it. It was obvious that we had 
both recognised the impossibility of using success- 
fully the old existing mould, ready to our hands, 
and had started de novo, 

Mr. Bessemer^s father was, I believe, a master 
founder, and his son had, therefore, abimdant 
knowledge of the defects of the ordinary mould. 
In my case the knowledge was derived at second- 
hand, from the experience of an eoually practical 
man, who, however, had not speculatea, like Mr. 
Bessemer, as to the cause or remedy for the defect. 

The machine to which I have just referred is 
the casting machine before you, dissevered from the 
dressing machine, which is of much later origin. 
The action of the casting is easily understood by 
reference to diagram No. 3, which shows three 
sections of the moidd. In Fig. 1, the parts of the 
mould are closed to receive a let of melted metal 
injected by a pump to form the letter, the nozzle 
of the pump closing one end of the mould, or 
rather of the jet or conduit leading to it, the other 
end being closed by the matrix. On the letter 
beinc formed, the lever in connection with the slid- 
ing body-piece causes it to descend for a minute 
distance so as to release the matrix from the pros- 
sure of the levers moving it. The matrix is then 
withdrawn, and the top-piece retires to the position 



shown at 3, the body-pieo^ rising to tiffoit 
the type from between the fixed side^pieoei; 
top-piece then advances to push awftvtbe^ 
and having done so the body-pieoe aiwoa 
the position at No. 2 ; the matrix next tdTUM 
close the opening, and the body-pieoe met ttf 
first position, when the mould is again na^j 
receive another jet of metal to form aaotber M 
These movements ^re all effected by the cam 
levers already referred to, put in xnotioii \tf 
revolution of the handle; and as from tliiitjto 
hundred and twenty revolutions can be 
each minute, according to the size of tlie type^^ 
produce of the machine i^ very considerable. "^ 
at sixty revolutions per minute, the produce 
hour is equal to that of a hand-cast^, mn^ 
American mould, in one day. 

The machine has been fairly appredaiei 
University of Oxford Press purchased two 
for which they pcdd a very liberal sma, soon 
the completion of the invention, lliese 
have been in constant work ever nsoe. 
Imperial Printing Office of France adopted 
1855 ; and modifications of the mabhine, m 
patent lapsed in France, are being made in 
quantities and distributed over the world. 

On its completion I invited the associated 
founders to visit it, and it passed the ordeal 
cessfully, only one hypothetical objediiHi * 
been raLsed against it. 

Next day I received a letter informing 
it was pirating one of their patents, and I 
for the first time, learnt their object in 
so many patents which they did not use. 

Having succeeded in learning that the 
piracy consisted in lifting the piston of tlie 
with a cam and lever and pulling it doim 
spring, I reversed the operation, pulling it 
by a cam and lifting it by a spring, and V 
more of the piracy. I was informeid semi- 
that none of the associated founders oodd 
with me separately', and I was requested to 
Mr. Yincent Figgins if I wished to dispoie 
machine. 

Findingthat I was at the mercy of this 
body, and fearing that the same fate 
my invention as that of M. Didot, I 
further advances towards the Associated F< 
but immediately formed a partnership 
John Huffam Kmg, a very successful pundn 
and founder, who had succeeded to the buna 
his father, whom I have already refored to 

m.— Electrotype Matrices. 

Mr. King's stock of book founts vasi 
siderable, but I hoped to make up the deft 
by the electrotype process, which kad woj 
such valuable results in the hands of the ^ 
of the Imperial Foundry Printing-office, of ^ 
the only foundry which had received a Cj 
medal at the Gi:eat Exhibition. I improTW 
the system which I had had described to 
worked by the Austrian Printing-office. I 
that by special contrivances I C(nild not onl] 
duce a matrix from a type as had already 
done, but a matrix very nearly "justified, tl 
fitted for use in the mould so as to F^^dnoeJ 
of due dimension without alterixig tiw rcgiffl 
the mould. By this invaition I not (huJ 



JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mabch 21, 1873. 



335 




torilkf (tf tbe punch, but a considerable frac- 
fif#l«aii of the ** justification.'' 
itteoMned an important weapon with which 
b 4Balit tiie trades union of the founders— at 
pllht dictating the p^ice of type to the printers 
i §A own terais. But before employing this 
1. 1 took care to assure myself not only of 
kgaiity, but of its not contravening any 
custom of ^e trade, as then practised, 
before makinff the improvements which led 
jfc&oorery of uic methods just referred to, I 
' woiained that the electrotyx>e apparatus 
md}ij many, if not by all, the founders, and 
t» a considerable extent. 
[ikmd that the Registry of Designs Act gave 
^^opoty in any ne'w character, or set of 
, introduced by the f oimders for a period of 
on their registering the design, and such 
had been nuide in cases of *' church text ** 
er ornamental characters. As regards, 
, merely modified forms of letters, differine 
jRoeding founts by greater or less ** fatness, 

or kM *'strengUi or length of seriff,*' 

eeffnght or property on such modified 

was recogiused either by the legis- 

or by the custom of the trade. Any 

agn or form introduced, of the nature re- 

to, was immediately copied, and even the 

of ^ new fount was of t^ adopted without 

ncogmtion of the introducer. Thus when Mr. 

iatrodnced his ** Lean Antiques," and they 

ftroarwith printers, similar punches were cut 

foonders. It was the same with the *' Sans- 

of the same punch-cutter, and the ** Claren- 

'* of Kr. Bealey. The custom was still more 

shown when the younger King introduced a 

it modificationin the form of the note- 

ia muic type, which led to his music founts 

most extensively emploved. The im- 

was thereupon adopted in the music 

of o&er founders. Perhaps the most 

operation of this kind was that by which 

British founder copied not one, but a 

of the founts of Ghiramond, which Mr. 

and the late Mr. Pickering had in- 

lad made fiishionable, to the great profit 

fovider in whose 6ld stock these founts had 

The quaintness and inequalities of 

letten, whkh. a few years previously would 

been considered by ^glish punch-cutters as 

were so suooessfully imitated that a large 

of the original poss«8sof *s business was 

* to his clever rival, who claimed that 
Bodem antiques " were superior to the 
Karticle. 

■K stated these facts because it would appear 
^ a docoment largely droulated, but one which 

ffnerally received as amere trade circular, 
^r-JOBg to depreciate a rival's goods, and 
kteto been txeated with contempt, that 

m?entional notions now exist among the 

* foonders on the subject of copyrig^ht. It 
" that the firm which issued the cnxnilar 

I a firm to which I have alluded as 
edthe old founts on so large a scale, think 
it n perfectly fair to copv any fount not 
Vf the hand of the punch cutter, yet it 
^ Bag, o r even immoral to do so by means 
t^JjjTuijpo process. I say inunoral, for it 
"^■li mA it is not illegal. It is ^not a 



malum prohibitwny and therefore is, I presume, a 
malttm per s«, but in what code of morals, except 
that of the Trades-Union of the British tyx)e- 
founders, I have been unable to discover. I have, 
however, perhaps, stated the views of the case too 
broadly. If I may judge by the use of the electro- 
^pe apparatus, which so largely obtained among 
English founders at the date of my commencing 
to use it, that it is perfectly legal and moral to use 
that apparatus upon the types of foreign punch- 
cutters, even when strikes of the matrices can be 
purchased from them at a reasonable price. 
Judging, moreover, from late events, I believe 
that it is not considered derogatory to copy the 
designs of other founders ovon when registered, 
provided they are not members of that dis- 
tinguished body. 

If the law be considered deficient, by all means 
let it be amended. If four years' property in the 
design be not enough, let it be extended to ten. 

However stringent th(9 law had been made, it 
would not have restricted my operations in the 
slightest dsCTee, for I solenmly declare that I have 
never copied or caused to be copied any registered 
design, either during the term in whicm legal 
property existed, or subsequentlv, after the lapse of 
that term. I am assured that tnose who succeeded 
me and used my apparatus can, and, if necessary, 
will, make the same assertion. Can any of the 
associated founders say the same ? 

I and my associates have everything to gain and 
nothing to lose by the increased efficiency of the 
Act, and wilj gladly join in obtaining such improve- 
ment from the LeguJature. 

To resume my narrative. On myself and 
partner satisfying ourselves that not only in 
perfect legality, but in perfect accordance with 
the custom of the trade, ordinary book-founts 
and letters involving no special feature of original 
design might be copied, we set about the opera- 
tion on a very considerable scale. I claim by 
these means to have produced a series of founts 
which are the *' cream of the cream," as our neigh- 
bours say, and will bear comparison, not only with 
the stock founts of any other founder, but with the 
selected founto from the repertories of all those 
founders. The operation, as conducted by the aid 
of Mr. King, a pimch-cutter, who had engraved 
some of the best founts in t^e trade, was not a 
mere slavish copy. A series of founts having 
been selected from the leading founders, each 
letter was carefully examined between the ems 
(mm) of each fount. The bevels were added by a 
special alloy fusing considerably below the boilmg 
point of water, and these were not the original 
bevels of the punch, which greatly interfere with 
the dressing of the type, but sufficient to enable 
the letter to deliver freely and no more. In this 
respect the electrotyped matrices are very superior 
to those struck from the original punches, so that 
we now constantly produce electro-matrices from 
letters of which the original punch is in our 
possession. The * * seiiSs " were often shortened, and 
other touches wit^ the graver given, so as to 
improve the form or correct defecte, and having 
thus produced the model, amatrix was formed from 
it in solid copper. 

rv.— New Systbm of Bodies. 
In piepaxing for issue the larger series of founts 




S36 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETY OF ARTS, Mabch 21, 1878. 



which we had eleotrotyped, Mr. King oalled my 
attention to the importance of a definite system of 
** bodies," a pzinciple which I sabeequeatly found 
had been introduced into France many years before 
by Foumier, and which had been largely adopted 
by the Didots and their followers, but not with the 
same imit of measure. 

We both spent a considerable time in endeaTomv 
ing to adapt this principle to the English founts 
without introducing any serious modification 
in their sine. A table, which I will lumd 
round, shows the sizes of the difEerent bodies of 
the leading English founders, on the authori^ of 
*' Savage's Dictionary of Printing." It will be 
seen from that table what great discrepancies there 
are in the sises of founts of the same name, pro- 
duced by the different founders, not one TOdy 
being of the same size in all the foundries, not 
even excepting ncmpareil, which, by fUmost 
universal consent, is made one-twelfth of an inch 
in "body." 

In this table reference is only made to pica 
and the founts below it, but the system, of 
course, is applicable to the larger founts, whidli 
are usually multiples of pica or of some other body. 



maohinary tiie other operations of the ^ 
founder, subsequent to the casting, jii^ 
breaking, rublmig, cutting out the f<Mi, dieai 
and setting up in page. I had alresdv made i 
progress, indsed I had coBstmoted a mad 
nearly complete, bat I had based the opeo) 
of rubbing upon the file used in the mod 
**keming-tool," acting, as in that tod, dis^ 
across the aides of the type, and not ia the dsreel 
of the longitudinal axis of the type, ai in 
ordinary method of rubbing upon a stone. 

This was not satisfactory, and the thin t; 
rubbed in the Tnonhiuft were more brittle tl 
those rubbed in the ordinary way. On his i 
Mr. Atidnson had tried circular cutten to get 
rub or its equivalent in the direction of the loo 
tudinal axis of the types. In the maohiDe bd 
you this operation, that equivalent tatherubbinj 
thetype, is based iwonan idea commumcstedto 
by M. Fiquet, a Frenchman, in the emploja 
of the company, who had formerly acted u foi«i 
in M. Laboulaye*s foundry in Paris, and t 
that gentleman had made experiments in the h 
of rubbing types by machinery, with tom» two 
but not' so great as to replace the female ki 
rubber, for in France the rubbing is done by voa 



iSince the adoption of this system all the founts _ 

supplied by £mg and Co. and their successors have Mr. Atkinson and I took up the natter vli 
been issued in accordance with it, except where Messrs. Fiquet and Laboulaye had left <Ai 
fil>ecial bodies were demanded by the printers, and by oonsideiiible modification of tiie plan triej 
these founts have, I believe I may say, been highly , them, succeeded in obtaining a very satiilici 
appreciated by the trade. | result in dressing the rubMd sides, whik ^ 

Notwithstanding the persevering opposition of the dressed sides were finished in the manner L 
members of the Trades-Union of founders, singly previously adopted. 

and combined, the petty firm of King andCo. I The comlnned machine was patented in 1 
met with great encouragement and support, and worked satisfactorily. We afterwards, b 
and the prospects of the firm were so encouraging ever, greatly simplified the dressing opentiuiif 
that in 1857 the late Mr. J. Staines Atkinson airived at that plan which is earned out in 
formed a company, chiefly of Manchester gentle- machine before you, and these improvements i 
men, to purchase from King and Co. their business patented in 1862. J 

and the patents for the fi»"«tiTig machine and the I have already described to you, by the ai^ 
hard metaL On the complete formation of the the diagrams, the movements and action d 
company the business was removed to Bed lion- ' casting machine ; it only remains to describe ti 
square, where the business is and has been carried of the dressing machine which foims part d 
on under the style of the ** Patent Tyi>e Founding same apparatus. 
Company, Limited." 



v.— Fbbb Tbadb in Type. 

Soon after this, whether from the attention the 
new system received from printers, or from other 
causes, mechanical mouldis were brought from 
the limbo to which they had been consigned 
on their purchase from the different unfortunate 
inventors who had failed to get their patents 
adopted, and it was found, notwithstanding 
their imperfections, that use might be made of 
them. What with this innovation and the revolu- 
tion which had been effected in the nature of the 
metal, for the first time for many years the Trades- 
Union withdrew its stringent rules as to the price 
of typo, and type-foundinjo^ was no longer an 
anomaly in the application offree-trade principles. 
To see the effect of this great change, let the 
printers compare their present invoices with those 
previous to tiio epoch to which I refer. 

VI.— -DBEssmG Machikb. 
Before communicating our ideas to each other, 
.^rli^S!S^ ""^ ^ ^ ^*^» ^»- son^e time, been 
expenment«ig ^poa the possibility of eflfeotiig by 



It is almost impossible to do this withont q 
plete drawings, and as I have not been able to 
pare these on a sufficiently large scale ^ ^ ^ 
to the meeting, I propose to point oat to ]r<H 
detail the various parts in action upon the mac^ 
itself. 

In conclusion, permit me to thank you for ba^ 
listened to this narrative, and to thank tiieCoj 
for the opportunity of relating it My obi« 
doing this is to put on record my share and i 
of those friends respectively who have co^po^ 
with me in these transactions, and thus to M 
a chapter towards the future history of ty 
founding. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr. Figg^ said it WIS not often that an o]ip<u^ 
aroae for diaoiusing the type-founder's art, or the i 
chinery and appliances he made use o^ the trade n 
in but very few hands, and little being known ttoi^ 
He did not, however, regret that the veil had been « 
drawn and an oppoitomty afiEbcded forjetiiiag imb 
the statements which had been ibmIs. X^a paf»r 
deavoured to show that typtflbmidan did not 
machinery, that th^ oombined to keep itoat oi qm 
that they combined to deatroT one oMofaiai m li 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, Mabch 21 1^^73. 



337 



ii|bb»vitiiot avarethat any powerfal asaociation 
M tltlMttuiie. There weje no recorda of it, but it 
Timn thit the old aaicciation, formed in 1792 or 
j^wfimlrfd before 1820. However, if they did 
ftodestroT the machine, they only followed the 
<tf P6iia4e himaelf, for he had the machinn 
an hii own premiaee, and by his own work- 
Tbe &ct vai he diaoovered that his machine 
Mt cut aeconte type, and founders would not 
I a machioe which was incapable of turning out 
foud as that prodnoed by hand. Not only 
I ft* machioe cast the *' big bodies " which had 
IhAond to. but it was utterly impossible to get type 
If for line or for general thickness. It was 
[t aiiUke to say that nothing had been done by 
" ' arasBOiiated type-founders towards the in- 
of machinery. One machine whs brought 
ilM, ud many experiments were made with it, 
>ottIy rejected becaose it was not found equal 
Aade upon it. So far from the type- 
inituig to oppose the introduction of machinery, 
I in (h« minirte book of the association, which was 
1 18ol, aod which was dissolved in 1863, '* that 
aeeting was convened to tako into considera- 
■bjert of machinery for casting and the best 
r vt^kiog in unity for the introduction of the 
Stewart and Danoan's, and Kronheim and 
ptttots having been purchased by two 
^tt^fxpenae was divided amongst the whole body, 
lAKhiofls offered by them not only to all type- 
^Ynttoany printers who wished to avail them- 
lh«n. what had been the result of the in- 
of the machine before them ? It was miid 
I SI tt work in Red Lion-square, two at Ox- 
Icthrn elsewhere, but of the machines to which 
ii»frnwl,he waa within the mark in saying thxt 
•t least 300 in use in Engl ind and Scotland, 
lar number at least in America. With regard 
^'•^'^yTio? of matrice«, it was simply an 
jvocMs for appropriating the rights of 
and he was somewhat astonished at 
i«n coming forward and declaring thnt he had 
iy practising this piratical process, though he 
1 care to keep clear of the law. It was false to 
Itltctivlyping had been U9t*d by the associated 
y* M zcspectable firm had ever used a battery 
rthe repfoduction of accents and those matters of 
posnssed the original punches. Tho system 
fi b««n condemned ; and even when the founts 
r. Kiog were desired by other founders, they 
*^ tad had thd punches cut, thereby incurring 
'*speiiie, and carrying out the rule of the trade, 

■ aeter been objected to. The Registration of 
l^colj applied to articles upon which the full 

■ Btrkooold b«» placed, and this could not be 
'^ciseof smnlltype; so that in reality that 
iW to protection at alL The same difficulty 
^•Ibr coontries, and in France rights existed 

ted this copying. In America, also, type* 

>*llowed to place the mark upon the wrapper 

T tyne Was sold, as it could not be placed on 

*jw. It was not correct to say that 

"""^^ practised this system with regard to 

^^^^^tions, and he himself on one occasion, 

^''^^•••d a complete foundry, and finding a 

■«Wf of the matrices were of this character, the 

*— *sre pot aside, and had never been used 

J'"!? attempts had been made to secure pro- 

jjjwi dass of property, because a type-founder 

ithottsands of pounds in the production of 

pi the fruits of his labour and outlay 

by others who had no right to them 

'JVMtion of the '*bo<iie8" waa one for 

^Jci*s; the type-founder had simply to 

""* ithsy would buy ; but he believed those 

^v« tried many years ago, were gene- 

L« Mo^lete failore. With respect to tho 



>»pfc 



W 



IjM 



actual working of the machine, be was prepared to 
contest its superiority to otheis which were much more 
largely u*ed ; and the very fact of three operations being 
comhioed in one machine was a disadvantage. In other 
machines each operation was distinct; and when he mo- 
tioned that about 180,000 letters could be cast while 
160,000 were being dressed, and from 400,000 to 600,000 
could be rubbed, it was evident that the whole production 
was reduced to a minimum. 

Mr. Gill (Messrs. Miller and Richard), while disclaim- 
ing any olhor motive than that of stating the real facts 
of the case, controverted the sUtement that after 1861 
there waa no successful casting of type by machinery in 
this country, for in 1849 the casting of type by machinery 
waa being successfully carried on in Edinburgh, and the 
founte used for printing the Exhibition Catalogue of 
1861 were cast solely by machine. That same foundry 
had been using machinery from that day to the present 
time, constantly improving it as time wont on. There 
had been ample opportunity for the purchase of the 
machine which hapl been described, and if its merits had 
be.n at all apparent, unqestionably it would have been 
adopted. The superiority of the other machines, how- 
ever, was proved by the greater popularity of the type 
producid by them. Reference had been made to the 
introduction of hard metnJ, and to the serious loss to the 
company from the litigation arising out of it. He might 
quote the issue of the trial which took place in 1860 on that 
point, when the judgment of Chief Justice Erie was to 
the effect that it was one of the many instances in which 
an ingenious person believed he had discovered some- 
thing unknown previously— certainly to himself— but 
familiarly known to these engaged in the business. In 
the course of that trial it was shown that certainly ten 
years prior to the patent of Mr. Johnson, hard metal^ 
consisting very much of the proportions which he 
adopted, was used in the Clarendon -press, Oxford, cast . 
by the foundry to which he had before alluded, and 
stereo- plates were produced by a celebrated Oriental 
printer, Mr. W. M. Watts, which had been cast by 
himself fourteen years previously, and contained 25- 
per cent, of tin added to lead and anUmony. With 
regard to the electrotyping process he would beg leave 
to read a letter, written by himself, to the ^^rnnters 
Register,'* some lime ago, referring to this very subject. 
The letter ran as follows :— 

Sir,— In your publication for December and January last 
we find an article entitled •* Patent Tvpes and Popuhir Pro- 
verbs," in which the type of the Faient Type Founding 
Company in recommended. Amongst other cummendaUuns 
ii is aaicL *' We saw the stuflF ihe type waa made of, and criti- 
cally .-xamined the matrioea in which it waa cast; we found 
that for clearness and sharpnens of ouiUne the latter bad no 
rival.** In a contiguous page is a specimen of the compimy s 
type, entiU»d « New..paj»er Fount-, series No. 6. How 
have thew faces been obtamcd ? We feel it right to inform 
your readers that the miniona and the ruby-nonpareU in that 
poire-the ruby-nonpariel suppUed by the company to th© 
Mipping GazelU-nnd we bebeve otber founu., have been 
cast from matrices produced simply by submittmg our type 
to the electric battery ; thus saving to the company all tue 
cost of the puuch-cutter*a skill and labour. You anj awam 
that if an engraving, a design of omamenl, or pnnted work, 
were so dealt with, it would subject the perpetrator to the 
penalties of piracy. But inasmuch as t»»o "^efl!**.?"^ 
was unknown aa applicable to type when the Act for pro- 
tectinir orijcinal pr^iductiuns waa pawed, type was not in- 
eluded in its provi-ious. We would ask, u it fair, la it 
h.>near, to take advanUge of this unforeseen exemption, and 
appropriate the skUl, the toil, the capital of another P Will 
not th« moral sense of printers as a body lead them to reject 
any offers of type thus surreptiti-usly produced f As the 
proprietor of the PrifUeri RegUter is also a manager of the 
Type F..unding Company, there may be objection to the 
appearance of Uiis letter in your column*, but we tender it 
for insertion nefertheless.— Miller and Richard. 

It seemed rather strange, that whereas a book, or an 
engraving, or a work of art might be protected, and no 



838 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCOETT OP ARTS, Maboh 21, 187a 



one was enticed to copy it, yet that a type-ibnnder 
coold have no protection againat a prooeas of thia kind. 
If there were to be thia liWty of repruduction, it mnat 
have a very deterrent effect on the type^feimdinff art, 
aince it would prerent new forma and dengna oeing 
introdoced whiok could be pirated immediately they 
appeared. 

Mr. Bonnewell deaired to corroborate much of what 
had been aaid ; for he had been in Scotlitnd at the time 
referred to, when he aaw the machinea in nae. Althou^ 
not a ty pe-fbonder himaelf, hot a letter-cutter, he had 
eoffered from the piracy of hia deaigna to aoch an extent 
<iiat for Bome yeara he had giyen up producing any. He 
ehould be very glad if the Legialature could be induced 
to make aome proviaion for aecuring to a peraon who 
produced an onginal deaign of thia kmd auch a properbr 
in it aa would recoup him in aome degp-ee for Uie akill, 
labour, and money he expended in bnnging it before 
the public. 

Mr. Ghition folly concnrred in what had been aaid 
with regard to "Mx, Johnaon'a machine aa compared with 
othera. It might be a very good machine in itael^ but 
no Buperiority could be claimed for it, whilat in many 
reapeota it waa inferior. For inatance, one man was 
foqntred to work it, whereaa one man could work two of 
the machinea in ordinary uae. Then, again, aa to the 
proportion between the different opemtiona, one man 
oonUi dreaa three or four timea the quantity of type 
whidi the machine would cast, and, therefore, it waa not 
80 economical aa it waa aaid to be. Thia machine waa 
aaid to do everything, and yet he underatood, and knew 
fur a fact, that the company working it also employed 
drenera, which he did not quite understand if the 
machine itaelf turned the type out ao perfect. The 
dectrotyping prooeaa waa simply Hbominable, in fact, 
.very much like forgery; and he did not think any 
honourable man would make use of it to poaseaa himself 
of the produce of another man's braina and skill. That 
which cost the type founder 2s. or 28. 6d., could be 
imitated by the electrotypiat, by the aid of an inferior 
workman, for about a penny ; and a punch, which cosU 
the founder £1, could be imitated, by the aid of a battery, 
for about Is. or Is. 6d., and without the exercise of any 
taate or skill in the workman. He recollected a fount of 
type being cut at a cost of many pounds, and it waa after- 
wards found that there was a mistake in it ; it was a 
script and the dots of the i*» were too ff*r from the 
bottom, and so on. There was only one fount of it sold, 
and yet in about a month it waa produced and offered 
by other peraons, miatakes and all. 

Mr. Strange ways said that he had had forty years' 
practical acquaintance with type, but he never heard 
of hiird metal until after Mr. JohiMon's made its appear- 
ance. 

Mr. Johnaon, in replying to various remarka which 
had been made, said the charge of vandalism which he 
had brought forward against the associated type-founders 
was not preferred by himself, but appeared in the Jurors* 
report of the Exhibition of 1851, and had remained there 
hitherto uncontradicted. Then it whs said that Pouch6e*s 
machine waa useleas. But if so, why destroy it ? But 
it waa not true that the machine would not cast perfect 
^jrpe ; it could not fiiil to do so from its peculiar con- 
atrurtion; it was in uae at the pn-sent time, and had 
been used for many years by seventl French foundera. 
He did not know what had been done in Scotland, but 
he believed it to be the fact that at the date mentioned, 
1861, type was not practically being caat by machi- 
mury in England, though Uiere might have been 
machines under triaL Yet in America, and also 
in Germany at the aame time, mHchinery was in 
full op<^ration. The defective principle he had alluded 
to still remnined. Had they overcome this defect? If 
BO, it would have been interestinf^ to hear an explana- 
tion of the mode of doing it. Had they ever made any 



improvement in the art worthy of beiag nocrAed or 
adopted by other ooontriea P He knew of aooa Be 
charged them not only with doing nothing to iapran 
the art themaelvea, but with doing their MSt to tiwot 
other people. Then, with regard to copying, with tk» 
exoeptioB of Mr. Fox, the partner of Mr. Bedty, vbo 
waa an admirable pimdi-cntter, aad broaght oat t 
beautiful church text and other baaatifbl fooati, the 
Specimen books were aU alike. If they did not oopf 
each other, how waa it that they had foonts of letUr 
exactly alike ? How did this marvsUoos unifonntT 
ariae f He did not wish any one to tike his van 
for it ; let them take the speoimea boob of tke 
different tvpe-fonnden and examine thoo. VHmi 
he began ne had the example of all the Asmdcid 
founders, and of the Imperial foundry st Yieasi, 
which had modified types to suit their wanti, sad tta 
copied them. The FVeooh pimch-cntten allos^ tkat 
they were largely oopied in England ; and he kaev U 
dectrotypera being largely engaged in this daaof voci 
It waa only of late yeara, when thmr foond that tha 
operation could be puraued to their disadvuitagt, thit 
the type-foundera complained of it. 

The Chairman concluded the discussion by proponix 
a vote of thanks to Mr. Johnson, which wii earned 
and acknowledged. 

A woodcut of Mr. Johnson's machine bii almt^ 
appeared in the Journal. voL xx. p. 909, in the Bflpocti 
on the International Exhibition of 1872. Adennptiflo 
will also be found on p. 208 of that volume. 



COMMITTSB OV THE MEAV8 07 PBOTICT1I0 IHI 
MSTB0P0LI8 AGAINST COHFLAOEiOOV. 

The following evidenoe was given at the meeting 
of the Committee on February 27ih by Ht 
William Swanton, of the Metropolitan Sahag* 
Corps: — 

Q. — Being informed that you have acted for eigti< 
years in the London Fire Brigade, and for somo t^iM 
second in command of it to the late Mr. Braidwood, ~ 
that you are now and have been for aeven yeut Sbj 
intendeot of the London Stdvage Corpa, whose ^^^ 
the fire insurance companiee are to attend all ^'^ H 
to save and prevent damage to property as madi » P^ 
sible, the Committee are desirous of obtaining ^^^ 
of your long and cloee experience on the medunw 
atmctural, and adminiatrative meana of prevaottngc<* 
flagrationa in the metropolis. Will yoo describe v 
nature of the arrangeraenta you consider noci«*7* 
bringing to bear the whole of the water-aerriceoiu 
metropolia to stay a conflagration in an? part of it f 

A, — I have for a long time considerod the gw 
advantagea which muat accrue from uniting iU » 
water companies' resources in London, with a ^ie«t 
preventing the possibility of there being a deficit 
supply of water for firea. Of courae I am not i»» " 
femng to the ordinary aupply for domestic oc otw 
purpoaee, but aolely in reference to fires. At pntn^ 
frequently happena that the turncock is from boo 
when a fire ocrcurs daring the day, and his Bbseeoe 
aroonnted for by the fact that he is in another pinj 
hia diatrict turning on and off the intermediate mpp 
to those localities then being served; and ia cotf 
quence of being deairons to give a 8ofilci«nt atpf 
where he then happena to be, the other part* of t 
diatrict are not only without hia being dnectlrt^ 
able when called, but also the resouites of tha 
districts are for the time being conoentratedto « 
particular neighbourh<KKl in which he it ''*'*J*j 
leaving all the other districts on his beat uoattendHl I 
a turncock, and, neoeasarily, deficient of prompt win 
snpj^y in case of fire, nniess some one ha]^isns to tatf 



JOfTRITAL OF THE gOOIETY OF ARTS, March 21, 1873. 



339 



mm vtatio iod a sapplj fttwi the ihmii, the ordi- 
ly ni i w i ipM being at that time, as a rale, without 
^■t; an if tbe mtins of that ptrticular water 
mMf mt-wtdtr repair, ao that for a time at least 
||hM%ii wiiboat water, under each circametances 
by •a be done to save Uie place buming if the 
jIh 9kmdf gained the aaoendency. 
o^viste BBwt oases of the kind I have referred to, 
ngjestthat all the water mains and services 
I ooMtuitly charged 

trwy water company's main be joined (and 

' b^ a aloice cock) to that of any other company 

to Its district, so that in case of fire or repairs 

coold at onse he made available, and ia 

til the water sapplies in London could be 



llha proseot often obscore, and frequently un- 
»^ eopply should be superseded by standard 
lio eoavenieat receeses agtinst a building, or ia 
id box fitted at the b^ise of the ordinary lamp- 
' 1 99vtj case the presence of the hydrant being 
by a ooloorei glass in the lamp or recess to 
ii tttiched, and to ensure its iH'iBg available at 
lU tifflw, every oonstable should be furnished 
a saill key of these boxes, with which he 
' it oooe open the box and turn on the water. 
bf to which I refer should resemble those 
wjf the poetmen in opening the post pillar- 
m nail and handy that it could not be 
inoonvenient, the ordinary key to the 
Iteiag kept always within the hydrant box or 
i if the question of ooet did not arise, I see no 
tvkjeadi hydrant box, or every other, at least, 
lait eostain sufficient hose and braooh pipe to 
eopsta ble to endeavour to extingui«h a fire 
tost, while the engines were being brought 

to flnsnre the complete and efficient working 
fiffasoiog suggestions, attention must first be 
to Um wmstaot supply of water in all mains, 
tiiMi, and this I think could only be met by an 
l*U eoatpdied every householder to keep the 
fttiagBin order, subject to occasional inspection, 
ioafigrMgieat in this respect, every building 
Mn^iBd with a meter, and the water used paid 
manner as gas is now supplied. This 
^■Bng meters would, I believe, quite remedy 
rf attention to the internal fittings, and would 
for inspection to a minimum, besides 
a check to the great waste of water which at 
'ita. Every meter being fitted with a key, 
eeold be turned on and off at the will of the 
nd thos nnficMiirily ensure a reduction of 
fa the event of a family being from home for 
|ft of time, bemdee the facihties which would 
^bsnd for keeping the water out of any build* 
im interfering with others, while the internal 
^n aader repair, or in the event of accident, 
have had occasion to suggest arrange- 
water-snpply for protection of particular 
will you describe those airangemeubs P 
cm he no doabt that many of the serious 
if9 oeearred in London might, in a great 
bate been averted^ if a supply of water under 
^*j*b proper appliances and arrangements, had 
StJ"^ ooaveoient positions, and it is to be 
'sRe is not some authority who could 
iaeh precautions being tsken in every 
ths oootenta of which would produce an 
i ia it a elC and seriously endanger a whole 
A if water was not forthcoming from th«' 
it solfiaient quantities, or if severe frosts 
ft time when a gale of wind was blowing. I 
vtepbooQ that all huge buildings, contain 
cabio feet of spice, should have these 
* and fitted, to the aitisfaction of sotne 
in proportion to the size of the build- 



irffV 






ings, so the appliances should be the more complete and 
sufficient for the increased area, aad if something Uke 
periodical inspection were established in respect of theoe 
buildings and fittings, I believe many serious fires 
would not occur, especially among the large mercantile 
warehouses. 

Q. — ^Would it not be necessary, to facilitate the adop- 
tion of such mechanical arrangements, and inspectinus 
for keeping them in order, that the water-supplies should 
be placed on a public footing ? 

A. — It would, no doubt, be better if the whole water 
supply of London were under one control, all the present 
sources contributing to one of constant supply and great 
pressure, whereby so much fire engine power would not 
be required for Uie purpose of exting^hing fires, as is 
already proved in Liverpool, Glasgow, and other places, 
where the mains are under constant pressure. The hydrants 
might then be used for cleansing the streets, or any other 
purpose, and the frequent use of them would only mHke 
them the more reliable when wanted for a fire. Half the 
number of men now required for an engine would then 
answer the purpose, still keeping in view the good 
service to be rendered by the poUce, who could act aa 
firemen till theuwgular brigade arrived. 

Q. — What proportion of fires do yon consider are 
raised for insurance monev ? 

A. — It is difficult to tell the proportion of fires which 
have been raised with a view to obtain the insurance 
money, as no doubt a great number of them have been 
settled in a liberal manner, and in consequence of the 
position of the parties they have not even been suspected 
at the time of settlement, whereas circumstances have 
subsequently come to light which left no doubt on the 
minds of some auUiorities that those fires were the work 
of an incendiary, either in the person of the principal 
himself or by agents, made use of for the occasion, 
sevtfal of whom, being dissatisfied with their reward^ or 
as the result of a quarrel, have, at some future tvno 
(when too late), spoken freely upon the subject. The 
only remedy, then, open to the fire offices is to use g^it 
caution when insurances are offered, and even this 
remedy fails when other names and new businesses are 
adopted by these same people. I quite believe that if 
many evil-disposed persons knew a fire would be quickly 
extinguished, and their plans revealed, when contem- 
plating inoendiiriam, they would not attempt the firing 
as frequently as has been the case, and in proof of this 
supposition it is a fact that very few fires occur near 
fire-engine stations, and therefore, b^ the street hydrants 
I have proposed, with the police aid suggested, a gnat 
check would be brought to bear upon this class of persons. 

Q.— What do you find to be the chief otoses of acci- 
dental fires P 

A^ — ^Temporary stoves improperly constructed, de- 
fective gas lighting arrangements, and improper 
receptacles for ashee, are perhaps among the most 
frequent causes of unintentional fires. And these aie 
quite common in buildings let off to several tenants Hud 
occupiers, where in many cases, after a landlord or 
agent lets a room or floor, he does not take the trouble 
to see what is g«*iag on within, so lon^ as the rent is 
regularly paid. Nothing short of occasional inspection 
can remedy this state of things, or properly -arranged 
agreements from the landlord to the tenant, restri 'ting 
him from liability for any fire arising from Uiese causes, 
by stipulating that a tenant shall not fix or use anv of 
these things without the consent of the landlord, and he 
being restricted on his part till notice has been given, 
and an inspection made by some competent authority, 
who could hive no interest in the matter beyond looking 
to the public safety. The only supervision in thia 
respect now exen-idnd is that by the fire offices at the 
wharves, docks, and some of the wholesale warehouses, 
where it is believed many accidents have been averted, 
principidly owing to the sugg^tions given from time to 
time. 

(To be eaniinuid.) 



340 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 21. 1878. 



ANNUAL IHTERHATIOHAL EXHIBITIONS. 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-Qeneral Scott, C.B., 
Sdcretary. 

The third meeting of the Committee on Class 9, 
Steel, was held on the 18 th inntant, at the Royal 
Commiaioners' offices, Gore-lodge. Mr. J. Latham 
occupied the chair, and there were present— Mr. F. A. 
Abel, F.R.S. ; Mr. C. Asprey ; Mr. Warington ; Mr. W. 
Smyth, M.A., F.R.S.; Capt. A. C. Tupper, F.S.A. ; and 
Mr. A. Viekers. The Committee inspected the steel 
goods which have already arrived and have been 
arranged in their assigned positions by the exhibition 
staff. Among these goods were chiefly notic^^able a col- 
lection of swords, contributed by Messrs. Wilkinson and 
Son, of PHll-mall ; a series of specimens illustrating the 
pr-.'Cesaes of bayonet manufacture, lent by the Council 
of the Royul United Serrice Institution ; a complete 
series of modem English cutlery, exhibited by the 
Messrs. Unwin and Rogers, of Sheffield; halberds, 
swords, and lances manufactured by the Messrs. Mole 
and Co., of Birmingham ; some Chinese cutlery and 
tools, from Shanghai ; and a unique collection of 
steel jewellery forwarded from Brussels. It is under- 
stood that the heavy steel goods expected from the chief 
manufacturers, and from the government manufacturing 
depnrtments, will not arrive for a few days later, but 
the Exhibition is to open this year on the 14th of April, 
and it certainly seems of great importance to thone 
manufacturers who wish to make an adequate repre- 
sentation of their goods, that they should at once take 
time by the forelock, and deliver their g^ods so as to 
permit an effective arrangement being carried out. 



ing the different classes of the instntmeoti ud tfjf 
ances, and agreed that they should meet wtekly «| 
the Exhibition should open. It is therefore hoped ft 
all the arrangements will be completed before U» I 
April, so that a clear week for private views unl f 
visits of reporters may be allowed before EstterM<i(l| 
when the collection will be thrown open toth« pftbtb 



■ 

The Society of Arts Committee of Advice ^Ql 
XI[., *' Substances used as Food," sub-sectioo (6\,*ft 
saltery, Grocery, and Preparation of Food," met At 
Society's House, on Friday last, the 14th insl ?ttmk 
Dr. Blakiston in the chair; Messrs. Sedgwick, SLQ 
per, R. M. Curtis, E. O. Davenport, James DoM 
Reginald Hanson, T. Hicks, Edward W. Ltrner, JL 
Manley, F. W. Rowsell, E. B. Savile, C. Sonttoi 
Seymour Teulon, E. Wilkinson, and J. A. pi 
attended by Mr. E. J. Craigio, Deputy-Cooimifflij 
and Mr. P. Le Neve Foster, Secretary. The Conuj 
received reports from the various sub-committc€»«| 
had been previously appointed, and took into cuoaij 
tion the applications to exhibit which had been rtos 
since the last meeting. 



Her Majesty's Commissioners* Board of Management 
mot on March 19th, at Gore-lodge, and determined to 
adopt the following announcement respecting the School 
of Popular Cookery. The school is situate on the g^und- 
floor, between the east galleries Hud the colonial annexe. 
The object is to give illustrations of cooking food in the 
best, simplest and cheapest ways, suittble for persons 
with incomes from £.50 to £500 a-year. The utensils useil 
are those which might be found in a house of £40 a-year 
rental. The locture-roora will only hold about 120 
people, of which number not more than 70 can be accom- 
modated with reserved seats, and there will be a charge 
of sixpence for each hour's instruction. Verbal exjda- 
nations of tlio processes will be given by Mr. Buck- 
master. There will also be a t>istin^-room. This room 
will not be rejjarded as a general refreshment- room, but 
arrangements will be made to allow a limited number 
of persona who register their names each day to taste the 
practical illustrations of the lessons in cooking at two 
o'clock and six o'clock. The subject of the illustrations 
given each hour in each day will be duly advertised. 



The fifth m'?eting of the Committee on Surerical Instru- 
ments an<l appliances took place on the 19th March, at 
the Royal Commission Offices, Gorn lodge. The fol- 
lowing members were pr^si-nt:- -Mr. Caesar H. Hawkins, 
F.R.S., in the chair; Mr. W. White Cooper, Mr. H. J. 
Dofiivillo, C.B., M.D., Dr. Arthur Farre, F.R.S., Dr. G. 
T Gream, Mr. J. Hilton, F.R.S., Mr. J. Hinton. Mr. R. 
Liehreich. Mr. J. Luke F.R.S., Mr. A. E. Mackay. M.D., 
Mr. J. Marshall. F.R.S.. Dr. W. 8. Playf.ir, Mr. E. 
Saunders, and Mr. E. Sercomhe. The Committefi exa- 
mined the instruments which had already arrived, and 
accepted the majority of thosn submitted for approval. 
They formed sub-committees for the purpose of examin- 



The above Committee, acting as a Committee of SI 
] tion, m^t at Gore- lodge on Monday, the 17th in^ 
inspected the various articles sent in for e ibilai 
the sub-section under their charge. There wei«M 
—Mr. F. A. Abel, F.R.S., in the chair, Mij<( 
F. Eardley-Wilmot, K.R S., Dr. Peybon Blak^ 
Henry A. Pitman, Messrs. Hyde Clarke, Swigwii 
Cowper, Reginald H inson, T. Hicks, E. W. U 
Fred. Machin, J. J. Manley, W. Reed, Francil^ 
Housell, Charles Southwell, Seymour Teolon, 0* 
Wilson, James A. Youl, attended by Mr. E. J. Ca 
Deputy- Commissioner, and Mr. P. Le Nere h 
Secretary. 

The preparations for the approaching opening are ^ 
on rapidly. The Japanese Qi>yemaient are dt« 
several thousands of pounds to the porpoteioftk 
hi bi tion. An immense consignment of silk goodil 
on its way to England from Japan, and if exsrf 
arrive in the course of a week or two. Japan aiw 
models and drawings of carriages, and a qa-mtityil 
cutlery and surgical instruments. The bttildinjr<^ 
by the Belgi'in Cominission last year is derJli^i wl 
to the Australian authoriti*-8. Next year, in « 
bability. the Australians will extend the prea^-ntj 
giving it much larger dimensions, Amonjj thsM 
velvet fabrics will be a very interesting; ct)ll'<S* 
ancient silk. Machinery connected with thi» • 
facture will ocoupy the northern extremity of tk»" 
orn gallery, on the ground floor. The brealin)^«| 
worms will probably be illustrated in oneof ibci^ 
structures situated in the open space of Uie weaiw* 
The number of carriages will be much prsiltf l^ 
the Exhibition of 1862. Among them will he ih^ tt* 
state coHch, and the state coaches of theSpesk*" 
House of Commons and the Lord Mayor. ThertwiH* 
the carriage built for the Duke of Edinburgh in A*i 
the Duke's Chinese sedan chair, the Earl of Onslo* • 
coach, and a sedan chair sent by the Dakf of ^ 
umberland. The Duke of Beaufort sends sm*il 
which formerly ran to and from Holyhend. *i^ 
master- General contributes a model of on# of ti 
mail coached Progress has been made towards » < 
tion of photograph representing the state «irri d 
Europe, and the various vehicles in use throoj^M 
world. Ten cab-builders are competing for th<» | 
offered by the Society of Arts. " Cooking and it* S.ij 
will be practically illustrated by a school of oo»«kin^ 
ducted in the building on the eastern aid", kn<**\ 
' year as the E ist Machinery Annexe. Biscuit-mikin 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIBTY OP ARTi, March 21, 1873. 



341 



dmatUtd^ thd nuuiafaotare of meeraohaum 

ofomngo-peel by machinery, the making 

9 whole proceM of the chocolate manu- 

•tcaidiictei by a French company, different 

ti ftmring meat, the must approved modes 

MHitiiig, the process of the maocaroni manu- 

ui oUkf processes of similar character, will be 

Otts half of the upper eastern gallery will be 

tu the paintings of Mr. John Phillip and Mr. 

I Serenl of these, includinor the Marriage of 

lao Eojsl, are lent by the Queen. The total 

M kr;^. The entire British collection of 

is the jyresent Exhibition is considered to be 

tnpenor to thjtt of last year. The oppor- 

iif nteciioQ hive been considerable, owing to the 

lomber seat in. In foreign art Belgium is 

■pieaoos, seniingin a large number of paintings. 

ii fsodmg pictures, but apparently to no great 

IVre vitl be a few Russian pictures, also 

Otfoio, DinUh, &:. Some of the ItJian 

«iil »end accredited works. The specimens 

do not promise to be very numerous. 

b/ officew of the army and navy afford an 

•f noTclty this year, and will occupy one of the 

in the eastern gallery. Photographs, 

chro(DO<lithographs, aod architectural 

fcip^sr with Uc© and needlework, will be 

tiwg»Uery of the Albert-hall. Scientific ia- 

«ill be exhibited in the crush-rooms on the 

^ the Albert-hall, though not wholly limited 

^ffft The French annexe will be filled with 

~ bat thfl carriages will not be confined to this 

Sihibitiun, many of them being allotted to 

and to other parts. 



flMOg 



billiard^table, and not one of the American light 
carriages, which surpass anything of the kind in Europe, 
will be sent to Vienna. The dep<irtment of fine arts will 
be the one in which the United States, according to the 
N^sw York deraldy will appear to the greatest disad- 
vantage. The committee originally appointed resigned 
some time ago, and the council of the Academy of 
Design, which supplanted the committee, have done 
nothing. 

According to the Grocer, the pork-packers of 
Cincinnatti intend to forward to the Vienna Exhibition 
a complete illustration of the method of killing hogs and 
preparing them for market, from the time they are drawn 
into the puns until they are transformed into neatly- 
trimmed hams and pickled sides. 



Nashville (TT.S.) Industrial Exposition.— The ma- 
ntigers of the Nashville (U.S.) Indastrial Exposition 
an^nounce their third annuil display to take place during 
the whole of the month of May next. Buildings have been 
erected specially for this exhibition, and the depart- 
ments have been increased in number and extended in 
range. 



BZHIBITIOirS. 



VIENNA EXHIBITION. 

that a series of exhibits intended to 
^ iadostritis of Japan at the Exhibition will 
miiy not*tvorthy and interesting. Apart from 
[«tm purceUio, and textile manufacturers of 
'■w and variety, there will be a complnte 
^ii nrioos kinds or woods, and a very curious 
■■•nioeral pro i acts, prominent among which 
**^tb« copper pyrites of Nipon. quite as rich as 
Rnlit: the coal of Takasima, equal to that 
•nd lapcrior, it is said, to the American 



I likely to be well represented as regards 
iodanries at the Vienni Exhibition. 
•xhibiti-m in P.*ris there were only 245 
Jjkibitora. whereas there are already 700 ex- 
tiw exhibition in Vienna. The Suiooly 
►Ut ittft from Nhw York for Trieste, with 
M^ evfiry variety of A'nerican products 
/—a boiler, f»ur stetm-engines, wood- 
(Jtebinwy, maoMoe tools, unwinT machines. 
■Mtthng m^'-hines, fire-eni^ne^ ooale^ cloth- 
^5***^. aj^'icultural machinery of every 
•*?««, pianos, telegraph apparatus, rock 
■a*de iiltB. sugars, moss, various plants, 
ftts N*w W^ along the Northern Pacific I 
■£i?^ ▼olornfts of statistics, a collection of 
^TO<raphical Society, and other articles. 
*■ «pe^t«d to sail from New York on the 
niaerals^ ores, metal goods, wooden 
hardwtre, chromos, American wines, 
la Soda fountain, a street car, and 
'ihtrts. In some respects the American 
^ lasted, will not be as complete as it 
<oe American locomotive, not one 



THE TRA.DE OF THE LOWER DANUBE. 

The Lower Danube is generally taken to be that 
portion of the river which divides the United Princi- 
palities of Wallachia and Moldavia (nowcalltid Boumania) 
on the left bank, from Servia and Bulgaria on the right 
— that is to say, from the Iron Gates to the Black Sea, a 
distance of about 600 nautical miles. The whole of this 
course is more or less navigable by sea-going ships, but 
they seldom ascend higher than Braila, 113 miles from 
the Sulina mouth. From Braila upwards, the trade is 
chiefly carried on in river craft ; but when the water in 
the river is high, sea-going ships and steamers, drawing 
eight or nine feet, are able to ascend to the Iron Gates. 
The bulk of the Danube trade by sea is ^th the left 
bank of the river, from Braila downwards, this country 
having no other outlet than the Danube ; whereas, the 
produce of Bulgaria is not onlv smaller, but a large 
portion is taken overland to ports in the Black Sea. 
Mr. Consul Ward confines his notice to the export trade 
of the Rouman side of the river, which consists in 
cereals, the produce of Wallachia, Lower Moldavia, and 
that part of Bessarabia ceded by Russia in 1856 ; these 
countries are flat, and the soil and climate are well 
suited to the cultivation of corn. The produce is 
brought down from the interior in bullock carts to the 
ne^irest port on the river-side, principally Galatz and 
Braila. From the ports above Braila the com is shipped 
either for Tchemavoda, whence it is snot by rail to 
Kustendjie, or for Braila, to be stored or transhipped 
into sea-going vessels. The centre of the trade is at 
Galatz. the rrcatof the principal commercial and banking 
establishments. The oth^r ports aro Braila, Reni, and 
Ismail. The countries into which all this produce is 
imported cannot be known with any degree of accuracy, 
because the nature of the corn trade is such that the 
shippers th«ms«lves are ignorant of the destination of 
the vessels they load. Th«re is, however, no doubt that 
the exports from the Danube to Great Britain far exceed 
those to any other country ; on a moderate calculation 
they may be valued at £1,600,000 a-year on an average 
of the last five years. 

In st«am navigation the most remarkable increase 
is apparent; this increase is principally due to the 
circumstance that stetmers are superseded by sailing, 
vessnls in the general trade of Great Britain, and notably 
in the com trade, though, if no improvements had been 
made at the navigable mouth of the Danube, steam-ships 
of the av.iragH size could not have entered thn river at 
all. In 1857 there was onlv nine or ten feet of water on 
the Sulina bar; and the Sulina branch, a narrow tortuous 
channel, forty-five miles long, leading out of the main 



9t2 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 21, 1873. 



riTer to the sea, wai full of slioalB. The Salina month 
waa then, and it etiU is, the only praetioable entiance to 
the river. Steam-ships in the com trade seldom draw 
lees than fifteen feet when laden, so if the bar had not 
been deepened, and the shoals removed, those ships, had 
the^ ventured to come to the Danube, would have been 
obliged to lay out in the roadstead. It is, therefore, 
entirely owing: to the works undertaken by the European 
Danube Commission that the Danube has been opened 
to steamers of large burden. But the choice of the 
Sulina for these permanent works is most unfortunate 
There was practically a choice between two mouths, the 
Sulina and the St. George. The Sulina presented 
greater facilities for immediate improvement at a com- 
paratively small expense; the St. George, being the 
outlet of a branch conveying to the sea a much larger 
volume of water, ooold not be dealt with so expeditiously, 
and the expense would have been greater ; but this dis- 
advantage was completely overweighed by the superiority 
of the St. George's in all other respects. 

The Danube flows into the sea by three branches. 
The Kilia, to the north, is the principal ; the St. 
G^rge, to the south, is next in size ; and the Sulina, 
which runs between the two, is the smallest. Dividing 
the quantity of water conveyed by the main stream into 
27 parts, it has been calculated tiiat the Kilia takes 17, 
the Sulina 2, and the St. George 8. The Kilia flows 
into the sea by many mouths, and is on that account 
al<me so difficult to manage as to be out of the question 
for improvement. The St G^rge divides into two 
mouths dose to the sea. The Sulina has only one 
month. The superiority of the former over the lifter is 
quite in proportion to the quantity of water conveyed 
by each to the sea. The St Geoige is nearer to the 
Bo^horus by 18 miles ; it forms a projection seawards, 
and has deep water not far from the entrance. Inside 
the mouth there is a large and ^commodioiiB hax^raur. 
The river baaks are saffioiaotly high and spacious to 
bnild a town. Thence upwards the bsandi has many 
bends, but the channel is broad and deep, witii no shoids 
of any consequence. There is ample room for n>iviga- 
tion, and pilotage would not be required. The Sulina, 
besides being further from the Bosphorus, is embayed, 
and flows into the sea on to a flatter sea-bottom. There 
is very little harbour aooommodation. The banks of 
the river on each side are very low, consisting of mere 
strips of land, dividing them from Uie marshes behind. 
The channel, though somewhat shcrater than the St. 
G^rge, is so narrow as to rec^uire good pilotage. In 
some places a large ship getting aground across the 
stream suffices to block up the chuinel altogether. This 
branch, besides being comparatively shallow all through, 
was full of shoals. Owing to the greater facility of 
dealing with the bay at Sulina, proviaional works were 
commenced there. A technical commission, which sat 
in Paris in 1858, recommended the St. Gheorge, but on a 
plan which it would have been impossible to carry out 
with success; sxid although the European Danube Com- 
mission was unanimously in favour of the St G^rge, 
the plan remained for further consideration. Political 
events then intwvened, and eventually the Sulina works 
were made permanent. 

Within the last two years, Sulina has been made a 
free port. It was expected that this privilege would have 
converted the place into a depdt of grain ready for ship- 
ment at any time, thus avoiding delay and the incon- 
venience caused by the interruption of the navigation 
by ^ post, but there is no disposition to establish 
p[rain stores at Sulina. The inoonrenience of the place 
itself, the cost of building, and doubts whether it would be 
prudent to incur that expense, until the question of 
opening ^e St Qeorge be definitely settled, are the 
causes of this hesitation. If the St G^rge were here- 
after to become t he entrance of the river, any expense 
now incurred at Su Una would be so much money thrown 
away. Great praise is due to the European Dtinube 
Commission, and to ite engineer-in-chief. Sir A. Hartley, 



for the Bocoeas of tiie piers at Sulina, and for Qta 
made to improve the rivor channel apwirdi; kl 
very nnfortonate tiiat so much intdligent hbov 
much money should have been expendol in 
the result now witnessed. The effect of the 
been to open the entrance of the riTer to thipt 
burden, and to convert Sulina from a 
stead into one of the safest harboun in tbe 
This was a great suceess, but it is onlyaptrt of 
object sought to be attained, vis., a proper 
channel between the sea and the mun river 
which can enter the harbour are proveoted Vf' 
sufficiency of the channel from going anr foitli^' 
if those ships which are able to proceed an ei| 
to accidents from the same cause, half the niae d 
harbour is lost and the work of the oommiHioani 
incomplete. It was not, of course, foreseen, fifiMi; 
ago, that the com trade, instead of being camel < 
suling-ships of 300 or 400 tons at the atmoct, v<^ 
quire steam ships of twice that tonna^snd aa n ii f i 
of 600 tons and upwards. But such is aovtheU 
the exigencies of the trade make no exoeptnaft 
Danube. Under these altered circanutaaceB» ft 
provements made in the Sulina channel, thoogk^ 
as were wanted or desired when the works vol I 
now fall very short of the requirements of thf I 
above all, of the British trade. 



AETIFICIAL CLOUDS. 



The idea of creating artificial clouds to pnM 
from the effects of frost is rather startling, Iratti 
losses entailed on vine growen in France by spill 
have directed the attention of many scientile* 
the subject 

M. Gaston Bazile, of Mont^er, a «« 
scientific agriculturist and chemist, and IL lal 
de Laloy^re, hit upon the expedient of creaus| 
with the vapour of heavy hydrocarbons, and A 

decided success. 
When the sky is dear, and the tenperst^M 

freeising point and there is an absence of de^ 
and wind ,there is great duiger of frtMt, and «ba| 
oomes in April or May the damage to the ^ 
enormous. In the Cdte d'Or and the Soatklf 
the loss of half a crop of grapea by this £roil,t| 
the effect of the lune rauaw, from an old notioal 
moon at a certain period homed up the foa 
redness, is not an uncommon ooourrence ; and 
in a single night the magoifioent vines of 
which hetLt the famous table grapes knovn i 
de Fontainebleau. were so injured byfrostthift 
feel the effects for years. 

The theory of theeffect of donds is that khcr 
the radiation of the heat of the soil into " 
therefore prevent frost. The plaa 
the danger threatens, to light a number of 
filled with oil of Ur, or other heavy oil 
all over the ground at the dist>inoe of ftfkesa 
each other. Soon the heavy fumes will rise tsft 
height spreHd themselves over a large spaea^ 
there for three or four hours ; sometimea it aif * 
sary to refill the pots. The cost is said not t»ij 
more than about eight shillings an acre, and tbH^ 
is not often necessary, twioe or thrice a 7^ 
utmost J 

An experiment was made the other day at Q 
near Saint Cloud, in the preeenoeof many oft^j 
of the Agricultural Society of Fnnceand tbrtt 
the neighbourhood, and it wasoonsidered hi^h^ 
ful. A plot of about fifty aores was.sdeotod 
hectolitres (66 gallons) of heavy oil burnt; as 
pots were nil lighted, columns of bbtfk ' 
sluggishly ever the surface, and formed 
heavy clouds. The wind was blowin|r pi]ettf 
mass drifted towards Saint Cloud ; but in i*l* 



tOUKSJLL OF THB SOOIBTT OF ABTS, Ma»oh 21, 187$. 



S43 



fii9 wkole plot of Imnd 
wcmld baTB beeo pioteoisd for 
clouds. The fhut «iowt<n preaent 
with the HTeot produced, and with 
tpmm by If. B«m]f and eooie ol them 
woM tyy to aave their peaoh and other 
MMMcfaanH eAsetiiof thenext /bn^niMMi 
BOt> we hdieve, be loal npoii oor own 
rho are eivem more accasComed than our 
the Ghaooel to aee their hopea of frnit 
hj miaduevoQs apting froatf. 



'KKXSFOVDKVCX, 



[C TELEOBAPHY. 

of 1M6 iabaoken^ in 1,876 fhthoma 

■ the lateat atartling aDoonnoement. 

thia nMana. No anchor can hnve 

la ont of the auaation. What 

hare broken itself, either by the 

it, or by its own weight on some 

nItMD. This meHns thut the sheath 

thflo a ▼«T«Kght foroe would break the 

k-thread. The sheath has rotted, and no 

tho problem had been proposed, how to 

€bmt would rot soonest, the wit of man 

bf i ae d a better method than the way in 

of the Atlantio cable waa oonstntoted. 

hempen corda, each with an iron wire 

Now, moat people know thai if their 

mg» their ahirta out to dry on an iron 

it Iwa touched the shirts there will soon 

there ia a speck of iron mould on a 

pooket-hundkerchief there wiU soon be a 

hink no one will doubt that, in some parts 

^ AUaatic, iron wiU mat ; the rust destroys 

and hemp both go, and then the core of 

opercha anaiM fkom the slightest cause. 

' 1866 cable last ? But if the life of 

a to be eight years, how extremely 

ithai the prime oost should be as small as 

r, I hare aatisAed mvself, by coirtly ezperi- 

wirea could be laid at the cost of 

I should h>iTe said seven, but I 

lly Stephenson whs warned that 

to tdl the committee of the House of 

I a rmilioad loooraotive could go more than 

it woold be fttal. 

ontaet on all sides by the cry, " Oh ! 
BB knows it to bM impossible." Kow, 
a tiling is impossible I consider him as 
If he win deign to tell me why it is 
Haten to him, and if his arguments are 
sa my error. PnrhHpa when half-a-dozen 
Mm are laid it will be discovered that 
impoasihle. — I am, ftc, 

H. HlOHTON. 
»tk. 

in the IMy JV«tp« of yesterday]. 



SIGNAIJB AT SEA. 



be the difference of opinion as 

to be used by a ship in distress, there 

aa to the adTantage to be gained by 

of making and reading the flash inff* 

%y OMMain Coltimb in his paper read 

Alt way should the usefulneiis of such 

try a code of aignala re<iuiiing to be 

tfll «hori tsd loog iashea (or doift 



and lines^ to ezpresa eve ry letter of the alphabet are 
probably known to every telegiaph deik throughout the 
world ; and the only hindraaoe I cam see to their being 
used with lantern lights, is that great rapidity would bo 
riqnired. With the aid of electricity, however, signak 
could be made fester than ^y coidd be read ; for it is 
probable that the state of the atmosphere would be the 
only regulator of the speed of messages conveyed in this 
way. — I am, &c., 

F. 'SL W, Laugklah. 
1, St LawwBsa taipist, StaMkmU. 



ECONOMIO STOTEa 

Sib, — Stoves and grates, being supplied with air from 
the room or hall to be warmed, conaume from two to ten 
or more cubic feet of air per second to maiatatn comhua- 
tion. In a room 12 X 15 X 10 = 1,800 cubic fioet within 
the walls, floor, and ceiling, usually fomteen pounds of 
coals, or twenty of dry wood will raise the temperature 
from 32*' to 70^ Fahr. in thirty minutee; but during this 
time the stove has had to warm, not only the 1,800 cubic 
feet, but 30m. X 608. X 2 o. f. = 8,600 cubic feet in addi- 
tion, the latter beinff drawn into the room through the 
aocidental openings m the wainscoting around the doors 
and windows. 

For combustion, introduce the air wile the stove or 
near the grato through a pipe from the outside. As the 
air in the room will expand, a moderate outward current, 
instead of the inward, through the aocidental openings 
will follow. 

Architectural modifications, forms of stoves and gratee, 
or improvised attadiments and obvious meana for venU- 
lation and the introduction of fresh air, will, as a matter 
of course, require mechanical attention. — I am, &c., 

Thomas Clark, Civil Sngineer. 
Superior, Douglas Coontry, Stato of Wlkoooslii. 



eXirBBAL VOTES. 



Teehnioal Sdneation. — ^With the view of pvomottnff 
the tPohDioal education of peivona employed in printing and 
the other trade* oooneoted therewith, a Ci»ui«e of eiz leotursa 
will be delivered at 8tatioDer»*-hall, by Mr. Bllia A. David- 
aof), on the arni of printing, type-funndin^, piper-making, 
engraving, and wood-cnttTng, upon the following dtey: 
Maieh 31«t, April 7th, 2l8t, 28th, May 6th and 12, and wiU 
eooimanoe at 7'30 p.m. Admission will be gratia by tioketa, 
to be obuined of the clerk of tbib Stationers' Company, at 
the hall, Ludgate-hiU. 

Aeronanties. — It is said that an American aeronaut. 
Professor Donaldeon, intends thia summer to cross the 
Atlnntic to Ireland in a large balloon. The machine will 
weigh about 2,0001b., will oonmin 288,000 ft. of gas, with two 
reservoirs to provide against leakage,aDd anelectrical arrange- 
ment for light The professor ^oulates to aooompliah his 
trip in from 17 hours to two days and a-hnlf, and intends, if 
the experiment proves successful, to establiah a balloon mail 
and passenger line round the world. 

VorwagiM, Tialk— A Orimsbyflrm propose to ereet 
tanks near the mouth of Great Yrtrmoutb hturbour for the 
reception of lobsters, salmon, and other fisd, which they 
intend to import fmm Norway and other places for the London 
market OreatTarmoutb ia considered to bemoreconveniently 
situated for this trade than other porta. 

Oosl in the United States. — Advices recently received 
from New York state that the pntducfioa of coal in the 
United States last year waa 41,491.135 tons. This total 
preHents an increase of upwards of 3,000.000 tons as compared 
witb 1871. The production of anthracite coal last year was 
22,039,313 tons. 



344 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mabch 21, 1873. 



Library of the Board of Trade. — ^The yalaable library 
of the Buard of Trade, which for some time past has been 
oooBiR:oed to a wooden shed, is to be transferred forthwith tu 
the Foreifm Office. We trust that the time is not far diistant 
when this and similar libraries attached to the various 
government offices will be thrown open to the general pablic 

Progreii in Japan. — The Japanese goyemment pro- 
poses to have an institation fur the study of practical 
engineering, and have instructed their agents to procure a 
set of machinery and tools similar in all respects ti that 
which the Crystal Palace Company last autumn constructed, 
for the purposes of their school for practical engineering, 
under the supervision of Prof. Wilson, as Principal. 

A New Artificial Stone. — A patent has been granted 
in the United States for a new srtiflcial stone, produced by 
treating asbestos, either ground or in fibre, with «ilicate of 

Sotash or soda, th«i pressing the same into mouldn of the 
esired form or shape, saturatinp^ the mass with chloride of 
calcium, either pure or mixed with chloride of magnesium, 
and flnalljr washing it in pure water. The result is a com- 
poiind claimed to be fire-proof and impervious to water, 
which can be used with great advantage for many different 
purposes. By preference, the bittern, or mother water, from 
salt works, is used to saturate the blocks after they are 
pressed. The action of chloride of calcium and magnesium 
npon the alkaline silicate previously mixed with asbestos, is 
to decompose the silicate, and form insoluble silicate of lime 
and maMuesia, with soluble chlorides of potassium or sodium, 
the latter being readily removnl by washing with water. 
The principal advantage claimed for the compound is that 
it preserves a certain degree of elasticity, mainly due to the 
fibnms nature of the asbestos, which cannot be attained if, 
in place of the asbestos, day or other material of a similar 
character ie employed. 

Provliiona Preierved by the Actiofi of Cold.— From 
the report of the Academie des Sciences, we learn that, in 
1866, some beef broth was bottled, and then plunged for 
some hours in a freezing mixture. The broth, when opened, 
had all the qualities which it possessed on being sub- 
mitted to the action of cold. Sugar-cane juioe treated in the 
same wiw had undergone no change. These trials were 
suggested by the well-known geological fact that a low 
temperature becomes, in o>urse of time, an obstacle to the 
decomposition of flesh. For example, in 1804, the carcase of 
an elephant was discovered, enclosed in ice, at the mouth of 
the Lena, in Siberiajn such a state of preservation that the 
animals fed on it. This is not an exceptional case. During 
the exploration on the coast of the Frozen Sea, between the 
Lena and the Kolyma ^undertaken after the voyage of Capt. 
Beeohey to the Bay of Escholtz), thousands of elephants, 
rhinooerosee, and bufBdoea were, says the "repert," dis- 
ooversd buried, either in the ioe or in the frozen earth of 
those regions. One of the members of the Academy men- 
tioned that his father had often told him that, in the 
Russian campaign, the bodies of the soldiers and animals 
buried under the snow were bettor pieserved than those 
which were exposed to the air. 



H0TICS8. 



8UB80BIPTIOH8. 

The Ohristmas subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas DaTenport, Finanoial 
oflloer. 

'^'^^^'^ W TBM LOHOOir nmouiATioirAL 
XZHDOnOH OF 1878. 

The roports which appeared in the last Tolume of 
Uie/oMTiNi/ on the Tarious sections of the above 
Rxhibition, ait> now publishod complete, in a 
pamphlot form (price 2s.). and can be obtained 
at the omoe of the Society. 



t OBDINABT MESTIVG8. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. Tk 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

March 26.—'* On the Edible Starches of Coon 
their Production and ConsumptioD." By 
SiMMONDB, Esq. On this evening THoa. Gam 
Esq., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., will preside. 

Apeil 2. — *' On Economy of Fael for Dm 
ParpoeeB.'* By Capt. Douglas Galtox, C.B^ F.& 

Aphxl 9. — J^o Meeting, 

April 16.—" On the Condensed Milk Mann&eli 
By L. P. Mbrriam, Ebq. 

April 23.— *0n feilkworm Grain." By I 
Alfred Holand (Orbe, Switzerland). On thk 9n 
Andrew Cassels, Esq., will preside. ] 

INDIA COHMITTES. 

A Conference will be held on Friday, 28ikB 
at 8 p.m., when a paper will be ituul bv « 
Blanfosd, Esq., of the Indian Geological 8w 
on '* The Mineral Resources of India." fiv L 
Mallet, C.B., Member of the Council d A 
will preside. 

Members are entitled to attend these CooiBi 
free, and to admit two friends to each of 



CAHTOB LECTUBES. 

The Third Course of Cantor Xiectiirea In 
present session will be ** On Wines; their 
duction, Treatment, and Use,'* by J* Xi 
Thudichum, Esq., M.D. The Conrse wiH « 
of six lectures, tiie first of which will be |tf 
Monday evening, the 21st of April, the rc58 
fiye on the Mondiay evenings succeeding. 



MSETIHG8 FOB THE EHSimre 

Mow. ...Society of Engineers, 7^. DiaemBMa 

Fox's Pi^r OB " ContuiaoiiA Kail way ...„,, 
London Institution, 4. Prof. 1 luseltoo Dyer. ^9 

Organisms in their Rdation to Mankind.** 
Institute of Sorveynra, 8. Mr.W " 

and Larch Plantations.*' 
Boyal Qeograt^ical, 8^. Maj.-Oen. 8ir H. C. 1 

*' Notes on Khiva, and Routes kading to tliati 
Medical, 8. 

TuKS. ...Boyal Iniititution, 3. FktrfL Butbcclbid. * 
Motions of the Body.** 
Medical and ChinuKical, 8^. 
Civil Engineen, 8. Mr. Thomas 

Mont Cenis Tunnd.*' 
International Dedmal Aasonatioii, 8. (At tae 

THK SOOBTT OV AKTS.) 

WBO....80CIBTY OP ARI8, 8 Mr. P. L 

the Edible Srardies of Commoce, their 
Omsuxnption." 

Geolo^CAU 8. 1. Capt. F. W. Huttoo, 
Younger Fonna^ons ot New 
Canruthers, ** On the Trevtems of the 
and their Belatioos to other living^ and 
3. Mr. A. H. Schindler. *' Notes on \ 
Kaxirun, Persia.*' Oommunkated by 
Prestwidia 

Boyal Society of Literature, 8^. 

Archnological Aseociatioii, 8. 



Sopwith, 




THUits...8ocictv fbr the Enomnagement of the 
Benjamin Scare, ** llie P"rpfrnhan 
BoyaUS^. 
Antiouaiiea, 8|. 
Boyal Institution, 8 
ita Fkodocta." 



FineAx^C 



Mr. Vetnon Haicoaxt, **0 



Fki 80 lETY OF ABTS 8. India ConftraMc. 1 

T Blanlbrd.** The Mineral Beaources of lada.*^ 
Qnekett Qiib. 8. 

lUvyal Institution, 9. FtnlteasorW. K.Ctifl^sd,*^i 

Meaning of Fdttse and Energy.** 
Bovml United Service Institation, 9. CspC J. B. \ 
* ''Biltos, and Biffing.- ^^ I 

8aT.»..Jtoyal Institntion, S. Piuf ew m Max 
fiarvin's mioaoiaiy of 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 28. 1873. 



345 



mi OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Ko. 1,062. Vou XXr, 



IRIDAT, MARCH 28, 1873. 



Adtlpki, Lomdom, W,C, 



BY THE coinr CIL. 



miA oonuriEE. 

is called of the Indian Committee of 
r, and others interested in the question, 
17, 2nd April, at 4 p.m., for the pur- 
vnnging for a depntation to the Secretary 
for India, on the subject of facilitating our 
with Eastern Turkistan in Central 



nCPOLOGICAL SXAlOirATIONS. 

Programme of Examinations in the 
of some of tiie Arts and Manufactures 
eoQBtiy is now ready, and may be had on 

to the Secretary, 
[subjects selected for 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
snd Carriage-building. Those desiring 
Candidates, should apply for the pro- 
vithont delay, as all names must be sent 
I the end of Miirch. 
)wing Prixes are offisred by the Society of 
jesch of the five subjects mentioned aboTe : — 
» best candidate in Honours, £10. 
) best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7 . 
tbwtcan d i d ate in the Elementary Ghrade, £5. 

tiuit these Examinations may really be 
in promoting technical education in this 
it is desirable that encouragement should 
to omdidatea by the offor of additional 
[«1 scholarships. W\^ this object the 
ifipeal to the Companies of the City of 
M merchants and manufacturers, and to 
ol the Society generally, to aid them 
to the Prize Fund, 
following special additional Prizes are 

Fjadham S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 
|W Ouididates in the Elementary Grade, 

A Prij» of £3 

APdieof 2 

^^« Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 



A Prize of £3 

A Prize of 2 

By the Worshipful Company of Spectacle 
Makers, to the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 
in the Advanced Grade and in the Elementary 
Grade respectively, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 

A Prize of £5 6 

A Prize of 3 3 

A Prize of 2 2 

The Council beg to announce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund : — 

The Worshipful Company of Fishmongers £62 10 

The Worshipful Company of Mercers.. 26 6 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners. . 10 10 
The Worshipful Company of Salteni 

(annual) 10 10 

Dr. Grace Calvert, F.R.8. (annual) .... 660 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart 6 

R. L. Chance, Esq 6 6 

The Council invite the aid of masters and man- 
agers in promoting these examinations by encour- 
aging their workmen to take advantage of them. 
An explanatory handbill, suitable for being sus- 
pended in factories and workshops, may be had on 
application to the Secretary of the Society of Arts, 
Adelx>hi, London, W.C. 



ALBERT MEDAL. 

The Council will proceed to consider the award 
of the Albert Medal early in May next. This 
medal was instituted to reward '* distinguished 
merit in promoting Arts, Manufactures, or Com- 
merce," and has been awarded as follows : — 

In 1864, to Sir Rowland Hill, K.C.B., '<for his great 
service to Arts, Manufiictures. and Commerce, in the 
creation of the penny postage, and for his other reforms 
in the postal system of this countrv, the benefits of which 
have, however, not becm confined to this country, but 
have extended over the civilised world." 

In 1866, to his Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the 
French, *' for distinguished merit in promoting, in many 
ways, by his personal exertions, the international pro- 
gress of Arts, Manufisoturee, and Commeroe^ the proofii 
of which are afforded by his Judicious patronage of Art, 
his enlightened commercial policy, and especially by the 
abolition of passports in fiivour of British subjects.'* 

In 1866, to Professor Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S., for 
" discoveries in electricity, magnetism* and chemistry, 
which, in their relation to the industries of the world, 
have so largely promoted Arts, Manufactures, and Com- 
merce." 

In 1867, to Mr. (now Sir) W. Fothergill Cooke and 
Professor (now Sir) Charles Wheatstone. F.R.S., in 
'* recognition of their joint labours in establishing the 
first electric telegpraph." 

In 1868, to Mr. (now Sir) Joseph Whitworth. F.R.S.» 
LL.D., ^ for the invention and manufacture of instru- 
ments of measurement and uniform standards, by which 
the production of machinery has been brought to a 
degree of perfection hitherto unapproaohed, to the great 
advancement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.*' 

In 1869, to Baron Justus von Liebig, Associate of the 
Institute of France, Foreign Member of the Roytl 
Society, Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, &c., '* for 
his numerous valuable researches and writings, which 
have contributed most importantly to the development 
of food economy and agriculture, to the advancement of 



1 



S46 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Maioh 28. 187a. 



chemical science, and to the benefits derived from that 
science by ArtSi Manufactures, and Commerce.*' 

In 1870, to M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, " for services 
rendered to Arts, ICanufacturee, and Commerce, by the 
realisation of the Bw-m Oaaai." 

In 1871, to Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., "for his important 
services in promoting Arts, ManufacturfS, and Com- 
merce, eepedallyin aidinflf the eetabHshment and develop* 
ment of International Exhibitions, the development of 
Science and Art. and the South Kensington Museom." 

In 1872, to Bfr. Henry Bessemer, " for the eminent 
services rendered by him to Arts, Manufactures, and 
Coauneroe, ia developing tha mannfaotnre of steeL" 

The Council invite memben of ttie Society to 
forward to the Secretary, on or before the 12th 
of A{»il, the names of such men of high distinction 
as they may think worthy of this honour. 



nrUTITUTIOVB, 

The following Institution has been reoeiyed into 

Union sinoe the last announcement : — 

Tonic Sol-fa Teachers* Association, 1a, University-street, 
Tottenham-court-road, W.C. 



PE0CEEDi;VQ8 OF THE SOCIETT 



8IXTEEJITH OSDnrABY MSETIHG. 

Wednesday, March 26th, 1873, Thomas 
Obeenish, F.C.S., F.B.M.S., in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Backhouse, Thomas, Cleveland Iron Ship Yard, Mid- 
dlesborough-on -Tees. 

Cobb, Benjamin Francis, 9, Old Broad-street, E.C. 

£'«mes, Alfred, Roynl Nnval School, New cross, S.E. 

Oalloway, Qiarles J., Knott Mill Iron Works, Man- 
chester. 

Gjers, John, Ayresome Iron Works, Middlesborough- 
on- Tees. 

MoEwen, Lawrence, Lombard House, George-yard, 
Lombard-street, £ C. 

Packer, i^eorffe, 71, St Donatt's-read, New-cross, S.E. 

Bontledge, "Edmund, 294, Camden-road, N. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
didy elected Members of the Society : — 

Colomb, Captain P. H., R.N., Harrow, N.W. 

Hale, William Francis, 304, Gbldhawk-road, Hammer- 
smith, W. 

Kicketts, Arthur. 12, Forbes-road, Penge, S.E. 

Smith, Matthew (Messrs. Frederick Smith and Co.) 
Halifax, Yorkshire. 

Wallace, Sir Richard, Bart, M.P., 106, Piccadilly, W. 

Whitehead, Charles, F.R.G.S., F.S.A., Banning House, 
Maidstone. 

The Paper read was-:- 

ON THE EDIBLE STAECHES OF COM- 
MERGE, I'EEIR PRODUCTION AND CON- 
SUMPTION. 

By P. L. liBmonds. 

About fourteen years ago the subject of Starches 
was brought before our Society by my friend Dr. 
Calrert, F.B.S., the title of his paper being " On 



Starches, the Purposes to which they are Applied, 
and ImproTsments in their Manufacture." (jtMir» 
naif vol. viiL. p. 87.) Dr. Calvert, however^ 
dwelt chiefly on uie industrial and manufacturing, 
uses of starches; and alluded very briefly to th« 
edible starches. In voL iiL of the Jounuil, P*^ 
774, 1 published a short paper on ** New Boiblft 
Farinas and Starches.'' Smoe then the productiaB. 
and consumption of those used for diet has at- 
tained very large proportions, and as the food pro- 
dufjts will form a protmsent feature of tiie larth*- 
coming London Exhibition, I have thought tbat a 
few descriptive and statistical details on the sub- 
ject might at this time prove of general interest. 

Unlike the French, who have two words winch 
the^ Apply* ^th (iiffJRreBt meanings — fecal* and 
amidon, or starch, — we are, in a great de^iree, li- 
mited to one, all being essentially starches m com- 
merce, even with the minor classifications of azrow- 
roots, sagos, tapiocas, corn-flours, &c. 

The French confine the term fecula to i3ie sfeaitsli 
obtained from roots, such as maaioc ; of ahtmi, as 
the sago; and fruits or seeds, as of tha baae- 
chastnut, aooms, &c. ; while the amylaceous 
product obtained from the cereals, which crys- 
tallises, on drying, into needle-like forms, ^biey 
define as amidon, or starch. 

Yery little has been published on this extensive 
and. important branch of commerce, — at least in a 
collected form, for occasional papers have appeiired, 
from time to time, in various scientific journals. Per- 
haps, however, ihe best and most carefully eon d oc t ed 
investigation into all the tropical stardi-prodocing 
plants, their characteristics, and propertiea, was 
that carried out, about a quarter of a century ago, 
by Dr. Shiers, in British Quiana, and published 
locally in a pamphlet, of which I gave a digest in 
the chapter *' On Starch-producing Plants,*' in my 
work *' On the Commercial Products of the Vege- 
table Kingdom,'* published in 1852, a book now 
out of print. 

It is not my intention this evening to tronble 
you with scientifio and chemical dascriptioBs of tiiie 
s}>ecial characters of the starches from various plants. 
or to treat upon the mooted question of how far they 
fumish nutritive food, — subjects which fall more 
properly within l^e soope of Societies Hke the 
Microscopical, the Chemical, the Pharmaceatioal , 
the Medical, &c. I shall restrict myself to tbe 
commercial aspect of the question. I may, how evci . 
state that I have placed on the table, for the inspec- 
tion of the members, a very large and varied ooUeo- 
tion of edible starches, which have all been carefully 
identified and referred to their i>roper sources, by 
my friend in the chair, for in commercial circles 
there is too much confusion on this point. 

In justification for bringing the subject b c lo n e 
the Society, I miQr oive a few figures, which will 
serve to prove that the commerce in these artidee 
is of considerable aggregate importance. 

In 1850 we imported about one million poun^ 
of airowrout ; in 1860 these imports had increaae^ 
to more than 2,38d,(X)0 lbs. 

In 1860 the values of the edible starches* &c«, 
imported were : — 

Arrowroot £4V04 

Maccaroni and vermicelli 14,206 

Sago 149,748 



JtmSAL OP THE SOCIETY OF AKTS, March 28. 18^3. 



347 



h iStOluNi hftd msreaoed to : — 

Jmvnot .»••.*.••••••• «• •••••••• s33,063 

Immdi and Termicelli 2o,452 

ft|» 218,400 

f^om : 89,635 

I JB366,550 

{IfiUoow take the figures of 1871, the last year 

cb we haye tlie complete official detailed 

d iaporti; but, ttnfoitanately, these are 

m ft neir form, and are given collectively, 

; the ipeeial eaamerti^Qa which we formerly 

[ttl^ipBgate value of the farinaoeous sabstances 

iMBifftctures therefrom imported is stated 

eimi; sago and sago flour, £197,381; 

„ £471,662. Bat as the. article " maizcna '' 

hftovn in with Indian-corn meal, and much 

zioe, tnd even potatoes are converted into 

Jteiches here, I may as well add the figures 

Indian-com meal (£13,944) to the above, 

bring up the total to £485,706 for the 

of arrowroot from the West Indies, 

toi years, have ftaetuated between 

and 22,000 cwts. a year; from South 

n now get from 3,000 to 4,000 cwts. 

thus given yon an outline of the extent 

I, I proceed to treat of the production 

iptiiOQ in the several localities, prefer- 

ftoange the infonnation under these 

more generally recognisable and 

}mfy followed. 

EUBOFEAH BTASCHSS. 

^fcwplimts are utilised for edible starches in 
We are mainly dependent for our supplies 
on tropical and sub-tropical countries, 
ly small quantities of Portland arrow- 
been maoe from Arum maculatum. In 
^iaenUof Arum italicum and of Pancratium 
is manufacture to some extent, and 
^L per lb. About two tons are made 
*vf one maker at Cava, 
■i nisnafaotured in the south of Trance 
■Bighboorhood of Paris from the horse- 
It yields about 16 or 17 per cent, of 
B it is to be used as food, it must be 
water containing carbonate of soda, 
ibktemess, and then washed repeatedly 
ivvter. Only small quantities of it have 
into this country, more for curiosity 
purposes. 
[J»ch has, withm the last few years, been 
a beautiful food product, under the 
oom-flour, by an eminent firm, and the 
B which it is manufactured, and its 
- ^wtoies, have commanded for it a large 
■••udi as 80 or 90 per cent, of starch has 
from some kinds of dry rice, but the 
■•y be taken at 73. Imported mai^e or 
"■* i« slso converted in this country into 
'ft>wl product, sold as corn-flour. 
F|hename of farina, without the prefix of 
^ i large quantaiy of potato starch is 
•d sold here. The process by which 
^**' if now so largely miode on the Conti- 
^ machinery is very perfect. Its 
tnperties are however great; even 



when sold in the shops in the form of dry powder, as 
a substitute for arrowroot, it contains IB per cent, 
of water, and if placed in a damp atmo4>here, it 
will rapidly absorb double that amount of water. 
The percentage of starch in the potato ranges from 
9 to 26 per cent. Sago, vermicelli, and various 
other fooa products are made on the Continent 
with potato starch. The famed gravies, sauces, 
and soups of France are largely indebted for their 
excellence to the so-called farina from potatoes. 

As Professor Owen observed as far back as 1856, 
in his official report on the alimentary substances 
shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1855—** The 
French at present appear to excel in the art of pre- 
paring and modifying the starch principle of the 
potato, so as to simulate the product of the Maranta 
arundinacea, called imder one form arrowroot,^ 
and under another, or granidar form, * tapioca;' 
as also to simulate the starch principle of the Cycas 
circinalis, called *8ago,' and tnat of certain Asiatic 
species of Orchis, cafied 'salep.' It must be added 
that the conscientious fabricators of these imitations 
vend them as * French, or indigenous mrowroots, 
sagos,' &c., and at a lower price than that for 
which the ^nuine exotic article can be obtained. 
I am afraid that there is little conscientious prin- 
ciple manifested among vendors here, for European 
arrowroots and sagos sell as readily and pro- 
miscuously as Iiidian and American." 

West Iitoiait Abeowroot. 

Maranta arundinacea furnishes most of the 
genuine West Indian arrowroot, although other 
species, such as 3f. nobilisy M, Allouya, M, ramosis- 
8tma, are also cultivated for a sioiiW starch from 
their tubers, and several species of Canna are 
utilised for the starch in their tubers. 

The Bermuda arrowroot was long considered the 
purest quality made, its superiority either arising 
from the nature of the water or soil, or from 
greater care in tiie manufacture, but the pro- 
duction has been declining, and has now given 
way to other more profitable orops. The 
general export from the colony was, in 1870, 
45,6751bs.; in 1871, 30,2761bf. ; and in 1872, 26,710 
lbs., valued at £1,323. The decline in the produc- 
tion is best shown by the following figures, giving 
the value of the arrowroot exported from Bennuda 
in former years : — 

1851 £10,334 

1852 8,664 

1853 7,820 

1854 8,085 

1865 6,439 

1856 8,772 

1857 6.281 

1858 5,449 

1859 2,861 

1860 4,134 

1861 4,291 

The imports into the United Kingdom from this 
island have been as follows : — 

CwU.' 

1863 71 £814 

1864 382 3,496 

1865 197 It837 

18H6 830 3,076 

1867 1 9 

1868 60 607 

1869 91 679 

1870 none none 



348 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ABTS. Makoh 28, 1873. 






When made by the labourers in the West Indies 
on a small scale, arrowroot is prepared much in 
the same manner as potato starch m this country 
for domestic use; the only implements required 
are a grater and wooden troughs and trays ; when 
made on a larger scale, as on uie estates of the pro- 
prietors, the crushine of the root and the reducing 
it to a pidp are enected by simple and cheap 
machinery (a wheel and rollers) worked by water. 
The arrowroot is dried under sheds. Little or no 
use is at present made of the pulp after the ex- 
traction of the starch by liziyiation, but probably 
a serviceable paper might be made of it at a trifling 
cost. 

In 1869 there were 65| acres under culture in 
Jamaica, and in 1870, but 49} acres. The exports 
have declined year by year from 70,204 lb. to 
6,343 lbs. 

1866 70,204 lbs. 

1867 44,666 

1868 27,346 

1869 11,731 „ 

1870 6,343 „ 

In the Island of St. Kitts, arrowroot and tow 
Ub mots (from Canna) are produced to some extent. 
In 1850, 95,460 lbs. were shipped; in 1860, 35,128 
lbs. The imports into the United Kingdom for 
eight years have been as follows : — 

Owts. 

1863 103 £213 

1864 841 1,483 

1866 1,139 1,329 

1866 374 1,329 

1867 7 6 

1868 36 34 

1869 67 64 

1870 118 110 

The amount of arrowroot exported from St. 
Vincent is now about two millions of pounds ; in 
1847, the quantity shipped was only 297,587 lbs. ; 
and in 1851, 490,837 lbs. 

Many circumstances have promoted this increased 
culture. When it began the price of the article 
was high, and the grower obtained a largely re- 
munerative profit; its cidture was not laborious; it 
was subject to few risks ; it did not for its success 
require rich land or much manure ; there was a 
constant and increasing demand for it; and in 
consequence of the abundance of pure water, great 
facilities were afforded for the manufacture, and 
that by a process so simple, easy, and cheap, as to 
require little skill in conducting it, and scarcely 
any capital. 

St. Vincent is the only arrowroot-producing 

colony that has kept steadily progressive, as the 

following figures will show. There will necessarily 

be slight fluctuations in the out-turn, according to 

season, &o. From 1850 to 1854 the quantity 

made in the island ranged from 350,000 to 550,000 

pounds, but of late years the production has often 

reached 2,250,000 poimds. The following have 

been the imports into the United Kingdom, and 

their value : — 

Owte. 

1863 11.436 £30.994 

1864 12.243 30,667 

1866 17.691 34813 

1866 20.264 33 868 

1867 20.786 29,393 

1868 16,321 23.111 

1869 16,870 22,876 

1870 16,919 26,616 



In 1850 the shipments were only 3,578 bimifl 
and 7,493 boxes, valued at £15,864. 

Of late there has been a steady increase in the 
production, so tiiat instead of the stationary figure 
of 7,500 barrels, at which the 'exports kept from 
1860 to 1865, they have risen above the ha^ ship- 
ment of 10,000 barrels in 1859. In 1867 and 1868 
the average export was 12,000 barrels ; in 1866, 
it rose as high as 14,645 barrels ; in 1869, to 11,226 
barrels, being a decrease on the previous yeir of 
422 barrels; in 1870, the shipments were 10,438 
barrels. 

I have not any recent statistics of the prodnctum 
of arrowroot in Barbados, but I befieve littie is 
made or shipped from the island now. The exports 
were, in : — 

1860 1,073 fl,526 

1861 :. 676 807 

1862 735 794 

1863 717 595 

1854 1,067 1,«3 

In Antigua there has been considerable dedin^ 
in the productioD. From 1850 to 1854 the exports 
were m>m 300 to 500 boxes and banels, and 
from Montserrat, in some years, 250 bairels. Nov 
our imports of arrowroot fix)m Antigua h»fo 
dwindled to the following figures : — 



1863 
1864 
1866 
1866 
1867 
1808 
1869 
1870 



Cwti. 

217 

419 

271 
164 
12 
17 
31 
80 



i 

456 
740 

172 
11 

16 
29 
28 



Tortola used to export arrowroot and ttnu kt 
moi$ of the value of £500 to £1,500 a-year, but h« 
dropped out of the production. 

North American Starches. 

The enormous production of Indian con in 
United States, and the fact of its containing a 
proportion of gluten tl&an wheat, have led to it 
extensive utilisation for starch manufacture, «» 
also as a food product, under the names of nwii^ 
and com flour. As an alimentary product this 
starch is gradually working its wav in ^^ 
and has been rewarded with silver medals at sevew 
of the Industrial Exhibitions. Maiae conb^ 
about 75 per cent, of starch. A considerable qp^ 
tity of Maranta starch is produced on the cobsw 
of Georgia and Florida. The yield of roots of aU 
sizes is from 100 to 150 bushels per acre. Frwn • 
bushel of roots weighing 43 lbs., about 5J Iw- <>« 
clear, dry fecula is obtained. 

South American Starches. 
In British Guiana a good deal of edible starchij 
made from the various tropical roots, but the starpj*^ 
products do not form an article of export wfl 
the colony now, the arrowroots, cassavas, a«j 
being locally used. Palatable starch can be oDh 
tained from the root of the AUtromctria p^m 
Graham, and the starch from the various ChiU^ 
AUtromcerias was suggested to be sought for »iw 
shown at the Exhibition of 1851. The tubers o 
many of these could doubtless be utilised m J 
similar manner. In Brazil considerable attenno 
is given to the production and manulwJtnre o\ 



JOIFRNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, MaHoh 28, 1878. 



849 



A mott interesting and Taried 
rthflte was shown at uie Paris Ex- 
it oomprised amone others 
piodiiots, many of which I have 
b identify, in the absence of either 
r«r other olne to the plants. Of most 
to exhibit sampks :~^ 

■luch. 
pine 



eomfeenU 

ofseedsofgeiifelim (^mmm) 
difozno. 



from the trunk of Copemieia amiftra, 
•Ureh (from a bulb). 

(MarmUm), 
potetOt 
poUto. 

potato, 
poiato. 
'naiiioe. 

iioc 
(dried alioes}. 
gntingt. 

manioc 
»w manioc. 

manioc, told at three milreii the 



in mall baUa. 

or Aipim {Manihot Aipi), selli 
^half milreiB the alqoiere. 
in small balu. 

lotherrootsandbolbsthan the manioc 
The Maranta arundinaeea 
; there are two varieties, one with 
which produces the most fecula, 
" ounce's paw/* from the resem- 
to the fore-foot of that animal, 
after being subjected to the 
water, is sometimes buried in 
it ferments and becomes a plastic 
they gire the name puba, as they 
to the manioc, when it under- 



is extracted from the bulbous root 
leaf is poisonous. The starch 
>uddings, gruels, and other food 
is said to possess important 
ities, in dysentery, nephritic and 

or cassava is, however, the plant 

' for food purposes in Brazil. No 

its have been more changed in 

' tture by botanists than these, for 

classed as Jatropha$^ Janiphas^ 

I'OM, &c. I will adopt the names 

to the two principal species (most 

Item to be put mere varieties) the 

nDOus species, Manihot utiUuimay 

tipeeies M, Aipi, 

IVOdd seem to be a native of Brazil; 
into India, and is grown 
ilbdiia, the Straits Settlements, 



and other quarters. It flourishes better on the 
borders of the sea and on islands than in the in- 
terior of the continent. On the coast of Coro- 
mandel the roots are more fibrous, and therefore 
inferior to«those raised in Malabar. It is ex- 
tensively grown in Qniana, the West Indies, and 
various parts of Africa. 

The tubers of the bitter cassava attain a lens^ 
of three feet. They can be converted into bread or 
oakm. The volatUe poison of the milky sap is 
destroyed by pressing the grated root in the first 
instance, the remaining acridly being expelled by 
the heating process. The starch, heated while in a 
moist state, furnishes the tapioca of commerce. 
Cassava is abundantly cultivated in BrazU and 
Venezuela — especially at Oaraccas, where the singu- 
larly uniform temperature throughout the year is 
only 60 deg. to 70 deg. Fah. It is a very exhausting 
crop, and stands in need of rich soil and manuring. 
The propagation is effected by cuttings from the 
ligneous part of the stem. 

The soil destined for manioc must not be wet. 
In warm countries the tubers are available in about 
eight months, though they continue to grow 
afterwards. The growth of the plant upwards is 
checked by breaking off the buds. The bitter is 
the more productive of the two species. The 
yellowish tubers attain sometimes a "weight of 
30 lbs. They do not become soft by boiling, like 
the Aipi or sweet manioc. 

The sweet species, though a native of tropical 
South America, extends as far south as the Parana 
river. The root is reddish and harmless, and can 
be used, unlike the bitter species, without any 
further preparation than boUinff as a culinary 
esculent, irrespective of its starch being also avail- 
able for tapioca. 

From the roots of the two species many food 
products are obtained, among others, coarse cakes 
made by rasping uid pressing the root, which are 
cooked on a hot plate. The fecula, heated on 
hot iron plates, becomes partially cooked, and agglo- 
merated in small, hard, irregular lumps, and 
in this form is known as tapioca. This substance, 
partiaUy soluble in water, forms a nourishing food, 
much appreciated in Etirope. 

Farina of manioc in its crude form is often 
seen at Brazilian tables, but is more fre<^uently 
mixed with water and baked in thin cakes, m this 
state forming the bread of the poorer classes. It 
thus forms a nourishing and cheap food ; and it is 
to be regretted that in £urope the vendors should 
palm off potato-starch and other similar substances 
for the more delicate and agreeable cassava and 
tepioca. 

Manioc meal is produced on an extensive scale 
in the province of Sante Oatharina, where they 
employ improved machines for xNrepaiing it, espe- 
daUy m the settlements. These producers supply 
the markete of the capital and of the other pro- 
vinces. The foreign export of manioc meal in 
1845 was 145,722 alquieres. Manioc is the staple 
article of food for the whole population. There 
are more than 14,000 manufactories, and the total 
production is calculated at upwards of 500,000 
alquieres. In abundant years the meal and fecula 
faU as low as 1 or 2 milreis the alquiere, but in 
years of scarcity often rise te above 8 milreis. 
The foreign exx)ort was for some time checked by 
a tax of 2 milreis imposed on each sack exported., 
but this tax was aboushed in 1865. 



8fi0 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETY OP ARTS, March 28, 18T8. 



There are two modes of preparing the root — the 
wet and the dry prooess. In the first, the grated 
root is put into water for four or six days, and 
afterwards kneaded with water, and preased to 
extract the juioe. The fecula which remains is sifted 
and baked in earth ovens, some fresh manioc paste, 
which has fermented, being always added. There 
are no lees than fourteen varieties of the manioc 
distinguished in l^e province of AmaEonas, some 
of which mature in six and others in twelve months. 

The dry process is carried on as follows : — ^The 
manioc is rasped by hand, water added within, 
and then put to be pressed; afterwards dried, 
sifted, and subsequently baked. In making the 
starch, the deposit in the water is left for some time 
to allow the starch to settle down ; it is washed three 
times, dried in the sun, and is then fit for sale. 

The carima, or fine, creamy stardi, is prepared 
by softening the puba manioc in water, after which 
it is strained and pressed in a sieve, and made into 
little balls, in which shape it comes to market, 
although sometimes reduced to farina. It is used 
in gruels and other food preparations, aooording 
to me custom of each locality. 

The exports of tapioca from Brazil were 200,725 
bushels in 1868, and as high as 332,823 bushels in 
1 866. In 1 87 1 the exports were about seven million 
litres, valued at £26,050. The value of the imports 
of farinaceous substances from Brazil (nearly all 
tapioca) have been as follows in the last nine 
years: — 

1B63 £4,198 

1864 6,413 

1865 6,404 

1866 8,024 

1867 13.812 

1868 16, 188 

1869 8,974 

1870 12,960 

1871 14,092 

Twenty years since about 11,000 cwt. of tapioca 
used to be imported annually troxa Brazil, now we 
only receive about half that quantity. 

At Santiago, one of the Gape Verdes, the omde 
farina of manioc costs about Is. 6d. the decalitre, and 
when prepared fetches as much as lOd. the pound. 
One estate, the Praia Rei, on the island of St. 
Thomas, West coast of Africa, produces about 
150,000 litres of farine of manioc. In Angola, 
160,000 lbs. are manufactured annually. At 
Mozambique, the Portiiguese also prepare a good 
deal, which is sold for export at 2ito3^ francs the 
decalitre (17^ pints^; dried slices of the root are 
sold in great quantity in the maricets at 5d. to 54d. 
the decalitre. 

The common mess of the Balonda Africans is 
porridge made of the manioc. The meal is stirred 
into boiling water; as much as can be moistened is 
pnt in, one man holding the vessel, and the other 
stirring the porridge with all his might. It is very 
unsavoxuy, and no matter how much one may eat, 
two hours after he is as himgry as ever. When 
made thin it is like starch made from diseased 
potatoes. 

Eastebn Stabches. 

The water lilies are much used by the Chinese 
for food. The seeds of Neiumbium speciosum pro- 
vide an excellent meal, used like gruel, and the 
sliced roots furnish a species of arrowroot. The 
root of NympJuBa €Uoa, in Sweden, and of 



NymphdBtt lotus, eduUe and rw^ra^ sre 
food in Egypt and tiie East. The starch frovj 
roots of Utt^taria soffffitijolm is employed 
Chinese,' and from tibe Aiiama Planimgo hf 
Kalmudcs. 

At the Paris Exhibition, in 1867, 
were shown in the Indian department 
Sarun, from Palhully, -from Dacca, frooi 
Boon, North Malabar, Penang, and 
Although not so stated, I presume most 
would be from Maranta and some lew 
Curcumas and the Palms. 

The Maranta arundinaeet^ a native of 
was introduced into India about 1840, 
Elphinstone, and is now cultivated in several^ 
provinces, especially in the Presidency of 
It takes twelve or fifteen months to 
development. About a year, with good 
brings the plant to maturity in the ~ 
roots then contain the maximum of fecula. 
after twelve months* culture they will allbi4' 
cent, and subsequent yields were found on 
investigation by a good botanist (M. 



Months. 

14 


Per 0« 
\$ 


16 


u 


16 


u 


17 


u 


19 


10 



The fecula is obtained from the uiii 
shoots, which are white> fleshy, aboat nizM 
long by one and a half to two inches in 
They contain about twenty per cent, of feeula,^ 
the rude processes of rasping and washins 
than twelve per cent on the averaee is 
Arrowroot is in extensive use in Inma, and 
also shipped to Europe. 

The roots of Curcuma rubescens yield a 
like arrowroot. In Travancore it forms t 
part of the diet of the inhabitants, bat baa 
been tried much in Bengal. 

C, angustifolia yields an arrowroot in 
Benares, and Madras ; and C lettcnt^k*:x ia 
Specimens of these may be seen in tibe 
Museum. 

The wild ginger plant, which f omisbe* 
grows everywhere in the district of Chil 
it is very difficult to eradicate from lan4. 
smallest root, or piece of a root, that has 
will spring up again. The plant dies off 
cember. A rough experiment was made 
root by the Civil Assistant-Surgeon of 
Dr. W. B. Beatson, and the yield was 
an ounce of starch from one x>ound of tiie 
The experiment, however, was not precise 
to be satisfactory, and he was inclined t 
that the jrield would be much largw, 
microscope shows the ro6t to be loaded wiAj 
granules. The supply of the root being 
haustible, any quantity of starch might 
traoted from it yeariy and become a valuable 
of commerce. 

There would be no expense for coltivatian* 
allowing for the cost of digging the root, 
manufacturing the stardi, by bruising and 
oerating the root in water, and drying the di 
the product would be cheaper tiara AjraoanT 
which is largely exported to Europe to he 
not as food, but in starch mannfaotnre for lai 
purposes, stiffening fabrics, te. 



JOUBWAL OP THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, Maboh 28, 1878. 



351 



litmkavf to decide whether the wild anx>w- 

llUinmd in tuttack is identical with ^e 

tiaaowrooi, A cup of arrowroot made of 

a not diatiBgui6h£U)le from one made of 

Msept, perhaps, by a slightly earthy 

)l0 in the wild arrowroot, which is 

[toeoBP te d for by its imperfect preparation. 

ion and more perfect manufacture of 

arrowroot have l^een comparatively 

introduced into the province, so that it is 

'gcDoally grown xior its produce used by 

'ks. It is made from plants of his own 

;bf a native Christian of Khundittur, who 

(prodnee among the European residents of 

111 piioe being a little under 6d. per 

arrowroot is of excellent quality, aiKl 

» of maaufaeture is as simple as can be. 

i«8 taken up in the cold season, washed, 

I ft large wooden mortar, and mashed. The 

tkn taken out and well washed in cold 

ttfae watv drained off, and set to stand in 

, m. wkieh it deposxts a large proportion I 

jifiutli, which is re- washed in cold water and 

|4rf m the sun. The wild arrowroot, known 

'•mrsas "Palooa," growsabundantlyinthe 

\ci the district. It is collected in tne cold 

bj the Sahara, the tnbers pounded and 

Vaad the sediment dried in the sun. By 

)Ie it is eaten and sold for the manufac- 

is called ** Abheer'' in the Jumbul 

to a lees degree, also in the Cuttuck 

t; the wild arrowroot is made into cakes, or 

vith milk, and thus used as an article of 



*ke nasM of " Beychundee'* a starchy pro- 
pwpswd by the Gkmds and sold in the 
of Jnbholpore. It is not an arrowroot, 
some resemblance to it when pounded. 
* from the stem of some wild jungle 



a kind of arrowroot, called by the 
Bembowah, is prepared from a root called 
>t obtainable in large quantities, and 
IT ngoMes the maund. It may probably 
'ho (Bataima ednlia), but is most likely 
*iwa (Mturarda), Htaroh is obtained in 
from the round yam (called Ghana in 
^•m hmmpku\ or AmorphophalluB cam- 
Imitation sago is made, in Mergui, 
^nnatifida. 

tiMre was found great di£Sculty, at 
indiifBDg the people of the villages to 
|*i ctssava and arrowroot. While only 
^«f tipioca were made by the natives in 
*10O)s, were snppHed in 1866 ; so. with 
the production increased from 501bs., 
to 6,90(Hbs., in 18d6 ; and now, instead 
arrowroot from Southern India, ex- 
^niade from Ceylon. 

Bs ft lecnla is obtained from the young 

«J t^ Palmyra palm (Bora»9m finhvUi^ 

in. j, whieh serves as food to the natives. 

» wy extended over In£a, and is one 

»t interesting trees for study, from the 

pndmcts obtained from it. At Goa 

»a hrinm and fe«ula from ^e wild palm. 

^^ d from 0&ryt4a tirea«, in Mysore, 

^•■ffo, tapteca, and tapiooa flour, wwe 

'ttt x^mM and other Exhibitiona from 

and Penang. 



The trunk of the Japan fem-palm {Cycas re- 
valuta^ Thunberg ) is rich in sagro-like starch. 

In a' paper whioh I read before the Society in 
1861, *' On the Trade and Commerce of the Eastern 
Archipelago*' (vol. ix. p. 451), I gave some details 
on the manufacture ana commerce of Sago, which 
may be appropriately quoted here : — 

" Singapore is at present the chief place of manu- 
facture and the principal mart for granulated sago 
and *■ sago flour, as it is termed in commerce, but 
which is, in fact, the fecula, or ungranulated starch. 
The granulated fecula, or sago, of a dirty brown 
colour, used to be exported from the Archipelago 
in small quantities, but when the trade in Europe 
was thrown open, in 1814, the Chinese of Malacca 
began to prepare a superior starch, known in com- 
merce unaer the name of pearl sago. 

*' There are four or five species of palms which 
yield sago ; those most cultivated are, however, the 
SaguB konufxi and the Sagus laris. These palms are 
found in every part of the Malayan Archip^go 
and Philippines as far as Mindanao, wherever there 
is a genial soil for them, and this consists of a marsh 
or bog, composed of decayed vegetables, near the 
sea. They are most abunaant in the eastern parts 
of the Malay Arclii{)elago, at the Moluccas and 
nei^bbouring islands, with New Guinea and Borneo, 
and in the Phillipines at Mindanao. In all these 
sago is more or less the bread of the inhabitcmts. 
These palms propagate themselves by lateral shoots 
as well as by seed, and they die after producing 
fruit. From the first of these properties it follows 
that a sago plantation once formed is perpetual. 

* * The sago tree, when cut down and the top severed 
from it, is a cylinder about 20 inches in oiameter, 
and from 15 to 20 feet in height. The contents 
would, therefore, be nearly 26 bushels, and, allow- 
ing one-'half for woody fibre, there will remain 13 
bushels of starch, or sav 700 lbs. 

'* It may give some idea of the enormous rate of 
this produce, if it be considered that three trees 
yield more food-matter than an acre of wheat, and 
six times more than an acre of potatoes. It is far 
from being either so palatable or nutritous as it 
is prolific, and is never preferred, even where it is 
most abundant, to rice. 

*' All the raw sago manufactured at Singapore is 
brought from islands to the eastward, principally 
from the northwest coast of Borneo and the north- ^ 
eastern of Sumatra, with its adjacent isles, from 
Siak to Indragari, but a considerable portion 
comes from places more than 1,000 miles distant.'* 

This article is very easOy prepared for exporta- 
tion in its raw state ; the tree is cut down, then 
the pith or eellular tissue is taken out and made 
up into bundles. In this form some 20,000 tons 
are annually imported at Singapore, where it is 
prepared by the Chinese, who dear the meal or 
farina from the fibres of the pith, or cellidar tissue, 
when the fiour is either made up for exportation 
in its natural state, or is granulated into pearl 
sago. 

The imports of sago have steadily inta'eased in 
England since the abolition of the duty whioh was 
formerly levied. 

In 1830 the import and consumption of sago in 
the United Kingdom was only 3,000 cwt. ; in 1841 
it was 52,000 cwt. ; in 1850, 90,000 cwt. ; in 1860, 
179,825 cwt. ; in 1870 the aggregate of sago aad 



352 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 28, 187S. 



tapioca receired from Singapore was 344,000 cwt«., 
of the Talue of £283,541. 

In Singapore tapioca manufacture has been very 
saccessful, but the crop is said to entirely exhaust 
the soil in ^ve years. 

From Penang as much as 10,000 cwt. of tajuoca 
and arrowroot is shipped annually to Great Britain 
and the United States. 

The following table gives the British imports of 
sago and tajuoco from Singapore in the last nine 
years: — 

Imports from Sikoapore. 





Saoo. 


Tatioca. 




CwU. 


Vftiue. 


( wts. 


Valnc. 


1863.. 


123,870 


£100,129 


27,792 


£30,107 


1864.. 


111,423 


100,676 


27 630 


36,268 


1866.. 


106,409 


89,162 


18,191 


27.609 


1866.. 


161,788 


126,384 


14.346 


26,696 


1867.. 


142,844 


119,296 


16,660 


34,007 


1868.. 


241,860 


208.428 


38.409 


68.364 


1869.. 


268,978 


209,812 


48 418 


64 868 


1870.. 


268,666 


208,982 


76,624 


74 669 


1871 


246,123 


197,381 






A V| * . . 





In the colony of Labuan the sago traders have 
largely increased their business, owing to the 
Sultan of Borneo having removed some of the ob- 
structions to the transit of sago in the neighbour- 
ing rivers, and it is not improbable that this island 
may yet become the centre of the sago manufac- , 
ture of the Eastern Archipelago. £l 1867 sago I 
was imported into Labuan of the value of £9,811 ; 
in the following year the trade increased one 
hundred per cent., the value of the imported sago 
being £19,841, and the process of manufacture 
added £8,764 more to the value of the sago. 

In Celebes all the inhabitants feed upon sago of 
a very coarse quality, which may be said to grow 
spontaneously, affording abundance of subsistence 
to the inhabitants. The sago plantations are 
situated in the valleys between the mountains, in 
swampy ground. There are several kinds of sago- 
trees, some of which will not produce any useful 
fecula or starch for the first 16 years. It is col- 
lected from trees of 8 years up to 32 or 35 years of 
age, after which the tree becomes perfectly hollow, 
and rots away from the top downwards. A sago- 
tree of 10 years growth will be about 27 feet hi^h, 
and from 5 to 8 feet girth at the bottom, and is 
continually yielding its crop. When the substance 
of the edible sago is 3 to 5 inches thick they cut it, 
and this will be in two or three months, according 
to the nature of the soil, and the oftener it is cut 
the faster it grows. 

Australian Arrowroots, etc. 

Attention has of late years been much directed 
to the production of arrowroot in several of the 
Australian colonies, facilities having been afforded 
by the culture and distribution of the several plants 
from the excellent botanic gardens at Melbourne, 
Sydney, and Brisbane. 

tanna Achiraa (Gillies) native of Mendoza, is 
one of the few extra-tropical Cannas eligible for 
arrowroot cultivation. 

^ 6\ glnuea (Lin.), and C coceinea (Bosooe), 
yield, with some other Cannas, the particular 
arrowroot called /owt tes mois, C, flaceida (Bosooe) 
of Carc^ina is probably also available for arrow- 
root. 



of the hardiest of the arrowroot plwits, for Kwis, 
even if many years old, will germinate, and m 
commonly called Indian shot. 

This species has been extensively introduced 
mto Australia, and, according to Baron MuUrr 
yields an excellent starch at Melbourne, Westm 
Port, Lake Wellington, Ballarat, and other 
locahties, from plants supplied by the Mdboonie 
Botamc Gbutlen. 

The Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of the Gippi Lmd 
Aboriginal Mission station, obtained 220lb8. of 
arrowroot from one-eighth of an acre of thi« Caim 
The gathering of the roots in Australia is effected 
about April. The plants can be set in oidinaiy 
ploughed land. Captain James Hall, of Hastings, 
also prepared starch largely from thisroot. IM 
starch grains, it is weU-known, are remidably 
large. 

Maranta nohUta appears to be the species ddefiy 
cultivated forarrowroot inNew South Wales. There 
were seven exhibitors of arrowroot from it at Paris 
m 1867: Mr. E. S. Hill, Mr. D. L. Wangh.Mr. 
John Higgins, Mr. E. W. Eudder, Mr. W. Cletlier- 
mgton, Melville, Mr. G. T. Lodis, Wiley Flat, near 
bmgleton, and Mr. H. Moss, Shoalhayen; the Iwt 
three received bronze medals for their products. 

In 1870 theie were 84 acres of land unda-arrow- 
root in New South Wales, from which 13,567 cwt 
of arrowroot was obtained, being 18,251 cwt k* 
than was made in the previous year frwn only 31 
acres of land. 

Rx)m Queensland, 26,368 lb. of amwroot. Talnd 
at £648, were exported in 1869, the first ahipmail 
of a few packages having been made in 1860. 

Good arrowroot used to be made in NoHoft 
Island, while it was a convict settlement, but 1 
not aware whether the production is mainte 
nnce the Pitcaim Islanders have been tranafc 
there. 

Anx>wroot is made from Zamia anguttijolia n 
the Bahamas, &c. 

Under the local name of Coonti an arrowroot i 
prepared in Florida from the fecula of Zam 
tnteffrt/o/ta. A fecula was also formerly prepaW 
m Florida by the Indians from the saw pabnetti 
Chamarops serrulata. 

Arrowroot prepared inQueenslandfrom£ji«y^ 
lartus (Zamia) $piralis was shown in 1872 at th< 
London Exhibition. 

At the Paris Exhibition, in 1867, starch midefroB 
the seed of the bean tree, or Moreton bay cbe«tn« 
(Castaneospermum Atutrale), was shown by th 
New South Wales Commission and Mr. T. Bawdei 
of Grafton, Clarence River district, which wi 
highly commended. The seeds are said to h 
abundant, and the manufacture inexpensive. Thi 
large tree is found in abundance in the bush* 
from the Madeay River south to Cape Yo A to tl 
north. On examination under the microscope ( 
the samples I obtained there, I feel convinced thi 
this starch is not from a leguminous seed at al 
but is merely a fraudulent substitution of cassa^ 
stareh under a new name. 

Mr. C. Moore, the colonial botanist, also « 
hibited it, and received a bronze medal from tl 
Paris jury for this new starch. I should like to ha^ 
the point cleared up as to there being any b^ 
Ude production of this leguminous stait^ in ^ 
oolony. 



lOCBHAL OF TH£ BOOIETY OF ABTS, Maboh 28, 1873. 



ssa 



OF THE PACUFIO ISLAITDS. 



>]a prodnotion and 

vuiouffecalas in many of the Pacific 

or two 0p^e0 of Arunu^ espeoiallj 

Arum maerorhizony Linn., grows 

'Miti, and the rhiacnnes are ocoa- 

, bat the drum eteuientumj Lhm., the 

mienia of Bay, known under the name 

that most largely cultivated and es- 

its starch, which is an article of food of 

fcy. The natives enumerate no less 

varieties. The rhizomes range in 

two to four pounds, but there is great 

[tome varieties producing very small 

eth^B very large. They oontcdn much 

led with a bitter principle, which is 

\hf heat, in preparing the starch, care 

ttikcD not to rub the pulp on the sieve 

id, or a blistering effect will be pro- 

jiekl of starch is as much as 33 per 



imelago, 
Bora-B< 



plant, largely cultivated, is the Tacca 
Former, which is indigenous to the 
^ the South Sea Islands, and is 
^Oteanea, but especially in Tahiti, under 
name of Pia. This plant is, however, 
diffused. It is piet with in China and 
,aooordingto Lioureiro. Itiscultivated 
Arraoan, and other parts of India, 
It is found in large quantities in 
_ »,the Hervey Islands, at Raiatea, 
i^Bora, Maupiti, the Hawaiian 
Samoas, Tonga, the Feejee Islands, &c. 
shave much resemblance to the potato, 
that root the fecula is found chiefly in 
\ and not towards the exterior. The pro- 
•tarch yielded is 30^ per cent, 
a large ccmsumption of this starch in 
ly for children and invalids, and 
>le export of it under the name of 
The principal part of that which enters 
is made in the islands of the adjoin- 
Baiatea, Huahine, Bora-Bora, 
where it can be purchased f <Hr 3d. to 
hi tiiie Hervey islands it is sold at 
fTf^niai and Baratonga produce it even 
I It Tahiti it retails, or did a few years ago, 
[^W. per lb. 

^ the main supply of the Feejee arrow- 
wi. The Tacca starch is much valued 
and particularly esteemed in cases 
and diarrhoea. Its characteristics are ' 
under the microscope. A Tacca 
[fla the Sandwich Islands yields a large 
the so-called arrowroot exported from 
species, including those of Aiaeeia 
, [ ' . occur in India, Madagascar, 
Gviana, aU deserving tests in reference 
be as starch plants. 

b made from several species of yam 

vdiva and btUbi/era)^ but it is difficult to 

to the ligneous character of the 

zequire to be soaked in water for two 

racing, and the bitter principle has 

^ hy washing and torrefication. 

starches are obtained. The cassava 

tisnsfer wM or cultivated, although its 

ito loim a common aHment mixed with 

Tecea. From ^e bread trait {Arto^ 



carpm imua) abo«ii 17 per cent, of faoola ia 
obteioed.. 

AFKKAK AjtROWKOOTS. 

On many parts of the West African coast arrow- 
root and cassava are grown and prepared. Tha 
Canary Islands, liberia, Lagos, Sierra Leone, and 
other districts produce it,, but not in any quantity 
for shipment. 

The Cape Colony and Natal — especially the 
latter — have given much attention to arrowroot 
production. Maranta arundinacea is the specie^ 
grown. I have not the recent statistics oi tha 
acreage under arrowroot in Natal, but in 1864 , 
from 226 acres, the quantity obtained was 2,347 
cwt. It is chiefly in the counties of Durban, 
Victoria, and Tugela that the cohivatiocL centres, 
but the quantity varies condderaUy, for 61 acres 
^in Tugela, yielded 1,220 cwts.; 66 acres in 
Victoria, 63^ cwts. ; and 98 acres in Durban, 488 
cwts. In 1866, 2,835 cwts. were produced. 

The prices ruling in the colonial market in 
1867 were SOs. to 40s. per cwt., but it realised 
67s. 6d. in some instcmces. The freight to 
London was 45s. per ton. The following figurea 
will ^ow the progress made in eurowroot pro- 
duction in this colony. There were nine exhUntors 
of arrowroot from Natal at the Paris Exhibition 
in 1867. 



Natal Expoets 


OF Arrowroot. 




Cwt». 


Yalae 


1866 • 


818 
1,807 
2,218 
6,366 
3,670 
2,436 

983 
1,487 
1,016 
2,160 
2,804 
4,306 
3,201 
3,042 
3,323 


1,827 


1867 


3,136 


1868 


6,464 


1869 


13,336 


I860 


6,680 


1861 


4,685 


1862 


1,647 


1863 


2,801 


1864 


2,848 


1866 


8,943 


1866 


5,744 


1867 


9,13» 


1868 


5^01 


1869 1 


4,684 


1870 


4,696 







The direct imports into the United Kingdom <A 
Africsm arrowroot have been as follows : — 



South Africal 
goierally. 



lOVing 



1863 
1864 
1866 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 



NaUlalott*. 



ewtfl. 

1,136 

1,634 

1,260 

2,866 

1,279 

3,873 

3,471 

3,108 



cwts. 

913 
1,414 
1,231 
2,832 
1,193 
3,671 
3,447 
2,974 



Value 
£3,109 
4,690 
3,877 
7,708 
2,827 
8,049 
6,091 
6,561 



I was a little puzzled for some time at the inci- 
dental mention of Madagascar arrowroot in this 
country, as it is scarcely an ctrticle of commerce, 
but I have traced out that 7 cwt., valued art; 
358. were sent from the east coast of 
Madagascar to the MauritivB in 1868, aad 



854 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IETT OP ARTS, Mahot 28, 187S. 



552cwt8. 2q8. 171bt. of staroh of other kinds, 
valued »t £286. Canna indiea, a native of India, 
has been introduoed and naturalifled in the 
MauritiuB, and the MaratUa aruncUnaeea is also 
grown there, exhibitors of this arrowroot having 
sent samples to the Paris Exhibition in 1867. 

I have thus skimmed over the surface of this 
wide and interesting field of inquiry, contributing 
my mite towards the general fund of information 
which is so useful on commercial topics, and I 
trust it will lead to some discussion and added 
information on the character, quality, and uses of 
the various starches touched upon. 

DISCUSSION. 

Kr. Edwin Lawrtnee said no doubt many persons 
would be surprised at fiodiuff how many different kinds 
of starch existed. He bad observed a smile when it was 
said that thin starch made from manioo would be very 
siDilar to that made from diseased potatoes, bat he had 
recently seen it stated that the whole population of Ire- 
land at the time of the famine might have been fed with 
stiffch prepared frt>m the diseased potatoes, and that it 
would ainet very little, if at all, from that prepared from 
healthy tubers. There was a considerable agitation 
going on with reference to the employment of starch in 
the form of glncose in brewing, but he believed it was 
prohibited at present by the Excise, though it was largely 
used for this puipose in Germany. 

Kr. W. Smith said the conversion of starch into 

flucose was one of the simplest and readiest processes 
nown to chemistry, and it was not quite the fact tbat 
sugar produced from starch was prohibited in brewing 
and distilling. In truth, the government received about 
£4 per ton on the manufacture of glucose and about £7 
per ton for its use in brewing operations. The scientific 
principle upon which the manufacture of glucose was 
carried on was very simple, and the process most 
ingenious, a ton of sago bemg converted into almost an 
equal weight of sugar in a few seconds. Some remark 
had been made on the largely increased importation of 
sago of late years, but when it was found that almost an 
•q^ual weight of sugar could be obtained frDm it, that 
might afford an explanation. The use of glucose was 
bemg rapidlv introduced for distilling as well as for 
brewing, and was found to be economiod. 

The Chairman said he hardly thought the increased 
quantity of sago imported could be accounted for on the 
supposition that it was made into glucose, since 
that was principally made in Germany from potato 
starch. For some years there was great diflBcuJty in 
inducing the Excise authorities to sanction the use of 
starch for brewing and distilling, but the difficulty had 
been got over by imposing the same charge as on the 
quantity of malt which would produce a similar amount 
A sugar. 

Xr. Botly remarked that it was matter for congratu- 
lation to find that Katal and other colonies produced an 
article of such great commercial value. He should like 
to know, however, if any reason could be assigned for 
the diminution in the amount of arrowroot produced per 
acre in Australia one year, as mentioned in the paper. 

Xr. Simmonds said the crop was a very variable one 
in all countries, depending very much for its success on 
the 



Xr. W. Smith observed that this ^ueiAioA 
answered by a reference to some expenmenta u 
at tlie request of the Excise^ which showed 
starch was the same in all q^ecimena, thm 
configuration being due to the plants frma 
were obtained. 



Xr. XoXinn said the chemical constituents of the 
various starches had not been touched upon. There were 
known to be great differences in the characteristics of 
aago, tapioca, arrowroot, and other edible starches, and 
he should Uks to know whether these differences extended 
to the ohemioal constitution of the starches themselves, 
or whether they were merely derived from the plants 
yielding thflm« 




The 8eeretai7 said that there had recently 
his own observatioii an yplication to the 
land Revenue for permission to use, not glucoee, 
itself, in the process of brewing, which had ~ 
on account of the difficulty in ascertaining the 
charge to be made for revenue purpoaea, and 
with regard to the drawback to be alio wed on < 
This starch, maize starch, was now ' 
in France, Belgium, and Germany for brewingj 
and with success, the starch in the p r o cc a a 
becoming converted into glucose. The 
were, by the prohibition of its use, thua 
advantage in competing with their fomgn < 
The following was reoeived from the Treaaoy 
to the application : — 

Treasury Cbambert, S3rd 
OBNTLBMBN,~In reply to your applioalkn, in ^^ 
propose an alteration of the Britian Rcvq i oaLawj 
purpoae of allowing brewers to use amidiiie or 
made by you under a patent, and reouest that & 
allowed to be made by seme qualified brewer, oi 
the duty equivalent to tbat on nialt,aad nnda 
vision of the proper authorities, I am directed by ' 
Commisaioners of Her Miyesty*s Treaanry to 
proposal, in fact, amounts to a claim for the 
starch generally as a material for brevingi 
be impoasibla to distinguish the patcat 
from any other starch; and I am to atate 
reasona oonneoted with the revenue, and also 
would be peculiar difficulty in securing the dwty cai 
article aa atarch, my lords are not {Hvpued to t«k« I 
a view to your requeat being complied with. — ^I 
men, your obedient aervant, 

CuAnLxa W. 6i 
Metfrt. Leoonte, Dopond Flls, 
Estsiree (Mord), Lille, FVanoe. 

Xr. Trewby thought the paper would be ; 
valuable if a table were added giving the relatiwi 
of nutriment contained in the oifferent kinds of i 

The Chairman said it was rather cnxioua to 
how the cultivation of the Mmrmmis 
starch-producing plant, was spreading. It 

originally in Korth America, then it went to . 

In£es, from whence came the finest speeunents of j 
root, then to Brazil, Katal, Australia, and the 
so that it was gradually taking the place of oil 
of supply. At the present time a very excellent ^. 
came from Natal. With reference to theremaika^ 
had been made about the Irish being fed 1^ pol 
it must be borne in mind that staroi waa not i 
food by itself. The object of food was 
newal of the various tissues, and the maini 
animal heat ; and while starch filled the latter 
it lacked that azotised principle which ' 
the proper nutrition and support of the tissue 
it was by no means the case that all starchea 
regarding them simply as food ; for one kind 
more suitable and much more easily digested than ; 
Very often the stomach of an invalid would 
Maranta starch, when other descriptions would be : 
and medical men were by no means agreed as to tbai 
of this difference. It might be that the int 
of one variety was more difficult of solution than < 
but there was no doubt of the fact being as he had i 
He had found a good deal of oellnlsr matter nixsod 
the starches from some of the colonies, probab^ 
to imperfect washing, showing a marked 
to West Indian arrowroot, which was 
desn and beautiful. Hr. SimmoDds had 
passing, to the microscopic part of the qnaitlon, 
there were on the table drawings of the diffeisnii 
showing how much they diffstid in 



JOURNAL OF THE S00IET7 OF ARTS, Maroh 28, 1873. 



S^^o 



to the naked eje, they appeared Tory 

pobaUy eten the eye of an experienced 

be deoeiTed. The microeoope, however, 

ilMsd the difference^ and a praotiaed obeeryer 

•Mgn the source from whence the starch 

In wamining a sample of starch in this 

liked to compare it with the grannies of 

aUicb in the meal, and, if possible, also in aitu. 

with the appearance of starch nnder 

wis of great Ttdne at the present tune, 

sppMred where it was not snspeoted, and 

vbflre it was not desired. As an mstance of 

miBfonned, in a letter from one of the public 

ftst rioe starch wya frfeqaently mixed with 

ttst when this was used tor making bread, it 

«p from 16 to 20 per oent. more water than 

It was only the microscope which 

one to test the purity of flonr in this 



riiilvsjrf 



LIpqMBtuice 



infer 



Itlit 



Mb, in reply, said he belicTed the greater 
loCtke iocreased sapply of sago went to feed pigs, 
CMld not agree wiUi Mr. Smith that much 
eooTerted into glncose, becaose the latter 
I mid be imported frx>m the Continent at a 
I thsn it could be made in England. A. long 
this tabject appeared in ^e Journal of 
' M* two months ago, and to that he begged 
for fall details. There was no doabt, how- 
the 086 of starch for brewing and distilling 
iQf impidly extending, and if he had not 
' in the paper, it was because such matters 
M within its scope. In faet, an account of 
SMS to which starch was applied, with the 
t\f whidi beautifnl clear syrups were obtained 
itarch, would form admirable matter for a 
. . r. With reference to the suggestion that 
l«f the relatiye nutritiye Qualities of the different 
of itareh ihonld be aoded, it would be very 
i to pnptre one, simply because competent autho- 
I m bj no means agreed on the matter. Dr. 
' Bide some analjrses on the subject, but they 
Bed to oolonial products. Manv really splen- 
I w«t not imported into England to any great 
ttbe lopply bemg practically confined to a few 
[*i!h fts caasi, sago, and arrowroot. The micro- 
of the subject he liad been compelled to 
U would hare occupied too much time to go 
cvoy one who was in the habit of using a 
WM aware how interesting and important 
(lenlti obtained by it in this field of inquiry, 
>ws WM more entitled to speak on that point 
^ttnd m the chair. 



OV THB XSAirS OF PBOTECTIHe THE 
)rai8 A0AIV8T OONFLAeBATIOV. 

of Mr. Swonton's eTidence (of 

ikas already appeared), as referring to 

•portion of the inqniry, will be published 

The following eridenoe was given by 

ttincK, O.E., engineer to the Southwark 

; ntthall and the Qrand Junction Water 

Wore the Committee. 

ihtre been examined, on account of your long 

-^ad position as a water engineer, before 

>le|il Oommissions and Parliamentary com- 

[« the nbject of the supply of water to the 

^ Tou gare full and particular information 

WttsQenersl Board of Health. On that 

gtve eridenoe to the effeet that abo^it one 

.pounds per annum was to be saved by 

el the companies, npd by aaity of a 

SnfntnsHMratiiTn P 



^ » 



Q. — Are von of opinion, from your experience and oh- 
senration of the sereral companies, that Uie like gains 
from such ocmsolidation might be obtained now P 

A, — Certainly. I beUoTe the gains from consolidation 
are increased with the extended works, and that cer- 
tamly the gains from consolidation may be safely taken 
in round numbers at £100,000 per annum when the 
constant supply is giren and the consolidation of the 
works made porfect 

Q. — ^It then appeared, (rom Tarious gaugings of the run 
of water, that nearly three-flfUis of Uie water pumped 
into the metropolis ran to waste under the intermittent 
system P What do jon belioTe is the proportionate 
waste at the present twie P 

^.— Since then the water fittings in the better class of 
property have been very much improyed. I beUere, of 
the whole metropolis, the waste of water is now at 
least one*third ; m the poorer districts I beUoTo it is 
about one-half. 

Q. — ^That is to say, the waste in the metropolis is about 
one-third of about one hundred millions of gallons 
pumped in daily P 

A.— Yes. 

Q. — What is the ayerage supply per head of the popula* 
tionP 

A. — About thirty-three gallons per head. 

Q. — It is stated that at Manchester, where the supply 
of water for manuficturing purposes is considerable, tnat 
the supply, under the constant system, is about twenty 
gallons per head ; and at Berlin, where the supply fbr 
other than domestic purposes is also considerable, that 
the average oonsumption is lifitle aboye eighteen gallons 
per head. To what extent, with adequate administratiTe 
power, do you think the supply might be brought under 
the constant system in the metrop<Mis P 

A. — ^My belief is, that the great waste might in a 
measure be saved, or the supply brought down to the 
Manchester proportion of twenty gallons per head. 

Q. —The companies not having sucoeeded separately in 
staying the waste, will not the intervention of some 
stronger authority be necessary to effect it P 

A. — ^There is no doubt of that. Some public authority 
will certainly be necessary, and a pubhc authority will 
be more readily obeyed than a company. 

Q. — ^It is then your opinion that it is impracticable to 
carry out the constant system of supply by the agency 
of the trading companies acting separately, even wiUi the 
best will to do so. That is say, that it is impracticable for 
the eight companies to effect separately and indepen- 
dently the economy that may be obtained by unity P 

A. — Yes, that is certainly so P 

Q. — It has been stated that to obtain a constant supply, 
and to prevent even augmented waste, considerablealtera- 
tions must be made in the water fittings and appliances, 
especially in the poorer class of houses. Do you not 
conceive that, if the saving to be obtained by consolida- 
tion, that istosay, £100,000 per annum, be capitalised, it 
would suffice to defray the expenses of the change P 

A. — No doubt ; and it would obviate the difficulties 
in making the necessary alterations now experienced 
by the owners of the poorest class of proper^, many of 
whom have very short interests in the premises, and to 
whom the immediate pa3rments of the full amount of the 
outlay required might operate as a confiscation of their 
remainder rents. It may be made a very great and just 
measure of relief. 

Q. — For the purposeof the prevention of conflagrations 
in the metropoUs, the chief object of the inquiries of the 
committee, do you concur in the general statement of 
Mr. Reynolds, the manager of the London and South- 
wark Insurance Company, as to the need of the connec- 
tion of the water supply of tiie metropolis under one 
system for the purpose, and that a system of constant 
supply at high pressure P 

A. — ^Yes, certainly ; for the sake of efficiency fbr that 
purpose it ought to be so. I have myself represented 
the nooeifity of haring jnnctioiif made between the 



1 



356 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCBUTTY OF AKTS, MikBoa 88, 1873. 



tmnk nudiia 'of each oompcoy, ao thai ibaj auight be 
oponad in case of large conJUgrHtiiina 

Q. — ^Wottld it not mdlitate the aTlonmm of pffotectnre 
axrangementa of pipea oyer w afe ho aaee and primto pre- 
miaes where oonaiderable qaaaatitiea of iBflaininahlft pro- 
perty is kept, if the anppUea were put on a public footing ? 

A. — Tee, very much eo, eapectally on one large olaae of 
property — the wharf ^goptaiy. At present, along the 
water- side warehooses, there are only very Bmall mains, 
three-inoh pipes, for small doaestic soppliea only ; jost 
for hand or faoe washing in the offices. This is wholly 
inadequate for large fires. 

Q. — Great opposition is atpieaent made to the proposed 
plan of enlarg^ reservoirs at Thames DitUm. Undtf a 
consolidation of . the oompanies, might not that measore 
be avoided P 

A. — Ygs, certainly it might. 

Q.— The plan of the General Board of Health, in 1860, 
was (besides compensation to the tingineering, legal, and 

tthe other officers of the oompanies) to give as com- 
BaUon to the shareholdera of the companiea security to 
them for the pajrment of their existing dividends, ooa- 
ferriog an additional value to their shares, which would 
have cost the public nothing, whilst it would have enabled 
the consumers to have improved and additional service 
without additional rates. What do you now say to Uie 
like proposal f 

A, — Speaking for myself, my opinion is that thi^ 
is the least thaA can in justlbe be ofimd to them. It 
is to be remeasbered that for along time the shareholders 
were without any dividends whatsoever. Evea ten per 
oenL, instead of an average of seven, oonld hardl]^ be said 
to be high payment. The increased value of their shares 
obtainable by fldditjonal seoniity is surely as little as 
they ought to take (and they ought to have credit for 
taking it) for a oompnlsory purchase, whieh will be largely 
for the public advantage. 

Q. — If those terms had then been aooepted, would not a 
oonsiderable saving been effected in the expenses subse- 
quently incurred in separate worka, which would have 
been rendered unneeessary ? 

A. — Undoubtedly. 

Q.— If a consolidation is not now effected, will not con- 
siderable unnecessary expense in the separa t e system be 
maintained, and further largely augmt;nted expense for 
any separate woiks on the system of oonttsnt supfdy be 
incurred ? 

A. — Undoubtedly; a ver^ great expense. 

Q. — You have been engineer to the South wark and 
Yauxhall Co. for upwards of 30 years, and to the Grand 
Junction Co. for upwards of 20 ? 

^.—Yes. 

Q.— With respect to yonr proposal that the existing 
dividends of the companies should be secured to them, 
are you in a positi<»i to tell us approximately what the 
dividends of these companies are at present ? 

A. — ^The Southwark and Yauxhall 5^ per cent, and 
the Grazkd Junction 7^ per oenti See return last year 
to Board of Trade. 

Q, — Was not the plan proposed by Mr. Shaw-Lefevre 
in the Metropolis Water BUI of 1871 substantially the 
same as the one you expressed your assent to ? 

A, — I think not ; I never saw that Bill. 

Q, — The saving of £100,000, which you assume would 
be the result of consolidation, refers to the whole of the 
companies. 

A— Yes. 

Q, — ^If that sum were capitalised, would it not go 
very (ax towards piying the cost of effecting the junc- 
tions, providing hydrants, and making the necessary 
alterations to the fittings in the poorer districts to receive 
the constant supply f 

A. — It would ffo a long way towards it The hydrants 
alone would cost between £400,000 and £600,000. Then 
there would be certain alterations to the trunk mains to 
divide the high and low level di«triota,and a large portaco 
of thesaviagoaghttogotowaids seeking the neeoMacy 



alterations in the poor districts. It will be imunabh 
for the poor to find the capital imwiry toJusrtbs 
fittings to prevent waste, or the owners or oocapiaa 
of proper^ of that class. Thsie an thooMods 
of houses held by widows snd poor people, hsfiog 
merely the residue of a Lsms with a Urn ysais to rus. 
To call upon them to lay out £a or £6 per hoosi vodd 
amount to a oenfisoation of their property. In B«* 
moedsey particularly there are great nuiaben of ovnen 
of property of that dask 

Q.— Would it be necessary to mske thstooOsjinsit- 
diatsly? 

A— It will be absdutely necessary befort they ca 
have a constant service, because if waste wont oa ia! 
districts of that kind, the upMr part of Loodoa v<mIIi 
never get any aupi^y at aU. Otherwise it woold involn 
a septate set of trunk maina for the high diithct^ 
which would involve an outlay of some millioai. 

^.— Can you give any idea of the totd expenditoie 
required for new fittings in order to cany oat tlw cos- 
stiuit supply system F 

A, — Between three and four millions steriing. 

^.— When yqu stated that the expense required top* 
the house fittings in order to receive the oo^ft^ 
supply might amount to that sum in the metropoU*, wtf 
not that on the supposition that eveiy houic wciH 
require a new adaptation of fittinss, and that osch iom- 
vidual owner or occupier would nave to o*rry out the| 
work himself by his separate tradesman or plamber.' 

A, — Yes, that was the supposition. 

Q.— But if the work were done by a public authonty. 
under a common contract for all the work ieqair«ii ^J 
within a district, by private improvement ratta, onoa 
the Public Health Act, would not the expeoie be coo- 
siderably reduced P 

A, — Very much indeed. 

^.~How much do you suppose P 

JU — From one-third to one-half P . A 

Q. — Your answer was given on the hypothesis tW 
alterations were required for every house, and not ^ 
actual inquiry ? 

A. — Yes. 

©.—But actual inquiry may greatly reduce the |5 
portions that will require adaptation P 

Q.— As the work to be done, besides being for '^ 
individual benefit ie else for the common or pno^ 
benefit would not there be an importiuit eqoitjr i 
having it done from a common fund P 

-d.— Certainly, particularly for the smaller cUe < 
house propertv in the poorer districts, because, as I h^r 
stated, so much of that property is in the handa of iit't^ 
lessees who have only a short interest in the ytrssx^ 
and on whom the immediate outlay would opentte uft^ 
to a oonflsoatioo of their remaindtr renta Tha i 
indeed, the great source of the opposition to the ocottu 
supply. 

Q. — Under a common contract by how much do t( 
eonoeive the cost of the new hydrants requirad for }p 
tection against fire might be reduced P 

A. — At least by SO per cent, or a sum equinlat I 
£100,000. 

v.— If the private fifttii^s were done by commoa «« 
tract might not the saving effected enable th« r» 
system of hydrants and other works for the prvvectu 
of fire to be brought within the ecenomies obUimt 
by a consolidation of the works under a public authun 
—namely, £100,000 per annum, or, capitahaedf V 
millions snd a»half f 

A,^l consider that there is every preennptien that 
might be so with the addition of the new sopphca to 
least 10,000 new houses yearly, pit)dBGing a ri^ 
£20,000 per annum. 

Q.— In what time do yon ooaoeive the junetioo* 
the trunk mains of the eight companies aigkt ^^^ 
public authority, be made for avaikhle imlMlM&. 
required, against conflagrations P 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, March 28, 1873, 



357 



A— Thr works are of a sort that are not kept in store, 
but I befiefe that the jtinctiona might be completed in 
inm thnr to six months. 

Q.-I0 what time might the requisite hydrants be 

i.-Perhapi in about the same time as for the nine 
bodnd sulei of main which are now under con- 
Mist high pressure. This is about one-third of the 
vbolt; tibe rest could be put on as tiie constant supply 
becuoe {general. 

V— Yon have, no doubt, seen the report of the com- 
littie of the Metropolitan Board of Works, and the 
otwits prepared by Mr. Stephenson of the cost of 
ifffpog fittings according to the company's regula* 

^Ifr. Stephenson se'>med to think it would be neces- 
mjUnltet the whole of the fittings to make them con- 
tra to the regulations ao laid down. My idea would be 
jj i«Te lU ezistbg fittings which are efficient. Under 
tr.St«pbeos(m'8 plan of taking away all existing fittings 
v^Bch are not in strict conformity with the regulations, 
fi» npnse would be no doubt nearly £7,000,000 or 

Q'-Btre you any meana of checking those figures F 
^^tt it was necessary to carry out the regulHtions 
n }iBtod, so doubt the estimate would be perfectly 
<>n^ ^t it is subject to the deduction Uiat some of the 
exMia^ fittings may be approved. 
^•—Toa are aware that the change from an inter- 
■^t to a constant supply has been made in Kotting- 
■^^ Maacfaflster, Norwich, and other places ? 

9~Are you aware that the expense in Manchester 
VMaaeh lees in proportion than you have named, and 
*^ aot a similar expenditure suffice for the mf tropolis P 

l-Ko ; for this reason : that tiie water-closets are 
B^ eoet czpenriTe part of the alterations, and they were 
^ the pzoeption in Manchester. There are whole 
■toiete vhere you do not find a single water-closet ; 
fy the earth sjrstem. In London Uiere is a water- 
■*^ of iooe kind to the very poorest houses. Some of 
■«« ire of a Yery rough kind, consisting merely of 
*« ii CiUed a "Serpent" pipe, and if there were a 
•"^ supply the water woula be running away con- 
Bully. 

^^•— Were there not lar;^ districts in Manchester 
gBe the houses were provided with water closets, and 
■ iBt tiie expenditure there justify the estimate P 
, ^**M»chester is altogether very different to London. 
JJfflTwich, Judging' from the evidence given by Mr. 
fini^ I dKmki thmk the change was as exp<'nsive as it 
jWbe in London . There they had to take out all the 
Vbgi, fnm time to time, and the cost varied from £7 
*? ^*o ^20, Aid even £80 a-house. 

9-— Has this estimate of the cost been made on an 
«W boosi^to-house survey in any district P 
^-•Mr. Stephenson made a survey for the Metro- 
j™ Board. I only judge by what I know it would 
^ > the Bermondsey district. There it would cost 
^"^ for the lowest class of houses. In the Qrand 
'^ft^a district it would cost from £10 to £14 or £15 



^T^ J^*^ ix>t aware that new houses have been 
V«rf* MM with water dosets, soil-pans, and fittings, 
ywwythtug necetsary to the water supply at a mudi 
«^nt« than that ; at an average cost of £4 or £5 P 
|/^^»i must be a very low class of property. I am 
**^the whole of London. It would cost at least as 
r^** that per bouae in tiie poorest part of London. 
*yfa* plaee yon must have a regulator to the doset, 
JJJl^^ite ; and then there is tiie pipe to Uiat, and 
y^^^fi' Ax pretent you do not find a single appli- 
j^^y** d! the water, but simply a common piece of 

y ^ y^Jd not the constant pressure of the water in 
j'^ff^ ^ prevrat the chnnces of confiagration P 
'^^'^40^ if you ooulddimw water at any time. 



Q. — With a constant supply and proper fittings might 
not the nmount of water used be considerably reduced ? 

A. — No doubt, with very close supervision, and every- 
thing in proper order, the amount used might be reduced 
from 34 to 20 gallons per house. ^ 

Q. — Would not superior fittings do that at once P j 

A. — ^Yes, with proper waste-preventive apparatus. , ^ 

(7b ^ continued,) 



AHHXTAL nrTESHAnOHAL BXHXBinOHS. 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-Qeneral Scott, G.B., 
seoratary. 

The fourth meeting of the Committee on Sdentifio 
Inventions and New Discoveries was held on 20th MHrch, 
at the Royal Commission Offices, Gore-lodge. The follow- 
ing members attended the meeting: — Mr. Charles B. Vig- 
noles, F.R.8., in the chair, Mr. F. A. Abel, F.R.8., Capt 
Colomb, R-N., Major W. Crossman, R.E., Major- General 
Hamesfl, C.B., Mr. John Hick, M.P., Dr. David 8. 
Price, Professor Roscoe, Mr. C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., 
F.R.8., Mr. T. Sopwith, M.A., F.R.8., lieut-Col. A. 
Strange, F.R.S., and Sir C. Whentstone, D.C.L., F.R.a 
The Committee examined the objects already delivered^ 
and rejected those that, in their opinion, were unworthy 
of admission in the dsiss, which consists of objects the 
excellence snd novelty of which are so great as to render 
it undesirable that their introduction to the public should 
be delayed until the proper year for the exhibition of 
their dass of manufacture in the Industrial Division. 



The School of Popular Cookery is situate on the 
ground fioor, between the east galleries and the colonial 
annexe. 

1. The object is to give illustrations of cooking food 
in the best, simplest, and cheapest ways, suitable for 
persons with incomes from £50 to £500 a year. The 
utensils used are those which might be found in a house 
of £40 a year rentaL 

2. The lecture room will only hold about 120 people, 
of which number not more than 70 can be accommodated 
with reserved seats. 

3. The charge for admission on Mondays, Tuesdays, 
and Saturdays, will be sixpence; on Wednesdays, 
Thursdays, and Fridays, one shilling. Reserved seats, 
extra on all days, sixpence. Admission to the fn>nt row 
(which accommodates only twelve persons), with .the 
privilege of tnsting while the food is being cooked, one 
shilling and sixpence each. Verbal explanations of the 
processes will be given by Mr. Buckmaster. 

4. Tickets must be purchased beforehand, and may be 
procured of all the attendants in the Exhibition. 

6. While the tasting room is not to be regarded as a 
general refr^hment room, arrangements will be made to 
allow a limited number of persons, who register tbeir 
names each day, to taste the practical illustrations of the 
lessons in cooking, at 2 o'clock and 6 o*dock. Tickets 
of admission must be obtained beforehand, and may be 
obtHin^d of all Uie attendants. 

6. Popular dishes can be had at all times in the 
ordinary refreshment rooms conducted bjr Messrs. 
Spiers and Pond, at the south end of the Exhibition. 

7. The subject of the illustrations given each hour in 
each day will be duly advertise. 

Messrs. NoveUo, Ewer, and Co., having made the 
necessary arrangements with Her Majesty's Com- 
missioners, state that — 

1. With a view to an adequate exposition of the art of 
moaicy taui geoenUy to its advanoement in this country, 



858 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ABTB, Maboh 28. 18781 



daily orchf>ttral ooac«rtt will be gWen in tlte Rojal 
Albert H«ll during the period of the Exhibition, ue,, 
from 14Lh A;ril ta 3Ut Octtiber, incliuive. The 
orchestra will coofiit of at least fifty performers, chosen 
with special care from the best available aources, and 
includiog some of the most esteemed London professors, 
as well lit iaatrnmentalisti of high repute from the 
provinces and abroad. 

2. The performances win be limited to music of a 
high class. As a mle, each programme will contain a 
symphony or concerto, two overtures, and a selection 
of svlo vocal mosic. It is proposed to Tary this order 
on Wednesdays by means of recitals of operas, and 
other works exceptional in their interest. The pro- 
duction of music unknown or nnfi^mih^r in England, 
-will be kept steadily in view. 

S. The programoMs wiU include examples of all 
schools of orchestral music which may fairly datn to 
be considered classical. The works of acknowledged 
great masters, from Sebastian Bach to Schumann, will 
of ooarse be largely dcawn upon ; due attention being 
ako paid to living oompossn— Gade, Brahams, Lisxt, 
Wagn^T, &c 

4. With a special view to the eDoouragement of 
musical compositioa im this oouotry, pipmin^noe wUl 
be given to the works of English composers. The 
works already sent in at the invitation of Her Majesty's 
GuQimisoioners, and those which may hereafter be 
submitted fer examination, will, if found worUiy, be 
publicly performed. 

5. Advantiwe wUl be taken of these concerts to 
bring forward young English artists, both vocal and 
instrumental, whose ability may ezUitle them to the 
^vilege of a pubUo appearanoe. 

6L In order to make the concerts as educatioaaal in 
thsir results as possible, each programme will contain 
historiotl and analytical detaiitt of the works to be 
performed, accompanied by illustrations in music type. 
The prefiaration of these annotated programmes has 
been entrusted to Mr. Joseph Bennett. 

7. All the concerts will be conducted bv Mr. Bamby. 

8. In addition to the orchestrHl and choral perform* 
ances, daily recitals will be given upon the grand 
organ in the Royal Albert Hall by Mr. Best, 
organist of St. George's Hm1% Liverpool, and by Dr. 
Staint r, organist of St. Paul's Cathedral. The organ 
will al»o be used, with the orchi-stra, in the perform- 
ance of Handel's concertos, and works of a similar 
character. 

Visitors to the Exhibition wiU be admitted to the 
daily concerts without charge. The prices for reserved 
seats will be, on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, 
Fridays, «nd Saturdays, in the amphitheatre and arena, 
one shilling; and in the balcony, sixpence. On 
Wednesdajs the charge will be half-a-crown and one 
shilling ri spectively. To give visitors an opportunity 
of attt nding the concerts frequently, season tickets for 
reserved »cats in the amphitheatre and arena will also 
be issued : price for one month, 10s. 6d. ; for the whole 
series, £2 2s. A few SaUirdays will be excluded from 
these avrangements, but due notice will be given of 
any change in the price for reserved reats. 



EZRIBITIOVa 



w TkmSm 

whoiMmj 




Mr. Shaw writes to request notice of the fact 
that the estimate quoted by hitu in hi» paper, of the trade 
of RQa»ia >»tih Central Asia, of £5.000,000, was a Rusnian 
estimate, and not one for which he could be held rpftpon»ibIe. 



TEINKA EXHIBITION, 1873. 

A meeting of her Majesty's CommisaionefB wU 
at Marlborough-honse, on Saturday last, nadrv^ 
presidency of His Royal Highness the PHzKse of VJ^ 
K.G. There were also preBent-B.S^. Cooat QUil 
Captain, R.N. ; the Earl Cowper, K.G. ; IjoU S 
Gordon Lennox, MJ^. ; Lord Acton ; Sir Anthifl| 
RothschUd, Bart. ; Sir Richard Wallaca, Ba^ IQ 
Sir Francis Grant, P.R.A. ; Mr. Henry Arthor Bmi 
M.P. ; Mr. ThomaA HawUay, PXCfi.; and MftjS 
CunliJBfe Owen, secretary. 

We understand that the Britisli •zkibatai* ia9 
forward with their work, no othar 
Switaerlaaid,. being in so advanced a stalo. 
to be no doubt that by April 26th the 
ment of the British section will be 
present there is an immense mass of heaTj 
on its way to Vienna, all the lines of route 
crowded. On the whole, there ia every 
that this oountsy will be very strengiy 
Vienna. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners haT« 
make special arrangements with the 
companies for a limited number of cj 
tickets to Vi<dnna and back. These hsk've 
the Royal Commission for Ihe use of mtti 
workmen, travelling third (dass, who are in 
ment of British exhibitors, and proceeding to 
the execution of services in behalf of 
The ticket issued is £4 Is. 9d. for the jouTBey 
and back, and is available during any period i 
hibition. Upon an application in 
firm, guaranteeing that the signatures i^vcxl 
the attendants or workmen legitimately 
privileges, and acMMimpanied by a cheque £or 
the necessary tickets will be forwarded. All i 
the journey, loss of luggage* and other 
borne by the exhibitois. Forma of 
been published by the Commibsioners, and 
their London office. 

The usual rates are — Ist cli 
Vienna and back, 215 firanos (£8 Ida.) ; 
Antwerp and back. £1 6s.; in all, £9 17a^ 
from Antwerp to Vienna and back, 162 
(£6 9s. lOd.) ; from London to Antwerp an 
in all, £7 4a. lOd. 

On Monday last, by a migority of 397 to 
French Assembly rc^jected a Bill allotling^ai m 
francs for the purpose of sending French 
Vienna Exhibition, The impreesion 
among the members that the IntemaUone] 
been Uie result of the visit paid by FVtnch 
the London Exhibition in 1862. M. 
himself one of the delegates to that Exhil 
that the International was responsible ice 
which it was charged. He spoke in favours 
money grant being made, to enable f ivnch 
see the best work of the Austrians, who 
formidable rivals. The Minister of 
however, principally on the ground of want <jti 
also because of the danger of ^**'*^^^T*n^ifOii toi 
workmen would be liaUe by the journey. 
From New York city will be sent 1,000 



^niiuinM-, ftuu oi»* vwv •"» «*uivu uv wuiu uo aeiu rrv|yunc>i0iv. rival JL^ew XWK Cl*y WIU UW WKU\ A,UU1 

H« adds tbHt the 6f ures are orreot, and refer to pounds statistics, maps, charts, and phol(^T»ph 
sterling, not Ru Mian roubles. He also states that the nwt.^ American scenery and architecture, conU^i 
STJTIIm i"^ ^*'' ^; ^''^?l^°i •*• *"*:^*H*» *^^ '^^^ American Geographical Society, end 
?Jj;n.ttr£S:i^^;t^^"-^ -umstance.'' was the ,i^ ^c.,\^S^^^ 

itchool education. The list of exhibitors u 
In the laMt number of the J^mmmi, page M3^ at end 700 
of l«*Hsr ** SiguaU at Sea»" iw F. B. W. LMnhtoa resd F, Printing in its various departments will be.a 
U. MuUuQhlaa. I ^ q^ Viennit Krhihitaoa ^qr thiee En^iskj 



•mtmif AL OP THE SOOrfiTY OF ARTS, Makoh ^8. 1873. 



359 



XlohiMisd Oo^ ITdare and Co., and Gbant 

kSOqi 

Tib fm» Inperitl of GkroMuiy will not be able, it 

nMowd, to atlea'l the epening of the exhibition, on 

Kwat of the atUe of hie beeUh. 



terHUMBEBLAND-HOTTSE AND THAMES 
EMBANKMENT. 



J of membere of Pniiament and ratepajrere 
IkhiU at >?iUii'e-njoais, en Saturday, 29th Aiarch, 
' life fcUoviaif memoiiil is to be labmitted and die- 
'>mi, if adopted, to be deliverod to the Prime 

^ttoaodenigBed, feeliag atrongly the tnith and 

^MT i t fc l a i eot mtde in the Hoiue of Comoione, 

\%)A ' tWe is atiil a Umeotable and deplorable 

fMrwbold arrangameati with legtud to public 

•cDlukm, onoert uatT,ooatI ineis, extraraganoe, 

tad til the conflicting yioee that oooid be 

i «» anited in our present svatem — there ia 

hM of aathority to direct and goide/ woald 

ir«w your attrataon to the Obaring-OTOet 

i-earihnkmont Approachea Bill, now before 

, aaaliowiiig the neceaaity of eatabliahing some 

l^nparrisKm and control oi^er public works 

I«a46(takea by oorperate bodiea and public 

.mdef thoa giving praelMal effect to the re- 

"naof the Stdoet Committee of 1869, which 

itMamemoriaL 

., oroaa, Ao^ Approachea Bill prep o a o e to 

! oae side of TraAUgar-aqmue, the fineat and 

"imtaita ia the metropoiia, and takes powers 

r tad sweep away NofihumbecUnd-houae, an 

' ioJviaaaioB, with a view to the making of 

lw«ding in a direct Hne fsom the Nelaon 

miha SmbtakflBont, art or near the HangeHbrd- 

ioftheMetrotiolitaaaaUway. Under the 



•Mi of Pariiameotary prooedare, the Bill that 
ikk jfieat ohange in the character and aspect 



Pviiuiiefit. 



Iftaay 



will, nnleBs axne speciid action be 

it. p«as throagh both Hoasee as an 

BilL No designs, ekivatiaos, or models of 

>md boildingi, nor any riew of the 

t«f«:t of the new street, and of the changed 

"^ Tiafdgar-aqaare, will, in the ordinary coorae 

' ba tobaiitted to the committee. No oppor- 

" W givoo to Pariiameat of oonaidering the 

''bq of the Thames Embazikment approtches 

vith any rival plans ; and thus thia new 

, in the heart of the metropolia involving 

of Northmnberland-house, will be dealt 

ly aa if it were an equivalent portion of a 

lead or vailway in aome remote and purely 

I «f the country. We respectfully submit, 

*a boaat of oar oiviKaation, we are thus 

in which it cau hardly be supposed that 

people woold deal with the ooll«»ction 

■a, which, by oourteey, may be called 

bo ta, then, aa relttea to the Bill in 

vonkl urge that further and fuller con- 

I ^ yUd be given to it than under our preaeat 

^^•maatary prooedure it ia likely to obtain, 

sought by the Metropolitan Board are 

>*^ hnpe that yonr attention having thua 

^ htmn to this aabject, you may be iadnoed 

^ayalni of efficient auperviaion and oontrol 

tM, which, without interfering with the 

>^al6atkwe on Uie part of any corporate or 

company, will, nevenbelan, afford 

^uantae to the inhabitants of the 

M to the nublic in general that no 

^ work shall be planned or executed with- 

^Wly and maturely considered by Par- 

^^mpetent penKm appointed fbr the 



purpose, in all its aspects, regain being had not only to 
public utility, but also to appearanoe and general effect, 
and without an opportunity of forming a judgment upon 
it being given to the ratepayers and inbabitnnts of the 
metropolis by the puMic exhibition of plans, desigus. ele- 
vations, or models of the proposed woA. We would also 
venture to point out that the remarks we htve here made 
wi^ reference to works planned by corporate and public 
bodies or companies in the metropolis, apply, in our 
opinion, with no less force to public building and works 
executed at the poblic coat under the superintendence of 
her Majesty's Office of Works. 

** And if any further proof be needed of the existing 
want of system and want of oo-operation between the 
different authorities in the matter of metropolitan im- 
provements and public works, of which we complain, it 
is to be found in the fact ^lat we have had before 
Parliament in the pres^^nt session two Bills — one the 
Admiralty and War-offloe Bill, promoted by her 
Majesty's Board of Works, and the other the Charing- 
cross, &c., Approaches Bill, brought in by the Metro- 
politan Board of Works— and although these Bills deal 
with the same district of London, and even with opposite 
sides of the same street, the authorities in question^ 
under their present constitution, are acting inlepen- 
dently of each other, through whi<^ tixe public interesta 
must necessarily suffer." 



SB 



OABS AND THEI& HISTORY. 

As the present International Exhibition is partly de* 
voted to carriage-building, and as the Society has offered 
prizes for improved cabs, it may not be wholly without 
interest to attempt to get together some history of our 
hackney vehicles. No one has yet, so far as we know, 
tried to do anything of the sort, and it may be of some 
use to put on record such facts as are worth recording at 
all before they are forgotten. The generation which 
saw the first origin of our present cabs is growing old, 
and if the history is not written now, it can never be 
written at all. The following is an attempt to collect 
such materials together : — 

It was in the reign of Queen Elizabeth that coachea 
were first introduced into England. Stow gives us the 
exact date, 1564, and Taylot", the water-poet, says that^- 

** When Queen Elizabeth eanne to the throne, 
A coaoti ia EiigUad then w&b scarcely known." 

Before that time folk rode on horseback, or sometimea 
in horse litters, an awkward and dangerous oontrivnnce^ 
slung between two horses, one before and one behind. 
At first the use of coaches was confined to the we-ilthy, 
but it was not long before they began to be let out for 
hire, and so to come within the reach of the middle 
classes. In Knight's Isotuhn is contained a tolerably 
full account of the history of haoknev- coaches, and 
indeed we have been able to add but little to the infor- 
mation there given about early means of locomotion in 
London. The poet above quoted, John Taylor, bus left 
us a good deal thit throws light on the subject. He waa 
a waterman, doubtless a better waterman than poet, and 
he was greatly exercised in mind about the interference 
of the oo>iches with his business. His opinion of his 
own importance may be guessed from the faot that he 
actually presented a petition to the king, that he would 
forbid any theatres to be built on the north side of the 
river, in order that all theatre-goers might be obliged to 
go to the play by water ! With such notions h') littla 
relished the idea of having his trade ruined by com- 
petition on land, and be called up all his powers of satire 
to crush the innovators. It was too bad that coachea 
should increase, until — 

" AlraoRt »U the ttreeli are obok*d oatrlirht. 
Where men caa hs^ily pMS firom morn lUl night, 
Whilst watermen want work." 

Nor could verse suffice to express his feelings. He 



860 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 28, 187^. 



wrote soTeral books in yroM, with the avowed objeot of 
patting a stop to the noxious inyeation. Bat neither 
the opposition of the wateroien nor the jeeta of the 
mob prevented the increase of ooaohes, hactooy and 
others. In spite of the bad roads, they got so nameroas 
that it was worth while to establish '* stands " for them. 
By accident a record hss been preserved of the establish- 
ment of the first of these. In a letter, dated April 1st, 
1634, from Mr. Garrard to Lord Stafford, the following 
passage occnrs : — 

'* I cannot omit to mention any new thing that comes 
ap amongst as, thoogh never so trivial. Here is one 
Oaptain Bailey ; he hath been a sea-captain, bat now 
lives on the land, about this city, where he tries experi- 
ments. He hath erected, aoooraing to his ability, some 
four hackney-coaches, pat his men in livery, and appointed 
them to stand at the May-pole, in the Strana, giving 
them instructions at what rates to carry men into sevenU 
parts of the town, where all day they may be had. Other 
hackney-men seeing this ivay, they flocked to the same 
place, and perform their journeys at the same rate, so 
that sometimes there is twenty of them together, which 
disperse up and down, that they and others are to be had 
anjrwhere, as watermen are to be had by the water-side. 
Every body is much pleased with it For whereas 
before coaches could not be had but at great rates, now 
a man mav have one much cheaper." 

In another letter from the same person, and in the 
the same year, it is said, ** There is a proclamation coming 
forth about the reformation of hackney-coaches, and 
ordering of other coaches about London. One thousand 
nine hundred was the number of hackney-coaches of 
London, base lean jades, unworthy to be seen in so 
brave a city, or to stand about a king's court" 
^ There seem to have been several of these proclama- 
tions. One in 1635 prohibited hackney-carriages from 
traversing the streets of London, but allowed them to 
go <* out of town." Another, in 1660, prohibited their 
standing about to be hired, and ordered that they should 
be kept in yards or stables for hire. Quuintly enough, 
Pepys has a note in his diary, on the day of this pro- 
clamation coming into force, to the effect that in spite 
of it he got a coach to carry him home. 

The character of the vehicles themselves may be 
imagined. From the nature of the roads they were 
obliged to be strong and heavy. They were very narrow, 
that they might get through the narrow streets ; and the 
coachman generally, if not always, rode one of the horses. 
When the streets got wider he mounted the box, so 
called because it really was a box, and nothing else, and 
contained a set of tools to repair the effects of the 
frequent accidents that occurred. 

One of the best descriptions of the old hackney-coach 
is that given by Dickens, in the SkeUhtt by Boz^ and 
those who remember these crazy vehicles will readily 
acknowledge its accuracy. *' A great, lumbering, squire 
ooncem, of a dingy yellow colour (like a bilious brunettH), 
with very small glasses, but very Itrge frames; the 
panels are ornamented with a faded coat of arms, in 
shape something like a dissected bat; the axletree is 
rod, and the majority of the wheels are g^reen. The box 
is partially covered by an old great coat, with a multi- 
plicity of capes and some extraordinary-looking clothes ; 
and the straw with which the canvas cushion is staff»id 
is sticking up in several pUces, as if in rivalry of the 
hay, which is peeping throui^h the chinks in the boot." 

The first rival of the coach was the seian chair, intro- 
duced, it is said, by Prince Charles, on his return from 
Spain. This, too, was soon to be let on hire. G-arrard 
says in one of his letters, " Here is also another projc't 
for cirrving people up and down in close chairs, for 
the sole doing whereof Sir Sander Dunscombe, a trav^eller, 
now a pensioner, hath obtained a patent from the king, 
and hath fortv or fifty making ready for use." 

The new chairs soon bee ime popular. They passed 
more easily through the Oity streets than the coach, and 
there was less chance of a break-down. Then the dis- 



tances in London weretiot very gieat, tod so sUogithn i 
the chair had the beet of it Dovil to ths etrliflr put 
of this century the chain were still used, and after tkey 
had disappearod from London they still held thsirgtoud 
in Bath and other provincial towns. 

Such was the origin of the hackney-oosob, and iti 
history, so £ir as it had one, down to our own tioMi. It 
may be worth mention that the popuUr idea thtt ill 
title is derived from the parish of Haokney it qutsi 
delusion. A "^ hakeneyman" was a letter of honaur 
hire long before coaches, hackney or other, mm ued 
in England. The word occurs in a deed of ISOS. Bi^ 
the hackney-coach— though it outlived the sedsa-bd 
another rival to fear,and this was a more MiceeiitBlooe, 
the " cabriolet " or, as we now have it, the csb. 

The original cab or cabriolet was an importslioo trea 
Paris, in 1820, where these vehicles had besn forioae 
time in use before they came to London. Is 1^13 ^^^^ 
were 1,160 eabrioUU d$ pi0ee in Paris. Thif fehicie wji 
a lofty, hooded gig, and some specimens of it •» jflt to 
be found in remote country places, both in tha ooostry 
and in France. The driver sat inside, and ^^^^^^ 
room for only one person beside him. The P*^™^ 
vantage of the cab was its danger ; if the hone »* v"J 
the horses were not of the best), the oocupsnti of »s 
vehicle were certain to be pitched out firom a eooiM«* 
able height to the ground. The first improT«ieBt m 
to put the driver outside, and thereby gire ■«• /JJJ* 
within. He wai accordingly perched on a lauUieilj 
over one wheel, at the side, and in this oooditiostbecsB 
continued tiU it was repUoed by our preiefll tehicj* 
the ** hansom" and the "foar-wheeL" We ■»! W 
investigate the character of the former. . . ^ . j 

Mr. Hansom's cab, as originally mads, oonswted oi fc 
square body, hung in the centre of a square frej*- ^ 
the sides of the frame were abort axles, on **»^5!, 
of large wheels were fitted. This frame enoloi" "f 
whole carriaee» passing over the top and ^^^'^'^'^S. 
down the sides. The wheels were of the same m^fK\ 
as the vehicle, about 7 feet 6 inches, a height w< 
afterwards reduced, as the large wheels did not 
well adapted to London work. The driver mt « 
small box in front, and the door was 
the original model, though in the cab as 
there were two doors in front, one on 
of the driver's seat In the first o 
vehicle of this sort, Mr. Hansom tells «. 
drove from Hinckley, in Leicestershire, to Londo'M'^ 
to the astonishment of the coach-drivers and •"^J'J^J 
he passed on the road, who could not imagine •"'^J 
big-wheeled, lopsided concern oimld be. ThiiWrr 
WHS patented in 1834 (No. 6.733 in the P*t«^ 




List), but is was soon found that though the nun "? 
was a good one, the means employed to ctrry 
into effect were far from perfect The 



good one, the means employed to ^Jjt 
lui^ ^i^eot were far from perfect The ^'•'"JT^ 
though ingenious, was heavy and clumiyt "J^^L 
frictiqp caused by its weight went some whJ *°2^^[ 
balance the advantages of easy running «d «■■ 
venient disposition of the weight A comply . 
formed for the purpose of introducing the ^'Vj 
effecting the needful improvements, and a ^*"r*^ 
years after (1836) a fresh patent was taken o«.^*^ 
names of Messrs. G-illett and Chapman, in •''*!**^ 
embodied the various improvements 8**S^**^./J?i^ 
tice and experience. The exact share ^'^^"^^ 
the original inventor it would be difficult at thii •"*"" 
of time of state, but we believe some additiooi *^ ^J 
gested by him and some by the two patentee*. '^^ 
we may say that the hansom-cab, as now known* •**~J 
result of these combined efforts. The drirer »*■ P**n 
behind, the doors were male to open w*****-^, |fj 
sUding window (Mr. Chapman's idea) was »^'^<^*^ 
general form now in use adopted. Another i"JPj^ 
addition was the patent safety fr»me, a frams^orf oftJff 
the body of the cab, which rested on the gr.)Ooi^ 
supported the vehicle when tiltf*d either f«f***^ , 
backward. Of the window, awkward and inoonteaiiw 



OF THB SOCIETY OF ARTS, Maboh 28, 1878, 



361 



wmj ramMk thai we hAT« not 

for it Aj a bit of mechsniam 

Tlie axle of thii cab was 

paM under the body^and an early 

I cot away the body under the seat 

the axle to paae ftraight acrose. 

WM jftj eoon adopted, thongh 

the credit of it U dne. Most of 

IBUM msde hare been in minor details, 

the weigfati attaching the shafts, and 

now in most general use haa been 

I oib was flniahed, and the patent taken 
ly went to work. It bailt fifty cabs, 
and started an establishment in 
which the pablio were to be sappHed. 
adfantages of the new cab bMiime 
•prang np in all directions. The 
one man after another, got verdict 
iMod the infringers of their rights 
iw, and that no real redress was to be 
tike expenditure of £2000 in law- 
that only one solitary fine of £600 
these circamstances the company gaye 
cootinoed on no better footing than 
had the adyantage of knowing that 
a pablio want, bat that was alL Mr. 
ud the satiafootion of seeing Tehicles 
hit name on their sides, which had 
a pomy royalty, and we are given to 
his receipts from his invention were 
originml claim of £10,000, the sum 
over his rights to the company, he 

invention, a good many patenta 
oat for hanaom oaba, most of whioh are 
" _ Ust :— 

patented a two-wheeled cab, in 
'u seat was let into the body of the 
"a separate attachment behind, 
of one of the sides. 

proposed to place the doors at the 
iwd make the seat move on a pivot, with 
' itioos. 

infented a sort of folding screen, in- 
the doors of hansom cabs. It was to 
lyiteffl of levers worked by the driver's 

)wart received provisional protection for 
which the portion of the cab over the 
lemi-circalar, and fitted with sliding 
other minor improvements, saoh as the 
' -boards, kc, were also indaded. 

proposed to substitote a cortain for 

J. Rimmer received provisional pro- 
ivBotioa in which the cab was hung on 

Nottingham patented a cab in which 

k1 on pivots, so that it coald be either 

a blind of laths was used instead of the 

were also some alterations in the con> 

, ^png of the cab. 

I Walter proposed to add a third wheel, in 

security. 

received provisional protection for a 

horn was CMrried further back, so as to 

the middle of the cab, which is on each 

^jTHkr W. H. Gore invented a cab in whioh 
vooght forward to the splash-board, and 
/ father to the sidoi thus giving in- 
[viAiiL 

> obtained provisional protection in the 
iwithod of attaching the driver's seat to 

'Aditon, in the same year, patented a 



method of connecting the doors, so that when one was 
opened the other idso was. 

In 1867 J. Bay and W. Berber patented a method of 
opening smd closing the doors bv a lever. 

In 1868 8. Benjamin invented a glased sash, to replaoe 
the folding window. 

In the same year R. A. Gk>ld proposed to make the 
door behind and the seat '* parallel to the axle." 

In 1860 O. Clarke obtained provisional protection for 
a cab in wMch the top part folded back, with other im- 
provemente. 

In 1870 Messrs. 8tandfleld and Crosse brought out a 
new oarriajM, which they now propoee to convert into a 
hansom. The body is hexagonal, the three sides behind 
being occupied by the seat, the one in front having a 
window in it, and the o^er two sides forming the doors. 

In 1872 a cab of somewhat similar form, though dif- 
fering in details of construction, was patented by Messrs. 
Glass and Hopkins, In it the doors open from a centre 
pillar down the middle of the fh>nt. They can be 
opened by the driver from his seat. 

There are many other inventions of improvemente in 
the construction of the ordinary cab, and there are also 
several new forms that have never been patented. The 
best of these we may shortly hope to see at South Ken- 
sington. 

It may be mentioned as a curiosity, that a vehicle, in 
external appearance exactly like the ** hansom," is given 
in an iUustration in Pennant. The picture represento 
Temple-bar, with the tnutorsT heads upon it. Knight stotes 
that another print; of a date about tiie bM^nning of the 
oenUuy, represento the same carriage, and stetes that it 
is tht» invention of ** the ingenious Mr. Moore." In it 
tile driver is placed on the top, and there are two large 
wheels, aa on the present cab. 

In the indexea of the Patent-office a two-wheeled 
carriage, invented by Mr. Moore in 1790, is mentioned, 
and the specifications describe a vehicle hung on two large 
wheels, with a separate driver's box in front and a door 
behind. This has little or no resemblance to a 
'* hansom," and the weight is hung high instead of 
low. Whether this is the same as the carriage figured 
by Pennant we cannot say, but it seems very douotfuL 

Such is tiie history of the invention of the ** hansom.'^ 
About the same time came in the four-wheeled vehicle, 
whioh usurped the title of '' cab," originally given to 
the two-wheeled cabriolet. There is nardly sufficient 
novelty in ite construction for us easily to apportion the 
amount of credit due to ite inventors. It was simply a 
modification of the old post-chaise, enlar^, and with a 
driver's seat in front. The growth of railways, and the 
increased habit of locomotion, caused a demand for 
means of traffic subordinate — so to say — ^to the railways, 
and hence the increase in cabs, four and two wheeled. 
Before the present form was generally adopted several 
otiier shapee were tried. Such was the '' slice off 
an omnibus," which was just what ite name implied. 
In it the driver sat at the top, and the door was behind. 
The objection to this was, that the driver had little 
control over his " fare," who could get out without 
stopping to pay. None of these, however, came into 
very extensive use, and the hackney-coach held ite place 
till it was ousted by the present " four-wheeler." An 
interesting circumstance m connexion with this cab is, 
that it was the parent of the ** brougham." Lord 
Brougham was token with the shape, and ordered his 
coach-maker to build him a cab, but of better make and 
fini^ than those in public use. The result was the 
carriage now so popular. 

Mr. Silber haa informed the St. GeorRe'e, 
Hanover-nquare, Committee of Works that the petroleum 
oil bamed in hi« lamp costs a penny for six hours, and fcives 
a light equal to 16*36 sperm caudlee. He sugKested that a 
hundred of his lamps should be tried in the parish. It was 
decided to try one of the lamps at the vestry-offices, Ebury- 
bridge. 



862 



JOURNiLL OF THE 8O0IETT OF ARTS, Hahor K, 1811. 



ATLANTIC TELEaRAPHY. 

The ibllowhig letter appeared in the Daify IfetOB of 
March 24. The letter to wdioh it was an aitswer was 
pabliBhed ia last week's JoMrmU : — 

BiB« — ^I oheerTe a letter from Mr. Hightoo, in jrour 
widbly-circiilated paper, which I thiak reqaaret coneo- 
tion on one point. Mr. Highton thinki that ivon 
dbttroyf hemp in sabnuirine oables, aa ironmoakl de- 
stroys pocket-handkerchiefs. A very extt^nded ex- 
perience has shown that in saboiHEine cables no soch 
action takes place. Hemp in oontaut with iron will 
last perfectly sound for twenty years at least, if ooTered 
by the iron. In some se^s it is eaten by animitls, bat 
no oase of this kind has been shown to have ooourred 
in the Atlantic Bad hemp does also gratlually decay 
where there is any wash, bat iron and hemp mutoally 
protect one another. The break in the 1865 cable is an 
nnexpUined but not unpreoedented aocidenU There 
is much less cause for a panic now than when, in 1860, 
I described a similar oase to the Institution of Civil 
Engineers, and in my evid«*noe before the Board of 
Trnde and Atlantic Commission. The cable in question 
broke in the Meditenanean, without any known canee, 
in 1,200 fathoms; it w»ts simply iron-covered. I am 
not aware that any similar case has happened since 
then, and this alone is enough to show that any 
generalisation based on the accident will be whully 
misleading. Probably the Atlantic failnre is oonnected 
with some local decay, and experience has shown that 
decayed patches occur here and there with perfectly 
sound cable on either side. I therefore, for ene, expect 
that the 1866 cable will be repaired, and that it will 
continue to be a valuable property for many years. At 
the same time, I concur with Mr. Hii^hlon in thinking 
it very desirable that a light coble shoakl be tiied. — 
I am, 4kc.y 

FL^ncDfa JaNUw. 

This letter prodoeed the following on Tuesday, firom 
Mr. Highton : — 

Sir, — No doubt Professor Fleeming Jenkin is right in 
his facts, but they do not prove me to bn in error. I 
will trespass on your sp^ce as little as possible in explain- 
ing thin. Iron in contact with hemp destroys it by acting, 
in the form of rust or oxide, as a carrier of the oxygen 
dissolved in water, and so burning the hemp. >iow, 
when hemp ** is covered with iron ** the outhide of the 
iron extracts the oxygen from the water, and so saves the 
inside where the iron is in contact with the hemp. But 
all this, though true of most cables, is reversed in the 
Atlantic cables. The hemp is not ** covered with iron,** 
but the iron with hemp, con8equent1y the iron rusts in 
actual contact with the hemp and bums it. In some 
parts of the bottom of the sea there m^y, from varioiis 
causes, be very little dissolved oxygen ; where the cAble 
is covered with fine sand or mud, the oxygen in the water 
immediately surrounding it is soon exhausted, and as 
there is little change .of water to bring fresh oxygen, in 
such parts the decay ia very slow ; but in other parts, 
where these conditions do not prevail, where the nature 
of the bottom is unfavourable, or where a current brings 
continually fresh oxygen, the decay is very rapid. S">me 
years ago the West India Dock Company — and, I think, 
other dock companies — tried hempen cables, with iron 
wires inside, for the sake of strength, and the iron and 
hemp destroyed each other in even a tew months. Ab$it 
omen, 1 am, &c., 

H. HlOHTON. 

On Wednesday, Mr. Cromwell P. Varley joined in 
the correspondence with the following letter: — 

Sir, — A discussion is going on between Professor 
Fleeming Jenkin and Mr. Highton as to whether iron 
oxide destroys hemp. This is so important a question 



thai I venture to atata thm Ikcfte of the OHs. Hil 
used in nearly all eables — send noisily is tbjl 
laoitio Cable — is tarred with Stockholm tsr. 
of tlie 186§ caUe was still further protsetoll 
mixtore of piteh and other ingredienti, tad 
Jenkin wonld be atriotiy oorreot in his teooli 
inserted Ab words *' tarred hessp.** Theim^ 
reported to be broken 600 miloi from Ii^asi' 
water at this point shoals to 1,600 U&oam. 
known— from ^e soandings taken by the 
officers both of the ESngHsh 6*ovemmeDt aii| 
United States who have made the deep-ses i 
the Aikntio-^that the water at this de^ii 
and containe less salt than the upper wttet. 
well-known fiust to all ohemists and telegnpli «^ 
who ha^pe had actual experience in leooivnorvl 
from great dep^s, but where the water is eabl,M 
is oxidised by it very slowly indeed, sii4 Ibt 
substances, even when unprotected bf lu; 
undergo any deoay. These two well- 
give me reason to believe that a propei^i 
pedition can lift the 1865 cable west of tfcil 
on a new shore end, and make it as good m\ 
done, the pieoe between the fault and Irdiai: 
subsequently picked up, for the gatta-peftkt< 
more rakiable than when first laid duwa. 
tested portions of the French Atlantic csb^l 
we had many miles in store. The hempiar 
was treated with tar and pitch, si 
for the 1866 cable. And, notwithstanding 
been shipped and unshipped 18 different tind;! 
in tanks filled with water of the daily tsrfsBtj 
ture, yet the cable was (bond to have ssflend; 
tion in strength during the period of five ye 
it had been more exposHi to the dsng«r of 
the cable laid in deep ooM waler. I^ 
to strength were tested at Kirkaldy's wett- 
ing establishment, and Uie latter „ 
upon our experiments is in the bands of 
AtUntic Tttlegraph Company. None of 
broke with leas than 7^ tonn, and some bore 
8 tons. — ^I am, kc, 

Cbovwiu. F. 



COREBSPOHBEHCB. 



ATLANTIC TELEGRAPHT. 

Sm, — ^Professor Fleeming Jenkin has 
Daily N«W9 my letter on the breakage id 
1865, which appeared in that newspaper 
Journal, 

I have answered his letter briefly in fbs 
but should like to go into the matter a litdl 
and scientifically than is snitaUe for the 
daily newspaper. Iron deetroys hemp and 
substances, in consequence of its forming 
The higher oxides part with a portion of 
to vegetable matters, and absorb it again 
tion in water or damp air. Thus th^ act tf 
oxygen to bum and destroy such mattoi 
from this well-known fact, I said tiierecoold 
method of destroying rapidjy a hemp enble 
closing in it an iron wire. To this P 
Jenkin answers that this is not found to be 
submarine cables ; that they win last for 
when the iron surrounds the hemp. This 
correct, and the reason is obvious. Por in 
of the deep sea there seems to be but Ifttk 
little in the p>«rts surrounding the cable ii s^ 
the outside of the iron wireet, and so 
Hcting on the inside, where the iron is ia 
I the h«mp ; and where the iron is ooversd 



*ro<«snrl 



JOTRIUL OP THB BDOIBTY OF AETSi Maboh 28, ia73. 36S 



tlU which doet not injure the iron, the 

^ mfffiiu of water ^th fresh oxygen ia 

fvan the oataide of the iron \u acted on 

Ait k the Atlantie e«b)e» tile iron wir<> 

lof the heaip^ and ihivnittm whnmmf it 

i, it aoti imondktely on the hemp and 

Ifev, if there are omfy^tew plaoee m the 

halie where there ie « auffioient snf ply; of 

then few placea the aheath moet qaiokiy 

llbooie be in imminent danger. I trust that 

~»f not be sufficiently numerous to prevent 

1M( from being raiaed and repaired. — 

H. HiOHTOir. 



MOSCOW EXHIBinOlf. 

' Bxoeedingly that boaineea armngementa 

*** I for me to be present at Profeesor 

on Bossia (December Igth, 1872). 

the Moecow Exhibition myself, I 

\ md an aathentio and trustworthy report, 

'hr panona were treated by the Russian 

DMre such treaftment wiik my own. I 

I was much pleased with the report of 

inlawing the lecture, and with the very 

*^ aade by ICr. Chriatopher Cooke. 

ens that I was not invited to Moscow 

[■thwity, but wmt speosaUy on business 

St with uniform ciriUty the whole journey, 

iat Eydtkunen, where I had to give up 

dnbaaittowiy pockets beingemptiedof all 

lin old Tiwusy in which waa wrapped aome 

I taken out of my knapaack, ao that when 

*ig room at Eydtkunen atation, I had 

ef ptinted English matter to beguile 

<rf 2,060 milee. On my arriTal at the 

Lhibition at Moacow, I received at the 

Serrina Qolitaen great kindness and 

when I went to ihe Custom-house 

carriagea, for three daya every possible 

thrown in my way, on one plea and 



ilthoagh they had been dispatched six 
* left England, it was only when I got 
Aod spoke in rather strong terma, that 



^ at me penniaeion to aee and take them 
lOommittee had guaranteed ahelter and 
n, free of expenae, for gooda to all ex- 
»ftet a long and aerioua consultation, 
'1 the rules over to them severpil times, 
1ms that I might stow them in the powder 
' Kremlin, and would have te pay for 
~> the place where they were to be ex- 
i«iy— a reqaeet I politely and steadily 
; that they should keep to the apecified 
' Moacow I obtained from Mr. S tnger. 
papers to dear my railway, expenses 
i after some trouble, aldiongh assisted 
obtained a ticket for St Petersburg, 
'rter at St. Petersburg would on 
attention to my aeoond pass, and I 
jpey my'fare back to the fbontier. The 
_wway also refused to take off the 
iteed reduction of 50 per cent, on 
ii which I have instructed my ag^nt 
otest Throughout my journey 
to proceed from Moscow to 
ttd theooe to the frtmtier, without 
I to the police, and paying expense 
I eoosiaer exhibitors ought to be 
^#M you a simple statement cS ^cts, in 
*>f >Met with thoae who will assist me 
[m ngbts granted to me as they were 
Mm govetnment to all exhibitoxa 
. et set feftii in tiie printed rules 
I^B^rteohaia Ibdiihition.'' I am 



save that aneh inpoaitiona as thoee carried on by the 
Eoaatan officiiila anid railway companies, in refusing to 
oarry out liieir printed terms, togeUier with the enormous 
expense of transit, Ac., are quite sufficient to deter many 
persons who would exhibit under more favourable cir- 
cumstaaees from so doing ; and unless a guarantee can be 
given by tike govemasent that suoh will not be repeated, 
I fear the nnmber of Englieh exhibitors will readily de- 
craaaa at fiiraign exhibitions. — I am, &c., 

C. 8. Wdtdovbb. 



ECONOMIC STOVES. 

Snr-The aagg oati on of Mr. T. Clark, O.E., to intro- 
dnoe fresh air to the stove trough a tube communicating 
wi^ the air outside, and terminating in a pierced rose 
end under the grate, is undoubtedly the proper thing, 
and has been put in practice on very solitary occaaiona 
ever since the time of Count Rumford, but unfortunately 
has never aoquired favour with the public. The objection 
to the proposal is that the inmates do not want cold air 
brou^t into the house, and it makea them shndder only 
to think of it 

There ia another appliance required to make healthy 
homea, which also meets with no fkvonr from the public, 
and that is n ventilating pipe, reaching to the roof, in. 
every cesspool, water-closet, dead well, or sink-hole, in 
order to allow ^e ft^tid air to escape as the fluid or semi- 
fluid pours in. Otherwise, as is almoat universally the 
case, these foul airs have no exit except by leaking into 
the house through innumerable small fissttras, and thua 
poisoning the inmates with pestilential sewage gas. — 
I am, &o., Hbhbt W. Bxwblmy, 

GSjfEEAL XOIXA. 



England and Central Asia. — ^An interesting illustra- 
tion of the paper lately read before the Society by Mr. Sbaw, 
on ** England and Central Asia," will be found in the 
Yarkuud and Tibet Court at the Crystal Palace. In 
the journey undertaken by Mr. C<immiHsioner Forsyth to 
Yarkuod, be ooUtoted together a serieAof ubjeots iHustraring 
the manners and cuMtoma of the inhabitants of this little- 
known oountry. Dr. Cayley, long resident at Ladak, has 
also lent to the company a collection of specimens cbieny in 
illustration of the religion of the Laroas. In addition to 
thene, Dr. Campbell, f or a con«idera,ble time H.M. Resident 
at Darjeeling, baa aim) contributed a similar series. All 
these bave been arranirsd by Dr. David S. Price (of the 
Crystal Palace Technological Museum), so as to f^rm an 
edinographical study, particularly iotHrestiog at the present 
time. Apart from the 8i>ecimeni< in the cases, two groups 
are represented, one showing a Lama priest sitting at the 
door of his tent, receiving a visit f mm a male and feraale^ 
Thibetan pea^at, and the other Yarkundis halting on the 
journey. The backg^mnd to the )cn>up is a large painting 
frum a sketeh by Dr. Cayley, of ths Lama monaatary of 
Ladak. The whole forms a ramarlcHble life-like reprea^'nta* 
tion of the msenes frequently witnessed in these countries. 

PrMerration of lUat.— Mr. Brooloes, of Leadenhall- 
market, has lately received a large ctmaiguuent of SwediMh 
and Norwegian game, brought over in a fresh state aoltJy by 
means of cold. The birds were pacluid in a oold atmosphure, 
and were closely surrouuded on every side by a thick layer of 
skins. The result was that they oame over here uninjun^, 
and were found, after being pai;ked fur a month or so, as fresh 
as when they were killed. The oold in the high latitudes 
where the birds were killed wa.^ sufficient to freeee the bodies, 
and when nopaoked here they were stiU froaea. and ioe-oold. 
The idea originat«d, we uaderstaDd, with some Swedes, who 
were anxious to open up a trade with England, and had 
found that meat ana game, packt4 in skins or Qthernon-con- 
ductom, could be transported for lon»r distances in Norway 
aod Bwedim. The slmplioity of the process is remnrkable. 
but ia appeara oalv available in eouatries where the naAval 
temperature ia vc^Imt. The flesh, we an told,is as good 



d64 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, March 28, 1878. 



88 that of reoently-kiUed birdp. Some beef was also brought, 
and this, though of poor quHlity, was oprtainly quite fresh. 
Of course the skins in which Uie game, &o., was packed 
were valuable, so that there was no loss on this part of the 
importation. 

FriieBforPamtiiig.— The Painter Stainers' Company, 
with a view to promote the important subject of technical edu- 
cation in connectiun with the art and mystery of painting, have 
determined to invite competition and offer prises m the 
^Uowing subjects :~lst, Decorative, painting in ornament, 
£6 and £3 ; 2Bd, Painting from natural foliage or flowers, 
£5 and £3; 3rd, Freehand drawing and design, £3 and £2; 
4th. Marbling and graining, £3 and £2, with the addition 
to the 1st priise in each class of the company's silver medal, 
and to the 2nd prise in each class of the company's bronze 
medal. The prospect of the freedom of the company is also 
held out, on such terms as the court may think fit, to any 
competitor showing an amount of talent sufficient to justify 




to be executed in oil or tempera. The subject of »• Freehand 
drawing " to be a copy from oasts or natural objects in pencil, 
ohalk, or shaded in water colour. The specimens must be 
■ent to the hall beeween the 18th and 26th of May, inclusive, 
and must bear a nri vale mark or motto, and be accompanied 
by a sealed envelope containing a similar mark or motto, 
with the name and address of the oompetitor. his aire, a cer- 
tificate or declaration that he is in the trade, and that the 
work is by his hands only. The envelope will not be opened 
till after the judges have made their report. The specunens 
will remain the property of the competitors, but the company 
will not hold themselves responsible for the safety of, or 
damage to, such specimen. The nrizee will be awarded by 
the company's trade committee ; and after the awaid the prise 
■pecunens may be publicly exhibited at such place as the 
oompany may select £a!ch competitor must remove his 
specimen, at his own cost, within one week after notice sent 
to him by post 



HOTICES. 



8TrB8CBIPnOV8. 

The Lady-day sabscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheqne or Post-office 
order, crossed " Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Dayenport, Financial 
officer. 

m I 

OBDHTABY xsETnros. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetmgs have been arranged : — 

April 2.— "On Economy of Fuel for Domestic 
Porposes." By Capt Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.8. 

April 9. — No Meeting, 

April 16.— '*0a the British Settlements in West 
Africa." By His Excellency Governor Pops Hbnnbssbt, 
O.M.G. 

April 23.— "On Silkworm Grain." By Mons. 
Alprxd Roland (Orbe, Switzerland). On this evening 
Akdrbw Cassbls, Esq., will preside. 

April 30. — "On the Condensed Milk Manufacture." 
By L. P. Mbrriam, Esq. 

CAHTOB LECTUBES. 

The Third Course of Cantor Lectures for the 

§ resent session will be " On Wines; their Pro- 
uction. Treatment, and Use," by J. L. W. 
Thxidichum, Esa., M.D. The Course wiU consist 
of six lectures, tne first of which will be given on 
Monday evening, the 21st of April, the remaining 
five on the Monday evenings succeeding. 



IHDIA COtnOTTEB. 

A Conference will be held this eTemng(Frii 
28th inst., at 8p.m., when a paper willbereul^ 
T. Blaitfobd, Esq. , of the Indian Qeobgical Son 
on '' The Mineral Besouroes of India." SirU 
Mallet, C.B., Member of the Council for M 
will preside. ^ 

Members are entitled to attend these CodH 
free, and to admit two friends to each of td! 



MEETDIOS FOB THE KlBUllS llflt ^ 

Mov. ...6tationer8> Company, 7k TeebaioilLeelBni K 

A. DaTidson,^' Prmtxng, itoBistotyndltedS 

Medical, 8. __ 

London Inatitiitaon, 4. Pmf. ThiaeltaBDm*s 

Orffaniams in their Belatioo to ICukhL* 
Gbemical, 8. Annual MeetiM. * 

AotoarieB, 7. Mr. J. B Macfiid?Ci, **Qb »|| 
Formola for the Value of PreaestorlMu 
whether free or hardened vith clMm,aM| 
Application of the Formula to detaBmii«(hil| 
Values of lifis PoUdea.'* * 

Ti7X8...A8iatio,8. ^_ _• 

Civil Engfneera, 8. 1. DiaeoinaD. "Ihi W 
TnnneL" S (time permitting) Xr. JoteM 
the Riee and Frogreee of SteamLoooBOliiaMl 
BoadB.*' ] 

Boyal Colonial Institute, 8. (At thi &•• 
SaciBTT OF Aets.) 

Prtthologioal, 8. 
' Anthropological, 8. , ^ , ^_, 

Boral Inrt^tion, 8. Prof. Bntfaatsi "M 
MLotions of the Bodj." 1 

Zoological, 81. 

Biblical Arohaaologr, 8. 1. Mr. Hcmr ^^ 
the Beligious Mief of the 
2. Rev. A. H. Sayce, *'Ontbe U 
from the AMyrian Insoriptanot." 3. Bcv. 
Cooper, ** un a Tiiple BynchroniflD in 7 
History." 

Wbd. ...80CTETT OF ABT8, 8. CaptainD«igb» 
F.B.B., "On Economy of Fuel far DoBi^K 

Microecopieal, 8. 
Pharmaceutioil, 8. 
Obstetrical. 8. 
London Institution, 7. 

TBUM...Ihstiitution of Naval Aidiiteets (at the Sutfl 
SociRTT OF ASTS), IS. BveofaigatT. | 

EoyalfS^. 

Antiquanes, 8^. 

Iinn£Ban,8. 1 Suiweon-Major F. D«t/| (jf 
ISshea" 9. Bev. M. J. BerkUe7a]idXr.a 
•* On the Fungi of Ceylon." ^ 

Chemical, 8. 1. Dr. H. Sprengd, *'A Vi 
Determining the Bpedflc Gravity of 
C. B. A. Wrirfit. "On Oyaene ftwn Vi 
8. Dr. L. H. Oladstxme and Mr. Tribe, 
the Action of the Copper Zine Ooiqih 
Bodies 1 1 on the Iodide of Amyl sad M< 
H. E. Armstrong. ••Oontribatioosft«itsi 
of the London Institution. No. XL 
Add Chlorid** on Nitrates and NttritM." 

Boyal Society Club, 6. , 

Boyal Institution, 8. Mr. Tcxxnn Hsnont. 
its Products." 

FBI OeologiiitB* AssodatioB, 8. 1. Mr. G. C 

the Diamond Fields of South Afrk^t 
WiUiam Wetberell, "OnsomelteOii^i 
Chslk." 

PhilolMical, ^. _^ ,^^ „ 

Boyal &sfcitut3on. 9. Piofcssor l^r»«gj»te< 
vations on Niagara, made during a Vtftvi 
States." - 1 

Boyal United Service Institntion, 8. O^itB;: 
** The Meteorology, Sea Temperstnrf.tg^ 
the Ten-Degm* Square of the Attajto 
between the Fquator and 10^ nsrthlsW"*' 
S(F to aoa tvest loogtitnde." ., 

Architectural Assodatkm, 7^. Vr. 
•• Dilapidations." , ^ ^^ -^^ 

Ihstitutioii of Naval Aithitsrts (tttk* »«B 
SociBTT OF Aars), It. Bveningst 

Arebflsolafical Institiite, 8. 

Sat Jtoyal Institution, 8. P i uW aswr Ito 

Darwin's Philosophy of IJ^agoaaAT J 

InstitntioB of Naval Aid)itseto(«t ^ ^^ 
BooitTT or Ana), it. 



i| 



]MX W 



JODBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apbil 4, 1873. 



365 



m OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,063. Vol, XXI. 



FRIDAY, APRIL 4, 1873. 






'I mn ih; 



!S BT THE COTTHCIL. 



IDVCATIOV COXKITTEE. 

|Oomnittee held a meeting at Olarenoe 
tlliiinday, the 3rd inst., present : — ^H.R.H. 
to? EDDrBXTBOH, in the chair ; Mr. Henry 
^,Mr. A. S. Cole, Major Donnelly, R.E., 
Pitxgerald, Mr. C. J. Freake, Sir John 
Bart., Mr. Chandos Wren Hoskyns, 
r. Frank Morrison, Mr. J. F. Puttick, 
Bedgrave, Mr. Seymour Teulon, 
£. Carieton Tofnell, with Mr. Le Neve 
The Conmiittee were of opinion 
I desirable to erect a building at a cost not 
£20,000, suitable for the purposes of a 
Sdkool for Music in connection with the 
Arts, and it was referred to a sub-com- 
ooosider on what terms and on what 
ndi sum could most readily be raised. 



miA COmiTTSE. 

of the Committee was held on 
Present — Mr. Hyde Clarke, in the 
Sir Arthur Cotton, Colonel Ghiwler, 
Alcock, Dr. Campbell, Messrs. A. 
F. T. Ktsgerald, W. S. Ktzwilliam, W. 
Brian H. Hodgson, T. Briggs, T. T. 
Ward, and Bobert B. Shaw. The Com- 
into consideration and decided on the 
[■emorialfor presentation to the Secretary 
India on the subject of facilitating our 
intercourse with Eastern Turkistan 



ATI0K8. 



rOLOOICAL 

of Examinations in the 
of some of the Arts and Manufactures 
is now ready, and may be had on 
to the Secretary. 

seledsed for 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
ind Caniage-building. Those desiring 
Candidates, should apply for the pro- 
[wittont delay. 

Prizes are oSeated by the Society of 
id the fiye subjects mentioned aboye : — 



To the best ccmdidate in Honours, £10. 

To the best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 

To the best candidate in the Elementary Grade, £5. 

In order that these Examinations may really be 
successful in promoting technical education in this 
country, it is desirable that encouragement should 
be given to candidates by the offer of additional 
prizes and scholarships. With this object the 
Council appeal to the Companies of the City of 
London, to merchants and manufacturers, and to 
members of the Society generally, to aid them 
by contributing to the Prize Fund. 

The foUowmg special additional Prizes are 
offered: — 

By Wyndham S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 

Third best Candidates in the Elementary Ghrade, 

Paper Manufacture : — 

APrizeof £3 

A Prize of 2 

By G. N. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 

best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 

Building: — 

A Prize of £3 

A Prize of 2 

By the Worshipful Company of Spectacle 
Makers, to the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 
in the Advanced Grade and in the Elementary 
Grade respectively, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 

APrizeof £6 6 

A Prize of 3 3 

APrizeof 2 2 

The Council beg to announce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund : — 

TheWorBhipfiilOompanjofFiBhmongeiB£52 10 

The Worshipful Company of Mercers.. 26 6 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners. . 10 10 
The Worshipful Company of Salters 

(annoal) 10 10 

Dr. Crace Calvert, F.R.S. (annual) .... 650 

Sir Daniel CooTOT, Bart 5 

K. L. Chance, £flq 5 5 

The Council invite the aid of masters and man- 
agers in promoting these examinations by encour- 
aging their workmen to take advantage of them. 
An explanatory handbill, suitable for being sus- 
pended in factories and workshops, may be had on 
application to the Secretary of the Society of Arts, 
Adelphi, London, W.C. 

ALBERT XZDAL. 

The Council will proceed to consider the award 
of the Albert Medal early in May next. This 
medal was instituted to reward '* distinguished 
merit in promoting Arts, Manufactures, or Com- 
merce," and has been awarded as follows : — 

In 1864, to Sir Kowland Hill, K.C.B., '<for his great 
aervice to Arts, lianufactnres, and Commerce, in the 
creation of the penny postage, and for his other reforms 
in the postal system of this country, the benefits of which 



366 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Apbil 4, 1871 



liave, however, not been confined to this conntry, but 
haye extended over the oivOiMd worid." 

In 1865, to his Imperial Miyesty the Emperor of the 
French, '* for dutinguished merit in promoting, in many 
ways, by his personal exertiona, the intematiODal pro- 
gress of Arts, ManafiAoturet, and Commerce, the proofs 
of which are afforded by his judicious patronaf^e of Art, 
his enlightened commercial policy, and especially by the 
abolition of passporta in fitvoor of British sabjeots." 

In 1866, to Profeflior Faraday, D.C.L., F.ILS., for 
" discoveries in electricity, magnetism, and chemistry, 
which, in their relation to the industries of the world, 
have BO largely promoted Arts, Manuiaotures, and Com- 
merce. 

In 1867, to Mr. (now Sir) W. Fothergill Cooke and 
Professor (now Sir) Charles Wheatstone, F.R.S., in 
" recognition of their joint labours in ettablishiBg the 
first electric telegraph." 

In 1868; to Mr. (now Sir) Jotoph Whitworth, F.R.S., 
LL.D., ** for the invention and ntanufactnre of instru- 
ments of measurement and nfldfonn standards, by which 
the production of machinery has been brought to a 
degree of perfection hitherto unapproached, to the great 
advancement of Arts, Manufacturea, and Commerce." 

In 1869, to Baron Justus von 'Liebig, Associate of the 
Institute of France, Foreign Member of the Royal 
Society, Chevalier of the L^on of Honour, &c., *' for 
his numerous valuable rese arch es and writings, which 
have contributed most importantly to the development 
of food economy and agriculture, to the advancement of 
chemical science, and to the benefits derived from that 
science by Arts, Mnnufactures, and Commerco." 

In 1870, to M. Ferdinand do Lesseps, **fbr services 
rendered to Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, by the 
realisation of the Suez Canal." 

In 1871, to Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., "for his important 
servioee in promoting Arts, Manufactures, and Com- 
merce, especially in aiding the establishment and develop- 
ment of International Fxhibitions, the development of 
>6oieiice and Art, and the South Kensington Museum." 

Jn 1872, to Mr. Henry Bessemer, " fbr the eminent 
services rendered by him to Arts, Manufactures, and 
Commerce, in developing the manu&cture of steel." 

The Counoil invite members of the Society to 
forward to the Secretary, on or before the 12th 
of April, the names of such men of high distinction 
as they may think worthy of this honour. 



SCOHOmC V8E OF COAL FOB DOMESTIC FXmPOSES. 

With reference to the sum of £500 placed at the 
disposal of the Council, through Sir William Bod- 
Idn, by a gentleman who does not wish his name 
to appear, for promoting, by means of prizes or 
otherwise, economy in the use of coal for domestic 
purposes, the Council have decided to offer the 
following prizes : — 

1. For a new and improved system of grate, suitable to 
existing chimneys as generally constructed, which shall, 
with the least amount of coal, answer best for warming 
and ventilating a loom.—The 8ociety*8 GoH M$dal and 
Fifty Potmdt. 

2. For a new and improved system of grate, suitable to 
existing chimneys as generally constructed, which shall, 
with the least amount of coal, best answer for cooking 
food, combined with warming and ventilating the room. 
— 7%# Soeitty't Gold Mtdal tmd Fifty Ffnmds. 

3. For the best new and improved system of apparatus 
which shall, by means of gas, most efficiently and 



economically warm and ventilate a rooBL— Ai 
Gold Medal aud Fifty F^mdt, 

4. For the best new and improved lyitanof l 
which shall, by means of gas, be best tdt^ 
ing, combined with warming and ventilatiBff 
"The S.eieiy'8 Gold Medal and Fifty f»mi», 

6. For any new and improved system or _. 
not included in the foregoing, wUeh ihill 
and economically meet domestic requii 
Society' t Gold Medal and Fifty Founds. 

The Council reserve to themselvei tiie 
withholding all or any of the above prae^i 
judges appointed by them may ds/knam. 

The competing articles must be 
later than the 1st of December, 1873, 
view to their being tested, and 
shown in the London IntematioiHl 
of 1873. 

Further particulars, as to place of 
other arrangements, will bp published 
they are finally settled. 



PB.0CEEDIH08 OF IE£ SOI 



8£7ZHTBEirfH OEDDTABY 



%m«t 



Wednesday, April 2nd, 1873, Editik 
wiOK, Esq., CJB., Yioe-PresideQt of the 
the chair. 

The following Oandidates were 
election as Members of the Society :— 

Fox, Theodore, Newport Rolling>milk, . 
Glover. Samuel, 3, Harrington-square, K.W. 
Head, Jeremiah, Newport Rolling-mills, ilidc ' 
I'Anson, J. Coventry, Darlington. 
Maples, Jarvis, the C^wn l^veni, ClaiiE6Di 

E.C. 
Mavbew, Rev. Samuel Martin, New Eent-rMil 
Richardson, Charles Fletdier, 8, Great XVi 

street-buildings, E.C. 
Scott, Dugald, the Moorland, Karsal-edge, 

Broughton, Manchester. 
Shaw, John, South Eastern Railway Com^j, 

Ividge, S.E. 
Thorn, William Thomas, 19, Gi«at Pc 

Oxford-street. W 
Tucker, Edwin, Derrystone, Abevgavenny. 
Winterboume, Sydney, 13, Forbes-road, Pssg^l 

The following Candidates were balloted 
duly elected Members of the Society :— 

Alexander, E., Middleton Ship-yard, HntlefMiil 
Cobbett, Edwin, 76, Jennyn-«ta^ St James^^ 
Cotton, Major-General Sir Arthur, E.Oai^ '^ 
Eagle, Vincent, St. George's- wharf, GruidSi 

CamberwelL S.E. 
Fraser, John Henry, St Qwrgf^B^rnhMtf, Qnai 

Canal, Camberwell, S.B. J 

Goff, Captain Robert, 81, St Thomas-street, FiHV 
Hodgson, B. H., 36, Onslow-square, SW. 
Langdon-Davies, Charies, 20, Tfareada«adle-ffeii^ 

and Widfbrd, Herts. 
Vaughan, General John Luther, C3.,30,roBife 

villas, Bayswater, W. 



JODBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apbil 4, 1873. 



367 



ciDept 



i ibr yetiB we harebeen •ndeayouzing 
to the waste of fuel, and to the 
rtejnTBotion. It has been proTod expe- 
nil tiie grwteet waste has been in our 
hfkem, where fire-sixths of the heat are 
taifsHed, and yetx>eople are greatly affected 
it^ ne results of uuregolated temperature, 
iigo I got oat an estimate that the washing- 
BMtiopoliB was upwards of six millions per 
vUch aore than a third was caused by the 
mt The disregarded waste in large fur- 
\\msk asonnoas from utter recklessness. When 
sanctioned some measures against 
■Bt out lettexB of inquiry to three hundred 
who used what were called smoke-con- 
to ascertain, in the way of example, 
gain had been ; but we found that there 
I one in three who had been at any pains 
•bit the results were. As a rule, I found 
«u only nrious effort at eoonomy where 
Iff eetl was high. Thus in OomwaU, where 
«f aathrMite ooal was 40s. per ton, as much 
[fot got of one pound of coal as from four 
the North, where the price of coal was 
iae ihfllings. I found too, that in Paris, 
veO*TeatiUted hospitals, the warming was 
mofe cheaply than in Manchester, where 
eotl was not one-third the price of the same 
As a rule, therefore, tnere is little im- 
ander the pressure of necessity. I 
ty been fsTonrable to a good seriously^ 
because it was a tax that people by 
aire. I hare for the same reason, and 
groondS) Tiewed with equanimity the 
pnoe of coal, for I believe it may be 
of important economical results. It will 
chince of a befitting attention to the 
a brought before you to-night, and may 
•ioption of improvements in the methods 
coal, and iu the condition of the pro- 
present condition should be regarded as 
to labourers in this special subject of 
of whom one of the foremost and most 
BOW dacms attrition which will be gladly 
k^night. 

read was — 

ECOXOMY OP FUEL FOR 
DOMESTIC PUEPOSES. 

dpt Douglas Oalton, C.B., F.S.8. 

I {Hkmat ol Works and Public Bolldlnga). 

[» 00 question of domestic economy so 

tie attention of the public at the pre- 

t« that of the consumption of coal, and 

•^M derived increased importance from. 

[■^ price to which coals have recently 

price of coals, however, whilst very 
to the householder in its immediate 
iaL^^? a very valuable effect on the well- 
[w&ation, if the result should jbe to induce 
I m the management of domestic fires, 
'«(»omy in tiie use of fuel. 
I QjQaiitity of ooal now annually con- 
«« tnited Kingdom is stated by Sir W. 
"^ to be about 1 10 millions of tons. The 
>ii estimate that the consumption of 
^roQghly divided into three parts, one- 
^Bed. in manufacturing processes, 
•team-engines, and one-third for 
On ihia assumption, therefore, 
1^ be assumed at nearly 37,000,000 
^**Y^* This means a consumption of 



about one and a fifth tons per head of the popul^" 
tion. I am, however, inclined to think that th® 
amount is over-stated, and that probably even on^ 
ton per head of the population of the United 
Kingdom would be somewhat in excess of the 
average. The increase in the price of coal, of 
from. 2ds. to 30s. a ton, which we have recently 
experienced, is thus equivalent, on this assumption, 
to a tax of from £1 ds. to £1 ips* a head. It is, 
however, manifest that while this is the average 
consumption of coal, a venr much larger propor- 
tionate consumption takes place in large households 
as compared with small ones. It may be assumed 
that three tons per head in the year is not much 
in excess of the quantity burned in what may be 
called the better class houses. 

Sir W. Armstrong has, I think, shown conclu- 
sively, in his address to the Mining Institute at 
Newcastle, that, whatever may be the fluctuations 
of the market, we must assume that a much higher 
price for coal will rule than has hitherto prevaded, 
and those to whom such increased price is a matter 
of serious import must meet the increased cost by 
diminished consumption. 

My endeavour will be to show that there may 
be obtained, from a much diminished consumption 
of coal in fireplaces used for domestic purposes, all 
the advantages which have hitherto resulted from 
the wasteful expenditure which has prevailed. 

I have no expectation of stating anything that 
is actually new, because the functions and the 
attributes of heat and combustion have long been 
thoroughly discussed in their application to 
industrial objects. I hope, however, to draw 
attention to important considerations which govern 
the application of heat, and which are very 
generally neglected in fireplaces, in kitchen ranges, 
and in most warming apparatus* 

I think, I may say without hesitation, that the 
quantity of fuel now absolutely wasted in our 
houses amounts to at least five-sixths of the coal 
consumed. That is to say, if the greatest care and 
the best method of applying the h6at were in all 
cases adopted, wo could effiect in heating and cook- 
ing all that we now effect, with one-sixth of the 
coal we now use ; and if, in the construction of 
our fireplaces and cooking apparatus, simple prin- 
ciples were recognised and orainaiy care was used, 
we might without difficulty save m>m two-thirds 
to half of the coal consumed. Therefore, instead 
of consuming 32,000,000 tons per annum for 
domestic purposes, we should not consume, if ooal 
were fully economised, above 6,000,000 tons, and, 
if even only moderate eoonomy were practised, 
from 12,000,000 to 16,000,000 tons only need b3 
used. Thus, this eoonomy in the household con- 
sumption of coal would enrich the nation to the 
extent of from £20,000,000 to £30,000,000 annually. 

In my remarks on this question I intend to con- 
fine myself rather to the enunciation of the prin- 
ciples which should govern the application of heat 
for domestic purposes, than to give descriptions, 
except in a general way, of special appliances. 

The inventors of apparatus for warming and 
cooking are so numerous, and the merits of a largo 
number of inventions which have come into com- 
mon use are of so negative a value, that it would 
not be fair to single out some individual instance 
for condemnation, and leave unnoticed other appa- 
ratus which possess equal defects and may be in 
equally extensive use. Mr. Edwards's very interest- 



368 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Atbil 4, 1873. 



ing and instructiYe treatise on domestic fireplaces 
clearly shows with what persistent perverseness 
the inventions which po8ses3 real merit have been 
fdmost invariably pasised by. This result, I fear, 
is due mainly to the fact that architects and 
builders have not been penetrated with sound 
principles on the warming of our dwellings, and 
nave dncoiu*aged the adoption of showy grates, 
based on false pripciples, instead of taking the 
trouble to make new designs of pretty grates based 
on sound principles of warming. 

The question of the consumption of coal for 
domestic purposes divides itself into two 
totnches : — 

1st. The quantity required for warmth. 
2nd. The quantity required for cooking. 

The former is required only for the winter 
months, the latter is a permanent quantity during 
theyear. 

The waste of coal in domestic fireplaces is, how- 
ever, no new question. It is fully 80 years since 
the subject was most fully treated of by Count 
Bumf ord, and afterwards by Mr. Sylvester. They 
showed conclusively what enormous savings in fuel 
for heating, cooking, and drying were possible. 
Ooimt Rumford's principles have never been gene- 
rally applied, because the price of coals has ruled 
so low tnat householders have not much cared for 
economy. We hear Count Rumford's axioms now 
and then quoted by rival manufacturers in support 
of their newly-devised grates or kitchen-ranges ; 
but in many cases the manufacturer, in the article 
he supplies, seems to be endeavouring to violate, 
rather than to follow, every axiom which Count 
Bumford ever laid down. 

I do not mean to say that improvements have 
not taken place since Coimt Buniford*s time, but 
the progress in the direction of economy has been 
very small, when we consider the great ingenuity 
displayed in devising new forms of apparatus. In 
respect of oui; fireplaces our chief talent has been 
expended on providing a means of warming the 



of warming, derived from the days wfaa 
ancestors inhabited caves. But these 
by placing the fire in the centre of the floor i 
cave, derived from it a larger portion of haiii 
we generally do, who place it against the 
the room, and carry off the great^parto! thi| 
up a flue separated from uie room. The' 
fireplaces consisted of a large square biii^ 
with a chimney carried up for the escape of i 
The large square fireplace was adverse to thej 
radiation into the room of the heat gene 
the large chimney removed from the room i 
considerable quantity of air, which had 
to be replaced by cold air fio wing into thii 
through all available apertures, and this 
strong draughts. 

Frcuiklin, Count Bumford, and SjlTetteri 
most prominent names of those who at lo 
period contributed improvements totiw 
of our houses. The main principle of fiifp 
struction advocated by Count Bumford, W 
ago, was that the heat radiated from 
directly into the room should be develoj 
utmost. Ho brought the back of the 
prominentlv forward as possible ; he doped t 
so as to reflect heat into the room ; he 
the use of fire-brick backs and sides instead i 
he reduced the size of the chimney o] 
to prevent the chimney carrying off the) 
quantity of warmed air it used to nmon ; 
time. Our manufacturers of fireplaces " 
tinned in the same groove. They have nndc 
in some cases, largely develops the use of] 
heat. There are fireplaces eminently luc 
radiators of heat of a circular or concave fc 
polished iron sides, the fire being placed 
fire-brick back forming the apex of the 
So long as the concave surfaces are bright, 
thrown out by them when a clear flame is 
is very great, but the gases from the " 
directiy off into the chimney while they aw I 
a very high temperature. The heat of tht I 
at that part wiU often be between 1,200' and] 

outside air, and of poSuting it by the smoke and Fahrenheit, and a very large proporti(m 



soot we project into it. 

The methods which have been adopted for 
warming houses fall under the several heads of — 

1. Open fireplaces. 

2. Close stoves (the German plan). 

3. The Boman hypocaust, or floors warmed by 
direct action of fire. 

4. Hotwatcr pipes, without ventilation. 

5. Hot air warmed by a cockle or by hot- 
water pipes. 

The class of apparatus to be adobted in any 
country will vary with the climate. In England 
the climate is of so very changeable a natiu*e, that 
the amount of heat required for comfort in a house 
varies from day to day. There are many days in 
the middle of winter when it is quite possible to 
sit in an imwarmed room ; or sometimes a warm 
morning is followed by a cold afternoon, when the 
sudden application of heat is desirable. It is pro- 
bably for this reason that in England the open 
fireplace has, as a rule, held its own against all the 
proposals for warming houses by means of one 
central fire. 

The open fireplace in ordinary use warms only 
by means of the direct radiation of the flame into 



heat, to the extent of at least nine-tcnthf 
generated by the combustion of the fuel i« 
directly up the chimney. 

One pound of coal is capable, if all the 
combustion is utilised, of raising ti« 
perature of a room, 20 feet square and 
high, to 10 degrees above the temperature 
outer air. If 5ie room were not ventaUtedl 
and the walls were composed of non 
materials, the consumption of fuel to 
this temperature would be very small 
proportion as the air of the room was 
would the consumption of fuel na' 
maintain that temperature increase. If 
of air contained in the room were chan; 
hour, one pound of coal additional vi 
required per hour to heat the inflowing 
that to maintain the temperature at 10 
above that of the outer air during 12 hour" 
require 12 lbs. of coal. c^^^M 

The principle of the ordinary open firW 
that the coal shall be placed in a grate, l)T J 
air is admitted from the bottom and 8idciJ| 
in the combustion of the coal ; and an orti 
fireplace, for a room of 20 feet square vadU 
I high, will contain from about 15 to »)J» 



the air of the room. It is the most primitive mode time, and, if the fire be k^t up for 12 hovi$* 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, April 4, 1873. 



369 



i^ MMBBiption will be about 100 lbs., or 
mfty be assumed at about 8 lbs. 

i|Ond of coal may be assumed to require, 
fmfect combustion, 150 cubic feet of 
jnic air; 8 lbs. would require 1,200 cubic 
'bt U a very low computation of the 
i.e gases in an ordinary cbimney-flue, 
vtdcli would pass up the chimney at a rate 
4 to 6 feet per second, or from 14,000 
cubic feet per hour, with the chimneys 
use, and I have often found a velocity 
1 10 to 12 feet per second giving an outiiow 
IIrhd 35,000 to 40,000 cubic feet per hour, 
i peonies into the room cold, and when it is 
to be warmed it is drawn away up the 
f, sod its place filled by fresh cold air. A 
feet square and 12 feet high contains 
b feet of space. In such a room, with a 
Ifc^ tile air would be removed 4 or 5 times 
rinth a moderate draught in the chimney, 
^ times with a blazing fire ; the air so 
would be replaced by cold air. The 
n of the room is thus being cooled down 
J)f the continued influx of cold air to 
place of the warmer air drawn up the 
The very means adopted to heat the 
draughts, because the stronger the 
or rather the brighter the flame 
fireplaces, the stronger must be the 
' the fire and the abstraction of heat, 
way to prevent draughts is to adopt 
ir providing fresh warmed air to supply 
of that removed, 
natural way of providing warmed air 
linthe excess of heat which passes up the 
beyond what is required for creating an 
wi^t, and to use this heat to warm 
; and the warmed air should be admitted 
loom in such places as will enable it to 
easily into the currents prevailing in the 

considerations led to the construction of 

fireplace, which has been so ex- 

used in barracks. This fireplace will 

totm at a given temperature with one- 

p the quantity of fuel usually required in 

fireplaces, and with less than one- 

qointity required in the very best* con- 

xsdiating fireplaces. 

fm vi^tUating fireplace, if properly con- 
It ii the simplest and most effectual means 
ig and ventilating a single room, because 
'•11 spare heat from the chimney beyond 
to create a draught ; and, whilst 
»d air into the upper part of the room 
_ dblo current, the action of the fire 
'from the lower part of the room, and thus 
'fara circulation of the warmed air towards 
'ol the room. 
JJ^flating fireplaces invented by me, and 
w by my name, but which have never 
■J>ject of a patent, were a consequence 
gj^ made by the late Lord Herbert and 
jsttgalo to improve the health of the army. 
™»of thesoldiers, when this question was 
^vm foond to be larger than that of many 
populations. Soldiers are, however, 
Lpictedout as the healthiest members 
i; they should, therefore, have had an 
low death-rate in peace time. A 



main element in the improvement of their health 
lay in improving the ventilation of their barrack- 
rooms. But soldiers, whenever they became aware 
of the existence of anv fresh air currents, insisted on 
closing the inlets. It was also made a sine qua non 
by the government that the barrack-rooms should 
be warmed by open fireplaces, and, moreover, the 
Government required that the increased amount of 
ventilation declared to be ne9essary on medical 
grounds should be provided without any increase 
in the amount of luel allowed. By the adoption 
of these fireplaces, and by the introduction of simple 
and improved arrangements for cooking the soldiers' 
food, the Government were enabled to effect a saving 
on the fuel supplied, instead of being obliged to incur 
a lar^e increased expenditure on account of the 
additional ventilation introduced into the barrack- 
rooms. The manufacturer of these fireplaces 
informs me that he has supplied between 9,000 and 
10,000 to the military departments up to this time. 

The principle of warming by means of an open 
fireplace, or by means of a German stove or a Gill 
stove, is applicable to single rooms, that is to say, 
each room must have its own appliance, and each 
room may be self-contained as far as regards its 
heating and ventilation. 

The close stoves employed in Germany use less 
fuel in warming the room than any open fireplace, 
but they are economical because the heat generated 
is not removed by the frequent renewal of the air. 
This element of their efficiency in warming, how- 
ever, makes them most imhealthy. 

The most recent improvements in the use of the 
German stove for warming have been introduced 
by Dr. B6hm, in the Rudolf Hospital at Vienna. 
He there warms fresh air by means of parages 
constructed in the fire-clay stoves, placed in the 
ward, and the fresh warmed airpasses into the 
ward from the top of the stove. He provides flues 
of a large size, and proportioned to the size of the 
ward, from the level of the ward floor to above the 
roof, and the difference of temperature between 
the air in the ward and the outer air causes a 
sufficient current in these flues to ventilate 
adequately the ward. By this means the fresh 
warmed air, instead of passing off to the upper 
part of the ward and then away by flues there, is 
made to circulate towards the floor of the ward, 
thus bringing into action the principle by which 
the open fireplace is useful in ventilation. But 
this arrangement destroys one element of economy 
in the German stove, because the heat generated, 
instead of being left to pass slowly off into an un- 
ventilated room, is removed rapidly by the fresh 
air passed into the wMxi, and has, therefore, to be 
renewed at intervals, instead of, according to 
usual custom, the stove being left shut up for 
24 hours to give off its heat 5owly. The larger 
the supply of warmed air, the larger must be the 
consumption of fuel ; and, if the heat is to be sup- 
plied economically, it must be through a good 
conducting medium; but the material of the 
German stove is a bad conductor of heat. 

The old Eoman system of warming by means of 
a fire under the floor produced a most agreeable and 
equable teniperature, but it did not assist the venti- 
lation, and it was not economical, in that the floor, 
being of tiles, was of a bad conducting material, 
and much of the heat was absorbed in the CTOund or 
surrounding flues. According to Pliny, the smoke 
was carried to the wood-house to be used in drying 






370 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apbil 4, 1873. 



the wood for burning. I recently made an experi- 
ment to compare the effSect of* warming by means 
of a heated floor with the heating effect of a ven- 
tilating fireplace ; the experiment lasted, with each 
mode of warming, for two days. It showed that, 
in the case of the warmed ^ floors, the room was 
maintained at a temperature of about 18 degrees 
above the temperature of the outer air -^th an ex- 
penditure of 56 lbs. of coal and 112 lbs. of coke, 
whilst with the ventilating fireplace the expendi- 
ture was only 75 lbs. of coal; the cost being 3s. 4d. 
for the warmed floor as compared with Is. 4d. for 
the ventilating fireplace. 

A more complete plan of warming a building is 
by means of a fire from which the heat is conveyed, 
either by hot- water pipes or hot air, to the various 
parts of the building. 

Warming by means of air conveyed by flues 
to various parts of the building, will answer, as 
a rule, in ordinary existing houses, best in con- 
nection with open fireplaces, which draw in the 
warmed air to the various rooms, because there 
must be some means of foroine or drawing the 
warmed air into the house, ana it would not be 
convenient to keep a steam engine in an ordinary 
house to pump in the warmed air. These open 
fireplaces would then, however, be wasting the 
spare heat which each fireplace sends up its own 
(diimney; but, on the other hand, very much 
smaller fires would be needed to keep the rooms 
warm, than when the rooms are not supplied with 
fresh warmed air. Theoretically, however, it can 
be shown that if we are prepared to give up open 
fireplaces, and arrange our houses on the plan of 
having flues which would draw off the air from 
near ^e floors of our rooms, and which would also 
warm fresh air, heated from a central fire, to be 
constantly admitted near the ceilings, and if the 
climate were such as to make us desire to 
have the system in continuous operation, 
such a system would probably be by far more 
economical of fuel than open fireplaces, because the 
fuel used could then be made to do its full duty. The 
variations of our climate, and the low price of fuel 
which have hitherto prevailed, have prevented such 
systematic arrangements from being adopted in this 
country. 

^ The plan of carrying the heat from the fire to the 
air to be warmed by means of hot- water pipes 
affords also a very economical method of warm- 
ing air, because the best constructed hot-water 
apparatus will enable the full heating value to be 
got out of the fuel. Fuel may be consumed to far 
greater advantage in a close fumsMJo than in any 
open grate, because the admission of air for the 
combustion of the fuel can be regulated to any 
required extent. The heating surface of the boiler 
may also be so arranged as to absorb a very larg^ 
proportion of the heat generated by the fire. 

But in deciding on tne amount of heat in hot- 
water pipes which is most favourable to economy, 
the following considerations occur: — At least twice 
the quantity of air which is strictly necessary by 
theory passes through the fire in the best constructed 
furnaces. In an ordinary grate this consumption is 
enormously increased. Each part of oxygen 
supplied by the air and necessary for combustion 
is accompanied by four parts of nitrogen, which is 
of no value for combustion. Consequently, if twice 
as much oxygen passes through the fire as is strictly 
necessary, we have one part which combines with 



carbon and produces combustion, and ninA 
which, being inert, must act, in ths fint pfa 
lower the temperature of the fire, and, 
carry a larger amount of unutilised heat 
chimney. Moreover, when water is h 
ficiently to generate steam, each particle of 
converted into steam absorbs or in&k«8 
960** Fah. of temperature. In experi 
the evaporation of water, the temper&tnre 
gases passing off in the chimney was a 
vary from 430** to 530**, diminishing to 415* 
top of a fine 35 feet high, with the dampo* 
and about 380^ at the bottom of the flue vi 
dampers closed. With a boiler of whicbtia 
.perature of the water is maintained at !iO(f 
evaporation, the temperature -of the flue 
exceed from 230« to 240". 

It is clear from these considerations, 
to ensure the maximum effect from the fad 
ing surface of the pipes should be suffid 
warm all the air required without its bcoig 
sary to raise the temperature of the water 
boiler to any great extent, and the 
between the boiler surface and the pipe 
that is to say, between the surface which 
heat, and the surface which gives out heat, 
be such as to render it unnecessary for the 
be forced, because the lower the tem^ 
which the gases from the fire pa» off 
chimney, the greater will be the economy. 

In order to show the waste which iwiltt 
forcing the boiler, i.e., from passing the 
the flue at a high as compared with a low 
ture, I will give an instance of one experin 

groportion of heating sur^e in <he bwler 
eating surface of the pipes is assnmed hf 
manufacturers as 1 to 100, or, when great 
required, 1 to 40. An experiment made on4. 
of pipe, heating certain greenhouses by a 
shaped boiler with 40 square feet of heating 
showed that a certain temperature was kept 
8 hours with 8 bushels of coal; but when, 
addition of another boiler, the heating 
the boiler was increased to 80 square 
temperature could be maintained for 
period with 4 bushels of coaL The outff 
perature was the same on the two days. 

On these grounds it is not so oconomwil 
as the consumption of fuel is concerned, 
steam instead of water, either water hwt 
high temperature under pressure, or to heaJ 
warming purposes, because the gases frvm 
employed to produce the higher degrc* 
will pass off at a high temperature, and 
they contain be wasted. On the other 
capital outlay required whore highly-he 
are used, is smaller than with hot-wat*» 
because a smaller heating surface, and 
fore smaller pipes, will suffice when the tenJl' 
is high; and, moreover, avery small pipe v^ill" 
steam to any required place, whereas with 
water, at a relatively low temperature, mwhli 
pipes are required. It follows that whtft I 
price of fuel makes it necessary to redn» 
permanent annual expenditure, the oriifiD*! c«J 
outlay must be increased. There is a further* 
sideration in regard to economy with h(H-« 
pipes, steam-heating, and all applianoes ior^ 
ing buildings from a central fire, viz,. *^ **. 
heat has to be conveyed for long distances W 
its useful application comes into force, veij sa 



the 



-heat*^! 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETT OP AETS, April 4^ 1878. 



871 



lliila^aMl ooDaequenUy faelis wmfted. On 
i «iir kud, ^minst the sstuir whioh would 
jlAiaBA more immediate apimcation of the 
~ 1i ibe place to be waxmed, there is to be 
die dimudihed ezpeoBe of attendanoe 
upon the use of one fire instead of 
: freB, each with its attendance and supply 
Tboe remains one sonroe ef economy to 
to dose grates used ios* heating water, 
hu not yet been adopted. I mean the 
of tome of the heat which is passing 
tehimney to warm the air whioh feeds the 
IhMretical considerations show that an ad- 
«f from six to nine per cent. mi|;ht be 
I from this source, and the expenments 
ilbcre made bear out this result, 
liter we haTe designed ihe most effective 
for economising the fuel whioh 
oar dwellings, if that object is to be fully 
VB must arrange to retam the heat in our 
The architect should devote to these eon- 
the same care which he now is fre- 
/tttiified with bestowing upon the beauty 
Ugn for a building. The arrangements 
i vUn diould be adapted to t^e retention of 
in portions of houses exposed to the air 
Ibe formed of materials wluoh are foimd to 
idowest oonduotors of heat. Whatever may 
the Ue?^es of the manufacturers of fire- 
ffi- kitchen-ranges, the natiim has latterly 
disregarded the means of retaining 
the house. The unifonn model house of 
builder is construoted with thin 
tbin glass windows, ill-fitting casements, 
[ft roof of slates, with nothing under them, 
hilf-timbered house was warm, because 
aa air spaoe between the inner and outer 
tike brick-built, stone-faced house is warm 
it has, so to say, a double wall. In modem 
I it his long been shown that, without much 
* expense, the use of walls built hollow 
the rooms effectually warm and dry, and 
mode of building is the exception rather 
' rule, possibly because it gives the architect 
I hmldcr a little additional trouble. A slated 
if ill>canstructed, is a material agent in 
of the escape of heat, because there' is 
an inlet for air where the slates over- 
The old thatched roof, although most 
in cases of fire, was a great preserver of 



I* It is not, however, my object here to give a 
treatise on building. The oondnsion wmch I 
would draw from these various oonsiderations is, 
that if we desire to eoonomise to the utmost the 
daily expenditure of fuel, we must increase our 
outlav of capital. So long as coal was cheap, it 
may have b<^ better worth the while of the in 
dividual consumer to employ coal wastefully 
rather than spend money upon the arrangements 
for economising heat. Chi the other haaid, when 
ooal is dear, the daily expense from the waste of 
fuel will induoe a capital outlay to secure economy 
of heat. 

The question of saving fuel for cooking purposes 
is even more important than economy in warming ; 
because oooking is an operation required every day 
in the year, and the waste of fuel in cookmg is 
even more considerable than in wamung. 

An ordinary cooking-range in houses which, for 
convenience, may be desagnated middle-class 
houses, is derived from the time when the saane 
fire was used for oooking and for warming. It is 
interesting to consider Count Bumf ord*s remarks 
on this question. He largely developed the use of 
steam for oooking in large establishments, but in con- 
sidering private Kitchens he showed that 9-lOths of 
the heat produced in oooking operations was wasted, 
and only one-tenth utilised in cooking, by the use 
of open fir^laces. He laid down the following 
principles on fireplace construction : — 

1. Each boiler, kettle and stewpon should have 
its separate firCT>laee. 

2. Each fireplace should have its grate on which 
the fuel must be placed, and its separate ash-pt, 
which must be closed by a door well fitted in its 
frame and furnished with a register tor regulating 
thQ quantity of air admitted into the fireplace 
through the grate. It should also have its sepa- 
rate canal i<^ carrying off the smoke into the 
chimney, whioh canal should be furnished with a 
damper or register. By means of this damper and 



of the ash-pit door, the rapidity of comoustion 
and generation of heat is regulated, and on the 
proper use of the two registers the economy of 
fuel will much depend. 

3. In fireplaces for all boilers whioh are too 
heavy to be easily lifted with the hand, an op^i- 
ing just above the level of the erate should be 
made for introducing fuel to the nre, which open- 
ing must be closed by a close-fitting stopper or 
la widl-built modem houses the slates are I door. In fireplaces constructed for small stowpans 



felt which is laid on dose boarding, and 
lent keeps the house warm in winter 
in summer. As regards the windows, 
dcB high as a non-conduotor of heat, 
select of using thick glass, instead of the 
gkss so olteai seen, is very largely to 
the heat. Evidence of the cooling 
'00 the sir of a room of a window of thin 
\h tSorded bv the cold drau^t which any- 
^ Mvwwhen sittingonacold cwynearaclosed 
^thing^aas. Proposals have been often 
lis ^ise a window with double panes, and 
A nch a plan is a good means of retaining 
'^ fte room, but 1^ inside of the glass 
Hft the panes will in time become dirty, and 
[^ «n only be deansed by removing one of 
Amore convenient, but more expensive, 
>jb adopt tiie system, which prevals uni- 
' h the northern parts of Europe, of a 



tJbis opening may be omitted, and the fuel be 
introduced through the opening into which the 
stewpan is fitted, by removing the stewx>an ocoa- 
sionally for the purpose. 

4. All portable stewpans should be cirsular, and 
suspended in their fireplace from the cdroular rim. 
The best form for large fixed boilers is an oblong 
square, broad and sludlow rather than narrow, and 
deep, and it should be of thin metal. 

5, All boilers and stewpans should be fitted with 
covers to render them well adapted for confining 
the heat. The best arrangement is to make the 
covers of thin sheets of tanned iron, and double, 
that is, with an air space between the outer ^md 
inner cover. 

We have, during the last twenty years, in- 
troduced, as a rule, dose ranges. They are certainly 
deaner and more convenient for cooking, and, if 
great care is exercised in the use of the dampers, 
they will be found move economical than openfiies. 



872 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Aprie 4, 187S. 



But, as a rule, they are based on the principle of 
making one fire perform a Tariety of operations. 
Independently of the question of a combined fire, 
as compared with the separate fires advocated by 
Coimt Kumford, a consideration of the form of 
modem kitchen-ranges will show that most of the 
principles laid down by him have been entirely 
neglected. The doors of the fireplace and ashpit 
seldom fit close ; the boilers are rather deep and 
narrow than broad and shallow; the use of the 
hot plate prevents the stewpans from being sus- 
pended from the rims for the fire to play roimd 
them ; the use of double covers for saucepans and 
boilers is rather a rarity than a usual arrangement. 

To realise the question of economy of fuel, it is 
necessary to consider, in the first place, what a 
g^ven quantity of fuel is capable of doing. As 
regards hot water, if water is &ept at a temperature 
of 200*", or from that to 210*, the gases from the 
fire can , after communicating the heat to the boiler, 
pass off into the chimney at a temperature of little 
beyond that point ; but if the water be allowed to 
boil, in the first place a large amount of latent 
heat is absorbed by the steam, which is lost if the 
steam passes off into the air or the chimney, and in the 
secondplace it will be found that the gases, after they 
pass off from the boiler, will have a temperature of as 
much as 300'', 400^, and even 600*". Unless, therefore, 
water is required te be actually boiling for use, if 
the water is permitted te boil, a great quantity of 
heat is wasted up the chimney For household 
purposes it is never necessary that the water in the 
boiler should exceed 200^. Tea, to be good, should 
be made (as clearly shown by Mr. Francis Gkdten 
inhis ** Art of Traviel **) with waterof a temperature 
of from 180^ te 200*. Very few culinary operations 
require the water really to boil, and when boiling 
water is wanted, it is required i^ a* saucepan 
standing on i^e fire. All operations of 
cleaning, &o. (except washing clothes), require 
water at a veiy much lower temperature than 
212*. If, however, water at a higher tempera- 
ture is wanted, it can be supplied up te about 
230" without the generation of steam, by heating 
it under pressure ; this can be attained by having 
a close boiler fed from a cistern placed at the tep 
of the house. For the preparation of preserves and 
some other cooking operations, such a system is 
is most convenient. 

One pound of coal should raise from fifty to 
sixty gallons of water from 45** to 212®, and, 
when raised, very little fuel is required to main- 
tain it, in a properly constructed boiler, at 
that temperature. The tetal amount of water, 
at such a temperature, used daily in an ordinary 
middle-class house, does not exceed 30 or 40 
gallons, and, therefore, if the boiler were made 
so as to absorb as much heat as possible, the 
hot-water used in an ordinary middle-class house, 
with a family of 10 or 12 persons, ought not, with 
thorough economy, te consimie more than one-sixth 
of a ten of coals in the year. Count Rumf ord shows 
in his treatise that 25 lbs. of bread ought to be 
baked with one pound of coal, and that 100 lbs. of 
meat should be cooked with 2ilbs. of coal. If, 
therefore, we fully utilised our fuel, it is dear that 
in the preparation of our food and hot- water for 
domestic purposes, }lb. of coal per head of the 
po|)ulation ought te be a sufficient daily allowance, 
which would be equivalent to one-twelfth of a ton 
per annum, and in large households even less than 



that quantity ought to suffice. I do not i 
should ever attain to this TniTiitymtn of 
but it is well to consider what the standari I 
that we may not rest satisfied till it baa been.] 
more nearly approached than hitherto. 

Economy has, as I before observed, 
sought in combined apx>aratas. Where 
numbers of persons have to be cooked fo 
where, consequently, a carefully 
apparatus is always worked to its foil 
results which have been obtained show 
moderate consumption of fuel ; but tbi 
apparatus, when used for smaller 
persons, ^ves results not favourable to 

The boilers in use in barracks, when I 
up the question, required from 16 ozs. to 2lt 
coal per head to supply water for breakfMfci 
and washing up, ana to make soup fordinssi 
60 men. The boilers I introduced woiiU[ 
the same duty with from 3 to 4 ozs. of ooill 
person cooked for, provided the number i 
to 50 or 60 persons. The ovens for 
which I introduced into barracks, would : 
bake with 1 oz. of coal for each person 
when cooking for the full number for 
oven was designed, and for such numben 
400 persons ; smaller ovens would requiie 
per head when cooking for 50 men. Of 
produce these effects great care was reqvu 

Messrs. Benham introduced cooking 
which, when cooking for the full niunberi 
soldiers, would perform the total daily < 
supply of hot water in barracks, with from i 
three ounces of coal per person cooked for. 

Captain Warren constructed an apparttiu i 
bake, steam^ roast, and fry, and provide hotj 
which, when cooking for about 100 
quired somewhere about 2{ oss. for eacb 
cooked for, but when cookixig for 40 men 
6oz. per head, and when cooking for 16 
average of several days amounted te 9 ocs. ooj 
per man cooked for, but on one or tvo 
days the consumption did not exceed &O0. f^ 
person cooked for. 

These apparatus supplied to the ■«& 
cooking and hot water necessary. *^ 
show what degree of economy has been 
ordinary practice with soldiers, who nit 
verbial for care, and what, therefore, 
the standard of economy to which we hsTei 
to expect to attain. Ko doubt piivite 
containing 16 persons might require 
water or more cooking, but according 
facts, as to ascertained consumption of 
expenditure of fuel in the kitdien for a 
consisting of 16 persons might easily be 1 
H or 2 tons a year, and in all these 
further elements of economy remain to 
veloped. 

The conclusions, however, to which I hfti 
led in my consideration of this quesdon 
with these apparatus, and, indeed, with aU 
ranges in use, the waste of heat lies in ihe 
of functions the fire has to perform. It mi 
water, it mustheat the oven, it must stew, 
or toast, aAd sometimes roast at the open 
each of i^ese processes requires a diff3fent< 
of heat. Hot water requires a tempenton' | 
to 210 degrees, ft roasting oven aboot 450 d(^ 
a baking oven probably 360 degrees; 
performed on a clear flame, the tcmj 



JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Apbil 4, 1873. 



373 



llfc k pMdj 1,300 degrees. Kow, when the 
lijl a^ftcuiit condition to perform one of 
it is also in an efficient condition 
ikite others, and although, by means of 
a msT be somewhat checked m the per- 
of its fun functions in certain directions, 
BO doubt that an enormous amount of 
bwisfced through the ^^noy of thoseparts 
not wanted to be in operation. Where 
is not wanted it is affording a means for 
to «9impe rapidly, especially if ventilated 
oren. The boiler is supplied with 
its requirements, and generally 
■ large quantity of spare heat, which 
in the shape of steam. I assume that 
doses the dampers in order, as far as 
to limit the action of the fire when 
is not going on, but in practice this is 
«nsure. With these combined apparatus, 
coasumed will be in proportion to the 
«I>aiakions which the fire is arranged to 
sod not in proportion to the limited 
when only one or other of the 
tre wanted. When, for instance, the 
wanted to heat water, a great waste of 
be going on from the heat passing off 
oTCTi, hot-plate, and front of the fire. 
ROion the combined apparatus can nerer 
omical in fuel as separate apparatus ; 
i»vever, apparatus of this class, if not 
"j woiked, waste fuel, they, to some 
9Kre trouble to the cook. 

tfa««dy mentioned several points of detail 

M could be saved in our Htchen-ranges, 

irrnt attention to the close fitting of the 

' fire grate doors, the use of double covers 

and boilers, the use of sand on the 

to prevent the escape of so much heat 

part ; and beyond these an important 

MNsuring economy is the separation of 

~My processes which require different 

of boat. The three main ports of the 

CAjoking apparatus are the oven, for bak- 

roasting, and the boiler, and the hotplate. 

is to be of the form most effectual in 

fori, the flame and gases from the fire 

nnder and round every part of it ; the 

be kept at something under 212**, 

titt» gases, after leaving the boiler, may not 

to much above that temperature, and, 

u that is a higher temperature than is 

ior the purpose of producing a sufficient 

an ordinary chimney, the heat in these 

^ he still further utilised. In the first 

■ikould be used to warm the water which 

to replace what is drawn off from 

and, in the second place, an economy can 

\ hy employing the gases, which pe^s off 

at a temperature above what is re- 

an efficient draught, to warm the 

to the fire for purposes of combustion. 

which I have made on the supply 

«tt to feed the fire, have, unfortunately, 

Wked out sufficiently to enable me to 

a a (dear form with exact results ; but 

«f from six to pine per cent, might be 

^th» source* 

tile oven. The baker's oven, of 

the fire is made inside the oven 

heat retained in and reflected back 

^.^ flood bottom, iaa very eoono- 



'Quumcyi 
rtnaiiugi 



mical instrument when in continual use. With 
iron ovens attached to a kitchen range, the case is 
different. An oven which roasts requires a 
temperature of from 400 deg. to 450 deg. at 
least. Therefore, to maintain this temperature 
the gases must pass off into the ^ue at a tem> 
perature even higher ; when the oven is a 
roaster a considerable volume of air is being con- 
tinually paased through it to carry off the steam 
from the meat. This air, if admitted cold, as is the 
case with many ranges, acts so as to cool down the 
interior, and therefore additional fuel has to be con- 
sumed to counteract this cooling down process. 
Now, however good maybe the conducting power of 
the material used for ovens or boilers, a coating of 
soot diminishes the conducting power very rapidly, 
and consequently the temperature of the flue convey- 
ing heat to the oven will always exceed that of the in- 
side of the oven. It is, therefore, of great importance 
to remove any causes which tend to lower the inside 
temperature. Hence it is desirable to utilise some 
of the heat which paases off, at above 450^, into 
the flue, for the purpose of raising the temperature 
of the air to be admitted into the oven. As a 
general rule, however, and except in some apparatus, 
under present arrangements all this heat is wasted, 
and it certainly cannot be utilised properly so long 
as one fire is retained to perform so many separate 
operations. 

The hot plate is the third important part of the 
modem dose cooking range. Coimt Bumford pro- 
posed that the top of .a hot plate should be covered 
with sand, and the sand cleared away only under 
the saucepans. In its present shape the hot plate 
wastes an enormous amount of heat. It is wastef i4t 
because it radiates the heat largely ; because the 
application of heat to the saucepans is only through 
the bottom of the saucepan, and the bottom of ^le 
saucepan is not always in immediate contact 
with the flame, but is frequently allowed to receive 
the heat through the medium of the cast-iron hot 
plate, which is a very moderate conductor of heat. 
Just consider what the difference of effect is. 
The heat of the fiame, if directly acting on the 
bottom of the saucepan, would be 1,200 degs. Fahr., 
but unless the hot plate is red-hot, x>robably not 
above 450 dees, will pass through, but the 
heat in the flue which heats the hot plate 
will be at 1,200 degs., and the spare heat 
from the fiame will be wasted up the chimney. The 
hot plate should be dispensed with, if economy 
is to be made paramount, and charcoal burners 
substituted for it. Where gas is availablo, the 
hot plate can bo dispensed with without extra 
trouble to the cook. The gas-burners should bo 
properly protected in sunken holes, with side of fire- 
clay, and the saucepans should be dropped into the 
holes, so that the full effect of the heat shall be 
concentrated on them and round their sides, and 
the gas should be only kept lighted so long as the 
operation to be performed is going on. It may be 
assumed that lib. of coal is equivalent to from 28 
to 30 cubic feet of gas, hence as permanent fuel gas 
would not be economical ; but the simplicity of its 
application makes it a very convenient fuel in cook- 
ing, and economy is obtained from its use, because 
the full effect of the combustion can be utilised as 
soon as the gas is lighted, the fiame can be regulated 
to any required extent, and the gas bo extinguished 
as soon as the required operation is performed. 

I have endeavoured to enumerate briefly the 



374 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 4, 1873 



economiccil conditions which should regulate the 
constuuption of fuel for domestic purposes. By 
economy it is meant that, whilst all necessary 
operations of warming and cooking continue to 
be performed, the fSel employed ^ould be 
utilised to the utmost. In the kitchen the 
daily consumption of fuel, in small establishments, 
should not exceed half-a-pound of coal for each 
person cooked for, and in large establishments 
the proportion should be smaller. In the con- 
sumption of fuel for warming, so many conditions 
have to be considered that no stcuidurd can be laid 
down beyond the broad fact already stated — ^that 
one-sixth of the coal we usually now use would 
suffice for all our requirements if it were properly 
utilised. I do not, however, anticipate that much 
progress wilLbe made in economy, unless the price 
of coals should remain at a figure which will in- 
duce the householder to make himself thoroughly 
acquainted with the principles on which the 
apparatus for warming and cooking should be 
constructed and worked ; for there is no appara- 
tus which can be invented which will not depend 
to a considerable extent on the manner in which it 
is attended to. 

The principal conditions which I have enume- 
rated have long been known. There is an old 
saying in South Staffordshire, that ** he who lives 
longest must carry coal furthest,'* and acting on 
this we have year after year simply wasted milEons 
of tons of coal in our domestic fireplaces, be- 
cause the coal was provided at a smidl cost ; and 
we have had no thought for posterity. 

George Stephenson once said, very happily, that 
coal represented the accimiulated rays of the sun 
laid up in store in bye-gone days. When this 
store is gone, the world will have lost tiie most 
convenient and economical means of generating 
heat. It is therefore a duty, which every man 
owes to posterity, to do his utmost to husband 
this great store. 

I have endeavoured to do my part by explaining 
the conditions which should govern iiie arrange- 
ments devised for regulating the consumption of 
fuel for domestic puiposes. It remains for the 
public to insist on having these principles applied 
to the various apparatus which they adopt. 



DISCUSSION. 

Hr. F. J. Braxnwell must confess he was sorprised at 
the figures which Captain Galton had brought forward 
as representing the total quantity of coal consumed in 
England for domestic purposes. When last autumn 
he (Mr. Bramwell) was collecting information on this 
subject for the purpose of his address to Section G of 
the British Association, he had found the proportion 
stated as only one-fifth of the total quantity retained 
for use in the United Kingdom, or about one-fifth of 
95 millions of tons, or 18^ to 19 millions of tons, and 
not the 37 millions of tons suggested by Captain Galton. 
In considering the question of the use of coal for 
domestic warming (not for cooking) three points had to 
be borne in mind — the giving of warmth, fiie obtaining 
healthy ventilation, and the doing those two Uiings 
comfortably. In a room heated by a German stove the 
temperature was high, the room well warmed, and 
very little coal was burnt, but ventilation was quite 
negelcted, and any Englishman in such a room would 
probably have a headache, and would suffer other dis- 
comforts. Therefore, however economical German 
stoves might be, he thought it was undesirable that we 



should resort to them. What was iruted 

apparatus by which ventilation as veil u winnfc 

be obtained. But directly you admit, as ym 

admit, that constant renew^ of the air in t 

necessary, vou might increase the consomptioa ill 

to a very large extent in proportion to the 

air you considered necessary for health aii 

Captain Galton had told them of the mt 

arising from an increased ventilation, jot 

when the house of the Institute of Ciri] 

built, it was determined to give 1,000 cnbic 

per hour for every person. The room vu 

for 400 people, and thus provision had to be 

400,000 feet of air per hour, and the only 

which this large quantity of air could be g(i ii, 

the inconvenience of local draughts, vai bjr ^ 

the walls double and by making namecoai Jril^ 

such an aggregate area as to admit of the air 

in without appreciable current But is 

within a room for ventilation, there vai 

danger, on the other hand, of persons gettiag 

from. In order to get *in air so as to bar il 

inconvenience, the current must be reduced to 

more than a mile an hour, or 1( feet per 

to do that an enormous area of inlet was 

it was nearly impossible to provide. C^] 

in his paper, had touched upon various moi 

ing warmth in dwellings. He had spoken of 

hot air flues, of steam pipes, of hot vater pi 

closed stoves of the Continent, and of open 

on a system of which Captain Galton was the 

Even if by careful construction proper venf" 

obtained ^ong with the closed stoves, be 

no Englishman would ever put up with 

was not an open fireplace. Now there was 

as Captain Galton had shown, why the open 

should be the wasteful thing it was. Captaii 

had shown how the outgoing heated air cooM' 

use of, instead of being wasted up the cbinm^i 

thought that Captain Galton by luiviog taken 

ful open fire out of the cat^ory of 

implements, had become a public 

Bramwell then proceeded to describe the 

which Captain Galton, attained the object in 

Captain Gallon's invention, not onlyvai 

mised, but full ventilation was obtained, and 

was a full supply of air to the fire, and ^ 

nuisance of a smoky chimney was got rid a 

was one position taken up by Captain OaKoa 

could not follow. He understood Captain ' 

say in effect that warming by steam 

of necessity be more wasteful of fuel than 

hot water, because when water was heated to 

point only, the products of combustion migi 

only a few degrees above the tempcratore of 

itself, but that when the heating wai cani«i 

a few degrees higher, viz., to juat abore tta 

point, so ttiat steam was produced, the tern 

escaping products of combustion roust at <atce 

by some 200 or 300 degrees. He (Mr. Brao 

not concur in these statements ; he did not sea 

son why the escaping gases should not be as 

temperature of the water within the boiler i 

was being generated from it, as when ateaa 

being generated. Experiments made with 

at the Hoyal Agricultural Show at Cardiff, 

these views, and moreover it had been p<w 

given amount of heat-conducting surfeoe conM 

from two to three times the number of m^ 

when ebullition commenced, ^atit could tanrf 

ebullition had been set up, and thus in odt 

boiler the effective ratio between the absoriw«J 

and the amount of heat-jnodudng power of M» 

was increased when steam was raiaed, and thus tw 

of setting up ebullition ought to be a redsctioA » 

perature. 

. Vr.Xdwirds quite agreed with He Bnsnn^' 



\ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 4, 1873. 



375 



H- ^ 



open fireplaces would never be given up, 
Oalton wms doing great service in 
ottSftioii, because the public mind would see 
wnng, and would, no doubt, take the sub- 
^Ib*. Edwards') firm had manufactured a 
apparatus for some years, which he was 
My was decidedly the most economical and 
kitchener that he had ever been 
; but they had been obliged to discontinue 
or to recommend it in consequence of the 
iecstanding^ it. Unless cooks were taught 
understand the system of economising fuel, 
iHsrer get a smoke-consuming kitchener to be 
If that were done, the kitcheners might 
nving a great quantity of fuel and the 
sweeping the chimneys, fof thn chimney 
e or four years without any sweeping at all. 
to Count Ramfori's hot-plate, when that 
the principle of conveying steam from 
of cooking was not understood, and 
iple which he introduced was very sound 
he had a high respect for the memory of 
d, for he did so much good in his day^, yet 
those principles were not adapted for 
in consfM^uence of our being able to accom- 
h by the use of steam, which economises the 
' ved the time was coming when everyone 
the question would have an opportunity of 
e beitt cooking apparatus and grates for in- 
of showing wh>it could be done in that 
that would be the best time for testing the 
t of the various experiments and of ascertain- 
Id be done. As to what Captain Oalton had 
the heating of hot- water for kitcheners, 
to be able to say, from loog experience, that 
fe done* at a very small expense indeed. 

Sawlinion, C.B., made a few practical 
gratis as they are and as they ought to be. 
ly are, in 19 out of 20 instances, were simply 
ible forms that could be made for the pur- 
ling a room economically without giving 
very means adopted to compel a draught 
were the very forms which ought not to 
because they narrowed the entrance — they 
sides of the grate and they projected the 
there most be a current out of the room to 
le at an angle of 45 to get it up the chim- 
in of a grate was when the sides were 
ftn angle of 45, the back rising vertically, 
forward, and the front plate of the 
lidrcular top with the front bars of the grate 
line with the throat of the chimney, so that 
and the flame might rise quietly up the 
the heat be radiated from the two sides and 
k. Then there was a very simple method 
fuel which had been practised some 25 
and consisted in closing the bottom ban 
by laying in the coals and making the fire 
eompdling it to bum downwards. Ho had 
again had a drawing-room fire lit in this 
e fire which had been lighted at 10 o'clock 
g, and had not received an atom of fresh 
the day, was a good fire at 11 o'clock at night. 
of eoooomising fuel had, however, not been 
and indeed haa been almost abandoned, be- 
impossible to get servants to light the fire 
Then another method was by closing the 
on of the grate with a thin sheet of iron, the 
(Hide in the ordinary way. He had been told 
[two ladies that this made a dead fire, and that 
not keep the fire cheerful and comfortable, 
what he could do othera might do, and 
fins in his house were as bright and cheer- 
wnloftaUe as in any house in London. There 
BO difficulty whatever in it. The philosophy 
he assumed to be, that with the open 
theoxygen to come in underneath and 



through the fine, and combining rapidly with the carbon it 
carried it away before it could give out or radiate into 
the room the heat that was generated. And if the current 
was stopped it was reduced, and the life of the fuel was 
prolonged, for, practically speaking, a fire with the 
bottom closed, in an ordinary house grate, would con- 
sume something like half the coal the same grate would 
do if the bottom were open. But 19 out of 20 grates 
would not enable this to be done, because their form was 
so bad, and the current necessary to force the flame and 
smoke up the chimney would be stopped. He then pro- 
ceeded to show by illustration what he considered the 
best form of grate. Speaking of smoky chimneys, he 
said there were many reasons why a firQ smoked, and 
the true remedy was to have the front ban so arranged 
that they were within the breast of the fire. Then 
rooms soioked because they were made air tight ; for to 
such a pitch of perfection had house-building come that 
the entrance of air was absolutely precluded. There 
must be a certain amount of air to feed the fire, and if it 
oould not get in in any other way there would be a back 
draught down the chimney and that would cause the 
chimney to smoke. He had sometimes cured a smoky 
chimney by removing the wood over the lintel of the 
door for about one inch in width, and so admitting air. 
Another cause of chimney-smoking arose from the abomi- 
nable form in which chimneys were made. The smoko 
ascending up the chimney only required a very small 
outlet indeed, and not the large flues which were gene- 
rally made, and on which those cowls which so disfigured 
London had to be placed. Many houses in London 
were built without dumney pots. Marlborough House 
was an instance of this, so was the War Office and a 
portion of the Treasury Buildings. Somerset House 
and very many private houses were so constructed now> 
He concluded by describing the principle on which 
chimneys ought to be constructed. 

Mr. Bartley described an invention of his own. In 
it a passage is provided, by which, as in the ordinary 
arrangements of register fireplaces, the smoke and pro- 
ducts of combustion, together with all the cooled air^ 
may pass direct to the chimney. That passage is formed 
to be closed, and a separate passage in front of it is 
provided bv which the smoke, &c., will then be imme- 
diately conancted to a channel formed for 'the purpose 
down the inside of one front side plate of the firepkce,. 
and thence by a channel or channels formed in or upon 
the hearth to the inside of the opposite front side plate,, 
and thenoe to the chimney. When the fire is lighted 
the ordinary register is left open, and directly the 
draught has set in up the chimney this is closed. The- 
heated column of air in the chinmey has a tendency to 
ascend, and, in so doing, tends to produce a vacuunk 
over the fireplace ; and as the fireplace is carefully fixed 
with cement into the chimney-pieoe, the only way in 
which this can be supplied is by drawing the smoke 
and products of combustion down the side fine, across 
the hearth and up the other side. In a short time all 
these parts become heated and radiate the heat into the 
room. 

Mr. Fordred thought the tendency of the paper and 
of the observations which had been made were pointed 
rather to the use of fire-grate manufacturera and of 
builden. The Xinut had recently asked what was the 
British householder to do ? and hinted at the need of 
some simple remedy immediately applicable to meet the 
present state of things. He thouglkt the great error of 
fire grates was in their construction, — ^in their being too 
capacious. The amount of fuel was unnecessarily large 
for Ihe purpose it had to fulfil. He thought by the 
adoption of the plan he would suggest, a saving at once, 
even to the extent of two -thirds, would be effected. 
What was wanted was simply surface. It was simply 
the radiation for about three inches of the surfiu^ of 
each fire that really passed into the room. The great 
mass of ttxei in the fireplaces did not benefit the room 



376 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, April 4, 1873. 



at all, — the heat either went up the chimney or diaap- 
peared in iome ahape, without affording any benefit. To 
remedy this was the great need. Aa to filHng up the 
bottom of the grate with a plate, there were two ob- 
jections to it, one of which, and the moat potent of 
all, had been mentioned, — that if anything waa sug- 
gested giving servants any extra trouble, or more 
dirt or annoyance in any way, it would not be carried 
out. If the back of the fireplace was filled up with 
fire clay it could scarcely be im a g ined to what an extent 
the fireplace might be reduced. In a room very 
nearly the capacity mentioned by Captain Galton, 
measuring 20 feet by 14, in the ordinary fire grate, 
measured from the front to the back, there was a depth 
of inches. That could be reduced instantly to 6 
inches in the widest part, and it might be curved off so 
as to be nothing at uie aides, and there would be amply 
aufiicient sur&ce for all purposes in a properly curved 
back of fire clay, which would reduce the consumption 
of coals one-half, and always give a cheerful fire. In the 
ordinary grates the fire falls away, but with a back of fire 
<^y it was supported, and gave out more heat These 
fire day backs could easily be fitted up and at a very 
small cost, in every grate, and it was astonishing the 
small amount of coal which was consumed, and what a 
good fire could always be kept up. This principle had 
not been sufficiently brought under the notice of grate 
manufacturers. In the lieport of a Hoyal Commission, 
which was appointed in 1856 to investigate this sub- 
ject, the whole of the recommendations of the Commis- 
sioners seemed to culminate in the important remark, 
*^ A good- frontage of fire surfiice should be exposed." 

Mr. Copperthwaite gave an account of an experiment 
which he had tried in a small apartment consisting of 
four rooms, where the windows were all made of cast- 
iron, and external air excluded, the admission of air to 
feed the fire beipg by means of a tube of four inches in 
diameter behind the principal fire in the apartment, and 
thus the heat from one fire waa made sufficient to heat 
the whole cottage. 

Mr. George Lamport advocated the collection of the 
various gaaUghts in a room in a gaselier, and otherwise 
into an ordinary sunlight, with a wide fine pipe for venti- 
lation, and the carrying up of the pipe, by a coil or other 
means, in order to rob Uie heated air of some of its caloric. 
By this means it was hoped to obtain three advantages — 
tho ventilation of the lower room, the lighting of it, and 
the warming of an upper room, a bedroom or other. 
He also thought that the use of ooke in kitchen ranges 
would be a most importaiit item in the saving of 
domestic fuel, as the heat from ooke was quite as great 
or more than the lavish and imperfect combustion from 
•coal would give in an English range. Captain Galton's 
invention was simply an arrangement for a stove which, 
in some cases, might, with greister economy, be brought 
•a little further forward into the apartment. The ad- 
vantages arising from it were, that he could diffuse the 
heat and disperse it in a different way. But he joined 
issue with Captain Galton there, and said there was no 
economy whatever in a house from heating the air 
behind and throwing it into the room ; and a remark 
which Captain Galton made himself he felt justified this 
criticism. It was in reference to the baker's oven — that 
the heat wss absorbed by the brickwork and afterwards 
given out. Now, he maintained that the brickwork at 
the back of, his fire absorbed the heat and gave it out 
into the house without any loss whatever. His own 
house had every fire in the interior wall, and they had 
a radiation of heat always sufficient to warm the room. 
Captain Galton's arrangement was only an open stove 
pushed into the firepltuse, instead of which, if the fire 
were brought out fuither, he might obtain greater heat^ 

The Chairman, in concluding the discussion, said that 
hUi colleague of tho Institut, General Morin, the preei- 
\ °f "10 Conservatoire des Arts et M6Uera was re- 
garded as the foremost authority on warming and venti- 



lation in France or Europe. He had expflrimented on Uii 
subject more, p^haps, than any one else, and hit bogk 
was held to be a standard wane on the sobject Th| 
General regarded Captain Gkdton's ventilating chimoiy 
as the foremost contribution to this branch of stnitaiy 
aoience in our time, and had proved expcnmeotaUy that 
a saving of more than two-fifths of the chimney best nov 
wasted, and a more equable warmth throughout a roga,; 
was obtainable by it In a cottage of his owa. tnd io 
others, he (the Chairman) had seen very satisfsctofry re^ 
suits obtained by it But the difficulties dstctibed hy 
Mr. Bartley, of applying the principle in the fonn mi 
by Captain Galton, had led Mons. Joly, the author of oai 
of the most able works on warming: and ventiUtioQ tlmt 
had lately been produced, to experiment on the lubjeci, 
and he had succe^ed in producing an open fireplice, vitk 
a circulation ot heat, that warmed a oonsideFable amoiai 
of surface, which surface warmed a current of sir, ficib iir 
brought into the room to be discharged afterwards » riti- 
ated air through the chimney as in Captaia Galton'f 
method. Mons. Joly stated that it had been proToi experi- 
mentally that the air warmed by the new grate, which «u 
advanced into the room, ascended to the ceiling inddrcv- 
lated in the same manner. It was to be hoped that «e 
should have plans and working specimens of the improte- 
ment soon displayed here. But he trusted that H. hU 
would be able to efiect his warming with eanhecvare 
surfaces instead of with iron sur&oes, which prodncei 
different and sometimes injurious results with the mim 
heats. He (the Chairman) had conceived an inti o iactioo of 
the Chinese method of floor- warming, which wis io prio- 
ciple the same as the Boman method of floor>warmiDf, 
which was also snccessfuL There was no method of appl>; 
ing heat so economically as applying it to the f«et, for if 
the feet were kept warmed a colder air might be breath^ 
It was peculiarly applicable to schools and fo workihopi- 
and to places of sedentary occupations. It had been latrly 
successfully applied to military hospitals in Paris ftni ic 
America, not in opposition to the ventilating chimn^v. 
but in combination with it. He had not seen the expeii- 
ment described by Captain Galton, but he had been in- 
formed that the floor was heated to an extent which nuui* 
it disagreeable to stand upon. This was decisive that tb 
floor was ill-constructed, or ill-used, fur it thonld, if 
properly used, be only warmed to an extent not to frel 
cold and to give the mildest diffused warmth. The ex- 
perience of its superior economy was decisive in Chio^ 
for it was used where there was no coal, and where thev 
were compelled to economise the use of any scraps of fii«I 
they could get. He concluded by moving a vote of thul^ 
to Captain Galton, which was passed by acclamation. 

Captain Oalton, in reply, said with reference to Mr. 
Bram well's remarks on the temperature of the gas in tb - 
chimney, the experiments he relied on were those^^ 
made some years ago. No doubt there was great diS- 
culty in observing the high temperatore in the flnt^ 
without a pyrometer like Siemens*. He had kM, a>" 
he said, partly on his own experiments and puilr ^ 
the experiments made by the commission on ooul, ia 
which almost every case of evaporation of wst«r i^^ 
temperatures were given, and the flues were heated ^ 
and 400°. With respect to the gentleman who stiid th«> 
same amount of economy would be obtained through * 
fire-place brought forward into the room that was ob- 
tained for his ventilating fire-plaoe, he would obierv<! 
that if the fireplace was brought into the room tUr.* 
was still the element of cooling^own, from theiDtrodnc- 
tion of cold air brought into the room to replscc th^t 
which was carried up the chimney. But if thiit g«ot^ 
man had tried the temperature of the gases as Oity 
passed out of the top of the chimney, as he had, he woui>i 
have found that a considerable amount of best va^ 
carried up beyond the biick-wcwk. In a London hou»f 
almost every fireplace would warm one's neighbonr^ 
house, but not one's own. The Csct of the g^^ 
passing out from the top of the ohimney at a very hijrn 
temperatore .was hia answer to the olgeottoa. In *^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 4, 1873. 



877 



fti obj«ot WBB to cause it to pan out at a 
Ivr iMpntan bv abetractiog a good deal of heat. 
iHfWi vitk Mr. Fordred that one simple mode of 
■liiiiif iul via to pat into a fireplace some fire- 
■^ littet radiates the heat out into the room. 



01 THE KSAH8 OF PBOTECTIirO TEE 
XSB0P0LI8 AGAINST COHFLAOBATIOir. 

lallowing eridenoo was given by Mr. J. 
C^., engineer to the Southwark and 
and the Grand Junction Water Com- 
I Wore the Committee. 

Ipod deal of the waate now is owing to the 
* ^ttetaP 
They leave everything open to receive all 
,^sf water that can come on. 
?«■ think, then, that, given good fittings, there 
klftlM waste on the constant system than on ^e 
itfystem ? 

i; good fittings and waste-preventers to the 
iti, otherwise persons will leave the valve np, 
I will be a constsnt waste, 
lilotdo notattju^h importance to the waste-pre- 
~l«tewise than in the water-closets F 

I the water companies in a position to be able 
itoOQstantsnpplyof water? 
' fiu" as the trunk mains go ; but it would 
try to separate the higher portions of the 
tftmn the lower. You require to maintain the 
» to the houses on the rising ground, and if there 
wil thousand houses on a low level, they would 
lh> water away unless there were a separate 
Hot is one of the things which the companies 



'Thai 



•Th» pressure is obtained by pumping the water 

in height, when it flows by its own gravity P 
•Tea 

that under a high-pressure system you have to 

ly ponping the wster up. You would form 

above the level of the houses P 

t is one pbui ; or pump it up a stand-pipe, 

in it there by constant pumping, 
the high-pressure system were the general 
voold require large reservoirs in the outskirts 
gmad, from which the water would flow by its 

-Tea 

■Vkle there are separate companies each would 
»Mke its own arrangements, and thus much ex- 
n voold be incurred, which, under a consolidated 
I *e«M be unnecessary, 
'^ftwnly. 

the time the offer by the General Board of 
l«HeoBteB|Jated, the capital required, in round 
% was about £6,000,000. Since then it has been 
I J i»,000,000 or £10,000.000. Would it be too 
lA^iiy that about £2,000,000 of that might have 
' OB a general system P 

>t if no doubt a vast amount of it might have 
B^; it, for instance, the 23 miles of pipe laid 
[« the east of London to Sunbury. The 
Ti Coopsny are now proposing to extend their 

rUdy to Thames Ditton, under a genend 
^ would have been unnecessary, because the 
vQi^«ny went up there to the same spot only 
I tad the two companies might have joined in 
"leshert. 

b an example of what must happen to the 
^^'■kpiiUBB in other districts, leading to Uke 

ly, particularly in trunk mains and 



Q. — In case of a constant water supply, do you propose 
to dispense with cisterns altogether P 

A, — No; certainly not. We should maintain the 
present cisterns, but should not place them in new 
houses, unless required by the owner, as there is no> 
necessity for it. It would be simply a matter of con* 
venienoe for the house. 

Q. — Is there any truth in the statement that under a 
constant-supply system there would be a danger of the 
pipes bursting in case of frost, and flooding the houses ? 

A, — I do not think so, because the pipes should be put 
below the influence of the frost, and in case of severe- 
weather the water should be turned off at night. 

Q. — ^Every house should be provided with a stop-code 
to turn off its own supply P 

A, — Yes. 

Q. — Can you g^ve any opinion as to the whole of the- 
companies being willing to hand over their works to the- 
govemment on receiving reasonable compensation P 

A, — I think some of the companies would be willing 
to entertain such a proposal, if three years* avernge 
dividend was taken, and some such stock as the Metro- 
politan Stock g^ven to the shareholders, equivalent to 
the amount they now receive in dividend. 

Q. — ^That is to say, security for the existing dividends P 

-4.— Yes. 

Q. — ^What might be the probable or possible expense 
of uniting the trunk mains of the eight companies, so 
as to enable the supply of the metropolis to be brought 
to bear, as suggested, on any point to arrest conflagra- 
tion P 

A. — ^I cannot answer at once, but I have a confldent 
belief that it might be done at an expense under one 
thousand pounds certainly — possibly much less. 

Q, — As a rule, does it pay to take up mains after they 
are once put down P 

A. — Not 4 or 5 inch mains ; it would 9 or 12 inch. 

Q.— What is the life of a main P 

A. — We have had some mains down for 60 years, and 
they are just as good as ever ; in fact, they seem to 
improve ; the iron seems tougher than the new pipes. 

Q. — Will you explain how you expect the saving of 
£100,000 a year which you mentioned would be accom- 
plished by a consolidation of the different companies P' 

A. — In a variety of wnjrs— office expenses, engineers, 
solicitors, directors, secretaries, clerks, consolidation of 
works, turncocks going over each other's districts, taxes, 
and all sorts of things. Then there would be a great 
reduction in the quantity of water, requiring less pump- 
ing, which, at the present price of coal, is of great 
importance. 

Q, — It would not be possible generally in London to 
obtain sufficient pressure from the hydrants to dispense 
with flre engines P 

A. — It depends in a great measure on the size of the 
pipes. There are severtd miles of pipe in London where 
you can get a jet 100 feet high. 

Q.— Would it be possible m many parts of the Sontii- 
wark and \auxhall district to dispense with fire engines 
if you had hydrants and a constant supply P 

A, — In the Borough High-street and Tooley-street, 
and some of the main streets it would be so. 

Q, — And in the Grand Junction district P 

A. — ^The same thing at>plies wherever the leading 
mains are laid. In all other places flre engines would 
still be needed. 

Q. — How many flre-plugs are there in London P 

^.—70,000 or 8j»,000. 

Q, — You consider that hydrants would be a great 
improvement upon the plugs P 

i4.— Yes; the only obstacle to their introduction is 
the cost. 

Q. — Assuming this matter to be taken charge of by 
the government, would it not be necessary for them to 
have the control over the means of removing the waste 
water to prevent dsmp. &c. P 

A, — It is equally detirable that there should be ade- 



378 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 4, 1S78. 



qoate means of takiAg the water out aa of taking it in. 
Many poor people are pat to dreadfiil inconTenience 
from haying too much water in their houseB. 

Q. — Are you prepared with any suggestion for any 
mechanical means which could be adopted for supplying 
small householders with a constant supply of water, 
without occasioning waste to the companies, and with- 
out allowing the hous^older to be annoyed by too 
etrong a supply on any particular occasion P 

A. — I made a suggestion some years back of this kind — 
Assuming there to be a row of 20 houses of the same 
altitude, to put a cistern on the first house, and carry a 
8<)rvice pipe up from the company's main to the dstem 
with an ordinary ball-cock, then to take a pipe from the 
cistern to the main beyond the stop-cock of the company, 
so as to keep the main charged from the cistern with a 
pressure only equal to the height of the cistern. If this 
were carried out, there weuld oe nothing more required 
than a draw-tap on the sendee pipe in each house to 
afiford the supply, and as the cistern would be charged 
from the watiar company's main, there would be little or 
no waste, and no undue pressure tfajrown on the lead 
pipes and fittings. 

Q. — You before stated that whenerer a fire occurred, 
and the water was put on full force, many persons turned 
on their cocks in order to prevent the pipes bunting ? 

A, — Yes, they let them run, to prevent the pipes being 
. damaged by the extra pressure. 

Q. — Could not they then have a constant supply with- 
out altering the present fittings ? 

A. — No, the fittin)^ are in such an imperfect state 
that it would be absolutely necessary to make on altera- 
tion in almost every case. In the first place there ia 
nearly a total absence of taps in the poor districts, and 
the pipes are so very defective that a certain sum must 
be expended on the fittings, and that is one of the great 
diffioulties to be overcome. 

Q. — ^You have the power now of doing it at their own 
expense, but you are of opinion that it is in fact 
impracticable ? 

A, — I do not think it could be done in poor neigh- 
bourhoods like Kent-street, Borough, which is one of the 
worst class of streets ; and to begin to do anything there, 
unless under some public authority, would be almost an 
impossibility. 

Q. — It has been stated that the actual cost of putting 
on a constant supply in Wolverhampton did not amount 
to more than sixpence per head of the population, and 
considering all things it might be done for about two 
shillin^rs per head. You cannot hold out any prospect 
of similar economy in London ? 

A. — No ; I think that was done under peculiar cir- 
cumstances. Very few houses at that time were supplied, 
and I think the calculation must have been taken on the 
entire population, as the water was not supplied to more 
than 700 or 800 houses. ' 

Q. — Do you think the cost of enforcing the constant 
«upply should fall on the landlord and not on the tenant? 
A, — It depends on how the property is held. 
Q. — You mean that many perscms have only the re- 
mainder of a lease of four or five years ? 

A. — Yes, that is very commonly the case in Ijondon. 
There are many people who have two or three or more 
houses, bringing in a few pounds a year, and it is almost 
impossible to get them to make any outlay on the pro- 
perty — in fact, they have not the money to do so. 

Q.— Are not the companies at an extra expense in 
laying the water ^m the mains into the houses de novo 
on aoconnt of the paving expenses ? 

A. — Yes ; the paving is a very serious item, and un- 
fortunately the companies are called upon to pay two or 
three times as much as the work is contracted for in the 
same district. That is to say, the paving commissions 
get the work done for less than the companies. 

Q. — If it were put on a public footing, what amount 
would be saved tmder that heading, supposing it could 
all be done at contract prioes ? 




A. — ^I cannot soy. It would be a Tsry large 
Q. —How many junctums do you make in the jitm 
A. — ^The Gbund Junction made 4,300 
repairs, alterations, and additions, in one 
in a very small district. You may pKobaUy tsfc* 
average, by the whole of the companies, at 40,000 
per annum, some large and some small, 
a very serious sum. The charge for ma 
macadamised road is nearly the same bb for 

Q. — If the work was done under anthority. 

the saving of £20,000 or £30,000 a yosur be effeet«lf 

A. — Something approaching it. 

Q. — On the whole, at every pointy there would %$ 

eeonomy in amalgamation, or putting the 

on a public footing, as well as an increase of 

A. — Certainly ; an increase of economj 
point of view, as it is impossible for the 
separately to avoid a certain amoimt. of 
penditure. If a constant supply were oardad 
the regulations passed last year, it conld only it 
a very enormous outlay. 

Q. — If you were not connected wiiti s 
had only the general public interest to 
would you carry out this charge— by a local 
trative body or by a special body ? 
A. — I think by a spedal body. 
Q. — ^You think a special body might 
machinery and put the parts together, mnd 
machinery in order and then hand it over 
any administrative body that the Oovemiaat 
appoint for the general government of Londoii f 
A, — Yes, I think that is the only conrse. 
Q. — One great objection to the 'Metropolitan 
"Works having jurisdiction would be that it 
cover more than hall' the giound ooTered by 
panies' pipeage ? 

A. — That is so. I could point out on the map 
districts covered by the different coin|>aniea, 
area embraced under the Metropolitan Bo«rd of 

Q. — Do not some of the companies stipply tfas 
beyond their parliamentary limits ? 
-4.— Yes. 

Q. — For economy and efficiency are you of 
that the whole matter must be taken 
not divided into separate districts ? 
A. — Certainly. 

Q. — The Metropolitan Board have not the 
functions for carrj'ing out a work of tbis sort, 

A. — No, they have no staff, or powers of 
any of the mains or pipes of the compaawe. 

Q. — The water companies did not consider 
a very ineligible body to treat with ? 

A. — There were great difficulties on 
much of the water companies* districts lying 
their boundary. 

Q. — Is there not another renson ai^inrt tiifti 
undertaking the work, that during tbe last 
has been more abused than any other pablic 

A. — They are not very popuhu- with the 
must say. 

Q. — ^The present waste of water may be 
30 to 40 million gallons a day. Snppoee 
supply that quantity de fiovo to an outlying 
would that represent at the usual cost of 
A, — A million and a half to two millioiis 
Q. — ^Then it may be said that the waste xiow 
represents that amount of capital F 

A. — I do not know that you can take it in 
The saving to the companies would be merely tta 
coal and engine stores. They would require 
staff and the same supervision. 

Q. — We understand there are rival dansa 
jurisdiction on the part of the corporation, whe 
and put forward claims on behalf of the geaml 
May it not be said that they have the coaui 1 1 snry 
the water district from which many of the 
panics draw their supply ? 



vp as a 



19 




JOURNAL OF THE SOOTETY OF AKTS, Aprid 4. 1873. 



379 



Oomerranoy extendi as far as 

of the City aathonties. The com- 

riiQw something like £8,000 *a year for 

the water. 

coqx>ration so managed their affairs 

were with the inhabitants they would 

than with the Metropolitan Board 

the pablio would hare much more confi- 
Oity Corporation than in the Board of 

^ i think that the public will hare to look, 

to another source than the Thames for the 

rP 

that is a great question ; the whole subject 

I very carefully before the Royal Oommia- 

ied in tiie Thames water, when properly 

eonsidered good water, wholesome and fit 

trade purposes, 
opinion has it improved or deteriorated of 

I think, very much, and when the 
is made more pure, there is no water 
for all purposes. The brewers and all 
prefer the Thames water. And it does 
by storing, 
not many of the brewers artesian wells 
^ thschalkP • 

for refrigerating purposes, not for brewing, 
stated generally that the metropolis 
' ss no other oity is or can be supplied 
in independent districts, with only the 
i district supplies to stay a great conflagra- 
is, as a rale, only a third of the mains 
in the whole metropolis under a constant 
Ithwe is an accruing waste of water, equal 
of nearly two millions of additional popu- 
might be prevented; that there is an 
of expenditure in separate establish- 
of one hundred thousand per annum, 
were economised and skilfully applied, 
the chief wca4cs immediately required, 
is farther large wnste impending on 
each diatriet supply complete in itself 
works for the constant supply ; and that 
a Urge impending waste on the 
vataaraen to be incurred, under the present 
,eiuck ohliffes them at once to provide separate 
Uttia ga by immediate outlays of an aggregate 
I of a million, or a million and a half. Now, 
conditions, by what administrative means do 
that security may be obtained, and this 
prevented? 

Midtr that, the more it is examined, the 

|aidj it will be perceived that what is required 

viththe least delay is to unite the works of 

> districts, to make the alteratibns required of 

private service pipes, which is a very special 

Work, requiring engineers^ practicaliy con- 

the new system. This engineering work 

ikHldone, and, indeed, can only be reasonably 

h be done, speedily and safely, by a special 

eoraprising men of science, who are con- 

t^iHk the work. After this had been accom" 

aipenal commission it might be given over 

itatiTe body. 

to ro(hr the work to any general represen- 

ia the first instance would, it mii^ht be said, 

to them the pieces of a steam-engine, of 

'CMld have no practical knowledge, for them 

and that there would be, at the best, a 

tims in getting them acquainted with it, 

" danger of loss from mistHke, as to the 

into which it might be put P 

it would be so. 
Wy fpociiil engineering work required 
~ or tile district works, together for joint 



action as one machiae, it would seem, then, also that 
special technical or administrative service is also re- 
quired, as that of accountants, to lay down a system of 
oollection, and expenditure, and account, and to consoli- 
date the eight independent establishments, for united 
action, as one piece of administration ? 

A, — Yes; but this has been in part commenced by 
Mr. Stonebam, the auditor appointed by the Board of 
Trade. He has simplified and consolidated the accounts, 
which are now prmted by the Board of Trade. The 
next would of course be the reduction of the number of 
establiahmenta and of officers, and the consolidation of 
the oollection and expenditure, which would be technical 
work, to get the administration in working order as one 
machine. 

Q. — ^Two local administrative bodies, the Corporation 
of the City of London and the Metropolitan Board 
of Works, presented themselves before the Board of 
Trade Commission in the position of representaUvee 
of the population of the metropolis, or as candidates to 
undertake the work. So far as you observed, did either 
appear to be aware of the practical principles involved, 
such as that for economy and efficiency and security the 
entire water supplies of all the separate districts must be 
united, and that the aggregate area of these districts 
went far beyond the area of their jurisdictions, nearly 
the double of that of the largest F 

A. — ^They were certainly unprepared for this position 
when they appeared before the Commission, and I have 
not seen that tiie matter has been yet made clear how 
they would handle the difficulty. The extension of the 
jurisdiction would no doubt be a matter of very gpreat 
difficulty for either body. 

Q.— Assuming that t^e work of any provisional 
authority having been completed, it were expedient, 
without waiting for what has been sought for, the con- 
stitution of a new general metropolitan government, ta 
give over the completed works to either of the ousting 
local representative authorities, which do you think 
would be preferred, and would, in your own view, be 
preferable P 

A* — Of the two most decidedly the Corporation of 
the City of London. It would have the most public con- 
fidence. It has au ancitmt jurisdiction over the Thames 
and its tributaries from Staines, and, indeed, beyond that, 
from Oxford down to the Nore light. The Corporation has 
also in its thamberlain and offices a more solid established 
working staflf. I would press, however, that the imme- 
diate work to be done would rec^uire provisionally the 
undivided attention of a very special board. 



■ 



ANNTJAL INTEENATIOHAL EXHIBITIONS. 



The offices of the Commissioners are at Upper Ken- 
sington-gore, London, W., Major-General Scott, C.B,, 
secretary. 

Her Mnjesty's Commissioners have decided that 
school children, in bodies of not less than 60, shall be 
admitted to the International Exhibition of this year at 
half price on any shilling day. One adult will be 
allowed to accompany every twenty children at the re- 
duced rate. Tit^kots must he obtained at the Ticket- 
offic?, Royal Albert Hall, two days before the day of the 
visit, and paid for on deliver)*. 



It is stated that Austria has come to an under- 
Btanding with the other Governnients that no decorations aro 
to be given in connpcticin wiih the Vienna Exhibition. 

Extenaivo saltpetre grounds have been discoverod 
in the great Atacama desert. 



380 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apeil 4, 1873. 



EZHIBITI0H8. 



VIENNA EXHIBITION, 1878. 

A commumcation from Vienna in the Debata says : — 
'^The romours of a probable postponement of the opening 
of the Exhibition here «re entirely devoid of truth. 
Other reports spread in different quarters about the ex- 
treme deamess of living, the dearth of lodgpnsrs, and the 
unfavourable sanitary conditions of the Austrian capital 
might indeed, if well founded, discourage foreign visitors. 
The information which we receive on this subject are of 
the most reassuring nature. The Austrian Govern- 
montand the Vienna Municipality, which are most 
anxious to ensure the complete success of the undertak- 
ing, are taking all possible measures to provide largely 
for the wants and conveniences of the expected guests, 
and prevent every sort of imposition." 

The Ausiralinn colonies will, it is said, be well repre- 
sented at Viennn, and large consignments of goods are 
now en route thither. Victoria sends an ample display of 
pastoral and agricultural produce in the shape of meitts. 
wools, wines, fruita, and grain, and a fine collection of 
minerals and ores. The Queensland court will be con- 
spicuous for the series of coloured photographs taken by 
the Agent-Gejieral, which were displayed in the Queens- 
land annexe in last year's International Exhibition. A 
huge block of malachite and a large gold nugget also 
accompany the collection. New Zealand will be re- 
presented by a series of ores and minerals contributed 
by the Mining Department of that colony ; also woods, 
wools, and a cabinet of the bones of extinct birds, osteo- 
logically restored. South Australia shows cereals, wines, 
and other produce. The whole of the Australian exhibits 
are under the charge of Mr. G. Phillips Bevan, F.G.S., 
who has been appointed the Commissioner at Vienna for 
the Australian colonies. 

An International Corn and Seed Exhibition is to be held 
at Vienna on the 4th, 5th, and 6th of August. 

The following communication from tho Chevalier de 
Schaeffer, Deputy Consul- General for Austria and 
Hungary, appeared in the daily papers of laat week : — 
'' I have received the official communication that the 
Universal Exhibition at Vienna will be opened on the 
1st of May, 1873, by His Imperial and Royal M»»jesty in 
person. A central bureau has been established a't Vienna, 
Liechtensteinstrasse No. 9, where visitors will always 
find apirtments at moderate terms, from 2, 4, 6, to 10 
florins per diem.'* 

A remarkable specimen of bookbinding from London 
is to be ♦exhibited at the Exhibition. It is a copy of the 
Dore Bible, in two volumes, bound at a cost of more 
than £300. The patterns are produced by inlays of 
different coloured leather, in one case separated 
throughout by a gold line, in the other not so. The 
change on the colours produced by the gold line is very 
interesting ; it is difficult to believe that the colours are 
the same. 

We understand that it is intended to take advantage 
of the approaching International Exhibition at Vienna 
to convene a Congress on the (Question of patent rights, 
tho proposal being due to the initiative of President 
Grant. The Congress will meet on the 4th of Auarust, 
after the juries have made their awards. It will be 
composed of manufacturers, scientific men, political 
economists, and other experts, and skilled workmen. 
Each Government will be represented by a special 
delegate, and must apply before the end of June for 
participation in the Congress. A committee will be 
appointed to prepare the materials for inquiry. The 
Director- General, Baron Schwarz-Senborn, will open the 
Congress, which will then from its own members elect a 
president and a bureau. 

Ezhibition of Life-SaTing Apparatm.— At the meet- 
ing of the Northfleet BeUef Committee, on Wednesday 



last, with reference to the forthcoming exhibiUoa^tli 
London Tavern of the various inventions Coir samgli^ 
at sea, Mr. Walker stated that 134 models hid ben 
in, 27 being those of life-belts, buoys, and 
11 of life rafts, 23 of lifeboats, 36 of apphaneoi 
lowering and detaching ships* boats, 2o of sigud^t 
rockets and mortar contrivances, and 9 of mi 
articles, in addition to 46 drawings and designi. 
exhibition will be opened on Easter Mondty, and «9 
last until the following Monday. The admiseion to ft 
on the first day will be by ticket, but on Uie other 4ip> 
it will be open to the public without such 
For the convenience of working men three eT< 
have been set apart, and the exhibition will iiom 
open from seven till ten. On the last day (M^ 
April 21) it will close at four o'clock, and in the 
it is intended, if the Ranger's permission cu b» 
tained. to make a trial on the Serpentine of the ftf 
inventions for signalling at sea. It whs detetMOii H 
ask his Royal Highness the Duke of EdinbuigbliMS 
the exhibition, but if he is unable the duty w3ltttB 
charged by the Lord Mayor. 



INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTa 

The 1873 session commenced on Thnraday last, 
a meeting was held in the theatre of the Society. 
Secretary read the annual report of the Conacil, 
address was delivered by Sir John Pakingtoo, 
M.P., &c. The meetings will be continued to-dsj 
to-morrow. 




PURCHASE OF RAILWAYS BY THE STi 

The meetings of the Statistical Society have 
been occupied by this important subject. On T 
March 19, 3ir. R. B. Biddulph read a paper, is 
the question was discussed, before the Society, 
to the possession by the State of the poat-offica 
telegraph-office, he strongly advocated its acni 
of the railways also. He pointed out the ad' 
that would arise from. the entire system being 
one management and one contxpl, and ahowed 
uniform scale of fares for passengers and goods 
be adopted, while extensions into poorly- 
districts, which now would not pay, mi^ht 
made. Mr. Martin entered fully into the 
the scheme he proposed. The cost of the 
would be about 600 millions, and to obt>iin 
would establish a stock to be issued at 90 p«^r 
repaid at i)ar. Mr. Chad wick, M.P., and Mr. 
Baxter, spoke in favour of the scheme, ami tht> 
sion was adjourned until the following Tuesday. 
that day a second adjournment was made Utt 
Tuesday, when Mr. AUport, general maoagitf rf 
Midland railway, spoke against the proposal, 
the danger of throwing so much patronage into. 
hands of ministers, and suggesting th*t the p4l| 
would be mucii less than had been stated. s 

At the the last meeting Captain Tyler, one «£■ 
Government Inspectors of Railways, stated his '<fi>WP 
a lengthy address, which ho was careful to ex^jUift' 
given in his private capacity. Captain Tyler b«fi 
asking a question in which the whole matter wM 
prised, namely, what would happen in a few ycanS 
State does not purchase the railways ? Com' ' 
and amalgamation between companies would 
increase, leading, sooner or later, to bjx abeolule 
universal monopoly, and the question theiv£dt« 
would the British public prefer, by St^Oa 
railway control and manngement by the StoUv 
complete monopoly by a vast combination of nil 
companies. In his opinion everything pointed to 
unavoidable necessity of the purchase of our rail 
by the State, and the sooner the transfer m 
the better. Captain Tyler then gave many details 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. April 4, 1873. 



381 



If which the needful changes might be 
■9ih vaiAiiiUj vith economy and other require- 
iHk bvuraooeeded by Mr. U. Chobb, seoretuy 
E^lnk of England, who went into the financial 

Erf tk question, and showed the process of 
> 1^ be effected with less difficulty than was 
ffwppoied. 



ItMbu 



ON THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 

By W. H. Walenn, F.C.S. 

I. 

Light is a subject which has not only engaged the 
attention, but has also raised the enthusiasm of men, 
from the most remote age<*. Artists have illustrated, 
and poets hare described, the beauties that belong to 
this manifestation of the Creator's fiat ; it has gladdened 
darksome hearts, illuminated feeble imaginations, and, 
latterly, shed its rays abroad upon science and its appli- 
cations. One of the first points was to devote experi- 
mental science at its birth to the investigation of the 
laws of light ; thus light, one of the principal means of 
inquiry used by the modem physicist, was made to shed 
its first lustre upon the principles and essences which 
form its own entity. This turning of lig'ht inwards upon 
itself is like the sharpening the tools of the worker 
by means of the laws of their own nature. Taking this 
view of the subject, and illustrating it by another 
example— as the first thing a mechanical engineer does is 
to make sure that his lathes and his vices are ail truly in 
position and firmly fixed, so with the experimental 
philosopher, his first care should be to ascertain that he 
has mnstered the principles and practice which govern 
light, the sharpest and most searching of all the tools of 
the investigator. 

Though the advent of science has been gradual, experi* 
mental science almost began with Newton and Boyle, 
towards the end of the seventeenth century. The sun's 
light has been eminently the object of research, and, 
starting from the emanation theory of Newton, it soon 
was its own expounder, and showed, by means of its 
searching and enlightening power, that (according to 
the view of Christian Huyghens) waves were the true 
means of propagation, just as much in the cose of light 
as of sound. In short, that light is the impartation of a 
definite kind of motion or vibration to particles, both in 
speed and direction (or perhaps it may be said configura* 
ation^, is a definition which is satisfied by every effect 
which light produces.* 

Sunlight is the grandest development of the subject of 
light in generid; for adl artificial light is but one instance 
of sunlight on a small scale, since each variety of artificial 
light may be said to be a kind of light forming one 
species, of which the sunlight affords all species, or 
nearly all species. The intentity of sunlight, which is 
the chief point we shall have to consider, is due to the 
speed of the vibrations ; and any light that is able to do 
full justice to Uie substance supporting it, must have the 
speed of vibration of its particles increased to its 
maximum. When the sunlight leaves us, and we 
have to contend against night, the most perfect 
substitute for the sun will be the most perfect light. 
It is, perhaps, not possible to arrive at a definite 
conclusion respecting the forces that determine 
the light of the sun, but it may be safely assumed 
that chemical forces are accompanied or aided by 
electrical forces. This is stating the case generally, and 
it is all we can hope to do until the limits of our know- 
ledge are widened ; for we cannot employ our imitative - 
ness to make an artificial sun, inasmuch as we neither 
know the detailed data, nor have we the means of exactly 
copying the sun on a small scale. It is a great deal, 

• The emission theory of Newton Is sometimes called the Corpas- 
cular theory. It sopposei that tho particles of light are material 
in their character, and are shot out from the source of light as a 
ball Is out of a cannon, proceeding In straight lines throughout all 
space, and affecting the organs of sight by Impact. On the Undu. 
latory theory, advanced by Hooke, and taken up by Huyghens, a 
luminous body, by its vibrations, excites similar vibrations In the 
surrounding medium, producing waves which affect the eye; It 
Implies that a substance, capable of receiving and transmitting 
these waves, pervades all space. The Corpuscular theory totally fklU 

^ » - -.r 11. ^ 1. i-v J. • In explaining many of the extraordinary effec s brought out by 

'■OflOes trom MelbOUmo state that in mndem experiments ; the Undulatory theory, on the other hand, 
Nfaitrike ooal has gone up to 70a. a ton, about | fully explains the phenomena of polarised light and other remarkable 
* price. I results. 



THE PATENT LAWS. 

B€& wer§ better qualified by experience to judge 
patent systeoi. or to suggest needed rerarms, 
\^ hue Win. Bridges Adams. — We annex an 
!of U» views submitted for publication by Mr. 
ktoOM. Haseltiae, LL.D.,the well-known patent 
~,vhich have a special importance of their own 

it time. 
\puA of patents, he says, should be limited to 
Ikniton and their legal representatives, and this 
Si dsarable, no less in the interest of the 
, this in the interest of ** true inventors," as dis- 
from ** first importers" of inventions. 
liflventors have no natural rights, all rights being 
of law and law the creation of superior 
; jtt it is wi»e in legi^lutors to confer such rights 
as will stimulate them to exercise their in- 
bcttluea, and, thn>ugh self-interest, to make 
vntions public. The original term of a patent 
fe It least twenty •one years, and should con- 
fiuisg the lifetime of the patentee, and in all 
rstension should be allowed as a matter of 
ttf the invention has proved nnremunerative by no 
' the proprietor. The term invention, he says, 
^ inteipreted to include, not only what is 
' new, bat that which has been in abeyance for 
Dvnber of yearn and was unknown to the 
The patent fees should be sufficient to provide 
Ifasitimste expenses of an efficient system, inclusive 
of a patent court in which all matters relating 
I in patented inventions would be determined, 
ihould be granted at the option of the appli- 
reoeiving the opinion of the officials, who 
I ^ Tsqaired to make an examination into the 
ttd Qtihty of the invention, and report any 
elsims; and after the grant is made, the 
[^ the patent should be decided by the special 
It oostt to the individual patentee, the expenses 
[^ from the general patent fund. The title to 
'^ invention, when once confirmed, should be 
in other oourts, andNictions for damages 
Khea in?olve matters of ordinary evidence, to the 
of expert or scientific evidence, which now 
>Fit<iit suits so expensive. In determining the 
^of the grant, the patent court might receive 
tntimony, on snch conditions, however, as 
the poor inventor on an equality with the 
•nd competent counsel should be assigned 
niton, as in criminal cases, and the court 
ITS power to punish infringers and the sup- 
of evidence of infrinj^ement. The court 
[^ the patentee and the infringer would alike 
of the power of working an injustice by 
C nperior wealth. The inventor and the 
^toAst such a system would become equally 
'in the progress of inventions and the suppres- 
f, which would, in a g^reat mo '«nre, cease, 
legislatnre makes ** p<)tent-nghts" a pro- 
I other property, such as copy -right, these 
It by intelligent capitalists as a safe and 
lent the inventive faculties, stimul>«ted 
of peconary success, will be largely 
the national prosperity immensely in- 



t^aoQght 



382 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 4, 1878. 



however, to know that (I) active chemical change and 
(2) electrical disturbance are the two causes, powerful 
in their character and conjoint in their action, that pro- 
duce sunlight, and we cannot go wrong if we employ 
these agents or principles to produce artificial light. 

Ordinary artificial lights are the result of active 
chemical forces, so that a given material is changed in 
its nature or in its entity after it has been made the 
means of giving out light. For instance, common coal- 
gas, before burning, consists principally of carbon and 
hydrogen in the proportion to form olefiant gas (C2H4) ; 
after burning in air (or being combined with oxygen at 
a high temperature), it results in water and carbonic 
acid, as shown by the equation CjH4 + 0a = 2 (HjO) 
-j- 2 (CO,), and the change of state brought about by the 
uniting of oxygen with the constituents of coal-gas at the 
heat of the burning gas, initiates vibrations that result in 
light. The speed of vibration to be obtained by the 
change of state induced by or upon a given chemical 
substance, admits of a definite limit ; and it may be said 
that there is a finite numerical value to the most energetic 
of all chemical combinations, thence to the speed of the 
molecular vibrations or undulations of the light- giving 
substance, and to the amount of light given out by it. 

Collecting the data by which to establish a logical 
theory that is capable of pointing out the best method 
to produce artificial light, and bearing in mind that the 
higher the temperature of combustion the greater the 
amount of light evolved, because of the increase in the 
speed of molecular vibration thereby, it will be perceived 
that any power which will either ruise a given substance 
to a g^eat heat or induce rapid chemical change, or both, 
will afford the means of obtaining strong artificial light. 
Further, it is now evident t^at the intensity of the result- 
ing light will increase with the heat and with the quick- 
ness of the chemical change involved in the combustion. 
With these principles in mind, we can profitably resume 
the consideration of the analogy traced out between 
sunlight and artificial light. In 'the ordinary artificial 
lights we have established the fact of chemical change 
resulting in illuminating potrer; it remains to supply 
electric distarbance of such a character as to cause the 
heat of combustion to be elevated — precisely in propor- 
tion as these two principles are brought to bear will be 
the approximation of the resulting light to that of the 
sun. In endeavouring to adapt this theory to practical 
lighting, we find that the electric li|?ht between charcoal 
points, as originally produced by 8ir Humphrey Davy, 
about the year 1813, very nearly fulfils the requirements 
of the most intense light, as suggested by the above 
analogy.*. This statement is only true of the simple 
production of the light, and it hds yot to be ascertained 
whether continuity and constancy of illuminating power, 
as well as economical working, can be accomplisheii. In 
the apparatus for the production of the electric light, 
the destruction of zinc which takes jdace in the battery 
cells is the analogue of the chemical force of the 
constituents of the sun; the interruption at the 
luminous point in the electric circuit is the analogue 
of the electric disturbance. It happens, however, 

• This light, the oon»eqaonceof the conTectiro discharge between 
charcoal or carbon i>oIi<t3, called "the voltaic arc,'' wa« prodncetl 
by means t'f the palvatiic t>attcry of the Royal InstituMon, wliich 
consisted of two thous ind pairs of zlno and copper, each havi-tg a 
surface of thirty-two square inches, and charpe*! with ucMuluU'd 
water. The account I'f the trial is as follows:—*' The ino!»t striking 
pfTect of tliis kind is produced by pla>inif pieces of charc< al, shaped 
like a pencil, at the two ends of the wires In the interrupted circuit, 
and briiii-'inj; tlieir points into contafit. The api earances, when the 
experiment was tried by the poweiful l»attery of the Royal Insti- 
tution already O'ticed, weresinpulrriy beautiful. When the pieces 
of charcoal were brontrht within the thirtieth or forlieih part of an 
Incli of each other, a bright sjark was prodi cod ; and at the same 
lime niore thnu lialf the volume of the iharco 1, which w;\s about 
?" Mf "*^ ""*^ "ne-sixth of an inch in diameter, became ingited 
T? K-rt"*^' P*' withdrawing the ix.int^ from each-.ther, a constant 
Tnaut 10 fo!,'^'^ I'**"^ t. rough the heited air, in a s|«ce rquui at 
cm^siderabi^jr"..^^^^^^^ pro^luilng a n.ost l)riUlant arch of li^ht, of 
Davv'sl/i^;iiV"'' ^1 '^° f'^rm of a d.uble cone."-(iee 
Davy i:.temeni, ^ Chemical Pktlotophy, pp. 162 to 154). 



that, having only to imitate the sun's powers » 
far as light is concerned, and having the abiiitv 
to separate the two classes of force (chsmtcal and 
electnoal) by instrumental means, we can do in respect 
to our light what is not done in the sun— namely, we 
can separate the chemically active and producing forces 
from the electrical results which they yield, and cio hare 
the source of light at a distance from its manifeatadon. 
thus utilising and bringing to bear all the chemical entrgr 
upon the light itself, and placing the light in &qt 
situation that may be convenient for the usar. In the 
electric light there would also appear to be another 
peculiarity which has not yet received sufficient atten- 
tion — the amount of light is dependent upon the battery 
power used, the area of the battery plates having a direct 
relation to the diameter of the carbon cylinders employed, 
and the number of cells in like manner determining^ tho 
distance that the carbon cylinders or electrodes may be 
placed apart. 

Boyle's name has been mentioned as having gtren 
great character to experimental investigations, and this 
is exemplified in electric science, for he was the fint to 
fully realise the mechanical attribute of ordinary electric 
force; the reciprocal relation of the electrifier and the 
electrified body was established by him, and the idea 
then elucidated is exhibitt-d in the convective discharge 
between charcoal points, for in this discharge there ii 
absolutely a conveying over of particles from the positrre 
te the negative electrode. 

{To b4 eonlinued.) 



COKRESPONDEHGS. 



CHANNEL PASSAGE. 

Sir, — ^After attending the Committee in April, 187^ 
to give evidence relative to an improved daaa of itcae 
vessels for Channel service, I gave my attention to the 
subject, and, in connection with my friend Mr. J. !)• 
Lee (of Northwood-park, Cowes) have prodaced a pl^n 
which we think meets the requirements, and haTS takea 
out a patent for the same. 

In carrying out our ideas as to the plan of ve«eL ^ 
have taken into consideration that great size would han 
great advantages in reducing the motion in narrow mss, 
where the waves are comparatively limited, bat othtf 
circumstances have to be considered in carrying oat a 
practical scheme for Channel service where we bare to 
contend with a beam-sea, bar-harbours, and ntrro* 
entrances. Having taken these facts into ooneidsratiaBi 
we propose vessels of 250 feet in length, 33 feet beso, 
1,386 tons, and to draw seven feet six inches of water, 
having a speed of seventeen miles per hour, aa beisj< 
sufficient to give all the accommodation required ib 
saloons on deck, private cabins, an»l perfect ventiUtnw 
below. In a commercial point of view vessels of this 
size would be a sate and paying investment. 

To reduce as far as practicable the rolling moti*>n a 
crossing a beam-sea, as well as pitching in going agaiiu( 
a head sea, we have thought to secure these advanta«ts 
by altering the form of mid-ship section now aiiopte* 
in ordinary ships, from convex to concave, thertby 
throwing the buoyance on two sides or bulges, by whir* 
great stability is obtained, and the metacentren*i«edtothe 
highest point. Ships of this construction may be »*i^t" 
saddle the water instead of sitting upon the roundid fonSi 
as in the old construction. 

As regards navigable or steering properties, she vvH 
be much quicker than ordinary vesst^ls in anawtrin^f h^^r 
helm. This desirable and necessary quHlificttion u 
secured by the peculinr form of the bulges, which r»y«^ 
the bottom a considernblB camber, the later.il n*i?UT »v 
to turning being reduced by the bow or fore-body a»^ 
being cambered, and the water having a clear and stnught 
path to the rudder, formed by the concave bottom iM 



J( 



Off 



tpBB 



SOOlBf^ 



ito?- 



iW 



t«««»f:5i;ssck.^i»*^ 



tfor 






r J 



</Al 






■ '— 







■ *■ 



•^TsM-' •'^■•-*- 



*?ts^^^ 





884 



JOURNAL OP. THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mabch 4. 1878. 



J 



flomption it too generally confined to inralidi, and the 
other the high price at which it is retailed. Its ex- 
tendible nfes in the culinary arts, each as in the m a ki n g 
of blanc-manges, puddings, costards, sauces, thickening 
of soups, Scc,y are as numerous as those of com flour. 
The price at which the Orain Coast, or Liberian arrowroot 
oonla be sold by the retailers need not exoeed 6d. per 
pound. 

It is probable thai if the uses of arrowroot were more 
widely Known, and if it were retailed at the moderate 
price I have named, public utility would be served, and 
the ground lost in quantity of the article imported soon 
recovered.— I am, co., Wnxxikic B&ookb. 

April 1, 18Y3. 



GBHBRAL M0TB8. 



Scholarihipi for Oirls.— The Central Committee of 
theNational Union for Improving the Education of Women 
baa determined to offer seven scholarships of £25 each, 
tenable for one year, for competition throughout the United 
Kingdom : — The following learoed bodies have been asked 
to award the scholarships, and have consented to do so: — 
The universities of Ouord, Cambridge, Edinburgh, and 
Dublin (at their local examinations, 1873) ; the Sdence and 
Art Department (in May) ; the Society of Arts (in April) ; and 
the College of Preceptors (in April). The girl over 16 years 
of sge on Jsnuary Itt, 1873, who stands highest at each of 
the above examinations (except that of the College of Pre- 
ceptors and the Sodety of Arts), to be awarded a acbolar- 
ship, provided that in the opinion of the examiners or dele- 
gates her work is not only relatively better than that of other 
candidates, but absolutely good enough to entitle her to the 
rsward. The scholarships offered to the College of Preceptors 
and the Society of Arts to be awarded to the best female 
candidate in training as a teacher examined by them, under 
the same condition of real merit as above. * The successful 
candidates are to pursue their studies for one year Tfor the 
College of Preceptors and the Society of Arts scbolarsbips 
six months will be deemed sufficient), at some place of superior 
instruction in the United Kingdom or abroad approved by the 
National Union. 



Handbook to the Collectioo of Hinerali prenntedl 
the Colchester Huseum by J. Yellowly Watson. I^ 
sented by J. Yellowly Watson. i 

The following work has been purduued far tl 
library: — 
Oasetteer of India. By Edward nunntoQ. 



HOTIOES. 



SUBSCBIPTIOirS. 

The Lady-day subscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Co.,'* and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
officer. 

BEP0BT8 OH THE LOKDOH IHTSBHATIOVAL 
EZHIBinOir OF 1872. 

The reports which appeared in the last Tolume of 
the Journal on the various sections of the above 
Exhibition, are now published complete, in a 
pamphlet form (price 2s.), and can be obtained 
at the office of the Society. 

THE UBBABT. 

The following works have been presented to the 
Library: — 

Bulletin of the National Association of Wool Manu- 
facturers (Boston, U.S.) for the years 1869-71. Vols. 
1 and 2. 

On Protoplasmic Life, and the Action of Heat and 
Antiseptics upon it By Dr. F. Crace Calvert, F.R.a 
Presented by the Author. 

Experiments on the Oxidation of Iron. By Dr. P. 
Grace Calvert, F.R.S. Presented by the Author. 



OBDOTABT KKKIIIQ8. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o*clocL Theft) 
lowing meetings have been arranged :— 

April 9. — No Mteting, i 

Apbil 16.— ''On the British Settkmenta is ^ 
Africa.*' By His Excellency Governor Pon EmoM 
C.M.G. 

April 23.— *'0n Silkworm Grain." By Hm 
Alfred Roland (Orbe, Switserland). On thii eim^ 
Amdrbw Cassbls, Esq., will preside. i 

April 30.— "On the Condensed Milk Mimfyhia^ 
By L. P. MsRRiAM, Esq. 



CAHTOB LECTUBB8. 

The Third Cour^ of Cantor Lectures for I 
present session will be '* On Wines; tbor ft 
auction. Treatment, and Use," by J. Lj 
Thtjdichum, Esq., M.D. The Com« will oo^ 
of six lectures, uie first of which will be giT«# 
Monday evening, the 21st of April, the lenmm 
five on the Mondiay evenings succeeding. ■ 



niDIA COKMITTEB. 



The report of the last meeting of the GomaS 
is deferr^ till next week. 



XEETDIOS FOB TEE EVSUIIO WIKL 

MON. ...Bodety of Bngineen, 7^. Mr. H. Oots, ** Haml 

and Tramways." 
Social Soieaoe Association, 8. Mr. UmbuI 

FroTident Societies, Loan 

Sodetiet. as they Affeoi the l uto s rt i of tte^ 

Clsssss.'* 
London Institution, 4. TtkO, Bcnticr, "^ 

Botany." 
Stationer** Gbrapany, 7&. Tcohooloflcsl Le^ 

Ellis A. DsTidson, ^* Mitii«. its KiMy sdAI 
Fsnners* Qab. 6^. Mr. J. K. Fbwter, "Hi] 

Aspect of Steam CQltivation." 
Boysl United Serrioe Institatioa, 81. 1. v- ^f*' 
Apparatus fior Antomatically Bseofdiif r~ 

r, and tbs " "^ 



of a Ship in a Bea-w», 

Wave-slopes." 3. Mr. ^chsrd BeO, " Mde* 
ing Ships of War capable of Hirfitint tti 
Artillery." 

Victoria Institute, 8. Ftofl Ki^'*OaFMta" 

Entomological, 7. 

Medical, 8. 

Tints. ...Medical and Chinirgieal,8&. . «^^i 

Cirfl Engineers. 8. Mr. John Head. '*0b tt^ 

Progress of Steam LooQsaotioa on < 
Photographic, 8. 

Wan. ...Geological, 8. 1. Bar. T. O. Bqum^. •'Iftj 
North-Eastexn Alps, and their bcaznra 7f 
erosion Theory." 1. Mr. J. R. Mortiii* f 
Structure in the Chalk of the Torioli* 
Oommunieated by Mr. WaUam WUtste. 

Gn^hic, 8. 

Koyal Literary Ptmd, 9. 

Royal Society of literatine, 4|. 

ArchsBologkal AsaodatioD, 8. _ « «^ ■ 

Telegraph E^>gineei«. 7^. 1. Mr. Wm. ?. M 
Bell Alarm for Subraaxine Cabka" 1, ' 
Grares, " On the Mcasaremeot of Bstterr^ 
8. Mr. B. B. Cnlley, "On iheMsohsaiodT! 
Wife." 

TanBS...Msthemstioal, a 

Society for Bneoaragenent of Fiai Ait^ a 
Roaniger, "MaobettL" 

Sat Jloyal Botudo, S], 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11, 1873. 



885 



OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

No. l,(m. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, APRIL 11, 1873. 



tforAtaodti^akouUbiaddrtutdtoihtStar^tary, 



ri OEMEVTS BT THB COTTVaU, 



KIDOWXIVT FUVB. 

week*8 number of the Journal is 

small pamphlet, contcdning in a 

fonn a series of letters which were re- 

ributed to the Journal^ advooating the 

i of an Endowment Fund for the Society of 

I following donations and subscriptions 

* fond have been received : — 

LtkiiMoa 60 

jSmdbach..^ 60 

C T^Vdyan, Bart 60 

Angus CroU 20 

foWe 20 

[Bwl 6 

Sfnoer 6 

H. LWoodd 6 

IV.Hart 2 2 

lE, Efans 2 2 

BUtely 1 1 

Dixon 1 1 



t)ICE90LOGICAL SXA1IIHATI0K8. 

P^gramme of Examinations in the 
of some of the Arts and Manufactures 
is now ready, and may be had on 
to the Seoretfloy. 

sdected for 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
and Carriage-building. Those desiring 
\ Gandidates, should apply for the pro- 
IVitfaotQt delay. 

" Prises are offered by the Society of 
Lof the five subjects mentioned aboTe : — 
\\mX candidate in Honours, £10. 
Asit candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 
koandidate in the Elementary Qrade, £5. 

^flowing special additional Prizes are 

S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 
Candidates in the Elementary Qrade, 

hiieof £3 

^IViieof 2 

flf. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
in the Klementary Grade, Carriage 

-APriaoC £3 

rAFriieof , 2 

Worshipful Company of Spectacle 
i^ti ^e Second-best Candidate in Honours, 
^■'vinced Grade and in the Elementary 
" f, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 

of £6 6 

i5f 3 8 

►«C 2 2 



The Coimcil beg to announce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund : — 

The Worshipful Company of Fishmongers £52 10 

The Worshipful Company of Mercers.. 26 6 

The Worshipful Company of Drapers. . 21 

The Worshipful Company of Yintoers.. 10 10 
The Worshipful Company of Salters 

(annnal) 10 10 

The Worahipful Company of Cloth- 
workers 10 10 

Dr. Grace Calvert, F.R.S. (annual) .... 6 6 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart 6 

B. L. Chance, Esq 6 6 

Rohert Nicol, Esq 110 



ALBSBT KSDAL. 

The Council will proceed to consider the award 
of the Albert Medal early in May next. This 
medal was instituted to reward *' distinguished 
merit in promoting Arts, Manufactures, or Com- 
merce,*' and has bcN^n awarded as follows : — 

In 1864, to Sir Rowland Hill, K.C.B., <* for his great 
service to Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, in tiie 
creation of the penny postage, and for his other reforms 
in the postal system of this country, the benefits of which 
have, however, not been confined to this country, bat 
have extended over the civilised world." 

In 1866, to his Imperial Mf^esty the Emperor of the 
French, ** for distinguished merit in promoting, in many 
ways, by his personal exertions, the international pro- 
gress of Arts, Manufiustures, and Commerce, the proofSi 
of which are afforded by his judicious patronase of Art, 
his enlightened commercial policy, and especially by the 
abolition of passports in favour of British subjects. 

In 1866, to Professor Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S., for 
" discoveries in electricity, magnetism, and chemistry, 
which, in their relation to the industries of the world, 
have so largely promoted Arts, Manufactures, and Com- 
merce." 

In 1867, to Mr. (now Sir) W. Fothergill Cooke and 
Professor (now Sir) Charles Wheatstone, F.R.8., in 
** recognition of their joint labours in establishing the 
first electric telegraph." 

In 1868, to Mr. (now Sir) Joseph Whitworth, F.R.S., 
LL.D., *' for the invention and manufacture of instru- 
ments of measurement and uniform standards, by which 
the production of machinery has been brought to a 
degree of perfection hitherto unapproached, to the great 
advancement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce." 

In 1869, to Baron Justus von Liebig, Associate of the 
Institute of France, Foreign Member of the Royal 
Society, ChevaUer of the L^on of Honour, 4:c., *' for 
his numerous valuable researches and writings, which 
have contributed most importantly to the development 
of food economy and agriculture, to the advancement of 
chemical science, and to the benefits derived from that 
science by Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce." 

In 1870, to M. Ferdinand de Leaseps, "for services 
rendered to Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, by the 
realisation of Uie Suez CanaL" 

In 1871, to Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., "for his important 
services in promoting Arts, Mannfactures, and Com- 
merce, especially in aiding the establishment and develop- 
ment of International Exhibitions, the development ot 
Science and Art, and the South Kensington Museum." 

In 1872, to Mr. Henry Bessemer, ** for the eminent 
services rendered by him to Arts, Manufactures, and 
Commerce, in developing the manufacture of steel." 

The Council invite members of the Society to 
forward to the Secretary, on or before the 12th 
of April, the names of such men of high distinction 
as they may think worthy of this honour. 



386 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Apbil 11, 1873. 



SCOKOMIC USE OF COAL FOB DOMESTIC PUfiPOSES. 

With reference to the smn of £500 placed at the 
difiposal of the Council, through Sir nilliam Bod- 
kin, by a gentleman who does not wish his name 
to appear, for promoting, by means of prizes or 
otherwise, economy in the use of coal for domestic 
purposes, the Council have decided to offer the 
following priees : — 

1. For a new and improved system of grate, suitable to 
existing chimneys as generally constructed, which shall, 
with the least amount of coal, answer best for warming 
and ventilating a room. — The Society's Oold Medal and 
Fiftff Pounds, 

2. For a new and improved system of grate, suitable to 
existing chimneys as generally constructed, which shall, 
with the least amount of coal, best answer for cooking 
food, combined with warming and veniilating the room. 
— The Society's Gold Medal and Fifty Fowids, 

3. For the best new and improved system of apparatus 
which shall, by means of gas, most efficiently and 
economically warm and ventilate a room. — The Society's 
Oold Medal aud Fifty Pounds, 

4. For the best new and improved system of apparatus 
which shall, by means of gas, be best adapted for cook- 
ing, combined with warming and ventilating the room. 
-^The S ciety's Gold Medal and Fifty Pounds. 

5. For any new and improved system or arrangement 
not included in the foregoing, which shall efficiently 
and economically meet domestic requirements. — The 
Society's Gold Medal and Fifty Pounds, 

The Council reserve to themselves the right of 
withholding all or any of the above prizes, as the 
judges appointed by uiem may determine. 

IjQe competing articles must be delivered not 
later than the 1st of December, 1873, with a 
view to their being tested, and subsequently 
shown in the London International Exhibition 
of 1874. 

Further particulars, as to place of delivery and 
other arrangements, will be published as soon as 
they are finally settled. 



PBOCEEDIHOS OF THE SOCIETT. 



nrDIA COMMITTSE. 

A Conference was held on Friday evening, March 
28th, at 8 p.m., Sir Louis Mallet, C.B., Mem- 
ber of the Coundl of India, in the chair. 

The Chairman, in introducing Mr. Blanford to the 
meeting, said the subject about to be presented, though 
not of such sensational interest as that recently brought 
forward with regard to C^itral Asia, was of uie utmost 
importance to the future prospects and prosperity of 
India, and no one was more capable of introducing it. 
The geological survey had been conducted by the branch 
of the service to which Mr. Blanford belonged, under 
great difficulties-— and in some cases dangers — and too 
touch praise conld hardly be given to those who risked 
their health and lives on the task. The mineral 
resources of India were limited in amount, and no very 
great development of wealth could be looked for from 
their working, but it was important to notice that the 
(wo principal articles were coal and iron, the possession 
of whieh exercised a most powerful influence on the in- 
dustrial |>rogre8S of a nation, and materially facilitated 
the carrying out of public works. He feared there was 
no prospect of Indui ever becoming a great manufac- 
turing and exporting nation, but if its mineral resources 
were sufficient for its own internal requirements, it 
would be an immense advantage, and it was, in any case, 
important to know how far such sources of supply might 



be relied upon. Such knowledge wti vov ini] 
for the government, for he feared that for a iod| \ 
come, at any rate, there was little cbaace of ] 
enterprise effecting much in the way of T 
coal and iron in India. 

The paper read was on — 

ON THE MINEBAL BESOUBGIfiOF Wi 

By W. T. BUnfbrd, 

Anoc. Roy. Sch. Min. ; F.G.S. ; Depaty-SoperiMteiMt 
Oeologidd Sorrey of India. 

To give, within the limits of such ap^nrj 
present, anything like a complete acooant ofj 
useful minerals now employed by man, or 
only await more favourable dicnmrtuwil 
render their extraction profitable, in s 
extensive as India, is of course out of the 
All that I can attempt this evening is to 
such a general summary of the present 
our knowledge with respect to the < 
abundance of valuable minerals in Indii itf^ 
enable you to form some idea of the 
available for commercial purposes. 

I shall probably state what is new to 
when I record my conviction that the 
sources of India are chiefly remarkable fot\ 
paucity, that, despite our imperfect 
with the country, we know more of 
many -oaxis of Europe, and that we vn\ 
justmed in bdieving that, althonsh isok ' 
coveries of much value may be made, and 
now useless may be mined with profit rt 
future time, it is improbable that Indis 
become a rich country through the devdc 
its mineral wealth. 

However, I would not be misnndcntooi' 
idea, not yet extinct, that India if ft 
abounding with diamond and gold 
only awaiting the advent of the 
Anglo-Saxon digger and his cradle to 
its treasures, is one in which I 
faith. The greater portion of the 
believe, either destitute of minersl 
those resources occur in a manner whidi 
serious obstacles in the way of their 
The only really important minerals, so te< 
know at present, are ooal and iron orsi, ^ 
these I shall revert presently, first mentki 
briefiy as I can, the useful nunerah 
are found in India, and in the territories,* 
India Proper, which belong to the Indian { 
ment. Tnese minerals are ihe ores d 
silver, lead, and tin; native gold, 
other precious stones, corundum, stlt, 
leum. Some other minerals, such as vi 
of brick clay, slate, or schistose-beds used i 
and the several rocks used for buildiiig " 
must be taken into Consideration 
mineral substances used in l^e arts, 
quently of value, but it would be 
treat of these, even alighthr, witbont^^ 
the usual limits of a paper like the pr^^^^ 

Copper has been found in many _ 
and mmed in several places. At present 
mines in various parts of the Himalajs^ c 
in Kamaon, Qurhwal, Nepal, and 8ukiB* 
are all worked by natives on a very sam 
and the produce is so inoonsidertble fWj" 
Kamaon, where the number of mines tf 
many of them are said to be cz^^*^ 
copper is imported to supply part of tp 



JOtJRNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11, 1873 



387 



d 



.fiw 



iOOppCTi 



Ui iitttempt was made in 1839, at Pokri, 
pbiPVl> to work one of the principal mines by 
jHpBMiBeiliodS) but it was unsuccessful. 
lilAe plains of India, the localities at which 
1^ htt been known to occur are very thinly 
itaod orer the country. Neither this nor any 
bfliPtdesn be expected in the rast alluvial 
m wUch form so large a portion of Northern 
El, Bor in the immense tract of volcanic rocks 
&e greater portion of the Bombay 
and its vicinity ; but even in the areas 
"do rock which cover so large a por- 
flie larface in ^te eastern and southern 
of the Indian Peninsula, metallic ores in 
are remarkaUy scarce. Still copper has 
d at vaiibus times by natives in many 
principal of which are in Rajputana, 
as south-west of Bengal, and Nellore, 
i&d Eudapah, in Madras. At present I 
fsino mines whidi are still regularly carried 
those near Jaipur, in Kajputcuia, of 
in excellent description was given by Col. 
in tiie Journal of the Asiatic Society of 
',i(x 18d4, p. 519, and the out-turn from these 
rfcn large, but, doubtless, a little ore is from 
~ htiBie extracted elsewhere. 

ore appears to exist near Chaibassa, 

a country lying west of Midnapur, 

An extraordinary series of deposits, 

trregnlar lodes and partly dissemmated 

ladiists, extends across the country for at 

unlet. Throuehout all this tract old 

abound, but uiere is much fine ore, 

eaiWate and red oxide of copper, with 

' copper glance, left in places. At least 

rts have been made by Europecms to 

I in these deposits, but, despite some 

the enterprise was not profitable. The 

were not carried to much depth, I 

deeper than the old native mines had 

but the impression left upon the 

of the mines was that the deposits de- 

I m richness below. 

k even less frequently met with in India 

and, where it occurs, is usually 

with that metal. Gkdena, the most 

ore of lead, is iound in Kulu, Chirhwal, 

in the North- West Himalayas, and in 

country there are said to be rich veins 

I, but they have hitherto been but 

I am not aware of any locality in 

of India at which lead ores are now 

but some are found in Ajmir, Raipur, 

^ /Kanml, Kudapah, &c. 

tni deposits are believed to exist in the 

■^provinces and Martaban, tinstone being 

I h m streams which run from the range of 

diridmg the British provinces from 

Artier south, on the flanks of the same 

iN the well-known stream deposits of 

''* Though these Tenasserim tin ores have 

ftlnown, the excessive wildness of the 

ivhicii is covered with forest of the 

"■uUpUon, the extreme paucity of the 

m, the total absence of roads or any 

tmia^, have hitherto prevented aU 

iVorkmg. 

"pa tin has been reported from two or 
ifaot nothing accurate is known of its 

'^M fe OQcor associated with lead in 



uiBeral, 



Kulu and Manbhum. In some galena from the 
latter country as much as 119 oimces of silver to 
the ton of lead was found, but only a small 
quantity of ore was assayed. Similarly in some 
copper ores from Deogurh m the Sonthal perganahs, 
Mr. Piddington foimd about 50 ounces of silver to 
the ton of ore, but other specimens from the same 
locality produced little or no silver. The locality 
in Deogurh I have myself visited, but could trace 
no vein or other regular deposit of ore; the 
minerals containing copper appeared to be irregu- 
larly disseminated m very small qfuantities through 
the rock. 

Gold is found in many parts of India, but always 
in very small (quantities, in stream gravels. It has 
been, and is still occasionally, extracted in several 
parts of the North- West Himalayas, also in Chota 
Nagpur, Manbhum, Singhbhum, and the tributary 
mehals of Orissa, in the Godavari valley, and in 
some places in Southern India. It is also found 
in Assam and in parts of Burmah. In all these 
instances it is obtamed from the gravel and sand 
by rude processes of washing, and the returns are 
so small that only the poorest of the natives are 
occupied in the search, which is, as a rule, practised 
only at the time of year (the spring) when agri- 
cultural labour is suspended. 

Before closing the nst of metals I may mention 
that an ore of cobalt is found in small quantities 
near Jaipur in Bajputana, and is employed, it is 
said, chiefly for colouring enamels. It is probably 
the mineral known in European works as Sye- 
poorite, Syepoor bein^ evidently a mistaken spell- 
mg of Jyepoor or Jaipur. Antimony is found in 
Kulu and Lahaul, and zinc was formerly smelted, 
and may perhaps be so still, at Jawad in Mewar. 
Chromic iron occurs near Salem. 

From the preceding details I think it is evident 
that the metallic ores of India are neither rich nor 
abundant. In most places where they are found 
there are remains of old workings, frequently of 
large extent, and I think that ^is circumstance 
telk stronely against the probability of richer 
deposits bemg discovered, because it shows that 
both mining and smelting have long been practised 
in India. My own belief is that the art of smelt- 
ing has probably been longer known in India than 
in Europe, but to this I will refer again when 

rkking of iron. In speculating on the probable 
every of new mineral deposits, we must bear 
in mind that India is very unlike such countries as 
Australia or America, which, untU recently, were 
inhabited by mere savages. For ages the popula- 
tion of India have been acquainted with many of 
the arts of civilised life, and the great command of 
labour which the rulers of the country possessed 
enabled them to carrv on the processes which 
supplied them with such a desiderata as metals, in 
a manner which would be impossible to wild tribes, 
the greater part of whose existence is spent in a 
struggle to procure food and defend themselves 
from their enemies. It is to the same cause — ^the 
command of labour, given without "pay eta part of 
the service due from the people to their rulers — 
that I am 'inclined to attribute the quantities of 
precious stones, and especially of diamonds, for- 
merly found in India. It is certain that of late 
years comparatively few have been obtained, and 
1 suspect the reason to be that the deposits con- 
taining diamonds, like the ores of copper and the 
auriferous sands and gravels of the rivers, do not 



J 



388 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11, 1873. 



in many instances really pay the expenses of 
working them, and never did so ; but all were 
worked, and to a Rreat extent by the princes of the 
country, to supply the only wealth which they 
oould accumulate, and to furnish the only form of 
magnificence, except large hosts of retainers, which 
they could appreciate. 

Diamonds were formerly found chiefly in the 
coimtry around Kamul, Kuddapah, and EUore, in 
the Madras presidency, near Sambhalpur, on the 
Mahanadi, at Weira^^ad, south-west of Nagpur, 
and at Panna, in Bandelkhand. At the last-named 
place, at Banaganpilly, in Kamul, and a few other 
localities, mines still exist, and a few attempts 
have of late years been made to reopen those near 
ScunUialpur, but without success. Both at Bana- 
ffanpilly and Panna the mines are in rock, the 
diamonds being found in a conglomerate — which, 
however, is clearly not their original matrix ; but 
some of the^ggings at Banaganpilly are in gravel, 
the materials of which arc derived from the 
diamond-bearing strata, and at the other places 
enumerated all the workings appear to have been 
in loose deposits. 

Although rubies, sapphires, and other precious 
stones are found in Ceylon, Independent Burma, 
and in the countries north-west of the Himalayas, 
I know of no locality in British India where 
they are now obtained ; and the only stones pro- 
onred for jewellery to any extent are the agates, 
camelians, and other forms of quartz derived from 
the trap-rooks of Central ana Western India, or 
from deposits resulting from the denudation of the 
traps. The largest number of e^ate pebbles are 
found in the neighbourhood of a small village called 
Batanpur, not far from Broach, and in uie Ner- 
budda valley ; and the pebbles are worked by the 
lapidaries of Cambay andJabalpur. The camelians 
from the former locality were known in the time of 
the Romans. 

Although the purest forms of sapphires are not 
found in India, 'tne coarse varieties, or corundmn, 
are met with in several places in Mysore and Salem, 
and in Bewah, where a oed occurs several yards in 
thickness, associated with jade. 

I may pass over most of the miscellaneous sub- 
stances which are mined in India, such as the sid- 
phur and borax of the North- West Himsdayas, the 
greater part of the latter, indeed, coming from 
beyond the British boundary ; the mica of Behar, 
the shales from which alum is made in Kajputana, 
Sind, and the Himalayas, the graphite of nfamaon, 
Bikkim, and Travancore, &o. Petrolcimi has not 
hitherto been obtained in any quantity in British 
territory, although a considerable supply is pro- 
Cured in Upper Burma, and some is known to exist 
in Pegu and also in Assam. A small quantity also 
oozes from the ground f^t several places in the Pun- 
jab, and a few years since gas-works were erected 
at Rawul Pindi, and, I believe, pipes laid down, 
with the intention of utilising the mineral oil for 
the purpose of lighting this station. Whether this 
has been carried into effect or not I do not know ; 
by the last accoimts I have heard, .it appeared 
probable that the supply of petroleum procurable 
was insufficient for the purpose. It is impossible 
not to express surprise that this point was not 
ascertiunea before any expenditure upon gas-works 
was allowed. 

The salt of the Punjab salt r&ng^ is one of the 
most valuable minerals of India. The supply has 



been pronounced by excellent authoiitiet to 
practically inexhaustible ; indeed. Dr. Oldlttaii 
clares that nowhere else in the world are 
of such vast extent and purity known to oooir. 
government revenue from the salt exceeds 
per annum. 

Having thus briefly noticed the known 
ores and other minertds of our Indian potf 
exclusive of the ores of iron and of coal, 1 1 
proceed, before speaking of the iron ores, toj 
scribe the distribution of the various coal- 
and the value, so far as it is known, of the 
be obtained from them, since the future 
of the iron manufacture in India depend 
upon the presence or absence of mineral 
the neighbourhood of the ore deposits. A 
by Dr. Oldham, in 1867, on the coal resoi 
production of India, being a return called 
H.M. Secretary of State, eives a oc 
account of the Indian coal-fields known 
time, and of the progress which had been 
working them. Since 1867 much additional 
mation has been obtained concerning the 
fields in the central provinces, cspeciaily 
the basin of the Gooavari and its affluc 
considerable progress in the task of ma] 
examining tne coal-bearing rocks in 
'B&agal, 

The known coal-fields of India are mosllyi 
prised in a somewhat broad tract of country j 
mg from the neighbourhood of Calcutta, 
a line which may be roughly drawn pan 
the coast of the Bay of Bengal, but at a 
of between 100 and 150 miles from the 
about the 78th parallel of east longitude, or •] 
east of Nagpur. This tract is bordered ' 
plaui of the Oanges valley on the 
extends locally a little beyond the Godavaoi 
south. Outside of this limit the only 
of any promise are some in Upper 
deposits of small coal are found in the 
in the salt range in the Punjab, and in. 
serim. Discoveries of coal have been 
in several other places, but all have, when: 
into, proved to be of no practical value. 

It may confidently be stated that 
the peninsula of India, south of the liver 
(and, in fact, south of the Godavari, 
exception of a tract not extending mort 
300 miles from the coast of the Bay of 
throughout the whole of Western India, 
the Bombay presidency in its entirety, 
Gwalior, Indore, Guzerat, Kachh, and 
the North-West Provinces, the whole 
plain, and the Himalayas, not only is no 
coal known, but it is highly improbal 
throughout the greater portion of the 
possible — that any will ever be discovered. 
Punjab a few deposits, not of true coal, 
ligmte, have been met with, but Uie que 
very small and the quality inferior. It li 
evident that (mly a very small part of IniSa i 
considered as coal-produdng ; and ei 

the boundary I have nointed out, the _ 

are in general but thimy scattered. Part tS 
country is still very imperfectly knowa* 
large portion has been carefully oxaminoJL 

All the coals contained in the IndianT 
two or three very trifling exceptions, JBOQmT 
one geological formation, known to IiimA0 
gists as the Damuda, the name beang 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, April 11, 1873. 



389 



K mcroD iMch the Raniganj and several other 
^4itfB« oocnr. The geological age of this 
iBHiMi has long been a matter of dispute, but 
llwdiKly ascertained to be the same as that 
(ftsAostnlian ooal, and to differ very little, if 
I A from ihe carboniferous group of beds in 
The fossil plants associated with the 
of India, however, differ greatly from those 
ffte Earopean coal measures, and the Indian 
itself is very dissimilar, both in quality and 
vinoe, its most characteristic distinction being 
ftiusHive lamination, due to its consisting of 
layers of very bright and very dull 
16 former a pure coal, containing a 
|roportion of volatUe matter and but little 
iW latter eartiiy, and ^^uentiy shale rather 

I eoal basins may be roughly divided into four 
i:— Isi Those of B^igal, including the coals 
Bsjmahal hills, and valley of the Damuda. 
Those of Bewah, Sirguja, Bilaspur, Chutia, 
uid the tributary mehals of Ori^. 3rd. 
\d the Kerbudda valley and the hills to the 
of it 4th. Those of Chanda and the God- 
jtiUty. I will enumerate the diffierent coal- 
areas in each group. • 

imtikal Bills, — Along the western face of 

I Mb, which run north and south from the 

kboorfaood of Rajmahal on the Ganges, there 

' small fields, from which some coal was 

during the construction of the East India 

r,in order to supply fuel for brick and lime 

The extent of the fields it is difficult to 

tiiQ coal-bearing rocks are covered 

edces in many cases by higher beds. In 

all basin, one of which occurs in every large 

rlnvo^g the hills, are several seams of coal, 

[in tilickness from three to twelve feet, but 

is not in most cases equal to that of the 

aoal seams in the Raniganj field. 

Mniganj, — ^This ia at present by far the most 

of tiie Indian coal fields, nearly tiie 

of the coal mined in India being obtained 

[ft In 1868, the last year of widch I have 

"ly details, the coal extracted through- 

wbde of India was about 497,000 tons, of 

ite 4.000 tons were obtained from all the 

ooal Adds, the remainder being from the 

'^ field. There has been no very great in- 

i& the produce of other coal fields since 

^^^ perhaps the exception of the Kurhurbari 

Kttiganj field commences at a distance of 

110 nfies to the ncwth-west of Calcutta, and 

fourteen miles in extreme breath from cast 

ttd eighteen from north to south. To the 

'Coal-bwtting rocks are covered by alluvial 

aiid it ii uncertain what are the limits of 

^^ in that direction. The known area 

^pt»Mn 500 and 600 square miles, a 

of which, about one-fifth, is covered 

with formations of later age that 

left out of consideration in caculat- 

v«a available for the production of coal. 

As of eoal are numerous, and many of them 

JJfr qnaHty, suiBoiently good at all events 

porposes, for the JBMt India Railway, 

wways, which start from Calcutta 

^ae» tiiey were opened, been worked 

^J^^iiid mm Raniganj. The different 

vary in ^ckness from 4| to 



kttall 



M 



t 



35 feet, and many of them vary in this respect 
within short distances. The seams near Raniganj 
itself, where the workings are more extensive uian 
elsewhere, show but little variation, and are of 
more imif orm quality than those in tiie north and 
west of the field, where, however, much good coal 
exists. 

Although this coal-field is better known than any 
other, I do not think that mining operations are 
sufficiently advanced to enable any trustworthw 
estimate of the probable yield of coal to be f ormea. 
Unquestionably there is an enormous quantity 
avaUable. Dr. Oldham estimates it roughly 4t 
14,000 million tons, but in truth, many seams, 
perhaps all, vary in thickness, and we nave not 
data for any accurate determinations. Li 1860, 
there were altogether about 60 collieries at wozic, 
many of them, however, being nothing more than 
smaU open quarries ; the number of the latter has 
since diminished, but the output of coal had 
doubled in ten years. 

The Raniganj coal-field is traversed by the chord 
line of the East India Railway, and there is also a 
branch line to some of the collieries. To this, and 
to its being the nearest field to Calcutta, is due the . 
much greater development of industry in mining 
this field than in any other part of India. 

3. Jherria, — This field commences only ten miles 
to the west of the Raniganj coal-beaiing tract. It 
is twenty-one miles from east to west, nine miles 
from north to south, and contains numerous seams 
of coal, some of t^em of great thickness. No 
collieries exist. The coal, so far as it has been ex- 
amined, api)ears somewhat inferior in quality to 
the better seams near Raniganj, but this is a 
question which can never be fairly decided without 
mining. 

4. Sokaro, — A long strip of coal-bearing rocks, 
commencing within a mile of the western end of 
the Jherria field, and extending forty miles from 
east to west, with a breadth from north to south 
never exceeding seven and a half miles. The coal 
is, so far as is known, inferior both in quantity 
and quality to that of Ranigunj, but it is not 
worked. 

5. Ramgarh, — ^A small field, thirbr square miles 
in extent, south of the last, and of the same 
character. 

6. Hoharo^ or Kdranpura Coal-jields, — ^Two basins 
of coal-bearing rocks, respectively 472 and 72 
square miles in extent, lying immediately west of 
the last-named fields, and due south of the civil 
station of Heusaribagh. They contain, apparently, 
a considerable quantity of coal of fair quality. 

All the above-named coal-fields are in the valley 
of the Damuda, (dong which they form a slightly 
interrupted belt of coal-bearing rocks, extending 
for 150 miles, and occupying at least 1,500 square, 
miles of cotmtry. As the extent of the Ramganj 
field to the eastward is unknown, this estimate is 
probably below the truth, and my colleague, Mr. 
Hughes, estimates the area of coal-bearing rocka 
in the Damuda valley at 2000 square miles. Ovei* 
at least one half of this area, workable coal seams, 
of considerable thickness, occur within a distance 
not exceeding 1,000 feet from the surface. There 
is, however, a ^^ual diminution in the thickness 
of the coal-bearing formations to the westward, 
and the number of coal seams appears, also, to 
diminish. 

7. Kurhurbari. — ^A small field, only comprising 



390 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11, 1873. 



18 square miles, of which 8} contain prodnctiTe 
seams of coal, lliis little tract is in the valley of 
the Barakar, a tributary of the Damuda, and it 
lies to the north of the fields previously men- 
tioned. It is 25 miles distant from the chord line 
of the East India railway, and a branch has been 
made to connect the two. The quality of the ooal 
is unusually good for India, equal or superior to 
the best foimd in the Haniganj field. Mr. Hughes, 
after a very careful survey of this field, which, 
from its small size, affords better means of calcu- 
lation than the more extensive basins of the 
Damuda valley, considered that there was suffi- 
cient coal, after a liberal allowance for waste, to 
supply an out-turn of 250,000 tons per annum for 
800 years. I place very small reliance upon all 
such estimates, but still they may give a rough 
approximation to the truth, and they are as likdy 
to oe too small as too large. 

The coUieries now worked in the Kurhurbari 
coal-field belong to the East India railway com- 
pany, and I believe it has been found profitable 
to carry coals for the use of the railway through- 
out its whole length, and that they can compete 
successfully in the Panjab lines with the wood 
fuel which is almost the only local supply in the 
extreme north-west of India. 

I omit from the list some small fields near 
Deogurh, in the Santhal Parguiahs, east of the 
Kurburbari field, and of the Itkuri field to the 
west, as no coal of any value has been obtained 
from either, and the fields are of very small ex- 
tent. 

The second ^oup of coal-fields consists of a 
number of basins scattered thinlv over an im- 
mense tract of the wildest coimtry m India. None 
of them are thoroughly explored, and it is highly 
probable that when the whole country is geo- 
logically surveyed, the number of coal-bearing 
localities will be largely increased. Great ad- 
ditions to our knowledge have been made during 
the topographical survey of these regions, co^ 
being now marked on the maps in several places 
where it was before unknown. I shall merely 
mention the principal localities. 

8. Palamaan (Pfdamow), or Daltonganj , in Chota 
Nagpur, a field about 30 square miles in extent 
Not much coal, but a colliery once existed. 

9. South Rewah Fields. — Coal exists over a tract 
of country about 40 miles in length by 20 in 
breadth. 

10. Fields of Upper Son Valley, — These are very 
extensive, but do not appear to be rich, the only 
seams known being thin and of poor quality. 

11. txelds of Sirgujoy jBilaspury in Fastetn 
Chattsffarhj and country west of Chota Nagrmr, — 
I class these together, as all we Imow of them is that 
seams of coal, many of them of great thickness, 
occur in several places. At Korba, on the Hasdo 
river, a seam is exposed altogether 89 feet in 
thickness, of which 50 feet is c^, the rest shale. 
The coal, however, on assay, yielded a large quan- 
tity of ash. These fields will become importiuit in 
the event of a direct line of railway bung made 
from Calcutta to Nagpur. 

12. Talehir, — This field is on the Brahmini river, 
about 50 miles north-west of Katak. No coal of 
any value has been found in it. 

The third group of coal->fields comprises those in 
the Nerbudda valley, and the hills of the Satpura 
range to the south of the river. One locality is of 



ffreat importance from its proximity to the 
Sie Great Indian Peninsula railway. Beddeii 
fields noticed hereafter, small quantities of 
occur at Lameta Ghat, Sher river, I^kartoH 
other places, and from the finrt-tuamed s 
flidemlue quantity of inferior fuel has beeoi it ' 
extnicted for local purposes, but no TsliiiUii 
posits are known^ to exist. It is not my^ 
however, that some may occur conoealed 
lying formations. 

13. Jfo0afii.~This is the spot at which ^\ 
leries of the Nerbudda Coal and Ir<Hi " 
situated. The seam, so far as it is known,) 
to average about 25 feet in thickness, but 
to the h^h dips, numerous faults and djkei, 
to the simdl extent to which boring hsi Wk 
been attempted, the prospects of this field sis i 
obscure. I learn that Mr. Medhoott, 
superintendent of the geolop;ioal smvey, hn 
specially detached to examine the neiglibooz 
by boring in tiie course of the present seswn. 

14. Ta¥>a Valley, — Several seams of ooil 
near Rawandyo, l>etween Betul and Hoihin 
about 35 miles south of the Great Indiin 
sula Railway. My own opinion of theie 
was rather imfavourable. 

15. Umretf near Chindwara, — Sevenl 
fair coal exist, and extend apparently orer i • 
siderable tract of country. 

The last group consists of ooal-fieldfl onl 
edge of the great sandstone tract wkibh ocd 
the valley of the Gh>davari and its tribntantti| 
Pranhita and Wm^a, from the neighbo 
of Nagpur to near Ellore. Workable coal is 
to exist in two localities. 

16. Wardha JRiver, or Berar, and Chani* 
Considering the very recent period at wbioh 
tion was £nwn to this important seiieiolj 
deposits, more has been ascertained codo 
the beds than in any other coal-fields in 
This is due to the circumstance that all pr^ 
explorations have been carried out by tbe ' 
of government, and before any expensiTe 
were commenced. The existence of a TerfJ 
seam of carboniferous shale and coal, alt _ 
to 70 feet in thickness, and containing a fair^ 
portion of useful fuel, has been proved oteraf 
area in the Central Provinces and Berar, i 
recurs a few miles further south in the Kd 
territories. The quality of the coal hithetto 
though inferior to the best seams of Banigi 
Kurhurbali, is sufficiently good for railwiT 
poses, and it is rarely the case in a coal-fieW 
the best coal is the first discovered. 

17 Kamarum, — This is in the extreme 
portion of the Hydrabad territory, and 
miles north-west of Ellore. Two seams of 
nine and six feet in thickness respeotit^i 
been found, and they are of good quali^' 
they have only been traced over a small ^ 
country, not exceeding a quarter ^of a 
mile. 

18 Sinyareny,--^ miles south-east of tbij 
and 30 nules north by east of Kamamet T^^ 
ness of the coal is unknown, and fnither m 
is necessary, but the locality is interorting Ml 
the most southern yet known in India. 

It is probable that other coal seams rBmamj 
disoov^ed in the Godavari valley. ^^^^ 
been observed near Dumag^dem, the ^^^^^^ 
of the navigation works at the fint baiw 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11, 1878. 



891 



pbotnone aa yet found is sufficiently good 
lo be of much value, 
ooe Doint in connection with the dis- 
of ooal throughout the different basins 
''^~ of notice, and that is the much 
of the coal-bearing rocks to the 
and the circumstances that the coal 
them is mostly concentrated in one bed 
thickness, consisting of alternations of 
Idiale. In the Baniganj field, where the 
formations attain their iriq-xim'^TTi 
consist of two groups, the upper 
thick, the lower 2,0(X), each contaimng 
of ooal. The upper group entirely 
or is replaced by rocks containing no 
the westward, wlulst the lower group 
greatly in thickness. It is but GW) feet 
in the Nerbudda valley, and even 
whilst the ooal is chiefly con- 
each case in one large seam, 25 to 30 feet 
first named locality, 60 to 70 (coal and 
-) at the last. 

the subject of coal there are two 
im the extreme north-east of India which 

ttion, these are — 
Hills. — Some coal of excellent quality 
these hills, but the quantity is limited, 
locality about 4,000 feet above the 

of the most promising coal-fields 

in the Indian possessions occurs in 

in the Dibrughar and Sibsagur 

Scarcely anything is known of it as yet 

existence of several seams of excellent 

only from two to five per cent, of 

~y the localities, almost at the 

end of the Assam valley, and in a 

inhabited and covered with forest, 

e for commercial enterprise. 

hitherto met with in Burmah is mere 

the possible exception of a bed recently 

at Manlmain, concerning which,however, 

trustworthy information. As the ex- 

by the discovery appears to have 

by complete silence on the subject, 

is of the same small value as other 



above details it will be evident that in 
of India to which coal-bearing rocks 
there is a practically inexhaustible 
the mineral. All the coal-fields, how- 
iflu* from the coast, and the majority are 
led districts, far from the gi*eat 
oommeroe and lines of nulway. When 
moreover, to compare Indian coal with 
countiies, we shall find a starthns; dif- 
<Iiiality. Some of the Assam coals are 
in burning, but, with this exception, 
ooals are freebuming, and they will not 
coke, although an inferior coke-like 
may be procured from some of them, and 
employed in manufactures with ad- 
AU ordinary Indian coals contain from 
I per cent, of ash, or even more, and the 
of fixed carbon rarely exceeds 60 per 
of the best known coal seams of 
^ field, wj^ch contain 10 to 15 per cent. 
* carbon is but little over 50 per 
»\ composition obtained/ &x>m 
ooala from 74 different localities, 
(Ndhim's report, is :— 



Fixed carbon 62*2 

Volatile by heat 31-9 

Ash 16-6 

Whilst the average of five specimens of English 
coal sold in the Calcutta market, assayed at the 
same time for the purpose of comparison, gave : — 

Fixed carbon 68*1 

Volatile 29-2 

Ash 2-7 

The result of various trials on Indian railways has 
been that it requires from half as much again to 
twice as much of Indian coal as it does of average 
English coal to do the same amount of work, or, 
in other words, that Indian coals are capable of 
doing only one-half to tijtro-tbirds the duty of 
English. 

G^ie use of Indian coal has hitherto been restricted 
to railways, river steam-boats, and stationary 
engines. For sea-going vessels it is very rarely 
us^, owing to the mrffer bulk taken up by it, and 
the larger staff of firemen and coal trimmers 
required, in consequence of the increased quantity 
of coal burnt and of the resulting ash. Even 
should the price of English coal continue to 
advance, its place in sea-going vessels will probably 
be taken by Australian coal, of which a constantly- 
increasing quantity has of late years been imported 
into India. 

For the development of the coal - producing 
industrv of India we must, therefore, look to looiu 
demand, and, above all, to railways «^d manu- 
factures. If the manufacture of iron in India by 
means of Indian coal could be successfully 
established, a greater impetus would be gi ^en to 
coal-mining than by any other means. I tee no 
reason why, with careful selection, Indian coals 
should not be employed in manufacturing iron. 
Care will have to oe taken in the selection, some 
ooal containing too much sulphur, whilst in certain 
kinds an unusual proportion of phosphorus enters 
into the com^sition of the aui, and doubtless 
other difficulties will be met with at first, but, 
although the first attempts may be failures, I con- 
fidently look forward to ultimate success. 

As its gold, copper, and precious stones formed 
the mineral wealth of India in the past, and its 
coal and salt are its richest productions at the 
present day, I cannot but think that its iron ores 
will prove its most valuable mines in the future. 
Unlike the ores of the rarer metals and the coal, the 
iron-producing minerals of India are widely 
scattered ; and except in the alluvial plains and the 
trap area, there are few parts of tne country in 
which none are found, whilst some of the deposits 
are unsurpassed in either quality or abundance. 

The iron ores of India may mostly be comprised 
under three groups : — 

Ist. Magnetic and specular iron ores, and red 
haematite, m beds or veins, amongst metamoxphio 
and subcrystalline rocks. 

2nd. Clay iron ores from the coal-bearing strata, 
and beds of brown haematite in other stratifiedrooks. 

3rd. Surface deposits originally derived from 
metamorphic and sedimentary strata, or from the 
rock kno\ni as laterite. These deposits usually 
contain either magnetic iron sand or nodules of 
brown haematite# £aterite itself often contains from 
20 to 30 per cent, of iron, and some may be suffi- 
ciently nch for smelting. 

The first group comprises the moit valuable ores 




892 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apmb 11, 187S. 



of India. It may be again subdivided into two 
sub-groups, the beds of magnetic or specular ore 
in tbe crystalline rocks, and the veins and irregular 
deposits, mostly of heematite, found in several of the 
oloer formations, To the former belong the great 
deposits of Chanda and Salem, and some of those 
in Kamaon ; to the latter, the ores of Bandelkhand, 
the Nerbudda valley, and South-east Berar. The 
supply in many cases is practically inexhaustible. 
Perhaps the most remarkable deposits are those 
near Salem, in the Madras Presidency, consisting 
of immense beds from 50 to 100 feet thick, or even 
more, the outcrop of which may often be traced f pr 
miles. One of these commences about nine miles 
east of Salem, and forms the ridge of a hill 1,500 
fedt high, and four miles long. Again, on Kun- 
jamullay hill, six miles west-south-west of Salem, 
there are five bands of magnetic iron from 20 to 50 
feet thick, and they can be traced all round the hill, 
which is four miles in length. These are only two 
instances out of a large number. At Lohara, in 
the Chanda district. Central Provinces, there is a 
hiU, nearly two miles long and half a mile broad, 
the surface of which is covered with masses of 
almost pure iron ore, a mixture of specular iron and 
magnetic, vielding to assay 70 per cent, of metallic 
iron. So far as I conld make out, the whole mass 
of the hiU appeared to consist of this ore. Some 
thinner bands of magnetic iron ores occur in the 
gneissic rocks at the southern edge of the Baniganj 
co^field. 

The chief ores of Bandelkhand and the Kerbudda 
valley consists of haematite contained in veins and 
breociated masses, or in local deposits, often of great 
extent and richness, derived from the denudation 
of the breccias. Although these deposits do not 
approach in abundcuice the wonderful masses last 
referred to, they are able to afford a large quantity 
of excellent ore. 

The clay iron ores of the Baniganj and other 
fields of the Damuda valleT are similar to those of 
the English coalfields, and the quantity is large. 
A large series of specimens from the Baniganj coal- 
field yielded on assay an average of nearly 39 per 
cent, of iron. In the other coalfields these beds 
are either sparingly distributed or wanting. In 
some places there are large deposits of hsamatite 
near the base of the coal measures. 

The principal iron ore of Kamaon is obtained 
from an argillaceous band, containing large (quanti- 
ties of red heematite, with smaller proportions of 
brown hsematite in the tertiary sub-mmalayan 
rocks. The ore bed is from 10 to 20 feet thick ; it 
has been traced for a long distance, but it appeemi 
to be only locally rich. 

The various simace deposits supply a great por- 
tion of the ores used by the native smelters, but 
much labour is necessary in collection, and the 
quantity procurable is often insufficient for lorae 
works. Still, these deposits would in places yield 
a very considerable supply, and might oe usefully 
employed mixed with the richer ores. 

I cannot better terminate this x>aper than by a 
very brief account of the native iron manufacture 
in India and a short notice of the efforts hitherto 
made by the government and private individuals 
to introduce smelting on a lar^r scale. 

The iron manufacture in India dates from a 
period far beyond the range of history. In many 
parts of the country stone circles, cromlechs, 
tdstvaens and similar relics occur^ precisely similar 



m Qm 



s 



to those found in Europe, but whereas, 
European localities, the only implements 
beneath these ancient remains are of bIodb 
bronze, in India, in numerous iustaiioes, 
and other objects of iron have been met 
is not, of course, certain that the stone 
the two countries are contemporaneoiifl. but ijjj 
there appears every probability that those d &M 
are of greater antiquity than the eailiest VH 4 
iron in Europe. ^ * 

The present method of making ircmvarie 
whatin different localities, but generally the 
is carried on in a small day fumaoe, three to 
feet high, and about a foot in diameter var 
The blast is supplied in Bengal, Ori«a, 
Northern Circars, Bastar, the lower Ouikii| 
Valley, &c., by foot bellows of peoi^iar 
tion, elsewhere by the ordinary Indian 
bellows, worked by the hand. The fuel 
is charcoal, and no fiux is used. The 




usuaUy lasts ei^ht to ten hours, after which a 
of impure malleable iron, weighing from t 
twenly pounds, is found in t£e bottom of 
furnace. This is purified by reheating in an flfri 
hearth and hammering. The resulmig izottj 
usually of excellent qu&ty. ' 

There are various modifications of this 
On the Godavari I found a wandering 
tribe of blacksmiths, who simply mix ore 
charcoal inahole in the ground, ana bythe 
foot-bellows extract a small mass of iron, whidii 
proceed at once to hammer into any xm^ 
which may be required. In Bhirbhom, on 
other hand, there are furnaces which produce l 
wards of a hundredweight per diem. Tlie 
provemont in this case was first made 
Englishman, but has been adopted by the 
But, however modified, the process is 
rough and wasteful, the amount of li^>ouraiidl 
proportion of fuel necessary being excessive, 
the quantity of iron produced is veiy azualL 
natives engaged in the work are of the lotwesti 
and are always miserably poor. The 
of iron throughout India is rapidly decieofli^Brl 
consequence of the forests being cleared. 

The idea of introducing European 
smelting dates from the commenoement of 
century, when, owingto the war, the intn 
of charcoal iron into England had become < 
and it is curious to note uiat the original 
of the first association which ever 
manufacture iron on a large scale in India 
supply the wants of England. The arigiDiI 
moter, lAr, Heath, a l^&dras civilian, ai 
the Government of Madras for aid in Ids < 
to start iron works, and thus commences a 
curious history, told, with great prolixity, is 
Parliamentarybluebooks. ^e first tranaaclioni 
perhaps, the most remarkable of the whole. 
Government of Madras didnotlike to adTanoei 
for the establishment of iron works, but the^ 
Mr. Heath a contract to supply the gove 
with cotton, with the intention that he 
apply the profits derived from the cotton 
to his iron manufacture. Unf ortimAtely te 
latter, the price of cotton rose, and ka^bmi 
profiting, Mr, Heath lost by his ocmtract. Hicnf 
ever; he still kept to his project, and about i^ 
succeeded in obtaining an advance of moorsy frd 
^vemment and in forming a ocnnpaiiy to e^sh^ 
iron works at Porto Novo, near thMkixtt% aos^ 



JOUKNAL OP THE SOOIeTY OF ARtS, April li, ISli. 



393 




€ HilWi Foiamputee, near Salem, Trincomalee, 
«IBqppoor, in Malabar. The former com- 

" to woik about the year 1833. 
'mnld be tedious to go through the long 
Monr of the Madras iron works. From beginning 
^4M it is one unbroken tale of Hi-success, despite 
«M from, the gOTemment, and all the share- 
including Mr. Heath, lost largely. One 
failed, and another was started to ts^ke 
Several serious errors appear to have 
ooumitted, one of the principal of these 
Hie distazice of the works at Porto Kovo 
Ifae supplies of ore and charcoal ; another the 
eonstmction of the works in the first 
The gradually-increasing cost of char- 
m consequence of the destruction of forests 
fte works, cmd the distance from which it 
to bring fuel, also added to the 
but after every allowance has been made, 
collapse of the underteJdng, and its 
He results from beginning to end, are 
to understand. The works were, I beUeve, 
ghren up about 1860. 

attempt at least was made to establish iron 
at Baniganj, and one at Jubalpiu*, but they 
Id nothing, and, in the former case at all 
no furnace was ever built. 
before and after the mutinies, the com- 
t of railways in India, and the conse- 
damand for iron, seem to have greatly 
attempts at manufacture. One or two 
attempts had already been made in Bengal, 
18S7 Mr. Sowerby, an engineer, was en- 
W^the government to report on the iron 
<tf Kamaon, and, subsequently, to construct 
At the same time some blast- 
were built in the same country by private 
,* all proved failures. Another attempt 
hy a Calcutta merchant, at Mahamad- 
r Sun, in Bhirbhmn, at a distance of 
100 milea from Calcutta, and close to the 
the Bast India Bailway. I was ordered 
upon these works in 1860, and their 
afipearad to me fair, the only doubtful 
bong ^e supply of charcoa^. However, 
e abandoned shortly afterwards. Lastly, 

were erected by the government, at 

on the Kerbudda, under the direction of 

, a very able Swedish metallurgist. 

tbis was by far the most promising at- 

tr made to construct iron-works in Sidia. 

was admirably suited for the work ; 

had much experience in making iron with 

and was at the same time a good metal- 

^trith sufficient scientific knowledge to enable 

o ?erc o me difficulties. After many assays 

linary difficulties had been overcome, 

were ready for the production of iron, 

_ was required except the aid of some 

workmen to superintend the natives; 

le, unfortunately, Colonel (then Cap- 

the present Chief Commissioner of 

ivinoes, to whom the establishment 

was due, had been transferred to other 

ctistanoe, and, there being no one to urge 

of oompleting the experiment, the 

__, in a fit of economy, after spending 7^ 

^000), dismissed Mr. Mitander and closed 

which tiiey offered for sale, naturally 

This was in 1864. 

icon works had, to the best of my 



belief, a fairer chance of success than any others 
which have ever been attempted in India. Ore and 
limestone aboimded in the neighbourhood, and a 
large forest, extending for many miles to the East and 
North-east, furnished a sufficient supply of charcoal. 
Above all, a competent manager was in charge. It 
is greatly to be regretted that tiie experiment was 
never fully carried out, and that, after the lar^e 
expenditure made, it was never ascertained by trial 
whether iron could be made with profit or not. 
Equally unfortunate is it that no record has been 
published of Mr. Mitander*s various experiments 
of the plans adopted by him for burning and storing 
charcoal, &c. Snould new works be started all will 
have to be done over again. The works have now 
been made over to Holkar, with the territory on 
which they stand. 

All the iron works I have mentioned employed 
charcoal for fuel ; the use of Indian coal for iron 
smelting has yet to be attempted. Several men of 
experience have been sent out at various times by 
the government of India to report on the prospects 
of iron manufacture, and last autumn Mr. Bauer- 
man was despatched for the same purpose. It is 
to be hoped that his report will lead to some 
definite result. The increasing price of iron in 
England is most favourable to the chance of the 
manufacture proving profitable in India. 

I will sum up in as few words as possible my 
views as to the mineral resources of India. The 
known ores of copper, lead, and silver, and the 
deposits containing gold and diamonds, are of 
small value. Valu^le tin ores exist in the 
Tenasserim provinces, and still more valuable beds 
of salt in the Punjab. Coal abounds, but is limited 
to a comparativelv small portion of the country, 
and the quality is mf erior ; iron ores occur plenti- 
fully, but hitherto they hove been very little 
worked. I think I am justified in my opinion that 
India, taken as a whole, cannot be considered rich 
in minerals. . 



DISCUSSION. 

Xr. Hyde Clarke inquired what wore the mining laws 
of India, and if any new ones had been lately passed ? 

Xr. Blanford said he could give no inforaiation on 
that point. 

Xr. Dantry said he believed there wore no special laws, 
bat that the government regulations were favourable 
to mining enterprise. 

Xr. Blanford understood that the minerals were the 
property of the government, except in Bengal, where 
the permanent settlement prevailed, where they had 
been allowed to become the property of the landowner. 

Xr. Brew thought it had always been the role that 
minerals should l^long to the Crown, though there were 
cases in which, when the revenue was settled, even for a 
short period, they were allowed to go with the land. 
He had known such cases in the Punjab. He was ac- 
quainted with some of the copper mines in the north- 
west comer of the Himalayas, but the deposits were not 
rich, and, as a general rule, it was found impossible to 
>work minextds with advantage in the moimtam districts. 
With regard to coid and iron, however, he was more 
hopeful. 

Xr. Wilde, who was acquainted with Singhbhum, said 
an apparently rich deposit of copper had been found 
there, but it was soon worked out, and the mines had 
to be abandoned. He was also interested in the Nerbuddr 
Coal and Iron Company, and might mention tiliat a nr 



394 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11," 




•haft waa now being aonk there, whioh waa expected to 
be 700 feet deep before reaching the ooaL The character 
of the strata waa yet far from aocarately determined, there 
was a good deal of trap rock, and disappointment was offcen 
experienced. It was still belitjved, however, that there was 
a large quantity of coal yet to be discovered. The great 
advantage of these coalfields lay in the &ct of their biaing 
the nearest to a line of railway, so that the coal can be 
readily disposed of. He had always nnderstood that a 
comparison of native with ordinary English coal showed 
the former to be about one-third inferior, but he had 
lately taken the quantities consumed respectively 
on the East Indian Railway and the Eastern Bengal, 
both of which burnt native coal ; the Great Indian 
Peninsular, bumiog Ihiglish coal exclusively ; and the 
Bombay and Baroda, burning it chiefly ; and the result, 
dividing the total quantity of coal consumed by the 
train mileage, seemea to show an inferiority on the part 
of the native coal of only one-tenth. This of course was 
but an approximate mode of estimating it, and there 
might be a difference in the construction of the loco- 
motives, which would affect the result. 

Oen. Vaughan said he had had experience only of the 
salt mineb in the Punjab, which were very interesting. 
There were two kinds of salt, one which was dug out of 
the bowels of the earth, in the Punjab, the working 
forming the most beautiful crystalline grottoes, the pre- 
vailing colour being white, thoueh it sometimes assumed 
a pink or reddish hue— the oUier being found in the 
beds of ravines and nullahs in the Trans- Indus country 
of Afghanistan. This kind of salt was found in large 
masses, two being often a good load for a bullock. There 
was an immense trade in salt, which was carried almost 
to Central Asia— certainly beyond the outlying districts 
of the Punjab and the Afghan tribes ; and formerly 
there had been an immense deal of smuggling, but this 
was now almost entirely prevented by improved regula* 
tions. This salt from the nullahs of the Trans-£idus 
country differed from that of the Punjab, in being a 
grey colour, but it was considered to be even more 
savoury or to possess more saline properties than the 
white. The salt mines of the Punjab were quite one of 
the curiosities of the neighbourhooa, and were visited by 
Lord Dalhousie, who was much interested in them. 

Mr. Hyde Clarke said, from the account given 
of the early iron workings there could hardly be any 
doubt that they must Imve existed for thousands of 
years, and the i>robability was that similar processes 
were carried on in Europe by the same races who de- 
veloped those monuments to which reference had been 
made, and which were perfectly conformable in the 
east and west. Thus identically the same process 
which Mr. Blanford had described as pursued by a 
gipsy-like tribe in India, he had seen followed by 
people who ^ had migrated from India in the more 
western portions of Asia ; and the same thing might 
be seen in Hungary ^d elsewhere. He could not 
agree in the conclusion as to the exhaustion of the 
deposits at the present day on the ground that they 
had been worked at former periods. No doubt the 
ancient miners displayed great industry ; the Homans, 
for instance, were good engineers and indefatigable 
workers, and yet it was well known that in nearly 
every quarter of the globe where they had carried on 
their operations they might still be pursued with suc- 
cessful results. In this country there were remains of 
Roman mining operations both in Cornwall and in 
Cumberland, and in both places their abandonment 
was no proof of the exhaustion of the ores. The fact 
was that the appliances of the Romans, ingenious as 
they were, as described in the classic au^ors, were 
not 8ufl5cient^ to exhaust the resources of the mines. 
The same thing applied in Spain and other countries, 
and, therefore, he drew the conclusion that the ex- 
istence of old abandoned workings in any part of 
the world was rather an encouragement to the modem 



miner than the reverse. One of the Most 
portions of the paper was that whidi nontiinirf 
history of the failures of the iron mannfaeture in ~ ~ 
and it must be remembered that nothing was moi% 
ible in science or the arts than the history of ' 
whenever their cause could be discovered. All' 
been made to the name of a gentleman who had 
inestimable services both to India and to his 
country. Mr. Heath wm a civilian in India, 
laboured hard to establish* those iron works whiA 
proved so disastrous to his own fbrtnnea ; and he 
moreover, one of the few pioneers of railway! ia ~ 
in fact, no one hardly took a more active part 
introduction of railways into the Madras 
He was also known in England as the inventor 
process which was the means of renovating and 
extending our steel manufifu^tures, and had lad 
the creation of numerous branches of indnstty,W) 
great reduction which it effected in the cost of stedf 
that matter, however, as in others, he was 
unfortunate. All that he asked of the steel 
facturers was a royalty of £1 per ton on the £20 
which they were enabled to save by means of his 
A combination was formed, however, to oonfee^ 
rights — and, as was generally the case in 
soon as anything was suooessfol it was found oat I 
some one had made the same discovery before. lai 
Heath's case it unfortunately happened that a 
improvement of his own, which was not included 
patent, gave his opponents a weapon with which to < 
him, and he died crushed by the consequences all 
own success, still leaving to his successors 
heritage in the limited compensation ^ 
ultimately given by the steel manufetctorers to kfel 
presentatives. His name ought never to be ~ 
any discussion affecting India, and certainly not 
hall where he had received the thanks oi the ~ 
such reward as they were able to offer him. His 
one which should be carefully studied if any 
was to be drawn from it, and he considerod ft 
no ground for discouragement. No doubt his Ml 
been a series of failures, but what waa their 
he had heard from his own lips ? He was a 
collector, who knew nothing whatever about ths 
manufisicture, and all his knowledge had to be 
from books and from occasional viaiti to £ams^ 
was a promoter of the culture of cotton, and of vm i 
gross of his coUectorate in every respect ; and ■ 
time when the company was a trading oompany T 
allowed, as had been mentioned, his own prn&sen i 
as a fund by means of which to carry out hie 
in the manuracture of iron. Thus, the old 
of India afforded him a great deal of encoui 
the result was what might naturally be expected. 
Heath was n man of great power of mind and of i 
ventive genius, but his whole career was one of 
ment ; and, however able he became aa a man of i 
to the last day of his life, he never was a man of bi 
and when such matters were carried out by an 
as he and many other servants of the Indian goi 
were, what could be expected but £ulure f Botki 
from that being cause for discouragement* it oagkli 
a lesson not to commit the same errors in the fntoit. 
whole history of Mr. Heath illustrated one of the 
which seemed inherent to the govennnont of 
when a man had made great exertions, and 
spent large sums from the public revenue in , 
an important manu&cture, he was removed to 

district before his plans were matured, and 

his place who probably upset the whole of his 
ments. Turkey was often pointed to aa an 
foolish government, but whst could be morei 
sacrificing an expenditure of £75,000 and fLiiigranf] 
beneficial results ? The whole career of India bote i — 
of the same want of administrative foreaight. 
and tens of thousands of pounds were expended oi i 
ments, which were of^ entnisted to men totiQy 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11, 1873. 



395 



noperlj conducting them, while a few 
Ittoasands which might have been employed 
I ft ouefdl, persistent coarse of improvement 
Coming now to the point with which he 
w«re to be any successfal development 
in India, there must be sach security 
the miner as would enable him to carry out, 
I prospects of success, what was always a most 
bitaineai. They had been informed that 
no general miuing reguUtions in India, and 
_ dtttricts they were entirely dependent oa 
^arrangements which occurred at the time of 
•ettlement. Wberens the law of the country 
■i of ail the rest of the world, was that the 
to the state, without the least regard 
these mineral rights were passed ovor 
of Bengal — the most extraordinary 
it was possible to conceive. When in 
found mining affairs in much the same state 
few rich mines were worked which were 
rhile large districts of country , abound- 
wealth, were absolutely unworked, and 
aot one company in successful operation in 
Uo government were very anxious to develope 
resources, and set up a code of mining 
they obtained from Paris ; but the French 
rkable for mining enterprise, it was not 
Adapted for the purpose, the pains, and 
dnes, and tolls, being so heavy that 
Bble to work a mine at all. He 
the reason of this to the minister, 
I made, but still not enough 
mining operations. Having sent to 
it inrbrmation of the discovery of 
the minister telegraphed back, thanking 
ftnd other fiivours, and begging him to 
lion of the coal-field under the ordinary 
His answer was that the discoverer of 
ooght to have the benefit of it, and that, 
he begged to decline the offer, because it 
iply ruinous to work the mines under the 
conditions. The tolls had since been still 
1, and a few compnnies were now at work. 
■Dother example, for a government nut 
liberal, Philip II. of Spain followed in 
same encouraging system which had been 
the old world, giving the property in any 
The same law existed in South 
fiD Cornwall, though there was in the former 
•cope for its operations. Any man who 
t* mine had only to go to a local office and 
, yaying a fee of two rupees, and he thereupon 
I proprietor in perpetuity, subject only to his 
ttie works to a certain limited extent. He 
ther^re, a property which he could sell or 
upon for conducting the works, and thus 
enoooraged and developed. The same system 
ted in many parts of India with great ad- 
He had no doubt that when Mr. Bianford's 
published in India, so far from 
lent, it would cause greater atten- 
to the subject, and to the ascertaining on 
causes of ^ilure. The circumstance that 
most valuable mineral deposits existed in 
which were least explored, and still occu- 
aboriginal tribes, showed the necessity for 
attention to those districts, and the fact, 
stated, that the most valuable coal and 
lay &r from, the main linos of railway, was 
for further and early railway extension. 

said he had been much interested in Mr. 

but at the same time somewhat 

mUm aoeonnt given of the mineral resources 

(■o«U not help the feeling that, as in ancient 

kfiown to be the source from wbence 

•■pply of wealth to the whole of 



the civilisei world, it was strange if the supplies had 
altogether become exhausteJ. The remark of Mr. Hyde 
Clarke, that the abandonment of ancient workings did 
not prove the exhaustion of tho mine, struck him as 
having considerable weight, for it was well known that 
the fires which had recently been extinguished in South 
Wales owing to the strike, had, until that unfortunate 
occurrence, been burning alm)st without interruption 
from the days of the Romans. It seemed on the f«ice of 
it strange, therefore, th'tt tho country formerly celebrated 
as the richest in miner<d wealth, should now be really 
one of the poorest. As far as his own experience went, 
he must, however, corroborate Mr. BUnford as to the 
unproductive character of the gold washings, which he 
had witnessed in Northern India, in the Volley of the 
Punjab, and on the Indus. But it had always seemed 
to him reasonable to suppose that where small quantities 
of gold were found in the bed of a river, larger quantities 
might be looked for by tracing that river to its source^ 
and he should like to know if search had been made for 
gold on this principle. In the Aravelli range, and 
also in Rajpootanah, he had seen quartz rock similar to 
what he had seen described as the auriferous quartz of 
California and Australia, and it occurred to him that 
gold might be found if properly searched for. His own 
experience of minerals was confined to the observation of 
some ores sent to him from the Kheytree Rijah to be 
examined, which he believed consisted of antimony, 
copper, and cobalt. He had not seen the mines from 
which they were taken, but understood they were worked 
in the ordinary native manner ; and probably, if taken 
up by Europeans with energy and capital, much better 
results might be obtained. He had made inquiries if 
there was any trace of platinum in Rajpootana, but 
never fuund any trace of any. He should also like to 
know if any reason could be assigned for the failure of 
the Kamaon iron works, which suddenly collapsed some 
time ago, though very sanguine . hopes were entertained 
with regard to them. 

A Gentleman inquired whether Indian coal was 
bituminous or anthrucite, and huw it compared with 
English coal of the same description. 

Xr. Blanford,in reply, remarked, first of all, with regard 
to the enormous wealth broight from India in ancient 
tiuies, that pearls were not minerals, and, in the next 
place, that the economic and industrial conditions of 
those days were totally different to anything which 
would be tolerated now, certainly by Englishmen. The 
ancient ruler had an almost unlimited command of 
labour at no expense, and very probably they employed 
it in the accumulation of wealth in that shape in which 
alone, in those times, it could be secured from the 
violence of enemies, and which, at the same time, 
ministered to their ideas of princely grandeur andr 
magnificence. It was quite possible, therefore, that gold 
and precious stones. might have been procured at the 
period referred to, by an expenditure of labour which 
now-a-days would be wholly disproportionate to the 
result. It must also be remembered that the whole of 
the wealth of the East did not come from India, but also 
from Burmah, Central Asia, Turkistan, and pussibly 
even from China and Japan, though India, being the 
centre of eastern weoith and civilisation, got the credit 
of the whole. What he had already said bore somewhat 
on the question of the ancient and abandoned workings.' 
Several mines existed now, especially in the Himalayas, 
which had been declared again and again, by practical 
European miners to be not worth working by any 
system known to them which would involve European 
superintendence. The native plan was to work at 
tiny little bit of ore which they came across, unUl 
the whole place became like a rabbit-warren, and 
they were satisfied with returns which a European 
would not take notice of. He had no wish to depreciate 
the resources of India, neither, on the other hand, did he 
desire to exaggerate them, and he had simply stated the 



JOOSAL OP THE S-XnETY OF ARTS, Af«ii. U, 187S. 



of 
of & 






:f !£.* 


f. 


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. VfcS 


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X. ^ * 


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=- Tll-T Vert r C »»Vfi«t*. 1 £r let* I.mTw^ 

IS- A-^-^-jra. ":-r: ^vr*- :"=^"> ic'ri >-=.'l.i 

"Sir rt- 'I*^- i — ."^TT. ;»* ••it-JtT-<_ v%» li* i^tsiflDeH- 
II ;> ;: wiiirr li*rt ttf£r_x t:«: mtjri. &S :ot 
*ai s>.< *:•: iri 4-t ilTj '"i^r, » "i-'-fft'lagxT-t bfi-x ' 

©-■ili £.-« «»T irb*r>t ^'T ^^^ :•::=.* ir =_ Hi w** 

foe :re »** I'fi i=. lir-z. I: w** =:-:i lu t»T r^irr^^ie*! 

"•". =Ij fcr.^ ■!:.* f.r irt sr-.'Il q-i-"*T - w f.-- 1. T: 

irrs- T^*^* w^tr* r;t j-" i-_* ;-: i*i* t: ..ir-r i-r 
4ef--ite :;_::-:= as t: ih- r\ t:,: at i t^:;* :f li:-? I'.iitn 
CCial-i-l ** . is » =ir vi*i!« :* «•»* f -=.: %?»=:- h. ^rv it^r 
4--t^ ihir hii S'^c eit»"-:ri »T>i m 'hert the q::i>.:T 

•^I* q-i.-: rr .f «trr: ^^f^'ir f;-I in Ir-iiA. Wi.T;i:'r or 
B?t it » -ili Sr »-»r U JTr-* i"^- Trr^r* a ri^h; tc U.e 
Ei'T^rxls it c;«Ji c- < *»t. ^-i be kr-=w f r • f»;S ti:»: 
tki«re w«* imrre i'>-«KU c: coi^i w^.I fca-rwrB lo exx^ 
wkxh B- .a* ifcr^z*; it w:rtb w^^u-t tc w- rk. tr s^h. 
B> c -ic, lh« c»T>r» wo<: -d umiuT d-» f*"^ if t'''*-y stw 
thrir w»T to nr»i- a pccft It il. rnf.rrir.it*rl% ti.ci>? 
nj jy^tr 1 f:r iL &z:i be ^:"i'l c t q:::^e stee the 
t:-ai ci a-»kirx nilw^rs to tir cV.-£-Iis in oc%icr 
that t^ f^gices ir.Tjht jy.sa^e tLe prod-ij^. 



AMMHAL EREBVAHOIAL IXHIBITIOIS. 



of tile CocBBaBOAen 



are it rpper Em- 

Scott, C.B. 



in pr-T>i^:3ff % T-te ^? thtnVs to Mr. 
Bl»cf -rd sail thst frei;C^r:*n h^ : wt!I i:il»-i the re- 
salts of his tw«stT xenkTt' t-i^^eri-r.re is c: r c^»i-ti -n vith 
til* re* ! -sncal «»nvT in B-i-:r*I, ih- C^ctrkl Pr riEoe*, 
M«irx«. Bann^. ar;i B n-.rny. •z:i h:< 'tju**"" e r-^per 
h^d ciTen ri*e to a tc «t as«r:ul i-*. j.?*::a. Mr. Hyi»- 
O.Arke'« rem fries w^r* v-^rr *::jrr'^::r-», th .-^^h he v- "i 
li->t quite a^ree with them all Tr.e i S: j'ty Arisinj? 
froni the system of c-CE-s'lant chin*:*^ in ^■TeraaifCt 
officials, ^wa, no d.aV-t> «reat, hut i; >-*^nr'l ucirr pre- 
•rtit tirctiinstai»CT». impo^si'^Ie to arcii; asl, with re- 
gmrd t*^ the tennr^ of I*il an i ir.ir.**. th-^ *y«'eT. ad>p:ei 
in Btmexl was the s me m3 that of En^z^Ari, where the 
minerals h^V r.^r»i ti the owner <'f xte *-:*.. Tne ct>>> 
rte plan, of resterring the mineral r irht* to the Stat*^, lii J 
not ap:«etr to work rery w**!! in Turkey, koo-rdin^ to 
Mr. Clirke's own tccvunt. The 6aVtr« 1 i f prir,t<* entex- 
prisp in India was to-i wiie a one f.r d:acussi*.-n then, 
bat the iirporttnce of ou'.tiv^tin^ it as fir as possible 
could not *^«e orer e^timtt'^ thoajrh the diffi- rities con- 
nectei with it under aach a f>rai of g:Temaient as most 
n«»cessarilv cii"»t there, wen* v^rr jn \\. Mr. B^anford'* 
obserr.tlioas oa the causes of the gT^,»t wealth of India 
in an it-nt tim«^ wenr well worth v of att«-cli n. history 
fuMy bearinif oat the staeni*>nt that iesp-r.tism and slav^ 
Itboor, bnh happily things of the ptst were the tw . 
main instraments in the prodacli'-.n of the vast hoards 
of wealthformerlv pmeawd by eAslam potentates ; and 
it was nerer likely snch a state of things would occur 
ggtin. 



gira t^ feOnwi^ aceoant of &eite«I 

tbe KTkihmc It sa js ifaey will km, in 

coBpwete hktones of the prooeMi of 

of botk li^ and kmvy iteel goodfr- 

:r:G a Me£e to a kxsoaodve buikr. The Ikm't ibtre 

'i i£^ cre*di imt for liw»ing a Tcsy ezteoarc dispkf 

i beaTj ated goods<-M iatoeating as it vill be is- 

«tr3'^re — Kvst afiq M rfinfiiMj be awankd to Mr. F. 

W. We-b^ th« I>-«n 4iTe cscineer of the Loukn tod 

K 7t£<\)fr«atesm Railway. Thm fatVwTi has as', i 

'/.J<ti c ot strel article* rep r c a c ntiag vaiioas portioia 

.f a loe =1 tire, eftc^ bcuu; atkown in Tuiooi st«^ cf 

sa:is£*flsre. He h«s also sriit a nmaber of ipectaeoi 

:f rtr<^ wTOo^ icto Tariovs forms for other parpt^^ 

S Sfciieaoftbeext^rsUof thiscolkctaoiimaybegat^a^ 

fr^s the drcBOMtaBoe thai it vi& oocopy nearij '^ 

wh :e of Rxm Ko. 2«. k*diBg froot the west p^i 

<d itj^ Exhi'^cuon bciiding. vbick was used for tbcj 

r^^rp:«e of cxhTdUing the » vntific iaTestiam Ust J*»\ 

Here the riator to the Ilxhi* iti .« will fini spacua'^ 

• f th^ creie Huteriajs fur the ■annCartnre of stcti ^7 

th« Br«aeAcr and the Si-^nrAs-Maitin proccSKS 

ir\>3 aad spw g el -isen wiU be iUaatrated in t 

3ua;v^r. "^efi ikere will be seen a Buaber of 

fUr-l iacota^ bars, bodcn tnbea, boOer pktM, 

varicas other eshiUts of the aa^ Batare, each of 

will ktrr iu own speci«l biaiory to tcQ, iu o«ii 

tio^l leason to tcttcb. Tba will eoaie -tbc hesry ^ 

of 1 «KX'OdT'«, saub as stt^ oocmrctittif lodfl, ipi^ 

ax:«t, wbe«I tyr«a» fiivhoxea. and finally a loeooflH 

b..:-r ito4f: la &ct the fWWtioa will I* .^ 

Ubom, oompaefte and exteimre in the Exhibitid 

Tee retwn porticA of Boon Ko. 2^— a hap^ * 

z\amX 20 ft — wQl be oocnpied by Sfsings firon UeHid 

w*T Sprias CoapuiT, aad aoata bniTT speona^ 

M^asra H^weUaai Cxs wwks. The' limited 

' are bein^ arrknged in the e«s4 and vest cra^rncfsi 

the bal tmy in the Albert Halt la thcae rvoai ^ 

f and aaaiplea of Measra. HowdTs IknocoKOOS 

cast st««l. and special steei as well as Tarioot tstii 

goods artnnfartartfd tbere fk oi. Hr«e will le 

fated ste*-l comments. V ys. tools; pna. accdks. 

&«h-hooka^ knir)F« and acieaora. s««rda and tfmn. w 

fact spn:iine]is of all tbe knowm appbcatioat ef >** 

th*- n.ost osefol and importaat aeCals. la oritf 

complete tbe collectioa, oaachincsy pi 0111 ■ and 

, ratas fv the testing of ste«4 r^ula^ steel wiie vi^ * 

will find places ia the baiMiny. 




In the aooount of tbe meetings of tlie Stiti^ 

Socierr is last werk*s J*mrmsl, it wm atatcd tbat tW t«0 
on - Parch«« of Railways br tbe S(%»«,'* wa* bt Vr. 1 
Biddolph ; it sboald bave beta Mr. R. Baldnlph Mtfia 

Adrioes recently reoerred lroB& New Tod ^ 
thar the prvidactioa of eoal ia tb« Uaiiad Steftw litf ?«v* 
41.491.135 tma. TiiM total aw t a aa M e r aMS d T** 
uf 3,000,000 toas at coMpusd with 1871. TbiprwisctK* 
anthracite ooal Ust year was **,C88,3U tans. 

ibtGrt 



are now 
We»tem RaUway to tast tk 
I%nips Silbrr'a and GriSiW. 
the fl«shixiff p'liat of which a 
from Paddingtca at 4^ 
Milford. TbsQrifithslaaap 
sad Satarday, uA lbs SObcr 
and Friday. 




JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11, 1873. 



897 



BZHIBITI0H8. 



ftwiolpfai 



VIENNA EXHIBITION, 1873. 

'3faJ6fttj*B Commissioners for the Vienna Universal 
ittiua hAve received from His Excellency Baron 
8ch«arx*Senbom, the Di rector- Q-eneral of the 
, Iha foUowiof^ commanication : — '* The Board 
kBg«rs of the ' Rudolpbioum/ a phiLmthropic 
for the assistance of students, who are supplied 
hootahold with hoard and lodging, have, in 
vith the wishes of the founder, Chevalier A. 
:de Rudio, offered, in a most ohliging manner, 
St the disposal of 300 profesSDrs, schoolmasters, 
^ n of all nations who intend to visit the Vienna 
BxMbition during the school vacations this 
■ecxmd floor of the institution building, com- 
tidHy rooms, so that a lodging, free of expense, 
* for each of the guests. The Board intend 
the said thirty lodgings in such a manner 
lodate at the same time, as far as pos;$ible, 
i of diiferent countries, in order to render the in- 
between them the more pleasant and of lusting 
to scieiice. Considering thit only thirty of the 
invited can be lodged simultineously during a 
,aft which^time another groupof thirty gentlemen 
) to occapy the rooms for a similar number of 
Board ox Managers request to be informed of 
to be expected from foreign commissions, 
thAt emch turn of lodging may be fixed in 
Tha Board of Managers will inform the 
b^ lelttir in due time of their reception being 
■■ well ma of the date on which it can take 
these letters of advice will serve at the snme 
introduction for Ure appli&mts on their arrival 
'''ilpfainam." In addition. Her Majesty's Com- 
have been informed that the Midsummer 
at the Rudolphinum will commence this year 
ttha loth June — at all events, not later than 
t Jalr, and they will terminate at the end of Sep* 
TlkQ profeiwional gentlemen who intend to 
Ives of the advantages offered to them are 
zeqoested to forward thtir application to Her 
\ Ciwnmittionera not later than within a week 
prvseot date, in order that the same may be 
itted to the Board of the Rudolphinum. 
ioanta who notify the time of their intended 
will be lodged, so far as is possible, in 
with their wishes, unless there should be 
for the same period, to which preference 
If within three days after the date fixed 
t^ecnptttion of an assigned lodging its expected 
ihoaM not have arrived at the institution, sui^h 
will be considered equivalent to a renunciation 
lodging assigned, which will then be given to 
goect AU applications are to ho made to the 
<^cers of the Commissioners, in order that the 
be forwarded in time to His Excellency Baron 
-Senbom for transmission to the Biiitrd. 
Barticiilar inquiries we have made in Vienna, 
^inffm^er, we understand that, though the Inter- 
Kzhihition will be *' opened'* on the let of 
JVt it will be more of a fictitions than a real 
The official opening will be as much of a real 
opening as that of the Paris Exhibition in 
Vkeran, although opened on the Jst of May, 
liy tiring was onished at that datel Then the 
viU not be any better, and probably not 
I ted th^n they were on the 1st of Ma^, 
Paris Exhibition. It is positively certain 
iatorior decorations of the building will not 
by A% end of this month. But these are 
*ilait^ and there is no doubt that by about 
IJhae erery thing will be as complete as can 



'X, 



[k given. 




According to the official accounts, which reach up to 
the third week in February, the railways forwarded on 
the whole 2r760,l99cwt. of material for the construction 
of the Exhibition building. Up to the time mentioned, 
21,563,700 bricks had been used; 160,860 cwt. of iron\ 
145,932 cwt. of lime, 170.380 cwt. of timber, and 
279,950 cwt. of sand for mort ir have gone to m^ike up 
the imposing edifice and outbuildings. The bricks took 
up 9,256 cars, and weighed 1,890,310 cwt. The amount 
of gravel brought to the spot may be estimated from the 
fact th it from March, 1872. to February, 1873, no less 
than 2,229 trains, with a total of 66,720 trucks, averaging 
25 trucks to a train, constituted the traffic for this article 
al(»ne. 

Among the Amf»riean exhibits are sewing machines of 
great varitjty, knitting mtchines, scroll saws, wood 
working miicbines, windmills, pumps, steam engines, 
water wheels, safes, pianos, si'hool furniture, &c., besides 
ores, bales of cotton, he.mpand other products from various 
parts of the country, representing the growth and indus- 
tries of the sections from which they come. On the main 
floor of the American dep irtment will be shown, in actual 
operation, shoemaking, brush, bucket, and nail-making 
machines, stone breaking tools, flax cleaning machinery, 
rock drills, circular looms, machines for making pipe 
elbows, boot heeling machines, and numerous kindjs of 
woo 1- working mnchinee. Geuer.il Newton has sent a 
perfect model of the engineering works carried on under 
his direction at Hdllott's Point. The Uuittd States 
Lighthouse Board have forwarded their best specimens 
of lighthouse lanterns, and tho Navy Department have 
sent their new and improved apparatus for hoisting and 
lowering boats. About seven hundred exhibitors have 
space assigned to them. We understand that the Presi- 
dent of the United States has appointed Mr. Edwin 
Sherman as special commissioner during the forthcoming 
Internntional Exhibition at Vienna, to report upon the 
metiillur^iical industries of Europe. 

According to tho Architect, the " model houses" which 
are about to be exhibited in connection with the Vienna 
Exhibition ought to be alone .worth a journey to see. 
The last example which is mentioned as being on its 
way, is a model of one of the better- class c«mntry villas, 
belonging to the wealthy class of the Moors, which are 
built in tho suburbs of Tetuan, F.^z. and Morocco. It 
was prepared, under great difficulties, by Mr, Schmidl, 
tho Austrp- Hungarian Consul at Tangier, part of the 
work beinjc executed at Fez and Tetuan. The model is 
of wood, 27 feet square and 20 feet high, and contdns in 
addition to the entrance and the " Patio" or court, six 
rooms. Tho minute and delicate tracery in colour is 
tho handiwork of a painter from Tetuan, Mimon Ben- 
shelrad, who ought to bo exported along with the house, 
for Mr. Schmidl says th it his ingenuity anJ prolific 
invention are only equ .lied by his steady application 
and unexceptional conduct, and a model workman liko 
this is not every day met with. It appears that the 
workmen gave great trouble, and, not content with 
higher pay than was ever given in the town of Tangier, 
actually resorted to a strike at a time when the loss of 
even a day was of vital importance. 

Mr. Nichtdas Chevalier has, we understand, been 
rr queste i by the Prince of Wales to accompany him to 
Vienna, in order to prepare sketches of the Exhibition. 

Exhibition of Victoria.— One hundred and fifty 
thousand persons visited the Exhibition during the 
period it remained open. The receipts amounted to 
t5,000, placing £1,600 to the credit of the commis- 
sioners. 

The Dublin Industrial Exhibition.— Active prepara- 
tions are proceeding to render this year's Exhibition 
worthy of public support. Meetings have been held of 
the Committee for Ornamental Art, and it is reported 
that numerous communications have been received offering 
loans of china, porcelain, &c. Collectors and owne' 



398 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11, 1878. 



of plate, jewellery, metal work, mini'itures, bronze, 
enamels, china, porcelain, and other objecta of art are 
Bolicited by the Committee of the Loan Museum to com- 
municate as soon as possible their intentions respecting 
their exhibits. — Irhh Builder, 



THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS. 

The institution (as mentioned in last week's Journal) 
held their annual session in the hall of the Society, by 

germission of the council, on Thursday, Fri'iay, and 
AturJay last, April 3rd, 4th, and 6th. On Thursday 
the Right Hon. Sir J.S. Pakinafton, Bart., M.P.,G.C.B., 
D.C.L.. President, whs in the chair, and after the annual 
report of the council and the address by the President, 
the following papers were read and discosiBed : — (1) **The 
Unmasted Sea-going Ships, Devastation, Thunderer, 
Fury, and Peter the Great,** by Mr. Nathaniel Bamaby, 
Chief Naval Architect of the Royal Navy, Member of 
Council; (2) *»The Load- draught of Steamers,'* by Mr. 
W. W. Rutidell, Secretary to the Liverpool Under- 
writers' Association, and to the Underwriters* Registry 
for Iron Vessels, Associate ; (3) ** On the Overloading of 
Steamers," by Mr. J. Wi^ham Richardson, Associate ; 
(4) **An Investigation of various Proposals for fixing 
the Load-line of Vessels,** by Mr. Eklward Withy, 
Member; (5) ** On a Case not provided for in the Admi- 
ralty Regulations for Preventing CollisioilB at Sea,'* by 
Mr. James R. Napier, F.R.S., Member of Council. At 
the evening meeting the papers were : (1) *' On Auxiliary 
Power for Ocean Navigation," by Mr. Henry Claughton, 
Member ; (2) " The Causes of the Racing of the Engines 
of Screw Steamers, investigated theoretically and by ex- 
periment)'* by Mr. Osborne Reynolds, M.A., Professor of 
Civil Engineering in Owen's College, Manchester; (3) 
** A new form of Safety Valve," by Air. W. Babington. 
On Friday morning Admiral Sir Spencer Robinson was 
in the chair. The first paper read was a '* Description 
of an Instrument for automatically recording the 
Rolling of Shii»s," by W. Froude, F.R.S., Vice-Presi- 
dent. Admiral Stewart, the Earl of Lauderdale, Mr. 
Rumlell, Captain Selwyn, Mr. Mcrrifield and others 
spoke. The next paper read was *' On Vessels for the 
Channel Service," by J. Qrantham, a Member of Council, 
^tr. A. J. Dudgeon read a short paper on the same sub- 
ject^ and produced a model of a vt^ssel which he proposed 
should be used in running across the Channel. Mr. J. 
White, of Cowes, naval architect, referred to a model of 
his, the novelty of which consisted in giving a concave 
form to the bottom of a vessel instead of a convex one, 
thereby making a single channel for the water amiJship, 
by which the principal elements of displacement were 
transferred to the bilges. The other papers were *' Con- 
siderations respecting the efifective Wave-slope in the 
Rolling of Ships at Sea," by Mr. Froude; (4) '*0n 
Waterrtight Bulkheads,** by Mr. L. Hill; and (5) 
*' On Water and Fire-tight Compartments," by Mr. T. 
Moy. On Friday evening, with Sir J. Packington, M.P., 
in the chair, the proceedings were commenced by the 
readini( of *' R^m^trks on the Theory of the Rudder," by 
Herr Ludwig Lutsch Aunig, professor of theoretical ana 
practical shipbuilding, in the Imperial and Royal 
Naval Academy of Trieste. Mr. Reed (late Chief Con- 
structor of the Navv), Mr. Byrne, and J. Henwood spoke 
in the discussion. The next paper was ** On the Relation 
of Framo Space and Shift of Butts to the Butt Fasten- 
ini?s of the Skin-plating of Iron Ships,** by W. H. 
White, Fellow of the Royal School of Naval Architecture 
and Marine Engineering. The other papers dealt with 
were (3) M. Emil Bertin's " Memoir on the Experimental 
Study of Waves,'* (4) Mr. J. S. Gisbome's '* On a New 
Hydraulic Steering Gear." and (6) a paper by the late 
Professor Rankine *• On Waves in Liauids." 

At the Saturday meeting the principal subject of dis- 
cussion was the means of lowering boats at Sea, on which 



papers were read by Mr. F. J. Sweetiag.Mr. J.C.! 
Mr. C. G. Grumpel, Lieut. StephanhoS; lod Mr. 
whose invention is adopted on board the ChtlUnftr. Uj 
discussion which followed Mr. Stirling Lican,tbe Bk* 
Lauderdale, Sir E. Belcher, Sir J. Hay, Mr. Bm« 
and others, took part. The other subjects on which | 
were read were *' On An Instrument for ExtiMiui 
Fire in Ships,*' by Mr. J. Paton, and "OaaPioi 
Torpedo Catcher," by Mr. W. E. Sercombe, 



ON THE ELECTEIO LIGHT. 

By W. E. Waleiiii, F.C.8. 
II. 

Between the electric liffht, as now capable of 
utilised, and the light produced by Sir Hamplinf : 
in 1813, there is a great gap. bavy's hght «ii 
duced by- enormous battery power, at a veiy crest . 
sumption of zinc and acid ; the light wss fitfu, traal 
want of adjustment of the electrodes as they boriKdi 
and the apparatus for trying the light as a phikMOf 
experiment was not adapted to give it ai a Isa^ 
gp^vanic battery, it is true, was the analogue rfl 
chemical forces in the sun, but the chemicid ^ 
the atmosphere in contact with the csibon 
established a second and most undesirable 
action which tended to destroy the electrodes; tbsi 
stancy of the light was further interfered with (• " 
tioned above) by the carrying over of particleioif i| 
carbon from the positive to the negative electrode. 
WHS the condition of afifairs about thirty yean igOi] 
De Moleyns, StHite, and others endeavoured to ' 
electric lamps of a practical character. In T 
Deleuirs, and, latterly, in Dubo8cq*B lamps, the < 
betw«?en the electrodes is regulated by self-adiiu; ' 
an electro-magnet being included in the g«lraii»d 
for that purpose, and certainly a good stetdj ' 
obtained at a much cheaper rate and in a more r 
able manner than Davy*8, especially in the 
Duboscq's light. Duboscq*s lamp, in comiti fln ^ ^ ^ 
the more recent lamps, may be satisfactorily woitotj 
H Bunsen*s battery of 60 cells ; it is that gen enJyC 
in the Royal Institution and other lectore^poos* 
throwing luminous imnges on to a screen in thei 
of a magic lantern. This lump is well suited f*< 
purposes, as it has the luminous point in a fixed *" 
under all circumstances. 

The power of the electric li^ht is so great and ihl 
is so pure, that it is not surpnaing to find th«t t^ 
efforts are being mide to extend uie sphere ofiti' 
ness, and, instead of its being used in lecture-w<«JJ 
on exceptional occasions only, to bring it ^to ^ 
general use for illuminating purposes. The K^ 
between 40 and 50 Bunsen's cells has been ^ 
estimated as equal to that from 600 to 1.000 
CHudles; andFizeauand Foucault computed the in 
of the voltaic arc of a 46-oell Bunsen's .****?J" • 
thirty-four times greater than that of the lime4ijw|^ 

The cheapness of electricity from a magnelr " 
machine, and the readiness with which it a^ 
from a well-made arrangement, have tempted 
electricians to try what can be done with m 
electricity applied to lighting. The «*P«"°"^, 
been so far successful that the South ForeUndM»l 
protected by a lighthouse with a mapieto-ele^J^ 
for some time, by a machine or machmei •^fJJ*^. 
purpose by Mr. Frederick Hale Holmes. In otf^ 
1869, Mr. T. Stevenson, C.E., was «>«*ff^ *".i 
the pracUcability of illuminating l>«»«>" *~ ^SfJ 
the electric light; and it has been proposed ^^^'^ 
tunnels Rnd dangerous places of radways bfj* ""^ 
In 1869 a French shipping company art M » 

decided to adopt the electric I>g*>* <«* ^*'5??Ii^n 
but no definite results have yet bssnptN"^* n 



JOUEKAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 11. 1873. 



399 



of the magneto • electric machine, an 
eoik and ma^ets driven by steam power, 
clion of zinc in a galvanic hiattery, is a step 
well, both for practicability and economy, 
the moving of an apparatus already made, 
iridom requiring attention, for the constant 
troablef and mess that the working of the 
gilTamc batteries entails, and the price of coal 
i; placed in favourable juxtaposition with that 
Some trials will shortly be made with new 
ti or modifications of magneto-electric power, 
will bare the good- will of all who desire to see 
IB sgeot made still more serviceable, and 
fed from the cabinet of the curious to the 
of the artisan and to other walks of daily life, 
light which would bear out the above 
■onlight in the most perfect manner, would 
pobts which nono of the lights hitherto men- 
Fiftt, there should be no break or con- 
for the mechanical currying over of 
vkinh acoompnnies this kind of electric light is 
of electric power, since it is motion across a 
which ought to be stopped and not allowed 
it electric power which it is desired to trans- 
lifht Second, the light should be generated 
cr in a non-active atmosphere, so hs to cut ofif 
of air, and thus prevent any chemical change 
place at Uie Ug^ht itself. The application of 
metallic and carbon conductors, int*'nsely 
ths pssiage of a current of electricity, to the 
of iDiimination is first put forward in the patent 
No. 10,919, dat«Mi November 4th, 1845, 
Kdwtrd An^nstiii King, as a communication 
~~ier residing abroad, and this plan has been 
sabsequent workers in practit^ electricity. 
Mr. Striite tried - the light from incandescent 
ivelg|ped in glass. In 1860, KoUet described 
(w producing^ electric Hght from incandes- 
in an exhausted globe; it appears that 
y was used in this invention. Finally, 
llsrtin John Roberts experimented upon the 
of the electric current through a continuous 
of graphite enclosed in an exhtiusted glnss 
attempts to prevent the wearing away of 
and to substitute a continuous current for 
e discharge, were not, in the main, successful. 
pSftly owing to the use of impure carbon and 
of an opaque film thence derived on the 
oootainiog the incandescent material, and 
eeosequenoe of the vacuum not being able to 
■iatsined, in the presence of the heat developed 
Mt was working, considering that the putting 
iGj^t tAm> annulled the heat; the alternations 
thos induced on the apparatus prevented 
from being maintained. Under these cir- 
ths poants to be borne in mind in order to 
n iu this development of the electric light, 
. the useof pure carbon and the proper adjo»t- 
tbs tlectrio current to its capacity. Second, the 
' of ao atmosphere of some kind that does not act 
enboD at the high heat to which it is raised, in 
*IHd containing the light. Such conditions as 
Wy difficult to fulfil practicfUly, but the author 
uideittand that a powerful attempt is now 
to produce an eleotnc light without the con- 
kerge and enveloped in a non-active gas. All 
ind talt'nt can do to utilise this agent is now 
~ to the task, and a few weeks will enable 
ts of Lond<»n to judge for themselves of the 
the light which will be shown. If the hopes 
are realised, the gas companies will du 
amngements with him in time, and their 
to protect the insulated conductors from 
If the conduction of electric force across 
iBOteling medium, such as carbon, can be 
ll Itt WWL of illumination properlv, it wiU 
""^fll ii^loyiiig etootricity, wmoh is denied 



to the ordinary electric light apparatus, for, when the 
convective discharge is used to produce the electric light, 
it is practically impossible to have two electric lights in 
the same electric circuit. It is most probable that the 
adoption of the continuous conductor principle will ad- 
mit of two or more electric lights being included in the 
same electric circuit Most certainly, if this invention 
becomes in very deed and in practical working an ac- 
complished fact, our analogy will be carried out, and we 
shall have our streets and our houses illuminated with 
light which, in a philosophical as well as a practical 
sense, is truly described as artificial sunlight. 



CO&&SSPOHDENCB. 



SAVING LIFE AT SEA. 

Sir, — I was much surprised at not finding Captain 
Dansey*s kite for shipwrecks in the list of life-saving 
apparatus at sea, an expedient that can be rigged up 
in a few minutes by any sailor with the materials to 
be found in every ship. 

A kite from a stranded vessel must inevitably fly over 
a lee-shore, and thus afford immediate communication 
between the wreck and the land, in defiance of wind 
and waves. A full description of the kite and appli- 
ances is found in a former volume of the Transactions of 
our Society. 

A trial was recommended to be made by the Com- 
mittee with an experimental kite in Hyde- park. Thb 
main spar of the kite was a pole nine or ten feet long, and 
though it was not a very windy day, it dragged five or 
six of us down on the grass, and I was obliged to send 
up the messenger to bring it' down, or we should have 
been dragged over the fences. The main kito line was 
what sailors call 1 J-inch rope. — I remain. Sir, yours, &c., 

Henkt W. Revblby. 

ReadiDg. 



QENSRAL NOTES. 



LectVtes on Geology. — Six elementary lectures on 
geology in the £a»ter hulidays. adapted to a juvenile audi- 
ence, will be given by J. Tennaot, F.O.S., &c., at 149, 
Strand, London, on April 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, at 
3 p.m. Turms — Half«a-ffuioea for the c^iurse; 5». f<»r chil- 
dr«n of ftilluws of tbe fullowing societies— Oeological, Zoo- 
logical, Chemical, Rfiyal MiiTo^oopical, R*»3ral OeogTHphical. 
Rt>yal Horticultural, Oeolo^^Uts* A8S«*ciati«m, and Society of 
Artfl. Descriptive Oeology— Cla9i*iticHtion of rock<« loto 
aqueous volcanin, plutonio, and metamorpbic. Mineral 
Compositiitn of Strata — Areoace<tU(i, Argillact^us, Calca- 
reeus— Chronological cla«i*ificationof sedimentary rocks, wirh 
description of tbe principal foKsilo belonging; to each great 
dep«»8ir. Ter»iary, or Cainozoic Stries— CaTe-dep«»«its, 
crag. Isle of Wight, and Bagahcit soriee, L<mdon clay, Wool- 
wich beds. Secondary, or Meroz«ic Series— Cretoceous, 
wealden, ooUtic (upper, middle, and lower), triawio groups. 
Primary, or Pal«Bor.oic Series— Permian, carboniferous, De- 
vonian. Bilurian, and Cambrian groups. The m<ide of collect- 
ing, cleaning, and arranging fosttils, minerals, and rock- 
ftpecimens will be described. 

New Aniline Bed.— This colour is produced by the 
action of the chloride of sulphur upon aniline in tbe cold. 
To 25 to 30 drops of aniline, chloride of sulphur is gradually 
added, with constant stirring. In five to ten minutes a red 
solid mass is formed. It diitsolvt^s in acetic acid, forming a 
red liquid. The colouring matter dissolves also in ether and 
alcohol. These solutions are not miscible with water, on the 
addition of which they are decomposed, with precipitation of 
a grey colouring matter. — Iron, 



400 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Apbil 11, 1873. 



Our Patent Laws. — It appears that. at last thero is a 
prospect of the prfsent state of our patent laws receivinfif the 
careful attention of Parliament. An Act dealinii: with the 
subject iSf we understand, to be introduced during the pre- 
sent session by the Lord Chancellur, and with tbe matter in 
such bauds some definite result is cerrain to be arrived at. — 
Engineering* 



NOTICES. 



SUBSGBIPnONS. 

The Lady-day eubscriptions are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
officer. 

BEP0BT8 OK THE tONBOK INTEBNATIONAL 
EXHIBITION OF 1872. 

The reports which appeared in the last volume of 
the Journal on the various sections of the above 
Exhibition, are now published complete, in a 
pamphlet form (price 2s.), and can be obtained 
at the office of the Society. 

OBDIKABT KEETINOS. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

April 16. — ** On the Practical Use of Lenses and 
Rnfleutors in Artificial IlluiniQatioa, with especial 
reference to Street Lighting." By T. A. Skelton, Esq. 

April 23. — *• On tSilkworm Grain." By Mens. 
Alfrsd Roland (Orbe, Switzerland). On this evening 
Andrew Cassels, Esq., will preside. 

April 29 (Tuesday Evening*).— " On the British 
Settlements in West Africa." By His Excellency 
Governor Pope Hennbssy, C.M.G. 

April 30. — " On the Condensed Milk Manufacture.' ' 
By L. P. Merriam, Ebq. 

CAKTOB lectttbes. 

The Third Course of Cantor Lectures for the 
present session will be ** On Wines; their Pro- 
duction, Treatment, and Use,** by J. L. W. 
Thxjdichttm, Esq., M.D. The Course will consist 
of six lectures, the first of which will be given on 
Monday evening, the 21st of April, the remaining 
fife on the Monday evenings succeeding. 

Lecture I. 

Description of the vineyards of Jerez de la Frontera, 
from personal observation of the lecturer. Geographi- 
cal and geological position. Climate. Flora and fnuna. 
Varieties of vines cultivated, particularly those used for 
wine-making. Wild or indigenous varieties, as studied 
by the lecturer in the primaeval forest, the Algaida, 
near Stin Lucar de Barrameda. The vintage at 
Jerez. Implements and processes. Fermentation. Vini- 
fication. 

Lecture II. 

The varieties of wines produced at Jerez — mostos, 
a5adas, fitos, palos-cortados, amontillados, rayas, 
bastos, &c. Ph^Tjical and chemical observations on 
the causes of these different results. Brandying, plaster- 
ing, sulphuring, mixing, and counterfeiling of Jerez 
wines. Neglect of scientific guidance in vinification 

• ^"«®**^ "P««»Uy appointed, as His Excellency is leaving 




diminishes the certainty and succeaof otherwias h^^ 
developed viticultural and commercial operatloni. ofi 
Spanish vineyards and wines. 

Lecture III. 

Description of the vineyards of the Alto Boon, hm 
personal ohservation of the lecturer. Contrast of g«* 
logical position of these vineyards to those of Jem 
Varieties of vines cultivated ; all medinm-nzed 
whereas the Jerez grapes are all 
digenous vines, as studied by the lecturer is tbi 
vince Entre Douro e Minho. ViticoUore in the 
Douro. The vintage and wine-making. 

LSGTUBB IV. 

The varieties of wines produced in the Alto DoM 
how treated at Oporto. Lodges. Brandy. Lcfodt 
elderberry. Unbmndied and dry natonl AHo Dg^ 
wines. Neglect of scientific guidance here ako, tV 
processes more simple, and varieties of resi^ttll 
great as at Jerez. Description of other 
vineyards — the Beiras, Valley of theTagm^ 
Fable of the transplanted Rhenish grapes. 
Torres Vedras. General remarks on the nitmi 
difficulties of Portuguese viticulture and vinifiatk%| 
based upon personal observation of the lecturer. 

The wines of France compared to those of Spebii 
Portugal. The Gironde, its vineyaids, ^riseii • 
varieties of wines. The Boorgogne and its produiftl 
Belgian appreciation, and sweetness of Bonoodj^ 
The wine requires the procdd^. The CbaBipeiR 
peculiarities of viticulture. Chemical trestodli 
effervescent wine to ensure its soundness. &M 
notion of some writers on champagne ; of the nan 
second wines and sugar- water wines; expoiaxefltl 
sycophancy. 

Lbcturb VI. 

The wines of G^ermany ; Kiessliuff a type of 
quetted wines. Classification of the winei of 
world, as determined b v quality, quantity, value h! 
mnrket of highest and lowest qualities. Active ' 
gredientsof wine. Use of chemical analysis. Uieofi 
to the healthy, whether old or young; win*s 
which condition preferable to all other alcoholic 
Wine should be a beverage, not a dram, 
wine to the deUcate and sick. Selection sad 
wine. Proposed modification of the import di 
adjust them to the climatic difficulties of Spain 
Portugal. 



DTDIA COKHITTSS. 

A Conference will be held on Friday, 
at 8 p.m., when a paper will be read 
Tatler, Esq., on '* llie Bosary in India." ^ 

Members are entitled to attend these Confc^B 
free, and to admit two friends to each of than. 







KEETIHGS FOS TEX XHSVIVO VIS. 

Trzs.... Civil Engineers, 8. 
SUUstical, 7|. 
Ptithological, 8, 

Wed. ...BOCIEl Y OF AHT8, S. Mr. T. A SWto^ 
Prartjcal Use of Lenses aod Eellertow te 
lUamination, with rapecaal refwence to Mn«tIJ|w 

Architectural ABSodation, 7». Mr. W jnfldd, " t* 
in Odour." 

Meteorological, 8. , , 

London Institution, 7. Professor Ella, " On »"*^ , 

THuas...Linn8ean, a Prof. KeidM-nhsch, "Bunncie Ow* 

fipom the Rev. C. P. Parish. Prof.McN»b,**IWr*^ 

ofCarex." ^ .,. oJ 

Chemical, 8. Dr. Hetuich Debus, "<^ <*• * 
produced by Chemical Action." 

Numinmatie, 7. 

Zoological, 4. . 



JOUnNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, April 18, 1873. 



401 



PIKL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,065. Vol. XXI. 



TRIDAT, APRIL 18, 1873. 



f«rtk*SoetHifikouldUmiidru$4dtQth«aiter$kinf, 
Mm-ttnti, Adilpfd, London, W.C, 




HIQViqBH^VTS 9T 'fHB COMCU, 



the last number of the Journal was 

A small pamplilet, contaming in a 

fonn a seriee of letters which were re- 

eontiibated to the Journal, advocating the 
I of an Endowment Fund for the Society of 

The following donations and subscriptions 

of tiiifl fond have been received : — 

£ B. d. 
r«. AtkinaoQ 50 

r. B. Stndbach 50 

W'ltep C. Trevelyan, Bart., .... 50 

Bentky 20 

1. Angus Oroll 20 

Noble 20 

T. 8*ul 5 

r. B. 8(iicer 5 

Om.H. LWoodd 5 

fltt. W. Hart 2 2 

K. Evans 2 2 

T. Bkkely 1 1 

Dixon 1 1 



mHHOI.QQICAI. SZAHXHATIOJia. 

P^ogr^mme of Examinations in the 

of some of the Arts and l^nufactxires 

ootmtry is now ready, and may be had on 

to the Secretary. 
' wbjects selected for 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
and Carriage-bnilding. Those desinng 
Candidates, should apply for the pro- 
withont delay. 
^Iidlowing Prizes are offered by. the Society of 
kSMh of the five subjects mentioned above : — 
tftehest candidate in Honours, £10. 
>fhe best candidate in the Advanced Ghrade, £7. 
^hest candidate in the Elementary Grade, £o. 
(dlowing special additional frizes are 

FTDdham S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 
fWi Candidates in the Elementary Grade, 
f tUnnfacturD : — 

iPriieof £3 

of 2 



^X. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 



'A Prize of £3 

A Prize of 2 

By the Worshipful Company pf Spectacle 
Makers, to the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 
in the Advanced Grade and in the Elementary 
Gbrade respectively, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 

A Prize of £5 5 

A Prise of 8 3 

A Prize of • 2 2 

The Council beg to announce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund : — 

The Worshipful Company of Fishmongers £52 10 

The Worshipful Company of Mercers.. 26 5 

The Worshipful Company of Drapers. . 21 d 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners. . 10 10 
The Worshipful Company of Saltera 

(annual) ^0 10 

The Worshipful Company of Cloth- 
workers 10 10 

Dr. Crace Calvert, F.R.S. (annual) .... 5 5 

, Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart 5 

B. L. Chance, Esq 5 5 

Robert Nicol, Esq 110 



PBOGE^DIl^GS OF THE 80CIETT. 

♦ 

ElGHTfBirTH OBBpiABY KEETI^G. 

Wednesday, April 16th, 1873, P. Lb Nbvb 
Foster, Esq., M.A., Secretary of the Society, in 
the chair. 

The foUowing Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Bleckly, H.^ Latchford-grange, Warrington. 
Bodmer, J. J., 23, The Grove, Hammersmith, W. ^ 
Brockelbank, George, Tower-house, St. Katherine's- 

wharf, E. 
Cochrane, Henry, the Longlands, Middleshoro'-on-Tees. 
Coles, Edward (Alderman), High-street, Rochester, Kent. 
Hampton, Thomas, Phoenix Bessemer Steel Works, the 

Ickles, near Sheffield. 
Harvey, John, 13, Upper Thames-street, B.O. 
Henfipey, Charles, jun., 75, Victoria-street, 8.W. 
Hennessy, His Excellency J. Pope, C.M.G., Governor of 

Barbadoes. 
Jenkins, John J., The Grange, Swansea. 
Lemare, William, Mus. Doc, 382, Brixton-road, S.W. 
Nichol, Rev. John George Scrymsour, King James*8 

Grammar-school, Knaresborough. 
Rew, Charles H., 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. 
SuUivan, Sir Edv^-ard R., Bart., 13,Grosvenot.place, S.W. 
Tattersall, Charles, Burbage-house, Buxton. 
Walker, Frederick James, Olaxton-haU, York. 
WilUams, James, 223, High-street, Shadwell, E. 

The following Candidates were balloted for ai^d 
duly elected Members of the Society : — 

Backhouse, Thomas, Cleveland Iron Ship Yard, Mid- 
dlesborough-on-Tees. 

Cobb, Benjamin Francis, 9, Old Broad-street, B.C. 

Eimes, Allred, Roynli^Hval School, New cross, S.E. 

GiiUoway, Charles J., Knott Kill Iron Works, Man- 
chester. 

Gjers, John, Ayresome Iron Works, Middlesborough- 

on-Tees. , , r^ ^ j 

McEwen, Lawrence, Lombard House, George-yard, 

Lombard-street, B.C. 
Routledge, Edmund, 294, Camden-road, N. 



402 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, April 18, 1873. 



The Paper read was- 



ON THE PRACTICAL USE OP LENSES AND 
EEFLECT0R8 IN AKTIKICIAL ILLUMINA- 
TION, WITH ESPECIAL BEFEBENCE TO 
STREET LIGHTING. 

By T. A. Bkolton. 

The subject of artificial illominatioii has for 
maBy years engaged- a large share of scientific 
attention, but perhaps public notice has never been 
more forcibly orawn to its consideration than at 
thepresent time. 

The increase in the price of coal, and in the cost 
of labour, has resulted in a general advance in the 
price of gas. This circumstance has favoured or 
necessitated the introduction of improvements in 
the manufacture of ordinary gas, and has en- 
couraged the promotion of inventions for the pro- 
duction of illuminating gas from other materials 
than coal, and it has also brought into prominent 
notice other means of obtaining artificial light. 

These questions will probably attract even yet 
more attention during the present year ; and as 
" Artifidal Illumination by all Methods, G^ and 
its MEmufacture,*' is to form one of the diief sub- 
jects of the London International Exhibition in 
1874, it may be anticipated that the public, as well 
as those more immediatelv concerned in the details 
of these questions, will look to that Exhibition, 
not only for a full and complete representation of 
the subject, and for a comparison of the rival 
methods for the production of artificial light, but 
also for an illustration of the means of using it with 
the greatest economy and effidct. 

It is with the utilisation of artificial light that 
I have the honour to engage your attention this 
•vening, and I shall first beg leave to impress upon 
your minds the fact that nowever successful the 
attempts to improve the methods of the produc- 
tion of such light may be, either in increasing its 
intensity or in diminiahing its cost, the scientific ap- 
plication of lenses and reflectors will still be for 
some puiposes absolutely necessary, and for many 
others wiU give vcduable aid to artificial light by 
yet further increasing its lighting power, by con- 
trolling its direction or by reducmg the quantity 
of light necessary to produce a required effect of 
iQmnination. 

The optical principles upon which the action of 
lenses and reflectors depend are so generally well 
known, and were, in the first series of " Cantor" 
lectures in the present session of this Society's 
proceedings, so minutely explained, that I need 
only very briefly refer to them on this occasion. 

Firstly, you are aware that light, meeting with 
a reflectmg surface, is deflected from it at an angle 
equal to the angle of incidence. 

Secondly, that a prism of glassmaybeemployedas 
a reflector by using the intmial ana total reflection 
frcmi what we may term the interior of one of its 
sides. 

And, Thirdly, that liffht passing through a trans- 
parent body, such as a ^ns, will be refracted from its 
original course into a new direction, dependant 
upon the refractive power of the material, and the 
angles of its surfaces in relation to the course of 
the light. 

We have thus two practical means by which to 

^nteol the dunection or course of light : reflection, 

T the use of catoptric reflectors or prisms; and 



refraction, by the use of a dioptric lens ; the use of 
either or bom in combination will depend upon the 
use to which the light is intended to be applied— 
or rather, in fact, upon the amount of deflection of 
the light necessary to be produced. 

Artificial illimiination for useful purposed may 
be broadly classed under two heads. First, Signal 
lights ; second. Artificial light as a substitute for 
sunlight. Now, although it is my intention to 
treat more particularly of the second of these two 
divisions, yet as the application of lenses and re- 
flectors has hitherto been more sdentiflcally and 
successfully studied in relation to signal lights, 
and such application, after passing through yean 
of practical experiment and use, having at last, in 
the modem " Catadioptric " lighthouse light, 
reached a completeness tnat may be deemed almoat 
if not absolute perfection, it may be adirantageons 
to sketch out briefly the progress of adenoe and 
invention in that form of artificial illumination^ as 
a help to our consideration afterwards of the ques- 
tion as to how far the principles and means so sno 
cessful in regard to signals may be practicallj 
applied with advantageous results in other uses of 
artificial illimiination. 

In its simplest form a signal light would he re* 
presented by a flame radiating its light into space 
m every direction, and consequently diminishing in 
intensity as the square of the distance increases; 
such indeed was the feeble characteristic of oar 
lighthouses or beacons up to the beginning of tbe 
present century. 

The first improvement made was the use of a 
parabolic refleictor ; this form of reflector, as yen 
are aware, throws forward in parallel lines tha 
reflection of a light placed in its focus, thus con* 
centrating about one-half of the light into a sindi 
direction, but entirely obscuring 3ie light in ua 
opposite direction, so that if a fixed light was 
required to be visible over the entire radius of tbs 
horizon, or any large portion of it, a numher of 
lights and refiectors woidd be required. 

At the North Foreland LightJaouse, a lens 
placed in front of each flame, in addition to 
parabolic refiector; but these lenses, which 
cost £50 each, were found to be useless in such 
combination, and were removed in 1835; in fact 
is impossible to obtain any advantage by the 
of a dioptric lens in conjunction with a paial 
reflector, as the direct rays of light impinge n] 
the lens at a different angle to that of we re" 
rays, and hence one or the other must be difl 
beyond the required direction. ] 

To return to our lighthouse illustration, we H 
that about the year 1822, Fi^snel introduced il 
France the method of concentrating light foi 
lighthouses by the method of refraction, xuaM < 
dioptric lens of a novel but scientifio fonn. 
great advantage of this system was that, b; 
pensinff with reflectors behind the flame or ug^^ 
the light was visible round the whole horizon, ^ 
that one light only was now necessary, and fa 
more of the light was utilised than by any p^ 
vious method. Fresnel*s admirable system hi 
however been improved upon bv ths sMddition ^ 
TOisms, acting b^ reflection placed above and beloi 
Fresnel's dioptric lens, intercepting and utilisifl 
rays of light far beyond the power of a dioptrl 
lens. Thusnearly the whole of the li^tpro^K^I 
is usefully employed by being compelled to tnvl 
in a plane paiulld to the horizon, ^ons ia Aa fon 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, April 18, 1873. 



403 



light known as the '' oatadioptrio/* 

Mttbination of the powers of both re- 

imd refraction. It is now xxaed in our best 

fighthonses* The diagram I haye bere 

the North Foreland Lighthouse, erected 

and it is a system that may fairly be oon- 

is the perfection of the application of 

tnd of refracting lenses to signal illumi- 

_ thus merely brougbt the leading prin- 
ted illustrations of this part of my sub- 
you, I have now to ask your atten- 
its second diyision — ^the use of artificial 
: a substitute for sunlight ; and in tracing 
of inrention in relation to the use of 
reflectors as aids to this form of arti- 
ion, I shall haye to refer to many 
schemes, giving them, however, only 
attention to explain the cause of their 
f, and we shall meet with but few inven- 
proposals which have achieved or even 
soooess. 

me first to divide this branch of our sub- 
two distinct subdivisions — light used 
m endosed space, having reflecting sur- 
[IMh as an ordinary room, and light used 
VDoiclosed space, in fact, open-air illu- 

itial difference of these conditions must? 
to you; you cannot fail to have 
liow a lamp or candle, which in a room or 
light walls and white ceiling had ap- 
cbeerful and brilliant, suddenly seemed to 
of its energy, and looked dismal and 
removed into the open air at night. 
Bty of the light was tne same — ^the cir- 
under which it was burning alone had 



indoor lighting the reflection of 

'^ walls and ceilings is usufliUy sufficient, 

a fair and even diffusion of light 

the space illuminated ; shades are 

f^boed on lamps more to protect the eye 

I direct rays emanating from the light than 

/reflective power they possess ; and where 

^passages of public buHdings or in other 

'■iTered reflectors are placed behind the 

if wall-lamps the effect is nearly always 

^Bzling than advantageous. It is, there- 

&e use of artificial light in the open air 

aid of lenses and reflectors is in fact re- 

E; tad we may take for an illustration an 

street-lamp ; any improvements in such 

"" probably be useful in many other situa- 

tthe case of the early form of signal light 

in the last century, so an ordinary street- 

this day radiates its light into space in 

; some few of the rays may faintly 

the walls of adjacent houses, but in any 

large proportion of the light produced 

\j wasted. Long ago this fact appears 

ittrected attention, and early in the his- 

Ittnet-lighting, attempts were made to 

wasted rays of light. We find records 

^efforts among the specifications at the 

^ dating as early as 1791, when the 

lenses in connection with street-lamps 

have been proposed. Li 1793 two 

for the purpose are recorded, 

to have been various and in- 



effective forms of the dioptric lens applied to the 
globular oil lantern. 

Passing over the various improvements in the 
lanterns used for oil lighting, we come to the 
earliest form of street-lamp used in gas lighting in 
this metropolis. I have here a sketch of one of 
these from lincoln's-inn-fields ; these had solid 
metal roofs, probably once polished or 
whitened in the interior, but now rusted and 
blackened. Even at their best they could have 
reflected to the ground only a very small amount 
of light, while they effectually prevented the adja- 
cent bmldings from being illuminated above the 
level of the lamp when the flame was placed at the 
usual height in the lantern. The first improve- 
ment jn these gas lanterns was simply to roof 
them with ^ass, as is the common practice at 
this day. These lamps cwtainly had a lighter 
appearance, and were at least not worse them their 
predecessors except in their greater liability to 
breaka&;e. Still, anything like a scientific applica- 
tion of lenses or reflectors to control the direction of 
the light was not — at least as far as I can ascertain 
— ^attempted, until^GoldsworthyGhimey obtained 
patents, in the years 1841 and 1842, for his im- 
provements in regulating and disnersing light and 
heat. These, however, requirea the use of an 
argand burner and glass chimnev, and were not of 
a diaracter suitable for the rough usage or careless 
cleaning usually given to a street-lam^, nor were 
they indeed Grped&ally proposed for this purpose. 

In 1854 we find a proposal, by Messrs. Boggett and 
Pettit, for the use of what they termed "dioptric 
refractors.*' These were annular reflecting prisms, 
and tiieir application, among many other puiposes, 
was proposed as an improvement in street lighting. 
This was to be effected by dividing the ring into 
semicircles and placing them on either side of the 
gas flame, at an angle of about 45 degrees. 
Either the cost of maung these prismatic lenses, 
the danger of breakage from the heat of the flame, 
the practical difficulty of cleaning, or the very 
slight benefit to be obtained by their use 
in this form, must have proved a sufficient 
reason for their not being adopted for use in 
street-lamps. 

Eeflectors, of parabolic and other shapes, have 
often been placed belund the flame in street lainh[>s ; 
commonly two flames were used with two reflec- 
tors back to l^ick between them, while, even re- 
cently, another form of this attempt at improvement 
has been the subject of exx>eriment in Paris, when 
silvered glass elobes, about thre inches in diameter, 
some flattened on opposite sides, with two ^ea 
flames, and others flattened on three faces, with 
three gas flames, were fixed in the lanterns in the 
Place Venddme. These experiments resulted in 
absolute failure ; no increase of light was obtained, 
and the glass globes were fractured by the heat of 
the adjacent flames. Indeed, a successful result 
was impossible ; and any form of solid reflectors 
intercepting the rays of light visible in the street 
in any direction, is simply absurd and wasteful in 
application to street lamps. 

We may now dismiss, with these few examples, 
any further consideration of arrangements of lenses 
or reflectors requiring to be placed inside the lan- 
tern; they would necessarily be in danger of 
damage or destruction by the flame used, and in- 
terfere seriously with the cleaning of the interior 
of the glass lantern, besides themselves requiri 



404 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apbil 18, 1873. 



great care in cleaning and polishing, without which 
they would be useless. 

Mere then is the broad distinction between the 
application of lenses and reflectors upon the large 
scale of a lighthouse, where each single part can 
be separately cleaned, and a similar application of 
lenses and reflectors to so small an object as a 
street lamp. 

1 must now invite your notice to some arrange- 
ments of reflectors which, forming part of the 
lantern or its glazing, appear to be &ee from some 
of the difficulties I have noticed, and which have 
for^ different purposes been successful in various 
degrees. 

The simplest of these arrangements is the use of 
solid reflecting plates in the roof of the lantern. 
This, under various forms, has been the subject of 
many patents; it is, however, of use only when 
an increase of light is desired close under the 
lamp, and where, cutting off from adjacent build- 
ings all the light above the level of the lamp is of 
no importance ; but as a consequelice of this con- 
centration of light close under the lamp, this 
arrangement is entirely unsuited for ordinary 
street-lighting, as, unless the lamps were placed 
much closer together than at present, the intervals 
of darkness between the lamps would, by com- 
parison, be rendered dfirker. Examples of this 
principle may be seen at Primrose-hill, in the 
globular lamps there, but the result is anything 
but satisfactory. 

Another form of solid reflecting roof may be 
illustrated by a diagram representing the large 



lanterns now in use in the London and South- sanation in 1822, when Fresnel introdaoed 



Western Railway yards at Nine Elms ; it is evident 
at a glance how small a part of the waste light is 
intercepted, and how little concentration even of 
that is effected ; the inverted cones were, I believe, 
originally polished, but now are simple white sur- 
faces, from which the light radiates freely in all 
visible directions ; in this apparatus a glass tube or 
chimney is required to protect the reflecting cone. 
Some street lamps of this character may also be 
seen in the Strand, opposite Exeter Hall, and it 
will readily be seen there how little aid is obtained 
from reflectors in this form and position. 

Leaving the use of solid reflectors as valueless 
for general application, we turn to the next series 
of proposals — that in which the sheets of glass 
used in glazing the lantern are used also to divert 
the rays of light. 

The first of these is the use of opal glass in the 
roof of the lantern ; this, while acting chiefly as a 
solid reflector, and subject to its disadvantages, 
yet permits a small portion of the light to pass 
through its substance ; but even this small quan- 
tity is radiated in all directions visible from the 
surface of the opal glass, so that little or no con- 
trol is obtained of the intercepted rays. A few 
specimens of this system may be seen in Oxford- 
street, but it will require careful searching to dis- 
cover them, or to see the difference between them 
and the other street-lamps at a slight distance, 
especially if the other lamps not having been re- 
cently cleaned, present a very dull appearance. 

Wo next have a suggestion for cutting the 
upper part of the side panes into lines and facets, 
something after the manner of a cut-glass 
decanter; the smaD advantage gained by this 
method was certainly not worth the cost. 



proposed in 1857 by Degrand, who obtaxned 
patent for what he described as "Lentieflf 
Glasses.'' These appear to be a modificaiiaB. 
variety of the dioptric lenses introduced by FicAl 
and for calculating the forms to he given to 
strifiB or waves of the improved glassy. Thi " 
mulse of Fresnel are especially referred to bec«^ 
their accuracy. These glasses, among varlaos * 
uses, were designed for street-lamps. I am notn 
that the invention ever took a practical shape in i 
direction in England, and the great cost of 
facturing such delicate optical glasses in 
sheets with sufficient accuracy and polish- 
without either they must have been woj 
probably prevented their application to 
lamj>s. 

Riecently, another form of this application of* 
dioptric lens was experimented upon in Plarifl; 
this case the lantern was a cylinder formed 
thick glass panes, cast in the form of a 
lens, such as may be seen in some ship- lamps ;' 
light was entirely obscured from direct view, 
the plan wad foimd upon trial quite nnsuit^ 
street purposes. 

We have how traced the course of in veutio fcj 
street-lamps, beginning with the simple flame, 
did with the simple beacon light in the oa 
signal b'ghts; and, passing through the stagi 
parabolic and other reflectors behind the flame, 
the use of various forms of the dioptric lens, 
arrive at the year 1871, without further pro^ 
the application of lenses and reflectors to 
lighting than the state of advance in signal 



dioptric improvements, and practically without i 
really useful application of the principles of 
tion or refraction to this important public nM 
artificial light. 

We have seen in the case of lighthouse 
how perfection in principle has been react 
the addition of the catAdloptrio or pefl« 
prisms to Fresnel's dioptric or refracting If 
we have also seen how powerless the cHoptnc ! 
is to assist us in street-fighting. Let us flien 
sider these catadioptric prisms — these ad( 
T^hich have secured such good results in 
lights, and see how far their use may serre 
pur p ose in street illumination. 

We readily perceive their power to control 
direction of light reflected by them, and honr 
beyond the range of a dioptric lens that 
extends. We see also that they can be ( 
above the level of the flame, so as not to iai 
in any direction the direct action of the li^t 
fully employed, but the difficulties we find in 
use are the cost of accurately-shaped, 
glass prisms, their weight, and the great' 
of cleaning them. How then shall we obta& 
evident advantages their use might confef, 
avoid these difficulties? The course is easy en 
as the action of a reflecting surface and a refli 
prism is identical ; use thin reflecting plates iz 
of prisms, and so obtain at once economy 
lightness, and avoid the necessity of cleaning 
separate reflecting plate, by enclosing each 
of reflectors between plates of glass set in a 
frame. 

I have here a specimen of the street-lamp _ 
known as the catoptric lamp ; this will »r9B 
iUustrate the manner in which these "* ** 



A more scientific appbcation of dioptrics was plates can be appUed. The angles at wMcb 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETt OP ARTS, April 18, 1873. 



405 



BteBi^JiUeB are placed in tHs specimen arc 
H ttSL viulfi they intercept liglit radiating 
pinbiV9Qgb ^3 deg^rees of arc, they concentrate 
-^— -kaic ot to degrees ; this gives sufficient 
of the reflected lig^t over the dark in- 
Wween the lamps in a stiieet ; by varying 
of these reflect<»^ we can perfectly 
& direction of the reflected Hght. In ap- 

e you perceive three points of light, first 

ifsme itself ; then, through the group of re- 
st the side of the lamps, an inverted image 
iame; and in the group of reflectors in the 
a aeoond inverted image of the flame ; this, 
reflecting the edge of the flame, or rather 
Hue in a more concentrated shape, as viewed 
^ position of this group of reflectors, gives 
of the flame even more brilliant than the 
of the flame itself, 
oonoentration of the light radiating through 
jwes of arc into a much smaller area gives 
lelictod light its brilliancy and penetrative 
m in the example of the modem lighthouse 
ttere, however, the rays of light are con- 
d into parallel planes, and here we have 
ote&ded over such degrees of arc as the 
a ooncentradon or diffusion we desire may 
ta 

^Jitem of street lighting was introduced 

floe side of Waterloo-bridge in November, 

ftad so satisfactory was the restdt, that soon 

bodi sidfis of the bridge were fitted with 

oftlusdracription, and the daily press de- 

'ib effiBct in terms of the highest praise. 

exactly mTni1tt.T to the pattern before you 

operation in Moorgate-street and many 

ptets of this metropolis ; and in the town of 

the Hi^h-street, one-and-a-quarter 

, is entirely lit with them, and the 

i i^pearanoo, the increased lighting power, 

ttl even diffusion of light in that street has 

^ greatest satisfaction. Numerous other 

Ittfe tiiese lamps on trial previous to a 

adoption of the system. 

cfmoQs at a glance how different this ap- 

• of reflecters for street-lighting is to all 

We preceded it, and how great is the 

of fonu and detcdl of which it is capable. 

WB have a specimen with reflecting plates 

TCrtically ; no advantage in power is, how- 

oUaaed by it, and although the effect may 

^■ng, its extxa cost would perhaps prevent 

a ordinary street lamps. 

foestion of cost brings me to the commer- 

whether the use of reflectors and 

^ftreet-lamps, admitting its practicability, 

•ffldent advantage te warrant the increased 

file lamps and apparatus and the possibly 

I cost of maintenance, or whether we can 

^ extra cost^ or entirely save its annual 

by a saving in the amount of lighting 

CKttsomed, and yet give at the same time 

tile useful effect of the present lighting. 

Here we have lamps of various patterns 

_ gas from the same main, each at the 

wre fbet of gas per hour. These street- 

i%?il«toPi are by Mr. Sugg, of West- 

4 oax^folly adjusted, and giving, as 

xwolis. Now in this specimen of a 

I h/kve a regulater, allowing a flame 

of four feet of gas per hour 

in lighting power is still 



m. 



apparent to you ; and at least double the lighting 
power is given by this lamp, as compared with the 
others burning nve feet of gas per hour. Here 
then is a saving of 20 per cent, in gas, or about 
13 shillings per annum. This would actually pay 
the entire extra first cost of the lamp and reflectors 
in two years, and practically the cost of repairs has 
not been found te be much more than the cost of 
repairing an ordinary lamp. 

The question of cost cannot, however, be con- 
sidered, as if our present street-lighting was so 
satisfactery that no improvement was desirable 
or i^ecessary. The want of efficient street-lighting^ 
in our cities and tewns is an acknowledged 
grievance of long standing. London has been de- 
clared te be the worst Ut city in Europe, and 
everyone must admit the dangerous darkness 
which prevails in streets without shops, or after 
the shops are closed in others, and we depend only 
upon the public lamps for illumination. 

How, men, is this defective lighting to be 
remedied ? How are we te obtain at least double 
the present lighting? — and less than double wiU not 
be satisfactery. Will the authorities be induced 
te double the number of lamps we have at present P 
It seems hardly probable, when such an outcry is 
raised against a few shillings per lamp increase in 
the cost of gas, or when we remember that in 1866, 
according te a Parliamentary report, there were 
about 40,000 public lamps in the London district 
alone, costing, at the present average of £4 per 
lamp, £160,000 per annum, while we cannot fairlj^ 
estimate the tetal number of open-air lamps in this 
country at less than 300,000. 

It is therefore, I think, obvious that it is te the 
use of reflectors, properly constructed and applied, 
which will in reality utilise te our advantage the 
hitherte wasted Ught, and which are of such a 
practical nature as te be flt for the rough work of 
public use, that we must look for immediate relief 
from the prevaUing street darkness. 

The use of such means, if. not only doubling ihe 
present lighting power of our street-lamps, but 
also ensuring a more equal diffusion of lignt over 
the whole course of our streets, would be a boon 
worth paying even an extra amount for ; but when 
these advantages can be actually obtained without 
extra cost, as I have shown they may be, then, slow 
as the introduction of any improvement ever seems 
to be, strong as may be the power of prejudice or 
of interest, or powerful for resistance as mere 
apathy or indifference may prove, it seems difficult 
te believe that the increased etreet lighting de- 
manded by the public can long be refused te them 
by their representatives, when the power of obtain- 
ing that increase on such terms — an increase that 
means better protection to life and property — is 
absolutely anapractically at hand. 



DISCUSSION. 

In reply te several questioDS, Mr. Skelten stated that 
the catoptric lamps were no more trouble to dean than 
the ordinary street lamps, as the outside was simply a piece 
of plain glass, and that the extra cost would be £1 5b. 
per lamp. 

Kr. Smartt said there seemed a considerable amount of 
metal in the new lamp frame, which mi^ht be reduced 
with great advantage. One great difficulty which 
occurred to him with regard te street lighting, especially 



i06 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 18, 1873. 



in the oonntry, was, that aa yon approached the lamp, 
thcve was a powerfiil light, which tended to dassle ti^ 
eyes, and directly jon paaaed the lamp 70a appeared to 
lie in darkness ; he should like to know whether it would 
not be possible, by the use of gronnd glass, to reduce 
that dassUng effect As it had recently beoi proposed that 
lamps should be lighted by electricitT, there appeared to 
him no reason why the number should not be increased, 
the lights being smaller, and if this were the case, they 
could be arranged against the walls of the houseB, in- 
stead of bdng in the path and the roadway, and 
reflectors might be placed at the back of the light 
By that means the obstruction of the posts in the 
streets would be avoided. It would also aomit of more 
powerful reflectors being used, because tin or some other 
metal could be employed, whicb, he thou^t, would have 
ffreater effect than tlie strips of sily^^d glass used in 
Mr. Skelton's lamps. One difficulty whi<m ocouned to 
him was, if these reflecting strips were enclosed in an 
air-tight case, the alteration of temperature would tend 
to break them ; and, on the other hand, if Uiey were 
not hermetically dosed, the dust would get in and 
obscure them. His own opinion was, that a lamn 
similar to the one shown, with the opal glass top, and 
with a metal reflector, would be very advantageous. 

Xr. DeMes thought Mr. Skelton's lamp a most in* 
ffenious contrivance. At the same time the ordinary street 
lamp might be very considerably improved in various 
ways. For instance, tbe frames were much too large, and if 
they were reduced, and Uie lamps placed at a proper 
distance, Uie illuminating power would be increased. 
The glass also was frequently obscured with paint and 
putty. He understood that Mr. Skelton's lamp complete 
cost £2 19s., while a common ordinary street lamp only 
cost Ss. 6d., but even with that great difference in price 
he believed it would be to the advantage of the rate- 
payers to introduce the new invention. 

Mr. Amti, whilst allowing that Mr. Skelton had 
introduced a vast improvement, did not think he had 
yet reached perfection. He had tried a lamp of his own 
design close to his own house, with a top rtflector 
throwing Uie light back again into the lantern, but Uie 
glass of the lantern was ground, and the innumerable 
laces of the ground glass brought the l^ht out in aJl 
directions, and diffused it as a quiet light in such a way 
that there was a total absence of shadow. Thus, although 
at some distance the part of the street where the lamp 
was did not look as well lighted as the other parts, still 
as soon as you came close up to it you found you could 
see all round quite as well as where there were dear 

8 lass lamps. There was also a total absence of the 
iokering shadow dose to the road, which often caused 
horses to shy. He believed, therefore, that until some 
plan (K>uld be hit upon — not only for economising the rays 
and directing them horisontally, but for masking the lignt 
itself---the right thinf would not be obtained. He quite 
repudiated^ the idea that cost was any material dement ; 
fSor he believed the authorities of London, at all events, 
would be perfecUy willing to pay whatever was required 
for the right lamp when once it was found. He hoped 
Mr. Skdton would persist in hit endeavours, for he nad 
already done good service, and he had no doubt would 
ioon perfect a very useful invention. 

Mr. Kaoomber asked whether the rays of light were 
much diminished by passing through ground glass P 

Mr. Amti said the light he had spoken of near his own 
house had answered admirably untu in course of time the 
ground glass got dirty, when it was past Uie power of 
cleaning, and the lamp was a failure. 

Mr. Bmartt said he thouffht he had seen lamps without 
dlTisions in the fhune, and suggested that it would be 
possible to make Uie lanterns in one circular piece for the 
lower part, and another portion for the top, so as to 
avoid the shadow of Uie iron framework. 

Mr. Hala gathered fttmi the paper that there had not 
been any improvements in street lamps worth notice frtym 



1822 to 1871. It seemed as if there wsniOBsi 
dilBcnltiflS in the way, which perhaps soeoQBtiiigc 
apparent spathy on the matter. As Iv ss kl « 
jud^ Mr. okdton's seemed a vsst innsnuist m 
ordinary lamps ; but he £^ somewhat doobtfdf^ 
the reflectors would not cet dirty, in whick SM 
feared the deaning would be a somewhst dilesH 
oomplioated process. It was one thing to ezkibits 
for half an hour in a lecture room, and another ' 
gather to submit it to the rough nangsof 
wear in the streets. It also appeared to hia tki 
time in which the extra cost would be mved hi 
rather under-estimated, for, putting the isTing «f 
20 per cent, that would represent about S,000 boo^ 
4s. per thousand hours, or 12s. per lamp per aBBBa,< 
aooording to the figures given by Mr. DcM,thii 
require rour or five years to recoup the eitn < 
the first instance. There was no doubt that tUi 
of cost was a very important one. He 



that, although he uiould rejoice to see the rtmii \M 
illuminated, he could not agree that Loadoa «■ | 
worst-Ut capital in Europe. 

Mr. Bkelton, in reply, said the efliBot of uof 

glass was to destroy the penetrative power eft 

of light; Uie glass became, as it were, aeU^t 

and Uie light radiated from it aU aroond. It vn , 

true that the metallic finune of the lamp ou^ M 

duced in size, and that in proportion ss it «ii»^ 

Uie shadow be diminished. The dazzling eflbct 

light at a distance had been alluded to, and no ' 

existed to some extent ; but if the ^soe hetvees , 

observer and the lamp were as well lit, onm^m,m^ 

around the lamp, the dawsling effect wooid be am 

diminished. This even illumination is prodscedip 

catoptric lantern. Mr. Smartt had aleo iiiggeiUi III 

by calling in the aid of dectridty, a greater mnW \ 

sm^dler lights might be used, but it had been *" 

practically that gas could not be burned te 

tage for street-illuminating purposes in le« 

Uian frt>m 4 to 6 feet per hour. Ai to 

the lamps against the widls, that plan «« 

in several continental towns, and yitl 

bad results, nearly one half of the hgbt 

wasted. If reflectors were jdaoed behind nch 

they would only have the effect of throwing tbil 

across Uie street, where it was not so much reqoinAl 

by increasing the light near the lamp, would suhij 

intervening spaces appear darker, tteflectonefi 

character, therefore, were worse than JoAnMk 

regard to the catoptric reflectors getting aoiled or 1 

he could oiilv say that practically tbe difficulty bit I 

occurred. Theoretically, no doubt, the framewocb^ 

to break with the expansion of U^e air, but it «<* I 

found that such was the effect in pra^ice, and ii| 

High-street of Southampton some lamps had be«(~' 

for fifteen months, and many more than fix dobA 

they were reflecting now as brillianUy sf wbftl 

erected. With regard to solid reflecton, he hidi 

a specimen. It was the fault of all lamps of thi 

that they ooncentrated the light in and nndgfroj 

instead of diffusing it, so that really the iUosnair 

the street was ii^jured. It was imposnble to 

street-lamp, formed of one piece of fflsB, s" 

a framework on which to rest it, snd thit 

cast a shadow the same as an ocdistfj 

Mr. Defries was in error in stating the coit • 

of his lamps for ordinary street purposes at ^^J^^, 

being the price of one with reflectors for thresis^' 

liffht in four directions ; for ordinary puiposH, bffivj 

a lamp such as those used in Southampton weddisM 

dent, reflecting the lig^t in two direotiooi o^^X**' ^ 

down the street, the oost of those being £1 ^^J|~V m 

quite agreed that the ordinary lamps might bssisAi 

proved, but, while doing so, it was miio|k ^^^^"^ J|| 

them really effident instruments for lighttoy 0*J 

instead of mere cases for holdings light whioi ^<^wf 

mit more than half to be wasted. lUlkiiVVi^B^ 



JOURlfAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 18, 1873. 



407 



tkmi^ bat not in another. Adearglaat 

the lijg^t to escape in all directions, but 

Jamp caught that which would be lost and 

iIIm street. The idea of masking the light 

the groond glass conld not be practically 

if it were required to illuminate the dark 

sn die lamps. The use of ground glass, to 

dsatling of the eyes, would also have the 

>yiog the penetratiTe power of the rays of 

igk no r^ imprOTement had been made in 

until 1871, the records of the Patent>office 

'of attempts and suggestions, only a few of 

had ineotioned. Mr. Hale's question as 

had been already answered, but 

that in Sonthaippton Uie cleaning 

limps was performed by the same men, 

ly tile same manner as the other lamps 

He estiQiated the amount of saving 

lamp in the gas consumed, with a 

kt, and this, in two years, would pay for 

first cost of the lamp. With regard to 

lit would he qnite possible to throw a stone at 

reflectors and break the outside glass, doing 

sime amount of damage as in an ordinary 

Hie reflectors made of strips of silvered 

with metal, being placed edgeways, were 

^h to resist a blow, but even if one or two 

ihey were very easily replaced, and the re- 

~ be as good as new. 

said that he had alluded to a lamp with 



sdd 



U^i 



OV THE M£AHS OF PBOTECTING THE 
IP0IJ8 AaAIVST COHFLAQBAnON. 

ioDowing eyidence was given by Mr. 
before the Oommittee : — 

Committee are of course aware that you are 
^ of great experience in water supply, and 
[jou are now in office at the Local Government 

i chief inspector and consulting engineer. 

how many towns are now supplied with 
the works have been carried out under your 

as engineer? 
ly twoity ; that is, actual works, not only the 
ly, but the house services also. 

any one of those which is not on the con- 
? 

yon received information as to the relative 

. under the system of constant supply in these 

tsoapared with consumption under the system 

it supply in London, where the consnmp- 

to be thirty-three gallons per head ? 

those towns where there has been proper 

the rate of supplv has been reduced to 

gallons per hcAd ; but where they have 

services, tile water has been wasted. It w<i8 

through neelect of the fittings, sometimes 

in the supply mains. New works are very 

; some of the parts may be found defective 

„ a time, and occasionally joints will draw. 

Mver cease contracting and expanding, and 

ly a little difficulty for twelve or eighteen 

thu cause. 

you aware of the statement that in a great 

the snpply on the constant system has 

lirsnty gallons per head P 

~ ly under. In places where they have 

ttnAil, and managed properly, it has been 

gallons. At Alnwick there are 1,200 

Ittfar strict supervision, but no external 

MtlOBf teiMment has a service pipe taken 

^ ~~^ 005 of the greatest possible sources 






of protection against waste, because persons could not 
afford to have waste in the room. It a tap leaked in 
any degree, they must have it stopped. 

Q.-— You have had no occasion in any of these towns 
under the system of constant supply, to apply waste- 
preventors or other expensive apparatus that have lately 
been stated to be indispensable r 

A, — No ; and I may state that I had one of the patent 
waste- pre venters — which were so strongly recommended 
for use in the metropolis — put up at my stables, which 
acted for about a fortnight, and then ceasod to act, 
becoming an ordinary tap. The descendiog valve 
stuck fast, as I anticipated it would, and ceased alto- 
gether to act as a waste-preventor. 

Q— -Are you conversant with instances where a 
change has been made from the old intermittent system 
to a constant supply P 

A. — Only where old works have been taken over by a 
new company. At Wigan and other places the old 
supply was an intermittent supply; but when the 
Corporation acquired the property, they carried out new 
works and put on a constant supply. 

Q. — ^Was that constant supply put on by the Cor- 
poration as a body, or upon requisition by the house- 
holders P 

A. — The Local Boards that I had to deal with intro- 
duced it. Some were companies, but my recommendation 
always was that either the board or the company should 
tap tiie mains and lay the services — if it were to a court, 
into the court ; if to houses in a street, to the front wall — 
and carry that cost to their capital account, not charg- 
ing the cost to the consumers. Then the consumer or 
owner of the property merely had to pay for the service- 
pipe from the front wall to the inside. 

Q. — Can you form any estimate of what, under such 
circumstances, might be the average cost of change of 
system P 

A. — The cost in fitting ordinary houses in a town 
would be from 58. to 10s. for cottages, from lOs. up to 
208. for houses from £10 to £20 a-year, and so on with 
larger property. The metropolitan estimates of £10, 
£15, or £20 per cottage house, I have never found 
justified in my experience. 

Q. — How long have wrought iron pipes been in use in 
the houses where you have had them applied P 

A. — They are in use now in Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
Alnwick, Olmskirk, and other places, going on for 20 
years. Even the basement of the Huuse of Commons 
IS supplied with water through wrought-iron pipes. 
The whole of the gfas services throughout London are 
all supplied with wrought-iron. The life of an ordi- 
nary wrought-iron pipe in the streets of London, unpro- 
tected,- is from 16 to 20 years. If it were laid in a 
rough V box, and run in with asphalte, there is no limit, 
that I know of, to its endurance. 

Q. — Have you any data from these towns as to the 
cost of repairs under the system of iron services P 

A. — ^I have one return from Alnwick, where there 
were upwards of 1,200 house services. The taps were 
all of the beet kind (screw down), and the return I had 
was that the whole of these services were maintained 
for 12 months at a cost within £5. 

Q. — Mr. Marten, (who had first served as an engineer 
at the East London Waterworks), in his evidence to the 
Board of Health, speaking of his experiences of mak- 
ing the change at Wolverhampton, from the inter- 
mittent to the constant supply, stated that the actual 
cost was sixpence per head of the population ; that on 
the Wfcole, even including reservoirs and other matters, 
he thought it a fit and fair estimate to put it at two 
shillings per head to the population in the metropolis, 
which would probably be an average of six shillings 
or twelve shillings per house. Might that be a fair 
estimate of the cost of making the change in London ? 

^. — I have no practical experience as to London or 

the East-end, but if you wish to convert an intermittent 

constant service, with hous^ up to £20 renta^ 



to a 



408 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, April 38. 1873. 



yalaOf I think it shoold not in any case cost more than 
20s., and in some cases beiow, if the companies acted as 
I say they ought to he expected to act, that is to say^ 
not putting the tenant or the owner to the cost of tap- 
ping the main and running the service up to the pro- 
perty. A great portion of the cost at present goes in 
tapping the mains and taking the service from the main 
up to the property, and in taking np and replacing 
pavements. 

Q. — But on the whole do you think that that estimate 
of Mr. Marten's of two shilling^ per head of the popula- 
tion was an under estimate or a fair one ? 

A. — I think it was a very fair one. 

Q. — Suppose it to he two shillings per head, or twelve 
shillings per house, from your experience under the 
Public Health Act of introducing new works by oistri- 
huting the charges over thirty years, do you not con- 
sider it would be preferable to do this in the same way, 
so as, instead of callini^ upon the owners to spend 12s., 
to pay only a small sum, some one or two shillings, by 
way of equal annual instalment of principal and in- 
terest? 

^.— Ido. 

Q. — Is not even a small charge, imposed upon owners 
of property having only a short term of some four or six 
^ears, for a thirty years' benefit, to that extent an in- 
justice P 

A, — There is some little difficulty in laying down a 
hard and fast rule in these cases. There is always a 
difficulty about ownership. If you capitalise the money, 
and give from five to ten or fifteen years to make the 
payment and do the work, as I suggest, it would be a 
very easy matter. 

Q.— Under the Public Health Act the loan may be 
distributed over thirty years ? 

A. — Th'it was the time allowed, and also in the 
Lancashire public works, but I always preferred to 
recommend shorter terms. I do not think it is desir- 
able to have private improvement loans hanging over 
for a long period. 

Q — Mr. Quick has stated that the difference between 
the work done by a private plumber at the expense of 
the individual occupier or owner, and having it done, 
as I presume it was, by private improvement rates, and 
by common contracts under the Public Health Act, would 
be from one- third to one-half P 

A. — More, I dare say. 

Q- — Taking your own house as a specimen, how much 
do you think would be the cost to put your cisterns, and 
taps, and other fittings in a state to receive a constant 
supply, as prescribed by some of the Companies* engi- 
neers P 

A. — I can hardly say. Ihavenotconsideredtheqaestion. 
I am not very far from the main, and it would not cost 
much if I were not compelled to put in cisterns. But 
I should be compelled to put in service boxes for each 
closet, and they are supplied at from 30s. to 60s.. Iron 
tubing has recently doubled in price, but it is not very 
expensive, even now, compared with lead. 

Q- — If the new regulations were fully enforced, then 
it would cost you some pounds, would it not P 

A. — According to an estimate that I have here, it must 
cost me at least £30 or £40. 

Q. — May not the present measure be pronounced to be 
an expen^ive failure P 

A. — No ; because Major Bolton, the official water ex- 
aminer, informs me that all the companies are, in new 
■works, preparing for constint service, and new hounea 
are also being fitted up for constant service. The 
only company that has really attempted to face 
the difficulty on a large scale is the East London, 
and the engineer reports that there are 36,000 houses 
on the constant service. I have before me a table 
which may be useful to the committee. There are a 
Series of questions that were drawn up and put to 
the diffur«nt companies. Question 12, in the first 
column, asks the number of houses supplied on the 



probftl 



constant service. The New River says rnbont 11,1 

the Enst London, 35,000 ; the West 
few, about 60; ^e Grand Junction says 
Chelsea says about 100 special Bupplies direct 
the main to large consumers; the SouUiwui 
Vauxhall says 375 have a supply from tbe 
which is practically a constant service ; the ' 
says 200 ; the Kent, about 600 ; and the constuit 
is provided for the government establishmenta At ' 
ford and Woolwich. Then the volume of 
for trade purposes is given. Also the niimb<^ of 
metres, stand-pipes, and length of time the watei 
With regard to the last point, the New Ri-rer 
is on for thirty minutes; the East Lon^«n, 
fifteen to thirty minutes; the West 
three-quarters of an hour to three honra, and m^ 
Then with regard to the quantity of watei 
(at question 11^, the New River says it is 
28 gallons per nead on an average; the BasI 
don about 20, alter making due allowanoe Hor 
consumers, and that is with 35,000 constant 
The West Middlesex says about 30} g^ona, the 
Junction 41 gallons, including trades; the 
36 to 37 ; the Southwark and Vauxhall, 35 ; the 
44, the maximum for all purposes ; the Kent, tS, 
question 26 is as to the amount of waste, and tha 
River says it is supposed to be one-third of tha 
supply ; the East London, whose supply ia ooly 20 1 
per head, says it is unknown, but probably on< 
the whole domestic supply; the West Middleat-xl 
means of estimating, but believe 'it to be aboat 
of the total quantity. The Grand Junction aa3ra 
not less than one-third of the total supply. The 
says it is impossible to state the amount of 
very g^reat t the Southwark and Yauxhall, 
less than a third ; Lambeth, probably four to jfive 
gallons per day ; Kent, unknown. Now, aa in 
all these companies are pumping oompaniea, that 
waste of capital, waste of coal, waste of labour, 
fact, in every way, far more than the mere waateaf j 
water. It means one-third added to the expeaae nf I 
entire supply. 

Q.^The loss accruing from divided 
by the eight companies, as estimated by Mr. 
was estimated by the Board of Health in 1S54, at ' 
of £100,000 per year. Do yon think that an 
estimate or an under-estimate P 

A. — I am perfectly satisfied that at least ^14 
a-year would be saved by consolidation and hy 
man^^ment. I have a return of the naraber of 
cocks employed by all these companiea, ahowiaiy 
there is a perfect army of them. Now, under a 
service, all those turncocks might be diapena^ 
that shape, and might act as inspectors and 
fittings, with some few exceptions, becanae it 
be utter madness to introdnce a coniitant 
in London and then leave it to take ita 
The same thing occurred at Croydon tooi^ 
ago. ThHt is a pumping supply. They^ had i 
waste that their consumption went np to 60 
gallons per head, and they wanted more capitfd. T 
the engineers, '* It is no use to come and a^ th^ 
give you more money to extend your works 
more water ; the Board will do nothing of the 
on some inspectors and some fitters, and make 
of what water you have, and do not get more 
pump more water to ran to waste as this haa." 
did so, and it reduced the supply one-half in 
a month. 

Q. — Do yon suggest that each hooaeahoald 
meter? 

A. — No ; I do not think yon can sell water br 
for domestic purposes. I have heard it argnedC 
very intelligent man came to me and almost Shook 
my opinion, showing me a meter that was vei;^ 
mical, but I did not quite see it, and I think H ~ 
a useless incombrance. You cannot daal witili 




JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 18, 1873. 



409 



tagar and milk. However socialistio it 
tfM rich most pity for the poor. For in- 
wo pay upon the rateiible value, not 
of persona in the house, or upon the 
vater osckI. Take my own case. There are 
persons in the house, myself and wife, 
its. My fittlngfl are always kept in order 
convenience, and I pay upon my rental, 
m rtable ; but I do not use as much as one of 
•ottagers at the Eist-end of London, who 
B intermittent supply. 

supply constant ? 
•errice is not constant, but my cisterns make 
constant, except that during the last month 
complained. They are either pinching 
lopply or there is something amiss. I pay 
Ibr what another person (a poor man) does 
but still 1 think it is quite right and 



i tibc redactions of waste by the constant supply 

Vttde with simply the oixlinory apparatus of 

f pipes in communication with the tap, without 

ors or meters, or anything of that kind ? 

never myself seen a waste preventor that 

I a pin for ; they are either an inconvenience 

l^ht not to be subjected to, or they get out 

„ oeaae to be waste preventors. They are 

ivenient. For instance, why should you be 

•p of an extra g^illon of water if you want 

>alil you be prevented diHcharging more than 

at a time down the closet? You are not 

there all day for the purpose of wasting 

t yon may, on ceritin occasions, want to 

le up fur a second or two longer and dis- 

, water. But with one of these service boxes 

do IL Tou must give one discharge, which 

leastnt rattle through the house, and then 

_i until the box is filled again. 

have been considering the constant supply 

I reference to the prevention of fire. Can 

anything with reference to the difierent 

_a used in towns for this purpose ? In the 

anuming that there must be hydrants for 

t^ and street washing, what sort of expense 

need he incurred ? 

Id bo a very considerable item, but it is 

sapitfd which the companies ought to be 

Jy without one single moment's hesitation. 

considerable experience in fire-hydrants, 

line or two of those patented ball valves, 

a TOW I would never use another. I 

hydrant with an ordinary sluice cock, so 

er of the position, and the thing is not 

With a bedl hydrant, if it goes wrong, 

_ longer master, and you must turn the 

More yoa can get at the ball to alter it. 

i-^ock, which should be made of gun metal, 

joa have all you require. The hydrants 

k«iU oe«t about £4 e-ich. That includes 

Co the nozzle-pipe in the street for the 

e screwed on. 

it is to be presimied, with the repre- 

"bas been made of the necessity of tying 

,jt together for the purpose of fire preven- 

'bmg the whole force of the supply to bear 

» of eonflagration P 

I think if the mains were properly looped 
record kept of them, and if you had 

iks, you could always have an abundant 

itsr in any district affected by a fire ; but I 

_ that, in the present arrangement of mains 

^wm could get direct service from mains, but 

It a moch better delivery out of the mains. 

ifa^ "howeTer, very great in the long lengths 

l« ^k^t saany of the vestries, which have 
of the constant supply, composed 



very largely of small owners, and people who would 
have to pay these immediate charges ? 

A. — It is so ; there are many owners of cottages who 
dread any sort of (expense coming upon them. 

Q — Have they not a reasonable dread of immense un- 
reasonable outlay ? 

A. — I think they have. 

Q. — Is not putting upon people, who may only have a 
five years' interest, the expense of a thirty years* benefit, 
of which they may have only short one, two or four 
years* purchiso, an injustice? 

A. — I think it is. 

Q. — And supervision and economy would be efficient 
in proportion to the scale upon which it was carried out ? 

A. — Yes. 

Q. — The policy of the Public Health Act under which 
you first served, was that supplies of water should be 
provided as a public service, and only at the expense of 
the service, and not for a trading profit on the necessi- 
ties of the population. Can yuu state the extent to 
which that policy has been acted upon, and, where it has 
been acted upon, how as a rulu it has worked ? 

il.— Water supplies are now in the hmds of local 
authorities in many places, and should be so in all 
pla« es, as good water should be at command without 
stint, both for public and private uses — as for street- 
watering, sewer and drain fiushing, fire service, public 
fountains, und water-troughs for cattle. I have known 
a company charge 2ti. 6d. per 1.000 gallons when the 
charge ought not to have been more than three pi'oce. 
It is not proper to sell water as milk or beer are sold, by 
the gallon. 

Q. — It was proposed by the General Board of Health 
as terms of compulsory purchase of the trading compa- 
nies supplies, th'it besides compensation for the officers, 
the shnreholders should receive public security for their 
existing dividends. What, within your experience and 
observation, has been the rule of compensation to the 
shareholders of water companies for a compulsory pur- 
chase of their works ? 

A. — Officers whose services were not retained may 
have a retiring allowance. Shareholders may be secured 
the maximum dividend, and as a local authority can 
borrow money at a low rate of interest, and can use 
compulsory powers, as also levy a rate in aid, water may 
be used at the least cost for all purely sanitary purposes. 



ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS 



The Exhibition was opened to the public on Monday, 
without any ceremony. At ten o'clock in the morning 
the visitors did not number more than two or three 
hundred, but as the day wore on the arrivals became 
much more numerous. The official return gives the 
viHitors as follows :— By season tickets, 496 ; on payment 
of Is., 9,658 ; total, 10,163. After 6 p.m.— Season tickets, 
12 ; on payment of 6d., 443 ; tf»t>il, 466. On Tiu-sday 
the number of visitors was ms follows:— Season tickets, 
249 ; on payment of Is., 3,020 ; total, 3,269. 



The water supplied to the city of Munich con- 
tains nitrate of poUsh. Professor A. Wagner states that 
the amount of water used by the city in nne year, by the 
ordinary water pipes, contains saltpetre sufficient to make 
18,106 cwt of gunpowder. 

Peat IB beine used in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, 
more extensively this winter than ever before, both in offices, 
rettideDccp, and for making steam. The results are said to 
be generally satisfactory. 



412 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, APRit 18, 1878. 



ration of the Earth's Crust is attributable. By E. G. 
M. Browne. Presented by the Author. 

A Paper read by W. E. Teale on Patent Protector 
Colliery Lamp. Presented by the Author. 

New Arctic Expedition; Correspondence between Uie 
Boyal Geoj?rapicfid Society and the Goyemment. Pre- 
sented by Professor Tennant. 

OBDUTABY ICEETIirGS. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

April 23. — *'0n Silkworm Grain." By Mons. 
Alfred Roland (Orbe, Switzerland). On this evening 
Andrew Cassels, Esq., will preside. 

April" 29 (Tuesday Evbnino*).— "On the British 
Settlements in West Africa." By His Excellency 
Governor Pope Hennessy, C.M.G. 

Apkil 30. — " On the Condensed Hilk Mannfactore." 
By L. P. Merriam, Esq. 

May 7. — " On Improvemements in the Manufacture 
of Gun-cotton." By S. J. Mackix, Esq., C.E. 

May 14.— 

May 21. — " On Recent Processes for the Production 
of Gas for Illuminating Purposes." By Thomas Wills, 
Esq. 

OANTOB LSCTUEE8. 

The Third Course of Cantor Lectures for the 
present session will be " On Wines ; their Pro- 
auction, Treatment, and Use," by J. L. W. 
Thudichum, Esq., M.D. The Course will consist 
of six lectures, me first of which will be given on 
Monday evening, the 21st of April, the remaining 
five on the Monday evenings succeeding. 

Lecture I. 

Description of the yineyards »f Jerez de la Frontera, 
firom personal observation of the lecturer. G^graphi- 
cal and geological position. Climate. Flora and fauna. 
Varieties of vines cukiyated, particularly those used for 
-wine-making. Wild or indigenous varieties, as studied 
by the lecturer in the primceval forest, the Algaida, 
near Sin Luoar de Barramoda. The vintage at 
Jerez. Implements and processes. Fermentation. Yini- 
fication. 

Lbcturb II. 

The varieties of wines produced at Jerez — mostos, 
afiadaSy firos, palos-oortados, amontilludos, rayas, 
bastos, &o. Physical and chemical observations on 
the causes of these different results. Brand ving, plaster- 
ing, sulphuring, mixing, and counterfeiting of Jerez 
wines. Neglect of scientific guidHUce in vinification 
diminishes the certainty and success of otherwise highly- 
developed viticultural and commercial operations. Other 
Bpanish vineyards and wines. 

Lectxtrb III. 

Description of the vineyards of the Alto Douro, from 
personal observation of the lecturer. Contrast of geo- 
logical position of these vineyards to those of Jerez. 
Varieties of vines cultivated ; all medium-sized grapes ; 
whereas the Jerez grapes are all large-sized. In- 
digenous vines, as studied by the lecturer in the pro- 
vince Entre Douro e Minho. Viticulture in the Alto 
Douro. The vintage and wine-making. 

Lecture IV. 

The varieties of wines produced in the Alto Douro ; 
how treated at Oporto. Lodges. Brandy. Legend of 
elderberry. Unbrnndied and flry natural Alto Douro 
wines. Neglect of scientific guidance here also, but 
proceMos more simple, and varieties of results not so 
groat ac at Jerez. Description of other Portuguese 

-^»Ui3r**°* "iJwJUlly appointed, as His Exoelleno7 is leaving 



vineyards — ^the Beiras, Valley of the Tagns, Boodlaa. 
Fable of the transplanted Rhenish grapes. ColUraa. 
Torres Vedras. Ghmeral remarks on tiie nature and 
difficulties of Portuguese viticulture and vinification, ail 
based upon personal observation of the lecturer. 

Lecturb V. 

The wines of France compared to those of Spain and 
Portugal. The Gironde, its vineyards, wines, and 
varieties of wines. The Bourgogne and its produc^oos. 
Belgian appreciation, and sweetness of Burgundy wine. 
The wine requires the proc^6. ' The Champagne; 
peculiarities of viticulture. Chemical treatmcat of 
effervescent wine to ensure its soundness. Abaoxd 
notion of some writers on champagne ; of the same on 
second wines and sugar-water wines ; exposure of the 
sycophancy. 

Lecture VL 

The wines of Oermany; Riesslinff a type of bou- 
quetted wines. Classification of the wines of the 
world, as determined by quality, quantity, valoe in the 
market of highest and lowest qualities. Active in- 
gredients of wine. Use of chemical analysis. Use of wine 
to the healthy, whether old or young; wine, noder 
which condition preferable to all other aloeholic Uquids^ 
Wine should be a beverage, not a dram. XJae of 
wine to the delicate and sick. Selection and prices of 
wine. Proposed modification of the import duties^ to 
adjust them to the climatic difficulties of Spain and 
Portugal. 

nrBIA OOVMITTSE. 

A Conference will be held on Friday, 25ih inst., 
at 8 p.m., when a paper will be read by WnxLkX 
Tayleb, Esq., late Commissioner of Patna, on 
" The Bosary in Lidia." Sir M. DiOBT Wyatt, 
F.S.A., will preside. 

Members are entitled to attend these Conferenoes 
free, and to admit two friends to each of them. 



MEETHrGS FOB THE EKSTiniO 

Mow. ...SOCIETY OF ARTS, 8. Cantor Lecturea^ Dr. lltofi- 

chum, ** On Wines ; their Prodoction, Ttrntmook aad 

U»e» 
Social Sdenoe AModation, 8. Mr. F. 6. BeOly, on **▲ 

Code or a Digfest.'* 
Stationerfl* Company, 7i. Tethnoloeioal Ijedtaanm^ Mr. 

£. A Davidaon, ^' Pnnting, its Huitnj mad PrMtiee ** 
Victoria Institute, 8. Bev. O. Henalow, Fuier oo ** 1%6 

Arvument of Design as bearing upon Atbtuzn.** 
London Institution, S. Frofessor BenUey, ** ia<Mit^|^ i y 

Botany." 
British Architects, 8. 
Medical, 8. 
Inhtitution of Surveyors, 8. Mr. VT. Henaies, ** Arterial 

Drainage Works. Water Snpply, and Sewage J>niaMf:t 

Works, executed at Windsor, Detween the yean iSSf 

and 1873." 

Tuu.... Civil Engineers, 8. 1. Discussion, ''Staaai LMxmcAaoa 
on Common Boads/* 2. Sir Charles A. Hartley ftims 
permitting), ** On the Delta of the Danube, luaa the 
Provisional Works executed at the Sulina Mooth.** 

Medical and Chirurgioal, 8^. 

Antbr«)pol«igics] Institutp, 8. 

Buyal Institute, 3. Mr. Dannreqthar, **HaBBe of th« 
Drama." 

Wbd. ...society OF ^BTS, S. Mr. Boland, <* On SOkvom 

Grain" 
Boyal Society of Literature, 8^. 
ArchsBoltigir^ Assodstion, 8. 
Antiquaries, 9. Annual Meeting. 
London Institution, 7. Bfr. Bairett. **Oii maam fb«* 

nomena connected with Magn^ism." 

Thurb... Boyal, 8^. 

B<iyal Society Club, 6. 

Boyal Institution, 8. Profetaor Tyndall, ** On LMst.** 
Society tor the Encoungemcnt of Fine Axta, sTltr. W. 
Cave Thomas. ** Scnlptuie.** 

Fai Boyal Institution, 9. Professor Flower, '*PalaB<mtoft(MrHml 

Bvidetioe of Modiflcati6a of Aateil FonniL'* 
Qnekett Qub, 8. 

Sat Boyal Botanic, 8]. 

B<^ Institation, 3. Ptoiteot J. Odiiaf, ** Oft 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apbil 25, 187S. 



413 



m Of THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

Ko. 1,066. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, APRIL 26. 1873. 






w,c. 



t9tk*atemmrift 



W( 



S BT THE COflHCIL. 



SOAO-TRACnOV. 

Gbmmittee in charge of this subject met 
jfiadij, the 22nd instant. Present: — 
F. Eardley-Wilmot, B.A., F.K.S., 
of ^e Council, in the chair; Mr. £. 
C.B. ; and Captain Douglas Oalton, 
PJ.8. Hr. C. E. Amos, C.E., attended, 
that Uie dynamometer specially con- 
lor the purpose was now complete, and 
he kd made ihe necessary arrangements for 
: OQ these experiment s. Instructions were 
rtheOommittee as to the nature of the ex- 
they desired to be made. Mr. Amos 
nndertook to cx>nduct them. They will 
Tery shortly. 



nn>IA COMXITTSS. 

ftcretary of State for India has appointed 
^(Friday, 25th instant), at one o'clock, to 
i Deputation of the Society for the purpose 
a memorial on the facilitating our 
>ns through India with Central Ajoa* 
Eaidley Wilmot, B.A., F.B.S., 
of the Council, will head the Deputation. 



ncnoioeicAL EXAimrAiion. 

Plogramme of Examinations in the 

of some of the Arts and Manufactures 

SDitry is now ready, and may be had on 

to the Secretary. 
* objects selected for 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
jBtoil, ind Carriage-building. Those desiring 
Candidates, should apply for the pro- 
without delay. 
» following Prizes are ofiEered by the Society of 
I each of the fiye subjects mentioned aboTO : — 
Ithe best candidate in Honours, £10. 
[ibt best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 
tbestcandidate in the Elementary (}rade, £5. 
fallowing special additional Prizes are 

8. P<ntal, Esq., to the Second and 



Third best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, 
Paper Manufacture : — 

A Prize of ,'. £3 

A Prize of 2 

By G. N. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 
Building : — 

A Prize of £3 

A Prize of 2 

By the Worshipful Company of Spectacle 
Makers, to the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 
in the Advanced (Jrade and in the Elementary 
Grade respectively, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 

A Prize of £5 5 

A Prize of 3 3 

A Prize of , 2 2 

The Council beg to announce the following con- 
tributions to the Prize Fund : — 










The Worahipful Company of Fishmongers £52 10 

The Worshipful Company of Mercers. . 26 6 

The Worshipful Company of Drapers. . 21 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners. . 10 10 
The Worshipful Company of Salters 

(annual) 10 10 

The Worshipful Company of Cloth- 
workers. 10 10 

The Worshipful Company of Coach and 

Coach Harness Makers 10 10 

Dr. Craoe Calvert, F.R.S. (annual) .... 5 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart 6 

B. L. Chance, Esq 6 

Bobert Niool, Esq 1 



6 

5 
1 











PBOCEEDIHGS 07 THE SOCIETT. 



VnrETSENTE OBDnrA&Y KEETIHO. 

Wednesday, April 2drd, 1873, Akdbew Casselb, 
Esq., Member of Council, in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Bleckly, John J., DHresbury-lodge, Warrin^n. 

Crossley, William, Green8Cot-house,Dalton-m-Fume8S. 

Dunlop, Alexander Milne, . 28, Clanricarde-gardens, 
Kensington, W. 

Forbes, David, F.B.8., 11, Tork-place, Portman-square, 
W. 

Henman, Edward Thomas, 12, Blomfield-street, London- 
wall K C 

Bamsd'en, William, Cliffe Mills, Great Horton, Torks. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected Members of the Society : — 

Fox, Theodore, Newport Boiling-mills, Middlesborough. 

Glover, Samuel, 3, Harrington-square, N.W. 

Head, Joremiah, Newport Koliing-mills, Middlesborough. 

r Anson, J. Coventry, Darlington. 

Maoles, Jarvis, the Crown Tavern, Clerkenwell-green, 

E.C. 
Maybew, Bev. Samuel Martin, New Kent-road, S.E. 
Richardson, Charles Fletcher, 8, Great Winohester- 

street-buUdings, EC. 
Scott, Dngald, the Moorland, Kersal-edge, Higher 

Brottghton, Man e hester. 



JOTTENAL OfP THE BOOIETT OF ARTS, Afeu. 35, 1873W 



ass 



4il 



Shaw, John, South Eattefn'Ba&wayOMDfiuiiy, 

bridge. 8 B. 
Thorn, William Thomas, 19, Great Portland-street, 

Oxford-iitrpet, W 
Tucker, E«lwin, Dt^rrystone, Aberj^avenny. 
Wintorbourne, Sydney, 13^ ForUM-road, fenge, Surrey. 

I^ Paper read 



ON THE PEODUOTION OP SILKWOKM 

GRAIN. 

By Kons. A. Bdland. 

An uaexpected oppDitmiity iiae induced tbe wrHer 
«f this paper to brint; befnre pnblio -notice the fo)lew*> 
iog infumMiion, which ^ha httd tDteaiUd to ipttUiali in 
the ooone of a few yeai*. 

Having occupied myaelf for ten years past with 
the «duoatieD, 'kr >tiie open air, of «i Ik worm 
' **gmi n ," — haviag^msde, ami stil 1 mttk mn every 
year, numenms experiments, I had thought, previous 
to writing this paper, of di«tribu ting, in countries fit for 
sericulture, several thoasand ounoes of good grain ; 
thus enabling myself, at the time of puhlicHiion, to 
bring forward a convincioir proof of the excellence of 
the system which it ^zpltdne, by adding thereto a 
great number of certifictrtesfrom ailkTeelefs and edu> 
cators. 

I do unquestionably possens a certain number of 
these certificates ; bU( 'having, within a few years 
only, given a greater degree of extension to my mng- 
nanerie, I should have wished the number of outtees 
of gnun, acknowledged to be good, by tlie resnlt of 
education, to be more eoiitidemble, and consequently 
better known. 

Mrs. Neill, widow of Colonel Bladen Neill, no»w xe- 
siding in AuKtralia, who came to £u^>pe ]a«it spring 
to procure Home good silkworm grain, and who followed 
up an etitire course of education in my entiiblishment, 
has put me in communication with the Committee ot 
the Sericulture Department of the InternntiunHl Ex- 
hibition «if 1873, by the interventiou of Sir Duniel 
Cooper, chairmnn of that committee, and they have 
yery obligingly pro|>o>ed to roe to exhibit my entire 
system of education in tke open air in the grauuds of 
the Exhibition. 

I have considered it to be my duty, in the interest 
of sericulture, to pn»fit by this unex|.iected opportnnity, 
and thus HnticipHte, by N>me'yeNr»',thedate which I had 
fixed for maknuf known what I was doing ; for if the 
system be exhibited, it must, of neceM»ity, in order to be 
well under»tto«»d and made public, be accompanied by 
a complete explanatory treatise. 

*^ Do not attempt to euro the disease in ao minute 
^^^ an anitnalas the silk worm ; it would be 
*^*''****' '*• lost Inbimr- prevent it by rational educa- 
tion, and you will succeed, for prevention is better 
than cure.** 

When I began to devate my attentioa to seri- 
culture, and had, after a first season of •rearing, 
familisrised m\»elf with the larva and all its tran»- 
fomiation% I read nainy books on the subject, in 
French, IrnliHii, and Oemrnn. 

Among the number there are ann^e which Heserve 
all praise, both for the learning displayed as well as 
for the numerous experiments detailed by their 
authors, the minute attention bestowed on their 
search for the causes, and the acttial nature of the 
disenses which for a long time past have proved 

^^^^^l^^"" 'Z '^^ ""Wineries. Amo..g othens I 
wiU mention the excellent m^M of Daadol^ Dr. 



Oomalia, Bobinet, and the spleiglid volume of M. 
Dii8eigi«enr*KleVier,^*La Monograph ie du C«fCnn.'* 

But of all these works, the one which seemed to 
me especially woriby of .the greatest •*" j, p 
tention is, as I have already stared, in a h*v»iuM«. 

pamphlet formerly pnblii^d in France, the diKtin- 
guished production of one «»f ray feUow-countrymen, 
Dr. Chavannes,ex-Jpn>fM«or of Zoology atibe Aciid«'my 
of Lausanne. His work on '*The principal diJ^^u^ of 
silkworms and their cure" was "crowned" by the 
Lombard Royal lostittitiitn of Arts and Seieii«ca. I 
take this <ipportunity of offering my ^ligbest ctMtinien- 
dations to Dr. Charannes ; for to tbis day d«> wofk 
treatii^ of the diseases of silkworms, atid of aiiote and 
easy mode of cure, has ever been so snocessfol, «»tMl I 
strongly urge every one who wishes seriously u* take 
u,«i the subject of "sericulture" to study thia book 
attentively. 

Dr. Chavannes, altogether casting aside old tradi- 
tions, atid wishing, not only, in the inters^ of **c»ei»ce, 
to determine and to stndy the nature of tk^ diflrrettt 
diwasea of silkwot ms, wbioh otkers bad done airtwdj^ 
\mt alsA witli the philanthropic pucpitsa of TeLiie«ii^ 
the sufferings of ihe silkworm-rearing districts, winb- 
iiig t4» discover the most efficacious meitns of ob- 
tairrirtg healthy grain. Dr. ChavHnnes, I si»y, diavie- 
gafditkg the okievnineoas ways, inaagarated fbf plan 
of ediioatii>n intheopen air,and,lea^ng theover-bwiiitd 
and almost always unhealthy 'magnauerie, a|i|fTox> 
mated to nature, reared the larva on the unjikierTy 
tree itself, and gained results bf^rmd his ex|iectitrimia 

As be btmseif aays in bi« work, Dr.OH»VNntie«i via 
not the first to rear upon the tree, f n«ni tbr bt- 
ginnit^ of the eigbteentk century some experimpots 
of open-air education wen* made in Frarn-e ; ^obve- 
quently many more trials were made in the moae 
country, in Italy, and in Austria; but the pnvrtical 
means were insufficient^ and to Dr. Cbavanop)^ l»e(oDg8 
the honour of having made this mode of educaiiua pos- 
sible, and on my system even easy. 

With rearing r»n the tree trfie diseases dieappear^d ; 
there was no more " passis," ** gattine," or " |*ebrine." 
If any worm is attacked by one or other of tbe^e tormi 
of disea*«e, of very rare occurrence, and wbi<^ may 
happen to wild oaterpi liars, as my expenmenrn Imre 
pnived to nte, 'it d«*es not thereby infect the mhrr% 
aiHl, what. iH n>ore, it nearly always cores itM*i£ As 
for the " rauKcardine," the most terrible of «l| these 
diseases, it is quite unknown. Therefore, without 
(laying attention to any other ayslera of edurNiion, I 
set myself 7.ealously to follow up the data «♦! Dr. Cha- 
vannes, and, after some years* experienee, I have sac* 
ceeded beyotid all expectation. 

In practice I have goae farther than Dr. Obamnma^ 
as I shall explain l>elow. As a physician and >««»fct> 
sor absorbed in numerous occu|iations, he bai* not had 
leisure to complete his work, but it is from him that 
f he first idea has .its point of departnre. With edth 
eation an the mulberry tfee far the bama, «»4 tke 
magnanerie in the open air for tbe oompleme&t f«f tke 
system, I am firmly eonvinced that we onn r«^aore 
this beautiful branch of industry to the highest state 
of prosperity. This I aidenTly desire, and hare ffreat 
holies that the Loadon Sabibhion will atK aas a tftt Uy 
help to bring this system into general w^ 

Hy education on the tree, and especially by hyber- 
nation of the grain exposed on the branches, the worm 
necessarily becomes m**re rnbost, and, after at4ii^^r««f^ 
returns to a stare of nature. Ultimately "Vt hirm 
kaa watking tociaar ftnw airikmr wiadi Imm? aala m 



JOURNAL OF THB 800IETY OF ABTS, Apbil: 25« 1873. 



415 



kn«ffMi^<>^ nmaixM flmly fiaod on th» bnuiobet 

lit piOtnt eo the wiogs of the moth beomuM 
pMfrMffy BArfctd, iui movemento are oiuoh mure 
Inf^jid 11 makm um of its wiii|{s a« touch m iu 
MMtff tliigKUh fialur» will allow it to do. 
|flio|iaHiir iiia|(iiaii«rie, wbich is the natanil se- 
■M^aod Uie neoeaaary mode of |(Dii«ral applica- 
■ ol tl» edneatioQ on the tree, alao afi«)rdi resuita 
fmiiAgkirj as maj be desired. 
IWtikAli befttn by soocioctly studying the eduoa- 

^1^9 moiberry tree, then pnieeed to describe 
r tbe open-air maKDaoerie and its educaiitiu, 
lllaMtade with the method J have adopted for 
■jivAe cocooBs, the ooupiing of the moths, the 
Mil(Kg% and the ^n. 

I niaolbeny tree from which the leaves are to be 
L|g^^ gathered has the head lopped and the 
,-lbni. braaches spread in)( out. The case is 



f: 



different for one thait is to be covered with 
(miiff>shaped hood). It is tbeu cut in a 
muamr to the willow, which it resetubles in t 
to iu top ; the pruoiiig takes place every 
li ike sbuois o£ the current year are sutfi- 
Mssfs; and the manchon is uot to asstumei 
duneosiofis. Each bmoeh of the pre> 
|Mr is out dowa to the head of the tree, re- 
«l7 one or two eyes ; in this manner the 
covered with a great quantity of young 
the young hirv« can easily reach, 
of the mulbefiy tree, from the ground to 
not exceed two feet six iuohes^ 1 have 
tcpeheoce, that this siae is mo^ oonve- 
AroHtsring with, aod removing the nianobiiB. 
vkole apparatus consists of a few feet of wire 
gaiiae aod eanvsis some cotton, and 
string. In order to enable tha reader 
■daocarately this procedure, of elementary 
I will indieate the exact dimensions of the 
vbich I make WMif of. I take some wire gauze 
jkttadB to the centimetre (tie., twenty threads 
i)«Mi whitih a coat of oil paint is laid, t*» preserve 
Mt. The breadth must be 3 leer 6 inchen. If 
OMDot he had of this size, two breadths may 
tiigetber with wire, or tarred niik. The 
be 8 feet 10 inches, and the two ends 
<>K«therwUi form the circumference of the 
*tUi an interior diameter ot 35 inches, suf- 
fer ao mdioary sized tree. 
M^ tbe circumference of the top and bottom 
^ ^ gauze tube I ftew on some fine canvtii*, 
•^ped in oil, aod this must be two feet 
Ai a matter of oouree the paint must be 
<lry before tbe manchon in used, Mod ail 
r most be avoided, on account of its ar- 
^^Matjona. 

F*i^ maoehoD has been made open at tbe top 
•••■♦ it if slipped over the tree, so that tbe 
^^'•^ ™»y be tied rimud the stem- of the tree, 
' ^ braoebes, taking care to wrap some 
MkI it, lest the string should injure the 
l^ ^ like manner, to put some at the point 
of tbe bark and canvas; for tbe pur- 
JpW'euting the paasage of any noxious in^«ect 
^naacbniM. The ulkworms are then placed 
•P*' tba tree, by the upper otiening of tbe 
M^***** is then tied up with a string, care heinjf 
^SK^'^vitfa vatidinir all the iiiterstntes which 
ff*2*fc» Wds of the OMuvas where it is tied up. 
^"^tt* fattBg oMDpleted, two stakes must be 



firmly stuck ia the gsoaiidi right and left of the man- 
chon, and a strong string tied» across, from the top of 
one to tbe otlmr. To this string the top of tbe man- 
chon must be lasteued, so that it may not press upon 
the top of the tree ; this oontrivauce will also prevent 
Its diAplaoemeut by the wind. 

Dr. Chavannes, in his work, advises the placing of 
the silkworms in the manchoos at the Method of 
second age only, and their removal when ^'''^I'ioff* 
ihey are at the fifth age, to make them cocoon in tiie 
majfottnorie. 

Am 1 have stated abnv^ I have carried my practical 
experiiuents much farther than Dr. Chavauoes, and, 
after the conviucing proof of several year^t' experience, I 
can maintain that m our climate the silkworm may be 
born, live, and cocoon, the moth be formed, couple^ 
and lay its e/gs up^m tbe tree. I will also men- 
tion that every year I let a. certain number of moths 
lay their e^fgs on the branches of the mulberry. This 
grain remains there during the winter, exposed to all' 
external changes of weather, and simply protected by 
the manchon from noxious insects. In the spring this 
grain is barohal peirfeoUy, aod very vigorous silk- 
worms are pn>duced fr«>m iU 

To this hybernation on the tree, which I have prac- 
tised for several years past, I attribute the excep- 
tionally robU>t health of the race which I rear. 

Every spring tbe silkworms are hatched naturally 
with the appeamuoe of tbe first shoots of the mul- 
berry. When they have eaten nearly all the foliage 
of the tree on which they are hatched, £ place them oa 
another tree in full leaf. For. this «»peration we must 
not wait until all the leaves* have been etbten, for the 
worm needs st»me leaves to shelter it from the laia 
and the rays of the burning sun. 

Iu order to chan;<e the siikworms from one mul- 
berry tree to ain>i4)er, the leaves on which they rest 
miist be delicately taken up one by one, and placed 
in a paper box, wirhout crowding them together too 
much, to avoid injuring the wormn ; they are then to 
be carried to tbe tree on which they are to remain, 
and, as soon as tbe manchon has been fixed in the 
manner described above, they are dii«tributed over the 
t«>p of the tree. The mauohous must be visited dailyi 
and this is very easy, since the silk^vorms can be seen 
distinctly through the wire ^uze. As so*m as it is 
perceived that tiie leaves aie nearly all eaten, the 
worms must he immediately placed on ani>t4ier tree. 

1 do not c<»uni the worms before i hey come out of 
their second moulting, that is to say, the beginning of 
the third a^e. Then, in order to itbtain one ounce of 
grain, thirty-one granunes, I keep al>t>ut 300 worms, 
taking cnre to select only the most equal iu hize, and 
durins( the fourth and filth ii^e?, put fitty in each 
manchon, to avoid the necessity of chan^^ing them too 
often. At the fifth age I leave only twenty-five in each 
manchon, so tliat they more easily form their cocoons. 
There is often great inequality am«>ng the worms 
reared on the tree, and after each moulting they 
should be selected aococding &» their sizn, in <»rder to 
obtain a supply of moths of equal Htrength. It is for 
this resson that I advine tlie setting apart in the third 
age of 300, althou^ch 170cooo«>uh reared in thismannw 
generally pr«»dnce an ounce of ^min. 

Every year fifty eocomis n ust l>e left, twenty-five io 
each of the two nianchuns, frtau which will be hatched 
the moths that are to lay the t^r&iu on the mulberry 
tree. If tbe tree is too butjhy, it is better to cut off 
»iome branches, so as to facilitate the couplijjg of the 
moths. 



416 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apbil 25, 1873. 



at the leaf-fttalk which holds it to the branch ; th« 
male moth has also a difficulty in finding the female 
among the bmnches, and therefore many of th«in die. 

The case is veiy different after a few years ; Uu 
caterpillar becomes stronger and more lively, the moth 
more alert, and the pattern on its wings more cle&riy 
marked. In a word, by returning to a state of da- 
ture, the Bomhyx aefigena becomes completely r^ 
generated, and, its grain, exempt from disease, pro- 
mises an unfailing return for the following; year. 

Education on the tree is the true criterioo of the 
regeneration of the races of silkworms, £dQc»tii» in u« 
but, although very simple, it cannot be ma.nu^rit 
carried on on a large scale, considering prtDoini**- 
the minute attention required for it. Firmly ooo* 
vinced that in the actual crisis of affairs it was a 
matter of great importance to supply the educator 
for silk with an abundance of really good Knuo, aod 
having, by a series of educations on the luaiberry 
tree, completely regenerated the race which I rear, I de- 
voted my attention, during several years, to cany oot 
more fully what was on too restricted a scale in the 
manchons. 

Before all things, it was indispensable not to depart 
from the laws of nature, lest, through principlw tend- 
ing to a rapid degeneration, I should hfe the reward 
of all my labours. After a long series of minute and 
costly experiments, I have succeeded, as fiir as pOft> 
sible, in making education on the tree, with the help 
of the open-air magnanerie as its natural peqoence, a 



This grain will pass the winter on the tree, and will 
be hatched naturally in the spring ; this is the store 
£rom which the worms are produced to be reared on 
the tree the following year. I propose two manchons, 
as a double provision to guard against accidents dur- 
ing the long lapse of time threugh the winter. It 
must be well understood that I speak here of the 
education needed to obtain one ounce only of -grain ; 
whoever wishes to obtain more will naturally have to 
make a greater proportional provision. 

By the education on the mulberry tree every race of 
silkworm may be regenerated in a short time. At 
the end of three years of successive education and 
hybernation on the tree, the blood of the larva, under 
microscopic examination, becomes exactly like that 
of the wUd bombyx. With a little practice this work 
is easily accomplished ; the necessary materials are, 
as we have seen, very simple, and may last many 
years. 

Thirty mulberry trees, cut as explained above, and 
ten manchouR, suffice to rear the silkworms which 
ought to produce an ounce of grain. 

The peri(»d of education, fn>m the time of hatching 
to that of forming the cocoon, necessarily varies, ac- 
cording to the season ; the average duration is forty 
days, often less. By these data for raising one 
ounce, every educator will be enabled to raise the 
grain which he requires, according to the importance 
of his magnanerie, provided always that he bear in 
mind that the magnanerie which suffices to raise one 

ounce (if he is prudent and really wishes to maintain j matter of course ; and in thus rearing a great qaantity 
great uniformity on his elates* by rejecting, at the of silkworms by not depriving them of their e»ential 
time of moulting and df'doublement^ all the worms element — pure air — the air being contuiually renewed; 
which are of slow and imperfect growth) ought, for in a word, rearing them iif the external circamafflbieot 
his own best interests, to contain at least one-half air. 

more grain than he can rear at the fifth age. With The splendid results obtained in the Soath from 
respect to the grain which is to serve for rearing the grain produced in my magnanerie haye proved, to mj 
following year in the magnanerie, this is my mode of own satisfaction, the excellence of my own sjiteoL 
procedure. And what is more clearly evidence of this lies in 

Having left on the tree those cocoons the grain of the fact that every year intelligent edacxtors Rtr 
which is to pass the winter in the open air, I remove my grain without artificial heat, and ohtain from 
the rest to a dry and well-aired place. After having it a supply of ginin of the first quality. Bntnothiog 
cleaned them of the external flue adhering to them, can last for ever, and it would be requiring too mach 
I weigh them separately ; the female cocoon is gene- of this open-air educntion to expect that it will, ooce 
rally heavier than the male. I perform this opera- for all, regenerate the race of silk worms from the 
tion in orjler to separate, as much as possible, the moment that the system of education is chsnjjed, and 
sexes, and thus prevent the coupling of moths of this belief would only lead to great disappoiorroent^ 
the quality of which I am not entirely satisfied. | It is absolutely necessary to have a firm ci»DTicfi«» w 

Every moth which is not perfectly formed must be the following principle : — ^The grain which b«8 heea 
thrown away without hesitation. I then string the regenerated on the mulberry tree and hohjeqwowj 
cocoons in chaplets of a hundred together, without I reared in the open-air lungnanerie, and afterw»rd« ffl 
crowding them, and hang them up so that they may the majfonnerie not heated, cannot be reared U*f^ 
be well aired on all sides. the following year. It will yield an excellent crop « 

Dark brown cloths, stretched on frames and in a silk ; but the impnident director of a roagnsnene, 
sloping position, receive the moths. I allow the whose edncation f«»r the produce of silk has b«*n «>Dj 
coupling to continue for twenty-four hours. The very 
few moths which, at the end of this time, remain still 
coupled, are gently separated, and the males thrown 
away. The females still remain on the frames for 
forty-eight hours. It is, therefore, necessary to have 
sufficient cloths ready to receive, every day, one or 
more new swarms, according to the importance of the 
issue of the moths fr«»m the pupee. 

The first year of education in the open air the silk- 
worm has much difficulty in holding on to the tree in 
very windy weather, and often lets itself drop to the 
bottom of the manchon, for it often attacks the leaf 



•CT«/«— th« fVtine on which th© illkworma are reared In feeding 
It It niMle of ■qaare deal laths. 



ducted with the aid of artificial heat^ at»d wh** wooJd 
wish to make a selection of cocoons for prain amrti^st 
his productions intended for silk spinnioir, owjrht ^^ 
be prepared to find the following year not only tW 
his hopes of a fine crop are not realised. I«t f«rf»P* 
have ended in total disappointment. Educa^ioo ood^ 
heat, however necessary for obtaining a cn»p of «^ 
in a short time, is an unnatural ppnoe!«s» whi<* "^ 
libly engenders the principles of diseasein rbesilk'f'™- 
Besides, the merest elementary data of a rati'^n*' 
selection will easily lead anyone to beH^-ve the fact 

The magn»inerie is a Urge shed, of jood hes^^ 
open on all sides, having the two sloptn? np* rr»*^ 
surfaces of the rof»f pierced with venti- «*• "■* '"^ 
lating chimneys. The enclosing panek an eniin^^oide 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOtETY OF ARTS. April ?5 1873. 



417 



ilmi 



Poldiii!< frames are used, with blinds 



Uwnmm 

MeM«ftr them, (hat they may be let dowa when 

At M^nysC^l directly on the silkworrafl, or when 

Atmil is too strong. The^ blinds are to be lowered 

|i(f wfceo absolutely necessary ; in ordinary weather 

t^nam open day and nij^ht, fixed by an iron hook 

;^ tk etiiiog. The roof must be lined with plank- 

ll^ to prevent the possibility of rain comini; through, 

fftbiuects which may lodj^ in the interitices of 

jinblei. It is of such a slope as will favour the free 

jUbtmi of air, and pierced at intervals of two 

!Mh (six fiset), with ventilating air holes, each 

S4 with a tin tube, the orifice of which is covered 
•bjpuue. The floor, raised about six inches 
lAmie level of the ground, is to be covered with 
A ff oement. The wire gauze, having twenty 
■■is to the inch, nailed on the wooden cro<<s-piece3 
■tipri((ht8 which support the roof, is to extend from 
Al fnaod to the eaves, which project beyond the 
lAiboQt tvelve inches, and are fitted with spouts 
klnptbe minor snow from spoiling the wire gauze. 
Il^itnyfoarfeet six inches wide is left all round the 
of trays (eiaies)^ one above the other, which 
iiMtmore than sufficient forfeedinj^and clean- 
dkwomu. It will be necessary, at frequent in- 
to cover the external basement with a coat of 
■ind with grease, to keep ants from making 
% in. The magnanerie must be built in a 
lAere nothing hinders the free circulation 

• 

on which the worms rest are double, that 

is to lay, in the middle, in the direction of 

their length, they are divided by the co- 

Jrimw {iche^eUeB coeonniers). The worms are 

to be tended rit^ht and left of the trays. 

town of trays placed one above the other, in 

Dorober, 18 inches (45 centimetres) distant 

other, the lowest row being also the same 

ifnm the ground, make up just the height 

Ml Biddle-iiixed person can reach to feed and 

ttopmost tray ; it must be understood that a 

frame is to be placed above this latter. 

flvioring, by which means a great number 

liiay be arranged, must not be thought of, as 

' mtercept the free circulation of air. The 

leniCihwise of the trays being made by 

toning frames (echeleUes\ their length is 

_• sttbdirided by other e'cheletUs^ so a^ to 

^••ipartments of 24 square inches (60 cen- 

*)t vith 18 inches in hei$;ht from one 

•oother, enclosed on three side's, and snr- 

^^ oacoomni^ echelettes. The«e dim**nsion8 I 

'Mid to be most pracucally useful. The silk- 

_• the time of the mountinj? {montfe\ easily 

At laths between which it is to make its 

I use exclusively Davril's system of c/o/es 

'^been in general use in France for a long 

[f»ti and have the double advantage of allowing 

" OfcolatioQ of air and sufficient space for the 

to make its cocoon conveniently, and like- 

fa^oiding the annoyance attendant on the use 

of heather, which cause much damp, by 

with the cleansing process {del%temenla\ so 

BCdoring the last days, prevent the circula- 

[•^iod are exposed to the risk of fire. 

*" *onld be no difficulty in arranging two 

•^ of double claifs^ provided thev are 

^\f » Itangway 4 feet 6 inches wide ; bu^ I 

■(flldnae a greater number to be * used. With 

^ff tables the external air comes in freely 



WMui 



over the silkworms, which cannot be the case if there 
are m«re. 

By the open-air education the worms become more 
vigorous naturally, but they are also more disposed to 
crawl away; therefore a piece of muslin, or tulle, 
must be fixed on each elaie^ under the lower one, 
and at the two ends against the ^helettes which divide 
the spaces, which, in no way iuterceptiu|^ the cur- 
rent of air, prevents the worms from decani pmg at the 
time of recovery from moulting, before the first meal, 
and especially at the mounting period. The worms in 
each com part tnent rest on a moveable frame, having a 
piece of fine calico stretched over it ; at each cleansing 
\d£litement) this cloth is to be shaken clear of au 
litter, the process being thus facilitated These frames 
are to be two feet square ; there will then be sufficient 
space between the ichelettes and the frame to enable 
one to take it up codveniently. 

Three kinds of nets are required for the delitements. 
Tulle for taking up {la levee) the young worms when 
first hatched, and during the first a^e ; of coarser tulle, 
or fine net, for the second and third ages ; of net with 
larger meshes for the fourth and fifth ages. The meshes 
of these nets must be square, and of sufficiently strong 
thread not to break under the weight of the worms, 
which is by no means slight in the fifth at^e. 

To prevent the worms from rolling into the middle 
of the net during the cleansing process, it must be 
stretched on four small laths, of the breadth of the 
mesh, so that they may be slipped into the outer 
meshes of the net, and then niuled at the four ex- 
tremities. 

These frames have the advantage of keeping the 
worms always on a level surface, of preventing all 
overcrowding, and of leaving a space at the time of 
cleansing between the net on which the worms rest 
and the one which receives the leaves, a space formed 
by laying one frame on the other. The nets of the 
two latter dimensionf* are to be two feet sanare. 

I always cut up the leaf, having frequently observed 
that the worm, being less free in its movement in the 
ma^fnanerie than on the tree, attacks the leaf more 
readilv when cut up ; besides, it can thus be more 
equUly distributed over the dates. The leaf must 
naturallv be cut finer for the first ages than for the 
latter onps. It must be cleanly cut, not chopped, 
which Would spoil it, and the knife kept perfectly 
free from dirt. 

The objection may be raided, it is tnie, that nature 
does not cut the leaf for the worm. Evidnntly not ; but 
from the m 'nient that the larvae become domesticated, 
th:it is to siy, reared in the magnanerie, and, instead 
of being able to circulate freely on the branches, in- 
evitably somewhat crowded together, it becomes a 
matter of necessity to facilitate the mean;* of feeding. 
For the same reason the silkworm, which, on the tree, 
sustains with impunity the effects of pelting rain or 
burning sun. l)eing able to take shelter under the 
leaves if it feels disposed, which, by-the-bye, it does 
not always do, Ci\nnot endure with impunity the rain 
or sun in the magnanerie. 

The ma«^nanerie, established in the manner de- 
scribed above, given free access on all slides to the 
surrounding air ; the silkworms can be protected from 
the direct rsiys of the sun, from the rain and violent 
winds and the needful attention can easily be bestowed 
on them. 

Educators in the open air must not be hastj 
in their operations ; the worms must be incohAUon of 
set to hatch only when the mulberry has th« gt^io. 



418 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 26. 1873. 



pat forth aV^undaot shoots and there is no caose to 
fear severe cold. In the latitude which I inhabit, 
about two miles from the Jura, I do not batch my 
silkworms before the be^piDuiuK of June, which iH 
likewise the epoch when the worms reared on the 
tree bepn to make their appearance. In a warmer 
climate aud a le^s yariabJe temperature there would 
doubtless be no objection to the hatching process- 
being left to take place naturally in open air ; In- 
deed, I think it would be preferable. But in the 
central and northern parts of Europe, and especially 
in the neigh hnurhood of mountaiop, this would be 
almost impossible. In short, if one could count ou a 
fortnight of uninterrupted iine weather, the hatching 
would al^-o iio on regularly ; but in our c<juntry, at 
the desired season, some few fine days are often suc- 
ceeded by heavy rains and a return of cold weather ; 
it is therefore impossible to carry- on the hatching re- 
gularly el!»ewhere than in a room. 

The hatching- room must be well aired, and provided 
with a stove of earthenware or iron-plate, but never 
of cast-iri»n. 

The grain is to be regularly spread over a cloth 
stretched on a frame, bung from the ceiling, 1 metre 
(about 3 feet 3 inches) from the ground, so that one 
may easily examine it, and take up the worms as they 
are hatched ; in this manner it will also be safe from 
mice. As soon as the external heat reaches 20 deg. 
Centigrade (68 deg. Fah.), a temperature which must 
never be exceeded by any artificial heat, the doors and 
windows must be opened. For the first days it is suffi- 
cient to heat the stove in the evening, taking care to 
Sut on it a vessel of cold water, to be renewed every 
ay. After the lapse of a few days, the fire munt be 
lit moniing and evening, and when the proper degree 
of heat is attained, the floor must be sprinkled with 
cold water. This heating must be contintied, morn- 
ing atid evening, until the batching is complete, care 
being taken never to exceed 20 deg. Cent. (68 deg. 
Fahr.) 

Hatching will take p]ace,after an incubation carried 
on as we have just described, at the end <»f 20 days. 

The first isvsue is insignificant, and the worms may 
be rejectee), for which purpose a tulle net, on which 
some small shoots of mulberry are laid, is robe paced 
upon the e;:gs ; to these the worms attach themselves, 
and the net is to be removed when the day's hatching 
is over. 

The second day's issue is much more considerable, 
and the net mu.st be laid in iu« place very early ; as 
soon as the shoots seem to be sufficiently covered with 
worms, the net is to be raised, and immediately tnms- 
ferred to the magnanerie, whatever the weather may 
be, not fonreiting to put another net, as betore, to be 
removed as often as it i^ properly covered with worms. 
The same course must be pursued for the successive 
days; on the last day the is*ue will be sotrifl'ne, that 
the worms may bo rejected as on the first day. 
The entire process of hatching will be completed 
in five or six days. 

In the magnanerie the worm must be fed six 

Educstion. ^^^ * ^^7* froni the beginning of the 
first age to the time of mounting, a.m. 
at 5, 8, 11,* and p.m. at 2, 5, 8 o'clock. The feeds 
should be given with great regularity, the leaves 
being spread equally over the trays, and at the 
fifth ap:e in great abundance. 

As the air is cooler at night, the worms naturally 
have less appetite ; besides, I have observed that on 
the tree they do not feed during tho night. 



The Uaf must absoloielT be gatiiered every d^ 
after the dew is ev^oratea. If the leaves an im 
wet from much rain, they are placed in a dwdtOii 
after being tiumed over several tunes are it to bft 
given to the worms for food. 

During the entire period of the first three 8|ii^ 
I greatly prefer the leaves of the wild mulbenji» 
those of any other species ; in the fourth anditt 
ages I give them the leaves of the grafted moIbAli ' 
the Lhou {Japonicus), and even of the hlackH^ 
berry. 

If during the first age the worms seem to bin 
crowded on some of the nets, they must be s^ 
rated ; and this can easily be done by alio«q| 
about half the numbers to come up on the uppvfl^ 
covered with leaves. A similar process mj ll 
needful at the other ages, for it is a mattaof 4i 
greatest importance not to allow the wonai l>ll 
heaped one upon another. ^^^ 

After each moulting the worms must betibnaA 
out {ditlouhh^a) in this manner, in the ^i^ P^ 
because of their increasing size, and secoomf^ 
order to have a greater degree of reguUnt|ia4l 
series. m 

After the third moulting, that is, on entoiirV 
foiu-th age, I count them ; for, having get loMlp 
double the number in grain which my 
admits of my rearing at the fourth age, 
to have the series of the greatest regal 
rejecting those which are behind-hand in 
there still remain too many to spread out oft 
large nets. I put 400 on each net, which ' 
100 silkworms to the square foot — the 
never to be exceeded, for even this is a v«y 
rate. This operation, which is not so lonf^^ 
might suppose, is performed by very 
taking up the worms, one by one, as tltf|J 
up, from the most advanced series, and 
them on a not covered with mulbcity 
This operation has also the very gnAt ad 
of affording the means of keeping an exKt 
cotint of the number of silkworms in tli» " 
nanerie ; and subsequently, by counting the 
of seeing tho proportion of worms lo^i in thi 
two ages, which are, as is well kno^n, tlu ~ 
critidd. J 

The education is generally completed iw 
spaoe of fifty ddys, though, of course, nin»^ 
pends on the weather. 

As soon as the silkworms bavo mounted, tl« 
must be removed, and the magnanorio be 
out ; but it must necessarily be kept a^ 
possible throughout the whole period of 
for from the very beginning to the end of ^ 
there must be no impleasant smell in the pl*A 

From the mounting to the removal of the 
a space of eight days should be allowed to 
intervene, so that the worms which 
mounted last may have sufficient time t« 
their cocoons properly, and to transform 
selves into chnrsalides. This period having c 
the business of removing and cleansing the 
{drcoconwiffe et d^fumrratje) must be pi 
with. These operations, as well as the laji 
eggs, may perfectly well be attended to m 
magnanerie, but I prefer doing them in a !< 
shed specially appropriated to the prodiM* 
grain, so that the magnanerie being left fwe, 
♦ c/k lHte9 may be immediately singed, in «« 
remove the thick flue which adheres to the 1 




JOURNAL OF THE 80CIETT OP ART8, April 25. 1878. 



419 



^e^>l 




cndto diiHof^e whole buildingrboiiigrthoroughly 
4iNBHi. The eoco6ii8, beinp oleered of ^ne 
^UmM]f mast be weighed, an impdrtant 
f^mlioDtosepanite the sexes as much as possible, 
Ad tfaus prevent the coupling of imperfect moths, 
fis somewbat tedious operation consists in weigh- 
lic^aeptntely several hundred cocoons, as soon as 
1b» avenge weight has be^i obtained — two oenti- 
inmioes; for example, all those cocoons which are 
anrtUi weight ore ntrt on the side of the females, 
■ri^otbors with tne males. The weighing being 
myhiUd , the cocoons are to be strung in wreaths 
«l skadred, which, when they are arranged, will 
•All tne to know the sum total of the orop. 
fclimth is to be hung on a pe^« receiving the 
ikci ftQ sides, tiie males on one side the females 
'Iflbt o6ier, a sufficieiit 8x>ace being left between 
leta to prevent them &om touching each 
in deeoribing the mode of education on 
I spoke of liie cloths to be used for the 
tggk {potUe) : similar ones are to be used in 
rie ; but to avoid any loss of grain, for 
falls olF at the time of laying, the 
the cloths must rest in wooden boxes, 
of 30 centimetres (one foot square) of cloth, 
for placing 25 coupled of moths, 
alretdy spoken of the coupling and de- 

Ei, grain, I uiall not return to the subject, 
■to process exactly must be followed for 
trnteA in the magnanerie, as for those 
ne produced on the tree. The couples 
fc* watched, and the refractory males brought 
Id the f em^es. 

iked which I nse for the incubation of cry- 

■nd the laying of the grain is large and 

; openings pierced in tho top and bottom 

walls allow a constant circulation of the 

a stutable degree of light, for too strong 

the couples. 

the mounting to the isf«ue of the moths 

ftft chrysalides there are, on an average, 20 

\hA much also depends on the state of the 

The entire ponU is accomplished in 

In days. 

■ the grain is laid, the cloths are imme- 
diately transferred to the magnanerie, pre- 
Yion4y deansed tii(H*oughly. They remain 
iemkf exposed to the air, tmtil the time 
lbs grain is to be taken off. The frames on 
ttft grain has been laid must be put in a 
position tovrards the ctaien, 
lifiilt of numerous experiments has con- 
that the grain may be taken off a month 
% m laid. An English naturalist, who 
neighbourhood of Sydney, confirms my 
this raspeot, for he writes to me that, as 
Wilt of many experiments, he has acquired 
mnctioQ that the eggs may be taken off the 
10 dajrs after they are laid, without fear of 
naeqaenoes. It is a fact that the grain 
before the autunm fogs and the winter 
iky in a shorter spaoe of time. For my 
, I tiUca it tn> ia the oourse of the month 
When the time is come to remove the 
Ihi oUitliii are to be taken off the respective 
fdnngod in a vessel of water that has 
the previous evening, and remains at 
ire of the surroundin? air. To this 
of wine must be added in the propor- 
(cme pint and a-half ) of spirit to 



ten litres of water (15 pints)— -one to ten, in fact. 
This is neeeisary to olear the grain of all con- 
tamination. 

Each cloth, being well 8teex)ed in the water, is 
then tobe stretched on a table, and two perrons oppo- 
site toeaoh other are to scrape off carefully with 
paper-knives the grain ftpom the doth. The grain 
thus detached is to be again phmged into a vessel 
of boiled water, mixed with spirit as before, at the 
temperature of the air. The good grain will fall 
to the bottom ; that which is barren, or has been 
injured in removal, will float on the surface, and 
is to be skimmed off. The whole is then to be 
poured into a sieve of fine wire gauze, to let the 
water nm off. 

The last operatioQ conskte in spreading out the 
grain in thm la3rers npon nnislin stretched on 
frames hung from the eeiHng; then it is to be 
frequently tamed over earefmfy until it is quite 
dry, which, if the w<eatiier be tee, will be the case 
in three dajTs. 

When the gndn is quite dry, I use, in order 
to preserve it, large boxes of Fre»erva'i'm of 
wire gause, having the inside theKratit. 

fitted with drawers of fine perforated zino, 
which are to contain a layer of grain, one centi- 
metre thick. These drawers are so placed one 
above the other as to leave intervening spaces of 
three centimetres, so that the air may circulate 
fereely. The boxes are hung from the ceiling of 
the magnanerie, being so fixed that the wind may 
not sway them about. The grain is thus proscrved 
in the open air imtil the moment of incubation or 
of consignment icft sale. 

In this manner I 'preserve grain, which remains 
through -the winter exposed freely to the air ; and 
which has resisted— 18 deg. Cent. (2 deg. above 
zero Fah.), especially in the winters of 1869-70 and 
1870-71. Notwithstanding this rigorous and pro- 
longed exposure to cold, t£e subsequent hatching 
was on each occasion all that could be desired. 

When the grain is to be sent to a eomparatively 
short distance, as for example Con«<ijmment of 
to the south of Prance, or to the Krain. 
Italy, wooden boxes suifice for the purpose, care 
being taken to fill the spaoe between the grain and 
the cover with very clean wadding. Each 
consignment must be made by express train. 
But if the grain is to be sent to a great distance, 
especially over sea, it is indispensably neoessary to 
wie various precautions. In this case, a con- 
trivanoe of whidi I vdll give the description muirfi 
be employed. 

Take a box made of wire gauze, or perforated 
sine, in the innde of which other boxes of similar 
material, and fitting to the size, are made to slide 
in. The inside boxes are at intervening spaces of 
tln-ee centimetres, and contain a layer of grain 
only one centimetre thiek. They are then to bo 
closely* shut up, having been fillea to the top with 
grain, to avoid all shaking. 

This box is then to be placed in a strong wooden 
case, pierced with sevena holes, covered with wire 
gauze, or perforated sine. Between the sides of 
the outer case and those of the enclosed box, there 
must be a space of two inches, to be filled entirely 
with small pieces of charcoal. The charcoal will 
allow the air to circulate amongst the grain, and, 
what is equally important, will ^^vent any damp 
from getting to it. As soon as the grain reaches 



420 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 25, 187S. 



its destination, whether after a long or a short 
journey, it must be immediately exposed to and 
kept in the air in boxes similar to those described 
in the first instance. 

In drawing up this paper, I have been as 
concise as the subject would permit, avoiding all 
essentially tochnic^l terms, so that anv cr.'^ may 
undeistand my statements; and I sum up my 
^tem in these words : — **Do not attempt to cure 
the disease in the minute silkworm ; it would be 
lost labour. Preyent it by a reasonable system of 
education, and you will succeed. Prevention is 
better than cure." 

A few words on the difference between education 
for grain and education for silk. As the course of 
education in the open-air for grain must necessarily 
be long, so that for silk must be speedy. Educa- 
tion for grain should have but one object in view — 
the strength and health of its productions. That 
which is for silk, on the contra^, aims at obtain- 
ing, with the least possible expense, that is, in the 
shortest space of time, the most abundant supply of 
cocoons. Anyone may, therefore, easily understand 
the immense difference which exists between the 
two kinds of education. 

Artificial heat is required in a magnanerie which 
is to produce silk, for fear of the education being 
protiacted too long, and the profits of the under- 
taking being absorbed in the attendant expenses. 

Any one Hving in the country may, with good 
grain, easily obtain a profitable supply of cocoons; 
but, although the system is very simple, and, with 
the help of two manchona, any peasant may produce 
the grain he reauires, still no chance specidator will 
ever make gooa grain in any considerable quantity, 
for the reason, simple enough no doubt, but, never- 
theless, very true, that he rarely pursues art for 
its own sake ; and the mercantile element will 
always prevail with the multitude over the scien-* 
tific and the reasonable. 

I therefore consider it a matter of great import- 
ance for the future advancement of sericulture that 
a considerable number of persons should devote 
their attention to this open-air education for grain. 
Thev will find in it both profit and satisfaction ; 
profit — ^because the protracted and nimierous cares 
which it requires are amply remunerated by the 
sale of good grain, always in great demand ; satis- 
faction from the scientific and philanthropic side 
of the question ; for, by furnishing the suk-pro- 
ducing population with the means of obtaining 
good supplies of our former beautiful indigenous 
races, great sufferings will be relieved. 

I consider it my duty to append to this paper 
_^ the honourable certificate, which I re- 
** * ceived from Monsieur A. Gaydou, of the 
house of Gaydou and Co., Turin. 

The year 1872 was, as is very well known, most 
unfavourable to sericulture ; the mulberry leaf, 
being too watery, in consequence of the incessant 
rain, caused an alarming extent of disease amongst 
the •* educations ; " however, M. Guydou, "^o 
reared nearly a hundred ounces of grain, produced 
by my system of education in the open air, has 
nevertheless obtained splendid results. I quote 
his words : — 

*• Thn educations made thi» year (1 872) with trrain pro- 
daced by the op^^-Rir Bystem of M . Alfred Roland, of 
Orbe, (&nt<in de Vaud, (Switserland, have given on an 
average 40 kilogrammes of cocoons for 30 grammes of 



grain — that ia to say, 1 os. troy weight prodnred 107ni 
troy. The yellow cuooods of K. Boland yield ooe kflo* 
gramme of ffrijfe silk per twelve kilos, of cocooni. AM 
IGOoocodnsgo to make up the kilogramme (2.21lM.iT(nr^ 
This race does not contain more than eight per oestlf 
double cocooni. 

«' Signed, 

*' A. Gatdoc iSD Ofc 
*'Tarin, Sertember lath, 18T2.*' 

If the data which I recently received fromb^ 
land are exact, and it is really a fact F4,tiftMptt 
that in the environs of London alone of Miiifenh 
there exist more than 30,000 mul- E"*'*^ 
berry trees, we have here a sufficient proof tiii 
this precious tree flourishes wonderfully vdl ii 
the lM>uth of England ; and wherever the mnSMRf 
thrives vigorously, the silkworm may be nra 
advantageously. 

Whether for grain or for silk, from the maami 
when the production of silk, as a branch d 



mercial industry, can easily be introduced intoav 
country, the opportunily of doing so should &ot& 
disregarded ; for, as it is one of me meet bentitf 
and most interesting branches of agricultiBe,i0il 
it also one of the most profitable. 

England, by the production of good gnm wi 
fine suk, would add a brilliant flower to htfifi^ 
ciiltural and industrial ohaplet. 



P^l 



DISCUSSION. 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart, said, he had no prsctictl< 
rience in the rearing of silkworms, but as Chainmat 
Committee on Bilk and Velvet at the Exhibitioa,! 
being aware that M. Roland had been carr}ingoitl 
open-air system for some years past, he had th<«gl 
only right to visit bim and learn what hecookiAl 
process. XJnfortnnately, at the time of his fiiit '' 
was nothing going on ; the small mulberry>treff * 
like so many sticks in the ground, and there wm o 
to b« seen but the eggs. Siill, M. Boland hid 
bioi every possible explanation, and he could ' 
thoroughly endorse what was said in the 
tit'ulnrly the statemt-nt that in a climate like 
England, where the mulberry-tree would tkrttv^ 
worm ^rain might be reared, so that if a good qi " 
silk could not be obtained, at all events tb» 
profitable part of the business — that of growidgl 
grain— might be carried on here with sue 
better, in fact, than in more southern coontOK 
hoped that magnaneries would shortly be set if I 
Exhibition, so tihat the whole process might ^ ^Jj 
operation, and that many persons might be iiitodj 
take it up. Some had tried sericulture under (kM 
system, and had not been very successful; ud 
perhaps, might find a difficulty in adopting t 
system ; hut those coming first to it would not te< 
hHrrHssed in that way, and he felt sanguioe thej ' ^ 
succeed. 

Mr. B. F. Cobb said there was no doubt tiiat U. 
plans afforded a natural system of resturixig tkt 
worm to health from the state into which it had dflf 
rnted, and producing much better grain thnn M 
Hupplied for some yenrs past ; at the same time it«f 
a large field for educators in countries whtft iti 
never before been attempted, especially in the oaj 
and in Elnglnnd. He believed the process omk^ 
carried on as well here as in the heights of Sm'tadrt 
The first objection hitherto had been that the Jhj 
'flba, which whs the species of mulberry psrtiew^ 
>i<iapted to feed the silk-worm, could not be P*]*! 
England ; hut M. Roland found that in the ear^j i^ 
the wild mulberry was the best Hi«.Bladaq 



JOmaSAL of THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, 4?bil 25. 1873. 



421 



ifMit pMMe for tb# energy trfth which she 
^ It incruduee sericuJturo into the ooloaies ; it 
Ihei l)«forv, and the Silk Supply AMOciation 
to find a market fur thn cocoons, in 
the producers the neccsnity of reeling the 
lil «u fbnnd that the cocoons soon degenerated. 
Iv this, grttin was exported front the South of 
\mA hidy ; hut there was this difficulty, that it 
■bjeckd to great heat in crossing tne tropics, the 
hatetKnl immediAtely on urrivai, soiiietiiiies even 
Xruf, they hatchi^d in the spring, which was 
" Irme; but, leaving Boropn in the spritig, 
in the eoioniee aleo in the spring, which 
mhmt to the fuio^esA HUtutcM, and lost the 
lia hyberaiKitony which M. Kolaud appeared to 
loiportMnce to. It was not to be woniicreii 
fhttt the race degenemted. Mrs. Nbill was 
oat ieeii in ic*-b<»xe8, constructed on purposti, 
tt tare, by Mr. Ashe, of Oxford-btreet, so as -to 
ra kiail of artifiriai wii^r, the teuiperaturc never 
hlik»vt4 lo excei-d 4^®. By this means the 8e<'d 
m the colonies in perfect condition, and it 
hsiag tested tliere. H. Roland also spoke of 
ofMkrr heat» howi'ver necessary for the pnxluc- 
tn a ^ort time, having a t*-n(lenoy to produce 
■ lk«f worms, and this was preoisely what had 
ta taking grain to the ooloni^-s. He did not 
id wfairt diflrrence it could make whether 
WMS oonslnicted of cast-iron or of iron pl^te, 
it WMB of great importnn<'e that the hatch- 
sbuuld be well aired. The necessity of only 
dry leaves was also referred to, but if that 
li» did nut know what the worms who lived on 
I in the open air would do in wet wenther. He 
time of education at 50 days, dependent on the 
^;sBd Mrs. Neill had fotmd that the period often 
'!lu 60 days, or even longer. The time usually 
however, in the produi-tion of silk whs from .2^ 
whieh made a vaat difference in the cost. It 
in mind, howt- ver, that the production ol' 
qoantity of silk at the least possible expense, 
tiioiiuaof^he most vigor- 'US and healthy grain, 
tctaily diatiaot ohfects, and to the lat^r alone 
RolMid devoted himself. Borne time ago the 
pfrain tbait coidd be procured whs sent to 
ly, Victoris, and New South Wales, and, 
>1ke womt came ont very slowly, very fine 
produced. Some of the resulting grain was 
t^mth of France and North of Italy, when it 
that instead of the whole of the eggn biing 
kin live or six daj'S of each other, luO would 
otte day, 100 tfan next, and so on, until the 
g^ tired of waiting and condemned them. 
1 produoed were excellent, and the grain 
commanded a high price if it hid been 
eertainty like ths European. The drfficulty, 
rwas that in consequence of (Tossing the tropics 
»perly hybemated. If Mrs, Neill's project 
iImi «gg* would be sent back to Europe in the 
which took them out, so as to secure a low 
In conclusion, he drew the attention of 
to several speoiuiens of silk iVom the Cape, 
Maaritiua, Egypt, and Japan, the latter being 
|ii»li^ poeaible, thongh some of the £g> ptian 
sieed was vtry excellent. There was also 
tft&mtaa. of. English ailk, and a scarf made in 
knm tllk produced at the Cape. 

said, with reference to the statement by 

I, that heating by the use of cast ir4»n was 

and that plate iron must be used for that 

it was now a well-ascertained fact that 

between cast and wrought iron really 

iron, when heatod, becoming, as it were,* 

permitting carbonic oxide or other noxious 

pfwluet* of combustion, to pass through. 

I stove had been invented by Mr. George, 

of whifth WMB the continual introduction of 



fresh air through a wanned iron tube, and he stat^ 
that cast iron could not be psed for this purpose, and es- 
pecially where the stove was intended lor greenhouse 
purposes, th«mgh with iron plate tubu it answered ad- 
mirably. The great principle at the root of M. Roland's 
plan seem* d to be the education of the worm in the open 
air, when it was intended to reproduce its kind ; and no 
doubt that was the real secret of success in the artificial 
proUuctiun of creatures like the Mikworm. It was a 
qaestion of great importance whether tho process oonld 
im carried out in England, and therefore he looked 
lorwftrd with grent interest to the experiments about to 
beoonuucted at the Exhibition. He beli«-v<Kl, however, 
tiiat the great difference would be the unoertainty of Hm 
climate, and feared that though some aeaoond .wore b«o- 
cesslul others would be the reverae. 

Mr. B. BMTliBMn, O.B., remarked Oiat the paper ef 
M. Koland ctmfirmed him in a view he had long held, 
that if lif) was to be enjoyed in the greatest perfection 
in any furm, attention must be paid to the laws of nature 
frofii the very crad^ onwanis ; and he could not but aek 
himself what wonld be the oondition of the inhabitants 
o<t that ffreat city if but a handivdlh part t>f the cave 
which M. Roland had devoted to the rearing of Ukese 
silkworm eggs were bestowed upon them. It freiAi air, 
tVeedom from over-crowding, proper food, clothes, and 
climate, were all properly attended to— as they might he 
—a state of things approaching the Millenium would he 
the result. 

Mr. Waldnek observed that M. Itoland*s process 
seemed to consist in returning to a state of nature, hut 
this could hardly be carried out wkh the human species. 

Mr. Hiale said he should like t» know whether the 
cull ivstiou of silkworms coiild be carried on in England 
profitably, and thought it would have been as w^U if 
soHie idea had been given of the mode of cultivating the 
treeain Switzerland. He was not Hure whether the soil 
of this country was favourable lo the growth of the mul- 
bcrrj', but it it appeared likely tiiat silk could be 
produoed here at a profit, there was no doubt the attempt 
would soon be made. 

Mr. Cobb remarked that M. Roland escpressly drew a 
distinction between rearing &>r siHc and rearing for 
grain ; the one was a long pro<tesB, whereas the ether 
had to be hurried over and forced on, in order to obtain 
i^ood commercial results. He much donbted whether 
t^e production of silk cocoons would ever be a com- 
mercial suoeess in this country ; bat, witfti regard to 
the rearing of grain, he saw no reasiin «4iy it Was not 
prHCticahle and would not be profitiible. There was no 
duttbt mulhetry trees could be grown in many parts of 
the south of Ennlnnd quite as well as iu Italy or Frsnoe, 
and, inleed. Captain Simpson's experimeitts had shewn 
that they were not even.confined to the south of England. 
He had two or ^ree acres tmder cultivation in Shropshire 
with mulberry trees; and on the tilble was a specimen of 
silk which be had produced, equal to Itallm. \Vhether 
it Could ever be done profitably Vas a question; but 
there could not be a doubt about the culture of the grain. 
The Variety of the mulberry alwava coubid- red best 
.idapted for the production of silk was the Mufua alba, 
and some Japanese kinds, but M. Roland found the wild 
mulberry bestforrearing8eed,andthatbHinKSo,thpre could 
nut be a better kind than the black mulberry of England, 
which contained in the leaves more resin and saccharine 
matter than any other. 

Sir Daniel Oooftr said small mnlbeiry trees should be 
planted one to a square yard ; but li«rge ones might be 
planted along the road-aide, or the borders of market 
gardens, or other cultivated landn, as was done by M. 
Koland. They were lopped as winter came on, like 
pollard oaks or willows, and in spring they put out a 
thick crop of young shoots covered with leaves. 

Mt. Smartt thought mulberry tref s would not thrive 
eveiywhere. There might be something peculiar in the 



422 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Apbib 25, 1878. 



■oil or in the diffSerent trees. The mtdbexry was a tree 
of alow grewth, and therefore it would entail oonriderable 
expense, in tiie shape of rent for ground and attention, 
before any considerable quantity of leares could be 
obtained. He should like to know how many yeais it 
would be before the trees would bear a tolerable crop of 
leaves; also where and at what cost trees could be 
obtained. 

Sir Dsoiel Cooper said there was no difficulty in getting 
any number of trees from France at 1, 2, or 2 francs each, 
according to the age and the way they were pruned. 
They would grow nearly anywhere, but clay did not 
suit them, nor did chalk; what they required was a 
moderately light soil, not too rich. 

Sir Walter Stirling, after remarking that in that room 
discussions always took a practical turn, said the prin- 
cipal qu««tion appeared to be, not whether silkworms 
oould hve in Envland, but whether sufficient and suit- 
able food ouuld be found for them. He doubted Tery 
much whether there were 30,000 mulberry trees in the 
whole of England, leaving London out of the question. 
In fact, their growth depended more on climate than on 
soil, for they never came into the market at all in Edin- 
burgh, and even in England they were difficult to rear, 
and required the greatest care and attention. It was 
always desirable to arrive at some practical conclu- 
sion from such a discussion, and his opinion was, most 
distinctly, that there was very little chance of growing 
siUc in this country with any advantage. 

Sir IHuiial Cooper amed that it was useless to expect 
■ilk to be grown in England, but he did think grain 
might be produced here; and as an ounce was worth 
frcm 80s. to £2, he thought that was the most profitable 
part of the business. He did not believe ^ood silk 
oould be produced in England, but a rude chmate was 
the best for the 8?ain, as it destroyed the diseased 
worms, and only iJlowed the healthy ones to live. In 
fact, the same rule held good with the silkworm as with 
human kind, the dwellers in a harsh climate, such as the 
English, and espedallv the Scotch, had more energy and 
sfr'^i"*^ than the inhabitants of warmer regions. 

Mr. J. T. Wood inquired if it were possible to delay the 
birth of the silkworm until the mulberry tree was in leaf^ 
for it often hi^pened that the worms were hatched before 
there was anything for thun to eat. His experience was 
that there was hardly a lawn in the neighbourhood of 
London without a miuberrr tree on it, and he believed 
the culture might ultimately be made successful here. 

Xr. Cobb said that experiments were made two years 
ago, which showed that if the eggs were kept in a dark, 
dry cellar, at a temperature not exceeding 60^, the grain 
did not germinate, and it could thus be preserved until 
June, when there was plenty of food. 

The Chairman, in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. 
Holand, said he was reminded by Mr. Davenport that 
the silk culture was no new thing in England, for in the 
reign of Oreorge II. extensive mulberry gardens were 
established at Chelsea, and silk was produced there for 
many years, though with no very ^reat success. More 
recently also Mrs. Whiteley, of >iewland8, produced a 
quantitv of silk, for whicn, in IBO?, she received the 
Society s medaL He thought the moral of M. Roland's 
story seemed to be that luxury was not good for silk- 
worms any more than for beings of a nobler growth. He 
would add that a few months ago the Council of the 
Society of Arts, being desirous that the good work be- 
gun by the Silk Supply Association should not be 
allowed to drop, appointed a committee to keep in 
motion the machineiV established by the association, of 
which Council he had the honour to be chairman. He 
begged to say that the columns of the Journal would be 
always open to any communication of real intereet on 
the subject, whether from persons engaged in the trade 
or others. He must confess he did not think the 

r>ntion of the silk trade in England had ever been one 



which reflected mnch credit on so great a oommcrcaal 
country, nor did he think the same ingenuity, eateajamt 
and energy had been applied to it as to the manufaotors 
of cotton. Those engaged in the trade seemed more slow 
to adopt improvements in machinery, oc to introdoos 
change in their mode of manufacture, than those encaged 
in the spinning and weaving of cotton, and oould not 
but think that there was a better field for enterprise now 
in the former than in the latter branch of industry. 



COXmiTEE OV TEE XSAVS OF PBOTXCmTO TKI 
1CETB0P0LI8 AGADTST COVFLAGBATIOV. 

The following efvidence was given before the 
Committee by Captain Tti£B, B.E. : — 

Q. ^As an engineer of the Board of Trade, von have 
paid a good deal of attention to the subject of the water 
supply of the metropolis, have you not ? 

A, — Yes, I have. I hptve been required to repost on 
the operations of certam water companies with re^srd 
to their efficiency or deficiency of supply as to quantity 
or quality, and with regard to certam extra mcaaa and 
appliances which were required, and we have been 
obliged to give them notice to supply from time to time 
opi.n the complaints of householders under the Act of 
1852. As a member of a committee with Lord Me^hoas 
and Mr. Rawlinson, I have also had to hear and decide 
between the public and the water companies as to the 
regulations which should be drawn up and promulgated 
by the Board of Trade with reference to constant supply. 

Q, — On the subject of constant supply we would recall 
your attention to a report of yours, from which it woold 
appear that you made a very particular investigatioii of 
the eastern part of London. 

^.—That was an inquiry in regard to the East Tx)iidfla 
Company's supply. I took a great deal of troubis in 
that matter, thinking it was very important to the 
inhabitants of the metropolis. The East London Com- 
pany was the company of aU others which had intro- 
duced the constant supply to a considerable extent over 
its district, and had done so with very good effect. As 
the result of this inquiry sjid of other in^ectioiia and 
inquiri^ I have not the slightest doubt in my own 
mind of the very great advantage, particularly to the 
poorer inhabitants of the metropcSis, which would resnlt 
from constant supply. Many of them are taking water 
from receptacles which are more or less filthy, whidL 
very often are qot covered over at all, which very often 
are not cleaned out from one year's end to the other, sAd 
the water that they might get clean and clear from the 
mains is therefore delivered in a bad condition, and al a 
temperature which, instead of being cool and refreahiEg, 
is in summer mawkish and diBagreeable. 

Q. — On the important question of the cost of a change 
from the intermittent to the constant supply we wowd 
submit to you some evidence by Mr. Henry Mart^ an 
engineer specially versed in the subject of water supply, 
g^ven before the Board of Health in relation to the pe»- 
posed change of system in the metropolis. This rans aa 
follows : — 

** With whom did you serve your time as a waisr 
engineer? — With Mr. Wicksteed, the engineer of 
the South London Water Works. Whilst witk 
him I assisted in the construction of the HaH 
Corporation Water Works, and was afterwards a^ 
pointed by him to see his plans carried ont for the 
construction of the Wolverhampton Water Works. 
Q. What will be the cost of the propoi^ altera-tions f — 
A. The cost of the above-mentioned alterations, loc 
giving the constant instead of ihe intermittent supply mX 
Wolverhampton, will not exceed 6d. a head of the popu- 
lation within the district This is exclusiTe of the reeer** 
voir which woald have been essential to the continuance 
of the supply under the old eytAem ; including this, how« 
ever, the whole cost will not exceed 2b. per hoad «/ tl^ 
population. I think there are very fow towns in 



. JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP AETB, Apkil 25, 1878. 



42S 



muh 



placed 



neecMirY for the introduotion 
gyitem wUl exceed 2t.per hend 
find' tliat in irenetal it will be foond 
tamooBi. Q. Whit would be provided 
^ I of 3l pear bead ?^A» Where none have 
'pnvidad it will cover the expense of pro 
reservoirs and the alteration of the 
the introduction of the additional 
wdl be sniBioient to prepare all the in- 
fer the reception of the constant 
all towns in which the intermittent 
the fittings are in a veiy defective 
beiog on so short a tim<>, it has been 
worth while to see that these are kept 
eoDseqnently they will, as fiir as the taps 
I STB concerned, require almost a complete 
osdns piping and tanks and old metal, 
. may be remoyed on the introdnction of 
lyiteo, will more than pay for these 
•tate vonr belief that the wear and tear 
I will be less under a system of ccmstant 
ryim observed any difference in the wear 
in 'streets of much traffic compared 
traffic? — A, I have not observed any 
between the wear and tear of the 
in a street where there is much 
with the valves of those placed in 
kMBc; but in the former case the iron 
them are more subject to injury, and 
filled with dirt or sludge ^m 
ig the levels to be the snme, will not 
of pipes and taps, from the hy^ 
on the intermittent than the 
rttemf — A. Yes; because under the in- 
the whole pressure of the works is 
upon one particular spot with a suddbn- 
caoses considerable damage from the 
constant system, however, the pres- 
by imperceptible degrees, and there 
on the mains and pipes. In the 
the common bib-taps should be al- 
but should be of the kind termed 
are every way better adapted for 
away with all recoil." 
say whether 2s. a-head of the population 
tlM expense. That is a very difficult 
rkat we attempted to do when we sat as 
that question was to require the least 
• of alteration consistent with- efficiency 
to provide that fittings should not be 
ht the constant service except where it 
to do so in order to prevent constant 
to the conclusion that a waste-pipe 
case be placed in such a position that 
"ly detected ; and, if possible, so that 
|tf the water companies, as they passed 
htikr a dribble going on. That 
the only difficulty of constant supply, 
would prefer it, and I dare say they 
out of thirty-three gallons per 
the population, if only this matter of 
properly attended to. 
Knport <m the sectional water supply of 
"i oC ibe metropolis you state, as the result 
that yoa found there, or it was 
tt per cent, of one of the wont dis- 
alteration? 
other examinations of many other 
particularly the Southwark and 
's districts. I stated in my report of 
r« 1867, with regard to the district sup- 
London Water Works Company, that 
examination in 1866, the proportion 
ivgard to the condition of the fittings 
23.89 per cent., and that in many 
tiliAe of affairs was so bad as to justify 
of cutting off the water, but the 



penalty was only resorted to in twelve cases in a year 
when the landlords refused to execute repairs. 

Q.— In the returns presented to you, as one of the 
commissioners, it appeared that none of the companies 
but one had really thought of making a particular exa- 
mination, but the requirements for every house were 
upon assumption only. One company, however, did 
make a particular inquiry — that was the West Middlesi x ; 
and that particular inquiry, stating it in round numbers, 
resulted in the fact that out of 44,000 houses there were 
about 11 that were found to be defective. 

A, — I have no doubt that was so. 

Q. — It is stated that the expense of remedying those 
defects would be ^m 8s. to 6s. That bcong so, in 
the case of the eastern part of the metropolis, would not 
an average of 2s. per head of the population cover t^ose 
defects wnich were found to be, as it were, in 23 per 
cent, of the population ? 

A, — It might do so, but I believe tUnt no one can give 
that information very accurately. Whatever any one 
may say upon the subject, it is still in the nature of a 
guess. 

Q. — Mr. Bawlinson expresses his opinion that pro- 
bably 2s. per head of the population may be deemed 
tolerably fair. 

A. — I think it quite possible, but I never like to g^ve- 
an estimate unless I have very accurate means of doing 
s6. The population of the metropolis is very closely 
packed in many parts, and a very moderate amount of 
expense is necessary for cases where you have not got 
complicated arrangements, and the constant supply 
might be given more cheaplv probably thui the inter- 
mittent supply is given at this moment. If you have 
ffot'good fittings you want no large cistenis. A tap 
direct from the main is all that you want, not only 
in the City of London, but in other parts, for drinking 
purposes. I think where you go down to the lowest 
classes, and where you cannot trust people with brass 
taps in their houses— as you cannot in some cases — ^the 
bc«t mode of supplying them would be by a waste pre- 
venter in the court outside the houses altogether, to 
which nine or ten houses might ree<«t. Then they 
would get the water clear and fresh frt>m the main, just 
as they want it, and there would be no chance of the 
fittings being out of order. 

Q, — It has been stated tons that in twenty instances in 
the towns where the constant supply has been put on, a 
reduction below twenty gallons a-head has been effected,, 
simply upon the system of direct introduction into the 
houses. 

A, — ^The waste that goes on now in many parts of 
London is abominable. I have myself seen constantly,, 
that as long as the water is turned on it runs away — 
there is nothing to prevent it. That is in the case of 
intermittent supply. 

Q.— Under an examination by the (General Board of 
Health, the amount of waste was determined by gauging 
the sewers on a dry day when the water was on and on 
a dry day when the water was off. At that time it 
appeared that three-fifths of the water was pumped to 
waste. 

A. — ^Many people use very little water for legitimate 
purposes; Uiey do not use enough. They use very 
little for washing, and not much for drinking and 
cooking. 

Q.— -Twenty gallons per head of the population would 
be, in a house of five piersons, 100 gallons. In the best 
houses you do not use so muc^ ? 

A. — Nothing like it, unless in the case of baths, and 
even 20 gallons may be deemed to be an excess. In 
the lower class of houses 1 do not believe they use abov» 
six or seven gallons per head per day for any useful 
purpose. 

Q, — It is stated that the most intense opposition to this 
measure comes from the small owners, who will be sub- 
jected to much outlay consequent upon bringing in a 
plumbertodo the work. 



JOURNAL ^F THX SOOIETTT OF AUTS, Aprk. SS, tOt 



A.^^l^iiB quite trot. *Toa oMan oppaMtioii to 1he 
regulntiona atkuth w«pe dtamm hj the OonmitMe, «f 
which I wa« a nem^r. I oaa qoite ttnderstMnd that 
there «hfMihi be lome op|mitiMi of |hat dmstipHon, tad. 
ali thH iBAre so, beoi«ie in gotqgr moftd^ ■diBtrict I kuivt' 
foan(i« over and over agauif that vi^ere people hm^e ooai- 

SLiiuedof th« iPater okm ponies, those wtvy «oaipiatnMntB 
ave hem tiiemeelwM ip«ry seruiaiili^ to Utaae in net 
havtaf^ the flttings in their haaert io pr««per onder. 

Q.—Ha meaaare ean be proposed wfakh will eoMe 
the fittings to tie put on at the poltUc ohctrge, without 
charging the occupiers er owaers anything, that may be 
OLpKjUifi to remove the oppoeition P 

A. — It would be a very b«<»efi4.*iHl measore, no donbt^ 
to pear ownari^— «iol that the poonet clti« of hoaaia are 
always in the hands of poor owners, lliey are v««y 
often owaed by people who ave very well off, bat* who 
will not fpt-nd any money on their pvciperty. 

Q, — It is statei that 'in the £ust of London a great 
■ittny of the lower class of tenemantB are very lar^e]y 
lieLl by th<)se people who gain a living by oaJiing the 
direct cr»llf ction of the rents. 

A. — No doahtthat is so to some axtsnt. Ton have 
ffot to oontend also against the pr«judiees of people. 
Upon economical grounds the introduction otf the c(hi- 
stint supply is no doubt to be desired as a mattt-r 
of avoiding waste, and as a matter of health to a great 
nMM of the popalatitm. 

Q.*^Have ycm dircted yonr attaotiDn especially to 
the questton of prevention of fives f 

A, — In some of aay inquiriM I have found it stated that 
water could not be obtained in cases of fire, and there 
was a geod deal of truth in those aUsgationa. For want 
ot the water being constantly in tike mains, it ooold not 
V>e o^itained when wanted. In order to provide against 
fire there is more than the water wanted. There is 
the means of drawing it, and that is mooh required in a 
^reat part of London, You want stand-pipes in different 
parts of London to enable the hose to be fined on at 
once, and the water to be snpplied readily in case of 1in>. 
it may be taken ns an acknowledgiiMl faet 'that if yon 
can only get at a fire very quickly and begin to poor 
water on a small flra before it beoomes a hn^ one, that 
is the best way of avoiding conAagmtions. 

Q. — In the city of London trials have been made of the 
use of the jt^t for washing the atveats, ae in Fans. Would 
it not be one great advantage of aochamethod of deans- 
I ig which, on previous trial worka by direction of the 
Boird of Health, was found to ^ cheaper as well as 
more complete than cleansing by the broom, that it 
must ensure an apparatus in constant nse Uiat would 
be in cnmstajit readiness in ease of five ? 

A — It would be a very great advantage, and if you 
<^uld devise a means of watering the streets by stand- 
pipes, so much the better. 

Q,' — Are you not of opinion that the supply of -water to 
the metropolis ought to be put under a unity of manage- 
ment and on a public footing ? 

A. — There is enomnous diffieulty in getting things done 
properly when you are in the ' hands of eight or nine 
companitfS. If I had my way, I would put the gas and 
water supidy of the metropolis under a commission. 1 
woald have r«rt>tin people appointed with nothing else 
to do but to regnlate the supply of water and gas to the 
metropolis. It ought to be a special service. Even if you 
•did not put it under a public body, but combined all the 
nine companieainto one under proper control, with some- 
body to look after them, that of itself wauld be«n enor- 
mous advantage. It would save a gvaat deal of expense, 
and by combining the maiB8,-in fase of annoddent toone, 
you wimld have others to iiU bH«^ upon. They woukl 
not want to duplicate their engine-power as they do, and 
with a united concern they would give a very much 
better water sapply to tfaematropolis, and be always rtaidy 
in c»is« of emergettoy,.and doit more eiuuomicaliy* 

Q. — An ejctended nerviee being seeded for pablio 
purposes, such as street- wateringyStveet'^iraahing, and tiio 



•onipl«ft6 airangenentt for fife-fitifwtini 4ft 
(he service, itiscaiid of far a trsAlg (Mi^ 
ohjeots be ohtatned eeenomieally, asd 
(he existing sooditions ondsr whidi ewrt 
mnkter i4 confiict in afi the sight miAmf 
city of London the tradhog eoarpaa; 
thousand odbie feet for street watethiir; 
a thonsand onbic feet is Ohaiged, vlAaa 
the eapfiue would be under a hsUpeony 
gallons? 

A. — Tes, public bodies woqM not be flMi^ 
economical of water as they ate now, and 
water ser^oe of the metropolis wosld be 
performed. I see no difficulty, in ao 
point of view, in getting the eight SfctiMi 
under a good, tmstworthy, and oomp-titt 
I think the difficulty is rafher m p 
service with so m my companies. Idoinl 
would be any practical diffioolty abcntitifl 
in a bustness-like and proper ppirit, mi t 
would bo to tthe advantage of all pattiA 
benefit everybody — companies, phtielitilliH^ 
public. 

Q.— The terms whieh are slated ts It 
arc that the shareholders ^ould be ptil th# 
dividend, oiBc(TS their oonipensatieo,tiidli 
a pubHc trust ? ^. 

A. — ^That is one way of doing it. I fc t|rtlj<| 
it is necessary to go into the detaib at H fc wjj| 
be done, but I &ink there would be • ^^m 
workint? it out. 

Q. — Then we take yonr general cwKlns* 
your experience and obaervation, that yoa * 
of the expediency and of the practiiaikiB^lf 
urgency as regards public security, of psttny 
8} stem of supply under unity of man^jg^rtB* 
public footing P 

A, — ^None whatever. 



AJWUAL INTSBV AXIOV AI 



The number of v&Bitors admitted to the 
the week ending Satorday, April 19, via « I 
Season tickets, 2163; on payment of 3a '^ 
paymtet of la., 24»63& ; total, 28,148. 



This week the numbers of visitors w«^* 
seaeon tickets, 246 ; on payment of Is., 2|{ 
on Tuesday, season tickets, 203; on iwvni«s« 
total, 3,660 ; on Wednesday, season ti(ket%< 
ment of 28. 6d., 1,344 ; total, 1,700. 



The Lamtt^ commenting on the dis^ 
instruments, says the Exhibition eoDtwsia 
surgical inbtnunents and appliraess vlndt ' 
to be highly interesting to the nictHrii 
The instruments are arranged in the "^f* 
which is on the balcony floor of the All* ' 
to the west of the royal cntnnoe, aa^ 
the theatre is daveted to them. At ons 1 
it will be remembored, some difiooify ««th 
makers, who objected to tlw power of 
in the hands of the Ooounittee. It « 
however, that this power was abaolntely 
prevent die admimion of impinpcv oljMft 
wotiM be practically a dead letter in the t^ 
of repnte, whose apfdieations lor apaoe woa» ■ 
aa a matter of oonrae. Thia esplanatiaii v* 
as satisfactory by the tmde in f«im, M 
London Biafceis lleain. Wewa and ^a. tf* 
have held aloof, and axe sntirily nni»pi*«J«JjJ 
Arnold appUad Ihr spaca, bvtttia «tM^«M" 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 25, 1873. 



425 



til MflFM Sttturday. Of sorgioHl iostminents 
1^ mmti trade exhibitorn, taking them iu 
hfktd m^t are Blaise and Co., Ethus and 
B( BAvkaley^ Krohne and S^'ftemann, Lynch 
I^IUbeva Brothen, Mayer and Mvltzer and 
hft Jn, aQ of whom have unsea replete with ez> 
Ml Ike kighest skill and the most finishKl 
■dbipi alike in inatroments for dHilv use and 
pnaofiictared to meet the special Heeds of 
Ivoptfaton. Messrs. Blaiae, and Evans and 
"jM txhibit oaaes of old and obsolete instru- 
^Mlaailar collections have been lent by the 
'of Physicians, the Royal College of 
As Boyal Medical and Chirurgical Society, 
itiienity of Berlin, University College, and 
lj*s O^xnmissioners. who hnve employed 
Castellani, of Rome, tbe well-known 
r, Is make fkcsimile reprodaiTtions of the 
4iseoTcced at Pompeii, including the 
vaginas. Signor CAstellani has added 
a edtotion of old surgical instruments 
'If in his explorations among remote and 
villages. Mr. White Cooper lends 
*GHinal 8T8tem of Surgt^ry;'* Dr. Hall 
srikotion of obatetrical instruments which 
Ifcths kte Professor D. Davis ;" Mr. Charles 
I'hihuunjuts for the removal of stones from 
vitlkoiit cntting;" Mr. Prescott Hewett, 
hi liihotrity ;'* Dr. Morell Mackenzie, 
ilir examining and treating diseases of the 
; the original 1 arvngoscopes of Babington 
Anthony de Rothschild, ** a circnm* 
\4 the fourteenth century ;'* and Mr. T. 
instruments for lithotomy whirh 
M the lata John Abemethy.** These in- 
IVBtribotions are mostly of historic interest; 
lih-iMU of Messrs. Weiss ht>m the exhibition 
WTcnd members of the profession them- 
'ftkilst instruments which Mnssrs. Weiss have 
and which would have been more fitly 
fts firm. Among this number may be 
IBn. Mr. Green way, Mr. Charles Hunter, 
itf«wmore. We have no space in which 
ittie huge size and uncouth forms of some 
its of antiquity, or even to express 
ir those upon whom they were applied, 
to say that the contrast between ancient 
iastroments is at once ploHsing and in- 
|Mi that many of the latter seem to arrive at 
near mechanical perfection. 

^ areolar has been issued by the Counri^ 

iBorticiiltoral Society, on its own authority * 

" beg to inform the Fellows generally 

linto the following temporary arrange- 

I fMT only, with the Exhibition Commis- 

rOoonril wish the Fellows to bear in mind 

i much hampered in making the fr>llowing 

kjbf flugsgements previously entered into by 

wUh other persons for the use of the 

story of the quadrants. Arrangement 

Pellowa mi^ their friends to retain the 

of the gardens and conservatory. The 

not to enter without the usual pav- 

Tbe Lower Quadrant Arcades to be 

sod their friends only. The Upper 

[tefant Arcades, with a communication 

^■Bk «f the oonsenratory, will be entirely 

iir the Exhibition visitors. The Com- 

1 forthwith, at their own expense, a new 

society at the south-west side, and to 

.to use, without payment, until the 1st 

L^t mth-wettom and north-eastern en* 

and Queen's- gate respectively. 

the Exhibition -visitors until 1st 

way across the gardens, so as 

I itith ti&e privacy and freedom of the 



Fellows and their friends. The Fellows and their friends 
and debi'uture-holders to have a Joint right with tbe 
Exhibition visitors of using the central Hrcades. llie 
Commissioners to pay £1,000 in cash before November, 
1873, to the Royal Horticultuml Societv. — By order ot the 
Council, W. A. Lindsay Secretary.— South Kt^usington, 
loth April, 187S. Although the outlines of an agree- 
ment were arranged, we have reason to believe that the 
*' agreement*' is still in the hands of the lawyers of both 
sides. 



EZHIBITIOHS. 



VIENNA EXHIBITION. 

The Enginetr has the following : — ^ In confirmation 
of what we lately stated as to the probability that this 
Ebchibition will be only formally opened on the Ist 
of May next, we now understand that the machinery 
department will have to be closed for at least a nhort 
time after the opening. A great part of the machinery 
has not yet been even unloaded. It is possible that 
evtiu other departments may not be completed in due 
time." In contradiction to the Above, the Ea stent 
Budget says: — ^*'An absurd report has been cinmUted 
in Vienna to the effect that so much still remnins to be 
done in the Exhibition that the opening on the 1st of 
M»iV will be onl^r a formal one, and that the buihling 
will then be again closed for some time to the public 
until the internal arrangements are completed. We are 
enabled to state that there is not the smallest foundntion 
for that rumour. There is every reason to believe that 
everything will be ready by the end of this month, and 
it is certain that after the 1st of May the public will be 
admitted without interruption." We understand that 
the latter statement is the correct one. 

The Vienna correspondent of the Patrie says the 
quickest route from Paris to Vienna is by the Eastern 
Kail way, and the most suitable train is the 8*3-5 p. m. 
The traveller does not need to change carriages till he 
reaches Vienna. He arrives at Avrioonrt, on the 
Fi-ench frontier, at six a.m., and there is then time for a 
light breakfast. At nine Strasburg is reached, and th«ire 
is a stoppage of an hour and a- half — the only serious 
delay on the journey — so that dinner must be taken in 
the carriage. Siembach, on the Austrian frontier, is 
I attained at one o'clock next morning, and at half- past 
nine the traTeller arrives at his destination, having umde 
a journey of fourteen hundred kilometres in thirty five 
hours, and traversed France, Prussia, the Grand Duchy 
of Baden, Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and a part of Austria. 

Messrs. Thomas Cook and Son have received the 
official announcement by telegram from Vienna that the 
season tickets for gentlemen will be 100 florins, and for 
ladies 60 florins, giving adiuisdion to the opening cere- 
monies and the distribution of prizes. Admission on the 
opening day will be 2d florins ; admission daily will be 
one florin. On Sundays half- weekly tickets will be 
admitted at a charge of five florins each. 

A correspondent of the Daily News writes : — As far aa 
the Exhibition is concerned all is chaos, and everything 
a month or weeks six behindhand. The English depart- 
ment is the most forward ; but with the exception of 
some agricultural machmes, and the fitting up of sundry 
exhibitors* stalls in progress, nothing is advanced. 
Goods sent from England by fast trains six weeks since 
have not come to hand. Many of the exhibitors from 
England are here with their skilled artisans, but they 
are idle for want of their goods. The Agricultural De- 
partment has a few implements and steam engines in it. 
Packing cases are there by the thousand, but labour is 
scarce, and those who have taken the precaution to 
import their own assistants have done wisely. They 



I 



4^:6 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCttETY OP ARTS, Ah«l %, 1878. 



aK 



will soon makt np for lost time wlinn th«lr eoasignmento 
coiui* forward. In the othtir depiirtiiitfnttf of tbe ^Ki^i- 
tion lens progreas has h^BU loailH; a(>out a ihoiitaiid 
Edglish workmen would pat the wholn pUon to riK^U in 
t»-n iUyn, In ihe greun'ls MirrounHns< the "^PtUaoe" 
the flower-beds are only b«ing atiimped out. The turf, 
which btu been in readinoM for 1a\ iii^ down weeks sinoH, 
19 still coiled up^ dnr and dead, Hiid, with the esoeplim 
of Some dusens of flr and box tnnw, and some withered 
lilHc trees, which have not even yet bu Ided, owin^ to 
their being so long out of the cronnd, thn intended 
plantations are in a very pitiaM.i aUie, The hotels, 
whiih are very large an<l really goo- 1, are by no means 
-crowiied. The cost of living here mny be' set down nt 
about 208. a-day, and I am inf4»rmHd th>it as so(»n hs the 
Kxbibition opens it will be at leiHt 30s. I believe that 
Mp. Gizd and Mr. Cook, the t«>unst agents in L mi on, 
are doing their best to bccommudMte hU their clients 
here. As a rule, most of the pHok^i^^Qd which have arrivvd 
at the £xhibitiMi Appear in g«»oil o^mdition, but I nsgret 
to s>«y that some of the t w t h enwHre goods from tmr 
Britijih possesuons in India have come to icri*<f. AH the 
re.(in:entHl bands in gHrrition Sere will take part in the 
opening eeromeny. The AuHtrian Hymn will be sung 
first, wnd afterwards the oth*T nutvmal hvmns of the 
exhibiting conn Ui«*s. The £iip»Tor and £nipn>ss will 
visit M>meof the principal de|)irtiii«Dtsaitertheop(^ning. 
The Krupp guns are here ; the lar»rtst is 21 feet lonjr, 
ami weighs about SO tuos, the bull OUOlbs., and calibre 12 
inuhes diameter. « 

Mr. Thomas Jacob, one of the workman nppoint<^d to 
re|K»rt upon cabinet work at tho PariH Exhibition, and 
to whom the Society's Silver Medal juid a prize of X60 
wa« Hwnrde*! for an iiilnid loo t*ibl»', h *8 ju:*t <ronipleled 
a striall inlaid table, of fine and eUbonte workmaiitihip, 
for the Vienna Exhibition, in Hiiiboxnn, ivory, and 
varions natural-coloured woods, which in lik. I y to compare 
favourably with any other work in th«^ cjtbinet depart- 
nu-nt. The table is of considfrjtbb' beauty, and is a 
satisUotory evidence of the g<io 1 resulie effeotod by the 
otfurUof the Society tu eucour-ige fiiie>«rt workmanship. 



THF PURCHASE OF RAIT/WAYS BY THE 
STATE, P&OVIDINrf A LAHOK AND BFFfOIKNT 
ARMY OF BESKHVE, WITH OKliAT BEDUC- 
TiON OF TAXATION. 

By David Xer. 

The purchase of the railways by the State has been a 
su>JHi't more or less mooted iVuni the grtvitatarting* point 
<)f ihe system — vis., in 1846— to the prew^it time, and it 
is now two years since 1 fir»«t beg.n to introduce my 
propuHal to members of both Houses of Parliament. 

It WHS during the premi 'r8hi}»of the late and lamented 
Sir Robert Peel that, in gnintintj hU succeeding acta, it 
was provided, in case the Slatted' •^iretl ia txke pfissession 
of the railways, power wms reMervwl for them to do so. 
Thns, even at this Ciirly period, it whs alniost a recogni-ted 
n«*o»Mdty, and it has hwen a gr<*Mt Ions to the country at 
large that the State did not take possession ; for had it 
d«me so, the railways never coal i have cost more — pro- 
bably less — and at this momerrt we might have l>een 
frved of nearly all our natiimal debt. I'he golden oppor- 
tunity was, however, let slip; yet th«Te is time even 
now to benefit oonsiderabLy by the purchase of these 
truly national undertakings. 

I will, Uien, with your permission, first draw yonr 
atlnntion to the present system, with its disadvantages, 
placin»r in contrast the advanta^OM ihnt would socrue Ut 
the public from the purchase by Government; and ] 
think all most admit the State couJd give greater 
fiotlities, combined with safety, better a«»mimodNtion. 
and cheaper fares; and in proving this, if ytm will kimlly 
follow n»e over some of the existinic lines, you will ave-^ 
First, the Lond<tn and North- Wt«u iti e«*mpetin)r with 
ih» Great Wastam; then the Grvat Western, Miillamd, 



and London and Nfirth-Westenisnaiiuii^t 
MLilaad to be romiieting with tbeQr«itE( 
Great Western with ihe London and &««k Vil 
Hnd the Losdon. Ofaaiham, and Dov«f viMi tit| 
Eastpm, kc, E.ch and nil of thsss ai»< 
utmost to get the traffic the one fnm Hs^ 
consequence is, the trains aie ma is 
triplicate, twiceand thrioe a d^yyatsbott I 
for the same teruiini, so as not to slkv ill 
advantage to be gained by thsir opptsMalu 
even been propoaed that greater poavn ' 
tf> railways genentlly, so that any oomytoy^ 
ran tkr«%t§h trains ov«r thctr iifi^bliwiiAi 
laying, of ocmsse, the usual miksgo^sbsl ' 
to do so. 

It is sel f^ videat sneh a result must net SR^i 
HnUlity to accidents, bat« if earriad otJltssji 
certain diminnti^m of the divid*itids; for iihj' 
inoreasetl fteilities wouU only stimuUtel 
panies to riviU their eospetitois, aa4 m\ 
exercise the ninniBg |iowers; sad 
siiffioes now, in all probiibiUty two wouU kj 
with f<r greatftr chances <if coUisioBM 
increased number «tf special trains ; asas^ 
panics on the north %\d» <»f the Thamfs i 
like to mn tkromffk trains to the end of 1 
western termini, and the lives on th« 
likewiMS com pete with their naighbonitl 
through to the north. Now coosidnl*! 
distanees the miytirity of these traiM^Mil 
before reachintf London, and Is it atsUP 
companies, were the throuuh Iraias tf 
detain their rei;ul«r l<tc»l trains for tW 
throUKh from a foreign company ? 
on the arrival of the lat« through, a 
required for th»* c«mv»«ya»e«j of the 
hentse a vaat ineronse in the nomh^r of 
coat of the shnreholders. and with inri 
How different, however, wonbl it be under d 
numt. Then there w<»uld be no som|H^tl 
advnntaic*' of travelling fnun north to 
ret »u. would be greatly ««teemed as nul) t^ , 
continuation of «»ne manayemeni, withesl 
proxpt'Ct of bein^ late for an oppositi*«i 

Now, if this hold!» jrood with p(( 
more so in res(»ect of the hii^ga^e; thf«« 
trains are running dav snd night; susf^^ 
with the pHSsenirer trains stopping h*t«. 
a aiding there, for the piirpiMie of sJlowisvl 
trninstopHHs And now let me bee V^of 
a moment to the ^igTlalmen, with this ii 
and etri«nHeo»m^iany*s trans; men ent 
liv»<, you m«y say, of the 
in mind the bmg hours they are at 
to attend to this responsible work, sikI 
are exi>eot»^ to oondui-t the signals 
frcmi yeer's end to year's end, for ten, 
years; imsgine the number of solitary 
to pass, with but the one thought of tl»« 
fl\ing hither Htid thilher, op and do«9| 
mimo behind titne. I would ap p aa l 1^ 
a ainirle beinit who <roald undertake to sdl 
his whole life, no matlcir in what e*! 
mnking a sinirle mistake, aye. even for «•»• 
ime, and yet these men, confined in a 9^^ 
expected to do ao. I say it is wond»vf'd 
a«'cid«tTits are, coiwiderinir thfi mental smd*^ 
tonouH strain on the lomin ; with nothnsr 
thonghtever lieforethem. Men's nmid^ «^ 
they cannot help it ; and yet let the oaf< 
after |>erhaps some tarenty years' servic*, ^ 
Hnd he is a (riminal. Of 
HS muoh work out of a man ns thay oso- 
St«te for that mntfer. with this fn^ 
State .wouM not have to provi i« a oii iip^ 
afiiini to make the dnUss of lhiselB«»«f 
indeed all where it was 



JOURNAL 09 THE 80CIETT OF AET8, April 26, 1873. 



427 



I iif isfnlfnan ought never to be on duty more 
tar hnwrt 0116 titm wbHre the tmins acn nune- 
irfM •»» than eiffht hoars a dnf altoi^etfaer. 
■ wv, however, examine th« othnr side. If the 
ftmrt^ \» psaaee»ion of the State I «pould sog^^vet 
I^^BMit aooievrhat aftttr liie fullowing, notl by 
Hhrtoi'Vt I do not doabt the public would be 

twiifiljwi '^ 

nan tia» of the present Ghreat N<»rtbem Railway 
bM«i(r-i<(ht to Ediubunrh ; thnrefora this sime 
^4ileMt«>f it, and on to Invemee^ ^m should be 
wJV* 1 Dittrut. 

^i^d [Htt-i(i rai^t w«U be reprfiaeated by the* 
i^Uhli«ad " mmin line, and sll east of it to the 
Pi«f the present Gr«^at Northern Rntlway, in- 

\ U^^ diaCiict, thenoe to M>tnche8ter, on to 
Qhwipow, and from thiii port (tonyeyini^ all 

fcr the Noith of IreLmd down as fur at 

H Di$tnet wonld be the preient London and 

to Birminifham^ Shrnwabury, on to 

^livKpou], nnd all north and east of it to the 

F}^»ofi Di^rict, conveying all traffic fr<im 

tle^nd for Dublin, up as f^r as Droti^heda, 

nt wt ry to th« w^sfi. down to th« S'tuth as fir 

imA tnor^clc Junrtioa. This diiitrict would 

Holyhead for passenguis, and Liverpool 

iKWfier.— The present Orea« Wt*BtPTn 

l«D aorth of it to the Loodon xnd North- 

jUfd Distriet, the s*«uth of Wmlfs on to 

, and on to Bristol, conreyinif all 

llbtbad for the south of Indiiad to WatHr* 

t1^ to Oirlow, over to Liramok and aH south 



day. to the confusion and risk of the pasienger trains, so 
that the public would Ite better served, both in the pas- 
sung^Br nnd goods departoient. 

I will now iBT«*«tigate the terms of pafohas<>. When 
[ madfimy r'aloulabion. more than two years aince>-Hnd 
the amount has not materially iaoreas*4 sinoe then, or if 
it has, the receipts bire increased in a corresponding 
ratio— I found the nnlways had already cost the public 
some £520 roilHona. B«»fore, however, 1 proc«<©d fuilher, 
let me t^xplain th*t as noma lines wer« at a^preriiium, 
and somn at a disoount^ I estimated tht* one would as 
nearly balance the other as possible — that is to s.ty, the 
amount of the premium to be paid for those lines at a 
pr*-mium, would juat correspond to the amount to be 
det^uoted from thone lines at a diacount, taking the 
nmrknt prices of all, thus, their quoted market v>ilue 
would be about the same as they cost in construction. 
Then I found by the Board of Trail e returns that the 
n.^t income of the whole of the railways, available for 
dividend, after paying all expenses (and this no lej»s 
thm 49 per cent, of the re(;eipts) amounted to 22 
millions : now, if the Sttte purchHsed the railways, I 
8uj^gH8t4'i| in a communication 1 sent to the Premier 
when I hid the honour of submitting my plan for his 
oonsileration in November Ihs!, that the Government 
should do 80 by the State making a distinct and 6nal 
off'T, of taking all, at the prices quoted thn s^tme day the 
oS<^r is made known in the House of Common**, and 
^ving a bonus of 20 per cent, or whatever they in- 
ttrnded. This I connidered would prevent the pf>ssibility 
of the mad speculation, to the ruin of thousau'ls, that 
must ensue when the proposed purchase be(*Ame known, 
unlt^ss protected by aofiie such final and d«*<«ided offer. 
Th.} oii;rinal capittl, then, beinff 520 millions deduct 
4i^net wosld likewise have two ports, ' about one-third for debentures (174). leiving 346 mil- 



flafsn fur pASSsogers, and Bristol for 



\9»iUut DUtriet wouM be for the remainder 
iViL,AU south of the Thames and beyond 

the sdvuitiicres to be derived from wv*h 
vhen the wholH is under one managc- 



lionnas share capitJ. Add to this 20 per cent, bonus, 
69 millions, and you h'»ve la total of 415 millions, to 
be paid by the GJovt-mmcnt for the share capit-al; this> 
at 4 per cent, stock, would amount to £16,000,000 for 
interest 

And as the debentures f tU in, issue 3 per cent, stock 

for thp £174 000 000. which would require f4»r interest 

B be but litUe doubt *ii the enormous eav- , £4,920,000. still le tving a balance of £480 000 to make 

to heroifter, and the inoreasHd lUH^Mn- , up the £22,000,000 net revenue to the credit of govern- 

•sld be given to the ^nblio. First and ment. 

kUer; an^l wli**re4a now three companies N<»w, let us see how this will act. Tnke the Great 

r the AtMtrh trafilft. nnd runnini^ abnit Wt-stem, for instancH. At the time I am now writing* 

kirtins daiiy^to E«linbnnrh from the thn-e ' thn price is £12 > in the share list for every £100 stock, 

fcur ^Cch*^ starling -iitoutthestm*' hours, ' an«l ptyin/ a diviiit-n i of 6^ per cent., on th«* £100^ 

il the Qtivem'n»'nt gave nix at dtffer»-nt su*»JK't to variation. This, then, would give an interest 

I wiHild be iptin«:rs ^y two. Ht a anving of of €6 10s. per annum, as paid by the Great Western 

^^oh; this ia bat a sample of the g^nenl Company. 

Now take my proposal. The price is £125, add 20 
per cent (£25>, or a total of £150, this, at 4 per cent. 
stock, woul I give £6 permanent interest, government 
security, or at a lose of imly onwhalf per cent. I put it 
o4fects«m and delivery of goods fi»r the' to any one — which wouM the nbareholdersot this railway 
Some of th*)SH vans %io ab«iut full, ! prefer £150 (^sh, hs agtinst £125, the present price, if 
•sme with quarter of n liuvl ; it must h** i th<'y choose to s^tl out, or £6 i>er cent, government, as 



the local rraffio couM lie 
>• Id suit th«* dtatrict. Tne next is the 
fe LiOiloa ali»nf* them are upwanis of 
tial rtns, with ••& "es >.nd clerks innnmer- 



so many in oppositifin, and if it is so 
knw mur'h iii> ire »> wirh the tntina, when 
North- Wn^«wn. the (irmt W»-8t»-m the 
•ftl the Midlan 1 ar^ itH striving for the 
fMl Birheiihoiid tmflir, aa Wfll as for thr* 
' i* Mk snoihiT sa-ttidM of the r»«L Now, if 
ia Guv^nune«i h.u>d^ and the district 
Mlfafre.thovh<jHW«Hi]d be »ifnp'iti«d ; thti 
tW^I tik^ and fuQ tnins. that is. aa 



against the £6 10s. railway cojnpany's interest, subjf>ct 
t«i fluctuation ? Of c<»urse, all the riilways are not ex- 
actly like tt.ie, but th'-y appri'Ximate suffidently to 
off r iu'lucement «tnou^h for ths sharchollers to prefer 
cither Selling out or retaining government in i»refer»*nce 
to the ntilwiy btM-k. These are fitcts resulting from, 
the simple punh ise, but we must take Into c msiiera- 
ti >n the immense siviuif that must ensue, by the doing 
away wiih director<», Itwyers. manasrera, aet'retariea, 
cool 1 (lm«, be starts off when readv, ' 8U(>eri'itend<'nts, nnd all the secretarial «Ierks, abtdishing 
MBi^rof tnons fiom th*« ty*noentratiiin of the re.ii:*tr:»ti'ni and #iu lit depHrtment. with their i-niiienae 
'•»sry tftg^im^ maile ti* omvry a Umnage I st^ff of clerks on every line, retHi«tiog only a number 
; thi'4 wiih p^rhaiM only «»ne pi'*k-up about f^qnnl to those at firtsfnt employed in the cleartng- 
Har of «MCh dtaarii-t. «hm what an im- h'U<4e. Ari*oriinir to the simple pltn I pr*>p»se. vis., 
WDtti^ b^; awl I Verily hwlinve the inhtead of the present mmbrous system of tickets toe-*rh 
fntm this iwiooentnnon, and cixsa for ever\ station, aad there are no Ifss th<«n 4,600 
tr»fSi*« might ho ran at night, requirinif \*U 2o*l. and 3rd single, and 1st. 2nd, an<i Srd 
tAsreUnrs daring the return, six for tatth aiirtioa, or %tA^ dii&ma seta. 



428 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Aphil 26, lOTl 



counts of which from the manufacture to their use and 
destraotion have not only to hh kept bv the several rail- 
ways but by the clearing-house as well. Now the plan 
I propose is so curtailed that one good-siaed ticket case 
might be made to hold all tho tickets requisite for book- 
ing to anv distance and over the whole kingdom, vie., 
by 52 different mileages, as shown in this table, giving 









^ 

MILES. 






CTiASS. 


2 

d. 
3 

4 
2 
3 
1 
2 


3 

d. 
4 
6 
3 
6 
2 
3 


6 

8. d 
8 
t 
6 
8 
4 
6 


10 

>. d 
1 
1 « 

8 

1 
6 
9 


16 

a. d 

1 10 

2 9 
1 2 
1 9 

It 

1 6 


20 

s. d. 
2 8 
4 

1 8 

2 6 

1 4 

2 


26 


60 


100 


l«t '. ... 

Ist Return 

2nd 


«. d 
3 6 
6 3 

2 8 

3 6 

1 9 

2 8 


>. d 

7 8 
11 « 

4 10 
r 3 

8 10 
6 9 


s. d. 
19 
U 
10 


2adlletum 

3rdBetaTn 


MS 

8 

12 



&0.J Ac^ Ac, to 600 mllei and upwards. 

Parreld, bones, carriages, Ac., treated at mUeage rates as the 
pAsseogcrs. 



the charges for all tickets up to two, three, and five 
miles or short distances, tben for distances up to 10, 15, 
20 miles, or every five miles up to 100, when T increase 
the distances by 10, thus 110. 120, 130 up to 300, when 
I increase it again by 20, and Itstlv by 25 miles ; but 
in making these calculations I must distinctly state it is 
only to show how I propose working the system ; the 
rates might be lowered and the dixtances increased to 
reduce even the number of mileig*^; this would, how- 
ever, rest with the government ; at any rate this plan 
would only have 52 different sets, and these multiplied 
by six would only require the acc^mnts to be kept ^or 
312 sets of tickets as against the 27 600 of the present ; 
and the tickets T propose should be imiformly printed for 
use all over the kint^om, though in different colours, 
according to district and cIhss, and the issuing 
station should stamp its name and date on it thus : — 



to 

K 

as 



AVAILABLE 

for 

95 MILES. 



lat Class. 



o 



Oi 



->4 
09 



Or 2Qd or 3rd as the case may be. 

And if sold at the post-offices they should likewise stamp 

their mark or No. on it. 

. The same plan of mileages would apply for the goods 

traffic. 

Then in the reduction of the number of trains to be 
actu illy abolished or saved in consequence of non-com- 
petition, and the lesser number r«*qaired by the district 
arrangement, I estimate at too low a figure, but sav four 
million. Next in the matter of stores sived on 16,000 
miles, say £500,000. Listly in the purchase of coal, as 
there would be no competition and but one purchaser; 
then again the saving as between coke and coal now 
used on some lin^, for the government could then 
convey coal free to all, say £2,000,000 

£480,000 say £500,000 

3 000 000 

4,000 000 

500,000 

2,000.000 



This would give a total of £10,000,000 



Surely this vast sum is worth itiins Cor tb 
it is true many object to the state tudof fuL 
as interfering with private enterpriis, m I 
say private enterprise has alrcAdj hid % 
vantages, and benefited to a verf gni 
and it would still further be benefited by a 
advance of £20 on every £100 valoe, lAiif 
very likely to occur for years upon yon fi 
ordinary course of affairs ; but I say, why Milrt 
people at large get some advantage as welliltiff'' 
trufy national undertakings, and by tbe 
taking them we can be relieved to the extent 
corresponding reduction of taxation. So ^ 
the sellers would be equally advantaged. 

But I have not finished. Then> is yet 
important proposition I have to make, itiH 
ducing taxation, and providing a great want, 
reserve army for home defence at no cort to tl 

Oar regular army at present numbers tarn 
a cost of about £15.000,000 per annum, 
culty, ever>'one knows, in getting reonitis arf 
difficulty still in keeping them, on accounted* 
of the pay as compared with labooiers. 1 
borne out by the number of desertions po' 
Folice GazetfCy and various have been the 
gested ; all have failed ; but the plan 1 
well help succeeding, as it would ereol 
pockets of the men themselves. 

I propose, then, that the railways be 
State, and our recruits engaged for thiMff 
as the case may be, by which time tkj^ 
thoroughly drilled soldiers, on the distinci 
that when their period of service hadexpind 
ment should provide situations for them on 
as porters and policemen. I need scarcely tiy 
at once secure a far better cIhss of mm, who 
solely for the purpose of obtaining a 
hereafter. 

Now let us look at the results flowing oat 
position. At present there are some 300,< 
ployed on railways ; I do not propose to i 
these at all, and I should say there are from 
who annually leave or are dismissed. I 
therefore, that from the time govemmdkt 
sion all new men engaged (not being rsti 
should only be taken on as sapemunierariei,ts 
by retiring soldiers as they left Uio serried; 
be no hardship in this. Estimating, th^a 
of 15,000 per annum of soldiers from th«" 
would about balance the other, and withoot 
to the working man generally, because it 
very working men who would be indaoed 
army for the sake of a permanent situ^tios' 

I do not propose to amalgamate the 
railways by any means ; they should be 
propose that, after the soldier has served hii 
without a pension, he is to bo provided it 
purtment of the State with a situation, as a 
those services ; and with what a glorioos 
country ! Why in the course of a few ye*n 
have an army of 300,000 thoroo^ly-traitf 
always ready, in case of invasi m, at no co«i 
still, as the trained army of reserve increa«J» 
gradually to reduce the regulftrs, cithw hy 
one-third ; let me take the Utter, and at a 
five millions per annum*; add this to mv 
millions, and you have a total of fifteen 
the reduction of taxation. Away, then, with 
tax. &c., &c. 

But to proceed on the further conaidertti* 
important subject, if the men will he hen»^ 
the officers, as I Bugg«*sted that they likewis^ 
transferred to the railways after havinj^atW 
tain rank or served a given time, to be d*^^ 
after ; then the corporals, the sergsantk «■ 
minors, these could be app^itnted to tfcs flOT 
men, inipectors, and ^atation-mastMiiCVW 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Afbil 25, 1873. 



^2d 



to rank, m saperintendoiits, dis- 
ftc^ ko., thus always keeping 
t of promotion in the army, so mnoh re- 
[4 paaA, M the offioMrti on the railways would 
•Ml their promotion in the Reserve, 
tbeo, the mluoed regular army, after the 
fthefire miUioni has been effected, at about — 

90,000 men, 

•dd 800,000 railway reserves. 

ktliiinunber the ... . 140,000 mOitia! 

.... 160,000 Tolunteers. 

\ti only ten millions per annum, or two'thirds 

leh^rgf- What about iuTtsion then P I think 

Mid like the rentare, and though I do not 

lit jet it if a fiict, the dread panic, like some 

nte of cholera, seises hold of the nation 

• toaging our commerce, deranging every- 

nifling thousands ; these, then, would bu 

lAi put, as an amount of security would be 

ipraenoe of so large a force. Surely all 

ire well worth the consideration of our 

I km. urged we oueht not to trust military 

ihtodsof so many men. What! Can the 

ind the French, yen, even the Turks, trust 

in larger numbers, and England cannot 

>l| degraded P Out upon such a thought! 

llBBn would be the rhoice, not the scum, of 

fv«T ready to uphold order. And it hns 

It ration why the State should not become 

FtkerailwBys. tiiat they would have too much 

W by adopting my proposal the patronage 

flpn^, ts the railway officers would only con- 

rw in the ordinary course of promotion, so 

(pttrontge would be no greater (and it is nil 

It of the competitiTe fzaminations) than 

hiving a simil'irly siznd army. Then 

cnntrol the elections. Why. I thought 

" protect us fh>m all this ; therefore this 

been objected that in time of war these 

Inrid b^ required to attend to the work on 

I; this, instead of being an argument against, 

^•etn ftTour of my proposition ; for by the 

trf wtrfmre, in case of invasion, the first thing 

^ is to seise the railways, and, according 

rtad numbers so will he s»'ize the larger or 

riet Kow mHrk this — by my plan every 

^^ enemy lays hold of liberates so many 

(to fight against him; thus, if he seized 

fulvays (as the Germans id in France) 

^•wtte 150,000 soldiers; moreover, this is 

tiMpfotant, ss these very men would other- 

l^pers, or be thrown on the country for 

!wtHi iee a chief feature in this plan is the 

*fc rollectintr our Reserves, and we might 

'•ihdnw all the non-respi^insible men, such 

■• Old police, the mere labourers, who have 

|doiHlh the workincr or snfety of the lines, 

■T htlii replacing them by supernumeraries 

'• thereby increasing our Reserves in the field 

1,000 enters. 

tn this out, however, there must be head- 

lomewhere. I propose then to establifth 

^•^ not interfere at all with the present 

^; they naturally belong to the army 

^tttife would belong to the railways and the 

ta Urn fii«t, then, I would locnte near the 

HitwcBstle, for the manufacture of all the 

fto., required for No. 1 district, as 

The teoond near the Mersey for No. 

'J iM i H The third at the head of the 



Severn for Nob. 4 and 5 districts. At each of these 
head-quirters the staff should be located, who would 
superintend the whole of the military arrangements and 
periodical drilling. 

Ireland would, of course, require a separate establish- 
ment — say on the Curragh. 

Let me now, in as few words as possible, as it is con- 
nected with this proposal, allude to the army in India ; 
and these, being a part uf our regulars, would ultimately 
hxve to be taken on to the railways. 

I would therefore suggest the keeping of certain regi- 
ments always in India, and instead of sending out the 
recruits in small detachments, as at present, some 
arriving five, some four, thrtie, two, and only one year 
before the return of the whole of regiment, to the great 
expense of the country, I say the men for Indian 
servico should all be enlisted for eleven years, be drilled 
one year at home, and all to be uniformly clad ; then at 
the end of the year, as they would require new uniforms, 
let them be despntched in large batches, giving 100 to 
each regiment they enlisted for, relieving 100 of the 
stme regiment returning home after their ten years* 
service, these men so returning to be pensioned with half 
the pension formerly allowed to soldiers after 21 yeirs' 
service, and the government to find places for them on 
the railways likewise. By this means the regiments 
would be kept supplied with fresh drilled recruits, to 
the advantage of the service, and the men would all 
serve their ten years in India to the saving of the tax- 
payers here. Thus, you will see, I could not have 
omitted this without upsetting the plan I laid down — 
viz., the finding recruits for all our army, and providing 
for and keeping them together on the railways after- 
WHrds, for future service in our reserves. 

But to touch on another part of this interesting sub- 
ject, much has been said about monopoly, and many say 
if the State took possession it would become one. No 
such thing — if the railways fell into the hands of the 
State, it would cease at once to be a monopoly in a com- 
mercial sense, because the House of Commons would 
control the fares and rates, and prevent too great a profit 
beinir made. 

Take the telegraph as an instance. Should we ever 
have had Is. telegrams from the public companies? 
Never ; and now the State are in possession we shill yet 
have them at 6d. 

So must it be with the railways, the State would bo 
controlled by its representatives. No — the real mono- 
pidy would be when the variuus large lines became 
amalgamated, and each had its own district, on the 
understanding that one was not to interfere with another, 
then a monopoly pure and simple would be established, 
and the amalgamated companies would exact the highest 
ntes and fares they could to provide the hii^hest 
possible dividend, and run fewer trains to increase it 
for the shareholders, there being neither opposition nor 
control after the pnssing of these Acts. You will see 
even now Government does not object to amalgamation 
of railway with railway, only to canals with railways; 
here is a danger entirely overlooked, and which every 
individual will feel personally if it is allowed to 
go on. 

Railway with railway amalgamation is not objected 
to ; consequently, the five diviHions or districts I have 
pointed out may become an accomplished fact, unless 
government takes possession, but how about pawenger 
fares then P This important matter has been altogether 
lost sight of by the Rovemment ; they only object to the 
amslgamation of railways with canals, because, forsooth, 
it would affect the carriage of goods— the dead freight, 
leaving thelivinsr, and amongst these millions of artisans, 
to the mercy of the amalgamated companies, who, if they 
lose bv the competition with the canals, must m>»ke up 
the difference somehow, and they will most decidedly do 
it in the passenger fares. This argument ought to be 
sufficient to stop further railway and railway amalgama- 
tion, if government does not take possession, and I cannot 



490 



JOUR17AL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Afsii. 28^1B6i 



BAe howthdy can escape from it when it ifl proved to be 
to the adTantMge of the nation. 

There is ytft another objeotioB to oar preaeat ciitiotl 
position^ yiz., the terrible cUnger of a strike amonget the 
railway nM'n ; thii dang*^ woald be got rid of were the 
men all under military law. Depend on it, the milwMys, 
as now spread over the whole country, oui^t not to be 
considered pri\ratH undertikinKs ; thuy nre truly optional. 
OoncetTe a strike of all the railwity bomimnies in London, 
how could we btj suppltt^l with food P Thousamis must 
starve ; but we are told and soothed by thn present 
manai^ers of the R lilwiiy t^-rvants AmalgMmHted Society 
that they do not intend, and would not strike, but the 
language u8*-d led nie to infer there were circuuistHncee 
under whiuh they would strike. 0»n any o»ie answer 
for the temper of a large bo«ly of men P ETery one know6 
how a mob are soiiietimes most irrtttionally led — a 
tomporar)' blindness ««r p iseion seises thetn, >ind they rush 
forward to their own dei*traetion nnd that of othH*s. Are 
we, then, to be left t*> the mercy of tht>8e men P Are we 
to be told that so l«*ng ms we satisfy their (ietnands they 
will consent to work tind nllow us to live ? Surely we 
ought to have securer guarantees than these; it is tnr too 
serious. Parliament ou<ht not to allow this session to 
pass without some certnin death for this hydra-headed 
monster, else, as we have had a strike in the coal mines 
this wintt^r, the next may bring one amongst the railway 
men ; n(»thing mi^re likely, the warning noto haviug been 
sounded this winter ; but oh ! the result — sheer starvation 
to multitudes, llie pn)bability even ought not to be 
allowed to f xist, much 1hb8 the possibility ; let the uniMis 
8«y what they like, we have been alrea«ly threatt-ned* 

Next and laht, there is the question as to how the 
railways should be worked, nlluiled to in the Premier's 
letter to the Marquiit of Clanrioarde, where he fraakly 
■tatet he fears the go vtmment would have to w^trk'ttvem. 
If, then, they purchaattj theni and did net Wfifk them, it 
follows they must lease the working. Ttiis system 
would undoubtetlly ease the government of the tP'Uble ; 
but, let the arrangements be drawn as oarefallj at th^y 
may, yet X will venture to say the smalleeft opening, 
only the size of a {lin's head, mi^ht be work*^ and 
worked till a couch and four, or, better still, mu engine 
and train be driven through it at the expt nse ot the 
public. No; leasing nienns a loop hole, to be found 
somewhere, and when found it would lOMt the Btato mtt 
a little to buy bark the arrangetoent, or else the )>titdic 
would be surcharged fearfully ; then, as to the offl.'eia 
engaged on thn railways under the lea«<mg s^tttem, 
government could not undertake the supervision of ho 
Vast a s} stem carried out as per agreement, they might 
as well do it aliogetfanr ; so the officera would l>e badl}* 
paid, harder woiked, and the public worse s^-ryed. 

The only course is tor the State to t^ke pohMession and 
to work them, then, haviug all in their own hands* 
matters can be so simpliHed there would not be the 
slightest difficulty ; thn whole appears to me U* be pbiin 
and simple, easy and Btraiifbtforwiii-d ; this may be from 
the years I have studied the question ; and the more I 
have stodied it, the more have I beo«>me itrnvineed that the 
only Way to escape the difficulties we areteppro^trhmg as 
a result of the present management, is by the Sr^ato 
taking possession of the lines and working th^m like- 
wise, then we may exfiect better accoirinio<lHtton, greater 
•ecurity, lower fares, and a reduction of tax ition. 



)U»i»l1 



guard's van, it aols nmnltaBaoiiiilf «^ ttifeiw 
of each carriage. This syttein act* vwy «4l 
N«Hih London UailwHy ^ bat il it vidiial ti 
fast-tXHveUtng trtiiss, whether lung « thorti 
puts forward 1) ounditiooa thst are a< 
perfect brake ; the chain Imke doti not 
tht> whole of theee, but fairly to with 
when not more than aix ca.«riMgi4 tre in 
The Barker hydraulic btake is used on son* 
the Great £«»texn line ; in this bmke tlw 
press the blocks against the wheel ii o 
uccuiiiulator worked by a pump, the aanuoiolJV 
up its power in belie il springs that difectl| 
blocks against the wheel. The great ubjtciw 
brake is the liability ol the water to frtew\a "" 
munioHting pipe*, in cold weather. The 
pneumatic biaice is said to bo supeiior to 
and it is worked by the steam which v^ 
be blown away to waste. Chapio't «^|ctiK 
I being expeiimentally worked on the 
j line, and, although working w<dl, hat ita4 
\ cient time in use to oroM^ the extent of I 
I the discussion up<'n Mr. Pox's paper, it 
cast-iron. brake blocks were preferable to 
and that a totally skidded wheel has noltht 
or brake power that a slowly revolvini; whtA 
the proportion of about 9 t«* 11. The pubto 
as umch intbreeted in the question of a 
as the niilway companiea are. 






CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES. 

A paper read before the Society of Engineers, by Mr. 
W. H. Fox^ has directed the attention of enginet-r* to 
Uiis most impartant subject. The oontimious chain 
brake, as at preaetit applit^l on the N^rth Lumdon Rail- 
way, invented by Mt^^irs. Wilkin and CUrke, eousi^ls tif 
a chiin t^5}ured to the end carriage, piaaing uaier and 
over pulleys to the drum on whiuh it is wuun>l beneath 
^km guard's van. Woen the ohaio is wound up in the 



Bacoa litbig.— The death of this 
toidc (dace on Friduy lai^t, 18th iufetant lU^ 
at Darihatadt, on May 12ih, 18n3, and ttotivtil 
edueatioa iu the GyiHuaaium then, bn 
afterwards removed to the University of 
sabsequebtly to Krlingen, wh-re ha receiv*^^ 
as doctor of medieine. In 1822 he was tn ' 
o^ed to Palis, where he studied for two ji 
Fnnrh chfuiiats Ga>-Lu.N8ac Dumas, «iw 
with Mitsch* rlich, profeHSor of ciwmistry •! 
first iiiip<»rt«ut work by Liebig was a memoitj 
nates, eommimicated to the Academy vf 
Paris, in 182i. In 1824, HL the t^rly age of 
appointetl to the poat of extraordinary pniT 
miatry in the Univemity ul GiesH^. U 
cau«e oidin«»ry piolieaor of chemiatry at 
Uuivemty ; and he eatabiiahed a labors! 
whei'ein to teach imciital ihemiatry. la> 
vixiled England, and «)tt* nd»Hl the meetii 
Awaociatioii, which was held thut year in 
there read a p«4(>er on the ctMnpiisition Hodl 
tioiiHof lithic acid, and in o«'naK|ueDOchl^ 
to draw up ref torts on two imporLauUl 
ree^aurch, wbii-h app*^c^ in the proct-eft 
Britiah AssocLi ii.n f.T 1839. In 1840 LuMli 
his work on *' Chemintry. in iu AppUcatiui* 
ture and rhyaiolo^A." Thi» work waaia 
[ of one (»f the reports* whic^t he had been ; 
up. An abatracL of th^ complete rvpoK va» 
Lv on Pla> fair, in 1842, before the chemical i 
British Asitociation. ih^n in sesaion atM«a»*»< 
report itaelf, entitied by Liebig " Animal Cbt 
Cio miatry in its Appliuattun tu Physioltv)' 
logy," wms pttblishod iu the sama year. In 
pr^iMiifri fur the Erlgll^h {>r»'sa his ^^ 
'* U^-aean ht« into the Chemiatry of Fooi" 
appeared the treatiae on U**i ** Pnndplt-* til 
CtH-otiBtrv, with spe«'ial r«4V-renee to ll»»*an' 
made in England." In 1848 l*iebig pix>p •■*» 
leagues at Gi^-ssen to draw up an annual i>p" 
progress of uhemistry. The tirafc tu«r 



MPRNAL 



131 



into Eoi^iali hj ©,. HiAnimn. Mr. 

JUt, ftnd Dr. Bea«e Joni^ The work 

wm not OMKitiiiml, lM>wo««r, beyoad ^'e 

"< BMOtioned. Tlit««> «k tooie of kia nviie 

Kiit jp*frhN|M the woik by which, of 

jihig in beet kwiwn in this oountry h 

Letlera on Qh«^niBtrT," h poipuWr bat 

lie oo the euh)«'et In IM5 th*t Grand 

BMde lnK>\dg on hereditary baron. He 

foreign Fellow of most of the fl'ienttfio 

iTppe and America that reooi^nise chemistry. 

WM elected to the Boval S »ciety of Gr«Ht 

[m 1861 he w«a nnnicd foreign Aseociatt* of 

~r of Sdeacee aC Pnrie. He whs fepmtndly 

the chitir in Enjf iieh and Continental Dni- 

JWM penmadetl in l«62 to accept the Pro- 

mmsiry in Miroich, with the position of 

[1h» Chemkad Lahontoiy. He was also 

Ikel^fn of Huoonr. In the yew 1864 

MO'iwuiwiiM^'V eiibsoriptkm in Enrwpe 

itii jmm^m^im^ Littbi^: with a 'testimonial. 

llfaBrtMediil of Aho i8oieety<w«e pineeested 

■ir, '* for hie numerous yaluable resenntbtt 

«Mi hM«»,Q(Milrib«»«»a meat imrMMfHintly 

"-Mot of food MK>nc4By aiwi aKri<nUarft, to 

ntof cht^niical ecieme, and ti the benefits 

that sdenoe by Arte, Manufactures, and 

Tite.— We re^ivt to annonnce the death 

iTite. C.B, M.P, F.R.S., which hapi»ened 

n Sunday, from inflantniHtion of the throat 

I >B attM^ *f liniDchitas. At th« time of 

|» w«8 npwHrde of 7o yt-are <if Hge. Sir ! 

" isrliest kuown UibtMirs were in connec- j 

iieh of 8t. DnnMim'e in the East, the 
r-vhieh was vntri^ on la^^^ly Hn*ier his ' 
'~\ In 1820 and 1829 he whs eniploynd 
iChnrch, hmlt in Ke»?Hnt^iiHrp, Grny's- 
^■Iwaid ityinKv utid siihH«i<)uftntly in the 
of the ni<Rct iaiportnnt of oor earlier i 
But it wH« not until the year 1841, 
n as the archite't of the nnw iioyal E*- 
,lhat 8ir Wi li lui TitH*s nnmo. berame ' 
This WHR hii» chief work, and all his 
\rfr\j umm^^rtmit. The b^st known 
LoD'ion asil Westoiinstt^ Bank, in 
t by him in c«»njiin«tit»n wiih the lute 
Uthn origin^ Vhux hall Terminus of 
i "Rjiilway, and the terminus of th« 
inptim ; th« BlackwuU T»^rminu« of 
BUikwaU B41wHy; the termini and 
«•• on the llahdonian and S«*(»tii8h 
r; the Londvm etNti«fn of ih« Woking 
~~~ ftc, and 4<^erHl oth«r boildint^ 
nrial piwpoe^. Sir William Tite 
fttof the A IfitiniHirHtfvH Btffurm Amo- 
lofth* Bank 'ifBirypt, a director of the 
' Com|MinT. and of th« L-mdim and 
In 18o5 he whs ivi«rned Ut Pir- 
Vil! ^^J^^^ which hn hae simie rapre- 
[•Mtennienon dov^m to hie deeea^e. Sir 
jed the tyffif^B of pvvtrdent of the 
«t.r, and of the Iti>al Inavitute of 
and that of honorary eeerHary to the 
". H« «^e mIho for mmy years one 
«f Dnlwich Colhge. in the recon- 
be took the jnvHt**t int«>ref>t. He 
of knichtlMod tn 1869. He became 
hi 1644, and he also filled the 



for his biography of Faraday, and by his many and 
valuable contributions to the advancement of science. 
AsBong these may be meoUoiied his '"Omioinaii Iicetttrefl 
on Matter and Force;" ** Aninwl Gh^ynnalryin Rektioa 
to Stomarhand Bennl Difleas- a;" *Le<tureeon Pathology 
'•nd Thernpeiaics;" "The Royal Institution, iU 
Founder and First Pjt>feAsor8.'* &••. Dr. Jonea, was a 
member of many learned and adentifio M¥;ieti«ui at home 
and abroad. 



IBBS 



OSVSBAL ITOTM. 



»*4- 



Artificial Stone.— The use of this building material it 
on the inereaite. The RaoMNne Patent Sti>ne Compaoy have 
recently puhliitbed a p«mnhJet, d<wcciptive of the process 
<»f manufaiture nnd the appncari<in of th*ir artificial stone. 
Fliu<s are dnMohr*^! by ineana of oautttic alkali, aader hi|rh 
prewure, so an to form atlicate of siiOa, a. kind uf water-glaaa. 
This is then rapidly mixed with a pMptvrf ion of very fla» and 
iiliarp nflicrouM itaud io a pate mrlt, (*<» «• tu'form a suftplaetie 
maw, which can- be roonliied iirto any sbaipe that >ii dvetrtd. 
Xhn «oft ist.kne ie arxt i«»m*ra^d in a bHth of oblorida of 
calcium solution, which idnmde to penetrate it by hydraulic 
or Mtmusphwric pressure. Whenever ttiia«i»Iution Ctmies into 
c<»ntact with the siH.mte df soda, the two liqaids are deeoai- 
powd, the »ilica raking poane^Honof the calomm and forming 
the bard solid MlicMteof lime, and rhe noda uniting with the 
chlorine to form chloride of B<idium in a small quantity. 
Instead then of the pArtieles of nnnd being c«ivered with a 
thin lilm uf the Kquid idlicata of wwia, rtiey nre oeverei mmd 
united together with h film of mAid nilitwti* of lime, one of the 
niottt mddxtniiftfbto aabmaiteea knoMm. Tbe MoaH qoanftily 
of «<4uble cbioride of «odinm« oae of the resnlta of decoaEi|¥>> 
»rtioti, ia then waebed out of the shme hy a duuohe of cl»«a 
wilier, or by hydrnQlic preoanre, its cimpleta removal being 
ensured by chemical te8t«. The atone i« then dried and is m 
for use. 

Technical Education. — On Saturdny evening last, the 
Rev. H. Solly pn'Ridt-d over a conference at the Artieadris* 
CMub, which b^d been cnlleil wirh n view of ei«it*ting hi the 
est»^li«hmefrt of a Tradee Guild of Le>nmii^. After soom 
dtanna«toii, a rewdution wmm puiited, hailinir with aati<ifaetioB 
%h» propt*iMl Io iurai suoh an inaliratiou^aed a committee waa 
appointed tt> co^tperaie with the S^vndkrate of tbe University 
of CN«iMbrid«re, and wHb all other bouiita willing to aid in the 
education of tbe people. 

The Kannfaotnre of Steel by neana of the Siemeni 
Furnace. — A^ tb»» meeting of th*- Ciiemicnl 3o<'.iety, on the 
20' h March Ust, Dr. Siemens dHivered a maeterly laetnre 
** On Iron and Steel,** in which be poioted out the wee of bia 
hijrh t«}mpeTHtupe «>r regeuerntmie ga«* furnace in. tbe Bwaii* 
facture of iron and utael. Tbe fofiiMti< n of netaHio pfnmtilt 
whi4'h takea place at tbe l»w temperatave of tbe Mfdinary 
blaac f omace ia avoided in 'the Siemens fumaoa. Tbe ore 
IS beaied in a revolvintr furnace, w>>ich rev«ilv«s very slowly 
at first; the temperatareia very high, but is iuaufficient te 
H»elt the penaide of iron. A poraon of tbe c^ial is now 
intnidmvd so ae to reduoe the chan>re ti> the state of magnetic 
oxide, wbirh is comparatively funihle ; tbe rei*t of the fuel 
it* rb^n added and the fumice <*au8ed to n>tate rapidly, eo 
that the particles of iron precipttated in tt>e inasa may ball 
totec^ther. Tbe wnmgbt ir^n thus produced is free fnim 
-ulpbur, and dissolves freely in pig-iroii fuxed uponaheurth, 
forming a Kteel equal in quality tu that obtained from the 
beat SMrediah bar. 



losei^ty 



I^»»i Ml.«.— Tlw d*ath of ihia eminent 
we on Sunday liiot the 2<Hh instant 
[}^^m\y severe ftliM 89. Br. J.mes wsh 
♦o Ht. 6«mrge'8 Hiepttal, an- 



nOTICEB. 



STTBSOBIPTIOVS. 

The Lady-day subscriptions are due, and 
^ould be fonvvrded by ofaeqtte or Poet-offioe 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Qo.," and made paiju 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Pinanoial 
officer. 



432 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. Apbil 26. Ittf. 




OBDDTABT 1CEETIH08. 



Wednesday evenings, at eight o'dook. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

April 29 (Tuesday Evbnino*).— " On the British 
Sctilements in West ACriiui.** By His ExceUency 
Governor Pops Hennbsst. C.M.O. 

Apkil 30. — "On the Condensed Milk Mannfactore." 
By L. P. Mbb&iam, E^q. 

Mat 7. — ^* On IroproTeinements in the Manafactare 
of Gan-cotton." By 8. J. Mackib, Esq., C.E. 

Mat 14. — *< ImproTements in Hifles.'' By Gapt. 
O'Hea. 

Mat 21. — ** On Becent Processes for the Prod action 
of Gas for lUnminating Purposes." By Thomas Wills. 
Esq. 

CAVTOB LEOTUBBS. 

The Third Course of Cantor Lectures for 
the present session is ** On Wines; their Pro- 
duction. Treatment, and Use." by J. L. W. 
THUDiGHUif. Esq?. M.D. The Course consists 
of six lectures, the second of which will be given 
on Monday evening, the 28th of April, the remain- 
ing four on the Monday evenings succeeding. 

Lbcturb II. 

The varieties of wines produced at Jereis — ^mostos. 
aBadas, fires, palos-oortados. amontillados. rayas. 
bastos. &c. Physical and chemical/ observations on 
the causes of these different results. Brandling, plaster- 
ing:, sulphuring, mixing, and counterfeitmg of Jeres 
wines. Neglect of scientific gnidnnce in vinification 
diminishes the certainty and success of otherwise highly- 
developed viticultnral and commercial operations. Other 
Spanisn vineyards and wines. 

Lbgtubb m. 

Description of the vineyards of the Alto Douro, from 
personal observation of the lecturer. Contrast of geo- 
lOKical position of these vineyards to those of Jerez. 
Varieties of vines ctdtivated ; all medium-sixed grapes; 
whereas the Jeres grapes are all large-sized. In- 
digenous vines, as studied by the lecturer in the pro- 
vince Entre Douro e Minho. Viticulture in the Alto 
Douro. The vintage and wine-making. 

Lbctubb IV. 

The varieties of wines produced in the Alto Douro ; 
how treated at Oporto. Lodges. Brandy. Legend of 
elderberry. Unbrandied and dry natund Alto Douro 
wines. Jl'eglect of scientific guidance here also, but 
processes more simple, and varieties of results not so 
great as at Jerez. Description of other Portuguese 
vineyards — the Beiras, Valley of the Tag^. Bnoellas. 
Fable of the transplanted Rhenish grapes. Collares. 
Torres Vedras. Generil remarks on the nature and 
difiioulties of Portuguese viticulture and vinification, all 
based upon personal observation of the lecturer. 

Lecture V. 

The wines of France compared to those of Spain and 
Portup^al. The Gironde. its vineyards, wines, and 
varieties of wines. The Bourgogne and its productions. 
Belgian appreciation, and sweetness of Burgundy wine. 
The wine reauires the proc6d6. The Champagne; 
peculiarities of viticulture. Chemical treatment of 
effervescent wine to ensure its soundness. Absurd 
notion of some writers on champagne ; of the same on 
second wines and sugar- water wines ; exposure of the 
sycophancy. 

Lecture VI. 

The wines of Germany; Riessling a type of bon- 
queited wines. Classification of me wines of the 

•A meetiaf spedaUy appointed, as His EzoeUenoj is lesTin* 
jfiDglana. 



world, as determined by quality. qTiantity, nhe n 
market of highest and lowest qaxliti(«. Acti** 
^redients of wine. Uf>e of rhemicaluialjfiB. €» o(i 
to the healthy, whether old or yoong; vibp, a 
which condition preferable to aU other alcobdic bn 
Wine should be a beverage, not a drain, u 
wine to the delicate and si^. Selection aod prin 
wine. Proposed modification of the impoit km 
adjust them to the climatic difficnltifs d fipa j 
Pmrtngal. 



Dn>iA coxxnm. 

A Conference Will be held this ereniDg [HI 
25th instant), at 8 o'clock, when a paperifl 
read by William Tatlea. Esq.. late CommiM 
of Patna. on ** The Rosary in Indii." ft 
DiOBT Wyatt. F.8.A.. will preside. 

On Friday evening, 9th May, a CoofereMi 
be held, when a paper will be read byGocnll 
Akthtjk Cotton, R.E.. on "The HirbaB* 
India." I 

Members are entitled to attend these Cosfcd 
free, and to admit two Mends to each of M 



KEBTIH08 FOB THE SVSVII0 IBt 

Mom. ...80CIBTT OF ABT8, 8. 0«DtorLwhm»^ 
obmn, **0n Wines; their ProdiietiaB,n«M| 

London Inatitiitioii, S. IhtofcMOT BmUi 

Botany." 
Stationers' Company, 7f . TsAaolsffed 

A. Bigg, ** The MsohlnciT used in Tjv^ 
BoTsl Oec^pbioia, 8^. Ospi. Bbrrird 

the PmbKblc £xistesoe of UnkawwsL 

ArtJtoc Cirde " 
Fhilosopbical Qub, S AbbusI Xeetifif . 
Actuaries,? Mr C Y. Bmjoa, 'Onfti 

Vators of the Limited and CootiiifCBt J 

Fropertj, osoaUy subsDitted to Aotuofl 

tisn.»' 
Medical, 8. 

TUB8....80CIET7 op ABTP, 8. Hi* - 

Fbpe Hennesey, ** Ok the BritUb 

Afiica." 
avil BmHoeers, 8. Mr. Willism FbK ** 

Bigi BailwaT." 
Zoological, I. Aonual Meeting. 
Bqral Institute, 3. Mr. Dsaaxeotte, 

Drama." 
Iron and SteellDstitate, S. (AtWilli^t 

J^eeting. 

Wan. ...80CIETT OF ABT8, 8 Mr. L P 
Condensed Milk Mannfisrtvre ** 
Qeologicsl, 8. 1 Pmf. Edwiud H 

Breodas and Boulder-beds ot 
• Btow, ** Geological Notes upon 

8. Prof. T. Ruprtt Jones, ** On ioo 
trsca. chiefly Cypridinidw, of the 
mations." 

Boyal Society of Literature, 4i. Anini 
Iron and Steel Institate, S. (At Willih 
London Institution, IS. Amiwai JUcCa 
Meeting. 

TH[UKi...Ba8t India Assodstion, 8. (At the 

BociBTT or Abts ) Mr. W. Tvjkr, * 
Onaraatee for JoitMe; or, *11» aflflt 
Whitehall.*' 

Boyal, 84. 

Antiqnaries, 8}. 

linncean, 8. SCr. J. B. Hi9waid.*'0B 

Cbemical, 8 1. Mr. J B. HsaasT; 

9. Dr. ft>r«>ngel, ** On a New Oasi of 
Boyal Society Onb, 9 
Iron aad Steel Inrtitiite, 11. (AtVUU^ 
Boyal Institution, S. Amraal McetOf • 

Fai Boyal Institntio&, 9. ft o fc s OT B9**'^| 

from Flint »• 
Architeotiirsl As80ciatioii,7i. OcMfsI] 
Geolofrists* Asssdation, 6w 
Philological. 8|. 
Archsdologirsl Institute. A, 
BoTsI United Serrioe Instltation. S. 
*' The Ansirian Anny " 

Bat BoyalInstitatfoB,8. Piutowr Odttaft *" 




JOURNAL OP TUE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 2, 1878. 433 



mm. OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Ko. 1,067. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, MAT 2, 1873. 






X? 



movK 



S BT THB COTIVCTL. 



TECmrOLOOICAL SZAXIHATIOVS. 

\fk Progiamine- of Examinations in the 
Vhology of some of the Arts and Manufactures 
wilt ooontiy is now ready, and may be had on 
mteiaD to the Seoretary. 
^mbjects selected iot 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 
^flM, and Carriage-building. Those desiring 
Candidates, should apply for the pro- 
f without delay, 
iftflowing Scholarships are offered by Her 
^1 Commissioners for the Exhibition of 

13- 

ifti tbiee persons who shall most distinguish 

in the Examinations of the present 

r^the sabjeots of Steel, Silk, and Carriages 

I7, Rfty Pounds each, upon the condi- 

in General Scott's letter, given below. 

Prizes are offered by the Society of 

itKh of the five subjects mentioned above : — 

I best candidate in Honours, £10. 

ibest candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 

ibostoandidate in the Elementary Grade, £5. 

Wnring special additional Prizes are 

S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 
Candidates in the Elementary €hrade, 

APWieof £Z 

Aftiwof 2 

U. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
ktes in the Elementary Grade, Carriage 

APriieof £3 

APriieof 3 

^ Wor^pful Company of Spectacle 

te the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 

^^vmced Grade and in the Elementary 

ly, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 

of £5 6 

«f 3 3 

'«f 2 2 

to announce the following con- 
lb Pkise Fund :— 

J 



The Worshipful Compan J of Fishmongen £52 10 

The Worshipful Company of Mercers.. 26 6 

The Worshipful Company of Drapers. . 21 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners.. 10 10 
The Worshipful Company of Salters 

(annual) 10 10 

The Worshipful Company of Cloth- 
workers ^ . . . . 10 10 

The Worsbipfol Company of Coacn and 

Coach Harness Makers 10 10 

Dr. Crace Calvert, F.R.S. (annual) .... 5 5 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart • 5 

R. L. Chance, Esq 5 6 

Robert Nicol, Esq 110 

The following letter has been addressed to 
Major Donnelly, a member of the Council, by 
Her Majesty's Commissioners for the Exhibition 
of 1861 :— 

Upper KendDgton-gore, London, W., 
10th April, 1873. 

SiB, — I am directed by the Committee of Management 
of her Majesty's Commissioners for the Exhibition of 
1851 to inform you that, with the view of encouraging 
persons to present themselves for the examinations in 
Technology, which have recently been established bv the 
Society of Arts, they have resolved to recommend the 
Commissioners to oner to grant three studentships, of 
fifty pounda each, to be awarded to the persons who shall 
distinguish themselves the most in the subjects of Steel, 
Silk, Bjad Carriages respectively at the examinations in the 
present year. These scholaruiips are to be awarded on 
condition that the recipients go for a year to some place 
of scientific instruction, such as the Eloyal School of 
Mines, the Roval College of S<^ience in Dublin, Owens 
College, Manchester, or the English. Scotch, or Irish 
Universities, or other school approved by her Majesty's 
Commissigners, or travel abroad for the purpose of im- 
proving themselves in their trades. 

If the persons who shall distinguish themselves the 
most in the several subjects shall decline to accept the 
scholarships on the foregoing conditions, then the Com- 
missioners wish that the scholiirships diould be offered 
in succession to the candidates next in order, provided 
that they have shown sufficient merit to entitle them- 
selves to such an award. 

I have the honour to be. Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

Henry Y. D. Scott, 

Major-General, Secretary. 
Hi^or Donnelly, R.E., South Keniington Mateom. 



PEOCEEDINOS OF THE SOCIETT- 



DEPUTATIOV TO THE DTTKE OF ABOTLL. 

The Society's Deputation to the Secretary of 
State for India on the subject of facilitating our 
Communication through India with Central Asia, 
was received by the Duke of Argyll, who was 
attended by Sir Louis Mallet, C.B., Member of 
the Council of India, at one o'clock on Friday last, 
at the Indian Office. The Deputation consisted of 
Major-General Eardley-Wilmot, B.A., F.B.S., 
Chairman of the Council ; Colonel Bourne, 
M.P. ; Dr. Boycott ; Andrew Cassels, Esq. ; 
Dr. A. Campbell; J. Cheetham, Esq.; G(eneral 
Clarke; Hon. Wilbraham Egerton, M.P. ; the 
Hon. D. E. ■ Fortescue, M.P.; W. S. Fitzwilli^ 
Esq. ; Colonel W. Gray, M.P. ; Dr. Hooker ' 



432 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, April 25. Oh. 




OBDIHABT XEETIHOS. 



Wednesday evexungs, at eight o*olook. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

April 29 (Tuesday Evening*).— " On the British 
Settlements in West AfrirH." By His Excellency 
Governor Pope Hxknbssy. C.M.O. 

Apkil 30. — " On the Condensed Milk Mannfactore." 
By L. P. Mbbriam, Esq. 

Mat 7. — ^*0n Iroprovemements in the Manufactore 
of Gun-cotton." By 8. J. Mackib, Esq., C.E. 

May 14. — *< ImproYements in Hifles." By Capt. 
O'Hba. 

May 21. — ** On Recent Processes for the Production 
of Gas for Illuminating Purposes." By Thomas Wills, 
Esq. 

CAVTOB LECTUBE8. 

The Third Course of Cantor Lectures for 
the present session is '*0n Wines; their Pro- 
duction, Treatment, and Use,*' by J. L. W. 
Thudighttm, Esq7, M.D. The Course consists 
of six lectures, the second of which will be given 
on Monday evening, the 28th of April, the remain- 
ing four on the Monday evenings succeeding. 

Lecture II. 

The varieties of wines produced at Jereis — ^mostos, 
a5adas, firos, palos-oortados, amontillados, ray as, 
bastos, &c. Physical and chemical/ observations on 
the causes of these different results. Brandying, plaster- 
ing:, sulphuring, mixing, and counterfeiting of Jeres 
wines. Neglect of scientific guidance in vinification 
diminishes the certainty and success of otherwise highly- 
developed viticultnral and commercial operations. Other 
Spanisa vineyards and wines. 

Lecture m. 

Description of the vineyards of the Alto Douro, from 
personal observation of the lecturer. Contrast of geo- 
lOKical position of these vineyards to those of Jerez. 
Yarieties of vines ctdtivated ; all medium-sized grapes ; 
whereas the Jeres grapes are all large-sized. In- 
digenous vines, as studied by the lecturer in the pro- 
vince Entre Douro e Minho. Viticulture in the Alto 
Douro. The vintage and wine-making. 

Lecture IY. 

The varieties of wines produced in the Alto Douro ; 
how treated at Oporto. Lodges. Brandy. Legend of 
elderberry. Unbrandied and dry natund Alto Douro 
wines. Neglect of scientific guidance here also, but 
processes more simple, and varieties of results not so 
great as at Jerez. Description of other Portuguese 
vineyards — the Beiras, YMlley of the Tagus, Bucellas. 
Fable of the transplanted Rhenish grapes. CoUares. 
Torres Yedras. Generril remarks on the nature and 
difficulties of Portuguese viticulture and vinification, all 
based upon personal observation of the lecturer. 

Lecture Y. 

The wines of France compared to those of Spain and 
Portugal. The Gironde, its vineyards, wines, and 
varieties of wines. The Bourgogne and its productions. 
Belgian appreciation, and sweetness of Burgundy wine. 
The wine reauires the proc6d^. The Champagne; 
peculiarities of viticulture. Chemical treatment of 
effervescent wine to ensure its soundness. Absurd 
notion of some writers on champagne ; of the same on 
second wines and sugar- water wines ; exposure of the 
sycophancy. 

Lecture YI. 

The wines of Germany; Riessliog a type of bon- 
quetted wines. Classification of me wines of the 

• A meetiaf iiMdaUj appointed, as His Esodlenoy is leaving 
jBaglana. 



world, as determined by quality. quiotity^THhiiBi 
mnrket of highest and lowert quhbtifit. Adin J 
gredients of wine. U»e of i bt-miciilhiiaiyBi. Cic ofwi 
to the healthy, whether old or yooDg; inv, ai 
which condition preferable to all other alcoholic )«)■ 
Wine should be a beverage, not a dram. Ua 
wine to the delicate and sick. SekcUos ladpnos 
wine. Proposed modification of the ioiportJBtiM^ 
adjust them to the climatic difficoUiei tABgua 
Portugal. 



IHDIA COnCTTES. 

A Conference will be held this eTeDiBg(M| 
25th instant), at 8 o'clock, when apaperwil 
read by William Tatleb, Esq., late ComiiiM 
of Patna, on ** The Eowy in India." frj 
DiOBY Wyatt, F.8.A., will preside. | 

On Friday evening, 9th May, a GoDfowii 
be held, when a paper will be read by 6aail( 
Akthtjk Cotton, K.E., on "The Hirbatt! 
India." I 

Members are entitled to attend thefleOoflAn 
free, and to admit two friends to each of fta 



KEBTIH08 FOB THE XI8U110 IBl 

Mom. ...society OF ABT8. 8. CmtorLwti wi fcf 
chum, ** On Wines ; thdr ProdiidiaB,bsM 
TJ«e" ^ ' 

London Instftntion, S. rrofeMor BMtkf, 
Botany." 

Stationers' Company, 71. Tedmokffol 1 
A. Bigg, *' The MaohlnaT nted ial^l 

Boval Oec^pbioiU, 8^. Ospl 8brtvd( 
the PrnbttMe Ezistenee of UakBcnmr 
ArcUc rarde " 

Fhilosophical Onh, « Aannal XeettB|r. 

AotnariM, 7 Mr. C Y. Bmtyon. 't'owj 
Vator* of the Limited and Oontiiiint 
Property, ocaaUy sahmitUd to Actianai 
ti©n.»* 

Medical, 8. 

Tuis. ...SOCIETY OP ABTff, 8. Hli _ 
Fbpe Hennewy, ** Oli the BritiA I 
AfHca." 

avil EofHneen. 8. Mr. William F^K *^ 
Bigi Boilway.** 

Zoolosical, I. Annual Meeting. 

InstitlIt^ 8. Mr. 
»$ 

Iron and Steellnatitate, 8. (AtWillai^l 
J^eeting. 




Wbd. ...SOCIETY OF ABTS, 8 Mr. L P. 

CondetiBed Milk Maniifiu*tm« " 
Geological, 8. 1 Prof. E4w«dB 

Breodan and Boulder-beda of 
. Stow, **Oeol<^ical Notes npoo 

8. Prof. T. Rupert Jone«, " On 

traca. chicdy Cypridiuidie, of the 

mations." 
Boyal SodKy of Literatore, 44. 
Iron and 3teel Institate, S. (At Wiltti]i 
London Infttitatian, IS. A ■*?*"■* Herta|> 

Meeting. 

TH[UKS...Bast India Anoriation. 8. (At tto Ej 

Booimr or Aars ) Mr. W. Tajkr. 

Ouaraatee for Justice; or, *Th« fiiv 

WhitehalL*' 
IU>7al,84. 
Antiqnanes, 84. 

LinniBan.8. Mr. J. B. Howard.*'OB< 
Cbccnical, 8 1. Mr. J. B. Humar;, 

8. Dr. Biwpngel. ••OnaNewOaMrfJ 

Boyal Society Clnb, S ,^ , 

Iron and 8teelln»tit«ta, 11. (AtWOU^l 
Boyal Institution, 2. AnnvalMcetaf. 

Fai Boyal Institntion, 9. Pl o fc ss ar B^iil'^| 

from Flint ** 
Aichitectond Afl«)ciatiaD,7i. OcMnll 
Oeolairiita* Aweec iati on, a 
Philolofrioal. 81. 
Arohieologif^al InatEtnte. 4. 
Boral United Service InstitotioB, t. 

*' The Ansfiian Anny.** 

Bit Boyal lasUtatfoB, 8. 




JOURNAL OP TUE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 2, 1878. 



433 



mmi OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Ko. 1,067. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, MAT 2, 1873. 






mOUICEMEFrS BT XHB COUVCTL. 



TECmrOLOGICAL SZAXIHATIOVS. 

fte ProgTamme ^ of Examinations in the 

piHlogy of some of the Arts and Manuf aotures 

i fltt ooimtry is now ready, and may be had on 

tffiai&aa to the Seoretary. 

llinbjects selected iot 1873 are Cotton, Paper, 

8In1, and Carriage-building. Those desiring 

Candidates, should apply for the pro- 

without delay. 

ftiOowing Scholarships are offered by Her 

• Commissioners for the Exhibition of 

ftiifi three persons who shall most distinguish 
in the Examinations of the present 

it the subjects of Steel, Silk, and Carriages 

Ij, Fifty Pounds each, upon the condi- 

in Qeneral Scott*s letter, given below. 

lliflowing Prizes are offered by the Society of 

imdk of the five subjects mentioned above : — 

beet candidate in Honours, £10. 
I best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 
tbestcandidate in theElementary Grade, £5. 

{oUowing special additional Prizes are 

S. Portal, Esq., to the Second and 
Wst Candidates in the Elementaiy €hrade, 

Vsnnfacture : — , 

APriwof £Z 

APriieof 3 

Wft K. Hooper, Esq., to the Second and Third 
fKhididates in the Elementary Ghrade, Carriage 

A Prise of £3 

APriaeof 2 

W ^ Worshipful Company of Spectacle 

m, to the Second-best Candidate in Honours, 

k Advsnoed Grade and in the Elementary 

it selectively, in the Manufacture of Steel : — 

^ffrnti £5 6 

*^of 3 3 

EWMof 2 2 

MmA beg to announce ^e following con- 
*i4i«»PkiaeFund:— 



The Worshipful Compan J of Fishmongen £52 10 

The Worshipful Company of Mercers.. 26 5 

The Worshipful Company of Drapers.. 21 

The Worshipful Company of Vintners.. 10 10 
The Worshipful Company of Salters 

(annual) 10 10 

The Worshipful Company of Cloth- 
workers ^ . . . . 10 10 

The Worshipfol Company of Coacn and 

Coach Harness Makers 10 10 

Dr. Crace Calvert, F.R.S. (annual) .... 5 5 

Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart 5 

B. L. Chance, Esq 5 6 

Robert Nicol, Esq 110 

The following letter has been addressed to 
Major Donnelly, a member of the Council, by 
Her Majesty's Commissioners for the Exhibition 
of 1861 :— 

Upper KmtiDgton-gore, London, W., 
10th April, 1873. 

Snt, — ^I am directed by the Committee of Management 
of her Majesty's Commissioners for the Exhibition of 
1851 to inform you that, with the view of encouraging 
persons to present themselves for the examinations in 
Technology, which have recently been established by the 
Society of Arts, they have resolved to recommend the 
Commissioners to oner to grant three studentships, of 
fifty pounds each, to be awarded to the persons who shall 
distinguish themselves the most in the subjects of Steel, 
Silk, wad Ceirrifu^ respectivelv at the examinations in the 
present year. These scholarships are to be awarded on 
condition that the recipients go for a year to some place 
of scientific instruction, such as the Royal School of 
Mines, the Roved College of S( ience in Dublin, Owens 
College, Manchester, or the English, Scotch, or Irish 
Universities, or other school approved by her Majesty's 
Commissioners, or travel abroad for the purpose of im- 
proving themselves in their trades. 

If the persons who shall distinRuish themselves the 
most in the several subjects shall decline to accept the 
BcholaiBhips on the foregoing conditions, then the Com- 
missioners wish that the scholarships should be offered 
in succession to the candidates next in order, provided 
that they have shown sufficient merit to entitle them- 
selves to such an award. 

I have the honour to be, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

Hbnbt Y. D. Scott, 

Major-General, Secretary. 
Hi^or Donnelly, R.E., South Kentlngton Mnteum. 



PEOCEEDINOS OF THE SOCIETY. 



DEPUTATIOV TO THE DTTKE OF ABGTLL. 

The Society's Deputation to the Secretary of 
State for India on the subject of facilitating our 
Communication through India with Central Asia, 
was received by the Duke of Argyll, who was 
attended by Sir Louis Mallet, C.B., Member of 
the Council of India, at one o'clock on Friday last, 
at the Indian Office. The Deputation consisted of 
Major-General Eardley-Wilmot, B.A., F.B.S., 
Chairman of the Council ; Colonel Bourne, 
M.P. ; Dr. Boycott ; Andrew Cassels, Esq. ; 
Dr. A. Campbell; J. Cheetham, Esq.; Ceneral 
Clarke; Hon. Wilbraham Egerton, M.P. ; the 
Hon. D. B. Fortescue, M.P. ; W. S. Pitzwill* 
Esq. ; Colonel W. Gray, M.P. ; Dr. Hooker 



434 



JOTTKNAL OF THE BOOIETY OP ARTS. May 2, 1878, 



F.R.8.; B. H. Hodgtson, Bfcq»; B. Lerita, Esq.; 
Edwin Lawrence, Esq. ; W. Maltland, Esq. ; Vice- 
Admiral Erasmus Oiinnftiiney, C*B., F.R.S. ; John 
Parsons, Esq. ; Robert BttwlinBOin, Esq., O.B. ; 
General Vaughali, €.B. ; Jadies Wliatman, Esq., 
M.P. ; with P. Le JJTeve Foster, Esq., Secretary of 
the Society ; mid Colonel K A. Hardy, Secretary 
to the India Committ^. Mr. Hyde Cltoke, Chair- 
man of the India Committee^ wm prov^nted from 
attending by another ongagemebt. 

General Sardley-Wilmot presented the memorial and 
Introduced the deputation. 

Xr. Caiieli said that many circulUBtaoces had do^- 
bioed of late to attract attetidon to ^oontiies iti C^ntitA 
Asia whif'h hiUierto had been little known, and it Mnned 
to the Socif'ty of Arts l^t a &Tonrable opportunity 
now preaented itself for eztendingthe trade of India and 
of England in that direction. Ufader his Grtwe's ad- 
ministration India had enjoyed pouw and prosperity, 
and that distrust of the policy of our Govemitoent 
which at one time existed in the minds of the people of 
neighboring native States had given place to a very dif- 
ferent feeling. The friendship of England Was thetefbre 
courted, and a more favourable opportunity tor entet- 
Sng into desirable commercial relations with Eastern 
Turkistan could not be hoped for. Eastern Turkistan Was 
stated, by recent travellers, to be a rich atad fertile 
country, inhabited by an industrious race. It possessed 
gold mines which had been worked from veiy remote 
times, and produced silk of good quality, and wool of 
the finest deSrription. It might also become an excel- 
lent market for our manufactures. Our railways already 
took us within 400 miles of Yaikand. The Society of 
Arts therefore asked his Grace to give his -considera- 
tion to a subject so fraught with importance to the 
trading community. It was a mistake to suppose, as had 
been said at a recent meeting, that English merchants 
might not be enterprising enough to avail themselves of 
the chance of finding new maricets in Central Asia. 
English merchants would go wherever there was an ^ 
openfng, but they must know beforehand what treat- 
ment they might expect to receive. This openings would 
be a very important one, for Eastern Turkistan might 
be called a commercial thoronghfttre between the central 
countries of Eastern and Western Asia, and through 
that country it might be practicable to extend our trade 
into the western provinces of the Chinese Empire. 

Mr. Brian Hodgson had long resided at Katmandoo, 
the capitnl of Nepaul. and though it was now more than 
thirty yoHrs ago, still there was no change whatever as 
to the policy of that state in their absolute exclusion of 
British subjects from their territory. They were per- 
fectly free to pass into part of our dominions, but their 
frontier was absolutely sealed against us. As the objec- 
tion on the part of the Chinese Government had been 
hold up as a justification of this exclusion, and as he 
believed this to be a mere pretext, he thou^ilt impcrt- 
ant that we should, at any rate^ enlist the Chinese 
Government on our side, as, there was little doubt, could 
easily be done. There was an interesting and t^tn&tk- 
able piece of infbnmation ki the laHt "B4i)iburgh 
Beview," which possibly his Ghace might ha¥s seen, tlnit 
a Russian exploring pii^ty had left Pekin early in 1872, 
with paanports and recommendatory letters from the 
Chhfteee Government, for the purpose of traVellJA^lfayottgh 
Han^olia to Thibel, and thence across the HimalB^ 
into British India. 



all parties, had it only been able to pass our frontitr ii 
that direction. 



Df. Campbell, as a long resident in Ni . 
jeeling, could testify to the truth and urgmeyrftts 
suggestions subndtted for endearouringr to break tkni^k 
the policy of^exclusion trom Nepaul, and for in^^iiHt 



railway to Daxjeeling. We had done everytbiv fer | 
Nepaul; the little that state had done for us it thettM ! 
the mutiny had been amply and handsodiely levuMlf i 
the grant of a large strip of territory, but still wMiJ 
rigi£y excluded from entering or traventng tk arji^ , 
nion at any point. There existed fine tracts, i^g 
for tea plaatations, and desirable spots for ssBituKlV 
the intervening line of the Nepaol frontier ibnhfe^. 
barred access thereto. 

CMeTil OUurkfe entirely oonflnned Dr. QMfURl 
stalements, and ventured to hope that the prwat Ml 
of things would not be pemitted to continue. 

Xr. Xaitland was chiefly interested in ^^fg^ 
a market for out tea, a Uiatlef of gMit m m i^ ^ 
creasing importance to India. It appssifd J wWj; 
that our trade could and would be htf^T *"? **!¥ 
fi6isJly de^^^ped by the adoption of swhs •» *ft 
suret afc w^rs sagi^ested in tho aenotisl vttklv 
been submitted to his Grace. 

After a further brief conveisation— 

Tha Bake of Argyll said it appeared that ftj** 

points to which the Society wished more partsjwg§ 

direct his notice wete the eSlabMfthing uaiiiii*«€ilj| 

course on the footing of the most isvtHiied sslii* 

people, with Eastern Turkistan, through it« ptma^ 

the Atalik Ghasee, and the facilittting o«f 

a^d right of passage thtDugh NepatA and TMIA 

regards the first pomt, he whs happy to say that *^ 

received from Lord Northbrook a very salii 

account of his reception of an etnbassv nonr^ 

Gha^e^ and of his Snttentlon to orgMswe Imort* 

return mission to Tarkistm. The missHm wotM 

on the best routes, and collect all neccseary jnftg 

on the subject ; and this report on fhefr rtt«»^ 

he hoped and believed, bo followed by inp^ 

bene6oial results. Appt^ensions bad been 

as to the personal safety of the officers coini 

mission, but Lord NoHhbrook had been latfid 

embassy on this point; and it seetnod the Atllikt 

had established his power so seeurely as to bsi 

ensure as much safety to travellers in his cor"" 

our Indian tBtrih)ries. Helhoujitht,HM«efcrs,l 

point the deputation could lurdlv desire or 

tiling more at present. As regarded the oj 

munications through Nepaul, he could not 

foctory information, as he was not aware < ^^ 

as to oure)cd«8ion frotn the KepMil tiUiM^ 

considering our long intimate relations, and IM 

done foV that State, he muat say. he agrofd ftf^ 

was a footing we could certainly not resiaii 

with. He would say he agreed. toA, with As 

in flavour of the railway to Dasjeeling, wbiekv 

Campbell, he believed, well knew, had not "•'^ 

first time been iMiessed on his notiee. By m»J 

official reports the Indian Government had s] 

it, and it was likelv soon to be taken in hand. 

Lord Northbrook attached their fhll lmpOrtaBe*to 

these questions, afiid had thehi under his innn*^*^, 

sld«f«€Mn ; and for hii own paHi, ho oocdd myumi 

woald net foil to keep then in view. 

QMeral SHrdlty-Wilnot, on behalf of the 

thanked his Grace for the kind attention with 
had received the statemehts tn sa|>p«art of Ihi 
and the depntatbn withdrew. 



Dr. Hooker was able to ro&dtL for the readiness 
of the people, wh«n he was in those pa^ to buy tea, 
and he knew well how very much more our Indian tea . - - 
4ttide wonM have been deveUpod, to the gfttat bemeitxjf Qraoe— 



^ jd is the memoiial mcL a ptoVm^ 



JOURNAL OF THE BOOIETY OP ARTS, Mat 2, 1873. 



435 



Ed fivQufli m Ditxk op Arotll, K.T., Sbcbi- 
tua m Srin ro& Ixdu in Council. 




^th$ S^eisUf for th$ Enoamragtiunt of 
jMi Mm^turm, •nd Oommerei, 

; fci«ire,~That the Oouqcil of this Society have, 
li Bfiinl oocutonsy had under public diacuasion the 
Mfan^of exteadiajr the trade with Central Asia 
Ifatbi North- West Provinces of India to Turkistan, 
\inm \kt EUstem Provincea of Bengal viA Nepaul 
' Thibet They be§^ to call the attention of your 
to tba foUowing pointSy the preaent time appear- 
b» peeoUarly favoorable for taking action in con- 
Jk0fevith:~ 
^Ibinportence of procoring incrMsed focilitiea 
'ibaCveen India and Yarkond by the improve- 
[nadi, bridge*, and ahelter plaoea. 
^Bikiportanoe of obtaining a commercial treaty, 

£~lf iNdog of the most favoured nation and people, 
te pnaeat ruler of E^hgar, Atalik Ghazee 

]%1bt m in dtematxre to the at present difficult 
[voote, consideration be given to the route by the 
lT)U«y, in the hope that the effbrto of the Indian 
iDay seoare it as a oommarcial route in 
uder protection. 
— it i« essential the Indian Gk>v«rafflent shall 
hMij flfi>rt to obtain from Nepaol, free passage for 
itoiad goods to the Thibetan frontier, in retam 
JUKI ttul free acceas enjoyed by Nepaul to our 

fib desirable to obtain better access on the 
»a Thibet, where obstructions are raised on 
I the Chinese authorities object to the trade. 

k^tth the view to promote the traffic by the 

Ha tht complelioQ of the Cttloutta and Dar- 
[Uiny, so long approved by ihe GK>verament, 

»emMi into offeol without delay. 

' eiorts be mtde to obtain the removal of all 
to trade with Thibet through Bootaa from 
tksg»l and AssaiB. 

toart be establiahed on the Sikkim frontier, 
umple of Kiachti on the Euaso-Chinese 

a application ahould be made by her Ma- 

at Pekin to the Chinese Government, to 

ictions, and to g^nt full permission to 

Ftba frootiar of Thibet 

eooaakr ai^noies be established with the 

ities at T<hanw the capital of Thibet, and 

next principal city, and generally wherever 

can be advantageously employed for the 

Lflf commerce. 

aemori^liata therefore pray that your Grace 

tfti foregoing statements into your considera- 

bi i^Msed to adopt such means as to vour 

fit for attining the objects aforesaid. 
3mI your memorialists will evnr pray, &c. 
■ *ilh the seal of the said Society, /f^ 
Mth day of AprU, 1873, in the y:y 
of 
P. LB NEVE FOSTEEt, Seoretary. 

;op HBAmjKiB SuooBSTiD FOB Faoxu* 
ova TaaoB wfth Cbxtbal Asu. By B. H* 
Ebo., Hbsidbnt at Katumakpoo vbom 
w 1S13. 

, (hi Sacntary ol State for India move her 

•Mkiftarato inairactthe British Ambaaaador 

IfttWejRiQl that we have 1,500 mil«« of com- 

with the Empire of China along the 

^,ft4 wa deaire to cultivate a friendly and 

VtocoooQie with Thibet along that line ; that 

^ol the Eovperor is pleaded by the little 

Mil d^ Am Himalayaa and by th« Thibetan 

Bhirof iQ^intercowrae; that Uie Emperor 

^futta end to thai plea, and to permit a 






free and nnobatmcted intoroourae with Thibet through 
native agency, if European agency be objected to ; that 
auch an intercoiirae haa long existed through Nepaul by 
means of Kepaulese and Cashmeery agency ; and that we 
desire our subjects to participate in that trade without 
obstruction from the government of Nepaul, such as ia 
now made more or less overtly under cover of the Em- 
peror's disapproval; that what is urged against it in 
the address of the Lhassa authorities to the Emperor in 
the year 186S, is unfounded in reference to the religious 
scruples of the Lamas, who seem not to be aware that 
the British Government ia distinguished for its protec- 
tion of the worka and monuments of that creed; and 
that the hostility alleged by the Lamas is the result of 
the monopoly they have got into their hands in con- 
junction with the Chinese at Lhassa, to the detriment of 
the people of Thibet, and to the discredit of the Em- 
peror of China. 

2. That the Secretary of State for India be solicited 
to request the Governor- General of India to call for all 
the records relative to the trade with Thibet, and to in- 
struct his local functionaries adjacent to Thibet to report 
on those records, with reference to the present state of 
things in Nepaul, Sikkim, and Bhuten. That the Go- 
vernor-General be further requested to instruct his 
Resident at KathmaHdoo to point out to the government 
of Nepaul his wish and expectation that that government 
should meet in a friendly spirit his desire to promote 
an active trade with Thibet, such as all the circumstances 
of the present time seem to predicate the success of, in 
such manner as shall seem best to the Durbar and to the 
Resident, after friendly discussion of the matter; pointed 
reference being made by the Resident to the extent of 
the trade before the Goorka conquest. 

3. That the Governor-General be also .requested to 
call for the opinion of the Superintendent of Darjeehng, 
as to the advisable'ness of establishing a trading mart on 
the Thibet frontier, and with reference to the apparently 
assured success of such a mart, to expedite the contem- 
plated railway and road ; and that the carrying out of 
snch frontier mart and such improved means of utilising 
it, should have the Governor-General's best support in 
co-operation with the merchants of Calcutta, in the 
manner and to the degree that may seem fit, facilitating 
to merchants, European or native, the first step of the 
undertaking, and this, as well directly in reUtion to 
Sikkim, as indirectly in relation to Nepaul, through the 
Resident there. 

4- That the Secretary of State for India be pleaaed to 
auggest to the Governor-General of India the feasibility* 
and propriety of opening a direct communication with 
the Dulai, or Teshoo Lama, or both ; it being doubtful 
whether the teal aentimenta of the people ever have 
been, or now can be, truthfully known tlm>tigh Chinese 
or Nepaulese channels. 

B. — Mbmorandux, bt Robbbt B. Shaw, Eso. 

1. There is an immense population in the north of 
the Himalayas, whose requiremente are precisely those 
which we can supply — piece goods of all kinds, chiefly 
cotton, but also woollen and mixed fabrics, and tea, 
which is a necessary of life with them, from our Indian 
plantetions. 

2. That Russia has already secured access for her aub- 
jecta by a commercial treaty ; although Rusaian fabrics 
will be burdened by 20 per cent, higher ooat of transpo^ 
than would English gocnla. 

3. That> a aeries of measures, resulting in the abolition 
of all transit duty by the Maharajah of Cashmere, in re- 
turn for the remission by the government of India of 
Customs duties on idl goods passing through India to 
Cashmere, and other advantages, the expenditure of con- 
siderable aums on the improvement of the roada through 
the Britiah hill diatriots, and on bridging the rivers 
<m the Ladak route, valuable and excellent meaaures 
will and must fail of the full eiVdot for which they ^' 



/ 



436 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 2, 187S. 



izuugnrated — ^the opening to British trade of the market 
of Easiem Turldstan. 

4. That the present moment is exceedingly favourable 
for the accomplishment of this purpose, the isolating 
Chinese dominion having come to an e^d in that region, 
and a strong and friendly kingdom being now estkblished 
nnder the role of the Atalik Ghazee Yakoob Beg, who 
has been recognised by the neighbouring Powers, and 
who is very &voarable to commerce and industry, 
aspecially to trade with British India. 

6. That a trade so mutually beneficial, and so politi- 
cally advantageous, cannot be embarked upon with 
Central Asia without some security for immunity from 
vexatious interferences, for protection from excluding 
differential duties, and for fair-play. 

6. That efforts should therefore be made as soon as 
possible, to secure for our industry this valuable market, 
by entering into arrangements with the Atalik Ghazee, 
whereby proper securities and facilities for British trade 
in his dominions may be obtained, provision for the due 
consideration of complnints and grievances be secured, 
and an engagement entered into that no duties beyond 
those imposed on the most favoured nation or creed be 
levied on British goods. 

0. — Mbmorandum, by Colon'el Qawlbr, Keeper of 
THE Reoalia, lately Commaxdino Sikkim Field 
Force; and by Dr. Archibald Campbell, late 
Superintendent op Darjeelino. 

The State of Sikkim affords special facilities for open- 
ing commercial relations with Thibet, Central Ada, and 
Western China. 

1. Because there has always existed among one section 
of tiie people a very friendly disposition towards the 
British Government ; and among the remainder, or 
ruling portion, there exists towards us a real respect of 
a very wholesome nature, owing to the success of the 
expedition of 1861, and to the ex-)mplary behaviour of 
the troops (as testified by the British Envoy), which left 
on their minds no feelings of apprehension, irritation, or 
resentment. 

2. Because it is the shortest and most direct route to 
Lhassa from British territory, and there is already a road 
from Darjeeling to the Thibet frontier, practicable for 
pack animals, and a pass (the Chola) 14,900 feet high, 
open nearly all the year round, and free from snow for 
SIX months in the year; and by a branch extension of the 
East Indian Railway to the foot of the Darjeeling hills, 
the transport of English and Indian goods intended for 
Thibet, as well as our Darjeeling tea trade would be 
greatly facilittited. 

3. Because the treaty of 1861 between the British 
Government and Sikkim establishes free trade between 
the subjects of the two Governments, free permission for 
the British Government to survey the country, and to 
make or improve roads in it, which Uie Sikkim Govern- 
ment are to keep in order if made. 

4. Because of the intimate connections between Sikkim 
and Thibet, as follow : — 

The head of the Sikkim religion (Budhism) is in 
Thibet; the Sikkim Rajah's mother is a Thibetean; 

many of the Sikkim officials are Thibeteans ; the Sikkim « * . , 

Rajah receives a salary from Thibet ; and, together with . to the succinct and aocurate geographical 
the Sikkim officials, spends most of his time in Thibet tion of the four settlements which aF 
at Choombi. 



itmsotV 
eueaSp 



lOBoB 



SXTBAOBDIHABT XESniQ. 

On Tuesday, April 29th, 1873, an extrsordiiMf 
meeting of the Society was held. Sir BovLia[ 
Blbnnerhassett, M.P., in the chair. 

The Paper read was : — 

ON THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS II 
WESTERN AFRICA. 

By His Exoelleney Govamor Pope HeiAeiiy, CXI, 

The British Settlements in Westcsn Afnei m 
well deservine of public attention. OHmHi^ 

i'esty's tropical possessions they aretheneiniit 
Surope. Of the gold -producing countries d || 
world they are also nearest to Europe. Tbi^i 
remarkable facilities for the collection 
transit to England of raw materials 
our manufactures, but which cannot bepndHif 
in this teynperate climate. j 

Their total commercial movement is n{tt%t 
creasing. It now exceeds, in annoal id| 
£2,500,000; that is, it is greater than tk i 
gate commercial movement of sudi flc 
colonies as Tasmania (£1,518,725), and 
AustraHa (£397,299), together with >H; 
of the smaller West Indian Islands, 
the West African settlements bring us into* 
contact with one of the most numeroosatl 
teresting divisions of mankind, a race u 
of development, and with as great a ' 
it, as any race upon the face of the gbbe. 
yet, with all this, there is no part of the ^ 
Colonial Empire of whicli so little is ^ 
England. 

In their origin, and in some of the obji 
which they have been maintained, they *" 
all other British colonies. They were 
established to promote the slave trade. As 
material mecms by which the negroes were( 
and shipped across the Atlantic, they wem 
successnu. When Parliament resolved to 
the settlements were still maintained to 
destroy the traffic in slaves. Some m(»tkl 
had the satisfaction of reporting to her " 
Government that the oceanic slave tndi 
West Africa was completely at an end. 
these settlements have been alike 
carrying out two different, and, indeed, 
tory objects. 

Now that the oceanic slave trade fa*^ 
Africa is gone, the British settlements ani|p^ 
avowedly for two reasons — to promote fl^r* 
meroe with Africa, and to assist in civOii^l 
Africans. 

A glance at the map of Africa, and a 



5. On accoant of the close proximity to the Sikkim 
frontier (about three hours) of the Thibetean town of 
Choombi, which is a large market town, with bsusaars, 
and whence there is a good road to Lhassa. 

With the advantages, physical- and political, above 
enumerated, it is apprehended that there could be no 
great difficulty in establishing a consular agency at 
Choombi, to begin with, and eventaally in sending an 
envoy to Lhassa, so soon as our treaty with China has 
been patiently and thoroughly made known and dis- 
cuwed, and when the people of Thibet have become 
better aoqoamted with us. 



Mr. William Robinson's Colonial Office 
show how well situated they are for 
purposes. 

Sierra Leone is the most important of tbel 
possessions on the West Coast of Afrio^ 
colony consists of a peninsula terminating a' 
Sierra Leone, which is bounded on the n^rik 
river of the same name. The Cape lies *■ ?. 
N. lat., 13* 18* W. long. This colony ii « i^ 
length by 12 in breadth, with an area of ^X 
miles. Sierra Leone was ceded to Qtm* **[ 
in 1787, by the native chiefa. Four y«Ki •» 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. May 2, 1873. 



487 




wdfl selffter was granted to a company/ under 
ko ttm of *'The Sierra Leone Company.'' Li 
Mignmi was made to the company, by letters 
iM;of ibe peninsula, and a court of directors of 
Iloocq»uiy was empowered to appoint a governor 
Pil OMmcil, the former having power to enact 
m: this state of things lasted seven years, when 
JBOoIooy was tomsferred back to the Crown. 
lb 1S62 « country to the south, called Sherboro, 
IS handed over by trea^ to the colony. 
He Isles de Los, which lie about 70 miles to the 
A of Sierra Leone, are also included in the 
ihuBt The Quia country, a considerable 
iosfte mainland, which was taken in 1861, 
been ceded to the natives. 
500 miles to the north of Sierra Leone, 
ibia falls into the Atlantic Ocean by a 
/, which measures in some parts nearly 
across, but contracts to 10 mues between 
IMind and Capo St. Marv, and to little more 
hll Iv9 between Barra Pomt and the town of 
on St. Mary's Island. The advantage 
llwge river for carrying on trade with the 
ifa the interior of Africa was well known 
its upwards of 230 vears ago. 
a patent was granted by Queen Eliza- 
th nme merchants of Exeter to trade in this 
^Mi in 1618 a company was formed in this 
rfcrthe purpose of carrying on the trade ; 
was not successful, and another, 
[two years later, experienced a like want 

I, and subsequently till its abolition, it 

that the trade in slaves formed the staple 

of the company ; but the general com- 

between (ireat Britain and the Gkimbia 

■fter the abolition of the slave trade till 

[fc which year a new settlement was formed 

" of St. Mary's. Mac Carthy's Island, 

iimlesupthe river, has also been occu- 

■fcitiah territory. Near the mouth of the 

■"^ of land, one mile in width, called the 

and part of the district of Combo, 

[^^Oape St. Mary, are also included in the 

of the Ghimbia. 

tite coast of Africa to the south of Sierra 

\taa towards the east, it is usually divided 

iQnin Coast, the Ivory Coast, and the Gold 

The latter is a name generally given to a 

I of Upper Ghiinea, between 3° 30 W. long. 

[^ E. long., stretching along the Gulf of 

Jiom the River Assini, on the west to the 

on the east, between which points are 

nits of ApoUonia, Axim, Dix Cove, 

Chuma, Elmina, Capo Coast Castle, 

.Salt Pond, Apam, Accra, Christiahsborg, 

t>org, Winnebah, Pram Pram, and Add^. 

tbe African Company was instituted by 

f^riiament, with liberty to trade and to 

^•Wrtishments on the West Coast of Africa, 

jj*l W the parliamentary grant for the forts 

its on this coast averaged £13,500 

and was augmented in 1807 to £23,000 

• In 1821 the forts and settlements 

W previously vested in the African Com- 

[Jw transferred to the Crown ; and on the 

of Sir Charles McCarthy, at that 

lor of Sierra Leone, four forts only 

-riz., Cape Coast Castle, Anamaboe, 

Bttd Aocra. In 1827, in consequence of 



the heavy expenses incurred by the Government 
in the Ashantee war, which broke out in 1824, and 
the decline of commerce, the public establishments 
were. withdrawn from the coast. For several years 
the government was intrusted to Mr. Maclean and a 
eommittee of merchants. Mr. Meiclean's concilia- 
tory policy towards the natives, his recognition of 
native customs, and his scrupulous adherence to his 
engagements with the native chiefs, enabled him to 
avoid for fifteen years the petty wars that have 
since become so frequent. Owing to the recom- 
mendation of a committee of the House of Com- 
mons in 1842, the peaceful and prosperous adminis- 
tration of Mr. Maclean and the native chiefs was 
abandoned, and the Gold Coast was again plaoed 
under the direct control of the home government 
as a dependency of Sierra Leone. In 18d0 it was 
made a separate government, but in 1866 was again 
placed under Sierra Leone. 

Some years ago its territo^ was defined by a 
convention with the Dutch Government, which * 
came into effect on the 1st January, 1868. By this 
arrangement the British €k)vemment received in 
exchange for Dix Cove, Apollonia, Secondee, and 
Commendah (which became Netherlands property 
or dependencies), Dutch Accra, Ber-raco, Apam, 
Cormantyne, and Moree. Her Majesty's govern- 
ment also relinqiiished to the Dutch the protectorate 
over Eastern and Western Wassaw, Apollonia, and 
Denkera, in the interior. A line drawn idue north 
from the mouth of the Sweet Biver to the Ashantee 
frontier, with slight deviations, was the boundary 
Une. A diminution in the population under British 
protection and its area followed. Probably 200,000 
souls were then within the protected territory, and 
an average area of 4,500 square miles. 

The' interchange of territory in 1868 was not 
effected without some bloodshed, and, owing to 
this, it did not work well. The Dutch 'Govern- 
ment at length agreed to transfer to the British 
Crown the i^^ole of their possessions on the coast 
of Gxiinea. By the Boyal convention, sigiied at 
the Hague, in February, 1872, Her Majesty's Gold 
Coast Colony has been doubled in extent and popu- 
lation. The new territory, extending from the 
Sweet River to the west of ApoUonia, includes 
the best landing-places and the richest gold dis- 
tricts in Guinea. It also contains the finest forts 
and castles. The castle of St. George d'Elmina 
was built by the first Portuguese governor, Diego 
D'Azambya, in the fifteenth century. It was cap- 
tured by the Dutch, in 1637. Though it is a very 
recent addition to Her Majesty's colonial empire, 
yet, as it has been constantly occupied by Eu- 
ropeans since 1481, Elmina can now claim to be 
the oldest colony (excluding those in the Medi- 
terranean) under the British Crown. During the 
235 yeais of Dutch rule there were 104 Governors. 
The famous Admiral De Euyter won several battles 
on this coast, and the actual transfer was effected 
when Governor Ferguson, the last representative 
of the King of Holland at Elmina, handed to me, 
on the 6th April, 1872, in the presence of the na- 
tive chiefs and people, the ancient gold and ivory 
baton of De Ruyter, which was supposed to be the 
symbol of Dutch sovereignty in Gkimea. 

The native tribes, for wiree hundred miles aloi^ 
the ix)a8t, and from sixty to eightv miles inland, 
live in what is called the British Protectors* 
The Ashantees occupy their northern frontier 
the kingdom of DcJiomey their eastern frc 



L ._ 



438 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 2, 1873. 



The actual Britisli territory consists only of the 
forts we hold upon the coast. The €k)ld Ck>ast 
Protectorate is an anomalous and somewhat un- 
fortunate jurisdiction, the history of which wa^ 
laid before Parliament, in 1865, by GK)y6mor Sir 
Henry Ord. 

At the beginning of the last century the Ashan- 
tees, coming from the interior, attacked and sub- 
dued some of the more powerful of the tribes who 
now form the northern part of the Protectorate. 
Moving steadily onwards, about 1760 they had 
extended their conquests so far south as to excite 
some apprehension in the minds of the European 
setters on the coast, and in 1800 had forcibly sub- 
dued the whole country, from the sea-board of 
the Assinee river, in the west, to the mouth of 
the Volta in the east, excepting only a small 
crescent, embracing the Fantees and a few other 
small tribes situated immediately in rear of the 
settiements. 

In 1807 the Ashantees were masters of the whole 
country, and had even attacked and taken one of 
the European settlements. With the British they 
came once into collision, but were repulsed, and 
their further aggressions were averted by an en- 
gagement on the part of the authorities not to 
asost the Fantees. During the next few years, so 
bitter was the yoke imposed on the conquered 
nations, that several of them combined and revolted 
against it, but without success. The Ashantees not 
only maintained their hold over the country, but 
even threatened Cape Coast, the safety of which was 
only purchased by very sweeping concesaons. This 
state of things lasted until 1817, when it was 
thought by the autborifies at Cape Coast advisable 
to attempt to negotiate with the Ashantees, 
wiih the view of establishing peace on a secure 
footing, and promoting the prosecution of lawful 
trade. 

The result of this mission was the conclusion of 
a treaty, by which the Fantees, who were now re- 
dticed to the position of tributaries of Ashantee, 
were placed under a sort of protectorate of the 
Britisn, it being stipulated that the king should 
not engage in hostilities against them, even in case 
of their aggression, without previous reference to 
the Governor of Cape Coast. This treaty did not 
produce the benefit which had been anticipated. 
The slave trade progressed, to the injury of legiti- 
mate commerce, and induced a general lawlessness 
and a disregard of life and property throughout 
the country. 

A fresh treaty was concluded with the Ashantees 
in 1819, whidi was disavowed by the local 
authorities ; and in 1822 the imperial government, 
having once more assumed the control of the forts 
and settlements, placed them under the jurisdic- 
tion of Sierra Leone, and sent out Sir Charles 
MacCarthy as €k)vemor-in-chief . 

Mr. Brodie Cruickshank, who was for a long 
time a member of the Governor's Council at Cape 
Coast Castle, gives a minute account, in his 
*' Eighteen Tears on the €k>ld Coast,'* of our long 
and unsatisfactory negotiations with the Ashan- 
tees, which preceded the arrival of Sir Charles 
MacCarthy. He sayi : — 



Ashantee evinces a calm and temponte uMrtunof] 
jast demands * * * more than ftU, his Mcndrtfudi 
his engagements — which would not allow him to: 
the uaturnl impulse of hia mind while be ke|ii]^ 
sion of the treaty — ^is a proof of an open, dimt • 
of dealing, which forms a lofty contrak to tht 
conduct of the governor and people.** Mr. 
asserts that we deliberately br>ke our tmUj 
ments, and. he adds, *' It is hamiliattn;^ to bei 
to make this admission, and to confess thtt I )m§i 
Ashnntee had greater regard for his written < 
than an English governor.'* 

Sir Charles MacCarthy, on his arrival, iotadi 
relations with the Ashantees in so unsatisii 
state that he appears to have felt that it raj 
cessary to declare war. The King of 
made overtures of peace, through the 
Governor of Elmina, but they were rejected. 
Charles MaoCarthy avowed his intention of i 
ing the Ashantee power. He advanced 
troops and natiye allies towards the fratfiB,] 
was defeated and slain in the important 
Essamacow, January, 1824. Cape Coast wmI 
invested, and, but for a panic amongit tki 
vaders, might have been captured. Lite itf 
year, the whole power of the settlement, lifcj 
from home, being brought to bear upon tki^j 
Ashantees retired to their own coimtiy. 

A general spirit of resistance to the 
now spread in every tribe, from the A&sinee I 
Volta, but several years elapsed before the < 
of the British authorities succeeded in 
matters on a satisfactory footing. In 1631,] 
ever, says Sir Henry Ord : — 

" The exertions of the able, energetic, and 
Maclenn, thrai governor of the aettlenMnts, 
warded ^th success. Convinced of the 
of expecting that peace could be maintainnl w 
the Fantoes and other tribes remained suKjcct 
exactions and oppressions of tht^ir former ralexSi i 
foreseeing at the same time the dangers which on 
suit if so large a body of natives, composed of (^ 
tribes and having different intereists and view*,' 
to carry on their (kffairs without the control ori 
of any superior power; believing, moreover, 
influence of such a superior and civilised potw^ 
help to work valuable reforms among the most I 
and lawless of them, he conceived the idss tf 
polling from the King of Ashantee an r< 
of their independence, and by the infloenos 
which interference on their behalf had obt<aai| 
of indui-iog them to band themselves togetlMrl 
guidance and control for protection against tki 
enemy. These important objects were at Ieo|!&i 
by the signing of a treaty, on the 27th of ApAj 
between the Governor, the Ashantees, and tk» r 
and other tribes, then in alliance with us ; *bA 
the next twelve years the results of this 
under the administration of Gk>vemor llarlctB, i 
tailed in the report of the Parliamentary Coat 
1842. There was exercised a very wboktooie 
over a coast not much less than ISO miles in exu 
to a considerHble distance inland, preventing witl 
range external slave trade, maintaining p** 
security, and exercising a useful though irregnltf j 
diction among the neighbouring tribes, and 
mitigating and in some cases extinguishing rame i 
most atrocious practices which had prevailed 
them nnchecked before." 



"The pemaal of these unvamiAed details fills the 
mind with a feeling of great diaappeintment at t^ on- , - - . -, ., 

worthy part which we appear to have aoled throughoat the oath of allegianoe. In dealing with to 
thcM events. The whole oonduot of the Kinir of dbief mMostrate of the Gold Coast sits ss J 



The inhabitants of the Protectoraie ars 
tish subjects. They are not called upas to ! 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 2, 1873. 



439 



iKtsor. o appointment whicli sprang out of an 
ift of nriitment of 1843, allowing the Crown 
■powvofoonf erring foreign jurisdiction. He 
Urirten the kw aooording to the native cus- 

idrcmnstances under which we are bound to 

tbe DfttiTM in the Protectovate are not 

defintd. In fact, the obligations of the 

are ill anderetood by both sides. Of 

|Mr9 oae important body of natiTes, the 

hsTe fonndd a confederatioB, and have 

the British aythorities either to ^ovem the 

like any other oolony, or to give them a 

tbe administration of their own affairs. 

IIMWDshle alternative is under the oonside- 

[<f Her Majesty's Ooyemment. 

lUSl, I^gos, which lies still further to the 

h tiie Bight of Benin, was ceded to the 

Gotcnunent by King Docemo. The 

of cesmxm guarantees to him a pension, of 

» jear, the right of dedding disputes 

twtifcs of Lagos with their consent, sub- 

tffeal to BritiBh law, and the right of 

title of King, in its African signification. 

consists of the island of Laffos, 

towns of Badagry, Pidma, and Ledde. 

fte Isad interposed between the lagoon 

ffti tea-beach, mr Henry Ord reported, in 

*^r%ki to avoid any complications arising 

' l|menoe of domestic slavery, it had not 

advisable to recognise it as British 

Mr. Cardwell gave instructions to this 

IW6, conceiving, very properly, that for 

' purposes no further extension of terri- 

fikeeessary, and that, indeed, any addition 

I Nttkment would probably involve the local 

in trouble. It is, therefore, evident 

tite River C^ambia to the Bight of Benin 

settlements practically command the 

of one of the most productive regions of 

^Whilst Lagos sharesto some extent in the 

Ifll the mouth and the lower waters of the 

ittrt rreat river can be traced northward 

to its source in the hills of Futa, 

shnost in sight of the colony of Sierra 

ftam the vast and fertile districts inclosed 

ifteNicer and the sea, we get gold, ivory, 

cm, palm kernels, ground nuts, beni 

batt^, pepper, ginger, gum. 

of the specimens of these articles 

fn. the table I am indebted to Messrs. 

Bro&ers. Their long-established and 

" Infirm has done incalculable benefit to 

I of Lagos by the successful efforts they 

from time to time to develop the re- 

^ interior. On the Gold Coast Mr. 

tHouse has also been indefatigable in in- 

coffee and cotton, and stimulating the 

of the natives. I mav here mention that 

Kennedy's admirable plan of sending 

'ttiasions to the interior was actively co- 

■ m \j Mr. Swanxy, who at his own cost 

' Ifr. Winwood Beade to Falaba — a 

y\o^ nroved to be alike interesting to 

and of practical utility to the trade of 

tttde a summary of the trade returns of 
J^ year for which they have been com- 
B ihowi at a glance the value of the com- 
ftiBritiih S^tlements. 



Btorta L«M«. ........ 

Gold Coast .. 

Onmbia 

ht^go§ 

Totals 



t 

a 



£ 

260,671 
10'i,0«4 
311,65:) 



1,050,237 



It 



£ 
4S7,r85 

2»M'*7 
153,10U 
589,802 

1.505,861 



1^ 



411 
343 

329 

278 



1,271 



it 

is 



SIS 
211 
875 



n 

fa 



110, 646 

131,553 

51,853 

125,778 



1,210 419,828 



h 



a m 
o * 



110,919 
U9,49i 

47 997 
125,168 



403,568 



BECAPirXTLATION. 



Ira|Mn*t6 
E^>orts 



£1,060,237 
1,605,864 



Total comroeroial movement £2,556,101 

Thus, over 1,200 vessels cleared and entered 
with cargoes exoeeding two millions and a half 
in value. 

miese are the actual results of the year 1871. 
Since then two changes have been made, the 
effects of which are becoming already manifest — 
namely, the addition of the Dutch possessions in 
Gukiea to the Briti^ Settlements, and the general 
revision of the tariffs, with a view of encouraging 
trade and shipping. Owing to these changes, I 
believe that the exports from her Majesty's West 
Afriean Settiements will exceed £2,000,000 in 
1873, and that the impprts will reach £1,500,000, 
whidi would give a total commercial movement of 
£3,500,000. 

The growth of the trade is seen by looking at 
the preoeding table ; for instance, in 1S61 the total 
value of imports and exports was 1,258,280, just 
half what it became ten years later — ^that is, 
£2,656,101 in 1871. 

We hear a good deal of the rapid improvement 
in Jamaica, yet there tiie total imports and eiq>orts 
in 1861 amounted to £2,304,096, and in the sub- 
sequent ten years ^ey had only increased to 
£2,527,716. 

To put it in another form — ^whilst the total com- 
mercial movements of Jamaica were, ten years ago, 
double that of the West African settlements, and 
they have both gone on increasing since then, the 
commerce of the latter has grown so raCpidly that 
it now exceeds the commerce of Jamaica. At this 
rate, many years will not pass before it outstrips 
the commerce of the Mauritius, the Cape of Good 
Hope, and Ceylon. But between the commerce of 
West Africa and that of such colonies there is an 
important distinction. Jamaica and the other 
settlements I have mentioned are producing 
colonies, whereas the settiements on the West Coast 
of Africa are merely our entrepots of trade with the 
interior. They collect commerce, but produce 
nothing themselves ; they hold, with respect to 
Africa, the same reli^on that the early settiements 
of the East India Company at Calcutta and Madras 
held, many years ago, to the then but little known 
interior of Hindostan. 

Can we push the comparison further ? Can we 
hope to see an African empire as rich and pros- 
perous, and contributing as largely to the com- 
mercial wealth of England, as Bar Majesty's 
empire in the East P "From what I have seen of 
the negro race, I believe such a result is possible ; 
but to accomplish it, great changes must be made 
in our system of dealing with the native chiefs and 
people. 

It will be remeiatoed that our settiemfnts are 



442 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 2, 1873. 



The total sum ooUected in 1871 was £172^97, as 
against £116,281 in 1866. 

The ratio of increase has been steack^ and satis- 
factory. In 1867 the reyenue rose to £128,320 ; in 
1868, to £130,660 ; in 1869, to £149,884 ; in 1870, to 
£159,830 ; and the revenue for 1871 exceedsthat of 
1870 bv £12,367. 

In uie year 1873, when the rerenue from the 
late Dutch possessions will be taken into 
account, and when the new tarifEs will be in full 
operation, I believe the total income of the settle- 
ments will exceed £200,000. 

The rapid increase of revenue from 1866 to 1871 
contrasts favourably with the corresponding period 
of ten years before. The following table, how- 
ever, does not include Lagos, as that settlement 
did not come under the colonial office until 1865. 

Total Rbvsnub of H.M. West African Ssttlbmbnts. 

1866 £66,893 

1867 66,810 

1868 68,633 

1869 64,918 

1860 66,836 

1861 61,968 

The revenue of each separate settlement, from 
1866 to 1871, was as follows :— 

Beybnub. 





1866. 


1867. 


1868. 


1869. 


1870. 

£ 
67,135 
30,851 
18,M69 
42,875 


1871. 

1 


8l6m LeoM... 


63,263 
ll»^0ft3 
19,079 
23,833 

116,218 


£ 
64,871 
10,839 
22,415 
30,195 


£ 
69,272 
15,404 
22,088 
33,896 

130,660 


£ 
69,617 
24,127 
15,518 
40,622 

149,884 


t 
80,486 
28,609 
17,490 
45,612 


Gold CoMt 


Gambia .............. 


r 

Yotol revenue) 
of H.M. Wertf 
AMcaa Settle- f 
nrats ............... } 


128,320 


169,830 


272,197 



The expenditure has generally been kept well 
within the revenue, as may be seen from the fol- 
lowing figures : — 

EXPENDITUBB. 





1866. 


1867. 


1868. 


1869. 


1870. 


1871. 


stem Leone......... 


£ 
60,532 
11.589 
17,681 
23,602 


£ 
70,984 
10,993 
18,664 
30,195 


£ 
55,694 
11,651 

i7,oaa 

33,711 


£ 
70,466 
18,836 
20,236 
39,431 


£ 
68,033 
35,609 
21,937 
42,379 


£ 
76,130 
29,094 
16,662 
45,611 


Gold Coast 


Gambia 

1 t>y0e tnm .....M.!..... 


Total 


113,411 


130,836 


118,138 


148,968 


167,958 


167,497 





Sir Henry Ord pointed out to the Committee of 
1866 i^at the military expenditure, which then 
amoimted to a charge of £127,897 on the Imperial 
Exchequer, could be considerablv reduced, and 
when Uie Govemment-in-Chief of the four set- 
tlements was concentrated at Sierra Leone, and 
local forces substituted for some of the West 
Indian detachments. This policy has been steadily 
pursued, and with such success that, though the 
trade with the United Kingdom has considerably 
increased, the military expenditure chargeable to 
the United Kingdom has fallen to one-fourth of 
what it was in 1865. In 1871 it amounted only 
to £29,331. This sum is divided between Sierra 
Leono and the Gold Coast. 

C\t^\n^^^ .^r**. eettlementa—Lagos and the 
Gambia-provide for their own dSe. In 1863 



Governor Freeman purchased 400 stmd of 
for a force he was raising from a wideh-4 
Mahommedan tribe, the Houssas. In J^f , 
he reported that he could maiutsm 190 
Houssas at an annual cost of £1,269. Belon 
death, which occurred soon after, he 
the substitution of his Houssas for Imperiil 
and this was accomplished under Sir Ailiar 
nedy's instructions, in 1869. An armed 
force has also been substituted for the ~ 
troops at the Chunbia. 

The experiment was tried in May Isst, of 
100 Houssas from Lagos to tiie Gold Coast 
have been doing garrison work at Ehnint, 
are found to be, for the sort of duty r^qnini 
the Protectorate, more useful than the Wei 
troops. 

The onlv buildings of any strength and i 
tude in the West African settlemoitiaRof 
date, having been constructed either bjtbe 
guese or th^ Dutch. However, immedutdybfllA 
his departure, Sir Arthur Kennedy laid the ioS 
dation stone of a new wharf in Freetown HtriM 
on which £13,700 was spent in 1872, and 6 foi^ 
sum of £25,000 appropriated for its ooostncfl 
in the present year (1873). ^^ 

On the coast of Guinea the GovemmoiWflJ 
Depeutment obtained some fine forts aad oim| 
by the transfer of the Dutch settlemeoti. tt 
part of the extensive and well-preserved foria 
of St. George D*£lmina has alr^y been uti| 
as a government bonded warehouse. Anof* 
is occupied as a bcurack for the Houssaj. 
Palaver-hall is used as a court of justice, " 
wine of the castle overlooking the sea 
good suite of rooms, suitable for the Go? 
Chief when he visits the Gold Coast 

Immediately after the transfer, the 
Surveyor was instructed to begin two public 
one being a road from "Rlmina to Cape " 
distance of eight miles, the other the 
a sea-wall, which will facilitate the 
cargo at Elmina. The new road is now i 
when the bridge across the Sweet BiTer is 
it will be available for general traffic 

At Lagos a good deal of money was spa* 
the last few years in cutting the Offin Gwi 
owing to causes not foreseen when the wccb' 
undertaken, it has turned out to be tuek*' 
roads and streets are admirably laid oiit» 
on account of the sandy soil, they «» 
broken up in the rainy season. The i 
houses — especially those belonging to 
— are substantially built. There is not 
ever, a good government building in the 
ment, except the barrack, now used astheli 
The gaol u>oks like a collection of nati« 
surroimded by a mud wall. The public offi<^ 
the court-house are mere temporary makc^ 

When the revenues of Lagos admit of 
public work may perhaps be undertaken, 
would be of immense benefit to i}^^ con~ 
West Africa ; that is, a breakwater, on the 
of that constructed at Natal, for rendering 
deeper. Such a work, if successful, wooM 
Lagos the Liverpool of the Wwt C<»«t, ™ 
buudings of the (^imbia are far superior to ***j 
of the Cape Coast or at Lagos. 

It can now be truly said that one of the 
objects for which the British Settlement* 
maintained has been accomplished""*^ ^* 



tk*1 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, May % 1878. 



418 



if« toilii entirely gone. But though the slaye 
■cbiOBMi tile Atlantic is oxtmct, African slayery, 
A&OBttede, exists ; and it must be admitted 
illqf ibTO labour we owe our flourishing com- 
Int with Africa. The whole of the produce 
^^ ton Lagos is the result of slave labour, 
•■me most be said of the Gold Coast and of 
i Gambia. With the exception of a little free 
DOT oopioyed in curing hides in Freetown, and 
r or two other trifling pursuits, the labour of 
Dtttic alaTes produces all the exports of Sierra 

M tlie produce, valued at £1,050,237, shipped 
^the British Settlements in Africa in 1871, not 
liiperiiaps, than one thousand pounds worth 
^ result of exclusively free labour. Of the 
^ oonoes of gold dust sent to England, 
linUT not one ounce was obtained by free labour. 
B» Euopean produce is carried from the coast 
pfte interior by slaves. In 1871 the value of 
inodnce so conveyed into Africa by slave labour 
pkTe exceeded £1,250,000. 
•not umikely that for some time to come the 
of qpr commerce with Africa will strengthen 
ilavery, instead of diminishing it, just as 
wterial progress of Russia imder Peter the 
intensmed the serf dobi of Eastern Europe in 
of the eighteenth century. In one 
diRAtches to LiOrd Clarendon, written in 
f^Ar. liviagstone says : — 

• a a sort of charm in the prospect of gradual 

'im. of the state of slavery by the steady advance 

and dvilisation ; yet aU experience proves the 

> to be delusive. It is in the patriarchal state alone 

rar]r is endurable. So long as that state con- 

ttee if Uttle disparity between master and man. 

Ittjojri the general indolence ; but, let society ad- 

Btifioial wants increase, and luxuries become 

the distance between owner and slave be- 

t]Mportionably widened. In fact, just as the love 

Moereloped in the master, the lot of the slave 

ttanpulsory, and for the sole profit of the master ; 

of owner and slave diverge, and this diver- 

with every advance in trade, civilisation, 

^ British settlements domestic slaves, of 
ue free ; but in the neighboiuing protec- 
they are to be found in every house. Thou- 
of domestic slaves are to be seen every day 
dfl^, coming and going on their owners' busi- 
It VCTv rarely happens that any of them sent 
with produce elect to remain there against 
■isters' wishes. 

iact, however, that runaways often leave 

territory, and ask their masters to take 

kscain into servitude, is some proof that there 

iTOe ^fferenoe between domestic slavery and 

«OGMtic slave trade. 

Education. 

Addition to the stopping of the oceanic slave 

onr West African settlements were esta- 

in tiidr present form with the avowed ob- 

iiot of territorial aggrandisement, but of 

the natives so as to render them capable 

govenunent. The views put forward in the 

on the 14th December, 1872, as tothehope- 

(rf forming a colonial empire with Euro- 

inals in this climate ace in accordance with 

^lilHuUuAis, and nivith the experience of the 



most intelligent persons I have met in my visits to 
the settlements. 

Every year that has elapsed since 18G5 \xs& served 
but stiU further to confirm the resolution of the 
Select Committee of the House of Commons, in 
saying — * 

" The object of our policy should be to encourage in 
the natives the exercise of those qualities which may 
render it possible for us more and more to transfer to 
them ^e a4mini8tration of all the governments, 
with a view to our ultimate withdrawal from all, except 
probably Sierra Leone. " 

But, though time has only shown the increased 
necessity of this policy, very little has been done in 
the last seven years to establish that on which alone 
a safe foundation of African home government can 
be built, that is, a comprehensive system of public 
instruction. 

Sir Arthur Kennedy, in his despatch. No. 1, of 
the 11th January, 1869, written at Sierra Leone, 
said — 

*' Education, as elsewhere on the coast, has been, and 
is, most inadequately provided for." 

In his official report for 1870, Mr. Popplestone, 
the late Director of Public Instruction, thus 
summed up his description of the state of educa- 
tion in Sierra Leone : — 

*' As may be inferred from this description of the state 
of education, and from the want of duly capacitated 
persons to train, moral duties are not inculcated during 
the school lessons. Apart from this decided want of 
instruction in practical morality, there is, it may safely 
be asserted, in the habits of listlessness and inanimation 
conspicuous among the younger section of the scholars, 
an indirect incentive to the formation of a thoughtless, 
idle, and indolent character." 

Mr. Popplestone's statements to me in 1872, 
my own inspection of some of the schools, and the 
experience I gained by conducting a competitive 
examination for clerkships in Sierra Leone, in 
which I examined yoimg men of various denomi- 
nations and ranks of life, together with the con- 
stant opportunities which the head of the execu- 
tive in a colony possesses of estimating the intel- 
lectual training of the community, all convince 
me that no real progress has been made, and that 
the system still continues to be "an incentive to the 
formation of a thoughtless, idle, and indolent cha- 
racter." 

Acting- Administrator Salmon informed me that, 
however defective he had observed the system of 
public instruction at Sierra Leone to bo, he foimd 
it still worse at Cape Coast; and the late acting- 
administrator of Lagos, Mr. Fowler, gave me a 
similar account of that setttlement. Last year the 
colonial chaplain of the Gambia thus described, in 
an official report, the state of education as he finds 
it in the government schools in that settlement : — 

*'The Government dchool has 100 pupils on the roll. 
Some attend only two days, some one day, out of the 
five days of tho week. Others show up once in threo 
weeks, or once a month. The parents or guardians 
generally employ tho children in selling goods in the 

market. 

"Thus we have the mortification to see, m several 
casep, the fruit of our labours nipped in the bud in this 
department. 

»* The children pass from our hands before any per- 
manent good is effected. Nothing, to my mind, will 
answer here but the compulBory system. 



L 



i4A 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OFABTS, Mat 2, 1878. 



" The Sunday school is attended by nearly all the 
school children, with a few others. The number ave- 
rages 60. 

*' I have also commenced a separate school for the 
poor heathen children. They are quite naked and des- 
titute, and belong to the tribe called Sereres. 

** The average number of attendance is from eight to 
twelve." 

It was, however, by the chiefs at Lagos and at 
Cape Coast that my attention was first drawn to 
the cause of this widespread educational failure. 

On my second visit to Lagos, King Docemo told 
me that his chiefs and principal people wished to 
get their children educated, but they were debarred 
Irom. doing so. Some years ago he had asked the 
administrator to aid him in getting his son taught 
English, and the boy was accordingly sent to 
school. But in a short time he had to withdraw 
the boy from school. King Docemo is not a 
Christian, and it appeeu^ that, in accordance with 
a custom of his reli^on, it was his practice, on the 
anniversary of the death of some relative, to pro- 
ceed with his family to the house where this rela- 
tive had been interred, and there go through certain 
prayers or ceremonies. His son, who had been sent 
to the English school, was warned by his teachers 
that this was all very sinful, and that he should 
assist in rooting out the heathen customs of his 
father. But neither the boy nor King Docemo 
would agree to this ; and as the teachers said their 
mission was to enlighten the natives in such matters 
especially, no agreement as to the education of the 
boy could be arrived at. 

All the chiefs and captains of companies at Capo 
Coast came to me with similar stories. They said 
they would nve anything for a good education. 
They grieved to see their children brought up 
within a few yards of the English forts without 
learning to read or write Engli^, or even to speak 
it. But in every English school their religion and 
customs were specially discouraged. They said that 
a few low caste natives, tempted by the emoluments 
of government clerkships and of catechists, would 
continue going to such schools, but they pointed 
to the flagrant hypocrisy and idleness that was 
thus created. 

Subsequently I had an interview, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Sierra Leone, with the kings and chiefs 
in treaty with the settlement. Bey Mauro, King 
of North Bullom, being deputed to address me by 
the others, said that it had reached their ears that 
I had written to the Queen's government suggest- 
ing a scheme of education where Mohammedans and 
otners not Christians could be educated. That 
this news had spread far and wide, and caused in- 
tense satisfaction. They were all most anxious 
that their children should learn English, but what 
could they do ? Of all the kings and chiefs then 
present not one could sign his name in English to 
the treaties they made with the Queen, though in 
their fathers and grandfathers* time there were the 
same schools at Sierra Leone as now. But their 
fathers would not send thetu to change their reli- 
gion, and they could not send their sons to the 
English schools for the same reason. Bey Inca, 
King of the Small Scarcies, said he had to send his 
son to Bisan, in the Portuguese settlements, to 
learn Arabic and Portuguese, and from thence he 
wa« about sending him to Senegal, to learn French 
and complete his Arabic. 

The native kings who thus spoke to me were 



as intelligent persons as any Europeans I hftdi 
on the coast. Bey Inca apologised for hsm 
speak througb an interpreter, explaining 
was no fault of his ; and he added his regret 
his son, whose book learning would be 
than his own, would be tmable to read d^ 
any European language except Fortugooe 
French, though the <£strict he would bi 
upon to govern was in such dose proxinitfl 
Sierra Leone. 

These statements account for the fact that v) 
the British Settlements exerdsQ a oertaiiL 
and commercial influence some hundreds of 
in the interior of Western Africa, their < 
influence in the interior is absolutely " nil" 
yet it is from the interior that the govemingj 
must be drawn. The liberated A^icans of 
Leone, though not bad people, are in 
intelligence, and bearing, very inferior to 
genuine specimens of the negro race hejoei 
settlement. 

It was only in the interior that I saw a 
tion exhibiting any real love for leaniDg. 
Kambia, a fine town, at the head of the nir 
part of the Great Scarcies, I found native i 
where negro boys and negro girls were 
read and write Ar&bic by negro teachers. 

I have here one of their timber school-! 
boards. This one (A) I ffot from a boy on 
of January last, at Kambia, who was seated, 
a dozen others, on the ground around a fin, 
half -past seven in the evening. They ill I 
similar boards, with written lessons, ' ' 
native teacher was explaining. Two other < 
groups of scholars were seated not larj 
The fire was kept up with small bundles of 
to enable the writing to be seen. The 
evening, in the courtyard of another hoose, 
this board I have marked ( B. ) It is the fint I 
book they use. It was given to me by a lit^^ 
between three and four years of age, wl 
then learning his alphabet. The letters 
board are large ; they only form one word 
millah '*— ** In the name of God." 

The two boards marked (C) I got from lit 
who were learning Arabic at six o'clodc 
morning. The large board marked (D) wi 
to me in another school. It contains a neatly-i 
biography of Mohammed. I believe I was 
European the negro children ever sav. 
negro teachers had no acquaintance with ' 
ropeans. All the children of that 
bering some thousands — attended ihese i 
and evening schools with great regulariij* 
school fees supported the teachers. 

The lower part of this ornamental writ 
I produce was over the inner doorway of a 
house. It was thus tiranslated for me by the i 
preter : — 

"The Almighty, there 13 no God but He-lhf 
the self-subftUting. Neither sluinher setaeth Un 
sleep. To liim belongs whatever is in the he»« 
whatever is on ih^ earth. Ki»ne cmd intercede* 
except by His permiMion. He knoweth all the 
ill thti future, and nought of Hia knonrledge 
ijrasp, except whut He pleaseth. His throofl 
oVft the heuveDS and thn earth, and the holilii 
dothnot burden Him. He is the Exalted— tht 

Such were the words I saw writtaa otw i j 
way in the house of a n^pro, in a pudyi 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 2, 1873. 



as 



from all the so-oalled benefits of | 

and enlightenment. On returning 

that Tery different sentiments are being 

the portals of European philosophy ; 

two, perhaps, the simplicity and faith of 

Si to be preferred to the proud intellect 

Inwy and dogmatic with us. 

iown of Billeh, not far from Eambia, 

■e teachers showed me his private library, 

fmore works on philosophy, jurlspru- 
history than I fear would be found in 
Ib libraries of all the schoolmasters in 

put together, 
dis^ct I received, for the first time in 
work composed by a negro teacher, 
Sheik Omar Al Hadji, of Dingawari Tin 
l), a town between Eaaibia and tne 
the same place I obtained a manuscript, 
« Arabic by a negro, containing his own 
IBS of the various places of the moon and 
IBerent times of the year. 
Hieee learned negroes did me the great 
f oomposing a poem in my praise, which 
1 to me as I was leaving Kambia. It is 
ift, as will be seen by inspecting it ; the 

Lof the pure negroes is characteristic and 
author's name is Ahlusani, the son of 
swalli. 

lustration of the fact that this love of 
h not altogether confined to the interior, 
Miion an interview I had at Sierra Leone 
■ro bom in the settlement, but who, being 
fr*^«***, had to go to Futa, about 250 miles 

r greater part of his education, 
a young man of slender means, he was 
of purchasing expensive books from 
Co., of London. He showed me his 
Saoy's ** Les Stances de Hariri,'* the 
in Arabic, with Professor Chenery's 
printed in London; Dr. Pfander's 
ff ,'* with Rahmat Allah's t^VJJ * ^^^ 
:, ' or ** Demonstration of the ^niith." 
wed me Dr. Frejrtag's *' Libri Arabici 
Imperatorum;" Dr. Ferdinand Wtisten- 
le of Mohammed," and other costly 
he had ordered from Europe. He pos- 
y works printed at Boulac and at Tunis, 
numerous manuscripts composed by his 
in the chief towns in the nor&em 
the Niger. 

he had a more cultivated mind 

observed in any of the youn^ men 

the Government school or the missionary 

had no acquaintance with Europeans. 

ed no aid or countenance from the 

system of Sierra Leone. 

aosence of anything like industrial edu- 

Ihe settlements has often been deplored 

~ecessors. 

ition of the Sierra Leone young 
to agrictdture, or any sort of manu- 
DcHT earning their bread, has been noticed 
~ ur Kennedy. That this is not owing to 
fault in the negro race, is shown by a 
the interior. The whole of the country 
Kambia is well tilled by a hard-work- 
who may be seen leaving the town 
every morning for the adjacent farms. 

ICiyUFAOTUKES. 

EX MKW, for the first time'in Africa, 






some attempt at manufactures. From the cotton 
shrub that grows near every house the women 
pluck the raw material, from which they spin a 
coarse, strong thread. This is transferred to a 
native loom, made of hard wood and of leather 
prepared by themselves. 

In the verandahs of the native houses the country 
cloth, from which they make tobes and other articles 
of wearing apparel, maybe seen in process of manu- 
facture within a few feet of the plant, still laden 
with the opening seeds from which the material of 
the thread is plucked whenever it is required. 

In the circular gate-houses leading to the court- 
yards of the better classes I have seen the black- 
smiths making hinges, nails, and other common 
articles from native iron. The same sort of iron 
ore that is to be found at Sierra Leone is also to 
be found in the interior. But, though it is neglected 
on the coast, it is smelted in rude furnaces at 
Kambia, and is the material from which the black- 
smiths make aU the iron required in that district. 

The negroes of the interior' may also be seen tan- 
ning leather, colouring it with natire dyes, and making 
sandals, shoei), and saddles. 

In every valley they are busy manufacturing oil for 
their own consumption and for the European markets. 
The value of the oil so manufactured and exported 
last year to Europe exceeded £400,000. This manu- 
facturing industry is altogether carried on by the 
negroes beyond our settlements. 

At Elmina there are a considerable number of 
natives who have been trained by the Dutch as 
masonfi, carpenters, nad blacksmiths. The native 
houses are strongly built of stone. At Gape Coast, 
eight miles off, the native houses are built of mud, 
and there is very little attempt at industry to be seen. 

The Oerman missionaries at Akropong give tech- 
nical instruction in their schooU. They are zealouff, 
and live in a healthy district, but as yet they have 
made no impression beyond a very limited area. 

At Lrtgos, the liberated Africans, who have emi- 
grated from Brazil, are disposed to be industrious. 
In this respect they are a contrast to the liberated 
Africans of Sierra Leone. When I saw them they 
numbered about 6,000, and they are lapidly increas- 
ing. 

Population. 

The total population of the West African Settle- 
ments, as returned according to the census of 1871, 
amounts to 613,370. Of this number in the year 
1871, 328 were Europeans, divided as follows:— 
Sierra Leone, 107 ; Lagos, 94 ; Oold Coast, 70; and 
the Gambia, 57. 

Of the t<»tal number of 613,370, less than 35,000 
are returned as professing Christians by the various 
Missionary Societies, but of these very few are prac- 
tical Christians. Though it has been the invariable 
practice to enrol as members of the Church of England 
all the liberated Africans and their children brought 
for many years past to Sierra Leone, the actual 
number of Church members here now is far less than 
the number of liberated Africans and their de- 
scendants. 

The native Christians are almost exclusively con- 
fined to the coast towns. They comprise the following 
denominations: — Church of England, Wesleyan?, 
Roman Catholics, Baptists, Old* Connection, Lady 
Huntingdon's Connection, United Methodist Free 
Church, Baptist New Connection, Ocnnan Bvan- 
geliaJ) and Presbyterians. 



446 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 2, 1878. 



The Christian population enjoy the serrices of two 
bishops and about one hundred clergymen of 
different denominations. The missionary societies in 
Europe contribute most generously to the conversion 
of the natives in West Africa. The latest return I 
can find of adult baptisms in Sierra Leone, Bullom, 
Quia, and Mendi Missions, is that given in the 
** Proceedings of the Church Missionary Society " for 
1869, page x, where the total number of such 
baptisms in the year is returned at 16. The number 
of clergymen, directly or indirectly connected with 
this society in the districts in question, including the 
Lord Bishop of Sierra Leone, is 26. 

The Mohammedan clergy, who are gradually ap- 
proaching the coast from the interior, are more suc- 
cessful. In one year they make more converts than 
the clergy of all the Christian denominations in West 
Africa make in ten years. 

The European missionaries, no matter how largely 
supported with funds from home, cannot in this 
climate compete with the Mohammedans. One or two 
are eminent for activity and zea], but as a general 
rule they are feeble and ineffective. 

In the appendix to the Primary Charge (October, 
1871) of Dr. Cheetham, the present Bishop of Sierra 
Leone, an abstract is given of an interesting paper by 
a native pastor, the Bev. James Johnson, on ** Our 
Mohammedan and Heathen Population, the duty of 
the Church in relation thereto.'' The author thus 
sums up the effect produced by the Christians of 
Sierra Leone upon their foreign brethren outside the 
boundary of the settlement : — 



'*The result, after allowing for the persons arriving 
more than once, gives about 40,240 arriving yearly, a 
number almost equal to the total population of the 
colony ; and, added to the 5,000 actually resident, gives 
45,240, a number greater by about 9,000 than that of 
professing Christians. 

*' The foreigners represent different African nations, 
some intelligent, and enjoying a very good degree of 
mental culture, having a literature of their own in 
Central Africa, as well as a portion of the works of 
Aristotle and Plato. 

" What influence have we exerted over them, or they 
over us ? 

" We have not influenced our foreign brethren, though 
for a period of forty years we have been coming in con- 
tact with them. Central Africa might long since have 
been under Christian influence if we had been faithful. 
** But they have influenced us. 

"Neither the Mohammedan Alufa (priest), or Bab- 
balaivo ^priest), have been inactive. We see the result 
in backsliding Christians. It is said that three-fourths 
of the Mohammedans in the town were not always so ; 
that is the instrumentality of a small band of faithful 
Fulah Moslems that has made them such. Christian 
parents willingly give up their children for marriage ; 
many baptised persons live in guilty intercourse with 
heathens and Mohammedans. Christians, in their hour 
of need, consult heathen oracles and Mohammedan 
priests." — Pimary Charge of the Bishop of Sierra Leotie, 
page 68 ; printed 1872. 

In the discussion that ensued as to this lamentable 
result of forty years' labour, Mr. Johnson suggested, 
amongst other practical remedies, that the missionaries 
should pursue *^ a more diligent and systematic study 
of the Arabic and native languages.'' As to this sug- 
^esition, however, the late Director of Public Instruc- 
tion, Mr. Popplestone, " doubted the advantage of 
teaching childreu Arabic, and thought variety of 
creed", and want of concord between Christian 
iiiiuister?, the stumbling-block." 



The native schools beyond the settlement, wkssf 
have seen the Mahommedans zealously teaching Aiihi| 
are evidences of the wisdom of what Mr. Jo^Na» 
commends. There are other causes, howerer, ^r tk 
failure. 

Sir Henry Ord, in his evidence before the h^, 
mentaiy Committee of 1865, dwelt upon one of tkoM 
causes, seven years ago. He was asked, Qiwtifl 
2,043 :— I 

'* Take the missionaries, for example. Ii it p«9fe^ 
that you can spread Christianity in Ahica oa^ 
through the blacks ?** 

He answered : — 

**I think that the only way to spread Cbriitis&iiyi 
Africa is by the agency of black ministen." 

The following is Br. Livingstone's eridence osdl 

same subject: — i 

" Have you formed any opinion with regard to fli 
degree in which Christian teaching has affected flii 
African character f* 

" Yes. I know a very great number of ooovoiii 
the middle of the country, not on the Weet 9^*41 
I have had opportunities of knowing them intiuM 
I have travelled wi£h them, and I think tbe pnfM 
they have made in knowledge is very uAidadafttM 
that their conduct is very good indeed." • 

" Which are the people you speak of ? I agokM 
Bechuanas." ' 

In answer to another question, speaking of Ifij^ 
he said : — .^ 

"The people there have retained the ieechiat 
was commimicated to them some 150 yean tgo,aN 
wherever you find a village, you find people 
both read and write, and they teach each oth^." 

Beferring to a missionary he met at Am 
Livingstone says : — 

** He was a very respectable man, and I fimnd odl 
he was a very good man, and that he bore t 
character among the people around him. Hewi 
black, yet he was a canon of the Church." { 

In his " Missionary Travels in Africi," p lUl 

ivinrrahnriA n.Qlra f Via nnpst.inn •^— T 



Livingstone asks the question : 

" Can our wise men tell us why the former 
stations — primitive monasteries — were self-enp. 
rich, and flourishing as pioneers of civilisati(Mi«d 
culture, from which we even now reap * "" 
modem mission stations are mere pauper e 
without that permanence or ability to be self 
which they possessed F" 

The statements I have quoted fromUieipi 
the Bishop of Sierra Leone's Primaiy Q^ 
that, whilst the European clergy have fiuled to 
ence the Mohammedan and heathen popolstiBB, 
native priests of the Mohammedan religion ire 
ing Christians, even in Freetown itselE The 
gentleman who made that statement is con 
by the most recent returns prepared in the U 
African department 

The liberated Africans, on arriring at Siew 
have invariably been handed over to the deigr 
of the societies. They are ready-made c^^*J 
were, by the action of the government, ma 
children are not only baptised, but placed ur 
special guardianship of the clergy. Even »t the. 
moment the governor signs warrants every montt 
paying money to the bishop for the edacstiw oi 
chUdren. ^ 

The present population of Siem UoM w f^ 
In his Primary Charge(1871) the bishop dtfM ^VO 



dogrrf* 



uodtfi 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, May 2, 1873. 



447 



This i% loverer, naid to be excessive, and in the 
**Otok Missionary Proceedings'' for 1869 the total 
Diabv of ^ native Christians" was only given at 
U4I ; bat, acoording to the returns of the Liberated 
Uncao Department, now before me, dated 24th De- 
mter, 1872, the liberated Africans and their de- 
Mndaots nmnber 35,864 ont of the 38,936 persons 
pBrtitating the population of Sierra Leone. Many 
lihHited Africans emigrated again. The total number 
intered op to this date is 95,261. 

Fmm thest figures it is clear that the Mohammedan, 
V odMr a^ncy, has actually changed the religion of 
tti Bttjonty of the Christians within the settlement, 
1^9 loid been placed for years past by the State in 
Ai eoitody of European clergy. 

Ik Mphanunedans who are doing all this are pure 
■psei They achieve success by native agency alone. 
hbot them a similar agency is required. 
^Hi more I have seen of missionary operations in 
Itttthe more I am convinced that Sir Harry Ord 
pIPt Livingstone are right in their estimate of the 
psators. The contrast between the native 
and thmi European brethren is very striking. 

tk osthre pastors mix with the people, speak 
hagusges, and understand their habits and 

C; bat unfortunately they are all placed in an 
poaition to the European, both as respects 
i( and authority. The white colonial chap- 
£500 a-year ; the black assistant chaplain. 
The white deigyman at Pademba Road gets 
a-jear; the black clergyman, a well-educated 
pushed gentleman, £82. And yet every- 
that the hard work is left to the native, 
the recent sickly season, which was so fatal 
the whole coast, the white colonial chaplain was 
for the benefit of his health, receiving pay all 
time, in England. Other European ecclesiastics 
aba prevented, by the state of their health, from 
daring the sickly season, 
m the streets of Freetown, where small 
aiedrawnbyhumanbeings, the Mohammedan 
can point to European missionaries 
about by pairs of negro boys in lieu of 
as the Litter cannot now Uve in Sierra Leone. 
of the native pastors have remonstrated against 
due-like exhibition, but the European clergy- 
vhekeep those carriages have the excuse that 
IBDot walk about in such a climate as Sierra 
and that for the preservation of their health 
•n cofflpdled to use the blacks in this way. 
one for this is obvious. Native pastors only, 
^ Ord says, can do the work. 

however, the fact remains that, beyond 

nt, no educational or religious influence 

by tts ; and, even in the settlement itself, 

of the people who are made Christians by 

iikef the State do not continue Christians for two 

>ddikbn to such &cts as these, the climate of 
A£(ka indicates from time to time the absolute 
of employing native agency instead of Euro- 
Bot only in the great work of Christianising 
bat in commercial pursuits and in the Gbvem- 
Knrioe. Many years ago, Sierra Leone was 
''the white man's grave." The climate is 
^ bid, but every seven years there comes a 
'^2^'^^'^^°^ which b extremdy fatal. 

SbwImaLl brought ui the Lamentable news of 
ffwih , from African fever, of my successor in the 
^■Mtrin-Ghief, Mr. Keate. His health was 



impaired by long services in the Sechelles, Trinidad, 
Granada, and Natal, before he came to Africa. When 
he arrived ho was unable to walk from the steamer to 
C^vernment-house. He told me an insurance office in 
England had asked thirty- five per cent, extra premium 
for the risk of insuring his life. He had, therefore, 
been compelled to forefeit his insurance. The climate 
so affected him that he had to do his arduous official 
work stretched on a sofa, and propped up with pillows. 
He died in a month after his arrival. There was not 
a better public servant in the colonial service. I have 
every hope that her Majesty the Queen will not forget 
Mr. Keate's widow and children. 

The year 1872 was a most unhealthy year for the 
European population along the whole coast. Out of 
a European population of thirty at the Ghtmbia t^e 
colonial surgeon reports that ten died on shore, and 
five more after being conveyed on board the steamer. 

I sent the present administrator, Mr. Callaghah, to 
Europe in the month of April, as the doctors said they 
could not get him free from fever, and that he 
could not outlive the rainy season. His predecessor, 
Colonel Anton, died of fever on the voyage from the 
Ghtmbia to England. Mr. Callaghan's hcum tenens^ 
Mr. W. H. Simpson, died of fever when put on board 
the steamer for Sierra Leone. 

As an illustration of the rapidity with which Coast 
fever sometimes produces its effect, I may mention 
that the despatches that reached me from the Ghtmbia^ 
en the 8th of October, were in the handwriting of Mr. 
Capper, the acting first writer, and were signed by 
Mr. Simpson, the acting administrator ; but the cap- ' 
tain of the steamer sent me a note reporting that they 
had both died after the mails had been made up. 

During my stay on the Gk)ld Coast, the Rev. Mr. 
Waite and his two children died. Out of the small 
group of Europeans at Cape Coast his loss will be 
severely felt. He was the son-in-law and the ablest 
assistant of Xhe eminent head of the Wesleyan body 
in West Africa, the Rev. Benjamin Tregaskis. 

At Elmina, owing perhaps to the ample supply of 
good water, the people enjoy better h^th than at 
Cape Coast. In an interview with the chiefs of Cape 
Coast in May, 1872, a municipal council for sanitfuy 
purposes was decided on. 

One moiety of this council is to be composed of 
chiefs elected by themselves ; and, instead of imposing 
a sanitary rate, it is proposed to a^ow them to devote 
to sanitary objects from £1,000 to £1,500 a year out 
of the proceeds of the additional duty on spirits. 

A recent despatch from Lagos states that the fever 
is also of a bad tyx>e there. The Commodore states 
that H.M.S. ''Coquette" having entered the lagoon 
for a few days, had to proce^ quickly to sea, as 
thirty-seven, out of fifty-seven of her crew, were soon 
down with fever. 

The sanitary requirements of Sierra Leone were so 
pressing that the Acting-GU>vemor-in-Chief in 1872 
took the responsibility of adding a separate depart- 
ment to the establishment there, to be called the 
Department of Public Health. 

In the ordinary annual estimates the Colonial 
Surgeon appeared as Sanitary Inspector, with an ad- 
dition to his salary, for that duty, of £120 a year, 
with a clerk, at a salary of £22 17f . Qd,, and one la- 
bourer at £18 6f. That is, £161 a year was specially 
voted for sanitary purposes ; a sum quite inadequate 
to deal with the public health of a place like Free- 
town. 

In the estimates for 1873, howeyer, votes are in- 



448 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIBTY OP ABTS, May 2, 1878. 



Church of EnglaDd, in the yarioas BetUemintfl^aiii 
native pastors. Among the most tmstworthy meaj 
the public service are the native ofiBcials. 

However, to give the Datives a fair cbaii<», it 'v,\ 
I have pointed out in the remarks on edi 
essential that something should be done to tiler 
present system of education. 

I hold in my hand some letters addressed to w 
a Protestant clergyman — a pure n^ro — on tbb 
ject, and I read tbe -following extracts from tlmi 
the double object of showing you how idi 
negro can write and argne, and of explaining tA; 
in better lanjznage than I could use, the seoenilf i 
some such institution as s West African twii 

** FreHovn, Dtcnober i, II 
'* Sib, — In the interview I had tbe honoar to haT«j 
your Elxcellency the other day, yoa expreaMd to < 
that a great effort should be made not only to 
the rudiments of technical and secular knowlsdgii 
tbe mass of the population on the coast sod ia thsj 
jjcent interior, but hIso to establish a sort of Eiool' 
Department of State for the purpose of secorini; 
telligent and studious natives the advantage of 
tion in the higher branches of leamiog. 

** The more I reflect upon the subject, the nore 
convinced that we can have no thorough snd 
reform — no proper development and growth- 



serted for sanitary purposes to the amount of £1,600 
• year. 

The services of the lata sanitary officer and sur- 
rey or of Dartmouth have been secured for this post 
• Under the supervision of the inspector a sum of 
£1,200 a year will be laid out in future on the sani- 
taiT improvement of Ffeefown. 

During my experience of Sierrft Leone (that is from 
February 1&72 to February 1873) 24 Europeans died 
out of a population of 98. The extraordinary sick- 
ness and mortality was, however, confined to Free- 
town. The mountain district, according to the 
B^uistrar-General's returns, appears to be as healthy 
as any part of England, or indeed as Madeira, the 
climate of which it closely resembles. 

It is, therefore, worth consideration whether the seat 
of government might not properly be removed to the 
mountain vilUiges of Leicester or Regent, which are 
only three or lour miles from Freetown ; or, at least, 
whether a vote might not he sanctioned for building 
a few substantial bungalows for government officials 
in the healthy districts lying above the vapours that 
rise from Freetown Biver, and above the range of the 
-more active malarial iufluences. 

Though in future no expense will be spared to keep 
the town clean, the government must not be too 

sanf^uine as to the result. With the exception of the ! the means being afforded of a liberal edocstios to 
Muhammedaup, the habits of the people, and of some | youth. 

of the European resident?, as the medical officers "If in the Government of these SeUlementi, 
point out in their repo^t^ are very bad. One of the ' agency is to be welcomed and encooragtd toA 
main duties urged upon the sanitary inspector and his i^P'^ *°^. excluded ; if the people are e;«r Jo ta 
staff is that of 
system, but 
can be expected to be generally adopted. i ^j^^ adapted to the exigencies of the country and 

There is another reason why we must not expect " juch a system as shall prepare the intelligent tw 
too much from Government action in this matter. I the responsibilities which most devolve upon tb«a; 
Over and over again my predecessors tried experiments without interfering with their native iostiootik 
to improve the health •f Freetown. As a result of 
many years* observation, it is alleged that sickness 
sometimes breaks out in the cleanest parts of the 
town, whilst apparently dirty localities escape. 

For ray own part, having narrowly watched the 
phenomena affecting public health there, I venture to 
express the opinion that, owing to its situation, Free- 
town is radically unhealthy. It is near the mouth of 
a broad river, laden with vegetable decomposition, 
which is partially driven back to the town twice 
every day by the tide, and at its rear it is hemmed in 
by a range of hills, which tend to keep the pn>ducts 
of evaporation suspended over the streets. During 
my morning walks up Leicester Hill, I frequently 
observed the river vapours lying motionless over the 
houses of Freetown. 

The general conclusion at which I have arrived 
respecting the state of the public health in these 
settlements, is that they are unsuited for European 
residents. 

I venture here to repeat what I said in a despatch 
to Her Majesty's Government last October — 

" Whenever it can possibly be done, I would strongly 
recommend dispensing with the service of Europeans on 
this coast." 



.f tMcbinu the inhabitant, the dry-earth «' f be entru.ted with the function, of _^ir-H 
.. .,, . r -J ui .- X. r •«. . ment ; if they are ever to become npo for free tnij 

It will take considenible time before >t | ^^jV^ in.titution.. it mast be bra.yrtmof J 



throwing them altogether out of harmony and i) 
with their own countrymen, shall qualify tfaooi 
the efficient guides and oounaellors and rolen of 
people. 

" The system, unfortunately, or want of 
which the natives of this country have been sol 
consequence of the conflicting dogmatic cree<ii^ 
duced among them from abroad, has oodoly ' 
their development and hampered their prognM. 



Fortunately this can be done, and to a much 
greater extent than is generally imagined. Some of 
the ablest members of the Legislative Council of 
Sierra Leone are pure negroes. The best scholar on 
the coasr^ a man who knows Hebrew^ Greek, Latin, 
French, German, Italian, and Arabic, and is well read 
in the literature of thesA languages, is Mr. Blyden, 
a pun negro. " Uigent oleigy of the 



''Europeans, sent hither to instruct ni, to* 
labour under feeble health, and, owing to 
causes, are destitute of that energy and 
whii;h alone can inspire and stimulate the yotsf. 
work is altborious task to them; and mssyt* 
guished teacher from abroad, fuUy competent tej 
the highest functions of an instructor, has Isbosn 
net* work of encumbrances and limitations, uatil,' 
graveyards attest, he has been compelled top^< 
life, joining * the noble army of msrtyis' in tlw 
of Africa's redemption, and adding another to the ' 
of witnesses* who, we are told, testify that Sient 
is the * White Man's Grave.' 

<<The estHblishment of an Institution here, 
the Hon. William Grant suggested, to be conAi 
earnest and well^cultivated negro instroctors, 
secure for the community the presence of quIiBeiJ 
who would not only, so far as health is cooc 
able to perform continuous and uninterrupted 
the schools, but who would also exert a whole 
fliience upon the masses and guide public opinka 
or, rather, develope and organise a pobhc opinion, 
perhaps, does not yet exist. You may depend 
Sir, unless some changes are brought about in 
tern of educating our youth, fifty years hAcs ' 
us just where we are now— perfanoing the 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 2, 1873. 



449 



IvCn 



I/nildoo 



tfttdmia operation of which Lord Macaulay 

^^P beginning again ; much exertion, and 

|ro|Mi> 

aniartitntion as this intelligent writer indi- 
•wld be of great benefit, not only to the Govrern- 
bttt to the mercantile commuDiiy. Why should 
loQ merchants, who have establishments in 
ta tod Bombay, be able to rely, as they so often 
luj{hdass native agency, when the Liverpool 
ndoo houses who trade with Africa have often 
out European clerks to do their business in 
wont dimate in the world ? The spread of 
^loo tmong the native traders would insure to 
tMtile interest a fairer share in the admiois- 
of tlie settlements than, unfortunately, they 
s. It is lamentable to see such purely 
colonies handed over so much to the 
it of military and naval oflScers. 
lore, the great work of influencing the 
' of Africa can only be secured by such an 
^ Tbe many millions of negroes in the 
eoDititute a race which, as Dr. Livingstone 
^ is indestructible. He describes their many 
palilie^ From my own experience of the 
» the interior, I can testify that they possess 
tbiiity, a love of knowled^^e, a capacity for 
• («xte for music and poetry, a generous and 
lb dijposiuon, patience and even cheerfulness 
•^-«Qfferio>f, gratitude, truthfulness, honesty 
^ifcliojfs and a strong domestic love. In two 
tby differ from some of the leading people in 
■ihejare very ignorant of the art of war, and 
^»» a child-like capacity for religious faith. 
ut ample qualities, but who will say they do 
ttiitt «ome elements of future greatness — ele- 
(44 m*y yet be developed into a vast^ peaceful, 
and independant African Empire. 



DISCUSSION. 
\mk laid there seemed the same difBcuUy in 
t?*'?'^"^^^" ^^ EogLtnd with reference to 
^ that arising from religious prejudices, 
d a most excellent suggestion that native 
nkouki be employed in the public service and 
" uui bethought it would be well if some of 
«twa were brought to England and educated, 
'^•y miifht go bick and influence their country- 
Bwik offending thoir prejudices. 

JW« Clarke said the Society was indebted to 

Wi flrtinessy for one of the most Vdluable 

kVBieh had been read in thut room for a long 

ooe which certainly bore very strongly on 

they had ia view — the promotion ol 

ictares, and Commerce. He had already 

1 himself in the colony of L ibuan, where he 

>lin restoring an important branch of in- 

(Ma he had aUo rendered great services to the 

*»«r which he had lately pre?itl«d. Mnri) 

^ he (Hr. Hyde OlHrke) remembered^ being 

^n in tn effort which extended the com- 

« thoie distiicts by refining palm-oil, so 

^ble a larger quantity to be carried 

then, through the extension of steioi 

'^wn* parts which at thnt period were 

were now brought within as easy u 

tt the most civilised parts of the world. H» 

hut be ^nck, not only with the progress thai 

-^pUoe, bat with the evidence of future prou- 

■tHeh nnist be developed if properly treated in 

n whkh was scarcely inferior to British 

t TBBmh iadebied to hii Excdlenoy for the 



manner in which he had treated his subject, giving the 
results of his own practical experience, and not occu- 
pying time with details which could be found in ordi- 
nary writers. He would therefore propose a cordial 
vote of thinks to Mr. Pope Hennessy, with sincere wishes 
for bis welfare in whatever part of the world he exercised 
his administrative talents in future. He would observe, 
in comment on what had been said with regard to the 
Ashantees, that they consituted a race of very great 
interest indeed, and ic was much to be regretted that 
thesernationo, Irom being looked upon as barbarous, had 
not sutficiently attracted the attention of men of science. 
Indian subjects were frequently discussed there, and 
he believed that if those acquiintei with India would 
turn their attention to the races of West Africa, th.*y 
would find in many cases that the people belonged to the 
same race, and that, in m iny cases, their lansjuige could 
be trace! to the same stock, as some of the ludiin races. 
In fact, it was one of the most favourable circumstances 
they had heard that evening, with reference to the 
prospect of these nations' advancement, that th«y be- 
longed to a race which occupied a very high position in 
civilisation — the Dravidian — and that their languaije 
was closely allied to the Tamil. Wherever you found a 
language of culture, there you had a powerful instrument 
of culture, and as it appeared that the importel Arabi.o 
language had exorciaed a great influence in their educa- 
tion, so would their own tongue, if properly understood 
and cultivated. 

Mr. P. L. Simmonds had much pleasure in second- 
ing the vote of thanks, particularly as he had some 
knowledge of West Africa, having a son and a brother 
engaged in business operations there. It appeared to 
him, however, that his Excellency had hardly done 
justice to the importance of the whole trade with West 
Africa, by confining his notice to that with the English 
colonies, omitting the large trade which was done with 
the foreign settlements on the western coast. He found, 
taking the total figures from the Board of Trade returns 
for 1871, that they would almost double those whicfi 
had been given, whether in regard to palm-oil or other 
matters. At so Ittte an hour it was impossible to go into 
details ; but he would cite one or two figures, to show 
the importance of the West African trade to England, 
especially since the establishment of a weekly or fort- 
nightly communication by steam. It was very strange 
that L igos never Hppeared at all in the Board of Trade re- 
turns, though it Was a colony of s jme importtnce, and 
a great deal of business was done there. Leaving out 
this port, however, the aggregate exports from Western 
Afric* were nearly £2,000.000 in value, includin^foreign 
and British possessions, whilst the exports from England 
to West Africa were about £1,750,000, making a total 
of £3,7'30,000 HS the aggregate trade. Of palm oil alone 
the value of the imports in 1871 was nearly a million 
and a half. 

The Chairman, in putting the motion to the meeting, 
said he had listened to the pnper with the greatest pos- 
sible interest. No one could doubt that great educational 
difficulties existed in England, and he could not alto- 
gether a; 1 prove of the suggestion of Mr. Hale, that young 
persons should be brought over from AfricA. to add to 
them. He whs quite of opinion that if anything 
was to be done to elevate the mind of any nation it 
ould not be simply by influences «"xtern il to it. There- 
fore, if anything were to be d«)ne f »r the benefit of the 
races on tho West Coast of Africa it could only bo done, 
iccording to the^ whole experience of history, through 
those races them. elves. 

The vote of thanks was carried unanimously. 



TWENTIEIH 0SDINAB7 MEETINQ. 

Wednesday, April 30tli, 1873, G. C. T, Babtlbt, 
Esq., Member of Council, in the chair. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 2, 1783. 



451 



tarticulan as to the quality of each sample. Out 

>{ 256 names published in one year in the Milk 

^owtnal, onlj 26 were given as those furnishing 

,^6Dttme milk, 230 being recorded as selling dete- 

ionted milk, the Journal saying : — '* The names 

f large numbers of milk-dealers we are compelled 

}soppre88, JTiftsmuch as, although they are without 

tception dealers in deteriorated milk, we have not 

le requisite evidence of it against them.'* 

The fact that there has been no action for slander 

,iinst these journals by the dealers whose names 

ere pnblished as selling deteriorated milk, proves 

4t tlie statements were correct. 

In November, 1867, the Britith MedicalJoumal 

•ihliflhed an article on the same subject, and its 

^ of examinations of milk from dealers in 

Arent parts of London showed that little, if 

7, pore milk could be obtained, and that some 

the West-end shops sold a very poor article at a 

^ price. 

Dtner evidence as to the poor quality of milk 
laUy sold might be given from towns in England, 
fcmoe, in Germany, and in the United States ; 
i wherever the matter has been taken up and 
VMfcigated by scientific men, the result has been 
4 lame. 

feBowseU, Superintendent of Contracts to the 
■Mty, last year made a report on the supply 
•*MfiMms to tiie workhouses of the Metropolis, 
» » President of the Poor-Law Board, which 
|Hf Was published by order of the House of 

Kv Bowsell made investigations of the quality 
wk, amongst other articles of food, assisted by 
t I^eby and Professor Wanklyn, one sample 
kg famished to Dr. Lethebv, and a duplicate 
■Kofessor Wanklyn, for antdysis; and the re- 
■kaays, '* There is an agreeing difference, usual 
IWeate scientific examinations.** 
jB^^^B^ts of the examinations show that these 
are, if possible, more badly treated 

^tiie general public; showing, in several ih- 
tnat skim milk was furnished, diluted 

twenty, thirty, thirty-five, and forty per cent. 
^Water; and no less than seven samples of 
Uk " consisted of milk and water, half -aud- 
it 

w»e report justly says, " that dilution or adul- 
ation with water has been carried to such an 
tttot as seriously to compromise the character of 
fnilk, and maJce it utterly unreliable as food 
jnfants and aged persons. 

contracts called for pure and unadulterated 

btzt evidently no attention was jmd by the 

^ of these institutions to see that the quality 

tile articles furnished was that contracted for, 

apparently, only considering the price and 

«es made oy the contractors. There is reason 

■M-lieve that many of the hospitals are quite as 

^served, 

is clear, therefore, that pure, genuine milk, 
the only article of food which alone will 
life for an indefinite period, is rarely sold 
wnsumer^. While the public have for a long 
beHeved this to bo so, it is only within the 
25 years that it has been scientifically demon- 
ed on a large scale. 
^t was hoped that the new Adulteration Act 
remedy the evil, at least partially; and 
Jjjl aeetinffs of milk-dealers were held, at 
*™Bb it wa» aomiited that the price of milk must 



be advanced, if the Act was enforced against them, 
and they should be obliged to furnish genuine 
milk, but as they have not advanced prices, it is 
fair to presume they do not now fear its enforce- 
ment. 

From the evil of adulterated milk there seemed 
no escape, until condensed milk made its appear- 
ance. 

Let us now see what condensed mUk is, and 
whether it does furnish the way of escape. 

Condensed Milk. 

Condensed milk, as it is now known, was intro- 
duced to the British public in 1867 — say six years 
ago. Previous to that it had been prepared here 
in small quantities for shipping, but it was not used 
to any extent for domestic purposes. At first it 
naturally had a very limited sale, as it was not 
only imknown, but the price was very high, about 
double at retail what it is now. In America, 
however, it has been in general use for over ten 
years, and the business there has for a long time 
been of considerable magnitude. 

It is a disputed point who discovered the process* 
The Americans certainly made some important 
improvements, facilitating the working of the 
large quantities which are necessary to supply a 
general consumption. 

Preserved milk in the form of a powder has been 
prepared in England and on the Continent for 
many years, for ships* use, and for export. 

This is known as ** desiccated ** milk, but the 
manufacture of it has now almo*st entirely ceased, 
as, apart from its high price, it is of inferior quality^ 
and was put aside almost as soon as the condensed 
milk came into competition with it. 

The process of preparing the desiccated milk 
breaks the butter globules, and seriously changes 
the character of the milk. It can only be dissolved 
in warm water, while the condensed milk dissolves 
readily in cold or warm water. 

Condensed milk is somewhat explained by its 
name, as it is pure milk as drawn from the cow, 
with three-foinrths of its bulk taken away by con- 
densation. The portion removed consists of water 
only. The remaining part retains allthenutritiveele- 
ments originally contained in the greater bulk, and 
in an unchanged condition. The evidence of this 
will be given later. The condensed milk may bo 
made with the addition of sugar, or without. 

If it is desired to keep it a long time, sugar must 
be added; that without sugar will only keep in 
good condition for a few days. The condensed 
milk with sugar is that best Known in England, 
and is what is usually sold by the grocers and 
chemists; but in America the imsweetened is 
largely used. The process of condensing milk has 
been fully described in the public journals within 
the past three years, and there is not much for me 
to add that will be new in this respect. I will, 
however, go over the more important points rela- 
tive to the collecting of the umk, and the process 
after receiving it at the works, omitting some of 
the particulars of treatment in which the public are 
not specially interested. The method I speak 
of is tnat practised at Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, 
and Middlewich, Cheshire, by the English Con- 
densed Milk Company, with which I am connected, 
and is substantially the same as adopted by the 
principal Swiss Company and the best American 
establifihments. 



450 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, May 



The following Candidates were proposed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Barclavj, John, Seedley PrintiDg Works, Manchester. 

Beck, W. H., 139, Cannon -street, E.O. 

Bleckly, W, H., Ashfield, near Wanington. 

Buckley, John Charles, Carr-hill, Mosoley, near Man- 
chester. 

Cassels, Walter Richard, 64, Qaeen's-gate, S.W. 

Dunn, William, Messrs. William Dunn and Co., 6, 
Lime-street-square, E.C. 

Muir, John, James Finlay and Co., Glasgow. 

Robertson, Archibald David, /33, Queen's-gate, S.W. 

Sandall, Frederick, 114, St George's-roakd, Southwark, 
E.C. 

Shaw, Robert B., Waterloo Hotel, Jermyn-street, S.W. 

Tumey, John, Trent Bridge Leather Works, Nott- 
ingham. 

Tyser, George Walter, Parkside, Reigate, and Lloyd's, 
E.C. 

Young, William, 33, Blandford-square, K.W. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected Members of the Society : — 

Bleckly, H., Latehford-ffrange, Waningten. 
Bodmer, J. J., 23, The Grove, Hammersmith, W. 
Brockelbank, George, Tower-house, St. Eiatherine's- 

wharf, E. 
Cochrane, Henry, the Longlands, Middlesboro'-on-Tees. 
Coles, Edward (Alderman), High-street, Rochester, Kent. 
Hampton, Thomas, Phoenix Bessemer Steel Works, the 

Ickles, near Sheffield. 
Harvey, John, 13, Upper Thames-street, E.C. 
Henfrey, Charles, jun., 76, Victoria-street, S.W. 
Hennessy, His Excellency J. Pope, C.M.G., Governor of 

the Bahamas. 
Jenkins, John J., The Grange, Swansea. 
Lemare, William, Mus. Doc., 382, Brixton-road, S.W. 
Nichol, Rev. John George Scrymsour, King James's 

Grammar-school, Knaresborough. 
Rew, Charles H., 6 Victoria -street, Westminster, S.W. 
Sullivan, Sir Ed^*ard R., Bart., 13,Grosvenor-placo, S.W. 
Tattersall, Charles, Burbage-house, Buxton. 
Walker, Frederick James, Claxton-hall, York. 
Williams, James, 223, High-street, Shad well, E. 

The paper read was — 

ON THE CONDENSED MILK MANU- 
FACTURE. 

By L. P. ¥erriam. 

Milk, as an article of food, has been so lar^ly 
discussed during the past twenty years, and its 
value so fully recognised by all eminent authori- 
ties on food, that it is not necessary for uie at this 
time to enlarge upon it. 

I would like, however, this evening, before speak- 
ing of condensed milk, to call your attention to the 
milk usually sold in large towns, not only in Eng- 
land but in other coimtries. According to Pro- 
fessor Wanklyn, pure milk should have an average 
specific gravity of 1030, and should consist of the 
following proportions : — 

Water 8719 

Solids 12-81 

100-00 
The solids consisling of — 

Butter ! 3-63 

Casein 3*74 

Sugar of milk 4*76 

Ash . , 0-79 

12-81 



MM. Henrie and Chevalier give^VBIloi^ 
as the constituents of cows' milk IftChi iuh( 
state: — \ 

Butter 313 

Casein 4*18 

Sugar of milk 4*77 

Ash 0^ 

Water 87-02 , 

100-09 ] 

Slight differences may be allowed on scoonn 
the variations in the breed of the cows, tiie pM 
age, the food, the climate, and the seasons dl 
year ; but there is a sufficient agreement aaioi 
analysts of milk to allow me to take Pron 
Wanklyn*8 analysis as a standard, snd esm 
in England, where are to be found the best i 
turages, the finest breed of cows, and vbenl 
cows are less subject to violent changes of tea 
rature. I 

The Milk of Towirs. 

The ordinary milk supplied to large towns, I 
even to many small country villages, is, bovq 
a very different article from that which 1 1 
mentioned. I 

For many years it has been a matter of m 
notoriety tilat milk has been almost xnami 
impoverished, until it has come to be aooeptaj 
a condition of life in towns that good sod | 
milk cannot be procured at any price, excra 
imder great difficulty. "I 

To such an extent has the impoverishmeDtJ 
carried, that it is estimated it amounts id 
average of at least 25 per cent., and in some d 
it reaches as high as 50 per cent. J 

Most of the impoverishment is doneettbd 
adding water or by skimming off the ereuBfl 
sometimes both are done to the same milk. J 

Watered milk is acknowledged as s i^ 
article of trade by the milkman, under the nsa 
** Simpson.** Milk that has been simply vm 
or skimmed, is described by soientmc vm 
** sophisticated ** milk ; and '* skilfully WM 
oated ** milk is that which is both watendj 
skimmed, and afterwards treated to restoM 
original appearance. J 

Different substances are often added for M 
ing, or for changing the flavour, tn order to a 
fictitious appearance and a taste of richoeA J 

Lest it may be said that the foregoing m 
ments are unfoimded, and a slander on the« 
dealers, I shall refer to independent, unimpcsMJl 
and scientific testimony. In 1851, Dr. Bm 
under the direction of the Lancet, made very ^ 
investigations as to the quality of the milk wj 
London at that time. He obtained samplojj 
the dealers imder such precautions that it oow 
proved from whom they were procnred; II 
samples were analysed, and the result! pnMJ 
in the Lancet, It was shown that ^^e somtj 
milk was sold, a large proportion wasimpov*^ 
by skimming or watering, and in some <**v1 
were done to the same milk. The names^ 
parties from whom the samples were wWI 
were published, with the analyses of the ^Wl 

Within the past two years. Professor Wii*! 
has carried out a similar but more ejrtenfl'^ 
vestigation for the Milk Journal, taking thoa^ 
of samples, and publishing names and ^^^^^fj 
the partiet from whom the ssmplei ouo», witn I 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 2, 1783. 



451 



fftknlasiito the quality of each sample. Out 
f S56 nMM published in one year in the Milk 
mr»gl,<mty 26 were given as those furnishing 
amine oiUc, 230 being recorded as selling dete- 
enitd milk, the Jottmal saying: — ** The names 
\]k^ mimbers of milk-dealers we are compelled 
»i^)prcss, inasmuch as, although they are without 
option dealers in deteriorated milk, we have not 
t Rouiate evidence of it against them." 
Hie net that there has been no action for slander 
fsA titese journals by the dealers whose names 
■trabiiabed as selling deteriorated milk, proves 
ptas itstements were correct. 
hSorember, 1867, the Britith MedicalJournal 
an article on the same subject, and its 
d examinations of milk from dealers in 
parts of London showed that little, if 
pare milk could be obtained, and that some 
West-^nd shopa sold a veiy poor article at a 



endeooe as to the poor quality of milk 
riold might be given from towns in England, 
KB, in Germany, and in the United States ; 
|lbB«T«r the matter has been taken up and 
^ by scientific men, the result has been 



^BovmII, Superintendent of Contracts to the 

' ' f, last year made a report on the supply 

dus to Uie workhouses of the Metropolis, 

ftndent of the Poor-Law Board, which 

m published by order of the House of 

plowsell made investigations of the quality 
I, MDongst other articles of food, assisted by 
plitfi^ and Professor Wanklyn, one sample 
^ foinkhed to Dr. Lethebv, and a duplicate 
Wanklyn, for analysis; and the re- 
" There is an agreeing difference, usual 
I scientific examinations.*' 

of the examinations show that these 

are, if possible, more badly treated 

t meral public ; showing, in several ih- 

mat skim milk was furnished, diluted 

/, thirty, thirty-five, and forty per cent. 

*; and no less thsm seven samples of 

consisted of milk and water, half -and- 

J*port jnstly says, ** that dilution or adul- 

^with water has been carried to such an 

[seriously to compromise the character of 

and maJce it utterly unreliable as food 

' and aged persons." 

called for pure and unadulterated 

«ridently no att^tion was paid by the 

••I ^^ese institutions to see that the quality 

~*' ' furnished was that contracted for, 

itly, only considering the price and 

' Bwde by the contractors. There is reason 

that many of the hospitals are quite as 

Jj^l^w-, therefore, that pure, genuine milk, 

"iwe only article of food whidi alone will 

Ime for an indefinite period, is rarely sold 

While the public have for a long 

this to be so, it is only within the 

I j€«w that it has been scientifically demon- 

l« a large scale. 

J K hope d that the new Adulteration Act 

il ^^^j the evil, at least partially ; and 

J'^'tittgs of milk-dealers were held, at 

iVitacBnitted that the price of milk must 



be advanced, if the Act was enforced against them, 
and they should be obliged to furnish genuine 
milk, but as they have not advanced prices, it is 
fair to presume they do not now fear its enforce- 
ment. 

From the evil of adulterated milk there seemed 
no escape, until condensed milk made its appear- 
ance. 

Let us now see what condensed nulk is, and 
whether it does furnish the way of escape. 

CoNDEXSED Milk. 

Condensed milk, as it is now known, was intro- 
duced to the British public in 1867 — say six years 
ago. Previous to that it had been prepared here 
in small quantities for shipping, but it was not used 
to any extent for domestic purposes. At first it 
naturally had a very limited sale, as it was not 
only tmknown, but the price was very high, about 
double at retail what it is now. In America, 
however, it has been in general use for over ten 
years, and the business there has for a long time 
been of considerable magnitude. 

It is a disputed point who discovered the process* 
The Americans certainly made some important 
improvements, facilitatmg the working of the 
large quantities which are necessary to supply a 
general consumption. 

Preserved milk in the form of a powder has been . 
prepared in England and on the Continent for 
many years, for ships* use, and for export. 

This is known as ''desiccated" nulk, but the 
manufacture of it has now almost entirely ceased, 
as, apart from its high price, it is of inferior quality^ 
and was put aside almost as soon as the condensed 
milk came into competition with it. 

The process of preparing the desiccated nulk 
breaks the butter globules, and seriously changes 
the character of the milk. It can only be dissolved 
in warm water, while the condensed nulk dissolves 
readily in cold or warm water. 

Condensed milk is somewhat explained by its 
name, as it is pure milk as drawn from the cow, 
with three-fourths of its bulk taken away by con- 
densation. The portion removed consists of water 
only. Theremainingpart retains all the nutritive ele- 
ments originally contained in the greater bulk, and 
in an imchaneed condition. The evidence of this 
will be e^ven later. The condensed milk may be 
made with the addition of sugar, or without. 

If it is desired to keep it a long time, sugar must 
be added; that without sugar will only keep in 
good condition for a few days. The condensed 
milk with sugar is that best known in England, 
and is what is usually sold by the grocers and 
chemists; but in America the tmsweetened is 
largely used. The process of condensing milk has 
been fully described in the public journals within 
the past three years, and there is not much for me 
to add that will be new in this respect. I will, 
however, go over the more important points rela- 
tive to the collecting of the umk, and the process 
after receiving it at the works, omitting some of 
the particulars of treatment in which the public are 
not specially interested. The method I speak 
of is tnat practised at Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, 
and Middle wich, Cheshire, by the English Con- 
densed Milk Company, with which I am connected, 
and is substantially the same as adopted by the 
principal Swiss Company and the best American 
establishments. 



452 



JOU:iNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, May 2, 1878. 



The starting point is with the farmers who fur- 
nish the cmde milk to the company.^ The farmers 
contract that the cows shall be fed with nothing 
that will impart an injurious quality or unpleasant 
flavour to the milk ; that no uulk from a diseased 
cow shall be sent in ; that the milk shaU be cooled 
immediately after milking, and kept cool; that 
everything connected with the milking and the 
utensils used, shall be perfectly clean;. that the 
milk shall be pure as drawn from the cow ; that it 
shall be delivered at the company's works in a per- 
fectly good condition within a limited number of 
hours after the milking. These conditions are not 
simply rules to be broken, but are rigidly enforced. 

It is well-known that milk is very Hkely to be 
tainted by the odour from objectionable sub- 
stances, when it is left near them, and men are 
employed to examine each can of milk as it comes 
in from the farmers, who look at, smell, and tasto 
the milk, so that if there is any peculiarity of 
colour, odour, or flavour, it is immediately de- 
tected, and it is rejected if there is any question 
as to its condition or quality. By this daily exami- 
nation the men become experts in judging of the 
qiiality and condition of the milk, as tea-tasters 
do in judging of the quality and flavour of tea. 
Cream tests are daily and carefully made, and 
frequent analyses are also made, which demon- 
strate exactly the constituent parts of the milk. 

As regards diseased cows, precautions are taken 
so that the company will know if any farmer 
attempts to send in milk from such cows. 

The milk is delivered at the works early in the 
morning, by the farmers' carts, and comes only a 
comparatively short distance. As soon as it 
arrives, the milk of each can is carefully examined, 
as described before, a small portion being set 
aside for more critical tests than can be made at 
the time. The milk is now passed through fine 
strainers into a large tank, of which there are 
several, one of them holding 1500 gallons. The 
cans the farmers send the milk in, before being 
returned to them, are thoroughly cleansed at the 
works ; first, by washing in hot water ; each can 
is then subjected to a powerful jet of steam, which 
enters overj' crack and crevice in the can, and 
afterwards it is rinsed in cold water, so that it 
goes back cleaner than the farmer could possibly 
make it. 

No time is now lost. That the cream may not 
rise, or any change take place in the milk, it is 
heated as soon as possible preparatory to being 
sent into the vacuum pan, which is done when the 
heat reaches a certain point. The milk is kept in 
the vacuum pan at a low temperature ; the vapour 
from it js condensed and tc^en away, until the 
milk is brought to the proper consistency, and the 
necessary quantity of sugar having been pre- 
viously added, the process is complete. The time 
occupied in condensing varies according to the 
quantity of milk, and ranges from two hours and a 
half to five hours. 

The condensed vapour comes away as colourless 
as water, showing tnat none of the nutritive qua- 
lities are removed. 

After the process of condensation is oomplete, 
the milk is drawn off and poured into the small tins, 
which are immediately soldered up. These small 
tins are packed in cases, holding 48 tins each, and 
are then ready for the market. Once sealed up, 
there is no chance of their contents being tarn- 



pored with ; and as the tins are labelled with tk 
Company's labels, a consumior may depend upot 
receiving the milk exactly as sent put by the Com- 
pany ; and if the milk from the fanners was k 
good condition, and the treatment of it cerrect . 
no change will afterwards take place, excepting a • 
gradual thickening up with age. 

The process which I have described soundt 
simple enough, but in practice it is a very difficuli 
one, and the utmost care and nicety must be ob- 
served, from the beginning to the end, thit the 
results may be successful. 

The exact details of the process I do not propose 
to enter upon, as they are fairly the property of tk 
proprietors. 

Our works at Aylesbury have been visited at 
different times by a number of scientific and 
experienced men, who have witnessed the entiit 
process, and their testimony has been ummimoii* 
as to the care taken to get good milk from thi 
farmers, and to treat it properly, the deanlincH of 
everything connected with the estabhshment bmf 
especially noted, one gentleman saying. "Thetira 
and last thmg which strikes the visitor is the ex- 
cessive 'and almost amusing deaalinew whicL 
pervades the whole establishment.** 

Competition forces the large producers of con- 
densed milk to send out the best possible a^tcit^ 
and it must be good to keep well, and find a pM^ 
sale. There have been, ance the starting of ti» 
business, a niuuber of attorn^ to prcptfv 
condensed nulk by private parties and public com- 
panies, wlio lacked the experience and knowlwl^ 
necessary for dealing with so delicate an artkii a* 
milk; and although they had good mateml^ 
work with, their efforts have resulted in failure** 
serious loss. 

The condensed milk without sugar is treatoi o 
the same manner as that prepared with sug^ < ^ 
is largely used in the principed American citiA 
but possesses no advantage over the sweeten* 
milk excepting where sugar is not wanted. ^ 

It has, however, the same advantage of carcit 
and accurate attention, and of being prepar&^ "b- 
the neighbourhood of the farmers who proilurf 
the crude milk, and at some future period will un- 
doubtedly be offered to the public. 

The Quality of Condensed Mnx 

We have seen what the standard of pure cow« 
milk is, and we now propose to see what theqai^tj 
of condensed nulk is, and how it bears oompani<< 
with the original milk. 

In 1867, Baron von liebig gave the ioMorm 
analysis of condensed milk : — 

Water 22*44 

SoHda 77« 

100-00 

He said of it :— ** It consists of nothing but coV 
milk and the best refined sugar, and possess*^ 
the properties and qualities of a perfectly v^ 
milk." The British Medical Journal of the s.^ 
year, and The Lancet, in 1868, both testified of « 
purity ajid excellence. Again, The Lancttfijxl^'* 
gave the following analysis of it : — 

Moisture 2610 

Butter 1 11*73 

Caseioe •••.....* 1^*17 

Hilktugar X^*^ 



JTUENAL OF 1HE SOCIETY OF ALTS, 2U\ 2, 1 :3. 



453 



Chttngar 29-46 

M 2-30 



10000 



■gitf it "was perfectly sweet, sound, and free 
^ttheik wdd. In September, 1872, one of the 
of the Lancet' visited the works at Ayles- 
isd examined the whole process, and spoke 
Mghest terms of the enterprise, giving a 
aaJjaa, corroborative of the previous one. 
_ Rrituh Medical Journal also, in September, 
IB, nte an analysis of condensed mills, which 
■HUntantially the same as that of liebig and 

|hOet(^, 1872, Dr. Hassall, in an article pub- 
■^" •• Food, Water, and Air," gave his opmion 
" milk. Ho made very careful investi- 
into the matter, and saw the process, from 
WB^m^ of the milk from the farmers, imtil it 
up in the small tins. He said, ** the 
iVed was whole milk, of the best and richest 
; " and, referring to examinations of 
milk, made by him at different times, he 
**▼« have always found it to be both 
Mid in a perfect state of preservation.'' 
ftrogomg analyses and testimonies have 
filmed in every case where a fair excunina- 
Uen made. 
ihe condensed milk as having been 
about one-fourth of the bulk of the 
lik, it will be seen that it contains, as 
Jip938ihle, the original elements of the 
* tmk, fmnus the water, condensed, and 
ngar, added to preserve it. It can be 
at any time, in miy grooer's shop, for 

its price, as against the milkman's 

tnot easy to fix an exact comparison, as 

tW imfair to place it on a level with what 

^ sold as milk, but the fact that the 

quickly adopted it to a very large 

that there is a steady demand for it, 

able evidence of the satisfactory 

it is sold. The demand is not prin- 

Qse at sea, as many suppose, but the 

Elvgdy used in families, and as food for 

I lor which it is especially adapted. 

* ^bas grown to such an extent during the 

I years that it is estimated that from eight 

[wQsand gallons of crude milk are daily 

! to work into condensed milk for consump- 

• id, 

ly with which I am connected have 

put the price of their products 

i ^ia o rder to induce a demand, and look to 

{■■iiiLiia with a minimum profit, instead of 

'iMitiness with a large profit. The sale is 

naUy quite aa large in the poorer districts 

fa wealthier, and it certainly offers to ike 

"1w^ aa the rich the advantage of a really 

Tds at a moderate price. This is not possi- 

ndinary milk. The fact is, the company 

» an important advantage over the milk- 

tqaolity of milk each oHains. Admitting 

^ittnier in botii cases sends the milk as drawn 

' ^ow — and in our case, as we deal only with 

fibsa of farmers, I am happy to say we 

tittle cause to complain — mo milkman 

fcfcre it in so good condition as we do. 

Artowns the farmer has to take to the 

itolUtli he may be obliged to hurry to 



catch the train ; it is then subjected to a railway 
journey of greater or less extent, and afterwards it ^ 
jolted over the pavements in the milkman's carts. 

The motion it receives on these several journeys 
amounts to a partial churning, and, added to the 
exposure of the hot sun or the rain, to which it 
is often subjected, seriously affects its charater. 
Besides, the milkman who (ustributes the nulk to 
families is not brouglit into direct contact with 
the farmer, and the question as to ^e responsi- 
bility of quality or condition of the milk is not 
easily settled. 

The milkman who brings the milk to your door 
says the nulk is as he receives it from the wholesale 
dealer. The wholesale dealer tells you the tnillr is 
as he received it from the farmer. The farmer 
affirms he sends nothing but genuine milk, and 
where " the cow with the iron tail " comes in it is 
not easy to decide. 

With condensed milk the quality and condition of 
the crude milk, as rsceived from the farmer, is of 
vital importance, as the success of the process 
depends largely upon the materials started with, 
imd any defect at the beginning would be finan- 
cially fatal, as good condensed imlk cannot be pro- 
duced from poor materials. 

The companies, with their larger organisation, 
can and do have more careful and scientific tests 
and examinatioiu of the crude nulk than the milk- 
man does or can. 

Simple tests of condensed milk can be made by 
dissolving it in water, adding three or four parts 
of water, and setting it in sludlow dishes to stand 
ten or twelve hours, when the cream will rise. 
Also, by mixing with water, and churning it at a 
temperature of 70 deg. Fahrenheit, and butter will 
be produced, showing clearly that the butter 
globules are retained and unbroken. Milk in the 
condensed form will not convey contagious dis- 
eases, as crude nulk does. It has been clearly 
shown, and especiallv by Dr. Balliud, of Isling- 
ton, that scarlet and other fevers have been dis- 
seminated by crude nulk, which has been left to 
stand in the houses of dealers where disease pre- 
vailed. With condensed milk this is not possible^ 
as neither at the farmers nor at the works is it 
brought in contact with disease, and after it leaves 
the works, nothing can come in contact with it i& 
the tins. 

For infants it is the most natural and uniform 
food, excepting mother's milk, and it is even pre- 
ferable to that, if the mother is not in good heidth. 
Care must be taken, however, that it is not given 
too rich, — that is, it should be diluted with seven 
or eight parts of water. 

The summing up of the disadvantages of the 
ordinary milk as supplied to consumers, and the 
advantages of the condensed milk as sold in the 
shops, are shown, I think, to be as follows : — 

The disadvantages of ordinary milk are — 

1st. It is of a very imcertain quality, and is 
usually impoverished to a great extent. 

2nd. It IS materially injured on the journey from 
the farmer to the consumer. 

3rd. If delivered sweet, it remains in that condi- 
but a Hmited period, as it is well known milk 
changes from hour to hour. 

4th. For infants* and invalids' food it is not a 
uniform or regular diet, on accoimt of the rapid 
changes which take place in it. 



454 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 2, 




5th. Little care is taken bv the milkmen to get 
milk in prime oondltixm, and £rom healthy cowb ; 
and a great deal of milk ig sold from oowa k^t in 
unhealthy sheds in towns. 

6th. It is not so conyenient to use, as every 
family must wait for the milVrnan for their break- 
fast. 

The advantage of oondensed milk am^ 

Ist. That it is ptire — what it pretends to be-^ 
and of uniform quality. 

2nd. It is condensed in the country, near the 
plaoe where it is produced, and receives no injury 
m transportation. 

Std. It does ndt change, but keeps sweet any 
length of time, even if the tins are opened. 

4th. For infants' and invalids' food, and for do- 
mestic purposes, it is reg^olar and uniform, always 
to be depended upon from one day to another, or 
from one week to another, as possessing the same 
qualities. 

5th. Gnestt care is used to obtain from the 
fkrmera the ndlk not only of good qualitn^ but in 
good condition. After it is sent out by the com- 
pany, it cannot be tampeiied with, as &e tins are 
hermetically sealed. 

6th. It is convenient, always at hand at any 
hour of day or night, and available for all domestic 
purposes. 

In connection with condensed milk, a combina- 
tion may also be prepared of cocoa and milk, and 
of coffee and milk, ooth of which are ready for 
immediate use, and need only boiling water to 
make a cup of either. 

[Further information as to the process of pre- 
paring condensed Swiss milk will be found in the 
evidence given by Mr. Mernam before the Food 
Committee of the Society. See Jownai, vol. xvi., 
p. 76.— ft>. J. S. A.] 



DIB0U8SI0N. 



Hr. A. Sames said this was a very important question 
to him, as he had the conduct and management of a very 
large public institution (Royal Naval School, at New- 
cross), with about 300 inmates. It struck him that a 
little more information with regard to liquid milk would 
be senrioeable — for instance, as to how it could be ob- 
tained. He had endeavoured to secure such am xm* 
admlterated article, but had always found a difficulty in 
applying a test. Ue had used a laetometer, but it was 
b^ BO means an infallibie test. He had also tjried the 
condensed railk, and found it exc>^edingly useful when 
ordinary milk oould not be obtained. He should like to 
be informed, however, what quantity of condensed milk 
represented a given quantity of liquid milk, and the 
relative expense of the two. 

Mr. Botley said he was somewhat surprised to find 
fully one-third of the paper taken up with strictures on 
the quality of ordinary milk. He did not think adultera- 
tion was carried to so great an exteat as was stated. 
With respect to the trade done in condensed milk, it was 
now from 8,000 to 10,000 gallons. That did not seem a 
very large quantity. 

Xr. Herriam— 8,000 to 10,000 gallons daily. 

Xr. Botlsgr said it was not a hur^ quantity, even daily. 
With regard to cleanliaess, dairies, both at Aylesbury 
and elsewhere, were always remarkable for cleanliness. 
He could not agree with the paragraph in tiie paper 
which stated that condensed milk was Uie most natural 
and uniform food for diildr* 



Mr. Smartt thought it might be possible to eapj 
this concentrated ffiiik at a less price than ordinazya 
of equal quality, since it oould be broogfat from dutn 
where rent was much lower than in the vidni^ of In 
towns. The process of evaporation had not bea H 
explaiaed. He asked whetlrar it would aot be poiri 
to prepare it in lai^o q w li tie^ ind* plaos it it hi 
reotptades, m that <leaifln migbi obtain It in thil« 
and rednoe it to the shafaof ordinaiyiBiQ^aidlfe 
BU|f>ly it retaiL 

Mr. BuMSB iDaaiied at what ttiqienteiftiiri 
was condensed, andwha* was the qaaakify dmn^ 
inttroduoedP If the taaBparature wen xaiaid lim 
certain point, tha albumen of the milkwoaldUMt 
lated, the sugar of milk would be changed, «id t fi 
disturbance would take plaoe in the qoslitj sf ftia( 
Cane sugar was very objectionable ia nilk, m d 
persons could not digest it, and he wodd ibmI I 
glucoee might be advantageondy substitatsdirit I 

Mr. Wantworth Beott BBtd, aa he had acted • 
to a large manufactory of condenaed milk,k ftftl 
interest in the subject, and ahould have baai^r 
Morrfsm had given some fmrthar infMrm afa OB^ 
to the modes of tea^g the milk as reoeM 
jRutners. TMs he might fairly have dant wifbMll 
i»g upea any of those trade seoiBts to wiick k ' 
ferred. Ha lomself wa» tolerably well 
the praotioal difficuhiea atteaiding ^ portitt 
subj^st, and it would be vary naefttl if a gmai* 
the methods or tests which the milk had to 
before it was passed by the oompany'i 
given. One very simple teat, in the haadi of 
workmen, which he had introduoed, was thai 
of the milk with a compound lens of no verygmtj 
If the animal from whidi it was derived we» vA' 
the globules, more especially their edges, vwUi 
an abnormal serrated appearanoe, whi^ a ^ 
practised eye readily perceived. He had alio^ 
struck with the largo portion of cane sugar 
milk, and he was anxious to leain whsfter 
cautions were taken to prevent the andas eioMH 
subatanoe. He had found, in some sanplsi 
hod analysed, no less than 37 per ceat oif 
which was of a higher proportion than that 
in the paper. He doubted if the odour of 
cold, was any test of its genuineness, or of ft* I 
the animal ; though, if the milk were ^ntm 
small portion of a&ali, and then oempflr«d viAj 
milk, &e test might be regarded as reliaUe. 
gestion made that retailers of aiilk ahoold bt^ 
sell this milk in a diluted fcnvH at their o«a^ 
would be nothing more nor leas than the 
adulteration on a vmt lar^e scale. Then ' 
ficient means of eatablishmg a standard of 
quality of condensed milk, on the one hand, < 
on the other. The suggestion that glnc<ii^^ 
substituted for cane sugar did not meet ami 
proval, because he had occasionally found li 
cose, and sometimes more than tiaoas, in 
milk, which was not of good quaUty wbea 
which had undeigone some detrimental A 
preparation. He had thoa a means of te<^^' 
denaad milk, and, eapecially in his profesMeaii 
aa a country analyat Ha should be ray m*" 
means such aa tbia of teatiag the qaality« 
were taken from them, by glucose beiac[ fs 
troduced, es^ially as, in the caae of wk, 
very few reliable tests of its quality. 

Mr. Dipnall said there was no doubt that 
of ordinary milk waa a very pivTaleot 
though he might doubt whether the beitaayi 
troducing a lecture on condensed milk ^•*J^'" 
a lengthy criticism on the milk genenl^^ij' 
he waa much pleased with the account wto ■ 
given. He hoped the aompany, tbersfow.^**! 
* in ita coarse ; and i^ as waa stated, tha ■flkvi'f 



JOURITAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 2, 1873. 



455 



lietid, ftif vere doing a good service by sapplying a 
faolaMt Htiele of food. 

Mb IllBia Aid he foand that the system was first 
bjr Ur. House, in 1857, though he did not 
DfOfluneiiUy fofward nntil 1859, when he went 
m, whare improvementfl on the process were 
I7 Hr. B«)rden, and that gentleman became the 
■tan^torer there. In America, prisons aod 
ued the condensed milk, which was delivered 
,ud it Appeared to him there was much less waste 
Ihen thaa under the English system, whore the 
i delivered twice a day. If the hospitfils in 
agold, in like manner, be supplied with un- 
^^nilk, he thought they would find an advantage 
E.|ftloe7 of several cases of illness in which con- 
had been used with success. 

thought a very hard-working and indns- 

iofpenDns(the milkmen) had been somewhat 

^4hII with, and that they were not so bad as had 

The milk was doubtless useful as a 

I Ir the fresh article, but it had an unpleasant 

b the case of tinned meat, he thought the 

ipoilk by the process of preservation. He 

lilar the condensed milk any cheiper than 

nilk, even supposing the latter had some 

itoit 

in reply, said the tests employed by the | 

good quality in the milk were all that 

In the first place, t^tsting, — and although 

m would not detect any difference in 

I of milk, those who were consttntly cm- 

•0 expert that he was sure they could 

led the difference between the milk of, 

[fcsert, or from different soils. The milk 

htge tins, or churns, and on taking off the 

[lAjsctionable quality could be detected by the 

•guo, they set a small quantity and raised 

»hieh was a very good t^st of the qutlity, 

tlmbti were entertained, a portion was ana- 

iKveral uccasionB firmers who had not sent 

iJM been dismissed, so that there was no 

being rigidly carried out. The micro- 

nsed, though not so largely as Mr. Scott 

The lactometer was also used, aud, 

I not a perfect test, it answered verv well 

had nmply been reduced by the addition 

I Jb^lyns, of conrse, did not show the condi- 

but it was decisive as to its quality. 

he had repeated, with regard to the 

ti milk, were not his own — they were all 

llflier and higher authority, and he had never 

l£>pated. It had been said that all dairies I 

^•Ad 10 they were, to a certain extent ; but < 

1 condensation required absolute and perfect ! 

nd it was, therefore, always insisted 00. ' 

r if the fluid milk came clean from the dairy, 

became contaminated . with dust and 

on the railways, so much so that a large 

him he was sometimes ashamed to send 

regard to the estimated quantity of 

(per day, sappUed by the various companies, 

lit wu very satisfactory in so short a time, 

the difficulty there lUways was in intro- 

vm article. A remark had been made as to 

esat of milk being low in the country, but 



a 



■f it was regulated by the price of butter an 

|fio ^kich it was conrerted if there was not 

in it in the crude state. The milk was 

h fum at a temperature never exceeding 

r*> that there was no opportunity for a film 

^ lit aordid he think any oha^e was effected 

tosats by the temperature. With regard to 

fii ngar tatroduoed, there was no uncer- 

flM; Iha loiUi was measun4 or weighed as 

^^ aornlAg, and the sugar added in an 

^ laooordingly— in fact, it was not to the 



^nterest of the company to increase the quantity of sugar, 
for practically the product was sold by the bulk, and the 
addition of sugar only added 6 per cent, to the bulk, 
whilst it raised the expense by 25 per cent. They 
would prefer to reduce the sugnr, if it could be done with 
safety. The Latteet and Dr. Ha8s>ill gave the proportion 
of cane sugar at 29 or 30 per cent., which was not quite 
so much as stated by Mr. Scott ; but he understood from 
analysts that there was a great difficulty in separating 
sugar of milk from the cane sugar which was added, and 
possibly slight variations might be accounted for in that 
way. As to the proportion of water, there was quite suffi- 
cient competition to make all the comp mies supply a good 
article, or they would immciiately lose their conaection. 
If the milk were set for the cream to rise, it would be so 
changed in character that it would not keep when ppn- 
densed. 

Mr. Cowper said he wished to know if condensed milk 
at tho present price was cheaper than ordinary milk 
with say 25 per cent, of water added. 

Mr. Merriam thought it would be, but the only way 
would be to get a tin and try it. Taking ordinary milk 
at 4d. a quart, and condensed milk at 8^d. a tin, he 
thought the latter would be the cheaper. It appeared so 
by the constantly increa«ing sale, even in the poor dis- 
tricts. He considered a tin represented about two quarts 
of ordinary London milk. There was no doubt that tho 
process of condensation did impart a slight taste to it» 
thous^h ho believed it was not perceptible in coffee or in 
cooking. In tea, however, some found it objt^otionabley 
though others did not. One gentleman said he preferred 
pure milk, and so would most people, but the difficulty 
was to find where it could be got. 

The Chairman, in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. 
Merriam, said he was glad that gentleman hid acknow- 
ledged there was one failing in the cjndensed milk, 
bec^iuse he was always suspicious of any article which 
was described as faultless. He should have liked 
to have heard more of the details of the process, 
and not quite so much of the pinegyric, as it was 
the more general custom in the Society for members 
to form their own opinion on the merits of what 
was brought before them after hearing a f\iU ex- 
pl'tnation of its properties. All these matters, to a 
great extent, depended on price, ^and if a tin cost 8^d.^ 
and two quarts of milk could be bought fon8d., he saw 
no advantage in it. He lived near a dairy, and bought 
perfectly pure milk at 4d. a quart ; and he was able to 
speak with some authority, having kept cows himself. 
It was a pity to advocate anything to an extreme, and 
he regretted that it had been stated that condensed milk 
was superior to human milk for infants, which was 
ab.-iurd, though, no doubt, if it could be produced at a 
cheap rate abroad, where pasture Ian I was abund-intand 
cattle plentiful, it would be of great service in aiding 
the supply of milk to the metropolis. 

The motion having been carried, 

Mr. Merriam, in acknowledging the compliment, said 
he had not represented the condensed milk as better 
than nitural milk, but as superior to that ordinarily 
procurable in towns. The chairman might be unusually 
fortunate, but he could only repeat that the statements 
he had made as to the prevalence of adulteration were 
not his own, but those of men whose testimony was un- 
impeachable. 



Beports from Bordeaux state that the recent 
Revere fro!«ts have 00 iojured the vines that all hopes of a 
vintage is this year at an end. 

The Scientific AriMrican says that maple sugar, 
as au article of merchandise, is in a fair way of extinction, 
rhe trees are being cut down and converted into broom handles. 
At rhe present rate of dmtruction both maple broom handles 
and sugar will soon become unknown in tnuto. 



466 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 2, 1873 



ANNUAL HVTERVATIOIVAL EXHIBITIONS. 



The number of ▼isitora admitted to the Exhibition for 
the week ending Saturday, April 26, was as follows : — 
Season tickets, 1753; on payment of 28. 6d., 1351; on 
payment of Is., 18,461 ; total, 21,565. 



The nnmber of visitors admitted on Thursday last was, 
season tickets, 236; on payment of Is., 3,722 ; total 3,958; 
on Friday, season tickets, 294 ; on payment of Is., 3,448 ; 
total, 3,742; on Stturday, season tickets, 406; on pay- 
ment of Is., 4,932 ; total, 5,338. The number admitted 
on Saturday, after 6 p. m., was, season tickets, 13 ; on 
payment of 6d., 220; total, 233. On Monday, season 
tickets, 269 ; on piyment of Is., 2,828 ; total, 3.097 ; after 
6, p.m., season tickets, 15; on payment of 6d., 211 ; total, 
226. On Tuesday, season tickets, 248 ; on payment of 
Is., 3,247 ; total, 3,495. The number on Wednesday 
was, season tickets, 351 ; on payment, of 2s. 6d., 1,354 ; 
total, 1,705. 

The 10th pieeting of the Committee for Silk and 
Velvet was held on Uie 29th April. There were present 
Sir D. Cooper, Bart., in the chair. Dr. Campbell, Mr. 
Cassels, Mr. Cobb, Mr. Lewis, Mr. Lintilhao, and Dr. 
Mann. The following resolutions were passed : — I. That 
it is desirable for this Committee to cause to be published 
brief notes, to be transmitted to the seats of manufacture, 
specifying what has been acoompUshed for the £.xhibi- 
tion ; and that the several members of the Committee be 
requested to send, as soon as possible, a few notes on the 
particular points to which they consider the attention of 
the respective branches of the silk trade should be called 
2. That invitations be sent to the Mayors and Ch imbers 
of Commerce of the towns interested in silk manufacture, 
to find out the most intelligent workmen, who should 
have every facility given them to examine the products. 

Among the fetei proposed to be offered to the Shah 
of Persia on his visit to this country, it is in contem- 
plation to give one in the Royal Albert Hall, on a grand 
scale, to which only season ticket-holders and seat- 
holders will have the privilege of admission. 



The late exhibits at the London Tavern, for the benefit 
of the " Northfleot Relief Fund,*' are all to be removed 
to the Intomationl Exhibition. 



THE SCHOOL OF POPULAR COOKERY. 

Now that the success of this school is established, it 
may be confessed that the scheme was a hazardous one. 
It was so easy to laugh at the idea of teaching cooking 
seriously by lectures, that any mishap would have been 
fatal, and the whole thing might have collapsed under a 
mass of ridicule. The execution of the idea must of 
necessity have been either very bad or very good, for 
unless it had been very good it could never have carried 
sufficient weight to have ovorpo wered objections. As it 
is, the popularity of the thing is secured— everybody has 
a good word for the school, and fault-finders are silenced. 

In real truth, there is no reason why the art of cook- 
ing should not be placed on a higher level than it now 
occupies. The work in itself is no more menial or de- 
grading than are most of the occupations of women — not 
80 much so as half of them, insomuch as they have a 
tangible and useful result, which is more than can be 
said for the most popular female occupations of our time. 
By good cooking the health of the people can be im- 
proved to an extent little thought of by those who have 
not considered the subject. Supplies of food now wasted 
can be utilised, new sources of* food can be made avail- 
able, and the food now used be — '''* *'' ''o double its 
work in supporting and nou*^ -m of its 



consumers. The proper preparation of fool m&y \\ 
a little to a people's comfort and h&ppineM ; and 
the method of such preparation can be sitnplj «ni ei 
taught, is not such teaching a worthy andaosefalob} 
Such are the intentions of those who started the 
of Popular Cookery, and it must be a matter of mi 
congratulation to them that their intentions ir;t)l 
appreciated by the general public who come ts t^J 
hibition. 

The method of openition has been sevml 
described, but we may perhaps just mentioa^i 
day, at certain hours, a lecture is given descril' 
minute detail the preparation of some dish, 
lecturer describes, assistants illustrate the de 
carrying out the various processes one after 
they are mentioned. Visitors h ive thus th« 0| 
of seeing the actual minner in which the djihi 
pared, and at the same time havins? the rafn u fc ) 
process explained. There are, of course, )MM*iM 
lecture, while the actual cooking is goin^^ oi, bst ^ 
are filled up by various general remarks apot^l, 
dients of the dish under treatment, or by fmSioiy 
g^tions originating from the method parnel 
a simple programme enough, but so well is it 
out that the attention of the crowded room i 
to flag, and the entire audience appears to 
the greatest care the remarks of the lectanr i 
manipulation of his satellites. 

The process most recently under explanatioal 
the cooking of omelettes, and the prepatatioa o(j 
roni in different ways. Some useful ' 
also given as to the method of cooking need 
Prussian army. Two Prussian soldiers illi 
plan by actual cooking, carried on in a bit tfj 
ground adjoining the school. The vessel is 
tin case, and the operation is performed orer s| 
sticks, but the results are excellent. It was 
that, by a similar device, many a workman wh 
to make his dinner off a bit of bread and t 
cold btcon, might be provided with a warm 
ably comfortable meaL Next week we unc' 
methods will be described of cooking Ai 
other preserved meat. It would be difficult 
more suitible subject. The introduction of 
meats h is been so recent, that very few piTSoa*! 
idea ho w to prepare them for the table. Inj 
of this the public gener'illy are not in a posi^J 
themselves of this mo»t important source of * 
B idly cooked, there is no doubt that pre«rT&ii 
far from palatable, but by proper treatment * 
made as pleasant and savoury as me it r«c 
We anticipate for the lectures on Au-jtr^liitj 
popularity even greater than that attained 
already delivered. 

Arrangements are also being made for 
personal instruction in cooking to any wha 
A room, near the school, is being prepared, so! 
who wish for more practical knowled^ thin 
obtain by mf»rely' listening to lectures, may * 
obtain it. The success of this exporimeot 
that by some means more lasting prorisioo 
made for giving similar instruction. Thd resoU* 
lectures will certainly be no mere increise in U 
improvement in the health, the comfort, and 
happineas of the people. That comparitively * 
can be done by a short course of lectures, sabh 
is but too certain, but if they can be male thefo 
of a regular and lasting institution, the good 
effect cannot be measured by theinfluenoe exsrtddl 
few— out of our millions of p>pulation— who hsj 
opportunity of profiting by them. 



The Channel Tannel scheme is again 
notice, L ird R. Oro8v«^aor having had an sudieAce i 
French Minister of Works with r^trd to a 
made. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 2, 1873. 



467 



EXHIBITIONS. 



L 



VIBNNA EXHIBITION. 



fabliihed arrangemento for the opening were as 
to:— "The latemational Exhibition at Vienna 
II opeo^ hj the Emperor Francis Joseph in 
^ OB Thanday next at noon. The Empress 
li ptceent, and the entire Court will be in 
in addition to the Royal visitors by 
•bsidy the Emperor's guests. Among them 
IkBBoe of Wales and Prince Arthur, and the 
Cbvn Prince and Princess. Invitations have 
to the most distinguished official men. The 
will attend ex ofieio^ exhibitors on special 
tad the public only on payment of 50s. 
Every one possessing a uniform is required 
%nA iQch as have orders or decorations are 
to diiplty them. Other male spectators must 
■Of drsM. The doors will open at nine and 
I deren. The Court and Royal guests will as- 
m lbs Emperor's pavilion at 1 1*30, where the 
Tad Empress will join them shortly before 
Thi Imperial company will cross the grounds 
■ttDortal of the Exhibition Palace on foot, while 
Wdi pUy the National Anthem and troops sta- 
groonds fire a rojral salute. Up to the outside 
fte chief master of ceremonies conducts the 
Here he relinquishes his charge to the 
GMuneroe, Herr von Bahnans« who, in his 
it on the threshold to Archduke Rainer, 
" of the Exhibition, and his staff of oom- 
Tlie Archduke will conduct the Emperor 
to raised seats under the dome, the com- 
nim|, and the Exhibition orchestra, under 
reimorced by the Opera orchestra, playing 
Anthem. After a brief addr^s from the 
; accompanied by the presentation of a 
md catalogue, his Majesty will declare the 
while a second royal salute will convey 
the outward world. Brief addresses from 
and the Mayor of Vienna will follow; 
ftt foreign commissioners are expected to 
fkna in front of their departments, while 
\ under Herr Dessoff, performs Han- 
choras. Their Majesties and the Court will 
irmmd of the Industry Palice, conducted by 
k^ner, and in their departments by the foreign 
The promenade will extend through all 
HaTing concluded this, their Majesties 
to the rotunda, and by the south portal to 
"*• parilion, taking their departure while 
itlate is fired. The Exhibition will then 
lo the privileged company assembled till six 

to all received accounts preparati.-»n9 for 
Sxhihition were proceeding vigorously, and 
Apidly becoming full of visitors. Previous 

T>rta stated that the British department in 
Industry was decidedly more advanced 
^^* not excepting even the Russitn, so that 
•^poiition to make a very comprehensive and 
yesterday. 

of Wales and Prince Arthur reached 
^^ttday, and visited tho Exhibition on Wed- 

fwm the Special Correspondent of the 

it Vienna announces that the Prince of 

^•^•Twt to the Exhibition on "Wednesday 

i9 his capacity as Chief Commissioner of the 

It. The Prince first examined the 

tile workmen in that department are 

n inspected the machinery. He after- 

\ Ihs Agricultural department, and expressed 



his satisfaction that the arrangements were so nearly 
completed. After transacting some formal business in 
the Pavilion of the British Commission, his Roytd High- 
ness went the round of the British department in the 
main building, and paid special attention to the display 
of porcelain and the Indian collection. The Corre- 
spondent adds that the arrangements for the opening 
ceremoney are well advanced. Ten thousand men are ^ 
employed by day and four thousand by night to hasten 
on the work. 

The official catalog^ie of the British section, published 
in London, was despatched in time for the opening 
ceremony, and it must have been the only catalogue that 
was actually on sale in the Exhibition building yesterday ; 
since it was, so far as we have been able to discover, the 
only one in a sufficiently forward state for such earlv 
publication. This is a fact which reflects no little credit 
on the executive of the British Commission, and it is 
decidedly satisfactory that in this, as in other respects, 
we should be so far advanced of the other nations repre- 
sented at the Exhibition. In itself the catalogue is a 
most comprehensive and carefully compiled work, and 
one which reflects no small credit on all engaged in its 
preparation. It is not indeed complete, for the collec- 
tions from India have not arrived in time to bo catalogued, 
nor are the consecutive numbers to be attached to each 
exhibitor's case yet published, so that we must wait for 
a future edition for their omission to be supplied ; but so 
far as the arrangements concern merely the British 
section, they are complete, and all the laeunm have to be 
supplied by the central authority at Vienna. 

A brief sketch of the contents may be usefuL First 
comes an account of the general regulations for admis- 
sion to the Exhibition. Then follows the official list of 
commissioners, committee, and executive. After this is 
a list of ovmers of objects of fine art. Next is a descrip- 
tion of the medals. Then oomes an account of the space 
allotted to each country in the industrial machinery, 
and agricultural halls. Next is a scheme of the general 
Austnan classification; this is arranged in parallel 
columns, one giving the preliminary classification of the 
exhibited objects, and the . other the classification as 
finally dravra up for the examination by the j uries. We 
now come to the catalogue proper. This includes an 
alphabetical list of exhibitora. a list of exhibitors arranged 
in groups, and also a " dictionary of objects exhibited.** 
This is a now idea, and a very excellent one. By means 
of this ** dictionary " we get a complete subject-matter 
index to all the exhibits in the British section, so that all 
exhibitors of any particular objoct, or class of objects, are 
shown at once. After this comes a classified list of 
colonial exhibitors, and there will be besides, in future 
editions, a similar list of exhibits from India. 

Such are the contents, but tho illustrations deserve 
notice also. There is a plan of the entire Exhibition, 
showing in colours the spaces allotted to each country; 
a similar map of the British space ; and one of the fine 
art portion, also coloured. There is also a large map of 
Vienna itself, a plan of the Rotunda and surrounding 
space ; a perpendicular section of the Rotunda, and a 
perspective view of the same. It will be seen that the 
book is very decidedly superior to the ordinary run of 
exhibition catalogues, and contains an amount of infor- 
mation seldom to be found in them. 

In addition to the Catalogue, H. M. Commissioners 
have published . a translation of the Austrian tariff of 
import duties, for the use of exhibitors. The Exhibi- 
tion itself is, so to speak, ** in bond," but it is an im- 
portant matter that exhibitors should know what duty 
will have to be paid, either upon their exhibited goods, 
if sold, or upon other goods hereinafter imported. Va- 
rious other items of useful information for the exhi- 
bitors, such as patent laws, protection of designs, &c., are 
also provided. 

Among the British exhibits is a portable cookiiig 



458 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IBTY OP ARTS, Mat 2, 1973. 



appanitus, the invention of Mr. AdaqUt and is intended 
principally for street use. The idea of thus providing a 
properly -cooked meal in the streets, or wherever a body of 
workmen m^y be congregnted, is an excellent one,' and 
one which deserves to be properly carried out. We hear 
that the apparatus is attracting considerable notice at 
Vienna, and that for practical convenience, portability, 
and economy of fuel, it has few if any equals. 

Amongst the Scotch exhibitors at the Vienna Exhibi- 
tion, Mr. J. D. Dougall, of Glasgow, who took 
the grand gold medal at Moscow, has arranged to 
show some of the recent improvements in breech- 
loading rifles and fowling-pieoss and other weapons. 
His case will contain a sample of the vanous breech- 
loading weapons manufactured in Glasgow by him for 
all the varieties of game. The first is a large-bore 
spherical-ball double rifle, for dangerous animals, such as 
tigers and elephants. This rifle is supplied with the 
** Dougall shell," which, from its extreme deadliness, 
makes the whole weapon the most destructive that man 
has yet produced for individual use. The second is a 
small-bore double-barrelled express rifle, *450 bore. The 
bullet weighs about half an ounce, but, from being 
hoUow in the point, it opens up after entering the skin 
of the animal, and creates a wound of a fearful nature, 
which is certain to be fatal. This is a sample of a class 
of weapons to be used against deer, antelope, &c. The 
third specimen is an eight-bore gun, barrels three feet 
long, and almost ISlbs. in weight, the maximum weight 
lor weapons of this character. This kind of weapon is 
nsed by American sportsmen for use against swan, geese, 
and duck. The fourth is a twelve-bore fowling-piece, 
wwk as is in general use. All the preceding examples 
aro on the patent lock-fHst system. The fifth is also a 
twsZve-bore gun. its peouUtrity being that it is U>ok-£tiat, 
and parti tly self-closing. The next is a sample of a giin 
that is entirely self-closing, and which is eoasidered the 
stiODgest of the elass of weapon whioh depends on a 
apring for its fastening. The case will also contain 
otbar minor articles, and it is expected thut it will be 
unsurpassed in its class. The list value of the batytery 
complete is a little over £400. 

A train of 132 waggons has left Warsaw for Vienna, 
conveying Russian contributions to the Exhibition. The 
second train is to consist of 30 waggons. 

A correspondent of Iron sends in the following details, 
dated April 21, as to machinery in the Exhibition :-^ 

** Entering the machinery hall, at the west end, the 
first section to traverse belongs to America. With the 
exception of a solitHry fire engine this section is quite 
empty, as is also the American galiecy in the main 
buUding. 

'* Next to the American, in the maohinery-haU, comes 
the English section. In no part of the building is moxe 
rapid progress being made with the setting up the ma- 
chines than in this section. Many exhibitors have 
already quite completed their preparations, and in the 
agrionltural hall there remains but little to do. The 
boilers are all fixed (one by Cater, Walker, and Co. ; 
one Howard's patent safety tubular; two Daniel Adam- 
aon and Co. ; two Galloway and Sons). Complaints are 
made of the slowness with whioh the goods arrive, and 
although the English have made great progress, in com- 
parison with other nations, it is not certain whether ^ 
the ina chines will be in working order by Uie 1st of 
May. 

**In the French section, whioh comes next to the 
Bolislv affiiirs are in a lamantable state ; not a single 
vachine ia even ready, and only one is in itaplace. Very 
frw Fiench. machines have arrived as -yet, and their 
pace in the machinery hall is almost altogether vacant. 
The French boiler-house is yet quite empty. 

"Next to ** * ^mes the Swiss. Here rapid 

V^ifS'^^^ ng the last fortnight, and 



the preparations are in an equal itste of 
with those in the EngU^ section. The little 
house, with its singlo ooiler, has beea ntdy I 
time. 

In the adjacent Belgian section thero it, com 
little done or doing ; bat many things veie 
week. The boiler-house \a still empty. 

'* In the Gorman sectioa, which oomai aad^ a^ 
deal of work is being done ; bat the rnpmii^ 
far from being so far advanced as they ilMiHba 
immense amount of work remains to be ^m ' 
section will be completed. The OermiA 
machinery hall, as well as the Austiian, ii 
a pair of overhead travelling cranes, ctpA 
5,200 kilos. The German builers are neariT 

• 

^ The next and last section is reserved to 
Hungary, ahd, with the exception of the h 
American sections^ is the leust advanced ifl d 
building, a large portion of the farther tai boi 
empty and desolate. But few nMchiiMi lure 
and even the preliminary work of g^^ttin^oitlhi 
tions, &c., is going on vary slowly. IW 
however, is finished, and the boilers let 




We have received, saya the ArehiUct, ften 
man who is a member of the French 
well acquainted with exhibitions of otlur 
excellent accounts of the prospects of the 
bition of Vienna. 

All those, he says, who remember the mM 
the Paris Exhibition of 1867, agree that th»«« 
Vienna a fortnight before the opening of the Eitfl 
were deeidedly more advanced than were tbo*} 
Champ de Mara at Paria at a siadlar periot. % 
therefore^ no doubt whatever about the opeeiacj 
1, and if certain galleries ahoald notreoeiTer 
touch and finish until a little later, the M 
will find quite aufficient to cause surpriie 
miration. 

The impreasion made on everybody on flnt ] 
outer barrier which encloaea the palaee sod 
buildinga of the exhibition, ia the immeiuiij i 
terprise, and the enormoua efforta which hare i 
for ita raaliaation. 

Around tha jmncipal bnilding, crowned Vf\ 
or rather lantern, near the palace of the hmili 
pavilion of the amateurs, or loan coUeotioa tlfj 

gallery, whioh is as long as the principal 

a prodigious number of buildings in erery i^W 
kinds of materials, built by Austrians and f 
sions, rise lUl over the immense park in 
Promioent among these are the pavilion of i 
Francis- Joseph, uuit of the jury, one bel 
directors of the most important journal iai 
N$w Frse PrcM — model-houses of varioai 
restaurants almost without number, when i 
may recruit his powera during his trarehi 
great transformed park of the Prater. Thet 
by the Vienna Exhibition ia, in fiK)t, sevend 
than the Champ de Mara of Paris, and it awj ' 
a glance that the account of the dimensiew ' 
way exaggerated. 

The works in the Prater present the mofii 
and picturesque appearance ; amidst tbe 
the locomotives, whidi are dragging loads of 
and merchandise to the very doors of the 
buildings, in the midst of the unloading of 
sharp sound of aawa, and the dull noise off 
hear the voicea of all nations. The workoeo 
women employed by the Austrian ^^'T^**^^'^ 
induda four or mora nationalities, amid ^m^ 
Italians, Croata, and (Germans are prwM*^J 
women laka BKNTa part here i«v"^»^— i labear M 
do in Paria, and still more than ia baodoa; jM 
rather staziling to see a number of ^^"'^."'^^ 
the acaffolding, mixing mortar and oiherwiee «h^ 
the work of the maaona. 



tUi 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIEIT OF ARTS, Mat 2, 1878. 



469 



kr ^ tfifr* of the prmeiiMd building rises the 
lioM vkie daring construction equids in point 
|Nll»»««det8 it oattn, Frotti th^ top of the 
ItfW itaDOonto ih« nrhole, the panononicr 
Ibbi Atft*«Mlit the'ascwnt is a Work of 
Me#, b6t a lift will shimly be tead;^ foi^ 
ft iriB give some idea of the enortnoiis 
of ttto central ifotimda to stAte tiiat on the 
t«f fti iMihig ctttemony of the lit of May. j 
^ of flkSmperor and of the entire offtciai 
[vSt md» (he tour of the inside of this stand 
[^ vftich is large e&ongh to allow of this, 
' ig a TUt mass of splendid trophies, 

roe far an immense concoorse of visitors. 
I qoeition whether the number of -visitors 
^Ae total hoped for by the Imperial Austrian 
but this is certain, thi&t the Exhibition 
ths nest'Bigmal fluccess. 

(iTlMthir.'^te^ ai« being taken to har^ 

tof leather at Korthanipton^ the fvincipal 

tbe iMot and shoe trade of ^ie oountryis 

Alrwdy the applieatiena for space have 

JDOnd important that the cotfimittee find 

will not be large enough for the 

^tid It ii proposed to erect a separftte ezhibi- 

AiftoicsA ttindtAABty is already on its 

teoontry for the purposes of this exhibition, 

inmbor of the leading inventors and raanu- 

^ik«idy wenrod spaces for their SKhibita. 



Iftie interior of vessels will complete the work of bene- 
volenee, towards the accomplishment of which every 
friend of tiie sailor and solder ought to lend aU the aid 
in his power/' 

Hie above would doiibtless be more satisfactory were 
the arrangements made on board the CalvadoB folly 
explained, but the offioially-reported resaita themidveB 
have an actual value. 

I 

OEHEEAL VOTB& 



[ON OF CATTLE TKAKSFORTS. 

[have for some time occupied them- 
tifipottant Bubjeot, and we have before us 
E Min, on eoepeHt flmta carried out at 
iftiTOtilts of which must bo taken as below 
itlt^fxpeinneota were conducted without 
' na-breeae« and 0team*boilel^ in full work, 
iftom th«8e trials are as follows t-^ 
tnangementa efTected in the case of the 
Ot ivH h A , a natural ventikitioa may be 
any artiflcfid heat being called into 
t Mdjr nivourable to the sanitary condition 
r u wooden veasels^ and Uiat with a fresh 
to asQpply of 16,000 cubic metres of air 
tldd with the aid of a moderate fire 
boOera, very much smaller than that 
^^woddngof engines^ a supply of 41,000 
[of ur per hour was obtained, corrwpondin:^ 
"tflie^per stall and pernour. 3. That 
Ira, intended to proauce ventilation in 
■■iling, and also in exceptionally unfi&vour- 
"ttnag in tropical fep;4otis, when inider steam, 
tavmoval of the cir In the bold at the rate 
^^COO cabic melMi per liouir, with a con- 
I voce than 30 to 40 kilogrammes of coal. 
laetiMi of the boiler chimneys' would pro- 
b)y aU oases, prevent the necessity of 
^tte of auxiliary fires, and, consequently, 
' expenditure of fuel for ventilation, the 
of the hold of steamers may then be 
i •» bo obtained without coat. 

upon the experiments in question, 

Ifcitb, tbe reporter says: — "The happy 

^ y^ Bertin of the known principles 

f ventilation by simple action (appel), 

J TWuIts wWdi hie observations have 

a^ AKlkt lUkdar conditions eminenUy less favour- 
voold be on board a vessel at sea, prove 
* it is scarcely ever necessary to have 
» J*rt i amca l means, alwajv more complicated 
^koabitsome than the simple and rational 
^I'HHihlSon. The introdootton of the use of 
>^ ptessrved vegetables has caused scurvy 
rittoBtsntaely. The vfiMlMiB|t wholesome 



Teohnieal Xdtisation. — The judges appointed by tho 
Company of Coaohmakers and Ooaohhameas Makers to 
eKaoMne the drawings of carriages and parts of carriages sont 
in for competitiun fur the prises offered by the company re- 
port that tbe drawings seat la were far more numerous than 
Uk ^ear, there beitig 27 competitors and 62 drawings. Moat 
of the competitors, the judge^^ajr^-aeem to have fairly under- 
stood what was required, and it ia hoped that by taking 
advantage of the m^^ana of exhibiting the beat drawings at 
thecanMge exkibiiien, held tbis year at South Kensington, 
the prizea offered aanually by the company will become better 
known and mure keenly competed for, ana each 3rear show a 
higher average of skll 1 im drawing. There seems to be a very 
general want of knowledge in fTeeband drawing, as« preUul- 
navy traiolDg before Special carriage drawiag; theoonsequoBce 
ia a poomesa of design, that better training would prevent. 
There ia ako an evident want of general knowledge of carriage 
oonatmction, as a whole^ among the competitors. Each com- 
petitor seemed to have a fair knowledge of his own' depart* 
ment, but when he tried to combine the work of other depart* 
menta with his own the result in many cases was imsatiif actory. 
A good training in the teehnolo^ of carriage building, as 
proposed by the Society of Arts, will tend greatly to strengthen 
rnture competitora in the means of producing satiafAOtory 
TWUlta. The judges have nut conai^red thewerkof amr 
competitor •f sufficient merit to justify them in recomsaend^ 
ing the e6urt to eonfer the freedosa of the eompany this year. 
They, however, reoommend that, ooaaidering the greet 
increase of competitors, the company should Increase th* 
number of med»f« and money prizea to be awarded in future 
years bV the judges, and continae to offer the fraedeuto sun 
candidate as shows a high degree of merit, especially as the 
freedom seems to be considered a distinction eageriy sought 
after. 

Water 0bs.— The Scientijte Amrkan disposes of ttto 
question of obtaining gas from water as follows :— " This 
WAter burning business has become a noisance that oan only 
be abated by the dij'semination of oorrect soiSntifto principles. 
Pumping water into a reservoir by a eostiy enghie i^ ord* 
that it may drive a smaU wheel at the bottom, is fully as 
economical as any of the coatrivanoea for burmng water 
with which we are acquainted.*' 



NOTIiSES. 



BUB80BXPTMH3. 

The Lady-day subflcriptionB aw due, «ad 
should be forwarded by cheque or Port-offiOB 
order, crossed " Coutts and Co.," and made pajr- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Fmancial 
ofiBcer. 

TOE UBBABT. 

The f oUowing works have been presented to UUe 
librtuy: — 

The Bible Educater. Pari 1. Edited Vy the a«w. 
E. H. Pluttiptre, M.A. Pi««tf*d by Meiita. OmssU, 

Petter, and Ghilpin. «. . _u ir^i- i 

Annals of the Quewk's OoUege, Blnmnghwtu Vehk I 
and % Edited by Win. Snads Oefl^ FAS. P r sse at od 
by the Editor. 



4 '» \ 



JOURNAL OF '^3E SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 2, 187S. 



t -:- 



Beport of tlie Charter, Wameford Trust Deeds, and 
the Act of Parliament of the Queen's College, Birming- 
ham. By Wm. Sands Cox, F.B.S. Presented hy the 
Author. ^ 

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Pre- 
sented by the Society. 

The Agricultural Economist Vol. 3, 1872. Presented 
by the Editor. 

Official Catalogue of the British Section of the Vienna 
Uniyersal Exhibition, 1873. Presented by the British 
Boyal Commission. 

Vienna Universal Exhibition, 1873. Austrian Tariff 
of Import Duties upon the Principal Articles of British 
Produce and Manu&ctures. Prepared b^ Her Majesty's 
Commissioners for the Guidance of British Exhibitors. 
Presented by the British Royal Commission. 

Theory and Practice of Linear Perspective. By P. 
Pellegrin. Presented by the Publishers. 

Beport of the Metropolitan Board of Works for 1872* 



OBDIHABT MEETnrOS. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o*olook. The fol* 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — ' 

Mat 7. — " On Improvemements in the Manufacture 
of Ghm-ootton." By S. J. Mackib^ Esq., C.E. 

Mat 14. — *' Improvements in Rifles." By Capt. 
O'Hba. 

Mat 21. — " On Recent Processes for the Production 
of Gas for Illuminating Purposes." By Thomas Wills, 
Esq. 

CAHTOB LB0TXTBS8. 

The Third Course of Cantor Lectures for 
the present session is ''On Wines; their Pro- 
duction, Treatment, and Use," by J. L. W. 
TnuDiOHirH, Esq., M.D. The Course consists 
of six lectures, the third of which will be given 
on Monday evening, the 5th of May, the remain- 
ing three on the Monday evenings succeeding. 

Lbctxjrb m. 

Description of the vineyards of the Alto Douro, from 
personal observation of the lecturer. Contrast of geo- 
logical position of these vineyards to those of Jerez. 
Varieties of vines cultivated ; all medium -sized grapes ; 
whereas the Jerez grapes are all large-size£ In- 
digenous vines, as studied by the lecturer in the pro- 
vince Entre Douro e Minho. Viticulture in the Alto 
Douro. The vintage and wine-making. 

Lbcturb IV. 

The varieties of wines produced in the Alto Douro ; 
how treated at Oporto. Lodges. Brandy. Legend of 
elderberry. XJnbrandied and dry natural Alto Douro 
wines. Neglect of scientific guidance here also, but 
processes more simple, and varieties of results not so 
great as at Jerez. Description of other Portuguese 
vineyards — ^the Beiraa, Valley of the Tagus, Bucellas. 
Fable of the transplanted Rhenish grapes. CoUares. 
Torres Vedras. General remarks on Uie nature and 
difficulties of Portuguese viticulture and viniflcation, all 
based upon personal observation of the lecturer. 

Lbcturb V. 

The wines of France compared to those of Spain and 
Portugal. The Gironde, its vineyards, wines, and 
varieties of wines. The Bourgogne and its productions. 
Belgian appreciation, and sweetness of Burgundy wine. 
The wine requires the proc^6. The Champagne; 
peculiarities of viticulture. Chemical treatment of 
effervescent wine to ensure its soundness. Absurd 
notion of some writers on champagne ; of the same on 
seoond wines and sugar- water wines ; exposure of the 
sycophancy. 



Lectube "VL 

The wines of Germany ; Bieselinff & type of 
quetted wines. Classification of the viati i 
world, as determined by quality, quantity, nhe i 
market of highest and lowest qanlititt. Attin 
gredients of wine. Use of chemical foulyss. Ur ra 
to the healthy, whether old or young; vio^ f 
which condition preferable to all other aloo]MJkfii 
Wine ^ould be a beverage, not a dna. If 
wine to the delicate and sick. Selection alidi 
wine. Proposed modification of the import ifl 
adjust them to the climatic difficultiei of 8|4i 
PortugaL 



IVDIA COHMITTEE. 

A Conference will be held on FndiywB 
9th instant, at 8 o'clock, when a paper will be 
by lieut. -General Sir Abthtjk Cottoi, 3 
on " The Harbours of India." Lad H 
Hay, F.R.G.S., will preside. •] 

The report of Mr. Tayler*8 psper «* 
Rosary in India," is postponed till next idl 

Members are entitled to attend these Co^ 
free, and to admit two friends to eacho{Al| 



XSETDrOS FOB TEE EVSVIie 

Moir. ...BOCIETY OF AET8, 8. C«itorLMtai». 

chum, **0n Wines; their Tzodadaaot. 

Uee ** 
Sodal Science AModation, 8. OoaaiDdM 

" The Legid Seeuritaes to life It 8m.*' 
Booiet7 of Kngineen, 74. Mr. John8oDe 

and Drawing Oa« Betorts hj Miehboy.* 
Farmers' Qub, 6i. Mr. J. Bailejr Dnua. '^ 

of Water." 
Victoria Institate, 8. Mr. W. D. ICfteO,' 

Flint Implemente of the Urifk." 
Stationen* Company, 7|. Tedmotofiori] 

E. A. DaTidaou, ** Wood £agnTiic »] 

BoTal United Serncelnstitatioo, 8^ Oqil 
K.B., ** Field Eailwayej «adth«< 

. of Bail ways in War." 

Institute of Surveyors, 8. 1 . Mr. Hspt,_ I 
ing." 3. Discusainn un Mr. lieiuici^ 
I>ndnage Works. Water tiupply. and 
Works, executed at Windsor, betwfl 
and 1878." 

Entomological, 7. 

British Architect^ 8. Annual KettJar* 

Medical, 8. 

Asiatic, 3. 

London Institution, 4. 

Tusfl. ...Civil Engineers, 8. 

Pathological, 8. 

Anthropologiad Institote, 8. 

Biblical Ar^eeology, 6. 1. Mr. Coll, *j 
tion and Etymologf of the HebRvr 
2. Mr. W. k A. Boyle, "On tbiC 
Olympiads in connection with ti» 
Greece." 8. Mr. A. M. Ouncron/*! 
Ophir and Taprobane, ttom QnA salj 
ties." 4. Mr. P. Le Pa^ Bakoat "" 
of the Preposition in the agyptisa 
C.W. Goodwin, ** TranHlarion of m 
Ammon." 

Zoological, 84. 

Boyal In^tudon, 8. 

W«D. ...SOCIErr of AETS, 8. Mr. 8. J. iWri^" 

ments in the MantifSscture of Ovn-eottm. 
Mioreaoopioal, 8. «^ 

Obstetrical, 8. Mr. W. K.Pariwr, *•<)■*•«' 

of the 8tuigeon*a Facial Arabas." 

TauB8...Boyal, 8^. 

Antiquaries, Sk. 
Boyal Society Chab, 6. 
Mathematical, 8. 
Boyal Institution, 8. 

Fbi Boyal Institution, 9. 

QuekeU Club, 8. 

Sat Boyal Botanic, 3). 

Bojal InatituUoa, 8. 



X 



^HWRSAL OP THE SOCIFTY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 187, 



461 



"'C 



TY OF ARTS. 









V 



v^^ 



April 
e chair. 

DIA. 

-iinissioner of Patna. 

-acumbent upon me to 

to introduce a subject 

general character of this 

, is foreign to its purpose, and 

^<ect to the special department of 

^ences," can claim little sympathy 

^ which are usually accepted as the 

^ *ddrea8e8; for the question which I 

pwsent to your notice has no con- 

vi or sdenoe, nor any relationship to 

1, or mat^ial interests of India. 

<rf goage in the Imperial Bailway 

my programme. Taxes, opium, 

neither part nor lot in the matter. 

^e most distant allusion to Central 

^^oi^nil zone,'* Bussian ambition, or 

^omacy. 

simply of a certain number of 

iVpoQ a string for the purpose of being 

Uvor mechanically, as the case 

^h the fingers of a worshipper — a 

(save as regards one Cnristian 

use of the Bosarv is devoid of all 

exaggerated effect), has no concern 

|ctic£uropeanraceof the 19th century, 

00 immediate bearing — at least, that 

' by ordinary eyes — on the afiBairs of 

len. 

I wetre asked, how is it that I pre- 

: before an English audience, in 1873, 

^l^psrently alien to all national and 

,1 should be driven to answer, 

[Oowper answered his imaginary critic, 

vkst was the world to him, and 

himself with the affiurs of other 

" What's the world to me?" 

"ICnefa. I wasbonofwomfta; 
liUtiirticiiUte, I laofb and weep, 
£tit«dae sll foot-tious of a man. 
P>itt«, aboaki I and any maa that Uvea, 
»*iD|wa to aaeb otlMT r '* 

. of Booh general appeal to the 
\^hamaxk sympathy, wis subject, 



trivial and eccentric as it may appear, has other 

claims to the passing attention of the modem 

cosmopolite, whether artist, savant, or socialist. 

For, in the first place, it bears with it certain 

not uninteresting phases and incidents ; secondly, 

it is a subject on which, speaking generally, 

there is* the most profound ignorance; and 

thirdly, it is connected with one transcendant 

'uth, to which, though in a strange and way- 

' way, it testifies — viz., the universal belief, 

•wte of the world, of the existence of 

9 dependence of man upon His power 

^dence, the reality of a future existence, 

J efficacy as well as the duty of present 

iip. 

.vith such apolones for my subject, I trust I 

oiay be pardoned if I am on this occasion deviating 

from the usual routine of artistic, practical, and 

scientific discussion. 

If any lady or gentleman here present were to 
open a work of established authority — ^the ** Im- 
perial Dictionary" or *' Encyclopaedia Britannica," 
for instance — and turn to the word *' Eosary," they 
would find it described as a '^ohaplet of beads, 
used during worship by the Boman Catholics. '* 
This, with perhaps a few details in regard to its 
use, and number of beads, is almost the entire 
information vouchsafed to the inquirer; and 
it is very much as if the word " hat " were to be 
described as a ** species of head-dress worn by 
cabmen in Piccadilly.** 

And this is, in all probability, the general idea 
of the Bosary — ^at least, among those who have 
not cared to carry their inquiries further. And 
those who entertain this restricted conception of 
the Bosary may possibly be under some apprehen- 
sion that in discussing its origin and use, I sheJl 
transgress the rules and regulations of this Society 
by entering on the religious phase of the subject 
connected with the ceremonial worship of that 
body of our fellow-Christians who, according to 
the dictionaries, are the sole monopolists of the 
Bosary as an accompcmiment and aid to devotion. 

It may, therefore, be well, at the commence- 
ment of the subject, to relieve the minds of any 
who entertain such apprehensions by stating 
that the Bosary, instead of being confined to 
Boman Catholic Christians, is to be foimd in the 
hands of I really don't know how many millions 
of mortal men — Hindoos, Mahommedans, and 
Buddhists, constituting, with the Boman Catholic 
Christians, about three-fourths of the entire human 
race. In the few observations, therefore, which 
I propose to make upon its origin, object, and use, 
I shall have something to say without in any way 
entering upon any question likely to excite the 
odium theologicum of Protestant or Catholic, Hindoo, 
Mahommedan, or Buddhist, high, low, or broad 
Church. 

True devotion consiste, I need hardly say, not 
in active and articulated prayer only, but in the 
communion of the soul with God — a communion 
beautifully described by one of our scusred poets as 
'* the soul's sincere desire, uttered or imexprest." 
Every man, I apprehend, feels, or has felt, the 
extreme difficulty of reaching such a state of 
mental abstraction from the realities of actual life 
as to admit of such communion for any length of 
time. Words, as (George Eliot beautifully says in 
the *' Gtypsy," *' are but as broken light upon the 
depths of the unspoken." Words may or may not 



462 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, Mat 9, 187J. 



assist the struggling mind in the oontemjdation of 
the Deity; but, anumg oooupied and energetic 
meu, who feel that '* to labour is to pray," and 
who reoognise in honest and aotive occupation the 
best discharge, even of rdigioos duty, there is 
little desire to devote too much of their time to 
spiritual contemplation, and tiivis it happens that 
actual prayer, at stated pcnode, and ror a given 
time, is the only devotional exerotse in which they 
can indulge. 

Such men, as it appean to me, do not require 
artificial aid to thor devotaon, and it is not 
among such people that we should naturally look 
for the first adoption of the Bosary, which, in 
whatever way it is used, is an accompaniment and 
aid to devotional worship, not in its active or ag- 
gressive phase (if I may use suoh an expression), 
but in that of calm and solemn contemplation. 

It is accordingly among those religionists who, 
above and beyond all others, are distinguished for 
the calm and contemplative character of their 
religion, that the Rosary was most appreciated, 
although its invention may be claimed by others ; 
«ndthis brings me to a subject which would in its 
fulness occupy fifty lectures, but upon which I have 
time only to say but a very few words. I wish I 
could conscientiously believe that sufficient interest 
was taken in the ancient history of India to make it 
supeifiuous to say that some 500, some say 1 ,000, 
Tears before the Christian era there was a real 
living being called Goutama Buddha, and that this 
man, being of Royal race, and bom in the purple, 
did actually leave his regal palace and his father's 
dominions, of his own free will, exchanging 
the luxury and magnificence of a court for 
the privation and hardships of a wilderness, and 
that subsequently issuing from his retirement, 
he did, imaided, and by the force of his own 
exertions and example, entirely subvert the 
national religion of the Brahmins, and establish 
in its place a new system of religion and moralitj- 
utterly opposed to that which he displaced. 

Now, whatever difference of opinion may exist 
among the learned as to the exact character, ox- 
tent, and origin of the Buddhist religion, one cha- 
racteristic of that religion is admitted by all, 
and that characteristic is what may be termed 
** quietism." 

It seems to be a matter of dispute whether the 
Buddhist believes in the existence of God or not ; 
but he certainly ignores providential interferende. 
He believes he may win everlasting happiness by 
his own efforts, and those efforts exerted not 
in active occupation, benevolent enterprise, or 
polemical agonisation, but in the cultivation of 
holy calm, gentleness of demeanour, tenderness of 
life, extending even to the bug and the flea, 
holy and continuous contemplation, a religion in 
which "all thoughts, all passions, all delights, 
whatever stirs the mortcd frame," are accounted 
violators of the peace. Buddha himself is over 
at rest, the highest merit attainable in this world 
is abstraction and quiescence, the highest final 
beatitude ** nirvana " or absorption in the Deity. 

Now, in following out such a system of devotion 
as this, we can perceive that artificial aid is not to 
be despised. The man, especially in a warm cli- 
mate, who conceives it to be his first duty to sit 
quiescent and unmoved upon his hams for hours 
together, in solemn contemplation of an unseen 
Deity, with the vague prospect of emmtnal 



absorption, after thousands of years sad 
transmigrations, and who belieres ihai 
abstraction from the things of fins fil^^ 
in itself, the merit by which the higbst 
tude can be attained, such a man, if he 
human infirmity, would, I imagine, be ntker 
posed, in spite of himself, to fa^ asleep, 
some way or other he aided his deyotiaul 
by some material adjunct, which, while it 
to keep him awake, would not difitoiblb 
and quiet character of his worship. Pi 
an adjunct would be foux^ in the rosiry 
still more agreeable, as some people say, 
additional charm of coolness in the beads « 
pass through the hands on a hot and ^^ _ 

And it is worthy of remark that the fibodli 
rosary is almost always made of smooth maledi 
stones, coral, amber, or seeds, the moit com 
being the seed of the Toolsee plant (tbe (km 
basiltc«m\ the well-known shrub into limA 
fair m^d Toolsee was metamorphoeed br VM 
wife, who thought that her husband aaabi^ 
young woman more than she approved i 

That the rosary was in use among tbe ffid 
long before the introduction of the Buddlii 
ligion is obvious, for the most andent vioM 
pictures of the gods are frequentlj icpMP 
with chaplets of beads in their huds ; Ml 
equally obvious that it was cordudly wekaiil 
the reformers, who subsequently oairied 
of artificial or rather vicarious prajren ton 
which, though doubtless affording eonad 
lief to an indifferent or exhausted 
sublimely absurd. 

This is seen in the adoption of the w 
prayer- wheel (which I shall show yon 

Dr. Ho<^cer, in his excellent w<»k, 
layan Journal/' thus mentions tbis 
machine: — **Here, too, I first »w i 
machine turned by water; it was 
Httle wooden house, and consisted of sb 
cylinder, containing a prayer, and wrtb ti* 
* Om muni Pudmi om ' (Hail to him of ' 
and the Jewel) painted on the 
was placed over a stream, and made to 
its axis by a spindle, which passed 
fioor of the building into the water, sad 
minated by a wheel." 

Messrs. Hue and Gabet, the celebnM' 
missionaries, give a longer descripta* 
custom, with an jufnwgfny anecdote, «W 
here quote — ** The Buddhists have 
of simplifying pilgrimages and devoM 
In all the great Lamaseries you find, A 
tervals, figm^es in the form of barrels, asd 
upon an axle. The material of these ' 
thick board, composed of infinite sbeet» 
pasted together, and upon which are « 
Thibetan duuraoters, the jarayers most 
throughout the country. Those who bare 
taste, or the zeal, or tiie strength to 
boards of books on their shoulders, or to 
themselves step by step in the dust or 
walk round the Lamasery in winter'* 
siunmer's heat, have recourse to the siini^ 
expeditious mediimi of the prayer-barrei iB 
have to do is to set it in motion, it tiba 
itself for a long time, the devotees 
or sleeping, whilst the 
prayon for tiisni* 



'd\ 



CMXIJi 



miiffl 




JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 9, 1873. 



463 



r«pn|«4MrreI, we fomid two Lamas quar- 
m^ taBontjy and just on the point of coming 
Um, tiie oooaaion being the fenrour of each 
tpMfo^ One oi these having set the prayer- 
^mitoa in motion, and quietly letumed to 
iwB, as be was entering turned his head — 
Mtm to enjojT the spectacle of the fine prayer 
U Kt to woric for himself — ^but, to his infinite 
M, Im bsw a colleague stopping his prayers, 
uboat to turn on the barrel on his own account. 
■Bsot at this pious fraud, he ran back and 
mtA his competitor's prayer. Thus it went on 
That time, the one turning on, the other 
■faf the barrel, without a word said on either 
K ii last, however, their patience exhausted, 
nm to high words ; from high words they 
■rifd to menaces, and it would, doubtless, 
p«xiie to a fight had not an old Lama, 
pbd b]r the uproar, interposed words of peace, 
HMelfpatthe automaton in motion for the 
piRMfit of both parties." 
■koBs as is this picture, it shows the belief 
■Mntending devotees in the reality of prayer, 
■lAai mechanically oonducted by a senseless 

IMn it may be as -4^11 to g^ve a little further 
iMiBn at to Buddhist ceremonial, especially 
■hl^heeQ enabled, by the kindness of Dr. 
■Mfte former superintendent of Darjeeling, 
^Mi-as I shall at the close of this lecture* 
Bnirt Luna in his priestly dress, with the 
BM aU the paraphemaHa of Buddhist 

Pbfflid 1 will quote a few further passages 
|p> Hooker^s interesting journal : — 
ft vee awakened at daylight by the dis- 
ll orisons of the Lama ; these commenced by 
^^ beating the great tambourine, then blow- 
B^vaeh shells, and, finally, the trumpets 

^P% the Lama entered, clad in scarlet, 
Bil bare-footed, -wearing a small red silk 
Bline gown girt round the middle, and an 
^pMimt of questionable colour, possibly 
B|is. He walked along, slowly muttering 
Bm^ to the end of the apt^ment, whence 
^n bran beU and dorgo,t and sitting down 
pt^ oomm^iced matins, counting his 
nnging the bells, and uttering most 
After various disposal of the cups 
was violently rung for some 
aiapping his fingers and utter- 
aarthly sounds. Finally, incense was 
charcoal with juniper sprigs; it was 
t, and conclndcKi the morning service, 
rehel, for the noises were quite in- 
Pennrid as the devotions appeared, to 
intonations, I fear the Lama felt 
vxu about us than was proper under the 
Mtts; and when I tried to sketch him, 
iMit knew no bounds ; he fairly turned 
^bis settee, and continuing his prayers and 
"T Mrimen ts, appeared to be exorcising me 
^pkit within me.'* 

I inother description of the Lama worship, 
M: — 

alesiivml day, when the natives 



M^ 4id not UTiv« la 
rthoadcrtiDlt* 



l ~ — 'i 

i» Ml 



were bringing offerings to the altar, we also 
visited the old temple, a small wooden building. 
Besides more substantial offiBrings there were little 
cones of rice with a round wafer of butter at the 
top, ranged on the altar in order. Six Lamas were 
at prayers, psalms, and contemplations, sitting 
cross-legged on two small benches that ran down 
the building; one was reading, with his hand 
and forefinger elevated, whilst the others listened ; 
anon they all sang hynms, repeated sacred or silly 
precepts to the bystanders, or joined in a jhorus 
with boys, who struck brass cymbals, and blew 
straight copper trumpets six. feet long, and conch- 
shells mounted with brosid silver wings, elegantly 
carved with dragons, lliere were besides munis, 
or praying cylinders, drums, gongs, books, and 
trumpets made of human thigh-bones, plain or 
mounted in silver. 

Before leaving the Buddhist and his devotional 
auxiliaries, it may perhaps interest you to see a 
Lama as he appears at his prayers, which the 
kindness of Br. Hooker has placed at my disposal. 

At the close of my paper I shall have the plea- 
sure of showing you, in greater perfection, what 
is now concealed by this curtain, viz., the Lama 
in his actual dress, with the altar, bell, rosary, and 
other articles of ceremonial worship. 

We must now pass from the Buddhists to the 
Hindoos, and see in what light they regard the 
Rosary. Of the earliest days we have Httle in* 
formation, none, indeed, except the mere fact of 
its being in use. It is clear that the Buddhists 
received it from the Brahmins, and that the 
Brahmins resumed it when they expelled the 
Buddhists. 

The Shastras tell us that the advantages, gained 
by counting beads are four, viz. : — 

1st. Arth (riches). 

2nd. Dhurm (piety).' 

3rd. Kam (sensual enioyment). 

4th. Mosh (salvation.) 

So that all the beatitudes, temporal and eternal, 
are attainable by this simple exercise. 

Moore, the Oriental scholar (no mean authority), 
sajrs, ** The thousand names of Vishnu and Shiva 
are strung together in verse, and are repeated on 
certain occasions by Brahmitis, as a sort of litany, 
accompanied sometimes by the rosary. As each 
name is mentally recited, with the attention 
abstractedly fixed on the attribute or character 
that each name excites the idea of, a bead is 
dropped through the finger and thumbs Such . 
operation is supposed to assist and promote ab- 
straction, an attainment that enthusiastic Hindoos 
think exceedingly efficacious." 

One of the most important ceremonies in which 
the Hindoo rosary played a part, was in what was 
callfMl the " Nama-kirt-han. ' 

The formula of this devotional exercise was 
somewhat monotonous, as it consisted in nothing 
but the rei)etition (at least in Bengal) of the names 
of Krishna, as follows :—** Huri Krishna, Huri 
Krishna; Krishna, Krishna, Krishna, Huri. Huri, 
Huri, Ram ; Huri Ram, Ram. Huri, Huri !" 

This is a specimen of those vain repetitions which 
our Saviour reprobated among the Jews (probably 
alluding tu the " Mea Heraooth "), but which, 
strange to say, have always apparently found 
speoii^ favour among human beings in all parts 
of the world, as if reitCTation of words alone, or 



461 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 9. 1873. 



the physical fact of lingual ejaculation, were dero- 
tionally valuable. 

The variety in the size of the rosary and the 
number of the beads among the Hindoos consti- 
tutes a difference between their beads and those of 
the Buddhists. 

Moore says he once saw a rosary of one hundred 
thousand beads! although the true rosary, as 
finally accepted, consists, like that of the Budd- 
hists, of one himdred and eight beads only ; the 
piety of a Yaishnava (he continues) is generally 
estimated by the number of times the rosary is 
gone round. No real Yaishnava, under whatever 
circumstances, drinks water or tastes food without 
making one revolution of the sacred mala, the 
ncune by which the rosary is designated. It is an 
object of adoration, and is generally enclosed in 
an envelope of silk, neatly and tastefully made. 
In every village of Bengal the Yaishnavas are 
seen after the morning ablutions and at nights 
duly counting their rosaries while waUong 
in the streets ; their finders are seen rolling over 
the Toulasi beads, and their lips in motion. The 
Ndmd Kirt*tau, however, is p^ormed in silence ; 
no audible voi^ is heard ; the fingers and the lips 
are only obseived to be in the utmost activity; 
experienced Yaishnavas, veterans of the Ndmd 
Kirt'tan, can manage very often to serve God and 
Mammon at the same time. They may be seen 
listening to a Qonvr^Tsation and taking their part in 
it, and at the same time engaged in counting their 
beads. 

Marvellous efficacy is ascribed to the SM- 
hana ; it is the only thing necessary, in this age 
of sin and vice, for the attainment of future 
felicity. The neglect of the rest of the Bid- 
hanas can amply be atoned for by a diligent per- 
formance of Hari Ndmtl. This is pre-eminently the 
duty of the Kali-Yuga, or iron age. 

From these descriptions it will be perceived that 
there is a considerable difference in tne practice of 
the EUndoo and the Buddhist. The Hindoos, as I 
have shown, consider that all happiness here and 
hereafter is to be attained by the constant use of 
the Rosary. With them the Rosary is not only used 
for the purpose of assisting abstraction (though 
this is sometimes the object) but as an exercise 
constantly repeated on various occasions of active 
employment, as well as in the energetic celebra- 
tion of established ceremonies ; and it is worthy of 
remark, that the Buddhist rosary is, as I have 
before observed, always smooth. The most 
favomite materials of the Hindoo rosary is the 
Hoodtach, an extremely rough and rugged seed, 
quite imsuited to the quiet manipulation of the 
contemplative Buddhist. 

I have myself an idea that the rosary or prayer 
bead owes its earliest origin among the Hindoos 
to the sacred necklace or mala, for that is the 
word, to this day, indiscriminately used both for 
necklace and'Rosary. 

The origin of the necklace is involved in some 
obscurity, but that necklaces are among the most 
ancient of ornaments there is little doubt, as they 
are frequently mentioned in Scripture. 

The most ancient, probably, now in existence is 
the necklace of Menes, the first of the Egyptian 
kings (now, I understand, in Dr. Abbott's cabinet 
at Cairo), and it is said to resemble the Indian 
necklaces as represented in the most andent cave 
temples. 



It will be found, perhaps, that the first com 
tion of the necklace was a string for muptai 
charms and amulets in a collar, itself vested i 
Talismanic powers. Necklaces and oollars, W 
form of serpents,. were thus worn by the GreekM 
Romans as charms against the evil eye. Rootftj 
herbs also were thus appropriated as antidoUi' 
sickness, and for their pleasant perfume aad nil 
scent, as in the "Winter's Tale'* Autolycos oAa] 

** Necklftoe unber, 
Perftame for a lady's chamber.* 

It is easily conceivable that sudi neiUi 
almost all of which, as far as male weaxon 
concerned (for the female love of omamentiM 
an entirely different matter, being suBplr^ 
ambition of personal beauty, common wBi 
ancient barbarian and modem belle), are coB&id 
with some religious idea, should graduaih^ 
the more direct religious character whidi «yi 
tained to the Rosary, and thus eventually a Ml 
or devotional nec&lace, or chaplet, fiboad 
originated. : 

The chief necklace wearer among the Bid 
Gods was Shiva, or Muhadeo (the destroyer^ I 
necklace was not a pleasant one, being cMi|| 
of human skulls, which he invariaUy 
when in company with his ftml<LKI« 
Parbutee. Inaeed his wife "kept hun i 
and she wore at times a string of smaller < 

We now come to the Mahommedana, 
curiously enough, we find the same valne m 
portance given by them as by Buddfaai 
Brahmins to the repetition of prayers, 
dictions, and sacred names, as a meritorioi 
conducive to salvation or spiritual bexK^i, 
is, indeed, one of the most prominent dooM 
the Koran. 

*' The Mussulman," says Gibbon, ^'isenooi 
to hope that prayer will carry him halM 
God, fasting wiU bring him to the door i 
palace, and alms will give him admittazKCL*' 

Mahommed, in his personal experience wt 
Deity, was commanded to impose on his 4t( 
the daily obligation of 50 prayers, thi 
were afterwards reduced to ^ye. With 
tion of the value of repetitions, and i 
example of the Jewish " Mea Heracolh ** 
dred benedictions) before them, the adopti 
Rosary was a natural expedient of the 
The mode of using it is described by 
notes on the *' Arabian Nights:'* — ^'^lU 
Moslem has finished the prayers nrdninitl 
Koran, if he would acquit himself of snpMl 
tory acts, he remains sitting (but then may i| 
at ease), and recites in succession sundry ni 
from the Koran, repeating each 33 times.' 

I must here, however, observe that Mahoxnfl 
generally say that Mahommed never used ihe] 
himself, but counted his prayers on his ficngen 
it is certain that the Wahabees, those xxa^ 
fanatics who have for years past plotted a 
are plotting against the Britiui Goreai 
totally abjure the use of the Bosarv* and rm 
as an abomination. 

The full Mahommedan Rosizy, called 1)« 
Tusbeehf consists of ninety-nine beads, vM 
chief bead which they call the Imam, tk»^ 
number corresponding with the hunted Ml 
God. It is divided into three eml mAH 
consisting of thirfy-tihrM bMVk vi^fl| 



ami 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May D, 1873. 



465 



sometimes with a stone or bead of 
ahftpe, sometimes by one or more tassels, 
Amnwehs/* which, made of gold thread 
of divers colours, have a brilliant and 



among Mahommedans, is used by 
as men ; and Tom Moore was not 
oa his imagination when he writes — 

** H«T littl« ^mrden mosque to s«e, 
Aad oiic« a^n at ereuiny hoar 
To tell ber ruby rotary 
lo her own Bireet aeaoU bower.** 

Stuart Elphinstone, in his '* History of 
iya : — **Many people have always a 
round their wrist, and begin to 
lenever there is a pause in the conver- 
They are supposed to repeat the name of 
they drop a bead, but they often go 
they are listening attentively to what is 
w^hile they are speaking themselves.*' 
ipy £loisa pathetically represents this 
1 attention — 

. ly roice I seem in every hymn to hear ; 

Willi every tvead I Urop too eoft a tear." 

the Hindoos and Buddhists, we see the 
to a few simple substances, chiefly 
^ coral, and other natural products, 
at least among the ordinary wor- 
ming an ornamental appearance. 
the Mahommedans the case is different : 
they use are made of elegant and 
~ I, such as I here show you — 
Klian, onyx, even emeralds. 
one of on3rx, which deserves some special 
The onyx is called by the Mahommedans 
d putiiur," or " Solomon's Stone," for 
I cannot ascertain ; but there is 
anecdote connected with Kin^ Solomon 
ivhich may throw some light upon it. 
tedans have a tradition that before 
of Sheba went to the length of visiting 
Lon in person, she endeavoured to test 
wisdom by sending him a bevy of 
conninglv dressed as boys, a pearl not 
an onyx bead with a crooked passage 
^h it. King Solomon was equal to 
He at a glance penetrated the dis- 
tiie boys, ordered a worm to bore the 
another to pass a thread through the 

:— which, in passing. I may observe 

name from the Oreek word for nail (the 

in it being considered like the human 

frequently mentioned in Scripture as 

ions, and is held in great estimation 

Mahommedans. 

anxiety to recover the onyx necklace 
it Ayesha, the favourite wife of 
into that awkward scrape, from which 
only rescued by a "special revelation." 
fltayed hehind her husband on a journey, 
ffrcmhet 8un)ected her of desiring a stolen 
r -wtth an aomirer. The revelation absolved 
■he recovered her necklace and her cha- 
tifee same time. 

Hbam material is (showing one of the 

mf rtmaried) I do not know, and have 

to discover. I have consulted all 

I of OaLratta, and made enquiries from 

without effect. 

to it ore two, and are re- 



markable. The one in Arabic is, " XJqueeq ool- 
buhr," or " Cornelian of the Sea." lie other (in 
Oordoo) is **Moonga-ka-jur," or "Boot of Coral." 
It is apparently of a resinous nature, as will bo 
seen by holding it to the lieht; and a curious 
circumstance is, that a small head of red coral is 
always inserted, it being the universal belief that 
without this the beads would crack. 

It is worth noticing, in regard to this rosary and 
its name, " Boot of Coral," that Chaucer, in his 
" Canterbury Tales," mentions a coral as ap- 
parently in use for prayer beads. He describes 
the fair nun's dress thus : — 

** Full fetire was her cloak, as I was ware. 
Of small corall about here she bare 
A pair of bedes, gauded all with greene." 

In this note on the passage there is the follow 
ing explanation of the word ** gauded " : — ** BEav- 
ing the gaudies greene ; " and then in Latin — * * Tria 
paria precularicum, cum le gaudoys argenti deau- 
rata," — i.e., three pairs of prayer-beads, and then 
Gower is quoted : — 

** A pair of bedes, black ai 5able, 
He took and hung my neck about." 

And this **pair of bedes," thus specially mentioned, 
is again referred to by Beaumont and Fletcher — 

** Go, get a pair of bedes, and learn 
To pray, sir, with your wife for a month.*' 

But I have not exhausted the noticeable Mahom- 
medan rosaries. 

Here is one of peculiar sanctity, called the 
'* Khak-i-shafa," or earth of healing, being made 
of the sacred earth of Kurbala, where the martyr 
Hossein was slain. 

It is difficult to exaggerate the sacredness of this 
earth, or the veneration shown even at the present 
day to the memory of Hossein, the yoimger son of 
Ali, and grandson of the prophet Mahommed. The 
story of this young hero's death, as related by 
Gibbon, is so mtercsting that I shall be pardoned 
if I hero read it. The tale may perhaps be new 
to some present. 

HosEnr's Story. 

" With an equal measure of piety, Hosein, the 
younger brother of Hassan, inherited a remnant of 
his father's spirit, and served with honour against 
the Christians in the seige of Constantinople. The 
primogeniture of the line of Hashem, and the holy 
character of grandson of the apostle, had centred 
in his person, and he was at liberty to prosecute 
his claim against Yezid, the tyrant of Damascus, 
whose vices he despised, and whose title he scarcely 
deigned to acknowledge. A list was secretly 
transmitted to Medina, of one hundred and forty 
thousand Moslems, who professed their attach- 
ment to his cause, and who were eager to draw 
their swords so soon as he should appear on the 
banks of the Euphrates. Against the sidvioe of 
his wisest friends, he resolved to trust his person 
and family in the hands of a perfidious raoe. He 
traversed the deserts of Arabia with a timorous 
retinue of women and children, but as he 
approached the confines of Irak, he was alarmed 
by the solitary or hostile face of the country, and 
suspected eitiier the defection or ruin of his 
pazty. His fears were just. ObeidoUah, the 
governor of Cufa, had extin^^uished the first sparks 
of insuireotion ; and Hosein, m the plain of Kerbehiy 
was encompassed by a body of five thousand horse, 
who intercepted his oommunication with the dty 



466 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 9, 1873. 



■ 

and the river. He might still have escaped to a 
fortress in the desert, that had defied the power of 
CsBsar and Chosroes, and confided in the fidelity of 
the tribe of Tai, which would have armed ten 
thousand warriors in his defence. In a conference 
with the chief of the enemy he proposed the option 
of three honourable conditions — that he should be 
allowed to return to Medina, be stationed in a 
frontier garrison against the Turks, or safely con- 
ducted to the presence of Yezid. But the com- 
mands of the caliph, or his lieutenant, were stem 
and absolute, and Hosein was informed that he 
must either submit, as a captive and a criminal, to 
the commander of the faithful, or expect the 
consequences of his rebellion. *Do you think,* 
replied he, * to terrify me with death ? " And, 
during the short respite of a night, he prepared 
with calm and solemn resignation to encounter his 
fate. He checked the lamentations of his sister 
Fatima, who deplored the impending ruin of his 
house. * Our trust,' said Hosein, *■ is in God alone ; 
all, though both in heaven and earth, must perish, 
and return to their creator. My brother, my 
father, my mother were better than me, and every 
Mussulman has an example in the * Prophet.* He 
pressed his friends to consult their safety by a 
timely flight. They unanimously refused to desert 
or survive their beloved master, and their 



the coldest reader. On the annual festiTal of la 
martyrdom, in the devout pilgrimage to m 
sepulchre, his Persian votaries abandon tkir khI 
to the religious frenzy of sorrow and indignstkn.' 

It is not a matter of surprise that the m 
of Hosein should receive the ^ithusiasUc t 
tion which it does to this day. It is in vassosty 
him and his brother Hassan that the great kA 




of the Mohurrum is yearly celebrated in afl 
of India, when thousands of fanatical (kri 
smite their breasts in frensied enthusiasm, 
the air resounds with the cry of '* HaiHatfii 
Hai Hosein ! '» 

The following memorandum was writtai \ 
myself in India, after showing this rosary to sefai 
Mahommedans : — I 

** I have been much amused at the aooooDtgrW 
me of this holy earth by those around jue. t^ 
Sherishtadar of my office, * Farzund Ali,' mf 
that the Soonnees do not carry the Bowy.Mr 
the * Sijdeh-gah,* because they do not bol4 
earth in^ much estimation. On the ooa" 
* Moolvee Imdad Ali ' (Sudder Ameen), a 
and a professedly enthusiastic devotee of 
Soonnee faith, gives qiiite a different leaMO. | 
version is that the earth is to the SoooBirt 
object of such intense and overpowering «• 
that they dw* sc€uxjely touch it ! The ma»j|| 

courage wr-s fortified by a fervent prayer, and i he says, overwhelms the faithful and r^p 

the assurance of Paradise. On the morning Moslem with such awe and pious horror M 

of the fatal day he mounted on horseback, is fain to withdraw his unworthy ey« froaj 

with, his sword in one hand and the Koran ' contemplation. In telling me this *InididJ 

in the other. His generous band of martyrs pointed to an imaginary piece of earth, and ai*l 

consisted only of thirty-two horse and forty foot ; the appearance and aspect of a condemned cii^ 

but their flanks and rear were secured by tent- with one foot on the scaffold. 

ropes, and by a deep trench which they had filled 

with lighted faggots, according to the practice of 

the Arabs. The enemy advanced with reluctance ; 

and one of their chiefs deserted with thirty fol- 
lowers, to claim the partnership of inevitable death.. 

In every close onset or single combat the despair 

of the Fatimites was invincible ; but the surroimd- 

ing multitudes galled them from a distance with a 

cloud of arrows, and the horses and men were suc- 
cessively slain ; a truce was allowed on both sides 

for the hour of prayer, and the battle at length 

expired by the death of the last of the compfioiions 

of Hosein. Alone, weary, and wotinded, he seated 

himself at the door of his tent. As he tasted a 

drop of water he was pierced in the mouth with a 

dart, and his son and his nephew, two beautiful 

youths, were killed in his arms. He lifted his 

hands to heaven ; they were full of blood, and he 

uttered a funeral prayer for the living and the 

dead. In a transport of despair his sister issued 

from the tent, and adjured the general of the 

Oufians that he would not suffer Hosein to be 

murdered before his eyes ; a tear trickled down his 

venerable beard ; and the boldest of his soldiers 

fell back on every side as the dying hero threw 

himself among them. The remorseless Shamer, a 

^me detested by the faithful, reproached their 

cowardice, and the grandson of Mahomet was slain 

with three and thirty strokes of lances and swords. 

After they had trampled upon his body they carried 

his head to the castle of Cufa, and the inliiinnftTi 

Obeidollah struck him on the mouth with a cane. 
*' Alas I ** exclaimed an aged Mussulman, ** on those 
lips have I seen the lips of the Apostle of Gk>d ! " 
In a distant age and climate the tragic ecene of 



* * My old Kansamann (buiUr) tops this acooJ 
affirming that the genuine Khak-i-8hufa is^ 
during the Mohurrum (when the death of «| 
is celebrated) in sympathy with the hero * t 
tyrdom., 

" S3md Azeem Ood-deen, the deputy ooUert^ 
the contrary, who gave me the Ko^ry, a ^ 
singular intdlligence, himself a Sheah, M^ 
matter with a decorous th&ugh scarce («o^ 
indifference, perhaps contempt. 

** Last, though not least, the principal 
Ameen, Mahomed Rookenood-deen, the l 
piety (supposed to be a Wahabee), openly 
the whole affair and all its sanctities, ii 
absurd,'* 

Having now given you some faint i^ 
Rosary in the East, I must say a few 
its use and incidents in our own country. 

I need hardly tell you that the 

general use at the present day among 

Catholic Christians, being used in connect] 

the five joyful, the five sorrowful, and Wj 

glorious mysteries of our Lord's life, dt«M|I 

resurrection. ^ 

It consists of three groups of fifty-fi^« 

each, with a large bead as a medal to heginj 

and the profes^ object of its use is t^ • 

meditations on the special subject hefwe tM 

shipper, when the "Paternoster" or the a^ 

salutation, "Ave Maria," are respecti^ 

peated. ^^ 

Protestant Christians we know haw, wW 

wisely or otherwise I will not venture i9 «WJ|" 

gether abandoned the use of the Boiti7»^~ 

other ceremonies. 



the death ol Hoeain will awaken the B3rmpathy ol But this part ol thd 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 1873. 



467 



gnnndi, isd I will not, therefore, dwell on it, but 
otettme obserrations on the mention which we 
hi of it in some ChristiAn wr iter s, 

h BftT, perhaps, be new to those who do 
tat nQch troable themselyes with the intricacies 
gf rtjmology to know that the word " bead ** is 
hi past participle of biddan, the Saxon word for 
^t9 pnyr and thns originally signified string 
■1^, or a prayer. The transition of the signi- 
koitioD fnm the prayer to the accompaniment 
ftowv how general in olden times was the practice 
tfottig beads at the time of prayer. Spencer, in 
^ " Fairy Queen," says : — 

" WlMfv that old vonui daj and nifbt did pny 
Upon her bcMls, dtToutly peniteot, 
5]Be hnodred patenH^ttcrt erv'-y day, 
Afid thrioe alJM hoadred ares ah« wm voot to My.** 

iai, again: — 

* All etfht ihe tpeot in bidding of her bede«, 
4id all dM day m dotn^ good and Godly deeds.** 

Ae introduction of the beads or Bosaxy among 
■UKa is generally attributed to St, Dominic, 
kfte 1^ century, but there is reason to 
kn that it was, in fact, much earlier ; some, 
Ihi iDiintain that it was first introduced in the 
H«( 8t. Benedict, about the 6th century. It 
Bfat at this period that the Buddhists were 
Bg ihiTen out of India by the Brahmins, and 
jHlid tbemselTes orer the world. 
Hpfte £oflary, or bead-chaplet, was in general 
BklMiia long before the Christian era, I have 
■^diown; and that it was borrowed by 
■■au from the Buddhists appears to he 
b feost reasonable assumption. The extra- 
Miry amilarity between the ceremonial of the 
Bluts and Roman Catholics has been a frequent 
Bci of rwnarit. The tonsure, the bare feet, the 
K4rk p)wn, and the Bosary are common to 
^^iliilc the mitre is in ordinary use among the 
^btfden of the priesthood. * 
^Wl ivmember, on my return from Nepal, 
Bl I had been sketching the Buddhist Lunas 
BJfe. coming to a village at a place called 
^■b entirely inhabited by converted Christians, 
^p «l our districts near the foot of the hills, 
^p*f struck with the exact resemblance of the 
Christian priest who lived with them and 
' i^ Lamas, whom I had just left. 
■We sefTip was most interesting ; the entire 
P *w Christian, and the order, quiet, and 
Ibev of the villages formed a mo8t striking 
M^ith the neighboxtring native communities. 
pte lived among the people, and was evi- 
■flnich beloved ; he had, however, forgotten 
P^ I pTRpared, as I thought, a highly clas- 
'iMpfioe. but we could not understand each 
^ Ad took refuge in Hindustanee. 
• wbnjevcr and by whomsoever introduced 
|R Cbri<tians, beads very soon assumed con- 
MHe importance in Europe, and their use 
P*twre frpqucnt on the return of Christians 
M^ cnmides. In England the " beadsman " 
p*ttT prominent personage. 
M» 'Two Gentlemai of Verona," Prot«i8 



Aad Is tby danrpr, 
oo envlrao ts'V, 
liy frtmnme m to aiy holy prayart, 
- Vakatiac** 



Btfbard n., thos alludes 



** What moat the Uofr do now ! Must he aabmlt f 
The kirnr »hail do it Must be be deposerl 1 
The king aha 1 l»e contented. O* Ood*a name, let it go ! 
Til fire my Jewela for a aet of beada ; 
My goffeoua palace for a hermitage ; 
My ^y apparel for an alms-man'a goim; 
My figured goMeta for a diah of wood." 

-^Rickard II., Aet ill., Soane It. 

In ^e introduction to the ''Antiquary," the 
author thus writes of the beadsman. Beferring 
to the portraiture of Edie Ochiltree, and after 
describing the Scottish mendicant of the eighteenth 
century, he says : — ** If , in addition to his personal 
qiialifications, the mendicant chanced to be a long's 
bedesman, or blue^gown, he belonged, in virtue 
thereof, to the aristocracy of his orders^ and was 
esteemed a person of great importance. These 
bedesmen are an order of paupers to whom the 
kings of Scotland were in the custom of distributing 
certain alms, in conformity with the ordinances 
of the Catholic Church, and who were exx>ected in 
return to pray for the royal welfare and that of the 
state.'' 

In Knight's edition of Shakspeare, we find the 
following note on the speedi of Proteus which I 
have quoted above : — ** The Anglo-Saxon beade — 
a prayer, something prayed — ^has given the name 
to the mechanical help which the ritual of the 
early church associated with the act of praying. 
To drop a ball down a string at every prayer, 
whether enjoined by the priest or by voluntary 
obligation, has been the practice in the Boman 
Church for many centuries. In our language, the 
ball, from its use, came to be called a bead. To 
"bid the beads" and to **pray" were synonymous. 
Butnet, in his '* History of the Beformation," 
says : — ** The form of bidding prayer was not begun 
by King Henry, as some have weakly imagined, 
but was iwed in the times of jjopery, as will appear 
by the form of bidding the beads in King Henry 
the Seventh's time. The way was, first for the 
' preacher to name and open Ms text, and then to 
caU on the people to go to their prayers, and to 
tell them what to pray for ; after which eJl the 
people said their beads in a general silence, and 
the minister kneeled down also and said his." 
We find the expression •* bedes byddyne" in 
the ** Vision of Piers Plowman," which was 
written, according to Tyrwhitt, about 1362. In 
, the same remarkable poem we also find '* bedman," 
I ** headman," or *' beadsman." A beadsman, in 
the sense of '* I will be thy beadsman," is one who 
offers up prayers for the welfare of another. In 
■ this general sense it is used by Sir Henry Lee to' 
Queen Elizabeth. ** Thy poor daily orator and 
beadsman" was the common subscription to a 
petition to any great man or person in authority. 
We retain the substance, if not the form, of this 
courtly humiliation, when we memorialise the 
Crown and the Houses of Pariiament, concluding 
in the assurance that their *petiiion£r$ will ef>er 
pray: But the great men of old did not wholly 
depend upon the efficacy of those prayers for their 
welfare, which proceeded from the expectation or 
gratitude of their suitors. They had regularly- 
appointed beadsmen, who were paid to propitiate 
Heaven with their supplications. It is to this 
practice that Shakspeare alludes in the speech of 
** Scroop" to **BichardII."— 

**■ Thy Tery h««dnne« learn to bend tlieir bowi 
Of duQiiie Catal yew against Uiy State.' 

But all this is past, and Sir Walter Soott tellff 
' in his adv«rtiMi&ent to the Antiquary, "Thot 



468 



JOUBNAL OF THE 600IETT OP ARTS, Mat 9, 1873. 



orators and beadsmen " of England live now only 
in a few musty records, or in the allusions of 
Spenser and Shakespeare ; and in the same way 
the "Blue Gowns," or ** King's Bedesmen" of 
Scotland, who ** are now seldom to be seen in the 
streets of Edinburgh," will be chiefly remembered 
in the imperishable pages of the author of Waverley . 

Having now detained you so long, and, I fear, 
to very little purpose or profit, I will only 
venture to say a few, and a very few words, as to 
the gen^-al conclusions which the philosopher and 
philanthropist may deduce from the facts stated. 

We have seen that among the great majority of 
civilised nations of the world, artificial aids to 
prayers have been for many centuries in general 

use. . 

The imiversality of the custom — ^whatever be its 
special motive or pourpose — establishes, as observed 
at the beginning of my address, and that by 
tangible and material evidence, the one great fact 
which is of interest to us all, viz., the world-wide 
instinctive conviction of the existence of a God, 
of a Being to be propitiated and worshipped by 

prayer. 

And if we thus find proof of this umvcrsal con- 
viction, we also see in this regular organisation of 
artificial aids to prayer the universality also of 
thatmelanoholyandhumiliatingexperience — which 
we must Gkll recognise in ourselves at the present 
day, viz. : — ^the extreme difficulty of absiiacting 
the mind from the cares, pursuits, or fascinations 
of the present life, and fixing it on things unseen. 
It is obvious that when prayer or devotion is 
once considered to be a distinct duty, meriting 
reward and effective in itself, to the attainment 
of everlasting happiness, the difficulty of continu- 
ous prayer without artificial and external assist- 
ance is felt as a grievance, and at once suggests 
sudh devices as the rosary, the phylactery, and, to 
carry the thing ad abaurdum, the mechanical prayer 
barrel, which will wind out prayers and praises 
for the proprietor like a skein of silk, while 
he is comiiortably engaged in the duties of .every- 
day life, enjoying his <&mer, smoking his pipe, or 
taking an afternoon nap, and very probably vir- 
tually imwinding the prayers that the machine is 
performing for him. 

That the Hindoo, the Buddhist, and the Mahom- 
medan did thus regard the duty and the efficacy of 
prayer, I think I have shown ; in what exact light 
the use of the Bosary is a Christian worship I do 
not feel qualified to suggest; and whether viewed 
as a mere aid to pious contemplation and devo- 
tional thought, it is a thing to be accepted or 
ignored, I leave to learned theologians to discuss. 
It is, however, a curious circumstance that so 
many mortal men of different religions, different 
ideas of right and wrong, inhabiting different 
dimes, and not unfrequently hating or despising 
one another, should, by common consent, have hit 
upon a string of round beads for one of the most 
momentous purposes of life, and retained it for 
so many centuries without modification or change. 
It is a strange illustration of the old adage, 
**One touch of nature makes the whole world 
kin," and it is remarkable, if not humiliating, to 
think that the ** touch of nature" in this case is 
the difficulty of spiritual exercise without external 
and material help. 

The somnolent jMirty of the nreaent day who 
snores during the aenr My like the 



sleepy Buddhist or dozing Brahmin of three 
sand years ag^, and would probably be saved 
exposing himself if he had some b^ids to , 
through ' his fingers, and were possessed witb 
idea that his future state depended, to m 
extent at least, on the number and aooanof 
those revolutions. 

With this moral I will conclude my papa; 
earnestly express my hope that the ob 
and facts I have ventured to offer, thoi 
the routine of lectures in this society, ai 
learned nor scientiiic, may not be considered 
gether uninteresting or improfitable. 



ou^ 
aiMlx 



thai 



DISCUSSION. 

Dr. Archibald Campbell begged to apologise §m 
having fulfilled the promise he made his tnmi J 
Tayler, to lend him some articles of Boddhistattii^l 
his excuse was that the gentleman who had < ' 
his collection at the Crystal Palace had been 
called away, and he had not been able to get at 
in time. Amongst the Buddhists, as with moat 
religions, there were two sects, distingoiahed friaa < 
another by the colour of their robes, and ti 
usually known as the Red Lamas andtheTello^ 
The dress that he hud hoped to place before the 
was that of a Yellow Lama, with his mitre cap* 
girdle, and the altar table, behind which he was 
when at prayers. On this table were placed 1 
and dhoije or thunderbolt The Lama always 
rosary in his hand when engaged in pray«r, i 
praying wheel was placed beside him. It had he&ax — ^ 
said that quietism was the essAnce of the Bnddhi^l 
gion, but, having liv^ for thirty years am on g i fc *■ 
hists in Nepal and Sikkim, he had oome to the 
that an equally striking feature was the r 
amount of toleration they displayed, and this, 
was the cause of their great success. The r *' 
nated in India, spread thence to Tib^ 
Mongolia, Mantchuria, Turkistan ; desoended 
China and BirmiUi, and thence through Siam, '" 
and the Straits* of Malacca, to the various 
that region. There was no examina t ion or 
Mth required, but any one might enter 
temple and join in the worship, and this tolflraat 
had no doubt largely contributed to the i 
spread of the religion. The use of the Roeary 
versal, not only amongst the priesthood, bat ~ ~ 
classes of educated persons who paid any i 
their reU8:ious duties. They were generally 
smooth beads, as had been stated, but he had 
made from small bones punched out of the 
lama, and looking like a string of shirt bnttoos. 
was supposed to possess peculiar sanctity. OunI' 
universally used m rosaries, either in single hc^ 
intervals, or as the sole material of which ^Kf 
formed. On one occasion, when he wiahed to M 
present to the Rajah of Sikkim, he inquired <tf hasi 
what would be most acceptable to him, and was iaT 
that three of the largest coral beads procurable 
please him as much as anything. He aocording^j 
I cured three very large coral beads from Calcntta, ^ 
I he had reason to believe gave great satisfaction, 
similarity of the dress of a Buddhist lama to that 
Roman Ctttholic priest was very striking. In 
town of Bettia, on the frontier of Tibet, he 
colony of Christians who came from Tibet. Tb«y 
founded by a Jesuit named Father Giuseppe, who ' 
his way somehow into the city of I^^m, o^>v^ — 
number of the inhabitanta, and fonned a libiax 
had often happened in China and elsewhere, the . 
tians inonnvd the displeasure of the antboritus^ 
driven out, and took refuge in Nepal. After i«r 
there some time they incurred the dityJcMore ^ 
Nepakse also, were driven into British tamtory. 



JOUMTAL OF THE 800IETY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 1873. 



4:S9 



faKi^KMu 



idkBpftBrqmiten in Um town of fiettia, where Mr. 
%]» wm them. When be wsa in Nepal, his friend 
iL B l^ ^^^l , wlio had been receivinff a qoanti^ of 
UAil Ibttiiofioal literature from La«a, found in- 
llU ii it about forty TolafDee of La^ books which 
llWiagvd to tbe Jerait colony there. 

ScljiftlBirke sud that in many parts of the East 
bail tbe.kst test of the thorough acclimutisation 
It Suopeaa was his ability to pnss the beads of a 
Illy tinoQ^h his fingers in the orthodox manner. Mr. 

tM girea proof on former occasions of his pro- 
in all that related to India, but he had scarcely 
p Umaeif jutice in sajriog that his present paper 
asoCof practical ralue, and had no connection with 
i oi^e^ts of the Society. It was, in fact, hardly pos- 
t^ to have a b«tter illustration of the intimate con- 
vhich generally existed between learning and 
Loiking at these objects, which were used 
porpooes by at least 100 millions of British 
ia India, and by hundreds of millions more 
tbat jnriadiction, it became evident that they 
* an object of commerce of very great import- 
s' merely as a local manufacture, but one which 
" bs competent to mannfiactorers in this country 
in if they hid a proper idea, such as they 
RMTe from Mr. Taylor's paper, of the import- 
ad nt«Dt of the subject, and of the manner in 
wants could be supplied. It seldom happened 
▼ilh instructions such as had been given by 
ithow engaged in particular banches of trade 
how to meet the requirements of distant 
markets, and a curious illustration of this fact 
before a committee of the House of Commons 
ago. A manufacturer, speaking with reference 
ce of small objet^ts, said he was asked on 
n whether he could m>ike dolls eye»? At 
Is VIS indignant at the suspicion that he would 
"^ ^ mch a manufSactnre, nntU his questioner took 
a warehouse filled with dolls Irom the floor 
anl on looking into the matter he found 
Ifcowsnd pounds worth of eyes were required to 
7tU these (jU)Us, besides what might be required by 
ihitn. When, however, manufacturers had to 
with their own countrymen, but with vast 
•och as Mr. Tayler alluded to, more obtruse 
«at reqaired in onier to meet the market. One 
olarly had struck him — namely, the distino- 
smooth and rough beads, on which it ap- 
p«at ftress was Inid, so that if rough beads were 
ftdiitnct where smooth voearies only were used, 
" ' be totally unsaleable. It was absolutely neces- 
' n>, for manufacturers to know the articles re- 
tbon^h the differences were apparently so trifling. 
~ distinction was that the Soonnee Mahommedans 
much lew importance to the ro»ary than 
™liUf and thus, if a manufacturer was> simply 
^ in a llussulman country rosaries were 
he most go on to study further the geo- 
the place, and obtain more particular in- 
u to the prerailing manners and customs, 
vbo had risited Venice would recollect the vast 
lof Iho bead manufactorythere, and might form 
'^ of its importance. With reference to this 
■nay persons were in the habit of thinking that 
voeti&n beads were made chiefly for necklaces, 
* nafity many were used for rosaries ; and then 
^■•ef the information conveyed by Mr. Tayler 
Sreat value. In many classes of* rosaries it was 
J esential that coral beads should be intro- 
ad thus again the manufacturers might 
ft masked for want of sufficient knowledge. 
J»*l ioggest to Mr. Tayler tbat the antiquity 
■• Jfc of beads might be carried still further 
|*Wd xnedlioned, because amongst the remains 
l^jp'historic period some of the most frequent 
*y cowrie shells, which somewhat resembled 
'ittivfere widely distributed all over the globe. 



Iieot 



These must have been need for thousands and 
thousands of years. As to the purpose to which 
they were apj^ied, any theory ooiud only be con- 
jectured, but probahly there were many applications 
besides those which had been referred to. At a very 
early period the circle was considered an emblem 
of eternity, and in that way a necklace, being a con- 
tinuous nng, might have become associated wish re- 
Hgious ideas. lie consitlered the whole trading com- 
munity were much indebted to any gentleman like Mr. 
Tayler, who, being practically acquainted with the 
habits of the population of India, came forward to give 
reliable information ; and it was matter of congratultU 
tion also to know that this information would p^iss into 
the hands of many manufacturers, and ought ultimately 
have the effect of giving employment to numbers of 
our fellow countrymen. In conclusion, he remarked 
that it was pleasing to know that nothing had been 
said which could be held to imply contempt for the 
genuine religious convictions of the races under our 
protection in the East ; and Mr. Tayler*s concluding 
remarks on that subject would, he was sure, redeem hii 
country from any such imputation. Gonsiderinff in 
what light intelligent Hindoos, and even some English- 
men, were tempted to view sous of our own 
religious practices, he thought all should look with ten- 
derness upon ceremonies, which, however trivial they 
might appear, were connected with some of the highert 
moral obligations, and were based on serious religions 
convictions. 

Br. Zerffl said that necklaces were found constantly 
in use amongst the ancient Egyptians. In Peru, also^ 
the idols were everywhere invested with a large neck- 
lace of beads. Mr. Layard, also, in his book on Nine- 
veh, gave an illustration of a number of women .wor- 
shipping with clear, distinct ohaplets in their hands ; 
and the same kinds of figures were often seen in Roman 
models. This showed that the mode of worship with 
ohaplets was not only customary amongst the fiuddhl^tsi, 
but was afterwards, probably through them, introduced 
anKmg the more western nations. He believed Budd- 
hism had been much underrated, and that it had influ- 
enced humanity to a much greater extent than was 
often supposed ; and the more other parts of the world 
were studied, and those actions and developments, 
which had taken place in ideas, as well as in matter, 
were investigated, the more it would be found that 
this was the case. Amongst the people who believed 
in the Zend-avesta, beads were constantly used, 
and the Egyptians also used them at a later period, and 
so they came down to the Catholics, to Mahommedans, and 
even to our own period. With reference to the intro- 
duction of the Rosary into the Romish church there 
were many interesting legends. It was said tbat in the 
church of Santa Maria Gompostella, they showed the 
rosary of the Holy Virgin, the beads, of course, repre- 
senting pitemosters 'said. Amongst the Anglo-Saxons, 
also, beads were in constant use long before the so- 
called rosary was introduced, when the Virgin Mary was 
worshipped, the beads being used simply to count the num- 
ber of paternosters. Rosaries of this kind were common 
in the fourth and fifth centuries, among Anglo-Saxons. 
It was not, therefore, extraordinary to find it believed 
that the Virgin herself used a rosary. Others ascribed its 
introduction to the Apostle St. Bartholomew, but all these 
hypotheses would not interfere with the suggestion 
that in reality these were merely customs taken over 
from the E^ptians, who again had, perhaps, taken them 
from the Buddhists. There was no doubt that there was 
the origin of the practice, because Buddhist beads had 
been mentioned tiiousanda of years before Christ. In 
the 42 points of doctrine, Article 10, these words occur, 
which showed the deep moral ideas these Buddhists had : 
— "' The man who in the practice of virtue applies him- 
self to the extirpation of all his vices is like one who is 
rolling between bis fingera the beads of the chaplet. If 
he continues taking hold of them one by one he arrive 



470 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF AETS, Mat 9, 1878. 



•peedily at the end. B^eztirpfttiiig his bad inolmations 
one by one a man amves thna at perfection." There 
was Burdy a deep morality in this, and at the same time 
it showed the real use of the chaplet ; that it was not at 
first a mechanical operation, but was connected with real 
deep-rooted sentiments and feelings. He must protest 
agamst Mr. Tayler's saying that his paper was neither 
scientific nor artistic, lor he had never listened to any 
paper more deeply interesting, and it rested upon that 
intrinsic inherent religious feeling which was the basis 
of all true art and science. 

Mr. George Bowring desired to express lus concur* 
rence in the concluding remarks of Dr. Zerffi, observing 
that the illustrations on the wall from Mr. Tayler's own 
hand were not only illustrations of the manners and 
customs of the people of India, but specimens of high 
art 

The Chairman desired to add lus testimony to the 
fi;reat Talue of the paper which they had heard from 
Sfr. Tayler. It was such a one as had not only been 
prepared from books, but also from long and intimate 
niowlddge of the habits Of the people. Every district 
which was the field of Mr. Tayler's labours was included 
in the supplemental survey originally carried out under 
the auspices of the Marquis of Wellesley, that of Mysore, 
and which was brought to such a perfect state under 
the influence of a gentleman who dia an immense deal 
for India, Dr. Buchanan. It was a very common idea 
that the knowledge of that field was due to Mr. Mont* 
gomery Martin ; but the matter was really originated 
under the sui>erintendence of Dr. Buchanan, although 
a great deal might be the result of native observa- 
tion. Mr. Tayler's paper yery strongly reminded 
him of the wonderful collection of facts there 
brought together, and those who had had an opportu- 
nity of stud3ring that most remarkable illustration of an- 
tiquities and b^utiful native products and manufac- 
tures—because this was only a minute fraction of the 
fields of study — ^must have felt much delighted at hear- 
ing the result of Mr. Tayler's observation. He had been 
situated in one of the most interesting districts in India, 
and in the intervals of his residential duties, instead of 
wastinff his time in frivolous amusements, he had de- 
yoted himself to study the habits of the people, and 
had been constantly collecting illustrations of the arts 
of Indis. It was only a yery minute fraction 
of that superabundant knowledge which he had ac- 

auired that he had submitted that evening, and 
bere were several collateral branches of the sub- 
ject which would be intensely interesting. In the 
first place, among the ancients it was very common 
to ascribe a supernatural value to g^ems and precious 
stones, as amulets, or protection from the evil eye — 
sometimes in relation to certain divinities, and some- 
times with regard to their supposed medicinal value. 
These were matters which Thcophrastus and others 
in later times had studied with great profundity, and they 
were of much interest to those who had the materials 
for dealing with them. When one looked at the quan- 
tity of necklaces and beads that were used from the 
yery earliest ages in every quarter of the world, one 
was struck with the curious prominence of the sub- 
ject amongst all savage races ; necklaces were, in fact, 
the earliest ornament, and he almost felt a sensation 
of awe in considering the numbers of people who had 
used it, and the continuity of the use, because the num- 
bers at any one time must be multiplied by the intense 
duration, almost of the immutability of custom amongst 
oriental nations. During long periods of time customs 
changed almost imperceptibly, so that civilisation mi^ht 
be compared to a kind of glacier motion. In conclusion 
he moved a most cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Tayler for 
his valuable and interesting paper. 

1^' Mr. Tayler, in reply, said it was very satisfactory to 
find that an address whirh >ia had really believed to be 
of a light and Uif*' ^lancing simply at the 




Bur&oe of thin^ though interestinf ia Hal^kidU 
such tar deeper interest given to it than lifilMflii|<tI 
He should certainly be rejoiced to find tfiailMhiilM 
in any way the means of extending BritiA 
It was, no doubt, the case that a very hrge 
the Indian idols, even of the more apfooved m^li 
of their magnificent temples, were Brammagca 
ture, and therefore it was yery possible that if 
religious feeling couldbe hit upon, a large nombvtf M 
rosaries might be sold. There would be 
ever, as the natives were very particular, 
have to compete on yery low terms with 
rosaries among the Hindoos, which wen kmA 
rough seeds, of which about 1,000 could be got tt 
and these had been used for some 3,000 yean. Ha 
proceeded to describe more in detail to the 
various rosaries — particularly a very bttotiftl 
yaluable one, believed to haye belonged to tbe&Bi 
of China— and other articles of Buddhiit w<iih9;4| 
noticed in connection with the use of the hamia ttj^ 
bone for the sacred trumpet, that the Andeatlitiivii 
for trumpet (tibia) was also the word for the kg-hoU ' 



TWEHTT-FIB8T OBDIHABT XSETHfi. 



i 



Wednesday, May 7th, 1873; W.S.8quiie, 
in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proposed H 
election as Members of the Sodety :— 

Baker, William, 46, High-sti^t, Sheffield. I 

Dick, Alexander, 110, Cannon^street, £.C. 
Henman, £. T., 12, Blomfield-street, Fixubniy.Ei 
Turner, Walter James, C.E., Town-hall-chamboi,^ 

Market-street, Bradford. 
Watts, Joseph, Fulshaw-park, Wilmilow, Chediiiik , 
Whiteman, B. H., M.D., Hotham-house, Putney. 

The following Candidates were balloted fcri 
duly elected Members of the Society :— 

Bleckly, John J., Daresbnry-lodge, Wairin^too. 
Crossley, William, Greensoot-house, palton*m-*^ 
Dunlop, Alexander Milne, 28, 

Kensington, W. 
Forbes, David, F.R.S., 11, York-place, FertmaiiH 

W. 
Henman, Edward Thomas, 12, Blomfield-street, i 

wall, E.O. 
Ramsden, William, Clifie MiUs, Gieat Hortoo, To 

The paper read 

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANrPA( 

OF GUN-COTTON. 

By 8. J. Maokie, C.S. 

I must ask the attention of this aadience,! 
first place, to as brief an epitome of the 
flfun-cotton as I can draw, before I p) to the i 
details of my present discourse, which htf f<fl 
essential objects to put before the world 
the chief improvements which have been 
the manufacture of gun-cotton and ammi 
therefrom, as about to be carried out in th« 
and extensive works of the Patent Gotten 
powder Company, in the marshes of One, 
Faversham, in Kent. j 

I regret that the state of progress in wrtjj 
'the departments not having yet been P***^5S 
am in consequence a little restricted in my »j* 
nations ; but this circumstance will, I am *^JS 
accepted as franMy as it is stated, tsan^og* 
any reticence on my part to which, in theintcrt* 
of the Company, I may be constrained. 



/OURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 1878. 



471 



^ my being before you is very oonoisely 

of ibis Instdtutioii baying seen 

of tbe Patent Cotton Gtinpowder 

erpreaaed a strong desire tbat I sbould 

on tbe subject in tbis room; and, 

would bave liked to bave deferred tbis 

Qntil n<^xt Session, wben I sbould be 

i¥ite you to see tbe various processes in 

Of>eratioii, bis request was so pleasantly 

jTonngly urged, tbat, notwitbstanding my 

[metre tban fully occupied, I consentea, 

tbat, in so doing, I uiould be rendering 

the publication of tbe extreme care and 

witiL wbicb every part and portion of 

bas been studied, notwitbstanding 

on of gun-cotton or any product 

wbatever bas yet attained to tbe same 
safety, purity, or excellence as tbis new 
I may witbout egotism say tbis, because 
the myentor of tbe '* controlled gun- 
Ithou^b, as engineer to tbe Patent Cotton 
ir Company, wbo bave purobased Mr. 
patent, I bave prepared tne plans of tbe 
I have instigated tbe whole of tbe new 
hy which the gun-cotton and tbe gun- 
other oompoundi from it will he pre- 

»» then, witb tbe practical bistory of 



by 



the lowest substitution product of tbe 
olaas, was disooyered oy Braconnet, 
It lyas produced from wood-sbayin^, 
fltaroh, and linen fabric, treated witb 
nitric acid, 
tri-nitro-cellulose, or pyroxilin, was 
by Pelouze, in 1836, wbo af^lied 
acad to paper and ^brios of cotton 
Ten years later it was produced in a 
Sobonbein, wbo employed a mixture 
nitric and sulpburic acids for tbe 
of cotton wool, tbe object of tbe sul- 
being to abstract water of bydration, 
ly to absorb moisture. 
Sail, the gunpowder makers of Faver- 
1S46» entered into tbe manufacture of 
npon Scbonbein's original process, 
being treated for about one bour witb a 
!af 1 iMut of nitric acid, 1*45 to 1*5 specific 
3 parts sulphuric acid, 1*85 specific 
The gun-cotton produced was wasbed 
water until no acid was detected by 
% and subsequently it was dipped in 
lot potasb. Tbe finisbed cotton was some- 
1 in a solution of nitrate of potasb. Tbe 
at Fayersbam was terminated witbin 
, disastrous explosion, reputed to bave 
by throwing togetber in a beap a large 
of the aoid skems. 

period also gun-cotton was manufactured 
at Boncbet, near Paris, wbere several 
exploaions occurred; one in a drying 
one in a magazine, wbere it was believed 
[had been for several days, and one in a 
place. Tbese disasters put an end to tbe 
' in 1848. 

government took up earnestly tbe 

of gun-cotton in 1852, and practice 

with a battery of twelve-pounder field 

eonsaquence of want of uniformity in 

and the damage done to tbe g^uns, its 

WM •bandooed. It was, howeyer, 



received witb great favour by tbe enffineers, and 
was applied witb success to mining and submarine 
operations. General Yon Lenk was tbe moving 
spirit. Tbe explosion of tbe magazine at Simmon- 
ing, near Vienna, brougbt tbe manufacture to an 
end in 1862. 

Tbe system of manufacture, as carried on in 
Austria, was as follows : — Superior quality of cot- 
ton was carded loosely and twisted into skeins, tbe 
strands being of larger or smaller size according as 
tbe future produce was intended for cannon or 
small arms. Tbese skeins, about five or six to tbe 

Eound, were immersed in a boiling solution of car- 
onate of potasb, tbe liquor being afterwards ex« 
tracted by means of centrifugal maobines. Tbe 
skeins were then wasbed in clear running water, 
separately and quickly, eitber by band or by allow- 
ing tbe mass to remain in water for tbree or four 
bours. Tbey were then again passed tbrouffb a 
centrifugal macbine, and subsequently dried, in 
summer by tbe rays of the sun, in winter in a 
drying-bouse, beated by air-pipes, to from 30 to S& 
deg. Cent., in the latter place usually taking some 
four or five days in tbe operation. Tbe dried skeina 
were next unmersed in a mixture of tbiee parts by 
weigbt of sulpburic add, specific ^^vity of 
1*82, and one part of nitric add, specific gravity 
1-52. 

Only two skeins, of about tbiee ounces eacb, of 
cotton were immersed at one time, and after bdng 
stirred about by iron paddles, the cotton was trans- 
ferred to covered stone jars, each capable of con* 
taining six skeins, or about one pound, mixed add 
being added, if necessary, to bring up tbe propor- 
tion of ten and-a-balf pounds of add to one pound 
of cotton. Tbese jars stood for forty-dgbt hours 
in a cool place, in summer time in cold water. 
After tbe cotton bad digested for tbis period, tbe 
acid was separated, as far as posdble, by a centri- 
fugal macbine, tbe men working the add being 
protected from tbe fumes by a wooden partition. 
Tbe adds extracted by tbe centrifugals were not 
used affain, in the manufacture of gun-cotton, 
until alter re-manufacture. Tbe skeins of gun- 
cotton tbus made still however remained in a 
very add condition, and were put into perforated 
receptacles and immersed in a stream of fresh 
water, wbere tbey were allowed to lie for at least 
tbree, and often as long as ten or twelve weeks. 
Eacb skein being finally separately rinsed in tbe 
stream to remove impurities, tbe water in tbe 
fibrous masses of gun-cotton was again extracted 
by tbe centrifugi^. Tbe gun-cotton was next 
treated witb a solution of carbonate of potasb, as 
in tbe preliminary process, and again' wasbed in 
pure water, after tbe alkaline liquid bad been ex- 
tracted. Tbese skeins of gun-cotton bavins been 
allowed to partially dry, by exposure to tbe air, 
were placed in a large wooden tub, containing 
a solution of silicate of soda, and in wbicb 
it remained for an bour, tbe object bdng, 
by tbe formation of a vamisb of tbe dlicaia 
over tbe fibres, to retard tbe combustion of tbe 
g^un-cotton, tbe superfluous water-glass being 
expressed partly by nand and more fully by the 
centrifugal. Tbe skeins were then tborougbly 
dried in a drying-bouse, dmilarly as in tbe pre- 
paratory operations, tbe period of tbdr re maining 
tbere being from eight to ten days. Tbe protection 
a£E6rded by tbe soluble glass was found to be very 
ephemeral and treacberous of no real xurotectiye 



472 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 9, 1878. 



effect for the cotton, or permaiient retarding in- 
fluence on the explosion. 

The Austrian mode of manufacturing gun-ootton 
was imported into this country in 1863 by Professor 
Abel, the Chemist to the War Department, and ex- 
periments upon a manufactiuring scale wer^ insti- 
tuted at the Boyal Gunpowder Works, at 
Waltham Abbey. Considerable difficulty was 
experienced, however, from the variation in 
compactness ef the twist, which exerted so much 
influence upon the rapidity of the combustion of 
gun-cotton in ordnance, as to necessitate the 
hand-picking and separation of the mass into two 
or more portions. Mixed acids were used in the 
same proportions as the Austrian, sulphuric being 
1*84 specific gravity ; nitric, 1*52. The cotton was 
made up into skeins, those of the stout yam weigh- 
ing from four to six oimces^ and those of the fine 
vam from three to four ounces each. These were 
boiled in a solution of carbonate of potash, the 
excess of liquid held in suspension by the skeins 
being wrung out in a centrifugal machine. The 
cotton was then washed by hand in a large tank, 
and afterwards immersed in a stream for 48 hours, 
when the skeins were again oentrifugalled, and the 
cleansed cotton dried. The acids were weighed off 
into stoneware barrels provided with taps, two of 
these receiving the sidphuric acid and the ^irdnitric 
acid, these barrels being so arranged on a table 
that the acid would run from the taps into a deep 
and capacious stoneware vessel fitted with an iron 
lid and a tap. About twelve hours before the 
immersion of the cotton in the acids, the skeins, 
which had been previously dried in the air, were 
hung up in a large drying chamber, subjected 
to a temperature of not less than 49 deg. Centi- 
grade. 

For treating the cotton skeins with acid the fol- 
lowing method was employed: — Into one large 
deep stoneware pan were drawn off the quantities 
of mixed acids required for a certain number of 
skeins ; the second pan was fitted with a perforated 
ledge of iron, surrounded by cold water. Some 
of tlie acid being transferred to the second pan, 
two skeins were immersed in it and stirred about 
for two or three minutes. The superfluous acid 
was pressed off upon the iron shelf with an iron 
paddle, the quantity of acid absorbed by the skeins 
being replaced in the dipping-pan from the first 
vessel ; two other skeins were treated in the same 
manner, and so on. The drained skeins were 
transferred to stoneware jars ; six of ttie larg^, or 
nine of the fine, bdng the quantity for each, 
any additional quantity of acid necessary to cover 
the cotton being added, until the proportion of 
acid to cotton was as 15 to 1. The skeins were 
allowed to stand- in these pots for digestion 48 
hours, as in the Austrian process ; the contents of 
the jars were then oentrifugalled, by which the great 
bulk of the acid was separated from the cotton. 
In the Austrian work* at Hirtpnberjr copper centri- 
fugals were employed ; at Waltham Abbey the 
centrifugals were of iron. The Aust^an finished 
cotton had been quickly immersed, by a special 
luuc'bine. undtT a cascade, where it^j saturation by 
w.ti'r had been off.icted with gi-eat rapidity; 
H*. Waltham Abbey the skeins were plunged 
•"»gly, as rapidly as possible, into a large body of 
water, and moved violently about, they were then 
WMb^ by hand, and afterwards immersed in a 
•(roam for a penod of not less than two days, the 



skeins being arranged on rows of pdos, ao pkei 
that the skeins were in a vertical poshiooi, tti 
water circulating among them freely. At tiisac- 
piration of this time the skeins were removed a| 
the water separated by centrifugaUiog, tltejipoi 
then boiled for a few minutes in a soktaoa dl 
carbonate of potash, and after being centnfngBOe^ 
to separate the alkaline liquor, they wereagtispbeBl 
on the poles and left in the stream from 14 to 9 
days. On final removal from the stream, «Mk 
skein was washed by hand and allowed to ronA 
in distilled water for some hours. The smoml^l 
gun-cotton which theoretically 100 lbs. of ootte 
should furnish, is 183*3 lbs.; the increase of w«^ 
imder the process at Waltiiam Abbey, wis deMi 
mined at 177 lbs. per 100 lbs. of cotton. 

The gun cotton, when finally purified, wu diU 

at Waltham Abbey in the open air, expoeidfl 

daylight and very often to powerful sqdK^ 

when drv it was packed in ammnnitioa bM 

lined with tinned copper, and having vciyti^id^ 

closing double lids. The cotton so psdmj[ 

found upon subsequent .examination to oM 

considerable traces of acidity, the odour of vttH 

after the boxes had been closed for 24 houni^ 

such as to change litmus paper. EzpaaM 

were also made by steeping cotton in the 

mixed acids left after the first steepmg, 

lower substitution products obtained wen 

satisfactory. In 18fi4 the English 

appointed a committee, upon the 

of the British Association, to inquire ioto 

properties of gun-cotton as a suhstatute for 

powder. General Sabine being the president 

Colonel Boxer, R.A., and Mr. Abel, the two 

officers of the Royal LAboratory at Wo' 

Arsenal, being amongst the memben. Thif 

mittee experimented in that year with H-' 

brass field guns and gun-cotton cartridges 

the small works then already establiihed it 

market for working the patents of M. Bery^ 

cartridges, which were 10 inches loDg, were ' 

into outer and inner portions by an inter 

pasteboard cylinder; the charges, from lu 

21 oz., were made in different degrees of casf 

ness, the most compact giving 1,374 fe< 

medium 1,390, and the least compact 1,4*' 

velocity to the projectile ; those giring ' 

former velocities having hollow centre! 

expansion of the gases, and the last hel 

solid. The cotton thread sunplied bylL 

was stronsly pressed in winoing, ™ 

fiattened, uius blooming more oompaot. W 

year further cartridges were suppHed f rwa^ 

market of very high degrees of oompsotneilr 

most compact of which, 40 lb. to the cida* 

had cores large enough to reduce the 

density to 18 lb. These gave a maximom 

of 1,673 feet. These charges, however, i 

the bore of the gim at every round— in 

cases so much, that only three rounds w«w 

out of the piece. ^A 

In June, 1865, Mr. Abel informed the oomflMJ 

that ho had made gun-cotton in a new f^JJrJ 

pared from pulp, and as the results were salMWjJ 

he was desirous of making further trials in a*f 

complete manner than he could do with t hi^J 

at his own disposal. The committee, «"?2 

provided such materials and facOitiei ••|5*-^ 

to time Mr. Abel required for Oa W"*** 

gun-cotton to artillery and small •**•- AW"^ 



- JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, May 9, 1873. 748 




vaf drawn ap by Mr. Abel, in 1868, wbioh 




Jbi AM lua applied to the prodaction of cannon 
the S7»U*tu of redacinii; Kun-cutton to a tin* 
diriaoti or pulp, Had then inouldiug or cumprsi^fi 
ft into eolid or humogeneoofl musses of any desind. 
irdeiMty, whereby the dt^sirail (Mimpttctnesa may b* 
to the charge without thei nnoeiMity of eiiiployiD)^ 
iltirabitt amount of foreign matter in the shtpt- 
a««« ur cylinders in the construction of tht^ 
the charj^s b^ing simply enclosed in thin 
or aoTelupes of brown paper. 
& tha cartriilg«8 prepared from compressed gun- 
palp, which h>i8 been gradually developed in thti 
of t^perimenta with gun«cbtton in this condition, 
conidats of three parts : — 
1. A Mudl quantity of loose or quickly-huming cotton 
~ «i ibe r«mr» and serring as * priming ' to take up 
from the friction-tube, and to furnish sufficient 
«mI pressore for determining the proper ignition 




[flftlM 



A •oUtl disc of compressed gun-ootton, of which 
ia exposed, and which comprises about one- 
eatirtt charge. The exposed surface of this 
the n^T end of the cartridge against 
tks priming is fixed, and the initial pressure in 
~ to the action of the remainder of the 
ted by the explosion of this disc. 
, j^ mifnbftr of pellets of compressed gun-cotton, 
ite the remaining two-thirds of the charge. 
are aboat 0*5 inch thick, and one-third Sie 
of the Ijtfgedisc." 

S;Qn-cotton pellets fired from the Enfield 
wanting ia nniformity, and, although 
satisfactory results were attained from 
Wlotworth rifle with mechanically-fitting 
still the percnssioning of both those rifles 
Ito gire that fall inflammation of the charee 
I desirable. Attempts were also made 
time, by Mr. Abel, to apply the pellets to 
rifle. Mining operations were also tried 
nd 1865, both with M. Keyy*s hollow rope, 
Abel*8 compressed discs. Mr. Sopwith, 
_ engineer, also a member of the govem- 
imittee, was associated with these experi- 
and, in his report, remarks on the entire 
in the transmission and stowage of gun- 
in a moist state. He also notes the 
of accidents by the ignition of dry 

ohaiges by friction and sharp con- 

The committee, in their report ox 1867, 

t^t the value of gun-cotton for submarine 

has been fully established by the experi- 

I of ^e Floating Obstruction — otherwise the 

dttee, of which Mr. Abel was also 

• 

M. Nobel made public demonstration in 

try of dynamite, a mixture of nitro- 

with siliceous earth, and detonated hi£ 

by means of a strong fulminate-cap. Tim 

_ian has done for nitro-glycerine the like 

^ jwhSc^ Baron Lenk and Professor Abel have 

I for gun-cotton by their persistent persever- 

^ M. Nobel deyised various modes of effecting 

jfcluiiiitinn, or initiative explosion. He alsc 

$A that nitro-glycerine and its compoundf 

ttfe violently exploded in the open air, imcon- 

tfais initiative detonation. M. Nobel alsc 

gunpowder with nitro-glycerine, anc 

wreafled explosive power thereby. 

^]|tr. S* O. Brown, the assistant of Pro 

4i0 chemical department in Wool- 



wich Arsenal, applied the same means to the deto- 
nation of gun-cotton ; «md Mr. Abel impregnated 
gun-cotton with nitro-glycerine, forming a com- 
pound of increased power, which he ca led ^lyoxiliu. 

Gimpowder, too, has been detonHttd witu im- 
proved effect ; but the diffbrencc is* not so marked 
as in the case of nitro-glyceniie and gun-cotroa. 

The Stowmarket works of Messrs. Prentico, at 
which Revy*s eun-cotton has bet^n ma ie, were 
greatlv enlarged, and the manufacture of AbeUs 
compressed gun-cotton commenced on a large 
scale in 1870. 

In 1870 also Mr. Punshon brought forward his 
controlled gun-cotton, and experiments were 
carried on at Woolwich Arsenal, no profitable 
results therefrom accruing to the inventor at that 
time, or, indeed, subsequently from the government. 
Without doubt the want of substantial official ap- 
preciation was a temporary detriment to that 
gentleman's interest, as the submission of novelties 
to government examination, imder past or present 
circumstances habitually is to those who adopt 
such a course either in military or naval matters. 
Independent of all other reasons, the submission 
to government of an invention, not at the time com- 
mercially in the market, causes commercial men to 
await the results of official investigations, which, 
however honest they may be, are invariably tardy, 
and consequently expose the applicant to most 
injurious delay. The proper time to put any new 
article before the government is, to my mind, when 
the owner is requested to tender for a large supply. 

In 1871, experiments were carried on by the 
Go^mment Committee on Explosives, under the 
presidency of Oolonel Younghusband, and of 
which committee Professor Abel was one of the 
members, for the purpose of showing the safety 
of Abel's gun-cotton, then being manufac- 
tured in large quantities by Messrs. Prentice, at 
Stowmarket, under the title of the ** Patent Safety 
G^m-cotton Company." The chief of these experi- 
ments was the one upon which the ** safety '* of 
Abel's gun-cotton was afterwards based and 
publicly advertised, that company being at the 
time under a contract to deHver 200 tons to the 
Gk)vemment stores. This experiment was, to my 
mind, so unsatisfactory and fallacious that, although 
for years I had been in constant correspondence 
with one of the chief organs of the press, I never 
publicly reported it, but I took occasion, as soon 
as I knew of it, to express my distinct opinion that 
the experiment was not rehable for the true object 
of determining the non-explosibility of the residual 
heated masses of g^un-cotton stores in a state of 
violent conflagration. These experiments were, 
however, reported in the Olobe, and extracts from 
that journal were distributed as circular advertise- 
ments by the Patent Safety Gun-cotton Company 
and gentlemen therein interested. 

In July, 1871, the following paragraph appeared 
in the Scientific American : — 

" A number of mystfiious explosions of various nitro- 
ren eompoands have aUra«teii the notii-e «»f ch»-mi»«t8, 
»od some experimeuts have been instituted, with a 
j'wvr to an explnnation of the phfuomeni. It his b« on 
.»und thnt nt'arly hU the mixtures conipospd of nitr<»- 
^cnous substances, and used as explosives, are Hecom- 
Kiaod with more or Ifss violence by ozone. A powder, 
n which picric acid w^s a constituent, caused great 
umage in the lKh.irHtt)ry where it was nrndo, in conse- 
quence of the Rotiun of oscone. At first the cause of the 



474 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 9, 1873. 



accideat was inexplicable, bat careful search traced it 
to tife ozone in the atmosphere. Nitxo-glycerine is at 
once decomposed by ozone into nitric acid and other 
compounds. Gun-cotton is also destroyed, sometimes 
•with explosive force, and so on through the list of ex- 
plosive compounds. An extension of these researches 
xnay eventually afford an explanation of the spontaneous 
decomposition of certain bodies, and may suggest pre- 
cautions to be observed to prevent a recurrence of the 
accidents, and it has been suggested that a new test for 
ozone might be found in this way.'* 



for 



Explosion of gun-cotton as a test of ozone in the 
air is one, to my mind at least, not suitable for 

general adoption. There may be, however, a great 
eal in the philosophy of the subject. Ozone is 
three volumes of oxygen condensed into two 
volumes ; and as we know that ozone is able to 
effect oxidations which common oxygen is unable 
to bring about, it is obviously well to have 
regard to those conditions of the atmosphere in 
which ozone is most freely generated. All the 
serious explosions of g^un-cotton attributed to 
spontaneous decomposition have taken place in 
the hot weather of July and August, and it 
is in those months that one would expect that 
ozone would exist in the most active state 
in the atmosphere. Unfortunately, no records 
exist, or are anywhere kept, of the daily presence 
of ozope in the air, whereby definite information 
can be had to serve as data for any scientific 
investigation of this question. In one of Faraday's 
charminff lectures at the Boyal Institution, he 
took a ^ass jar, and first demonstrating, by the 
usual test of iodide of potassium and starch paper, 
the total absence of ozone from the air within it, 
he poured into it a little ether. Still no ozone was 
there ; but immediately that he immersed a glass 
rod heated in a spirit lamp, the presence of ozone 
was at once shown by the test. In the same lecture 
he noticed the decomposition of gun-paper by ex- 
posure to oxygen. The slow combus^on of the 
sheets of gun-paper so produced would become 
spontaneous combustion of a very dangerous 
cnaracter where masses of gun-paper or gun- 
cotton were left under conditions in which the 
heat of decomposition could be retained and 
acciunulated. 

On the 14th August, 1871, the great catastrophe 
occurred at Messrs. Prentice's place, at Stow- 
market, in which 13} tons of Abel's patent safety 
gun-cotton en>loded, hurling devastation all 
around the works, killing 23 and woimding 56 of 
the persons employed. Two reasons have been 
assigned for this sad occurrence, — one erpontaneous 
igniticm, the other diabolical act. That impure 
ffun*cotton had been produced at the Stowmarket 
factory is certain, because the stock of gun-cotton 
received into store by the Gk>vemment at the 
Upnor magazines, on the Medway, was, on ex- 
amination after the calamity, found to be in a 
decomposing state, and the whole of it was con- 
sequently at once opened out on the floors and 
kept well watered. 

From the time of this occurrence up to the pre- 
sent moment, gun-cotton has been out of the 
market, and none of it made in commercial quan- 
tities. The nitro-glycerinc compounds have thus, in 
the absence of that cleanly and powerful explo- 
sive, had the markets during the past two years 
entirely to themselves. 



the Government took up the maanlaotiiie o€ 
cotton, voting about £5,000 per anmuB 
establishment of works at Waltham Abbey of 
magnitude, capable of producing about thrM 
per week. These works, which are mtualed ~ 
High Street of the town, have been in 
more than two years, but have recently 
pended on account of an explosion in one of 
hydraulic presses. 

The works of Mr. Prentice are at tins tame 
to be in process of resuscitation, and will, as 
as completed, go on with l^e manufacture «ii 
tons — uie balance of contract due at the 
the disaster. I havebeen informed that 
has been made by the Great Eaatein 
the license to store at Stowmarket. Those 
when in full swing, were hard pressed to 
five tons a week. The magnitude of 
works at Faversham will stand out 
in view of these proportions. 

It has become therefore — as this audieose 
every one hereafter who reads this V^f^^ 
printed in the Society's transactions will pevo 
a matter not only of duty but of conscaenoe 
part in putting up the largest works fortius 
facture of gun-cotton ever contemplated^ tsi 
nothing unthought of, nothing undone thatT 
knowledge or foresight can suggest. It is 
feeling which so thoroughly animates 
sistants as well as myself, and it is » 
which is most fitly and most honourably 
aged by the directors of the company wha J 
sanctioned any provision for security, 
been requested oy myself, by the 
granting the requisite .license to mani 
the Home-office in regard to the security 
public and the workpeople. Undoubtedly tbs i 
market catastrophe has given us great 
and obstruction on accoimt of the alarm wl 
been raised through it in men's minds^as 
by the basis which tlus fear has 
interested opposition aeainst the aoquizeDMBti 
site by our company. I should, however, bs^ 
ing in justice if I did not speak in the ~ 
terms of the knowledge, care, and cautaon 
have been displayed by ihoae of the county 
trates of Kent who considered the 
application for a license, under the Gtmpoi 
for the company's site at Faversham ; and p _ 
I am bound also to acknowledge the pronqill 
tion and courtesy received from the H< 
and from the Inspector of Gunpowder 
Major Majendie. 

The company's site at Ore extends onr^ 
than 40 acres, and occupies the shore of the ' 
for a length of some 800 yards. The distsaeei 
the town of Faversham is two miles, and tbs 
tensive gunpowder works of Messrs. Hall 
miles away. 

The land lies low, but the marsh is not d' 
imwholesome character; the tertiary strsts 
gradually behind it until they attain i 
of 40 or 50 feet at Uplees and Ore villags. 
proximity of the sea along so great an 
frontage affords every facility for the 
and loading of the materials and goodSi 
situation is clearly advantageous as wA 
smtable. 



affordsA 



We come now to the arrangement of At W 
First, there will be small woncs, in whiob 4t 



After the demolition of the Stowmarket works, cess of commercial manufacture will be 



JOUBM AL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 18TO. 



47» 





Imiore tiie gmertd. works to make 20 

flf gm-ootton per week will be commenoed, 

small works will be, after the erection 

Ivge works, continued in operaticm as 

works for the manufacture of small 

Ed special brands of the cotton-gunpowder, 
oas be made to any required decree of 
k or mildness, to suit pf^cular kmds of 
or for any other special purpose. The system 
foUowBd will be (proportionate in scale) 
that adopted for ttie general works — 
» foil distinction will be made between the 
and the dry works, or, in other words, 
iactore of gpin-ootton.in a wet state and 
iiiMequeiit processes in which it is being pre- 
for ita final dry state as a finished explosiTe, 
mkdmgB beui^ more isolated, and the quan- 
fe woirk reftnoted, as the processes approach 
Mid move to dryness. 

I ate at Ore is diTided into two portions, the 
rea and the magazine area, the intake 
acida, ootton, and raw matezials being at 
of tlie ground, and the output, or shipping 
or the finished gunpowder being at the 
■d aeparated by an interval of seven hun- 
The magaanee are separated from 
by a space of one hundred yards, and 
_ other l^ a similar distuice, these 
bfltng;' ample for explosions of fifteen 
none of the magairines will be con- 
to hold more than five tons. Indeed, 
whole of the works all the danger- 
mce arranged upon the known effects of 
of tiiirteen and-a-half tons of abso- 
at Stowmarket. 
^iapotition of the works, therefore, com- 
•oafidenoe from its thorough efficiency; 
the Company's interests are in nowise 
bat, on the contrary, ample 
ijm afforded for tiie extension of the manu- 
al a foture period, when the cotton gun- 
flhall hare become a standard article of 
id when the magistrates and the Home 
by ihe Ught of actual experience, sane- 
modifications as in the infaxicy of 
it is neither desirable to 
nm* for mere prudence sake to en- 
At -' the Stowmaiket explosion, the 
damage — ^that is, any greater damage 
breaking of windows — ^was limited to 
f^bere is nothing at the Ore site 
even a hut or a shed within nearly 
diatanoe oi the most proximate of the 
/a magasine; and, indeed, such is the 
afforded by mere distance of unoccupied 
that 100 tons might be exploded 
on the Companys magazine area 
rnu.iMma\ damage to any of the 
m tne district. 

caie and precaution have been taken in 

of manuf aoture. The acids will be 

the usual proportions, but instead of 

about in a primitive fashion in iron 

abaj will be dmnted in the required 

^- m separate earthenware vessels, and 

eomnmigling in an earthenware worm, 

with water, to oondnot away the heat 

^e mixed adds will be received in 

up as wanted, the pump 

dmroQ from the shafting and 

thns keeping the acnds 



thoroughly mixed. The adds flow in pipes from 
the store tanks into the service tank, where they 
are kept at one definite level by a fioat- valve, and 
whence, as the add is abstracted by the cotton in 
the process of dipping, the supply is automati- 
cally let on to replace the quantity used at each 
operation ; the disagreeableness of the add fumes 
is thus greatly avoided. After the dipping, the pots 
of steeped cotton are dealt with most convenientiy. 
These pots of steeped cotton are then left to 
dig^ for a sufficient period to insure the con- 
version of the cotton. The adoption of stoneware 
and the general neatness and the cleanliness of 
the above arrangements are far in advance of the 
iron dipping-pan and pressing grid and rough- 
and-ready means with which the preparation of 
the gun-cotton has been carried on in any previous 
works. The greatest care, too, will be taken in 
the selection as well as in the cleansine and drying 
of the cotton previous to steeping, whereby gun- 
cotton of the purest character will primarily result. 
The great barrier to perfection in gun-cotton 
has, up to the present time, been the tenadty with 
which the fibre retains the add ; and the presence 
of add in the finished gun-cotton has been 
universally admitted to be the root of all 
evils, and the direct cause of that spontaneous 
heating and ig^ting to which the terrible 
catastrophes which have alike terminated all the 
large operation hitherto attempted in Germany, 
France, and England have been attributed. 
Professor Abel, when he adapted the machinery 
for paper-making to the preparation of gun- 
cotton, made a most important advance. It was 
not, however, enough; although it made gun- 
cotton practicable for military engineering. The 
svstem of pulping by means of the rag-beater cut 
short, it is true, the fibres of tiie cotton, but it still 
left the individual partides of the pulp in a fibrous 
condition, and this necessarily to this extent that a 
felting property was as necessary for the subsequent 
compression of the gun-cotton pulp into Aoel's 
discs as the felting property in paper-pulp is re- 
quired for the manufacture of paper into sheets. 
But the fibre, however short, still might retain, by 
capillary attraction, particles of add in the tube 
and in the cellular structure of the fibre; and 
although, therefore, the subsequent washing of the 
gun-cotton pulp in the poachers was a much 
accelerated process over the slow method of washing 
and immersing gnn-cotton skeins in running 
streams, yet imder careless manufacture, or short 
time in the poachers, a retention of add in the 
finished discs washighly probable ; and indeed com- 
plete freedom from a uight per centage of retained 
add is by these means impossible, even with the 
greatest care in manufactm^, and this cannot be 
eliminated by any amount of sampling and testing. 
Indeed, as against a snudl residual percentage, a 
proportion of one per cent, of alkah has always 
Seen added as a neutrahser in all the gon-cotton 
made or accepted by government. Now, with the 
warnings before me of the danger accruing from 
the presence of add in Uie fini^ed gon-cotton, I 
determined to ^ rid fundamentally of all 
harbourage for it. I made up my mind to 
crush out every particle of fibre, and to reduce 
the gon-cotton to an impalpable powder. To 
this end I passed it between polished roUen* 
under very severe pressure, and the' result 
has realised every po«iUe expeotation. '^ 



476 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OP AETS, May 9, 1878. 



gun-cotton waste, dripping with water, is thrown I of the cartridge oases. Moreover, the resi 
into the crudbing-mul; the jaws of the rollers would be very likely to prove defiant of i 
seize it, it passes through flattened into 



■* . 



aU 



a com- 
pact mass; it passes through again, and ib 
c^nished into a short breaking-cake (water jets 
playing aU the time to keep ^1 safe) again and 
again, and it becomes more and more powdery at 
each operation, imtil, in about six passages, it is 
reduced to veritable dust. Beduced to this 
condition, the manufacture of gunpowder from 
gun-cotton became a commercial practicability — 
became indeed an accomplished fact, as is evi- 
denced by the sample of finished cotton gun- 
powder which I have now the pleasure as well as 
the honour to submit to your inspection. What 
rejoices me in this result is the thorough con- 
viction of the purity of the gun-cotton so pre- 
pared ; and, as consequent upon that purity, the 
certainty of the safety which will ever after belong 
to the finished product. 

Mr. Punshon s " controllable gun-cotton " was, 
at the time it was bought by the company, exactly 
what its name indicates. It was gun-cotton of the 
finest quality which could be made under the old 
system, the fibre of the cotton being coated and 
intermixed with sugar and nitre, in the proportion 
of 67 parts of gun-cotton, 32 of nitre, and one of 
cane sugar. This mixture was, pressed and cut up 
into shreds, the cartridges for rme-shooting being 
carefully made with charges weighed out to the 
grain, to seciure uniformity of shooting. The 
sug^ is the controlled element. In propor- 
tion as the quantity of it is increased or 
diminished, so the controllable gun-cotton exhibits 
more violent or less violent action when fired. Of the 
efficiency of the control I have myself been frequent 
witness. On one occasion a new Martini-Henry 
rifltf was fired repeatedly with charges of 50 grains 
of Mr. Punshon s controlled g^un-cotton, with per- 
fect safety, and less recoil than from an ordinary 
charge of Curtis and Harvey's g^unpowder. The 
same rifle fired with a charge of 34 grains of ordi- 
nary gun-cotton was burst at the chamber, the 
lock blown to pieces, and the stock split right 
down to the guard over the butt. 

As I have said, the control by means of the 
sugar is perfect ; and the entire merit of the dis- 
covery bmongs to Mr. Punshon — ^nothing whatever 
in respect to it is due to myself. My own labours 
and ]progress begin where his terminate. The 
crushing machine has enabled me to carry out that 
which, from the outset of my connection with the 
company, has been the desideratum to be attained, 
namely, the manufacture of a perfect gunpowder, 
with which cartridges could be filled by measure 
with the same rapi£ty as with ordinary black gun- 
powder. The i^uction of the gun-cotton into 
dust has not only permitted the most perfect 
cleansing of the gun-cotton from acid, which has 
no longer a lair to hide in, but is brought on to the 
surface and instantly cleared away ; but this finely- 
divided state enables the gun-cotton to be reg^arly 
and intimately incorporated with the sugar and the 
nitre, and thus formed into a paste, from which a 
granulated powder fit for guns can be made. This 
never could have been done with gun-cotton made 
upon the old processes, nor under Mr, Abel's, for such 
gfunpowder could not be made even from pulped 
gun-cotton, since the fibre of the pulp would give a 
beard to the grains, which would cause them to 
tog^fUiw, and pv«T«iit the meohaaioal flllixig 



to ** keep the pow4er dry.' 

The incorporating mill, which will be usedin &•; 

cotton gunpowder works, is a modificataon of 

ordinary incorporating mill to suit the special 

quirements of the case. In all these prooesMS, 

to and including the granulation, the inataialii 

all of them in a wet or moist condition, and ' 

from danger of explosion, and, indeed, of ij 

The one point of difficulty, that of obtAiniig 

requisite weight of gun-cotton propoHaoniSB 

the weight of the other ingredients without ' 

it, has been overcome by oonstructinff a 

balance to wei^h the quantities by 

gravity. In this way the dangerous 

in the manufacture of the cotton gonpoi 

cotton— is never allowed to exist in a 

state ; it is never, indeed, in even an 

condition. And, -notwithstanding all the woddj 

recently heard about exploding g^un-cotton 

in a damp state, no fear need be entertainai,' 

stores of gun-cotton kept immersed in water, orf 

quantities unconfined and wet. I have long 

stood how far damp gun-cotton <^nld be 

and how the circumstances of degrees of 

compactness of material, strength of 

proportion of dry gpin-cotton to the damp 

and extent of confinement, are most eese n t ia l 

ments in the possibility of the operation. I 

myself frequently tried to explode 

charges of wet gpin-cotton watfte and gun- 

pulp, in large glctss botties, without BioppeES,^ 

ing in water ; and in the efforts to get 

have attempted to detonate them, not 

strong fulnnnate-caps, but also by caps 

with small charges of other stzong ezplostvetil 

result having been that the wet gon-cottoK ' 

been blown all over the place nnsoathed, 

the glass botties have been shivered to 

the violence of the detonating charge^ 

Abel, at the recent torpedo experiments at 

Bay, put eight or ten nine-ounce discs of Wi 

Abbey g^un-cotton, containing about 20 'pu 

of moisture, upon the ground in line cvne iiMski , 

and attempted to fire them by a detonating 

implanted in a dry 9-ounce disc laid a-tc^ rfi 

two central wet discs ; but only these thrasi' 

exploded, the remainder were riven into 

the pieces blown about all around to tfas 

of 40 or 50 paces awav from the centre of 

At the same time charges of 500 lbs. of 

damp gun-cotton were exploded with gretk 

in submarine mines in the bay, under a hflad < 

feet of water. The confinement and ths 

driven into the charge, to vapov^rise the 

steam, are the essential requirements, as 

by Mr, Abel. 8hells filled with water 

be exploded by a very small chargs 

ffun-cotton fired into the confined 

detonation, and I expect to see this mods 

tically applied at some future time in 

the shells would probably be more oom^etehr' 

rupted in this way than by g^unpowder, or 

bursting charges, or any other explosive. I ~ 

long since burst stoneware bottles and pots ia IS 

way into innumerable very equally sised fia^BMHil 

I believe, indeed, that the idea of detonating il| 

gun-cotton may have been suggertsd to ik 

I diemists at Woolwich Arsenal tbrMg^ ''^^'^n 

cation, when the company f *T'n1imf Ib ^^ 9IKH/§ 



\AL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 9, 187S. 



477 



"Ethm — ^for they have had long and 
for a location — to store oar gun- 
lited quantity, in magazines sub- 
large pool or basin formed by the 
low of the river which passed by the 
in respect to which Major Majendit 
[tinct approval for consulting with 
toimghusband and the members of the 
it Cooimittee on Explosives. The power 
^ damp gun-cotton would, moreover, 
[from the Waltham Abbey process the 
:drjing the discs, which, under the sys- 
by hot air or by steam pipes, and 
as at Stowmarket, or in enclosed 
ts at Waltham Abbey, is very consider- 
the rules for the workmen cannot be 
I, as they are in the Qovemment f ac- 
fbeable to explode Abel's discs just as they 
the hydraulic presses, would not only 
_ at the works and facilitate the safety 
irt and storage, but it would also save 
and danger of drying gun-cotton 
board ships. 

. )wder, whether made of ** villainous 
if of ffun-cotton, would be of no use to 
or soldiers in their respective fields, 
powder dry " is as necessary a proverb 
I gunpowder as any other; ana sks, there- 
on gunpowder must be dried, it will be 
least objectionable manner. Instead 
it by heat, it will be dried in vacuo, 
known that water will boil at much 
) as the atmospheric pressure is 
This, then, is the principle. The 
temperature will suffice of itself, 
case where artificial heat is applied 
-or will be possible for it to go — 
deg. Cent. At this temperature the 
kin our granulated cotton gunpowder can 
'off by an exhaust, and the powder made 
[packing in the cases to go into magazine 
tation in execution of orders. As 
will shortly receive very important 
, I will not dwell longer on it. 
I dwell on the process of granu- 
that also is in a stage of further 
Left to itself, however, the paste 
in the incorporating mill will have a 
enoy in diying, to segregate into small 
which can be at once sifted into three 
convenient dimensions for small arms 



ly to the magazines. These will be 

ten or twelve feet below the surface of 

,; the magazine itself will be made of 

it will be entirely surrounded by a pool 

the breadth of that water ring or wet 

_ 40 feet. In this way not only is a 

formed in case of explosion, but an earth 

I ; and the effect would be that the gases 

would be sent, if not straight up into 

least in such a narrow cone of dispersion 

lateral efEeots of the explosion would be 

' cot off from all surroundings, even from 

t buildings or the works themselves ; 

•olid earth would form an impenetrable 

rhetweeh one magazine and the rest. The 

M give no fragments to be hurled into the 

\^^m be fused into metallic vapour by 



unless the magazine were purposely detonated, 
imdoubtedly arise for some time, did not melt the 
ivalls of the magsizines before the residual mass of 
3otton g^unpowder became heated to explosiveness, 
ind so let in volumes of water from the surrounding 
^jool, sufficient, at least, to prevent explosion, if 
aot to put out the conflagration. 

For mining purposes, for cannon, for rifles, and 
for general shooting, the cotton powder will present 
-ipecial and valuable qualities. Charges for wet or 
dty blastings of very great destructive power can 
be made, and equally a rolling or gradually 
expanding force can bo obtained at will to order. 
The cotton powder — which is not, so far as we yet 
know, of an explosive character until confined — 
will be at least free from those dangers to which the 
ramming home of the Stowmarket compressed discs 
expose the miner and the quarry-man. Upon the 
cannon powder I shall hope hereafter to have the 
honour again of meeting you, what has alr^^y been 
done giving the highest promise of unsurpassed re- 
sults. For rifles and sporting guns the powder will 
be very soon in the market, when public opinion will 
criticise it, I feel sure, in a higher manner than I 
should myself like to do ; and, therefore, I will 
content myself with showing you this card of 
fired cartridges, and this board of results, by 
which you will see that whilst charges of 75 
grains of Curtis and Harvey *s No. 6 gunpowder — 
me best in the world — ^penetrates at 100 yards 
range five stout elm boards placed in a rack 
at i inch, apart, the bullets from the same 
rifle were driven into the sixth plank with 
charges of thirty grains of the cotton gun- 
powder, the bulk of both being the same, the 
cartridges being filled from the identical measure. 
The recoil from the cotton powder was less than 
the recoil from gunpowder, the smoke very light 
indeed, without smell, and the barrel of the gun 
keeps perfectiy clean, and its surface is not at all 
corroded by the action of the gases generated. 

And now, gentlemen, thanking you for your 
patience and favour, I beg you to excuse any self- 
glorification I may seemed to have indulged in, by 
believing that motive has not in the remotest 
degree actuated either my speech or my endeavours. 
The patent cotton gunpowder will go into the 
market imtamished. It will be my most earnest 
endeavour to keep it without a stam as long as I 
live. In the conviction of being able do so I 
rejoice, and with the endeavour I am sure I shall 
have your hearty sympathy. 



DISCUSSION. 

The Chairman, ia inviting diMussion, said there^ were 
many objections to which gan*cotton was originally 
liable, but which seeracd to some extent remedied by the 
method employed by the company Mr. Mackie repre- 
sented. The washing had always presented great dif- 
doulties, in cons, quence of the porous nature of the fibre 
.lid the way in which the acid was held by capillary 
ittnction, and the fibre being so completely crushed 
iiid diviled, the acid would be more thoroughly 
exposed to the action of the water. AgHin. the controlla- 
dlity of the gun-cottun appeared to be accomplished in 
a very ingenious way. When the explosion oocurred, 
the gases formed by the decomposition must find a vent, 
and if it w«re exploded too suddenly in a gun, the ball 



RDOBtaze of the explosion ; if indeed | had not time to escape, and the gun burst By the new 
Urn ftpyy*^ 6f combustion, which would, methodof treatment the explosion was somewhatretszde^ 



478 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ARTS/ Mat 9, 18TS. 



■o that fhe ball had time to be driyen along the gun 
before the mass of the gun-ootton was entirely deoom- 
posed, and thus danger was avoided. 

Xr. Wallii Naih said he had taken interest in the ques- 
tion of gun>cotton for some years, and had had the advan- 
tage of seeing the results of the experiments at Siow- 
market, as well as having suflfered to some extent from the 
result of the explosion there. He thought Mr. Mackie 
had somewhat too easily passed over the various modes 
which had been suggested from time to time for pro- 
tecting gun-cotton, and especially Mr. Abel's improve 
ments in this respect. As fax as he understood the 
matter, he should agree with the history which had been 
given of the manufacture up to the time of Revv's pro- 
cess, which was an improvement on Baron Lena's; but 
subseauent improvements, he thought, had not been 
fully oealt with. The first requirement was to control 
the rate of explosion, which had been attempted in 
various ways; first, by pressing the fibres together; 
secondly, by braiding or weaving them ; and, thirdly, 
by the more perfect incorporation adopted by Mr. 
Abel. In the meanwhile attention had been also turned 
to retarding the explosion by dividing the filaments 
as widely as possible, and separating them by par- 
ticles of some non-explosive material, and he nad 
with him a patent taken out in 1867 by a gentieman 
named RoUaston, which appeared very similar, in prin- 
ciple, at any rate, to that since patented by Mr. I'un- 
shon, though, for some reason, it appeared to have been 
dropped . Tbis patent, in the most explicit terms, spoke of 
separating the particles of the gun-cotton by pulverised 
materials of an inert nature. He thought that the 

Sniping process of Mr. Abel was really all that could be 
es&ed in that respect, for the operation could be 
carried, by means of a machine simitar to that used in 
paper-making, to any point desired, in fact, until, in the 
words of the paper, the material was converted into 
an impalpable powder. That principle, therefore, could 
hardly be called an original idea. With regard to the 
uses of gun-cotton, all those who had had anything to 
do with it were aware that these were two-fold ; first, 
as applied to sporting and ammunition purposes ; and, 
secondly, for mining, torpedoes, &o., but the require- 
ments in each case were different. For sporting pur- 
poses you required the powder to be exceedingly dry. 
and that the combustion should be strictly regulated by 
the capacity and strength of the gun with which it was 
to be used ; and his experience had been that for many 
years the great difficulty found was to prevent the gun- 
cotton absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. Many 
devices were adopted to overcome this, and some years 
ago he had the opportunity of firing about 1,000 cartridges 
made at Stowroarket, which were surrounded by a highly 
inflammable portion of gun-cotton muslin. The results 
were very satisfactory at the beginning of the season, but 
as time went on, it was found the moisture was taken up, 
and there was great irregularity in the firing. The next 
improvement was that of woven braids for cartridges cut 
off in certain lengths, and various methods of waternroof- 
ing were tried. Then they were encased in a fine mm of 
india-rubber, the charge beinf tied in the centre ; and 
these were very perfect in the first place, but it was 
found that if they were exposed to damp for any length 
of time, the india-rubber, in consequence of increased ten- 
sion, gave way, and the charge again became exposed to 
damp. The next improvement took place after Mr. 
Abel's process was adopted, the particles being submitted 
to a solution of india-rubber or gutta-percha, the spirit 
being afterwards evaporated, so as to leave a coating of 
waterproofing substaqce around them, and the resulting 
cartridges were very good indeed. He was quite at 
a loss to see how the admixture of eugner with gun-cotton 
could in any way tend to get over this difficulty, which 
he believed was the principal one, of preventing the action 
of moisture ; and, with regard to the other main purpose 
for which gun-cotton was used, via., submarine and 
nunisg operations, U appeand to him that the ad< 



mixture of any weakening eleaMot with tibe gu> 
cotton was so £ar an adulteration and unfur (o tU 
purchaser, inasmuch as it was requiring him to paj 
for sugar the price of gun-cotton. The real object in 
such cases was to obtain the greatest amount of ezpio* 
sive force wrapped up in the smallest compass compatible 
with safety in use. He failed to see how theee condi- 
tions were attained better by the process which bad been 
described than in those well known and in ptoom of 
work both at Waltham Abbey and Btowmstket He 
did not wish in any way to throw a damper on the nal 
of any one advocating the use of gun-ootton; for be 
hoped the next time Mr. Mackie came before tbem be 
would be able to put forward iomething more tangible 
than his anticipations of what was to be. For bit own 
part, he believed that the manufacture, as at preient 
understood, might be carried on with peifect safi^, and 
that the sad accidents which had happened migbt, by the 
further knowledge now possessed, he guarded against in 
future. In concuusion, he believed every poanble pre- 
caution was taken, boUi at Waltham Abb^and it Stow- 
market, where Mr. Abel's process >iras bebg earned 
on under the superintendenoe of Mr. Prentice, who bad 
had great oxpenenoe, and whose name he regnttsi bid 
not been alluded to by the lecturer. 

Vr. Hale inquired what was the price of gaa-cottoii 
as compared with g^unpowder, as he thought it vmib 
important oonaideratioii. 

Mr. Lawrenoe said it occnrred to him that iheaetiiod 
of storing described in the paper was somelbiog bh 
very large cartridges inserted in water, and tbstif by 
any chance they exploded, they might aet shnoit u 
gigantic rockets, and explode in mid air, doiig fR*i 
damage to everything around. If audi sn aeCMeat 
oociHTOd, it womd be produotiye of very seriooi oodr- 
quences. 

Mr. BoUy said he had no doubt that the dirog 
being carried on in vacuo would be an immense sdnstagi 
in the manufacture, as the same principle had prond ii 
many other branches of mechanical scienoe. 

Mr. Abel, F.B.8., inquired if the material had beeo nb- 
jected to any special test which enabled Mr. ]Ia<^ to 
speak o(mfidently as to its perfect fireedom from adi 

Mr. Maokie replied that he was not a chemist, but in 
engineer, and therefore he could only say that wbateTff 
test could be applied to any other gun-cotton ooold be 
equally applied to that manumctured by the oompanf. AD 
he claimed to have done was to have devised a mesne fir 
BO crushing down the cotton that the least possible poftiA 
of fibre, if any, remained, and in that he considered be 
had carried the process farther than Mr. Abel bad done* 
though he gave that gentleman all credit for baring 
made immense advances on hia predocessors. He do^ 
repeat that he could not give the full details be sboi^ 
like of his process, for the reasons he had already stated. 

Mr. Abel said he asked the qu«tioQ beoaiiM be 
understood Mr. Mackie to daim that he had sbsolitel; 
removed all add from the gun-cotton, and thereto be 
was anxious to know if any other than the usual te^ 
had been applied, in order to ascertain its freedom froo 
impurities. He might add, however, that the idea of tM 
want of stability^ in gun-cotton beiiiff due to the preseoc* 
in it of any portion of the acids used in the manofiictnie, 
had proved to be a popular error, and Mr. Macbn 
would, no doubt, discover by experience, when be berti 
to manufacture on a large scale, that there were diffi- 
culties which had nothii^ to do with the trsstoMot of 
the cellulose, or pure cotton filnre, by scida Wbetber 
he ground it up into impalpable powder, or cat i( i&to 
very small pieces, he would find ho had other matten^ 
deal with as impurities far more rsfiuctory than acids» 
upon the removal of which he had laid so much stress. 
There were x one or two other matters (H ^^^^^^^f 
Mackie would gain a little ezpenenoe aftor hii «?«"* 



[AL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 9, 1783. 



479 



been ettabliahed; for instanoe, he 
id that his beantifal earthenware 
automatio arrangements for keep- 
itly mixed — whioh, when once mixed, 
k — and for allowing the liquid to flow 
would gradually disappear from his 
nhen. he arranged his machinery for 
per week, he would ftdl back on those 
methods which he had seen in opera- 
' In other matters, also, it would be 
)wance would have to be made for the 
le man, leading him to belieye that 
were to be obtained from the perfection 
manufacture to which he had paid a 
Lion than would be found to be the 
be found, ho believed, that either with 
^rollers in pairs, or knives, a finely-divided 
be produced, which would have much 
loe and properties in all instances, 
ftunples of granulated gun cotton made 
from a beating engine in 1866 or 1867, 
old, was still beardless. No doubt it 
it point to have the material in a tine 
, bat how that state was produced did 
matter; and long before it got to that 
previous processes had been properly 
the add would be removed ; but there 
other impurities which were not so easily 
if the cotton presented no structure 
I would prevent their removal by washing. 
' inaccuracies in the paper, which he 
and which might have arisen from Mr. 
img full materiflls before him in drawing 
•1 portion of his subject. In conclusion, 
all possible success m. the elaboration of 
which he expected so much, though, 
must say he considered the title a little 
•peak of them as improvements, until 
had proved them to be novelties which 
ly improvements. 

Paget said the question of cost, as 
gunpowder, was one of considerable 

B.S., remarked that at present gun- 
ipressed into discs, was preserved wet; but 
that mixed with sugar he should be id&aid 
the same way the sugar would dissolve 
to the trial of Mr Punshon's gun- 
Explosive Committee he did not think 
i 10 much delay as seemed to be implied, 
to his recollection, the report made upon 
adverse to the material for military pur- 
red it would answer very well for sport- 
mHitary riflo the greatest uniformity and 
fire was requisite. He hod not the 
him, but he was quite confident that 
u-Henry rifle the radial deviation was 
[twice as much with the gun-cotton as 
r, and, therefore, the committee reported 
^Coniidenng that for every invention of any 
'to government there were at least 99 
1, it was not to be wondered at that dis- 
[dkoald be expressed by those who were dis- 
^> hence many of the complaints as to go vem- 
' nnlaimess. 

in replying, said he could not go into some 

I7 u he could have wished, from the circum- 

ly mentioned, that some of the company's 

e not yet protected by patent. Mr. Mash's 

bcitor to the Stowmarket Company would 

Iths tone of many of his remarks, and by his 

' all the experiments they had made with the 

mtmg the cartridges being spoiled by damp, 

'IsM, resulted in ndlure. He certainly was 

that he had named Mr. Prentice, 

lAot done so it was solely from the hurried way 



in which the paper had unavoidably been prepared. He 
certainly intcsided to speak with the highest apprecia- 
tion of what had been done by Mr. Prentice, having 
no feeling of enmity to him, nor, indeed, to any one 
else ; and he felt, and should feel, much indebted to 
Mr. Abel for any hints he might give him, either 
in public or private. Captain Jones appeared to have 
quite mistaken his views with regard jo government 
committees ; he brought no charge against them, but he 
did flrmly believe that so long as tho government had 
arsenals and factories of their own, all inventors who 
came forward with their inventions in an imperfect or 
incomplete state must do so at a great disadvantage. 
No one could have less reason to abuse government com* 
mittees, for he had for twenty years experienced the 
greatest courtesy at their hands. No doubt there was a 
great d^ of truth in what had been said by Mr. 
Abel, but had he been able to speak freely of the whole 
process, it would have been seen that he by no means 
considOTed he had done all that was required when he 
had crushed the gun-cotton. It was precisely one of 
the latter processes that he was unable to describe minutely 
without a breach of duty towards the company whose 
interests he was bound to protect. It was absurd to talk 
of sugar being an adulteration when it was used in the 
manufacture of an article in order to produce a certain 
specifled effect, but it by no means followed that because 
the product was controlled in that way for the purpose 
of ammunition, it should be made of precisely the same 
ingredients for every purpose. Under Mr. Punshon's 

5 stent it could be granulated into powder, made into 
iscs, or in any form whatever, to suit the requirements 
of customers, so that they did not interfere with the 
rights of oUiers. He had endeavoured to walk in a 
road in whi(^ he interfered with no one, and 
that would be his aim throughout. He was Uberal- 
minded enough to believe that there was room 
enough in the world for works at Stowmarket, Faver- 
sham, and other places. There was ho reason wb}' one 
should abuse or detract from the other. Each should 
endeavour, while pursuing his own path, to aid in the- 
general rate of progress. He could not state the exact 

Erice at which the company would sell their product, 
ut it would probably depend on the price asked by 
other people for explosives of something like the same 
power. Most likely its value in the market would de- 
pend upon the work done as compared with ordinary 
gunpowder, and, as £ar as he could judge, each explosive 
had a distinctive character, suiting it for particular 
kinds of work, so that nitro-glycerine, dynamite, and all 
others would be used as circumstances dictated. In 
conclusion, he thanked Mr. Abel for the friendly manner 
in which he had referred to him, and said that he had 
no object in reading the paper but to receive the fullest 
and ueest criticism upon the process ; in fact, he had 
not asked a single personal friend to be present, or speak 
in its favour. He believed the crushing process was aa 
improvement which would render it possible, if neces- 
sary, to place the article on the market at a lower price 
than had yet been reached by gun-cotton. 

On the motion of the Chairman, a unanimous vote of 
th«^f^lf« was passed to Mr. Mackie. 



Mr. Bessemer intends to found a gold medal, to 
be given annually to any member of the Iron and Steel 
Institute who may have displayed literary capacity, or 
promoted the progress of metallurgical science by ongmal 
research. 

The State Mineralogist of Wisconsin announces 
that there is enough iron ore in the neighbourhood of the 
Black River Falls to supply the whole deaiand of the United 
States for the next ten centuries. 

Soundings to the depth of nearly four and a 
half miles have been taken by the Challenger expedition, but 
the scientiflo results were comparatively poor. 



480 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, Mat 9, 1871. 



AHHU AL DTTEBH ATIOSAL 



018. 



The namber of viaitoiv admitted oa Fridmy last waa, 
•eaacm tickeU, 245; on paTment of la., 3,076 total 3,321; 
on Saturday, season tickets, 1,286 ; on payment of Is., 
5,666 ; total, 6^52 ; on Saturday, after 6 p.ra., season 
tickets, 26 ; on payment of 6d., 272; total, 296. 

The number of visitors admitted to the Exhibition 
during the week ending Saturday, May 3, was as follows: — 
Season tickets, 2,667 ; on payment of 2s. 6d., 1,354 ; on 
payment of Is., 19,116 ; total, 23,137. 

The number admitted on Monday was, seaaon tickets, 
170 ; on payment of Is., 2,032 ; total, 2,202. On Tuea- 
day, season tickets, 193 ; on payment of Is., 2,930 ; 
total, 3,123. On Wednesday, season tickets, 2SS; on 
payment of 28. 6d., 1,300 ;'total, 1,586. 



MEL BUCKLAND'S FISH. 

Few portions of the collection of food products at the 
South Keniiington Exhibition will, perhaps, attract 
more interest than the section devoted to the exhibition 
of fish and fishing implements. For years past Mr. 
Buckland's Museum has received the attention not only 
of our own pisciculturists, but of all the best known 
foreign naturalists. As yet, however, he has obtained 
little or no assistance from the authorities, being 
obliged to depend almost entirely on his own personal 
exertions for the collection of specimens and the prepa- 
ration of casts, while his investigations regarding the 
rearing and habits of fish have been greaUy retarded 
owing to the limited space placed at his disposal for the 
carrying out of his experiments. In spite, however, of 
these drawbacks, the fish museum at South Kensington 
has gradually become of great value, and has, n^ore- 
over, proved of much use as a reference and studying 
room for students of natural history, who, until Mr. 
BuckLind started his museum, some nine or ten years 
ago, had few, if any, opportunities of supplementing 
their reading with observations of the formation and 
peculiarities of the various kinds of sea and freah water 
fish. This they can now do by means of many beauti- 
fully executed casts which are being added almost daily 
to the collection, all of which have been made by Mr. 
Buckland himbelf, or with the assistance of his secretary, 
Mr. Searle. It is true that the formation of the aquaria 
at Brighton and the Crystal Palace have opened up new 
opportunities for the study of fish life which are not 
alTorded at South Kensington ; yet in some respects the 
smaller and less pretemung London museum has the 
advantage over the larger establishments at Brighton 
and Sydenham. 

This year, as last, Mr. Buckland's museum forms part 
of the Internationsi Exhibition, and although many of 
the Bpocimens shown have been on view for many years, 
all have been rearranged, and many important additions 
have been made to utem. Of the new arrivals Uiose 
which will doubtless interest Londoners most are the 
.stufled specimens of remarkable fish taken in the waters 
round the metropolis. These have been collected under 
the management of Mr. Sachs, late secretanr of the Pis- 
catorial Society, who has given Mr. Bucaland much 
HRsistJince in collecting and arranging the various cases. 
Of the angling societies which have contributed to the 
exhibition, the True Waltonians show seventeen cas« s ; 
the Piseatorial Society, twenty-four ; the Amioabje Wal- 
tonians, four ; the Alliance, six ; while the United 
♦Suciciy of Anglers and several private persons have also 
contributed some specimens. Among. Uie fish idiown 
we may mention some splendid Thames trout— one of 
141b. ' o/. ibis fish is also represented by a fine cast, 



k 



coloured by Mr. H. L.Bolis;aid si itbei iati 
oa •ome straw it looks to like the nal Uk lint i 
are obliged to toodi it before they on be 
that it is only a cast. We believe the kigwt 
known to have beea taken in the Tbsmei «»< 
some fifteen years ago, at Sheppertoa, wai 
161b. ; one waa taken at Marknr, about tax } 
which weighed 151b. ; while the two krgtit 
seas«a weighed together Sdlb^ their KfttA 
being almost equally divided. Some good pikt 
ahown ; one weighing 261b. Of earp sre ei^lii 
of five beantifiu fish, weighing in the sggif^ 
6 OS. One taken at Bnahcy-park pond soom ' 
weighing 15^ lb., is also shown. The coIkcti«r 
these, contains a curious Albino neich caogk 
river Lea, three magnificent radd (dlh.6«| 
bream (231b.), two carp (11 lb.), a perch ef 
barbel 9 lb., two grayling caught in the ~ ' 
lib. 14 oz., the other of 1 lb. 13ot. May elfctr 
fish are also shown ; the whole fonniog, fA^ 
finest collection of '^London fish*' ever Isroagbt 

Casts of fish are much more numeroui thu the 
specimens, and represent many corioas ^mm d 
fresh and salt water varietiec, collected fran 
parts of the world. All of one side cf the 
occupied by coloured rc pr o ae n tatiops of tesflih, 
which have been in the mosenm for eoDe tiw. 
collection in the world, we believe, is there ndk s 
and finely executed number of casts exhiM 
now on view at South Kensington. Of tsinnt 
plenty of representatives of English, Iriflh, u 
bred fish in both the fresk-run and idol ilster 
magnificent Tay salmon of 70 lb., taken in iXt^ 
lanky, ill-conditioned kelt of 491b., Ukenin the' ' 
perhaps the most beautiful in the whole 
a cast of a magnificent salmon of 34 lb. takes b^ 
Keane. These casts have been besutifQllf 
the life by Mr. Bolfe. 

Fish-hatching operationa are also to he 
working order, the troughs being filled vtth 
young fish in various stages of developmeot tad 
The hatching was most successful thu yesi, 
varied stock of eggs was deposited, ss the 
will show : — Saimo ferox (hatched oat Fi 
Rhine salmon (March 9) ; Norway tront, 
trout (hatched February 22); Tyne ealmon 
February 26) ; Newstead Abbey trout (hstch 
14) ; Keuchutel trout, common trout (hatched 
20) ; Salmo/aro (hatched March 9) ; silver ch«r, 
and trout hybrids ; sea trout hybrids from S" 
(hatched Feb. 27). The hatching boxes axtd 
collection are placed under the superintendeoce 
telligent assistant, Mr. Edon, who is a1*^ 
show the fish and t^xplain operations to viaiuA 
whose care in attending to the eggs and 
much of the success of this year*s hatching 
is due. Tanks and small aquaria^ are pb 
the museum, some of which contain fieh of 
ages, bred in the tanks, while a pretty 
a mill-dam and salmon ladder, designed by the 
G. P. Ffennel, a son of the late inspectcr, i 
attractive feature of the exhibition. Some freih 
are shortly expected ; a tank is being wepsrid 
specimens of the *' Spiegel," or •* looking-gU* 
from Silesia, of which Mr. Buckland, in a late 
of land and fFater, writea :— ** It is not ye 
mined whether the ' looking-^aas earp ' ie s 
species, or, as some have it» whether it ie • 
between a carp and a tench. It, again, may 
an established species, originally a hybrid.** 
interesting arrival consists of a spedaMn of the 
or *♦ pike perch," from Stettin. This fish hwi 1i* 
introduced into this country for the fiist time 
Sachs, who unfortunately, out of fifteen fiA d 
received only one alive, and that in rather a <u 
dition. Under Mr. Edon's care it hat, 
thoroughly revived, and now fotmi a norel 



pbc^ 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 9, 1P73. 



481 



I BtoUnd't BUfletuD, and will doobtleas prove a 

tdfition to the ordinary run of our pond fish, 

^ ooaaidering that many waters in England 

r suited for its cnltivation. Another im- 

Ifdditioii to the fish exhibition is the skeleton of 

jMii whale. This specimen, being too larse to 

\n the nraseom, has been set np on a plot of land 

the western annexe ; the body was foond by 

rnea floating in the sea, in 1869, aboat fifteen 

Havre; the skeleton measures sixty feet, and 

It purchased by a gentleman for £60, who has 

tt»'Mr. Buckland for the exhibition. Besides the 

m abore specified, the fish collections contains a 

'of nets and other implements used in fishing, 

■■ of oysters from Tarious districts, models of 

fkits leot by Mr. Wiseman, and many oUier 

trf interest and Talne to naturalists and pisdcnl- 



SZHIBITI0H8. 



VIENNA EXHIBITION. 

jof the Exhibition took place, as announced, 
ly, Hay 1st. The followmg account of the 
[CBNBMiiy is extracted from the Timu : — 

. few minutes after the stroke of noon the hall 
^toa floorish of trumpets, and then the Emperor 
arance. Arriving with the Empress in a 
J drawn by six bays, he had been received 
[entrance by his brother, the Archduke Pro- 
[ V)r Baron Schwarz, Director-Qeneral of the 
I who presented the Empress with a magnifi- 
!t Ei^ering the rotimda through the southern 
Emperor crossed the hall, conducting the 
hapenal of Germany. Behind them walked 
se Impoial of Austria and Prince Frederick 
i cf Pnissia. Then followed the Prince Imperial 
ly with the Empress, the Prince of Wales with 
lAichdachesses, the Crown Prince of Denmark, 
^ r of England, the Crown Prince of Saxony, 
moved across to take their places on the 
ae the members of tiie Oesangverein chaunted 
Anthem to the magnificent accompaniment 
ttion band and the orchestra of the Imperial 
. His Royal Highness the IVince of wales 
on the tribune to the riffht of the Emperor, 
i he frequently conversed during the proceed- 
n the Imperial party were seated and the 
M been sung, the Archduke Charles Louis, 
^ef the Exhibition, came forward to the front of 
I sad addressed the Emperor in the following 

^jyesty. Host Gracious Lord, — With joyous 

fHtUtker siimmingj^ I welcome your Majesty, in 

^iMicated to peaceful progress. Your Majesty's 

■i lympathy crowns the work which draws on 

>f7M of the world, and insures our Fatherland the 

iflfa prominent participation in the advancement 

tkppinen through education and labour. It doea 

■s M, whom your Majesty's confidence has in- 

I «ilh ihe nalisation of your sublime ideas, to be the 

p^carow n work. Yet we may be permitted to indi- 

^^J*«t» to which it owes its accomplishment: — 

imtiatiTe of your MajssW ; the intelligent and 

^to of our own and friendly peoples ; the 

' political force of labour and cultivation — these are 

«tB which lend to*day to this creation of your 

»ti^ iatrinric value, and will bequeath to future 

^itohoiurarand memory. 

itpbueyour Miyesty to accept the Exhibition 
ly the report of the historiod development of 
SM) sad to declare the Universal Exhibition of 
TOtoheopensd." j 

ftST^ """^ ^^ '^'y "^ tones that were dis- 
Mhle &r over the bail :— 



**With livelv satisfaction I behold the accomplishment 
of an undertaking whose significance and importance I 
appreciate in their fullest extent My confidence in the 
patriotism and energy of my people, uid in the sympathy 
and support of friendly nations, has accompanied the de- 
velopment of the great work. My Imperial good wishes and 
my grateful acknowledgments are dedicated to its consum- 
mation. I declare the Universal Exhibition of the year 
1873 to be opened." 

Then foUowed the address of thanks, read by Prinoe 
Auersperg, in the name of the people of Austna. The 
address, while congratulating the nation on the great 
work it had achieved, attributed the credit and glory of 
it to the initiative of his Imperial Majesty. 

To the Prince succeeded Dr. Cajetun Felder, Burgo- 
master of Vienna, who expressed the g^titude of the 
citizens for all his Majesty had done for the city. 

Then the choir intoned the Festgesang, composed by 
Josef Weilen after the Pssan of Victory in Handel's 
Judat Maceabcsut, Nothing in the programme of the 
day was more impressive tnan the marvellous effect of 
the music in a hall that was certainly not constructed 
primarily for purposes of sound. The volume of melody 
seemed to gain in richness as it swelled and rolled round 
among the arches; and, with the prospect of band- 
playings and ffrand ooncerts before one, it was satis£ao- 
tory to know that the Rotunda was a success in acoustics 
as well as a triumph in architectural engineering. The 
Fe»tgesang over, the Imperial party, followed by a 
brilliant suite, started to make the tour of the build- 
ing. The various Commissioners and officials had 
previously made their way to their respective de- 
partments, where they were in readiness to receive 
and act as cicerones to the illustrious visitors. Of 
course, even after the almost superhuoian exer- 
tions which have been made in some quarters 
during the last few days, the Exhibition is but the 
shadow and skeleton of what it will be. Thanks to 
the indefatigable labours of Mr. Owen and his staff", who 
never relaxM their exertions to the last moment, England 
shows most creditably. There are blank cases there aa 
elsewhere, but already most of the important machinery 
is in place, while the most attractive objects in gold- 
smiths work, china, and crystal show brilliantly in their 
completed arrangement. India, too, is gorgeous and 
richly stocked, which is more than can oe said for the 
court allotted to tiie Austrnlasian colonies, where the 
coming display is as yet all left to the imagination. 
Thanks to the dispute among the commissioners, America 
is represented mainly by a dentist's chair, a case of photo- 
graphs, a piano, and a stand of scent botUes filled with 
' Mississippi water.' France, too, is excessively back- 
ward ; Germany makes but litUe show ; and among the 
rest Austria leads, as she ought to do, with perhaps the 
single exception of Switserland, whose little court seems 
a marvel of beauty and snugness, while Egypt treads 
hard on the heel of both." 

The Exhibition itself, however, is very far indeed from 
being in a state of completion. The correspondent of 
the 3ailg Telegraph says : — '* All sorts of expedients were 
adopted on the opening day to cover the nakedness 
of the land. In some of the apartments acres of 
grey calico were nailed over wooden skeletons, and 
propped up by girders to fill up blanks, or screen 
the entrances to covered courts, wherein deal boards 
were the only objects ready for exhibition. Triumphs 
of ingenuity were achieved with carpets and woollen 
fabrics — readily lent by manufacturers whose allotted 
exhibiting space was not fully prepared for the dis- 
play of tbeir articles. In a word, the best was made 
of a bad job ; for, with the exception of three or four 
foreign departments, no entire section of the whole 
Exhibition was ready ; nor do I believe that everything 
will be in its place even by the 1st of June. What 
has been done hitherto has to a g^eat extent been 
provisional. For instance, our Indian Department,, 
of which we have good reuson to feel proud, is 
now about to commence a thoroughgoing re-arrange- 



462 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, Mat 9, 1873. 



ment of its show, which it will shortly dispose in a 
manner that may be consid^^ defiaitiYe. Ninety 
cases arrived from India on Wednesday, too late, 
of coarse, to be opened in time for the morrow's cere- 
mony; these, and a few others expected [Portly, will 
complete the contributions from Hindostan. The colonies 
are at present represented by a sparse selection of na- 
tural prodHcts in little linen sacks and glass bottles. 
The Cape, Australia, New Zealand, and Queensland are 
in a gallery of their own, bnt a small slip of which has 
been ceded to India ; and there, in a sort of cool and 
melancholy retirement, they are awaiting the arrival of 
-corpulent chests by dozens, now reposing in some 
shunted truck or goods shed in an obscure Continental 
railway station. Things do seem to take a terrible time 
getting here just now. For instance, the beer-engine of 
the English dining'room was despatched from Ix>ndon 
towards the end of March ; it is not yet forthoomicg ! 
Some hundreds of French cases have been six weeks on 
the road ; and the American <w/i>, where are they P' 

The same correspondent adds : — '* The English jewel- 
lery IP, as always, unsurpassed either in beauty of design 
or solidity of make by any other ; and the gold and silver 
plate in our department is already become one of the 
lions of the palace. It cannot but be highly satisfactory 
to Englishmen to notice that, without a single exception, 
Jill th« Viennese journals speak of thn displny within the 
British section in terms of unqualified admiration. The 
highest encomiums are passed upon our agricultural 
machinery, our pottery and porcelain wares, and our 
glass." ♦ 

UTILISATION OF SILK DOWNS. 
By F. L. Simmonds. . 

Among the various raw materials and products long 
neglected or unemployed, to which I have from time to 
drawn attention, by papers read at meetings of the 
Society, or by communicutiona in the Society's Journal 
sevfrul have risen into important industiies. 

The various economic uses of cotton-seed is one 
example; fur we import4id into this country alone, on 
tlie average of the last two years, 171,000 tons, of the 
value of £1.500,000, for making oil-cake for cattle food, 
puper from the husk, &c. 

Another recent industrinl application, which is be- 
coming of some importance, is the use of the silky 
down, clothing the seeds of sevc t;«1 plants, a 8ul*stanco 
which has been for a long time hufTored to run to waste. 
In liollund, at the Internationul Exhibition of Domestic 
Economy, a few years ago, I had the pl« jisure, as a juror, 
of rewarding an extensive economic application of thiril 
matciial, and now it is working its way in commerce in 
this country, where private firms and companirs are 
turning their attention to it. The CeihaDown Comp;«ny 
of Stockport use it for down quilts, ladies' quilted 
petticoats, and other stiiflSng puriioses. It may be well 
to draw aittt ntion to what tho S ocii ty of Arts and others 
have done in this direction, so as to concentrate the 
floating information about these various vegetable downs 
or silky cotton substances. 

So far back as 1835, the Society (>f Arts received two 
largo pieces of cloth made from tho down of the simool, 
or tree -cotton {liombax luptaphylhnn) forwarded by 
Captain Jenkins from (rowhatty, in Assam, the place of 
their manufacture. From a report then made on it, it 
appeared that the fine, short down of the Jinmbax is 
spun into a large, loose, elitrhtly-twisted coixi or roving, 
and this is made into cloih by interweaving it with a 
warp and shoot of common thin cotton thread, in the 
manner of carpeting. It comprtses a loose cloth, 
incapable, probably, of being wHfehe«l without injurj', 
but warm, very elastic, and light. From the 
shortness of the staple, and the great elasticity of the 
fibre, it is not at all probable th>it it could be worked by 
the machinery now in use for spinning cotton, but the 
combination which it exhibits of fineness of fibre with 




great elastiaity, will bo doabt make it rank high ■ 
Aon-oondoctor of heat, and therefore fit it for 
waddmg and for aiuffing mufli, and perhaps m 
When combined with wool, it might probably fonn 
basifl of fabrics of great .warmth, lightness, and 
aoltneaa. Theae predictions have been folly 
as the wants of commerce der^oped themadvea 

Very fine ooUeetions of silk-cotton of rtriou 
were du>wn at tho London International ExhiUtioo 
1862, from Jamaica, Dominica, Brazil, the Pkili 
and other qnaiters ; and I also exhibited a Isr^ 
varied collection from the capsules of differeot tnes 
plants at the London Annual Exhibition of 1872. 

In the India Museum will be found down ootin 
floss (IhnvM extensa), gup^al^ silk cotton of 
nuUarHnctt, Madras, ok>th made entirely of m 
floss {*yaloir9pi9 gigmUeo), oloth of one part of 
and four of mudar floss, and doth of ons-balf 
cotton and one-half of mudar floss from Agn. j 

In Africa this silky down of the Bomb^i \ 
utilised, for Captain Burton, in his *' Lake Region j 
Central Africa, mentions its being brought dailyj 
the bazaars as a favourite substitute for cotton, btisj 
but half the price. The people spend their waste M 
in spinning yam of it with the rude impl**mente th«j 
have at their command. In Liberia stockings H 
been made of it, riiowin|^ tho result of Afinosn an 
in spinning and mannfiEtcturing. J 

The Indians make beautiful fabrics, aboat the I^ 
Negro and Amazon, of the down of ifiodtnd'y 
Sautnama, At Gu^iyaqjoil this silky fibre is n*^ * 
stuff cushions and in manufactures. J 

The species of Btmibax are remarkable on afoora 
of their capsules, which, on bursting, display « ^'^^^ 
lent sulmtance, often mistaken by travellers for cottu 
This materirtl, being more silky than cotton, h« l^j 
distinguished by the name of '* silk cotton." it t^i";'' 
also in not spinning so well as cotton does. Some diffici^'Jj 
therefore, has been experienced in making use of tlii« rijj 
abundant cotton-like produce. Mr. Williams, of J"; 
bulpore, succeeded in spinning and weaving 8'»roeof*i 
so as to form a good coverlet. It has lately l)«n ^^ 
use of extensively for stuflang pillows, muffii, ^^^''J!'^; 
and vpadding, and could be converted into balf-st«D **-' 
paper-making, and perhaps for gun-cotton, «na »* ^ 
moxa. The jury of the Exhibition of 1851 mV*^ 
that it might advantageously be used, in coD)bin»u« 
with other substances, not merely for the purples ^' 
upholstery, but even in the manufacture of mixed »t^ 
for various other uses in the arts. 

At one of the Society's Exhibilioni', silk cotl^jn «j 
shown among other useful paper-making matciws- 
could not be employed, however, extensively forWU*P 
pose, on account of its price. .^ 

The Jiombax down, for several years past, has «|»^ 
into commerce in the DuUh ports, on the *^?r'^ 
under the name of kapoL, the local name »" »^.*^^ 
Archipelago. The increase*! price of horse-haiivw"' 
flocks, and other animal subsUnces for »F*^^**^^, 
caused more inquiry to be directed to vegetable nia 
and these silk cotton downs are cheaper by 50 per 
than animal substance. 

The qualities which recommend it to no*»<^"*lJ- 

1. Its immunity from attacks by moths and rem 

2. Its lightness. 

3. Its elasticity and softness. 

4. Its medium warmth. 

5. Its cheapness. vi W ifJ 
Its price as compared with feathers for a double wu 
stated at Amsterdam, in 1869, to be :— 

lb.. f !• 

Kapok 22 \\ g 

Feathers 86 ^ '^ ^ 

And as compared with horse-hair for a double n«m« 

Kapok 33 [ 'J J 



d. 




Horse-hair 44 * 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 9, 1873. 



483 



kftMft Wag in each case equally well stuffidd. Two 
hoiiei shoved its applicatioa at the Amsterdam 
1869 ; Hr. F, G. Kratxeagteio, of Amater- 
«fe neeived a gold medal from the jurors, and 
fiatgen, cf Rotterdam. 

in grafflmes of silk down are obtained from 

a|Mk By care and attention in carding, the 

i(Ut» down for beds is much improved, and it is 

jizpance per pound. One house alone in Holland 

ftm. the Dutch-India colonies 1,000 to 1,500 

twilf, haf ing found a oonsiderable sale for it in 

Fnnee, Germ^iny, Belgium, and Eng-land. 

li^taedi, when separated from the down, sell for 

the 1 DO kilogrammes ; the oil extracted from 

40 to 4o florins per hectolitre ; and the oil cake 

i4t 10 florins per 100 kilogrammes. 

dowa of barrig^da, called paina, is used in 

fllling beds and pillows. In the province of 

lo-Kurte, it is known by the indigenous 

SiamuoA (EriodendroH Saumama), and is sold at 

'biiz dollars per arroba. In the province of 

it it called '* Paina-tyberina." In Venezuela 

\damm are termed Algodon de Seida. 

Hioo and Cuba the down from Eriodendron 

is owd for stuffing pillows, mattresses, &c., 

to feathers or flock. It is called locally 

1« of Bombax malariiieum, which are ripe 

ia Ootober, wei^h 32 grammes, of which the 

15 grammes, the seeds 10, the down 5, and 

or divisions 2 gimmes. 

down of OekrowM Lmgopusy and some of 

«f Bowibmx^ is said to have been used in hat 

pbiee of beaver or rabbit furs. The purple 

M,9iilmum\A spun and wove into a cloth, of 

are made and worn by the inhabitants 

ifBBoa A9elepia8 abounds in plants yielding 
\i^^ as the A$cUpui4t gi4jmHtea, &c. Tho Syrinn 

i^'^piau tyriaca) is culti%*at4^ us fnr north as 

The ailk-like down which surrounds the 

Ittb plint is not more than tin inch or two in 

tit has. nevertheless, bn«n usefully applied »U(1 

^4ieii manufactured of it, both in France und 

idameMaralin David, of Clamart, submitted 
[tkftfibr*^ of the stem and of the down of Asde^ 
> to the Industrial Society of Mulhouse lately, 
_ th4i thrt silky down might be usefully em- 
Dr K*«cblin thereupon published a descriptive 
the plant in the Bulletin of the Society 
U 1S73, p. 32, in which he states there are 
)of Apoeynum in which the fruit is furnished 
cottony anbatance, but only that of Syria 
hssbefn yet ecnployed to any extent under 
isf lilk down. It is received from Alexandria 
^Maik'iiles. It also bears the name of cotton 
tni is found in the environs of Uirsenberg 
The down is as fine as silk, and as 
Bsv, but so short that it cannot be spun. It 
A far stuffing and wadding. It grows spon- 
[ip the environs of Strasbourg, and is largely 
' in Sileaia and the United States. It resists 
As cold of Europe, and lives to twenty years, 
■^tioo of the down from the seed is very easy, 
[finning this the stems are cut down and treated 
ip, and t BmilAr useful fibre is obtained. The 
'^'srich IB honey, and it is for this purpose it is 
M ia North Amierica and Silesia. The industrial 
t^ anlky down datefl back to the last century, 
V HM a fsctory waa established at Leignitz, in 
• v^ich worked it np alone, or mixed with cotton 
cboc* and gloves. Othen also utilised it. 
iBuOloifoaod tlMlcngth of the fibi««o£ this down 
(a. to 0*025 iD.,lormed,likethoae of cotton, 
iiabe, bat not turned in a screw form, which 
Iht valae, from the want of felting property. 



The fibre is very weak. He found it necessary to mix 
one-fourth part of cotton with it to work it mechanically, 
and even with this admixture the filaments have a strong 
inclination to separate and flo^it in the air. The twist and 
the fabrics lose all their brilliancy, which he attributes 
to the fraction of the filaments in working. 

Mr. Moncton proposed making use of the downy sub- 
stancs contained in the follicles of the mudar (Colo- 
tropia gigmntea)^ and indeed had paper made of it alone, 
and also mixed with two-fifths of the pulp of sunn 
hemp, such as the natives use for makings paper. As tho 
glossy and silky but comparatively short fibre is dif- 
ficult to spin, a mixture of one-fifth of cotton was usod, 
in order to enable it to be worked. A good wearing 
cloth, which stands washing and tikes a dyf>, was pro- 
duced. It is, however, well suited for stuffing pillows 
or coverlets. Mr. Moncton cilculated that its coat would 
be one rupee a roaund (23. per J cwt.). This silky down 
of the pod is used by the natives of the Madras Presi- 
dency in making a soft cotton-like thread. 

This plant grows all over India, and seoras to thrive 
on soils that either reject or destroy everything else. If 
its cotton could be generally utilised, the waste lands of 
India might be covered with it, as it requires no culture 
and no water, and is productive on dry land. It comes 
to maturity in a year, but is perennial, and when once 
planted or sown would require no further care ; 
where thickly planted it might be made the means of re-> 
claiming poor soils, as the leaves and some of the upper 
branches rot, while the root and stem remain. 

L'iuia du Bombardiere {Asclepias giganfea) was shown 
in the Portuguese section at the Paris Exhibition in 
1867, from the Isle of Santiago, Cape Yerdes, and from 
Angola. It grows spontaneously. If it were cultivated 
it could be extensively exported. It is used for filling 
mattraeses, and recently it has been made into fibrics, 
wbich are very durable mixed with cotton. Tho price 
(*f the raw material is about 4jd. the kilogramme, or, if 
denned, 6.Vd. 

In the tjnited States, undt-r the name of silk-weed, 
the thistle-like down is used for stuffing l»«dfling. 
Messrs. Thresher and Glenny mnde a variety of fabiics 
of a lii!:ht, soft texture, Hoine well suited as a substitute 
for flannel, from -the silky down of Caiotropia gigantea, 
called yercum. Speaking of the silk cotton of the^»c//7)»a*, 
amonsr others Calotfopi» gigantea^ curatsiviva. and procera^ 
Mr. H. Carcenac, juror and reporter on Cotton at the 
Exhibition of 1862, and at Paris in 1867, stated that h-^had 
examined, inthe department of the French colonies, tissues 
partly made with this fibre, which, although very fine and 
smooth, were not suited to form an elastic and resistant 
thread. But it could be employed as tram in a mixed 
fabric, which would have a silky feel and a brilliant aspect, 
resembling handkerchiefs made with the waddmt^ or 
waste of silk.* This substance is also well fitted for 
making counterpanes, which would have the double ad- 
vantage of being light and very warm. 

Another vegetible silk, very fine, downy, and glistening, 
is ascribed to an Ec kites, and to a Strophantun, From 
its nature it cannot be spun, but may be employed as 
a vegetable eider down. 

From the West Indim colonies and Guiana, the silk 
cottons of li mbax pentandrum, hepfaphgliutttj and Ceiba^ 
Ochroma Lftgopits, and that of several species of AseUpiaa, 
together with tho vegetable hair of an Epiphyte TiHandma 
u9noid€% although as yet not largely used, could be em- 
ployed as waddings, downs, and for counterpanes. From 
Reunion a natural eider down, obtained from Typha 
nngustifolia, was shown, and the silky cotton of several 
iqpeciea of Bombax j among otherai?. malaribicum. 



The sale of sewing-maehixiea during the past 
year in America reached the enormous figure of 851,736. 

The minelral prodnots of PennsylTaiiiA in the 
last eensos jmr was £15,241,678, while that of all the o«her 
States and territories amounted to hat £15,278,121. 



484 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 1873 



THE YIELD OF COCOONS IN ITAL^ . 

The yield of cocoons in Italy in 1871 is considered to 
have been superior in quantity, as it was in qoality, to 
that of the previous year. The greater portion was 
formed of the imported eggs of the Japanese breeds, 
both green and white, the green sorts predominating. 
The total quantity of silkworms* eggs imported into 
Italy for the season, deducting the exports, amounted 
to 92,ldo kilog-, of an estimated value of 22,117,200 
Italian lire. This estimate is, however, below the 
selling value of the eggs, which, in Lombardy and 
Piedmont, is stated to have averaged 28 lire per card of 
28 grammes for Japanese eggs of good quality. The 
high price, if maintained, cannot but be a serious 
obstacle to the further development of the silk industry 
of Italy, so long as the bulk of the crops is based on the 
Japanese eggs. Mr. Consul Colnaghi remarks upon the 
discrepancies contained in the estimates of the yields of 
cocoons for the whole of Italy, but attaches importance 
to the more positive facts obtainable with reference to 
the yield of cocoons in Piedmont and Lombardy alone, 
which regions, with Venetia, form the most important 
silk-growing districts of Italy. The yield in Pied- 
mont in 1871 was above mediocrity, and showed signs 
of considerable prog^rera over the results of previous 
years. From the returns published by the Chamber of 
Commerce of Turin, some idea of the present condition 
of the silk husbandry may be obtained. In 1871, in 
Piedmont, including that portion of the province of 
Pavia which formed part of the kingdom of Sardinia, 
public markets for the sale of cocoons were held in 
thirty towns, between the 30th of May and the 11th 
of July. The total number of market days was 712, 
and the number of markets held at each town varied horn 
eleven to thirty, according to the importance of the 
locality. The total quantity of cocoons sold and weighed 
in these markets amounted to 602,156, of a value of 
23.820.831 lire, to which must be added 211,958 
myriagrams brought to the markets, but not publicly 
weighed, and sold by private contract. The regiaterea 
sales of cocoons in the public markets during the last 
ten years give an average of 329,818 myriagrams, being 
872,338 less than in the year 1871, which a&o surpassed 
the most abundant yield of any of the series. These 
results have been obtained almost entirely, however, by 
means of importations of Japanese eggs. The perse- 
vering and intelligent attempts to overcome the silk- 
worm disenso and rear healthy worms in Italy, though 
giving fair hopes of ultimate success, have not yet made 
this country independent of foreign supplies. 

In Lombardy, the yield of cocoons in 1871 was some- 
what greater than in 1870, and amounted to 1,820,000 
myrsiurams. The quality was decidedly better, 14 kilog. 
ef cocoons giving 1 kilog. of silk, whereafe, in 1870, 15 
kilog. were required to produce the same quantity. The 
production of cocoons in Lombardy may be calculated at 
about one-half the entire crop of the whole of Italy. 
Hopes are however entertained, based on the more 
healthy condition observed to exist in the reproductive- 
ness of the Japanese breed, that the silkworm disease 
is on the decrease. During the first years of the dis- 
ease, which deprived that region of nearly one- half ths 
usual produce, dealers imported large quantities of 
Asiatic raw silk to enable them to work their mills. 
The importations of raw silk into Italy, in 1864, was 
about 1.000,000 kilog., the greater part of which came 
from French ports, England importing direct only 
13,717 kilog. As the production of silk gradually in- 
creased in Italy there was a oorreeponding decrease in 
the imports of raw silk, which, in 1870, had fallen to 
844.429 kiloff., of which 12,676 kilog. were received from 
England. This increase in the production of Italian 
silk will, in all probability, continue until the produce 
of the country reaches thn original state. Such as least 
is the hope generally entertained, and there seems no 
reason to doubt its folfilmant. 



GRAMME'S NEW ELECTRIC LIGHT. 

Some experiments have lately been made in the West- 
minster Bndge-road with a new electric light> dev^pe^ 
with a new magneto-electric machine, the invention d 
M. Gramme, of Paris. M. Gramme has been eogagd 
in the French capital for a number of years in the worb 
of the *' Alliance," where he had great fariliticfl for pfl^ 
fecUng his ingenious invention. The Committee of In- 
dustry of the Academy of Science, after having pat it to 
a severe test, awarded him the prize of 50,000 innc*^ 
and it is at present being rapidly introduced in France. 
The difference between the Gramme and other machinei 
lies chiefly in the application of rotary, instead of re- 
ciprocating ma^etism. The construction is brieflj ft^ 
follows : — " A nng of soft iron encircled with an ondleu 
coil of copper wire is rotated between the two poles of a 
strong magnet ; that half of the ring which is in pcox* 
imity with the north end of the magnet takes soaUi po- 
larity ; whilst the opposite half, near to the soatfa end. 
takes north polarity ; the two neutral points of th< 
system being equidistant on each side. When the iron 
nng with its wire convolutions is rotated, the polarity 
of the ring remains unchanged in position in regard to 
the operator, so that the action is equivalent to the coilf 
alone being rotated over a stationary ring-shaped msf • 
net. The effect of this is to produce currents in the two 
halves of the ring, in opposite directions, betvaen its 
two neutral points. At these points, however, oootscti 
are placed, which touch in succession a series of itads, 
in connection, at regular intervals, with the vire coil, 
so that the opposite currents in the two halvei of the 
ring, instead of neutralising each other, join togetba 
and form a single current" In the course of the expe- 
riments the machine, which was driven with aboat 2| 
horse power, did its work in a most satisfactory manner 
A copper wire, about 1) millemetre in thickness, w 
suspended between the poles, and became instantly led* 
hot with a revolution of little over 300 in a miniite. 
The 2} horse power is sufficient to produce an illamint- 
tion equal to eight thousand candles. The Jhil^ A'fVA 
in reporting the experiments, says : — ^There was scsd» 
facility given for testing the accuracy of the statemeiii 
in a small street running into the main road. The ct^ 
bon points had been placed at the end of* this street, afii 
at the application of the current, an intense light w 
thrown on the shod at the opposite end, a distance o^ 
about 300 yards, which illuminated every object iritha 
that space with a painful brilliancy. At that distance it 
was not only quite easy to read the smallest print, bat 
the flame of an ordinary gas lamp threw a Mpd 
shadow upon the board behind it. At the sane tim^* 
the light burned with a steadiness which we havD ne^M' 
seen equalled in any other magneto-electric micbin^ 
partly in consequence of a very delicate piece of loa* 
chinery, also a new invention, by which the carboo 
points are always kept at the proper distance. It i^ 
obvious that the oost of the light can be easily ucer* 
tained, as it consists simply of the Gramme machine, tb* 
steam engine and the cost of its working, and tK* 
trifling cost of carbon. These being all the reqaiaiteii 
we imagine that the estimate of two shillings per kotf 
is a good deal beyond the actu^J experience. Ltf 
machines are now being made that will easily thro* » 
light equal to 25,000 candles at a comparatively imAll* 
expense, and it is said for a distance of thirty oiltt^ 
The small compass of the whole apparatus rendeit it d 
great use, not only to lighthouses, but to large i flw« l * 
which will be able to make themselves seen for s tt^ 
distance in a dense fog. By the appUcatioa of th« 
current, pig iron can also be freed in a very short ti«< 
of all noxious elements, and turned into steel in sooif- 
tiling less than an hour. 

Experimenta have also been made with this light, vitfc 
a view to adopting it on the clock tower of the Hoom 
of Parliament, and it is probable that it wiU ultioutelr 
be \ised for this pnrpote. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 1873. 



485 



SVAL COOKING UTENSILS. 

Article we gare some acooant of ancient 
We now propose to follow thii np by 
of those in nse in medissYal times. 
_ to have been the birth-place in Europe of 
axt» thence it pained to France, and from 
_ it came to as. 
ISBrioas old Italian work, by Bartolomeo 
deU* Arte del cucinare," published 
in 1572, and afterwards reprinted at 
tS, t^wei§ a complete account of the kitchens 
and the utensils used in them. The book 
illustrated, and there are representations of 
sort of TCflBeL ' There are cauldrons and 
ahapee and sizes; some with strainers in 
Tery large one is represented as swinging 
of a lerer, by which it can be removed 
There are knives, forks, ladles, and 
rasps, and stirrers ; buckets, jars, meat- 
pr e aaoo , gridirons, and frying-pans of 
Several roasting-jacks are represented, 
by smoke or hot air and one by a spring. 
there are three horizontal spits, connected 
the Hne from the barrel of the spring 
fusee. Such are some of the multi- 
figured and described. The curious 
them is, that they so exactly resemble those 
present day. There is even a whisk, to 
holding it between the hands, while they 
backwards and forwards. So far as 
vessels are concerned, we seem to 
HUle improvement since Signer Scappi 



ryabbed 



to jodge from the receipts in the old 

._a, the appliances must have been as 

thoee above described, and as complicated, 

a lonflT time before the English kitchens 

supplied. Our ancestors, the first English, 

lo not seem to have excelled in cookery; 

preferred quantity to quality, for they 

liters. Strutt, in his '* Munners and Cus- 

English," engraved a representation of a 

in which the meat is served on spits, as 

fish and other matters in bowls. Har- 

leam, was a great feaster, and *' caused 

in curiositie.** 

probably brought over French cookery 

which, even then, was greatly esteemed. 

a largv) kitchen establishment, with many 

lOf the culinary vessels in use we have not 

ription. rerhaps we may feel pretty 

yy were not very elaborate or numerous. 

i' to times a litUe later, we find that, in the 

jtary, the great Earl of Northumberland 

wooden trencher. Probably most of the 

wer<« of earthenware, though in the 

book it is mentioned that two brass 

were bought for 26s. 4d. This was at a 
oarter of wheat cost 6s. 8d., and a sheep 
iucsoId were a luxury for table use, and 
hired. Even in Elizabeth's time, plates 
earthimware were uncommon, though Hol- 
la xxM that ** treene '* (wooden) platters and 
gotxig out, and tin and silver coming in. 
of course, unknown in England till long 
Coryat, who travelled through Europe 
■ day's, remarked that the Italians had a 
oC using forks in cutting their meat, and 
fted at for attempting to introduce forks 
Here, or in France, they were not used 
afkerwards. Even Montaigne used to 

f vid to have been introduced in the reign 

Fyaes Morrison, in his **Tnvelv' 

against using the ''spoone and 



For a long time our neighbours the Scots were con- 
siderably behind us in their domestic appliances. 
Joshua Barnes, in his " History of Edward III." (quoted 
in Southey's " Common-piace Book," vol. iv., p. 29), 
says: — 

" Nor yet had they (the Scots) any perns or cauldrons 
to dress their meat in, for what beasts they found (as 
they always did good store in those northern parts) 
they would soeth them in their own skins, stretched out 
bellying on stakes in the manner of cauldrons; and 
having thus sod their meat, thev would take out a little 
piate of metal, which they use 1 to truss somewhere in 
or under their saddles, and laying it on the fire, take 
forth some oatmeal (which they carried in little bags 
behind them for that purpose), and having kneaded and 
tempered it with water, spread that thereon ; this being 
baked." 

In England the spit was for a long time turned by 
hand, though, as we have seen above, jacks were used 
on the Continent. In " Gammer Qurton's Needle," 
our very old English comedy, written about A.D. 1650, a 
beggar says : — 

** And many a broche-spit have I turned and basted." 

Also in a ** Book of Account," A.D. 1569, there is 
an entry, 

" For tumynge the spytte, iiiid." 

It is well-known that dogs were trained to this duty. 

A "Portable spring jack" was patented in 1773, by 
which motion was given from a spring to the spit by 
means of wheelwork, or by a string coiled over a fusee. 
The spit might be either horizontil or vertical. A re- 
flector was used in which the spit is fixed, and this 
refiector might also be used when the spit was turned bv 
a " ventilator." For roasting small birds, &c., a wheel, 
set round with a series of hooks, was employed, instead 
of the spit. 

The first English patent relating to cookery is dated 
1634. It was granted to John and Jacob Drebble, 
Abraham Rusfeler, and Anne the wife of Rusfeler. It 
was for ** C'tayne stoves and furnaces of yron, of brick- 
worke, and of earth, very comodiouse and fitt for heating 
of water or any other Uquor, making of snlt out of salt 
water alone, or of salt upon salt, for the heating of any 
roomes in dwelling bowses, or any househould affa3rrcs, 
or hott bowses for the drying of saff'ron, hoppes, fruites, 
sweetmeates, gunnes, gunpowder, saltpeter, or the like, 
and of mault, or any other kynde of grayne to be donne 
with seacole, charcoale, peate, turfe, or any other kynde 
of fewell, and that the said stoves and furnaces doo 
convey both the heate and smoke thereof see secretly 
and so safely thatnoe daunger or annoyance can happen 
to be, either in regard the heate may thereby be in- 
creased, moderated, or abated to any proporcion or degree 
that shal bee held most fitt or requisite for any the uses 
aforesaide, with much lesse charge, shorter tyme, lessc 
attendaunce, and without any touch of smoake, and of 
fayrer hue, and much sweeter, both for smell and taste, 
then heeretofore hath bin donne by any other." 

The process of cooking by steam is by no means 
of recent invention, for m 1769 George Scott 
took out a patent for "A boiler, pot or utensil, 
to be made of any kind of metal, for the more 
convenient dressing of ships* provisions with sea 
water or any kind of water; for making sea water 
fresh ; for purifying and making sweet any kind of 
water ; and for the more expeditious method of boiling 
any kind of fisb, flesh, or provbions of any sort, and ex- 
tracting broths or soups." In this vessel the process 
was carried on by steaming, the steam being conveyed 
from a vessel where it was generated through a pipe to 
a separate cooking vessel. 



The amount of gas consumed by the city of New 
York alone each year is sstimatad to be not less than 
4,000,000,000ft 



900 



JOURSAL OP THB SOCIBTT OF ARTS, Mat 9, 187S. 



im 



COK&SSPOVDSVCl^. 



FOOD ADULTERATIOX. 

SiBf — ^With rpference to some of the statemeiits m»de 
hj Hr. MerriAm in hii puper on coodenaed milk, nuy 
I draw your attention to the fact that Dr. Whetmore, 
medical ofiBoer of health for Marylebone, ha» jiut Liviied 
hit first report aa food aoalysL He deals first mniol) 
with milk, aa conatitutinfc largely the aole nutriment of 
in£ant«. Of 62 Simplea, 22 were genuine, 15 dftt-riorattid, 
and 25 adulterated by dilution with water, in »jme 
instances to the extent of 75 per cent., that is to say, to 
evHry quart of milk a pint and a-half of water hns been 
added. As regards other fuod matters, it is stated that a 
specimen of lard contained 7 per cent, of water ; an I 
wine, sold as **fine, rich, full-flivoured port for invalids," 
he found of inferior qiiility, highly anid. and containing 
logwood and Hlum. Upon further analysis and similar 
discoverio«, he states he shall rocK)mmeua prosecution of 
the vendors of the adulterate articles. 

It seems to me that here there is a subject well deserv- 
ing the attention of the Society. — I am, kc, 

A. P. K. 

ECONOMY OP FUEL FOR DOMESTIC 

PUKP0SE8. 

Sib, — ^There is a yery simple addition to any ordinary 
open fire grate that, at very slight cost, will diminish 
to some extent the amount of fuel consumed, and vury 
much lessen the dust and noise of falling cinders, as well 
as the trouble required to keep up a fire in our open fi re- 
places. It i*i merely a cinder shelf, of sheot-inm, ^ri^ht 
orblack-leade I, elliptioal in shape, 6 or 7 inches broad 
in the mid lie, with the two ends turned up, which carry 
two wire hooks to suspend it to the middle >» ir of the 
grate. The inner e<l.^« of the shelf reals upon t'l-^ bottom 
of the grate, and should slope a trifle inwards, in order 
to prevent rolling off. 

The comfort is immediately felt, for it does not inter- 
fere with the view of the op^m fire, an I nothing is seen 
under the grate but fine ash, undisturbtd by the per- 
petu il fall of cinders and pieces of coal, and what rolls on 
the shelf is easily put back on the fire with a tiny shuvel, 
without noise or dust. 

The ashes from a grate so fu^-nished require no sifting, 
as they are entirely free from cinder. 

This appliance in furnace- work is called the dead- 
plate, and no ste.im boiler furnace is without it. — I am, 

&0., HEJniT W. ttBVBLBT. 
Reading. 

CHEAP TELEGRAPHY. 

Sir, — Since I read my piper to the Society on " Tele- 
graphy without Insulation," for which they were good 
enough to vote me a medal, I have tried manv experi- 
ments, which show thit, thouu^h this can be effe -ted for 
very long distances in fresh water, or underground, yet 
there are certain dis id vantages attending it, aid that in 
salt water a good deal of insulation is required fur any 
distance. 

But I have still more done away with the disadvantages 
of it in point of cheapness, by discovering a very cheap 
method of perfect insulation. 

I find that the admixture of certain substances with 
vegetible tar — notably the oxides of leid — almost 
instantaneously changes it into a solid substance, more 
or less elaa£io, and of very remarkable insulating power. 
For instance, I found by experiments at Silvertown that 
d No. 18 copper wire, covered with only 2Ubs. of gutta- 
iMir<*ha to the mile, had its insulating power increased 
t\^rly 300,000 per cent, giving an insulation per knot 
ttf ahiiul 8,800,000,000 units— an insaUtioo suffiotent for 
a wittj girdling the wo-" 



wirm wo tbtatfikat I 
they are likely to supersede suspended wires, whickj 
always i nwtd to aoddeiit, and whidi are too oAsai 
diand 111 I m hj the weather. Besides this, it 
perfect insnisfina far sabmarine cables. — I am, kc^ 

H. 



un. 



PRDTTING TYPES. 



TyF*r 



Six, — I observe that Mr. Johnson suppIeTUili 
diseiissioQ which followed his Paper '* On O 
provements in the MiarafiMture of Printing 
r^'marks which reiterate the very inaccurate skcidti 
sented by that pap^^r, of the progress of the ut ia 
country. I nse this expression reluctantly, and m 
in the interest of the Society, as the promulgator 
formation to the industrial world. I must tbert!£«e| 
you to allow me to give the facts found wantiag a.\ 
paper. 

It is affirmed in that paper that at the dais ot| 
Great Exhibitioa of 1851, this country was ~ 
inferior to many others in type-founding, and that' 
chinery was not used, not on account of its 
tinns or want of efficiency, but because EngliA 
Unionism deemed the introdaction of raaehmefy 
to its interests." Mr. Johnson informs us that hm\ 
nexion with type-fbanding dated &om that 
his patents foUowed a year or two afterwards; 
he altered one p^rt of his machine because of s 
piracy of an existing patent for his own wovhij 
been vitiated by vsing what had 



T 

uai 



worked. He claims *'to have been the 
httving effected a total revolution in the 
hard metal," and he avows and vindi&t* 
practice of taking electro-matrices from other 
types. He assumes a superiority for his «atocn3.t 
cess as accomplishing all the manipulations of .« 1 
one operation. He affirms that the three hi 
machines, stated by Mr. Figgins to bo in operal 
this country, were made of the only mod«4s to 
the founders had access, and that tht*y had no 
tunity of purchasing the automatic machinery 
their own had been constructed. 

I may state, as within the knowledge of the 
generally at the time, that ais far back as 1$4! 
easting machines were in successful operation 
Majesty's type-foundry, Edinburgh, in grt^ater 
bers than have been built of Mr. Johnson's to thij 
That in 1849 a patent was sealed for impruvti 
thorn ; that their numbsar was being oonst&ntl y 
that the Great Exhibition of 1851 contained »pcm 
type oast by them, for which an award wsr mwlrl 
the illustrated catalogues of the Exhii 1 i .u were 
by the Messrs. Clowes, with type so produced : 
machines were driven by steam very shortly aftrr 
no trades* union existed at that time, the comi 
among the fonnrlers being notorious. AU this a] 
without Mr. Johnson's knowledge. 

With regard to h ird metal it was always a qne«: 
simply of price, so much, more or less, of ant i moo? < 
tin to lead, as shown at the trial alluded to, by bun 
proved to have been cast long anterior to the pti 
claimed, and produced from such offices as the fi 
the Clarendon Press, Oxford, and others. There w^ 
discovery, and therefore no patent. 

In the interest of the art, I may ask, is it a ^ocr 
improvement in the manufacture of printing^ tTp«i 
produce a fM'simile of an existing type P Wet* 
Johnson the author of a costly and au^entic work, wi 
be consider it an '* improvement" to see his first c 
carried off ond re-printed by another publiahar witt 
any reference to his interests P Would the aocidfmi 
such a thing not being illegal render it honest P 

The fsUaoy of economy an oondooting a nnmbei 
processes in one operatioa which requin '*^ 



the E 



JOUBKAL or THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 1878. 



487 



HMt be felt in lir. JohnBon's own 

mftnnal kl)otir, in greater degree in 

the number of machines, is employed, 

accounted for if the madiines were all 

Mr. Johnson forgotten his offer of his 

'the feimders generally, soon after Hie oom- 

^ I patent, and their rejection of them, eimply 

did not secure aiiiRcient aocoracy of work, 

•oy economy in results P Moreorer, bat 

patents have again been offered, and again 

corapotitaon with all the world, the Bntieh 
k not likely to reject any lial improve- 
iteTer he may already have expended in the 
\t of his applianeea. — ^I am, &c., 

H. M. Gqx. 



ASTS EXHIBITION AT DIEPPE. 

jbtTs to inform yon that the annual exhibition 

^ trt will take plaoe in Dieppe this year from 

July to the 31st of August 

ikk des Amis des Arts is roost desirous that 

fthould be of an international character, 

yhjutt oinnot be more fully carried out than 

\j and encouraging notice in the valuable 

Society. 

icil admits the original works of living 

lall nations. Ko artist is allowed to exhibit 

three different works; the size of each 

ceed six feet nine inches in any way. 

Works for exhibition must be sent, vid 

the President of the 8oci4t£ des Amis des 

before the Ist of July next. A defrcrip- 

ivork, with the address of the artist, must be 

tecretary before the 1st of June next. All 

tnhasittod to the approval or rejection of a 

Council will pay the oarriage to and from 

tta erery work exhibited. Every cnre will be 

Tworts sent for exhibition, but the Council will 

flf responsible in any case of injury or loss. 

of the proceeds of admisaion to the exhi- 

ithe baUnoe of subscriptions of Uie members, 

1 lo the purchase of works exhibited. A sub- 

the town i© granted towards the same 

the secK^tarv is authorised to act as the 

ibitors for the disposal of their works. 

>f«ne of the inducements we can offer, and 

»«t may cause our English school to be largely 

1 J represented. I may add, I will personally 

is taken of theee works. 

I am, &c., 

FBZDBnicK Chapman, 

Vice-President. 
imii de« Arti de Dieppe, May 6. 



\i VOTES ON BOOKSL 



Teehaologiqne. Par Alexandre Tol- 
^ais Tolhausen. (London: Sampson Low, 
^ it the first part of a dictionary intended to 
''rfodi, German, and English, the technical 
I in the arts, sciences, manufactures, and in- 
fnmlly. The portion before us is half of the 
(ifflith-German part, and goes down to the 
This part, of course, will have to be supple - 
two others in which translations of English 
terms will be given. About the use of 
if properly prepared, there can be no 
[W • do not know that any one like it exists even 
1 of the languages treated, and of course when 
given at once ita value is enhanced. As a 
the wmt was felt of a similar book may, 



be instanced, the traoalation of foreign exhiMtion oata- 
lognea into Engtiah. On more than one oocadon such 
Morka have been full of errors, arising from a want of 
the knowledire of technical terms on the part of the 
compilers. Of course such a book can only be tested by 
ezperienee, but so far as a cursory examination justifies 
an opinion, this one seems reiaarkably complete. The 
ground covered is very extensive, and words relating 
to industries of the most vaned nature are all carefully 
included. The book is one likely to prove of consider- 
able service to all engaged in work of any sort which 
brings them into oonnexion with foreign tradea or in- 
dnstriee of any sort. 

Theofy and Praotioo of Linaar FerspeotiTe. From 
the French of Y. Pellegrin. London: Biokeia and 
Son, 1873.-^The chief object of this little book is to pro- 
vide useful practical rules for artists and art-students. 
As Professorat St C^,M. Pellegrin has had considerable 
experience in tuition, and he has consequently been able to 
perceive what are' the great difficulties of learners. The 
work is coBse<iiiently likely to be a useful one. Should 
a eeeond edition be calied for, a revision would be ad- 
visile, as here and there ocoasionid French idioms 
may be notioed. 



aSirElLA.L VOTES. 



Xailway Carriage 'Seats.— An inventor in Toledo, 
United States, han just received a patent for an invention 
coneistinK of a combined seat and det«K for railway caw. The 
device comprises a stiff spiral spring, situated in the base of 
an ordinary-shaped stool, in such a manner as to receive the 
full weight of the occupant of the stool without permitting it 
to touch the floor. The spring eerves to break all the jar 
and jolt -caused by the motion of the train, thus affording a 
perfectly steady position to the small det»k attached to the 
front of tho 8tool. It is claimed by the inventor that the 
occupant may write while travelling at the rate of thirty 
miles an hour, with perfect ease aiid legibility. 

New York Crystal Palace.—The New York Crystal 
PalHce Company proposes to erect a permanent industrial ex- 
hibition building, toj^ctber with an art ^allen'^j ^ public 
library, and a garden of plants. The cost of tho whole 
enterprise is estimated at about 10,000,000 dols. Tho cost 
of the site, which will be between Ninety-eight and One 
Hundred and Second-streets and Third and Fourth Avenues, 
will be 1,600,000 dols. A Bill baa passed the lower honw of 
the New York legislature authorising the city to subscribe to 
the stock. 

Technical Leetmrei in the GkMgow Indattrial 
Mnsenm. — The Parks and Galleries Committee of the 
Glasgow Town Council are making an eftjrt to establish an 
industrial museum, and they have already got toKether a very 
good nucleus. With the view of rendering the temporary 
mUKOuma place of instruction, several lectures have lately been 
delivered upon certain series of industrial producto by 
scientific gentlemen in Glaspow. Two of these were delivered 
by Mr. J«hn Mayer, F.C.8., Government Lecturer on 
Si-ienoo, and Professor Gustav Biachof, of the Young 
Technical Ch>iir of Chemistry, the first named gentleman 
giving a rapid sketch of the manufacture of iron and steel, 
illustrated by diagrams, specimens, models, &c., and Pro- 
fe*«or Bischof disortursing upon phosphorus and its applica- 
tion in the manufacture of lucifer matches. Both lectures 
were largely attended and much appreciated. 

United States Silk Manufacture.— The statistics of 
silk manufacture in tho United States indicate a verygrcat 
increase. Ten years ago it was in its infancy, and purely mi 
experiment; now it has attained to vast proportions, and bids 
fair speedily to beo«»me one **t the most prominent manu- 
factures of the country. The recently published annual 
report of the Silk Manufacturers* Aswiciation contains the 
statement that £6,000,000 are invested in this industry in 
the country, and sixteen thousand operatives are employed, 
whose wages reach £1,600,000, and the value of whose pro- 
duction is estimated at between aix and eight milhona 
aterling. 



468 



JOURNAL OF IHE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 9, 187S. 



Canadian Fatent-offioe. — ^We have reoeiyed the first 
number of the Canadtan Patent Office Recordy a oounterpart 
of our own Patent CommiMionera' Journal, It is after the 
American model, and ii illostrated with wood-oats from the 
drawings attached to the filed specifloationfl. 

The Catoptric Lamp. — ^The upper part of TrafieLlgar- 
tquare is now lighted with some of the ** Catoptric" lunps 
reoentlj shown before the Society bv Mr. Skelton, the 
inventor. The improvement is very decided, and the dif- 
ference in the illumination of the street will be obvious to 
those who remember its former darkness. 

Aniline. — M. Langorrois has found that putrefaction 
and decomposition of animal matters can be prevented, even 
when exposed to the air and in an elevated temperature, by 
the use of small quantities of aniline. — Medical Press and 
Circular, 

Platinum Coinage.— At a time when gold is said to 
be rising in value, and when nickel has come to be in great 
demand for coinage, the claims of platinum, as a useful 
material for the same purpose, may fairly be reconsidered. 
In many of its qualities it is fully equal to gold and silver. 
It is scarce, therefore intrinsically valuable ; it is quite as 
refractory as gold to ordinary chemical agencies, and far less 
fusible; it stands wear very well; and its high speoifio 
gravitv renders it even less liable than gold to imitation by 
base alloys. Apart from all abstract reasons, however, is the 
fact that platioum was actually used in RuMia for ooining 
purposes, and its use was abandoned in 1845, onlv because 
of the difficulties of working which then existed. Now. 
however, when comparatively large ingots are manipulatea 
by modem improved methods, such an objection can nu longer 
be urged. The feasibility of a platinum coinage is at least 
worthy of careful consideration, and we commend the subject 
to the thoughts of those interested in such matters. 



HOTICES. 



8UB8CSIPTI0V8. 

The Lady-day aubsciiptioiiB are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed *' Ck)utts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
officer. 

OBDDTABT 1CSETIHG8. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'dook. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

Mat 14. — *' Improvements in Bifles." By Capt 
O'Hba. 

Mat 21. — *^ On Recent Proceeses for the Production 
of Gbm for Ulnminating Purposes." By Thomas Wills, 
Esq. 

CAHTOB LECTUBSS. 

The Third Ck)ur8e of Cantor Lectures for 
the present session is " On Wines ; their Pro- 
ductio n, Treatment, and Use," by J. L. W. 
THTmiCHxm, Esq., M.D. The Course consists 
of six lectures, the fourth of which will be given 
on Monday evening, the 12th of May, the remain- 
ing two on the Monday evenings succeeding. 

Lbctubb IV. 

The varieties of wines produced in the Alto Douro ; 
how treated at Oporto. Lodges. Brandy. Legend of 
elderberry. Unbrandied and dry natural Alto Douro 
wines. Neglect of scientific guidance here also, but 
PJ[^^®»*®« more simple, and varieties of results not so 
great as at Jerex. Description of other Portuguese 
vmyarda-^the Beiras, Vallfly of the Tisgus, Bucellaa. 
¥Me of the transplanted Rhenish grapes. CoUares. 
Torres Vedras. Gtoeral remarks on the nature and 



difficulties of Portuguese viticnltnre and vinification, afi 
based upon personal observation of the lectorer. 

Lbgture V. 

The wines of France compared to those of Spain snJ 
Portu^. The Gironde, its vineyards, wines, and 
varieties of wines. The Bourgogne and its productiom. 
Belgian appreciation, and sweetness of Burgundy wine. 
The wine requires the procM^. The Champagne, 
peculiarities of viticulture. Chemical treatment of 
effervescent wine to ensure its soundness. Absurd 
notion of some writers on champeigne ; of the lamft on 
second wines and sugar- water wines ; exposure of the 
sycophancy. 

Lbctubs TL 

The wines of Germany; Riessling a type of hou* 
quetted wines. Classification of the wines of th« 
world, as determined hv quality, quantity, value in th« 
market of highest ana lowest qualities. Active in* 
gredients of wme. Use of diemical analysis. Use of win* 
to the healthy, whether old or young; wine, uxider 
whidi condition preferable to all other alcoholic iMuida 
Wine diould be a beverage, not a dram, ifte d 
wine to the deUcate and side. Selection and prices of 
wine. Proposed modification of the import duties, to 
adjust them to the climatic difficulties of Spain and 
Portugal. 

DTDIA COmOTTES. 

A Conference will be held this evening (Friday, 
0th instant), at 8 o'clock, when a paper will be read 
by Lieut. -(General Sir Abthtjk Cottow, B.E^ 
on ** The Harbours of India." Lord WnxLUi 
Hat, F.B.G.S., will preside. This Conferenot 
will be the last of the Session. 

Members are entitled to attend these Conference^ 
free, and to admit two friends to each of them. 



1CSETIH08 FOB THE SV8UING WEEK. 

Moir. ...80CISTT OF ABT8, 8. CftatorLectares. Dr. 7%iidi 

ohum, **Od Wines; their Produotion, Treetmeot, «^ 

VmV 
Btationera* Computy, 7|. Teehoologieal JjKbam. 3A 

E. A. Daridion, *'Copper and Steel FUte Eognris 

and lithograpby." 
Boral Gtoomphical, 8^. iXr. Hfty EUaa, **Jaarmi 

through western Mongolia." 
London Institution, 4. 

Toss. ...Kediesl and Ghirurgiosl, 8|. 

avil Sbgineera. 8. Sir Chsries ▲. Hartley, ** Ob t^ 

Delta of the Danube, and of the FroTindal Wcr^ 

executed at the Solina Mouth.*' 
Boyal Institution, 8. lir. J. H. Parker, "BomanHiita 

and Architecture.'* 
Fhotogr^hic, 8. 

WxD. ...SOCIETY OF AET8, 8. Capt. aHea, «* Improrwxd 
in Eilles." 

Geological, 8. 1. Mr. J. R. Hortimer, '* Notes ce Str^ 
ture in the Chalk of the Yorkshire Wolds.*' Conw 
nicated by Mr. W. Whitaker. 9. VnxL P. Msrti 
Duncan, **Oa the genus PeU^toemryne^ DnzMsa mi 
Jenkins, and its Affinities.*' S. Sir Philip da M Qn^ 
Egerton, ** On PUUwsiagum $etrroeeplkatmm Bz>d Peim 
tpincx prfAca*.*' 4. Dr. Thos. Wright* •• On a NH 
genus of Silurian AsteriadsQ." 

Royal literary Fund, 3. 

Eoyal Society of literature, 4i. 

Archfeologi<^ Association, 8. Annual Meeting. 

Tnuas... Society tor Eno ouiag i m ent of Fine Arts, 8. HeirEd 
Paner, ** Louis van Beethoven." 
Boyal,8&. 
Antiquaries, 8^ 

Chemical, 8. I)r. H. E. Armstrong, '* On laommoD." 
Numismatic, 8. 
Boyal Society Club, 6. 
Eoyal Institution, 8. Professor TyndaU, ** Llglil.' 



•« 



FBI .Architectural, 7&. Mr. Wynfield, ** On Ta^te in Qdnd 

Boyal Institution, 9. T n te mot Sidney OolviD, ** Ljos 

of Certainty in Taste.** 
Philok)gical,6i. Annual Meeting. 

Sat BoyalIiDstitvitian,S. PkoCasMr Odiiiv, " < 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 16, 1873. 



489 




L OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

No. 1,069. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, MAT 16, 1873. 







UIOUICEMEHTS BT THE COTTHCIL« 



SVDOWXEVT FUHB. 

I fte fdlowing donations and subscriptions in aid 
tn Endowment Fund have been reoeived : — 



Wn-AtkiiMon 60 

W.R.!iiiidb«;h 60 

Sir Wilt«T G. Trevelyan, Bart., .... 60 

i«iiM£«aUcy 20 

ColA-AngoiCroU 20 

MsKoble 20 

atSittl 6 

V.ESpioer 6 

aitH.L.W9odd 6 

fcV.Hart 2 2 

MiE-Evuia 2 2 

ILT.BUWy: 1 1 

IkoBM Dixon 1 1 

J«hii 8. Upnuk 1 1 



d. 


% 















iSEBIHOS OF THE SOCIETT. 



TWDTT-SICOVD OKDIHABT XEETIVG. 
MDeiday, May 14th, 1873; the Bight Hon. 
lU of DuciE, F.B.S., in the chair. 

fdlowing Candidates were proposed for 
i ai Members of the Society : — 

j^Oiwr*, 87, CiTersham-road, N.W. 
",W.S., Dundee. 

William Mantz, Sydenbam-rise, Forest-hill, 
^ «bl 4, Coal Exchange, E.G. 
1. William, 151, Boyaon-roHd, S.E. 
tWiULiiD, 21, Havelock-road, Hastings. 

_ Candidates wiere balloted for and 
^ Acted Members of the Society : — 

- John, Seedley Printing Works, Manchester. 
^ IL, 139, Cannon-street, E.O. 

h W. H., Ashflcdd, near Warrington. 

rft John Charles, Garr-hill, MoMley, near Man- 
Walter Bicbard, 54. Queen's-gate, S. W. 
William, Messrs. William Dunn and Co., 6, 
><treet-aquare, E.O. 

) John, James Fiolay and Co., Glasgow, 
n. Archibald D^rid, 63, Queen'8-gat«». 8.W. 
Fttdferick, 114, St. (^eorge's-roi^ South wark, 

JWiwt B.. Waterloo Hotel Jermyn-street, S.W. 
John, Trent Bridge Leather Works, Nott- 



Tyser, George Walter, Parkside, Reigute, and Lloyd's, 

F-C. 
Younfr, Williaai, 33, Blandford- square, N.W. 

The paper read was — 

ON RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN MILI- 
TARY BKKKCH-LUADINO RIFLES AKD 
. AMMUNITION. 

By Captain 0*Hea. 

On the 2nd February, 1870, I had the honour to 
read in this room a paper on "Progress in the 
Invention and Improvement of Breech-loading* 
Smedl Arms and Ammunition.*' To-night, on the 
invitation of the Council of the Society of Arts, I 
again address you in continuation of the subject of 
that paper. 

Although the years which have passed by since 
1869 have been more remarkable for modifica- 
tions and improvements in existing systems — ^for 
the discovery of defects, and, iu some instances, 
for their correction, than for inventions, never- 
theless these years have not been altogether 
barren of novelty ; more than one invention of 
merit and promise has appeared. 

On the previous occasion, I broadly divided my 
subject into the Ammunition and the Arm, giving 
precedence to the Cartridge. I see no reason why I 
should depart from this owier to-night ; on the con- 
trary, three years of experience have rendered 
me more satisfied than ever that the ammu- 
nition is the premier division of the subject 
on which I write. Without proper ammunition 
the weapon would be worthless as a fire-arm ; and 
even in a mercantile point of view, a small arm of 
our time fires away in a few years— and in many 
cases in a few months — ^more than three times its 
value in the cost of ammunition. I shall not then 
depose the Cartridge. 

The past three years have not been remarkable 
for improvements in the gunpowder ammunition 
for breech-loading smidl-arms ; while one of ttie 
best, if not the very best, British metallic cartridges 
— that which gained the Government prize of £400 
in the cartridge competition— has become, I regret 
to say, difficult to obtain. One or two modifica- 
tions of existing systems have been put forward ; 
I am not, however, in a position to say that they 
are improvements ; nevertheless, although the time 
has been unprofitable as regards improvement, it 
has not been so as regards information on the sub- 
ject of ammunition. In this comparatively short 
period a great European war has been fought out, 
the first in which the breech-loader has been used 
against the breech-loader, both the armies engaged 
having abo used, to a large extent, the paper-cased 
ammunition. The -subsequent rejection of this 
system of cartridge by both armies, and their 
adoption of the metallic re-loading case, afford the 
strongest evidence of the superiority not only of 
the metallic cartridge, but also of the system which 
furnishes facilities for re-utilisation. 

Before leaving the subject of ammunition, I 
would offer a few brief observations on the metallio 
cartridge for breech-loading small-arms, in parti- 
cular on the cartridge in general use in this country 
with small-bore arms. . In so doing I must, to 
some extent, repeat what I stated here on a 
former occa^on. » , ,. 

With reference to the case, it is now, I bolieTe, 



490 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 16, 187S. 



acknowledged — all other conditions, save the 
primary cost of manufacture, being equal — that the 
cartridge-case which can be reloaded the greatest 
number of times, in the simplest, readiest, and 
least expensive manner, is the best — the primary 
cost of the case being reduced in proportion to the 
number of times it can be re-utilised, the weight of 
the case also being taken into special consideration. 
Not many years ago a certain number of soldiers 
per company had, by our Musketry Instruction, 
to be trainea to the nuuxnf actore of cartridges for 
the Enfield rifte. Might not the practice as regards 
refilling the metallic case be continued, with advan- 
tage to the service and to the rerenve P I would 
suggest that there mdgfat be instances of troops 
being temporarily riiut oat from supplies in a 
detached position, when, having expended their 
supply of the loaded metallic cartridges, the prac- 
ticability of reloading the case might be tanta- 
mount to the holding possession of uie post. 

I would further remind the best ma rk smen in 
the world — the Volunteers of England — that if 
the cartridge-cases which they extract and throw 
away in such large quantities annually were 
capable of being retimed to store and re-utilised 
as ball ammunition, instead of being sold as waste 
metal, it would be a considerable saving to those 
who expend so much ammunition in the year. 

With respect to the powder charge, the greater 
the powder power which, in a given lesgth and 
diameter of bore, can be utilised to propel a pro- 
jectile of defined weight, the great^ the initial 
velocity — convenience to the soldier, as regards 
recoil, &c., being duly considered. The greater 
the initial velocity the flatter the trajectory, and, 
as a consequence, the longer the dangerous space ; 
and the military arm giving the flattest trajectory 
to the longest distance must be the most efficient ; 
for, all other points being equal, there is a gain in 
vertical accuracy, and, as a consemience, a dimi- 
nution of the chance of error in judging distance. 

"With regard to the projectile: — ^without re- 
ferring to the best form (on which Major-General 
Boileau, R.E., is unquestionably one of the best 
authorities) or to the component material, further 
than to remark, that the harder the material of the 
projectile the better, especially for penetration, I 
would venture to offer a few suggestive remarks, 
the result of practical experience, during the past 
few years, of many thousand rounds of ammuni- 
tion. 

In the first place, it would appear to have 
escaped 8p>ecial notice, but it is nevertheless a fact, 
that to impart to the projectile in its after-flight 
the rotation due to the pitch of rifling in the bore 
from which it is fired, it is not at all necessary that 
the metallic surface of the bidlet itself shoidd be 
compelled to take or conform to the rifling. On 
the contrary, the indenting or defacing of the sur- 
face of the projectile, by means of the rifling in 
tiie barrel, becomes materially injurious in its after- 
flight, and detrimental to its penetration. All the 
rotation due to pitch of rimng can be obtained 
with equal certamty by the medium of a proper 
system of paper or other wrapping on the bullet. 
The proieotile of the Prussian neeme gun {Zundna^ 
dsiffewehr"^ never touches the barrel from breech to 
muMle ; it is carried along the rifling and receives 
otation by means of the sabot in which it is seated. 
I have usfed bullets which, without any wrM)ping, 
passed through the rifle bore without receiving the 



slightest mark or indentation from the rifling, bul 
which, when fired enveloped in tough paper, g»T« 
all the accurate results obtained from the tJSed 
bullet. I have recovered, in an almost uninjor^ 
state, a large number of the Henry projectiles used 
with the Government small-bore amnumitkm, 
and on almost all of those so recovered there it 
scarcely a mark of rifling in front of the csmrinKy 
and in many instances not a mark of riffiag 
even below the cannelure. I would, howerv, rt- 
mark, that, to really utilise the tough pops («c 
other slight substance medium), for the pnipcm ^ 
rotating the projectile, a fine description ani m 
blunt pattern of rifling ought to be sdopM. 
Rifling of a sharp angular pattern it likdy to 
the wrapping instead of indenting it, and 
becomes detnmental to accuracy of after-fligiii^ 

Again, I would draw attention to the 
misapplication of our national rule of vei^itlft 
the case of the small-bore xm>jectile adopted Ifi 
the Gbvenment, and in genial use in& n^ 
small-bore breech-loaders of this country. Ql 
weight of the projectile is 480 grains — 1 oi. '^^ 
or apothecaries* weight. Now, aa lead ti 
other metals, except gold and silver, are 
by avoirdupois wdght, if the national 
bullet is be retained, might it not be well to 
it 437| grains, or the ounce avoirdupois f 
this could be done without any lessening of 
racy, even to a longer range than 900 yaods, I 
assert from experience. 

I will now refer to the arm, the ev^fime 
means of which the power stored up in the 
is utilised, and to the improvements which 
been brought forward during the past throe or 
years: — 

The arm I shall, as before, divide into tiie 
mechanism, the rifled barrel, and the moun _ 

I wovdd remind you that the breech -actionlifi 
small arm is the means by which the 1 
of the arm, the firing of the cartridge, 
the extraction of the case are effected ; m 
the action is the means of assisting and f ; 
the manipulation of the arm ; and that action 
affords the greatest and most perfect 
combined with safety, is the best. 

The rifled barrel is the means by xrhidi tbi 
jectile receives initial direction, and the 
round its axis of progression necessary for 
ness in after-flight. ' 

The mountings are intended to faciliMb 
handling of the arm ; in some cases they ■&' 
the general appearance and strength of the 
but they very often impair its efficiency. 

Under the separate heads of block and 
action, I shall, to-night, refer to late inipi 
in the breech meohamsm. 

In the block-breech mechanism there az^ if 
distinct classes, but I shall only speak of tiiree. i 

1st. The rear-hinged or pivoted dropptng^bl^d 
of the American Peabody class. 

2nd. The vertical sliding or wedge-block, of 4 
American Sharpe class, represented in this coitfi{ 
by the well-known Henry, which in conauctii 
with the Henry rifled barrel obtained the g>cnnaB| 
ment prize of £600. 

3rd. The side-hinged swinging block of ti 
Snider class. 

Of the other two classes, namely the front-faxBgf 

block turning over on the barrel on the liM 

* Storm plan, and the top or balanoe-lev«r block 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 16, 1878. 



491 



bfi Mnej- Walker class, there may be recent 
aofffiwtiann, but they have not come under my 

Of the fint class, without any wish to ignore 
|ftn of merit, if such there be, I ask your 
JU&jBL to four m6difioations. 
: bpoint of time of production, the Tranter stands 
m; this, like every arm brought forward by 
bThnter, of Birmingham, bears the stamp of 
pA aflchanical ingenuity and first-class manuf ac- 

JSat, the Zeller, a clever modification by Zeller, 
t Mn maker of the Hague, of the Bavarian 
ppK izm, in which, by means of a second 
iIbii pUced inside the tiigger-guard, the full 
■iMif cocking of the arm is accomplished with- 
wcessity of using the lever or moving the 
The main spring is also noticeable in this 

oezt is the Harston, the modification of 

dllfi HaiHton of Birmingham, for which 

nteo claims, in addition to simplicity of 

tiao, &C., increased safety in using the 

from the fact that the action has three 

I of resistance to the discharge instead of 

ik, the hinge of the block, the lug of the 

r«lgagmg with the lug of the block, and the 

K, ▼bdn the arm iias been discharged. 

^IkUj, the Swinbum, patented within the 

^* very clever modification of the Mar- 

'tiuch, among others, the patentee claims 

IJUWng advantages : — Great reduction of 

1 tear upon the working surfaces, in con- 

of the main-spring offering no resistance 

! dosing of the breech ; a lighter main-spring 

J pa* cent, than the Martini, giving gpreater 

7 of fire; the use of a safety half-cock, dis- 

with the complicated safety bolt, and 

tiie firing apparatus imder control of the 

llring, independently of the breech-closing 

^; and finally, a pull-off of trigger 

)of being regulated and made as easy as 

Ift ^porting rifle ; a more powerful extractor, 

''fcderable lessening in number of pieces. 

aforegoing, the avoidance of the use of a 

ing as a main or driving spring, and the 

of the old or ribbon mainspring, will 

; a waste of power in compression and 

i is avoided, and the light or medium 

*beolutely essential to accuracy of shoot- 

■▼Brtical sliding block there have been two 

"^edifications, but I trust I may be ex- 

t introducing only one to your notice, the 

iSte invention of Mr. Aston, armourer to 

W of Musketry at Hythe. An examination 

Jwech-action will well repay those present 

ite an interest in mechanism of an ingenious 

Wy simple character. I would only remark 

'«4e Aston action there are ten parts or 

^^«fainst thirty in the Martini. 

'™hag a block action, fitted with two flat 

^ li^ ^^^ when opening the breech . There 

*^ent« for full and half cook. The hammer, 

on^ the cap, moves a quarter circle, doing 

f»tth the usiml piston and spiral spring, and 

Jo Kable to miss-fire with a light spring. 

"^^h i» opened and closed by a lever on the 

! J there are no projections above or below 

^oAf^ is openea or dosed. It is easy to 

^pQt togdW, and not liable to get out of 



order. The barrel can be cleaned from breech or 
muzzle. In the construction of the rifle all projec- 
tions have been avoided. It is a simple action, 
with very few parts, and can be made very cheaply. 
Of the third class, the side-hinged swinging 
block, I will also mention Only one, the Dunstan. 
Indeed, I am not aware that any other improve- 
ment on this description of block has appeared 
during the past three or four years. This is really 
a very clever modification, for Mr. Dunstan, the 
patentee, not only manages to enclose the Hmbs 
or pieces of the ordinary side-lock in a small 
swinging box-block, but he uses a safety thumb- 
pressure trigger, by means of which he claims, 
with reason, to lessen the disturbing influence to 
accuracy attending the pull of trigger as usually 
used in the small arm. 

The bolt system of breech-action has not been 
the subject of much modification or improvement 
of late years. The Chassep6t, however, has been 
or is being modified for the use of a metallic cart- 
ridge, and the Prussian needle gun is also being 
modified on a system called the Mauser. 

I feel that I cannot close my description of 
recent improvements in breech mechanism in a 
more fitting manner than by introducing to your 
notice the new Smith and Wasson pistol, a most 
perfect specimen of the revolver. 

More than two years and a half ago the Smith 
and Wasson pistol was placed in my hands 
by Mr. William Bead, the well-known gun and 
ordnance manufacturer of Boston, United States, 
and since that time the arm has been subjected to 
most severe tests. I have no hesitation in stating 
that it is the most perfect little weapon of its kind I 
have ever tried. A detailed description of this 
arm is imnecessary. The action tells its own tale. 
In leaving the subject of the breech-loading action 
in general I would offer one or two observations on 
the pull-off of trigger. The pull- off of trigger is 
almost as essential to steadiness and accuracy of 
shooting as careful training, large practice, and good 
nerve. A long pull, a strong pull, and, above all, an 
imcertain pull as regards time and pressure, is not 
the pull-off to sustain accurate and steady shoot- 
ing. The long retention of the breathing with 
such a pull-off is positively imcomfortable, not 
only to the individual about to fire, but to the in- 
dividual looking on. A pull off of not more than 
five or six pounds, and a sharp and certain release 
of sear arc requisite for accuracy of shooting. 

A long reach for pull of trigger is also a certain 
cause of inaccurate practice. Our musketry in- 
struction teaches us that the finger is to go round 
the trigger like a hook, while the remainder of the 
hand holds the snaall of the butt. Where the 
trigger is over forward, I would suggest the use of 
a curved trigger, to facilitate the steady pull or 
pressure of the trigger. 

Before entering on the second division of this sub- 
ject—the rifled barrel — it might be well to refer 
briefly to the origin of the rifle— to explain what 
a rifle really is, and the results attained by rifling. 
Originally rifling was used as a systenf of drainage 
for fouling of previous discharge in the barrel, to 
facilitate loading from the muzzle, and the grooves 
or rifles were straight from muzzle to breach. A 
gunmaker at Nuremberg is said to have been the 
first who cut these drains or channels on a curve — 
it is supposed by accident, but our countryman, 
Benjamm Bobins, in a tract on " Rifled-bairel 



492 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARtS, Mat 16, 1873. 




Pieces," published in 1747, was the first to 
•int out the real effect of spiral rifling on the 
;ht of projectiles propeUed oy gunpowder. A 
ed barrel or tube is literally a female screw — 
the nut through which a bolt—the projectile — is 
driven with more or less velocity, according to the 
power applied to it, and the pitch or form of screw 
offering more or less opposition to its transmission; 
and rifling is now used for the purpose of giving 
rotation to ^e projectile round its Itzis of pro- 
gression, by which more or less steadiness is given 
to it in its after-flight. 

It is not my intention to enter into the history 
of the Rifle. For information on the subject I would 
refer to a lecture given by me on "Rifles and 
Rifling,'* at the Royal United Service Institution, 
on the 28th March last. My paper to-night has 
reference to what has been brought forward during 
the past three or four years. In that period, 
and, indeed, for many years previously, there has 
been but one radical improvement, one real novelty 
in rifling, brought forward. I refer to the inven- 
tion of William J. Murphy, Esq., of Richmond, 
Cork. This invention, for it is an invention of an 
exceptional character, cannot be said to be rifling 
of a new pattern, since it embraces every known 
pattern ; nor can it be referred to under the head 
of pitch, as it is applicable to pitch of any and 
every degree. 

The peculiarity consists in rifling, with inclined 
rifling, only a portion of the bore — a comparatively 
small portion — towards or at the muzzle, the rifling 
being dispensed with in a large portion of the bore 
in front of the seat of shot, where it has hitherto 
been an impediment to the initial motion of the 
projectile, and consequently a cause of recoil. The 
peculiarity and novelty of the system consist in 
some measure in confining the rifling, not only to 
that portion of the bore where alone (as I have 
proved by experiment) rifling can be necessary, 
but to the very portion of it which has hitherto 
been considered the weakest ; where, in fact, we 
have been taught to believe that any impediment 
to the free exit of the bullet would involve the 
destruction of the arm. 

The patentee claims for his system the following 
advantages : — first, a great reduction of recoil, 
without any reduction of charge or increase in the 
weight of the arm. Secondly, increased velocity 
of projectile, and consequent flatness of trajectory, 
without any loss of accura^ of direction. Thirdly, 
from the position of the rzmng, facility for punch- 
ing, drawing, or cutting, and accurately guaging 
the same ; and, though last, not least, a very con- 
siderable reduction in the cost of manufacture, 
with more exact evenness of pitch and form of 
rifling, consequent mainly on the small portion of 
the bore that wiU be rifled. 

Mr. Murphy contends that the fact of the surface 
of the projectile having to travel along the incline 
of the nfling to wards or near the muzzle, retards only 
slightly, without imduly checking, the velocity at 
that point, ^nd that in consequence a larger quantity 
of the powder-charge is consumed, and a some- 
what greater po^w^r is thus finally applied to expel 
the projectile from the bore than with the ordinary 
rifle.* In the case of this latter, the increasing 
velocity of the projectile is unimpeded, save by 

•I need tcan elv rrmark ihftt in all arms a certafn amoont of tht 
po«d«rchan • ii bluwn a«ay udooosuidmI ; and tblt portion of tht 
powatr-clMrgt At. llnrplijr claims to viUlss. 



the column of air in the barrel, until it escapa 
from the muzzle, except when increasing pitd 
is used. 

In Aug^ust, 1871, Mr. Murphy placed his inreo- 
tion in my hands, and since tiiat date I hsTe sob- 
jected the system to extended trials with many 
arms having rifling of various patterns and degrees 
of pitch. My experience with these rifles, whidb 
extends to the firing of several thousand roand^ of 
ammunition, enables me to state that the dsimiof 
the inventor have been borne out) to an uniisasl 
extent as inventions go ; and this, too, under the 
difficulties attending primary manufacture, ssd a 
supply of ammunition of the most faulty and un- 
certain description that I have ever used— the only 
supply open to me. 

With a Martini-Henry rifle, bitted out to within 
four inches of the muzzle, using the r^nktion 
cartridge, I have at 400 yards obtained very satis- 
factory shooting with elevation for 275 yards 
only ; at 600 ya^ with elevation for 350; at 600 
yards with elevation for 400. With a barrd rifled 
on Mr. Murphy's rib system, having the same 
length of rifling as above, I have, alio with the 
regulation cartridge, at 500 yards got good tsrg^ 
with 400 yards elevation ; at 600 yards, with 
sighting for 450 ; and at 700 yards with elevatioo 
for 550. With a Peabody^-Murphy, the trajcdary 
flattens in like ratio as with the last-named arm, 
as you get further from the target. With a Heniy 
barrel attached to a Westley-Kichards breedi- 
action, using the Westley-Eichards cartridge (S 
grains powder, 480 grains projectile), I have gw 
equally good results as regards trajectory, «wi 
extreme accuracy of direction. Lastly, not to 
weary you with a further account of experimen^ 
I have, with a Navy Enfield, obtained adnu»w«| 
shooting up to 600 yards, but with less gam a| 
fiatness of 6»jectory, owing to the thinness or toe 
metal at the muzzle. 

I cannot hesitate to express my conviction-* 
conviction founded not on theory — ^hut, as I w^ 
said, upon extended practice — ^that rifling bajreU 
all through, from the seat of shot to the muole is, 
for all the advantages that rifiing is intended to 
secure, uimecessary, and simply awasteoftoie. 
metal, and labour — which means ^^''^^y^'J^i- 
have every confidence that when the *'?gJ 
principle is known, and the system fully and vm 
tested, this arm wiU find its place. ^ 

I would add, that I have fired more than |w 
rounds per barrel at a time, from nearly all tw 
barrels converted on this system, without dean^B^ 
and without having a strip, or failure as re^ 
vertical accuracy. Of course, like many oth 
when I first commenced testing this ^y**^'"'..;^ 
were failures, and bullets left the bore witu 
taking the rifling. 

With reference to the last section of 
division, I will offer but one brief '^ .^ 
Bands on a barrel are, to a certain extent, dew 
mental to even expansion, and ?^]^J^^"S 
to accuracy. To all who use a divided sto* 
arm this must be evident. The ^^^^ 
weU as the half-stock, of the Martmi-B^ 
have to be pinned, in order to prev^t ^ 



being carried away over the muxile by too ^ 
of metal consequent on the P*>**S®. ^ini 
bullet up the bore; and, besides, this W^mdj 
on necessitates the fixing of an iddieional im? 
metal on the surface of the bazrel 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 16, 1873 



493 



DISCUSSION. 

jgl^i Ooftia inquired whether Oaptain O'Hea had 
tfnA boflato at well as hardened ones P 

iCbiznia ioauired whether the smooth portion of 

vtf Wea oat to the depth of the lamls of the 

It tbit the lands stood oat in opposition to the 

O^Hsa said he had used soft metal as well as 
balleU, and that the smooth portion of the 
vii bored oat, so that the hore was somewhat 
ftia orinoally made. He simply took the 
, had and bitted out a certain portion of the 
,» thit the ballet would slide easily idong the 
ifMtioo. 

h BslwyA, B.V., said he was praotioally ae- 

villi the improTements now described. This 

iastaooe of the fiaot that improvements in 

tvvyaddom originated in those practistnf^ the 

iBBV method of rifling having been the inven- 

|«4MtiDer in Cork, Mr. Murphy. He had seen 

iftm did not, that to put the bullet in rotation, 

»|iV9 it 1 npid motion, means should be adopted, 

IWBieot of its leaving the barrel, to give it a 

Ik vn thought, at one time, that a small bore and 

' ball of three diameters would give the 

tiMolU in lowering the trajectory, or, in other 

iMBMbg the velocity, for if a ball went a certain 

tiaseeiUia time, and then by another method 

IIiIm tim^ that simply meant a flattened tra- 

Xiv, in the invention of Mr. MurphV) this in- 

as aooomplished by allowing the 

at once the full velocity given to it by 

(•f the powder, and only stopping it so much 

it the necessary rotation ; and a moment's 

of the means by which rotation was given 

Ivoatd ihow that whenever these grooves or lands 

' through the wh'>le length of the barrel, 

' af (he rotation would depend on the velo- 

"* the bullet passed along the spiral. If 

diminished at the oommenct^ment, no 

eoold compensate for it, and give the 

a rotation as it would have if it had taken 

It a higher velocity. This was the reason 

* better rfcults had been obtnined by oonfin- 

to a few inches at the muzsle. Turning 

1 of metallic (partridges, he must be ir his 

'to the fact that they were of the greatest 

' to hreeoh-loading arms. The present 

eartridjces were made of three different 

invariably exercised a galvanic action 

«thrr, so much so, that several millions 

^J"*iraed as useless from India. This faulty 

|M Wen attempted to be remedied by coating 

*pB over with a little vamiah, in order t« 

taction of the iron on the other metals, but, 

^ Ki could not be depended upon for any 

». and therefore hn considered it very 

*JJteo»pt to ignore the fact that leid and 

\^fm in contact with iron, would always pro- 

>io action. In connection with this sub- 

_"*to be noted that in all modern battlep, 

[^I'^lf^loadera ctme into piny, it was found that 

was fired away too quickly, and it had 

to organise supplies of mules, and in 

^ itteippC to keep up the amount of ammu- 

^eoarae such appliances were not always 

_ttd it would be much better, if possible, to 

lr*J^n by which the weight of the cartridge 

[si^ibtthsd without sacrificing efficiency. In 

,JjP*ed by Mr. Daw, who took the prise 

Bttw was at Woolwich, the point had been 

ttd its weight was much below that of 

^ a^w the n in use. Since then, however, 

T^^^'wwnts had been made, and speak- 

■*»*fal oOoir, who had no interest in 



any particular cartridge, he would only appeal to 
those who had to use them, whether they would not 
rather carry ten rounds more cartridge at the same 
weight, than continue to tub another pattern simply 
because certain individuals might be interested in its 
manufacture. One of those cartridges on the table 
carried ninety grains of powder in a space considerablj 
leas than that required for seventy grains by the other 
cartridges, and it was capable of being repleaded a 
sufficient number of times for all practical purposes. It 
weighed only 103 gprains as against 190 of one pattern, 
and 170 of another ; or, in other words, ten rounds 
more might be carried for the same weight. There 
was another advantage also in the case of cartridffes 
made of thin metal, that they were much more easily 
removed from the chamber, those of thick drawn metu 
being found to stick after repeated use. as minute 
scratches and other defects in course of time became 
formed. He hoped this subject would be taken up by 
the Society of Arts, and that some pressure would be put 
upon public officials, who were rather too apt to ois- 
courage anything new. However, in any case, whether 
another cartridge ought to be adopted or not, it was very 
evident that an enormous advantage was derived from 
adopting the system of rifiing, as he could testifjr from 
personal experience, having fired these guns himself; 
and he should add that another change had been in« 
troduced whieh Captain O* Hea had not alluded to, that 
the pitcli of the rifling was altered so as to avoid the 
error which generally arose from pulling the trigger, 
and the inclination which almost all persons had to&oot 
to the right. The pitch of these rifles was turned in the 
oppoeite direction, and it was found to compensate for 
that inaccuracy, so that muoh more accurate shooting 
was produced, as Captain 0*Hea had demonstrated at 
Wonnwood Sorubbs. In conclusion, he hoped the results 
of these improvements would be shown at Wimbledon. 

Commander Dawson, B.N., said he had had an op- 
portunity of seeing some of the practice carried out 
under this system of part-rifling, and it was evident that 
there was vet a great deal, both with regard to gun- 
powder and to the gun, which required patient ex- 
perimental investigation and scientific research. If any 
one hail told him that after taking all the rifling out of 
the barret except four inches at the muzzle, you could 
get sufficient rotation to keep the bullet trun. hesbouldhave 
been inclined to smile, but the diagram exhibited plainly 
showed that this diminution, to whatever kind of rifle 
it was applied, really improved the accuracy of flre to a 
very irreat degree. He had seen all kinds of rifles on 
the Murphy part system fired, one after the other, 
by volunteer marksmen who had not seen any of 
them before and knew nothing about the system, 
and he observed that the siKhts were raised to 160 
yards loss than that fixed for the range. Another 
noticeable fact whs the extremely small amount 
of recoil, which astonished those who fired the rifles 
mom than anything else. Now there was a direct con- 
nection between the recoil and the lowering of the trajec- 
tory. As had been said, a low trajectory meant a high 
velocity — it was simply a question of increased velocity, 
and, of cimrse, that increasni velocity gave increased ac- 
curacy, not only at known but at unknown distances, 
which was a great advantage. There were always the 
influences of the atmosphere and of light, which were 
liable to occasion error, and the lower the tityectory the 
less these disturbing influences would be felt. The same 
elfvation also irave a greater range and greater penetra- 
tion, which, though not of much importance m small 
arms, was very material in great guns. The recoil was 
simply the mensure of the obstruction which the bullet 
met with in getting out of the bore. If you had no shot 
in the bore there would be the minimum of recoil, 
and as its exit was obstructed so the reooil increased. In 
great guns, instead of measuring the reooil the powder- 
pressure in the chamber was measured, and it was found 
that as the preisare went up there waa no adequate in* 



49i 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIBTT OP ABT8, May 16, 1871. 



eveate ib the ^elooitj of the shot, lo that it was fomid 
neoeesaiy sometimee to radnoe the powder-charge below 
wbMi the bore of the gnn would natnrallT aoggeet. Of 
oonrae, the highfiat Telocity would be obtainsd with a 
perfectly amooth bore, but then you would have no apin 
m the bullet, and, cooaeqaently, no aeeuraey ; and the 
maaation waa, how thia acoufaey ooold be obiafaied with 
tibe leaat expenditure of feroe to rotate the ballet F A 
great deal of force might be abeorbed by potting a bad 
ayatem of rifling into a gun, and the pitch of the rifling 
had a conaiderable beanng npon thia qoeation. In the 
eaae of great gnna, it waa found that one-foarih of the 
maximnm ▼elooity of the ahot waa obtained when it had 
travelled ,^Ui of the groored length of the barrel, and that 
•^tha of the velocity waa obtained when it had moved half 
tbe length of the Darrel. Now, if the aame held good 
with amall arma, aa it probably did^ and prolMbly 
to a still greater extent than would be expected, 
•^tha of the velocity of the ballet in a small arm 
woald be obtained long before it got half way along 
the barrel, and it waa therefore of the greatest import- 
ance that no obatraction ahoald take place to the exit of 
the shot in the first half. Now, under this new syatem, 
the nine-tenths of velocity were obtained without any 
obatmction, and there waa only a comparatively small 
check interposed at the muzale, which would'take away 
but a amall amount of that increment of velocity which 
it obtained before leaving the gun. He could not qaite 
agree with Mr. Murphy'a explanation as to the cause of 
the increase of velocity — viz., the increased conaumption 
of powder — for experiments with great guns had shown 
that the^maximom pressure in the powder-chambers 
took place by the time the ahot had moved a very abort 
distance indeed, and that it went on increasing very 
rapidly, ao that the preasure to the gun was very small 
indeed by the time the bullet reached the muzale. 
Therefore he did not think any little check at the maazle 
would increase the pressure upon the base auffioiently 
to have any uaefiil effect, or account for the great increaae 
of velocity aa suggested by Mr. Muiphy. 

Mr. W. Walker could endorse what Commander Daw. 
son had said, and agreed that Mr. Murphy was wrong 
in his idea that the sudden retention of the bullet at the 
muzzle caused a complete consumption of the powder. 
That waa entirely a question of the length of barrel and 
the size of grain ; for, given sufficient cubic space for the 
powder to be burnt in, it did not matter whether it 
were rifled all the way up er only a few inches. The 
increased velocity was due to the diminution of resist- 
ance. Captain O'Hea had mentioned this matter to 
him some eighteen months ago ; and although at first 
eight it appeared opposed to experience and theoretical 
considerations, he had gone into the matter mathe- 
matically, and satisfied himself, not only of its practical 
effects, but also that it was theoretically perfect. With 
regard to its supposed liability to strip the bullet, as- 
suming the bullet to obtain its mnximum velocity 
before reaching the muzzle, it appeared to him that 
a^ soft bullet encountering the sharp edge of the 
rifle would be liable to become cut and sheared 
off, but he was assured this was not the case, 
and that the bullets had been recovered from the sand- 
banks bearing a perfect impress of the rifling, nor had 
any injury been ever found to the barrel, which was 
another consequence which it had been supposed would 
arise firom placing a sudden impediment at the muzzle. 
He had always looked upon that theory of a check at the 
muzzle doing damage as rather visionary, but it was a 
very oommonly-received notion. Taking the ordinary 
Bnfleld rifle, and converting 30 inches of it into a 
■mooth barrel, so aa to leave only three inches of land, 
which thus became converted into ribs— and he himself 
had always looked upon ribbing as the beat form to pro- 
duce rotation — a very capital rifle was produced. The 
apparent paradox was easily explained when the 
que^on was asked, " What waa the uae of rifling 
thirty inohea when the increment of rotation 



which the bullet canied with it to the sod of 
flight waa only that which it received it tlie otj 
theionizzle ?" If loor of five inches of thenfiof^ 
cut away in the middle of the barrel, what «oaUli| 
reault? Not a particle of rotation which tt» 
acquired at the beginning would be earned 9m\_ 
blank apaoe, proviag that the rotation iofnlrfj 
the bullet waa only given for the space danof if ' 
was in the barrel, consequently the rifling at Ml 
was all that waa necessary. He fully conconrfl 
had been said by Capt. Selwyn with regard k ^ 
quality of the government cartridges, and tii«1 
on which they were constructed. He had Ml 
ment cartridges from Woolwich, both bltokaij 
and with some of the first patterns he had i 
space between the cap and the cap-chvnbe 
filled with a sort of greenish moold, pnrim 
galvanic action had been set up by th« dJ a t^ f 
of metals. He ahould like to know the coit «f i 
the new rifle referred to, becanse, after b11,i 
production waa a very important oonsidefatifla 

Mr. Hale inquired where the new d68cri|(liia< 
could be obtained. 

Mr. Dongall asked what was the tnjectcqr 
Martini rifle, as improved, at 100, 150, and 91 
range. 

Capt 0*Hea said he did not uae the siirhtatiB 
of these rangea, but fired point-blank, with tiki ' 
due to 100 yards. With the Martini Henry nftv 
for 500 yarda, he had made good practieeit "^ 
lately at 700 yards. ^ 

Mr. BovgaU said he inquired as to the 
the sights employed. He quite agreed with vhit 
said as to a low trajectory being doe to high 
but the greater the velocity the greater th» 
friction against the amall amount of projeeta« 
barrel ; so that it seemed to him the whok 
solved itself into a question of the depth or 
of the rifling. Wonlid it not be possible, incttsdtf i 
ing the rifling altogether, for a portion of the' 
go much farther in reducing the depth, ao ai to 
much as possible the velocity of the smooth bollj 
still securing the accuracy of the rifle. 11^ 
also depended on the amount of the chuve, aai 
he had no experience of military rifl^ he 
habit of making sporting ^ express " riAf«> is 
keeping the rifling as shallow oa possible and 
powder, a trajectory was obtained at 200 
mathematioaily level. It was a great mi 
too deeply, as it cauaed extra friotioa ; aiMi 
the question of increasing the charge in 
might be worth attention, considering thai ^ 
about five-eighths of that used for sporiin; 

Commander Dawson, B.H., asked if a 
of powder than usual waa used to get Ai 
trajectory mentioned. 

Mr. Dongall said it was ; the system was 
nor less than an elongation of the old point hlwj| 
which was 20 or 25 yards. By lij?htenii^ ^ 
decreasing the bore, and enormously inci* 
charge of powder, that was increased to about 20* 1 
but immediately the ball reached that diitanc^ w 
at once. 

CoBunander Dawion said it waa imposnbk to 
two things wholly unlike, aa it appeared to him < 
sporting and military rifle. An increased oharft 
of course, produce increased velocity ; but, aa ke 
stood, they were diaouasiog an inoresseof 
to an improveoient in the rifle itaelt 

The Chairman remarked that in militaiy 
quantity of powder was strictly limited. 

Mr. Walker said inventors of military small J 
by no means the same latitude as mak ers w^ 
rifles, being limited very closely ai to ve^n^ 
and charge of powder. 




JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 16, 1873. 



495 



mf 



lUb Otttii detired to add, that in his opinion, factory if he had the actoal angle of elevation, but 

that probably required appliances which Captain O'Hea 
had not at command. It would also be neoessarr to 
asoertaim whether the same aoooraoy which had been 
shown to be sustained up to 700 yards would continue 
at longer ranges, and whether the bullet acquired suf- 
ficient rotation to maintain its accuracy at the long dis- 
tanees at which the Martini-Henry and other rifles mada 
good practice. Probably the best method of demon- 
stiatii^; to tiie public that this new sjrstem possessed all 
the merits it claimed, would be for Captain O'Hea 
to appear at Wimbledon, personally or by proxy, with his 
new rifle, and there he would hare a peHbctly fifidr field 
and no fiivour. He would oantaon hun, however, that 
any ond bringing forward a new rifle was often under 
disadyantages in not possessing many minute appliances 
such as were attached to rifles constantly in use, and 
which assisted greatly to produce accuracy of shootinjg. 
At Uie same time, there could be no doubt the real merits 
of the weapon would be folly displayed, and those 
acquainted with the subject would be quite prepared to 
make allowance for any imperfections such as he had 
alluded to. In conclusion, he proposed a vote of thanks 
to Captain O'Hea for his able paper. 
The vote was carried unanimously. 



onrtfiteia of partial rifling, the amount of 
t»gfat be much reduced, so that instead of being 1 
miO, itntffht be almost a strai^t groove, because, 
^till pusoa throuffh it at a much higher velocity, 
[suil twiflt would give it a sufficient rotation to 
ftimghoat its course. He should like to know 
Giptaia l/Hea had tried to find the minimum 
of afling necessary for the different systems, 
the Soott system, the Lancaster system, 
and all othen, could be treated in the 
or whether one required four inches of 
notksr two inches, and so on. It was too 
a private individual to undertake all 
. out he thought it was worth trying 
tM or two spots placed near the muzzle would 
to give rotation to the bullet. After all, 
but a question of velocity as determined 



flTSia, in reply, said he bitted out a portion 

IviinarT rifle banel so as to make the smooth 

itf tie bore, from the breech end, level with the 

if the grooves, leaving the rifling at or near 

iUndmg out, like ribs, from the smooth 

He had tried making the inner end of the 

; *«dgf -ahsped, and also sloping it away, or 

k ia height, until it disappeared in the 

of the barrel, and in each case he had 

reiults, but the beet results he obtained 

[vhich stood op out of the smooth portion 

He had not tried the Whitworth rifle, 

iMthe Soider-Enfield, with the expanding 

»the latter case had used a sloped-off rifling. 

.rifle he had at first a difficulty, but now 

id difficulty whatever— the bullet took the 

via never found to strip. Strange to say, 

i&ebest results were obtained where the metal 

did not take the rifling at all, but 

ili fpioning motion from the paper. The 

of Captdins .Selwyn and Dawson he so 

with that he neied not make any further 

upon them. Captain Selwyn and several 

len had witnessed the practice, and in 

the absence of recoil had been very 

upon. With regard to the price, he 

lay that the cost of rifling on Mr. Mur- 

would be about 48. as against 12s. ; but 

speak with certainty on the subject. The 

I htd adopted in his experiments had been to 

flriinary Martini -Henry or other rifle, and bit 



In addition to the rifles exhibited by Captain O'Hea, 
Mr. Henry Keveley showed two weapons, a sword 
belonging to an officer of the Spanish Armada, and a 
dagger that had been used in the Inquisition. 



OOMMITTSE ON THE MEANS OF PBOTECTING THE 
XEtBOPOLIS AeAINST OONFLAO&ATION. 

The following evidence was given before the 
Committee (in continuation of that already pnb- 
lishod) by Mr. William Swanton, of the Metro- 
politan Salvage Corps : — 



Q. — ^What structural arrangements for large ware- 
houses does your observation suggest as the best for the 
prevention of the spread of fires ? 

A. — I have never doubted the advantages of brick 
piers, groined brick arches» and concrete floors, as the 
best description of incombustible and fire-resisting con- 
struction fcr any building, especially those containing 
-«»* — large bulks of produce and manufacture ; stiU the space 

iittri1iw^^'b^"^tainedrf^MV.15i^ 1 required for this kind of construction is such mi objec- 

•f U, Newman-street, Oxford-street. Ho could tion that it is seldom met with except in vaults. The 



with any certainty, as to the effect of an 

ibirte, as he had onl^ used the ordinary 

at fiey- Boxer ammumtion, 85 grains of 

idiSO grains of lead, or mixed metal ; with the 

[Ikhsrda* rifle, however, he used only 76 grains 

The highest point of trajectory, at 650 

■i S fe^t 1 1 inch, or the same as with tiie 

iBtini rifle at 500 yards. By his latest 

the same height was secured at 700 



said there did not seem to be so much 
ti^ as formerly in the relative merits of the 
t kinds of breech-loaders ; but this was probablv 
I *o Bjioy element systems had now been devised, 
rtKea qoite rapid enou^ in action for all military 
■. TkoD were two main features ia the imnroved 
(^^ Captain O'Hea had brought forward, both 
^' Tthn, vis., the diminution of recoil, owing to 
o£ Wstance, and the consequent flatness of 
The sridence of the flatness of trajectory 
in a comparatively rough way, by takmg go- 
[ttUDQiiition and government sights, and ascer- 
^MMAti^and it woi^ have been more satis- 



next best description of fire-proof construction is that 
where, though the floors are supported by iron columns, 
those columns are filled in with concrete, and sur- 
rounded by the same material and cement, to a thickness 
of about sue inches, so that the protection afforded to the 
iron prevents its being affected by the heat to so great 
an extent as it otherwise would be, and if the joists are 
of T-iroD, ordinary hoop-iron taking the place of old- 
fashioned laths, the space between the joists being 
filled in with concrete, though timber flooring may 
cover the whole. This I consider a thoroughly good 
and incombustible mode of building, and one which 
would prove fire-rfsisting to a very great extent, even 
in ordinary private dwelHngs. If the spaces between 
the joisU were filled in with concrete, say six inches 
thick, instead of savings and sawdust, as is now 
generally to be found, very much protection would 
be provided, and it would not only prevent a building 
burning so rapidly as is now the case, but at the same 
time it would allow far more opportunity for the inmates 
to escape than now, owing to the rapidity with which a 
building burns when once on fire. 

Q.— What do you consider the best materials for the 
construction of staircases ? 



496 



JOb liN AL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 16, 1873. 



A, — ^The qaestion as to what material ttaircaaea should 
be constracted of I haTe long since coDsidered, and I 
cannot agree with many who approve of stone staircases, 
except for external pnrpoaes. Of course there are 
warehouses and other buildings where a massive stone 
staircase leads to landings in the centre of a block, on 
whidi are good iron doors lending to the various rouius 
or floors filed with goods, Hud perhaps occupied with 
workpeople, the entrance being from the street and 
ending at the roof. Nothing can be better than this 
kind of staircase, where it is perfectly independent of the 
floors and their contents, because the prubability is that 
any of those floors might be burnt out and the staircase 
by no means affected by the heat on account of the pro- 
tection afforded to it by the iron doors ; at the same tiuie 
I am strongly opposed to stone staircases under almost 
any other circumstances for internal purposes. And I 
fully believe that if the ordinary timber staircases, as at 
present construrted, were filled in with good concrete 
before the tread is fixed, they would form about the best 
and most fire and water resisting description of staircase 
that has at present been d«vised, and would, in my 
opinion, be the next best to brickwork itself. I know 
well how nice a good stone staircase looks, and is for use, 
when no fire happens, but I also know the fearful con- 
sequences of a nice looking atone staircase suddenly 
giving way without any warning when it is heated and 
water is thrown upon it in extinguishing a Are. 

Q. — What do you consider the best materials for the 
construction of roofs ? 

A, — The best description of roofs I can conorive are 
those covered in with stout slate, with about one inch of 
fine concrete between the laths and the slate. This 
would not only resist almost any fire from an adjoining 
building, but would, under most circumstances, with- 
stand any use to which the roofs might be subjected by 
firemen and others. 

Q. — ^What precautions do you recommend as respects 
the fines of furnaces ? 

A. — I cannot conceive that any difference of opinion 
ought to exist as to heating furnaces, or the precautions 
necessary to avoid accidents by fire from them, so long 
as all timber is kent well clear of the heated parts, and 
properly constructed flues only used. Furnaces are as 
safe as any other description of heating apparatus. 

Q. — What precautions do you recommend as respects 
open fire places ? 

A. — So far as open fireplaces are concerned there is 
no doubt that, with ordinary care, nothing can be more 
safe, and accidental fires should not occur from anything 
in resipect of them, so long as the hearth stones are not 
placed upon timber, and no such material is allowed 
within a reasonable distance of the fittings and flues ; 
and no question ought to arise as to the advantage of 
open fire places in reference to ventilation over every 
other description of heating. 

Q. — ^What precautions do you recommend as respects 
gas lights F 

A, — Respecting gas and the risk of fire from its use, I 
have no doubt that it is the most safe mode of lighting, 
so long as proper care and attention is given to it. 
Having every 4ight safelv fixed, and properly protected 
from contact with any inflammable article near it, and 
having every room in which it is used fitted with a 
ventilator into the fine of such room, there need not be 
any apprehension on that head. 

Q. — What do you menn by concrete P 

A. — It may be made of many kinds of materials. 
What I refer to is that made with ordinary fine ballast 
and lime. 

Q. — ^Would it not be better adapted to resiit heat if 
made with clinkers, or things of that kind, which hud been 
burned P 

^ A, — I am not so sure about that. It might be more 
binding, but I believe the small ballast I speak of would 
not be greatly affected by heat any more than that made 
of dinkers. It simply introduces the idea of using a new 



description of material we know little or no^uag d 
instead of using that which has been proved to a 
the purpose so well. 

Q. — What would be the effect of a great fits ce 
Crete P 

A. — The effect of fire on concrete is sarcelj 
ceptible in ordinary fires, especially where tlkeoa] 
and fliiors consist of this material, bat in in 
large fires it would, under great heat, split into iny 
forms, but not until being nearly red hot, aodalJM 
the action of cold water being thrown upon it; unl 
the result cannot be compared to ordinary itflsa 

Colonel Beretfdrd— At the great fire at OotWiil 
it terminated in a floor in Aldennao Hmfkl 
premises, termed Hay*s wharf. The floor wu fti 
bamboo canes, which were burning with an inteswi 
but it had no effect on the roof, which wis fflM is \ 
concrete. The roof was perfectly loiid, bnttbtits 
not pass it. 

Q. — Is it the case that not above one*tkird o( 
mains in the metropolis are constantly ikajgsL 1 
water P 

A. — It is principally the trunk maim thtt oei 
charged, and one-third would be about the itwhc^ 
things are very much better in this rapeot ooff 
they were a few years ago. 

Q. — Tou desire that all the mains shooldW^A 

A. — Yes, and I think there would be so diidi 
reference to every main being always dngvi ff] 
internal flttings were in order. 

Q. — Is it nut the fact generally that if bTdiiill( 
hose are provided, and they remain long bbbk^J 
when they are wanted they are freqaeotly oat o( 4 
The hose leak or the junctiops do nut fit ; ind *4 
not be an advantage if they were kept in uuuititfj 
say for watering the streets P J 

A. — I think the wear and tear resulting fron 
for watering the streets would not beanTtbiog 
to the advantage which would be gained by ha 
frequently in use, and, consequenUy, alwsyi in 
order. 

Q. —Would not the form of hydrant yoabsTtN|4 
be very expensive P ^ 

A. — A great deal would depend on theqatntitm 
and fittings required. If the mains were 60 fetfwl 
from where the hydrant was fixed, the ezpeo»^M 
nection would be far more than the cost of t^Jn 
itself, but not so where the main was within t MB 
where the hydrant is to be fixed. i 

Q. — Can you give any idea of the cost d hAH 
drantP 

A. —I should think the average, taking 
distances together, and averaging the wbdl 
about £12 a>piece; we may differ perbsjsji 
description of hydrant should be used. TbeM 
suggest would be something like that slnsfr 
out by Captain Shaw, because it could not !• 
by frost, which, in reference to street iy^J^^Jj 
important consideration Therefore they woaMII 
timts available, and not affected by the w<st^ 
present plugs do not always get frosep if tbcy 
perly packed with straw during the winter r- 
if these are removt d to make way for a chwip 
of hydrants, -which may become unserricttiWe 
quence of frost acting upon them, we Bh«»oM 
worse off' than we are now. In Captain Shtw't 
directly the water is turned off', that momrtit it 
dry in consequence of the waste water rassi^S 
sewer, and therefore frost does not sflwt it ^ 
hydrant which retains Uie water up to ths 
nection. 

Q.— There would be a diminutum i& Af 
lamp-posts could be utilised P 

A, — Yes, there would; tad 
additional protection firaiVj 
those boxes ; and no 
quired, instead of 




JODKHAL OF THE BOOIETI OF AKIS, ] 



iitiu|U k dTectod, ud my eatimata of £13 leducad 

itultthUiiDaiiaL 
O'&ir nur b jdnntt m a mile of Btraet would yon 

jL-IiicaU mj tbe; ongbt not to be more Uuui 100 
gd nut, ta opposile lidH of the street, so that they 
maiaS-j be 200 feet apart on the same mde of the 

Q — Vlit would be the maiimnm dUtanco length at 

• (olofwUchyou conld eSlctentlf ate water for the 

i -Tbit wonld eotiiely depend npoa the preMore in 
1 mm. If the pr«asare waa great, 300 ot 400 feet or 
« uaK codd be reached ; vheieaa if the prewure 
•• Intit, (lerhape not more than SO feet could be 
ftdaH; naJied fcoin a hydrant under auch dr- 



-Ttii adraatoge of having hydrants reoBonably 
lH-'-'«4hei ie ttinC a smjiller quantity of hoae would 
>t<]9irBl ifa the immediate nas of the police. I lonk 
llMtnfpMtiaa thnt a oonatable woold be immediately 
tliit^: bul if you render it noceasary for him to 
•Ml amil kszthg of hoae together, before he can 
JU 1 bf. be woiud not do tba.t so readily aa if he had 
vlo^ilrekilf acrewed on to the hydrant and ready 
f t>. Tie girat object ia to aave time. The diataoco 
Ik Sj'lnal ihould be regulated by tbe kind of pns' 
■li tHt »btre they were fixed. " ' " 




in proper ordui. 

C-The Dirt^ 
and reaponaiiiui: 
ahooldcci of tii< 
diTida>J oi:'.;Q^i:: 
be aooepbiOn l- 

J.— 1EP-.U: 






large ■ 
iTould r 






iKin. HI feet apart ^romd oot be too close ; but 
■ijK bAbu; dwctlings yon might go 250 or 300 
A ljiB.m 1 atreet like Aegent-atreotor Cbeapaide, 
iBf 'Jos IK lai^ ahopa containing valuable gooda, 
t t<n ipDt would not be too close. In other 
na maig amall dwellinga, yoa might have them 
ti/Aitmm. 

l-ffkat '■a the great objectioD to the high-preeaare 
■■ ': VUj if it not adopted f If there any prejudice 

1-1 bii nevtr he«rd of anything of the kind. I 
■wfljunieiatiind why the water companies do not 
i Inau kfep their mtuns charged, aiui I ehoold be 
Q Bidi mfrised to find thorn do au under eiiating 
fcwnas : tliey woulil loss at leaat half their water, 
■■* if Dttna were introduced, I beliere all that 

Kioffa from would be remedied. 
TDD tliink metcra are pmcticallj poaiibli; '■ 
*«U fsflr inbmiE to be char^ according to Ui-i 
^^■J if witcr they conaumed ? 
i— Hr nwn opinion is they would be lery glad tt 
*>a«|ni,thuiotherwiBe; at present there ianu cb>^i: 
■U to the viate of water, when tnmed on by Uk 
'"■ittot lyilan, for the dally conaumplion. ]kliu.v 
tfi nq^ ot the water companiee chaining U.'m. 
*•*. PaqJewho are away from town ta'jnX'jui. 
lltiBjMjmnBw charged Uie same aa their ni.-.ja.- 
jWneiBthe water continually all the year rjm,_ 
y^ '^^nin. u in the case of gaa, would be 

ft-i» JM at aQ acquainted with the 
'^'"pnwindallown*, where "■ 

i— 1 bow naasthing about the water tivvy'r 




HynihoBtit. 

1^-Ai» jw aware that in Maaoherter, av^ 
'Xu. the conaumption of water ir >v 
! i« ia Ltaidon. under the intermin^Ti - .- 
>q<Be aadentand that to be K. ai. - 
" ' " , loiolt where con»l*n; et 

A Jib ttoonghoat *»— — . 



4:98 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 16, 1873. 



under repair, a house without dstems must be without 
water. 

Q. — ^Are you aware that throughout the country, 
where towns have been brought under the constant- 
supply system, meters have been resorted to in cases ot 
very large consumption, such as manufactories or 
rail ways F 

A. — Tes, I am, btiit I do not know of any instance of 
their being used for domestic supply ; at the same time I 
see no reason why they should not be used ; everything 
else required for use is either weighed or measured, and 
paid for accordingly, and I see no reason why water 
should be exempt from what everything else is subject to. 

Q. — ^You have made no calculation as to the expense 
of introducing meters for domestic consumption in 
London P 

A. — No ; I should think the expense would be some- 
thing like that of a gns meter; very little, as compared 
with the fair and great advantage to be obtained by its 
use ; every house having gas, has a meter — some houses 
three or four meters. 

Q. — Do you know of a cheap, reliable meter, suitable 
for such purposes — for domestic consumption ? 

A. — I know of several meters that go all the year 
round very well, and without getting out of order. I 
do not believe it matters whether they are intended for 
domestic or manufacturing purposes. Tou simply want 
to register the quantity of water passing* through, and 
pay for it accordingly. And if such meters are not 
generally to be found, I think no difficulty would 
prevent the immediate production of such a one. 

Q. — The police are the guardians of the streets, and 
as a rule, the policeman is uie first to hear of a fire and 
to take action with regard to it. Have you considered 
the expediency of amalgamating the fire-prevention 
and the police services ? 

A. — I do not propose doing quite that ; but simply 
suggest that the police should be a sort of auxiliary 
force, to hold a fire in check until the fire brigade 
arrives. I see no reason why they should not do that, 
without either service being interfered with beyond 
occasionally instructing the police in the way they 
should use the hose and appliances at a fire, when they 
happened to have one on their beat. 

Q, — ^There are propositions for larffe augmentations of 
the fire brigade. If it were completely re-or^nised, 
would not the force be almost as lai^e as the police F 

A. — I do not think there is any need of that, especially 
if the police should act as I suggest. I think there are 
as many firemen in London as are now or will then be 
required. I rather believe the number could then be 
reauoed. 

Q. — Mr. Beynoldi. — ^Are there not in London a re- 
gularly recognised class of persons who are fire-raisers P 

A. — There used to be, and for many years they were 
successful. But I think they are quite out of date now, 
or nearly so, and no such class as a gang at present 
exists in London. 

Q. — ^Are there not a class of persons who have made a 
living by fires, by means of making fraudulent claims, 
raising honest claims into fraudulent ones, and receiving 
a commission on the amount obtained P 

A» — There were ; but I think the public have to thank 
the insurance companies for having got rid of them, or 
Te^ nearly so. 

Q. — Within the last twelve months have you had any 
knowledge of persons being^so engaged P 

A, — ^Yes, I have known a few within the last year ; 
but within the last five or six years they have been 
getting less in nomber every month, in consequence of 
several successful prosecutions and convictions. I ven- 
ture to say that London is more wholesome now in this 
respect t!han it has been for the last twenty years, 
and this opinion is fully confirmed by the gradual 
reduction in the number of London fires during the la. t 
two years. 

Q.— Do you think the duty of public prosecution for 



offences in connection with fires would be more ei* 
ciently discharged by the police P 

A. — I think the answer to that will be found in Hi 
M'Lngan's Fires Bill, at present before the House, vhid 
will, I feel sure, do a great amount of good in deteniog 
diahonest persons frt)m having fires, many of which an 
never suspected at the time. 

Q. — That Bill proposes that wherever there ii i fiit 
there should be an inquiry by a ooroUer P 

A. — Not every fire ; only those when a reqaidtioQ 
foundod from suspicious circumstances, is reportei 

Q. — Is that needed in the metropolis P 

A. — I think so; the great advantage would be in the 
inquiry taking place on the spot, near wh»e the fire 
happens, and without delay, and bong made by a penon 
having no interest in the inquiry beyond performint; i 
public duty. I think then no one would purpoielj l^ye 
a fire who would not have a very clean bill of health, io 
reference to pecuniary circumstances, when the ioqoiry 
took place. 

Q.— Mr. Beynoldt— Do you think that any of the 
large fires that have occurred have been caoaed bj 
workmen, in order to conceal pilfering P 

A. — ^There may have been some of thia cUss,bQt 1 
believe the better classification of wharf and wu^om 
propert>r that is now carried out, almost entirely prereDta 
the possibility of many fires occurring that umu (o take 
place. 

Q. — Are you not aware that in Liverpool, a large 
portion of the fires that occurred in the cotton vare- 
houses were reputed to have been occasioned in order to 
cover a good deal of pilfering which had been going oo^ 

A, — I know some of these things have been brongit 
to light, but I do not think such a state of thixmcooU 
exist in London as did in Liverpool, neither do I believe 
the same causes are at work here to the extent tbef 
were in Liverpool. , 

Q. — Do you know that about two yean ago, in tbt 
cotton warehouses of Liverpool, a class of propefty a 
which there bad not been any fires for a long tiine, t^ 
fires occurred in a fortnight P 

^.— Yes, I know that; and believe th^s publicity gifo 
to the first case induced persons to attempt the otheit 

Q. — Do you attribute that to incendiarism ? 

A.—l take it that in many instances theee ^"^ 
frt)m some quarrel or malicious feeling with regud to 
the people in charge, rather than frt>m any desire to do the 
proprietor himself a wrong ; besides, the class of penou 
employed at the warehouses in Liverpool are mj^ 
ferent from those elsewhere or in London. 

Q.— With regard to the construction of building". «J 
there not some sandstones whidi will stand fir^lBdooc 
split like granite P ^^j «{ 

A, — I do not think buildings constructed c'^'^*^ 
granite would be specially susceptible of firs bey^ 
&ose ef any other stone. I consider stone i^.S*'^ 
exceedingly objectionable, and inclined to split th^ 
a fire occurs ; almost any description you can jo/db* 

Q.—li is said that in Paris, where, during the Com- 
munistic incendiarism, they had a good nuny fires, >^ 
of them, particukrly that at the stables of the Omnibtf 
Company, were stopped by asphalte. Is it a ^.^ 
there are two sorte of asphalte in use, the bitnminj 
or inflammable, and one that is not infiammsble-vi 
Val de Travers P . ... 

A.—I believe it is difficult to find any •»pl»*^'*/YflJ 
not somewhat infiammable ; I know of none ; but I tho* 
a great deal of the immunity from fire which ^'^'"^ 
joys is due to their system of building, and many ou» 
arrangements we have not in London, They |^'*ji 
hydrants, but almostevery soldierunderstand8extin|»"*"j 

ing fires, so that there the means of putting ««^* "jVJ 
once are far preferable to ours in London, without Ur™* 
into account the services rendered by ^^^^tJ^, 
generally in respect to fires. Then, again, in iho o«j^ 
ings they use iron *• winches," filled in with cooc 
so that every floor is comparatively fiieproot Ai* 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 16, 1873. 



499 



kEogHiii bnikiisfs, m the work progresses, the space 
gftween the flooring and the joists is made a sort of 
pMa or reoeptaole fur sharings, sawdust, &c., 
tfOf from the work. Therefore, if once a fire 
ipQi^ jou have all the miterials ready introduced 
ptitoraa^hly prepared for a rery rapid cotnbusti«m. 
^SifM time after the large fire at the Ciry Flour 
w it «i4 noiiood that many of the iron joists were 
lia thtflr pUoes, not twisted. Do you know whether 
if were filled in with concrete which had dropped 
if 

i.~The7 were, I know, fitted in with stone, npt 
Mnte. A great deal of the action of a fire 
M inn m iterials of that kind depends upon the 
ifs Mints of the building and the leni^th of the 
tohuB; the shorter the iron the more likely is it to 
' nitipUoe without twisting. Had that build- 
as £vtded into twi>, as it should have been, the 
of (he fire on the girders and rafters would have 
fery Biich less than has proved to be the result, 
joa pUce any reliance in the Extincteur P 
is better than nothing for extinguishing fires, 
tiaorJer,bat for mv own part I would far rather 
log I could always depend upon, s ly a hand 
h MUom fails, and if there should be a fia w about 
be teen at once. But with these Extincteurs, 
in u they are, you never know whether they 
ble or not till they are wanted, apart from the 
of re-charging. But I am told they are more 
iMvthaa they were formerly, 
•habably they may be efficient at first, but lose 
Immj by not being quite gas-tight P 
-T« They used to have a hole for re-charging 
kSMl in the coarse of time, like a bottle of soda- 
ti b«d cork, the gas escaped. Since then they 
d upside down, and charged from below ; of 
then the liquid covered the tube, and, as a rule, 
tloU, thej are now reliable. 

jot mean reliable soon after it has been 
or two or three years after it has been pur- 
I «d vhen a fire happens to occur P 
* Ihisk it does not much matter, though I have 
tftolooger they are charged the less rebable they 
Ikive known some go to Australia and be sent 
[Mi«fectly nselesa. The whole secret, no doubt, 
^Jkieoaiposition going wrong, no one being thnre 
vho knew how to re-ch*irge it effectually, 
^aaameansof fire prevention, being re(|uired 
It a fire occurs, the Eztincteur may £Etd P 
Ta; whereas the hand-pump will seldom fail so 
Hia or any kind of liquor can he procured by 
tian be supplied. 



Chadwsll Mtlnb, Esq., Engineer 
^ew Biver Waterworks, examined : — 

Tas joa ooosulted, as an engineer, on a plan for 
I Ptfis with water P 

^fte plan you have proposed, did it not form a 
M the tenants' communication-pipes should be 

ji md laid down by the Company as an essential 

m^ works of distribution P 
'I a, I considered it most desirable that it should 

ll^iQ y<n state the advantages to the tenant or 
wothitt were proposed from Uiat part of the plans 
!«e coaunon method, leaving every uninformed 
or owner to the necessity uf employing a sepa- 
aber to complete, as he might, that part of the 
aMhinery? 

w the flrit place it would effect a considerable 

[w otpital; in the next place it would be done on 

"^ tad in a superior manner. The trading 

^bss no motive to carry out improvements — two 

lajifs may be pat where one would serve. As 



an ex unple of the improvement proposed to be intro- 
duced in detail, I had intended to introduce lead pipes, 
with screw joints, similur to those used in wrought- 
iron pipes. The cost of thette joints was not above a 
penny ; they^ would have superst-ded completel3r the 
plumioer's joint, and neither the plumber nor his irons, 
fire, ladle, nor labour were necessary, and an expense 
of 3s. 6d. per joint was saved. In various respects we 
should have economised the machinery for distribution. 

Q. — This portion of the machinery brting laid down by 
the Company, was it proposed to charge at once the 
expense of this outlay upon the owners or occupiers, or 
to charge for it a rent>d P 

A, — ^It was proposed to charge interest on the extra 
amount of outlay as a rental. 

Q. — Then these tenants* communication-pipes would 
have been under the same general care as toe mains or 
iron pipes of distribution P 

^.— Yes, that was my view; and my opinion has 
always been that, as public traders, that which is best 
for the public customer is ultimately the best for the 
Company by whum they are supplied. 

Q. —What would be the extent of probable advantage 
to the public in respect to the saving of repairs P 

i1.— Very great: one public officer would have been 
appointed to attend to thu laying on of all houses, as 
also to all the repairs. Under ordinary circumstances, 
when an accident occurs within or without the build- 
ing, the tenant has to think how it is to be repaired, 
and has to consider how he is to pay for it, and who is to 
be sent for ; the plumber, when he arrives, makes the 
repairs in his own way, which is without any reference 
to any general system. Two-thirds of the labour, on the 
occasion of any acciddnt, is in the journeys which would 
be rendered unnecessary under a general system, by which, 
on such an occurrence, the inconvcnit nee may be remedied ' 
at once. The advantage of having the tenants' commu* 
nication-pipes placed under one general system, would 
have been, that they would have been so laid down at 
first as to have avoided many of the incidental injuries 
which they are liable to from frost an<i accidental cir- 
cumstances, as well as being placed where they could 
readily be repaired. 

Q.— In the case of a company undertakinjj^ to lay 
down the pipes, would not the repair of them rorm part 
of the Reneral charge, and be added to the rent P 

A —-Yes ; frequenUy an accident occurs towards the 
end of the tenant's term of occupation in the premises, 
and the cost of repairing it may be equal to his quarter's 
rent. Beinga tenant-at-will, or near the termination 
of his lease, he says, *'I may be turned out shortly ; it is 
not worth my whUe to undertake it;" and it is left un- 
done, if within his premises. 

Q, — Increased dilapidation must be the consequence P 

A, — Of course, that naturaUy follows. 

Q. ~ In that plan, then, you assumed as a principle 
that the tenants must be relieved of the immediate out* 
lay, and the expense be spread over a period, and col- 
lected as a rent r 

A. — ^Yes, certainly. This was the more necessary ia 
Paris, where the dwellings are ext^nsivelv oocupield in 
flats, as distinct tenements. Each flat would be held for 
various periods, some of the nature of tenancies at will,, 
some of them of the nature of leasehold, and under 
every description of interest and period of occupation.. 
Of course, the parties having short intervals would 
not undertake the immediate expense of the outlay for 
the permanent improvement, nor would ^ the persons ia 
the lower apartments pay for the repairs in any other 
part of the building necessary for the supply of any 
upper apartment. 

^. — Did the plan of comprehending the tenants' com- 
munication-pipes and the whole mstchinery under one 
general system, .offer any advantages in respenct to 
economy and sufficiency in laying down the iron pipes P 

A. — In a new town there would often be much public 
economy in laying pipes on both sides, instead of in the 



500 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, May 16, UIZ. 



centre of the atreets ; there would be the saving of lead 
pipes, the saying of repairs to these lead pipes^ the 
aToidance of the inconvenience and expense of breaking 
up the roads for that purpose — ^the saving of the incon- 
venience to the tenants in the event of frost, from 
there being less of their smaller pipes exposed. In a 
street of 60 feet wide, the saving of lead pipe would be 
about 20 feet to each tenant ; that is, if the street is 
built upon each side ; there would be 40 feet of leaden 
pipe saved in a house frontage of say 20 feet ; therefore, 
20 feet of iron extra would avoid the use of 40 feet of 
lead. 

Q. — ^In carrying the water up the higher houses, would 
you not have introduced iron pipes? 

A. — We should have introduced iron where we could. 
At that time, when lead was very dear, I contemplated 
the use ef tinned copper pipes. 

Q. — The Commissioners have received evidence as to 
the public wants, and especially of the wants of the 
poorest classes of the population, and as to the practical 
operation of an extended system of supplies in different 
towns, from which it seems to be desirable : — That 
the system of supply for the poorer classes of houses 
by common cocks or tanks for several tenements should 
be superseded by an extended system of supply carried 
into every separate tenement; that the system of 
periodical or intermitted supply should be g^erally 
extended to one of constant supply at all times, night 
and day, and kept on at high pressure, as in several 
towns and places, so as to supersede the necessity of 
having, and keeping in good condition, water-butts or 
tanks ; so as to be used also early in the morning for 
cleansing and watering the streets, and^ at nights to be 
in immediate readiness on the application of a hose, to 
be thrown over the houses in the event of a fire. 
.Assuming it to be desirable and necessary to meet the 
public wants in these respects, and carry out such a 
measure, do you think that the requisite supply could be 
rendered by the New River Company P 

A. — I have no means at present of judging of the 
extent as to quantity such a mode of supply might re- 
quire. The population within the district is nearly 
900,000 individuals. But there could be no difficulty 
whatever in increasing, at a comparatively inconsider- 
able distributing expense, the supply of water through 
the existing works, perhaps even to an extent beyond 
that which might be required, provided the Company 
were empowered to take that quantity out of the river 
Lea or from the Thames. 



Captain Davibs, manager of the Exchange 

Telegraph Company, gave eyidenoe as fc^ows : — 

• 

Q. — You have paid special attention to the use of 
telegraphy for qmckening the action of persons and 
things for the extinction of fires in the United States. 
Can you inform us of what is done there P 

A. — I am unable from recollection to give you accurate 
particulars of the system in general adoption in the 
United States, but smce the introduction in 1872 of the 
District Telegraph Company at New York, fire alarms 
are given yrim much greater promptitude. The phm is 
to place a small automatic telegraph instrument, that a 
child may use, in every house, Uius afibrding means, by 
simply pressing a stud, of giving the alarm of fire or 
thieves, and the power to call a messenger at any moment, 
and all this at a very small cost per annum, llie system 
IS now becoming generally adopted in New York and 
Brooklyn, and has been found to work very satisfiu^toril^, 
and will doubtless extend throughout the States. It is 
the intention of the inventor, and others interested in the 
patent, to establish a company to utilise this 'Suable 
invention in England, the idea being to divide the metro- 
pNoIis into districts, which shall have offices centrally 
situated, with a radius of three minutes* walk to an^ one 
point, these o£^cea being connected with every subscnber'a 



house, and again with every brigade itatioo, nater i 
pany, police-stationY and turncock*! nadflnn;- 
officers to have telegraph clerks, polios, and 
always in attendance, both day and ni^ lo tint ill 
event of an alarm from any subsciiber't boQM,iMti 
than three minmtee could elapse befbie Mratmw 
be rendered. 

Q. — Assuming a constant supply to be cm i 
and all the great pumping stations in combisatioB,! 
one system ; and this water supply, to beiiK 
tion, with hydrants in every street, in constant \ 
and road washing, and therefore in eonstantreiiiA 
is stated that on the average a fire brigade eafpBi^| 
brought to the spot in about ten minutes. Vf\A^ 
be the action of your machinery on sndi a tfiln! 

A, — I am mnable to state the time nov takato] 
engine to a fire, as it entirely depends upon dUnmi 
the means at hand for giving the alann to tb < 
brigade stations. With the instrument jad Ij 
District Telegraph Company of New York,iat] 
introduced and patented in England, no time 
need be lost — in fact, it may not only be knoni 
diately at every brigade station in the mtAnfO&t] 
every water company and every tonicock ww 
advised of it at the same moment, and tninedimi 
fire extincteurs could be on the spot from the< 
station within three minutes of Uie alarm ^'^H^^ 
and by this it is confidently hoped that many mi 
be stayed at an early stage, and much propel^ ^^ 
thereby. 

Q. — But may not yoar telegraph mbcbmaj, 
infrequent use during the long intervals b6biA| 
be apt to get out of order P 

A. — The machinery is so simple, and vdiU bo i 
constant use for other purposes ^aa fire or * 
it would be impossible for it to get oat of 
some houses, more espe(naily houses of biuuKSi, it^ 
be in constant requisition for calling mesiengvJ 
cabs,&c. The wires connecting housss with the( 
offices would be run under the eaves of the boi 
dropped in wherever neoeeeary. The ii 
be maced anywhere^behind the street door, 
head of a bed, or could be placed in efoy 
required. On the introductum of the ^^IBJ 
New York, the burglars thought th^ omU 
it useless by cutting the wires, but ue Mj 
was the last, as the act was at once indioatai 
office, and the police were directed to the otf 
thereby, when the ^SenAem were canght I^ 
nuQMrous extracts from American papen, 
instances wh^re the system has been <^ 
the last advices from New York ^eakofit' 
highest terms. 

The following extracts are taken frooi 
before the House of Commons CommittN 
Metropolifl Water Bill No. 2 (1871) ;— 

Mr. Robebt Bawxikson, CB. 

645. Is not the constant service of the very iWi 
ance with reference to that subject ?-— Yea, no do 
where you have the water at a sufficient pwsww] 
directly from the mains without the intervcntioir 
engine, or where you are dependent upon tire " 
having the water constantly m the msinais an f 
advantage. 

646. Are you able to speak with regard to m \ 
condition of the fire service in London f— Xo; 
know that a great portion of the apwratufi J* 
service is a disgrace to London. The old fire: 
positively disgraceful. 

647. And not kept in proper onler, I •^PP°*.1 
a plug driven into the main by main fbn*e, «m| 
has to be drawn as you see them drawn <1""5] 
weather, and a ttand pipe inserted to iOiMlk 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 16, 1873. 



501 



get their lapply. The same thing ocoon in thousands 
of cates ali over London. Th«re is no proper fire 
hjdrant; there is simply an old plug. 

648. U is a very ancient and crude mode of managing 
maittsn, «hich lathtr indicntes a want of progress in 
that pHtticuIar direction P — Tes, I assume that thej have 
not C3l^d to niter it on account of the great expense of 
potting ia fresh valves. 

Mb. J. F. Batbman, F.E.S. 

HS, As regards the proyision against fire, are the 
mangenients now upon the intermittent 'system such as 
Toa lEink reNSonable and fair towards a large metropolis 
Kkethii?-No. 

949. Will you point out to the Committee in what 
yoQ think thuy are deficient P — I think for protection 
agxinst firb thti water ought to be on at all times. There 
is thii difficulty, that the water companies are the parties 
sow to piuvide by nothing more than wooden plugs of 
the wont poseible description, the arrangements for 
ptting water frum the pipe, an antiquated thing which 
Ml for 30 years nearly been done awa^ with in the 
eooDtrjr, where, having provided water m their pipes, 
thej give power to the public to take water from them 
for th« extinction of fires. In the hands of a Corporation 
tb iotensts of the whole of the public are so much in 
thrir hands that they generally go to a great expense in 
proriiioK Urg^-r mains with reference to the extinction 
of fini, tD<l therefore the two classes of works have to 
be conndfriNl somewhat differently. In the hands of a 
»np»ny thfy merely give permission to take the wattr 
uom their pipes without any reference to the water, 
^ttcAtia it is sufficient or not. But if protection against 
^ iito be regarded, then the mains through which the 
v^ter is to he discharged ought to be larger ; not more 
than s certain number of fire-cocks ought to be placed 
ttpipeiof limited dimensions, and the pressure should be 
nch, and the arrnogements such, as to throw the water 
vithom the MSjistanoe of fire engines to the height of 
J*^uifrj baildings — in fact, over Sie top of the highest 
t^sildiiigi, if the pressure is sufficient That has been 
the G«n in Manchester and in Glasgow and elsewhere ; 
JQ ^ the ibtrodaction of a better system of supply in 
^uoch»«ter has reduced the loss by fire on the value of 
p^ where fires have taken place, from 21 per cent, to 
w than 7 per cent. The loss before the in trod notion of 
the ooDftHot system of pn^ssure at Manchester, that is, of 
the property where fires took place, was more than 21 
P«f cent of the value of the property, and it has 
gndoftUy reduced, until now it is less than 7 per cent, 
of the Tiilut, of the property attacked by fire. 

^0. Tua attribute that mainly to the facilities which 
yon now have for getting water quickly at a high 
JH^ttsrs sufficient to reach the highest houses P — Tes, 
»ti« bo; it is mainly attributable to that. 

^I> Hrtve they done awa^ with the system of fire 
*"?iw!t at Munchest*'r P — Not entirely, because fire 
fNPi^ answer as omnibuses to carry the apparatus of the 
^''^^^D^A, snd they are occasionally required when fires 
**^ »t present where the pressure ia not greater than 
Jhsl ttoi-onveoiently be applied under ordin>try circum- 
'tuov : bat to a very great extt'Ut fire engine are dis- 
MotinoH), excepting as omnibuses. 

951 That system dues not obtain in London of get- 
tug aaimmediiite supply at high pressure P — No, it does 
tt}t. 

^3. In your judgment, is it part of the constant 
■f^ that it should embrace the idea of an efficient 
Wy of water against fire P—Yes, it is ; they cannot 
*trwiooe, under the interndttent system, the same 
9>teoi of fire-cocks which they can tmder the constant 



wi. Will yon explain to the committee what changes 
Wl f»e required to meet \ our view upfin that subieet r— 
z^^ require the abolition of every wooden plug and 
{■•••Wtuiion of a fire-cock or hydrant, and if wiiat 1 
^'B^ie^Kbe beat kind of that apparatus is used, which is 



also the cheapest, it would cost about probably 308. the 
fire-cock over the whole of London. 

955. There is, I think, in existence a fire-cock of the 
description you have given us in use in various parts in 
the country P — Yes, hundreds ; I do not know whether I 
might not say thousands. I might, indeed, say that 
hundreds of thousands are now in use in all towns ; 
almost, if not every one, with which I am connected, 
and in very many others. 

956. Therefore it is not a mere theory ; the implement 
itself is Hccessible, and it is rather a question of expense 
in altering the arrangements P — Yes ; they have been in 
constant use for 23 years, ever since 1843. 

957. I believe it is a patent with which your name is 
connected P — It is a patent called Bateman*s and Moore's 
Patent. It wastheinventionof an old assistant of mine, 
Mr. Moore; I approved of it, and, for his sake, I allowed 
my name to be used in taking out a patent for his benefit. 
It has not paid much, but it is, and has been, a very 
successful patent, in its usefulness. 

958. Perhaps you do not know all the good you have 
done to the public. I have been told that the price has 
been reduced to one guiuea P~The patent has long since 
been out, and I have no interest in it whatever, except 
to recommend it as a good thing. 

960. I dire say you would say that the present plugs 
ought to be changed, even if you do not introduce the 
constant supply P— That I certainly should ; I think they 
are a disgrace to the mechanical skill of the age, and 
they have been abandoned by me certaini v as a niost 
disgraceful thing, which I never would endure for the 
last 30 years ; and I never put out in in my life, and I 
have been a waterworks engineer for 30 years. 

961. There are certain ancient things to which people 
often cling, whose only objection to modem things is 
the cost of them P — Yes ; they are about equivalent to the 
wooden pipes which existed before 1810. 

9S6. wTiat is your objection to the word plugP— 
Plug is a word meaning the piece of wood, which is 
used for the purpose of being forced into the upright 
outlet from the main pipe which conveys the water^ 
and it just plugs the hole up, and every time that the 
water has to be diawn from the main that plug has 
to be loosened one way or another, not by way of a 
screw, but loosened by a lever, and it flies out, with 
the chance of hitting the man on the head, and when 
the water flows the men have to poke about with a long 
standpipe, almost always getting wet through before 
they can get it into the plug, and that is then driven 
down and fastened with pegs, and as soon as that is 
fastened, they attach the hose to the standpipe. 

987. The apparatus, in your opinion, is not effective 
for the purpose P — It is a disgrace to a mechanical age 
that any suih thing should exist ; there are many im- 
provements which have been introduced during the last 
25 or 30 years which are much superior. 

Mr. Joseph Quick, O.E. 

2327. Hsve any local authorities applied to you for 
permission to substitute hydrants for fire-plugs P— They 
have not. 

2328. You have, I suppose, from time to time, com- 
plaints of some failure of water at fires P— We have, from 
the absence of the tumco<'k. 

2329. How it is accounted for when there has been 
any defect ? — It is frc»m the absence of the turncock. 
The brigade will not allow anyone to call the turncock ; 
the police do not seem to apptoint anyone to call him, 
and the consequence is that it is left to chxnce. 

2330. Have the water companies mwde to the fire 
authorities any proposal to obviate the risk of the absence 
of the turncocks P— They have offered to phice a man at 
the disposel of each fire station and to pay him if they 
would allow him to lo<lge there, so that when a call is 
made at a fire-station the man should go at once to the 
turncock, and he would be on the spot 



502 



JOURNAL OF '..HE SOCIETY OF AETS, May 16, 1873. 



2331. That was to be at the ezpeiiBe of the companies, 
was it not? — Yes. 

2332. ^Vhat was the answer to that ?— That thej 
could not entertain such a proposition ; and in addition 
the water companies pay any number of people who call 
the turncocks. 

2333. But if the authorities had complied with vour 
proposal of having a turncock at the expense ox the 
conipanies, resident at each station, no difficulty could 
have arisen about it ? — ^I think so. 

2334. You gftve evidence, I think, before the Ck>m- 
mittee of the House of Oommons on Fires in the Hetro- 
polis some years ago ? — I did. 

233d. Was that in 1862 ?— Yes, it was in 1862 when 
that proposition was made. 

2336. I see here is a passage from the Report of that 
Committee, which probably you are acquamted with. 
The committee say that **They would refer to tiie 
evidence given by Mr. Quick, the engineer of Uie South- 
wark Water Company and the Grand Junction Water 
Company, on this subject, from whose evidence your 
committee have satisfied themselves that the complaints 
are due more to the non-application of the water than to 
any deficiency of supply when the turncocks have arrived 
on the spot ;*' and they saw afterwi^ds that '* some more 
stringent regulation or arrangement appears to be 
desirable to secure the immediate attendance of the fire- 
cock men by a special arrangement under some respon- 
sible policeman, or other person charged with such duty, 
to give the earliest notices of fires to the turncocks, which 
might bo efiected by electric telegraph communication, 
in connection with such new general system as may be 
be formed;" that is, a new general fire system; then 
thev say, " Wherever constant supyly is introduced it 
will bo nf cessary for hydrants to be substituted for the 
present fire-plugs, and it should be made compulsory on 
the FiTii Brigade authorities to provide and fix hydrants 
on the company's pipes before the water is constantly 
left on in any service ;" do you concur in that opinion 
now that it would be necessary or desirable to have 
hydrants put on? — I think it would be absolutely 
necessary. 

2337. Where mains are charged, they might alraady 
have been put on ? — Yes, wherever the main is constantly 
churifed, they might have been put on. 

2338. All your mains, of course, are constantly 
chHr8:(id ? — All the principal mains are. 

2427. You said that hydrants would be a great im- 
provement in the streets ; they will ioUow, I fancy, as 
a niHtttir of necessity upon the introducton of the constant 
supply ? — They will, there is no doubt. 

2428. In so far as fire-plugs are concerned, we shall 
get rid of those useless, and, I may say, dangerous things ? 
— Ytis. 

2429. And then, as an immediate result of the intro- 
duction of a constant system, we shall have hydrants 
throughout the metropolis ? — You will so. 

2430. That, in your opinion, would be a decided 
advantage ? — I think it would. 



KStrOAL in TEfiJTATIOVAL XXiilBlTI(ni& 



The number of visitors admitted on Unmday, 8th 
inst., was as f(rilow8:— Season tickets, 216; on paynent 
of Is., 2,017; total, 8,133. On Friday, seawm ticket^ 250 ; 
on payment of Is., 3,072 ; total, 8,322. On SotiDday, 
season tickets, 357; on payment of Is., 4,768 ; total, 
6,116. 

The number of visitors admitted to the FrhMtifln 
during the week ending Saturday, May 10th, wit ts 
follows: — Season ticket^ 1)474; onpavment of St. 61^ 
1,306 ; on payment of Is., 16,709 ; tc^ 18,488. 




The number admitted on Mooday was, 
240 ; on payment of Is., 2,000; total, 8,140. On 
day, season tickets, 196 ; on payment of Is., 3,191 ; 
total, 8,386. On Wadaetday, season tickets, 316; on 
payment of Ss. 6d., 1,624 ; total, 1,939. 



A oommittee has been folmed at Munich for the 
•VM^tioDof a monument to Boron Liebig. An appeal for 
contributions will be published shortly. 

A thin seam of coal has been discovered at 
Epwortb, in Lincolnshire. The coal, which is of good 
qanlity, was met with about sixty yards from the surface. 

The tJnited States' signal office has begun the 
publication of a brief monthly review of the weather, in 
which special attention is givsn to the storms that visit the 
United Slates. 

The declared value of telegraphic wire and 
appnratus connected therewith exported in the last thrM 
months wa. £106,227 ; in the corresponding period of the 
previous year it was only £29,859. *^-^ **"*~ "" ™ 



THE QUEEN AT KENSINGTON. 

Her Majesty the Queen, aooompanied by the PrinoMS 
Christian and the Princess Beatrice, visited the Inter- 
national Exhibition at Kensington, on Friday moni- 
ing last, at a quarter past ten o'clock. The 
Queen was received by some of the old memben 
of the Commission of 1851 and several of tht 
members of the present Exhibition Exeoative Ooa- 
mittee. Among them were the Marquis of Bipon, £«ri 
Carnarvon, Sir William Hall, C.B., Sir Francis S^d- 
ford, Major-General Scott, C.B., Dr. Lyon Playfiur,ibe 
Right Hon. Hugh Childers, Major DonneUy, Mr. Hsorr 
Cole, C.B., Major Du Cane, Captain Clayton, Laeut. H. 
Cole, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Kelk, Mr. Charles Lucas, Mr. T. 
Lucas, Mr. T. Fairbaim, &c. Her Majesty alighted si 
the door of the School of Cookery, the entnmoe tu 
which was decorated with the prise roses exl^btted i- 
the late Show of the Royal HortSenltural Sodetj 
The Hon. F. Leveson Gk>wer, Chairman of the Com. 
mittee of the School of Cookery, and the other m c a s he rs 
of the Committee, with Mr. E. J. Craigie, Dspoty- 
Commissioner, conducted the Queen and Prinoesss 
to chairs in the schooL Mr. Buckmaster, the Leetura 
of the School, then made the following obeemtiflaa 
during which an omeUtte auxjine» h$rb€M was prepared : — 

" May it please your Majesty, — The specimen of ecti^Mg 
which is now to be presented takes only four or fivwABtea, 
and is within tbe reach of the poorest of your M^eSty^t sab* 
jeots. The materials ooBt 3|d., and they inmiflh a wbokHMS 
nourishing dish, acceptable for two persons. The iisihrt' 
is seldom properly cooked even in France, which gives it it& 
name. It is never found in the homes of the pour of thiii 
cotmtry, and in the houses of the rich it is often very badly 
cooked. The ordinary frying-pan and spoon found in evtfy 
house will answer perfecuy well. There is no oecanon, t# 
you are told in cookery booxs, for an omelette-pan and apoasL 
We wish to show in this school' not only the best and aest 
economic methods of domestio cooking, but the various w 
to which kitchen utensils may be fairly applied witlwal 
injury. To prepare a plain omelette, see that the tryia^^ptz. 
is thoroughly clean— fur deaaUness brings with it hahito W 
domestic order, which are among the first and best msthsdt 
of happiness in every household, nor is it withoat its in- 
fluenee on the moral character, for virtue and dirt can new 
dwell comfortably together, rlaoe in the firying-paa abeat 
one ounce of butter. We use gas-stoves, and dupUoate %t 
our operations, so that the public mav have a better oppor- 
tunity of seeing ; but what we do at tnese gas-stoves we oaa 
equally well do at an ordinary kitchen fire-plaoe. Bi«ak 
three eggs separately to see they are fmh, oeat tbam vp 
with a little chopped paraley and a pfaieb of pepper sad salt 
The eggs should not be beaten too mueh, or the wWt* of 
them separates, and you prodnoe a watery mixUxre ^f^iA 
destroys the flavour and appssianoe d this nmslstts. Neir 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IE3TY OF ARTS, Mat 16, 187. 



503 



M Ae batt«r is melted, pour into the frying-pan the 
MlBttenixtare tni atir till it b^os to set or thicken ; 
liikf tbe pm oooAsionallj, and fold OTer the omelette neatly 
iliu •Til skape, and wh«a it i« of a golden colour tnm 
ttUy toto a diih. To be able to prepare a plain omelette 
^to beabl« to prepare emy kind of emelttte. If yon re- 
ifciiohicat ooelette, introdnoe into the omelette mixture 
|»tt4aM«t-apeoaful of grated Parmeian ohfloao with a 
ikptfee ud Mit, aad aomttimae a few graina of Cayenne 
mi. In a aveet omolotte no popper or salt, bat a little, 
lipatfd, sn^ar; and jo^t before, the omelette is folded in 
ipiDdi«thbut«trenly over a little jam. If a baeon omelette, 
Iwfioetnf preriookly oooked bacon, cut into small dice, 
lliB on for Tarious lands of omelettes. In preparing an 
■iMbi impmber fire things — ^a clean pan, the mixture 
Hliitbitoo mach b^ten, the omelette must not be too 
j^faMifi^ are better than six eggs, which make two 
tMttai; th«f should aot be too much cooked ; they should 
tliteia'nMiateiy, or they become tough and more like a 
\ To nuke dmplo food wholesome and palatable by 
jfMadaty impoeed on man from the very earliest 
lofhisciviligatioo. An abundant supply of food and 
rprepamtion of it by cookiup: are matters intimately 
Iwith ihs physical well-b<»iag and happiness of 
rXijefty't sahjects, and, from a long and close connec- 
fmh tb9 working diisses, on their behalf I may be per- 
M to lay tbat the interest which your Majesty has shown 
I Solunl of Popular Cookery wili be gratefully appre- 
LiriUdasMs of your Majesty's safagects." 



Inaonstration occupied just foar minutes, and 
m and the Princesses each tasted the omelette, 
kH« Majesty pronounced to be very good, 
ifcyil party then proceed e<l to the camp cook- 
to of the German soldiers, to whom the 
• pl««9d to address a fevr observations in 
Tha Koyal route was continued through tho 
)4b, which the Queen examined, and then on to 
Wad C4b8 for London traffic, o^ered in compe- 
'flteSiciety of Arts prizes. HerMijeety passed 
ftti gallery containing the apparatus for saving 
MtMid expressed her deep interest in the coUoc- 
^^thi« point the little children of Mr. Paul 
kijjqaflti of roses, which were graciously ac- 
ne Qaeen, pissing through the large col- 
M ancient tobacco pipes, in tho examina- 
•Wch a fow minutes were spent, th«n 
the itiirs of the Picture Gallery, con- 
fte works of Phillip and Creswick. 
been brought together to illustrate the 
tftoee distinguuhad artists. At the entrance, ' 
^ Wi8 rtxeivel by the committee of noblemen ' 
'Ten who had promoted the formation of this 
The Qtieen passed along the whole of this 
w the Exhibition, examining the pictures in 
^■4 mncwhat unexpectedly entered the gallery 
» the works sent by officers of the army and 
pn leating the picture galleries, Lord Ripon 
I to Her Majesty the Japanese Commissioners, 
' jttst arrived m EnnjUnd with a Lirge colloo- 
'« for the Exhibition. Her Majesty took 
about eleven o'clock. 



'ItenmES AT THE INTERNATIONAL 
EXHIBITION. 

[■••actioiisof the International Exhibition equal 

' plleries in steady power of attraction. It is 

y to go fcir in search of a reason for this 

^ /of the pictorial department. The lonirer a good 

**Jwked at, the better it is . liked ; it therefore 

[2^«Mo advantage over the moat subtle piece of 

or the most curiooB process, inasmuch as« 

My understood, these latter must infallibly 

s'tthe spectator. Curiosity, satisfied by a 

Jn^ioiioQ, reftiMi to lond a charm to subse- 

• and the most beautifol engine in .the world 

Vj^il worthy of a leooiid examination by the 

^ipidator. Mt good piGturw, like good music. 



^^iatarwt 



improve on acquaintance, and, in fact, require some study 
before they can be thoroughly appreciated. 

It was a happy idea to hang the works of two great 
English painters — John Phillip, R.A., and Thomas 
Oreswick, R.A. — ^in the same gallery. Perhaps it was 
hardly fair to put the work of Oreswick in juxta-position 
with the stronger subjects and more masculine style of 
Phillip, but the result to the spectator is inexpressibly 
gratifying, as the rich greenery of English landscape 
relieves, m the most pleasing manner, the eye fatigued 
with the hot glare of arid Spain. The calm beauty of 
"A place to Remember" and **The nearest way in 
Summer time " is rendered doubly attractive by the 
neighbourhood of the bull-ring and the dramatic 
intensity of **Tho Spanish Wake." Many of Phillip's 
more ambitious efforts have failed in achieving 
the complete success of the "Letter Writer" 
(lent by Her Majesty). The ancient scribe is 
seated at his writing-teble, and presents a richly 
embroidered back to the spectator. Joan Morales, 
escribano, is occupied in inditing an epistle for a love- 
lorn damsel seated at his left hand, and the p'^aman is 
evidently in difficulties. He is scratching his grey poll, 
in the vain endeavour to soften the ardent language of 
the damsel to the tone deemed necessary by his matured 
wisdom. With true Spanish patience, numerous cus- 
tomers are awaiting their turn, and some of these are 
armed with formidable missives requiring elucidation at 
the hands of Senor Morales. A striking peculiarity of 
this famous picture is the intense brightness of the sun- 
shine. The figures are literally " struck up against the 
blinding wall," and as8i«t the northern spectator in 
realising the truth of tho Poot Laureate's* powerful line. 
"The earl3r career of Murillo " is a great picture. The 
boy-artist is sketching in the street, and the striking 
figure of a Morisco girl, who has evidently been serving 
as a model, is the most prominent feature of the picture. 
Much interest is excited in tho crowd by tho proceedings 
of the youthful artist, whose labours are being honoured 
with a critical inspection. An intensely ugly muleteer 
is surveying tho scene with supreme contempt, and is 
meanwhile utilising the time by munching vigorously at 
a huge lump of bread. Perhaps tho least s Itisfiictory 
figure is that of Murillo himself, whose sentim'-ntd 
aspect fails to convey tho idea of tho great realistic 
painter. 

Of almost equal interest is the "Gloria," a sotj; of 
Spanish wake. In a little improvised chapel lies the 
body of a dead child, with the agonised mother huddled 
up on the ground beside it, in speechless misory. A 
kindly-looking woman and a sympathiser of the rougher 
sex are vainly endo ivouring to distract the attention of 
the bereaved woman from her loss, and are evidently 
entreating her to join the festive crowd for a little sea- 
son. A gay body of dancers fills the centre of the 
Sicture, but tears are streaming down the cheeks of the 
ark-eyed girl who is playing on a guitar. The ghastly 
contrast between the despair of the stricken family and 
the thoughtless mirth of the guests, is sustiined with 
great dramatic power, and the painful interest of the 
subject is intensified by its admirable treatment. The 
two lottery pictures, " BujHng the Tickets," and *' Read- 
ing the Numbers," are full of those subtle touches of 
human nature which never fail to invest the most or linary 
subject with intcrrst. In one of these a hnvly pndre isstow- 
ingaway inhispocketbookthe ticket he has just purchased, 
jind is so absorbed in this engrossing occupation as to be 
utterly oblivious of the devout girl who is fervently kiss- 
ing his garment. In reading the numbers, a laughing, 
bright-eyed boy is offering a light to a disappointed 
speculator, of cut-throat aspect. In all Phillip's work 
those pretty bits of bye-play are to be observed, and 
especially m " Life Among the Gipsies," wherein our 
old friend the British tourist, in checked suit and wide- 
,aw^e hat, cuts no very dignified figure." "A Chat 
round the Brasero " is full of character. An elderly 
priest has evidently just told a divertiiig anecdote with 



SM: 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP A.RT3, Mat 16, 187S. 



great effect upon hia auditory. One buxom damsel ia 
convulsed with laughter, a gipay-Uke woman is enjoying 
the joke in Ortlmer fdshion, while an ancient dame barely 
oondeaoends to smile. ^ The House of Cimmons, 1860/* 
shows the late Lord Palmerston addr^'ssing the House, 
while Mr. Disraeli, calmly biding his time« is meditating 
a brilliant attack. 

We have already observed that in some cases Ores- 
wick's pictures suffer by comparison with their neigh- 
bours, but no contrast can deprive "A Pluce to Re- 
member *' of its pellucid charm. " A Squally Day.** 
** Crossing the Stream.'* and '* The Windings of a Rocky 
Stream,** are also fine examples of a great master of the 
art of rendering English landscape. It is. however, 
evident that Creswick*s hnppit^t efforts are those in 
which he depicts nature io her calm and smiling moods. 

Most of our readers will be glad to r«»new acqunintance 
with Mr. Leighton's grand picture, ** Hercules Wrestling 
with Death for the Body of Alcestis.*' exhibited in the 
Royal Academy two years Hgo. The figure of Hercules 
in this magnidcent work is a study in itself, and the 
contrast between the intense vitality of the hero and 
the pale figure of the dead Alcestii invests the picture 
with an undying charm. 

Belgium, Btvaria, Dt^nmark, Norway, and Holland 
contribute libpxally to the art treasures of th<* Tnter- 
national Exhibition. Mr. Van Sarins sends " Undine ** 
and '* Elaine,*' both remarkable for exceeding purity of 
style and a singularlv mournful beauty. It is gratifying 
to find that hii^h art is not so dead, after all, as might be 
imagined by a vuritor to the Royal Academy this season. 

In landsoipe, Belgium is very stroni?. Roffaien sends 
a capital picture of *' The Village of Meyringen and the 
Wetterhom, Switaerland.'* The artist has selected a 
charming spot, and has depicted it with unerring fidelity. 
No Alpine traveller will fail to recognise the tender 
shtdes of green which give such a charm to the valley 
of a hundred cascades. De Schampheleer, also, takes 
high honours. In looking at his ^ Road from Loos- 
dreckt to Hilversum, Holland,** it is impossible to avoid 
comparing it with a somewhat similir subject, won- 
drously painted by Hob>>eroa. M. De Schampheleer, how- 
CTer, has water on both sides of his road, and thus has 
an advantage over the old master, who severely re- 
stricted himself to a mere high road. As a specimen of 
the art of investini^ the prosiest and most common-place 
of landscapes with a poetical atmosphere, M. De Scham- 
pheleer's picture is deserving of the hitchest praise. From 
Saxony comes a picture of "^ Verona,** by T. Choulant. 
The architectural part is excellent, and gives a truthful 
representation of the famous old city of the Montagues, 
Capulets, and Soalitcers. 

France has but few representatives, but among them 
is a giant — Meissonier. It h^s b^-en well remniked of 
this great artist that his works are not small, but large 
pictures looked at through the wrong end of the glass. 
In breadth and boMnesn he is approached by very few 
living artists, let their cinvas be of what size it may. 
" The Connoisseurs " !§ a gem. but even that is out- 
shone by *' The Confidence.'* These specimens of the 
great Frenchman are, by themselves, worthy of a yisit 
to the International Exhibition. 

It is gratifying to find that the prominence accorded 
to the Fine Arts has added a most interesting feature to 
the Exhibition, one that will, year by year, become 
more important The public spirit of owners of picturei) 
has been productive of the happiest results, and the ex 
cellent fashion of lending valuable works of art to 
Exhibitions reflects the greatest credit upon the taste 
and patriotism of modem patrons of Art. 

Mr. Henry Haffbes, of LiTerpool, is Intro* 

dncing a new roeth*id of laying rramways. Ha u««s » 

newly-devised light iron rail, unhedded innemAnt,aad olaimft 

to secure grB«ter ecoaomy in laying down and io other wavs. 

t>einveiitor*s Mment it stated u» have frequentlv borne the 

^t of ftrtM>n tons on a thiokne^s of thrae innhes. and to 

•ttooastf oUy resUted oonatant wear and tear fur six years. 



BXHIBITIOVa 



VIENNA EXHIBITION. 

A meeting of Her Majesty's CommissioiMn was 
held at the Vienna Offices of the Royal CommMOQ 
yesterday, under the Presidency of His Royal Hii^iMM 
the Prince of W^les. K.O. There were prewt, Sir 
Andrew Buchanan, G.C.B., Her Majesty's Ambaswlar 
at the Court of Vienna ; H.S.H. Count Oltiches, B.N. ; 
the E>irl Cowper, K.G.; Sir Anthony de Roths- 
cUId« Bart ; Sir Richard WalUce, B<irt , HP.; Mx. | 
Henry A. Brassey, MJ*. ; and Mr. P. Conhfle Ow«n, 
secretary. 

The correspondent of the DaiVy TtU^ra^ Mods an 
account of the banquet to the British exhibitor*, which 
took place on Tuesday last lie says : — ThH btnquet 
given to-day by the Royal Commission to the British 
exhibitors and a few Austrians of distinction, at the 
Blumensaal or Hortieultunil Hall of the Kxhibition, 
passed off most suooessfnlly. The room wu g«ily de- 
corated with British and Austrian flags, an excellent 
orchestra was in attendance, and a snmptui>n< m^nm pro- 
vided. Lord Cowper presided, while Sir Richard 
WalUce, Mr. H-nry Brassey, and Sir AnUKiay Roths- 
child acted as vice-chairmen, each sitting at the head of 
a long table. Amongst the distinguished gaesU wwe 
Btron Sehwarz Senbom, the chief director of ths 
Exhibition, Baron Gigem, and Chevaliers Engeit 
Hasenauer, and Gabrielli. 

The same correspondent adds: — Terrible wind sad 
rain storms have ra^ed here for the last forty-eight bom. 
converting the gnmnds of the Exhibition into elaihj 
morasses. The number of visitors has fallen off serioiulx. 

This morning (Wednesday) a tremendous lOMtof wind 
burnt the glass frontage of the west portal of the H«chiiiery 
Hall with a great crash. Fortunately nobody was serioo^X 
hurt Steam pipes will be fitted up by tho enl of ths 
week in our section, but the other dep irtments will pro- 
bably not be able to obtain steam power before ths esd 
of June. 

But few strangers are arriving at Vienna, sal ths 
overwhelming sinash on the Bourse has cast a deep g^ooffl 
over the city. 

The correspondent of the Seottman states that ths 
catalogue of the Exhibition wis printed on a Wtfter 
Press, at the office of Die Pregne. in Vienna. Th* post- 
ing was begun on the 23rd of April, and on the 39Uiths 
first edition of 10.000 copies, each cont fining 33^ ^m^ 
WHS in the hands of the bookbinder. On the 1st of Mij 
a copy waM presented to the Emperor, and c«>pias *«*• 
afterwards sold in the building to the general paHIic 
These excellent results are due to Herr Ludwit; 1^ , of 
Die /'renu, and his coadjutors, in whose hands the 
Walter machine has prov«id a great sn<H?ea9, anl vho 
stys that ten times as many copies conld hav« b(«n 
printed in the time if they had been req uired. D«# Pnmt 
has two machines of the same site as thnae used in thi 
Timet office. They are the first machines of tli«» kiai 
lined on the Continent, and the catalogue of the SxhiU- 
^ion is said to be the first book ever printed Croim ooa* 
tinuous web paper. 

It is stated that several artisans are to be aeat froa 
Sfanchester to report upon their respective tr«d«a u rt> 
>resented in the Exhibition. 



The fonr bronxe Sea*Horset made for the new fsai- 
tain at the fouthem extremity of the Luxemboarc Osr- 
len at Paris, which had been Iving there Mady to bs 
set ap, haye been sent to the Exhibition. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 16, 1873. 



505 



The Bugumr giTet the foUowtai; useful remarks upon 
lie Tariou roates to Vienoa. 'Vh*iy are also illustrated 
tj a iksCch msp, showing very plainly the different lines 
It railwjr:— 

1%B journey is |>robablT performed in the shortest 
ime by the Parui, Strasbunr, and Munich route, though 
>y vaj of Cologne and Nuremburg the time is not 
QOBh loiuier. A &st truin runs from Paris vid Stras- 
>aiii( to VkouM in 37 hours, g^Ting an hour anda-half 
itStnabarg— from 9 to 10*30 a.m.~for breakfast The 
kre (or this joamey from London, vid Calais, Paris 
\\m\mf;, and Munich, is £10 Os. 6d. for a first-class 
angle ticket, arailable for a month, and for return 
icketa, sTtkilable for 45 days, the prices are £16 8s. 6d. 
ind £11 lU. first and second-class respectively. Thnse 
mtrechuged alike by Uih Sonth-Eastem and London 
ind Chathun and Dorer railways. 

lliejoanieyby way of Calais, Brussels Coloffn^ and 
"wan, ooeupies from 48 to 60 hours, and tickets are 
fjwi by the South-Eastem Railway Company at 
CHU ai. and £7 3s. 6d. for the single journey in first 
•^mixeii first nnl second classes respeotirely. Th^se 
i»ck«toareaT*ilable for 30 days, but the r«turn tickets 
>m the nme route are only avail tble for the same 
^ at a cost of £13 Os. 6d. and £9 10s. first and 
wwd dwaes respectively. By way of Ostend there is a 
wtion in the single fares of 4s. 6d., and in the return 
«^M 68. fti. and 78 respectively. 

Tb London, C^tham, and Dover Railway Company 
^ angle tickets at the same rates as the South- 
j*Jteni, but at presnnt we have no information hs to 
wtf Mora fires. By way of Cassel and Leipsic— a 
^«n^ of about sixty- three hours—the return fares are 
' mfle highnr by second-class and lower by first-dass 
M« by the Passan route. 

Ito Brighton Railway Company issue r«tum tickets 
•• ^e^haven and Dieppe to Paris, not shown in the 
"P.andUMiceby Strasburg and Munich, at £13 7s. 
^ «9 I5i. first and second clashes, and available for 
D» month. They also issue return or circular ticknU 
y *»? of 8wit».rUnd or North luly, avaUible ft»r six 
'•*»/witwo month* each, at £14 and £16 7s. Od. 
;r^.«*d ^10 6s. and £11 7s. 6d. second-class 

"PWtlfaly. 

fh^ ^^^ Eastern R»»ilway affords another route, 
J "^d prove a pleasant one to many, in that it 
toLi° W«ttnity to see something of Holland, a 
low "^ ** much visited, perhaps, aa its inten^st 
^ warrant. Thii line consists of rail to Harwich, 
'^P'««gH to Rotterdam, and themw to Cologne by 
^J*"*^! crossing the Rhine by a floating pontoon. 
** P«i*ge may be taken from Harwich to Antwerp. 
Rttrred. Wo hive no information as to the fares 
Th*'i"*'*^* we understand they are not yet fixed. 

winjt «nd longest route is to Hamburg by steam 
^ ymdon. thence by rail via Berlin and Dresden. 
Tlte ft^ woold occupy about ninety hours. 
ntf\ J?^'*^ ><tpam Navigation Com|>any will issue 
37i M M fiw as Berlin at £4 I6s. 3d. first and 
a lA. / ""^nd class. Tne whole journey costs about 
li^-f^Tifirrt-class ticket 
^^w It t special facUity at the disposal of exhibitors 

««r i^preaenUtive assistants, of which these may 
^^^»are. M^^ssrs. Cook, as agents for the Royal 
r^**w» of the British section, have made arrange- 
r^y »hich bona Jide exhibitors, or their bona fide 
J|*o^vee, ma-y have tickets, flret second, or third 
^ Vwim4 and back at a single fare, available for 
J«^'mta the close of the Exhibition. The applica- 

wp these tickets must be formally addressed to the 
STsV' *^ ^^*^ Commission, 41, Parliament- 



j^^j*^ tt Aberdera.— It is proposed to have an 
^^J^^ *«ts and manufiEustures in the new public 
" 01 iki)eiueen* 



THE CLOTH TR\DE AND TECHNICAL 

EDUCATION. 

On Friday last the Clothworkers Company held a 
conference in their Corporate-hall, Minoing-lane, to 
consider the best mean^ to be adopted by them for the 
promotion of technical education in connection with the 
cloth trade at the principal centres of that industry. 
The Master of the Guild (Mr. John Bazley White) 
occupied the chair on the o^'casion, and there were 
prtisent among others, Lord Frederick Cavendish, M.P.; 
Mr. WhitwelT, M.P. ; Mr. Morris, President of the 
Halifax Chamber of Commerce; Mr. O. Nussey, and 
Mr. Aldermin Barran, both of Leeds; Mr. Howell, 
Director of Contracts to the War Office, and a member 
of the Company ; Major-General Eardley-Wilmot, 
Chairman of the Council of the Society of Arts ; Mr. P. 
Le Neve Foster, M.A., Secretary to the Society of Arts ; 
Major Donnelly, R.B.; Mr. Stmton. of Stroud ; Mr. O. 
Roberts, Clerk of the Company, and others. Mr. C. J. 
Bloxam, Chairtnan of the IVusts and General Purposes 
Committee of the Company, aftur giving an account of 
the Guild of Clothworkers since its establishment in 
1480« invited the counsel of the meeting on the subject 
of technical education, adding that the Company would 
be ready to entertain and foster to the extent of the 
means at their disposal any proposition by which the 
cloth trade might be promoted. The Company, he said, 
thought it essential to the trade of the country, especially 
the cloth trarlo, that we should instruct our artisans to 
to become skilled workmen, and so enable us to com- 
pete with foreigners. Mr. Morris, of Halifax, observed 
that the ground for technical education was very 
much prepared by the general elementary education 
now given, and he bflinved the Company could 
not do better than direct their attention to the 
nucleus of an institution in coursn of formation at Leed?. 
Mr. Nussey, of Leeds, referred to the Yorkshire College 
of Science, and suvgeeted that a te^icher in the manufac- 
ture of textile fabrics, and in drawing and designing 
patterns, might be added to the institution. Mr. Alder- 
man Barran. of Leeds, thought there would be great 
diffitmlty in giving medals to workmen, and in founding 
a schohuvhip. It would be impossiMe to give prizes for 
the best textile fiibncs. The best designs, he said, were 
those that sold the beet and wore the best In France 
and Germany manufacturers were educated gentlemen, 
and he thought the trade should not be solely pursued 
with the objt^t of accumulating wealth. If the Cloth- 
workers' Company could see their way to found a chair, 
or to assist the Yorkahire College, the influence of their 
example might be great. Mr. Stanton, a clolh manufac- 
turer, of Stroud, dwelt on the necessity of adopting mea- 
sures to enable the trade to hold its own against foreign 
competition. Lord F. Cavt^ndish, M.P., admitted that 
the idea of artisans generally attending a college was 
Utopian, but he was of opinion with many in Yorkshire 
that much practical instruction mitfht be imparted in the 
evenings, to th<»8e whorequinid a higher educa' ion, through 
mechanics* institutions. The more immediate object, he 
submitted, was to give to their manufacturers and 
managers in the great factories that instruction which 
th^ir foreign competitors obtained in the Polytechnic 
Schools on the C> ntioent, and to that end he thought 
a complete knowledge of mechanics, chemistry, and 
mathematics was essential. As to f«>unding schokuships, 
he did not think artisans could afford time to compete 
for them ; but prises might be offered for competition 
in mechanics' institutions, and the Clothworkers' Com- 
pany might do good in founding such prises. The 
discussion was continued by Mr. Howell, Director of 
Contracts to the War-office, Major-General Eardley- 
Wilmot* Major Donnelly, and Mr. Whitwell, M.P., the 
IsLSt^named of whom spoke in favour of an itinerant 
chair, with an eminent man at its head, to teach physics 
and chemistry in the most important clothing distriots 
in the connt^. Eventually, it was understood that the 



506 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIBTT OP ARTS, May 16, 187S. 



oommittoe would reoooimdnd the oouncil of the oompaay 
to fouad a professorship of textile fabrios, and some 
Boholarships to be throwa open to yoaag men connected 
with the trade in the varioas centres of the indiutry. 



CORRESPOHDElffCE. 



PIECE-WORK SENTENCES FOR PRISONERS. 

Sir, — ^Those persons who feel an interest in the pro- 
gress of prison discipline and the prevention of crime, 
must have derived muoh satisfaction from the special 
favour with which the advocacy of a greatly-increased 
resort to remunerative and reformatory industry in gaols 
was received by the Prison Cons? ress which assembled last 
year in the Middle Temple Hall, London, and also by the 
more recent meetinaj of visitinj? justices held at the 
London residence of the Earl of Da Uey. 

As a magistrate I have often had occasion to observe 
that our existing system of imprisonment (notwithstand- 
ing the efficiency of prison officers as a class, and the 
introduction of various improvements in the discipline) 
fails, to a large extent, in effecting the reformation or de- 
terrence of criminals. The very numerous recommittals 
of inveterate offenders for a succession of short terms is 
a common experience in all gaols, and in itself constitutes 
a strong proof of the necessity for a better system of sen- 
tences. Then, again, some of the occupations in gaol are 
not merely very wasteful (by rendering idle and vicious 
offianders a dead weight upon the heavily-burdened, 
honest taxpayers), but even disqualify the prisoner from 
earning a livelihood on his discharge. Thus, a printer, by 
being kept merely picking oakum, may, on his liberation, 
find that he has lost the dexterity of finger and quickness 
of eye needfal for resuming his trade. 

Further, the importance of making prisons, and, indeed, 
many other public institutions, so far as practicable, self- 
supporting, should claim more attention, by reason of the 
growing tendency to accumulate needless expensive or- 
ganizations. For example, evpn in the operatitm of the 
new School Board, we find that the valuable provision 
for compelling parents to pay for the education of their 
children, so far as practicable, has become both difficult 
and costly in its enforcement, so as to involve a burden 
on the rates which should, on speoial grounds, be avoided. 

When filling the office of Sheriff of London and Middle- 
sex, several yoirs ago, I was especially led to conclude 
that very great advantage would result to the public, and 
to offenders, Dy the adoption of la^mur 8(»ntences — a given 
quantity of hard but profitable labour — in lieu of mere 
sentences of detention for a certain time, as at present, 
irrespective of the work done by the prisoner, or of any 
satisfactory proof of his reformation. The proposal was 
suggested to E irl Grey by the Lite Archbishop Whately, 
as long ago as 1832. It was also strongly advocated by 
Captain Maconochie, and by the late Mr. Charles Poarson 
and others, and has indeed been partially recognised and 
adopted in the English and Irish convict prisons, under 
the name of the "mark system," by which a remission of 
about one- fourth of the length of time sentences may be 
earned by hard work and good behaviour. So far as it 
has been thus adopted, it has been attended by excellent 
results. Nevertheless, the principle continues to be 
ignored and neglected in the large number of country and 
borough gaols (about 220) in Great Britain and Ireland. 

The neglect of so valuable a principle arises mainly 
from apprehended difficulties in its application to the 
different classes of prisoners. For example, it has been 
objected, How can you apportion quantity or labour 
sentences amongst the large number of criminals who 
are ignorant of any trade at all P Or how can you fairly 
distribute any fixed amount of piece-work amongst 
persons, some of whom are physically incapable of per- 



These difficultiet may obviated in the Movii; 
maimer. 

Let a commission of experienced prison offifien vA 
magistrates, assisted by a few practical tradeBoenjasc*" 
tain, by a series of careful obserratioos, the trera^ 
equivalents of ordinary prison labonr of vsrioni kiiula a 
a time sentence of one year. Thus it would be foasdhoi 
many dozen pairs of boots or shoes a shoeiiiAker wil 
usually make in that period ; how many suiU or gMmeal 
a taUor will in general make; how many yards ot kad u 
ordinary agricultural labourer can dig or cuUifiite; hot 
many feet of weaving a factory hand can acoon^Uih, 4ft 

These averages of piece-work will then afford ii&ff &pj 
proximate basis for substituting bo Tmay nmtoof M 
and profitable labour for so many months MmitaAim 
And instead of sentencing idle and vioioai iogQ« t^ 
three, six, or twelve months' gaol detention, a«»tpreH 
they wiU be sentenced to perform 1,000, 2,000, or o.000j 
hard-labour units, as the case may be, these units reprej 
senting so many articles to be mauufeotareJ, or » w 
land to be tilled. Inasmuch as the <jualificition« 
abilities of prisoners (both as to physical iWagth 
technical knowledge) vary greatly, the exact appocuoi 
ment of the equivalents of the labour uniU to eich p* 
ticular case and occupation should be regulated locally 
the visiting justices and the prison governor, who wo' 
be guided by the observations for the genonl appro 
mate basis already mentioned. And as a forther a 
effectual check against any important error o/Mfan|*^ 
each labour sentence might be accompanied bfamuuu 
and^minimum limit as to time, or, at least, the tonn< 
For example, if a man was sentenced to perfocm l^ 
labour units, calculated for, say, six montha' ^cj^^ 
it might be provided that his confinement Bhonldnot 
ceed nine months, even if the work werenotdone bf « 
period. This limitation would effectually go»w »J" 
any special abuse of the right of private judfiMot* 
necessarily idlowed to the local gaol ■^^'^**'^'^. ^ 

Besides this spur to active exertion and good bejuw 
afforded by a labour syatem, it may also be wnd^^ 
great immediate efficacy by making some portioo* 
quality or quantity of the pritoners* diet depcndeat, 
day to day, upon the amount of his induatry. 1*^ 
means the lowest class of minds, unaccuBtofflodJ^ 
forward to ulterior or distant advantage, wouW N 
sensible of the present value of increased labow* 
the stimolus thereby afforded would be of a lonUtf 
to that which must induce them to work in **"^ 
For we should, in fiict, end^voor to force * ^ 
become in prison what we wish to make him **^ 
comes out it, and to leart at least »<>°^^^Jl-|j 
Scriptural precept, " If any wiU not work, n^lwf ^'^ 
he eat." >^-i 

The advantages of this substitution of l^^x*"*^^ 
instead of time sentences would be great and ^. 

1. It would largely stimulate the industrial h»wB »^ 
the intelligence of the prisoner. ^ ^ 

2. It would effect a great saving to the ^ft,^ 
payor, who ought not, as ^t present, to bo **oa»'y 
timiaed by the thief— first by plunder, and then nj ^ 
maintenance in gaol. J 

3. It would increase the abiUty of theprisonmwji 
port themselves reputably after their discharge, «« 1 
keep them off the rates in future. 

4. By holding out a constant ground of hope, 
the opportunity of shortening the duration <>'*". 
ment by dint of special exertion, it would render » 
ministration of discipline much easier to the fv 
officers, whUst greatly aiding the reformation ^i 
offender. . j 

5. By means of a small per oentage of profit ** 
results of his labour, being granted to the P^'";^ 
interest in the work would be effectnallr 8ecanHl,«n 
might also be enabled to leave the gaol, «* mi^^ 
free from dependence upon the cJ^'J"?., ^ K 
Prisoners Aid Societies, or benevolent indindu*!*- «] 
to a prisoner, self-help is the best he^ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 16, 187S. 



507 



l^noMig the exact txmeof disoharging pnBoners 
' ' \ Mbnbad, it would obviate (heir being waited 
' I Ae pd hy Yidoaa comrades, who, at present, 
Misleading them back to evil. 
) euMf at least, the profit of the prisoner's 
I sot only recoup all expenses of his ponish- 
lispnUieybot xaig^t be available for some con- 
^ ^ the restitation of private parties inj ored 

tk aboi, this Bystem wonld be found (far more 

tcditiDg plan) to combine the ohief elements of 
ftt and prevention, namely, Deterrence, Befor- 
j^nlBeftitation.— I am, &o. 

A. Akqus Cboll. 
, BocbanptDB. 






obuvast. 



•r letUnd.— The death of the Earl of 
(fiace on the 6th lost, after a long illnees. 
fwu bom on the 6th of February, 1795, 
Mine m his 79th year. He -was educated 
aimm married in 1828 to Sophia Jane, 

Jlter ef Sir Hedworth Williamson, Bart. 

floawB, and her ladyship died in 1865. 

^npesented Richmond in Parliament from 
ItelMOv and from 1835 to 1839. He was- 
■ fthe city of York from 1830 to 1832, and 

lai He was Grand Master of the Free- 

yiN d for a ffreat number of years, and 

'fa* of the Marquis of Ripon about two 
ttmoble earl was Provincial Grand Master 

Ittand Saat Ridings of Yorkshire, and was 
iMteant of the North Riding until a few 
■jfjifctt he was succeeded by the Marquis of 
kvdahip was appointed Knight of the 
?I«d Pahaerston's Gt)vemm0nt, and last 
aade Knight of the Garter. Lord Zet- 
iber of this Society in 1853. 



lOIIS OH BOOKS. 



MhMs: fiiiita on Cookery {Londcm, Harae$ 
'wtora to the School of Cookery at the 
I exhibition may be glad to hear of a book 
ftey may carry on the study suggested 
k, Such a book is this. Instrootion of a 
^ practical style is given about a great 
^i^Biid the directions for all of them are at 
►ttd intelligible. The object of the book 
fr — w as that of the originators of the 
^^ at the Exhibition— to show how, with- 
^ * or waste, but by carefol and economical 
Jy srials, the food of our middle^classes 
aad wholesomely prepared. There 
f Tactions for elaborate dishes, but nearly 
w book is taken up with descriptions of 
iitttable for an ordinary household. It is 
J[^™^to be a very useful adjimct to the 
lectures that the book is noticed in 



onaAL aoTs& 



, vTheNew Gas Company announce the 

l**w*i<m of their system into the city of 

*«i Qsderttking was storted at the beginning 

V^% tt f Wfnhas a eettain improvements for 



the manuf lu)tu]ie of gas for lighting and heating purposes, 
known as Rack's patents, and among the advantages antici- 
pated, aoeording to the prospectus, one of the most important 
will be the generation of steam for steam-vessels at a greatly 
rednoed cost. The dty was first lighted by the new process 
on Friday last. 

Railway Wheels of Paper. — It is stated in an American 
paper, that Hudson, U.S., is to be selected as the location for 
a new manufacturing enterprise to be known as the " Paper 
Car Wheel Company." Messrs. R. N. Allen and Co., of 
Brandon, Vermont, are the patentees of a new car wheel 
made of compressed paper, which is alleged to possess great 
superiority over iron or wood. These wheels have been in 
use on a Pullman palace car long enough to prove them, and 
it has been decided to establish a large manufactory at some 
favourable point Hudson was chosen, and the machine 
works of R. H. Mitchell and Co. have been secured, with 
adjacent property, for the location of the new works. 

Vtilltation of Coal Dust.— A new bnilding material 
is found in coal dust. The mixture is composed of one- 
sixth cement and five-sixths coal dust. In the Waverley 
hydropathic establishment at Melrose the experiment 
was tried. A series of thick sheet iron plates are 
stiffened at the edges with angle iron, the plates bdng 
attached to uprights of T-iron, and being xept in the 
proper position by pins, the plates are fixed so as to be 
readily raised as the building progresses. After the reqiiisito 
proportions of mine dust and cement have been mixed 
together, and the whole thoroughly saturated with water, 
the mixture is flung in between tne plates, and large pieces 
of slag or Btone bedded in it; thereafter another bed of 
concrete, which fills the intersticett between the large pieces 
and thoroughly fixes them ; another layer of stones or slag is 
then added, and so on, till the space between the plates all 
round the building is filled. After being allowed to stand 
for a night, the concrete will be hard enough to allow of the 
plates being lifted in the morning. The chief feature is its 
extreme simplicity. When gravel can be obtained, it is of 
course better, but the slag refuse of furnaces and useless 
stones can be readily utilised in this manner, and make better 
houses than brick. — American Builder, 

Alexandra Palace. — The opening of the Alexandra 
Palace and Park on Saturday, the 24th instant, will be an 
event of much importance, as adding a new place of elevating 
amusement and recreation to the metropolis, and especially 
as providing for residents in the great aud rapidly-growing 
northern suburbs an establishment ofimng similar attrac- 
tions to those so long enjoyed at the Crystal Palace by their 
southern brethren. The natural beauty of the Alexandra 
Park, heightened as it is by judicious and tasteful planting, 
would alone suffice to atract myriads of visitors, and the 
extent of the grounds (which embrace 220 acres) renders 
them a valuable addition to the existing lungs of London. 
The Palace, which crowns the summit of Mnswell Hill, 
erected by Messrs. Kelk and Lucas from the designs of 
Messrs. Meeson and Johnson, architects, is an exceedingly 
elegant and substantial structure. The great organ by Mr. 
Willis, built under the superintendence of Sir Michael Costa, 
is one of the largest and finest instruments in the kingdom. 
A first-rate orchestra has been formed by Mr. Weist Hill, the 
eoodnotor of the company's masio, and an efficient choir of 
300 voices wiU assist in the oratorios and other great per- 
formances which are to be given in the Palace. A theatre of 
the best description, the stage of which is as large as that of 
Drury Lane, occupies one of the transepts, and in another is 
a concert-hall, which will seat 3,000 visitors. On the open- 
ing day there will be a grand international flower show, at 
which ;jBl,200 will be given in prizes ; and at 3 p.m. a 
grand vocal and instrumental concert will take place in the 
centre transept, under the direction of Sir Michael Costa. 
The band and chorus will number upwards of 1,000. A 
series of opera concerts in May, June,and July sre announced, 
and amonfir the attractions of the season will be holiday 
festivals, ballad concerts, a horse show, a cat show, horse 
races, cricket matches, an archery fete, a Scotch fete, pigeon 
races, an international fruit show, rose and rhododendron 
shows, &c. Messrs. Bertram and Roberts are to supply re- 
freshments. A branch railway, to be opened on Uie 24tli 
inst., will place the Palace in direct conununication with all 
stations on the Great Northern, Metropolitan, and Loindan » 
Chatham, and Dover Railways. 



508 



J0U3NAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. Mat 16. 1878. 



Sydney School of Arte. — ^The Sydney MethMiiics* 
School of ArtA is protp^ritifr. The library has bfen wfU 
used daring ihe Ti*Mr. It has b«>eo proposed that a wftrkinir 
nmn't college nhuold be fomiHi in ounnection with the 
in«titatioD. It is uot anticipatf d that at prei^nt any laive 
pri>p«>rtion of theae oulonial nrtianns will devote their evening 
Jt'iMore tu 8tady,but the nauiber ia expected to inureate each 
generation. 

Photogrtphio PrintiBg. — A simple mode of photo- 
graphic printing hiia U^u deviiH^ by M. Marion, of Paris, 
which would be very UM'ful in preparing le<:tare diHgrams. 
It coDBiats in impregnatinir paper with ferro-pruttKiatH, which 
render* it senBitive tu ligbt. Tbe drawing, which is made 
on tracing paper, i» \»id upon the Bcnsitive paper na a 
negative, and expohcd to light, after which the itenriiive 
paper ia washed m wat^r. The copy ii* then fnund to be 
pr«iduced on it in white line on a blue grtiUDd, which may be 
changed to black, the drawing still reutaiuing white, by 
using a taimin solution. * 

Telegraph Poles.— In the discussion on this snhject 
brouieht forward at the Soi'iety of Telcfctaph Eiigineers on 
February 26ih lant, Mr. Latimer Clarke id the cbair, ez- 
perieDOe seemed U» be on the side of Urtin^ a screw for »crew* 
ing the pole into the ground, and of employing a baae-plnte 
in cooneciion with a wrought -irou taper mg p«ile. Mnjor 
Webber described a pule in which the p<iintol fixture was 
close to the gntund ; wherea*, iu a pole described by Mr. 
Siemens, the point «>f fixture was on the base-pltte. Mr. 
Siemens differed from Mtg^r Webber in layinir more stress 
upon the use of a baM)-plute ; his pole wan two feet eight 
inches in the K^titid, and Mnjor Webber's was i«ix feet. 
Mr. Siemens pointed out ihat the construction of telegrHph 
ptilea depended on definite priuoiples. Mr. LAtimer Clarke 
appruvea of the m<jdified views of the bMse-plate advocated 
by Miynr Webber, if eluding some remarks about thentrength 
which the pole required at the lower part. A pole should be 
stronger laterally thsn in the longitudinal direction of the 
line. The best form of p«>le seemed t4i be nite very much 
like Mr. Siemens' ,<coDsisiiiig of a loug cast-iro • ba^e with a 
wruught-irun taper tup, but with a tube stungtheued by a 
rib on each side. 



H0TICE8. 



8UB8CBIPTI0H8. 

The Lady-day subscriptions, are due, and 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed '* Coutts and Co.,** and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
officer. 

THE UB&ABT. 

The following works have been presented to the 
library: — 

Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society 
of Liverpool. No. 26, with index to Vols. 1 to 25. 
Presented to the Society. 

Report on the Cauutchoac of Commerce. By James 
Collins. Presented by the Author. 

Pmctical Notes on the Egyptian Mode of Cotton 
Cultivation. By Thomas Login, C.E. Presented by 
the Author. 

Eesulta of Five Years* Meteorological Observations 
for Hobart Town. Compiled by Francis Abbott, 
F.R.A.S. 

British Rainfall, 1872. On the DtstHbution of Rain 
over the British Isl»^s during the year 1872. Compiled 
by G. J. Symons, F.M.S. 

OEDDfABY MSSTIKOS. 

Wednesday evenings, at eight o'clock. The fol- 
lowing meetings have been arranged : — 

Mat 21. — •• Oc Recent Pro<*eB8es for the Production 
of Qas for Illuminating Porpoees." By Tuomas Wills, 
Esq. 



CABTOB LBOnnill. 

The Third Course of Cantor Leohmt 
the present session is "On Wines; their 
duction, Treatment, and Use,' by J. L 
Thxtdichttm, "Esq., M.D. Hie Com .. 
of six lectures, tne fifth of which wiU be ^ 
on Monday evening, the 19th of May.iodtlttl 
of the course on the Monday evening 

Lbcturb v. 

The wines of France compared to those tf SfHti 
Portu^. The Gironde, its vineyudi, inek \ 
VHrieties of wines. The Boorgogne aud Jti r ' ^ 
Belgian apprecirttion, and sweetness of 
The wine requires the proc^^ The 
peculiarities of vittcultnre. Chemial 
effervescent wine to ensore its soondDMi 
notion of some writers on champagne; of the i 
second wines and sugar- water wioei; tupma 
sycophancy. 

liBCTUBB YL 

The wines of Germany ; Riessling s tjpi 
quetted wines. ClaseificHtion of the visa 
world, as determined by quality, quantitj, TtM 
mnrket of highest and lowest quahtiaa 
gredients of wine. Use of chemical analytt. U«( 
to the healthy, whether old or yoong; vio^^ 
which copditton preferable to aU other iIooMiBr 
Wine should he a beverage, not a tm, 
wine to the delicate and sick. SelectioDiiA] 
wine. Proposed modification of the iapvtj 
aiijost them to the dimatio difficnltiw of ' 
Portugal. 

XEETDrOS FOS THS XKSUIIO 

Mom. ...society OF ARTS, 8. Orator LMtani 
chum, "On Winea: their FkodadioB,'^ 

BodaJ Scirace Amociatiao, 8. Chpt^Bl_r , 
Deotmction of Human lUe aaa ftsprtil 
Nozi..us Wild ABimala.'* 

Institution of Surveyora, 8. Di«aaiai • 
Mende'B Paper* ** Artnial Dnina|« Va 
Supply, and Sewage Draiosge W()ck% 
'Wmdsor, between the yc«n UKI aUM 
W. Hope> Paper on " 8i;wage Fkniriaf • 

Royal United Sendee Inititute, 64. Otpukl' 
** On Rotation, and the Kifling of HoHTr 

British Architects, 8. 

Aidaric 8 Annual Merting. 

London Inetatiition, 4. 

Teas.... Victoria Institute, 8. (At the Boon m\ 
or AaT«.) Anniveraaty MeeCiDf. 
Rev Dr. Boultbee. ^ 

Statistical. 7f. 1. Mr. F. H JeiiMO.*0i 
oflipgiiilation" S Mr. OfOVKe wiHl 
the Cauiie of the Sub-diviidon of Laadai 

Patholuginal, 8. 

Anthropolo^ral loatttnte, 8. Mr. §*i| 
Comparative Orammatr of BBeiualj|Ai«M 

Zool<in<*al. 8^. 1. Sir Victor 1^1^12 
Buffaloes.*' t. Lord Arthur 
Varietica of the Carp." 8 Mr. 
** On Lepilemnr <4ieirgaleaa, and oe oti 
of the Ummrmi a." ^ 

Oiiril Rngineers. 8. 1. DieeuiioB oo J^T 
Danube." and «tiroe pmnitUBg) 1 v^ . ^ 
••On Modtra T</wmnftiT»^ dwiiard «W| 
Eounomy. Dorability, and FidlitrorBc» 

Buyal Inttitntion, 8 Mr. J. H. Pvkcr, * 
Uiirtory and Architecture." 

WBn....800IBlY OF Aai8, 8 Mr. T. Wfflj 
Prooenes for the Prodnotion of Oai v 
PurposeB.** 
Pharmaceutical, 11. Annual Meetiir- 

THints..Jkntiquarie«, 8^. . . ma.i 

RoyaiIn«titudim,8. Profcwor TjaWl, WJ 
Soniety for Bneonraaement of Flat Arti. (^ 
Browning. ••The Art Trta«ure» of tUV 

Pai Boyal luMtitution, 9. Mr. Bpottnw*^ 

Pblariaed Light.'* 
Quekett dub. 8. 

Sit Botanic, 8|. „ . «-* 

RnyiU Institution, 8. Mr. J. Horiiy, ^ 
Method" 

8. Annual MceCiag. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, May 23 18T3. 



609 



JOUIINAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,070. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, MAY 23, 1873. 



f0rik$8oel0tiftikmldU»idr«imitoiht8tentanft 



i.necssBiHos of the societt. 




miAH COXM ITTES. 

= i eonferenoe was held on Friday eyening, 9th 
Low) William Hay, F.R.G.S., in the 

lb Fiper read was : — 

INDIAN HARBOURS. 
Ir Lunt-Oentral Sir Arthur Cotton, B.E. 

[Jrfveprooeeding to speak of partioular harbours, 
Iriki for karbonrs, in India, it may be well for 
^itite the principles upon whioh I form my 
1 respecting them. 

fint we aniye at a country beyond seas, 
i the question is, where nature has pro- 
Isdielter for ships, howeyer imperfect, oiffi- 
'rfmroaoh, or in other respects inconyenient 
7 be, proyided it is tolerably near to the 
I ve wiui to reach with persons or goods. 
' vhen we haye established ourselyes there 
k t way as to allow of our considering what 
'[in the way of a harbour to suit a £ade of 
it, the case is entirely altered. The 
it then not what partial and imperfect 
^ve can find for a ship ready proyi(^ for 
Jw where is the site for such a defter that will 
■fte spproaches to it on the one side from the 
^ooontry we haye to trade with, and on the 
the countries from which our ships will 
ly ipproach. Just as when we first occupy 
ft we look for such lines of communication 
howeyer imperfect a manner, practicable ; 
^ we haye extensiy ely established ourselyes 
k*i donot look for such lines ashaye some imper- 
1 facilities, but for such as — at, it may be, 
M—oanbe made most complete, andmost 
> the multiplied wants of the community. 
^ when wemade common roads in England we 
J^ low saddles in the hill ranges to carry 
'"••over them, howeyer circuitous or other- 
^neonTenient these lines might be in many 
Bat now our population and wealth haye 
^we do not look for a low, out-of-the-way 
rot take a direct line to the place we are 
' ^ tnd ran a tunnel through the hill, because 
t large traffic the interest on the expense of 
^^wki is a less expense upon it than the extra 
JBie of the drcnitous route. Thus, if six million 
JJw ire imported and exported in the Indian 
"«* one ahilling a ton is the interest at 5 per 
jg ^ ^,000,000, so that if an expenditure of 
^F *^^< wild proyide us with harbours, which 

|^f2J2"*^?*°'""^» pilotage, port dues, cost 
'■•■al tnnstt, Ac, would saye more than a 



shilling a ton on the present trade, without taking 
into consideration the certain yast increase of trade 
in future years, it might be worth while to provide 
entirely new and additional harbours in other places, 
besides improving existing ports. When we con- 
sider the expenses connected with t)ie present 
harbours or absence of harbours, it gives us a 
sound standard by which to form our judg- 
ment of what it may be wise to expend on such 
works. Suppose, for instance, insurance, pilotage, 
and other port expenses of Calc&tta are five rupees 
a ton on three million tons — this is the interest of 
30 millions. And this is merely the question of 
money returns ; the saving of life by harbour im- 
provements is to be considered besides. 

2nd. We have to keep in view that we now 
know how to make harbours anywhere. We are 
not tied down to spots where there is naturally 
some kind of shelter for ships. We know that a 
simple line of blocks of stone will provide shelter 
anywhere, and that if blasted or artificial blocks of 
30 tons are used, they will stand any seas in India, 
and further, that it is less expense to use large 
blocks than small ones ; and we have this prodi- 
gious advantage in making harbours for ourselves, 
that we should, of course, not add uxmecessary 
dangers to them, such as are f oimd in every natural 
harbour. 

Thus, for instance, if a simple line of stone is 
made at Madras, parallel with the beach, it would 
form a harbour incalculably superior to Calcutta or 
Bombay, being perfectly open to access without a 
single danger of any land whatever, and with peor- 
fect safety to the vessels when at anchor imder it. 
How many vessels are lost both outside and inside 
Calcutta and Bombay harbours P 

3rd. We have to keep in view the Suez Canal. 
This work, by bringing India well within steaming 
distance of Europe and America, has essentially 
altered the face of this question. Whatever is done 
in the way of harbours must have reference to the 
fadUties of reaching the Red Sea from them. 

4th. The harbour question is essentially con- 
nected with the cost of internal transit, and also 
with the comparative cost of ocean and internal 
transit. If the latter greatly exceeds the former, 
then it is of importance to have harbours where 
the ii^temal transit will be shortened as much as 
possible, even though at the cost of increased in- 
surance or post expenses ; but if the internal tran- 
sit can be reduced to that of ocean carriage, or 
near it, then the harbour may be at the extreme 
point of the land. And .this is another thing that 
has, of late, essentially altered the question of the 
best sites for harbours. We now know that by 
means of steam and water combined, that is by 
steam-boat canals, with boats of 200 or 300 tons, 
the inland transit can be reduced almost, or quite, 
to that of the ocean, that is ^Vd. per ton per 
mile, for long distances. 

5th. That by far the greater part of the coast of 
India is exposed to the storms of the south-west 
monsoon, for four months in the year; only a 
small extent, viz., the east coast, from Masulipa- 
tam to Cape Comorin, being subject to stormy 
monsoons from the north-east. 

One main point, therefore, is to consider what sites 
for harbours will be least afiected by the south-west 
monsoon, and most accessible during these months. 

I, therefore, in dealing with this subject, keep 
in view these points : — ^ 



510 



JOHKNAL OP THB SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 23, Uli. 



let. That we are not tied diywn to natural liar- 
Ixnm. 

2nd. That we can make haibovrs anywhere. 

9rd. That we must do everything in this way 
with reference to the Bed Sea route. 

4th. That we can now have intesnal transit as 
cheap as ocean transit, or'neasir so. 

dth. That, excepting a smiJi extent of coast 
snbject to the north-east monsoon, the stonny 
season and winds are from the sonth-west. 

6th. We have to keep in view the hnrrieanes, 
which are frequent tfaronghont the Indian seas 
north of 10 deg. latitnde, vmile south of Hkmt lati- 
i;nde they do not ocenr. 

Now, with these points in Tiew, kt ns Ttm orer 
the country which we want to supply and to chraw 
from, as respects its natoral facilities and diffionl- 
ties. 

The first point is that ^e slope of tiie conntry 
is almost wholly to the west, the exceptions bein^ 
the valley of the Indus, slopmg to the south, and 
that of the Burhampootra to the east, meeting the 
main slope and that of the Irrawady to the south. 

At present five-sixths of l^e population occupies 
those tracts that slope to the west, and this is, 
therefore, the natural direction of the traffic. The 
whole of the western side of the country has a 
barrier of steep hills, of about 2,000 feet high — a 
very serious obstacle to cheap transit, thou^ one 
which can certainly be in a great measure over- 
come. There are, however, four breaches in that 
barrier, viz., the valleys of the Nerbudda and Tap- 
tee, in the north of the peninsula ; that of the 
Caulee, terminating in the new harbour of Carwar, 
in the centre, which, however, is a less perfect one, 
and that of the Ponanee in the south. 

These all offer natural facilities for leading traf- 
fic to the west coast. The basin of the Burham- 
. pootra is entirely shut in, excepting to the east- 
ward, but what that line of traffic may become is 
beyond all calculation, because the line of land 
carriage between it and the Yangtse is only 250 
miles, and perhaps part of this may be converted to 
water commtmication. With this short line of land, 
which seems now well ascertained to have no very 
high range of hills across it laying open the whole 
river system of China to that of India, and thus 
uniting the two greatest masses of population in 
the world, there can be no doubt that eventually 
a traffic of as great an extent as any in the world 
will be brought into existence. The foreign traffic 
may fojlow either of the two lines, that is, by the 
Burhampootra to Calcutta and the southern ports 
of India, of which I have yet to speak, or by the 
splendid navigation of the Irawaddy to Bangoon. 
In considering the subject of Indian harbours 
we must therefore keep in view this tapping of 
China on its 8outh-West. The basin of the Irra- 
waddy naturally drains into "ttie harbour of Ran- 
goon, and it might, from the extraordinary fer- 
tility of the country, produce a vast fcn^ign trade, 
but from the very small population, only thwe or 
four millions, it must be for a long time a com- 
paratively small traffic, till it is Hie outlet for part 
of the China trmle. 

TliP basin of tlie Indus has two outlets, either to 
the south along its slope, or to the east along the 
▼alley of tho Ganges, from which tt is divided 
only by an almost perfset plain, in which a 
i^ftam-boat canal is alrsady fkr advMioed. But 
by fiu' iba most impovlMiil pofait te «ki8 



basin is, that it is the nataral cntOei oi 
Central Asia, the trade with whidi wSl 
become one of great extent, though it 
be kept witnin bounds by the enonooQi ooit 
land carriage beyond the valley of the Indu, 
to the great distcuices and the vast bdgiiii 
must TO passed over, l^eee will eSedatStf 
completely prevent the trade ever coming dm 
those things which form the great mui<ltaii, 
such as grain, building materials, ix, B mA 
always be confined to manufactoies tail (is 
articles of considerable value. As te^rili 
value of goods, therefore, the line will eatdH 
become one of considerable importiDee, W i 
respects quantity, it must always be one of odC 
paratively moderate traffic. It is thus endarf) 
essential that in considering the subject of ItadiM 
we keep before us distinctly the different Ineb 
country and their populations, their 
and demands, for which we have to provider 

With respect to entirely new harbonn, I 
point out that the cost is far from great, nori 
know how to make them. Averyinodenlei 
of large blocks of stone is sumdent h 
fathoms a section of 400 or 500 square yvi!.' 
500 to 600 tons per lineal yard, is sdBoflBt: 
in India, at any i^aee where stone is toMiM 
near, three or four rupees a ton, or £lMt»IMiJ 
lineal yard of breakwater, will probaUysntti 
expenses ; so that a breakwat^ of 2,060 
costing from £300,000 to £400,000, or 
£15,000 to £20,000 per annum, would a 
perfect harbour. A chctrge of only fron ^ 
24d. on one million tons entering, and tbe'" 
leaving a port, would be a very small tai 
shipping, compMed with, the insarssce, 
port dues, and boat expenses in xnaay 
harbours. For instance, supposing tbe ii 
from Enf^iland to Calcutta is 2 per cent on f 
value £100 a ton, and that of this one-tte]3iij 
to the dangers of tiie Sandh^ids and the 
or 13s. per ton, how small is the expense of < 
harbour in comparison, if it saved that ' ^ 
and even on export goods of £20 a toi 
saving in the insurance of only one-quarterpe 
would be Is. a ton, x>erbaps five times tbe i 
payable for a new harbour, and this is \~^ 
saving in pilotage and otiier port dues. 

I give these rough calculations to sb^i 
great question it is whether we are to lis< 
with natural harbours, or whether irt 
add new ones. Periiaps the insurancsi 
&C., paid for the presentT harboms in Iii 
or one«and^a*half million a year oi^ ^ -^ 
trade only. Seeping these things in ▼i»v.'*^ 
run over the principal haxbours ot sitei ^ 
hours in India. 

Beginning with Bangoon, we have a r^^ 
belir, but strath a dangerous entrance, ana eq 
to tiie full i oroe of the south-west mcflafooB 
ooDsidevable dangers in the river. But it ^ 
be the necessary outiet for all the basia «| 
Irrawaddy, and eventually for a porfeJP^ 
trade of China ; the former, tiiough •'"■^Jr, 
cannot for many years become very gre*^ J^ 
latter might expand to great dimeasioiis, tr^ 
the principal pairt of the trade ft<om Obn^' 
naturally rather be drawn to ^ecspitelt ^ ^ 
the land oarriage between the Imwaddy«v_ 
Burhampootra beiiiig only 100fltt]ss» wiiby< 
of irtmnt If^nOfnilowiMiiigit SSi*^"^' 



JOURMAL OF THE 800IBTY OP ARTS, Mat 23. 1873. 



611 



mmt$}» wlittfa«r a better harbour oonld be 
ftmdnmritie mouth of the mam Irrawaddy, or 
iHthrBangoon must be aooepted as the only 
mbk poit, with its unimproyeable entraaoe ; 
ft in tut OBSSf the great work that should be 
Mited ii a steamboat canal from the head of the 
iiof the Irrawaddy direct to Rangoon, to avoid 
•looff nstigation of the Panlang Greek. 
Sk biiboan in Ghittagong can never be the 
ittat of a Tery great traffic, as there is only a 
nov itnp of country, effsctually cut off from the 
Mar by a lofty ranso of mountains. • 
Ihseit oome to Ciucutta, which has grown up 
iWtfe outlet of an enormous traflic, in spite of 
0k objections, involving an expense of per- 
i Hullion a year in insurance, &c., with 
; km of life. An immense trade of this kind, 
utabEihed, must, I conceive, be accepted 
Mediable in a great measure, whatever it 
ad we must make the best we can of it 
ik local improvements as it is capable of. 
kw wMSt never lose sight of the fact that a 
taltbe head of a deep bay facing the south- 
Itaootoon, and within the range of frequent 
pituiM, is a most terrible evil, and that if 20 
woaki transfer its trade to a safer point, 
L be a chei^ bargain. 
[AlAaeMt coast of the peninsula we have a safe 
' vitFalse Point, now beginning to be used 
iMietof the Mahanuddee and Orissa. But 
lit a port of very small importance, being 
* ^i tamporary one, till the steamboat canals 
to Calcutta, when almost the whole 
I viE paas inland to that port. 
next port is Coconada, the outlet of the 
and its delta, as well as of a considerable 
valley of the Kistna, in consequence of 
of ^ore connecting the two rivers. 
k m excellent harbour, very accessible 
■feiUy safe, no vessel having ever been 
it; but it is within the range of hurri- 
tad it has the drawback of the anchor- 
about three miles from the town, 
of shipping and landing is not, 
▼ery great. This objection could, I am 
'fidan, be entirely removed by dredging, and 
tewfitfa at no excessive expense. Even as it 
^ one of the cheapest ports in the world, cal- 
ig all its expenses of insurance, &c. It 
^ aeoeasity, be the outlet of a principal 
b of the great basin of the Oiddavery. 
^>ds has greatly increased since the im- 
^«Mt of the delta, from about £80,000 to 
Hjnllien; and the river being now open 
[••Jthadeopoor, 220 miles, a regular trsuffic 
■«a«itablished so far. 

Pj^ttfa on the river have now been stopped, 
J *Baa resoiued a very small expenditure will 
P a graat additional country, and eventually 
"'••da most be the outlet of a tract now inha- 
>.uy about 10 millions, and with great resources. 
^ therefore one of the ports which urgently 
attntioii and outlay. 

^'^ port of Masuupatam has the great 

of shallow water for four miles, in an 

^xpoied bay ; and it cannot be the outlet of 

^ttteMBTe tract of country, though at the 

of the Sistnah, because that river is inca- 

'■^■Vrovement for navigation. The only 

Jwit could open this part of the country is a 

^^ oaoal of 220 miles from the capital, 



Hyderabad, but it would be an expensive line, 
with a rise of 1,800 feet. This port, therefore, 
I consider not worth improving, if it were capable 
of it. 

Madras, being now an established city of consi- 
derable trade, and the outlet of some 15 millions of 
people, must be made the best of. It has the 
great objection of being within the range of htirri- 
canes, and is at present a perfectly open roadstead, 
but the latter objection can be entirely removed at 
no excessive expense. A line of breakwater, 
parallel with the shore, in seven fathoms, would 
make it not only a perfectly safe harbour, and 
perfectly accessible, but would make it by far the 
best harbour in India, inasmuch as there would 
not be the smallest danger to shipping, either out- 
side of it or inside. This work can be executed 
cheaply and easily, as there is rock on the coast 
within twenty miles of it, with partial shelter for 
vessels, which could easily be made into an effective 
temporary harbour. 

A breakwater could be constructed here of large 
blocks, for £160 to £200 a lineal yard; or, for 
£300,000 to £400,000. When the different systems 
of steam-boat navigation on the Toombuddra, 
Kistna, and Gkxiavery are connected, and such a 
work is carried also into the interior, to the 
south-west, a very large tract of country will be 
effectively connected with this port; and the 
trade would certainly greatly increase with a safe 
port. 

The present tonnage is about 400,000 tons, and 
the value of the trade about five and- a-half millions. 
At a cost of £500,000 the charge per cent, on the 
present trade would be only about lOd. I may 
state here that, having had much to do with worl^ 
on this coast, at Madras and elsewhere, which has 
given me practical knowledge of the movements 
of the sand on ^e beach, I am f atisfied*that there 
is no objection to such a breakwater, though I 
need not state here particularly how it wotdd 
afliect the line of beach, further than by sayings that 
in preventing the surf it would stop the current of 
sand which naturally Aomts continually from south 
to north along the dhore, and cause an accimiula- 
tion south of the breakwater, at the same time pro- 
ducing a cutting into the beach north of it, but 
where the land consists of unoccupied sand drifts. 
I may here only say that the accumulation of the 
sand on the shore of the breakwater would not be 
such as to interfere with the complete practicability 
and efficiency of the harbour. 

The next site for a harbour is near the Paumban 
pass or Channel. There is there an extensive and 
perfectly sheltered sheet of water on the south side 
of Point Ramen, where the land is very narrow, 
and could be cut through at a very moderate ex- 
pense, and there is nothing to prevent a complete 
ship canal being made. 

As to the advisableness of opening this harbour 
by cutting through Point Ramen, and so making 
this l^e highway to Madras and Calcutta from the 
Bed Sea, instead of going round Ceylon, I have 
not the least doubt. The charge x>er ton for it 
would be quite insignificant. This matter has 
already been brought before the authorities, but 
the use of this harlx>ur as a port depends wholly 
upon the internal communications. At present 
there is no communication that would be of any use 
in connection with thisport, nothing but common 
roads, even if those. Tne completion of the 



512 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 23, 1878. 



canal alone wotild make this an important port. 
Unless a large tract of country could oe drained to 
this point by lines of transit at l-20d. per ton, 
this port could not be made use of extensively. 

The next port is Tuticorin, which can neyer be 
an important one, as it is the natural outlet of a 
very small tract of country, unless the coast canal 
is continued to it, and then the question will be 
between it and the sites I next proceed to speak of. 

After long consideration of this subject — the best 
site for a port from which the produce of India can 
be shipped for Eiux)pe — I conclude that Cape 
Comorm, or its immediate neighbourhood, is the 
place. There is a harbour, formed by the shelter 
of small islands, some fifteen miles west of Cape 
Comorin, where vessels have lately loaded, called 
Colachul, in the Travancore ^tate, and perhaps this 
could be made into an extensive first-class harbour. 
But certainly hereabouts a breakwater could be 
constructed at a moderate cost, as there is rock at 
hand. There are a number of advantages in this site. 
It must be premised that both the west and east 
coast canals should be extended to it, the latter 
connecting all the great systems of navigation 
which are now under construction on the Toom- 
buddra, Kistna, Godavery, and Mahantiddee, with 
those in the valley of the G^ges, the Rajhmahal, 
Soane, Grand, Ganges, Delhi, and Sutlej works, 
up to the Punjaub. Lord Dalhouf^ie thoroughly 
comprehended this subject of cheap transit, and 
ordered that the East Coast Canal should be com- 
pleted. The advantages then of this site are 
these : — 

let. There is a most remarkable advantage in the 
site itself, in this respect, that it is, no doubt, the one 
point in all India that has least stormy weather. It 
is not within the limirs of hurricanes, and there is 
hardly any rain during the south-west monsoon, a 
most remarkable fact. The monsoon divides at some 
distance to the south-west, one part stnkin>r the west 
coast farther north, and the other the bi^h land of 
Ceylon, leaving Cape Comorin in a comparative calm. 
What little rain falls here i^ almost all in the north- 
east monsoon. In this respect, therefore, this site is 
greatly superior to oil others, but especially to Cal- 
cutta and Bombay. The rink of ships approaching 
and leaving an artificial harbour here would be the 
least of any port in the world. The saving of 
insurance, &c., here, compared with the present 
harbours, would be very jireat. If it were only 
one-fourth per cent, on caT^n of the value of £50 a 
ton, or 2-«. 6d., it would be on a million tons £126,000 
a-year, the interest of two and a half millions. 

2nd. It is the point nearest the limit of the south- 
west monsoon, so that a ship steering about 350 miles 
south would be clear of the monsoon, and could run 
her westing in smooth water, to where she would make 
a fair wind of it to Aden. It is thus the nearest, that 
is, the most accessible point of India from the Red 
Siea in the stormy 8ea*»on. 

3rd. There is not one serious difficulty in the way 
of a steam -boat canal from Loodianna to thi!<, a dis- 
tance of 2.700 miles ; and by the Godavery river and 
the Toomhuddra it would be open to Nappoor and 
Bellary, and by the Burhampootra to the confines of 
China ; and if, as I have snejrested, the land line of 
250 miles \» ofiened to the Yanjjtse. the whole interior 
water communications of that country would be opened 
to it. Thus almost the whole interior of India and 
Chma might be opened to this point, at a cost of 



transit not very different from (hat of ooiaii; pnbi)^ 
less, if insurance is allowed for. 

If wetake thecostof £rmghttoGalcatUi4£2,«fc 
allow half of this to be due to port delays aaddbipi 
it leaves £1 per ton for the cost of 8,000 bIm^I 
ocean navigation, or -^nd, per ton ps aiii 
And it is now certain that on longliiiMifiliiBp j 
boat canal, fitted for vessels of 200 or 300 ftw^tfta | 
cost of inland transit in India would not makcnBld I 
that ; even in America, with a much lea vim <f 
money, the cost of working the Erie Osiia],by«i% 
350 miles long, is estimated at only /sd. per tat f« 
mile. Thns the whole of India and Centnl GbiMCoili 
be drawn to this point, at a cost certainly kn titfittli 
difference of insurance, &c., between it aodinyfltej 
port With respect to the hurricanes, 1 AooUitol 
that one has been felt as far south as Tatoen%ili 
lat 9^, and perhaps it even extended toObfeO^'i 
morin in 8^, but of this I am not infonDcd,ioi«^i 
tainly the occurrence of a hurricane MOtkadQ^lli 
almost unprecedented, while in the bay of Benfil4i|| 
occurs every year; and that is a most senooipeiiiU 
the question of harbours. I thus consider tla p^| 
of a harbour near Cape Comorin by &rthe«fl<i»* 
portant in the whole question of Indian harbflon 

The next sites for harbours are Nambt <ji 
Alipee on the coast of Travancore, where eewn at 
strange phenomenon of an absolutely gnJetim Juw^ 
without any visible shelter, due, I am n^|**^ 
solely to the disturbance of the mnd oota^ 9{ 
which the water is so thickened that the 
subside before they reach the shore. Tbese, he 
can never be important ports, because they •» i 
the outlets of a very small tract of countiy shot ■ 
the Western Ghauts. 

The next point is Ponany, opposite thefiT^ 
in the Western Ghauts; and here, undoahtedly, 
be the main outlet of India, as the inland na^ 
could be brought down to that point. Bot it 
have to pass over a height of 1,200 kei, 
lockage of 2,400 feet, which, though not a ▼eiT 
objection, as the cost both of providing andfww^ 
it would be very moderate, yet it seems to nitot^ 
the scale in favour of Cape Comorin. My «•**■■ 
preferring the latter, stated together, are tbcw'-^ 

1st. The absence of hurricanes at Cape Coaw* 

2nd. The fine weather there during tin 
western monsoon. . 

3rd. Its being furthest to the southward, •■ • 
nearer the southern limits of the south- weit aw*"* 

4th. The avoidinjr of 2,400 feet of locks*!*. 

With respect to the construction of a J**'^r'^ 
it can, of coursie, be formed, as anywhere ^ ^ 
simple line of large blocks of stone parallel fi»* 
shore. ^ 

Proceeding north we come to the **"'"'"'/[' lI 
war, near Sedashegur, well situated near the "f^*"^ 
the Ghauts, formed by the river Caulee, Tbu pw 
has been occupied, and some trade has fprao^ op* 
it, and it is now the source of a great oontrofijt 
whether there shall be a railway made from it ^ 
the interior or not. . ^^ 

If cheap transit were established with the inttf« 
it would certainly become the seat of a ^^ 
siderable traffic ; but with a niUwsy the <^ ?;rj| 
sit must be an effectnal hindrance to a "^ tJ[ 
traffic. It is capable of beiuR made an *^!^rz^ 
hour, but to go to any great expenoe, '^^^^ vj 
>'idinjr cheap internal transit, would be a co«P"^ 
mistake. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ABT8, Mat 23, 1783. 



618 



The fifreat mistake that has already been made 
aboat Uiis was its transfer to the Bombay Presi- 
deney, bj which the inflaence of Bombay was 
broagdfi to bear a^inst its beins^ utilised ; for, of 
ooQne, its saocess chiefly depended upon its diverting 
80 maeh of the product of the interior from Bombay, 
and this is the canse of the opposition that is now 
made to its nse. Had it remained under the Madras 
Presidency it would have had no rival to contend 
with. I will only say that I have examined part of 
the line from this port, and have had an account 
of the remainder from a gentlemen competent 
to report on it, and there is nothing to prevent 
& 8te4inbQat canal (but with inclined planes at one 
plioe, stmilar to that on the Moakland Canal) being 
ooiutraeted, and which might be extended westward 
to join the canals of the Nladras Irri^ration Company 
in B4*IIary, by which it would be connected with the 
ttst coast and so with the whole system of water- 
CMTiage thronghout India. It has the advantage of 
Bornhtj in being fiarther south, and so more to wind- 
wvd m the south-west monsoon. . 

There are two other points, Viugorla and Vizia- 
droojf, where lights should be placed and harbours 
fonned between this and Bombay, as valuable 
Wboan of refuge, but which could never be the seat 
of a great trade, on account of the great barrier 
between them and the interior. 

I oniBt speak of Bombay as the established seat of an 
ioimetttt trade, notwithstanding the great objections 
to it— fix, Ist. Its situation so far to leeward, with 
the 8oatb*wi>st monsoon blowing with all its fury into 
th» month of the harbour. 2nd. Its being within the 
no^ of hurricanes, and its enormous size, owing to 
which combined, great destruction of shipping takes 
pl^e even within the harbour. 3rd. Its being cut 
off from the interior by the Ghauts. 4th. Great in- 
conrenieDoe in landing and shipping, owing also to its 
p^ extent. The first obstacle is, of course, 
Vi^eoiediabie, and always causes a great loss both in 
^'("tnaooe and in the increased expense of sea transit. 
The aee'iod can be in a great measure remedied by the 
totoe work as is required on the open coast — viz., a 
breakwiiter, and con»idering the enormous value of the 
^f^ anri the great facilities for such a work, it is 
wonderful that no such work has been constructed. 

Of the £90,000,000 total foreign trade of India 
noir^ than one-third, or 700,000 tons, belongs to 
^nibay, so that a single shilling a ton on that, brides 
^1 the Indian trade, would giro an annual income of 
&5,000i, representing a capital at 5 per cent, of 
£«0(>,00<J, and with the same charge on the Indian 
tuiie, pMbably a million, which is certainly much 
QioreUbin could be expended in making the harbour 
both aifenod convenient. 

With respect to the third objection, this also is 
OT*»mediah)e. An immense sum has been spent on 
rwlwjiyi for this purpose, but • no railways can re- 
'ne'ly it. The receipts on the Peninsular Railway 
*w^, in 1871, £1,3(50,000, or per mile on 1,600 
*ttile«, £860, which, at an average charge of Ijd. 
pw ton, Kives an average traffic of 140,000 tons, 
i^ a fifth part of what is required, and what it 
.'Wild be, if there were water carriage at ,-'bd., 
ii>^te*d of land-oarruige at I id. Though there- 
f»» Bfimbay is well worth being made as perfect a 
^Lt'b'mr an pomithle, it never can become the outlet 
^ the imtnense trade of India, when the country is 
f*i^ opened up by cheap traufiit, and its resources 
^ tttivity immeasurably increased by a complete 



system of internal transit We have to look forward 
and to provide for, and to create a traffic, not of a 
million tons, bu( of ten million tons. 

Compare the traffic on the Godavery Canal to 
Gocanada, the outlet of only about three millions of 
people, and far from any great city, 160,000 tons a 
year, with that of the lines of railway leading to one 
of the greatest ports and a seat of government^ averaging 
140,000 tons, and thus judge how completely the whole 
question of harbours is bound up with that of internal 
transit. If Bombay were accessible to all India by 
transit at ,^d. a ton a mile, its trade would 
certainly soon be five millions of tons instead of one. 

We next come to the harbours in Guzerat. This is, 
perhaps, the most remarkable point in the whole past 
history of harbours. I have not visited the harbours 
of Poshetra and Seraya myself, but we have the very 
highest authority on this point, that of Captain Taylor, 
late of the Indian Navy, that they are in every respect 
first-rate natural harbours — safe of approach, perfectly 
secure, and with ample depth of water ; in fact, the 
only unexceptionable harbours of India, and better 
situated as respects the south-western monsoon than 
Bombay, thus in every way superior to it. But the 
most curious fietct connected with these harbours in the 
Gulf of Cntch is that they utterly stultify the vast ex- 
pense that has been incurred in Kurrachee. These 
harbours are just as well situated for receiving the 
tn^c of the Indus and Central Asia as Kurrachee, 
and here are ready-made harbours, against one with an 
insufficient depth of water at the entrance, after spend- 
ing on it up to the present time £480,000. There is 
nothing whatever to prevent the completion of a steam- 
boat canal through tne whole valley of the Indus, ter- 
minating in the very harbour of Poshetra. I must 
especially call attention to this point No money 
can midce Kurrachee what these harbours on the 
east side of the Indus are. I don't know exactly 
the state of the Indus canals, but I believe con- 
siderable progress has been made with them ; 
and nothing but a perfect water communication 
can give full effect to the endeavours to open up 
the trade of the Punjaub and Central Asia. Land 
carriage of 800 miles, from Kurrachee to Attock, with 
a charge of 2d. a ton, or in all £7 a ton, three or four 
times the freight from the port to England, will be an 
effectual bar to a large portion of the traffic that there 
would otherwise be between Central Asia and Eng- 
land. It is upon this that the whole trade will de- 
pend ; if we add 800 miles of land carriage to the 
heavy cost of transit from the interior to Attock, it 
will probably turn the scale in favour of a western 
course by land to the Caspian and Russia. The rail- 
way from Kurrachee to the Indus was a false start, 
which has set us all wrong with respect to the Central 
Asian trade. A steamboat canal could have been cut 
for one-fifth of the cost of the railway, and the river 
boats could have gone straight into Kurachee, 
instead of having to fiice, as they now have to 
do, the open sea to get there. What is now 
wanted, is a complete steamboat canal, of 1,000 
miles, from the heart of the Punjab to this harbour of 
Poshetra, in the Gulf of Cutch, by which the Central 
Asian traffic can be brought to the 8hi|# for 43., a nomi- 
nal cost. Such a canal could be cut at present 
for at most £3,000 a mile, causing a charge of £240 a 
year, or l-16d. per ton per mile on a million tons, if 
the interest were not paid, as it would be, by the 
irrigation. No wise selection of harbours, and no 
expense in improving them, will avail to enable India 



514 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOiETY OF ABTB^ May 28, 1OT8. 



to compete with Bussia and; America wbile it ia 
burtbeoed with the co»t of land carriage. There is 
at this moment nothing in the world between Eng- 
land and America in the matter of supplying England 
with wheat, for instance, but the point of coat of in- 
land transit. The sole reason why wheat reaches 
England Irom the Western States, and not from the 
Upper Provinces ot India, is that the former has the 
Erie and St. Lawrence Canals, and the latter has 
only land carriage, or very defective water carriage. 
I repeat, therefore, that the whole question of 
harbours hangs upon this, of the cost of internal 
transit. 

We now come to Kurracbee, upon which I have 
already spoken in connect ii^n with the Katty war har- 
bours. Like the Sind Railway, I have no doubt 
that a complete mistake has been made. The shallow 
entrance is a serious objectii>n to it, and so far as lean 
judge from the reports, it seems certain that no money 
can quite remove thin objection. It is at present only 
15^ft. at low water in the monsoon. But whatever has 
been spent on this work cannot possibly afford a reason 
for not making use of the perfect natural harbours on 
the other side of the Indus, nor can (»ur having thrown 
away two millions on the Sind Railway be a reason 
for our saddling ourselves with a permanent enormous 
charge for land carriage of 800 miles for the whole of 
the Central Asian and Punjaub trade — or rather, for 
that part of it which will exist in spite of such a heavy 
charge, for by fur the greater part of what there ought 
to be would be prevented by huch a charge. 

We have thus taken a view of the various harbours 
and sites for harbours round the coast of India, from 
the Gulf of Martabau to Kurracbee in connection with 
the principal tracts of country to be reached, with the 
natural and artificial means of connecting the tiacts 
with the harbours, and with the lines of oommunica* 
tion by sea from the harbours to Europe. I would 
now add some remarks on* particular points. First, it 
must be most particularly kept in view that we have 
to provide for an immen^e development of trade. 
Even with the small beginning already made in the 
way of the niaterinl improvement of India, in the , 
communications, irrigation,agricultural improvements, 
education, &c., a great development, both of Indian 
produce and native demnnd for foreign productions, 
has begun, and will rapidly increase, but what has yet 
been done is comparatively quite trifling. If six 
hundred millioDi) have been expended on the material 
improvement of Great Britain, containing 100,000 
square miles and thirty million inhabitants, from one 
to two thousand millions will be required fully to 
improve India, coi'taining 1,300,000 square miles and 
two hundred and forty millions of people, and the 
latter increasing with great rapidity. If we take 
one district as an inj^tance— that of G^davery, which 
had only half-a-million expended on it, in irrigation 
and navigation, with a miilion of people inhnbiting 
it, we find an increase of trade from about £80,000 
to £1,200,000, or fiiteen fold — we see at once what a 
general improvement of the whole country would 
effect in the way of trade. At this rate even, the trade 
of India ought to be, in proportion for its whole 
population, £250,000,000, instead of, as I believe it 
IS, about a hundred and filty millions including 
both foreign and local traffic. 

We cannot easily conceive what the effect of sti- 
mulating this enormous mass of population will be in 
iiitemal and extenial commerce. Even in the present 

nert state of the population the increase of both 



would be enoiiDOOA, if the whole ooiiDtiy 
plied, like America, with cheap transit, even fvocD that 
one improvement only. For want of this, piBe-u*nihi 
of the trsfiio that would exist is effsutoaUy snp^ 
pressed. With this certain eDormoua deveWiODnent 
of traffic before us we are in little danger of speudkig 
too much on improving present and constructiDg neir 
harbours. 

This is what I consider the principal de£pct in 
almost all our discussions about Indian mateiial iair 
provements. We do not realise what is before na, 
what will be the effect of aroosing 240 uiiUiQifta of 
people from a state of torpor and inactivity. We ace 
continually making our calculations, based upo& tba 
present state of things. Thus, in Godavery, w« bad not 
long finished the canals before the traffic olten chicked 
them. I have seen a lock worked without a mioswnfB^ 
intermission, from morning to night, and a crowd of 
boats still waiting at dark, and a continnal line- 
of rafts for miles together on the canal, and this while 
the navigation only extended 180 miles frum ib» 
port. If the whole Grodavery had been opeiM*d to 
the popidousaud fertile country of HyderaUul, Ka^ 
poor, Beiar, and the valley of the Kerbudda, tim 
wctrks in the delta would have been utterly inade-- 
quate, and duplicate locks must have been aiddbcl* 
They have now commenced building new et«larged 
locks, of 150 X 20 it., in all the main lines of 
even before the Upper €K>davery navigation 
are carried into the populoVis countiy. 

2. With respect to the construction of harbomw 
We now know how to make them. It ia now die- 
covered that to break blocks of stone into 
pieces, at a great expense, in order to. render 
unfit to resist the blow of the sea without an euoc- 
mous section is a great mistake, and that we b«fe 
only to make a line of large blocks, with a veiy 
rate section, to resist the effects of the wavea. 1 
lately seen a report, planning a breakwater exactly 
the section of the Plymouth one. Are we to thfov 
away 60 years' experience, and go back to wiiet ve- 
did when we had all to learn 1 

3. I will now go m«>re into particulaia with re» 
spect to the Madras breakwater. The great quentiea 
is, what is the movement of the sand along the ooase P 
As I have had long scquaintanoe with this metiiei; 
both at Madras and at Yizagapatam, I may bne ghnt 
some particulars about it. The sand is moved aloAK 
the coast, not by the current, but by the surf in the. 
south-west monsoon, which, striking the beach rather 
obliquely, takes it up at one point, and deposits it m 
little farther north ; in this way a continual cnmAt 
of sand is kept flowing along to the northward. Tbete- 
is a very small action of the same kind in the noctii- 
east monsoon, in the opposite direction, but tbe 
tinuance of the stormy weather in that monsoon is 
short, and the sesis raised are so moderate, that 
movement to the south is insignificant. But ibe 
quantity of sand moved is not very great. Whee firet 
I observed the effect of a stone groyne run out froaaa 
the beach in collecting sand, I was astonished at tlie 
rapidity of its extension towards tbe end ol the gtoyam^ 
but I found its progress soon became extremely ^o^ 
and the reason is obvious. Tbe quantity required U^ 
extend the accumulation is as the cube of the brcedtk 
of it. Thus if it extends thirty yards along the 
of the groyne tbe fir«t year, it will • take about m 
years to extend another thirty yards, and about ti 
years for a third thirty jards, so that a very 

I extenaion of a groyne will keep it ahead ot ibe 



JOURNAL W THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, May 23, 1678. 



616 




fkmtbo vith s bretkwater parallel with the coast, 
gf lb lAet of whioh we ean now hare no doabt, 

KflDcb i work has not been tried. Its lesnlt 
_ to dMiioy the surf alon^ the beach from a 
ftttOftb of its soathem end, and consequently that 
d ikmg &>m the sonth end, where the surf con- 
IbiH) will lecnmulate and form an extensive bank 
Mih of the soathem end of the breakwater ; but if 
It Imikwater is coostmcted in seven fathoms it 
VObU uke probably some hundreds of years to ap- 
tke end of that woric. At the same time, to 
of the work as the surf would continue to 
(ko beiob, while no supply of sand would come 
Iks lottthward, there would be a constant eating 
beach, and a deep cutting would be produced 
unless the beach there were protected by 

laoQith of BCadras there is an extent of bare sand 
iflid piobably it would not be worth while to 
to protect ity as the land is of no value. If, 
, the breakwater did not extend to nearly 
the northern end of the town, so as to pro- 
ktte vbole of the occupied land from the surf, this 
tvoold have to be considered, and arrangements 
\ftt the protection of the beach. Having now 
years* experience in this movement of the 
,tba« seems no room for doubt respecting its 



m the only part of the question that we need 
linotigate ; all the rest is as simple as possible, 
'fttlj tn make a straight line* of a very moderate 
>with large Uocks of either concrete or blasted 
r vhiehever is cheapest (and I have no doubt the 
be found so), of twentv to thirty tons weight, 
[iriertomake the irost perfect harbour in India, 
inekcan be obtained in any quantity to the south 
walh-west of Madras, a dir<tance of twelve or 
miles; and though there would be considerable 
iming from the frequent stoppage of the 
BD, especially during the south-west monsoon, 
!l am sure that with an able engineer, competent 
lite the vessels and apparatus fur the conveyance 
\mg b blocks, and with the use of large blasts of 
'to 20^000lbs. of powder, the cost per ton will 
moderate. But of course all wUl depend 
fkiviDg an engineer who has the peculiar talents 
^uuiiDg such an operation, or will make use of 
«io have it — such a man, for instance, as Mr. 
formerly employed in the Godavery Delta 
> and now in the Soane Irrigation, and who has 
fuch admirable apparatus for various opera- 



oision is equally Mpplioable to the requirements of the 
ocean traffic of India, it is impossible that the sub- 
ject of harbours, and all connected with them, can be 
either properly understood or properly cared for, 
without a man being set apart for it who shall have 
nothing else to attend to, and with a competent body 
of subordinates attached to him This is the grand 
point which I would beg especially to submit for the 
consideration of this Society, as one which assuredly 
fidls within the limits of its most beneficial self- 
imposed duties. 

I don't know of anything more important in which 
they could take the initiative. And, in connection 
with this, I eannot help referring to the abolitioa 
of the Indian navy ; it seems to me to have 
been, perhaps, the greatest of all the mistakes 
that have been made in our niau«gsment of India. 
By what process of reasoning the conclusion was 
arrived at, that the country must be put to the 
enormous expense of peo^oning this whole service^ 
as if it was a pest that must be got rid of at any coat, 
is entirely bey<md my imagination. The loss of such 
a body of men, thoroughly aodiraatised, content to 
pass their lives in the terrible climates of the Persian 
Gulf and Bed Sea, thoroughly acquainted with every 
rook and sandbank, every wind and current, and every 
tribe of men in those seas, cannot be estimated ; and 
this would now be found the ^freateet difficulty in 
forming a Marine Department. But if a search was 
made, no doubt many of those men would be forth- 
coming, and would be found quite fit for many of the 
requirements of sndi a department, — though it is a 
fact that many of the most valuable men of that ser- 
vice are now holding, in addition to the pensions paid 
to get rid of them, appointments of very great respon- 
sibility, and requiring the best qualifications, and 
these men of course eannot be recovered and restored 
to- India. 

The abolition of this service would seem to indicate 
such misapprehension of the importance of the marine 
affiiirs of India as to call for the interposition of the 
Society, as the body most able to press the question 
upon the consideration of the proper authorities. Till 
such a department is established, nothing but 
a series of neglects and mistakes can be expected. 
Local interests will decide the question /or one place, 
as in the case of Kurrachee, and against another, as 
that of Carwar, without a real and unbiassed in- 



m 



vestigation, and neglect the claims of harbours 
like those in the Ghilf of Kutcb, in which nobody 
permmtUly hUeresied, 1 don't mean to say 



ts 



Ihcre, would no doubt arrange for the execution that in my judgment nothing should havd been 



rverk at half or a quarter of the expense that 
iWiDCurred by an engineer without that pecu- 
riM. That this work could be executed for 
or £400,000 I have no doubt, and the 
of this would be a charge of only 4d. or 6d. a 
hi a trade of a million tons, 
tth. But the most important, and the fundamental 
in this matter is the absolute necessity of a 
Department. How strange it seems that thin 
Id Dot have been long ago-established 1 At length 
l4|tiieahuial Department has been organised, and 
Qoqld anything approaching to an ef%ient ma- 
lt of that which occupies nine-tenths of the 
of India be hoped for without a depart- 
which had nothing else to attend to, with a 
itt the head who had the peculiar turn and 
^Tsnored for such a charge? And, surely, the 



done to the harbour of Kurrachee, or that everything 
should be done to that of Carwar, but this I say, that 
in all the discussions respecting these portvS, and in the 
entire abseoce of any notice of the excellent harbours 
of Kattywar, so complete in themselves, and so per- 
fectly situated for the outlet of the trade of the Pun- 
jab and Central Asia, there is shown a palpable want 
uf an independent tribunal which could take an en- 
larged view of the wants and resources of the country, 
and should be able to decide according to the require- 
ments of the whole community, and not sacrifice them 
to the interests of small bodies. The question is uot 
what the interests even of the vast body of Bombay 
merchants, native and European, demand, but what is 
he»t in these matters for the population of India and 
England. 
I must add some remarks on the expenditure re- 



mmniaib of argument that has led to this de- • quired for harbours. Ten millions would go a long 



616 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ART8, Mat 23, 1878. 



way towards supplying India with extensive and 
effective harbour accommodntion, and why should we 
he afraid of such an expenditure ? The present debt 
of India is 110 millions, with interest of five millions 
a year, besides the railway chai^, which, including 
interest on cost of land and debt, is now three and a 
half millions, representing in proportion a further 
debt of eighty millions, or, in all, 190 millions, with 
interest amounting to eight and a half millions, or 
one shilling per head of population per annum for 
160 millions. If, to compare this with the debt of 
Inland, we allow for the difference in the value of 
money threefold, it gives three shillings a-head. The 
interest of the English debt is 26 millions, or sixteen 
shillings a head, five times as great ; so that if we 
borrowed money to the extent of 760 millions for 
public works India would be only on a tout with 
England as to debt ; but with this essential difference 
that the capital would be spent, not on wars, but on 
remunerative works, which directly and indirectly 
would certainly return at least twenty per cent 
if judiciously expended, and so, inst€»d of being 
an additional burthen, it would be an immense in- 
crease of income. The demand, therefore, for a few 
millions for harbour improvements ought not to be 
considered an obstacle to that work, and the cost of a 
marine department is as nothing in the question. 

I have shown that the saving of a single shilling a 
ton in insurance, port expenses, &c., even on the 
present small trade, would represent a capital of six 
and a-half millions. My views, therefore, on this 
subject lead me to urge the following as the leading 
points in this matter : — Ist. The necessity for a 
separate marine department, with some person at the 
head of it who is capable in some measure of com- 
prehending this extensive subject, and would be 
independent of local biases. 2nd, That we have to 
provide not for the present trade, but for an enormous 
future extension of it. 3rd. That the expenditure, both 
in improving present harbours and the construction of 
new ones, ought to be on a scale far beyond anything 
hitherto allowed. 4th. That the most complete and 
well-planned system of harbours will be utterly 
ineffective unless combined with cheap internal transit, 
and that this can only be effected by steamboat canals. 

In this paper I have not touched upon the important 
point of harbours of refuge, which yet is an essential 
part of the subject, whether considered only with re- 
ference to saving of life, or also as a saving of money 
in the diminution of sea risks, but this would, of 
course, come under the consideration of a marine 
department. 



and that sefmf d to prevent their adoptKyn »sj isfitm 
ment by the Govercment. >k'o douU ibcy nn* i]^ 
natural outlets for the cotton of Kattywar.asd^iM 
surely a great mistake to cany cotttn lyiiilti^ii 
Bombay for shipmentY while the ports he hU ttioaj 
to were so much moie accef sible. It naaiUfakte 
to talk of Bombay as the £neet haibc'ur m Ul 
but it was in fact too large to be f afe, as vm |nnj[ 
by the fact of innumerable vessels leir^r loet inftdriw 
a cyclone. Kurrachee, though a frirnll h8rlKm,«is|Bb 
fectly safe, at any rate when a vesel got innde, nisi 
was now being improved, probably larger ve«iih«lA 
be able to get in. No doubt dredging would bmtlll 
kept up, but that seemed a necessity evoyvbob It 
Robertson^ a civil engineer who was lent ook to i^ 
on the harbours of India a year or two ago, qsltarf 
making a harbour at the extreme south, at tbeBnolV 
Pass, and proposed to cut a canal through ^^'Mf^fiffl 
Island, suggesting that ships would then be aUv Is Si 
alongside the banks of the canal and thei»M«tt 
their cargo ; and he said it was rather reinarhhl»Mm 
this scheme W8S carried out, the canal would be thei ~ 
point in the peninsula of India, not ezceptisg 
where a large vessel would be able to land utai 
her cargo without the intervention of cargo^boala 
(Captain Taylor) could only say, the more ibM 
Bombay ; she assumed to be the commeinilctfJbW 
India, and yet allowed her harbour to rfmaiai ' 
nature made it. Sir Arthur said it could k 
more safe by reducing the area by means of 1 




DISCUSSION. 

Captain Taylor said the question of harbours might be 
considered from three points of view ; from the land side, 
from the sea sidr, and again, as the civil engineer who 
had to make the hnrbour looked at it. In the first place, 
produce must be brought down to the harbour ; in the 
next, the ships must come for it ; and, in the third place, 
the harbour must be there to accommodate both. Begin- 
ning where Sir Arthur Cotton had ended, with Kurra- 
chee, it was absolutely necessary that something should 
have been done there. There were two excellent har- 
bours in the Qolf of Cutch, Poshetra and Seraya, which 
were to some extent his own proteg^B^ but he cheerfully 
allowed that Kurrachee ought to have the pre-eminence, 
becaoae it waa really the seaport of Scinde and the Pun- 
jaub. The ports in the Gulf of Cutch were first-rate 
natural harbours, but they bebnged to a native state, 



and this was no doubt correct. In fact, the lot Ml 
of the harbour had not been utilised. Coona^Mt 
the coast to Carwar, it was another of his childif^ 
might almost say, as he surveyed it and brcnglit it mk 
notice, and he quite agreed with Sir Arthur ihitil 
a mistake to transfer it from Madras to Bombay, 
course at that time the Suez Canal could not ban 
anticipated (although a brother officer of hit is 
Indian navy did predict it fifteen years ago), tvt 
from this consideration, Carwar should htve le 
attached to Madras, which wanted a port, and 
have done ever^^thing for it ; but being tzasift 
Bombay the merchants there could not see bov 
interests would be furthered by anything doK 
Carwar; so there were continual sqnabblei g Ayj^ 
and the Carwar railway still remained in ^kQtf^ 
He need not refer to Ot)a, or any PortDgnewviAV 
India, because their best port was not equal to OlA 
Beypore had not been mentioned by S^ AittelB 
it was one of the greatest mistakes which hd M 
made. There was a railway from Hadnu tsi|li 
it was a wretched little place, and roco^NC 
ought to have been spent upon it. It *2 
said that the railway began in a boat ^^''^l 
and ended in a canoe at Beypore; asd ■ ■ 
getting any traffic there it was absurd. Srf** 
Ponany, and there it was simply an engioM^rf^ 
tion. No doubt there was a remarkable sadA ■ • 
hills, abreast of it, and something might be d<Mji 
he should not like to recommend a breakvittf "^ 
Next came Colachul, in the Travancore St»te, jnj^ 
again, was the drawback of its being in a oaU'Tr FHv 
pality, and therefore the Indian GoveranMDt («» 
deal with it, otherwise it would be a venr raluablf | 
as a port, and a good deal might be made of it H« 
pointed that out to Mr. Ballard, the Britifih Bf«dr 
Travancorcv and since then some British »bip« ^ 
there, and, it was said, they sailed amongfi the 
and anchored to leeward in perfect safety ; l-s*. 
tunately, the place had never been snrveyed, "■* 9 
tains had to depend entirely upon nstire P^f^^^f 
was spoken of by Sir Arthur as Cape ^'^"*'"'^*2fc 
it was about twenty miles to the wrtt ^^*IfV?2 
was the most southern point in India, and Ow^^JS" 
about twenty miles to the west. With regard »«*?J: 
distances of places on the coast ban Adei», » •W 
down tracks for vessels he found tbcrs tw ▼"; 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 2a, 1878. 



517 



little Mfmaee between Oape Comorin ftnd Bombay, 

l»ilie time ocoopied in reaching A<len. Oupe Oomorin 

ndght be, perhups, 500 miled nearer, but taking the 

ftTem^ direction of the south' west monsoon on that 

eoast It made rery little difference whether yon started 

from Oomorin or Bombay in an onlioiry ressel, certainly 

not more than a day or a day and a-half at the outside, 

«nd against that must be placed the transit of produce 

down to Oape Oomorin for shipment. With regard to 

flie Paumban Pass, that was a proposal of Sir Arthur's 

own many years ago. Bir. Robertson proposed to cut a 

oanal through the island of Rameeerum, while Sir 

Jame4 Blphmstone wanted to cut through Point Rtmen, 

a little shtrp point which iuttad out from India towards 

Ceylon, and this proposal he should adopt, because if a 

oanal w«re cut through it there would be a beautiful 

harbour ready on the south side. This was allowed 

by Ifr. Robertson in his report, and if ships were 

brought alongside the canal so as to discharge their 

car^ at the quay, it would be discharged on the 

main land of India itself, whereas, if Mr. Robertson's 

canal were cut through Rameserum Island, it would 

be twdre miles awa^ from India; he should, there- 

fore, always give his yoice in favour of Sir James 

Slphinstone's plan of cutting through Point Ramen, 

which uptsned into a yery exoellent harbour on the 

«m^ tide. There was another point to be con- 

•idered, that the harbour on the south side was to the 

wintlw«rd of Adam's Bridge, a chain of rocks and sand 

-wfairh ran across from India to Oeylon. Now Madras 

was to the leeward of it, and if you left Madras you 

must either go through the Paumban channel, or else 

make the whole circuit of Oeylon. This port being to 

the windwitrd of Adam's Bridge was a grf at adyantage, 

«• the ship could sttrt at once on her homeward voyage, 

as she would from Madras. She would have to pay canal 

dues for going through the canal, but if she passed round 

Ceylon she had to pay the penalty of passing through 

the monaoon, and the oonseqnent wear and tear would 

perhaps more than counterbalance the saving of dues. 

At Midras it was a moot point whether a breakwater or 

«n encloeed harbour would be best, but that he thought 

fnight be safely left to the decision of Government. 

The harbour of Ooconada (or Ooringa) was very 

^Hfed^iy, bat tko mud oonstitated its protection, just as 

it protaeted the ports of Narrakul and Alipee, and 

ifvaa txtmordinary how in a g)tle of wind the mud 

'was stirred up like treacle, so that by the lead you could 

Iftardiy tell where the mud began and the water ended, 

it was so thick. It was always safe, though the port was 

ooostantly moving to the north, in consequence of the 

silt fr>m the Godayery meeting the ocean current, whioh 

«t the tinoe of year when the greatest quantity came 

down, sot to tiie north. Outtaok, or False Point, was pre- 

<aBelT similar, and very little oould be done in an eng^- 

ii6«mig way, either at Ooconada or Outtaok, and in con- 

seqotfvnoe of the mud he had referred to, the cargoes 

-woctld always htve to be taken off in boats. He entirely 

•gre'd that mistakes had been made in the matter of 

asilways, by eneouraging them to the ezdusion of 

«si»als, which would in many instances have been 

bettrv adapted to the wants of the country. With 

isi fp ar d to Karracbse, there was water oommnnioation all 

down the Indus, ooming within three miles of Kur- 

i«eb«e, so that if this short distance were got over 

tfisre would be fk^ee water oooHnnnication between the 

JMihomr uid the whole delta of the Indus. He 

tkooffht there was bo doubt, ^erefore, that the outlay 

foquired for this purpose would be repaid. At present 

the river beats had to face the open sea before 

iksy oould get to Kurrachee. He had ssen a plan 

fl»r a railway to run right down the west coast 

frost Bmbay to Oape Oomorin, and then up the 

6Mt eosst to Oaleutta. Oonsidering that such a nrate 

would have to orsss a river about as large as the Thames 

Aomt ovary ten lailes, he thought tlutt if there were 

AbotUoaoali, tkeio ware also TsaiaridaUe ea« 



thusiasts about railroads! As Sir Arthur had stated, 
nature had provided water communication three- fourths of 
the way from Bombay to Oape Oomorin, and he thought 
an enlightened Gx>vernment might easily find a way to 
complete the distance, and the same from Oape Oomorin 
to Oaloutta. It only required a few short spaces to be 
cut here and there, and then the communication would 
be completed. But there was another question still. 
Who wanted the harbours? Whilst endeavouring to 
excite interest in the harbour of Midras he spoke 
to some shipowners here on the subject ; but he ascer- 
tained, indirectly, from one of the largest shipowners, 
that if there were to be port dues, however trifling, the 
shipowners did not want harbours, because they insured 
their ships. The shipowner was different from th^ 
owner of tiie cargo, and the latter had to provide for 
landing it, so that shipowners did not want harbours. 
No doubt sailors wanted harbours, although, in tile 
Ntmtical Magasine of last month, he read an article argu- 
ing that if harbours were improved, and ships made so 
safe that there would be very little risk of loss, seamen 
would lose their pluck, and there would be no more 
bold British seamen left ! Merehants also would be glad 
of harbour accommodation, because they liked to get their 
goods away as cheaply as possible, but unless the goods 
oould be brought down cheaply to the harbour, they 
would not be used after all. 

Xr. Andrew Cas&els thought that Bombay had been 
rather hardly treated, both by Sir Arthur Ootton and 
Oaptain Taylor. He had lived there a good many years, 
and had a good deal to do with trnde there, but had cer- 
tainly not been aware of its being so driugerous a port as 
was now represented. No doubt accidents had occurred 
there from cyclones, but a great deal more damage had 
been done at Oalcutt i, far away from the sea, from the 
same cause. Bombay had become the centre of an enor- 
mous trade, and it hardly would have been so if the har- 
bour had been so dangerous as Oaptain Taylor had 
described. Again, Sir Arthur Ootton seemed to think 
that Bombay was jealous of Oarwar, and that it was a 
mistake on the part of ti^e M tdms Ghovemment to hand 
over that port to Bombay. He could assure that meet- 
ing that In the minds oi the Bombay merchants there 
was not a particle of such poor jealousy ; but they said 
this — make it what you please, Oarwar will never be 
anything but a subordinate port to Bombay. The 
greatest market was the one which would always 
draw cotton from all parts of the country. From 
Bombay there were steamers starting continually for 
England, the Ountinent, Russia, and all parts of 
the world, and the same facilities could hardly be 
expected at Oarwar, in fact, at the present time, cot- 
ton was being carried from the neighbourhood of 
Madras to Bombay, instead of being shipped at 
Madras itself, because the owners believed that at the 
larger market they would have a better chance of 
getting a good price for their produce. Kurrachee 
had been spoken of rather slightingly, and he con- 
fessed that until the last few days he nad held much 
the same opinion, and thought a great deal of money 
had been thrown into the sea there. But very recently 
he had met with a Bombay merchant, lately returned 
from that district, who told him that the works at 
Kurrachee had been admirably well executed, and 
that it had really become a promising port He 
thought such evidence could not be slighted. He had 
followed Sir Arthur with the greatest interest in his 
paper, and had learnt a great deal from it, and 
thoroughly agreed with him that India required a 
marine department. He believed that if half a million 
a year, for ten years, were spent on the harbours of 
India, 'it would be money well laid out, and that the 
dues, in one shape or another, would go very far to- 
wards paying the interest on any outlay of that kind. 
Although Bombay had no canals to brin^ produce to 
it, yet the railways converged there from all '" 
ancf ' -^ knew, it was one of the fir 



518 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 23, lOTB. 



in the world — one of the finest sitnations for trade, 
and he should be very moch sarprised if it did not 
become, in a still greater degree than it was at pre- 
sent) the commercial capital of India. 

Kr. Hale said it seemed evident from the paper that 
certain material wants of India were much neglected. But 
unless it were known what proportion of the insurance 
was due to the dangers of the harbours themselves, it 
was impossible to speculate as io whether the outlay for 
improving them Would be at all recouped by a reduc- 
tion in insurances. 

Mr. Sauidars desired to bear his testimony to the 
importance of the concluding portion of the paper, 
referring to the loss of the Indian marine service. When 
India was transferred to the Ciown, it was thought that 
one Admiralty was enough for one empire, but it must 
have been forgotten that tbe duties of Uie hydrographic 
office of the Admiralty especially related to the supplying 
of surveys and charts for the use of the Imperial navy, 
and that it was quite useless to expect any attention 
to be paid to the necessities of India. What had 
ooouxred since was amply sufficient to show that the 
Admiralty organisation was totally inadequate for the 
purpose. Its objects were too wide, and its immediate 
purposes too specific to admit of its giving to India the 
special attention which its great importance demanded. 
The interests of 200 millions of people, with something 
like 600 harbours, on which depended an immense mari- 
time trade, deserved special attention from its own 
Qovemment. It had been found in the case of our 
colonies, that especial marine surveying officers had to 
be appointed to meet their wants, the Admiralty not by 
any means meeting them. Since India came under the 
government of the Grown an organisation of periodical 
steamers had been introduced between India and 
Euro^ bringing the produce of an immense country, 
reaching from Bagdad on the one side to tiie China 
seas on the other, and the interest of such a commerce 
as that, developing so rapidly as it did, demanded that 
more attention should be paid to the harbours than ever 
was paid by the old Court of Directors. Instead of that, 
no attention whatever was paid to the subject, notwith- 
standing it was so important in the interests of human 
life, which could not be covered entirely by insurance, 
witiiout reference to oommercial considerations. On the 
western coast it constantly occurred that vessels were 
lost off the ports, simply because there were no lights to 
enable them to make the port in a storm ; and not long 
ago the newspapers contained a lamentable account of 
the loss of a larige ship within about twdve miles of a 
port quite sufficient for her protection if idie could only 
have made it, but there were no b'ghts by which she 
could direct her course, and consequently she foundered. 
There was one difficulty about the case — that it was not 
a subject which landsmen could be expected to take very 
neat interest in ; and when it was last pressed upon 
the government of India, it was met oy tiie ap- 
pointment of a marine stcretary, but all he oonld do 
was to renter what occurred, and he had no power to 
do anything ; no staff, nor fuiy means of carrying out 
anything he desired. It was of the utmost importance 
that a surveying service should be instituted, and that 
careful registers should be made of the movements taking 
place on the coast of India, and this would afford abun- 
dant employment for the marine service if it were esta- 
blished on a thoroughly efficient scale. He hoped, 
therefore, that the Society would take the matter up and 
press it on to a settlement. He was afraid they would 
have no harbours without capital, and it seemed to bim 
that the relation of cafntal to this subject had hardly 
received sufficient attention, except at the hands of Mr. 
Cassels. Tbe experience of l^e Ghovemment with regard 
to the construction of harbours had been rather unfor- 
tunate in consequence of neglecting this consideration. 
They set to work to form a port, which they dignified by 
the name of Port Canning; a railway was made to it, 




and it was expected to be a great siiQMM,b^illaAt 
had to be definitely closed. The mai^nts<(Odfli(| 
remained where their capital was inveitBi ii iMir, 
houses and counting-houses, and wooli not •fciiia 
them in favour even of Mutlah, and ths subs WH 
in other parts of the world. Tuble Baj «ii M 
of the worst harbours that could be iM|ifl4 
and a little further to the northvard tei «9 
a magnificent harbour, capable of uommUitf 
all the fieets of the world. One woald luniMk 
that means would have been taken to promnliftm 
velopment of that harbour ; but the merohMtollH 
Cape were settled at Table Bay, where they \d tjjjf 
warehouses and capital invested, and thef aD i^ " 
faces against this fine harbour to the northvad,' 
they could not put their property on tracki tad 
it ; so it was at Bombay. So long aa the capital n 
centrated there it would exercise a pivpoaden^ 1^ 
fiuence on the trade of the whole region foirosinjpt 
and he was not at all surprised to bear that it Mfft 
large amount of traffic, even from Bladras. ItkilM 
said that some mistake had been made in the idMtiDAtf 
Carwar as a port for the outlet of cotton, and tbm ^B' 
mercantile interests at a plaoe called Coonntak H 
did not at all approve of the movement of tall V 
Carwar. These things must be consideitd 
tbe question of investment of Gk>vemnieiit fso^ 
With regard to the Paumban Pass, it seemed a 
able way of setting to work with reference to a ^ 
operation like the improvement of haz^wv^ a 
of having a regular service, giving infoiMM^C 
the changes taking place on the shores, and m hsnH 
a foundation upon which to act, to send owt a dUi 
engineer to spend two years running up aad 
confessedly without time to give that atteoties to 
local interest which it demanded. It most be 
bered that there were other great qoeeUoos t 
besides that of keepine oat Uie sea. Ttign^m 
question of how the snip was to get in and oat^ 
these involved nautical considerationa, sad it ai 
him that to propose any operation of this kind 
making nautical men responsible in the find ^Ml 
what was wanted, and then leaving a civil '"^^ 
execute it, was a very grave omission. ,j 

Bir Arthur Cotton, in reply, said the fi^^vm ^iB; 
given were only a rough calculation to gi^^f ^*^{ 
what it might be worth while to spend on the ' 
ment of a harbour. If the rata of tnsnninoe 
all upon the dangers of the Indian Ocean and tka 
in the Hooghly, it would be worth while to inpiefe 
harbour in order to reduoe the rate of inanns* 
had had some curious experience himself of luJM^ 
hours. For instance, once he was ninniof ii^V 
mouth of the harbour at Bombay, when the ^**^^JS.' 
the mouth of the harbour, had to torn roiuid,aK W 
an iron bound cosst under their lee thej ba dtt jt 
through the first burst of the south-wssten — *^ 
a more awful night he never passed. On anoth><^ 
sion, when entenng the Madras Harbour, ^^|tS 
make the captain believe the tenific rata ai wtiA 
current was running; they mineed the haiboar hf 
miles, and were no less than 18 days gettiag n, 
whole of the time being exposed te the force of tbe 

east monsoon. Again, when running into tiie 
of Oooonada, the captain, an experienced 
said he knew perfectly well there was a hnffifisae 
certain direction, but they had the land nndtf tbeir 
and there was no harbour of refuge within ^^ 
miles, and he had to run right through thebesBw 
hurricane rather than go a&ore. Onos more, is g«J 
to the mouth of the harbour at Rangoon, thejr *■• JT | 
up high and dry on the middle ■'^ ^'^^^[n^ I 
right on her side, and it was a nairow •°*I*.*T^'!^ ; 

board were not lust Having had sack P***! ^JS 
enoe of the harbours of India, he had been led toll"" 

to the subject wherever he had bean ccgiagwy^,^ i 
shore, and he quite agreed with (Mua f»r^ ** 




JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, May 23, 1878. 619 



the^ w«re three points to be considered at every har- 
booi^-the land side, the sea side, and the harbour itself. 
It was impossible that these matters could be fully and 
£ur]y discussed until there was an independent depart- 
m^t with nothings else to attend to, which could investi- 
gate the whole question, and bring their skill to bear 
upon it independent of any personal or local bias. 

The Chairsuui, in proposing a vote of thanks to Sir 
Arthur Cotton, said no one could have been better qualified 
to bring this^ important matter before them, and they must 
all agree with many of the propositions which ne put 
forward. In the first place, it was of immense import- 
ance that a department should be established for tiie 
■tody of everytmng connected with harbour accommo- 
dation. He was not aware of the reasons which led the 
Gorenunent to abolish the Indian navy, but if what Mr. 
Saonders said was true, that nothing was being done in 
the direction of surveys since the abolition, it seemed a 
ve^ senons responsibility to rest upon the Government 
of India. The next proposition was equally important, 
that the question of harbour accommo^tion was inse- 
parable fix>m that of internal transit. If a harbour was 
not the natural outlet of a large tract of productive 
country, it was simply wasting money to attempt to 
improve it, whereas a large expenditure might be wisely 
incurred, even on an indmerent harbour, which was the 
outlet to alargedistriot. FoUowinff out the idea, Sir Arthur 
had recommended theformationofaharbouratUiesottthem 
point of India, and if it would have the qualities he stated 
it was a very important matter, and well worthy the con- 
sideration of the Gk>vemment. No doubt it ought to be 
connected with water carriage with all the rest of India, 
and in that case the whole produce would come in that 
direction, and would find a speedy road home by way of 
Aden and the Suez Canal. Three persons had Seen 
spoken of connected with the harbours, namely, the 
siiilor, the landsman, and the harbour engineer. It ap- 
peared to him that there was a fourth luso to be con- 
salted equally important, namely, the Chancellor of the 
Exchequer. Whilst condenming the harbours of Cal- 
catta, Madras, and Bombay, Sir Arthur was bound to 
admit that they all were places to which trade would 
&id its way, and that something should be done to im- 
prove them; but, with regard to the Madras break- 
water, he believed Mr. Robertson put the expenses at 
a million and a quarter, which was a very serious sum, 
especially as Captain Taylor stated, in one of his 
reports, that he believed that no breakwater would 
be of any use. 

Captain Taylor said the evidence taken on the subject 
showed that when sailors were asked about it, they said 
tiiat th|y would rather be outside the breakwater 
than in. 

Tbe Chairmaa said this showed how careful the 
Oovemment must be in expending monej on this class 
of works, on which there were so manv diverse opinions. 
AgBXHf with regard to the Paumban channel, there were 
three or four difiierent routes recommended, and great 
caie must be taken not to spend public money in any 
oooe but the best, though it was evident that an immense 
waring of time and di^nce would be secured by such a 
rhyr^*^ With regard to the Kurrachee harbour, 
•ooofding to a report dated March, 1873, by Mr. Parkes, 
tha engineer superintending the works, it had cost up to 
the present time £480,000, and the depth of water at the 
entrance was 20 feet at low water, ana he was confident 
that that depth would be maintained. There was 25 
fieet at half tide, 26} at high water, and 28 J at high water 
spring tide. He also stated that it would be alwa3rA 
open mmi November to June inclusive. It would admit 
huge troop ships, and this was an important considera- 
tioax with regard to the defence of the northern frontier. 
Aa had been mentioned, with some harbours there was 
thia dsiBcalty« that they belonged to native States, and, 
tbage lbre ^ the Indian Government could not very well 
deal wUh them, and he thought, therefore, that, practi- 



cally, the duty of the EngHsh Gh>vemment was to do 
what it could to improve the harbours already ex- 
isting. 

The vote of thanks having been carried unanimously, 
Kr. Cassels proposed a sioiiUr compliment to the Chair- 
man, which was seconded by General Vaughan, and 
carried unanimously. 

TWEHTT-THIBB OSDIirABT XBSTIVG. 

Wednesday, May 2l8t, 1873; Admiral the Bight 
Hon. Lord Glabenos Paobt, K.G.B., Member of 
Council, in the chair. 

The following Candidates were proi>osed for 
election as Members of the Society : — 

Banner, Edward Gregson, 11, Billiter-square, E.C. 
Cousins, Walter Cornelius Arthur, 11, Lawson-street, 

Great Dover-street, 8.E. 
De Losada, Don Korberto Bodrignes, E.C.I.C., 106, 

Begent-street, W. 
Elmfl&e, E. W., 6, Great Winchester-street-bnildings, 

E.C. 
Lewis, William Thomas, Bute Mineral Estate-office, 

Aberdare. 
Lloyd, Wilson, Darlaston. 
McClelland, Andrew S., J.P., 140, St. Yincent-street* 

Glasgow. 
Mann, Colonel B. I., B.E., of Jamaica, care of Messrs. 

Cox and Co., Craig's-oourt, S.W. 
Milne, Samuel, Burton Joyce, near Nottingham. 
Morrison, Henry M., Longsight, Manchester. 
Norfolk, Bichaid, Beverley, Yorkshire. 
Taylor, Bev. J. W. A., Headington, near Oxford. 
Wedgwood, Joseph James, 19, Si G^rge's-terrace, 

Queen's-gate, ».W. 
White, Timothy, Charlotte-street, Blackfriars, S.E. 

The following Candidates were balloted for and 
duly elected Members of the Society : — 

Baker, William, 46, High-street, Sheffield. 
Dick, Alexander, 110, Cannon-street, E.C. 
Turner, Walter James. C.E., Town-hall-ohambers, New 

Market-street, Bradford. 
Watts, Joseph, Fulshaw-park, Wilmslow, Cheshire. 
Whiteman,B. H., M.D., HoUiam-house, Putney. 

The paper read was — 

ON SOME BECENT PB0CESSE8 FOB THE 
MANUFACTURE OF GAS FOR ILLUMI- 
NATING PURPOSES. 

By T. WUls, F.C.8. 

During the last two years various causes have 
combined to make the tune a very favourable one 
for the introduction of new schemes for the manu- 
facture of gas. Amongst these causes the following 
may be mentioned: — First, ttie fear (althonrfi to a 
great extent perhaps groundless, yet, nevertheless, 
&equently expressed) that our supply of coal will be 
gradually lessening, and that, at no very distant 
date, it will become so curtailed as to increase its 
value to a formidable extent; second, the ten- 
dency of the coal market to push the price of coal 
up, to an extent out of all proportion to the neces- 
sity, has also created imeasiness; and third, 
partly in consequence of this, although it must 
also be said, partly on accoimt of a wide-spread 
suspicion of mismanagement, gas companies have 
avowedly lately been occupying an exceedingly 
difficult position (a position immediately recogj- 
nised and very soon taken advaaiOiaeitf J>y their 



£20 



JOL-rtJSIAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, May 23, 1878. 



employd$)i with no great prospect which could 
inspire hope for the future. Ag^n, the great pros- 
perity of uie country, and the frcHQ circulation of 
money, coupled with a comparatively small 
numl>er of safe and lucrative investments, have 
to a great degree been the motive power of many 
schemes, which, without their aid, would have had 
considerable difficulty in fighting their way into 
public notice. There is one other cause lending 
its tendency in this direction, which, though 
perhaps only entertained by a few, is yet continu- 
ally growing in importance, and that is the belief 
that the present mode of eas manufacture is 
wasteful and imscientific, and only at the best a 
poor method of obtaining the desfred result. To 
those who have not realised this fact, it is only 
necessary to point to the very small amount of the 
hydrogen and carbon contained in the coal which 
find their way into the gas ; to the large number 
of bye-products obtained in the process — ^bye-pro- 
ducts which, it must be remembered, although 
themselves valuable, and daily increasing in value, 
are produced and disposed of only because at 
present it is impossible to prevent their formation, 
and which should consequently t)ccupy quite a 
secondary position ; and to the existing imper- 
fections in the apparatus used in the purification, 
storage, and disirioution of the principal product. 
The present paper takes into consideration two 
or three of the most important of these new pro- 
cesses. It is intended to examine them by the 
light of scientific facts, and to say very little 
about the commercial merits or demerits of any 
particular scheme or schemes, although it cannot 
be overlooked that the one has a very important 
bearing upon the other. To do even this satis- 
factorily, it will be necessary to review briefly 
{he chemical and physical laws which are called 
into operation in the manufacture of gas, and also 
to give a short description of the apparatus at pre- 
sent employed for this purpose. 

The organic origin of coal is, at this time, an 
imdisputed fact ; and we recognise, in the black 
carbonaceous mineral, the decayed and partially 
decomposed remains of a luxurious tropical vege- 
tation, a vegetation as far excelling, in extent and 
rapidity of growth, the present growth of the 
tropics, as that does the more moderate growth 
of the temperate regions. This being so, in 
order to arrive at a correct knowledge of the na- 
ture and constitution of coal, we must go back to 
the stems, tissues, and foliage of the plants and 
trees, the growth and death of which has given 
us our coal measures. 

^Thc number of elements entering into the con- 
stitution of such vegetation is exceedingly limited — 
at the most four — ^yet the arrangement of these four 
is so complex that it is at times impossible to per- 
ceive in what maimer they are united. This com- 
plexity of arrangement is peculiar to organic com- 
potmds, and as a rule stamps them as being the 
product of some vital energy or force. 

Woody fibre, viz., that part of the plant or tree 
which gives to it its form and shape, we know con- 
tains the elemeifts carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
and we also know the amount of each which enters 
into its constitution, but the exact manner in which 
the throe are united to each other is unknown. 
Uo^T; r A ^^y complex organic body is left to 
iiff ;.!^i '^''^' ? other words, to become oxidised, 
the tend^^ncy is for it to resolve itself into simpler 



compounds ; and if the decompo&tioB goes on to 
completion, the carbon and hydrogen wiD ctci 
unite with oxygen, to form the mo^ stable ooo- 
pound which ti^ey {>os8ibly can with that \oij^ 
viz., in the case of carbon, carbonic add [C0|[^ 
and of hydrogen, water (H^O). If Uie leimeatft- 
tion or decay be arrested at some intenaediita 
stage, then compounds will be formed Im ooo- 
plicated than the original woody fibre, bii itxD 
more or less removed from, the final re»]lt,ace(xi- 
ing to the stage at which the action was stqipai 
The decomposition of this woody fibre h&spxoolm 
to a considerable extent in coal, a portioa d ^ 
carbon and a large portion of the hydrogen hsn 
gone off in the form of marsh gas (fire-dsmp)) 
a further portion of carbon, together wu 
oxygen, as carbonic add, while a third portion 
carbon has been separated in its elementBO^ 
We are able to tiace this action tiiroogli se 
stages, which will be more distinctiy seen from 
following table, in which the amount of cazto 
kept up to 100 in the several carbonaoeot 
materia^: — 





Carbon. 


Hydrogen. , Ozyv». 


Wood 


100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


12-18 1 83-07 


Peat 


9-85 , ^^ 


Lifirmte .......... 


8-37 42-42 


Bitummous coal .... 
Anthracite 


612 21-2} 
2-84 i:4 



Here, not only are we able clearly to trace, by 
analysis of these substances, the changes ' 
which they have passed and are passinff* hat 
physical appearance and structure fuller 
this evidence. Thus, in peat, the stroctim 
woody fibre is recognisable at a glance ; in ^^ 
and bituminous coeds this structure is not 60 
but still unmistakable ; while in anthracite or 
coal nearly aU trace of it is gone. This slow 
position or fermentation maybe regarded as a 
burning or combustion, viz., a union of the 
of the wood or coal with oxygen, and it is a1 
with the same result. 

If, instead of slow fermentation and d 
the wood into coal taking place, the wool 
been burned at once, practically the same 
would have been obtained ; the elements of ' 
would seek to place themselves in a miicb 
relationship to each other; the various 
would have been gone through more rapidly, 
the final result would be identical with thftt of 
previous case, viz., the production of wat«r 
carbonic acid. Here also there are manyfl 
mediate stages. Combustible gases are fonnwj 
abundance, together with tarry and oily ni»i"^ 
composed of carbon and hydrogen, and it is 
by the further burning of these that tho com 
decomposition is obtamed. What is trueb«« 
wood is also true of coal itself, if it be taken m 
starting point, more particularly, however, of j» 
coaJs which still contain a fair proportion of hyu» 
gen and oxygen. 

In each case the more intense the heat, the bu* 
rapidly does the decomposition proceed, or, in oiw 
words, the quicker does the combustion tal* pM 
Further, the more complicated the 8trnctitfe« j|J^ 
particular substance, the more readily willitw"" 
up by the action of heat, provided thatitt 
tuents con exist in a number of sioi^ 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 23, 1873, 



521 



ridch in carbon compoands and organic substances 
I mrsrnbl J the case. In the above instances it is 
mwed that the wood or coal is heated in air, 
Bt It 19 erident that we may prevent the access of 
irto the heated material, and by so doing we can 
Rwttbe decomposition of such material before the 
taii stage of decomposition, as the only oxygen 
raent lirill be that given off from the substance, 
Mik win in either case be insufficient for the com- 
lete oombustion of the carbon and hydrogen. If 
Iftnbstanoes be heated under such circumstances, 
^Samberof compounds of carbon and hydro^efi 
Abe formed, simpler than the original wood or 
Mi bat still having a considerable complexity of 
Mitetion. 

I Ha resolution of complex bodies to simple 
ni, under the influence of heat, out of contact 
Mb dr, is termed destructive distillation, and is 
tl ptoeess invariably employed in the manuf ac- 

tof gas directly from coal. Thus it will be 
tbat the possiDility of makine such gas de- 
{■di in the fiirst place upon two things : — 

lii The great complexity of organic bodies, 
■fceiaUy vegetable matter, and consequently 

mi 

hH The power which the elements constituting 
■tbiobstances possess, of forming a number of 
iilkr bodies (some of them gaseous) when heated 
at«f contact with air. 

iiboQgh it is perfectly true that we cannot, in 
ftpproeess of destmctive distillation, bum up 
cttbon and hydrogen into carbonic acid and 
lor the want of the necessary oxygen, 
irt mtsy even go further than this, and reduce 
[Cifbon and hydrogen to their elementary con- 
' if the heat be only sufficiently intense, 
it nay be mentioned here that the reason 
fte experience of gas-engineers has always 
Ukit a higher temperature gives a greater 
of gas per ton of coal, but gas of lower 
' Talue, is to be found in this tendency 
carbon and hydrogen gradually to resolve 
Ites, under the influence of heat, into simpler 
_ y et nmpler products, imtil eventually a tem- 
|Miie is reached at which the neater portion 
Vfta carbon is dex)06ited, and the nydrogen goes 
^AiU elementary gaseous state, 
^w following Tab&, in which the proportion of 
ff^Qgen is maintained at 100, illustrates this 

I^JJfflOTTIKO THE PROPOBTION OP HyDROOBN AND 

I mmos ts Coal Gas distilled at diffbrbkt tsm- 



servation. The subj oined table enumerates the prin- 
cipal of these products, as well as the physical 
condition in which they exist at ordinary tempera- 
tures. It seems scarcely necessary to say here, 
that these are true products, and in no wise educts, 
that is te say, they had no previous existence in 
the coal. 

Gaseous. 



Batylene 
Carbonic oxide 
Carbonic acid 
Nitrogen 
Ammonia 

LiQuro. 

Cymol 

Aniline 

Picoline 

Biflolphide of carbon 

SoLm. 

Pyrene 
Chrysene 




a 



614 
ISO 

iT3 

325 
1 



Ntme of gas. 



Principally olefiant gM (CaH«.) 



r OleiUnt gas (C.H.) mixed with 
i manh gas (C u«). 

Marsh gas (C B«.) 

rNsarlf part bydrogvo, carbon 
\ deposited, 



2f ..S?^ of well-known intermediate pro- 
J*J ptoed during the destructive distillation 
■Hg^jwy large, and it is extremely probable 
vn>» ace many that have as yet escaped ob- 



Hydrogen 
Marsh gas 
Acetylene 
Olefiant gas 
Propylene 

Water 
Benzole 
Tolaole 
Comol 

Paraffin 

Naphthalin 

Paranaphthalin 

These products are here represented as isolated 
and existing by themselves, but, in reality, they 
are found mechanically mixed in the rough ma- 
terials obtained during ^as distillation; prac- 
tic^y, the result of this distillation consists 
of only four products : — 1st. The coke which 
remains upon the bed of the retort in which 
the coal is carbonised; 2nd. A light, watery 
fluid, which contains some of the more soluble 
gaseous substances dissolved in water; 3rd. A 
pitehy or tarry substance formed of the liquid and 
solid products, the lighter portion of which con- 
tains the liquid oils and naphtha ; and finally, the 
easeous booieff, together with which is always 
found more or less of the vapours of the more 
volatile liquids. 

As the hydrocarbons become richer in carbon, 
and proportionately poorer in hydrogen, the ten- 
dency is for the substance to assume itie liquid 
state; and if this excess continues to increase, 
eventually to become solid. Thus, olefiant gas is 
CaH^; benzole (a liquid), CeHa; while naph- 
thalin (solid) is CtoH«. 

It is advisably here that we should look a little 
more closely into the physical condition of some of 
these bodies, as upon this depends the success, or 
want of success, which attends many of the new 
schemes. 

The solid liquid and gaseous states of matter 
are not divided from each other by any sharp line 
of division, but ffradually pass frona one to the 
other by insensibfo gradations ; this is evident to 
us in the case of solids and liquids, for we are 
acquainted with many bodies which cannot fairly 
be placed in either class, and to which the term 
viscous may i^propriately be applied ; not so evi- 
dent, but still observable, is a state of matter bear- 
ing a relation to the liquid and gaseous states, 
such as viscous bodies d!o to liquids and solids; 
and, from such and other evidence, we regard 
gases as being the vapours of liquid bodies, more 
or less removed from the boiling points of such 

bodies. 

A perfect gas would be defined as possessing the 
condition of perfect fluid elasticity, and presenting 
under a constant pressure a uniform rate of expan- 
sion for equal increments of heat, but it seems 
probable that this theoretical definition is never 




JOURNAl, OF THE SOQI ^Y OP ARTS. Mat 28, 1878. 



■^i 




(*s===^=^reali»ed, for mlthouirh we im speak oil It foUows, a] 
.4f^IeB w perfect, and i^rwcnt them there- an^ micturated 
^^^•■^t^lling the above law. yet all analogy an^ 
^:^^^rirt)erienoe would indicate that erentually 



^u^y- ^' ^y<^» -^ aense, and may include all gases 
^t^^^Z^^^ T for that th 






^penenoe 

^^tatem^t will hare to be modified. The 

^^0X was for a long- period a term for a 

^P\^ of gaseous substances, viz., those 

^^iJbe made to assume the liquid condi- 

*^ \)y the investigation of many experi- 

a^'j by Fan^y, this point ia at present 

9 ^tSou of the adequateness of the means 

^d henoe this term may now be used 

\ar Mnse, and may include all gases 

_ these are but the vapours of 

f^^^^&ng exceedingly low boiling points, 

j><^^^^diftinctly proved. All liquids what- 

*?1 teflip®"^^*''^' fi^^® ^^ certain quanti- 

«»*r^^ from their surfaces; the amount 

"^^^^ differing for different bodies and for 

i'^^'^j^^peratures ; if the liquid be enclosed in 

^^^^mpova vnll exert a certain pres- 

^ ^ ^ ' — '^^^'^e sides of such vessel, and this pres- 

^je **^i?vary ^^ ^® temperature, being higher 

<|^e T^^Her temperatures, and lower for lower ones. 

^^"V^^C^^^m^ is termed the tension of the vapour 

^S^ t*5^^cular substance. This may be readily 

^ 0*^ F^ in the following maimer : — ^If a small 

^^o^^^^y of water be passed up into the vacuum 

a^*?*^^!? at the top of an ordinary barometer, the 

e^^^^^^td column will immediately be depressed to 

i^e^^t^ extent, which depression will be due to 

a ^'^'^tpour given off from the water at the parti- 

tli?T^^^perature at which the observation is 

^^^'^c and its amount will represent the vapour 

Si^on of water. Now, if alcohol be used in a 

^^ar experiment, the depression will be much 

greater, and hence the vapour tension of alcohol 

§^^ter than that of water, and so on, every liquid 

giving a different result. 

Now, if we take a case in which the amount of 
liquid passed to the top of the mercurial colimin 
is msumoient for the formation of that amoimt of 
Tspour which the given space can take up, the 
whole of the liquid will then disappear, and the 
depression will appear to be due to the presence of 
a quantity of true gas, and this is borne out by the 
fact that a vapour in this state — ^unsaturated, as it 
IB called — follows all the laws that the more per- 
manent gases do. It will be found, for example, 
to vary in volume directly as the pressure, and 
further to increase or decrease in volume at a 
uniform rate on an increase or decrease of tem- 
perature. But now, on the other hand, let more 
of th« liquid be passed up into the vacuous space 
than can possibly be required to fill it with vapour ; 
in this case a quantity of the liquid will remain 
upon the surface of the mercury, and the super- 
incumbent vapour is then scdd to be saturated, 
wliic^ indicates that as much vapour as can exist 
at that particular temperature will be found so 
existing in the given space ; if, therefore, the 
tem|>erature be now raised, a further quantity of the 
liqtnd will be converted into the gaseous condition ; 
if lowered, a portion of the liquid already existing 
as gas will return to the liquid state ; in the same 
''way, if the pressure bo lowered or raised, the same 
Tosult will be observable. Thus it is seen that the 
vapour proceeding from every liquid substance 
poa^efises a fixed maximum tension for every par- 
tksidar temperature or pressure, which it cannot 
ezoc»ed under any circumstances. 



also, that if we take the caK c^ 
vapour, by either increaflng xbt 
pressure or reducing the temperature, w* ttadl 
eventually reach this point of maximum is»c« 
or saturation, after wluch any further increaK (A 
pressure, or decrease of temperature, will be at- 
tended' with a condensation of the vapour into tb 
liquid state ; and, in fact, it has been by Tsmg 
either one of these processes, or both oomfaisiKL 
that nearly the whole of the bodies existing t* 
gases have been liquefied. Another point nmst be 
mentioned here. In the above iUustraticHig ul 
various liquids were supposed to be passed iq> iuK? 
a vacuum, the vacuum existing above the una^ 
cury, in an ordinary barometer. Now, precwfiy 
the same results would have been obtainea if tiiis 
vacuous space had been filled by any gafieoas body ; 
the quantity of vapour given off 1^ aliqmd if 
absolutely independent of the medium into whids 
it is so given off. 

The importance of some of theee facts, as regvdfl 
the manufacture of gas for illuminating pmpaeei. 
will be seen when it is considered that oo^ £w 
not only contains certain permanent gues, till 
also a large quantity of the vapours of Tohtik 
hydrocarbons, which contribute in no smifl d> 
gree to its luminosity ; and these points wiH b^ 
referred to again, more particularly when sprnk* 
ing of carburetting air or gas. 

A few words are necessary here to state a It^ 
facts regarding the luminosity of the flaice d 
gaseous nydrocarbons. 

It is still generally accepted that the luminos^ 
of flame is due to the presence of intenselj hew 
solid particles (although some powerful objectit^ 
have been urged against such a belief). In ^^ 
case of the combustion of all hydrocarboDS, tW 
solid particles are particles *of c^bon. 

Now, a flame will be more or leaa luminooi r- 
cording to the greater or less number of sofib m> 
tides present, and to the temperature to vokk 
they are raised. The denser the hydrocariMn. tb 
greater number of carbon particles will exist is* 
given space, and when its vapour is bunied i^ 
will be a correspondingly greater number pKO^- 
tated into the interior of a fi^ne. Now, W^ 
these two points in mind, it will be manileidj ad- 
vantageous to obtain for combustion such eoft.- 
pounck of carbon and hydrogen in l^t propoctKft 
of the two which shall give us the p***^ 
quantity of carbon to the smallest qusotitr '^ 
hydrogen, provided that the heat of the fliBtf ^ 
maintained sufiGlciently hiffh to raise the osrbcff 
particles to whiteness. This latter condition i* 
quite as important as the former, for it i» q^ 
possible that a gas containing a considcr&K« 
amount of the oenser hvdrocarbons sh^. ^, 
reason of the comparatively low tempeniture at 
its flame, possess less illuminating power ^ 
a gas possessing a smaller quantHy of ^ 
hymx)carbon8, the temperature of the iUffi^ y* 
which, however, is somewhat higher. It woaW 
appear to follow from this, that every tf*^ 
ought to be made by the gasmaker to obt*^^" 
gas containing as lor^ a proportion as fOBSOtO 
of these more lummous compounds ; but » 
glance at the following table, conteimn^ 
analyses of the gas supplied by several dM^} 
companies, will diow that, at any wte, tbi* 
effort, if made, is not very successful, thegw**^ 
bulk of the gas being composed of hydrof^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOlETT OP ARTS, Mat 23, 1873. 



523 



the flame of which is without any light-giving 
properties whatever, and marsh gas, a gas pos- 
sessing the least light-giving power of any hydro- 
carbon, as it contains the smallest proportion of 
carbon to the largest of hydrogen. • 

Composition op Coal Gas Supplied by the 
Following Companies: — 



I Great 
Central. 

I 

lUaxninating hydrocarbons 3'd6 

Uanh gas 35*28 

Hydio^ 61-24 

Qirboiuc oxide 7*40 

Carbonic acid . « 0*28 

Nitrogen 1*80 

Oxygen 0*44 

I 100*00 



Imperial. Chartered. 



3*67 
40*66 
4116 
802 
0*29 
601 
1*20 



100-00 



3*63 
35*26 
61*80 

8*95 

0*38 
0-08 



100*00 



The result, as stated here, is even more un- 
^vourable than it at first appears, for the above 
figures, representing the quantity of illuminating 
hydrocarbons, express not only those that are 
teally gaseous bodies, but also the vapours of 
liquids held dissolved in the gas. There can be no 
question that a great advance in the manufacture 
of coal-gas woiud be made, if by any means, ap- 
plied either to the primary distillation of the coal 
or to the gas after its production, whereby the 
amount of acetylene (C^H,) or of defiant gas 
( C) H4 ) could be increased ; for defiant gas contains, 
in a given bulk, just twice as much carbon as 
manh gas, and acetylene a ^till larger quantity. 
The value of this increase is not to be measured 
only by the increased quantity of carbon contained 
in a given bulk of gas, for a small portion of 
either of the above compoimds, diffused through a 
non-illununating gas, is much more than equivalent 
to a similar quantity of carbon combined in some 
leas condensed compoimd. An illustration of this 
00CQX8 in the case of marsh gas. If marsh gas, 
poeaessing^ it will be remeiiu)ered, only a small 
amonnt of luminosity, be decomposed, either by its 
poasage through a heated tube, or by the electric 
spaik, the can>on it contains will be deposited, 
while the amount of hydrogen set free will occupy 
double the volume of the original gas. Yet the 
flame of this nearly pure hydrogen will be found 
to possess a greater luminosity than the flame of the 
original marsh gas, although it has lost nearly the 
whole of its Ught-giving material, accounted for by 
the preeence of a very small quantity of acetylene, 
produced during the decomposition. The light of a 
coal-gas flame is, without doubt, somewhat 
increased in a similar manner, for the reason that 
dnzing the precipitation into the interior of the 
flame of the solia hydrocarbons — ^viz., during the 
decomposition, under the influence of the high 
tempezatore, of the flame of the gaseous bodies — 
smanquantities of very much more highly con- 
densed substances are formed, substances which 
probably would exist in ihe solid state if isolated 
at onimary temperatures. Further than this, 
coal-gas, although practicdly a gaseous body at all 
fctoxes, does, as has been said, act as a 
lor holding in suspension, and carrying a 
H iia ni3 « y of the vapours of such bodies as 
^mtaotei ai^thalin, &0,, which are tO.lM 



found in the tar, with what practical success — 
success which is sufficiently certain as to be relied 
upon — we shall have to consider when speaking of 
the special carburation of gaseous bodies as a 
means of obtaining illuminating gas. It is, indeed, 
for this purpose that these remarks regarding the 
luminosity of flame have been introduced. 

As there are three schemes, to which reference 
will be made, for the manufacture of gas, which 
deal with modifications of the existing apparatus 
employed, it will be desirable to give a general 
statement of that which is at present almost ex- 
clusively used. 

The coal to be distilled is exposed, in quantities 
of about five himdred- weight at a time, to a com- 
paratively hiffh heat — a bright cherry-red heat is 
usually employed — ^in elongated tubular vessels 
of earthenware or iron, called "retorts,'* the shape 
of which varies slightly, some being that of a 
capital D, with its perpendicular strode jplaced as 
a base, oiJiers circular, and others elliptical ; ten 
feet long, twenty inches wide, and fourteen inches 
high, are about the proportional m^asiu*ements. 
A number of such retorts are usually set in a fur- 
nace, and heated by one fire ; in most large works 
double retorts are used, which are worked from 
both ends, as if they were two single ones. At 
the mouth, or mouths, is a flange, upon which 
a plate of metal— the lid — is capable of being 
secured strongly, and made tight with luting, if 
necessary ; through these mou&s the coal is intro- 
duced by means of long scoops or gutters, and the 
coke at the close of the operation withdrawn 
by the aid of rakes. Immediately upon the in- 
troduction of a charge of coal into a heated retort, 
carbonisation commences, and gas is evolved. This 
carbonisation occurs first with that portion of the 
coal which lies in contact with the sides and bed 
of the retort, and hence is more complete than 
that of the interior, which, however, imdergoes 
destructive distillation, and furnishes gases and 
vapours of higher hydrocarbons. These coming 
into contact with the heated mass on the exterior, 
split up into simpler bodies, the great desideratum 
being to heat the coal to an equal extent all 
through at the same time. The gas is conducted 
from file retorts by perpendicular pipes, about five 
inches in diameter, which rise near the mouth, 
called stand-pipes ; these pipes, which taper 
towards their upper extremities, are, above the 
furnace, bent twice at a right angle, and enter a 
larger pipe running horizontally over the centre 
of the retorts. Tins tube, which is called the 
** hvdraulic main," is at all times half full of tar 
an<i oil, and the ends of the bent tubes are 
allowed to dip into this tar to the depth of two or 
three inches, for the purpose of cutting off all 
communication between the retort and the gas 
which has left it. This hydraulic main is fixed 
horizontally, the tar being drawn off from its ex- 
tremities, and as the whole length of tube is kept 
at a fair heat — ^which heat should not be too strong — 
by reason of its contiguity to the furnace, the tar 
is usually in a liquid condition. It becomes es- 
sential that the gas should be submitted to a pro- 
cess of cooling, in order that those more conden- 
sible bodies which have been vaporised by the 
great heat may be deposited, owinp to the 
great mobilily of gaseous matter, and its posses- 
sing a high latent heat, this process becomes one 
of some little difficulty, and necessitates the ex- 



S2i 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 23, 1878. 



posure of the gas to a very large cooling surface. 
This is attained either by simply passing the gas 
through iron tubes of sufficient length, or through 
hollow iron columns, having an annular closed 
space through which the gas circulates. The ex- 
tent of surface needed is sometimes very large, as 
much as ten square feet of cooling surface being 
often necessary for every cubic foot of ga^ passing 
per minute. If it were left for the evolution of the 
gas in the retorts to maintedn a sufficient pressure 
to drive it through the various apparatus, consider- 
able loss would result from leeikage ; and it is found 
further that the gas produced under pressure is 
not so good in illuminating power, a considerably 
greater quantity of carbon being deposited under 
such ciroumstfl^ces. Hence it is customary to 
employ what is called an exhauster, this being 
usimUy a rotary fan, acting the part of a rough 
air-pump. The use of this apparatus places the 
pressure entirely under control, and allows it to 
be reduced at the retorts to about half-an-inch of 
water. 

After the gas leaves the condenser, it has to be 
submitted to the various processes of purification ; 
but as these do not in any way bear upon the present 
subject, it wiU be sufficient to state that it is first 
w^hed or sei'ubbed by passage tlurough a coke 
tower, over which water is aUowed to trickle, to 
remove any residue of tar and also the ammonia 
which it contains. Thence it losses into a tank of 
milk or cream of lime, kept in continuous motion 
for the removal of carbonic acid and sulphuretted 
hydrogen, and lastly through a series of trays 
filled with dry Hme and oxide of iron, for the re- 
moval of the residual sulphur existing in the form 
of sulphuretted hydrogen or bisulphide of carbon. 
The gas is then stored and distributed. 

It was mentioned in an earlier portion of this 
paper, that if coal be distilled at a high tempera- 
ture, a very lar^ yield of gas can be obtained ) 
this increased yield, however, will be coupled with 
a considerable diminution of illuminating power. 
The reason for this was then explained — in fact, 
the distillation of coal may be carried on at such 
a low temperature that the quantity of gas obtained 
is practically nothing, the whole of the products 
appearing in the solid or liquid state (a prolonged 
exposure of gfiiseous hydrocarbons to a low . or 
even moderately high heat is attended with 
precisely similar results, viz., the formation 
of more complex substances), or conversely the 
heat may be so high as to completelv decom- 
pose the whole of the hydrocarbons into their 
constituent elements. It is found advisable, in 
ordinary working, to take a mean of these results, 
and thus a fair yield of gas is obtained, together 
with a not inconsiderable amount of tar ana oily 
matter. These latter products iucrease in direct 
proportion to a decrease of temperature, and a 
consequent decrease of gas — thus : 

Tablb op amount op Gas and Tab obtained at 
Different TEMPEaATUHES. 



Temperature of Distillation. 



Very low red heat , . . , 
IjSOOo to 1,400^ Fahr. 
Bright red heat . . 



Amount of Gas > x m^ 

Obtained. AmonntofTar. 



7,500 
8,300 
9,500 



Jbs. 

150 

120 

70 



gas engineer with regard to the temperature at 
which he shall distil the coal, and which sometunes 
compel him to use a heat higher than would 
otherwise be advantageous ; these are, first, the 
time which can be affo^ed for the production of & 
given quantity of gas — a lower temperature meam 
a more or less lengthened time of eiposure for 
the same quantity of coal, and where, as is usual, 
the necessary plant is only just sufficient for the 
supply of the required quantity of gas, this prolon- 
gation of the process is impossible; second, the 
per-centage of fuel (coke) used in the furnaces for 
the distillation, this is likely to be greater for a 
greater interval of time ; and, thirdly, the quality of 
Siecoke produced, for the demand forcoke, and con- 
sequently its value is great, and it is therefore the 
principal bye-product in the gas manufacture, and 
its production in fair quemtity, and of good quality 
becomes an important point in the economy of gw- 
making. 

In 1871 a patent was taken out for " ImproTS- 
ments in the manufacture and purificatioiiof 
gas, and in certain parts of the apparatus employed 
therein," which, while mainly dependent upon 
the distillation of coal and otiier bodies at low 
temperatures, proposed to fulfil all that could be 
desired with regarcl to the second and third of the 
above considerations, and at the same time offered 
in compensation for the prolonged time occn- 
pied by the distillation a very considerably in- 
creased, yield of gas of a much higher than usual 
illuminating power. This process is carried out by 
distilling the coal at a much lower temperature 
than usual — ^in the original scheme from 600* to 
1,000° Fah. is mentioned, but in practice fm 
1,300*' to 1,400^ Fah. wiU probably he emnloTed: 
at this temperature, from a ton of gas cow aW 
8,500 cubic feet of gas are obtained, together wiw 
a greater than ordinary yield of tar and oil ; tto 
tar is condensed, by special means employed fof 
securing a greater rapidity in the process, and col* 
lected as free from water as possible, with a viev 
to its being re-distiQed in a separate and pecmitf 
retort. The gas produced during the carboni»j 
tion of the coal is, as may be expected, a rich gas oi 
hi^h illuminating power, and after its producfion it 
is m all respects treated in the ordinary mannfi. 
and wiU therefore not require further special mfli- 
tion, unless if be in one particular, and that ifi i^ 
comparative freedom from what has been caDed 
the residual sulphur impurity; as this sulpb^' 
impmdty consists almost entirely of the Tolatil« 
bisulphide of carbon, which is recognised as a J*^- 
duct of high temperatures, the occurrenoe of o^J 
a small portion of that body in gas distilled at ti 
low a temperature as that used in this process is a 
no wise strange, although, doubtless, at the saim 
time it is a favourable i*eeult. The special point » 
this invention consists in the submission of ^^ ^}- 
and tajr collected to separate destructive disw- 
lation at a low heat, whereby a certain quanoty 
of those substances is vaporised, attended at tw 
same time with the formation of another quantity 
of condensible products. These products are Ag^ 
distilled with a further partial decompositian, anj 
this process is repeated until a given Quantity <^ 
tar has been converted into vapour, ana a cerUff 
amount of pitch . The means used for obtwning tmj 
result are as follows r—The tar and oil are aUowiii 



ThfiTft oro ^^^^ . J . . to flow into an iron pan, maintained at a temper*- 

Anere are three considerations which influence a I ture of about 700 or 800 deir. Fah. ; in this app«»- 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 23, 1873. 



525 



itm ibe more volatile constituents are rapidly 
truonted, «nd are conveyed into a hollow iron 
lu for the purpose of retaining any of the ma- 
nal mechanically carried over, thence through a 
itoit filled iKith charcoed in small pieces, and 
Bittd to a temperature of about 1,000^ Fcdi. ; 
f tlie passage of the various vapours through this 
tttti they no doubt suffer decomposition, not 
Kmght about by any property of the ignited 
nrooal, but doubtless by the more thorough 
}t&ig of the gas, the very large heatuig-siurf ace 
Med by the charcoal successfully bringing the 
tatidn of vaporous matter up to a sumciently 
^ temperature for decomposition ; in this 
pMT a quantity of gaseous matter is formed, 
pitj hydrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide 
p oxygen b«ing obtained by the splitting up 
Iikt water there is present), marsh gas, 
■ a small quantity of illuminating hyw)- 
hAois; the condensible products are treated 
■a in the same manner as before mentioned. 
bgH obtained from the oO and tar is treated in 
pttdinary manner as regards purification, and 
^Tutely mixed with the gas originally obtained 
ike ooal. The aggregate quemtity thus pro- 
'is declared to be in excess of that usually 
from an equal quantity of coal, and 
a considerably greater illuminating value, 
bthe most recent of many processes for the 
idD of coal tar and oil. Hitherto it has 
ted most economical to distil the substance 
^iotii eas is to bo manufactured at once, that 
omy one stage in the process, for pre- 
(xperience has shown that the production of 
of intermediate products, and their after 
has always been a wasteful mode of 
both as regards the result obtaLaed and 
' ure of power and material in order to 



>Mk 



fte 



process has been submitted to the in- 
of two eminent independent scientific 
having a large acquaintance with the 
processes of gas manufacture. The value 
investigation cannot well be over-estimated, 
roold appear desirable that in all such cases 
investigations should be resorted to, for it 
^^pens that an inventor is able to perceive 
Mkpconts of his own invention, and still 
irefy is he able to grapple with and stir- 
^&em by the use of his own scientific know- 
vhile at the same time it is not too much to 
many processes and schemes have been 
to dwindle and die because the good and 
iBints which they contained have not been 
"ii amongst so many erroneous views and 
Aiearchinff and clear examination of any 
~ invention ought to be regarded as ex- 
Taluable testimony. 

owing are some of the more important 

brought out by the examination of the above 

' process by Messrs. Keates and Odling. 

•"^poimcnts conducted by these gentlemen 

*nade upon two scales, the first a manufac- 

one, in which the process was in use for the 

wtoreof gas for the public consumption; 

w Mcond upon a much smaller one, in which, 

'» the various apparatus was necessarily 

*wre perfect control, and hence some 

yvn capable of clearer elucidation. The 

)Ud of gas obtained directly from the 

i ^77$ coble feet, the temperature of 



distillation being between 1,300<» and 1,400® Fahr. 
The quantity of oil and tar obtained from one ton 
of coal varied considerably with the nature of the 
coal used ; thus, Silkstone coal gave 16*4 gallon^ of 
tar and oil per toif. Clay Cross Main 11*9 gidlons, 
and Pelaw Main 13*9 gallons, or a mecm of 14 
gallons. The highest yield of gas which was 
obtained by the continued distiUation and re- 
distillation of the oily tar was 29 cubic feet 
per gallon. The mean lighting power of the 
gas produced from coal was 23*0 candles, and 
of that obtained from the tar 25*0 candles. 
The quantity of coke used to maintain the heat 
in the various parts of the apparatus was about 
33 per cent, of that produced, and in the event of 
the distillation being repeated imtil complete 
separation into pitch and vaporisable matters 
takes place, this amoimt would be much exceeded. 
It must also be remembered that the time occupied 
in the distillation of the coal is just double that 
allowed when ordinary high heats are employed. 
The most successful exx>eriment as yet made with 
this process has shown that from one ton of coal 
it is possible to produce 9,500 cubic feet of 23- 
candle gas by a careful regulation of the tem- 
perature, and from 14 eallons of oil (the mean 
produce of one ton of coed) 600 cubic feet of gas of 
an illuminating power equal to 25 candles. 
Against this result must be placed the considerably 
increased time occupied for the di>tillation, and the 
increased consumption of fuel. It would appear, 
therefore, from these figures that the second process 
of distilling the oil is of very little practical utility. 
The expense attending the production of an equal 
quantity of gas of a scarcely less illuminating 
power from coal being far less than that at- 
tending the distillation of the oil or tar. 
Indeed the experimenters themselves consider that 
the oil would be more valuable as a marketable 
article than as a material for the manufacture of 
gas. That this process is capable of yielding a 
larger amount of gas of high-dluminatuig power, 
and of a character as permanent as that of gas 
ordinarily produced from cannel coal, is, without 
doubt, satisfactorily proved ; and the one point for 
the entertainment of gas engineers seems to be the 
relative simplicity and economy of producing coal- 
gas of a high illuminating power in the ordinary 
way by the distillation of a rich, and consequently 
more expensive coal, or of the adoption of this 

Erocess of distilling an ordinary gas-coal at a low 
eat, with a correspondingly longer exposure. 
Another arrangement has been patented which, 
to some extent, embodies the above idea, although 
with some considerable modifications; thus tne 
processes of distillation and re-distillation are 
carried on simultaneously. The two heated tanks 
for the heating of the tar and oil of the previous 
invention are dispensed with, and heated iron pipes, 
in reality continuations of the retorts, placed 
parallel with them, and heated by the same fire, 
filled with some porous material, such as pumice 
or coke, arc substituted. The tar formed, which 
is not so larpe in amount as that obtained in the 
ordinary manner, is thus further decomposed by its 
passage over the large heated surface, and the gas 
so produced helps to increase the ordinary yield. 
If coke be used for the porous material, it speedily 
becomes converted into a pitchy cinder in appear- 
ance, admost identical with the charcoal after its 
exposure in the previous prc|pess, and forms a very 



JODBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 23, 1873. 



627 



sol to any special means of applying 




4tjfU carburation is not by any means 
been started almost at the same 
l^hting by coal gas in tiie ordinary 
luoed; but it was not until the 
jmd working of the American oil 
a supply of very light petroleum 
I obtainable, that any scheme in this 
lloimd to have any chance of success, 
it was taken out in France by a 
which proposed to pass air throufi;h 
light and inflammable spirit, the 
charged with a certain amount 
lous hydrocarbon vapotir, in such 
l4o render the mixture inflammable, 
!flf its being burned as an ordinary 
^IpM. This idea was introduced into 
t^ompany known as the Photogenic 
which received some amount of 
I time, but, from some cause or other, 
a success. 

inventions brought into notice since 
^fte purpose of carburetting air and 
' ive been based upon precisely the 
but have differed considerably in 
employed. A general distinction 
jliere — ^more for the sake of separate 
ftan from there bein^ any fimda- 
between them — ^between those 
propose to use air as the vehicle 
holdrng in solution the hydrocarbcni 
in which a oombustible but non- 
acts in such a manner; in either case 
the quanti^ of vapour taken up, 
when held in solution, will apply 
ly erroneous statements have been 
i matter for the want of a little scien- 
i; for instance, in some oases patentees 
declared that a union takes place, 
mechanical, between the gases of 
Ifte vapours of certain hydrocarbons, 
in the production of such gases 
or acetylene, an utter absurdity 
which would be evident to any 
under what droumstances, and 
anmmstanoofl only, such gases are 
'iiapour of any hy wxiarbon whatever 
it exist by itself or whether it be 
another gas or gases, always be 
and will invariably exhibit the pro- 
' (of it; and, moreover, if difimsed 
will be found condensible once more 
from which it was formed, if proper 
''^''i. An illustration occurs m the 
vapour, which always exists in 
<^uantity diffused through the air, 
' li still the vapour of water, ex- 
properties, and capable once more 
toe Hquid state on a sufficient reduc- 
Anotherviewequallyerroneous 
n balk of air or gas will take up and 
bion an almost indefinite quantity 
ind aome extraordinary statements have 
^S^ ^ l^^i^^ amount of this quantity, 
iwhat has been said in the earlier portion 
|Mr, it wiU be readily understo<xl that 
ji cap able of experimental proof, and 
"""■^d either by chance or accident. 
^. Qod^ has a maximum tension of its 
Iw m point is as fixed for any 



particular substance as its specific gravity or its 
boiling point. If, therefore, a given space, 
filled either with air or other gas, contain a 
quantity of vapour at its maximum tension, 
that space will be saturated with such vapoxu*, and 
it will be foiind impossible to cause it to nold ever 
so slight a quantity in excess of that already 
existing, as, however, this tension is lower for lower 
temperatures, a space that is saturated at a higher 
temx>erature will become over, or supersaturated as 
the temperature falls, and hence must deposit a 
quantity of vapourintheliquidstate. When experi- 
ments are made with a view to test this result, the 
temperature of the gaa should be the observed tem- 
perature and not the •temperature of the vessel 
containing it, as the conducting power of a gas for 
heat is so oad that it takes a considerable time for 
any quantity of it to fall from a higher to a lower 
temperature. It will be seen, then, that the fixing 
of tne maximum tension of the vapour from a 
liquid for different temx>eratures wiU give us an 
exceedingly good indication of the quantity of the 
vapom: which may exist diffused through any 
space of air or other gas. A statement was made 
at the outset, which, for the sake of deamess, is 
repeated here, viz., that the medium in which the 
vapour is diffused has no effect whatever upon the 
quantity so diffused, a vacuum, or equal volumes 
of all gases, taking up the same <^uantity of the 
vapoTu: of any liquid. The boiling point of a 
liquid is far more intimately connected with its 
vapoTu: tension than its specific gravity; indeed 
the boiling point depends upon the vapour tension, 
for when this tension equals in amoimt the pres- 
sure of the atmosphere, a body is said to boil, and 
does at that point entco: into ebullition. A great 
tendency has been shown by inventors to reduce 
the specific gravity of the hvdrocarbons which 
they use, with a view to obtain Dodies of very great 
volatility, and to some extent the boiline points of 
such booies have been disregarded ; probably this 
has not led them much astray, because, as it hap- 
pens, the substances mostly used for these pur- 
poses, the liffht petroleum spirits, have low specific 
gravities and low boiling points, the two being re- 
duced at the same time, but if almost any 
other class of hydrocarbons had been dealt with,, 
the specific eravity would have proved no guide- 
to the volatSity of the the compound; thus, in. 
the case of the following bodies, alcohol, benzole,, 
and bisulphide of carbon, which have respectively 
the specific gravities 0'719, 0-85, and 1*272, the 
vapour tensions, and consequently the boiling 
pomts, follow just the contrary order, and the 
body possessing the greatest density is really the* 
most volatile. The vapour tension of alcohol, at 
ordinary temperatures, viz., about 15 deg. 0., is 
equal to the depression of the mercurial column 
to tiie extent of 30 mm, the boiling point of alcohol, 
being 79 deg. 0. ; the vi^ur tension of benzole, 
in the same manner, is 55, and the boiling point of 
the liquid 78 deg. C, and of bisulphide of carbon 
as high as 250, with a boiling point of 48 deff. C. ; 
low spedfic gravity is, tfierefore, not always 
coupled with low boilinfl^ point and great volatility. 
A law was enunciated by Dalton, which, though 
since proved to be only approximately true, never- 
theless enables us obtain a rough idea of the 
vapour tension of any liquid ii we know its 
boiling point, which was tnis : — " The vapours of 
different liquids have equal tensions at tcF 



528 



JOGKNAL OF ..HE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Hat 23, 187S. 



to ^ 



perstures equally removed from their boiling 
pomts." Thus, the bofling point of ^Jeohol being 
79 deg., the Taponr tension of alcohol at 50 deg. 
ought to be equal to the vapour tension of 
water (with a boiling point of 100 deg. C.) at 
71 deg., which is sppremmately correct. Now, 
the boiling points of the light petroleum spirits 
used in the carburation of air are pretty well 
known, and some of them are expressed in the 
following taUe, together with the specific gravity 
of the spirit: — 

BoiUNo Points op Light Pbtbolbuic Spmir or 
DimnuDfT Stbcific G-&AvrrT. 



Spedfle graylty. • 

0-600 4 

0-628 30 

0-669 68 

0-699 92 

0-726 118 

0-741 136 

0-767 160 



BoUiDg point, 
deg. G. 



»f 



The spirit more commonly employed has a spe- 
-Gific grav idy of about 0*650, having a boiling 
point of 56 deg. C. In the following short table 
the vapour tension of this spirit has been calculated 
by the above approximate law, for several difESorent 
but often enpenenoed temperatures. 

Tablb op MAxnniM Yapouk Tension op Pbtbolbuic 
Spuut op a Sp. G-e. *660 at Dippbrbnt Temps&a- 

Tf7&B8. 

TenperRtare. 
—10 deg. C. 



+ 10 

16 

20 

40 



it 
»» 







Vapoar Unsion. 


(14 dflg. 


F.} 


.... 43*6 mm. 


(32 „ 


j 


.... 81*0 ,. 


(60 „ 


J 


.... 132-0 „ 


(«o „ 


1 


.... 167*0 „ 


(68 „ 


) 


.... 208-0 „ 


(104 „ 


) 


.... 801-8 „ 



These viqK>ur tensions, therefore, express the 
maximum jkroportionate quantities of the spirit 
which can exist dissolved in air, or other 
medium at those temperatures ; thus the 
quantitv of vapour dissolvea at 15 deg. C. (60 de^. 
F.) or the temperature of a tolerably warm day, is 
just about double that which will be dissolved at 
deg. C. ^32 F.) or the freeang point of water ; 
the reduction of the temperature from 15 deg. to 
10 deg. 0. (60 deg. to 50 deg. F.) is coupled with 
a loss of about one quarter of the amount of hvdro- 
carbon vapour. These points are capable of direct 
experimental proof, and all claims and statements 
made by inventors may be brought with perfect 
justness to such results. We may perhaps state 
the above table in a still clearer way, by convert- 
ing the figures representing the vapour tensions 
into the per-*oentage of vapour present in any bulk 
of gas at any particular temperature. It will then 
stand thus: — 

TABLB op PBR-OBNTAO* op VAPOOB op PBTROtEtm 

SpnOT OP A Sp. Gr. *660. prssbnt m Ant ob othbb 
HsDiuv AT DipmoNT Tbvpbratvhbs. 

.. 6-7 
... 10-7 



Temperatare 


• 


•10 deg. 


0. 


(14 deg. F. 


„ 




(82 „ 


10 „ 




(50 „ 


16 „ 




(60 .„ 


20 „ 




(68 „ 


40 „ 




(104 „ 



••«..• 



17-6 

27-0 
390 



Now, for an ''air gas" soheme to be successful, 
the air must h6ld in solution a suflELofieiit quantity 



of vapour at the loipust 
it mav possibly be exposed as shall eonlsr 
it both inflammability and an adequate lamiso«1|i 
and thn really means that at a hi^er ieo^M* 
ture it will hc^ in solution a oraeh gnril 
quantity then is necessary in order to obteii 
a result. In many eases, doubtless, tfaosistiie 

The quantity of vajwur held in solution it 
one time, no matter at what teuipeiaUiw 
observation be made, will be found to be jwk ftii 
quantity which would be fomid sofiBooit to 
saturate the air or gas at the lowest tempeittan 
to which it has been exposed ; hence sny lowtrinj 
of the temperature after ctti>m»^on sboidd h 
carefullv avoided, " as a loss would thereby H 
incurred of a quantity of vapour which wonld nd 
be restored on the temperature beoomiB; igw? 
higher ; this, of course, apphes only to tke gss a 
air after it has left the kqaid hydroesibcn, «i i 
not in contact with it. 

The liquid hydrocarbons, which «t preiMt tf 
almost exclusively proposed to be emidoyed forth 
purposes of carboMrtion, are ihe light ojIb *» 
spirit which form the first distillate in thepwpi» 
tion of paraffin oil from the crude Amfirioin miaen 
oil. As this tight spirit is too vt>latile snd mto^ 

nmble to be burned in any sort of Isaip •*]P'*^ 
in use, and no other commercial api&ortiro hj 
been discovered, very large quontitias of it « 
disposed of as an entirely waste product, (^♦•jj 
able at a merely nominal cost. Whether the difi« 
ties of importation, or its taking its position •» j 
marketable product, will materially alM die** 
mates at present put forward for the contniM" 
acquirement of large quantities, will lenain b« 
after to be seen. 

With regard to these "an- gases," all tWrt 
mains is to state wherein tiie vorioo p^ 
dlflSer in' their mode of earburetting the sir. J* 
first of 'these recent schemes purpows to «• 
minute streams of air through a layer of vp^^ 
a specific gravfty 0-670-4his is aoeomplisbed ij 
forcing air under pressure through a saiD ttfi* 
the ti<piid, havine a false bottom of we gj* 
the passage of the air through the gauiediw 
it into innumerable fine streams, and ^^'^'^^^^ 
come into close contact witti the Kqnid su^** 
The air, as it issues from the top of the tsak, vu 
thus be saturated with the hydrocarbon ▼»P*° 
The depth of Uquid through which ^^^ 
is maintained constant by means of a ■"^^ 
ingenious float. It is furtiier proposed, in tai 
patent, to dissolve in the spirit a quantity <rf »■ 
more highly-condensed sohd hydrocarbon; wt 
is open to very considerable doubt whether w 

effect of such addition could be veiy peroep^^ 
The iUu^iinating power of this gas is vtty^W 

high indeed as 30 candles, althoi^ this «*«^ 
requires a sUght qualiflcataon, as the lighthig pt'^ 
of the flame is not expressed by it, bat onJrn 
fact that if it were possible (which it fe«<>*)^ 
the gas at the rate required by the photon**" 
test, vi«., five cubic feet per hour, this fllunrinjiw 
power wtmld be obtained, it being a fast ^^ 
very much smaller amount of air-gas can be hami 
from the ordinary •* London argand" bamff.' 
from a batswing. to obtain the tanw W of J»J 
than in the case of coal*gas ; this^Bfectis B<^^otf 
due to the greater densiiry of "air gas.'* « « 
be mentioned here that these air-gases do not vm 
at all well under pressure, and hanc* are osi 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 23, 1873. 



629 



\en which afford exceedingly free 

iksmAg gas, euch as argands, there 

with humers of the batswing and 

the air and yapour to separate, 

ible by the more rapid transpuration 

riri)6tance through a narrow opening. 

1 by this particular scheme possesses , 

1, a very fair degree of per- 

temperatores, and is capable 

I through comparatively long lengths 

jHtle deterioration in quality. As an 

trial, one side of the nave of the 

has been recently lichted in this 

bat success the public journals have 

Mnrit used for uns purpose having 

I lower specific gravity than that 

iUke patent. It is further stated that 

?^ will carburet 800 cubic feet of air, 



IS a 



igsdlon of oil being two shilline^s. 
line the same result i 
^of the above, the special features of 
liie first place, the required current 
maintained by docKwork, and, 
Ffohotitution of a considerable length 
~ on other absorbent substance, kept 
the liquid hydrocarbon, in the place 
air directly through the liquid, 
and the results obtained are very 
as in the former case. This scheme 
lustrated upon a somewhat extended 
town of Gh^at Marlow being at 
ited by its means, 
latter has one slight advantage 
r. inasmuch as the bubbling of air 
tale spirit will promote its evapora- 
Fin ext^t that the temx>erature of the 
reduced exceedingly low, in some 
the freezing point, and consequently 
of the air will be very considerably 
same time. Now any unnecf'ssary 
r temperature, either of liquid or air, 
ly avoided, in order to keep in 
vapour as possible, 
plan has received some attention 
at least the advantage of simpli- 
I consists in using an ordinary gas- 
its tank, as a gas generator, to the 
B&otiber apparatus. At the crown of 
isr is placed a valve, opening with 
hot closing the moment any pressure 
f the holder. Underneath this valve 
ItfajTB containing a* shallow layer of a 
ling, of somewhat lighter specific 
those used in other cases. As 
it mechanically raised, the entering 
r the surface of the volatile hydro- 
ling in this manner sufficiently 
^W immediately used as an illuminating 
ElBlnr be consumed through most ordi- 
p* The illuminating power of the flame, 
ai tile same manner as before, is from 
•irty-three candles. The spirit — of 
• RsUon, it is believed, will carburet 
y wot — ^used in this process is said 
in tax almost unlimited quantity, 
off on the first heating of the 
in ike manufacture of American 
^ A At present this volatile distillate 
l^Ms^Mlly to evaporate into the 
rVrt It IB thought ^at with very 
or trouble, it may readily be 



condensed and imported. This spirit evaporates 
with extreme rapidity, as might be expected from 
its low boiling-point ; and the vapour proceeding 
from it, as from other petroleum spirits, is an ex- 
ceedingly heavy one, almost as heavy, indeed, as 
the vapour of ether ; hence, when mixed with air, 
it renders the mixture considerably heavier than 
an equal bulk of air, and this has been taken ad- 
vantage of in the construction of what is certainly 
an ingenious arrangement, intended to be used as 
a portable gas lamp, or, in some cases, in place of 
the ordinary gaselier. A small reservoir communi- 
cating by a pipe with an ordinary eas burner, pro- 
vided with a stopcock, is filled with shavings or 
wool, which material is saturated with the spirit. 
The air and vapour descend together through the 
pipe to the burner, and produce a flame apparently 
equal, in all respects, to ordinary gas, the air 
entering through a small hole at the top of the 
reservoir. It is stated that half-a-pint of oil will 
be sufficient to saturate an amount of material to 
supply a light for nine hours. 

It nas often been thought that of a necessity 
these very volatile liquids must be much more 
liable to explosion than those of higher boiling 
points ; such, however, is not the case, not but 
that it is possible to cause them to explode, because 
the vapour of any combustible hydrocarbon, when 
mixed with that proportion of air which oontaina 
just sufficient oxygen to bum up the hydrogen and 
carbon, will bum throughout at once, producing 
thereby sudden expansion, which is nothing more 
than explosion ; but the conditions necessary, in 
order to obtedn this result, are more difficult in the 
case of these heavy vapours of very volatile bodies, 
as, just above the explosive point, the air and 
vapour simply inflame and bum, while just below 
it inflammation will not occur at all from the pre- 
sence of too small a quantity of vapour. This is 
contrary to the case of hyorogen gas, which ex- 
plodes with ease when mixed with air in very 
variable proportions. The fear has been expressed 
that possibly, even after the complete mixture of 
such a heavy vapour and air, that separation other 
than condensation to the liquid state might occur, 
that is to say, that a layer of heavy vapour might 
lie at the bottom and a layer of the lighter air at 
the top ; but the law of the diffusion of gases 
which states that gases and vapours, whatever 
their differences in density, will become and re- 
main completely mixed, invariably prevents such 
separation, just as in the atmosphere the heavier 
oxygen is not foimd at the bottom, and the lighter 
niht)gen at the top, but the two are found to- 
gether in practicimy the same proportions from 
wherever a sample of air is obtained. 

If comparisons be instituted between gases made 
in the ordinary manner and these air gases, they 
should be made under the same circumstances, and 
if this be done it will be found that coal-gas itself 
suffers, either on exposure to a low temperature or 
by long keeping — not in any way a surprising 
result, since it contains the vapours of benzole, 
toluole, &c., which are capable of being condensed 
to liquids. In this respect rich gases always 
suffer the most ; thus on continued ejgiosure to a 
temperature of deg. C, or 32 deg. F., gas made 
from cannel coal loses much more of its illumi- 
nating power than gas made from ordinary coal. 
^ The employment of a combustible gas as the 
vehicle for holding in solution, and carrying. 



530 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 23, 18T«. 



G«rbonic acid SOpor^eai 

Carbonic oxide 90 „ 

Hydrogen 60 „ 



100 

Any form of oatrboti is oftpable Of tiiwting'a 
deoompositian. If a metal» sack ae iroii, be pnM 
it adcU to the qnantity of hydrogen Mid 
aooording to the following action :~ J 



4 H, -h S Pe = Fa, 0« + n. 






This mixture of gases is inflammable, odW 
with a non-luminous but hot fliaie, ^ kij| 





Tapours of volatile liquids, appears at first sight to 
be a more rational and probably a more successful 
method of applying the principle of carburatton, 
for in the former cases not only has a sufficiency 
of vapour to be retained to confer luminosity upon 
the flame, but % further quantity must be present 
for the production of the flame itself, or we may 
express this difference b^ saying that in the one 
case the combustible gas is alres^y manufactured, 
and requires only to be endowed with luminous 
prox>erdes by the hydrocarbon vapour; in the 
other tiie combustible gas has itself to be manu- 
factured, and then, also, to acquire luminosity from 
the hydrocarbon vapoup, and therefore it will be 

perfectly clear that a non-combustible gas will which would be increased if the tubamtA^ 
require to hold a larger quantity of vapour in previously removed, the flame of hydroiaii"- 
solution than a combustible gas, in order to attain , ing a temperature of 3,776 deg. Pah. TM$ 
the same amount of lighting power. This state- { the flame is an undoubted advanUnnbAtb 
. ment does not, of course, deny the possibility in carburetted, as the paiiicles of omootiita 
of a non-combustible gas, such as air, ac- heated to whiteness ; but, on the other V|ib4 
quiring and holding a sufficient amount of presence in the gas of a quantity of onboBie 
vapour, but all other things being equal, a is as great a disadvanta^, on aoooimt o( ' 
combustible gas has a distinct advantage in this iurious and exceedingly harmfol ckanetff. 
respect, and probably such a gas might be car- | tx>nio acid is an injurious gas, but its 
buretted with a hydrocarbon liquid, having a lower the system is not that of an aetive 
boiling point, and hence less volatile than an in- ' rather that of preventing the neeeiss 
combustible gas, such as air. This advantage is oxygen from entering the lungs, and 
also increased when air is employed, from the . from its effect will be death from safb&Atu I 
presence in it of one-fifth of its volume of oxygen the other hand, carbonic oxide is an adiiuMll 
whidi bums up, without other effect than in- { and recovery from its effect is much niorediNMi 
creasing the heat of the fiame, a proportionate indeed, it is calculated tiiat 2 per eeni in ^ 
quantity of vapour. The nature of the com- sphere would prove fatal, a result that * 
bustible gas used is not of any very ^eat im- I great caution in the use of a gas 
porbince, and hence cheapness and • economy in ' any quantity. 

production become the chief ^dcs for its manu- In this recent process it is proposed to i 
facture. The possibility, without any great amoimt of the ordinary description, set, as usttsl, is 
of trouble, of obtaining a quantity of hydro^fen of five, seven, or nine. All, except the 
gas from water has always been a favourite theme ' of each set, are filled with some oatiwaa 
with inventors, and many schemes for its prao- I stance, usually coke, together with M 
tical utilisation have been introduced ; but one iron, or iron <uiair8, and heated up to a 
hardly expected to recognise in a *'new gHs" our tively high temperature; steam — under 
old friend this water-gas once more; such is, I generated from an ordinary boiler, and nr 
however, the case, and a patent has lately been by its passage through pipes set in and 
obtained for the carburation of this gas with some the same furnace as the retorts — ^is in' 
light hydrocarbon liquid. The plan is being carried the back of each retort, and has to 
out upon a small scale, and will doubtless vpry whole length, passing through the nd 
soon be tried upon a more extended one. The ^nd issuing from the front. During T 
amount of attention that has been at various times the above decompositions take place, 
bestowed upon this subject may be gathered from ' retort is of a larger size, and is alio 
the number of patents ootained for the production i coke, but no steam is introduced into it; 
of this so-called water-gas. The first appears to j formed and the remaining undeeoaftm 
have been granted to Michael Donovan in 1830, a from the other retorts passing thro«gbft*^ 
second to George Lowe in 1831, a third to Gilbert \ this remaining quantity of steam b«ii|J 
Saunders in 1833, and two others to Mr. Floret ' composed ; and from this point the gii» 



precisely in the ordinary manner, and 
holders, it being, in all respects, a 
It is intended to utilise this gas 



and Jean Baptiste Molerat about the same time, 
and man^ others, all differing by some slight 
modifications, but all dependent upon the decom- 
position of steam by red hot coal, coke, or metal. { heating gas; but its chief use is for iUmBin*^ 
This decomposition takes place with very great the necessary luminosity is obtained in *' 
ease whenever steam is passed over such heated *" '" *-^ 

material. Hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic 
add being produced, probably two different actions 
take place, as expreased by the following equa- 
tions: — 



H,0 + C = H. + C 
2H,U + C = 2H, + COj 

The amounts of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and 
carbonic acid obtained are variaUe under different 



manner as with air gas, the gas beings 
bubble through some light i^iirit, any i«< 
temperature by the rapid evaporation b«mg* 
by maintaining the vessel oontainoig it<^* 
stant temperature by means of a stoam jif^ 
illuminatmg power of the gas so obtaiM*) 
to about sixteen or seventeoi oandke; ^ 
permanent character is declared to be, 



doubt is, quite sufficient to render it of tflw*/ 

circumstances. An analysis of the gas obtained tioal uti]^ty. Let it, however, be beone^nri'*^ 
by passing steam over red-hot charoo^ for some ' ^o more union has taken place baiweoi w*^ 
Mmgaveasaoean — of the hydxoaaHxMi aad the 



JOURNAL OF THB SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 23, l«a. 



531 



store Aan in the case of the oarburation of air, 
a gum tftking ap precisely the same quantity 
TUKmrat the same temperature, and both being 
BiJJj liable to be affected by changes of tem- 
|to8» or other changes of circumstances. The 
rii of tbese carburetted gases are, of course, to 
pr Isrge extent tree from those impurities 
Ihtfe usoally found in coal gas. 
I iiigg«8ted application of this principle of 
^ontiiHi, as an adjunct to the ordinary manu- 
hre of gM, has many favourable points ; for 
jM may most certainly bo as successfully 
^dted as either air or hydrogen and carbonic 
ni it is quite possible to produce an ex- 
Hf large yield of poor illuminating gas 
mA the luminosity of which might be 
1^ to the ordinary standard by partially 
the gas with some light hydrocarbon, 
of a less quantity of vapour being 
in a given bulk of gas, and hence a 
lenilt would be more easily obtained, 
HIT woidd only have to raise the lumin- 
• lower to a higher point, and not to do 
work of illumination itself. A very 
<^ gas from coal may be obtained by 
vlahigh temperature, or at the ordmary 
^ if a jet of steam be introduced into 
^ to ing the carbonisation, it having 
■•4 possible to obtain by this latter 
much as 52,000 cubic feet from a 
an illuminating power equal to four 



i^fonr 



tMlof 



tpBoeding r^uarks an endeavour has been 
<^ ana examine the claims of each of 
hrcmght forward in a clear and im- 
». liie extravagant statements and 
^cories sometimes put forward often 
8 and supp>ort because those hearing | 
lorn the necessary knowledge of the j 
■ chemistry or physical science to com- 
^e them ; and very often sush state- 
Ives are made in ignorance, and not 
>io wilfully mislead, by those who would ' 
*i*e the truth if it were presented to them 
^■Bd succinct manner. Most schemes of 
•re open to conclusive proof with re- 
value and practicability, and in some 
Krf will be entirely to their advantage, 
opt be shunned by their promoters, 
won of so many new inventions just 
[^^gMd to the manufacture of gas, indi- 
"'Want somewhere, and if such a want 
* be long before it is met and satis- 
-^ *ny of these present schemes are 
5?*^ this satisfaction it is premature 
s^2L?^ ^^^* however, be said, that 
2J***^tion upon insufBcient evidence is 
^J^l^niented and avoided as exaggerated 
1 statements. 

of the commercial success of any of 

^▼^tions has been avoided, as it was 

W^ at the outset, to make this paper 

[♦»*? •o examination from a scientific 

[^»* of such inventions. Doubtless there 

^wiio are anle to form an excellent judg- 

* inch matters as comparative cost of 

JJjMt, labour, &c. ; and this part of the 

at all times have an exceedingly im- 

'^ooe upon any expressed opinion as to 

'l^Btsre of any such undertaking. 



DISCUSSION. 
After a few words from Kr. Haie, 

Mr. H. P. Stephenson asked whether the hydrogen 
ustid was free from carbonic oxide or not. White's 
^ooess (by which Stockton 'had at one time been 
lighted) was not the same as that by which the *' new 
Qua " was made, as hia gas had been hydrogen, which 
derived its illuminating power from a mixture of bog- 
head coal-gas, whereas in the **new gas" petroleum 
ufiforded the illuminating agent. The drawback to 
White's process was that the two gases wuuld 
not mix thoroughly, and besides the process 
was a costly one. The light was also very uocer- 
tain, and varied considerably in power owing to 
thid imperfect fusion of the gases, whereas this Was by no 
means the case with the new gas. He believed the 
new gas would not burn in a flat flame burner, 
though it answered very well in an argaod. 
Chichester was now lighted with a mixture of coal 
gHS and this new gas, and, as he understood, the 
arrangement worked admirably. As to the poisonous 
qualities of carbonic oxide. Professor FrankKnd 
and Mr. Alexander Wright had some years since 
expt^rimented upon the subject, and had found that 
carbonic oxide was no more destructive to animal life 
than an equal quantity of coal-gas. These experiments 
had been ma<le in rounection with Mr. Gillard's patent, 
in which a jet of hydrogen was thrown upon a ring of 
platinum, which became incandescent and gave a beau-, 
tiiul white light. It seemed to him that in the new gas 
neiiher the carbonic, acid nor the carbonic oxide was got 
rid of. He should like to ask whether it was in .its burnt 
or its un burnt Htate thitt the carbonic oxide was referred 
to as poisonous by Mr. Wills. Speaking as a director 
of the Cr.\ bUI Palace District Gas Company, he would 
suggest that if any more experiments vrere made at the 
Palace with the new g^s, the coal gas should be entirely' 
cut « iff from the complicated system of mains there before 
the new gas was turned on. 

Mr. M. H. Gore hid had some practical commercial 
experienoH on the matt^ r in hand. He had himself been 
conDe<:ted with the introduction of air-gas into this 
country from America, under Longbottom's patent, in 
which dry air was driven through benzole. He had 
madn some 400 or 500 experioMnts with the gas, but 
found it a failure. It would not travel. Some which he 
had once stored in a gasholder for four days did not dete- 
riorate; but when it was transferred to another holder it 
was found that great loss ensued. Further experiments 
produced atill further deterioration, and he came to the 
roiiclusion that the gas was useless for this reason. Still 
it could be employed unjer certain conditions. He had 
hnd to make gas, for instince, where there was no coal. 
In 1867 he wait called upon to light the city of Mexico 
with gHS. and it whs found that ooal was too dear for 
(Oil -gHS to be employed. He consequently first tried a 
m<Mii6*-ation of White's process, mixing water-gas with 
gaM produced from resin or tar, but there were many 
difficultiea in the way ; he could not obtain proper re- 
torts; in fact, he had been obliged < o use a retort of 
nhnet-iron, and there were other practical difficulties. 
Finally, he found that he could not obtain the requisite 
illuuiinating power without getting rid of the carbonic 
oxi'le, a process which involved so much expense, that 
at length the project was abandoned as impracticable. 
He then fell back on the plan of making gas from 
Aood and resin, and in this he succeeded, so that 
Mexico was now lighted by gas of that sort. In con- 
clusion, he would urge that all interested in the subject 
should set their faces against the extravagant and 
misleading statements by which it was now the fashion 
to herald in aU new schemes of the sort. Such a piac- 
ticH was nothing else than puffery of the worst de- 
scription. 



L 



530 



JOUKNAL OF TTTT? c 



f ^ 



Tapours of volatile 
be a more rational 
method of applyin 
for in the former ■ 
of vapour to be r* 
the flame, but a 
for the product^ 
express this di' 
case the combu 
and requires c 
properties by 
other the coin' 
factured, and 
the hy drown 
perfectly cl< 
require to 1 
solution th: 
the same m 
ment does 
of a noT 
quiring 



jr JSTX 



.^^oMtHOEAL 




4f^ti 



vapour, 

combust ^ 

respect, 

burette' 

boilinLT 

comb 11 

also i 

presr^ 

whir' 

crea- 

quiK 

bu^' 

po 

F' 

fU' 

ot 

<T 



VUfel 
^ JkStO 

.'• so for 
Ntfi^otii not 

^a ««ng pure 

^ It was in 

. . 'it* «ted steam 

> fi$ Mu8cainp*8 

\vQ referred to, 

.K new processes 

. V the poisonous 

. Mttted that coal 

>avT animal Hfe if 

^ «.fc a much smaller 

' >croy life, and therein 

^ .^ ^ when burnt, became 

^ . .-vHirse, in its unbumt 

^^uiuon, he would advise 

« o>ovleBmed on account of 

« OjcmI endeavoured in the 

_M iiocurate account of the 

^H.itbed, and without offering 

^.^ 'jto&d present to draw their 

^^'og a vote of thanks to Mr. 

^^M on his very exhaustive and 

,j««rved that the large attendance 

. ^rtnt an interest was now taken in 

« .. < »i»9 remark on the extreme ease 

^ t rnhnrh Mr. Howland's apparatus 

^ thAi it was one of those clever 

.^^ which often took us over here by 

,^-vottily. 

• ^Tk;^ ««s unanimously carried. 



.5r of visitors admitted on Tkondir/u 

* collows:— Season iicketa, 210; oo jtni 

«d; total, 4,003. On Pridiiy.Maioiiticbttfi 

.^rai of Is., 3,115; total, 3,330. Oo Sitadi 

_.^ ^kets, 947 ; on payment of U.,5,26i : U 

>f number of visitoit admitted to the ExBb: 
i£-ag the week ending Saturday, Maj lii^ro 
Jows: — Season tickets, 2,122; on payment of it. 
..924 ; on payment of Is., 18,264 ; total, 22,010. 
The number admitted on Monday was, mnn ^ 
, 178 ; on payment of Is., 2,646; toUl, 2,821 OaTw 
I day, season tickets, 202; on payment of U, '\SS 
total, 3,792. On Wednesday, season tiebtiy ^21 : < 
payment of 2s. 6d., 1,701 ; total, 2,022. 



w ..v> ^on of the meeting, Mr. Elmslie ex- 

^ • , t iwnsof tins for holding preserved meats, 

■s >tpper edgeof each tin a wire is inserted 

' , . . ; the ends of the wire project sufficiently to 

t ^ Viag seized with a key or fork provided 

„. s^* *> that the wire may be drawn out, 

.K' *.»Ter of the tin as it comes. The inven- 

».^a >*a« of considerable simplicity and conve- 



. . Ollea wishes it to be made known that 

•« '^ffnired to in his paper on " Improveiuents in 

^ ^ tj: Rifles and Ammunition,*' read on the 14th 

.V thf carlridKB which gained the Government 

.-.\\ in the cartridge competition, is the Daw cart- 

'V la^'^ntion of Mr. G. Daw, of Threadneedle-street, 

T* S^xnety of Biblical Archteology intend 
>.^ * • publish a series of translations of all the important 
v^'-^ **,! Add Ejryptian texts which exist in the various 
^^ •..v\...k.4» v>f Bogland and the Continent. 



It has been brought to the knowledge of the Coi 
mittee for Carriages that an eminent fiim of c'jic 
builders have sent to this year's London Intamtta 
Exhibition parties of workmen connects viti w 
carriage trade to inspect the carriages, ctmtg«-fiun? 
&c., which are exhibited. The firm refemd u t 
understood to have defrayed the travellia^ ezpaii«iw 
admission fees of the workmen, and to haf»piic«i the 
under the guidance of an expert who bad pctTion 
made himself acquainted with the special pt^^u^.^ 
terest in this class of the Exhibition. Thfl CoamiU 
for Carriages, being of opinion that the above-meaiw* 
course might be adopted with advantage by oth« &» 
brought the matter to the notice of her Majetv'sO 
missioners ; and I am to state that the Commaifl 
are prepared to allow a reduction of 25 per a^ 
parties of workmen of any number not \m ihaai 
The tickets for such parties should beai>pii<xim 
letter, about one week before the date of the pRf* 
visit. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners have been infa* 
that Mr. C. S. Middleton, of 134, Walworth-iwi ^-^ 
has made himself acquainted with all theipeciil}i^ 
of this year's Exhibition. This gentleman wonM d* 
less place his services, on reasonable t€rmE,&t^* 
posal of any firms who may wish to ^^P""** j^ 
their workmen to the London International im» 
of this year. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners are most ^*"^^ 
the practical illustrations and processes of o*^*^ 
shown in each year's Exhibition shoald ^^ j^ 
ducive to the advancement of Technicsl ('**. ^ ^ 
Her Majesty's Commissioners venture to Ikiat U 
comes within the especial functions of thecoBf^"* 
the city of London, who for centuries hi« ^^ '^ 
nected with the advancement of arts and maoal^^ 
consider what useful lessons may be afforied ^v ^* ^ 
hibitions, and they invite their serioiu atteulwn i' 
subject. Most if not aU of the city cofflf*J-**A* 
interested in education in various schot li ''""[', 
direction. It is propo»ed to hold a meeting of JJP^ 
tives of all the city companies in the Royal Albn^ ft 
to invite them to look at the industrial ooUectioM • t j 
present year, and afterwards to form co"®* 
representing each of the companies interested. 

The President of the Institution of Civil Ew^ 
proposes holding the annual conversazione of tb«» I" 
tion in the western g lUeries of the London Intermu - 
Exhibition, on Tuesday the 27th inbtanL 

Among the cooking stoves in which *^ *^^ (; 
those manufactured by Messrs. S. 1^*^L v 
(No. 4,726), are specially noticeable. Thm" 



JOUBN AL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 23, 1873. 



5S3 



thit the ftdTsntagos claimed fbr gas 

ifar cooking are not as great as its ad- 

hsTe ns beUeve, there is no real 

! properly nsed, it may be made more eoo- 

I eosL The chief gain is, that there is little 

The exact amount reqaired can be 

without waiting fbr the flie to barn up ; 

vork is done, the gas can be tamed off, 

is so waste while the fire is homing oat. 

infinitely deaner than -coal, and the heat 

regulated to the Tarions processes of 

these advantages most be set the fact, 

I'Wiitefiilly — as hoasehold servants would be 

[ft—it is certainly not cheaper than coal, as a 

Tcoal win prodnce a greater amount of heat 

viloe of gas. In foct, the case may be 

[^bos : — Qas, carefully and properly used, is 

~i eoal ; wastefully, it is dearer. It is cleaner ; 

it is more convenient, and all cooking 

[}» aooompliahed by it. 

patent on the subject was taken out in 

Hidks; eighteen years later, in 1849, 

took out another patent, in which the 

with atmospheric air before combustion, 

I principle of mixing the gas and the atmo- 

; 10 as to obtain heat, not light, upon which 

bsTe been founded. The principle is, of 

that of the well-known Bunsen burner, 

k apparatus one great desideratum has been 

~ ii perfection of ventilation. All fumes 

^ne carried away along the flue, and one 

' to the use of gas, as hitherto employed, 

ia also arranged so as to be capable of 

ilargest scale, as is shown by the results 

Hospital, the kitchen reports of which 

average saving in meat (as shown.by the 

}im owMring) is about 20 to 25 per cent, as 

^ ^ the old system, and that an abeolute 

in the butcher's bill for a year has been 

gas atove. 

•zperiments that have been made with 
tapparatus (a kitchener for &mily use) is 
f:— Breakfast for five adults and three 
of coffee, 1 pint of tea, ^ lb. of bacon, 
iff porridge, 6 rounds of toast; time, 20 
Musption of gas, 12 feet (less Uian three 
Dinner for twelve adults and three children 
Infkinb (loss l\ lbs.), 4 lbs. sirloin beef Hoss 
E potatoes, 6 lai^e cauliflowers, 2 large nruit 
JlkoQia; consumption of Ras, 43 feet (2^d.). 
^offoel is mainly effected by the ingenious 
for reflecting and utilising the heat — ar- 
Hi reflect special credit on the invention, 
itoa is calculated to do all- the cooking 
of twelve persons, at a cost of 36s. per 
' per day, estimating the price of gas at 48. 
feet. These facts speak for themselves, 
great improvements can be effected by 
^ appliances, for it is economy in the use 
pnesa in the fuel itself, that is the chief 
fthfse new stoves. Besides the larger cook- 
■, Heaara. Leoni show some very convenient 
•ppUances for cooking on a small scale, 
fw ^ introduced into houses where the 
Mr general cooking purposes is impracticable 
^y existing arrangements. 

[■J8 icientific inventions at the Exhibition, one 

^tereating and beautiful is the process of 

~ by means of the sand-blast. Though 

awe time ainee in the United States, it is 

ws in Bngland have an opportunity of 

'**« at work. The machine is in Room V., 

4386. 

[2J***of the inventor is to engrave oma- 
^ devices upon plain and coloured glass, 



upon stone, and upon metallic sur£aoes, in an expeditions 
and economical manner, and with a aharpnees which is 
unattainable by any other means. The invention, which 
applies chiefly to intaglio and flat relief eng^ving, is 
based on the iact that when glass, stone, or metal is sub- 
jected to the impact of a blast of sand, or equivalent 
hard granular substance, the detrition of the surfiace ex- 
posed to its action will be rapidly effected. Strangely 
enough, although the sand-bUst acts with energy upon 
hard or brittie surfaces, it has litUe or no effect upon 
elastic and soft substanoes, such as india-rubber, wax, 
paper, and lace, and it is upon such substances, therefore, 
that tiie patentee relies for protecting those parts of the 
glass, stone, wood, or metad which are intended to be 
untouched by the sand-blast. The efficacy of the blast 
depends upon its velocity. The sand may be propelled 
either by steam, water, or air, but steam is in general 
preferred where high velocities are required. 

The process is very simple. A bit of lace is spread 
over a piece of glass, the jet directed on it, and in a few 
seconds the surmce of the glass unprotected by the lace 
is cut away and made into ** g^und glass," while the 
pattern of the lace is marked out in smooth, untouched 
glass. To produce glass ''ground," or opaque, on one 
side, a sheet of glass is placed on rollers under a stream 
of sand driven through a long slit at right-angles to the 
plane of the glass, and as the whole surface of the glass 
passes under the jet it is all evenly ground or frosted, 
oy using sheets of variously-coloured glass cemented 
together, and hollowed out to various depths, coloured 
designs may be produced, but the most b^utifol effects 
are obtained by the employment of photogranhs on gela- 
tine (like those used in the heliotype process), which are 
attached to the glass before its exposure to the jet. The 
Band cuts away the finest lines of the glass when it is un- 
covered, but leaves smooth the portions protected by the 
soft gelatine. There are now on view in the Exhibition 
some really exquisite specimens of pictures on glass pro« 
duced by this means. 

Another application of the process is for stone carving. 
By its use perforated stone work* and tracery like that 
now existing in some of the old Indian temples is readily 
produced. The most intricate and delicate lace-work 
may be cut out of the hardest stone in a way that no 
mason's chisel could ever effect. Work like this might 
form an absolutely new feature in architectural decora- 
tion, as ornamental gratings of stone and marble might 
re-place those now made of iron. When, as in this case, a 
lai^e quantity of material is t^) be removed, a steam jet, of 
trom 40 to 60 lbs. pressure, is us^, and the stencil is made 
of iron or rubber. This stencil gradually wears away, but 
much less rapidly than the stone. When a small quantity 
of material is to be worn away, or the surface merely de- 
polished, as in ornamenting glnss, a jet of air of from 
■i\jlb. to lib. pressure is preferred. With a steam jet 
using two horse-power of steam at 70 lbs. pressure, and 
one pint of sand, two cubic inches of granite, four cubic 
inches of marble, or ten cubic inches of sandstone, may 
be cut away per minute. 

Besides the objects already mentioned, it is stated that 
the blast may be applied for cutting grooves in quarries 
and tunnels, for cleaning s*ale from metals, for cutting 
stone in lathes, and for effecting various other processes. 



A Committee for the erection of a monument to 
Liebig has been con»«tirured at Munich. Councillur yon 
Neithammer is the chairman. Prof. Von BischoS^ the vioe- 
chairmon, and professors Vollbard and Von ^oUy are the 
pecrt-uries. The King of Brtvaria has subecribed 1,000 
florins. 

The New York Semi- Weekly Times says that in 
an old map, <irdered by Parlinment in 1771» and printed in a 
book of travels at that time, the petroleum deports of 
Pennsylvania are all 'laid d«»wn and marked. 

The amount of gas consumed by the city of New 
York alonn each year is estimated to be not less than 
4,000,000,000 feet. 



dM 



JOURNAL OF TB9S 800IET7 OF AB^,TS. lk« 23^ 187& 



s= 



■^■^ 



BZHIBITIQVa. 



VIENNA EXHIBITIO». 

A meeting of Her Majetty'a ConuniBaioQera wm held 
on tlie 15th of May, at their offices ia the Bxhibition 
irroond, under the preHidenoy of hU Royal Uigbneeethe 
Priooe of Wales, K.G. There wer» prevent : — Sir 
Andrew Bachanan, Q.C.B. ; U.8.H. Oount Glbiohen, 
R.N. ; Sir Anthony de liothsohild. B u-t. ; Sir Kioharil 
Wallace, Bart., M.P. ; Mr. Henry A. Braaaey, M.P. ; and 
Mr. P. Ounliffe Owen, secretary. 



On Saturday afternoon, in presence of the Prince of 
Wales, Bteam power was for the first time applied to the 
British machinery. 

The following accoont of. the British Commission 
House is taken from the Vienna correspondent of the 
Daily T$Ugraph : — The house, a one*storiHd, oblong squate 
corrugated-iron building, cuntHining eight rooms, offices 
lavatoriee, &c , has been lent to the CommiBnion by 
Mr. Hemming, the building contractor, who hiis run up 
BO many temporary constructions in the Exhibition 
grounds — amongst others the English and Italian 
restaurants, the Paget pavilion, &o. It stands upon a 
terraoe, raised nearly three feet above the level of the 
garden ground surrounding it, which terrace, extending 
completely round thu house, and payed with encaustio 
tiles of g^eat beauty, both as regards pattern and colour, 
is the work of Messrs. Miuton and HoUios, of Stoke- 
npon-Trent, and is adorned at short intfirvals with the 
most magnificent productions in pottery of that firm--* 
huge YMM of a deep glowing green^ giuoeful urns tenr 
derly tinted and delicately enriched with surfaoe oat* 
growths of ornament, fuUncea of the quaintt^st design, 
but all quite lovely in /colour. As you enter the house 
the first room to your right is that upon which the 
greatest decorative ingenuity has been.expended by some 
of our first art industiinls. It is the *' Commission," or, 
by courtesy, the ** Prince's Boom," a well-proportioned 
apartmenti about twenty feet by twelvo, which, as well 
as the rooms adjoining it, has been entirely furnished 
and deoorated by Messrs. Jackson and (irahaoa, of 
Liondon. Here may be seen, in all its pride, art furni- 
ture supplemented by art tapiaserU and ceiling decora- 
tion, and set off by art omnments and Hccessories. The 
room glows, but not garishly, with rich deep colour; 
there are no loud obtrusive hues—all are subdued in 
tone, cognate, and true to '* Farbenharmonif ." The 
carpet in this room — as indeed in every other through- 
out the building — is a contribution from the ateliers of 
Mr. John Lewis, of Halifsx. and is a chef'd^aHvr$ in its 
way. MeBsrs. Wintield. of Birmingham, have supplied, 
at their own expt nse, the gorgeous sphinx chandeliers 
and candelabra; Simpson and Sons (Strand), a fireplace, 
of lustrous browns, greens, and yellows, with excellent 
panel-drawings on toned grounds ; Trentham and Co. 
have fitted a handsome stove into the wonderful fireplace, 
affording an interesting contrast between modern otili- 
tariHnism and old-world decorutiveness — a contrast free, 
however, from incongruity, by reason of the artistic 
character common to both its factors. The ** Prince's 
Boom" ia further embellished by some exquisite iron- 
work flower-stands, reading-lamps, bookstands, and 
brackets sent in by Messrs. Bernard, Bishop, and Ber- 
nards, by Mr. Pillischer's elegant lamps, and by Messrs. 
Elkington's silver and bronze ornaments. To your left 
on entering, exactly opposite to the Prince's Boom, and 
corresponding to it in sise and shape, is a reading and 
reception room, for the use of the commissioners. This 
is also Bplendidlv furnished by Merars. Cooper and Holt, 
decorated by the Pavy Felted Paper Company with 



Anted int-Mabir i%|mF«olo«n Mi taMil tipi^ 
and contains^ amongs&okher wosk* of iii vtsjbiim 
and iroi^work an inlaidl^tMiBg-Ublsby fios'ird i 
Bisiukpk of remarkable lightness snd t^egiuioe. Tbe 
first named firms are also fitting and deoontiiig 
'* Exhibitors' Club Boom," a bniUiiig oonftractel 
Mr^ Hemming, behind the Commiitioii Hmbm, aal 
which the British exhibitors have to tbuxk ths prii 
liberality of the OoBmisBionerB, who subwrib^tgi 
for its erection, &c^ out of theis own pooketa 
iHVaiories, &o., are the work of Mr. J«niia|^ 
excite oer tninly as much, if not more, adsuist 
foreign viators than any other part of t^ 
House. An Imperial personage, who isspaiii 
obseryed to me on leaving t^ Prince's UnU 
detail of which is really adwixablc, "^It itia 
ments like these that the English aie 
any other people — ils sent absoluaeoi wii 
regard de toutoe qui concema le confuit#l* 
The noble iron railing environing tbe«bofeffi^ 
missioBer's miniature domain has been pnsatedlf 
Coalbrook D-tle Company. There are man; nan v^ 
and beautiful objects worthy of mentios 
together within the iron walk of our oos]r 
House more than I can at this moment ctU to 
but enough has been said to prove that it uia 
respect worthy of the bright esoutcheon tbl 
over its portaL Its situation is most bapialy 
for, standing on its steps, you can see be6a» 
British Department in the Industry Palseeita^ 
your left the British Agricultural Annexe, vkftAi 
steps to the rear will bring yon to the Bnttih»r<iM^ 
machinery hall, dose to which, again, ars tki 
workman's dwellings and boiler-houiss. Oir 
partment, in fact, is, so to speak, in a ring <«h*Tl 
centre of the ring is the Oomraission HooKt It ' 
hoped that the great exortions and patriotic ' 
edness of the Comm iasiowers,^ who have aim 
scribed for the completion of the Britisk part 
show nearly three times the amount of ths «iall 
grant originally placed at their disposMl, viU b» 
appreeiatttd by the nation at larger sad by '^ 
duatiials in particular. As the Prinos of w^ 
his excellent speech of Saturday, addrefM^U 
ing men, *• Nor time nor money have th»e t 
spared to further the achievement of Bngl*n4li< 
the great work we are all engaged in." 
England can but offer them her gratitada M' 
she will not accept the saerifiee of their mooqr. 



In ^e space allotted to Mr. B. Hintea 
Pen ton, is shown a fine tx)llefti«m of »*Ui%' 
and msjolica slabs, and other similar obj^ft 
end of the wall-space there is a complete p^^ 
tiling, including dado, wall-space, and «••■* 
compositions are cIhssic ; thnt on the left kfP J 
teiised by simplicity of design, while thj«t«1 
composed mainly of majolica tiles in rdirf ■' 
ornnte. Between the two are shown thi 
members of a tile reredos, with large pictijriiil 
tions of the *' Agnus Dei" and **The P«tw» 
piety." (Several sections are shown of sn tr^ 
rich and eU borate fioor which Mr. Tkyl'ir i« 
Biddulph Grange, for Mr. Robert Heath, *n» 
also a specimen of a reproduction of k tiled fl<^ 
thirteenth century. The exhibits have heeo ^ 
under the art superintendence of Mr. 0. Eji«- 

Voteow Exhibitioa.— It is announcrd br 
Saenger, the secretary to the above Exbihitifl^ 
medals awarded to e^^ibitora will bHtuppUf^ 
ment of the cost of the metal, and thi»t tks 
be as follows : — Tbe grand gold medal, 170 
smaller gold medal, 80 roubles ; the gnnd 
15 roubles; the smaller silver med-d, 7 
bronse medal, 2 roubles. The xoubk ii <>q>» ^ 



tons'* 1 



JOURNAL OP THE BOOIETY OF ARTS, Mat 28, 1873. 



^5 



BMdbn k Eof^ iMmey, bat TftiiesMocoidiog to 



PAPER OP JTJTE. 



^ iMw Aitertiter, for May 14, was printed on 
••dt of jnte, the first time rooh an experiment 
B made. The paper, though thin and trana- 
ftod of ntber a yellow tii^e, is by no means bad, 
litar t fev more experiments it will doubtless be 
* mpiwed in qualily. The quantity of jute,' 
far the purpose, and now in the market, is con- • 
I, aod at the pnsent price of paper the utUisa- ! 
[tBtterial sach as this would prove an immense 
n» piper <m which the AdvertUer was printed ! 
■I from eld jnte hagginff, and it is said that ' 
;wj«te which will probably be (bond most 
^piper'mAdag, in reipeot of oost and pro- 
i,»tkat known m^ " rejections," which can be 
iminy quantity in Dundee at £9 lOs. per ton. 
if»doobt, is somewhat dearer than esparto, but 
" OQtoome of paper from Esparto is only about 
t, th»t frem jute may be taken at 70 per cent, 
> jittld Bore than oompensatee for the difference 

Ny of encouraging the manufacture, the pro- 
of the Advertiter offer the following two 
A premium of £50 for the best ream of 
ifcoitirely from jnte suitable for printing their 
iwitiayerageais© and weight, and of which the 
gWwderbike to supply 60 tons at a price not 
t V* I**" 1^' 2nd. A premium of £100 fir the 
Mf |wper made entirely of jute, suitable for 
Fw journal, of its average size and weight, 
^^ the maker will undertake to supply 100 
•per JO. 



made in Messina, and are exported to the Uiiited States, 
Franoe, and Germany. There are several quarries of 
variegated marMe at Taormiha, and there are deposits 
of lignites at Satioo and Banso, in the neighbourhood of 
Messina. At Gesso there are mountains of good gypsmn 
and alabaster. Lipari contains almost inexhanstible 
quarries of pvmioe-stone. At Ptttti there are thirtSta 
earthenware factories working all the year round. Tliey 
make several kinds of culinary vessels, whioh are shipped 
to every part of the island and to the coast of Barbary. 
Large quantitiea of casks are made at Messina for the 
Levuit. Not nraoh attention has hitherto been devoted 
in this province to improvement in the culture of land. 
The fertility of the soil cannot be disputed, and will 
doabtless be eventually developed. 



(M&JIBSPOVBEHCB. 



IN THE PROVINCE OF 
MESSINA. 

/Jiid eoap is mnnnfactured in Messina, Mi- 
|aoeci]uinpra. and is chiefly consumed in the 
»iDiicee of the province. There are exten- 
Ktwies «t MilMSEzo and Lipari. The wine is 
toNaplt^s, France, Germany, and the United 
^*wn of tartar is manufactured in Messina, 
^% St. Ter»«i, and BHrcelona, and is exported 
of the worid. The essence of lemons and 
fWttboiled Hud raw lemon juiop, are made in 
f**»»hnnera, Spedafom, Barcelona, Patti, St. 
•t an placee where the lemon is cultivated, 
^t productions are exported to all pai-ts of 
Roar and maccaroni are manufactured in 
j*d Mihizio, and are principally consumed in 
■iw biscuits are made at Milazso for expor- 
^teth is made and consumed in Messina, 
on a lufge scale, are established at 
., and PaUi ; the fish is salted in great 
is sent in the interior, to the coast of 
, »J Adriatic and Malta. There are several 
|«woiher Bilk filatures in Messina, Patti, Itala, 
«». Fiumedinisi, St. Teresa, Oasalvecchio, 
*»- Otjjosa, M^rea. St Angelo, Oape Orbjndo and 
^ wk produced is chiefly sent to France and 
J»ool tt (^ined at the sheepfolds in Mistretta, St. 
■^JjW^ronea. Montalbano, and Francavillk. 
ik «!?*""*** ™ **^® istend. In many of the 
L Ij^ * ^"^ coawe cloth is made, and is 
■J^ to the wants of the country people in the 
^«- Btmw hats, of a very common kind of 
pwja m«da in Messina. They are used by the 
■■■■^Vy the eomitry people, fishermen, &c. 
E^Vk? ""^n tanneries in Messina, and two in 
d T*!! P'^^duoe of the same is oonsumed in 
*• « ITaplei. Gloves, in Uuqgeqwtntiaes, axe 




THE NEW TAX ON KNOWLEDGE. 

Sir,— We all like Mr. Stansfeld. Popular measures 
are always safe with him. He is the man to put our 
local taxation into "^e right groove. But last night, 
though be touches with merciful finger the sacred in- 
terests of Church and Chapel, he aimed his dencfaed fist 
at Mechanics* Institutions'. Let me then ask all 
the host of their literary members at once to protest 
against his ill-judged proposal to lay a taxing hand on 
their Institutions. 

While he calls aloud for National Education, oost what 
it may, he would remove the exiemption hitherto willingly 
extended to our institutes. 

If any bodies have forced on onr governing dttsses to 
the acquisition and diffarion of useful knowledge, t^ey 
have done it. What crime have they committed to lie 
taxed when millions are voted for the very work which 
they have so successfully promoted ? 

They have welcomed every little cup to dip into their 
fountain of knowledge. More than this, they have caught 
the most unwilling among their enemies, and have taught 
them to talk so white out of the House that they could 
never with any grace talk black when National Ednoa- 
tion was the measure within the House. Let me, then, 
appeal to every literary member in the three iPealms, to 
tell his representatives that oF all things, next to igno- 
rance, taxation is the thing he likes the least. 

I am, &o., 

John Bxnkstt. 
CheapMe, May S, 18T3. 



GITN-COTTON v. GUNPOWDER. 

Snt, — ^It does not appear at all probable that the manu- 
facture of gun-cotton can ever be reduced to a simple 
manipulation, as is eminently the caese with ordinary 
powder that requires no scientific knowledge, and can be 
made by anyone, better or worse, according to his ability, 
but still available for its intt^nded purpose. On the con- 
trary, the skill and science of the first-rate chemists of 
Europe and America have been devoted to the manu- 
facture of gun-cotton, sometimes termed tri-nitro- 
cellulose, or pyroxilin, without having attained com- 
plete success. Even if ultimately successful, the 
process cannot be conducted without the constant 
supervision of high chemical science. There are so 
many details required in the preparation of tiie ingre- 
dients, in their composition, and drying, that it will be 
impossible always to avoid failure in aome paxtiealary 
resulting in disaster both to makers and users. 

Perfect gun-ootton may possibly be much superior to 
ordinary powder, waight ror weight, or bulk to bulk; 
b«t the diffieolties in the manufiaetare, the oost, and 
dinger, will more than ovw^mUoim any sooh'^alniible 



636 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY 



fimflmtiigik 



%a]ttie8, while the flttainmeot of the hoped-for perfec- 
tion in the manufacture hae been, and is still, retarded 
by the number of patents relating to gun-cotton ; for 
all new inventions require improvements, which can only 
be introduced by the patentee himself^ to be secured, of 
course, by additional patents. They cannot be added by 
other parties without securing them, when both patents 
become useless unless combination take place. 

For a similar cause the sewing mttchine remained 
nearly dormant for more than twenty years, and it is 
only of late that improvements have now rendered it a 
cheap household implement, a benefit of which the 
pubhc have been for so many years deprived by the 
vagaries of patentees; but perfection is still remote, 
and will remain so as long as wo persist in upholding 
exclusive laws. The breech-loading rifle is in precisely 
the same predicament, overloaded and smothered by 
innumerable patent rights. — I am, &c., 

HSM&T W. EXVXLBT. 
Betdlog. 



OBHBBAL VOTBB. 



The Oomwall Folyteohnio Booietj. — llie Exhibition 
of this Society will be opent^d early in August, at Falmouth, 
and all articles for exhibition must be forwardnl at least one 
week before the opening. Medals and prixes will be awarded 
for useful inventions or improvements, which must be ex- 

?lained by models or drawings and descriptions. The 
uUiiwing special premiums will be awarded :— For the best 
model and oest plan for improving the ventilation of mines, 
£10 and £5; a premium of £6, given by the Mining Journal. 
for the best paper ountaining an account of methods of 
mining practised elsewhere, applicable with advanta^ to 
Cornwall; for practical Muggeetions, with models or drawings, 
as to the motive power tu be employed in driving boring 
machines in Cornish mines, including the method oi convey- 
ing the power to the machines £10 and £6 ; for models of 
steam stamps, three, two, and one guineas; for the best 
working plui of a mine in foil work, £6 5s. ; models or plans 
of a new safe contrivance for lowering or raising miners, two 
premiums of £5 5s. Prizes are to be given for good work- 
manship in models, &o., and sectional models of a Cornish 
engine and pump lifts or pit work will be rewarded. Prizes 
are also awarded in other sections. Full information may be 
obtained from the Secretary, Mr. J. H. Collins, F.u.S. 
Polytechnic Hall, Falmouth. 

Chemical Sespirator. — One of the most recent 
applications of Professor Tyndall's observations upon the 
power of cotton wool respirators to stop particles from enter- 
mg the limgs is that of Me«sre. Barton, who have patented a 
respirator for use by miners, iremen, and others who are 
forced to enter places filled with noxious vapours of anv 
kind. This respirator consists of a metal case packed witli 
eottoa wool soaked in glycerine and pieces of charcoal; 
it is fitted to a helmet which is worn by the firemen or 
miners. Other inveittiona for the same purpose have de- 
pended on an external supply of air, driven in through pipes, 
as in a diving apparatus, but this requires no connection 
with any exteroal appHratos, and has consequently a con- 
siderable advsntsge. It is stated that experiments made 
with it have proved entirely satisfactory. 

Adulteration in France. — The Tribunal of Correc- 
tional Police, Paris, recently tried two men — Cr^pin, a con- 
cierge, and Shiemor, for a new kind of adulteration. They 
had invented a substitute for cofifee, which they called ** exotic 
grains," and manufactured from the dregs of the real article, 
purchased from eufii^ mixed up into a paste with flour and 
water, shsped into berries, and then roaitted. The composi- 
tion was sold to grocers st If. 60c. per kilogram, and the 
books of the defendants showed that a ton and a half hnd 
been disposed of in the trade. They were condemned to six 
months* imprisonment. Twelve grocers were at the same 
time condemned to a month's detention for selling coffee 
mixed with this compound. 

Hew Oaa. — A company has been formed tinder the 
name of the " Home and foreign Gas Lioenning Compsny 
(Limited)," for the purpose of working «ParWs gaa'^' 




K tents. The IkMaoMHlAi fa uttBriDg edil4«,i 
ing mixed witK^oirilfii line, is diHitted is ] 
the ordinaiT mann^^^Qa it slao to Is nult ; 
leum which has prra^Blf^bten sbeoibed by Nm 
mixture is said to be perli^ly itfe to handle and 
The process is reported to Mve leoi racoeaifiQj I 
the Bewdly and Bromyard Osswarks. 



H0TICE8. 



BUBSOBIPnOII. 

The Lady-day sabscriptioDB an 
flhould be forwarded by chaqie or 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Co.," ami osdBj 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davo^ort, 
oflioer. 

CAHTOB LicTcnn. 

The Third Course of Cantor I**b« 
the present session is ''On Wines; tiuirl 
duction, Treatment, and Use," bj J. tj 
Thtjdichxtm, Esq., M.D. The Cou» m 
of six lectures, the last of which viD be | 
on Monday evening next, the 26th of l^^ 

Lbctubb YL 

The wines of Germany ; Biesslisff a ^ ^ 
quetted wines. Classification of tbs vna 
world, as determined bv quality, quintitj, 
market of highest and lowest qiulitioii 
gredients of wme. Use of chemical saslyak U 
to the healthy, whether old or yoong; 
which condition preferable to all other sk 
Wine idiould be a beverage, not *.<*""\ 
wine to the delicate and sick. Seledioo oi\ 
wine. Proposed modification of the impv^ ' 
adjust them to the olimatic diffinittifa of 8 
Portugal. ' 

xBsmres fob thb smnn 

Mov. ...SOCIETT or ABTS, 8. OutorLeetani 
Cham,'** On Wines; their FtodsdM,?^ 
Use" 
Boyal Geographical, 1. Annaal Maetiil- 

TinES. ...Medical and Chirargieal, 8|. 

avil BDgineerB,9. ThePresidaitPtJ 

at the EzhibitioD, South Kenangtoa 
Boyal Institution, 8. Mr. J. H. Fkh. 

of Rome." 

Wbd. ...Geological, 8. 1. Mr. J. Oiftan W«f rSj 
tion of the Northern part oi tlks l^g, 
Mr. Frwteric Drew, •' Alluvisl and IfffB 
and Oladal Becords of the Uppw O*]" 
Mr. W. T. BlanlbKd. "On the Ni»W 
Oriffin of the tuperfldal Depotiti ii wj^ 
Deserts of Ceatrml Penia." i. Mr- ^'i 
**On the Cephalopoda-bed sod tk Wmx 
Tx .. . ^^ pj^rt of Somenei.** 



ArefasBoiogioal Association, 8. 

Tiiuas...B07al, 8ft. 

Antiqaanes, 8|. 

Philosophical Uttb, 6. _ ,^ 

Boyal Institution, 3. Pw*»"E?*%.- 
Society Ibr Enoouagement of Fine Am* 
Bdous,'*FonnaBdMoCk)a.'' 

'Pbi Jloyal Inifitiition, ». TbeEariolEo*/'* 

tion of Beat ftora the Moon,tii« Uv <■ "[^ 
by our Atmosphere, and its Vsnstifls* 

her Phases." , *, » r 

Aztihitectiiral Assodation, 7|. Mr.F.i. 

Altars." .,^^*^ii I 

Sit Eqyal United Senfce Ini*?"^!?- ^JfilLiJ 

bury. **The Taelies of the P wsAq» »*r 
Meet the BequiremcnU of the h«i» W- 

IbUowed by a discMsloo.) ,-j, i 

Boyal Institotion, 8. Mr. J. M«W. ^ ^ 
Method." 



LNAL OF THE SOOIBPTY OP ARTS, Mat 80, 1878. 



687 



OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. l,on. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, MAT 30, 1873. 






BY THB GOTTHCIL. 



ALBERT GOLD MSBAL. 

bas this year been awarded to Mens. 
Member of the Institute of France, and 
of the €K>belinB and of the Jardin dee 
Paris, for his valuable researches in 
with S^>onifioation, Dyeing, Agricul- 
Natmal History, which, for more than 
have exercised a wide influence 
Lnstrial Arts of the World. 



CAL XDUCATIOir COMKITTEB. 
ittee met yesterday, the 29th instant, 
Hofwe. Present — H. B. H. the Duke 
(in the chair). Mr. H. Cole, C.B., 
8. Cole, Major Donnelly, B.E., Major- 
V. fiudley-Wiknot, B.A., P.B.S., Lord 
d, Mr. C. J. Freake, Mr. Arank 
Admiral the Bight Hon. Lord Clar^ice 
C3., Mr. J. F. Puttick, Mr. Samuel 
Iieut.-Col. A. Strange, F.B.S., with 
Fotter, Secretary. 

took into consideration the 
Qie Sub-Committee as to the best means 
funds for the erection of buildings 
A If atlolttl Training School for Music, 
on a preliminary report, recommend- 
Ipecial steps necessary to be taken for at 
g, on an independent basis, the 
iMning School for Music. They also 
the preparation of plans for buildings 
estimates. 



OF RAILWAYS BY THE STATE. 

meeting of the Society will take place, 
of the Gomifiiil, on Friday, the Idth June, 
.wbena x>ax)er will he read by William 
On the Purdiase of the Bailways by 
The Biffht Hon. the Earl of Derby 



it 



f» 



CMirsBSAEion. 

*8 Conversazione will be held at the 
MttMum on Friday evening, the 
Cterdft will be issued in a few days. 



PRDCSSDIHOB OF THE SOCIETY. 



COUtTTSE OH THE MEAlTS Ot ^BOTEOTIirG THE 
XETBOBOLIS AOAIHST COEFLAOEAnON. 

The following evidence was given before thift 
Committee by Mr. BauUEL SttaRP, Architect : — 

Q. — You have paid special attention to the subject of 
fireproof conBtraction f 

A. — Yes ; I have for some time. 

Q. — What are the principles and plans you propose f 

A. — I propose a constmction of fire-brick, in which 
material I have had some practioe in building ook^* 
ovens, in which I used jdntings of fire-clay, instead of 
jointings of mortar or cement. The following is a state- 
ment of the principle of the i^an I propose : — I propose 
to make each room of a single warehouse intact, entirely 
self-contained, so that, should the goods in it ignite, it 
could be shut off from every other part of the warehouse; 
and even if all the goods in it were to be consumed, 
the fire could not communicate with any other part of 
the warehouse. I begin with a single room on that plan ; 
that is a warehouse in itself and it is made perfectly fire- 
proof by being built of fire-bricks joined with fire-clay, 
80 that it becomes part of the brick itself. That idea 
forms the basis of the system, which could be amplified 
to any extent, either by additional stories or multi- 
plying the rooms on each floor, care being taken 
m pUnning that proper communications should be 
made in the most simple and ready manner to 
each room by corridors, these corridors having only 
outside doors, excluding as much as possible the ex- 
ternal air. There is no opening up to the external 
air in the warehouse at all — no opening from floor to 
floor. In going into eadi warehouse you would enfcer 
into a oorrider first, and the only opening externally 
would be the windows. All the staircases should com- 
municate only with the corridors, and be, whenever 
possible, outside the walls. The corridon would eadi 
form a perfectly fireproof gallery, giving by the outside 
staircases ready command over each room in the ware- 
house. I propose to divide each room by walls in bays, 
so as to separate the goods as much as possible, keeping 
in view the convenience of stowage (these bays in the 
larger warehouse might be divided by doors), so that if 
the goods in one bay ignited they would not affect the 
goods in the other bay before the fire was extinguished. 
All the rooms would be simple multiples of one room, 
and when you get to a larger scale you divide those by 
bays into so many compartments, with a tramway to 
take the goods out. I propose to construct all walls, 
roofs, and floors, of flre-ciay bricks, and all doors and 
shutters of fire-clay blocks ; each room to be vaulted, so 
that wheUier the warehouse should consist of simply 
one room on each floor, or complicate, it would be en- 
tirely vaulted throughout, so that by closing the doorfc 
and shutters ea.ch. room, corridor, or the entire ware- 
house would be hermetically sealed and perfectly fire* 
proof, either from without or within, as it is proposed to 
^aze (same as earthenware) the inside walls, arches, 
doors, and shutters, on both sides. That is as fiir as the 
construction of the building goes. The other part is the 
extinguishment of fire by water. I propose to lay tubes 
of fire-clay in the spandrels of the vaulting, with small 
jet tubes of pipes comnuuiding each bay, room, or cor- 
ridor of the wnde warehouse, so that on the first sign 
of fire the water could be turned on to any part re- 
quired. ShoiUd all the goods in one room be on firs» by 
closing the doors and shutters, and turning on the 
water and flooding the entire room, the fire would be 
put out without m the least endangering the other 
rooms of the warehouse. In this case water would b^ 
let to run down tiie walls themselves, and also, to pn 



538 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Mat 30/ 



vent injury from adjoining premiset being on fire, the 
water would be allowed to run down the outside walls 
in one continual flow. The outside walls, doors and 
shutters being of fire-clay, aided by this continual fiow 
of water, Uie warehouse would be perfectly safe from 
all external fire, however furious. The floor of each 
room would be so laid as to carry off the water, by 
this system of pipes, down to the main sewer or sewers 
of the general drainage. The water to be obtained froi& 
water- works, if any;Jf not, a tower to be provided. 
I also propose to open and shut all doors and shutters, 
and work aH cranes by water. The watchman to see 
all doors and shutters dosed, and to have a full know- 
ledge of the wator-scheme, plan of all pipes, &c., so that 
he could at once lay on the water to any room or cor- 
ridor ; and to see that the system is in working order 
he should, whenever a room is empty, or at stated times, 
flood it, to see all is in working order, and also to cleanse 
the room. 

Q. — ^The general idea is, that in this construction you 
exclude the use of iron ? 

A, — Entirely ; that is the main principle ; and I use 
fire-dayinstead of the ordinary brick. 

Q. — What do von get by the use of fire-clay instead of 
ordinary bricks r 

A, — X ou get a perfecUv fire-proof building. 

Q. — If you apply sufficient heat to Stourbridge bricks, 
although you do not get through so quickly, yet, with an 
intense heat, you woidd get through that r 

^.--Thatis impracticable. No fire that you could 
make in a warehouse, or adjoining to a warehouse, would 
be of that intensity to it^ure the fire-clay. 

Q. — Then, as respects iron, it is stated that many fires 
have occurred, and that strings of iron have been seen 
hanging in a melted condition. 

^.—Neither cast-iron nor wrought-iron will stand 
fire above a certain heat, but oast-iron stands better than 
wrought-iron, though neither is fire-proof. Cast-iron 
does not bend so soon, and it is a better thing for 
standing fire than wrouffht-iron. 

Q. — ^At;the fire whidi occurred at the City Flour- 
mills, some of the joists were of wrought iron, and the 
fioors gave way ? 

^— -In a general way they ooUapse and curl up. They 
lose their shape entirely, and iron rooft would bend 
about like serpents ; but the rolled iron, which has been 
^ved by trying it in furnaces, does not stand so much 
neat as cast-iron ; of ooune it is strong, simply by being 
manipulated. Taking the ordinary run of things, roUed 
beams and cast-iron columns, with either concrete or 
brick arches, are, to a certain extent, fire-proof; you 
may say they are for general purposes ; but when you 
come to a strong conflagration uey are not at all. I am 
referring to such a one as we had in Tooley-street ; no 
iron beams would stand that. I have built coke ovens 
myself of flre-brick, and it was my own idea to use the 
fiiB-clay. We took it out of the pit and made bricks of it. 
and then built ovens of it, and UMd the same day instead 
burnt, and it was a mass. I have known these ovens 
of mortar. In the course of a certain time that got 
twdve years, and they are as good now as when they 
were built Some have been bnUt upwards of thirty 
years ; I am speaking of some in the neighbourhood of 
Bamsley ; and I have known the same kindof thing near 
Durham, at Bishop Auckland. 

Q. — ^llie most objectionable point seems the immense 
number of walls you are obliged to have. 

A, — ^No doubt you occupy space, but the object is to 
make a flre-proof warehouse. 

Q. — Have you built any warehouse upon this prindple P 

A, — No. 

Q.— About what would be the cost ? 
Q -^.^They would be fully douUe the oidinaty cost 

Q^— It was stated by some of the cement manufac- 
taren at Faversham that they had concrete made of half 
I'o^and cement and half sand, and they flnd that stand 
in.their ftiraaoes as wdl as the Stourbridge bricks. 



A, — I have not seen the furnaces mtdapHit, ii 
will stand to a considerable extent, and St more 
than the ordinary brickworic. I should nyftit oodq 
made of Portland cement is the next thing to finck; 

Q, — Tou propose to have fireclay pipes ; do jm tb 
they will hold Uie water well f 

A, — Tes, there is no fear of the pipes beuiog 
pressure. 

Q, — In your experience you have done aaoNilmg 
preparing pkns for half- tile walls coD8trDCtuo;do] 
think the same construction would be STuUifeiai 
case? 

A. — I have no doubt their oonstructioii would sab 
fire-proof building. 

Q. — One of the results is that you get a cooitnot 
with about a quarter of the ordinary mstmd. 

A. — Tes, that is the calculation made. It m 
cheapen the construction to a certain extent, but I 
labour would be more in proportion. It would ndi 
the cost perhaps one-fifth. 

Q. — Is this system capable of being wimed lilli 
danger? 

A. — Yes; the whole warehouse could bewtimedi 
kept 'dry without open stoves or fear of ftce. 

Q, — ^If a fire-proof construction it intended, yntt 
elude that the fire-brick material is the thing to biw 

A, — ^The idea was to make a perfectly (Ire-proef « 
house without consideration of space, and I did not ei 
into that question at all at the time. 

Q. — ^Tou have seen plans into which iron entan? 

^1."— X es. 

Q.— Will you look at this spedfication (handing ■ 
to witness) P 

A. — ^That is perfectly right as &r as it goei. Tba 
nothing new in it. The only thing the p^t if dM 
for is putting the laths underneath iron instead of V9 
There is no advantage in it. 

Q. — ^Tou think yours, as containing no iron, bi 
advantage ? 

A.^1 consider that the normal idea. It maatM 

J»roof. There are two things against it— namilyil 
or the walls and the extra cost WithnspeeiMV 
cases, I should recommend, next to fiiecUj,ooiier^:| 
next to that, good hard wood. 

Q. — You spoke of doors with firebribb; I 
those are held in a frame. 

A, — ^They would have to be hung byhiM«a 
almost impossible to get rid of the iion, batn^ 
be made to run on very hard wood, that wonlds* 
inflammable as iron. I am speaking of good M" 
oak. Plaster is the best non-oonduoior. If 7* 
each ceiling it will stand an immanii unointof 

Q. — ^What would you use for your stain? 

A, — ^I would use concrete if it were neoeMUT 
to the expense. 

Q. — It is stated, in some evidence, that fte i^ 
advances rapidly up the wooden stairoasea, and 
wood is the (peat conductor 

A. — That IS so when made in the ordinarf 
are made so loose. If you examine the 
an ordinary wooden staircase, it seems made to 
doubfte building such as I propose would be a 
flre-proof buildmg, and it is merely a "^^^ 
money. 

NoTB. — By an oversight, an extiact from loi^i 
of the late Mr. Mylne, the oigineer to the >t ^ 
Water Company, was in46rtM as if it were a I 
examination of a living witnr" 



A fire has been raging nndeigronnd m 
South Shidda, over an area of 300 aouaie jaidV" 
pan-ash and small coal, beneath TunaUe ; 
of which have fallen. 

The project of a railroad to caxnj^^ 
from the mines of Pennsylvania to new Esgiaad » ^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Mat 30, 1873. 



539 



AIIFALIIIBBHATIOHAL BXHIBITIOVS. 



The Council, having been infbrgied that her 
Jbjtttjr'g Oommissionere do not intend to 
foUiflh Ke|K>rt8 on the different departments of 
jfli Exhibition of the present year, and looking to 
lie great importance to Arts, Manufactmres, and 
Oommeroe that these annual displays should not 
lua tway without some record, have decided to 
jttdertake that duty, and for this purpose have 
iq^ig^ the services of gentlemen specially 
! filled in the subjects of the several sections, 
% prepare such Reports for publication in the 
'8oaety*8 Journal. The Council, however, 
[imt it to be understood that, in publishing 
jllieie reports, they do not necessarily adopt all the 
ifews expressed in them, which must be taken 
m thoee of the writers only. 

The two following reports are the first that 
■w been issued. The remainder will appear 
■ aoon aa they are complete. 



REPORT 0^ ANCIENT OBJECTS. 
Bj C. Bmry Fortmim, Esq., 7.8.A. 

For the first time since the establishment of 
mntl International Exhibitions, Her Majesty *s 

E oners have this year determined on 
some portion of the building to a 
Ancient Objects, in the same categories 
^t&OM lelected for Olustration in the general 

t. Last season, indeed, the unrivalled col- 
^ of ancient jewellery, so liberally lent by 
▼ttioQa owners, was to be seen in ^e South 
wngton Museum, to which institution it is 
nnprobable that persons might be more dis* 
d to entrust such costly belongings ; but it 
iDnstrated one section of the classes selected 
w »he Exhibition of that year, — inkstands, writ- 
■g materials, and other matters having no re- 
Nentatives of former ages. 
Kow, through the liberality of many possessors, 
fnry interesting series of instruments for the 
ptt of tobacco, of drinking vessels, and some 
fcr objects for table use, adapted to the prepa- 
J|wo and partaking of stimulating or of soothing 
i}uid«, and the serving of condiments, have 
Mil got together and arranged in the north- 
totem end of the building. 
KiBt among these contributions is Mr. Bragge's 
tttchleaa and exhaustive collection, illustrative 
[ the uses of tobacco in all ages and all coun- 
ri«i since its first introduction. Beginning our 
»Tey at the northern end, turning to ihe left, 
[»«w,in the wall cases, all contrivances of the 
iwthem and Central American Indians for the 
*l ^ the narcotic weed. Here are tomahawk 



pipes, canoe pipes, pipes of stope from the Bed 
River, of bone, of wood, Ac, On the other side 
of the door is an equally complete array of 
similar utensils from Central and Southern 
Africa, some of enormous size, in clay, helmet- 
shaped, and in stone. Mark also the *' sheisha," 
the tmder bowl of which is filled with new milk, 
when prepared for smoking. 

Passing down the cases on the window side we 
find a series of Germanand French pipes, in porce- 
lain, some cleverly painted, crowned by large de- 
velopments of the instrument, adorned with coats 
of arms, and of a capacity sufficient to satisfy a 
town. Tobacco-stoppers, formed as legs, arms, 
(fee, of the same material. A case contains hookah 
bottles, for drawing the smoke through rose or 
other scented waters, of various materials. Per- 
sian faience and enamel ; others similarly mam-% 
miform in hard Chinese porcelain, probably made 
for the Persian market. Oddly enough, these 
bottles are described by M. Jacquenuirt* as 
for drinking water. He calls them gargouleUei, 
referring to an Oriental miniature by one t 
Kabir, in which their use for that purpose is 
represented, the water being poured by young 
maidens into the hands of the thirsty one, who 
drinks from them as from a cup. Some bottles 
are of Bidaree ware, others of Wedgwood ; and 
the ** chillum/' of Northern India, in varied 
earthenware. Hookah burners also, with multiple 
bowls, for smoking various prepared substances 
at the same time. 

Near at hand is another case, containing 
hobble-bobbles and narghilis, a more portable 
contrivance for the same end ; among these are 
some fine Persian examples, one of old green glazed 
ware, beautifully mounted. Again, in another are 
pipes, with their accompanying fire-bowl, used by 
the Ashantee tribes. An upright case, between 
the windows, contains snuff and tobacco graters, 
mostly formed of ivory and wood,— Italian, 
German, French, and Dutch, — some beautifully 
carved; some also of iron, of enamel, and of 
bronze. 

Another contains, on the top stage, a com- 
plete apparatus for the smoking of opium, in 
its tray ; and, at the side, various large-bowled 
pipes for the use of that narcotic passport to the 
land of dreams. On the other side are some 
charmingly-wrought Japanese pipes, with small 
metal bowls, to contain sufficient only for 
three or four whiffs, and load agatn<---deli- 
cate contrivance of the Eastern epicure to enjoy 
the pure aroma of his choicest leaf, without 
vitiation of its freshness by too frequent perco- 
lation of smoke from the superior layer. These 
used to be described as opium pipes, but they 
are not such. 

We then come to the snuff-bottles, among the 

• Jaoqnemart, ** Menreilles de U Cerftmlqae/* iwrt i. ptg9 238 ; 
aod in the **Hiitolre de la Ceramlqae** he flgam one of these 
bottlet, on pUte 6 of that elegant Tolome. 



MO 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, May 80, lll«. 



»06t beautiful objects of the Exhibition. They 
fill three cases ; first, those of atone and native 
materials, of rare green jade, of blood stone, 
crystal, fossil turquoise (?), and lovely agates. 
!Next, the marvellous imitations of more precious 
materials in glass, some of the greatest ele- 
gance, shaming the ingenuity and artistic senti- 
ment of beauty in our European productions ; | 
many of these are modem. 

BnujET-botiles also of amber, exquisite Ohinese 
and Japanese enamel, metal, lac» ivory, (kc, dbo. 
Then we have another series, in poroelidn, double 
and single, brilliant in colour as abed of flowers. 

The window cases contain pouches from all 
parts. Oauadian bead and leather work, of 
^ riental embroidery, of animals' skins, <&c, and 
pipe cases of many materials, some of which are 
a^nirably carved. 

On the inner side of the gallery the collection 
is continued. A series of snuff-boxes is perhaps 
more remarkable for the variety of material and 
form than for their high artistia value. Also 
bottles formed 'Of gouinis, carved and plain, of 
horn and stone, Oriental, of metal, and of ivory, 
European and other. Mark the curious Scandi- 
navian series, like small powder-flasks, and three 
noble mulls, which crown the case. Tobacco 
boxes, engraved, Dutch, and Euglish, of notable 
woods from historic trees and of various fabrics. 
Then the snuff and tobacco jars of early German 
stoneware, of the \ 7th century, of Dutch delft, <&c. 
Cigar cases, of Chilian gr^ss, and others. Snuff 
mortars and the " German Emigrant " tobacco- 
box, a figure of some pathos. 

Again, in other cases are tobacco-pipes of 
clay, snake-shaped and maccaroni ; some in con- 
torted knots of painfol complication, requiring 
no small skill in ihe making to preserve the inner 
tube open and unimpaired. 

The last case that we need notice is filled with 
European pipes in carved wood, stone, bone, 
metal, meerschaum ; a *^dudeen," well served with 
twine, is a Crimean hero ; one of steel, formed as 
a key, and various other fantastic contrivances. 
liTor must we forget the chibouques of Turkey 
and of tLgypt. 

Mr. Bragge's collection, in fact, perfectly illus- 
trates the history and art of the uses of tobacco 
from the first commencement to the present 
time. 

The writer, innocent of its enjoyment, can 
bear no tender feeling for the narcotic weed; 
he but values it as an excisable article, worthy 
to be taxed. Charmed by the living freshness 
of its broad green le^f. to him the odour of its 
cremation is unpalatable, the instruments for its 
contrivance not interesting, except where art is 
occasionally displayed upon their adornment ; 
neither can he believe in the sanitary or social 
advantages of its habitual use. Snxiff-taking 
might, perhaps, be condoned, merely through 



justification afforded by the means-^the sh- 
gance of European boxes and OriemtalhotUiii 
but a waistcoat-pocket full of the giimy doA 
after the manner of the Great Frederick, ii tos 
horrible a picture, except for historv. 

Before quitting the subject of Mr. inojk 
collectioi^, we must not omit referring (o v 
large series of early European cUy tobsooo p^ 
stamped with the makers* names, and goiif iiK 
to a very early date, some being anterior, ii4 
probability, by half a century, to the petioill 
the publication of the Counttrhla^* in 1{^ 
Tobacco was first noticed by Earopesai in It 
Domingo, about 1496, and was in abaudint IW 
by the Spaniards in Yucatan, as §arly as lift 
Sir John Hawkins, in 15^5. and Sir Witar 
Raleigh and Sir Francis Drake, in l&8i 
have severally been credited for ito intifr 
duction jnto England, where it ^ tli|^ 
only manufactured ; it is said to httc bM 
first publicly smoked at the ** Pied Hauw,* 1 
Islington. Proclamations were issued igiiai 
its use in 1684, and later, in 16 If, the M 
Chamber levied a duty of 6s. lOd. perlb.;ii 
tobacco, like many a fabe faith, has surriiil 
much persecution. 

There are other contributors to the iUoii 
of tobacco. Mr. Franks shows a numbtf 
Englieh horn-boxes, interesting from h* 
portraits in relief of Charles II. and 
sovereigns, the mpst numerous being tboae 
Queen Anne. But in point of value for 
material, for the enamel painting, the rich 
smiths' work and jewellery , executed in the 
art of the period, the collection of snuff- 
contributed by Mr. Mitchell bears the palm- 
case of pipes is from the South Ke 
Museum. 

Asa natural sequence, let us now p^ fit 
drinking vessels and other objects fur tabk 
beginning with the larger, the jugs, ic^ 
which the smaller were replenished- 

We should like to have seen here ft (WBJW 
set of the vessels used by the ancient 6 
during their libations. Tbe cr<Utr, or 
into which the yiXMQ was pou|*e4 6*0 
axnphorQ and mixed ; then Udled vid| 
cjj^athus, or irulla (the scinpufum being p 
reserved for libations to the Gods, two of * 
an Egyptian and a Greek, of bronze, ut 
one of the cases), directly into the van 
formed cups of the drinkers, or into the 
or jug which acted the part of our decanteL 
time and specimens were insufficient, asd 
committee regretfully abandoned the idea. 

Of antique pottery, which ia not 9i^ 

• By Kinjf James iBt of England. *• A Counterb art to T**JJJJ 
to vhloh is a'Med a di»conr>« by Dr. E. WaynwBrtw^ """ 
that tobacco U a cause of scanry ; with Dr. Tt>oi^P*«J 
against smoking ; caaUoni against drltiklog. poemsifaw JJ 
by J. 8ylv«t«, Ac. London, iSta, quarto^Vtth fottnttt^ 
Jamef* 



JOUBM^L OP THE SOOIBTY OP ABT8, Mat 80. 1788L 



HI 



dfptly r^pfv^^ted, are %ome jage, one of 
i^iiab (from Capua) ie ribbed and of unusnal 
and elegant form. Drinking-cups are more 
9Q]|ier9ua, Qreek, from {^(ia, i^ remarkable 
ft^^aki^ea^ ; Qther» of %%^s^ form (cyfii^)^ o^^ of 
if^ifib, Ife^loogmg to Mr« SodeA Smith, \$ x^- 
■wkttde ^ a ipaoimen of anci^t mending witb 
tfi^ta^ pfobably inserted 0ome two thooa^d 
jF^anigo; ai4other, pf nnooipmon form, h^g no 
{(M)^ bat t99mi9ft^ in a point beneath. Thi9, 
^Jt§ the tk^tau^, ahaped aa animaU' be^da (hardly 
r^H^i^aeiit^d here), muit have been emptied at a 
driHgbt, and *' no heel taps." Cwps of Caator ware 
and Roman pottery made in England belong to 
JUr. Evanf ; the ** hare and hounda " cup from 
th^i Bbine, a Roman oup with triple mafke to 
serve aa foot, and scaly pine-coine sidea. In 
antiqae glass there ia only a patera f^d si^ drink- 
iog*sk«W9 of the ^oman period, interesting as 
|»avi)ig been fouud together in the neighbour- 
hood of Tyre. 

Iffxt we hav« the ^axon wooden bucket, 
vitl^ bronze hooping and furniture, found at 
Bradlord Abbas, and belonging to Mr. James 
Bn^inan ; it ia described in the account of e^:- 
oaTatigns made of Fairford graves in th^ " Ar- 
A#solo!gia." 

Qf more recent days, the king bf jugs is that 
gisfiid leathern *' Jack," which came originally 
from Kensington Palace, and is inscribed outside 
&R*, witb the crown and date 1H46. Of the same 
niitarialand approximate time is ^r. Faulkener's 
\aatham '* botell," and Mr. Franks* silver- 
aiwm^d mi|g. Mr. Soden Smith shows jugi 
9ii(i tii^\M of Briat9l glaaa, one blotched witb 
vhita #ii4 yellow ; bis also are some ** Toby 
Pfi^pot ** jugs, but others belong to Mr. Camp- 
bell and to Mr. Franks. The passing thought 
geOB^ ibat these jug statuettes of this beery 
Kkliiia of our Qeorgean era, variously repre- 
H^t%^ are somewhat typical of the tendency of 
t^ feotion of the Exhibition. Two mounted 
jogs of Rouen faience, and gourd-shaped bottles 
of brewn Nevera pottery ; some ewers of beaten 
aoppev tnd of '* latten," or brassy bronse, are 
^oit)i4|ni Italian, of the aifteenth century, good 
i« forma — derived from the antique — and in 
axt^ro^ ornamentation. Mr. Temple Frere 
a$ud« # valuable aeries of jugs, iu delft and 
6«nn«o atone ware. A fine silver-mounted 
fl^gop of Qennan atone ware, with figures 
admirably modelled in relief, is from the Bernal 
coUecCion, and now belongs to Mr. Campbell. 
Also Mr. Frere'a are a'* Litron" and a ''Dubbel 
Kan f " tbeao lead ua to the tankards, of which 
that g#ntifiman i| also a large contributor. Mr. 
Alfred Morrison shows a noble old English 
car«f4 VQfid — probably walnut — tankard, 
e«T«rHl with acenea from the life of Christ, the 
|l|^ifOB ctrv^d in high relief^ and with an 
im,riptiqn bilow. A later arrival ia the cele- 



brated " Glastonbury cup," belonging to Lord 
Arundel of Wardour, and said to have been made 
from wood of the Glastonbury tborn. Around 
its sides figures of the Apostles are carved in 
relief, standing in ^ches, whii^ on the lid is re- 
presented the soane of the Crucifixion. Its 
probable date is about 1600, From Mr. Franks 
we have several of stone ware, one a Bavarian 
marriage tankard, dated 1600, and one of an 
unusu^ n^aterial— alabaster — oarved with figures 
in relief. JJdr. H. WiUett sends a variety of jugs 
and mugs formed aa figures — the watchman, 
toad mugs, foxes* heads, and a tyg, dated 1608. 

Mr. John Evans sends a silver-mounted 
Swedish drinking-horn ; Mr. l ranks shows 
others, with ornament in niello, from the Cau- 
casus. Mr, Durlacher a *' mazer bowl," mounted 
in old silver foot and edging. There are some 
silver cups, English and other, and puxzle-oups 
of old English earthenware, from which you may 
drink if you kpow how, if not, beware I 

Flasks, in the same material, are labelled 
" Sack," which speaks for itself, and " Whit," 
which probably means white wine. They are 
of white glaaed English kience, and of the 
seventeenth century ; these were doubtless used 
as decanters for serving the wine at table, their 
opacity rendering the labelling more necessary, 
strangely enough, that learned and charming 
writer on ceramic history, M. Jacquemart, says of 
these {MtrveiUei d^ la Ctramiqu^^ Vol. ill., 
p. ZVi, repeated in the Si$Unre, at p. 568) : — 
*' Certaines bou tallies k vins oh sont inscrits lee 
non^s asak, claret, et whit, et dat^es de 164^ k 
16d9,sontconsider(ea Qommed*origine Anglaiaea; 
il ne sera pourtant paa impossible qu'ellas 
eussent 6t6 faites dans le pays de production dea 
vins "-^as though they were bottles in which 
the wine was imported, and not flasks for its 
service on the table. 

Two cases are filled with drinking-glaasea, 
contributed by various owners. Many are old 
English, for the most part more remarkable 
fer their substantial character than for the ele- 
gance of their forms, although there are good 
and suggestive models among them. Mr* 
Franks sends good specimens of German en« 
graved glasses with their covers ; but one of the 
most important is an English drinking glass, 
engraved by the point, with portraits of 
Charles "0. R." in the "royal oak" between 
Charles "C. R." crowned and the Queen 
*' K. Reg.," with the date 1663 and the royal 
arms. Curious Spanish glasses, with long spouts, 
like oil cans, are fashioned upon the same 
principle as the Caucasian vessels. A German 
** wiederkomm," enamelled with a stag hunt, 
and some Venetian glasses ; German those with 
ornamentation in gilding between the outer 
glass and the inner liner. A huge green hock- 
glaas, and an English barrd-abaped goblet, with 



542 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, May 80, IWS. 



impressed boles at the sides, for inserting tbe 
fingers with a firmer grip. Mr. Soden Smith's 
£nglish drinking-glass, with a Qaeen Anne 
half-crown encased in the bottom. Last, not 
least, and very curioas, is the yard of ale, or 
"forfeit glass," Venetian manufacture, of the 
seventeenth cento ry, 37 inches in length, with 
bulbed end, and capable of containing 16 oz. of 
liquid. 

Mr. Whithead contributes several fox and dog- 
head drinking-cups, extremely well-modelled in 
old English pottery and porcelain. 

One case is devoted to teapots in variety. 
Chinese wheel teapots ; a beautiful pot of 
Botcher's, ware cut and polished on the wheel ; 
Mr. Durlacher sends cock teapots, of fine old 
Dresden; a house teapot, of old Staffordshire, 
perhaps Eler's make ; one Japanese, quaintly 
formed as a gourd, surmounted by a mushroom ; 
and an elegant oval pot, with straight spout, 
of old English porcelain, shaped like those of 
silver, and ornamented with interlaced basket 
pattern in blue. 

Another case is occupied by teacups, many of 
which belong also to Mr. Teesdale, and are of 
porcelain, of English, French, and German 
fcU/riquei, for the most part of the last century. 
We notice elsewhere some elegant black and 
silver cups and coffee pot of Turkish earthen- 
ware, and some of lustred Persian. 

Giant of a 1 the vessels for serving stimulating 
or soothing drinks is the great "Kiki" or " Kava " 
bowl, from the South Sea Islands, belonging to 
Admiral Sir H Denham, the sight of which at 
once recalls the vivid picture of a " bout " de- 
scribed in th tt most racy book of tr *vel, " South 
Sea Bubbles," by " The Earl and the Doctor. ' 
This drink is prepared as follows : — The bowl, 
which ought to be an old one, is placed in the 
midst of the chamber ; the kava root, chopped 
into thin slices, is laid before the young maidens 
who are to prepare it, and who, after rinsing the 
mouth, chew, or, to use the milder term selected, 
"ruminate" it into a pulp. This, made into 
balls of the size of a large walnut, is thrown into 
the bowl, which is filled up with water ; the 
turbid mixture strained by sponging up with 
hybiscus fibre, is squeezed into the cocpa-nut 
bowls from which it is drank. The taste is said 
to be of a peppery pungency with a dash of 
rhubarb, and the effect produced a sleepy anni- 
hilation, called nirwana. 

Among salt-cellars may be noted four of 
bronze, some gilded and with silver, Italian 
works of the palmy decades of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, full of that masculine vigour and know- 
ledge of sculpturesque design so Temarkable 
among the modellers of that period and art- 
fertile land. 

The Hev. Montague Taylor sends some silver 
salt-cellars and cruets; but of the latter compre* 



hensive utensQ Captain Orover^s wtlki ov«r Ai 
course, as does Mrs. Day's beautifQl silver bmii 
basket. 

Spoons, Englbh and foreign, occupy t tm; 
many good English examples, belonging to 
Messrs. Temple Frere, WUlett, Boden £utl^ 
and others. Of good materiil and mum 
make, these are perhaps more to be at* 
mired for such qualities than for eleguntf 
form or ornament, in which they can tomif 
laim to rival their Italian, Fleomh, and FrenB 
brethren. Of the last, one, richly oma&eataj^ 
might be the handiwork of Briot Thekaf^ 
handled spoons, with small bowls, foraatingmd* 
berries, are noteworthy. A huge wooden ^km 
from the Niger shames any to be won atOxM 
or at Cambridge. 

Curious among cooking contrivances, and m* 
teresting from its history, is the tea appinta 
which belonged to the great navigator, CaptMi 
Cook, and now to Admiral Tarleton. 

The BombilUUf or mat£ gourds, from M«ll 
Video, used for imbibing a strong inlhsioQ of Al 
pounded tea through a silver tube, bdoar H 
Mr. Franks and Mr. BUnd. They majM 
suggested the use of the straw in sherry eobb^ 
dec. Curious vessels from the Cauoanu, fl 
drinking a mixture of spiced wine, Sk., 
a long beak, belong to Mr. Franks and Mr. 
lacher ; one is nieUo'd. 

Of modem production two cases of ston 
in various forms are exhibited. One by M 
T. Smith and Co., of the Canal PotterwB, 
Kent-road, who have been particuUrly 
ful in their blue colouring of the salt gUze; 
other by Messrs. Doulton, whose master-; 
occupies a central position in the Fine 
Gallery above. 

Messrs Pellatt and Wood contribute wine 
water glasses, some of excellent form ; and 
Sal via ti we have reproductions of VenetiaDlr 
Uuicinxo, mtUefioref and other ornamental ^m 
of great excellence. 

We should not omit referring to the cheapo 
hideous, heavy glass and porcelain jaga,cap%j 
goblets made for coffee -nouse use in 
Nor can we greatly admire the wooden 
in silver mountings, adapted to all porpoMi 
table use by Messrs. Hancock. Beautifnlly 
no doubt, and neat while new, they are pei 
well suited for the luncheon room of a 
dairy farm or rustic shooting-box, bnt 
elsewhere. 

In justice to those gentlemen who, by 
of Her Majesty's Commissioners, acted ^^^ 
as a committee for the selection of ancient oV 
jects, having regard to their interesting cbartdj 
and genuine antiquity, we feel it only xig^* * 
note, that ina tall case are contained mi^ 
pieces of sai-ditatU ancient plate, sflw «^ 
and drinking vessels, formed as biId^ ^ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 30, lSi3. 



643 



wbicli that committee had rejected, but which 
haye been retained (perhaps, with some others, 
in the category of " reproductions ") by the 
Boperior direction. 

After having made this general survey we 
may conclude that, although there is much to 
interest and instruct in this section of the Exhi- 
bition, it might be, with the exception of tobacco, 
more fully illustrated ; and we cannot but think 
thtt, except for want of sufficient space, its 
object might be more appropriately and com- 
pletely carried out at the South Kensington 
Mnsenm than it can be here. 

The numerous valuable objects preserved in 
that pablic treasure-house are .in themselves a 
strong foundation on which to ground any further 
illastration to be gained by specimens obtained 
on loan ; but they should not, for obvious reasons, 
be permitted to leave it; if sent here at all, 
every specimen illustrative of the category of 
the year would be required, a course which, 
having regard to the convenience 6f reference by 
the pablic, and the safety and preservation of 
the things themselves, the writer would consider 
as open to serious objection. 

Pass we now on to the silks. One of the first 
we notice is English, of about 1720, a yellow 
gronnd, with pattern painted upon it ; not quite 
lovely. There is a prettier example of the same 
mode of figuring, on a black ground, in a case 
Dear the window, lower down. Mrs. Oosway's 
dress, of rich brocade, gorgeous of pattern, is 
very marked, and one worked with gold, in a 
pecnliar but hardly commendable design, is 
shown by Mrs. Gary. French, of the time of 
LoQia XVI., is a lovely rose-salmon satin skirt 
&Qd sac, hand-embroidered, with bunches of 
flowers; and a pale greenish blue, charmingly 
worked with sprays and knotted bouquets ; 
these belong to Mrs. Robert Hollond. Gon- 
tinoing down the cases on that side, we find 
some good examples of the rich productions of 
the Italian looms. Many of these belong to 
Lady and Sir William Drake. A rich crimson 
Cardinalic (?) cope, a splendid piece of silk, with 
bold pattern on gold ground ; a cope embroidered 
in gohi on crimson ; and various fragments of 
rich quality and design. In a wall-case at the 
^ are some specimens, gorgeous with gold and 
silver figuring, in bold designs on purple, white, 
and crimson grounds ; they are said to be Spanish, 
bat we suspect they may have come from the 
Genoese looms of the 17tb, or earlier years of 
the Ibth century. 

We must not pass the Oriental silks shown 
^ Dr. Diamond, nor the grand old Chinese 
piece, wonderful in the animation of its hunting 
uid shooting scenes, apparently for the delecta- 
tion of a mandarin, who seems to be performing 
pie-nic' Mrs. Clarke's collection of Armenian, 
^Qtymiote, and Turkish silks and embroidery 



is to be noted. Dr. Diamond contributes also 
some remarkable pieces of old English manufac- 
ture and handiwork. Very noteworthy is a piece 
covered with subjects embroidered with the 
needle ; the principal subject is the Judgment of 
Solomon, who somewhat resembles Charles II. 
The initials " A. T.," worked in pearls, may be of 
the owner or the fair artist, a patient and pains- 
taking worker, not aided by much knowledge 
of design. I'here were no schools at* Ken- 
sington to instruct the young ladies of those 
days. 

A white silk quilt is also a remarkable and 
very beautiful piece of hand-work, with birds, 
flowers, and fruit outlined in gold thread, and 
filled in with coloured silks. For richness of 
effect see the deep crimson table-cover in the 
same case, with velvet figure on a satin ground ; 
it also is probably English. 

Another rich English brocade, superb on a 
dignified dowager of the last century, is shown 
by Mrs. Dunlop. 

One of the most striking features of this sec- 
tion is the series of coat and waistcoat pieces for 
Court use by gentlemen, some few of our 
fathers,' and many of our grandfathers' days. 
We can hardly believe that such coats of many 
colours were in use among the fashionable 
within so recent a period of our more prosaic 
style. Some of these pieces are as fresh as on 
the day they were made, but never made up. 
The waistcoats deserve notice for their charm- 
ing patterns, enriched occasionally with glass 
and silver bugles. Some coats in the wall cases 
are elaborately and beautifully hand-embroid- 
ered, on corded silks, — one with gold. The 
brick-red velvet suit, diapered with white sham- 
rocks, is said to have been worn by George the 
Third, in 1770 ;— we hardly like his taste. The 
Messrs. Simmons are chief contributors of these 
interesting costumes of the ancien regime. 

We ought not to omit mention of some Al- 
gerine stufls, of harmonious blending in colour ; 
nor of an elaborately embroidered counterpane, 
shown by Mr. Dent, and said to have been 
worked at a convent in Spain. 

All of these specimens deserve careful study 
and consideration by our manufacturers and 
their designers. There is a fund of instruction 
in them, from which much suggestive matter ' 
may be gleaned ; and few manufactured articles 
of former days have a stronger claim to be 
judiciously collected and preserved in the mu- 
seums connected with our art schools than ex- . 
amples of the unrivalled gorgeous silks of Italy, 
the elegant patterns of the French, or the mas- 
sive qualities of many of these productions of 
our old English looms. Those of the East 
stand on their own ground, unmatched in har- 
mony and power of colouring, in subdued richness 
of effect, and in the true art of their designs. 



vs» 



JOURNAL OF THB SOOIETT OF ABTS, Vm ^:W^ 



gUBGIOAL INSTRUMENTS AND 

APPLIANCES. 

CLASS X. 

Ij Soktrt BntdeneU Carter, 7.B.C.8., 

OpdUMlmiQ Surfeon to 9U 0«oiyO Hofplt%l. 

Th« objeeta compnaed within Glass X. are 
arranged in the west theatre, on the balcony 
floor of the Royal Albert Hall. They are con- 
tributed by ieventy -seven exhibitors, of whom 
forty are traders, twenty-eight are private per- 
sona or medical practitioners, and nine are cor- 
porate bodies. The exhibition is almost exclu- 
sively British, foreign countries being repre- 
sented by only five traders, five private persons, 
and three corporate bodies ; but it is worthy of 
remark that many of the manufacturing firms 
established in London are of foreign origin, as 
may be inferred from the names of Blaise and 
Co., Evrard, Krohne and Sesemann, Mayer and 
Meltzer, end Weiss and Son. The articles 
dK>wn are very much more numerous than the 
exhibitors, a single number in the catalogue 
<lftSQ referring to a case which contains a 
Urge colleotion of various instruments; but 
the ebsenoe of some of the leading names in 
the trade, especially of the house that sUnds 
highest in repute* for quality, and of the 
Eouse thftt makes an especial point of cheapness, 
renders it impossible to say that the Einglish 
industcy of the class is at all adequately or 
ilsirly represented. The refiisal of Messrs. Weiss 
end Son to exhibit* has induced several prac- 
titioners to show instruments for special pur- 
poses made for them by that firm ; but still the 
gap left by their absence is one that cannot be 
filled np by such isolated or casual contributions. 

Two manufacturers, Messrs. Blaise and Co., 
end Messrs. Evans and WormuU, exhibit collec- 
tions of old and obsolete instruments; and 
similar ooUections have been lent by the Royal 
Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, by the 
Boyel Medical and Chirurgical. and the Odon- 
tdogical Societies ; by other corporate bodies, 
end by a few private persons. Her Majesty*s 
Commissioners have employed Signer Ales- 
sandro Castellani, of Rome, to make exact copies 
of the surgical instruments discovered at Pom- 
peii ; and to these copies he has added a col- 
lection of his own, of old instruments found in 
Italian villages, many of them of the Pompeian 
type. Hence the visitor is enabled to see some- 
thing of the history of the mechanical aids of 
surgery, and to observe the changes which they 
have undergone from remote antiquity to the 
present day. 

Besides the famous three-branched speculum, 
which, until its exhumation, was believed to be 
of comparatively modern invention, the Pom- 
peian instruments consist of probes, small knives, 
and tweecers, and do not seem to have been 
fittad for the performance of any of the greater 



pvyov 



operations of aai;gary. Oobrib| i 
times, we find cases filled widt mn oi 
coarse and clumsy instrumenti, TiUck 
nevertheless, well adapted for ths . 
which they w^re applied. Prior to tfU 
of chloroform and it# kindred sgmti,tki 
of surgical operations was lo gt^ dut da 
sons would submit to ihem ; sad fti 
chiefly aimed at by operators wsi i 
order that this pain might not tif ua 
prolonged. The minute and wM 
anatomy is of almost recent dais; a&4 
more than a century i^o, the am|HiUtiaii 
limb might be taken as the type of op^sdvi 
gery. If a leg or an arm wsatheMtof 
curable disease, or had suataiiied fuy 
injury, the last resource of the soTgeoD « 
'* cut it off ;" and, in doing so, he hid tU 
fold object of completing his operstioD « <^ 
as possible, and of performing it at a plaei 
should be above the disease or ii\)sry,aBd 
should leave a sound and useful etanp. 
his armamentarium consisted, in great 
of knives adapted to make free and 
incisions, and of saws which would 
long bones with the utmost Iscility. 
the old instruments several eiicsltf 
will be observed, oonstructed to 
by clockwork governed by a . 
coiled spring, and manifestly csp«U««( 
more rapid action than could be eSund ) 
to -and- fro strokes made by thehasdof 
geon. The imperfect knowledge of «u 
bygone times is well illustrated by % whdi 
of iustruments called ** gorgets," which vtn 
to complete the incision in the cutting op( 
for the removal of stone from the bUddn. 
were furnished with a beak, made to 
the groove of a staff previoufdy introdooA 
were designed to secure that the ssrgcos 
neither lose his way among the stractan^^ 
extend his incision beyond thelimiii ' 
by the breadth of the blade. 

At a time when the more genersl 9i 
profound study of anatomy had already 4 
surgeons to deal with the various portioi 
human body in a more discriminatisg 
when the progress of science was teschoig 
to distinguish between local and copati 
maladies, when the processes of repair « 
ginning to be better understood, sad v 
had been found that wounds, instead of 
left to discharge and fill up slowly, migbt 
be made to heal perfecUy in a few days, by * 
ing their surfaces and edges into abeoloti 
Uct, the discovery of the effects of eth<f 
chloroform suddenly removed the eleo>«> 
time and pain from oonsideration. Tht 
lost its terrors for the pati<^ut,aad it9o\ 
mattered whether tha performance af sa ovem 
raquirad tw# n^utas or twaiity . lftv» »*^* 



/OUBKAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, Mat 30, 1873. 



HS 



iRfgaiy became what has been called 

fQlMm^ve;" not in the sense of standing 

pi tho trsditions of the past, but in the sense 

IMernog every portion of the body which it 

sbtdately necessary to remove. Thus 

of the knee-joint, which, in old times, 

hsve been treated by amputation through 

thigh, is now treated by opening the joint, 

ltf0{QlIy cutting away the affected portions 

$Ma cartilage, and by closing the wound. 

ly takes place with loss of movement ; 

iks pstient gains by the vast difference be- 

I (tilf biee and a wooden leg. For 

of this da^s th^ wheel-saw of the 

or the broad flat saw of more modem 

bs given way to a strip of strained watch- 

ill serrated edge capable of being set in 

directioQ. The spring-saw, again, 

le lopl^emented by scoops or gougAs of 

kmds, capable of cutting out the diseased 

tbit may lurk behin<l comers, or that may 

^ irregularly into certaia portions of the 

And 80, not for the diseases of joints only, 

.Ibr many others, we have instruments 

for del](.*ate dissection around the limits 

diiesee, rather than for the coarse removal 

of the body. We have also in^tru- 

for the acoorate insertion and securing of 

sod for other contrivances intended to 

the work of healing. 

pesence of some morbid fluid produpt 

iiutaral cavity, as in the chest or in a 

within an unnatural cavity, as in the 

liWge abscess, has long been a source of 

Meulty to the surgeon. Such fluid, by 

tad bulk, may not only prevent the 

of neighbouring parts to healthy 

bat u often a source of urgent peril. If 

ted by incision, the entrance of air 

As cavity is prone to set up decompo- 

ud may thus produce a speedily fatal 

By means of an instram'ent called an 

,'* ur *' (^neumatic Aspirator,*' which 

by several makers, many of these 

and risks are overcome. The aspi- 

lORfliflls of a glass exhausting syringe, con- 

iboat four ounces, and with a piston as 

ely fitted as that of an air-pump. Its 

is divided into two branches, at right 

to one another, each provided with 

stopcock. Ualf-a- dozen tubular gilt 

of different length and calibre, are 

Bade to fit tightly upon the nozzles. In 

to Qie the inscmment, the stopcocks are 

sod the piston is pushed fully down, to 

(ha (xmtained air. 'I he stopcocks are next 

sad the piston is pulled up to the top and 

iathat position by a hall-turn, the interior 

ioge being then nearly a vacuum. 

needle is then affixed to one of the 

mi it4 p<mit is made to penetrate the 



12 



soft parts in search of the fluid. When the open- 
ing in the needle-point has penetrated to a suffi- 
cient depth to be sheltered from the external air, 
the sto()cock between the syringe and the needle 
is opened, and the latter is cautiously pushed 
onward. As soon as its point reaches any col- 
lection of fluid, this is instantly forced through 
the tube of the needle into the syringe by 
atmospheric pressure. When the syringe is 
full, the stopcock leading to the needle is closed, 
the other is opened, and the syringe is emptied 
into any convenient receptacle by pushing down 
the piston. The second stopcock is again 
closed, the piston drawn up and locked, aod 
the stopcock to the needle opened ; and so on, 
until the cavity is emptied, or until the operator 
is of opinion that enough has been removed. 
Finally, the needle is withdrawn, and its slender 
track is at once closed by the elasticity of the 
tissues. 

An important class of modem instruments 19 
composed of contrivances for tracing upon paper 
the extent and (^aracteri^tics of various vital 
movements, such as those of the heart, of the 
pulse, and of respiration, by mechanism somewhat 
like that of the indicator of a steam engine. 
Where the physicians of former times could only- 
estimate the characters of the pulse by feel, and 
express them more or less vaguely as softness, 
fulness, hardness, wiriness, and the like, and 
could record them only by the fleeting and 
deceptive memory of sensations, the sphygmo- 
graph allows the pulse to write its own peculiarities 
on a paper that can be preserved and compared 
with the results of subsequent examinations. Af 
one illustration of the practical value of the 
contrivance, it may bo mentioned that the pulse 
trace often allows an immediate opinion to be 
formed, within a few minutes after the first dose, 
of the propriety of pushing or discontinuing a 
stimulant. Instruments of this class are ^x;- 
hibited chiefly-^ by Mr. Hawksley. 

The use of mirrors, lenses, and artificial light, 
for the inspection of portions of the o^^anism 
which are naturally concealed from view, is 
entirely of modem origin ; and the interior of 
the eye, the ear, and the recesses of the throat, 
are now habitually examined in this manner* 
Ophthalmoscopes, otoscopes, and laryngoscopes, 
are exhibited by several makers, and there will 
also be found a variety of instrumen^ts adapted 
for operatiorfs upon the throat, and capable of 
being followed by sight in the throat mirror 
after they have passed round a comer that con- 
ceals them from direct vision. 

Mr. Jeafferson, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, ex- 
hibits a highly ingenious instrument, of his own 
invention, for measuring the extent of the field 
of vision, either by white or by coloure4 light, 
and for other jmrposes important to the oph- 
thalmic surgeon. It is oalled the '' Photo- 



546 



JOJRNAL OP IHE SOCIETY OF AETS, May 80, 187S. 



perimeter," and is fully described in a printed 
paper attached to it. 

The applications of electricity in surgical prac- 
tice are now numerous. Two or three forms of 
" electric cautery " will be found, a contrivance 
by which a cold platinum wire may be placed 
round, or in contact with, any part that it is 
desired to destroy, and then suddenly heated to 
redness or whiteness by a galvanic current. 
Messrs. Evans and WormuU exhibit a *' bullet 
detector,'* in which the contact of a probe with 
a buried metallic substance completes a galvanic 
circuit and rings a bell. Mr. Oflford, of 296, 
Oxford-street, among other electrical appliances, 
exhibits what is hardly a surgical instrument — 
although it would often be useful in sickness — a 
portable call-bell, that can be placed in any room 
of a house, and rung by a sick person in any 
other, by the light pressure of a single finger only. 

The branch ot surgery most generally interesting 
to the public is, withoutdoubt, dentistry; and in this 
department some important objects are displayed. 
The Odontological Society ihow a number of 
keys, pelicans, and other ancient implements for 
extraction, of the peri )d when the sight of a 
dentist's door was of itself a sovereign remedy for 
toothache. Among the improvements in dental 
instruments, the chief are those which illustrate 
the recent great advances in the art of metallic 
stopping. Mr. Morrison, of St. Louis, Mo., 
sends a specimen of his ** dental engine," a 
machine by which a drill, or any other revolving 
instru'oent, can be attached to a driving-rod, 
worked by a silent treadle, and applied within 
the mouth in any direction. Various' forms of 
automatic hammer, for -consolidating gold-stop- 
ping by a succession of taps of regulated force, 
are shown by diflferent instrument makers ; and 
there are also specimens of the sheet india- 
rubber used by dentists to form *' coflfcr dams," 
by which a tooth, during the process of stop- 
ping, can be absolutely protected from the 
contact of the fluids of the mouth, which, if they 
find entrance into the cavity, interfere with the 
proper adhesion and consolidation of the gold or 
other material that is employed. 

It is necessary also to mention some improved 
spectacles, exhibited by Dr. Noyes, and made by 
H. W. Hunter, both of New York, m which the 
necessary combinations for patients who are 
astigmatic after cataract operations, are con- 
structed in a novel and ingenious manner. On 
these, and many other matters of interest, the 
limits prescribed for this Report forbid me to 
enter into details. 



The number of viaiton admitted on Thursday, 22ad 
lost., WAS aa follows: — Season tickets, 201; on payment 
of Is., 3,462; total, 3,663. On Fridty, season tickets, 297 ; 
on payment of Is., 4,371 ; total, 4,668. On Saturday, 
season tickets, 313 ; on payment of Is., 6,083 ; total, 

0,o9o. 



The nnmber of Yisitors admitted to ths Kxlubitui 
during the week ending Saturday, May 24th, was u 
follows : — Season ticket^ 1,256 ; on payment of 28. 61 
1,462 ; on payment of Is., 17,764 ; total, 20,482. 

The number admitted on Bionday was, seascm ticbU 
165 ; on payment of Is., 2,765 ; total, 2 930. On Taw- 
day, season tickets, 177; on payment of la., 3 60S; 
total, 3.780. On Wednesday, se>u)a Ucketi, 244; on 
payment of 2s. 6d., 1,551 ; total, 1,795. 

A very interesting addition to the Exhihitioa his been 
opened in the Indian Court. The nu^ority of the obje^ 
have been sent by the Indian Government, and ooo|fi« 
somerery fine specimena of native workmanship. Tbeie 
is a very correct representation of a carpet bastfr, viti 
the lay figure of an Indian smoking his hookah : wUli 
some very fine Indian tapeetry is exhibited by Loodoi 
fircns. Among the other exhibits are brass aalct^ 
utensils for domeetio use, silks from Bombay and &anM 
and models of the various carts, wagi^oos, sadiaildl 
used in the mountains. The gold and sUver embroida; 
from Benares and Scinde is especially worthy of iiii)W& 
tion. Thnre is also a ooUectton of water-ooloar pttotragl 
by Mr. WUliam Taylor, the late CommiaBOOff, a 
extensive collection of hookas, some gold work (roa 
Central Asia, and some very pretty lace-work bm Afi 
missionary schools at Madras. 

On Tuesday night the President of the InstitattflB ol 
Civil Engineers and Mrs. Hawksley give a ooumm 
zione at the International ElxhibiUon, which wu at^ 
tended by a great number of the members and aaodttei 
of the Institution and their Mends. The tmoKioeaU 
for the reception of the guests had been maas oa i 
very liberal scale. The staircases and oasngM nn 
handsomely decorated with fiowers ; and, by peimi««* 
of the commanding officer, the string band of the Boyal 
Artillery, under Sie directioii of Mr. Smyth, plajn ^ 
selection of music in the central room of the pwtBJ 
galleries. A number of recent scientific inveatioosiij 
new discoveries were exhibited in these gallfiriAH 
by the excellent arranirements the guests, after hinB| 
examined the pictures and inventions, ooold paia do^ 
to the lower gallery, where the maohinery vas pit J 
motion for the occasion. Among the guests ^"^ P 
Serene Highness the Duke of Teck, the Duke of 8ott«^ 
land. Lord and Lady Sondes, Sir Morton Peto^ »^ 
Belcher, Lord H. Lennox, Dr. Voelcker, and many w 
known members of the profession. The coopany ^ 
very numerous. 

His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of Otfs^f 
been pleased to allow the two German o^^.^ 
showing camp cooking, at the International Exbin^ 
to remain until the 6th July. The attention of tito 
litary authorities has been directed to this intow^ 
demonstration of practical science, and it is nowifll*** 
to invite the Militia and Volunteers to inipset it 



the principal object of ti 
ent series of exhibitteos " 



It is well known that 

establishment of the present ^^ 

the diffusion and advancement of technical ^°^'^^ 
and especially amongst the class of skilled artow 
Hnr Majesty's Commissioners are now «>«*^.!J^ 
sideling the best means for rendering the ^r'Z 
more practically conducive to this end by brin^ ^^ 
lessons to be derived from them directly hooa to 
disses for whose benefit they were instituted. A^ 
other steps the commissioners have taken for u^ 
pose they have invited the companies of ths wt^ 
London to assist them by their advice and co-oper*" 



and their invitation has oeen received by tha Cip"^ 
panics in a manner wfa " "' * * 

subject. It is intended 



las oeen receivea uy *"" ^"f. ^ 
which tesGfies grasitintereat w J 

led. as a preUmmary »*^J^^ 
conference of representatives of the variooa ****J*3 
during the ensuing month. The foUosring ooopw'" 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, May 30. 1873. 



547 



Uiti^Hd/ expressed their intention of sending repre- 
' '* V to the oonfersnce: — Apothecaries, hlack- 
dockmakers, dothworkers, coach and coach 
^_^ makers, coopers, curriers, drapers, dyers, felt- 
&n^ glus sellers, haberdashers, ironmongers, 
Mr% lurinen, masons, mercers, merchant tailors, 
SdMuken, pewterers, plasterers, plumbers, saddlers, 
■Bctaele makers, stationers, tin plate workers, wax 
wndlen, wheelwrights, and woolmen. 



EXHIBITIOHS. 




f ^ 

(■ttiTisaBa IzhiUtioiL — ^The \ienna correspondent 
tjh Buttm Budget, writing on the 24th, says: — 
the last few days the number of foreign visi- 
Ezhibition has been increasing, and indeed 
made in the building has been such that 
remains to be done that could make the £z- 
Bxve interesting. The weather, too, has greatly 
' ; yesterday was our first real May-day. As 
kotel-keepers, their prices have now fallen to the 
■Billy charged here during the summer season. 
~ sdd*daT n^al may be obtained at any hotel or 
it for nom Is. 3d. to 28. 6d., including wine, and 
l|M elm bedroom for 2s. a day." 

Art Szhibition at Aberdeen. — ^The com- 
■ appointed at the public meeting some weeks ago 
■aje eoruiderable progress in their arran^ments. 
ribibitiaQ will consist of works of art, divided into 
Mswiiig classes: — 1. Paintings in oil or water- 
niniatiires. 3. Sculpture ^in marble or the 
hronses. 3. Gold and silver work, jewel- 
medals, carved work in wood, ivory, &c., 
work in metal generally. 4. Porcelain, glass, 
|ott6fy, fine old watches, fans. 5. Illuminated 
agraTings, etchings, and lithographs. 6. Pho- 
isiaeBentations of works of art not themselves 
7. Tapestry, fine stuffs of artistic character 
lace, embroidery. 8. Furniture of artistic 
■tiqae. The articles must be the property of 
Mils handing them over, and must not be for 
IW rooms available for the exhibition are the 
Inrs a&d county hall, the county oommittee-room, 
f^ofaung rooms. So numerous are the articles 
likely to be obtained that the accommodation, 
it be, will, it is feared, be too limited to 
^bem all to advantage. The exhibition will be 
' akoot the middle of July. 

Viltsd Btatei XzhibiUon of 1876.— At the forth- 

Ceotennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1876, 

* that a large amount of goods from abroad 

ohihited, but the high import duties of the 

Sbtes' tariff, it is thought, might deter exhibitors 

Mofing their contributions. To avoid this diffi- 

'«aDd at the same time obey the law, it has been 

' to class the exposition buildings as a bonded 

Foreign goods, therefore, wiU be admitted 

^ 4sty and in l^nd, and when the exposition is 

^n be returned to their owners. It is only when 

tttiold in the United States that duty will have to 

The exposition buildings are to be in Fair- 

on the outskirts of the city, a large tract of 

_ been laid out for that purpose, spacious 

for the aooommodation of the most extended 

of the kind ever erected for any universal 



METALLIC COMPRESSION CASTING. 

A process, which has lately been in successful operation 
in the United States, has been introduced into this 
country by the patentee, Mr. J. J. C. Smith, and from 
its practical simplicity and general adaptability, as 
shown in operation at the inventor's offices, Ludgate- 
circus, it appears calculated to supersede, from its sim- 
plicity and economy, the ordinary processes at present in 
use for moulding, casting, and electrotyping. The two 
principal points of interest are the use of fine potter's 
clay, instead of sand, for the moulds, and the injection 
of the molten metal at the bottom, under great pressure, 
by a piston moving in a cylinder. 

The electrotype process has many disadvantages, 
being limited to certain metals, the moulds for fine work 
are expensive, the deposition slow, and every step de- 
mands skilled labour, so that it cannot be produced 
cheaply. In the present ordinary process of moulding, 
toe, the copy is alwa3rs greatly inferior to the pattern. 
For objects of high art, manufacture-moulding is but a 
preparatory process, the skilled labour of the chaser must 
give it its finishing touches. By this new process of 
casting under compression, most of the articles in metal 
which are now proKiuced by the skill of the engraver can 
be produced in quantity and with a perfection of finish 
surpassing that obtained by skilled manual labour, and 
at an infinitely less cost. The class of articles that can 
be made bv this process are most numerous and of general 
use, and if they can be greatly cheapened and multiplied 
rapidly, the trade must necessarily expand. It includes 
such objects as ornamented door-knobs and escutcheons, 
card receivers or cups in relief, bronze ink-stands, salvers 
in white metal, silver-plated jewel, caskets, nlve^ware, 
clockcases, chandeliers, stamps, dies and brass tvpes for 
bookbinders, dies or plates for stamping g^lt wall pnapers, 
fancy bq^ers and large ornamental letters for printers, 
metallic letters for patterns, hampers, house numbers, 
letter-boxes. &c., small bas-reliefs in iron and steel, 
screws and nuts, faucets or cocks. 

Mr. Robert Mallet, F.R.S., reporting on the process 
after minute and careful examination, considers the in- 
vention one likely to prove of great importance. He 
adds^" In soundness, sharpness to form of pattern, per- 
fection and beauty of surface and finish, these castings, 
untouched by any tool after leaving the moulds, tran- 
scend any I have ever seen." 



CORRESPONDENGB. 



baring 



THE NEW TAX ON KNOWLEDGE. 

Sir, — A letter from Sir John Bennett, dated the 6th 
instant, appeared in your Journal of last Friday ; it is a 
matter of regret that it did not appear sooner. 

The subject is one of serious importance to this and 
other institutions. Should we be constantly deprived 
of that exemption from local rates secured to us by the 
Act of 1843, many societies of this kind must close their 
doors and the work of education be stopped. I hope it 
is not too late for the friends of education, in and 
out of Parliament, to bestir themselves, and wring from 
government an assent to the continuance of our present 
i exemption. — I am, &c., 

J. 8. NoLDWRiTT, Hon. Sec 

Walworth Literary and Sdentific Instltate, 
May 23, 1873. 



UAflsld Izhihltlon has, in consequence of the 
"'"' itsto of St. James's-hall, been postponed until 
Ihe applications for space have been very 

' iMdlAwork.— The private view of the Exhi- 
\m Andent Needlework in the South Kensington 
■^ii held this day (Friday). 



The manufacture of glycerine has of late, in view 
of its constantly extending importance in the arts, been 
greatly expanded. During the past year the production in 
the United States alone reached 2,000,0001b., of which one 
firm in Cincinnati manufactured one-half. 

The construction of the tramways in Edinbu" 
has cost about £10,000 a mile. 




'■•Si' 




^fe::^^2s 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, Junb 6, 1873. 



649 



PAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



^ J 



No. 1,072. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JUNE 6, 1873. 



as. 



» ' III "~ 

OrOTTSGEMENTS BT THE COTTVCTL. 



JBBOEASE OF EAUWAYS BY THE 8TATE. 

%Mial meetmg of the Society will take place, 
'per of the Coiineil, on Friday, the 13th June, 
fij^olook, when a paper will be read by William 



■ Bsq., *' On the Purchase of the Bailwaysby 
PMe." The Eight Hon. the Earl of Derby 

pwide. 

I 

< COHFSEEECB. 

h Twenty-second Annual Conference between 
Jbimcil of the Society and the representatiyes 
itions in Union, will take place at the 
's House, on Friday, the 27th June. The 
be taken at 12 o'clock, by Major-C^eneral 
)LET-WiLMOT, R.A., F.B.S., Chairman of 




of Institutions and Local Boards are 
to send, immediatefy, the names of the 
tatives appointed to attend theConference; 
notice should be given of any subjects 
^utitutions or Local Boards may desire 
ispresentatiYes to introduce to the notice of 
erence. 

ies of Institutions are requested to for- 
onee, by book post, copies of the last Annual 
of their Institutions. 



CONYEESAZIONS. 

Society's Conversazione will be held at the 
^'Kensington Museum, on Friday evening, the 
hme. Cards will be issued in a few days. 

SEDOWKENT FUEB. 

following donations and subscriptions in aid 

Endowment Fund have been received : — 

j^^ £ s. d. 

/HJm. Atirinaon 60 

\fW. R, Sandbach 60 

.•■& Walter aTrevelyaa, Bart, .... 60 

IwmetEentley 20 

M^ A. Angus CroU 20 

.IMm Noble 20 

r|P.T.8anl 6 

' pp. B. Spioer 6 -0 

. . f vbM. H. L. Woodd 6 C 

^iyeo. W.Hart 2 2 

jflgttbn E. Evans 2 2 

P*T.Blakely 1 1 

, vAoxDaa Dixon 1 1 

* Wbhn&Lapcaik 110 



PB0CEEDIHO8 OF THE SOCIETY. 



COKEEITTEE ON THE MEANS OF FEOTECTXNO THE 
XETEOPOXJS AGAINST CONFLAOBATION. 

Mr. HEimY Mabten gave the following evi- 
dence: — 

Q. — ^You are an engineer, are you not ? 

A, — ^I am. 

Q. — With whom did you serve your time P 

A, — ^Witb Mr. Wiofateed, the eneineer of the East 
London Waterworks. Whilst with him I assisted in 
the constmction of the Hull Corporation Water Works, 
and was afterwards appointed by him to see his plans 
carried out for the construction of the Wolverhampton 
Water Works. 

Q, — ^What will be the cost of the proposed alterations ? 

A, — ^The cost of the above-mentioned alterations, for 
giving the constant, instead of the intermittent, supply 
at Wolverhampton, will not exceed 6d. a headof thepopu- 
lation within the diistrict. This is excloslTe of the re- 
servoir, which would have been essential to the continu- 
ance of the supply under the old system ; including this,, 
however, the whole cost will not exceed 2fl. per head of 
the population. I think there are very few towns in 
which the cost of the alterations necessary for the intro- 
duction of the constant-supply system will exceed 28. 
per head of the population, and that in general it will be 
found muoh uncter that amount. 

Q, — What would be provided imder that charge of 2s. 
per head F 

A. — ^Where none have been previously provided it will 
cover the expense of providing the necessary reservoirs, 
and the alteration of the street mains, with tne introduc- 
tion of the additional stop-cocks, and will be sufficient 
to prepare all the internal house-fittings for the reception 
of the constant supply. In almost all towns in which 
the intermittent supply is in force, the fittings are in a 
very defective state. Tne water being on so short a time,, 
it lias boon thought hardly worth while to see that these 
are kept in good repair, and consequently they will, as- 
hr as the taps and stopcocks are concerned, require 
almost a complete renewal. The useless piping and tanks, 
and old metal, however, which may be removed on the 
introduction of the constant system, will more than pay 
for these matters. 

Q, — You state vour belief that the wear and tear of 
street-oocks wiU be less under a system of constant 
supply. Have you observed any difference in the wear 
and tear of these in streets of much traffic compared with 
those of little traffic? 

A. — ^I have not observed any perceptible difference 
between the wear and tear of the valves of cocks- 
placed in a street where there is much traffic, as com- 
pared with the valves of those placed in streets of less 
traffic, but in the former case the iron boxes which cover 
them are more subject to injury, and we find them some- 
times filled with dirt or ^ sludge " from the road. 

Q.— Supposing the levels to be the same, will not the 
strain ana damage of pipes and taps, from the hydraulic 
jerks, be greater on the intermitt^t than the constant 
supply ^stem P 

A, — Yes ; because, under the intermittent system, the 
whole pressure of the works is brought to bear upon one 
particmar spot, with a suddenness which often causes 
considerable damage from the recoil. ^ Under the con- 
stant system, however, the pressure will only vary by 
imperceptible degrees, and there can be no ierks on the 
mains and pipes. In the houses none of tne common 
bib-tape should be allowed to be used, but should be of 
the kmd termed "screw-down," as they are everyway 
better adapted for high pressure, and do away with all 
recoil. 



MS 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, Mat 30, 1871 



VOTES OV BOOKS. 



Xaaval du ICiorotoope : Dana mi Applications aa 
Diagnottio et ^ la Cliniqae. By "Dn. M. I)uyal et L6on 
LerabooUet (Paria, G. if«M0fi).— Thii handy litUe wotk 
is intended, in the words of the authors, to aid in micro- 
soo|MO researches, whioh may be made readily by the 
bed side of the patient without the employment of com- 
plicated chemical agents or delicate dilBsections. Open- 
ing with a practical introduction to the microscope itself^ 
the ekmmbr$ elairt^ and cheiuioal tests, in the measure- 
ment of microscopic objects, micrometers, and other 
apparatus, Uie authors deal in successive chapters with 
the microscopic study of the blood, pus, products of the 
skin, of the mucous membranes, of milk, &c. The 
authors state that, after having tested the exactitude of 
the results, they have given a r$9umd of the ** Traite des 
Humours, by rrofessor 0. H. Bobin, and of the studies 
of Uie msiadies of the scalp, by MM. Bann and Davaine. 
Each chapter is preceded by an anatomic and physio- 
logical ruuM^ of the principal facts which are indis-. 
pensable for the microscopic study of the products of any 
part of the body, one object of the work being to aid 
armjr surgeons who may not have immediate access to 
classical tz^atises. The arrangement of the book is 
oertainl^ methodical, the observations in each chapter 
being given, almost without exception^ in the same ottler. 
First, on tissues; secondly, on secretions; thirdly, on 
Ibreign bodies ; and lastly, on animal and vegetable 



GMkRAL VOTtiS. 



tTftdMrgronnd Batiwayi in Ameriea — ^The railroad 
tunnel at Baltimore, which is to unite the roads on tbs north 
and south tides of the city, is to be completed before the vod 
of June, and, until the completion of the Broadway (Joder- 
groundRailwav in New York, it will form the largest under- 
gnrand railrosa possesstd by any dty in Amsrioa. 

Xelbonme Xu86iim.~The trustees of the Industrial 
and Tecbnologioal Museum and the National Gallery, Mel- 
bourne, have issued a prospectus setting forth the ▼ariuus 
anangsments they bavs made for imparting instruction to 
all comers. It appears that there are five sohoob now in 
aotiye operation — yiz., chemistry and mineralogy, mathe- 
matics and practical geometry, telegraphy, painting, and 
design. The first is subdivided into oUissea for instruction in 
practical chemistry, elementary ohemuitry, and mineraloKV ; 
and the third for practice of telegraphy and theory of t«l«- 
graphy. The next competitiTe exhibition is fixed for June 10. 

Oaaadilui Pftteat Laws. — The Commissioner of 
Patents, Canada, has presented te ParliasMnt a bill for the 
further amendment of the Canadian patent laws. The 
amendment aimplifies the preparation of^ths application, and 
does away with a great deal of the red tape prooeediogv now 
required. The design is to assimilate both the proc^ings 
in preparation of papers and the procedure before the Patent- 
Offloe to those of the United States. 

Alexandra Palace.— On Saturday last the Palace was 
opened, without any great ceremony, to the public, the prin- 
cipal attractions being a concert and a flower-show. The 
Palace, like its pnrdecesaor at Sydenham, must always be 
looked upon as an outcome of the movement in favour of 
Exhibitions with which the Society of Arts has been so in- 
tboaftely ooanected. It is one of the gains that has arisen from 
uie sstablishment of Bxhibitlons that so many places of 
healthful recreation have been provided for the great Lou- 
dest population. The Crystal Palace in the south, ths Beth- 
nal Green Museum in the east, and now, the Alexandra 

*r^ m the north, all owe their origin to the same source, 
and an alike have their unefal purpose to subserve in edu- 
catmg and refining the tastes of the prople. 



s 



Ouano Adulteratloxt — ^Pemvisn gosno ii 
largely adulterated with day, plaster of Parb, ,-^ 
inferior phosphatie guanos. We have often sxtaiaed Pvs 
vian guano containing fmm 80 to 60 per oent of frsedilntf) 
added earthy or other useless mattsr. Whn nnaiM la^ 
of good quality, this kind of guano hsi s lifbt bnn 
ffr^ish colour. It oonsists of powder swiiaingbi vhk h 
lumps, wfaichf on bdng broken^ exhibit a ligbttr ooUri 
a crystalline appearanoe. A bushel of good gusft wi ' 
about 70 lbs., whilst adultsrsted kinds often v«(k 
than 100 lbs. per biuhel. A rough teet of the pvitf «( 
article is to bum three<^usrters of an onnee of tbtMpic 
sample upon a piece of tin or iron pUcsl on a diirftn. 
the reaidue be not more than a quarter of an otaoe, tkfsn^ 
is probably pare ; but if the residue amoonti inm.^ 
ounce, the sample is either extremely inferior or gnsilyidA 
terated.— Jdwrmi/ of Applied Seiena. 

A Soeletj ftir the Promotion ef leiaiaiis Unit: 
has just been established in Blanobestsr. Itaefajstiiik 
increase of the tedmioal knowledge sad ildU «f tbM 
engaged in ths various industries, ths impronMilai 
advancement of ukanufactures and the indutriil ott «| 
scienc(>s, and the general progreas, extensioo, tnd ««I1 
of industry and trade. The society is seodiof ottti 
to Vienna to profit by the exhibition now beisg b«U 
ss was d'ine by the Society of Arts on tkeoocMoiof 
Paris Exhibition, and it prop<ises to hold in tbentaaai 
exhibition of designs in texHle fabriee and of fwlaiS 
miser*. It will be remeasbered that a letter sdneidif 4 
formation of the sooiety appeared in ths /•srssJglXifJ 
last year. 

Beparatiiit MlTwr from Letd.— In the tepiitei 
lead from silver, some improvements have bsai i 
MM. Riswayand Pauvillto, of Paris. The 
lead is trsated with magneainm or aluBiintam,«tkvi 
alloyed with sine, and Uie rich scum thus obCsisid ii 
gamated with mereury. The inventors state thi^ 
able to regenerate the metals which havs biao settlii 
process of sxtraction, and thus have grsatly redscedoti 
pense of separating the precious metal from ths hid. 



KOTICES. 



•vBsoBipnoiri. 

The Lady-day subscriptioiiB are dn^ 
should be fonrnrded by dieque or Fo^ 
order, orossed <* Ooutts and Co.,*' and nsde] 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davo^ori ""^ 
officer. 

HBntms ras ths mum ynasL 

Mo*. .. Aitomotogloal, 7. . . •, .^i. 

Boyal Inatitation, S. Oenetal UoatUy MMttsc. 

*" BiblUo2iuS!iMl<]«y. 6^. I. IfcPiHiFojWK* 
Legend of IshtarDesofflsding to HadBi" l»r 



Page Benouf, ••Th» P ie pusM ea ts thi 
Language.'* a, Mr. B-OaM. ** AB f s rHli ii 
Babylon Briokbssodbed in the BOtte." 




Zoological. 8i. 
Boyal Insotuoon, S. 
logj." 



Mr. ^. PsASr, - 



i>^ 



WsD. ...Ob stetrics l, 8. 

THu«s...LinnSBan. 8. I. Dr. Heoto, •• On fte JH«ii2?* 

jaro.»' 1. Mr. Jaha Minm, " Ua the/>f|f^J*^ 

Chemical, 6. 1. 8tr John Oooroy. -Tb* D«*W 

Calcium and Strontium." 1. Mr. LB. HisbW^ 

Iodine Uonochloride." 8. 1&.T.WI»^**»•»*^ 

Qenerator." ^^ .^^h 

Boyallnstitation,8. TtOttmotTfaM,*Hl^ 

Fsi Boyal Inetitution, 9. 

Oeolofriste* AaMxdatkn, & 
PhiMogioaUS^ 
Arebeeologioal Institute, i. 

Bat Boyal Inatitation, 8. Mr. J. UaAn* "^ ^** 

Method." 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jhnb 6, 187S. 



649 



IdiJBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Ko. 1,072. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JUNE 6, 1873. 



^ 






PBOCEEDIITGS 07 THE SOCIETT* 



oiorai 



S BT THE COTTVCIL. 



roCHASS OF SAUWATS BT THE STATE. 

I iipedal zneetmg of the Society will take place, 
Koricrof \he Council, on Friday, the 13th June, 
pUo'dook, when a paper will he read hy William 
^' r, Bsq., " On the Purchase of the Bailwaysby 
Aite." The Sight Hon. the Earl of Dsrbt 



COHFSBEHCB. 

ft» Twenty-second Annual Conference between 
tGoondl of the Society and the representatiyes 
lartilatiozis in Union, will take place at the 
1*1 House, on Friday, the 27th June. The 
be taken at 12 o'dodk, by Major-General 
llUDLET-WiLMOT, B.A., F.B.S., Chairman of 

Bacretuies of Institutions and Local Boards are 
to send, immediately^ the names of the 
^g w nt atives appointed to attend the Conference; 
^ fiidy notioe should be given of any subjects 
lUt Institations or Local Boards may desire 
AtrnpraeentatiYes to introduce to the notice of 
bOonfereooe. 

^ fieaetaiies of Institutions are requested to f or- 
|lilriMii, by book post, copies of the last Annual 
■|M of their Institutions. 

C0NYEB8AZI0NS. 

I Ibi Society's Conversazione will be held at the 
^tikSensingion Museum, on Friday evening, the 
Uk Jime. Cards will be issued in a few days. 

[ SEDOWXEHT FUJID. 

1 IbiBllowing donations and subscriptions in aid 

■Hb Endowment Fund have been received : — 



£ 
50 
60 
50 
20 
20 



Wb. Atkinson ••• 

W.R.8aadbach 

Sir Wilter 0. Trevelyan, Bart, .... 

JwMiEentley 

ODLAAngnsCroll _, 

*obiKoble 20 

O.T.SmI 6 

w. A. opjoer ,,,., .*••. 6 

?M-H.L.Woodd 6 

6«o.W.HMt 2 

WmB.BfBn» 2 

J.T.Bbkely 1 

ThomtaDixon 1 

Ji^l 8. Ltfcsik 1 



s. d. 












2 
2 
1 
1 
1 









'0 
C 








COMMITTEB ON THE MEANS OF PBOTECTING THE 
KETBOPOLIS AGAINST CONFLAOBATION. 

Mr. Henbt Mabtek gave the following evi- 
dence: — 

Q. — ^Tou are an engineer, are you not ? 
A, — ^I am. 

Q. — With whom did yon eerre your time P 
A, — ^Witb Mr. Wickateed, the engineer of the East 
London Waterworks. Whilst with him I assisted in 
the oonstruotion of the Hull Corporation Water Works, 
and was afterwards appointed by him to see his plans 
carried out for the construction of the Wolverhampton 
Water Works. 

Q, — ^What will be the cost of the proposed alterations f 
A, — ^The cost of the above-mentioned alterations, for 
giving the constant, instead of the intermittent, supply 
at Wolverhampton, will not exceed 6d. a head of the popu- 
lation within Uie district. This is exclusive of the re- 
servoir, which would have been essential to the continu- 
ance of the supply under the old system ; including this^ 
however, the whole cost will not exceed 28. per head of 
the population. I think there are very few towns in 
which the cost of the idterations necessary for the intro- 
duction of the constant-supply system will exceed 2s. 
per head of the population, and that in general it will be 
found much under that amount. 

Q. — ^What would be provided under that charge of 2s. 
per head F 

A* — ^Where none have been previously provided it will 
cover the expense of providing the necessary reservoirs, 
and the alteration of the street mains, with the introduc- 
tion of the additional stop-cocks, and will be suffipient 
to prepare all the internal house-fittings for the reception 
of the constant supply. In almost all towns in which 
the int^nnittent supply is in force, the fittings are in a 
very defective state, llie water being on so short a time,, 
it DBA been thought hardly worth while to see that these 
are kept in good repair, and consequently they will, as- 
hx as the taps and stopcocks are concerned, require 
almost a complete renewal. The useless piping and tanks, 
and old metal, however, which may be removed on the 
introduction of the constant system, will more than pay 
for these matters. 

Q. — You state vour belief that the wear and tear of 
street-cocks will be less under a system of constant 
supply. Have you observed any differ ence in the wear 
ana tear of these in streets of much traffic compared with 
those of little traffioP 

A. — I have not observed any perceptible diffbrenoe 
between the wear and tear of the valves of cocks- 
placed in a street where there is much traffic, as com- 
pared with the valves of those placed in streets of less 
traffic, but in the former case the iron boxes which cover 
them are more subject to injury, and we find them some- 
times filled with dirt or ^ sludge " from the road. 

Q.— Supposing the levels to be the same, will not the 
strain and damage of pipes and taps, from the hydraulic 
jerks, be greater on the intermittent than the constant 
supply system P 

A, — ^Yes ; because, under the intermittent system, the 
whole pressure of the works is brought to bear upon one 
particular spot, with a suddenness which often causes 
considerable damage from the recoiL Under the con- 
stant system, however, the pressure will only vary by 
imperceptible degrees, and there can be no ierks on the 
mains and pipes. In the houses none of the common 
bib-taps should be allowed to be used, but should be of 
the kmd termed " screw-down," as they are every wav 
better adapted for high pressure, and do away with all 
reooiL 



550 JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, Juw 6, 1878, 



OAHTOB LBCTUSE8. 
The first lecture of the eeoond ooone of Oantor 
Lectures for the Sesdoii, '* On the Energies of the Im- 
ponderables, with especial reference to the Measure- 
ment and Utilisation of them," was delivered by 
the Bev. Abthxte Bioo, M.A., on Monday evening, 
February 3rd, 1873, as foHows : — 

Lbctubb L 
Introduction — Inior^rokUiomt — UmU of Meatwroment, ^c* 

" Imponderables," as a teohnioal term, was in the last 
century a name ^yea to those fluids which wore supposed 
to convey electricity, light, heat» &o, ; and beoause these 
fluids could not be isolated and weighed, all that men 
received through their ageuoy wexe also named " im- 
ponderables." These ^enomena are now regazded as 
being due to motions m ponderable matter, and thej 
are oonsideied rather as foioes oausiaff motion in this 
matter than either as fluids or as that wliich can be con- 
veyed, i,e,f carried, by fluids. The term is, however, re- 
tamed as a brief mode of expressing the subject of this 
course of lectures, especially as no one can confidently 
assert Uiat it may not again be re-instated in the posi- 
tion it once occupied. 

The '* energies of the imponderables," then, is a phrase 
comprehending all results of those unseen, unlmowa, 
and by man unweighable powers which pervade i^aoe. 
By such powers the very sun, and planets, and stars are 
ao ■ influenced that they move in harmonious union or 
oneness, and, therefore, the name universe is arolioable. 
With this extensive view of the influences ana actions 
of tiie imponderables these lectures are not to be con- 
cerned. The bounds of them are, however, easily defined. 
This earth and that which man can utiliw upon it are 
our limits. Even when thus ^'cabined, cribbed, confined " 
to the earth and the handiwork of men, still, those who 
have perused and thought over the title, via., " The 
Ikiergies of the Imponderables, with especial reference 
to the Measurement and Utilisation of them," may have 
commented upon it in spirit, saying, '* Fools rush in 
where angels fear to trmd." When body, form, and 
fashion were first given to the scheme of this course, that 
great was the presumption, and that great, therefore, 
would be the failure, were not unknown feelings. 

The causes of suoh views are simple and easily made 
dear. The energies of the imponderables have in one 
fSorm or another occupied the attention of the most 
thoughtful as well as the most practical men in every 

T. They may not have givoi tibia name to the subject 
their mvestigation, but, call it what you will, the 
ultimate source of all power tkat nature gives to man is 
to be found in the energy of one or more of those un- 
Imown agents to which the name of imponderables has 
been given. To dwell upon this now would be to 
anticipate the series of lectures.^ It majr suffice to state 
that ue object of the course is to brinf before you 
illustrations of the modes in which men have been led 
— or are now being led — to define not only the ways and 
varieties of ways in which each imponderable aots, but 
also to estimate by those measurements to which men 
appeal in material things, the amount or value (if the 
word be preferred) of tlukt wodc in material thiag^done 
by these imponderable elemental powers. To do this 
involves references, perhaps, in few words, to cendusions 
at which a life of self-devotion to one cause may have 
arrived, that life, too, being aided by the very highsnt of 
cultivated mental intelli^noe and the capability of 
empWing sudi powers of scientiflc research, the very 
alphabet of which is beyond the *ittyinmtnt of tiie 
Jwority of men. 

Whilst thus frankly, and at the outset, admitting 
how high a class of mind is required fin> these origxnia 
Investigations, it must not be everlooked that the ptin- 
olpUs which have govismed the researches of thcmnMn, 



and the conclusions at which they have arrived, may bi 
appreciated by many minds. 

When the late Ifr. Faraday was discoorsing *'0« 
the Conservation of Force," he made a statemeni 
in relation to an observing and a mathematical miiMt 
which will have more wei^t by your genenilieatian c| 
his words than by my dilution of them. Henoe this 
quotation : — 

^* It may be supposed that one who baa little cr ae 
mathematical knowled^ should hardly aeaoDie a right 
to judge of the genefahty and force of a principle aaeh as 
that which forma the subject of these remarks. My 
apdogy is this : — I do not perceive that a mathcnatical 
mind, simply as sudi, has any advantage over an equally 
acute mind not mathcnatical in peroeiviDg the natms 
and power of a natural principle of action. It caxuiot 
of itself iatreduoe the knowledge of any new principle. 
Dealing with any ai^ every amount of statie-eisetrioily, 
the mathematical mind can and has balaoeed *■>** ma^ 
justed them with wonderful advantage, and has foretold 
results which the ezperimentaliat can do no mere than 
verify. But it could not discover dynamie slcotnpty^ 
nor electro-magnetism, nor magneto-electeidty, or ev«a 
suggest then ; though when once discovered by the 
ex^rimentalist, it can take them up with c aUwu e 
facility. So, in respect to the force of gravitatiao, it 
has calculated the resuliB <^ the power in sndi a won- 
derful manner as to trace the known planets Uiroogh 
their courses of perturbations, and in so d<Hng has dis- 
covered a planet befSove n^mown. llteremaylbevanlts 
of the gravitating force of other kinds than ***T'T"tVn 
inversely, as the square of the distance of which it 
knows nothing can discover nothing, and can neither 
assert nor deny their possibiHty or oocutreace."* 

Influenced by such views as these, it awiiftnd that 
no disrespect to the highest intellect could accrue from 
an attempt to make dear, even to tiie loweet, a few of 
the ftmdamental prindples from which importaiit truthi 
have been evolved. It must be borne in mind that to 
illustrate the modes by which tiieee energies hav« b^ 
measured and utilised, and not to make any attempt st 
measuring them, iM the leading principle wUcb, tto 
early enunciated, may prevent miiMvm<*yp^/mg of ^ 
titie. 

ne very words, ''Energies of the Lnpondenhlai,^ 
are to some minds terms and not rwilitiea B|Bikils, 
like political Watch-words, serving only to classify theix 
professors — ^tiiinss for savans to discourse upon — pro- 
visoes in thrt intellectual dreamland in wlncik -nasml 
sdence is supposed to dwell. To the sujarity of mn, 
to those who toil for their daily bread, and with all fteir 
toiling find but scant supfdy, the monastery of seieDoo, 
in which her monks live apart from the world iad 
all its vulgar carss, seems a paiadise in wlbioh is no 
unrest. Such is only one of many thnussad dda* 
sionSi Within tiie tbinly-peopled world of thees who 
investS^te the kwsof nature, tiiere are all tike plsanres 
and pains which meet tiie labourer with his spade, the 
mechanic with hts tools, the merchant in his office, cr 
the statesman in his cabinet. It is because students sad 
investigators of nature's laws Hve moeh akme — beeaMe 
they cultivate a species of dan sy p — bec a na e tbtte is 
amongst them a kind of Hindoo caste — that tbey are 
sddom in contact and companionship with the toi less ia 
material things. This is much to berMrottsd. Aithou;^ 
•both parties are losers, yet the toilers m aBatsrial t" 
are by fieir the greatest losers. 

Such men as these are the true pioneera of the ki 
race, and that army is ill-directed vinck aflows the 
work of preparation done by its pioneers to be so £u> in 
advanoe that the mountains thev had leveQad were 
again piled up — the rivers they had diiad were again 
flowing, and the thorns once dearsd tnai the desdate 

?rairies were a^in rendering the grenad unCHrtfla. 
*he men of science are they who give the sap of 



• P.iii, 



tSft. 



JOUBNAL OP TBE SOGIBTT OF ABTS, Jun 6, 1878. 



5ffl 



^vitalltj lo ttie tree of oomraeroe. Sooratj pluoln tbe 
frool, and aeldom waters the plant. Bach mts been, and 
■nok still is, the ease with investigators ot natnra] 
soMoee, if the men amongst whom they live take tht- 
froit aiul eare neither for the gfurdenecs nor the garden. 

Look at the world— the beantiM glass in some of oar 
stained windows is a lost art. Look at the temples in 
India, iUnstiations of which the photographs so trath- 
IbDyreprodaoed in this room a few weeks since. Civilised 
Baiope and self-satisfled England cannot, either by their 
8U P^ter^s at Bome or thoee recent prodactions which 
w are bonnd to recognise as the hi^est attainment of 
fitifmnl architeotnre, — the Albert Hall and adjacent 
aaenumal — approach even at a distance. These temples 
of a religions profession, with which we are not even 
moqnaintM, and of which no records remain, abound in an 
aaohitectare with which neither in its conception nor in 
ita detail have we aoght to compare. And of the materials 
th« men of that age need, we may say the stone is stone 
^ . the sharpness of the carvings is sharpness still. 
la all oar dolomite a bastard dolomite? Why are 
we in England obliged to seek for Italians to form oar 
nuraUe — to poor in the clay, and to scalptore the marble ? 
Why do we go to Germany for our draaghtsmen, oar 
■cieace, and oar masic t and to France for oar adom- 
iB«ttts and our designs. 

One illastiation of the neglect of obvioasl v social gain 
frcnn want of scientific attention cannot, in this room, be 
oot of place. 

The Society of Arts was founded in 1753, and when 
the scientifically practical and theoretical minds of 
Coant Bamford and others considered on what basis 
and why the *' Royal Institution of Great Britain'* 
riuHild be founded, they expressed the objects of ^us 
foanding a Society, which should supplement the work 
of the Society of Arts, in the following title page to the 
chaorier of 1800 :~ 

BOYAL mSTITUTION 

GREAT BRITAIN, 
Vor DHRulBf tlM Knowlcdfre and Fkcilltstlog the General 

Introdootion of 
USEFUL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS A IMPR0VEMBKT8; 

And for Teeoblac by 
CcmumB or Pbil<mopbicai. L-otdebs avd Exrasamrs 

TBI 

AFFUCATION OP BCIBNCIS 

TO TBI 

COMMON PURPOSES OF LIFE. 

Ia reforenoe to the necessity for so supplementing 
the work done here by our predecessors, in order to 
** advance the applications of science to the common 
purpoaea of life, the then managers state that '* the 
giving of premiums to inventors was done by a most 
raspeetable sooietv (the Society of Arts), but to diffuse 
kw>wiedge needed another incorporation." 

Whilst admitting how nobly the Boyal Institution 
baa dona good work, and how generations yet unborn 
win look back with reverential gratitude to the boons 
which those who have laboured within its walls have 
oonlerred upon men, it is curious to mark how the views 
oi lis foonaers, and the one great purpose of its forma- 
taoo in 1800, are being realised by the Society of Arts 
■a 1873. 

In 1800 the managers of the Boyal Institution, as 
^eir first act, constituted fourteen committees, for the 
fallowing porpoees: — 

1. To investigate the various processes used in making 
laiad^ with a view to their improvement. 

S. To investigate means K>r producing cheap and 
•01H soopa for feeding the poor. 

2. Improveawat of cottages and cottage fireplaces. 
C laiprovements in the constmotion of stoves for 

_ dweUing-honses. 
4, Improvements in kitchen iireplaoas and kitchen 

of pdvate fomiles. 
#. IiBuiovemsata of the most mefal aitiolea of heaie- 




7. To ascertain, by experkaant, tha effects of vazions 
processes of coobsry upon tta food of cattie. 

8. Improvement of kilohaa fire-places and kitchen 
utensils used on shipboard. 

9. Improvement of limekiliis. 

10. Ascertaining the effocts of mizinff day, kc, with 
coal dost and cinders, in fanning fire-balls and combas- 
tible cakes. 

11 . Improving the composition of mortar and cements. 

12. To ascertain the beat method of building cottages 
and farm-houses with earth rammed together. 

13. A committee of mechanics for the improvement of 
useful machines of all descriptions. 

14. A committee for improving the various processea 
necessary in producing iron firom ittf ores, and in working 
and refininff of iron and staeL 

Thus did one noble foster-child of this Society pre- 
scribe its own duty, and, child-like« neglect that particular 
duty, and now that the child has attained the age of 
threescore years and ten, the nursing mother, by gold 
medals and money rewards, steps forward to complete the 
work begun by her foster-child,* and further, by these 
annual Cantor Lectures, she now does that which, not 
beiuj^ done in 1800, led to the formation of the ** Boyal 
Institution of Great Britain." 

1 his comes of the people of a country allowing the 
science of a country to dwell alone. All advances are 
first suggested by mea, who observe and think; they 
are extended by men who reason and test; they are 
utilised by men who act. 

The pioneers of an army are not the fighting men ; 
sailors navigate the ship ; marines do the warfare. 

The men who investigate the laws which govern the 
energies of the imponderables are not the men to utilize 
and apply them. The practical knowledge — tlie stimulus 
of interest — the capital of the manufacturer, are wanting 
to the philosopher ; while the manufacturer on his part 
is equally in want of the general information and 
accurate reasoning of the man of science. When the 
commercial element enters, and another object of regard 
is set up for worship, the man of science cannot serve 
two masters; he cannot serve science and mammon. 
The more eamestiy and heartily he serves the former, 
the less he bows to the latter. The service of natural 
science has within itself far more ennobling mental 
rewards than mammon can confer. 

Longfellow, in his letter to Agassiz, on his fiftieth 
birthday (28th Hay, 1857), after alluding to the sacrifice 
he made of his country and his home, for the cause of 
natural history, well expresses what he feels who, single- 
minded, teaches men to read what is still unread in the 
manuscripti of GK)d. Agassiz is described as — _, 

** Bt who naadtNd away and awty, 
With NaUi'6, thtt d6*r old oune. 
Who sang to him night and d«y 
The rhymM of tht anivene.'* 

And then oomes a reward more welcome than money or 
honoors— 

• A som of £500 hartng been plao«d at the ditposal of tb« Gouaoil 
of the Society of Arte, tbrongh Sir William BodUo, bye genUeoMa 
who does not with hie oame to appear, Ibr promoUng, by me^ae oC 
prises or otherwiee, eoonomy In the nee of ooal for domeetlo por- 
poees, the Coonoll have decided to offer the fbllowing prizes:— t. 
For a new and improved system of grate suitable to existing ohlm- 
neys as neaerally oonstraot»d, which shall, witt the le«et smooot of 
0(»al, answer best for wsrmlngandventllatlDga room.— The society's 
Oold Medal and Fifty Poonds. 2, For a new and tmprored sysUm 
of grate, sai'able to existing chimneys as generally ooni^trucled, 
which ihall with the leist amiiont ut ooal, best answer fur cooking 
fooil, combined with warming and rentilating the room. -The 
Society's Oold Medal and Fifty P»>onds. 3. For the best new and 
ImpioTcd system of apparatus which shall, by means of gas, most 
eflldeatly aDd eoomkally warm aadvaaUlatearoooL— TheSoctety*8 
Oold MedAl and Fifty Poonds. 4. For the besi new and Improfid 
system 'f apparatus which shall, bj OMans of gas, be best sdapted . 
fbr cooking, combined with wanoiogaod veotllatin s the room —The 
SodetY's OoUL Medal and Fifty PcNudi. S. For any new aad faa- 
proved system or aoaogements, iii>t la^adsd In tiie fbregolngv whMh 
Shan eiBoleoUy and ecooomicaUy BSttdii 
Sodetr^ Oold Medal sod Fifty Pooads. 



£52 



JOURNAL 6F the BOOIETT OF ARTS, Jinii 6, 1871 



** For wheiMver the waj leenu loo|^, 
Or hit hefttt bef In to fkll. 
Nfttare sings a more w(mdertal song. 
Or tells a more marrellois tale.** 

This course of Cantor LectoreB, in relation to the 
energies of the imponderables, is to be an attempt to 
occupy the border-land between pure scientific research 
and the ministration to social needs ; to tread, in fact, 
upon neutral ground, to launch our boat upon the 
Rubicon which divides the provinces of science from 
those of commerce. It does not aspire to any claim 
on the nests of science; they who build them are 
welcome to the imagined and worthless immortality 
of a name. It does not propound to commerce new 
modes of amassing wealth. They may keep their 
wealth who can. But it does seek to bring before 
those whose daily bread and daily luxuries are derived 
from science, illustrations of some of the truths on 
which their dailpr labour rests. It will try to do this 
in plain and simple form, divested of those higher 
stuoies through which these truths have been in some 
measure attained, and in a thousand ways extended. 

That the work is one worthy of all human intelligence 
may be inferred from the official document given by the 
auuiorities of that incorporation of men who are the real 
rulers of the earth, properly so called. Statesmen and 
politicians ma^ influence the minds and bodies of men, 
out engineers influence all material things. 

The Institution of Civil Engineers, established in 
1818, long before passenger railways, telegraphs, &c , 
&o., were known, and now numbering among its 
members men in all parts of the globe, clearly and 
aptiy defined the objects of their incorporation in words 
well fitted to the purposes of our present considera- 
tion. They then (in 1818} defined the object of their 
association to be '*The acquisition of that species of 
knowledge which constitute the profession of a civil 
engineer, whereby the great sources of power in nature 
— t.e.f the energies of the imponderables — are converted, 
adapted, and applied for the use and convenience of 
man." 



It may be said, and with some show of reason, when 
the comprehensive title of these lectures is considered, a 
little well or completely done is better than much ill or 
very partially done. As a principle in education this is 
a truism which the Committee of Council on Education 
and our various School Boards would do well to adopt and 
illustrate ; but these Cantor lectures are not to be scholastic 
lessons ; they may teach, but the primary object of them 
is rather to be suggestive of thought — to give the minds 
of hearers and readers food for reflection, material for 
development, to arouse inauiry, to provoke investigation; 
to leave, in fact, an unsatisfied impression that there is 
more than the lecturer has expressed — and there is much 
for hearers and readers to consider. If thus they only 
lay in the foundations of knowledge, and in rough and 
sketchy outiine show the superstructure, they wm have 
done good service — ^they will have stimulated research, 
and so led to the acquisition of knowledge and a habit of 
mind more valuable far than any which can be given 
frt)m this platform to you who sit at ease on those 
cushioned seats, willing to rest for a while under the 
delusive spell that the Society of Arts has thus found a 
right royal road (and perhaps a pleasant one) to learning. 
Such an unsatisfied feeling in relation to the energies 
named, and the measurement and utilisation of them, it 
is the object of this course to endeavour to create. If 
this result be attained, then in those future years, when 
by individual labour present difficulties are overcome, 
and light shines where thick darkness now overspreads, 
there will be cause for thanks, where, perhaps, when 
these lectures end an unsatisfied longing may alone be 
found. 

Men need but watch the progress of science truths for 
a few years, or read the development, stage by stage, of 
any branch of investigation, to be satisfied of this, that 



theory is propounded and establishad, it iapi% 
Askonomical and geological truths and &cti, tev < 
and again have th^ been Batis£u:t(mly (f) 
yet how soon and how rapidly has one explsntiaaJ 
so crushed out by another, that the first, vUck ' 
authors was applaoded, is by the u^ldsis of ttei 
ridiculed. 

The theories of the imponderableB, with iU«b 
must oooasionaJly deal or aUude to, bat vitkvljAi 
are in no degree further concerned, are, dsyljfr 
a transition state. Like the cause of solar f 
rotation of the moon, they are a bloodlesi 
on which, with our increasing love of 
our decreasing love of working, words msj stti 
words. 

A triumphant victory to-day in scieaoi tbeoiiii 
be the prelude to an ignominious defeat of ' 
theory to-morrow. Subject, doubtiess, to msi^/ 
views, the belief that he who propoundiU 
uses theories solely as means or wayi \if rakl 
convey ideas of how such and such &ctB m^ j^ 
brought about, and not as expressing a eonnotisii 
the way described is the actual plan in or"-^^ ^ 
the truly wise man. Those who sllov^ 
dwell upon the conception and the 
theories, who build theory upon theory, ylioi 
pUe Ossa upon Pelion, and sometimes Pelioniq 
are not unlike those whom Milton descnbei— 

. . . . "WhoreMOMdWifc 
Of prorideiioe, forakaowledge, will, sad te. 
Fixed Ikte, free will, foreknowledge ftbwM^ 
And found no end. In wanderlDg mixes kNl 

Thus it is that the decisions of one a^ ladMJ 
differ from those of another age and uwtte 
llieories, we must remember, are but opink«;i 
opinions, as such, this course of lectures is notj 
The fiicts of nature, so for as they have yet ' 
apparent, or may be in process of being i^ 
province. They change not To thoie ii 
appealed to nature direct, and brought from bflc< 
less stores of knowledge some truths thtt a 
utilise, is due the information which it to be 1 
before you. 

The mode by which they have won this 
is exacUy that pursued in our courts of U« i 
to arrive at the truth on one point and on one pa 
Look how long and tedious legal investigttf 
and yet in how few words the result ii 
Guilty or not guilty — Verdict for the 
verdict for the defendant One or otber 
very brief phrases records the conclusion or 
ment of many days of patient laboun tndr 
for truths. 

To not lees careful questioning by men n; 
as well as now current, we owe all w« bj*! 
energies, the measurement and utUisstiwcr 
to be a feature in these lectures. ^ That erott^ 
ing of the keenest and clearest kind baa be«< 
may be inferred from the fisct that these s^ 
so co-related — so mutually convertible— thsti 
and change, Protean-like, one into the otoi^J 
taneously, tiiat no one energy can be conreBr" 
tained alone and in operation. They thw 
interchange without (to our eyes) a sigml 
magician's wand. 

The transmutations of the imponderaWsj •»< 
plished in a way that would have gladdened tti< 
the most profound aldiemist, could he have seen ■! 
transmutations in some of the material thiogt «^ 
he worked. For examine, whenever enerpr » 



resistance heat is produoed, ».*., when thtt 
is perfect and complete, admitting of no m 
sUte. E,g., if a wheel in maohineiT doei 
easily, the consequence i> heat, ^oimfet^J^^ 
If," however, that energy can be oooTjrt* 

-aSv V ^ ' .-«w»„^w* ..^ «*aw I intermediate state, then this sUte rosy ^T 

With whatever pertinacity and show of reasoning any [ much as light from gas is an intermodule •»« 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jukb 6, 1878. 



658 



olieiBical affinit^r and beat. Do what we maj, that from 
'vrbioh energy molts oan neither be created nor destroyed. 
In the case of blows by impact, as in the tongue of a 
bell, or the hammer on an anyil, or a dock, or a piano, 
or CO a drom-bead, or on a gong, then, whilst doubtless 
Boase part of this checked energy is oonyerted into heat, 
yet a large portion is spent in the production of vibra- 
tiooA in matter, appremable to our senses, and sugp^es- 
U've of yibrations m molecules, which our senses, aided 
bj physical appliances, have not yet made visible, but 
^rhioh. chemical changes, and wnat to the minds of 
science theorists of the present day, is conclusive evi- 
dence, seem to point as similar vibrations in the invisible 
moleeoles and atoms of which it is assumed that bodies 
consist. 

Thea» remarin may suffice to explain that, whilst to 
speak of estimating an '^ energy" is easy, yet to estimate 
ubat ** energy " is an employment which tusks the keenest 
and most watchful faculties of the human mind, as well 
as fJarmmg from human hands the production of some 
of their most exqmsite and refined work. 

Hie difficulty of the task results not so much from a 
solution of the simple problem which the words ** estimate 
that energy ** convey, as from the incompetence alluded 
to of isolatfaig and continuing the special energy and 
noting its operation. For no one of nature's energies, be 
they ponderable or imponderable, is alone. Solitariness 
in the unseen, as well as in the seen, is no part of nature's 
plans. 

Faraday seemed to have realised this view in ffreat 
intensity when he wrote : — " If , as I believe, duauties 
are sssoiitinl to the forces, are always equal, are mutually 
dMkendent, that one cannot appear or exist without the 
other ; the proof of this would lead to many conse- 
qoenoea of high importance to the philosophy of force 
geoerallj."* 

This mterlacinff of energies — ^this co-relation, as it is 
^Jled, of physical forces, whilst it knits in harmonious 
mncoi energies which are nominally distinct, baffles 
the investigator who wishes to assign to each its share 
in any speoflo work. For example, the energy of g^vity 
operates everywhere, and our nmdamentiJ principle in 
hydraulics, that fluids press equaUy in all directions, 
ma^ be granted as a iK)stulate. The experiments by 
which it can be confirmed may be and is very clearly 
described, but no one has ever made or can maJce them. 
Gravity never ceases to impress upon fluids a downward 
tendenc y , and so prevents an equality of pressures in aU 
directions being established. 

It may be in the interest of the Moslem faith to assert 
that, without visible means, Mahomet's coffin rests 
between earth and heaven ; but, assuming the truth of 
the tradition, or of the fact (whichever it be), we know 
well that gravity operates in all its wonted intensity, 
and that the coffin is held there (if held at all) by the 
introduction of some counteracting energy, as that of 
magnetism. 

The energy of electricity is ever passing into heat — 
that of beat into electricity or light. Electricity, again, 
appears to assume the form of vitality ; and then, again, 
it totally fails to fulfil the vital conditions. In some 
animals the exhaustion of their muscular energy is 
consequent upon the exhaustion of their vital energy, 
and no electrical appliance can restore the vital Clergy, 
even though it seems to restore the muscular. TaJce 
al&ni^. This passes, by means unknown to us, into 
slectncit^ and heat. 

The^e is also thii peculiarity amongst these energies. 
The work of one energy estimated by any means known 
to us, gives no indication of the work of some other 
floergy, resident or potential, in the same matter. 

For example, the estimation of a drop of water by 
gravity stanoards — ^to speak of it as weighing so many 
grains — givee no indication whatever of its ability to 
pitHDote affinities — to absorb and convey heat — to de- 

• Proceedings of Royal luatotlon for IBM, psgt S. 



compose light. And if even all these were known, 
there would still be no indication that upon an electrical 
standard of measurement, its destructive effects are 
equal to that of a flash of lightning. 

The only energies that may be said to be non-inter- 
changeable, are those of g^vity and vitality. The 
former is enduring — ^the latter fleeting. The character 
of the one is persistence and constancy, that of the 
other, change and variety. Gravity may be said to be 
quietly resident in matter ; vitality shows its presence 
by growth or motion. 

Gravity is an energy pervading all nature, as intense 
in grains of sand as in the mountain ; in a drop of 
water as in the river or the ocean. Disregarding alike 
the vitality of the plant or tiie animal — for g^vity treats 
them as though they woe as inert, indifferent, and un- 
conscious of its preeence as the soil of the garden, or 
the mineral under the earth — thus this energy, which 
is to occupy our chief consideration on Monday next, is 
alone, and yet we shaU find how that it has been left for 
recent times to tabulate its measure, to report and 
utilise, under the guidance of ordinary arithmetical and 
mathematical rules, the scientific and social consequences 
of the measure so estabUshed. 

The other energy, that of vitality, which is to occupy 
our attention a fortnight hence, can hardly as ^et be 
said to have been measured. The time, however, is very 
near when the hope will be realised ; that the energy of 
vitality — the meonanical, the statical, dynamical, and 
absolute energy, of course, is meant — ^may be reduced to 
as exact a science as those of light, heat, and electricity 
have recently been. 

AU who have questioned Nature are well aware how 
simply and truthrolly she replies. It must, however, be 
steadily borne in mind that this truthfulness applies to 
the question and answer in their mutual relations. If 
the question be so put that Dame Nature has to answer 
in respect to the combination of two elemraits, and so is 
called upon to give a reply which is in truth the aggre- 
gate of the two, she does so. It behoves the questioner 
to frame his question with the utmost care, in order to 
eliminato what is extraneous to his purpose. All must 
have observed how difficult it is to frame a question 
wluch cannot be mis-read, or admit of a reply evidently 
based upon a .view which the questioner never con- 
tomplated. For example, if the question relates to 
gravity, caution is needed to exclude the buoyancy and 
even viscosity of the air, and the centrifugal effects ot 
the earth's rotation. • 

If it relate to electricity, caution is needed to exclude 
the most infinitesimal alloy of a metal— even a metal 
itself. 

If it relate to vitality, caution is needed to exclude the 
effects of toroporanr exhilaration or prostration. 

If it relate to affinity, caution is needed to exclude the 
oomplicution of phenomena by variations in gaseous 
pressure or atmospheric temperature. 

If it relate to heat, caution is needed to exclude 
peculiarly constituted substances, in their unknown and 
varying effects on heat fr!om Uieir atomic or rather 
molecmar condition. 

Although, for purposes of classification and the general 
distinotionof the phenomena, the energies found in nature 
are arranged under the general headings which are pre- 
fixed to the respective lectures of this course, yet it must 
be borne in mind that these are verbal rather than 
emphatically actual distinctions. They are merely the 
terms recognised at the present day, and in a few years 
may be dismissed. The convertibility of energy just now 
alluded to is a phrase which conveys a dear meaning, 
but this convertibility is a process that cannot be followed. 
At one time in the science world a general principle 
seenis to have been established in relation to it; again 
and again the hope fades, the principle is on no secure 
basis, whilst ^e convertibility is ever active. It may 
not inappropriatelv be asked which energy is the souroe 
of the ouers— which, in &ct, seems to have the highest 



65i 



^URNAL OF THE SOOIBTT OF ARTS, Jam 6, 1873. 



5e! 



be dawod as the om, Doabttess, m a questioB 

of Mquenoe, in time gravity most daixn the fiist place, 
hB^ao iKt aa oar powers of utilising the energies of the 
^ponderables are conoeraed, we are not able to appeal 
veiy hopefully to gravily. We cannot obtain the other 
eaergies from it. GraviiT refuses to be oonTerted; 
its political prindplea are of the type which permits no 
change. Nature's No. 1 must be gravity ; man's No. 1 
affinity. For example, oxygen and h^drograi manifest 
tiieir affinities in obedience to some inexplicable law. 
They enter into what is called combination, and in 
10 doing miwifeet one form of energy to which 
the name of the *' energy of affinity " is given. 
But in the transition state— in the act of obey- 
ing the very imperfectly known laws of affinity 
— another energy of a diffraent name and character 
appears, via., heat. Evidence of the power of this 
energy — heat — is furnished to tests Yery different to 
those which may be applied to the energy of affinity. 
The heat is presented to the thermo-electric pile, and 
that a great coaoffe in the mode of its energy luis taken 
place is obvious m>m the results it {noduoes at a dis- 
tance ; to this new form of ener^ we give the name of 
electricity. By a species of ma^c, electricity has called 
lorth an energy to which is given the name of 
magnetiam. 8iiitable circumstances b^g presented to 
this new energy, there is a machine propelled and 
capable of doing mechanical work. We now call it 
mtehanical energy. 

Thus, by change superposed on change, the energy 
of an imponderaUe has been converted into that energy 
of the ponderable to which we are indebted for all, or 
Bearly all, of arts, manufiictures, and commerce. 

The two imponderable energies into which chemical 
affinity cannot be converted are vitality and gravity. 
These two may, as we shall hereaftw find, assume the 
form of the others — ^the others cannot asBume their forms 



The vekNnty of sound was oalculatwt, 
aUowanoe lor the direction of the wiml ; in noeot 
it has been found that the heat developed by 
tide of air striking anotiier, must bo taken into 

We are indebted to '* energy" for all we have, aasd all 
tiiat men have won. For examf^ tlua b wM i wg aad 
all that it oontains is an example of one of the enetgiea 
of gravity. The lightning, with its tiumder, is aa es- 
ample of the energy of ele ctr ic i ty. Power of heaiiag 
and of speaking are examples of the energy of vitthty. 
The bread eaten and the wine drank are awimilated ani 
become ours by the energy of affinity. It is owing to 
the energy of light that vision can be had ; and t» the 
energy of heat that railways and looomotioii can be 
utilised. 

The word ** energy " itself, which has in theae daja, 
Phoenix4ike, risen from its ashes, aad which piays se 
important a part in the title to thia oouree of Gbnior 
lectures, may properly claim some notice. 

The word has been adopted, rejected, and iwiveA. It 
seems to have been first used by LucretiaB, a fieaan 
philosopher, who was bom b.o. 95 aad died B.C. 66. Thie 
word iMd been forg^otten or laid in oblirion until Dr. 
Young, in his lectures at the Royal Inatitutioo in 1807, 
explained what he meant by energy, and illustrated Ina 
meaning by ^e impact of an ivory ball or baUs vpoa a 
line of suspended balls. 

Here are several ivory balla suspended so as to toedi 
each other. If the end one be raised a little, and then 
allowed to fall, the bill at the other end will be driven 
away. The motion in the last ball resulted from eMugy 
expended in the raising of the first ball, and tiria fiist 
ball was raised by the energy of vitality. Whca, bow- 
ever, vitality no longer puts forth energy, than the 
energy of gravity operates, and causes the ball to &S. 
Such a simple experiment revived the word *' •aMy,*' 
which has Uius been re-introduced, and bida frar to sold 
least not in any plain and honest sense. Except I an important place in science annals for some yieara 

n these two, physioal energy is a visible reproduction of " • - - ^ • — »_ . ..-.^ . 

the invisible doings of chemical affinity. 
Simple as this process of transformation may appear, 

and convenient and useful as the suddenness of the 

change may be, it cannot be denied that to the investi- 
gator it is perplexing. Men, however, labour on. eaoh j long it has lain dormant, or whether it be in wamCt 

perhaps winning a little from the unknc^wn, and adding * -•-^-•— ^ " — — ^ -> -*- — 

it to the known. Thus, although ** hills peep o'er hills, 

aad Alps on Alps arise," yet men of varied resources 

and patient perseverance have won those invaluable 

treasures of measurement and utilisation from the im- 
ponderable and unseen, which give the title to this 

course of Cantor Lectures. 
Even Livingstone has not shown a more noble re- 

■olve, *'to conquer or to die" than have those to 

whom we are indebted for all we know touching the 

modes of measuring the energies of gravity, vitality, 

affinity, electricity, light, and heat 
As illustrations of the difficulties of the tasks before 

them, it may suffice, in this introductory stage, briefly to 

observe that: — 

Gkdvanic currents may escape notice unless the inten- 
sity of terrestrial magnetism be neutralised. 
Dimagfnetism and the magneto-electric spark escape 

BOtiioe, unless a large number of galvanic cdls or their 

univalent is used. 

What waa caUed the « smeU of electricity' led 

Bchonbein to the discovery of '^ ozone," a remarkable 

product, and one whose energies are yet unknown, 

although being slowly but surely developed. 
That a vibrating magnetising needle came to rest 

•Doner in the neighbourhood of a copper plate, now 

called a damper, then when the plate was away, led to 

the discovery of the induction of electeic currents by 

Faradajr. • in i«etarB S, Ytmag wrote:— "The term 

Opinionifrom tdeseopic appearaneea of tiie siae of the applM with grent propriety to the ivoduet of themav^or 

stars led to aa idea that their discs differed ; the pheao- Sif.^ *".*l!iL!^"fl^i?^ HlJJL^'SS!^**"-!! 
BiiMihts bf«i found to be due to the diffraction of I J|;|J,^^^rSJSS^ 

la thewdsfs ttelOTB *«eaafgy* li avfttrt. 



Energy is from two Qreek words, ti^, 
(fpjWt work ; used in its true sense, it means the weik 
'* that is within." Whenever, then, we find that a fomtr 
to do work exists, we may say, '* there is energy.** li 
needs not that the work be done, it ia immadterial ho* 



estimation great or smull, we only need the 

that there is the capacity to do. A loaded gun need not 

be disoharged to assure us that in that which ia in ^ 

g^n is energy, and yet to ascertain or meaaaze thf 

energy the discharge must take place. When that hat 

happeaed, we may say, within the gun ia no 

The gun itself is merely a contrivance by which 

combinations may be induced to exercise ~ 

it has nothing to do with the communicotioo i 

introduction of the energy utilised. When the 

is within the barrel, and inoperative, we handle aad play 

with the gun, disregarding the thou^t of ena^gy, bi^ 

when the energy of quiescence is to become oa a ig y ia 

action, it behoves us to play with the gun no 

But how can the gun be again a means or 
throngh which some one or other energy may 
manifest itself. Clearly by another group of 
energies being introduced. Tliis illustration of 
pended and a reintroduced energy may suffice to give a 
character to an element in rpspect of all the 
vis., their expenditure and reintroduction or 
Either throngh the innate operation of natural 
through the agency of vital energy, there maal be * 
restoration. Theee reatorations are effected in ways t> 
which the name of legion may be a]iplied. For eaample» 
a weight requires energy to raise it, a spring raqanw 
euwgj to bend it, air in a gun requiree energy lo 




JOUENAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, Jimi 6, 1878. 



555 



|Krea8 it, belbre &ny of theee can be nud to have energy 
m poaaeaoiop. The water in a mill-pond has been 
zaiaed by the energy of the son. The chemical afiinitiea 
in a ^Tanic cell are innate. A labourer and a horse 
rsqmre food that they may work. So with many similar 
iUiiBtntiona. In aa theee ia a dormant or quieaoent 
«iieigy. Onpe let it loose and the Arabian Night's story 
€f Sinbad and the Qiant, or that boast of ^o§n Olm^ 
^iMswr, tiiai he could 



** Can ■pMtt from the luty deep," 

wonld ndt be met with Hotspur's taont, 

** Why, to caa I, or lo can mnj m»o ; 
Bat will they oua* iriien yoa do obU for them V* 

Theee enecgiea always come when rightly sommooed. 

Obatrre^ energy psesents itself in two forma— eneigy 
in quiesoenoa, and enexgy in action. To these forms 
ttfohnical names have been given. Energy in quiescence 
is called potential energy; and energy in action is 
eaBed kinatic eoeigy. In this wefaphty suspended as 
peadnhmiy these two energies may ba illustrated. If 
the weight be struck from its lowest position, Uien the 
kinetic energy of vitality as manifested through muscular 
action, seta it off. But if the weight be elevated and 
amply let fall, then the potential energy stored up in 
the act of lifting beoones kinetic energy, throvgh the 
influence of what we call gravity. 

To sum up. Belonging or attached to all that is 
material are certain powers or influences which cannot 
be separated and so weighed, hence these powers or in- 
fluences are said to be *' imponderable.*' Since theae 
powers or inflnencea affect the motions ot bodies they are 
called forces, for force is that unknown influence 
which causes, retards, stops, or aooelerateB motion. 

Again, when by audi arrangements as nature calls 
into play, or men can contrive, these forces manifest 
themaelveB in action, they are said to be eneigelic. 

Now, stnoe we can plan to some eoctent how and when 
«aeh fecoe ahould manifeat its energy, and obtain or 
retttn the results, these results are called work. This 
voMj be measured or weighed, and it is through such work 
alone iSbaX a value can by men be i^aced upon the forces 
of tiia imponderablea, whioh, by their energy, have done 



The measurement, therefore, of the energies of the 
imponderablea reaolves itself into a measurement of the 
wcvk they do. It is, therefore, very essential that the 
wmnmi ijmaut of work should be by means Msily repro- 
dveihle, scientifically accurate, of univorsal application, 
beyond all question and all cavil, admitting of no ele- 
msBts which, under any circumstance, could vitiate or 
&Iaify a conclusion. 

^ Three elements only are needed to Mfil these oondi- 
tiona, vis., the matt of the body moved, the tpate 
thioag^ i^ueh it moved, and the Umt during which by 
the operation of some force it was being moved. These 
thne elements being known, all others or varieties 
can be derived fbom them ; henee all others are caUad 
timnttd measnremente. Beaisoniog thus, a pound weight 
fivwi which mass may be deduced, a two foot rule bv 
wlndi space may be measured, and a dock by whicn 
tiflie may be noted, are all that we require in Bngland 
in order to determine aeasuresaeala of work. Bat 
vex'y cLesrly these three sources of fundamental units 
auMt be of an iireproadiable character. Speakings gene* 
imllyy who dare venture to say that the pound weight 
be baa, or the dock he has, or the two-foot rule he has, 
ie JBore to be relied upon than the ooneapondiag in- 
in the poasosrion of his neighbour. 'Tis 

loaiDg to listen to the pleadings of the owners of 
and two-foot rules, and scales and weights, aa 
te Hfte vronderf^ aoooraoy of thoae they possess. 

VnM&n lies tlw ai>pealf Who shall deeide whether 
Ibe eacond ticked bv the watch which cost thirty ihU- 
lid^ or that ticked by the chronometer which cost one 
bndred pounds is to be the true second F Who shall 
deesde the indi and the pound whsn the ewnera dis- 



agree ? The answer to these questions, doubtless^ raises 
in your minds forms of difficulties not easily solved. 

It may suffice, for this evening, to glance at one or 
two of these difficulties, in order wat we may not think it 
a trifling with important interests in what> perhara, 
seems a kind of childidi quibbling, to suggest as a diffi- 
culty in such common affairs as a pound- weight, a second, 
and an inch. Let us first see that from these can be 
had all we uae as measures. 

When we say of anything it measures ten, twenty, 
thirty, or forty, we may add the words inches, feeib, 
varda, or miles. These words must be in some way re- 
lated. The measurement thus ezpreesed consists of two 
parts, a numwical and a denominational one. The nu- 
merical is absolute and independent of the denomina- 
tional one. Tliia latter is, for a spedal case, the nnit 
of measurement ; henoe there may be a great variety of 
units, all, however, by their inter-reUtions capable of 
being resolved into one. This one, this original, this ia 
the difficult one to dedde, and to it a portion of the 
lecture on Monday next must be given. 

So far, then, for the unit of space. Nowaatotime. Let 
anyone attempt to measure time by the repetition of a 
umt derived from any ordinary source, and he will soon 
find himself in a labyrinth of doubts. All our measuraa 
of time are derived from astronomy. Of ^e unit ef thia 
our future grain there is the compound measure whidi 
some may say is put beyond the readi of such disparging 
remarks, vis., that invaluable measure in all commercial 
transactions, the pound wdght. Time is our own ; we 
waste it as we please ; we do not pay for it. Space is 
our own ; we can walk where and aa we please ; but, as 
to our food, that is eurs by purchase, and we buy it by 
the pound weight 

Wc^ <* truth," Hie nroverb says, ** is mighty and must 
prevail.*' The pound weight is quite worthlees as a 
sdentiflcally accurate and universal measure. Tbien is 
really no such thing as weight for a universal measure, 
and yet nobody ever bought a pound of sugar without 
thinking they were getting at one time the same quantity 
as at another, l^t is not the case. Weight, speaking 
acouratdy, is a most variable measure, and is therefore 
one on which no reliance is to be placed in scientific 
investigation. What we do measure, scientifically 
speaking, when we speak of weight, is mass, and an 
endeavour shall be made to show you the difference 
between mass and weight 

First, weight is not at all to be relied upon. Here is 
a jar of water balanced on a scale-beam, but so as to 
hardly equal the weights on the other side. If I put my 
finger in the jar, the jar overbalances the weights. But 
why should tne scale pan sink when one simply touches 
the water with the hand P It ia not pressed down. The 
hand is merely put into another atmosphere, water, 
instead of air. Lest anyone should think tnat the jar is 
preseed down, let a weight hanging by a string, 
which sustains the weight, be suspended in the water, 
still the scale pan in which the jar of water is 
descends. Therefore the weight appears to be altered 
— ^there seems something or other about it whioh 
is not altogether correct The matter presents itself 
again in this form. Here is a scale-beam with a block 
of wood at one end, and an exactly balanced weight at 
the other. Now, as &e weights pasa from one atmosphere 
to another they change in thetr relationship ; and whilst 
the mass or quantity of matter contained in thia block of 
wood and in thia counterpoising weight remains the same, 
yet the relation of the weights does not remain the same. 
Borne may say that if the matter undersroes no cha 
then the weight undergoes no change. It is the W4 
which undergoes a great change, but the matter under- 
goes no change. At present, both are in an atmosphere 
of air, and you see that the beam is in exact equilibrium; 
but now let each be immersed in an atmosphere of watery 
and you aee at once how the relationahip to each other ia 
changed ;th^ no lengarhalaaoe. The mass of wood ia 
the same aa hdost, and« thefefere, •■ far ea attving 



656 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF AETS, Jo»b 6, 187S. 




from one atmosphere to another U ooncemed, masses 
must be considered, and not weights ; therefore, where 
the atmosphere changes, there we most give np the 
idea of weight There is another cause why weight 
will not act as a standard onit. Weight results from the 
action of gravity ; it is not a property of matter at all. 
If we change the force of gravity which tends to pull a 
mass down, we then change the amoont of pressure that 
the mass exerts on a spring. If we take a mass of matter 
at one of the poles, it is nearer to the centre of the earth 
than if it were at Ihe equator, and in consequence it will 
be pulled down with greater force, so that what would 
weigh (say^ 1} lb. by a spring balance at the pole, 
would weign (say) 1^ lb. at the equator. Therefore, if 
we ordered a quantity of goods to be sent from some place 
near the poles towards the equator, and they were weighed 
by a sprmg balance, they would not weigh so mncL on 
reaching their destination as they did when they were 
shipped; and yet the quantity of matter would be 
exactly the same. 

Observe, it is a spring balance, and not a scftle beam, 
that is used. A spring balance measures force only, viz., 
in this case the depressing or pulling down force of 
gravity at the place where it is used. With a spring 
balanoe a gravitation experiment is made. If a scale 
beam be used, then as the change of gravity affects the 
weight in each scale pan equally, the relations between 
them will not be affected, and the scale beam will be in 
equilibrum when the contents of the scales are influenced 
by the varying force of gravity. 

Ton saw, a &ort time ago, that weight varies by taking 
the mass into an atmosphere denser than that in which 
we live, and now you shall see the same result by 
changing the atmosphere for one more rare. Here is a 
glass beaker, suspended bottom upwards by a hook, so as 
to exactly balance a weight at the other end of the cord; 
the system is now in equilibrium. I will change the 
atmosphere within the beaker by admitting some ordinary 
coal gas into it, and you see the weight changes at 
once; the beaker appears to be lighter. These illus- 
trations show that defJing with weight, we deal with that 
which is variable in all parts of the earth, and, owing to 
atmospheric dum^es, variable at the same time almost 
in the same position. Doubtless all of us who have 
attained years of disoreticm, have been asked the question 
in our earlier dajrs, which was the heavier, a pound 
of lead or a pound of feathers. Here, in a glass case, is 
a bag of feathers (eiderdown^ and a weight exactly 
balancing them. Call the weight a pound of lead, an& 
then truly the pound of lead is balanced by the pound 
of totiihan, ifow, the scale-beam is a delicate one, ana 
aocurately poised. By this pipe is admitted hydrogen 
gas into Uie case, the upper part of the case is closed, 
the hydrogen ascends, the air gradually escapes at the 
bottom, the scale-beam loses its equilibrium, and the bag 
of fisathers descends, and is evidently heavier than the 
pound of lead. 

This must for the present suffice to satisfy you 
that weight, as such, must not be considered an accu- 
rate measure, and that, somehow or another, a measure 
for mass must be obtained and used in the place 
of that which we call weight These three units then — 
mass, spaoe, and time— are sufficient for all purposes of 
measurement, and when reliable data have been fur- 
nished from whence these can be deduced, determined, 
and (if lost) restored, we shall be in possession of all 
that is required for the purpose of recording every 
measurement requisite for estimating and comparing the 
]!?*? 4?°® ^y ^« energy manifested by any one or more 
ox tae forces derived from '* the imponderables." 



ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL SXHIBmOII 



of ^M ^^^ apparatus, to be placed in the holds 
•«^ h£ bSn d«5?ISP? *»'5i'i'»ff ^Tinng in ease of leak- 
^^•e^tb^w'^iy 5?^ On the entrance of 
■^ ^ «P«i3«L wS«!r2f **•*» ^ • oommnnioatien is thus 
*«»»«, Which giTi, notice to the offleaia on deck. 



The Council, having been infonned tlttt \a 
Majesty's CommisBionerB do not intend to 
publish Beports on the different departmcili of 
the Exhibition of the present year, andlookogto 
the great importance to Arts, MannfftctiRt,nd 
Commerce that these annual displays shoQldiot 
pass away without some record, have decided to 
undertake that duty, and for this porpoee hn 
engaged the services of gentlemen q^edifly 
skilled in the subjects of the seven! wcdoiu, 
to prepare such Keports for pablicatioB k ik 
Society's Jaumai. The Coundl, however, 
desire it to be understood that, in pob&lng 
these reports, they do not necessarily adopt ill tte| 
views expressed in them, which mnst be tiLet 
as, those of the writers only. 

The following report is the third tkat Im 
been issued. The remainder will appear u na 
as they are complete. 



REPORT ON MACHINERY AND PRO- 
CESSES CONNECTED THEEEWITE 

By tht Sev. Arthur Bigg, M± 
« The subjects included in this report are lociUl 
chiefly on the ground-floor, under the i«* 
galleries. They comprehend the silk-machiwil 
of three foreign and eight Engliab exliibjton 
the confectionery and aerated-water madiaoj 
of one foreign and thirteen EngM exliilat*^ 
the grain machinery of one foreign and M«t 
English exhibitors, and various misceOiaMW 
articles by twenty-four English exhibitor. 

The report is drawn up in accordance w 
the following instruction :— " The report sWi 
be of such a nature and interest as will help til 
public to appreciate the special and new feat«» 
of the objects exhibited." I 

8681.— RoLAKD, Alfhbd, Orbc, Switieriid 

Although not forming part of a '®P^^ 
machinery, it may be well to state thst oowj 
the door, opposite to No. 3682, a tent, 
canvas sides, is erected for the reception of 
thousands of silkworms so soon as the tem 
ture of the atmosphere is considered auiuW^ 




8682.— JouppRAY, A.,Oadet, Fils, Bne V 
Vienna ; Is^re, France. 

The machinery consists of ordinary wJn 
driven by the most simple mechanical mtm 
Those who have reared silkworms, and un^owj 
cocoons by one at a dme, may have ^^^^ 
the operation on a commercud scale, w «^l 
blishments called " FUatures," wonld be vfiy 
tedious. That operation is here earned on ^ 
Messrs. Jouffiray. 



A>UBIIAL OF THX »001ET7 OF ABTS, Juab i, 1878. 



HJ 



^ac 



A uik, witk « htam 4ap, haa inacrtai in it 
Ubv tiDBadaopfMr boilana, of diattteteniTiaiy ing 
l«i ni to«%btean inches, and aboot mghd or ten 
pImi ja 4epllt In ooa of ^ krgar of tWao 
IJiMi, fiHed with water, lieated by steam ftom 
I imr ring of jeto ondemeaUi a pet&rated 
inaUe Uaj-like bottoan* one lumdred or more 
NDQiu are floated. 

TW operator, with a akort whiak, not nnHke 
pAiitfBOccaaioDalljr «sed for yelvet-bmahing, 
at htgtr, more buahy, and lesa doee, oanaes 
km C00OOO6 to be rapidly rolled about on tke 
lohaeof the heated water. 

f»a ipeetator the objeet of thia apparently 
■MiiTfig and peraevered^in movement ia nn- 
iMdlgiUe until the whiak is lifted 9,f, and the 
ipHtor, drawing the hand between the coooons 
ffl Ai whiak, gath^a together a nnmber of 
ImbUi attached to the whbk by pieces of 
ps-lfte silk, and thus dniwa, aa boats to the 
jtm, those cocoons whose ends have been 
Mi|^ in tiie whiak. The cocoons sot thna 
tannd floit in the centre of the boiler. Another 
^tk^ lays hold of some of these. 
I Us process of '' reeling " now commenoeB on 
■p^wfive, or more cocoons at one time, the 
■aMi having a certain amonnt of ad-> 
, conieqnent upon a glatinona anrface, 
ad seem to form one thread. As this 
d thread becomes the baaia of future 
in ailk maauliaoture, it requires the 
iMt^ial care on the part of the operator, 
l4n one cocoon has rendered to the reel 
liakiiBdred to one thousand yarda ef alk, 
Mtiboald iflunediately supply ita place. 
PliU wilh which the operator aeeomf^ishea 
wlto08tBleight-of-hand performance is worthy 
fibmratioa ; it seems that ii the ends are but 
Msl they adhere. Thue the operation is 
Vfacia^ there aie no more cocoon boats in 
pWiknr* 



PK* Hu 



Rdshton, SoKSy AND Cc, Hoyal Depot 
Mills, Macclesfield. 

.'Bii munber includes a series of machines for 
MKing ailk for the loom. The hanks of silk 
by the operation described under 
i,9t are here placed on simple reels on the 
pirt of the framing of Machine No. 1, 
ft " winuing noachine.'* One end of the 
^poond filamentof each hank is passed through 
Ipia drcalar eye — in some cases made of glass 
f^ then brought to a bobbin rotating on a 
Pi^oittal txis. The mode of communicating 
to this bobbin is by a little wooden roller 
Mjhm spindle. I'his spindle, placed in 
rooves, is parallel to a light shaft, having 
end a smootbly-tnmed metal wheel. The 
due to the weight of the spindle and 



^aofloonttof** Ezpeitments «tth StIkwoilnB," ao., *c., 
, 4 ^ *o the /ovTMl ^f th€ aoeittjf ^ ArU for Fttb, t, 1866, 
«i iwi, iMl In in^y papers in ioooetdlug yean. 



ifcMd 



beUnn, as conveyed hy the Ultle toller on the 
smooth wheel, giinaB motion to the bobbin. Thna 
the aSk of the eoooon is simply transferred from 
the form of akein to that on a bobbin. A light 
swaah-piate or faee^cam acta upon a framing 
carrying the eyes, and so traverses each coa- 
tinuoQs thread from Mid to end of tiM bobbin. 

I^e No. 2 Machine, called << a cleaning 
machine,'* transfers the silk as from the cocoons 
from one bobbin to another. In this transfer the 
silk passes between either two fixed small 
cylinders, about one inch diameter, or between 
two fixed parallel plates very dose to each other. 
In either case, if any knot or other irregularity 
occurs, the process of transference ceases until 
the attendant removes the cause. So carefully 
is the gauge adjusted that any increase in the 
thickness of the silk consequent upon the opera- 
tion of ** reeling" is here detected, and the bobbin 
taken to another part of the machine. Thus, all 
roughnesses and irregularities in the silk ofif the 
cocoons are removed before the filaments are 
either spun or combined. 

By the third machine, called " a doubling 
machine,'* the single aiiks irom two, and some- 
times three bobbins, are brought aide by aide 
(without being twisted) on to one bobbin. It 
is essential that the number of thoae shoald be 
preeerved through the entire length coiled on, 
an arrangement is therefore made so that if one 
of the light aiUcen and almost inviuble filaments 
break, the nolaon of the bobbin ahould oeaae. 
Thia is accomplished by paasing the filament 
through an eye in the end of a long wire, movable 
freely on a horiaontal pin passed through an eye 
at the other end. As the silk is led over a light 
smooth bar before passing through the eye, the 
wire arm is thus held up. If, however, the silk 
should break, thld arm fiJla^and in so doing strikes 
a brass, which raisea a catch, and so > (the bobhinB 
being driven by fricUon only) that ooe where 
the catch « raised ia brought to rest 

By the fourth machine — called *' a spinning 
machine **-*either a single filament, or thoae 
wfaioh, by the third machine, wore multiplied, 
are dighdy twisted or spun as they pass from 
the lower bobbins to the upper. It is on a fifth 
machine, and consequent upon the arrangements 
for spinning and twisting, that the term silk, aa 
a general one, becomes resolved into two specific 
ones— viz., "Tram" and " Organzine." The 
term '* Tram " ia applied to the unspun, or but 
slightly twisted filaments, as brought from the 
eocoon-r-eeling, even though tiiese filaments 
have hem doubled. 1'he term " Drganzine " is 
applied to the twisted group of two or more 
spun filaments, which tf e thus prepared for the 
'' warp '* in the loom, or the threads which form 
the length of the manufactured web of silk. 
There are from ten to twenty twists put into 
each inch of combined silk thread. 



558 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIBTT OF ARTS, Jinn 6, 1878. 



The preparation of the ailk for the weaver 
bemg by these machines completed, it is now 
requisite to arrang*e it ready for the dyer. This is 
done by re-transferring it from bobbins to the 
form of hanks. Snch a transfer is being made 
on a part of the fifth of this series of machines. 
The mechanism is so constructed, by means of a 
" snail cam," that when a predetermined length 
of silk has been formed as a skein, a motion of 
the guiding eye takes place ; thus, on a new 
patt of the reel, commencing another skein, and 
so on in due course a third skein, &c. So pre- 
cise and punctual are the motions that the 
length on a skein may be determined by the 
weight. 

8684. — ^HiQOiVBOTTOM, W., Alexandra Mills, 

Derby. 

These are five machines used for the purpose 
of preparing the filaments of silk for the manu- 
facturer. A detailed description of the process 
has been given under No. 3,683. 

8686. — Grbbmwood and Batlkt, Albion 

Works, Leeds. 

A reference to the operations of preparing 
silk, from the cocoon to the loom, suggests that, 
even in these preliminary stages, there is much 
waste, in that there are numerous short lengths 
which cannot be treated as continuous threads. 
To utilise these and such other short filaments 
is the object of the machinery to which reference 
is now made. The type of the mechanism is 
that used in the cotton manufacture ; for when 
silk ceases to be a filament, or long thread, it 
becomes a fibrous material, as cotton, and may be 
treated as such, subject to the consideration that 
the staple or length of each fibre is greater and 
more varied than that of cotton. The process 
by which these fibres, of such varied lengths, are 
prepared for the first of the series of machines 
in the Exhibition is not shown there. 

The entangled fibres of waste silk are reduced 
to lengths averaging eight inches, and to flakes 
measuring about eight inches by three. These 
" flakes" in the silk now being wrought by the 
machinery, are derived from cocoons not work- 
able by the process in No. 3,682, and from the 
waste produced by that process. The stages 
through which the silk passes are shown in case 
No. 3,610,' under the east gallery. These flakes 
have been produced by a process of partial tear- 
ing, cutting, and carefiil combing which lays the 
fibres paraUel, and enables an attendant to reduce 
them to lengths considered suitable. Such 
are brought to the Exhibition in baskets, and 
placed near the first machine, called " the 
Spreader." They are then laid by hand, one at 
a time, upon an endless band of leather, by wldch 
they are advanced until brought within the in- 
nuence of a braes roller, with fine teeth or points 
on Its surface. This roller deUvers the fibres to 




a series of very fine-teethed metal combe, 
are moving pmllel to their laigth, and cmyq^ 
with them the silk. By the action of t^ 
combs, and fluted rollers, which nednm 
silk from the combs, the ''flakee" are ut 
only still fiirther combed, but, owing to ttiiped 
of the latter rollers being greater tbaa M rf 
the receiving ones and the combe, the dfai 
fibres are drawn forward — ^the ends of ^m 
flake are, as it were, " felted " over the oik d 
another, and dependent upon the parpoeeiGfte 
manufacture one yard of these '' flakes" ii s^ 
tended to from ten to thirty yards, ai tbe em 
maybe. When each travelling comb baa ddimel 
the silken filaments, it descends, is conceiledii^ 
a while from view, and then re-appeantom 
the same course — ever beginning, never 
This motion is accomplished by the e&di of 
combs being carried on the grooves of two 
square-threaded screws. If it were d 
requisite to shake the combs, or render typ 
travel non-parallel, it might be done bydestref 
ing the uniformity of the screw-cairierB, nl 
making them (in technical language) ^'droba.* 
The combs are passed from one set of 
screws to a lower set by " striking" cam, 
cause their descent at one end; and by a 
but reverse screw motion to the fonner, 
comb is carried back and rises to the fint 
tion, with a monotonous exactitnde. 

The combed and drawn silk fibres are oeon 
by an endless band from the drawing roQeis, 
coiled upon a large wooden wheel An 
.frequently takes ofif lengths from thia whed, 
lays them aside for the next procesa. The 
and separate pieces are now a continnooi 
flake-like ribbon. 

By the next machine these lengths are i 
into a " sliver.*' The mechanism in thb, 
indeed, in the four succeeding framee, a 
dently derived from that used for cotton, 
chief difference consists in the mtrodoeMi 
these combs — " screw-gills" they stq 
they are rendered necessary, because the ft* 
cotton is not so long as that of silk, and, W 
fore, " drawing " can in the fonner dase be 
in the short open space between Uie ( 
rollers, but in the latter case this space » 
too long to let the fibres be withont 
guidance ; the combs supply this guidance. 

As the machinery for cotton occupied 
same room in the Exhibition of 1872, and 
described in your Report, no further d 
is requisite here. ^^ 

The last frammg is for the purpose of intfi 
ing the threads of " spun " silk upon reel«,r« 
for eiAer the dyer or the manufccturer. m ■ 
the case of Nos. 3,683, 3,684. ^ 

The silken thread, as produced by 5^ 
3,684, is caUed "thrown'' silk; that prodo* 
on 3,685 is called " spun " silk. 



JUUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF AETS, Jukb 6, 1873. 



559 



.— Wabitbb, SiLLBTTy and Bajoc, 25, 
Newgate-Btreet. 

^,— NoBRis and Co., 124, Wood-street, 
Cheapside. 

I'lkeM are three Jacquard looms, worked by 
IMhI labour. The description of one may 
]0tt, and as there are elements in No. 3,686 
jtiequred for the patterns being woven in the 
two, there will be no occasion to refer spe- 
to diem for the mechanism. Hanging on 
ii t drawing of the design being woven in 
Jpon. This drawing is upon a large paper, 
UUinto squares, as designs for wool work 
llABDged. Behind the loom 3686 there is a 
bge drawing, by Owen Jones, Esq., show- 
the design now in the loom was prepared 
HttifereDce to the cards. This ruled paper 
sixteen feet by nine feet and three 
and contains 5,587,200 small squares. It 
aieleetion of these squares that the design 

on the cards. 
vO be observed that at the top of these three 
Aare are a number of cards in which holes 

E. The holes in each card repre- 
the squares in the pattern through 
die of an embroiderer would pass, 
the design to be one for tapestry. To 
daaign now being woven on No. 3,686 
aie connected, in the manner seen at the 
|ait of the loom, nine thousand three hun- 
Hd twelve cards, in three lines. These 
laced together, and measure one thou- 
in length, and weigh five and a-half 
ireightB. The whole pack has to be 
tier each time that the design is com- 
k the loom. 

y under the one top card in each 
there is a square metal boxing, filled 
idea with small holes; in fact, honey- 
bat with square instead of hexagonal 
heaehoxiBgB are on axes, in one and the 
t Hne, and by means of a catch, con- 
a cord on which the workman's hand 
aan act, they may be turned through 
of the circumference by one motion of 
or foot. In so turning, the perforated 
i drawn forward, each card covering 
af the square boxing, except where the 
^ cards previously alluded to are found, 
dsii Uming, the frame-work in which these 
lototo ia caused to move on one side. If 
ttida and the square boxings were taken 
there would be seen a number of wires 
horisontally from a series of open- 
in a fixed metal firaming. Each of Uiese 
iahdd forward by means of light coiled 
(not visible to a spectator) at the back 
them. If now the square boxings with 
' cards over the back vertical side be 
to fall upon the projecting wires. 



a number of them will be pressed back 
against the light springs, the remainder passing 
through the perforations in the cards and enter- 
ing the honeycombed box. Between the visible 
ends and the back springs each wire is bent, 
round, so as to form an eye, through which a 
vertical wire passes. These vertical wires have 
hooks at the top and bottom. Cords, to be here- 
after alluded to, are attached to the bottom 
hooks. The top hooks of those wires, through, 
eyes pressed back by the cards, are thrown out 
of the general line, and thus, when a narrow 
metal slip is raised by the himd or foot of the 
workman, those vertical wires only are raised 
which remain in the normal line, and therefore 
those lower hooks only are moved which form 
part of these wires. , 

A number of cords (7,272) pass from the 
warp to these hooks; concealed by the numerous 
threads of the warp are small delicate little 
glass frames, each containing six very closely 
formed eyes, placed vertically over one another ; 
to the top eye a cord from a hook is attached — 
through the next four eyes four adjoining threads 
of the warp pass — to the lower eye is fastened 
a cord with a light leaden weight: thus the 
twenty-nine thousand and eighty -eight threada 
of the warp are passed through these eyes. 

When now the wires are raised to wluch cords 
are attached, four times that number of threads 
are raised. But it may be requisite that only one 
or two of these four should have been raised- 
An arrangement for this purpose is made in 
hanging framings of threads near the operator s 
hands. These framings constitute what is 
named ^a harness;" in them every thread in 
the warp has an eye to itself, and therefore, 
by the action of these eight framings, one or 
more of the raised threads can be depressed or 
raised higher, for the purposes of the design* 
This "harness" is not required where, as in 
No. 3,668, each thread has a cord and eye to itself. 
Thus, by the holes in the cards, and the move- 
ments consequent thereupon, the pattern alluded 
to in the early part of this description is trans- 
ferred to the silk in the loom. The operation 
with the shuttle^ <fec., d;c., is as in ordinary 
looms. There are minor peculiarities, of which 
detaib would extend this report to an unrea- 
sonable length, and they do not seem requisite 
in an account which only deals with the general 
principle on which Jacquard looms act for the 
production of the most beautiful of woven 
fabrics. 

It may be interesting to state that the loom 
selected for the more detailed description is 
engaged in weaving furniture damask, from a 
design by Owen Jones, Esq. The shuttie is 
thrown through the warp one hundred and four- 
teen times to the inch, and a length of twenty- 
eight inches are required to complete the design. 



560 



JOUBKAL OF THfl SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jvwm €, 187S. 



Tbe width of the piece of silk being woven is 
sncty-three indies, and wiien completed will be 
iAx>nt Bix^ yards in leng^. The warp contains 
1,022 miles of silk thread, and, indnding the 
thread on l^e shnttle, the piece when completed 
will have eonsnmed 1,757 miles of silk as it 
comes irom the bobbins. Each one of these 
threads consists of fifteen fine threads as pro- 
duced by the worm, hence the piece being 
woven win reqnire 26,355 miles of silk as it 
leaves the cocoon — more than snffident to pnt 
a girdle round the earth. The number of worms 
necessary to produce this result is about seventy 
thousand. 

366S.— SosvBvs, J., Coventry. 

These are two Jacquard looms, worked by 
steam, of the pattern used in Coventry for 
weaving silk scarfs, bookmarkers, and those 
narrow fabrics which are ornamented with designs 
woven in silks of various colours. In the pub- 
lished Hst of Messrs. Stevens* productions there 
is a very great variety. The particulars of that 
one in tb^ loom on the spectator's right hand, 
when the writer of this report examined it, may 
prove the best introduction to the notice of the 
mechanism, &c. It is a bookmarker, with the 
music and words of ** The Last Rose of Bummer," 
also 1^ spray of leaves and a rose. It is 10} inches 
long and 2i inches broad ; there are 600 threads 
of *'orgaDKine" silk in the breadth; and as 4,000 
cards are required for the design, there are 
4,000 threads of " organzine " silk in the 
length. Biz such bookmarkers are being woven 
at the same time. 

There is one arrangement of perforated cards 
similar to that described under ^o. 3,686. The 
sloping cords from the eyes, through which 
corresponding silks in the bookmarkers pass, are 
united to one and the same hook at the top ; 
thus one set of cards t^uses the same operation 
to be repeated six times. It will therefore suffice 
if the following acoottnt be written as for one 
bookmarker only. 

The warp consists of white diread only; 
there are six shuttles arranged as on shelves 
one over the other, l^ese shuttles are charged 
with silks of difSferent colours. Now, the cards 
at the top of the machine determine which of the 
white threads should be raised in order that one 
or other of the shuttles may pass under them ; 
these cards also dedde which cdoured shuttle 
shall be sdected for passing. The lifting of the 
chosen white threads from a general level deter- 
mines the first part of this operation. Ihe 
second part is determined as follows : — Near the 
floor, at the back of the loom, are five long but 
light iron rods passing from end to end ; in the 
middle of these rods is an arm, to whidi a wire 
is flMtened and passed *to the mechanism where 
the cards are ; the pulling of sndi of theee wires 



as tiie cards may direct canaes OBe or mors ef Ai 
light iron rods to turn. Ateadi end of the looSi 
near the floor, there may be seen a short woeda 
ToUer, and, as the weaving proceeds, thiB roOif 
ascends one or other of tix inclined plioM of 
var3ang beights. The long rods, by their pfftol 
turning, withdraw wedges nndemetth theee 
indined planes, and up that highest plane wfew 
wedge is not withdrawn the rollers ascend Tha 
ascent carries also a frame containing the Mrm 
on which the coloured shuttles rest, and there- 
fore brings any predetenoined shuttle inun^ 
diately opposite the opening between tb 
previously -named white threads or warp. Thm 
placed, the next act is die causing of the 
shuttle to pass. This is done by a wooden con- 
trivance fixed to the shuttle framing, ** ciDed t 
Marionette," about the level of a spectitor's eye 
at the right-hand end of the loom. Tvo 
wooden hammers strike pegs which htve bees 
brought to the line of their blows by the iction 
of the aforesaid rollers ; the Kght blow canaes 
a catch, under one or other of the hinuners, to 
project, and this catch, being raised by a simple 
arm, traverses the shuttle arranged for tbtt occa- 
Action is communicated to the ilinttles 



81 on. 



by racks and small wheels, not always yisibk 
but moved by the leathers drawn by lh< pie« 
lifted in the Marionette *frame, eadi fhnttle 
being connected by wheel- woik to a wpM«te 
rack sliding on the frame in which the ehuttlec 
are placed. The thread is *" driven home" ^J 
the falling forward of the " batten •* beam ; thf 
roller decends tbe inclined plane ; the withdrtvn 
wedges are restored; one of the 4,000 «rA 
passes away, and another advances to apii^ ^ 
the warp and shuttles another operati<m. 

46Bl«-~^ALLKtf, F., Oanal-foad, llile-ead. 

4045« — Hill and Jokes, 3 and 4, Jevrr* 

street, Aldgate. 

These are illustrations of maohinery snd i*^ 
cesses in the manufacture of sugar ooBfectknery* 
The tu-ttcles which arrest the attrition of fi^ton 
are large, round , bulged-out coi^)er vessek 1 ^ 
vessels are indined at an angle of about 45 deg- : 
in some cases attached at the end of a sbtft to 
which motion is given, in other cases sttschfa 
to an inclined plate (a swa^ plate), ^*^ ^ 
equivalent, on a vertical shaft. A long iron r^ 
(No. 46iJl) projecting fit)m the vessel in the <«« 
of " swash-plate,'* passes fireely through the c»w 
of a turned metal ball, about ^ree inched i> 
diameter. This ball is oonetrained to move in i 
vertical metal groove ; consequently, when tk 
shaft and swash-jdate rotate a peculiar ivIHu; 
motion is given to the jacketted copper pan* 1^' 
it cannot rotate because of the arm whidi mo^^*^ 
up and down sliding at the same time ia '^^ 
vertically*moving baU. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juki 6, 1873. 



561 




GMNks of sugar, or seeds, as almonds, car- 
Evqn^ Ac, Ac, are placed in one of these 
jmt thsn, consequent upon tbe motion of the 
1^ thej are caused to roll over and over, a small 
0iij of hot clarified sagar being gently 
pii or allowed continuoosly to drop upon 
m* The heat of the pan prevents rapid 
§tg. The liquid sugar is diffused through 
MMB, and when it has dried by exposure to 
^ lb in the pan, each seed is covered 
4 a thin film of white sugar. A second 
^fH u now added, and thus supply after 
■1^ king furnished, the seeds are coated 
mmk a thickness as the manufacturer de- 
|fr If it if wished to colour this confectionery, 
I AM may be done by adding colouring- 
iNllo the last supplies of sugar. 
IbMcoIiar mechanical arrangements are 
MMocing an imitation of the motion by 
pkthe roonded form is given to pebbles 
■ Ai action of the sea on the shore. The 
lilB ii raecessful if similarity of sound may 
■M M an indication. 

Hill and Jones had not completed 
ta for tbe production in the £xhi- 
l the manufacture of that sugar confec- 
h which liqueurs, <fec., <fec., are con- 
vilhin crystalline sugar cells. The fol- 
ii a description of ti^e process adopted 
JMrpoee: — 
trays, about 15 inches wide, are filled 
ttnh-flour : a " strike," or levelling edge, 
over, and the surface thereby smoothed, 
ide of a narrow board, about 18 
and four inches broad, are fastened 
of hard plaster of Paris patterns of 
-^^ to he made. These narrow boards 
Mi on the starch flour, again and again, 
UiaQriace is indented with the designs. 
IlKof darified sugar, at such a temperature 
MMitency as the workman deems suitable, 
^fUid to it and well stirred in the non- 
liquid, as water, spirit, wine, cfec. 
^ mixture is filled into a small ladle 
or eight spouts arranged at the same 
ipart as the patterns in the open starch 
jpUing the many-spouted ladle over the 
'if designs, the workman pours out the 
drying the ladle at the same time the 
af the tray. £ach design is now filled 
Aaryitalliaable and non-crystallisable sub- 
and the manufacturer takes advantage of 
* law, that under the conditions de* 
the crystalline element squeezes into the 
the non-crystalline one. The poured-ont 
i^ires one or two days to complete the 
u>ag process before removal fiom the 
ftmr. 

^ter of this report commends to the 

of the geologist and mineralogist 

of making sugar confectionery enclosing 



liqueurs. The confectionery he has seen is all of 
the '' amygdaloid " form, and may be suggestive 
in reference to those vesicular cavities in which 
agates, dkc, are found. Such nodules are some- 
times filled with earthy matter, at other times 
^th matter of a gelatmous character. Further 
remarks on this would be out of place in the 
present report. Although not exactly similar, 
yet bearing upon the question, are two short 
papers in the Edi/nburgh Philosophical Journal 
for 182d and 1829, " On Fluids in Mmerals," 
by Nicol, who designed the prism which bears 
his name. 

4628. Barnbt and Foster, 23, Forston-street, 

Hoxton. 

4688. Fleet and Co., 161 to 171, East-street,. 

Walworth. 

4646* Hat WARD, Ttler, and Co., 84 and 85,. 
Upper Whitecross-street 

Although in each of these the respective ex*^ 
hibitors use substantially the same methods for- 
producing aerated waters, yet the modes of clos-- 
ing the bottles are very different. 

To produce the aerated water, a holder is filled 
with the required gas. A condensing-pump,. 
usually worked by a cranked-shaft, is connected- 
at its lower part by two pipes with regulating- 
taps, one communicating with a cistern of the- 
liquid^ the other with the gas in the holder. 
By this pump a mixture of these is forced intO' 
(in these cases) a brightly-polished cylinder with 
spherical ends. From this cylinder it can be 
drawn by taps, suitably arranged, in connection^ 
with the corking machinery. 

4028. — The bottles are made so that when 
a glass marble is dropped into the neck it de-^ 
scends only so far as the commencement of that 
part of the bottle in which liquid is usually con- 
tained. The marble thus introduced by the 
maker of the bottle is closed in by the " welt *'' 
on the bottle where a cork is usually inserted. 
The '' welt *' is so moulded that an indiarubber 
ring put within is held there. This ring forms 
a seating for the round glass marble when the* 
battle is inverted. The aerated water being in- 
troduced in the usual way, the bottle is inverted, 
the marble falls upon the seating, and thus the- 
'* corking " is completed. 

To open the bottle either the finger or a piece- 
of wood is used to press down the marble. Aa 
ingenious contrivance of grooves on one side of 
the recess in that part of the neck to which the 
marble descends prevents the opening being 
closed by a return of the marble whilst the liquid 
is being poured out. 

4888. — This is exhibited as an unproved 
arrangement of the apparatus for corking and 
wiring bottles containing aerated waters. The 
corks are inserted in a strong slightly coned cast- 



5«2 



JODBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Juki 6, 187S, 



brau vertical tube* la the apper end of this a painted different odoors, ia ocdtr tfaek the 
metalrod (loosely fitting) isintrodnoed. The bottle of travel of any set of pins nay be sees, 
to be filled is placed and firmly held at the lower Surrounding the axle, on tbe outode o( 
end of the tube. By a tap, the opening of which • large disc on the left of ^e speetitor, i 
is between the oiudeniide of the inserted cork pipe may be arranged in eooneetioa wA 
»id the bottle, aerated water is admitted, and hopper. By this the wbeat is adnitted be 
when the bottle is filled tiie cork is depressed by the pegged discs ^irough opesmgi, whid 
suitable mechanical arrangements. It is then 
removed and handed to a boy, who places it 
where the cork is held until it is duly " wired.*' 

4646* — Into each bottle there has been 
dropped a cylindrical piece of wood, slightly 
taper, of the size of a finger. As far from one 
end as the first joint of the finger a recess has 
been turned, about one-fourth of an inch deep 
and broad. A piece of taper brass tube, split 
at the wide end like a " larding needle," is next 
introduced into the bottle, and slipped over the 
aforesaid piece of wood. An india-rubber 
washer, with a small central hole, is slid along 
the taper tube until it reaches the opening into 
the bottle. A long brass tube forces this washer 
downwards, and fiius it is fixed in the recess 
previously described. This forms the cork. 
The bottle being inverted pver the pipe by 
whkh it is to be filled, a small-bore tube at the 
end of this pipe not only keeps the novel stop- 
per at one side but serves as an outlet for air 
when. the aerated water is admitted. On with- 
drawing this tube the taper wood with the . . . 
washer is slightlv held within the neck, and the ^°^ 8"^** confectionery, amongst a s 
pressure of the gas, due to the aerated water, I ^»*>»*^ ^^^> ^*^«'® ^^ elsewh«« thiw 
effectually closes the botde. The usual mode 1 operation. . , .^ 
of opening is by holding the bottle, with a sUght 1 ^»*^» * ™j®'' '^'^ twenty^t bW 
inclination, and pressing the projecting end of cn^^^g Wades ; on an axis parsllel td 



be regulated. When now the iforetaid 
are in rapid rotation, centrifbgal aetion 
the wheat amongst the pins; there it ii 
from pin to pin, and oocasbnsllj niM^ 
tween the pins and the side of the 
to which these pins are near. The 
discharged into a casing, surroendm; ik 
The ordinary working speed i>f dimieT«a 
in diameter is -:0U revoludo&s per ninti. 

Those interested in the dev^fneot of I 
contrivance (the patent for which wii 
by the Privy Council in Jan. 1873) wfi 
to a comprehensive pamphlet by the i 
abo to a report in the proceedings of the 
AssociaticMi for 1871 on page 229 of tbc 
An arrangement similar to that nov 
but with smaller discs and stronger pnii' 
been used for disintegrating orei, 
clays, manures, ^., Ac 

4680.— CoLLUB, L., Wellington WoiHl 

street, Bochdak. 

In addition to the machines in opeitto! 



the wooden stopper. 



brass ams^ each of which enters, tt tf 
edge, between two of the aforesaid bMa. 
the first opera^n the axis with the ' 
may be removed. Gum— duly swe 
flavoured for jujubes, and redneed, by 



4024* — Batty avd Co., 16, Pavement, Pins- 
bury. 

The only process carried on here is that 
of preparing oranges, &c., for marmalade. The ao<^ exposure to air «id regulated 
pulp being taken out by the action of a revolving to the required thickness and "^ 
wood, shaped much like the interior of half a 
lemon ; the rind is next cut into shreds by a 
plan described under No. 4,630. 



4699* — Oarh T., Montpelier-road, Bristol, and 
J. J. Odkninobam, Edinburgh. 

The machinery here exhibited is called " A 
disintegrating flour miH*'— its purpose is to 
convert wheat grains into flour by a process 
very different from that of grinding. 

The large discs — the inner faces of which 
are corrugated— have steel pins, of half-inch 
diameter, two and a-half inches apart, on these 



placed upon the metal table and hroogM 
the operation of the cutting blades; 
a smooth roller underneath, drsw tbc > 
forward and divide it into nhbons; ft* 
the axis and arms, if removed, sre 
The ribbons of sweetened gum are «« 
with their longer sides to the drcoltr 
and when advanced are cut into die «eu' 
diamond forms. 1 hese snafl ftirms 
here to the roller and blades bnt «e 
by the operation of the arms, which 
off, and they descend a eloping metsl 
pared for this purpose. 

A second, is a machine for cotthig 
lemons, Ac, for the making of »> 



corrugations. These pins are placed so near 

the inner edges of the raised corrugations as , 

to permit Uiem to run close to and within the | There is a brass disc which can be 

hollows of the corrugations on the opposite horiz(mtal axis. In this diic ■'•^ 

dtsc. The discs rotate in opposite directions, equal distances and radially, eight hW«^ 

Per the imrpose of ^e Exhibition the pins ate project and can be adjoined as iroat ^ 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IBTY OF AET8, Jum 6, 1878. 



fies 



Qii^i jkm, Thase Uadas voUite pset and 
mtoth$ •pen end of a abort metal tube or 
•ed Iroofh; of^KMite to this op«i end ia a 
ioe, or plog, whkh can be advanced by a 
•If or piaion; when bo advancing, oraagea, 
MBi, ^ (previously placed in the trough 
I tke Kd being doaed), are pressed against 
lioUtiDg cotters and so prepared for mar- 
\ as ctnried on at No. 4,624. 
third is a metal cylinder, about fifteen 
loDg and three inches in diameter, the 
id which is perforated and movable : a 
lis this ^rtinder. 

the material of which certain biscuits 
Id k Bide has been placed in the cylinder, 
tk pltg, containing metal openings which 
Iht kogitndiDal design of the bisouity has 
|h«ed at the end, the pUsnger is advanced, 
Ae mitenal exudes from the openings cor- 
or marked according to the inserted 
; these are then cut to the required 
and baked. 

•— Measrs. J. and J. Golman, 108, Oannon- 
street. 

J. and J. Colman here separate pure 

Efix>ia the seed. Two steel crushing 
Meh aboot eighteen inches diameter, 
1 opposite directions, their diaiaaoe opart 
■ 10 sdjnsted that seed passing between 
pis crashed. This crushed seed is then put 
gieep metal mortars, where by the falling of 
vogbing about 501bs., and which are 
viper cams, a still farther disinlegration 
fliMr. The oil which mustard seed con- 
•»eiog8 the snrfiaces of millstones that the 
•ptntion for reducing grain to an knpal- 

rder cannot be employed. Motion is 
a crank on a vertical shaft to sieves 
with silk of a finer character than that 
ionr. Thus the bran is separated from 
h iMd as mustard. From this bran oil is 
by hydraulte pressure, and the reitise 
mitard seed bran is used by farmers as 
of destroying "wire-worms." 
wedar tin boxes in which the mustard 
•re also made here. The cylindrical part 
and the lap-joint hooked in, a second 
by lever pressure, squeeaes the lap, 
tt the same time a recess in the lap for 
The lids and bottoms are pressed 
■Mi ifaaped by a punching machine, the 
hy three punches acting in succession on 
piece of metal, and the latter by two. 
bcbig slipped into the lower part of 
oder, it is placed on a tray of solder, 
^ s gas flame from a Bunsen's burner, 
iction eauaae the junction of the metals 
•Na fiUed with solder. The box is now 
Md one of the nrnoaerous ponched- 
iiasedloraoover. 



The machine for V -grooving strips of wood 
for the making of packung eases, ccmsiats of a 
shaft, on which can be fixed, as an ordinary cutter 
of tbo wood planing machine, a V-ehaped cutter. 
A strip of wood, c^ the breadth and length of 
the two sides and ends of a packing case, is laid 
ready to be drawn in by fluted friction gripping 
wheels. When thus drawn it is grooved, and 
being delivered from the machine a little glne is 
inserted in the V-grooves, the four sides are 
bent, and the box completed by having a bottom 
and lid fixed to these sides in the usual manner. 

4632. — CoMPAONiB Franoaise, 69, Bermondsey 

New Road. 

Cocoa-nibs, prepared by heat, and winnowed 
so that the husk is separated, are brought to 
the machinery here exhibited. These nibs, 
with a due allowance of prepared vanilla, are 
placed on a circular stone slab with raised iron 
rim. On this slab rest two coned small broad- 
edge runners; beneath it, in the lower casing 
of the frame-work, are rings of jets of gas by 
which the slab cnn be heated. Above the slab, 
and descending from the upper oross-framing, is 
a shaft, at the lower part of it are arms, 
which being rototed, stir the crttthed cocoa and 
vanilla. 

This preliminary stage completed the reductron 
to a finer state is accomplished by very hard stone 
rollers, whose distance asunder is adjustable in 
the usual imnrner. The crushed and g^und 
cocoa, duly flavoured, after passing these 
rollers, is placed in the hopper of a machine 
similar to that with which sausages are 
made ; from this it is forced on to a small 
gauged metal table, and, whilst still in a plastic 
state, transferred to tin or tinned-copper trays, 
the bottoms of which have the names of the 
makers or other device in intaglio. A number 
of these filled trays are placed on a table, which 
is tossed or jolted by a mechanical arrangement 
as noisy and racketting as ingenuity could well 
suggest. The writer of this Report differs from 
the opinion that no other means can be devised 
to cause the plastic cocoa to settle in the intaglio 
device or lettering. 

4685.— Crisouolo, Kay, and Co., 57, Grace- 

church -street. 

The manufacture of maccaroni is here accom- 
plished by machinery, and your reporter is 
informed this is the first attempt to do so. 
Although the works of Messrs. Oriscuolo, Kay, 
and Co. are located in England, yet the workmen 
are Italians. A large edge-runner of Italian 
marble kneads the dough, of a granulated rather 
than impalpable powder of wheat called ** Semo- 
lina.*** This wheat is chiefly grown on Italian 

• Thii gminhiUeB Is not onllke whst mfllm In lOBie pwtvof 
Bofflftnd call **iharpt,** and to oth«r parU of England call 



564: 



JOaRNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Joke 6, IWS. 



-soil. If cne of the grains be divided with a 
knife there will be seen that a very small por- 
tion of the interior is white (or flour), the re- 
maining contents of the outer coating being 
" semolina," of varying quality. Skilful millers 
in the neighbourhood of Naples contrive to 
produce a large proportion of semolina from 
wheat grown there. 

A person in charge of Messrs. Oriscuolo, Kay, 
-and Go's machinery informed the writer that 
-the Italian wheat then in our hands contained — 

15 per cent of flour. 
24 „ bran. 

16 „ semolina Taecond quality). 

3 „ semolina (first quaJity, coarse). 

42 „ semolina (first quality, fine), and 

suitable for the best maccaroni. 

The dough, after having been kneaded in a 
•comparatively dry state for one hour, under a 
heavy marble edge-runner, similar to those used 
in mortar mUls, is placed in a strong metal 
cylinder, heated by gas-flames playing on 
the outer cylindrical surface. There are a 
number of movable bottoms for this cylinder; 
each, however, is perforated with small orifices. 
If these orifices are cylindrical, pins are so held 
as to form the pressed-out dough like a pine, 
the object being to facilitate the. drying of 
the maccaroni, by permitting air to be in contact 
with the inner as well as the outer surface of 
the substance. As the dough is forced through 
these openings by powerful mechanical pressure 
upon a piston a man receives it, and, cutting it 
into lengths, it is taken to a room, at one of the 
windows in which persons are engaged in fold- 
ing it. The drying in this room, and abo in an 
annex, occupies many days before the process 
is completed and the maccaroni ready for the 
market. 

4651. — Lsoo, R., Eagle-wharfy Hoxton. 

The self-acting machine for cutting tobacco 
IS the same in principle as the one used for 
chopping hay. The cut tobacco is then laid 
on a tray warmed by gas flames. Here it is 
kneaded — or rather treated as confectioners 
treat dough when it is to be converted into 
*' puff" paste. This lightens the cat and 
solidified tobacco, rendering it of a imiform 
density suitable for the market. 

For 4,63S see 4,623. 
„ 4,645 „ 4,621. 
„ 4,646 „ 4,623. 



4663. — Sears, J. N., and Co., Langboum 
Chambers, 17, Fenchurch -street. 

The principle involved in this apparatus for 
cleaning and sifting wheat is that of causing the 
grains to meet a regulated air-blast, which 
carries with it the lighter grains and some of 
the refuse, whilst the heavier grains descend. 
This is combined with a second apparatus, by 



which the grains are, as it were, rabbed igiii^ 
each other and against the concave Bor&oe of I 
smooth perforated metal cylinder; throo^b d 
perforations the dust, &c., passes, and the doH 
wheat falls into a receptacle prepared for it' 

4668. — Tallbrman, D., 113,CanQOii-5treel 

This process of preserving meat is bjr tl 
placing of tins containing the meat in i bilk a 
chloride of calcium. Each tin is conpbtd 
closed by soldering, except at a Terr wi 
punctured hole in what would be ordioil 
called a lid. Steam pipes form that floor of i 
bath on which the tins are placed; the tempa 
ture of the chloride of calciam is raited to 2^ 
in this the tins remain for an hour and i htlf; tl 
small orifice is then soldered ; the tempenti 
of the bath is increased, and after hilf «o M 
the tins are removed and the prooesiiseQri 
pleted. I 

4670. ToLLocK and Co., 54 and 55, Ld^ 

hall-street 

This cocoa-flaking machinery U sot 
that used for grinding coffee. AdmUg« 
taken of the oily character of cocoa la fr^ 
the ground material between a fixed edge 
rotating disc, in order to expose a larger i 
of it to the hot-water at the breakfast tajk 
is this part of the process that is called 

4827. Diamond Rook Boriko Go^ % 
minster-chambers, Victoria-atreet 

These are two machines for boring rod^i 
The smaller one is to be used in mines, qi 
(fee. ; the larger one for investigating tk 
beneath the surface of the earth. TheW 
called by the exhibitors a "drill he*!;" 
latter a " prospecting machine.*' 

In a collar at the end of a tube, in the 
machine, certain diamonds of a black 
character are fixed. By any of tltf 
machinery this tube is caused to rotttt 
trephine or crown-saw, and by a screw 
ment. to which the tube is attached, tk 
of this rotating, diamond boring-heia 
regulated, as in an ordinary drilling-a^ 
and boles bored. There is a friction-col» 
rollers to receive the end-thrust of the 
head. 

The larger machine acts opon a 
principle, but in it arrangements are ^^^' 
ing pipe to pipe, for which purpose P*^^ 
are fixed at the top to support ^^^^^^ 
pipe being added. The work is so cim* 
that the central core of the routing 
boring-head is enclosed in the tube, and, 
fore, is a sample of the thickness, inclioapoa; 
of the straU through which the ^f^ 
may have passed.* In both these "* 

• An enunple of ttU« Is la a yUii-tttbt hf ta» <* a'*^ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, June 6, lSi3. 



56^ 



romw is made for passing water down the 
idw, fod 80 wasliing away externally to the 
iibe the cUbns resulting from the operation of 
BiiDg. The large, flat weights in the pro- 
fKtkg machine are used to counterbalance the 
onDg-tubes, and so relieve the diamonds at 
ki end from any load in excess of that 
ipinte to secure the advance of the work. 

|B4.— Marsdrk, H. R., Meadow-lane, Leeds. 
The oonstmction of this machine for breaking 
ind crashing ores is simple. Invisible, 
jient upon the covering frame-work, is 
ii called a " toggle-joint," by the action 
Ichajaw, with a strongly-formed corru- 
Hirface, opens and closes. To this jaw 
stones, ores, Ac, Ac, are siipplied, and so 
The crushed material may be dis- 
into an inclined rotating perforated 
jer, tnd so divided by sifting into heaps of 
ing degrees of coarseness. 



lAich 




— TiLOHMAN, Philadelphia, per Newton 

tnd Son, 66, Chancery -lane. 

SJia is a recently contrived scheme for the 

tent of sand for purposes such as the 

g, boring, Ac, of stone, glass, (&c.* 

principle of the apparatus is by a blast 

steam, (fee, <fec, to cause innumerable 

of sand to impinge where portions of 

stone, metal, <fcc., <fec., are to be removed. 

Tflghman is thus enabled to produce not 

ttoUent work, but with a rapidity almost 

«*. For example, a square or trian- 

hok of half an inch in the side can be 

ftrough a sheet of ordinary plate window 

tt less than one minute. Designs of lace 

•lao photographs— can be " eroded " or 

" on glass with great rapidity. 

are two machines now in operation 

l^«w, and one at work on stone. The 

J*whine is to appearance a very plain 

hox or stand — nothing of machinery 

In the top of this box are two holes, 

^ inch and a half in diameter. If the 

a casings were removed, there might be 

Mow these holes a pipe, which descends, 

fcned somewhat trumpet-mouthed on the 

ofthe bottom of the box. Below this mouth 

•d wooden basin. From the upper part of 

on the spectator's left hand, a pipe passes 

^tb the floor to the centre of a rotating 

*w the wall of the room, and therefore 

,»• s vacuum, can be formed in the box. 

•« only inlet of air is past the trnmpet- 

opening, a rapid current ascends the 

ected with it whenever the exhaust-fan 

J|ork. Prom large hoppers (funnel-shaped) 

■^gsand^a regulated quantity falls towards 

wooden basin ; in falling on the basin 

>of Ua« iBichlo« appeared in the Journal of Hay 33. 



it is influenced by the entering air, is jetted from 
the pipe, and so strikes upon, say, glass covering 
the holes; the exposed glass is rapidly depolished. 
Where, however, an elastic substance, as paper, 
india rubber, (fee, covers the glass, no action of 
the sand takes place. 

If interstices or openings be formed in this 
elastic substance, as a pattern, then the surface of 
the glass is removed in accordance with such 
pattern, and to a depth dependent upon the time 
of exposure, and the intensity of the current of 
air, and quality of the sand. 

Next to this small " vacuum" machine is a large 
compressed air-blast one, capable of acting upon 
a sheet of glass three feet broad. A design in 
paper or lace being pasted on the glass, it is 
laid upon endless bands, by the motion of which 
it may be 9arried forward. In the middle of the 
compartment (which is glazed upon one side so 
that spectators may see the operation) provision 
is made, by a suitably>formed transverse opening 
for a blast of air with sand. When the ordinary 
machinery is set in motion this blast commences, 
the glass is travelled at a pre-arranged velocity, 
and in as little time as one may require to read 
this account, the ornamented glass is delivered at 
the side of the box opposite to that at which it 
entered. The design, printed on the next page, 
is from an electrotype of one of the sand 
engravings upon glass. 

So slightly an elastic surface as the changed 
character of some of the materials used in photo- 
graphy suffices to resist the action of the sand ; 
hence the photographic design may be etched 
by sand on glass. Examples of various works 
done by this process are on a table near to the 
machine. The third machine is in a separate 
building. It consists of a wooden table, on 
which the stone . is laid. This table can be 
traversed impulsively in one direction, by the 
action of a Clement's driver, on a spur wheel, 
and so motion is given to a rack. 

Above the table, provision is made for 
traversing the combined steam and sand jet. 
This is accomplished by a mangle-wheel motion, 
variable according to the breadth of the stone 
to be operated upon. By these two motions, 
transverse to each other, every portion of the 
stone may be reached. The steam and sand 
jet is arranged upon the plan adopted by Mr. 
Siemens, for exhausting the telegraph despatch 
tubes — the sand being admitted by an inner 
small tube, surrounded by jets of steam, as from 
concentric rays of an argand burner. Whilst 
your reporter was present, a delicate and some- 
what intricate cast-iron pattern was laid upon a 
piece of marble. The steam in the boiler was 
at 55 lbs. pressure. In five minutes the marble, 
measuring IB inches by six, was penetrated to a 
depth of about 3-16this of an inch, leaving the 
surface as originally polished, and with the 



JOUBHAL OF THK SOOIirrT OF AIETB. Jun <, Wt 



earj liirrign !■ bigb nU^. The I wm Ifaica. i|m it e ra of m acll ia tliiakiM, ■( 
ModiaardiuNyKlTar und,aad««a«Mdat thajmB ispnllj oat bj tiie hdA UmI, ud i 
nrt* <tf OBO pini ptr HUBsta ; tha dab of marUa I acpanited fron a laiger pioaa. 



A 



4 



V 



This eroding aetioB of sand mixed with | the ann ebone upon it lo ttiat tbe ^K^' *"J 

water baa formed maav of tbe mTineB and glens composed) imperceptiblejetappeare<l; ''' 

in onr iiland. If the following atatement, mada was aboat to para his finger tercet it, v** 

to the writer of this report about ten years ago, workman aaid, *' Don't do that, au' ; * ^ 

be true in fitct, there is a property in water hie finger cut crff with one of th»ej«t«- - 

wbieh haa not yet been utilised. Wkilat itand- not a jet of water be used as a u« f 
ing near a new eteam< boiler which wa» being 4001 AOM 4(118 —These aw Iw'* 

t«tsdnndar water pre».nre, and when the load p^cu™ 'a^difiW o^irtrnctiflM. ht -* 

waaMarit.«a™„„n.»small«nd{eMepttk.t ;7hich >ped«l adrairtigw «« «W»^ *^ ' 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIBTT OF ARTS, Jura 6, 1873. 



56T 



Tbocie intereeted in the qneation can 
rftr lo the published pamphlets. There ie also 
itb No. 4,916 a peculiar self-acting feed-water 



xmiDber of Tisiton admitted to the Exhibition on 
29th inst., was as foUowB:— Season tickets, 
f ; «o payBient of la., 3,707 ; total, 3,914. Oa Friday, 
iMa tMceta, 162; on payment of Is., 8,177; total, 
OA. Qq Saturday, season tickets, 944 ; on payment 
U, MM ; total, 5.800. 

hmr of TisitoiB admitted to the Exhibition 
file woek ending Saturday, Mmy Slst, waa as 
_>--SaasoiL tickets^ 1,899; on payment of 2i.6d., 
; m payment of la, 18,108 ; total, 21,668. 
i aDaskar a dmit t ed on Monday was, season tickets, 
t san pa^rmflBt of la., 10,656; total, 10,786. On Toes- 
f. ■ ■■ ain tickets, 143; on payment of Is., 5,046; 
fell 6|I88. On Wednesday, season tickets, 241 ; on 
^ af ta ed., 1,446 ; total, 1,686. 



KZHIBITIOHS. 





^yhtWtien. — ^It is nndentood, says the 
iha* by far the most important of the fine- 
oC Ab Yiemia Exhibition, «.«., the French, 
aatU Jaiy, aftor the closii^ of the 
a many of tiie finest pictures in that 
be removed to Vienna. No fewer 
MfM ttsw pictures by M. A. Stevens, two by M. 
Mbs^ ihi«a Vf M. Meissonier, and others by Mr. 
[Ifcl^dgma, will probably find places in Uie 'nrench 
ML ^ The works of MM. Meissonier and G6r6me 
L ifc la *Qd, to be new ones — in fact they are still in 
IlL It m estimated that daring the ensuing three 
"^ Wly 22,000 cabin passengers will visit Europe 
attracted there by the Vienna Exhi- 

.ti fai i rtri ai XzpedtioQ.-. The fourth 
il Eair will open inOineinnati on thedrd 
and olose oa the 4th of Ooti^er. 





OF RAILWAYS BY THE STATE. 

in the last number of the Qmrterif^ Btvmo 

. to a summary of the anmngements for and 

-~ iflmoitant question. The impartiality, and 

wish to show the exact condition of, matters 

which the article is distingpiished, render 

the att e ati oo of all those who take an in- 

qaeation. In view of the paper to be read 

Socie^ on the 13th inst, by ifr. Gait, it has 

e[ worth while to reproduce here some of the re- 
ef the reviewer. The arguments of what may 
WHad, for convenience sake, the conservative party, 
Atod aa follows: — 
* Wonld not the amoaat of patronage placed at 
~ of government be objectionable in a con- 
■al noint of view P 

Canld railways be administeced, managed, and 
' ' the State P 

t not tte abserpttoQ of the railway by the 

■r pinchase by government on its behalf, 

ba a losing operation in a finaaoial point of 



of theae argaments is perhaps the most 
aU with thoee who are eitiier definitely 
bama, or who ha^e not looked deeply 
but yet as^ud the pat^osed change 



with mistrust. The Quarterly reviewer does not ent^ 
into any serious discussion of this objection, nor per- 
haps does he give it the amount of consideration it 
deserves — ^if not from its intrinsic weight, at least from 
the persistency with which it is agam and again put 
forward. Those who urge this consideration seem to 
forget that we are not under a r^me, sudi as that in 
America, where aU public functionaries, from the presi- 
dent down to the letter-carrier, go out and come in witix 
a change of government We £> not find that any evil 
results arise from patronage among the rank and file of the 
army, and probably there would oe no m6re accruing if 
the porters and navigators in a railway were, like pri^ite 
soldiers, paid by the State. A government cannot sway 
the nation by its appointments of posfanen or railway 
stokers, and as to employment in the higher positionB, 
they, like aU other posts in the Civil &rvice, would 
probably be awarded by examination. It is indeed just 
possible that the alarmists are right, and that if the 
ministers had in their hands the appointments to the 
lucrative offices of signalmen and porters, a gigaatio 
system of bribery and corruption might arise ; but thme 
is no reason whatever to expect such a thing, and history 
and common sense alike go to prove its impossibility. 

As to the management of the railways, the reviewer, 
and possibly with justice, entirely neglects the idea 
that railways might be bought and &rmed by the State. 
This has been suggested, but it does not appear that any 
serious support luis ever been given to the proposition. 
He shows that there most be of neeenty an immense 
saving in the legitimate working expenses of the rail- 
ways, when they are conducted with a view to one profit 
and one interest — that of the public — ^instead of with 
regard to half-a-dozen different and generally opposing 
interests. As to the argument from the dockyards, he 
holds that the parallel is not a just one, and that it is 
not fair to compare the ever-changing and progressive 
requirements of a navy with the constaiit and absolute 
demands of a railroad system. 

The third point is the principal one, and the one upon 
whioh, in all likelihood, the seUkment of ihe matter will 
eventually turn. Mr. Benson, in his wnk on the sub- 
ject, has calculated the amoant likely to be required, 
and the results which might be expected, from the Board 
of Trade returns. The net receipts for 1871 were over 
25 mmions and a half; dedueting 14 BBiUions and a half 
interest on preferential capital, there remains 11 millions 
balance, or 6 per cent, on ordinary capitaL This may 
be taken as worth 20 years' purohase, supposing there 
was no fluctuation, or 224 millioBS and a half. AUowiBg 
a rise of 6 per cent, per annum in value, or say 10 years 
purchase, we may add 112 millions and a half. To this 
we may also put on 33 millions and a half as bonus for 
compulsory sale. All this would produce a sum. of 
370 millions and a half. This money wonld be raised by 
a 3} per cent, stock, the yearly interest of which would 
be nearly 13 millions. There would consequently be a 
loss in the first year or so, but then the rise of 6 per cent, 
per annum would rapidly come in to cover this, and in a 
few years the profit would not only cover the original 
loss, but would bring in a large aad growing iaooaM. 
Such is, in the briefest possible space, Mr. fiensen's pre- 
jeot, the figures of which are given at length in the 
BevHw, The results do not greatly diffsr from those 
arrived at by Mr. Biddn^h Martin, after a rather 
different series of calcinations. 

The expected advantages of the scheme are now Fratfcy 
much the same as those set forth in Sir Bowland jQiUfs 
report in 1866 : — 

1. Pecuniary gain to the State. 

2. €^ain to nulway proprietors in ntasdinnw tnd lemirity 
of income. 

3. Security against oestly ParliaaMatoiy eimtsirtfc 

4. Beduetum in fans, freights, fto. 
6. Greater efficieney in masmgement. 

6. Xn o iessed poilsl flwilkies, aad a cheep paresis 'da- 
liTery. 



668 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jui» 6, 1W8, 



Bendes a oost (aocording to the late Mr. Graves) of a 
redaction of 25 per cent, on working expenses. 

Such are, in brief^ the main considerations put forward 
by the author of the article. The conclusions at which 
he arrivee may best be given in his own words : — 

"The utter disregard of all law and system under 
i^hich our internal communications havebeen constructed 
will render the railways of England a permanent monu- 
ment of the ridiculous and disastrous adiievements of 
* healthy competition' and 'independent enterprise' 
embarked in hopeless and unequal race wiUi gigantic 
industrial monopolies. But the expezience of uie past, 
no less than the manifest tendencies of the present, may 
afford us a timely warning for the future ; and it is to be 
hoped that we have, at aU events, learnt the futility of 
all attempts to manage our railway companies by arming 
a subordinate department of the Government wiUi powers 
to scold and irritate when it cannot command, and to 
issue orders when it cannot impose penalties on d^bedi- 
ence. We have tried the laisses /aire policy, and it has 
failed ; we have tried a meddlesome policy and it has 
fiiiled also. We have now, in the language of CSaptain 
Tyler, to meet the coming day when all Uie railways, 
having completed their several systems, may, and 
probably in their own interests will, * combine together 
to take advantage of the public' In the ffice of this 
contingency, we have simply to make our dipice between 
two alternatives, either 'to let the State manage the rail- 
ways, or let the railways manage the State.' " 



OBVBBAI V0TB8. 



landed property nroducing aboot £600 a jitf,ad 
clause in the deed in which he sUtM it to n ^ 
to devote by his will addidonsl ftaid« for tke w 
ooUege. 

Sclentifie Societj for Bnenos A7rM.-A 
society has recently been estsblished tt Boom Aj 
Mr. A. Luis Huereo for its first preiidnt 
their progranmie, the members hsTe snaDgti fv 
out sevenl brandies of original researdu 

BUk GrowiAff.— Mrs. Keill had anotha 
the end of March of the friends and iiippatai 
seridcultural movement in Melbourne. Tbe^piii' 
ported from M. Roland's establishment bai tanMHtl 
and several have obtained first-daM ooooodi ftm M 
C.Brady writes from the Tweed River, NevSortk^ 
reporting that he has also success! ully raiiad < 
the grain brought out for him fromEaropibyXnLl 
The pursuit of silk«gTowine has aliet^ Urn tika 
a good many ladies, and the moveneit tffta l»| 
much vitality. From Westecn Auslnlis «• 
Governor Weld has ranted one hu4nd mm d 
King George's Sound to a lady who mcftm to 
silk-growing there, and a bonus of £oOO hit hm 
by t^ Government of Western Australia for (b 
of silk exported from that colony. Soom of tte 
turists in South Australia pfx»oastoaeiidkmiaf< 
number, a Mr. Frauds, to make bimsilf 
Roland's system as intMuoed by Mrs. Ni 
bourne a very advantageous offor of a piece d 
Brighton has heea made to the I^diei' 
lady resident of that suburb ; it is propoaei Ci 
beny trees on this land for the tnmj of fti 
district By the last two mails <nm hivitea 
France for large supfdies of seed for (nea. Hn.) 
endeavouring to effsct arrangementa for anaf lb. *\ 
son's refri^^eratiog prooesa for the fatort tnifort 
worm gram between Australia and Bnropa.'^ 
Applied Science. 



South Kensington Xnsenm. — The late Countess of 
Waldegrave has bequeathed to the South Kensington 
Museum three silvor-gilt bells, all of diflforent designs, and 
of historical interest. They were appended to the canopies 
used at the coronation of George II., George III., and 
George IV. These canopies were borne by the Barons of 
tiie (^que Ports, in aocordanoe with an immemorial custom. 
The first husband of the late Lady Waldegrave (Mr. Milward) 
was one of the Barons, and it was through him that the bells 
oame into the possosrien of the testatrix. 

Seiontiile Expedition to Paraguay.— Dr. Leoni Levi, 
the Consul General for Paraguay, Is arranging a sdentific 
oommisdon, to inquire into the resouroes of Paraguay, The 
eommission is to consist of botanical, agricultural, geolo- 
gical, mineralogioal, and reographioal surveyors. It is under- 
stood that the Consul General has in view to appoint a 
French botuiist, of great reputation, and a Scotch agricul- 
turist, but has made no arrangement for the gedogist and 
geographer. Dr. Levi would be glad to give information 
to anybody who might be willing to offer his co-operation in 
such a sdentific expedition. 

SeientilLc Sdneatlon. — Sir Joeiah Mason, who has 
already built and endowed an orphanage at ErdingtoUj near 
Birmingham, at a oost of more than a quarter of a million, 
has now arranged to erect and endow a Scientific College in 
Birmhigham, on which will probably be expended at least 
an cqu^ amount. All the arrangements for this munificent 
gift have been completed. The site haa been secured, and 
the deed of foundation duly enrolled in the Court of Chan- 
eery. The institution is to be ealled " Josiah Mason's Col- 
le|e for the studv of Practical Sdenoe." A preparatory 
SGhool may be added to the ooUe^ and the instruction to 
be given is strictiy confined to sulgects specially adapted to 
the "practical, mechanical, and artistic requirements" of 
the Midland cUstrict, more particularly the boroughs of Kid- 
derminster and BirminghaiB. The trustees have power to 
indnde mechanics and ardiitecture and all other subjects 
necessary to carry out the objects of the founder. The site 
aeleoted for the college is in Edmund-street It is in the 
centre of the town, and dose to the Town Hall, the Central 
Free Libraries, the Midland Institute, the new Post-Office, 
and the nropoMd Corporation buildings. The land is there- 
fore of the greatest value, and the founder has already laid 
out upwards of £20,000 on the dte. He has also conveyed 



H0TICB8. 



sxTBsoaipnois. 

The Lady-day sabscnptioDS 
should be forwarded by cheque or 
order. Grossed ** Coutts and Co.,"snd 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Daveopoit) 
officer. 

MEETIHOS FOE THE HSUIie 

Hov. ...Bodal Sdenoe Aiiw>datkw, & Mr. F.W.: 

**InlSuitidde.'* 
fiojal United 8erTice1iMtitate,8i. Ifajfj^ 

*' Farther Observations on the liiasv i 

MoontiDg Ordnance.** ..,_,•. 

Sodetj of fingineeri, 7| Mr. 8. Attrt^' 

mmiioaann between Fusengcn, Ow** ' 

in Bailway Trains.*' 
OeographioaL 6^. 
Bri&h ▲rc^tects, 8. 

Tuss. ...Photographic, 8. 

Wso. ...Geolog i cal, 8. 

BoyaTLiterarj Fond, 8. 
Bojal Society of Literatnre, 4|. 
Arehiedtogioal Amodwikm, 8. 



THUBS...BorBl, 8^. 

Antiquaries, 8&. 



Boyal Society Qub, 8. 
Hatbematical, 8. 

Fai 80CIE1Y OF AOTf. 1«.^ jjfSnJSfSI 

Oalt, •• On tiie FttdSase of the Bsflwj* W| 

Astronoinloal, 8. 
Qnekett,8b 

Arohitectoral AModatSon, T|. Ifr. F.< 
Popular £rtimate of ArdoiSeotnie'' n 

Bat Boyal Botanio. ^. _ ^ 

Tiidee oSSofWning (tt^tBoKa ^ 
or AsTi), 11 and 3. Omtamn » 
•atabUahingtheOaOd. 



tkf 



JOUKNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jumb 13, 1873. 



569 



OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

No. 1,073. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JUNE 13, 1873. 






U'A %A 



;S BT XHB COTTVCIL. 



07 EAILWATS BT THS BfATB. 

xnoeting of the Society will take place, 

the Ck>ancil, to-day (Friday), the 18th 

jl2 o'clock, when a paper will be read by 

Gai-t, Eeq., " On the Purchase of the 

liy the State." The Bight Hon. the 

will preside. 

OOV7EB1V0X. 

r-aeoond Anniiftl Conference between 
of the Society and the representatiyes 
in Union, will take place at the 
[oose, on Friday, the 27th June. The 
Itie taken at 12 o'clock, by Major-G^eneral 
r-WmcoT, B.A., F.B.S., Chairman of 

of XnstitntionB and Local Boards are 

to send, immediately ^ the names of the 

^appointed to attend theConference; 

notice should be given of any subjects 

»ns or Local Boards may desire 

bre^ to introduce to the notice of 



OOa V KBHAZTOIIE. 

's Convenazione will be held at the 
^ Museum, on Friday evening, the 
Oaxds are now in course of issue. 



THB SVCOtJBAeSMBHT OF TEBIFT. 

IHiitworth has 4£EiBred prizes of 

of one hundred pounds, to be obtained 

the Society of Arts, for the best Essays 

ithat woidd be likely to arise if 

companies and limited companies gene- 

each to establish a savings-bank for the 

cinnnniii in their employ." With this offer 

the f blowing observations : — 

Obsebyationb. 

^w a good rate of interest, with pcurfect 
aioie likely to promote the habit of 

other plan that can be devised P 
oaeph Whitworth suggests that the 
he puid on the deposits should be the 



same as the dividend, with a guarantee that it 
shall not be less than 4 per cent. 

3. By paying the same rate of interest as the 
dividend earned, there is a bond of union estab- 
lished between labour and capital. 

4. An Act of Parliament might make the depo- 
sits of the industrial classes the first charge on the. 
estate. 

5. The proprietor of a private establishment,, 
whose profits are not made Known, might under- 
take to pay, say 7 or 8 per cent, when the profits 
reached that amount or more, the proprietor giving 
an undertaking to pay not less than 4 per cent. 

6. In the case of Agriculture, each county might 
have its savings bank for the savings of both men 
and women in the said oounty, and the interest to- 
be paid might be 6 (ht 7 per cent. 

7. To do this there might be a rate collected 
along with the poor-rate, to be called the interest 
or industrial rate. 

8. As this rate increased, no doubt the poor-rate 
wotdd diminish, and if the habit of saving became 
general among the labouring classes, there woidd 
probably be great gain to the property-owning 
classes, considering the great variety of ways in 
which they have now to contribute for the support 
of the imf ortunate who now make no provision for 
themselves. 

9. In order to realise what might be the pro- 
bable saving to those who encourage the savings- 
banks thus suggested, Sir Joseph Whitworth points 
to the list of cnarities, also institutions, such as in- 
firmaries, hospitals, union-houses, prisons, police, 
&c., &c. 

10. In any establishment, if only one-third of 
those employed deposited savings, they would 
have immense influence over the other two-thirds 
of their fellow- workmen. 

11. Men who spend all their earnings are gene- 
rally reckless, and become the dupes or figitators ; 
but the man who has put by some of his earnings 
will be likely to exercise forethought, and will 
not be led away^W others. 

12. Li South Wales is it likely there would have 
been the late turn-out, if the different establish- 
ments had each had such a savings bank as that 
proposed? 

13. In the case of a man or woman falling into 
distress from causes beyond their control, what 
better proof could be given that they were de- 
serving of sympathy and assistance from their 
friends, than the fact that they had put by savings 
at a time when they were able to do so. The rub 
of action should be to do as little as possible for 
those who do as little as possible for themselves. 

14. Some of the points to be considered by the 
essayists will be the amount to which the savinfi;8 
shall be limited, and when the depositor wishes to 
withdraw the whole or any part of the sum de- 
posited what notice shaU be given. 

15. The co-operative system is no doubt effect- 
ing much good, but if the system here sketched 
om, were adopted, the greatest firood, in the shortest 
time possible, might be effected. 

The principal subjects which the essayists should 
consider are the preceding. 

The Council have accepted this . o^Bar,. and 
appointed a Committee to arrange the details for 
obtaining the essays. 



670 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, Joint 18, lOT*. 



* < J 



GENEEAL EXAMINATIONS, 1873. 



PRIZES AND CERTIFICATES AWARDED TO OANDIDATi; 



b^^^*^***" 



FRIZES. 
HiB Royal HiOHinEM th» PunMm Oomsort's Pbizb of Twbhtt-Pivb Ouivsai to 

(,. 1107— ThomM Riobftrd Okrkie, ag^ 21, fonnerly of the Salford Working Men's C<Jlege, 
now of the Birkbeck Literary and 8«l0ntific Institution, acconntant's clerk, wko liaa obua 
the following First-class Certificates in thre present and three preceding years : — 



1870— Arithmetie->FSnt*«]ni OutifietiU. 

Geogr aph y*— First-clAaa Certificate, with Fixat Friae, and Hoyal 

Geographfecal SodetyV Prise. 
Eiigli& History— Firat-^daas GerHfl<«te. 
1^1— Metric SyBt^D— Fint-chuw Ceitificaile, wiOi Fixft PHee. 
1872— Book-keeping— First-class Certificate, with First Prize. 

,y English Language — First-class Certificate. 
1873 — Logic — First'dass Certificate, with Second Prise. 
,, Poutical Economy — First-class Certificate, with Seoood PriM. 



91 



H 



Thb Oounoil P&xze (ro& Fsmalb OAmnDATSB) ov Tbh Gothxas 

Has not been awarded this year, as no candidato qualified to receive prizes has fuIfiOsd^ 

required conditions. 



3C 



r 1st Prize £5 I To No. 910— Jamaa Owen, 26, Pemhroka Dook KwibamMi' laifl 



Arithmetic 



Book-keeping 



• • • • 



2nd Prize 



Flctionltiire 



'ist Prize. 
2iid Prize 
Females' Prize 
1st Prize. 
2nd Prize 
ist Prize. 



• • • • 



Rnit and Vegetable 
Oaltcire l2ndPrize 

1st Prise.. .r*. 

PbliticslEconomy..J2^^p^ 

'Ist Prize 
English History • . 



2nd Prize 



• • . « 



Ist Prize. ,^, ,. 
English Tangoage. . { ^^ ^*^ "" 



Logio 



IstPtto... 
2ndPrize .... 



I 



3 

5 
8 
2 
6 
3 
5 
8 
6 
3 
6 
3 



6 
8 



6 
3 



» 



w 



n 



t$ 



i» 



>» 



w 



*i 



»r 



n 



n 
ft 



»> 



tion, shipwright 
242 — Abner W. Brown, 29, Aldershot arid F^nfaiKl| 
trict Board, sergeant 
Jio Priufvr F^malw ofgttrdtd* 
927— William Wing, 19, Rotherham 

Mechanics' Institution, clerk 
1001— Jospph J. Edwards, 28, Siwiiiaon 

tion, clerk 
1115 — Julia Lawrence, 19, Birkberk Literary and 

Institution (no oooupatien stated) 
731— William Falconer, 22, St Stephen's Eremsg 

WeetmhMter, gardener 
505— James M. Smith, 26, Hull Toujig Peofl^ai 

and Literary Institute, Kardcnaer 
505 — James M. Smith, 25, Bull Toung PtepbTs 

and Literary Institute, gsrdener 
731— WilliMm Falconer, 22, St Stetphen's 

Westminster, gardener 
1097--Je8iiii«tte 0. Wilkissco, 29, Biifcifcsiik 

Scientific Institution, upholstress 
1107— Thomas R. Clarke, 21,Bh-kbeck Literary aadJ 

Tnstitution, accountants' deric 
1157--Wyii» HL Wright, 18, Bktta^ 

SciBBtific Inatitntiozi, clerk 
235— Percfval Waugh, 18, Edinburgh Watt 
cl6>% 
IhFr%s0 fot IHmalei mcmdml^ 
581— Henry Beer, 22. City of Laodon Co]I^;e, c&rk 
e02— Wilham B. I^h, 20, Oitj of Londoa ' 
clerk 
No Prize far FemaUs ttfKortUd^ 
866— Alexander Gibson, 1^, MftnrTinnf nr UTii fcinlia' B 
tutioD, draughtsman 
1107— Thomas R. C9arki», 21, BirMMk 
IniMttttioni aoeovntaAtif deifr 




• Ko Vtaiato Oandidata qoanfied fo MVSrrs PHttg <*talned a Ant-olssi C«^^ 



JOUBKAL <»• THB SOCfnfl^ 09 ABT8, Jmm IS, 1878. 



en 



A 



•••••••••• 



• • • • 



ua 



fMFriaa. 

2ftdFHa» 

Females' Prize 
hftPiwe 

2Bd 



• • • • 



lit 



MPHm. 



2od Prise 
1st Priio. 



• • • • 



■y^^'^ -{tod Prise and 
FesBAles* Prise 



£6 
8 

2 
6 
8 



3 
6 

8 
2 



To No. 70f— Prank Q. Whitemap, 20l| B«j«l Polytechnic Institu- 
tion, clerk 
1168^Bid>afd W. Beimaftt» M, Biikbec^ Intesary Mid 

Sdentifio Institution, clerk 
1120— Frsnoessa B. Anmdale, 26, Biikbeck litenuy «ad 

Scientifio Institution (no occupation stated) 
499— John Martin, 26, Hull Young Peck's Christian and 

Literary Institute, clerk 
1188— John Taylor, 17, Leeds Young Hen's Ohristiaa As- 
sociation, apprentice 
Ko Prize/or FemaUi awarded^ 
718— Robert W. WiUdns, 28, Boyal Polytechnic Institu- 
tion, derk 
No Second Priu awardedl 
No IVtMefir FomtUet awmrdedf 
102— Edward £dmonds, 22, Birmingham and Midland Insti- 
tute, cleric 
830— Henry Hill, 18, QLugow AthensBum, derk 
1168— George F. Orawte, 81, Birkbeck Literary and Sdentifio 

Institution, clerk 
191— Fanny Ollis, 17, Devonport Mechanics' Institution (no 
occupation stated) 



19 



9f 



9$ 



» 



» 



J9 

If 



} •• 



I Pritee offered by Mrs. Harry Chester in Political Economy have been awarded as follows :— 

Wid Prise of £2 to No. 862»— Hpnry Vosper, 22, Manchester Mechanics* Institution, buyer 
ftae of Books Talue £1 „ 602— William D. Fish, £0, aty of London Colle^ in Civil Service 

„ 855 — Alexander Oibson, 19, Blanohester Mechamcs* Institution, draughtsman 
„ 1166-^William Allin^ham, 22, Birkbeck Literary and Soientifio Institatio% 
Civil Service writer 






Pri«i offnred by tbe Conneil for Writing from Dictation have been awarded as follows :— 

l^ftriisof £3 to No. lUO-^ohn R. Smith, 28, Birkbeck Literary and Sdentific Institution, 

Civil Service writer 
n -. 2 ^ 285— Peicival Waugh, 18. Bdiaburgh Watt Institute, derk 



Sid 



» 



n 

19 



664— ^George Smith, 18, City of London College, clerk 



™« offered by tbe Council for Writing and Manuscript Printing have been awarded as 

follows : — 

l^PteofjBSteKo. 1149— John R. Smith, 28, Birkbeck Literary and Sdentifio Institution, Civil 

Service writer 
'"^ •• 2 M 141— Wheater Smith, 20, Bradford Mechanics' Institution, surveyor 

I „ 621— Frederic A. HunUey, 18, CHty of London College, ongineer's draughtsman 



n 



{raea offered by tbe Council for tbe four best specimens of Handwriting, as sbown in an;^ of 
the Papers worked in any subject, have been awarded as follows : — 

lit Friss ^ £5 to Ko. 664— George Smith, 18, City of London College, derk 

^ n 3 „ 1157— WilUam H. Wrifcht, 18, Birkbeck Literary snd Soientifio Institution, olerk 

«^ „ 2 „ 615— Arthur Hill, 19, City of London College, clerk 

^ „ 1 „ 681— John J. Wootton, 19, City of London College, derk 



VTVA-VCCE EXAMINATION IN MODERN LANGUAGES. 



nH-voce examination in Modem Languages, as proposed in tbe memorandum fumisbed by 
kHyde Clarke, Member of tbe Council, has been held this year, at two Institutions, the subject 
■i being French, and tbe Examiners report tbe results as follows : — 

No. 554— Thomas Marson, 21, Lichfield Working Men's Association, gardener, "rery good." 
n 818-Miirgiiret S. Borke, 17, Manchester Mechanics* Institution, no occupation stated, ** Teryjgood/' 
n Ml^Jobn Wurdle, 21, Manchester Mechanics' Institution, derk, ♦*Tery good." 
n 8H *»ofg o Kelson, 24, Ifanchester Mechanics' Institution, warehouseman, *' good." 
, 861*.WiUiam Mitohsli, 27, Manchester Mechanics' Institution, trsToUer, ** good." 



♦ »oPt— to OMdKaaqmliflad to receive Prtoetobialotd a gl ut o l i w Ot rt i J o at t la IMi latjeet. 
X Ho cHJMt Flm-^laii Omtamtm were gijta in thii lobject. 



tf72 



JOXJBNAL OP THE SOOIBTY OP ARTS, Jen lS;18n. 



CEBTIFI0ATE8. 

The following is an Alphabetioal List of the Oandi- 
dates who have obtained Certificates. 

The number following the name gives the age of the 
Gfuididate. 

Hst) after a subject signifies a First-class Certificate. 

(2d) „ „ Second-class „ 

^d) „ „ Third-class „ 

The oocapatloni stated are either preKnt or proposed. 



5— Abel, John, 26, Aberdeen M.I., clerk — ^Eng. Lang. 

(3d) 
517—Ahel\y Thomas K., 19, City of London ColL, clerk 

— Bkpg. (3d) 
412— Ackroyd, Herbert, 21, Halifax W.M. ColL, clerk 

— Bkii:.(2d) 
^1 — ^Adamson, William, 31, Arbroath Local Board* 

mechanic — Th. of Music. (2d) 
1216— Adoock, George, 25, l^ioester W.M. CoU., baker 

— Eng. Lang. (1st) 
413— Ainley, WUUam H., 19, Halifex W.M. Coll., 

draper — Bkpg. (2d) 
400 — ^Aitchison, John G., 19, Glasgow M.L, measurer's 

assistant — ^Arith. (2d) 
234 — ^Aitken, Thomas, 17, Edinburgh Watt Inst., civil 

engineer — Arith. (3d) 
1182— Aldndge, Louisa B., 23, Birkbeck Lit. and ScL 

Inst, (no occupation stated) — French (3d) 
679— Alexander, William M., 33, Cibr of London Coll., 

architect's assistant — Bkpg. (1st) 
96 — ^AUen, William, 23, Birmingham and Mid. Inst., 

derk — Eng. Lang. (3d) 

"" " I. WiJ" 



1166— Allingham. William, 22, Birkbeck Lit and Sci. 
Inst., civil service writer — Logic (3d) ; Pol. 
Econ. (let), with a prize of books to the value 



580— Austin, Harry K, 16, (^ty of LoidoaCoIL,^ 

—Arith. (3d) 
583— Aylward, Walter C, 17, Ipswidi WX 0^ 

^oemaker— Bkpg. (2d) 

1144— Bacon, Augustus C, 19. Biikbeck lit ud S 

Inst, clerk— Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (Id) 
716— Bailey, Frederick G., 19, Royal Polytedaicia 

stationer — Bkpg. (2d^ 
71— Bailey, George, 17, Ashrord M.L, nilwayMeoo 

ants' clerk— Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (1st) 
562— Bain, David. 24, liveipool Inst, teM^-Adl 

(3d) ; Eng. Lang. (Ist) 
296— Baird, Charles J., 20, Glasgow AIL, M-Bk] 

(3d) 
1129— Baker, Amy F., 18, Birkbeck lit ind Sals 

governess — French (3d) 
745— Baker, Henry, 20, 8t Btephens* Err. &^ 

Westminster, clerk— Eng. Lang, (a); Ad 

(2d) 
735— Baker, James, 19. St StcpheM'ETg.Sd^V< 

minster, paper-hanger — Arith. (Sd) 
257— Bald, Claud, 19, Glasgow AnderwL Unir. P 

Evg. Classes, engine fitter-TLofMoiic ji 
98— Ball, George K, 18, Birmiogbam tnd Mid. la 

pupil teacher— Arith. (2df 
1203— Barradough, Henry, 16, Lsedi YoBUg « 

Chr. Assoc., pupil teacher— Prenck (Ji) 
982— Barratt, William, 24, Stockport SaniScih 

Soc, warehouseman — Arith. (Sd) 
976— Barrett, John, 26, Stockport M.l.,wiRboaw 



—Arith (3d) ; Bkpg. f 3d) 
—Barrow, James H. M., 25, limpocl U 

teacher — Logic (1st) 
—Barry, John, 16, Manchsiter HI, w 



460— Allison, John B., 21, Hull Ch. Inst., clerk— Bkpg. 

(1st) ; Eng. Hist (2d) 
461— Allison, William, 17, HuU Ch. Inst, derk— Bkpg. 

(1st) 
148— Amos, Henry W., 26, Bromley (Kent) Lit Inst., 

clerk— Bkpg. (Is^ 
1170 — Anderson, Ernest M., 18, Birkbeck Lit and Sd. 

Inst, law stationer — French (3d) 
344 — Anderson, John M., 17, Glasgow Ath., derk — 

German (2nd) ; French f3d) 
849 — Anderson, Thomas, 17, Glasgow Ath., clerk — 

French (3d) 
779— Anderton, Thomas, 20, Manchester M.L, tin-plate 
worker — Bkpg. (Ist) 
1219— Andrew, Noah, 19, Leioester W.M. Coll., clerk— 

Bkpg. (3d) 
1205»-Andrew8, Richard, 31, Leeds Young Men's Chr. 
Assoc., derk— Bkpg. (3d) 
97— Anslow, Anna, 27, Birmingham and Mid. Inst, 

teacher— French (3d) 
172— Armstrong, John, 23, Carlisle M.I., engineers' 

derk— Logic (2d) ; Eng. Long. (2d) 
165— Armstrong, Joseph, 20, Carlisle M. I., (no occupa- 
tion)— Arith. (2d) 
69— Armstrong, Thomas S. 19, Ashford M.L, railway 
accountant's clerk— Eng. Hist (3d) ; Bkpg. (1st) 
1120— Arundale, Francesca E., 25, Birkberk Lit. and 
Sd. Inst (no occupation stated)— French (1st), 
with the prize of £2 for females; Arith. (3d) 
83 — ^Ashford, John T., 16, Bacop M.L, pupil teacher 

—Arith. (3d) 
236— Ashton, John, 28, Edinburgh Watt Inst, gold- 
smith— Th. of Music (2d) 
930— Ash worth, George, 16, Salford W.M. CoU., derk 
—Arith. (3d) 
86— Aahworth, James, 16, Bacup M.L, pupil teacher 

—Arith. (1st); Eng. Lang. (3d) 
560— Atkinson, Robert H., 20, Liv 
Arith. (1st}; Eng. Lang 



556 

836 

Bkpg. (2d) , , 

798— Barry, Thomas, 20, Mancheitsr MX, da 

French (1st) , ^ . , 

1031— BarUe, Harry, 17, Wakefield M.L, d«rt-M 

(3d); Bkpg. (let) ,i 

1119— Bartlett, Edwin H., 22, Birkbeck lit ml 

Inst, traveller — French (3d) J 

865— Baxter, John, 17, Moasley MX, wa-^ 

Lang. (2d) J 

984— Baxter, 'Thomas, 17, Stockport Snni SAl 

Soo,, tin plate worker-Arith. M . J 
452— Beaumont, Thomas S., 18, Httdd«nfe»' 

wool sorter — German (2d) 
552— Beaumont, William, 26, Leeda a !». 

tomey's derk— Bkpg. (Ist) ^ 

854— Beckett, George E., 21, MancheiterJLL m 

Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (1st) J 

581— Beer, Henry, 22, aty of London C«L <^ 

Logic (1st) ; Pol. Boon. (1st) ; Eog.Iin*^ 

wiUi the first prize of £5. 
582— Beken, Amos, 20, City of hoo^ wi. 

French (3d) , ^_^. - 

1059— Bell, John F., 16, York Inst, cl€ik-Aj<^v 
1185— Bell, Thomas W., 20, Leeds Yonjj JW' ^ 

Assoc., salesman— Eng. Lang- M) . 
925— Bdl, Waiiam, 23, Richmond F*®^*. * 

gardener— Floriculture (2d) ; Frmt » 

Cult (2d) , I 

258— Bell William B., 23, Glasgow An**** ' 

Pop. Evg. Classes, wsrehooaflBin-*^ 

Music (2d) . _. vT J 

973— Bennett, Harry, 16, Stockport M.U "1 

74— Bennett Henry J., 17, Ashfcrf ^-^ \ 
apprentice— A.rith. (2d) , ,:. -J 

1153-Bennett, Richard W., 20, Birkbi^Litn 
Inst, derk -Arith. (lit); Oeni^J 
Fntnch (Ist), with thesscoodpowo'^' 
Lang. (2d) _. ^_ _-.,..««^ 



ag. (3d) 906— Bettany, Ca^olin^ 17, ?«»««* '"i!S 

iverpool Inst, derk— Arith. (2d) ; Th. of Mosk) (8*: n<«» 

. (2d) 1 £og. Ung. (3d) 



JOURKAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, Juki 13, ISTS. 



573 



}96->Bmoii, RickAid, 23, Royal Polyteohnio Inst, 

teper— Arith. (3d} ; £og. Lang. (3d} 
SS3— fiiden, Lewis M., 16, City of libnaon CoIL, 

liwyei^AriUi. (I8l) ; French (3d) 
159— fiilsbiid, Thomaa, 23, Glasgow Anderson. Univ. 

Pop. Erg. Qasees, lithographic printer — ^Th. of 

Musie (3d) 
!71 'Birch, James A., 26, Lirerpool Inst, derk — 

Bkpg. (2d) 
UO-BixbT, Joviah W., 17, Ipswich W. M. Coll., time- 
keeper— Bkpg. (2d) 
S2~BIackhal], Alexander, 16, Aberdeen M.I., derk^ 

Enr. Lang. (3d) 
(T^BlacUock, John, 24, Glasgow M.I., fleshex^ 

Bkpg. (lit) 
KS-BUke, George, 24, Leeds Young Men. Chr. 

Assoc., in woollen warehonse — Bkpg. (3d) 
M^Bkkf, George, 19, Bow and Bromley Inst, 

derk-Bkpg. (3dj 
K$— Bland, Fmnlr, 17, York Inst, articled teacher — 

Bkpg. (3d) 
Uft-Blaylock, Robert, 20, Carlisle M. I., clerk— 

Arith. (2d) 
Ua-Blockiidge, MOlliam H., 17, Dudley M.L, short- 

kaod writer — Arith. (3d) 
ttl— Bond, John, 21, Stockport Sand. Soh. Imp. Soc., 

vanhouseman — Arith. (3d) 
K3— Bone, Ernest E., 17, Hyde M.L, articled clerk — 

Arith. (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
n^BooMll, Eleanor, 26, Salford W.M. Coa, music- 

tetcb^— Arith. (2d) 
ni-BooUi, Jjimea, 19, Mancheeter M.L, derk— Arith. 

(U ; Pol. Eoon. (3d} 
KI^Bootbby, John, 16, Olaham Lyceum, eng^eers* 

ippnntice — Arith. (3d) 
M9~Boothby, WilUam, 19, Oldham Lyceum, sur- 

Teyon' apprentice — Arith. (3d) ; Th. of Music 

(3d); Eng. Lang. (3d) 
HS-BorUnd, John O., 20, Glasgow Ath., derk— 

French (3d) 
197— Boone, Frederidr, 21, Royal Polytechnio Inst., 

elerk— Bkpg. (2d) 
i^Bow, George, 16, Aberdeen M.L, derk— Eng. 

Ung. (3d} 
•tt-Bowc, Frederick, 17, Liverpool Inst, derk— 

Bkpg. (3d) 
I— Bowie, William, IS, Aberdeen M.L, granite letter- 

ootter— Eng. Lang. (2d) 
IMoBovinan, Henry J., 21, Manchester M.I., sales- 
nun— Bkpg. (Ist) 
t^Bownuin, John, 20, Carlisle M.I., book-keeper— 

Arith. (3d) 
KS— Bowman, William J., IC, Manchester M.L, ware- 
. booieman- Bkpg. (1st) 

R^Bndley, John. 23, Manchester M.L, warehouse- 
man— Eng^. Hist (2dJ. 
fll— Bndshaw, James, 20, Manchester M.I^ derk— 

Bkpg. (ist) 
W-Bi»dy, Edward G., 16, Parsonstown Young 

Men's Chr. Assoc., derk— Eng. Hist. (2d) 
W-Brrimbridge, Edward D., 19, Hull Young People's 

Chr. and Lit. Inst., boot and shoe dealer — Eng. 

Lang. (2d) 
w>-BiwnwclL Robert, 19, Mancheater M.L, derk— 
. ^Bpkff. (lit) 
W-Briy, William H., 18, Birkbeck Lit. and Sci. Inst, 

dCTk— Arith. (3d) 
tt^Brsar, Thomas, 17, HaKfiix W. M. Cdl., ware- 

houseman- Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (3d) 
*-Brigg8, Walter, 26, Blackburn Sd Sch., leather- 
. cutter- Arith. (1st) 
»"Bristol, Joseph H., 16, St. Stephen's Evg. Sch., 

Westminster, derk— Arith. (3d) 
Rf-B^oadhead, Charlfls K., 20, Hull Young People's 
,. Chr. and Lit Inst, clerk— Bkpg. (2d) 
in-Bfockbank, John, 20, Carlisle ALL, architectnnl 

draughtnoan— Eng. Lang. (2d) 



294 — Brodie, Neil, 26, Glasgow Ath., teacher— French 

(3d) 
790 — Brodrick, Thomas, 17, Manchester M.I., book- 
keeper — ^Arith. (1st) 
1077— Brookes, John, 18, Bolton M.L, derk— Arith. 

(1st) 
762— Broobi, Francis T., 21, Tonio-sol-fa Teacher's 

A^soo., teacher of singing — Th. of Music (3d) 
868— Brooks, John H., 18, Mossley M.L, derk— Arith. 

(3d) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
986— Brooks, Joshua, 17, Salford W.M. Coll. mechani- 
cal draughtsman — ^Arith. (2d) 
242 — ^Brown, Abner W., 29, Aldershot, sergeant — Arith. 

(1st) with the second prise of £3 ; Bkpg. (2d) 
693 — Brown, Annie 0., 30, Royal Polytedinic Inst., 

teacher — German (2d) 
441 — Brown, G^rge £., 16, Hertford Lit and Sci. 

Inst., pupil teacher — Arith. (2d) 
1023— Brown, George W., 19, Wakefield M.L, coach- 
maker — Arith. (3d) 
1000— Brown, Jaoies, 30, Swindon M.L, derk— Th. of 

Music (2d) 
931— Brown, James B., 16, Salford W. M. Coll., pupil 

teacher— Arith. (3d) 
1123 — Brown, John, 19, Birkbeck Lit. and Sci. Inst., 

warehouseman — French (3d) 
686 — Brown, Patrick, 20, City of London CoU., clerk — 

French (2d) 
161 — Broxup, James, 31, Burnley M.L, mechanic — 

German (2d) 
1124— Bruce, Frank, 21, Birkbeck Lit and Sd. Inst., 

derk — French (3d) 
468— Bruce, William, 24, Hull Ch. Inst., derk— Bkpg. 

(Ist) ; Eng. Hist. (2d) 
260 — Buchanan, James, 20, Glasgow Anderson. Univ* 

Pop. Eyg. Classes, derk— Th. of Music (2d) 
373 —Buchanan, John, 16, Glasgow M.I., derk — Arith. 

(2.i) ; Bkpg. (2d) 
309 — ^Buchanan, Walter, 16, Glasgow Ath., clerk — 

Spaniah (3d) 
903— Budds, BenJHmin, 17, Parsonstown Young Men's 

Chr. Assoc., clerk — Arith. (3d) 
1137— Billow, Charles B., 20, Birkbeck Lit and Sd. 

Inst, stamper — Eng. Lang. (3d) 
586 — ^Burke, Charles, 23, City of London CoU., derk— 

German (2d} 
687— Burnett, Dayid, 22, City of London Coll., surveyor 

—Pol. Econ. (2d) 
368 — ^Bnmside James, 22, Glasgow M.I., warehouse- 
man — Bkpg. (2d) 
588— Burt Charles F., 18, City of London Coll., derk 

—French (2d) 
860— Bushell, Patrick, 24, Manchester M.I., derk— 

Bkpg. (l8t) 
689— Butler, Jamea, 18, City of London Coll., chroao- 

meter maker's assistant — ^Arith. (2d); French 

(3d) 
690 — Butler, Joseph, 20, City of London Coll., engineer 

Arith. (1st) ; French (3d) 

30— Calder, David, 19, Aberdeen M.L, derk— Eng. 

Lang. (2d) 
487— Calvard, Benjamin, 21, Hull Young People's 

Chr. and Lit Inst., engine-fitter— Arith. (3d) 
488— Calvard, irederick, 17, Hull Young People's 

Chr. and Lit. Inst, engine-fitter— Arith. (3d) 
923 — Cameron, John, 23, Richmond Parochial Library, 

gardener— Floriculture (1st) ; Fruit and Veg. 

Culture (2d) 
886— Capaey, Thomas, 16, Oldham Lyceum, book- 
keeper— Arith. (2d) 
892— Carewdl, Allan B., 22, Paisley Artisans' butt, 

bookbinder— French (2d) 
293'*Oarmichael, Robert R., 20, Glasgow Ath., waro- 

houseman— Eng. tiang. (2d) 
691— Carpenter, George, 28, City of London Coll., 

derk— Bkpg. (Ist) 



674 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, Junb 1«, IflU 



361 — Carroll, Henry A., 21, Olaigow Anderson. Pop. 

Eyg. Qasses, pattern-maker— (Arilh. (2d) 
167 — Oarru there, George, 19, Caiiiale M J. (no ooonpa- 

tion)— Arith. (3d) 
162— OatUehow, FredtwiGft J., 19, Oarliile M.I., iron- 

mon^per — Arith. (3d) 
886— Qiadwiok, John, 17, Oldham Lyeenm, pawn- 

brokers* apprantioe — ^Eng. Lang. (8d) 
307 — Chalmers, Robert 26, Dundee Young Men*s Chr. 

Assoc., mechHnio — Arith. (let) 
300— Chalmers, William, 19, Dundee Tonng Men's 

Chr. Assoc, clerk — German (2d) 
1112— Chaloner, Arthur B., 20. Birkbeck Lit and Sd. 

Inst, ciiril service writer^ Arith. (3d) ; Eng. 

Hist (8d) ; Bkpg. (2d) 
1066 — Chaloner, Robert Jr., 17, York Inst, clerk — 

Arith. (1st) ; Th. of Music (2d) 
444 — Chapman, Alice M., 17, Hertford lit and Sci. 

Izist., pupil teacher — Arith. < 3-i) ; Eng. Lang.(3d) 
1126— Chapman, Annie, 36, Birkbeck Lit and Sci. Inst., 

governess— English Hist. (2<1) 
1169 — Chatterley, Robert J., 26, Birkbeck Lit and Sci. 

Inst, warehouseman — Eng. Hist (8d) 
816 — Chisholm, James. 22, Glasgow Ath., clerk — Ger- 
man (2d) ; French (2d) 
1179 — Chisholm, James, 27, Birkbeck Lit and Sci. 

Inst., actuary — Pol. Boon. (2d) 
192 — Churchward, Edwin, 16. Devonport M.I. (no 

occupation statnl) — Arith. (2d^ 
692 — Clark, Frederic, 31. City of London Coll., in civil 

service — Bkpg. (let) 
906— Clarke, Arthur D., 18, Pembroke Dock M.I., 

clerk— Arith. (2d) 
246 — Clarke, David J.. 17, Aldershot (no ooonpation) — 

Arith. (let) ; Eng. Hist (8d) 
16i--Clarke, Robert, 16, CarlisleM.L, clerk— Arith. (1st) 
1107— Clarke, Thomas R., 21, Birkbeck Lit and Sci. 

Inst, clerk — Logic (let) ; Pol. Eooo. (1st), with 

the second prize of £3 in eaih subject ; and the 

Prince Consort's prif.e of 26 guineas. 
889— Qews, Robert, 19, Glasgow M.L, derk— Eng. 

Lang. (2nd) 
616 — Close, John, 16, Hull Young People's Chr. and 

Lit. lost., clerk — Bk 
417— Close, Thomas, 17, Halifax W.M. Coll., assistant 



Lit. lost., clerk— Bkpg. (3d) 

" ififax W.M. 
overlooker— Bkpg. (3d) 



594— doss, Samuel, 24, City of London Coll., derk— 

Bkpg. (Irt) 
977 — Clouuh, Jamps, 18, Stockport M.I., roller coversr 

—Bkpg. (3dj 
794 — Coe, Samuel, 26, Manchester M.L, spinner — ^Arith. 

183— Cole, George W., 16, Crewe M.L, apprentice fitter 

—Arith. (3d) 
940— Oollinge, Harnett, 18, Salford W.M. Coll., pupil 

teacher- Arith. (2d) 
1167— Collins, John W., 21, Birkbeck Lit and Sci. Inst, 

law clerk— Th. of Music (1st) 
482 — Collinson, Barron, 19, Hull Young People*s Chr. 

and Lit Inst., clerk — Eng. Lani?. (3 1) 
466— Collison, Robeit, 32, Bull Ch. Inst., assistant 

overseer — Bkpg. (Ist) 
696 — Connor, Joseph J., 19, City of London CoH., 

derk— Arith. (2d) 
729— Oonolly, Hugh F., 17, St Stephen's Evp. Sch.. 

Westminster, pupil teacher — Arith. (3dy ; Eng. 

Hist. (8d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d} 
649 — Cooper, Al&ed, 26, Le^ Cn. Inst, cashier — 

Bkpg. (1st) 
801— Cooper, Francis W., 18, Glasgow Ath., derk— 

Arith. (2d) ; French (3d) 
661 — Cooper, Herbert, 18, Liveipool Inst, derk— ^Th. 

of Music (2d) 
682— Cooper, William G., 17, Ipswich W.M. ObB., 

derk— Bkpg. (8d) 
«7»-CoTbet, Robert, 22, Glasgow M.L, desk— Bkpg. 



688— Cosier, Elizabeth, 30,RoyilPdjtsohmcIiiit(B 

occupation) — German (ad) 
682— Cosier, Jane, 20, Royal Pdytadmio Inai |i 

occupation) — VVenoh (3d) 
642— Oostoo, William E. N., 16, King's Lyai itt 

deik— Bkpg. (8d) 
626— Cotton, John A., 20, Ipswich W.M. Call, dot- 
French (3d) 
881 — Cowan, Bernard, 24, KewcasHe-on-TTncClLlait 

gardener — Floriculture (2d) ; Froift rnd T^ 

Culture (2d) 
876— Cowell, Charles, 24, Newcastle-on-TyseOLlMfc, 

derk— Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (Ist) 
760— Cowle, Margaret, 26. Manchestar MJ., nM- 

mistress— French (3d) 
1130— Crabtree, Jean, 28, Birkbedc lit and 8gL Iitt. 

teacher— French (3d) 
91— Crabtree, William, 16, Bacnp HL, vmv«- 

Arith. (3d) 
986— Craig, Robert H., 21, Salford W.M. CoIL^book' 

keeper — Arith. (Ist)^ 
418— Craven, Wnlter, 21, Halifitt W.M. Cell, wl- 

sorter— Bkpg. (2d) 
696— Crawlev, Wimam, 26, aty of Loadn Oq2L, 

articled clerk — French (Ist) 
1168— <3rawte, George F., 31, Birkbeck liL lad Sd 

Inst, clerk— Th. of Music (Ist), witb tlw £nl 

prize of £6 
708— Crocker, Charles J., 19, Royal Polvteduric Imt, 

pupil teacher— Eng. Hist (3d) ; Eng. W- (4 
196— Cross. Bedde, 19, Devonport M.I. (no cec^stioo 

stated)— Th. of Music (lst| 
1138— Croesingham, Thomas E., 22, Birkbe<^ lit nd 

Sd. Inst, carpet salesman — Arith. (lit) 
937— Crosslev, Thomas, 16, Salford W.M. Coll, lilnria 

Aritli. (2d) 
212 — Croudace, Laurence A., 18, Dundee Yonof Ha's 

Chr. A8S0C., mechanic — ^Arith. (lit) 
848— Crum, John, 21, Glaagow Ath., cleA-Fwtt 

(3d) 
240— Cuffling, Joseph, 23, Alderdiot, vAim-lA 

(1st); Eng. Hist. (3d) 
419— Cundall, Robert T.. 19, HaUlax WJL CaS, 

weaver — Bkpg. (3d) 
887— Cunliffe, WUlium B., 18, Oldham LycesB.^o*' 

keeper— Arith. (2d) 
866 — Cunningham, Alexander, 17, Glasgow Hit P^b 

teacher — Arith. (2d) 
1166— Curtis, John A., 24, Birkbeck lit todSdM 

clerk— Arith. (Ist)^ 
761— Curtis, John A., 24, Tonic Sol-fa Tetch«'A«^ 

clerk- Th. of Music (2d) 
262— Cuthbert James A., 22. Glasgow Asdenn- F^ 

Evg. Cbisses, Uw clerk— Arith. {3d) ; '^^ 

Music (3d) ; Bkpg. (3d) 

101— Dabbs, WilKam A., 19, Birmingbwn vdjj^ 

Inst, analytical chemist — ^Th. of MBsic(»] 
266— Dadswell, George T., 20, Famham YonngMei 

Assoc, clerk — French (2d) 
216— DaUas, James, 17, Dundee Yonng Ma*f (» 

Assoc., apprentice mechanic — Arith. (td) 
1171— Dangerfield, James, 20, Birkbeck Lit mi Sa 

Inst, lithogmpher— Th. of Music (2d) 
697— Davis. Edward J., 23, City of London ColUdtf 

—French (3d) ... 

1168— Davison, Robert T., 23, Birkbeck UtMJ^^ 

Inst., clerk— Bkpg. (1st) 
787— Dawson, Charles, 21, Maiiohester U.U ^^ 

French (3d) „ . . 

263— Dawson, Robert 22, Glasgow Anderstm. Unir. w?' 

Evg. CUssee, letter press printei— Th. of JWB 

(2d) , . 

68*— Dexter, Marv A., 38, Royal Polytsctaio m, 

teacher — German (3d) . -^ 

964^-Diok, James, 22, (Ha^{ow Andersoo. Uur. <^' 

Evg. Classes, tea/clhat^Th. uf H«ie (td) 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, June 13. 1873. 



W6 



4dl'Diekf William, 16, Glasgow M.I., in a warehouse 

—FreDeh (3d) 
5dS~DickBon, John, 31, City of London ColL, book- 
keeper— Bkpg. (lit) 
469— Diion, jHznes, 31, Hull Ch« Itgt., attorney's 

derk— Bksg. (Ut) 
56— Dockerty, William H., 21, Aafahy-de-la-Zooch 

Toimg' Men's Mut. Imp. 6oc., fuioy leather 

finisher — Bkpg. (id) 
A99-Dold«o, Alft«d £., 18, City of London OdiL, 

clerk— Bkpg. (2d) 
6— DimaM, Alexander W., 19, Aberdeen MX, elerk 

Fr«nok(2d) 
MS— Dmnldioa, James, 26, Qlasgow Anderson. Xhuv. 

Fop. Erg. Glasses, warehouseman — Th. of Music 

755— DonkerdsK Joe^ 18, Lo<^cwood M.I., derk — ^Arith. 

(«d) 
514-Doe8or, Robert, 17, HnU Toong People's Chr. 

tnd lit Inst, grocer— Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (td) 
307— Downie, Thomas, 23, Glasgow Ath., clerk — Logic 

(3d) 
14S— Drake, Abraham M., 16, Bradford ML, over- 

looker-Arith. (2d) 
442>Draper, Charles H., 16, Hertford Lit and Sci. 

Inst, pttpfl teacher — Logic (2d) 
80i— Drydeo, Andrew, 21, Manchester M.I., clerk — 

Arith. (2d) 
903-I)aff; David K., 17, Parsonstown Young Men's 

Ohr. Assoc., draper's asaistant — Arith. (3d) 
lOeS-Daffill, Sarah £., 16, York Inst (no occupation 

•lated)— Th. of Music (Ist) 
213— Doke, George, 21, Dundee Toung Men's Chr. 

Aaoc. dark^Arith. (2d) 
319— Donbar, Robert M., 21, GLisgow Ath., warehouse- 

man^-Frsnoh (2d) 
199— Dtmcan, William G., 41, Dundee Toung Men's 

Chr. Assoc*, grocer — Arith. (2d) 
lOSe-Dann. George, 23, Watford Public Library, clerk 

—French (3d) 
W2-Dan«tan, WUliam, 18, Salford W.M. Coll., clerk 

—Bkpg. (let) 
749-Dyer. Frederick, 20, Tonic SoUfti Teachers' 

Aisoe;, ohMir maker — Th. of Music (8d) 

SM— Eadie, John, 16, GUsgow M.I., warehouse ap- 
prentice — Arith. {3d) 
MO-£ardIey, Edward L., 21, City of London Coll., 

dvil serrioe writer — Logic (3rd) ; Eng. Hist 

(2d) ; Bng. Lang, (let) 
S09»EaiM>n, William, 19> Dundee Toung Men's Chr. 

Aisoc., clerk— (Arith. (1st.) 
41— Baston, Da;vid, 23, Aberdeen M.I., clerk— French 

(l»t) 
TS-^Bden, Thomas, 10, Ashford M.I., fitter*a^>rentioe 

—Arith. (3d) 
l^i^Bdffoose, Luciua P., 17, Tork Inst., (no ocoapa- 

Uon)— Th. of Music (2d) 
Uf^-^duModa, Andrew T., 18, Pensance, p«pil tewdier 

—Arith. (let) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
Ifl3-£daoad% Edward, 22, Birmingham and Mid. 

Inst, derk Spanish (1st), with the first prise 

of £5 ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
Ufii^-^dmoods, ^^uuxi, 43, Btrkbeok Lit and 8ei. 

Inat, engineer — ^Th. of Music (2d) 
iJMfidwards, John, 22, Bacnp M.I., carder— Arith. 

(3d) 
1001— Edwards, Joseph J., 23, Swindon M.I., derk— 

Bkpg. (let), with the second prise of £3 
^liS^-Gsde, Henry, 24, Birkbeck Lit and 6oL Inst, 

BoUcitor's deik— Pel Eoon, (2d) 
fO-Em, WiBiam M., 20, LiverpMH Inst, derb— 

l86-^«ii^ Bsojamin, 18, Stockport Snnd. Boh. 

Imp. Soc, hatter— Arith. (dd) 
TT^EdMbOs, Peter, 16, Manohestof MX, ottoe4x>y, 

Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (1st) 



1101— Essex, Benjamin S., 19, Biritbeck Lit and 8d. . 

Inst, derk — Bkpg. (1st) 
2 — ^Esson, James, 18, Aberdeen M.I., warehouseman 

—Arith. (3d) 
1036— Evans, Alice, 27, Walworth Lit and Sci. Inst, 

schoolsoistress— German (3d) 
66— Eyans, Edward C, 16, Ashford M.I., pupil- 

teachei^-Arith. (1st) ; Prencb (1st) 
1100— Evans, William, 19, Birkbeck Lit and Sci. Inst., 

stamper — ^Ari^. (Sd) 
1178— Everitt, PhiUp, 23, Birkbedt Lit and Sd. Inst, 

derk— Pd. Eoon. (2d) 

266— Fairley, William, 22, Glasgow Anderson. Univ. 

Pop. Evg. Classes, warehouseman — Th. of 

Music (2^ 
731— Falconer, William, 22, St Stephen's Evg. Sch., 

Westminster, gardener — Floriculture ( 1st), with 

tiie first prise of £6 ; Fruit and Yeg. Culture 

(1st), with the second prise of £3 
67 — Fannery Georae, 21, Adiby-de-la-Zouoh Tonns 

Men's Mut Imp. See., bookkeeper — Bkpg. (2d} 
134— Famworth, Sli, 20, Bdton Gh. Last, packer— 

Arith. (2d) 
204 — ^Farquhar, James, 27, Dundee Toung Men's Chr. 

Assoc, pattern maker— Arith. (2a) 
860 Farquhar, James, 26, Glasgow M.I., joiner— Bkpg. 

(2d) 
092— Farrdl, Robert H., 18, Stockport Sund. Sch. Imp. 

8oc., clerk — Arith. (3d) 
467 — Feather, Frederick, 21, HaHfox M.L, wardionse- 

man — Arith. (3d) 
602r-*Fish, WiDiam D., 20, at^ of London Coll., 

derk — ^Pol. Econ. (1st), with a prise of books 

to the value of £1 ; Eng. Lang, (let), with the 

second pri^e of £8 
1109— Flegg, Robert, 22, Birkbeck Lit and Sd. Inst, 

book-keeper— Arith. (2d); Eng. Hist (2d); 

Bng, Lang. (3d) 
1163-^Flegg, Thomaa, 17. Birkbeck Lit and Sci. Inst, 

derk— Arith. (2d) 
508— Flowers, Frederick, 22, Hull Toung People's Chr. 

and Lit Inst, muaic-seller's asaistant — Bkpg. 

(2d) 
20 — ^IVirbes, Alexander, 21, Aberdeen M.I., derk— 

Arith^2d) 
237— ^Forde, William, 17, Aldershot, assistant armorer 

—Arith. (let) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
422— Fossard, Alfred, 37, HiJilax W.M. Coll., ware- 
houseman — Bkpg. (2d) 
612— Fostw, Alfred, 19, Hull Toung People's Chr. and 

Lit. Inst, derk— Bkpg. (2d) 
703^Eoeard, Catherine, 27, R^l Polytechnic Inst 

(no occupation stated) — French (3d) 
489 — Frear, John R., 18, Hull Toung People's Chr. and 

Lit. Inat., brass finisher — Arith. (3d) 
241— French, Frederick, 22, Aldershot, lance corporal 

—Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Hiat (3d) 
732— Fnlkes, George J., 18, St Stephen's Evg. Sch., 

WeHtminster, pupil teacher— Eng. Hist (2d) ; 

Eug. Lang. (3d) 

1009— Garrett, John H., 16, Swindon M.L, pattern 

makei^Th. of Music (3d) 
636— Garrod, Philander N., 17, Ipswich W.M. ColL, 

derit— Bkpff. (2d) 
1106— Gates, John W., 23, Birkbeck Lit and Sd. 

Inst, salesman of woven goods— German (2d) ; 

French (2d) 
604— Gattke, Charles T., 18, City of London Coll., derk 

—French (3d) 
404— Gankzoger, Samod, 17, Hsliiaa: M.I., deric— 

Eng. Hist (2d) 
a6L— GemmaU, Robert 8^ 26, Mandiester M.L, 

stationer's asristant— Bkpg. (lst> 

, Alexander, 19, Manchester M.L, dranghts- 

man— Logic (1st), with the first price of £6 ; 



676 



JOUBNAL OP THE 800IETY OF ARTS, Jtob 13, 1873. 



atr 



Eng. Hiflt. (2d) ; Pol. Econ. (Ist), with a prize 
of books to the valne of £1 ; Eng. Lang. (Ist) 

dS8— Gibson, Charles, 28, Kendal Chr. and Lit. Inst, 
accountant — Aiith. (3d) 

203~Qla8sford, Walter P., 18, Dundee Yoong Men's 
Chr. Assoc., mechanic — Ari^. (dd) 

469—Gleadow, Robert, 19, Hull Gh. Inst., derk^ 
Bkpg. (1st) 

341— Gloag, Matthew, 22, Glasgow Ath., clerk- 
German (2d) ; French (2d) 
1164— Godard, John G., 21, Birkbeck Lit and Soi. Inst, 
derk— Arith. (3d) ; French (2d) ; Eng. Lang. 
(2d) 

186^Godfrey, Amy, 21, Derby M.I., gOTemess— Eng. 
HiBt. (3d) ; French (3dj 

852— Goodfellow, James, 19, Manchester M J., sales- 
man — Bkpg. (Ist) 

540— Gordon, Alfred R., 16, Kendal Chr. and Lit. Inst., 
pupil teacher — AriUi. (3d) 

546— Gordon, John, 18, Leeds Ch. Inst., derk— French 
(2d) 

371— Gordon, John, 17, Glasgow M.I., tobacconist— 
Arith. (3d) 

193 — Grant, Emilie B., 16, Deronport M.I. (no occu- 
pation stated)— Arith. (2d) ; Th. of Music (1st) 

829— Gratrix, Timothy, 21, Manchester M.L, derk— 
Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (1st) 

336 — Gray, James. 21, Glasgow Ath., warehouseman — 



381 — ^Hamilton, Robert H., 18, Glasgow HI., con. 

positor— Eng. Ijuag. (3d) 
951— Hampson, Thomas, 20, SalfoidW.H. CoH.deii 

—Arith. (3d) 
631— JIancock, Arthur E., 19, Ipswidi WX CoE, 

derk— Bkpg (2d) 
946— Hancock, LiUias, 16, Salford W.H. C(Jl, popl 



teacher — Arith. j(2d) 
607— Haines, Charles F., 25, 



City of London OoH, 



364— Gray, James, 17, Glasgow M.L, stationer^s assist- 
ant— Eng. Lang. (3d) 
504— Gray, John, 26, Hull Young People's Chr. and 



Lit Inst., gardener — ^Floriculture (2d) 

202— Gray, William, 24, Dundee Young Men's Chr. 
Ajbsoc, mill overseer— Eng. Lang. (3d) 

1211— Green, Henry, 18, Leicester W.M. Coll., engi- 
neer— Arith. (3d) ; English. Lang. (3d) 
70— Green, John W., 16, Ashford M.L, railway 
accountant's derk^Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (2d) 

816— Green, William E., 23, Manchester M.I., watch- 
maker — Eng. Lang. (3d) 

915— Griffiths, David G., 17, Pembroke DockM.L, pupil 
teacher — ^Eng. Lang. (2d) 

606— Grigg, WiUiam J., 19, CJity of London Coll., short- 
hand derk— Th. of Music (1st) 

730— Grills, Francis J., 24, St. Stephen's Evg. Sch., 
Westminster, porter^ Arith. (3d) 

841— Grimes, John, 24, Manchester M.L, clerk— 
Bkpg. (2d) 

155— Grundy, 'Thomas, 19, Carlisle M.L, derk- Arith. 
(3d) 

888— Guihnette, Stanley, 20, Manchester M.I., derk— 
Bkpg. (let) 

947— Gyte, George, 18, Salfoid W.M. Coll., derk— 
Bkpg. (1st) 

106— Haden, (diaries, 32, Birmingham and Mid. Inst, 

cashier — Bkpg. (3d) 
970— Hadfidd, Levi B., 19, Stockport M.L, waxdiouse- 

man — Bkpg. (3d) 
974— Hadfield, Walter, 16, Stockport M.I., derk— 

Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (Sd) 
884 — ^Hague, Charles, 21, Oldham Lyceum, weaver— 

Arith. (3d) 
161— Hall, Jtseph, 19, Carlisle M.L, derk— Arith. 

(2d) 
620— Hall, Thomas N., 22, Hull Young People's Chr. 

and Lit Inst, derk— Bkpg. (2d) 
1141— Hallam, John, 22, Birkbeck I^t and Sd. Inst, 

clerk— Pol. Econ. (2d) 
832— HalUwell, Francis T., 20, Manchester M.L, time- 
keeper— Bkpg. (1st) 
1043— Hallworth, John, 18, Watford Public library. 

clerk— Arith. (8d) ^ 

81— Hamer, Ralph T., 21, BaoupM.I., warpei^Arith. 
(3d) 



derk— Bkpg. (Ist) 
1125— Harbour, Thomas, 25, Birkbeck Lit nd Sd 

Inst, music compositor— Th. of Muse (lit] 
815— Hardie, F. W., 20, Ghisgow Ath., derk-fipiiflA 

(1st) 
495— Hardmg, John S. M., 20, Hull Touoff Pec^'i 

Cbr. and Lit Inst, derk— Arith. (2d) 
694 — Hording, Marie, 31, Royal Polytedmk Iiut, 

teacher — German (2d) 
945— Hardman, John, 21, Salford WJI. (^.joiDer, 

Arith. (3d) 
1173— Hardy, Fanny M., 23, Birkbeck lit. ud Sd 

Inst, derk— Bkre. (2d) 
1121— Harman, Henrv, 19, Birkbeck lit and Sd. loit, 

derk— French (3d) 
543— Harper, John, 21, King's Lymi Ath, ckV- 

Bkpg. (2d) 
739— Harte, John, 21, St. Stephen's E^g. ScL Wat- 
minster, derk— Arith. (2d) 
811— Hartley, Henry, 25, Mandieater H J., waiehfiiK- 

man— French (3d) 
609— Harrold, Henry, 19, City of London ColL, deA- 

Bkpg. (3d) 
610— Harrold, John, 17, City of London CoD,ckd- 

Bkpg. (1st) 
522— Harrison, Joseph, 19, Hyde MJ., e»gin«i- 

Arith (1st) 
470— Harrison, Joseph L., 28, Hull Gh. lost, asstnt* 

overseer — Bkpg. (let) 
882— Harrison, William G., 21, NewcssUe-oo-litt 

Ch. Inst, teacher — French (Sd) 
612— Harvey, Francis, 33, City of London CoIL, d«k 

-Btpg. (2d) 



918 — ^Harvey, George, 16, Penzance, pupil teichcr- 
th ~ ~ 

6V 

Bkpgl(2d) 



Arith (Ist) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) " 
613— Harvey, Thomas, 23, City of Land< 




anCoHiCltA 



115a-Harvey, William A., 19, Birkbeck lit and So. 
Inst., Civil Service Writei^Eng. Lwg. (ii) 
1169— Haselden, WiUiam H., 20, Birkbeck lit itdSa 

Inst, shorthand writer— Th. of Music. (3d) 
1076— Hatton, John, 21, Bolton M.I., piecer-Arith. («^ 
507— Hajr, William, 25, Hull Young Peoplo'8 a «oi 

lit. Inst., clerk — Bkpg. ^IstY 
890— Hayes, Thomas, 22, Oldham Lyceoia, mecboie 
—Arith. (2d) 
75— Hayward, Waiiam, 30, Aahfotd H J^ tiikr- 
French (2d) 
11 14— Healev, George, 19, Birkbeck lit and 6d lo^ 

derk— French (3d) ; Bkjw. (Ist) 
614— Henderson, John D., 19, City of Loodco OdIL, 
(no occupation stated)— Arith. (2d); EogUog. 
(3d) 
1207— Henderson, Robert, 30, Bow and Bromlex latt, 

carpenter — Bkpg. (3d) 

784— Hendre, Francis H., 28, St Stepben'i Erg. Sdh 

Westminster, derk— German M) ; Freoek {«) 

1191— Hepworth, Norris R., 16, Leeds Yonnf )fca'» 

Chr. Assoc, derk— Arith. (2d) 

104— Herbert, Joeiah, 17, Birmingham and Hid.Ia^ 

pupil teacher — ^Frendi (3d) 
877— Hewitt, James, 19, Newcasile-on-Tyne Cfc.In^ 



gardener— Arith. (3d) 
[^hurst, Phineas, 2^ 
Eng. Lanff. (3d) 



411— H^hurst, Phineas, 2^ HaUfaz H.Lr joiitf^ 



547— Hicks, Frederick, 25» Leeds Ch, In«L, ek*- 
Bkpg. (3d) 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juki 13, 1873. 577 



1190— Higgins, Alfred, 17, Leeds Yoang Men*s Chr. 

Assoc., book-keeper — Arith. C^d) 
133 — Higginaon, John, 19, Bolton Gh. Inst, maker up 

—Arith. (3d) 
828 — Hiji^ham, Sydney, 26, Manchester M.I., cashier — 

Bkpg. (Ist) 
1106 — Higson, John, 22, Birkbeck Lit. and Sci. Inst., 

clerk— Bki^. (1st) 
615— Hill, Arthur, 19, City of London Coll., clerk— 

Eng. Hist. (2d) ; and the third prize of £2 for 

Handwriting. 
109 — Hill, Elizabeth, 81, Birmingham and Mid. List, 

governess — ^Eng. Lang. (2d) 
1110— Hill, George J., 16, Birkbeck Lit. and Sci. Inst., 

clerk— Arith. (2d); Eng. Hist (2d); Eng. 

Lang. (2d) 
330— Hill, Heniy, 18, Glasgow Ath., derk— Spanish 

(Ist), with the second prize of £3 ; French (2d) : 

Italian (2d) 
675 • — Hill, Henry A., 20, Liverpool Inst, engineer — 

Arith. (3d) 
1174— Hind, Charles, 41, Birkbeck Lit and Sd. Init, 

warehouseman — Pol. Econ. (3d) 
423— Hindle, Charles B., 18, Halifax W.M. ColL, 

cotton worker — Bkpg. (3d) 
996 — ^Hiads, James, 16, Stourbridge Associated Insti- 

tntes, solicitor's clerk — AriUi. (3d) 
616 — ^Hislop, Edwuxl, 20, City of London Coll.. 

jeweller— ITi. of Music (td) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
617 — Hockley, Harry, 18, City of London Coll., clerk 

-Bkpg. (3d) 
998— HoBeld, John T., 24, Swindon M.I., derk— Th. 

of Music (Ist) 
189— Holbrook, George W. H., 19, Dudley M.I., pi^ol 

teacher — Ariw. (2d) 
939— Holden, Joseph, 18, Salford W.M. Coll., clerk— 

Arith. (3d} 
864 — HoUing worth, James E., 16, Mossley M.I., ootton 

piecer — Bkpff. (3d) 
84iS — HoUing worth, Kobert H., 17, Manchester M.L, 

clerk— Bkpg. (Ut) 
699 — Holmes, Marian J., 21, Boyal Polvtechnic Inst, 

(no occupation stated) — French (3d) 
893 — ^Holmes, Matthew, 25, Paisley Artisans' Inst, 

pattern maker — ^Th. of Music (21) 
944 — Homer, Eliza M., 19, Salford W.M. CoIL, pnpU- 

teacher— Arith. (3dJ 
)64 — ^Horner, John J., 16, Salford W.M. CoQ., appren- 
tice draughtsman — Arith. (3d) 
LOS — Hood, Joseph, 29, Birminghum and Mid. Inst, 

clerk— Arith. f2d) 
174 — Hope, Thomas, 21, Carlisle M.L, book-keeper — 

Arith. (3d) 
^18 — Homer« Benjamin, 17, City of London Coll., clerk 

—Arith. (1st) ; Eng. Hist (Zd) ; Bkpg. (Ist) 
93 — ^Horsfiill, John, 16, Bacup M.I., jobber — Anth. 

45 — Horafleld, George, 32, HitchenM.I., clerk— Bkpg. 

(1st) 
19 — Hoiking, Edwin W. G., 17, Penzance, pupil 

teacher — Arith. (1st) ; Eng. Lnng. (3d) 
r9 — ^Howarth, John, 28, Chorley M.L, clerk — Bkpg. 

(2d) 
>S — Howat, Pavid, 29, Glas^w Anderson. Univ. Pop. 

Evg. Classes compositor — Th. of Music (2d) 
\7 — Howie, Robert, 19, Carlisle M.L, solicitor's clerk 

—Arith. (2d) 
({>— Howies, John, 18, Manchester M.I., clerk — Arith. 

(3d) ; Bl™. (1st} 
^O^'Ho worth, Benjamm, 19, Liverpool Inst, ac- 
countant — PoL Boon. (3d) 



oyle, Isaac H., 17, Bocup M.I., warehouseman, 

Arith. r3^ 
'Hudson, Lewis, 17, City of London Coll., dark— 

Arith. (3dJ • 

'Hudson, wuliam G., 20, ManohMter M^L^ ware- 

honseman — Bkpg. (2d) 



713— Hughes, George C, 18, Royal Polytechnic Inst, 

clerk— Eng. Lang. (2<i) 
773 — ^Hughes, Joseph 8., 24, Manchester M.L, derk — 

Bkpg. (Ut) 
620— Hughson, John G., 24, City of London ColL, 

clerk— Bkpg. (1st) 
185— Hullett, CtM^ilitt M., 25, Derby M.L, governess— 

Eng. Hist (2d) 
108 — Hulme, Josiah, 19, Birmingham and Mid. Inst, 

clerk— Arith. (Ut) ; Eng. hist. (Ut) 
768 — Hunter, Henr^ J., 18, Manchester M.L, appren- 
tice methamc — Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Hist (3d) 
269 — Hunter. John, 19, Glasgow Anderson. Univ. Fop. 

Evg. Classes, pawnbrokers* assistant — ^Arith.(2a) 
306 — Hunter, Peter, 22, Glasgow Ath., chemist — Logic 

(3d) 
26 — ^Hunter, Stephen, 19, Aberdeen M.L, clerk — Eng. 

Lang. (3d) 
60 — Hunter, William, 27, Arbroath Local Board, 

engine*fitter — Th. of Music (Ut) 
621 — Huntley, Frederic A., 18, City of London Coll., 

engineers' draughtsnuin— Arith. (3d) ; and the 

third prize of £1 for Writing and Manuscript 

Printing. 
843— Husband, William D., 20, Glasgow Ath., derk— 

French (3d) 
566— Hyatt Edwaxd S., 18, Liverpool Inst., derk — ^Th. 

of Music (1st) 

69-*Illsley, Hiram, 24, Ashby-de-la-Zouch Young 
Men's Mut Imp. Soc., coachbuilder — ^Bkpg. 
(3d) 

789— Ingham, John, 22, Manchester M.L, clerk — 
Arith. (2d) 

311 — ^Ingram, George, 24, Glasgow Ath., book-keeper 
—Logic (2d) 

687 — ^Inkster, Ajinie, 16, Royal Polytechnic Inst., 
pupil teacher — Arith. (3J) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 

622— Irwin, William, 21, City of London Coll., clerk- 
Pol. Econ. (3d) 

623— Jackson, Charles W. B., 24, City of London ColL, 

warehouseman — Bkpg. (2d) 
783 — Jackson, John R., 20, Manchester M.L, derk — 

Arith. (1st) 
110 — ^Jackson, Lilly D., 16, Birmingham and Mid. 

Inst., P^pil teacher — Eng. Lang. (3d) 
145 — Jackson, Thomas R., 18, Bradford M.L, attorney's 
clerk— Eng. Lang. (2d) 
1033— James, Job, 22, WulsuU Ch. Inst, clerk— Arith. 

(3d) ; Bkpg. (3d) 
301 — James, Robert 16, Glasgow M.I. (no occupation 

stated)— Eng. Lang. (3dj 
1074 — James, Welsh, 24, Bolton M.I., certificated teacher 
—Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Hist. (2d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
1010 — Jerman, Hugh, 36. Thirsk M.L, schoolmaster — 

Th. of Music (1st) 
1206 — Jerwood, Walter, 22, Bow and Bromley Inst., 

clerk— Arith. (3d) 
624 — Jewell, Thomas O., 31, City of London Coll., 

warehouseman — Bkpg. (1st) 
689 — Johnson, Henry J., 17, Roysd, Polytechnic Inst, 

clerk — Eng. Lang. (3d) 
988— Johnson, James H., 17, Stockport Sunday Soh. 

Imp. Soc, mechanic's apprentice — Arith. (3d) 
111 — Johnson, Marion, 23, Birmingham and Mid. Inst, 

teacher — French (Ut) 
511— Johnston, George G., 20, Hull Young People's 

Chr. and Lit. Inst, derk- Bkpg. (1st) 
1087 — Johnston, James, 19, Bolton M.L, warehouseman 

—Arith. /3d) 
1078 — Johnston, Thomas, 20, Bolton M.L, millwright 

pattern maker— Arith. (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
827— Johnstone, James, 1^, Glasgow Ath., clerk— 

Fren h (3d) 
576 — Jones, William, 26, Liverpool Inst., carpenter and 
joiner— Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (3d) 



678 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jonb 13, 187S, 



496--Jone8, W. H., 16, Hall Toimg People's Chr. and 
Lit. iDst., joiner's apprentice — Arith. (3d) 

477— Jadge, Robert W., 33» Hull Ch. Inst, olerk— 
Bkpg. (Ist) 

957— Kay, William, 18, Salford W.M. CoD., saddler— 

Arith. (3d) 
248— Keay, Patrick, 34, Aldershot, soldier— Arith. (2d) 
636— Kedgley, Robert W., 17, Ipswich W.M. ColL, 

bi^er— Bkpg. (2d) 
68 — Keene, James G., 18, Ashford M.L, railway 

accountant's clerk — Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (3d) 
462— Keightley, John N., 16, Hull Ch. Inst, dork- 

Bkpg. (l8t) 
626 — Kelley, Frank, 17, City of London ColL, clerk— 

Bkpg. (2d) 
334 — Kellock, Alexander, 20, Glasgow Ath., derk — 

French (3d) 
368 — Eellock, James, 16, Glasgow M.I., derk— Arith. 

(3d) 
1193— Eelsey, Walter S., 18, Leeds Young Men's Chr. 

Assoc., in woollen manufactory — ^German (2d^ 
627— Kendrick, George E., 22, City of London Coll., 

clerk— Bkpg. (1st) 
621— Kenny, Thomas, 20, MydeM.1., clerk— Arith. (2d) ; 

Eng. Lang. (2d) 
844 — Kenyon, Matthew H., 22, Manchester M.L, ware- 
houseman — Bkpg. (1st) 
628— Ker, William R., 20, City of London ColL, derk 

—Eng. Hist (2d) ; Pol. Econ. (2d) ; Bkpg. (2d) 
698— Kettle, Charles E., 39, Royal Polytechnic Inst, 

dvil service derk — Th. of Music (Ist) 
211 — Kidd, James, 18j Dundee Young Men's Chr. 

Assoc., mpchamc — Arith. (2d) 
4 — Kilgour, William, 16, Aberdeen M.I., derk — 

French (3d) 
738— Kin^;, Henry, 18, St Stephen's Evg. Sch., West- 

mmster, carpenter — Arith. (2d) 
60 — ELing, John P., 24, Ashby-de-la-Zouch Young 

Men's Mut Imp. Soc, solidtor*s derk — Bkpg. 

206— Kyd, jDavid R., 22, Dundee Young Men's Chr. 
Assoc., derk— Arith. (Ist) ; Eng. Hist (3d) : 
Bkpg. (3d) 

1066— Lake, Edward, 19, York Inst, derk— Eng. Hist 

(3d) 
696— Lamb, Emily A., 32, Royal Polytechnic Inst, 

teacher — German (2d) 
629— Lambert, Francis, 27, Cfity of London ColL, derk 

—Bkpg. (1st) 
169 — Lambert John, 16, Carlisle M.I. (no occupation) 

—Arith. (2d) 
630— Lambert Richard, 20, City of London Coll., derk 

—Bkpg. (Ist) 
88— Lancaster, James H., 16, Bacup M.L, mule-piecer 

—Arith. (3d) 
76— Langley, George R., 17, Ashford M.I., general 

mcrcnant— Bkpg. (1st) 
1024— Latham, Edward, 18, Wakefield M.L, stone- 
mason— Arith. (3(i) 
178 — Lattimer, Margaret B., 16, Carlisle M.L. assistant 

teacher— Anth. (Ist) ; Eng. Hist (2d) ; French 

(3d) ; Eng. Lang. (Ist) 
360 — ^Laurence, John, 27, Glasgow Ath., teadier — 

German (3d) 
424— Lawrence, Frank, 18, Halifax W.M. Coll., assistant 

broker— Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (3.i) 
1116 — Lawrence, Julia, 19, BirkWk Lit and Sci. Inst 

(no occupation stated)— Bkpg. (1st), with the 

prize of £2 for females 
634— Laws, Frederick J., 17, Ipswich W.M. ColL, derk 

—Bkpg. (1st) 
1146— Laws, Henry A., 22, Birkbeck Lit and ScL Inst, 

bookbinder— Th. of Music (1st) 
867— Lawton, Fred, 22, Mossley M.L, minder— Bkpg. 



894— Lee, Charies H., 21, Paisley Axtinas' Iiiit,ded 

—Arith. (1st) 
767— Lee, Fred, 17, Lockwood M.L, derk-Arith. (3dj 
631— Lee, William H., 20, City of London CoH, chit 

servioe writer — ^Arith. (2d); Eng. HiiL (la); 

Bkw. (3d) 
632— Le Maistre, Alfred J., 21, Oty of Londa GoO, 

derk- French (3d) 
646 — ^Lemmon, Charles H., 18, King's Lpn AtL, 

clerk— Bkpg. (2d) 
1142— Lichtenstein, Maunce, 17, Birkbeck LiiiDdScL 

Inst (no occupation) — Arith. (2d] 
270 — Lillie, John, 25, Glasgow Andereon. Unit. Pop. 

Evg. Classes, derk— Th. of Music (IM) 
47— Lindsay, Adam, 27, Arbroath Local Boiiiflix. 

mill overseer — Th. of Music ^2d] 
27 1 — Lindsay, James, 23, Glasgow Andereon. Unir. Pop. 

Evg. Classes, clerk— Th. of Moaic (2d) 
644— Lindsey, John T., 27, King's Lynn Aa,io&itar'i 

clerk— Bkpg. (1st) 
472— Littlewood, Ernest C, 18, Hdl Ch. bit, look- 

seller's apprentice — German (3d) 
641— Littlewood, Joseph, 17, Kendal Chr. a&i Lit 

Inst, derk — ^Arith. (1st) 
160— Uoyd, Thomas R., 17, Carlisle M.L (nooccnpi- 

tion)— Arith. (2d) 
32 — Lobban, Mumret, 18, Aberdeen M.L, gortfoes 

—French (2d) 
847— Lockhart John, 22, Manchester M.I., wefcoo*- 

man — Bkpg. (1st) 
1002— Lockyer, Oliver, 21, Swindon M.L, dak- 

406— Lodge, Alfred, 24, HaH6uLM.L,gardfln«-Aii4. 

(3d) 
84— Lomax, Zeno, 17, Bacup M.L, pupil tenier- 

Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
634— Long, Alfred, 16, City of London Coll., o&n 

boy— Arith. (3d) 
143— Long^ George, 19, Bradford M.I., warp dw«^- 

968— Lonffshaw, Thomas, 22. Salford W.M. Ool, 

roller ooverer — ^Arith. (3d) 
173— Lord, Alfred, 19, Carlisle ML clerfr-Bkpf.,1i 
49— Lorimer, James, 33, Arbroath Local BoMd,«jai 

fitter— Th. of Music (2d) 
112— Lowe, Jane R., 19, Birmingham and Mid. i» 

(no occupation stated) — Bog. Lang. (**i.^ 
266^-Lyford, Henry, 24, ALiershot, gunner-fi** 

426— Lynch, Robert, 19, Halifax W.M. ColL, •«> 

sizer — Eng. Lang. (3d) 
308— McAlpine, John, 22, Ghisgow Ath., wawiio*' 

man — Bkpg. (2d) , 

896— McArthnr, Angus, 34, Paisley Artiow 1b*» 

weaver's foreman— Th. of Music (3d) 
8— McBain, James, 23, Aberdeen M-L, M«7 

operatiTo — ^Eng. Lang. (8d) , . 

668— McCay, Thomas C. N., 19, liyapool laiti tax 

—Eng. Lang. (2d) , , , 

1018— McConnell, John, 24, Wakefield MX, cW' 

Arith. (Ist) ,^. 

820— McCrindalo, James, 17, Glasgow Ath., cW- 

Arith. (3d) , ^^ 

870— McDevitt, Patrick, 18, GUagow M.I., boot»» 

—Arith. (3d) ^ _. 

323— McEwan, John, 17, Glasgow Ath., derk-W* 

(3d) , , V 

12— M»Hardy, Charles, 28, Abaideen MJ. d**- 

—Arith. (1st) . ^ jf^ 

247— Mack. Henry, 22, Aldershot, soldiff-En^ B» 

(3d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) , - ,. 

274— McKay, Alexander, 37, Glaigow Andwwj t o^ 

Tod, Eyg. Cksses, cloth Upper-TL of M«* 

610— McKay, George P., 19, HuU Toang Vto^ 
Chr. and Lit IniL, Gtil Serw ^^^^^ 
Bkpg. (2d) 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jonb 13, 18^i3 



679 



Hi— Haeken, Aiihnr, 17, Pembroke Dock M.I., popil 

teacher — Eng. Lang. (2d) 
•6— McKensie, Duocan, 25, Glasgow M.I^ derk — 
' Eng. Lang. (3d) 

116— McKeiuDe, Heniy, 23, Richmond Parochial 

Library, gardener — floriculture (3d); Fruit 

.andVeg. Caltaro{3d) 
!7^McKinIaT, James, 25, Glasgow Anderson. Uniy. 

Pop. ATg. Classes, hand-mill warper — Th. of 



MQiic(2d) 
tm-HcUmey, Robert, 28, Birkbeck Lit and Sd. 

Imt, clerk— Arith. (Ist) ; French (3d) 
S8— McLean, Cteorge, 30, Aberdeen M.I., derk — 

Bkpg. (let) 
llf— McMenao, William, 25, Glasgow Ath., clerk — 

French (Ist^ 
M^S— McMillan, Jonn, 18, Manchester M.I., derk — 

Arith. Ost) ; Bkpg. (1st) 
17&~McNabb, Hugh, 30, Glasgow Anderson. Uniy. Pop. 

E?g. Classes, musicsalesman — Th. of Music (Ist) 
314— Mtcnair, Andrew, 18, Glasgow Ath., clerk — 

French (3d) 
S39-McNtught, Alexander R., 21, Glasgow Ath., 

derk-^Frencb (3d) 
a72— McNeill, Arthur, 23, Liyerpool Inst., derk — 

Ariih.(3d) 
21S-McNiooll, Charles, 18, Dundee Young Men's 



Gh. Aasoc., apprentice derk — Arith. (2d) 
;97-Msadera, John W., 17, Manchester M.I., 



ware- 



hotttonan — French (3d) 

>, Stou 



^d^MiIpass, Arthur, 16, Stourbridge Associated In- 

stitatea. derk— Arith. (2d) 
871— Mirland, James E., 18, Mossley M.I., cotton weayer 

-Bkwf. (2d) 
171— Mant, William G., 18, Carlisle M.I. (no occupa- 

Uon)- Arith. (Irt) 
UM-Manhkn, Charles U., 17, Wakefidd M.I., derk— 

Arith. (8d) ; Bkpg. (8d) 
lie-Mirshall, Jamea T., 17, Haliiax W.M. Coll., in a 

vtrehouse— Bkpg. (3d) 
554-Maison, Thomas, 21, Licbfidd W.M. Assoc., 

gardener— French (2d) ; Th. of Music (2d) 
tt^-Maitin, Arthur J., 19, City of London ColL, 

warehooseman — Bkpg. (Ist) 
S2— Muiin, George, 19, Dundee Young Men's Chr. 

Asmm:., draper's assistant — Arith. (3d) 
49»-Maitin, John, 25, Hull Young People's Chr. and 

Lit Inst., clerk — G^erman (Ist), with the first 

prissof £5. 
U61-Martin, Mary E., 24, Birkbeck Lit. and Sd. Inst. 

(no occupation stated) — French (2d) 
M^Uuon, Joseph, 20, Hull Young People's Chr. and 

Lit Inst, gardener^— Fruit andVeg. Culture (3d) 
«T-May, William, 23, City of London ColL, derk— 

Spanish (3d) ; French (3d) 
»7-Mear8, Williain B., 17, Manchester M.I., pupil 

teacher— Arith. (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
762— Uellor, Jamea, 31, Manchester M.I., certificated 

teacher — French (3d) 
««-Merrill, Richard, 18, Salford W.M. ColL, derk— 

3^Ueston, WilUam, 23, Aberdeen M.I., book-keeper 

— PoL Econ. (2d) 
W7-Metcalfe, George H., 20, Hull Ch. Inst, derk— 

^(^-Metherdl, Samuel J., 19, Deyonport M.L, 

sdidt<n^B derk— Arith. (1st) 
W8— Mflboum, John G., 43, City of London Coll., 

cooper— Arith. (3d) 
402~Mil]ar, George J., 16, Glasgow M.I., mining 

engineer — ^Arith. (3d) 
tt»-Millar, James H., 31, Cfity of London Coll., derk 
^ —Bkpg. (1st) 
»»-Miller, Samud G., 20, Aldershot, soldier— Arith. 

(2d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
'»-"Mills, Thomas G., 22, Manchester M.I., dranghts- 

aan— Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 



277 — Milne, Alexander, 24, Glasgow Anderson. Uniy. 

Pop. Eyg. Classes, derk— Bkpg. (2d) 
557 — Milne, John H., 21, Liyerpool Inst, artided 

clerk — Logic (2d) ; Eng. Ltng. (2d) 
427— Mihier, Famell, 17, Halifax W.M. CoU., iron and 

tin-plate worker — Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
278 — ^MitcheU, James, 21, Glasgow AndersonTuniy. 

Pop. Evg. Classes, warehouseman — ^Th. of 

Music (2d) 
519— Mobbs, Richard, 22, Hull Young People's Chr. 

and Lit. Inst, derk — Bkpg. fist) 
842— Mona^han, WiUiam, 21, Manchester M.L, 

stationer — Bkpg. (2d) 
113 — Monk, Hayilah, 22, Birmingham and Mid. Inst., 

clerk— Eng. Lang. (3d) 
746 — ^Moody, Richard A., 29, Tonio Sol-fa Teachers' 

Assoc., paper stainer — ^Th. of Music (3d) 
166— Moore, Thomas, 21, Carlisle M.I. (no occupation) 

—Arith. (3d) 
451— Moore, Thomas H., 16, Huddersfidd M.L, 

attorney's clerk — Arith. (2d) ; French (3d) ; 

Eng. Jjnug, (Ist) 
842— Morgan, Henry, 22, Glasgow Ath., derk— Arith. 

(Ist) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
1080— Morgan, Johii, 18, Bolton M.L, artided clerk— 

Eng. Hist (3d) 
714— Morse, Rosa E. S., 27, Royal Polytechnic Inst., 

goyemeas— German (3d) ; Frendi, (3d) 
830 — Morton, William, 18, Manchester M.I., warehouse- 
man— (Bkpg, (1st) 
641 — Moeey, James i., 16, City of London Coll., derk 

—Arith. (2d) 
642— Moeey, Philip S., 24, aty of London CoU., derk 

—Arith. (2d) 
802— Mott, Henry, 20, Manchester M.L, derk— Eng. 

Hist. (2df ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
643— Mountjoy, Richard A., 30, City of London Coll., 

derk — Eng. Lang. (1st) 
153 — ^Muncaster, James D.. 20, Carlisle M.L, derk — 

Arith. (1st) 
1140 — ^Mungeam, Mary S., 30, Birkbeck Lit. and Sd. 

Inst, (no occupation) — French (3d) 
725— Muir, Ueorge J., 16, St. Stephen's Eyg. Scb«, 

Westminster, pupil teacher — Arith. (3dy 
429— Mur^^atroyd, Arthur, 19, Halifiix W.M. Coll., 

painter— Arith. (3d) 
14 — Murray, Janet J., 23, Aberdeen M.I. (no oocupa* 

tion stated)— French (3d) 
44 — Myers, John B., 19, Aocrington M.I., letter carrier 

—Arith. (2d) 
1034 — Myring, Kate, 25, Walsall Ch. Inst, goyemess— 

French (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 

684— Narraway, Clara M., 25, Royal Polytec 
(no occupation stated) — French (3d) 

644— Neems, Edwin W., 17, City of London Coll., 
derk— French (3d) ; Eng. LsAg. (2d) 

279 — ^Neil, James W., 23, Glai^^ew Anderson. Uniy 
Pop. Eyg. Classes, warper— Th. of Music (2d) 

292*-Neil»on, Darid, 27, Glasgow Anderson. Uniy. 
Pop. Eyg. Classes, book-keeper — Bkpg. (2d) 

824 — ^Nelson, G^rge, 24, Manchester M.I., warehouse- 
man—French (2d) 

721— NetUeton, Charles W., 18. St Stephen's Eyff. Soh., 
Westminster, gas-meter maker — Arith. (2d) 

64fr— Nobbs, Alfred W., 20, Ashford M.I., derk— 
Bkpg. (1st) 

115 — ^Normnn, John G., 27, Birmingham and Mid. InsLf 

jeweller — French (3d) 
1172 — ^Norris, John, 20, Birkoeck Lit and Sd. Inst, 
compositor — ^Th. of Music (2d ) 

950— Nichols, William, 21, Salford W.M. Coll., derk— 

Bkpg. (1st) 
' 821— Nicoll, Thomas C, 21, Manchester M.I., derk— 
BkpgJ2d) 

354— Niyeo, William A., 17, Glasgow M.I., draughts- 
man — ^Arith. (3d) 



Inst. 



580 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jokb 13, 1873. 



741— Nutting:, George, 17, St. Stephen's Evg. Sch., 
Westminster, joiner — Arith. (3d) 

430— Oates, Frank, 16, Halifax W.M. OoU., clerk^ 
Arith. (MS ; Eng. Hist. (3d) ; Eng. Lnng. (3d) 
18 — Ogilvie, RoDert, 23, Aberdeen M.t, hardware 
merchants assistant — French (3d) 

709 — Otiver, James F., 37, Bojal Pc^yteehnic Inst, 
clerk — German (3d) 

191 — Ollis, Fanny L., 17, Devonport M.I. (no occupa- 
tion stated) — Th. of Masiu (Ist), with the second 
prize of £3, and the prise of £2 for females 

896— O' May, Robert, 24, Paisley Artisans* Inst., ware- 
houseman — Arith. (2d) 
61 — Orchard, George D., 19, Ashby-de-la-Zouch 
Toung Men's Mut. Imp. 8oc., auctioneer's 
aasistuit — Bkpg. (3d) 

254 — Osborne, John A., 20, Aldershot, soldier — Arith. 
(2d) 

164 — Ostle, Wilson, 18, Cariisle M.L (no occupation) 
—Arith. (3d) 

910 — Owen, James, 26, Pembroke Dock M.I., shipwright 
— Arith. (let), with the fint prize of £5 
62 — Owen, James d., 25, Ashby-de-la-Zouch Young 
Men's Mut. Imp. Soc., baker — Bkpg. (3d^ 

856 — Owen, William A., 19, Manchester M.I.| clerk — 
French (3d) 

748— Painter, William, 21, Tonic Sol-fa Teachers' 

Assoc., clerk— Th. of Mus. (2d) 
574 — Parkinson, Thomas, 20, IdTerpool Inst| derk — 

Arith. (2d) 
753— Parrock, Thomas, 23, Tonic Sol-fa Teachers* 

Assoc., brass-finisher— Th. of Music (3d) 
969--Parry, John H., 19, Salford W.M. ColL, clerk— 

Bkpg. (1st) 
827 — ^Pftrry, Margaret A., 25, Manchester M.L, school- 
mistress— Bkpg. (1st) 
335 — ^Paterson, Robert H., 18, Glasgow Ath,, derk— 

Arith. (3d) 
280— Paterson, William, 26, Glasgow Anderson. XTnir. 

Pop. Evg. Classes, blacksmith — Th. of Music 

(3d) 
351 — Paton, James, 37, Glasgow M.I., constable — 

Bkpg. (2d) 
140 — Pawson, Richard, 16, Bradford M.I., derk — 

Arith. (Ist^ 
648— Pearce, Herocrt J., 21, Ciiy of London ColL, 

derk— Bkpg. (2d) 
921 — Pearce, Joseph H., 16, Penzance, clerk — ^Eng. 

Hist (3d) : Eng. Lang. (Ist) 
742— Pearce, William, 18, St. Stephen's Evg. Sch., 

Westminster, clerk — Arith. (2d) 
481— Pearson, Henry W., 16, Halifax W.M. Coll., 

printer— Eng. Lang. (3d) 
1020— Pearson, William, 24, Wakefield M.L, derk— 

Arith. (Ist) 
814— Peddie, William, 18, Manchester M.I., clerk— 

Arith. (3d) 
1182— Penniston, Joseph, 36, Leeds Toung Men's Chr. 

Assoc., book-keeper — Bkpg. (1st) 
73 — ^Pentecoffk, Horace, 19, Afford M.L, engine 

smith — Arith. (1st) 
116 — ^Perkins, Henry G., 21, Birmingham and Mid. 

Inst., derk— French (3d) 
201 — ^Petrie, William, 25, Dundee Young Men's Chr. 

Assoc., hacklemaker — Arith. (8d) 
117 — ^Phillips, Arthur, 19, Bitmingham and Mid. Inst., 

clerk— German (Ist) 
443— Picken, Fanny, 18, Hertford Lit. and Sd. Inst., 

pupil teacher— Arith. (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
476— Pickering Albert, 28, Hun Ch. Inst, derk- 

Bkpg. (1st) 
475— Pickermg, John H., 34, Hull Ch. Inst., maltster— 

•!24»-Pick^ V^^ B., 18, ^yde M.L, derk- 
Anth. (2d) 



953— Pierce. Samuel, 21, Salford W.M. CoH, book- 
keeper — Arith. (3d) 
690— Pike, Thomas, 24, Royal Polytedmic Inst, jeweDn 

—Bkpg. (2d) 
144— Pinder, William, 16, Bradford M.L, piece-booker 

—Arith. (2d) 
490— Plummer, George, 17, Hull Young People's Chr. 

and Lit Inst, derk— Arith. (3d) 
966— Pogson, Joseph, 20, Salford W.M. ColL, boA- 

keeper— Arith. (3d) 
1176— Pohse, Sophie C, 24, Biritbeck Lit and Scllnrf., 

govemew— French (3d) 
63— Poole, Thomas T., 21, Ashby-de-la-Zonch Young 

Men's Mut. Imp. Soc, cabinet-maker~Bkp|. 

(3d) 
763— Potter, Albert 17, Manchester M.L, pupil teacher 

—French (3d) 
688— Pratt Emma A., 29, Royal Polytedmic Imt., 

sdioohnistress — Eng. Lang. (3d) 
1192— Preston, George, 17, Leeds Young Men's Chr. 

Assoc., book-keeper — Eng. Lang. (3d) 
353— Priaulx, Charles E., 16, Glasgow M.I., ckik- 

Arith. (3d) 
652— Price, Henry W., 18, City of London CdL, dtrt 

—Logic (2d) 
1187— Prince, George A., 16, Leeds Young Men's Chr. 

Assoc, bookbinder apprentice— Eng. Lang- (M) 
653— Prior, Samud J. B., 25, City of London ColL, 

clerk— French (2d) 
955— Probert, Frederick, 24, Salford W.M. Coll, dfirt 

—French (3d) 
363— Pullar, James T., 16, Glasgow M.L, derk- 

Spanish (3d) 
147— Purchon, Samuel R., 22, Bradford M.T.. htbo- 

graphic printer— Arith. (3d) ; Pd. Econ, (34); 

Eng. Lang. (2d) 

697— Quick, John H., 23, Royal Polvtecbnic 1^ 
solidtor's derk— Arith. (3d); Eng. Lang. (2tl) 

1201— Baby, John, 18, Leeds Young Men's Chr. A*ec^ 

pupil teacher— AriA. (Ist) ; Eng. Lang, m 
1189— Rae, Charies J., 16, Leeds Young Meo'i C^ 

Assoc, apprentice — €Ferman (Ist) ; French {»/ 
529— Rand, Charles W., 18, Ipswich W.M. ColL,clflrk 

-Bkpg. (2d) 
135- Rawsthom, Thomas, 18, Bolton Ch. Inst, dai- 

Arith. (2d) 
573— Rea, Philip Y., 19, Liverpool Inst, in an office- 

Bkpg. (2d) , , 

654— Read, Charles H., 26, CSty of London C(dL,dert 

—French (2d) , , 

818— Redfeam, Abraham, 19, Manchester M.I., dert 

—Eng. Hist (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
548— Redick, Mary. 22, Leeds Ch. Inst, no occupatu* 

stated— Th. of Music (2d) 
230— Reid, Darid, 23, Dundee Young Men's Chr. A»k- 

grocers' assistant— Eng. Lang. (3d) ; Arith. ^^1 
847— Reid, David H., 25, GUsgow Ath., warthouw- 

man— French (3d) ; Bkpg. (td) 
655— Reid, John A., 25, City of London ColL. dffk- 

Bkpg. (1st) 
897— Rdd, Robert 18, Paisley Artisan's Inst,paltaa- 

maker — ^Th. of Music (1st) „ 

666— Renaut, Frederick W., 22, City of London Coll. 

clerk — Bkpg. (1st) _ „ 

657— Reynolds, Charles A. J., 17, City of LondonCdl, 

clerk— Arith. (3d); Eng. Hist (2d); FreDCfi 

(3d) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) ^ -. 

1095--Reyndd8rHerbert, 19, Birkbcck lit aad Sci. 

Inst, derk— Pol. Econ. (2d) , 

658— Reynolds, James, 19, City of London CoD., toon- 

hand clerk— Eng. Lang. (Ist) -^ -^ aJ! 
1217— Richardson, Frederick, 24, Leioestor ^.M! CWJ* 

el-sUc braid weaver- Arith. (3d); Fwwh (»; 
565— Richardson, James A-, 17, liveipod Ii»t, m w 

office— Bkpg. (2d) 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, June 18, 1873. 



581 



rOo— Bickardf, JotephuB, 20^ Hoyal Polytechnic Inst., 

derk— Arith. (Ut) ; £ng. Hist. (2d) ; Eng. 

Lang, (let) 

7-Biddell, John, 22, Aberdeen M.I., clerk— Aritli. 

(3d) ^ 

lOS-Kiorden, George J., 22, Birkbeck Lit. and Sci. 

Inst, engraver — ^Eng. Hist (2d) 
I*— Bitchie, Peter, 17, Ab^een M.I., clerk — Arith. 

(3d) 
13S— BitMm, James T., 17, Bolton Ch. Inat, pnpil 

twicher— Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
!34— Bobertv, Daniel, 26, Manchester M.L, letteipreas 

printer— Bkpg. (lat) 
«3-BobeTl8, George H., 20, Halifax W.M. OoIL, 

wiredrawer — Bkng. (2d) 
)09— Robert Renrick S., 20, Lirerpool Inai, clerk — 

Bkpg.(3d) 
»e-Robert8, Robert A., 20, Birkbeok Lit. and Bd. 

Inst., clerk — Bkpg. (1st) 
BT-Robfrts, Robert W., 22, Glasgow M.L, Bible- 

readeiv-Eng. Lang. (3d) 
JW^EobertB, William W., 19, City of London GolL, 

derk-Bkpg. (2d) 
US-Robertson, Darid, 17, Dundee Yonng Men's Ghr. 

Anoc., anprentice clerk — Arith. (Sd) 
ttl-Robertion, Kobert, 27, Glasgow Anderson. TJniy. 

Pop. £Tg. Classes, warehouBeman — ^Th. of 

Mode (2d) 
l07~RobinaoD, Benjamin J., 16, Swindon M.L, erector 

ippre&tice-~Arith. (3d) 
S76-Robiiiaon, Frederick, 16, Liverpool Ihsi, in an 

oflke-Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Lang. (8d) 
t64-Bobt(m, Thomas, 17, York Inst, attorney's derk 

-Anth. (8d) 
»0-RodiBtll, George, 20, Hull Yonng People's Chr. 

and lit Inst, corporation sworn meter and 

vdgher— Arith. (3d) 
•J-RoTCTB, Stephen, 19, Manchester M.L, clerk— 

Arith. (3d) ; Eng. Hist (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
BS-Roscoe, Jamea, 16, Manchester M.L, warcSnonse- 

man-Arith. (Ist) ; Bkpg. (1st) 
W-R«^ John H., 26, aty of London Coll., derk— 

Logic (3d) ; Pol. Eoon. (2d) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
W-4loBi,Andrew, 17, Ghisgow M.L, clerk— Bkpg. (2d) 
W~Ro«, James J., 19, Newcastle-on-Tyne Ch. Dast, 
^ eterit- Arith. (2d) 
••-Roihwcll, Hamlet, 21, Manchester M.L, derk— 

Bkpg. (2d) 
>7-Roihton, Cephas M., 23, Stockport Sund. Sch. 

Imp. Soc., clerk— Arith. (3d) 
W-BBtherford, George, 22, Newcastle-on-Tyne Ch. 
^ Iwt, derk— Arith. (2d) ; Bkpg. (3d) 
»-RBtherford, Thomas K, 24, Bhuskbnm Sd. Sch., 

•dHwhnaster— Arith. (2d) 
»-Bwt<m, John, 17, Aberdeen M.I., pnpil teacher 
-Arith. (2d) 

•^-fiMderson, James, 21, Accrington M.L, book- 

keeper— Arith. (1st) 
ii-fluidi, DaWd, 46, Glasgow M.L, bookseller— 

Th. of Mode (2d) 
l8-8aTine, Sarah A., 19, Birmingham and Mid. Inst., 
^^popil teacher— En^. Lang. (3d) 
*-8chofield, John, 20, Ifoadey M.I., book-keeper — 
. ^ Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (3d) 
^-ficMeld, Joseph, 17, Mosdey M.L, cotton pieoer 
^ -BImg. (ist) 
f>-Schriflefd, Mark, 16, Manchester M.L, salesman— 

Arith. (3d) 
"^8cott, Hairy, 20, Glasgow Anderson. Uniy. Pop. 
^ ^ B?g. Oaases, derk—Th. of Mndc (2d) 
''--ScjU, Hugh, 19, Gksgow Ath., writer^s derk— 

»-«««, James, 29, Arbroath Local Board, flax 

H •PJatwa^Th. of Mode (3d) 

*»*8cc«L Joaepb, 16, Oazlide M.L (no oocnpation) 



■283— Scott, William, 22, Glasgow Anderson. Univ. Pop. 
Erg. Classes, draper — Th. of Music (3d) 
743 — Scrimgeour, John, 17, St. Stephen's Evg. Sch. 

Westminster, clerk — Arith, (2d) 
663— Scrivtn, Alphonso T., 20, aty of London ColL, 

clerk— Bkpg. (3d) 
972— Seal, James, 20, Stockport M.L, derk— Bkpg. 

(3d) 
1177— Seary, Thomas C, 23, Birkbeck lit and Sd. 
Inst., draughtsman — Th. of Mudo (3d) 
37— Selbie, Joseph, 21, Aberdeen M.I., dwk— Eng. 

Lang. (3d) 
885— Sesdons, lipomas W., 26, Manchester MJ., 

caahi^-— Bkpg. (Ist) 
308— Shanks, John B., 18, Glasgow Ath., clerk- 
French (8d) 
460 — Sharp, Samud, 17, Hnddersfidd M.I., derk — 

French (3d) 
lOOl-^haw, Arthur H., 16, Birkbeck lit and Sd.Inst, 

derk— Arith. (2d) 
434— Shaw, Edwin, 21, Halifax W.M. Coll., packer— 

Arith (2d) 
302— Shaw, William, 19, Glasgow Ath., booksdler's 
assistant — French (3d) 
1096— l^earer, John R., 24, Birkbeok lit and Sd. Inst, 
warehouseman — Pol. Econ. (2d) 
89 — Shepherd, James, 16, Bacup M.I., weaver — ^Arith. 

78— Shillito, James, 19, Bacup M.L, tinner^Arith. 
(3d); Bkpg. (8d) 
1156— Shirley, Joseph H., 19, Birkbeok lit and Sd. 

Inst., clerk— Bkpg. (2d) 
454— Shorten, Frank, 16, Hull Ch. Inst, engineer's 

apprentice— German (3d) 
156— Sibson, John, 18, Carlule M.I., student— Arith. 

792— Sidebotham, John J. 17, Manchester M.L, derk 

Logic (2d) 
862— Silyey, Samuel, 16, Manchester MJ., derk— 

B)rpg. (Ist) 
284— Simpson, James, 23, Glasgow Anderson. Uniy. 

Pop. Eyg. Classes, engineer— Arith. (2d) 
877— Simpson, John, 20, Ghisgow M.I., derk— Eng. 

Lang. (2d) 
120— Sims, William, 19, Birmingham and Mid. Last, 

derk — Arith. (1st) 
187— Sinclair, Alien, 81, Derby M.L, police inspector 

—Eng. Lang, (2d) 
168— Skelton, John, 18, Carlide M.L (no oooiqpati<m) 

Arith. (2d) 
493— Sh&ck, Henry, 22, Hull Toung People's Chr. and 

lit Inst, derk— Arith (2d) 
780— Slater, John T., 16, Manchester MJ., derk— 

Arith. (3d) 
159— Slater, Joseph, 19, Carlide M.L, (no oocnpation 

sUted) Eng. Hist. (2d) ; French (3d) ; Eng. 

Lang. (3d) 
728— Slingo, William, 17, St. Stephen's Evg. Sch. 

Westminster, tdegraphist— Arith. (3d) ; Eng. 

Hist (3d) 
527— Smith, Alfred, 27, Ipswich W.M. Odl., carpenter 

989— Smith, Frederick P., 19, Stockport Sund. Sch. 

Imp. Soc, mechanic — Arith. (3d) 
664— Smith, George, 18, City of London Coll., derk— 

Arith. (1st); Eng. Lang. (2d) ; the third prise 

of £1 for Writing from Dictation, and the first 

price of £5 for Handwriting. 
528— Smith, George F., 17, Ipswidh W.M. ColL, derk 

—Bkpg. (1st) 
1175— Smith, George F., 18, Birkbeck lit and Sd. 

Inst, musicsdl^B assistant— Th. of Mudo 

(1st) 
823— Smith, Herbert F., 28, Manchester M.L, 

medianical draughtsman — French (3d) 
1016— Smith, James L, 17, Wakefidd MJ., messenger 

—Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (2d) 



582 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, June 13, 1873. 



^5— Bmitfa, James M^ 25, Hall Toang People'a Cbr. 
and Lit. Inst, gardener^— Floriculture (Ist), 
with the second prize of £3 ; Fruit and Veg. 
Culture (1st), with the first prise of £5 

1 148— Smith, JohnH« A., 22, Birkheok Lit. and ScLTnst., 
clerk— French (3d) 

1140— Baiith, John B., 28, Birkbeck Lit» and ScL lost, 

Civil Service writer — the fiist prise of £3 for 

Wfitingfront Dictation, and the first price of 

£3 for Wnting and Manuscript Printing. 

665— Smith, Sidney, 18, City of London ColL, cUric— 

Bki>gjr3d) 

Ul— 49mith, Wheator, 20, Bndfoid U.I^ snnrcyoz'— the 

second prise of £2 far Writuig and Miuiuscript 

Printing. 
286— Smith, William, 21, Glasgow Andenon. Univ. 

Pop. Evg. Classes, pawnbroker's assistant — 

Th. of Music (2d) 
1104— Smi^ WilliaiB C., 17, Birblieek Lit and SeL Inst, 

engineer's apprentice — Ajritk* (3d) 
869— Smith, William C, 22, Glasgow M.L, cLmkr- 

Arithjlst) 
979— Smith) William J., 21, Stoekyort Sand« Seh. Imp. 

Soc., fitter— Arith. (8d) 
666— Smyth, James, 29^ City of London CoU., deric— 

Bkpg. (2d) 
^9— Speight, Anthony T., 16, Kendal Chr. and Lit 

Inst, pupil teacher — Arith. (2dJ 
747— Spencrer, Harry, 24, Tonic i^Ma Teachers' Assoc., 

carver and gilder — Th. of Music (3d) 
674— 49tainneTB, Thomais 17, Newoastlo*on-Tyne Ch. 

Inst., clerk— Blq^. (2d) 
356— Starkie, William H., 21, Manchester M.L, okrk 

Aritb. (3d) ; Bkpg. (1st) 
4$9— StMT, H«nry P., 16, Hertford Lit and ScL Lost, 

printer — Arith. (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
881--^teele, William, 19, Munchester M.L, clei^— 

Arith. (3d) ; Bkpsr. (let) 
1082— Stephens, Ckarles V., 35* Wi^U C^. Inst., 

inspector of nuisances — Ariih. (1st) 
36«-Steph6nson, John W., 22, Aberdetm M.I., cleri:— 

Eng. Lang. (3d) 
61d— St»Tenton, WUbert, 20, Hull Young People's 

Chr. and Lit Inst, clerk — ^Bkpg. (2d) 
626— Stewart Jsmes, 24, Ipswich W.M. Coll.^ gardener 

-Fruit and Veg. Culture (2d) 
288 — Siirton, James, 10, Edinburgh Watt Inst, ap- 
prentice joiner— Eng. Lang. (3d) 
691— Stone, Mary A., 27, Hoyal Polytechnic Inst 

housekeeper — French (3d) 
1063— Stout Bobert 17, York Inst., joiner— Eng. Hist. 

(3d) 
478— Stnohan, Ada M., 18, Hull Young People's €%r. 

and Lit. Inst., (no occupation) — Eng. Lang. 

(2d) 
287— Strang, David B., 20, Glasgow Andsfson. Univ. 

Pop. Evg. Classes, clerk— Th. of Music — 

(2d) 
288— Strang, Matthew W., 26, Glasgow Anderson. 

Univ. Pop. Evg. Classes, book-keeper — Th. of 

Musio(2d) 
550— Strickland, Edwin, 18, Leeds Ch. Inst, clerk— 

Bkpg. (1st) 
551 — Strickland, James, 16, Leeds Ch. Inst,, solicitor's 

derb— Bkpg. (Ist) 
121— SoTgey, Herbert H., 16, Birmingham and Mid. 

Inst, pnpil teaefaer — ^Arith. (Ist) 
46— Sutherland, James T., 34, Arbroath Local Board, 

grooer and spirit dealer— Th. of Music (8d) 
16— Sutherland, William, 18, Aberdeen M.L, clerk — 

French (3d) 
666— Suthorland, William J., 16, Liverpool Inst, office 

boy— Bkpg. (3d) 
IM—Siykee, Arthur, 20. Halifax W.M. ColL, cleric— 

Arith. (8d) ; Bkpg. (2d) 
487— %kef, John H., 17, Btma. W.M. QoIL, 

houseman — ^Arith. (8d} 



286— Symington, John M., 20, Glasgow Andsao. 
Univ. Pop. Evg. Classes^ warehouaeman — Ti 
of Music (Ist) 

366— Taylor, Charles, 23, Glasgow M.I., boot-top cntta 

— Th. of Muaic (2d) 
1111— Taylor, Herbert K, 18, Biikbeck lit and 6d 

Inst., clerk— Bkpg. (1st) 
952— Taylor, James M., 17, Salford W.M. Coll., ckri 

—Arith. (3d) 
1188— Taylor, John, 17, Leeds Young Men's C3ir. Assoc. 

apprentice— Gecman (1st), with the aeoaod bbk 

of £3 
833— Tajvior, Joseph, 21, Manchester M.L, de^- 

Bkpg. (Ist) 
866— Taylor, Samuel, 18, Moasley MX, ootton-pMct 

— Bkpjr. (3d) 
618— T^lor, WUltam H., 22, Hull Young Paofls's 

Chr. and Lit. Inst, cleric— Bkpg. (iat) 
L22r-Taylor, WilUam H., 26, BirminiQiain «»d Mid 

List, clerk— Eng. Hist (3d) ; PoL Boon. (2d) , 



Eng. Lang. (Ist) 
849— Teggin, WiUiam, 17, Manchesfar MX.sUtionen' 

assistant — Bkpg. (let) 
1060— Temperton, Frednick jS^ 19, York Inst, joinei 



509— Templeman. William H., 22, HuB You2« People's 

Chr. and Lit. Inst., wholesale grooexa' ^iiwrr^M 

-Bkpg. (^2d) 
194 — Tenney, John, 17, Devonport M.I., aolidtoa' 

clerk— Bkp^. (3d) 
1056— Tenniswood, Walter, 19, York Tnrt , student— 

Th. of Music (Iat) 
464— Theaker, William D., 23, HuB Chr. Inst, dexk- 

Bkpg. (1st) 
907— ThomHS, Edg^r 0., 18, Pembroke Dock M.L 

draper — Arith. (Ist) 
2(45 — ^Thomas, James W., 16, Aldenhot (no o^i^s- 

tion)— Arith. (2d) 
20— Thompson, Charles F., 20, Aberdeen MJ:.,clak- 

Eng. Lang. (3d) 
516— Thompson, Edward, 28, HuU Young People's Chi 

and Lit. Inst, clerk — Bkpg. (Is^ 
901 — Thompson, Thomas, 17, Parsonatown Yeasf 

Men's Chr. Assoc, pupil teacher — Aritfau (lit) 
39— Thompson, William, 22, Aberdeen M.L, ibof^ 

man — Eng. Lang. (3d) 
24 — Thomson, Alexander, 18, Aberdeen M.I., derk— 

Arith. (2d) 
737— Thorn, Frederick H., 16, St Stephen's Evg. Set 

Westminster, writer — ^Arith. (2d) 
817— Thorpe, Charles, 18, Manchester M.I^ dok- 

Arith. (1st) ; Bkpg. (Iat) 
290 — Threshie, James, 26, Glasgow And^taon. Ucir. 

Pop. Evg. Classes, wnter— Th. of Mssc 

(3d) 
64— Timms, Robert J., 17, Asbby-de-la-Zoach Yootf 

Men's Mat Imp. Soc, bookkfieper — Bk{^. 

150— Tirbatt, John C. B., 16» Brom^groTe Lit sal 

M.L, clerk— Eng. Hist (3d) 
239— Tomlinson, John W., 32, Alderahot^ 

Arith. (1st) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
176— Topping, George, 16, Carlisle MX, 

Arith. (2d) 
485— Townend, Bobert, 20, Hull Young Peopfo's Ckt 

and Lit. last, pupil tea<^Mr— Arith, (Ist) 
750— Tucker, Richard, 21, Tonic Sol-^ Tof 

Assoc., clerk— Th. of Music (2d) 
67— Tumka, Joseph, 21, Ashford MX, nilws? 

secountant's clerk — Bkng* (Is*) 
913— Turl, Charles P., 17, Pemlvdke Dock UX» y^ 

tesLcher, Eng. Lang. (2d) 
898— Tumbull, Geosge, 21, Pkisley Artsssa"^ IimIJ 

clerk— Bkpg.(lat) ] 

2L0— Xyndttlt Jsmes, 19, Dnnace Yoonsr Htt*« Cfar 

Assoc., pattern niaker— Aiilh. (^ 



JOUIUf AL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Joioi 18, 1878. 



588 



291— Ure, John O., 21, Glasgow Anderson. UniT. Pop. 

£Tg. Clssiet, dark— Th. of Mono (1st) 
76S— Uraohart, Alexander H., 20, Manchester M.I., 

clerk— Bkgj- (3d) 
333— Urquhart, Wmiam, 16, Glasgow Ath., clerk — 

Azith. (2d) 

IS3— Tale, George, 17, Birmingham and Mid. Inst^ 

clerk — German (2d)^ 
ttS«-Yalentuie» William R. H., 28, Dondee Yoiibb 

Hen's Chr. Asno., olerk— Eng. Hist. (3d) 
i»-yickiiTB, £U L., 18, Manohester M.L, c^— 

Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg (21) 
ttl— Vkkera, James, 16, Manchester M.L, derk — 

Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (2d) 
fl»-yioken» Lot, 28, Manchei^ M.I., derk— Bkpg. 

(2d) 
TK-Vickert, Robert F., 22, Manchester M.I., clerk— 

Eng. Hist (2d) 
ltt*-Vo»per, Hemy, 22, Manchester M.I., buyer — 

Logic (3d) ; Pol. Econ. (Ist), with the third 

prise of £2 ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
9»-VoToe, Samuel, 19, Sal&d W.M. CJolL, clerk— 

Arith. (3a) 

05— Wainwright, Thomas, 19, Manchester M.I., derk 

-Bkpg.Jlsi) 
WSt-Walkden, Young, 22, Bolton M.L, clerk— Arith. 

(3d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
M03-Wilker, Duncan M., 20, Swindon M.I., clerk — 

Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (Ist) 
n^Wilker, Philip G., 21, Royal Polytechnic Inst, 

derk— Bkpg. (2d) 
«(^Wiilker, WaiSim W., 16, Glasgow M.L, clerk— 

Arith. (3d) ; Bkpg. (Ist) 
ttll-WsltJii, Oliver, 17, Birkbeok Lit. and Sci. Inst., 

solidUMr's derk-^Bkpg. (2d) 
UBS— Wtrd, John, 16, York Inst, book-keeper— Arith. 

tH— Ward, John W. 18, Birmingham and Mid. Inst., 

papillSMiier- Arith. (Ist) ; Th. of Mcmio (Ist); 

Fraich (8d) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
ifil-Ward, Thomas W. T., 16, Stockport Sund. Sch. 

Imp. Soc, warehouseman — Anth. (31) 
••— Wtrlen, John, 16, Hull Young People's Chr. and 

lit Inst, engineer's clerk — Bkpi^. (2d) 
m-Wardle, John, 21, Manchester M.L, oisrk— Eng. 

Hi*t (3d) ; Eng. Lang. (2d) 
m— WaUffhouse, Benjamin, 17, Stockport M.I., 

asnstant bookkeeper — Arith. (3d) 
M-WOm, William, 23, Paisley Artisans' Inst, olerk 

-Th. of Music (2d) ; Eng. Lang. (3d) 
^WatiOQ, Alexander, 16^ Aberdeen M.L, draper's 

apprentice — Eng. Lang. (2J) 
11— Watson, Alexander G, 21, Aberdeen M.L, clerk 
^ -Th. of Music (2d) 
W-Watoon, Alfrad, 23, City of London ColL, clerk— 

Mft— w»Uion, Edmund W., 1 8, Birmingham and Mid. 

Inst, clerk— Prench (3d) 
^^WatMo, John, 84, Arbroath Local Board, boot- 

top maker— Th. of Music (3d) 

JK-Waogh, PercivaU 18, Edinburgh Watt Inst, derk 

—Arith. Hst) ; Eng. Hist. (1st), with the second 

^ prize of is ; Bkpg. (31); and the second prize 

of x2 for Writing from Diotation 

•Weatheriey, Geoi^;«, 19, Birkbeck Lit and 8d. 

Inst, derk— Bkpg. (Ist) 
-Wearer, Henry, 35, Leeus Young Men's Chr. 
Ahoc, inland revenue officer-^Arith. (3d) ; 
Bkpg. (1st) 
•W4xidle, John, 24, Newoaatl* on-Tyne Oh. Inst, 

ctoc-Bkpg. (Ut) 
•Waon, WHnam P., 25, Richmond Parochial 
libwry, gardener— Floriculture (2d); Fruit 



W-. 



lQ16-.Wesi, Henry, 27, Wakefield M.L, mat 

Arith. (3d) 
1134— Wharhirst John, 27, Birkbeck lit and SoL Inst, 

chaser— Bkpg. (2d) 
671— Wheeler, Edward J., 27, City of London ColL, in 

civil service — Overman (2d) ; French (2J) 
471— Whitaker, Samuel, 18, Hull Ch. Inst, clerk— 

Bkpff. (1st) 
1184— Whitaker, Thomas, 19, Leeds Young Men's Chr. 

Assoc, compositor — Eng. Lang. (3(d) 
812— White, Arthur M., 21, Manchester M.L, derk— 

Arith. (3d) 
672— White, Henry G., 22, City of London OoU. (no 

occupation stated)— German (2d) ; French (2d) ; 

Bkpg. (Ist) 
822— Whitelow, Edward T., 18, Manchester M.L, 

engineer— Arith. (3d) ; Spanish (3d) : Eng. 

Lang. (21) 
706— Whiteman, Frank G., 29, Royal Polytechnic 

Inst, clerk — ^French (1st), with the first prixe 

of £5 
468— Whiteside, Walter C, 25, Hull Ch. Inst., derk— 

Bkpg. (let) 
405— Whitley, Phineas, 21, Halifax M.L, teacher of 

muaio— Arith. (2d); Eng. Hist (2d); Eng. 

Lang. (1st) 
999— Whitton, Charles, 17, Swindon M.L, derk— 

Arith. (2d) 
673— Wiggins, Alfred, 24, City of London ColL, leather 

manufacturer — Bkpg. (2d) 
962— Wigley, Jeremiah, 31, Salford W.M. CdlL, 

engineer — Arith. (3d) 
702— Wilkins, Charles, 26, Royal Polytechnic Inst, 

clerk — Gennan (3d) 
718— WUkins, Robert W., 28, Royal Polvtechnic Inst, 

derk — German (1st) ; Italian (Ist), with the 

first prize of £5 
1097— Wilkinson, JeanneUe G., 29, Birkbeck Lit and 

Sd. Inst, npholstress— Pol. Econ. (1st), with 

the first prixe of £5 
92— Wilkinson, John, 17, Bacup M.I., weaver— 

Arith. (2d) 
86— Wilkinson, John F., 17, Baoop M.I., operative— 

Arith. (3d) 
1070— Wilkinson, John R., 17, York Inst, pupil teaeher 

—Arith. (2d) 
675-.-W'illey, OcUvius D., 19, City of London Coll., 

derk- Bkpg. (Ut) 
686— Williams, Arthur R., 20, Royal Polytechnic Inst, 

photographer — Pol. Econ. (Sd) 
954— Williams, John, 16, Silford W.M. Coll., derk- 

Bkpg. (lat) 
740 -Willis, GKjorge W., 16, St Stephen's Evg. Soh., 

Westminster, writer — Arith. (3d) 
676— WiUoughby, William H., 31, CUy of London 

Coll., derk— G«rman (3d) 
438— Wilson, Arthur, 16, Halifax W.M. Coll., appren- 
tice in wotd trade - Bkpg. (3d) 
875— Wilson, Thomas, 21, Newcastlo-on-Tyne Oh. 

Inst., dork— Arith. jf2d) ; Bkpg. (Ist) 
494_Wilaon, Thomns, 16, Hull Young People's Chr. 

and Lit. Inst., pupil teacher— Arith. (2d) 
927— Wing, William, 19, Rotherham Lit. and M.L, 

derk— Bkpg. (Ist), with the first priro of 

£5 
677— Win wood, Edward, 18, City of London Coll., derk 

—Arith. (2d) ; Enif. Hist, fist) ; Bkpi?. (3 1) 
678— Withers. Edmund, 39, City of London ColL, derk 

—Bkpg. (2a) 
537— Witton, Jam«*8 C, 23, Kendal Chr. and Lit Inst, 

teacher — Logic (2 1) 
857— Wood. Henry, 18, Manoheiter M.L, book-keeper 



— Th. of Music (2d) 
~ ', 21, M 
man (2d) 



791— Wood, Henry, 



andissisr MJ., dtik — G«r- 



e79u-Wood, John W., 19, City of London Coll., derk 
—Bkpg. (iBt) 



584 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juke 18, MTS. 



^53_Wood, William, 21, Manchester M.I., derk— 

Bkpg. (l8t) 
710— Wood, William, 25, Boyal Polytechnic Inst., 

pianoforte toner — German (3d) 
1180— Woodford, Bichard J., 19, Biricbeck lit. and Sd. 

Inst, law clerk — Pol. Econ. (2d) 
322 — ^Woodrow, James, 24, Glasgow Ath., clerk — 

French (3d) 
680 — ^Woodrow, James J., 17, City of London Coll., derk 

—French (3d) 
726— Woolley, William J., 16, 8t Stephen's Even. Sdi., 

Westminster, clerk — Arith. (3d) 
681 — ^Wootton, John J., 19, City of London Coll., clerk 

—Arith. (2d) ; Eng. Hist. (3d) ; and the fourth 

prize of £1 for Handwriting 
928— Wright, Albert T., 18, Rotherham Lit. and M.L, 

clerk— Arith. (2d) 
1197— Wright, Richard, 27, Leeds Young Men's Chr. 



Assoc, joiner — French (2d) 

I, 17, Swi 
Arith. (3d) " 



1008— Wright, theophilus, 



windon M.L, fitter — 



1167— Wright, William H., 18, Birkbeck Lit and Sd. 
Inst, clerk— Arith. (Ist) ; Eng. Hist (Ist), 
with the first prize of £6 ; Bkpg. (1st) ; and the 
second prize of £3 for Handwriting. 
863— Wrigley, Andrew, 22, Mossley M.L, derk— 



313— W 



Bkpg. (Ist) 
Vllie, John 
French (3d) 



ohn R., 18, Glasgow Ath., derk — 



1061— Yates, John, 17, York Inst, clerk— Arith. (3d) 
132 — Yates, Nathan, 16, Bolton (I/h. Inst., book-keeper 

—Arith. (ad) 
390 — ^Young, Alexander, 18, Glasgow M.L, grocer — 

Eng. Lang. (2d) 
208— Young, Edward, 23, Dundee Young Men's Chr. 

Assoc., clerk — Arith. (IstJ 
214— Young, Frank W., 21, Dundee Youni? Men's Chr. 

Assoc., assistant chemist — Arith. (2d) 
292 — ^Young, Robert, 21, Glasgow Anderson. Univ. 

Pop. Evg. Classes, yam salesmen— Th. of 

Music (Ist) 
346 — ^Young, William, 22, Glasgow Ath., derk — 

French (2d) ; Bkpg. (3d) 
887 — ^YounghusDHnd, El^^ura, 18, Manchester M.L, 

clerk— Bkpg. (2d) 
15 — Youngson, John, 18, Aberdeen M.L, printer's 

compositor — ^Eng. Lang. (3d) 



The number of locomotive engines in the United 
Kmgdom increased from 9,379, in 1870, to 10,490, in 1871; 
and the number of carnages, wa^goDs, &c., exclusive of 
looomotives, increased from 285,994, to 311,427; giving an 
inorea^o in locomotives per mile from 60, for 1870, to 0*68, 
for 1871, and an increase from 18-38, in 1870, to 2025, in 
187 if as regarded other vehicles. 

A Bill has been proposed in the New York 
Legfislature which stipulates that every room above the 
second floor in the hotels or inns of incorporated cities of 
the State shall be provided with a rope or chain-ladder that 
will reach to the ground, as a means of evcape in case of fire. 

Amongst the objects of interest exhibited at 
Wigan were two coal-cutters, one made by Mes»rs. Ommaney 
and Tatham, of Salford ; the other patented by Messrs. 
Elliott and Copely, and manufactured by B. and G. Kailton, 
of Blackburn. 

Colonel Andrew Derrom, of Paterson, U.S., has 
taken out a patent for forming bricks into very large blocks, 
to be used in the erection of buildings in sections. This 
work is to be done by boys, aided by meohanioal power. 

It is found by Dt, Walz that glacial acetic add 
forms an exoeUent solvent for iodine, certainly not inferior to 
alcohol. 

The forest produce of the United States, of aU 
kinds, amounts m value to at least £200,000,000 annually. 

Nearly every vice-royalty in Turkey has now i 
official paper in Turkish and the other vema^ilan. 



its 



AHVTJ AL IHTEBH ATIOHAL ! 



♦ 4iM 



onois. 



The Oouncil, having been informed tkt kr 
Majesty's CommlBsioneTS do not int«Dd to 
publish Reports on the different departmeDti of 
the Exhibition of the present year, and looking to 
the great importance to Arts, ManuftctirM,ffld 
Commerce that these annual displays shonldnot 
pass away without some record, have decided to 
undertake that duty, and for this purpose We 
engaged the services of gentlemen spedaBy 
skilled in the subjects of the several sedoita, 
to prepare such Reports for publication in tb 
Society's JoumaL The Council bowerer, 
desire it to be understood that, in poUubisg 
these reports, they do not necessarily adopt ill the 
views expressed in them, which must be taken 
as those of the writers only. 

The following report is the fonrth that his 
been issued. The remainder will appear u soon 
as tbey are complete. 



REPORT ON DRIED FRUITS. 
By Bichard Witherby. 

At the first sight of the case of dried froti 
shown in this section. Food Department, the idea 
arises that what are generally accepted as vm 
productions are currants, raisins, almtmds,^ 
and dates, and that the specimens taking 
the lead in this case are rather extnneoBi 
to the subject than otherwise. Upon farfw 
inspection, however, it is evident that t« 
samples are intended to bring to the bo*' 
ledge of the public the great perfection towlwi 
some fruits can, by simple artistic preparatna, 
be so preserved that the colour and tree »• 
tural flavour are retained. All crystallised B«a- 
factures are such as are known as green frmt a 
their original state, and these fruits can only w 
furnished to our use out of season b/ »ch » 
mode of preparation. 

The South of France excels any other foreign 
country in the preservation of soraefmite; *™ 
the care, labour, and expense bestowed upon tw 
manufacture, and upon their delivery in good cofi- 
dition into the English markets, cannot be oftf- 
estimated. We can trace the trade back tow 
year 1851, when a few specimens of prodncoco 
till then unknown were brought to notice, aw 
stimulated our English confectioners ^^ * "**! 
vellous degree, so much so, that in the gretW* 
portion of this manufacture in a good fruit m*^ 
son we now far surpass the French. A re* 
sorts may be particolarised. . 

In the first place, we excel and stand fint » 
the make of West India pine-apple preserf^ 
both for delicacy of flavour and appe*r»nc«« « 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Junb 13, 1878. 



685 



well as in an economical point of view. In the 
same way, we stand first as regards cherries, green- 
gages, and strawberries ; but, as has been said 
before, everything depends upon the season here, 
for if we have to rely on imported fruit, it is con- 
sidered, that although the transit is so rapid, still 
the freslmess is impaired, and the fruit more or 
leas broken and bruised. ^ 

Oar French neighbours carry away the palm 
from ns in apricots, green figs, and chinois, or 
french oranges. The specimens of all crystal- 
lised fraits shown in this case, and in fact of all 
dessert articles, such as ginger in syrup or dried, 
are of the best order ; it is seldom that so fine a 
dbowean be seen, and it would be almost impos- 
nble to improve upon it 

We now pass from the view of these more 
ittractive fruits to raisins and currants, and 
descriptions of fruit which are better known for 
CQHnary purposes; and there is probably no 
irtide of produce, the couBumption of which has 
generally so largely increased during the last 
half century as that under review. 

The demand about the commencement of that 
period was limited ; and the use of the various 
growths was looked upon almost as a luxury, 
the great consuming classes hardly knowing 
their value, except at Ohristmas time. But the 
gudoal reduction of duty in England put fruit 
«n a different basis; the public benefited 
Ipeatly, and the increased consumption stimu- 
lated the growers in Greece, Spain, and Turkey 
to cultivate and improve their vineyards. In 
tte year 1834, there were some attempts made 
n the Ionian Islands to monopolise the sale of 
evrants, but the legislative acts of those then 
d^ndencies on the British Grown neutralised 
^ attempt, and the cultivation was steadily 
pfomoted. 

During the last 20 years, the vast increase of 
iBiigration has spread our national taste far and 
vide, and at the present moment the use of dried 
Mts in the colonies is enormous. Germany 
lAd America likewise are large competitors with 
^ as buyers in the producing regions. 

The system known as "ring-cutting," or 
F^g a circle off the vines while they are in 
UosNm, is greatly practised in Greece. It is 
coQfidered to aid the secretion of a portion of 
the sap of the tree in the young forming berry, 
F^>dacing a heavier and more delicate fruit, 
vidi a thinner skin. The quality of currants 
)e judged by size and colour, which should be 
rf a pnrply blue. The red berries are either 
vnripe, or else the produce of young vines. 
Vines do not yield profitably after seven 
years. 

The weight of currants produced last year in 
Greece was 82,000 tons, of which about 46,000 
^ were coneumed ia the United Kingdom ; 
<Ad IS there is no use for this fruit other than 



for culinary purposes, it proves the very large 
service into which it enters. 

Raisins are known in many forms; the 
greatest production is in Spain. Here we see 
the ordinary pudding raisin (Valencia), which 
finds such favour with all classes of English 
people. London, however, is the great empo- 
rium for this fruit, the use of which is perpetually 
going on. A few years ago, a crop of 12,000 
tons, for the supply of the world at large, was 
considered heavy, whereas now (1872-1873) 
London alone receives 12,000 tons out of a total 
of 20,000 tons that are grown. As is the case 
with currants, so we have for Valencia raisins a 
very strong competitor in the American, and 
more especially Canadian buyers. The improve- 
ment in the article most observable of late years 
is in the matter of the stalk being picked off 
before shipment. 

Formerly stalk and fruit were hurriedly 
pressed. into boxes of 60 lbs. each, whereas now 
the Spaniards are careful to see the fruit better 
cured and packed into more handy cases. For 
the stalks no use has been found, and they are 
generally burnt. 

Muscatels, or table raisins, from Malaga, 
are an article of large use, and have a more 
extensive range of quality than any other 
fruit. They are known as layers, bunch, and 
loose, the last description being, as the word 
implies, picked off the stalk. This sort is largely 
used in Scotland, but again the Americans have 
an ever-increasing demand for this as well as 
for all other fruits. The finest growths of Mus- 
catels come to this country, and shippers spare 
no expense in decorating the boxes with coloured 
papers and lace edgings, thereby, it is said, adding 
to the cost £26 per ton. 

Sultana (Turkey) raisins show a vast improve- 
ment in quality during the last few years, which 
is shown by a brighter colour and greater delicacy 
of skin. This, and many other sorts of Turkey 
fruit, are cured in the sun, a slight sprinkling of 
oil being employed to prevent the too great 
evaporation of the moisture, and also to give the 
fruit, when packed and shipped, a better chance 
of preservation. 

Sultanas are mostly used in the manufacturing 
districts of England, and during the continuance 
of the cotton -famine, which caused a great 
reduction in the consumption of this fruit, 
there was so great an accumulation of stock 
in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, that they 
had almost to be given away. The Germans 
are large consumers, and the fruit is a source 
of great trade between Smyrna and Trieste. 
Eleme (Turkey) raisins are, as the title implies 
in the Turkish language " picked," and are used 
chiefly for export to our distant colonies, and for 
ships* stores. They are packed specially with 
this view, and are chiefly from the vines of 



586 



JOURNAL OF THE 800IETT OF ARTS. Juot 18, lOTS. 



Oarabottma and Yoaria, distriets in Am Minor. 

The greater proportioa of the raiBUis from 
Smyrna are known as '' (^leeme," ike name of 
an island near tke mainland. These are the 
Turkey grape, pore and simple, withont seleotion, 
picking of stalks, or any manipuiatkm whaterer. 
They find ready nse in onr eastern counties, bnt 
are the special featnre of fruit-trading betiween 
Turkey and all German ports. In London they 
are not in favour. 

There are vast districts in Persia where 
raisins are cultivated, but the difficulties of 
transit are so great, and the expenses of bring^g 
them to the coast so heavy, that they do not pay 
to send to England, consequently they are used 
for distilling and other local purposes. The 
Cape wines having failed to become popular, the 
grapes are g^reatly used for drying into raisins ; 
and although they chiefly find their way to 
Australia, they are sometimes imported into this 
country in small quantities. 

Distillation from fruit is annually increasing, and 
for this purpose we look to Turkey once more for 
black raisins. These are small grapes, cultivated 
without much care, but full of saccharine. It is 
much valued by British wine-makers, and forms tbe 
stock on which much of that delightfid beverage 
is founded. Much also is used in the manufac- 
ture of spirituous drinks at the place of growth. 
It has even been used of late years in Uie wine 
districts of France and in Paris for the creation 
of 6otsto», for the large propoKion of saccharine 
facilitates tbe prooees of fermentation. 

We pees to the last and not least important 
article received from Turkey — namely, figs. 
The growth is immense, and Eurofe and America 
seem never to tire of eating this firuit And 
here one word upon a fiscal matter; tbe 
levy of £7 per ton on figs is verv heavy on 
the consuming price, and it seacis to other 
oouD tries much that might come to this. These 
remarks apply more specially to Spanish and tbe 
lower classes of Turkey fruit, which might be 
utilised much more in England. 

But a few remarks on Turkey figs (a very 
fine specimen of which is exhibited) will be 
interesting. It is a matter of doubt by some 
whether the cultivation of this fruit is as 
careful now as it was some ten years ago. 
The merit of a good fig is a thin skin ; tbe 
seeds should be visible throngh the skin, and 
the fruit inside should be dark and luscious. 
In packing of figs there is no preparation, and 
the popular idea of sugaring is erroneous; in 
fact, the sugar would cost more than the froit. 
The figs of Aidin used to be celebrated, but the 
extension of g^wth has now brought all under 
one common character. The system of packing 
figs in ** layers," that is to say, of flattening each 
fig to give it a larger appearance, is one that 
has, in some respects, passed the bounds of pru- 



dence ; for if the fruit onoe be tpttt, it natofaDy 
ooeoTB that the strength departs, and, vmh tlM 
strength, the exquiute flavour, Which now iiai 
frequently lost for appearance' sake. The old- 
fashioned style of ^ damm*' paokiag is eadrelj 
exploded. 

FigB are grown in Italy, and also in Greece, 
both which countries yield fruit inferior to t^ 
Turkey produce in size, flavour, and regnlarity 
of packing, for upon this latter item rnoch of tki 
value depends. 

Association of ideas carries us from figs to 
another dessert fruit, namely, dates, the pro- 
duce of the North-west Coast of Africt, but 
chiefly from Tafilat, in Morocco, Tnuis, a&d ai» 
from Egypt. The component parts ofidite 
are various, and in tbe regions where it is culti- 
vated it is used as a nutritious food, and ii the 
support of many field-laboarers. This finiit is 
entirely used for table purposes. 

But we must refer to India for Ae date that 
pleases the consuming classes, and here we meet 
with an article that requires little or no cqIHti. 
tion — in fact grows nearly wild, and yet ii sent 
to us by thousands of tons, supplying mtterisl for 
food, for distilling, and for oonfectionery pnr- 
poses; it is the delight of the scho(Jhoy, the 
competitor of nuts at coantry fair8,aBd the/>^ 
de resiitance of the London street-stall in tk 
winter and spring, when no fresh fruits are mh 
tainable. l4tes prove what can he done wA • 
fruit free from all Customs' restrictioas. for tb«y 
are the free, untaxed, produce of the esrtk 
delirered to our oonsumers with no chifjj* « 
them beyond freight, and a moderate profit to 
merchants. 

Of almonds there can be but little of m^^' 
The exhibhed specimen is of the finest descrip- 
tion of Jordan (Malaga) almonds that is groj't 
and is used entirely for the table. The e^m 
descriptions are used for culinary matters ss «» 
as for dessert. The Mogadore sweet aid biitff 
jdmood, the i^cily, Canary, Alicante, Valswa 
almonds, are all used more or less for ««nf«* 
tionery, and to a great extent (the Ame*" 
grrowths) for expressing oil. . 

Of dried fruits proper there is little more tow 
said. French plums (imperials) are shown a 
this section, and remind us of great impw«- 
ments in quality and conservation. ^^^'J'' 
we used to see cardboard -boxes, from "M^ "• 
moisture of the fruit readily escaped ; not aof 
the patent capsuled tops of thrt glass *^*^fT 
tain both the colour, the flavour, and the fr»^ 
ness of the plums, and there ii little or w 
deterioration in quality for some y««" t^ 
enclosure. 

At the prewnt moment the F •^P^^ ^^ 
fruits for next winter are good, the promcf « 
yeariy increasing by the high sUts of caJti^ 
ti<m and enlarged knowledge of farmei*. lMt«» 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ART8, Jukb 13, 1873, 



687 



of bdog tn nnhitOTestiBg and unimportant article 
oftnde, it is now one of vast importance, both 
at borne and abroAd, while aa a source of revenue 
the rsUma show that about half«a-Biillion per 
umma is paid to th6 treasury. 



Th0 Bomber of Tisitors admitted to the Ezhihition on 
Thondsj, 6th init^ was aa follows .-—Season tickets, 
198; on ptyment of Is., 4,09#; fotal, 4,288. On Rrfdiiy, 
Mm HdcBkB, 158; on payment of Is., 3,640; totiid, 
2,798. On Sctorday, season tickets, 291 ; on payment 
ofU,4,267; total. 4,538. 

Tbe number of yisitors admitted to the Szhibition 
dming the week ending Saturday, June 8th, was as 
fcOovi:— Season tickets, 1,257 ; on payment of 2g. 6d^ 
1^; urn paymsBi «€ la., 27,602 ; toial, 80,284. 

Iks samber admitted on Monday was, season liokats^ 
IM; enpayiMBSof la, 2,793; total, 2«9ii£. QnTae*. 
dif, MMoa tickets, 162 ; on paymMit of Is., 8,147 ; 
ti^ 8,309. On WfMlnesday, season tioketo, 219; on 
lapsentof 2^ 6d., 1,472; total, 1,682. 



EZBIBITIOHa 



TEBNNA EXHIBITION. 



Tht AytffNvr «▼» the ^aUowiBif desenptioa of the 
exUbiti in the «" BeUer Sheds" at Viema :— 

Bcj^inning at the easterly end, and walking towards 
thev«iteTn extremi^ of the great machinery hall and 
beiuod it, we come first on a house contHining at the 
back two boilers^ and in the front, hardly yet quite 
bilked, s pair of pumping ensines intended to supply a 
kigit tide standing some 20 feet or 30 feet above the 
hmofthe grouna not far off, and to furnish condensing 
viltt Ib a number of steam engines near the east, or 
tal« end of the machinery haU. One of the boilers 
n of the Fiiirbaim type, made at the Grazer Waggon and 
lilKhi&e Works. The other is a tubuLur boiter by 
Baeehlp, of Vienna. Both betlera are of comparatively 
Mdl ase, tnd do not call for special notice. The 
fWp^reo^es are of rather unusual design. They 
>n^bf Fhuiec, of Lyona. They have veitio^ cylinders 
at Vaween veitieal A frames. The pumps are below, 
drirwi by the piston-rod direct; on top of the frames is 
t auk liiaft carrying an oval-rimmed fly-wheel at each 
■^ The engines are quite dktinet irom each other — 
on ^asdhig at one side and the other at the other side 
^fl>g ttgine-hoDse. They are well finished, but the 
d^D jboka to US aemewhat (ep-heavy. The Fair bairn 
bflflir is intended to snpply them with steam. The 
t«bdir boiler sends steam to engines in tbe main hall. 

The next boiter-hoose contains three big boilers by 
^ Iseh of th^ee oonstsi of two plain cylinders set 
■fc by ade, and fired by means of one hopper grate of 
^ a width as to suffice for both tubes. Gloae by, but 
^ia^ ssna hense, wiU bo foand a boiler somewhat 
■JiBaringeaeTal typo to those constructed by the Brunner 
Y^^ ^ driving their pumping engines, to which we 
^ reiPT praseoUy^ except that the water is contained 
■w tabes instead of being oatsida of them. A little 
™er on are two return tubular boilers of considerable 
■ft by Paocksch and Fi«uad, Landsberg, Prussia. In 
«««mehoase with these will be Iraad two very large 
*wwal boilers of rather remarkable construction. They 
J* ntt«d with a number of vertical water tubes flattened 
*nent shape, and uniting a water drum below with a 
'g y dram above. The grates are placed outside in two 
^ finaoes about 6 feet long, the products of oombns- 
nt bdag delivered over a Imdge right in asMOg tha . 



flattened water tubes, round which the heated gas circu- 
lates until it escapes to the chinmey, suitable deflectors 
being used to prevent its too speedy exit. These boilers 
are among the largest of the vertical type that we have 
ever seen, and they deserve attention lor that reason. 
The first cost of a Cornish or double-flued bc»ler with 
the brickwork, is very much greater than that of a ver- 
tical self-oontained boiler of the same power ; and we are 
pleased to see engineers striking out a new path for 
themselves, and experimenting on the advisability of 
substituting a chei^»er for a dearer t^^ of steam genem- 
tor in the moe of a good deal of preoadice. 

In the next house, as we proceed in a westerly direc- 
tion, will be found a large double cylinder boiler by 
Dingier, the upper cylinder being connected to the lower 
by tubes, or water legs. Further on we come to the 
boiler house of Sulzer, of "Winterthur, used in driving 
his flne SO-horse power horizontal engine in the Exhibi- 
tion. This boiler appeanr to be very well adapted to 
fulfil the aonditsens <fictated to the desiniar by the 
quality of the coal with wltkdi he ha» to deal, and that it 
is compat ativ ely cheap and vesy simpla asd safe. Close 
to 8alaer*s boiler house, the Fives Lille Oompany have 
put down an elephant bcdler, whioh reqakes ao speeial 
description. 

Beyond tfaia we oame upon tha English boiler house, 
ooBMssonehailer by Cater and Walker, of Souths 
oae Howavdaality boiler, two douUe-Aned boilers 
by Messra Adamsen, aid two douUe-flaed. boilers by 
Miasss* Oallowayi 

Tbafirstis *«OatBr's patent," the eoBstraotion of whieb 
is no doabt fomiliar to aaost of oar readers, 50-horse ^wer. 
The bailer erected by Messrs. Howard is very sinnlar in 
cenatmctioB to seven of 40*horse power eaek which were 

?ut up last year in the AustaiBa beet-reot sugar faolory. 
'ha Adamson boilers are each 40«'horse power, and one 
is made with steel shell platies^ solid wdded flue rings, 
and oircalatiag pifsa. The botlers by Messrs. Galloway 
are each of 50%orse power, woikiag easily ap to 200- 
horae power with good engines. The two famaoes in 
front unite at the bank in an ovaX flue, in whieh are plaosd 
twenty-fonr Oalloway tubea and four side pockets. The 
workmanship of all these boilers is admiraUe. and oom*- 
parcs very favounbly with that of tha boilers by eonta- 
nental makers, which, atthough for the most part very 
good and strong, are sehlom so well flni^ed as those by 
our ftfsi-elass &glish makers* 

Just beyond tha English botier hoase we come upon 
one in whicfa a small oylindrioal boiler by Petohin has 
been pnt down, and onr walk terminates at the pamping 
engine house^ in which the Srste Brunner Maehinen 
Fabrieks OeeaUsohaft have ersotad a very fine pur of 
engines and pumps for supplying the g^reat tank which 
forms so ooaspscuoua an object at the west end of the 
building. Meanwhile it will snflboe to say that the 
boilMs are two in number; each ooosists of a horisontal 
cylinder, at the further end of which is plaoed a drum 
standing vertically ; the drum is traversed by a number 
of vertical fire tnbest through whioh the produotaof com- 
bastiim escape. The amnfcement has never been used, 
so far as we are awsre* in this country, and it gives, wa 
understand, very excellent results^ as the tubolar portion 
ef the boUer is only exposed to a very mitigated heat, the 
intense fiame pWyiag first on the large surfooss of the 
cyliodrtcal portion of tiie botier. 



The following is a list of the awards made to English 
exhibitors at the International Cattle Show, held in eon- 
aeotion with the Vienna Exhibition, from May 31 to June 
9, by the international jury :— J, K. Fowler, Aylesbury 
(ahorthoma), medal for merit ; H. F. Smith, Bull (ditto), 
medal for merit; Messrs. Dudding, Wragby, Lincoln 
(ditto), honourable mention ; Lord Chesham (rams and 
ewes) (Shropshire bveed), medal for progrem; Lord 
Sondes (ditto) (Southdown), medal for progrem ; Lord 
Walsin^iam (4Uta} (ititto^ medal for profl^ 



588 




JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Ju»k 13, 1873. 



Swanwick, Cirencester fditto) (Cotswold), medal for pro- 
gress ; K. and J. Russell, Dartl'ord, Kent (rams) (Hamp- 
shire Down^, medal for progress; Messrs. I) adding, 
Wragby, Lmcoln (rams and ewes) (Lincoln, longwool), 
mfd^ for progress; J. Treadwell, Ailesbary (rams) 
(Oxfordshire "Down), medal for merit; T. Folcher, 
Tbetford, Norfolk (aitto) (Cotswold, Lincoln, Shropshire, 
Hampshire, and Oxfordshire Downs), medal for merit ; 
Russell Swanwick, Cirencester (pigs) (Berkshire), medal 
for merit ; J. K. Fowler, Aylesbury (ditto) (Berkshire 
small breed^, medal for merit ; E. Duckering, Kirton-in- 
Lindsey, Lmcoln (ditto) (Lincolnshire large and middle 
breeds), medal for merit; E. Kirbell, agent to Lord 
Cbesham, co-operators' medal ; and H. Woods, agent to 
Lord Walsingham, co-operators' medal. 



ENGLAND AND CENTRAL ASIA. 

The latest proposal made with the Tiew of £scilitatlng 
our interoourse wiUi Central Asia is that of M. de Lesseps, 
who has just put forward the idea of constmoting a 
great Central Asiatic Railway from Orenberg to tiamar- 
oand, Bokhara, and Peshawur, which would complete the 
line of railway ^m Calais to Calcutta. 

After the splendid snocess of M. de LessepB with the 
Suez Canal, English engineers rather hesitate to say 
muoh against any project put forward by him, but stiU 
little enoouraffement has yet been giTen — ^at least in 
Enp^land— to Uie <* Central Asiatic Railway." Perhaps 
political considerations alone are sufficient to prevent 
the aooomplishment of the schcrane; but, apart ^m 
these, it seems very questionable wheUier such a railway 
would really answer. According to a paper read at the 
last meeting of the Austrian wographioal Society by 
Colonel von Stubendorff, of the Ruiwian army, the line 
would pass through Aralsk, the valley of the Sir Darya, 
Tasohkend, and tne Qates of Tamerlane, as any other 
route would be impracticable. PVom Saraarcand to 
Peshawur the line would necessarily go through the 
Bamyan Pass and CabuL The Colonel further stated 
that it was now pretty certain from the researches of 
Colonel Sbemitsky that the old bed of the Oxus extends 
eastward from Elrasnovodsk in the direction of Bokhara, 
and that the construction of a line of railway along this 
dry river-bed from the Caspian to Bokhara and Samareand 
would be comparatively easv. Such a railway would be 
in direct communication with Europe by means of the line 
of steamers from Krasnovodsk to Baku and the railway 
from Baku to Poti wd Odessa. So far as the first portion, 
up to Samareand, is concerned, there merely remains 
the question whether sufficient traffic could be obtained to 
repay the cost of construction, or, if not, whether the 
Russian (Government would care to keep up the railway 
for State purposes and as a military road. When the 
Hindoo Koosh is reached, as has already been pointed 
out in an article on this subject by inwi, the engi- 
neering difficulties would be so faemendous, and the 
cost of overcoming them so great, that it is difficult to 
conceive how the first cost of oonstruction oould be 
repaid. Then, again, the traffic on this second part of 
the line, except the through traffic from Europe to 
India, would l>e inconsideraUe, on account of the nature 
of the districts traversed, and it is certain that the 
amount derived frt>m the coavwranoe of goods and 
passengers over the whole line from one end to the 
other, would be utterly inadequate for the support of the 
railway without the aid of considerable local traffic, 
much more than can reasonablv be expected. Doubtless, 
as the trade and resources of the vast countries through 
which the route would lie became more developed, such 
local traffic would gradually arise, but it would certainly 
be very long before anythmg like a retuiB from snd^ 
■ources could be expected. 

an^*^.";?^ ^ ■^•* pweent, therefore, it does not 
advantages, at least with regard to Engluid, over the 



older scheme of a railway direct through Turkey, down 
the Euphrates valley, and along the coui Ua« to 
Eurrachee and Bombay,* while it has, as comptred 
wi^ it, many serious drawbacks. Such a Une vodd 
be more direct, shorter, and mote easy of coaitnioliao; 
and, if it would not help the impoita&t qoeitioo U 
opening up this vast district of Ceolral Aria, it woold, 
as a highway to the Elast, be more convenient and direct 
than the new route* 



Trades Omld of Learning.— A oonfereuoe ii to bi 
held to-mo(Tow (Saturday), the 14th of Jane, at iht Sodctj 
of Arts, fur the purpose of eetabliahiiur this caiid,iBd de- 
termining its constitution ; the chair wiu be takea at etrra 
a.m. bv Mr. Morl^, M. P., and at three p.m. hj Mr. 
Mundella, M. P. It is stated that a nomber of gestk* 
men have engaged to attend, **but whether the oore- 
ment is carried further will depend upon the atteodyM of 
the working men themselves at the oonlereBea." The neai 
tooposed are : — ** 1. The fonaatioa ol dsaaas for fn^al 
instruotion in various trades, in art workisanahip, oi ia 
sdentiflo knowledge, both theoretie and pcactioal, ooasedid 
with those trades. 2. The delivery of oooraes of keM 
accompanied with questions to and from ths atodoti, ud 
followed by voluntary examinations. 3. The holdiif ft- 
nodical discussions, eonversazumi, and social meetingL i 
The giving prises for essays, poems, sonn, &e., to beiM^ 
recited, snd sung at stated festivals of the gvild. fi. The 
formation of libraries and reading-rooms, ludli, asd dabi 
(where the classes, lectures, &o., oould bs eoadaelid); tki 
establishment of museums, exhibitiQBS of paistiog ad 
sculpture, industrial exhibitions, art-workdum, kc',mi 
the utilisation of all such existin|^ sgmcisa. o. The ia^ 
tution of sch o la r ships and exhibitions for praonMf mi)i 
in primary schools, to enable them to attead higher woih, 
instead of being sent te work at an sszly ar* ifBd, k ax- 
oeptional oases, to send them to oollsgs. f. The mi^ 
ment of a visiting or organising agent 



JCEETOrOS FOB THS SVSUDIO WSEt 



Victoria Instatote, 8. ICr. J. a Fhea^ ^'^'^^ 
Traditions and Cnstoms in r'^^j^"*^^ with See m 
Serpent Worahip." 

Bqyaf United Beniee Ihskitiits, 8|. t St.HMlha. 
S.N., ** On Improved Liii BoofS, sad a Mf^ 
Deok Bafts for Saving life at ttea." 1 Mr.BpM 
OrtiBtha. *' On hia Bow and Sten Soew SUp." 
TQis....8tatidiQia8odety, 7}. 

Aathropoiogioalliia«itate,6. ,^^ 

Zoolotical,l|. 1. Dr. A. Leith Adaoa, "OsfteO^ 
logy of the MalteM FOadl £l6phanta,bdif ate^ 
tion of remaina disoorered kr the author m lull 

betwesa the yean 1860 and 1808." ^^-^L^ 
** On the Oeograpliical DiatiihotkA of laatie Bii^" 

Wbd. .. JCetaorologioal, 7. Annual Msstinff. 

Tm7BS...BojaI, 8^. 

▲ntiqnanes, 81. 

Linn8Ban,8. 1. Dr.Hookw. «*0ftthe8iiba]plBiJM*- ' 
tion of Kihna-njaro," bj J. D. 1 Dr. P. M. ftjnjj 
**0n the Derelupment of the OynoMinm «vim 

Method of Impregnatioo in. Pr^iwaJaHfy*'- 

Caiemical,a 1. Mr. Horace Brown,** On t^b*"*? 
of Preaaaie upon FenatmUHon** (Ptai II). > fjj' 
H. Gladstone and A. Tribe, ''B e eea r c h t i oatoy^ 
oftheCopper-Zino Couple onOrnakJSoditflU^i" 
•n Normal and laoimipyl lodidca.** 1 Dr. ^vf- 
Qladatoae. **0n CymeaeaikomdiAnBtMaMMfJ^ 
caUv conilder«d." 4. Mr. W. fi. P>«Wa. "^ » 
Action of Brtuntne on AUxarine." 6. Mr. B. L. KJ* 
and Dr. G. K. A. Wright, •* On aone D*"*** 
and Ozidatkm ProdaoU of MacphiBe aad Oidciai^ 



a Byacflmane MmetaiogtQai Jfoiaei i i iiaiiu w. ,^^z^ 
monicationa fremtheLabeiatacxoftheUwaatf^ 
tution. No. Xn. 9. Dr. H. B. AnnatrongaadCt. 
Field, ** On New DwhwUrm «f QaaoL" 

Nnmiamatic, 7. Annoal Mestinf . 

Philosophical Oob, 8. 
Fai Fhiloi^eal, 8i. o.*u.ttei 

Aaaooation of Diocesan Inipeetonb 1 (AtthaBfiCd 

or THB BoasTT OP Arre.) ....»«.-—*• 

Bat..... Association of Ohnr^ TMcbanb 11* (lithaltevv 

TBB BoOiaTT OF ABTC.) _^_ 

• Sea Mr. Hydt CIarfcf*a paper on the aal^aotlatht^i*^^ 
Nof. 34, 1S71. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIBTT OF ARTS, Jumb 20, 1873. 



689 



IflURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,074. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JUNE 20, 1873. 



•• foe ffti SooLttu rtOMM te addruMtd to Out Bttnton^ 



ANHOFSCEMENTS BT THE COITHCIL. 



PIKAirCIAL STATEMENT. 

The following statement is published in this 
week's Journal^ in accordance with Sec. 42 of the 
Society's Bye-laws, which provides that, at the 
Annual General Meeting, the Council shall render 
to the Society a full account of their proceedings, 
and of the receipts, payments, and expenditure 
during the past year ; and that a copy of such state- 
ment shall be published in the Journa I of the Society 
on the Friday before such G^eral Meeting : — 



TREASURERS' STATEMENT OP RECEIPTS, PAYMENTS, AND EXPENDITURE, 

FOR THE YEAR ENDING MAY 3l8T, 1873. 



Or. 

£ t. d. 
rv» Cub ii hand of Coottf and Co., 3Ut 

lfaf,l8T3....~ „ 662 16 8 

Do. do. Seovtary 9 7 

ro SilaBrtpUoDs recelTed doring the year 
fron Memb«n and loatliationa in 

Ctttai 6.783 17 6 

UfcCoBtdbatloiu 399 

S DMI«ds 00 Stock . — 

Conoli,£4^14 60.8d. ^ 144 19 6 

Redteed 3 por cento., £1,966 Ot. lid.... 41 6 10 
K«T3jnrorato: — 

I>r.FottofUr«Trut,£388 l8.4d.... U 9 
Qml lodiu Peolncala Oiaaianteed 4 

P>r «Mt. Rallvar Dtbontore Stock, 

tUW 86 7 

ISiMOBootbay- and Baroda Onarantacd 

«»lhi»7 Stock 121 9 7 

<MM Code and Bohlloond Qua- 

nUttd lUilvay Stock 120 19 

Villrii. United Stotea Funded Bonds 

im,ei»tt609 la.3d 12 11 9 

h Mtmt Oft Deposit Aooonnt irith 
Jf«^ Contttand Co.,£«00 

> nlKilptioni and IXm^tlons : — 

5i*w»«nt Fund. 200 8 

IfaMtfal Window Fond 67 6 6 

* "T i t p attotn ; — 

nePriBoeC(N»ort*a Prize 26 6 

K«T»10««r>pliioal Society*! Prises... 6 

CttitdMairFees „ 6 9 

f!«v!iiitB, Books, Ao 6 3 4 

CHkvUctarcs 3 2 

Jtwub .r. 126 16 

K«Hn. i. M. Johnson and Sons, 

■imtiwmeoto 278 17 

Jwylitorts 3 

|«risd Edneatlon 60 

MllOonaittce 219 17 7 

raAOownittee « 30 

TMaiolBxaininatioiui 147 16 

^tlUMttoM:— — — 

^ AbmI lattraatkMial 

(Bwtsad Office 24 8 6 

({MOtABKnUaalnstttnU 660 

lluTy'iEtdiings 10 10 

^l^bflBMsBovaid 



£ 8. d. 



663 9 3 



6,182 17 6 



638 1 8 

< 10 3 

267 U 6 

36 14 



416 18 4 



447 13 7 

63 10 6 

684 18 6 

600 



Cr. 

By House and Premises :— 

Rent, Bates and Taxes 

Insurance, Gas, Coal, and Honse 

Charges 

Bepairs and Alterations 

By Office :~ 

Salaries, Wages, and Commissions... 

Stationery and Printing .>,. 

Advertising 

Postage Stamps and Parcels 



t s. d. £ 8. d. 
694 14 S 



206 17 
367 1 



1,167 12 3 



1,814 10 4 

312 10 10 

61 18 11 

146 9 7 



By Jounudt including Printing, Stamps, 

and distribution to Members 

Library, Bookbinding, Ao 

ConTcrsasions 

By Union of Institutions, including 
Examinations, Prises, Postage, 

Printing, Ac 

Prince Consort's Prize 

Technol(^ical Examinations 



2,325 9 8 



1,949 7 10 
116 18 10 
223 7 11 



2,289 14 7 



649 10 10 
26 6 
46 2 3 



By Society's Albert Medal 



»» 



Medals 



21 7 
48 14 



6 
6 



By Exhibitions:— 

Annual International . 
East London Museum. 



By Committees:— 
General Charges ... 

Cab 

Channel Steamen 

Drill 

Food „ :... 

Indian 

Musical Education 

Life-boat 

PosUl 

Stove Competition 

Silk 

Steel Prise 

Premiums General 



96 16 
10 11 



620 18 1 



70 1 11 



97 6 11 



37 7 


3 


4 10 




9 




328 14 




129 7 




93 




19 4 




4 




13 16 




1 10 




3 16 




6 





16 12 8 



By Memorial Window Fund (postage, Ac.) 

Barry's Etchings 

Law Charges 



By 



Poohase of £680 4s. lid. Beduced 3 per 
Cent. Stock. 

Purchase of 2L600 dols. United SUtes 
6 per Cent. Funded Bonds, 1811 

Deposited with Messrs. Contts and Co. 



By South AnstraliaQ Institnte 

Blenheim Instltatlon 

Cantor Leotores 



7 
62 6 
16 18 


8 


8 


627 6 

610 9 
266 




6 



237 13 

13 16 

276 8 


4 
6 
9 



646 16 1 



76 6 4 



Cash in the hands of Messrs. Contto and 

Co., 31it May, 1873 

in the B6oretiury*s hands ...«..*... 



1,392 16 S 



626 16 • 

9,202 16 t 



«t 



478 

17 



8 9 
6 t 



£9,696 6 1 



£9,996 i 1 



590 



JOURSAL OF TBR SOOTBTT OF ARTS, Jijhb 20, 187». 



LlABILITIBB. 

£ • 

To Soiwlry Creditors: — 

Sir W. C. Trevelyan (for Prtee) 

Memorial Window Fund 

Prince Con»«>rt» Prlte 

N rth Lnndon Exhibition Trust 

Kxaiiilnation Prizeal>o»Iety'i) 

Do. Mr» Harry Chester'! Prteo 

Examiners' Fees 

Rents, Rates, and Taxes 

Tradesmen's i Ills 

South Australian Institute 

Blenheim Literary lostltuta. New 

Zealand 

Mosieal Scholarship 

Teohnulogical Examinations Fees 

Do. to Balaooeof 3ubaorl^«as*. 



d. £ fl. d. 



100 








321 


13 


9 


26 


6 





t 


9 


9 


130 








6 








133 


7 





28 


10 





9«l 


9 


8 


446 


1 


3 


1 


3 


t 


60 





• 


62 


10 





50 


8 


9 



By Elcea of Astett orer LtobilltlM 



2,313 12 9 



«6,484 IS 6 



£7,798 6 a 
NoTB.— *The return of Prixet awarded has not yet been received. 



Absktb. 

£ t. d. 
By Boolety's money inreifced in — 

Reuuced 3 per Ctmt. Stock, 
£1,956 Os. lid., at 921 less reserved 

to meet t'usts stated below 1,436 

Consols £146 19s. 6d.. at 93^ per crnt. 13B 18 11 
Great Indian Peninsula Railway 4 pa* 

cent Debenture Stock SOO 

Oude and Rohilcund and Hoobay 
and Baroda Guaranteed Debenture 

Railway Sutck 365 2 7 

Eepoait Account with Measn. Coutts 

and Co ,,..*.^ 600 

Subscriptions of the year 

nncolieeted £1,670 

Less IS peromt. .»... 236 >0 

1,334 10 

Do. of former years on- 

plM ^. S,l(^ 

LessOOperoent....^ 1,061 10 

l,«l 10 « 

Barry*B Pietares and other property .» 3,000 6 

Prince Consort's Prize % i 

Royal Horticultural Society ^ 16 

Mrs. Harry OhesteKs Prise 6 6 

Jumrmaitt by Advertiiements and SiUes 142 la 4 

Cash in hands of Messrs. Coutts and 

Co., SUtllsy 478 3 9 

Do. in hands of Secretary, petty c^ii... 17 6 1 



£ 6.4: 



7,309 1110 



• 4 



£7,736 6 

P Lb Khvb Footeh, Stenimf. 



Stock and Cash Standino is the Namb oP thb Socibtt. 

Consols ....„ ..,.. £4,914 

New 3 per Cents. ^ „ 388 

KeouoeQ 3 per ( enrs. •..•• • ...... ........ ... •.. .. •.... •..■.••.•...•••••#■...••...•.• 1.^056 

Great Indian Peninsular Railway 4 per Cent. Guarantcod Debebtare Stock 2,170 

Oude and Rohilcund „ ,, „ „ 2,460 

Bombay an<l Bauida ,. „ „ „ ...... 3^450 

Cash in hand of Measrs. Gootts and Co., on deposit » ........ 600 

Dnited States 2,600 dole, five per Cent. Fiuded Bonds, 1871, cost „•«.»... 



6 8 
1 4 
6 11 









I 







s 



Trust Funds includbd in thb abotb. 



Swinev's Bequest « £4,600 

John Siock's Trust 100 

North London Exhibition Trust 167 

J. Hurray, E>q , in aid of u Building Fuiid^. .. 60 

Subscriptions to :ui Endowment taud 226 

Dr. Aldred's Bequest „... 90 

Thorn 8 HowH' d*s Bequest 600 

Fotherg II s Trust 388 

Dr. Cantor's Bequest 6,049 





7 

7 


1 
9 





3 




4 
7 



Alfred Davis's Bequest 1,800 

Memorial U indow Fund 32113 

Sir W. r. Trevelyan's Prize 100 

Musical *<chol ir>h ps 60 

Technical Kxaminations Prises, &o 60 3 



Consols, chargeable with a sum of £200 once In fire years. 

„ „ „ the Award of a Medal. 

„ „ ,, Award of the Intereac as a Money Priw. 

Invested in Reduced 3 per Cent. Stock. 

Do do do. 

Do do do. 

Do In United States 6 per Cent. Ponded Bonds 1971. 

New 3 per Cents , charpeAble with the Award nf a Medal. 

Invested in Bombay and Baroda and Oude and Rohllenxtd 

Railway Debenture Stock. 

Invested in groat Indian Peninsular Guaranteed Railway 

9 I 

g > Deposited with MessfB. Gootte and Co. 


9 




Th^ Reeeipfa of the Soeieiy 9et forth abofA have been credited hy Messrs, Coutts and Co, 
The Payments set forth almve have been made by authority of the Council. 

The AMSctSf represented by stock at tlie Bank of England, and securities, annd ijf e^sh balaned at Messrs. Qn0s\ 
duly verijlcd. 

J.UCB8 T. Warb ) 

Society's Hon^e, Add phi. l7th June, 1873. Ed WARD Brookv I 



ASKUAL OSKEBAL XSETDrO. 

The One Hundred and Nineteenth Annual 
General Meeting, for tlie purpose of receiving: 
the Council's report, and the Tre«eirrer8* state- 
ment of receipts, payments, aad exponditure 
during the past year, and fiJao for the election 
of oflBcer$, will be held, in accordance with the 
By^^lftWs, on Wednesday next, th« 25th of June, 
•t four p.m. 

ic^L^^^ hereby oonyene a i^peml General 
-il«tii* of the Membew of the Society to baUot 




for members, such meeting to take place 
close of the Annual General Meeting. 
By Order, 

P. Le K£Y£ Fostbr, S& ud0§ ^ 

Society's Btonte, Adelphl, Jnat l«, tSTSL 



COHFXBXVCS. 

The Twenty-second Annual Conference betwidri 
the Council of the Society and the represeotatitd 
of Institutions in Union, will take place at ^ 
Society's House, on Friday, the 27tfa June. TU 
ohair wilLbe taken at 12 o'clock, by Mijor-G«Den 



JOURNAL OP THB SOOIBTT OP ABTTS, Jinni 29, 1873. 



in 



\ SiiDurr-WiLifOT, B.A., F.B.S., Ohaimmn of 

ooDciL 

Secretaries of Institutions and Local Boards are 
^quested to sead, immediaiely^ the names of the 
^eprasentativeB appointed to attend the Conferenoe; 
od eariy notice should be given of any subjects 
lich hutitations or Local Boards may desire 
Mir representatives to introduoe to the notice of 
be Conference. 

OOWBBSAZIOirS. 

lie Society's Conversazione will be held at the 
Nitli Kensington Museum, next Friday evening, 
7th Jane. 



i**^afc^tT« 



I ■BTTi 1~ T fc»*^ 



nOCSBOISGS OP THS SOCIETT. 



miAOBDIVAET MSBTIVG. 

in extraordinary meeting of the Society was 
il (a hiday, June IStii, at 12^ o'clock, the Bight 
m. the Earl of Dbkbt in the chair. 
Ihe Paper read was — 

I THE PUECHASE OP THE BAILWAYS 
BY THE STATE. 

97 William Oalt 

k 1S44 the legialatare considered it desirable to 
M an Act enabling Oovemment to purchase, on 
to meoified terms, all the railways in the 
iM Kingdom that from tiiat time forward 
■■W be constructed. To protect, however, the 
Necta o! the shareholders, and gpive ample time 
^ nation and the legislature to obtain sufficient 
H*«»of the working of the present system, it 
^eaacted that twenty-one years from the pass- 
im the Act shouli elapse, before any change 
W be effected, or the rights of proprietorship 
W way interfered with. The Act came into 
Won, or, more correctly speaking, might have 
fc bought into ox>eration, in 1865, and the sub- 
ty have this day to consider is, whether or not it 
■■iwblft, in the interests of the nation, to carry 
'Jhe object for which this Act was passed. 
■■** We proceed, however, to consider our im- 
•■*» wbject, it is necessary to give a sketch of 
^railway legislation previous to 1844, It was 
^ fitxtsapposed that railvrays to a great extent 
P wpersede the ordinary turnpike-roads and 
■• B» the conveyance of passengers and mer- 
■Wt and consequently no special provision 
[^•de against such a contingency. The com- 
•CTe noerely bound to admit the engines and 
' f of other persons on their Hues ; it being 

iby the legislature that there would be no 
r— J in carrying out such an arrangement, and 
^ we public would thus derive all the bt^nefit 
S«topetition on railways that hitherto they 
^Wjtt accustomed on the jommon roads. 
•W a Committee, which included among its 

the late 8ir ElobertPeel, reported in the 

tewns that this sort of competition was 
^ v^Mctioable but undesirable, and that 

»<g«u\hHne must hold it as amonopoly. . 




'* It will be found," said the report " to be the 
opinion of some of the witnesses that the interests 
of the several companies and the public can never 
be at variance, and that the managers of these great 
establishments, acting with an eimghtened view of 
their own interests, will always have a due regard 
to the general advantages of the community. A 
main object which the directors of a company 
must have in view is to obtain a ffood return for 
the capital expended, while it is the primary in- 
terest of the public that the intercouse should be 
regularly maintained with the greatest safety, 
speed, and economy. Oases have idready arisen in 
which the interests of private companies and the 
public have been found to be opposed to each 
other, and it appears probable that, in proportion 
as this new system shall supersede other modes of 
travelling, other inconvenient consequences will 
ensue, unless some authority be established to 
watch over and protect the interests of the public. 
The fear of a rival line may in some instances be a 
check on the conduct of a company, but there are 
few districts in which the public will have any 
opportunity of selection, and obvious and serious 
difficulties must arise of canying this means of 
control into execution." Such was the opinion of 
Sir Bobert Peel and the Committee of which he- 
was a member, on the relative position of the com- 
panies and the public, when of course the supposi- 
tion of oompetition on a railway by rival carriers 
and others had long previously passed away. 

The next idea that took possession of the public 
mind was that by having ** competing lines," as 
they were called, competition between the com- 
panies would necessarily follow, and that device 
no doubt for a time partially succeeded. These 
lines, many of them quite unnecessary, were con- 
structed at a vast outlay of capital ; violent competi- 
tions, by fits and stai^, at exceedingly low charges, 
took place, but the companies soon became aware 
of the folly of such proceedings ; amicable arrange- 
ments followed, and amalgamations into large 
groups, comprising some twenty or thirty com- 
panies each, dissipate the dreams for ever of those 
who imagined that any possible scheme could be 
devised by which competition among railway com- 
panies could be maintained, or the railway traffic 
of the country be anything else than a monopoly, 
in whatever hands it might be placed. 

Let us now direct our attention for a moment 
to the Continent, and contrast the principles on 
which the people of Belgium established their 
railway system with that adopted in England. 
Belgium was the first of the Continental king- 
doms to recognise in a practical manner the good 
results to be derived from a well>estabished system 
of railway communication throughout the coimtry. 
Lines were accordingly laid out by eminent engi- 
neers throughout the most populous districts, and 
constructed at the expense of the State, under 
the immediate control of government. The end 
aimed at was, not the gain of the speculator — for 
there was no speculator — ^but the extension of the 
traffic and communication of the county to the 
utmost limits of the public capability. The pro- 
ject undertaken by the government was an estab- 
lishment which was intended should neither be a 
burden nor a source of revenue, and required 
merely that it shoiidd oover its own expenses, and 
S^y government interest on the invested capital. 



5»2 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jmm 20, 1878. 



When the project, wbioli afterwards became law» 
was introduced into the Belgian Chambers in 1834, 
there were not wanting advocates to recommend 
the course that we were pursuing in England, and 
leave the whole traffic of the country to what was 
called ** competition." M. Rogier, the Prime 
Minister, stated in a very few words the deter- 
mination which government had come to on the 
subject, and the reasons for that determination. 
** The state of affairs,*' said he, '* in which com- 
petition corrects the evil does not apply here ; 
whoever holds the railways holds a monopoly, and 
that should only be allowed to exist in the posses- 
sion of the Dtate, subject to the responsible 
advisers of the Crown." Now, if a volume had 
been written upon the subject, it could not have 
more clearly expressed than in that brief sentence 
of the Belgian Prime Minister, the subject-matter 
of what we are called on to discuss this day. It 
will, I think, be universally admitted, that 40 
years' experience of the working of our railway 
svstem confirm the truth of his first proposition, 
that the traffic on railways must be a monopoly ; 
how far the alternative proposition that they should 
be in the possession of the State would be an im- 
provement, is with us an open question. 

Now, I freely admit at the outset that the advo- 
cates of this great organic change in our rail- 
way system are called on to make out an over- 
whelming case in support of their views, before 
they have any right to ask the coimtry to adopt 
them. It cannot be denied that what they de- 
mand is wholly opposed to the traditional policy 
of this country ; as much so as that of free-trade 
is to the commercial policy of the Continent, or of 
the United States of America, or of our own 
colonies. But it does not necessarily follow that 
our railway system is sound because it is in accord- 
ance with our traditional policy, nor that free- 
trade is wrong in principle, because in almost 
every nation but our own the doctrine of free- 
trade is considered altogether fallacious. We are 
accustomed in this country to follow the wise 
policy of leaving our great industrial works to 
private enterprise; but, in the present case, the 
question at issue is, whether or not railways, which 
have become the high-roads of the country, belong 
to an exceptional class of industrial works of such 
a nature, that it is only when they are in the 
possession of the State the public can realise all 
the advantages which such a rapid and economical 
means of communication is calculated to aJTord. 

I propose to consider this subject under the fol- 
lowing heads : — 

First. — The complaints against the working of 
the present system, and then the benefits which the 
advocates of State ownership and management 
contend would be gained by the public if the 
former system was abolished and the latter substi- 
tuted in its stead. 

Second. — ^To discuss the arguments generally 
used in opposition to what is commomy called 
*' Government management." 

Third. — To examine the clauses containing the 
compulsory powers of purchase in the Act of 1844, 
with a view to consider how far they are effective. 

Fourth. — If they should be found ineffective, to 
discuss the probability of a voluntary agreement 
be^ coma to with the Companies. 

Fif ih.^To consider if the extension of the Irish 



railway system by the State might }>e tbe m^euis d 
enabling the British public to come to » practical 
conclusion as to the desirability of the State pur- 
chasing the British railways. 

Sixth, and last. — Assuming for argument's sak*' 
that it would be found desirable that the Stater 
should become the owner of all the railways in Ha 
United Kingdom, and that they cannot be obtain*^ 
on what the legislature should consider equitaWf 
terms, what resource, if any, would be left to thf 
legislature P * 

The two first divisions have reference to ih 
theory of State purchase, and the four latter to its 
practical appHcation. 

Now, if I fully understand the object of thb 
meeting, I think our discussion should be confined 
to those subjects I have specified, and that we 
should not wander into extraneous matters. The 
theory of State purchase may possibly be shown to 
be unimpeachable, and the arg^umenis advanced in 
its support unanswerable ; but, on the other hand 
it may be proved that the enormous difficolties thst 
would attend such a gigantic operation are of 
such a nature as to render hopeless any attempt to 
overcome them. Our object is to discnss the 
principles of political economy, and statistki in 
reference to the ownership and management of 
railways alone, and above all things to endeavour to 
obtain figures and calculations as nearly accurate 
as possible, as regards the sum for which the rail- 
ways could be purchased ; for that matter is quite as 
important as the soundness of the theory of par- 
chase. It is, no doubt, true that political and 
social relations enter largely into the general 
question, but I trust that you will agree with me 
that this is neither the time nor the place to entertain 
such matters. Above all, I must strongly deprecate 
attacks being made on the management, and coo- 
sequentiy the directors and managers, of our nil- 
ways. There is not, I believe, a more able body 
of men in the kingdom than the managers of oor 
great railway companies, and speaking of them as i 
body, I have no doubt they are desirous to meet the 
wishes of the public, so far as that is oonsisteBt 
with the interests of their employers. They aK 
quite capable of defending themselves if attacked 
and if charges of alleged mismanagement, in n- 
gard to accidents or omer matters of complaint— 
which will happen under the best managemeat— 
are permitted, rejoinders, of course, must follow, 
the discussion will be turned from its legitimate 
object, and we shall altogether fail to accompli*^ 
the object for which we are here assembled. W« 
shall now proceed with omr subject. 

In 1843 there were 2,200 miles of railway com- 
pleted, at an expenditure of about 90 millions, sn^ 
even at that early period of our railway hiitoTy 
great dissatisfaction existed in the public min«i« a*j 
regards railway management. ** The lais»ezf*v^ 
system,*' said Mr. Poxter, in his " Progrees of tt*j 
Nation,*' *' which is pursued in this country, t^i 
such an extent that it nas become an axiom witli 
the government to undertake nothing, and to in^ 
terf ere with nothing, which can be aocomphdMN^ 
by private or individual enterprise, or by th*t 
associated means of private partaes, has beifi 
pregnant with great loss and inooiiTemene* to ^ 
country in canning forward the railway igrrttti» 
Perhaps there never was an ooeasaon in whtut Um 
govenunent with equal propriety cowld hvn iu 



JOURNAL OF TDE SOCIETY OP ARTS, June 20, IS. 3 



593 



tcrfered to reconcile the conJQictiiig interests 
inToIved, and to prevent public injury arising from 
the false steps so likely to be made at &Bt in 
bringing about a total revolution in the internal 
commmunication of the country." 

It was at this time— in 1843 — that, so far as I 
am aware, the idea was first mooted, that the rail- 
ways shoidd be purchased by the State, and be 
managed under the direct supervision of Govern- 
ment. A few individuals, of a rather speculative 
turn of mind, and having the example of the work- 
ing of the Belgian system before them, thought 
that it was not too late to retrace our steps, and 
adopt that of Belgium, by the State purchase of 
the railways. These gentlemen had a great deal 
of zeal, but very little practical knowledge of the 
subject on which they undertook to enlighten the 
country. They formed, of course, a railway re- 
form association, made speeches generally to each 
other, heldoneetings which, I am afraid, very few 
attended, and issued tracts and pamphlets by the 
score to all whom they considered should be in- 
structed on rail way management. Their programme 
was very bold and decided. Government should 
at once pass an Act, without asking the directors' 
or shareholders' leave or license, take the railways 
into their own hands, pay the shareholders the| 
market price of the day, lower the third-class fares | 
to half-a-farthing a nule, and every other class in i 
the same proportion; and so the association i 
struggled on for about a year, untU government i 
determined to deal practically with the matter, i 
and their brief existence came to a close. | 

There was considerable anxiety manifested in the 
railway world in the early part of 1844, when it 
became nunoured that government intended to 
introduce a sweeping measure in reference to the 
purchase of the railways. The expediency and 
policy of such a prospect was much discussed in the 
press, and then, as now, opinion was much divided 
on the subject. The Quarterly Bemeto of April of 
that year had a powerful article on railway manage- 
ment, in which it truly and forcibly alluded to 
the Imperial dimensions the question would one day 
assTUue, and the manner in which the writer 
believed it would have to be dealt with. After 
somniing up all the arguments in favour of govern- 
ment purcnase, the writer thus concluded: — "It 
is impossible not to see that the system, by develop- 
ing^ itself to such an extent, penetrating all dis- 
trict*, superseding all other communications, affect- 
ing every species of public and private interest, and 
acting as the life-blood arteries of the empire, as 
to render it probable almost to certainty that the 
time must come when this great public trust can 
no longer be left to the management of private 
coznp»anies scattered over the face of the country. 
In truth, it seems only a question of time ; railways 
must be made subject to some imity of manage- 
ment » and, through whatever intermediate process 
it mAy pass, that management must finally be vested 
in tlio government of the coimtry." 

Now, what was the first popular outcry in the 
coantry against the companies? It was the 
aDe^ed ill-treatment of the humbler class of pas- 
B^D^era, and I cannot better illustrate this com- 
^liiu&t than by reading a leading article in the 
jffatf»^ whidi appeared m December, 1842. It was 
follows: — "We have received communications 
correspondents, imploring us to main- 



tain an advocacy for the poorer class of railway 
travellers, who have to avail themselves of the 
stinted accommodation afforded by the leading lines, 
and desire us to urge the necessity of more comfort 
and facility in their transit than they at present 
enjoy. It would appear, from the facts stated in 
the several letters received, that little choice exists 
in one more than another, and that all the great 
lines are as parsimonious as they possibly can be in 
providing comfort or convenience for those having 
the misfortune to travel in third-class conveyances. 
The manner in which the Great Western treat this 
class of passengers is described as worse than any 
other pursued, the only trains by which they for- 
ward them being used for the transit of coals, 
cattle, and merchandise of all descriptions. For 
instance, it is stated that a third-class passenger 
leaves Paddington in an open carriage, no di&r- 
ence being made to counteract wind or weather, at 
half -past four in the depth of winter. When he 
arrives at Swindon, he is detained upwards of an 
hour, and at last gets to Bristol, if the train keeps 
its time, in nine and a half hours, while the first 
and second-class carriages make the journey in 
less than half the time. If a third-class passenger 
wish to go on to Taunton from any place east of 
Bristol, it is alleged to be still more inconvenient, 
since he is detained from four to five hours in 
Bristol, and is kept on the road, at a moderate cal- 
culation, from fourteen to sixteen hours ; whereas, 
on the other hand, first and second class pas- 
sengers arrive at the same destination in six and a 
half hours. These are strong statements, and, 
unless satisfactorily explained away, must sooner 
or later come witlun the managerial scope of the 
Board of Trade, the authorities of which body 
would do well to see that fair and adequate provi- 
sion is made by all the railway companies for the 
conveyance of the poorer classes during season- 
able hours of the day. Railway directors have at 
present the exercise of too much irresponsible 
power, and therefore imagine they can deal 
with the public as they choose. They must, 
however, be mindful not to carry it beyond 
proper bounds; for though much good may 
have been achieved by the construction and 
successful competition of intercourse by means 
of this system of commimication, it remains to bo 
seen what will bo the actual results of this de- 
scription of management, should it, without some 
superintending po>Yer, b^ left entirely to the 
judgment of the persons who have the whole 
exercise of this power. It may possibly prove a 
useful hint to have said this much on the subject, 
without pressing more severely on the attention 
of the several railway boards the necessity exist- 
ing for some amelioration of the plan at present 
adopted in the conveyance of third-class passen- 
gers ; for, regarding them in the light of national 
improvements, raised on the foundation of tho 
nation's wealth, they must be considered as m- 
tended to furnish a comparative convenience to 
one class of the public as well as the other.' Such 
was the article in the Times, and it fairly re- 
presented the feelings of the entire nation on the 

subject. A, XI- -J * 

Let us, however, look now to the other side of 
the question. If the shareholders in the rwlway 
companies professed to be a body of philMi- 
thropiBts that had constructed the railways for 



594 



JOURNAL OP IHE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juhb 20, 18T8. 



the public benefit, quite regardless of profit, and 
whose special vocation was to provide for the tra- 
velling wants at fares which they did not consider 
remuneratiYe, nothing could be more reasonable 
than this appeal to their feelings; but the com- 
panies made no pretensions of the kind, they were 
composed of hara-headed men of business, who had 
made a contract with the State to provide for the 
wants of the public — a duty which the latter had 
declined to undertake — and the public, conse- 
sequently, had no right to appeal to them ad 
muericordium, and beg them to do something not 
in the contract, and threaten them with pains and 
penalties — like the beggar in ** Gil Bias,*' when 
ne presented a gun in demanding alms — if tkeir 
prayers, or rather their demands, were not complied 
with. What right cotdd be urged in favour of 
such a demand r The companies* contract was 
to carry passengers at three-pence a mile, and 
they had, of course, a right to enforce that charge 
on every passenger who travelled on the railways ; 
but they were actually, at the time when this 
piteous appeal was made to their charity and their 
fears, carrying those passengers at less than half 
the price they were authorised by Act of Parlia- 
ment to charge. 

The next grievance complained of was that 
first and second class passengers were charged high 
and arbitrary fares. It was at one time a matter 
of some nicety, and gave considerable anxiety 
to a board of directors and their manager to fix the 
fares, when their line was opened, at the exact 
point that would best pay. That knowledge was 
only to be gained by adopting a sliding scale, and 
by going through the process of alternately raising 
and lowering their fares till those that would pay 
best were ascertained. Now the difRprence in 
profit to a company between high and low fares, 
as we shall hereafter see, is not much. On some 
railways it is more profitable for companies to carry 
many at low fares, than the comparatively few at 
high fares, on other railways it is just the contranr ; 
all depends on the nature of the trafBc and the 
localities through which a line may pass. With 
railways that paid fair dividends, the changes in 
fares were not very great, seldom exceeding ten 
or twenty per cent. ; but it was very different with 
the unfortunate class that paid very low dividends. 
The directors, attributing, perhaps, their want of 
success to not having charged high fares, made the 
most extreme and sudden changes in order to dis- 
cover the best paying rates, and the tarifi* would be 
raised thirty, fifty, or one hundred per cent., as the 
case might oe ; or should they have oeen of opinion 
that the original fares were too high, reductions 
wotdd be made accordingly; however, all these 
changes made but comparatively little difference in 
the profits of the companies — as fares increased pas- 
sengers decreased, and as fares decreased passengers 
increased, though not in exact proportion. By 
this means each company was able to ascertain and 
fix the best tariff for its own interests, and as a 
matter of course, without any regard to the 
interests of the public. Nevertheless, these 
changes in an upward direction caused great 
dissatisfaction, although the proceedings of the 
directors were perfectly legal. As a general rule, 
however, throughout the country the directors 
came to the conclusion that what was called 

moderate fares" paid best, and that two-pence, 



three -halfpence, and one penny per mile, for the 
several classes, yielded the largest profit. 

I may notice here incidentally, that there existed 
at that time the erroneous belief, that chsrgw in 
this country could never be reduced to a low ec^ 
on account of the great cost of our railways. In 
reviewing a work of mine, published in 1^ 
advocating the adoption of the Belgian tariff, tbe 
Quarterly Review observed: — " Let us look at ^ 
expense of making the respective lines, as stated in 

Mr. Laing's Keport — 

Cott of eonstroctloD piriit^ 

I 
Average of the 71 railways of EDgland..H^ 
Average of Belgium 17,110 

Will any one pretend to say, that a thinff which 
costs £40,000, ought to be furnished m oetail to 
the public as cheap as if it had cost only £1T,000? 
But is it not curious to find that the average ex- 
penses of the Belgian lines turns out to be a) 
exactly the one-half of the average of tiie British 
lines, as are the fares on the railways?" It if 
scarcely necessary to observe that not the moit 
remote coimection exists between the chsrgH that 
Moll pay best on a railway, and the cost of the 
line. The fact of a railway costing £10,000, or 
£100,000, or half a million per mile, ha* not Ae 
slightest consideration with the directors in tog 
their charges. If in some cases a company, wlw« 
line cost £100,000 per mile, would make ai higfc 
charges as on other lines that only cost £10,OW 
a mile, they would be soon ruined. 

What, then, is the present complaint igiia^ 
our railway system, as regards the conveyM»o^ 
passengers ? It is this ; that the public do not 
derive the full benefit from the existing lownte 
at which they can be conveyed by railway. Th 
cost of conveying passengers, under fsTOuniii 
circumstances, is less thui the twentieth pwt ^ 
the cost of conveyance on ordinary tarnpb 
roads. It is no part of the duty of directon to 
consider if it would be for the public adnnli^ 
to carry the few at high fares, or the many it ^f^ 
fares ; not only so, but they would be d<^iirti>| 
entirely from their duty if they allowed th«» 
selves for a moment to be influenced by»eh* 
consideration, to the detriment of their d»»- 
holders. A railway company is simply a t»^ 
company, authorised by law to make eert» 
charges to ihe public for specified work to be4<a^ 
and the duty of the directors towards tlifflf ^^ 
holders is, while keeping within the Wtlrf^J 
law, to obtain the largest return for theiifW** 
capital. With the public loss or gain th^^* 
nothing to do. Under such a system, ™* 
monopoly of the conveyance of passengers thwBff^ 
out the country, it must be obvious thit ■> 
national interests are entirely subservi^t • 
private interests, and until the system is »bohi«i 
the evils which it entails must neoesssnlT " 
continued. , 

The working of our railway system as reg"* 
the conveyance of merchandise, is bitterly «*" 

Elained of throughout the whole of the octm^ 
y almost every class engaged in mercantile tnjj- 
actions. The main charges preferred again^* 
companies are — 1st. Excessive charge* ooinp«||IJ 
with the cost of conveyance. 2nd, Arbitiaiy*"n 
exorbitant rates imposed upon some towns » w^j 
parison with others. 3rd. Befosing to sepsw 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTB, .JFuhb ..ap, 1878. 



69$ 



the rates for carriage from terminal charges. 4t«h. 
Tk great isjuiy to tlie trade and commerce of the 
ooun^ from the want of unity of management. 
ith. The refusal to publish a list of charges from 
stadoD to station of the several classes of goods. 
Tbeeridence taken before the joint committee last 
session in reference to the proposed amalgamation 
of the London and North- Western, and Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire Company abundantly bearont 
iD the charges, and is published in a very large 
Tolum9. It is of conrse impossible for me to 
enter into any details as to evidence. I shall 
<mly refer to the great port of Liverpool as a 
typical case ; and a score of other towns, similarly 
drcumstanoed, might be named. 

The liveipool Chamber of Commerce, com- 
posed of '* bankers, merchants, brokers, ship- 
owners and others enj^aged in commerce," for- 
wuded to the Prime Iklinister, in March last year, 
i BMsnorial to the following purport : — 

They stated that for many years they had been 
^bing their attention to the question of the ex- 
senre and especially of the unequal rates levied 
ij file railway companies on the traffic to and 
from lirerpooi, as compared with the rates charged 
kt the same goods for similar distances to and 
hm other parts. They state that the trade of 
Impool is essentially a transit trade, the 
^Bapotti fpr the most part not being con- 
ttned in it, but distributed mainly by rail- 
Vs^ OTer ^e country, and that tne exports 
«« for the most part not contributed by 
liyeipool, but are sent for shipment from York- 
Aoe, Staffordshire, Lancashire, and other places, 
4Bd declare that a system which obstructs the 
Wand carriage of goods to and from Liverpool by 
im in^Kwition of heavy tolls and charges, must 
fad to drive the trade to other places more 
ftvoorably located, and must prove hignly injurious 
fc tte port of Liverpool. 

& memorialists further pointed out that this 
tis no idle fear on their part, for that already, in 
ttBseq^ieDoeof these differential charges, a consider- 
ne^tmoiint of traffic had been diverted from 
Uvopool, to the injury alike of the individual 
fader and the port, and that the extra charges 
tttso imposed as to force the traffic out of its 
iMfarsl ooannels, and enable the railway com- 
i|B0(8 to offer a bounty to divert it into channels 
wfflgh which it would not otherwise flow. 
, Us result of this policy, the memorialists went 
Ijftto state, is that consumers of imports and pro- 
wen of exports in the great and populous district 
w4idi Liverpool is the natural maritime centre, 
Me hardened with a tax and restricted in their 
ye > in order that improfltable extensions of rail- 
Nfs in other directions may be made to pay ; and 
ps-nunnorialists contended that such a system was 
■> mjostice to the consumer, an injury to trade, and 
F^Bpsftura from those principles of public policy 
1^ which all concessions to railway companies 
(■nld be based. 
&e memorialists further stated that they con- 
this Question of the amalgamation of the 
i«kd If ortb- Western with the Lancashire 
■Taiksbare company as one of the most vital 
inpoctant to whidb their, attention had ever 
^i fa so t od, that in their opinion the magnitude 
i.JBtsraita touched by the proposed amalga- 
ot the two great cariTing. companies re- 



ferred to, divested the Bill brought into the Com- 
mons House of Parliament for that purpose of its 
private character, and gave it a claim to prominent 
consideration amongst the public measures of the 
session ; and that a thorougn revision should take 
place of the terms on whi(£ the railway system is 
allowed to enjoy a monopoly so injurious to the 
traffic of the country. 

The result of that and similar memorials ad- 
dressed to the Prime Minister is well known. A 
i'oint committee of the leading members of both 
LOuses was appointed. They sat nearly the whole 
of last session, took a vast amount of evidence, and 
ultimately came to the conclusion, inter alia^ **that 
it was impossible to lay down any general rules 
determining the limits or the character of future 
amalgamations." They drew up a most able and 
valuable report, giving a very full history of our 
railway lenslation, and recommended the appoint- 
ment of a Board, *^ to enforce the harmony, work- 
ing, and development of the present railway and 
canal systems.'' An Act of Parliament has been 
passed in accordance with the reconmiendation of 
the committee, and the Board has been appointed. 
So far as their powers go, this Board will, no 
doubt, be of some use. But the main grievances 
referred to in the memorial are untouched, viz., 
high rates and differential charges, as the com- 
mittee could not recommend Acts of Parliament, 
in which the companies were interested, to be 
altered or partially repealed without their assent, 
which of course they refused to give. The Bill 
for amalgamation, as you all know, was unani- 
mously thrown out by the committee to whom it 
was referred a few weeks since, without calling a 
single witness opposed to it. The committee, no 
doubt, considered that it would be better to forego 
for the present all the vast advantages which the 
extension of amalgamations is calculated to confer 
on the public, rather than create an enormous 
monopoly which would confer on the company 
uncontrolled power, and yield them increased 
profits, without the slightest guarantee that 
Liverpool, and other great towns similarly 
situated, not only might receive no benefit 
whatever from the change, but be liable to have 
their position made still worse by the united 
power of the. two companies amalgamated into 
one. But, passing all this by, are the oompanies 
liable to censure for the course they adopted before 
the joint committpe P Was it from any animosity 
they felt against the town of Liverpool, or a desire 
to injure its trade ? No such imputation was ever 
made against the directors, all of whom are men 
of the highest position and character, and several 
leading merchants in the town, deeply interested 
in the extension of its trade and commerce. Nor 
was it from private individual interests ; no such 
imputation was made against any member of their 
body. They acted merely as other trading com- 
panies woiild act under similar circumstances. 
The law m^ve them the right to impose a heavy 
tax on Liverpool and other towns similarly 
situated, by doubling or trebling the rates in their 
district ; such impositions in their opinion yielded 
a profit to the company, and consequently their 
duty to the shareholders required them to main- 
tain their rights. Now, if theemnpanies had been 
content to let the matt^ rest on mat plain, com- 
mon s^nse footing, I must confess that X oonaid' 



596 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, Juhb 20, 1878. 



their vindicatioii would be complete ; but some of 
their advocates, with more zeal than knowledge, 
contend that their policy confers a great benefit on 
the country gener^y, ** by giving protection and 
encouragement through low rates to distant towns, 
whereby they are able successfully to compete with 
other towns more favourably situated, greatly to 
the public advantage." There always are two 
ways of stating a proposition, and the liver- 
pool merchants would probably formulate the 
same proposition something like this — **The rail- 
way companies carry merchandise at rates 
which ^eld them good profits to Lancashire, 
Yorkslure, and Staffordshire from very distant 
towns, but we, who are favourably situated 
for communication with these surrounding dis- 
tricts, are charged three times the ordinary rate at 
which merchandise is carried to and from other 
towns ; thus our trade is greatly injured, and as 
these extra charges necessarily fall upon the con- 
sumer, the public in consequence heavily suffer. '* 

A very intelligent witness from Liverpool, Mr. 
C. Clark, after describing the manifold grievances 
under which the town suffers, and in reference to 
one especially, thus sums the matter up : — ** The 
idea, 1 believe, at the bottom of it all is this — 
there are three great places which compete for our 
sugar traffic — three grea.t centres of tiie refining 
interest; one at Bristol, the otiier at Liverpool, 
and the third at Greenock. As regards Liverpool, 
Providence has put us considerably nearer most of 
the large towns where sugar is consumed than is 
the case with Greenock and Bristol, and I think 
the railway companies have got an idea that it is 
their mission to redress this inequality, ordained 
by Providence, by making the same rate, or pretty 
nearly the same rate, for the long distance as they 
make for the short one, to deprive the consumers 
of suear of the advantage which they would 
naturally derive from being able to obtain it from 
the place which is nearest to them, and where 
sugar could be most cheaply carried. I really 
beBeve that that theory is at the bottom of it.'^' 
Without exactly concurring in Mr. Clark's opinion 
as to the motive which infiuences the companies in 
dealing with the several towns so differently 
situated, there can be no question that they are 
carrying out "protection** in its worst form. 
The ** protection * which was part of our policy 
in days gone by was directed against the 
I* foreigner,*' who threatened to bring cheap com 
into the country, but the " protection"' in the pre- 
sent case is made use of against our own country- 
men, and in a manner equally injurious to the pro- 
ducer as to the consumer. Li Liverpool there are, 
perhaps, fifty merchants who compete with each 
other for the trade of these districts, and the 
fallacy that lurks at the bottom of the company 
theory is that there is only one trader there who 
has a monopoly of all the traffic. 

To illustrate this more clearly, let us put a 
hypothetical c-ase. Suppose that extensive coal- 
fields were discovered witnin some twenty miles of 
London, of good quality and sufficient extent 
to supply all the inhabitants with abundance 
of fuel; there would, no doubt, be rejoicings 
at the prospect of the gr«at reduction in price 
that would naturally be expected from sudi 

Li!S??Jr Tv ?''*® SJ '*''^- Paterfamilias would 
calculate that as the carriage of coal from the 



North costs seven shiUings a ton, the six shOlingi 
saved would go into his pocket, but Paterfinoiliii 
would be grievously disappointed; the same pro- 
tection that is now given to the districU aooot 
Liverpool woidd be extended to London, compe- 
tition would be maintained by charging to ik 
coal market the same carriage for the 20 miles u 
the 200, and thus the public would derive no bene- 
fit by the discovery. 

Among the remedies for railway gnenitees 
suggested by several of the witnesses (qamDed 
before the joint committee, a hmitation of tb 
companies' dividends appeared to find mA 
favour. In the minds of many people there 
seems to exist a connection between moderate 
dMdends and moderate charges, and they beHere 
that if companies were reskained from paying 
dividends beyond a certain per-oentage on their 
capital, the public would have the beiusfit of ^ 
surplus. It was recommended by these gentknen 
that in order to prevent the companiet from 
avoiding reduction of rates by not dedariog^ 
whole of their actual profit as diridoids, tint it 
shoidd be the duty of a government dCTartmat 
intrusted wiHi the revision to see fhat m ictud 
profits, however employed, did not exoeed the 
legal amount. That would, in fact, 0T« tiifi 
government officials the complete oontrw of ft« 
expenditure, with the right to decide how expawi 
should be charged as between revenue and oaprtaL 
This, to be effective, must extend to every dqurt- 
ment of a company's business, and give go«nh 
ment a complete control over the expaAtar^ 
Such an arrangement would be altogethCT inii* 
missible. It is no part of the duty of a govwuBflJ 
to employ its officers in managing the fiMno«« 
a company, or in otherwise interfering with their 
business. But as regards railway companifis, from 
the time they obtained their first Act till the oih« 
day, when a commission was appointed to i^gol* 
their afiairs, committee has bewi appointed sfl* 
committee, and commission after conunisiiflBito 
regulate railway companies. " The cry is atffl^ 
come," There has been a constant interfw^ 
on the part of the legislature, urged on liy » ™" 
satisfied public, to an extent that never ha« **■ 
thought necessary with any other class of J<^ 
stock companies ; but if the companies sw »• 
charging a delegated trust without w^J ^ T* 
mor^ responsibilties that should attadj to «* 
office — if tneir position is such that in gji ^f ^ 
the public the full benefit that might be dam* 
from low fares and equitable rates on nsl^Tjj 
they would sacrifice to a greater or less extas 
the interests of their shareholders, it is snrdy^ 
for the nation to consider the desirability of t*iB| 
back the railways into its own hands, and rfjj 
for us now to consider what in such case um 
benefits would be. 

As railways have superseded to a great 
the highways of the country, it will no^ 1 
sume, DC questioned by any that the greatest 
sible facibty of transit for passengers and g 
should be afforded to the public, and that the 
for passengers and charges for merchandise Ai 
be reduced to the lowiSt possible rate oonff' 
with the pigment of working expensdB and itf 

on the capital invested in the ^'^^^^^^'^^^^^^^^fTt^ 
lines. I nave endeavoured to show that '"jf^ 
present system the public are depdrtA d ton 



JOURN M. OP THB SOCIETY OF AOT6. . Jo*» 80, 1878 



;e97 



hmt&k a otherwise miglit ei^oy, and we har^ 
iMHr to ooamder in wbat respects the tnoMfer o^ 
Ae miliPftjs to the State would bo advanta^ooas. 

Idiraoted yomr atleistioa a little time ago to tke 
fBtytaaportBat liot that within certain Limits, and 
«> for as our experienee ^foes, ^ere exists very 
}SllA» difleroioe in the dividends of a company, 
wkteyer may be the fares adopted witbin these 
iimits. I was examined before the committee of 
1644, and gave examples of about a dosen oases 
in which companies m search of the best paying 
isres made all sorts of experiments, varying 
fmn }d. to 3d. a mile for first class, 
td. to 2d. for second, and ^d. to Id. for 
third, and that in no case would the dif- 
ference in money received amount to one per 
ant. on the dividends. In later times, till within 
fte kit ten or fifteen years, we have i|ad some 
loDg and ^lent conto^ between some of the 
Ifii eompaaies, in which they suffered con- 
■ienbh, Imt I Only know one case in which the 
^Ndand has decreased to the extent of 1 ^ per cent. 
BnJB^ the summer of 1857 we had the London 
iadKoiih- Western and ^e Great Northern Oom- 
paai canying first and second class passengers 
Wveen Londcm and Manchester, giving return 
tyajlifand allowing fotir dear days in Manchester ; 
fts^rtanoe was 400 miles, and the fares 7s. 6d. and 
4a, fl|aal to 3s. 9d. and 2s. 6d. each way. These 
Mnvngt have interfered to a great extent with 
ft^Rtieral passenger traffic of both the oonpanies 
ii 111 the large towns in the north of England, 
ii&oagh the excursion traffic to Manchester paid 
^Tit flxoeedingly well, yet it was said that by its 
■Metonce wil^ their other traffic the companies 
MtMly one per cent, dividend. 

falmstop for a ni<»nemt to inquire into the cost 
•jt^fcwe excursion tcains. They were, it is need- 
hn to say, well filled, and carried, I have been 
Wjana n average, about six-hnndred passengers 
■ I^f'Uo hundred first, and four hundred second- 
jm taswpgers, the fares for the double trip 
^■Wtoigto £17^. The cost of a train that year 
lyia fle was two shillings and sevenpcnce. The 
«Me expense of each train, both the direct ex- 
|nn «id Its proportionate expense for raaoage- 
"2^ ^BHie to fifty guineas, leaving a profit of 
^^iwo hvudred and fifty per cent, on the con- 
^^9*MS of passengers by each train. On ordinary 
yjfattthe profit is about 100 per cent., which may 
to as muchas to pay a dividend of Rve per 
'fT^weseethatinthiscasc thefares of the pos- 
were, for first dass, each hundred miles 
WWUing and nine pence, and forr second-class, 
P* ttnlages comfortably cushioned, one shilling 
JJitwtt-penoe, or a penny for seven miles ! Many 
p* ^ases might be quoted of long contests be- 
PJ>I» oomnanies for passenger traffic at very low 
peg, in which all sizffSered more or less. One of 
pnost memorable of these wiis the cootest about 
JJ^ years ago between the Caledonian and the 
PU«rgh sad Glasgow Companies, in which the 
if^ mdenly reduced their fares between £din- 
fc|fi and Glasgow for the three dasses from 8s., 
5*** 4«* to Is., ftd. and 6d. This foolish contest 
*o«tmued for a year and a^half , and cost the 
and Giasffow Company neady 1^ per 

ir dividen£i. 

^^ <Mgoely necessary to say that to ordinary 
* low fates do not apply ; they only show 



the very low rate at which passengers can be con- 
veyed, and the oampavatively little diffeNnoe in 
profit between high and low laces. 

Let ttS'See how this knowledge would be praoti- 
oally apphed if ihe railways were in the possession 
of the State. We will assume that ^e legislature 
wished to reduce the lares one*half . What would 
be the extra expense for conveyance of the in- 
creased number of pass^igers ? Mr. Stewart, who 
was for twenty years secretMury to the London and 
North- Western Con^any, gave very vi^uable evi- 
dence before the Boyal Commission in 1865, regard- 
ing traffic arrangements. He said that the pas- 
s^kger trains were not on an average more uian 
one-third filled— two- thirds of the seats being 
empty; and that the additaoiial expense to the 
company would be very trifling if all ^e seats 
were filled. Indeed, it must be obvious tiutt 
whether an omsibiis canies three passengers or 
six, the additional expense is very small, and so 
with a train that is only partially filled. Under 
these ciroumstanoes iAke additional expense would 
be v^ry trifling. But a company woidd naturally 
prefer carrying three passengers at sixpence each 
to six at threepence each, and that fact makes ^e 
diflBrence in position between Ctovecnment and the 
companies. 

The witnesses examined before the ]iU>yal Com- 
mission aaid the Joint Committee agree that there 
would be an enormons saving in wocking expenses 
by the amalgamation of &e companies. Mr. 
Stewart stated that if the whole toaffic of the 
country was wozked harmoniousdy together, there 
would be a saving of 20 per cent, in the working 
expenses' — ^in the London and ^orth-Westera they 
would be able to save ^£600,000 a-year. Otiier 
competent witnesses oakmlabed it at 25 per cent. 

In aditition to thu gx«at saving, if the railways 
were bought at a fair price, and the shareholders 
were paid in Government stock, there would be 
a very large profit to the State, inamtuoh as a 
£100 raflway share pa3ring 3 per cent, is wor^ 
only £6Qy bnt Government stoec paying the same 
interest is worth £92. That is a matter, however, 
to be discussed when we eoaae to the Act of 1844, 
and in the meantime it is as wdl not to count the 
chickeBS before they are hatched, or to estimate 
yet the profit to be derived from the purchase. 

It would be almost imposrabie to over-estimate 
the value of the boon that would be conferred on 
the mercantile community by tl^ abolition of those 
heavy grievances of which they complain, and of 
which we have such abundant tesHmony in the 
evidence given before the Joint Committee. The 
establishment also of a low, and to some extent 
uniform tariff, for parcels and packages through- 
out l^e kingdom, somewhat similar in prindple 
to that of ^e Post Office, would also be of the 
greatest advantage to the countrv. 

Gentlemen connected with railways could give 
ais very useful practical information in regard to 
the increase of passengers that might be expected, 
assuming that the fares were reduced to one-half 
their present amount, and what loss they would cal- 
culate on if their reflective companies made that 
reduction. Would it be a permaneKt loss or tem- 
porary, and to what extent woold it affect the 
Yahte of their property P 

As regards what is called '^Government ma- 
nagement," liiat of the railways, like the tele- 



598 JOURNAL OF THE 800IETY OF ARTS, Jun 20, 1878. 




graphs, I should imagme, would undergo little 
change. There would^ no doubt, be a board, or 
commission, or council, whateyer the name might 
be, composed of a few of the leading directors and 
managers of our great companies, who might 
feel inclined to accept such an ofBce, presided 
oyer by a responsible Minister. Why such a 
board should not well and ably manage the rail- 
way property of the kingdom I am uniu>le to con- 
ceiye. The gentlemen who would undertake the 
office, instead of spending half their time, as their 
duty calls on them to do now, in concocting 
schemes of attack on or defence against their 
neighbours, would be able to deyote that time to 
a much better purpose in concerting measures 
with their old opponents, and extending the trade 
and commerce of the country by reducing charges, 
and, so far as possible, equalising rates, and 
thereby satisfy all classes of the community. Or 
the railways, amalgamated into one system, might 
be managed under the direction of a board some- 
what similar in its constitution to that of the joint 
committee of last year. On that committee were 
men of the highest administratiye talent, weU 
yersed in the management of railways. 

The political becuring of the question I don't 
think we are called on to discuss. That we may 
leaye to others. Should the railways eyer be pur- 
chased by the State, we may rest quite assured 
that the country and Parliament will take good 
care to settle it on such a bcuis as to depriye it of 
allpolitical significance. 

We haye now to consider the Act of 1844. It is 
not generally known that this Act was passed after 
encounieiing the most yiolent opposition from the 
railway comjMuues, who opposea the Bill in eyery 
stage of its progress through Parliament; and 
when it ultimately became an Act it was quite a 
different measure m>m that originally introduced 
by Mr. Gladstone. The object of the companies 
was to render the Bill totally inefficient for the 
purpose intended, and accordingly they put forward 
Captain Laws, then manager of tne Lancashire and 
Yorkshire Bailway, and a most able man, as a wit- 
ness before the Committee, and he ultimately suc- 
ceeded in haying eyerything pretty well his own 
way. His recommendation was that the companies 
should haye ** a sum equal to 25 years' purchase 
on their annual diyisible profits, estimated on the 
ayerage of the then next preceding years, but if 
a company should be of opinion that the said rate 
of 25 years' purchase is an inadequate rate of pur- 
chase of such railway, the company shall be entitled 
to reauire that the rate of purchase, instead of being 
oalcmated on such ayerage rate of profit, shall be 
taken at a yaluation, to be determmed, in case of 
difference, by arbitration." In this short extract 
I haye embodied the seyeral clauses bearing on the 
purchase of the railways, and by the interpretation 
of these clauses is to be determmed the manner in 
which the yalue of railway property is to be 
assessed, and the pa3rment whion the companies, in 
the eyent of purchase, haye a right to demand. I 
niay, perhaps, mention here that I was examined 
as a witness before the Committee, and, at their 
desire, furmshed them with a return of the then 
existing i*aalways, and the cost of each, with their 
market value, so far as that could be ascertained, 
as many of them were not finished or quoted in the 

Share UgkJ^ i diyided them into two dasses. 



The first contained all the principal railirajB in tiie 
kingdom ; they were forty in number, thej had 
cost £59,630,000, and their mazket Tihe wm 
£76,734,000. The second Usi contained all & 
railways in course of construction, and aesri j eom- 
pleted, and cost then £8,160,000, aadtheirnbi 
was £11,613,000. So that all thecaintalstU 
time inyested in railways amounted to £67,790,000, 
and its market yalue might be taken at £88,347,000. 
In the course of examination before the Comm^iM, 
I gaye it as my opinion that the maiket iiheol 
the railways, wh^er to become the property of 
the State then or at any future time, mail ten 
the basis on which the terms of purchase sbooldte 
settled. The Committee, howeyer. were not of 
that opinion. 

1st. We shall now consider the tenns of par- 
chase by which the State is to purchase a pnpeitsf 
that has cost nearly £600,000,000. When ^ Act 
of 1844 was passed. Consols were at par, and lai- 
way property was worth in the market 23 yeiii' 
purchase. In recommending 25 yean' poidtaM qd 
the ayeraffe diyidends, the committee, itodoidit, 
intended uiat the companies should have a boia 
of 10 per cent, on the market price, bnt at ^ 
time goyemment stock was exceptionaDj iQgb, 
and railway stock was in the same poaitioo. Wboi 
goyemment stock fell, railway stock natuiDj ie9 
with it to its normal ayerage rate of 20 year^ pl^ 
chase, and assuming the principle of Taloatkm to 
be correct, the companies would receiTe 25 p» 
cent, instead of 10 per cent, aboye the Taloe <A tiWf 
property. 2nd. Assnming that the vahe d ^ 
property could be estimated by the profits ^^ 
extending the ayerage oyer three jetat wow 
introduce a disturbing element, and make the «- 
culations utterly useless — a railway, for iii^a^ 
that for the three preceding yean had iM&ifr 
creasine in yalue, and had paid each year teM^ 
tiyely uiree, four, and fiye per cent., wooMoj 
be paid at the rate of four ner cent, alfltfipi 
at the time of purchase, it would be paying fi^j^ 
cent., and on the other hand, a railway ^kaas 
the three preceding years been decreasing in nh^j 
and paying fiye, four, and three per ceni, w»| 
be considered of the same yalue — ^that is, ti^on*" 
ways, one paying fiye and the other tto< pg 
cent., the shareholders of each would each be M 
the same price ! 3rd. The Act says that the edj] 
panics shall be paid 25 years purchase on "v 
diyisible profits,** and the general opinion iiM 
" diyisible profits" is only another term far^ 
dends, but that is a great mistake; tiie g * 
meaning of ** diyisible profits'* is the b^^* 
company has in hand after paying its w onJt 
expenses ; but before the ordinaiy BhttwJJ 
receiye their dividend aU other charges mw* 
first x>aid, guaranteed stock, preforontial tM 
debenture stock, and locms, on all of wh icnMj 
interest or diyidends must be paid at pn^ 
out of the "divisible profits.'* NowpooreJ 
panics, with bad credit and a nazrow wxm 
must, on loans espedally, pay a rery high, •»»' 
many oases exorbitant rate of interest, 
necessarily keep their diyidends veij 
but as original shareholders would hare all 
benefit of the 25 years' purchase <«^ ^ 
profits, many companies would be paid at the 
of three or four per cent, out of their profit*, 
neyer as shareholders receiyed half that 



JOUBlf AL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jonb 20, 1873. 



599 



in diyidends. 4th. The theory that the value of rail- 
ways, or» indeed, any other kind of property, can be 
estunated by the interest or dividend which it pays is 
idtogether erroneons, although it is a very material 
elonent in the calculation ; but the intrmsic value 
of the stock of two railways may be just as 
^Jbreni in credit, and consequently in value, as 
the Oovemment Stock of two countries. It would 
be s very easy matter to confirm the truth of this 
$t»temeni by a reference to the share lists, show- 
ing the position of the several companies, but that, 
^ ooQZBe, I am not going to do. There is nothing 
I have stated on this subject but every gentleman 
pnaent connected wxtb railways is as well or 
wtter acquainted with as I am ; but it is not so 
vith the general public, who are under the im- 
preison tibat there exists an Act of Parliament by 
fi^x^ GoTemment, with the assent of the legis- 
latne, can pnichase, on eauitable terms, the rail- 
wm of the countiy, and that there exists no 
fifienlty with the shareholders. 
Bot, it may be asked, what reason can be as- 
BgBed for the proceedings of railway companies 
N> that, with the perfc^ knowledge that the 
lima of purchase was utterly worthless and 
aodd ne?er be carried into effect, their repre- 
woiatiye, Captain Laws, not only acquiesced in 
i hut Bctoally suggested it ? The answer is 
Mtm, The railway directors, as I have before 
Aifed, irere bitterly opposed to any measure that, 
ite it the time or prospectively, could in any 
nj interfere with their monopoly, and they were 
■nged to the last degree when not only that' 
m threatened, but a law was about to be passed 
liddi might take that monopoly eventually 
it of thor hands. They knew that it was 
^ovible to successfully oppose the bill and 
ttvBQtan Act being j)a8sed, and they considered 
w the wisest policy — and they were wise in 
krir generation — ^was apparently to acquiesce in 

tm i&fffital^e, but at the same time so concert 
plans that the object for which the Bill 
io pass could not be effected. Lest, however, 
I ikwid he supposed that I have in any way 
pggerated the violent opposition the Govem- 
M had in the first insteuice to encounter from 
w xithray interest, permit me to read a short 
KtfMt from the close of Mr. Gladstone's sx>eech 
f aumiiff tiie second reading of the Bill : — '' I do 
^^ mi he, . " shrink from the contest. This 
Uhas been represented as an attack on railway 
N|ferty. I contend that this measure, so far 
bm beinff a measure of violence of an extreme 
rdoabtfiu character, is a measure of the utmost 
V^vtance; and that the option of revision or 
vduae is characterised by the utmost temper- 
d^ and moderation, and feeling that we have 
M uid justice on our side, I say that, although 
p railway companies are powerful, I do not 
l&k they have mounted so high, or that Parlia- 
Bkt has yet sunk so low, as that at their bidding 
ahall refuse your sanction to this Bill." 
Qie lU^al Commission, in their Beport of 1867, 
A the Joint Committee in their Beport of last 
ir, state that the raQways cannot be purchased 
id» the Act of 1844, and it may one day be 
sth considering if the market price can, with 
■>fo to both parties, be made the standard of 
be. Even if an Act had been passed authorising 
^^osmcnt to take tiie ra^aya at their market 



price at a date previous to the time of purchase, 
with whatever bonus the Legislature might have 
thought proper to add, other matters besides deter- 
mining the market value of the shares would have 
been necessary to provide for ; the books of the 
companies must have been examined, and it should 
also oe ascertained if the prices quoted were genuine, 
and not the result of stock-joobing operations. 

How an Act could now be framed to meet 
the necessities of such a case we need not discuss, 
for the companies would protest against any Act 
being passed that would supersede the Act of 1844, 
on ike faith of which they would assert tiiey in- 
vested their capital. Now, what are the words of 
one clause in the Act : — ** It shall be lawful for the 
company, if they shall be of opinion that the said 
rate of twenty-five years* purchase of the said 
average profits is an inadequate rate of purdiase of 
such railway, reference being had to the prospects 
thereof, to require that the rate of purchase, instead 
of being calculated upon such average rate of profit, 
shall be taken at a veduation, to be determined in 



case of difference by arbitration.*' We have heard 
something of late years about "consequential 
damages, and now we shall learn for the first 
time what is meant by the term ** consec^uential 
profits,'* and the amount at which they nusht be 
assessed. It would be impossible under this Act 
for government to purchase a single railway with 
the knowledge at the time of purchase of the sum 
that ultimately they mi^ht be called on to pay, as 
each company, in addition to the 25 years' pur- 
chase of tiie profits, would, of course, make a large 
demand for their * ' prospects. " So we may dismiss 
entirely any idea of compulsory purchase. 

Is there any probability of the companies being 
willine to accept moderate terms for their pro- 
perty ? The discussions that have recentiy taken 
place on the subject afford good groimds for 
forming an opinion of what their demands would 
be. 

Taking the returns of 1871 — ^the principle is 
precisely the same whether applied to the figures 
of that year or te the larger figures of 1872 — 
it is seen that the railways cost £553,000,000, of 
which sum £323,000,000 is debenture and pre- 
ference steck, and £230,000,000 ordinary stock, 
and that the sum distributed in profits that year 
was £25,740^000, or about £4 13s. per cent, on the 
invested capital. The market value of the pro- 
perty, according te Mr. Martin, who appears te 
have made a very liberal estimate, is £607,000,000. 
Now, according to the best authorities, we could 
not purchase this property for less than one thou- 
stmd millions stoning. Mr. Allport says it could 
not be purchased even for that sum ; and several 
other gentlemen, of equally good authority, agree 
with him in that opinion, or, in other words, that 
the shareholders would not be satisfied with the 
payment of four hundred millions sterling in Ueu 
of ** consequential profits," so we may dismiss at 
once the idea of purchase on such terms ; and it 
must be remembered we are not in a position to 
enforce any terms inconsistent with the Act of 
1844. 

We can well remember the sudden rise that teok 
place, a few years since, in telegraph shares, when 
it became known that Government intended to 
recommend to Parliament the purchase of the 
telegraph Hnes. They suddenly sprang up to sucfe 



600 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCHETY OF ABTS, Jtob 20, 1878. 



a price that it became a question whether or not 
the project of purchase should be altogether aban- 
doned. If the market price is a test of value, the 
telegraph lines were bought at the rate of fifty to 
one hundred per cent, oeyond what they were 
worth ; but, under the particular circumstances 
of the case, perhaps to close the barfi;ain was the 
wisest thing that GoTemment could do. Even 
with the exorbitant prices that were paid, the 
inyestment, xmder Government management, has 
turned out most profitable and adyantageous to 
the nation. How much better, howeyer, would it 
have been if the property could have been ob- 
tained at a fair price. 

We can well imagine, after our experience about 
the telegraph shariB market, the effect tiiat would 
be produced upon the Stock Exchange by an au- 
thentic announcement that Government intended 
to recommend to Parliament the purchase by the 
State of all the railways in the United Kingdom. 
Taking the price paia for the telegraphs alone, 
their market value, as a fair standard to regulate 
the price that shoidd be paid for railways, a bonus 
of four hundred millions would certainly be re- 
quired. Although Mr. Allport and his Mends 
assert, in effect, that the railways could not be 
purchased for a thousand millions, that sum, it 
must be remembered, is very large, and I cannot 
help thinking that the Government, with proper 
management, might obtain them on those terms. 
The payment for ''consequential profits" would, 
in that case, be no ereater than the claim from our 
American cousins for ''consequential damages,*' 
and not more unreasonable, ana exactly double the 
sum agreed upon, and now nearly paid by France 
to €termany for the war indemnity. 

It is assumed, however, throughout the whole 
of the discussions that have taken place in reference 
to this subject, that the nation must either submit 
to any demands, however exorbitant tiiey may 
be, to obtain possession of the railways, or be 
obliged to allow the present system to remain as 
it is. Now, that is the special matter to which I 
wish to direct your attention. The railways of this 
country may one day be purchased by the State, 
but if ever that day should come, it will be when 
the position of parties is changed, when the direc- 
tors of the companies must come to the government, 
and not when government would be obliged to go 
to the directors. The companies are now masters 
of the position, and until more advanced opinions 
are held throughout the country, the ownership of 
of railways must remain in the same hands. 

In the examination of witnesses before the Com- 
mittee of 1844, one of them was asked by a member 
the following question : " It would be perfectly 
possible, would it not, that the Government itself 
might undertake to make a competing line in such 
a way as to effect a reduction of charges upon the 
public, both upon the old line and the new one P " 
The answer was: "Certainly; there would be 
nothing to prevent it." The next question was : 
" Assuming that to be the case, and assuming that 
would be the proper remedy for excessive rates 
and charges, do you think that would be the best 
plan that could be adopted under the circum- 
stances? The reply was: " I would much rather 
see a oompetinff line in the hands of the Govern- 



ber of a committee may ask questioni not Toy 
pertinent to the matter under consideration, and 
the witness who answers them mav be toUUy un- 
qualified to give a proper answer, but t^ew objec- 
tions do not apply to the present cass. The membei 
who asked these questions was Mr. Gladstone, obiir- 
of the committee, and the 'witneii iriio 



man 



answered was Mr. Glyn, for many yean chaixmui 
of the London and North- Western Bailwiy. 

Now, whatever miBtAke the legislature insjl)i;?e 
made in their dealings with the companiss, ^ 
have been always clear and distinct in maintimng 
their right to permit the construction of competing 
lines, and they have of course the same powa to 
permit such lines being constructed by goreniaeDt. 
Mr. Glyn made a very judicious answer in ujmg 
he preferred that an opi>osition line should be in 
the hands of government in preference to thoie 
of a private company, because in the former oue 
they would have a moral right to aak the kguii- 
ture to take the railway off their hands it iti 
market price, and in the latter case they might 
be ruined without any compensation whaterei. 

It is generally known that a umversal feding 

prevails throughout Ireland that her mtwij% 

should be purchased by the State, amrfgmitM 

under one system of management, and tiiat a low 

*and uniform tariff should be estabUshed tiirao^ 

out the country. The capital invested in the Im 

raUways is £27,000,000, and pays at |>ieseDtihoQt 

4i per cent ; on the English raUways it is about s 

half per cent. more. Government has, hoierVi 

lately expressed a decided opinion agsdnit tk 

policy of, under any circumstances, becoming a 

trader, and therefore declines to be in anyvay 

a party to the purchase of the Irish rauvaji* 

But it would be lu&rd to say whether the feeling ia 

Ireland in favour of the purchase of the nilwajs 

by the State, or the extension of the railway tjf^ 

is the stronger of the two. No one osn ^j^^ 

the right of the Legislature to authonse 0(FKar 

ment to construct railways, and the '^^^f^'^''^ 

tiiese riffhts, in a modified form, is paiticnkn^ 

applicable to the state of Ireland. Ireland doessfl* 

want competing lines. There are 2,000 ""^^ Jj 

railway completed, and it would take aboat l,w 

more to complete the Irish raUway system, ftiii 

lines cannot be constructed under a comm««u 

system, because there is no present probaUbty « 

llieir paying 5 per cent ; but t^e counties throagn 

which they would pass would only be too hfPS 

to be supplied with railways and give a gMfl^ 

on the county rates that Government J"*J|!lf 

would be paid; in that case we ^o''^^?**~!j 

in Ireland a mixed system, as in ^^^^^^^'^''^^ 

Germany, by which the public mind in Eng»» 

woidd be directed to the subject in a mndimort 

demonstrative form than is the case at prest^ 

The English x)eople possess the abstract xigw^ 
construct their own rulways, and when *'*'*JJ?^ 
is practically asserted, the claim of £400,000,OOOttf 
consequential profits will disappear. ^^^ v^ 
this end, the proper means mxist be used. In J W 
Lord Melbourne, then Prime Minister, ded^ 
that "the man must be mad who dedaiedti* 
com laws could be repealed." Yet ^ti»J*5^ 



years from the time of that dedarstiontog 

^^. .V - . ^^ , — ' -* w"« v4VT«x**- made, the com laws had ceased to exist ^■^, 

no dn„iT "" • ^^U^* °^ * VriTB,t^ company." It did that come to pass P The merchttto ^ 
no doubt occasionally happens that some mem- 1 traders of Manoheet^who felt ttonseNi ^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juki 20, 1873. 



601 




dally agcrieved by the operation of the com laws, 
or^uiiflea a great league, and promidgated their 
gneraaoes and the grievances of the pnUic through 
the length and breadth of the land, and so the tax 
(^ bread felL The merchants and traders of 
LiTBipool have their special grievances to com- 
pliin of, in regard to the tax speciallj imposed on 
thdr tnde and commerce, ana if they adopt the 
aune means to abolish that imposition, the like 
taaxu may be expected to attend their efforts. 
We may look with oonfidenoe to other quarters for 

Tiie late Mr. W. Bridges Adams, an engineer 
of great eminence, directed the attention of the 
London and North-Western Board, some years 
moe, to the great desirability of constructing a 
Hpe for passenger traffic only between London and 
liveipooL He stated that tiiere was a constantly 
increafling number of people, to whom time is ex- 
V valuable, and to whom expense is com- 
[y no object, and who wish to travel at the 
nte of speed that can be attained. A speed 
of fifty to sixty miles an hour, he said, could be 
■ttimed with perfect safety and with no excessive 
ooit, if only a dear and well-conducted line, and 
vtD-constructed trains were used. In short, the 
Bum must be passenger lines, and not goods lines. 
Qoodi, be said, did not pay well, except in heavy 
tatas drawn by heavy engines, and at compara- 
My dow speeds ; and if passengers are to ^vel 
^ goods lines, they should travel at the same rates 
of ^sed, in order to ensure safety. Duplicating 
^ PM n lines will not get over the difficulty, by 
tt^ing the fast trains to one pair of lines, and the 
"owto the other pair. Gk)ods need warehouses, 
nd odings, and crossing, and a great number of 

Cn; and, whether l£e passenger lines be side 
or oeitral, the goods fines w3l interfere with 
ftft t raffic. Passenger trains actually travel at 
VMdsfrom fifty to sixty miles jan hour on rails in 
ranior condition. This rate involves considerable 
BK from bad points and from collisions with 
fM)ds trains ; the great majority of accidents on 
l*AwByB occur through such collisions, which 
^■B&ot be absolutely provided against. If light 
^pB» and Kght trains be used with corre- 
yofeig rails, in thorough order, and with no 
wodmg traffic, tiiese rates of speed might 
M tnanitaJTied without any risk, and without any 
■JBMcBate evil. But it would not do to permit any 
«M^» destructive goods traffic on such lines. If 
't^ goods were permitted during the night, the 
*gPw and waggons should be equally well con- 
J^yWwith the passenger trains, with no greater 
^ per wheel and with less speed. 

"Ifct would it pay the ^London and North- 
Jjjwi Company," asks Mr. Adams, "to have 
^>>|^ passenger lines of great speed ? " 
_"»* t, he says, must depend upon the wealth or 
^ttttenaal importanoe of the district. If the 
ttpenditure in law were light, and the land 
Joud be rented at its agricultural value on a 
|>He of 999 years, lines of double railway might 
noonstmcted for fast light trains, at the rate of 
^000 to £15,000 per mile, including looomo- 
miaDd roUinff ttooL of the best quality. The 
^▼voknce of humanity would be studied at the 
inte tame in the construction of the caniacfes ; 
«J would be lofty enough to permit standing 
^ngH; they would be ten feet in width, with 



a central passage-way, to permit the guard to pass 
from one end of tne train to the other, thus 
getting rid of the great diffictdty of want of com- 
munication between guard and oriver. On either 
side the passage would be inclosed cabins, or 
apartments for four persons each, for passengers 
wishing to be private ; and open saloons would be 
provid^ for the gregariously disposed. The seats 
of the passengers would be arranged to fold up 
against the potion, so that each passenger might 
sit or stand at pleasure. Arrangements would be 
made to provide tea, coffee, ana similar refresh- 
ments whilst travelling, and also for efficient 
warming, ventilating, and lighting; and by fitting 
construction, easy movement, without vibration 
or oscillation, wotdd enable the traveller to read 
or write at pleasure. In this mode a constant 
speed of from 50 to 60 miles per hour coidd be 
maintained, without the necessity of the traveller 
alighting, or injuring his nerves by vibration of 
the train, or his digestive organs by swallowing 
food in too great a hurry, or at too distant 
intervals of time. 

Such was Mr. Adams' scheme for constructing a 
passenger line between London and Liverpool ; and 
when such a line is constructed by government — 
if ever such an event takes place — ^it will be time 
enough to settle the terms on which the State 
shall purchase the railways. 

The passenger fares that Government would 
adopt would naturally require the greatest con- 
sideration, but they shotdd be no more tentative 
than the adoption of the peimy post was tentative. 
Low fares shoidd be at once adopted. Every class, 
and every section of the community, would equally 
benefit from a large reduction of fares — to be uni- 
form throughout the country. The fares I sug- 
gested to the Royal Commission that should be 
adopted by Government were, for 1st and 2nd 
class, by express trains, IJd. and Id. per mile; 
by ordinary trains first, second, and tmrd, l^d., 

., and Jd. ; by dow goods, or excursion trains, 
,d. , 4d. , and Id. The msh Bail way Commissioners 
recommeudea that uniform fares of l^d., }d., and 
}d., should be adopted throughout the country. 

The working of the system of Government pur- 
chfiMe would be very simple, if the principle was 
recognised and the practice carried out^ of Govern- 
ment constructing such lines as the legislature 
approved of ; if there were individuals or dis- 
tricts particularly interested in the construction 
of any railway not in itself objectionable, let 
them be called on to give security to the Treasury 
against loss, as frequently is done now in Ireland 
to companies, by security on coimty rates or other- 
wise. 

As regards the companies, the value of their 

Eroperty could not be depreciated, for they should 
ave a right to call on Government to purchase 
their lines— if they found their profits decreasing^ 
at its fair market value, previous to that decrease in 
traffic having commenced. So that even if the value 
of their line was reduced by Government compe- 
tition, the shareholders would still receive the full 
value, and the money market woidd not be in the 
least disturbed. 

I suggested to the Committee of 1844 that it 
would be desirable by an arrangement with some 
of the companies which had no competing lines, 
to carry i)assengers at very low fares, and thus 



602 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Junb 20, 1873. 



ascertain the extent to wliicii passenger traffic 
could be increased. If such an experiment, for 
instance, by an arrangement with the companies, 
could be l^ed on the imderfi^und lines of the 
metropolis, l^e result would throw great light on 
the subject. 

To many of our legislators, in their individual 
capacity, we are indebted in no small degree for 
those great reforms, constitutional and commer- 
cial, that in the course of the last forty years have 
brought about such a wonderful change in the 
state of ihJB country. It would be impossible to 
refer to any great measure of reform without 
identifying it with one or more members of our 
legislature, to whose unwearied exertions — ^it may 
be for manv years — we are indebted for the 
creation and formation of that public opinion 
through which those measures became ultimately 
the law of the land. To overcome the vis inertia 
of mankind has been in aJl ages and countries a 
matter of the greatest difficulty ; and it is only 
when the attempt to do so proceeds from an 
influential quarter, that there is much likelihood 
of its bcdng successful. Every word spoken by a 
man of eminence, either in Parliament or else- 
where, on public occ€»ions, is noted down and 
circulated tmrough the length and breadth of the 
land. All newspapers, without distinction of 
party, give currency to his opinions, expressed in 
his own words ; those opinions are made the sub- 
ject of comment, favourable or otherwise, as the 
case may be, and thus commences the growth and 
formation of what we call public opinion. So, 
in re^^ard to a reform of our railway system, it is 
scarcely arrived at the first stage of existence ; but 
one day it may become a living principle. Now it 
a mere idea, but in the course of time that 



18 



idea may be develox>ed into a great plan, recog- 



being left to private enterprise. Private enterprise 
immediately seized upon all the profitable Imes, 
especially the one to the south of Ireland, on 
which, after some twenty years, about five per oeat. 
dividend was now paid, llie other lines proved as 
nearly as possible, in proportion to their length and tralBc, 
ex^icUy what the commission had predicted. In con- 
sequence, the great body of Irish railway proprietoxv, 
when they found their hopes disappointed, came knock- 
ing at the door of Government, and asking that the 
railways should be purchased ; but the Govemmeiit vexy 
properly declined to accede to their request. In hui 
opinion the State should not take over the railways 
until the railways came and offered themselves, though, 
no doubt, if public opinion insisted upon their being 
purchased, as the telegraph system had been, no doa£ 
it would be right to do so. With respect to foreign 
railways, the general practice had been to retain lh«in 
in the hands of the State, or, at all events, to give 
Qovemment the control ; and the last advantage the 
State had reserved to themselves was the right of pur- 
chase. In France, it was endeavoured, first of wlL, to 
get railways made entirely by the State ; failii^ thjil, 
they endeavoured to get them made by oompanies, and 
failing that also, the Government offered to constroct 
the works and let them to the companies, on conditioii 
of their laying down the permanent way and providing 
rolling stock. The German system was too complicated 
to be stated at such a meeting, but they all retained the 
ultimate right to purchase upon terms fixed beforehand. 
The English legislature thought it would be more en- 
couraging to capitalists to give than the riicht» or 
monopoly, as it turned out, in thdr own handa ; and 
now the question arose, whether it was or was not 
politic to purchase the railways. The result of his 
experience and reflection was that this time whs not yet 
come, and that Government should wuit until the oom- 
panies came and asked to be purchased. 

Kr, F. J. Bramwell, C.E., said the reader of the paper 
had commenced by stating that he must make axnostover- 
whelming case before the Government could be called 



nised by the nation, adopted by the legislature, ^P^^ ^ purchase ^e railways. But soju- from douig 
and working for the benent of the whole commu- '^ *" ^ ''' ^ ^ '~^ ' ^~ ^-^« 

nity through all classes of society. 



DISCUSSION. 



Mr. C. B. Vi^oles, F.B.8., said for the last forty years 
he had been intimately acquainted with the railway system 
in the United Kingdom, and had long considered this 



so, he appeared to have made an extraordinarily feebk 
one. With regard to the passenger trmfic, in order to 
get to any source of complaint, ho had had to go as fiir 
back as 1842, and even then the complaint waa simply 
that third-class passengers were ten hours gotog to 
Bristol, and were not in enclosed oarriages. Bat it wm 
only twelve years previously that tl^ first working 
passenger railway hail been commenced, and that itege 
coaches and waggons were still in existence. Wjm aot» 



question and the steps taken by the legislature. In then, the condition of third-class passengexs, who got to 

Upland the feeling was so stoong, that ever);thmg pos- Bristol in ten hours, and at least with a roof over thea. 

sible should be left to pnvate enteronse, that pul»hc ijetter than that of gentleinen who rode ouUide a stag«- 

opinion revolted agamst the idea of Government mter- ooach, without any roof at all, and did not dolbe 



fering, except in special cases. The argument had 
always been that the great communications of the 
country should be in the hands of the Gevemment, and, 
in looking to the future, he thought it possible, and even 
probable, that the railways might eventually come into 
the possession of the State. But that could only be done 
by tine force of public opinion. There were many argu- 
ments and facts bearing on this question which had not 
been discussed in the ps{>er, but nevertheless it would bo 
valuable as a matter of history. Allusion has been made 
to the Irish railways. Some forty years ago the Govern- 
ment were anxious to develops the resources of that 
country, and, in order that the railways might be car- 
rifid in a proper direction, a Railway Commission was 
established ; the conclusions that they came to were that 
the average of railways in that country, good and bad, 
would not pa^ more than 4J per cent., and they recom- 
mended certam lines which would yield that return. The 
Government published the report and circulated 
*t» but it did not meet with much general ac- 
ceptance, and the prefect of railways being made 
by the State was abandoned, the whole matter 



journey in ten honrs ? Two yean afterwards Pacliaaient 
protected the third-olass passengers by regulating the 
speed and the fiires at which they should be earned. Tbeao, 
with regard to goods, the only instance bronght fi>rvarl 
was the complaint of Liverpool, an important tows, no 
doubt ; but still it only appeared to be that eooia other 
towns were better used. He presumed that the zailwmva 
were only acting within their parliamentaiy power, and 
charging within the limit Admitting that thia micht 
be a real source of complaint, and remarldng that Mr. 
Ghilt had not at all shown that the public were hetta- 
served on the Continent, with regard eiUier to goods or 
passenger traffic, he wished to point to one or two 
matters which made it appear to him absolutely ilisasriiiiis 
to contemplate railwavs being in the hands of tha State. 
If this were accomplished, the State would be expected to 
make a great reduction in passenger fares aiMi hn the 
rates of goods, and to make these faros as imiform as 
possible. It was also suggested that the railwaya dbooU 
do no more than cover thmr working expensca. and pay 
a moderate interest on the outlay. Now, if there wen* 
no other mode of communicatioli throughout the kingdom 



JOUBKAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jmnt 20, 1873, 



X)» 



T 



it might be practicable, but was the GoTemment to 
become the possessors also of all the coasting trade and 
of all the canals ? If not, what would be the effect ? 
These trades would be in the hands of private individuals 
—certainly the coasting trade — who would have to com- 
pete with the Government monopoly, under which, of 
coarse, they could not survive. Then there was the diffi- 
culty as to making new lines. It was said long ago 
there ought to be trunk lines, and branch lines connected 
with them. But the system would never answer prac- 
tically. When the first line was made from Birming- 
ham to Warrington, connections were made from War- 
rington to Liverpool, on the one side, and to Manchester 
on the other, but it was many years after that before 
even ihe private companies found it to their advantage, 
under pressure, to make the diagonal lines from Crewe 
to Manchester, on the one side, and the^ had since made 
one to Liverpool on the other. Now, if things were in 
the hands of the Gt)vernment, it would be impossible, he 
feared, to get anything in the way of extra accommo- 
dation, and when it was got, it would be very often g^ven 
for political purposes. All these were matters he had 
not intended to touch upon when he came into the room. 
But there was one other point more within his own 
sphere — vis., influence on mechanical engineering. 
He believed that to put the railways into the hands of 
the Government would be one of the greatest misfor- 
tunes for the advance of mechanical engineering and 
the future of lailwav locomotion which could possibly 
be. At the head of tiie department there would pro- 
bably be an engineer officer, who would have under him 
some men who really understood the subject, but who 
had not been very prosperous. Amongst them they 
would devise a typical locomotive, and that being 
fijcod, it would never be changed. No one would dare 
to do so, and this in itself would be a great bar to im- 
provement Then another thing would hapnen. Ocoa- 
iionally even Government locomotives would explode ; 
there would be a great outcry, and he presumed Govern- 
ment would not pay for those who were killed, as the rail- 
way companies now did. The result would be, it would 
be said, *' we must be more saving, we must take off the 
pfessnre.*' Then there would be sometimes collisions, and 
It would be said, " We must be more careftil, we must have 
lower speed." In this way it would be endeavoured to 
cure these matters. But this would not bo in the interest 
of the public, for he did consider it was for the interest 
of the public that a few persons per annum should be 
killed, rather than that the whole nation should be 
forced to travel slowly. 

Mr. T. C. Cotterillsaid the subject naturally divided itself 
into two parts. First, that of general amalgamation ; 
and, secondly, whether it should be undertaken by the 
Government. With regard to the first point, in 1849 
public opinion was most decidedly in fevour of compe- 
tition. At that time he was in communication with 
some of the leading statesmen of the day, who all agreed 
that amalgamation was most desirable, but that it wrould 
be ridiculous to propose it at that time. Since then the 
principle of competition had been applied most per- 
nicionslr by the State; in fact he did not believe history 
recorded anything so serious as the pernicious conse- 
qaences which followed from that doctrine. He agreed 
cordially in the general principle of the great advantage 
of amalgamation, but he differed from the reader of the 
paper with respect to the State purchasing the railway 
property. He believed any such propose would make 
all Chancellors of the Exchequer rise in mutiny at the 
idea of anything so preposterous. But, at the same time, 
he believed it was the duty of the Government to 
originate new lines, and to control and supervise the 
whole system of railways. If there were a Central 
Board appointed, to carry out, in the first instance, a 
gezkeral amalgamation of all the railways, equitably ap- 
por^ning the stock amongst the existing owners, and 
m the next place controlling the management, and 
or^ixiating now undertakings when required, he 



thought that would meet all the requirements of the 
case. 

Mr. Elliott remarked that he took rather a special 
view of the matter, and one which he feared would not 
be altogether in accord with the mode in which these 
matters were generally discussed. Much had been said about 
the financial part of the question, but that he thought 
was of very small importance, for it only amounted to 
this, that capitalists would advance the money to the 
Government instead of to boards of directors. No doubt 
they would get 5 per cent, from the Government, which 
would very well satisfy them. But the advantage 
which would accrue to the public was quite another 
thing. What evidence was there that anv advantage 
would accrue ? They had heard a great deal about Bel- 
gium, but nobody had yet said that the management of 
railways there was better than in this country], and 
those who had had long experience there told him it was 
not so, and, more than tb^t, the system was used for 
political purposes. It was said that travelling was 
cheaper on fiie Continent, but it was not right to talk 
about the tariff in Belg^ium and France unless their 
whole scale of salaries and expenditure were reduced in 
the same proportion. The Postmaster-General in Bel- 
gium, who was also manager of the railways, received 
£600 a-year, and other officials in the like proportion, 
and he apprehended Englishmen would not submit to 
that sort of thing. Let ttiem keep up their own profits 
and wagfes, and keep up the prices of the railways, and 
not bring anything down to the low level of forei^ 
habits and manners. The subordinates on English rail- 
ways were paid quite little enough already, and there 
would soon be an outory if any attempt was made to re- 
duce them. But if the Government were to take rail- 
ways into their own hands, why, on every principle of 
reasoning, ought not the steam-boat traffic, or even the 
making of bread, to be undertaken by the State ? But 
aU these considerations, serious as thejr were, were but 
as a feather in the balance, compared with the most im- 
portant part namely, Government power and 
patronage. He saw nothing in what was called the 
progress of public opinion to lead any thinking man to 
suppose that there was a higher sense of morality and 
greater accountebility to the principle of utility m lOl 
this. He saw the contrary, and he believed that placing 
such enormous power in the hands of the Government 
would be another of those fatal steps which were now 
being taken in the course of national decline. The 
jobbery, stabUity, and forgetfulness of the public interest 
shown in railway management at the present time, bad 
as it sometimes was, would be nothing compared to the 
incapacity and dishonesty which would be developed by 
Government management. They heard about quicker 
transit, greater safety, and so on, but was the human 
mind a Afferent thing when the man had a Government 
uniform on than when he had a railway uniform on? 
Were those who selected these men more to be trusted 
when they were Government officials than when they 
were railway directors P He thought not, nor was there 
any evidence to the contrary. It was even said some 
years ago that the Crimean war would have been con- 
ducted by a joint-stock company with much less sacrifice 
of life and money, and he believed there was a great 
deal of truth in the statement. Would the Peninsular 
and Oriental Company have sent the Meffttra to sea m 
the stete she was, or would any trading compMiy 
have constructed and sent out such a veMel as the 
Captain to the Bay of Biscay ? Then, look at the im- 
mense power such a matter would put into the hands 
of the Government. There was an example now going 
on in Canada, where there was a raUway being con- 
structed by the Government, which would not be 
finished for 16 years, and a gentleman, who had lived 
there many years, quite free from all polifacal bias, 
told him that that was a test case, and the power 
which they had, in consequence of the construction ot 
the raUway and their command of the labour market, 



601 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIETY OF ARTS, Jvn 90^ ISm 



waa most formidable. Again, haying at their oom- 
xnand an army of some 300,000 men, in addition to 
the present standing army and navy, wonld be, in his 
opinion, meet dangerous to the pubuc liberty. On the 
^mole, therefore, ne strongly depreoated any such step 
as was adTOcated by Mr. Qalt. 

]Cr.S.Lawrenoeob0erFed that there was another matter, 
bnt which had not been touched upon by the last speaker, 
which was very important to be borne in mind. Only 
a few days ago, in the leading journal, a strong contrast 
was drawn between the state of society in France and 
this country, and it was contended tliat France owed 
its present pesition largely to the fact that the education 
and talent of the country looked to the Gbyemment for 
place and position, rather than to private enterprise; 
whereas, in this country, the same parties, so far from 
looking to GoTemment employment, in many cases 
despised it. He thought it would be anything but an 
advantage for the number of Qovemment employ^ to 
be so largely increased. There was one other point 
to be borne in mind, namely, that so long as the country 
went on prosperoudy, and the railways made a profit, 
things would go on smoothly ; but times would come 
when the country would not be so prosperous as at 
present. In those times ministers would have difficulty 
in raising taxation, and the trade of the country would 
also fiill oS, and the railroads, instead of being a source 
of profit, would show, perhaps, ten millions deficit. In 
what position would a Chancellor of the Exchequer then 
be, in having to raise that la^;e amount of taxation to 
pay the interest owing for the railroads P 

Xr. Bdwin Ohadwiok, C.B., having moved the adjourn- 
ment of the discussion, 

The Ohairman said he would not be able to be present 
at the adjourned meeting, and he would, therefore, briefiy 
state his views iipon the important question before the 
meeting, though he came prepared to listen rather than 
to lav down any propositions of his own. He had not 
the slightest doubt that if the public really wanted the 
railways purchased by the State it could be done ; the 
question of price would not present any insuperable 
obstacle. It would be a very serious question, and, no 
doubt, as in the case of the telegraphs, it would be very 
advantageous to the sellers, but not so much so to the 
purchasers. He did not, however, lay very much stress 
upon that difficulty, nor would he say how hr State 
m ana g emqit was better or worse than that of individuals 
or companies. A very curious change had taken plaoe 
in public opinion with regard to that subject within the 
last 15 or 16 years. At the time of the Crimean war 
anybody would have been hooted down who ventured to 
propose that anything which was in the hands of private 
individuals or public companies should be taken over by 
the State. There was at the time a tendency greatly 
to exaggerate the weakness of State management, 
and to magnify the advantages of private manage- 
ment. Now the tide had turned, and there waa a 
danger of running to the opposite extreme. What 
were the difficulties which woiUd reidly have to be faced 
before any such gigantic change as that which had been 
proposed could be made ? In Uie first place, was it wise, 
without the strtmgest necessity, to make the State re- 
sponsible for six or eight hundred millions of debt more 
than at present? If anybody were to say that the time 
might come when the railways would be superseded, it 
would, no donbt^ be a bold assertion ; but it was very 
difficult to fix a limit to the inventive powers of man- 
' kind ', and the mresent form and manner of railway com- 
munication could hardly be adopted as altogether final. 
There might be great differences of gauge, and possibly 
ageneral adoption of locomotive power on common roads. 
Changes which could not now be foreseen might exceed- 
ingly dimini^ the value of the capital now invested in 
railwaya What would have happened if the State, 

'"^ bought up aU the canal property, and had under' 



taken all the coaching business of the conntrrf Thei 
would have been an enormoos Ion oocaned, ind t4 
only so, but the State would have been voder ti» 
strongest possible inducement to chedt and pmrntun- 
alteration in the existing mode of oommimicatiaL m 
doubt if a change took plaoe now which to asjotaflt 
superseded the present railway svBteni, it vodd ki 
a very serious misfortune to a large daa o{ te 
community; still it would be a miafoitime iHudiiradi 
fall only on individuals. Hien, as had beeaaud bf Hi 
Lawrence, it was all very well for the ^ate t»go iirt» 
these speculative enterprises as long as a i uiliisK 
upward movement could be reckoned on; but H^ it of 
time, he would not say of national decHne, W « 
national difficulties —railway receipts woe to fall <£ 
the national receipts would also be fdhog off; m 
the responsibilities which the State wasnowanedtotAi 
upon itself in a time of prosperity woald imJ to i^iiiiiii 
its resources just at the moment when that las voift 
be most seriously felt But^ apart from that qiotioQ qt 
loss, was it wise to have so large aportioa of tbifiAfil 
revenue as would be required devoted to jm^ ^ 
interest on debt f National debts all owvamfiai 
the civilised world were growing; everv tea jniatei 
was an increase of the indebtecmesa of me giaitpomir 
ments of the world. He was apprehenave tliat n ote 
countries — he did not say it womd be so bero ttiiwali 
produce an awkward result Qoesiaoiii o^ tBtk\ 
not very easy to deal with in an abstract and ipeealitiit 
way, about the right of the legialatore to taxsoteil;^ 
and possibly all over Europe schemes of pnoil ngtt* 
diation might be discussed, and it would be hddcntB 
the people sufiering under the p r o sa a re of t wril j W 
that they might x^alieve themselves b^ ndaaay " 
interest on the debt He was not senooi'" "^ 
such a feeUng arising here, partly beotoie 
in many things had more sense than their 
and partly bcmause the burden was oompaiatifd^ ^ 
felt ; but if questions of that kind were bong ibm 
would not be any advantage, in diacaaaiDg ftflt 
have to deal, not with a debt, eidnding tenuBiJ 
annuities, of about 700 millions, but of 1^^ IfM^ 
1,400 millions. The relations betfreen the Sbdi 
labour must also be considered. The number of 
employed under the State, supposing ^ 8trta 
over the railways, would nndoubteduy be aefoil 
dred thousands, and consequently ttie State wodd to 
fiu: the largest employer or labour in tiie ooBntiy* 
questions of capital and labour had never bMB 
keenly discussed than during the last few yen. , 
hitherto the State had always kmt itself ahaoh^K 
partial as between employer and emplorai wii 
then, a prudent thing, at a time when thsM 
are more likely to be raised than before, tiiat 
should abandon that position of neutiali^i •» 
become a deeply interested party on the adi « 
employer P Kailway servant^ constitatiag «a ^*' 
ingly powerful body, would probably demand 
pay and shorter hours. If those demuda weni 
the State would be exposed to great mmo^oltfi^i 
on the other hand, if they were compHea witfa,als 
would be made in the profits to be derived fro P'^^ 
ways. The really serious part of the question, howe^' 
this— how would it be possible for the State to afoid 
ercising enormous Iok^ patronage which wodd 
every £strict and town throughout the coonti^' 1^ 
not refer to the minor question of the sppoiBtBtit 
railway servants, though there would be a gad dw 
small patronage in that way, imd he did not bw* 
it woiUd be possible to di^^ose of it under the tar" 
oompetitive examination, m case of emploTBUoti 
required littie but mechanioalandmanaal laboar 

was a very small part of the question of patroija|e;jJ2 
he feared was the position of dopendsnce mto tMJ 
every town would be brought towards the '* r? y iS 
or administrative body with which ^^^^^fj'jf-^S 
rest as to what new lines, statiooB, orextensioBOiiwW 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, Jura 20, 1878. 



605 



Botid 



rauttmicfttioxifl ahonld be made. Every town in the 
dostiynughtaskat theaamemomentforeztended rail way 
niDBnieatioii, and it was quite clear the request of all 
nld not be complied with at the same time. It would 
» vbcmuy that a choice should be made, and that choice 
oght be gofemed by political preferences — at any rate, 
liftherit was so or not you would never get it out of 
» httds of the people that it waa so. l^is was a 
ntid, not over individuals, but over the oon- 
Iteopf ss a whole, which no extension of the 
nduM, and no manner of taking liie votes would 
let in the slightest degree. In France every nublic ( 
art. eveiy road, every bridge, every public building, i 
id been oonstruoted by, or with the assistance of the j 
liAe, and, whether ^uly or fiJs^, it was con- 
mtf Mad in the days of Louis Philippe, and had ! 
in oontinaally said from that time to this, j 
)d (h ose who returned members in fiAvour of the 
bnnmait got their works executed, and those who 
U sot fot nothing. That was oorruption wholesale, 
m It rnred it could not be avoided. It would be 
^ fificolt to constitute the Bailway Boitfd in such 
ngr ^ it would not be dependent on the minister 
jAiidty. An administration controlling a property 
itti or 700 millions, and employing seversd nundred 
mmad penons, woiUd make itself felt in ever^ comer 
ifti oooitry ; if detached from the executive it would 
fUimfiriim in imperio, and if attached to il^ it would 
ll be «M]r to detach it from political party. There 
■ lA Jmportant question touched upon by Mr. 
~ ss to its being the interest of the State to 
the making of new lines. Of oourse, if the 
• could be obtained without giving incrcMued 
'"t ^ would be to the advantage of the 
not to make these now lines. At present, 
SB the mtem might be, there was, to some 
a remedy for that danger. If a company abse- 
nfmed to provide the accommodation required, 
oUicr company would grasp at the chance, and 
'V it earned its bill or not, at any rate the wants 
dbtrict made themselves felt, and a ^^ood deal of 
Uodation^ was given in that way, which, without 
mF oompetition, would never be given at all. If 
VMS thing were in the hands of one central 
there would be an end of that, and the 
tt general, expecting to profit by the railway 
wrald be directly interested in not giving that 
odation to any particular district, un&ss it were 
tttde out beforehand that the line would give a 
nten. The same argument applied to all ques- 
of machinery and engineering improvements, as 
Ddi there would be a strong tendency to settle 
fato one type, from which it would be very diffi- 
bmdace those who managed the matter to deviate. 
Jtt^km of canals or steam boats, and of docks, was 
'lokmsone. It would never do to have the rail ways 
bj a Central Board, while the canals, which 
with the railways, were in private hands, and 
I aasutned that if the State had to buy the rail- 
Bitit buy the canals also. Then, again, where 
Vis competition between steam-boato and rail- 
^ owner of a steam-boat would complain griev- 
^b«ng brought into competition with the State ; 
m would be a strong pressure to take these steam- 
ODiBpanies also. The same rule would apply to 
V fcr whoever had the control of the Kulway sys- 
_Md^sn enormous power of carr3dnff traffic to docks 
"' ' loe and of diverting of it from docks in another, 
very soon be said that if the whole internal 
catians of the country were in the hands 
wB State, it would not do for docks to be left 
p^^ cff local hands. He would not go into what 
J"JJ •id about the experience of foreign countries, 
gJJM^regard to passenger traffic he diid not think 
PJjWd enyy their foreign neighbours. The general 
H I ■'^ sk which he arrived was, that although the 
Wnti ha h«d m en t i o ned might be capable of re- 



iilSdi 



fthtre' 



ceiving an answer, up to the present time they had not 
received an answer, and therefore he thought it — 
"Better to bear the ills we have than fly to 
others that we know not of." If the process 
of amalgamation continued, and the whole railway 
system got into the hands of six or seven great 
companies, it would alter the question so far, and necessi- 
tete a greater amount of supervision by the Stete than 
had hitherto been desirable, because in that case all 
semblance of competition would cease. At present, how- 
ever, he did not think such a case had been made out, 
either against the actual system, clumsy and imperfect 
as it might be, or in favour of that proposed to be substi- 
tuted for it, as would justifjr the nation in embarking 
upon such an important undertaking as the doubling (n 
the national deb^ and placing the whole railway system 
in the hands of the State. Li conclusion, he begged to 
thank Mr. Gait for the very able imd suggestive paper 
which he had read, and to observe that sound argument 
was never lost, whether on one side or the other. Ton 
sometimes did not know how strong your own case was 
until you heard the other party's case &irly and strongly 
put 

The discussion was then adjoumed until the fol- 
lowing Wednesday eyening, the 18th inst., at 
eight o'clock. On that evening the chair was 
taken by the Marquis of OLAZOuaABDE, and the 
discussion was resumed by — 

Xr. Bdwin Chadwlek, C.B., who spoke as follows: — 
The noble lord who did us the honour to preside at our 
last meeting concluded his summing up of the dis- 
cussion of that day by declaring that, in nis opinion, it 
was ** better to bear the ills we lukve than to fly to others 
that we know not of." Now, those who have paid 
special attention to the subject will, I think, agree that^ 
b^ hid lordship, the ills we have were not duly reoog- 
nided and estimated, whilst the ills that we Imow not 
of, by any experience from any change of the kind re- 
quired, will, on impartial examination, be found to be 
exaggerated or illusory. I will endeavour to enumerate 
the chief evils we have. In the first place, the chief 
trunk lines of communication, which ought, for economy 
and efficiency, to be under unity of system, are under 
one hundred and ten independent bodies, administer- 
ing them separately, entirely for a trading profit instead 
of mainly for the cost of the service, which is a large 
organic economic distinction. By this disunity the 
transit of goods from one end of the kingdom to the 
other is obstructed, often by yar3ring rates, which are 
fixed without reference to any common principle^ 
and are only to be known upon inquiries, wmch 
cost valuable time. By this disunity, combined with 
the severance of the traoing bodies from the public ser- 
vice, the use of twelve thousand postal eetebUshmentSy 
as receiving and delivering houses, for larj^r parcels 
than letter parcels, as in Germany and Switserutnd, is 
lost, and a large trade prevented. By this disunity the 
transit of passengers is obstructed, especially in cross 
traffic, to their constent annoyance, and frequently to the 
loss of time to the extent of one-third. By this disuni^, 
attended by difierenoes of signals and practice, addi- 
tional dangers to life and limb, and insecurity and dis- 
comfort in travelling are occasioned. ^ By this disunity, 
combined with unnecessary competing duplicate and 
even triplicate lines, often running from the same places 
at the same times, necessiteting ^ditional rolling stock 
and establishments, — the workiujp^ expenses are aug- 
mented, it is declared, upwards of 20 or to 25 per cent. 
By this disunity, combined with the condition m which 
the public means of transit is conducted by private 
traders, as for a trading profit, the expenses of con- 
struction aro largely augmented, and also the price of 
capital, to the extent of the difference between the 

pnoe of pnblio jani private aeooritus* By the con^ 



ii;C 



*'*•- 



or TVS 



i:mi x 



OF ARTS, Jun 20, 1873. 










:r 






per :*iEL — 

•^ "3«ii«ice'i 3: 'Sjsf kid 

^ i£ AH. 1C3LX ic aeuir 




oalj Fi imp I Mil OMBtey in wlii^ Um Ukgnpb Are not 
& Boaopol J ia the buds of the goreraneiit ; tad it i 
worthy of o liw.1 i * t»oB that, aader a lyrtem of frw 
vc lk&v« andA mote profran and W> 
azzired at a U^ier rtandard of frcellwiflR in tdecnpL j 
chjn. i&j ecwntry in Okt woiU.** Tlie hilf-fruc mt' 
sft^«a of fmgfTTW and Switxeriand, and the eqiirikit 
o€ iiipfiuiy III I — ifci.a in G«niiaay, were set aadt u 
■zi »> a < xunnt aa agahwt laacJitLd inferioiitj in mechi* 
nk:al ezflcntni ; jivt aa now on the nil way qQatkn tbi 
half uki ooe-diird loa ConttDOital rates an be)d to bi 
of no aoeoaat»^aa against the hi|s;her speedf oUuofld(n 
*. " " 
C 




€— -iscc* l-'^ioi i-jrci*. l£ 



ia tLis ?• 




in Kngland, the £act being titat people on tb 

diaUke thoae high speeda. To axtii the ia- 

e of rebutting audi objectioDi, by cod- 

of foreign ayatema* idii^ oocupy tine, I 

attentiop to our own case at nipecti dii- 

Addreaaing the directon, I say:— "Do jn 

tkat the aaving of nz ^iooi fa 

and the other aanngi alleged to bi 

derxrabLe from vnity. are of no aoeovnt ? Andifjot^ 

do yon now make ao mndi aoooont of the )am 

ring firoa amalgamation, that ia to my, from leetHml 

and why do yon incnr anch heary ex^eoie it 

coedicta for it» and how ia it that yoor iharea roe, it t 

remote proapect of itr* The telegraph oompaaiei' cm 

aaaerted that, *^ in opposition to all preloedeiifc on tbe lab- 

j^Kt, it ii now for the firat time aet np by Mr. Wild 

Honk aa the exponent of the principle A oooopdy 

xader the gtmiaaee of Mr. Edwin Chadwid^, &>i 4 

D V^iap h i c monopoly would be adyantageoa to thi 

the pobBc He (Mr. Hnnt) belieTed that if fterbd 

a monopoly of the t^egraph they would eanly lover tb 

I. on all the tanff, anrl at the aame time make the gndertMiiv^ jvA 

^ii>ir^i this a prodt." The anawer to these dogmatic dedaatuoitt 

behalf of woch. competition is, that onder the pnvi^d 

jxmxj the price, including the reduction of porterage.bit 

been redik^ed nearly one half, and the mesagei, aoff 

progreoBrrely increasing, have been incresMd froA 

236,328,000, the number at the period at which the kd»> 



TA Ali-eii ia Lhis b an 

rd a-hjklf per c^iS. 

St xLsia I pn^: 
ihe r&ilwaT dirvctcrAtea and 
disonitT aa a 
as the beat 
h&Te they been doing aince 
towudj unity, only fbr 
as eoir* profit fir tt.^m*clT-«a. whirh we say ought to be ' graphs were first taken over, to 300,843,000 far the can» 
<iiTii«d viih thepalU: r A^ ihit thry hiTf*bi*fti fffaitfn^ p^»^«"gp*TV^'>^tbf>lftfftyf*ar. "For its own part, nadfcr 
to th£ ihAT^oIi^Ja of th? adrantages of secticnU amal- i the other oompaniea, the Electric and IntematioBal Tdfr 
guLA:: ,as is ectifirtnuory at erery point of what we ' graph Companies doiy that many important diftnfltial 
hare suted of the airintizes of a g^nenl amalgamation, > withont any auch means of communication. They (3^ 
and serves as an answer to what the\ hare before aaid. ' lenge the €k)yenunent to prove that issue.*' The iMmM 
They are now, for their own exclnsve prjfit, for reducing I prored by the event, that, as against the 2,932 itaSoiak 
(iiiunity, from a honired and ten down to four. I have I belonging to the competing companies, idio, Hka tki 
not betn in a position to examine the recent proposals present r^ways, were not in a position to aake df 
for aicalgamation, bat, from what I have observed of considerable further number of extensions, aa tbey eon 
pTf'vionfl amalganL^tiona, they were very badly done, and 
with inferior revolts. I have pud very special attenti<Hi 
to administrative consolldatioas, as it was a duty to do, 
and I conceive that from results obtained I have a right 
to an opinion upon them. At one time the seventeen 
thousand separate parochial administrations were asserted 
to be ultimate conditions, an i my proposals for conaolida^ 
tion were treated as wild impracticabilities. An advance 
was made in consolidation to six hundred unions, which, 
though very imperfectly done, was attended with an 
early annual saving of four millions of expenditure ; and 
subsequent experience is demonstrative of the expediency 
of further advances in the principles originally proposed. 
Now I venture to nescrt that the work of complete rail- 
way amalgamation is really a far less difficult adminis- 
trative taafc than that, and even if it were roughly set about, 
it may bo accomplished in far shorter time. In vindica- 
tion of this opinion, I must beg to refer to what was said 



of it in this room by tho class of opponents to telegraphic 
postal r<?form, who w( ro people with the Uke in- 
terests and like id^aa to the opponents of railway reform, 
the cuHo for which in principle is essentially the 
samo. A statement — prepared by the Hon. Robert Grim- 
sten, the chairman of the International Telegraph Com- 
pany—was sent to the members of Parliament, m which 



not make them with a trading profit, — ^the total nomkff 
of sta tio ns now open is 5,790. and in eveiy part of Al 
country more are being called for. The dogmatiia vitt 
which we are now met by the persons enga^ in tki 
interests of the railway companies, is the saoie aitU 
with which we were met by the telegraph cooped 
** Messrs. Scudamore and Chadwiok based tMr 
whole argument before the Society of Arts opon tht 
facilities which the post-offices would aflbcd ^ ^ 
working of the electric telegraphs in tnttU tomi <m 
country districts. Their notion was that the y^>t^ 
postmaster or postmistress would act as the tel^ 
graphist , that the village postman, or, as Mr. td^ 
Chadwick suggested, ttie national or Uie Biiw 
school childr^, could act as the distributoit, M 
that there would be an ample return for the Art 
course of construction and ttie annual cost of m»ai^ 
nance in the telegraphic correspondence of the eoontzy*^ 
" In the first plai^, the persons employed, as a nie. 
quite unfit to be employed as telegranhistk X 
graph clerks require regular training ben>re Uiey 
become efficient manipulators, and it is fbosd 
they must commence young, and that to 
a machine in working order requires on the 
of the telegraphist some knowledge of slectrtsi 



it was a»«eriod, in respect to the trading telemph and mechanism, such as village postmaston aad P0« 
•yitem :— At observation that ouib u the mistresses cannot be expected to aoquuei U *>*>«* 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABTS, Jum« 20, 187& 



607 



at in 9f9rf ropeot they would be vexy nnsaitable 
BBRU for the proposed daties to be deToWed apon 
MB.'* Tile answer is, that we do see village school 
vft neatly dressed, acting as good messengers, and that 
jM poitaiasters and postmistresses are employed in 
hpaph work, and as only one complaint is received 
rtfofy 1>379 messengers, the presumption is that they 
I ^ work in a satis£otory manner. I have appended 
Mwen obtained from the Post-office on other points, and 
|Ni«lly on the point insisted upon by Mr. Bramwell, 
it goTsniment^aa against the existing trading manage- 
■t» molt cheek the progress of improvements in the 
Ik. Howerer, it is right to state that the telegrph oom- 
mm did me &i too much honour in ascribing to me the 
Aktionof that measure. The fact is, it had been initiated 
it^ department years before it was taken up here, and at 
tim when the companies* interests, for which the 
ri^ hare had to pay seven millions, might have been 
Kgk for two. The cost of the long official inattention to 
It loUaoi, the direct cost of false economical doctrines, 
ilM MTe been advanced on this railway question, was 
tfte least half a million a year from the time the sub- 
Mat taken up here. The present cost to the public of 
UWij' it thilliag messages instead of sixpenny mes- 
^ viuch would bring the telegraph within the reach of 
pOteMisn and the working classes ; and of more than 
npilBr of a million of surplus revenue. The present 
p(4f the like inattention is, as respects the ocean tele- 
Hftt^ upwards of half a million a year to the public, and 
^m Mfcantile community chaiges extensively pro- 
llQij,sa we have shown, four shillings a word, instead 
iMiyUing a word messages. The cost of the delay 
"" i ste ce sted and false economical and administrative 
ia respect to the railways is indisputably some 
■SioQi a-^ear of excessive expenditure, derivable 
nftj, by the shareholders and the service ; and to 
tnnjler an excess of fieure of a third, at the least, of 
mke pays for every journey, and also an excess of 
ofKfe and limb, from proved mismanagement in the 
B^ocity of cases. To every manufacturer or mer- 
tbs eost of delay is an excess of rates of at least 
M on all the goods he sends. If I am asked on 
Jl^vuki I assert that these reduced railway fares 
U equally prodactive, I answer on the same 
SB which we asserted that, if fair play were given 
the third-class passenger rates or a penny a mile 
te the most productive, which the railway directors 
id would be their ruin, but are now proving to be 
kut fortune ; and on the same grounds that the 
Iteleg^raph rates, which the directors declared 
pradnoe a loss, are now producing an increased 
Ihe tact is that there is a great amount 
iniveti-lsgotten prejudice and opinion, that 
]btsa allowed to pass current as impartial public 
on this question. I remember an early student's 
1 from Locke on the conduct of the under- 
that^ might be well remembered on this sub- 
I said, **When you come to examine any 
with a view to anv conclusion, the first thing 
c^ght to do is to consider the state of your interest 
■0 q nd sl i on, and take it into account." I remember 
tol went to give evidence before the Railway Com- 
pMi I could not but say to myself, Who is that 
jj"M«onsr who interrupts my exposition with a deter- 
pai cross-examination on an irrelevant issue P Why, 
^JB the chairman of a railway company. Who is 
TOO m a n i fest i a supreme contempt for the eoonomical 
of competition for the fidd as against com- 
within the field, and the inappUcability of 
Hi to the case in question ? Why, he is the 
of a company for an enterprise which, in a 
AiU^f occupied by one capital, ana not receiving a 
difidend, desires a second to divide it and be 
up. Who is that commissioner who displays 
spaQiy and listlessness to the doctrines interfering 
£ tPT*?* enterprise P Why, he is the head of a 
^ Mkoig hoose having immense railway accounts 



which would be swept away by a public system. 
And so with noble lords whose rent-rolls have been 
largely increased by the private enterprise, very 
much at the expense of the shareholders. Delicaoy 
of foeling should have prevented ihem occupy- 
ing such positions. Wishing to put the best con- 
straction on such an arrangement, it may be surmised 
that the conmussion may have been so packed in 
order to see how much concession might be got from 
representative men of the hundred and twenty-four 
railway directors in the House of Ck>mmons, and the 
fifty-eight railway directors in the House of Lord»— a 
formidable body of one hundred and seventy-two 
members, for a prime minister to think of dealing with, 
unsupported by public opinion for disestabli^ment. 
The electric telegraph directors were particularly shocked^ 
as the railway directors are, at additional patronage 
getting into the hands of the Government ! *' Why, it 
would equal the patronage of the Inland Bevenue, 
or of any other department except that of the Customa 
itself ! " It were better, in their views, for tiie public to 
bear the ills thev had (of dear and restricted communi- 
cation) than to fly to others of which the directors knew, 
though the public knew not So the nulwav directorates 
in Parliament are clearly of opinion that the patrona^ 
of the force of three hundred thousand men is beet in 
their keeping. The men themselves, however, are, I 
venture to say, from inquiries I have made of them 
on'ocoasions, in different parts of the country, will be ^lad 
to change masters, and as shown by open manifostations 
at Derby and elsewhere, will now oast their ballots in 
the direction of the interests of the public as well as 
themselves, for a change of system. On this points as to 
the patronage, I wovdd particularly appeal to Lord 
Derby, who has set a most distinguished example in 
the promotion of open competition for first ap- 
ointments for the public service ; which, deq^ute 
of all the opposition of patronage hunters, ia acting verv 
well. Does he not think the principle may be applied, 
in this case, by improved methods, to obviate the dan- 
gers he apprehends P Again, he presided at a meeting, 
at the United Service Institution, to promote civil ap- 
pointments to deserving soldiers, an object in which I 
concurred. Would not the railways afford useful aid ia 
that direction P Beyond that, would not a drill, given 
to a large proportion of the men, as an occasional relief, 
and as a holiday, — and, indeed, would not a good diUl, 
as a qualification for first appointments to the ranks, 
serve as a valuable addition to our defensive foroe^ and 
as a means of important military economy P GKxkL 
military authorities are decidedly of opinion that it 
would. But the railway protectionists assume that the 
change of system can only be made aooording to their 
own notions. ''Government" means, with them, the 
distracted attention of a changin>f political ohie^ oom- 
monly destitute of special aptitudes, and leaving offioe 
before he can acquire them, after presiding over a sham 
bourd like the Board of Trade. They assume their owil 
price, and that the whole money is to raised by loan, and 
that all the /Mr«9im#/ is to be changed, and that the modes 
of appointment are to remain much the same. But is* 
contract management to have no plaoeP Is not the 
working of the contract system, widch, besides postal 
packet service, vet includes three-sevenths of the postal 
conveyance by land, notoriously better than the railway* 
contract system P At last a prmoiple of contract senioe 
has been introduoed into the postal service, under which 
a district postmaster agrees to do the work of a 
district for a given siun. he providing such sub- 
ordinate service as he thinks fit, and being responsible. 
Sir Rowland Hill, as well as his brother, Mr. fVederio 
Hill, has fully considered the objections to the im- 
portant points of State management as to the employ- 
ment of labour, and has disposed of them. If that 
principle had been a^^ed when it was proposed, 
probably a quarter of a million of saving would have 
> acoroed to the poblio in that department alooo. And 



B06 



J€ORAAX» OF «HB SeOIITY 0(F ABTB, iJvMi.aO, 1878. 



irky shoHld aot that pmoiple, tiie ptibciple ef ooolnot 
Mrvke, and paysMiit bsr veMHar be mftensiTOlj applkKl 
under uni^, in railway mdmiaii<aa|»iiiP Lard 
Darby appr^iao«bi tkat there Biay be paUic inoon- 
Tvmtence in maioiBg additions to ihe national debt. 
Why the railway reforma -proposedare esnaeBtly calcu- 
lated to vield profit, toaiagment prosperity, and strength 
to bear tiiat burden, and eventually to Mtdnce tt. Bone 
ten milliOBS of anniial reliuf from working expenses and 
high interest, and fifteen millions of reduoed transit 
xates wonld constitote an amount of saving greater than 
the charge of the debt itsrif. Mr. Hammond Chubb, 
the secretary to the Bank of Bngland, has dissipated the 
> tiitck fogs raised by the railwity financiers, whose 
finandng riiar^oldera have such good ground to deplore 
and distrust He has shown that not loss, but gain, is 
derivable from the trnnsfer of the income of the disunited 
companies to the State. He si^ that ** up to the end 
of the last year the purchase of telegraphs had cost 
£M7S,000. The interest on tUs som at 3^ per 
cent, amounted to £21 7,000 per a»num. But the income 
of the telegraph eonvpanies, which they divided in profits, 
iraaover £360,000. Therefore, for £217,000 a year the 
ffovemnent had purchased an income of £850,000." 
Just so ; and, be it borne in mhid, we have urged the 
acquisition of more profit to the public by the pur- 
chaee of the ocean lines, and the completion of ^e sys- 
tem. Mr. Chubb observes, ** that the principle (m. whioh 
to oaJoalate the purchase of the railways was not what 
was the gross sum necessary to buy them, but would it 
involve a greater sum in the shape of interest to the 
8taite than the companies were new distributing as ilivi- 
4eBds P ' ' May we not contemplate a proportionate sarplus 
to the revenue, a million or so, from a property -conducted 
transaction on the same principle, and ia that, together 
with aQ the other demonstrated gains, to be foregone 
from year to ^^ear for an imagined contingent— financial 
oontiogeBt— inconvenience, which the gains are power- 
iolly (mloulated to prevent. His Lordship has a lore- 
cast, beyond what men of soienoe have, that we may 
semetime hence get cheaper means <^ transit than by 
railways. Are we ibr this promised cheapness to another 
generation to sostaan all the present deamees of disunity 
^to the present generatien, lor the eake of nursing a 
ftitnre loss to sbarehelden; and will not unity and 
immediate cheapness be t&e best to meet any 
change P His Lordship forbodes future manafiao- 
taring distresses and disturbanoes of the labornr 
markets, and discontents. Why, the measures proposed 
for freeing and cheapening in toco e ai ui u nieatiop, and 
thence promoting atts, manufaetares, and cooMnerce, 
are just the measures calculated to avert them, and when 
they arise to relieve them. One great means of reb'eving 
congested labour markets and of steadying them is cheap- 
ness of transit. He cannot have been informed of the 
grievous obstructions, created by high railway charges, 
to the relief of the working classes during the cotton 
famine by the nmoval of themselves and Uieir families 
to pieces of demsBid. On the whole, the chief evils pic- 
tuI^ed, as the evils '^^we know not of," when ezamaned, 
will turn out to be mere illusions ; and when they are 
to any extent possibilities they will be best met by 
conditions of augmented strength, by greater cheapness 
and freedom of transit, and better internal as well as 
of external oomnmnioation. I am glad that Br. Farr, 
after a study of the subject, oonours with xu that the 
question ot free railways is of infinitely greater im- 
povtaaoe than the old qusalimiof ih«edom of trade in its 
•arrow sense. That-related to the burden of a million or 
two of import duties on com. This system is of many 
mi ni ons of railway directorates, export as well -as of im- 
pert duties, on all oommodities on penoas as well as of 
thi^^ it would befor the shareholders as well as tiie 
manufiwtuBw to oenaider whether a railway refonn 
Uagneiis not more needed thaathe old com law reform 
2W^J» ^«M«tt and advance pubiio opinkm agaistt 

-*-* rs w mtrti o ^ HBid offoiitiaii. 




Xr. Batlf femarkei that a disoasnoa^oa thimnnst 
ject had taken place in 186«. Uisiei«iiestothit4eb^ 
he wished te call fmblio attention te two Istten «hi 
had appearsd in the Jmtmal of the Sesisfy <ii1be 7tkf 
Febru«ry, 1866, and the Ifithof May.iatbsMiie^ 
written by Mr. Sydney gnuth. The isadkg of tto 
letteteand other otronitfa which hadcoaetDlmaiafr 
tion, as well as the powerful argannsBtsof Mr. 
on the preeent occasion, had thoroughly alta4 
opinion on the matter, and he was now quite cov 
that it would be a judtotoas thing for the railviyi ¥> 
acquired by the State. It mast he rensmbendtfa) 
the purohMse and control of railways were tfodiffi 
things, and, though the last fow paragn|)hB in lb 
G-dlt's paper appeared to be lost sight of, thsj sen m^ 
very important. He referred to the sagsodoatkiil 
was quito open to the public aathoritiei to Btkea&j nl 
ways for tbmnselvso, if the present propiielanff nOvd 
stock did not come to reasonable tenu ; ud he bekm 
that two or three trunk lines ludootin tkii e^j voiij 
be of great service to the oonntry, and, in hci to li 
parties. 

Colonel fitraage, F.R.S., said he was moaangtdtoi^ 
a fow words on Uds subiect from having tskca ftfti 
somewhat similar proceedings, leading to the«aoaiM 
of what he would venture to term the sumtJluMi 
beset the discussion of the present questioa, laaelT, th 
aid of Government in the advanoeoieat of 
science. This matter was one which nohody 
would be settled soon ; it would have to be 
and a great deal of nensense talked hefen 
true bearings of the question were diicoT«*i 
get a clear view of ttie subject it was w*^^ 
sweep away some preliminary obstaclea, c»» b«| *^ 
it was inexpedient that the Government AosM^* 
fore with private enterprise. Whenerer the «iW*^ 
was expressed by one who folt it in his own Wa^ 
which he (Colonel Strange) did not— it wii il»*p W 
received. It had lately been uttered hy Mr. Giad*^*^ 
and Mr. Lowe, in ttie presence of those heit thkw 
the holiowness of the sentiment, men of science, i^ 
it was well received. There seemed to be sosif dMg 
attractive about it, though he could not see «h»t ^ 
Those who used the expression seemed to fatg d '^ 
they were argmng against — they were amply sij«< 
against civilisation. That word, like all oA«* ^ 
open to a ^nsat mamy definitions, but the oee i»lj 
posed to give was this :— Civilisation was ^TJJJ 
interfered with individual enterprise and jso"** 
liberty — for there could he no civiliaition ^'^^ 
dividu»tl liberty and enterprke were iateifcTei •» 
He said that boldly. The principle of barbuia «■ 
to let every man do as he pleased— to scalp ha ^^ 
and to eat him —but civilisation stepped in tirf ^ 
" You shall not scalp your enemy and eat hin; JJJ 
enemy shtU be killed, but you must not kill him ^ 
will kill him for you, and you shall be depriTedw Jj 
of your property to pay for the trouble we *'^'"* 
matter." Let them ask themselves where wotw t*f 
be if Government did not interfere with P"**^®*? 
prise in such matters as the post-cffice, thepow^'j 
army and navy, and so on. Was civilisation to f»J" 
a certain point, or had anjrbody yet indicated tbfp^ M 
at which it was to stop f ' No ; it nnrt p^*^ 
and he felt certain there wonM y«t " 
further augmentation of central anthoiijjr. 
a farther diminution of the freedom of iwDfl 
in certain matters. I'hen it became a qae*b«fl 
those tnatters Should be. This prehminiry ^f 
that they were not to do this that or the otherlW^ 
cause it was an interference with private onterpi»* 
appwrred quite untenable. Another !Win<^]?\ ■! 
would venture to call it, was that if the W** "■ 
possession of the railways it wodd he tf^ "^ 
doublhig of Ihe National Debt He contended rt^^ 
not be a debt at all, but simply an ^"^^^T^ 
detaili of trhioh could U sonoiged tad i^0h ^ 



I 



JOUBHAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Junb 20, 1873. 



609 



Odt 



. The railwavs were held by the moneyed classes 
(land, and if they were tranaferred to the State the 
would fitilT be held by the same persons ; in fact 
DEtcticn would simply amount to this, that a cer- 
ii of gentlemen were going to sell themselves their 
roperty, and it would be very strange if they made a 
rit. The third fallacy was that Government manage- 
fvas not as good aa private management. He did 
'ok the meeting would endorse that sentiment ; no 
}po8ed they^ would have abler men than at present 
loct the railways, but they would have intellect 
itnted and applied to a system of unity instead of 
jscattered and diffused thoughout the country— the 
)\ would be more conoentrated. Another fallacy 
it if the railways were in the handa of 
tTenunent there wonld not be the same tendency 
Dent as at present. Having had something I 
railway matter* and contracts, and having 
little behmd the scenes, he did not think there 
ijriQch intense desire for improvement as they 
tn told existed. He had spoken to one of the moat 
it engineers on the subject, who agreed with him, 
extent at any rate, that there was no tendency 
"Ore in the direction of economy of construction. 
)j was not the tendency for engineers to cut 
M fiist cost of their works. They repudiated 
of fixed salaries, their idea being a commission 
Iwit, and consequently it was not to their interest 
Irodoce fuch contrivances as should make rail- 
Icaiials, and docks cheaper. The larger and 
ItXDeiuiTe the undertaking the more com- 
I they received. He did not say this with 
itett idea of any imputation upon their 
but there could be no doubt tiiey were 
I7 interested in making the cost of engineering 
* large as they conscientiously could P That 
thing would not exist to the same extent if 
were in the hands of the government, because 
r would receive a fixed salary. Mr. Gait 
with having stated that the case required 
an overwhelming one before the purchase 
tdopted, and that he had not done so. He 
it Mr. Gait had said so, but he did not attempt 
ovt that case. He only put before the meeting 
oooiiderations why the State should purchase 
snd there left it. He thought, however, 
It was mistaken in saying that the Govern- 
not ffo to the companies to purchase the 
hot that the railways must come to the 
it He thought the time would come when 
haying got excited about this question, some 
•onid see his way to making a political cry 
the railways," and that it would be done in 
ft and not by any other means. That was how 
Bt measures had been manipulated of late years, 
would probably be the case with this. Public 
(If would not suffice until some man saw his 
it, so as to increase his own position, and to 
own ambition. 

sk Hill said the speech of Lord Derby at 

meeting caused much matter for comment, 

»hle lord himself had stated that perhaps his 

wete capable of being answerea, and he 

ro of them at least were completely answered 

ps»ff of the following morning. Mr. Chad wick 

^replied to some of the objections raised very 

so had Col. Strange, and he now wished to lay 

« meeting a few considerations of a somewhat 

l^ancter to those which had as yet occupied 

^ion. Ko doubt Government interference, as 

was a gte»i bugbear to many people, and 

rather difficult to know where to draw the 

rbody admitted that Government only could 

natters, such as protection to life and pro- 

10 otn, s&d on the other hand it could not be 

Mt there were many things which it would be 

lor Government to interfere with. He 



beliered the true line of demarcation was this, that 
Government mi^t advantageously undertake the man- 
agement of anything which upon sufficient trial 
should prove in its nands more productive than it 
would if left to private enterprise. If (Govern- 
ment required a monopoly, he, although a 
Government servant, should say unhesitatingly, 
<* Do not give it ;" but if with a fair field and no fieivour 
Government could beat private enterprise, in such a case 
they were justified in t^ng the matter up. This rule 
was well exemplified in the case of the telegraphs, and, 
though a monopoly was there secured to Uie State, he 
contended that it was not at all necessary— nor did he 
believe it was even in the case of the Post-office — and as 
the Bill was originally proposed no monopoly was sug- 
gested. Hiere was no necessity in the case of the raU- 
wa} 8 for going headlong into the matter ; let it have a 
fair trial on a moderate scale, and if the country were 
found to be benefited, and no injunr done to railway 
proprietors, it could easily be extended. On the other 
hand, if the management by the Government was lesi 
successful, let it be given up. It was now nearly twe^y 
years since he had first taken up this question. He 
attempted to show, as was now very generally admitted, 
after millions of money had been wasted, that in rail- 
ways, as in anything else where the number of com- 
Setitors was necessarily small, competition was merely a 
elusion. Sooner or later in such cases — and general 
sooner rather than later— there would be a union of 
intereste, and even the semblance of competition would 
vanish. He had also asserted from the beginning that 
railway amalgamation would be beneficial to the public 
interests, and ought not to be discouraged^ and he con- 
tended that the experience of the lines in the north- 
eastern part of the country fully bore out this argument, 
having been beneficial both to the shareholders and to 
the public. Now, every partial amalgamation was a 
step to complete amalgamation, and the latter would 
only be completed by w Stete possessing the railway 
It had been very generally assumed that bteto possession 
meant State management, but this was by^ no n^eans the 
case, and it was an error to suppose that either he or his 
brother Sir Bowland had ever advocated the latter. His 
own claim to Bpeak with authority on this question was 
small, but considering the dear manner in which his 
brother had put forward his views upon the matter, and 
considering his position as the originator and successfol 
administrator of one of the greatest financial experi- 
mento of the age— Uie penny post — ^he really thought 
the facto and arguments he had adduced with regard to 
the railways deserved more consideration than they had 
received. What he proposed was this, not that Gk>yem- 
ment should undertoke the management, but Uiat 
following the principle glanced at by Mr. Chadwick, 
of contract management, the railways whioh^ had be- 
come the property of the Stato should be divided into 
convenient groups and put up to public competition, 
in the following form. Government having under- 
token to pay a certain fixed sum, per annum, to the 
former proprietors, the basis of the contract most be 
that that sum should be paid by the contractor, the 
Government Uius simply having the duty of reooivini|^ 
the money with one hand and paying it with Uie 
other; and the competition would be simply who, on 
that basis, would nnderteke to work the raHwavs at 
the lowest toriff, and generally on the most advan- 
togeous terms for the public, of course giving proper 
security for keeping up the plant in good order, pro- 
viding against accidents, and so on. In this way, for 
the first time in the history of railways, would com- 
petition really be brought into play, and that in its 
most healthy form. It would be open to the whole 
world, and those who had an aptitude for administra- 
tion and powers of organisation would, by and bye, 
make it their profession, snd either at the head of 
companies, or otherwise, would undertake these con- 
cerns and work them in a way which no body of 



610 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juki 20, 187S. 



amateurt ooold ever hope to imitate. If this plan 
were adopted, all the fears which had been expressed 
aboat political influence, financial jobbing, patronage, 
&c., would fall to the ground ; and there would also be 
this great advantage, that Goyemment would not be ex 
posed to constant applications and pressure of all kinds to 
lower the rates beyond the point at which they ought 
to stand in order to make the railway self- supporting. 
The contractors would stand between the Goyemment 
and the public, and nobody would think of asking a 
contractor any more than a baker to sell his goods at 
half'priee. All the official staff required would be a 
small body of thoroughly competent men to see that the 
coreoants of the lease were properly fulfilled. As to the 
price to be paid for the railways, a great deal of mis- 
coneeption seemed to prevail. Mr. ^fartin, in his paper 
read at the Statistical Society, estimated the present 
market value of the railways at about 600 millions; 
bat then he added some immense sum for what was 
called prospective advantages, which ho contended was 
a mwe illusion. All future contingencies, whether ad- 
Tantageooa or the reverse, were included in the calcula- 
tions made by clever men on the Stock Exchange who 
settled the market price of the day. No one who 
wanted to turn railway shares into cash would think 
of instruoting his broker to add 50 or 100 per cent, to 
the market prioe for '' prospective advantages," or if he 
did he would never gut rid of tht>m. He, like many 
othan, held railway stock ; for instance, he had some 
fthaxes in the Caledonian Builway which were now 
quoted at 96J. If anybody would add ten per cent, to 
that he should be very glad to part with the whole of 
his shares, and he apprehended any other holder would 
also. Proceeding in that way, the 600 millions sterling 
would not be raised to 1,200 millions, as it had been by I 
Hr. AJlpoii, but to only 660 millions. There was no 
necessity at all for the Government to deal with this ' 
business wholesale. His brother and he had suggested \ 
that they should begin with the Irish railways, which 
were a compact body separate from the rest, of a 
moderate vsJue, and whioh were suffering much more 
than English lines from divided man:igement. Or 
«ay particular group of either English or Scotch lines 
might be taken in the same way. About 30< millions 
would buy the Irish railways, and even if the 
experiment faUed, and they hud to be sold 
again, the loss, in such a case, could not 
be put at more than a frmrth, or say £8,000,000, 
wbieh was not a very alarming sum to such a nation as 
England. If the matter were looked at calmly in that 
wwy, seeing with how much safety the experiment could be 
tried, he did not think there would be so many objections. 
With regard to the economy of working by contract, he 
might mention that that was first applied to the steam- 
boat conveyance of amiU between Bombay and Ad^n, on 
behalf of the then Indian Governiiient ; the result was 
that whereas the conveyance had cost the Eaat Indian 
Company £120,000 a year, the Peninsular and OrienUl 
Steam Ship Company sent in a tender, which was accepted 
and carried out with perfect satisfiiction, to perform the 
same service for £20,000 ! That was an extreme case, 
no doubt, but it showed unmistakeably the tendency of 
competition, Mr. Chad wick was not quite correct in 
what he had stated in reference to the contract system 
lately introduced in the Post-office, though he thought 
it might with advantage be as that gentleman had re- 
presented. What was done, in addition to the Itrge ap- 
plication of the contract system to the conveyance of 
mails by omnibuses, mounted messengers, &c,, was to 
take a certain class of work in one department— that of 
money orders — which it was ftiund cost a certain 
•um of money, and invite the clerks to say what they 
would do it for, finding their own assistants. The 
practical result had been that whereas the meritorious 
clerks who became the successful competitors had their 
JiM»me nearly doubled, the expenses of the department 
toad been considarably reduced, tha work beiij^ at the 



same time at least as well performed as before. Soa 
persons preferred Government management for the ii2> 
ways altogether, and if that view were pressed he dimtU 
say take two groups of railways and give each system i 
trial, and although a Government servant hioMelf, h. 
had not the slightest expectation that the GovenuDan 
management would equal that of the contractor eitha ii 
economy or efficiency. In conclusion he would only «t 
that both himself and brother were singly of opioica 
that under a contract system, such as he had sketelied 
out, not only would better returns be given to the ahsre- 
holders, but a lower tariff and greater security obUincd 
by the public. 

Xr. Bdwin Chadwiek, in explanation, said be so £» 
appreciated Sir Kowland Hill's views on this matter thst 
he made a distinct effort to get them brought fbrwudst 
the Statistical Sodety. The error into which hf had 
fallen with regard to the contract system in the pMt- 
office arose from having read the last report tather 
hurriedly. 

Vr. Bats, X.P., said he was largely concerned with 
railway traffic, having during the last eleven months 
paid £14,000 for railway carriage. From various rvporU 
of committees he learnt tiiat the charges for oonvfying 

floods in Belgium and other countries were cootidezablT 
ess than in England, and considered it woold be mack 
to his advantage if the State were to porrhase thi 
railways, and only make such charges as would i^tnm § 
reaRonable profit It had been proved, before committeeL 
that the cost for conveying goods in Belgium was froc 
80 to 90 per cent, lower than in this countir, and b? 
was persuaded that if the State were to take pome^iz: 
of the railways in any manner consistent with equity 
they would be in a condition still further to redoes 
those charges ; arid, considering how large a propottioii 
of the cost of production was caused by the rat*? 
for carriage, it was easy to see that tie gener^J 
trade and prosperity of the country would be pr«^thr en- 
hanced by any condition of things which would insure v 
large reduction of railway charges. Lord Derby ap«me^i 
to think that they incurred the danger of some inven- 
tion being brought out which would dispense with rail- 
ways, sueh as conveying the goods in the air ; bat th&.1 
was a probability which they ought not to take into coc- 
sideration. But supposing that, some thirty at forh; 
years hence, the railways would not be so TnloabW ii 
now, in consequence of some new invention, if the rail- 
ways grem^ined in the hands of the present prr>pricto« 
they would suffer the loss, and it did not mak<* m&c^ 
diff«-rence whether they lost the money or the State. Ij 
Wis very dogmatically stated that the poeseee^^ 
of the railways by the State was impossible in coci 
sequence of the proposed change of govemmtui 
because they would become the largest emplovf-it 
of labour in the country. He dispute tii^ 
altogether. There was no necessity for the Oowrn 
mont or ministry to take the management — aj 
independent department might be constituted for th 
purpose ; and, as to the working classes being- a9?ctc^ 
he considered they would be more benefited that an^ 
body. Besides, the conduct of railway employ^ wonj 
compare favourably with that of any other body of mo( 
and he did not at all fear their acting Qnreamna.'UT 
employed by the State. It had been stated by BI 
Bidder, before a committee in 1866 or 1866, thmX tKtri 
class passengers might be conveyed at a farthini^ a vni] 
and other authorities confirmed that view, and tfast a t^ 
material redaction might be made with great ad vanta^ 
The number of third-class psssengera were, coni|v%rl 
with first and second-class, as five to two. and the l ev^ P l 
derived from third-class passengers was notrery t^r ak< 
from that obtained from both the first and seeood p 
together ; and, with regard to the roet of ixmdiaettnir tl 
passengers, five third-class passengers could be cTmv ** y 
fbr the same price as one fint-class; tbeiefiiira bia coavi 
tion was that a public dflpartment m^lit aa&ljr rodi 



JOUBNAI^ 09 THB SOOIBTTT 09 ARTS, Jmv 20, Wm 



611 



n eoit of thiid-clMi paw o ngers one-halfl By bo doing 
vgf voaU make a larger profit than at present, because 
mU be impossible to calcolate the enormous increase 
ten would be in the number of travellers which that 
fijutioa woold produce. 

Xl Eali expressed his opinion strongly in Cftrour of 
bBlste purchasing the railways, the importance of the 
RMos being shown by the fact that the capital in- 
pki in these enterprises had doubled itself within a 
feyraocnt period. He attributed a great deal of the 
$tm q( nilwsjrs under |»ivate management, and the 
MiMmtiTe immunity from accident, to the control of 
lonfnnait through, the Board of Trade, and considered 
hit sU the arguments which had been adduced against 
hi OMisre might be easily met ; indeed, he did not 

ee those who put them forward now would hold to 
klM&Mlves ten vears hence* 



Gors thpn moved the further adjournment of 
b tfioQSB on to Thursday evening, the 26th inst., at 
||hl o'clock, which was agreed to unanimously. 



faniL Tblborapk Proobess as Compared with 
T&ADMo CoMPANiBs* Pkoohms. 



1 

%jncfn wi Mb. Chadwick's 
, Isms or QcMTiom on tbb 

■use TELtOBATR COM- 
AlXSOATHWi. 



*^ iU ovn part, an 
■ eOHT oompuiipa, the 
PMt hteiutioiial Con 



and for 
Elee- 

1 Company 

fl^ *maaf iwpnrtant dis- 
" tm vilboat any suoh 
J of eoounnniotttion.' 
tflalWfi Uw OoTemment 
^IhetiMaer 

«M tbe total namber 
itskeaoverl What 
lasmbernov! 



Amsweb. 



The total nuaber of stations 
worked bj the old companies 
immediately prior to the transfer 
in Janowy, UI70. was v,9.)2. 
Tbe total number of stations 
opsned since that date is 2.668, 
making a total of 6,790 now 




^M«iic telegraph are 
" ■ In what way are 
iftf Tbere is no 
te the wld which can 
vith Qraat Britain in 
, et There is no country 
JNdd wfaiefa can compare 
tBritaiainraqitKJiof 
with which trit-grai^ 
en ooareyed.'' 



>t 



|55*Vis the total ovmber 
^■^gatbtaforintheflrst 
fcftiwrflbe change), and 
^■tis total number now T 



e extent does the oon- 
ef Oicat Britain now 
_ vith iu eonditioB 
'■wepeLls soffldencyand 



The meaas were ineofficient, 
inasnuaeh as they did ne( oairy 
telegraphic oommonication into 
the 2,858 places referred to 
abov«. It msy also be remarked 
that whereas tike average number 
of offices to population in Ifiurope 
is 1 to 16,118, the average num- 
ber in the United Kingdom is 1 
toA,406. 

I am not awateof any oountsy 
in the world in which telegrams 
are conveyed at a greater speed 
than in this ooun^. owing 
pamMipally to the use of the 
Wheatstone instrument on the 
more important drcoits. Mes- 
sages are daily conveyed between 
London and the principal towns 
at the average speed of 80 
meesages an hour en one wire. 

The total number of messagee 
forwarded doing the first three 
months after the transfer was 
2,S'26.&)9. The total number of 
medsages fbrwarded during the 
corraspMiding period in this 
^ear was 3,843^1, being an 
mcrease of 1,616,87 a. 

Tbe other answers generaUy 
reply to this questian. 



ie ttie comparative 

M it not in the redoo* 
' pwtenge by the mnlti- 
nefrtations? 



By bvingiBg the telegraphs 
nearer to the population, the 
time occupied in the trans- 
mission of a meiteage is not only 
greatly redooed, bat a large 
saving is also effected in the 
charge for porterage ; and in the 
majority of cases no charge 
wbatever is made, aa 
Me delivered free wkhia 
mile of tha terminal station. 



Ohadwiek aoA 

more based their wkoleargorasat 
befbrathe Bodet^ of Arts upon 
the facilities which the Post- 
offloe would afford to the working 
of telegraphs in snuill towns, 
villages, snd ooontry distriota. 
Their notion was that the village 
poet-master or poet -mistress 
would aet as telegraphiats. **Ih 
the flnt place, the penooo em- 
ployed at country post-offloea 
are, as a rule, quite unfit to 
be employvd as telegraphists." 
How is it now, **a8 a rule;" 
what proportions are eo em- 
ployed! 

" It is worthy of oonsideratian 
that ours is the only country in 
which the telegraphs are not a 
monopoly in the hands of the go- 
vemment,andit is also worthy of 
observation that, under a system 
of fk-ee competition, we hare 
made more progress and arrived 
at a highnr standard of excel- 
lence In telegraphy than in any 
country in the world *' 

What improvementshavebeen 
adopted, or are in process of 
a^foption. sinoe the svstem has 
been in the hands of the govern- 
ment, beyond the system in the 
hands of the oompMiies T 



About 9,800 poet-masters and 
post-mi»tret«es are employed on 
telegraph work, and Judging 
from the fsct, that only one 
complaint is received oonc<vning 
every 1,879 forwarded telegrams^ 
it would appear that the work 
is done in a satia£sctory manner. 



(a ) We have brought the pro- 
portiDU of telesraph offices to 
the population from 1 to 10,862, 
to 1 to 6.49.5. 

b, We have given a flree 
delivery of not less than one 
mile, whereas formerly it was 
only ha1f-a-mile. 

(c) We have reduced the rate 
to Is f<»r 20 words for the whole 
of the United Kingdom, whereas 
formerly the rates were in some 
cases as high as 4s. for 20 words. 

(d) As stated in answer No. 1, 
we have carried the telegraph, in 
less thou three years and a half, 
to 2,858 places which were 
formerly unprovided with it. 

(«) Where two or three com- 
peting offices were situated 
within a few yards of each 
other, sometimes next door, in 
the busiest portions of a dty, 
we have separated them and 
distributed them to other parte 
of the town. 

(/) For press messages we 
have reduced the rate to Is. for 
75 or 100 won^s, as the case may 
be, according to whether the 
message be sent by night or by 
day. To show how much the 
press have availed themselves of 
this facility, we may mention 
that as many as 18 000 words 
have been supplied by telegraph 
in one night to a single news- 
paper. 

(ff) We have also given to the 
public on advantagtsous terras, 
the exclusive use of piivate 
wires, and the revenue from 
thiit source alone ia upwards of 
£38 000 per annum. 

WhUe the Post Office has 
effected considerable improve- 
mentrt in oearlvevery desoription 
of apparatas in use by the old 
t«*legm|^ compcmi<*s, it baa 
laigeiy eoKteaded the use of the 
more modern and rapid forma 
of apparatus, and is even now 
engaged in testing the prao- 
ticabiUty of still fnrther im- 
provententa. The Wheatstone 
automatic i^ystem, which had 
been litUe more than introduced 
experimentally by the Eleotrie 
Telein^ph Company at the date 
of the transfer, has become a 
primary system under the Poet 
Office, and itn use i« being almost 
dailjr extended. At the central 
station . forty sets of this de<»crip- 
tion of apparatus have taken the 
place of the font rets in use by 
the company, while a large 
numbfT of pn»vincial offlres have 
had its nse extended to them. 
Anew application of the s^rstem 
has al^o oeen introduced m tbe 
transmission of n^ws for the 
Pre«s throughout the conntrv; 
and the preparation, or ** pnn(4i- 
ing '* process, a^ it is technically 
called, has been so far improved 
that three slips can be produced 
without any increase of the 
labour formerly necessary to 

rluce one. This enables us 
transndt items of news for 



613 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, Jwb 20, MIS. 



"In matters of telegraphy ex' 
perienced and practical officera 
are required, and the inressure 
usoally put upon Qovernment 
memhcn to obtain places for 
their supporters, -wiuiout any 
regard to their capabilitiea, 
would scarcely be likely to 
operate advantageously to the 
telegraph companies." 

Are the new appointments not 
made under competitiye ex- 
aminations 7 

What number of the old 
officers were retained X 

"It the Government under 
this BUI obtain powers to ac- 
quire, work and maintain electric 
telegraphs, it must be under- 
stood that they must eventually 
become mannfartnrCTS and con- 
traeten." 

Uow is this matter of con- 
tracta T Do the contractors say 
that they get more or less now 
than Cormeiiy. 



pabUeattan over three wires 
simultaneously, instead of hav- 
ing to ** punch " it three 
different times. 

The >'Bell" instrument of 
the late Magnetic Telegraph 
Company hu been praoucaily 
superseded by the "Horse 
Sounder," a much simpler and 
mora generally applicable form 
of apparatus, besides being much 
cheaper. In a large number of 
cases, too, the comparatively 
alow and uncertain single needle 
inntrument has been replaced 
either by the Sounder, or the 
Morse printer ; while the use of 
the type-printing instrument of 
Professor Hughes has been very 
considerably extended. The 
most recent improvement, how- 
ever, is the introduction of the 
" duplex " system, by which two 
messages can be sent over the 
same wire in opposite directions 
at the same time. Some ten br 
twelve years ago this system was 
tried in this country, but, owing 
to the then imperfect condition 
of the lines, the experiment was 
attended with little or no success . 
Now, however, ite success has 
been placed beyond doubt, and 
there are at the present moment 
no fewer than eleven cases at 
the central station alone in 
which the productive capacity 
of a wire has been doubled 
by this means. To these 
improvemente in apparatus 
must be added the improve- 
ments in the construction 
and insulation of the lines, and 
the provision, to a lanre extent, 
of alternative routes where only 
one wire hitherto existed. 

The Post Offi<« has also estab- 
lished a special staff, and a 
travelling or "field" telegraph 
office, by means of which tele- 
graphic communication can be 
estebliahed at the most remote 
points at the shortest notice. 
Carrying its own cable and 
" paying out " apparatus, it can 
be attadied to the main lines of 
telegraph at almost any point ; 
and among the occasions on 
which it is proposed to be brought 
into use, is the review in honour 
of the Shah, in Windsor-park, 
next week. 



Candidates are required to 
pass a qualifying, but not at 
present a competitive examina- 
tion, before the Civil Service 
Commissioners. 

The majority of the old 
telegraph companies* officers 
Were retained in the service of 
the Department; in all nearly 
4,000 were retained. At the 
present moment the Deprrtment 
employs, in round numbers, 
about 8,500 clerks and messen- 
gers upon telegrai>h work. 



The Department has not 
become ite own manufacturer or 
contractor, and although the 
contractors hare not been asked 
the question, there can be no 
doubt that the enormous increase 
in the number of poles, wires, 
and telegraph inatrumente, now 
used in telegraph business, has 
furnished them with much more 
work in this respect thui they 
would have had under the old 
oompaniea. 

The total number of instru- 
mente at the time of the transfer 
was 1889 ; at the end of the last 
year the number was 7»549. 



INKUAL UTTEBJrATIOHALIXHIBITIOn. 



A meeting was held on Saturday, at the Bojal Albert 
Hall, of the Committee appointed to arran)^ th« SMe 
reception of the Shah at the Boyal Albert Hall tod Ii> 
ternational Exhibition, on Monday evening, the 23H c{ 
June. There were present: — His Royal Hig]in«afh 
Prince of Wales, His Royal Highness the Dokeof Edia* 
borgh. Viscount Sydney, the Earl of Camarron, Mijor 
General Sir T. Biddulph, Colonel Henderson, Xr, Ok^ 
and Major Donnelly. The programme of the State i^ 
ception was arranged. His Royal Highnen the Piiai 
of Wales, accompanied by his Royal Highnen UieDiki 
of Edinborgh, will receive his Majesty at the north-wal 
entrance to the Exhibition at ten o'clock. After impat- 
ing t^e Machinery Qallery, the prooenion wiH p« 
through the English Picture Gallery and the app« vait 
quadrant, entering the Royal Albert Hall by the ccaia- 
vatory entrance. Refreehmente will be sared io tk 
Queeii's Room, her Royal Highness the Princes of 
Wales, and her Imperial Highness the CJestWTw, aftar 
hearing the first part of the concert in her Majesly'i bet 
will join the Shah in the Queen's Room. Their Royil 
and Imperial Highnesses will accompany the Shih to 
the dais in the amphitheatre of the hall, wbe&tbeiwifil 
part of the concert will commence with the P««a 
National Anthem, and an ode composed for the oocib« 
by Mr. J. Bamby. 

The following is the progn^mme of the StaUKcept« 
of the Shah and the grand Concert at the Albert HiH, 
on Monday evening, the 23rd inst. : — 

" 1. His Royal Highness the Prince of Wil* 
accompanied by his Royal Highness the Duke of Wa- 
burgh, will receive His Majesty the Shah of ^bJ*** 
the north-west entrance of the Exhibition at 10 o'ot 

•* 2. Their Royal Highnesses, with the BoyilO^flJ- 
sioners for the Exhibition of 1861, will conduct HiiMj 
iesty through the Machinery Gallery and the fsM 
Picture Gallery of the Exhibition. The proce«« i« 
then pass by the Upper West Quadrant to the » 
servalory entrance to the Royal Albert Hall. 

** 3. The CouncU of the Royal Albert HaU willi* 
meet the procession, which will proceed by the ****** 
corridor totho Queen's room, where refrediroeBtiwiJU* 
served, and then by the Rbyal staircase to the d«i fl»» 
Amphitheatre. ^ 

« 4. The concert in the Royal Albert Hall iriD cobs* 
of two parts, the first part will commence st ^;^*^ 
second part will commence with the Persian Kat» 
Anthem, when the procession reaches the daif. 

"6. Her Roval Highness the Princeesof WiWtt* 
her Imperial Highness the C^esarovna will *"^^^ 
Royal Albert HaU at 9.30, and be received by the Ooiaj 
of the Royal Albert Hall. Her Royal Highway 
occupy Her Majesty's box, and at the terminatioB oim 
first part of the concert join the Shah in the Qaea» •«* 
Their Royal and Imperial Highnese«swiUiccoiDpwT» 
Shah to the dais. ^ 

" 6. A guard of honour will be sUtioned at the sota^ 
west entrance to the Exhibition to receive the SWi,tt* 
alao at the Royal entrance to the Royal Albert flw f^ 
the departure of the Shah. . ,^ 

** 7. State Trumpeters will announce theamnloiw 
Shah at the entrance to the Exhibition and at the GJW- 
vatory entrance to the Royal Albert Hall. A iW"W *, 
trumpets will also be given on the arrival of the fnemm 
on the d^'s. 

*• 8. It is requested that all visiton should ipp^ * 
uniform or Coiirt dress. , >^ 

«' 9. All persons must keep their pl««« <» *T°S 
the time the Shah arrives at the ExhiWtioa ^ i^" 
departure. The doow of the Boyal Albert HeD «" » 

doMd at 10 o'dock." 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIBTY OP ARTS, Jumb 20, 1873. 



613 



The programme of the monc, Sec., will be daly 
Adrertised. 

His Royal HighneM the Prince of Wales presided on 
Tuesday, at Marlboroagh-hoose, over a meeting of Her 
Maje8ty*8 Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851. 
There were present H.K.H. the Duke of Edinburgh, 
H.S.H. the Duke of Teck, the Marquis of Ripon, the 
Duke of Buckingham, the Marquis of Lansdowne, the 
£arl of Camaryon, Viscount Fortman, Mr. Childers, Mr. 
Ayrton» Sir Anthony de Rothschild, Sir Thomas Bazley, 
Sir Richard Wallace, Sir Hen^ Bartle Frere, Sir 
William Anderson, Sir T. M. Biddulph, Sir Henry 
Thring, Sir Francis Grant, Sir Francis Sandford, Mr. 
£dgar Bowring, Mr. Cole, Mr. Thomas Fairbaim, Mr. 
Thomss Hawksley, Dr. Lyon Playfair, and Major 
General Scott, secretary. 

On Tuesday the Earl of Carnarvon presided over a 
conference called by Her Majesty's Commissioners, in 
the Albert-hall, Kensington, to promote improvements 
in the silk manufacture throughout the country. There 
was a large attendance, including Sir Thomas Bazley, 
M.P., Mr. Bass, M.P., Mr. Brocklehurst, M.P., Sir Daniel 
Cooper, Mr. W. W. Hughes, Commissioner for Austria ; 
Mr. Peter Gadkan, Consul- General of Turkey ; Lord 
Alfred Churchill, Mr. H. Cule, C.B., Lady Dorothy 
KbvDle; Takeda and Tomita, two Japanese Commis- 
sioners ; M. Fitz-Bovet, China, &c. The chairman con- 
gratulated those present upon the really representative 
nature of the conference, and said the object of the 
meeting was well worthy of coneideration and atten- 
tion. He believed the silk trade might fairly be said 
to be one which was, in a certain sense, connected 
with English history, and that the particular quality 
of which he sometimes boasted as being^ a national 
Inut — namely, hospitality — was the occasion of the 
introduction of the silk trade into the countrv. Since 
its introduction, of course the trade had passed through 
many changes and fluctuations, and duiiof the last 
century it was subject to oppressive and nuwisc legisla- 
lation. Although he spoke with some diffidence in the 
presence of so many practically acquainted with the 
txvde, he thought he might say the prospect the trade 
bad before it might be described on the whole as satis- 
factory. He also re ferred as an amateur to the various 
processes, and expressing his opinion that the worms 
might bo reared in England, and thus the trade carried 
out from first to last, invited discussion on the subject. 
Mr. Bennock saw no reason why the English 
•hould not follow the industrv from the first, and sug- 
^sted that the cocoons should be, in the first instance, 
imported from Japan. He concluded an earnest 
speech by calling upon all connected with the trade to 
te honest to themselves, to the beautiful material which 
they dealt in, and to the consumers. Mr. Pollock, of 
Qlasgow, related his experience on the western coast of 
Scotland, where the experiment had been tried and failed. 
Mr. Cope, formerly in India, said the expense in 
2q gland would be much too large to make it a profitable 
■pccnlation. The best plan would be to encourage the 
natives of other countries, where labour was cheap and 
the climate more suitable, to do all they could to send 
well reeled silk to England, for that was where 
the defect lay. Mr Brocklehurst, M.P., spoke at 
•ome length rather adverseljr to the project. Lady 
Dotothy Keville asked permission to say a few words re- 
lative to the ailanthus worm, which, she said, if treated 
with care, might become a source of profit as well as 
amnaement to many. It was perfectly hardy — feared no 
rain, wind, or even a slight frost. The silk was coarser 
and stronger than that of the mulberry worm, and would 
of course require different treatment. She strongly 
adviaed those to whom she had the honomr and pleasure 
of addressing to turn their attention to the subject. The 
£arl of Caraarv<m having to attend a meeting at Marl- 
bcvoDgh-honee, the vacated chair was taken by Sir Daniel 



Cooper, and the discussion which followed was sustained 
by Mr. J. Chad wick f Manchester), Mr. Bullock (Maccles- 
field), Dr. Archibald Campbell, Mr. Maurice (Halifiix), 
Bir. I'. L. Simmonds (Society of Arts), and many others. 
The following resolution was ultimately adopted: — 
** That this meeting is of opinion that discussions like 
the present, in connection with annual International Ex- 
hibitions, will be useful to the arts, manufactures, and 
conmierce of the empire." 

The Queensland Annexe of the International Exhi- 
bition has been completed, and was recently opened to 
the public. The Queensland annexe is a small out' 
building situated on the same side of the building as the 
School of Cookery, and the very limited space which it 
affords for the display of the many products of a new 
and flourishing colony has been utilised by Mr.Daintree, 
the Agent-General, in the most practical manner. It 
has been his object so to group his exhibits as to enable 
the visitor to see at a elance tne nature of the soil, the 
produce, and the mcSe of life in any given disMct. 
For this purpose he has ranged round the walls of the 
annexe a series of photographs taken by hioisclf on dry 
plates prepared with native gum. Below these photo- 
graphs are a number of maps showing the geological 
formation of the soil, and cases in which specimens of 
soils, rock, and quartz are arranged. The first series 
shows the alluvial gold country with the deep sinking, 
the shallow mining, and a rough mining township. 
Then comes the *• useless country," a weary waste of 
sandstone, which is followed by the great Western 
prairies, the soil of which is equal to Cambridgeshire, 
and exceedingly well adapted for fattening. ^ The next 
series shows the coal district, the area of which is esti- 
mated at about 24,000 square miles, the coal of which 
is good average household or cannel. The mining dis- 
trict contains lead ores, copper, mercury, antimony, and 
gold, and in the metamorphic district the tin is worked 
at the rate of 300 to 400 tons a month, the exports from 
Peak Down Mines alone having reached more than a 
million sterling. The volcanic plains and great pas- 
tures, with a climate equal to that of Southern Europe, 
produce almost every kind of cereal, but the most im- 
portant feature of the colon v is the sugar district, which 
extends over ten degrees of latitude, and is capable of 
indefinite developnent. The specimens of sugar shown 
include every kmd and <^uality. Queensland already 
supplies herself and the neighbouring colonies with this 
useful product, and the first shipment to England will 
be shortly made. The scenery is magnificent, the 
cHmate almost equal to that of Madeira ; in some parts 
coffee is cultivated equal to the best Ceylon, and the 
specimens of cotton, which can be sold in the English 
market for 9d. per lb., show that the cultivation of that 
plant alone holds out a prospect for Queensland of a 
splendid future. There is a large extent under culture, 
and its produce of live stock is enormous. The returns 
of 1871 show that there were at the (nd of that year in 
the colony 7,403,334 sheep, 1,168,236 cattle, 91,910 
horses, and 32,707 pigs. So great was the excess of 
stock over requirements that 200,000 sheep and 1,000 
cattle were boUed down for tall ow. 

The number of visitors admitted to the Exhibition on 
Thursday, 12th inst, was as follows: -Season tickets, 
162; on payment of Is., 3,696 ; total, 3,867. On Friday, 
season tickets, 170; on payment of Is., 8,182; total, 
3,362. On Saturday, season tickets, 1,662 ; on payment 
of 2s. 6d., 2,374 ; total, 4,036. 

The number of visitors admitted to the Exhibition 
during the week ending Saturday, June 14th, was as 
follows:— Season tickets, 2,626 ; on payment of 2s. 6d., 
3,846 ; on payment of Is., 12,817 : tc^, 19,188. 

The number admitted on Monday was, season tickets, 
176 ; on payment of Is., 2,867 ; total, 8,048. On Tues- 
day, season tickets. 216 ; on payment of Is., 3,124 ; 
total, 3,339. On Wednesday, sesscn tickets, 1,607 ; on 
payment of 2s. 6d., 1,419; total» 3,026. 



614 JOUBN^AL OP THB BOOIETT OP ARTS, Jtob », 1878; 



Mr. MaoOregor, of ike London Soliool Boftrd, htm 
taken two or three parties of ) npil teachers and children 
6om Board schools in Gk'eenwich to the International 
Exhibition, in order that they might attend special lee* 
tores on oookerj. 



SXHIBITiaHS. 



Vienna Vniversal Exhibition, 1878.— An Interna- 
tional Horse Show, in connection with this exhibition, 
will be held at Vienna from the 18th to the 27th 
September next. The immediate management of the 
show has been intrusted to a special committee, under 
the presidency of His Excellency Count Grilnne, Mnster 
of the Horse to His Majesty the Emperor of Austria, 
and with the concurrence of His Excellency Baron de 
Schwarz-Senbom, the manager of the Vienna Universal 
Exhibition. Horses will be received from the Idth till 
the 17th September inclusive, and will be arranged for 
exhibition according to the breeds and varieties found in 
the respective countries. All horses exhibited will be 
entitled to compete for the prizes, which will consist of 
medals, honourable mention, and testimonials, and to 
agricultural breeders of limited means, of money prizes. 
A certificate of merit will be presented with the awards. 
The jury, of which His Excellency Count Griinne will 
officiate as president, will consist of accredited authori> 
ties of all countries from which horses are sent to the 
exhibition. A race meeting, with various prizes, will be 
held on the 2l8t and 23rd September, of which a special 
programme will appear. On the last day of the horse 
show (27th September^ a public auction will be held for 
the sale of any animals exhibitors may wish to dispose 
of in this manner, particulars of which will be published 
in due course. The entries of horses from this country 
must be sent to the secretary of the Royal British Com- 
mission for the Vienna Uoiversal Exhibition, 41, Parlia- 
ment-street, S.W., where further information respecting 
transport and other arrangements may be obtained on 
written application. 

^etorift SshibitiMi.— The Teohnological Exhibition , 
at Victoria is to open on July 1, and the examination of 
pupils in oonneoiion with it will commence on July 3. 



OMITTED POINTS OF ART AND SCIENCE FOR 
A PROGRAMME FOR THE SHAH. 

By E. Cniadwiek, C.B. 

The Russian papers have described the Shah as a 
sovereign coming to Europe in the spirit of Peter the 
Great — to learn what he may take back for the improve- 
ment of the condition uf tho population of his dominions. 
If so, is it not proper that the people of this country 
should know something more than they appear to do 
what that general condition is, and what sort of informa- 
he stands in need P Of this condition we may recall 
some authentic descriptions from the '* Journal of a 
Diplomate of Three Years' Residence in Persia,* by Mr. 
E. B. Eastwick, published in 1864, since when that con- 
dition has not been materially altered, unless it be for 
the worse, according to the accounts of a recent dire 
famine, more serere than the one which Mr. Eastwick 
witnessed in 1860. 

If the Shah comes with the good disposition which, 
it is to be hoped, is truly ascribed to him, he mif^ht have 
well stayed awhile and got a lesson at the little 
dominion he last visited. The venerable Quetelet, 
preceptor in statistios and economy of our Prince Albert, 
or Mens. Vischers, might inform him that that unpre- 
tendfaig Itttie Stale— Belgium— with just one-fiftieth of 
the area of his dominion, with no greater elements of 

£5*^*^' ^" " 8^*^* * population as his own, and has 
nvdno fiimines, has thirty times the commerce, has neariy 
four times the revenue, and has an army, one division of 



which might knock his own to pieces, as Oatnm did vitk 
less than ten thousand men. 

* Mr. Eastwick describes the culture of Penit at bclqg 
Vhat might be expected from the fiiminw, ts wrelcbcdtj 
bad, even about the Shah's capital. Mr. Eaitwick ssji:~ 

Most of the Eoropeaa veg eta b le are grown vitti iqim mmmk 
bat in very small quantitieB. at TetuvL, The poUto itia yci4 
miserably uodenozed, which is owing to the idteaa* sf t&i 
gardeBcn, who deposit tht seed almost ofa the partus «i tki 
ground, ratiher than be at the troiMe of scmpiaf or * dibtter* 
a hole. Asparagas grows wild in Ptoaia, bat the ladifleaoatftaSI 
is as inferior to the cultivated as a Hottentotr i» to a nAMi 
European. 

%e nee of Persia is bad. There are two soits-tbsiBbika sal 
Champa. The ambabu has a villaaaua smdU viMacs&ta aanr: 
and the champa is not very wholcaome. Th« greatest vut << aft 
is good broad. The Bumaas. indeed, import gnod Hmt sai 
leaven from the Caspian, and have always some one wbn m btteb 
The Eboglish are not so fnrtonate, and. whUe I ms b IVnia. hsi 
for the most part tn put up with the bread of tiie amntiy, 9iiA 
resembles the Indian **chapati," thin« unkaTened, ud nB|i sh^ 
able. Yeast is not procat aue hi Tehran. 

One of the best sights for his people th^t cobH bi 
presented to the Bhah would have been the umtM 
garden and small farm culture adjacent to Broiaeli, vhers 
he might have seen how a population, as naoflnHBtt 
his own, is sustained without famine* alair«t ezdwvdf 
from its own soil, much of it inferior, with oo mtonl 
advantages as to climate. But better lesaoos in prvW 
tion even than this might be presented to him in fisg- 
land. If he were taken to Aldcrshot he might be ihovt 
the camp farm there, as conducted by Mr. BtiddnOi 
where a previously sterile land, worth, ptrhapsyBfltfiw 
shillings an acre, now lets for more than twenty pModi 
an acre, with a yield in quantity and quality exoeeibsg 
even the best mMrket garden produce, obtamed by U 
improvement over the ancient methods of inipli«» 
now generally in ruins, in his dominions, by ^u«i 
ancient populations were sustained. He mixkt U 
shown varied examples of unprecedented yieMB fl^ 
tained at Mr. Hope's fnrm at Romford ; and tte up* 
sewerage irrigations at Bedford would be well vatk t 
visit from him. 

Let it be considered, in pity and mercy, that to 
conditions of the poor people have claims for prectdflK* 
over ballets and military di^p1ay8. which he ctiiw*i 
with his present means, p05sibly imitate. Thc» f*" 
ditions may be conceiv^, frum the brief accounta gi?* 
by Mr. Eastwick : — 

My first winter at Tehran was ixtdeed a sad one. "n*^* 

weird 8ist<T9, fhmine. pe>tilence, and wiir, combinrf to i«^ 

Per»ia. It was imposnble to go out without bfia^ a wa ilwl tf^y 

importunitiea nf crowda of fitmishmg people, and many ■^^■' 

ated form was stretched at the conMPrs of the ibretts, •"^jj 

scarcely breathing, and solidtiag aid only with a dcspao^ vm 

or feebly extended hand. 

. . . • • . * 

Our ride was saddened by the pHaoas a pect a d a ofbatar^^^^ 

beaeiged by crowds of ftunishiBg women ajad childrca, idrtcM^ 

the ground in the last stage of emaciation, with ntme to csr S* 

them. 

• • • ■ « • * 

The t4th was ushered in with the din«reeahle jntcffiiim ^ 

the river had swept away twenty<wo houses dariogthe aiiAM|j 

that there was a bread riot in the city. The mob t^^'''*^ 

all the bakers' shops, and liuw no broad could be g«t TVaMi 

who is a meagre, MiU<>w, man, with cunning eyes, made ^^ 

pearanpe, looking very miserable, and Mid the Oown" «*% 

great alarm, nuil I hat thiogd were in mtickliah Ktatr Bel*^ 

us not Ui fe'how (tUTBolveH in the streetts ah he caid the mob vota 

excited we should very likely be attacked. 

. . . . . t * 

The whole road was Kned with people emigrmtingfiPMB V^*^ 
on account of the fiunine They aecmcd to & peoplsel ttt*^ 
est class, with the exception of one woman, who was wiy n^JJ** 
ably dressed. She earned a child of two yean io h«r vw*, ■*" 
a little toddle of about live Iblluwvd her. Sereral <tt the tki«r 
imptutuned vm tnr alma W« paaaed three or fbar lai«a iiiD^i* 
One on the light hand beyaod Mahraadal^ was entirsir ■' 
sorted. 

Let it be «onsideiiBd what »ghts were piu s sa te^ to (^ 
royal visitor in 1860, sii^ts which have possiblvfcwn ''T 
recently repeated, and what leeaons he might bs c^ 
back With, to stay farther repetitions, iC m if to "» 
hoped, he is capable of learning. Mr. Ktitwiek ssy* ^ 



JOURNAL OF THB 80G1BTY OF ARTS, Jmi 80. 1873. 



616 



Tbt distrait in T^nux was now culminating* and, the roads 
ihif fthooit impunble, inappliea of com oowd not reach the 
ty. Tbe bakera' shups were b^ief^ed by mobs clamouring for 
if«d. Ai looo as a Eumpean showed himself in the sti^eets 
mtiamanded by IkouDhing women, suppUoating assistance, 
hft vs« not to be kept back by any scruplefl of thtir own, or 
MBttrsTirw of the men. Mattcn were erideiitiy growing 
m mvm, sod on the 1st of March, as Hr. Alison and 
ri Mfidf vare sitting at Bir. IHckaoo's examining theNaoroa 
piisli tu the stf vants, the chief Persian secretary came in, 
{j|»iMi tremhliag, and said there was an etneua, and that the 
mtSu, or mayor of the city, bad just been put to death, and 
tt Ihej woe drsff^g his body iitark naked through th« 
■BMt. Presently we heard a great tuniUt, and oa going to 
to viMkiwissw the streets filled with thoosaads of paople. m a 
kf aoitBd itste, summnding the coriwe, which was being 
Msed lo tike jdare <tf execotioD, where it was hoag up by the 
S naked, for three days. 

W iaqany we learned that on the 28th Of February, the Shah. 
K (Hiflf io fhim hunting, was surrounded by amob of several 
hMad women, y<dling for bread, who gutted the bakenP shops 
Mm coBtents, under th« Ttrr eyes of the kiogt and were so 
WbI, thtt as soon as the Shah had entend the palaea, he 
llBidtiMgates of the citadel to be shut. 
Jfatdsjr, the 1st of March, the disturbances were renewed, and, 
l^of we gates being cln«ed, thousands of women made their 

E to the citadel, and began to anail the guards with large 
k»M «n^ on by their male T^ativea, who, under oover of 
, Vira Ifmking out for an opportm^tT to effect a more 
Meantime, the Shah had ascended the tourer, ftom 
Bwi Baha's Zainab was thrown, and wan watching the 
ktn a tdesc'pe. The Kalantar. who had been seen just 
the palace, splendidly dressed, wi' h a long r>>tmue 
Wfljt un the towvr and stood by the l^hah, who re- 
a Mw s«ffi»ring sorh a toronlt to have arisen. On thia 
•khanrdsclarsd he w«nikl aosn pet down the riot, and going 

f Piplike wotneo with his servants, he himself struck sevenu 
Phi faiottily with a large ttiek. One of the women so as- 
llnaisitf asthe FngHsh minion, and came in, calling out 
^ JW^ ttfl ihowing hvr clothes covered with blood. On the 
■■■tiadboinly eaUtng fhr iui<tioe, and showing their wounds, 
vn* mamaitM the Kalantur, and said, **If thnu art tiina 



X 



■rsebjaeto beftwe my eves, what m«Bt be 0*j seoret 
Than turning to hi« atteudaota, the king said, ** Bosti- 



Mftaad rat nff his beard .'* And again, while this sentence 
9Jjlv executed, the Shah utt»T^ that terrible word. 
yj>f*'*vtr*ngle him." In a moment the executioners had 
■■ifte ttd nmnd the unhappy man's neck, and in an instant 
gWIMr fee: verA en bin rheet, tnunplingont the last signs of 
fc.At tks sane time the Kadkhudaa, or nuwietratea of all the 
PItal «f Tehran were subjected tn the OAstiuado, and at 
PWthiee paai«hm(^ts, the freniy of the populace wan for that 
5JW"«iud, and Tehran was saved by a hair's breadth from a 




Hiioen citf ia a seat of pestflence, as well as of re- 
jjrf fiunines. Mr. Eastwick thus de8<:ribe8 its con- 
9itm, io respect to the flrat means of salubrity— its 

McrfU|iply: — 

the greatest obstacle of 
and cleanUneaa, net only in tha^kitdien, but 
i* the conditinn of the wat4*r Wuen it comes to be 
lis the haii»eh«ild. Fottdnatu it ia Chat the me of the 
^aadoben^Ral aaaiyaia are unknown ia Iran, or such 
l»wild be discl«ifit^ as would horify every one. The fact i*, 
~T^<>*hate an unfortunate theory that nothing can pollute 
. wti«r. Filthy »rlohuIet», they think, are replaced by pure 
■»4e rapidly, that it matters not what happens a yard above 
Rj* wbere you are drinking It wan so difficult for roe to 
P"»J» tteathat my eyes diUted with astoniahment when I 
■llbHK«uthe practical r*^ult« of this thifory. I have seen a 
■■■•laiin frwm tb«» »«m4> •• haux," or basin, and newly at the 
2^p* •hire another was wasfaing his beard, and a third was 
P"Jt^e »rt of salad-bowl which so surprised 3Iadelon 
P?*»w*t dinM at the rh«t«au of Jeffs. You have onlytn 
B?^*** ^ Mreet for a moment at Tehran to remark a party 
■"•JJ »J»hiag the Althieat linen in ihe conduits which 
''Jeariaking water into the neighbouring houses. Having 
"t take my advioe, and look no ftiriber, or yon will dis- 
.■|J">Wy wor«>e thitigs a little way on. When it is 
>dmat there are few or no w%11n, and that every stream. 
^^*d teak is treated after tbi» faahioa, we cannot but 
[^ ^p*da of aOtnaan engineer, who^ on my asking him 
^J ****f« y»h said. •• Meimr Meinung nach. in Tehran die 
|«i«ii!ikiL«ng ist viel mdir nothwendig als der telegraph." 
^ {•■•y expeiieace of Persia had been, I had some mis- 
•jyoet the purity of the water to be employed in ray hooae- 
[™ ^J fatfs^ were not lightened when I came to examine 
^? Jtservoir. The water in it looked more like slime than 
^JJ». ad fbe instant I apprroacfaed it, a lot of 

tepJ^** 7*^ ^"^ *i*>^l? like the choruB in Ari^to- 
"S ^n *> down with a ^lash and a gurgle which set a multi- 
^^■(Rsatid other anmnalons reptiles fa motion in all dir^'O- 
tdr be Immediate^ deaned out, and to got rid 
— ^ -ifye ara ; but I was nerrar aUe to prevent my 
w^^ , ^pofo nning their leligknM ablutions at its edge, and 
2^« It ercty inagmablevaae, fromaet^tuwwtt de Md down- 



All the dire conditions of ignorance beneath appear to 
have their reflex in the conditions of ignorance aboye. 

At 4.90 p m. I reaefaed Talfiiabab, a village twelve milee eoutb- 
east of Tehran, belonging to the Nusratu'd daulah, where we 
were to pass the nicrht. U!rou want to learn the secret infirmities 
of a nation, get off the high road into the by-ways. There you 
see the nakedneae of the land, the ugly fixtures without a mask. 
Thia village belonged to a prince of the blood, a man, too, of 
great worth and digniity of character; yet the place called his 
house was such that any English f'UTner of the lowest grade would 
have turned up his nose at it The tenement was of mud, the 
sitting-room smoked in such a way that a horisootal poeition on. 
the floor was the only one practicable, and the windows in the 
bed-rooms yielded at once to the insolent night airs that entered 
without ceremony into the innermost nook of the apartmenta. 

Filth in the inside is aocompHnied by filth in the out- 
side, by horribly bad roads. This is the state of the 
Shah*s capital : — 

Sorepean society at Tehran is neoeeHarDy very limited, and is 
mideied more disjointed than it need be by the unlucky dronm- 
stanoe that the European missions are dotted about the town as 
far as posrible tram each other. Even thin would be of oompara- 
tively small importance if carriage were available. But tiiere are 
no means oC locomotion In Tehran, exoept oo foot or onhoneba^, 
andthestreeUaresofilthvandsefiiU of holes that a pUgfims^e 
by night is a corvet not to be endured. 

The missions, therefore, are thrown very nrach on themeelvea 
for amusttnent. and the members o4 eaak diplomatio body take 
their meals with their own chief, who suimUee Uie table. This 
has always been customary, and is, besfdes, obligatory at the 
British Mission. 

This denotes the conditions of outside travel: — 

We lel^ Salawan at 9 a.m. on the ttst of Msreh, and, after fight- 
ing our way through Jungle and swamp tor a quarter of anUle, get 
upon the Resht road. An excellent road it was at first, hke an 
Enirlish one, with ditches on tach side, and a wattle fence a fbot 
high. We began to wnnder at what we had heard of the Kwamos 
of Roht^ bttt this wonder soon ceased, tor the good load was onhr 
in patches, while between were veriUble Sloughs of Despoad. 
The curious feature of these places was that at regular intervala 
there was a thin ridge of hard groimd.with deep mire on each mde 
—in fact, a aort ot mnd-npfile. Thu thehortes were kept in a 
sort of treadmill. If they missed the hard ground, down they 
wtnt into the mud over their knees. It really looked as if the 
groxnd had been made into traps for breaking the legs of unwary 
beasU. My oheetnut horse iWl into a ditch, where the mud roee 
to his neck, and moat of tiie other horses Ibll, and were dmggM 
out wiA difficulty. Fane's horse was huned by a deep cut, and 
altogether we were a discomfited party. 

Considering the needs of his Majesty, might not the 
Lord Chamberlain place at his disposal Mr. Robert 
Kawlinson, who has recently put Sandringham to 
rights, with an improved drainage, and a constant 
supply of pure water, and a provision for the applica- 
tion of the sewerfige to an improved garden culture, and 
also show him there how it is proposed to keep pestilence 
out of the cottage as well as the p:ilace ? Might not a 
visit, under such an instructor, to that new country 
palace, be more useful to him than a visit to old Windsor 
or to Buckingham Palace ? Mr. Quick, the water 
engineer, might show him water engines, such as 
Tehran wants. The Lord Mayor might help too, by 
placing at his disposal Mr. Hey wood, the corpora- 
tion engineer, who would show him the new, smooth, 
impermeable asphalted roads of the different kinds, and 
how it is now proposed to cleanse them by water, so as 
obvitite their slipperiness, and his Majesty may have the 
Btreets of his own capital made smooth and clean. 

But where is the money to be obtiined for such works, 
it may be said, from such a poverty-stricken, famishing 

population ?• _ ^, , . . . 

On this topic the Political Economy Club might 
depute a professor to give him a lesson in their science 
in the productive as well as the non-prodactive associ- 
ation of wealth. Thus, the coat he wears is said to be 
adorned with jewela ta the value of four hundred thou- 
Band pounds. He may be advised that if he were to 
Jeave that coat with some rich firm, a loan might be raised, 
fwith which he might bring in an improved and con- 
stant supply of water for the people of his capital, have 
it thovonghly well drained, and surface paved in the 
ibest manner— he would ohoMe from what he saw m 



• This was written betore the publie announcement of Che 
«enoesaia& to Bacon Beater. 



616 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jdhh 20, 1873. 



London — and also get new asphalted tramways, smooth 
and joltlees roads for the soburbe. He might also get 
his miserable capital lighted in an imprc^^ manner, 
and provide, also, for the improved irrigation, such as 
those of Croydon and Bedford, probably, within the 
loan upon that coat ; and Poole would supply him with 
one more d la mode of Western civilisation, such as he 
provides for our Boyal Princes. In a very short time 
he might get from his subjects such rates from im- 
provements as would enable him to repay the Baron his 
loan, with thanks for his obligingness, and get back his 
coat<, if he chose to have it back. We would advise that 
he should sell the jewels for what they would fetch at 
Christie's, and go on with his first good work. The 
value of the store of jewels and wealth belonging to the 
Shah, which Mr. Eastwick was shown at the palace, are 
estimated at several millions — as much as ten millions 
of money, — enough, as we are assured, if capitalised, to 
put his chief other cities, Taures, Ispahan, and Yeyd, 
comprising not more than three hundred thousand of 
population in the whole, in the most advanced con- 
ditions with irrigation works of the, highest and most 
productive order. 

But on a view of the western arts, military and civil, 
the Shah might say, " But a large population of my 
subjects are sunk in barbarism and iterance, and 
utt^y incapable of using those refined implements for 
war or for peace, or applying Uiose advanced processes 
which are shown to me. I must import western 
scientists and engin(>ers to teach them, and even they 
will find a larg^ proportion who are past teaching." 
This is undoubtedly true. To be taught, the savage 
must be caught, and trained young. The Society of 
Arts might, if it had been allowed the opportu- 
nity, have submitted to him a lesson ^^ater than 
any he will have viewed in the West, of the 
means of advancement of a population, by training 
in the arts militaiy as well as civil. Ke might 
have had displa^^ed to him, the review of the drill of 
four thousand children of the half-time district schools, 
composed of destitute orphans, mostly rescued from being 
street Arabs, as bad and savage as any in Persia — and all 
tamed and taught self-restraint and prompt obedience, 
and converted into profitable and productive subjects for 
peace as well as for war. He might have seen some of the 
results of a mixed physical and mental training, which 
at a small cost imparts to two the efficiency of three, for 
civil as well as military purposes. He would see the 
demonstration of the great extent of military aptitudes 
most economically imparted in the non-productive in- 
fantile school stages, Uiat are less perfectly imparted, at 
oppressive expense, in the adult stages of life. He would 
see military movements and manoeuvres in the school 
drill that would compete in accuracy with those which 
he will have witnessed, as imparted in the adult stage, 
displaved to him in the States he has visited. It has 
been the pride of Pkiissia, that by the instruction given 
during long detention in barracks, any private may be 
be called out of the ranks and a military order be given 
to him, which he will write down to dictation. In the 
school drill review he would see, as the results of the half- 
time education imparted to between one and two hundred 
in schools, at the expense of keeping and training one 
adult in barracks, that he might call out anv boy between 
ten and eleven to whom the uke order might be dictated, 
which he will spell and write correctly, and who would, 
moreover, copy him clearly a map of his dominions. 



The weU-known French pliysioist, M. Janin, 
has eonstmcted a magnet of extraordinary caxrying power. 
Artifloial magnata have not hitherto been. m»de to carry 
more than four or five times th«r own weighty but thih 
magnet is able to tuatain upwards of 22 times iU own weight 
A great number of thin well-magnetised plates are used in 
pkmSI**™*^**"' fawtead of the &ick plates generally em- 



QEHEBAL HOTSft. 



Trades Guild of Learning.— On Saturday two eon- 
ferences were held at the house of the Society of Aits, vhkk 
was lent for the purpose, convened by the proviaiosal oa- 
mittee for the establishment of a " Trades Guild of Lam- 
ing," for the purpose of determining the baaia andcoB^ita* 
tion upon which such an institution should be es taMr rfM i . 
The morning sitting was presided oTer by Mr. SamtlMat' 
ley, M.P., and amongst those present were Mr. MmwVft ;, 
M.P.; Loid Lyltieton, Lord Edward Fitsnaarki^ MJ*. ; 
Sir Antonio Bredy, Mr. Joseph Dodds, M.P. ; Mr. Thoaai 
Hughes, Q.C., M.P. ; Mr. Alexander BrogdcD. M.P.; Mr. 
W. M'Arthur, M.P. ; Mr. John Whitwell, M.P. ; tbt Lan! 
Mayor, the Eighi Hon. W. Cowper Temple, M.P. ; Uxi 
George Hamilton, M.P. ; Sir John Bennett, the Rev. CsBoa 
Robinson, the Eev. Canen Ridgway, the B«v. H<«y StUj 
(Organising Secretary of the Workiikg Men*a Chib aad In- 
stitute Union), Mr. James Hole (Secretsiy of the Awxated 
Chambers of Commerce), Mr. Joseph Arch (Amdtaal 
Labourers* Union), Mr. Hodgson Pratt, Mr. G. F. Ss^m 
Mr. J. Plummer, Mr. G. Potter, Mr. H. D. &a«lis0, tc 
The foUowing resolution was paswsd :— *• That a TMbi 
Guild of Learning be now established, and that thsfsa aps 
present pledge themselves to render It the best siqfsrt in 
their power." Mr. Mundella, M.P., presided at ths afls^ 
noon sitting, at which the following rMolutiana wns^sasii: 
First, ** Object— (1) To promote teohnioal ed im a ti — , aieiad» 
ing both practical and scientific knowledge of tbeiaxioas 
trades and industries practised in the United K ingirM (S) 
To promote a knowledge of historv, political totmamj^mm- 
prudence, literature, science, and art among ths esniBg 
classes of this kingdom. (3) To promote that g«enlcu* 
tore and refinement of taste which grows oni of hsfaitoid 
acquaintance with fine worka of art, cultivated aodelr^kii^ 
class literature, good music, and similar influw i nffc ^ j^ 
cond, *' That means be used as far as possible in e a^'asBtica 
with the Department of Science and Art, South ILsmMnv 
the Society of Arta, the Univeraitiee ef Cambridge ww- 
fold, the Working Men's Club and Institute Unioa, ^^ 
Companies, Unions of Meobanioa* InstitotaSv trad e s<gMM S^ 
tions, co-operative societies, and all other bodies JiMS uwss f 
promoting the technical and general edu c a tion of 0m 
ing dMses, to carry out the objects of the GfuM." 



HOTICES. 



PUBCHASE OF BAILWAT8 BT TS£ RAK. 

The adjourned meeting for the dticiiMioB if 
Mr. Galt's Paper on ** The Purchase of Ba£twmy% 
by the State," will be held on Thursday cr— *^ 
next, at 8 o'clock. 

xEBTDres FOB THE Emmie weic 





Hov...JEU>yal6eogra|ibical«84. 1. Mr.aH.HiII,''Bo«tJ« 
up the Biyer Wami, B. Atncm,** with 
Zanzibar, by 8ir Bartle Iters. S. Major CW. 
** Surveys in Faleatine.'* 

Wbd. ...SOCIETY OF AET8, 8. Abkual GansAi. 

0«>logical, & 1. The Doke of Argyll, **<^l 

basms in Argylkhire." S. Prot ! 

*' Description of the Skull of a DentiBsraaa 
topterw* toliapfcms, Owen), ITom the Lammm^imm 
Sfeppey." 8. Mr. J. W. Hulke. " OntiibaiAtnJ 
Anatomy of HntiUmko^om FoHi^ "Hm^.* A 
James Geihie, ** On the Glaeial FhenoBCMoflla^ 
lelaad, or Outer Hebrides." 6. Prof P.MartiB] 
**On Fossil Corals from the Eocene 
West Indies." «. Mr. B. Etbscidce, "Hflte as 
lignite-deposit of Lal-Lal, Victoria, ' 

Bojia Sode^ of literature, 8|. 

THuas...80CIETY OF AET8, 8, toceialMfd^. A^sost 

discussion on Mr. 6alt*s Biper on **!& nvAaass 

the Bailways by the State." 

Antiquaries. 8|. 

Boysi Society Club, 6|. Annual Meetioff. 

FBI SOCIETY OF ABT8, 8. CoarBBSAjaoai al 

KsifsisoToa MoaaoM. 
QnekeUaubbS. 

BAT......Boyal Botanio, 8i. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, JniiB 27, 1878. 



617 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

Ko. 1,076. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JUNE 27, 1873. 




AnoTni( 



BT XHB oomrou. 



00H7XB8AZI0VS. 

Hie Society's Conyenazioiie will be held at the 
Sooth Eensingtoii Muflemn, this evening, Friday, 
SJUiJnne. 



PEOOEBDIHOS OF THB 80CIBTT. 



AniTAL 0ZHXRAL MUTUIG. 

The Annual General Meeting, for receiving the 
nport from the Ck>imcil and the Treasurers' State- 
Bent of Beoeipts, Payments, and Expenditure 
^BB% the past year, and also for the Election 
o! Officers, was held, in aocordanoe t^th the Bye- 
Isws, on Wednesday, the 2dth of June, at four 
pj&., Major-Qeneral F. Easdley-Wilhot, E.A., 
F>B.S., Chairman of the Ck>unoil, in the Chair. 

The 8R0BKTABY having read the notice oonvemng 
ihe meeting, the minutes of the last Annual General 
Meetiiig, and of the subsequent Special General 
Bseting, were read and signed. 

Ihe Chatkman then nominated Mr. William 
Body and Mr. G. Christian Mast as scrutineers, 
ind declared the ballot open. 

TheSBC&BTAiLT then read the following 

BEPOBT. 

PQAaant to the bye-laws of the Society, the 
CovBdl now lay before the members, in Gf^eral 
IMniff assembled, their Beport of the Society's 
ffooeemngs during the past year, together with a 
Monent of the receipts, payments and ezpendi- 
fan dying that period, and of the assets and 
BiUitifiB. 

MSDALS. 

The Albert G<dd Medal, for distinguished merit 
m promoting Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, 
sy th is year been awarded to M<msieur Michel 
Jjgtoe Uhevreul, the veteran Director of the 
^obebni in Paris, for his chemical researches, 
*>P>cisUy in reference to saponification, dyeing, 
M sgiriculture. These resetgohes, in their appli- 
Citioa to the arts enumerated, have eonrted aa 



amount of influence on manufactures and indus- 
tries which can hardly be over-estimated. Some 
of his discoveries, made upwards of half a century 
ago, established important leading principles 
which still guide the manufacturer at the present 
time. The Council are glad to have the cnppor 
tunity of marking their high sense of Mons. 
Chevreul's labours. 

On the recommendation of the Silk Supply Com-^ 
mittee, the Society's Gold Medal has been awarded 
to Dr. Hiddingh, of Stellenbosch, Cape of Gk>od 
Hope, for his successful exertions in promoting^ 
the cultivation and reeling of silk in that colony. 

The Councdl have awaraed the Society's Medal' 
to Mr. Thomas Wills, F.C.S., for his paper read at 
one of the evening meetings, entitiea, *' On some 
Becent Processes for the manufacture of Gas for 
Illuminating Purposes. 



ii 



Food Committee. 

The labours of this Committee have been, to a 
large extent, merged in those of the Special Com- 
mittee which was appointed to aid H.M. Com- 
missioners for the International Exhibition in 
obtaining a complete representation, in the pre- 
sent years Exhibition, of one of the branches into 
which the Food Section of the Exhibition ia 
divided. The Committee, on which the services of 
gentiemen representing the various classes oi 
articles sought had been happily secured, has held. 
many meetings, and their active support has en- 
abled a highly-satisfactory display to be got 
together. The Council cannot, however, r^rain 
from expressing their disappointment that, up 
to the present time, no process has yet been 
developed by means of which meat can be jne- 
served in a raw state, suitable for importation mto 
this country, from our colonies or other places 
where the supply is large and the price low. Sir 
Walter Trevelyaa's prise of £100 and the Society's 
Gold Medal for this object still remain unawarded* 

OOTTOW. 

The Cotton Supplv Association of Manchester, 
set on foot during^ the scaroitv of cotton arising 
from the civil war in the United States of America, 
having been dissolved, it was suggested to the 
Council that, notwithstanding that the special 
circumstances under which it was formed had 
passed away, there were stiU many matters con- 
nected with the trade in cotton and its supply, 
wluch were worthy of consideration and attention.. 
They have therefore formed a committee of this 
Society, under the titie of a Cotton Supply 
Committee, whidi will be called together, mm. 
time to time, as may be deemed desirable, to dis* 
cuas and oonoert measures for promotmg the 
supply of this important staple. Communications 
have been enterea into with the principal membera 
of the late Cotton Supply Association, and the 
Council have the pleasure of announcing that the 
proposition has been received with favour, and, in 
nearly every instance, the parties applied to have 
joined the committee. 

Although the supply of cotton from the accus- 
tomed sources contmues abundant, yet the neces- 
aity remains for developing the culture in India and 
Turkey, and for promoting it in many new colonies 
and countries. 






otb< 



' ■- - - ;"i'»'rvS»^- 










JOURNAL OP THE SOOIBTT OP ARTS. Jvn 27. 1873. 



619 



^==3S 




oooadooally been largely attended by 

have given accommodation, in the 
, for Hie meetings of the East India 
M in a fonner year. 

MtmoAL CoiOdTTSB. 

imitteehave, as has been stated in prerions 

and in the Chairman's address, received a 

I Bmotrnt of support in the way of soholar- 

oised for the establishment of a National 

School for Music. The Council of the 

Hall have promised the use of two of 

theatres, and other rooms, for the ac- 

bton of students ; and the Committee are of 

liiat the time has now arrived when the 

it of a National Training School for 

iin independent basis maybe aocomplished, 

i for this purpose steps should be turen for 

: a bnildinK to be connected with the Albert 

ible for the school. This proposition, with 

* other details which have oeen ordered 

I, will, at a later date, come before 

for their consideration. 

Colonies. 

of the Council has been asflidnously 
■to the development of tiie various re- 
^ onr own empire, as has been stated in re- 
India and Africa, and to which tiie pro- 
of the Silk Supply and Cotton Supply 
' Committees dii^y relate. 
1 eoctension of steam oommunication, and 
with West Africa, a^ weU as the in- 
reliitions with East Africa, have tended 
ition to our ct^oaies and commerce on 
A very valuable paper on the 
Colonies was read by lus Exoelleaey 
,r, late Qovecnor of the Qold Coast, 
in conneKkm with political events, has 
the subject more prominently forward. 
> desirable in the next session to take more I 
by ihe institution of an African 
These are now many African mer- 
Bg in this country, as was aean on the 
I of Mr. Hennessey's paper, 
ttespeot to some of onr colonies, Jamaica, 
and Singapore are to have InqnToved 
and sewe r a ge. A new impounding 
capable of storing 74 millions of ^Uons 
r, has recently been constmeted at Hong- 
' an elevation of 500 feet above the sea, for 
of the town and port of Victoria, and 
le is to be largely inereased, so that it 
th suffioient water for the population of 
),00 inhabitants. 

le and Sidn^, in Australia, are to be 
so that it will be seen that means of 
oomlort are being considered, not only 
hot also abroad. 
BKauiple set hv England and her de- 
nies is bemg followed by other nations. 
J Vienna, Pesth, Odessa, and St. Petersburgh, 
ht sewered. Main sewers are nearly com- 
the English plan in Frankfort-on-the- 

|]loiibeam States of America have tent over 

bief Sanitaiy ComrnJasiOMur* Dr. 

Washinpton, to examiiie into onr sani- 

. regulatKXis,-< 

et£epfublie health. 



Fire Committee. 

The numerous and extensive fires which have 
taken place in the metropolis during the last few 
yeazv, as well as the disastrous conflagrations which 
nave occurred in Chicago and Boston, have induced 
the Council to turn their attention to what are the 
means available to prevent the spread of such 
catastrophes. A Committee has been appointed, 
and very valuable evidence has be^ given 
before it by gentlemen of great experience in 
such matters. The evidence has been published 
from time to time in the Journal^ and its perusal 
is strongly recommended to the members. It would 
appear that the great defect at the present time is 
thewantof aconstantsupplyof water; themainsare 
not constantly charged, and being under the control 
of seven separate companies, there is no means of 
bringing the whole supply, if needed, to one spot, 
the mams of each separate company having no 
connection with each other. 

The evidence taken by the Committee reveals a 
large amount of accruing waste — a waste of water 
equivalent to the supply of between two and three 
millions of additional population; whilst for many 
purposes there is a great want of water, and also 
from the mult^)lied establishment charges of the 
sectional tradinp^ companies, a waste of money, 
which, if captalised, would suffice to defray the ex- 
penses of the public works required for putting the 
metropolis in such a state of secmity against fire as 
would occasion a large savins of life as well as of 
property. Qxeat opposition is made to the intro- 
duction of the system of constant supply required 
for sanitary purposes, and the opposition is made 
on the score of the expenses required for the 
change of the house-service pipes. The evidence 
taken by the Committee shows that the economies 
practicable under unity of administration will fully 
suffice to defray all proper expenses of the private 
as well as the public works required for the cnange. 
Under the present system it would appear that there 
is a great waste of water ; one-half of the water 
pumped for the supply of the metropolis is allowed 
to run away unused. By the evidence it appears 
that the case for such a measure, especially lor fire 
prevention, is advanced more fully and completely 
than by any of the numerous preceding inquiries. 
It is proved that, under proper arrangements, 
water may be brought to bear for the extinction 
of fires in one or two minutes, or in a fifth of the 
quickest time at which it is now obtained. The 
sustained attention will be paid to this question, 
which its magnitude and urgency demands. 

The Committee have not yet completed their 
labours. If reappointed, and the investigfation 
continues, it is hoped that some practical measures 
may be devised for remedying the evils of the 
present system. 

TRAonoir Bxfbbiments. 

The increasing use of asphalte and other im- 
proved methods of paving has induced the Council 
to undertake, under the supervision of a com- 
mittee, experiments on traction over various de- 
scriptions of paving. Those experiments have been 
delayed, first, from the necessity of a suitable 
dvnamometer being constructed, and next, by the 
illness of Mr. C. K. Amos, who had kindly under- 
taken the management of the trials. The dyna- 
mometer epeci&j devised by Mr. Amos, and 



620 



JOURVAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Junk 27, 1878. 



oonstruoted under his superintendenoe, is now 
complete, satisfactory trial of it has been made, 
and Mr. Amos writes that he will be prepared, 
early next month, to carry out the wishes of the 
committee. 

Memobial Window in St. Patjl's. 

A design for this window, commemoratiye of the 
public thanksgiving in St. Panl's for the recoyery 
of his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the 
President of the Society, has been prepared, which 
her Majesty the Queen and the Prince of Wales 
have been graciously pleased to approve. The 
^Council are in communication on the subject with 
, the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's. 

Channel Passage. 

The Council are glad to observe that this sub- 
"ject, to which in the two previous reports they 
devoted considerable attention, and on which two 
successive Committees have reported, seems attract- 
ing attention, and is in a fairway of being brought 
to the test of practical improvement. Colonel 
Strange, in an able paper which led to a discussion 
of three nights, reviewed carefully the several 
schemes now before the public for this end, Mr. 
Be8semer*s balanced saloon ship, Mr. Maddens, and 
Captain Dicey's. Of these, the first is in the course 
of actual construction, and a few months will bring 
the experiment to a practical test. Whether 
this, or either of the other ships, if built, will suc- 
ceed in its special aim, that of preventing sea- 
sickness, this much it is admitted will be gained — 
^ger vessels and increased accommodation. 

Examinations. 

The general examinations have this year been 
oonducted as usual ; the results have been published 
in the Journal, and full particulars will be found in 
the report of Mr. Critchett, the educational officer, 
to be read to the Conference of Institutions on 
Priday next. 

The Coimcil desire to draw special attention to 
the Technological Examinations, which they have 
this year put into practical operation. The 
meml>er8 will recollect that the scheme was in- 
augurated at a meeting held in the SocieW's rooms 
in July last, under the presidency of H.R.H. Prince 
Arthur. The object of these examinations is to 
test the practical skill of the workman in his 
craft, and by requiring, as a preliminary, that 
he shall have shown some acquaintance with 
-the elements of the branches of science spe- 
cially connected with his trade, to give a 
stimulus to improvement, and enable him to meet 
the severe competition of his Continental rivals 
with greater chances of success. A commencement 
has been made this year in the trades of cotton, 
paper, steel, carriage-building, and silk ; and if 
out few candidates have presented themselves, the 
Council feel no discouragement, and are quite 
satisfied with their progress so far. They con- 
fidently look forward to a gradual increase when 
the scheme is more widely known than at present. 
The Council have received great assistance, in the 
drawing up of the examination-papers, from gentle- 
men connected with the various trades, and they 
desire to record their grateful sense of the help 
which has thus been afforded them, in taking the 

wt Btep in this important experiment. The 



Council have sought to interest the CSiy Com- 
panies in this direction, and they are happj to 
state that the Companies generally are favooraUfl 
to the movement, and some of them have liberally 
rendered material aid to the Society by prixei and 
otherwise in carrying it into operation. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners for the ExhiHtioo 
of 1851 are prepared to render aid, and offer m 
prizes to successful candidates three stodentsh^K 
of £50 each, to be awarded to persons who du» 
ting^uish themselves in the subjects of 8te«I, 
carriages, and silk respectively, those being qtedal 
objects of exhibition in the present year, asd 
this course it is understood they wiU he prepared 
to follow in future ^ears with respect to the spedil 
subiects of exhibition. 

The results of these examinations wiU be pub- 
lished as soon as complete. 

School Dbill. 

Since the last Annual G^eral Meeting, areriev 
of 4,000 boys from the various District and other 
schools took place with marked success under the 
direction of the Council in the Royal Horticnltsnl 
Ckurdens, before their Royal Highness the Piiooe 
and Princess of Wales, the boys having been fint 
inspected in Hyde-paik by ffis Serene ffigfaoM 
Prmce Edwara Saxe- Weimar. Baonen ^ 
awarded to the schools which had acquitted 
themselves best, and these were deHvered to the 
successful schools by His Ro3ral HighnM ^ 
Prince of Wales, in the Royal Albert Hall after 
which a selection of musio was performed by ^ 
united bands of the schools. The impoftaace 
of these displays now for three yean hdd 
under the organisation of the Societj, htf 
induced the Council to bring the matter befoe 
Her Majesty*s Gkyvemment, in the hope that 
they may be made national, and they be^ 
that the time has come when they may and 
ought to be taken up by the authoritia, aad 
that such gatherings should be organised^oot 
merely in London, but in various centres through- 
out the United Kingdom. The Council hate Bho« 
what can be done, and they think that the na^ 
should now take up the work. Drill must na 
be looked upon simply in a military point ^J^ 
for though no doubt the army would P^}f^ 
in the matter of healthy trained recmits, fitted of 
their education at once to take the place of p^ 
officers, there is the testimony of onr le»<w* 
engineers and employers of labour, that tto 
umon of physical and ment^ training <^^^^^^ 
largely to supply a very superior class of hanffl" 
craftsmen, and adds materially to their pw^°^ 
powers in their various industries. Those few«» 
are not solelv of unproductive display. ^\ * 
proved that they are of real value in BtnmdwnJ 
competition, and in testing the results of the c^ 
penmture on physical training. The ^^P*"***?! 
these trials, authorities agree, ought to be d>ai|^ 
on the local rates, since hj them a race of bojij 
trained up more suited fi>r ndlitaiy s^** JJ? 
therefore less likely to cost the country ^•'^VjS 
for their after training. It is now allowed ttJ^J 
is economical to de^y Hie exprnsee ^,^^^ 
training for the naval service, anid it k •'"*^Ji 
that it is also economical to incur proper expc^ 
of efficient training for the military serriop- ^"^ 
Council will not fail to urge these rifwfo^ 



> 




JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, June 27, 1873. 



621 



SeGretary for War, and they trust they may 
ultimatdiy be snocessful. 

Inteenational Exhtbitiox Beports. 

The Counoil haye this year repeated the action 
they took last year, in reference to reports on the 
different sections of the Exhibition. Last year, 
however, the reports were not undertaken till after 
the Exhibition had closed, and their usefulness 
was, from this cause, materially diminished. This 
year, it was determined to bring them out at an 
earlv period, so as to be availaUe by the public 
while the Exhibition is going on. The reports 
are now in the course of publication in the 
Sooiety's Journal, It is intended to publish them 
in a coUectiYB form, and arrangements have been 
made for their sale in the Exhibition building. 

Improyed Cabs. 

The particulars and conditions with reference to 
tho large prizes offered by the Society have already 
appeared in the Journal. The response made shows 
tnirteen competitors sent in to the International 
IBSxhibition at South Kensington. A committee of 
judges to award the prizes has been formed, con- 
sistmg^ of ICajor-Qeneral Eardley-Wilmot, Chair- 
man ; the Ihike of Beaufort, Lord Arthur Somerset, 
Jjotd Alfred Churchill, Captain Candy, Col. 
Henderson, Mr. A. Cassels, and Mr. Cole. The 
Committee have secured the assistance of practical 
ooach-builders, as well as of a cab proprietor and 
dzirer not interested in the competition, who as 
experts will afford valuable information on technical 
pcnnts to guide them in their decision. The Com- 
mittee have commenced their labours, and propose 
the following course of proceedings, viz., tnat the 
cabs should be tried in competition in their various 
featnres and in motion, in the Wisst Annexe of the 
Rxhibition on Friday next, the 27th of June. On 
a fatoTB day after this trial the cabs will go in pro- 
cession to the City and back ; they wiU then be 
eshibited in Palace-yard, and evidence of their 
merits and defects ^inll be taken publicly at the 
House of the Society. 

STSBL IX THE InTBENATIONAL EXHIBITION'. 

It will be remembered that the Coimcil have this 
year offered the Society's Gold Medal for tho best 
specimens of steel shown in the Exhibition. The 
particalars and conditions have already appeared 
in the Journal, The Council have formed a com- 
mittee of judges to examine 'and report on the 
specimens, and for this purpose sought the assist- 
ance of the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Iron 
and Steel Institute, the Institution of Mechanical 
Elng^eers, and the Chemical Society, each of whom 
has nominated one of its members to serve on this 
committee, which is thus constituted: — Gksneral 
Eardley-Wilmot, R.A., P.R.S., Ohairman ; James 
Kasmyth, P. U.S. ; together with Mr. Berkeley, 
nominated by the Institution of Civil Engineers ; 
Mr. P. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., by the Institution of 
Mechanical Engineers; Mr. P. A. Abel, P.R.S., 
by tlie Chemical Society ; and Mr. J. Lowthian 
Bell« by the Iron and Steel Institute. 

EooNOMiCAL Consumption op Publ. 

These prixes, which are placed at the disposal of 
tha Counoil through the agency of Sir William 
BodkxDy by a friend of his who does not wish his 



name to appear, are offered under the direction of 
a Committee as follows : — 

1. Por a new .and improved system of grate 
suitable to to existing chimneys as generally con- 
structed, which shall, with tke least amount of 
coal, answer best for warming and ventilating a 
room, — Ths Society* 8 O old Medal and Fifty Pounds, 
I 2. Por a new and improved system of grate, suit- 
able to existing chimneys as generally constructed, 
which shall, with the least amount of coal, best 
answer for cooking food, combined with warming 
and ventilating the room. — The Society $ Oof d Medal 
and Fifty Pounds, 

3. Por the best new and improved system of 
^paratus which shall, by means of gas, most 
efficiently and economically warm and ventilate 
a room. — Uhe Society's Gold Medal and Fifty 
Pounds, 

4. Por the best new and improved system of 
apparatos which shall, by means of gas, be best 
adapted for cooking, combined with warming and 
ventilating the roo^.'—The Society's Qold Medal and 
and Fifty Pounds, 

5. Por any new and improved ^stem or 
arrangement not included m the foregoing, 
which shall efficiently and economically meet 
domestic requirements. — The Society's Gold Medal 
and Fifty Pounds, , 

Although the place to which the competing 
articles are to be delivered, and where they are to 
be tested previously to their display at the In- 
ternational exhibition is not yet finally determined, 
it may be stated that her Majesty's Commissioners 
for the Exhibition have placed at the disposal of 
the Society a site on wnich temporary buildings 
may be erected for the purpose of reception and 
testing, and it is probable that some erections 
may be made on their site by exhibitors of build- 
ing materials, which will be placed at the disposal 
of the Society for this purpose free of eix>^ise. 

Pbizes foe Theift. 

Sir Joseph Whitworth has offered prizes of 
the value of one hundred pounds, to be awarded 
by the Society of Arts, for the best Essays on 
on the "Advantages that would be likely to arise if 
railway companies and limited companies gene- 
rally were each to esteblish a savings-bank for the 
working classes in their employ." With this offet 
he has transmitted the following observations : — 

1. Is not a good rate of interest, with perfect 
security, more likely to promote the habit of 
saving than any other plan that can be devised ? 

2. Sir Joseph Whitworth suggeste' that the 
interest to be paid on the deposits should be the 
same as the mvidend, with a guarantee that it 
shall not be less than 4 per cent. 

3. By paying tjie same rate of interest as the 
dividend earned, there is a bond of union esteb- 
lished between labour and capital. 

4. An Act of Parliament might make the depo- 
sits of tho industrial classes the first charge on the 
esteto. 

5. The proprietor of a private esteblishment, 
whose profite are not made Known, might imder^ 
take to pay, say 7 or 8 per cent, when the profite 
readied that amount or more, the proprietor giving 
an undertaking to pay not less than 4 per cent. 

6. In the case of Agriculture, each county might 
have ite savings bank for the savings of both men 



622 



JOUBlfAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Juira 27, 1873, ^ 




•nd women in the said comity, and the interest to 
be paid might be 6 or 7 per cent. 

7. 1V> do this there might be a mte ooHeoted 
along with the poor-mte, to be called the interest 
or indnstiial ivte. 

8. As this rate increased, no dombt ihe poor-rate 
would diminish, and if Ihe habit of saTiog became 
genen^ among the labouring classes, there would 
probably be great gain to the property-owning 
classes, considering the great variety of ways in 
which they have now to contribute for the support 
of the unfortunate who now make no provision for 
themselves. 

9. In order to realise what might be the pro- 
bable saving to those who encourage the savings- 
banks thus suggested, Sir Joseph Whitworth points 
to the list of charities, also insibitutions, such as in- 
firmaries, hospitals, union-houses, prisons, police, 
ftc., &c. 

10. In any establishment, if only one-third of 
those employed deposited savings, they would 
have immense influence over the other two-thirds 
of their fellow- workmen. 

11. Men who spend all their earnings are gene- 
rally reckless, and become the dupes of agitators ; 
but the man who has put by some of h» earnings 
will be likely to exercise forethought, and will 
not be led away by others.. 

12. In South Wales is it likely there would have 
been the late turn-out, if the different establish- 
ments had each had such a savings bank as that 
proposed? 

13. In ihe case of a man or woman falling into 
distress from causes beyond their control, what 
better proof could be given that they were de- 
serving of sympathy and assistance from their 
friends, than the fact that they had put by savings 
at a time when they were able to do so. The nSe 
of action should be to do as lil^e as j>ossible lor 
those who do as little as possible for themselves. 

14. Some of the points to be considered by the 
essavists will be the amoimt to which the savings 
shall be limited, and when the depositor wishes to 
withdraw the whole or any part of the sum de- 
posited what notice shall be given. 

15. The co-operative system is no doubt effect- 
ing much good, but if the system here sketched 
out were adopted, the greatest good, in the shortest 
time possible, might 1^ effected. 

The principal subjects which the essayists shoidd 
consider are the preceding. 

The Ooundl have accepted this offer, and ap- 
pointed a Committee, consisting of Earl Fortescue, 
lir. G. C. T. Bartiey, and Mr. H, Cole, to arrange 
the details for obtaining the essays. 

BXTOKLB PBIffllS. 

Mr. Buckle, as the Society alreadv knows by 
announcements in this Journal, has placed in the 
hands of the Society the sum of £100, to be 
awarded to the head teacher of any school, con- 
ducted on the half-time principle of mixed physical. 
Industrial, and mental training, who shall have 
effectually achieved the best restdts in the least time 
at the smallest cost per head for the teaching 
power. 

This prize tends to determine a standard of 
efficiency and economy in elementary, mental, and 
physical traming, of tiie highest national import- 



A committee has this matter in (diarfle, md ii 
now engaged in collecting information and ititistia 
with a view of testing the efficiency of those lohools, 
and enabling them to award the prize offered. 

HaLL-MABEINO of jE¥rSLI£RT. 

It having been brought to the knowledge of fte 
OounoQ that what is termed " HiU-marimg" d 
jewellery and artkles of gold and silver^ uinid»- 
quate to secure to the pubUc that pfoteotian m 
tiie quality of t^e materials for whidi it if intended, 
they have accepted tiie oflfer of one of the manbot, 
Mr. Streeter, to place £25 at their dispoal, to bi 
awarded as a prise for an essay treiiing on tUi 
subject, with suggestions for an inmrorwl ti^^ 
The particulars and conditions of the eonpetilks 
will shortiy be pnMiAed. 

FitEMITTM LiBT. 



I 



The Council have thie year issued a lift of fob- 
jects for which they offer premiumB, isflhidio;, 
amongst many otiiers, premiums lor moulds for 
metal casting, methods of coating veodi, ^ifiii- 
cations of a vacuum, Mastic tubing for gai, con- 
position for printing roUers, ckemkal bika*. 
inccnnbustilde wick, marble earring, utiliMtMB of 
waste ooal, coal working machine, ligli^ ^ 
mines, tminelling machinery, fxeaang m^surj, 
etching and ornamenting iron, <«{q>Iiflitifla of 
printing to etching on glass, vamii^ for iron win, 
gidvanic elements, electric condenser, pock^al* 
vanometer, preventing potato disease, nsvmi 
roots, hydnuilic engines, unsinkahle ab^ ^nof 
apparatus, eMtrio weaving, new gaice g<^ 
traction power for manes, tekgnqiomg ti>n*p 
uninsulated wires, importation of alk eooooaii 
producing surface btodu, stonag eiqiloB^ 
storing petcoleam, ^.» and pt^aiatiM ciI]«h 
for fueL 

G<^esof this list have been widdy ciw^Jji 
and it is hoped t^t the suggestions wiucb m » 
list affords, may lead to improvemfinti intbefrii 
and manufaotores of the couotiy. 

Finance. 
The Council append to IMb their report tbeijfl- 
counts of the Society, duly certified l^ ^ •"*" 
tors, showing the receipts and psyinent* <ittMg 
the year, andinduding a detailed statemffltw wj 
liabilities and assets of the Society. It vul 
observed that the item for rent, rates, and tan 
unusually large, but this arises from a three; 
accumulation of rates, which have accrued y 
the Society was disputing its liahilitMS to 
parish on this account, having been exoi^ 
the last thirty years. An appeal ^^^ 
charge was lodged, but the Society, on^ 
advice of eminent counsel, abandcaied it, tw 
from the passing of the Act exempting litems 
scientific societies from rates down to tbe pw 
time the Society was considered to be and ^'J^^ 
exempt. A legacy of £500 from Mr. I**"^ 
Howard has been invested during the year, « 
as upwards of £200 received for the Bndovi 
Fund. The Council trust that this ^»e^^l 
such a fund will ultimately lead to the gT«^"|| 
a large amount. 

ProfbsBor Teaiiant had much P'®*""*^^^^! 
adoption of the report, nhich was leeooded tj 
Wm. tadth, CX 



Ite E Cksdwitlr, O.B., a» a memlier of tbe Cotmcil 
wM^ wkbed to offer some ezplaziatioiiB on one point 
vtti h$d not been noticed in ine report of the Council, 
pMttf beoaoM no action had taken place upon it 
daiiag the ■oaaioot namely, the question of the pur- 
cha«e of the ocean telegBapha. He might state that no 
tction was taken upon it because there was evoy 
light on the part of the mercantile community and 
th0 Goandl to expect that action would be taken 
spon it by the €k»y»nment. The principles of the 
neiflore were dearly demonstrated ; they were the 
PD« as those for the purchase of the inland tele- 
gnphi, which had been ^umphantly demonstrated in 
■wtioe^ and would conduce to eyen greater profit, in 
8m way of reduced rates to the publ^ together with 
M good or eyen better surplus reyenue to the State. 
tkt maswitmra of the ** how not to do if folk had been 
iMwered. The pretext that there was a difficulty with 
Iba foraign goyenunents waa answared by the fact that 
tb Ibceign goyemments had thamselyes adopted the 
frinoiplesthey adyooated, and axe now all in fiayour of low 
ch&rgu^andoppoaed to asystem which imposes high rates 
apoQ them as well as upon ourselyes, when they haye 
to be pasted through the British dominions. It is, 
kSaid, an illusion to talk of the interests of foreign 
gonnments as re^>eots the capital or the rights of £he 
dwcholden, for the fact is that the capital is, and has 
llvftji been, wholly British. The foreign capital is of the 
BMt trivial amount ; not at all, probably, the'proportion 
k vfakh capital is inyested in British funds. It may be 
<osftiittly avexred that within a month after the pass- 
kf of tn Act the ocean cables might be taken pos- 
HMiof by the post-office ; they might be put in relation 
Mb tiM inland telegraphs, and a prooess of reducing 
Ik lataa to an extent the comi«nies cannot do might 
Ine been in operation, with the advantages to com- 
Mvee to which a hundred mercantile firms haye 
iMiflcd to the Soeiety. The ease is so clear, as demonp 
Ibated in pnotice, as to warrant the confident expecta- 
Sbb that the measure would be early brought forward, 
*i ba Mbmitted, we were justified in relying upon 
fta action of the government, especially as the eco- 
ftoancal prindplea were essentially the same as those 
Inpoimoed by Mr. MonseU in respect to the purchase 
rf we Irish railways by the Government. He chal- 
hlpd the maintenance of any substantial distinction 
h principle Ktween the two measures. Mean- 
while the companies had got a start upon the 
tulway companies, and were makmg amalgamations 
fcr their own profit, which, with due vigilance, would 
We been made for the profit of the public. It is 
^MfidsoSly anticipated that telegraphic communication 
%ths ocean lines, which is even of more commercial 
■potnce than internal telegraphic communication, as 
V*iBy time and expediting transactions, not by hours 
lliaiji, but by weeks and months, must necessarily be 
"" ' ipon a public footing, fdnce all delay was at great 
expense. The Cuuncil would be gltd to be saved 
rlsDour in the agitation of this question, but it 
,ifVnathat this might not be, and that they would have 
IfraiUbther support during the next session. For the pre- 
VBit k WIS only possible to druw attention to the matter. 

Kl lotly congratulated the Society on the yariety 
M topics and amonat of wovk undertaken by it, 
•miled in the report they had just heard read ; but 
bvould espectaUy refiBr to the great progress now 
Miig in our ooJAmea. It was a gratifying foatnre in 
p^acsootts to fiod the Soeiety's assets increasing. 
^Sik dimwing attention to the incveased number of 
■basBbers, ha stfongly urged upon them the import- 
^s«f sKh ^trn^ his best among his friends to indaoe 
■■•lo join ihm mMty. It was thus in their power to 
^MCe kitgeif tike innuenoes and means of the Booiely 
■Hood* 

^^ i iywtn thought that among the assets of the 
■K«*J iooonnt shoum. not be taken of uncollected sub- 



scriptions. He did not consider that these were properly 
ass^ of the Society. He advocated a second conver* 
sazione, in addition to the one already arranged, as well 
as a return to the annual dinner. 

Mr. W. Saithdid not agree with Mr. Say well in his 
objection about assets. He considered that uncollected 
subscriptions were most properly included in that term. 
He, however, agreed with him as to a second con- 
versazione, believing that the money spent upon such 
gatherings was well laid out. 

Mr. S. Oawbaxa, as he was connected with commercial 
matters, considered the uncollected subscriptions now 
must properly come in as assets. He approved a second 
conversasione. 

Mr. Hala considered the itom of assets was most 
properly inserted in the account, and he thought publio 
meetings of the members, in social gatherings Uko the 
conversazione and dinner, most important, as extending 
the influence of the Society. 

Professor Tennant refSorred to the bygone times when 
he joined the Society, an effort being then made to get 
a few additional members to save the Society from cub- 
solution. 

Mr. Mnir thought tiiat the influence of the Prince Con- 
sort as president of the fi^ety had eiven a great impulse 
to education, which he t h o ugh t had been somewhat ne- 
glected since his Royal Highness's death. The JounuU 
of the Society he thought might be made a great edu- 
cational organ^ and he advocated its being sold at alow 
price so as to bring it within the reach of tne mechanics. 
It should compete with the cheap weekly trash now so 
abundant. 

Mr. W« BBith did not think the Society of Arts was 
the proper body to take up this matter, as advocated by 
Mr. Muir ; it was rather the duty of the Soeiety of Fore- 
men Engineers. 

The Chairman said that the Society's Journal now went 
to the principal Mechanics' Institutions in the kingdom, 
and was thus available for mechanics and others, the 
members of such Institutions. The suggestions which 
had been made by the various speakers would, he was 
sure, have the best attention of the Council. 

The motion having been put was carried unanimously. 

Lord Alfred Ohnrchill moved, and Mr. A. Cassels 
seconded, a vote of thanks to Mi^or-General F. Eardley- 
Wilmot, the Chairman of the Council, for the able 
manner in which he had perfonied the duties of Chair- 
man during the year, whioh was carried unanimously. 

Mr. Botly moved, and Lord Denman seconded, a voto 
of thanks to the officers, which was supported by Mf. 
Hyds Clarke, and carried unanimously. 

The ballot having remained open one hour, 
and the somtineers having reported, the Chairman 
declared that the following members had been 
elected to fill the several offioee. The names in 
Italics are those of members who have not, during 
the poit year, filled the offices to which they haTB 
been elected: — 

COUNCIL. 

PBXSIDSNT. 

H.B.H. the Prince of Wales, E.G. 

VICB-PBBSUIBMTS, 



F. A. Abel, F.R.8. 
H.M.H. Frinee Artkur,K,G. 
Thoiaaa Brassey, M.P. 
£dwin Chadwick, C.B. 
Sir Daniel Ouop«v Bart 
Eight Hon. W. F. Cowper- 
XsmpIeyM.?. 



M4^ DonmUtf, M^E. 
Lord De Vlsle and Dudlsj 
Mttkr^Gmiral i^. £ardkif'' 

Wilmot,JELA.,F.M,8. 
Cant Douglas Qaltoa, C3i| 
^.R.8. 
Lord Henry O. Lennox, M^. 



624 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jtob 27, 1878. 



Sir John Labbook, Bart., , Migor-Oeii. Sir Henry B*w« 
M.P., F.R.S. I Union, K.C.B. 

Admiral the Siffht Hon. Lord Samuel Redgrave 
Clarence Faget, K.C.B. Rev. "W. Roi:erB 



Ri^ht Hon. Sir John 8. 
Pakington, Bart, M.P. 



Seymonr Teiuon 
£. CarleUm TufiM 
Thomas Twining 



OBDIKABT MBMBBB8 OF COUHCIL. 



G. C. T. BaHley 
Andrew CasseU 
John Cheetham 
Loid Alfred ChnxxshiU 
Hjde Clarke 
Colonel A. Angue Croll, 
C. /. Freake 



Jamee Heywood^ F^S» 

Edwin Lawrence 

Vice- Admiral Erasmns Om- 

mannejr, C.B., F.R.S. 
Robt Rawlinson, C.B. 
Lt-Col. A. Strange, F.R.& 



T.R«Tiifnell 



James T. Ware. 



TBBJL8UBBB8. 

I Edward Brooke 

▲ITDITOBB. 

I /. OereUnberg 

SBCBBTABT. 

P. Le Neve Foster. 



FIBANCIAL OFFICBB. 

Samuel Thomas Davenport. * 

The (SudnBUi propoeed a Tote of thanks to 
Bcrotineeni for their eervioes, which was carried. 



the 



At the condusioii of the G^eneral Meeting a 
Speoial Meeting was held, when the following 
candidates were ballotted for and dtdy elected 
members of the Society : — 

Banner, Edward Gregson, 11, BilHter-ecynare, E.C. 
Bremner, John A., Huton-honse, Prestwich, Manchester. 
QqIow, Qeoive, 87, Oaversham-road, N.W. 
Cousins, Waiter Cornelius Arthur, 11, Lawson-street, 

Gk^at Dover-street, S.K 
Croudaoe, W. 8., Elm-bank, Broughty Ferrr, Dundee. 
Curtis, Samuel, 3 and 4, Prospect-place, Walham-green, 

B.W. 
De Losada, Don Korberto Rodriguez, E.C.LC., 105, 

Regent-street, W. 
Easton, Edward, 23, Duke-street, Westminster, 6.W. 
Eliott Henry Charles, 5, Stamford-villas, Fulham, 

8.W. 
Elmslie, E. W., 5, Great Winchester-street-buildings, 

E.C. 
Farman, Edward, 21, lion-terrace, Portsea, Hants. 
Hardess, William Mantz, Sydenham-rise, Forest-hill, 

8.E., and 4^Coal Exchange*, E.C. 
Hsxt, Charles William, Humphrey's-terrace, Shoreham, 

Sussex. 
Hawker, Gkoxge, 5, George-place, Acre-lane, Brixton, 

S.W. 
Eayess, James, Bourton-house, Streaiham, 8.W. 
Lewis, William Thomas, Bute Mineral E^te-o£Soe, 

Aberdare. 
Uoyd, Wilson, Darlaston. - 
Mann, Colonel R. I., R.E., of Jamaica, care of Messrs. 

Cox and Co., Craig's court S.W. 
McClelland, Andrew 6., J.P., 140, 8t. Vincent-street, 

Glasgow. 
McMurray, James, Wandle-house, Wandsworth, S.W. 
Marshall, George, 1, Tamworth-xoad, Croydon ; and 4, 

Mark-lane, E.G. 
May hew, George William, 3, Gloucester-place, Portman- 

square, W. 
Milne, Samuel, Burton Joyce, near Nottingham. 
Morrison, Henry M., Longsight, Manchester. 
Moeely, B. L., 66, Tavistock-square, W.C. 
Muoklow, Edward, Castle-head. Grange, Lancashire. 
Norfolk, Richard, Beverley, Torkshire. 
'Parker, J. Spear, Cyclops Steel and Iron Works, Sheffield. 
Fearae, Mountiov, Seaton Carew, near West HarUepool. 
Poison, John (Messrs. Brown and Poison), Paisley, N.B. 



Pritchett, G. E., F.SA.,F.RJ.B.A.,40,LoiiibndHtiid 

E.C. 
Ramsden, William G., 13, Town-ehanbsn, liTfrnoL 
Ricketts, Frederick H., 3, Great Qeoige-itieet, &W. 
Smith, E. Fisher, The Priory, Dudley. 
Snowden, William, 161, Boyson-road, 8.E. 
Swann, James M., C.E., Moscow, Rnana. 
Taylor, Rev. J. W. A., Headingtoo, netr Ozloii 
Udall, Thomas, Silverdale, Sta&rdshire. 
Verity, Benjamin, 127, Rejgient-stre^ W. 
Wates, P. J., Phoenix Gas Light and Coke Coopmf, 

Greenwich, S.E. 
Wedgwood, Joseph James> 19, St Geoige*a-faRiBB^ 

Queen's-gate, S.W. 
White, Timothy, Charlotte-street, Blackfrim, S.E. 
Whitelaw, Alexander, Gartdietrie Iron Woiki^ Cod* 

bridge. 
Whitwell, W., Thomaby Ltrn Works, Stoektanii-Ttts 
Williams, Edward, Cleveland-lodge, Middlesbocci|lL 
Wilson, Thomas, 26, Westmoreland-stieet, DsUis. 
Wilson, Wiman^ 21, Havelock-road, Hastzagi. 

Ain> AS HONOnABT OORBKSFONDDfO Kimi. 

Abejon, Senor Don Pablo, KCh.IIL, K.8tJ.J.,D.aL, 
Calle de la Union, No. 10, Madrid. 



CAHTOB LBCTVXB8. 



The second lecture of the second course of Oolar 
Lectures for the Sessioa, '* OntheEnsigiesof tbels- 
ponderables, with especial refereooe to the Mesas^ 
ment and Utilisation of them," waa ddzrered I9 
the Bey. Abthxtb Biog, M.A., on Momdsy eredB^ 
February lOth, 1873, as follows:— 

LVCTUBB n. 

The Energy of Oravitg, with eepeM refermct t» h 

Meaewnement of it. 

The energy of gravity is one of the ooii dot ■» 
all-pervading of the energies of the impoo dniM a 
Although we may not be oonscions of the ftcl, ta 
need be no doubt that, were this energy to eitf^w 
should be like those whom Milton describes si 

^ Upvhlrled aMl 
And t«nt trmntvOTse, ten thoataod Icassfli ftvr7i 
Into the deriooB air.** 

This calamity is averted by gravity putting fivft ^ 
energy allotted to it by the Creator, and the wa ttto 
done enables us now to sit at ease, and givsi oi kM 
in which to dwell. ^ _ ^ 

If, then, it be asked, where do we find tiui tt*9' 
we may say, **Look aroimd.*' Li this roooi, f!*^%^ 
asmuoh as we are at rest, produces hot a itwe •Mj 
there is, however, a dock ticking, and then g» *^y 
producing motion. The combined ^uurmoaiosi^fi^ 
tions of the energies of gravity and vitality ^^^^^^ 
together this evening. Thus it has been, ^^^'T'^! 
creation of man ; and yet there is good ratwi w* 
surmise that the energy of gravi^, even if<"^ 
was little regarded in the eanier agei of ft*^*^ 
A history of observations on the eoemr o(iP*|^ 
or even of traces of the reoognition of thii ctfO 
in these ages, has yet to be written. Wh «fti |Oy 
some of the early Gneek writers, grav^jr wa "VP^S 
to be a power innate, as a living V^'^^^jf^^ Sm 
in every particle of matter; or whefter tk" IJT? 
had a residence at the centre of the esith; ^^'^ 
it resided in an atmos|!^iere smftmmdiaf 9eth p'*'*' 
of matter ; or whether Seneca, who ^'^.•*"^ j^J 
was moved, by a oonsideratinn of (to him) *■■ "TJi 
terious princi^e we call grarity, to notioi w^^ 
tides and the moon were scnnehow xekM, tm »os 
this evening, oonoem ns. 



JOURNAL OF THE 800IETY OF ARTS, Jtjnh 27, 1878. 



626 



Fnrni tke time of Seneoa we may paM orer more than 
fifteen hundred years, to the days of Gkdifeo (a.d. 1600), 
iiHio was perhaps the first person to no4ice thai bodies 
in £iUing okOTed faster and £uter. He attribnted this to 
the itfects of gravity, and oonsidered that if he could 
rstesd speed whilst skill peraiitting gravity to act, he 
nugrht determine the law of increasing spaees in equal 
aaaoasstre times. This he did by permitting a ball to 
roH down an inclined plane ; friction on the plane caused 
the reterdation, whilst gravity alone caused the motion. 
Thus he obtained the ratio of spaces in reference to 
Boooeedlng times ; but he made no attempt to measnre 
the absoliUe spaces when a body fell freely. 

Next to Galileo in order of time must be plaoed 
Kflfder, a (German astronomer, whoi about 1615, in his 
ee^ch after certain astronomical relations, existing ap- 
pacrently through the mutual attraction of the planets 
each on the o£er, was led to sunuses respecting the 
nmversality of the mutual influences of material bodies. 
The succeeding fifty years present a blank in re- 
teence to inquiries or investigations respecting gravity. 
Then came Robert Hooke^ who was at the same time 
A mathematician, an astronomer, and a mechanician. He 
wae secretary to the Royal Society of England, and, 
firom 1666 to 1674, seems to have frequently turned an 
inquiring mind to the nature of that infiuenoe which he 
thought he could observe to be exercised by the sun 
end eunfch upon others of the planetary system. 

The great and now (1873) universally recognised law 
npoti this subject was first laid down bv observations 
and' reasonings of Sir Isaac Newton, whi<m, even at this 
dmy, are regarded with an almost religious veneration 
bj the advanced and intelligent men of every nation. 
Althongh it is said that Newton bagan in 1670 to form 
mora diear conceptions of the law of gravitation than 
had been propounded by any of his predecessors, we 
oust remember on what surmises he had to build. 

KOT>ler^ about 1615, and Robert Hooke, about 1666, 
had led Newton, so early as the above-named date 
(1670), to form these conceptions, and it is probable that 
he was confirmed and directed in his anticipation by the 
imct that Richer noticed, in 1672, that a pendulum o(m- 
Tejed from Paris (lat 46 deg. 60 min. N., long. 2 deg. 
20 mm. £.) to Cayenne, in South America (lak 4 deg. 
66 min. N., long. 62 deg. 20 mtn. W.), did not vibrate 
in the same time. This recorded fiiot was aa a demon- 
•tietion to the mind of Newton of the deviation of the 
ficnre of the earth from perfect sphericity, and its 
oShUeness, or compression at the p^es. It was not, 
however, until Um publioation of his Frineipia, in 1687, 
ihet the law of gravitataea was fully established and 



Briufly otprsssed, the law, as anticipated by others 
sad propounded by Newton, is this — that the attraction 
oi OSM planet upon another depends upon the masses 
(not upon the "weights") and distances of the two 
pleaeis ; not, however, is the law of increase or deovease 
aoeh, that at one half of a distance or double of any 
dieteace is ihe intensity of the attraotive force douhlad 
or halved. This mignt be a first impcesston. Astro- 
nonucal facts refused to conform themselves to such a 
law.1 They rabelled. The pariiament of planets had 
pteAcrihed another code for the inter-relationships of 
tJbsiv muteal attraotiTviiess, and although it night 
■whapn have been readily inferred that, aa the distance 
Mfcween the attracting bodies was increased, the inten- 
tkiy id attrantioa wcmld be dsoroased, yet the law of 
that dnciaass waa tiie one which Sir Isaac Newton 
aBaomeed. It is this^-that if there be two heavenly 
hr^*^^i Mtr> ^o earth and the moon, and that these at a 
haowa distaaoe are nratualiy eierting a oertain attrao- 
tioa or dmwins eadi to tha other ; tlmn, if the distance 
he donhled, the influenoe will only be cme^nrth 
of 'What it was. If the distance be treUed^ then this 
i&flisanoe will become one^Mnth of what it was; if 
qiudmpled, then one-sixteenth of what it was. Bz- 
' in pceoisa phrMeology» tha hkw of gm^ilAtioais 



that of the inverse square of the distanoefc Thus fur 
satisfied the rt)quirem«mtB of astronomers. 

It is remarkable how moeh of the utilised infbrma* 
tien men possess has been dmved frt>m the observations 
of astronomers. The mechanism of the universe was 
known before Harvey discovered the circulation 
of the blood, or Watt constructed a steam engine. 
The astronomers seem to have been the pioneers of 
everv bmnch of human knowledge. The Old and 
the New Testaments open astronomically. *'In the 
beginning God created the heaven and the earth." 
(Gbn. i. 1.) '*The wise men from the east came to 
Jerusalem, saying, where is He that is bom King of 
the Jews f for we haire seen His star in the east" 
(Matt. ii. 2.) 

It must be rea^embered that tiie soienee of astronomy 
in one important respect d^Eers from all other sciences. 
Astronomers are obsMrers only — they assaitain causes 
by watching effects. They cannot interfere with or alter 
the causss in operation. They cannot make experiments. 
That man prasumed too much Uj^on the powers of his 
astronomicid friend, who having invited him to bring 
some of his acquaintance to see an eclipse of the moon 
by the aid of a telesoopa, and arriving too late, assured 
those who accompanied him that the astronomer was not 
only a peracmal friend, but also a very kind-hearted 
man, ana he did not doubt that the eclipse would be done 
again in order that they might see it. Yet upon these 
observers idl experimenters erect their fabrics. Tha 
gigantic and uncontrollable phenomena, and all the laws 
of the universe of plaaets-- of the ebb and fiow of the 
tidea, of meteorology, of terrestrial magnetism and^ its 
connection wiUi the sun, are the results of observation. 
Tliey could never have been known by experiment ; 
indeed, we could not so inteifere with them as to make 
an experiment. Bemember, experiment is an inter- 
ference on our i>arts, and a redirecting of energy into a 
new channel, in order that that may be observed which 
cannot otherwise be observed. Hence, if we wish to 
utilise observation it must be by the adaptation of an 
experiment in the presence of an observation — ^to con- 
trive, in fatik, a system of apparatus which may enaUe 
us to take observations and at tha same time to so control 
the ^ments of an experiment aa to bring tham within 
the range of our means of observation. 

Such combination of experiment and obsoration is to 
occupy mnoh of our attention tbis evening, as on the 
records of these men — Cavendish, Atwood, Kater, Sabine, 
and Baily, espeei^y Captain Henrr Kater, are built our 
sjrstem of measures and weights ; fef to them we are 
indebted for what must constitute a court of final appeal, 
should the time ever come when our present standards 
being totally lost, it is essential to re-establish them. 

The energy of gravity is peculiar, and differs from 
those other energies with which we are to be oonoemed, 
in that it seems inexhaustible — iU power is not proper^ 
tionedtothe woricitdoes. AUothereneigies are in pro- 
cess of ^^ustion by work when that work is measured 
by motion ; not so gravity. Imagine a large ball, and 
a seeond small one, which gravitates towards it— the 
number of these small bidls may be increased^ and still 
the influence of gravity on eseh ball is as intense as 
though there was only one small, ball ; no exhaustion 
I from woric done affects the eneigy of gmvity, and yet it 
seems not to have any power of recouping its expended 
energies. There is no elasticity about it— at least, none 
in the hands of men. 

For example, we can, in food, avail ourselves of 
aflinity, and so, throu^ the ageney of ass imila tion, 
rorive the enargisa of an exhausting vitaht^r* Electri- 
city cmi, epon a system of relays, or upon its extrscv- 
diasry propartnr of indaotion, renew at a distance, not 
only its pristine vigoer, but an enezi^ man^-fold 



greater than its original one. Li^t can have its mten- 

1' sity and purity reirtored bv heat Gravity remains in 
its solitarmess. True, wa Mlave that vitality, aflinity^ 
eleotrioity, light, and hett are iade p c md s nt o^ and be* 



62G 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETY OP ARTS, Juw 27, 1873. 



yond the influenoe ot gn^it^; yet^ we know them 
we cannot bring them wHhin the keo of our i 
except when they are ■modeted with what owns the 
dull, dead, inert, and yet powesinl infloenoe of the 
energy of gravity. For all means yet employed have 
failed to develope or detect the pretence of theee im- 
ponderables in a ptrftet vaemtm. 

This fact seems to give sapport to the soggestioo that 
the " potential energy of graTitation may be, in reality, 
the uldmate created antecedent of all motion, heat, and 
light at present existing in the muTerse." 

The mode in which we estimate or measure graTity is 
peculiar. It is the only one of those energies with 
which this course of Cantor lectures has to deal that 
tells its story upon a scale beam or spring balance. No 
concentrated rays of a tropical sun haye ever caused an 
appreciable deviation of the most delicate balance; 
neither li^ht nor heat imparted to a body in vmko has 
ever required the fraction of a gramme to be added 
to the other scale-pan. But when gravity is oonosmed 
we cannot add the most minute microscopical molecule 
without having the equilibrium disturbed. 

Gravity alone, of all the imponderables, rises up equal 
to the burden laid upon it. Its power seems to increase 
wiUi the amount of matter involved or work to be 
done. The more required from it, the more it does. 
Tou cannot overburden it. An avalanche of rocks 
or a gossamer thread are equally the playthings of 
gravity. 

For the purpose of these Oantor lectures, the law of 
grHvitation which binds the planets in their courses is of 
uttle concern, unless we find that the same law binds 
the material elements with which we are concerned. 
The question whether the influence whose law Sir Isaac 
Newton so dearly propounded resulted frtun an unknown 
and ungovernable something, resident and centndised, 
as it were, within the planets, or whether it was a 
property of every molecule or group of molecules, was 
not set at rest until Nevil Maskelyne, the Astronomer- 
Boyal at Greenwich, went to Mount Schiehallien, in 
Perthshire, in 1774, to calculate the doisity of the earth. 

The mountain of Schiehallien has very steep sides. 
Hr. Maskelyne suspoided plumb-lines from two op- 
posite and nearly vertical sides. Now, if ttiose plumo- 
lines deviated from what one may call vertioality, they 
would have been caused to deviate by the attraction of 
the mass of the mountain. Thus 2i(askelyne examined 
ibis — he had an instrument by means of which he 
could, by observations upon the stars, determine the 
exact direction that the plumb-line should take, and he 
found that the strings dia not take that direction. Having 
done thnt on one vertical side of the mountain, he re- 
peated the experiment on the other side, and found 
that the deviation there was opposite to that which it 
was on the first side.* Having determined that these 
strings no longer followed the vertical, he formed an 
estimate of how much this mountain attracted the plumb- 
bob at the end of the string, and so arrived at a conclu- 
sion that each particle of matter does attract every other 
particle. This was the first approximation to an estimate 
of that which forms a very important element in connec- 
tion with other experiments. We may here state that in 
certain rogulator-dockB the makers put the single weight 
in the corner of the case, so that being remo^Ml to the 
greatest distance its influenoe upon &e pendulum-bob, 
similar to that of Schiehallien upon the plumb-bob, may 
be the least possible. 

This, then, established the ftust that the power whose 
law Newton discovered was no gnome resioent in some 
mysterious terrestrial centre, but was a property of every 
molecule of matter, and oould not by any means or con- 
trivance be separated from those molecules. Whether 
this property be within the molecule, or only in what 

• The deviation wm noted by a Kenlth-sector, and after maklDff the 
requisite corrvctions there w.s left M •ttr»ction which oaa«ed the 



may be called tiie atmosphme around the aoleeds, mi j 
be lelt to Uiose who arrange theories. 

Mr. Michafi] suggested to Gavendish an czpcisieot 
which has ever since gone by the name of Oat ciidiiK'i 
experiment, and from which was deduced the fint prettf 
accurate caloulatian or actual measurement A tba 
density of the earth. Cavendish, as you knov, vii i 
very wise man. It is said of him that ** hs vii 
the richest wise man, and the wisest rich mm, thit 
the world ever saw.'* He left more thin a nnUkm 
of money. He had also another quality which vooU 
be very desirable to cultivate in certam psrtt of tlai 
kingdom at the p re s e nt time — he uttered fewervoris 
than any other man who attained the stme a^ s 
supposed to have done. He discovered muy thmiji^ 
ai^ amongst others, he was the first to make ta tctaupt 
at weighing Uie whole earth, and he weighed it viik 
an accuracy which has only been confirmed in recent 
times. 

The apparatus that Gavendish used was doaUithe ne 
of this whidi you see before you, but it wu pouhr 
in construction. He had two balls of lesd, amila 
to these large ones, suspended from a very light bir,thtt 
bar being trussed, as it is called, by a kind of tringie 
of wires, and the whole being attached to a hook ia • 
pulley, round which he passed a cord, by meuN oC «Ud 
the balls of lead oan be moved to any postioa 703 
please. In order to exclude every extenul ioinBc^ 
the apparatus was inclosed in a room of iti ova, ad lo 
observe the phenomena that took place wttUi tbt 
closed room utmps were applied at small ocifteeiii^ 
telescopes were placed at oUiers. In addition to tUi 
apparatus with the two balls of lead, which veighid 
about 3 cwt. each (as fu as my memory wn^ ^ 
had another apparatus placed below the othor, m tos 
see here. From a centre immediately under tfaepuiif 
to which a fri^me carrying the leaden balls is attsohed, v« 
suspended by an exceedugly fine wire a light rod with 
two little balls, less than bullets, and thess bdb hild i 
certain position, and oould not move from it bmi 
certain umits. Being placed in the aforenid epeioni 
room, where there were no draughts or vimtioBi^ 
temperature, or anything extenul to afieot theit, im 
they had been left for some time— say, for 24 hooi, ^ 
became stationary, and would not move ualmi w» 
external force were applied to them. At the «od of ft^ 
light bar canying these small balls was an iroiy leik 
and a pointer, and upon this was directed ^ hght of • 
lamp from outside the room, whilst a knoh vai ihi 

{daoed outside, by turning which the motion of tholtf|g 
eaden balls could be controlled* At aaothff ffiSc* 
was placed a telescope, by means of which tho MtHa 
of the pointer oould be observed. After the littlowli 
had became quite stationaiy, by the cord he voty V^\ 
swung the larger balls to a position dose to the flMil 
ones, and after a certain lapse of time, vairisg ft«* 
a quarter of an hour to an hour, he o b ss i i ed thoyo 
through which the small balls were moved ftoo ^ 
position they had occupied. It may be well to ifeite tM 
a thorough examination had been previously msdtn ^ 
whether any influenoe could be due to mag n o i ii B 

This experiment had to be repeated very ''f'^' 
because of the minuteness of the range of these Wb*J'^ 
the magnification of it. The appluationoftheiw* 
was to be so important. He thesefote made ^^J^ 
perio»snts on each occasion, and observed the postM w 
the balls took. He also observed another matter vhit^tf^ 
great ofmsequence, although this evening to be psiMdo^ 

very lightly, namely, the number of oscsTlatinne aide tf 
the small balls befoie they came to rest Tbasebilli 
oscillate like a pendulum, and by the number of ti0"| 
they swing before ooming to rest certain cslonlBtiou^ 
great importance to the inquiry mav be made. /^^ 
calculations being completed, the conclusion he v<>^*^ 
was that the earth was 6*4 (say 5^ times) heavior thu 
water. 
Now it is only right that you diouW he told bow 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTg, Jtob 27, 1873. 



627 



firom these balls the density of the earth can he deduced. 
The mass or quantity of matter in these balls is known ; 
their attraction upon the little balls is known from 
obeervation. The mass therefore of any other ball being 
known, we can tell the attraction that it would have 
upon these balls. It is qoite clear that if tiiis large ball 
hjid doable the mass it would haye double the attraction 
at- the same distance; if treble the mass, treble the 
attraction, and so on. Again, if the mass of the little 
ball was known and the attraction of the great one 
known, and the mass of the great one known, then 
if the mass of another ball is known, we shall get the 
attraction of that other ball. It should also be attempted 
to mnke dear how from these two balls we can 
weigh the earth, and probably it will keep your interest 
alive in the matter if informed that, in 1835 (Oavendish*s 
experiments being made at the close of the last century, 
about 1798), Mr. Baily, the founder of the Astrono- 
mical Society, repeated them. Mr. Baily had been a 
stockbroker in London ; he retired from business, and 
poFchaaed a house in Tavistock-place, the one, I believe, 
in which Mr. Digby Wyatt now lives. He there made 
many ezperim^mts, and some most extraordinary cal- 
coLttions, and did a large amount of astronomical work. 
Amongst other things he undertook to weigh Uie earth, 
and he weighinl it as Oavendish did, namely, by an 
apparatus contttruoted on the same principle as the one 
before you. He swathed the box or chamber, in which 
the balls were, with flannel, and put a gilded cover over 
all. He also lined the inside with tin- foil and connected it 
by a copper wire with the earth. These precautions were 
intended to neutralise, as far as practicable, changes in 
atn)oepheric temperature and terrestrial electricity. 
How important he considered it, you may judge frt)m 
this that he made more than 2,500 experiments with 
ballfl of this character ; he sat watching them for 1,200 
hooiv, and that number of experiments extended over 
some years. The repetition was planned in 1835, com- 
menced in 1 837, and concluded in 1 842. The result of these 
1,200 hours of watching, exclusive of the calculations 
which followed, led to the conclusion that Cavendish 
was right within a fraction of 2-lOths., that is to say, 
Oavendish concluded that the density of the earth was 
5*4 times that of water ; Baily concluded that it might 
be 5*6 times that of water. 

It may be permitted to repeat the reasoning in order 
if possible to make clearer the principle on which it pro- 
ceeds. From the weights we know the masses of the 
large ball and of the small one. We know that the 
amall balls in relation to the large ones were free frt>m 
the influence of gravity ; we uso know by obsorva- 
tion how much the one attracts the other. Double the 
bally and you g^ double the attraction, and so on. Now, 
we know the size of the earth, and by placing this little 
ball on a spring balance, we know how much the earth 
will attract it Therefore, the weight of the little ball 
being known, and the sise of the earth being Imown, 
there is nothing left except the attraction to find, and, 
as ^we have the attraction frx>m these two balls, we can, 
by » simple arithmetical operation, determine that the 
eartb is 5*6 heavier than water. 

This seems the best opportunity to name that the 
jffe«ent Astronomer Boyal (Prof, ^ry)* investi^ted by 
Tery difierent means and on very different pnnciples, 
th» qoeation of how much heavier than a globe of water 
the earth is. Qualifying the conclusions frx>m his ex- 
periments as himself suggests, oonsequent upon certain 
Mcdogioal coosideFations, it may be asserted that 
C^vendiah's result is very nearly correct. 

1%me passed by ; Cavendish's experiment was made, 
m» I told you, about 1708, and Bauy repeated it about 
1635. We must now go back, as a matter of history, to 
CaTendiah's time, and ttie next step we arrive at in deter- 
mining the energy of gravity was the experiment that 
waa made by Atwood, who was bom in 1746. He was 
a fellow of Trinity OoUege, Cambridge, and was the 
first to entertain the idea of devising some plan of 



measuring the force of gravity. Let me endeavour 
to make this matter clear. Cavendish detennined 
the density of the earth, but he did nothing whatever as 
to determining the force of gravity. Force, as stated in 
the first lecture, can only be measured by motion. We 
can easily obtain motion from the action of gravity, but 
we must observe that motion in order to measure force. 
If a weight be let fall it falls far too quickly to permit 
of an estimate of the rate at which it falls. That rate is 
due to gravity. Atwood thought, as Galileo had 
previously done, that by causing the fall to be delayed, 
he might be able to draw a conclusion as to the exact 
force of gravity, and the plan he adopted was this. 
Ton are aware that the intervals between the ticks oi 
a pendulum vary according to its length. Here is a 
pendulum, and you see the rate at which it is going ; 
if, now, the pendulum weight be lowered, so as to 
lengthen the rod, you may oDserve that the pendulum 
ticks more slowly — in fact, it is now beating seconds. 
You were told, in the first lecture, that we must have 
a certain unit of measurement, and the ueond is 
the unit of measurement usually taken for time. If 
we want smaller measurements, for it it is easy to 
divide the second into a hundred parts, they are 
taken by another contrivance. A very simple azid suf- 
ficient one is a clepsydra, or water dock, arrange 
specially for this purpose. 

What Atwood thought of doing in order to measure 
the force of gravity, having, you remember, no previous 
measurements to guide him (for Galileo did not touch the 
problem that Atwood proposed to solve), was to take two 
weights evenly balanced over pulleys such as these, the 
apparatus being most delicatelv made You see that these 
two small weights are exactly balanced, one being at each 
end of a cord which passes over pulleys at the top of the 
apparatus, so that the weight in descending passes down in 
front of a graduated scale. These weights, then, are exactly 
balanced. Here are three very small weights, fractional 
parts of the ones which are suspended. K one of these 
small weighto faUs by itself it would fall so rapidly that 
its rate of falling could not be observed ; but if, whilst it is 
falling, it is caused to bring this mass of matter with it, the 
rate of fiiUing will be retarded, whilst the law of the rate 
remains the same, i.e., the law which governs the rate 
of falling will be similar, although the mass moved is 
increased. If now there be phused upon one of these 
bidanoed weights two of these little fbictional 
weights, there is a something that will cause the 
connected mass to move, and this platform at the 
bottom will be struck about four seconds after 
the motion commences. The usual plan is to let 
the motion be commenced by electndty, which at 
the same time sets the pendulum in motion. You can 
count the strokes of the pendulum from the commence- 
ment to the end of the motion. You can see this 
mass of matter has been moved through eighteen 
spaces in four seconds. If the measure be alterra, you 
will readily understand that these fractional weights- 
would carry it through a different space in the same 
time ; if other weights be put 02i« they would carry it 
through other spaces. The experiment as made before 
the apparatus was brought here shows that the force of 
gravity is such as to cause a body to fiUl through about 
32 feet in one second, the meanmg being that if thus 
smaU weight had not been required to rainff the other 
weights luong with it, then it would have ndlen from 
rest through 32 feet in the first seoond. That was the first 
attempt of estimating by measurement the force of 
gravity. 

But Atwood's apparatus, though exceedingly good 
as matter of illustration, fidls very &x short indeed ofthat 
which Captain Kater adopted ; and all that we have, 
and all that we know, of the form of the earth, and 
the true kinetic measure of gravity, spring from 
Hater's experiments, and not from either Cavendish's, 
Baily's, or Atwood's. Kater felt that if instead 
of weights falling as they have fallen in the ex- 



628 



JOURNAL OF THE. 800IETY OF ARTS, Jum £7, 187S. 



perimenti of Atwood, ha could obsarre tho effect of 
giavity upon the weight &lling without aasooiatiBg it 
with other weights, if it oould be kept quite diatinct, and 
if in any way he could cause gravity to re{>eat the 
operation slowly and deliberately without any interfer- 
ence whatever, we might get at the conduAon much 
more rapidly than Atwood could by his arrangement, 
because the friction of the wheels, the wdght of the cord, 
and other incidental matters affect the problem. What 
Kater did was to design a pendulum, of which this is a 
copy. It was from a pendulum like this thai not only 
was the fo^ce of g^vity determined in all parts of Eng- 
land, but also the form of the earth itaelf has been 
decided and estioiated. Our standards of weights and 
measures all come from & pendulum Uke this. I£^ in 
&ct, the standards were all lost, it would be from such a 
pendulum they must be restored. Let me anticipate the 
conclusion by stating that when the standards were lost 
in the burmng of the houses of Parliament they were 
restored h^ seeking for copies, because the great number 
of corrections and the great difficulty of counting this 
pendulum and freeing it from interfering causes, are very 
serious obstacles. Few are aware of the enormous 
difficulty there is in placing a pendulum so as to be fr*ee 
from external influences) and counting the oscillations of it. 

Whilst upon weights and measures, your attention 
may be directed to a small piece of wood herer which 
is a model of the standard one pound weight of Great 
Britain. It is one which a committee of learned men 
obtained, and this in my hand b a copy. The real 
standard is made of platinum. It is a cylinder 1*35 
inches high and 1*15 inches in diamet^. Observe 
there is a groove turned in it, and there is an 
ivory fork by which it is to be lifted — these standards 
are not to be touched. There are only five of them 
made, and if ever the one pound weight is lost in 
England it is to be recovered^ not by repeating Kater's 
experiments, but by copying one or other of these five 
standards. The five are kept — one at the Exchequer 
Chambers, at Westminster, one at the Koyal Mint, one 
with the Royal Society, one at the Eoyal Observatory, 
Greenwich, and one is immersed in the sill of the recess 
on the east side of the lower waiting-hall of the New 
Palace at Westminster. 

To return, then, to Eater's experiments. He had 
first to determine a pendulum which should vibrate 
seconds in the latitude of London. He did it in the 
house of Mr. Brown, in Portland-place, which house has 
an astronondcal bearing from Portland Chapel of 
74deg. 38min. 60 sec. west from north, the distance 
being 283 feet, and therefore the house is about half- 
way up Portland-place on the left-hand side. In that 
house the pendulum was first adjusted. Nothing seems 
easier than to deal with a simple vibrating ba& on a 
string. It is not, however, so easy as it seems. It can 
not be made to swing in the same plane as this one now 
appears to do. If left fr«e to choose its plane of 
vibration it is seldom contented. It will not have a 
dozen swings in the same plane, it must therefore, some- 
how or other, be made rigid, and so prevented frx>m 
such vagaries. Here is a small vessel of lead, hanging 
by a bundle of untwisted fibres from a hook, and you 
mi^ht think nothing could be easier than to let it 
swin^ backwards and forwards on the same path, 
but it will not swing for two minutes in the same 
path;^ hence, pendulums are all compelled to aot in 
restrained paths, and generally supported on knifa edges. 
French docks have two strings oi silk to the pendulum. 
These are fastened to two hooks at tb.e top, and the pen^ 
dulum rod being hung from the junction of the two 
silken cords, it is constrained to describe a path ina plane 
at right angles to thnt in which are the ^k threads. 

To return to the leaden vessel. It is now filled with fine 
white sand, and at the bottom there is an opening out of 
which the sand can trickle whilst the vessel swings freely. 

wm JK~ ^"^^ }J "»« *»^^ ^"^^^^ oa a boarfbeneath 
^^ show the path that the vibragng body 



It shall now be let go in what i^ipeazs to be a itnigfat 
line. If you watch that path you will see it ii ftvery 
curious one. The sand at once indicates that thseuii 
of the line are travelling zoand, also that the lias iUelf 
is becoming wide in the middle. In fact a straight lias 
is seldom formed by the filling sand from tach piD* 
dulums. Even if a circular path be ooauneoosd, jn viH 
find it cannot be retained. It reminds one yenj modi of 
one of the secular astronomical changes, that is, oar jeir 
of 365 days and a fraction resuUs from thii gndsil 
advance of the perihelion path of the orbit of the esil^; 
observe it tends first to a straight line, then through aa 
ellipse to a circle, and then a return action comBwiff*, 
and it will repeat this process from the Ani^ 
line opening out again, and so pass on thioo^ 
various phases, until it comes to rest. Hence a pe&d&« 
lum constructed of a simple form is of no Tilae^ aad jct 
it is in its simple form we require it. It was aeedAd to 
assume for the purpose of tlie calculation that we em 
make a pendulum do that which this swingjng feail of 
sand is not doing. 

Captain Kater was the first to deal with the csMof 
converting the compound pendulum into a sample one* 
A pendulum is said to be a nmple one whea it caoaiti 
of a heavy particle at the end of a veiy U^ thmi 
Sudi is almost an imaginary pendulum. AU pakdoUiu 
that we see are compound ones. Now, by pomd&g \ha 
plan adopted by Captain Kater, he was al^e to<^tuxL 
from the compound pendulum what would be the kegth 
of an equivalent simple pendulum. His peaddam bti 
two pairs of knife-edges, a pair at the up^ end, oa 
which it swings, and a pair at the lower abI He 
placed one pair of these knifo-edges on a ofloth, 
hard surface, so that the pendulum might litnto 
without anything causing it to oontinoe its vites* 
tions except the force of gravity. Now, if yoa 
look to this diafi^ram yon will see the motiou of * 
compound pendulum. If it were short it woold iBffn 
thus, and if it were longer it would move mm ^«^ 
The Hack dots in the disgcam represent the lower eadi 
of pendulums of diffisrent lengths. AssoiBe that tU 
black dots are the ends of separate pendolaaa, oat be- 
hind the other, from the same support, thi^ wiQ thA 
occupy those places after the same mtsrral ot tine hw 
rest ; if, however, these pendulums are united, then tke 
one iskeptbaokby the action of the other ; nowtbffve 
really united in a compound pendulum. There ii. mv* 
ever, some point or other at which, if all these bumki w«t 
concentrated, the velocity at Uiat point would U tb£ 
velocity of the mass, therefore such a peadoloB «^ 
vibrate in the same time, and it would he <>^ J 
simple pendulum. Kater found that this ceQectN 
point, which is called the centre of osoiUatioa, ead toA 
at which the pendulum is suspended, are interchifig^ 
able ; in faot, he found that if the pendalam v**^* 
rately adjusted by means of these moveahle v*^ 
he could suspend it upon a pair of the kmfe<44g*^ ^ 
he could get a certain number of vibrationi in « ^"^^ 
or a second. Then, if he turned it upside down, aHaai4 
the pendulum to be right, and ctuised it to *^^|j[^ 
before, upon the other pair of knife edgei, it ^^ 
make the same number of vi bration s. '^"^ *^ 
points he marked, and the distance betweia '^J' 
the length of an equivalent simple P*°'^*^^'''!'r, ^ 
such a compound pendulum aa now dmcom* ^ 
of which the one before yon is a ^VVf ^^'^'j^l^ 
number of vibrations it makeSi you oan alMj* ^^<^ 
the length of a simple pendolum that wooUL aMB ^ 
same number of vibsatiom* .^ 

What Kater did, then, was this— he had a doek kig 
going, strifitiy to truth, that if^ to tros sMrtM»»fl^ 
time. The dock was furnished with a gisdifaa p» 
dulum of the oonatcnotion shown in tba dispnii *J 
so carefully arrangad as n6t to be altarad ^J^^ 
in conseqnenee of dbiange of temperatare. ^ ^ ?l^ 
of the pendulum^ In fr«ml» wae a white ntt^ M (>V^ 
1 p«adiiliun bob of IhM cOook. Bi^jfMoA^witfisA 



JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juki 27, 1873. 



629 



graTity pendolujii, which has been * described, in front 
of tbe clock, the clock pendQlum beating 86,400 strokes 
per mean solar day. The rate of the clock was deter- 
mined by astronomical obserrations, and therefore, on 
any part of the earth's surface, it would be ^ssible to so 
arrange the solar pendulton that the clock should 
always record 86,400 beats in a mean solar day. 

Kow let us turn to this two-ended pendulum of Capt. 
Kater. It is of an invariable length, and acted upon 
directly by the force of grairity ; there are no weights or 
clockwork in conncrction with it. When it is up on one 
nde, it is the power of gravity that causes it to fall, and 
it .is gravity which keeps it going. If, for example, a 
powerful magnet be placed under that pendulum, then 
it will come to rest sooner than it would otherwise do, 
because it is pulled down with greater force. If, there- 
fore, gravity changes in its pull on this pendulum, it wiU 
tell on the rate of its vibralions. The rate of vibration 
of the equivalent simple pendulum is known, because it 
has been calculated from this compound one; hence, 
if this compound pendulum be placed in firont of 
the dock keeping astronomical time, and if the vibra- 
tioDB of the pendulum be counted whilst the vibrations 
of the clock pendulum are being recorded, it might 
be Bscertainea whether the force of gravity varied in 
different places. 

The means by which Kater compared these vibra- 
tiona are ve^ simple. Tou see the white speck, 
previously remred, to on the bob of this gridiron 
pendulum. He took a telescope and plac^ it at 
BOtne distance on a level with that white speck. 
Between the white speck and the telescope, and 
near to the gridiron pendulum, swung the gravity 
pendulum, which moved slower than the other, being made 
a little longer. Keeping his eye upon the telescope, and 
directed upon a narrow piece at the end of the ^vity 
pendulum, which was the same width as the white dr- 
cnlar speck upon the bob of the dock pendulum, he 
eonld tell when the two coindded. As one pendulum 
BwuDft slower than the other, it was quite dear that a 
eoinadence must take place, and he noted the time of 
the coinddence. That was the beginning of counting 
vibrations, and he then wait^ untu they separated and 
xuktp. the coinddence again took place a second time, 
vrhidi gave the numbo* of the vibrations in a given 
time as recorded by the dock. Experiments like these 
were repeated very frequently and carefully, until at 
length the average was obtained as to the number of 
Tifarations that this gravity pendulum made, compared 
with the vibration that the one on this mean solar dock 
made. Within the tube of this telescope there are 
oroeetngs of very fine vrires — so fine as to be hardly 
Tiaible to unaided vision; the threads of a spider^s 
web were formerly used for this purpose. A spider 
IB taken in the fingers, then, if shaken he would 
ran his web out to save himself^ and this web was 
placed in the focus of the eye- piece, and the threads were 
so that the crossing of them was in the axial line of 
the ieleeoope. It was by looking along that axial line 
that the time was observed when the coinddence of 
these two pendulum marks took place. The accuracy 
irUh which that was done is more easily to be imagined 
than realised. 

Aesnming that this has been accomplished, let us 
look for a moment to other dements whioh would dis- 
turb the result In the first place, the pendulum vibrated 
in air; and you were told, in the first lecture, that a body 
weijghed in air and weighed in any other medium is not 
balanced by the same wdght. Hence the effect of the 
air npon the pendulum has to be considered. Then the 
pendolom is vibrating in a changing atmosphere, some- 
tiinea warm, sometimes cold, and a change of the 
temperature causes an expansion or contraction, hence 
the effect of that expansion was to be considered. And, 
■imp^ as it seems, to estimate whether a pendulum is 
longer or shorter is really very difficult Indeed, great 
wma Gaplain Kater's perplexity about it 



He measured the length of his pendulum thus : he 
formed a box similar to the one on the table, and laid 
his pendulum in it, and applied a microscope over 
one of each pair, of op|x>6ite knife edges, pladng 
behind them a piece of wnite paper, so that the edge 
might be seen. He then applied the microscope. 
A^n he put beneath them a piece of black paper, and 
he found that the measurement with the white paper was 
never the same as the measurement with the black paper. 
After describing how with microscopes he attempted to 
measure between knife-edge and knife-edge, by placing 
them when white on a black ground, and when black on 
a white ground, he adds : — ** fii one case, the knife-edges 
seemed to start forward to each other." This difficulty 
is summed up thus : — ** On the cause of this extraordinary 
fact I can hazard no conjecture, and it remains an inte- 
resting subject for future investigation.*' 

We now know that this resulted from a phenomenon 
called ** irradiation." Hence he was bound, even in 
looking through those microscopes to strike an average 
of the apparent errors. 

Another error that occurred, which he also fouxid 
great difficulty in remedying, and indeed never did 
remedy, so that in fact the experiments he made are 
liable to some infinitesmal corrections still, was this : — If 
a pendulum vibrates, as this one was doin^ just now, 
the air clings to it, and is carried along with it, from 
what is called the *' viscodty " of the air. That viscodty 
is such, that if you were to put a short piece of gold leaf 
projecting edgeways upon the face of the pendulum bob, 
you would find that the gold leaf moved with the action 
of the pendulum, and was carried alons with it. so that 
it turned neither to one side nor the other. If, however, 
the gold leaf projected beyond a certain distance, then 
you would find it bend with the air. Therefore the 
atmosphere in immediate contact with the bob was 
dragged along with the pendulum, and that par- 
ticiuar dement Captain Kater was not aware ot 
Government, some years ago, in order to set this question 
at rest, had larffe vacuum chambers erected, and pendu- 
lums set vibrating in them, to ascertain how great an 
error was caused by the viscodty of the air. 

Captain Kater having determined the length of this 
pendulum in the latitude of London in 1818, it was 
thought of great consequence to ascertain how &r the 
force of gravity varied in different latitudes. 

A memorial was presented to the government in 1818, 
in order to ascertain by means of a pendulum how 
gravity varied throughout the British Isles, and Kater 
was commisdoned to take steps for the purpose. 
Government jdaced at his disposal certain members of 
the Roval Corps of Engineers, with whom he set 
out to the north of Scotland, and made experiments at 
various places. He went up to Unst, in the Shetland 
Ides, then he came down to Portsoy, then to Ldth, then 
down to Clifton in Yorkshire, then to Adibnry, then to 
London, and then to the Ide of Wight, and in eadi of 
those places he made certain experiments bctfed upon the 
prindples now too briefly described. This lecture would 
extend far beyond the allotted time if it entered into 
details vrith reference to local arrangements and special 
calculations. It may suffice to refer to the table on the 
wall for particulars of the results. The following is a 
copy of the tMe ; — 



Kame 

of 
plaoe. 


LaUlnde 

of 

place. 


VlbraUoM 

In a mean 

folardajr. 


Length of a 

peodnlum to 

Tioratoteoonds. 


Un»t 


def. 
•0 
67 
15 

53 
53 
51 

SO 


Din 

45 
40 
58 
21 
13 
31 

87 


■ee. 
383 

sses 

45*8 
4S13 
55*33 
8-4 

3S'f4 


8S,00f*9S 
8<,0H«05 
85,079-40 
85,1*58 to 
85,055*06 
85,051-51 

S«,058-0r 


3917140 


Portsoy 

Ltith Fort 

CliAon 

Ashbnry hill... 

London 

ShftoUin, or 
rather Don- 
iiior0 


3915150 
39 15664 
39*14000 
39*14350 
3013830 

3013014 



630 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jukb 27, 187S, 



From thia table it will be seen that the length of a 
pendulum vibrating seconds in the places respectively 
entered is ttiat given in the last column. 

These lengths are sufficient to enable a mathematician 
to calculate the force by which the pendulum is caused 
to swing. Now, as the only force causing this swing is 
that of gravity, such a calculation determines the force 
of gravity at that place in relation to its power to pro- 
duce motion. Hence is deduced those 89 mches, which, , 
in ordinary expression is thus broadlv stated to be the 
length for pendulums vibrating seconds in the latitude 
of London. Captain Kater deduced that 3913829 
inches was the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds 
in Mr. Brown's house in liondon. This length re- 
quires to be reduced to sea-leveL Now, the rooms of the 
Koyal Society, at Somerset-house, are 81 feet above low- 
water, and by the aid of a mountain barometer, made 
by Bamsden, Kater found the room in Portland-place 
to be two feet below those of the Boyal Society, and 
as the length of pendulum above the floor was four feet, 
the elevation of pendulum above sea-level is 83 feet.* 
Now gravity varies inversely as the square of the distance 
of the place from the centre of the earth, therefore the 
length of pendulum must be increased in this proportion ; 
and taking the radius of the earth for the latitude of 
Portland-place to be 3954-683 miles, we have 391386 
inches fer pendulum vibrating seconds at the level of the 
sea in the latitude of London. 

The greatest difference between the mean and that 
of any of the sets of experiments is only '00028 of 
an inch, or x^^rsir ^^ length of pendulum. The length 
39*1386, as thus determined, is that required to perform 
one vibration, in tiIthf ^^ * mean solar day, under the 
circumstances described, and at the level of Uie sea. 

Finding how much could be obtained from this, with 
regard to the British Isles, (Government commismoned 
Captain Sabine to go to diflferent places on the east 
coast of Africa, the Island of Ascension, Bahia, Trini- 
dad, Jamaica, New York, Greenland, and Hammers- 
fest in Norway, and repeat Captain Kater's experi- 
ments. These experiments are repeated, and then, by 
an arithmetical process, which need not be referred U> 
in detail, it was very easy, having given the number of 
vibrations of this invariable pendulum (for the distance 
between these knife edges did not vary), performed in a 
solar day, to calculate the power that was pulling it ; 
and from that calculated power could be obtained the 
mass of the earth beneath the plxice where it was being 
pulled, making, of course, all the allowances for cor- 
rections and other circumstances. That calculated 
power gives the thirty -two feet which we are all ac- 
quainted with as the measurement of gravity. The 
meaning of which is, that gravity will generate in a 1 lb. 
weight, in one second, a velocity 32 times greater than 
that which it is agreed shall be called the unit or absolute 
measure of force. Put conversely — the absolute unit of 

feroe is equal to the weight of : ^'' = |os. ne«rly. 

w^'2 

Captain Foster afterwards repeated these experiments, 
and made others, and from them has been obtained the 
fig[are of the earth, and calculations of all kinds used in 
saentifio investigations throughout ths globe depend 
upon them. Captain Foster was unfortunately drowned 
in the river whilst observing some of his experiments, 
but Mr. Baily undertook to tabulate his results, and com- 
pleted the calculations on the data which had been obtained 
Dy Captain Foster*s observations. The calculations Mr. 
Baily made for this purpose occupy many oloselyoprinted 
quarto pageaof figures. The result was solely to ascertain 
the lexigm of the pendulum, and bo deduce the figure 
of the earth. Great beyond all ordinary estimate is the 
amount of care, patience, perseverance, and anxiety that 
attends experiments of this kind. 



ahhual nrnmsATiovALixHiBmoiB. 



• TImto la roMoD to •ondode tluit thm% 
be oomotocL^A. B. 



meMorflmeals requir* to 



The number of visitors admitted to the Ezhilfl^aii 
Thursday, 19th inst., was as followB:>Se«aoD ticketi, 
195; on payment of Is., 3,100 ; total, 3,296. Oo t'ndty. 
season tickets, 170; on payment of is., 3,182; total, 
3,362. On Saturday, season tickets, 2,040 ; on pijnait 
of 2s. 6d., 1,866 ; total, 3,906. 

The number of visitors admitted to the ExIibiliiB 
during the week ending Saturday, Jane 2Ut, wu u 
follows -.—Season tickets, 4,398 ; on pavtnent of Si 6i, 
3,28 6; on payment of Is., 11,668 ; total, 19,241. 

The number admitted on Monday was, seaaontkk^ 
283 ; on payment of Is., 2,320 ; total, 2,603. On Too- 
day, season tickets, 137 ; on payment of Is., 1101, 
totid, 3,238. On Wednesday, season tic^^ 182; « 
payment of 2s. 6d., 1,201 ; total, 1,383. 

In aooordanoe with arraogements previosilr asH 
and published in last week's J<wnM/, the Shifa viiM 
the £tteniational Exhibition and ths Albeit EiB a 
Monday IbmL At half-past ten the Bojal oroigtt 
containing His Majesty and his suite drew op »t thi 
north-west entrance, in Prince Albert-road, to tbe ExU- 
bition building, where the Shah wis reoeirid bythar 
Eo3^ Highnesses the Prince of Wales, the Dote rf 
Bdinbnrgh, Prince Artinxr, snd other nwmben of w 
Special Oonmiittee, indnding Lord OeituirToe, laA 
Granville, K.G., Lord Ripon, Lord Lan*lo«», ■« 
many others. His Majeetv passed through Ito w^ 
ohinery Department and tike Pioture GalUry t« w 
Albert Hall, where he Usftened to tto seeoad pirtofi 
concert, the first part having been oenclndsd pienB« 
to bis arrival. 

The Judg«e appointed to award ttie F^^^ 
Society of Arts for the improvemeDt of L(md« ow » 
on Thursday last, at the International ™J2i 
There were present the Duke of Beaufort, I/w4 AiJJ 
Somerset, Lord Alfred Chnrrfiill, General Beitlky-^ 
mot, R.A.., F.R.S., Col. Henderson, Mr. Ook, G^ 
I Mr. Cassels, and Mr. Le Neve Foit«. The Jagg 
inspected the various cabe exhibited, and sgwid toW 
I following course of proceeding :— That the cs« »•■ 
' be tried in competition in their various fe^tawB laJa 
motion, in the West Annexe of the BihihitkB, « » 
day (Friday), 27th June ; on a ftitore day, ■«« «■ 
trial, the cabs will go in procesrion to ttie atriadjj" 
They will then be exhibited in Palace-yard, inderij** 
of their merits and defects wiU be taktfi pablidf »» 
House of the Society of Arts. 

Mr. Wormersley, of tiie Carrow Works, of IJj^ 
Colman*s mustard and starch business, hna '"^^]**2 
patented a piece of mechanism for imprwrinyanj*^ 
tating the manufacture of small woodai hawi^J^ 
from nine inches to twenty-four inches inlesj^th.^ 
a proportionate depth. By tiie new machinej ^|" "J 
there is not only a great saving in time "»^J^^ 
the box is much more finished and easily '••''Jjl 
tight. The machine cuts transversely into > ?*? 
board, of a width and length that vary *»5^TJ 
sized boxes, three rather deep V g*^'^,*^ «^ 
same time bevels the rough ends of the be«* ^ 
done, the board can be folded or l»«n* *<f"''**T"ti^ 
groove is close, with or without glue addrd, ™[j^ 
are produced tiie four ndes of a box, only » ***^tI!Lhd 
alid being wanted to oomplMe it. NsiJs •TT^ 
in crosswise at each of the mitred cornet*, ".^^^w 
a Ud are quickly nailed on, and then there « oosiP^ 
a box without any gaping cracks at theeorBtf*- 
machine was made at Owtow, by Mr. Key»*»rT 
Mr. Wormersley's direction, and will shortly w ^ 
hibited in the Intemationai BxhiMtko. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juhb 27, 1878. 



631 



BXHIBITI0I8. 



Vieiina Sxhibitlon. — ^Belgium is well represented at 
the Vienna Exhibition in the industrial section, by nearly 
500 exhibitors. It is stated that one firm alone has spent 
DO lets than 200,000 francs for the carriage and fixing the 
machinery that they have sent. The well- known engineer- 
ing eetablishm^t of Serain^, John Cockerill & Co., exhibit 
a powerful blowing engine in this department. The num- 
ber of Spanish exhibitors is between 3,500 and 4,000 ; and 
special mention must be made of the interesting exhibit 
of school books and educational appliances sent by the 
Minister of Public Instruction. A model of the tnum- 
phal car of Maximilian I. is sent here from the National 
Museum of Madrid. The Spanish colonies contribute a 
complete assortment of cigars and tobacco. In the 
Italian Section an interesting collection of models of 
ancient ships is sent from the iirsenal at Venice, showing 
^e progress of naval architecture from the earliest times 
down to the present day. Models of the piles on which 
the city of Venice is built are shown, no less tban 
1,200,000 piles having been used for the foundation of 
the church of Sainta Maria della Salute. 

Basitftryaaid Xdaoatioiial Exhibition. — ^In connection 
with the Social Science GoDgvsfls, to be held at Norwich, 
from the 1st to the 8th of October next, there will be an 
exhibitioii of ednoatianal, sanitary, and domestic appli- 
ances, htmed on the ei^eriment which proved so success- 
fbl at Leeds, in 1871. The large and spacious drill hall 
has been placed at the service of the Social Science Asso- 
ciation (with the sanction of the Ghjfverament) by the 
oommanding officer. The object of the exhibition is to 
Iring mider the notice of the pnbHo generally, and par- 
tMoIarly thomo who are interested in social, sanitary, and 
educational qnestioiis, the latest scientific appliances for 
improving the pabHo health and promoting education. 
Among these mny be mentioned : — All matters relating 
to house constrnctioo, oonneoted with which are building 
maiarials, light, waiming, ventilation, and interior orna- 
mentation ; flues, &« -places, stoves, boilers, furnaces, 
Ets appamtus ; cisterns, baths, piping, filters, fountains, 
vatoriee, and all things connected with the supply ana 
use of water ; drain-pipes, tubes, sinks, traps, troughs, 
oIosetB, urinaliB, filters, and all plans, diagrams, sections, 
models, and speoimens of sewage and drainage contriv- 
ance ; cooking apparatus and food-manufaoturing 
inaohinea, culinary utensils, specimens of food, adultera- 
tions, condensed nuida, preserved meats, light and cool- 
ing bev e r a ges ; disinfectants, deodorants, antiseptics, and 
other things relating to the prevention of disease and 
preservation of health ; hygiene in clothing and dress ; 
plans and models of school-buildings, forms, desks, books, 
maps, and other artides used in teaching ; and all sorts 
of apidianoes appertaining to the advancement of sani- 
tary science, the promotion of education, and the im- 
provement of the health and domestic comfort of the 
oonunnnity at large. The exhibition will be open to ex- 
hibitors from all parts, and the management will be under 
the soperintendence of a committee. A mere nominal 
charge will be made for space and admission — just suffi- 
cient to cover the costs of preparation and defraying the 
working expatses. 



A Virginia railroad condnctor has invented a 
rtvohring signal light to be attaoted to the rear of traina, 
bv whieh the eDgineera behind them can tell by the speed 
of their rotationa, as shown by the sucoeasion of different 
ddoarcd lights, at what imte the trains are moving, and when 
ftsy are at raat. 

Hie qoantity of wood of all kinds aminally im- 
port^ into Great Britain isnot much leasnowtiianl6,(K)0,000 



PREVRNnON OP FIRES. 

The following has been addressed to the Editor of the 
Timsa: — 

Sm, — I read with deep interest your excellent article 
on tiie subject of fires and the best means for their pre- 
vention or limitation in your paper, and the valuable 
information it conveys of the inquiries instituted by the 
Society of Arts concerning the means of protecting this 
vast metropolis against the dangers of confiagrations. 

The plan submitted by Mr. Sharp to the committee 
appointed for the purpose, however perfect it may be, 
implies necessarilj* a great expense, and a considerable 
lapse of time for its practical execution, even if it were 
so extensively adopted as to afford the required general 
security. But, while the ashes of the fires at Chicago 
and Boston are still warm in the recollection of me 
public of both hemispheres, and fearful reports are daily 
read of destructive fires in public and private costly 
establi^ments, which, if detected in time might have been 
readily got under, the command of some contrivance that 
should give timely notice of the beginning of a fire is, 
and must be, one of the g^reatest deaitUruta, especially in 
rich, densely-populated cities. The studies of men of 
science and practical engineers have been, therefore 
eagerly directed to the attainment of that object, and 
many very valuable and ingenious contrivances have 
been produced. But of all those that have come under 
my notice none possesses, as that invented by Professor 
Grechi, of Lima, all the required qualities of simplicity^ 
efficiency, relative inexpenaiveness, and adaptability to 
all kind of substances, either solid, liquid, granular, or 
of any other form that might be feared to be in dauKer 
firom excess of heat or fiie, and equally efficient by day 
or night. Experiments were given by him before a 
numl]^ of persons at the International Exhibition on 
the 4th of June. A number of small tin boxes, con- 
nected with a central battery, and bells, or lamps, were 
distributed in various parts of the building, some sus- 
pended in the air, some submerged in liquids, and some 
in grains or other substances. As soon as an elevated 
degree of temperature was produced, either in the room 
or the recepta^es containing the substances above-men- 
tiened« the loud sound of a bell was heard, a number 
indicating the portion of the building where the excess 
of heat was produced was shown on a dial frame, and a 
lamp was lit by means of a chemioo-mechanioal contriv- 
ance. 

Considering the advantages of such a contrivance, and 
the little expense at which such great benefits can be 
secured, it seems to me that every room in every house 
should be provided with one of those fire-detectors, that 
might be instrumental to the saving of so many lives and 
rich property that are now daily lost for want of timely 
warning of danger. 

By bringing this invention to the knowledge of vour 
readers, who are millions, you will confer a benent to 
humanity, and acquire a right to their gratitude. Further 
particulars, and an inspection of the instruments, can be 
had at Messrs. Negretti and Zambra's, Holbom-circus. 

E. S. 



A new gas bnmer, known as Wallace s bnniOT, 
has been found, by Mr. G. J. Warner, to bt peculiarly 
adapted for producing aenaitive flanea. The gaa flaine 
iaauing from auoh a burner is singularly aansitive to soimd, 
especially to high notes. 

The discovery of a valuable mine of mica in 
Warren County, U.S., is reported, from which platea of the 
mineral over a foot in diameter can be readily obtained. 

T^e Bpeoiflo gravity of the Sonl^ Staffordshire 
coal ia f*tated to be about 1*3, so that aeabio ywdahonld 
weigh 2ylM-24 lb.,tir ncariy the atatntotonof 2^ lb. 



632 



JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jdnb 27, 1878. 



C0EES8P0VDSVCS. 



PRODUCTION OP SILKWORM GRAIN. 

Sib, — In consequence of my time having been folly 
occupied, I have deferred until now my intention of 
making a few observations on tbe ** Production of Silk- 
worm grain;" and altbougb two months have elapsed 
sinre M. Roland's valuable paper on this subject was 
read before the Society, I trust that I shall not be con« 
aidered trespassing on your valuable space in making 
them now. 

Having lived for some years in silk-producing coun- 
tries, and having paid some attention to the cultivation 
of the silkworm, I am naturally interested in any effort 
that is being made to insure the production of sound 
grain. 

It is admitted by all authorities that the silkworm 
disease is both hereditary and contagious, and I quite agree 
with M. Roland, that in so short-lived an animal as the 
silkworm, it is useless to attempt to cure any disease, tut 
rather to prevent it by rational e«1ucatton. 

There is no doubt that M. Roland's plan affords a 
natural system of restoring the silkworm to health, and 
preventing the hereditary taint from reappearing, but I 
would go still further, and endeavour more effectually to 
stamp out the disease by a microscopic selection of moths 
for breeding, and by adopting the cellular system, which 
has given such excellent results in Italy, in the produc- 
tion of healthy grain. 

The food of the silkworm should not be neglected, for 
by proper nourishment the worms will be preserved in 
more perfect health, and therefore will be enabled to a 
great extent, to resist the effects of contagion. 

In myj)pinion, far too little attention has hitherto 
been paid to the cultivation of the mulberry tree, and 
without going to the extent of asserting, as many people 
do, that the silkworm disease is caused by some malady 
in the mulberry tree, I have no hesitation in advocating 
the re-acclimatisation of the mulberry as one of the prin- 
cipcJ Queans by which the silkworm may be regenerated. 

It cannot be denied that the leaves of the mulberry 
tree, in its native climate, contain more resin and saccha- 
rine matter than those grown in Europe; and there seems 
to be no doubt that this tree, during its long exile from 
the country to which it is indii^enous, has degenerated 
to a certain extent Liebig confirms his supposition in 
the following passage in one of his writings: — "Le 
maladi^ des vers k soie provient essentiellement du fait 
que la feuille du m<irier ne contient plus en quantity 
suffisante, on en proportion convenable, les elements de la 
nutrition de Tanimal." Bonafous, in his '* L*artd'61^ver 
les vers h soie," says, " Une longue servitude ou une do- 
mesticity h^r^ditaire agit sur les animaux de la m^me 
fa9on q'une longue culture finit par Eloigner les v6ge- 
taux de leur premier type." 

I'o Signer Gbttardo Oattaneo, of Milan, is due the 
credit of having re-acclimatised the mulberry in Italy, 
and the splendid results obtained from silkworms reared 
on the ** original mulberrry trees'* (Oel$i pHmitivi) grown 
from seed obtained in the north of China by this g^tle- 
man, tend to support this theory. 

If England is ever to become a silkworm-g^n produc- 
ing country, I cannot too stronf^ly recommend that no 
care or expense should be spared m the re-acclimatisation 
of tile mulbeny tree. 

I am convinced that much good might be done were 
the subject taken up by the Society of Arts, and I venture 
to sngflrest that the '* Sericulture " would be a fit title for 
a course of Cantor lectures ; and were competent persons 
sent to Italy and other silk producing countries, to make 
themselves acquainted with silkworm rearing, the various 
mtems of prodndng grain, and the use of the microscope 
in detecting traces of the disease in the moth and eggs, 
tho»« i« Yoty Uttle doubi that in a few yean their know- 



ledge would be turned to account, and EngliDd ntight 
compete with Japan for the production of gnin. 

A large field for enterprise is, I am oonTiDoed,opai ia 
this branch of industry, the importance of whiek viU te 
seen from the fact that Italy imports annoally not \m 
than 92,000 kils. of silkworm ^rain, repreaeotingtmoQc; 
value of upwards of two milhons sterling.— I am, ts^ 

BoMBTX Hon. 

Italy, lOth Jane, 187S. 



THE SCIENCE OF ENERGY. 

Sir, — In the very able and interettine Ctntor lecture 
by Mr. Rigg, I am sorry to see that he begioi vith tkt 
great fallacy which for the last twenty y^ an K'lTitbtai 
Qie whole science of energy. He says, "Whetttit 
energy is lost by resistance heat is produced." This, of 
course, is a simple matter of fact and olisemtioo; bot 
if such a matter be mis-stated, or imperfectly lUted, il 
the threshold of a science, all its conclonooi becomi 
erroneous, or, to say the least, only pHrtially troe. Kw 
what are the real facts as proved by ezpmmentsf Utt 
destruction of energy may prodace beat, or ooM, tf 
neither ; that is, it may produce an equal quntity of 
both, so that in the result there is no variaduo of tea- 
perttture. Thus a weight falling on a nuM of pftil 
produces heat ; if its fiSl be checked by elartic wm it 
produces cold ; if the two be oombined, equal qisntiati 
of heat and cold may be produced. CoiiTrJif4v,tvajrit 
falling on a lump of india-rubber prodaoescoU; if iti UJl 
be checked by an elastic string oif indis-rubbtf it pn- 
duces beat. If its fall condenses air it prodaoeikiii; 
if it be so contrived that it expands air iippodscnoBit 
if it compresses water above 42° F. it prodnoahait; ■ 
below 42*' F. it produces cold ; if at 42<' F., H yndam 
neither heat nor cold, or perhaps equal 4«ui^^^ 
each. An electric current passing throogh vim 
produces heat, but the wires through wki(^ it 



maj be so arranged that it shall produce cold. 

it is quite plain that if a true science of enagy » V 
be built up. me whole of the facts Diiat be ol^'p'J 
consideration. Partial £acts can be tbe foowktw « 
only a false science. The experiments on wbtek ofily* 
true theory can be built have hitherto bna «»H*^ 
tively few and one* sided. If the theories of ^"j*?J 
W. Thomson, and other great men, as they uttiotW? 
are, have been too hastil v acceptnl in their coopk*'*^ 
and too wide generalisations drawn from partiMi f*^" 
is the part of true scientific greatness to pad do«a <J* 
hastily constructed building, and to lay fwik waw- 
tions in more numerous experiments. The **^~|^ 
world ought to be looking forward with int<n*t«" 
time when the Committee of the British A«)«»tt*2 
pointed to report on this subject will at iHigw »*• 
their long silence of throe years and a-halt W" •"■ 
give us a theory which will bear full inTetUgatiWi** 
least confess the imperfection of the present ih«n*— 
I am, &c., fl. Hi«B* 

Pntoey, Jnue, 1873. 

ECONOMY OP COAL. 

Sir,— The Edinburgh £evieu> for April last ««^j^ 
article upon the cost and consumptian of coil, Jf^ 
pp. 466.91, wherein it is sUted (p. 467), "^ * 
long ago as the year 1636, coals cost in Loodea ^^Jz 
London chaldron, the lowest price to which «« 
trace them, as well as the eailiest date; ^"^^^ 
the price was 428, 6d. per chaldron; and (p. ^^^Jf^'jJ 
— not paupers, but economical lodgers— bate twi^J 
winter (1872-8) been paying as much u 5^ "^'.^JfS 
sack of coals of inferior quality." In a note (ij. WJ 
is stated—** The anonymous author of the ««f ^2 
work, entitled ♦ Our Coal and Our Coal-pits, tt^r^ 
in them, &c,* has afforded "«w^opn»**_y'S5r 
about strikes in pp. 203 ^ k^. of hit *"*i{, ,fc 
In this review also (voL 91, pp. 88-89, snd tot im, 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IETY OP ARTS, June 27, 1873. 



633 



K 540) the opinion of ProfeMor Rogen as to the areas of 
loal-flelds and tiie reason of fatal accidents in coal- 
nines, are stated respectiyely. The writer, in No. 280, 
>h0erTe8 that ** every five years an increased supply of 
I mOKon tons of coal is required in Great Britain, 
ind as in eyery six minutes a child is bom in Lon- 
lon and its boundaries, in every six minutes an ad- 
litional ton of coal is required." The article concludes 
nrith the allegation that "prodigality, wastefulness, 
ack of prudent calculation, social selfishness, class in- 
ierests, and national neglect of social, moral, and 
>hTsical laws in relation to this gift will bring retri- \ 
)nnYe justice upon us or upon our prop^^rty. i 

In a country like Britain it is not possible to regulate 
he periods for usin^ fires, but the knowledge of the 
hermometer is practically as useful in regulating the 
^mperature of a room as that of the barometer is in ! 
preparing for storms at sea, might avoid the household 
iFarte which now prevails. 

During a recent visit to the Shetland and Orkney 

[sles, I observed turf fires to be much used by the 

[people, and I believe that chalk mixed with coal (30 

parts of chalk to 100 of coaH may be used with ad- 

rantage and economy. — I am, &c., 

Cue. Cookb. 
SvBlolUft, OxoD, Jane, 1873. 



VOTES OH BOOKS. 



The Bolditr'B Manual of Sanitation. By Deputy 
3urgeon>Oeneral 0. A. Gordon, M.D., C.B. (London: 
BalHere, Tindall and Cox. 1873.) — Brief directions, 
inanged in alphabetical order, are given for the treat- 
oient of accidents, wounds, sickness, and various casual- 
ties to which the soldier is subject. Such knowledge is 
vmj mach required in our army, and it might often 
wrve to prevent serious mischief, by enabling a simple 
remedy to obviate the necessity for the more elaborate 
treatnient required when a disease has gained gromid. 

Turning Ibr Amateurs. ("Bazaar" Office.)— This 
ittle work gives a complete account of the ordinary 
lathe, and the chucks and tools used therewith. There 
ftre also full instructions for the use of the tools most 
commonly employed in simple turning, so that the book 
is likely to be very useful to the class for whom it is 
i;>eciall7 intended. 



OEHEBAL VOTES. 



Food Preservation. — ^The Oeelong Meat-Preserving 
Company are now preservioir something over 20,000 tins a 
veek of beef and mutton. What promises to be a very im- 
portant f rade has been opened op with India. Some time 
igo the oompany sent a small consignment there of preserved 
DMtata and touDs ; these were so highly approved of, that by 
9ui Iftst mail the oompany has received an order for between 
borteen and fifteen hundred dozen of tins. — Melbourne 
drfUM. 

An Old InveBtion. — From a papier on <* The Loco- 
motive Sflgine,'* by Joseph Harrison, Jan., read before the 
Bembers ox theFnmklin Institute of PeuosylvaniR, February 
21, 1872, is taken the following paragraoh : — ** The engineer, 
noting Um onrious things in bmnse and in copper exhumed 
at Pompeii, and ^therei together in the Mnseo Borbonioo, 
at NapMS, will hnger near a small vessel for heating water, 
littla more than a foo ihigh, in whieh are oombinedf nearly 
aU the prinei|des involved in the modem vertical steam- 
boiler; flrs>box. smoke-flue through the top, and fire-door 
at th« aide, all complete ; and, strange to say, this little 
thi» baa a water-grate made of small tubes orossiog tbe 
fire-box at tbe bottom, an idea that has been patented twenty 
times over, in one shape or another, within the period of the 
hialory of the stcam-sBgiie.*' 



Asphalte Booflng.— Warwick Castle is now being 
roofed with asphalte in the parts being restored, after severe 
testa have shown asphalte not only to be non-inflammable, 
but calculated to atop the progress of fire, however great the 
heat may be. With ao many alarming fires around, says the 
Engineer, it is worth consideration whether this material 
cannot be brought Into wider use as a contribution to general 
safety. 

England and Central Asia. — The Eaatem Budget 
says that the Russian Government is not at present disposed 
to assist M. de Lesseps in his plan for a railway communi- 
cation between Russia and India. It is now busily engaged 
in preparing for tbe construction of a railway from Petrovak, 
on the Caspian, to Resht and Teheran, and it considers that 
this line and that from Baku to Ttsheran, via Tiflis, which 
is already in course of construction, should be completed 
before any others are taken in hand. 

Photographie Printing. — M. Marion, of Paris, has 
been malung some stir about a photographio process, which 
he daima, for printing. A sensitive paper is pret-ared with 
the ferro-prussiate of potash ; the drawing or aiagram to be 
Copied is placed on this, and the whole exposed to the solar 
rays. A copy is formed of white lines on a blue ground. 
This is nothinf? more than the oyanotype process of Sir John 
Herschel. which he published more than twenty years since, 
and which has for mnny years beea employed in this country 
by Mr. Willis foroopy ing mechanical dnwings. — Athenmum, 

The St. Gothard Bailway. — According to the latest 
official returns it appears that the progress made, up to the 
30th of April, at tbe St. Ootbard tunnel, was as follows : — 
At north end, Oi»scheman, 117 metres; south, Aisolo, 177 
metres. Total length of gallery driven up to the 30th of 
April, 294 metres ; to the 31st of March, 252 metres. Lenf^h 
driven during the month of April, 42 metres. The line from 
Lugano to the Italian frontier at Cbiasso, will probably be 
commenced without delay ; and tenders for the construction 
of about twenty-five kilos, of railway are advertised to be 
sent in during Uie presoit month. 

New Engraving Process. — A very novel and curious 

Srocess of wood -engraving is called the Planotvpe. The 
esign to be engravM is transferred to a block of lime-tree 
wood. The block is then placed in a machine resembling an 
engraving machine, the graver being heated red hot by a 
tt^ jet. The design is gradually burned into the wood. 
Figures or letters of reference are impressed by means of 
punches. When the red hot engraver has done its work a 
cast in type metal is taken from the block, which is then 
used for printing like tbe ordinary stereotype plate. It is 
aaid that the fineat details are faithfully produced, and that 
the practice carried out on a large scale is found to give 
satisfactory results. 

New Fuel.— Mr. L. Banks, of Hull, proposes a new 
manufacture of fuel. The invention relatiM to the combina- 
tion of the following matters:— 1. The refuse which aooomn- 
lates round the mouths of coal-pits. 2. Small coal. 3. Turf, 
peat, or such like matter. 4. Mineral pitch. 5. Coal-tar. 
6. The scum or refuse from cotton seed after obtaining oil- 
cake therefrom. The coal-tar and the mineral pitch are pre- 
pared by being mixed whilst hot, and after being boiltd in 
the ordinary manner in equal proportions. The two are then 
rxm together ; b«*fore use they are re- hoi led and mixed with 
the other ingredients before named. The who^e are then 
compressed together by steam-power or otherwise, and the 
composition is then ready for use. 

Sngar a last for Potable Water.— From an article on 
" Tbe discrimination of Good Water and Wholesome Food," 
the Pharmaceutical Journal and Transaceions,w9 find the 



m 



following simple directions given for testing water, whether 
it is good and drinkable :— »' Good water should be free from 
colour, unpleasant odour and taste, and shonld quiekly afford 
a g«»od lather with a small proportion of soap. If a half a 
pint of the water be placed in a perfectly dean, ooloorleas, 
irlass-stoppered bottle, a few grains of the best white lump 
sugar added, and the botUe frsely exposed to the daylight in 
the window of a warm room, the liquid shonld net become 
turbid, even after exposure for a week or ten days. If the 
water become turbid it is open to grave suspicion of sewage 
contamination ; but if it remain clear, it is almost certainly 
safe. We owe to Heisch this simple, valuable, but hitherto 
strangely negleded test." 



684 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Juhb 27, 1878. 



Solar Eaat ai a Tbol. — Doxliig the Teoent Vnildiiig of 
a bridge in Hollaa4 oae of tbe traTenes, 466 feet kng, wae 
Mieplaoed on the rapports. It was an inch oat of line, aad 
ike problem was how to moTe it. Bxpatiawnt ^preinsd that 
the mmwork expanded a small fraction of an inoa for OTerj 
degiee of heat it received. It was notioed that the di^ and 
night tempeimtare diflGn«d by aboat 26 degreee, and it was 
thought this might be made to more the bridge. In the 
morning the end ont of place wss bolted down aecnrely, and 
the other end left free. In the heat of the mm the iron ex- 
panded, and towards night the free end was bolted down, and 
the opposite end was loosened. The contractioa then dragged 
the whole thing the other way. For two days this experi- 
ment was repeated, till the desired plaoe was reached. We 
find that no record that the heat of the son has ever been em- 
ployed in this way before.— /ron. 



Fhoxiio Shorthsad for Sohoolit BumeM Writiog, el 
BeportiBg, bySlimB.BaxiM. Presented by the Aolitt 



NOTICES. 



SUBSOSIPIIOVS. 

The Midsoininer sabeoriptions are due, and 
■honld be forwarded by cheque or Post-office 
order, crossed " Coutts and Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Financial 
officer. 

THE UBBABY. 

The following works have been presented to 
the library : — 

Exposition Trionnalo des Beaux-Arts de Bmxelles. 
Ck>nipte Rendu du S «lon par HyacinUie de Bruyn.* 

The Darwinian Theory and the Law of the Migration 
of OrganiBms, transtated from the (German of Morits 
Wagner, by James L. Laird. Presented by the publisher, 
Mr. Edward Stanford. 

Record of Dxaoght of Water of Sea-^ing ships 
leaving Ports in the United Kingdom. Reports from 
8th M^, 1872, to 26th February, 1873. 

The Doldiers' Manual of Sanitation, by Deputy Smgeon- 
G^eral C. A. GU)rdon, M.D., G.B. 

The Railway Gnu^e Question in Victoria, Australia. 
Papers laid before Parliament. Presented by the Agent- 
General for Victoria. 

Manuel du Microscope dans ses applications au 
Diagnostic et 2i la Clinique, par Lei Doctenrs M. Dnval 
et L. Lereboollet. Prt'S^nted by G. W. Yapp. 

Algemeene beschrijrende Cat^ logos der Houtsoorten 
▼an Nederlandsch 0«»8t— indie, door P. W. Van Eeden. 
Presented by the Author. 

Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, Vol. 1, 
No. 3. 

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Part 
8, June— December, 1872. 

Transactions of the Zoological Society. Vol. 8, part 6, 

Direzione GenertUe d^-lle Strade Ferrate. RelNsioni 
BuUe costruzioni e euiresercizio delle Ferrorie Italiane 
pare L'anno, 1872. 

An Liquiry into the Necrology, History, &c., of some 
Parishes in the County of Glamorgan, by J. H. James. 
Presented by the Author. 

Some Account of the Parish Churches of Abbey-Dere, 
Kilpeok, Allensmore, and Hulmer, by J. H. James. Pre- 
sented by the Author. 

A Practical Treatise on Life and Fire Assuianoe, 
Annuities, and Reyeniionary Simis and LeHsee, for Tenns 
and for Liyes, by J. H. James. Presented by the author. 

Sociedad Economica Matritense. Resnmen de bus 
ActMS y de sus Tareas en el ano, 1872. Presented by 
the Society. 



The following have been presented b? th 
Author, Alezander George Findilay, F.R.Q.S. 

A Directory for the Indian Ocean, with De««pti« 
of its Coasts, Islands, &c., from the Cape of Good Hcfi 
to the Strait of Sunda and Western Australii ; inchtdni 
the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. 

A Directory for the Indian Archipelago, Oum, ni 
Japan, from the Straits of Malaoca and Sonda, and tte 
Passages East of Java, to Canton, Shanghai, the Yiikn 
Sea, Japan. 

A Directory for the North Paciflc Ocean, w4 
descriptions of the Coasts between Panama and tk 9a 
of Japan, and of the Islands nortii of the Eqoi^ 
including the Japanese Archipelago. 

A Directory for the South Paciflc Ocean, wA i 
description of its Coasts and Islands between Oipe Hoi 
and Panama, New Zealand and Australia. 

A Directory for the Ethiopic or South AtitnticOwnj 
including the Coasts of South America and htkt; *a 
the Islands, &c. 

Memoir, descriptiye end explanatory, of the ^^"J^ 
Atlantic Ocean, and comprising instructioitf, gew* 
and particular, for the Navigation of that Sea. 

A deseription and list of the Lighthooses of the «* 
1872-73 

Chart of the Lighthouses of G«at Britain, ftt. 

Chart, and notes explanatory of, of the North AtlWK 
Ocean. 

And the following Sailing directoiWt ^ 
charts: — 

The English Channel and Soathem OoMtof Iidfl' 
Weetem Europe. 

The Mediterranean Sea (Western psit). 
The MniitemBaan Sea (Eastern part). 
U^ Strait of Gibraltar and the Meditentaflon ^ 
The MediteimneaD Sea, induding the Adi^J" 
the Blaok Sea, the Archipebgo and the Ooaitof Atoo 

The foUowin^ h«ye been presented by fl»e fiait^ 

sonian Institution, Washington, U.S. :— 

Proceedings of the American Philowphw"! 8ooi»J 
No. 89. _ ^-^ 

Thiid and fourth annual reports of tiie W>»»" 
Survey of Indiana, by E. T. Cox. . ^ . 

Monthly reports of the Commerce and ^'•'J?*°'Sa 
the United States, for the fiscal year ended Jan*? **" 

Thirty-first and second Annual Bepoitt w 
American Institute for 1870-72. . y^ 

Special Beport on Immigration, by Edwiid i*^ 
Ph.D. 

Complete Works of Count Rumfbrd, Vol. L ^^ 

Memoir of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Coow K^"* 
by G. E. Ellis. •, 

Department of Agriculture Reports for 1«d»-'^- 



XEBTOTM YOB THS EVSUIVe Wtf- 

Moa. .. AeronanfiVal Society, 8. (At the Hoew oi t» *^ 

BotsI United Serrice Inrtttutton. 94. I2«*f>* 

P. Cawle, BJJ.. »*eameof K*valft«t». 
AiiirtM.8. 
0totittiflsl,8. AiaiiislMisHnff. ^ 

TVBS. »3ihlieal Ansb«ola«y. 8k Mr. J. '^JUSSjfi* 

Fall of Ninereh, sad the KH*tT«» rf»«*'*''^ 

KingofBsbyhA.*' 

WK)....0b.tstri«sl.8. lAti-Bi* 

TBims..3idwp Otto's Xdnoiiia OoDig^** {M^"^ 

THS SOOBTT or ASTS.) 

FBI. Qeologlsti' Aswqstina,t. 

ArehMdogioal Institat% «. 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 4, 1873. 



635 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,076. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JULY A:, 1873. 



J 6hm ttrm t ^ AdOpki^ Umdurn^ W,C, 



PBOCEEDINGS 07 THE SOCIETT. 



AMMTJAL COHFEBEKCS. 

The Twenty-second Annnal Conference between 
the Council of the Society and the representatiyes 
of hutitutions in Union, took place at ^e Society's 
House, on Friday, the 27th June. Edwabd 
Cableton Tufwbll, Esq., Vice-President of the 
Society, presided. 

The following is a list of the Institutions and 
Local Educational Bockrds represented at the Con- 
feience, with the names of the representatives 
nominated by them : — 

Binmngham and Midland In- f Mr. W. C. Aiiken. 

ititate \ Mr. Alfred Creaawell. 

Bromley (Kent) literary In- / Mr. W. W. Baxter. 

stitnte (Mr. G. H. Payne. 

Broma5roTe Literary and ( ^ ^- J*i> Amphlett, 
MacLuca* Inatitote j Mr^S;^-^;«,on. 

( Mr. C. P. Hardy. 
Cadiile Mechanics' Institute { Mr. Edmund Potter, 

I M.P. 

(We Mech^dea- InsUtute . . { JJ- ^'^^^.n, 

SThe Mayor of Faver- 
aham (Mr. R. Watson 
Smith). 

Hoddenfidd Mechanics' In- ) ■„■ t v a j» 
gy^^ > Mr. John Sugden. 

HiinToQngPMple'V Ohiri^^ ( Mr. E. Alliaou. 
■nd Litcflrary Institute . . . . \ Mr. H. J. Atkinion. 

Unmhire and Cheehire ( jj'* ^' ^J,^^)"^^ 
Union c^maUtute. | JJ^! ?! ^JSL'.'*^' 

London, Birkbeck Literary ( ^- i* ?• P^- 

and Scientific ^; I J^^^^^^ 

InsUtuUon • • • • ( Mr. T. J. Pea^. 

/ Rev. R. Whittington. 
n City of London t Mr. W. J. Bishop. 

College j Mr. J. Husband. 

\ Mr. J. H. Levy. 
M St. Stephen's Even- ( Mr. W. H. Baker. 

in^ School (West- I Mr. W. Davis. 

min»ter) I Mr. W. J. Hill. 

u Tonic Sol-& Teach- ( Mr. W. R. Bourke. 

era* Aaaociation. . ( Mr. £. J. Hammond. 
n Walworth Literary ( Mr. J. S. Noldwritt. 

and Scientific [ Bir. R. Strong, J.P. 

Institution ( Mr. F. Wood. 

tTatfoid Public Libiary .... Rev. Newton Price. 
^ ( Mr. T. S. Curtis. 



The Educational Officer (Mr. C. Critchett) read 
his Report to the Council, as follows : — 

To the Council of the Society for the Encouragement 
of Arts, Manufactures f and Commerce, 

Gektlembn, — It again becomes my duty, as the 
officer of the Society entrusted with the Educa- 
tional Department, to submit to the CouncO, for 
the information of the Conference, an account of 
its proceedings in connection with education dur- 
inff^the past year. 

X on will, no doubt, remember that when I had 
the pleasure of appearing before you last year, it 
was my duty to speak of a very important, but 
rather discouraging announcement, to the effect 
that the Coundlhad then decided to discontinue 
the annual examinations, which have been carried 
for no less than eighteen years. In the Journal 
for the 29th December, 1871, this paragraph 
appeared : — 

** The Council have pasaed the following recolntion : — 
* That the time has now arrived when the present system of 
examinations ia no longer necesaary, and that the encourage- 
ment of particular Bubjects, hearing efipecially on Arts. 
Manufactures, and Commerce, should be promoted by apecial 
meana.* It will therefore be seen that, after the next exami- 
nationa, to be held in April, 1872, the present ayaton will- 
ceaae." 

The announcement of the discontinuance of the 
examinations produced, as was not imnatural, 
considerable discouragement amongst the teachers 
and students, who, for years past, had looked to 
the certificates and prizes of the Society of Arts 
as their most powerful stimulus to exertion, 
and from various large and influential institutions, 
especially in the manufacturing districts and in 
London, the Council received memorials expres- 
sive of the very strong desire of the managers 
that the old examinations, to which they had been 
so long accustomed, should be continued. 

The Council, therefore, instructed me to inquire 
how far the eround occupied by our examina- 
tions might be truly said to be covered by 
those of other public bodies, and I found, upon 
closely investigating the conditions upon which 
the Universities and the Science and Ajt Depeoi- 
ment, as well as other bodies, carried out their 
respective systems, that, after all, their examina- 
tions did not, to any great extent, reach the class 
of students for whom ours were established. The 
Council, therefore, in deference to the strongly 
expressed wish above referred to, determined to 
rescind the resolution for the discontinuance of 
the examinations, but this decision was not arrived 
at till late in the year, and it was not till the 18th 
of October last that the following notice appeared 
in the Journal : — 

** In acoordanee with the report of a Committee appointed 
to consider tbe propriety of rescinding the resolntion for 
disoontinning the examinationa, the Council have decided 
to continue them in the following aubjocta, for the year 
1873 :— 

French, including Commer- 
cial French. 

German, including Commer- 
cial German. 

Italian. 

Spaniah. 

Theory of Muaic. 



Arithmetic. 

Book-keeping. 

Floriculture. 

Fruit and Vegetable Culture. 

Logic. 

Political Economy. 

Engliah History. 

Engliah Language. 

*< It will be aeen that several of the subjects hi which 
examinations ware held this year have been omitted, and 



636 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. July 4 1873. 



French and Commercial Frenoh have been combined, as 
aa Oerman and Cummercial German." 



reU 



The fact of this announoement appearing so late 
October last naturally had a tendency to 



as in 

diminish the number of candidates. Many of the 
Institution classes must have been for a time 
carried on under the impression that the acquire- 
ments of the students would not be tested this 
year in the usual manner; moreover, six subjects 
— The Metrical System* Mensuration. Domestic 
Economy, Geography, Latin, and Elementary 
Musical Composition, were removed from the list. 
Taking all tms into consideration, it may be said 
that the diminution in the numbers this year, as 
compared with last, is but insignificant. The 
tables show that, in 1872 there were 1,198 
examined, of whom 972 passed, while in 1878 there 
were 1,052 examined, of whom 880 obtained cer- 
tificates, and thus the proportion of those who have 
succeeded in obtaining certificates is greater this 
year than last, when only 81 per cent, were suc- 
cessful, while on the present ooocwion rather more 
than 83 per cent, have been so. 43 prizes have 
been given this year out of 51 offered, while last 
year uiere were 55 awarded out of 79 offered, the 
proportion being higher this year, compared with 
last year. 

The number of papers worked this year was only 
1,359, as against 1,689 last year, the number of 
those for which certiticates were given being re- 
spectively 1,087 and 1,327. In estimating the 
significance of these figures we ought, of course, 
to allow for the necessary diminution caused by 

the omission of the six subjects just referred to. ! there were 605 this year against 460 ]t%st Tt«r. aod 
The number of papers worfced last year in these in the lower grade 1,640 against 1,605. the total 
subjects was 302, and if this be added to 1,559 the increase being 180. 

sum is 1,661, or only 28 less than last year, a con- i Having now reported upon what it will ia 
dusive proof, as it appears to me, that there is no future be necessary to call, for the sake of iii»- 
lalling-off in the interest with which these exami- tinction, the Society^s General Examinations, I past 
nations are regarded by the class of students for to the new system carried out this year for the fini 
whom they were established. Indeed, considering time — the Technological Examinations, 
the discouragement and doubt that the announce- { Many of those present will romeuiber that the 
xnent of their intended cessation would be apt to conference last year was specially orgnmned fa 
produce, it is wonderful that so large a number of discussing this subject, and that H.H.H. Ptinee 
candidates have appeared this year. | Arthur honoured the Society by pre^sidiiig. On 

The Prince Consort's prize of twenty-five guineas this occasion the Council put forward the oatKne 
has been awarded to Thomas Richard Clarke, now of a scheme for these examinations, proposetl bj 
of the Birkbeck Institution, cuid formerly of the one of their members. Major DcHinelly, B.E., 
Salford Working Men's College, who has gained and this was. afterwards elaborated and pnblisbed 
eight first-class certificates, aJud six priz<^8, in the ' as a programme, which is probably familiar to 



scholarship of £25, tenable for one year, to the 
best female candidate in the Society's General 
Examinations, it being a condition that she f^uUl 
be in training as a teacher, and that she consent to 
pursue her studies for six months at some place of 
6up>erior instruction in the United Kingdom or 
abroad approved by the National Union. I am in 
communication with the National Union in re- 
ference to the award of this scholarship. 

It is to be regretted that the rira voee examina- 
tions in modem languages, sugjirested by a mem- 
ber of the Council, Mr. Hyde Clarke, have never 
been taken up to any considerable extent by the 
Institutions, for with the present greatly increased 
facilities of intercommunication with forei^ 
countries, and the value attached in many parts 
of the world to English workim^n, the advanta^ 
of such a system seem unquestionable. This year, 
however, these examinations have been held at 
two Institutions, and five candidates have ob- 
tained certificates, a larger number than on any 
former oooasion. 

The prizes for writing from dictation, for writing 
and manuscript printing, and for the beet spe- 
cimens of handwriting, as shown in the papers 
generally, have all been awarded, and the rpport 
of the examiner this year is the most favoonblA 
that has yet been given. 

It appears from the table, p. 637, which shorn 
the result of the Elementary Examinatioiu held 
by the local boards, the papers being fiimiahed by 
the Society, that there has been a lar^re iimvaae 
in the number of candidates. In the higher grade 



last four years. It is remarkable that last year 
this prise was gained by a candidate from the 
Salford Working Men's College. 

I have again to express regret that neither this 
yearnor in the three preceding ones have the Council 
Deen able to award the prise of ten guineas offered 
to females, no qualified candidate having fulfilled 
the conditions, but out of the nine ot^er prizes 
offered specially to females thxee have been taken. 
I may mention that tJie first prise in Political 
Economy is this year taken by a female, an 
upholstress. There were fifty-two females who 
gained certificates. 

I may here draw attention to an announcement 
which appeared in the Journal for the 4th April 
last, that the National Union for Improving the 
Education of Women of all Classes,* a society of 
which her Royal Highness the Prinoees Louise 



most of those present. 

The object of this system is, as stated in the 
Council's report read at the last conf*'ren<v*, *'lo 
supplement the existing examinations of theSci<'iN» 
and Art Department, by organising examinaticatf 
in the soienoe and teclmology of the various arts 
and manufactures of this country, to Ik* comJueted 
by examiners capable of testing the practical know- 
ledge and skill required in the application of the 
scientific principles involved in ea!ch art or manu- 
facture.'* 

In order that a skilled artisnn may really woric 
intelligently at his craft, it is absolutely necrswry 
that he should be acquainted with at least the out- 
lines of the sciences bearing upon it. With this 
viei^ , it will be seen that the main ieatur^ of theme 
examinations is their three-fold charactc'r. In the 
first place, the candidate must prove that he 



yjtLaromoness of Lome) is president, has offered a possesses * * snob an elementary kiiow]ed|pe, at lertt, 
• 0(Boet6i,j3iflMM-«trMt,.Lowion.a.w. ] ^^ ahstract sdence as will enable him thotoogbly 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ABT8, Juur 4.. 1B78. 



•f7 



ELEBCENTABY EXAHINATXUNH, 1>^ 






1 


HIQBflB 


eaADA 


liOWBROBAIUL 


K4MB or BQABIK 


Halm. 


If^iU-S. 


Maus. 






Eza- 

tnifipd 


PMsed. 


Esca- 

mined. 


PasMd. 


Exa- 
mined. 


FkwHd. 


Exa- 
mined. 










A]<Wfhol fiiid PMinhain l^iBtriot 


46 
14 


68 

18 

281 

8 

• • 
88 

• • 
9 

216 


56 

11 

127 

4 

• • 
19 

• • 
4 

102 


8 

12 

6 

• • 
4 

• • 
8 

• • 

• • 


8 

9 
8 

• • 
2 

• • 

• • 

• • 


88 

106 

912 

24 

6 

28 

• • 

18 

78 


87 

74 

399 

U 

2 

10 

• • 

1 

27 


29 

28 
304. 

• • 
7 

12 
6 

• • 
6 


29 


Henford 


19 


Linctshire and Cheihirff Unioii of Institutions.. . 

L»ili Tonoff M«n*s Christian Association 

Urhfield 


174 

• » 


%a Q « « 


10 


Bitfb? 


4 


Wt-ttoO'Sa per- Hare 




Torluhire Uoion oi Institolas 


, 1 




\ 


Totals 


67 


578 


323 


27 


17 


1249 


611 


891 


MO 



















lo Qsderstsnd the soicRitifto prinoiples of wfaioh his 
irt or manofaetore is an axyplioalaoii ; and, in Hm 
leoood place, he must show snoh a Imowledge of 
tiie appUeation of those pnneiples in his trade as 
will uiow that he is x>raotioaliy oonTersant with 
ttie Tsrions pmoesses and manipulations of the 
liMAory or workshop.** In the third pUoe, in order 
to obtain a oertifioate he must send in a form, 
Krtified by his employer, showing that he is, and 
bst been for some time, employed in his trade ; 
tbst if, he most be a real workman* not an amateur. 

The scheme having received the cordial approval 
ot last yearns oonferenoe, the Oonncil decided to 
bold the Tet^mological Bxaminations this year 
ior the first time, and the following five subjects 
w«rediosen for the inauguration of the system: — 
Cotton, Paper, Silk, Steel, and Carriage-building. 

In the year 1856, when the Society's General 
^Uddnations were held for the first time, six can- 
^ki<i*^tos appeared, while in the year 1869, the last 
ooca^km on which all the subjects were retained, 
tbenmnber was 2,100. It is remarkable that this 
f^^ the first in which the Technological Exami- 
DftioQs have been held, exactly the same number, 
tiL, Bz candidates, have app'^ared. The number 
B^ DO doubt, small, and may not at first sight ap- 
pear enoouraj^ing, but when we remember what a 
nxapleie novelty Examinations in Technology are ; 
huw little thoiie intending to become candidates 
ooold judge of the nature of the questions that 
iD^bt be put to them, and moreover when we 
ooosder how extremely difficult it is to make such 
ft fiystem public amongst the men likely to avail 
tbemselves of it, I tUnk the Council may rest 
■ftti'ified with this small beg^inning, in the hope 
tbat in a few years the numbers may increase 
inuiy hundredfold, as was the case with the Gbne- 
>il Etaminations. 

In only three out of the five subjects I have 
isentioned did candidates appear, and, as the results 
^the science examinations of the Science and Art 
apartment are not yet known, I am unable to say 
^ present whether these candidates have entitled 
tbeinselves to certificates. I do not, therefore, in 
^ report give ihtar names, but I thii^ it will 
'^t^'est the conf erenoe to quote the substance of 
the examiners' reports on tl^ teobnologioal papers. 

Mr. John Gheetham, examiBer in the ootton 



manuf actore^ says of the one paper submitted to 

him: — 

** Only one candidate has come forward in Cotton Mann* 
factore. His paper, howeTer, is a very aatisfactory one. 
He has paiMKd an excellent examination in the snbjeo^ 
evidencing, in some of bis replies, an amount of praetioai 
knowledge and a famiHarity with mechamoal details whioh^ 
with bin skill as a drM^rbtman, woald have insliied hisa 
in oompsting for the 'Advanoed,* instead of the ^Elementary* 
giade.^ 

Neither in paper manufacture nor in silk did any 
candidates appear. I may, however, mention that 
the gentlemen who undertook to set papers in 
these subjects were, for paper, Mr. Bichard Herring 
and tor silk, Mr. Francis Cobb. In steel manu* 
faeture, including cutting and edge tools, two 
candidates came forward, and the report of the 
examiner, Mr. John Anderson, of the Koyal 
Arsenal, Woolwich, is as Allows : — 

** I haye gone oarsfally nvw the papers on ' Steel Manrn^ 
factnre,' and my only regret is that there are so few of thei% 
ft»r those sabinitted are very superior, and are probably as 
iroiid as may be expected from students of this class, the 
papers being written in the short spac'O of three hours. 

'* B«ith papers are written by practical enprineert, and in 
addition Ut their engineering knowledge of the steel anbjeol^ 
they have evidently been rending np the mitre reoent books on 
steel and materials, and one of them more especially 
seems t*> be fairly acquainted with the opinions expressed at 
the recent meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute. 

** It is scarcely ponsible to draw a distinct line be t wee a 
that which is the real Helf-ecqaired knowledii^ of a student 
upon any sabjeet, and that ephemeral sort of knowledge 
whioh is the result of mere cram for the occasion ; it is there- 
fore ne<««sary, in the absence of sny other test, simply to 
take the papers ait they are here submitted, and be guided 
by the written answers. 

*< As both of these |»pers are for * Hononn,' there la 
no difficulty in drmwinir a comparison between them; for» 
although bi»th are i^i« id, still one of them is oonsiderably mors 
perfect than the other.*' 

In the subject of carriage building, there were 
three candidates, of whom Mr. George K. Hooper, 
the examiner, says : — 

"The papers sent in are all highly oredltab te to tte 
writers, and venr enooarairioir to tho«»e who have propoeed» 
and have, thus far. worked out the subject of teohnolugyia 
connection with Britinh mtnufactures. 

** The oandidttes have on this oooai*ion only answered the 
elementary questions. However, I rarn^t candidly say that 
I am convinced there are large numbers of yonng men en- 
gaged in the carriage manoiaoture who could have an- 
swered Ike qnestions q^iks se weU if they would hr 



638 



JOUnVAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 4, 1878. 



taken the trouble to try, or, I maj even say, had they 
known anythiof? about Bu<'h ezaminatiutiB beioit held. 

« Many capitaliata and manufactartira are not only will- 
iBfC bat eagor to find iutelligent managf ra, foremen, aMi'st- 
anU, who, if they puaaeased industry, pereeveranoe, and a 
desire to please would be well paid, and have means of 
material as well as s«»cial advanceuieut. 

'|If the most intelliKeiit of the rising frenivation of 
artiaans will but apply their best faculties to their daily oc- 
cupation, they will find openiogs not only ready but wait. 
ing for tnem to oocupy. 

^* On one aspect of these examinations I must, however, issue 
a warning. It has been found that m>iiie wiuoers of prizes 
at workmen's exhibitions have hnd their beads so turned by 
a first success that this hHM injured their future prospects. 
If, however, a first success is fullowed up with patient in- 
dustry and moderation, the examinations can have but bene- 
ficial effecta." 

These reports cannot but be encouraging to the 
candidates and to the Council. It is satisfactory 
ta find that on this first occiision no candidate has 
iailed, and that the examiners are able to speak in 
high terms of the technological papers. It is 
earnestly to be hoped that none of these candidates 
will have failed in the science subjects, as, should 
they have done so, they will not, according to the 
regulations of the examination, be entitled to 
certificates. 

One of the principal objects of the conference 
held last year was to endeavour to enlist the aid of 
other public bodies, notably of the ancient and 

Sowernil City companies, or Trade Guilds, of Lon- 
on in this undertaking. It was known that many 
— though not all — of these companies possessed 
large revenues, and it had been observed, especially 
of late years, that most laudable anxiety had been 
shown by those to whom the responsibility of ad- 
ministering these revenues had been committed, 
that they snould be made use of, to a considerable 
extent, for the public advantage, emd particularly 
for encouraging, in some mode, the trade or cra/t 
which was now, or had been at some recent 
period, the occupation of most of the members.* 
Under these circumstances, and knowing the ear- 
nest desire felt by the courts of some of these 
companies to use the wealth committed to them 
for really laudable objects, and not to squander it, 
AB had been too often done in former and unen- 
lightened times, in useless if not injurious charities, 
the Council made an appeal to these guilds to aid 
them in this undertaking. I cannot but feel that, 
considering that the whole system is new, and that 
notwithstanding every eflfort to make it public, it 
is as yet but little known ; that, moreover, it is, or 
was till recently, perfectly imtried, and that conse- 
quently its success had not been assured — I say, 
considering all these circumstances, I think the 
City Companies have, on the whole, very 
fairly responded to the appeal made to them. 
The Fishmongers* Company, always amongst 
the first in every truly liberal undertaking, has 

S'ven us a donation of fifty guineas, and the Mercers, 
rapers. Vintners, Baiters, Coach Makers, Spec- 
tacle-Makers, and Cloth-Workers have all given 
contributions. The last named company, the Cloth- 
workers, have it in contemplation to take a much 
more important step and to establish scholarships 
in their own branch of manufacture, but as the de- 



* A.^ '"l Instance of thi» may be mentioned the course ef lectures 
gcenU y delivered under the auspices of the Sta I, ners' Comimny, by 

?Hnt?nl tv^.^l'^« " ''"^ ^^^ ^^''- '^^<»»"'' K'eJf- on the arts of 

^ i^SS^atoJ^SSil'lf '^ ^•^-'" 'ngravlngtsnd wood-cnttlnff. 

ae aenumi tor UekeU was so freat tliat tht Iscturqe wen rspeated 



tails have not yet been settled I am unable to say 
exactly what will be done ; but I believe it has 
been determined that the Society's Tedmologioa] 
Examinations shall be made use of as the meam of 
deciding upon the merits of the respective candi- 
dates for these scholarships. 

Her Majesty's Commisioners for the Exhibi- 
tion of 1851, in a letter to Major Don- 
nelly, say that, ** with the view of encourag- 
ing persons to present themselves for the ex- 
aminations in technology, which have recently 
been established by the Society of Arts, they have 
resolved to offer to grant three studentships, of 
fifty pounds each, to be awarded to thepersonB 
who shall distinguish themselves the most in the 
subjects of steel, silk, and carriages respectiTelyat 
the examinations in the present year. These 
scholarships are to be awarded on condition that 
the recipients go for a year to some place of sciai- 
tific instruction, such as the Hoyal School of 3(ines, 
the Royal CoUege of Science in Dubhn, Owens 
College, Manchester, or the English, Scotch, or 
Irish Universities, or other school approved by her 
Majesty's Commissioners, or travel abroad for the 
purpose of improving themselves in their trades." 
Such rewards as these will be a real encourage- 
ment to students, and it is hoped that when the 
other great trade guilds, who have already shown 
their willingness to aid the Society in this move- 
ment, really understand its character and appreciate 
the very great advantages it is likely to confer 
upon the arts and manufactures of this ctmirj, 
they also will follow tho example of her Majesty's 
Commissioners and of the Cloth workers' Coinpiny, 
and aid the Society in establishing scholarships. 
Indeed, I have no doubt that should any pnU« 
body or individual decide to give prizes or schola^ 
ships in any particular branch of manufacture, the 
Council of tihe Society would at once add that 
subject to its programme. 

I must not bmit to mention the liberal manner 
in which several individual members x>f the Society. 
whose names have been announced in the Joumol, 
have come forward in aid of tins scheme, and witt 
such a splendid example before them as that of Sff 
Joseph Whitworth, who by tho establishment of 
the scholarships called after his name has done so 
much to encourage technical education, I cannot 
but hope that other wealthy and liberal men may 
be led to encourage these Technological Examma- 
tions by endowments of a similar kind. 

In conclusion, I may annoimoe that it is the 
intention of the Society to continue the same fi^ 
subjects next year, with the addition of some othcrj 
which have not yet been decided upon. 
I have the honour to be, Centlemen, 
Your obedient servant, 
Charles CRircHErr, 

Appekdix. 
EXAMINERS* REMABK& 

The Examiner in AHthmetie says:— "Asa whole the 
papers very much resemble those of previoo* t**'*- 
Some of them are exceedingly well done ; most of tjifffl 
exhibit a fair acquaintance with the subject; whii« * 
few are quite below par both in theory ana practiw. 

The Examiner in Bo^k^fmpinff says;— "The pap«« 
are of more than average merit.'* 

The Examiner in /ZM-wn/Zifrfstyi:— "Tbew isnothinf 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 4, 1878. 



TABLE I. 



639 



RESULTS OF THE GENERAL EXAMINATIONS OF 1873. 



NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. 



Aberdeen ... 

AciTiii^ton ... 

A Identhot and Parnham. . . 

Arbroath 

Ashhy-de-la-ZuQch 

Ashford 



••• 

• •• 



Bacup 

Biruilngham... 

Blackhuru ... 

Bl^ndford 

Bolton Church Institute 

„ Mecbantcs' lostitatlon 
Bow and Kromley 
Bradford 
Bronile7(Rent) 
BrOTu^provQ ... 
Bamley Mwduukioa* lostitotioa 

Carlisle 
Chorley 

Orewo «•« *.. 

Derby ... ... 

Deronport ... ... 

Dudley 

Daudee ... ... 

Edinburgh ... ,— 

FreetoiTD 



OLasgow Aoderannlan Unirenity ... 



... 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... 

... 

... 
... 



M 



A'h»fo«am 



„ Mecha ica* Institution ... 

H^Hfj^g Medianies* Instltatlon 

„ Working Meo't College ... 
Hertford 
Hiichin 
Boddersficld 
Bail Church lostitnte ... 

„ Young People's Institute 
Hyde 

Ipsivich 



• •• 

• • • 

■ • • 
«■• 
••• 

• «• 



Kaodal 
Ring's Lynn... 



• •• 
••• 






• •• 

• •• 



• •• 

••• 



• •• 



Leeds Church Institute ... 

». TouDg Men's Christian Association 
Letcestar • ... 
Llctifield 
LJTcr|*>»l 
Lo kwood 

LiOiMloti, Blrkbeck Literary and Scientific 

Institution 

,, City of London Colle 'e .. 

,, Royal Poly tech ic Institution 

^ St. ^tephen's ( Westminster) Erening 

Schools 
^ Tonic !k>l-fa Teachers' Association . 
Walworth LIt«rary and Scientific 
Institution ... ... ••• 



»» 



Mjusehe^ter ... 
iley 



Newoastle-oa-Tyne Church Institute 
OMTtaip ... ••• »— 



Paalftley 

Parsnnstown 
Pembroke Dock 
P«n«»nc« 
Preston 









Bldunond 






• •• 

• •• 

••• 



oBMS 
2 



60 

• •• 

26 
7 

14 
11 

40 
34 

4 



IS 
6 
7 



25 

3 

20 

4 
9 
2 



30 
60 
61 

8 
26 

7 

1 

12 
30 
60 

6 

8 



32 

• •• 

2 

26 

1 

99 
68 
16 

18 
20 



100 
19 

3 

7 

6 

3 

12 

6 




I 



38 

• •• 

26 
7 

14 
11 

36 
26 

4 



13 

4 
6 



21 

3 

12 

4 
9 
2 



26 
49 
49 

8 

21 

6 

1 

7 

24 

47 

6 



20 

• •• 

2 

25 

1 

88 
64 
16 

17 
20 



90 
18 

3 

7 

6 

3 

12 

6 



39 
3 

15 
7 

13 

11 

17 
27 
2 
I 
6 
14 
4 
6 
1 

a 
1 

26 

1 

2 

3 

6 

2 

30 



36 
46 
40 

7 

22 

6 

1 

8 

18 

39 

6 

12 

6 

4 

7 
23 
10 

1 
21 

4 

76 
90 
31 

23 

8 



94 
9 

10 

7 

8 
4 
6 
6 
1 

4 

a 



30 
2 

13 
7 
8 

11 

14 

24 

2 

• « • 

4 
7 
3 
6 
1 
1 
1 

26 
1 
1 

3 

6 

2 

21 



33 
38 
30 

6 

20 
6 
1 
3 
17 
33 
4 

12 

6 

4 

7 
16 

3 

1 
SO 

2 

68 
81 
30 

19 
8 



80 
9 

9 

7 

8 
4 
6 
6 



4 

a 



39 
3 

28 
7 

13 

17 

20 
36 
2 
I 
7 
28 
4 
9 
1 

a 

2 

32 
1 
3 

4 

7 

4 

36 

6 

2 

38 
64 
42 

10 
34 
11 

1 
12 
18 
42 

7 

12 

6 

4 

7 
38 
13 

2 
31 

8 

100 

1.24 

41 

36 

8 



136 
12 

14 

10 

9 
4 
6 
14 
1 

8 



I 

6 



3 
1 
6 

1 

• •• 

8 

1 

10 

1 



2 
1 



••• 



• •• 

• •• 



6 

a 



6 
6 

4 



1 
1 
14 
9 
1 



1 
I 

4 
6 
1 



26 

37 

6 



44 

3 



3 
1 

2 
4 



1 
1 



U 

"3 

e 



10 
1 
8 
3 
3 
6 

2 
9 
1 

4 
2 



14 

1 



a 
a 
1 

8 



22 
16 
13 

3 

10 

2 

• • • 

a 
1 

16 
3 

8 

a 

a 

a 

6 

• •• 

a 

14 
1 

34 
43 

la 

9 
3 



28 
3 



4 
1 

4 



4 
1 



17 

8 
3 
6 

3 

13 
12 



2 
8 
8 
2 



11 

* • » 

1 

2 
1 
1 

11 

3 

1 

8 
26 
16 

3 

16 

6 

... 
2 
2 
9 

a 



2 
1 

. .1 
9 
4 

• • ■ 

9 
1 

28 
32 
20 

15 

6 



35 
6 

3 

2 
2 

7 

*.• 

3 



111 
« 



6 






• •• 

••• 
••• 

• •• 

••a 

1 



• •• 

• •• 



3 

... 



... 
... 



... 
1 



13 
8 
2 






9 
1 
2 

6 



1 
1 

y 



••• 



1 

3 
10 

a 
a 
1 



I 



..• 
•«• 

7 

7 

1 

a 

8 
9 
1 



14 



I 



a*« 

• •• 

1 
1 

•*• 



688 



JOUK^AL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Juw i, 1873. 



taken the trouble to try, or, I may even say, had they 
known anytbiofr about aach pxaminatiuna beiofe held. 

"Many capitaliata and manufactaivn are not only w!11- 
ing bat ea^r tu find iutelligent niauagf rs, foremen, aMist- 
anta, who, if they poaacaaed induftry, piraeveranoe, and a 
deeire to please wuuld be well paid, and have means of 
material as well as Sdcial advanct-Dieut. 

'* If the must intelliirebt of the rising frenf^ration of 
artiaans will bat apply their best faculties to their daily oc- 
cupation, they will find openiugs nut only ready but wait. 
iskg for tnem to oampy. 

"'^ On one aspect of these examinations I must, however, issue 
a warning. It has been fouiid that itonie winners of priz^ 
at workmen's exhibitions have hud their beads so turned by 
a first success that this baa injured their futnre proitpects. 
If, however, a first success is fulluwed up with patient in- 
dtistry and moderation, the examinations can have but bene- 
ficial effects." 

These reports cannot but be encouraging to the 
candidates and to the Council. It is satisfactory 
ta find that on this first occasion no candidate has 
failed, and that the examiners are able to speak in 
high terms of the technological papers. It is 
earnestly to be hoped that none of these candidates 
will have failed in the science subjects, as, should 
they have done so, they will not, according to the 
regulations of the examination, be entitled to 
certificates. 

One of the principal objects of the conference 
held last year was to endeavour to enlist the aid of 
other public bodies, notably of the ancient and 

Sowerml City companies, or Trade Guilds, of Ixm- 
on in this undertaking. It was known that many 
— though not all — of these companies possessed 
large revenues, and it had been observed, especially 
of late years, that most laudable anxiety had been 
shown hy those to whom the responsibility of ad- 
ministering these revenues had been committed, 
that they should be made use of, to a considerable 
extent, for the public advantage, and particularly 
for encouraging, in some mode, the trade or craft 
which was now, or had been at some recent 
period, the occupation of most of the members.* 
Under these circumstances, and knowing the ear- 
nest desire felt by the courts of some of these 
companies to use the wealth committed to them 
for really laudable objects, and not to squander it, 
•as had been too often done in former and unen- 
lightened times, in useless if not injurious charities, 
the Council made an appeal to these guilds to aid 
them in this undertaking. I cannot but feel that, 
considering that the whole system is new, and that 
notwithstanding every eflfort to make it public, it 
is as yet but little known ; that, moreover, it is, or 
was till recently, perfectly imtried, and that conse- 
quently its success had not been assured — I say, 
considering all these circumstances, I think the 
City Companies have, on the whole, very 
fairly responded to the appeal made to them. 
The Fishmongers* Company, always amongst 
the first in every truly Hberal imdertaking, has 

SVen us a donation of fifty guineas, and the Mercers, 
rapers. Vintners, Salters, Coach Makers, Spec- 
tacle-Makers, and Cloth- Workers have all given 
contributions. The last named company, the Cloth- 
workers, have it in contemplation to take a much 
more important step and to establish scholarships 
in their own branch of manufacture, but as the de- 



,J Ai^ *". '"***»«« of thift may be mentioned the course ef lectures 
lS?'"pi?i- l^'^t!;!**.^"'^'''' '*»? a«apice» of the Sta I- ners' Company, by 
^lnt?,i^^^.%;^e^^^^ thJ ari:» o'f 

eU WM so great ihst the Icoturqs wen repeated 



tails have not yet been settled I am unable to ny 
exactly what will be done ; but I believe it hu 
been determined that the Society's Tedmologica] 
Examinations shall be made use of as the means of 
deciding upon the merits of the respective candi* 
dates for these scholarships. 

Her Majesty's Commisionai for the Exhibi- 
tion of 1851, in a letter to Major Don- 
nelly, say that, *' with the view of encoorag- 
ing persons to present themselves for the a- 
aminations in technology, which have reoently 
been established by the Society of Arts, tkj hare 
resolved to offer to grant three stodentshipi, d 
fifty poimds each, to be awarded to the penom 
who shall distinguish themselves the most io the 
subjects of steel, silk, and carriages respectiTelyst 
the examinations in the present year. These 
scholarships are to be awarded on conditioii that 
the recipients go for a year to some place of scien- 
tific instruction, such as the Boy al Sdioolof^Gses, 
the Royal College of Science in Dublin, Owms 
College, Manchester, or the English, Scotch, or 
Irish Universities, or other school approved by her 
Majesty's Commissioners, or travel ahroad for the 
purpose of improving themselves in tbeir tnde«,'' 

Such rewards as these will be a real eDCOuige- 
ment to students, and it is hoped that whai the 
other great trade guilds, who have already djown 
their willingness to aid the Society in this more- 
ment, really understand its character and appredftte 
the very great advantages it is likely to oanier 
upon the arts and manufactures of this country, 
they also will follow the example of her lUjeity't 
Commissioners and of the Cloth workers' Companj, 
and aid the Society in establishing schoUrships. 
Indeed, I have no doubt that should anyimhlic 
body or individual decide to give prises or tMiS' 
ships in any particular branch of manufacture, the 
Council of the Society would at once sdd that 
subject to its programme. 

I must not bmit to mention the liberal manotr 
in which several individual members x>i the Society. 
whose names have been announced in the t/ocnw. 
have come forward in aid of this scheme, and wi^ 
such a splendid example before them as that of Sir 
Joseph Whit worth, who by the estahUshment of 
the scholarships called after his name has done so 
much to encourage technical education, I cannot 
but hope that other wealthy and Hberal men may 
be led to encourage these Technological Exanffl*- 
tions by endowments of a similar land. 

In conclusion, I may announce that it is u^« 
intention of the Society to continue the same tiTt 
subjects next year, with the addition of some othm 
which have not yet been decided upon. 
I have the honour to be. Gentlemen, 
Your obedient servant, 
Charles Cbitchett, 

Appehdix. 
EXAMINEKS* REMARKS. 

The Examiner in AHthmetic says:— "As a whok tM 
papers very much resemble those of pppTioai y*^ 
Some of them are exceedingly well done ; moat of thfO. 
exhibit a fair acquaintance with the aubjtct; whifc « 
few are quite below par both in theory and jjrtcUoe. 

The Examiner in Awit-*«fjW>if 8ay«:-**The pi]*" 
are of more than average merit** 

The Examiner in JWwii/liir#sayt:— "Tliero iiDrthmsf 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 4, 1878. 



639 



TABLE I. 
RESULTS OF THE GENERAL EXAMINATIONS OP 1873. 



SAME OF LOCAL BOARD. 



A,bcni(fQ ... ... 

ACT"tftOO ... ... 

A^ld«>b(>t«iKl Funkam... 
AiWml 



• •• 



Bk«p 

Biri.iiifhtm.» 
Blkckbaro ... 
BUtolf.rd ... 
haitja Oxmb Imtltnte 

H MrcluiUoi' InsUtatlon 
Bo« and Krooiky 
Badfi<^ 
BfMDley(Keiit) 

imkj Madunioi* lostitation 



••• 
••• 



CwOsU 

Cttw« 

Dfrby 
I>p»ooport 

DoUee 



• •• 

••• 



••• 



• «• 



S*"bwfh ... ... 

f^wt<*wn ... ... 

Qwgow AndtnnfDtui UolTenity ... 
n Atb*!iwoni 
» Mcdtt ki* Institation ... 

Haaiu X«dttni4»' InsUtation ... 

„ V WorUiur Meo*t CoUmo ... 

5«M .- ... ... 

Bitctib 

Bail Church IntUtate ... 
n Toouf F«>pl«*t IiuUiute 

* ••• ••• ••• 

pnleh 

•^ ^^ ••• ... ... 

. ••• ••• ••• 



• •• 



• •• 

• •• 



••• 



••• 
• •• 



■*«JiCharchInftitute... 
■t YottPg Mea't ChrtatUn AnooUtion 

* ••. ... 

■ ■ •»• ••• 

«o k«ood 

^*i«, BIrkbeck Literary and Hdentlfic 
lostitation 

City of London CoUe '0 .. 
n Royal Polyteoh lo ImUtation 

8t ^t0phen'• ( Westminster) Evening 
Schoola 
• Tonic ^I-Ca Teachers* Association . 
D Wftlworth Library and Scientific 
Institution ... 



M«l»wt<r ... 



... 



^•ewtl«-oa-Tyo« Chnrcfa Tnstitate 

llhUQ 

" M. ... ..• 

'j .•• ... .•• 



idlBJonri 



••• 



ail 

ofiMPQ 



66 

• •• 

26 

t 

14 

11 

40 
34 

4 



IS 
6 
1 



26 

3 

20 

4 
9 
2 



30 
60 
61 

8 
26 

7 

1 

12 
30 
60 

6 

8 



32 

• •• 

2 

26 

1 

99 
68 
16 

18 
20 



100 
19 

3 

t 

6 

3 

12 

6 




38 

• •• 

26 
7 

14 
11 

36 
26 

4 



13 

4 
6 



21 

3 

12 

4 
9 
2 



26 
49 

49 

8 

21 

6 

1 

7 

24 

47 

6 



20 

• •• 

2 

26 

1 

88 
64 
16 

17 
20 



90 
18 



6 

3 

12 

6 



39 
3 

16 
7 

13 

11 

17 
27 
2 
1 
6 
14 
4 
6 
1 

a 
1 

26 

1 
2 

3 

6 

2 

30 



36 
46 
40 

7 

23 

6 

1 

8 
18 
39 

6 

12 

6 

4 

7 
23 
10 

1 

21 

4 

76 
90 
31 

23 

8 



94 
9 

10 

7 

8 
4 
6 
6 
1 

4 
2 



30 

2 

13 

7 

8 

11 

14 
24 



4 
7 
3 
6 
1 
1 
1 

26 
1 
1 

3 

6 

2 

21 



33 

38 
30 

6 

20 
6 
1 
3 
17 
33 
4 

12 

6 

4 

7 

16 
3 
1 



68 
81 

:io 

19 
8 



80 
9 

9 

7 

8 
4 
6 
6 



4 
2 



39 
3 

28 

7 

13 

17 

20 
36 
2 
1 
7 
28 
4 
9 
1 

a 

2 

32 
1 
3 

4 

7 

4 

36 



38 
64 
42 

10 
34 
11 

1 
12 
18 
42 

7 

12 

6 

4 

7 
38 
13 

2 
31 

8 

100 

VH 

41 

36 

8 



136 
12 

14 

10 

9 

4 

6 

14 

1 



8 

2 



t 


L 


1 


|1 




h 


•0 


e«i 


oS 


6 


e 


JC 


K . 


S 


10 


1 


1 


6 


8 


1 


3 


• •• 


3 


8 


6 


1 


a 


10 


9 


1 


1 


«•• 


• •• 


• •• 


4 


1 


a 


• •• 


••• 


2 


4 


1 


•«• 


• •• 


• «• 


••• 


1 


6 


14 


• •■ 


1 


• •« 


#•• 


• • • 


a 


4 


a 


••• 


1 


6 


8 


a 


1 


... 


• •• 


6 


22 


6 


16 


4 


13 


1 


3 


• « • 


10 


• •• 


2 


1 


• •• 


1 


a 


14 


1 


9 


16 


1 


3 


a 


8 


1 


a 


1 


a 


4 


a 


6 


6 


1 


«•• 


• •• 


a 


4 


14 


• •% 


1 


26 


S4 


37 


43 


6 


13 


2 


9 


••• 


3 


••• 


• •« 


44 


28 


3 


3 


3 


7 


... 


3 


3 


4 


1 


1 


a 


4 


4 


1 


« »• 


... 


1 


4 


I 


1 




17 

8 
3 
6 
3 

13 
12 



2 
8 
3 
2 

• • 

1 

• •• 

11 



2 

1 

1 

11 

3 

1 

8 
26 
16 

3 

16 

6 

••• 

2 
2 
9 

a 



2 
1 

1 
9 
4 

• • • 

9 
1 

28 
32 
20 

16 

6 



36 
6 

3 

a 
a 



3 



... 
... 



... 
... 
... 
... 
1 

• •« 

••• 



• •• 

••• 
••• 



••• 



••• 

••• 
••• 



13 

8 

a 



3 



6 

... 



1 
1 

y 
1 



... 

... 
... 



1 

3 
10 

a 
a 
I 



I 



... 



7 

7 

1 

a 

8 
9 
1 



14 



*•* 

... 

... 

1 

1 

•*• 
••• 



640 



JAFRNAL OF THE SOei BTT OF ABTB.Jm.T 4;H7<. 



TABLE l^OamaivMD). 



HAHK OF LOCAL BOARD. 



Dftlford ... ••• ... 

Biookport MeobanJoa' Initltottna ... 
Btookport Snnuay School improT«in«nt Sodety 
Btoarbrld^ ... ^ 

Bwiodon ••• ... ... 

Think •« 



Wakefield 

Watford 

York 



••• 



Totals 



1i 






^1^ 

m 



ill 



oBKoa 

z 



• •• 

38 



• •• 

t 
30 



IU4< 



4< 

30 









2 
31 

23 



1003« 



8t 

9 

15 

li 



16 

3 

13 

16 



2t 

T 
10 

3 
9 



1063 



2 
13 



880 



1 


^ 


II 


1 


1! 




i^ 


ts 


e« 


6^ 


6 


X. 


X 


90 


t 


12 


••« 


31 


•«• 


3 


• •• 


12 


3 


1 


1 


18 


3 


6 


1 


U 


• •• 


1ft 


4 


1369 


361 



k 

6 



1! 

4 



1 
1 



378 



U 
9 

10 
1 
4 



1 
3 
2 



448 



I. 

«. 
o 



43 



r 
u 
1 



m 



* These returns were iooomplete. 

Number of Local Boabo«, 73. 

N.6. — Seyentj-ziine CSandidatee came forward in Writing from Dictation^ and Thirteen in Writing ndi 
cript Printing, but, as Certificates are not given fur those subjects, they ar** not included in the abote Table, M 
ibe prises awarded in both these subjects^ and ah»o the prizes awarded by the Council lor Handwzitiiig gcocniifi 
are included in the list 



TABLE n. — NvMBBB ov Papbss Workbd in bach Subject in thb Four Last Teabs, with td 

Rekult pok the Year 1873. 



SUBJECTS. 



Arithmetic 

Hetrieal System 

Book-keeping 
' Mensuration 

Floriculture 

Fruit and Vegetable Cultsre 

Domestic £coDoaiy 
( Political Economy 

\ Ciyil Government 

Geography 

Engflish History . . 

English Literature 

English Language 

Logic 

Latin 
t i French . . 

\ Commercial French 
t ( German .. 

( Commercial German 

Italian 

Spanish . . 

Theory of Music 

Elementary Musical Composition 



Totals 



1870. 



601 

62 

290 

63 

9 

8 

13 

}"{ 

103 

120 

82 



16 

20 

145 

• • 

26 

• • 

3 
10 
72 
61 



1.609 



187L 



646 

30 

295 

74 

5 

6 

29 

31 

103 
106 

170 
23 
21 

158 
17 
26 
4 
3 
19 
87 
69 



1.811 



1872. 



431 

66 

254 

48 

6 

7 

13 
23 

• • 

91 
103 

• • 

174 
30 
16 

193 \ 

20 j 

48 1 

12/ 

3 

6 

109 
46 



1.689 



1873 



s 


1 


1 




38 


c 


^1 


ha 


2 


> 




« 

V 


» 


.u 




• 




91^ 


:z: 



430 
266 

• • 

9 
10 

• • 

28 

93 

183 
21 

• . 

177 

41 

2 

9 

93 



1.369 



66 

■ « 

119 

• • 

3 
2 



14 

4 

• . 

9 



1 

3 

23 



261 



114 

• • 

80 

• • 

4 
4 

• • 
12 

t • 

• • 

33 

• • 

61 
7 

* • 

24 

17 

1 

• . 
42 



378 



8 

o 



165 

• • 
« • 

1 
3 



n 

67 
6 

• « 

82 

12 

. • 

4 

20 



44^ 



I Ai* 

I IK 



«« 

10 

• • 

1 
J 

• • 
• • 

4 

• • 



s 



tn 



♦ These two sohjeoU were united In 1«70. 
t These twosuujvou were united this year. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jtot 4, 1878. 



641 



spf'cial in the pnpers this yeur. The greatt^t deficifnc\ 
is in the spelling of the naD>»8 of plttnts, and this 1 baye 
soticed ever fiiDce these fzamiDatioDS have bt^D g«*iiiu 
on, and I have referrt- d to it on previous occttsions. Orca- 
oiooally the candidates tail to catch the purport of the 
qaeation set, and in such cases, of course, the replies are 
wide of the mark." 

The Examiner in Fruit and Veg$tubU Culture says : — 
*'Tbe papi-is for this year are<»f amuch kighf^r stMiidard 
than utunl. The two sets which have obtained first 
olass ceitificates indicate much experience on the part 
of the candidates." 

The Examiner in PoUtieal Economy Bays, " that he 18 
desirous of expressing his opinion of the high merit ot 
Ills answering of the candidates obtaining firsUclass 
certificates, and of the creditable character of the tin- 
swering of the candidntes obtaining second- clans cer- 
tifi*ates. Much of the answering of thn candidates 
obtaining third-class certificates is not without merit." 

The Examiner in Englith HiMtory says : — " There is 
more than usual inequality in the ments of the pHpera. 
Those which have obtiuned the distinction of a fii^t 
class were ifood in all respects, and leave nothing to be 
desired in respect to accuracy, careful study, grammar, 
and, in many instances, excellent hand- writing. I am, 
kowever, si>ny' to say that u large number ot candidat* s 
have fiiiltd even to pass inconsequence of their very 
inaccurate spelling. I hod hopes, after the experience 
of the l'*st two years, that this defect would not have 
reappeHred as it has done on the present fK'casion. I 
think the attention of teachers should be culled to this 
point." 

The Examiner in ihe^£M^/i»A Lan§uage%tkjB : — ** Ibelit ve 
that the papers are more numerous than they hiive Injen 
in any former year; but a rather smaller proportion 
of them than usual reach a high standard of «xuellence, 
azid the number of failures is considerable. I may, how- 
ever, observe that in tho important matter of parsing 
there is a general improvement." 

The Examiner in Logic says : — '* Having regard to the 
length of time allowed for answering, I am very well 
ntiafied with a large proportion of the papeis Indeed, 
in some t^ses I am sarprised Ht the oonsiilerable know- 
led^*' shown, and cannot but think that the examinations 
mtwt be UM^ful in stimulating study. If I have any 
general observation to make, it is that students should give 
more attention to the practice of logical exercises, as 
recoQimended last year." 

The Examiner in Fr«neh, including Onmrnercial Cor^ 
n^totttUMce^ says: — *'The papers this year are on the 
whole Very 8atisfar;tory. Th< re are but few first-class 
ocrtificatea ; indeed, there is no candidate showing ex- 
ceptional powers; but the total number of certiticates 
awarded this year will, I think, be found to tio above 
the averaKe of previous years. One feature which I 
have noticed on former ocoHsionn, but which has struck 
me oMire forcibly this time, is that the best and the worht 
p«pers are found mostly in groups; showing that the 
individual aptitude of each candidate is v» ry materially 
affvcted by * local ' ctrcuRistnnoes — in other words, that 
tJhs results of the examination are almost absoluudy 
datermiaed by the quality of the teaching." 

The Examiner in Oerman, including Oommereial Cot' 
rmpoffdenety snys : — '* I consider the result of the last 
csMmio'ition very satisfactory. Six candidites hnve 
done so well in the subje<'t of Onrman comnurcial cor- 
respondenre, as to be entitled to a first-claf>s c*ertificatc, 
and the |)apers for second and third-class certificates 
have mostly been far better worked out than those ot 
former years. This resuH is the more satasfiiotory, since 
tho stthjects set for the last exMBfioation were pnblihtied 
mnch later than usual. The candidatHi for second-class 
certificates, in particular, seem this Ume to have paid 
BOTO aitsntion to the special sul^scts than was the caa 



on former occasions, and the result is that the trans- 
lations fnim English into German are ii»x more cor- 
rectly done than at the former examinations. Those 
oindidates who were successful enough to obtain first 
flass certificates have evidently had much practice in 
Gh^rman commercial correspondence, whilst those who 
have fuiled showed chiefly a want of knowledge in 
German commercial phraseology. I must, therefore, 
particularly recommend to future candidates for first 
class certificates to apply themselves diligently to the 
study of German commercial correspondence, both 
theoretically and practically. Perhaps nothing requires 
HO much ci/ntinuaf practice as German commercial cor- 
respondence ; so that successful candidates should bear 
in mind that their present proficiency will be of little 
value for practical purposes, unless they keep up by 
constant practice the routine of writing commercial 
letters in German." 

The Examiner in Spanish says: — "Considering the 
results of this examination, I apprehend that the know- 
ledge of the candidates is not, with few exceptions, so 
thorough and comprehensive as it should be to warrant 
their competing for the certificates of the Society of Arts, 
which are undoubtedly one of the best encouragements 
to ]• arning. I venture to make these observations, 
thinking that some disappointment may be spared to 
future candiiiates if they are timely warned that the 
ceriiticaAes they seek are to reward real and not super- 
ficial knowledge." 

The Examiner in Handwriting says : — " This year there 
is very considerable improvement Specimens of the 
bold, well formed characters, to which prizes have 
hitherto been systematically awarded, are more nu- 
merous than on any previous occasion. Much of the 
wilting is, indeed, extremely creditable, and would doubt- 
less obtain very high marks at the Civil Service examina- 
tions. It is gratifying to see that the candidates have 
generally had in their minds the advantages of extreme 
and uncumptomisin^c legibility, without which the most 
elegant or characteristic writing cannot be considered 
saiislactory." 

The Chairman si id the first subject which had been 
suggested for discussion, was — 

" The Impohtance op having Classes nc buoh 

iSVBJfcCTS AS LlTftHATUKE AND POLITICAL i-GOMOlCT 
IN THE iNhTITTTlOKS. INSTEAP OP, AS NOW, CON- 

pimno attention almost exclusivblt to sdxmcb 
Subjects." 

Mr. Lawton (Lancashire and Cheshire Union] said 
thai throughout the disiiict which he represented, 
1 Veiling clusses were be<'oming more and more im- 
portant ; but, unfortunately, there were very few classes 
in literature and politiral economy, owing to the great 
difficulty of getting teachers, and pioviding sufficient 
fees to pay theui. Practically, there were only four or 
tive ulnsaes in English literature. Now, in a ^^I'eat 
many chhcs, the elementary stages of scientific subjects, 
tspecinlly bearing upon the manufactures of the 
dibtri«:ls, were now taught in the day schoolB, 
so that the boys who were now leaving these 
schools, did n«it require to attend evening classes 
in th•»^e siibje* ts. It w^aa very desirable, therefore, that 
sonie further teaching should be provided for them, in 
opler to brouen their knowledge and enlist their in- 
itrent in the institutions. The Science and Art Depart- 
ment i»»id science teachers, but it did not give any pay- 
ment to ttachers in such subjects as those he had 
referred to; and theretore the fees required from the 
pupils w( r»^ so high as V* make it almost impossible for 
students irom the working classes to pay them. It 
seeuted lo him nei-essary that something should be done 
to extend the operation to evening classes, because, in 
the cuujae ol four or five years, a large body of educated 
yoQths would be leaviug aohool, espeoiaUy in the laigt 



642 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jcly 4, 1878. 



towna, who, he waa happy to aajr, were now receiving 
scientific inatmction in connection with the ordinary 
day achoola. He might mention that, from Mancheater 
alone, about two thooaand etudenta were sent up to Uie 
Department last year, the great majority from day 
schools. He thooght it desirable to widen the area em- 
braced by these dasaes, and with regard to snch im- 
portant subjects as literature and political economy 
some strong inducement was needed, if they were to be 
properly and thoroughly studied. He therefore begged 
leave to propose : — 

" That this Conference reoommends the Science and Art 
Department to take into consideration the queftti*m of adding 
Political Bconomy to the list of subjects, and paying teachers 
on results, on the same system as that applied to other 
aoienUflc subjects." 

Mr. Pottie (Crewe) seconded the motion, which was 
oarried unanimously. 

•*Thb DssiRABiLrrT op Rkstobino thb Subjbct op 
Latdy to thb Gbneral Pboobammb '* 

was the next subject for discussion. 

Xr. CresswtU (of the Midland Institute, Birmingham,) 
said the experience of their institution in Birmingham 
showed how advantageous it would be to restore this to 
the programme. He therefore begged leave to move : — 

" That the Council be requested to reintroduce the subject 
of Latin into their list" 

The Bey. W. Price (Watford) seconded the motion. 

Mr J. S. Voldwritt (Walworth Institution) remarked 
that wherever classes were held for teaching languages 
it waa always desirable that Latin should form a portion 
of the course, because it was evident that any student 
who had previously acquired a knowledge of the Latin 
language, however slight, was so far better able to proceed 
with any modem language than one who had not had that 
advantage. 

Xr Seymour Tenlon begged leave to make a remark 
which had been suggested by Mr. Critchetfs report on 
the technological examinations. It was fair to mention 
that the Stationers' Company, although they had not 
been subscribers to the Society's fund for technological 
subjects, had taken up the matter themselves, and during 
the present year had arranged for a series of technicfd 
lectures, which were given in their own hall, and pre- 
sided over by the Lord Mayor, who happened to be the 
master of the company. He (Mr. Teulon) could not but 
think it would be an exceedingly goqd application of part 
the funds at their command, and would holp those 
wealthy and influential bodies to retain their vitality, if 
they were to contribute liberally towards the advance- 
ment of technical education in the way referred to in the 
report. 

X^or Donnelly, B.B., doubted whether it was neces- 
■ary to re-introduce the subject of L%tin into the 
programme, as he thought the local examinations 
of Oxford and Cambridge sufficienUy provided for that 
subject. 

Mr. W. H. Baker (of St. Stephen's, Westminster,) 
thought the Society should hold examinations in all sub- 
jects not included in the programme of the Science and 
Art Department, South Kensington. He therefore begged 
to support the resolution. 

Mr. Critohett said that the University examinations 
were confined to jpersons under eighteen, whereas there 
were often adults in the evening classes who could not 
avail themselves of the Oxford and Cambridge examina- 
tions. ^ 

m Ohainiiaii said it was exbremely nsefnl to learn 
w'^Jf *^"]3L^®' *^« "^ke of obtaining a better 

SSi^S^S"*^ Latin in some degree witfc the iWk 
»a me report of the examiner in writing about the 



importance of ** uncompromising legibilitjr," beeuat 

without a clear knowledge of a language it ini im* 

possible to write it correctly. He had often been jraziled 

on receiving letters and papers which he could not rad, 

especially from the female part of the popoUtioa, and be 

might particularly refer to telegrams, which vere sov 

mosUy written by younf women. He not imfreqii«itlj 

received a teleg^ram which he was utterly m&hte to 

decipher, mainly because these persons thongbt stare of 

I what they considered beauty thsn legibility. Tb» oAa 

. wrote in that angular style whidi was fanDcrljcoih 

I sidered the correct thing for ladies, but which he had 

I always been strenuously opposed to. He bdiiinid t 

I knowledge of Latin, by giving an insight into the dexi* 

I vation of words would prevent mauy of thote Utmdea i& 

! spelling which were now unfortunately so freqaat 

j The resolution was then put and carried. 

The Chairman asked if anv gentiemanvu prepared 
to open the next subject which had been sent in. 

''Would rr be dssibablb to uaxm Coxkebcul Ces- 

UBSPONDSNCX OOMPUL80&T K>B A FuaO-Cua 

Cb&tipicatb nr Modkbk LAKGUAonT' 

Xr. Koldwritt said he hardly undentood the pro- 
position. 

Mr. Critohett said it evidently; meant tint bo fint- 
class certificate should be given in a moden hagotg* 
unless the candidate showed a oertain knowlad^o^ooos 
mercial oorrespondenoe. 

Mr. Noldwritt said in that case he wodd opa the 
discussion, merely for the sake of opposmg the ptoponL 
A person might be disposed to study a modem UDgujv 
for various reasons quite unconnected with ooamene, 
and he should think it was very undeuxiUs thitiiij 
attempt of this kind should be made to force ipn >U 
students a knowledge of commercial oom^oDdaKe. 
For instance, this would certainly di^Mse of ill the 
female candidates. 

Mr. E. Allison (Hull) also spoke against the pnH> 
saying he had himself, with his own imperfect ksomge 
of Gkrman, been able to understand a Germsn letter, bat 
a (German lady to whom he had shown it wtf qadt 
unable to understand it, simply becanae ^^^^f^ 
know the technical business terms employed. It voud 
evidentiy be quite absurd to say that no one ihoQldobtii& 
a prize in a modem language without being aUetovrai 
a commercial letter in it. 

Mr. Lawton said he desired to move a resoIotMOibetr- 
ing on one of the rules of the Sode^s erriniin^M L 
Lut year the Lancashire and Cheshire Unioooian 
an exhibition of £10 to the candidate who ihoold otaffl 
the greatest number of marks in English litentare ^ 
history, but it turned out that the regnlstifloi flf tM 
Society would not allow a candidate who hid •« 
obtained a first-class certificate in a subject to be^ 
examined in it, so that a candidate who bid t«k« w 
class certificates last year in EngUih history m » 
English language, with no prize, had had ^^J^^ 
ce) led. He was not aware of any other exsmin in y wjjj 
who shut out candidates in this way ^>**w«^^*J 
obtained a prize, and he tiiought it a very ""^^T 
regulation. In the Science and ArtI>epsrtmai*"*J 
who obtained a first-class certificate could 8<>"J^T 
for a medal, and it seemed a great pity that a canw»» 
should just have got into the first-clsss and then » 
thrown aside altogether, and not allowed a second opp^ 
tunity of competmg for a prise. He begged to mart, 
therefore — 

"That theCounoQof the Society of Arts be wg*^ 
requested to cancel the regulation wbsn^ a csaiiiliK^ 
has obtaineda first-class oeitificate in any jWfias^yiXV*^ 
cannot again be examined in the ssms kiIqmI. ' 

Mr. Strong (Walworth) had mudi pl«««« « Sjt 
ing the resolution, &eling sure that it hadflB^vie 



J0T7BN AL OF THE 800IETY OP ARTS, Jitlt '4, 1878. 



«I3 



braigfti imdflr the notioe of tlie Ooimdl to be acted 
iMt. It mmud to him thtt the preeeat reflation 
fboedoita who had worked hard,aad had gain )d a cortatn 
aaont ol tnooeia, in a worse poiition than <me who 
hi made but KtUe effort 
Hw nsolotion waa pat and carried. 

At OhMiauoL said the next aubjeot for diionision 



*WlUT8t7BJBCT8 SHOXTLD BE ADDID TO THB TlCHXO- 
LOOtCAL PbOO&AMMB ICSXT YBAB P " 

^wellecj and electro-plating were anggeated. 

Wtitf BoaaaUy aaid he thought this waa a qneation 
wfaioh ifaoaki rather be left to the r e pr ua o ntatifwa of 
difftfaal ina.itiitioa8 to atate their Tiewa upon ; but, 
fpetktoif «■ a member of the Oouncil, he thou^t they 
vmU be pteparad to add any aa^jeota for which pria»8 
iwe QflarwU ather bv individuala or by auhiioriptioa. 
If mj locality, for inatanee, would come forward and 
efo priaeeiu lome partieslar branch of mannfaoturp, the 
Ooanol wonlil be prvpazed to undertake the ezpenaea of 
boldiog an ez>umn«tion in that aubjeot. Cloth manu- 
hctnrt voald probably be added next yaar ; and the 
^SUiMrorb'n Company were alao purposing to offer 
pn»«iB tb«t hranoh, so th«t that eubject ako would be 
addei B0 did not quite see how the aoliject of jewel- 
hrr oootd be treated in their examination. 

Kr. Critehett safd that Mr. Aitkin, of Birmingham, 
vbo had forwarded the sai^t^estiun, but who wus not 
pMmt, had mentioQed in his letter that hitherto the 
Mauluiical tx^miiiitioas had not emhraoed any sub- 
M ia vhieh oandidaHes from Birmingham had been 
HH to 0061 pete. 

I^.tnloa said he could quite imagine that in electro- 
(bting there mii^ht be a most interesting examination 
F<9^ ptvpared, for he believed the subject wtta a large 
Me»sad that several different processes were in use, 
ftOM prodocing by far the best and hardest eli*otro- 
fft^ vhilit th«) others were quicker in their operation, 
t^MUh not to perfect in quality. He could quite under- 
^Ksd tbst it was a mutter in which Birmingham wurk- 
■tt v«re ^^reaily interested. 

Xr. IsUwritt sui^gssced thai oabinatHnaking should 
n iddsd to the list of subjeets. I 

Kr OiTNiwsU (Birmingham) said he had expected to 
*M Mr. Aitken present He was quite sure electro- ! 
P^ftisf would make a good snbjnot, being one of the 
pBcipal triMlea of BimdnKhaaa. Many of the students 
B their inttitittioBs were ^eotro-platers, who, from the 
^0|*^edg*i tiiey had obtained in the evening classes, had 
SNQ cBNbled materially to improre thidr position, some 
^vva |;oiag into business for themselves. He should 
^fio f^ advocate that subject being added to the pro- 
9>BtnM. In reply to a question from Mi^or Donnelly, 
^«id hs had very little doubt that Messrs. Elkin^tim, 
*^ Qtb« large manufiKstareca, would oome forward and 
offer prim. 

Kr- Ltwtoa said he hoped at the next conference to 
K able to report a great increase in the number of 
""^didste s for these examinations. 

Kr. MdwTitt suggested that amamental plasterera' 
>^ paigettiog, whiuh had formerly been followed to a 
|o>Mcable extent but had lately foUen much into 
WM. might be encoaniged. 

Iha Ohaimaa aaid that t^e subjects whieh hail been 
p89"<ted would be brought to tiie attention of the 

'1^ SrvMT 07 PoLmaaL Oltjm vnm thb 

IsmTUTXONS." 

Kr. iMrton s%id this mitter wis affdcting their posi- 
^ ia Lmoashire and Oae«hire to a considerable 
^^^ Only ia*» trsek the seordtary of an iostitasioa 



waited upon him with £1, as their portion of the aaseti 
of an inaiitution which had been forced to dose, becauae 
on one aide of the street there waa a Conservative 
working men's club, and on the other a Liberal one, 
and h\\ the adult membera, or the principal portion of 
thnm. had left the poor educational inatitution in order 
to join theae clubs. This was not merely the case in that 
distrii't, fur these dubs were starting up everywhere, 
especially in the villages, and were telling most seriously 
on the attendance at the evening dassoe. He did not 
hinwslf see hew they oonld get aot of the diffioulty ; but, 
perhaps, it was desirable that this statement should be 
made in ordtir to show why it was that the nnmber ef 
adult flsembers attending the instiUAioas in the Nerth 
wtts now much smalhsr than it had been some years ago. 
Perhaps if the subject of political eoonomy, which had 
beim already suggested, were added te the list of 
subjects taught in dtssea, it would h>iTe the effect of 
grrmg more intersat to their proeeedings. 

Mr. Tenloa said it would be very desirable to know 
if the same difficulty had been noticed in other dis- 
tricts. It certainly seemed desirable that such instruc- 
tion should be KiTen to the members of the classes, that 
whatever political clubs they afterwards joined, they 
might have sound prindples upon which to work. 

Mr. Strong also said that in his opinion, the variosa 
institutions should, as £ar as poaritile, provide instnM- 
tion for their members in history and political economy, 
ao that they might be aUe, by comparing what had 
taken place in the pasty to look forwasd and act wisely 
in the future. 

Mr. J. H. Lery (Birkbeck Institution) said a debating 
sociuty was ^nerally a very good element in an insti- 
tution ; but it would not do for all the Liberals to go 
to one society, and all the Conservatives to another, or 
I else thn objects of such societies would be defeated. If, 
I therefore, the literary institutions could establish de- 
bating societies at which both sides would be repre- 
sented, he thought it might prove an attraction. There 
' was one other matter which he wished to mention, 
namely, the examination in modem languages, for- 
merly there was a special examination in Commercial 
Correspondence, but this had been given up as a 
separate subject and amalgnmated with the ordinary 
examination in modem languages. He had no fonlt to 
find with the examination in commercial correspondenoe 
being combined with modern languages, bnt it would 
be a great mistake to make it a compulsory portion of 
that eubject. Thoe were a large nnmber of penons 
who studied modem languagss who had no need for 
commercial correspondence, and did not want to give 
time to it. He thereft»re sugirested thtt a certain ] art 
of the paper should be taken np by all candidate a, an J, 
in addition, that there shouKi be two other portions, 
one containing commercial correspondence, thus giving 
an alternative, so that each candidate might take up 
either the commercial or the literary part as he pre- 
forred. In t^is way both dasses of candidates Would be 
treated ikirly. 

Mr. TeulOB said it was not proposed to make oom- 
\ mercial com^pondence compulsory. This subject had 
been introduced some years ago, becauae many of the 
leading houses both in London and the provincial towns 
in EngUnd, had found it extremely (uffiuult to find 
derks who ooald write a .good foreign letter. It was, 
theieforp, thought d«eiraUe to give young men an 
opportunity of obtaiaing a certifloate of competency in 
this subject bat it was perfectly voluntary, and had 
nothing whatever te do with a thorough knowledge of 
a foreign language. 

The Chairman said he should be glad to hear what 
any gentleman had to aay on the next subject 

*< Thb Act or Pasliaxbitt op 1848 was passbd ^ 

PUBPOSB or BIOUlLUfO TO LlTAIUilT AND ^' 



6M 



JOURNAL OF KQE ^OOI^Y OF ABTS^ Jolt 4, IB78. 



AND MbCHANICS* iMBTITUTtONS BXXMPTION PROM 
LOCAL &ATB8, F&OTISED THB IlifiTITUTIOM DOES NOT 
MAXB ANT DIVIDEND, BONUS, 0& PBOFIT. On THB 
7A1TH OF THIS ACT OF PaKLIAMENT THE WaLWO&TH 
AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS WERB ESTABLISHED. WhAT 
CAN BE DONE TO ARREST THB IMPENDING DANGER 
WITH -WHICH SUCH INSTITUTIONS ARE MENACED BY 

THB Bill now before the Houi^b of Commons fro- 
POSING TO Abolish the Exemption P'* 

Mr. Voldwiitt said the Act of 1843 was not passed in 
the form originaUj intended, for an Act had been drafted 
by Lord Brougham for the purpose of eeonrini? the 
exemption of hterary institutions from every kind of 
taxation. That, however, was dropped, and eventually 
the Act of 1843 was passed, securing freedom from local 
taxation, provided there was no proprietary interest. 
This led to the formation of several young institutionSf 
amongst others the one which he represented. Six or 
seven jears afterwards, in 1849 or 1850, an attempt was 
made in Parliament to deprive them of those privileges, 
but it did not succeed. A meeting was convened in 
London, on behalf of the Birmingham and Midland 
Institute, by Mr. Ryland, at which Mr. Bright attended 
aiid spoke strongly on the subject. A powerful opposi- 
tion was organised, and the Bill was not carried. Ihat 
meeting led to the formation of the Union of Institutions 
with the Societv of Arts, and it appeared to him that 
the institutions forming that union had reason to com- 
plain that when this recent attempt was made to deprive 
them of their exemption, something worse than indiffer- 
ence had been exhibited hj the Council of the Society of 
Arts on the subject. In lus opinion, they ought to have 
taken up the matter, and invited the co-operation of 
institutions throughout the country to resist the measure. 
He should like to know how many institutions now in 
union with the Society expected to be in existence in 
another year ? Many of them would be entirely wiped 
out by this Act, and, for his part, he thought the Society 
had not acted properly in not taking this matter up. He 
begged to ask if something could not be done before it 
was too late P 

Xr. Tenlon thought it was hardly within the province 
of the Council to enter into such a question. There was 
at the present moment a Bill before Parliament which 
dealt with this question, and the better way clearly 
would be for those institutions which objected to the 
proposed provisions in that Bill, to petition, through their 
members, for the exemption which they required. He 
could only say that the Society of Arts hud recently 
been compellea to pay rates upon their own building 
although they resisted it for some years. The Council, 
however, after maturely considering the matter, thought 
it would be better to pay the rates than to limit the 
usefulness of the Society, as they would have had to 
do in order to claim exemption. 

Mr. Koldwritt thought the Society should have 
sent out circulars, and convened a meeting on the sub- 
ject Had the Act of 1843 not been passed, some of the 
institutions would never have becoi started ; and he con- 
sidered it a breach of faith on the part of the legisla- 
ture to attempt to alter their position. He wanted to 
know what tne Sodety of Arts was prepared to do in 
the matter, and whether they thought Uie institutions 
could pay their way and go on if the Bill passed. 

Xigor Donnelly thought it was rather for the insti- 
tutes interested to have made a representation to the 
Council to convene a meeting to consider the subject, 
and for the members of those institutes to have sent 
representatives to the conference to consider the question. 
As far as he knew, there had been no representation at 
all to the Council to take up the matter, and, therefore, 
he thought it WHS not right to accuse the Council ol 
neglecting it when the institutions themselves had 
taken It 80 btUe to heart, and made no movement in th« 



Mr. Lawton had attended that oodieniice s KtMt 
man^ years, and had always found the Coumil reid; to 
receive and consider any communication from the Insti* 
tutions in Union. He agreed with Major Doosellytbt 
it was a matter which concerned the loetitotiofu thm- 
selves, and that it was their dutv either to petitiflQ 
through the Societv of Arts, or on their own aoooimt get 
up a memorial and lay the whole case before tb« nes- 
bers who had charge of the Bill. The Coancil had had 
no representation from the institutiona feeling aggiierd, 
and therefore had taken no action in the matter. 

Mr. Strong thought the question would bare an im* 
portant bearing on the well-being of inatitutioiit As 
most of those present were aware, the objecCiooilile 
clause had passed the House of Commons in oonBittee, 
therefore he feared any action in that dirvctioa vonU 
now be too late. If they intended to offer aoj oppon- 
tion to the Bill he thought it should be in the flosw of 
Lords. He was rather of Mr. Koldwntt'a opimoo, that 
the Council should have seen the importance of the 
measure, and have tuken some action upon it, hfcaoK 
the institutions looked to them, as the centra, to nut 
the scattered institutiona by bringing them togetbcr. 
Provincial institutions might not have aeen the foitecf 
the clause taking away the exemption, but to those ii- 
sti tutions which were now only just able to keep thdr 
heads above water it would be a death-blow if it ««• 
passed. He hoped thut the Council would. uttAjst 
possible, consider the matt<%r, and see if there wu aoj 
way of offering opposition to the Bill. 

Mr Pottie (Crewe) thought it would be reij dcsr&Ue 
if something could be done by the Society of ArtiQchx 
the united efforts of the institutions on the quMtioa. He 
represented the Crewe Institution, which w*»omipotd 
entirely of working men, and last year the P«or*U» 
Guardians came upon tbem for a rate of tU. Th«T 
thought the Act of Parliament was specific thi.t sdettife 
or literary institutes were exempt, and thereftw thfj 
went before a magistrate. The Lundon and Ntfth 
Western Railway Company, with which they w€ri6»- 
nected, kindly sent their lawyer to aasirt them ia da* 

Euting the claim. However, they did not ncceed, iw 
ad to pay the rate. Then the Local Board cane opa 
them for some £17 or £18, which they bad had alio » 
pay. Their subscription was 8s. a year, aadHni 
thought at one time they would have hud to niie it ^ 
lOs. to keep the institution alive, but he mtUff! ^ 
say that had not been found necessary. 

Mr. J. H. Lery considered the question a royio 
portant one. and if the Society could do anythia; it «u 
very desirable it should be done. He was T«y madi a 
doubt, however, whether the same effect which hud kcei 

Produced in the North by the poUticalclabiiDi|htiKA 
appen with the Society of Arts if it were to ""*J 
with questions of this kind. It was diatinctly a pwt>>* 
question, and although he was thoroughly of <fpB^ 
himself thut a great wrong was being done, and ^^^ 
landed interests were interfering in their own iai^ 
with prescriptive rights that had exii*tcd for ^ 
time, in order to ease the local ratei, the w»* 
mate effect being to relieve themflelvea (itnd hf "J 
inclined to think they were doing an unwiaethiDloJw 
matter), still that was not the right pbtce to <^^^*!^ 
questions. He could quite understand Mr. K^*^ 
feeling strongly about it — everyone muat ^^^^ "^ . ^ 
especially unfortunate that this measure had heesow^ 
duoed at the present time, because the inatrtotiai b» 
been hitherto in a grent degree deprived ^f ^P?^ 
who ought to go to Uiem, elementary education iwtw«* 
sufficiently advanced to pro'inde them with aulficieot fop* 
porters. Now, wh^n an Elementary Educatiun Aft » 
iwen passed, one of the «?ffects of which would ^^.^^jT^ 
pare young persons to go to th^se instituiivni* in *'^^ 
to etibe the rutfS for this education they wfxv dant •** , 
thing to kill the institutions which th.-y ▼'«''* P\J 
alter wards. He could not help tbiniing * g^**^ ^"" 



i 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, July 4, 187S. 



645 



WM beiiig done, and he ihoaght it very hard 
Uut thew imtitutions should be treated in the way pro 
pQied, when the ragged schools, Sanday>school8, and 
pliM of worship throaghoot the country were exempted. 

It. Bobertion (Crewe) thought the importance of the 
nhy^ ooold not be over-estimated, bat did not think 
the Society of Arts could be in any way blamed for not 
tKking action in the matter. The institutes were not 
ubject to the Society, and therefore to blame the Coun- 
cil for not guiding, advising, or taking action was en- 
tifdy wrong. No one would have blamed the Council 
if they bad petitioned the legislature to exempt literary 
iostitationa throughout the country ; no one would 
blame them if they did so now, and no one would blame 
the mititations themselves if they did the same. A line 
Bust be drawn somewhere, and somebody must pay 
Hbt ntes. Every one could present a good case for 
heiag exempted ; but if all were exempt who was to 
pay: There were many institutions, no doubt) whidi 
ooold not afford to pa v ratee. Mention had be^ made 
of one at Crewe» which had had to pay ; but the &ots 
of that case were, that thev let out their large room lor 
oiteitainments, from which they drew a revenue ; and 
ainoe the rates had been imposed upon them, they had 
Buuiged to improve their inoome nrom this source, so 
u to avoid the necessity of raising their subscriptions. 
He thooght that other institutions should do the same, 
10 •• to be able to pay the rates from that source. 

As flhalnnan said the matter would be considered by 
theCoondL 

Kr. Isfy said although ha thoroughly agreed that it 
vai a vov serious matter to the institutions, he could 
Bol aak tne Society to take action, because it was a 
politioal quflstioa. 

Kr. e. 0. T. BartUy said it was quite possible that the 
Ooandl might be onfiivonrable to the principle of exemp- 

Kr. lorrii suggested that the Council be asked to 
eoniider the matter. He would second a resolution to 
that effect 

Kr. loldwritt then moved : — 

^ Thai the Council be requested to consider the desirability 
d taking action in the interest of the inatitutiona, in re- 
(<Rnoe to the Bill now before Parliament for abolishing 
ftc^ txemption from local rates." 

Kr. lorrii seconded the resolution. 

The Ohtinun thought the gentlemen present would, 
each in his own locality, have much more influence 
with Pariiament than the Society. London was a 
t^ lari^ plM^ tnd they had no member specially 
f*pfeasntmg them, hut most of the members of local 
natitotioins had considerable influence with their 
DoaberL 

Kr. L&wj said if the Council thought it desirable to 
ut at aB, it might do so by making itself the nucleus of 
m oigaaiaation to oppose the passing of the Act. 

Kr. AUifom did not think any blame attached to 
h$ Society for not taking the matter in hand, but 
^ther the other way. One member had said it would 
)• better to p«y the rate than take any action ; but they 
ut did denve any revenue from Uieir institution at 
^•11. They had 1^00 members, and their subscription 
vas is. per annum, which was as low as possible, and 
W paid their rates and taxes when due. They had a 
ntkstt dnb, and so on, in connection with the institute, 
wt derived no revenue from that source. He thought 
^ resolution as moved was a very innocent one, but 
f it was to go further, he should certainlv oppose it, 
xBiideiing that the Society was not called upon to go 
lUo political qnestioDS. 

The reaohition waa then put and carried. 

Kr. Lawtoa thought it would be deairahle to alter the 



words '^Politioal Economy,** in the first resolution which 
had been passed, to ** Social Economy." 

Major Donnelly thought the alteration desirable, as he 
imngined some pt-rsuns would imagine thut political 
economy was connected with politics. 

Mr. Levy objected to the alteration, believing it would 
produce confusion in people's minds on the matter. All 
the great books upon the subject called the science 
'' Political Economy," not *' SociU." The fact was that 
social economy really did include politicks, so that instead 
of avoiding the bugbear they were actually introducing it, 

Mr. Holdwritt considered the term *' political oco- 
nomy" was widely understood, and would not be oon« 
founded with politics. 

Mr. Lawton moved :—<' That the best thanks of this 
Conference be given to the Chiurman for his kindness 
and ability in conducting the business on this oocasion.'* 

Mr. Bobtrtaon had great pleasure in seconding the 
resolution, which was put and carried unanimously. 

The Ohairman acknowledged the compliment, 



PUBCHABE OF BAILWATS BT THB 8TATB. 

The discussion on this subject was resumed ox^ 
Thursday evening, June 26th, the Marquis of Clax- 
BIOABDE in the chair. 

The Chairmaa, in oommencing the proceedings, said he 
had had the greatest satisfaction in uatening to the able 
speeches which had been maae during the discussion, 
and, notwithstanding what had been said in opposition 
to Mr. Gait's paper, on the whole he was bound to say 
they had not the least shaken his oonviotion that the 
acquisition of the railways by the State would be a most 
excellent and desirable course to adopt. All who had 
had the advantage of hearing or reading Lord Derby's 
speech would bear him out in saying tiiat the objectioni. 
to Mr. Galt*s plan could not have been more fbrcibly 
stated than they were bv that noble lord, and, naturally, 
everything which fell from him fell with great weight. 
Notwithstanding, however, his powerful exposition of 
the arguments he submitted to the meeting, he had not 
succeeded in convincing him. The same with regard to 
Mr. Yignoles. Whatever fell from so experienced an 
engineer of course deserved attention, but he was aorry 
to hear him say that the plan of transferring the Irish 
railways to the State wasbroughtfbrward only by persons 
who had injudiciously invested their money in the rail- 
ways. Mr. Yignoles' age and experience were such that 
he must in former days have been ac<|uainted with the 
real facts of the case, though it was evident h0 had for- 
gotten them. He (the Chairman) recollected the circum- 
stances attending the formation of the Irish railways, 
and so far from the railwi^ proprietors coming to the 
State to ask for assistance, the proposal emnnated from 
the Irish Government of the day, in 183d and 1836, under 
that very able official and man of sense, Lieut. Drum- 
mond. He it was who brought forward a proposal for 
Government making the railways, and a plan was sub- 
mitted to Parliament, with the approval of^the late Lord 
Carlisle, and actutUl^ adopted by the House of Commons. 
It was therefore quite incorrect to say that stock-holders 
in Irish railways suggested the transfer of their pro- 

Serty to the State. It was with great reluctance thst he 
iffered from Lord Derby on this question, as he had the 
highest possible respect for his opinion, but it must be 
recollected that not only was the opposition raised 
to this measure generally raised by persons professionally 
connected with the railways, of whom he wished, how- 
ever, to speak with the highest possible reapeot, but, at 
the same time, if they were to be guided h;^ authority 
on this question, however high some of these individir'^ 
might stand, on the other hand there was the antb' 



646 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 4, 1878. 



of GbTemment in eyery other dvilued oountry to the 
contrary. It might be right or wrong, but it waa the 
£ftct that no other oountry had adopted the system which 
prevailed in the United Kingdom ; even in our colonies 
and dependencies, wherever me railway system had beeoi 
brought to any perfection, the Oovemment had control 
of the matter as one not to be thrown open to what was 
called, erroneously, in his opinion, competition. Even 
in this oountry was it the mot that there was free com- 
petition P Hot only would such a thing be really 
impossible under the A^'wHng system, but the State 
interfered at every turn with every attempted amalga- 
mation, and ever^ plan for extending the railway 
system. This Parliamentary system was very imperfe^ 
— for no one of competent authority examined into these 
competing schemes. When a committee was selected, 
care was taken that the gentlemen who constituted it 
should know nothing whatever of the circumstances of 
the country with which they were about to deal. As an 
instance coming under his own observation, he might 
mention that the last railway committee on which he 
was asked to sit had to deal with competing schemes in 
the north-east part of Yorkshire. Twenty-seven days 
had already be^ spent upon the matter by a committee 
of the House of Commons, who had selected one out of 
three competing schemes. When the Bill came up to 
the House of Lords, he believed that the members of the 
committee agreed with him in rejoicing that they had 
such an easy task before them, supposing the whole 
matter to have been well discussed be&re the committee 
of the House of Commons. But after two days had 
been taken up in opening the case, they found it neces- 
sarv to go very thoroughly into it, and after the three 
Bills had been laid before them, they came unanimously 
to the resolution that the one selected by the committee 
oi the House of Commons was the worst. In ^e end, no bill 
at all was passed that year, and ultimately the contending 
companies agreed among themselves, and a Bill was 
passed different from any of the three which had been 
originally introduced. Now, was there any sense in 
such a system as that, necessitating, as it did, an 
enormous waste of monev, when the whole matter 
might have been dedded by a competent tribunal 
at a very moderate expense ? Lord Derby and others 
had admitted that the financial difficulties could be 
easily removed, and he was somewhat astonished to 
hear that noble lord express himself to the effect that 
the possession of these railways would be a burden upon 
the State in a moment of difficulty. He should have 
thought that, at such a time, it would be of the greatest 
benefit that the railways should be controlled and sus- 
tained, if necessary, by the State. It never was pro- 
posed to give the railways to the public for nothing, but 
they would be most valuable property. Supposing even 
that, in a time of distress, not only the shares were de- 
preciated in value, as they naturally would be, but 
that there was also a diminution of traffic, so that 
the returns might to some extent suffer, would it 
not be much fairer that such financial difficulties, arising 
as they generally did from some public action of the 
Empire, such as going to war« or otherwise, should be 
borne by the whole country, than that the loss occa- 
sioned in such a way should fall upon individual share- 
holders who were in no way responsible for the causes 
of the depreciation. He beUevea that it would be much 
less loss to the community as a whole, that the State 
should, with its powerful credit, bear any temporaiy 
difficulty of this sort, than ^at permanent loss, and 
perhaps ruin, should be entailed on individuals. He 
believed the experience of foreign countries had shown 
that railways did benefit the State, and that a vast sum of 
money had been wasted in this country upon their con 
Btanction. Some two or three yeare ago, at a meeting of 
theOobdai aub, Mr. Gladstone stated that between one 
£ .w^"^**^ millions had been lost in this way, but 

iwa Wttown away at least 260 miUions by the system pur- 



sued, and if railways could be ooDstnicted whkh wooU 
afford the same aooommodation, and more tkm M 
given by the present companies, for a mm of mooey 
smaller by the amount he had mentioned, than whit tbey 
had already cost, to say nothing of the quotioaof nia 
to individuals and fanulies from disastroos spcahtiflci^ 
it would certainly be a great advantage to &» ooootrr. 
For all these reasons he thought that railwayi voold it 
much better in the hands of Government; and altiund 
there might be difficulties, as there always ven M' 
culties connected with any important dumge, hs vooU 
ask why were the most eminent men selected to eon- 
duct the affairs of the State unless they werepKured 
to meet and overcome difficulties as they aron. Hebid 
no doubt these difficulties might be samunmted, tad be 
hoped the present discussion would be nssfol, hf aBiog 
the attention of those competent to judge to thenl^ect 

Xr. Caulfleld felt sure that the opponents of the tnaifo 
of the railways to the State could not find a more lUe 
advocate of their views than Earl Derbv ; l>at,nem^ 
less, he thought the public papers had akesdj d»va 
that his objections were not tenable ; in fiut, they^ to 
the g^und by their own weight In his omaoQ, it v» 
simply a question of the time when it wis dannbfe nch 
a transfer should take place. He would not prctetd to 
adduce all the arguments necessary to make itdartbfit 
the time had now arrived, but he might lete to ini^ 
exhaustive treatise on the subject by Mr. Qalt, vl^b he 
believed oontained everything which could be aid apon 
it That treatise was brought down to the yeir Ibm, 
and oontained the essence of nearly all the w»^ 
which had been issued on the subject^ and a f^^J"^ 
more, which nothing but great research oooldTOMJ 
and the tmly question was whether events wwdiW 
since taken place had in any way altered the cm^m 
of the question. It appeared to him, howera, tW tw 
reasons then alleged against private managoieiitcciiii- 
waya had aince increaaed in force. The "no™^ OJjJ^ 
buted to the railways yearly approached toiynwjw 
the interest on the National Debt, and for th^ijna 
was quite certain that four times aa much acco ntnffl a tw) 
as was at present afforded could be obtained. 

Xr. Saywell said he cordially agreed with the oboi^ 
vations of Lord Derby at the previom meeting, iw 
question was of great importance, but he wai notoof 
of those who were tiispoeed to imagine that the toMW 
of the railwaya from private enterprise to ^•"?"* 
the State would result in an amoont of ™"?*5"2 
possessed under commercial direction. Is ^'^^''^ 
the State it was necessary to ask what the {«*JJr5 
meant It meant no more than the P«ti«"*PJ^ 
party which at any given time was aUe to «*55"l5 
majority in the House of Parliament, and he iWW 
believe that such a body of men would be, •][» "^ 
of course, able to manage railways better "J^r; 
who now conducted them. He opposed '^^ Wj^ 
cause they were met there in tne roomi oftbw 
inatituted for the encouragement of arte, mttj^o* 
and commerce, and he had always e'*'^"*"^ 
belief that arts, manufM^turee, and oomnewi ^ 
best promoted by private oiterpriiB. »Vr 
not see, therefore, how he could oonsiiteotiy^n 
a project which, to his mind, would ^•'^^rriJ 
of very much discouraging all private «n^fj*^ 
was erident that private enterprise could »« frrTj 
competition with the State, and though (j^Sfr^ 
had proposed that the raUways should » P»»P ^ 

gublic auction and let by contract, that did ^^^ 
e the view of the reader of the p^w. who njwr^ 
vocated that the State should take the «»P^^ 
Hgement and control. If, however, the '^/V^ 
let by contract, the objection felt by «»aay»j*^ 
any additional power in the hands of JJ^TrJ 
would be removed. In his view, if tts www^ 
attended properly to their Imperial dtt«^l?if,,. tha 
have quite enough to do; and he qow^T**'^ 



JOtJ&NAL OF fHtl SOOIEfT OP A&TS, ^ult 4, 1878. 



Git 



objeotioo iixg«d by Lord Derby, that the measure pro- 
pom would lead to the placing of an immenBO amount 
of polttioal power in the hands of the Goremment, which 
wu I thing whidi ooght to be guarded against. They 
moat not fwget the long and bitter struggles which our 
forefiithsn had had to go through in securing the 
liberties which we now enjoyed. Those struggles were 
tttued by the orerwhelming power of Government, and 
tnj increase in that power in the present day would 
be lore to act prejudicially to the rights and liberties now 
enjoyed. It would not stop at the railways, as had been 
ilready nid; the canals and steun boats would follow, 
ud if the State once interfered with trading matters, who 
vutodfiwthelineP It was not a question of raising the 
money; no doubt if the step were decided upon, the money 
ooold be obtained, bat it was a serious question whether 
ihtj were prepared to place such a large amount of power 
ad pstrouge in the hands of any Goyemment. He 
6It nry jealous of any and every Government, believing 
tfait the Government of this country had quite as much 
pover ss wss consistent with the preservation of free in- 
ftitotions. He was not one of those who objected to any 
power being placed in the hands of Government, for it 
WIS neoesMry that they should possess a certain amount 
of Dower, but it did not follow that they should become 
Men or interfere with oonunercial matters, tiuch 
fidngi, he contended, were quite outside their proper 
fimoBons. Postal and telegraphic communication stood 
oa ft different footing, b^use if at any time 
i ifeits of war should arise, it was very de- 
Bnble that such matters dbiould be under the control of 
the State. With regard to economy, Mr. Frederick 
HjUhsd given a very striking instance of the advan- 
t^e of the oontraot system over one of State manage- 
Beni It did not at all follow, however, that improve- 
omts were not to be looked for in railways, for having 
tavdied a gfieat deal, not only in England and Ireland, 
hoi alio on the Continent, he was quite ready to admit 
that there was great need of large reforms, not only in 
nilwayi managed by private companies, but also in those 
loder State control. For instance, he should advocate 
the udvexwl adoption of the block 83rstem, which, he 
beliered, would secure entire immunity from accidents, 
at any rate from collisions, and a different construction 
of carciagea, with communication from one end of the 
tnin to ue other, would, he thought, be very desirable. 
Bot these matters could be done quite as well by private 
ontopciae as by the State ; and it must be remembered 
that ue State itself was answerable for the greatest part 
of the waste of money whic^ had been alluded to, as was 
obondaatly shown in the case of the South-Eastem and 
liondoo, Qiatham, and Dover Railways. 

Ir. Hyds Olftrke said it was a great advantage in all 
neh diacuasions to elicit individual opinions, but at the 
lune time U was totally impossible ihai a great and im- 
portant question dliomd be decided by the views or 
opnioQs of any one person. The quesoon before them 
^•s of the most momentous kind, affecting as it did the 
vd&Kt of the whole community. It was a very conmion 
thing to Bay that the wel&re of a country depended on 
ito powers of production, but it muat be also borne in 
Bind that a very large proportion of the enerjnes of the 
population were devoted to transport This con- 
wration entered largely into all (questions of prices, 
^>0thff of Ibod or other conomodities, and therefore 
hi dealing with a question of this kind in such a 
ooontiy as Great Britain, which competed with all 
the nations of the world, it would not do to be 
kd away by oonsiderations whether they would prefer 
onenarty or another in power; but all the circumstancee 
BuuC be looked at in order to consider what would be 
^ for the welfiare of the country at large. At the 
l>tvioiis meeting Mr. Bass had stated that he was a 
flOBtribntor to the extent of £140,000 per annum to the 
kaffifi ol the country. Now tikis was very important, 
i^oooparisoawith other outlay in the employment of 
«• Uouing cksBes. The manufacture of Mr. Bass 



was one not confined to this country ; it largely con- 
tributed to the export trade, and it was within the 
cognisance of many gentlemen present that Engliah 
manufacturers were now subjected to a keen coui pe- 
tition on the part of those on the Continent, particularly 
on the point of cheapness of transit ; in fact, the recent 
extension of the Austrian railways had enabled the 
brewers of Vienna, who, within a very recent period, 
had no share in the forei^ trade, to compete with 
English brewers, not only in our colonies abroad, but 
also within our own empire. A matter of this kind, 
therefore, affecting the employment of a large number 
of the worldng classes, must be looked at frt>m 
a higher stand point than the question wheth^ 
a majority constituting the Government was to be 
invested with any amount of prerogative or 
not. After all. Government was limited by publio 
opinion, and publio opinion in the interest of the country 
would govern this matter, whatever might be the in- 
dividual views entertained. Of cour8e,-all were in fnvour 
of private enterprise— both theoreticHlly and practicHlly 
they must be so— but, at the same time, it must be borne 
in mind that those other powers of co-operation and 
aggn^egation which thuy possessed muat not be limited. 
They had aXL been advocates of private enterpriie, wiih 
regard to railways ; and for himself he must say that 
many years ago, when Mr. (hdt brought this matter 
forward, he was one who strongly advocated private 
enterprise, and thought the period had not come when 
any other course could be adopted. AU experience on 
thia subject had shown that whatever errors had been 
committed in the past, with regard to laying out par- 
ticular lines, they had given an example to the world 
with regard to railway construction. At the same time, 
it must be owned, on the other hand, they had, to a 
great extent, failed in administration. ^ He would 
not entw into detail upon that point, because 
it was hu^y right to take up the time of the meeting 
with the consideration of questions which had been so 
long and so fully discussed. They ought rather to^ en- 
deavour, after bringing together a variety of opinions, 
to produce, if possible, a united sentiment and action on 
the part of the community, in order that the best possible 
result might be obtained. If, however, it was desired to 
ascertain the real value of railway management in this 
countrv, there was, perhaps, no fiict more striking than 
that which came unaer their own notice a year ago with 
regard to the Midland Railway. It would be remembered 
that the metropolis was placarded with announcements 
to the effect that third-class passengers would be carried 
by every train on that line, and, of course, the same 
thing rapidly spread amongst the other railway com- 
panies. Now, 20 years ago Mr. Ghilt had proved statis- 
tically and practically that third-class paMengers could 
be carried profitably by every train, and, in fax^t, the 
same thing had been proved even earlier, yet it took 
twenty-five years, at least, for the railway managers 
of Enghmd to arrive at a conviction upon that point, and 
they were now forced to confess that the operation was 
not only beneficial to the public, but profitable to the com- 
panies. But what led them to this ? Simply the fact that they 
were coming before Parliament for further privileges 
with regard to Amalgamation Bills, and it was necessary 
to give a sop to the public Now what was wanted was 
some system of managing the railways which would 
bring public opinion tobear upon them, and which 
shomd insure their administration in conformity with 
the requireSnents of the country. That was not the case 
at the present moment. It was only casually, and under 
circumstances of emergency of the kind to which he had 
referred, that any concessions, even for their own advan- 
tage, ooidd be obtained from the managers of r lilway 
companies. It therefore became absolutely necrssary 
that some other machinery should be provided— no one 
pretended it would be perfect— the machinery which was 
called that of Government, and which at aU qvents 
was under the influence of public opinion. With rtgud 



648 



JOURJTAL OF ras SOCIErY OP ARTS. Jolt 4. 1873. 



to the Foat Office, step by step thejT had beenable to obtain r tw^k^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^==- 
from the GoTernment deptftment refonna suited totS h^^^l'^'^ 5* jr«n»t«g«ontheGmtW€ito 
e^gei^eeof l^e timea^ the benefiU of whlTt^ ^ I^SS^^^^^ 
jojed b7 «1L He would not go into the question nf A. fl^!!?!^™^'^''!^ London and Leeds. Mr. Jonei ina 



tMiyin m cw va Miv uum, ue oenenu oi which w^e en 
joved b7 «1L He would not go into the queation of the 
relatire ments of a Oovemment system ; birt what did 
that phrase noean ? There were many kinds of Gorem 
ment ; there was thtf old Oorernment system of thi^ 
country, and there was another system which raised no 
an Empire in India— the Government of the Bust India 
Company. Thnt was no more a Ooremment of Drivate 
enterprise than the Government of this countrv and 
evtai in thia country there were various kinds of Govern 
ment management, some as bad as railway manairemenfc 
Itself, and aome better. In dealing with STqSSSn 
pracUcaUy, of course they would choose the hemL Md 
apply toanew state of affiurs the experience of the Mst 
so that a practical and useful result might be obtaim!i 
To those who looked beyond mere ^itiJdT quSJ 
and who looked to the influence on the commeice of 
the world erf what was taking place during ^ e« 
of competiUon, it must be apparent tiutt thev 
could no longer delay such a chanse as thia wh«f>»*i 
they Uked it or not At, ftom tlTSt^l^^S^ 
^ureholden, or duectcn, th«y were inclined to hemtate^ 
tte Ume, he believed, wonld come when, step by .^ 
whole branches of manufacture would be injuri and 
the rjaj moi who were tuned out of empWmrat 
wo^d force Uu. matter forward as a ParliimK 
^°*^^ ^' was a great and important quertfon to S 
conadered on pubUc grounds, and whateJeThS ^n 
the divOTgonoe of opinion expressed in the diwnsS^ 
sufficient &CU had been brought forward to Z^hat 
»t was fairly within compass that the trawfer of th» 
nulway system to Govomi^t could be <anri^^„f a! 
to the flnanci^ part of the question, it ^^<^± 
surprising to find a man of standing snd abilitv^i^» 
that the op^Uon was an impo«ribi7ity It w„ hno^ 
to beone of the simplest thi^possiile. irhldZ^ 
ti-eated as it it were a Question of r^iui^^ „ ^®° 

loan, Uke the FronSi^kideiSSity whe^fit'T"'"" 
sinjple a. the common opemtion Jf a c^'^J^on Juch 
as hadjust been carried out by the «rreatfinaneifl« «f fif- 

prised to hear th^^.^rt'^Lt^hV^llS^'^f ^J" 
ways wonld nearly double the Kational Drttl^d ^th 
all due respect, Le could not underatand wh^f Ih^ 
statement meant. So far ■« h^ /.«„i!i lu ' "'"'' 

now and saf t^^J^Cy^'SSlL^o^^lr^^ 
matter had been sinoo removed lm»h^ ^ 'H' "» ^^ 
and the conduct of «,ill?r,^„7„*i* course of events 



and the conduct of wiwZn? ""^ course of events could suggert some pbm foriS; K .»'''^"'"*'™^^ 
thoroughly convinL-^«,^7.°^*»*"' »"^ •»« "«• now nulways,**, fo^St^£inl^!f^ '"'r'^f managemeot of 

much UeT dX?cd"'"'Tr ^i^rquSij^^^'r h'^ '"' '^•'^-th^vaxiSiSL'^^s^^jir^ 

opmion, was whether anv fortl,»,Li!"Ti**?.', '° ''.'? Mr. Brooke «l.„ tK w.v__ «»™i » tbe btate. 



b^^Jf S^.*^'; '^ on the other h«,d,Ta 
J^ste^ ^d of ^^l**'"'^' *« "dvantageiof thsfnsBt 

to XSt£?i^»^ 'J**^ ?" fS^ »«thoritytosw«t 
^^iT^ "^ ^^ thS^^* capital\v»W b 

tTey 5.o^d^?„T «'»"«*«'. uXMy^ftS 
boey snoiua Have some control ov«r fK« K«i«^ .mI 

Mr. Franklin suggested ^t th«^Itf ^^S^'^ w 
the GovemmenTSdlLlrSKf^!^ «hould be taken iipl^ 

neJSSii^tS o'^u^v bW 'if 5'?***°<f »^»* there ,^ no 
detaa '^^ ' *^ discuasing these mattcaiif 

..e^-^S?oV^7dr^,SSi:SZ'».;S!^,^X 

smallest amount at which th^o^^lA vT railways. The 

stock, though virt^v M in Tn^"*?*"'"""*^ 
had answe^d >'erv well thf i?**."' ^^^ '^ *J*^ 
hands of GoveramU. ^ '''*^"' ~"*«'' '"• ^ ^ 

co"d'- s^l^ w'lL'e'S^T r ?*»* ^'^"'» -""Wy 
f«aways,Tforrt,±:i^l'i^**'«»'fL»''^ 



«n^ aS'iTw''l^^^*!f t'^PPO'"**^ at the 
paper. With roArf toW T°?* .''^ *'''• <*^' « "• 
Sc/le recommeX by1lrlSj?'«^«^rv«?« «»'«'P«'t 

but this, he believ^ w^ ftr^Zh ^i'*"""?! 
known to ennneen «n>l m.»k- -.. .{^ " "»* »ell 

machine which pwlntod- Th^ ''^ *?®. «"' '" ""c 
cka'Sing per stsKo in^d T^!*^.-"l'* ?. By"'?* of 



- — —«»<vu muia Slate. 

to speaS npW^ ' " * ^""*«"' tradesma^^ imt 

tbe"q'ueS Sr.S!^ S.liw'SSo^Tf 1^^ 
or not, unless the sv.b.m «- 2.n?°J? be purchased 
purchiiedhadbe^/IS^ ""'"^*^,«y •»«>'»liJ5 

mtorestof ordinaor diareffi. w^bT^ ^ ** 



JOURKAL OP THE SOOIBTT OP ARTS, July 4, 1878. 



649 



by boardg of dtrecton, similar to tboso at present exist- 
ing. TTie difficulties of Govemment interference mii^ht 
be avoided by a permanent commission being ap- 
pointed. 

Hi. John Jonei said the commercial interests of the 
country seemed to be the chief motive power which hud 
brought the meeting together, but those interests were 
not to be measured only oy magnitude of figures. There 
were other principles involved. Supposing the country 
were to increase its exports and imports by 100 per cent., 
and if at the same time the wages of the people were not 
improved, or their condition in life at all advanced, 
would that be any benefit to them ? There was nothing 
which pressed more hardly on the trade of this country 
than the Government— it was one of the greatest ob- 
structives to improvement from the burden of taxation 
which was imposed, taking, as it did, out of every man's 
pocket that whereby he would fertilise his own neigh- 
bourhood, and make his business more prosperous, and 
his life more comfortable. And yet this Government, 
which was the preponderating burden on every man's 
life, did not seem to have attracted the attention of 
the speculative men who had brought forward 
this proposal. They spoke of the advantage of unity. 
On the same principle, no doubt, it would be an 
enormous benefit, and would tend to the diminution 
of the cost of Government, if France and England 
were to be amalgamated. That was Mr. Chad wick's 
^reat principle, the value of unity. See what could 
be saved in that way. The army and navy might 
bo done away with, the Courts of the two nations 
might be^ done awav with, the separate systems 
of administration, aU would be done away with, 
and what an enormous benefit would arise from the two 
oations combining together ; but if such a thing were 
•aggested. who would be the loudest to cry out '' Home 
Rule r* No doubt his Lordship in the chair would be 
one, and this pleasing view of unity, with all its ad- 
rantages and pecuniary benefits, would be abfmdoned in 
^vour of some other principles which were considered 
equally valuable to human life. How, if the railway 
lystem were placed in the hands of Government, it 
ivould result in putting the working men connected with 
:he railway, who were an enormous number, in a very 
Usaereeable^ position. Supposing a porter or a guard 
nsuTted his inspector at a station, he would be dismissed, 
>ut there Was no moral disgrace attaching to him, and 
le could go to another railway and get employment. If, 
lowever, the Postmaster-General dismissed any particu- 
ar officer, he could not be taken on again at another 
)lace, but he was deprived of his livelihood altogether, 
>os8ibly on account of such a trifling matter as ofi^nding 
ome particular individual. This was a very serious 
natter when people talked about the interests of the 
roridngolasBee. Auotherconsiderationwasthis— Gh)vem- 
oenthad never initiated any thing good since itfirst existed. 
)ae would have thought that all the best artillery would 
laye come from the brains of men who were daily 
laing it, and whoso lives were passed in connection 
nth it, but such was not the fact. Governments had 
Iways shown themselves incapable of any progress. 
Hiey had never initiated new weapons for their own 
ervioe ; and private persons ootsioe li&d introduced 
he very things which they ought to see provided with 
ry the men whom they employed. The result would 
«, if the Government were to take possession of the 
T^t system^ of railways, which was still open 
immense improvement from the genius of me- 
hanicians, that a stop would be put to that progress, 
den of talent had enormous difficulties to meet in 
treadng their ideas upon large bodies, such as railway 
ompanieSy and this would be increased tenfold if the 
oatter fell into the hands of Government. There was a 
Teat deal in the localisation of power and convenience, 
nd ho bolievod if the Gtrvemment were in possession, 
Q foil power, there would not be that aptitude now 
hown 67 lociUtaei in pioyiding themselTeB with new 



conveniences, according to the particular wants of the 
neighbourhood. No doubt an immense waste of money 
had taken place through the action of the Legislature 
in promoting litigation and contending schemes; but 
where perfect liberty existed separate from the com- 
petition of Government — supposing a development of 
traffic between two towns — it was open to anyone to 
set the machine in motion for introducing the need- 
ful communiciition. A great deal was talked about 
the Post Office ; but that great system never itself 
originated the idea of the penny postage. It was Mr. 
Rowland Hill, whose great talent and energy was far 
beyond that of the generality of Government officials, 
who had developed that system. 

The C h a irm a n, interposing, said that the merits of Sir 
Rowland Hill were world-wide, and it was quite need- 
less to occupy time by descanting upon them. 

Mr. Jones said the East India Company had been men* 
tioned as an instance of good management of a country 
by Government, but he objected entirely to such a view. 
He contended that the Bast India Company was not a 
Government establishment, and was no illustration at 
all of the principle contended for. Another considera- * 
tion was this, that if Government possessed itself of the 
railway system, the whole of the work would be given 
out in large contracts, and the result would be that 
the trade — which was now distribnted among many 
different manufacturers who were each able, possessing 
a moderate capital, to supply the wants of a particiilar 
district or rail way-- would be thrown into the hands of 
a few great establishments. Government must deal on 
a large scale, and it would be found that it would grve 
all its machinery to one or two firms, all the iron railfl 
to another, and many of the present manufacturers 
would have to go to the wall ; in fact, the result would 
be that the vast majority of individuals would find it 
hopeless even to rise above the condition of servants. 

Mr. Brooke begged to say that he entirely endorsed 
the statement of we noble Chairman with reference to 
the importance of this question, and the desirability of 
Government taking charge of the rail ways. He might speak 
on behalf of a large number of the tradesmenof London, 
who were in the habit of paying large sums to railway 
companies for carriage, and also of farmers and producers 
in the country, ana he was quite sure they would all 
agree in supporting Mr. Gait's proposition. It was 
quite true, as had been said by the Chairman, that many 
individuals and families had been ruined by railway 
speculation, and even those who were not directly 
affected had lost large sums, as he had himself^ through 
the failure of those who had engaged in these 
enterprises, led into them by the brilliant prospects held 
out by the marvellous, able, and clever men whom Lord 
Derby had spoken of as the projectors of railways. 
These men had to consult the interest of their employers, 
and it was as true now as ever, that no man could serve 
two masters ; therefore, they could not servo the public 
whilst they had to consider the interest of the railway 
companies. On this account it was that an increase 
constantly took place in their charges, and this led to 
the prices of idl kinds of meat, poul^, fish, and vege- 
tables in London being much higher than they need be. 
Government were now managing the telegraphs with very 
great advantage, for his experience showed that greator 
facilities were now given than by the private companies, 
and he had no doubt that as soon as they saw their way 
the charge would be reduced. The same with regard to 
the Poet-office Savings Bank and Life Aseuranoe. He 
was quite satisfied that it would be a wise step for the 
State to take the control of the railways, and hoped it 
would be done as speedily as possible. 

Oaptiin Tyler then moved the adjournment of the 
diecosskm. 

Mr. Oreer, in eeoonding the motion, siud he thought 
that most of the speakers had haxdly percdved we 



600 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABT8, Jolt 4, 1878. 



exact salrieoi before them, which waa not whether the 
raflwaya had been managed well or ill, aa between 
tfaemaelTea and the public, or aa between themaelvea 
and their oonatitaenti, but whether the ayatem of 
havinff railwaya managed for private interesta waa 
good for the State at lam. Hia feeling waa extremely 
atrong that, yiewed in the intereat of the State, rail- 
waya ahould be manaj^ for the general good of the 
oommtmity, and not ror the good of the wureholdera. 
If the State would manage Sie railwaya, tddng into 
aocoont how mnoh oonld be made of them, in the way 
of doing ffood to the oonntry, he had no doubt that 
ten timea the amount of work now done, in the ahape 
of carrying paaaengera, and two or three timea aa 
much in the carrying df gooda, might be acoompliahed 
with Tery little ezpeoae. Railway manageia at preaent 
aimply conaidered what waa beet for tne proprietora. 
Now he might illuatrate thia by a thing whidi not 
unfrequentlv happened at a time when the Dutch had 
the monopoly of ttie Spioe Idanda. When there hap- 
pened tOflbe a Tery proaperoua year, it waa well known 
that, rathor than that tiie price of the article ahould be 
lowered, they deatroyed a luge quantity of the apice, 
•and that waa unfortanatelT the principle on whidi 
railwaya were now managed. No one wiahed to impute 
wilfkd miamanagement to theae gentlemen — ^it waa 
aimply that they had to conault private intereeta inatead 
of the common good. If a uniform GK>vemment 
ayatem were introduced, a great deal of mia- 
management would be got rid of, and he muat 
take exception to a great part of tiie apeech 
of Mr. Jonea, who found &nlt with Gk)vemment, for he 
did not believe Government wanted to have anything to 
do with railwaya if they could avoid it, becauae it would 
jpive them a great deal of trouble. There waa an 
impreaaion amongat the public tibat anything in the 
handa of Government would neceaaarily be mia- 
managed or jobbed. But in the caae of railwaya he 
believed auch a thing waa thoroughly impoaaible, for 
thia reaaon — ^the railway ayatem would bring the 
Gk>vemment, or whoever arranged it in communica- 
tion with the peopl^ and they could not perpetrate 
a job without aomebody being damaged by it. Now- 
a-daya everyone knew how to bring hia g^evance 
before the public, and even if newapapera were not 
read, or liatoied to, aomebody in Parliament would get 
up and aak a^ queation which the miniater would 
be bound to conaider and give a apecific anawer to. There 
waa no daaa now not represented in the House of Oom- 
mona, and therefore every one who had a g^evance 
could eaaily find aomebody to take it up and apdak for 
him. Why waa it that tiie carriage of lettera and the 
management of the telegrapha waa ao well conducted P 
Simply becauae the GK>vemment had greater means and 
fMsinties for conducting such matters, and, as a rule, 
the greater the system was, the more complete it woi^d 
become, and the more the officials concerned in carrying 
it out would become adapted to the positions they had to 
occupy. All Government departments were extensive 
iTFBteina, aimilar to thoae which managed Uie railwa3r8. 
The Eaat Indiea had been referred to, and there, from 
the natural unwillingnesa of Government to interfere 
with private intereata and to increaae political power, 
they had not taken poaseasion of that Empire until it 
waa absolutely forced upon them. Still he believed 
it had been a great bleaaing to the natives of that 
country, and that a much better system of Government 
eodatea now than when it waa under private management. 
He recollected when Mr. Jamea Silk Buckingham, at a 
public meeting, stated that he had been turned out of tiie 
country because he presumed to establish a newspaper 
in India, and at the aame period miasionariea were sent 
home lest they should run the risk of endangering the 
goodwill of the people by interfering with their religious 
opinions. Now it waa governed more like England, and 
ifcwaamuoh for tiie good both of the native population 
"d Of the pubUc at home. He waa quite V^vinoed 



that it would be a good thinff for G o t e n u nattttolih 
the control of the railwaya, having for their priffliiy 
object not the obtaining a revenue, bat the mma^ 
and encouraging of commerce, and the adnntage of tU 
community at large. 

The diaouaeion waa then adjourned fOlTlinndtjtJQlj 
3rd, at eight o'clock. 



The following statement has been MBtlyMr. 

B. Eisch. It contains a summary of viewibeldbf 

that gentleman and Mr. J. A. Franklin on theob- 

ject: — 

The evila of the present ayatem, both presBotndpn- 
spective, are admitted on all hands, but thediffieahMa 
the way of State purdiase are alao reoogniied to be oBor- 

moua, and, even if auch purchaae were curiedoo^ ita 
impoerible to aay what &eah difficultiei might lot pre- 
sent themselvea. Lord Derby haa pointed out but tbit 
would probably ariae, and who ahfdl say that erea u bai 
foreaeen alt P Cbptain Tyler, than whom no mon pcic- 
tical authority exiata, aaya.* **I would luneootoin, or 
aee contrived, some method of averting orooatnDiQg^ 
joint-atock monopoly which looms benroai in the tone* 
But I despair." 

Those who have hitherto treated of thiiqMitionip- 
pear to have seen no alternative other than a ooa t hi B tfl w 
of the preaent system, ultimately leading, ti Oipt Tf k 
ahrewdly foreaeea, to a gigantic ibanrooly <» *^ "J 
huid, or an out-and-out purchaae by ma Stite on ft* 
other. No other or middle course appean to him ban 
contemplated. Yet it would appear that a middle o« 
suggested by the syatem now in vogoe on '^•™* 
linee, preaenta a practicable aolution of t heyw a> « 
aolution which may be ahown to possess, moPOTj""^ 
incidental advantafea over and above those wtiacoiM 
result from a complete purchaae by the Ststa. 

It appeara firom Captain Tyler's report that the pco- 
portiona of loana, debenturea, guaranteed and mwajj 
ence atock,'and ordinary atock of railwayiin theUBja 
Kingdom in 1871 were aa foUowa:— Loan and debisttiBi 
(renewable), 15; debenture atock, 12; guwateedttj 
preference, 31; ordinary atock, 42; totd, 100, W 
ordinary atock forming only 42 per cent of *^ ^{Jv. 

In aome companies the proportiooi tie diftMft 
noUbly ao in the Midland, which has lately been iwf 
amalgamation. Here the figurea are ••JjP"??^^ 
Renewable debenturea, 10*19 ; debenture itodj IJ^ 
preference atock, 41*69 ; ordinary stock, Wwl to«i 

Now, it ia obvioua that, as between fte hoWJ 
of the ordinary atock and the other **Jfr 
the proprietary, the former represent t a''^ 
ing and temporary, the latter a staNe «» ■T 
permanent intereat: for while it is the «»^ 
of the ordinary atock-holder that 4i^>^*Sr 
be increaaod to the highest poaaible ^^S^^V^ 
to thereby raiaing, for the time, the marW ™^^, 
atock, even though to the ultimate detrime^tflfjj*rjj 
perty, the holdera of other property in *^* ?■*? ^ 
a greater intereat in ^ermanenUy fnaint a ining g^^ 
perty. And yet it la the comparativdf ff^ 
mterest in which the management of the line n ■ P\ 
tice almost entirely vested. Debeutnre JM***5!jSrt eS 
represented at any railway board, and ^•*jj?^ J 
guaranteed and preference atocka are ^^IfS^S 
repreeented. Now, mere juatice should leqow tiBi» 
proprietora of ao conaiderable a stake in the ooow 
should have some substantia^ and oraanised c^^^;^ 
the adminiatration. But ft would clearly be fcro«» 
the advantage of the companiea that any iudi cootie 

voice ahould be given rather to astahle ftantpi 
tuatingbody; and of aUbodieatohoUwidittOW 
the moat permanent would be the State. Thep» 

• •• Joomal of the StatWIeal SoolrtT,'' ^»^ W^ *• "* 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, July 4, 1878. 



651 



gested IB, that so fiir as debenture and jpreferenoe stock 
maj be acquired by the State, the Goyemment, by 
rirtae of the proprietary rights so acauired, should, in 
the interest of the public, have a controlling voice in the 
management of the line, such as it always htm had in the 
case of the Indian railways. 

Hany of the advantages of such a plan are obTious. 
The chief of all, however, probably is that it admits of 
being tried at once, and as an experiment, on any scale 
thai may be desired, and, if found successful, of bdng 
gradually introduced. There would not necessarily be 
an^ compulsion on the debenture and preference pro- 
prietors of any particular line to part with their pro- 
perty to Government, nor, on the other hand, on Gfo- 
vemment to buy sucii interests indiscriminatdy. No 
comprehensive measure would be required such as might 
evolro serious opposition from any side. 

In respect of various economies to be eifected, the 
advantages that would follow are equally clear. Take, 
for instance, interest on loans, debenture stocks, &o. 
The credit and security of the State must always rank 
higher than those of the most powerful and best- 
managed company ; and assuming, tor illustration, that 
the ordinary capital were as much as fifty per cent of the 
whole, a savingof one-half per cent in debenture and other 
fixed interests would be a gain of one per cent, to Uie or- 
dinary stock.* The fiudlities and advantages that the pro- 
poeed plan would offer for the amalgamation of companies 
are not less remarkable. Amalgamation is at present 
resisted by Parliament in the public interest, and two 
appUeations with that object have been refused within 
the last few days, viz., from the London and North- 
Wasiem and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Companies' 
which are to some extent competing lines, and from the 
Midland and the Glasgow and ^uth- Western Com- 
panies, iHiich are rather in the nature of one continuous 
line. Now, with a government officer always at the 
Board in the interest of the public, with a power to veto, 
such as is poss e ss e d by the government representative on 
the Indian Bailway Boards, there would no longer be 
reaaon to resist amalgamation on Uie ground of its 
twidlng towardli monopoly; and the onlinary stock- 
holders in the two amalgamating lines would reap the 
advantage of increased economy and improved adminis- 
tratiocL 

The benefits arising to the public from the presence 
at tba railway boards of an officer possessing {tower to 
suspend any action which may appear to be against the 
public inttirat, and to refer points of difference to a 
ceotimly impartial, and independent body, such as the 
recently-constituted Railway Commission, are so obvious 
that they need not be farther dwelt on. 

No part of the existing patronage, nomination of 
ftfflH^ftlfg &C., need be taken out of the hands of the com- 
pfinif^j the power of the government officer bein^ re- 
stricted to a veto which woudd be used only in exceptional 
ease*. Tliis consideration also meets the most formidable 
objection raised by Lord Derby to State management, 
~ (., that the State would become the largest employer 
Iftboor in the country, and would thereby become 
rolled in all the questions between labour and capital 
lich have lately come so prominentlv under discussion, 
in which it nas hitherto abstained from taking part. 
Lastly.— Should it be considered that precedent is re- 
tted to justify the recommendation of a scheme such 
here advocated, such precedents are not wanting. 
s the experience furnished by the Indian railways, 
And water companies supply other instances of 
i^y bodies being graduaUy brought under adminis- 
Ltire control. Moreover, boards of g^uardians, amal- 
tted into Unions, now act under Government super- 
Lon ; ttnd we now see guardians, appointed bv a 
later of State, sit side-by-side with those elected hj 
rmtepayers, a precedent going fSur beyond what is 



here proposed, inasmuch as the guardians ^mlnift^ 
what they believe to be entirely t£eir own frtnds. In 
the face of this general tendenqr of the age towards 
bringing all departments of pubuc service under State 
supervision, it is difficult to see what valid objection can 
be urged to applying^ ^e same policy to railway 
management, when it is shown that the difficulties with 
which the matter at first appears surrounded are capable 
of being cautiously and progressively overcome. The 
safety of this plan, due to its capabihty of bein^ intro- 
duced tentatively, is apparent by contrast with ths 
general result of rushing from one extreme to the 
opposite. The centralisation which ruined France 
under the Empire, has led to general measures of de- 
centralisation. 



CAVIOB LX0TUBB8. 



tb« OMe of the Midland Company, reCorrtd to in » former 
, the oapltal apoo whieh Mooomiw may be effscted la €6' 
o^r tin whole. 



The third lecture of the second course of Oantor 
Leotoresforthe Session, *' OntheEnergiesof thelm- 
ponderahles, with especial reference to the Heamire- 
ment and Utilisation of them," was deliTered hy 
the £ev. Aethub £ioo, M.A., on Monday evenings 
February 17th, 1873, as follows :— 

Lbctu&b IIL 

On th$ Energy of Vitality^ with $ipmal rrferena to 
the Meaeurement and Vtilieation of it. 

The *' £nergy of Vitality " is a manifestation by motion 
of the unknown and unseen power which is associsted 
with Ufe — ^indeed that which may (perhaps) be said to 
constitute life itself. This vital power ^some may call it 
force) is presented to our notice in two lorms, the animal 
and Uie vegetable ; hence the two sciences of soology 
and botany. 

In the distinctions laid down in the dassiflcation 
diagram, it will be observed that the energies are divided 
into potential and kinetic. 

In seeds, in eggs, in frozen toads, in suspended anima- 
tion, in hybematiog animals, are examples of the poten- 
tial energy of vitality. The power is there, but it awaits 
those surroundings which may convert this potential 
or dormant energy into kinetic or active energy. So 
long as a living body lives, it possesses kinetic energr ; 
it has power to move. Such a power is not possessed by 
any d^ body, although from external sources it may be 
introduced into one. 

The energy of vitality ii converted into the energy of 
affinity in the assimilation of food, into that of electnci^ 
in muscles and muscular action, into that of light as in 
^low- worms and certain fishes, and into that (u heat as 
in warmth of the body. One peculiarity of this vital 
pow<)r is the ability to seize on that whicn is materiaL 
and to adapt or select therefrom whatever may be suited 
for its special purpose. The earliest or most elementary 
of the animal forms in which this vital power of adapta- 
tion di^lays itself is called a protoplasmic germ. This 
germ, or, as it may be described, tlus microscopical cell, if 
placed in congenial surroundings, manifests an energy of 
ffrowth or reproduction which adapts these surrounamgi 
in a way and under an influencing power quite unknown 
to us. The power of gravity enclasps all nutter, the power 
of vitality exercises a selectiveness from matter ; gravity 
influences all matter but changes the shape of none; 
vitality changes the form of all it influences. For 
example : the process of fermentation is one in which a 
minute molecule possessed of a vital power can commu- 
nicate a similar power to another molecule, this again to 
anotJier, in each case appropriating or attaching tiie 
molecule to itself for a while, and so producing a rapidity 
of what we call growth, which seems almost as a process 
of crystallization when the water of solution is being 
evaporated. 
I Between the derelopme&t of a crystal, howorwy aiM 



652 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIBTY OF ARTS, July 4, 1875. 



of life, there is thia marked difference. A cryttal grows 
by appropriating likg molecules, and deals with them 
according to laws unknown to us ; a body having vitalit> 
not only appropriates various molecules, but re-combines, 
re-forms, and rejects. These the crystnl cannot do. 
The growth of a crystal is a phenomenon in phyMCS— 
the growth of an animal is a phenomenon in chemistry. 
In both cases the powers of reproduction or enlargement 
are mysterious. Although under the influence of vitality 
many forms of matter are produced,yet the crystalline one 
never appears ; as soon, however, as the excretory pro- 
cess is completed, or the vital power is withdrawn, then 
commences work of a crystalline character. 

How vitality is transferred, or what it is, or in what 
contained, how nourished, or how destroyed, we know 
not With the energy of vitality, as manifested m the 
processes of reproduction and growth, we are not thia 
evening required to deaL Within that frame thus mys- 
terioudy developed, there are combinations of mechani- 
cal and chemical apparatus fulfilling conditions with 
which we are deeply concerned. This apparatus, how- 
ever, does not from year to year retain the same power. 
OwiBg to the vital action, the apparatus with which 
we are to deal, whilst in incessant fluctuating 
change, yet attains a climax, then slowly subsides, then 
ibUows that phenomenon, even more mysterious (if 
possible) than any other of Uie vital ones, vis., their 
sodden cessation, which we call death. Neither in its 
earliest development nor in its mysterious cessation are 
those phenomena presented which are consequent upon 
energies we can either measure or utilize. Whence Uiat 
oomes which imparts vital energy, and whither it goes, 
are problems rather for human faith than human under** 
standing. When an engineer has to estimate the power 
of a Bteam-engine, he does not ask of its early formation 
and past biography, nor does he speculate upon its future 
nselessness ; he regards it as he finds it. So with animal 
vitality. We have to regard the animal as an engine, 
and in lieu of steam we have vitality. The engine is 
constructed so as to be utilised by the power of vitnlity, 
as that oUier engine is by the power of heat. Animals 
are much more economical engines than any man has 
made. The Creator's work is still far in advance of the 
work of the creature. Count Rumford showed that the 
amount of work done by a horse is much greater than 
could be obtained by employing its food as fuel for a 
steHm-ensine. 

Note, also, what an economical conserving of energy 
there is in hybemating animals, which store up in sum- 
mer that wMoh they expend in winter in maintaining 
animal heat. To those who intend to offer the results of 
their ingenuity in the economising of fuel for the Gold 
Medals and fifty pound prizes offered by this Society, in 
December nex^ may be commended for especial study 
this property of hybemating animals. Your lecturer has 
no authority to make the statement, but he can with 
some confidence assure them that, if successful in teach - 
big us to economise fuel as they do, they will win not 
oxu^ the prizes of the Society, but also the thanks of the 
nation. 

An animal body is, indeed, a wonderful self-acting 
and self-regulating machine. It is a structure com- 
posed of moveable parts, yet firm, and at the same 
time locomotive. Its hinges are well fitted with self- 
acting lubricators ; its furnace supplies itself with fuel, 
and can regulate the supply to the demand; its tele- 
graphic communications are extensive, rapid, and need 
no superintendence ; in its laboratory are performed 
experiments in the very highest departments of organic 
chemistry. 

There are two forms of vital energy which have so 
mnch of a kinetic character that we may utilise them. 
Indeed, one form is self-utilised ; vitality seems to have 
engaged its exclusive services, and whether the animal be 
waking or sleepins:, vitaUty claims all thoie services from 
^?MS!?^?vy Zi % ^^y '^^ch are rendered in the cir- 
culation of the blood, the digestion of the food, the opwL 



ation of breathing, the propelling iMtioQ of the bent 
These all are motions resultiiig trom some imprHwd Un, 
which have hitherto been hiuden from oar povtfiof »■ 
search. That Ihey continue, and that wt are imoomootu 
of them ; that we cannot stop them, and even if vvoooid 
by any means measure them, that we coald not tniulec 
them to any other purpose is clear without demoiutn- 
lion. 

Therefore, since for scientific physiology the stniy 
of this form of vital energy is of paramount impoitaBoei, 
it very naturally and properly would rank ai ooo 
of the chief subjects for medical studeoti. In- 
deed, the minds of physicians are neceuaifly ofta 
guided by circumstances to meditate upon its open^ 
and they are called upon to accelerate its scUoa here 
and to retud it elsewhere. Hence the otsemot 
anatomist becomes, if not a kinetic, at Imst t lUtk 
mechanician; the thoughtful physidan ndeoti uid 
harmonises the external evidences of then iatmul 
energies, and combining the events which fall nodei hv 
notice, he deduces conclusions which link the lavi of 
vital energies in their operations with those of the other 
imponderable infiuences which pervade all the mivene. 

Under such circumstances as these Dr. Usjer of Bed- 
bron, in Gh^many, was led to condosioos in leipect to 
the i^Blations between heat and work which the ftutha 
investigations of others by very diffBreoi proceB*- 
processes in which the energy of vitality doei not «^ 
— ^have established as correct. 

There is another form of vital eneiy siBiilir to thii 
over which we have control, and which we anplov m 
we please within the limits which the vital i»vflrisi the 
construction of the apparatus through which it sctopoBiL 
This is that to which we usually give the name of "nu* 
cular energy." 

The qualifying words, " within the limith" *'''''"|]J 
tial, for the limit is in each case a hard and &itli>et>^ 
we cannot overstep it. This limit is perha^iww w* 
mirably arranged in the animal frame than m tsf o«fi- 
struction of man's devising. Although therein huii* 
dreds of muscles, yet their names, sbapti, end ^* 
nesses are very varied. Throughout all *^.^{j^ 
one remarkable principle applies : every mQideiifn(^ 
adapted to the work it is likely to be called cpon to pe* 
form. 

There is a principle in mathematical ideuoe eslM w 
" Principle of least action." It may be eqJsined thai- 
Given an object to be acoomplished, then ** the pniop 
of least action " should teach how, with the nam 
quantity of material and with the least expenditan a 
power, that object would be done. The mow the ma- 
cular system is examined under this goidaaoe, the bmt 
we are lost in wonder how exactlv every F*'**'* ?*!*♦ 
body is suited for its specific wonc, and &r the ibo^ 
of work it is likely to be OBJled upon to dischiiig f» 
more curious still, how (in special cases) the moaw^ 
develope in order to meet certain requireawnH^ * 
example, the muscles in the arms of a smith, « ^Ij' 
other muscles. And, further, ho w perfectly these as** 
are varied in form and construction so as to °^.^Kjj 
quirements of their respective occupations, and, if oaM 
upon by prospective emergencies, to be n»dy t^ "^ 
than ordinary exertion. Certain muscles are » 1***^ 
for extraordinary exertion, and then *^I*®_|^.tJj 
normal state, thus strictly carrying out the *jtosa^*\ 
least action." 

As an illustration of this principle of Um^ 
look at that most extraordinary mnide oi 
in the animal economy— the heart. Allhoogh oa 
features of its action should come under notia it 
later portion of the evening, yet it bosis upon the pw 
sent subject, in that it is a bundle of small maicoH 
fibres. There are probably more than »»y*^ ? 
them, complex in their arrangements ^.P^H*^?^ 
curious in their relative and oombined actions, sad p 
this, regarded as one mnacle, weighs oa •bsvvb^ 
man, only 9*89 OM. Ite ■cwwwlflro cqnirtnHlirtt « wo 



JOURJffAL OF THE BOOIBT? OF AETS^ July 4, 1878. 



653 



that at each action it po^ela forward the whole of its 
contents, leaving no fllled-in comers. It has power to 
propel these contents to the vessels in the extremities of 
the body. Ware not this muscle ** up to the mark," these 
extremities woold die for want of noorishment ; if '* be- 
yond the mark," then some of the vessels along which 
the blood is driven might be burst in consequence of a 
liquid pressure greater than that they were calculated 
to sustain. 

The balances required are perfect, and this little muscle 
of 9'39ozs. sends life to all parts of the body — by dapr 
and by night — from birth to death. Now the work it 
is continu^v performing is as though it lifted its 
own weight through nearly twenty thousand feet in an 
hour. The height of St. Paul's Cathtdral, from Uie 
ground to the to^ of the cross, is 404 feet, therefore the 
heart could place itself on the top of St. Paul's Cathedral 
nearly fifty times in one hour. Let a man consider how 
often in an hour he could ascend, even on the assumption 
that he was never tired, and then he may obtain an idea 
how much more work his heart is doing than he can do. 
Put otherwise, the heart, regarded as we regard a 
locomotive, can raise itself through a vertical height of 
nearly four miles in one hour. The most powerful loco- 
motivei^ built specially for the ascent of gradients, can 
only raise their own weight through about half-a-mile, 
or one-eighth of that which the heart can do. The 
directors of an Alpine railway (that from Trieste to 
Vienn*} ofiered a prize for the locomotive which could 
lift its own weight through the greatest height in one 
hour. It was allotted to the locomotive (Bavaria), 
which lifted its own weight in one hour through 2,700 
feet, or about half-a-mile. The experiment was simply 
made by means of inclines on railway lines ; the subject 
this evening does not warrant a larger reference to this 
matter. 

By no contrivance can we make a machine which shall 
bear such proportions between size and work as ^e 
heart does. Here is a little machine, weighing say 
ten ounces, put in action and worked b^ vitality, as a 
steam-engine is worked by heat ; and this little en^e, 
which we could easily put in our pockets, can lift itself 
twenty thousand feet high in an hour. There must 
indeed have been a master-mind that desired and 
executed the manufacture of the animal machinery, and 
so perfectly carried out the ** principle of least action." 

By careful anatomical and mathematical investigations 
similar to those which are to be alluded to near the close 
of this lecture, the daily work of the heart can be shown 
to be one hundred and twenty-four foot tons. This is 
nearly one-third of the daily labouring force of the 
whole body. 

This muscle of the heart is not only capable of exerting 
this wonderful power through the action of the vital force, 
bat it seems not to need any rest, and yet it does not 
wear out, for the muscles in the heart of an old man are 
apparently as sound and healthy and fit for continuous 
work as those in the heart of a youth. How through 
life they have been so maintained, how as other muscles 
in the frame lose somewhat of ener;^etic power, yet these 
fail not, is one of the many perplexities to science. That 
muscular power is, as we may say, restored by rest and 
food, any one who cares to think upon what he 
experiences and witnesses wiU readily admit; indeed, 
farther, the nature of the work and the character of 
the food must be suited each to the other. Now the 
muscles of the heart never rest. The variation in their 
tntigy is within very narrow limits, so narrow that we 
nuty say that any series of observations, however long 
continued and whenever taken — as a series — would 
alwAja average the same result. Hence the inference 
that in the animal economy these muscles possess the 
power (peculiar probably to themselves) of at one and 
th^ Bbnio tiDie parting with energy ana restoring it. 
Thh ev» r-balanced and ever-exerted energy, this actual 
fxutnhl uttlisatittn of energ}*, coupled with a perfectly 
E'.Ii-jtiuptiutive t'pcration, is what the Bearcher for 



perpetual motion, like the asymptote to the hyperbolav 
IS ever aj^roaching, but never attaining. 

If men can find out how these particular muscles are 
exempted from the laws of muscle, with which laws 
these Cantor Lectures are mainly concerned, Uiey will 
have advanced further in solving the problem of per- 
petual motion, which some enthusiast in every generation 
pursues with commendable but hitherto unsuccessful 
zeal. 

The energy of vitality, as utilised and controllable by 
ourselves, is diiefly through the agency of muscles. 
The physiologist regards these muscles, with their 
attached tendons and nerves, as to tho functions and 
offices they discharge in the economy of the individual, 
we are to regard them as to the external use to which 
they may be applied and the work to be obtained from 
them. How much we copy from nature may be con- 
cluded when we refer to Uie earliest attempt at loco- 
motion from machinery. It was by basing the form 
and structure upon the muscles of animals. To thus 
imitate muscular action has hitherto baffled the ing^ur 
ity of man. If anyone has not satisfied himself of the 
nature of this action let him put the hand on the 
muscles of the arm when it is in repose ; they are soft 
and yielding. Let him now make an exertion with the 
arm, such as raising a weight ; the muscles become 
tense and hard. The weight raised ii extraordinary 
compared with the weight of muscle employed, for it 
may be from sixteen to seventeen thousand times its 
own weight. 

The physiologist considers the striated and nn« 
striated variety of muscle, the nucleated cells, the 
vitality in each cell, the electrical relations of various 
tissues. With none of these need we be concerned. 

Engineers regard muscles as machines for doing work, 
and as it is needful to know the structure of a machine 
before we can sav how it can be made to work, so now 
the structure of muscle, as a machine, must be con- 
sidered. 

When a muscle is examined after vitality has ceased, it 
is found to consist of a great number of separate ports, 
or strings. If this piece of string were a muscle, there 
would be a bundle of strings, or fibres together, just 
the same as if I had doubled the string several times^ 
and encasing them there is a oovering or sheath, much 
the same as an India rubber tube, which covering en- 
closes a number of muscular fibres or strings. That 
oovering has none of the oontracUle elements of 
the muscle in it; it is merely an elastic covering 
enclosing that which has the contractile powers. 
Then, side by side with this bundle of fil>ree, or 
strings, in its case, is another one, also covered in 
the same way, and another, and another. These are 
kept in their place by the tubing, or covering spoken- 
of, and a combination of these is called a musde, which 
consists, then, of these fibres, which again are separated 
into fibrillsd. With such a peculiar arrangement o£ 
contractile strings it is clearly a problem for &e mathe- 
matician and the mechanic to obtain a solution to tha 
question of how much work can vital energy do when 
operating through the means of such apparatus as is 
thus supplied. The muscles are so varied m form, conv- 
bination, and number, that but little progress has hitherto 
been made to deduce results and bring them into 
measurement. 

Now, no substance is known that can act the part oi 
a muscle. A muscle left free is in the state of an indift- 
rubber band when slightly stretched. It is called into 
action by contracting, exactly the converse to that of 
india-rubber, which is brought into action by being 
stretched. A number of these fibres are put together, 
and form a group like a number of india-rubber bands. 
Sometimes Uie groups act in a straight direction, some- 
times they take a sloping form. If they take a straight 
form, and if we know the number of fibres and the 
power of entlurance of ono, it lb easy to calculate the 
power of the whold ; but if the muscle acts diagonally, 



m 



J01TRNA.L OP THE 800IBTT OF ARTS, Jvlt 4. MS7. 



tiiMi i» biing* in ^e pftmUelogmm «f fdvoMy and we need 
the nuitheiaitiouM to 4<idttoe Ibe — s u at «f mtert(f 
whioh oiui oui be ofeiliMd by this Ibrai. Sooifltmet the 
fibres are tvmtod like a sorew, sonetiaiee they epnag 
from one point aad sprsad oat like a fiA^aiid all ^lese 
aorewa and Uam tbe nwtbsmstictan muit get kold of 
and cslooUte ; this is new being done. 

Having endearonred reiy briefly to explain the 
mode in which animal vitality can be utilised throngb 
the agency of raascle, it may perhaps be well to state 
that between that part of Am systeni where the will 
is looaUaed and the mosole, there are telegrafikic rami- 
fioHtions of nerves. These nervons pruo o s o es entnr 
within tbe musole, and, by seene means unknown^ to 
ns, inflaenoe the mneole to eiert its mechanical 
powers— -convey, in iAot. the will to that agent whioh 
IS expected to do its bidding through the power intio* 
dnoed by vitality. 

With this nerve poiper we are not ooneemed; tiM 
nerve as a material sahetanoe is intermediate between 
the will and the masole ; it has nothing to do with the 
amonat of work done ; its besmess is chiefly to connect 
the mental and the material proc ess es of life. Of 
that which is the will, of that which travels along 
t^e nerve in oonseqaence of the will, we know nothing. 
OmU it electricity ; that is not any advance, for we knt»w 
nothing of what ^ectricity is. The first region in which 
the vitol power gives a measurable evidence is when the 
muscle begins to act Prior to that all is speoulatitm, 
and furnishes a very pleasant hunting-ground for phy- 
•ioloteieal enthusiaste. 

Whether masole is a means or apparatus for the trans- 
formntion of force, or whether it is the mnterial out of 
whose chemical changes or electrical states force and 
consequent energy result, are beyond our present know- 
ledge. A plant transforms lif^ht into energy, so may 
muscle transform what, for wairt ef a better name, may 
be called vitality into energy, and yet not be itself con- 
sumed or destroyed. Although, for obvious reasons, that 
enersy whkh is locMilised in anioials is called the energy 
of vitakty, yet it most not be inferred that such energy 
or source -of energy is self-existent. The animal extmcts 
it in those wonder-working laborateriee— the stomach 
and the Innes. By soose unknown process it is deposited 
in the muMcIe as potential energy, and awaits the decision 
of the will as to when and how it shall become kinetic. 
Although ignorant of the analytic chemistry of vitality, 
yet we are not ignorant of the materials with whioh it 
experimentalises. With this knowledge we must rest; 
. we cannot repeat the experiments vitality makes. Given, 
every material and contrivance within reach, neither the 
physicist nor chemist, s epara tely or jointly, can accom- 
plish the phenomena with which the chiuoges of these 
ingredients are concerned when they are associated with 
the vital principle. 

To form an estimate of the number of the fibres in any 
muscle is an investigation requiring more of care and 
CHUtion than of diAcmty. Determining irom a series of 
avenges the magiiilnde of one— t'.^., the area of cross sec- 
tion of one mnsoular fibre, and knowing the area of the 
•ecti«n of nnaaole, tbe number is merely the quotient of 
the division. 

The muscles are eaoeedingly small and delioate, and 
the way their sise is calculated is by outttsg a piece 
of cnrdboard exactly to the section of the muscle. Then 
another piece is out out of the ^same cardboard to« say, a 
square form, and they are weighed against each other 
imtil the square card is axaotly the weight of the irre- 
gular piece. Thus when the weights are equal the areas 
«re equal, and by calculating the area of the square niece 
^ou are able to arrive at the area of the section of the 
irregular musde. By the aid of a powerfol microsoope 
we can ascertain the sise of a section of one of these 



neotary fibres are not oireidar, bat pQlyi(aBal, ewiif to 
th»4r motoal pf LSsa r o, and at Ihe aa^ssef ths p«iifgim 
are the vessels which supply Uoud. Henos it obmiif 
follews that where thi«e fibrBke are very somU, Hi 
supply of the blood, which is the food of tbe atasoK en 
fr^t at them more readily than when they are Vfvy ln^ 
Where they are large they have graalerstraiftt,tbslit 
can lift header wei gh t s , but where they are mull tbej 
will have greHter endumnce, because more fr^ aid 
nnd easily sup^^ed with blnod. Hence, si tbtr in 
smxller in women than in m«m« ttie maselei of venoi 
have more power of enduranoe« but not the mat 
strength as thoee of men. If a man wishes to leit ttsi . 
he hts only to nurse a child, and then c<mp«n tk 
length of time he could do so without fatapw «itk tbi 
lensrth of time for which a mother can nsne it ud k 
will soon find the differenoe, and give a verdict aimat 
to himeelf. 

There are two moeeles in the arm with «M vent 
especially concerned in esttuMting the ussMuesMit ti 
suoh vital energies as we may utilise ; iodee), it may 
suffice to consider that the muscles in the anus tad ki^ 
are the only ones to which the subject of thitefwi^'i 
letJture directs attention, and we may ittwfffte tie 
question of the great number of muscular fibres hf al» 
lating in the mode described their preseete in tIi« Hq 
most important mnsclee in the arm — vis., thenof^ttQid 
'•biceps," the other called **bmehialis «iiti*es.' la 
the biceps there were fonnd to be four hnoAnA snd 
forty nine thousand elementary fibres ; in the )mc4idi 
there were found to be three hundred snd iatij-tm 
thousHBfl ; total, in these two musdrs of tbtmot «*■ 
hundred and ninety-eight thousand fibrN. 

Now, to examine theee muAcles — their fibns »i ttw 
fibrillfls, to watfh their ncti<m, aad to specAipfflB 
the causes of this action, is a department of KiM 
full of interest, and from which mnch that ii «W" 
mHy be brought. The ohj«^t of this kclow d^aej 
require that any such investigation should bend^'tO* 
the coinpetency of the lecturer is not «R*^ J^J* 
task. dr. Haughton, of Trinity Oollere, Iw* 
has for many years sought for means and opp«tw*J 
and availed himeelf of them, even at the mlf rf ■ 
own life, for determining accurate mes«inB»Jia 
muscular force. This first mentttm of thei»iM«<* 
who for 12 or 14 years has given that stknoeii to* 
snliject which enthusiasm nlone oeold indsoe, "^f* 
be passed without this addition. In reply to «^r 
towards the cloee of 1872. Dr. Banghton nio<ln*w 
me 400 pagee of the proof ah«^ts of a worfc oo '■•^*JJ 
MtchHUics," m*ich has not yet been poWiibfd. * " ■ 
work is my authority for the figures reUtiof fc "^ 
mnnts in respect to muscular strength tnd '•^^*J* 
With the reeults his cnreful and numerouj oprtonW 
hnve affm^ded htm we are clt*arly tonc*Tnsd. "*[^^ 
fully theee have been colle<-ted may bejodge^fr** 
followinar. He writes. '• This much I csn guv**** 
the dissections, weighings, and observ»fi«M ^ *J 
made by my own hnnds, with every preortibos w •■• 
I ctjuld think to ensure accuracy. Mv ohsert»»*'**| 
also been made without preconceived hypolb«»|^^ 
them ; and many of my m<"St inttrtetnig ''^yEJ 
been forced upon my notice by the facts pi«MP»« 
my eyes in the dissecting-room and lubotaW . 

First, as to the f xpression ** co-eflfcisnt of ^^V^ 
force." OnthewallisaUbleof"oo-efficiflnt80fa»*» 

force." 



Mnce the delivery of «iis leoture the wwk J^J^J^I^ 



under tlie title of «* The PnwMf4e« of Aobaal 



onaermetiueor *- rae rnao*fae« « aouhm "■' ^^ n^^ 
Rrv Samuel Ha'«ht.«. K.R d^Fetlovd TrWatjr • <Wv'Ta 



London : LongmttDt, Oreen an<l Co Dr. 
pre*»«-# that ♦the work It offered to the 







aitiitcfcj * oea oeic or pmoteus 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, July 4r, 1873. 



655 



In the ann 94*7 lbs. per aqoare inch. 

leg 110*4 lbs. 

abdomen .. 107*0 Iba. 



n 



$9 



It 



»> 



n 



if 



Average . . 104*0 

The term "co-efficient" is a word of common occnrrence 
in scientific investigation^ and is plainly obtainable firom 
*' co-efficiency.** When we speak of oo-efficiency, we 
mean ** that two or more things combine to produce an 
effect." It is the figure by which a nnit measurement is 
moltiplied in order to produce a result To find the co- 
efficient of muscular force is to find some quantity 
which may be so combined with a measured area 
of muscle as that we can have a result on which 
to rely in reference to the question proposed. Adopting 
the view which the lectures on energy and gravity 
propounded, it may suffice for the present to say 
that the table on the wall tells us that, knowing the 
number of square inches contained in the cross section of 
any muscle, then multiplying these by the figures there 
stated, we obtain the weight which the particular muscle 
can, on sudden emergencies or for a very short space of 
time, sustain. It is the limit of endurance — it is the 
measure of lead which is just sufficient to cause the 
muscle to break — if a small weight more be added then 
the muscular fibres will be broken. It is the very ex- 
treme tension to which muscular fibre may be subjected 
without actual rapture. It is obtained by treating muscle 
as engineers treat wrought-iron rods whmi they seek to 
ascertain what load they oan carry by tension. This ex- 
plains that the table does not give a co-effident of work 
the muscle can do ; such a oo-effident depends upon the 
energv that vitalit^r (or vital force, if the term be pre- 
fsiTed^ can infuse into the musde ; but, however great 
that vital power may be, the work done by the muscle 
must be less than that obtained in the table to which 
these remarks apply. A few words in illustration may 
not be misplaced. 

We find from experiments, which would occupy tkr 
more than an hour to narrate, that in order reidly to tear 
one square inch of muscle across, it would require 94*71bs. 
in the arm, and in the leg 110*4 lbs. It is somewhat re- 
markable Uiat in the arm, which does not earry the body, 
ytra have 94 as the strength of the muscle. When yon 
come to those connected with the leg, which have to 
carry the body as well as do work, the fibres are very 
mnen stronger. Taking the average of the whole body, 
the oo-effident of one square inch of musde in the human 
frmme is 104. Therefore if we know the sise of any par- 
ticuUr musde and multiply it by 104, we g^t in lbs. 
weight the limit of strain it will endure before fracture. 
Isow the next Question is, how much it wiU raise. 
In this view of tne case motion enters. Sappodog 
a fibre was in the form of a string, a very long 
one, and by contracting it will raise 2lb. we^ht through 
I Oft If, now, that flore were doubled and only half 
the length, it would raise 4 lbs., but it would only 
lifi it tlm>ugh half the space, because its power of con- 
trmction would be diminished by the doubling. Now, 
the products of the wdght raised, and the distance 
through which it is raised, are the same in both cases. If 
it raises 2 lbs. through 20 feet, 40 would be the measure 
sf that muscular exertion ; and if it raised 20 lbs. through 
two feet, 40 would still be the measure ; but the distances 
ire dififerent. After illustrating experimentally these 
ilatements, the lecturer remarked that if an ounce of 
nuacle be distributed with large sectional area, then its 
nntraction will be little, but the weight raised may be 



Muscle has also another peculiarity different from 
thing with which we can deal. If a bundle of it 
taken, as yon are aware, it acts by contraction ; but 
it oontracts it does not change its bulk. It does 
•well out as we understand the word — it merdy 
£ta. Thus if you had a long musde acting in a 
of water, and it contracted ever so powerfully, it 



would not in the slightest degree affect the levd of the 
water in the vessel. • . i 

Now we come to the mode in which the mechanical 
action of these combined muscular fibres is to be 
brought to a question of simple calculation. As far 
back as 1798 Dr. WoUaston occadonally observtd a 
peculiar sound in his ears, for which he could not account. 
He pondered over this sound until about 1808, when 
a faint dawn began to enlighten the gloom. In 1809 he 
made dear to his friends what he was about, and in 1810 
the results were published in the Philosophical Transac- 
tions. What he then did is the basis of all our present 
knowledge of this subject of muscular power. 

Dr. WoUaston began to surmise that the sound in his 
ears arose from muscular contractions. He stated that he 
was led to inf«r the existence of intermittent contractions, 
from a sensation perceptible upon inserting the extremity 
of a finger in the ear. A sound is then percdved 
which resembles most nearly that of carriages at a great 
distance passing rapidly over the pavement. The sound 
is not dependent upon the degree of pressure upon the 
tympanum, for when the ear is stopped with great force 
without the presence of muscular action no such sound is 
produced. For instance, if the head press with its wnole 
weight upon the ball of the thumb no noise is perceived 
unless the extremity of the thumb be at the same time 
pressed against the head, or some other musde of 
brought into play. To judge of the frequency be 
this contractile action, he contrived to imitate the 
sound and to render the sound itself and the imita- 
tion audible by the same ear. It was accomplished 
thus. While the ear rested on the ball of the 
thumb the elbow was supported by a boaid lying hon- 
sontally, in which wereout notches about ^ inch asunder 
dmihir to those in this biard. By rubbing a pencil along 
these notches with a regular motion he imiUted pretty 
correctly the tremor produced, and by counting the marks 
and noting the time, he found repeated observations agree 
with each other as nearly as could be expected. He also 
varied the experiment. One variety was this— the ear was 
stopped by a cushion pressed upon by the end of a notdied 
stick that rested on his foot and conveyed the vibrations 
from the musdes of the leg to the ear along with the 
tremor produced by friction upon the notches ; and still 
the results wero nearly the same, vis., that the muscular 
vibrations resembled the sound of carriages at a dintanc^ 
He induced many friends to repeat the experiments, and 
by going through the form of the experiment any one 
may, when convenient, satisfy himsdf. The humming 
sound will, of course, be perceptible only to the ears of 
the experimenter. , , ^, a 

Put the first finger of each hand to the ears, not 
pressing them tightly, resting the elbows on a table thus, 
and then dench the fists firmly, you will immediately 
throw the musdes of the arm into action, and as soon 
as they are brought into action there is a peculiar hum- 
ming sound perceptible. That is a sound caused 
much as the sound of fiies, when buzzing about, 
is caused, or as humming birds cause their sound; 
it is caused by an intermittent action ; in thia 
case of the musdes, and upon that action the 
rest of this lecture will turn. There is, however, a 
better plan even than that for observing this phenomenon. 
When you go to bed, if you are particularly bent oft 
scientific research, and wiU lay your bead on the piUow 
BO as to entirely exdude aU external sounds from the 
ear, then dench the teeth firmly *, those musdes which 
are concerned in masticating the food are brought into 
play, and you hear the sound most distinctly. Now, 
that sound gives a musical note, and from that musical 
note all our knowledge of muscular action spnn§;s. All 
mudcal notes are caused by the frequent repetition of a 
vibration at equal intervals. Here is a gkss tube of 
some length, and a littie jet of gas lighted. If the tube 
be pla^ over the gas fight yon hear a musical note. 
That is caused by the light being extinguished and re- 
lighted a certain number of times per misate, as you 



656 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. Juwr 4, 1878, 



ran see by watching the Ttfli>clion in the mirror. I^ 
now, the mirror being shaken behind the light, a 
namber of separate fltunes appear, if these are counted, 
we can ascertain how often they oocnr in a minute 
or an hour. Therefore we know the namber of beats 
vthich produce that musical note. Here is an in- 
strument for causing a sound by the frequent interrup- 
tion, at equal intervals of time, of a stream of air. The 
number of interruptions in a given time are recorded by 
the wheel-work and indionted on these dials. It is 
called a " Siren." Again, here is a gyroscope, which does 
the same thing. If some string be wound round, and it 
is Bt-t in rapid rotation, and then a pieoe of cane or quill 
Ih' pressed against the little wheel at one end of the 
Hxle, the noUi produced will vary according to the speed 
of thn rotation. Another illustration may be had from 
the heating of metals of certain peculiar shaped surfeu^es, 
Hud laying them on cold metal, sometimes a peculiar 
humming sound is heard. 

When Dr. Haughton was suffering from a singing in 
the ears after an attack of fever, he produced a sound 
by exercising the muscles of the jaws ; this sound was 
in unison with the singing in the ears, but separated 
from it by several octaves. Dr. Haughton was struck, 
like Dr. WolUston, with the resemblance of the sound 
to distant cabs. He measured the intervals of the 
If ranite pavement, and found them about 4 inches apart. 
Thia gave three impulses in the foot. If the cabs were 
driven at eight miles per hour, we have 36*2 impulses 
per second. An organ pipe with a m<»vahle stop was 
tuuHd in unison, and thus 35 1-3 vibrations per second 
wt-re di'duced. 

From this rate of muscular contraction Dr. Haughton ^ 
deduces the amount of work stored up in human muscles. ' 
It nmy fatrilitate an explanation of the table and diagrams ' 
on the wall if, in as simple and clear a manner as in my i 
pow»*r, the mode of conilueting the experiments is de- ' 
8f?ribed. Remember the object is to make elear to all not 
only th»j mode, but also the principles on which these ex- 
|ieriiiients rest. Ther«-foro every technical or professional 
term must as far as poattihle be avoided. 

If the arms be held out horisimtally, being raised 
diivct from the sides, and not brought forward, they will be 
supported in that posititm by two muscles in ennh shoulder 
— or rather the portions of the two shoulder muscles 
which support them can bo clearly defined and measured. 
Thn length of time for which thin position can be main- 
tained will of course vary considerably. The other 
evening I could hold mine in this position for only six 
rainuteH, th>tt is t > say, they he<'ame exhausted in this 
sp ic« of time. Therefore the sole power of the musoles 
employed was expended in maintaining the arm in that 
position for six minutes. Eight minutes will be found 
more netr to the avertge. 

Now let us consider what was happening whilst the 
arms were so held our. Clearly the muscles were giving 
off this note, that is to say, they are always giving it 
off when they are in action, and. therefore, the arm 
litf rally was swinging up and down, or vibrating, though 
to a very smtU and invisible extent. It would do so 
much more but for this peculiar arrangement; whilst 
the muscle contracts and produces the action that we 
usually call muscular action, that contraction does not 
take plnce through the entire mass of muscle at the same 
time. Each fibre contracts, but not in the same portion 
of the muscle and at the same time ; there are waves suc- 
ceeding waves, and the cons»Hjuence is that there is, to 
all appearance, a steadiness in the arms through theoon- 
tifiuity of these waves. But, as regards the action, it is 
the same as though that wave passed along at once. 
Now, it the wave passed along at once, then the arm 
wcmld fe«ll, because it would oscillate or move up and 
down as a wave does. Elnowing how often that wave 
passes, you would know how often the arm fell. The 
arm fkll* 82 times per second. It falls as if it were per- 
fectly fn^ and if perfectly free we can easily calculate 
W»e space through which it would have laUen m tho32iid 



part of a seoond, namely, the ^^ of a foot; in oti» 
words, we have reached this stage, that the sctim of i 
muscle is such that it allows the arm to fill throu^ the 
64th part of a foot in the S2od part of a leoond. Now 
let us get to another stage. The cause of iti falling is 
the action of gravity upon the whole mass of the am. 
You may remembcor that last Monday, ia dea£ng «^ 
the pendulum, it was explained that in a ooapoBud 
pendulum different portions fell through different ipwA 
but that there is one point which we called 0, teraed 
the centre of oscillation, which may be regarded u re- 
presenting the whole mass. Now, asranung t dwolda 
to be the point of suspension of the nendoloiD, it ii the 
point O in the arm which would &U thiongh the^ 
part of a foot in the 32nd part of asecondfUd tbttprant 
O, by a mathematical calculation, can alwayi be i(mL 
Regarding the arm as a perfect cjlinder, ihii poiot if it 
two-thirds of the length of the arm from the ihrnikiff. 
Again, the work done depends on the mats mevvd, ox 
supported, and the mass moved is thatwhickiieakn* 
lated as at the centre of gravity, which for thii psrptsi 
is about the elbow — about eleven inches from the ibonidff. 
Therefore, assuming the arm to be 24 inchai, th« the 
point O at 16 inches from the shoulder, falls thnmgh 
the 64th part of a foot, in the 32nd part of »««»«, 
and it is very easy from that to ascertain how fir the 
point at eleven inches from the riiooldef-, lepceiatni 
the whole weight of the arm, would fidl in thenneB* 
terval of time. We have, therefore, got the c?»^* 
gravity, the weight of the arm, and the diMan»it{«** 
We consequently have all the elements wtatel Wi 
have the mass, the weight of the arm, the «|i«M« 
1.64th of the foot), and the time (l.32odof » «w»t- 
Without going into the question of mstheantici, m 
work done under these circumstances, m "^VJ 
own arm, was this, that I was able to do ^J^J^ 
arms 1,980 lbs. in the six minutes that el»p«d \*m 
fatigue came on ; in other words, the w<ak dow «• 
the same as though I h>id lifted 1,980 It*, ow fcf 
high— 1,980 lbs. is very nearly 18 owt Thit « 
to say, the work that these two srmi did in iiW| 
through that spaoe, and being lifted Uck ag^^T* 
very little short of a ton. If any one wanti to w» 
how much work the haman arm is captUe of o«< 
when working on its own aocoont, he n**y 'J* 
weights amounting to 9 cwts. on to a ■^"'Jvi ^ 
high, and he would then ascertain the p****^^/*? 
each arm did when left to support itself. Ssch a • 
outline of the mode in which the calcnlttian w » 
If there are any persona interested in it, u s qsw 
of actual calculation, a table on the wall ia»J •* ■ 
interestt 



• Dr H. cAlls hi«and many other similar fxperim**"*^ 
althoafrh reference Is made »o motion, bcaose fh*- •"""^'j^Sl 
In continued oonraetlnn aiitU t«red out, and ondK?« •«"* ^^ 
in spac', although a rapid and acii»e tn Iwralar ^^ ^ 
pla c within the musdesto *hlch the "Ofk doneb"";*^^^! 
■♦• To find the work d<»ne »n holding arm* hori««ta>i •»"^ 
exhaustion being six nilnut«»:— 
From measnrement, lenffth of each ann Is 94 Inebai 
From welfhing. weight o€ eaeb arm to 8 !♦«. -&'*•'* 

From muscular n<»tf, vibration of t^ch anni*»»P»F^^ 
Fr-.m Uhle^, cemre of osdUsiilou of each aim Is lofJ*"""^ 
16 Inches from shoulder. i,n^wW 

From Inspection, cent e of graTiky of eacb aim au^ 
shoulder. 
Now from the usual cxpreaslon— 

8 = 1 0T« 



In this case 8=|3a(;^y 



= ^foot. 



Therefore centre of osclllatioD &IU through "JJ" ^-^ « "'' ^H 



or 

minnte. 



»♦ 



If 



»t 



gen 



w. 



,»lKt 



iad 



If at 16 Inches firom the shoulder there U a fall * J^^Jj" 
minute, then at 11 iDchea from tba ihoaWw tfc«t » • 
II 90 
— ^ feet per minute. 



JOURNAL iW THE 8O0IBTT OP ARTB, Jwlt 4, MTa. 



657 



Tbtanftin thitcMe wm held steady, and doing wliat 
vmjht calW sUtiowork. aa diatingaiahed from that 
vhich it d/namieal or kinetie Br. Haagbtun took 
mj great paint to aacertain the ez^ot wei^t of these 
BoacJirt in the ahoolder. This whs done thus : — 'J here 
u Utgv mosole called the '' deltoi«l '* muscle ; a portion 
oly of thii muscle is engaged in the work. After cttre- 
il fxamination in various ways Dr. Haughton con- 
IiuU that 10-36ths of this muiKde is employed in the 
xperimrnt It would be out of place to enter into 
b«e det^Otf here ; it may, however, be uf gnneral interest 
ijHuM this investigation before you in a tabular form. 

OS avoir. 
Avecsge weight of snperspinates maflda ... . 1.671 
Avongeuf portico of dehsid 2,830 

i_^ 4,601 

«n»w 4.5 08. parform, oo an average, 1206,5 ft. lbs. 
•t 1 oa. performs 268 tt. lbs. befoie bdnir ex- 
btuted. 

\t this t'lhnnstion is eomplete in 8,29 minutes, the 
■w«l5» domtion of endurance, 1 os. in 1 minute does 

^ = 32,3ft.lba. 

Oo one oooasioii these mosdea were weighed and mea- 
ttwi vithia 40 minutea after the ezecutioD of a criminHl 
»M to MCvrtatin tho exact size of them under circum- 
■ocrt where there had been nu WHsting from exhaustion, 
nth thv shoalder unloaded, th« muscle was tired out in 
|0 AinQiss on an HV«n«g« of experiments. The weight 
rtbe mimk* employed was4i <»•» ""^ ^^^ 'wk they did 
• ta tv«nig« «M equrmleot to the lifting of 1,206 lbs. 
^h a foot. The weight lifted through one foot 
krone oon«'e of muscle would be 82 lbs. He then 
It a weight of 2 lbs. in each hand, and held 
n oat as before until fatigued, and he found 
m ■aaclea were exhansted in four minutes, but 
IS Amoont of work which each ounee of moscle did 
u Mlbfe., to that it did more work thiin it did before. 
*». the pow«r of the heart to tend blood into the 
» !«, to keep up the action there, is not, in this case, 
M K» the aetion or w^ork req«ired from them ; henc« 
^ bfgan to fkil in four minutea, whereas, in the other 
to, thry kfpt at work for eight minutes. In fact, the 
Wet extt-tly btilHnoed the work in the eight minutes ; 
it it tell rather abort in four niinutes. An experiment 
u tried in another form, namely, hanging a weight on 
» «r!»t and keeping the elbow close to the side, a 
mtfui moacie (biiepe) came into play. This muscle 
Bnha about eight ounces ; the power iHsttd 9^ minoies, 
td tho weight, per ounce of muscle, lifted was 41. 

Staticai* wobx donx bt Musclbs. 





W'Tk In 


Darstton 


Welifht of 


Bate of 
Work in 


Ko^OctaMd. 


foot 


of labour, 


DiOkcIesIn 


foot Iba. 




pou. da. 


In Uiiuotes 


on C*8 

aToir. 


per nz. 
per mill. 


doadHl mnaclee 










)J fchottlder .... 


1206 


8-29 


4-50 


32*3 


fcdnl muscles of 










*KmldT 


842 


405 


4*50 


46-2 


^vdoinsdeaof 










bf««rm 


3170 


9-29 


8-21 


41-5 



^ow, coming to dynamical work, when the muscles 
^ engaged in producing motion, the muscloa of the 
nk of the body are employed simply in supplying the 
*t masdes with that upon whioh they live daring 

S'll'SO 
nCvc the work dooa by one arm It — ^^ ft. Iba. per minate. 

H n 99 1S5 ft. Ito. „ „ 

'<fa^ total work by both arms before ezhaaitfon U 
•in. Iba., or 1,980 ft. lbs., that it nearly 18 ewt. liftsd 
a^ti OM foot lo ilx miaotaa. 



the time thi^y ate at woik ; thay do bo estenial work 
themselves. This waa alluded to in an early part of the 
lecture,^ when told that there are certain muscles which 
act involuntarily ; for exumple, if the heart cannot 
propel blo<id as fast as the muscle needs it and if tho 
will inaiats upon that muscle doing farther work, theif 
the heart is called upon to do what it cannot do, and 
death ensues. The two must be harmonised ; and where 
this harmony is broken, as sometimes happens, in h boat 
race and other cases of violent exertion, accident or 
death results. 

Dynamical Work Dokb bt Musglbs of ths wholx 

Body. 





QnaatHv 


DoratloB 


Walfht 


Itetaof 




of 


of 


OI 


wo) kill ft* 


Kind of Work. 


work in 


laboor 


mavdes in 


lb«. peroc. 




ft* t- 


ill 


oa. a^xir- 


per 




p-'onda. mlnotea. 


dupola. 


ml uta. 


Boat race 


61.040 7 


675 


1617 


Barrow lift 


2,038.400 480 


675 


7*39 


Running with load 


10.091 165 


575 


35- U 


Day labour. ..... 


792.400 600 

1 


575 


2 30 



This table shows the results of experiments on 
different kinds of work. First, there is the case 
of a boat rHce which was rowed in seven minutes. 
The whole wei^ht of the muscles employed in actually 
doing the work viz., those in the arms and legs, 
wtts 675 ounces; the work done, rnxking all allow- 
ances for the weight of the boat and the people in 
it, &c., WNS equivalent to 61,040 lbs. raised through a 
foot, giving an HVenige of only 16 lbs. per onnee per 
minute, so that the contrast is very great between stutio 
work Hud dynamical work, the former being three timee 
as great. Next comes an instance bringing into play nil 
the active muscles of the body. It was a plan adopted 
in some rsilway works, raising rubble from a great 
depth. There was a pulley at the top of a shaft, 
over which passed a rope, and a stage at eerh side 
large enough to carry a barrow. One bnrrow was filled at 
the bottom, then a man stepped into the empty barrow 
at the top. and his weight in falling to the bottom of the 
shaft lifted the burrow full of earth. He thtn ran up a 
ladder to the top. and whs ready to descend ag tin. By 
thttt means his own weight lifted up the full barrow of 
earth, ^ith work like that a man worked for 480 
minutes, and he did two millions of units of work. Com- 
pared with the boat race he was only half as indmitrious, 
and the length of time w:is very much greater, but he 
only did 7*39 foot lbs. per oz. per minute. In the next 
case a man ran with a load upon his shoulders, and his 
musculHr power was knocked up in half a minute, but 
the work he did whb 35 foot lbs. per minute, approaching 
very nearly the Htalic work. Last comt-s a day lab«»urer, 
who generally takes it very easy, and it appears he only 
does 2 foot Ibis, per oz. per minute, so that if he complains 
of getting small pay he does little work f«»r it ; it rouat 
be remembered, however, that he works for 10 hours a day 
at it. 

Time warns me to close. It may, however, be of 
interest to utate that, caleulated as machinery would be 
t-alculated. the heart receives and propels tlie whole 
amount of blood in the human body in forty- two seci^nds. 

To these who care for the subject of this even- 
ing's lecture, and have not alti»gether laid aside 
their mathematieal knowledge, the information in Dr. 
Haughton's bot»k will prove both instructive and inter- 
etiting. To follow up the investigation, they may study 
the action of a hon*e in walking and drawing a load, 
also the construction of carriages so that the animal niay 
most easily raise a loaded cart ovi^ an obatade on the 
road, and, further, decide upon the inclination^ of the 
traces to the roadway. These bein^ done, the inveeti- 
gator will find much scope fbr original work in ex> 
amining the various ways in which horses are harnesaed 



658 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jolt 4, ll 



BO as to utilise Hieir rital energies. This done, boats 
and bicycles, as means of utilising muscular energy, are 
worthy of thought. Perplexity and confusion seem to 
bo stamped upon modem usages in these matters, and 
the conclusion is forced upon us that the utilisation of 
i le vital energies has not yet been reduced to a system. 



AHHTJAL IHTEBJTATIOHAL EZHIBITIOHS. 



THE AUSTRALIAN COURT AT THE INTER- 
NATIONAL EXHIBITION. 

Stimulated apparently by the example of Queensland, 
the older Austiulian colonies are advancing rapidly 
towards maturity. The Victorian and South Australian 
sections are almost ready to be presented to the public ; 
bat New South Wales is much behind. There, all is 
yet chaos. 

South Australia is very proud of her wheat. During 
the past year South Australia has produced an excess 
of one ton of cereals per head of population, after 
feeding her own inhabitants. This power of export was 
well exHmpUfted in 1871, when this colony contributed 
103.430 tons of wheat and flour to the cereal wealth of 
the outer world. In preserved meats, bee( mutton, and 
Jsangaroo; in com, and especially in wine, this flourish- 
ing young colony steps boldly to the front Many fine 
fleeces are exhibited, one of them weighing ten pounds. 
This is the fleere of a two-tooth Merino ewe, of 365 days' 
growth. Mr. W. H. Dutton sends some fine samples of 
wool from Merino sheep, grazed on native grasses. 
Dried grapes, raisins and currants ; dried fruits, such 
as apricots, also speak well for the climate of South 
Australia, but it is in her mineral wealth that the 
strength of this colony is most apparent. Inte- 
resting specimens of gold imbedded in quartz are 
shown, and a magnificent lump of malachite will not 
fail to attract many observers. The copper ores 
are deserving of more than a passing word. The Moonta 
Mine produces some superb blocks of copper ore. This 
mine has been an immediate, steady, persistent, and 
brilliant success. It produces yearly no more than 
18,000 tons of ore, but this is of such rich quality that 
since the mine was opened — ten years ago — £900,000 has 
been paid in dividends. The great bulk of ore is yellow 
sulphide, but an admixture of richer ores brings the ave- 
rage per-centage of the mine up to the extraordinary 
fiirure of 21 per cent. Fine specimens of purple sulphide 
and quartz range as high as 50 per cent., and the admi- 
rably named peacock ore (copper pyrites) obtains 30 per 
cent. Chloride of copper touches 45 per cent., but these 
fine specimens are outahone by purple sulphides from 30 
fathoms level. These reach 60 per cent., but are again 
excelled by some exceptional specimens of red, black, and 
crystalized oxide and malleable copper with a little sul- 
phide. These and some fine samples of grey sulphide 
and quRrtz reach 75 per cent. The Wallaroo Mine pro- 
duces 28.000 tons of ore per annum, but as the ores only 
average 1 1 per cent, the Wallaroo venture has in eleven 
yoar« paid her shHreholders no more than £360,000. 
Wallaroo ores consist chiefly of green carbonates and 
yellow sulphides. Green carbonate of copper is 
found on the surface, and extends downwards about 
thirt>-two fathoms, when it is replaced by the 
yellow sulphide. It is a remarkable fact that no mine 
in South Australia, from which surface green carbonate 
was absent, has proved a success. The Doora mine, 
opened only two and a-half years ago, is another for- 
turiHto venture in the same district as Moonta and 
Wallaroo. The main outcrop of copper in this rich 
section of South Australia lies nearly due north and 
south, the lodes running east and west. Bismuth is 

rte'SjjW^!' '^'^^' ^^ ^ "^'^ extensively 



Victoria exhibits models of the funoos " Wdcome" 
and ^ Blanche Barkly *' nuggets, the former of wfaicb 
weighed 2,217 ounces, and rsiOised £9,325. Fine ippci. 
mens of auriferous quartz have also been sent ILaja^ 
these are of immense size, and completely OTmhftdor 
the samples of carbonate of copper, galena (sulphide of 
lead), sulphide and oxide of antimony, mictceooi ins 
ore, and iron pyrites, black oxide of mangiuvw. aai 
zinc blende. New Zealand and Natal are claaied vitb 
the Australian Colonies. The former of then rxbDnti 
the Phormium teniz^ or New Zealand flax, in nn'ooi 
stages of manufacture. Rigid in fibre, this materisl bis 
long resisted every effort to confer upon it a comneraal 
value, but the perseversjice of Mr. & lliorae. wlw bH 
devoted much time to the utilisation of the fknum 
tenax^ will in all probability be crowned with twcm. 
Kauri gum is another sinirular antipodean prodwiiofl. 
In its nreah state, as it exudes from Uie tne,itlM ao 
commercial value; the Kauri gumof commeroiiobtiinoi 
from swamps formerly covered by Kauri trwt. Itii 
reached by spearing the ground till gmn ii "rtnck,** 
and then dug out. Kauri resembles amber in a lUte d 
transition, and is of great value in the compo«ti«rf 
varnishes. Natal sends tea, coffee, sugar, and aiwv-root 
Among these the samples of coffee will probably tUmi 
the most atttention. The Australian d^rtaent «3 
be thrown open to the public on or about the iWirf 
July. 

The number of visitors admitted to the Sxhibitiaatt 
Thursday, 26th ult.. was as follows: -SesioB licW% 
166; on payment of Is., 3,749 ; total, 8,915. Oj**''^ 
season tickets, 187 ; on payment of li., 2,870; tofflj 
3,067. On Saturday, season tickets, 187 ; « pwnrt 
of Is., 3,170 ; total, 3,367. ._^ 

The number of visitors admitted to the Exluwi* 
during the week endings Saturday, Jane 28th, w ■• 
follows:— Season tioket8» 1,142 ; on pavment of Stiir 
1,201 ; on payment of Is., 16,210 ; total, 17^ 

The number admitted on Monday was, aeasoo bjWd 
161 ; on paynaent of Is., 2.681 ; total, 1731 On J"*-* 
day, season tickets, 127 ; on payment of It^ «'^^' 
total, 2,743. On Wednesday, season Ocketi, 24$: • 
payment of 2s. 6d., 1,039 ; total, 1,287. 



EZHIBITIOVa 



English Artiiana and the Vienna SzhiUtto- 
Wednesday ten artisans, representimc vtrious w* 
the town, and selected by Uio Birmingham Chinw* 
Commerce to report upon their respectxTe indt**' 
the Vienna Exhibition, left for Vienna. The ntfkji 
the trades represented are as followa :— Gola, 
and electro -plate, construction and dssigii; w 
whips, and leather work; leather and prtiwn' 
tin and japan wares ; ironmongery exominatha ' 
and, as far as posible, comparative ^-alue; g»nefv' 
on guns, jewellery (excluding gilt toyi *°£2Jr i 
brass foundrv in general, cabinet bra« ^*jJJ^ 
particular ; the table and other glass, of all ab*"^ 
railway carriai^es, waggons. &c., of allcountnrt;* 
as applied to jewellery, glass, iron, &c ; "^^j^^ 
habits of German workmen, wages, and amosea**- 



In a letter on "Prevention of Rrw,*' o 
week's Journal, Professor Orechi, the in^n**'j^ 
alarm, wan mentioned as Prof«M»or, of Ltoa, V"*^! 
Siena. The instruments alluded to aw now on vie* •> 
C. de Tivoli's, 10, Austin Friars. 

A new college has been opened undo* tbe 
of the London Civil Service and Militarv Colkr» 

principal is Dr. Heinemann, F-B-G-S-.^^*»°^ p2i 
some time a lecturer and professor at the Ciy»w* 
School. 



JOURHAL OP THE BOOIETT OP ARTS, July 4, 1873. 



659 



irSTRALUN MEAT FOR THE WORKING 

OLAS8E8. 

i aofementi set on foot a short time ago by a oom- 
itM of noblemen and gentlenien, among whom are 
I Imptrial Highneee Prince Louis Luoien £k>na- 
te, the Marquis of Downshire, Sir Antonio Brady, 
Andrew Fairbaim, Sir Henry de Bathe, Colonel 
H. Money, Captain Hans Baakf and many other 
Ideal and ^astronomical celebrities, was, on Wed- 
by last, submitted to the test of a practical experi- 
Bk It was considered that the dislice of the work- 
erases of England to Australian and other ** tinned" 
Ub wm more troly referrible to ignorance than to 
jodioe, and it was therefore propos^ to introduce at 
8tbe ** canned" meats to the homes and hearths of the 
ming classes. A committee of working-class repre- 
Utins was appointed, and by their hearty co-operation 
lUj ikotlitated the conduct of an experiment on a 
If Kale. Nine hundred meals made from Australian 
( and fresh vegetablee were distributed in the morning 
le ?arioas working-men's dubs and industrial centres 
hb aetropolis. The method adopted was to mince the 
itnlian beef finely, to add to it potatot'S, onions, 
Ntm tnmips, pease-meal, the small maocaroni known 
M^ ^lulu, shalot, sweet herbs, essence of meat, and 
ttle pepper and salt. These ingredients were put into 
kmg.kettles holding several portions each and con- 
«i to their destination. On the arrival of the food at 
■b or private house, water was added to the contents 
he Icettleg, and in one hour it was fit for use. It may, 
^M, be best described as a sort of Irish stew — wiUi 
iBportant exception that the meat, being minced, is 
to pelpable as might be desired. Its flavour was ap- 
imf enough, but the appearance of the dish was cai- 
rn to deter all but veiry hungry people. In the 
nag a meeting was held at the Cannon street Hotel. 
Atttoaio Brady presided, and was supported by seyeral 
>ben of the Committee. Reports from the varioua re- 
Miti of the Australian stew were read to a somewhat 
' ^tendance, and the experiment, though well in- 
Itd, will probably £ail in convincing the artisan that 
ih can be wholesome and strengthening without 
nog mble signs of meat 



kindly let me know the fact through the Society of Arts 
Journal, and also the main objecticna. — ^I am, Ac, 

John Colbt. 
Paatyderi, Blaenyffoe, R. 8. O., South Wales, 
June S6th, 1813. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 



COBBSSPOVDEVGB 



iCHASE OF RAILWAYS BY THE STATE. 

1,— I have read with great interest Mr. Galfs 
gbt/ol paper on the State purchase of railways, and 
Ukseqaent renuirks of other speakers. It seems to 
that many objections, such as the inadvisability of 
BBo»*ot trading, of increasing the national indebted- 
of State labour on a large scale, of increased State 
*aff«< and opportunities for jobbery, &c., might be 
^ or mitigated in great measure by the State 
ani^ the owner of the permanent way and stations 
leaving the rolling-stock and all the trading part of 
oanpfli in the hands of companiee. The advantages 
M arrangement would be that Government could 
the national iron highways join and branch in such 
tiont as were most suitable for the development of 
■tional resources. The lines could be leased on such 
tiuiwand for such periods as experience proved best, 
ft lines were parallel, one might be specially devoted 
■*nger traffic and another to goods, so as to increase 
Atr of travelling at high speed, and avoid extra 
«w tear, and consequent loss to the public, which 
^luml result of over-driving goods trains to get 
•«t of the way of passenger trains. There are other 
^^es, and there are diMui vantages, of course, but I 
a extend this letter to an unreasonable length if I 
^ notice them. 
^ plan his been proposed before, I wish you would 



Snt, — ^The following short account of the Yarknnd 
Mission, sent to me from Simla, under date 1st June, 
will doubtless interest our friends who were connected 
with the deputation to the Duke of Argyll relative to 
opening of the trade on the frontier of India : — 

** The par^ consists of seven Europeau officers, in- 
cluding Mr. Forsyth, in command ; Dr. Strtjliczka, geo- 
logist and naturalist, known for his p;iIeontological 
researches; Colonel Qt)rdon, an acknowledged oriental 
scholar; (^tptuin Trotter, R.E., a trigonometric^ sur- 
veyor ; Dr. Bellow, an antiquarian ; Lieut. Chapm tn, 
B.A., secretary. (The name of the seventh is acci- 
dentally omitted.) 

*'The party hopes to leave Srinuargur about the end 
of July, and to restch Yarkund in October. From that 
point they expect to push on to Aksu 41^ N. 7U^ E., 
and there to establish themselves in winter quartdrs. 
Provided no objection is made, they will then move east- 
wards, and examine existing and abandoned trade routes, 
running directly to China and S.E. to Lhassa. Two of 
Montgomerie's pundits will accompany the party, and it 
is probable that one of thpse will be sent directly from 
Khotan toward Lhassa. The party is large enough to 
divide. A severe, but with proper precautions, a very 
bearable climate, is anticipated. 

"In the spring of 1874, if all be well, they will have 
to visit Khota and Knrghar, and endeavour, from the 
latter place, to make the Tareek P^iss, and strike across 
tho Pamir Pass into Badakshan, where it is intended, if 
possible, to obtain some security for the travellers, who 
may push up to Yarkund by this route. The Kara- 
korum route will probably, at all times, offer very serious 
difficulties, and it is considered that the opening up of a 
line of trade through Cabul and Badakshan is of main 
importance. 

' ' To winter at the fort of the Tian Shan sounds rather a 
serious matter, but it is expected that the party will re- 
ceive a warm welcome ; and in returning with Yakoob 
Khan, the envoy, the acknowledged heir of the present 
Mahomedan ruler of Yarkund, is guaranteed a g^at 
deal, for he has fully appreciated his reception in India. 
Photographic apparatus will bo taken with the party, and 
it is hoped that negatives yielding reliable pictures will 
be brought away. Tho mule-carriage for scientifio 
instruments, chemicals, and so forth, is a difficult matter. 
The presents, selected with great care and success bv 
Major Bume, sent by the India -office for the Atalik 
Ghazee, will accompany the expedition." 

Then follows a short statement of some anticipated 
difficulties from intrigue and other causes ; but, after the 
statement of the Secretary of State, it is not to bo sup- 
posed t^at anything but temporary annoyance can arise 
from them. When once an expedition is fairly started, 
it is not likely that the nation will tolerate failure from 
other than insuperable causes. Central Asia, in spite of 
all the compilations and lectures with which we have 
been fnvoured, mostly traceable to but ver^ few authori- 
ties, is still almost an unknown land, and it is of essen- 
tial importance to the future of India and the Indian 
trade th^it the attention of the country should be still 
directed to the progress of the work. — I am, &c., 

F. Eaudley-Wilmot, Major-General. 
Victoria-road, Clapham-common, 8.W., 
Jaly Ist, 1873. 



It is estimated that if coal working machinery 
were universally employed, 60,000 colliers would suffice tu 
raise nur annual extraction of 120,000,000 tons. About 
300,000 colliers are now said to be employed. 



660 



JOURNAL OF THE dOOIETT OF AfTTS, Jrcr 4, 1673. 



BmwatAJ, K«Tli? 



Art in Anitralia. — ^The colony of TTctoria does not 
Beem to hold out mooh 6Dooung«neat to the diffosion of art 
prodaotions, seeing that a duty is levied on entry, ranging 
fraan 6 to 20 per oe&t., on Tariow olasiso of paintings ax d 
engraTinga. Thus we Bod in tha jmt 1871— £l«69l vitoi 
admitted free ; £1,688 Bui^tKst to 5 per oant. doty ; £7^»nb- 
ject to 10 per oent. dury ; £417 sufagtict to 12^ per oaot: doty ; 
and £378 subject to 20 per cent, duty ; the total amounting to 
£4,822. £8,083 was warehuuaed. Sflv^r pUte pavH a duty 
of Is. per tnty ounce, and plated ware (of which £12,840 in 
Talne was imported) 10 per oent. 

Sdneation in th«ArgentinaB^itklio.— TheOoTemor, 
in his speech lately received, states that "four thuanand 
pupils are now receiving public instruction in the National 
oalleges. Two provinces have claimed the prize of ten thou- 
■and dollars graoted by law, and various provinces have 
passed laws providing resources for the support of schools. 
A(^ irding to the official oensun, at 1,645 public schotils there 
are 97|549 scholars, of which Buenos Ay res alone gives 
82,000, and if to these wo add the Univsrsities and other 
•ohools, 103,000 Argentines are being edooated. One hun- 
drsd and tw«lve libraries have been established. The nor« 
mal school in Parana has now been two years in existence, 
and gives great satisfaction. A similar school is about to be 
itarted in Tuouman." 

' Goal Bnpply. — Apparently the greateet resource for 
coal in the future will be the deposits of the United States 
of America, which have an area uf oimJ formation extending 
over 200,0()0 square miles. More than 20 coal-fields in 
America can ht^ enumerated, some of which are small, others 
very large. Pennsylvania p^nsess^s no less than 12,656 
square miles of bituminous oal and 470 i*qoare uf anthra- 
cite; while West Virginia has 15,000 squnre miloK; Illinois, 
30,000 square miles; Michigan, 13,400; Iowa, 24,000; and 
Missouri, 21,000 square miles of coal. Add to these the 
g^reatooal- fields lyin^r within the ancient AppaUachian Basin^ 
aoMUnting in all to 203,000 square miles, it will, how«ver, 
be a long time before we can look to America for a supply, 
inasmuch as she requires rapidly iocreaMing quaatitifs to 
satisfy the demands of her iron manufacturers. — Engineer. 

A OoTern»ant Mining Engineer for Oentnd India.— 
After making upwardn of 20 bore holes, and ninkiug two 
■haftp, the Government have been successful in finding coal 
of an exceUen t quality f«4r loo«»motive purpoi«es in the Central 
Provinces of India, iu>iut 300 miles to the east of Bombay, 
and 200 south of Nerbudda, and it is now called the Wurdah 
Ynlley Coal Field. One ithaft has pruVHl 52 feet of luial at 
a depth of 149 feet, and the other 32 f^-et at a depth of 180 
feet ; whilst every one of the bore holes has reveali'd c«al. 
The mineral extends over a («urface area as much as 60 miles 
in length, by fn»m 15 to 20 in breadth. To develtip and 
superintend the working of this wide district the Indian 
Government have app anted Mr. Waiter Ness to btj their 
mining engineer. Mr. Ness is the fct'ntleinaa whose name 
is so well known in connection with th** heroic efibrts to reach 
the entombed miners in Pelsall Uall CoUittry. 

Peat as Fuel. — It is nnnnunced that the Irish Peat 
Fuel Company is in a fair way to solvo the problem of work- 
ing the Iiish peat bugs to practical nd vantage. The directors 
have secured a large bog within easy accexs of Dublin, and 
in every way suitable to the manufac:ture. The Midland 
Railway Company, on whose line the bog is situate, have 
given every assistance to the undertaking. The machinery 
has been purchased, and some of it is already in the country. 
The directors are resolved to leave nothing undone to make 
the company a success, and it is to be hoped the renuit will 
show that the confidence in the feasibility of developing in 
Ireland a new and profitable industry has been well founded 

Kew Use of Vanganese. — The very high price of the 
metal nickel has led t(» some snggentions that metallic man- 

Smese might be employed in its place in the manufacture of 
erman silver. Dr. Percy has written to the Timet, stating 
that m«»re than twenty years since be manufaoturvd an alloy 
with manganese which so perfectly rei^mbled German silver 
™* ^dSlT ** ""*^ ^ electro-pUtera without their detsot- 



Pfmryntinn cC Vaod^r-Mr. JaMt Hwmoo, of lii 
ibnume, whose patent for sapplying ios bss V«b ««kd ftr 
laome years, has also a fivesing invention fat xuaA pn» 
Ivation. In cvder to tasi the qusifcm sstsvSmWi 
^sonld be osrried oat on a large easle* sad tbtosfrboiti 
'voyage to Europe, to make it remuDsiativB, s laaber j 
gentlemen have subscribed £2y500i Mr. Hsniioa im hI 
propose to enoaae whole oareasss in oyliadsn ndsck^ tftj 
ireesing temperature, bat the meat, cut into qiuiim vA 
joints, is reduced to a froaen coaditicm, and dteaj tbenbf 
intercepted. Some instances of preservstiun uf oiniM M 
natumf cold in Sweden, and their ioipaistiDa iBt» n 
oonntry in a froaeo cenditian, have ainsdy bia notni 
in 



HOTI0I& 



ii».i. M^»l 



[OT8. 



The Midgantnier mtbeetiptioos oedoe, 
should be forwarded by cheque or 
order, crossed ** Contts imd Co.," and nude ] 
able to Mr. Samuel Tliomas Davenpoit, 
officer. 

THS UB&ABT. 

The followiiig works haye been praented 
the library ;— 

Hiirteenth Annual Report of the AMoiitNe 
rhtmbes of CSommeroe. 

R^K>n of the InspMton of FVidcrieB kt'^M 
jeur ending Slet OctolMr, 1872. 

Tb« Punhaee of the Railways by iheStsta SH 
of Mr. Lea in the Honee of Coounoos, ca SM M 
1873. ^. 

The Proportions of the Hubmu Flgais ii ■»> 
down to us by Vitrorras. By Joee]^ Bg««i,FXw 
Presented bv the Author. 

Reale Instiluto Londatdo di Sdeiise e Lettin. m 
diconli, Vol. 6, Fascicolo 8 to 16. tttmai^ by ■ 
Institution. 

Memorie del Reale Institute Lombsrdode Sc*'^ 
T^ttere. Classe di Sciense Matemati<*fi e K'W^ 
Vol. 12, Fascicolo 6; e Clasjje di Letters e &H 
Morali e Politiche. Vol. 12, Faaicolo 3. Vn^ii^H 
the Institution. , 

Proceeilings of the Academy of Natural S*to«i 
Philadelphia for 1872. Pnwented by the Actdw-J. 

Transactions of the Ri>yHl Scottish Sodety af A" 
Vol. 8, DHrte 3 and 4. Pr«eented bv thsSocirty 

The Law of Private Eaterpriee in its B^t*^j 
Railway and other Works. By Ourlsi F. &«*■ 
Presented by the Aothur. , _,- 

Memoirs of the Gei>logioal Survey of In^ ^rj 
parts 1 and 2, and vol. 9, p.rts I and 2. P*^**!Tf3 
Indies, vol. 4, parts 1 and 2. Records, voL6 I■^■^^ 

The following work has been porchsMl v i^ 
Library :— ni 

England's Improvement by Sea sod i^ 
Andrew Yarranton. London, 1677* 



MSinVM TCS THS MKiUlM Wlff. 

Mov. .. JSntomologioal, 7. ^ 

Wan. ...Charity Organisation Society, «. (At thsHflCWO" 

SOCIKTT or ASTS ) 

Boyal Literary Fond, 8. . 

FBI Working M«n»s aob and Culltate TJ^Bioo. ij^JJ 

Hmraa or TIB 8Domnr 09 Aim.) Aaassia*^ 

Qa«k0ttaub,a , 

Sat Working lisa*s Ctab and JmfiMM J2l2iA,ifni 

HODSK or TH« 8OGISTT OT ASTS.) '*«*«■" "^ 

gates from Woridng Men's Ctabs. 
Boyal fiotanio, 8f . 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. July 11. 1873. 



661 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,077. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, JULY 11, 1873. 






AHS0\J5CEKEHTS BT THB COTTHCIL. 



COUHCIL MXSTIHe. 

The Council, at the first meeting after the 
Annual Election, chose Major-General F. Eardley- 
WHmot, B.A., F.B.S., as Chairman for the ensuing 
year. 

PBIZB FOB flTXBL. 

The Committee met at Gk>re-lodge. Present : — 
Major-Qeneral F. Eardlet Wilmot, B. A., F.B.S., 
Chairman of Council, in the chair. Mr. F. A. 
Abel, F.BS., and Mr. J. Nasmyth, F.B.S. The 
Committee decided that, having inspected the 
collection of steel specimens sent in to the Inter- 
national Exhibition, and looking at the conditions 
laid down with regard to this prize, they can only 
regret that there is not such a display as to amoimt 
to a competition, and they therefore cannot re- 
commend the award of the medal. 



OAB OOXMITTBB. 

This Committee met at Core-lodge on June 27th. 
Present^Major-Qeneral F. Eardley Wilmot, B.A., 
F.R.S., Chairman of the Council, in the chair, the 
Duke of Beaufort, Lord Arthur Somerset, Colonel 
Henderson, C.B., and Andrew Cassels. The Com- 
mittee made an inspection of the cabs entered for 
competition, and submitted them .to a practical 
tarial in the western annexe of the Exhibition. 

On July 3rd the Committee again met. Pre- 
sent — ^Duke of Beaufort, in the chair, Captain 
Candy, Andrew Cassels, and Henry Cole^ C.B. The 
Conunittee made a second careful inspection of the 
Teliidee, and selected six for further iavestigation, 
the proprietors of which were requested, if willing, 
to make such alterations as would meet yarious 
objections made to the different cabs by the 
Conunittee. With a yiew of affording time for 
tbe adoption of such suggestions the Committee 
adjourned till a day in September next, to be 
liereafter named. 



PBOCEEBINOS OP THE 80CIETT. 



C0HYBB8AZI0HB. 

The annual conversazione of the Society was 
held, as usual, at the South Kensington Museum^ 
on Friday, June 27th. 

The Art Library, the Baphael Cartoons, the- 
Sheepshanks*, and the National Gallery's Picture^ 
Galleries were open, and the visitors were able to 
make the tour of the Art-Schools both on the firsts * 
and second floors. The courts and corridors of 
Uie ground floor were also open. The reception 
was held in the South Court, by Mnjor-General F. 
Eardley- WiLMOT, B. A. , F.R.S., Chairman, assisted 
by the following Vice-Presidents and Members of 
Counca :— Mr. F. A. Abel, F.B.S., Mr. G. C. T. 
Bartley, Mr. Edward Brooke, Lord Alfred 
Churchill, Mr. Hyde Clarke, Sir Daniel Cooper, 
B^ut., Colonel A. A. Croll, Mr. C. J. Freake, 
Mr. James Hey wood, F.R.S., Vice- Admiral 
Ommanney, C.B., F.B.S., Admiral the Bight Hon. 
Lord Clarence Paget, E.C.B., Mr. Bobert Bawlin- 
son, C.B., lieut-Col. A. Strange, F.B.S., Mr. 
Seymour Teulon, and Mr. E. Carleton Tufnell. 

A Promenade Concert was given by the Band of 
the Grenadier Guards in the North Court, of which 
the following was the programme : — 

March ** Qravel«»tUf»' Speer. 

Overture *'Lm Imuum BUnche" H«'ildiea. 

V*li.e *• CMitio Tail**'" Oung*!. 

FauUsU ** L» Tinibttltr d'Atgcnt** .. Le«tii VaaMor. 

CkXA Dw.oK.1. f^i.^0. » "1 he Hardy N<irM'niao*'...Peanuill. 

Old EnghiOi (ilea j uH^i„^'^,,j^,j.. E«rl of Momingtoii. 

Aelection '* Geuevi^ye d« bmbaxit" ...Offettbarh. 

Valmj "ChrwtfaieNiliMion- 1>. 0<idfre7. 

Selection ** Elijah" IdeiidelMihiL 

FantasiA ** Le« Brigauda'* < 'ffenbach 

vi- "0— •• I^^SbS^l?'^'' 

Snleotion **NeToQch«>spaakIaReine*' Boiwelot. 

QaOop ••Iii»" Kuhuer. 

*'0od ttaire the Qaeea.** 

A Vocal Conoert, consisting of glees, by the 
London Glee and Madri;<al Union, directed by Mr. 
Laud, was given from 9 to 11 o'clock, with 
intervals, in the Lecture Theatre. The programme 
was as follows : — 

Fbom 9 TO 9.80. 

Olee (5 Yoioes) "O! bna «>i K^e" Lord M omiogton. 

Olee imale vitinet) ** Strike, utriki the lyre" T CtMike 

Foot- Fait SoDg ...•' When th«* We»f ' Meudtrhwohn. 

Madrigal *' Who ahaUwmuiyU^y fair" K. UFeanall. 

Fa 'M tf 4A TO 10 Ift. 
Olee "See the charitit tt JiHod*»...W. Honly, ILB, 

Oi" " ""Su'r.^Ty'*^ 1 8 f«^ 

01« (""" '^^;;^'' *»*|BirH.BM«.p. 

Fpim Thomas 

Weelkee* "A)ia 

iir Fhanta»tie 

fetpiiita,"AD.ld06 

FfeOM 10 ."to TO 11. 

Serenade "fflei-p, gentle Udjr" Bir H. Bishop. 

Catch "Ahl howlkiphia'' i»r. Callciitt. 

}W il«ou and darile, 
H. Bii-hop. 

All the other arrangements were as usuaL There 
were in all 3,952 persons present. 



( \ Bpi 



662 



JC)UR>JAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 11, 187a 



PUBCHA8E 07 BAILWATB BT TEE 8IAXX. 

The discussion on this subject was resumed on 
Thursday evening, July 3rd, the Marquis of Olan- 
BIOAEDE again occupying the chair. 

Capt. Tyler, B.B., spoke as foUaws:— Theve is, I 
sincerely believe, no more important qusstion to the 
future well b' in^ <if thin country than the question 
which is DOW ht^nre nt for discission, and it is im- 
portant fur Tcry obvious raasoos. The pt osp oiity of 
the country mtts on its nianufaotnres and commerce, 
and these agHin depend, and will hereafter still more 
depend, up(»n our nulway system and upon the ladHties 
of coiDniunication and cheapness of rates and fuss 
which it iDHy supply. In the stune proportion that oar 
means of intercourse and transport are improved and 
cheapen*^ jnut in thiit prf>portion, caUrii paribut, will 
the pnispeiity of the country inoreaae; and, on the 
other hand, ms they are fr ttHred by obstmctioiis or high 
piioe8, so will it be injured. In the struggle for sup- 

S lying the mttkets of the world which will hereafter 
ave to be encountered between our merchants sad 
Dianufictiuvrs and those of other nations, there is no 
element which it is more important to watch over, or 
which is more under our control, than that of providing 
great*^r facilitien and oheepneis lor oommanioation and 
trHUMport ; nnd just as much as we neglect to take the best 
nieHn.4 of improvia .• them, just so much shall we endanger 
and injure our p<iMition relatively to other ooonbies, and 
just BO much tthail we detract from our osefulneoB, and 
tend to dioiiniMh the degree of our prosperity. None 
of us have, I believe, an i«lea of what this country is 
ca|iahle of duing under a system of free railways. It 
is with these conviitions, and looking at the subject 
from the high«8t point of view, that I approach t.bin 
diiicussion ; and 1 wish it to be distinctly understood that 
I do not HmMwr here in anything but my private capacity, 
and that I do not Hppear hs an advocate of any particular 
course to be puri»u d. An honourable member, indeed, 
during H recent debate in another place, stated that I 
advocated the Stxte purchase of railways, and that I did 
so in the hope of oWtiining promotion by that means 
for myself. I wi^h Mr. Julian Qoldsmid were here 
to-niitht, beeause 1 hh^uld like to tell him that nothing 
is more unpirliHTnentiry than to impute motives, and to 
ask him to hus wer my xrgitments rather than to atta(^ me 
personally. He entirely misconstrues all I have said 
or written on the suhj et, when he attributes advocacy 
to me, and my own feelini^s and oonviotions in regard 
to it ttra fir ab<tve sny miserable personal ambition. 
If I were to undert .ke the advocacy of the State con- 
trol of railwHys, I sh- uld go to work very differentiy. 
I should mHrhhHl such an array of fiicts, fig^uiee, M*d 
argutnents as wouM, perhxps, astonish him ; and I should 
not. I belie vr>. fin I, if I were really to try, much diffi- 
culty in per«uadini^ those who are our masters — who 
possess the votinsr power in this country, and who are 
more int rest* d in thin question than any of na— of the 
objects to whieh their efforts should be turned, and the 
points to whi h their exertions should be directed. 
But my Lord, there is another reason why I am no 
mere Hdvo«Mte in this matter. It has been with me, 
durinir niany^ yeirs, a question, not whether the State 
control of rdlways w>«s desirable, but whether it was 
avoidibl" ; whether, sooner or later, it would not become 
inevitable. The argnm-nts which lead to that oooclu- 
sion I have often enough advanced, hut have never 
heard answered; and hs they are at the bottom of the 
whole question, and may be stated in a very few woids, 
I may. perhaps, be fnrjfiven for again repeating them. 
G»mi>etition between rival railway companies, in oon- 
■truciion or workinir, or in both, has long been regarded 
as the proper nnd legitimate weapon in defiance oLor the 
iruardian of thApuhli«: interest in Qreat Britain. But the 
prinoiple of compeUtioo, whioh is «zoeUflftt as Mwesn 



butchers and bakers, which is generally good in tndt 
and manufikctore, which holds ^;ood by sea, where the way 
is open to all, cannot be oonsidsred to have aocceedsd 
hitherto, and threatens to die out as hetween the nil- 
way companies of ttiis island. It is true that the oon- 
trolling authorities of dtfere nt oonqpanies have beeo, 
from tune to time, foolish beyond oonce^Qn in ezpead- 
ing the monev of their shareholders in fighting lod 
competing with one another, and that the sSardicdden 
have not had the wisdom to direct, cr the means to eo* 



force, a policy more in accordance with their pecuniary 
inteiests. vast sums of money have been wasted ia 
Parliament, in law, in engineering, in oonatmctioo, aad 
in working, which might, properfy direatod, have htm 
better employed in frdlitating communication aad im- 
proving acooimnodati<m. Gompetition may, thstdbn, 
oe said to have fiailed as a principle ; but, not only ao, it 
is, further, in nrooess of dying out. OombinalioQ ksi 
already proceeded with giant strides, and it ia easy to 
foresee the ultimate result. The London and North 
Western, the Lancashire and Yorkshire, and the Cale- 
donian companies, working in intfafiate *lli*«ir^ wifii 
one another, already share between them one quarter 
of the railway d^^ital, and one-ftfth of tiie raBvmy 
mi1s>ye, of Great Bntain. Other large and oomitencCiag 
combinations loom in the distance, and there is every 
reason to believe, as a matter of plain probabilxty, th^ 
before many years are past, the railway system of Great 
Britain will he in the handsof a few companiea, who viH 
again combine to form one huge joint-rtock monopoly. 
It is true that the Pariiamentary Ooimittee of the present 
session has refused to legalise the amRlgamftti^ns onalargv 
scale which have been Drought be£Nre it; but it does act 
neeessarilv follow that another ooaunittee viD, in aaother 
session, adopt the same course ; and even if ParhasKOl 
were to renise henceforth to sanction further comUoa- 
tions, it would by no means residt that alliaaocs woeld 
cease to be formed. Neither Parliamentary nor any 
other authority can compel railway companiea to peoict 
in quarrelling and competing with one another, to tixir 
mutual disadvantage, when once their directen asi 
managers determine to adopt a mcoe aensable and profit- 
able course. It is only in the nature of things, and ia 
the ordinary course of events, that combination should p> 
on in the feture as it has cone on in the past, and Uist 
there should be in the end ultimate and total, aa there ii 
now partial, monopoly of railway communications. T^ 
is the first step in the argument, viz., that competitin 
has failed in the past in providing for the generalpaUk 
a maximum of aooommodation at minimum rates uni 
fares, and that, whether it has failed or whether it ku 
sncoeeded, the time is coming when, for good or iar O. 
it will oesae to exist altogether ; and this leads to ^ 
fiirther question, How this joint-stock monopoly, whicb 
appears to be inevitable, ia to be controlled in the int«^ 
of the general pnbUc — in fact, wh^w any good, praeCuil 
svstem of State control can be devised, short of taksag 
the railways, or a part of them, over altogether f I3uf 
is the question which I have not seen anawered, a&J 
whioh it is so difficult to answw; and the move H 
is studied the more do its difficul^es ooma to hgh^ 
There are, of course, ^ve political and other qneatkrat 
to be weighed in considering the matter from the otte 
point of view, as to what woukl be the resalt of 



control, and these Questions have been put ibrwaid kr 
certain of the speakers, and notably by the nohJe «an 
who was good enough to address us on the first eveniBg 
ofthediseusskm. ooraeof them have been alieadym^. 
and it would be impossible to explain more lucidly thaa 
was done in the leading article which the Ti»u8 devoted 
to Lord Derby's speech, the fidUcy involved in the ex- 
pression that by the purchase of tne railway sjiiieii w* 
should double our 2« aiional Debt The strangest oa- 
fusion between the acquisitionof propertyand the aroama* 
lation of debt is evident in such an asMrtioa. The 
French nation, imJnrtHnst ely, doubled its debt by ^aiag 
to war with Germany, and it will suffer hsavi|yaiidj«opaE^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, July 11, 1873. 



663 



tionately by its load of taxation in fatore yean.^ But if, 
in place of engaging in that war, it had upon ftiir terms 
acquired complete control oyer its railway system, the 
result woold have been so iar different that it would have 
made a constantly increasing profit, instead of an over- 
whelming loss, by the tranMction. All experience has 
shown that railway proper^ is on the whole an improv- 
ing property; and the liaoility which a g^oarantoe of 
interest on fair terms on such a property involves is, 
therefore, very small indeed. As to the possibility of rail- 
ways being superseded in future years, or in foturegenera- 
tiona, that is not worthy of practical consideration. There 
are only three modes of travelling — 1, along the earth ; 
2, throngh the water ; 3, through the air. With those 
who contemplate the possibility of transporting an ex- 
cursion train, laden with 1,000 passengers, or the contents 
of a heavy goods train — say 200 tons— even from London 
to Birmingham, or London to Edinburgh, under all 
drcumstanoes of wind and weather, through the air, I, 
for one, hardly caro to hold discussion. Inland water 
carriage has already been superseded for most descrip- 
tions of traffic by railways. And the only means of 
travelling which romains to us is in some way along the 
earth. It hardly seems likely that we shall discover better 
materials than iron and stc«l for rails, and it is still less 
likely that rails will go out of fashion for wheels to travel 
over. The prophecy uiat '^ men should run to and fro, and 
knowledge should be increased," appears to be now in suf- 
ficient course of fulfilment ; and 1 think we may fairly 
conclude that railways are the latest improTement in 
locomotion that this earth is likely to see auring the re- 
maining term of its existence, and reject as impractical 
the proposition that railways are destined to be super- 
seded by other means of locomotion, and that it is unde- 
sirable, for that reason, that a State should acquire control 
over them. The other difficulties which are, or are sup- 
posed to be, in the way of State control, I shall pass 
over lightly, not to take up too much of your time 
on this occasion. They involve questions of cost, 
of patronage, of the labour mtirket and strikes, and of 
political pressure from different localities. As regards 
the cost, it has no doubt been much exaggerated. Bat 
railway purchase is perhaps an unfortunate expression, 
and railway control by the State a better one. The 
pnrchase need not be more than a guarantee of dividend 
and interest, and the fairer way to look at the question 
of cost, is, perhaps, to compare the estimated amount of 
the guarantee with the estimated amount of net 
earnings. The number of railway tmployis has also been 
exB^gerated. It is difficult to ascertain it precisely, but 
the companies returned in 1869, for 9,796 miles and 
£25.743,502 of p^ross receipts, 116,270 employ^. The 
proportionate mileage increase to the end of 1871 would 
give 182,499, and the proportionate increase in receipts 
would give, to the same date, 220,829. There cannot, 
probably, be more than 250,000 at the present time; 
and this only a small proportion of the total number of 
empio^^t now in the service of the State, including the 
mrm J, navy, police, constabulary, civil service, &c. In 
the Poet-office alone the number directly employed is 
upwards of 40,000. The comparison between the 
empi&^^9 of companies and those of the Government in 
ft aifnilar service is hardly worth making, though it 
has been receiving some warm attention. As regards 
rnflway work, the same officers and servants would 
io tlie same work for probably the same salary, and 
ireaXy no doubt, much the same uniform. I'he only 
iifferenoe being the initials on their cap, it is difficult 
io see why they diould be more or less efficient. Their 
ntereat, in the same way, would lie in the way of pleasing 
hmT superiors, with a view to increased pay and promo- 
ioD aa oarly as circomfltances would permit. Strikes 
ire, as a net, less difficult to deal with in the 
3 h> tc * ' n ment than in any other service, and especially 
rben there are pensions to be obtained by remaining, 
jad. forfeited by sacrificing employment. Why 
olitioal prasoie should be of more avul in obtaining 



railwaT than other advantages has never been explained. 
But, lastly, I come to the remedy which may 
reasonably be expected, and which might practically 
be applied. If State control be, as would appear 
only too nlidnly, sooner or latvr, inevitible, what 
form should it assume, how far should it extend, in 
what way should it be introduced, and when should 
it commence P On these qnestions, then) are two 
main propositions before us. 1. Mr. Gait winds up his 
valuable paper by quoting a question by Sir. Gladstone, 
and an answer by Mr. Glyn, then chHirinan of the 
London and North- Western Rnilway, before the com- 
mittee of 1844, to the effect Uint there was nothing to 
prevent the Government from making railways to com- 
pete with the railways of companies, and to thn further 
effect that he (Mr. Glyn) would much rather see a com- 
peting line in the hands of the G ivemment than in the 
hands of a company. And Mr. Gait advoc ^tes thH con- 
struction by the State of new lines to compete with the 
old ones, by way of reducing to a reaisonai'ln figure the 
demand for consequential profito, which h ive by some 
speakers and writers been so exorbitantly stated. 2. Mr. 
F. Hill, in his able speech, setting furth his own views 
and those of his distinguished brother, pr^pMses that the 
State, haying first acquired the omtrol of the railway 
system, shomd proceed to let it out for working to con- 
tractors. Mr. Hill proposes that the rontractiiia should 
engage to pay to the proprietors of the shares an«l necuri- 
tiee of the railways the sum guarant4^ed by the State,, 
and should, subject to that condition, compete with one 
another, those who would undertake to work on 
the lowest tariff*, and ^lenerally on the most ad- 
vantageous terms, obtaming the contract. These 
propositions deserve, both of th^m, senoua consider- 
ation, but both involve considerHbln diffi ulties. It 
I will probably be a long time before u serious pro- 
position will be made to Parliiment by any Govern- 
ment for the construction, by the State, of a new line 
from London to Liverpool, or between any other groat 
centres of traffic, to compete with ezifitiri)^ lines ; and 
when such a proposition is made to Parliantent there 
will be, at least, a possibility of it-s bi ing r^-jected. 
The leasing of State lines to c^'ntractort on a v^-ry 
larffe scale would also involve very diffi< ult questions, 
and do away, to a great extent, with the aovHnt«gee of 
State control to be first, by the m^-ann of a Kuarant^e of 
dividend and interest, acquired. Mr. Hill would require, 
it is true, ^proper security for keeping up the plant in 
good order, providing against anidi'tits, niid so on." 
But these conditions, which seem to he no sim]>ln when 
thus stated, would be beset with innunierahlu difficulties- 
and disadvantages in practice. The peromnenr. way^ 
the works, the engines, the carriiges, wHi;gon8, and 
vehicles of various descriptions UMed on rail wayn, are all 
objects which may be kept more or less in a stute of 
efficiency. There may be thousands, nay, hundreds of 
thousands of pounds, of difference in their viIuh, over a 
series of years, in a great railway system. aeeordinK to 
whether they have during these years been kept up or 
run down. It would be a matter cf enorm^uii diffi ulty 
to obtoin a fkir valuation of them when handttd over to 
the working contractors at the comiiien<'eMiHnt of their 
lease, as compared with their valuation when taken over 
by tiie State at the termination of the lease. And, 
not only so, but the advantages ut State control 
would, in a great measure, la) done away with. 
The reduction of rates and fores to a minimum consis- 
tently with undue risk and fair working profit to pay 
g^uaranteed interest, must necessarily he an exi»erim*'nt>«l 
process, extending over a long sen* s of years. Every 
such experiment in any district would interfere with the 
profits of the contractors. Every question of additional 
aooommodation of extra trains, of alterations of s^ieed. or 
of further facilities would be an interference with their 
profits: and the difficulties of 8ettlem««iitin regard lo8u«'h 
oases, mvcdvingoonstant references to nrbit ration, would 
be praotioally mnmnoiintalile, and would also be a great 



664 



JOURNA.L OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 11, 1878. 




bar to the i m pro vpments which mig;ht otherwise be effected. 
And, further, the country would >igain be divided into dis- 
tricts, each of which wouM he in the hanls of a le tsiag coil- 
tractor or compmy. Each leiising contractor would be 
working for his own intert-st, and nut for the cooimon 
ffood. Thp rolling stock would be distributed in the 
DHnds of diff»'rent C'DtrHCtors, and would not be avail- 
a>*le for univeiuHl employment. And« in fine, the ulti- 
mate result wouM b^ a worse state of thini;B than if by 
combinntion all the railways came at last to be worked 
bv three or four, or even one, large joint-stock company. 
These two proifNitioriH bt-inir, then, the former very un- 
iik^^ly of accomplishment, and the latter very undesirable 
to attempt, th^r^ im h thinl proposition which I would 
Tenturn to hiing un'lt-r your notice as being also worthy 
of (>ont«i(lerHti<m. FiVi-n if the conclusion were atany time 
arrived at th<t it wm de^iirtble for the State to 
acquire control of the railway system, there seems 
no good reiHon why such a process should be carried 
out smidenly. hut every rea^^on why it should be done 
gradually and tentaiiv- ly. Whatever risk might be in- 
curred in taking over the whole railway system at once, 
very much lena could nc^^rne from an experiment upon 
one system ; an*! it i(« easy to imagine many advantages 
which nitfht be obtaioed if the State were to guarantee 
a rate of interest to be agreed upon to the proprietors of 
.^n« railway ••ompany. and to acquire the control of its 
railway. Ev»ry desirable experiment might be tried as 
to ad<iitional facilities, as to re luctionsof rates and fares, 
tind as to further accommo'Iation. The State railway 
managed in the int rests of the public would have all 
eyes upon it. and it** managers would do their best, so 
as to compare aa favourably as they could with the 
manngem<>nt of nther railw tysby companies. Experience 
would be obtained, an I evidence would be furnished, as 
to whether it wouM be deMirable to extend the principle 
of St'^te control at a later date. An opportunity would 
be afforded of iriving instruction to a certain number 
of oflBcers and soMiert*, whirh is so mueh needed, and of 
the formation of a r^ilw^y corps, which the War De- 
partment have not aponrently seen their way as yet to 
acoomplinh. but of whi(;h we might feel the want most 
seriously in a future w ir. I would, therefore, venture 
tosuggr^st to Mr. Gilt the propriety of amending his 
proponition for the SaU' to construct a new railway, 
and of subs'ihitinjT for it the projei^t of acquiring 
the control of an oil one The former was perhaps 
more appropriate in 1H44; the latter would appear 
to be, at thH prcHcnt time, the more pru<lent, the 
more feanihle, Mnd the wiaer course for discussion 
and consifleratiiin. The object of such an experi- 
ment would be to give, undnr the circumstances of 
this country, the jmatewt possible impetus to rail- 
way employment and railwMy utility, with a view 
to the publi'* inter»-8t. whilst the object of company 
management if, or ought naturally and properly to be, 
to obtain a maximum of n«*t profit for shareholders. 

Mr. David Ker stated th^t he was the author of the 
paper on this subject which appeared in the Journal 
of the Soi-iet for April 24th, and that h** had been for 
the last three e <rs dvoeating the purchase of railways by 
tile State. H • hi- 1 •lori*- this bv correspondence, addressed 
to members orb .th Hou* s of Parliament; and Lord Derby 
in a note, acknowlMili^nif his communication, and written 
before Mr. Gilt's pap^-r was read, concluded by saying: 
— ** The difficulties which occur to me are not those 
which you have noted." The summing up by 
liord D»*rby of the fii«t day's discussion probably con- 
tained, therefore, the diffi-ulties which pressed upon 
his lordship's min I, and the-ne he would now shortly 
deal with, first remarking, however, that he did not con- 
sider the Karl of Der»»y as an opponent of State pur- 
chase, for, probably, if his obfections were removed, he 
would be in ita favour. His lordship first said— 
«»«n .«' ^'"^^^ ">»*k« the State Miponsible for 600 or 
800 millions of d^bt P" But it had been dearly proved 
WMit the tnuuiaoiion would be the conveyance, not of a 



debt, but of pontive poMeasioni in land, building], tod 
tangible property of increasing value. Then, with re- 
gara to railways being superseded, and locomotirepovei 
being adopted to common roads, though it might s$ea 
a bold thing to say, he ventured to assert thii wu im- 
possible. How could the enormous mineral and com- 
mercial trafiSc of the country be cuxied on bf itsd* 
steam-engines, limited to a speed of six or ei^ht 
miles an hour, leaving on one side the qut^tn 
of passengers? Collisions would be the mle iiotad 
of tiie exception, and the blocks woold be innaoaribk 
There must be a guiding rail, to keep the op ftod 
down traffic separate, and why should not the po»at 
railroads be made use of ? Every improveoMit, Uwn. 
would tend to the advantage of the GrOTemmentTtiicL 
possessed the rails. Aerial navigation he diimi«d u 
too ridiculous for serious consideration, at any raU, 
for goods traffic. No doubt improvementi mijrht be 
made in the means of locomotion, as, for infUoce, by 
the use of compressed air instead of steam, an>l thii he 
apprehended would some day be adopted, to the grail 
saving of fuel ; but in such a case the State would W n-A 
a loser, but a gainer, by the improvement Mr. Brta- 
well had siid that the inventive powers of the iwdanic 
would be stopped, and a particular form of locoffir-tire 
laid down as a pattern never to be deviated fn>BL 
Surely this must be said in joke, when it was r«D*^m- 
bered that Gh)vemment had adopted nnmsrous bva- 
tions in small-arms, and even advertised for more. 
The same with ironclads, big guns, and forta. Aj to tlw 
relations between the State and labour, he did notipprt- 
bend that any complications would arise : on th« «t- 
trary, the Government would hnve a great admup 
over private companies, for strikes took place b tb 
latter case a hundred times to one in the former. In hii 
former paper he had suggested a plan by whidit^'iJ'"' 
after a period of short service, would be emploTtJ »» 
porters and policemen on the railways; th«e»iflll 
thus be a large reserve army, at no coet to th» 
country ; and under military law strikes coald wt 
take place. Then his lordship referred to whst U 
conceived would be a difficulty arising frma tkf 
exercise of local patronage, in the makiBg of rw- 
way extensions ; but it appeared to him that the «• 
tensions yet remaning to be made were lo i^**?^"***^ 
as compared with the fifteen thousand miles ilwoy 
existing, that the question was not worth cfflwid'n'* 
His lordship then said, in conclusion, that he had »!«« 
assumed that if the State had to buy railways it »«* 
also take the canals.- steamboats, &c. ; but he ia« w^ 
cessity of the kind. The argument used by tho« spaf 
amalgamations — and the State purchase was ooJr »fl** 
gamation on a large scale — wjis, that the canals oo^ 
kept separate from the railways, in order to wwp^*^ 
them. In the same way, if Uie State took the rail"?'. 
they must compete witb the steamboats and c«w* 
When he first joined the Devon railways, in IM^'^J^* 
class trains were run with every train, so that tlrf *»* 
land Company were not, by any means, the W"*!^ 
of the idea. Again, when he went ^I^^^'^L^ 
as manager of t£e Waterford and Central I^^^JJ^ 
way, he carried passengers from Kilkenny toTwa 
town, eleven miles, for three-pence, rates ww» »^ 
no doubt, too low for England ; but ho ^J^J^^Jy 
were empty, and by lowering the fiues he iiw*« 
people to travel instead of spending their ™*"y? 
public-house. What merchant woidd ^^j^ 
wag^gons four or five times a day, with -s Iosd>)H 
hundred, weight each time, when they could twy 
o-irry a ton each journey P A looomotite, 
a horse, should be made to do its fnll «"*?• ^ 
did not propose that fores should be lowered tona 
an extent as only to cover the woiking «P*"J^ 
because he considered that would be unfair to Utf ^ 
large class of persons, including children and °»^J| 
ried women who never travelled at all* tt y?~ 1 
much preferable that profits should be in»d« ▼*«<*" 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jolt 11, 1878. 



665 



go in rddaotion of Jfcaxation, and be a benefit to all. He 
had prvp<iretl a plan by whioh all the fares throughout 
the kingdom could be very easily arranged on a Bystem 
o( niiJeiM^. A person oould go to a post-office and get a 
ticket tor 10 miles, which he oould use at any time or in 
any directioD. Carriages, parcels, dogs, and horses oould 
be ni<iiutged in the same way. He thought it would be 
more trouble for the GK>vemment to lease the lines than 
to vork them themselves ; the latter plan would be much 
tder for the public, and better for the employes. If 
anythiojEf went wrong it could be called attention to in 
Pdrliament, and would soon be set right. As to taking the 
tiiivtya ^mdaully, he did not think it would answer at 
all because of the disturbance it would occasion in the 
Tdlau of the shares whilst the process was going on. 
Id conclusion, he begged to refer to his former commtini- 
cation to the Jownal, the statements in which he had 
ntTw heard controverted. 

Kr. W. J. Gwynn expressed his conviction that it was 
ftbs-tlately necessary, in the interest of the public, that the 
Goir«>rament shonld take possession of the railways. Any 
duDi^r of loss in times of dej)ression could easily be 
guarded against by forming a reserve in times of pro- 
iperiiy ; and he did not apprehend there would be any 
fioancial difficulties in the way of making the purchase. 

Kr. Gruebrooke said he had been for many years in- 
fereiited in this subject, and had paid fi;te»i attention to 
H from a political point of view. The first of all benefits 
to a nation was cheap and easy communication. The 
irMperity of the present day was well known, and was 
ofi«o attributed to free trade, but it was really attri- 
kuble to the railroads, steam -boats, and telegraphs, 
vhk-h contributed so much to the growth of commerce 
lod increase of production. He was always anxious to 
i^T«e with Lord Derby's conclusions, knowing the ability 
of that nobleman, but on the present question it seemed 
to him those conclusions were altogether erroneous. He 
«5n*d with Capt. Tyl^r that there were only three pos- 
Bbl<4 modes of communication ; but he could not agree 
viih him that railway oonmiunication had reached its 
ultimate point of excellence, or that the present system 
w. luH never be superseded. Considering the growing in- 
teI%tiioe and constantly increasing scientific knowledge 
^ thti present day, he saw no reason to doubt that the 
tnne would come when 100 miles an hour would be looked 
«l>m as slow travelling. By slightly increasing the 
%i«lih of gauge, and lowering the weights, this speed could 
V attained with safety, so that distance would be much 
n^e completely annihilated. Railrq^f*, however, would 
ittll be required, andhemust takeexcoption to the assump- 
tion of Lord Derby that if they were superseded the loss 
MKbt to &11 on individuals ana not on the community in 
pneral. Ifthey were8tiperseded,itwouldbeby something 
■»*ne advantageous to the public, and consequently the 
8bt« ahonid stand the loss arising from such super- 
•*won. Whatevor means of travelling were adopted, in 
iB probability the existing railroads would be available 
m pvt at least It was a self-evideat axiom that the 
Cr^ri'mment ought to have the control of the arteries of 
eommnnication, the railways, canals, and navigable 
RT^ because these means of comuunication ought 
*•!>' to be uiod for the common weal, and not for 
Ike advantage of directors or shareholders, ho <« ever 
mn-pous. There was only one real solution of this 
Nation. Although it might be delayed, it must come 
[>j*>t.- Day after day the process of amalgamation was 
Ifc^on between the various railways, and this could 
Wy rwult in the public being more and more at their 
^^f*^S% in the rates and fares being raised, and in the 
ll^iic being mulcted for the benefit of the shareholders. 
Uki^ such a condition of things was being brought 
*k*>ot it did not require much arsiiment to prove, 
^ that it was rapidly approaching was self- 
■jndrnt. Therefore the sooner Government took 
»« matter in hand the better it would be for the 
^AticoL He quite agreed that it was not wise to give too 



much patronage to Govemment, but he did not very 
well see how it could be nsed for political purposes in 
the case in point, being so widely distributed. There 
would probably be a permanent railway board, which 
might be elected by the very men who now held the 
rauway stock. No doubt there would be a responsible 
minister, who would be the creature of party, 
but he would only be the ornamental head of 
the department, the permanent B«>ard having the 
real management. Ko doubt there were advantages and 
disadvantages to le considered in such an important 
matter as this, as in all others, but there were very many 
evils under the present system of railway management. 
For instance, if a person took a return ticket, and was 
not able to return so soon as he anticipated, it was very 
unjust that the company should make him pay the full 
amount of the single fare without allowing for the extra 
half- fare he had paid for his return-ticket. He believed 
the acme of railway prosperity would never be reached 
until railway fares were immensely reduced, so that a 
workman would have no difficulty in going 40 or 50 
miles for a job. But these facilities would never be 
given by the present managers of railways, who con- 
sidered only the interests of the shareholders. Nor could 
it be expected ; for, adthough he had not the slightest 
doubt that in the end such a redaction would be re- 
munerative, there might very probably be a transition 
period of two or three years, during wluch the dividends 
might be lessened. Only a Govemment could be far- 
sighted enough to carry out such an important change 
knowing that it coula afford to wait until the return 
came in due time. The same principle applied to exten- 
sions ; there were large districts in Scotland and other 
parts of the kingdom which might with great advantage 
bo opened up by railways to civilisation, but which coiild 
not be expected at first to yield profitable returns on the 
capital expended. 

Mr. Moir said the proposition before the meeting 
appeared to be that the State should not onl> control 
but work tiie railways, and the majority of the speakers 
seemed in favour of it. He, however, took a difi'erent 
view, that the present system, which had arisen from 
private enterprise, should not be lightly interfered 
with. He deprecated handing over the public to the 
control of a body of Govemment offi{;ials, whenever 
they wanted to leave home. They had heard of the 
soldiers being porters, but if they were called upon for 
active service where would the railwHys bo ? At the 
present time the railways were, in theory, looked upon 
as highways, and anyone might, theoretically, place a 
locoinutive and carriages on any railway, and carry 
passengers. Tho difficulty, however, in carrying out 
any such idea was that, though railway companies were 
compelled to allow the use of their lines, they were not 
obliged to give other facilities, such as booking accom- 
modation, water, and coke. The theoretical right, 
therefore, had not, practically, been of any use. His 
view was that if Government interfered in the matter at 
all, they should only do so to the extent of acquiring 
the permanent ways, supplying booking-clerks, &e., and 
issuing tickets to anyone who chose to place trains upon 
them. The trams, of course, must be run at prop'jr 
times, and on payment of the tolls, which would be 
amply secured by tho money paid for the tickets. The 
only objection he had ever heard made to this plan waa 
that tho trains would run into each other, but he 
thought this was just the wav to prevent such a thing. 
If he were the conductor of a train leaving Euston- 
squaro at ten o'clock, and knew that one be- 
longing to another proprietor left at five minuteB 
after, he should take very good care to keep 
a-head, knowing he would be answerable in damages it 
he occasioned delay. It appeared to him that the 
responsibility of each train proprietor would lead to 
great punctoality and safety, especially when there were 
Govemment officials at each station and junction clieck' 
ing them. Something very much akin to this was tri'^ 



666 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP AKTS, July 11, 1878. 



far about twenty yean in Pennsylrania, the trenis being 
ran oyer the lines by different proprieton at different 
times. By this means they would seovHre the a i van- 
tages both of government control and of private com- 
pe^tion, and the latter was a point, in his view* of 
very great importance. For instance, the railways 
charged three shillings for the small^ parcel from 
Glasgow to London, but the Globe Parcel Express, a 
private carrying company, would perform the same 
service quite as expeditiously for one-third of the sum. 
Thus private enterprise beat the railways in the convey- 
ance of goods, and he did not see why the same principle 
should not be applied to passengers. 

Xr. Campbell Johnson thought the argument ad- 
duced by the Earl of Derby had been pretty well 
disposed of, but one or two points might bear to be 
touched upon once more. Uis lordship asked what 
would have happened if the Government had purchased 
all the canals and coaching businesses of the country P 
But the fact was there was no reason whatever why the 
Government should go out of its way to interfere with 
commercial transactions of that sort The railways 
were now the hi^j^h ways of the country, which the canals 
were not, and that was why the 8tate ought to have 
the control of them. Then a fear was expressed as to 
the result, if railways were superseded by some new in- 
vention ; but he apprehended menns would be taken, by 
the establishment of a sinking fund, to provide against 
any contingency of that sort. How could he agree 
with the proposition that if there were any loss from 
Buch a course it ought to fall on individuals P It appeared 
to him that in a free country the Government anil the 
people were the same — the welfare of the one was the welfare 
of tne other — and saying that it was better for individuals 
to suffer than the State, seemed to him drawing an impos- 
sible distmction. This error unfortunately wai constantly 
arising, and la\ at the root of what was often said about 
the antagonism between labour and capital, or accumu- 
lated lalwur. He wis, however, astonished to hear Lord 
Derby give his support to such a confusion of thought. 
Some persons said it would be better for Government to 
control than to possess the railways; but it must be 
remembered that, beyond a certain extent, the more 
Government interfered the more they diminished the 
responsibility of the joint-stock companies, and if any 
accident or catastrophe should happen, the latter would 
be very apt _ to disclaim the responsibility, and say 
that the action of Government h;id taken the control 
out of their hands. He thought the Government 
should take the whole matter into their hands 
at once, and not little by little, because of the dis- 
turbing influence it would have upon the money 
market, which might lead to something like n ttional 
ruin. There was always a great reluctance on the part 
of the mother country to follow the example of the colo- 
nies, probably under the idea that it would be derogatory 
to her dignity ; but the experience of India, the Cape of 
Good Hope, Australia, and other colonies, showed the 
advantage of the State acquiring the possession of rail- 
ways. The case of Ceylon, however, was particularly 
instructive ; a company had began to make the railway, 
but, fearing they were going to be ruined, gave it up ; 
the Government then took it up and finished it, it being 
supposed that it would pay for itself in about 14 years 
The experience of a few years, however, had now shown 
that it would repay its cost in a much less period. 

Xr. LanidowH remarked that no one could wish the 
Btftte to take possefl8i<m of the railways unless the public 
would gain something by it, and the question was what 
would Uie gain be ? The public wanted cheap fares and 
uniform treatment, neither of which they enioyed at the 
pesent time. Mr. Gait had been twitted with not bring- 
mg forward an overwhelming case in favour of the pur- 
ohSue, but he apprehended the difficulty woold be to find 
anyone who was satisfled with the present system ; and if 
cheap ikres oonld not be teonred in any othier way, then* 



undoubtedly,it would he advantageous for tliegoreRUDent 
to purohaee the nulwsys. The present managesi aaid it 
was impossible to oonoede cheaper fives, hot n had besa 
calculated tiiat about 35 tons of dead weight were cairied 
for every ton of paying weight, and if that pane yo rtka 
could be reduced to 3 to 1, it was evident tnat tiis 
fares could be reduced to one-tenth their pnemi 
amount, with the present locomotive power and roQ- 
ing-stook. The railway companies would not do tfaii^ 
because it paid them better to carry one peraoo fbr 
ten shillings than ten persons for one ahillrng. l%e 
public, on the other hand, would much prefer to tzsvel 
ten times fbr Is. instead of once for 10s. On this 
g^und he hoped that this discossion would lead to sons 
practical result, and that a committee would be obtained 
to go into the question, and see whether something could 
not be done. It had been suggested that nmalgamatMB 
would lead to a reduction of 25 pa* cent, in coat, but tint 
would not result in a reduction of more than five per 
cent, in fares, and therefore that, by itself, would not 
answer the expectations of the public of what could 
really be obtained b^ uniformity of management 
Railway managers received large salaries, and no doabt 
earned them, for they were a very able body of men, but 
their energies were not directea to the benefit of the 
public — not being the pubHc servants ; their interest, in 
fact, was to get as mnch as possible out of the podceti of 
the public and to give as little as possible in reliim. As 
regfu^ed the mode of purchase, he saw no reaaon why it 
should not be gradual, in the same way as amalgniastinrn 
had proceeded amongst the railway companies, and if 
the Railway Board were established, with powen of 
arbitration, he did not think there would be any grsat 
difficulty in arriving at a fair basis of exchange — not a 
uniform basis, of course, because it would not do to givs 
the same for a company with depreciaied stock sad 
plant, as for one in which it was all new, or had bwn 
kept up to the highest standard of efficiency. He 
did not apprehend that the gradual system of Uwuifin 
would of necessity lead to stock-jobbing, or at any rate 
such a thing might be prevented by refusing to reoogiuse 
any factitious value in ^e stock of railway ooospanies 
not representing a real improvement in the p itip e r ty. 

Mr. Bourne said he had been anxious to say a hm 
words on the comparative merits and demerits of Govern- 
ment management, for on this the whole question most 
turn ; but being unable to do so at that late hour, he woali 
communicate his views to the Journal in writing. 

Kr. Campin thought that, as an abstract qoeatioD, aO 
must agree that the railways, which were now the maia 
high roads of the country, ought, in some way or anoth*, 
to be under the management of the State ; stiQ thMv 
were many practical difficulties which would have to be 
seriously considered. He had enjoyed conaidetaUB 
opportunities of learning the views of the r em eau m tatiTe 
working men on this question, and, g^eneraUy spesJdng^ 
he believed they were in favour of the nati<ma]isBtiaa 
of the railways, but ^en they were also in &voar 
of the nationalisation of the land, so that thff 
were perfectly consistent. Some, however, l e gaid id 
the nationalisation of railways with a obtain anoonl 
of distrust, fearing they might be used fbr pc^tical par- 
poses, by the coercion of emplotfd$ — not so tantii ths 
clerks and higher class of servants as the portoa, plate- 
layers, and workmen, in whose case it was consid«f«d 
tbls kind of abnse was more likely to be exemsed. It 
must be borne in mind tiiiat this scheme, if carried oat, 
would put the railways in the hands of a Government siKh 
as at present existed, not of some Utopian perfect Qovon- 
ment, which would spring up immediatdy sa^ achaage 
was decided upon; and Government action was not 
always the most pleasant to ordinary people. Those wha 
had had anything to do with the Stamp-offioe, or say 
other department, would know that there was a gn§i 
deal of ' — '^ — --'' what was called red-tapeim, etmr 
neotp *u not very pleaaanllotiioitv^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jult 11, 1873, 



667 



Qune in contact with it. Two points, in particQlar» 
wonld have to be conaidered which had not vet been 
iBoded to. Oae wa« the qaeation of reaponflibility for 
acddfloti, the ordinary rule being that the Crown paid 
oofflpenaation to nobody ; and the other was, how would 
the State deal with inyentors P No railway system oould 
k ezpwted to work w^, nnleas encouragement were 
nrcD to mechanical improTements ; but every one knew 
the way in which Government treated inventors, and it 
had eTen been said the Government claimed, and in- 
tended in Aiture, to exercise the right of using inventions 
▼ithoot recompensing the inventors. If such a system 
were adopted, ne ne^ hardly say it would not tend to 
(hfi improvement of railways under Government manage- 
ment 

Mi. Gait, in repl^, said : — ^The paper I read on the 
pttrohase of the railways by the State, which has 
Mm the subject of disOTSsion at four meetings of the 
Bodety, was necessarily of a very discursive nature, and 
to do anything like juaboe to the subiect I had to teavel 
orer a great aetil of ground. That tne question at issue 
might be folly undcmtood, it Iras necessary to ^ve a 
flketch of the several phases of our railway legislation, to 
notice in some detail the manifold grievanoea which the 
vortdng of our railway system inflicted upon the pubUo, 
and to discuss at a greater or less length the principal 
•ignmenta in &vour of and against the project of pur- 
dttae. Thus, by the introdnouon of so many collateral 
lubjects, the principal facts and arguments brought for- 
wwd in support of State purchase have been, to a great 
ixteat, evNuded in the course of discussion, by those ^en- 
tlemtfi who spoke in opposition to the measure. Might 
1 be permitted, then, oriefly, passinsr over all other 
mtttsis, to re-state my axwuments and reply to the ob- 
jections to them 0o far as they have been urged? First, 
I eontend that, in the words of M. Bozier, the Belgian 
Prime Miniater, in 1834—'* Whoever holds the railways 
holdf a monopoly, and, therefore, the principle of oom- 
Mtition cannot apply.'* The British public, as we all 
Know, determined when railways were introduced in Eng- 
land that competition should apply, and that there should 
be «a free traffic on railways as on ordinary roads. Well, 
we knew how the companies laughed at that remarkable 
project Then followed competing lines. The companies 
were for a short time disconcerted, but they soon turned 
the tables on the British public, and made them pay 
pr«tty dearly by vexatious, exorbitant and differential 
Alee and charges for the useless expenses they had been 
pot to. Under these unf ivourable circumstances, another 
change took place in the British mind. It was thought 
^Mirahle to pass a Bill giving government, with the 
sMat of tlu) Legislature, power to purchase the 
nilwaya tweaty*one years after date if the Legislature 
ihoaid so desire it, and the Bill was accordingly 
PMKd. Bat in passing through Parliament it was 
so manipulated b^ the companies' representatives, 
thjit the only intelligible part of the Bill was a clause 
Bader which Uie companies claim, in the event of 
pvn^Mse, '^ consequential profits" to the amount of 
£400,000,000, beyond the present value of the railways. 
This was the Aot of 1844, of which we had heard so 
BQch. After this Act was passed, it was thought ad- 
visable to conciliate the companies, by allowing them to 
amalgamate, and this they had done at such a rate that 
iS the Legislature had not taken £right and stopped 
them, they would by this time have divided Great 
Britain into four or five seottons, and beoome 
mpreme masters of the whole traffic of the country. 
The Legislature however, thought there was one 
way left to establish something approaching to free 
tiade in our railway system, and in the present session 
of Parliament an Aot has been passed for compelling 
hiM4ile companies to afford due facilities to other 
ctcapanies by giving them running powers over 
their lines, and a board has been OMstituted to 
carry this object into effect. I will read an extract 
from the eTidenoe of Mr. Maophetsan, the goods aia- 



nager of the North British Ckmipan^, given before the 
joint committee, from which an opimon might be formed 
of the task this Board has oefore them, and the 
probabHity of their being able to accomplish it in 
opposition to the owning oompanies. The North 
British had running powers over the Caledonian line, 
and Mr. Macpherson l^us describes the *< facilities*' 
afforded by that company in the exercise of their ri^ts :— 
*< They ran their trains in front of the North British 
and fixed the time for starting their own trains from 
the same places and the same hours, with the North 
British trains. They detained Nortii British trains 
upon the ground of testing the carriage wheks, and on 
other unreasonable i>retexts, in order to give preoedenoe 
to their own competing trains. They refused to reoog- 
nise North British tickets, and forced passengers to 
leave carriag[es going b^ the North British route into 
carriages ^mg by their own route. When Nortii 
British trains arrived at Perth, with passengers for the 
Dundee railway, or for the line leading to Aberdeen and 
the north, the corresponding trains for Dundee and 
Aberdeen were then started for Perth without North 
British passengers, although the North British trdns 
had readied or were within the precincts of the station. 
They refused the statutory accommodation for North 
British clerks and agents at the stations on the said 
railway. They refused to recognise the North British 
Company's right to issue season or contract tickets to 
passengers. They raised fictitious daims at their 
stations agdnst North British passengers for excess 
fares. In winter they would not allow foot-pans to 
North British passengers, while they provided them for 
their own. They refosed to insert the times of arrival 
and departure in their time-tables, as required by the 
Amalgamation Acts. Instead of delivering parcels from 
the North — addressed to places in England and else- 
where, or beyond the North British system — to the 
North British Company, at Perth, the^ carried them 
over the West Coast route. Thev declined to carry on 
through carriages belonging to the North British Com- 
pany nrom Perth northwards. These are all findings of 
the standing arbitrator with reference to passenger 
traffic. As regards the goods traffic the arbitrator 
found that the Caledonian Company opened the North 
British Company's letters and invoices at stations, and 
made use of the information thus acquired to secure 
delivery by their own carting agents, and to canvass the 
consignees for their return traffic. They used their 
own forwarding notes for North British traffic coming 
into Caledonian stations, and so secured the forwarding 
of such traffic by their own and the London and North 
Western routes. They took possession of North British 
goods traffic arriving at the stations on their railways, 
and delayed its deliv^ so as to give precedence to oe- 
Uvery of their own, in consequence of which traders 
using North British lines have been induced to use 
(>iledonian instead. They usurped the powers and 
duties of North British agents and derks at Caledonian 
stations, and so manipulated the invoices and forward- 
ing notes as to prevent the traffic going by North Bri- 
tidi routes. They took the addresses from the waggons 
loaded with. Norui British traffic and re-addressed tiie 
traffic so that it mi^ht go by routes most profitable to 
themsdves. They insisted on settling traders' claims 
against tiie North British Company for damages to and 
delay in delivering traffic, and so created dissatisfaction 
among traders using the North British route. Those 
are also all findings of the standing arbitrator, and the 
result of all was that we were not able to compete for 
tiie conveyance of traffic under facilities of equal terms 
with them." This is a very fidr specimen of the suooess 
that has attended tne determination of the legislature 
to apply the principle? of free trade to railway traffic, 
and by giving running powers to rival companies, 
thereby promote competition. In those few oases where 
they do not unite, the owning company has such adv<^^- 
'tages that suoosssfuloompetiUon is hopeless. Itooo^ 



668 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, .Tult 11, 1873. 



be denied that the railway companies must necessarily 
haye a monopoly of the inland traffic of the country, and 
all that is now attempted is to mitigate some of the worst 
abases whidi result from the exercise of this monopoly. 
We have, in the second plaoe, to consider by what means 
the State could interfere, so as to give the public the full 
benefit which cheap and rapid means of communica- 
tion are calculated to afford. Now a monopoly is not 
necessarily an evil — so far from being an evil it may be 
the means of effecting a great good, as, for instance, in 
the working of the postd system. We have, in regard 
to the Post-office, a highly centralised system of mnnage- 
ment, extending over the whole of Uie kingdom and 
connecting the most distant cities, towns, vilbiges, and 
districts with each other and with the metropolis. Would 
it be desirable then that the Post-office, as a national 
institution, should be abolished, and that the duties now 
performed by that establishment should be left to the 
0]>erations of free-trade and competition, as we find it 
developed in the working of our railway system P The 
Post-office has the monopoly of the conveyance of our 
letters on one system, the railway companies that of the 
conveyance of our persons and property on a system 
totally opposite. Which is the better of the two P If 
the Government monopoly of conveying letters was 
abolished, we would have no difficulty in tracing the 
coarse of the future post-office compHnies so soon as 
they were established. They would act, no doubt, as all 
other railway or trading companies act. Each company 
would charge whatever rate of postage paid best. We 
should, no doobt, have a hundred different companies 
battling through the kingdom for business ; they would 
assert, like the railway companies, their "territorinl 
rights ;*' they would repel invasion, they would not snb- 
mit to be robbed of their '* postal traffic," they would 
combine against each other and the public, and the 
postage would lise or fall from day to day, as they might 
be successful or otherwise in their several combinations 
or arrangements. The cities and towns would be 
well attended to at the charges that best paid, 
and the villages and districts which would not 
pay would be deprived of all postal communication. 
There would be no control, authority, or combined 
action throughout the country, till the companies would 
find it to their advantage to amalgamate their several 
interests, and finally by successive stages become one 
g^at company, having in their hands the whole postal 
traffic of the country, and charging what t hey thought 
proper for letters, newspapers, and parcels. Would any 
one in this country wish to exchange that system for 
that of the present Government monopoly P If not, it <inly 
proves that there are oases in which a monopoly can be 
managed by a Government greatly to the benefit of the 
public ; and there could be no better illustration of that 
principle than a comparison of the system which 
formerly existed with that now adopted since Sir 
Bowlaitd Hiirs plan of reform W'S carri«;d out. The 
conveyance of letters at that time was conducted 
without any more regard to the general interests 
than was necessary to extract the grent^et amount 
of money from the public. In this respect the un- 
reformed post-office was not a whit behind the most 
obnoxious of its compeers. It laid on the most exorbi- 
tant rates ; ^ it guarded with the utmost jealousy any 
attempt to infringe on its patent-right to carry letters, 
and prosecuted with the utmost rigour trespassers en its 
domain. Although the cost of conveying a lett- r from one 
end of the kingdom to the other did not amount to half a 
farthinir, the Post-office charged half-a-crown, and so in 
proportion for lesser distances. All this was abolished 
when Sir Rowland Hill had the f^yatem changed, and 
the i>iiblio beneSt made the prim ly object, and ccm 
mercial success only secondary. In the pap-r I read I 
referred to my evidence given before the <>>mmittee of 
1844, which proved the enormous reduction that could 
be made in railway fares with oomparativeV slight loss ; 
ana I uiniiahAd tkA nnrnmUf aa mM^4>^% « 4aIv«i». iu.« .^^.t. 



an exact statement of the loss or gain to each oompany 
consequence of the great redactions in fares. I 



ftttnished the Committee with a tabular form, with 



will give' a short extract from mv evidence in which 
I referred to this table. On that occasion I aitid, 
*• Now, if they would refer to these railways of which 1 
gave the returns, viz. : — Leeds and Selby, Mancb»att« 
and Bi'lton, Dundee and Newt^ le, Glaago w and GreenodE, 
Glasgow and Gankirk, Paisley and Renfrew, Lc^idan 
and Greenwich, London and Blackheatb, no n.aUrr 
to what extent the directors had rednc^-d Ihcir Um 
—and in the cases I have given the redactions ranged 
from thirty to seventy per cent. — there was not a ttogle 
company in all those cases had their dividt nds ailected 
to a greater extent than i per cent, per annum." I 
quoted to the Committee, in confirmation of the pro- 
bable gain by the general adoption of low fares, the 
report of the board of directors of the Glasgow «sd 
Greenock railway, who had reduced their love«t dess 
fare from Is. fid. to 6d., the distance being 22^ miks. 
The directors, in their report for the hall-yetiT eniHng 
the 30th of June, 1842. say : — *' It has be^n found that 
the increase of working expenses for an additiimal nan* 
her of passengers is scarcely appredHbl^, and with the 
present number of trains fifty per cent, more i^assengers 
might be t^arried with a very trifling ini*r»«8e of ou'lBy. 
So successful has the operation of the third-class fiuvt 
been that it enables the directors to sute to the «har»> 
holders that had the modifications of the tax hem ob- 
tained before the commencement of tho preeeot yrar, 
the result of the year*s traffic would have been very 
different from that which they now lay bef«»re xht^i. 
In the week ending the 21st of May, before the ivdnr^ 
tion took place, the number of paasengers was 12,133; 
the next week they had increased to 17,332; the «erk 
after that to 19,621, and so on, increasing till the p»Tib4 
in one week in the summer there was 33.887 canit<d, 
and with a very trifling outlay fifty thouaand mighK be 
carried." As the strength of a chain is tested by its 
weakest h'nk, so the third-class fare most to a grait 
extent govern first and second-class fatoa, reference of 
course being had to g^reater speed, as well as safioitv 
accommodation. I stated to the Royal CoanoiiaaiC 
in 1865, that I considered the following scale would fnlly 
meet the wants and wishes of the public : — Ex fUMB 
First class, l)d. ; second dass, Id. Ordinary train*— 
First class, l|d. ; second class, |d. ; third clmra, fd. 
Goods or slow trains (once a day) —First rlasa, }'i.; 
second class, j^d. ; third class ^. per mile. £xcorsia 
trains about half the present fares. These rednctidftt 
are not to be compared with those made in the Po»l- 
office, but the circumstances are quite diffc^viiL nor 
could the proportionate increase of pa^engers be ex- 
pected to be anything like the propor^onHte inGrease of 
letters. Previous to 1865, the Board of Trade, ia thHr 
annual returns, gave the average fares charged by aU 
the railway companies in the kingdom, and anyone who 
had never studied the subject wonid be surprised sft Iks 
wide range of fares adopted by the sev< ral covRpnnits. 
According to the returns for 1863, the Itfwr« ftns 
charged in the Idngdom was on the Korih and 8os«^ 
Western Company's. Their charge per mile for Iks 
several classes was •^.t ^^m &nd ^d., which ftr Ht 
miles would amount to 6s., 4s. 2d., and ^ 64. The 
highest in the kingdom was the Carmarthen and Ond^^ta 
Company. They charged per mile Sid., 2d , and Id, or 
taking 100 mUes, £1 9s. 2d., Ifis. SdC. and 8a. 4d.,— 4hc 
fares of one company having, on an average, more thsai 
quadrupled those of the other. In the work I puUisbcd 
in 1866, I quoted from these returns the fiu^e of foityof 
the principal companies in the kingdom, all intefmed^afei 
between those I have noticed, drawing enpecial attestka 
to the fact that the North and South- Western Cbarfttny, 
even with their exceedingly low fares, was actoaOy pay- 
ing 6 pw cent, to the shareholders, whilst the OsnaiarthcA 
and Cardigan Company did not pay half that diwi dts i d , 
so little does the duferenoe in fares affect the divid««»da. 
It would be almost impossible to ov«r-€8tiinate the ▼ahae 



JOUBNAL OP THE BOODETT OF ARTS, Jult 11, 1878. 



ee9 



of tbe boon ttut would be oonfcmd oa tibe meroamtile 
wnmmrit y, and, indeed, on ike pabHo generally, by the 
ratabUehmmt of a low, asid, to some extent, vnifoiiii 
tniif for parcela and packages ttxcnghont the kingdoan. 
ne aaxoal ohaige to the pabHc Ibr the oonveranoe of 
paneb la rmj amall in amount compared with that paid 
lor genoral ^merohandiae, and doea not probably amount 
to half a niiUion. The exact amn, howover, oaanot 
be naoevtained, aa it is mixed np with reemta for 
ganaral merohandiae. G^reat, howeyer, aa the dmerence 
IB between the two anma, I am almoat inclined to 
believe thata low tariff for parens, packagee, hampera, 
&c^ thvooghoat the kingdom, would, with the general 
paUio, be even a more popular meaamre than a general 
redaction in the charges for merchandise. It wookl 
come more home to each household, and partake more 
of the nature of an abatement in what might be called 
direct taxatkm, than almoat any other reduction of a 
atmilar nature ^lat could be mentioned. The chaises 
by many companies are exceedingly high, and in some 
oaaaa alxnoat prohibitoty. If the railways were in the 
pn a ao a oi on of the State, a uniform tariff for parcels 
throughout the kingdom would probably be one of the 
firul naoasures adopted; aayfora parcel not exceedbig 
Slba^ 4d.; 7lbs., dd.; 10 lbs., 9d.; and Ulbs., Is.; and 
far every additional 7 lbs., or fraction of 7 lbs., 6d. As 
tegasda the ocnyeyance of mercdumdise throughout the 
kia^oin, and the manifold grievances under which the 
mercantile communrty suffer in consequence of ex- 
ovfaitant and differential charges, no other remedy has 
been aug go a te d of any practical value than the tranafBr 
ef the xailways to the State. In the paper I i«ad I 
noticed in some detail the benefits which would accrue 
to ^e nation from Ahe possesaton of the railways, pro- 
vided that they could be obtained at a fur price, 
and en that mbject I have little to add to what I have 
altendy said. It was assumed throughout the discussion 
wfaieh took place a few months since at the Statiatical 
Society that, as the Act of 1844 was a fEulure, the oom- 
paniee bad tbe power of imposing what ddmrnds they 
IhoegM pieper,and itwas then delared that £400,000,000 
beyond liie actual value of the proper^ was the lowest 
thai weold be accepted by the companies. Now, «s a 
tneUer of fact, the right of the State to make competing 
lines ia opfnaition to the companies had not only never 
bean disputed, but the Ohairman of the Lonclon and 
and North- Western Company stated in his evidence 
betee the Committee of 1844, he ahould prefer oppo^ 
aitkm Ihna being made by Government, rathw than by 
oppceing companies, as in the latter case the old compa- 
Might be ruixied, i«4iilst the Government would 
carry their opposition to such an extent. The 
.ptien, therefore, on the part of some who profess 
to repteoeot the companies, wat in the event oi the 
pnbiio coming to the determination to have low rail- 
wny cbalges established throughout the country, ^t 
the eompanies have Ppwer to prevent that intention 
bein^ carried into effect, is an utter delusion. Lord 
Derby said he ''had not the slightest doubt that if the 
pobiie leally wanted the railways purchased by the 
8teie it ooutd be done ; tiie question ofprice would not 
luueuait any insuperable obstacle." We need not, I 
tfiink, diseuas the terms of purchase Anther. Should 
Ibe occasion ariae, the legislature and not the compa- 
noee will be the supfeme master of the situation, and 
win BO doubt act equitably. When the Act of 1844 
w«e ynsswd, it was the intention of tiie legislature 
tfaect, in the event of purchase, the shareholders should 
hBW n bonus of 10 per cent, en the value. We have 
hueiA the epinipn of Mr. Baaa in this matter ; he ia one 
of tfte largeet, if not the hurgest, holder of railway stock 
m ibo kingdom, and he says he will only be too happy 
t» nail it at 10 per cent beyond its matiiiet valne if he 
eaunfindany one willing to give it; but I am ateid he 
wma^ ^ntit eoaie time bmre he meaia with such na offer. 
Qantniii Tyler says, veffy truly, that «tiie Isgiriature 
"be very eawfllfaig' to oonstroot linea in opposition 



to those of the companies, and such, no doubt, is the 
fact ; but I only refer to the dormant power possessed by 
the legislature to exercise that right should it ever be- 
come nocessary, in answer to the gentleman who spoke 
at the Statistieal Sucivty, and assumed that the companici 
could evMde the Act of 1844, in deftunce of the public and 
the legfidature, and refuse to part with the railways 
should the nation wish to possess them, except on such 
terms as they thought proper to dictate. It is satisfac- 
tory, however, to dnd thnt in the several meetings held 
here, no allusion has been made to such preposterous 
claims by any advocate of the power and rights of the 
companies. As to the mod'** operandi of purchasmg the 
railways, there can be, I should think, but little £ffer- 
ence of opinion. It must be by a graduul process from 
year to year, according to the state of the money market 
and the inoHnation of the shareholders to take Govern- 
ment stock at the market price, with ten per cent, bonus 
in exchange for their shares ; and the operation might 
therefore extend over some years, or it might be brought 
to a conclusion in a comparatively short space of time. 
It is not necessary to go into a minute calculation of 
the saving that would bt* effected by the sobstitutitm of 
ttie credit of the State for that of the companies. In the 
very able paper read by Mr. Martin before the Statistical 
Society, in which he went minutely into the financial 
poeition of every class of r«iilway securities, he calculated 
that the annual 8in*plus revenue would be nearly seven 
and a half millions. AccordiBg to the highest 
railway authorities, there would be a saving in working 
expenses by amalgamation of 20 per cent., that would 
amount to five millions more; but let us assume that 
both calculations are somewhat over-estimated, and that 
the amount saved would not exceed ten millions per 
annum, even then an eoermous sum would remain towards 
meeting any supposed defluiency that might be caused 
by the adoption of low fares and charges. Now, so far 
as regards passenger forus, some gentlemen who have 
taken part in this discussion have objected strongly to 
what Uiey consider the high fu-es I have proposed, and 
urge that no loss would be incurred by adopting a mudi 
lower tariff. They refer to the success of the penny 
postage, and contend that a propovfeieneto reduction 
should be made on lues as was made in postage. The 
cases, however, are not by an^ means pandlel — to send 
a letter from one end of the kingdom is one thing, and 
to go yourself is quite another. There are ten letten 
sent by post now for one that was sent formerly, but he 
never should expect such an increase in the number of 
passengers ; perhaps they might be trebled. Our objectat 
the present tioie should be to have such a tariff that all 
classes might be accommodated according to their wants 
and their pecuniary means, and that no person should 
be prevented i^m travelling who has the occasion or the 
wish to do so. Now, I consider that the tariff for the 
middle class, at the several Ures of l^d., }d., and ^., 
with return ttckete at a fare and half, would 
fully meet their wants. As regards express trains, 
they are attended with great expense, and as the number 
of passengers is limited, there cannot be the same reduc- 
tion in faree as by other trains, nevertheless a charge 
of 1^. and Id. per mile would be a large reduction on 
the present ^res. A train once a day for the poorer 
olass*fS, especially those who have occasion to make long 
journeys, would confer on them a g^reut boon. It has 
been suggested by llr. Bitlder that carriages might be 
attached to a ^^oods train, and third class passengei s car- 
ried at a firthmg a mile with good profit. 1 don't know 
any other matter that more deeply a£^»ct8 tbe interests of 
humble classes. Take the case of a working man wno 
has occasien to remove with hie wife end family — say, 
four obikireR^ — from here to Liverpool, for which at pre- 
sent be would penr ildOSi ^. Bet w4Mt a difference it 
would make to ham if be htd only to pay 168. 8d., 
although be ahonhl be tbrve or four bemm longer on his 
joomey I It 'is to be hoped thdt those who 'possess greet 
influence in theoountr^uQd wdthAt Inteonoe to benefit 



670 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 11, 1873 



the working ohissds, wiJl direct their attention to this 
phase of the question. Besides the working dassee there 
are many of the middle olasses to whom a saving, in a 
long journey especially, is a matter of some oonsidera- 
tioD, and if they are satisfied to ayail themselves of a 
slow and cheap rate of travelling, there is no reason why 
they should not be q^eommodated. With the above tariff, 
and excursion trains at half the present fares, I think the 
country would be fully satisfied. It is quite possible, with 
these reductions, that in the course of a few years there 
might be a greater revenue from passenger traflic 
than there is at present, but, if not, there would be the 
reserve fund tosupply the deficiency. As regards the goods 
traffic I have gone so fully into that branch of the sub- 
ject in the paper I read, in which I detailed the heavy 
grievances under which the mercantile community 
labour, that I cannot venture to trespass further on your 
time. I will only say in reference to ihat subject, that 
all the rates and charges require the most careful revision, 
and large reductions when the circumstances of the 
case warrant it It is admitted by all parties that, as 
such a system would affect the interests of the companies, 
it can never take place under the present system. But, 
with the large reserve fund that would be in the posses- 
sion of Qovemment, there would be a reasonable expecta- 
tion that the charges on merchandise could be reduced, on 
an average, 25 per cent. Each class of cases would re- 
quire special investigation by those best qualified to 
undertake such an onerous task. In some cases the 
reduction in charges would be very small, in others very 
large, but the main object to be attained should be a 
greater equalisation of rates throughout the country, and 
a reduction of charges in those oases in which the cost of 
transport greatly augments the price to the consumer, or 
prevents, either entirely or partitdly, the transport of mer- 
chandise. In all the discussions which ha^w taken place 
in reference to the purchase of railways by the State, the 
subject has been treated as though the State was a stock- 
jobbing company, of which the Government were the 
managers, and that if the saving to be effected by pur- 
chase and amalgamation would be insufficient to meet the 
deficiency caused by low fares and charges, the State 
would be an absolute loser by the transaction in the 
same way as any trading company. It is scarcely 
necessary to expose the utter fallacy of this assump- 
tion. How does the matter stand? It is calculated 
that the railway receipts for the present year will 
amount, in round numbers, to fifty-two millions, 
viz., twenty -three millions for passengers, and twenty- 
pine millions for goods. Now any reduction made 
in these charges is equivalent in every respect to a 
reduction in our taxation, whether direct or indirect. 
Travelling, and the conveyance of merchandise, are as 
xnuc^ necessaries of life, as tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco, 
spirits, wine, &c. ; and in some respects a good deal more 
so, for Home of these we might do without, but poor and 
rich alike must travel, and have their merchandise con- 
veyed by railway, the cost of which must eventually fall 
upon the consumer. The payment of hxm is as direct as 
the payment of income-tax, with Uiis difference, that 
many people manage to evade the one, or pay an insuf- 
fident sum, whilst any one who sttempts to evade the 
otiier soon finds himself in a polioe-court to answer for 
his conduct. Thus the enforcement of the passenger- 
tax is somewhat more stringent than the enfiircement of 
the income-tax. As regards the amount of our pay- 
ments to railway companies, it exceeds that of our pay- 
ments in customs, excise, and income-tax combined, and 
in the course of a few years will exceed the whole of our 
present taxation. A reduction in railwaycharges equally 
affects all classes of the oommunity, and is thei^oie in 
every respect analogous to a reduction in taxation. 
Now, if our fares are reduoed to one-half of ttieir present 
amount, and the charges on merchandise reduced 25 




country would increase. It, in this respsd, it t nm 
debtor and creditor account. If the saving thai moM 
be effected by State-purchase, whatever th&t taoiaft 
might be, would be insufficient to meet the hm, thi 
difference would be a deduction from the natios'i gun; 
if more than sufficient, the difforence would be tddad 
to the nation's gain; and if it should so happen ihatth«n 
would be no loss whatever, the entire laTing* by |«r> 
chase would be added to tiie savings by redauko in 
fares and charges. I am only spealung of the finmcki 
part of the question as regards the nation. I ay 
nothing of the great benefit that low rates wonld ooofa 
on the country in respect to its c<iramerc8. nur bow ibe 
wants and convenience of the public would be ni4 by 
moderate and uniform fares. The last questttio 1 htn 
to deal with is, perhaps, the most important of lU :— 
To whose hands should the management of therulvkji 
be intrusted ? Is it to Gk>vemmeDt, or moat we Ivok to 
some other quarter for that management wbidb voold 
give more confidence to the nation f Now, it is veij 
remarkable that, in all the discussions which bare taken 
place here and elsewhere, there has not b^en ow 
word said by those who are opposed to the pordbiw cf 
the railways by the State against the genenl priiKJplft 
we contend for. Ist. That by the amalKaautioa of 
the railways under one management a great sirtni 
would be effected in working expenses, iod. That m tfai 
credit of the State is so much better than thatof printe 
companies, the difference of that credit would tAablotba 
State to obtain the railways on very advAutagwosiwits 
if purchased at the market price and adding a hb^nl 
bonus to the shareholders. 3rd. From the expou^* 
we have had for forty ^ears of the working of our nil- 
way system, that the difference in profit betvfts bi($b 
fares and low £Btfes is comparatively so small that sBOff 
a proper system of management, a very large i»dicto* 
in fares and chuges could be effected without bamf 
recourse to taxation to make up a deficiency. Ko« su 
this has been tacitly admitted, but it is conlHided tlut 
these advantages would be more than coantectalaBoed 
by Government mismanagement. There are in idditia 
many other reasons urged against the manageamt tf 
the railways by Government. ** The really it-riow prt 
of the question," said Lord Derby in his comprehrtan 
speech, "was this — how would it be possible for *ke8i*tt 
to avoid exercising enormous local patnmage, vbKfi 
would affect every district and town throoghost tk 
country. What he feared was the position of d(f^ 
dence into which every town would be brought to»«* 
the railway board or administrative body with «bia 
the decision would rest as to what new hnrs, itetwir 
or extension of railway communication should be iBa^> 
Every town in the country might ask at the »■>* 
moment for extended railway comoAmicaUoo,aiiditj|w 
quite clear the request of all could not be compli^ «^ 
at the same time. It would be necessary that a c^ 
should be made, and that choice might b^ governed '? 
political preferences. At any rate, whether it •* ** 
not, you would never get it out of the heads of ^**??fj 
that it was so. This was a control, not over i adiriw 
but over the constituency as a whole, which no aW^JJ 
of the franchise and no manner of taking the ^^^''^^J: 
affect in the slightest degree. It would be veiy di»w 
to constitute we railway board in such a way tk^ '* 
would not be dependent on the minirter of the day. ^ 
administration controlling a property of 600 a «* 
millions, and emplo^png several hundred thoaisDO pj^ 
sons, would make itself felt in every oorocr of (^ 
country ; if detached from the exeentivo it woold be 
imp^rium in imptrio, and if attached to it> it woold i^ * 
easy to detach it from political P^*^*" '^^'^ 7^ 
the principal ar^^umente brought forward by^^ 
Derby, from a pohtioal point of view, agwiost «i**^ 
the manajgement of the railways to GovsniiPCBW ^ 
they require very serious oootideratioo. In ■^^^JjJ: 
the objeotion of a poUtioal nature, so davly f^JJ 
Lord Derby, agiinot plaolDg the nilwajs A ^ ^*^ 



J UR5AL OF THE SOOIBTY OP ARTd, July 11, 1873. 



671 



of Gk>v«immeiity there are other objections, considered 
equttlly wri»<hiy, of a different nature, advanced from 
ottier qa irters. It is contend ed that GKi vemment manage- 
ment is iii«tfit'ient and wasteful, iind that any board, how- 
ever constituted, under Ghivemment control would be 
Qtterl> in«K>inp«tent to fulfil the yarions an<l complicnted 
dutiee it would be called on. to perform. Now, without 
diecusttini^ whether or not these objections are well- 
foundr-d, it must, I think, be admitted that they are 
gi'n -rully c*intfidered so and for all practical purposes we 
moitt asttuine that the public opinion of the country is 
opposed Ui G >vemment management. The gOTerning 
budy into whose hands the railways should be entrusted 
mutft poss^^sa the full confidence of the public, not only 
ae rttgardrt its adriiinistrMtive capacity, but in the per- 
fei;t cofitidence that the g^eat power which it must 
ne oj saarily p<M*ses8 cannot be m ide use of for political pur- 
p(>8 s, or in any other manner not in accordance with the 
striit and honest performani o of its duties. This con- 
fidence the Government certainly does not possess, and 
if ever the purchase of the railways become an accom- 
plished fact, we must look elsewhere for the governing 
CHidy, independent of Gk>vemment, with all the qualifica- 
tions whiih the nation would require. What, then, 
wuuld be ihe necessary qualitications for the members 
of such a board ? They would require to be men of the 
hiichest social position and character, well known to the 
country, of mixed politics, the majority of whom should 
be thoroughly conversant with railway management, and 
all i»e members of either House of Parliament, an equal 
number to be nominated by each House, as in the case of 
joi nt committees. Would such a board possess the con- 
fidence of the nation and the Legislature, and be qualified 
to fulfil all the onerous and important duties attached to 
their offii«^ If we o inform an opinion of the future 
from the experiense of the past, we should certainly come 
to ihe conclusion that no board or council appointed 
by the Government could carr^ with it the same weight, 
aatbority, and respect as a similar body appointed by 
boih Houaes of Parliament. Some time smce an Act 
wa« passed authorising the Board of Trade to report on 
the merits of the several railway bills presented to Par- 
Uiunent, but after a few years tne Act was repealed, in 
consequence oi the neglect with which their recommenda- 
tions were treated. Compare that with the deference and 
respect paid to any recommendation coming from a joint 
oommittee. Take, for instance, the question of those 
great amalgamations which recently have so much en- 
gH0^ed the attention of the county and Parliament. 
& •▼emment itself would not venture to give an opinion 
on the subject, but referred it to a joint oom- 
mitte**, who soon disposed of it. Here we liaye a great 
decision given on the commercial policy of the country 
without a remonstiance or complaint from the companies 
whose bills were rejected, or that portion of the 
public whose interests their decision injuriously 
affected. For these reasons I consider no Board would 
poaaess such weight and authority as one nominated by 
tho two Houses of Parliament, more especially as many 
members of both Houses haye distinguished Uiemselvee 
as most able railway administrators. 

Captaia Tyler said it was not usual to pasi a Tote of 
ChfiDtcs to the Chairman, but on that occasion he hoped 
the meeting would depart from the ordinary practice, 
and accord a yote of thanks to the noble lord who for 
three evenings had presided over the discussion. 

Mr, Botly seconded the motbn, which was carried 
unanimously. 

Tlia Chairmaa said he was much obliged to Captain 
Tjltar and the meeting. He had long felt a deep interest 
in this question, and entertained a very strong opinion 
Qpon it, long indeed before he had ever heard it menticmed 
is public. Hm had always held it to be a weU-settled 
fn**^*^ ^lat the Crown ought to have the oontrol of 
tiMi highways of tiie oonntry ; and ivlMa ^ railroads 
thuM highway te A |r '^ ' 



Crown ought to take possession of them. He begged 
to propose a vote of thanks to Mr. Gait for bringing 
the matter forward with so much ability, for it was only 
by such discussions that public opinion on any question 
could be enlightened and consolidated. It was verv 
satisfactory to find that no one had expressed himself 
entirely contented with the present system of railway 
management, whilst the majority were extremely dis- 
contented ; and he hoped, therefore, the time was not 
very far distant when the question would be seriously 
brought before Parliament, with a view to settling the 
details of a scheme for putting railway communication 
on a proper footing. 

The vote of thanks to Mr. Chilt having been passed^ 
the proceedings terminated. 

OANTOB LECTTTBES. 

The fourth lecture of the second course of Cantor 
Lectures for the Session, * * On the Energies of the Im- 
ponderables, with esi)ecial reference to the Measure- 
ment and Utilisation of them,** was delivered by 
the Bev. AbthubRioo, M.A., on Monday evening, 
February 24th, 1873, as follows :— 

LicTunB rV. 

The En$rgy of JiJIinity^ etpecially with reference to eonei* 
derations for the Measurement and Utiiisaiion of it. 

The energy of affinity assumes many Protean forms, 
embracing &icts in very opposite phases. At one time it 
seems to hold elemental matter in adamantine chains so 
firmly that no appliances, such as heat or light or elec- 
tricity, can imdo the bonds ; at another time there seems 
to be a repellant power of affinity (contradictory though 
the expression may sound) so influencing, that though 
every facility for voluntary combination bo presented, 
yet none of these inducements accomplish this combina- 
tion. For example, the oxygen and nitrogen in the 
atmosphere, which for all general purposes may be said 
never to enter combination whilst acting as atmosphere. 
Again, oil and water — ^neither shaking nor heating oan 
cause mixture, let alone combination. This repellant 
power is utilised in vitality thus : The fluid which lubri- 
cates the eyeball would continually pass over the edges 
of Uie lids, and so run down the cheeks, were there not 
glands upon the edge of the lids that secrete a very little 
oiL and so by virtue of this " repellant affinity *' the 
ordinary fluid is confined to its appointed channel. If 
this fluid be excessive, the oUv boundary is overflown, 
and tears trickle down the cheeks. 

On reference to the diagram on the wall, it is stated 
that the energy of affinity is manifested in mechanical 
action, and it is probably the source of the mechanical 
power utilised by men for manufEtcturing purposes. We 
find affinity operating under all circumstances in which 
the character of a resulting compound is difierent from 
that of the elementary bodies wMch constitute the com- 
pound. Affinity may be said to be kinetic when con- 
verted : and potential when in molecular relation. In 
other words, all the molecules of one body are somehow 
or other related bv affinity to the molecules of another 
body, either directly or indirectly^ when states of change 
are occurring, under these circumstances, until me 
new moleculur relations are called forth, there is poten- 
tial energy : as these are brought about we get kinetic 
energy. 

The term "Affinity," as employed in this course of 
lectures, needs an explanation. As a term in science it 
is fairly derived from that sense in which it ought to 
be usea in conversation or ordinary writing. The word, 
when properly applied, is in reference to those connec- 
tions whidi a marriage may have established between 
the relatives of the wMded pair. Prior to that marriage 
there were no relatumhips ; after it, relationships enter 



672 



JOUBH AL OF TEIB SOOIBTY 0¥ ABT8, Jolt 11, 1879. 



**5 



by ^finity. The relatives of Hie husband are oonneeted 
to him by oonsanguinity, so are the relatives of the 
wife to her, but ^ter the m a r riag e tiiese two sets ot 
relatiree are comieoted each to the other by affinity. 
This distinction makes clear that affinittes aie n^garded 
only as between diffSsrent bodies. No affinity can exist 
between lead and lead, or between ozyg^ and oxygen. 
As in social life, the legal relationships resulting trom 
affinity and consanguinity are rery diJIvrent, so in science 
Hfe, the atoms which constitute the elementary parts of 
a simple body, and the molecules which constitute the 
elementary parts of a compound body, are tied together 
in bonds of di£ferent kinds. 

Between atom and atom, or molecmle and molecule of 
a like nature, there are no affinities. True, these sre 
held together, but it is by what is sometimes culled the 
force of cohesion. If atom or molecule of one nnture is, 
thus unchanged, held to an atom or molecule of another 
nature, then the hfmd is one of adhesion. If, fur example, 
these two plates of smooth glass be slid one over the 
other and pressed together they cohere. If gum be 
dropped on one and the other pressed upon it, they then 
adhere. Water adheres to many substances of very 
dififerent constitution. 

To cohesion we are indebted for the strength of solids. 
The cohesive force opexates, bat in marvellously different 
degrees, in ice, water, and steam. To adhesiun we are 
indebted for those unions effected by cements, &c. 
With the intensity of these two substdiary agents in 
the work of affinity this lecture is not conoemed, 
although they perform no unimportant parts. 

Between affinity, if used as a term in physics, and if 
used as a term in chemistry, there is this distinction : — 
Students in physics might classify cohesion and adhe- 
sion as branches of affinity. Students in chemistry would 
not admit the term (affinity) unless the compoBing ele 
ments after the influence of affinity have undergone such 
a change as to obliterate all traces of the originals. 
Hence the phrase ** chemical *' affinity, thus, by the 
prefix *• chemical," excluding the physicist's views. 

An experimental illustraCfon may make clear the use 
of the term " affinity," by the respective students in 
physics and chemistry. 

Here are two solutions, the one of gnm dissolved in 
water, the other of camphor dissolved in spirits of wine. 
These two are respectively mixed, nevertheless there 
is in neither case any chemical affinity. If we add pure 
spirits of wine to wie mixture of gum and water, we 
should destroy what the physicist might call the affinity, 
but which the chemist does not admit to be such. On 
the other hand, if we add water to the solution of 
camphor we destroy the mixture there ; a separation 
takes place, and in one case the gum, and in the other 
the camphor, ie precipitated. The term "affinity," 
applied to the unions thus separated, would not to a 
physicist seem improper ; the chemist would not permit 
the use of this word. It is in the chemist's sense that 
the word is used in the phrase ** energy of affinity.** 
He distinguishes thus — the term " combination" is 
applied by him to the results of affinity, and to that 
which has just been described »i8 a phenomenon in physics 
the chemist applies the term ** mixture." 

These preliminary distinetions prepare us for an ex- 
planation of what we are to understand by those affinities 
whose energies are to be considered. TJsea in a chemic al 
aense, affinity is that power which influences bodies dis- 
similar in composition, form, and character to combine. 
The consequence of this imion is the formation of new 
compounds, which may or may notbedisaimilarin colour, 
form, and every fashion, to any of the composing bodies, 
which may or may not be possessed of properties and 
characters that are not even traceable in the originals. 
These compound bodies, thus unlike their progenitors, 
also establish relationships of affiT>ity, aad we are soon 
surrounded with numerous compounds, so diverse that 
f^J^^i'^!:® yJJ^l^^^a^a are to ordinary apprehensions 



There is, however, unoiigat thess bodies t haA 4 
clanship or caste, similar to tint smon^ tks people of 
iTKtia. Thus, simple or elemeotary bodies oomnie os^ 
with simple or e^emeattay ones ; eonpoandbodiModf 
with oompmiRd ones. 

For example — Oxygen, whidi is a tbnple bodj, estai 
into the alliance of affinity with the mstels, irlueh m 
also simple bodies. 

Here is some pure metal — ^letd— 4n a atsto of nrj 
minute subdivision. It is enclosed in an air tigbtgha 
tube. This lump of lead is exacUv the saae mteitL 
The difference is that in the finely subdivided metaliD tba 
glass tube combinrtti<m with oxygen will take plioe &e 
moment it is exposed to the air, so that theatonsof kii 
which are soon to be shaken out are brought into eootKt 
with the oxygtjn — atom witb atom. 

Thus, on breaking off the end of the glafl taW tad 
shaking out the c<»ntents, you see the Uack psitid« » 
they fall glow with heat owing to their rraid combiBt* 
tion with the oxygen of the atmosphere. Hen isa ctn 
of affinity, cons* quent on a state of suhdiritton— a <i» 
of affinity proper. Mr. Wills, who most kindly tin 
evening gives us the benefit of his cbsmical kuoarbdye 
and exj»erimentnl skill, will now show yoahow rtioBjf a 
the affinity of oxygen for thested blade of a knife: vhea 
heated and placed in a stream of oxygen the ignitad 
particles of steel in the blade rapidly born awty, Tbe 
same thing happens if a stream of oxygen is directed 
on any of the simple metals when raised to a red kial 
In a hollow on this tile are seme mm saBs; bt 
directing a stream of ignited hydrogen in oxygea opn 
them, the affinity is so strong that they not «1t Mt 
but boil, and the ebullition is so powerful ^ti 
brilliant shower of molten metal is seattered wmA- 
Similarly, a piece of zinc when exposed to oxyg«» 
rapidly c^msumed. 

But when we deal with acids which are wwpwwh, 
they do not ally themselves by affini^ with the aapl* 
metals, but only with the oxides of the install, vbji, 
like themselves are compound bodies. 

The range of the energies of affinitiea iavtrygr^ 
For example, oxygen and the metals. Oxygra e anwB 
difficulty be mduced to unite with gold and ptataw. 
hence these metals do not tarnish in the air ; witbiwi* 
and potassium the affinities are eo strong tint the ^g* 
is rapid enough to generate both light m. hert. _^"* 
to facilitate or prevent such union, and so pf(»ot»« 
retard the energy of affinity, has led to Iheadoftioae 
various compounds, under the name of flnxea. ^ ._ 

It may be w«ll to explain that tothisenwgyrf^wjj 
we may be said to owe the variety wkidi thew 
possesses. Reduce its compounds into their etoafc 
and a sample of each of all of which the worid w «■ 
might he arranged on this table. Hwresress^^ 
68 reputed elements: from the affinities Binongit»«»' 
whether taken bv twos, or threes, or fwna, or ^ 
every thing is made. Indeed, ^llisof ttsesrthiiB** 
of 13 elements ; the mathematician's oaloalatieeiitt*^ 
one wbith could tell the number of arti<desthatiBg|^ 
formed by combining these 13 by twos, then *7^ 
then by fours, and so on to 18. There ^"»^^*J2 
of these dements be eight thouaaad ooe ^^""^^ 
ninety -oaie different compounds. This namk**'^ 
naturally increased from the 0|Mtatioo of ^^ f*^ 
called the law of oomhination m multiple ssd^-^ 
tiple proportioBs. AUowiug another 8,191 ^^^ 
tiple and sub-multiples, there would be in «*JT: 
composed of these 13 elements 16,382 aiticlei. ^* 
calculation as this is exceedingly simple, and *^*f™*" 
matician wouM say must be cowect •^^''toity, "••^ 
enters with a ** veto." It ckims the right to d«t«M» 
ai-. ^ ^^ ^ vi 4.1 ...^^....MlmfttiaB.in 



the nature ofany combination or set' 
in the exerctee of this chdm the ehajwww ■->--- « 
ti(m of the combhring elemeAts «iesoeott| fej''7y g 
as to have lost all obvioos trtce of their oWJ*** 
thm4bn», y^-n the vombhisiien brthie* ^^ 
the nstatttocB-not part«k» of the dhiBt«t«« •y ^ 



J IBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF AilTS, July 11, 1873. 



673 



of the componeDts. TbiB change of charaoW i« what the 
mHiheuiNiiciaD'acHlctilation does not reckon upon, indeed 
ench a calculatiun is based upon the physiciat'fl interpre- 
in lion of the woid affinity, and it ignores the chemist's 
views. 

The problem which is now before us is to define a 
mode of measuring the transformationB in every shape 
introdaced by affinity amongst these thirteen elements ; 
a problem very simple, as thus stated, but wondrously 
coniplieated. in fact only cnpable of an approximate or 
inferential solution, which is, practically, nu solution at 
all. 

In a homely way this difficulty may be illustrated 
within thH walls of many a htmse. Assume the residents 
to btf a fiither and mother and thirteen children. Who 
can tell the oi»mHiaMtion8 consequent upon what may 
be called the mutuul affinities existing amongst these 
thirteen children ? Even from day to day the sttbility 
of that fiamily cannot be ensured. The combinations of 
twos and threes, which yesterday gave promise of per- 
manency, is to-day dissolved, and these molecular chil- 
dren form other alliances. This microcosm of a world 
is undt-r the influence of new feelings, changed tastes ; 
indeed, it passes, with more than electriciU rapidity, 
from a summer-like happiness to a wintry ^loom — from 
a pearefui calm to luria flashes — sad forebodings of do- 
mestic storms ! 

Well, amongst the affinities of the thirteen terrestrial 
elements similar ch>«ng«'S and relations are induced. 
Whilst we may be able to tell with unerrin*; exactitude 
how any two may act, if left to settle themselves under 
the sole influence of their dual affinities, when three 
or four, or more, come together, certain perplexity re- 
sults. 

Tu progress from simple to compound is a most satis- 
lactory procedure. Adopting this plan, and defiling 
with only two of the thirtt^en elements — ignoring the 
others — placing the two in such a relation that their 
mutual affinities may be fully exercised, the law as 
rv.ards these two, and (as we shall see afterwards^ the 
energy cousHjnent upon this law, may be made fairly 
evident and utilizetl in manufocturiog industries as well 
aa cAlculatfti with mathematical preciaion. 

L^t two be tak^n — any twu — say, the gases oxygen 
anl byiirogen. Place what we may call equal quan- 
tiiiHi of ench apart from all other elements. Cause 
them to comiiine. It would be soon observed — •*.«. if the 
experim*^t were repeated frequently — that this combi- 
nittioa is not arbitrary, it is nut at the experimenter's 
option. Although he may put different quantities of 
th«9atf gases in juxtaposition, yet by some means, and for 
some reasons unknown to us, they unite only in definite 
pr«»l»ortions. If more than 11 oz. of hydrogen be offered 
to cis OS. of oxygen, the excess of hydrogen will be left 
uuouuibined, also the reverse. 

As I* case of estimation by measure, the nature of the 
affiiiitiet*, thfir intensity, and the inexplicable results 
pr«Mlace a comparison which is very striking; «.^., 
24 pHXis, by mejisure, of common salt contain 25 8 parts 
of a<idium, and 3U parts of liquid chlorine. Such con- 
deiisatiuii, that is the ctmdeusing into (say) 24 cubic 
inch^f of iu)lid matter so much as nearly 66 cubic inches 
wtMsld require the exertion of a very great mechanical 
force. Ti> appreciate this, it roust be remembered that 
the aalt, the sodium, and the chlorine are all under the 
tftiiie Mtm< •spheric pressure, and consequently were there 
not ctfriairi inter-relationships among their constituent 
elK«i>ents, of which we know nothing, such change of 
Tolume could not be aix.*omplished. 

The ex* reise of affinity, although definite as regards 
the proportions of the bodies influenced by it, is not 
otllr^ tiit<» at'tion without either previous certain sur- 
To«indtni2sorth«* creation of influencingsurroundings, such, 
ik*r it«0f antte, MS the presence of moisture or heat, or light 
or ele^^iioity. If, for example, we take these two white 
pu««Jers whirh are here mix»^ together, and add a little 
-Wkter to them, their affinities b<^in to operate, and a 



violent effervesenoe takes place. Again, the states of 
solid, liquid, an<l gaseous vanish under the energies of 
affinity. Mr. Wills will mix two gases, and they 
imuiedintely form a solid. Now we will put two liquids 
together, and we find that they become converted into 
solids. In another case you see that the contact of two 
bodies suffires to change their state. If a little iodine ia 
put upon this plate, and then a little phosphorus is 
added, the sffinities are manifested by ignition, and the 
solids pass into the gaseous state. Nor are changes of 
state and temperature the only attendant phenomena of 
the energy of affinity. Electrical phenomena are often 
if not always present, although not always observed. 

It is not improbable that if the energy of affinity is 
ever measured and brought within our means of calcula- 
tion, it may be done inferentially, through some of these 
collateral manifestations which have not yet been so 
Carefully observed, employed, and tabulated, as their 
importance would seem to justify. What it is that 
influences these affinities is as far beyond our present 
knowledge as to tell what it is that influences many of 
the affinities of social life amongst the thirteen children^ 
The chemist not only endeavours to establish new re- 
lationships, but also to disentangle the relationships 
which uffinities have already established. He fails to- 
day, he succeeds to-morrow. With bodies thus by the 
energy of affinity compounded and interlaced :— 

-** Id maxes Intiirate, 



Ecoentrio, lotenrolTed, yet regular 

Then most, when mokt irregular they seem.** 

— we all are concerned. Although we know not their 
laws, we do know that they partake of the Medo-PersiaD 
character — they change not--and therefore, if once dis- 
covered, they are to be relied upon under all circum* 
stances. 

This Medo-Persian character of the laws which govern 
the energies of the affinities introduces into any calcula- 
tion of Uiem, when and where they are known, a pre- 
cision and means of repetition, which give thus far to 
physical chemistry the chnracter of an exact science^ 
With a precision equal to that of the laws of gravity, it 
is found that in respect to combining proportions there 
is a mathematical order, perfect and exact. True, 
articles may be mechanically mixed in any proportions ; 
they can be chemically combined only in definite pro- 
portions, and it is only when thus combining, in the 
chemist's sense of the word, that the " principle of least 
action '* is brought into operation in affinity, and ite 
results as economically utilised by men as the results of 
the energies of gravity and vitality were described to be 
in the last two lectures. 

In mixtures the particles are still separate, and in 
many cases may be distinguished under a microscope. 
Here is an instance. If this bottle is opened, 
the character of the whole contents is changed. The 
mixture of the atoms of the air with the nitrogen ffsa 
changed the appearance of the mass instantaneously. 
Again, you are all aware thnt coal gas bums in air, but 
we can also make the air itself appear to bum. In the 
presence of such experiments, it might become a question 
whether we bum gas in air, or whether we bum air in 
gas. Here is a cork through which are passed two small 
glass tubes. One of these tubes is connected with the gas 
of the room by this flexible india-rubber pipe, the other 
is open to the air. Now, light the gas issuing from the 
smull tube. Here is a glass chimney, similar to those 
used with paraffin lamps. The cork has been fitted into 
the chimney. Place the chimney on the cork, the jet 
of gas bums as before. Let the supply of gas be increased, 
the consequence is that the chimney is soon filled with 
an atmosphere of coal gas ; and observe, when a certain 
quantity of gas has entered, the flame quits the glass 
tube and now appears upon the air tube. ^ Apparently 
air is now burning with a pale blue fiame in an atmos- 
phere of gas, whikt Ihe gas issuing from the top of the 
chimney may also be ignited, and will bum in the air 



674 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, July 11, 1873. 



of the room. Atthe top, then, there iACO«l^biiniiiig 
in air, and within, air is apparently burning in ooal gas. 

Again, for example, if gnzmowder be taken and well 
washed, the nitre may be oiflsoiTed in hot water, and if 
the water be evaporated the nitre will be found as 
ordinary crvatals ; further, if heat be applied, the sulphur 
may be sublimed, and then niue char<x>al will'^be left, or 
the sulphur may be dissolvea oat by bjsolphide of carbon. 
Thu^ we can get the three elements of gunpowder, and 
find they are what the^ were at first Cm another pro- 
cess of manufiictare, if the nitre be fused in a orucible, 
and sulphur added, there results an entirely new sub- 
6tance--sulphate of pojtash ; if to the heated mass diar- 
coal be added, there is Harmed carbonic acid, and this, 
with the pota^ forms carbonate of potash. No washing 
or warming will separate these latter combinations. They 
are for all purposes entirely new subsUnoes ; they are no 
longer a mixture, as gunpowder is,in which the affinities 
may by a spark be called into play, but they are in a 
combination in which the affinities have already done 
their work, and that under the influenee of contisuoas 
heat and without eaqflonve Tioknoe, and, therefore, no 
further deyelopment of affinities, either wiUi or without 
the energ^y of explosion, can take place. 

The utilisation of gunpowder, then, ia the result of a 
process of mixing, such mixing being designed to facili- 
tate the action ofseveral affinities, by placing the elements 
of ^e composition in close approximation, ready at a 
signal from a controlling affent to operate. It seems 
reasonable to say that the closer these elements are to 
each other the greater will be the facility with which 
combinations may take place, and, therefore, the more 
readiljr can the affinities be utilised. Such d priori 
reasoning is not confirmed ; no simple mixture of im- 
palpable powder, howeyer intimately tiie dusty particles 
may have been mingled, fulfils the condition required in 
^npowder. It is possible, however, so to difi'use such 
impalpable powder in the air of a room as that each 
minute portion is surrounded with an atmosphere of 
oxygen. If when thus diffused explosion b^ detonation 
of any group of particles takes place, the entire mass ma^ 
explode. In mills for the grinding of madder this acci- 
dent has happened so frequently as to require special 
precautions. Herein is an example of many cases in 
which, whilst admitting our thorough knowledge of the 
premises on which our reasonings are based, we are found 
at fault when we apply the Imowledge : consequent, 
apparently, upon ignorance of certain even unsuggested 
peculiarities m the affinities involved. 

Some of you may remember that in July last there was 
a very serious accident in a fiour mill at Glasgow. Pro- 
perty was destroyed to the value of £18.000 or £19,000, 
and 19 lives were lost But how it happened, or 
why it happened, no one knew. The fire insurance 
companies deputed two scientific gentlemen to investi- 
gate the matter thoroughly, and they came to the 
conclusion, rightly or wronglv, that flour diffused 
through the air in the mill haa become so uniformly 
or minutely mingled with the oxygen of the air, that the 
atmospheric contents of the room or rooms were in a 
state of what may be called gaseous gunpowder. The 
effect of a spark from the millstones or the machinery 
caused explosion of the aerial gunpowder by that most 
violent of all means— detonation. Such a conclusion of 
such a probable danger being only now surmised, shows 
how little we know of the energy of affinity. In this 
mill appears to be an example o? the production of ex- 
plosion from^ hitherto unsuspected sources. 

^ We have in this bottle a diffused substance, and it is 
diffused in a liquid which rapidly evaporates. A piece 
of paper is immersed in the liquid, and we will now allow 
the paper to dry. When that is nearly accomplished the 
combustion of the paper with fiame occurs, owing to the 
non-vaporizable solid being so minutely subdivided that 
the oxygen of the air is in contact wiUi many atoms of the 
same material, and so energetically unites with them as 
to produce flame. 



To apply the iTifoTmstinin already oomninnioated to 
gunpowder, may pediaps make as clear the inflnanes 
which a moxe deUiled knowledge of affinitiea wosld 
^ve than any other instance. The action of gimpowd« 
IS simply this : in a condensed material are many gases, 
we will speak of these gases as onfr— tf^os. The otiliia- 
tion of gunpowder mi^it at first aiffht appear io depend 
upon having the largest amount of gas in the amallHit 
solid space. 

Now, without entering upon an^^ chemical ^nfntinOi 
it may suffice to say, ihSt in this miztore of nitre, sol- 
phur, and carbon are all the elements for (what we may 
name) the completion of the energies, thoogh every olher 
substanoe were exdnded. We £ive here a jar ckf water, 
and if into that we pat a mixture of gunpowder which 
has been ignited, vou will find that water has no power 
to put an end to the combustion ; it takes {dace as well 
unaer water as in air. From audi reasoning andea^wfi- 
ments as these, it miffht be antioipated »al the oaoic 
linch of gunpowder which on ignition i»t»diioed the 
greatest nunuMr of cubic inches of fpB would be the 
most valued. This, so apparently satisfactory conclu- 
sion, is very seriously in error. The amount of heat 
developed, and the rapidity with which the gas is f omwd, 
are important elements in guiding as to the mode of 
utilising the affinities called forth amongst nitre, sul- 
phur, and charcoal. If the affinities are so intense that 
the development of all the heat and gas oonaeqoeot 
upon the exerdse of the affinities throogh the entiic 
heap is instantaneous, then explosion of a very violeot 
and destructive character takes place. Such an explo- 
sion for mining, and doubtless other purposes, would 
entail serious loss — the rook, or the shell, would be so 
shivered as to be simple dust ; our coals would have to 
be as artificial fuel, for the powder produced must, bv 
tar, rosin, or other ingredient, be formed into lumps. 
To loosen and disenteffrate, but not to dertmy, ar«* uitr 
general requirements for blasting or mining. If ths 
rate at which the affinities in the mass are permitted to 
come into plav can be regulated, and so either re- 
tarded or accelerated, then Uie modes of utilising iJtym 
may be planned. For example, if a ball is to be smlI 
from a g^un, that law should, if possible, be impr^^ei-d 
upon the af&nities which nature has impressed upon tbt 
energy of animal vitality. A horse aooompliihes th< 
dragging of a load by slow beginnings, a looimotiwc 
does the same, affinities mnst do the same. Hraoc tb^ 
development of the greatest intensity of afiinity in the 
case of a gun should be progressive until it ^taaiu a 
maximum, and the time occupied in so doin^ shovid V 
determined bv the rate of travel of the bell and th« 
strMigth and length of the gun. 

Other cases, such as the blasting of rocka, dfrnaiwl % 
very different exercise of affinititti. Here the el^^ect 
is simply to disturb, to unsettle, to break up ; motiaB 
of the pieces to a distance is not required. Ccn- 
siderations such as these, simple as they may apfwer. 
are full of perplexity, consequent upon our ignoraxhot vi 
that in which these affinities consist. 

Similar remarks apply to gun-cotton, dynamite^ nitres 
glycerine, litho-firacteur, or any of the e^qdoeives wbtoh 
modem science has formed. 

It is from an attempt to impress upon the affinitive ^ 
law of time in their exercise that the varioua forma «b^ 
compositions of gunpowder owe their origin. 

We are much obliged to Mr. Abel, who haskiiidlylairi 
the Society ofArts different samples of gunpowdcc. Thsa^ 
is one boUle containinff powder, the grains of which aa^ 
nearly half an inch cube ; these are various oth«r lersML 
the object of these various forms being to develop tn 
affinities at a rate to be determined by the ptapomt w 
which the respec^ve gunpowders are to be eaip&oy««L j 

The pressure at the tune of explosion has been a^ 
mated at more than 4,000 ataiosphefee, ijt^ more vm 
4,000 X lolb., or 60,000lbs. per square inch. Thiseta^oJ 
pressure being converted into a Unedo or veleoki^ 
mate, is more than 216 tons lifted one foot 



JOURNAL OP TFTE SOOTBTY OF ARTS, July 11, 1878 



675 



There are other rahBtanoes on which this Bome law, de- 
termining the rate at which the affinitiee are to operatn, 
mav be impressed. Gun-cotton is one. We are Hgnio 
obhged to Mr. Abel for two illustrations on thf« wall 
showing- the destruction of the martello tower at Dim- 
church, in Sussex. It was acoompU«hed with 186 Ibe.of 
compressed g^un-cotton. And the development of the 
affinities was such that the tower ohangnd at once 
into the form you see in the second dia^crnm. Had 

Sm-cotton in the same state of combination and of 
e same character been put into a cannon, in h\\ proba- 
bility the cannon would have burst before the ball had 
time to more. 

Some very peculiar and inexplicable affinities are 
presented by this ally or riral of g^inpowder, viz., 
gun-cotton. In the ftret place, the rate of combustion 
and the consequences of it may be previously regalated, 
and that with much accuracy. Its energy may be rniM 
or great at the will of the operator. The rt'SultH of 
numetous experiments is that to obtain the fall power 
of gan-cotton it must be exploded in a close chamber, in 
order that the gases and heat gennratefl by the Hret (mrt 
of the explosion may penetrate the mass. Thn records 
of experiments with gun-cotton show vfry pltinly the 
absolute necessity for considering how affinities comport 
themselyes. A bag of gunpowder nailed on the uates of 
a city would blow them open ; a bag of gun-cotton so 
nailed would &il. Put the gun-cotton in h box, and it 
will shatter the gate to atoms. A box of gun-«otton 
fhm^ down close to pallisades would open a passage for 
troops. 

Speetrum analysis reveals the fact that the spectrum 
from the flame of a compound body, as chloride of 
calctnm, is not the same as that obs^Tved in the elect n*? 
spark passing over pieces of chloride of caleiura. The 
explanation suggested is thatcertain chemical conpoitmia, 
when they are heated above a given teraperatorc, nre 
decomposed into Uieir constituent elements below ihit 
temperature. These compounds are capable of existing 
in a permanent state. It may be thus with the ener^'y 
of gun-cotton. When discharged at the tempera? ur« of 
flame, the gaseous constituent elements htvi not formed, 
and therefore no explosion. When at the higher tem- 
perature producing concussion, then the condtitiients 
■re formed, and explosion ensues. 

You will find that the rate at which gun-cotton ex- 
plodes depends upon the rate at whieh the affinities 
ar» called into play. Here is a specimen. If we bring 
the affinities of this gun-cotton into pluy by means of 
a sparlc, and thereby do not produce suffi 'ient heit to 
develop its affinities rapidly, the rat« at which the 
gun-cotton is consumed is comparatively slow. If wo 
bring its affinities into a flame, the rnte at which affinities 
are developed in consequence of the heat in greHt. If 
we bring them into plav by means of det*»nfttion the 
rate at which they are developed is g^ent^r still. You 
•ee that when a flame is applied to this strip of gun- 
cotton it runs along it rapidly, whereas when a spnrk 
Is applied to a piece of the same material, the combustion 
is slow, like touch-paper. If I hold up the string of spark- 
ignited g^-cotton, the heat gathers, the ignition becomes 
more rapid, the spark being converted into a fl ime. 
Now if instead of allowing the affinities to bo exercised 
at that slow rate we cause them to develop imme- 
diately, we should have had a very different result. 
Here is some pulp gun-cotton, the very form in which it 
was used for the destruction of this tower. If wc de- 
tonated some of that, we should none of us be here to tell 
the tale of how it went ofi'. There is enough in my 
hand to send the walls of this room in all directions, but 
it most be by detonation. The efiect of what is (feme- 
thing like detonation can be shown in a different form. 
You are aware that in a coal mine there are fearful ex- 
plosioiis. It has been found that these explosions often 
teke place after a blast In a distant part of the mine. 
The qaestion therefore is, what has that blast to do with 
the exploaiony the two not being near together. Mr. Gal- 



loway, of the Metooloffieal-office, has been investigating 
this matter for some time past, and it has been found that 
these Davy safety lamps, of which specimens are on the 
table, are not, when wi^in the influenoeof a reverberation 
of the air from the effects of a blast in a distant part of 
the mine, always as safe as they are supposed to be. 

The lamp ooosists of a flame within gauze; and when 
surrounded by an explosive compound, owing to the 
inability of the flame to penetrate the gauze, the explo* 
sive gas does not ignite. If, however, detoxiation takes 
place, even at a distance from the lamp, then we shall 
produce those conditions which are fisivourable to the 
development of chemical affinity. Here is a Davy 
safety lamp, lighted, and now placed in an atmosphere 
of explosive ^as. The question is, what will happen 
in case a shot is fired in a distant part of the mine ? In 
the case before you the lamp is placed at one end of a 
long tube, the other end of which is closed by a piece of 
indi 1 rubber, and in continuation of, but detached frt)m, 
the long tube there is a short tube of the same diameter. 
There is no communication whatever between the two 
tubes, and as you may notice there is a space between 
the ends of them. M.y intention is to fire a pistol at the 
open end of the short tube ; the explosion will cause the 
indifi-rubber to be compressed, and so to act on the air in 
th« Ioniser tube. You probably know that if there were 
on the table a box with an elastic back, and a candle at the 
other end of thu room, opposite to a hole in the front of 
the box then by striking the box at the back, the candle 
would be blown out. Now, on firing the pistol, having 
its end in this short tube, the india-rubber is oompreesedy 
and the gns surrounding the Davy lamp, which is 
supposed to be in a aistant part of the mine, at onoe 
bursts into flame. This is the same phenomenon ^lai 
takes place when shots are fired in one part of a mine, 
and an explosion occurs in another part. 

This is all well and good if it would help towards 
a solution of the question of regulation of the coiergies of 
these affinities if only we coula delay the affinities as we 
delay them in gunpowder, because we might then do 
what Clalileo did when he dehiyed the ball down an 
inclined plane ; or what Kater did when he caused 
the pendulum to repeat itself freouently, and so 
record the effects of gravity; or what Atwood did 
wticn he took a small weight and caused that to fidl by 
gravity, but distributed its effect through a large mass. 
The consequence was that they were enabled to observe 
what the law of gravity is. If, now, we could rely 
upon such a process of delaying the affinities as has 
now been mentioned, we should then have a chance of 
ascertaining their energies ; but we cannot rely upon 
it for two reasons. £i the first place there are a 
number of phenomena classed under the head of nascent 
actions, which constantly interfere. Let me explain what 
that is. At the time that certain substances are being 
formed, certain affinities exist which do not exist after- 
wards. If, for example, you manufacture hydrogen and 
then bring nitrogen, from another process of manufac- 
ture, into contact, they do not combine. If, however, 
you manufacture thom both in the same vessel, they 
combine and form ammonia ; and hence, in the case of 
putrifying vegetables, there arises that peculiar am- 
moniacal smell. Here is some permanganate of potash, 
which, when dropped into this tube of coloured liquid, 
will produce certain phenomena, "^lich take place 
owing to this nascent action— the colour will be dis- 
charged. 

Then there are another set of actions which are 
more peculiar stiU, which manifest great energnr, 
but which actions interfere with our measuring the 
energy of affinity as utilised by men. We have 
here a piece of platinnm, and here is an argand 
burner, connected by a flexible tube with the gas-pipes 
of the room. Over the argand homer is placed this 
copper cylinder on three legs, having a wire gauae top. 
The sheet platinum is now (oUed and placed on its edge 
on the gause. The tap is opened, and the gas now bunw 



676 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 11. 1873. 



with a lambent blae flame. Obaerye, the platinum is 
now being heated ; now it glows. Let the gas be turned 
off. The flame is now extinguished ; the once glowing 
platinum has become black. Thus far is nothing 
peculiar. Again, the gas is turned on. The blnck 
platinum is passing to a dull red ; now it glows again, 
but the gas is not ignited, and the platinum remains at 
this red-white heat without, any apparent cause. If a 
glass cylinder, to protect it fi*om currents of air, be placed 
round it, this apparent burning without being consumed 
will continue during the remainder of the lecture, and, 
were conjuring tricks an object, it might be said thnt 
light and heat were here produced without the destruc 
tion of any materials. This is a case of what is called 
catalytic action. Phenomena like these perplex very 
much in estimating the energy of affinities. 

Here is another case, of a like peculiar character. 
This is a coil of platinum wire, and you will And that 
if made red-hot, and then placed in a vessel of 
ammonia, although there is no gas in it the platinum 
continues red-hot. There is no reason, apparently, why 
it should continue in that red-hut state. 

Gunpowder has been introduced solely for the pur- 
pose of illustrating the questions that might arise in 
reference to the physicist*s and the chemist's views of 
affinity, and not for any purpose in reference to its use 
in mining or war. 

If its introdurttion has made clear that the affinities 
amongst the atoms of which it is composed may be con- 
trolled, that the intensity and rate of its explosion 
(which is but another name for chemical combination) 
maybe regulated — that it and its related explosive agents 
may exercise their affinities without danger — harm- 
lessly and slowly, then the inquiry is at once suggested, 
on what elements do chemical combinations depend ? 
Why are these combinations accompanied with devasta- 
tion and ruin. Why are they peaceful and nnperceived ? 

Those who were present at the first lecture wi*l bo 
prepared for the suggestion that these diffnrences arise 
(in part, at least) from some of those results which in 
that lecture were said to be deducible from a considera- 
tion of the units of time, mass, and space. Those funda- 
mental units form a combination on whidh all our know- 
ledge of work and production of energy depends. It will 
probably be remembered, too, that in the lectures on 
gravity and vitality these units of measurement formed 
the object of research by the men who have given to 
society the mode of estimating these energies. 

It may have been noticed that whereas in the other 
lectures of this series the titles have in them the words, 
" especially with reference to the measurement of it," 
these words are changed in the title of the present 
lecture, and there are substituted for them the phrase, 
** especitdly with reference to considerations for mea- 
suring, &c." It will now be not inappropriate if one 
or two of the causes which lead to this difficulty in 
estimating the energies of affinity be made as clear as 
the competency of your lecturer will permit. 

Before entering upon this, it may be well to consider 
whether the actual putting forth of the energy of affinity 
is a phenomenon belonging to physics or chemistry. 
The answer, open to contradiction by many, is that the 
study of the energies of affinity is a purely physical 
question, and not a chemical one. For this roHSon a 
chemist deals with those combinntions in which the 
constituent elements have passed through such changes 
that their identity is lost. The chemist is ever dwelhng 
upon changes, and his equations are not the equations of 
the physicist and the mathematician ; they are, by the 
use of mathematical symbols, the representatives of 
change, of what affinity has done and completed, and not 
of that energy with which it has been done and which is 
to be measured. The energy of affinity either causes or 
induces these changes, and until that energy has operated 
c^mi8tr>- has no standing ground. The energy of 
affimW opens the gate which separates the domams of 
thA ^.K^niist from those of the physicist, and as the 



physicist is in possession of the matter the cHrmiit ooit 
look there before he can take note of those (Auufa ta 
so loves to contemplate. 

It is quite true that when the physi'-ist nrt\ nuthiv 
mutici^n attempt to apply thiise principles whi«h Kfft 
so well in inv^tigating the measurement ^nduliltMUma 
of the other imp'inderables, thev are b'ffl'*'!. Bv th« 
application and study of these priniiplesit u m >*lrrti'>j 
well known how to call forth that which we wishttJOiU 
forth. The summons being issu d, we can rel> u|» n *hi 
S'tine result, whatever may be the surroun angs. N*>i lo 
with the energy of affinity; it is now *]o9. n-v 
sudden, now destructive, now restonitit**, no» hnn^W 
out by heat, now by liKht, now hy nioistore, !»••» Hy 
sound, now by time, now by the simple p'e««« of 
another molerule. 

It is similar to the other energies with wbirh »e are 
dealing, in that it seems to c^moiBt in a cp^ies of aitrac 
tion or its oppositw repulsion. Gravity has * ^**^t uf 
attraction at all distances ; electricity has b»th 'tUiC* 
tivd and repellant powers, and we mHy ray at «ll i»* 
tances; but Hffinity is limited to moleculrTi».»D»<rlft*t 
we muMt SHy that the matters of which th'-y codswi are 
in absolutei and perfect contact. 

That there is what we call matter— that it U of %v\ 
a character or nature as that no two particle* of il f^ 
at one and the s>»me time occupy the 8iiinH8;*f»-; «i»t 
however much a lump of this mat4er h-duidrdiioBy 
still by tiner instruments be sub-iliviiel ; tha by 
neither niechani«ial nor chemical m**n« h*« hov •€! 
ever yet obtained one such ultimate «nl inlifi*!^ 
particle of matter. Tb^se are assumptiuns gtinfaliy 
re«*eived without controversy. 

It is, however, in and amongst these ultimate «m ift* 
divisible partit lea of matter, that the Uws .rf •ft"? 
operate. If we lould handle them as we hw l"" •« 
bulks, which the agerei^ation of the*« p^rtxl^ ^'^ 
then, probably, all diffi iilties respecting 'b^ 1*** '^ 
affinity would vanish. We cannot bandl*' Uipm. Tm 
phywicist gives it up in d» s[>air ; the chemist ^^^^'^ 
more venturesome, deals with them. In d«tlii«< •'^ 
them he puts forth a proposition which the ^}»f^ 
.knows not how to acf^pt. 

Such unions and interlicings as these se^m to »t u 
noui^ht the postulate that no two pwrtieb^of rnntMi* 
oc<"Upy the same space. Fur thn chHrniit m^'f "i-** ^^^ 
three, four, <ir five particles of mntter, seenanjjiT n.-*- 
' ing tigether, and, hs far as we know «jccupy»"« il*^ T 
8j)ace which a fundamental physical projuieiu « *^"* 
they cannot occupy. It may, however, beqoieii* ♦ 
tel'-graphic messages now-a-da}S run alwug Uw »*** 
wire in opposite tiirections nt the s<rae time. 

If we couM brt reconcile these views (im>l tliry»ii» 
reconciled some d » y), what a change will comr* u«>r t« 
•dreams of scientific theorists, and wh»t n in»;i''»«'^ 
and splen lid territ<»ry for scientific research •nilUKJiw 
brought into posaeasijm. . 

j To return to the diffi ulties which interfrre «tb o 
enunciation of the lawn uf affinity. 

It is plain that explosives, as they are edl«i "^j^ 
their manifestations to our senses in r»*p*cl «f i»^**? 
Tthe assumption that the energy of affinity sl«^»K*^ 
ducoM a species of explosion is not a veiy »iul**** ^ 
But it is not so plain that within themselven t^n*'^;^ 
I -•_ 1. _*. — lantity^ i^nd admits of no v»ri«»*' * 




tho energy of the affinity in the two case* » *** 



same. In fiict. affinity can neither be cr€*U« n^'' ^ 
stroyed— it may be reeUted, and if the '»*w**':7^!2 
be measured at the moment affinity may be *^'* J^ 



ihoc 



forth its energy, and overcome the "•"^'^'/.k* 
this is the measure of the energy. Illusfpitieps .JUj* 
are numerous and convincing. Let a few nunui^ 

given to one. . i.». ^ ti* 

If a person raises 100 separate 1 lb. wsigbti on «■ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jolt 11, 18.3. 



677 



floor on to a table three feet higb, then, as a measure o^ 
the energy expended, we take the work that is don^, yia. 
100 separate lbs. raised three feet, and chII the produo 
100X3, vis.| 300, as the mHasure of the energy of vitalitx 
which thus raised the weights. Supi^nse now Uie man hai: 
been ten minutes in doing this work, then the en^rgx 
per minute would be measured by the figures 30. Sup 
pose that instead of workinsr at this rate he han 
lifted all the weii^hts in one minute, the eneruy p«^i 
minute would be still measured by the figures 300, an . 
if the rate of work were continued there would havf 
been expended in 10 minutes an energy represented 
by the figures 3,000. Thus we may n^a's'tn until th»- 
vork origin>tlly done in 10 minutes, is done in 1 second. 
The measure of the enertcy in that 1 second is 300, nnd 
in 1 minute 18,000. and in 10 minutes 180 000. Tho 
intensity of the energy in this last experim-nt is 6,<)00 
times as gro «t as in the first experiment. L^t thin illus- 
tration suffi -e to show that to meHSurn thn intensity of 
an energy limo muHt be taken int4> account if wo wish t«> 
utilise that energy, or to bring it into caIouIati<m9. 

It will be within the memory of those pr^S'-nt «t a 
former lecture that, in the case of the energy of gravity. 
Atwood broui^ht time in by staying the sudd*'n action 
of gravity and distrihuting the fall of a w« ight through 
a large mass. Kater brought time in by cauHin^ a 
pendulum to record the number of its vibrations. 
They dealt with gravity Hlone, hut as we arn duuh'ng 
not only with the energy of affinity alone, but with 
such concealed and unknown en^rgins as those which 
are taking place, whilst th« phenomena we are observing 
are going on. If we could put tw<» su^tstances together, 
and could guHrante*^ thnt neither nascent nor catalytic 
action should be taking pUce, then we should h «ve an 
enerf^ respouiling >•« a nnit to the energy of gravity. 
So if we could pr«>lonv the time we miKht, somehow or 
other, get a record of the energy. But that we c4nnot 
do, and with all our modern ^ppliHuc^N it set-ms almost 
impossible to notii-e the time when affinity begins and 
enaa its work. Under any circumstances it is diffi<ult 
to notice time, but when the interval is short, what is 
called the personal error is us great as though the time 
were long. 

A digiession may make this clear. Suppose the eye 
sees an event, a nerve of seas ition conveyH the impres- 
sion to the brain, and then a nerve of motion directs thn 
muscles of the fimcera to re^'ord it Now^, in the case of 
affinity, before the nerve of snnsttioQ has teleitraphHi to 
the brain the conim»*n<*em^-nt i>f the ev> nt whosn duration 
we wirth to r**cord, thi* end of the event is there, and the 
retina ban impression super-imposed upon impression, 
and the fingers fail to enter the records. This leads 
to another difficulty — the nerves of different per8(ms 
transmit impreftsiomtat <iifierent rntes, hence ob^ervitions 
and records of the duration of things seen and heard by 
two people do not agree, and certain corrections have to 
be intn>duced consequent upon these personal differences 
in the speed of these nerve-c 'Uveying telegrams. 

As retards mass. Assuming that our investigations 
are earned on in the s^tme l(K*ality, then, speaking 
mnerally, mass is fairly measureii by weight in vacuo. 
If the bodies we see and handle were units, then we might 
recognise mass as the weight of the visible bo iy. Theae 
l>oclie« are composed of elemental nnits, the masses of 
which we cannot see, and affinitv denls wi ' h these elemental 
unit masses and not with the bo liestbemselve:). Certain 
considerations. bis*'d upon numerous observitions. led 
Dulton and others to conclusions in regard to the weight** 
of these ultimate unit mnsses. Admitting all to be 
correct, they are not sufficient for the purpose of esti- 
mating the energy of affinity through the fundamental 
onita of time, space, and mass. 

The failure is thus— Dalton finding hydrogen the 
liA^htest substance compared all others with it. But 
what is the actual weight of a hydrogen atomP That we 
do not know, therefore wo cannot know the weights ot 
^ho other substances which are recorded iu this. 



If the abs4ilute weight of one elemental unit of any 
im^le body C(»uld be had, then, thanks to Dalton and 

• hers, thn ahHolute weight of the unit elements of all 
»her iKKliesis known. 

F<»r the purpose of making clear the value of these 

toinie <»r nioletMilar elements in reference to their mass 

<n<i the space between them, let me, at the risk of some 

• petition, remind you that knowing the weight of one 
torn or mob-i'ttle of each of the bodies, the energy of 

«h<*se affinities is to be measured, and knowing the 
spaci* betwi^en them and through which space these 

• toms or moleeult s pass before they coalesce, then the 
>ro'iuct of these two elements gives the value of the 

'•iier«y in the form of work done If with this pro- 
lu<!t the time is combine^], then not only the energy 
hut the intensity of the energy is also known. 

Novv. if we Ciunot get at the unit maatcs, how cin 
We possil>ly tfet at the distance between them ; yet this 
tli!*tan«'e is the $pnce throuj^h which these little masses 
mu.-'t he cMrried by the influence of that affinity whose 
enefifv is to be measured by the work it does. 

\Vh' n, however, wo consider that the waves of light 
have hMHi measurefl, the number of them, per inch, 
stat« d. their velocity nscertiiined, wo have good grounds 
for HbMuming that the ma'^s s and distances of the ulti- 
mate elements of matter will also be ascertained ; then 
the l/iws which regul ite the energies of such affinities 
will most |»robihly, he hIs » ascertained. 

Such are some of the preliminary difficulties which 
present theni8> Ives to lh*'8o who look in hope to establish 
the laws which govern the energies of affinity from first 
principles. 

If, however, these Uws be enunciated — if they be even 
approximately attained — it will most probably be 
thioUith some indirect means, through some other 
energies from which thei«e energies of affinity may he 
deduced. In this indiieci way the mechanical energy 
of heat hHS heen m* a^ured, and its value is as generally 
received Hiid aeted U[M»n as that twelve pence make one 
shilling or twenty shillings make one pound. 

The soun e of nicchani<- •! powtr. so far as men utilise 
it, is in the eneriries of uffinities. To these energies, as 
forme! hy the Croit«»r (inherent and primordial), we 
t*we the mems by which work is done. Indeed, it is 
no ver\ boM snggtstion to make, that to the exercise, 
even now. of thetiu iiih-Tent affinities, wo owe much — it 
may be all — of leriestri .1 mt^netism and internal ter- 
restrial (hange and heat ; the progress, in the depths of 
thH earth. i*f thette Hffinities, may bo the cause of the 
variation of thn toitpiMs; nay, we cannot tell where 
speeulati-ns such as the>e lead. How the atoms disport 
thems<lvi>H We know not ; this we do know, that when 
some atoms meot some other atoms they are as Greek 
joined to Oieek, f .r *' then comes the tug of war." 



Neariy 30,000 lbs. of arrowroot were imported 
i»it«» the o.l.H.y .,1 Victria in 1871, of which 13,000 lbs. 
(^iiie from the United Kingdom, 9,000 from the Mauritius, 
2,300 from Nstal, 2,(^00 froai QueenHland, 1,100 from Uung 
K.i>n>f, Slid 2,000 fnan the Pacific Islands. 

In 1870, 2.5,94G tons of oranges and lemons, 
valueil at £211,739, were shi) ped from Palermo, and in 1871, 
31,765 ton^ valued at £280,256. Of dried fruits, 604 tons 
were itbipped in 1870. and 1,215 tons in 1871. Of luanna, 
1,342 owt. in 1870, sud 2,530 cwt in 1871. 

One of the most important discoveries in econo- 
mic ge«i|Mtfy Hindi' duriii^ the past year is that of tin in 
Aus'ralia, hut the reeeut discoveries indicate far richer de- 
puKitji ibnu tfkuy befiire known there. 

Manganese is spoken of as a substitute for nickel 
for mduMriai purptiM-s, the hi^h and increasing price of the 
latter metal niskiiiK its u^e expeiuive. 

A monster diamond has been reoeived from the 
Ctipt , weighing 2888 carats. This is the largest diamond 
Sou'h Africa lias }urnt(«hed, and when cut it is estimated it 
* will be half as large again* as the Koh-i-noor. 



678 



JOURNAL OP THB SOOIBTT OP ARTS, Jitly 11, 187S. 



AmrUAL DTTERHATIOHAL BZHIBITIMn. 



The remarkable BuooeBs of the School of Scienfcifio 
Cookery, at the Intematbnal £|jchibition, hai indaoed 
the Commiflsioiiers to establish a new additional ooitrse 
of eight lectores, by Mr. BuokmasteTf on *' High-olMs 
Cookery." The first of the series was given on Wed- 
nesday, June 25. The staff is augmented by an ex- 
perienced French ehef^ 

The number of visitors admitted to the Exhibition on 
Thursday, July 3rd, was as follows : — Season tickets, 
161 ; on payment of Is., 2,763 ; total, 2,914. On Friday, 
season tickets, 166; on payment of Is., 2,576; toted, 
2,742. On Saturday, season tickets, 979 ; on payment 
of Is., 4,551 ; total, 5,530. 

The number of yisitors admitted to the Exhibition 
during the week ending Saturday, July 5th, was as 
follows: — Season tickets, 1,882; on payment of 2s. 6d., 
1,039 ; on payment of Is., 15,087 ; total, 17,948. 

The number admitted on Monday was, season tickets, 
158 ; on payment of Is., 2,495 ; total, 2,653. On Tues- 
day, season tickets, 162 ; on payment of Is., 2,824 ; 
total, 2,986. On Wednesday, season tickets, 180; on 
payment of 2s. 6d., 1,254 ; total, 1,434. 



; the infantry an I o^vtlry bri^fwies, tiH \ Itr^ 
and brilliant staff. A. ^^ri «rd of honoar of 100 men, vhh 
theband of the R»v>U Pi»iHer8. was stttiNtel on ^ 
lawn fronting the Club H hmo, aal i^re & roral 9iia^ 
tile band playing the K^iioatl An^^m as th^ Prim 
droye into the groan is. A choir of 300 r lion sm^ tbe 
National Ani^hem, after wtiieh hi^ R^yal Hi$ha':$« d»> 
Glared the exhibition open. 



EXHIBITIONS. 



Vienna Exhibition.— Last week 33 artisans from the 
manufacturing districts of this country stiu1;ed for Vienna, 
under the auspices of the Society for the Promotion of 
Scientific Industry, Manchester. The purpose of the 
society is to obtain reports upon the Vienna Exhibition 
from the workmen's point of view, and the greatest caro 
has been taken in the selection 6f the men. The society 
defrays the whole cost of the expedition. The arrival 
of these men was noted in the daily papers of 
Thursday. Mr. W. B. Woodbury writes to the BritUh 
Journal of Photography^ drawing attention to the fact 
that, though there apparently are no examples in the 
Vienna Exhibition of the well-known " Woodburytype," 
or the photo-engraving process of the same inventor, 
both these processes re^y appear, under new names, in 
the French Section, the first as " Photo-glyptiquo," 
and the second as " Heliographie-Rousselon." ^. 
Woodbury feels justly aggrieved at this appropriation of 
his idea by the French exhibitors. — A meeting of her 
Majesty's Commissioners, for the above Exhibition, was 
held at Marlborough-house, on Tuesday last, under the 
mreeidency of his Roval Highness the Prince of Wales, 
K.G. There were also present :— His Serene Highness 
the Duke of Teck, G.O.B. ; his Serene Highness Count 
Gleichon, Capt. II.N. ; the Marquis of Bipon, K.G. ; the 
Earl Cowper, K.G. ; the Right Hon H. C. E. Childers, 
M.P. ; Sir Anthony de Rothschild, Bart.; Sir Richard 
Wallace, Bart., M.P. ; Sir Francis Grant, P.R.A. ; Mr. 
Henry A. Brassey, M.P. ; and Mr. A. J. R. Trendell 
(acting for the secretary). 

Northampton Ezhibitton.— The construction of the 
building for the forthcoming exhibition of leather- work 
at Normampton is being rapidly proceeded with. The 
design is tor a wooden building, 364 feet long by 
30 feet wide. The buUding ^ be lighted by a 
continuous lantern-light in the roof, and artificially by 
gas. 

anutary Exhibition at Aldershot.— The Aldershot 
Camp Military Industrial Exhibition was opened at noon 
on Wednesday by his Royal Highness Prince Arainr, 
^ was received hv General I& James Hope Grant 

"^1 Slx^dershot division, Maior-Generafi 

\ Smith and Sir Thomas McMahon, com- » 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION.— T3E POLY- 
TEOHNIC SCHOOL AT ZUBICfl. 

At a time when there is s^ m\ 'h discossion abint tkc 
best way to provide our owa w irking cltuei «ritii Uid 
technical education in which, unforttmitely, th>^iuti7e» 
of other countries have often a very gnwt advA^Uge 
over them, it may be of u^ to exi(niaeiiitothec!)QjiUjQ 
of a Swiss institution, which has now beea empUyed for 
a considerable length of time, hu 1 with very great sac- 
cess, in the work of teohni«'Hl instruction. 

The Zurich Polytechnic S 'hool is a truly eosm-ipoIiUa 
institution, as it nurab^ra amon]^ its siadcats ndr'^i^ 
Switzerland, Germany, Austri*, RiuiLi, Ittly, (Jwt 
Britain, Holljind, GrHt*ce, Roumami and Dina^H 
Sweden and Norway, Dt^nm'^rk, Fr<*nce, Tark<*T. th* 
United States, the E^t ani W^t Indies. In l8;i-72, 
the total number of students was 689, dirided that- 
Swiss 242 

Foreigners 447 

Total 6*i 

In addition to the stndents— pirap<»rly so cjlled-ti^e 
were 361 zuhSrer, or listHners— a class of pard»l 'ff irre- 
gular scholars, who do nt»t un lertake to go tiuw^fe tht 
whole eurricnlum^ but confine their attention to ptrtffiltf 
branches of study. 

Regular students pay a y*»ariy fee of 100 frtnn n 
entrance fee of five franca. liHrarv fire francs, ml 6« 
francs to the sick fund. The system of imtraetioQ pp- 
vided fbr £4 12s. is cal"?ul ite*! to astonish th^ Zn^ 
reader, and the matricul-ition examination is not I« 
likely to dumbfounder an Enr^Iidh lad of seventewt Tnte 
this ag^ no students nre h imitted, and wh*n ^ i^ 
what they are expected to know h<»fore admisswntotfc* 
Zurich Sichool, we must confess that the yoathi ot^ 
have made good use of their ti me. Eich candidal IwJ » 
state in writing his name, hirthplacp, and inkenied ?r»- 
fession, and mnst then undergo a severe exannntii^ 
whereof merely the h**ls are subjoinwi fi)rfeir<rf*f 
conraging English student*, who will probably find ti« 
want of proficiency in Germiui and French a safe*^ 
drawback. 

As an important pwlimTnary, every aspirant la^rt 
pass an examination — in writing and r»w-««*-» ^ 
languages in which thn obligatory course of imtm*^* 
is given, and must satisfy th« ^'xnmint^ that bs o»l«|f* 
stands French and German well enough to compi>^ 
the lectures. 

As Heinrich Heine remarked of the Roouni,to«^ 
the immense advantage enjoyed by that faToiirwJ |nj« 
over the rest of the world in not havinj^ to l""""** 
Latin language, the Gbrmnns are undouMsfiyW*^ 
off at Zurich than all other nntion^ities, btmir^ w 
although instruction is given in the Frendiba?wj*« 
and literature and English nnd Italian are not Jtww* 
overlooked, the official language of the ZnriA r^^ 
technic School is, as might be expected, Qennsn. TM 
the ridiculous inefficiency of young EngKshffl^ « 
modem languages acts as an effectual bar to thffr pn» 
senoe at Zurich is proved by a perusal of A* l»j* 
students — out of 447 foreign students only 8 «m«» iwn 
England. ^ ^ ^ 

Tie difficulties of the general preliminary «*™"V? 
having been overcome, the student has to cwnply™ 
the severe "Special conditions of admisiion." Ta^ 



JOURNAL OP THB SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jdlt 11, 1873. 



679 



Yaiy»of ooune, aooording to the departaoent in whicli the 
aspuant wiahes to stud j. Befoie admiasioii to the ardii- 
tectural or engineermg schools or to the technical- 
mechanical school, he must pass in arithmetic as high as 
proportion^ and in al^bra up to the bin»mial theocem, 
and the use of logarithmic tables. He must show Uir 
proficienov in s^oSbetical and analytical geometry, and 
also in plane trigonometry. He is expected to know 
something of field-practice azul to have acquired the 
elements of mechanics and physics.^ He must understand 
the rudiments of inorganic chemistry, and show some 
■kill in mechanical and ornamental drawing. Candidates 
for direct admission to any of these schoou are required 
to pess an equally searching fflramination in mathematios, 
bat in order to fitdlitate the admission of aspirants to 
the regi^ar schools, a preparatory mathematical class has 
been established. In this department lectures are de- 
Uvered both in French and in German. Including this 
daM the school is divided into eight departments. 

1. — ^An Arohiteotural or Building School. 

2.— An Engineer's SehooL 

8.~A Technical^eohanioal School. 

4. — A Technical-Ohemical School. 

6. — An Agricultural and Forestry School. 

6. — ^A School of Mathematics and Natural Soienoe. 

7. — A School of Genoal Philosophy and Politioal 

Economy. 
8. — Preparatory Mathematieal SohooL 

Students in any of these eight departments are required 
to pay strict attention to the printed programme. 
" The whole theoretical and practical course of instruc- 
tion in the departmental schools is in this sense obliga- 
tory, that it 18 the duty of every student to attend in 
torn every section set down in the plan of instruction." 
In some cases, however, exceptions are made, as, for 
inatance, in those of students who can show Uiat their 
studies are undertaken with some special object. Mere 
ntteadanoe at the *' obligatory lectures " U not deemed 
saffioieiit, as all students are required to attend repeti- 
tiona and examinations, and also to prepare written or 
practical exerdses. The professors in the first five 
departments, and the professors of botany and geology, 
make excursions with their pupils for the Detter lUustra- 
tion of the principles inculcated. The excursion element 
haa always been a fivourite among Germans, as it not 
only admits of sound pnictieal teaching, but affords an 
agreeable relief from the monotony of the class-room. 

The plan of instruction laid down for the building 
achool extends over three years, and a like period is 
demanded to ensure proflciency in engineering. Great 
fftreoa is laid upon tho importance of several '' consecu- 
iive " "hours being daily devoted to the preparation of 
drawings in the school of architecture, and care is taken 
thnt ad vimced students in the engineering school shall be 
given every opportunity of obtaining practice in actual 
oonatniction. In the technical- mechanical school the 
vntmner season is devoted to the study of metallurn^ and 
the chemical technology of building materials, while ^e 
lalx^ratories attached to the technical-chemical school 
ure ooaaUntly thrown open to diligfeat students at other 
HmrnB than those set down for ** obttgntory " teaching. 
In the forestry and agricultural schools the fine summer 
weatiier is made the most of. It is impossible to read 
tlie p r ogramme of this department vrithout envying the 
itodentcr, and even the professors, engaged as they are in 
□aap-maJdng, field-measuring, and researches into the 
oatore of plants, trees, and flowers. The anatomy and 
[>byifiology of farm-stock are not forgotten, nor is agri- 
roltnral chemistry overlooked. The whole theory and 
iractioe of husbandry is ag^eably mingled with botany, 
L apeciAl study of tho diseases of animals, and the con- 
it roct ion of roads and drains. 

'Without dilating on the peculiarities of the remaining 
iapsrtments, it is impossible for a visitor to avoid admi- 
MlMitk at the excellent organisation and general thorough- 
Lefl* of thia great aohooL This ommtry oaa boast <d no 



analogpous institution at present, but the hope may 
perhaps be indulged that public attention once drawn to 
the subject, something will be done, and that in the place 
of small sohoola or colleges, as they are ambitiously 
caUed, soattwed over the country, we may see some 
attempt made to carry out a great oomprehensive scheme 
on the Zurich plan. Any attempt to approach the Swiss 
in price would of course be futile, onleas, indeed, a rich 
enaowment were diverted from its orinnal purpose to 
the foundation of a tedmioal schooL The effort most 
heroically miide by King's College, to estaUish a poly- 
tedinic school in London, has, in spite of the great 
energy exhibited, proved only a partial success ; but 
the attempt shows the ri^t spint, and it is oertoin 
that a thorough discussion of this great subject 
oan have but ob« result — the ultimate removal of a 
serious blot in the educational system of England. 



OOMPBTmON FOE FEMALE TEACHERS OF 

DRAWING.— PARIS. 

Hie first examiuHtion of female candidates took place 
last week at the Eeole des BoHUx-Arts. l^tesU are se- 
vere, and the competition lasts more than a week. The 
pupOs are not actually shut up in little separate h^ea, 
as they are in the case of Uie regular examination 
of the school, hut isolated and overlooked in such 
a manner as to secure the individuality of their work. 
In the first plaee, they are required to execute in six 
hours, including luncheon time, a piece of ornament 
from the piaster, and their success or non-suecess de- 
termines their udMiission to 0f>mpete this year. 

Those admitted are required to produce an entire 
figure after the antique, such as the '* Diane Chas- 
sereese," the "Diane de G.bie," or the 'Venus de 
Milo," three sittings of six hours each being allowed 
for each work. After this proof of the aspirants' clas- 
sical attainments, they are required to produce an 
ornament derived from forms of the vegetable kingdom. 
The trials terminate with oral examinations, the pupils 
being laquired to correct a given design, point out 
its good and bad features, and quote the principles 
of art in each oase, and rules observed or violated, before 
a jury. 

The successful candidates will be employed either in 
one of the nineteen subsidised schools of design in the 
city, in the Thursday classes which haye beenesUblished 
in each arrondisseoMmt, or, lastly, in the ordinary com- 
munal schools, according to the amount of proficiency 
exhibited. 

The Thursday classes are only for girls who have already 
exhibited some talent for drawing, and are directed by 
the chief drawing mistress of the arrondissement; the 
lessons last four hours. The subsidised schools meet 
three times a week for three hours. In both, compe- 
titions take plaoe at intervals, and prizes are given to 
create emulsion amongst the pupils. The average 
artistic power cannot fail to be raised by such means as 
these, of which the authorities of Paris are prodigal. 



Nickel facing for printing type is said to be 
about to come id to general use. It is cheaper and much 
harder than copper, and forms a better surface. 

Brittle gold is refined in the London Mint, by 
passing chl«)rine gas through the mslted metal. The results 
of the process are entirely satisfactory. 

There was received at Melbourne in the year 
1871 jewellery valued at £22,496, of which £9,950 had to 
pay an import duty of 121 per cent., and £12,646 of 20 per 
cent. 

A company has been formed for the oonstructiQn 
of a tunnefunder the Hudaon, between New York and Jer- 
sey City. The propoMd capital is 3,000,000 dols. 

A tunnel through the Booky Mo n n t ainft is now 
talked of. 



680 



JOURNAL OF THE SGOIETy OP ARTS, JrLT 11, 1878. 




CONCBETE SYPHONS ON THE CANAL 
"QUINTURO bELLA.' 



ti 



In oonseqaence of the short time (four montha) which 
was idlowed for the construction t>f the extension ol 
the branch canal, Qninturo Selln, from Mortara to 8nn 
G^rgia, and the scarcity of brit-ks, th** Canal Cavonr 
Company determined to accept th« proposal of Signor 
Giaseppe Frattini (who has sucfeMfolly introduced his 
use of concrete into It^ily, for the cotiStmction of hy> 
draolic works) to build «11 the syphons for the passa^ 
of existing irrigation channels under the new canal in 
cement concrete. 

These syphons, which VHry in diameter from 0*25 to 
rOO, are circuUr in section, nnd are moulded on a 
wooden cone about six feet in It-n^th, which is drawn 
forwHrd as the work proceeds. Three s\ phons, of otmI 
section, 2'00 in width by 1'60 in h<ight and 20 metres 
in length, have also been contttrin ted by Signor Frat- 
tini, and are probably the largest works of this class 
which have ever been matle. 

The cement used is thnt known as **Ciment de la 
Porte de Franca," made at Gremible, the quick- setting 
(d prise promptej being niix^d with thi* slower-setting 
quflditv, in certain proporti<»ns, according as it is re- 
quired to hasten the setting of the work. The ballast 
and sand should be clfun, and when eanily obtained, the 
granite chips from a ston»'.cutter*s yard add considerably 
to the strength of the work. A few hours after com- 
pletion, such work* struck lightly with a hammer, was 
found to ring like a bell. 



COB&BSPOff DB9CB 



THE LATE COTTON SUPPLY ASSOCIATION. 

Sir, — In the report presented to the annual meeting 
of the Society of Arts, on the 25th ultimo, I find that 
under the head of ** Cotton" thn Cutt^n Supply Aasoci- 
ation of Manchester is represented to have been ** set on 
foot duiing the scarcity uf cotton, arising from the civil 
war in the United States of Auiericn,** &c. This sUte- 
ment is incorrect. The associitiun w «s formed severnl 
years anterior to the American ci%il war, and the con- 
sequent scarcity of cotton, known as th«i c<»tton famine. 
It originated m the uneasiness occasitine*! by the de* 
pendence which prevailed upon one main source of 
supply, and in the desire which was felt to develop 
the cotton-growing capabilities of other countries, 
especially those imder the dominion of the British 
crown. It has not, therefore, as is stated in the report, 
ceased its operations, because tl e Hpecial circumstances 
under whi^ it was formed have passetl away, but 
having diligently stimulated the increiis(i<l pro uction 
of cotton in all countries where it had previ< 'Usly been 
ctiltivated, and introducel it into others where it had 
never before been grown for export, it was thought that 
the^ work initiated might now bn left ti» the operation of 
ordinary causes. I shall, therefore, feel obliged if you 
will allow this correction to appear in \ our next issue. 
In making this request, I take the opp<»rtunity ot expres 
sin^ my own opinion, that the Cotton Supply Committee 
which the Society of Arts prop4»6es to organise, tiiH> find 
useful employment, especially as regnrds India. Many 
of the countries which, during the time of scarcity, were 
attracted to the cultivation of cotton by the high prices 
ruling in the English market, might doubtl* ss, under 
favourable auspices, make its growth a 8uccetis; but 
there are other branches of in<iu»try whi<:h have already 
taken root, and will continue Ut have the preferenj-e, so 
that from this and other causes c<itton will onlv receive 
occasional attention. But it is otherwiiie in India, which 
«,.S^v ?. V* ,*«rfcn><ttral ».untry, and cotum oo- 
cuwe. th« nl.,Hf pi,^ amongst iU pniUucts, lu prmnt 



C4 tton exports equal in value the entire Und nTi!S», 
K> that the preservation and extension of foih t tnde ii 
of parxmount importance alike to Englaad and to ottr 
f^reat eastern dependency. 

Sir Bartle Frere, in a letter earnestly deprcctting t^ 
intended closing of the association, makes the folloving 
pertinent remarks, vis. : — ** In the production of cottoa 
I have no doubt we are, ir India, at length on the r%bt 
road ; and. for being there, we owe much to tbe pa* 
severing efforts of the Cotton Supply Aipociatioo. It 
is only by a body like the sssociaUon keeping tb»iDatt« 
perpetually before the public and the sdminiitatDn d 
India that the naturally slow progress cnn be tocdrtUpd. 
Even the Viceroy himself can effect conpaiativfljlittk, 
hut very slowly, without the moral lappoit vlucit b« 
will derive from the opinions of men who hare deT(40d 
so much attention to the subject as the memben of the 
association." 

My own lengthened experience in connection vHh 
the association, and my personal aoqusintsfioe vith 
India, as well as the private letters which 1 oootioue to 
receive from well-informed persons sssodnted vithooUa 
cultivation, lead me to the conclusion that then is ftiU 
much to be done before India. will be msde a Mtiifeetog 
souroe of cotton supply. I eamest4y hope that thf cob* 
mittee proposed to be organised may prove eqoal to tte 
work which they intend to undertake, and that tkar 
success may greatly surpaM their higlwvt expectatkoL 
— I am, &c., Isaac Watts, Seottary, 

Late Cotton Supply Amdasaa. 

MsDdwiter, July 1, 1873. 



OSHBBAL >OTB& 



Kew Photomettf. — A simple arrangement, «^^°2 
pntve exfvediugly useful for many purposes, hsibeia<knin 
by M. Yv«»n. A piece of paper or ctfd ia fohM i> ■■ 
middle, and placed uprirht f »n a table in Mich * <|>*'^~2 
the two halves form right angles. In th« line MMdafll* 
amele thun fttrrond, and at some little diainnce frosk it »<j|*i 
is plaoad a tube, blackened in the interior, throtvh »•■ 
the obnerver l*"oka at the edge of the pap»*r or ca nt Hi 
Siiurt-ea uf illuminatioo to be oumpared are t»Uofd at < ?f** 
sides «f the card*. S<i lung as the two »arfaofa «»«t*jf 
illuminated, the observer h>ts a peroepti»»n of leh^fij^ 
hi iwever, the light falling on each is perfei'tlyev»l''"r*' 
sees what appears to be a pkuie surface.— /rsa. 

Preserration of Food. — Carbolic aciJ paper, »tiAi| 
now much ui^ fur packing fre«>h meat* for *"'P2*ii 
prenervioir ttiem againnt npoiling, is nuide by siaitiB^*^ 
partauf atearine at a gentle heat, and tht« ati?fii»f >■ '■^ 
roughly two parts of carbolic aoid ; after which ^^p*? 
m»^lted paraffiue are to be added. Tne whuk i* J°^2 
stirred together until it oouli* ; after which it i» ■'^*J 
applied with a bruHh to the paper, in quires, io the"* ^ 
aa in preparing the waxed paper so much tued is iM^^^ 
wrapping various articles. 

Prodoction of Gold in Finland.— During ^^f^*? 
there were no less than seventeen eompsDico **$f^ *Jf! 
tract inir jruld from the auriferous Hand of ^"jjt^jj 
alluvial d^-pusits at Toalo am eaid to be ei'T ^y^ ^ 
gold, the t«»tal production last peaiu'D heiojt ^j*?^ j 
from 60.000 to 60,000 grammes, renreMaiiny a tm ""^ 
60.000 n.ubles (£9,600.) One of theM oumpsni^J^J 
a dividend of 70 per cent. ; the largest nu|tge( J* "^ 
weighfd forty grammes. 

PraoUoal Geology.— Six elemputary ^"jj 
riK'ka and metallic minerals, adapted to a javiinle«ia«fl 

will be iriven by PrufesiK)r Teimant, at hia n»i*Jf'iIS 
Strand, Lt»ndon, W.C, on July Htb, 16th. I6ih, 17th, 
aud lOtb, at 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. T«rui»:-HaH* I 
fur the Course ; fl*-o shillings f»ir ebikireo of Fdhwtmi 
following Sootetieii-Oeolngical, Zeologioal, ChewcaL^ 
Miaroscopi«Ml, Royal Geompbieal, B*^ H« 
Geologists* AssooiatioB, and Sociaty of Aits. 



JOXJBNAL OP THE SOOIETT OP AETS, Jolt 18, 1878. 



681 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Ho. 1,078. Vot. XXL 



FRIDAY, JULY 18, 1873. 



Addphi, Ltmdom^ W.C, 



Aiioinri 



S BT THE COITHCTI. 



Btndents were acting under his tuition, and the 
class of male and female students were spectators 
of the students* attempts to copy the finished 
posings and declamations of M. Bressant. At the 
back of the stage is a small organ, and this is used 
for the organ instruction classes. 

(c.) On the rez tie chauBs6e, as well as on the 
second floor, are small theatres — merely square 
rooms, fitted with a stage raised about 3 ft. or 
less from the floor, upon which is erected the 
framework commonly used for scenes. This- 
framework is a fixture, and serves to accustom- 
the students to the entrances on the stage, the 
general position of the wings, &c. One of these 
theatres is used for instruction in opera proper, 
and the other one in opera comique. 

(rf.) Of class rooms — each room being about 
16 to 18 ft. by 14 to 16, by 11 ft. high— nine are 
allotted to male students, and ten to female stu- 
dents. Each of these rooms is intended to hold 
about 20 students. I saw one class under instruc- 
tion (pianoforte), and there was ample room for 
them; they numbered however 16, and were 
chiefly boys from 14 to 16 years old. 

(c.) There is one good-sized lecture room for sol- 
feggio classes. 

( ?.) There are two salles d'attente, one for males, 
the other for females. 

Precise plans of the building could be obtained 
by an official application to M. Ambroise Thomas, 
requesting him to get them from M. Lance (the 
architect), 16, Hue Treilhard. 

3. Number of Students, — At the present time 
mjSICAL COMKITTEE. there are 700 students ; 300 men, 250 women stu- 

JffiPOKT OP A RECENT VISIT TO THE CON- 1 ^^^^y who have gained admission after examina- 
««.v^.-.^ « ,-^«,^„., tion; besides these there are 150 "auditeurs," who 



H.X. THE SHAH OF FSBSIA. 

ffis Majesty the Shah of Persia having expressed, 
ftiODgh Sir Henry Bawlinson, his readiness to 
become a member of the Society, the Council have 
great pleasure in annoimcing that they have (in 
iecordanoe with the 74th Bye-law) elected His 
Majesty iD Honorary life Member, without the 
ocdinsty fonnalities of election. 



FE0CBBDIHG8 OF THE SOCIETT. 



8EBVAT0IRE DE MUSIQUE AT PAEIS. 

1. The existing building, situate in the Fau- 
Wmig Poissonni^, Paris, is not generally con- 
-rod to be the type of a music school planned 
it weU as possible. Many changes would be 
Adted ID it if the necessary funds were forth- 
9ttdng» Still the rooms for study appear to be 
jnU raited for their uses, and from a hasty 
B^eotion it appeared that the accommodation 
wifl sofficieiit. 

2. I obtained the following enumeration of the 
tocmi from M. Chouquet, the director of the 
"Marie Instrumental " : — 

(o.] A large ^'salle de theatre," allotted 
Id thea^ical and lyrical entertainments, and 
Mooerts. The scenery used for the theatrical 
Hid cperatio representations consists of a 
WM iicainlar Pompeian interior, which endreles 
the odet and back of the stase. Above the 
Koiery (about 12 feet), and at the back of the 
itige, rises the org^an, which may be left visible or 
BOt (at choice) to the audience. When concerts 
ire given, an or^nary orehestral platform is placed 
oo ihe stage, rising from the footlights up to 
ikfi owan. The auditorium of the saUe is con- 
VtractM after the principle of that in an ordinary 
fresich theatre, in size like the The&tre du Palais 
Boral, &c., only without a lofty gallery. 
' (0.) A smaller room, or saUe, of an oblong form, 
*ith a raised stage, but without a proscenium, 
iboot 60 ft. by 26, is devoted to dramatic instruc- 
lan, deolamatioxi, and examinations in those 
n&ohee. M. Bresmnt, of theThe&treFran^ais, was 
tiding a lesson when I visited this room. Three 



are permitted to attend the classes and to listen to 
the masters while thev are giving their lessons. 
These "auditeurs** gam admission either by the 
nomination of the Minister of the Interior, or by 
passing an examination. Many of them ultimately 
become regular students. 

4. Numhet' of Professors, — ^There are 84 masters. 
8 teach singing ; 5 teach pianoforte (superior 
classes) ; 5 teach pianoforte (preparatory classes) ; 
6 teach harmony ; 3 teach advanced composition ; 
1 teaches history of music ; 4 teach solfeggio ta 
large classes of students by lectures ; 12 teach sol- 
feggio to students individually ; 4 teach violin ; 2 
teach violoncello ; 1 teaches the double-bass ; and 
there IS one master for each of the different wind in- 
struments in the orehestra, such as trumpets, horns, 
trombones, flutes, clarinets, oboi, &c. ; 1 master for 
organ ; 1 master for the harp ; 4 masters for lyrical 
declamation and study of parts in opera, &c. ; 3 
masters for dramatic declamation ; 1 master for 
French grammar, prosody, &c. The professors of 
the highest class, which includes men of standing, 
such as M. Ambroise Thomas, Monsieur Chouquet, 
Monsieur Felicien David, all members of the Insti- 
tute, each receive an annual payment of not more 
than 2,500 francs. 

Elementary professors are paid 1,200 fr. each. 
Those who have been on the staff for some time, 
and have become more or less eminent, such as 
Messrs. Henri Herz, Alard, Dancha, Franchomme, 
Ernest Boulanger, Eoger, Madame Viardot, 
Gareia, &c., each receive 2,000 fr. per annum. A 
professor gives at least three lessons a week, each 
^son lasting two hours. 



682 



JOUBNAL OF IHS SOGIETT 09 ABTS, Jmr U, 1879L 



5. The mmoaat oi tib» Btiito mOmUj it 
210,000 £rano8> wUoh k the sole suppoit of Htm 
schooL The State ptrovidee the groima and bvild- 
ings. There is a oooaideralile pro^ertj in the 
''material," such asinetnaBente, boohs, soores, Ae^, 
belonging to the inatitittMB. Tb^ wkok& of the 
eabmmr, theref oa^, can be deroted to the payment 
of proieseora, for adnanifltratioB, aad ooei of atow* 
aaxy fumitore, &o. 

o. The stndente now board o«i of the Oon e i r Y a * 
toire, and practiee at their own lodffingB. The 
director, the seoretarj, the hee per of ue mi 
the two chief attendaoAs, aad mtimniigw, Ixre 
the premises. 

7. The classes begin ai 9 a.m., and last wbA 
4 p.m. Each dass meets lor two hovin. 

8. Ko lees whatever aie paid bj tiie stadents, 
who are permitted to enter onlj upon merit. 
There are scholarships, idtioh are awaroed bj the 
goyemment to the most distinguished students. 
They Tarv in Tahie from £30 to £70 a year, 
and are aestined for the mupfoit of the student. 
The return lor l^iis gratoitioiis instruction, Ae., 
which the State deriTee from tiie students, is the 
use of students' senrioes at certain principal 
theatres for four years after their education is 
oom^dete. They are paid moderate salaries during 
these four years, and if they turn out to be great 
singers or actors the goremmettt is benefited to tiie 
extent of the advanoe upca the average receipts 
in the theatres. 

9. A book entitled ** Histoire du Conservatoire 
de Musique," by M. Lassabathie, Paris, Hiohel 
L^vy, 1860, contains a number of incteresting facts 
about the establishment. 

10. I should add that there is a spacious library 

above the museum. All kinds of musical works, 

full scores bvcomx>o6ers of all times and ooantries, 

and original writings by former students of the 

Conservatoire are contamed in this library. The 

collection of musical instruments, prineipidly 

formed by M. Clapisson, is w^ known. Many 

important specimens are here, and new ones are 

added from year to year. Monsieur Chouquet is 

the keeper of the museum and the librarian, and 

is a learned critic. He will gladly assist in pro-* 

curing further informatJon* 

Alak S. Colb. 
Mj^Ti lata. 

OAXm LEUTUlUtt. 

The fifth lecture of the seeond course of Oantor 
Leoturesf or the Session, " OntheEnergiesof thelm^ 
pcmderables, with especial reference to the Measure- 
ment and Utilisation of them," was delivered by 
the £ev. Abxhxtb Bigg, M. A.» on Mond^ evaningi 
Maioh 3rd, 1873» as follows :-^ 

Lbctubb V. 

Oh the Energy of Electricity^ with eepeeiM rtfermH t4 
the Meaeurement and Utilieaticn ef it. 

Hie energy of eleotrioity is being msnifSBeted in 
phases new to men day by day. That which in tbe 
early part of the preeent oeotuiy was unknown, is now 
so weUknown as to win neither surprise nor notice. 
The telegraph which girdles the earth— the electro- 
deposition of metals— the light which palee our 
XfrS^i/tA — ^the power which melts the most refrac- 
tory metals (for I have seen a square bar of iron a 



foot in length, and about three-eighths of an inch on the 
side, ftised into drops by a eurrent of ele ctricit y in leas 
time than this narratiTe has ooeapied) — these have been 
handed down bv acienoe to promote the commercial and 
social weKare of mankind. 

What remains to be done by this enerpy, so 
recently hameased, and as yet only partially trained, is 
beyond our present ken ; but that it wiH— or, at least, 
that it can--be developed in a sniBciency to supply 
our coal-fields when exhausted, and take upon itself aU 
that coal, and wind, and water now give of kinetic 
energy, no one idio has watched the p t ogic e i of tltf 
past need doubt ; this, too, quite irrespective of the 
view that owing to the quazitity of sine consumed, dee- 
tridty can never compete wiUi coal in produciDgthe 
same results. There is every reason to expect that king 
ere the coal-fields are exhausted, the tidal waves on our 
coasts will be supplying light enough and heat enough, 
and, therefore, power enoiigh»for the seqairements of 
Great Britain and Ireland. 

Propositions better estabUriied than that which 
asserts electricity to be non-producible firom sofficaentlj 
economical sources have Med into obHvion. 

i,ae ensasies or oieenKHiy sse anaBsastea wjaMMW 
there is a moleoular disturbance within or amongst hodiea 
Whenever any cbange takes place in anythins;'wbaterez; 
and amongst any molecules whatever, an e£>tii,k car- 
rent is predaeed, and if not ms co ss n t i ly manifested to is^ 
still it always is present. Probably there is not t 
single act of our lives, and it may be not even a thougU 
in our heads, which is not associated with an electxie 
current. 

Kindly maderstsnd ih»t the lectue is on fho cb«|t 
of electricity, and, therefore, time must not be oocapi»d 
in describiog instruments. Galvanometers are now-s- 
days made so delicate that if you lay one fing«r in one 
trough of salt water, and anotfer in another, and an&plj 
tighten the muscles of one arm, a current of electrid^ 
passes through the galvanometer and deflects the needle. 
We cannot ndse our hands to our head wffhont seCtisg 
free a current of electricity, and in that cniRnt ia 
energy. Its energy is manifested in the movia^ of ths 
galvanometer needle. How much of that eneixy ii 
merely the balance between two energies of uim 
amount — how much is not manifested, owin^ to tb 
sluggishness of the instrmnent and from other defects* 
we know not, but that some is thus interfsred wift 
there is very Httle douH. We usnally speak of a 
galvaak) hettsry as being fnmed of sine and copps^ 
or of metals m chemically different rslatioss to a 
lionid; H however, yon take a piece of ocdioairy ooppr 
beU wire, and ccmnect the two ends of it to the ^1- 
vanometer, then cut it in two with a pair of ijiiwii. 
and dip each cut end into salt and water, or pat them 
into your mouth, an electric current pnnnrc, m^ ths 
galvanometer shows that there has been some 
other of molecular disturbance which has 
festatfon of riectrical energy. 

This energy of electricity beoomes kinelie wbga Sh 
allowed to pass freely. For esanple, In wmj bodte 
which are quieeoent, it is kinetio, oat fk te polsatid 
when resistsd. If, for instsaoe, a eorealt of eiedtoiottT 
Mssas along a wire and the aotien is rnsistiid, the wo* 
becomes hot. If H passes through any «v»»»ir*^iMfc^ ^ody, 
as, for Instanoe, water, then it isresisted, and the waters 
immediately decomposed. ConsequenUy we are deaSi^ 
to-night with an energy manifested in moleciilAr dib- 
turbaoce, and having both a potential %xt stored-np powei^ 
and a kinetic power in motion. The qoevticii now «, 
how is this energy to be measured, for the soMeot of ths 
lestore this evening is a mode of measarii^ the mmrgf 
of ele clrici ty. 

Towards the middle of tbe last ocntmy AaboBt lim 
the first eleotaoal machine was nmdsL la \%6^ Mo 
Guerickei to whom we are indebted ftir the mrwp«B* 
sugcested the aoheme, hot Hawki^Ms «m the fissl to 
make one. His machine mynsistfHJ of a ball of ani^vt; 



cr 



JOURNAL OF THE BOOIErPY OF ARTS, July 18, WiS. 



688 



lAHvwd* attend A» a InJI of glBsa. The handB were 
ed to nib i^ and a lac^e By- wheel, about six feet 
, was employed to torn it. Silk threads from the 
held what we now call the oondaotor; 
tikd Bj the ezerdee <^ a Tery large aaioimt of 
nechanical power they were enabled to get a amall sperk, 
to the mpnae of all, to the curiottiy of many, and the 
dt«d of not a few. After that we oome to the plate 
mftcfane, which ia atranged, as yon are aware, with 
OQihioBi ; still we hanre those sparka which were sap- 
Dond to have much eneiufy in them. We then pass on 
nQn the glass plate maohine to the vnloanite-plate ma- 
chine. Hese is a vnlcanite-]date, and, as yon are aware, 
^ rotatiDg it between cushions, the electricity is ga- 
thmd upon this conductor. Yon see this large wooden 
no^— that was saggested by Winter; the ol^eot of it 
nUt looiehow or other, we do not know how, to condense 
^ dectricity, and to concert what might be a fine 
Km spark into a solid whitish spark. How this ring 
aete, Old the whole histoiy of this machine, woold be 
quite ndSdeiit matter for one lecture ; bat that with 
vUoh we sre now eonoemed is not how to produce such 
^moaenaj but how to attempt to measure the energy of 
m eleothdty whioh these maohinea, and other means, 
OBidsTelopi. I soaioely need tell von that it is not, in any 
mmoi the word, an electrical lecture in whioh we are 
tolM eagaged this erening, and these apparatus are only 
htn u iUostrations of the operHtiona. Sparks pass 
6oB the eondnctor, and are usually charged into a 

tof this kind — a ^^den jar. That was first done 
the year 1746. Tne jars were diarged and dis- 
cbttged, and although gieat shocks were felt, yet no 
BBWue was taken, and it wiia supposed that in the 
Aoek oonaiated the energy of electricity. 
^ Kow, the mode in wlueh eleotrieity thus presenting 
Uf was ultimately measured was by a small jar of this 
l^d, called a unit mr. This unit jar is in all respects tiie 
jWnBtwpaii of the LeTden jar, only made smaller, and one 
■Ihot Bonnted on glass a^ brass rods. Theire are two 
liMi balls, one eonneeted with the inside of the jar and 
tas with the outside, which balls can be set at any dia- 
taioe apart. The iaaide of the jar is charged from the 
■Maeal madiine, and as soon as it is sufficiently charged, 
MM nfa g to the distance of the balk from one anofJber, 
tyA peases. So passing, spark after spark enters the 
■ler jar, and if we count the number of such mtering, 
Ifenve settled what was supposed to be the measure of 
^Kgj oontained in the large jar. We may put in 10, 
^^ or 40 charges. It will be rery obrious to you, 
wwiw, that these unit jars vary. The same jar is 
wiy i ahke, but you cannot make two exactly alike. 
BvAif this could do done, the state of the atmosphere 
^■delhir surroundings would so influence the passing 
Mridty that accurate comparisons and contusions 
l^d Bot be made. Moreover, these jars vary on the 8ur> 
■My and in the character of the glass, and in other ways ; 
tpseg oeotly, this mode of measuring energy must 
*BMamty be a failure. The umtjar,tharefore, has fallen 
ntooQoiplete disuse. 

niflwrt o the mode of producing the eleetricity to be 
••••uial haa been by friction. Now, here is a machine, 
^^tf ag of a thin circular vulcanite disc, (^pitble of 
jwpot in rapid rotation, but there are no rubbers or 
fty articles m contaot with the plate. It is called a 
li^ch maohina. Here are three segments of thin vul- 
iiite ; one of these is rubbed with a piece of dry silk or 
ft, aod, being slid in prepared grooves, the faces of the 
iMrt and rotating* vulcanite are about one-quarter of 
■Beh apart. These two other segmental pieces can be 
11 behind ihe first one ; if the room and the atmosphere 
Ve not so damp we ahould probably get a four-inch 
M from UuB wiachine. One segment is rubbed, and 
wed about a quuter of an inch from tha disc, and by a 
BlCMs of induction, when it is rotated, there is a 
m^uci mnoh electricity bemg brought forward and 
ttcsed by the conductor. Again, we have here 
ft qnantitgf of dectrioi^ .w o havie no kinetio energy. 



The difference between enoipg^ as it is used, speaking 
electrically, and intensity, as it is also used, speakinfl^ 
eleotrioally, is this, there may be great intensity and 
little or no quantity — ^no power, in the proper sense of 
the word. For example, if a piece of iron were taken 
and formed into needles, and if those needles were placed 
points downward upon the hand, and a small weight 
upon them, we should find that piece of iron was pos- 
sessed of great intensity ; but if this iron in roiu^h block 
form, with any weight upon it, be placed upon me hand, 
although there be a very much larger quantity of iron, 
yet thM'e is little intensity. In such a sense the dis- 
tinction is drawn in eleotrioity between quantity and 
intensitv. There is groat penetrative power in electricity 
obtained from this machine, but there is no quantity of 
eleotrioity moving, and upon the quantity in motion de- 
pMids our ability to get energry. If all our iron appeared 
m the form of needle-points we should do very litU» 
with it. 

There is another aattar, also pecuUsir to electricity of 
this character, compared with the uses to whioh iron is 
now applied. Here is a small glass flask with crumpled 
pieces c^ tinfoil in it. If this flask were coated on the 
outside, as a jar is, the amount of intensity, and the shock 
that would ha given by it, would be equal to what might 
be obtained from that large jar, for this reason, the 
eleotrioal balances betwem tlie inner superficial metal 
surfooe and the outer ooating of the jar depend upon th» 
int«ietty on these two. Electricity of this character^ 
rests upon surfaces only ; electricity of that .other 
character, with which we are more concerned, enters 
below the surface, and may be said to reside and travel 
within the body. Whatever, therefore, may be the 
number of, say, square inches of surface within the jai^ 
the electricity upon the whole of them would be balancea 
by electricity of equal intensity upon an outer surfoce 
covering the jar only. This may be illustrated by refer- 
enoe to the large quantity of water contained in a dock 
for ships. It is supported or kept at its level by a gate 
which in no respect is stronger than would be required 
for a dock of the same depth containing not one-tenth 
of the quantity of water. 8o with what is called the 
hydrostatic paradox, also so with Bramah's hydraulic 
press, and so with this little jar. There may be a large 
quantity of electrici^ within this jar if it have a large 
surface on which to distribute itself, and then it will be 
balanced or kept in equilibrium by a smaller surfeujo on 
the outside diarg^ to the same intensity. 

The electricitv here has been produced tiux)ugh phy- 
sical exertion, ^^e found, however, the other night tliat 
there is no physical exertion so great as that whidi takes 
place between ^e nu^eculea of diflSerent bodies when che- 
mical affinity is allowed to operate. If, therefore, instead 
of getting molecular disturbance inthemusdesof our arms 
by turning these handles, we produce mdecnlar disturb- 
ance between the ultimate atoms, or molecules of matter, 
forces are called into play as hr beyond the power of our 
arms as those of the most colossal steam-engine are beyond 
the power of a mouse. By chemical arrangements we 
are enabled to obtain electricity of a totHlly different 
character from that hitherto notieed^so different that 
there is little similarity between them, excepting a 
common name. In fact, the earlier attempts at tele- 
grapby failed in consequence of the promoters using 
electricity produced by machinery such as this — an 
electricity which is possessed only of intensity, and not 
of that energy consequent upon quantity. 

Let us now pass on to the mode of obtaining eleotrieity 
from chemical action. Before doing so a phenomenon 
should be noticed, which disturbs results very seriously, 
and which is, at present, not understood. Here 
is some copper wire, covered with cotton, coiled from 
end to end, say ^Ye or six times along this large bobbin 
of wood. Within the bobbin is a hu^er hole than usuaL 
The two ends of this wiro so coiled are connected 
with the reflecting galvanometer. The reflected light 
from this lamp it now visible and stationary upon 



684 



JOURNAL OF THB SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jolt 18, 1878. 



the Bcreen. Tou are aware that motton of that 
reflected ipeok of light will he the conseqiieiice of 
electricity paasiiig through the coilfl of the galva- 
nometer. Kow, obeenre that, without either chemical 
or physieal agency acting upon or in contact with 
the wire, we aiiall obtain a manifestetion of 
electrical dietnrbance within the copper wire. Let the 
end of thia steel magnet be introduced within the bob- 
bin, yon see that the speck of light immediately moves. 
Except in this manner, copper does not ipanifest 
electrical properties. Again, if the other end of the 
steel magnet be brought within the bobbin, you see 
the speck of the galvanometer moves in an opposite 
direction. Thus may be shown one form of elec^ical 
induction. 

Now, with that nhenomenon we are perplexed. 
This pipperty of induction manifests itself at times 
and in ways of which we know nothing. For example, 
if a copper wire were laid upon this floor, and another 
eypper wire were laid parallel to it on the floor below ; 
and if any current of electricity passed through the 
wire on this floor, the one below would answer to it, 
although there was not any apparent contact or com- 
munication between them. 

The laws which govern such electrical manifestations 
as these are very partially understood, and therefore the 
measurements of the results of these laws are for general 
use almost valueless. We must, however, for the present 
assume that the nature of the phenomena of electrical in- 
duction is clear. 

The next stage in obtaining electricity is by means of 
what is called a galvanic cell. Such a cell usually con- 
sists of two different metals, and one or two liquids. 
Whatever may be the arrangement, the ^ectricity deve- 
loped may be estimated by the intensity of cheniictU affinity 
during the process, and at the time of the measurement. 
But ^e whole of this question of chemical affinity must 
now be aasumed, and some of the affinities explained in 
the last lecture are probably the chemical affinities 
operating in this ceU. A chemical action takes place 
upon a square inch of one plate, and it is met by an action 
upon a square inch of the other, therefore on every square 
inch an action is prodacei. Between the two plates there 
is something (say the liquid) which causes the action. 
It is in fact the presence of this liquid which calls the 
chemical affinities into play. 

A word must now bo introduced which will often occur 
during the evening, and it is one which performs an im- 
portant part in the measurement of electricity of the 
character which men utilise, i.tf., resistance. Indeed, 
this resistance to the free passage of an electric current 
is our chief business to-night. Whilst the siae of the 
plates in these cells is increased, the resistance to the 
free course of the manifested electricity is not decreased. 
Thus, for instance, from a square inch of one plate there 
is a current of electricity meeting or co-operating with 
that developed from a square inch of the opposite plate. 
Whatever may be the energy of the chemical affinity upon 
one square inch, it is met by the energy of the chemical 
affinity upon the opposite square inch of the other, and 
that energy has to overcome the resistance of the liquid 
between them. Now, then, assume that each of these plates 
is enlarged by the addition of another square inch. This 
introduces an additional quantity of liquid, and we have 
to overcome the resistance of this liquid. The difficulty 
of overcoming the resistance of the intervening liquid is 
such that, however much we multiply the number of 
square inches, we also introduce more liquid, and by so 
doing add further electrical resistance. Hence, however 
large ma^ bo the plates, we do not overcome the resistance 
more easily. That led to the contrivance of thus coupling 
up in what is called " a series " in the form you see 
here, that which is familiar under the name of a oell- 
battery. 

It may perhaps make clear what is a difficulty to 
that an eleotrioal current which passes when cells are 



coupled np <* in series," Chat is, one after QieoQiflr, k\ 
intense tlum when they are comhiaed as onelaigsngk 
ceU. 

Supposing these two platea, each one equre iitoh is 
area, were the only two concerned, therefore there wcnU 
be a certain resistance to be overcome. The ehcaiail 
affinity of one such combination not only overoomfii tLit 
resistance but leaves a surplus of daciricity, which wnfas 
is said to run along the outside wire, and msy pioduoe 
what we call a telegraphio difpatch. Kow, nppo« 
that in addition to those two plates, then sn Vn 
others of the same sise and material in t c^ UfaiBd 
them. Between these second plates there is ik 
a resistance similar to tiiat between tbe fiiA tvo- 
Those two second plates, however, also produce a lorpla. 
Now as that surplus passes over it contiimei iti vij 
through the previous plates and wire, and the caomfpaa 
is that when once the resistance of its own cell to k«a 
overcome, the surplus electricity can pass throo^ the 
other cells without any resistance, and, therefore, v« in 
enabled to add the surplus of one cell to the nrpki a 
the next, and so on. Hence, when combined intkefimi 
in whidi they are combined in this battery, wt ui 
manifestly enabled to pass along the conoectiag win 
successive equal amounts of electricities, anJ to 
flowing so very closely behind each °^^»J'J*"5 
an effect upon any resistance similar to thit pradaeed 
upon a slab of marble or of glass by the fordbk dmiBf 
against it of small grains of sand in a oontinnoiiiAwB- 
These grains penetrate, and, as it were, bore h«tai«n 
in hardened steel ; so these successive electriotai vt 
as it were, continuous, and thereby overcoaw S^'^^TJj 
sistances. It may, in connection with this, be *;^"^ 
that, perhaps, in some such way as now ^.*°]^^,!T 
mighty energies of affinity may be accomplished^™ 
clashing of millions upon millions of atoms and """^■J? 
This may explain how and wliy it is that these im 
thus arranged **in series" are under certain ««»• 
stances more effective than when the same tmoiiai» 
liquid and metallic elements operate as one cell calj- 

Electricity thus, or by other means at om* ^^9*^ 
is now to be measured. Two things ars especially brfm 

us to-night. One to make dear how this mc««apaa«i 
is made ; the other to endeavour to make clear liov t« 
resistance of various bodies, be they wires or liqaia*» » 
also measured. 

This electricity is measured in a voir simple vij. 
All the apparatus is here, but as it would take too toi? 
to show experiments in detail, perhaps you will hm 
accept a statement of facts instead of a visible wpw? 
tion of them. In these cells is being produced a q«awT 
of electricity which is to be measured, much •« "^ " 
measured by the pound or liquids by the quart T»^f 
it is measured is either by the chemical decoopo'p* 
that it can produce, or by the amount of heat it^^ 
develop, or by other means, as for instance iti f^* 
upon the magnet in a given time. 

This seems a convenient opportunity for toechng «• 
tention to a galvanometer, which is arran^ ^Pf" ' 
plan by which is shown the amount of deoompo^ 
effected by the current indicated by the pl^^*"*v* 
on the dial. The gentleman who designed it had nj^ 
only a manufacturer's requirements. The "**^*'*'*!!! 
effected bv such a galvanometer is not of that ^^'^ 
with which this lecture is to be concerned, and »««• 
fore further reference to this particular ant v o 
requisite. ^ 

To consider a mode of measurement we must '^'J^ 
those elements — ^mass, space, and time. The ^J^'Jt 
on which my hand now rests consists of a ^^*^J^ 
about ten inches in diameter, having ooili of cojj* 
wire round it Within this circolar box with a ^tJJ 
top is a small magntt sod steel needle. Now, the s^iu 
steel needle assumes a oertain position in ^^^'^^^^ 
the influence of texrestrial magnetism. Snchaajsi"*"^ 
as this is not unlike a stream of water in a brooknpj* 
short stick, one end of which is tied to s itake t7 « 



bring. So long as the Btream flows sieadily |>a8t the itick 
t u retained in the same position. Let a disturbance 
ike place in the evenly flowing water, and the stick 
rill no longer retain either steadiness or direction. 
Kippoie, now, that this needle is retained in a certain 
irection by the influence of what we may call the 
tz«&m of terrestrial electricity flowing through the 
tmosphero pf this room. (That such a stream is so 
lowing through the atmosphere shall be made apparent 
resenUy.) From these four cells of a galvanic battery 

canent of electricity may be caused to pass along 
b wire which surrounds this wooden rmg. The 
rriDgiementa are made, and such a current is now pass- 
ag. What is \h.Q consequence P The even flow of that 
rhich retained the needle is disturbed, and the needle 
xamen as the stick in the water would have done to 
he disturbing causes. Clearly the nature and extent of 
b« invisible disturbance may be estimated — ^indeed 
nfuored— by the motions of the visible needle, just as a 
Mw position assumed by the stick would measure the 
listorbing mflaenoe on the stream. 

The promise to let ^ou have proof that there 
ire conents of electricity passing through the 
atmosphere of this room may now be reaeemed. 
Isn is a circular wooden ring, with wire round it 
li before. Tou may notice that it can be turned 
ts A looking-glass in its frame. The ends of the 
fire coiled round it are now connected with the wires of 
be galvanometer, the mirror of which reflects that speck 
*I light on the screen. The looking-glass mounted ring 
I placed in reference to the (so called) current of elec- 
ndty always passing through the atmosphere, that 
vere there a glass in the frame the current would 
)eat upon that glass. If the frame be turned one- 
buth round, then the current will pass parallel to the 
'jce of the frame. Or thus :— If the frame of the wire- 
vdosed ring be placed parallel to the direction of this 
ugnstised needle, then the current of electricity through 
^ ttmosphere of this room is passing parallel to the ring. 
To novo it, therefore, from this position to one at right 
ifl^lcitoit, it is clear that the circumferential wire must, 
ait were^ cut the stream of electricity, if there be one. 
|ov, 10 cutting it, there will be a disturbance in the 
metrical condition of the wire, which may be manifested 
*f t motion of that speck of light Observe now, 
^ every motion of the frame causes a motion in the 
leedlo of that galvanometer, which is placed on a stand 
It renioved from the table on which the motion of the 
raaw takes place. 

The two experiments now made may satisfy you :— 
IC That there is what, for want of another name, we 
Mv cJla current of electricity passing through the air ; 
*ni That disturbance of the uniform quiet flow of this 
townt may be caused ; 3rd. That thia needle is sensi- 
*Te to ittch a disturbance ; and, 4tb. You will perhaps 
jcceptmy word for that which time alone prevents being 
utt«trat«l, viz., that the amount of this disturbance 
"*y be measured by the needle ; that is to s ly, the 
P'^ter the disturbajice the further will the needle be 
Dff^ed from its original position. 

■It will be obvious to all that the amount of motion 
a the needle for any given disturbance will depend upon 
U aensitivoness. Hence, two needles may or may 
»t move equally from the same cause. A mode of 
•^•^wiwmenti therefore, which depends upon an artisan's 
•pability to make either unit jars or needles equally 
«»iUve cannot be one to be much relied upon. There 
^however, a relationahip between the motion of the 
•"wle and a totally different mode of absolute measure- 
■■it of the quantity of electricity that may pass in a 
*>rtof time, which solves the difficulty now expressed. 

The usual apparatus for the decomposition of water 
V *n electrical current is standing here. It is in conse- 
P«ice of completing the wire circuit from this combi- 
1^ of fi)ur cells that decomposition takes place, 
^bubbles are rising regularly and rapidly. Patient 
** watchful experimenters have established this— vLb., 



the amount of water thus separated into its oonsUtoent 
elements of oxygen and hydrogen is alwavs in exact 
proportion to the quantity of electricity tnat nasses. 
If, then, it were convenient to be thus always decom- 
posing water, a measure might be had. Thanks, how* 
ever, to the mathematician, we have a much more simple 
mode of gaining this knowlege. 

Suppose one end of the wire from these four cella ii 
connected wit^ the decomposing apparatus — this appa- 
ratus connected to the ring already explained — then nrom 
the ring to the other end wire of the cells. With such 
an arrangement observations can be made both on the 
decomposing apparatus and the deflections of the needle, 
when each is under the influence of the same current. If 
the quantity of electricity in circuit varies, the amount 
of gas produced and the position of the needle vary 
also. These have been so frequently observed, tiiat by 
looking at the needle the mathematician could always 
tell the amount of gas obtained ; in fact, he could lay 
down a very simple rule for guidance. The application 
of this rule enables a person at all timM to state what 
quantity of electricity is passing, even though he look 
to the needle only. 

An arithmetical illustration may make this clear. 
Suppose that in one minute these gases, which may be 
seen coursing up the tube, filled a space in the tube 
marked ten cubic inches — observe where the needle 
pointed. Let tis assume that it is pointing to 45^. 
Suppose on another and future occaaio& the needle ii 
obseored to point to 60^, now, either from memory or 
from tables, we fijid that the tangent of 60® is entered 
as 1*73. Then, if 10 be multiplied by 1*73, the result 
would be that 17*3 cubic inches of gases mi^ht be 
evolved. As there are in chemistry laws connecting the 
composition of bodies, suoh a result as this would enable 
a manufacturer to know how much silver, for example, 
this current of electricity would cause to be deposited in 
any fixed space of time. Thus may be ineasured the 
quantity of ^ectricity passing in a unit of time. 

But the deposition of gold and silver or other metals 
is not the only utilisation of electricity, and as other 
results of a very diiSerent kind are obtained from this 
''imponderable," it is time to turn to illustrations of 
another form. 

Telegraphy seems at present to have taken the most 
important position in the manifestation of the energy^ of 
electricity. Telegraphists therefore naturally consider 
how they can measure the energy with which they deaL 
If there are any connected with telegraphy present, 
perhaps they will remember that this is not a lecture on 
the present advanced state of telegraphy, nor on modem 
instruments, it is simply an attempt to make as clear to a 
general audience as is m the lecturer's power the principles 
which govern the uses and measurements of electricity 
in relation to telegraphy. To enter into details in 
reference to those laws which the electrician and mathe- 
matician have been enabled to propound, would be not 
only very injudicious, but very unsatisfactory. A sketch 
of the broad principles on which they are founded, and 
an illustration of the application of them, may prove 
more useful than an attempt to show how detuls of 
measurement have been accomplished. 

The first question that presents itself is what may be 
called the measure of resistance. It was soon observed 
that electricity passed along certain metal wires more 
freely than other metal wires of the same size and len^^ 
The observation admitted of a very important utilisation. 
For example, suppose the wire now stretched^ fix)m one 
end to the other of this room was one mile in length, 
and that the little apparatus with which electricity if 
being produced at this end could produce a certain re- 
sult at the other end. Now, let us take another metallic 
wire of the same length, and suppose the result produced 
in this case is much less than in the first. It will be 
admitted, without any detailed experiment, that by 
shortening again and again, the second wire may be 
reduced to a length whi<m. permits the phenomenon at 



<8« 



JOTTBK AL OF THE 800IETT OF ABT8, J01.T 18, 1873. 



file end of the fint wire to be repemted at the tmd of the 
leoond. Now meaanre the secoiid ; H if onl^ one quarter 
of a mile. T17 a third and a fomth wire ; perhapa 
thej are retpectiydy redaoed to ose-eighth aad one- 
tenth of a nrile. SVidentlT' ^bere ia aooae pr o peiiy in 
ttieae wirea which hindera, retaina, or reaieta the pro g rpa a 
of electricity. The propcvtj ia called "rMiatanoe/ and 
li aTailable fbr yery oaefdl porpoeea. The Britifh 
Aaaociation for the Adrancement of Seioice were ao 
eonactooa of thia that, in 1861 and 1862, tiiere were 

STe oonaiderationa aa to what aCepa ahonld be 
ea in order to aaaign a vnhie to thia reaitft- 
Miee. Ton hare aeen how the quantity of electricity 
may be meaaored, but then that meaanred quantity had 
Bot to oonrey itadf to a diatanoe. It quietly, aa it were, 
itald at home and worked. When telegraphy entered 
then electricity had to traTel to or act at a dia- 
tanoe. Thia atate of alEaira rendered it rery desirable 
to determine *' resistance " from what ia called firat 
principlea, that ia to aay, to deal only with the three 
vnita of measurement, maaa, apace, and time. It waa 
BeedM, by aome meant or other, to get this resistance 
into the form of maaa, apace, and time. It waa considered 
that if we could regard it aa velocity we thereby invoWed 
both apace and time, becauae ve^city ia measaied by 
ipace and time. If one runs a mile in an hour, then it 
la only needful to divide one mile by sixty minutea, and 
the space run in one minute is known. That would be 
the measure, assuming the minute to be the unit of 
time. The British Association appointed a committee. 
The chief gentlemen concerned in the committee, and who 
had the oeaianing of a mode of grappling with one of 
the moat critical taaka of science, were Mr. Clark 
Maxwell, now Professor of Physical Scieneeat Cambridge, 
Hr. Ballbur Stewart, of ]^ew Obserratory, now at 
Manchester, and Mr. Fleeming Jenktn, now Profeaaor 
of Engineering in the UmTersity of Edinburgh. Their 
experiments were carried on in King's College, and the 
scheme now to be very briefly described is found in the 
report of ^e British Association for 1863. 

It may here be remarked that periiaps there hare been 
no lectures ever given in this room of a more iraportaBt 
and Boientiflo character than a course of Oantor lectures 
on electricity by Mr. Fleeming Jenkin. This course 
commenced in January, 1866, and will be found reported 
in the JournaU published between 2nd February and 2nd 
March, 1866 (inclusive). It is well to make this further 
statement, that those lectures have frequently been 
appealed to by writers on electricity who regarded the 
phenomena thereof in the light of an accurate science.* 
The question, then, is, how are we to measure in velocity 
thia resistance P How are we to convert that 
which is resistance in a wire into an electrical measure 
of velocity ? [The lecturer here, by apparatus and dia- 
grams, iUustrated the principle upon which this mode of 
measurement was based, and in so doing referred to the 
currents passing through the room, as already described.] 
At Kew there is a record of these currents kept con- 
tinuoudy night and day, and it is found that they are 
changing every minute. Hie main object, then, of the 
committee of the British Association, was to devise a 
p Vn by which they could ascertain the renstance that a 
given wire offers measured by comparison with the 
velocity of these currenta. You may remember that 
Kater oould not measure the law of gravity, owing 
to Ae feet that it was rapid in its actions, and he 
felt that he must have aome meana of causing that 
law to repeat itself. Kater adopted the pendulum, and 
recorded the number of timee it oecillated in twcnty-ftmr 
hours, and thereby got at the kw. If, instead of having 

• MiMM the oomiiitnciinMt of the pobUeatlon of this ooom rj 
Blitietitro.*' by Fleeming Jenkin, P«Mtohed hy LoftfBMjwd Co^ 

iwiJfalwanainteterttothtthoathtMitadtalorelectfk^ ' 



• long win and tiwee otiisn runniBg along the bar, m 
in tke affiantas before yon, we bod a ring of this kiad, 
and eauaed that to le^ve rapidly, aay at t£e rate of 106 or 
260 or even a thi naaaad rev<dntiona in a minute, we sttB 
get the laws of the magnetic fbroe in tiie same way aa 
described, similar to when the bar paased along the rods 
before you. This causes the magnetie force to aci •peo 
the needle, and in reality, in the experiments whi<^ deter- 
mined what ia called " the Brimh AaBOoiation unit of 
reaiatiuice," theae currenta acted upon a very email naedio 
eareAsUy-auapeiided, ao that they were eiiftbled toeaHwata 
the rfsiataace of this wire in aa absolute meaanre of 
9p«oe and time. That led to the adoption of ^atia 
called the *'ofam," or '^Britiah Association's unit of 
electrical resistaaoe.*' This term **ohm'* is a nana 
given in compMment to one who anggeated an impoitaat 
relatioD^p among the dementa <^ current, fom, aad 
resiatamce. Indeed, tiiat table of electrical meaaarsmenta 
which may aerae day be placed in books of artthmelic^ 
with oorreeponding tablea of weigbta, maaaurea, aad 
money, will be found to contani the namea of men who 
have inveatigated apeoial departments of electrical 
arienoe, aooh, for eaample, aa Ohma, Fmrada* Volli» 
Webera, Ac. 

In tids little glass cylinder there is a coiled leBgfh 
of G«rman silver wire, German silver being used beeanaa 
it poas ooa e a great resistance to electrical coireeta, and 
that reeiatance doea no4 change much widi change of 
temperature. Thia coil constitutes what is eaDed half a 
British Association unit, whi<^ becomes the M e same of 
eleetrical work, juat aa the atandard pound beooBes tfas 
measure for wfoght, or the ibot ia the standard meaaava 
for lengdi. Bfing possessed of this meaaure, we has* 
all that is needful for the measurement of reaiataBoe, aad 
therefore for measuring electrical work oomiectcd with 
telegraphy.* 

To show the way in which a knowledge of this iniapnu 
nant can be utilised, rather than to enter upon thoaa 
investigations by which it waa obtained, aeemed likcij to 
win so miuch more attention and interest, tlMt theae 
arraauements before you are for this porpooe. TW 
intention is to show how electricians detnnttBe the 
diatance at which a deep sea cable is broken, so that thcr 
ean tell how far the fracture is from the slioseu Let n 
be undentood that it is the illustration of a prxacipH 
and not the nature and modes of dealing with difl^xeaA 
kinds of " faults," that are to be our concern. 

lliere is a wire, which may repreaent a oaldo, toaaA 
the room. In this box there is plaeed a nonaber of 
'^ohms" arranged in three seta of nine eacK so tliat by 
moving these pegs a current of electricity can be cajued 
to pass through either one, or more of them. 
each " ohm *' in the first set to represent one r 
each in the second set ten, and each in the thini aet 
hundred, the consequeoce is that if a currvnt of 
electricity passes through all it would meet with a 
resistance of 999. If it passed through one of As 
first set it wonld only be one reantaaco; so that 
with the moving of these braaa pegs there is the powor 
of bringing in any number of ohma required. This tiA 
board, about 3 ft. 6 in. long, with a Ckrman silyvr wve 
and broad bands of copper divided at iaterrHla, Vvl 
capable of being put into electrical conaectioQ ^ the 
insertion of pieces of metal constitutea what may ba 
called the beam of electrical soalee. ftnamiun, how- 
ever, is to be measured instead of weight. AXott^ a wira 
at the back electricity can pass, and when «aii>Mtod 
with the galvunometer the speck of that iaatroimnKt 
serves the same purpose aa the pointer of a pur of 
If the galvanometer speck points to nothing; 
that there ia equilibrium bet ww n the 
at each end of Uie scale beam. If I 
"ohma** in what we may call 



X 



reqiiMt* f->r a tlaar 
afwi'BBiint max rrtet tn cba 
Ut to paffv laS ia JcaUa*! ** 




JOUBNAL 07 THE SOOIETT OF ABTS, July 18, 187S. 



687 



nsiftancee into tlie other scale, or that which we may 
ooDfider as such, then if the cuirent of electricity 
airanged as provided can pass one of tiese gionps 
of resistanoas oMre freely than the other, the speck of 
light will he moved. This is the same as though one 
end of a scale heam were '* kicked up." Therefore 
renstances, which in this case act the part of weights on 
ordinaTy scales, must he taken out or addsd as may he 
teamrea. 

this wire running partially round the room represents 
a cahle. The two ends of this cable are in my hand. 
Let us assume that we want to measure the resistance 
the cable opposes to the enwgy of electricity, and 
to ascertain the value of its opposing power. Here 
M what is usnalj^ called a batte^, consisting simply of 
a little salt and water, in a very small tumUer glass. 
* BatWry" is a very misleading name in these dayB. 
This, with all its belongings, is reidly not worth six- 
penee, and it cestaialy seems a pieoe of pedantic magni- 
loonenoe to call it a " battery." 

The wires from this battery are so arranged that the 
euxrent may divide itself between tiie cable wat is round 
ihib room and this box of <*ohiM." 

It may perhaps make the illustration more intelligible 
to thooe who have not familiarised themselves with 
terms of electrical science if for a while this current be 
regarded as consisting of passengers. Let it be repre- 
aanted by 100 passen^^ers setting out from this battery, 
and having the choice of two routes^ viz., one by the 
cable, and one by this box of ohuis. 

If the two routes are equally free, ».A, offer equal re- 
sistancco, then M%y of these passengers will pass-by one 
wi|7 and fifty by the other. Suppose that tha resistance of 
one routoifsay thtt cable) is greater than that by the other 
toote. Then that other route, or the way through the 
box of ohms, will be avalable for some of those passengers 
who cannot readily pass by the i-able. Here is a wire 
oofmecting these two routes ; indeed the large letter A 
■ay convey a clear idea of Uie plan. Conaioer what is 
likdy to happen if fifty of these electrical passengers set 
«ff nom the top of the A down the thick stroke, and 
Mj down the thin stroke. We may say that those 
down the thin Hue cannot pass so freely 
down the thi^ one. Hence finding Uie 
down the thick line clears some of these 
dcli^ed paasen^em by the thin line may avail themselves 
of tSoB croM-wue bridge, viz,, the stroke in the A, and 
go to the place appointed for them by passing down the 
fiiklc stroke. In this homely illustration the thin stroke 
u tha cabfo — the thick stroke is the box of ohms, 
GlaBrly by moving these brass pegs, the resistance in the 
box of obms is increased ; that is, the thick stroke of the 
A la made more nearly the same aa the thin stroke. 
Kow introduce into this cross-way — this bye- path, ae it 
wme — the galvanometer. Then if any electrical passenger 
avail himsdf of this hye-road, the bright speck of light 
vffl tell the tale, and by noUciDg whether the speck moves 
ko the xi^ht or left, tlie direction in which the passenger 
timviBed is knowm ssad thmnefore the eleotrical pathway 
~ iok offars the grcntest resistance is also known. By 
~~ the pegs in the box of ohms, an equality of 
may be established, and then passengers will 
soi pttSH along ^e bye-way through the galvanometer ; 
iharefurn the apeok oi light will not move. 

Nor ia this indication of an electrical traveller the only 
QM which may be made of the galvanometer spetk. 
Too are aware that the extent of deviation of this needle 
b the measure of the quantity of electricity in transit ; 
thevdSore the extent cdf deviation tells the nqmber of 
paammgen; in fact, the galvanometer becomes an 
electrical t^-tale turnstile for counting the number pass- 
Sng' throQgh, and so indicating or measuring the dif- 
fi»eBee in resistance between the two ooonea. 
]j|* jm leave this fignratiwe mode of ex p res s ion. In 
teat before yea the pegs in the \>ox of ohms 
raad (M^5 ; the 4peek of light is steady ; therefore we 
know that the entire length of cable, of whidi the two 



ends are here, also offers a resistance of 605. Before 
this cable was laid a comparison with these ohms had 
been instituted, and it was found Tsay) that one mile 
of the cable offered a resistance to uxe passage of elec- 
tricity equal to one ohm, therefore there are 606 miles 
of cable, Docause there are 605 ohms. 

Now let us break the cable by cutting the wire. 
There ! one end has £Edlen to the bottom of this large 
pan of salt and water. This pan must, for the present, 
t>e looked upon as an Atlantic Ocean, one end of the 
cable is at the bottom of it, and we wish to know how 
fur from the end in my hand the separation has taken 
place. To compensate for the portion of the cable 
hitherto used, but now detached, tne earth is available 
this sheet of copper, in and on the sluure of our Atfamtia 
Ocean, is buried. Soldered to the copper is a wire, o 
which the end is in my hamL 

There are therefore m my hands the ends of two wiree ; 
one, that of the broken cable— the oUiec^ that connected 
with the buried sheet of cc^>per. Let us deal with them as 
we did with the oomplete cable. [After various trials the 
pegs in the box of ohms were so arranged that the speek 
of the galvanometer was steady J Ihe speck is noY 
steady, and the pegs read 360. This means that there 
are 850 miles of cable, or its equivalent. Now, the 
cable and the earUi are the only elements on the one 
side; and since the earth is as a large reservoir of 
^ectxicity it offers no aroreciable resistance ; hence the 
only resistance is that ox the broken cable. The length 
of this is pointed out as 350 miles ; this, therefore, is 
the distance of the frtioture from the shore. 

It is perhaps ■u^^erflaoas to state that many oiroam- 
stances arise differing from those described, and many 
precautions have to be taken to which no allusion has 
been made. If, however, the general principles be made 
drar, that is accomplished whidL was intended to be 
done, and those who are desirous of further infbrmatiom 
may consult the higher class of books which treat on prac- 
tical telegraphy. It may be of some interest to let yon 
see how deucate and perfect a test even this loaded 
galvanometer s|]^ok is. One or two illustratioas will 
&0W how electrical currents are set in action when we 
are at least aware of them. 

Here is a small piece of zinc, like the blade of a pen- 
knife, attached to one end of a wire passing round the 
galvanometer ; and here is a piece of copper attached to 
the other end. The zinc Is now pushed into this 
apple. Observe, the speck moves so soon as the 
copper enters the apple. Bepeat the experiment 
with a potato; the same phenomenon takes place. 
The potato forms a very good battery, lliere ii 
another mode that is reafiy more extraordinary stUL 
If the galvanometer were sensitive, it is no ficaon to 
say you can send a kiss across the Atlantic. Here 
are two little bits of zinc and copper attached to 
Uie ohms and cable combined as one length, and the 
galvanometer is now in circuit with them. If I kiss « 
these two ends the spcNDk moves. Therefore that 
mysterious something which is called eleotricky, and 
which htt its origin at the lips, has exerted an energr 
sufficient to move the needle ; indeed, sufficient to travet 
by the cable from one side of the Atlantic to the other, 
and move a needle when it arrives there. 

Again, here is a smaU beef-steak and a knife and Uak* 
These latter are connected by two thin copper wiree 
with the galvanometer. One wire is attaened to the 
blade of the knife and the other to the pvong of the 
silver fork ; by watching the speck you aee thai evea one 
mouthfrd of meat cannot be out without causing a our* 
rent of electricity quite sufficient to mi^est itself on 
the other side of the Atlantic. 

Thus, surrounded by ever-active phenomena, whioh 
seem to have escaped the notice of men until ttie pre- 
sent age, he would indeed be more bold than prudent 
who ventures to speak confidently of what may or may 
not be done by one or other of the energies of the 
imponderaUee. How novel and delioate are the inoka- 



688 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCHrTT OF ARTS, July 18, 1873. 



menU employed, how accurate are the measoiements 
obtained, and how marrelloiiA are the usea to which 
electricity has been applied; yet these are not con- 
sequences of a blind mle-of-thumb following of that 
which hss been long known. Patient research, per- 
serering labour, and mudi thought haye not only '*put 
a girdle round the earth," but tney promise fair to ent^ 
upon and possess electrical territories of vast extent 
and luxuriant social fertility. When wiU the people of 
England recognise this P Echo answers, '^ When ! " 



AKHUAI nrrSBVAnOHAL SXH1BITI0H8. 



The Oonncil, liaying been informed that her 
Majesty's OommissionerB do not intend to 
publish Reports on the different departments of 
the Exhibition of the present year, and looking to 
the great importance to Arts, Manufactmres, and 
Commerce that these annual displays should not 
pass away without some record, have decided to 
undertake that duty, and for this purpose have 
engaged the services of gentlemen specially 
skilled in the subjects of the several sections, 
to prepare such Reports for publication in the 
Society's Journal. The Council, however, 
desire it to be understood that, in publishing 
these reports, they do not necessarily adopt all the 
views expressed in them, which must be taken 
as those of the writers only. 

The following report is the fifth that has I 
been issued. The remainder will appear as soon 
as they are complete. 

REPORT ON FOOD PRESERVATION. 

CLASS XII. 
(iHOLUBINa REFfiiaSRATORS.) 

An exhibition of substances used as food must 
necessarily be incomplete, unless it can be daily 
supplemejited with displays of the three articles 
of daily consumption — bread, meat, and vege- 
tables. How far such a display might be 
arranged for on a future occasion we will not now 
stop to inquire. The food exhibited on the 
present occasion, in accordance with the ten- 
years' cycle arranged by the Royal Commis- 
sioners, may be divided technicdly into three 
divisions — namely, Grocery, Drysaltery, and Pre- 
parations of food ; and these will include the 
chief forms of food exhibited, such as teas, 
sugars, spices, fruits, cocoa and coffiees, confec- 
tionery, biscuits and bread stuffs, Italian ware^ 
house goods, and preserved meats, the last term 
comprising "fish, flesh, and fowl." Thus the 
food presented to ua is mainly in a dried, manu- 
factured, or preserved form. It is with the 
latter that the present paper is concerned, re- 
quiring as it does special explanation, in con- 
i,eqn*»«->- r.f *^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ j^ y^^^^ Udden 



from the eye in tin cases, and therefore poeseasing 
but little interest to passers by. 

The preservation of flesh, including that of 
fish and fowl, has for many years engaged much 
attention. As long ago as 1691, John White 
and William Porter obUined a grant from the 
Crown to hold and enjoy for fourteen years 
the sole right of preserving aiumal food, which 
they warranted would keep sweet for any 
number of years in any climate. But the pro- 
cess does not seem to have produced any great 
result, nor was much progress made in the 
matter in the eighteenth century, during which 
only three patents are described. In the first 
half of the present century nearly a hundred 
patents were specified ; but since the year 1850 
they have been greatly multiplied, at the present 
time numbering many hundreds, though in 
numerous instances only varying in deUil, and 
not in principle. 

The several methods of preserving flesh may 
be classed under four heads : — 



1. The simple process of Drying. 

2. The use of Cold. 

8. T he use of chemical Antiseptics. 

4. The expulsion by Heat of atmospheric air. 

The Drying process is a very old one, and pro- 
bably almost contemporaneo^is with man, either 
as an herbivorous or carnivorous animal But 
it can hardly be looked upon as a scientific ooe 
in connection with food preservation, though a 
large number of patents have been taken out 
for ite application. The expression of water 
from animal and vegetable substances by arti- 
ficial means, or their dessication by exposure to 
the sun or hot air, leaves their fibre and a great 
part of their dried juices in such a state that 
they are incapable of destruction by the natural 
process of decomposition, and only affected by 
time, like other inorganic matter. Thus we can, 
at the present moment, see dried poultry in ths 
British Museum, which has been taken from 
Egyptian tombs, where it was placed some 
thousands of years ago. Charqui, or South 
American beef, is the form of dried meat best 
known, perhaps, in this country ; but we do 
not notice any specimens of it in the Exhibit!**. 
We have, however, samples of dried and pow- 
dered meat, in the form of meat biscuits, and c<«- 
bined with dried vegetables, in solid soopsqusrcs. 
These are exhibited by Messrs W hiteh«ad, of 
Lime-street-square, E.C., whose various produc- 
tions in this line have thoroughly esUblibhed 
themselves through their excellency as well as 
cheapness ; by Geylin, of Argyle-square ; 
by Messrs. Hewetson and Co., 17, Harp-lane, 
E.C., whose solid cakes of pea-soup, in the shape 
of large night lights, are valuable contributions 
to this kind qf preserved food ; and by Mf». 
Warriner, of Sonderbuig-road, Seven Sistera- 



JOUBKAL OF TSE SOOIBTY OF ARTS, /ult 18, 1673. 



689 



load. Mr. J. Johtttton, of 1, Watt Kew- 
ington-tttrraoe, £dmbargk» ako «mh\hkM beaf 
p«ird«r aad ** Ebswont," or portable Bonp, 
m ffsppHed to tlM PniMum troops ia the kta 
w with Fkaiios. IMed «id oompfMA 
v«g«tablM, oonbined with dried bea^ aiuI in * 
MBpIs form, sie alio eKhlbked by Messn. Wlute* 
liead, Messrs. Grilkm, a£ Aberdeen, and other 
Sooleb preeennng firms. We often wonder 
ftftt these vegetaUes, in their sknple dried and 
eonpeeseed form, are not nora widely need in 
our hoo8eh^>lds for sovp-makhig purposes. They 
see fery cheap, theite being no waste in their 
Die ; and bnt tittle of their §m,wowp is lest in ^e 
peoeess to wlneh ti»y hAve been sabjeotod. 

Of iood preserved by means of did we have 
no speeimena, with the eioception of a joint of 
meat, some lish and batter, in one of the vefiage- 
iilon eKiribited by the Atmospherto Ghium 
Oompaay, of 119, New Bond^etreet, whieh 
esQ be seem through the piate-glasa doens of 
tike safe. But this is only a partial or temporary 
pKservmttea of ^»od. That animal flesh can be 
pNMTved by ioe, for an jdmost indefinite poEiod, 
m well known. Animals have been found in a 
perlsot state of ptpesenraiion in the Ave^'o 
Ngieiis, where they muti have been buried for 
eenCvries. Seme few years ago the entire body 
il a mammoth was fomd in the frosen ooil cl 
Asetic Biberia, where it must have been for agea. 
In Rv8aia, Canada, and other northern oonniries, 
k is a oommon praetice to alaoghter fiat saimala 
sad preserve their carcases, by bnryiag 
Ihem in the ioe or froaen eartik, from the 
middle of November to the eaiiy part of May« 
Oar asarkets are snppfied wifli ftih and ponkry, 
especially im the winter months, packed in 
im from many diffisrent ODantniea, a«d it is only 
tbe cost of natural, and even of artificial iee, 
vhich prevents oar obtsining fresh uncooked 
meat from Anstmlia, Bentk Amerioa, and olae-> 
wfcsri!. Probably tbetmae is at hand when atill 
frnh«r improvements will ho effected in the 
attiicial manafactore of ice, and vessels will be 
OOBstnicted to act as floating ioe-henBes, and 
eenwy fr«sh ^oiBts of meat to onr shores, capable 
of he^ retailed a^ a third, or at least one^balf^ 
the price we are paying lor ordinary bntehers' 
maoi. But then it mnst he remembered th«t 
snob assBt be censnmod within a short tiflse of 
its loodiag, as it tends to decay mnch more 
fOMkly than ordinary meat whon bvonght into 
a wanner atmosphere. 

While speaking on the anbjeot of the pteserva- 
tiaa of food by means of cold, it may not be ont 
fff pUoe te add n few remarks on the Ice aafea 
' Roirigeeaters exhibited in the Eastern Qnad- 
il. Among theae, a ooo^cnons object is the 
f -aafe with pkte^kss panels in ^e doovs, 
Uie large bloek of ice in the nght^iand 
Lt, with n ahelf for bottles and de- 



canters above it» and the provisions on the left^ 
Timse latter generally oaanpdse a log of «wftftn^ 
bnttor, and fish ; a salmon outlet, with prawM 
round it, bsing exhibited on the oocasion of oar 
visit. These nrtiolos of food will remain aomid 
and sweet for many days, during the hottest 
weather ; and that the fbod^ohambor is perfretiy 
dry is shown by the fact that the Inciiermatchoa 
which lie on a plate in the same chamber wfl 
light when stm^ against its aides, the ventiia* 
tion being kept up by holes pteroed in the aides. 
Thb safe is exhibited by the Atmosf^erioOhum 
Company, 11 i^, New fiond-street, who also show 
freosing and ioe-mddng machines, tiie praeticsl 
worlEing of i^ieh ii demonatrated by an 
attendant ; and viattaes can taate the admnraUo 
reaults produced. Messn. Ohevsaso and Co., 
605, Ozfbrd^treot, exhibit one of their " dry 
eold^sir*' refrigerators (Olilfcon's patent), this 
chief feature of whieh is that the ice-chamber is 
at tiie back, and from it the eold-air isoommnni- 
cated to die food-^ambea by means <ji tnm 
valves, which by the action of a rod open when 
the doors are dosed, botelose when^he docns are 
opened. Thus, any large bulk of extraual air ia 
prevented from entering the ice*chamber wlian 
the doors are opened, and when closed a eireala* 
tion of cold air ia effiaoted by the two valveai 
which circulation can be increaeod by means of 
ventilators in the fbod-ohamhen, which can bo 
opened or dosed at pleasore. Moasn. fiowo 
and Sboppee, of Pancras«streot» Tottenhans^ 
oourt-rottd^ oxhihit <one of their '^Arotie loo 
Sftfrs,** which doesftot pretend to be oonstmnted on 
any new scientific principle; bnt the inside being 
Hned with white glsnedptHcelain tiles^whioh havo 
the advantage of being non^oondnctora of hea^ 
presents a very nieo appoarasMO, and is capaUo 
of being easily and efifectnatty deaaaed. The 
Piston Freening Madnne and leo Oo. dMW 
asverdartides of thdr manufaetufo^ for which 
they are so jnstly celebcated, Mr. Ash, whoso 
variana patents are tiieor property, heiag weU* 
known for his sdentific knowledge of all matters 
connected with refrigeration. His most recent 
patent waa taken ant last November ; and his 
<' Belf-foedtng Cabinet BefrigoBatar '* is an exod« 
lent article. In this he seems to have attained 
a great dcdderatnm, in the fact that the lowest 
teaspevatuve is msiatsinod thronghoot the safe 
till ^e blodc of ioe is almost entirely consumed, 
ifais is efihcted by the bottom of the ice-hoppet 
or oompartment being oenstmoted on an indina** 
tion of about dO de^ees, so that oim free of the 
ice, as it dissolves, pressM equally on one side of 
tha metal division of the safe, and as it decreases, 
on a still la^gar supearfioes, a Y-shaped wdl 
reodving it gradusUy. This princi^ is appli- 
cable both to block ioe and rough ioa, though 
the safos for eaoh are oonatmoted somewhat 
dUhnent^. Wo noii aMna to apeak of t|ia 



I 



690 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIBTY OP ARTS, Jitlt 18, 1878. 



exhibits of Mr. Kent, of 199, High Holbom, bo 
well known for his production of yarious articles 
of domeetio utility. He shows various sizes of 
his Patent Ventilated Ice 8afes and Refrige- 
rators, among which we notice the '' Restaurant 
Ice Safe," divided into five compartments with 
as many doors, so that each can be got at with- 
out disturbing the others ; and a Patent Bottle 
Refrigerator, which must prove a very useful 
article for licensed victuallers and confectioners, 
as each bottle can be separately withdrawn 
when required. In 1868, Mr. Kent patented 
his ''Ventilated Ice Safe," the chief feature 
of which is that, by means of a ventilator 
at the top of the safe, the external air is 
introduced in the ice chamber, or, as it should 
be expressed in this case, the ice " cradle," with 
apertures in the sides, and so conducted through 
the safe, finding its exit through an aperture at 
the bottom. We are not about to enter into the 
** Battle of the Refrigerators," or into a discus- 
sion as to who is to be credited with the now 
acknowledged principle of ventilation, in order 
to keep articles of food untainted in refrige- 
rators, but we think it due to Mr. Kent to say 
that he was the first to thoroughly develope and 
establish the principle. In his patent safes he 
has further improved iipon it by constructing 
them on the known fact that cold air is heavier 
than warm air, and therefore descends. Thus, 
by making a ventilator at the top, and in imme- 
diate connection with the ice cradle, he puriGes 
the atmosphere before it reaches the provisions, 
intercepting all particles which would otherwise 
settle on them and hasten decay. This ** down- 
ward draught" is the main principle of his 
patent, and is carried out in no other refrige- 
rators we have seen ; and that it is not a mere 
theory can be easily ascertained by placing a 
lighted taper at the lower aperture, when the 
flame is seen to be driven from it, and still 
more effectually by filling the safe with smoke, 
which will escape by this aperture, without a 

2 article finding its way out through the venti- 
ktor at the top. In these safes a fresh-killed 
leg of mutton may be kept for more than a fort- 
night, in a temperature of from 40 to 45 deg. ; 
cream will keep sweet for more than a week ; 
and a sweetbread, which butchers know turns 
bad in hot weather more quickly than any other 
meat, will keep good for nearly a week. With 
the refrigerators is exhibited a model of the 
large ice-room constructed in the Peninsular 
an^ Oriental Company's ship Calhay, showing 
how carefully and regardless of expense the 
Company provides for the comfort of their 
passengers ; also a model of Brainard's patent 
ice-house (4, South-street, Finsbury), as used 
in America and on the Continent. 

The use of Chemical agents, called anti- 
septics, in food preservation, has been attempted 



in various ways, but with partial saocess, the 
agents employed giving more or leas in implet- 
sant flavour to the substance to which they have 
been applied. Foremost among these agents ii 
common salt, which has been used from the 
earliest times ; but it tends, to a great extent^ 
to extract the soluble constituents of meat, de- 
priving it of its stimulating and nntritiinu 
elements, and rendering it haid and indigestiUe. 
The constant use, too, of salted meat bae moat 
injurious effects, as was shown by the pre?alfflee 
of scurvy in our Royal and'Mercantile maTia^ 
before fresh-preserved meat and precerred 
vegetables were supplied to them. Other salhie 
substances, such as saltpetre, acetate of am- 
monia, sulphite of potash, or soda, moriate of 
ammonia, Ac, have also been employed aa pre- 
servative agents, but by no means succeaafally, 
though several patents have been taken oot for 
their use. Moreover, bisulphate of lime, sul- 
phurous acid gas, and dilute sulphuric add, ha?e 
been employed in various ways towards brmging 
about the desired end ; but notwithstanding oar 
advanced state of chemical knowledge, it cannot 
be said that the use of chemicals has given ne a 
freslrmeat, that is in an uncooked state, acceptable 
to the taste. A learned professor has made ex- 
periments in subjecting animals to a chemical 
process, even before death, with a view to the 
after-preservation of their flesh. They an 
caused to inhale carbolic oxide gas, wbidi 
renders them insensible in about two minota, 
when they are killed, and their carcases hong is 
a chamber full of carbolic oxide and boxee cm- 
taining charcoal charged with sulpbnroas acid. 
Those who, like Dr. Johnson, often *" take a 
walk in Fleet-street," may have noticed fwa 
time to time, hung at the entrance of a well- 
known shop, the carcass of a pig, labelled "* A 
Perfect Cure." The cure has beenundonbtedly 
" perfect," and caused either by the inhalatioD 
before, or injection of some chemical at the tin^, 
the animal has been ** stuck," which has be« 
powerful enough to permeate the entire ftimCf 
so that the bones, hoofs, and hair have bed 
impregnated with it. But the result of the pro- 
cess has in reality been too perfect, tbechemi^s 
being decidedly traceable in the taste of t^ 
flesh so cured. Of meat preserved by antiiepo** 
we do not notice any samples in the £xhibiti*}&i 
and it is doubtful whether, by the use of chemi- 
cals alone, the object in view can ever be aaQ5- 
factorily attained. 

We now come to the fourth procew of preset- 
ing mentioned, namely, by the expulsion of atmo- 
spheric air. This is effected by the appbcatwi 
of Beat to the substances to be pres^ved whfs 
placed in tins or other receptacles. Without 
entering into a scientific controversy as to whethff 
the true theory of this process of preserratiwi 
by applied heat 'may not be that the "microscopie 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOOIBiTT OF ARTS, July 18, 1873. 



691 



germs/' which are alleged to cause putrefaction, 
are deetroyed, we ebaU take it for granted that 
the oxygen gas is entirely expelled by the. heat, 
not only from the receptacle in which the sub- 
stance has been placed, but from the substance 
itself* That this is the case may be deduced 
from the fact that the tins containing the pre- 
serred food show a ooncaTe depression on top 
and bottom, and some even '* collapsed" sides — 
an eTidence that a perfect vacuum has been 
obtained, as is also the audible rush of external 
air into the tins, when the opening knife is first 
inierted. The breakages also of earthenware 
and glass jars, the former of which were once 
ext^vely used in this process, tend to estab- 
M the same conclusion. But, however this may 
be, it really matters not. It is certain that the 
preservation of both animal and vegetable sub- 
stances in a cooked state by this method is per- 
fect^ the only objection to the process being that 
in the majority of instances an over-cookmg of 
the substances seems unavoidable. The process 
may be thus briefly described. The meat, fish, 
poultry, or vegetables are put into tins of various 
sizes, and then placed in '' baths/' which are 
raised to a temperature considerably above tbat 
of boiling water by the addition of chloride of 
caldom, a small orifice being left in the lids for 
tbe escape of steam ; or hermetically sealed, they 
ire entirely immersed in the baths, being let 
down into them on iron frames or ** gridirons," 
liy means of cranes ; while in some cases only salt 
is added to the water, and in others steam-ovens 
lie used. But the object and result are the 
same. In the chloride of calcium baths, where 
die tnn are not immersed, the small ''pin-holes" 
Be soldered up when the cooking is completed ; 
but when they are entirely immersed, they are 
drawn out of the baths once, twice, or even 
three times, according to the size of the tins 
lid the nature of the substance to be preserved, 
md the small apertures in the lids, which have 
^ previously made, but soldered over, are 
opened by touching the spot with a hot-iron, and, 
Aet tbe steam has escaped, and before the ex- 
ternal air can re-enter, again closed. Thus, 
though there are various modifications of the 
process, which takes from one to three hours for 
its compledon, it is substantially the same in all 
ssses, and is known by the name in this country of 
the '' Aberdeen process," though to M. Appert, 
»f Paris, must be attributed the credit of having 
really esUblished it, in 1810. 

We now proceed briefly to direct attention to 
Ebose firms who have sent samples of thmr pre- 
wrred provisions to the present Exhibition, 
irkere they are displayed in the Western Arcade. 
^ might have been expected, from the fact that 
^U)erdeen has been the centre of the food-pre- 
(erving trade for many years past, the Scotch 
preservers make the greatest show. Toenumerate 



the various articles which are displayed in the 
dififerent cases, and on the side stands, would fill 
a volume, there being hardly any form of fish, 
flesh, fowl, and vegetables which is not shown, 
or at least the tins which enclose them. The 
trade lists of any. of the great preserving houses 
would give the best idea of the extent to which 
this branch of trade has been carried, and of the 
numerous forms of preserved food which are so 
plentifully used by Uiose who ** go down to the 
sea in ships," by travellers on land, sportsmen, 
and by others who have not a ready access to 
shops, and which, we may add, might be used to 
much greater advantage than is now the case by 
those who have. 

The most conspicuous display of preserved 
food in the West Quadrant is that of Messrs. 
Moir and Son, of Aberdeen, which city has 
for many years past been the head-quarters 
of the food-preserving trade, owing mainly to the 
fact that the best beef and mutton in the world, 
as well as large quantities of fish, can be obtained 
there at the cheapest rates. Having recently 
paid a visit to their establishment, and spent some 
hours in inspecting every branch of manufacture 
there carried out, we can testify that only the 
best articles are employed for the purpose, and 
the utmost care and cleanliness observed in their 
manipulation. The firm was established as long 
ago as 1822, directing its attention at first chiefly 
to the preservation of salmon for the foreign 
market, but soon after adding other kinds of fbh, 
meat, poultry, soups, and vegetables, as well as 
fruit preserves, and a variety of potted meats, 
which at the present time cannot be exceeded for 
excellence. As a proof of this, it may be men- 
tioned that Messrs. Moir*s goods have for some 
time commanded a higher price in the markets 
than those of any other house. The establish- 
ment in Virginia-street, Aberdeen, covers a 
large are& of ground, and employs nearly 250 
hands. The quantity of meat preserved has 
reached as much as two millions and a-half 
pounds in a year, but recently, on account of the 
g^reat increase in its price, more attention has 
been paid to the preservation of fish, poultry, 
and game. To give some idea of the enormous 
trade done by this house, it may be mentioned that 
during last year no less than four millions and 
a-half pounds weight of provisions were put up 
in tins ; and for the present fishing season Messrs. 
Moir have already orders for 400,000 1-lb. tins 
of herrings idone. We are glad to find that this 
firm has recently opened a branch establish- 
ment in Oommeroial-street, Whiteohapel, and 
that their goods will shortly be seen in a very 
large number of grocers' shops in the Metro- 
polis and its suburbs. If housekeepers would 
take the trouble to make themselves acquainted 
with the contents of their tins, especially 
those of yarioufl sonps^ they would find 



G92 



JOURNAL OF THK 800IBTT Oi* ARTB, Jolt 18, IBTS 



that dioir ck«*pii6ts would tml mitwPiiBy to 
lowor their bootelM^d oKpMsts, to eaf notfaiig 
of their intrmsic exceUoace, wmd tkm eonv^Bimoe 
of being wkle to pnt a dinner of aevaml oowei 
on table «t a km mmalwe* witioe« it ii Terj 
seldom, indeed, tiiat the content! of any of tiioae 
tine are found bad, thougk this nuify eomodmee 
happen through the tin haTing become damaged 
by some accident, and oonseqnendy the cinsos- 
pherio air haring found entrance. As a rale, 
they remain perfectly eowid and sweet as long 
as the tins remain air-tight When at Aberdeen, 
we saw opened a tin of iieef which had been |MSt 
up during the Crimean war, and its oontents were 
as sound as when they were first phoed in it ; 
and in Messrs. Uoir's eteod in the Exhibition, 
whid^ by the way, is one «€ the handoomest in 
the whole bnildiDg, may be noticed a 8 lb. tin 
of soup and bouilH put up in the year 1B;M, and 
a 61K tin of beef booilli eentto Ae French araiy 
in the Crimea, and re-purehaeed after the war. 
Messrs. Hogarth, of Aberdeen, exhibit specimens 
of food preserred in glass jara,tnduding fingiidi 
and Austnslisn beef and mutton, a large Tariety of 
fish, eoups, made dishes, and Tegetables, Uius 
enabKng us to eee how such preeemed food 
would really look if the tin pbitea wme m 
transparent m glass. Many persona haven pre- 
judice against pres er ved food in tins, and decline 
purchasing it en the ground thi^ it is not good 
policy to '' buy a pig in a poke.*' Messrs. Hogarth 
enable such persons to see the pigs in the poice^ 
and their ly pearanee wsll p r e ha M y do much 
towards overcoming a foolish pnejndiee. Memrs. 
Whitehead exhibit their Awshralwn mealis, in 
which they have recently -effsoted an improue* 
ment by preserving the ivt in a moee natural 
state than is usually the csas, the ordinary pro- 
^eess of preservation tending to nadnee it almost 
to dripping. On their stand wfli be seen the 
solid soup squares abeady mentioned, eakee of 
dried and compressed vegetables, and a sMat 
excellent solid essence of beef. The Rsmomie 
Company (ifOrutched Friars, the &rst public oom* 
panyeatabtished in London for the sale of AuatM- 
lian preserved meat,havealarge display ; and it is 
not too much to say, tiiat from their fisat esta« 
blishment, up to the present time, the sniformly 
good quality of their meat has given them a 
position in the market to which they nte fiurly 
entitled. Their Australian mock-iurtle, ooctail, 
and kidney soups are meat exeellent, m aee also 
dke OK-^ttgues and palsies, mmp^eteaks, miaeed 
beef, and beef «tew, aU «f whteh mtm nam very 
largely oeneumed* Paosing-enesesteard, along the 
soathern side of the (tnadrant, we oome to ihe 
varied displsy of Messiu. J. M'Obdl and €f^ 
l-'7, HemMbditeh, agenU to the Metibouene 
«>d other meat-preservmg oMupsmm, 
goods they Mhibit, as well sw ^eome heu 
Uragnsy; Wi Aotioemi^this4rtMMl PT^g 




tssl sonp, Kangaroo and bacon, and Ki&guoo 
i-^mode ; and we would strongly rsoosusetti 
aU, who Hke Jenmas de la Pksh,are wesrisdof 
ths aha&gas nmg on beef and msttea tad pork, 
and long for some ** new haawnal to hs iaveBted," 
to try diia maesupiaL We mske hold to aty 
that those who will expenmentalise oi it vS 
not be disappuinted, unless they allow tbdr 
fianeies and pecyndiom to get tk« boUsr of 
their palatea. Messrs. M'Oall aad Co., being 
also p re se r v er s of meat, fish, poaiury, touft, mi 
vegetables, after the " Aberdeen iirscoii," albov 
a variety i*f their gooda« amoag which we sotioi 
tnr^^eonp in tins, which oonirssts Tonr hfoor- 
ably as regards priee with that sold 1^ oaihC' 
tioners and the large London dianer-piovidiBg 
films. Theqnality is excellent, sosMbcuM^nade 
firom the live turtle brought to this ooostry uA 
soBse from the fiesh of the turtlm killedMiMS 
as caught and dried in the sun. Btripi of t^ 
are exhihtted, having somewhat ths sfpaintoi 
and consistency of thin cakes of giae, tbow 
taken firom the back of the turtle beisg tke 
ealipaeh, thoae from the belly the estipoe, vUek 
is of a somewhat lirhier oolour. Tbey nqwft 
eoaking in water te two or thmedi^ b«far« t^ 

can be made into aonp ; the preeeit of drriDg 
and saairing, however, taking frons theaiwi^ 
of their md nutrimeet or isvosr. W^ 
leaving this sImKi, the ^ ting " dishoB, iavoitcd 
and patented by Mr. John M'Gaa. aboski W 
noticed. They aee made of eartheimt, td 
of two aiaes, whioh eaaotlf reaaive eitker ivocr 
or four pounds of meat, as turned out frm tW 
tina. Thtk ofcyeot U to keq> the sett to- 
gether, and nmdsr it mofo easy of beisf: e«rv«i 
into tUn alieea, the nn$f b«ng NmovsUe m 
after another aa tke aaeai is out doam to thm. 
Theee dishes are very ingeniens. sad »ini- 
rahly aerve the purpme for which they tie 
intended. We nasi oeme to Beaacli(^<l- 
bovme) meais, and those «f ths Bitot 
Meat Preserving Oonpanv, whom s^ests m 
Mmsrs. Kaltenbaeh and Schmits, of 1, AU<^ 
Bwn's^alk, Bsshopsgatcu la a ^jUmt^ ^ 
tkemselves are tins containing eorriid k^i 
put up by Mr. J. Halfaid. of 12, l^]^' 
street, Martin's«lane, once eke/ to s for*' 
GbvenuNbgenerel of India* and, therofore, It^^l 
to be wttU aoquainted with all the mystflflci^ 
curry preparations. Mr* Halyard has m^J 
tamed his knowledge to acoonot, havisg \f^ 
duced oAe of the best forms of |9rsssfTod tod 
whidi havie as yet oome under oar nodoa ^^ 
eeiwing, as he 4lees, the bmk haihs (ao eii^ 
to a perfisct curry ) in tin cases hsnaeticsUy a^ 

fmm India, he is enabled to prodseo i c^ 
which the moot faetidious Angle-IodiiBi nu^ 
psenmmwi perfect; and to snd«eue iti g^sdo^ 
it SB only neosaeary to add that Mesus. ^"'^. 
and. Jimim and Maism* Orasm and BkA9^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETT OF ARTS, July 18, 1873. 



693 



ave it already on their lifits of goods. Moreover, 
3 a tin containing a single fowl can be bought 
>r -is. 6d., and two fowls for 7s. 6d., the price of 
[lis form of food contrasts favourably with those 
f ordinary fowls obtained from a poulterer's, 
'he contents of these tins can be warmed in ten 
unuteSy and, with the addition of rice, are then 
eady for the table. The display of Messrs. 
Kllon, of Leith (whose agent is Mr. House, 76, 
linories), comes next, and consists of a variety 
f samples of preserved provisions similar to 
boae shown by Messrs. Moir and Co., and 
rlessrs. Marshall, another large preserving firm 
t Aberdeen. Messrs. Gillons* establishment we 
Iso visited when in Scotland, for the express 
^arpoee of investigating this particular branch of 
nanufacture. It has been in existence since 1817, 
ind now employs 150 hands ; and we can in this 
'.ase also bear witness to the excellence of the 
''arioua articles used for preservation, and to the 
xtreme cleanliness with which all the processes 
^e conducted. The essence of beef produced 
>y Messrs. Gillon has gained for it a well* 
leserved reputation, being not only a stimulant, 
¥hich is the chief feature of the late Baron 
L»iebig's production, but a powerful nutriment 
it id, as Professor Christison has testified, ** much 
n the same category as beef-tea ;'* and he adds, 
* BO good beef-tea can be made so cheaply as with 
Ilia meat-juice, a tin of four ounces making 
(ixteen of strong beef-tea." The mutton and 
*,bicken juices, prepared after the same process 
>v this firm, are invaluable in cases of serious 
tlnesB and convalescence, and can be advan* 
Ageously used in the preparation of soups and 
>roths. Like other Scotch firms, Messrs. Gillon 
>at up a variety of national dishes, such as 
Scotch broth, cocky-leekie, hotch-potch, sheep's 
lead and trotters, and haggis, which are sent 
Tom Leith to all parts of the world, so that 
Scotchmen in all climes can be gastronomically 
-eminded of the culinary delicacies of their 
lative land ; and Englishmen, too, perhaps for 
Lhe first time in their lives, make acquaintance 
pvith Caledonian luxuries. Of Messrs. Gillon's 
irm we may add, without wishing to cast any 
reflection on others, that it has for years enjoyed 
Jie good name of always giving full weight and 
measure. Returning along the north side of 
\he quadrant we come to the array of white- 
painted and blue -labelled tins of the Food Pre* 
lerving Company (late Forbes and Co.), of 
Aberdeen, and 99, Houndsditch, who put up 
moat of their goods by Jones' Patent Process. 
The feature of this method is the application of 
tubes to each tin when in the bath, whereby 
tbey are connected with a vacuum, the tubes 
naeeting at a tap close to the vacuum chamber. 
By turning the tap once, twice, or thrice during 
the time the tins Are in the bath the air is drawn 
^mm them, and thus the duration of the tin^e of 



cooking is diminished, and consequently, to a 
great extent, the over-cooking of the article to 
be preserved is avoided. This process has more 
than once been discussed before the Society of 
Arts, which has expressed a very favourable 
opinion of it ; and certainly the results obtained 
seem considerably in advance of the ordinary 
processes, the meat, fish, and poultry being firmer 
and more like ordinary cooked articles— the fisk 
especially turning out very dry after it has been 
years in the tins, which is not the case when it 
has undergone the usual " Aberdeen process.'* 
Some months ago we were shown samples of Aus- 
tralian meat preserved at the Queensland Com- 
pany's manufactory by the use of this patent, and 
it certainly struck us as superior to any we had 
before tasted. Mr. P. Forbes, whose services have 
been retained as manager to the Food Preserving 
Company, went out to the River Plate last 
November, taking with him a small plant and 
some old Aberdeen hands, to thoroughlv test 
the process on cheap foreign beef. From letters 
received, he seems most sanguine as to the 
result, and a consignment of the meat he has 
put up is already on its way to this country,, 
samples of which will be added, on their arrival, 
to the display on the company's stand in the 
Exhibition. We notice that Mr. Anthony 
TroUope, in his recent work, recounting his 
experiences in Australia, mentions having had 
some beef set before him preserved by Jones' 
patent, and of it he says :—*^ What may be the 
specialities of Jones' patent I did not learn, but 
aa to that special joint, I protest that I never 
ate better cold roast beef in my life. It was 
not overcooked, and, judging from its colour, 
appearance, and flavour, it might have been 
cooked and put into the larder on the previous 
day." We witnessed the working of this pro- 
cess during our visit to Aberdeen, and can fully 
certify that it draws no nutriment, as has been 
alleged, from the subsUnce in progress of pre- 
servation, the condensed liquid, which came from 
the vacuums when the process was complete, not 
having the least perceptible taste either of the 
beef or fowls which we saw subjected to the oper- 
ation of this patent. A model of the apparatus 
used is exhibited in the eastern quadrant. 
Passing by the stand on which M. Chauffourier, 
of SackviUe Street, exhibits some of the best 
brands of sardines, pat6s, and terrines de foies 
gras, and other preserved delicacies, we come to 
a display of various preserved forms of that 
delicious little fish, the anchovy, sent by Mrs. 0. 
C. Myhrvold, 9, Kirkegadon, Christiania, Norway, 
who also exhibiU Scandinavian butter. H. 0. 
Bergstrom, of Lysekil, Sweden, contributes to 
the Exhibition in a similar manner; and both vie, 
in the excellence of their articles, with John 
Burgess and Son, of 107, Strand, of ahnost 
world-wide fame, who also have an interesting 



694 



JOUBNAL OF THB SOCIETY OF ABT8, July 18, 187S. 



^play of mnehoviee presenrod in a ymmty 
of ways, an oaken tab with a glaaa 
bottom sbowing silverj towb of tbii 
appetieing fish in an appetiaing Scmn, being a 
conBpicnooB object. Tbe next attraction are the 
bright red tme of Mr. D. Tallerman (1L3, 
Cannon-street, Anstralian Meat Ageaey). to 
whom the credit mnit be given of handng been 
most energetic in bringing the daims of Ana- 
traHan preserred meats before the Knglish public, 
and of haying in various ways Tenkoved tlie 
prejudice agdnst them. He exhibJIs the goods 
of the Adelaide Meat Preserving Company, of 
which he is the agent, as also thoae of other 
companies, the specially guaranteed meats being 
branded with the label of the Auatralian Meat 
Agency. A specialty exhibited by Mr. Taller- 
man is spring lamb, witi& the bone m it, the 
great excellence of which we ean vouch for; 
but, notwithstanding the delicacy of this article, 
we should almost be sorry for it to become very 
popular, as it might lead to an undue slaughter 
of Iambs in the colonies, and tend to bring about 
a scarcity of muttim, even though Australian 
flocks seem inexhausttUe. There can be no 
doubt but that tbe demand for lamb and veal in 
this country has had not a Mttle to do with the 
increased price of beef and mutton. But Mr. 
Tallerman's enterprise has led hiai not only to 
be content with an exhibition of i^e preserved 
meats in tins; he is also at a considerable 
expense, in the wesfem part of the building, daily 
exhibiting the process of meat preserving by the 
use of the chloride of calcium bath, a succes- 
sion of tins being filled, pkeed in the bath, 
soldered up, and labelled during the day. The 
gentleman who superintends the managooeiit of 
this work for Mr. Tallerman is well versed in 
all the dififerent processes of preservation, and is 
always happy to give M the information in his 
power concerning them to those really interested 
in the subject. In the centre of (he Western 
Quadrant will be noticed a case containing 
samples of Tooth's (Sydney) liebig's extract ^ 
meat, now used in almost all Ekiglish households ; 
and another of fluid meat, exhibited by Messrs. 
Darby and Gosden, of ^eadenhaU-street, which 
is, we believe, meat partially and artificially 
digested by pepsine ; and, being thus *' eating 
made easy," is recommended by many eminent 
medical men for invalids with weak digestion. 

Condensed milk has of late become a very im- 
portant article of preserved food, and is now 
largely manufactured for the Bnglkh market by 
the English Condensed Milk Ca, 96, Leadenhall- 
atreet, and by the Anglo-Swiss Co., both of whom 
exhibit their goods. Samples also are exhibited 
bjr Mr. J. Hooker, of West Horsley, Surrey. 
The difficulty of obtaining pure milk in London 
^d other lai^ towns, and ev«n in country dis- 

"^* ^-^ led to a large eoaaumptiOQ of this 



article, which ia obtained by eva^otatii^ tk 
greater part of the watar, whagk eoaedtuta 
about 80 parts in 100 in natnxal lulk, i&d }pf 
the addition of sugar, in order to pieaem it 
We have seen the process from hsginning to e&d, 
as carried on at the En^^ish OoBpay'i woih 
at Aylesbary^ and miere rece&dy it to 
newly-ereeted manufactory at Middlevick, is 
Gheshire,which we visited a fswweeb ago. The 
milk ia leoetved from the fiuiaan euly i& the 
morning, and, bong plaoed in large, opea netil 
cylindi^, is first subjected to a hot bid, ito 
the manner of tina of meat in the pi«Bvmg|ii>- 
cees, though not at so high a texnpentsre. It 
is then emptied into laige fiuuieU^ad vate, 
whence it ia drawn up through a inpe k tk 
centre into the condnmsing-paai. Tbe ngat 
having baen mixed with it, it rsmiiM is ikm 
pans, subject to a somewhat low hett, for tvo or 
three hours, while tite evapoiatioa «f tk viiUt 
ia taking place and the milk graduUyeQadeoaBg. 
When it has aesumed tiia oonsistency of li^ 
honey, it ia received again into the open ^bades, 
and is then subjected to a cold bath, iftor vUdi 
it ia run into the tina and hemeticillj seiiei 
The foocess, in one sense, is simple eaoogb, bol 
it requires the greatest nicety during tbe whole 
operation, and a moist carefol regnkdos of tbe 
temperature. The company, by i vazi«ty of 
tests, insures the delivery firom the taken d 
sound and genuine milk ; andtheartideprodiiofii 
is, therefore, genuine milk, miniis a Isigt qQin% 
of water, |>&i« a little augar. Tbat it ii 
nulk, with a large proportion of water evapoi 
has he&k proved by the most soieBtific 
the casetae, butturoua, and o&er solid sod 
tive Bubstaaeaa remaining intact ia tbeir 
fi>rm* This can be further demoastrtted bj 
mg to the condensed milk the eqoivaleat of 
original watw, say three parts water to m 
the condensed milk, and leaving it toitesdn 
ordinary milk-dish, whan it will raise its 
in very nearly the usual proportioo, tboogb 
action \b aomewhat impieded by tbe pRtence 
the Bugar^ It will also ohnm into batter 
raised to a temperature of about 60 degreci. 
excellence as an article of food is sdll mm 
tically demonstrated by the fact that in&att 
from their birth, be supported for mioyn^^ 
upon it, witiMKit the addition of any otWr H 
of food ; and its uniformity gives it aiilvtt^ 
even over natunil cow*a milk. Thepndn* 
of the English and Anglo-Swiss cotti 
are suhataaiially the same, their oil: 
giving nearly the same result A pspcr a 
subject of eondensed milk was rseentiy 
before the Society of Arts, by Mr. L. P. M 
the manager Iot this English Oompsoy 
reported, with the discuasion whic^ folM 
m the Saciaty^s Joumtd. The £b^ C 
pany ako eachihk ihetr oocoa, ehooolstie, 



JOXXRNAL OF THE SCXSBTT OF ABTd, July 18, 1878. 



695 



coffee combined with the oondeneed milk, all 
of which articles have secured a large coneump- 
tion, and are admitted to be most wholesome and 
pleasant beverages. The case in which these 
articles are exhibited is a handsome hexaj^onal 
stmctnre, standing on the right-hand side of 
the Western Qnadrant, after passing the entrauoe 
to the Albert Hall. 

We have now enumerated the chief articles 
of preserved food shown in the Exhibition. If 
tlie names of any firms and compames which 
ought to have been mentioned, have been 
omitted, it must be attributed to madvertence, 
and not to an intention to withhold their due 
from any. The public will remember that all 
who have exhibited have done so only with the 
sanction of the Food Committee, acting as the 
advisers of the Royal GommiBsioners ; and thus, 
the mere fact of exhibiting is a tebtimony to 
some special and aSbertained exeellence in the 
goods of the exhibitors. 

It IS greatly to be regretted that, owing to diffi- 
eohiea with the refreshment contractors, no articles 
of food, with a few exceptions, can at present be 
tasted by visitors to the Exhibition. We will 
hope that, before it doses, some satisfactory 
arrangements may be made, whereby exhibitors 
may be allowed either to give away or sell their 
goods, for tasting in the buildings. Unlike 
almost all other objects of exhibition, food, 
especially in the form here displayed, does not 
appeal to the eye. For all that visitors can 
kiow, the piles of tin cases and jars may be 
only dummies. The Committee on Food are 
the only persons cognisant of their contents, and 
othera nmst take them on trust. A Food Ebc- 
hibidon can only be really interesting when the 
public can taste samples of the exhibits. At 
wine has been deferred until next year for exhi- 
bition, when the Royal Commissioners will 
make arrangements, on a large scale, for the 
public to taste it, the contract with Messrs. Spiers 
and Pond coming to an end this year, we would 
endorse the suggestion that the whole subject 
of food should be re-opened on the same prin- 
ciple. Many firms have declined to exhibit 
food on the present occasion, simply because the 
public were to have no facilities for tasting. 
The only wonder is that the Food Section is as 
intereating as it is ; and for this we have mainly 
to thank the Deputy -Commissioner, Mr. E. J. 
Craigie, through whose exertions, aaeisted by 
&e > ood Committee, the display has been got 
together, and to whom, as Secretary to the 
School of Cookery, the Exhibition is chiefly in- 
debted for the organisation of one of its most 
intereating and justly popular departments. 

bince Uie above remarks were in type the 
Baaaittn annexe haa been opened, and we find in 
it several interesting articles which come under 
the heading of Preserved Pood. There are dry 



tablets of meat and game prepared by Wladislas 
lilecskowski, the well-known provision mer* 
chant of Wdogda, which^ for the excellent 
flavour of the soup to be made from them, and 
for their cheapnesa, are Hkely to attract attention 
in the trade. Kittarg's packets of dried vege- 
tablesy composed chiefly of potatoes and mush« 
roooM, are also very cheap, and most useful in 
the preparation of soups. Dried mushrooms on 
8triiigs,after the fashion of American dried apples, 
strike us as a novel, as well as an acceptable 
article. The best range in price from Is. 4d. per lb. 
upwaords, while a kind which grows under the 
birch trees in forests can be sold as low as 4d. to 
Hd. Dried green peas are also to us a novel form 
of dried vegetables, and seem very cheap. Both 
these vegetables require to be soaked in water 
before using. The mushrooms can then be used 
in soups or stewed, or eaten, as is generally the 
case in Russia, with vinegar, before dinner, to 
give an appetite, aa we (at least those of us who 
can afford them) eat oysters. A small fish, of the 
whitebait species, in a dried form, as also a coarser 
kind of fish, are exhibited ,* they may be used in 
soup, as in Russia, or simply warmed before the 
fire, when they make an excellent breakfast relish ; 
and eaten cold they are very appetising. They 
remind us of the Newfoundland caplins in 
flavour, though much more delicate. Russia 
also sends us some specimens of cheese, 
very like the best Dutch product. Among 
other articles which are exhibited in thia 
annexe, as " Substances used as Food," may be 
mentioned confectionery and a variety of cakes, 
as well as wines and liqueurs. Into them, how- 
ever, we cannot now enter, as foreign to the 
present report. We would, however, suggest 
to those interested in wines to make acquaint- 
ance with the cheaper kinds grown in the 
Crimea. Altogether the samples of food shown 
in the Russian Annexe are well worth attention ; 
and we may mention that the Russian Com- 
missioner, M. Theodor de Lvoff, who is an 
excellent French scholar, is happy to give all 
required information concerning them. 

In the Victorian Annexe there has also lately 
been displayed a variety of tinned meats and 
other preserved foods from Australia, including 
jams, cheese, hams and bacon, which are likely, 
eventually, to compete with similar articles pro- 
duced in this country, or at least to supplement 
our home supplies. But the most important matter 
connected with the preservation of Australian 
meats is the experiment of preserving fresh un- 
cooked meat in an ice -room, which seems to 
have been a complete success in the Victorian 
Exhibition at Melbourne, in 1872-73. Mr. G. 
Collins Levy, the oommisskmer for Victoria at 
the International Exhibition, has kindly com- 
municated to U8 much interesting information 
on the subject, which is now fully explained in 



696 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jul 



an ftble essay by Dr. John Bleasdale, wbo bas 
taken up tbe subjest, not only as an entbusiast 
bat as a scientific and practical man. We do 
not now propose to enter into it, as a vessel is 
on her voyage to England with an ice -room 
fitted up on board, in accordance with Mr. 
Harrison's plans, and in charge of that gentleman. 
It contains 100 tons of meat, and there is every 
reason to believe that we shall in the autumn 
have delivered in London joints of beef and 
mutton as fresh as they were when placed in 
the ice-room, and which will keep as long 
before consumption, even longer, than ordinary 
butchers* meat. 



The Dumber of visitors admitted to the Exhibition on 
Thursday, July 10th, was as follows: — Season tickets, 
133; on payment of Is., 2,767 ; total, 2,890. On Frid'iy, 
season tickets, 130; on payment of Is., 2,822; total, 
2,952. On S;iturday, season tickets, 973 ; on payment 
of Is., 3,983 ; total, 4,956. 

The number of yiritors admitted to the Exhibition 
during the week ending Saturday, July 12th, was as 
follows : — Season tickets, 1,736 ; on payment of 2s. 6d., 
1,254 ; on payment of Is., 14,881 ; total, 17,871. 

The number admitted on Monday was, season tickets, 
123 ; on payment of Is., 2,699 ; total, 2,822. On Tues- 
day, season tickets, 129 ; on payment of Is., 2,448 ; 
total, 2,577. On Wednesday, season tickets, 199 ; on 
payment of 28. 6d., 945; total, 1,145. 



EZHIBITIOSS. 



Vienna Exhibition.— The French Commission has at 
length issued its catalogue, printed at the Imperial 
Press of Vienna. That of the Fine Arts section con- 
tains 1,560 entries, of which 828 are of pictures and 
drawings. 

PhUadelphia Exhibition.— At PhUadelphia, on Thurs- 
day, the 3rd inst, the President's proclamation, an- 
nouncing that an InternationiU Exhibition would be 
h(4d in that city in 1876, was publicly read. The 
President commends the Exhibition to sdl nations in 
the interests of peace, civilisation, and international 
friendship. 

Victoria Exhibition.— The Government of Victoria 
has published, for circulation in the colonies and in 
Great Britain, an official record of the Exhibition of 
1872, containing an introduction, reports, and recom- 
mendations of the experts, official awards of the com- 
missioners, and essays and statistics on the social and 
economic resources of that colony. 

Bradford Art Treasures and Indnitrial Exhibition. 

— This exhibition was opened on Wednesday last, July 
16th, by the Mayor of Bradford, in the Theatre of the 
New Mechanics* Institute. The primary object of the 
exhibition is to effect the reduction of a debt of £5,000 
upon the new building. The exhibition consists of a 
large collection of oil paintings, water-colour drawings, 
ongravings, statuary, armour, machinery, &c. 




The English engineers engaged on the Persian 
Railway proiect have completed tbe survey of the first fifty 
mUes, vi«., from Teheran to Kasvin, of the proposed line of 
railway from Teheran to Reaht, on the Caspian. Part of 
toS^T J^ '<" ^^^^ to commtnoe surreying thenoe 



TESTIMONIAL TO MR, HENRY COLE, OR 

On Friday last, July 11, a meeting wu beU it 
Willis*8*T0oms, for the purpose of promoting t M* 
monial to Mr. EL Cole on his retirement from waater 
tion with the Science and Art Department of tbi 
Privy Council, " in recognition of his usefal, enagetif; 
and varied labours.'* Amongst those present vcn fti 
Marquis of Westminster (in the chair). Lord Onsri]]^ 
the Duke of Sutherland, Lord Houghton, Lord Covlef, 
the Duke of St. Albans. Lord £1(^, H.P^ Sir Stal^ 
ford Northcote, M.P. ; Major Beaumont, M. P.; SirJdbo 
Pakington, M.P. ; Lord Clarence Paget, Mr. E Bwiei, 
M.P. ; Sir Richard Wallace, M.P. ; Sir Titai Sdt, Mt 
J. W. Henley, M.P. ; Mr. Beresford Hope, M.P. : Lori 
Henry Lennox, M.P. ; Mr. Munddla. M-P.; 8irDtf*x 
Wyatt, Sir Joseph Whitworth, Mr. J. E. Milliis,Mr. 
H. Edwards, M.P.; Mr. D. Chadwick, MP.: Mr. 
Bowring, MP. ; Sir GUbort Scott, Mr. E. J. Reed. Mr. 
J. C. Macdonald, Mr. F. Leighton, Mr. P. le X«w 
Foster, &c. 

After some preliminary remarks by tbe QuinniiL 
who dwelt on the ability and energy which Mr. Cob bU 
devoted to the service of the countrv. Lord Hoiigiitai 
moved, and Lord Granville seceded the foUoviiif »• 
solution: — "That it is desirable, on the retirwantof 
Mr. H. Cole, C.B., from the direction of the 8oathI«» 
ington Museum, to recog^se in some perm«j«t fiw 
his irreat services to the public" A committee i« 



. great services to the public' 
then appointed, and a subecription-list opened. ^Befcn 
the meeting adjourned a sum of upwtrdi of X700 ni 
collected. 



THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

A recent issue of the Moniteur Bdgt contMOi 'J^j 
from M. Salvador Morhonge, the Belgian Coninl-G*** 
at San Francisco, which gives the fcdlowini? int«*< 
particulars relating to the Sandwich IsUnds:— 

The group, consisting of eleven islandi, ii V^ ™J 
from San Francisco; 4,800 from Panama; 3,400 M 
Japan ; and a somewhat greater distance from Aa3tnia| 

In the largest island of the group, namely fltv&a> "J 
the two celebrated living volcanoes of Mawu ^'■J 
Kilauea. the former having an altitadeof 13,763 Eagwj 
feet The circumference of the crater messorei iboii 
English miles, and the depth of the crater 'SH 
The crater of Kilauea, on the side of Mauns ^^^ 
about 4,000 feet above the sea level, has a dnnsffl 
of nearly nine miles, and a depth of 1,083 feet 

On the island of Maui is the largest crater whia 
in the world ; the volcano, however, has been a 
from time immemorial. The crater is litoated «■■ 
top of Mount Haleakala, or house of the ron, ow*^ 
10,000 feet above the sea level; itscircamfawnrtii 
mated to exceed twenty miles, and the interior or 
is no less than 2 500 feet deep. There ii also i 
lofty mountain in the island of Hawaii, oearl; 1 
feet high, which, during the greater part of tkej*''* 
covered with snow, whence its name of ^™*.T*jf 
white mountain; other peaks rise to a oonw**" 
altitude. 

With the exception of the large coral reefr, w 
formation of the group of islands is volcanic * 
high regions the soil consists of decomposed bj*^^ 
the shores and in the valleys, of a mixture «*** 
earth, brought from the mountains by the ntft «* 
decomposed coral. ^ . 

Speaking generally, the climate is mild and niw 
the average mean temperature being 68* Fahr. I 
the night and in the early morning it is somcwaw 
enough to require a light woollen vestment 1° 
hot weather the heat is nearly alwav* ^' 
during the greater part of the day, by ih« 
winds blowing from the north-east '"^•J^ 
are most fr^uent in the island of Oahn, wha* 
capital, Honolula, ia situated. There if no 




JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, July 18, 1873. 



697 



& thtM kUodB; the principal diffiBrenoe between 
lie NSMns ia canted oy the fall of ihe tropical 
aioi, between the months of December and Miuroh. 
loBthedj and other winds predominate daring this 
mod. Still, however mnch the climate may be 
•laeiced for its salabrity, its effect upon foreigners not 
nlimatiMd to it is very debilitating, especially in 
nnuaer; and persons, other than the natires, who have 
laided there manjr years, feel the want of a change, and 
n compelled to visit either the United States or Europe 
ritb the object of renewing their strength. 
Ai regards the products of the sou, the bread-fruit 
ne, the mifar-cane, and a species of banana are coa- 
adtted to be indigenous. A large number of plants, 
ntBQstiiigtothe botanist, are to be found in the islands. 
Ml not 00 rich in variety, form, and colour as are met 
lift in Auitralia and Califomia. It is to the exotics 
bn both hemispheres that the fields and gardens on the 
iiMt owe their beauty. 1 he best vegetables are also those 
N foreign origin. Of alpine vegetation there is none in 
^isUndi ; the highest mountains are almost entirely 
wsded of all trace of vegetation. At an elevation of 
Wto 1,000 feet, the sides of the mountains are more or 
JMivooded, according to tiie aspect and predominance 
fl^wind; lower down, the trees and shrubs become 
fcitid, and finish by disappearing altogether. In the 
■Bm, which are well watered, the vegetation is luxu- 
Jb; foreign plants, however, are chiefly cultivated on 
lieoiAt. There are no wild animals or venomous reptiles 
tfttiilandi, consequently the explorer mav fearlessly 
•taie into the most remote recesses of the country. 
)i native quadrupeds only three have been discovered — 
ijdT, a dog, a rodent — ^between a mouse and a rat — 
Ma kind of pig of small size, with a long head and 
■Jrtitoaight ears. 

Birto are more numerous, but only in the interior. 
■ Vw eoast one seldom sees any but the owl, some 
pfci of water fowl, an indigenous goose, and wild 
m» Am anile the Hawaiian birds are neither distin- 
■W by beauty of song nor splendour of plumage. 

rlhs are, however, a few exceptions, such as the Dre- 
P^Jea^ whose feathers are of a bright violet blue, 
the DrtpttnU eoceinea, with yellow and scarlet 
mun. In former times the feathers of these birds 
MsqUv employed for adorning the state helmets and 
jitfMot the native chiefe. The Sandwich Islands are 
Py^ itt lleh thiin the other Pacific groups. The best 
pfcwere formerly monopolised by the chiefs, who had 

• preserved in numerous ponds, the inferior descrip- 
JJi alone being allowed to the population, who had, 
fljtfll have, a great predilection for certain kinds, 
•* thejr ^t raw. 

^« npd advance in<:ivilisation by the inhabitants of 
piBttU kingdom is very remarkable, more especially 
1^ contrasted with that of the inhabitants of many of 

• •fttr Polynesian groups. Consul-General Wode- 
P^ in his report for 1872, states that the official 
J^ol 1866 puts the total population of the group at 
IrWWfli, of whom 4,194 were foreigners — exclusive of 



^^ ^ are no mines or factories in the island. The 
•^•**>n of sugar continues to form the great staple of 
■pwntry, the total export of whi(^ amounted in 1871 
•jMTTSlbs. 

11»i total value of imports in 1871 was 1,626,884 dollars, 
ffe^rti 1,892,069 dollars, of which some 1,656,644 
Bireinresented domestic produce, including the pro- 
of the Hawaiian whale fisheries. The totol number 
i vpssels entered and cleared was 321, with a 
of 202,842 tons. The total British tonnage 
•ad cleared was 86 vessels, of 47,254 tons. The 
of passengers arrived at the port of Honolulu 
the year was 2,272, and the number departed 
9^_ passengers arrived in transit from Australia 
^wma, and 527 from Califomia to Australia. Hono- 
' ky^ ^f * lighthouse, which can be seen from a dis- 
of sine nautical miles ; a steamer wharf of 600 feet in 



len^h, which is rapidly approaching completion, whilst 
it IS stated that no port in the Pacific offers greater 
facilities for heaving down a large ship, as there is gene- 
rally on hand an abundance of maten&Ia for the repair 
of damaged ships, plenty of good ships* carpenters, and 
a foundry capable of supplying all the iron- work which 
might be required by a steamer or sailing vessel, at 
moderate prices. 

A new post-office was finished in 1871, and the comer 
stone for the new government offices and hall for the 
Legislative Assembly was laid in 1872. The erection of 
a new royal palace is also in contemplation ; in fact, 
the Hawaiian kingdom appears to be running a race 
with the Japanese empire ; and who can foretdl the in- 
fluence which the example of these two countries may 
have in the civilisation of the barbarous statee and islands 
in and upon the shores of the North and South Pacific 
oceans. 



THE INTERNATIONAL METRIC COMMISSION. 

In the report by Mr. Chisholm, the Warden of the 
Standards, it is stated that the ejects of the appoint- 
ment of the International Metric Commission, at Paris, 
are wholly and exclusively of a scientific character. 
They consist of the construction and verification, with 
all the best appliances of modem science, of new inter- 
national standards of the metre and kilogram ; together 
with a series of authoritative copies of these standards, 
uniform in construction and identical in value, for the 
use of the several countries who have adopted or con- 
template the adoption of the metric system ; thus estab- 
lishmg it anew upon a scientific basis, and affording the 
means of making it» by the common accord of all the 
countries, a ds facto system of international weights and 
measures. The proceedings were inaugurated and 
brought to completion in Paris, although they were for a 
time interrapted by the German war. The question of 
a permanent international metric establishment was 
raised by M. Hirsch, the delegate for Switzerland, and, 
after examination, was presented for the consideration 
of the Commission, and through the Commission for the 
consideration of the several governments interested. 
The proposals were to the effect that the International 
Metric Commission should become the central scientific 
organ of all metrological interests in countries where the 
metric systems are adopted, and should be composed of 
delegates frt>m the governments of those countries, who 
Uiould meet periodically to deliberate upon all questions of 
weights and measures which, from their nature, require 
an international solution. That a permanent body, con- 
sisting of five members, should be formed for the purpose 
of undertaking such researches and studies as nught be 
requisite for the due development of the metric system, 
as well as the duties of solving all metrological questions 
of an international character. That an institution should 
be established for the execution of all the metrological 
operations which that Commission may direct in the in- 
terest of the metric system, particularly the comparisons 
and verifications of the international standards, m order 
to guarantee the international character and the inde- 
pendence of the institution. Its director and the personal 
establishment are to be nominated by the Commission, 
and its expenses to be defrayed by contributions from 
all the countries interested, in proportion to the number 
of inhabitants. 

The members of the committee, representing countries 
other than France, were unanimously of opinion that, as 
the metric system orig^ated in France, and as every 
effort had been made in France to make it an interna- 
tional system, it was obvious that the institution ought 
to be placed at Paris, on the condition that its inter- 
national character should be guaranteed. The meeting 
of the Commission took place subsequently, on the 24th 
September, 1872, and was very fully attended. Meet- 
ings were held daily until the 12th October. The 
countries who t«ok part were 29, and their repxesenta- 



69d 



JOUINAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ABTS, Jtot 18, 1873, 



tiTes 'were 60 ia immbcr. The prineiple «dopied lor 
voting by Mitaon wm baaed ea tbe proportion to total 
pop«latioD, but bo oecaeion oocunred m wkioh Ihia mode 
of ▼oticDff was aetoally ealled lor dmiii^ the nieeioa 
of the OoBUMMOiL Certain iropcjiapt q i M it i oM iraie 
Babmitted, tome of which adauttad of immediate 
deoiaiony and othen of leaa import ware nlenred to ten 
aeparate committeea, each compoeed of tea Menhen of 
the Commiaaionf aelected aa bemg more pavtieolarly eo»- 
Tenaat with the ae^eral aobj^ta, aiul the rendt oi 
their deoinona are given at knglh by Mr« OMuilm, 
in hifl report upon the aabjeot to the Board of Tndak 



COLONIAL PROIHrCTS. 



From the Annual Report of the Boyal GUvdeni at 
Kew, for the paat year, we {Journal of Applied Scitnet) 
learn that the coltiTation of tea in OeyKm is aaocesa- 
foUy established, and the quality produced satisfactory. 
The dnohona oontinoee to flourish in the island, and the 
bark haa been pronounced of the best quality. The 
director of the Botanic Ghurdea there ia activdy pro- 
moting the oultlTatiom of ohocoUte, for which the oli- 
mate of the island ia adratrably aoited. The yield of 
oinohona in the Indian plantatioiia ia already Tary large, 
and Uie bark haa fetched good prices in the Engli^ 
market ; the manufacture of quinine has been established 
in the Nilghiri plantations, and will ahortly be com- 
msooed in the Sikkim Himala^. The papers respect- 
ing the opium poppy disease m India haye been trans- 
mitted to Kew £rom tiie local goTemment to be reported 
on, as haye those on the ravages on the vine peat, 
PAfMKMra wastatrtM, ^m varioua Continental Statea, 
by the Secretary of SUato for Foreiga Affairs. Thia is 
a ■objeot of very grave impM't, even to this country, tiie 
diaeaaa being reported aa existing in varioua parts of 
England, and quite lat^y in the neighbeariiood of 
London. Samples of excellent cigars have been sent 
from Jamaica by Sir J. P. Grant, whi^ prove ^at this 
island ought to rival Cuba in respeot to this produce. 
It cannnot be too often and too persistently repented, 
that, notwithstan di ng the immense possesaiona o€ Great 
Britain in the East and West Indies, no tobaooo of any 
oonaequenoe ia imported from either country, except 
firom the comparatively amali Spwaiah terntoriea of 
Manilla in the old World, and Havana in the New. 



appoinled one of the Boyal ComaMsiQoat bi 
examining and reporting iqxm the a asB e wKuphmaW 
mitted for embanking the river Tharasa la l8C3ia4 
IMS Mr. M^iClean acted on othsr Boyal GooniiMi 
for the exteaaien of tke embankmenta of tW Tbawa 
In IBM he eataved ParlinaieEt aa rsanssDtstifs €f BhI j 
Staffovdafaira. He became a meoioer of ths Sociitrt 
inl844v 4 



onrsKAL ions. 



OBITUAET 



Mr. J. B. MeClean, M.P.~The death of Mr. J. B. 
McClean took place on Sunday lust, July 13. In 1844 
he became engineer-in-ohief of ttie Fumess Bailways, 
and he was frt>m that time until he rfttired from the 
active exercise of his profession in 1868, intimately con- 
nected with the gre^t enterprises of the Barrow district, 
including the now fsmoua Barrow harbour, docks, and 
railwaya. In 1849, hia plan for the purific«tion of 
the Thames received high commraidation from the 
Commission appointed to consider the subject. In 1861 
Mr. McClean was called upon by the Emperor Napoleon 
to advise upon the praoticabiiity of introdncing the 
English system of baths and washhouses into Paris. 
He subsequently carried out extensive iforka there at 
the sole expease of the Emperor Napoleon. Upon the 
death of Mr. James Walker, Bir. McClean was appointed 
Govemmen* engineer to the harbours of Dover, Aldmr- 
ney, and St. Catherine's, Jersey, aa well as to the 
Flymoath Breakwater and the Shovel Bock Fort at 
Plymouth. In 1866 Mr. McClean foimed one of the 
International Commission of engineers from England, 
France, Austria, Italy, Spain, and Holland, who were 
nvited by the then Viceroy of Egypt to examine and 
sport apoa the worka of tiie Saea CaaaL In 1861 he 



Mtfftl Aaadtay af Arta.— The Section of a Mcntvr 
to tbs Boval AcadMny, to saceeed Mr. KBiirM,R.A.,took 
plaoa on Idis 16th last. Tbore vara laert thfts •hawM 
aandid«tea, and the B^yal AMdaauoiaas daoUd Mr. Kttia 
Mr. ChMTlas Critobett» far thirteea yean AMbtaat-8«n(vy 
of the Society of Arts, and Bawil»EdaiatiQoalOiHr,wi 
second. The coatest was very savwa. 

ProdaetiMi of Boar in Aai«ria.-~Ths total nsaVrrf 
brewariea io Austria, aooordiafr to the ]atsitretanNi,tt2^t 
produotog annually 1,066,480,886 Utiea of beer. Tht ktwa 
m the kingdom of HungMy are 286 ia aaiabcr, vU pn^ 
upwards of 7O,0OO»OOO litre* yeariy. TheeKpoit of \»ftbm 
the Auetre-Hungarian Empire amounted to 6,00(M^ liMi 
and the value of the beer imported to about G0,000flcna 
only. 

Tftlegraphi ia Iwitaadaad ^The rednotifia is jm 

of telegrams of 20 words, from one fraae to 50 «">^J* 
Swiraerland. has been attended with most aatiaf tdoy nm. 
In 1866, under the old Uriff of one franc, the maim eC 
diapatchee eent was 683,793 ; whilst last year, under tk0M*i 
the number sent was 2,171,858. 

Priiea Ibr Tomiag.— The Compear of Tsnen <f 
London, in oontinuatiMi of their action of fooMr wtfti !■*' 
pose to give, in 1873, their sUver medal sad the Moa " 
the company and of the City of Londeli to sny qd« *°[™^ 
or apprentioe in England who nuy send in thebeitfp»y 
of hand turning for the year. The material to n vtA^ 
varied in difiereat years so m to include wood,iv«7i *^ 
stone, spar, &c. There will be two oompetitiooe thii j«r, «* 
for taming in stone, spar, ftc ; tiie other for tnniar» 
ivory. The qus»ties whidi wiU be ohiffly woin^ 
in awaidinff the priae ia stoaeare,— L Beeaty of ffif"^T 
sign ia shape and oeloor. 2. Aoonrsoy of vfT)^ 

3. Skill ia overcoming diffionltisa in regard to the b«w^ 

4. Originali^, novel^, or epeoial akiU in •»y «*^S5 
cutar, as applied to this olase of work. The quHtie w 
will be considered in awarding Uie prises for irory «vIK 
the following :— 1. Beauty of design, symmetry of ih*^** 
general excellence of workmanshiik 2. Exact ^'VT^ir 
that the two objects prodooed (euch as two cape, TtNs, b^ 
chessmen, or otber articU) may be facsimiles in «**Tf7, 



Carving ia admissible, and if akilf ally done, any •^f^ 
eflbot produced by it wiU be eooaid£r«d ; but it moit iart> 
sidiary to the turning. In addition to the pritea n^'^j 
bronse medal of the Company will be given to tbeeoap'' 
seoood in merit, and the oompany*a oer^cate of wttit to v 
third. Tlu) difierent obioots must be delivsred frw >^J^ 
Mansion House, London, during the weHc lap**'^ 
Monday, Sept 29th, and ending Friday, Oct Sid. 



V0TICB8. 



fUBaGUPTiom 

nie Hidstimmer 8Qb0crq>tions Are ^^^ 
should be forwarded by Sieque or Post-offi* 
order, crossed " Coutts and Co.," md madepj^; 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Dayenport. I^ntf^^ 
offioer, 

Murnros roE thb nmrnre wnx* 

Pki QnekeH Otab, & 

Bac... Jkiyal Botaaie, i|. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, JuiT 25, 1878. 



690 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,079. Vol. XXI. 



iff 



FRIDAY, JULY 25. 1873. 






AIVOTrffi 



MH 111. 



BT THE C017VCTL. 



oHAnrxL PAtsAaiL 

On WednescUy last the Council of the Society 
and the members of its Cknnmittee on the Channel 
Passage were invited by Sir E. Watkin. the Chair- 
man, and the Board of Directors of the South- 
Sattem Bailway Company, to Folkestono, to 
make an inspection of the Company's last new 
rteamer, the Albert Edward, which has been fitted 
with deck-ooverings fore and aft, and is in other 
ra^Mots superior to most of the vessels on the 
wmoe. The following were enabled to be pre- 
imt:— Major-General F. Eardley-Wilmot, R.A., 
F^S. (Chairman of Council) ; Vice- Admiral 
Oumanney, C.B.» F.B.S. ; Messrs. E. Chadwick, 
CB^ Robert Bawlinson, C.B., Hyde Clarke, E. 
Brooke, Seymour Teulon, T. B. Tufnell, Capt. 
floott, E.N., Ci4>tain Douglas Galton, C.B. ; 
ad P. Le Neve Foster, Secretary. There was 
ft large company, including a large number of 
imlias. A phort trip was made along the 
eoaat, and the whole of the airangements of 
the vessel were thoroughly inspected. Plans 
ior a new system of artificial ventilation, 
already in use in some of the ComxMuiy's boats, 
ind shortly to be fitted to the Albert Edward, 
^ere also examined and explained. Thp general 
opinioo was that the vessel was decidedly of a 
higher class than any formerly employed, and 
that a very considerable advance had been 
made by the South-Eastem Railway Company. 
After this experimental trip, the visitors re- 
corned to shore and partook of a luncheon 
It the '* Pavilion Hotel." In the speeches after- 
■trds, it was stated that it had been found im- 
pactioable — ^with the existing harbours — ^to build 
krger vessels, but that the company had for some 
ihne been in commtmication with the French 
Boremment on the subject of enlarging the har- 
W« across the Channel. When this was done, a 
arger and finer class of vessels would at once be 
Kit on the Channel service. 



TX0HV0L06ICAL BZAMINATI0H8. 

In addition to subscriptions already announced, 
the Council have to acknowledge the following 
contribution to the prize fund : — 

Worshipful Company of Cordwainers, £10 lOs. 



PBOCEEBINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 



CAHTOB LBCTURES. 

The sixth lecture of the second course of Cantor 
Lectures for the Session, * * On the Energies of the Im- 
ponderables, with especial reference to the Measure- 
ment and Utilisation of them,'* was delivered by 
the Rev. AbthttbRioo, M.A., on Monday evening, 
March 10th, 1873, as follows :— 

Lbctueb YI. 

7^ Energy of Light, tepedtUly with vferenet to ih$ Mea^ 
iuremeni and Utilisation of it. 

The energy of light is all-pervading. Wherever life 
is, there thk «iiergy is. Darkne^ or absenoe of light, ia 
another Dame for d^ath. That our knowledge of the 
mode in which this energy «ctB is ^'cabined, cribbed, 
confined," there can be no doubt. It has. how- 
ever, an extended influence ; indeed, there is reason to 
infer that it has an actual active kinetic power which 
may be described as enormous, even when separated 
from its usual allies, heat and actinism. The very small 
area of explored light-land onl^ serves to assure us by 
its embarraaament of rich energiea that in respect to light 
there are not only as great, but even greater develop* 
ments to be madp, than have yet taken plaee in any of 
the '* imponderables." 

The animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms ; solid, 
liquid, and gaseooa matter, each, in some form or other, 
admits of the energetic action of what passes under the 
general name of light. Such universitl consent to the 
power of light, which recent science investigntions seem 
DOW, for the first time in the hivtory of the human race, 
to be making known, ia rendering a apontHueous but 
somewhat unconscious and undesigned testimony to the 
truths of Scripture. In the first chnpter of the book of 
(Genesis, and at the third verse, we read that the verv 
first act of creation is light — "Let there be liffht." It 
must be admittad as sinRulnr, very singular indeed, that 
that old book — the Bible — about w^it h some men caril, 
should have had writu n in it of events occurring, say, 
6,000 years ago (»ix million years ago. if you please), that 
which science* investigation of the last 50 or 100 years 
has only made clear to nil who read. Stranf^e that this, 
** offiipnng of H* aven firstborn,** without which no life 
can even now be sustMined in healthy vigour, should 
have been formed in the fullness of energy before reve- 
lation asserts that life was. The strHngeness ceases 
when the religions faith in inspiration enters. 

Before this lecture is Hosed the eondusinns and illus- 
trations, if suooeasfnl, will prove that whilst this energy 
is lees comprehended, snd, if possible, more perplexingly 
mysterious than even the energy of Mffinity, it is never* 
thnleas one whose presence is for vigorous^ action. 
Even the conducting power of bodies for electricity have 
within the last few months been shown to be so connected 
as to be influenced by light 

It is not in my power to produce the experiment, but 
it may be stated that if a small bar of selenium — say two 
inches long, and one eighth of an in<h diameter — have 
its ends electriaJly oonnected with such a galvanometer 



700 



J0T7BKAL OF THE SOOIETT OP ARTS, Jew 26, 1878. 



as 



as you saw last week, tiicaa tkt Bpedk mowBB as light 
Bbines npon or ia exdaded from the oar. 

The Boorcea of this energy ore the aim, the ataifl, and 
me^eora which, in aome way unknown to na, aetting 
aside the theory of Inminona fa^t oonaeqnent upon atmos- 
pheric friction, are self-laminoos. 

There is no similar self-laminosity on earth. If it be 
wished to obtain light from other and acoeasible sonrcee 
it is done by extraneoos agenoiea. Heat caused eiUier 
by affinity, electricity, or mechanical means, or by a con- 
centration of the energies of aome aelf-lnminons source, 
is the way by which we usually produce li^ht. 

Thia process of production by concentration frt>m self- 
luminous sources, although generally adopted, is yery un- 
promising Hs a means for ascertaining the energies of such 
source-produced light Forthisreason — as the light passes 
through or is reflected from the bodies employed in the 
concentrating operation, the extent or degree in which 
this energy may have been expended in chemical or phy- 
sical work within or upoa the conoentrating body cacn- 
not be ascertained. Henoe the remaining work — ^be it 
represented chemically or mechanically — is all that is 
left for inyestigation. It represents but the balance of 
the account. Now as a coin ao small aa one alulling mar 
represent the balance of two accounts neither of which 
reaches one pound : so the same coin may represent a 
balance of accounts reaching many thousand pounds. 
Clearly, then, from this remaining work no inference 
can be drawn respecting the total of the energies involyed 
in the production of such a balance. 

The energy of light yaries with tfie source from which 
it originates. In some respects, vis;., as regards heat 
and light, properly so called, the energetic elements 
in what we call the electric light are more similar to 
those in the sun than any firom other lights within our 
means of artificial production ; in another respect, viz., 
chemiam, or actinism, the energy of that from the com- 
bustion of magnesium is nearer to solar light than is the 
electric. 

There are two lights which seem to have in themselves 
no traces of an energy producing effects on any of our 
appliances. They are the result of some unknown 
and as yet unappreciated energy. These are lights due 
to phosphorescence ai^d fluorescence. 

The decay^ of what was once possessed of the energy 
of vitality is a condition manifesting phosphorescence, 
a state in which light is without much (if any) heat 
Whether the light on being given out is the result of 
some new operation of what was dhce called the vital 
principle, or whether it is a consequence of some ele- 
ments of affinity approximating in character to those 
we call coTObu**tion, is an unsolved problem. Friction, 
also the passage from a formless state to the state of 
crystal, frequently causes a phosphorescent light to be 
emitted. 

Phosphorescence is a name also given to a mode of 
obtaining light which seems to depend upon the pro- 
perty that certain bodies possess of rapidly concen- 
trating within themselves the light they may re- 
ceive from being exposed in the neighbourhood of a 
luminous body, and then emitting this alrsorbed light 
gradually. Probably the light stored up in a few 
seconds is not emitt*^ in less than minutes. 

Dinmonds and other substances shfne in the dark for 
a short time, after exposure to intense light. This 
shining of certain crystals, in the absence of light pro- 
bably led to the opinion that such crystals were living 
beings, petrified by light in the hands of men. Cer- 
tain flowers, especially those with bright pelfotr petals, 
sometimes emit a sudden flashing light a little after 
sunset; also, some plants growing in mines emit light 
from their whole surface. Certain preparations con- 
tinue to emit this b>ht so intensely and continuously as 
to be used as night lights— not for illuminating rooms, 

esi. »«L!1^# " th,8 box a series of tubes which, doobt- 
e-, appear to aU of you, at the pre«rt time, ^srfeotly 



white. I^ however, we allow an intense light to shine 
upon them they are seen to possess a phosphoreaoenoe 
that will last for some time — ^from ten minutes to hatf- 
an-hour, as the case may be. This magnedum lamp 
shall be lighted, and the tubes exposed to its raya for a 
diort time, and you will see, not only the simple phos- 
phorescence, but different colours which the oontents of 
dadi tube assume. 

Fluoresence is a peculiar appearance consequent npon 
placing some substances im certain poaitionfi with respect 
to light This may be illustrated by the action of light 
mpon sulphate of quinine. In this bottle is what appears 
as pure colourless water ; it is a yer^ weak solnkon of 
sulphate of quinine. If looked at in the preaeooe of 
light rich in actinic rays, a change in the appearance is 
observed. A. pieoe of magnesium ribbon is now lighted. 
In certain angular positions a beautiful azure blue may 
be noticed ; this bine is a consequence of those pheno- 
mena called fluorescent These, phosphoreeenoe and 
fluoresence, are two characteristics oi the energy of light 
of which all we know is that we can render no account 
of the causes of them, unless the theoretical explanation 
be accepted that the two may be dasMd as one— -by 
regarding them as consequences of an alteration 
in certahi wave lengths m iKyrtions tut &e entire 
beam of light From the previous statemonfa it 
may be inferred that the measurements of the energies <^ 
light are not yet accomplished ; also, that two lights, 
which to the eyes do not differ much in intensity, or in 
what some might call power, yet ma^ showvery d iffesBat 
energies. It must be borne in mind that here, aa in 
electricity, intensity is not energy ; there may be great 
intensity and Uttle energy. 

The great source of l^t is the sun, and whiit«v«r 
may be the speculations of science, either as to the canae 
of that light or as to the mode in which it is propagated 
fit>m the sun and received at the earth, they do not concan 
us at present What we are eonoemed with is, bow are 
the energies of the li^t thus received, and of sach ; 
cial lights as are utilised, to be measured P 

A reference to the diagram of the epe irtmm 
explain what is raanifbsted by an analysia of aodtf 
light Observe, thore is shown in this spectnim hswt 
light and actinism, or chemism, as it is sometimee called. 
The spectrum visible to ns is the part therecm colonred, 
containing the usual prismatic ooloura, red, oranget, ;«^ 
low, green, blue, indigo, and violet ; therefore, the light 
properly so called, and which is utih'sed by human eyrs 
for vision, extendis fr-om the letter A to the Icvtter H 
and no further, and any energy consequent upon the 
state which occurs before the lett& A, and axir enerfj 
consequent upon the state beyond the letter £[, is not 
the energy of light properly so called. Knw, to om 
left of the letter A, extending over a space which bean 
a proportion to Ught^ about half as long agmxix as 
light, is a space containing the energy due to beat 
To our right, beyond the letter H, extending to a dail^ 
anoe longer than that of light ^^ have a space in mhaA 
photographers and chemists delight Chemists can g«C 
nothing out of this dark end to our left except beat, 
and chemists and photographers get nothing out of MmA 
dark end to our right except chemical acticaa. Tha 
intensity of heat lies here, just before we reach light ai 
all ; and the intensity of chemical action liea fhere, ji^ 
after we gel; beyond the Hght No scientifie invtsCi 
tion has yet detached the energy of lighl and ila 
tensity from these two energies with which it is 
ciated. At ttiB line, marked D on the diagram, it wiQ 
be noticed that those onrves, indicactaag heat aiid natn* 
nism, die out The one seems to be passing inta tfat 
other. At D is what mathematicians mi|^t nam* a 
" cusp" — a zero on the scale similar to that se<t> in IIm 
arithmetical tables which may be said to ml 
turn between counting by integer* to the 
and by decimals to the right. At B ia this 
blank for heat and actinism, and yet it 
there the energy of light 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 25, 18^i3. 



701 



end 0f tike lecture ■ftm^ip^ more should be said 
iboat the energy of light at thia particular point. 
Affloagit theee three constttatenta of a solar beam — 
—heat, light, and aotiniam — ^there are several marked 
and extraordinary differencee, yet we call them all 
''light" Fur instance, heat causes bodies to ex- 
pand, but heat fails to make an iritpression upon the 
retina. Professor TyndaU, some years ago, put his eye 
mto the focus of a heat beam where platinum was 
melted, and it produced no impression upon the eye. 
In his accoaot of the experiment he says he did it, but 
he does not advise anybody else to do it — a piece of 
adrioe likely to be more generally accepted than 
adricd usoally is. This shows that heat fails to make 
an impression upon the retina. Heat also fails to produce 
any photographic result ; heat can be conducted along 
Detals, and heat can cause organic and inorganic bodies 
to expand. 

Light, properly so called, possesses these qualities. 
It makes an impression upon the retina, it effects changes 
in OTijanic bodies, and probably (in some way mysterious 
to m) in inorganic bodies also. Light does not possess 
these qujtlities— it cannot be conducted by metals, it 
cannot cause bodies to expand. Now, as to actinism or 
fli«ni«n, it possesses these qualities— it produces pho- 
togiraphic results and chemical changes in organic as 
weUas in inoiganic bodies. It does not possess these 
joalitiet — it fails in making an impression on the retina, 
J«nnot be conducted by metals, and it cannot cause 
hoftes to expand. Hence there seem to be properties in 
»ra portion of the spectrum which do not exist in the 
other; therefore in the comprehensive term — light — 
»«« are three distinct elements, and it is really an 
■tor to write them under the one name light. Great 
jwjld be the social misunderstandings if, because wheat, 
""•yi and oats are all caUed corn, or grasses, these 
gwe^ terms were as constantly applied to them as the 
w« ught is to phenomena with which it is aBsociated, 
bnt not connected. 

There is also another form in which the energy of 
^ptis presented, i.e., in its penetrative power. 

Far lamps and lighthouses this penetrative power is 
jP Mppo rtant ^ Certain substances in combustion are 
ry*>-d of this power in a much higher degree than 
wr substances. It is not, however, only in Uie mate- 
mi burnt, but farther in the mode of burning, that this 
g^tive power is mfinifested. The same substances 
Jwff different conditions manifest very different energies 
" jjfiemiasion of light to a distance. 

TOO the ordinary paraffin lamps — ^how very inferior 
nulnininating power some are to others. The utilisa- 
«*^ the energy in the one and only way in which it 
•n b, utilised without waste is well illustrated in the 
^°^ constructions for the burning of different hydro- 
•™na, to which time forbids further reference. Many 
jj liy ^ Me aware of the different schemes now before the 
l*w^fbr obtaining both light and heat from the com- 
"^yy of the hydrocarbons. 

H^ ij it not in liquids only that this difference exists. 
"«Q the same quantities of gas— i.^., of a suitable gas— 
WtcontaioiDg such an element as carbon under different 
•™n»tances, yield lights of marvellously different 
l^tfstive power. 

™J ** * common gas burner ; if a short tube having 
•*» holes at the bottom be placed over it and tiie gas 
VJ^dat the top of the tube you have a light which has 
'•Brtain non-penetrating power. It cannot penetrate 
^; It has a pale blue lambent flame. Now if the tube 

• taken off, and the gas lighted at the burner, you have 
Syy quantity of material burning, but with a very 
2»nt penetrating power. In this case it is evident 
p^the penetrating power depends entirely on the mode 

• which the apparatus is arranged for combustion of 

^Fmn the reinarks made it may be inferred that 
•*oe is yet incompetent to pronounce decidedly, 1st, 
wAi| w whidL ri fff nfflt w" elsiDttiti in tho lolAr beam con* 



ftitute light properly so oalled ; 2nd, even if this be de- 
termined positively, yet science is still undecided by what 
rule, or weight, or measurp, tho energy of light is to be 
gauged. 

Indeed, this remark may not be an exagg^eration — in 
all probability no two persons see the same degree of 
light. It may be surmised that no two persons see any 
portion of this spectrum of the same colour, and, further, 
it is highly probable that there is no such thing as 
colour in nature at all. It is likely that colour is 
a pure impression produced upon tho rutina of each 
person's eye by the vibrations of the medium which strike 
upon it. Uence what we call red, orange, yellow, greeny 
blue, indigo, and violet do not exist actutlly on the 
spectrum, but in the eye of the observer, and probably 
one person will sec tiie red beginning here, and extend- 
ing thus far, whilst others will see it beginning a little 
more to the left, and ending a little more to the nght, or 
vice versa. Upon that point there .is nothing really set- 
tled. 

As to the first of the foregoing inferences the energy 
of light is said to be concentrated in the yellow portion 
of the visible spectrum. If the views of those 
whose pursuits are photographic are to be received, the 
perplexities of science are increased. The very 
name of their art — photography — vindicates the writing 
of or by light alone. 

The fact is that photography is not a process dependent 
upon light as light, but upon that portion of light 
which is possessed of certain peculiar, and hitherto un- 
explainable, influences of a chemical character. Photo- 
graphic chemistry is as yet very partially understood— 
were it not that those who think they understand it 
might be offended — the troth would not be outraged by 
saying that photographic chemistry is not at all under- 
stood. And yet no process for estimating the energy of 
light, as light, has been suggested moro hopeful for suc- 
cess than that dependent upon chemicnl changes ; but 
these are not those chemical ones to which tho photo- 
grapher appeals. The fact is, that those changes appre- 
ciated by the photographer can be produced in inorganic 
compounds ; what they are can be partially noted, they^ 
can be recorded, and that in terms which are but relative 
(not absolute), and which chemistry alone can measure. 
The day miy not be distant when the energy of light, as 
light* will be duly and absolutely measured. 

Judging from its place in the order of creation, pre- 
viously named — judging from its influence over tho wholo 
world of animal and vegetable existences-^judging from 
such facts as that when light is absent all animal and 
vegetable life lapses into a species of torpor, or sleep, 
and on the return of light nature awakes, and resumes 
its activity and strength, the conclusion is a very 
legitimate one, that in light — as light — there is great 
energy. Light opens the eyes, not of animals only, 
but even of flowers; hence one of our little English 
flowers is called **The day's eye.** Those who can 
sleep through noise, and even through heat, are not 
insensible to the energy of even artificial sources of light 
playing, however gently, upon the closed eyelid. Medical 
men and nurses are well aware how essential light is for 
the regaining of health and strength by the sick or the 
infirm. Egypt and Biadeira, as sanitaria or conva- 
lescent homes for our ailing brothers and sisters, may 
owe more of their influence to qualities or energies of 
light very different from those the photographer esteems 
than are usually allotted to them. And it may be permitted 
to add that marvellous testimony to some unknown ele- 
ment (be it figurative or be it real) which, whilst per- 
vading all Scripture from Genesis to Revelation, assumes 
a most marked peculiarity in that expression of St. Paul 
(Eph. V. 14), "Awake thou that sleepest, and arise from 
the dead, and Christ shall give thee [marvellous gift] 
light"— not Ufe, observe, but "light.*** 

* Thtt SQt^eot ba»tM«a •mnte«d mor^ in drtaU In **Ttw Har. 
mony of the Blbls wltb ExperimsoUll'lgrsUal Soieocc,'* pabUshsd 
by BeU and Daldy» pclea 2s. id* 



702 



JOUBTTAL OP TEB SOOIETY OP ARTS, July 26, 1873. 



Sir H. DaT^, in an article on the canses of the colours 
of organic beugs, written about 1790, when Davy was 
only Id years of ai^e, writes — '^ Nature has catenated 
together organic beings, and made them mutually de- 
pendent on each other for th^ir exi««tence, and all 
dependent on lit^ht. A priration of light woald be 
immediately destru^'tive to organic existence; ref^eta- 
tion would cease ; the supply of oxygen gas would be 
immediately cut off from animals ; thu lower stmta of 
the atmosphere would become compoe«*d of carbonic 
acid; and perception and volition would exist no 
longer."* Although these views were expressed more 
than 80 years ago, very little progress has l>een made in 
the direction they indicate. 

Such considerations as these saggest that he who 
would truly ascertain and measure the eneri^ of light — 
that energy upon which all terrestrial life depends — 
must look to do so in its influence on orsranised beings ; 
be must either separate the allied influences, 
or he must so separately estimate these that he can 
apply his estimate correcting a general result by 
a process of common occurrence — vis., the elimintting 
of all foreign or allied energies, and thus give to science 
the true energy of true light. He who, with knowledge 
and patient skill, enters upon this hitherto almost unex- 
plored^ and yet noble field of inv^^tit^ation and research, 
will give to the age in which he lives, and transmit to 
future generations that which will indeed be a boon to 
alL Pending the comini? of that time when some science 
investigator, posseted of snflScient knowledfce^ humility, 
originality, and skill, shHlI do for light what Nrwton, 
Atwood, and Kater have done for the mea^urinir of the 
energy of gravity — whnt Mayer, Joule, and Thompson ' 
have done for that of hcnt — what Haughton hns done 
for that of vitality, an<l what Siemens, Matthieson, ' 
Jenkins, and others have done for electricity— what ' 
Davy, Dulton, and others have very partially done for 
that of afiinity, and what Bunsen and RoHcoe have done ' 
for the chemical energy of light— but what no one has 
yet done for that of light — properly and exelunively 
BO called — we must content ourselves with such modes 
of estimating this energy as are at present known and 
available. I 

This energy is supposed to be manifested in the pro- 
motion and facilitating of chemical nfiSnities. These 
affiniti^ (as doubtl« ss some prei«fnt remember) vnry in 
their character as one or more of tho*'imp«md(rable8** are 
oombined in their promotion. 80 much is this the 
case that chemical notation now adds, in reference to 
certain indicated changes, the words, by heat 
or electricity, as the case may be. There are, how- 
ever, certain affinities called forth under the in- 
fluences of light, which do not show themselves under 
any other conditions. As, for example, certain of the 
salts of silver (8n< h as silver combined with chlorine, 
iodine, or bromine) change their colour and their 
character, the silver being ^et fn e from its combination as 
a black powJor. There \h alao that power, which plants in 
the presenc»' of sunlight poRsess. of changing the carbonic 
acid gas, which, if allowed to acrumulate in the atmos- 
phere, would soon render it unfit to be breathed, into 
its constituent elements, the plant retaining the carbon 
imd ejecting theox.vgen. Priestlv, in 1790, that is, at the 
period when Davy wrote the article from which an ex- 
tract has been read, a peri«>d when, for a short time, 
men*s minds were beinpr direrted to this department of 
8 cientific research, was the first to show that plants kept 
the atmosphere pure and healthy, but he could not cal- 
culate. His was rather a qualitative, and not a 
quantitative result. 

Changes in the colour of salts of silver, throuirh some 
energy of liifht, hav« h#»en olwerved since the middle of the 
16th century. In 1777, S-heole suggested some explana- 
tions which, although verv imperfect, are as yet the only 
recognise d ones. In the early part of the present cen- 

«, Vol. II., ps^ lof . 



tury experiments of a similar kind were made tt the 
Royal Institution by Wedgwood and Davy.* The 
absence of any mode of fixing the impraskm cnued 
the results to be very evanescent, but the locali^ng U 
this peculiar property of light is clearly announced in 
these words : — ^* Rm rsys, or the common tunWoi, 
passed through red glnss, have very little action ; yelbv 
and green are more efficacious, but blue and violet light 
produce the most decided effiect.** 

The rapid development of the art of photogrtp^f 
during the past twenty or thirty years has 1^ entiia* 
siasts in this branch to overlook the purely cheini<al 
character of their art, and to attribute the cbsng*i vitb 
which they deal to a manifestation of the tmttff of 
light Hence scales have been devised whi^-h mir 
enable photographers to adopt some kind of a itAndaro. 
They are not, however, worthy of the namt of 
scales of energy, as they depend upon the power of the 
eye to appreciate very slight differences in thide. A 
scale or measure, to be of general use, should be of mch 
a character that a person in one part of the world vritiog 
to one in another might refer to some conooo 
standard. 

There is, however, a process for obtaining a mmm- 
ment of one element in th een«rgy of light ctp*hU of 
greater accuracy of observation than the pboto|pphic 
one. This also is chemical. 

In the lecture on the energy of affinity a brief tiaa 
was devoted to the peculiar manifestation of kfbi* 
ties under the conditions of the nascent state. 

It is apparently a deviation from this form of flprgy 
when the two well-known gases, chlorine an«i hydrogrfi, 
are produced and inUmately mi xed, eitht-r in their omcpoI 
state or afterwards, in the dark or in the pntfliat/ 
that portion of the solar beam we call red. Undor ih^e 
conditi(»ns no rapid union of the gases takes pUce. P«^it 
the evolution or the mixing of the two g»»»rt to be in 
ordinary light, properly so-called, and an inlimit* vauL, 
or rather an actual chemical oombinatioD, u s con** 
quence. 

If these gases be separately produced and colleHed b 
a glass Vessel in equal parts, the union and forrontim of 
a new chemical c«mi pound in this glass vessel fuUu** 
from exposure to light. If the lixht, or rather th»t p«' 
ticular portion of the solar beam to which chemicil aciMi 
is generally attril»uted, be permitted to act upon thetn 
mixed gases, then the union takes place at a rate dettf* 
mined by the energy of some one or more of thfi^ crt- 
sUtuent elements of light on which the combuali* 
depends. Where in the solar beam these comW*"* 
are is a question easily solved. 

Every ray, or every portion of a beam of l»P\j 
ctp ible of producing union between hydrogen ■» 
chlorine ; but the combination takes pla<-e »t ray af- 
ferent ratt-s, according to the portion of the b«in v^-ci 
acts upon the united gases. The actinic portioa viH •^ 
' seven hundred times as rapidly aa the heat portion. 1^ 
is to Siiy, a certain conibination will take place ww^^' ^ 
' influence of this portion in one minute, wbich it«j^ 
tako more than eUven hours to aecomplish uftd^f*-* 
influence of the heat portion Therefore, by •^I*'*^ 
the ray of liKht, we can graduate the rate ni wft***« 
combination oct-urs. Here ate some glass b«B* *** 
I taining chluiine and h}drog>n wbich J*-*'** ""^^-^ 
been exi)ose 1 to the light. If one of these \» P*^ 
under this globe of red glass then the light that v»«^ 
through it will be the portion of light corre«pc«s<Jio$ ^ 
the heat end of the spectrum, and it will tak« ho«» ^ 
accomplish the pi rft?ct union of these two ?■>*• *^ 
however, one be placed under a globe of a bine coioiff. 
the light falling upon it wiU represent that belonpn? ^ 
the actinic portion of the spectrum, and th* P*'*.. 
unite (if the experiment be sucoetsfnl), and expUw o 
about ten seconds. , 

Whilst recognising this test and measuring gn^ " 

•J0mntdl0ftk9 iesy«l JktMmtim ftw 1813, p. ItO. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jolt 26, 1873. 



703 



tbm chemical brightness of oertain lights, it must be home 
in miod that it is ohemicHl action and not the energy of 
liffht, properly so called, that is inea<(tired. For instance, 
WMn thM brightness of the sun's disc as a case of light- 
tari^htnesa, is 520 times that of mAgnesiuin wire, th(i 
chemictil brightness has been found to be not 40 times as 



H.ere are diagrams of two spectra, one of which is 
obtained from flint glass. Now, flint glass produces an 
effect which is considered to be due more to the physical 
property of density than to the elements of which it is 
checnical!y formed. Assume this diagram to be a faithful 
repro-ioction of the spectrum from flint glass. Nuw, 
ko^reT^T 6iiuil:ir another glass m ly be in appearance, yot 
if it difiVr in density and constituent elements the dis- 
taAcea between certain lines in the spectrum may in some 
portions be the same, but in others they will differ. If, 
therefore, light be estimated from the spectral appear- 
•ooe of it after it has passed through any sub- 
•taxkoe, it is deiirly subject to the influence df that 
■alMtanoe. Again, on another diagram is a series 
of colours produced by a process c>illed diffraction. 
TkiB ia the apparatus, and this is the mode of producing 
those colours. At the objnct-glass end of the tt'lescope 
tl&ere are a number of very fine lines drawn, and if the 
t^estH>p(^ be directed to a rery intense speck of light, 
■Qoh HB the reflected sun from a small silvered glo^ie or 
the bulb of a thermometer, coloured bands are seen, 
oont^ining the same colours that the flint glass \ 
■paotruni shows. But the colours seen under this , 
diffraction arrangement are very different in qoan- ' 
Uly to those seen under any other arrangement. 
A diffrncti'in experiment is easily mnde by ea'-h for 
InsBaelf. From that hook a bright reflecting silyerttd 
|d«as tf lobe is suspended, and two or three smnller ones of 
Sa 8«me kind. If anyone is tired of listening, and feels 
^iipofted ti go to sleep, they can perform this experi- 
imsnt very easily. Just close your eyes and allow the 
ey«dash to interfere with that speck of light reflected 
from thH globe, and yon will probably see colours ra- 
diating on both «ides. Those are colours due to dif- 
IkaotioD, 4nd there are modes by which they can be 
annde to appHHr much widf»r ap irt th>ui by the one now 
described. Taking the diffraction spectrum, we find 
HmU the«e distances, from D to K. say of the yellow por- 
of the spectrum, are not of the same length as the 
iding portion in the flint glass spectrum, and 
SHRi'^ with the othnr portions, so that the proportions 
«« quite altered. This is called the '* irrationality " 
ef the spectrum. Line D there becomes the middle of 
Ihe spectrum instead of being, as it is here, very near to 
one end. The consequence is, when we talk of there 
iMAng no h*^t in this portion of the spectrum, we have 
seeQy and truly distributed the hn^t which ought to be 
■nndensel in F, G. over thnt large space, and therefore 
Itehowson a fixed area much less heat than it wouM 
sfe&ot so distributed. If, now, these apparently unequal 
of the spectrum be examined for heat, it will be 
that collecting them into two separate f ^ci. the 
in the one focus is equal to that in the other. 
rly, had these portions b«en examined over cquil 
the heats would not h ive been equal. There* 
the notion generally entertained of he;it b(*ing 
Confined solely to one end of the spni'trum is not strictly 
That diffraction spectrum explains it, and there 
other matters bearing unon it which, if time permit, 
11 Hh referred to presently. 
Thni kinetic energy, of a chnracter as important as 
■Bj Ibnnd in the other imponderables, exitits in light, 
Wtmj l»e inferred from the fact that if light be ex- 
Ifalguished by fulliog upon such a surface as lamp-black 
4be stoppage of the rny — the consequent absorption of 
^-^ro luces heat. The motion of the light has been 
flglftverted into a motion eilled heat. If, howcvur, the 
3^|ht be stopped by some of the salts of silver, thr-n this 
tion is t^n verted into chemicAl changes. The boat nnd 
change are consequences of an energy In light. Nor 



is it only when influencing different substances that light 
effects different results. Take, for example, CHrbtm, and 
note how varied is its behavionr towards light and 
electricity. When in the form of a diamond, then oar- 
^n transmits light and stops electricity ; but when in 
the form of ooke, into which the diamond is transformed 
by heat, then carbon transmits electricity, but stops 
light. No cause has yet been assigned to that which 
seems almost universally the case, vis., transparent 
bodies stop electricity — carbon, the metals and opaque 
bo (it's, stop light. 

It is a popular opinion that sunlight or sun-brightneas 
extinguishes household fires. May not this be from 
some hitherto undiscovered energy of solar light, for it 
id not the heat of the solar beam which thus onuses the 
carbonaceous fuel in our grates to become dim P If the 
energy of liitht is to be studied and its value to^ be 
estimated and brought within our powers of utilisation, 
it must be done through agencies widely differt^nt from 
those hitherto named. Looking at the order of creatioiL 
and watching the behaviour both of the animal ana 
veieetable kingdoms, it seems that through them must 
be had our knowledge. Allusion has been already made 
to these. X^ n^^y be well to investigate more closf>ly the 
relntion of the energy of light to them. No mode of 
mea'^uring the energy of light in relation to animal life 
has been suggested, and yet its energy in this respect is 
more strikinKly extraordinary than that of the other 
imp<mderHblee. Take one illustration only. When 
jofL kn«>ck at the door of a friend's bedroom and receive 
no answer, how loud, and louder still, becomes the rap 
ere he awakes. How often are stories told at the break- 
fast-tabi** of night noises unheard and unheeded by those 
asleep. Let but a beam of sunlight, or even candle-light, 
shine on the closed eyelid, and by some mysterious 
energy on the well-covered retina the sleeper awakes. 

The worlds of animal and vegetable life awake and 
work mainly in cons' quenoe of some such hitherto un- 
measured energy of li^ht as that now alluded to. 

Turn to vegetable life. With respect to this, Professor 
Helmholtz remarks : — *• Take a seed, then look at the 
tree, and consider from what source has been derived all 
the material ef the trt»e. Burn the seed, bum the tree, 
whem'e comes the different amounts of heat ? Chemistry 
tells u* that the heat is produced from carbon, oxygen, 
and hydrogen ; these are d»-rived from carbonic acid and 
water. Plants cannot obtain these except under the in- 
fluence of .solar light." • 

After plants have utilised the light it is not useable 
again for the same purpose. Take two screens of dark 
paper, such as these, with holes in them — say half an 
inch in dinmeter— one hole covered with letter paper, the 
Other covered with a green leaf, put pieces of photo- 
graphic p;i|K>r behind them, and expose to da}j-light or 
magnesium light. Beneath the letter paper is a d>trk 
gpot — an image of the hole — beneath the leaf is no dis- 
; colourition. The leaf has utilised the light, the letter- 
piper has not. The energy of that which passes through 
the leaf is spent, of that passing through the paper is not 

spent. 

Althnugh in plants a variety of operations take place, 
which must in some way unknown to us store up a large 
amount of energy, and although there is to aU practical 
purp«>SHS no heat developed, yet we know well that there 
are thus stored up chemical tensions which give out their 
true physical value in heat and mechanical work, as the 
tissues of the plants are destroyed by a process of animal 
or other combuation. We are as vet quite at a loss to 
know how the plants do this, or by what elements in 
light, properly so culled, it can be so completely and 
perfectly done. 

Sir John F. W. Herschel, in a paper in the Philoaophteal 
Tramactiom for 1842, gives a most interesting account 
of an extended series of experiments on the action of 
the solar spectrum on vegetable colours. He operated 



• HelmholU, Mtikul Tmit, 30lh AprU, 18«4. p. 473. 



704 



JOURNAL OP IHK SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jolt 25, 18TS. 



upon the jidoee of the leaTM, and alao upon some of the 
rednoiu compoands of pliuits, and his conoluions have 
ginoe heen conflrmedy yiB.v the action of the Bolar speo- 
tmm is confined to the visibleregian of it. The chemicalor 
actinic rays act with chief energy uponsilyerorinorgMnic 
compounds, but are, for the most part, powerless upon 
T^etable colours ; so idso are the heat rays, or those 
Mow the extreme red. Thus Sir J. Herschel, in 1842. 
leparated by a very broad line the lominons portion of 
the solar beam from the other parts of it That the 
energy of the luminous portion of the solar beam ie 
requuite ere plants oan exercise their vital functions is 
well known to all who have made any of the experiments 
which show the extent to which, under the influence 
of that energy, plants can effect chemical change . 
These changes take place most abundantly in the yellow, 
or in what our eyes would call the brightest portion ol 
the spectrum. 

The energy of this luminous portion may be gathered 
from experinientB made during the last few years by an 
American. Flowering plants were placed in different 
colours of the spectrum, and it was soon observed 
that their action upon oarbonio acid gas depended 
upon the colour of the spectrum. He togk a flower, 
and under the action of a red ray he did not get one 
cubic inch of gns off, but only 0.33 of an inch. As 
soon as he submitted that same plant to the orange ray, he 

S)t 20 cubic inches, and from the yellow he got 36 inches, 
ut when the same plant was put under green, blue, 
indigo, or Tiolct, he could not get the plants to act at all 
in the purification of carbonic acid gas, thereby showing 
TOetty clearly the energy of light in the luminous por- 
tion of the spectrum as regards growing plants. 

The decomposition, then, of the carbonic acid is effected 
chiefly by the energy resident in what may be called the 

Sellow rays. It is a somewhat noteworthy coincidence, 
lat the eye generally fixps upon the yellow portion of 
the spectrum as that possessed of the greatest brillinncy; 
it is also noteworthy that the spectroscope reveals that 
in the atmosphere (viz., sodium) which, on being burnt, 
always produces a yellow bana. It is, to say the least, 
curious that we cannot get heat by combustion in the 
air without the production of this yellow light. 

It seems, then, that plants and human eyes are most 
sensitive to the same portion of the solar benm, and this 
portion is in light pn>perly so called. May it not be that 
Tellow light is most acceptable to the plant, and most 
impressivo upon us, because carbon is in both cases in- 
volved — the rftina of the eye being a carbonaceous com- 
pound. Had the retina been a salt of silver, then the 
Seatest brilliancy would perhaps have seemed to bo in 
e blue rays. 

This idt ntity in composition between the plant and 
that part of the animal on which light exercises its chief 
energy, suggests that in the influence of light on plants 
(whatever thjit may be) must be sought the data from 
which to deduce a mechanical rather than a chemical 
measure of the energy of true light. 

The contrast of this energy in its effect upon the metal 
salts and plants is especially marked as regards time. On 
the metal salts it may be said to be instantaneous, but on 
the gums and resins of plants exposure for days and 
months to clear sunshine, is needed to produce any 
marked action. A patient watching and building up on 
such scant data as may hitherto have accumulated, will, 
some day, produce the dynamical equivalent of light. 

There is one experiment here which will probably bear 
out what has been said. Tou are probably aware that 
plants, by receiving light, manufacture what We 
name colour. They manufacture the green material 
out of which the leaves and the general character 
of the plant is formed, and that green material 
is called "chlorophyll." This veessel consists of 
two beakers with the bottoms cut off, one about an inch 
9^d a-half larger than the other. The glass cylinders 
|flhen left are fixed with marine glue in a wooden rinir. 
The space between them is filled with a solaUon of 



•chlorophyll, obtained by steeping fior ftnty-eight bom 
•common paisley in any cheap spuit, such as metk^ited 
alcohol, and then filtering. It therefors ooataiaB tbs 
green oolouriog matter of leaves. This green udonriif 
matter has been made almost exclusively by th« yeUov 
portion of light, and not at all by the chemical portioa, 
and, with a view to show this, we must refer to the 
spectroscope view, namely, thatt chlorophyll bdof^ mBy 
manufactured hy yellow light, is practically Bstiiiit«d 
with yellow, ana oan take up no more. Thus, if a v^ 
containing a saturated solution of salt had a piece of hH 
dropped into it, Uiat piece would not dissdve. If; sov, 
there be placed inside this chlorophyll solution snjtkBf 
that produces these other coloured rays, we 8b«ll probtUy 
find that, whilst sensitive to the one colour, the vJetki 
will not be to the other. Here is some lithium, which ikAll 
be placed on a little piece of platinum wire Hndborat, m 
causing a beautiful red flame. On putting th^ flame vithio 
the hollow oylinder containing the chlorophyll, po vill 
see th» yellow beam alone can pass through the 
green sofutioii. The green solutiou having htm 
made with that yellow beam is thoroughly sto* 
rated with it and can take up no more, but it can tsh 
up the other coloured rays, and therefore \hfj do m( 
pass through. In that portion of the flame liiiog 
above the green solution you see thered-coloandibuu. 
Thus, the yellow c<4our is consequent upon the satnnt«d 
solution of chlorophyll, and therefore nothing but 
yellow can come through. The absorption of thii yeDov 
portion of the solar spectrum, by the vital energy of the 
plant and utilising the same in its compodtiaQ, night 
have been inferentially suspected from the Cud tStnl 
leaves become yellow in the autumn, thus r«toriog i& 
their death what^ for want of a better tenn, ire mait 
caU "the colour" they had absorbed in their hk 
The yellow colouring matter of the aukumnJ leaf ii 
called " xanthophyll." Probably, as " chlorophyir vA 
" xanthophyll ** are more examined and known, » tH 
energy oi light may be more appreciated and meifond. 

This examination of light, properiy so called, hd \d 
to another contribution towards an' estimate of the 
energy. That plants grown in the dark are dr4»B \o 
any crevice through which light liters has longbwc 
known. But it has not been so often obsenred thit 
young plants bend the stems to the indigo porti<?aaf 
the spectrum, t.*., if grown in red, or yellow, orfieca, 
they bend in one direction, but if in the riolet, th« a 
another direction. They recover the vertical j-oaitioii is 
darkness. May it not be that the energy in the indigo d 
the sky produces the vertical character of 8t«n ? 

Thus light proper produces motion, and so artranJiMi 
itself to heat and electricity. The complementary o(d(}fln 
of red and green (see the chromatic circle of Newtoo ca 
diagram) are those which represent the relation o/ctinr 
between the animal and vegetable kingdom. Planti I^ 
ject green and absorb its complementfliy (red}. Tl» 
blood of animals is red, therefore animals thoold htve 
green supplied in the fields and in our fomiturt. 

That this energy of light is utilised in vegetation, oi 
that practically we recognise it, may he noted in thf io* 
gcnious modes by which in our small ganieni we try to 
imitate nature. The nailing of branches on wiUf-fi 
advance on this in espaliers on lattice woodwork, u^ ^ 
still more recent practice of cutting out th# Tt^f^ 
branches of orchard apple trees ; also training oli«« to 
hang in umbrella fashion, or the splaying of gc«^ 
berry bushes as funnels, all these are devices to pfnat 
of the more universal exercise of this unmeasoitdaa^ 
of light. 

Light influences the colour of animals and thep3a»r 
of birds in tropical climates. In the arctic region* pJ*' 
bears are white, like vegetables grown out of the »• 
fluence of light — arctic foxes are white in ^'"^.jj 
brown in summer. Fishes inhabiting deep water chiraf 
are grey, or brown, or black ; those Unng near the 
surface are of rich and various colours. 

That the meaanrement of the eneigy of tn» ds» 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jvlx 26, 1873. 



706 



aluynld be by an appeal to its influence on orgazuBod matter, 
and not on inorganic, is a testimony borne by all ob- 
•erraftione, and eren suggested by the records of Creation, 
the earth having been prepared by the creation of light 
lor a n i m al and vegetable life even before they were 
formed upon it. This measurement has not yet been 



ABJSrOAL DTTEBHAnOSAL IXHIBITIOSS. 



The Gonndl, baying been informed that her 
Majesty's CommissionBrs do not intend to 
publish Reports on the different departments of 
the Exhibition of the present year, and looking to 
the great importance to Arts, Mannfactttres, and 
Commerce that these annual displays should not 
paas away without some record, have decided to 
undertake that duty, and for this purpose have 
engaged the services of gentlemen specially 
BkiUed in the subjects of the several sections) 
to prepare such Reports for publication in the 
Society's Journal. The Council, however, 
deaire it to be understood that, in publishing 
these reports, they do not necessarily adopt all the 
views expressed in them, which must be taken 
as those of the writers only. 

The following report is the sixth that has 
been issued. The remainder will appear as soon 
aa they are complete. 



EEPORT ON CARRIAGES. 

CLASS XI. 
By Oeorge K. Hooper. 

The Carriage Department of the London 
latemational Exhibition of 1873 is of a some- 
what more comprehensive character than that of 
asy previous exhibition, and differs from all of 
them in several important features. 

The mode of conducting it^ and the induce- 
ments held out to exhibitors, are different to 
thoee where British carriages have hitherto 
been shown. 

Jn former exhibitions there has been the 
attraction of pri^e medals and commendations, 
each having a recognised value, and there has 
also been a jury to examine the products and 
reward the exhibitors who have sent the most 
worthy epecintens. In connection with thb exhi- 
bition there are no prizes and no jurors. How- 
erer, to prevent the display becoming that of 
a mere bazaar, H.M. Commissioners appointed a 
committee to organise the exhibition, and reject 
each carriages as were not likely to be credit- 
able. This examination took place on the 9th 
of April, and, considering that the great body 
of exhibitors had done their best, and the mor- 
tification that would be felt Jby those whose 
goods were returned to them on account of not 
Tiwtfihing a high standard of excellence, the 



committee have liberally passed over some that 
a more rigid scrutiny would have excluded. 

Hitherto, the great inducement to exhibitors 
has been an enhanced reputation, by the award 
of a medal or commendation, and this is espe- 
cially the case with foreign exhibitors, who 
make but a very small contribution of carriages, 
partly owing to the absence of prizes, and partly 
owing to the counter-attractions of the Great 
Exhibition held in Vienna this year. 

Considering the lessened attractions, it is 
somewhat surprising that so many British 
exhibitors have sent carriages ; that is probably 
caused by their desire to maintain worthily the 
reputation of an important British industry, and 
partly to the large amount of space that her 
Majesty's Commissioners were able to place at 
their disposal this year. The French Annexe 
was very unexpectedly available for British 
goods, the French Government having deter- 
mined to concentrate their efforts at Vienna, 
rather than diffuse them by putting in an appear- 
ance in London and Vienna in the same year. 
It thus became available for a large display of 
carriages ; but if events had not so happened, the 
space for carriages would have been small indeed, 
compared to what it now is. 

When the Committee for Carriages met, it 
was resolved to apply to the Coach and Coach 
Harness Makers' Company of London to assist 
in rendering the carriage department as complete 
possible. The Company appointed a Committee, 
which afterwards acted with the one nominated 
by H.M. Commissioners, having the Duke of 
Beaufort as its chairman. 

The Company voted a sum of £50 towards 
meeting the expenses necessary to carry out the 
proposals of the Committee; this has been sup- 
plemented by a guarantee fund, supported by 
many of the carriage exhibitors. 

The demands for space having exceeded that 
at the disposal of the Committee, additional 
accommodation has been provided by glazing 
the arcades, giving thereby the means of ex- 
hibiting cabs, carts, waggons, and light country 
vehicles, and reducing the number of carriages 
by making a charge of £10 per carriage to all 
exhibitors who had applied for more space than 
two carriages would occupy, an 1 were willing 
to pay for it. It was also considered by the 
Committee that it would be more satisfactory to 
exhibitors to leave the placing of carriages 
entirely in the hands of H.M. Commissioners 
and their officials ; and they have carried out an 
intricate and difficult matter with considerable 
success, as there is a certain air of unity in the 
arrangement that has been wanting in all former 
displays of carriages, where they have been 
grouped geographically. It is one of the 
advantages that should result from annual 
exhibitions on ^ moderate scale, that every 



roe 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jcly 25, 1878. 



department sboold be as complete and well 
regulated as possible, in the main features as 
well as in tbe details that tend to render it not 
only interesting bat nsefal; and in these re- 
spects the present display is eminently so beyond 
former ones. Specimens of coach- building of 
olden times are contributed by Uer Majesty, 
who lends her State carriage, representing the 
state ; that of the Speaker, representing Parlia- 
ment; and that of the Lord Mayor, representing 
the ancient Corporation of the City of London. 

With these are sedan chairs used by former 
Duchesses of Northumberland, and various 
litters, Ac, from India, Japan, <fec, as also an 
Australian barouche, lent by his Royal U ighness 
the Duke of Edinburgh; and a town chariot, 
built about 40 years ago for the late Earl of 
Onslow. 

In connection with the State carriages shown, 
there b a good collection of photographs of the 
State and other carriages of Germany, Austria, 
Spain, Saxony^ Denmark, <fec., as well as of 

Srivate carriages made in the United States, 
[angary, Ac 

The photographs of some of the foreign State 
carriages are remarkable for the beauty and 
variety of some of the decorations, and are well 
worthy of careful examination by carriage 
draughtsmen, carvers, and decorators. 

A contribution to the department will probably 
not receive so much attention as it deserves ; not 
on account of any high excellence, but as the 
result of a City company endeavouring to bring 
itself into harmony with the wants of the present 
age. It consists of a series of working drawings 
of carriages, to the scale of one inch to the foot, 
sent in competition for prizes offered by the com- 
pany, the details of which, with the judges* 
report to the Company, will be found in the 
appendix. 

This is the second year the Company has 
awarded prizes through judges appointed from 
their own body, but it has for many years 
offered its medals to candidates passing good 
examinations held by the Society of Arts and 
Science and Art Department, in Freehand 
Drawing and Practical Mechanics. It now 
further seeks to encourage the scheme of 
Technological Examinations proposed by the 
Society of Arts, and has recently made a grant 
of ten guineas towards assisting its develop- 
ment 

A short time ago, when his Royal Highness 
the Duke of Edinburgh took up the freedom and 
livery of the Company, and was elected a member 
of the Court of Assistante he said that he felt 
greatly interested in developing the plans pro- 
posed by the late Prince Consort, for advancing 
technical education in the country, as a means of 
enabling ite manufacturers to render their pro- 
ducts more artistic and beautiful, and also to 



enable them to simplify their methods and get 
the best results from a thorough knowledge of 
the laws that should guide their operationa. 

However, some of the City Companies ase so 
fettered and controlled by their charters and 
bye-laws, and by the objects for which they were 
founded being now accomplished by other mean«, 
that they require more freedom of action to de- 
velope their great opportunities of usefulneei, 
just as greater freedom seems to be oonsidered 
necessary by the municipalities throughout the 
country, whose representativeB met the Lord 
Mayor of London very recently, with a view to 
its attainment. 

As a means of comparing the British export 
of carriages with that of foreign countries. Her 
Majesty's Commissioners, at the request of the 
Carriage Committee, have procured from the 
Board of Trade statistics of the export and im- 
port of carriages, which show that the export 
trade of France and Austria now greatly exceeds 
that of Great Britain. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners show an album 
containing a large collection of prints and illas- 
trations of carriages of former times ; it k, 
probably, unique, and very interesting from the 
information it contains of the pni^retis and 
changes in the art of carriage-building. 

The Postmaster-General shows a model of a 
mail-coach, such as carried the letters of a for* 
mer generation, on all the great roads through- 
out the country. 

Several coachbuilders also show drawings of 
carriages such as were made before raUroads 
became general. 

It is much to be regretted that the Coadi* 
makers' Company has not been able to make 
any contribution? to illustrate the carriage 
manufacture during the two hundred years of its 
existence, the Court having evidently over- 
looked, during these years, the importance of 
collecting and preserving drawings, modeli^, and 
information in connection with the mar.afactare 
it represents. However, now that it has con- 
menced the formation of a library of reference, 
it is to be hoped that every exertion will be 
used to collect such drawings, books, and illus- 
trations as exist, and render the colleotion a use- 
ful and interesting one. 

The literature of carriage-building does o^ 
receive so much attention in England ms in 
several other countries. In France a magazine 
is published every two months ; and, in the 
United States, there are two periodicals deati&g 
specially with carriage -building. Theee are 
well supported, and have a large circulation ; in 
them are discussed an infinity of matters can* 
nected with the manufacture of carriages ; and 
illustrations of iftw designs, and methods of con* 
I struction, appear constantly. 
I In the United States one of these periodicals 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 2S, W78. 



TOT 



greatly faciliUted the formation, last year, of an 
American Oarriage Boilders' National Aesooia- 
tioQ; with a Yiew to ihe improvement of the 
BMuafactiiTe of carru^ee in the States. It eeema 
to take for its model the Institute of Civil 
E&gtooers, in London ; proposes to diseusa 
•nd record improvements of all kinds in eon- 
Dection with carriages, and to bring together, 
to a conference, each year, the whole of the 
American coach builders, in order to throw 
their inflnence into the regulation of taxation, 
customs duties, dbc. The conditions under 
which the Americans carry on the carriage 
mmufacture differ from those of Great Britain. 
Up to the time of their war, carriages were 
untaxed, and their use became much more 
general than in England; and their trad^ 
18 now protected by a duty of 30 per cent, into 
foreign carriages imported. 

Up to a recent time foreign caniages were 
prohibited entry into France, except as the pro- 
perty of persons using them. By the Cobden 
Treaty of 1860, the duty was fixed at 10 per 
cent ; it is now said to be intended to raise it 
to 3l) per cent. For many years foreign car- 
riages have been admitted into this country free 
of dnty ; and, although Englishmen may, in 
principle, prefer free trade, many think it should 
not only be free to the foreigner, but to the 
English, as, although the example has been set 
for many years, at present no country recipro- 
cates British liberality, and wherever British 
carriages are sent a duty is levied on them. 
As regards, taxation, it is not levied equally 
in Great Britain, for, while carriages are nn- 
teed in Ireland, they must pay a yearly duty 
in England, Scotland, and Wales. 

The time is approaching when the tases on 
locomotion should receive more atteoticm than 
hitherto; for, although those on private car- 
ritges have nominally been simplified and re- 
dnced,the mode of their collection under recent 
ngnlations has been rendered troublesome and 
TexatioQs. 

When sudi taxes -were first imposed, those 
^ travelled most were the noble and rich, 
who kept handsome and expensive family 
carriages for town use, and well-appointed 
••Triages, specially made for travelling. The 
poorer classes travelled on foot or horseback, 
or in the stage-coaches that were then in their 
tt^cy. Travelling was then a luxury for the 
wdl-to-do ; and to those who were poor it was 
» hardship, accompanied with trouble and risk. 

Tinder the present carriage taxes, the hand- 
•<»e dress coach pays no more than the doctors' 
fcwragham or the farmer's phaeton, and the tax 
■ heaviest in proportion to those who can least 
•ftffd to pay it. Formerly, the ostensible owner 
*^ person who tued the carriage paid the taj^ 
^ his other assessed taxes on horses, men 



servants, heraldry, dbc, and only one payment 
was neoessary. However, a system has become 
very general with persons of fixed incomes of 
hiriug their carnages for a term of years for an 
annual payment (the coachbuilders undertaking 
the repairs). Under the new regulations all the 
coachbuilders are held liable for the taxes oa 
such carriages, and have to pay the tax for them in 
advance at the commencement of each year, 
collecting the duty as they can from each indi- 
vidual hirer, without the rights or privileges of 
the recognised collector of taxes. The hirer has, 
therefore, first to pay his licence duties to the 
government on his horses, men-servants, heraldry, 
&c., and then to the coachmaker^s collector for 
his carriage, making a double collection neces- 
sary. Such a mode of levying taxes frequently 
causes trouble and irritation, while it ofi'ers no 
single advantage to the government 

Having thus glanced at the conditions under 
which the present carriage exhibition has been 
formed, its position as regards foreign trade, and 
the taxation to which the finished product is 
subjected, it becomes necessary to examine the 
collection more in detail. 

The first thing that str%es one is the small 
number of foreign carriages. At each of the 
large international exhibitions held in London 
and Paris, foreign carriages have been shown in 
considerable numbers. In the present Exhibition 
there are 210 British and 10 foreign, entirely 
from France. When we know the proportionate 
numbers at the Exhibition in Vienna we shall 
probably find that the attraction there has over- 
come that of London. 

A peculiarity of most foreign carriages is the 
difiFerenee of the track of the front and hind 
wheels ; this is caused by the continual striving 
of foreign builders to shorten to the utmost the 
distance between the front and hind wheels; 
they effect their object partly by complicated 
arrangements <rf the fore carriage, aided by a 
shortening of the front axle several inches. In 
England we submit to a longer space between: 
the front and hind wheels with these advantasres, 
the hind wheels following in the two tracks 
marked or cut by the front wheels have that 
portion of the road rolled for them, whereas in 
the foreign plan each of the front and hind 
wheels has to roll a track of its own, thereby 
increasing the draft for the horses. 

Besides this, the driver of an English carriage 
can rely on his hind wheels passing where his 
front wheels have cleared ; not so the driver of 
a foreign carriage with short front axles, for his 
front wheels may have passed without collision 
or accident, but he can hardly ever be sure of 
his hind wheels being safe unless he has a 
tolerably dear space on each side. 

Among the French canriages is a drag, or 
fonr^horse coadi, for private use ; Messrs. Bel" 



708 



JOURNAL OP TBB SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 25, 1873. 



valette, of Boulogne and Paris, have so closely 
copied the lines and style of London, that at a 
ditttance it would be difficult to believe it was a 
foreign production ; however, the reputation o 
London for such carriages is well supported by 
Messrs. Peters and Messrs. Hooper, whose car- 
riages of this type are already well known to 
persons who take any interest in four-in-hand 
matters. There have of late years been a variety 
of improvements in details, in order to meet the 
wants and convenience of persons who use such 
carriages, more especially as to the stowing of 
luncheons, ladder, table. <fec., but the main fea- 
tures remain such as had been proved most use- 
ful for mail and stage coaches used regularly for 
passenger traffic just before railways superseded 
their use for that purpose. 

The next carriages to be noticed are the little 
one-horse phaetons, now become so general, and 
known as Victoria and Vienna phaetons — the 
former having curved lines, and the latter 
straight lines and sharp angles. They have come 
into use since 18t»9, in which year the Prince of 
"Wales, on his visit to Paris, had one sent over 
for the Princess's use. Though so well known 
and in such general use in Paris, it is currently 
believed that the late Mr. David Davies, of 
London, was the original builder of such car- 
riages about forty years ago ; he merely adopted 
the body of the cabriolet, furnished it with a 
driving-seat in front, and mounted it on four 
wheels instead of two ; be this as it may, they had 
been made in England for many years, but waited 
a good introduction ; this was efifected by his 
Royal Highness, at a time when their conve- 
nience and utility were at once appreciated, and 
they have been the means of giving much em- 
ployment since he gave the stamp of fashion 
that such carriages had long waited for. Their 
name, given by our French neighbours, savours 
of the " entente cordiale," as they would hardly 
adopt the name of our sovereign unless it found 
favour among them, and its use by the Prince 
of Wales is a coincidence as to name and nation- 
ality that is a fitting sequel. 

It may be interesting to some persons to know 
that another carriage— the waggonette— which 
has enjoyed great popularity for many years, 
was introduced by the late Prince Consort, in 
the year 1845. 

There are two well-appointed Victorias from 
France, and several also from London ; they are 
not so numerous, however, as one might expect, 
considering the approval they command. 

'i he landaus shown number thirty- three, 
and are mostly smaller and lighter than those 
shown in London in 18^2 and Paris in 1867 ; 
with very few exceptions, they have the im- 
proved heads, which fall in a single line, without 
breaks on the pointed parts, aa formerly. In 
addition to thia improvement^ twenty -one of 



them have the further improvement of a bil- 
ancing action to the head. 

Notwithstanding all the improvements nude k 
recent years in these carriages, as regards light- 
ness, style, fall of head, there yet remained the 
difficidty of raising the head quickly in case of 
rain. The first step to obviate this wu in 
invention by Morgan, that was worked by t 
screw on the driver*s scat acting on a series of 
cranks, pinions, and levers; but, althoogb 
highly ingenious, it was very complicated, aod 
liable to be thrown out of action on uneveo 
ground, or by any conditions preventing its free 
action. Another invention, by Martio, acted 
by a metallic rope passing over or under a leriec 
of wheels and levers. 

An advance towards a simpler method was 
that of Rock, whose plan was to raise the bead 
by the action of steel plate springs fixed und^ 
the wooden elbows. By this plan, a great deal 
of the space of the sitting room in the carriage 
was lost by the thickness of the timber both d 
the pillars and doors. 

Other improvements by Morgan, McKenne, 
Aldebert, Coward, Lenny, Harrison, Bort, 
Shanks, and Stokes, coneist in applying a spinl 
steel spring in various ways behind the upright 
pillars; that of Morgan is worked with concealed 
joints; the others mostly have the ordinary 
outside joints, to keep the doorway sqnare asd 
true for the action of the glasses. 

There are now eleven ]iatents for effecting 
this object. 'J hey are mostly set in action by » 
joint of the pillow-top, having a lever-arm o 
connection with the spiral spring. For tbeir 
succesaful application, the bodies must be made 
with nearly flat elbows, and the heads most fw 
much flatter than formerly, otherwise there u * 
possibility of the head rising when in ose. 

It is evident that the time is approachb^ 
when all landaus will be fitted with a btlanciog 
mechanism of some kind, as the convenience <A 
being able to open and dose such carriage* 
quickly is beyond all doubt. 

It may be said that the outside of t^ 
omnibus is not the place for ladies. Hove^ 
the difl&culty of getting to the outside swta a 
such that few Ifulies would formerly make tie 
trial. This diflBculty has now been removed by 
a simple arrangement in the omnibus, for pnvai* 
use, shown by Messrs. Fuller and Simp«oM| 
Leamington. It consists in making a ^'•Py^ 
opening in the front of the body and backer tw 
boot, provided with convenient carpeted stepj 
communicating with a large door. Thongn 
rciuiring a little care, to prevent a hat or bonw 
being crushed, it is a very simple contrivance. 

Taking the carriages as a whole, ^^^^^ 
bibitora seem, as usual, to have ^^^^ 
best who have sent such as they are in "^ 
habit of building, and have had time and (?*• 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Jui^t 25, 1878. 



709 



portimity to render perfect and really fit for nae ; 
there are Bome rather glaring examples of the 
opposite plan ; however, exhibitors have, in such 
an Assemblage of carriages, opportunities of learn- 
ing their weak points and avoiding them in future. 

There are this year a large number of car- 
riage drawings shown by professional carriage 
draftBmeD. Hatch and Cooper show a very 
considerable advance in the art, and, were 
it not for some extravagances and exaggerations 
of designs that most carriage-draftsmen occa- 
sionally run into, if they are not also coach- 
builders, would be highly commendable. But it 
is where designs for btate carriages are attempted 
that the weakness is apparent, both as to the 
design and decoration. It is in this direction 
that a careful study of the photographs 
of old foreign state carriages will aid 
the English designer ; tor, although the 
constmcdon is antiquated, and no longer 
saitable, some of the decorations have much 
beauty, and are well and skilfully applied. It 
is to be hoped that these works will be carefully 
preserved and rendered accessible after the dose 
of this Exhibition. 

No foreign countries exhibit carriage-draw- 
ings; a large number of such coloured side- 
views as are shown are sent from EIngland to 
to foreign countries, as London still sets the 
^on for carriages more than any other capital, 
ooach-builders from being annually visited by 
nsny parts of the world. 

It is much to be regretted that no carriage- 
drawings are sent from France, where a system 
of carriage-designing, little known at present in 
&gland, is bemg estabUshed, and is exerting 
ooaaiderable influence on carriage-building all 
over the continent of Europe. 

English carriage-drawings are mostly made 
to satisfy the eye, and to show to intending 
pttTchasers the type or style of the carriages 
that tie or can be built, whereas the French 
plan aims, by accurate, full-size <fra wings, or 
drawings to scale, to place every part in its proper 
petition and every detail correctly, s«» that the 
master or workman may be sure of the result 
^iog satisfactory when completed. The want of 
^ch training is apparent in the designs now 
uown for State carriages, not that such vehicles 
*re much wanted in England, but they are much 
DBed in some foreign countries, and the demand 
tt now ahnoet entirely supplied by France and 
weeontinent of Europe. 

With great reduction of the weight of car- 
ies, there has arisen a rage for straight lines 
^*1 angles, and, although some builders tiave 
^ombined them with much skill, others have 
^len into extravagancies and absurdities that 
^y their own condemnation, both as to the 
u^ign of the bodies and weakneaa of form in the 
iton-work 



Another defect, that seems still on the increase, 
is that of so cutting and shaping away the wood- 
work of the under-carriage that there is no 
strength left, and this deficiency is made up in 
a complicated set of iron plates and stays that 
would allow the wood itself to break on the first 
real trial of strength — when some deep rut or pro- 
jecting stone has to be passed over. In fact, 
such work b made more to please the eye than 
for real service on the road. 

Two carriages are shown by Messrs. Laurie and 
Mamer of London,and one by Messrs. Mc^ aught 
and Smith, of W« rcester, in which Sir J. Whit- 
worth's steel is used instead of iron. Although 
the metal is, in a high degree pure and 
dense, its use is at present experimental for car- 
riages, and time is required to ascertain if it 
fulfils in all respects the conditions necessary 
for such work. 

The present Exhibition shows a tendency 
towards still further reducing the weight of car* 
riages. It is probable that this will be checked 
as tramways become more generally used in 
towns and cities. It is frequently difficult, when 
private carriages get on the line of trams, to get 
them ofif, and this difficulty is much increased 
with light carriasrea, by reason of the wheels 
falling into the iron grooves ; and it often 
happens that either the wheels and under- 
carriage become seriously strained in freeing 
themselves, and this will cause the cost of 
repairing such carriages to become gradually 
more expensive, and produce increasing annoyance 
and inconvenience to their owners. 

The accessory or supplementary trades con- 
nected with the manufacture of carriages are 
better represented than at any former carriage 
exhibition, notwithstanding many important 
omissions. Among those unrepresented are 
axles, springs, cloth, morocco, leather, colours, 
Ac 

American hickory wheels are shown by Mr. 
James, the Newhaven Wheel Company, U.S.A. ; 
those of Mr. McKinlay, St. Catharine's, Ontario^ 
Canada, have not yet arrived. 

i hey are excellent examples of accurate work- 
manship, such as has not yet been attained in this 
country, fo'^ the want of the such appliances aa 
are in ordinary use in America. 

Mr. Hopton^ of London, shows a well-made 
London wheeL 

1 f late years a considerable trade has sprung 
up in the importation to this country of light 
American wheels; the freight of made-up 
wheels, however, adding much to the cost, 
has induced the manufacturers there to 
send over prepared spokes, turned and morticed 
stocks, and bent rims, thus effecting a con- 
siderable saving in freight on finished wheels or 
timber in its rough state. It is probable that 
the waste wood seirvea to raise steam for the 



710 



JOUBKAL OP THE 800IETT OF ARTS, Vclt 25, 187S. 



mftchineiy that prepares the -foished article, 
and thas helps to pay for Hs conversion. 

In carriage laces and siUcs the French and 
Oermans have been gradually ftdvaneing in 
quality beyond the English ; the French and 
German war having for a time stopped the 
regular supply, induced Messrs. Fry, of DnUin. 
to endeavour to equal the foreign products ; this 
they have attained with considerable success, 
and the results of their enterprise are shown in 
the south-east carriage gallery. The adoption 
of improved machinery has enabled them to do 
with great facility that which was most difficult 
and tedious in the old looms. 

On some of the carriage panels will be found 
some well-executed heraldry. This is sn art 
which had £allen into much neglect, but a 
revival has taken place latterly. 'Ihe mono- 
gram has taken the place of the widow's fonnal 
but orthodox heraldic lozenge ; besides being 
much used in making an effective group with the 
coronet or crest of noblemen and gentlemen. 
Beveral novelties, in the manner of arranging 
these matters, are shown on carriages in the 
Exhibition. 

It was rumoured that the Clothworkers* Com- 
pany of London had intended ofiering medals 
for carriage cloths, to be shown in the Carriage 
Exhibition of London ; but delays intervened, and 
there is no special separate show of cloths for the 
purpose. 

It is hoped«that the valuable medals the Com- 
pany ofiFer for competition at the Vienna Exhi- 
bition this year, iMli be of advantage to British 
manufacturers, as fore^ nations have recently 
been making great strides in the manufacture of 
cloth. It is, besides, an excellent support to 
other Companies that are endeavouring, with 
great hindrances and impediments, to bring 
their funds into use for the advantage of the 
manufactures they were specially formed to fos- 
ter, uphold, and improve. 

There is a small contribution of carriage 
glasses, from the eminent firm of Chance, of 
Birmingham. Although the consumption of 
plate glass for carriages is not so large as for 
buildings, mirrors, Ac, there is still a consider- 
able demand to be supplied ; and its proper 
manufacture hasj of late years, been neglected. 
The glass now usually supplied is too thin, and 
has a tendency to cause vibration and rattle; 
if very thick it becomes too heavy for a lady to 
lift when in a carriage ; it is, besides,, wanting in 
purity and whiteness, not being so good in colour 
as French glass, and, being soft, it has a ten- 
dency to become scratched in such service as 
carriages must undergo. 

Among ihe late foreign arrivals is a case of 
carvings by Td. Bowe, of Paris. Although they 
evinced much tikfll in designs and manipulation, 
but few ^ -the apeeimens are suited for carriage 



finish or decoration, hekb^ leo intricate ind 
delicate for aucli rough usage as evea dmg 
carriages must be titted to endure. HoveTir, 
they show a much greater faeihty for dmpk tk« 
is usual among fc^glish eoach-Garren, sDd in 
well worthy of notice. The carved fittingi for 
interiors of carriages are pretdly executed, and 
are better adapted for the end in view than tk 
carvings prepared for the external parts. 

Some cases of metal chasmg f*r carriages tie 
shown by Mr. Boy den and Mr. Hughefi. 

It is to be regretted that no Bpecime&fi of 
French metal chasing are shown in this deptft- 
ment, as the art has attained a high degree of 
perfection in Paris, and enables the cowh 
builders of that capital to execute orden k 
dress, and state carriages for Egypt, Tarker, 
South America, Mexico, and other countries, 
with comparative ease. There is an amount of 
intelligence, capacity, and enterprise f* lach 
work among our French friends, that w«m 
wanting in London ; or, if it exists, it k 
singularly backward in rendering itself avalUbk 

The beautiful invention of Messrs. OistoiN, 
of Paris, whereby artistic models are ref»rodaced 
in metal, at a moderate cost, is singularly Ap|>li- 
cable to such work. A thin hollow deposit of 
copper is made ; this is partiaUr filled with 
brass in a fluid state, and when cool the obj««t 
is as strong, and, at the same time, as diast^ad 
delicate as the original model. As electro- 
deposit of silver or gold renders the object fit 
for the decoration of such highly decorsted 
carriages as many ori^itals will only l»J 
or use, 

Mr. G. E. Holmes shows an interesting col- 
lection of the various woods used in the miiffl- 
facture of carriages in England ; it would be 
interesting to bring together similar collecih>35 
of the woods used in other countries for the sane 
purpose. 

Mr. C. Holnies shows leather and other wprk 
used in carriage- building, machine sewn. Tb<« 
have been difficulties in the application of sewing 
machines to such purposes, and the present 
examples show that they are in a fair war « 
being overcome. The same exhihitor show 
portions of carriages, in wood and iron, y^y 
prepared by machinery ; the latter may p^ 
useful hints to ooachsmiths and ironnwuf**" 
who prepare 'large quantities of snch stia** 
for coachbuilders* use, and might cnaWe tfccn 
to reduce the cost of production, notwithsitt<wig 
the increased cost of iron and fbeL 

For many years the late firm of Raworth |ffO* 
duced in Sheffield large quantities of excellw* 
carriage-axles forged by machinery ; and it * 
aurprising that the process has not heen mow 
generally adopted, as experience had long siirM 
proved how sound and good theforguigabywdi 
means can be made. 



JOURNAL OP THE BOOrBTY OP ARTS, Jvly 26, 1878. 



711 



A new and inexpensive process of coatiivg 
steel and iron goods vnth nickel has no repre- 
aeototive in the Exhibition. Polished pole- 
hooks, chains, driving. bar-ends, bits, stirmps, 
spnrs, &c , when treated by this process, can be 
kept clean and in good condition with one-tenth 
of the labour necessary when such articles are 
used as at present, when a very short exposure 
to water or danip air produces oxidation. 

A good collection of carriage -lamps is shown 
by Mr. Moore. There has been much change 
in form of late years, and large, strong, well- 
mtde lamps are required for the four-horse 
coaches so much used by country gentlemen ; 
they are fitted with argand burners, requiring 
great care in manufacture, powerful, well-ad - 
jnsted reflectors, and, from the great heat of the 
Same, require special precautions to prevent the 
top of the Ump being fused when in use. 

Mr. Wallis shows a model of an omnibus with 
improved ventilating roof. On this plan, with 
some modifications, all the best London omni- 
hosea are now built ; and the public owe a debt 
of gratitude to the inventor for showing how 
freA air can be introduced into such carriages 
without producing unnecessary drafts. 

Mr. Boswell shows a model of aa omnibus 
himg on two very hijfh central wheels, supple- 
Mnted by four smaller wheels at the comers, 
wC axles of which, being connected by cross 
Aains, lock the four end wheels simultaneously, 
•ad enable the vehicle to turn on little more 
tkin the ground it covers. 

A men J? the small vehicles in the east arcade 
ee invalid chairs, by Ward and Alderman ; 
fo*n»'»ol«tor8 by Ward and Johnson ; and some 
J*y light bicycles by Keen, and Smith and 
SMey. 

Mr. W. Cook shows a carriage-wheel with steel 
ilinoQ rods at.d elastic tyre, said to have been 
•wd three months on a physician's brougham ; 
It Aowa little sign of wear, and if it fulfils all 
fta conditions of a good wooden wheel, and is 
Ao noiseless and elastic, it will solve a difficult 
inhlem. 

There i>re J carriages from Scotland, and 2 
wWtt Ireland. 

A glance at the table of statistics shows that 
Aere are in the present Exhibition, 185 private 
•Wnagea, lf> public carriages, 8 old carriages 
* loan, and 1 1 wagons and carts, making a 
W of 220 vehicles. Of the private carriages, 
M are foreign, all being from Paris ; 8* from 
wwdon, and 91 from the provinces ; the exhi- 
Jw« of such carriages being 4 foreign, 46 
*«mIon, and 48 provincial— total, 98. 

W the drags, 2 are of London, and 1 of Paris. 

Of the Undaus, 20 are of London, 12 from the 
P^'ncee, and I from Paris. 

Of the broughams, 27 are of London, 1 6 from 
!*• provinces, and 2 from Paris. 



Of the Victoria phaetons, 13 are of London, 
18 from the provinces, and 1 from Paris. ' ' 

Of the other phaetons, 13 are of London,^lB 
from the provinces, and 1 from Paris. Kno-l^ifviy 

Of wagonettes, 2 are of London, 9 from the 
provinces. 

Of dog-carts, 1 is of London, and 23 from the- 
provinces. 

Of public carriagfes, 7 are of London, and 3- 
provincial. 

Of the 33 landaus shown, 21 are fitted witb 
balanced heads, on various ingenious plans, and 
of varying degrees of merit, most of them 
patented. 

Of the 9 carriages hung on C-springs with 
iron perch, 5 are of London, 2 provincial, and 2 
from Paris. 

London, like most other capital cities, is the 
principal seat of the carriage manufacture of the 
country it is in ; and on the present occasion, 
partly on account of the Exhibition being con- 
veniently placed for its manufactures, and partly 
to keep its productions before the public, is well 
represented ; indeed it contributes nearly as many 
carriages as come from all other places jointly, 
and ne^^rly all the most celebrated builders send 
specimens of their manufacture. The provinces 
are also well represented by nearly all the best- 
known builders. The carriages of France are 
few in number, and although there are contribu- 
tions from the house of Belvallette Freres, that 
has won so many medals at Industrial Exhibi- 
tions, in contrast with the best London carriages, 
there is still a wide interval. 

Nearly all the contributions show change, 
but not all in the best direction; many of 
the provincial carriages show points of great 
excellence, adapting them to country work and 
conveniences as regards easy draft, facility of 
access and capacity without great weight. 

Reverting, however, to the London carriages, 
it may be safely said that the best of them will 
safely bear comparison with and surpass those 
from any other place in the world, whether as 
regards style, design, general arrangement, dura- 
bility, or high finish. There is a dtstingit^ look 
about them, that is only approached by some of 
the best Paris ones, and in those cases only 
where the London models have been most closely 
copied. 

To the Society of A rts is due the credit of 
collecting the cabs now exhibited in competition 
for the money prizes offered by the Society. 
Under the present system people ride in cabs as 
cheaply as can reasonably be expected, but the 
Society seems to aim at a better service, not only 
in consideration of reduced taxation, but to meet 
public requirementH. 

The cabs now in use, whether on two or four 
wheels, do good service ; the former in taking 
people rapidly from place to place, and the latter 



712 



JOURNAL OP THB SOCIETY OF ARTS, July 25, 1873. 



in carrying the utmost number of pftssengera, 
with luggage, to or from railway Btationa, with a 
single horse. But as for a little enjoyment in 
leisure hours^ no provision is at present con- 
veniently available for those of moderate means 
who cannot afford to keep their own carriages. 
Every one does not want to be constantly whisked 
about in a vehicle that is inaccessible to most 
people beyond middle age, or to have their teeth 
shaken out in the cramped and unsightly and im- 
comfortable four-wheeler. Some comfortable and 
appropriate carriages, readily available, even at 
a slightly increased rate of charge, would be a 
great convenience to many residents, as well 
as to strangers. 

A great change has been accomplished in the 
other class of public vehicles plying for hire in 
London. Most omnibuses hava improved 
roofe, by which a current of fresh air 
circulates in the vehicles, rendering them not 
only more wholesome, but available to persons 
who formerly were unable to use them on account 
of the foul air certain to accumulate in such 
vehicles when carrying passengers. 

A new feature in locomotion is the equipment 
of four-horse coaches, now leaving London daily. 
These have mostly been put on the road by 
various noblemen and gentlemen who have, as a 
general rule, not looked upon the enterprise in a 
commercial Hght, or as a source of profit 

It is very desirable to encourage the visits of 
the most intelligent artisans to such periodical 
Exhihittons as are now bein^ held annually. 
Without previous arrangements, it is but too 
easy for them to dissipate their attention, and 
learn very little. In order to obviate this, and 
to render t^eir visits not only interesting, but of 
real service to them in their daily occupations, it 
has been found that if a few experts in a trade 
make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the 
contents of their department as to new inventions, 
improved processes, highly skilled workman- 
ship, new materials, (fee, they are in a posi- 
tion to point out to strangers and workmen who 
have not had the time or opportunity to study 
the class as a whole, the objects most worthy of 
notice. Her Majesty *b Commissioners have 
taken steps to afford this aid in the Carriage 
Department, by naming an j^xpert who is willing 
to offer his services where they may be required, 

APPENDIX. 
Public CAaaiAOBS. 



PaiTATB Cabbuoii. 



Hansom oabt . . 
FiHu>wh«el oabi 



Coaches . . . 

Drugs 

Burouchet.. . 
Landaus . . . 
Landaulettes 
Broaghams . 
Victorias . . . 
Phaetons . . . 
OmDibuses . 
Waggonettes 
Breaks 

Gigs 

Dog'Caiis . . . 
HuAsom cabs 



i 



1 
1 



2 

4 
I 



2 

e 

20 

3 

27 

8 
13 

• . 
2 
1 

• • 

1 

1 



o 

o 

e 



I 



10 



84 



e 
u 

• • 

16 
t 

18 
2 



1 

I 

U 

33 

} 

4i 

H 

33 

2 

11 

.. I I 

2 I J 

21 I II 

1 S 



91 l» 



CARaUkOBS). 



• 

Barouches . . . . 
Landaus .... 
Broughams .. 
Coach 






1 
I 



8 



2 
2 
1 



« 

■5 

c 

s 



1 

3 



1 

5 

3 



2 ' S 



Old Loan OA>iaiA«Ba. 



State coaches . . . . . 
Neapolitan carriole, 

Chariot 

Flemish carriage , 
Barouche ....«..•. 



• . * . • 



Waggons and cart 



Gross total 




SUMMAKT. 

Total number of Privnte carriages .. •• ^*^ 
„ „ Public „ 

„ „ Old loan „ 



I 







• 




■ 


(3 


i 




1 


1 


a 


• 

3 


1 


s 




& 


• ■ 


4 


7 


11 


. • 


3 


2 


5 


.. 1 


7 


9 


16 



Total .. 
Waggons and caits 

Gross total 



II 

"5 



No public omnibus ; 1 broogham and 1 Iw^* 
eland ; 1 gig, 2 dog-carts, and 1 paik pUet«.i 



Irel 
Scotland. 



BxHIBlTOltS. 

XiOndon • JJ 

Provinces .. .. • *J 

France ». .. ' 



Total 



99 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, July 2S, 1878. 



718 



Tnu YAtmr or Oasbiaoh Ivpobtib aitd Exportbb 
crro AMD nunc Yaeious Coxmriam, 



OOUNTRlEa 



IBAKCB. 
Ouriiget ^... 

BXLOIUH. 
Owrin^es outs, and wag- 
gon*, itnd parte Um«of 

EOLLAIO). 
Cknuyes 

fiPAIX. 
CkrHaiei (ez<!htsiya 
_ cart M and waggons). 

AU^TBIA. I 

Cknugea (cxchmve of < 

(art« and va^goos) I 

HKITED HTATES. ( 

Cinu^ I 

WITED KI.VGDOM. ( 

CirriigM ..f all jwrrta, «*x- { 

_«^nuIwayf:arTiafe«... ( 



DiPOaTS. 

Fbr Home 
OoDaumption. 

£ 
10,418 
10,0U3 
40,646 

4.889 

6.365 
10.S78 
13.119 
10.404 
lO/ii'O 
l-i.lOO 
10,9>i0 

1,980* 

3,4iy» 

2.700 

Not 
distinguiiihed 



EXF0RT8. 

Oomntio no* 
duoo. 



£ 

18»,«27 

76.3*4 

lOO.lftS 

9B,685 

46.112 

54 985 

8.818 

5,542 

8.814 

Not 
dlatioguiahed. 

91.730* 
100,770 
160,240 

83.IH1 

92,694 

67.273 

63,fi05 

6e,*238 

67,657 



'Ibe^gnmior Anatria ara toae the total importa and exporta. 



ilPOlT OF TBI JVDO« OF T«l OoAOmCAKBfllB' CoM- 

J*5T ov THB Drawings bint i?r CoMPBTmoir for 
mn P&izB Medals amd GBttTiPiCATBs.* 

The judges appointed by the court of the worsbipfuj. 
Oompaor of Coachinakers and Couchhrtmess Makers o 
Lmdon, to eximtne the drawings of carriages and part^ 
B^ c^niiges 8*<nt in oompetiliun the medals, money 
Pnt^and certificates, &c., &c., offered by the Company, 
mH to report us follows : — 

Tb« drawings smi in wen fur tnnre nnnterous than 
iMt year, there being' 27 competitorM and 62 drawings. 

Smdo of the oompelitoTB were exiiadnd. by reason of 
fair drawings not being made in acoordance with the 
toditiona pnblishfHl by the Company. 

Bovfrer, most of them seem to have fairiy understood 
vim WHS required by the Company, and it is hoped that 
ghk ipj^ advantage of the means ot exhibiting the best 
ncviiij^ at the Carriage Exhibition, held this year at 
■•sih K^iaington, the prists offered annaally by tht- 
wnpany will become better known and more keenly 
Wspet^ for, and each year show a higher average of 
Ul in drawing. 

In oonsidering the drawings sent in, there seems to 
••» v»?ry genentl want of knowledge in free- hand draw- 
K >4 a preliminary training before special carriage 
fc^ing; the consequence is a poorness of design, tlmt 
m^n tnintng would prevent. 

"^Ws is also an evident want of general knowledge of 

C^riaj^ oonatruotion as a whole among the competitors. 

£*cli competitor seemed to hive a fair knowledge of 

MOwn department, but when he tried to combine the 

'wk of other departments with his own, the n*sult in 

•toy aiM>« is unsatisfaotwy. A good training in the 

JBAnology of carringe building, as proposed by the 

"dety or Arts, will tend greatly to strengthen future 

•wp-titors in the means of prodifbing satisfiiotory 
MBta. 

I ^t* jndgPB have not considered the work of any com- 
NHor of anffif-i^-nt merit to justify th«m in reoommend- 
■% lh<» crtiirt to confer the fret^lom of the Company this 
7»- Thny, however, recommend that, oonsid*'ring the 
P^t inernase of comp^^titors, the company should in- 
••M^ the number of medals and money prist's to be 
IJwW in future yean by the jndges, and continue to 
w the freedom to such candidnte as shows a high 

•RarsRsd to at pafs T06. 



(degree of narit, espooklly m the freedom aaems to b« 
«onaidered a distinction eagerly sought after. 

Afker a careful examination of the drawings sent in 
ifor competition, the judges award as follows, vix. : — 

1st Prise (the Company's silver medal, £3, and cer- 
tificate) to Mr. George Fleming fiudd (the winner of the 
first prize last year^, ooaohbody maker, of No. 3, Cum- 
bt^rland-street, Tythinfi", Worcester, for a set of three 
drawings, as follows : — 1st. An elli|:i^c spring barouche, 
with working section. 2nd. A *' C " and underspring* 
brooghim, with working sections. And 3id. An elliptio 
sprin;^ landau, with working sections. 

2nd prise (the Comp my'a silver medal, £2; and cer- 
tificate) to Mr. James Brown, foreman, 18. Kingsmead- 
street, Bath, tor a set of two drawings, as follows : — 1st. 
A machanical drawing of a landau, to open and shut 
from the driver's seat) with sections thereof; and 2nd. 
A design for a T cart. 

3rd prise (the Company's bronse medal and certificate^ 
with £1 added by the right worshipful the master) to 
Mr. G^eorge Edward H«dmes, foreman, London-road, 
Deurby, f >r a drawing of an elliptio spring barouche, 
showing the front side and back ele\'ations, with working 
sections, and two views of a self-acting folding step. 

In addition to the above prizes, the judges award the 
certificate of the company to each of the following, vis. : 
— ^To Mr. Benjamin Laws, foreman, 413, Liverpool- road^ 
Ittlington, for four drawings, viz.: — Ist. An imperial 
phsBton, showing fkx>Dt, back, and side views. 2nd. A 
single brougham, showing the same views. 3rd. A " C" 
HUil underspring barouche, with like views, and under- 
carriage ; and 4th. Drawings of springs and axles. 

To Mr. John P. Ltke, foreman, 1, Philip-street, 
Westminster, for the drawing of a dress ooa^ wiUk 
working sections. 

Hbrbbht M. Holmbs, Master. 
Jno. Holland. Upper Warden. 
Gborob N. HoopBEi, Renter Warden. 
Jos. Pbtbbs, Past Master. 
W. T. Thorn, Past Master. 
Jno. F. Woodall, Past Master. 



Dbsghiption op Hbr Majbsty's Statb Coach. 

Finished in the year 1761, the most superb carriage 
ever built, designed by Sir William Chambers, and 
executed under his directions. The paintings executed 
by C'priani. 

The front panel, Britannia seated on a throne, holding 
in her hand a staff of Li' erty, attended by Religion, 
Justice, Wisdom, Valour, Fortitude, Commerce, Plenty, 
and Victory, presenting her with a garland of laurel ; 
in the back-ground, a view of St Paul's and the rirer 
Thames. 

The right door, Industry and Ingenuity, giving a 
cornucopia to the G«nius of England. 

The panels on each side of right door. History, re- 
cording the reports of Fame and Peace, burning the 
implements of war. 

The back panel, Neptune and Amphitrite issuing 
from their palace in a triumphant car, drawn by sea 
horses, attended by the Winda, Rivers, Tritons, Naiads, 
&c., bringing the tribute of Uie world to the British 
shore. 

Upper part of beck panel is the royal arms, beautifully 
ornamented with the Order of St. G^rge, the rose, 
shamnx^k, and thistle entwined. 

The left door, Maie, Minerva, and Mercury, sap- 
porting the imperial crown of Qreat Britain. 

The panels on eai^h side of left door, the liberal Arts 
and Science protected. 

The fh>nt and four quarter-panelf over the paintingB 
are plate glass. 

The whole of the carriage and body is richly orna- 
mented with laurel and carved work, beantifhllT gilt. 
The length, 24 feet; width, 8 fbet 3 inohM; hei^ I' 



714 



jnuaNAL op THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Jolt 26, 1878 



f<H»t; len^^ of pole, 12 feet 4 incbet; weight. 4 tons. 
The camaire and body of the coach is oompoeed mb 
follows: — Of four large Tritons, who support the body 
by four braces, covert with red morocco leather, and 
ornamented with gilt buckles. The two figures placed 
in front of the carriage bear the driver, and are repre- 
sented in the action of drawing by cables eztendin^c 
round their shoulders, and the cranes and sounding 
shells to announce the approach of the monarch of the 
Ocean ; and those at thn bHck carry the imperial fasc^'S, 
topped with tridents. The driver's foot-lKMuti is h large 
scallop shell, ornamented with bunches of re<^ and 
other marine plants. The pole represents a bundle of 
lances ; the splinter bar is composed of a rich moulding, 
issuing from beneath a voluted shell, and each end 
terminating in the head of a dolphin ; and the wheels 
are imitated from those of the ancient triumphHl chariot. 
The body of the coach is composed of eight palm trees, 
which, branching out at the top, sustain the roof : and 
four angular trees are loaded with trophira allusive to 
the victories obtained by Great Britain, during the late 
glorious war, supported by four lion's heads. On the 
centre of the roof stand three boys, representing the 
genii of England, Scotland, and Ireland, supporting the 
imperial crown of Great Britain, and holding in their 
hands the sceptre, sword of State, and ensigns of 
knighthood ; th^^ir bodies are adorned with festoons of 
laurel, which fall from thence towards the four comers. 
The inside of the body is lined with rich sotrlet em- 
bossed velvet, superbly laced and embroidered with 
gold, as follows. In the centre of the roof is the star, 
encircled by the collar of the Order of the Garter, and 
surmounted by the imperial crown of Great Britain ; 
pendant, the George and dragon ; in the comers, the 
rose, shamrock, and thistle entwined. Thn hind louni^e 
is ornamented with the badge of the Order of St 
Michael and St George : and on the front the badge 
of the Guf^lph and Bath, ornamented with the rose, 
shamrock, and thistle. The hind seat-fall has the b idge 
of St. Andrew, and on the front the b tdge of St. Patrick, 
adorned with the rose, shamrock, thistle, and oak leaf. 
The hammer-cloth, of the same costly materials. The 
harness, for eight horses, is made of red morocco leather, 
and decorated with blue ribbons, the Royal arms, and 
other ornaments, richly gilt ; and it is used when Her 
Majesty goes in state, drawn by eight cream-coloured 
horses, and is kept in the Royal Mews, Pimlico. 



The Lord Mayor's State Coach. 

This coach was built in the year 17o7. An entry in 
the BritiBh Chronicle of Wednesday, the 9th November, 
1767, states that Sir Charles Asiril, Knt., attt*nded by 
the aldermen, sheriffW, and other officers of the City, went 
in the new stnte coach, drawn by *• six fine roan horses, 
to the Three Cranes, and being attended by several of the 
companies* barges, went from thence to Westminster, 
where he was sworn into the high office of Lord Mayor 
of this City, before the barons of the Exchequer, &c" 
It would appear probable, therefore, that this was the 
first occasion of its public use by the Lord Mayor. 

In 1777 extensive repairs and adornments wore made 
to the coach by a Mr. Jacob. 

On the 27th September, 1778, a rep >rt was presented 
to the Court of Common Council, in which it is stated, 
"I'hat the present state conch was built in 1757, by 
subscription of £60 each from the several aldermen then 
under the chair, and the aldermt^n entered into an agree- 
ment that every gentleman thereafter elected alderman 
should on bis admission subscribe £60 towards the ex- 
pense of building the coach, and when elected mayor 
£100, which £100 was to be idlowed him for ornamenting 
and beautifying the same." 

At the same time the then proprietors of the coach, 
having relinquished their righU therein to the Corpora- 
tion, the Common Council directed that measures should 



be taken for its due preservation, and it hu naoe Hoi 
rime been kept in repair by the Generul Farpotei Com- 
mittee. 

By whom the coach was built or the carringt execota! 
cannot now with any certainty be ascerUinnL Tbe 
pands are said by some to have been punted by Cipriioi, 
and the heraldic devices have been attributed to (^tt<s, 
one of the foundation members of the Roy til Actdemr, 
who was also coach-painter to King George III. The 
statement of Smith, in <' Nollekens and bis Tmttr tkt 
after the present royal state coach was built, in 1762, tk 
old one was purchased by the City of London, uA Utc 
panels repainted by Dance, appears from the entria 
before given to be without foundation. 

The under-oarriage, whicL is rihly carred and gilt, 
has in front a pair of marine figures supporting the m\ 
of the driver, in front of which projects a larg« icalbp 
shell, forming the footboard. 

Above the hind axletree is an open gilt framevor^ (o 
wbidi the braces supporting the coach are attached; thf 
ends of the framework are ornamented with tvofj^iiffiai, 
and in the centre is the shield of the City arms, mppoitai 
by figures of Commerce and Plenty. 

The perch, which is painted Indian red and picVed (mt 
with g^ld, is double, and terminates in dolphioi* h«di. 

The four wheels, which resemble those of snriat 
triumphal chariots, are carved and painted pad, lai 
partly gilded, having maaaive gilt bosses oormn; Um 
wheel -boxes. 

The body of the coach ia not supported by spriojii. b^ 
suspended upon four thick black leath^ braces, Ui^gm 
with large gilt brass buckles of spirited deapi «x^ 
bearing fiie City arms. 

The framework of the carriage is also flndy c»r^ 
and gilt throughout. 

The roof is painted red and ornamented wiihrigy 
gilt vases. The centre was formerly occupied by i p^ 
of four boys supporting baskets of fruit and flo«t«^ 
truncated base of which still remains, and is ^^^ 
with the City arms, from which omamffltalgiHKiw- 
work trails over the remainder of the roof. 

The upper intervals of the body, except at the » 
are filled with plate-glass ; above each door is » ^^^ 
cap, with wings, surrounded with scroll- work; u* 
between the upper and lower pan^ds a B>man trophr.^ 
helmet, spears, and flags. At the lower an«;U of"* 
body are dwarf figures, emblematic of the foar qwito* 
of the globe. The smaller enrichments aboat tho [aika 
as shells and flowers, are idso admirably c*rT«i a* 
grouped. Over the back panel are a serpent snd i^ 
typical of Wisdom and Innocence. , 

The lower panels, which are admirably piinted, «» 
as follows : — 

The front panel— Faitli, Hope, and Cawrity; Fna 
beside a sacrificial altar, supporting Charity, H^pe f*^ 
ing to St. Paul's Cathedral. . 

Lower back panel — ^The Genius of the City,**** 
Riches and Plenty pouring money and fnii« iaj* ^ 
lap ; a large ship in the background, and bales ui m^ 
chnndise in front. , , 

Tipper back panel— The Genius of the City, at^^ 
by Neptune, receiving the repreaentativea of ^'•^'j^ 
Commerce from all the quartets of the globe; tl*»** 
and capital of the monument in the backgmoni 

Right side door— The Genius of the City thwB» 
having in her hands the sword and soeptre; ^"ff ^ 
senting to her a Lord Mayor, over whose sbc6»«** 
holds a ¥rreath. On the left of the picture, oo » ^^^ 
are grouped the sword, mace, and cap of Maint««*»^ 
the spire of old St. Paul's in the background, wtt* 
small panel beneath are the stafT of 'ii'TCvrj, *oi 
cornucopia emblematioal of Peace and Plfnty. 

Side panels.— The left repr»«cnU Truth wUh W 
mirror, and the right Temperance holding the bndkw I 

Left side door.— The Gt*nius of tiie City standmf ^ 
her right hand on the civic shield. Mars, ih* ♦«P«^JJ 
deity of citixens, pointing with his 9ptJkT to a aoroll "« 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IETT OP ARTS, Jolt 26. 1878. 



716 



J Trath, bearing the inacripiion, ** Henri Fitsalwin« 
189 " (the flret mayor) ; the tower of London, with some 
hippinic in the background. In the small panel beneath 
• the City stiite sword and scales of Justice. 

Side panels.- -The left panel depicts Jostioe with her 
word and scales, and the right Fortitude. 

In shields at the lower angles of each door, and of the 
root and back panels, are emblasoned the arms of the 
iord Mayor for the time being and those of the City of 
jondon. 

The coach was entirely re-gilded in Noyember, 1868. 
nd the paintings carefully cleaned in 1869, when 
inmerous coats of yaroish, which preyiously obecured 
hem. were remoyed, and the ooaoh was re-lmed, and a 
Lew hammer-doth supplied. 

Irish Lord Chancellor's carriage (catalogue number 
1,979). Date 1780. Panels decorated with allegoric 
ointings by W. Hamilton, E.A. 

Neapolitan carriole (catalogue number 8,979). Date 
tsrly 18th century. 

Flemish carriage (catalogue number 3,979). Date 
1,760. 

Bwiss sledge (catalogue number 3,980). 17th or 18th 
wntnry. Made of lime wood. 

English sledge (catalogue number 3,980). 17th or 
I8th century. 

Japanese sedan chair. 19th century. 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 

His Rotal Hiohnbsh thb Princb of Walks held acon- 
isrence on Monday morning last, at Marlborough-house, 
)f representatives of the principal City companies, with 
he view of discussing how technical education might be 
}romoted by those companies acting in concert with the 
[ntemational Exhibitions. The conference was attended 
>y the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, the Eirl of Car- 
larvon (chairman of the Board of Management of the 
Dommisnoners), Sir William Anderson, K.C.B., and by 
he following representatiyes of companies : — Mr. L. A. 
3nthwaite (Blacksmiths), Mr. John Addison TClock- 
nak^^, Mr. J. Basley White (Clothworkers), Mr. 
!>. N. Hooper (Coach and Harness Makers), Mr. Henry 
ISapel (Coopers), Mr. John Loat and Mr. £. Burkitt 
[Curriers), Mr. 8. C. C. Fish (Drapers), Mr. H. W. 
Jewesbury (Dyers), Mr. James Spicer (Fishmongers), 
Ifr. T. Mowlem Burt (Glass Sellers), Mr. H. W. John- 
K>n (Gold and Silver Wire Drawers), Alderman Stone 
, Haberdashers), Mr. H. A. Smith (Ironmongers), Mr. 
las. Winter, jun. (Joiners), Mr. J. Russell Freeman 
'Masons), Mr. M. D. Longden (Mercers), Mr. Charles 
iordon ^Merchant Taylors), Mr. S. M. Hubert (Plas* 
lerers), Mr. H. Harris (Sadalers), Mr. J. G. Nichols and 
Mr. J. V. Shaw (Statbners), Mr. G. Offer (Tin Plate 
tVorkereV Mr J. £. Saunders (Wheelwrights), Mr. A 
jKllett (Woolmen). Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., and Major- 
general Scott also attended the conference. 

The Lord Major haying introduced the seyeral repre- 
entatives to his Royal Highness, 

The Prinee of Wales said the interest which the City 
^mpanies felt in the subject which had called them 
ogether was shown by the number of the gentlemen 
vhom they had deputed to represent them, and such a 
nreting proved to him that the object was already half 
ittained. His Royal Highness stated that he had 
eamt that some of the Companies intended to send to 
he present Exhibition scholars attached to the schools 
mdcT their care, and he trusted the other Companies 
roold follow their example, and thus co-operate with 
be Commissioners in their great task of promoting 
he study of science and art as allied to productive in* 
Ittstry. 

Lord Oanutfvom s&id it was to aid in the work of 
Dying science and art with productive industry that 



the scheme of the Annual International Exhibitions at 
South Kensington had been started, and, ^reat as had 
been the difficulties in the way of an Exhibition to be 
held every year, he was siinguine of its ultimate success. 
He thought that bodies of such influence and wealth as 
the City Companies could giye the Commissioners much 
assistance. The promotion of technical education through 
the Exhibitions wasin the interest of all of them. His lord* 
ship entered into details of the scheme of Exhibitions, 
and pointed out that every branch of industry had a year 
allotted to it for its representation, thn^ or four branches 
being included in each year's Exhibition. Lord 
Carnarvon acknowledged the great intt^rest which the City 
companies had always taken in the work of public educa- 
tion, as manifested by the numerous schools under their 
management. He recommended that, as a present step, 
the schools themselves should be sent to the Exhibition, 
or certain scholars should be selected, who should attend 
the daily lectures which the Commissioners had arranged 
to be given in the presence of objects themselves. He 
also suggested that the City companies might place 
tickets of admission at the disposal of the London School 
Board, who might select scholars to rec^-ivo them as 
prizes. He concluded by saying that if Great Britain 
intended to keep the prominent industrial position she 
had acquired amongst all nations, she must devote her 
whole energy to the advancement of the people in the 
arts and sciences applied to industry. 

The Lord Major acknowledged the accuracy of Lord 
Carnarvon's statement, that the City Companies had 
already done much to promote the cause of technical 
instruction. Some — for instance the Clothworkers and 
Coachmakers — had made grants of prizes for the most 
meritorious productions of workmen engaged in various 
branches of trade. Others had introduced scholarships 
in science and art, whilst the Stationers had instituted a 
hii^hly successful series of lectures. These had been the 
efforts of single company's, but much more important 
results could be obtained by union, and especially by a 
union promoted by his Royal HighnrM. His lordship 
thought the idea of conncctinsr the City Companies in 
promoting the objects of the Exhibition Commissioners 
was well worthy of the attention of the City Companies, 
and that they ought to respond readily to the Commis- 
sioners* proposals. He concluded by proposing the 
following resolution :— " That this meeting coiSially 
sympathises with the objects for which it has oeen called, 
and as far as lies in its power, promises the best support 
and co-operation of the City Companies.'* His lordship 
added that at this period of the year it mii?ht be difficult 
to get some of the Companies to make grants of money, 
or to otherwise move in the matter ; and he suggested 
that it would be advisable that h precise explanation of 
the action which it was wished that the Companies 
flhouM take should be communicated to them, in order 
that there might be unity of action. 

Alderman Stone seconded the resolution. He thought 
that those Companies which had no special trade of their 
own to supp<irt ought to be the foremost in supporting 
schemes for the benefit of the public at large ; and, 
speaking for his own Company (Haberdashers), he 
thought he could promise support. 

Mr. Cole, C.B., explained that the Commissioners had 
determined that, during the months of August, September, 
and October, schools should be admitted to the Exhi- 
bition by ticket, at three-pence each scholar, and that, 
during Uie month of August at least, frequent lectures 
each day would be given on tho various subjects and 
processes exhibited. He suggested that the City Com- 
panies, in addition to sending their own schools to at- 
tend these lectures, might purchase tickets, and place 
them at the disposal of the London School Board, to 
enable them to award them as prizes. Such tickets 
miffbt iUso be distributed among other public schools. 

The resolution was carried unanimously. 

His Bojal Highneii said that he (eit sure that, after 



716 



JOURNAL OF TEE 800IETT OP ARTS, Jvht 2«, 18TO. 



ffa8 dueiMBdn fbey hsd had, the gentlemen preee ni 
XDiist be ooBTiooed of the iaiportaace of the qui'stion 
which hod called them together. He svggested that 
they ahoiild endeaTOur to inteveei the Companiea thej 
seyerally represented in the matter, and should let the 
Board of maniigement of her Majeety's OommiMioners 
know the decision which each Company arrived Jtt, 

The Lord Mayor expressed his acknowledinnents to 
his Royal Highness for having called the Conference 
together, and the gentlemen present then retired. 

The Company of Coach-makers and Coach-harness 
Makers have ofl^red the three following' prizes, £3 and 
their certiBcate, £2 and their certifioate, £1 and their 
certificate, to foremen, clerks, workmen, and apprentices 
in the coachboilding trade in the United Kingdom fur 
the best reports on the present intemationul exhibitiun 
of carriages at South Kensington. The reports, with a 
private mark, are to be sent to the Company's Htll, 
Noble-street, Falcon-square, £.Cm on or before the 30th 
October next, accompanied with a letter bearing the same 
private murk. Such letter to contain the nume, address, 
age, and position of person sending in such repm-t. The 
reports will be adjudicated upon by the standing com- 
mittee of the company. 



The number of visitors admitted to the Exhibition on 
Thursday, July l7th, was as follows : — Season tickets, 
166; on payment of Is., 2,887 ; toUl, 3,043. On Kridiy, 
season tickets, 166; on payment of Is., 2,286; total, 
2,442. On Saturday, season tickets, 867 ; on payment 
of Is., 3,686 ; total, 4,662. 

The number of vinitors jidmitted to the Exhibition 
dnring the week ending Saturday, July 12th, was as 
follows: — Season tickets, 1,680; on payment of 2s. 6d., 
946 ; on payment of Is., 14,006 ; total, 16,680. 

The number admitted on Monday wa8, season tickets, 
120 ; on payment of la., 1,982 ; total, 2,102. On Tues- 
day, season tickets, 141 ; on payment of Is., 2 697 ; 
total, 2,838. On Wednesday, season tickets, 137 ; on 
payment of 2s. 6d., 636 ; total, 772. 



EXHIBITIOVS. 



Vieima Exhibition. — Cheap excursions are now start- 
ing every Saturday from Liondon, viil Antwerp, to 
Vienna and back. Fore cibin and third-class rail, 
£4 6s. 6d. ; fore cabin and second-class rail, £<3 12s. 6d. ; 
best cabin and st^wnd-dnss* rail, £6. All tickits avail- 
able for one month. For tickets and further informa- 
tion, apply to Charles Atkins, 1 Water-Ime, Great 
Tower-street, London. — In the supplementary efttimates 
for the year, presented to Purliara«-nt this week, appears 
a sum of £14,000 as an additional grant for the pur- 
poses of the Exhibtion. This second grant is more than 
double the amount, £6,000, previously voted. — Nature 
says: — **Les Hichesses Naturelles du Globed I'Expo- 
sition TJniverselle de Vienne," by M. Bernardin, is the 
title of a short pamphlet called forth by the Vienna 
Exhibition, the author's object being to show that most 
of the industrial materials obtained from the animal, 
vegetable, and mineral kingdoms within the last 40 
years have been lighted upon by chance, and that if 
competent men were to make a thorough investigation 
of the subject, Nature might be made to contribute to 
industry a vastly greater amount of material than she 
at present does. — The Board of Directors of the Vienna 
Com Exchange have resolved that an international com 
and seed market shall be held at Vienna on the 6th and 
Wh of August, 1873, which, taking place during the 
Universal Exhibition, will offer an opportunity to agri- 
"" "^ ^ -dealers in agricultural produce to hold a 

*n Vienna. 



oui 



OBITKAS.Y. 



Lord W b athmy. ~By the death of Lord Wcslbii?^ 
Society has lost a distinguished msmber. There is i> 
necessity to repeat in these oolomns any accosnt «f i 
life, the history of whiah has atready been ginn vith 
sufficient folness by the daily pieM. It nmy be nsfa^ 
to mention that, since he became a memWof the Soeitff 
in 1863, Lord Weetbury oftsa eoatributHl fihable 
assistance to mnny of the obj<*ets the Sjcarty hAiin riet. 
In 1861 he was elected a Vice-Prssidem cif tbt Soeictj: 
but it was in connection with tbo Fine Arts Copmgfat 
Act of 1862 th it he rendered mosi fspseial sonrke. U 
is not too much to say that, without his co-opcntbi, 
6r8t as Attorney General, and after wardi ai hsi 
Chancellor, this Bill could not— at all eren'i,tt ti«i 
time — have been passed. The value of the privilflga 
thus obtiined for artists of every sort needs nocummeot 
It was indeed un anomaly in our lej^d system tk&t lot 
so long a time the producer of a work of art §hoaU oA 
have had equal privileges with Uie author of t work of 
literature. That so important a boon wa« coofOTedapoe 
the world of «rt though the agency of the SoiietT,mu* 
ever be a source of gnU^ification to its iDeml«ri,«M i 
should not be forgotten that amongst those wholaUiorai 
for so desiralde an end, a for6aiO0tidtt0emaitb68aip*i 
to the late Lord Chancellor. 

Sir Bavld Salomons.— The death of SirDatid S«i). 
mons took place on Friday, the 18th inst The drttts?d 
was in his seventy-sixth year, having been bora ui IX 
In 1835 he was elected a Sheriff uf Lon«lon; in IW^he 
became an aldt-rnian, and in 1855 he attiinrd tfef 1^" 
Mayoralty. He had previously sut for a rfioii tim* n 
parliament as member for Greenwich. InltoSt**** 
gained his old seat, and retained it np to ibe u»« f 
his death. The baronetcy was confeired upon hia ^ 
October, 1869. Sir David became a msinbtf ^ tb 
Society in 1849. 



V0TICE8. 



SUBSCEIPTKUIS. 

The Midsummer subscriptions are ^•' f^ 
should be forwarded by cheque or Post-oitfft 
order, crossed ** Coutts and Co.," and made 1^2; 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Davenport, Finftutal 

oiHoer. 

THE LIBBABT. 

The following works have been presents t* 
the Library: — 

The Edinborgh University Qdendsr, 1873-K ft»" 
sented by the University. ^_. 

The Twentieth Report of the Science and Art P^ 
ment of the O-mmittoe of Council on Educ*0» ^^ 
sent<^d by the Department. . . 

The Charter, Bye-laws, and List of Meroben ci u« 
Institution of CivU Engineers. Presented by the U»»- 

tution. ^\.MV 

Heavv Rifled Ordnance. Speech of Mr. Hu:k, Mt, 
in the House of Ct^mmons, on the 23rd of Jttn«r ^5'** 
Presented by Mr. Bashlcy Britten. 



A seam of ooal has (says the Uver^J^ 
Pott) ju«r been dii^covered at 8«ugball Masfie, Cb«Mw, «^ 
opemtions are about to be conim««5id fwr *h« *? "Lj 
shafts. Frenh coal -fielda have also, it is 
naartho 



jjsodvcia 



JOURH All 09 THB SOOIETT OF AS3C&, Aio*vtir 1, JMi. 



717 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,080, Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, AUaU&T 1, 187*. 






Aivoirsi 



V8 BT THB COTTHLTL. 



The Programme for next year is in preparation, 
•ad will shortly be published. The subjects will 
remain the same as at the last Examination. 

With reference to the miggestions made at the 
Conieraioe, the Cknmoil have decided as follows : — 

1. They do not see sufficient reason for restoring 
Ae subject of Latin. 

1 The role which prevents a candidate who has 
OBoe obtained a first-dMi oerttfioate in a subject 
from being again examined in that subject with 
• lisv to gaining a priae, has, in accordance with 
At wish expressed at the Cknufermice, been le- 
ninded. In future, therefore, a candidate who 
)m obtained a first-class certificate in a sulgect 
Buy be again examined in that subject, but not 
Bare than one first-class certificate in any subject 
vQl be counted for the Prince Consort's prime, and 
BO CBM i idate will be entitled to take a prize oi the 
Mine grade twice in any subject. 



nCHVOLOeiCAL SZAMISATIOirS. 

The subjects in which examinations were held 
^ year, namely, Gotten lianufacture. Paper 
Itoiifacture, Silk Manufacture, Steel Manufacture, 
Mid Carriage-building, will be retained in the Ex- 
Homstions of next year, with the addition of 
3oth Manufeusture, GFlass-making, Pottery and 
Porcelain, and the Manufacture of G(as. 

^Hie Programme is in preparation, and will be 
?*d^hshed as soon as possible. 



BK JOiXPH WEITWOBTR'S PEIZE8 FOR 

S88ATB. 

Sr Joseph "Whitworth bas offered prizes of 
ke Talne of one hundred pounds, to be awarded 
^ ^ Society of Arts, for the best Essays on 
k "Advantages that would be likely to arise if 
ifiway oompaoies and limited companies gone*- 



rally were each to establish a saanngs-bank for the 
working classes in Hieir employ." With this ojB^ 
ihe has transmitted the following observations : — 

1. Is not a good rate of interest, with perfect 
security, more likely to promote the babit of 
saving than any other plan that can be devised P 

2. Sir Jose]^ Whitworth suggests that the 
interest to be pftid on the d^Kieits should be the 
same as the dividend, with a guarantee that it 
dyJl not be lias than 4 per oent. 

3. By payiM the same rate of interest as the 
dividend earaM, there is a bond of union estab- 
lished between labour and ca^tal. 

4. An Act of Parliament might make the depo- 
sits of the induiitrial olnsncw tt^ first charge on the 
estate. 

6. The pBoprieior of a private establishment, 
wbose profits are not made Imown, might under** 
take to pay, aay 7 or 8 per cent, when the profits 
reached tbat amount or move, the i>roprietor giving 
an midertakittg to pay not less than 4 per cent. 

6. Id the ease ol Agriculture, each county might 
have its savings-bank for the savings of both men 
and wooBMB in the saad eoaiity, and the interest to 
be paid might be 6 or 7 per cent. 

7. To do this there might be a rate collected 
along with the poor-rate, to be called the interest 
or industrial rate. 

6. As this rate incieased, no doubt the poor-rate 
would diminish, and if the habit of saving became 
general among the labouzkig classes, there would 
probably be grei^ gain to the propertv-owning 
olassfls, considering the great vaiieiy of ways in 
wlki<^ they have now to contribute for the support 
of the unfortunate who now make no provision for 
themselves. 

9. In order to realise what might be the pro- 
bable saving to those who encourage the savings- 
banks thus suggested, Sir Joseph Whitworth points 
to the list of cnarities, also institutions, such as in- 
firmaries, hospitals, imion-houses, prisons, police, 
ftc., ftc. 

10. In any estabHshmeai, if only one-third of 
those employed deposited savings, they would 
have immense influence over the other two-thirds 
of their fellow- workmen. 

11. Men who spend all their earnings are gene- 
rally reckless, and beo<mie the dupes ox agitators ; 
but the man who has put by some of his earnings 
will be likely to exercise forethought, and will 
not be led away by others. 

12. Di South Wales is it likdy there would have 
been the late turn-out, if the different establish- 
ments bad each had such a savings-bank as that 
proposed? 

13. In the case of a man or woman falling into 
distress from, causes beyond their control, what 
better jyroof could be given that they were de- 
serving of sympathy and assistance from their 
friends, than the fact that they had put by savings 
at a time when they were able to do so P The rule 
of action should be to do as little as possible for 
those who do as little as possible for themselves. 

14. Some of l^e points to be considered by the 
essayists will be the amount to which the savings 
shall be limited, and when the depositor wishes to 
withdraw the whole or any part of the sum de- 
posited, what notice shall be given. 

15. The co-operative system is no doubt effect- 
ing madh good, but if the system here sketched 



718 



JOtJBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Auouw 1. 1878. 



out were adopted, the greatest good, in the shortest 
time possible, might be effsoted. 

To the above observations Sir Joseph Whitworth 
has added the f ollowiog : — 

I think it will be admitted as desirable that one- 
third of the period of man's existenoe shoold, if 
possible, be spent free from the necessity of labour 
and toiL 

The middle period of life is, therefore, the time 
when man's energies should be put forth, and 
tiie greatest amount of work snould be done 
that strict obedience to the laws of health will 
permit. The experienoe of industrious men goes to 
prove that the most pleasurable existence is insured 
by following this course. 

It is therefore wrong, in every sense, for the 
Amalgamated Engineers and other Trades Unions 
to combine and endeavour to compel young and 
middle-aged men, in the prime of life, to limit and 
reduce their hours of labour to the extent now being 
attempted, and thus prevent them from saving so 
much, and la3dng it by for that p^od of life 
when man's energies besin to fail, when work 
becomes irksome, and when rest is necessary in 
order to pass a comfortable existenoe. May not the 
case between the industrious working man who 
saves part of his earnings, and the man who is 
reckless and will not save part of his earnings, be 
fairly stated thus : — 

That the man who does not save when he is in 
health and strength, robs the man who does 
save, because the law compels him to support 
those who have not saved, and to bury them "whem 
dead? 

The principal subjects which the essayists should 
consider are the preceding. 

After commending these observations of the 
enlightened and liberal donor to the consideration 
of the competing essayists, the Council, however, 
would further call their attention to the liability 
to frauds of various kinds to which such a system 
may be subject, such as, for instance, that of colour- 
able investments being made by parties investing, 
in their own names, moneys not bonii fide their 
own ; and would impress upon the competitors the 
importance of suggesting the best means of pre- 
venting such abuses. 

There will be two prizes, £70 for the best, and 
£30 for the second best essays. The judges 
reserve the right of withholding the prizes 
altogether, or awarding lesser sums. 

The following are the conditioDS to be observed : 

1. The essays must be sent to the House of the 
Society of Arts, Adelphi, London, addressed to 
the Secretary, on or before Ist December, 1873. 

2. They must be delivered either in print or in 
nianuscrii>t. If in manuscript, they should be 
written distinctly on foolscap paper, on one side 
of the paper only. Every paragraph must be 
numbered. 

3. They must be sent in sealed, with only a 
motto or cypher; Mid a separate letter, also sealed, 



with the motto or cypher maiked ontdde, unit 
accompany the essay, giving the name ind addsM 
of the writer. 

4. Brevity will be considered as a merit. 

6. They may have been published snonjBooiIj 
before being sent in. 

6. The Society is to have the right of pobliifamg 
the two prize essays in its J&urmd, 

7. The award of the judges will be flnsL 



PB0CEEDIHG8 OF THE BOCISTT 



OAVTOB LBCnrBIS. 

The last lecture of the second oonne of Ontor 
Lectures for the Session, "OntheEnergiesof thelm* 
ponderables, with especial referenoe to the Mmmn-, 
ment and Utilisation of them," was detirend by 
the Bev. Abthuk Eiog, M. A., on Monday ereoing' 
March 17th, 1873, as follows :— 

LSCTITBB VIL 

Om tk9 Eimyf of Semi, with mpttidr^fmrnt^ 
thi Muuuremtnt and UMuMtion of it. 

The energy of heat has, ia one form or other, tttnetel 
more notice than that of any of the other impooilai^lfl 
with which this coarse of Cantor Lecturei hi^ to <M. 
Various ezpliuuitions of the cause of heat being povaed 
of energy have been given, but it was not mtQ tb 
closing years of the last century that views on tkii 4<m* 
tion were first enanoi>«ted, which have since bonieti^ 



^;ood finiit. Ooont Bamford, in 179S, by an . 
m the boringof cannon in the araoial at MQnich,and& 
Humphrey Davy, in 1799, by the liqueCiction <rf l*« 
pieces of ice by the friction of each on the other, liii t^ 
foundation of that explanation which hasbe«nion^ 
oesafuUv generalised, and whioh even now is liopefuj 
pursued 

The first question that presents itself to ns is, '^ VW 
is heatP " And in order to present the modes surg«^ 
for measuring it whifh are ditigramicaliy sxprMsedoQue 
wall, it will be needful to make some preliminsn- itt>* 
ments. In the gener '1 table of energies the sooroeMi 
heat' are represented as the sun and fuel. That tern M 
might with very good reason have been omitled, f* ™ 
one source of heat is the sun ; fu«l is a secondiry wiw^ 
having its primary in the sun. Heat obttined frD» *• I 
sun, and the circumstances under which it is ^'^'■^Jt. 
are foreign to the subject of this lecture. Heat obu^ 
from fueL and also from the sun, is kinfitic, or **?** 
of producing motion when it is radinnt, or p***f 
from place to plat^ ; and it is potential, or <<f<*^J2^ 
when it is absorbed. Now it was absorbed is 
primeval times when there was an immeoK 
of vegetation on tho face of the ^lobe; that 
absorbed the heat. In these pnmeral foivsts ^ 
been preserved, and in such fuel as coal it is rnstos 
In being so restored or returned, that is giv«& h*(^. 
the earth which was absorbed perhaps before the ecr'^ 
of man. These buried forests are now a-gl<»* 
light, and heat, and vigour — unmistikabletyprt ofj 
rection from a grave. Let us turn to that received 
the sun, and refer to the diagram of Ui# wkcI 
which many of you saw last week, and conmna 
that diagram aids in illustrating the qaestioo ofV 
On Monday last an endeavour was made to e>l»^. , 
it was related to the phenomena and energies of Itf 
and incidentally to the phenomen* and en(*!pe* 
ohemioal affinity. One portion is related to the enex 



JOURNAL OF THB 8O0IBTT OF ARTS. Adoust 1, 1878. 



719 



lighti pr<96Tl7 iw-oalled ; aaoiher pertioa ii r^ied to 
« energy of affinity, properly eo-oalled ; and in this 
irCloii Wwb is perfeelljr obsonre, and wMoh escaped 
itioe ookta recent years, — in this wMoh is inTisible to the 
uaan eye, althoi^ it may be Tistble to the eyes of 
her animalii, Hes tiiat which we call solar heat. Too 
issnratbat to the spe<^fcatois' leffc*hand of the portion 
tfkod with the nsoal prismatic ooloars, there is a shade 
: red extended to a length equal at least to that marked 
ith such decided oolonring. It is not far from the 
■ath to say that in this lies all the heat from which we 
btain oar stock of motion. It may be desirable to ez- 
Liin how we Icnow that the heat lies there, and why 

16 diagram is there drawn, and extending to such a dis- 
laoe horn the risible portion of the spectmm, and that in 
aoh poitiao lies the greatest amonnt of heat. It is done 
I this way. We take a litt.e instmmwit called a line 
bennopile, composed of a number of strips of metal 
lid edge to edge, and soldered at the alternate ends. 
^ two metals are nsnally antimony and bismuth. The 
lie is in the form of a straight line, because it is to be 
tied for determining the heat at a particular portion or 
ioe across the spectrum. 

Tikeraiometers for heat purposes may be said to be use- 
em, sad, perhape, before going farther, it maybe well to 
tste why they are so. A thermometer is an instrument 
rhick, vf the expansion of a fluid, as air, or a liquid, as 
Joohol mercury, &c, or by any other means> tells us the 
liflarenee in temperature between two bodif-s. If a 
liamomettf be placed in water, it would tell us how 
Boch the tooipsratare of the waiter is abore the fre» s- 
ag point, or how much below the boiling point. But 
Brewing and boiling points are neither of them standard 
Mbti. There is heat fur below the freesing point, and 
vtn is heat still higher than the boiling jwiut ; and 
iadeed there is no approachable zero iVom which to 
wiimenoB the graduations of a thermometer. We want, 
to6^ soother tiung, not relative heat, but absolute heat. 
Lsother means for obtaining records of heat is by the 
■• of the thermopile and a galvanometer. This 
ptfaBometer ia connected with the thermopile, and the 
Mek upon the screen is that to which we hare to look. 

17 two stunt thin wires, one silver and the other copper, 
be taken, one wire attached to one end of that round the 
plvanometer, and the other to the other end, qnestioas in 
lihtion to heat and electrical phenomena in connection 
■itk it may be made cle*ir. If the free ends of the 
i3fw and oopper wire be placed in contact and held 
lilveeQ a finger and thumb, or placed near a lamp- 
fioea the speok immediately moves, and travnls over 
b Inge space. No thermometer is so delit^^te or 
WMtive to heat as this combinittion of instruments, 
lie haat which in a thermometer would be employed in 
ctpsading the liquid, is in this case converted into an 
^eetrical current which affects the gnlvftnometcr. Heat 
h the one csie is measured by the expansion of a liquid, 
fe the other by being converted into electricity, and the 
deetiieity is measured, as explained in a pruvioue 
Uolara, by the galvanometer. The speck is now 
itesdy, but on t^ng hold of the junction of the 
VM the speck moves in consequence of the simple 
toueh of a finger. If the junction be once waved near 
Iks flame of a lamp, the speck moves directly— evidently 
filers is a real and measurable energy in the heat which 
kn psaed. It should be rememberod that this gal- 
twometer requires quantity of electricity, and not what 
k sailed intensity. That motion, therefore, by being 
Voperiy measured, enables us to get, inferentially, at 
Ae quantity of heat. The measurement of heat by dif • 
knees of temperature is called '* Thermometry." The 
ineeiiih%' of an absolute quantity of heat is called 
**aik>rimetry." 

Time metals thus indicating heat by the conversion 
tf ft into electricity are applied here in a line, and if 
ttii apparatus is placed in front of a real spectrum, of 
iMbh that on the wall is a pictorial diagram, and moved 
|>di s Uy along by means of a fine-threaded screw, the 



line thermopile passes into successive portions of the 
spectrum, and according to the amount of heat in each 
portion, so the galvanometer deviates. If, therefore, the 
galvanometer at one portion is sent forther aside than at 
another, we know it is owixig to a larger quantity of heat 
being converted into electricity. 8uch an arrangement 
was carried out, and the largest amount of heat wms found 
to be where that high mountain is marked on the draw- 
ing. This much must at present suffice for showing how 
to determine and measure the quantity of heat. 

Now let Uie consideration behowthishe>itis converted 
into motion. Motion, we know, produces heat, but here 
the converse question is presented — heat producing 
motion. If we can show that heat producee motion, and 
if we know that motion produces heat, those two are 
mutually interch>ingeHble. That no motion can take place 
without the development or absorption of heat may be 
made manifest by an experiment. Here is a thermopile, 
rather more delicate than the one hitherto used. Utsre 
is an air-pump, ctmnected with which are two copper 
vessels separable by a tap. If, now, the air be exhausted 
from one of these vessels, the one nearest to the air- 
pump, it then becomes empty, and if the thermopile be 
caused to touch the other vessel, or to touch this one, 
which is empty, and the speck of the galvanometer is 
stationary ; then, when the tap that separates the two is 
opened, air rushes from one into the other, and the gal- 
vanometer speck indicates a change in the heut relation- 
ships of the two vessels. These changing heat relHtion- 
ships result whenever action takes place. If a thermopile 
having a larger surface, intended for the purpose of 
investigating very delicate changes of tempeTiiture, be 
attache to a condenser which serves to increase the 
surface and so to magnify the result, it would be found 
that, by merely touching one portion the speck of the 
galvHUometer moves. Now, if a fan be c lused to act in 
front of and uptm the thermopile, the impression would 
be that we should withdraw heat. The withdrawal of 
lieat may be produced by the blast of air, but thLi air 
striking on the thermopile causes the spot of the 
galvanometer to move in the direction indicating an 
increase of heat. The question is, whence comes that 
increase of heat? The answer is, that heat comes 
from my arm, and is produced by muscular energy being 
converted into mechanical power, which is then trans- 
formed to heat, which is changed into electricity. In 
this case the energy pnsses direct from my arm through 
the fan, and propels a current of air against the 
thermopile. If, however, the draught of air upon 
the thermopile, instead of being direct from my band 
had been treated in this way— If a close vessel had 
been taken, and by means of a condensing syringe, 
air hnd been farced into it, and allowed to remain 
for a few minute?, and then jetted against the there- 
mopile in the same way as the air from the fan, we 
should find, after the first impact of air, that oold, and 
not heat, had been produced. Therefore the one blast 
blows hot, and the other blast blows oold. Thus, 
JRiop's fable of thn man and the satyr appears to be 
realised. Much confusion has arisen from the use of the 
word cold, as though it was something distinct from heat 
" Cold " is only a condensation of the phrase, ** decrease 
of heat." Conflicting views would sometimes be har- 
monised were this word disused, and the word '* heat " 
employed with a proper prefix. 

There is a very good reason to be given for theee re- 
sults. The case of a blast producing decrease of 
heat may be illustrated thus:— In this iron boUle 
there is some condensed carbonic acid gas, which 
is under a pressure of about 700 lbs. on the f»quare-inch. 
Now, it might be expected that as the bbist from the fan 
fmniuced heat, so the blast from this botUe of condensed 
gas would also. A jet of this condensed gas is now 
directed to the thermopile ; the reflected light of the 
galvanometer by its motion indicates that the current 
his produced cold. It certainly appears remarkable 
that in the case of one blast heat is manifbeted, and 



720 



JOURNAL OF THB 800IETT OP AKTS, Atoust 1, 1878. 



in the other cold is prodnoed. The explanation is 
this : — In neither case can the air he pat into motion, 
except hy the expenditore ol heat. In the case of a hn 
the heat is at onoe ezp^ided in oaosinf^ a hlast of air, 
hot in the other ease the heoft is expended in the previous 
act of condensation. When this condensing syringe has 
heen used for two or three strokes, the cylinder of the 
syringre has become hoi The process of heat radiation 
is oontinuous. As soon as that bottle was filled, the heat 
accumulated in the work of condensation began to 
radiate. In other words, the muscular energy, which 
condensed the gas into the bottle, was dissipated in the 
form of heat. The contents of the bottle require an 
expenditure of that, which may be represented by, ss 
much heat to get out of the bottle, as they required to 
put them in ; therefore ih\s heat must be drawn from 
some source or other, and the first supplies are drawn 
from the contents of that which was in the hottie. The 
paradoxical and apparently contradictory phenomena 
are, however, reconcilable in a most instructive manner. 
In the case of the fan the blast carries the musculsr 
energy converted into heat dhrect to the thermopile. In 
the case of the bottle this heat has be«i dissipated by 
radiation. 

Let us now consider and describe how Mr. Joule 
obtained that which has become the bans of our cal- 
culations, and the arithmetical measurement of heat, 
namely, 772 foot-pounds as the mechanioal equivalent 
of the amount of heat required to raise one lb. of water 
through one degree Fahrenheit, or 1,390 foot-pounds for 
raising the same quantity of water through one degree 
Centigrade. 

His experiments extended over about seven years, 
and the first apparatus used was the one ^own in 
this diagram. There is a small vertical shaft capable 
of being rapidly turned by a handle ; across or Uirough 
the shaft is a short glass tube, in which were in- 
troduced a number of bars of wrought iron. These 
were covered with oiled paper, so sepMnting them 
electrically one from the cither. The bundle was 
wrapped round with copper wire, and then inserted 
into the glass tube^ which was closed at one end 
with a cork, and capable of being dosed at the 
other. That glass tube was coated with tin-foil, so 
that in fact the tube was very like what is called a 
Lejrden jar. It had an electrical coating inside and 
out, the only peculiarity being that a slit was cut along 
the coating on the outside of the vessel to prevent elec- 
trical induction. The tin-foil was then covcfred by 
strips of wood parallel to the tube, and bound all 
over with silk. The ends were corked, and also 
covered with oiled silk, so as to close it thoroughly. 
From the inside of the tube two wires passed 
down and dipped into two mercury cups, which were 
connected with a galvanometer, so that currents of 
electricity, if any were produced in the interior metal 
bars, would be manifested by the galvanometer. On 
each side of this short glass tube were fixed two arms of 
wrought-iron, bent in the form of a horse-shoe, and as 
nearly in contact with the ends of the glass as possible. 
This wTought-iron horse-shoe had a coil of copper wire 
round it, and by the usual means it could be converted 
into an electro-magnet. A certain weight of water was 
put into the short glass tube along with the bars, and 
having rotated the instrument for a quarter of an 
hour, the temperature of the water when examined 
was found to be hotter than before. The galvanometer 
being observed it was known what dectricity had 
passed, and this combined with the change that had 
taken place in the temperature of the water after 
fifteen minutes' rotation of the riiafb, at the rate 
of six hundred rotations per minute, sufficed for 
determining the amount of electricity converted into 
heat. Thus, approximate data were obtained on which to 
found other experiments. Suoh experiments were made 
and re-made, they fiEuled, and were again renewed ; and 
to note how Mr. Joule ovwoame one difficulty after 





(mother until he Mooeeded £unithfli a baartlilnl 

df perseveraoceh fiometimes where he ttpeotad to fiad 

a sabetaaoe hsd gii aod heat, he Iwn id, on the 

it had lost Sneh anomalits, howaTtiv ^**b 

completely aocounted for. 

Beseardi in «oienee ekn«s the eKsnise oC 
iugecKiity under ns^qieotedand baffling condifeioBa. I%s 
perplefluty Just desoribed beoarae -an element in siiaBMi 
Mr. Joule a^Fniled hisaself of the process of ^ in t e « poh 
tioB,'* and -so adapted what proved of great ■■iiii> 
aboe in future experimeoitB. What has been dsaoihei 
was the earlier of many processss. Next, he fomcad it 
needful to measure the energy exerted upon the haiidk% 
because if in this vessel a quan^ty of heat bad heca 
generated which prodooed an oheerred ineraan of 
temperatitfe in the >Rrater, it was desirapUe to \smow what 
was the value of the flMohanicaleneigy which had oaaasd 
that heat to be eo generated. If motion be given by the 
hand only, there is no means of measuring that vafate. 
The earlier ol^t was to see if heat oould be obtained; 
then the next el^eet was to measure the heat eb- 
tained, and also to measure the mechanical eneorgy by 
which it had been obtained. The apparatos now 
assumed this lerm. He gave np the eleotrieal proeem, 
and began to take a vessel, similar to the one whom^ in 
this diagrasB, which had brass plates in it, and bnm baa 
fixed te the inside of the vesaeL, and running across, m 
that paddles could rotete between the bars. 'Hfce 
was tiled with water, and the r e fore whea the 
rotated, the &Nd bars stopped the whiri of the 
and h€nt was developed. The sea, as thote who art 
aceostomed to bathe know veiT well, is warmer ea a 
windy day than on a caWu day, simply becnaae the 
motion of the water eansed by the wind is oonvertsd 
into tiiat motion of the mdecules of the water whidi wt 
call heat. 80 in the experiments with this 
the motion of the water in the vessd is oonveirtod 
the motion called heat. Of course aU 
were adopted to prevent best passing by 
the estenor of the vessd. Henoe &e ve ssd was esdosed 
in anotiier, and that again in anotho*. The mntiiwaf m 
for ascertaining a measure of the meehanieal effort made 
to keep the paddles rotating at a nnilbrm into were vmy 
simf^e. 

Tlie little vertied shaft on which the paddlea 
fixed was prolonged upwards^ being divided acnm 

reoonneotel in line by a piece of vulcspnite, whie4, ini 

mon phraseology, would be called a non-conducter of 
heat. Wound round the upper part of this shaft were 
two cords, the ends of which passed over two puBeys en 
opposite sides. To these oords were fixed weaghJs, by 
the descent of which motion could be given to the paddDce. 
The oords were two in number, and on oppodte sides, ia 
order to obviate as far as possible the heating effect of 
rubbing friction on the shaft journals. With tfaii 
apparatus, and others constructed upenaimilar princi|te 
a series of experiments enabled him te arrive at esartaiD 
definite conclusiona. 

In a research of this kind, made with apparatus con- 
trived as new thoughts and new experimento snggeated, 
it was not to be 'expected that the tabulated resolli 
should speak with one consenting voice. They did, how^ 
ever, seem to proclaim this-^at the mechaatoil 
equivalent of heat competent to give an increase <tf 
temperature of 1° Fahrenheit to I lb. of water was 
between 500 and 800 foot-pounds. Detecting aid 
elioiinating those demente whidi seemed to affect the 
accuracy of the result, he was enabled at last to come 
to this conclusion, that 772 lbs. was the exact number 
which was the mephanicd measure, or, as it is cammsoty 
called, the mechanical equivdent of heat. That 
this — ^he found how much a known quantity of 
was raised in temperature by a recorded meohanicd 
tion, and he deduced the measure of that exertion netdM 
to raise I lb. of water 1^ on Fahrenhdt's thermometer. 
Thus he found that that heat, applied to xaiao w«^^Aik 
would lift 773 lbs. thtoui^ one Coot; that i»,Ujcf^mJ^ 




JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, August 1, 1873. 



721 



772 Ibi. wdgbUheffe, and lifted them a fooi high, it would 
be the same thing exactly as applying the same foroe 
to lib. of water, and raising the temperature 1^ Fah* 
nnheit. 

Thexe is a iahle written oat mathematically, by 
■Mai of which the 778 lb*, are dednoed. Mr. Joule 
hsTiDg made these experiments) others followed, and we 
htTO a table ahowing the means used, air, friction, 
steam, Daxiiell's battery, eleotro-magnetism, &c. ; also 
the lamet of the experimentalists, and the mechanical 
aqnifaknt of heat, aa determined by them. Although 
(he lesulti differ firom Mr. Joule's 772 lbs., yet his figura 
iM aaw genenllj adopted. 

MiaiAmeAL BtuivAiANT of Hiat bt Diffbbbkt 

Mbthodb. 




AictioB 

aiMi Him 

■KtMal ladnottoQ JJoole 

IteBkiri Battenr Weber ...... 

lfeotio-lUgnetMm...lFaTre 

Camslinwire Qai]rta»*Idlhu 



776-4T 
774*78 
708 78 

eatm 

76664 
807-46 
72906 



The title of this leotova indndes the words mearare- 
■ent and utilisation. The utilisation of heat is so 
iBiportant a commeroial as well as seientifio <^ueetion, 
that thire are one or two matters bearing upon it which 
my he worth pneamif attention and muoh future thou^t 
mi aU. That we do not obtain in a steam-engme 
mott than a quavter d the heat we eamend in the fnr- 
Moe ia now generally reoognised. There is a table 
hue, haied upon Mr. Joule's oalonlafciopfl, which gires 
the nomher of hone^power — a teohnical term, meaning 
UfiflO onits of wockt which oould be obtained by utilis- 
'ng the heat required for passing nine pounds of ice 
wough its j^vaioal and chemical changes. If we 
Ian 9 lbs. weight of ioe» and attempt to melt and oon- 
«Bi them into liqaid, a certain amount of heat is 
ifesothed, or ren4eved '* latent," as it is called. At any 
rate, there is a quantity of heat that does not show itself 
m$a the thermometer. TheOy after it is oenvevted to 
mUmt it we gnadually raise the temperature to 212*^, 
ttwTft is 8iK4her laiwe quantity of heat rendered '* latent " 
b the oonTersioa ol this water into vapour ; and if we 
Iha conyert that yaponr which oomes from the water 
^ its elemental gaasi, ria., OKygen and hydrogen, 
Mothsi large qnaatity of heat is absorbed or rendered 
'^Jateat" Now, take that process backwards; assume 
•• can take this 91bs. of osy^en and hydrogen and re- 
ooerert ^em back again into ice, and that it was in our 
pnrer to use the heat whieh had been g^yen off, then we 
pt the quanta^ shown in the table. If we bum a 
{uantity of hydrogen in oxygen it is oonrerted into 
int<:r ; if one part of hydrogen and eight parts of oxygen 
mcombined by an electric spark or other means, and con* 
retted into water at 212^, a number of units of heat equal 
D 1,451 horse-power are obtained. If, then, we pass it 
tin further i^ko the form of water at 32** we should 
rbtain 38 horse-power more; and if we then pass it 
rem the form of water into the form of ice, we should 
btaia 30 hors»*]^wer. The<el6ra» if in obtaining 9 lbs. 
rice from its primeval elementf^ via., 1 lb. of hyoro^en 
ad 8 lbs. of oxygen, we could utilise as a mechamcal 
sent alLtha heat mt free, then from the data given 
■e see that there would be obtained 1,619 horse-power 
r work. But we cannot obtain thia. What becomes 
r the heat, wb/^e it ^oee, and why we cannot contrive 
> ntOise it, ana inquiries which vet perplex sdentifit 
ndents. Various sumuses have been made, but nonf 
f them hawe been aoeepted» aioept aft the Tsgne goessef 
I an oaeolwed riddle, the best ol whioh are takwa 
mgh there amriM-a hwUng fBoliag that noma or 
CBianariKbt. 



The following is a copy of the table to whidi allwnon 
has been made m the previous paragraph : — 

MBOH^iiaaaL Valus or Hsat, Dsvblofbd as Knm 
LBS. or Watbk Pass fbom tbs Gabbous to thb 

Solid BxAnk 

OalU of Horn 

Work. Power. 

lib. of hydrogeo and 8lhB.\ a««loi>e i **X*^ ] 
ofoxygeatowateratawj- ^•^''^ t U«K>(a) J 



IF.) ) I 



Water flDom 82* to loe 



dereU>pe-{ x 



Total hone poww d e^Fe l epe l . 



..••..*• M«..t Ml... 



i,n9 



There is another table bearii^ on this question, via., 
the advantage of using eteam at a higher pressure than 
what is called low-presause steam. If we take water at 
33^, that is just above the temperatare of ice, and that 
be warmed until it attains the tenqierature 213^, it would 
occupy a bulk 1,669 times aa large as it was in the form 
of water. There is a relation between the pressumiiand 
temperatures which must be maintained, ia order to pre* 
serve the whole of the water ia the form of stmi. 
lliese relations are expressed in the first two columns 
in the following table. The third columa expresses 
the resulting volume of steam. The .fourth oolumn 
is the product of the preesnie and the volume, and, 
therefore, renresents the mechanical value of our unit 
of water. How muoh and at what rate this value 
or power inoreaaes .with an inoreaae of heat and a conee- 
spondent increase of pressure may be known by consider- 
ing the figures in thia fourth column. These figures re- 
present the advantage of using steam at high pressures, 
and» therefore, high temperatures : — 

Stsak vbom. Watuu 



Preaiarea. 


Temp«ratore«. 


Volames. 


PraMore mnltlpUed 
by TOlume. 


Ibi. 


Deg. E^h. 






16 


39 


1 


« 


U 


213 


1,669 


25,035 


25 


240 


1,042 


26,050 


35 


260 


765 


26,775 


45 


275 


608 


27,360 


65 


288 


506 


27,830 


65 


299 


434 


28,210 


75 


308 


381 


28,575 


85 


317 


340 


28»900 


95 


325 


307 


29,165 



The reason why we cannot work steam at some of 
these very high temperatures is this, that when we super- 
heat it, we thereby prevent any of it being converted mto 
vapour, and if it is not so converted into vapour we have 
no mef^M of lubricating the faces of our slide valves, and 
the consequence is, the metals being heated, they soften, 
then scratch and tear each other's faces, and the engine 
is soon destroyed. As soon as we can g* t slide valves 
made of some material which will bear this higher 
temperature without abrasion or scratching, theny 
probably, we shall be able to work super-heated steam 
econonucally. 

The amount of steam converted into visible vapour, and 
cause of excessive loss of power in ordinary steam-engines 
may be made dear in this way. There is in the receiver 
of the air-pump a piece of sponge with a little water on 
it ; if a portion of the air saturated with vapour be 
pumped out, a small portion of the water is con- 
verted into vapour, which you see deporited in a 
ftfan on the glass. This is caufed by the air being 
jarefied and beeomiag coldefi th e r efore not oom« 



722 



JOURNAL OF 'IHB SOCIETY OF ARTS, Acoust 1, 1878. 



petent to hold in solation at mach Tapoar as it hud 
prtfioasly done. Now, what takes place in this receiver 
IS Uking place in hundreds of steam-enj^e eylindera, 
and wasting pounds and pounds of fueL As soon as the 
steam enters the cylinder it fills it» <ur rather it fills the 
part of the cylinder below the piston. Arrangements are 
usually made that a portion of the stroke may be accom- 
plished by the expnns^ve action of the steam. Now, as 
soon as the opportunity for expansion is presented, there 
is at onoe this deposit of moisture, and the deposit is indi- 
cstiTe of a sacrifioe of heat. 

Now, this action of heat is not confined to liquids, it 
also exUmds to solids. Here is a piece of unannealed 
glass. Those present who have to deal with steam- 
engines, know that it Tery of£en happens from some 
apparently unaccountable cause, that what are called the 
water-gauges of the boilers are lm>ken. These breakages 
are in consequence of the glass tubes beinf unannealed; 
amd if you are aware of the process by which tubes are 
mad 3, you will see at once they cannot, without some 
special arrangements^ be annealed. They are made by 
taking a solid ball of glass out of the pot ; this is then 
blown into a globe ; then a seoond man puts a pipe with a 
molten nodule of glass upon it on that part of the globe 
which is opposite to the pipe by which it wms blown. The 
men run asunder, and so the globe is lengthened out into 
a tube and laid along the floor. This long pip<^ is then 
cut into gauge- tube lengths, and general )y so sold. If one 
of these tubes be cleaned with an iron wire, having a pivce 
of cotton wool wrapped round it, the wire being pushed up 
and down as is usually done, and the clenn tube be restored 
to the boiler, it may, in two or three days or weeks, fall 
to pieces without any one being to blame, except those 
who put the wire through the tube Uere is a piece of 
glass yeiy thick and stirong, and in all respects very 
good glass, but unannealed. It is really a simple piece 
when out of the melting-pot as a snmple, to guide the 
manufskcturer respecting the quality and colour of the 
articles that maj^ be made from it. Now, in all proba- 
bility, if this piece of quarts, less than the size of an 
ordinary pea, be allowed to drop gently into Uie 
sample flask, this strong flask (the glass is nearly 
one-half of an inch in thickness) may fail into pieces. 
There ! Ton see the bottom has immediately dropped 
out, notwithstanding the thickness, and if it were left 
here all night it might crumble into half-a-dosen pi« ces 
before the morning. On one occasion I cleaned out n glass 
tube, about three feet long, connected with an air-pump, 
and in a thoughtless moment took a wire, attached some 
cotton wool to it, and drew it through the tube. In 
about half an hour there was a slight click — in a few 
minutes another click. On looking at the tube it was 
seen to be cracked. The slight hut inhtructive noises 
continued, dick after click, and crHck after cntck, nnd in 
the morning the tube was separated into many hundred 
pieces, though no one touched it Workmen and serrants 
are often blamed for the breakage of glass, which 
breakage arises from such a cause as this. 

What are called Prince Bupert*s drops are obtained by 
allowing molten glass to fall into water, and so filling the 
drops are suddemy oooled on the out»>id»', and the con- 
sequence is that the molten glass in the interior is firmly 
bound beyond its power of rf sistHnoe, even though 
it has a larce amount of heat in it. If it had been Irve, 
the molecules of glass would have crystallised and 
arranged themselves according to the law which governs 
them ; but being bound by the external film they cannot 
80 arrange themselves. The heat contained in them can- 
not do tne works of crystallisation it was competent to 
do— it has become stored up or potential. Therefore, as 
toon as ever the equilibrium of the shell of the bulb is 
destroyed this heat gives out its work. In the interior 
of this bulb there is a large amount of potential energy ; 
and if the equilibrium be destroyed bj cracking off the 
end, in the same way as it was destro> ed in the other 
case by dropping a Uttle bit of quarts into th^ thick 
glass, we shall find it will manifest itself and very 



(KMsibly will break the glass bottle in which the Ropert'i 
drop is placed. 

We will now pass on to a series of experimcoti, t^ 
object of which is to show the effect of heat in nkdiaa 
to solids and liquids, and converting them into Tipov. 
Mr. Wilis, to whom we were indebted for •Nst> 
«nce on the evening of the leishire on the eoergr of 
affinity, has kindly undertaken to exhibit some itraiif 
and instructive experiments. In tins iron bottle that n 
condensed carbonic acid gas, which under ordinarf <»• 
cumstancea is a gas, but when it is broaght osda 
a preMure of 700 Ibe. to the squsre inch it beooMi 
a liquid. To reconvext it from liquid into gu R^nra 
a large amount of heat. The consequence it, one put 
takes heat from the other, whilst a poitiim oltt ii Mt 
forward in the form of vapoor at the expenee «l tlttbak 
of the remaindtf . That remainder, theie!iDI^ beooMi 
colder and colder, and appears in the form of iee tsi 
snow, as you see on turning the tap, and lettbg k 
escape into the room. The white substance whidi bo« 
is fajling in the atmosphere of the room is oarboaie ud 
snow. There is an apparatos for enabling the nfca 
to pass round and round in a eopper vessel, and tka 
escape at the handles ; in so doing it absorbi i In^ 
quantity of heat, and theiefore that which reoiiai a 
ttie vessel freeees. We shall collect in this wij t hne 
amount of snow, which can afterwards be and nr 
other purposes. Nearly a pound weight of thii eixboiic 
snow is now deposited in the copper veasel, sad »«oU 
is it, that, on wrapping a piece of wet flsnBcl rood 
the vessel, it freeies immediately. This nov oa 
be held lightly in the hand without inanToiMcr, 
but if pressed a blister will at once be raiaed. Ui, 
Wills has taken a small portion upon bia to«i 
and breathing out the Ysponr as it mdtB,sea«i> 
immediately extinguiahed. In the ssme ynj 9cm 
of it may be put in a beaker, and the gaa coOecled 
as the snow melts, when it wiU be £omsd tbl t 
light cannot liye in it. Again, here is a bottle of 
water, by putting some carbonic snow into it, aod end- 
ing it up, we immediately get ezeelleat soda* water. By 
pouring some ether upon it, the degree of cold ii gn^ 
increased by the rapid evaporation, so that the ?>■■ 
becomes frt»en to the stool upon which it standi, asd i 
pound or two of merenry will soon be froseo isto a niiii 
body. Its temperature is abont 130<> belov tbeCrectfC 
point. On placing the froien mercury at the lofflfiWl 
jar of water, beautiful iddee are immediatdy fonedia 
oonsequence of the intense cold. 

Butore closing, attention may be directed to tbe 
sources whence our supplies of heat are derived. 1%* 
classiflcation of thf se, and the rhfri^^*»«' of tbe M 
derived from them, may be studied in the tsbslarfev 



A Inherent Affioitisf. 

B Solar Radiation. 

O Earth's Rotatioo. 

D Earth's Intensl Heit 

PomnAL. Waives Dianraa 

Fuel BandA 

Pood B. 

Beservoir Wttter B. 

Tidal Water 0. 

Kiaano. Wkooica Dianraa 

Winds B. 

Ocean Cuxrents B. 

Hot Springs D. 

Volcanoes. D. 

There is one other matter to whidi the sotgsrt of M 
week's lectore bears a very eztivofdibary whjw^ 
Sdenoe investigati> ns have established thsl s fncxa 
of what is called dionpation of ensfgy Is geii« «"• 



JOUBNAJU OF the; SOOIBTY of ABT8, Adqwt J. WT3. 



783 



la tht lecjUiTO on ih» oguecgy of ^eH% lUteatioa wm 
directed to a renuurkable testimony which, through modera 
icifnoe Tiew9, ia ihm given to Sicripture. Let me add a 
Imp vord»on an eq«iAUy nmmkaiA^ oo» iii vtfevenee to 
tb iM^ni ol bvUi 1a ttw ca8» U liajM, pa§e 699, 
asf^ftwe wM^tp tho beginning ol the BiUe; in thia cAte 
of httX it is to the end of it St. John (Key. vii., 16), 
qwakiiig of the new hefiyens, writes, *^ neither shall the 
Ma Hght on tbenSf nor any heat." How tingolArly in 
liOMid with thi0 ii-tbo <Utttorii>iwL (Jtev. zxi., 1), 
"Thms shall be no more sea* neither shall they thirst 
any more." Clearly, if the heat be not, there can be no 
water nor sea. Now, science testifies to the dissipation 
of beat* and tlma naoMMtiously teatiAea to a gradual 
fngCMs to thaiatfit^ which pnMphaey w plainly deelaras. 
la cIosiDg this course of Cantor lectunaa on the 
enenies of the imponderables, the thought re-presents 
Ml, which was not an unfreq,oent visitor in tiie pre- 
itntion of them, and wilrieh gainsd nttenoco in Idle 
tofclfietun in IhMe wcurdt^^** U may ba aaic^ «ad w4|^ 
Bmotiiowof reMon, when the oomprehenaive title of 
(beie Ivctares is considered, a little well or complete 
done is better than much ill or very partially done. 
Ai a priodplo ia edaootaon this is a truism. These 
UufeorleaMiraa ara nob to he adholastio lonaenn ; ib^ 
mty teach, but the primary oljeot of them is rathert tp 
U ra^estive of thought, to give food for reflectioq, 
Wtenai for development, to arouse inquiry, to provoire 
kvnigalioa, to leave, in faal, an wamiitAei impraasion 
ipt titere ia wore ihim th« ^tiuw' has expresMd* imkI 
ftat there is mucU lor hearers and readers U> consider. 
Snch aq uosatisfied feeling in relation to the energies 
mied and the measurement and utilisation of them it 
h%» dbjeol of tbd»oouraa to oreale. If thia resoH be 
ll>i in i d» then, in iboia inHnm years whim by imlii^Qftl 
hkoor light shioioa where darkness now overspreads, 
(hss wiU be cauae for thanks where perhaps, wbep 
iW Inures end, an unsatisfied longing may alone be 

Bi y ait nee in ttia 4«ilUrery oMficmed* We antwnpa- 
■BniQ my mind, aQ4 probably to your minda has 
M(Mted the question, why was so much undertaken 
vB to little time in which to do it F Let the answer 
n* prsa latjaiy thoae wihe w«ie aoi paesenfe on. the 

aoeMoi^ ^ht^ h^vf ve* iwymd<»ti or uiiviaa the 
Dent iwy oave been, there, nev^rthelc^, were 
od and object in it. 
^Pkvbably tm illustrative apparatus and diagrams 
*kieh tba oaom onmtainad, hut o€ wehdoh. bo um was 
mA^ laay have asswed sosie how mwih 4#nuyUu to 
m the tmi of freshiiees to an extended research. 
Bhoold any pursue this course they will find an interest 
^ CTny tarn which probably o&ier pursuits cannot 
npplj-^an esjoymoDt wilh ne aftw-raproechea, a pn>- 
r^jcation to cheerful thought and pleaaant iwylitations, 

**To him, who in the lore of nature holds 
CouiinaaioD with her vUlbla forma, 
8h« tpeiUu a Tarioos UngoAge." 

rhey will further find an employment for leisure hours 
»hich soothes care by for a while removing it. They 
»ni find their eyas opened to sights of beauty and 
toffhtai^sa to wihioh the eyes of vmbv aie dosed ; they 
nil ba induced to penult their children, and their 
^loldren's children, to acquire along with other know* 
adge that which surpasses both in interest and in educa- 
iit power the writings of men in other dftys* Solomon 
iod Pope, in thk m&ev, have each given advice-*-ona 
Boooraaing, U»s other dispoursgii^gt those studies these 
.Vntor lectures suggest. Solomon wrote, more than two 
hoaaand yean ago : — 

" I vatKlnff,and gav« nay baarl toMehaad icarcb oat bywiadom 
«ac«iias aU tMafa that aia doaa aader bcasai^.'* 

If ilhulratee this and ahowa his knowledge of j^ywcaU 
tisDce hy writiBg in the same chapter (Ecdes. iv., 6-7) 
at following, which are clearly suggestive of what we 
aU tnde-wmdi^ eraporation, condenaation, &c.y &c« :-» 



** Tha wind goetk toward the aontti, and toraeth about uoto tho 
north ; it whlrleth about oootlnually, and #ie wlod returnetb again 
aooofdiag to hia oiicnlta. All the riven ran Into Uio lea, yoi. the 
sea is not full ; uoto the place from wbenca the ziveracome, tblther 
ttiey rtaora agakt.^* 

Pope wrote^ more than one hundred years ago : ~ 

** Know, then, thyself— preaame not God to aoon — 
Tba iM^per atody of maoUaa ia maa.** 

To foUow SolooMn is to find peaoe and pleasure ; to 
follow Pope is to find contentions and wars. Cunning 
craft and over-reaching are not in those pursuits with 
which we have been dealing, for you may rely upon it 
that — 

*' tHatore mwHc did betcay tba heart tbat lored bar. 
*Ti« her privilege throogh all the years of thi$ oar life 
To lead from joy to Juy." 



At the oeuclnaioB of the lecture a oenttal vote of 
thanka was passed to the Bev* Arthur Bigg^ on the 
motion of Mr.; Davenport, in acknowledgment of the 
groat pains, time, and talent he had devoted to the 
subjects. 

ii inn c a—pwupqc 



AHinjAL INTERir ATIONAI. SXHIBZTI0S3. 



The OoonoU, luviBg been informed that iMr 
Majesty's Oonumssionenr <io not intend to 
pnbliah Reports on the diffbrent departments of 
the Exhibition of the present year, and looking to 
the great impcortanee to Arts, Manufactttree, and 
Oommeroe that tbese aiuuial displays should not 
pass away without some record, haye decided to 
undertake that duty, and for this purpose ha^e 
engaged the services of gentlemen specialty 
skilled in the subjects of the several sections, 
to prepare such Reports fbr publication in the 
Society's Joiwncd, The Oounoil, however, 
desire it to be understood that^ in publishing 
these reports, they do not necessarily adopt all the 
views expressed in them, which must be taken 
as those of the writers only. 

The following report is the seventh that has 
been issued. The remainder will appear as soon 
as they are complete. 



REPORT ON THE " SWOBDS AND 

MILITARY ARMS OF STEEL.*' 



Colonal Oweu, B.A. 

Although there is but a small display of 
swords and steel weapons exhibited this year, 
those to be found in the East Crush Rooms of 
the Albert Hall are well worth examination, 
for they not only include some excellent speci- 
mens of swords, foils, lances, and small arras, 
but a number of others to illustrate the different 
stages in the manufacture of the arms. The 
rooms, which are high and well lighted, are 
very suitable for such an exhibition, as there is 
ample space for the arrangement of the different 
cases containing the articles, in such a manner 
as to allow of everything being clearly seen. 

It will not be necessary to go into the manu- 
facture of steel, or the history of swords or other 
arms, which have been po frequently described ; 



724 



JOXJBNAL OP THE 800IETY OP ARTS, Auouot 1, 1878. 



and the limits of this paper will not allow of 
more than a brief description of the objects 
exhibited, and of a few remarks to call attention 
to the chief points deserving of notice in con- 
nection with them. 

I'he t astern swords, of which few are ex- 
hibited, being intended for cutting, and seldom 
nsed for guarding, have generally a blade mnch 
cnrved, and a small hilt ; but the swords nsed 
in Europe, of which there are many specimens, 
are employed for so many different purposes — 
'for thrusting and guarding, as well as for cut- 
ting — that the quality of the metal and the form 
of the blade must combine such various con- 
ditions as will ensure a generally efficient and 
trustworthy weapon. The properties especially 
required in the metal of the blade are, tenacity, 
elasticity, and hardness ; but, besides these, 
lightness, within certain limits, is of great ad- 
vantage, as the force of the blow depends upon 
the vis viva, or energy , to use a term applicable 
to projectiles, and is therefore proportional to 
the weight into the velocity squared ; lightness 
is also requisite when a sword has to be quickly 
recovered, in order to guard with it. 

1 here are several points in respect to the form 
of the blade which require some explanadon. 
For thrusting, the blade should be straight, as in 
a rapier ; but for a sword which is also intended 
to cut, the blade must have a curve, so as to 
give greater width and depth of incision. The 
centres of gravity and percussion must be pro- 
perly adjusted, so that the sword may balance 
well, and may be used with effect, but without 
jar to the hand. To determine the proper angle 
of the cutting edge is a matter of some difficulty, 
as the substances to be cut into or through are 
of such different kinds, hard, soft, brittle, 
or tough; two angles are, however, given 
on each side of the blade, one termed the 
angle of resistance, of 40 degrees, the other, 
at the extreme edge, called the entering 
angle, of 90 degrees. Then, in order to 
give stiffisess, the blade has one, and in some 
cases two or more grooves, which also serve to 
lighten it. On this point, which is not gene- 
rally well understood, Mr. J. Latham, in a 
paper read at the Royid United Service Institu- 
tion remarked : — " There is no possible use of a 
sword in cutting, thrustmg, or guarding, in 
which too great flexibility would not be a dis- 
advantage. It is a singular illustration of the 
little attention paid to this subject in England, 
that this very defect, flexibility, is frequently 
assumed as the criterion or test of a good blade. 
The blade which springs the most easily is 
called the best, whereas nothing is easier, by 
making the blade thin enough, and useless 
enough, than to produce a sword which shall 
bend twice round the hilt and go into a hat- 
box, or clasp hilt to point, and form a waist- 



belt, both of which wonderful sworcb I btve 
myself made. The error arises from con- 
founding flexibility of the blade with the dii- 
ticity of tbe steel ; the latter is neottatiy, t^ 
former useless and always injurious. But, to 
resume. A blade which has been ground thin 
to lighten it, will frequently he too flexible and 
whippy. In this case, by putting a groore « 
each side, we not only make it fitUl lighter, kt 
we also make it stiffer; for if we apply my 
force to bend a grooved blade sidewise, we meet 
with the greatest amount of resistance ^di 
any mechanical force can supply. We tn, in 
fact, bending an arch inwards upon its crown, 
and of course the deeper the arch the greiter 
the resistance, which explains why the nnrrow 
groove is preferable to the broader groof e of 
the same depth." 

In a large case (No. 3,792) is a coUeetin of 
specimens exhibited by Wilkinson and 8oo, to 
illustrate the different stages in the ipmn- 
facture of the sword blade. The chief o^ 
these are the following : — A sword noold, 
giving the metal for two blades, is k- 
ceived from the steel makers. The lowld 
broken across the middle, to show the frac- 
ture of the metal, and hence its qmlitj. 
The tang ready for welding to the blade: the 
tang, or projection at the bottom of the \^, 
by means of which it is fitted into the hilt, i^ 
made of wrought-iron, as being less liahleto 
snap off from a blow than sted. The Dcald 
drawn out, grooved, and the tang wdded on. 
The blade grooved and pointed, andthefin*! 
forging, which requires 'IB sqiaiate hota- 
Several blades, showing the ^ects of diftr«* 
methods of tempering ; one tempered at 40 
deg.« the maximum denaity of water ; aoodier 
at 60 deg., the usual temperature ; a thira tm- 
pered in air ; a fourth in oil, at a tempentnre 
of 550 to 580 deg., a process which giwtlj 
increases the toughness of the steel, bat ^ 
not give sufficient hardness for swords ; a fifth n 
wood (oak and beech sawdust), a method c^ 
tempering frequently employed for m*<^* 
springs. A blade ground ready for ftod, 
and tested by acid for greys or marks in w 
steel. A blade polished, embossed, and eXim'^ 
and another blade, which, instead of b^ 
polished with emery on a revolving dnun, h« 
been burnished wi&i steel, an old roetboAt 
giving a very hard surface, but necessarily • 
tedious operation. 

In this case are also shown a nmnber 
specimens to show the different kinds of blad^ 
used ; such as those of a rapier, daymore, eft"? 
English backsword, and two Indian bladei- 
one of a cimetar with two grooves, and th 
other not grooved, but having great thicknes* 
There are also a couple of practice sword*. 

On the side wall near the case containing tb 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIBTY OF ARTS. Auocst 1, 1873 



725 



blades just described, and bearing tbe same 
number, 3,792 — that of Wilkinson and Son — 
are shown tbe different operations in tbe manu- 
&cttire of the hilt and scabbard, both made from 
eheets of rolled cast-steel. A number of dif- 
ferent hilts, and some scabbards may be seen 
on the finished swords. The chief conditions 
required in a hilt are, protection to tbe baud, 
strength to stand a heavy blow without frac- 
tare, firm hold without cramping the hand, and 
good balance, so that the blade nuy not be liable 
to torn over. 

Below tbe operations on the hilt and 
icabbard are some very curious examples of 
fnctore in sword-blades which have failed 
in proof (No. 3,792, Wilkinson and Son). 
These show that the fracture, which occurs 
from vibration, and is UBually at. some little 
distance from the point struck, follows the line 
of least resistance offered by the varying 
qualities of different parts of the blade. It 
maj be well to say here a few words on the 
proof of swords. The proof to whioti a sword 
is generally subjected is, to strike each side 
flat on a table, then the back and edge on a 
block of wood, and, finally, to bend the blade 
eieh way until the leng^ is shortened by some 
inebes. As, however, the striking proof is 
open to the objection that the force exerted by 
different men, or even hy the same man, is 
liable to variation, the late Mr. U. Wilkinson 
invented a sword eprouveUe, which is capable 
of exerting a force similar to, but much greater 
than, that of the human hand, and can be 
adjnsted to any kind of sword. 

Another test to which swords or daggers 
We been subjected, and are now by some 
stkers (Wilkinson, for instance) is the Toledo 
proof, which consists in forcing the blade by a 
Uow through a metal {^te; an example is 
shown by Wilkinson and Son in the case of 
finished swords -the blade of a dagger with a 
caHonsly carved ivory handle, piercing a piece 
of iron plate and a htrge silver coin. 

The swords, including dirks, rapiers, and foils 
exhibited, will now be noticed, and also a few 
lances, not in the order of the numbers, but as 
they will be found in proceeding through the 
rooms from west to east 

Wilkinson and Son, No. A,792, have sent a 
iarge number of swords. The regulation swords 
ibr officers of the different . services, Infantry, 
Cavalry, Artillery, and Engineers ; a Highland 
clayniore, a generars and an admirars sword, 
rapiers, fencing-foils, and dirks. Besides these, 
two beautiful specimens of cut-steel work, made 
op of an immense number of separate small pieces 
secured together, in the hilts of a court sword, 
snd of a rapier. A sword with a chased steel 
bilt, cut out of solid cast-steel; and two blastem 
nmetars, one with hilt and scabbard, chased and 



parcel-gilt, the other having a black Khorassan 
damasked blade, with the Royal arms engraved 
on it. The custom of wearing swords, except 
on State occasions, having been abandoned by 
nearly all but officers of the military or naval 
services, the demand for them is small to what it 
was when swords were generally worn and 
frequently used in duelling. The possession of 
a trusty weapon was then of great importance,, 
and the skill and time spent in artistic design 
and workmanship were abo appreciated and 
duly rewarded. Tbe cut-steel work mentioned 
above, and other specimens of it shown by Mole 
and Sons, are, therefore, of interest as the evi- 
dence of an art now seldom practised. 

No. 3,714. — ^Two short swords made by the 
hill tribes of India, and two Indian daggers, are 
exhibited by Mrs. Byrne. 

No. 8,766. — Mr. 0. Reeves, of Birmingham,, 
has sent a number of swords, foils, and halbert 
heads. One of the swords has a well*executed 
chased steel hilt, but it appears rather small t» 
ifford a good hold. 

No. 3,748. — The swords exhibited by Mole 
and Sons, of Birmingham, have been designed 
for presentation to officers of the regular or 
volunteer services, to generals, and Indian 
princes, and most are of elaborate patterns. 
An artillery officer's sword h^s an engraved 
scabbardy somewhat rough in execudon, but a 
handsome chased steel hilt, nickel-plated ; a 
general's sword, silver mounted; the mounts 
of others are silver gilt, and that of a volunteer 
officer's sword is parcel gilt. Two Court swords 
have elegant cut-steel bilts, and one is nickel- 
plated. Besides the swords are fencing foils, and 
Highland dirk, nickel-plated ; halberts of orna- 
mental designs, silver and parcel gilt; service 
and practice lances, and boarding pikes vrith 
nickel-plated mounts and shafts of ash, for 
which bamboo has, however, been substituted 
in the lances of the British cavalry. The object 
of the nickel-plating is to prevent corrosion ; 
the surface thus obtained is very similar in 
appearance to steel; it will wear along time,, 
and preserve its brightness if cleaned occa- 
sionally with leather. 

No. 3,766.— The Royal Commissioners have 
sent some Chinese swords, of rude design and 
workmanship ; an officer's sword ; soldiers^ 
swords, both single and double, in rough leather 
scabbards; and an executioner's sword. The 
prices which are attached are such as would 
be asked in this country rather for knives than 
swords ; thus, the soldier's sword costs but 5s., 
and the executioner s, which is the most ex- 
pensive, only 12s. 91d. 

No. ^,738.— rhe Husquama Small Arms 
Manufacturing Company, Jonkoping, Sweden, 
sends a damasked sword blade. 

No. 3,739 — rhree Japanese swords, wV"** 



726 



JOURNAL er THJS SQGIEmr Of AXIS, ALVQaafs I, 187d. 



are to he foond, not in the Cvmali Boom, but on 
^e wall to the right of the eatranoe to the School 
of Cookery, in the East Gallery. These swordB 
hare wide bladea, with tlHok hacks, ground 
down to an edge like a raeor; one blada has a 
simple deaiga cut in it» two have grooves, but 
the third baa no groove. They have rongh, 
nnpainted wooden hilts, without Miy gtuirdy and 
.plain wooden acabbardB. 

No. 3,788— The War Department exhibit a 
eonple of the servioe lanoea, with ba«boo shafts, 
made at the Enfield Small Arms Factory ; the 
male bamboo, of which the shaftii are made, is 
solid, and is obtained from India ; it is lighter 
tban ash. 

Before proceeding to note the small arms 
exhibited, it may be as well to say a few words 
on the damask pattern, or watering, to be ob- 
served on some blades. The dan^tsk is obtained 
by snbjeoting the blade to the action of acnds. 
Dr. Percy, in his '^ Metallurgy of Iron and 
Bteel," thus explains the cause of the irregahir 
action of the acid, which produces the effect >— 
" The damasked portion is diie to the (Mffeeence 
in oolonration resulting fh>m the action of acids 
on iron and steel, the surfiace of the former 
being left with a metallic tiasue, and thai of the 
latter being left coated with a black, firmly- 
adherent carhonaceoaa residue. By soitabiy 
piling together bars of steel and iron, welding 
them, and then drawing t^em out «Ader tiie 
hanmier, or otherwise, patterns of v^oua kinds 
may be produced, just as is dome in the case of 
g^huM by heating together vanonsly ooloured 
pieces of g^ass, and drawhig them out into 
rods*" Gun**baiiid8 ar^ damascened on tbe 
same principle. It it evident from the above 
explanation that m blade of steal only wiU not 
exhibit a damask pattern, azid that tluMie bladea 
which can be damasked are, from, the pneence q£ a 
proportion of wrought iron, softer thaaateel blades. 

Only a few small^arms are shown, and these, 
although some of the beet of their kind, present 
no novelty. The War Department^ No. 3,788, 
has sent a Martini-Henry rifle, with amiiaberof 
specimeas of the various stages of manufactttie 
as carried on at the Small Arms Factory at 
Enfield. A lai^e number of separate pieces 
illustrate the numerous operations through which 
the different part» of the breech arrangement 
pass. A rough steel barrel, oast, drawn out, and 
bored at Mr. Mark Firth's woiks, Sheffield ; a 
finished barrel, a section of the banel to show 
the rifling, and a rifle mth stock complete, make 
up the odleotion. 

In the ease containing the sword blades in 
various states, as before described, are ^^ stages 
in the manufacture of the bayonet (No. 3,770), 
exhibited by the Boyal United Service Institu- 
tion ; the service bayonets are made by machinery 
•t Enfield. 



Tbe Husqnania SnalL Arms Maanfa^^imfig 
Compaayy Jonko^g, Swedte (Na 3,738), eo^ 
hihit sereBal gnoa and rifles with elesl bamk 
and lodtt; they aes ceKtraI<fiBa bneeh-kidiag 
armsv with a compact and light hissch imngft- 
UMut The metal of wfai<^ they are m»^ 
Swedish cast^steel and Betaeaer stosb-ia uid to 
be of exceUent quality,, equal to thatprodooed 
by the best weurks in Sweden. These gnasttd 
rifles can be made at a very low price, Isbonr it 
^le Husquama works being very ehesp, aid 
there being a fine waterfall, 80 ft. high^wkn^ 
gives motion to the maehtnei^. A nsmW of 
speeuskene of the lock ia various stages of mase- 
facture are also exhibited .by the Hoaquna 
Oompsay. 

WilkmaoB and Son, in the esse ocntaimng 
sword-hladea^ No. 3,792, has one piir of gun- 
barrels without and another pair witk tk 
brae<di-loading apparmtiiis, all xnade of Whit- 
worth steel ; and in ^e case of sworda No. 3,7^2 
a donble-harreUed gun complete, with Wilkin- 
son's patent oentrai file breech sctioD and 
barrel also of Whitwcurth steel Thia metal, 
when (Mat, iasul^eeted to very powerful bydm- 
lie pressure, m oidep ta eoadanas the ated, p< 
nd oft any aiv cavitiea, and obtain pcvtect 
uniformity and somidneaa in the osatiog. A 
nine-^poundev eaBB0n« mads of tiiis conipniNd 
steel ami exhihited last year, vis tried at 
Sonthport m Geto^ IS72, and stood witlboet 
injury the heavy simaa oaiised by large charges 
of two and a half ponmdsL 

The War DejBMsrtment exhibit a nnmUr of 
heads of shrapnel shell* ae made in tbs B^^ 
Labonatoty, Woolwiek, of the foUowiag csHktf ; 
^d, 16, 2£s 40, and 64 or 80 ponndsr ; 7, 8, i 
10, 11, and 12 inch ; alao a 10 ineh h^n^ 
variona. stages of maanfaetKra. Thaae bead^ 
areiaiAda ef Atlaa metal, vhich ia a iiiM Bm^* 
mep ateeL A head ia made fnun a diK, wbid! 
is stamped ha diea of variooa sizes, tetil hraogi^t 
to the proper (^val sh^pe. It is attM^to 
the cast-iron shell by means of riveta. 

No. 3,770 ia a curioue oombinatioii of ^ 
spade, axe, and aaantlet, presented to the hte ^i^ 
John Burgoyne by A. & Uarriaon, ospiaifi ts. 
the First London l^^^eer volaateera, aid ctft 
from the Royal United Serviee laBtitato' ^' 
is doubtieas intended for a sapper. 

In the West Gallery (leUev L. on Utepla » 
the official eatalogtte) V icken, Sons, td Co-* 
of Sheffield, exhthiA a very l<mg steel U«i n* 
tended for t^ lining ef a heavy builtaip Fi«» 
of ordnance; also vanoua small test piecsa, vith 
the tenaile steength and the limit of dtf^^ 
and elongation mrked on them. Such blodD 
for the inner tubes of ordnance aro made by 
melting the ateel is iffueibles,whkdi are eoptiad 
into an iron mouUi The ingot is allowed to 
ood gradually, aftd k then heated in a Stoo^ 



JvURKAL OiT THE SOCIETY OF ART>, Aioust 1, 1873. 



'27 



furnace, and veiy gradually drawn out under a 
steam hammer. The steel blocks for the service 
ordnaDce are ronghly bored and tempered in 
oil, which renders the metal both harder and 
tougher. 

The War Department exhibit a pair of 
trnnnion blocks. No. 3,788, for a 35- ton gun, 
made in the Royal Oarriage Department, Wool- 
wich. 



REPORT ON RAW SILK. 
By B. TnULda Cobb. 

Among the novelties exhibited at the Exhi- 
bitioD, few are more interesting than the rearing 
the silkworm by the open-air process of M. 
Alfred Roland, of Orbe, Switzerland; and 
the reeling the silk from the cocoons, as ex- 
Mbited by Messrs. Jouffray of Vienne, Is^re, 
France. 

The rearing silkworms in this country is not 
new, and as recently as 1870 the process was 
shown at the South Kensington Museum ; 
hat the present exhibit has the novelty of rear- 
kg in the open air, and exposing the worm 
to all the variations of climate without pro- 
tection beyond a roof, for the rearing for 
cocoons; while for "graine," the worms are 
allowed to remain on the trees, pass through 
(he fltages of worm, chrysalis, and moth, and 
Ity their eggs upon the tree itself, where they 
remam through the winter exposed to frost or 
ice. In a paper read at the Society of Arts on 
the 23Td of April last, this method was fully 
explained, and in the diiscassion which followed, 
the opinion was expressed that not only migbt 
fliia method be available for raising " graine *' 
nx tUa country, but that it would be of great 
wnrice for the production of cocoons in the 
coboies. 

M, Roland, when in London recently, seemed 
to entertain no doubt but that his worms would 
outlive the evil effects of the east wind then 
hbwing, and in fact expressed himself quite 
tttiBfied as regards our climate, notwithstanding 
its ndden changes ; but an unexpected enemy 
4)peared in the shape of the London '* blacks," 
whieli the east wind showered upon his little 
mnlberry trees, set like a miniature plantation 
by the side of the niagnanerie, and caused no 
nght apprehension as to the result such unex- 
pected doses of carbon might produce upon the 
worms. Certainly, this was an element which 
M not entered into M. Roland's calculations 
vbea be consented to exhibit his process in 
LoBdon. 

In the magnanerie the worms are now spinning 
Atlr cocoons, and the fact that up to the pre- 
tti not a single death has occurred speaks 
nDhmcB for Uie open-air {ffocess, for during part 



of the time there has been great difficulty in the 
tiupply of leaves for food. 

I hat this pro ess is a complete success can 
no longer be doubted, and the certificate of 
Messrs. Gaydou and Co., of Turin, read at the 
Society of Arts ou the occasion alluded to, 
places the matter beyond doubt. They cer- 
tify — 

'* The educatioDsmade this year, 1872, with flrain pro- 

daced by the open-air eyatem of M. Alfred Roland, of 

Orbe, Omton Je Vaud, Switserland, have giyen on an 

average 40 kilogrammes of oouoons for 30 grammes of 

{;rain ; that is to say, 1 oz. troy weight produced 107 lb. 

troy. The yellow t^octuons of M. Roland yield one 

kilogramme of ^>^y0 silk per 12 kilogrammes of cocoonp. 

About 160 cocoons go to make up the kilogramme 

(2'2lb. avoir.). This race dot« not contain more than 8^ 

per cent, of double cocoons.— (Signed) 

" A. GAYDOU AND CO. 
" Turin, Sept H. 18TJ.'» 

From the rearing the cocoon to the reeling- 
the silk from the cocoon is the natural step, 
and this art is sho^^n by Jouffray's machine,. 
3,682, West Gall riea, room 17, ground floor, 
part of >^hich is for reeling and the other part 
for re-reeling. In both these processes the reel 
is here turned by steam-power, but this is not a 
necessity, and the reels might be just as easily 
atfd well turned by baud; in fact, the China 
crop for the jiaMt seanon, just estimated at 
7,160,000 lbs , has been all reeled by hand. Thia 
silk reeling is an exhibition which no one 
should pass without examination. It is an 
industry which we nave not in this country, 
and it is somewhat to our disci edit that silk is 
the only manufacture in (ireat Britain in which 
we do not commence with the raw material. 
The raw material of silk is the cocoon, such as one 
sees reeled at this exhibit, besides the specimens 
in rooms 14 and 15, class 8, division 2. It has 
been stated seriously that English women could 
not acquire the peculiar knack necessary to reel 
silk weU, which is equivalent to saying that 
English women cannot do that which French, 
Italian, Chinese, Japanese, and the women of 
many other parts of the world can do without 
difficulty. Of course it is nonsense ; but it is a 
fixed idea in many of the silk n/anufacturing 
districts, and the more this process is seen and 
talked a^ out, the sooner the old pre-conceived 
prejudices must give way. The great skill 
required is to keep the thread the same size, so 
that a given number of yards may at any time 
weigh the same ; for instance, supposing the 
reeler starts with four cocoons, towards the end 
it would require six cocoons to maintain the 
size, the thread of the cocoon becoming more 
and more attenuated as it approaches the chry- 
salis, until it flnally breaks, and what is left, 
technically called **skin/' is treated as other 
waste silk, and carded. 

The woman reeling at Messrs. Jouffray's 
machine is evidently an expert, as the 



728 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, August 1, 1873. 



beauty of the raw silk she produces proves ; 
but there is no mystery to be disooveredy and 
the use of the second basin, which sorely 
puzzles some curious spectators, is to contain 
cold water to cool the reeler*s fingers in. The 
heat of the water in which the cocoons are 
])laced to dissolve the natural gum varies, with 
the description of cocoon used, from 160^ to 
200° Fah., and this is a thing that requires 
care and a little discrimination to regulate. 
In this case the heat is supplied by steam, which 
can easily be regulated, but in Ohina and Ji^mui 
a charcoal fire under the basins supplies the 
heat, and the specimens of Japanese reeling 
machines, immediately opposite Messrs. Jouf- 
fray's machine, show how simple the proeess is 
in that country. 

In Milan the complicated machines of the 
Chevalier Albert Keller not only reel, but put 
a twist into the thread by one process, malong 
what are called '' singles ;** and the silk, in con- 
sequence of this improved machinery, has a 
high repute. It seems strange that the silk trade 
of this country never yet adopted the most 
approved method, and improved the mechanical 
appliances for reeling silk. 

The work is especially adapted for women and 
girls, and is an industry which might be 
developed in this country to the benefit of all 
classes ; and by Keller's process the same high- 
class skill is not required as in the swift reeling 
now exhibited, the motion of Keller's machines 
being slow. 

In rooms 14, 15, No. 3,611, is a case of 
English silk, grown and reeled in this country 
from seed. Specimens of the cocoons are shown 
in the "bush" where the worm spun them. 
The moths, egg% cocoons reeled, refuse, thrown, 
and manufactured silk exhibited in this case are 
all English, and exhibited by the grower, Capt 
Mason, of Yateley, who has for the last few years 
experimentalised upon the rearing of silk in this 
country. The reelers have been brought from 
the village, and one boy, who has attained the art 
of reeling, Capt. Mason speaks very highly of. 
The specimens of raw silk in this case will bear 
comparison with many high class silks, although 
they have been grown and reeled in England. 

In case 3,638 are beautiful specimens of 
Broussa silk, and the cocoons from which the 
silk was made. The exhibition of the cocoons 
with the raw silk makes this case extremely 
interesting, and the different races — yellow 
Italians, Japans, pure whites, and sulphur- 
coloured cocoons — with the high quality of the 
silk obtained from some of the white and yellow 
cocooQs, place this silk in a good position among 
its competitors. It is worthy of note that but 
a few years since the silk produced from this 
district was inferior. They are all exhibited by 
the Turkish government. 



In case 3,612 Ohina races are sxhibitddbT 
Messrs. Matlieaon and Oo.«— Tsailss, {rom Kin> 
zing and Hoochow; Taysaams, from fia-eluag 
and Woo^sei, with China thiowns* These m 
beautiful silks, and it must be ackno^ed^el 
that when China, sends forth her choioe nmpki 
they are very hard to beat The sped* 
mens of yellow silk finna Bhaniung are ifite> 
resting, as being only recently reoeiTed frooi 
there, the north of China not being oonadered 
formerly a silk-producing country. 

Messrs. Matheson and Co. also ezliibit very 
beautiful specimens of Japan raws; witb^h 
specimen the price is given, boih in doQin aod 
sterling. Of these the Jo-shaia uid Sin* 
chieu are very fine, and show what <^ be 
turned out by the pjomitive reeling mwdu&a of 
these people by care and extra labour. 

The specimen of green silk of the Ysda-bu 
is exceedii^ly interesting, as showing » wy 
difficult reeling successfully overcome, vA pro- 
ducing a very valuable silk £rom an oak-feeder. 
The history of this silk is modem. About 40 
years ago the inhabitants of 16 villages fomed 
themselves into an association to cnltivatd tbe 
Yama-mai, and this culture has graduDy 
increased until the number of cocoon* k^ 
annually exceeds two milUons. Mr. Coasal 
Adams at the time of his visit to the district 
found the value of this silk to be SOU to S4(» 
riyos, whidi is about the value attached to tiw 
specimen— viz., 27ft. Gd. per lb. The i»i«»i 
robes of Japan are said now to he madeof tba 
silk. The worm feeds on. dififerent deacriptiow 
of oak, but that best suited is Quercut iwroto. 

The Japanese Qovemment also exhilut ia« 
silks, some of which show the re-reeling, htH * 
the reel of four bamboos. These specimeu*" 
very fine, and it is to be regretted that » m 
translation of the nanaes of the dififerent distrke 
was not given, but very few being the wue^ 
for the Japanese oharacters on the 1^>^ 

No.3,58^by Messrs.E.HaUandSon,ii woii^ 
of attention, as enabling the observer to mwe 
useful comparisons. Here we find J^ 
Indian, Italian, Turkiflh, and cok^nial cofl^j 
China raws in the gum, and the same dy»; 
Tsatlee trains, and the same dyed; bdiatf* 
ChiuA sewing silks, in the gum, and th« •■^J 
after boiling ;. Japans and CantxMis, in *'**^' 
and the same boiled ; and a. skein of Sie«M*^ 
yellow silk, worth con^paring with the wing- 
tung silk exhibited by Messrs. Matfc**"^ 
Co. before alluded to. 

Nos. 8,551, 3,6;il, 3,626, are fine specimesa 
European silk, showing the weights in 

Indian raw silks are not so well re 
as tiiey might easily have bean. In 
MathesonV caset, 2,612, an> Madras cocoow 
the usual unsstisfafltogy nature» and the 
made fimm. similar ooeom^ show what a 



duncO" 



M< 



JOURNAL OF THE BOOIETY OF ABT8, Atoust 1, 1878. 



729 



fol nlk cm be made with bo inferior a raw 
mitoriiL It h pWfMng %> find, with aach 
libonr and appRanees, that -the specimens sent 
hme from time to time from the Nielgherriea, 
in the South ; Poonah aad other plaoes in 
the Bombay district, and Kangra, on the Bub- 
Himalayaa slopes, cannot be multiplied and 
mbedtuted for the inferior raws of Bengal. But 
ft kw jears ago a race of worms was found at 
Kingrt almost wild, and without a history, with 
iD the superiority, both of size and quality, of the 
old Toflcan races. 

The iossabs of India are more interesting, 
seeiog that fashion has at last deigned to 
pttronise this description of silk. In cane 
3^7 we have specimens of a rough tussah- 
looking silk, and 3,612 shows the Indian 
tussahs as reeled upon a woman's knee, 
which cannot be unreeled in this country from 
their cooioal shape. The Chinese tussab, in the 
BUK case, is a tMseful description. The waste 
alb in this case are also worth attention, as 
they ire now being utilised in this country to 
■ extent never before equalled, and have become 
i coQsideraUe importance. 

The uses of this waste, after being cleaned, 
sided, and boiled, is shown by the machine 
nhibited by Messrs. Greenwood and Battley 
8,685), and the prodnce of the mannfactnTe, by 
HesBTs. Baker, Tucker, and Co. (3,558), and 
ifeesrg. J. and T. Brocklehurst (3,559). Its 
Maafacture forms a aew and most important 
•tare in the silk HMmafactunng of this country. 
In 3,551 is a specimen of raw silk grovm and 
»ded m Egypt, by Maxwell Anketell, Esq., a 
ntieman who has jast been layiag out large 
jtttations for the Khedive, and introducing 
^-reeling into that country. This is from 
t>W ie€^, and classed with Italian raws. 

Mew. Hands and Co., in 3,583, show raw 
lb in the gum and boiled off, also silks in the 
iriona stages of dyeing ; and their case is worth 
^tion from the pleasing arrangement of 
>^rs as well as the more useful information 
►begahifd. 

^0. 3,574 is a well-exhibited collection, show- 
g the cocoons, reeled silk, and waste. As might 
' expected of an exhibit from Alais, the raw 
k is not only very beautiful, but the quality 
pcrb. The reproductions of Japanese cocoons 
Bit to its origin, and Messrs. Gascuil and 
"onchias have, by a judicious arrangement, 
«Ie an interesting exhibit. 
I>r. Campbell, in 3,563, shows the silk obtained 
m the worm feeding on the castor-oil plant in 
Mm and Darjeeling, and it is a matter of 
y^t that whcfre this "endi" comes from the 
^^ny is not cultivated, for wherever it has 
m planted to protect young tea, it grows 
wiantiy. 
Perhaps the most extraordinary exhibit in the 



way of saw silk is the black dyed, which shows 
a very peculiar property in silk, viz., the power 
to retain certain drugs and chemicals in a quan- 
tity not only to replace the natural gum removed, 
but to increase the size of the thread to, in some 
cases, six times its natural size.' In the 
natural state, silk contains almost 25 per cent of 
gummy matter, which is extracted in the pro- 
cess of dyeing soft silk, and the original 16 ozs. 
is reduced to 12 ozs. 8uch silk is bright, soft, 
and lustrous, will take the most beautiful dyes, 
and is employed in the production of the most 
eosUy goods. Specimens of such have already 
been Qoticed in case 3,583 and others. But if^ 
instead of a reduction in the size of the thread, 
it oan be enlarged to a considerable extent, it is 
obvious that the manufacturer dealing with^ a 
thread which covers throe or four times the 
space the natural thread would do, can produce a 
manufactured article at such a price as to leave 
competitors no choice but to discover the secret 
or be out of the market. Thus the present 
cheap black ribbons of Coventry could not possibly 
be produced at the price were not the silk thread 
made artiticially to cover four times the space of 
the natural thread. 

The extent to which silk will take up 'such 
weighting is most extraordinary, and is admirably 
illustrated by Messrs. Diokins and Co., Middle- 
ton (3,56H), some of their dyed silks showing an in- 
creased weight exceeding &J0 per cent. For some 
time the secret was confined to Lyons, but Messrs. 
Dickins and Co. appear to. have gone beyond 
even t^e skill of the I^yonese, for while at Lyons 
a pound of silk is returned weighing about iK> to 
94 ozs , Messrs. Dickins return it to the manufac- 
ture weighing 120 ozs. 

In the Queensland Annexe are specimens of 
Japanese and Indian cocoons. It is to be re- 
gretted that these last are in the colony at all. 
I he Japanese reproductions are very good. 
The reeled silk from that country is only worthy 
of notice for the purpose of intimating to the 
colonists that the reeling of silk is an arc of itself, 
subject to certain trade rules, and that specimens 
like that from Queensland, although reeled silk, 
are not raw silk, and have little or no value. 

The raw silk grown and reeled by Dr. Hiddingh 
at the Cape is extremely encouri^ing, and the 
beautiful sashes made from this silk, and exhibited 
by the Society of Arts (3 6;;4), show what mag- 
nificent fabrics can be produced from it. The 
Society is thus encouraging a new industry 
which bids fair to become, in the immediate 
future, a prolific and powerful source of silk 

supply. 

From Australia are very good specimens of 

cocoons. No. 129 of the Australian catalogiie is 

an exhibit of cocoons raised on the Murray river, 

by Mrs. Bladen Neill, from an acclimatised raoe 

1 introduced a few years since into Australia by 



780 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Aoourr 1, 18T3. 



Mr. 0. Brady. These worms appear by the 
change of cUmate to have been enabled to 
shake off the disease which has made the race 
now nearly extinct in Europe. Mr. Thome alao 
shows cocoons of a very high class from seed se- 
lected and sent him from this conntry. Ilie 
yellow, sharp-pointed cocoons also exhibited will 
doubtless give place now to the better varieties 
introduced by Mrs. Neill and others mentioned. 
In conclusion, it must be admitted that the 
exhibition of raw silk — with the exception of 
the magnanerie and reeling — has not been made 
BO instructive as it might easily have been. One 
sees a skein of Ghina silk, but beyond the fact 
that it is better than the ordinary run, we learn 
nothing ; could we at the same time learn the 
district where the worm was reared, the descrip- 
tion of mulberry, any peculiar marking of the 
worms, specimen of cocoons, number of cocoons 
required to produce a pound weight of silk, re- 
port upon the " workability *' of that silk, and 
any other remarks — if we could collate a 
number of such, much very useful information 
might be collected from which every silk-pro- 
ducing country might benefit. 



The namber of Tisiton admitted to the Exhibition on 
Thundaj, Jaly 24th, whs as follows:- S^-ason tickets, 
116; on payment of Is., 2,662 ; total, 2,777. On Friday, 
season tickets, 97 ; on payment of Is., 1,901 ; total, 
1,998. On Saturday, season tiuke^s, 178 ; on payment 
of Is., 2,482 ; total, 2,660. 

The namber of TiHitors admitted to the Exhibition 
during the week ending Snturday, July 26th, whs as 
follows :— Season tickets, 788; on pHyment of 28. 6d., 
635 ; on payment of Is., 11,724^; total, 13,147. 

The number admitted on M<>n<Iay, July 28, was, season 
ticketa, 143 ; on payment of 1p., 2 043 ; total, 2,186. On 
Tuesday, season tickets, 166 ; on payment of Is., 
2,^30 ; total, 2,486. On Wednesday, season tickets, 
129 ; on payment of 2s. 6d.. 714 ; total, 843. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners have decided that the 
collections of works of doftearted British artints, to bH 
formed in connection with the London IntematiouHl Ex- 
hibition of next year, shall consist of works by the fol- 
lowing artists :- — 

Painters in oi7.— John C instable, R.A., died 1837 ; 
Augustus Egg, R.A.. di«d 1863 ; David Roberts, R.A., 
4ied 1864 ; David Wilkie, R.A., died 1841. 

Painters in water colours,-^. Coney, died 1838 ; J. S. 
Ootinan. died 1842; F. MickHnxin. difKl 1864; 8. Prout, 
died 1852; A. Pugin. die^i 1832 ; J. M. W. Turnnr. R.A. 
(architecture only), died 1851 ; C. Wild, died 1836. 

O^-ners of pictures p'tintud by these artists are in- 
vited to intimate their willingness to lend them to Her 
Majesty's CooimissionHrs. 



Sir Charles Wheatstoue has been elected Poreim 
A8*>ciat6 for the French AudRiny «»f Sct^^nnes, to fill the 
vaoiiacy ocoafdoned by the d^arn of B»r.m Ltebiic. 

In the kingdom of Italy there are 116 mines in 
operation, about one qn trior of thn wholn nutaber iu the 
country— 45 are iron, 31 cipp^r, 13 nrrfMntifHrou-* lead, 14 
aurifen»ua pyrites; the otht»r aro, 10 bIqc, mercury, nickel, 

to N.^io^uiS^ah ^® ^** ^^^ opened from Calcutta 



ON THE PROUnonON OF SILKWORM GEADi 
BY THE CELLULAR STSIEM. 

Since the appearance of the silkworm disease, gnit 
difficulty has been* ezperienoed by the sQkworm «di* 
oator in proooriog sound and healthy ffndn, and Baro- 
pean oultiyMtors haye been driren to draw thoir ra^j 
of eggs from Japan and other eastern coaotria vhub 
are supposed to haye been undfeoted bj thi« tenible 
soourge. The exiatenoe in the silkworm of Yibiri liie, 
or the so-called corpmidss of oomalia, seems to be tb 
direct cause of several of the diseases to which thii 
useful insect is subject^ and germs of contagion hfi^ 
in this manner handed down m>m gensfatioB to genen* 
tion, the silk tnde has been, since the appeannos of tk 
pebrine, ^tine, paasiay Ac, threatened with ousqJito 
annihilation. 

In the microscope a powerful means is brought to betr 
for detecting traces of this epidemic in the silk vono, ud 
as he is enabled by tte aid to separate the good 6on 
the bad, the sericulturist is to a great extent cerUii i 
the resulU of his crop, which otherwise would be i 
matter of mere chance. 

Experience has shown that the yellow Tsriety bi i 
greater tendency to be affeotei by disease thin t^ 
original Japanese silkworm, and also that the repct^* 
tions of the latter are hardier than those of the otbar 
kind, so that if more than 6 per cent of the corpoctk 
infection be found in the grains of the yellov TsrieCf 
and J»«panese reprodnotions, yery muoh mtt»t be rqj«cied 
as unfit for education. On the other hand, tb« miijiui 
Japanese will give a tolerable return erea with 8 to 19 
per cent of infection, but with 12per cent th«eiiio 
prospect of their beiiig worth rearing. Before vsdtf* 
taking the education of the ailkworm, the gninibooldbe 
exammed with the microscope, to ascertain that it oa* 
tains no greater per-centage of infection than thit j^ 
stated. 

The production of silkworm grain by the edl^ 
system is now practised on a laige scale in lUlr, sod 
more especially in Lombardyy where it has gins >^ 
brilliant proofs of success. This system i< extitfl^ 
simple, consisting solely in the use of the tmcroKop^^ 
the examination of the motha after they have depostid 
their eggs, and in the rejection of the grain shoiU th^ 
not be found free from infection and oontainbg gr^ " 
disease in their blood, or with dark spots on thdrviof* 
and bodies, a distinguishing sign of this disorder ^ ^ 
estublishm^nt of societies fur the production of »tt[*^ 
ffraio on this system, similar to thoee already esirtuiS ° 
Louibardy, the Fi iuli, Tuscany, the Tyrol, and O^aaf*- 
cmnot bo too strongly advocated, and their diitdi^ 
should be confided to competent persons. 

A knowledge of the use of the micrasoope is indiip^ 
sable to the sericulturist, who will find in it both |«w 
and satisfaction. . 

The silkworms that pass through the yariooiphaitfp , 
their life and complete their metamorphosia with tk | 
greatest degree of regularity, the foremost in ooso^ 
mg to vpin, and &ose that have shown no tnc*^ 
disease, and whose cocoon is well-shaped and dofl ^ 
yield rapidly to the touch, may, without hesittf** * 
pronounced to be the healthiest The fint ooooai^ 
is probably that which will produce the beat gnio; : 

The cocoons should be firm at the ends, as ttl«}n»* I 
middle, and should be selected from the best fona'd o^ 
but not from the largest or smallest ; they ihoald 
slightly curved in wants towards the centre, the ' 
tthould be of fine texture and of unifonn and 
colour, and on shaking the cocoon gently a sli^t 
should be heard, indicating that the chrysalis ii ~ 
and free from the o >coon. 

From five to nx hectogrammes of cooooni are i 
for the production of one ounce (SO gramme*) of i 

For the production of grain oars should be ' 
exclude — 



ceil J 



JOURNAL OF THE 800IBTY OF ARTS, Atouit 1, 18 1 8. 



781 



1. The ooooona of fflkwonna that hare girmi aigna of 
pebrioA," or " gattine.'* 

2. Those affected with '* pasaia " in a larger proportion 
li&an 3 per oent 

3. Thoae that have not aocompliahed thor meta- 
i&orphoaee with regularity. 

H^Ting SAlected a batch of ooooona, an examination of 
be chiytfaHa mtiat be next made. For this purpose take 
OO cooo<in8 and cut them open with a pair of aoiaaora to 
&G whether thej preaent anj black apota. Bellotti and 
Toraali^i are of opinion thitt th(«e marks are a aare aign 
xid have direct connection with the diaeaae dUled ** flic- 
iciness*' or '*piiaaia," and that grain moduoed from 
kaaae ooooona will to a certainty be affected by this 
Ixretidfal malady. 

Take another aample and place them in a warm room, 
»s-y better atiU, in an Orlandi*a incubator for the parpoae 
*€ h^istening the coming out of the motha. The tern- 
>er.itare in the incubator ahould be maintained at 26^ 
2«am. (90® Fah.). The rem>iindpr of the batch of cocoons 
s to be placed in a well-ventilAted room, where the 
^mperatore does not exceed 18^ R4<im. (71** Fah.). In 
lais manner the moths in the sample will come oat two 
tr three days before those of the remainder of the batch, 
kod there will be still time to utilise their silk by suffo- 
ui.tiag the cocoons, in case a sufficient de^p^e of health 
uu not been found in the sample, which is the case if 
nore than 40 out of the 100 are affected with corpuscles, 
ribrios, or germs of fSormentation. 

The extmination of the moth is now made in seyeral 
grays. One plan consists in cruahinff the moth in a glass 
^r porcelain mortir, with 15 to 20 drops of distilled 
irater. It is, however, incooTHnient and tedious, hs great 
?axe most be taken to clean everything used during this 
9p«aiition at each sep^irate examination. Mummified 
cnoths may be treated in th4 sttme manner. A drop of 
blood may be taken from liye moths by pricking them 
with s needle in the abdomen, and transferring it to the 
obJHtit glass of a microscope. Another and more expe- 
ditious pUn is to cut off one or both anUnnm of the moth, 
aad pound them in a mortar with a drop of water, which 
La to be placed in the microscope ; should this preparation 
be found to be free from yibrios or corpuscles, it may 
be naturally inferred that the body of the insect is also 
free from g^fms of disease, and in consequence that it is 
healthy. The moth may then be allowed to deposit its 
e^^ga. Should the contrary be found to be the case, then 
the moth should be destroyed. 

Having found that the number of diseased motha in the 
aample ooes not exceed from 10 to 20 per cent, the 
moths in the remainder of the batch may be allowed to 
come out, aad are considered as fit for the production of 
grain. 

All moths must be rejected that have a weakly, 
wrinklcl* or torpid appearance, as those of a lendan 
colour, h«sy, with black spots or blisters on the scales 
of their wings, and imperfrtctly*formed motha should be 
thix>wn away without hesitation. 

Having selected in this manner a quantity of healthy 
moths, they are then allowed to couple, and are after- 
wards separated. 

For the isolation of the moths seyeral plans have 
adopted. 

1. A pbin that is much in favour in Lombardy, Gon- 
saga, and in Piedmont consists in the uw of muslin b^gs, 
in which a couple of moths (a male and a female) are 
confined. The coupling is in this manner natural and 
nnlimittsd, and the g^in is deposited in the bag. which 
shoal 1 be kept until the hatching season in a dry and 
wsU ventilated place. 

2. Another pUn, and that recommended by Professor 
Oomalia, of Milan, is as follows : — ^The moths are placed 
in a tray^, and their coupling is limited to eight to ten 
boors ; in the meanwhile, two cloths for receiving the 
deposit of the g^nin Hhould be prepared, and a number 
of cells tnade of cardboard or metal are to be placed in 
it in rows about 1 cent, apart ; these cells are open 



at both ends, and are sometimes cylindrical* and some- 
times in the fbrm of a truncated cone 5 cent in dia- 
meter at the base, and from 2) to 3 cent in height^ A 
female moth is placed in each cell until she haa depoaited 
all her evga, or, better atill, until she ia dead. Each of 
these oella ahould be numbered, and a corresponding 
number marked upon the moth. The dead moths are then 
collected, and enclosed one by one in a pasteboard box, 
which must be numbered in a like manner, to be kept for 
future examination. 

To prevent the destruction of the moths by the Ihr- 
maiei lardariut, an insect of the beetle tribe, that feeds 
voraciously on them, the cells containing the mummified 
moths should be ooUected in boxes capable of containing 
from 60 to 100, and any effgs or larva of this beetle 
will be easily destroyed by placing the boxes in an OTcn 
heated to from 80<» to 100<» Ream. (212^ to 268<' Fah.). 

WhHterer be the system of isolation adopted, there 
ia alwaya advantage in obtaining a aeparation of the 
infected from the healthy araina, and in thia manner a 
mc'ma of rejecting thoae that have been laid by motha 
that on eximination are found to he diaeaaed. 

A register of the results of the examination of each 
couple must be kept, and the eggs of those moths that 
have been found to contain germs of disease must be 
scraped off the cloth and burnt immediately. 

Fur the production of grain on a large scale it ia not 
considered necessary to examine the male, but when eggs 
are required for reproduction, the examination of botti 
male and female is necessary; no precaution should 
he neglected in this operation, and cTerv care taken to 
reject moths eyen infected ever so slightly. 

The moths can be examined at leisure during the winter 
months, when the sericulturist has nothing else to do ; 
or, should it be preferred, they may be sent in numbered 
boxes to some sericultural establishment, where they 
may be examined at a trifling charge by a professional 
microscopist. 

Until the "pebrine," so frital to the silkworm, has been 
effectually stamped out, the production of sprain in the 
ordinary way must not be thought of. It is, therefcHre, 
a matter of Uie utmost importance for the future derelop- 
ment of sericulture, that Uie selection bv the use of the 
microscope should be extended to all silk-producing 
countries, for by its aid our cultivators will find a means 
of repairing their past losses, and the total regeneratioii 
of the silkworm will be insured. 

In condnsion, it must be repeated that every ailkwonn 
educator ahould perfectly understand the use of the 
microscope, and it cannot be too strongly urged upon 
ti^e governments of those colonies in which this im- 
portttnt industry is nowbeginning to make rapid progress, 
that there is great necessity for the establishment of 
microscopical laboratories and permanent schools of 
sericulture, where the use of this indispensable inatru- 
ment for investigation could be taught 



M. Vsmb^ry asserts, in the AVgemeine Zeitungy 
that the physical, financial, sooiiil, and political difficulties 
in the way of the execution of M. de Lesseps* project of a 
Central Asian Railway from Orenburg to Peshawur make the 
whole plan impracticable under present oiroumstanoss. 

The question of State ownership of railroads in 
Massacbusetts is still agiteted, but no general policy is agreed 
upon. A proposition was lately before the Legislatnrs which 
otmtemplated the State owning one of three competing lines 
of raiin>ad, all of which were to have the use of the Hoosao 
tunnel. 

A company has been formed, with a capital of 
£1,000.000, to pi^tmore oertahi lines of railway connection in 
France, which will faeilitete the route from Great Britain to 
India. The immediateprojeot is to connect the Northern 
Railway of France, at Hnison, with the Paris, Lyons, and 
Mediterranean line at Dijon, forming a direct route from 
Calais to llarseiiles. All the nsosssary c onC esa kms have been 
obtained. 



7St 



JOUftdTAit «F THC 



or JkSTB, AMOfET 4, 1878. 



OOKBXSFOVSUrCt. 



THE ECONOMT OV TOtSL, 

, _ ^ I ask you fa> puUish the fioUowiug 

deioription of «a inTeotion of mine ior modocing fa^ 
from peatf 

ture of, peat-fuel. — Build a tank (into wkioh atoam oan 
be oonvejed in a frost) with a feea«r, that will aaparate 
the peat when aeeded* and a eheot to lopply a cylinder, 
bniH ia * raee or tank, with a ahoot and ta|) at the 
bottom, abont twenty fe^ in diameter, the width being 
aooording to the quantity to be manu£aotared, the sides 
or flaAffes to be oloeed about foor foet, abore which con- 
stmct Uie opening to oatoh the peat from the tank-shoot, 
the periphery being a sieve (the fineness being acoordmg 
to the qoalit^ required) ; the inside of the cylinder to 
haye projections or horizontal rods to carry the peat to 
an elevation from whence it will £ill on water* in which 
tiie cylinder must be immersed about one-fifth of its 
diameter ; let the peat ran from the cylinder into a tank 
or truck on rails, made with a double bottom, also the 
rides and ends, if needed, which may be hurdles made 
to fit, haying a apaee between, the upper or inride bottom 
being perforated and ooyered with a thick home*h«ir 
doth, or other material, through which the water will 
filler ; the inside of the tank or truck to have a moYoable 
frame, or partition, wedge-shaped, with the thin part at 
the bottom, the oompartments bemg the size and sh(u>e 
the peat-fuel is required ; the sides of the truck to be 
hung with hinges, and a moyeable cover for the top with 
a ta^ or the truck can be run into a cylinder, the whole 
to be aiff4i|^t, and a pump to be worked by the motive 
power. 

To ma&a&ctnre the peat-fuel, carry the peat from the 
bog with trucks or a tramway into the tank, from whenoe 
it oaa be eonveyed by the feeder and shoot into the 
cvlinder, whioh oan be turned by a waierwheel, tnrbinei 
steam engiiMi^ or other power, and which will disinte- 
giate and s^aiate thedecomposed peat friom the vegetable 
fibre or other OKtraneoas substance. Let Uie pe^ from 
the xaoe «r ton^ of the cylinder into the tank or truck, 
the bottom of whioh oonnect by « pipe with a screw- 
joint to the pump, then pun^> away the water and re- 
move the frume out of the tank or truck ; then fix om 
the oerer to the tank or truck, or remove it into a 
cylinder, and exhaust the air and humidity (and if 
necessary a dry-blast or exhaust) by a pump, let in air 
by means of the tap, remove the cover, let down the 
sidee of the tank or truck, and remove the dense peat- 
fhel. 

The vegetable fibre can be manufactured into paper 
or bunt, the ashes being a valuable manure. — I am, itc, 

G. N. Shoi^v. 
Lyme, Dorset, 10th July, 1873. 

P.S. — ^It is computed that the machinery to manufacture 
100 tons per day will coat £1,000, and 2fl. 6d. per ton for 
labour. Any practical information for carrying out the 
above invention may be obtained on application to Mr. 
John Pinohbeok, OJB., of 27, LeadenhciU-street, London, 
E.O. 



eSVERAL ■(UOf. 



T^e nitrate of ix>ia8h trade of Peru has inorea«ed 
wonderfully within the hut twenty-five years. In 1848 three 
vessels were suffioieat to supply the demand, while now one 
hundred vesseUi are wttiting for cargoes at the port of 
Iquique. 

From tiie traffic retnms of the Sues Canal it 
appears that in eleven months of 187^-73 five haodrad and 
■fTS^-*^o ▼easels passed through, i«Miuttwo hundred end 
eighty-etgbt in the preeading twelve monrhs, while the 
goWB mcreased at a moeh larger ratB-674,8 18 tone against 

^^^i^«.-B" P^ ^ ^^^ '^"rt out 24 per oeatTof aU 
m. tom^ge pMssd at present between India and £«rope and 



Patent Gongrefta.~The preliminary arraogementi iar 
the Intematioaal Patent Congress, wnich ia %o be hid 
In Yienna this month, have been confided to a eoa- 
mittee. The congress is to be composed of 8<aentifi« vm. 
artisans, political economists, and other experts. Tht U^iea 
Stales Government have appointed Mr. John Thateber, of 
the Patent-oQoe, to represent it, and H is stated that a on* 
munieation is being pnspared at 'Washlagton eaihodTiBf te 
views of the AflMfioan QevsRssent. Mr. Ttiatebv ii biv 
on his way to Vienna. A meeting of the friend* of aalal*^ 
national Fatent System was roocatiy held to tmrnkt 
this subject. Mr. B. Sttonelson, JiLP^ waa ia tl» 
chair. The HsaimiUtion of the varions patent ki^ «« 
advocated, and it was resolved — ** Tb»t a deputatioa «vt 
upon Lord Granville to represent to him that rctem hkra^ 
been obtained from our etnbaiHdes and legatUraa abnsd in 
reference to the patent laws of other coontrieit, it ia f xpediat 
that advantage should be taken of the nfM>eting of tki ooe- 
gress on patents at Vienna, in mder to f wrcber tfaeiwuhitiia 
of the Seteot OonmiMneof the House of CeonBoas sa PUati 
for the sessions of 187 1-72, ia favour of iAtamctisnal pitat 
laws." Mr. Webetm-, O-C, F.a.S., and O«org« HskMh, 
LL.D., memberi of tbe Swusty of Arts, have becat-ipsBtifi? 
invited by the Austrian authorities to attend the o>jiifi«ak 

British Association. — ^The forty-third moeting d tiie 
British Association fur the Advaneement of Scieaes «9«m- 
raenee ia Bradford on Wodneeday, the 1 7 th of Sep*mbg>«s 
which day the first general meeting will be hHU,al«|^ 
p.m., when the Presuie»t will deliver an addnM ; fi» «aa* 
eluding meetiag will be held on Wedneadajr, the Silk d 
Bepteuber, at 2.30 p.m., when the association vUl b* ai- 
|oumed to its next place of meeting. At two evMUB^ bm^- 
ings, which will take place at 8.^ p.ni.,disoour«e» on u a aa 
branches of science will be delivered. There viB tk) be 
other evening meetinfrs, at which opportunity will b»i^)vM 
for genera] conversation among the members. The Mttiiw 
are: —A. H4tbematteal and pby*>cal 6ei«noe; B. CWwoi) 
seienee ; C. Geology ; D. Biolofiv ; fi. Oeogmphy ; F. 
mioseienee«oi«tatis«Ms;0. Mec^uaieal acisBfie. 



Reg)8tratio& oi Lettan.— Oonsiderable disciasiao vu 
aroused by the recent issue of a Post-offioe refntUnoa thit 
all letters containing matters of value, including st«V^ 
should be registered in the same way and under rks mae 

Eenalties as letters containing money. The new rale m to 
ave come into force on immediatdy, but, a* great teit»- 
faction was caused by it, a notioe was publialwd ^xpkfsiar 
that the regulation was to bo enforced only when sooh arfiRhv 
of valuowere so eardesslv enolosed in lettmv as to nwiks is 
eaev to perceive ^lem. 1*110 matter, howevor, was taoaxb 
nnaer the notice of Parliament, and it was nnderstoed aM 
the fegulatton would not be put into force. 

Wneral Oil in AoftraUa.— A product of South 1«- 
tralia, just discovered, promises well. Kerosene oil has l»rtz 
made rrom a substance which exudra from the earth ia UrfS 
quantities at the head of the Cooroog. £xperinmts htn 
been made te test the stuff*, which in appaaranoe itaiwfcfc' 
asphahe, and has been oaMed <*oaoQtdumc." A tee of a 
yields seventy gallons of keros^ie, thirty of li^bricmliaff £l> 
and seven of vamish. Tests have showa thai the hmn sw 
will not bum except through a wick, until heated to l&^^ 
Builder. 



VOTICSS. 



BraSGRIPIIOKt. 



The Midsummer subsct^tions are due, asd 
shotild be forwarded by cheque or Post-o&e 
order, crossed *' Coutta aad Co.," and made pay- 
able to Mr. Samuel Thomas Bavenport, Finanoal 
ofiioer. 



J0UK7AL.QF TSB/S6KSlSrtpr:TOF>jMVni,llliraf0r^« 167.3. 



?» 



mmi OF THE SOCIETY OF ^ilfffTSJ 



No. ),OBl. Tob SXL 



FRIDAT, AUGITST 8, 1878. 



AMifyAMi 



r.C. 



10 Oc 



mOUVOBKEKTB BT TSB COfTHOIL. 



JHonvAL TBADOVG aeHoeLtFMt jnmo. 

1. Tbe necessity for a'Nattonikl Training School 
for promoting the art of Music in this country has 
kng been felt, and has at various periods been 
aged on tke attention of soooessiye (loyemments 
\fj the highest aatfaorities. Such has been the 
mnimity of all those who are competent to give 
a opinioa in this matter that it is needless to 
^MMs the question hese. Sa£Boe it to say that 
lh»whsfeiabjeotof Mttoioal Bdnoatioii mthiaaod 
fcniga aHatnes mrns mytstigatod amd folly re- 
pvtod «a by a ooaunittoe appoittted by the SooMfty 
of Aitsia 1966. 

•• Allliuvgh*it appeals from'the -Hoports of tiie 
Smoo sod Art Department that the question of a 
Hite t^raining Soiiool was at one time under the 
VMiduiitioii of the Lords of the Committee of 
^MmA on Education — Earl Qranville being then 
^Ad Atadeot — ^the Department of Science and Art 
Bp to this time has not taken any active steps 
^('VttdB its establiahment. It has therefore been 
<|«id«d by the Society of Arts to take theinitia- 
^ttdeitaUiahaTnuning School by vobutiary 
*SRt, with the foil intention that it shoold, aaMl 
^■^ the nnnMBiit hope that it will, evcntaally, 
^^Bsfenadix) tke responiible lanuMMuiit of 

3> The fondamental principle and primary objeet 
^ ^ 8ehool is tiie cultivation of the highest 
■""w aptttnde in the eountry, in whatever sta- 
^ of society it may be found. In order to carry 
*>^thia principle to the fullest extent, admission 
*o the Sduwl will be obtained by competitive exa- 
"wn«tion alone. 

1 As the gift of musical ability is found in all 
S'^uet of soGiety,»and fref^piently <^»*»/^pg th^ filnsim 
«f v«^ haited A6«k9|.it is efident that in a laige 
^>>^of QM89, the stndHit must not only re- 

ilHit«kK> he flOHpoBled 



during tfae^pcriodi)! bis tMsniag. To provide for 
this it intended to establish about 300 scholarships, 
for whi<^ the most iiiflueilttAl 'support has already 
been promised, and further -support is solicited. 

5. The pr op osed sdiolsrdiips will be of two 
kinds, the one to afford free instruction by paying 
the students* fees, the other to give free instruction 
with a nudntensBiee allowance in addition. It will 
be oi>en to any ooiaiity,town,pablio body, or private 
indivfiSual to establish one or other of these kinds 
of scholarships for competition under given limi- 
tations. Should there be jaore aooommodation in 
the school than is requisite for the instruction of 
theee scholars, students psjnig' thccr own fees vfll 
be admitted by competition to fill the vacancies, 
care being taken that they show sufficient aptitude. 

6. It is proposed that the.Sohool should provide 
in the first instance f or the:free instruction of about 
300 scholars. The school fee without maintenanoe, 
it is estimated, willbebetweso £35 and £40 a year. 
The maaatenaiioe al lo ^ wan ee ior the si^port of the 
schdar will be in addition to . this fee, and in- 
depen^ent of the asheol. 

7. The Council of the Boyikl Albert Hall are pre- 
pared to devote certain rooms, including two 
small lecture theatres, to the use of the School at 
a nominal rental, when proper arrangements shall 
have made been made for its conduct. This 
assistance is estimated to be worth about £1,000 
a year. 

8. The Boyal Commiwrianeis for the Exhihitian 
of 1851 have offered a plot of ground immediately 
4kdjoining the Albot Hall for supplementary 
suites of practising and leotnre-rooms, and . have 
agreed to grant a lease of the same to Mr. C. J. 
Freake, a member of the Council, who has most 
munificently undertaken, at his own cost and risk, 
to erect the nee os s ar y bolKlings thereon. Indeed, 
the plans for these buildings are in a forward state 
of preparation. 

10. The School is under a Committee of Mamge- 
ment, consistiBg of two members appointed by the 
Boyal CommiBsioners for the Exhibition of 1851, 
two memben appointed *hy the Council of the 
Boyal Albert»hall, aad three members appointed 
by the Council of the Sooiety of Arts, and the 
Committee thus formed ee usiste of H.B.EL the 
Duke of Edinburgh, Admiral the Bight Hon. Lord 
Clarence Paget, K.C.B., Major-General Eardley- 
WHmot, B.A., F.B.S., Henry Cole, Esq., C.B., 
Major Donndly, B.E., and Sir "^^niliam Anderson, 

JDL.CB. 

All communioatians relatnre to the establishment 
of Scholarships, and all impaam about the Train- 
ing School, shodd be addietied to the Secretary 
of.theKalMnalTnuniagaibool for Music, Scos- 



781 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABTS, Auoubt 8, 1873. 



nomroLOGioAL EXAXurAiion. 

The Bubjeots in whidh examihatiQiis ware held 
this year, namely. Cotton Manufacture, Paper 
Manufaoture, Silk Manufacture, Steel Manufacture, 
And Carriage-building, will be retained in the Ex- 
iuninations of next year, with the addition of 
Cloth Manufacture, Glass-making, Pottery and 
Porcelain, and the Manufacture of Gkis. 

The Programme is in preparation, and will be 
published as soon as possible. 



AnnJAL nrXEBHATIOVAL BXHIBITI0V8, 



The Oooncil, having been informed that her 
Majesty's Oammissioners do not intend to 
publish Reports on the different departments of 
the Exhibition of the present year, and looking to 
the great importance to Arts, Manufact«res, and 
Commerce that these annual displays should not 
pass away without some record, have decided to 
undertake that duty, and for this purpose have 
engaged the services of gentlemen specially 
skilled in the subjects of the several sections, 
4o prepare such Reports for publication in the 
Society's Journal, . The Council, however, 
desire it to be understood that, in publishing I 
these reports, they do not necessarily adopt all the 
views expressed in them, which must be taken 
as those of the writers only. 

The following report is the eighth that has 
been issued. The remainder will appear as soon 
as they are complete. 

SILK AND VELVET MANUFACTURES. 

ByFxaneii Bennooh. 

As the Council of the Society of Arts do not 
desire any historical resume of the introduction 
and progress of these branches of industry, I at 
once plunge into the review committed to my 
charge. 

There are exhibited, as examples of ancient 
manufacture, 166 specimens, contributed by 36 
private persons, 2 trading firms or dealers. Her 
Majesty's Commissioners, and the South Ken- 
sington Museum, whilst the examples of modem 
productions are furnished by 44 British and 26 
Foreign manufacturer or exhibitors, and 4 
Foreign States. 

The various articles, when properly grouped, 
show that there are of British manufacturers, 
6 contributors of ribbons ; 6 of broad or dress 
silk; 4 of handkerchiefs and ties; 3 of black 
crape ; 2 of poplins ; 1 of lace ; 3 of sewings 
and twist ; 5 of furniture, or upholstery silks ; 
8 of elastic boot and other webs ; 1 of broad 



velvet ; 1 of nmbrella silks ; 1 of church deco- 
ration silks; 1 of flags; 1 of crape scarfii ; 2 of 
gimps and fancy cords for trimming purposes ; 
and 1 small collection of silk onder-dothing. 

The foreign contribntors are, 1 of ribbooa, 
chiefly black ; 1 of fringes ; 1 of sewing ailks ; 
2 of lace ; 2 of furniture silks ; 2 of trimmings ; 
8 of dress silks ; 3 of broad and ribbon velvets ; 
1 of plush for hats ; 1 of handkerchiefii ; 1 of 
elastic webs; with contributions from Japan. 
China, and Damascus. 

When taken in the aggregate, the nnmber of 
exhibitors looks meagre enough, but when they 
are subdivided and arranged under their aepa* 
rate heads, the character of the collection might 
appear to be almost ridiculous, as professedly aa 
International Exhibition. Nevertheless, the 
thoughtful observer will find here much worthy 
his most careful scrutiny. By comparing ike 
present with the past, he wUl find oontrMte 
sufficient to prove the enormous advances that 
have been made. 

To any one conversant with the posidoa of 
our silk manufactures, and the almost faboloas 
amounts turned over in the course of the year, 
the first fact that forces itself upon the attentiaa 
is, that so few manufacturers have taken any 
interest in the trade by which they live, or eared 
to exhibit their productions. Whether it arises 
from a listiess indifference to the pontioa tbey 
personally occupy, or a total disregard of the esti* 
mation in which the country may stand at 
respects its fabrications in silk, it is not for me to 
determine ; Htili there the fact remains, and most 
humiliating it is. 

The silk industry of Manchester and its im- 
mediate neighbourhood is represented by only 
one house, whilst Spitalfields proper, sevetal 
towns in Essex and Somerset, have not a ungle 
representative, and only three exhibitors are 
found to sustain the reputation of the City ef 
London. Fortunately for the credit of the 
country, and the interest attached to the Intsf^ 
national Exhibition, Coventry and Maodesfidd 
have brought together a series of the prodactiow 
of each locality so carefully chosen as to Eft 
this department out of the slough into wbkk it 
must have fallen but for the intelligent enUi^ 
prise of these two towns. 

If manufacturers have proved to be lukew«B« 
the great wholesale houses have been absofaitdy 
torpid, as not one of them has taken the trooUe. 
small though it might have been» to bring a 
collection together. Fortunately, two or three 
of the most distinguished of the retail deales 
have stood in the breach, and done much to re* 
deem the character of the Fxhibttion. Their 
voluntary services demand the fnllest recognitiea. 
These remarks apply chiefly to the lack of inters 
taken by those lor whose intereet this bnuMik of 
the Exhibiticai was established. 1 sMl pu s gotly 



JOnBITAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. Auoubt 8, 1878. 



786 



show, when we come to condder the several 
disses of maniifactare exhibited or indicated, 
that if the specimens of broad silks displayed, 
however excellent in tbemselves, do not fairly 
or satisfactorily represent the manufactares of 
the coontry, what mnst be said of the makers of, 
or dealers in, trimmings, foreign buttons, tassels, 
&c, in all their infinite variety, from whom 
and of whose skill in design and harmony of 
colour, not a single specimen appears, although 
there are many whose productipns would hold 
their own if placed side by side with the best 
productions of foreign looms or continental hand- 
work? 

It was a happy thought of the authorities to 
hiing together under one roof, and in one suite 
of apartments, the productions of past ages and 
the &bric8 of modem times. It is by comparison 
alone we can sufficiently appreciate our progres- 
sion or retrogression. After a very careful 
examination of every case, notwithstanding the 
narrowness of the basis afforded for decision, 
the advance in design and mechanical skill is, in 
my judgment, absolutely marvellous ; and to this, 
to regards woven fabrics, we are solely indebted 
to the invention of the Jacquard loom. 

Before the invention of Jacquard was com- 
pleted, fancy figures were produced by the 
•pplication of a great number of treadles, de- 
eding the utmost skill and vigilance, and a 
fife-long practice, to produce the design placed 
hefore the weaver ; and even then, to complete 
the floral effect demanded by the pattern, re- 
ww8e was frequently had to the needle to com- 
plete the blossom begun in the loom. It is the 
opportnnity for contrast and comparison that 
pes such a deep interest to this small but excel- 
Ittt edUection. What at one time demanded 
«e tidied experience of years to accomplish in 
* very imperfect manner, can now, thanks to the 
genius of one man, be undertaken and success- 
^Ijv carried out by ordinary talent, through a 
strictly mechanical agency. 

1 now proceed to the consideration of the 
•rticleg in detail, and, so as to condense tny ob- 
WTvitioiis as much as possible, I shall, as far 
w convenient, group the several productions 
™er the names of the towns in which they are 
[nade. This, of course, can only apply to modern 



Ancient and Eastern Fabrics. 

Many of these productions are interesting 
w^nse they are curious. The process of manu- 
*tare having been superseded, the industry is 
^. bnt the result remains, and manifests the 
*nll and care bestowed to produce such results. 

There is a collection of Japanese work recently 
Jf'^uced, and also of fabrics from Damascus, 
*t which no catalogue was arranged when I 
^ted the department for critical inspection. 



The designs are frequently grotesque, and the 
o<doaring somewhat sombre, as I presume the 
dyes are generally extracted from vegetables, 
and the coloois are not always arranged in 
what would be considered as good taste. Some- 
times the grounds of the fabrics are rough and 
irregular, as if made from common — very com- 
mon — silk, carelessly reeled ; and yet some of the 
raw silk exhibited in the same cases is of the 
most exquisite description, and shows the per- 
fection of reeling. 

In one branch of the mana£BU3tnre, where 
metallic threads are introduced, we have much 
to learn, and should garments glistening with 
gold ever become fashionable, our manufacturers 
or embroiderers, or both, will do well to study 
carefully these productions of the East, produced 
as we know they are by the rudest applianoes, 
yet with wondrous art. It is in this direction, 
and thb alone, that I wish to draw the atten- 
tion of manufacturers, for in all plain fabrics of 
simple colours, or irregular and barbarous stripes, 
the examples are of no value whatsoever. In- 
deed, throughout the whole department, the plain 
goods of modem times greatly excel the pro- 
ductions of past ages. 

The collection furnished by Matheson and Go., 
of 3, Lombard-street (3,612), is very interesting, 
and the examples are fuU of merit, though 
generally inferior to similar fabrics produced in' 
Macclesfield. The specimens of black taffetas 
possess no interest, whilst the occasional use of 
metal adds considerable effect. 

The contributions of J. Summers and Sons 
are very interesting, more especially in a few 
brocaded dresses of various epochs (3,534) from 
1700 to 1800. The designs are admirable, the 
colouring in good taste, and the fashion of the 
whole, especially one of a green gp*ound of shot 
silk, would do no discredit to a fashionable lady 
of the present time. As a specimen of weaving 
it is of the highest order and worthy of the 
closest examination. These remarks apply also 
to an admirable specimen exhibited by Mrs. 
R. Carey (3,502). To those who Uke in- 
terest in priestly robes, chasubles, copea, ^a, 
brocaded and embroidered, I commend the con- 
tributions of Lady Drake (3,514), whilst those 
who delight in the curious wUl do well to 
examine the specimens of old silks lent by Dr. 
Diamond (3,511). Here it may be noticed that 
some specimens, described as embossed, are in 
reality made of figures, <&c., cut or stamped out, 
and attached to the original fabric by some adhe- 
sive substance. This is more particularly seen 
in the contributions of 8. £. Nightingale (3,530). 
N o bette rexample of Eastern skill in embroidery 
with gold can be observed ; those in the Turkidi 
jackets, dbc, sent by Mrs. Clarke (3,505), and 
the whole of the case from the South Kensington 
Museum are choice specimens (3,535). 



7W 



jrOURHAL OF THE BOOIBTT OF ABT8^ Amun B, 1878. 



MODBRH MaVUEACTU&BB. 

L§dL — From this -pnapemaoM 'town me Juws 
mty ime ezbiMtor, -bot ke is.a host in liinmolf. 
Ab iQgardi the apeobl mukidaatiae ai tinit 
and sewingi, for which this locmlily lias long 
bean fyned, notfaiag oen be better thaa what 
may be eeen in caee 3,576. The ardmary 
observer ooold scarcely beHere that those 
beautifDl spods, diamonded on the top by the 
crossing of twelre threads laid side by side, are 
done by hand. Mr. Gibson deserres mnob 
paaise, for he has shown excellent taste in hang- 
ing beside the finkhed articles the silks from 
wmch they are made, and adding a few cocoons 
to adorn his case. There are soTeral other 
btanches of industry carried on' in this town, 
^phioh ought, for the credit of its people, to have 
baen slumn. 

The case of Marsden Brothers and Holden, 
of Halifia (8,610). may« with adyaactage, be ck- 
•mined in oonneetion with the Leek case. 

Derby has reason to rejoice in the public 
spirit <^ Mr. Biggiabottem, who has done so 
much to delight the visttors to the Exhibition 
by showing bis prooesses of silk-throwing 
described in the Heport' on Machinery. It 
is only my duty. to draw atlentiou •to the case 
8,5^1, where there are some excellent samples 
«f elastic web. Mr. Q. B. Unsworth supports 
Mr. Higginbottom, and shows some good 
examples of thrown and dyed silks, telegraph 
and other wires covered with silk, and tbe 
gimps, dbc, used in the maaufacture of fringes, 
tassels, ibc, of which there are no exanqiles in 
4he Exhibition. 

A very interesting and well«<arrang6d case of 
fan^ cords for uplK>LBtery and other purposes 
has Deen contributed by Mr. Woodroffe (3,044). 
The brilliant colours of his dyed silks, as -dK^wn 
by the picturesque bobbins on which they are 
wotmd, and the excellent taste manifested 
in the blending of the various shades in 
producing the cords, demand the highest com- 
mendation. 

NoUtngham is by no means fairly represented, 
and the few trifling things shown by no means 
indicate the marvellous mechanical power of 
that busy and prosperous town and its imme- 
diate neighbourhood. Knowing as we do the 
almost magical character of her imitative genius, 
we might have expected something worthy of 
her well- won and deservedly high reputation. 
But neither in lace, hosiery, nor £uioy articles, 
does she exhibit anything worthy of remark. 
This indifferentism cannot be too severely con- 
demned — ^it is almost a crime. Here was .a 
good and inexpensive opportunity for a few of 
her gigantic msnufacturers to bring together 
sctne mteresting «pedmeas of thm highest 
skill ; but th^ have aot done so, and it w^ be 
charity to avoid givuig -the nambtr of 



the case in wbich the few jnsignificsnt srtida 
appear. 

Jjetcesier has one representative fim— 
T. W. Hodges and Son — ^with a case of elastk 
webs (3583), which, for brightness of colour, 
evenness of surface and general elastic qaslity, 
cannot be surpassed. It is, however, a [dtj 
that others in the town have not followed Uieir 
example, and shown specimens of their maau* 
£acture. It is by exhibiting honestly spedmeos 
of their ordinary manufactnres that towmtrc 
benefited by International displays, and not by 
^)ecially manufacturing for exhibitioa aome 
curious thing for which there is not, nev& wa, 
and never ought to be, any demand. Od fiome 
future occasion Leicester may rouse herself from 
ber lethargy, and show something worthy d 
herself. 

Manchester. — Snowing the unlimited power 
of this city and the great variety of ai]kntt&* 
factures, one wonders how it happe&s tLil 
all her skill and enterprise are left to Vl 
John Ohadwick ? Happily, if be bv b^fi 
left alone to sustain the crc^t of the dtf . })e 
has done so worthily. His modest, uniaiBfiol 
case (3,5 iH) of black and coloured alb &k 
garments needs no flourish of trampets U) pro- 
claim their merits; they are merely specimeos of 
his ordinary daily productions, " wamnted y> 
wear." From this we gatner that he his Ml 
been deluded by the ignis fatum of t ladda 
profit, by being beguiled into the bog <^ 
abominable dyeing, which has mined nusy u^ 
will ruin more. There are, as we shsll find bj* 
and -bye, men in Lyons who have built ip 
immense fortunes on the reputation of d«i% 
wisely by their silk, and thus honestly br tior 
customers. If Mr. Chadwick will contaM trne 
to himself, the time may come when Isdiei ^ 
not be satisfied unless they can secure Usck^ 
of his manufacture, even in preference to tboMof 
Lyons. The great variety of smaQ wares, bnids, 
trimmings, fringes, iScc, made in ^•^^^^^'^^ 
and into the manufacture of which silk Isrg^elT 
enters, ought to have been exhibited, but i^ 
are not. There is, however, a Manchester bniwi 
of industry well represented by Mr. LntftoaJ 
(case 3,607), table covers embroidered J^ 
machinery. They lack the elaboration of ^ 
work, but they are graceful in design and h^/^ 
in colour, enabling by their cheapness sU P*^ 
even of very moderate inoome, to have tkiir^'* 
covered with something pleasant to look *P*" 

Reference to these productions naturifly»^ 
to Birmingham^ where the altar coreii «" 
other church upholstery goods for deco»t»^, 
purposes, manu&ctured by Jones and Wii».^ 
Biruiingham and London, soipsss all oth<c> ot 
this daiss in quality of work, colour, and deflg»- 

WhUst considering the relative n«^^ 
upholstery and aimUar material, I nay ^ 



JOUBNAL OF THB SOOIETT OF ABTB, Aumtr^ 8, 187S. 



73r 



^ 



draw attention to the mann&ctnres of Irekmnt, 
where, in DnbHn, the prodnotions of W. Fiy 
and Go. (8,578), and Pirn Biodien and Oc; 
(3,624) show some of the meet notable artides 
to be fonnd in the whole Bxhibition. Their 
plain and figured poplins are nniqnev and no 
part of the world produces anything fit to be 
compared with them. The figured designs are 
in exquisite taste, and the richness of eolour all 
that can be desired, whilst their fabrics for cor- 
tains and genefal rich upholstery are simply 
superb. Why should the manu&cture it 
poplins and kmdred stuffs be peculiar to Ire- 
land, and how is it they can hdd dieir own in 
competidon witik the whole of Burope ? It 
must not be supposed that there are not hosts 
of imitators in France, G^emnmy, and Switzer- 
land. On the contrary, there are many, yet in 
those countries ladies rejoice in becoming pos- 
sessed of an Irish poplin dress. This fact, 
cou|ded with the unmisti^ble natural taste 
and industry of the people, leads to another 
question : why are not other branches of silk 
industry established in iTekad ? From the one 
great success, to which I have unaffected 
pleasure in referring, I am persuaded that in 
any special manufacture to which their genius 
may be directed they cannot fail to excel. I n no 
former Exhibition have they made a display so 



work ptoduced by means of the •! aoquard loooiy 
and oompaie it with some of tk» antiqae fabrios 
dose at hand, smh is are shown by Dr. Dia» 
mond. 

Etsb HoweH and Co., of 8t. Paul's Ohuroh-yard 
(8,570), show a few specimens of plain ooloured 
dress fabrics of exquisite quality and choice 
hnes of colour, and the lighter seasonable shades 
to be added to, or to replace, these more sombre 
colours, will equally testify to, the exoelienoe of 
dieir manufactures. 

The productions of G. and J. B. ffildftofa, 
of Cheapeide (3,502), are of a similar dass to 
the aboTe, and in all respects of equal quality 
of manuflMture. In botii cases there are ^ad- 
mirable specimens of moM antique which far 
surpasa anything of t^e kind of foreign manu- 
fac^re. The article is of foreign origin, and 
yet by natire skill and determined perseverance 
the whole of the highest class of these goods 
is made in England. On these two enterprinng 
firms the weight of sustaining the reputation of 
London's broad-silk manufactures has been 
cast, and they have most worthily maintained 
the character of our 8pttalfields vreavers. The 
responsibility was great, and they well deserve 
the credit their courage must inevitably bring, 
and, although Messrs. Lewis and Allanby, and 
Jay and Co., of Regent-street, and Jolly and 



creditable, and when the next period arrives, we Co., of Bath, show some excellent goods, they 
may hope that still further advances will be are either made by the gentlemen already 
made, not only in these special productions, but named, or will be named hereafter when I 
also in a much wider range* of silk manufacture, treafof the manufactures of Lyous. 

liondon.'^FTom the consideraticm of these ' NcrwUh, — The productions of the Norwich 
Irish fiabrics, we naturally pass into the exami- Crape Company (H,616), Kay and Richardson 
nation and description of a few exquisite things (8,604>), and French and Co. (8,572), are 
contributed by Jackson and Graham (3,595), all of high merit, and being chiefly of 
whose nlk damasks, tisstl^, and brocades for black crape for mourning purposes, there 
fttmitare and upholstery, chiefly designed by is little room for criticbm. It is only 
Owen Jones, are exceedingly beautiful. It may necessary to make one brief remark, and that 
be objected that the patterns are too formal and is very satisfactory to our national pride. In 
an^tilar, partaking too much of the geometrical, this special manufacture England stands prob- 
and not sufficiently of the flow and grace of carv- eminent, and has attained her high position by 
ing* scroll designs which characterise the FVench persevering industry. Although two of (he 
prodnctions. That is, however, purely a matter largest producers are " conspicuous by their 
of taate, and results f^m d&e prevailing opinion absence,*' tbe reputation of Norwich is weU 
juid fkshion of the period in which we tive. sustained by the manufacturers named, aa well 
Doubtless such distinguished dealers and pro- 1 as by Mr. Lilly Simpson, whose fabrics, shown 
dncers as Jackson and Gn^am wisely cater under the name of William White, are ex 
for their customers, and supply the class of 



Kiiicles absdutely in demand. 

7Iie two cases of upholstery fabrics shown 
yy Worris and Co., Wood-street (3,615), contain 
leveml specimens of excellent workmanship and 
^nioef^l designs. Occasionally the coloura are 
i trifle dull, and have, for new goods, a faded 
^r indistSnct character. The general eiect, 
lo^v^o^rer. Is creditable to the piedneei, who 
V^m^M <'en doable thanks on aecoant of the 
ittfti^citing looms exhibited ih otfother seelbn. 
1% la ^roitM iAiiiB ta mark'thn preeisioft of lh» 



ceedmgly good; in fact, there are very fbw 
more attractive cases than 3,648, where- a 
charming variety of crape scarves, shawls, sqtiares, 
mufflers, dm., will be found. 

Maedtsfitld is admirably represented in her 
main industries by carefully chosen spedmens, 
weU arranged, and most of them are Well 
worthy the most earefel examination. Many 
interesting details are sugg^ted by lirmging into 
juxtaposition the raw material and the* BMOitf- 
factured artfde. la no^ d^itioNlnt ef sttk 
indtistry* baa* the advadcdc bieA so mj^ 



7;$8 



JQaJUNAI^.QF /IHB «0OIBrY OF ARTO, Auaasr 8, im. 



striking as in the utilisatiou of the, c<»QiqoQ 
Tneaah; silk, wJtaok^. iwtil very r^iceatly, l^ad.no 
commercial value ; and the iabrica now dis- 
played by Brocklehurst and Co. (3,55H), and 
Baker, Tucker, and Co. (3,553), possess ic^ite 
merits because thjere seems to be no limit to the 
variety of fabrics into whicb this material may 
be introduced with advantage. The various 
threads spun from the various qualities of waste 
silk, some of it, apparently, as coarse as hemp, is 
most suggestive. 

The various handkerchiefs of printed goods 
and specimens exhibited by these eminent 
firms demand the most careful inspection, 
whilst the great variety of printed handker- 
cbiefi shown in the beautiful case of Mr. 
Alfred Selby, whose name does not appear 
in the catalogue, is worthy of all praise. 
The contributions of W. Smale (3,633) are 
excellent, and the same may be recorded of the 
examples shown by Potts and Wright, and J. 
and F. Jackson (3,596), whose productions are 
admirable. Macclesfield has shown herself equal 
to her reputation of many years* standing, and 
of steady growth in the manufacture of her 
handkerchiefs and of those lighter fabrics requiring 
the finest silk. Had she been as wise in years 
gone by, many of her former staples might have 
been retained ; but strikes and price lists for 
weaving drove from the town and neighbour- 
hood many of its most important branches of 
busmess. 

Notwithstanding periods of terrible distress, 
Macclesfield has, by her energy and skill, steadily 
advanced in reputation during the last twenty 
years, and many of her products are eagerly 
bouglxt on the Continent, passing, as they do, 
firom hand to hand, not as the produce of English 
looms, but as the highest examples of foreign 
skilL In any future competition that may be 
instituted, I am persuaded that Macclesfield 
will hold a distinguished position. It would be 
almost inexcusable to close this brief reference 
to Macclesfield without drawing attention to a 
small case (3,634), contributed by the Society 
of Arts, containing two scarves made from silk 
produced at the Cape of Good Hope. These 
are, doubtless, the first articles made from 
silk produced in that colony, and prove that, 
with ordinary attention, there are numerous 
oountries in which silk can be raised as 
well as in France, Italy, Spain, India, China, 
or Japan. We fully expect that, in a few years, 
far-away Queensland will supp^ the European 
markets with a considerable quantity. 

Coventry. — The contributors from this ancient 
eiiy are not numerous, neither do they exhibit a 
fair proportion of all the silk industries estab- 
lished there ; but, so far as the collections go, 
Hiey are very interesting. The pl^ ribbons 
*own by T. Bagley (3,562), J. and J, P. Cal- 



decptt (3,$62), Carter and Phillips (3>565), 
Richard «. Cox and Co. (3,56b), (with tbe 
addition of tartans), William Fnnklin and 8qii 
(3,671),. Green and Son (3,680), .iamcs Han 
(3,644:), compare favourably with anything pro- 
duced by the best looms of France, Switzerland, 
or Rhenidi Prassia. Unhappily, there is only 
one case with wbich they can be compared, and 
that is exhibited by H. Borckenatein, of 8, 
Moorgate-street, as representing several makers 
of the Lower Uhiue. These, unhappily, are all 
black, and, however excellent, there is no chance 
for a true assessment of value, as one cannot feel 
through glasH, and must judge by the eye alone. 
The Coventry colours are exceedingly good, and 
so long as they possess the scientific chemical 
skill of such dyers as Hands and Sons, of 
Coventry, and JJickins and Co., of Middletoa, 
they must be assured of every advantage in tbt 
respect. But, as showing the result of mod*, 
unassuming, and steady enterprise, tbe prod^' 
tions of Mr. Thomas btevens (3,035) caat all 
others in the shade. For Coventry generally, 
it is a great misfortune that the tide of b^ 
has set in for plain -coloured fabrics, as the aiuu 
shown must be confined to quality, colour, aad 
price. That, however, will paw away, aad 
when brocaded figures are in demand, we han 
no doubt that Coventry will rise eqaal to tk 
occasion. Where so much effect, accoraiely 
and exquisitely produced, is made manifest by 
one man, we may naturally conclude that there 
lies dormant an immense amount of ^^^ 
power, that only needs the stimulating mh^ 
of a profitable demand to bring it i&to liic* 
Mr. IStevens evidently possesses a «^ 
spirit, not easily subdued, and if t^ ^^ 
threatens to leave him for a time, hedig^^^^ 
new channel for himself, and thus he ^ 
created a trade peculiarly his own. 1 "^^ 
taken unusual interest in bis producdon6,D6toDir 
in the goods, but in the looms producing then^ 
and I find that to make a ** Foreat^^r » (^ 
as exhibited, two and a half yards long and aJ 
and a quarter inches wide, requires the u^ ^ 
16,000 perforated cards to make the figj^ 
which is 16 inches long, and for the pto P*^ 
14,000 cards, making a total of 30,ii(X) ^ 
The number of threads in the warp of ^ 
scarf is 1,800, and there are 15 different coi^ 
in the shutes ; these figures are multiplied H^ 
number of pieces being made at once ; so tka^ 
ten pieces were making, 18,000 threada of v^ 
would be in the loom. Hence the involved, «*^ 
10 the untrained eye, the inextricable «»f«** 
of threads, as shown in the harness o^^ ^ 
It requires about six months to fit up ^<^ ' 
loom, and when it and the cards are all ready. 
occupies a month to obtain one complete patttfi* 
Eight pieces are made at once in the ^^'^^ 
at work, and with ten houra' labour a go«d iff^ 



JOUBKAli or THE SOCIETY OP ART», AvQxmr &, 1878. 



789 



mS wakB the lengtb of entr Btmpf asdi? daj*. 
ThrooBf oftlie loomv tiiv dicaSt or dtrngB, tlie 
ords, and the vdneof silk in tJiO' looni^ would 
mte^stotdvHhteof £500. 

Ith gnti^hig* to know ttoit' every pa r i of the 
work, mechanical and artistic; is En^sh. Mr. 
Stevens has, in the coarse of hb career, tried 
both French and Swiss looms, but found no 
special advantage in them, nor has he dis- 
covered any superiority of skiH in their 
artiaaDs, and cannot see any reason why, in 
the race of competition, England should not 
be well up to the goal. Mr. Bteveus is a 
Btaimch advocate of perfect freedom of trade, and 
despoees the idea of any pro teed ve duty. He 
vrawa that reeent legislation has dons much for 
Gofonfery, and will do more, when croafeeis 
diainish and the thoughtful brain supersedes 
aod silences the n(Msy tongue, his motto beings 
"A fair field and no favouc" 

Wienith Fnuna. — ^The velvets shown in oase 
3,0^9, by Gustavo Jacobiny, of Crefeld, deserv* 
a special consideration. Th«re are many similar 
BaQQfactareis in thai thriying tDwn> but M. 
(Tacobiny is the only exhibitor, and, had all Ore- 
field combined, they could not have collected a 
bitter display of velvets than has been sent by 
ina. In the higher claas^ of broad, velvets, 
^oa, Lyona, and Spvtalftelds* can oompetev but 
ifc ribbon-velvets and coloured piece-velvets, for 
Biffiinery parposes^ Gnefield and its neighbour- 
itwd bare long tal^ •the lead. But, to show 
bow a trade all but lost may again revive and 
become eminent, it seems likely that ribbon- 
^et mannfaotore will again become, one of the 
pvominent. industries of 8t. Etienne, and that 
<feeftyby the application of machinery. Whilst 
I cannot too highly commend the productions of 
M. Jaeobiny^ I do. so with a sense of degrada- 
^ y9ky is it tkat England has entirely lost 
tin branch of trade ? These beautiful fabrics and 
«wim8ite colours are mostly made from spun silk, 
^wMcb by far the largest proportion is made in 
Hgii&d. The mw material is shipped by us, 
jwafetnred on the Rhine, and re-s<^d to Eng- 
«ttd, not in small quantities, but to the amount 
oibadreds of thousands of pounds yearly. 

*^ is no mystery in suoh work. There 
«tt be no mystery where thousands of persons 
•w employed in the fabrication and finishing. 
MOB hope that before another Exhibition takes 
pice some of our spirited manufacturers will be 
•Drred up to enterprise, and remove what is 
^y a discredit to our generally acknowledged 
*Bil and indnstry. It has long been whispered 
«»t Lister and Co., of Monningham MilU, near 
Iwford, have invented some mechanical pro- 
*2> by which this reproach will be wiped out. 
•a velvets made of surpassing excellence at 
Fcea hitherto unknown. We have no proof of 
*« &ct, for/ although Ae name of that most 



ingenionsaad diBdngtasfaed firm: appeared im the 
catalogue; we* soughtin vain for the contribution • 
we h^)6d to* i&idy which might have been^ of 
national importance. 

Lyonr. — The case of specimens' of Mages 
exhibited by Jules Gh^y (8,575) deserves* l&e 
attention of aU Eng^sh makers of the class 
of articles here shown.. The dhsig^ are 
admirable, their proportions perfect, and the 
material fauldess. Wh^ has no En^glish maker 
given the public the chance of comparing' the 
one nation with the other ? H«re, again, is a 
curious anomaly. Much of the raw material 
is produced in England, and sent to France to 
be dyed and finished. Much of it returns to 
England, to be used by our home manufketcmers, 
because our dyers and finishers cannot cope with 
the foreigner — at least, they have hidierto failed 
to do so in this pecuHar dye. The science of 
weighting, or charging the silk witb foreign 
ingredients during the process of dyeing is here 
carried to its utmost Hmit. It can be weighted 
over 300 per cent, and yet retain its lustre when 
dyed, so that an article which costs in the- raw or 
spun state 20k per lb., may be sent to Paris, 
dyed, dressed, returned', and sold at 88. per lb., and 
leave a good profit to the dealer. Much of it, 
of course, is retained to be made up in France, 
and comes to us in the exquisite patterns Irere 
exhibited. The spun silk thus treated does 
well for black, but not for colours ; and for some 
time back the beet coloured French fringes hove 
been made from the solid sewings produced in 
England. Neither tlie French nor the Germans 
have yet attained to the perfbction ^ English 
have done in making what is technicaQy termed 
*' large-skeined sewings," prepared for trimming 
purposes. 

The Broad Silks of Lyons, liow- exquisite th«y 
are in beauty of fabric, grace of design, and even 
where only a plain ground is shown, how bril- 
liant the colours ! They are so admirable that 
tbey almost defy fcriticism, and prove thesupre^ 
macy of Lyons in the highest branches of manu- 
facture. I need only refer to the several cases : — 

3,633, Schulz and Beraud, with various styles 
of fabrics, all good, and produced by the simplest 
means, which shows the perfection of art. There 
is a dress with a beautiful pattern in only three 
colours — a blue and two browns, so blended- as 
to be most attractive. 

3,67ii, Gourd, Croizart File, and Dubert, is 
not so good as the former, but, nevertheless, 
very striking. 

3,605, with its few specimens of furniture 
silks, in velvets, brocades, and damasks, is unri- 
valled in the Exhibition in these special fabrics. 
The student may with adv^tntage compare these 
specimens with the best anti(jue fabrics, and 
learn at a glance how vastly superior the 
I modems are. 



74tf 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIBTY OF ABTS» Auoutr 8, 




3,560< — ^Bnmety Leoomte, Devillaiiie, and Go. 
. liave a very choice collection of various fabrics, 
showing the great skill and thorough artistic 
knowledge of their business. 

'8,625. — J. M. Piotel's productions are of 
infinite beauty. Here are three specimens of 
chin^ fiftbrics, on white or slightly tinted ground, 
absolutely perfect in quality, design, and colour. 
I cannot speak too highly of the dress 
fabrics of this eminent firm, but I regret to be 
obliged to speak unfavourably of many of their 
furniture silks. Some are, in my judgment, 
vulgar in design and bad in colour. I pre- 
sume they are made for some market in which 
the very point we condemn may appear to be a 
surpasamg beauty. 

bpecimens of nearly all these best and most 
popular manufftcturers will be found admirably 
arranged in the case 3,606, by Lewis and 
AUenby, to which I have already referred. 

I cannot close this criticism of the various 
woven fabrics without referring to the un- 
obtrusive case of black goods shown by Van 
Bellingen, Fils, of Aiitwerp, whose fabrics, for 
durability, have a world-wide reputation. It is 
said they never become greasy, because the dye 
is pure ; they never crack or split, because there 
is no metallic ingredient mixed with the dye to 
bum the fibre ; and so it is said they will wear 
for ever. 

In summing up these observations I cannot 
but inquire why is it that, as a rule, the foreign 
manufacturers excel us in all the higher branches 
of silk manufacture ? In my opinion the answer 
is at hand. We dye as well, we weave as well, 
but, as a rule, the scientific manufitcturers of 
Fruice, Germany, and Switzerland have their 
silks specially reeled in a manner suitable for 
the goods required, whereas in England the 
manufacturers are, to a large extent, at the 
mercy of importers, brokers, and dealers, who 
care little for the success of our manufactures, 
so long as they can, without much thought, 
secure a profit m their own department of the 
trade. This is a fact so patent to the initiated, 
and so disastrous in its results, that persons in- 
terested will protest against it, and deny the 
statement ; but it comes within the experience 
of too many to be successfully disputed, and the 
largest manufacturers in the kingdom deplore 
the humiliating fact 

In looking over the foregoing I am conscious 
of many tlmigs touched slightly, or altogether 
unnamed, which well deserved notice, but I 
have endeavoured to briefly touch on all articles 
possessing much merit It is very agreeable to 
be able to remark with perfect sincerity that, 
although some of our manufacturers have been 
blamably negligent, in a duty they owed them- 
selves and the puUic at large, by not showing 
the best specimens of their productions, or. 



abstaining altogether, nevertheless, from a care- 
ful survey, dc^berately made, I recogmse is 
the best examples of French skill, and the on- 
rivalled genius of Mr. Thomas btevens, of 
Coventry, an immense advance in art and fertility 
of resource over every former Exhibition. 

The silkworm eggs hatched at the^IntemitaoDil 
Exhibition were broi^^t over to London from Oibe» ia 
Apiil, and were kept in a dry, airy place, aod, wbea 
the weather became warm, near ice, to rettni tbe 
hatching ontQ M. Roland*a arrival in England. On Oe 
9th of liay, notwithstanding the ioe, the fint wom 
began to oome oat, and more or leea eggi were hfttdbl 
da&y until the 20th of May, when the eggs were ^ind 
in tne cool orchid honse at the west entrance of tbe JBifti- 
Mtion, the temperatore of which was jott imderTf. 

The eggs were hatched on calico, atretched on aihiBov 

wooden frame, hong from the roo^ the comm of At 
finme projecting about two inches, and, to preveataiae 
or vermin eating the eggs, a theet of glaai cormi Ae 
frame, bat to give ventilation, small chipa, the thickatfiof 
apenny, at the angles supported the glass orer tin te& 
I^e egn hatched wcdl, and the wormi were aatl^ 
gather^ in tulle nets, and placed in the magnaD«||iU 

Uie eggs appeared sound and good, and over 6,0M««ai 
were obtamed. For the first fortnight ^[raat^ifl^ 
was experienced in obtaining leaves; and it mtyteMB 
for the first month the supply was obtained £m^ 
small trees brought from Lvons in the winter, a «i 
mulberry tree at the back oi the Exhibitio&*ofiie«»flMr 
the Albert Hall, and soiall quantities obtained throi|^ 
Messrs. Veitoh. Although there are many trees iM , 
London, it was difficult to fijid them, and, when (mi,it 
gather the leaves. As the worms began to eat IS 1|*>^ 
20 lbs., and continued to demand im^reaaedqiMuititMito 
30 lbs. daily* the nuin in attendance could noC ^'P^ 
to attend to the worms and to nther and cottltfir mU 
but as one source of supply faued others spnng v^ w 
the worms always had plenty to eat. 

The worms kept in perfect health, and then «<■> 
sign of sickness or disease during any of the duaM 
nor was there any loss of worms, which, oooaidaBf ta» 
variable weather, shows how stzong and heattf w 
breed must be. 

During the second age about 100 worms wen l«t wrt 
on one of the small trees, surrounded by a lam^j 
but the smuts of the London atmosphere and ftt «« 
engines near the magnanerie working the maokistfy ■ 
motion, soon destroyed them. More wonnt •«• P 
out at the Uiird age, but they also soon died ont 

The worms began to ooooon about July 1 8, Md 
about the 26th. The worms mounted stroogl^ 
formed their coooons quioldy and well Mo^ <f 
cocoons are well formed and of good aisa^ a 
very large. 

When the coooons were taken off the fra"» 
counted, it was found that there were only j"^ ^^, 
6,300 instead of nearly 6000, the difforenoe bafisrMg 
carried away improperly by parties no doubt a«flf • | 
obtain seed from such a fine oreed of worma. ^^ 

The ooooons are now being reeled by *M^5 
working Uie reeling machinery in the Eibiiyji 
they report the coeoons to be rm P^^T^l 
that they reel with little breakages. ""Ji^SK 
the ooooons give about 1,600 yards of A •*'■: 
weight is expected to turn out one pound tfS*'**| 
ounces. 

In accordance with the resolution paaaed at ^i 
for the promotion of technical education, at whk»J 
the Prince of Wales presided, the HabardsiM^ 
pany have soit to hm Lawrence, tor diwWWS 
the London achool Board, the sum of i^ «• ^^^ ^ 



V 



:i 



JOURNAL OP THB 800IETT OF ARTS, Amwr 8, 1873. 



741 



'^«w«rdft the pmoluuio o^fcioketoof 
. : ro Intematiofiftl Exhibition. 



to 



notified to her Majesty's Commistionen, 
' f .;c^NliipfiDd Company of Go«oh and Goaoh*hameia 
Pj ' Jt ttie Company offer prises of £3, £% and £1, 
ftoate to foremen, clerks, workmen, and 
^ t in the coaoh-bnilding tr»de in the United 
r . , Ar the best reports on the present Intsma- 
.-'nftition of Carriages. 



■ » 
ttkl 



i& 



▼iew of extending the ijraotioal nse of the 

and diffosing technical information among 

If^ihe Exeoative haye engaged the\8ervice^ of 

ids to deliver, at stated periods daring 

^ wions parts of the bmlding, short descriptive 

the principal classes of objects shown, soch 

^iifSactores, life-saving appliances at sea, cook* 

[the principal machinery, tobacco and pipes, 

its adulterations. This is a popolar step, 

It to be attended with good results to the 

who will be attracted to the Exhibition by 

prices. 

of vintors admitted to the Exhibition ou 
'^jfoly 81st, was as follows: — Season tickets. 
It of Is., 2,207 ; total, 2,830. On FHday, 
126; on payment of Is., 1,777; total, 

Saturday, season tickets, 188 ; on payment 

; total, 2,312. 

of visitors admitted to the Exhibition 
week en^ng Saturday, August 2nd. was as 
m ticket 869 ; on payment of 2s. 6d., 
It of Is., 10,486 ; total, 12,069. 

admitted on Monday, August 4tby was, 
148; on payment of Is., 2,048; total, 
iToesday, season tickets, 166 ; on payment of 
total, 2,486. On Wednesday, season tickets, 
lent of 2s. 6d., 714 ; total, 848. 



EXHIBITI0V8. 



the rejjrodtiotion of works of art, and their propagation 
in the mterest of musenms and artistic edocation. 

Exhibition at Xadrid. — ^Durinff the month of October 
an exhibition is to be held at Madrid of national pro- 
ducts and mannfSMstnres, of agricultiue, mines, chemicals, 
industries, and graf^o arts. Foreign products will be 
received by the executive at Madrid if carriage paid. 
Goods wiU be sold by the executive on a small commis- 
sion charse. This is to be the first of a proposed series 
of Spanish exhibitions. 



Art At the ^anna XzhibitioA.— Aooocding 

oatalogue, the number of works of art con- 

the various ooumtries at the Vienna Exhibi- 

riUlows:— France, 1,687; Austria, 811; Ger- 

Italy, 626; Russia, 487; Belgium, 296; 

167; Hungary, 166; Denmark, 101; Greece, 

~ States of America, 16 : Turkey, 7 ; Chinese, 

8 ; and Bianl, 1 ; makhig in all 4,919. 

at Henna. — ^At the time of the Holbein I 

held at Dresden in the year 1871, a congress | 

and it was determined that the idea should « 

View and the congress renewed upon the next 

occasion, axid a commission was nominated 

It ii now determined that a congress 

in the Austrian Fvae Art Galleries of 

Exhibition on Sept 1st to 8rd, to deliberate 

on matters touching the sciences connected 

art. The following is the programme for 

n: — 1. What science requires witA respect to 

cation, cataloguing, and administration of 

2. The methods of preserving works of art, 

_^ pictures, public monuments, objects of re- 

art, miniatures, drawings, &c 8. The teaching 

biatory of the fine arts in establishments for 

instraction and secondary schools. 4. On the 

of a r eper t ory of the fixie arts, and the neces- 

dzmiringup an inventory of their history, 6. On 



PATENT CONGRESS AT VIENNA. 

"With reference to the congress at Vienna, it is worth 
record that the idea of an International Patent Law ta 
by no means new, and that it was originated in our 
own Patent-office, as long ago as 1866. This ia shown 
by the following letter of Mr. Bennet Woodcrofb ta 
liord Chancellor Cranworth :— 

Qrtat 9ml OtBot, NoTamber, 1S5S. 

Mt Lord, — ^Availing myself of the vacation which 
has just terminated, I visited some of the patent-offices 
on the Continent, to make myself acquainted with the 
gentlemen who presided over them, and learn their 
mode of conducting patent business. My object was 
also to endeavour to bring about a weekly communica- 
tion between their several departments and this office, 
in which I was successful in all oases, and to ascertain 
what views were entertained generally as to the de- 
sirableness of an Xntemational Patent Law. 

It is jproposed to introduce measures for the amend- 
ment of the patent lawa of France and America in the 
oourse of the ensuing year, and an early change is 
contemplated in the patent laws of Belgium, HdQUnd,, 
and Austria. 

I found in all the countries which I visited that the 
principal officers connected with the grant of jMitents 
were m fiivour of a law embracing some clauses in com-> 
mon, and denrous that a conference of persons duhr 
accredited should meet next spring to draw up proposals 
to be submitted to their respective Governments, with 
the view of establishing the patent laws of the various- 
countries on a uniform basis. 

If such a meeting were held, and but one common 
clause resulted from its delibenUions, such as limiting 
patent-grants to the true and first inventor and his- 
legal representatives in his or their names only, I am 
satisfied that great general good would result 

In America I believe it is the practice not to grant a 
patent to any persons, native or alien, or their legal 
representatives, unless th^ are the true and first in- 
ventors, and then not to an alien except he makes hia 
application before six months have expired from the date 
of the patent obtained in his own country. 

In this res^t the American law is superior to any 
other with which I am acquainted. 

In England patents are granted to aliens, either in 
their own name or as "communications," and the result 
is that in a large number of instances the self-same inven- 
tion is patentM first as a communication from some per- 
son whose name is ii«Omown, and afterwards to the 
origbal inventor. 

Many such duplicate grants are annually made in this 
country, to the iojury of the real inventor, and causing 
unnecessary trouble and expense in this office. As an 
example I mav mention Patent No. 630, which was 
granted, March 20tii, 1866, to an Englishman as a oom- 
munication from a foreigner residing abroad. 

Three days afberwaids another English ^tent. No. 
644, was mnted to a foreigner for the same invention. 

In the Vienna Patent-office I was told the same evil 
existed, from the fSMnlity afforded to pirates of procuring 
the English printed specifications, and their being more 
active tnan the true inventors in applying for patents. 

This subject being one of sooh peal luEitioiial import- 



iOUKSAL &f THH aOOIBTT OP ABT3, Anen 8, 1878. 



r.o.». 



If the nnmber of pniMitiM and 
ua urailabla in the arti datacmiiiM 
■tiBoe, Mioiedlj wilphsl* of coppc 
(tone, it folly woHhjr of oanndmti 
taniT end the pnuuoal num. The chumoteriitui utd 
bewdifnl remlta of iti ohamical nBotJoiu ai* empli>7«d 
in chnm i fl anal^u, and in the fbcowtMB of gnen pig> 
nMBta; iti <mdi»ng poiRff, nodar oarton. oooditiona, 
a tmkim it to be naed in dj ' 



via, itii 
iWiitai* 

tkjaadt Thaeo 
d* tan flu fjatam a 
by' moiitaaiiif Ifaam awl e^adtf dun to ib; tk 
Brtiele (hu oUaioad ia oMiluaiaatediiittiNlfUiof 
inm, asd aaaMttaas* with anaus, bnt it cb vdl 
be mad fcr tba pnaarratiaa of vood, oi in ici- 
cultnre, to jnttrnt th« Mmt in vbsat If Wnd, i 
gi«at part of the inn may ba pndHi 



rvlndlB); 



■M*Ma* it to be naed m dyeiiu, •• a t«« 

and the fwility with which it fprm op ita 

the inflimioe of aa electiio imtrant, naoomendi it tor 

oae in oleotroniaporitioD. Threa olho' MplimtiaM in 

which it It largdy employad alill nfmuit, b««idM othan 

that are not ao important : — lat, fur piokiiDg Baad~vbaM 

to dtttroy Hie aporalea of imat ; 2iid, for tha prMerrv- 

salt, and tkerefb» in tba fonn of Manie of ooppsr, 
to radoce ailvei ortt. 

TbaDam«agiv«ntoaiiBbaantiMialt,st variona trawa, 
Bie — Una oopJiMBa, Bornan vitriol, bios vitriol, blaa 
atone, and now, according to the lat«at (^nmfoal nomao* 
dature, onprio Biil]^iati. Ita fonnula. aoooniinK to the 
Oaifewdt ayrtam, it Co SO^ + 6 H.O, and it orra- 
talUaM in largo doiiblv>^Uqae rhombJIliidKnw of a fine 
Una colour. At SlS^Fahr. it loan fiioroatof fln paiu 
«f ita watar of <«yatalli»lion, and whan heated to rad- 
neii it loaea all ita wutar of cryttalliaAtian (< B.O), and 
forma a white powder, which decompoaeeata ttiU higher 
temperature, leaviaK oaprie oiida. Ita apeoiflc grarity 
ia 2-lS. In ita fiwiie ructions thia wit u a very Venaa 
for beauty, bat there ars two magniflomt cotoura \ito- 
dacibls thecefrom in the laboratory whioh cacoat be 
utiliaed by tbe dyer; one of tbeae it tiie deep blue, or 
nther parple colour prodnced in aa oqueoaa BolulioD of 
coprio anlphate by the additiaB of oxoHi of anmooia 
therato ; thia c<doar will nersr be torgottva by any one 
who haa aaen it onca ; the other it a deep giaen aolo- 
Haa, prodBoed by diaaolving the ohromate of copper in 
unnonia, tlie chnmate bang thrown down from the 
aolpbato by tba addition of potaaao chntnate thanto. 
If a aolntion of pstaaaio oyanida be added taeitluir of 
tfaaae coloortd lolntionB it ii bleaohed. The motiolM' of 
onprio anlphate in aolutian b; the additioB tbarrto of 
other ohaminl •oUtiont, principally of nentral nits, 
ftacm tfae baiiaof tba utility of thii ult in the' alia, thera- 
bnaomeof thMait will ba well to raaark, paanng over 
thaae that are only of intereat in tiie UbonMory. The 
plgaunt, mineml grnn, iacbtainad by adding oiarbonate 
ot polaah to a atuntion of oopric iolphMe, and boiling 
the Uoe pcedpitMa whioh Mb doim ; a given giSMiIar 
jnotfttaia fbana. BIw vmditer it alio a carbonata of 
MmN», which may ba obtained flronv ttn aulphata. 
Sw wah'a gie«B ia an anoaita of coppsR and it fbnnad 
W nixing aolntlDDa of audio atMoite and «wpric nil- 
phato; thit piginaat it of the moat beaotiftal bright- 
graea ooloar that the imagination can ooncaiTe, bat, oa 
fortunately, it ii highly poisonooa, and baa given liH 
to macti dMcoMicn aa to the inflnrnco thM paper-hang- 
ingtandladica' drtaaoa colom-ad with thit material axerl 
«var tba health of tfaa coaMMnaty. Htro it nay ha ra- 
■ »hH that maat of the aaite of copper m» powuM 
pwa nn m Bohweiatot graan i> a aoBpoaad of eoptio 
•ootate and oBprio araenito; thia it a hea«y gfrsar'- 
powd^ of a beiDiaat emardd gi«Mi oidoar, ud !• t 
maa* poiMoona tbaa Schaale'e graen. 

''■a tha.atht«aat(»«laanv M»<M 



anpernatMnt liqnid will bo Beariy poM atbtian afcuin 

' 'late. The apaot dindBgli^aarafbttNta" 

baetapk^ed to yiud mjnie Mhbata, ta* 

prodDM a pwe ^t, tha impnritr ningM 



after thia azpoanra, a ailt of lion win tattle atlba bottn 
of the aolntion in Uw focm of a ptMnitata, nd ttt 
aapernatMnt liqnid will be aeariy poia ttlttian rfi 
■alphate. 
may ba ea 

not prodoa ^ , , — , „--, 

---^ in thia ooae. Thebaatapeouaaaiof ca^i^FUe 
predated by dinetno^ copper aealn m mi^axt 

For dyeing pnrpoaat it it reqniMte tlwt Hm eteii 
ihoald be pure. Prmilita of copper (eajn tm- 
oyanide) it applied to ootton to dye it tf i cnaen 
ool»nr. The cloth ia patted throng t »Mm d 
capric inlphatt^ thm throogh a iHlnte alkali to F^ 
t^te the oxide, and, finally, it ia rioted in a wMa rf 
yellow pnaaiate of potaah (lan«-«;ramda of f^aa), 
oor.tainiag a little bydiooUoiic acii Oopc i^^ 

nted aa a rvdri^ ^ tndiffo. Ondlp^ngiiihinan 
..it, the flnt notion it the ptr u lpi ttt ieB of lil^n 
oxide of oopper (hydrated onpno oxide, dO-fMl' 
thia oiidlaea the mdigotiB in aolatiini, and ^>-«iAd 



B mdigotia 11 

a oxi'lo, Oo.u, _ _ . , . 
Lway by riiuuig the goodl {a ««t ■>- 
pharic add. 

Id piuicliBg aeed-iAeat to dettvoy the aponlaiiiail 
therein, four pooodt of tlie lulphate are diaoM in t« 
g»HoDBOf boiling water faa larnetnb; tw«ity^« 
of cold watar arc added thtreto. A wHa-imA 
capable of holding a buahel and a-half d ■^■■t* 
placed in the liquid, and the iriuat it fo^ P™ 
into it. The %ht and imperfect KTahu, doC '^ 
aenl will flo«t at the top, aad maylw tkimari ' » 
batket it then lifted aadaUoweJ to dtain oitrfct^ 
emptied, and the next lot it praoaedsd with. llMt^ 
■nnd ia aoalrng the liqnid ahonld be atiirad «M;»*^ 
The i»pprfB0t banal* thnt broutit totheaifa'''' 
Bkimmed off. One pound of the aidt does fbr bar '>" 
bnahela of wheat. The aeed ahoold not ba tp»»' 



fOBBSAL OF THS 80QIETT OF ARTS, XvQvn 8, 187S. 



7iS 



1m «ed iwiiMHHfit^jy. The Te^otion of the sulphide of 
idver in the nlver ore and the metallic mercury ia the 
maeoce of the coproiw solutioii is repreBonted by the 
ttomion Aif, 8 + 2 (Cu CI) + u% = Agj % + 
Ob CI, + Cu 8 ^ (n-1) Hg. 

The power which capric aalphate has of fbrmiiig an 
oftdabla and stable combination with albumen has 
htm atiliied in the application of this substance to the 
(raerration of wood. One mnthod of accomplishing 
this result was patented by Mr. Joshua John Uoyd 
liarg*Ty, of Wellington-road, St. John's- wood, on the 
I9th Decomber, 1837. The patent is Ifo. 7,611, and is 
flOtiUod, *'A new mode of preserving animal and 
renpeUUe sabstances from decay." The process con- 
niti in dnring the wood, and then soaking it in a 
nlotion of onpric sulphate two days for each inch of 
ill tlucknen. The solution is made by adding one pound 
of capric sulphate to every five gHllons of water, and 
is lug biy esteemed Tor this purpose. 

In pbotomphy this salt has been used in a pyro- 
gsSk md aeveloper. In ink, sulphate of copper has 
hm md. in small quantities to prevent mouldiness, 
but ttis advantage is more than oonnterbaliinced by the 
QQondenble destmctiun to steel pens which ensues 
from the Qse of ink so treated ; in tict, its presence 
naj be ascertained by immersing a bright steel pen in 
tbe laspected ink ; in a few minutes £e pen becumes 
Mted with the copper in solution, and the pen is pr^c- 
iflilly speaking destroyed, for the points of the pen are 
be first parts which yield to the solvent action of the 
ifud, accelerated as it is by the galvanic current set 
9 bj the contact of the deposited copper with the steel 
f the pen. Therefore, all those who value their pt-ns, 
od are glad to retain an especial nib that suits them, 
ntil the poor thing is thoroughlv but fairly worn out, 
Kte«d of submitting it to a sluw process of erosion, 
ill do well to avoid ink that betrays the lightest symp- 
BCt of containing sulphate of copper. The same mny 
^ laid to those who value their health, in relation to the 
ie of onpric sulphate in pickles and in bread ; in the 
inner it ^vours the production of a bright but 
^uaaoaa groan colour; in the latter it acts as a 
nding ageot» bat it is better to take this medicine in 
■'lUMr prescribed by medical science, t)ian to be ex- 
1*^ to the chances of its being in the fo<i<l uf our every- 
ty consonqytion, in qotntitiei and under oiroumstances 
»^ we sie not aware of . 

^ttb^ttbe uses of copric sulphate in electro-depo- 
'^ m Qot the most extenaive, commercially speaking, 
P^ tbsMn the moat valuable in an artistic point of 
i'^' i&flre are very few who have dabbled in this 
'P^f^BMBt of electrical work who are not aware of the 
^yalfiwded by the ' single-cell process " for pr«Kluc- 
? alectro-casta ot seals, busts, meaallions, &c. In this 
^'^xm a porous vessel (<'X)mp08ed of unhumt or biscuit 
meware) and an outer ordiniry porcelain or glass 
^2 tfe employed. In the inner vessel is placed a 
*k adation of common salt, or of sulphuric acid, and 
^ outer vessel is an acidulated nnd nearly satumted 
otioB of caprio sulphate. A rod of amalgamated zinc, 
'inUUe sixe, is oonnected by a wire, well soldered or 
erwise firmly fixed, to the object to be copied in 
irao ; the xino ia supported in the interior vesael, and 
object in the external vessel. C ore should be taken 
the object is rendered conductive of electricity, unless 
^ so already, and that ^Hither by means of a bag or 
elf) the solutioiii be well and constantly supplied at 
ippar part with pure crystals of cupric sulphate. If 
e pointa are well attended to, the electro-depositor 
have the SAtiafiaction of soon seeing a beautiful pink 
uig of pore oopper appear on his sei&l or cast, and 
dny or two it will be of sufficient thickness to sepa- 
from the parent fonn, and to mount in the way that 
brings out its artistic viJue. Frequently instead 
ing the poroua-oell arrangement and the xino therein, 

better to have the depositing cell separate from 
aeaaa of generating the necessary eleotrio onrrent. 



In this case the wire from the anoof a izalvanio battery 
or from the negative pole of a magneto-eleotrio maohinay 
is connected to the objeet to be electrotyped, and the 
oCher, or positive wire, is oonaeoted to a copper-plate of 
suitable sixs. These electrodes are then placed in the 
sulphate solation, which need not be so well saturated 
as when the single-cell prooess is used. The difficulty 
of coating iron and zinc firmly, with good cooper, by 
electricity, is considerable, and has led to the employmeziik 
of an alkaline solution of oopper, which, however, may 
be made firom the sulphate. Cyanide of copper (a ffrocn 
salt) is precipitated from the sulphate by the adflutien 
thereto of a certain Quantity of oyanide of potaarium, 
and is then washed and dissolved in the potaasic cyanide 
solution. Aooording to a patented process, which gives 
good adhesive met^ at an economical rate, the author 
adds to the above cyanide solution hydrated oxide of 
copper and cupric ammonide. This modification of an 
old process enables an^y thickness of pure copper to he 
deposited upon either iron or zinc with absolute adhesion 
thereto. A similar solution (charged with zinc as well 
as with oopper) is used to coat either of these metals 
with brass. 

Another use of cupric sulphate,«omewhat allied fo that 
just described, is its emplo^ent in galvanic batteries of 
the constant kind, oomprising those known as Daniell's 
and its modifications. These are greatly used in tele- 
grtfphy, and a London firm of note have lately fucniiftied 
a large amount of this salt to the vessels conveying the 
telegraph cable about to be kdd across the Atlantic by a 
new route. 

The annual consumption of this salt, compared with 
that of sodic oarbonato, for iostsmoe, is not very grsi^ 
although a firm in Newcastle supplies 100 tons of oupio 
sulphate of superior quaUty annually, and many hundred 
tons of inferior si^ are used annually to destroy smut in 
wheat. The uses of a given commodity are, however, 
not always measared, in regard to their influence upon 
the arts, by the amount of consumption commercially 
considered, and. although sot faring in high numbers 
in the commercial annals of the country, sulphate of 
copper «ertaialy figurek gs o a fl y in its iioMnlnsss in the 
arts. 



PBB8KRVATI0K OF POOD. 

M. Sau, of Neufchfttel, is said to have achieved re- 
markable success in the nreservation both of meat and 
vegetables. His mode ox operation is thus described : — 
The meat, &o., is packed in barrels, and covered and 
surrounded with one quarter its own weight of 
acetate of soda, in the form of powder ; in summer the 
action of the salt is immediate, but in winter it is neces- 
sary to i^ace the barrels or other vessels in a chamber 
heated to 20<^ Gentig^e. The water of the meat is 
absorbed by the acetate of soda. At the end of twenty- 
four hours the meat is turned, and in twice that time the 
operation is finished. The meat may either be packed 
in its own brine or dried in the open air. If the barrels 
are not full, a solution of one part of the acetate to three 
of water should be added. When the brine is separated 
f^m the meat and evaporated to half its volume, it 
crystallises, and half the salt is saved, while the 
remainder is an excellent extract of meat, which 
represents, when reduced to a thick paste, *03 of the 
weight of the meat. This extract is added to the pre- 
served meat, and is said to restore its original fresh 
flavour. When the meat is to be used, it is steeped from 
twelve to twenty-four hours in tepid water, containing 
ten grammes of sal ammonia to the litre. Fish, fbwls, 
duoks, and snipes have been preserved whole in this 
solution of acetate of sod% the entrails being first re- 
moved. 

Heat loses one quarter of its weight by the afltka of 
the solution, and another quarter if dried. The flesh of 
warm-blooded apimals may be dried vith the aid of the 



746 



JOTTRFAL Of THE SOOIBTT OF ARTS, August 8, 1878. 



■tore ; but most fish, and etpedaUy nlmon and trout, 
can only be dried in the air. 

Vegetables are treated fai the same way aa meat, but 
they loee five-sizths of their weig^t» e xoep t Brosaels 
ipronts, which only loae three-qoartera. "Wnen wanted 
for use, they are plunged in cola water for twdve hoars, 
and are then cooked as if they were fresh. Before the 
vegetables are covered with the acetate, however, it is 
necessary to warm them, in order to set rid of tiieir 
riffidity. At the end of twenty-foor hours they are 
taken out and dried in the open air. 

Mushrooms are steeped for twenty-fbur hours in a solu- 
tion of equal parts of acetate of soda and water ; the solu- 
tion should be at 30^ CaitiATade. The muahrooms are 
finally strained and dried. Potatoes must be first cooked 
by steam, and then treated like other vegetables. 

M. Sau dedaree that the same treatment succeeds well 
with thin-skinned fruits, such as peaches, plums, straw- 
berries, and raspberries ; and with thiok-sxinned fruits, 
such as apples and pears, provided they are first split or 
heated through. 

All substances prepared by this process, if dried, must 
be kept from moist air, or they exude ; and when ex- 

Cd to the air, after having been soaked in water, they 
me mouldy, but do not rot. 
The inventor insists strongly on the value of his plan 
in the case of veffetables, which can be prepared, he 
asserts, at one tenth, or even one-twelfth of the cost of 
preserring them by the ordinary modes in use. Should 
this system be as effective as the author of it declares it 
to be, it would undoubtedly be of great importance, and 
it would be easy to try an experiment in a small way in 
order to ascertain the effect of the acetate of soda on the 
flavour of meats and vegetables. 



C0EEB8P0HBEH0B. 



STATE PURCHASE OF RAILWAYS. 

Sib,— ^ot having had an opportunity of taking part 
in the debate upon the ** State Purchase of Railways," 
I would ask the fSavour of a short space in the pages of 
the Journal for the slight expansion of the notes I had 
prepared for the second day on which this discussion 
tooK place. 

It was not my intention to have entered at length upon 
the general question, whether the proposed delinquencies 
of the present railway managers are so great as posi- 
tively to demand the transfer, or whether the assumed 
benefit to be derived from Government management is 
so great as to command assent to the changed The affir- 
mative of both questions appears to be held by the most 
nrominent supporters of the plan, but it wants, I think, 
further investigation into the facts' of the case, before 
either can be deemed a settled point. Neither did I 
propose going deeply into the financial part of the 
question, for, with whatever difficulties this may be 
beset, there can be little doubt tiiat if once the pur- 
chase or transfer be determined on, means will be found 
to effect it. That the arrangements by which it is 
carried out will be favourable to the proprietors seems to 
be admitted ; and with so powerful a body as these are 
become, it is not probable that the change will be 
made until they are in a position to enforce an 
advantageous bugain. It appears to me, however, 
that very insufficient attention has been paid to the effect 
which such an operation would have upon the money- 
market. Mr. Chubb* and others divert attention from 
the^ startling sums which have been named as those 
which would probably be required, by concentrating 
attention upon the interest or dividends which would 
have to be paid, and assume that it would be simply a 

• ataHtttaa Jvmmai, Jane, luTS. 



nominal change to convert a four or five per oent yfaUiaf 
debentareahare or stock into a three \fs cent QovetSBMBi 
stock of snch an amount as would yield the saaie mnnJ 
fnoome. Now if this stock were inoonTsrtible, or not 
saleable, no doubt the creation of capitsl would k 
mwely nominal, and an addition of two or three honditd ' 
millions would be of no account What, howerer, iroiild 
be the first result P The debenture holder, finding tbt ' 
in lieu of a bond yielding him £4 a year, whidi voiM 
not sell in the market for more than £100, he b«euit 
possessed of £133 6s. 8d. in the Ooyemment fosdi- 
which he could sell for £120— would seek to iMliae the > 
bonus of £20 per cent, upon his capital, and to isTeit k 
some other undertaking promising to yield four or fin 
per cent, on his improved ca^taL This procM vcsM 
oe adopted by othen, until so much of the oev 
stock would be thrown on the market y to 
depreciate its value— for it must not k br> 
gotten that the pubUc funds owe the maintoiaoe d 
their high price as compared with other s(>cariticik s^ 
only to the guarantee which the state affbrdi, bat il» to 
the limited amount of them which are availabl« for tie 
purposes of purchase or sale. Taking the l«rg« mm: 
of stock held oy trustees and that class of holden, totfec 
security rather than income is of paramount neooBtr gr 
importance, it is probable that not one-half or ooethk 
of the national debt is in the market at aIl,sod ibi 
creation of new stock (at the lowest compatatkn qui e 
extent to that already existing), would treble (rq«^ 
ruple the quantity in which doings would tab |^ 
Nor is this all ; the withdrawal of so large a <^u^^ 
high-interest-bearing securities from oompetidcB ntt 
others already existing would enhance thevilMo^tliSK 
remaining available for investment or tpecnlitrai; s&i 
so lonff as the government stock retained tnjtioof sf* 
preaching its present value, would help to flood ibecinsttT 
with new schemes, promising to yield a greater reten 
No doubt, in course of time, an approarii to eqaiti^ 
tion would be attained, by the lowering in ^rioe of v 
fonds, and the advancement of other secnntiei. ^ v 
detriment of the unfortunate present poeie*«^ 
Qoyemment stock, and the enrichment ^ ^ 
present holders of shares in steam-boat, g^ ^ 
analogous public or priyate companiei. '^ 
noting is more certain tnan that a vary hif F^ 
portion of those who are now content to risk i^^^ 
tor a high rate of interest would be encoartg«i to «^ 
for aimflidr means in which to invest the P'^^^ . 
stock of which they became possessors. The expff^ 
of the telegraph transfer is of no value, for tbe ^ 
siderable extent of stock thus created— six orserttaflo^ 
only— furnishes no guide to the dealings wbkk •^'^ 
take pla'^o in the vast amounts necesaur to ^ *}' 
changed for the amount of railway securitiai eBin« 
at the present time. . ,,^ 

The point, however, to which I wished moit«****^r 
to direct attention was the fitness or otherwieeoCGotjcrt- 
ment management for the improvement of oar iw^r 
system. As an old servant of the 6tat^ I ihoaM bj v 
last to disparage the service to which I belong, bati^^ 
not, therefore, the less ready to consider ^*^*t IT 
chinery be that which can be most adyantfcgwr*] 
ployed in the performance of this work. To fa**^' 
thing like a correct judgment in this matter, it ii 
to consider it under three heads : — Ist The f«^ 
the line, and the maintenance of the permaneot^- 
The conduct of the traffic over the line. And** 
acquisition of that traffic, and obtaining P*7^ 
its transit Each of these points must be ^^. 
regard to both efficiency and economy. On t» 
there can be but little doubt that greatadvantsgjj 
be possessed by State authority. The ab^noe d " 
tion and consideration of private interests in detewa 
whether a line should be made or not, ^"^J*''* 
best routes to be chosen, and the best accomnMwati 
be given to the various parts of the kingdom, ^j 
ment has, or might have, at its command ss nmcii 



JOURNAL OF THE BOOIBTY OP ARTS, August 8, ia7S. 



747 



«t and boneetj as any private employer ; it could 
rcbaae ita materials in tne best market and at the 
rest prioe ; and it woold maintain the lines in the best 
idition. It IB not quite so dear that the whole oost, 
tier of oonabrootion or maintenanoe, conld be kept 
im — for whilat, on the one hand, no employer of 
K>ar pays so low for the brain-power it nses, none 
p to high for the respectable mediocrity whidi it 
en has to be content with; and as to the manual 
oar, which finrms the principal element of cost, it is 
mble— now that in almost every trade the labourers 
I the masters also, and to a great extent the electors 
our legiBlatorB--that there would be a tendency to 
increase rather than a diminution in the rates 
wages given. So also as to the worldng of 
I traffic. There can be no reason why the State should 
) poasesa as much and as good rollmg stock as any 
npany can have ; nor yet why its engme<4rivers, sig- 
Imen, and porters should not be as well suited for the 
rpote as those which private enterprise can educate or 
tain. Post-office ana telegraph emplov6s are, to say 
) least, as able and intelligent as those which any other 
'▼ice produces. Given the work to be performed, the 
mber and size of the trains to be run, the destinationB 
7 are to seek, and the stoppages to be made on the 
y, and there would be no fear that there would be less 
ety. comfort, or punctuality than is at present afforded, 
loed, in all these points, the order, regularity, and 
npline of a well-officered corps of servants ought to 
care many decided advantages, 
t is when we pome to oonsider how the traffic is to be 
lined, and at what rate it is to be paid for, that the 
iculties of Qovemment management become ap- 
ent. To receive a letter or telegraph message at one 
at, and deliver it at another, chargmg the same sum, 
sCher the intervening distance be long or short, is a very 
pie process, especiaUy where no competition exists ; 
to determine the rates to be charged for the several 
criptiona of passengers or g^oods would involve many 
stions morefittedtobe decided by mercantile enterprise 
Q by the routine processes necessary to a Government 
:e. In theory, save for the trifling increase of watching 
etsary for safety, there is no more cost in carrying a 
of gold than a ton of coals, but if the same rate were 
lied to both, all the g^ld would be carried by Gk>vem- 
it service, and all the coals by somecheaper conveyance, 
practice, the charge for this service must be regulated, 
by its value, but bv the price at which others are 
e or willing to perform it in some other way; and 
ess the Qofemment also became possessed of every 
nnel of communication, a constant contest would be 
Qg on with those possessed of other routes, quite inoon- 
rat with the propriety or di^ty of a State depart- 
it. Competition between individuals or bodies of 
lera is ultimately setUed according as their private 
rests or means cuctate. In the end the longest purse 
ho shrewdest head wins the day, but the very idea 
railway board, in possession of the nation's funds 
carrying on the contest, and backed by the influence 
he State, entering into competition with Messrs. 
cford's vans, or the vessels of the Qeneral Steam 
igation Company, is one we are scarcely yet 
lared to entertain. Then, too, there woula arise 
plicationB where one part of the service had to 
performed by the Government, and another part 
1 private body, as, for instance, in the car- 
e of goods or passengers from London to Dublin, 
ess the (Government became possessed of the inter- 
iate steam-vessels, endless difficulties would arise. 
: if steam- vessels to Ireland why not to Fiuucu, a ad 
i to India and China P At present, all the necessary 
lis are the subject of arrangement between two equal 
ea or individuals, each governed by the same prin- 
»— a desire to make the most profit out of their 
ective parts of the transaction, and each answerable 
a constituents for the use of the power they possess, 
h a Qovemment body it would be far otherwise. 



Most of this business, again, is of too speculative a 
character for the State to engage in. Take, for in^anoa, 
such an occasion as the raoent visit of the Shah. It 
answered the purpose of the railway companies to put 
on express trains and engap^e steam-vessels to cany 
passenffers to meet the fleet m the Channel. No civil 
officer in a State railway corps could have adopted such 
a step without the Board's sanction, and few would be 
found to originate such a proposition, from which, if 
successful, they would receive no benefit, while, if un- 
successful, they would be sure to meet with severe censure. 
A thousand cases of similar difficulty must occur to the 
mind of every one who g^ves even a slight consideration to 
the details of such a system. To meet these Mr. P. Hill's* 
scheme for leasing groups of railways to different com- 
panies, appears to oe an insufficient remedy. The great 
argument for State interference to secure uniformity of 
charge and convenience would be destroyed if these 
several companies had power to make anttngements 
according to their different views, interests, and caprices ; 
and without this power none of them would unoertake 
to pay the State sums of money dependent not upon the 
work performed or the recompense earned, but upon 
the chsu^es the line had to bear from the capital expended 
or the diridends to be secured. 

If, however, on the one side, reasons of State policy 
render the transfer either desirable or necessary ; and 
on the othei, the obstacles to a Government working of 
the lines be almost insuperable, it was on my notes to 
suggest an intermediate course of action ; not that I have 
been able to collect such evidence or adduce such reasons 
as might carry conviction in its favour, but simply as one 
worthy of consideration and inquiry^-namely, whether it 
might not be practicable for the State to resume its 
ownership of the highways of commanication, and its 
power to regulate the traffic, thus leaving it to the enter- 
prise of individuals, or, more probably, powerful com- 
panies, to contract for the transit of both passengers and 
goods upon such terms as the Gk>vemment Board would 
require or arrange. This would lessen the financial in- 
convenience, by leaving the value of the machinery and 
rolling-stock out of the purchase, the State simply paying 
for or creating stock to represent the value of the roads and 
buildings. The detailsof such a method of dealingwith the 
question I am not prepared to g^ve, nor could I on the 
present occasion ask you to find room to insert them, but 
either of two systems might, 1 think, be successfully 
adopted. On the one plan, the Government Railway Board 
would fix the numbers and times of trains to be run, 
contracting for the train and engines at a fixed price, 
and receivmg payment for the transport. On the other, 
it would receive tenders for the privilege of using 
the lines by a particular train, receiving such a price as 
might be offerod. In either case it would fix or agree 
upon the charges to be made axid the conditions to bo 
ODserved, so as to obtain the lowest charge and the best 
accommodation for all who might travel upon or use the 
lines. The present companies, or new ones to be formed, 
might possess all the engines, carriages, trucks, &c., 
and possibly the goods' sheds and offices necessary for 
the transaction of their business. 

Trusting that these few observations, which I would 
have verbally addressed to the members of the Society> 
may be deemed worthy of insertion in the Journal, but 
forbearing to enlarge further upon them, — ^I am, &c., 

Stb. Bourne. 

Harrow, 23rd July, 1ST3. 

Sib, — I have read with much interest the paper by 
Mr. Gait, on the '' Purchase of the Hallways by the 
Government," and the discussions thereon, and I regret 
very much that my engagements prevented me from 
attending any of the meetings. 

I have had great experience as a railway traveller, 
having to do business with all the companies in supply* 

• Journal qf the Society of Art$^ Jane 20th, p. 6W. 



Ttfr 



JOU&ffAL OF THB BOOIffTF OP ARTS. Anrnr 8, 1873. 



iag a podHD of tfaa mllin|; itodk ban tii» Mam«BO0- 
niMit «f tba ■jatm to Bbost tix Tans btok, and m; 
iiliiii»Uiii»il<'wl &IM1 John o'QnMfsHijBM to Land's 
itfulj M well u the langUi uid bzeadtli of Ireland aod 
part of the OantJBMt. Itluiafr«q>mtlyoo«>md toma 
that if llH nilimv diieoton and iMdiw officiiJ* genNally 
werapUcadon taeaaattt footiaga»o»arpftMiiiyaia,MMt 
had to pay Uuir bias for svet; trip on the liM, Um; 
wauH that be «bla to lealiaa the ■osadnMa of the ttwMy 
that, " A nillioii penoe ii a more af^rociable Moane 

int(a«ris moat give waf k> public good." — Tkia .««B 
Uw piineiple on which the makan of lailwaji puUsd 
down tha dweUingi Mid plaoaa of bamnBaa of the 
town'a-paople, and duued to take tha laudi of 
lk« itrai dutrictti Now, au tha aame priuoiplB, I ooo- 
tend that nilway diroctoia and ahaiahoid vt ahBiild not 
be allowed to not to-di^ " the dog in the manger " over 
again ; but aa Ihay have not tha moral oonrage to see 
theii own iiiliiiiuli in the intsnat of the pnuio, they 
should in like manner be ooi^iellad to itand on one side 
on cqaitaUa tenna, baaed upon caat price, and not apon 
oonaeqaential or pnitpaetive proBIs ; rsnawbering ihs 
BOtioo which oompdled the Qovanimait to g^ve 
MTea milliODS for the teligi^ih lyBtem, when it ought 
to hare bem had for two. 

As regards the price to be paid for the railways, it will 
be neoanaiy to be prompt on thia point, for if purduse 
be based on the market piioe of the day, and Ooiern- 
mant only adopt a portion aa an azperiment, the reaidoe 
will riae bo fabulnna prioM, uid thus the oountry will be 



« prica wbold be to take an average of . 
tha last fin yean' dividend, and let the Government 
goaraotee this pacpetaally, giving ooupons, or dividend 
aartiflcatw, in ezoiange for the acnpt of the preaent 
ownat, canoelling the lattar, and latttngthaother, i.*., the 
■*«it*i dividand, ba >k nogotiahle docomenl, doing doty 
as a Bank of England note. Thia would in great [ 

daatioy the pamioions effeots of the Bank monopoly. In . 
a veiy few yean after this aoheme had been caniad oot, 
we should luv« an iiwtease in onr tnffio to MMh an aitent 
aa to be able to donblo our linsa on all the great trmok- | 
waya, ao that, like oiv Amerioan brethren, we might carry 
gooda on cae pair of linea and pasaangan on the c 
ajid Ihna avoid aoc 



J.— It is TTOfsaed te winMnJui Ik 
vatftad during the mitiiir ol ilu bva. i 
ponndaf oafeaviJl 7ii,ld.iiiLtai<cngs,TiKniuaia&e, 
and aatheaiinaal ouDaBmpIi^iiiEogUDduauiutcglUI 

log ■ ouodanaar be the ravolviag dnua it is tkngU un i 
nalpartof thlacaibeaBVad. 

TnaillaM^ bj Mi^tufy.— On Toa^y ilbiM 

a insMeuontuok pt>oa«t tha wvrtarf Ml— i Pnaifad 

iVAIiuner Mr. K. Baaor. Tbamobiaa bw biin 4 
bruaghtnndir the notice ot fheSiiaitty,u ■mBmitiB* 
appuiolsdintheSeBut'Bof lB69uiepDTtiipi>iiit TbiirRia 
•wDl be fanndinthe/i>wiiaJfgrBrptKiiberllattW;>u I 
BlatevfhaKheprDoeaisaaltHB*^''*^***' Birt»ki«B 
mcDiiKl (tTr tteoeral uie, bat nqaind otmiii auli"! m 
A fnlt dnrripilBB of IbcmaebiMWUI befgudatp^ 
on " ArtiAckl JnrmtK and Bcfr)*antBf, " ^Jk fai 
pnbtiahad in itM^mmtnU lar pMOihtr 18, IWa. n>|» 
oiiie of tiMiBvatiMiHtbubqotAadaBBOBBMiifcH 
in a cbas vaaasl, aaiTMnded by Ik* MMc hi kt tKM. 

Mineral WMttk of Biim^— AoooidiBjt b a ■■» 



—Yours 



pasaangazs o 



T. Baiooa. 



eSKXRAL HOTKfl. 



Vattatkl Tmitting flehool for Cftakary.— The Ezeon- 
tlvs Committea deaira to call the attantjoo of those who ire 
Intereated in foonding a NaUonsl Training; School for 
Cookny to the faot that it wddM be prodent la •eeore ■ 
a^tal, lay of jCAJWO. Tha Eieeatire CDmmitMe ao- 
aordiagly mvita donatjomi, 
Eouanteea, and nqmat frisL 
IboC •nbaariptioos on behalf 
Ing the n o c B aiary capital to be provided, tba Bieoative 
CoDnDiUae hope that they may be able, before the end of the 
vaar, to «stabliah oonnaa of practloa] inatmotion in the 
blohan, aa well as botaras. AnannanMi will be mad* » 
Oat connaa aiav be aavarally attandad by pupil taaehara in 
balakv for pnblio adnnatton, by domaatio aervMta, and by 
ladiaik Thaa>Mte«ilof thiaaoheolwiUbefitMtiiedin 
bDDdc^ and if it anceeeda, similar aDhooli will be ntablkbsd 
m the laic« towns, All ooaumnications on the aabject of 
Oaatduol should Uaddnaaad to the aeonlan tpn Um.) of 
Wwadio A AanBal Inlanuitiooal Ezhibitioa, Eeoaingtoa 



annual aabaoriptiaiu, and 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IETT OF ARTS, Avaura tfi^ IS^S. 



7<9 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Vo. 1,082. Vol XXI. 



FRIDAY, AUGUST 15, 187S. 






Aivoirscj 



S BT THS COTTiriilX.. 



MTIOSM. TKAIiriHft SOBOOL VOfi VVSIO. 

1. The necesgiiy for a National Training School 
for promoting the art of Muaio in this oountry has 
long been felt, and has at various periods been 
irged on the attention of suooessiye Governments 
i»7 the highest authorities. Sudi has been the 
msnimfty of all those who are competent to give 
A opinion in this matter that it is needless to 
lifiooss the question here. Suffice it to say that 
ihe whole subject of Musical Education in this and 
foreign countries was investigated and fully re- 
ported on by a committee appointed by the Society 
)f Arts in 1865. 

2. Although it appears from the Beports of the 
kienoe and Art Department that the question of a 
^tate Tr^ning School was at one time under the 
consideration of the Lords of the Committee of 
Cknmcil on Education — ^Earl Qranville being then 
Lord President — ^the Department of Science and Art 
q> to this time has not taken any active st^w 
iowards its establishment. It has therefore been 
ledded by the Society of Arts to take the initia- 
ive, and establish a Training School by voluntary 
iffbrt, with the full intention that it should, and 
mder the confident hope that it will, eventually, 
>e transferred to the responsible management of 
he State. 

3. The fundamental principle and primary object 
f the School is the cultivation of the highest 
insical ^titude in the country, in whatever sta- 
ion of society it may be found. In order to carry 
at this principle to the fullest extent, admission 
) the School will be obtained by competitive eza- 
tmatum alone. 

4. Alb the gift of musical ability is foimd in all 
fades of soci0i7, and frequenily among the classco 
f very limited means, it is evident that in a large 
amber of oasw, the student must not only re- 
ave grttlnitous instruoticm, bat also be supported 
iring tlie period of his trnning. To provide for 



it iirtioded to ^itoUMMbwit aoo adftolanliqtf, 
for which the most infl««itffll support has already 
been promised, and fntttar ai9|>ort is solicited. 

5. The proposed scholarships will be of two 
kinds, the one to affDid free instruotion by paying 
the students' fees, the otiierto give free xostruotioti 
with a maintenance aUowaBoe in addition. It will 
be open to any county, town, public body, or private 

I individual to establish one <w other of these kinds 
j of schdanhips lor competition under given limi«> 
I tations. Should tiieve be more aooommodatioa' in 
I the school than is requisifee for the instruotion of 
• these soholani, students paying their own fees will 
be admitted by competition to fill the vacancies, 
care being taken that they show sufficient aptitode- 

6. It is proposed that the School should provide 
in the first instance lor the free instruction of about 
300 scholars. The school fee without maintenance, 
it is estimated, will be between £36 and £40 a year. 
The maintenance allowance for the support of the 
scholar wUl be in addition to this fee, and in- 
dependent of the school. 

7. The Council of the Bayal Albert Hall are pre- 
pared to devote certain rooms, including two 
small lecture theatres, to the use of the School at 
a nominal rental, when proper arrangements shall 
have made been made fol^ its conduct. This 
assistance is estimated to be worth about £1,000 
a year. 

8. The Koyal Oommissioners for the Exhibition 
of 1851 have offSefred a plot of ground immediately 
adjoining the Albert Hall for supplementary 
suites of practising and lecture-rooms, and have 
agreed to grant a lease of the same to Mr. 0. J. 
Freake, a member of the Ooundl, who has most ' 
mimificently undertaken, at his own cost and risk, 
to erect the necessary buildings thereon. Indeed, 
the plans for these buildings are in a forward state 
of preparation. 

10. The School is under a Committee of Manage- 
ment, consisting of two members appointed by the 
Boyal Commissicmers for the Exhibition of 1851, 
two members appointed by the Council of the 
Boyal Albert-hall, and three members appointed 
by the Council of the Society of Arts, and the 
Committee thus formed consists of H.R.H. the 
Duke of Edinburgh, H.B.H. Prince Christian, 
Admiral the Right Hon. Lord Clarence Paget, 
K.C.B., Major-Gteneral Eardley-Wibnot, B.A., 
F.E.S., Henry Cole, Esq., C.B., Major Donnelly, 
B.E., and Sir William Anderson, K.C.B. 

All commimications relative to the establishment 
of Scholarships, and all inquiries about the Train- 
ing School, should be addressed to the Secretary 
of the National Training Sobool for Muric, Kens- 
ington*giove, London, S.W. 

P. Le Neve VosTHit, B^mrtimty. 



7«r 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Atoust 16, 1873. 



HAtX-KASXIVG OF JSWSLLEBT.— PBEEB FOB 

S8«AT8. 

1. It baying been brougbt to tbe knowledge of 
ibe Council of tbe Society of Arts tbat wbat is 
termed " Hall-inarking " of jewellery and articles 
of gold and silyer, is inadequate to secure to tbe 
public tbat protection in tbe quality of tbe 
materials for wbicb it is intended, tbey baye ac- 
cepted tbe offer of one of tbe members, Mr. Edwin 
W. Streeter, to place £25 at tbeir disposal, to be 
awarded as a prize for an Essay treating on tbis 
subject, witb suggestions for an improyed system. 

2. Tbe Essays mtist be sent in not later tban tbe 
Ist of Noyember, 1873, marked witb a motto, or 
eypber only, accompanied by a sealed letter, witb 
tbe corresponding motto or eypber marked out- 
side, giying witbin tbe name and address of tbe 
writer of tbe Essay. 

3. Breyity will be considered a merit. 

4. Tbe Council sball baye tbe rigbt of publisbing 

tbe prize Essay in tbe Journal, and tbey reserye 

tbe rigbt of witbbolding tbe prize altogetber, or 

of awarding a lesser sum, if tbe judges sball so 

recommend. 

P. Le Neve Fosteb, Secretary, 



TEOHHOLOeiOAL EXAXI^ATIOHB. 

Tbe subjects in wbicb examinations were beld 
tbis year, namely, Cotton Manufacture, Paper 
Manuiacture, Silk Manufacture, Steel Manufacture, 
and Carriage-building, will be retained in tbe Ex- 
aminations of next year, witb tbe addition of 
Clotb Manufacture, Glass-making, Pottery and 
Porcelain, and tbe Manufacture of Gtas. 

Tbe Programme is in preparation, and will be 
publisbed as soon as possible. 



AHHXJAL IHTERHATIOlf AL EXHIBITIOHS. 



Tbe Council, baying been informed tbat ber 
Majesty's Commissioners do not intend to 
publisb Reports on tbe different departments of 
tbe Exbibition of tbe present year, and looking to 
tbe great importance to Arts, Manufactsres, and 
Commerce tbat tbese annual displays sbonld not 
|)a88 away witbout some record, bave dedded to 
undertake tbat duty, and for tbis purpose bavc 
engaged tbe services of gentlemen specially 
skilled in tbe subjects of tbe several sections, 
to prepare sucb Reports for publication in the 
Society's JoumaL Tbe Council, however, 
desire it to be understood tbat, in publishing 
tbese reports, tbey do not necessarily adopt all tbe 
views expressed in them, wbicb must be taken 
as those of tbe writers only. 

Tbe following report is tbe ninth tbat has 
beep issued. The remainder will appear as soon 
'^mplete. 



ar 



RECENT SCIENTIFIC INVKNTI0N8 
AND NEW DISCOVERIES. 

By Bobert Jamei Xian, V J). 

Late Saperlotendent of EdocatioQ iD KataL 

The objects contained in this department of 
tbe Exhibition cover, as usual, a wide Ttnge i 
application and design. 1 bey are very name- 
rous, and comprise among them maay interest' 
ing, and some valuable and meritorioiiB, e§)rti 
of mechanical and inventive ingenuity. 

Foremost among the notabilities of the groop 
on tbe present occasion stands a large cue d 
implements and castbgs (4,829 of the catilogaej 
contributed by the Phosphor Bronze Compmy, 
of Cannon-street Tbe metal of wladi the 
articles is made is a new kind of bronze, patated 
by Messrs. Montefiore and Kunzel, and ii ooa- 
posed of varying proportions of copper, to, ud 
phosphorus. Tbe alloy is capable of beingiDKle 
tough and malleable, or hard, at will, accordiagto 
the proportion of the several ingredients. It » 
rendered so liquid in tbe molten state by theii^- 
tion of the phosphorus that it forma very d« 
castings. The purposes to which it is po- 
posed to put the bronze are well illostnted ■ 
tbe numerous objects shown, which wajwt 
heavy bearings of machinery; cogged wiw 
guns and cartridge cases, wire, tuyeres for h» 
furnaces, and ornamental castings of v»noM 
kinds ; tools and appliances, such aa han»«^ 
knives, scissors, hinges, locks, keya, ^^^ 
ting and sieves, are constructed of it for powdtf 
magazines, on account of the imposflbOi^*^ 
their yielding sparks. The bronze i« » ***' 
what extensive use in tbese forms in ^Qff^^' 
merit Powder Mills at Waltham. Ser^ 
railway companies are employing it W «** 
bearing parts of macbinery exposed to P**^ 
strain. Messrs. Merryweatber have dnwn up* 
it for their fire engines. Messrs. Mackem 1*^ 
bad rock drills and pinions made of it Mea* 
Brotherhood and Hardingham have adopted u a 
some parts of their large three-cylinder^ 
engines, and Messrs. Thorneycroft, of "^?^ 
hampton, use it for pit rtipes, a purpose tow^ 
its constructors consider it is especially a^^ 
on account of its immunity fiim <^'y*'^5 
damp. They also propose to apply it iw*"" 
copper for the sheathing of sea-going ^V*, 

Messrs Wright and Company, of BiiW* 
bam, exhibit an interesting series of g*«*^"^ 
apparatus (4,892 a), contrived by Mr. Jj^ 
lace, applied to beating purposes ; the f"W»*j 
tion idea in the whole of which is an J^F*^ 
form of Bunsen burner. This burDer com» 
essentially of a brass tube, throwing ^']^^ff 
into a hemispherical chamber, into which *• 
drawn as well as gas by the expedient of lea«"| 
an opening, or break of c<mtinuity, in tl^g** 
tube, ensbeatbed only by a coveriBg w P**" 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IETY OP ARTS, Auoost 15, 1878. 



751 



metble safety-lamp wire-gauze, just before it 
enters the hemispherical chamber. Upon the 
well-knoven principle that jets of fluid, escaping 
under pressure from an orifice, travel on in 
their original direction of motion a certain 
distance betore they begin to disperse, the gas 
leaps across the open chasm, and enters the 
hemispherical chamber, dragging in with it a 
carrent of air through the wire-gauze sheath. 
The air and gas mix in the chamber, and then 
rise tbroa)(h a transverse internal diaphragm of 
wire-gaaze, to issue from a burner at the top. 
The flame produced under this arrangement 
ifl an emerald, amber-tipped cone, of very re- 
markable heating power. It gives a tempera- 
ture of 3,000^ Fahrenheit, and readily melts 
bnw, silver, gold, and copper. The burner is 
made with 1, 4, 12, 16, or 24 flames, according 
to the Qses to which it is to be applied, in one 
form exhibited, a furnace of 30 burners affords 
heat enough for generating steam in a horse 
wd a half power steam-boiler. Mr. Wallace 
shows in connection with this burner a very 
ingenioQs method of making a gas-stove regu- 
late its own heating power. An air-chamber of 
thin metal, when closed by an appropriate valve, 
wider the air expansion caused by further in- 
creaae of heat in the room, drives a column of 
mercury up a horse -shoe shaped tube, until it 
closes an inverted bell-mouth, througb which 
gas has been previously passing to supply the 
burners of the stove. When the bell-mouth 
IS closed, the stream of gas is arrested, and the 
burners are extinguished, excepting one small 
flame which is fed by an independent gas supply, 
and therefore endares. When the gas flames 
we exttnguished, the room begins to cool, the 
^ in the air-chamber contracts, the mercury 
^ back, the gas once more flows tbrough the 
beU-month to the burners, and tbe flames in the 
gM-8tove are relit from the one left burning for 
"le purpose. The apparatus is so sensitive that 
^e gas flames in the stove may be extinguished 
"J ^fwping the air-chamber with a warm hand. 
In the steam-boiler furnace the burner-tubes 
we longer, and the gas is thrown into the mixing 
chamber from 12 curved pipes, getting their 
?w snpply through open orifices around the 
wttom of the cbamber without an . wire-gauze 
ffotectioo. The burning gas acts upon the water 
n the t>oiler through a series of tubes, the heated 
ir and products of combustion being conveyed 
othe top of the apparatus, and then through an 
'Iter jacket to an escape below. One purpose 
which this steam-boiler is applied in labora- 
wy work is shown in a piece of apparatus 
^h enables it to maintain a hot-blast blow- 
<pe. The steam is thrown into the spiral tube 
f a condenser, dragging in with it a current 
f gM. The steam and gas go on together to 
reservoir below, where the condensed water 



collects at the bottom, and the gas is driven ou^ 
by the pressure established by the still incident 
steam, to be burned in a blow-pipe, which gives 
more or less air upon turning a cock armed with 
an excentric plate, so that either an oxidizing 
or reducing flame may be maintained. The 
apparatus has also a very ingenious regulator 
attached to it, by means of which the gas is shut 
off whenever increase of steam pressure in the 
boiler drives water more strongly upon a flexible 
india-rubber diaphragm, and in so doing lifts 
a plunger, or bolt, up into the gas way, so as to 
impede or intercept the stream. A spiral spring 
attached to the diaphragm allows an adjust- 
ment of the regulator to its work. The twelve- 
flame furnace is adapted by Mr. Wallace 
to a very convenient form of portable vapour- 
bath. 

Mr. T. Fletcher, of Warrington, also shows 
a gas-furnace (4,831) for the production of high 
temperatures. A mixture of air and gas is 
consumed in a series of 55 burners, placed 
under a conical chimney. The intensity of the 
heat produced is proportional to the height of 
the chimney placed over the burners. A 
colourless cone of flame, two inches high, acts 
upon suitable fire-clay vessels, and with 
chimneys varying from two feet to eight feet, 
melts gold, silver, or cast-iron, or gives white 
incandescence with silicious substances, in 
periods varying from 10 to 35 minutes. Mr. 
Fletcher has also a hot-blast blow-pipe, in which 
the air is blown by the mouth through a coiled 
tube that passes over three gas-flames, and 
issues from a blow-pipe aperture at the proper 
point of a fourth flame. 

Messrs. Fearnley and Son, of West Brompton, 
show in one of the engine-houses, in full opera- 
tion, their domestic gasmaking apparatus 
(4,830), which consists of an iron retort fixed 
over an ordinary kitchen-range, so that the gas 
is distilled while the usual processes of cook- 
ing are in progress. The retort holds forty 
pounds of coal, a charge which is exhausted in 
an hour and a-half, and yields IGO cubic feet of 
gas. The coke is then drawn and used for 
supporting the fire, and a fresh charge of coal is 
supplied to the retort. The gas issues from 
the top of the retort to the worm of a condenser, 
and through it to a petroleum chamber, and 
then passes on to a purifier, consisting of four 
perforated floors charged alternately with layers 
of lime and sawdust, and having found its way 
through these is conveyed to a reservoir of tho 
usual construction in the outer air capable of 
holding 2oU cubic feet of gas. < ne ton of coals 
gives 9,OuO cubic feet of gas. A second form 
of the apparatus is intended to be fixed indepen- 
dently in some out building for the generation 
of gas alone, and is calculated to supply it for 
domestic use at a cost of 28. 2d. per l,f^ 



762 



JOURNAL OP THB SOOIBTY QP ARTS, Aoauw 16, W78. 



feet. The price of the two fonuB of appamtua 
is respectively eighty and fifty guineaa. 

Mr. A. Common, of Soath-bank, Begent's- 
park, supplies soma ingenious apparatus for 
protecting water-pipes from injury by frost 
(4;,821}, in which the essential part is a closed 
hemispherical vessel of thin copper, filled with 
water, which changes its form, and protrudes its 
9at bottom when the contained water freeaes. 
In one piece of apparatus the protrusion presses 
in a steel spring and sets free a catch, so that a 
heavily- weigh ted arm falls, and in doing so 
turns off the cock at the water-main and opens 
a waste from the seridce pipes of the house. In 
another contrivance a pipe passes from the frost 
vessel, left in the outer air, through the wall to 
the lower part of the service-pipes of the house, 
and when the flat bottom of the vessel is pro- 
truded by frost it pushes a plunger through the 
pipe, and thrusts a closely -fitting valve off a 
filioulder, so that a drip is established from the 
house service-pipes through a waste opening. 
When the frost ceases the planger is drawn 
back by the tension of a spring, and the drip is 
stopped. A third form of the apparatus in 

Jrinciple resembles the first, but is intended to 
e fixed upon the supply outlet of a cistern, so 
that on the occurrence of frost the falling of the 
loaded arm closes the cock, and prevents any 
water from passing to the service -pipes, unless 
when the lever is drawn up by a cord. If the 
frost is still present the cock is again closed as 
soon as the cord is loosened, but if the frost is 
gone the catch comes once more into play, the 
arm of the lever is detained, and the cock left 
open. 

The British Telegraph Manufactory, of Great 
Portland-street, exhibit one of Wheatstjone's 
elegant magnetic clocks (4,8 1 2), driving six dials 
simultaneously by magneto-induced currents of 
electricity. The clock-train is moved by a very 
heavy weight, and has elastic spring contact-arms 
for the teeth of the escapement, to prevent the 
pressure of the weight from injuring this delicate 
part of the mechanism. The bob of the pendulum 
18 oomposed of hollow coils of copper wire, which 
swing to and fro over the poles of horse-shoe 
magnets. Every time this hollow bob passes 
from one pole to the opposite one a current of 
electricity is called up inductively in the coils, and 
flows off through the wire to the series of dials. 
The current induced is of an opposite nature at 
each side of the swing. In each dial an astatic 
permanent magnet, suspended on a pivot, and 
surrounded by a coil of the wire, feels each alter- 
nate impulse of the currents, and rotates on and 
on as its poles are impelled by the influence, 
giving motion to a train of wheel-work by a 
pinion attached to its own axis. The clock bae 
power enough to drive 70 dials, and as in the 
«:^hibition-oroom it drives only six^ a resistance 



coil, placed on the wire where it atarta fr«n the 
dock, affords due oompenaatioii for the lightaeM 
of its labour. Without this arraBgei&eiit the 
magnetic infliienoe secondarily called up in tbe 
coil would be strong enough to arr^t the aving 
of the pendulum- When the swing of the pen- 
dulum becomes unduly large, a bridling anange- 
ment is brought into play by the rod striking 
i^pon a screw, and pressing down into uae a fric- 
tion spring, placed on the frame raady to eati^ 
the enlarged vibration. Every two hours tke 
dock is capable of being regulated by the «laetnc 
influence of a standard dock, placed in commuu- 
cation with it at each dose of that intarvaL A 
magnet is made at the instant, which polk m. 
armature acting upon a series of levers, ao that 
if the clock is right a pin enters dear into aaot^ 
in the rim of a brass disc, and no compeasUum 
is effected; but if the dock is going at a blse 
rate, the pin ia drawn in upon the aloping vde 
of the notch, and either lifts or drops a aao^daiy 
pendulum attached to the prindpal one by a 
system of levers, so that the rate of the vihn^ 
is either made quicker or slower by rainag «r 
depressing the centre of gravity of the awin^if 
mass. 

The revolution-counter exhibited by the suae 
manufacturers has its gas-meter-like tiain of 
wheel-work driven by electric currents, indoocd 
in a coil of wire whenever an armature is dngged 
away from soft iron arms projaoting from the poles 
of permanent magnets. The induced cumfits 
act through temporarily -induced magneta focmed 
in other coils of the wire. The bell ap|MMtii« 
is rung by the production of electric comau 
in the same way, through the separataoo of an 
armature from magnets ; the temporary msgnct 
fonned by the currents withdraws a detent in tke 
bell apparatus, and allows clock- work to ring tke 
bell. 

Mr. Preece has sent to the Exhibition a oom- 
plete set of the apparatus (4,866) he onpbp 
for the '' block ** system of railway 8ig:aalling oa 
the South VN'estem line. The fundaaieBtal 
principle in this system is that trains on the 
same line are to be kept apart by a certain and 
un variable system of space, instead of by an aa- 
certain and unreliable interval of time. In Mr. 
Preece's method the signal which op«a« 
'* blocked " section of line is made by the si 
man at the advanced end where the sec(k» bes 
to be cleared, and no signal is held to be e&c- 
live and complete until it has been acknowMgad 
by the receiver, and "repeated" back to tibe 
sender. Mr. Preece also lays great stress upon 
the fact that the miniature apparatus whicb be 
employs in the signalman's room, and which m 
the apparatus that is shown in the Exhihitam, 
shall all have identically the same fom a» tht 
instruments used for displaying the eSatsti^^ 
signals on the line. The switeh in both instaiiocs 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIBTY OF AM*8, AtWB* 16, I6W. 



763 



» worked by tbe same moyement of the arm. 
In both mstaneea the hori^sontal red arm on the 
signal poet means the same thing. A strong 
fiid nniform association is thos established in.the 
mind of die signalman, which becomes almost an 
instinct, and is nerer confosed or disturbed in 
moments of emergency. It is also an important 
ptrt of the arrangements that the horizontal, or 
'* danger *' position of Uie semaphore arm is 
maintained by gr^vitj, and it b the dropping of 
the arm that is brought about by electrical 
action. If amy accident occurs to the electric 
wires, so that the tnmsmission of the currents is 
aneeted, all that can happen is that the danger 
dgiial remains resolutely and obstinately £s- 
pkfid, and that all tmffio is for tile time sus- 
pended. The efibct^e piule in the instruments 
are of e^ctreme simpHeity. In every instance, 
excepting one, the movement is effected by con- 
Tetiisg a core of soft iron into a magnet when an 
electric current is sent through a surrounding 
eoiL The semaphore-arm is dropped by an in- 
daced magnet pulling up its weighted end. The 
bell is rung by an an electro-magnet acting on the 
tertical elastic rod <^ its hammer. The semai- 
phore sends back a "repetition" signal for itself 
to tbe station from which it is worked, to show 
bow its arm is placed ; and it does this by turning 
on a current from one or other of two distinct 
bstteries by their negatlTe or positive pole as 
required. The current, as it rings the bell, acts 
en a permanent magnet, hung between the poles 
of the electro-magnet, so that the magnet is 
drawn to the right or to the left, as the " danger " 
or" an dear." signal is to be recorded. The 
best method of working the system requires three 
wires between the stations ; one wire to connect 
&e Mia and repetition signals of both stations, 
a second to connect the switch of one with the 
semaphore of the other, and a third to connect 
^ semaphore of that station with the switch of 
the other. The advantage of this is that the 
currents wbich effect the signals are maintained 
so long as these have to be displayed, ^d light- 
iking, electric clouds, and earth currents are 
pt>wetie8s to produce derangement. Each signal 
stBtM, unless it is a terminal one, needs a double 
set ef the four instruments ; namely, bell-key, 
beil md repetition signal, switch, and semaphore 
post. By a differently arranged apparatus one 
wire can be made to work all the signals ; but 
tte current is then a momentary and interrupted 
ottf and other expedients have to be brought 
into play for obviating the occurrence of disturb- 
ttce from lightning or earth currents. The bell 
feqr tarns on its electric current by pressing the 
iaA of a flat spring, which forms one pole of the 
battery, into contact with a metallic pin or 
rtltidard in communication with the other pole 
Mhe switch accomplishes the same thing when 
ifmg acn >a a a brass ate in one direction, but not 



when it is thrown fully back tbe other way. 
The brass arc, a little above the pivot of the 
switch' handle, it wiU be observed, is cut through. 
The pivot is in commuidcation with one pole of 
the battery, one half of the interrupted arc with 
the other pole, and the other half \dth the earth. 
The three binding screws of the switch accom- 
plish these three different communications. The 
largest semaphore instrument shown by Mr. 
Preece is an apparatus contrived tb warn a 
signalman when a signal lamp that is out of the 
range of direct observation is extinguished. A 
brass arc placed above the flame of the lam)) is 
expanded, and pushes up an elastic bar, so as to 
'' break contact " and interrupt an electric 
current ; when the lamp goes out, the arc cools 
and contracts, the bar settles back and reliews 
contact, and an electric current is turned on to 
the signal room, to make a temporary magnet 
there pull ov^r an index so as to show ** Ught 
out " on the face of the instrument. 

Mr. Harley, of Bamsbury, proposes to vi^ork 
the ** block system " of railway signalling by a 
single wire that shall have complete immunity 
from disturbance from lightning, electric 
clouds, or earth currents, and the apparatus 
which he employs, and which is shown by him 
in the Exhibition (4,842), is of an altogether 
novel construction in one particular. The 
needle which swings verticaUy on the dial is 
not a magnet It is a pointer of soft iron, sus- 
pended upon a centre pivot, carrying horizontally 
beneath the pivot a flat soft iron ring. The 
ring hangs a little way beneath the pivot by a 
rigid connection, and when horisontal keeps the 
pointer vertical by its weight A permanent 
horse-shoe magnet above directs its poles to- 
wards the flat edges of the ring, and, at the 
same time, the ring is invested by the coils of an 
electric-current conveying wire. When no 
current is traversing the coil the flat ring keeps 
horizontal, because it is pulled up equaUy both 
ways by the poles of the magnet, and is held 
back equally by its rigid attachment to the 
pivot. But when a current traverses the coH 
the flat ring becomes temporarily an induced 
magnet, and is pulled up on one side and pushed 
down on the other by the opposite poles of 
the permanent magnet, and the pcHUter,- at the 
same time, is consequently moved on the dial 
in the same direction. The signal-man whb 
sends a signal can turn on either a positive or 
a negative current by using one or other of two 
contact levers at discretion. As he turns on 
one or the other he makes the needle traverse 
to the right to signify " all clear," ot to the 
left to signify "stop" When the receiving 
signal-man is warned by a bell that a signal is 
coming, he presses a knob and so twitches the 
current, from the bell instrument to the signal 
instrument. In doing so he draws back twb 



764 



JOUBNAL OF THE BOOIETY OF ARTS, Aikiust 16, 1878. 



ivory pins which allow the needle pointer to 
traverse freely to either side; and when he 
releases the knob the pins start back and in- 
tercept the needle, and so fix it as a continned 
recoid. It is a distinctive attribute of this in- 
genious apparatus, due to the inventor of the 
soft iron ring and pointer, that extraneous 
magnetic force is absolutely powerless over its 
indications. While the apparatus is at work 
Mr. Harley flashes a powerful magnet about it, 
above, below, and around, in a way which 
would put the ordinary magnet-needle instru- 
ments of the needle-tdegrapti entirely out of 
the field, but without producing the slightest 
derangement in its signalling operations. 

Messrs. Oarr and Barlow, of Old Palace-yard, 
propose to dispense with the large staff of signal- 
men in working the block system, and to make 
the travelling engine which drags the train do 
their work. The arrangement by which they 
conceive that this may be effected is shown in a 
working modeL A signal instrument is placed 
on the enraie, where it is under the eye of the 
driver. When the engine enters upon a distinct 
segment of the railway, a trigger is pressed as its 
bottom passes a projection on the Ime, and this 
drops a screen on the signal instrument, and 
shows "stop,'* unless a preceding train has passed 
out from the other end of the segment, pressed 
down a lever there by its wheel, and turned on 
a backward current of electricity; then the 
current is communicated to the engine signal- 
instrument, at the same time that the trigger is 
pressed, by two curved metal springs on its 
bottom rubbing against corresponding metal 
plates on the line, and two screens are dropped on 
the instrument, one mechanically and one elec- 
iricallv, and " Go on," instead of " 8top," is dis- 
played. Midway of the block-segment a trans- 
mission instrument and galvanic battery are 
placed, the former on a low post near the line. 
Contacts are made, and electrical currents formed 
on this instrument by a very pretty contrivance. 
A kind of flat brass hammer falls into a wedge- 
shaped interval, separating two steel faces. 
When the hammer is down, the current passes 
from one steel face to the other through it ; when 
the hammer is up, the current is interrupted. 
As the engine passes abreast of the transmission 
instrument it presses a lever by its wheel, drops 
one hammer, and establishes a backward current, 
and lifts the other hammer to interrupt the 
current coming iu from the front. When the 
engine passes out at the far end of the block- 
jegment it drops again the second hammer, 
and re-establishes its current to give the signal 
" AU dear." 

Several different patents and methods for 
rendering stone and brick structures repellent of 
water are exhibited. AD of them are colourless 
enamels rather than paints, and do not affect the 



colour of the material Mr. J. Spiller's process 
(4,883) is the apj^cation of superphosphate, or 
arsenio -phosphate of lime. Limestone hy tbie 
preparation is coated with a Mad of bone eartk 
The cost of the solution is about 68. the gallon, 
covering something like 300 square feet of sur- 
face. Mr. Dent uses a solpitioD of oxalate of 
lime (4,826), but he also has a very ezcellest 
preparation of paraffine, dissolved in coal-tar 
naphtha, well suited for dressing too porous bricb. 
This solution costs 4 s. 6d. the gallon. 

The Indestructible Paint Company (4,847', 
and Mr. J. Murphy, of Penzance, ^ow bnil^g 
stone dressed with other kinds of solutioa, oif 
which the composition is not stated. Meam. 
Gay and Company exhibit a large skb of brid* 
work (4,833), which is rendered waterproof by 
a process tha lis more cosdy, but that eeems to 
be very perfect It can only be applied by their 
own skilled workmen, using artificial heati it » 
cost of 2s. 6d. per square yard. 

Mr. M. Neil Greig, of West Bromptoa, a- 
hibits a very excellent drain trap (4,83j)), tk 
deserves to oe extensively knovm. It is Bide 
of stout glazed earthenware, and bo pUaittd 
that a capacious and well-formed water-dMmba 
receives sewage refuse, and waste water, b; 
separate channels, and that tiie air-«pioe 
of the trap can be kept free of sewer-gis 
by a special ventilation. One of the piactial 
excellencies of the trap is a distinct man-bole, 
by which its interior is always readily aooetfibk 
in case of accidental stoppage. A small and 
simple form of trap is intended to replace tbf 
common bell-trap for sinks, yards, and areab. 

No. 4,^86 of the Catalogue alludes to a pro- 
cess (Sandford's) of deodorising sewage natw 
by means of charcoal, which is being cankdo«t 
by a company of which Major Gen, 8yag« " 
chairman. The principle of the process is w 
make dry carbon, in place of liquid water, tb« 
vehicle for the removal of excrement BoiW* 
ings are in process of erection beyond the «• 
nexes of the Exhibition to show the mecbanictl 
arrangements by which the purpose is accom- 
plished. The carbon employed is produwi 
from seaweed, by burning, at a cost of JKte. ti« 
ton. It absorbs ammoniacal gases from i^ 
fue^e, and is then distilled in close retorts, ^ 
becomes a sort of animal charcoal, which cibm 
used as the absorbent vehicle over agaia. *%* 
animal charcoal is worth £5 a ton, and ^^'^ 
of ammonia, acetate of lime, and tar tf* *^ 
manufactured from the product of the (frfl** 
tion. The company estimates the value <rf»« 
excrementitious waste of each iadividMl 
member of the body politic at 8s. 4d. per yett 
and undertakes to supply the chaniali •»» 
remove the sewnge accumulation at its own cost; 
and to do this for a town population of 20,W.^ 
at a cost of £2,630, and with a surplus profit ot 



JOtniNAL OF tHE 800IETY OV ARTS, Auoosr 15, liBTS. 



7SS 



t%tS90 ^ jtax^ ThehMMrtftgd^ the pr<K)«M 
ipoQ tlie v«ltod qnention of th« poBatioii of 
ivtfw is ohyidud. 

iMuikd tbe We^ Aiint»)ce ot th« Escbibitloii 
3lMei» M% in {Meew of dfeotkiti iti M(Mtki the 
tiH«At«.wt)ric iir Mft ^ ciMeiit mftd^ {)'om the 
itf^MitB effeoted in sewage by General Scotfs 
3roee88 (4,878), which consfsW in treating 
ievrsLge water with a certain definite admixture 
i€ lime and day, collecting and drying the 
l«po«it» and then burning it in a kiln. The 
3rgaiiio matters contMUed in the deposit serve 
the pfnrpose of fttel, and are entirely destrbyed 
by the bnmhig. The proportions of the clay 
aad lime are so arrangcfd as to gire the cement 
vahttMe hydraulic pfopertfes. With some pro». 
poitkms, and in some circumstances, a cemeKitf 
verjr neciiiy res^tnbling Portland cement is pro-* 
iaoed. The i^idual liquid, after the mixture 
with linM, appears to be inodorous and harnjlesar 
ht a eimilary sense. 

Professor Gustav Bischof, of Glasgow, illufe*. 
tiMee a plan he has devised for filtering water 
tiupengh spongy iron and pounded limestone 
(4>8il). The iron is placed in the upper 
moveable chamber of an earthenware filter, and 
pefrderetl limestone is arranged in a separate 
hcfcr below. The iron is procured in a powdery 
g fi ei ftg^ state by the reduction of an ore with- 
dot flision, after the extraction of sulphur and 
oo|iper by heat. It removes all albuminoid and 
nteogu nised compounds, and also lead cOntami^ 
from the water ; and a trace of iron 

up by the water ift separated by its sub» 
seqiuent passage through the limestone. One 
duffg^ of the material, costing one shilling, 
seeot^a efficient filtering for ten gallons of 

per day during 200 days. 

. Schafier and Budenberg, of Man- 
, have sent a series of steam-engine 
oes of very good construction, among 

the now somewhat generally known " Buss 
paMdo-static governor," in which the balls are 
depressed, instead of being lifted, by centrifugal 
action on rapid rotation. Each ball is placed on 
a pivoted atin, with a counterpoise which keeps 
ifc fiessed home towards the centre when at 
Upon rapid rotation the two balls fly 
, send the two weights are lifted, carry- 
with them the muff, l^e governor is 

eompact, the counterpoised ball being 

ted upon a comparatively short arm. Its 
claims for it the attributes that it 
k ■Bctlefr and lighter tiian any other governor 
ef the same sensibility and energy, and that it 
irttlMoltitely isochronous or even -paced, and has 
^e<cci bis explanations of its excellence in two 
^My elaborate papers, a German pamphlet and 
a ytench contribution to tiie Chrom'que de fin* 
of Brussels. In the steam gauge the 
of the stelun fixna the boQet. is dirown 



upon a oottugat^d ste^l jflste, Whi6h tttblh^a ^^ 
indicator by a series of levtttK after the fisfaioil 
of the aflietioiid barometer. In the hydhmSe 
gauge A curved steel tube is straightened br 
internal strain, and moves indicating levers. In 
the engine-counter hardened steel t^ectious OU 
the end of a lever work round a ten-toothed' 
wheel as the lever oscillates, and the whedl 
turns the next of the series one tooth by an 
entire revolution of its own. The vacuum 
gauge is a barometer in a strong glaes tube 
cover, which begins to record by a faU in its 
columns, when a pressure of one atmosphere is 
taken off the cistem. The " steam-trap " re- 
lieves any steam-heating apparatus of its con^ 
densed water by a jar-shaped floKft, sinking 
when the accumulating water overflows its lip, 
and by its fall opens a valve for the outflow 
of the condensed liquid. The patent pulley- 
block holds the rope fast by the pressure of a 
weighted lever, until the weight is lifted off from 
its clip by pulling upon a cord fastened to the 
outer end of the arm. 

Messrs. £. J. Hill and LaCtimer Clat): again 
exhibit their boat-lowering apparatus (4,»46), 
which was shown in the Exhibition of last year, 
on account of improvements which they have 
recently made in its mechanism. They have 
now added a safety catch to the ingeniously- 
formed hook, which frees it for casting loose the 
boat, when this is within a few inches of being 
water-borne, by a cord that is fixed to the ship 
above, turning it over as soon as it is taut. A 
side loop has also been placed upon the ring, 
which enables the boat to be cast loose at will by 
a sudden jeric from the hand. There is, besides 
these important improvements, a neW arrange- 
ment for keeping the two ropes of the falls 
mechanically wedded together as they pass 
round between three pulleys in a single conically- 
shaped groove. When one rope is lowered away 
the other n ns out, pari passu, with it, although 
left loose, and so keeps an even keel on the boat, 
or the holding fast upon one fall checks both. 

Mr. Gumpel, of Leicester-square, shows a 
boat-lowering apparatus (4,«3 < ), in which a ring, 
passed into the slip of a forked holdfast, is 
caught by the point of a hook turning in beneath 
it. When the weight of the boat is on the ring, 
the hook cannot be drawn back sideways from 
beneath it without a very violent exertion of 
force. When the boat is water-borne, the book 
slips away under the slightest strain, such as 
might be given by the drag of the boat when 
afloat upon a cord fixed from the ship. 

Dt. Nicholas, of Wandsworth (4,860, shows 
how a boat may be turned out from a ship's side 
upon a hinged fhnne, and deposited Ipose upon 
the water. 

Mr. Audenon, of Oateriiam, has contrived a 
n6W fbrm of prupeUer (4,804) for stcan^-ship^, 



756 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Atouit 15, 1878. 



wbicli IB about to be applied to a steam launch. 
It is a kind of spade-shaped paddle, which is 
dug round in the water by a crank, and feathered 
wiUi the back stroke bv the expedient of passing 
the square, but spiraily-tumed shank of the 
paddle through a collar, supported in gimbals. 
The' feathering of either paddle can be altered 
without stopping the machinery, so that the 
steering of the vessel may be assisted, or the 
paddles may both be made to back water. Mr. 
Anderson idso exhibits the model of an equili- 
brium cabin (4,804), in which the cabin remains 
steady by its own weight, while the ship rolls as 
an unsteady floor beneath it. The cabin traverses 
by rollers upon semi-circular rails bellowed down 
into the hull of the vessel. 

Mr. Wright, of Bermondsey, shows the model 
of a life-boat (4,892), which rights itself in an 
instant if capsized, with its masts and sails set, 
in virtue of its own buoyancy, and empties out 
any water it may have received. The method 
by which this is accomplished is not explained. 

Mr. Ooryton, Essex-court, Temple, contri- 
butes a brass model of his very interesting form 
of anchor (4,822) in which the cable drags the 
broad flukes into their holding ground by a 
shackle placed between them, the grip of the 
anchor increasing with the strain, but in which 
the hold is immediately released when the pull 
is vertically up. Mr. Uory ton has also a curious 
pair of models (4,822) to illustrate his idea of the 
best form for a vessel, to confer upon it buoyancy 
and speed. He considers that the bow end of the 
vessel should be a vertical wedge, and the stem 
a horizontal wedge. This, of course produces a 
very nove shape. Messrs. Redsdale and Co., 
of the Minories, show a form of ship's port, in 
which the port can be wholly or half opened, or 
in case of need, securely closed, by powerful 
clipping screws driving home a circular flange 
into an india-rubber packed groove. A reversi- 
ble deck light of the same exhibitors is capable 
of being turned upon a circumferential pivot, so 
as to present either a dead light or an open 
ventilator to the deck, as may be required. 
Their "pillar telegraph," for night signalling 
from the bridge of a steamer to the steersman, 
is a bright lanthom, which can be shown white, 
green, or red by moving a handle, to intimate 
"steady," "starboard," or "port." The Rev. Mr. 
Eilner's elastic riding gear is a sliding block 
carrying the shackle of a ship's cable, and pulling 
against 20 india-rubber rings, with metal rings 
intervening between each pair, to give elasticity 
and to absorb sudden strain. Mr. Kilner's grab- 
link is a lever that holds a boat's chain, by a 
horse shoe dip pressing upon one link, until a 
lashing is cast loose. Gaptam Hans Busk's 
model of a steam life-ship (4,814) is based upon 
the plan of two longitudinal air pontoons carry- 
ing a sliding keel that can be raised or dropped 



between. Mr. Mackie's very elegant modd 
(4,851) of what, has been catalogued as a 
'* proposed Channel steamer," is really a dengn 
for a sea-going ship of large dimenai(»i8, b^ 
throughout of cellular iron beams, having iti 
paddles enclosed in internal water-waya lying 
between the main foundation beams, and fmiak* 
ing a saloon space 300 feet long, 60 wide, aad 
12 feet high. 

Among the suggestions for the applicadon o( 

science to purposes of domestic service, theie 

are a few notable objects. Mr. ^^ehber, of 

Chelsea, illustrates, by a dravnng (4,888), a 

plan for inserting terra-cotta tubes into chimneT- 

flues, so that while the smoke and hot-air pis 

through the tubes, vacant air-spaces arouodtliaD 

may receive cold fresh air through the oita 

waUs, and pass it in when heated tbrongli met 

walls, to carry its acquired warmth to tieio- 

terior of rooms. Messrs. Posser and RiunII, d 

Dorset-street, have a reversible fire-gme o( 

very good construction, in which coals cia be 

placed upon a live fire, and the grate be tki 

turned over for the fire to be brought to tb 

top, so that the fuel may be burned frontk 

top downwards, upon Dr. Amott's princiiik,k 

securing slow and steady combustioQ. Mx. 

Looker, of Kingston, has conslxucted fire-clftT 

tiles (4,^s50), suited to ordinary forma of gntei 

and so shaped as to secure freedom of snrke 

combustion and ready radiation with Bmill ea- 

sumption of fuel. Mr. Meaken, of Baker-itMC 

has added to the convenient form of poUey- 

moved window sash, exhibited last year, a c<»> 

trivance for readily attaching fiwh saih-liaa 

(4,855). A metal casting drops into a groove 

in the side of the sasb -frame, and ii ix^ 

there by a pin, which can be A*** 

out in front to release the casting. He akoa* 

hibits a very good kind of door-handle, vlucb 

spontaneously adjusts itself to right warki^ 

position in the act of fixing, in consequence o* 

conical collars attached at each end of »< 

spindle being carried in conical sockets or roee 

plates. 

Mr. Zimdars, of Red Lion-equwe, h« im- 
proved the fixture arrangements of his pn«niDatK 
bells exhibited last year (4,893) by addi^* 
metal socket, which is to be permanently fiw 
in walls for the reception of the air-capaola i»- 
ceiving the pressure of the finger-knob, w "» 
the capsule can be immediately renewed at •» 
He has also some improvements fordroppii^^ 
tell-tale, where air- tubes fi^m different dM»W* 

converge upon one bell. ^. 

Mr. Harvey's bottle-washing apparatus (JiStt) 

is a series of iron frames, carrying pairs of bowei 
meeting each other neck and neck, so tiiMi^ 
bottles can be shaken round, each end up sw'j 
nately, with a chaige of water and fi«g""^^ 
calcareous spar, the cleaning chaigo being vb 



JOUBNAL OP THE 800IBTY OF ARTS, Auoust 15, 1873. 



767 



passed from an upper to a lower bottle by turning 
m intervening cock. 

Mr. Read's twin bottling apparatus (4,869) is 
I doable-headed tap, by which the stream of 
)eer or wine issuing from a cask can be shunted 
rem one bottle to another without arresting the 
stream or rendering the liquid turbid by the 
hock incident to frequent opening and closing of 
he tap. The bisulphite of lime spray injector 
)y the same inventor is an apparatus for injecting 
Lhe spray of a solution of bisulphite of lime into 
a empty inverted bottle, and allowing all but the 
infinitesimal portion clinging about the glass to 
rnn back. The bottle then retains the exact 
ixed quantity that is required to check injurious 
fermentation in beer, and to prevent it from 
becoming turbid or tart As small a proportion 
IS tho two hundred-thousandth part of the beer 
treated by the preservative is sufficient for secu- 
ing the desired result Mr. Maclean's smooth- 
ng irons (4,85J) are kept hot when in use by gas 
>Qmer8 delivering the flame downwardSv in the 
nterior upon the ironing plate. Two flexible 
ubes supply gas and air to the interior cavity 
)f each iron. Mr. Sopwith's monocleid cabinet 
4,811) has all its closets and drawers opened 
vhen the central flap is unfastened and turned 
town; curved brass bars are drawn out by the act 
rom catches at the back of the drawers. One 
»f the closets holds a series of keys presumed to 
>elong to safes, or other extraneous depositaries, 
nd cannot be dosed unless all the keys are in 
heir proper places. Mr. Shirley's mechanical 
»t (4,879) is an infant's cot swinging upon up- 
ight rods, one of which is kept in vibration by 
A india-rubber crank worked by a train of dock 
vork. Messrs. Hammersley and Volk's " Volta 
F'ot^lia " (4,839) is a mechanical contrivance for 
^ming the leaves of a music-book by spring 
K>wer. when a knob is pressed to rdease each 
successive member of a train of brass arms. 

Mr. Chester, of Croydon, exhibits an excellent 
rate -fastening in the form of a bolt, which 
8 thrown in upon a spiral spring, as its end 
omes upon a sloping striking plate, until it 
caches the centre, when it is shot into a slot, 
rom which it has to be drawn back by the hand 
vhen the gate is to be opened. Mr. Hughes' 
arden roUer (4,846) is a small inner cvlinder 
ravelling round upon circular concave ridges in 
be interior of the large external roller. The 
bject is to make the roller more easy to move. 
Ir. Kieshug's railway warmer (4,849) is an iron 
r copper case for the carriage floor, canning in- 
ide cakes of burning charcod, and suppUed with 
ir to fan and sustain the combustion by tubes 
aasing through the carriage floor. Mr. Grif- 
tb*0 railway lamp, a form manufactured by 
[essrs. Clement, of Birmingham, and at the pro- 
mt time under trial on the Oreat Western line, 
a naphtha lamp with brilliant eombustion pro- 



duced by a cone of glass fitting upon the dome of 
the burner, and by a metd upcast chiumey above. 
An annular reflector above the flame throws a 
bright light through the glass cone. Rosa's mining 
lamps (4,871), contributed from Liege, have a 
strong glatss cylinder continued upwards into a 
round sheath of safety gauze. An internal 
chimney hangs over the flame, and a transverse 
diaphragm of safety gaoze connects the top of 
the glass with the internd chimney. The air 
passes in outside the centrd chimney, through 
the transverse layer of metal gauze, and escapes 
from the top of the inner chimney through the 
outer gauze. In Mr. Barton's filter respirators 
(4,808) air is to be breathed through a cylindricd 
mouth-piece containing flannel, cotton-wool, gly- 
cerine, and charcod or lime. An dr- tight con- 
tact between the mask and the face is very in- 
geniously made by india-rubber tubes filled with 
water. The larger form of apparatus is a bag 
for pure air, to be carried over the shoulders 
in actually irrespirabie atmospheres, and it 
carries enough air for from 20 to dO minutes' 
service. Mr. Bateson's vermin asphyxiator 
(4,b09) is an iron combustion chamber, in which 
paper saturated with sulphur can be burned, so 
that the fumes may be distributed into any dosed 
spaces by the revolutions of a fly-whed throwing 
a current from the chamber through a flexible 
tube. Mr. Schucht's equileverage key (4,877) 
is a key for pianoforte or organ, in which the 
finger produces the same mechanicd effect at 
all parts of its length. A short equd armed 
lever, lodged out of sight beneath, receives the 
impress of a pin fixed under the visible key at 
its inner end, and rises at the other end, in obe- 
dience to the impress, to strike up the hammer* 
The iron channd way of Messrs. Mowlem 
and Go. (4,858), shows an uninjured segment 
of iron plate that has been laid in the traffic 
of the Surrey dde of London Bridge, by the 
side of granite blocks that have been worn and 
crushed out of shape, in the same situation, in 
half the time. The steel-blade disc and fluted 
rollers of Messrs. Baker and Sons, of Bristol 
(4,622) show the most essentid parts of the 
machinery used for manfacturing flour by the 
Bucholtz system. The husk is scraped away 
from the grain by the rapid rotation of discs, 
made of projecting blades of thin steel packed 
dtematdy with layers of pasteboard, and the 
decorticated grain is then cut into "semolina 
grains," and ground into fine flour, by being 
passed between fluted steel rollers revolving at 
different rates of speed. The flour manu- 
factured by the process is absolutely free from 
a ferment known as cerealine, which exerts an 
injurious influence upon bread ; and the profit 
realised by the system of manufacture is much 
larger than by the old millstone method. Mr. 
Dennis's sentinel whisUe (4,825) (mly sounds 



'58 



JOUHNMi OF IHB SOCIETY OT ABl'8, Acotwr 16, liffS. 



^en 0^ ptHMte at mmm uiahMet te stiffly 
dtnUf $ttmg 16 dfl¥diij^ i^ 8|ArAA sptteg; and 
open tM otltfet fbf ifi^ ifteMii tb thtf Mmnding 
disc. Mn Ohedg^B pMtp (4^,817); ii«' lined 
bj a smootii cMtfil^ of gUu^ ta^ adloW Msid 
liqaids to b^ opetntM ujikMi by at piston 
of hard wood. Mesers. Brewet aiid Jansen's 
contlnnons treadle motion wfthouf a crank is 
given hy two long arms, worked by a tt«adle, 
pulling ronnd two dmms by tbe intervention of 
straps. The arms work altetttately, winding np 
otie drum as the other is tin^otind, and the drum 
bites upon the axis, by an internal rachet, only 
when its motion is iti one direction. Messrs. 
Kent's ironing machine is an elastic horse- 
hair roller moved by A hand-winch itgkinst a 
metallic plate kept hot by a row ofgta burners 
beneath. Lietrt. Col. Clfty's turning took 
(4,820) are massive instruments for heavy iron 
work, kept cool when under strain by streams 
of water thrown through theif substance from 
elastic tubes, and delivered close np to their cut- 
ting edges. Mr. Snowdon's screw-cutting appa* 
ratus is a compact piece of machinery that 
enables bolts and screws of iton or brass to be 
fashioned and cut undet a vertical drill, as one or 
othef kind of tool is btonght into operation by 
shifting appropHate levers. Mr. Sand's ordinary 
road sttom cartiage (4,876) travels upon broad 
rollers that have neither spokes nor aides, but 
carry the steam piston and coimecting cog 
Wlieels in their interior, in their place. The 
rollers are driven ronnd by the cogged wheels 
acting upon toothed bands fixed upon their inner 
surface. The furnace ttnd bofler U^ between the 
pair of rollers. The idea is mainly that of a huge 
steam-driven chronometer put to locomotive 
work by turning the otiter i*im at its own case 
by its train of wheels. Mr. Clay's drawing of a 
tramway steam-carriage (4,818) suggests the 
communication of the motive po\^er to a broad 
india-rubber shod driving wheel in front through 
bevelled gearing. Mr. Webster's railway 
switches fix the switched segments by thHisting 
stout wooden plugs between the iron rails, the 
plugs being inserted and drawn by the same 
movement that works the switches. Bum and 
Son's, and Mr. P. Williams' railway crossings aim 
at improving the contaci; of the fkcings of rail- 
way points, Of superseding them altogether by 
making the metid lines continuous. 

Mr. Ramsbottom's ifaodel shows how the 
Liverpool Lime-street Rdlway Tunnel is 
ventilated by a stettm-driveti revolving fly-wheel, 
exhausting its iltterior, and throwing the ex- 
hausted air up a cyclopeian chimney-shaft. 
Mr. F. Claxton Pilder's rigid suspension- 
bridge has at elfrch side ^spensioti chains of 
two rigid built-up rib^lMks, pivt)ted only at 
the centfti and endi^ of the bridge, and hitvhlg 
the top flange of ^ach Ikk flat, and forming I 



a- tiHigent tb the pMbolie emrfe oTtSibloiref 
flange of the link in communieati<tt niih it i( 
the centra of the stmcture. The modd of Mr. 
Dank's revdving pudAi«(; itmwoe i^jm) 
sbowtf the at¥Bng€ikient of ^e Bteatn-dHvfli 
reVolrttg ptiddlittg chamber, with the ftmm 
closely faced to it at one nde, and die floe, 
outlets, and feeding ap e rt um at tbe other. Ths 
mohien iron ie puddled by the chamber beinf 
revolted eight involutions in a nunute, and a 
then Withdrawn in lumps to be sabjeeted to 
the mckihanical action of a squeescfr, ind to b^ 
left by it fit for rolling off mto bar. OoloDff 
Sir* Andrew Clarke's model of tbe fMsz 
Bermuda Dock (4,818) shows how the dock is 
lifted with its incarcerated load by pompiiit 
out the water from between the hollow ad«of 
the strttcture through the influence of dfit 
powerful steam-engines. Mr. Anderson* m^ 
indicAtor (4,804) is a handy instruiDent, ft*. 
trived for ascertaining the distance of ftatiit? 
objec^ts at sea by sighting them throngl) 9^ 
carried by an horirontal arm, of which one hit 
a vertical graduated sKding-scale resd off bri 
vernier, to express tbe distance on comprow 
with a duly prepared table. Lieut -Col Msi*?* 
son's military tent (4,853) is a very cotitwwtf 
form of canvas pyramid, upheld by « eentR- 
pole and ctoss raflere, and furnished with adoct- 
canopy, and charming little window poncb 
The simple mod^ of attaching the cartffloi k 
lacing cordage-points through rinw, is trtrtb 
of note. Lieut. Abtiey's papyrotype iBnstotioff 
(4,802) are pictures rolled off by a preo &w» 
papef photographs prepafiried by a piwesB fdki 
he i* engaged in perfectbg, and then twv^ 
in a ^echd way With greasy ink. " 'fhe ^' 
watrant of Charles L" shows how the ^ 
graplac picture may be transferred to sUwefcr 
the press-printing, if this method of proceeda: 
is preferred to printing from the paper. Xt. 
Wigzell's drawing-board (4,890) fixes ita^F 
by pressing its edges, when moist, into groovt?. 
through the instrumentality of metal rods ii^ 
button-like clips. Mr. Rnsseirs bi-centith 
lineal (4,874) is a kind of pentagrtfA apP; 
ratus, enabling perspective lines to be tr*** 
mechanically upon papef. M. Adolph Pe*!^ 
shows (4,864) how rudimentary arlthmetk* 
taught in the GK)vertiment schools of Bep* 
by addhlg vertf(JtfI rods to the old few '"* 
abactis. So that the ascending orders of m***' 
tion may be illustrated to the eye hf}^ 
Dr. Qatdner'af perpetual ahnanac and <*««*"J 
(4,852) is a printed card, with a «^ 
adjustible fllip, in wMch the fhndamental m^ 
the consideration that the reladon dj^ 
months to the weeks in any year is rukd bf 
the day of the week upon which tlw J^ 
begins. Appropriate tabl^e fbrmsh the v^ 
of adjttstih^ ^d utfttg tbe cdeidar. The rm 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABT8. Auodst 15, 1878. 



750 



3d book of M. Kiethe, of Berlin (4,861) explains 
be BVBtem on wbiob the correspondence 
f cyphers and words are used for the 
urposes of telegraphy by the Chancery 
f the German Empire. Captain Hans 
nsk's model of the planet Mars (4,814) 
resents very elegantly at a glance the dis- 
ibution of land and water on Ibis planet, 
I a form which boldly suggests the fact 
itt Mars is a world with some dearth of 
ater, a limited allowance of air, an over- 
bundance of dry land, and clear atmosphere 
t will be observed that the oceans are sinuous, 
Dd form sprawling mediterranean seas, rather 
ban broad, rounded basins, like the leading 
ceaoB of the earth. 

There are only three foreign exhibitors in the 
lepanment of scientific inventions this year. 
[*wo Belgians exhibit, one mining lamps, and 
be other school apparatus. One German ex- 
ibitor contributes an illustration of the State 
ypher code for telegraphs. 

At the time of the preparation of this report 
lere were some articles named in Division 3, 
lass 14, of the Official Catalogue, which had 
ot yet appeared at the Exhibition. 



INTERKATIONAL EXHIBITION FOR 1874. 

The following are the regulations for ezhibitinff 
CAnofactartsa, with the Raw Produce, Machinery, and 
hHJcMes employed: — 

DiTutos II. — Clabsbs 8 TO 13. — (Mamufaotubbs.) 
{Rtti4$ extracted from the Directory), 

In 1874, BiTision II of the Exhibition will conaiit of 
xe f<dlowiii^ Clafleoa : — 

Clus 8—LHCe (Hand and Machine made). 

CUm 9~Civil Engineering, Architectural and Build- 
Dg ContriTUDces : — a. Civil Engineering, Architectural 
iid Bnildiiig Contriyanoee. b, Sanitary Apparatus and 
^^^^Dttrncttona. c. Cement and rUster Work, &c 

ClaM 10— Heating by all Methods and Kinda of Fuel. 

Clnat U— Leather, including Sadlery and Hameas. — 
• Leather, and Manufiu^tures of Leather, b, Sadlery, 
larnesB, &c. 

Chm 12->Bookbinding. 

CUas 13>- Foreign Winea, in the Vaults of the Boyal 
Ibert Hall. 

Tender Division 11. (Manufactures) will be exhibited 
sleeted tpecimens of the finished manuiacture, as well 
R the fmw material of the fabric in its different stages 
f prodaction, and the machinery and processes em- 
loyed in its manu&cture. 

All industrial objects submitted for exhibition should 
i HibitHl to such specimens as are necessary to show 
fe msnufKcture and patterns in a satisfactory manner. 
mero duplicates can be admitted ; the same design 
1 1 fabric may, however, be shown with different com- 
nations of colours. 

With the view of increasing the educational value of 
« Exhibition, by chronidiog the progress of manufao- 
tret. Her Maiesty's Commissioners wUl reserve certain 
«C44 in the Industrial Division for special collections 
sndent works. 

In the CMse of industrial productions, the special 
uoos ((*uch as excellence, novelty, cheapness, &c.) why 
ia exhibited, should be stated, and, whenever possible, 
e average retail price at which it can be bought 



Exhibitors of machinery must construct all necessary 
foundations, and provide their own driving-belts and 
driving-pulleys, which are to be in halves, and bored to 
the proper diameter of the main shafting; aa notified to 
them by her Majeaty's Commissioners. Ihey must also 
supply and erect, at their own expense, any counter- 
shafting (including the necessary foundations^ which 
they may consider requisite to increase or reduce the 
speed to suit their own particular machines. 

In order that exhibitors of machinery may recoup the 
cost of the operations illustrated, they will be permitted 
to sell to visitors such results of the operations as are 
actually manufactured within the Exhioition building, 
on condition of the payment of a moderate royalty, based 
upon a head monev ^yment on the total number of 
visitors to the Exhioition. 

The following information should be supplied, with the 
form of preliminary application (No. 10), by proposing 
exhibitors of machinery (Form No. lOa) : — a. A plan oi 
each machine, showing the position of driven-pulleya, 
the^ minimum space required for attendants, and indi- 
cating the parts of the machine which should be placed 
most prominently for inspection by the public. An ele- 
vation would also be of use, if it could to supplied with- 
out inconvenience, b, A plan and section of the foun- 
dations required, e. The weight of the machine, d. 
The amount of motive power, in actual horse-power, 
required from main shafting, e. Should water, steam, 
or gas be required, all necessary information as to the 
quantities of the requisite supplies, which must be paid 
for by the exhibitor. 

E]diibitor8 must make their own connections for gas, 
water, and steam. They must also provide and attach 
meters of snfllcient capacity to measure the quantities 
of gas or water which they consume, and for which they 
must pay monthly to her Majesty's Commissioners, at 
the rates actually charged at the time by the Companies. 

The latest days appointed for receiving the different 
classes of goods are as follows : — ^Tuesday, 10th February, 
Sptcimens of ancient lace. Monday, 17th, Claaa 10. 
Heating by all Methods. Wednesday, 4th March, 
Machineiy of all Classes. Thursday, 6tb, Class 9. Civil 
Engineering, Architectural and Building Contrivances. 
Friday, 6th, Class 11, Leather, Saddlery, and Harness. 
Saturday, 7th, Class 12, Bookbinding. Tuesday, 
17th, Class 8, Machine-made and Modem Lace. 
Foreign Wines (Class 13) must be deUvered punctually 
on the days which will be announced hereafter. 

Exhibitors in Class 9 who may wish to show new 
methods of oonstruction in actual operation during the 
Exhibition, will (with the Committee's approval^ be 
allotted space in the West Annexe, wherein to build or 
to erect their plant, &c., in view of the visitors to the 
Exhibition. 

Applications to submit objects pronosed for Exhibi- 
tion to the official Committees of Selection, should be 
made on the Form of Preliminary Application (No. 10), 
which can be obtained at the Offices, 6, Upper Kensing- 
ton-gore, London, S.W.), and should be forwarded ta 
the Secretary before the 1st January, 1874. 

DrvisiON IIL — Class 14. — Rbcxiit Scuxtifg Invsn- 

TIONS AITD DlfiOOVBanS OF ALL KiNDS. 

{Bulet extracted from the Director^,) 

Division in., Recent Scientific Inventions and [Dis- 
coveries, will consist of objects the excellence and 
novelty of which are considered by the Committee of 
Selection to be so great as to render it undesirable that 
their introduction U> the public should be delayed until 
the proper year for the exhibition* of their Classes of 
Manufacture in Division II. 

No objects will be admitted into Division IIL which 
have been shown in previous International Exhibitions 
of this series, unless very important alterations or im- 
provements have been added to them since the date of 
Uieir previous exhibition. 



r 760 



JOUBKAL OF THE SOOIBTY OF ARTS, Aootjsr 16, 1878, 



ij J ■ 



To asBiBt the Committee of Selection in judging of 
the qualiflcationfi for admission of any invention sub- 
mitted for exhibitton in Division III., it is desirable that 
the Form of Preliminary Application (No. 10) should 
be acoomxMuued by a statement of the inventor's special 
claims to novelty and ezcellenoe, and (if possible) by the 
written opinion of some scientific gentleman ot repnte 
who has practically examined the invention. 

The Act of Pariiament for the Protection of In- 
ventions exhibited at the Annaal International Exhi- 
bitions is entitled " The Protection of Inventors' Act, 
1870/' 38 & 84 Yiot, cap. 27, and dated 14th July, 
1870. 

The latest day appointed for reoeiving objects in this 
Division is Wednesday, 11th March, 1874. 

Applications to sabmit objects proposed for exhibition 
to the official Committees of Selection, should be made 
on the Form of Preliminary Application fNo. 10), 
Which oan be obtained at the offices, d, Upper Kensing- 
ton-gore, London, S.W., and should be fbrwarded to the 
Secretary before the Ist of January, 1874. 



The number of visitors admitted to ^e Exhibition 
during the week ending Saturday, August 2nd, was as 
follows: — Season ticketa, 722; on paymoit, 18,888; 
total, 19,605. 



ii4H^ 



Mk 



sxHiBtTiona 



The PrinoipaUtj of Koaaoo at the Yianna XzhiU- 
tkMi. — Although the soiallest of European monarchies, 
the prindpalwjr of Monaco is better represented at 
the Vienna Exhibition than many a larger oountry. 
A boildiDg in the Pompeian style oocupies the oen^ 
of a garden tastefully laid out, and planted with spe- 
cimens ef the Flora of Monaco. Amongst a fine oolleo- 
tion of flowers the irises and Japanese lilies, now in full 
Uoom, deserve espeoialpndse. The pepper-tree, with its 
graceful foliage, toe aloes, the cypress, the olive, orange, 
lemons, and a number of odonferons plants, give the 
garden quite a tropical diaraoter. Foremost amongst 
the industries of Monaco is the manufacture of per- 
fumery ; and the speeimens from the laboratory of Monte 
Carlo are espeoially worthy of mention. The "Eau 
de Cologne " manufactured at this establishment is in 
every respect equal in quality to that distilled in the 
city from which it takes its name. Omliia, a liqueur 
which is reported to possess rare hygienic qualities, is also 
a speciality of this place, and is said to have been used in 
the hospitals during the late Frmco-G^rman war in 
preference to any other tonic remedy. A fine collection 
of polteiy is also exhibited, and is remarkable for the 
delicacy of form and ridmeaa of colour. The specimens 
of cabinet work are excellent, and made firom native 
wood, sudi as olive, cypress, &o. Amongst the other pro- 
ductions of this country exhibited are ouve oil, wine, &o. 



The movement of passengers in steamers through 
the Suez Canal appears to be steadily increasing. In 1872, 
the number of persons who went through the canal in this 
manner was 67t640 ; in 1871, the corresponding total was only 
48,421 ; and in 1870, 26,758. 

Among the novel manufactures lately introduced 
into Japan are those of paper hats, to imitate felt ones, and 
paper ** slates " for schoolboys. 

The yearly production of maple sugar in the 
United States, its territories, and the British possessions, 
mav be fairly considered as amounting to 60,000,000 pounds, 
with molasses to the amount of 50,000,000 gallons. 

It id stated ihesb the South-Eastem Railway 
Conpan^r are willing to use peat instead of coal in their 
sngtnes if thef were ahle to obtain it at 8s. per ton, ex- 
clusive of carnage from the bog. 



SOME NOTES OK THE HHKRA ?CBRIi 

By F. L. ithiiitffiiai, 

Considering that the Society of Aits vnM 
Silver Medal nearly 60 years ago to Oiptain C^ 
director of the Bast India Company, for the introi 
of this nettle fibre, the slow pngrm it hu 
commerce is somewhat strai^ge. The 6<r 
and officials of India, the authoriti« and boi 
many of our Colonies, and various fordg&Qo 
have dene much to difftue tnfonndtioo and rtini 
inquiry. The recent public notice from the lodii 
that they are prepared to supply gre<n itau 
plant for those who desire to experiment npoo 
affords a fitting opportunity fbr publUdng a fef 
looted notes on tlie plant 

In 1854, the late Dr. Forbes Boyle prepai^d a 
circular on tihe Bheea fibres of AsMun, which vu 
and extensively circulated by the Governor 
India. In 1860, in his elabotate paper hrm^ 
the Society of Arts " On the chief fiWyieMdV 
of India," {Journal, VoL vii., p. 48), Dr. I ' 
Watson also drew attention to the Bheeas, 
that the fibres of Urliea nivea and other phati i 
nettle species will occupy a place second oshto 
of flax. 

Although it has beoBakmg tine taUngitiM 
commeroe, owing to the mechanical difficoltw^ 
have hitherto stood in the way of the preparatMa 
fibre on an extensive scale, there can be little do<^ 
the.Rheea nettle fibre, which has passed pcBoUilT 
under liie misnomer of China ^rass, will ere louf )«» 
of great importance and of widely-extended pr>i«^ 
like jute fibre and alpaca wool, there is a p»atop3=i 
for it, and the India Board are doingliieir W to*^ 
late inventive experiments as to the beat ai^ ^"^ 
mode of stripping the fibre chea{>ly on n esto^ 
scale. A great deal of scattered informstiaii hii >* 
published of late years about these plants, htrtchi«£5 ' 
the Continent,* and as the Society of Ajti tai » 
been zealous and energetic in this directioiu ^ ^ 
afforded many opportunities for the diaciuBoo a ^ 
subject of fibrous materials, it may be deaiiaftj * 
attention to what has been written and P"^?^^ 
concentrate some of the scattered iB^™*^T!l 
benefit of tiiOae who are interested in the matttf"*^ 
and in our colonies. 

When we consider that it is nearly a quaiier rfJ««J 
tury ago that attention was prominently ^'^^ 
fabrics and specimens, to the beauty and viloe of »« 
nettie fibres, at the first International ExhihtMa 
London in 1851, it is somewhat strange t^.*J? 
comparative progress has yet been madeinthiidiiw^ 
I drew public attention to this ChinA graii, o* ^ 
article soon after in the MerthtaiU *V'="*^J?vJ 
subsequently written on it frequently in the 1W»V 
and other publications of my own. ^ 

Although there are various spedes of w*Jf!^ 
seem to yield in the East strong and xaM iWj^j 
that most generally employed and widely diBW*"^ 
apparently the Boehmeria nivea, which *PP**tj 
known as rheea in Assam, pan in Burmah, raisin* 






• I may enumerate the followtng works and r*!*" Jf 23 

La Raml^ ott Ortle Blanche sans dards, Sa. ru"^ 
Moerman. 113 pi>. Oand : 1871. 

Description et culture de I'Ortie de la Ckint, 
notice SOT les dlvcrset plantM qui portent oe w»ni| ^^ ^ 
leur Introduction en Europe. Far RaOMMi de la 94^ 
Paris. IH70. ^__^ ■» 

Du Traltement lodnatrld des pUotH fi}aMBtM» 
Masse. 84pp. P»rts. 1864. , __^ 

Nr>men.lature Usoell • de 550 Fibres TexUJei, ''^yj)i 
kors sges,Ac. Par Profeawr Bernardla. PP*^-, 

The FlbrouB PUnts of India. By 0». Fort* *^P* ^ 
374. London : 1856. •.ujadlt 

Culture et Emploi de I'OrUe de la Ch?iie. P«r «*■ "^ 
16 pp. journal de rAgrlflnlture dw Pap CbU4t. 
1865. 







JOURNAJj.OF TB& iOQlETY QW AH1»» Amusr 15, IS7S. 



761 



vi^' n^vsr caJooe in Soouitrft and Qhinft, Mttd Ohn- 

. ^. MioaiAno and Xiemaout consider ^. nivta and 
^ j_. t^ as two diatinGt apecies, while Dr. Boyle, 
■IT .^^ Qthecfl class them as the same, the J9. fHv«a 
iw f!!!!VP^ Araot. Dr. Blnzoe is inclined to think 
'?> Q»rM|fi«M is obtained in the islands of Simda, by 

^* fliMfSe transplanting to the mountains m^ pro- 
^* via jfobost plant, which loses the white colour 
^^ itr^)£sTen as in China, where ih»y have a dis- 
1 r L_ 1 « TArietjr, and a variety yrown ia the plains, 
wing the example of Weddell in his Hono- 
Urtiew, should assign to one single species 
^Q»hmeria nwea^ uiiiit^ eandieant, t^ftactstima, 
be better to adopt, as a specific name utiiis, 
ioh better expresses their economic value 
textile importance. 

yince of Su-chuen, in China, a large oom- 

ied on in this China grass cloth, known as 

summer doth, which is made from several 

or fibre, but chiefly from that of Uriica 

The fibre of this pi rnt, which grows 

furnishes a pearly white thre^. of great 

Is used to make light tissues, bed curUins, 

pocket handkerchiefs, sacks for grains, 






hemmi 



r 

mi 

If 
k 



'i^\ 



Irl 



B 

ie 

>it 

fwr 

5fntf 
fed 

HtfH 

nis 

as 



«l 



rwr- 



limit of the plant appears to be about 
and Japan, its southern limit betweep 9^ 
ip. the Moluccas. 

le ma-wo of Siebold) it is found in the 

but is not common, nor does it form a 

of culture ; for it does not seem to be men- 

)ot travellers. Kaempfer, Thunberg, and 

m its use, but principally for cordage. 

where the climate is less extreme than 

continent at the avno I ititude, tho plant 

utilised, as in China, for fabrics, under the 

Jhi-pei (Siebold, torn, v., p. 34.J In 

not extend beyond Hoang-Qo, for in the 

fi/baa Toung and Tchi-Li, the textile plant 

*,is Corchorua capsularia, the jute of Bengi^l, 

The nettle (tchou-ma) is found arrowing 

in the island of Chusan, according to 

^owan, and N. Rondot ; at Kingpo. and at 

>rding to LeUncher, but apparently the 

by botanists utilis, 

Itivated, but chiefly in the provinces of the 

empire as houpe. according to Blakiston, 

of the Yang-Tse-kiang ; in Su-chuen, 

Bertrand enumerates two varieties under 

i-ma, and chau-ma, or hemp of the 

he mountains; in Koue-Tcheou (Fortune 

^ in Yunnan, where, according to M. Chan* 

koown by the generic name of yuen-ma, 

two varieties, the black, or tsing-py-ma, 

*, or houang-py-ma, and here the produc- 

plant is extensive. The yarn and thread 

^ai^/Mr.~RiUDphlafl, H^rb. Amboio. (I7a0), ▼. p. 2U, 

— Linnarf, Hortos Cllflrjrtianus (1737), p. 441 ; Jac- 

<n(lobnn«fnt{a( 1770), fig ISS; Loureiro, Flor. Cochin 

•SJ ; Thoabenr, Plor Japon ( 1784 ), p. 71, fig 33; F. L. 

rn, OMorvaz. fltolog. ( 1 78S). p. 40, Ag. 7 ; lilanco Flora 

•--Ofmdiohaiid, Voy. de VUnale, part Bot (1826), p. 

— Boxbnrgh, Flor. Indioa (1832), 111 690; Wight, 

India (1840-42), U. p. 688; Blume, Museum Botan. 
V- 21S, fl !. 66. 

fcwM —Blame, Bydr. tot. de Flor. v. Nederl. Indie. 
i03. Boekmeria candicimi-VLtakMU Gat. Bot. p. 



ij3' 



Fits. 



ia) •!&#.— Kluaie, do Indlsche bIJ. (Leydeo, 1853), 

M^wo.— Hooker et Amoit, Bot. voy. Be<Hdiey, 214 : 

. . Dtl of Bfltony (1861), Hi p. 317 ; Weddell, Moong det 

l»*M), p. 381, pi. II flg 10-17; MiqaeLPlanta Junghuh- 

h P' 31 : Miqael, Flor. Indix Batava (1868), i., 2nd |p*rt, 

) rappt prtiram. ; Prod. Flont Somatmue (ISSl), p. 



obtaixud hete anpply the ohisir tovns of t)^e littonl, 
where it is not grown. The manufacture of Uie ^rass 
clotii fi^brios is a special industry, in which the Chmese 
azo^l, and tha pcodnots attnict the admiration of all 
foreigners. 

In Coohin China this nettle is found represented by 
two plants, which Loureiro and G. Aubaret in their 
works distinguish nnder different names ; the former 
oaUs them cay-gai and pa-ma, and the latter ohe-ma and 
hac-ma. It grows wild, and has not yet been subjected 
U> culture, and is only used for llshing nets. 

Dr. 0x1^ states Uie plant to be indigenous to Singpi- 
pore, and Finlayson tha4i it is cultivated in Penang. 
Ck>lonel Barney obtained specimens in 1836 in the Shan 
provinces of Burmah. 

In the Chinese province of Yunnan, to the west of 
the Indo-Chinese mountains, we find it in Assam, 
under the nao^ of rheea> and in Northern Bengal, in 
the provinces of Dinajhpoor and Bun^hpoor, under 
the local name of kunkhoora. It is cultivated there in 
gardens, and furnishes the thread with which the fisher- 
men msike their nets and cordage to moor their boats. 
(Buchanan's papei^ II., p. 845.) In the Eastern Archi- 
pelago thn plant is widely spread, and there appear to 
be several varieties^ The fibre Ib generally known 
under tho Malay name of thn plaxbt, ramie. It is only 
used for making rope aiid fishing-nets. At Java it is 
cultivated on a small scale, but it is only in Sumati^a that 
it is extensively grown on the borders of the large rivers. 
1 he native name is caloee, according to Karsden, and 
kloni or goni, according to Miquel. The fibre obtained 
is sent to Batavia, made up into bundles of twine, from 
which the Javanese make their nets. It is alao found 
in the Moluccas, passing under the name of inau at 
Amboyna ; and in Celebes, called gamki ; at M a ca ssa r , 
in the Philippines, where, according to Father Blanco, it 
U common ia the northern part of Luzon and the 
Batan islands, Gaudichand found it under the name of 
sidjiafi, at Guam. (Journal de TAgriculture des Pays 
Chauds, 1867. p. 201.) When we perceive how wide- 
spread is this useful plant, it is evident that lar^ sup- 
plies of the fibre could be obtained with the aid of a 
suitable machine. 

The plant is properly speaking a firntescent or sufiruti- 
cose shrub— that is, the stem at nrst is soft or herbaceous ^ 
and afterwards becomes woody, or half-woody, half-her- 
baceous. The natural habit of the plant is to throw up a 
number of strong shoots annually from the root, of 8 or 
10 feet in height, producing a nnmber of racemes, or 
bunches of flower and seeds, not unlike the black or red 
currant. When these shoots are more than one year 
old, and the bark or cuticle of a dark colour, they are 
then too old, and unfit for producing good fibre. The 
fibre has arrived at full perfection as soon as the 
stem is observed to turn dark or brown spotted about 6 
or 8 inches next to the root At this stage of growth 
the bark is readily stripped from the stem and cleaned, 
or if dried with the cuticle on it, could be sent to be pro- 
perly cleaned by efficient machinery. 

Its magnificent length and strength, exceeding, with 
few exceptions, ever)' other fibre, together with its pecu- 
liar beauties and qualities, adapt it tor for more valuable 
employment than was once suggested, to enter into com- 
petition with coarse-stapled cottons, or at least to scarcely 
fill a place capable of being filled by fibres of half the 
cost. Tow^s its preparation for those more suitable 
and valuable useSi many attempts have been made with 
mediocre success. It appears generally to have baffled 
all efforts, either to completely separate it into its cells, 
or to retain in these the length and strength which they 
naturally possess. 

Some five or six years Ago, Messrs. Mallart and Bon- 
neau, of lille, operated upon th^ fibre^ by cutting it into 
lengths of about two inoheS) and treating it with oil and 
alkalies, to work up as a cotton Bubftitnte. TheoeUtof 
the fibre Are from 3 to 18 inches lon^, and bear a stijipxig 
similarity, when not too cfoeely viewed, io some Ipng- 



762 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Auodot 15, 1873. 



stapled hairs and wool; about eqoal to mediam and 
fine mohair. 

M. de la Blanchere, Jan., in the 7th volame of the 
'* Bulletin of the Society of Acclimatisation/' Paris, 
shows hj quotations from Virgil's '* G^eoigics," and other 
authors, that the natiye country of this nettle is Laos, 
and that this must be the silky substance spoken of, 
which was thence carried through Thibet to China. 

The late M. Bamon de lar Sagra, in a communication 
to the Paris Acclimatisation Society, in 1869, drew 
attention to the fine plants which were growing in the 
Bois du Vat, Nice, and various other localities of the 
country, raised from seeds distributed by the Society, 
from which three cuttings a year could be obtained 
He pointed out Corsica as well fitted for its culture and 
preparation, as there M. Dupre had chemical works and 
machines ready for its preparation. This new and im- 
portant industi^, it was stated, was specially suited for 
France, which imported annually 64 millions of pounds 
of textile materials, far less valuable than this nettle 
fibre. 

For fineness, colour, strength, and easy production, 
the fibre cannot be surpassed. In tropical cultivation 
this plant has a wider range than any other, and has 
been even successfully grown in the temperate regions of 
Europe and America. In Jamaica, attention has been 
g^ven to its propagation now for several years, and the 

Ct bids fair to vie with the rankest weeds, for it will 
cutting down several times in the year. This luxu- 
riance of growth, combined with its easy reproduction, the 
colour and strength of its fibre, and its very high price, 
are advantages seldom to be met with. 

Thanks to the efforts of Father Voisin, who was the 
first to promulgate the idea of acclimatising the plnnt in 
Europe, and to the communications of MM. Guillemin, 
Chauveau, Stanislas Julien, Dabry, Father Bertrand, 
and other members of the Paris Society of Acclimatisa- 
tion, the plant has succeeded perfectly well in France, 
and may now be considered naturalised. 

Its importance led the Society to (>ffer a prize of £20 
for the industriid use of its fibres, and those occupying 
themselves with this question have only to imitate the 
Chinese, who obtain from it tissues as fine as cambric. 

The Colonial botanist who reports on the experimental 
culture at Jamaica, states that the weight of the unpre- 
pared dry fibre, taken from a measured portion, was at 
the rate of 300 pounds per acre at each cutting, of which 
five are yieldea annually there, making thus an aggre- 
gate of about three-quarters of a ton per acre per annum, 
or about 10 cwt. of prepared fibre per acre. 

This plant, he observes, as in other countries, will 
be found to thrive best where there is considerable 
moisture, either in soil or climate, and particularly at the 
foot of hills, and in ravines and gullies, where showers 
are frequent and the land well drained. In more dry 
localities, manure well decomposed must be resorted to, 
to secure rapid and perpetual growth. When cultivated 
in a field of any extent, I would recommend the plants 
to be planted in rows of 4 feet apart, and 18 inches or 2 
feet in the row. This would be found a distance suffi- 
cient for the development of the plant and production of 
good fibre. The second year the plants would cover the 
surface and keep down the weeds. The quantity of 
fibre per acre produced in the East is stated to be 12 
mannds, or 984 lbs., and this, too, it must be borne in 
mind, without the application of science in tilling the 
ground. Indeed, the plant seems to grow so fremy as 
to be within the scope of any one's ability to grow it 
to perfection. 

Although the fibre of this plant is the strongest aUd 
most valuable known, from the peculiar growing 
character of the stem, it has hitherto been found im- 
possible to separate it f^m the skin in the same manner 
as fiax, hemp, and jute, Ac., by water-retting. It is 
therefore necessary that the outer bark of the stem 
while in a green state ahould be scraped away fhto the 
underlying fibre. By this means its great strength. 



silky lustre, and whitenesB srs preserved. (Ambici! 
steeping injures the strength snd bnlhancy of the film. 
The Indian Government have been rery mn^ 
in endeavouring to stimulate mechanical enterpdie id 
invention in tms direction. A few yean ajgo ther 
offered a reward of £5,000 for a machine «hi(£ vou 
clean the stems at a cost of £15 per ton, so as toesiik 
the prepared fibre to be sold in the Enropeta mM 
at £50 per ton. Some machines were sabmitted, bit 
there is still much to be done to render them exteodvdf 
and practically usefial. One of the most promising tad 
appeared to be that of Messrs. D. and J. Grag, filii- 
burgh. Its principle ma^ be thus ezpUined>-l 
quantity of the stnms are laid on an endleas trnrelHii 
web, or feed-table, by which they enter the madoiMti^ 
tween a series of fluted iron rollers, which brak ^ 
inside cores in short pieces and flatten the gnes^ 
where the fibre lies underneath an oata coitiogo( 
tenacious mucilaginous vegetable substanoe. I&tna 
to clean the stems by mecluinical process, Umj mdU 
scraped by knives having a rapid drcuUr mc/Ui,id 
while being scraped the skins must be firmljUi h 
consequence of the scrapers rotating, and tk vSm 
which hold them being circular, there mnitbe»|iito 
of the length of the stems left untouched, n^fma^ 
the distance between the centres of the scnjiig ^ 
ders and the centres of the gripping roUen. HffC 
consists the novelty of this invention. The 8»ifl«i« 
as they pass'down are cleaned, and immediittl^^BJ 
by a simple contrivance between a pair of eU*««»^ 
rollers, whence they are thrown out on the 4«&«7 
web. The moment the cnishing-roller8lrtgotifi» 
portion or thick ends of the stalks {seTcn ioAa * 
which are still to scrape), the latter are ihrwwndotBg 
the momentum given to them by the upper •^jj 
cylinders and by their own weight) between umjB 
pair of scraping cylinders, which complete the Ji^JJ 
of the whole length of the stalks, and this ii dow •» 
the fibre is still held firm and travelling oat of Ike * 
chine by the delivery web. 

Mr. Fortune, in his " Three Years* Wasdiri^ 
China," observes that, «* There is a specici «f t J** 
(nettle), both wild and cultivated, which ff^^*^ 
three or four feet in height, and produces a «rwj« 
in the bark, which is prepared by the natini ■» «J 
for the purpose of making ropes or cwbl**." !»"■ 
allusion by Mr. Fortune to a fibre prepared fan ^^, 
cies of the nettle tribe is interesting in snother f»« 
view, because it assists in confirming an opto ^ 
pressed by Dr. Roxburgh more than 40 yens P'*:]^^!^ 
which opinion was based on information w** , 5S 
a friend, a resident in Canton, that the f*m «»** 
China is made from the same plant that yiddi th* W 
called ralooe by Marsden, in his *' History of Saof>v 
Now this calooe is also made from a shriiN)! 'P'*^ 
nettle, to which Dr. Roxburgh has gxten the iiw 
name of tenadstima, because of the great strength «■ 
fibre, the strongest indeed, with one «wp<»^^ 
the vegetable fibres (European hemp indadcd), ««* 
subjected to experiment. And while he thus ^^ 
ness to the strength of the fibre, he speab i*^ 
favourably of its beauty, softness, and ^"j^^ 
fuund, however, some difficulty in prepari ng it>*' y| 
obliged to adopt a different process tothMt reaj^JT 
by Maraden. The plant was first introdnorf «•?■ 
Botanic Garden at Calcutta by Mr. Ewer, «*^ 
vemor of Bencoolen, of which place it is •'•*'*^ 
it is likewise found in all parts of the M«lsy*ft*^ 
pelago. So readily does the plant grow there "» *p 
Roxburgh was enabled in one year to re«r »m"^ 
from the four received from Dr. Ewer. ?***yf^ 
readily cultivated as the willow from cuttinifs, »rej~ 
up numerous shor>ts as they are cut down ^^^ 
of their bark, which may be done three ^J^J^^ 
fi^e) times every year, if the soU is «^. "^ 
taken of the plants. Dr. Roxburrii obtoiBrf s n^m 
supply of these phmts from a friend at Pmsiig.'W^^ 



JOURNAL OP THE BOOlETt OP ARTS, August 15, 1873. 



763 




I known by the name of nmie. The Milays, he ob- 
erf«i, use the bark for sewing thread and twine, and 
br mtking flihing nets, "but the qoantitf is so small 
hai thej require for these purposes, that they have not 
■d reoonrse to any partioalar mode of stripping or 
iMOfling it; they merely steep the shoots in water for 
10 or 12 dMjB, and then pull off the bark and dry it in 
Im ran. I bare heard that the thread is injured by salt 
nter, but I do not think that the aooount I hare had of 
bs oiroamstanoe is to be depended on, and oertainly, 
bo the nature of the plant, the fiusility with which it 
ypMrf it may be cultivated to any extent, the great 
ta)(th of the fibre, and the threatened scarcity of ropes 
br the me of the navy, it is worth while making ex- 
its on it'* Colonel Low, in his <* Dissertation on 
tnd Province Wellesley," published 30 years 
I ibore remarks were penned, alludes to the same 
(int, lad by the same name (ra-me ra-me), as yielding 
sntofbemp, and used for the same purposes; and he 
QbNrrathatit might be easily manufiftctured into the 
lisB vUoh in China is called grass cloth. ** The 
Qtew here (he adds) call the pUnt cho, and allege 
lak it is the same as that which grows in China, where 
limed for making the cloth just mentioned.'* 
lb. Crawford, in his ** History of the Indian Archi- 
pMgo," fpeaks of the same plant : — '*The Ramie (JRamium 
npi, Raophias) is a species of Urtiea, or nettle, 
fVtmff to the heii^ht of five or six feet. This plant is 
Mirywhere an object of culture, for from the bark of 
■Mem is obtained the material of an excellent cord>ige, 
111 by the Indian ifdanders for almost everv purpose 
ITvhich wfl use hemp, but particularly for the manu* 
Vsre of fishing* nets. It is very generally recognised 

V one name {RamU) throughout the Archipelago." — 
JW.l,p.442.) 

ifte same description of nettle is indigenous to the 
pPpp ines, as we learn from a work in the Spanish 
MVM{e, compiled by Father Biinnel Blanco, and pub- 
Ikd at Hanilla, under the tiUe of* Flora do Filipinas." 
Ai the writer likewise alludes to the circumstance of 
■ipla&t being supposed to be the same that jrields the 
gjHiioth of China, I think it as well to give the fol- 
■itt translation from his work : — 
^Ibis pUnt is common in th'j northern part of the 
■Mf Iasou, and in the Batan isUnds, attaining the 
■Jm of one yard or more. Tb tt prepared bark is spun 
■Mtbssd and woven into cloth. From it is made, it is 
■j»thsestebrated linens of Canton. Of this I have 
** •■tted by many persons. But when in the north 
2«M Isind of Ilocos, I learnt respecting the doth of 
gf^ Islands that it is made from a plant named 
jy * f^puit. As I have oftoi noticed a singular 
Mnopscted coincidence in the names of plants, ev«n 

V iSBote eoontries, I was led to suspect that the plant 
for the above-named fabric must be the napmtt, 

also Impuit^ and not the Urtiea nivea ( U, Unaeis' 
^ttbnrgfa). It remains for further investigation 
this doubt,'* 

; AUto appears that the plant grows abundantly 
^■1 Shan States. Colonel Bumey, when resi- 
y.O Av a, sent a quantity of the fibre to the Agri- 
P^J|Bl^ral Society of Calcutta, and mentioned that 
Pflhos used this material in manufacturing every 
PJJ»of cordage, and weaving a stout kind of cloth, 
Pwh they make bags. It is called Pan by these 
*lia This information has since been fully confirmed 
a traveller in that country, Mr. Sanders, who met 
in ontimely death in the neighbourhood of Zim- 
That gentleman stated tha^ though the Shans 
» several other fibre-yielding plants, they neglect 
ntirely in favour of this particular one, which, 
^mqoence of its great strength, they employ 
Isver^ purpose. He moreover mentions that it can 
^1 IS frequently, converted by them into the finest 
thread, and for other domestic uses. If the plant 
indigenous to the Tenasserim Provinces, its in- 
there from the Shan States is well worthy of 




attention. That it is common to Assam (where it is 
known as the J?A«m) we have the atithority of Major 
Jenkiiis, who communicated the circumstance many 
years affo to the Agri- Horticultural Society of Calcutta, 
and forwarded the speoimens at the same time. From 
that ofiloer's letter, published in the third vol. of the 
^ Transactions " of that Society, I find that it requires 
a very limited degree of cultivation in that provinoe> 
where it occupies highlands of little or no value. But 
coming more to the westward and nearer the Bengal Pre- 
sidency, we learn from Buchanan's " Statistics of Dinaje- 
pore," that this nettle is cultivated in that district, 
where the bark is used to make a kind of hemp for 
fishermen's nets, and, being one of the strongest materials 
that oan be procured, it is also uned in making rope for 
tracking boats. Buchanan adds that the native name is 
Koonkkwoy and that he has not seen it anjrwhere else 
except in this district; bnt Boxbnrgh states that it is 
also cultivated in Runp^pore, where it goes by the same 
name ; from which it is not improbable that the plant 
is to be met with in Other parts of the northern and 
eastern districts of Bengal. Assuming therefore this 
nettle to be the plant yielding the fibre from which the 
China grass-doth is nunnfaotured, it will be observed 
that we have in our Eastern poss ess ions the means of 
providing the raw material verv lar^ly for export, 
should there be any great demana for it on the part of 
English manufacturers. 



THE RESOURCES OF PERSIA. 

The remarks made by Consul-General Jones, the 
British representative at Tabreee, possess especial interest 
at the present moment, under the circumstances <Mf the 
reoent visit of the Shah, and the attempted development 
of the resouroes of Persia. During the Crimean war the 
East, in a great degree, engaged the attention of Europe ; 
and when peace was re-established between Russia and 
the Porte, many European houses, chiefly Greek, had 
already made arrangements to take part in the Persian 
trade. At the present time, British conmierce is repre- 
sented there by three firms, having their head-quarters 
at blanohester. The chiefs of these houses are naturalised 
British subjects; their agents and $mploy4t in Persia 
have invariably been foreigners, for the most part Greeks 
or G^ermans. Obstacles and drawbacks have continually 
occurred to impede the development of European trade 
in this countiy. Those which were apparently insur- 
mountable, and which no forethought could guard 
against, were the successive failures of the silk crops in 
Ghilan from 1863 up to the present time ; the increased 
price of cotton goods, consequent on the civil war in the 
United States ; and the visitations of cholera and famine 
which have so frequently devastated the country, bnt 
more especially during the last three years. It is at all 
times diifficult to obtain even an approximate estimate of 
the real value of the Persian trade, from the fbllowing 
causes: — ^The natural disinclination of those who fiarm the 
customs revenues to publish the annual amount of their 
gains; the practice of keeping count merely of the 
number of horse-loads of each article entered, without 
stating the intrinsic or declared value of the same ; and 
the extended oontrabtmd trade which is carried on with 
the adjacent provinces of Russia and Turkey. It appears 
that, as early as the year 1849, Mr. Consul Stevens called 
the attention of the Manchester Commercial Association 
to the inferior quality of the British cotton goods ex- 
ported to Persia, and represented that unless the manufac- 
turers discontinued supplying such, British prints would 
gradually fall into <Usu»e, and be superseded by the 
fabrics of the country. Since this complaint was made 
the quality of these fabrics has in no way improved, and 
the same causes are still in force to produce inferior 
articles ; cheapness is above all the charaoteristio which 
finds fiivour with Persian customers, and to this the y a re 
prepared to sacrifice every other consideration. With 



7M 



JOfJKSAL OF THB 800IBTY OP iiBTS, Anom 15, 1873. 



V8savd ^^ Aspoiii of PeniaB piodiiote, tliBve oaa bo iM 
doiAt that, wUa imptwrod meaas of tmsport; a Tory 
eztepfiTO tiwlo might bo earned oq. At the ptMont 
time, owing to the expense of oarriage, the oeighboofing 
proviaoee of Turkey and Umm offer the ooljoaUet 
▼here the pvoduoe of the OQuntry aaa be .prfffitaUy 
diapneed of. Aocording to the retarne of the Caetoin- 
hooee at Tabrees. silk, tobaooo, ehairli, earpets, dried 
leatiier, galla, safflover, tallow, orpiment, wax, and 
dried frmta form the ehief exporta to Tuvkey. To 
Georgia are lent Britieh caUfioea» dyed in Peisia» carpeta, 
silks, drugs and dyes, fox and martin skina, dried firmto, 
and whateTer ooiton is produosd in the provinoe; 
besides which a ooosiderable tnffic is oarried on in 
horses, sheep, and bUok cattle by the wandering tribes 
in the frontier. The chief cause of the inelastic natore 
of the Persian trade is, ondombtedly, the want of staple 
exports. On this aoooont the heavy balanoe against 
Persia most be piid in speoie, and the country Ib thos 
becoming rapidly dsained of aaoney in ey^ry form. The 
d i s t an c es to be trayersed are so gre>it, and the mode of 
transport so tardy and expensiye, that, with the excep- 
tion of silk, few Persian prodaots can be profitably placed 
in European markets. It is only in the neighbourhood 
of the chief towns, or the caravan road, that the peasantry 
g^w more com than is absolutely necessary for their 
own consumption ; and itnot uafosquently happens that, 
in exceptionally fruitful seasons, the proprietor only 
reaps what he requires for the wants of his household, 
and allows his cattle to feed on the remainder, as he can 
find no market for the surplus crops. What is even of 
higher necessity in this arid land, so frequently devastated 
by lamine succeeding drought, is a more copious water 
BB^lj, and a more economical system of irrigation. 
The teaveller in Persia sees on all sides the remains of 
the canals which formerly irrigated the land, once so 
fertile and well peopled, now ao ban en and desolate. 
The restoration of these water-courses would speedily 
change the face of the country, as, wherever water is 
present in Persia, the soil, apparently so sterile, becomes 
all at once covered with the most exuberant vegetation. 

To increase the foreign trade of this country it is first 
of all necessary that the welfare and prosperity of the 
pec^de should be attended to, and no measure would be 
succeeded by more immediately profitable results than 
the matter of irrigation. The Persian, like the Arab, is 
by nature a trader, and from the earliest times this 
dass has been held in high honour in the Eaat, and 
favonred with many privileges. The shifty and tricky 
character which the native trader bears seems more 
cha r acteristic of the resident Turk than of the real Per- 
sian ; neither, however, have been slow to learn from 
the example of Europeans — many hoUiog high and 
res^nsible positions m the country — how to defraud 
their creditors with impunity. Bad fnith and venality 
so pervade all classes of Government officials, that mer- 
ohimts would rather forfeit their claims than seek the 
assistance of the local authorities to enforce them. Both 
these causes tend to check enterprise on the part of the 
European merchants, few of whom extend the ^here of 
their operations beyond Tabreez, where they confine 
themselves to the wholesitle sale of the goods they im- 
port, receiving the value in specie or in sUk £rom the 
Oaspian proviooes. No European trader is to be found 
except in those cities where a consul resides, namely, 
Tabrees, Tehran, Besbt, and Bushire. All Persians 
concerned in the advanoement of their country have to 
struggle against the opposition of a bigoted, interested, 
and powerful faction. Whether it be the improvement 
0^ the currency, the importation of grain, or the intro- 
duction of European capital for local improvements, it is 
sure to meet with the organised opposition of a certain 
class, supported generally by the priesthood, who foresee 
t^t the coBtempUted measures will curtail indirectly 
thair peculations for the future. The prospects of the 
coimtry at present were hopeful. The chie& of the 
pMMsnt adminiatration, warned by the terrible mortality 



whii^ foUowai thiee contioatifB mm of imm mk 
paatileooe, haye at leagth famed tibr sttsntinn inmk 
iiEMoying the naana of oomimniratiMi betvsaa tU 
different psovineas of the kixifiaai, and proridisf i 
more abundant supply of wnim. Casting isde tbi 
tioaid and jealooa pc^dioea which haiehitkflrtDflbh' 
raeterised every measore ftnanating from the ?ttm 
Ooart, they have accepted the saaitaTice of EonpNt 
capitalists, and oonaanlsd to aQow thi fioontij to b 
aeryed by the hands of st>rangerp. 



!itt- II law 



ITT' 



OBITUAEY. 



-rr 



8ir Francis Bonalds.— The death of Sir Fnodi 
Eonalds, at Battle, in Suasex, has just besuanax&nd. 
If not the finit inventor, he must at least be iliovedtt 
credit of having been one of the eariieit to pti a 
electric telegraim into actual operation, for in 1S1$ k 
had in his garden near London some ei^ht miktofwa 
suspended on poles, through which a current mM k 
sent so as to signal by means of pith tall i w y ai* ^ 
before a figured dial-plate. It was, hovetv. oiy 
frictional eleotriciW which he employad. tbe ^ 
tension of which of course presented confldenUiiS* 
culties in the working ; and it was not till tk iit* 
ooveries of Oersted, Faraday, and othert, witliiqpiiti 
galvanic electricity and its infiuenoe upon tbe oapM 
needle were brought out, that Cooke and Wketttot 
were able to dovelope the electric tele^ph into ioa> 
mercial undertaking. It was in 1870 that SirFnoei 
was made a knight, a similar honour harinig beffi 
previously conferred on Sir Wm. F. Coobe mi Sir 
Charles Wheatstone. Sir F. Ronalds sopenntoM 
for A short time the Meteorological Obafcrv«t<«y»lK*w 
on behalf of the British Association, and tlu Garsi* 
ment conferred upon him a small pension for ttssariM 
to science. liately be was engaged in prepanDg &^ 
logue of the published books and papers on mira^ 
science. It is understood that by his death tke ^ 
Society, of which he was a Fellow, will «► i^ 
possession of the finest colloetion of electncsln^ ° 
England, as he some time aince expressed bis i^aom 
of leaving his books to that institution. Stfaadl 
waa in his 80lh year when h^ died. 



mm II 



Ikf^VKAAJs VOTia 



eity Oompaaias and Ednoatton.— The SM ^ 
ChronicUw ioformed that the Fishmangere' sad mm^T 
other City Companies are considering the qusitiao « o^ 

sufOB of money to the London School BiMid, •^J'JJ 
found soholaranifs in connection with the B(«rd mdW' 

Krapp's Steel Works.— The celebrated itee! «*' 
Krapp, of Eds^n, in Rhenish Pnisria, have iMiiT^ 

•k from fire, and some id«a o( iMr ^^, 



insured against risk from fire, and some 
tanoe nuy be formed, when it is stated that thsy «««»' 
for a value of not less than 6^561,330 thakts (^** 
million sterling). ThLi, of coucse, only fsp rs ss ift g*^ 
of that part of his works that would be liable '»**J^ 
does not iodade the foundry, or value of ^'^U 
teleirraphs, and stores of metal. The polidss aitpa ^ 
12 different Qerman insuxunoe companies. 

PiH^er from Hops.— A discovery has besn <b*^J? 
the Garden^ by a French firm of paper msnnfi i rtnm *!*** 
seems likely to intorMt Eaglish hop-«owBr». A t w J 
general assembly of French papsr-maksfs, M^. J^'^J 
Parizot, and Ousseo submitted some samples of •n«*'2 
fabric, namely, the sheath of the hop-stalk. By '^'•f'J 



this outer skin, and subjecting it to a certain chi«iflFt 

,,. , «%"»P^f2!Ll* 

deUcacy of texturs^has been pcodoesd. Thsiawa*" "" 



i.aiB onier «Kin, ana suojeoiing w to ■ oBri»iu ^"^TTiw 
cess, a textile substance p<»ssesiinr <l«**i*>** '"^.TS 
rags so valoable in papsr-makinf-4eiigth, sapplsstft ^ 

odoesd. xl 



been patented. 



JOOBHAI. OiP TBB 8001 BTT 07 ABT8, Acans* S2^ 187il. 



76ff 



mmi OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

Ko. 1,083. ' Vob XXL 



FMDAT, AUGUST 23, 1873. 






iJBOVMC: 



:•» i:i 



r» BT THS 



enmAL vumaATimn. 

Ac Programme for next year ia in preparation, 
•d will shortly be published. The subjects wiU 
Main the same as at the last Exaounation^ 

Vith reference to the suggestions made at the 
^•fepenoe, the Council have decided as follows : — 

t They d^ not see sufficient reason for restoring 
li ffobject of Latin. 

1 The rule which prevents a candidate who has 
m ohtained a first-dass certificate in a subject 
M being again examined in that subject with 
ikw to gaining a prize, has, in accordance with 
bwiah expressed at the Conference, been re- 
Wed. In future, therefore, a candidate who 
• obtained a first-class certificate in a subject 
■j be again examined in that subject, but not 
Mntium one first-class certificate in any subject 
m be counted for the Prince Consort's prise, and 
•entdidate win be entitled to take a prize of the 
^^ g[nde twice in. any subject. 



W. Stvte^ t»> plM»- JS& tA their disposal, to be 
awarded as a prise for an Essay treating on this 
'smbjeot, with augjgeetionA lor an improved system. 

2. The Btonys mmk be tent in not later thian th# 
let of No^embsr^ 1878, auirked with a motto, or 
cypher only, aooompanied by a sealed letter, with 
the coaresponding motta.or cypher marked out- 
sidfi, giving ml^un tha name and address of the 
woAer of the Bmmy* 

3. .Brevity will be considered a merit. 

4. The Council shall have the right of publishing 

the pme Essay in the Journal^ and they reserve 

the right of withholding the prize altogether^ or 

of awBT^mg & lesser sam^ if the judges shall so 

rsoommend. 

P. 1<IB Nbvb Foster, Secretary. 



ncmrOLOOICAL EXAXIKATIOirS. 

"Rie subjects in which examinations were held 
^ jear, namely. Cotton Manufacture, Paper 
*«u»f%cture, Silk Manufacture, Steel Manufacture, 
•4 Outiage-building, will be retained in the Ex- 
■aations of next year, with the addition of 
**^ Manufacture* 'Glaaa-making, Pottery and 
'^•odw and the Manuf »ictnre of Gas. 

*M Programme is in preparation, and will be 
*U*bed as soon as possible. 



Xtuuuaie 09 jcwsusn.— buzb fob 

BSftikzS. 

^ It having been brought to the knowledge of 
iCoundl of the Society of Arts that what is 
' HaU-maBE^ong " of jewellery and articles 
fold and silver, is inadequate to secure to the 
JBc that protection in the quality ci the 
moak for which it is intended, they have ac- 
^Mthe offer of one of the msK^Ms^ Mr. 



sm J0SB9K WgPWWBXyS PBIZB8 VOft THBIR 



Sir Jo^qph TVihitwoprth has offered prizes of 
the value of oms hmidied pounds, to be awaeded 
by 'the Society of Aits^ lor the best Essays on 
the ** Advantages that would be likely to arise if 
railway companies and limited companies gene- 
rally were each to establish a savings-bank for tho 
working classes in their employ.*' With this offer 
he has trawsgiittedtho following observations : — 

1. Is not a good rate of interest^ with peidmk 
security, more likely to promote the habit of 
saving than any d^ier pbm that can be devised P 

27oir Joseph Whitwori^ suggests that the 
interest to be paid on the deposits should be the 
same as the dividend, with a guarantee that it 
shaH not be less than 4 per cent. 

3. By paying the same rate of interest as the 
dividend earned, there is a bond of union estab- 
lished between labour and capital. 

4. An Act of Pariiament might make the depo- 
sits of the industrial classes the first charge on the 
estate. 

5. The proprietor of a private establishment, 
whose profits are not made known, might under- 
take to pay, say 7 or & per cent, when the profits! 
reached that amount or more, the proprietor giving 
an undertaking to pay not less than 4 per cent. 

6. ^ the case of Agriculture, each county might 
have its savings-bank for the savings of both men 
and women in the said oounty, and the interest to 
be paid might be 6 or 7 par oent. 

7. To do tiiis tiiere might be a rate collected 
^along with the pOOT-rate, to be called the interest 
or iimustrial rate. 

8. As this rate increased, no doubt the poor-rate 
would diminish, and if the habit of saving became 
g^eral among the labomring classes, there would 
probably be great gain to ttie property'-owning 
classes, considering the great variety of ways in 
which they have now to contribute for the support 
of the unfortunate who now make no provision for 
themselves. 

9. In order to realise what might be the pro- 
bable saving to those who encourage the savings- 
banks thus soggesttd, Sirtloseph ¥7hitworih po^aili 



766 



JOURNAL OF THB SOCIETY OF ARTS, Avoxm 22, 1819* 



to the list of oharitias, alBO institations, such as in- 
firmaries, hospitals, imion-houses, prisons, police, 
&c., &c. 

10. In any establishment, if only one-third of 
those employed deposited sayings, they would 
have immense influence over the other two-thirds 
of their fellow-workmen. 

11. Men who spend all their earnings are gene- 
rally reckless, ana become the dupes ol agitators ; 
but the man who has put by some of his earnings 
will be likely to exercise forethought, and tvuI 
not be led away by others. 

12. In South Wales is it likely there would have 
been the late turn-out, if the different establish- 
ments had each had such a saTings-bank as that 
proposed? 

13. In the case of a man or woman falling into 
distress from.causes beyond their control, what 
better proof could be given that they were de- 
serving of sympathy and assistance from their 
friends, than the fact that they had put by savings 
at a time when they were able to do so ? The nue 
of action should be to do as little as possible for 
those who do as little as possible for themselves. 

14. Some of the points to be considered by the 
essayists will be the amoimt to which the savings 
shall be limited, and when the depositor wishes to 
withdraw the whole or any part of the sum de- 
posited, what notice shall be given. 

15. The co-operative system is no doubt eflEect- 
ing much fi:ood, but if the system here sketched 
out were adopted, the greatest good, in the short^ 
time possible, might be effeotea. 

To the above observations Sir Joseph Whitworth 
has added the following : — 

I think it will be admitted as desirable that one- 
third of the period of man's existence should, if 
possible, be spent free from the necessity of labour 
and toil. 

The middle period of life is, therefore, the time 
when man's energies should be put forth, and 
the greatest amoimt of work should be done 
that strict obedience to the laws of health will 
permit. The experience of industrious men goes to 
prove that the most pleasurable existence is insured 
oy following this course. 

It is therefore wrong, in every sense, for the 
Amalgamated Engineers and other Trades Unions 
to combine and endeavour to compel youn^ and 
middle-aged men, in the prime of life, to limit and 
reduce their hours of labour to the exteoit now being 
attempted, and thus prevent them from saving so 
much, and laying it by for that period of life 
when man's energies begin to fail, when work 
becomes irksome, and mien rest is necessary in 
order to pass a comfortable existence. May not the 
case between the industrious working man who 
saves part of his earnings, and the man who is 
reckless and will not save part of his earnings, be 
fairly stated thus : — 

That the man who does not save when he is in 
health and strength, robs the man who does 
save, because the law compels him to support 
those who have not saved, and to bury them when 
dead? 

The principal subjects which the essayists should 
consider are the preceding. 
After commending these observations of the 



enlightened and Hberal donor to the ecnridentka 
of the competing essayists, the Coaiidl,liov0Rr, 
would further caU their attention to the liiki% 
to frauds of various kinds to which soch a lyvtem 
may be subject, such as, for instance, that of eokQ- 
able investments being made by partiM inmliag. 
in their own names, moneys not honi fide their 
own ; and would impress upon the competitots tin 
importance of suggesting the best means of pi^ 
venting such abuses. 

There will be two. prizes, £70 for tiie b«t,ffld 
£30 for the second best essays. The jvdgii 
reserve the right of withholding the pdai 
altogether, or awarding lesser sums. 

The following are the conditions to he obiend: 

1. The essays must be sent to the Hooieof ^ 
Society of Arts, Adelphi, London, addie«dfc 
the Secretary, on or before 1st December, 1811 

2. They must be delivered either in print w« 
manuscript. If in manuscript, they diodi^ 
written distinctiy on foolscap paper, on ww 
of the paper only. Every paragraph a«rt » 
numbered. 

3. They must be sent in sealed, with oi^t 
motto or cypher ; and a separate lett^, also wA 
with the motto or cypher marked outside, a^ 
accompany the essay, giving the name and adte 
of the writer. 

4. Brevity will be conadered as a merii 

6. They may have been published vixmjaami 
before being sent in. 

6. The Society is to have the right of pnbWl 
the two prize essays in its Journal, 

7. The award of the judges will be final 



PB0CEEDIHO8 OF THE BOCIin* 



CAHTOB LECTUSSS. 

The first lecture of the third course of Ctt» 
Lectures for the Session, "On Wines; tharPw* 
duction. Treatment, and Use," was deUwR^V 
J. L. W. Thudichum, Esq., M.D., on ItoAf 
evening, April 21st, 1873, as follows:— 

LicTuaa I. 

Detcriptitm of the Vineyardi cf Seret 4t U lV«g* 
Oeogrophieal and Oeologiml t'onHm-^CHm^t-^ 
tiet of Vims Cultivated, partictdarfy ^^^^^^f^JiH 
makinff-'The Vintage of Jem— lmj d mm ti mf^ 
eeaeet — Fermentation — Vimjteatien, 

NoTB.— The topogniphioal a««ripti«a oocniT^[]j"J 

lectme are beet apprecii^ with theaid of the flnflMU? 

of the Jem diatrict, publiabed in 1867 br Di« fWgT 

Sater, the English Cooanl at Jerca, and aou hjJLWt^ 

Charing^oroaa. , M^m 

The knd meaaora, termed the ar m ua i a, if eqael mwi* 
French area, and ia therafbra a little latger thaa lh» nf 

aove, whidiia equal to 4047 



JOURNAL OF THE 800IETT OF ARTS, Adoott 22, 187S. 



767 



The meMnie of ]flngtb» vara, is aqnal to 0*84S metnt, or 
2*782 feet English, and it therefore s little ehorter thui the 
EnjKlish yard, which it eqoal to 0*914 metres. 

The btUt of wine or most (mosto) measures thir^ arrobat. 
eijojil to 106'5 imperial gallons ; one arroba is equal to 16*133 
litres. 

Tbe real is equal in value to 2Jid. Englinh ; four reals, 
Talae lOd., are equal toa jM»o/a,the Spanish franc; its Yslue 
ii five per eent. higher than that of the French franc. 

The pewo is an imaginary unit of value by which winet are 
bought and sold. It is equal to 15 reals. 

I divided the district into nine parts, radial aections 
of a cirde, of which the town forms the natural centre, 
and the roads which lead to and from it form the natural 
radii, and made each of them the object of a ipeoial 
scieatific reconnaisHmoe. 

1. Balb^ina section and group of Tinevards, K.W. of 
Jeres, S.W. of new road to San Lncar, between it and 
the road to Rota. 

2. Corchuelo section, N.N.W. of Jeres, between old 
and new carriage road to San Lncar. 

3. Hachamudo section, N. of Jeres, between the old 
road to Sin Luoar and the road to Trebnjena. 

4. Oarrascal section, K.K.E. of Jeres, between Trebn- 
jena and Lebrija road. 

6. Section of the plain, or north-eastern section be- 
tween Lebrija road and Arcos road. This section I 
divided in two parts, one K. ot 4he Seville road, the 
other between Seville road and Aroos road. 

6. Eastern Section, between Aroos road and Hynela 
de Pedro Diaz. 

7. Monte Alegre section. South of Jeres, between the 
Hijuela of Pedro Diss and the Oarreteia to Puerto, 
traversed by the road to tbe Oart^a. 

8. Torrox Section, S.S.W. of Jeres, between the 
carriage-road to Puwto and the bridle-road to Uie same 
place. 

9. Carrahola Section, W. of Jeres, between the bridle- 
road to Puerto and carriage-road to Beta. 

Tbe territory is entirely of the so-called tertiary 
period. It consists of undulating hills, with gently- 
indined sides accessible to cultivation over their entire 
•orfiM^e, and slightly-excavated valleys between them. 
The hills consist of a sand and day pervaded chalk-rock, 
which crops out at their tops, or is earily reached by 
di^:8:in^ a few feet — sometimes only one foot— into 
the disintegrated surface. It is mostly white, here and 
there coloured bv some iron oxide, and contains chalk 
or carbonate of lime, day, or silicate of alumina 
(•cms say also alumina in the free state), magnesia, 
iroo, quarts, and gypsum, or sulphate of lime. The 
lower parts of the inclines of the hills and the flat 
v.Al]e3rs between them are covered by allitviid formations 
of di&Vsreot periods. These are full of cLty, and contain 
nanch iron oxide and sand, and in many parts pass into 
mere sand, more or less coloured red by iron-ochre, or 
iw'hiie by da^ and chalk. These chalk-rocks, days, and 
esiTids give nse to the several descriptions of surface-soil 
distinguished by the Jeresanos under the denominations 
of BlbarizOy barrotf barrO'artmUf or artnas^ and buyeo, ' 

The Albarisa, also termed Tierra de Anafes, Tierra 
t^lAnca 6 Tosca, is the white soil of the hills, the disin- 
tegrated chalk rock. According to the analysis of Louis 
^wtyaat (the French chenust, who lived at Mtdrid from 
j»e time of the first revdution to the Napoleonic inva- 
(ion ci Spain] the soil contains ^m 60 to 70 pw cent of 
sAxbonate of lime, a considerable quantity of day, a little 
[ilicia* and some magnesia. When the day and other in- 
rcvdients disappear or diminish ffreatly, so that the soil 
K little more than chalk, it is no longer termed *' tosca " 
y^ the natives.^ The coarse mixture of chalk, sand, and 
rby ia more suitable to viticulture than the finer chalk. 
(^ colour is a dead white ; its texture fine-grained and 
ou^b, with harder nodules, which appear when the mass 
9 laft to disintegrate under the inflnenoe of sun and 
rmter. In that case it breaks up a great deal. When 
Introduced into water it gives out bubbles of air, and 



fidls gradually into a loose pasty mass. When dried 
again it £sUs into powder-like particles, and does not 
cohere in lumps or separate by deep fissures. On the 
hills it occurs in layers, which biave a thickness of sevraal 
yards, and become thin in other parts, so as almost to 
disappear. It contains no flints. It is supposed to 
be an impure chalk, and to repose upon a sandy for- 
mation. The greater part of the vineyards of Jeres, 
San Luoar, and Trebujena, are upon albarisa soil. The 
vinejrards of Paxarete contain it in the immediate sub- 
soil. It is here termed ^'albero." A thousand vines 
planted on albarisa at San Lucar produce about 80 arrobas 
of mosto ; exceptionally in favoured portions of spedal 
territory ^m 110 to 120. 

Barros is the name ffiven to quarts sand a^lutinated 
by chalk and cLiy, and coloured red or yeUoinsh by iron 
ochre. It forms horisontal layers of neat sise alonjf the 
coast, from the mouth of the Guadalquivir to Uonil. 
These banks are traversed in all directions by fissures, 
filled with almost pure sand. The barros is never so hard 
that it cannot be disintegrated with the fingers. It is 
easily washed away by the tide and by rain, and becomes 
very slippery when wet ; but continued rain washes out 
the chalk and day, and leaves the stones and sand on the 
sur&oe. Glemente believes the barros of Jeres to be a 
small portion of the immense formation of sandy chalk 
and day which runs in one uninterrupted course from 
the shore at San Lucar to Gibraltar, llie vines planted 
upon barros give double the harvests produced by the 
same number on albarisa. Near Jeres, tbe barros con- 
tains many large stones of hard grey chalk, which occur 
in layers, and are repeated at intervals down to a depth 
of eighteen feet It also contains fossil shells, such as 
ostrea, cardium, peoten, and others, which become so 
numerous in some parts, e.g,, near the Badalejo, as almost 
to constitute the bulk of the soil. Barros and sand 
mixed form the soil of the plain to the north and north- 
east of Jeres (lUrrs barro srmuna). 

Arenas (better, barro-arenas) form the third variety of 
soiL The pure, nearly white, shifting sand, such as occurs 
prindpally near the sea-shore, is only rardy found in the 
Jeres district, being limited to some localities in the East, 
towards Cuartillo, and along the road to the Oartina. 
This sand admits of being transformed into fruitful 
gardens and vineyards, as can be seen at San Lucar and 
Rota. At the latter place particularly I was surprised 
to see the work and care bestowed upon this mere sand, 
which has actually to be protected against the wind by 
frequent small enclosures, ridges, and deep furrows. 
These gardens are called ns^osof. On such sand the vine 
produces as much mosto as on the barros, but fts quality 
IS as much inferior to that of the barros vineyards as the 
latter is inferior to that oomiog from the albarisas. The 
commonest arena mosto in these days is sold at about 
half the price of the albarisa mosto. 

Bugeo is the greyish black earth which at Jeres and San 
Lucar occupies the dales between, and lowest dopes of^ 
the hills of albarisa. It consists of day mixed with 
carbonate of lime and fine sand, and a certain quantity 
of vegetable mould. During the heat of the summer 
this soil forms enormous fissures, and this is said to 
be the cause of its inaptitude for viticulture. But at 
Jeres, as wdl as at St. Lucar, thero are vineyards on 
bugeo. They are very fertile, bringing up to six betas 
per acre, but the wine is said to be coarse. 

The albarisa vineyards give the finest, cleanest, and 
strongest mostos, but produce little quantity. The barro- 
arenoso lands produce twice as much as the albarisas, 
and are also much easier to work, but their mostos are 
less fine and thinner. The bugeo vineyards produce as 
much as the barro arenosas, km, give mostos of as much 
or even more body than the albarisa mostos, but they 
are ndther fine nor dean : and the bugeo soil requires 
mndi labour, because it becomes quickly covered with 
weeds, and cracks in a manner dangerous to the roots of 
the vines. 

In the trade of Jerss wines are somstimes dis- 



768 



JOURNAL OP THE 8O0IBTT OP ARTS, Auouit 22, I8T3. 



tSnguished as wines of the pagos de arena, winaa of the 
pages de barro, and wines of the pages de afoenL Th« 
latter term is not a geogiaostio distinction at all^ bs the 
pagos de afuaia hare soils of all descriptions, and is 
not companUive to the other two terms. It simply 
means pagoa which are ont of the oirele of the city 
boundaries, and at such tk distance that the labourers 
receive an addition to their wages for distance. 

It must, however, be stated that there are lew vine- 
yards, and hardly any pitgosy in which all the wines 
stand upon uniform soil ; and if a page is termed of a 
particular soil, this is to be understood to mean that that 
soil is the prevailing, not the exclusive soiL There are, 
further, a few spocial names for particular mixtures of 
soil, which I will indicate. Lustrillo is a mixture of 
white marl and albarisa and red barro-arenoso soil, inter- 
spersed here and there with strata of chalk, or ^paumt. 
Another kind of earth, produced by the aocomulation of 
old building rubbish, is termed ** Tierra de villares,** 
or " Almaduras." The names of " Balejaela," and 
** Lentejuela," are applied to greatly broken up allwigaa 
mixed with a certain material of agricultural improve- 
ment or bugeo. *' Tajon," the eaithy vein in the lime- 
stone, and '* toxa," the rough ettzth. are forms of albarisa 
which occur in special strata. There a«e also stony 
tenitories which surprise the proprietors by a curious 
phenomenon, namely, that the stones have a tendenoy 
to come to the surface, of course by the action of the 
rain. But the proprietors prefer the mysterious to the 
evident, and believe that these stones are constantly being 
formed, or being worked upwards by some mysterious 
power in the earth. 

The diffbrent soils are planted with varying setn of 
vines, according to mnpirical tmditions which do neb 
admit pf precise exposition. In the albarisas the paJo<> 
mine prevails, and is gSDesally mined widb a osxtain pro- 
portion of perunno, cafiocaao, albillD, Pedro JiaeBee, and 
mantuo, which are said to isnpurt to the palo- 
uino wine snp^nor q«aUti6s« in ths Barro-«ffeoo6e 
t^nritory the mantuo cSflteUand prevails, misD^d wilih 
much moUac, beba, and other vines is. snail munbeiS'; 
in the sand there is a litde tintiUn, and mueh bebH% 
Tke moscalkls and Pedro Jimensz grow beet ia the Uaok 
earth or bngeo. 

The dimate of Jeves is determined by iin gpeogra«> 
phical position between the 36th and sftfh dtegme of 
north latitude, and under the 6th degree oi longitude 
west of Greenwich. 

The summer season is characterised by great heai and 
long-continued drought, during which most of the vege* 
tation, extept vines, olive tref>s, and pines, comes to a 
standstill, and most annuals die off. The arable land, 
the grassy pUins, and the dry swamps then look like 
arid deserts, and are avoided alike by animals and man. 

The autumn and winter consist in a rainy season, and 
ftxwt is never observed. Snow has fnllen at Jerez only 
twice in this century. The first fall occurred in 1819, 
and no particulars regarding it have come to my know- 
ledge. The Be(t>nd and last fall happened on the 9th of 
December, 1807. The snew lay on the ground for two 
days, and destroyed many delicate plants. Hie antnmnal 
rains are copious, not rarely very much so. Thunder- 
storms of extraordinary servemty afipear now imd 
then. The north wind in sununer is dry and hot; 
the west wind refreshing and agreeable. The east 
wind (Levante) easily becomes a storm, which may 
oontinue for days without intermtssiony and do marh 
damage to all kinds of crops. It is said thai the vines are 
kept low on the ground on account of the dan^^r to 
yhich they would be subjected on the part of the Levante 
if they were nised highcar and fastened to poles. 

Extent and Position op thb ViNBTAans. 

The vineyards are estimated to have a suifade of 
14.000 aranzadaa, or 6,2«7 hectares. They are groaped 
round the town of Jerez in a manner which is best 
^?pr«aated by inspedaon of the map. The districts to 



the liT. sad If .E. of Jerea ave p«r£set plaioi^ viunai 
tho0e4o the N.W., W., 8^ and 6.E. comiit of & Md» 
of more or less round hills and faillodo, sapinM W 
glens and dales. The hills are mostly oovsteii with vise^ 
hU over, whereas the glens am mosily nctsto^Fdvttii 
vines, but with fodder plants, or used for growmg tbf 
strong reeds (ca5is) which ana employed for oiakinf; Ok 
stakes for young vines, and the Jbik4ike wppoitK u 
fruit-laden, bnmohes, and give their names to tbt (iils 
themselves (canadas). like land sverywbert tin k 
Europe, the whole of the cultivated land roood Jem l 
divided into sections bearmgdistiiioliTBfumqi. SMilhl 
pages. Thsse pagea again, oooaiat of SBvenl 6cbii <» 
properties ; only rarely one entire pago, iHll mon nff> 
sevml pagos, also fonn a single paopcirty. 1^ pae* 
are very unequal in size ; many are enetinly wmwLia^ 
vineyards. 

Fur a list of the Jeiez pagos relar«iQe way binw 
to a broc^hure on the viticulture and tade of Js«a. k 
D. Diego Parada y Barreto, which appeared in hta'-s 
1868. 

Thb BALBACfj. Bnsniciy. 

The district of Balhaina is perhaps the oUvtnt^ 
cultnntl pago in the neighbourhood of Jem. It b^ 
in a N.W. direction from Jerez, on hoOti aidw of Ae»^ 
road to San Luoar, mwialy between that rond mi tk 
road to Rota. In consists of five great diviaaa ^ 
which three only belong to tlie coomiuDilf of J«^ 
while two owe nranicipel aMegianee to Piwrto Tt 
Jerez Balbnin't property so caHed lies on U*e N.W, « 
right side of the San Lucar road, past San JiIm, ^ 
includes CHndelero and the Llano de Iks TtMn*. h m 
to this part that my excursion of Sept W «» diwrtei 
8 W. of it lies the larifcst part of the district tw»i 
Balhaina altn. to distinguish il from ttip wotifwai 
BtdHaina baja, of the Puerto vineyarda Farther to ti? 
N.W., also on the left of the road to Stn Luctr, ii *» 
pa^o of los Ctridradoe, with the coiitigao«iB«JhaBi<^ 
Puerto properly so oafled. 

Balbaina wtih Balbaina alia and inelQ<fiii|r tbfl Ps^ 
BUbainas, com prises more than tw^e hnndRd onueti^ 
of vineyards. Its soil is albariaa and boeeo : rti «• 
are palemitoo, pemtnno, oaSr«aM9o^ albiUo, 'Mn Jaartt^ 
and mantue, and its mostos are held in great «^^ 
The most reputed vineyards mte the Osfias, fe Ow^ffi"*- 
del Areon, and del Sargento mayor. The Jerti weh 
ence held a great part of this district, and a parftrtar 
plantation they termed the vineyaid of Gt«i. Oso^"* 
which is contiguous to Balhaina towards San JoBiSt |»» 
pago of about eighty aranzadas, in the vtlkr v*«* 
bears its name. The soil is for the greater part t«r 
Hnd its vines palominos. A special vineprd in tt« p"? 
also bears its name. North-west of BilWct. «&* 
bordering upon the Gafias, is the Llano de U* T^Wb, » 
pago of forty aransadas, bordering in the nortt if ^ 
Marihemandez. 

Just across the San Lucar road is Balhaina shx a rrf 
expanse of green hilli^ and dales. The 6f* ^^ 
neHrest to Jerez isJSida, a pago of forty arKOw'M' ** 
albHriza soil, planted with palomino and pk*iro Ji«'-« * 
Noted vineyard, la Miranda. Side dfrrt»« *» ** 
from thnt of »n old Jerez fiimily. Pirther oa » * 
Grffiada de Hueita, a pago with bngeo soil, upi I***^ 
vines. It borders upon the Oallega gtoop of |«***^ 
upon the Rincones, a pego with aftari»«, ^^ ^ 
luutrillo soil, and palomino stock. At the ^^'•^'J.^. 
of Balhaina alta. and close to and at the lijli''*' 
rond to Rota, is the pago Cruz dxf Hosxllo. , 

At the north-west end of Balhtina alta, an* ^ ' 
los Onadrados, we find the pago of PlanUlH*^ ^^^ 
nraneadMB of bugeo and lustrillo soil, with iwloatW^T^' 
vailing. Far to the north-west ia the pajpi o^''*JJJ[ 
drndos. two hundred aranzadas, with slbarif^ ** -^i 
«oil. The palomino reigns. A noted vineyikri * '' 
Boledad. Cloee by is the pago of hm fVoma4 ^^ 
good vineynrd of the same name. •_!..*, 

In this neighbourhood 1 observed a beairtiW pto*- 



JOURNAL or TBS SOCSBTT 07 ARTS, Amtitr 22, 1873. 



npuM pkM of gn«ad, like tfaa ^alooioM, cr Padr< 
Jl[iiiii«, MwvniiBtwmMed tn aneMtaiB nonben 
■lA tkt |iinAi|i niMtw. IV AlbiUa oaridlui 
ougbt u be ^Mtiodutr wd fcr irio* aMkiBg, nt wil 
•PfftrfroathefclbwioffMMripUon. laBBdrodarviQe. 
■iili Mir tnir, triagan Um (Toiad, Af b nlvwHgni 
iKUUc«kar, NiMH sahuU Imro, «)lk hwrt-riukred 
■HMi, fnM. bat B mtla neddiikwbai QntdsvdoMd, 



„_. , . Didal. rf niiMlB 

n aM lawh ; *dk Tcty ^ort ) does not dwd imripi 
biau*. TberipabMnet v« Tcvj iwNt and jany, aod 
miiuiljMiplM cf their coaUnta. Tbejaii' 
<l» P»P«« 



majadoi, only vHli tba IMlito 
air 1(111101417, and than tn t«med 



I ot^biUa, *hi«h an Imb 
t^artiJ plHM^ kk tha Juna viaejWdi tkui the 
fcMet.tkejna:— 

iMofmb,i>lM)lomair<>af<HJIIii,haalewrea«bich 
■» tHnnagbHiu thnnaf tka olknnrietiM sf albillo, 
itt myi US of B ytlli)viih.^i«en, Kitfat ooloor, lav 
aili »d ItA mo* amr. than that of die otiier albilloa, 
tn cifabls of fiaUine fcoA 

JiW^ Mfn. Kct fraqoAiiUr planUd. Difbn (ram 
tkt (Ut* aMlo Iw tba lilaak oulooi of ito arasaa, tta 
faut.kn-'^ • • - ---- '■ -- -'-- 

Iikioli 
J"ti Id beai their namee from ft more Dorthem prov 

Jm> Myn. Stock of middliw niaa. wiA aar ll 
p<r><b«e< (*Daa, small leavaa of Uniy 7«11o*Mi-e 
*W. ncT bear ia»njdiiii«e bnathMoftMdiuia 
■vni UwiUali-ied K^apea, irith basd ikin*, thaagh 
Ixkf. Umd miglu It te 12 B. /an M«u>, aha 
kn^ GortUi, is ■ulagima to tke fonnca, bat iti §"^>es 

i^M far iBrmia^naw plaatatiana, aad oa the modai of 
*w^ iMibtiAed naqaida, irtueh I «mbo£ed in the 
Mownjnotaa:— 
Siw Puminox^ Totoo Vooium, HuoiLoa. 
^^•ul ia moMly propared by dean diguing, toeaobea 
M^^amL end the top iwth ftIM in wUla th« deep 
*^ » bnaght ap. Th*aa tamingi are mere than h 
•»<• dapU. Ther ara ResuaUT affaeted ia Jolj or 
''W. aad if tha aaU taiaed np be laniiy, Ic u Mt tu 
""iVM^iaB fcr a year wilhoBt any phtfitatioa. \be 
r*eE>iBsara prod aeed aoatly bam oazMa, mrelj from 
'"^ TiDta prepuml in a aBTsery. Tluar dist>UK« from 
•<k atbs it frcm a vara and • half to two vara in 
*'*T Mnw. aa that eaoh viae haa a aar^ce of feur 
•pit Tuu aUottad to tt. Thia tart(e vslmit of aarfaoi' 

* MttMiUtod by tlw peculiar mode of tOraiBg anil 
"^ Ike earth, to be daaotibed bcnafter. The caon 
•WpInM M* avuB in length, and are aoak into the 
fKodistkreediSeraotaietiuida. Either a bote a vua 

* wptk ii dag for aaeh, and after inaertion of the caae, 
^'i •* [liUmtmtiin par jfeya); or the Tiaeyaid ia 
^'"Md byditcbea, which, afttir the omea have been 
T^'^ ue filled np {ptuntadm fur ccj-ma). The lut 
™» it Uat *Udi emi^ya iron bin for maWg narrow 
Mm ia t^ grouad, in which die caae* are tnaerted 
VWwia, p^ iarrvi). Dnriiw the esrly yea» \h<- 
I«wt TIM* Me b*(it aoiTOUBded by ballowg ao a* hi 
Wck all aTCiUUe water. In the aeoocd and third yeai 
»T nanve a aoppoM ia the ahiipe of a oida or atriaiff 
'"*■ ud te«iii. to abow fmit. They mm Ihrn cot in h 
*<>Kita nMabliah lbs pamaneat fiMir-iirved storkt 
*■ IB the nshlh year they bfcin to bear rirh hamalt 
«t il N aat untd the IMh or aatk vrar of thrir srowtli 
n>1ktf (nodaea the bHt winai. ' Up to tkaltiaw tbaaa 



h year they mdt their majority, 

fbe n. iawlh ofyottSK Tinea i* *«ry WgotoM ladsed, 
p*itic«lariy tn laiOT waaw. Tha fliat ahoola are vary 
locf and tkiok. Ui ^ aeaainM they oome to an early 
atandatill, and naay dl^. Bnoh pattial lawea in Tonag, 
md alao B oH vio^ai^*, aia meatly re-^aeed by lay en, 

A ungle kiycr i* made in the ordinary manner, da- 
scribed on pp. 61 and 62 of Thadichnm and Dapri'a 
TBaatia*, if tfce o^aA b ts sndnoe a aiDRle saw Tina 
rcwtn as otd one. The botytng ie Tery deep, and the 
point of tbecanepnifclaiatbebotlaaofa derpexoa- 
ration, Mended to oaOMt at Bneh water 4* poaaible, 
tad to aUow (he naw can* to be gtaduaUy corered np 
by earth, wa that it may have a deap footing. 

But when atvenl Liyara are r(qait«d fiwn one viae, 
the lettieT !■ boned in a pyramidal hfll of earth, tanned 
" Toga." It* four arm* are allowed to prcjecl^ and to 
grow from tbe four inclined mdea of thU hill, and all 
Irat ia Borareaasd. The cane* now grow mnch mora 
TiKoromly. tecauae tb«y are fed by tbe Mock ibelf; bb 
we>]aabytheiiiiinet««a new root* which they dardi^in 
the voga. Tliey may Aerefore be Ind down in ttis 
winter fDllowingvlieir growth, and in tlut oaae are only 
wi t&e mofiier-atack in the w" ' •-"--!-- 



pLint*. Aftv the lari^eat hare twoi drtaebed, the ri 
ia diaintomd, and again pola o«t bow bmncbet. 



Th« UboarB a*e all perfonned by men. ai>d on no aingle 
occaaion htre I obaerved womea or obildrcn to be em- 
ployel. even in TiDta^e time and far light woA. Hie 
working day InU ftum itm-riee to aan-Mt, but ia inter- 
mpted bytwo period* aljolted for meaJaandiepo**. For 
breakfcat, one hoar i« g<»*n ; and (or dmner and nrato, 
two hwori. The labou«i* are paid for the day, and I 
hBiB not learned th«t there are any who woA by piece 
and eontwot. Th*y rcoeire the wag« uwntionod below. 
Mid fcitr or fira nicaretCea a-day. Dnriiig the time of 
aitiro labour, partieatarly poda, ohata. oara bien, and 
rintage, tbe men «tay in tbe Tinayarda; they raeM 



r (« 



-)• , 



Wtte 



lime of meal* and repoef>, aroaod a great bcoira od 
utd rred cBne^ which ii bght«l in a pit itf maaonry 
apenally arraogiid for that purpoae ia one of Ibeshoda of 
the rinejard. He emoke eaoapa* throngb a Itmg dit 
in tbe higheat p^rt of the roof. The labois* whic& are 
■noeeirtrely parfornied upan tbe vlnaa and riaeyarda aro 
ihefollowinif:— 

PoHa.— The pruning. «r mtting bank of tbe me, to 
inaintain it* ehape and fertility, ■• psrfomsd dnrmg 
October, NorambfT, a»d Dboembar. Some TlliowhwiaU 
work the earth before, aome Bfter, tbe pada. 

AlnmbTB, or Chata, conaiaU ia digging and drM*ig 
the land in mob a BanMr dut there ia a large aqnua 



770 



JOCJBNAL OP IHB SOCIETY OF ABT8, Aoowr 28, 18TS. 



Ymna round each Tine, iHiich maj catch the uia-vster. 
As the Tinet are from 1*5 to 1*8 metree apazt. in enrj 
sense these bannfaze more tluoi a Moare metre in width, 
and ooe-thtrd of a metre deep. This work begins in 
October. When the digging is not so mndi a forma- 
tion of basins, in esse the rains were early and copioQSi 
as a stirring, it it is termed ** chata." 

Hechar Hoffrones is the work of making lajera. 

Repoeicion de Mams, to replace dead Tines. 

Deserpia is the remoTsl of suckers projected bj the 
roots. 

Desbngar (desbaibar) is the taking off of the hig^iest 
roots, daj or dew roots, which, particQlarlj in yoong 
plsnti; become exposed b j the chsAa. 

Cava bien is the great digging and refilling of the 
holes (derra) made by the chata. This is performed 
in February, after the rains are oyer, and before the new 
growth starts. 

Gsstra is the operation of taking off sll saperflnons 
shoots end buds preyions to and immediately after 
blossom-time. 

Odpe Ueno is a digging of the mnnd after the grspe 
is formed, and before the brsnc&es of the Tines haTe 
become entangled with each other, sometimes CTen as 
early as the eml of April or beginning of May. 

Lerantar Tares is the operation of supporting branches 
after the grapes have begun to get heayy, by little forks 
made of canes or wood. These supports are not higher 
than the stocks of tiie Tine, ana, conse<luently, the 
branches are kept in a horisontal position. 

Vina is a light digging of the surface of the land, per- 
formed in the latter part of June, to destroy the weeds. 

Recastra is the second remoTal of superfluous shoots. 

BcTina is another hoeing at the end of July, to remoTe 
weeds (also termed auhalado). 

In August the Tineyards become ooTered with the 
correguela, or running weed, a kind of convolvulus, 
whose roots grow very deep in the ground, and run 
quickly through great disttmces, reproducing the plant 
at the surface with great rapidity. Anoth^ common 
weed is the castanuela, a kind of cypems. The removal 
of these weeds in August is termed agostsr. 

The vineyard from this time is left to itsell^ protected 
by watchmen, untfl the Tintage. 

Yendimia, the Tintage, begins on the 7th or 8th of Sep- 
tember, mostly with neat regularity, in the best situa- 
tions. It lasts until the 18th or 20th when regular, when 
interrupted by rain it may last till the end ofthe month. 
Generally it is a most rapid operation. 

The vintagers (vendimiadores) receive three pesetas a 
day in money, and have a sleeping room, and mats of 
rushes (enea) provided for them. The pressers (pisa- 
dores), receive also three pesetas per day, and, in addi- 
tion, for each beta of moato pressed one peseta and half 
a bottle of wine ; once during the entire vendimia each 
pisador gets a basketfU of grapes (im eapaehi de uvas) or 
five reals instead. 

The removal of the mosto, or wine, from the vineyard 
to the bodega in Jeres costs for each bota about thirty 
reals for all distances below and up to one league. 
Above one league the cost is forty reals per bota. When 
the removal is by mules the vehicles used are carros, 
when by oxen, carretss. I have also seen mules laden 
with a bota full of mosto each, and believe the practice 
to be cruel and dangerous, and happily rare. 

The day's work of a man is call^ peonada. The price 
paid for the peonada of each kind varies according to 
years, weather, and the labour market In bad years 
and durinff bad weather, the day's labour is less valuable, 
and therefore paid^ lees highly than in good years and 
fine weather. I witnessed a strike for ^her wages in 
a vineyard at an approaching rain. The capatas defied 
ttie men, and the rain passed off. In 1865 labour wss so 
dear that the ohata, which ordinarily costs 14 reals per 
aj2^ pet man, aotuaUy had to be paid as high as 88 

Aproprietor of a large well-kept albarisa vineyard 




calculated the cost of his labour par 
Tintage, to be from £16 to £16per aiBaBdi,K«1i 
whole one-twelfth of the amount of ftytilsaliiti 
Tineyard. A generallv-acos^ced esnite W^ if 
cost of labour to one real per vme per yev. 

Manining is never employed, pmhr becna taii 
frequently necessary, partly beanas WBjnf/Mmj^ 
lieve it to be injurious to the gofm. It ii fiMb 
understand this, but the foct remsim, tlist in iWi 
vineyards, whidi have been umntecniptBdlf |S , 
with vines for 300 years, as shown hj domiH 
tenure, no manure is ever employed. Li n&VB|4 
there are^ however, barren and baU fiao^^ft 
baffle all attempts to r^klant the vine. The yi f^ 
sibly be chemically exhausted, and ben immiiBiJ 
betried. It is probtOJe that the system of uilii%ii 
rain-water may act as chemical manuring, iirtwil 
be doubted that the heavy rains of winter TilniJ 
ofthe constituents of sea-water fr<rai the B«riMMA 
in this a portion at least of the salti required ^ffh^ 

Nowhm in this district have I seen rinnaiiril 
vated by the plough, but all labouia wen im\/t$ 
arms of men. 0^ the whole, the laboanipit 
ground are the most serioos of any wkkhl ' 
nessed anywhere. But they seemed cut of 
to the more scientific care b«stowed upon tte 
the ripening grape in particular seemed to m 
neglected in an unaccountable manner. Tbi ^ 

tion occurred to me that the boimfy of natut ■ 

great that man has no neoeesity for ^i>*1»b^'^^|'£, 
dttoe, but if he loses a fourth or a third ptzt«ntM|i 
with the remainder, still make np a prootabb 

Pbodvgitvbnsss of VDIXTllIia 

Albarisa legitima is believed to produoa^oani^j 
from 1} to 2 botes per arranaada. The daik ■^'^ 
soil produce much more, namely, four or firshfeliBi 
the must is coarse. Iliis depends maialyfvii 

Duality of the vines, which, m the lowW* 
boeen from the richest bearers. It was tli jlttj 
that the arenas grapes commanded a unifonslffA 
and that therefore an agriculturist would di W* 
prow quantity rather than to rtow fine vta<(*2 
mdeed he did not sell his grapes but his wiaa flwjj 
purts of a Balbaina vineyard give from 10 fit AW 
per aranzada, such as tne slope which nun ti i4 
of the hill. Other pieces at bott<»n give onlftw ^ 
one butty and some parts ^ve nothing. 

Competent estimates bnng the average 
all kinds of soil to three betas per arana 
arrobas for every 2,000 vines. If we assonM^ 
area of the vineyaids of Jeres as 14,000 a i i w^ 
of these 12.000 to be in bearing, there «^Jf^ 
average annual production of 36,000 botM, or ' ^ 
arrobas of mosto. The average price (d »<^ 1]^ 
assumed as 75 pesos, or 1,100 r^Us per bo(i,w* 
value of all the yintages is therefore aMot 40 ■BlBrt| 
reals. Now, as the 14,000 aransadas all reqoii* 
at the rate above detailed (though only 12,000 n 
the time), and as the wages for this laboir,yiii 
population of more than 10,000 men, amount ts bi-_ 
20 and 30 millions of reals, the interest ^If 
annually reaped by the proprietors of the JeAiw 
yards amount to from 10 to 20 millions of resk. 

Fbicbs or Vzr^TABDs. 

The usual price for average good rincTudi 
aranzada is from 16 to 18,000 reals— sav I^^ 
guineas. If the albarisa were less absolate, ^ 
vineyard were to enclose places with darkcaitk, iti' 
would be less. Old vineyards fotoh hi^iar priw* 
young plantations. Young vinmrds do not tmA 
class value before the twentieth vesr. The gnp^ 
young vineyuds are mostly w«ed np iato rm 
color, or into dulce. Some vineirards inoesM f» 
in price, that an example iriiich cost 7,000 tm W 
aransida in 1833, in 1671 had a vatae of 17,000 reil 




JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Atoust 32, l«i8. 



771 



Bat this is 'QKoe|ytioiiaL A. lacge idaeyaxd of SO-araa- 
xaodas was a few yean a^o ■old for about £16,1100. It 
bad been eftablisbad oi^y about twf^We yeam, aod is 
beUeved to bare baen aold at« Ion, altbovgb by otber- 
wise firtn hunda. Moat Ti&eyaid pioperty aieund Jerez 
oorae yean. ago bad TUBn ito very bigb ^oee, but the 
bat i^w yeara ^hanre depreaMd all ptvceB groatfy. This 
ifl due to poHtical eireamstaneea, mid ako'to the fact 
tbat proprietors ha^ne oeaaed to take penonal interaat in 
their vineymia. , Cbnseqaently Tetania diminiab, and 
the aattafaolion enf penonial aucoeM diaappeara. While 
twenty or thirty yeara ago every proprietor (not always 
remdtint in his vineyard) woiiJd go to the vinejpud 
dnriog the entire vintage time ; now-a-days none aaper- 
intand their vintages, and the eoneeqaenoe ia every- 
where vi«ible in dibipidation, deterioration, and neglect* 

Second class vineyards are aold at 8,000 reals per 
antnzadH. The total value of tbe vineyaida of Jwmt ia 
eatitiiatt^d at 210 millions of reals. 

lu 1819, the barro-arana vineyards were held in 
i^eat«r vubue Umui tbe albanaas. An araniada <of 
vineyard in Ihe pagos of Oarrascal or MaobamndD, 
wiiich have the greatest fame now-^i-days, was then not 
much more than from 3,000 to 4,000 reals, while an 
aranaada of vineyard in Tolase, San Antonio, or 
Peliron, fetched 7,000 reals and more. It is 'not 
by Hoy means impossible that the future may see 
similar relations restored. For a carefU consideration 
of all thu conditions of tbe Jem dittriets will 
show that the barro-orenns soil is economioally the -most 
sohable for viticulture. The albarizas is being exbaosted 
beyond rodemption, unless the proprietors resolve to 
bring-, at least, min^al manure into their vineynrds. In 
fact, the albarims are dear because fas h ionable ; but if 
the biiLrro>arenas were planted with tiie same select stock, 
they would produce tbe same quality, and mudi more 
(luaiitity than the albarizas, and therefore obtain a 
reedy market. 

The pagoa of the Corcbudo and Afiina group are 
lituated to the novtb-west of Jerea, beginning at a dis- 
Uince of about three kilometres, and extending for about 
hvv kilometres over the entire space between the old and 
Qew roads to San Luoar. They are conve9i^ntly reached 
Uy either of these roads, or by a fleld-road running be- 
iwt-tn them direct from Jeres to Oorchuelo (the Gamino 
h' las Viilas). By whichevex of these roads the tourist 
Ifivea Jerez, he has to pass dose to tbe town through the 
vineyard pagos of PicadueiSa and Miraflores, tbe latter 
remarkablb for containing on itaoommandiog height tbe 
Kjtlendid reservoir of the waterworks which supply Jerez 
with wat€r from the distant mountains (deposiu de la* 
.i'/uas d€ Tempul). These pagos include about eighty 
iranzadas of barro-arena soil, and are planted with 
Dollaree, mantuos, and tbe uva calona, tbe fruit of which 
s mainly used in the shape of verdeo. dose to them is 
, third amall page, Serrana, on tbe right of the road del 
;.ilirario, which separates it from Miiafloras ; it belongs 
J the barro-arena class. 

Tbe pago lasSaHniUas is am albariaa bill stocked with 
talomino, and surrounded by swampy territory in^^reg- 
i;Ated with salt, famishing the name to the pago, next 
L> Maricuerda. The soil is partly albariza^ partly bugeo ; 
: vines mainly palomino. Its surface is fh)m fifteen 
1 twvnty aransadas. In the direction of Corebuelo is 
tie p«go ol ftni Bias, of one hundred araozadas, with 
-ie noted vineyard La Lebr^ana. To the south lies the 
ago of Cortddedo, bordering ^pon Obregon and Uoi 
Haz. Its extent is ninety aranzadas, with bugeo, 
ibariBB,and histrillo soil, pbuited with palomino. 
The pago, tl C3oreba^, is eiroumaeribed by tbe 
h£^ of Aui Diaz, Cortadedo, Obregon, and Oan* 
irranaa, and the lane of Afiina. It comprises 
iree hundred aranzadas, and its ooil is "What 
tanned luatiillo, beUg^ roaky and lumpy .alberiziu 
iffdQt and baiTi>«rena mize<L jtfst tbe same as is found 
itne p«&go8 of t/dartiUo and Miajada alta atid some (>tii&r8, 
rcvuilisg vines are tbe palominoe, wtthpemuu^ Pedro 



Jimeneas,'nantQo,cafio«aEO,andfltlbillo. Its prsduotawaiy 
in quality. IKoted tiiieyania>aie la Be ao bo itm, loe (Dsi- 
bondoSt'ond otluaa. Tbe name of tbe pago is sometimes 
connected with coreho (cork), and oorchuelo may have 
signified a plantation of oork teees {tUe^m^ques). Tbe 
word ako aignifies blockhead. 

Cli#e to Cordbiielo is tbe pago of Oanlarranas, whiah 
borders to the west upon Ban Julian, and comprises 
two hundred arunzadas. Its higher parts have albariaa, 
its lower ones bugeo soil. The ^psedoorinating vine is 
palomino. 

The princdpal vines wbidh are most commonly culti- 
vated iii tbaalbariza and bugeo districts are tbe fallow- 
ing:— 

rmknt £»ai#iMf.— This vine gives moilos df all kinds, 
but is mainly reputed fur the sweet liqueurs, falsely 
called wines, whidi are made by mi^dng the juice of its 
sun-dried grapes wilii spirit. This diuce is also used 
for sweetening the ordinary sherries. Tbe stock is 
'large ; Uie canes ore the most erect amongst all varie- 
>t'as of vines in tbe distriot When weighted with a full 
harvest they sink to the ground, but after the vintage 
become ag^in upright. Tbe lesfves ax« oolte smooth, and 
not woolly or hairy ; medium to small, lobed or irre- 
gularly incised, and possess reddish greenllh yellow 
'nerves. By tbe erect position of tbe canes, and tbe 
yellowish colour of the foliage, a stock or vineyard of 
this vine can be easily Tooognbed at a distance. Tbe 
grapes are not very large, greenish white, and bloomy, 
"tiie sweetest of all grapes ; tbe bunches not very larg^, 
but yet of southern dimensions. Tbe mostos are from 
, 12'' to 16"^ B., without 'assolao, but rise to 22^ B. after 
about ten days* exposure to the sun. 
I The legend that this vine had been brought by one 
Pedro Ximenea from tbe Omary Islands and Madeira 
to the Rhine, and bad thence heen transplanted to 
Spain, was first publiabed by the Oerman author F. J. 
(Bachs {*" Ampelograpbia,*' Lipsite, 1661, 8vo.) It has 
} since made the round of literature, and ia an established, 
but nevertheless oompletely erroneous tradition. Odart 
says characteristically, that this story might flatter a 
German, but could make a fVanchman only smile. For 
if Pedro Ximtnes had taken away any of this vine from 
tiie Rhine, be -must have taken all. The vine is not 
found on the BlfflM, as I can testify, since I have studied 
it in tbe South. Itiaa large-giaped vine, which would 
never ripen in any €kTman vineyard. Tbe fallacy 
ought therefore to be discarded. 

A leas frequent variety of tbe foregoing vine is the 
Pedro Xtmm08 Loeo — a name reminding us of the 
French la fiUe bkuKh*. It id also termed aoplona, the 
tale-bearer, ><nrormer; names fw which tbe reasons 
are not assigned. Stock strong; oanes horizontal; 
leaves not ptovided with reddish nerves ; bunches and 
grapes large, and of slightly rough taste. 

The most esteemed of all tbe vines of tbe Jerez dis- 
trict is the Palomino, also named Palomino bianco^ Littan 
ootnmun, Tempfanilla, Orgaeu^, Alban, and Ofo d9 liebre. 
The stock is strong, tbe canes are thin and long, and 
numerous, reddish grey, or whitish red; leaves medium- 
sized, equal, dark green on tbe upper, woolly on the 
lower face. The Uossoms come early, and deyelope 
into large bunches. The grHoes are of medium size, of 
a greenish waxy colour and bloomy appearance, be- 
coming very much bronzed vjh«i struck by tbe sun, 
which spoils their qosality ; they give mostos of 14^ 
and 16° B. The wine obtaihed frnmit developee mostly 
into fioo, but not Into olorOso. This vine is the most 
common on the albariza soil of the Jerez district. 

A very delicate variety of the foreging vine is the 
Palomino nsgroy ako tenned CMtelia, Simtliir to ibre- 
going, but with blatik gmi>es; very fine taste; little 
grown ; used for vino So oolc¥^. ^ 

PerruHo.^-^Uong Ktofek, lilth ttdJiy erert, straight 

reddish gr«^ otfnes, iitef^ar'iAi^tig leaded, temy l«i(e 

bunches, wfth saalt'toubd, tAituluoeut^Nl^ (St Biixifte 

^efiow v^Mk*. 'T]My'^«i<»^erytUM^ «iidrted,^<^t«o 



772 



JOOBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, August 22. 1878. 



■weeti and luiTe aitringent biiiki. The xnoatos have 
12® B^ and are good for oloroaoa of high flaToor. 

I'ifrnmo ntgro differs from the former mainly by its 
black grapes. 

The Afiina-road separates the paj|OB of Mariafies, 
Cerfate, Orbuieja, Afiina, Cerro, del Marmol, and 
Montana on the northern, from Mariheniandei, Mon- 
tana, San Julian, and Zarznelo on the soathem aide of 
the gronp. 

Mariafies ia a pago of twenty aranaadas, between 
Afiina and Gorchnelo, and bordering upon Cantarranaa, 
Cer&te, and Marmol. Its heighta are albarisa, ita lower 
parts bogeo. Oer&te ia aitoated at the entrance of the 

go of Afiina, doae to the Cerro de Orbaneja. It haa 




araniadas, and its soil and plantations are like 
Ihoae of Afiina. Close to the old San Looar road, and 
aeparated from it br the oppoaite pago of AmargoiUo, 
which I ahall deacribe in oonnection with the Machar- 
nodo group, is the Cerro de Orbaneja. The Cerro 
bordera npon Afiina, Cerfiite, and Mariafiea, ia 160 
aranaadas in extent, its soil is albarixa and bngeo, and 
other earth in the lower parts, and ita prindptu vine is 
palomino. On the right of my road lav Afiina, atretch- 
mg towards the San Lncar road, bordering upon Or- 
baneja, Cer&te, and Marihemandea in the weat Its 
territories are partly bugeo, partly albarisa, and partly 
Tillares, that ia to aay, soil formed by the deatruction of 
ancient habitations. Its area is one uiousand aranzadas, 



on which the ubiquitona palomino predominates. Pro- 
minent yineyards are del Aljive, del Alamo, del Caribe. 
CSoae . to. Afiina ia the Ceiro del Marmol, twenty to 
thirty anioiadaa in extent, with a rocky subaoil, whence 
ita name ia derired. 

The moat north- western end of the Afiina group is 
formed by the pago of Montana, two hundred and fifty 
aranaadaa in extent, with aoil Tar^^g between bugeo 
and albariaa. In the south-west it bonders upon the 
pago of Marihemandea, which in the east touchea San 
Julian, and in the south abuts upon Balbaina. It has 
eighty aransadas, and bugeo ^re^la on its surface, 
although the summits are albanaa. I returned by the 
Hijuela de Candelero, keeping on my left the pages of 
San Julian and Zarauek. The latter liea between 
Omdelero and Cantananas, and has lustrillo, bngeo, and 
albarisa soil. Its Tines are palominos, mantuos, and 
albiUos. San Julian has 800 aransadaa, and stretchea 
from ZarzueU to the new road to San lAicar. Its soil 
is good albarisa, its wines are mainly palominos, with 
interspersed perrnnos, albiUos, cafiocaaos, mantuos, and 
Pedro Jimenes. It yields win^s of the first quality- 

Paaaing out of the Candelero road into the old San 
Lucar road I passed the laat pago of this group, com- 
pleting the liat, namely, the C^ro de Obzegon, eighty- 
nre aransadas in extent, a yotmg plantation on alMrisa 
and bugeo soil. Thence I returned to Jeres by the new 
San Lucar road. Along San Julian and Balbaina this 
road was juat in course of being reconatructed, a drcum- 
stance whichf though inconvenient for travelling, the 
traffic being deflected upon fields and field-roada, yet had 
the advantage of exhibiting to the eye some good long 
and deep sections of the albarisa territory, the white 
hard rock, softer surfrce, andoveriying white or odouied 
bugeo earth. 

The Cerro d^ Santiago is apago of more than two bun* 
dred aransada^ bordmd to the weat by the old San 
Lncar road, and in the north passing directly into 
Machamudo bajo. Its soil is albarisa, and it contains 
the noted vineyards del Canitan and de la Trinidad. 
Continuing our way ina north-west direction we passed 
the pago of Delia Jnams bordering upon the bve*road 
del Alrares Tuerto, and came to the low arable, now 
stubble, lands between Machamudo bajo and Uie pago 
of Amarguillo. The name of thia latter is derived nmn 
a sianng of bitter watw in proximity to the pago. Its 
vk^aids are ditidfli into two patches, situsied on the 
right or eastsmsiiU of Mm old road to San Lucar, which 
load aeparatss thssoCfrom the pagot of AAinaand OHmu 



neja. In the north, AmarguOlo passes into Yalcugido, 
Pelade, and Tiaon. Its soil is, for the neater put, 
bujipeo, its vines are palominoa and moecateJi. Fnn i 
height I saw the pago of Puerto ceoondido^ iMktaib^ 
tween Amarguillo and the Cerro del Pelade Diextttt 
is se?enty aransadas of lustriUo aofl, its rinei ire pife- 
mino, perruno, Pedro Jimenes, moscatel, aDiiOo, ad 
mantuo. On the right of the San Lucer roed, |iS 
Amarguillo and Puerto eaoondido, between Tinai, 
Tison, and Yalcaxgado, one aeee tiie Cexro del PeUb. 
with albarisa heights, bngeo in the lower puti, ai 
palomino prevailing on its ninety aranaadaa. Futhsti 
the noith-weat, dose to Uie Corodd Pelado, ii tbe pp 
of Tison, with two hundred aransadas of albinan 
bugeo sofl, and planted with palominoa. BeiwenTba 
and Amarguillo, doae to the latter, ia the moo^ fti 
Todna, one hundred aransadaa in extent, wiUi nil mj- 
ing between lustrillo of albarisa, bugeo and befTO^nn. 
Its vines are palominoa and mantuos, and of iti mt* 
yarda the moat noted ia the one dd Qaznld, ibo 
named dd Can6nigo. East of Tison, notth ftm «w 
point of view, and stretching towards MachtmiB^ n 
see the pago of Valcargado, with a sur&oe of wkji* 
dredji aranndaa, bugeo and albarisa edl, and fdaiM 
vines. East of Valcargado and bordering p poa B afc a ^ 
nudo bajo is the pago of Tabijete, of sixty laHSk 
with albarisa and bugeo aoil planted with pMv- 
We take the road which borders this pago tothias 
and divides it from Machamudo bajo, termed H^ k 
Tabajete, and then turning towaida the eest t^ A* 
Hijuela alta, which aeparatea Machamudo buoialia- 
tire length from the iaonymoua high pago. Thii w** 
in the midst of what is termed compreli^niiTely Ifadhff* 
nudo^ perhaps the greatest pago of Jerei, kariu a« 
than fifteen hundred aranMiias of viaeTarda It ^ 
eaat, it abuts for several kilometrea upon the Tiufci^ 
road. 

Its soil is mostly white plastic dbariia, with iiC^ 
spersed low-lying bugeo diatricta. Its wiBMtn ^ 
mino, perruno, Pedro Jimenes, albiUo, moscetd a<^ 
caao, and mantuo ; palomino forms half the lA & 
yidds exodlent winee. Noted vineyards are tbae ky 
Compania, and Domecq'a, originally planted \j Hioni 
400 aransadas in extent. 

(T^ b$ continued,) 



AVHIT AL nrTERV ATIOH AL SXHOIIIOn 



The Council, having been informed tbt W 
Majesty's GommiBsioners do not intec<i » 
publish Reports on the diflferentdepsrtBiefltt* 
the Exhibition of the present year, sndlookin^ 
the great importance to Arts, Manoftctirav 
Commerce that these annual displays •^^''^ 
pass away without some record, have dea^ 
undertake that duty, and for this poip ^ff 
engaged the services of gentlemen f^ 
skUled in the subjects of Uie ••^[•'■j'v'J 
to prepare such Reports for publicatis* •• 
Society's Journal The Council, tajJJ^ 
desire it to be understood that, in P"*J2 
these reports, they do not necessarily •^"v' 
views expressed in them, whidi muit be ti» 
as those of the writers only. 

The following report h the tsatk tkst »■ 
been issued. The remAder will iw^"**^ 
as they are complete. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, August 22, X878. 



773 



REPORT ON STEEL. 
By William Baker, 

Anootate of the Rojal School of Mines. 

If the strength and riches of England lie in 
ler iron and coal mines, it is chiefly that from 
hese sonrces are elaborated the countlet*s forms 
vhich steel assumes in the arts, and which have 
aade it a synonym for fidelity, brightness, in- 
lexibility, and temper, and other excellent qaali- 
ies. To any one cognisant of the great indus- 
rie8 which precede alike the production of a 
oassive crank-axle and the finest piece of cut- 
ery, it will be a matter of regret that the Kxhi- 
ntion at Vienna has probably robbed us in 
London of a number of articles which would 
have more fairly represented our manufactures 
n f^teel Nevertheless, in the Galleries of the 
Albert Hall there are very complete examples 
>f the skill which has been attained in the pro- 
Inction and manipulation of steel, in. a great 
rariety of forms. 

The heavy steel goods are placed in No. 26 
loom, West Machinery Galleries. The cut- 
ery and small steel goods are in the four South 
ycony Floor Rooms in the Royal Albert Hall. 
The most prominent feature in this exhibition 
B the '' mild steel,** produced by the modem 
process known as the Bessemer and the Sie- 
nens-Martin. Crucible steel can also be made 
\i mild in temper, and is daily melted with a 
[ooportion of carbon no greater than is some- 
dmes met with in certain kinds of wrought- 
iron, rhe application, however, of crucible 
Bteel to the production of large masses, must, 
ot necessity, be less economical than the treat- 
ment of the metal in a single furnace. Krupp, 
of Eaeen, Vickers, of Sheffield, and others at 
pKvioQs exhibitions, have shown large masses 
of crndble cast steel, which were produced by 
organising a regular supply of melted steel 
from some hundred pots, so as to give a 
a>otinuou8 flow into the mould. , Great skill 
most, manifestly, be employed to keep so many 
melting holes, and the contents of the pots, at 
the proper temperature, as well as to ensure the 
presence of the necessary proportion of carbon in 
tliecastbg. 'ihis older process may still claim 
^^ter exactness in producing a desired temper, 
ttd it is Ukely to be long employed for the finer 
^lities, which are used for cutting tools. A 
<^f comparison of the methods now in use 
^y be interesting, in view of the manufactures 
wwler consideration. 

Omcible Steel — If a proof were required 
w the demand for this kind of steel is undi- 
^unisbcd, it might be found in the fact that 
^verting furnaces are still being built in 
ohefiBeU, In these furnaces bar iron is heated 
^contact with charcoal in dose chests, whereby 
^certain amount of carboa is absorbed by the 



iron, and the so-called "blister steel*' pro- 
duced. The proportion of carbon may be regu- 
lated by the length of time given to this cemen- 
tation process. A control of the temper of the 
steel is also obtained upon breaking up the 
blister steel before melting. The appearance of 
the fracture indicates to some extent the amount 
of carbon, and this permits an assortment of 
pieces according to temper. Thousands of pots, 
however, are employed in melting steel direct 
from iron by the addition of the appropriate 
proportion of carbon, either in the form of 
charcoal or of carbon combined with iron, as in 
Spiegeleisen. It is worth recording that there 
are dififerences in the character of the steel made 
from the same iron, according to which method 
has been employed ; even when the amount of 
carbon in the ingots, as found by analysis, is 
identical. A closer application of chemical 
analysis, and perhaps an examination of the 
occluded gases, might yield an explanation of 
this result Messrs. Howell and Go. (No. 3,737) 
have been prominent as manufacturers of mild 
steel by this method, and they have illustrated 
the homogeneous character of their metal in a 
variety of ways. 

Beuemer SteeL — In this magnificent metal- 
lurgical process air is forced through molten cast- 
iron until its carbon is reduced to a minimum. 
The silicon is, by this treatment, very completely 
eliminated, and only sulphur and phosphorus 
resist oxidation and remam in the charge — at 
least, as long as there is any carbon left in the 
metaL The ** blow *' may be arrested, and steel 
of different degrees of hardness obtained ; but in 
this country it is the invariable practice, after 
the removal of the carbon, to restore it again in 
a known proportion by the addition of Spiegel- 
eisen— a variety of pig iron which contains gene- 
rally from 4 to 5 per cent, of carbon, and from 9 
to 13 per cent of manganese. 'J he time occu- 
pied in the treatment of ten tons of metal varies 
from ten to fifteen minutes. After the addition 
of Spiegeleisen, the charge is transferred to a 
vessel, from which it is run into the Ingot moulds. 
At the present time, there are in Europe 165 
Bessemer converters, producing annually 700,000 
tons of cast-steel. A section of a portion of a 
Bessemer ingot, when polished and etched for a 
microscopic object, discloses a structure admirably 
adapted for rigidity and toughness. Crystals of 
soft iron are seen filling up a network of harder 
or more carburised metal. Upon subsequent 
re-heating and working under the hammer, the 
etched surface approadies the grain or pattern 
exhibited by cruciDle steel, and is more homo- 
geneous. Now, the control of this process 
obviously depends upon hitting the exact point 
of complete decarburisatioii, together with the 
addition of a proper proportion of Spiegeleisen 
of known quality. Steel of this kind iMckf for 



JODKSAL tW THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Avcvn 22, 1873. 



The iHement-Martin Proeew, — ThU prwr« 
DOW counts in actuul use, in Europe, eixty fci- 
Daces, and is becoming a rivsl to thu ot'E^ 
Bemer. "^'hen pig iron, free from nilp'>D(ud 
■phMpborOB, IB metted, wrongbt iron, |ir«v)qcilj 
'brought toa welding beat, may be inlrtdnal 
into the batli of malimi metal, and a tguiilT J 
steel obtained limiUr ia cfaaracter to imraa 
steel, fiere, again, 6pieg«!ei«en is fomd uit 
Aviefiil addition to tbe charge, iaumachiiib 
nmganese appoara to protect the cubon fu 
DxidstioD, -niiilBt ozidising itnU; no giMfe 
oompoond ie prodtteed, and fte iugati in r»- 
sequently obtained of greater aoUdity ud vitt 
fewer bubblea of encloaed gas. Tbectri^ 
difference in the conditiona of thit mtAai Mil 
that of fiesaemer is that, n tbe ficnm- 
Martin process the metal hu longer tJK ti 
become mixed and liomogenecnu ; ul ^. 
that it ifl pOBBJble to Uke aamples snd jtj» 
the charge until the desired temper is ftimi 
This advantage is obtained by having u m- 
mand the intciwe heat aloag vith (he ncmi. 
<yr unoxidising 'flame of the Siemens' g»^ 
iiHCe. I'fae latest appKoation of this Wi^ 
invention of Dr. C. W. Siemens iBeibibiaia 
the form of a model (No. 3,774.) 'J bis krm 
has a cylindrical body, which ig e»aw* * 
revolve whilst the flame from the reg«iff<i* 
both raters and returns at the sime mi.it 
other being reserved for the obsrgiiijWl» 
the withdrawal of the bloom. The oftis** 
heated until nearly softened, a certiin pmf* 
tion of limestone, for flux, being added, ft 
coal, or reductive material, is then mii(^™ 
it, and reduction effected. If eteel be Aw* 
Spiegeleisen mast be need. The imffW 
advantage claimed for thie fnmace i»tta« 
containing phoepboiic acid may be "'*''■*' 
iron oxide being more rairidly reduced tbni * 
acid, the latter remaine in the slag. 

Should this result be uniformly attMsed.* 
invention may be looked upon as thep*'* 
advance in the inetttllnrgy of iron «ii« * 
Bessemer process. It will briag iiW * 
market a vast quantity of Englisb irw «* 
which contain such a proportion of pboii*'* 
as to prohibit their nse, except for oidisnj** 
iran. Adjoining the model may be •mo • ■• 
of iron in the state of a bloom, as it is t»k"* 
of tbe fnraace. The necessity of ■> oi* ■*P 



rails itoiitmns abont O'fi per cent, of cstlion. 
H arder steel is of leas oemnon application when 
made by this proeeee. Tbe grey pig-iroa most 
<>8teened in b^ngland for making Bessemer eteel 
is that known as bwmatite pig. Samples of this 
iron, together with the ore, limestone, «nd coke 
«8ed for its prodnction, are exiiibiled by P. W 
Webb, Esq. (No. 3,769), from tite Barrow 
Haematite Iron Company. This iron is made 
chiefly from the aptendidores o>f the Whftahaven 
and U'lvcratone dittrict«. Here are specimens 
showing tihe dark grey iHctare of the iron, with 
the higlily graphitic Bcales of No. l pig ; also 
the limestone tised as a finx, and the fine red 
ore itself, containing tram 60 to «8 per cent, of 
metallic iron. In the same case an interesting 
series from the Ebbw Vale Company displays 
the Rnc crystaUine fanes of the Spiegeteiseo and 
the ores emf)loyed for the production of tbia 
vslnablo adjunct to die Bessemer process. 

The Ebbw Vale Company was the first 
this country to attempt the mannfoetore of this 
variety of iron. Oidy two years ago we were 
entirely dependent iipon Germany and Sweden 
for its supply. It 'wae believed that eparthic 
iron ore, GontciniDg a proportion of manganese, 
was essential to ite prodactioB. The fibbw 
Vale Company hate at hand the spatAric ore of 
the Brend«»i Hilis. Howexrer, it is not too 
mnoh to expect that, trtth the introdndtion of 
ores in which manganese imd h-on oxides are 
naturally blendvd, as in thoH now imperted 
fifOm Spaift aKd PorBagA other aiteeeMrtul at- 
tempts 'may h* miide 'tbt the prodoAtion -of] 
Upieg^iJeo. ^ I 



assay, in order to twIuod the slag to a a a*^ 
quantity, 'seeme the only limit to the ecoM*" 
working of such a furnace. 

Turning to tbe special objects whidi flh«" 
these various methods of producing • "'^ •** 
th^ eriiibition of Mr. F. W. Webb, of lb* i* 
don and North-Weatem Bailwdy Work*. * 
Orewe, is Temarkable lor its compl(*«>«»- 

A large locomotive boiler <Bd flrs -htt^^ 
play.die (oughneBs and strengdi of the *«•*■* 



JOTTRNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, August 22, 1873. 



775 



tee], and its reBistance to panelling and forging 
ato angular shapes. Very convincing proofs of 
he higib quality of the metal are afforded on a 
mailer scale hy a nnmher of objects which have 
leea submitted to severe tests. Plates and rods 
re bent and doubled agam in the cold. Bolts 
re shown which have been slaked at red heat 
nd bent cold. The steel boiler plates possess a 
ensile Btrenth of 65,790 to 73,310 lbs. on the 
qoare inch. A I hole punched in a plate has 
•een drifted to 2i inches. A steel rail is exhi- 
tited, over which 60 million tons have passed 
rith a wear of table only amounting to J{ inch, 
rbere is also a steel rail twisted cold into the form 
)f a Bpiral column. Boiler plates are folded cold 
ike pocket-handkerchiefs, without the slightest 
jrack or separation of fibre. The boiler flue 
nth expansion rings will commend itself to the 
totice of engineers. 

Messrs. V icker, Sons and Oo.,Limited, SheflSeld, 
No. 3,787), send a fine cast-steel screw propeller, 
wlway axles and tyres. One of the latter is 
hown as tested by a falling weight A railway 
n|e is also shown, bent nearly double, as a test 
|bject A splendid example of this firm's manu- 
acture is a locomotive tyre, 7 feet 3i inches in 
liameter, as well as a crank-axle of a goods 
engine on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 
vhich has worn over 233,878 miles. A hydraulic 
^linder for a cotton press, tested up to 4 tons on the 
quare inch, and a cast-steel gun block for lining an 
Innstrong gun, are fine specimens of the metal. 
Mr J. Whitworth has, with considerable inge- 
mity, applied pressnre to aid in the production 
)f a Boli^ casting. Enormous pressure is applied 
ffliilst the metal is solidifying. The lining for a 
marine engine cylinder and a hydraulic cylinder 
we the objects exhibited, and those in which 
aensitjris eminently required. An interesting 
Jeries of sections of steel rails, taken off the Fur- 
less Railway after use, is exhibited by Mr. Frank 
J' Stileman. The wear of the rail on levels and 
^ gradients is exhibited by diagrams. These 
aiJawere rolled by the Barrow Haematite Com- 
^yi and have been in use six or seven years. 

Mr. W. Adams, locomotive superintendent 
«» the North London Railway, and Mr. 
^ McDonnell, of the Great Southern and 
*^e8tem Railway, Inchicore, Dnblin, contribute 
ther examples of the use of steel in railway 
wchinery. The former sends a cast-steel crank 
xl«, by Krupp, which has been in use lOi years, 
nd is consequently made from crucible steel ; it 
^travelled over 3U6,262 miles. Mr. McDonnell 
xhibits steel plates for a locomotive firebox, 
'l»eels, and a tyre, by Vickers, which has run 
ver 125,000 miles, having been once turned up 
gain after 73,305 miles. Originally its thick- 
^ was 21 inch. The wear and taming re- 
quired have only reduced it to 2|. Messrs. 
wk, Brothers, and Ca, of Pittsburgh, represent 



American skill in these manufactures. Their 
cast-steel boiler and firebox plates are worthy 
to be placed on the same platform as those 
mentioned above from Sheffield and from the 
works at Orewe. Other foreign exhibitors in 
heavy steel goods are the Central Swedish Iron 
and Steel Company, the Dannemora Cast-Steel 
Company, and the Fagersta Iron Company. 

Mention must be made of a novelty in railway 
wheels, patented by Mr. Robert Hadfield, of 
Sheffield. In this wheel the steel tyre is cast on to 
the centre, which may be of cast or wrought iron. 
No separation of the tyre can take place 
other than by actual wear, or turning it off in a 
lathe. By this system lighter steel tyres may be 
used than would be safe if the tyre were shrunk 
on to the centre, as in wheels of the usual con- 
struction. 

Turning to the collection of lighter goods in 
steel, we find the number and variety forbid a 
detailed description. In cutlery there are thirty- 
eight exhibitors ; fourteen are from Sheffield, two 
only from France, and two from Sweden. The 
finest example of the skill of Sheffield artisans 
in forging and tempering steel is the magnificent 
circular saw, seven feet and a quarter in diameter^ 
made by Messrs. Spear and Jackson. Messrs. 
Wheatman and Smith exhibit a circular saw, with 
a peculiarity of being furnished with a set of 
holes which guide the file in sharpening, and 
preserve the relative distances and proportion of 
the teeth. 

The tools exhibited afford ample illustrations 
of the use of the finer qualities of steel. The 
finish of the domestic cutlery in the cases of 
Messrs. Mappin and Webb, Nowill and Sons, 
Unwin and Rodgers, and others, is nnapproached 
by any foreign makers. Messrs. Wilkinson and 
Sons' swords are exquisite pieces of workman- 
ship. Amongst them is placed a cimeter of 
black Khorassan steel. The workman's toil in 
the production of such a blade is indicated by 
the regular pattern which appears on the etched 
surface. The blending of hard and soft metal, 
welded, but not fused, affords, when the weapon 
is ground and whetted, the serrated edge so 
essential for cutting purposes. It is a matter for 
discussion and experiment whether the polish 
obtained by the use of cast-steel is not at some 
slight expense of real utility. Even now, by 
some makers, shear steel is preferred for a carv- 
ing knife, and doubtless for the reason indicated 
above. For further illustration, comparisons may 
be made with antique pruning knives by Hon 
mann, of Nuremburg, exhibited by Mr. Henry 
Cole; the quaint old cutlery sent by Achille 
Juvinal and P. de St Albin, as well as the ancient 
European and foreign weapons in the collection 
of Colonel Lane Fox* The modem difficulty in 
the art of working oast-steel for cutlery lies in 
obtaining hardness with toughness. According 



Ta» IweDaxati«ii8 shown bjr tba IndeitnutiUe FM 
Company (No. 4.847) do not wrm very ttttietm olyi^ 
to tke goMnd pnbUe, imt the fao^oituie cbmctv^ 
ibnr i&yflntiOMs HAkfe* MHa asMrtiagof ctniAiik^ 

attentM. It is flow twelve yMraoBotftirCkHkiH 
raited, in 18I& to the Hovm of OMnmagnai tli^de^ 
of Hie Btone nsed in the hgafldfnff of the Hbomof FaiM 



vu we special purpoBe 01 the t#oJ» a distarbwuBe 
of a certain relation of th«8e qaalitiea causas 
britptleness or dtlnesa of tamper. Ijutroetiw 
exarap]a« of fractaras ai» ahown ly MfiMra. 
vA ilkinaou and Son, In a geri^ of cwocd Uades 
wbieli have braken in teatiog. -- -^^ --^^^^ **-^ ^ >^ ..^^..^.i. ^ •»« xum^-u. ««!» 

The manufacture of »aedJa« and atecl^paiui ^Sb^S^^ 
demands a fine qtiaUty of .laet a. tbe amaC ' ^^^^ M««taua,^e.et»-*twsiliiw»li.«H 
of the ol>}ect leaves no flhw uadiacoverad. Th» 
Hedditoh needles have been long celehcatad, »d 
four fimiH exhibit evewr valf aty^ fcr hand ai well 
as machine-sewiag. M«b«i». Mitohell and Ca., 
James Perry and Co.. and Pouw; GilloW, 
J > Kelly et Cie., Boulpgne-sur-Mar, are rivals 
la the exhibition of steal pens. The «kaet 



applied hy m9j of ax|i«ribQeDt» hat it itiUteitkitfl^ 
ofdy one that has stood the test of trial is Uat pnH 
hy the company tfhove mentioned. In Uie EiluUb^ 
•are Aewn aeversl vmm coated wjib tbe vwrmm 
toMioii, and «i^ hyddo' witfi tiiMeK«olker?<M I 
uatouchad ttoaa. The ckwoit ^w*^Tnti^ vil ■< 
detect any difftrenoe hefcween the two, m tin * 
BoTatiea hair no ^tkdt what&ver on the appettticpof ik 
aiAafia rt»M. A»l»^lte«fBeiisioy,tbittiM(n)Tni 

flle^l for pens is alttost mrtaaUy raUod in :heeaiir6eerafdto4«oye«Da«)^oeteiirt9paa»<i 

bhemeld. d«te(&ration. and even Aem^ alnwd^ ntnifaM hi 

I'he application of steel ffun and riflo harmla been anpegted. Experiments show tfat Am jnpwi 

' ' ' ^ ■• owrew ^jj^ ,^^ ^^^^ ^^ ttttrfBie aoi^, o»«l*» ■«< 

destractive agents of decompoeitiaii ia «flmili«e 
lii esiery fesiov to btlieTo thi4 this^ipMrtif ia pavro; 
and that stone to -which the 8ol«t^ hai beait]|^ i< 
pnujfcicaJBy indestnotthle. 



aliould be mentioned as flflbrdiaig Ugbtaess with 
sewirity. Specimens ace sliown by Wilkinson 
and 8on, and by the Husqnanaa Small Afwm 
Mamiiftcturing Co., of Swedea. 

^ieet Grates. — These articles afford ooaaiier- 
ablo Bcopo for the artiatic usaof steel in combina- 
tion with other materials, such as ormolu branse 
and ceramic tiles. TbeiSun of Stuart and iimith, 
Rosooe Works, .HliefBeld, eKhibits a bandaome 
grate, witb fender and flre-irana, ^diich -wHl 
all bear close examination. The ormolu orna- 
mental work, with the moulded Hona couchante, 
produce a pleasing contrast to the mirror polish 
of the steel grate. The whole is in axceUent 
taste. H. K Hoole. of Sheffield, and Messrs. 
Beoham and Sons, Londoa, are also exhibitors, 
the latter bhowing the effiact of aickal-platiqg an 
steel. 'I he slightly yetiow polish of this metel 
might pass unnotlaed, when not in immediate! 
contrast with steel. 

Amongst the miscellaneous articles should be 
mentioned the steel ke*'s of Messrs. Hobbs. H^d-t, 
and Co.^ which recall the elaborate work of 
mediaeval times. Messrs. Chubb and JSan, 
London, and 8. Chatwood, of Bolton, are ex- 
hibitors of locks 4Dd safes, and both dit^play a 
finish and solidity of work peculiarly Eiwlish. 
A most meritorious collection of clock and chro- 
nometeB fusees, and to Is used in their produc- 
tion, is sent by T. Schick, of Gos well -road, 
Loudon, i- inally, the ornamental uses of steel are , 
very prettily shown in the steel jewellery of Jean 
Wunden, of Brussels, and Martha Far^^ of 
Regent-street, London. 

Since the foregoing was written, Messrs. John 
Frown and Co. (Limited), Sheffield, hare 
succeeded in producing ^piegeleisen in their 
blast furnaces, from tbe Spanish or*. Two 
specimens which have been esamaned possessed 
all the physical character of the best iron 
from the Siegen cfotrict, and oontaiaed 
follow s; — 



i-* »■ 



1^ nvmher ^ visiftOM «dmttfted to fte tiSdei 
iteriagthe ^s^ek^aniiagaaSMU^t, AngtatMis"** 
foMows: Hmmm ^Loksbv ^4A; m nma^ ^\ 
total, 13,219. 



BJExcsrtMva 



AWAEBS XT THE VIENNA EXHIBIHttf 



as 



Carbon 4.41 

Manganese .. 1817 



4-62 per coat 
12^9 



>» 



"the £sUowiag Sa^Ush, £Mt Indiaa. lai ham-^ 
exhibitors have reoeiyed <^ ^ln>ny of honoor al « 
Vienna Exhibition. 

fn the Mhnng Department— Tbe Geologioil M 
GttHw, Qslwitta. 

ki the l^gFM^taialI)fntMlBieBt--JlMffi.F(mhrd 

Oo., London; J. and F. Howiud, Bedford ^Rtf«>J 
Sims, «nd Heafl, London ; and Walter A. Wood, u 
Amerioa* 

In 4he EooA Pitidaoli ^ptrtnoB^T^e ^^ 
tisatioB Saoiety of Viotaia. 

In Textile Eabrios— Messrs. Brook Brotk««(Hf 
derefleld : Christy and Co., London ; HorrocU I^r] 
and Oo., Lsnden ; DenaM Hicelltand Co., hm^ , 

In the VbM.Xtmkd'^Vk^mm. Hnrj fieantf* 
Co. ; tbe Broqghton Copper Compaaf, Hia^ 
Messrs. Brown and Co,, and Cammel sm CK t' ^ 
field ; 'Elkington, of Birmingham ; and flw I*^ 
Bernens Steel Company. 

In Fnmitme^Messrs. Jarfaoa and Onha*!^ 

In Olass, China, and Stoneware— Keius. Mi^ 
Company, Stoke-uj)on-TreDt ; the Worceater FW* 
Company. 

bi the Piip«r IVade— ^feass. Cowsa wA^^ 
iVnioBtek, Sootlaod. 

In DssoratiTe Art--Mr. Owan Jod«% ^^J-*^ 

In Machinery— Mr. Coplif, of the TJiut^ *J* 
Gfellawny and Sons, Mandheetw ; Lwrow «i»!t 
Leeds; tH«tt &t>«hem, Oldham ; S^«b lod (V. r*" 
dslphia ; Sharp, atewaid, aid €0., MaDohtft«. 

Soieatiic Instninmota— V. KoUbcrg. Ixa«* 
White, Philadelphia. . , 

Wbot Material— Meaws. Armstrong, ^'w»*l>» 
tyne. 

Naval Ifatwsal^The Washinflm W^^^ 
partment. - 

In Group 22— The Sonth Ka»astca *•■« ^ 
don. 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Auomt 22, 1873. 



777 



EdacRtional matters — ^The National Educational Bu- 
10, Wktfaioftton ; Dkv LeHner, Lahore^ India; the 
[in>n)mpnt of MHMachoaetta ; and the Smithsonian 
rtitotioii, Boston, U.S. 



VIENNA EXHIBITION ITEMS. 

Ai^a editbits an impoxtant collection of ozes, and 
pecifiUy iron ores ; these latter represent important 
punts which lie near the sea. coast, and throughfont 
sriy it« whole lengthi The purity of these ores, that 
to auy their freedom from sulphur, arsenic and phos- 
MKBiT nndera them especiaUy valuttble in the roanu- 
rinitt of fine iron and steel, and the preeenoe of' cer*^ 
bqiuntitiesof mapMnese in many of these hmmatites 
tdl to Uio T&iue. Under smeh oircumstHnces the rather 
il^iats oftransporirpMsents no impediment, and these 
MMS in great demand, not only for France, hut also- 
■l^^d, and even America. 

Iwigvt the roost noticeable exampies at Vienna, are 
iMBQiiiiilftted ores of MoktHel-Hadid, the hsematitet of 
tosb, and Temoulga, and of Oulossa-d'Oran. In 
ft Aliieriii exported 391,190 tons of iron ore, valued 
tti milllions of fisanos. 

Hjperia tUso contributes many other ore& such as lead, 

Jcopper ore and pyrites, found over the whole extent 

«0 pruvinc* of Tell ; zinc, in thn form of calamine 

fcUead* ; aniimonial ores ; and mercury is foond in 

IMmttne. In the case of workings conducted with 

firaountof knowledge and dare, considerable sucoesa^ 

IWq achieved, hot in more instanoea the attempts 

»&iled from the miserable want of means employed. 

-A the present time the exports of copper ore, lead 

vsod IhuI from Algeria have been vtaiy smai^l^ but 

.1 tede ia increasiDg, and with the emplr^ment of 

Jt^ent CApital and energy there is little doabt that 

"tllining and melallurgical industries of the colony 

r m^dnM highly fieapeetable fignra. 

|i Bsigbbours, ih» French, exhibit their usual tact 

'Vltlmg themselves of this, as well as all other op- 

'hnuiis, of letting tile world kno«K what Uiey are 

'^ksoeooeandaiti The goventnent and t^ city 

l^th exhibit largely and efiRoctively. The moat 
ol the works thua eshibated are examples of the 

' chart of France, the completion of several 

which waa announoed the other day to the 

of Sciences, by the Minister of Publio Works. 

are the development of the general chart 

Hie labours of MM. Brochont de Villien, 

and Elie de Beaumont. The new work is 

direction of M. Elie de Beaumont, and several 

auniog engineers and officials of the School of 

l^futs exhibited consist of t^x^lve sheets, coloured 

11^', of the chart of the staff, and oompriee 

Bwuvais, Soisson«k Bvrwux, PnriB, MeHUx, 

Melun, Proving, Chateaudun, Fontainebk-au, 

two sheets of longitudinal sections, and three 

^^tit-ul sections; three sheets of photographs of 

I, Mid two sheets of fossils, also photographed, 

ttiomptete the accessory documents which will be 

"1 to the whole t^eries of charts. 

%ork is performed with great care, nnd it is im- 

I to oxaggerate the value of such a series of charts 

' king, metallurgical, and agricultural interests of 

The appearance of the first instalment of 

I has been hailed with much interest by scientific 

the hope is expressed thnt the important work 

1^ pu8ht*d forward with the activity which such a 

jHe practical undertaking deserves. 



been selected, viz.: — 207 Austdaam 99 Germans, 36 
Italians, 20 Englishmen, 14 Dutchmen, 13 Swedes,. 12 
Danes, 10 Swiss, 7 Russians, 3 Belgians, and 2 
^i^paniardt. There is to be, moreover, an ordinary in 
Itbe bnildinf^at Is. 8d. 

Testimonial to Xr. P. C. Owen.— Fifteen hundred 
pounds, in sums of ^m ana to tnanty pounds, have 
been subscribed by the British exhibitors as a testimonial 
to Mr. Philip Gunliffe Owon, Seczetary of tha British 
Ck)mmission, in recognition of his unwearied exertions 
and unvarying attention. The testMuonial consisting of 
candelabra and tazzas by Elkington, and jew«illery for 
Mrs. Owen, the remainder in a purse, will ba presented 
in London, on October the 1st. 



inbi 



W 



I 



knffw of free lodging in the Rudolphinum daring 
Inhibition at Vienna has been responded to by 
wmt than 2(412 teachers. Of these 418 have 



Northampton Ezbibttfton of Leatkor Work. —The 
Hixhibition of Leather Work, opened last week at 
Northampton, has pioiMd a compjbete success. IShe 
2,000 exhibits are classod into five divisions, and not 
only illustrate the uses to which lenther run be put, bnt 
the machines employed in manutkcture. Besides fehoef, 
boots, gloves, saddlery, nostmantoaus, and book- binding, 
there are apeoimens or leaiher fhimes, cnrd caei^a, and 
brackets. Some old Bhglish leather bottles, k South 
American lasso, a Kaffir shield, and one oi rhiuoenros 
hide taken from Magdala, and two Ashantoe bridl<« 
excite general interest. One article hns a peculiar 
interest of its own, ''part of thu show-board of Hr. 
Carey (Bev, Dr. Carey), written by himself when a. 
shoemnker ut Hackleton, in Northamptonshire." It is 
a matter of history how Carey became a pioneer of 
missions in Bengal, and an Oriental scholar, one whose 
" name ^\ ill be remembered to the latest generation." 
Cobbett asserted that ** the trndc of a shoemaker numbers 
more men of sense, of public spirit, than any <»ther in 
the kincdom." There is hardly any other sci* nee or 
art in which they have not distinguiahcd themselves. 
HHns.S<t4^8^ of Niirnbeagv was a shoemaker ; laid Jaoob 
Bohn, whom Hegelians consider one of the fotmders of 
modem philosophy^ followed the same humbW craft. — 
0/obe. 

Oriental CDngreti aiuL WUhitkai.^The organisora 
of the ooagrosa which, is. to be hold in Pttris on the 1st of 
Se^Bftber to discuss variow queoticns connected with 
Japanese literature and the best means of bringing the 
Japanese intellect into profitable oonjunetion with that of 
Europe, have addtni another feature to* its programme 
which cannot fWil to be an attraction,.namfly, an exhibi- 
tion of the products of Chinese and Japanese art, for 
which purpose tha Miniator <^ Public Works has placed 
a portion of the Palais do ^Industrie at the service of the 
council. M. de Longp^rier, of the Inntitute of France, is 
the organiser of the exhibition, and his name will at once 
give character to the undertaking and a»i»ure its being 
earned ont with Uie sole view to tha illustration of art 
and arebswlogy. Taking into consideration the important 
nature of the exhibition, the Municipal Counc il of Paris 
has votad tha sum of 1,200 franoa toward^ expenses, A 
fine collection of objected brought from. China, and .lupan 
only a few months since b^ M. Henri Ctnnnschi, will 
form a feature in the exhibition. The congress itself, 
which originated with M. L6on do Kosy, professor of 
Japanese, and a few other eminent Orientali!*t8, promises 
to be vi>Ty attractive, and a considerable number of Eng- 
lish names are on the list of its members ; and it will be 
w«llta Hdd that Mr. Robert K. Douglas, of the British 
Museum, is the honorary seo^tar}' in England. The 
congress will not be merely a scientific assembly, but 
aho tha opportunity for araof iplmMmt aad profitable 
seoinl meetoogaof OrisaCiililtaibMiaUjpaita of the wouid^ 

Exhibition at Philadelphia.— The Pbiladelpbians are 
hand fA work pr»paiiog to ^isir(Ct*n;U4nnial Exhibition 
to be held in 1876. JB200 eacb for the ten best dowgo 



778 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Adoubt 22, 1873. 



for an appropriate boildiog had been ofifered, and 40 
plans have now been aent in. — Graphic. 

Whitehaven Szhibitioa.~An Industrial Exhibition 
on a largo scale was opened last week at Whitehaven, 
bv Mr G. Bantinok, M.P., in connection with the 
Working Men^s Beading-room and Library. 



THE INXBBif ATIONAL PATENT CJONGEESS. 

The labours of this congress at Vienna were brought 
to a dose on Saturday, the 9th inst, after a week of dis- 
eussisn. The re solutious finally adopted were tiie follow- 
ing:— 

'* BBaoLUTiox I —The proteotjon of inVeatkmi is to be raann- 
leed hj the laws of all drilised natioiiB under the ooodition of a 
CMBiilete publioation of the same ; becanae :— 

**o. The sense of right of dTilised natioDs demands the legal 
fnoteotioQ of intellectnal work. 

**4. This protection affords the ooly practical and effecttve means 
of introducing new technical ideas, wlthoat loss of time, and in a 
rdiable manner to the genenl knowledge of the public. 

** e. The protection of inTention renders the labour of th6 in- 
ventor remuneratiTe, and induces theveby oompetoit men to devote 
time and means to the introduction aiid practical application of 
new and useful technical methods and improvements, or to actract 
capital from abroad, whidi, in the absence of patent proteotiioii, 
will And means of aecure investment elsewhere. 

** d. Bj the obligatory complete publication of the patented in- 
vention, the great sac ri fices in time and of monev, which the tech- 
nical application would otherwise impone upon the indostxy of all 
«ountrie«, will be oonaiderabty lessened. 

**« Bjrthe protection of invention the secrecy of manufisctore, 
which is one of the greatest enemies of industrial pr ogr e ss , will 
lase its chief support. 

"/. Great injury will beinflioted upon the countries which have 
no rational patent laws, by the native inventive talent emigrating 
to more congenial countries, where their labour is legimy pro- 
tected. 

** g. Experience shows that the holder of a patent will himself 
make the most effectual ezerttons for a speedy introduction of his 
invention." 

"Bbsolutiox n.— An effective and useftil patent must have the 
following principles : 

**a. Tbe inventor or his legal heir only can obtain a patent. A 
patent cannot be reftised to a foreigner. 

*b. In order to carry out theprindple stated above (a), the in- 
troduction of the system of a preliminary oy^f»i<ti*<j A» T u recom- 
mended. 

*' c. A patent for an Invention ahonld be granted fbr fifteen 
jrears, or the option shookL be to extend it to that period. 

**d. The granting of a patent must be accompanied by a de- 
tailed and complete pu b l i cation, which rendeni the pnctioalappli- 
cauon oi the invention possible. 

**«. The cost for the granting of a patent should be modetatCL 
but in the interest of the inventor an increasing scale of I!ms should 
be fixed, so as to cancel a useless patent as soon as possible. 

* V. It should be easf for any to obtain, through a well-organised 
patent office, the speoflcations of any patent, as well as to ascer- 
tain which patents are stUl in fbroe. 

** ff. Laws should be pasaed by means of which a patentee may 
be oompelled, in casea of public interest, to allow the use of his in- 
vention, for a suitable remuneration, to all baut-JUe applicants." 

** Bbsolution UL— In consideration of the great difference be- 
tween the exinting patent laws, and in consideration of the altered 
state of international communication, the necessity of reform be- 
oomea evident, and it ia to be strongly reconumended that the dif- 
ferent govemmentis should endeavour to arrange, as soon as poa- 
aiblejjm intematianal understanding on the patent laws. 

** The not executing of a patent in a countiy is no reason ftirita 
becoming void in thw ooui^, as long as the invention has beea 
carried out once, andthepossibiUty is there that the ririit of using 
<the invention can beobtuned by any inhabitant of this eountry.'^ 



A requisition is being signed by Members of 
Parliament and others, requesting the Lord Mayor to call a 
meeting in the City of London, to consider the advisability 
of the State purchasing the railways. Mr. Bass, M.P. for 
I>erby, fs one of the promoters. 

A company has been formed at Adelaide to work 
•eanal ooalmioea in Tasmania. A Yiotorian oompany has also 
opened a mine at Spring Bay. 

Bgypt is said to contain 1 13 naTigable oanala and 
769 aaaUer ones, oonatmoted for irrigation. 



NATIONAL TBAINING SCHOOL FOB MUSIC 

At the recent Eisteddfodd of the Anglesey choir, Lod 
Clarence Paget, K.C.B., in the course of his preaide&tiil 
address, made the following remarks oa the school :- 

It so happens that my presidency of to -dsy win. I iofn, ht Qa 
means of introducing to my countrymen the hiomgeotm 
institutien whidi is about to be Ibnnded undsr the inac^ 
presidencr of the Ptiaoe of Wales I think the WAA. pw^ia 
winthy of the first intimation of this proposed sdwrne. beoiat 
already they have in the principality given great stteotiaa to Oe 
important question of ^vating the people and secoriBriOtk 
advantages whidi may aocrue nom tue cultivatioii of wBoblf 
artof music and of the other branches of the fine arts. T^Kpdtt 
it is to Wales that the honour is accorded of being the flr«pvttf 
the United Kingdom to be informed of what I trostvillfsmit 
be a maflpoifloent sidieme for the cultivation of muncun^il 
classes. It is proposed that we shmald, under the prasde&TV 
his Royal Hinmess the Prince ot Wales, have a great utM 
ta«ining sdioM for mn«ic, of whidi the central depot siB be a 
London, but which hereafter. I trust, wfll sprssd thnnik (bi 
whole of the country, exactly as the scho«ils of ait wbi^ve w 
esUblished, and which were al«o originated by the SodatycfAft 
have done. A private individual, Mr. C. J. Fwake.fc MaB^ 
centiy undertaken at hie own cost and risk to erect t tonswn; 
buUdinga, containing class-rooms, lerture-rooms, ami ^"ffSI 
that is necessary for the school to be attached to ^4!^fr 
The fundamental principle and primary object of the atfs » 
cultivation of the highest musicat aptitude in flK^ca^ > 
whatever atation of society it may be found. In ofderna^ 
out this mincipte to the ftiUest extent, admtvioa to wiaw 
win be oDtained by competi ive examin^on slone Tte p^"" 
scholarships will be 800 in number and will be of two kind*. «« 
to affiird ttee instruction by paying the stodentB* fees, ^^'^ 
give ftve instruction with a maintenance aUowaneeioMia^ 
It will be «>en to any coun^, town, public body, or P^^*"£ 
Tidual to esUblish one or other of thnss kinds of erMhenp** 
competition under given limitations. Should thoebi sfli 
aooommodation in the school than is requisite for the is^^ 
of these scholars, stadenUpayhur their own fees will be iOdj 
by competition to fill the vacancies, care being takis tw ^ 
show suflident aptitude. It is proposed that the icboal*«s 
provide in the first instance for the hee instxoetioB of awcw 
scholars. The school fee without maintenance it if t^aae* 
will be between £36 and £40 pounds a year. The ^^'^'^^ 
allowance for the support of a scholar will be in ^^'^^'S^ 
fee, and independent of the s^ool. The oottoo& ^^^JfJ" 
Albert Ebdl are prepared to devote certain roons. iaewjv 
amall lecture theatrea, to the use of the sohodlat anosuialw 
when proper arrangements shall have been made fur ttitwj^ 
TUB awistance is estimated to be worth about £1.000 s r^^ 



echoed isto be under a committee of 

members ^pointed by the Royal Commisuooen nr tin 
of 1861, two members ^pointed by the coundl of the Bwil^g 
Hall, fliad three members appointed by the oouncO of ^?^ 
of Arts, and the committee thusfbrmM will consist of aaow 
Duke of Edinburgh, H.R H. Prinoe Christian. AdmiialAt Jg 
Hon. Lord darenoe Paget. K C.B., ICajor-Oeneial fWJT 
'mimotjR.A., F.R 8 . BCr. Henry Cede, CB.MsjocDoMWjJ; 
and Sir W. Andemon, K C B. Thus, you wiU see thttwtigjr 
prospect at lARt of establishing in our own country »W^ 
dsas of mu^i'-al educati'm. both instrummtal *''>^]'?'rjg 
shall no longer be dopendnnt upon foreigoos. Imt asB w* 
our own country, where there is as gre«t talent "■•■yjS 
country in the world, and as great an aptitude for ttesitsri^ 
and Ihope that in a few years we shall have our cooiigj'yi 
represented with r^^ard to muaioal education. Inut'*''^ 
gives me very sincere pleasure to be called npoato|ywqr 
honourable post which I do on the present occasion, iSi"3|T 



my hope that all dssscs of sooi^ will use th«ir « » . . ^ ^ 
to promote the sdieme which I have vesy insdequst^rP" '^ 



you. 



TECHNICAL BDUCATIOK. 

The exoellent action of some of the GSty Com pl y 
doing more and more to draw attentioo to twg 
education. The Goldsmiths* Company, i ^»« ^ ^ 
awud £250 in prizes for designs, models, exewfc*. 
workmanship, and have also decided *^* *5S5 
scholarship of £100 shall he awarded to a ^^^ 
shall have shown exceptional talent and obtaiaca tf* 
for design for three suocessiTe ye^irs. T^o "'Tjrf 
the deputation to the BCarq^ds of Ripon enttDcii*'w*|T 
very sound views on a suhjeot whicn oannotbMP|^ 
to uumber maoh longer. The ancient V^^ fj 
prenttoeship has— it was averred— -almost '>''*5«!I' 
and has not yet been replaced by any tqatfTJ^^ 
ireons system. WorkoMn are no longii' **?'*^ 



geons system. 

tanght, and, shifting from one trade to 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, AuoasT 22, 187S. 



779 



ianii often acquires the nnsatisiiictory repatation of 
Jack of all traaee and master of none. Soath Ken- 
Bgton has done a great deal towards infosing true 
mo feeling into those who can avail themseWes of 
I tdvantages, bnt eren there sound practical teaching is 
mted. A lecturer is lees required than a practical de- 
omtrator— one who can net only tell the pupil what 
I ihould do, bnt show him how to do it by prac- 
isl exAmple. None bnt a skilled maniptUator can do 
ll, and there appears but little doubt of the desira- 
fiy of employing thoroughly practised artisans as de- 
iBitrators. One of the deputation, however, appeared 
» be itrafgling against the inevitable when he de* 
NMed the present system of subdivision of labour. 
ilioAt it is to be deplored, inasmuch as it has an un- 
Btfonable tendency to dwarf men into mere marines, 
mlber portions of machines, but we fear Uiat the our- 
tfl b ifmost too strong to be resisted. Not only in 
tkm, tat in professions, is the tendency towards spe- 
Ufa kicoming stronger every day. Lawyers not only 
Millliiiinselves either to common law or equity, Par- 
Mstiry bosinees or conveyancing, but to subdivisions 
'Am groat branches. l)octors devote their lives 
At ttudy of a single organ — ^the eye, the ear, the 
ll^the loogfl, the heart, or the skin. The same ten- 
pf to focus the entire intelligence upon a single point 

rrent in almost every walk of life ; but in some 
it has been carried to a preposterous extent A 
A^thoroQgh technical education would remove many 
■loMeotions to subdivision of labour, as, although it 
lit ahimataly pay the workman beet to devote him- 
I Id one department of his craft, the artisan and the 
■ sonld not fail to be in^proved by a knowledge of 
\^ whole art and mystery of his particular trade. — 



THE ELEOTBIO LIGHT. 

ft viU be in the recolleotion of the readers of the 
ini^ that, in April last *, an analosy was pointed 
lietwoen sunlight and the electric hght, and that 
■fo conditions were therein indicated as being most 
gjjfiMe to that particular development of light which 
but bring out the separation of the power pro- 
fhe light from the place of its manifestation. 
Vvditrans were the employment of magneto- 
^^l^and the use of a closed incandescent con- 
Sj^A.in atmosphere which would not oxidise or 
PVM iffect the durability of the light-producing 
"■Q^From the quotation from the Russian paper 
g^Md i follows, it will be seen that tiie results 
Hpited are even bow in the course of realisation, 
Wm w practical men can do is, to wish the plan tiie 
M»it nems to deserve, and to wait the result of the 
pp exhibitions of its power in London and other 
*|>nore accessible to the Western nations ihan 

* nterBboTgh : — 

* Oi Tuesday the 8-20 of May, a most interesting 
■^ made for the first time in public at the Ad- 
P^ House, St. Petersburgh, under the auspices of 
•JJ- 8. A. Kosloff and Co., the proprietors of the 
pw »new system of lighting by electricity, the 
HJJ2 of Hr. A. Ladiguin of that town. 
^*^J^ to the restricted «paro in the hall made use 

utt occasion, the number of apectators was neces- 
inmted, but still they consisted of more than a 
I epeoialists from different countries, representa- 
•cwnoe, honovrable visitors, and many reporters, 
2^>««I1 deeply interested, and unanimously decided 
yettal was really sucoessfnl. 
^Pw the present time, as is well known, the electric 
F^«^beennied only for light-houses, as an electric 

^ JiwrMi qr Ae Sodetw tf Art», vol. xxl., p. 381 ; also 



sun illumination for signals, or on the stage, where a 
strong light may be required without regard to cost ; but 
thus far it has been quite impossible to employ it for 
lighting streets or houses. 

"By the old method the electric spark was passed 
between two points of charcoal, each attached to a 
copper wire connected with an electro-magnetic machine. 

"The disadvantages attending this m^le consisted in 
the facts, that, for each light a separate machine was 
required, and that the light so obtained, although very 
powerful, was impossible to be related, besides being 
non-continuous, owing to the rapid consumption of the 
charcoal points from exposure to air. 

" All tnese difficulties Mr. A. TAHigiitn has tried and 
apparently overcome most successfully. 

" By his newly.invented method, only one piece of 
charcoal or other bad conductor is required, which being 
attached to a wire connected with an electro-magnetic 
machine is placed in a glass tube, from which the air is 
exhausted, and replaced by a gas which will not at a 
high temperature combine chemically with the charcoal. 
This tube is then hermetically sealed, and the machine 
being set in motion by means of a small steam-engine, 
the charcoal becomes gradually and equ^y heated,* and 
emits a soft) steady, and continuous light, which, by 
a most simple contrivance can be s^sngthened or 
weakened at the option of those employing it ; its dura- 
tion being dependent solely on Uie electric current, 
which of course will List as long as the machine is kept 
in motion. 

"Taking into consideration the fact that one machine, 
worked by a small three-horse power engine, is capable 
of lighting many hundreds of lanterns, it is evident what 
an enormous advantage and profit oould be gained by 
the illumination of streets, private houses, public build- 
ings, and mines witii the new dectric light In the 
latter it must prove invaluable, as no explosion need ever 
be feared from it, and these lanterns will bum equaUy as 
well under water as in a room. 

"Without mentioning the many advantages this mode 
of illumination has over sas, which bpr ito unpleasant 
odour and evaporation is uowly poisoning thousands of 
human beings, and from which explosions are frequent, 
we can state that by calculations made, this electric light 
can be produced at a fifth of the cobt of coal gas. 

"We hope shortly to place before the pubUo more com- 
plete particulars, as wdl as reports of further experi- 
ments which are proposed to take place in Vienna, Paris, 
and London." — See the Russian paper Goloa^ No. 129, of 
May 11—23, 1873. 



VOTES ON BOOKS. 



Seiantifio Handicraft. By J. J. Griffin, F.O.8., ftc. 
(London: Griffin and Sons, 1873.)— This is a catalogue 
of apparatus suitable for the performance of elementary 
experiments in physics, comprising mechanics, hydro- 
statics, hydrodynamics, and pneumatics. The book Is 
abundantly illustrated, and the descriptions are suffi- 
ciently full to be useful to the physical student. 

What to do in Disinfeetlon, fte. (^. W, Allen),— II 
pamphlet bearing this title is published b)r Mudie's Dis- 
mfectant Company, and though its principal aim is to 
bring before the public the disinfectant of that com- 
pany, it also gives a ffood jietl of general information 
upon the subject of oiBinfeotion, which at the present 
time is likely to be specially nsefcd. 



The Turkish authorities have giTen an order to 
Krapp, of Bssen, for 600 heavy f ortrsss guns. The oost of 
these guns will be £750,000. 



780 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, AnousT 22. 1B78. 



asHSBM* xatsjs. 



DlBOO^rerj of CmA noar Bagdad. — A ooal mine has 
been dinoovered in the B^igdad distrtci, betwectt Yraireb and 
Zeto. Acxsordioiv to th« report of M. Ai<viig«l, engineer to the 
Vioeroyalty^ the &)nniittoa axtends o^iap a Inogtli of muna thaa 
Mtven kilometTM, mth a breadth of ftom 150 to 200 metiM» 
£i)(Uty-four tone were got out daring tha firat three weekt 
of working. 

Seryian Ballways. — ^The principal conditions proposed 
for the oonetruotioa of a railway in Servia are as follows : — 
The ooncesaion is to be granted tor a term of fifty years, bat 
the Government is to have the option of parohasing the Mne 
at the expiration of 20 years. The andertaking iato be called 
*< The Servian Stats Railway,** and it is to have a doable line 
of rails. The O'lmpany oonsnroctiog it is to be subject to the 
jurisdiction of the Servian Goveramenty and it ia to have lla 
bead office at Belgrade. 

Tha Projeotad Oaaal through the Iithiiiiis of Corinth. 
— According to the Lewmt Herald it appears that the oon- 
ce«siun for the canal thmugh tbe Isthraiw of Corinth has 
been gcanted by the Greek. GovemmMit lo a Greek banker of 
London. This cduiessien inolodes a grant of 30 milliona of 
square yards of land for building purposes, docks, &o., the 
roioes and foreata iu the oeigh^urhood of the caoal« the 
mioeral springs (.f Zutxuki, railroads and tramways, the Lake 
of Styniphalia for irrigHti<in,the monopoly of the navigation, 
and numerous other privileges. Thi>* undertaking is said to 
be looked upon favourably in the Levant. 

ProaervatlOB of 7ood. — ^In a reoeat number of the 
Jt0PMe Hebdommdair« de Chimie 8cimtifiqu$ ei Zmtustrtelie, 
M. Lsnjorroia proposes to presM've animal aubslaacea iWom 
decav by adding to thi^a 1 percent, of magenta ! The process, 
has Wn applied to slices of beef, which, after being kept for 
several mpntbs, yi<>ldrd, after being wa^^d and b(Hled. very 
good soup. The Chemical News suggests that, should this 
method of preserving food become general, it is to be hoped 
that the magenta employed will be free from arsenic. 

AaphnUa. Ptqari-^-A^phalto paper is likalyr to become 
of great \mo iu m«iny ways. In thin. sJleeta it ie oiaf ul for 
wTupping ailka or other fabrics that need proteotioa from 
moisture, for lining cast By or paddng boxas far pianoi^ 
ftc, or rolled up int«) pipes for conveying wat^r. Asphalte 
tabes are only <me fifth the weiRht uf iroo, will not rust, andf 
are quite tough and strong. The tubes are simply sheets of 
paper, of a peculiar quality, dipped in melted aspbalte, and 
then rolled upon a cylinder. A machine for preparing the 
aspbalte wrapping pnpfr consists of a hollow cylinder, heated' 
by steam, and a^ wedgp-shaped box^ containing the hot 
aspbalte. Tbe box has a narrow slit, the width of the 
paper, and as tbn p>iper passes, a thin layer of aspbalte 
IS distributed on tbe paper just before it passes the cylinder. 

New Payements. — Wood, ai^ioadara, granite, and as- 
pbalte (especially the latter) find ardent friends and irre- 
concileaihle enemies. Much praise has been luvaahed 
upon aspbalte; it ia clean, smooth, and noiseless; bur 
the memorial presented to the Commissiuaers of. Sew^rn 
by the owners of fifteen thousand bor»es shows that 
there are at least two sides to the aspbalte question. 
The slipperiness of aspbalte when slitfbtly wet is a serious 
drawback in a country where dampness is the dohuhI 
condition of thimrs. Messrs. Pickford and Co., and the 
London General Omnibus Company make tbe startling 
statement that acridents to their horses have not only in- 
creased fifty per oent since the introduction of aspbalte, but 
have become more severe in their character. On tbe other 
hand, Captain Shaw r««ords his opinion in favour of 
awphalte. If the use of locomof ives oa roads develop with 
the rapidity predicted by many, the durability of pavemf'nts 
is likely to be subjected to much severer testa than it has 
hitherto endured. A fifteen or twenty ton locomotive, 
travelling at three iftttoa an hoar, the mnximnm pace pn»- 
posed for "heavy** engines ** in towns" by the S^-Wt 
Ciamnitlse of the House of Commons, will m very Hk»-I^ 
to find out the *' auft plaoea," both in asphalte and its rival 
pavements. —/ron. 



The 8t Oothard Bailway. — ^The seventh report 
the progress of the Sl Gothard Tunnel has just been pat 
liished by the Federal Counctt. Prom this it app«er» t^ 
"the length of gallery driven up to 30th of Jane was 427* 
imeirea; laagth of tannel completely eiMavmtod, 296-J 
leagtJbof ar«4u 14^.00; length ot sidaasalk. (eaat),iai90] 
ditto aiesl^ 141 00 ; lan^ oi ^huhu boUt, 99^50 
The avenge number of wo^tmea employed dnriog 
month of June was U036 ; the grsatast nnmher < 
in one day was 1,205. At Goeseh^pi^nt 1^ mears of 
tunnel in curve have been driven, and. 13*80 of srcb ' 
Towards the end of the month trial will be made <»f t«o r* 
boring machines (Mackeau). A^ Ajrolo the tvmnf'n'ii; 
maohinery was eomreenced' on the 21st of Jofke villi 
maohinea of Dabota and Pran^eis. 

Oantml Aaii^— T3ia com{deliiMa U the KoHhoni 
Railway to Dtrjeeliog will dft OMie^ toKarda opsBiae'H 
markets qf Tibet to Bnglish produce. Through Siu m 
transit is attended with few difflcultiea, and thif r-^tf 
possettees the advantsge of leading to the richeal pnmc-^ 
of Tibet. A Kttle to the east of the two loftiest mtaoiiais 
in the world — Mount Everest and Konohin-jisfs — h 
the Jalep pass, only 13,000 feat above the level 44tte«-i., 
thuaaSrtdmir a practical gateway to Lhaaaa. T^vit^ 
Eastern Central Asia hse hitherto takan acireoikpsra • 
through Ladakh and over the Karakoram raa^ toYskvi 
and Kaahgar. Despite the difficaltaaa, djMig^ra, aad ]mt^ 
of tbiaruntcw trade has been a»eadily inoreaaing, and i iA 
great encouragement to these who regard Central Asisu « 
important f ature outlet for our nvmn/actares. The N-fbn. 
Btilwav will also aflbrd important help to Ch« tea-p*»^^-^ 
of the I'erai. Meanwhile it is gratifying to hear that ik 
missicm dispatched with the Queen's letter fnnn RaBr>* ^ 
Mandalay, in Upper Burmah, has been graoioaaly rmattm 
by the golden-footed monaroh. The route tbrongh Tpo* 
Burmah, along the line of the Irrawaddy, to Wa^aefmCkn. 
baa long attnoted the attention of rsilwiey prr^e«b«^ n< 
if carried out, would have tbe effect of pourintr th« *- *• 
export trade of YuoML aod. UiUiac BuOQAah thruu^ Rja- 
goon. — Iron. 



soils as. 



The MLdsniiiiiiev flMbsoriptioBs 
shoiild be forvrarded by oheque or 
order, crossed ** Coutbs and Co.,** and made p»T* 
able to Sir. Samuel Tl^omas Davenport, FiaaaJ^ 
officer. 



THB UBSABT. 

l^e foUowsig works hmve been present *■ 
the Library: — 

Rrtport of the Oommiiisioner of A^cuUur^ for ** 
year 1871, and,the Monthly Reports of the Deoartx"' 
n£ Agriiulture for the year 1872. Presente^l by s* 
Depiirtment of Agriculture of tha United StiW^ 
Ainvrica, 

Smithsonian Cootrihutionato Knowlcdgs VoL 
Prtwentad by the Smithsonian loaUuuion, W* 
United States. 

Hydraulic and o^ier Tablea, with Balea, and a 
of Usefol InforoiatBon. By J. M. 
M. laat. C.K. Praaeated by tho Author. 

Pr^otical Hydropathy. By John Sraedley. f^ 

sented by the Author. 

Traits Ptatique du CbAuffago, do la Yentilatloa. ^ 
Oh. Joly. Presented by the Author. 

Scientific Handicraft By J. J. GriaiD, F.C& f^' 
aented by the Author. 



JOURNAL 07 THSSOtOIErT-OF ABT8, AoHn^, UIS. 



781- 



Ml OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, 

' Ho. 1,0M. Toi. XXI. 



■_ WSIDAT, AUGUST 29, 1878. 






VUBUITS VT IHB ovrnroiL, 



sniLAL ixAimrATian. 



f, and may be had grata, on Bpplication 



SBSIVOS or THE WOtXTT- 



it loetara of the third ocuutK of Ontor 
|l*orthe Seodon, "On Wines; their Pro- 
t Tnatment, and TTse," was delivered by 
"T. THDDiCHnu, Esq., M.D., on Monday 
^ Apnl 21tt, 1873, as (oQoire :~ 



L — {pmiinued from pagi 772.) 

PanBlMO OP TBI VlNM. 

■'t* laag Tido, iiilerrBpt«d by frequent local 
feM inl freqaent qur^tioM on my p&it, m 

■T*! tie lineyanl, DUiad the '■ A. B.," from 
|*<iiii». iu fernNiT owner. I nqoesled to have 

^pV vi tbe Tiiun expUined to ma, and the 
This ii tamMd 



two eyM Isft to Hum. Tliera is iusm a oariom mode 
of mtling through the node of the cane -without eon* 
■ideiiiig Ihe eye Dion hy. When the fruit branch has 
been home by one aim dniing one year, it i> in the fol- 
lowing eotabliabed on the neM aim to Uie left, and tha 
aim with the obaolete frnit-bnweh it cnt down to a 
itnmp. In ihii nauier the frnit-brinch tnveli roimd 



the Tine like a nne c^ CMdi, from right to lef^ o 

■ - Thiscj--'-'- -■■ ..^- ->---.--. . 

•f Sben?. 



1 bar yean. ' 



is cyde ii obseired in the whole Und 



." Ihe long part, " booa," baaa tb4 

l*>Uiiw edga with whiah tha caaea are oat 

|Ml Tha '- poto" H a kiad of light haldiet, 

■ loeh npoa kaaki and dry oU wood. In 

v thia boa not lanily hiaaka the htancfaea, 

■riy of jroang Tinea, thandaie upon »aah ad> 



that the uninitdated cui eoaroely comprehend the mamMr 
of their reeoveiing the aatnioDal appearance. Tliii was 
itrongly felt by an Bngliih Tiiitor, who expreaaed his 



and cawed Um to eielaim, uiiioiuly:- 
rooter' 

The pruning it alwayt effected with the intention 
of caiuiag the branchce to grow towards the gnnmd ; 
thetefore, itiimpe which are directed towanta the earth 
are preferred to those which are tamed opwarda. When 
old wood i> BO aitQatad that ita cutting off might endanger 
the fruit blanch, it ii lefL Ttaia ia Vae ranilt of the dm 
of the coane iaatrament, the hoi, aboTe deacribed. I 
haTe not beard of the nte of nwa, which in the Oironde 
now ererywhere accompany the uie of the aeRateon. 

In old Tinayaidt young T inea are practically all pM> 
dnced by layeit. In new plantatioot the Tinea are pro- 
duced by canet, or by noted planta trained in a phn- 
(eia, ornuncry. Tbe new atocka are alwayt planted in 
a deep hollow, which ia gradoslly filled up. When the 
plxnt baa obtained a good aiie, and conaiata of a good 
Btrong cane, it ia cut ror eatabtiahing the foct, that is to 
aay, whereat before it waa cat close to the ground, now 
it It cut at a heixht of one fbot from the groand. Two 
eye* on^ are 1e» to it at the top, from wbiob two canea 
grow. Tfaeae two canea are in the next antumn cut mt 
m toleaTe two span of two eyes each. Out of each eye 




782 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABTS, August 29, 18T8. 



a new cane is produced, and these four canes fomisli 
the four permanent arms of the vine. At the top of 
the primary stem a little dead wood is left to indicate 
the spot at which the primair cane was out from the 
establishment of the foot. This little stamp is, curiously 
-enough, never removed by the yine^dresser. Here I 
also observed some striking cases of the diseases affe6ting 
the vine in Xerea ; the most remarkable of them is the 
agefia — ^the insolation, or sun-stroke of the leaves, which 
oauses them to die in part or entirely. Many leaves in 
1871 showed this effect in the shupe of black or brown 
patches of dead tissue. This agefia also affected the 
grapes, and gave to many of them a nice golden brown 
face, a feature considered a prime quality in the chas- 
solas of France, and termed dor^ (gilt)< But the grapes 
so affected at Jerez are always inferior, and never 
attain either the sweetness or aroma of pale greenish 
grapes whii^h have ripened in complete sha£. The 
agefia affects young vines more than old ones, and causes 
great havoc in nurseries (planteras). This A. B. vine- 
yard is mainly pl>inted with palominos, few mantuos, per- 
runos, and cafiooazos ; but it also contained stocks of 
the following rarer varieties of vines: — 

Abejera derives its name from the preference shown 
o it by the bees (ab^'aa). It has a thick foot, with many 
canes, of silver-grey, yellowish colour, partly hanging, 
partly standing erect. The canes have many laterals. 
The leaves are entire, or nearly so, somewhat rugose, 
and of a pale green colour on their surfiEu^e, and woolly 
on the underside. The branches are pyramidal, the 
grapes green, juicy, and sweet, less cloying than those 
of the albiUo castellano, which, in other respects, it 
much resembles. It occurs in Espera as the exclusive 
«tock of vineyards or patches. 

Agraetra, distinguished by the agraz. or acid taste of 
its grape^ which is said to make it useless for the pro- 
duction of wine. It is a late-ripening vine, forms flowers 
nntU the end of the spring, and ripens some of its fruit 
only in November. Its grapes are veiy large, black or 
violet ; the bunches are mostly small, and poorly pro- 
vided with grapes. Sometimes, however, when the vine 
is jplanted in^ good soil, they become large and close- 
grained. It is almost exclusively grown in espaliers. 
The stock is slight, the canes are numerous, and have 
many^ branches ; their colour is greenidi- white, and 
sometimes reddish. The leaves are small, shining, dark 
green, and almost smooth. They remain long on the 
vine. 

The Agraura de toto is a variation of the foregoing. 
Its grapes are l^ss black and less acid, and ripen earlier 
than those of the ordinary a^acera. It also resembles 
a little the melonera. It u more suitable for wine 
{saj the Jerezanos) than the other two varieties, because 
it IS less acid. 

The pa^p el Almocaden lies alonff the right side of 
the Treoujena road, opposite high SCachamudo. The 
road is here also termed the cross road or thorough- 
toe of Almocaden, as if this pago were situated on 
both sidc» of the road. Its soil is albarisa, with palo- 
mino mainly, mixed with some mantuos, moscatels, and 
others. The principal vineyard is that of Matamoros. 
The name of Almo(^en is Moorish, and signifies cap- 
tain or chief of troop guarding the fields. To the right 
is the pago of Cuadros, fifteen to twenty aranzadas of 
vineyards upon the rivulet of the same name, abutting 
on the road to Trebujena, between it and that of 
Canascal. The soil is bugno, with some albarisa, mainly 
planted with palomino. We now entered Carrascal, a 
pago of seven hundred araozadas, enjoying great repu- 
tation. Carrasoal means a forest or plantation of ever- 
g:reen oaks ; it mty, therefore, be assumed that these pre- 
eeded the vines in this pago. The soil on the heights is 
albariza, in the lower parts bngeo. Its predominant vine 
is palomino, with some cafiocaio, Pedro Jimenes, and 
albiUo. It yields fine mostos and superior didces. It 
forms the centre of the group of pagos which lie between 
the road to Trebujena and that to Lebrija. It contains I 



large vineyards, and amongst tham Hiat of Amovosa tuL 
thi£ of t^e Corregidor. 

Amorosa lies on a lower hill, surrounded by a ditk 
of higher ones, and therefore well protected from iaefe- 
ment winds, particulariy the dreaded levante. It pro- 
duces ^e amoroso sherry, which is well known isl 
fire€[uently imitated. Oobr a short time ago, I aav i 
naive advertisement of a London wine merchant, ststiag 
that he had fine amoroso, that he did not know vhj 
it should be called so, but it was much liked, and tkerdiDR, 
etc. He and his customers will perhaps thank me far th 
information, that Amoroso was the name of the origisil 

Kroprietor and planter of this vineyard, who lived at tie 
eginning of this oentnry, and is remembered as a eostn* 
butor to the work of Clemente. But for thi« rein 
the name might be considered objectionable, partiailBif 
as the Italians pUy much with ti^e root of a^or ia tke 
names which they give to many of their |>rodQeiMa 
such as amorino, amoroso, amoretto, and otihcca, sU <d 
which I have seen on labels. However that mayb«,ftt 
wine which grows in this vineyard is termed tmmvm, 
because it g^ws in the vineyard of Amoroea (ul ribj, 
and not on account of any other real or ima^nBy pro- 
perties of the wine. 

The vineyard contains some palomino negxo. iheA 
is generally used for dulce, or vino de oolor. Hsviag 
completed our inspection, we rode to the riniysrl i 
Romano. Behind the house of the capatax was a gmt 
g^wth of Marvels of Peru (Snspiros), with w^ 
red, yellow, and violet flowers. Some yellow ionn 
were piebald, one-eighth of their entire petal being ttL 
The vines and mode of making wine were h<c« ttf 
same as everywhere, but I took the oppostnahj d 
inspecting the latter a little closer. 

VlKTAOB. 

» 

The gatherers, or vintagers, all men, wete baaSf i 
engaged in selecting the best grapes for duloe, to be drki 
on the platform. Each had a box (tineta), with a i^ 
of esparto fixed on one side, which hung the box ow 
arm or shoulder. 

The full tinetas were taken to the platfSorm, and tkor 
contents emptied on mats. The next operatioa was lb i 
removal of the main stalks, which was effected by cettiaf i 
the side-branches of the bunches away from the slsftf 
by means of knives. I was told that this was daae fo 
dulce only, and not for other wine. I then inapaded iki 
building, which struck me by its fdae and cooveiiieoee tr 
vino-poetic purpoees. In a large hall were tiie deefiaf 
mats of the labourers, the pit for their nightly boefira 
and the copper for boiUng the must. In a laiige ifaai 
behind this were the lagares, to the number of e^kt» aei 
an hydraulic press. AH these were in active opentHa 

Thb Laoax. 

The lagar used in Andalusia is a large square wwfe 
trough, in which the grapes are trodden and pnea^ 
but neyer fermented. It (uffers, therefore, greatly frow 
the Portuguese lagar, which is mortlv of stoM^ '"^ 
serves for treading and pressing as wdl as 
the mosto. The platform or even bottom of 
Jerez lagar is a square of about three yafda on 
side. T%e sides of the trough are from mghleci 
to two feet high, and slope inwards towards tiie 
The top of the trough measures, therefore, aboi*< 
and a-half yards in each direction. In the 
the platform a wooden or iron screw is fixed 
dicukrly. This is about seven foet long; it 
heavy nut, to which strong leven are attaohai 
entire piece fh>m end to end being about two ymi 
length. The neoessity of getting this pieeeoal rfi 
way of the workmen, when they are trsi^' 

manipulating the fsttipes, causes tfeie enormoos i , 

the screw — for while only the lower half or tUell 
screw is aotoally used ror pressing graps% 
half or two-thiras serves to screw up the 
leavers to a height above the heads of the 








JOURIfAL OF THK 800IBTT OF ARTS, Auamx 29, 1878. 



783 



~K w niwd kboTB the graiiiiil aboai > jui or more 
llBgtitly inclined in the directioD of the tide, wherr 
• it * apoQt (brthe jaice to flow off. Somstimei th< 

■ it ni*ed mffidently high to allow a Irats to he 
Ml Boder the ipont and receive the jaioe directly. 

- IMom cDminoiily the ipoat dpliTen the juice into n 
ttna when the higat ■■ high enoagh to allow tbr 

■ ta be placed directiy Qnder its ipoat. 0[ aocb 
mm there are genarally a number kept ready in the 
tlmg attached to each vineyani. In aome vineyarda, 
SSi I knew the dimeuiioni, I counted that one 

■ WM kept Tor every eight or ten anmiadaa of viue- 
£■0 that on each Ugar there would be made from 
4f to forty botaa of moato during each Tinlage. 

- 2 FuBsiNO IRS Orapv — Piai. 
||i gnpe* are apread on tbe l^^Wi *^^ immediately 

.MoverviUibaniedplaaleTof Paria (Ye8o). Psrhape 
^^wenty to thirty ponnda of pUcter are " ~ 
St«nough in anycaae to precipitate alltai 
..■firs a larn) exoeia of aniphate. Two men (piaa- 
. Klightly cud in short breechea, wenring leather 
Mllw entire solea of which are covered with heavy 
~ ¥>ula, now tre&d the grapea in the lagar, keep- 
. linaB with each other. The trending procet^ 
' Hi one direction, and then at right anglea to it, avei 
^Min lagsr. The jaice doea not run from the lagai 
■a« toodden grape* are lying apread, but be^ni tc 
Fvhen they are heaped up in one comer end patted 
■' tha ahove'.. Nbw grapee are now spread ov "" " 
■^ ttul trodden, and ahoTellsd aaide ; and thia 
$li DDtil a aufficient quantity haa been treated to give 
' gh of moeto and a quantity it mark aafiGdent for a 
kBng, and for leaving a dry cake of sufficient aiEe. 
a boddan mnrk is now heaped up around the screw, 
atanda in the centre of the lagar, and ia 
reat labour and difficulty worked up into a hish 
heap. The lagar is swept, and all is carefnlly 
lee the piaadoresbaildingthis "pie" witit 

, ever and anon patting it with Uis bands. 

g, bending, and adjusting it. and then see the murk 
•nt here and yonder, and require a OB* efFoit 
ka nut of the piaadorea, reminded ma greatly 
I eO^ of boye to construct a snow man in Ihawy 
Mt. At last, however, the column stands, and is now 
r&tf being bandaged. A long band, made of eaparto 



tion of the tower of Babel in Metian'a picture Bible. 
Aboat fliteen rounds of the'.band ar« required to cover ■ 
— - about a yard in height The top of the mark is 
red with a plate, over thia paaae* the not cf tbe 
w lo which the lever* are faatened, and tbe murk ia 
now e^mpreaaed by turning the not downward*. Ar 
Uiia prooeeda the murk give* out juir» ■n'l th" mira 



^e, and (he spiral 



mm, three to four inches bioad, ia wound round thf 
!■• of mnric from below upwards in a apiral directloo : 
fastened by being clenched between twi 



drde* of the eaparto b«nds are preased, the upper onea 
behind or inwarda of the lower oaea. At last the labonr 
of taming the screw becomes severe. To overcome tixe 
Motion of tbe pUto, the man have to jerk their bodisa 
violently, and as they might thereby lo«e (he graap of 
the lever* and fall, they tie their hands to the levera. 
When the muil is oompi«ssed bd that Iha two men jerk- 
ing simultaneously at the levera can no longw move the 
screw, the pressing is complete. Thecake is allowed lo 
remain in uiis compreaaad slate for a time and is tlMn n- 

Some now snbjeot the entin mark, distribnted oo mats, 
to ■ aeoond compression in hydraulic presses ; other* re- 
move the stalks by working the murk on sieves, treat 
the murk wiUi water and then compress between mat*, 
others, again, simply pour water on the murk and pre** 
it between mats. Whenever I have aeen any of the** 
processes adopted I hava been always informed that the 
product was not pnt with the wine or useil for wiup, bnt 
was krpt and fermented by itaelf and ultimately taken to 
thediatillery. . ,. , , . 

The juice whiuh runs from the most inclined pan of 
the Ugar through a spout paiaea thronifh an iron-win 
sieve (see woodcut, page 784), of the shape of an oral 
basin, bnn:; over the end of the apout to retain pip* and 
hiuks, and then fluws into a tub {tina}, whence it i* ladled 
by Bat spoons reaaiobling bankera' money shovels, into 
iugi, and from them pouMd through a finer sieve, plaoed 
insiite a wide funnel (embudo). into the butts. 

This mode of pressing ia lughly laborious, and yet doe* 
not yield a dry cake of murk. Its only adrantue i* 
(bat it is not strong enoogh to press juice out ot the 
stalks ; but, aa no care is taken to eioluile the last por- 
tions ol juioa from the bosks, which are always harah, 
from the mosto, thi* feebltneas is only a partial Mtec- 
(ioo agiiinst the oonraa element* ofthemurk. Wecan 
jadge of thia prooeia batter by comparing it with tbe 
method of preasinguBid in the Champagne. HwpeOw 
'nuat is coUeated in four or five different atagea and mixed 
' aly only, with the diatinot object of obtaining 
itand porert juio- — ' — '-•«— - — *■"" «•— 
rbndichum and Dupr^ 
lompwo also with Iha Jervl moae oi 
'bm is n**d in Btym and Dalmalia (l 



Che finestand porert juice aadexolndiM acerbity. ^M 
rbndichum and Duprf, Trtataae on Wine, *c, P-^^' 



JOURNAL OF THE BOOIETY OF ABT8^ Amot S9, 187k. 



•U), and tbe dMcription of good irine-piCMai w used 
in the Oironde (ibid., p. 102, tt m.) 

Hm pago ii«araat to Jorei MUAUig from tha Iielirija 



extent. Betveen the long n 
almoit paiaUel witli the Scnlk rad, eillid (Ub)v4( 
isrena p^[o of IjtrgUo, with ■ nifau of 3W MNM>. 
CltMs to UuH, uid in the dindioD of Zm* AtasHta 
FeloDB, a buTo-arana pago. Haealao ii Fjwrti t 
buTO-ai'inia paeo of tvaotj bimii11| plaatM «t 

aoduollBrM. 

loat eMtern pago, aitaatoi ikaB to thg hi^ori 
t« Aicea, batweco tho oliT»-gNNl <A Alctatoa ■! 
laud balinguv to t^ Oort^ de laPeSnla. iitbtrv 



N^ te the fierilla danMia ia lb* Ona 4e laa ChU- 
ktM. Thirty araoaadai of barroarana are here ptaated 
irilh mantnoa and looUwea. United to thia ia the Pi( 
de Beri a paito of eight or tan aianudaa. Farther 
KJI.E. liaa Bagar {or Bogaa), a harro-arana pago of 
' J wanawlaa, ■stMiling from the Dacfca to tin 






Afaonl one and a baJf Uomettei from Bogar. in the 
diieetton toward Dooha, on both nde« of tha Dacha 
mad, and looking towards Oaraacal on tbe west, and Yal 
ia ^jnela on the eaat, ii the pago of DolU JBoBa, buro- 
■r«ma with aome albariia, aboat thirty aruiKBdAg in 
•stent. IM vinae-ara mantuoa and moUxree. Tbe 
■MMtiKtrenie pago in thia aection on the SeviUa-roBd, 
aadatretdiingonitteaateniaidetothetsilway, bordered 
Mi the N.B. by ttie oa^ada ani^ ia Tal de Pajnela, 
till am pap« of one handled anwaadaa. On 



33ie ieoond asotion ef the north-aait diatriot Ii 
between the Savilla-nwd end the Arooa-raad, Tl 
figeanewat to Jerea ave Jnreta, faeo of bano-arenB 
aaar eemetery, hatwaen the road de la Zanja and t 
Mniage nad to Anwa. Hoe alee Itca Hembrillar, clt . . 
tolheiiraletof theaamenaHei ita extant ia about forty 
HUMadaa. Lagnna del Jabonera ia a pago whioh may 
h«Talnenn«wainp in whidi aada-planla, yielding nih 
tt lar Map- making, giaw. A part ii ooonpied by the 
wat Mj . Cloae ta it asd tbo Mnialery ia the Feral del 
Chwnjo, a pa^o o( baito-arena, and doae to thia, 
kaauriag n|ion Jamta, ia PalifOB, bairo^rena, forty 
I— iai in extant. Oaeetotfae PandOalGaa^rcioM 

tha pago of Coatto Nvvian, kawo-waoa, thir^ i 

Mia*. Itkra^etenponlhaajbnrbaaf Jarex. 

On Ifa right eide of 1*a ae*alB n«l, betw n aw tUa 
Ml tbaaMd I>a la JfaeK Mo* TaU^igMda, JIm Ita 



> ipantqna. mollam, tti U 



that naoe, which waa baatswed ia Hm agnOMft 
',iuT upon the Jeresano D. ftf-t*'" TilUnoik 
loilia albariaa, itaflsritee ena hoadRd anaaiB- 
tho palomino predominatw npon it. Ila mti i*Mi 
Tineyaid ii that called of tlie Cartoja, fawrir (ta ■•■ 
party of the monaatary of that name to th* Q wfc Mi 
like laat pagaa of thia groap to ba daaaribal ■» tt 
de '^"'■"* vineyardi, in tha plain of Qafai 
forming the axtreme E.N^ end oi tlu gtuial 
bordering npon the Uanoa de Caolina. TbtfiiMd 
from the Arena road to the Calkjon da la Zaajh ■(■! 

iveiard hy the raUway. On tha noctk Ikf ■ 
bonndudbySanUF^ontheaaBthbyElPinu; Bb 
•oilia baire-amia, their vinea an mantuoa 1*1 adaa 
and thair anr&oe ia one hundted and facg a nii * t 

commonly gtawn in wi*aiti» 
lowing diatriet are the manta' """" — "■" 
and beba. laotijoin a abort dl 
'\eiT aabordioatoTnnetiea! — 

Itantmo GatCMuw.— This vine AOOipiM cM-Wtrf* 
Jena vineyardi. Ita etoch ia-etnctti iti « "*<* 
and large; at the thick «athajan|H)in 
rad,towarda the point whiliah red; the laaiMin^ i 
lenlh green, and reddiah when th^ aia^Hd; Ikir* | 
of medium aiae, enlirei and woolly on the law* feB 
The numacoaa bunohea am Wge; tha gns« Im^ 
equal, of good taate, and riyan a farttifU ■'■'^ 

Thw are pacnliatly conaialeiit, without bong bii« 
if the jaice waa ahut ap ia many imall naqodn 
Ifany dark Bl«iuia make the grape diaagiHaUaCB^ 
ItamoMo is vei; heavy, ranging from !'7°loH°Ji'" 
davelopaa into vinaa tcrnied finoa. 

Mantaodt /■I'Ai.— The caiu^ aie aomewhit inffib' . 
the gispuahBTd; aweet, bnt lata ; thia liUnw pw*' 
talai that they ahanld Iwea tWvHaabeycod Ibtliv 
of the genra^ vintage, whiah cacaee them la l*"^ 
venitnt grapea for wine-making, if not kept bjUmx''* 
l\a name ia derived from File, the town in Ilia p°n" 
of Seville. 

ManluB MornifD.- Similar to the other mutm ^ | 
differing by the violet oalnar ri ita giapM. , i 

JfanOw ai'<ji«i.— WUtMh atrcng oanei; 1»"< !*' 
lowiah green ; grapes Iain, hronud, and tiudu'^L 

Manlua laerm, tadrmajt, tr AivrM.— NaW iai'* 
from the Ar^ of pmUanHdiaJ DMMi«. ^^ 
to tbe fomer; ila grapM are kaa toiMlaoatt udi" 
ripe ; ita bnacjna more [iji—iiilal 

Ctnottm. — Arabic name, unPMarart viU 1^ 
la alao termed iM«ar JtoHa, The atod: k*M^ 
canea ana nnmeroua and iTi mgliiin ■»» k^v ■(''P 
otben on tha KToimd, hangii^ iaM <iretl»mai tt^ 
thick, amA of a .greyiah ted oolonr, with i^^^ 
admixed. IW Iwga Iwata an alwWIit^ jwq 
green; the InmSn M* late*, "» ""Sf^ 
giving a«Nata«t*iBlt* *e «••.«*!* )««" 
high-Savonred oloroaoa. Wboi velldrird latki** 
may be advantageously ocmbined with Pedio J"^ 
fcrdalce. 



JOVBKAL 0¥ TUB BOOBBTT OP ABTB, Auoitbt 2% 197S. 



789 



III Jnts» aad Qtid in wdM4 Ijort^iirii^i ftoi y 

iiwvwi^ dto /Svm^— stock ateonif, with hm- tho*^ 
thMBi, eiwt QOBM^ •£ a gMyiah rtd colour.. LeMrcti 
TttllMrMikgrMa; bunoheft lai^; grspeo searly black, 
iMpt and V9ey Uita la oafiiToaimble yooss and con- 
4UMaa tko knaks stoiam Tieloti area gseen, tkougk tiw 
•QBlnto>are %aila aircti. Itakonld ba gntam oa ei^ 
]iB» m iitotooled, plaM% apoa tka ta-oAlIed txtoaaaoi 
^y^ t^ a^ witk aiaoj oiaaobM» Uka thaoopeaUedHambso' 
yoDB ol Bagiiih ooBfevralonfis^ the Tyrol grape» to 
wkiah it baa laaoh lao oaA lMio et It ia aaf pand tkal 
from tikaYtcbaesiiiL bianokeo (wbcn it is gr(»wn on eapa* 
lin^ tka> Axakio mm^fgrmr it dedred. Ila moalo ia aofc 
▼MX iMttvy, aeMMta flndinff it S'6^ B. I bava ob- 
•amd it at 14^ B^firoia vary ripe liwiara. Clemaata 
aagra tbat its oaaat waa aot good for wino^ aa il waa 
tootaaid. ThiikaabaeBaooaanrapeatad, thatitianow 
genenlly believed ; but it is a great error. I bave made 
ezoattMit wixie horn inrtm. Jit tawt not be forgotten 
thaih wkafc in Andalnaia ia anidnloMS, wonld be Tory sweet 
ndaad even in tha Qiraoda^ 

Thalaaft of tka £MronxiAe ▼iaea in tkts diatiiot ia tka 
Babk Ha stock is of middling aiae^ adib oaaea wbioh 
aaa red^aad haya tka aiWer^grey ha« ; tkay aiak to tke 
gvoaad. TkalaaTeaaralairgsv <^<W0^^^tiak, owing 
laa downy covering; i» sbape inagiuar* pabaate* lobed^ 
aad of aneven annaae. Tba baackea are pyramidal, 
and daoae^ and the gzapaaace large and haid, and fre^ 
q^aatlgr bronaed. Tkey are lale, and tbeiefore are 
aaitaMa fior being bang aa for lalar naa» or for beiag 
ttaaafermad into raaaina. La*ga qaaatstles are sold aa 
Toadao. As I bave rapoatedly need, and ahaU bava 
aoaaa to use thia eapreasian, 1 giva soma ezplaaalioii 
ail ita meaaing. Yeraear ia tke aaUing of frait fbr the 
poapaaa of ita beings eaten fresh, or traaefbrmad inda 
atkar peodaots. Thas it Is said tbat tke iabubitaats of 
Valea traaaport to Malaga, in tka moath of July, 
"^paaa yeadear/' or ^para verdeo," 2d0 mida loada of 
— gaTcane, The giapea wkioh are aidd aa suck at 
Jarea are taraiad *' Verdea," bat it does not foUaw 
thai tbay are all eaten. A portioa, no doabt^ ia 
niiide into wtaa^ altkougk prodooed and add, ia tka 
§mt iDatanee, aa vefdao. (Sea Olameata, p. 136, l6ot- 
vatal.) 

CW&aa.— Thia vine kaa a medinm-siaai atoek, and few 
simiykit and erect oaaaa. The leavaa toe akooat eatire, 
anaqiiaHy paactared^ aad of a yellowiak gvaen colaoxi 
The bonckea ara large, tka grapea btrge and white, 
laatjr, hot aoar ; tkia is indeed in«liealed by its naaacv 
wkiek ia Arabic and iadicatea aotd or Tinegaa. It ia an 
early grape and aaed for eatiag. Its black brotkac, tkp 
Oaioiu^ N^fTo, also termed 'CkrvAano, baa yellower leavaa 
than the fonaer, and large tkick black grapea Tkay 
are sweeter and earlier tiuin the white oneai and Uhad 
for aating. 

Tha Upa th Loja belottga to tke daaa of datikaaa» haa 
■ttnM*(>^^AtrHggling canes, aad small aad light yellowiak 
teavea. The grapea are large aad frequently two-wia^^ad ; 
wkeo. ainf^ they a#e ooaioal; the berriea have thin 
hiMlra, aad are good for ridaina and for aattag; Tke 
mame ia derived itoitSL tke town of Xjoja. 

A kioTd of vine, not fr e qnaatifcy grown kaaa, aad poa- 
«bly identical witk the Malvaaia of Greece^ ia the 
Gknea area*, ahori, wkitish red. Leaves 



F^dra JiaMoaa-*tka ffaiHl grapa^ Utila grown i» 
Jaera, moally aaad £or dnlae ; s w ast c at giape. 

Ptdoaaiao— tha daaunaluig vine ; piadacaa finoaasd 
agoftfslJadoa ; made- para. 

Perruno— prodaoaa high-flavooffed oloroaoa. 

Mantuo oastellnno solid flaahy gaapa. 

Hantua de Hla latogiape. 

The foregoing alone form aala in vtn ay ai d fc 

TkaiialkMriag;na«ex farm. asAii. and aaa nat yia t d .lor 
wine:— 



Ur|pe» ivfegalarly lobed or pakaate ; grapaa traaaparant, 
^ awaet^ aaa early, bat with 



wtK^tok ▼ery delicate to eat awaet^ aad early, oat wiia a 
thiols akia. Oomea from Oatalofla. Aaotker intareating 
TtJM !• tke VigiritgQ eommm. MiddMag-aiaed atook. 
lOMxy oaaaa, and yallowiah leamat of xaiddling aiaa, 
entire and roaad. Baaahaafew; ^^rapea aUnoat 
^reeniak while, aadTary sweat, bmag good for 
aadforaatiag. A variety of it ia tka a^ aMO 
Fa^mipa mgra^ blaak» and asaoh lasa awaet than 

On tbiaocoaaia»Iok«irfnad a ck wa i iaai io B af 
of tkak yaliiy far mdWag iwna;^ 




for ^ 

Cafiooaaa— aoaroa; psoduoea kighf4ttvoared oknoaoa. 

Faoal, HoUard, and Palomino Nogro-yare aaad bf 
paopaiatom for making via* da cdoiv aa i£ from whita 
gMpaa> net red. QTba fisixal and iwiUaa aia rejected bgii 
the purchHaers of partidoa* 

Abananmr and AlkOkH-tka moat jaoy or ilnad of 

j^a proportion in wkiok anj af tkeaa vinaa ase rsMad 
in viaeyarda may be aaen ander tka daao ri ption of eaok 
diatriot. For conuaoa vinayarda no proportioa can ba 
stated. I iaspeeted soma oropa while they were beinff 
emptied on tke lagiwea (September 15, 1871). and fioand 
tham ta coaaiat of a nuztora of the followiag grapas» 
eaomerated in the order of their apparent frequency :— 
Babm Mantao CbateUaaa^ Pakaniaa, AJtbiUo, and MoUav. 

The oastem groap eompviaea tha aeofeioni ba t wa om 
tha Aiaoa road and tka H^uela da Pedro Diaa. 
The first pago which the toorist oomea to wheo 
luaving Jerea by the Aroca read ia that of San Antoaio, 
aitaated ck>aa to the tow% upon tka drain or aewaa da 
kM Ahiaadoa, between tka caiclage-road to Arooa, or 
footpath del Badriije on tka ana and the footpath of tha 
O^Dakja on tha othiar aide, Ita astant is thirty to forty 
araaaadM ; its soil ia barro*arsaa, ita vinea are mant noa 
aad moliarea. On tha aontk-east oi; aad doaa to tka 
fonner page, ia tkat of tka Peso da Bamoa, twelve aran«> 
aadaainestanl. It ia doae to Jerea, and approached b7 
the long minaw lane La Manga del Toril. Ita aoil ia 
bairo-aiaaa; ita viaea are mantnoa aad mollarea. East 
ol San Antonio, and bordering open the road of Bajb^ 
Ujo, ia tha nauatuo-bearing pago of BMrbadillo. Between 
tkia, tka Asoua-road and tke pago SI Pinarv ia tkat of 
Gabreatera, forty aruaaadas ia exteat. In this groaa 
also Hea Ganrido, a pago of about twenty art a a w dsa t ami 
Piedra del Mirabel, of thirty aranaadaa GoatinAlB«by 
the Badi^i9o.road,wemeatonthelaft the large page of 
el Raar, which beaas ito namefoom a pliuittttioaof pinas 
ooataineid in it and inoladea one hnadrod aranaadaa. 
On ita north side thia pago ia bordered in iU wtkcOa 
length by tke Areoa road, ia the eaat it bordeaa apoa 
tka Caakaa tdnia and Bodakja. Soatk of el Pinar^ and 
on tka ngkt of tha Badalejo read, ia situated the loa^ 
pagecf Qanalijei ooaflned on itaaouth side by tka lo^ 
af the same naaae, with fifty aranaadaa of viaeyasd. 
The nana ia probably derived from criadaro da caiai^ 
ddNvarai or mare probably from cana)^ a drinking 
tioogh. The auU of aH tha foaegoing pi^^M, when not 
difieraatfey ohfuacteriaed^ may be aaaumed to be bano>- 
arana, and to be planted with mantuoa and moUaiaa. 

Baat of the Canaleja ia the email barro-arena page of 
Oatalana, forming a compact maaa of vinayarda^ with 
the larger pago of Badali^o. Thia ia sitaated where tke 
Oinaleia and Badalajo roada joia, and, brancking off 
from the road to Owirtilloa, make a aamiciroular lo<m 
towards the Arcos road, winding round the oaakeim end 
of el Pinar, already deearibed. The pago Haa close to 
the rivulet af tka same name, whiok flewa in aaontkem 
dkeation towarda tha Qaadabta^and ^oina ita watM|» 
profoae in tka rainy seaaon, almoal nil vm dry aaaoMV- 
time, witktkoaeof thB0uadaiete,atapaaitbetfw«entbe 
Ckrtuja and tke bridge doaa by. Tha aame of pago 
aadiivariaapeltl^Saterinhiamap ''Alkaladi^" fc 
tka^ wa have hare an Arabia article prefixed,, and aatte 
lettaiatraaapoaed. The apelHng wkick I adopt aaeoa 
jaatiAad by tka peokabla danvalieii fooas tiM Alaahia 

I wiWIan A* wrlBlain daUVed It 



786 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Atoubt 29, 18T8, 



The toil of this pago ii bairo^arena, with much chalk, 
containing great nomben of fbasil marine shells of the 
tertiary period. The mantaos prevail, and their pro- 
ducts are esteemed. The total area of the vineyards 
amounts to forty aranzadas. To the south-east of the 
pago and rivulet of Badalejo is ther isolated pago of 
Omebra, with 25 aranzadas of barro-arena soil, planted 
with mantuos and mollaret. 

Due east of Jerei, and about ten kilometers distant, is 
Ouartillos, forming, with Majada« an isolated group of 
important vineyards. It comprises about four hundred 
aransadas of lustrillo soil. Its vines are palominos, 
permnos, albiUos, mantuos, and bebas. The most noted 
vinejrard is that de las Animas. Majada, also termed 
M. Alta, measures twenty aransadas, and resembles 
Ouartillos in soil and plantation. 

Returning to Jerez from a visit to the plain round 
Gulebras, I passed the pago, which from a neighbouring 
flowing spring is called Fuente de la Tcrja. It is situ- 
ated at the eastern end of the group of vineyards which 
are enclosed between the road of the Canaleja and that 
of Pedro Diaz. It passes westwards into ue pago of 
Pedro Diaz, thirty aranzadas of barro-areno soil, and is 
also blessed with a living spring of the same name. 
From this pai<o all the way to Jerez the vineyards 
lying along the HijneU de JPedro Diaz, over which I 
lode, belong to the pago of San Jos^, barro-arena vine- 
yards of forty aranzadas surface, wiUi the mantuos and 
mollares usual in this district. 

The plains all round this eastern district are, if not 
barren, at least mainly uncultivated. Their soil is clay 
and sand, and suffers from stagnation of water in winter 
and drought in the summer. ' They are covered by 
groups of ]>almitos, and were adorned, whea I first 
saw them, with numberless squills in full bloom. Herds 
of cattle were roaming over Uiem. I was informed that 
before the Revolution of 1833 these lands were the 
property of the commune of Jerez. In consequence of 
the revolution a plan was started in Jerez to cure the 
poverty of the labouring population by giving them 
lands. The public lands were divided, and somehow 
distributed amongst the citizens. Hie plots were large 
enough for separate settlements, or the establishment 
of small farms. But not a ringle one of the new pro- 
prietors was found to settle on, or even work, the newly 
acquired land. Some sold it on the evening of the day 
on which they had received the boon, for more or less of 
wine or money, an arrobe of wine being no uneonmion 
price for an entire lot of several aranzadas. A few 
monied persons and landowners in the neighbourhood 
acquired the whole of what had been the common land, 
for a ridiculously inadequate price ; and thus the com- 
munity was not only cheated of its property, but the 
mass of its poor inhabitants were deprived of the greater 
part of the common land on which their animali had, 
during a great part of each year, found their subsistence. 

On leaving Jerez by the southernmost of the eastern 
gates, one passes the railway station on the right, and 
soon after under the viaduct of the railroad itself. On 
the other side of the railroad the way divides into three 
branches, of which that at right-angles to the railway is 
the Oamino de la Oanaleja ; another, about thirty-five 
degrees more to the south, is the Hijuela de Pedro Diaz ; 
and a third, turning immediately southwards, and running 
close to and parallel with the railroad, is the Oamino de 
laOartuja. 

The first pago dose to the south side of Jerez, border- 
ing upon the nlain of San Telmo, is that of Mancebia, a 
■mall vineyard, of one aranzada, in bugeo soil. Where 
the road to Monte Allegre branches off that to the Oar- 
tuja there is situated the pago of Pozillos, fourteen aran- 
zadas in extent, with barro-arena soil, and pluited with 
mantuos and moUares. In the angle formed by the 
Ifonte Allegre and Oaituja road is situated the barro- 
arena pago of Barrial. NotfaroffisUiefiirmofyallese- 
2uillo, on barro-arenm soil, with orchards and vineyards, 
a this part the soil is remarkably red when freshly 



worked, paler when long exposed ; some puis ire tbaoi 
reddish brown, and the colour dianges frequently «ilb 
the situation. To the east of the pages jost mnl6mA, 
between the Hijuela de Monte Al^gre and that of Fefo 
Diaz, lies the pago of Manjon, or Majon, twenty int. 
zadas in extent, with barto-arena soil, and the Tiw 
appropriate to it Oontiguous to this iitheLbiiDid 
Moral, a barro-arena pago, of ^m fifteen to tvf«||f 
aranzadas. To the souUi-east of these psgos, snd otiw 
mg almost the entire space between the road to ttouB> 
tuja and that of Pedro Diaz, is the impoxtant pigo of 
Monte Allegre, of about four hundred annztdo. it s 
divided in its middle by a road bearing iu nsme. h 
soil is in one part barro-arena, in another poiticiii|ilMlie 
albariza. The dominant vines are mantuoe irith otv- 
poeed bebas, mollares, and palominos. The nirt 4 
Monte Alegre close to the Oartnja is termed (mcb h 
la Azefia, and contains twenty annzadas of banMras 
soil. 

To the south of the road to the Oartnja, betiml 
and that to the Gkanja, lies the pago of Bium'^ 
which derives it name from certain nigh hills in ittwH 
whence a fine view of the old monastery, asdifi^ 
valley of the Guadalete is obtained. It compiinM 
sixty aranzadas ; its soil is barro-arena, witk Mi 
chalky under-ground ; the prevailing vines are mriMi 
More towards Jerez, and to the west of Baena Vak.^ 
see the ten aranzadas of the pago of Flamenco, tmwrf 
by the three roads of the Ouiuja, la Qranja sndSte 
The Oartnja road separates it from the Monl, ailil 
Granja road from the pago of Geraldipo. Thii pip^ 
in its turn, circumscribed by the road to the wA 
and that to tiie Solete. It contains twenty anMMI 
of barro-arena, and is planted with mantuos. T^m"> 
is said to have been selected in honour of a Jcrs am 
man, who fought with unsuooeaBfol glory at thi wai 
battle of Oape St. Vincent. At the soathem otNi^ 
of Buena Vista, and dose to the Guadalete, ve tf 
the pago of la Granja, with a farm of the saiMtfi^ 
to whidi its main vineyard belongs. Hie road viodk 
leads to it bears Uie name of Oamino de la Onajt B 
is thirty aranzadas in extent ; its soil is bano-anna, wi 
its vines are mantuos, mollares, and others. 

West of la Granja, and between it and SolMSt kftt 
barro-areno pago of Lazo. It is a long strip of land, vtt 
twenty aranzadas of vineyards, abutting in the b«» 
upon the Oranja-road, in the south upon that <rf^^Mi 
viejo. The last of the large pages of this district «■> 
I inspected is that of (delete, due south of Jen* » 
borders in the west upon the Oarretera del Pocrfoi ■ 
the east upon the pagos of Lazo and Geraldinft ,jaj» 
traversed by a road which bears its name, and teA* 
west by the railway to Oadis, running parallel viA tfci 
road. Its soil is barro-arena. and its vmes are sisateM 
and mollares. 

On the outskirts of the district above deseriM st 
yet a fow small P^gos, which mav be convemeDflf ^ 
enumerated. S.8.E. of Jerez, and at three leagW v 
tance from it, is the newly-planted pago Totre di9 
Oera, of forty-two aranzas, with klbariza eofl. h m 
same direction from Jerez, but a distance of flveleiM 
near the ex-convent del Valle, is the pago of PafA" 
forty aranzadas, also recently planted. . 

The road to the Oartuja is a quagmire of ■»<*{ 
dust, with here and there a fr agm ent of miiiikj* 
road, a remnant of a better post We trBTtr wdi* 
horseback ; but although it was the end of S epteMsg 
the heat was something fearful to feel, P^'^^^^ 
when the road was sunk m the ground and Dord0«Of 
densehedgesof cactus on Uie top of the banks. Kv* 
great relief and suiprise to the tourist, when, st t hig* 
of the vineyards of 6ueiia Vista, he suddenly bai twg 
him the open valley of the Guadalete^ with theGir^ 
in the foreground, and is greeted by the tnAutv^ 
the distant hOls. It is a spot to makoapaoM ti* 
take in both fbssh air and a great s^t ^ 

The Tonoz group of TtncTaids, aoneliMiiiM^*^ 



JCXnOKki^ e» THB 



OF JOeSBp Anew 28; 109IL 



fsr 



Mm de Jerei al Paerto, on the 'W:GLW^ by tha 
ii&uUdel Qirillo, aiyl the northern abpecoCthe 
^tl»eWika»L On 111* Kit ity i» akkteit bX the 

gfiiw mmI HiA.Bio QnidalelBk thMik roAilA which rat 
^ to^pelhar at the former port of Jeres, el Portal, 
he entue group is within Ave kilometret from Jeres, 
vliiianly m ii hed by th» Paerto T9ttd» mtntioned, or 
p «ilher of two Md«rQad% ttM SQoeU of Torok or 
)ia4oflMAiiafi»ia. 

Th« page of Torrox It S.S.W. from Jerei, in the 
bee where formerty was a laguna of that name, abat- 
Id9 tpea QHbtJotmi and giwng ila M ooriih name to 
hetatiiegroiifi Its extent iatwebhnadre^anawdas, 
i«i«l ftUwdza^ with bogeo in the lower paitt. The 
iiMi are palomino, maotao, Pedro Jimenez. To the 
ul oCUae, and doe aonth of Jerea, liee Gibalcon, a paso 
rilkialnbie name, and frDBtui^ toward* the oevo-dol 
tatotadainlMmek Sttent, niMty aianMdw ; asil. 
iUmi; ydoM, paioiniw> and mamtoo. Next ta Um 
omr tvo pagoe, and almoet in the centre of the group, 
bi the page of CSbullo, being albariza with some bugeo, 
% araaiadae is edant, and mainly planted with 



m^mak^Um^mmmm^tm 



Ihe pigo nearest the river and railway is that of 
^rpnUaa, one hundred, and sixtv aranaadas in extent 
b Kul is white plastic earth, with bugeo in the lower 
■ta Tines : paloiwno and Pedro Jimenei inteneised 
ifth penno« esAooaaiH slbiUo^ and maalao, Nolod 
iaejvdi: Nuestca Benra de la Meroed, Porla de 
Vptlsoa, borders upon la. Oalderera and Bonaina. 
% fonner is an albarim pago, with sixty aranaadaa 
f faloaina, bal Bonaina' baa moie bQM» sofl^ fifty 
■Btubi in estiittk and is also stooked with pale- 
uo. To this diatriot aiso belonga the pag^ de 
ytn^ a strip of land lying between the river 
Ndolete and the oarriage-road to Puerto, extending 
^iheAwlaltatheollf^grovedel Duquew Its soil, 
fvhish cm^haU an aranaadaia as yet j^MMwilh 
iB«a ii exclusive^ bugeo. 

The pago of this gronp, which is third in importance 
ni Boit aialaat fram Jeres, is las Anafbras. It borders 
ipm lis Ohfiada (brook lined with re«ls> dsl OaiiUo, 
a^lPginef abtaieandToivos. Itaaoiibistwinle 
iMs^ of 10 plaatio a natuxe that it can he sasied.with 
^ w^Bb ioap, and is in that state worked into por« 
Ulillfle 0tov«s for charooal, over which the oommon 
pflMnfctbsar^tonew. 9ram these sle^^apa^ 
nnii^fti mni^ Tha. naloasinsi nxedoaunatsa on its 
liM^«n«das, 

Bfeiwiag upon las Anaferas is the pago termed after 
■i ^rook difiada del GarriHo, fifty aranaadas, with 



m the high and bugeo in the low pertions. On 
MHtikiils of Vie gvoQ^ we* hare yet ta notiee the 

R^ O»lor«».sitqated on the right of the bridle-road 
*<wa to Puerto. It measures twenty aianiadas, 
^■ktgsa Mil and some albarisa. Its sboclc consists of 
"J^Maud palflniiBoa* OUse ta it, on the left or seath- 
j{*4the liSinaTwMi ia thA pag» of Hataoatdillo, abenfe 
°9uan«dasin«(tent. 

oovUvof las Anaferas and of the Caflada del CarriUo, 
'■* P^o of the Sierra de San Cristobal. 0^ rine- 
yJant iiaul .oQ t h e nw tb em stopa of thls^meimtaia. 
■> toil ii bagMV MiM albasiaa, and asena* piodaata oi 
Uimtfiffi^taK of the sand and ohiilk-rook which 
■ni the mass of the hiD. The soil on the whole ia 
^«^ laMrBld. Extent, fifty aiansadas; vinesii 
Mlamaad aakuninss. 

^QoMtoelJ^ciaiathayegadelMoecateL Itferma 
gt SIX swna?idas of yinoyasds in bugeo soiUon whioh 
■we Tirillse of mosoatels are oultiyatod. amonirst theuk 



MiMoahd goado numdOk riiT'liff to CMVMiBg'iA ahfln^ 
but its grapa ii yiolet, and the canes somewhat grefjat 
teci. 



ia^marO'dalieata ulaMt than tha Jtosaar : ita* 
intensely gKoyish-red* The grana are small and waqr 
sweet, end give the best moscatel wine, or rather sweai 
liouear. 

Meeeatsli reydaa dsrik' tamtoty ; 9fen in IMaiwnHi 
oHmala thaiv fiewaiaaal yurj imfeafeetlgrt bat the ga^Mi 
which beoomo developed at all attaia a. high da^aa of 
perfection. 

F^irther towards Jeres, to the eastof Qibaleoo^bot^tew 
ing upon the Bide*road of laa Qolss, and the oaf«lign> 
road to Pueria, aca^ yet two small pagea, tha Qasaada 
Paea, a single vinayard of from Hix to se«en srattitain^ 
with barro-arena soil, and pago de Palmosa, a small 
liaeyaxd with bugeo seiL 



' ■ ' » 



99b: 



AHVITAL DTTESV ATIOHAL JULHlBlTlQCnf. 



Tk Oennoil, luvvteg bea^ iBfonMA ihst her 
Ms^ty's OommisauNMta do noi iat«ni !• 
p«bUsk Heporta on the diflEiMftl dtftftnettlftif 
the Ebdbibttion of tile praaeftt year, and loekngte 
tiiB great importance to Atta^ Ma»«fMtmffe8,aBd 
Oommorce tiiat^tlMee anniiAl diaplAjm ahaiiU wxt 
pate away mdiiwt aome record, iMm deoided Id 
i»dertake that duty, and far this ptwpoie haw 
eagi^ged the aervicea of geatleoMA Bpedatfy 
akilled in the aaljecta o£ the aereral aeetioai, 
to prepgM 8ueh Seportaler publicaliaain the 
Seciety'a Jtnmud. The Ootmoil, howairer, 
deafee it to be aoderatood that, in nabliBhiftg 
these lefiatta, the^Fdonot neeeaaerily miofi atttiM 
^«a eiqpMMed in tiiem, whieb moadhe tekiH 
as thoee of the writei» enljr. 

The foHowiBg repoK is thd^¥ettdi that has 
beeaissmed. The remaindev wiB af peas aaaooa 
as ihey aee coaaplate. 



)t**slBft gorio blanooi akm tsaoMd romaao 
|"*Mjt T^ staslili^afapoqg, the oaaea are ysUaatis^ 
^ tboie of reeds, the leaves small and entire, or almost 



REPORT ON COOKING APPARATUS. 

This class occupies considerable spaoe in the 
Exhibition, there bein^ 52 exhibitors, all of 
whom, with the exception of two, belong to the 
United Kingdom. 

Economical and efficient cooking apparatus 
always possessed considerable interest in the 
eyes of the social reformer, the physicist, and 
the doctor, for badly -oonstmcted stoves bring 
ia their train waste of fuel, iU-dressed dishes, 
hot kitchens, and a vitiated atmosphere. Count 
Rumford, Dr. Kitchener, whose name will go 
down to posterity in connection with the stoves 
which bear his name, and other scientific and 
benevolent men, have bestowed much attention 
upon th^ improvement of 9ux cooking atonr^p, 
which were m their time, as they are too fre- 



788 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETY OF ABTS, Atoust 29, 187S. 



qnently eyen in the preBent day, ftmong the most 
glftring examples of the neglect of the fiimplest 
rales of science and economy. An enormous 
grate, three or even more feet wide, with nothing 
bat a thin, shifting check to limit the extent of 
the roaring, smoking fire, with a great gaping 
chimney to carry off wastefully as much of the 
heat and gases as possible, with no cooking ac- 
commodation bat the fire itself, a coaple of small 
hobs, and a pair of smaller trivets, nearly all dis- 
tant from the heart of the fire, with no arrange- 
ment for preventing the radiation of three times 
more heat into the kitchen than reached the 
saucepans; such was the kitchen range of the 
last generation, and such, as we have already 
stated, is in too many instances that in use in the 
present day. In no coantry in the world, but 
one in which the supply of fuel was abundant, and 
consequently cheap, would such a wasteful, 
dirty, and unwholesome apparatus have been 
tolerated so long as it has been by the inhabitants 
of the United Kingdom. 

The old range has certainly long disappeared 
from well-regulated houses. Public and other 
lar^e establishments, clubs, &c,, now make use 
of much improved stoves, but it is well known 
that in many, the majority of cases, in fact — 
perfect combustion and economy of fuel have 
not been reached ; chimneys and ranges are, as 
a rule, far too lai^e ; too much is attempted 
to be obtained from one fire, and consequently 
the cost of cooking apparatus deters landloi:ds, 
and actually prevents tenants of small means 
from adopting superior cooking ranges, while 
the misguided calculations of manufacturers 
cause them to produce apparatus unnecessarily 
large, complicated, and, in many cases, rendered 
too costly by showy fittings. 

The collection of cooking apparatus at the 
Exhibition well represents that in use all over 
the country, and may be classed under a few 
heads — economical stoves for simple cooking for 
large numbers, such as those used in the army 
and navy, in hospitals, workhouses, <fec. ; cook- 
ing-stoves for private houses ; gas-cooking 
apparatus ; and sundry small adaptations for the 
camp, the kitchen, <&c. 

It will be convenient to consider these several 
classes of apparatus apart from each other, 
pointing out, at the same time, any features in 
one class which may be applicable to others. 

Messrs. Adams and Son, of London, exhibit 
cooking apparatus on Captain Warren's system 
for workhouses, hospitals, barracks, and for 
domestic use, in several forms (catalogue No. 
4,701). In one instance a small steam boiler is 
used to heat four or more large soup-boilers 
arranged against the sides of the former; in 
others the fireplace is at the base of a quadran- 
gular iron case, the upper portion of which forms 
a large oven, while a number of tin cooking 



vessels are arranged somewhat m the mnmer of 
a pack on a mule's back, so that the heatiswdl 
economised. 

Capt Warren's apparatus is stated on tKe »• 
thority of official reports to cook for 120 mm. 
with a consumption of 28 lbs. of coal per day,« 
4 oz. of fuel per man. This is not, howeyer, hj 
far the whole advantage of the system in qnei* 
tion. The loss incurred in cooking meat, except 
in the case of dishes like the French pot-at-fa, 
in which the juices make the soup, but the m^ 
is left in a flavourless condition, is known to 
be from Zi to more than 5 oz. in the pound, tk 
is to say a leg of mutton weighing nine pooiuii 
uncooked will, if roasted, be redaced to tboct 
six pounds ; if boiled, to a little over ax tnd i 
half pounds; and, if baked, to abont teres 
pounds ; in careless cooking this loss of 2 to 3 
lbs. in seven is absolute ; the grease pot iloie 
benefits. Capt. Warren, besides saving 50 per 
cent, in fuel, has succeeded in reducing tlteW 
in amount by about fifteen per cent, andhiiip* 
paratus has been adopted largely. Triik ten 
made with it at Portsmouth which proT» tk 
truth of these tigures. It was found thatfifteo 
pounds of meat cooked in the ordinary wiy ti 
the Cambridge barracks were reduced to 10 Ik. 
12 oz., while by the Warren apparatos the ttffl« 
weight of meat was only reduced to 121bft. 1 oz. 
showing a gain of 1 lb. 5 oz. in fifteen poonds, 
or nearly 1} ozs. in each pound of meat. Tk 
success of the plan is beyond question ; tnd io 
application may be in a certain degree gcneil 
It deserves special notice, as being based oa » 
principle wbich is applicable to all kitchens aaii 
has been adopted in many, namely, cookiBg tbe 
meat in its own juices, and thus to a great ex- 
tent making it supply its own sauce. T^ 
saucepan, boiler, box, or whatever form nuy I* 
adopted, consists of a double vessel, or tathff o* 
one vessel within another, with a space of in a** 
or more between Uiem for water. Tbe meat a 
placed in the inner vessel, without any water, o^' 
less it be salted meat, which requires just w»t* 
enough to cover it, the water is kept at the boil- 
ing point in the outer vessel, the meat isentiH? 
cooked in the vapours arising from its own JM^J 
retains all its proper flavour, and is rewW 
extremely tender and easy of digestion ; the fJ" 
applies to fish as well as to batchers* meat 

The sketch (p. 789) of the interior of <«/ 
the cooking vessels in queation will expltf ^ 
principle of the whole of them at a glaoct 

The water is contained in the lower pflf^» 
A, which is just filled; B contains the «««*» 
fish, &c., to be cooked ; is a vegetable s^taa, 
of the usual form, the steam rising into it fr^ 
the lower vessel, A, by means of a pipe ; WT 
and this is a highly important featoie, a 
general application, the lid is made donUe, t» 
prevent loss of heat by radiatton^ the itritaft 



JOURNAL OF THB 800IBT7 OF ART9, Abquit 29, 1878. 



789 



F ur betveea the top and the liiuDg being an 
iccllent DOD-condactor. The N^'airen cookiag 

ol IB need with. any kind of stove. 




Ham. Beoham and Sons, of London (Cat. 
i'a4,TlH) exhibiC a cooking appamttisof admi- 
ible coagtraction, which is in uie in a great 
lumber of (chaola, coUegee, hoepitale, asyluma, 
rorkhouspB, and commerdal establishmenta, 
tprewnled in the following engraving : — 



The ap'parabiB is of the most solid conetrnc- 
tion and general application ; it comprisee a briotc 
bread' and roaatuig oven, a paetiy oven, hot 
plate, boilers for steaming, &o., and a hot-water 
boiler for aopplying baths for large numbera 
with a single tire. The maaofactnreTs give » 
list of public estflblishaieata in which these 
apparatus are used, and slate the consamplion of 
fuel to range, according to circa instances, from 
1 cwt. of coats a day for 100 persons to 2 cwL 
for 300. The same firm also exhibits an admi- 
rably contrived circular apparatus for paaieoger 
ships, adapted to cook for about 30O persone, 
used on board the new ships of the Boyal Mail 
ijleam Packet Company. This apparatus ia 
fitted with every means of cooking, bain-maries, 
&c. '1 hey also exhibit a plain, compact appa- 
ratus, made as strong and simple as poaaible, 
used in the navy and on board the Teeaels of the 
Peninsula and Oriental Oompany, foe cooking 
for the crew. 

MeAsra. Bowser and Son, of Glasgow (l,7i4a), 
also exhibit a well-known ships' cooking appa- 
ratus, d6si;;ned by Mr. Jsmes Blake, of the. 



Bojtl Dockyard, Portsmonth, and employed in 
Us Hi)]i(l Navy. 

Uesn-Jonefland Rowe, of Woroeater (4,T2ri), 
ubibii a range which they make expressly for 
ue in workhonaes, hospitalH, Ac, and which, 
wih some modifications, ia applied to private 
■Hcluiu. In the former, a large supply of hot- 
^•l* is added to the cooking powers of the 
'^>, the system of doable steam linings ia 
"ixl; adopted, and, as in all the best kitcheners, 
^ 9n«g are composed entirely of iron, so that 
1m setting ii reduced to the mare fixing of the 
TV's in place. Tbeee rangea have been largely 
■■%tad, sod the oerUficates of the directors of 
Hoy pnblio inatitations speak of the moderate 
"Dstintof fneltheyconsnme. The roasting oven 
■Mas to be well ventilated, and the fire may 
■■e be need for the same purpose. 

Captain A. 8. Tomkios (1,763) exhibits miU- 

S cooking vtenaiLs cwried on. pack-saddles ; 
Sergeant Uayell (1.714), of the 9th Lancers, 



army cooking apparatus packed in the Bmallesk 
possible compass for transport. 

In the case of stoves for ordinary kitchen ser- 
vice, their great similarity becomes a source of 
embarrassment, and it is evident that no really- 
satisfactory result can be obtained, except by a 
series of carefolly-condncted trials. It is per- 
fectly well-known, however, to stove makers and 
others, that the most economical modes of cook-- 
ing are not adopted, because they require an- 
amount of knowledge which few cooks possess,. 
and more trouble than they like to take. The 
adoption of apparatus with one fireplace, having 
of necessity a very keen draught, for all the' 
operations of boiling, baking, roasting, &c, when 
so much is required of the atove only during 
very short periods, and the fire is maintained all 
the rest of the day merely to perform small' 
operations, cannot be declared economical, ex- 
cept in comparison with the old kitchen rangea 
of tvfaioh we have already spoken. Oertsdnly m 



fSO 



JOUBVAL 09 THS 80CIBTT OF ARTS, Axmwr 2f, 1873. 



it» 



r. 



hot tkm 



w a 



to 

id 

mOk aU ite 
•oidf flmBgomeiit. Oa» grtat 
tioii to the kitehtner, liawever* it Ike abasdaat 
«ip|^ of kot water, to 4emr in man iwm Ikaa 
one to an Bngliah hmdlj. 

Mr. AddiB (4,703), tke ladaatznl DwaBiBg 
Osnpanj of Londim (4,704b). and Mean. Ben- 
kam and Sons (4,713), exUbit the napleet forniB 
el cooking ranges tkat can well be coneeired ; 
tknaeof the twofiratexkibiton are small open fire- 
Mngies of tke ekeapest oonstmctioB, witk oven 
and kodar; that of Messn. Benkaa kas been 
arranged for tke use of married soldien, and is 
\M9g$iyt employed in barracks, and oonsista of 
A.talotfc of fo« clay fanning the firs'plaoe^ a small 
open ftre» and an onn ; tke parts are pnt 
toge^erwitk about (bar screws, and are strong 
andsimplein tka extreme. Messrs. Benkam also 
exhibit a grill stove, one of those higkly-finished 
a|)paratas ad^>ted in ckopkoiisee, a fine piece of 
wa rk , in wUek tke gridiron is fitted witk ohains 
and wini^ to bring it at the proper be^t from 
the fire, and with a wheel and ratchet that alter 
the angle at which it rasla^ 

Messrs. Bailey, of Hi^ UfOkoK (4^3^ «» 
hibit a simple, solidly im— liMl»d, 
close fire-range. It ia fitted witk 
bottom grate, so Aal tka fifea* 
or contracted at plMSBxa; Ika oaeft ifr Iten^ 

^4. t£t 



wark WBu esewgv m pnoliee midcr osrtsia cos* 
ditioM, bat not oterwiae; tkeflrgreiitest hxku 
exceestve fiere eno se of fire, and ^ytoo oftn 
bnrn themselves to niaaia in t comptntiTd) 



short time. Thfif nra^ kowcBii;.siich s boon ti> 
small famBiai^ eaite9«% mat olhiMi thit the) 
deserve spedlit ifywittMfc Bfrjen Aoold oqb- 
sider sev wC pants ; ffirst; wBetosritiafiot bettir 
to dispenaa^ with the beilei in these andl itov^, 
making nsmof a large, flatrkettle on tkfc hot-pb 
instead, and thos secnaa a good-dsed oven; 
secondly, whether the. iron work is tdenbiT 
thick; andf thirdly— a most imponbuit point- 
whether theaa is^anytlua^^ «lkar ta iron cuulc 
or fire-clay, to prevent the side of ths OYeii beio^ 
burnt oat The writer knows b^ long experiean 
the necessi^ for these hints. 

Mr. MordocE, besides weD-msde cotur^ 
stoves, exhibito another class of AmerieailoT^ 
well sQited to tke habits of the peopleoftk'u 
eonntry. These are small^ onuHneatsl, opatR- 
grates, bearing the degant names of ''Qomi." 
" Sylpk," and *' Magnolia," with the fire praaed 
by &re-clay Imings, anitaUe for ofbci^na! 
sitting-rooms, shops, d^., bat which, iipo& u- 

toA» disclose two hdesK' 

capsble of jo^m 

t Tbe moJenu 

friem-^ thMaUltk atewaa lum A strong recom- 




ef London (i72i*A . 

portable ttovei i 

vsembling tke pr^ 



that w to MT.^ 
kitchen chiiDA«y>, 



(4,711), dowi 



^nd may be venoiated ki 

which passes froisi 

where the air ia 

Ated box, while ikmt 

carried off by tha^ ^Mli^ot tkft 

an opening made 

the oven ; the ba9iri» SMMla oi 

well riveted together; attd tk* wkotii ^, ^ 

is plain and darable. The same firm also show j fires are carefully combined, and in whkli t^ 
a qiwupaa^ cottager's or e«aigrant*s stove, salted \ arrangaaasnt forinoreasing or deevssiiB|r ^^ 
abo for a sammer oeokiPg^stove ta be i^iscad in ! of the fire is pecaliar, the back sod bsn^ ^ 
a baQk^kitohan, or an ironiDg-stove. With a ' flre-plaee bemg simply supported by s aenfi' 
mew tp emjigrants' nae the fire-hde is conatracted notohea in front The back of the atovo a ^ 
««tb moveable bsra and back, so that¥rood orlonpied eiUier bjpafir^olay Inn^oraboOtfs,!' 

tarf 9»y be bmrnad in it For the sake ofidanred. 



,in which the open awl (Aj^ 



-swpUoity all the space is given to the oven, the 
boiler bw^ replaood by » very large flat kettle ; 
the seooepans drop i«to the hole above tbe fire, 
90 as ti(^ bring theai. olose to the flame, and a 
hood, isi anppUed which eonverts a portion of the 
hptrplatQ into a Datck oven. In the abaeace of 
a Jh^iogof iron or fire-clay a screen is introdaoed 
into tbe oven ifi pr^v^at scorching on thasida 
A^t the firs. 

Htoyee dmilar to tke above are exhibited by 
Atessra^.ftiQivm end Qreeu^ of Bishapsgata-straAt 
<4717)i Mr. Oonstnttin^ of Bangdand (4,719) ; 
a^d Wff Mnvdocdi, of Gannoft-alreet (4,728)1 
Thpy, wiU^ fpajMl of. All sites, /ran. that of a J«a* 
bps:tl^ttME!9B0f*fa9iri'<taiinilei^ptk. Theae«tavas 



Messre. Benham (4,71S) «ckfl>il an mal^ 
kitchener for use in a modarate<«iBsd hooie ; tf^ 
a somewhat similar one, by tka sems niks^ 
has been adopted in tka ScbosI oi Qo^l^ 
the Exhibition. These stovea ara^fy i^ 
made witk thi<^ sotid plates ef Iran, i^ 
brieka, and boilera at baA ^••■'^ ^"^ 
kava nade n6 point of an open firif bot v! 
have done better, tb^bava twa gf««* ^^ 
ventalata tkeir oven thoroa|^; ^'^^^ 
tkroagk a pipe, and babig ooedactsd A«^ 
the bottom to tke top of tke ofw bec*B<« ■■•' 
oiantly wameri beioreU evteie it; th»i&«»^ 
independent of tbe bnakUrptfr, and t^ iT 
iwtai.alk)eetk«0 k»of egDQst)«b«m^>^>^^ 



JOURHAL OF THE BOOIETT OP AKTP, August 29, 1873. 



791 



MewTB. Brown and Green, of BishopBgate- 
itrcet, London (4,71 7), and Luton, whose small 
n )iortable stoves have already been noticed, 
ixhibit epecimens of the kitchen-ranges which 
hey have made lor many years, and in which 
be facility of roasting by an ' open fire while 
iH tbe otber parts of the apparatus are in full 
ictioD, is made a special point. In their 
atcheoers the upper fron lof the fire is enclosed 
rj a moveable plate, which, coming in contact 
fith the fuel, becomes very hot, with a large 
ire it would be red-hot ,so that the joint is 
izpoeed to as much heat above as below. The 
vparent intention of this front-plate is to secure 
nU heat on the top of the stove and in the 
oreni It is perforated with a line of holes, 
^'ch admit air over the fire, thus effecting the 
wniog of the smoke. When roasting is not 
;dDg on, and a moderate heat only is required 
8 the ovens and hot-plate, this front-plate may 
4 turned down, and then serves as a trivet 
fith a low fire. Among the points of these 
torea are good arrangements of flues to carry 
ffvnpleasant smells, moderate depth with good 
lidth of the fire, and a sliding-plate over the 
n which allows fuel to be added without the 
ttoble of lifting a heavy cover. In their larger 
fores steam boilers are included, but in the 
ittUer Messrs. Brown and Green place their 
•nlers on the hot-plate, and in cases in which 
dy an ordinary amount of cooking is required, 
n is probably the more economical method, 
lecordbg to the report of a trial with one of 
be large stoves, it appears that the consump- 
Mm in three hours was only 86 lbs. of inferior 
^ or three-fifths 'of an ounce of coal per head 
^ man ; but in this case all the capacities of 
he itofe were called into action at once, and the 
robing was only of the ordinary kind employed 
the army. 

MeaoB. Edwards and Son, of Great Marl- 
'<*tmgh-atreet, London, are well known as 
•ttnfacturers of warming and cooking appa- 
■ws; they manufactured some twenty years 
igo stoves in which the fuel is burnt from the 
JP downwards, a true principle set forth by 
■r* Cutler about half a century since, and 
"■'Bjy pressed upon the public in 1864 by 
^« Heil Amott. These stoves bum admirably 
wl, and the chimneys in which they are used 
■wely ever require sweeping, but the fire is 
^ so lively as in a common stove, and conse- 
^fly they have not become popular ; perhaps 
^the present price of coal they may obtain more 
^f' Messrs. Edwards and Sons* cooking 
fo^cs (41720) present the peculiarity, since 
i^ted by other makers, of a large use of white 
*i, which give them a very light and agreeable 
hpfsnce, but this is not all — white tiles are 
V^ clean, and do not conduct heat so readily 
« iron ; they aid in keeping the heat within the 



appaiatus and out of the kitchen ; they are 
applied not only to the back and sides of the 
stoves, but also to the doors of all ovens and hot 
closets where they are specially useful. The 
fire in these stoves is recessed, so that the cook 
may be able to stand nearer to the hot plate than 
with a fire flush with the front of the grate. Ii^ 
ship stoves the fire has generally a sliding iron 
guard, or apron, to prevent accidents, and there 
is no reason why the same arrangement should 
not be adopted in kitchens. In the case of large 
apparatus, Messrs. Edwards raise their ovens above 
the hot-plate, and there is great economy in so- 
doing, but it narrows the hot-plate, the great size 
of which, by the way, is one of the causes of the 
comparatively large consumption of fuel often, 
alleged against kitcheners. Messrs. Edwards 
have rising bottoms to their fires, and the usual 
arrangements for open-fire-roasting, but they 
very properly declare in their publications that 
until the open fire is got rid of, positive economy 
in fuel must not be expected. In connection with 
this subject, it is right to state that with tho- 
roughly well ventilated ovens, meat can be 
roasted in such a way that none but the most 
fastidious epicure, and in the best cases, not even 
he, can tell the difference between it and that 
which has been cooked at an open fire. The 
flues in these kitcheners are well studied and 
effective, and the roasting ovens are well yenti- 
lated without the clumsy expedient of letting 
cold air in at the oven door being resorted to. 

Messrs. Flavel, of Leamington (4,721), are 
also well-known makers of cooking ranges, hay- 
ing obtained medals at the two great exhibitions 
of 1851 and 1862, and they have introduced 
some modifications in the arrangement of parts, 
which are protected by patents. Amongst the 
special features is the substitudon of two loose 
bottom grates, one flat, for a high roasting fire, 
the other on legs which greatly diminish the 
area of the grate. This is certainly a cheaper 
and more simple plan than that of a bottom 
worked by a rack. The ventilation of a roasting 
oven in Messrs. Flavelo* kitcheners is managed 
by means of a cast-iron box placed over an aper- 
ture in the top of the oven, close against the 
back ; a constant current of air passes through 
this box, when, and in proportion to the extent 
to which, a valve which works in it is open^ 
which carries off* all the steam and fumes into the 
flue. This box also forms the back of the top 
flue of the oven, beneath the hot-plate. In the 
larger-sized stoves, the boiler is strongly made 
and placed at the back of the fire. Messrs. 
Flavel take advantage of fire-clay to retain heat 
and preserve the side of their ovens. They haye 
a very neat form of latch to their oven doors, 
and, in common with some other makers, they 
adopt the very useful arrangement of a bracket- 
piece, set level with the floor of the oven, upon 



which the wok may aasily drkw out a dish to 
aae how the owkiog ii pro^reesiug. la &e cau 
of heavy jointa. thu ia a great boon tocoolu, and 
may prevent maaj accidenla. 

_Mr. Gray, of Torquay (4.722), exhibita a| 
lutcheaet which preaenls Httle difference ia 
appearance fratn others oroaad, with the ex- 
ception of the adofition of bracket-resla for 
both ovens. These Devon-tor rangce, aa they 
are called, have been for some years before tbo' 
public, and are said to consune a very niodrpiate 
am«uat of fuel. Uka others already mentioned 
the fire may he either dosed or open, and when 
open may be reduced by simple contrivances to 
a. very small one. The arrangement of the fines 
and thft oqualisation of the top and bottom 
kaat of the ovbbs have evidently been carefully 
studied, and the ircm-work of the ovens is carried 
u|> to tbe hot plate, in order to avoid the- com- 
mcu accident of displacement of bricks, mortar, 
et cement. These stoves are strong (wd well 
p&t together. 

Messrs. Hassall and Singleton (4,724) show a 
doao and open fire-range which calls for no 



special senark. Th« model ii of sagrikin 
kjnd, with no peculiar featuee m a «nbj 
atove. The Hid«B of the stove are feratd ob 
hot-air chambers for heatii^ ^lartiaentt. 

Mr. Nock, of Birmingham (4,723) ikn 
MMither open and cloae fire-range, UktciBa 
terisucs of which are very laige onai, all 
novel form of fender, which ia jut ItTtl «d 
the bottom of the oveas, and upplict ia 
support for drawing oat dishes, « fwtfe m 
of the cook, besides aosweiiag tha vdiw 
purposes of a fender. Mr. Nock WM > if 
clay grate-back, and canaei the fire ui kaw 
aix to pass down hehiod the back sudBodtiiti 
buttom of the ovens first, and laellj ont iti 
tu(i Bul into the main flue. The bottco d la 
grate is worked upwards or dasninid^ ua 
crease or dimiuiah the site of the fir«,lj««i 
of a vertical screw. The front of tbtW-' 
octagonal in form, so that the cook is m^ 
at the hot-plate is less exposed ta thebiiiui 
a atratght- fronted stnve. 

Ueisrs.Wright and Co., of London udEol'^ 
ham (4734), exhibit two " economic m^' 



eC evdler dimossiong than nsnal, eaJy two f«et a large ot«b is placed benMdi ^^|^ - U 
- vUe, vbiah deserve attention from their con- boiler acrcM the back ; the in-^^ * 
psBtDMi and modante prices. In these atwres with, fire-brick, midtkeata<r^lik>B*V*'^ 



JOOBNAL OP THE 80GIETT OP ARTS, Ausnr », UTS. 



in 



I btiioDTetted in a moment into &n opfngrmte. 
te nwlwr claims for it great eoonomy in tlu 
uiuijitktii oi fael. 

Gu cookiag ^pantaa presents mate novelty 
IB that wliich ia fed by ordinary foe), and its 
uliacM ud convenience, tka portability of 
! alovea, their coropanaUve independence of 
mive fluca. Ac, are highly attractive chamc- 
M»; still the fact remains that under Drdi- 
ij ooadilians cooking by gas is not an eco- 
nitsl prooeas, and as the coat of gaa ttAlom, 
jKtaatity, tbe price of eoal, their relative 
(utigte in this respeet muat alwaye main- 
D ibe ume ratio. The original form of gas 
I'cs ring of gae pipe piereed with a number 
IuIm, unprotected by any bfat-preaerving 
lugHkent, although a very simple and oheap 
fvUDs, it as extmvagant a lonu of cooking 
mufiooldbe imagined, though it has this 
Mtl advutage, that the gaa is always ready 
My noaent, where there is day service, and 
I fin can be extinguished the moment the 
iUbk ii daoe. Its disadvantages were muiy. 
iIoIm ia the i»pes wore away rapidly, and 
ijcl thos beoante irregular; every breatb of 
tuued Sickering and lose of heat, and the 
xlaat of oombnation often filled the place 
h dtMgreeable anelle, while the meat in 
sfag wet liable to be cofltamionted with 
n. 

Oasof the grand fanlta of the original gas 
*M MS eeneoied by tbe intnaduBtioa uf the 
M^Ma jet, or Sanaen btuner, which oon- 
ti um4)l]r ef a gaa pipe placed within • pipe 
larger dimeasiona, and fitted with holee to 
Bit lir; the |h«h8IU« of the gas causes tbe air 
catn the otitar tube at a proportionate rate, 
^ tte gu and air are then bamt tugether in 
'' {m^oo whioh the iuhits of the two bear 
' Hflh other. The effects of this arrangement 
*fnet etonemy in the amount of gas con- 
Mai, null steadily barniog jets, with great 
■>Mg ud fcut little luminous power, and 
'^J, thi absence of sooty deposit ot 
*^ nleniils, in oonsequenoe of the 
tfttt mtDbi)stion caused by the oxygen of the 
r. A gas cooking apparatus withuut an atmo- 
teric bunar ought to be regarded as a mon- 
'■■i9,<inly equalled by the bumiog of a candle 
the open air without proteetion. Bat even 
■ktheoM of the Bunaen burner, the ordiaary 
I itovetB B wasteful apparaCiia, and the amoant 
W lost is oat of all proportion to the worh 
»e by its meaoe. Fortunately tikia fact has 
" nccgniaed, and tbe moat approved gai 
pv&Cu presents many amngemaitU well 
•wring gf attention. 

'intia txi^t, as in impoitaoce, is the Bh( 
fH ippmtus made Mesara. Laeni «ad Co., 
^■«^ <4,T06). In the orileetton exhibited 
' <hii Sxia it afanott .evoiy tern of cooking 



npparatuB, from the timjde ring of gaa to that fcr 
the preparation of food for s large houn^old, 

' even for pnblic establislunente. lit. Looni 
evidently studied his subject carefully, and 
has produced admirable reenlts. 

Id the lir«t place he bat edited a patented 
composition, called "adamaa," to the formation 
of gas-bumerg. Ttraan «n fdaced in holes in 
the gas rings and tnbw, land, wkile they produce 
well-formed jeta, wanr atfiaitafy less than the 
holes in an iron pipe, wUah aoon lose their re- 
gularity of form frooi ttn haaL Secondly, he 
has introdnced a fireproof aaaterial in many in- 
iaa wayB, M tini&ge te ing* cooking ap- 
paratus, as refiaotate end diffMen, and as smsll 
a, and has ikms giwn to fasappsrstns new 
and improved forma.- The aknplest form of 
cooking-stove, aa at^pSod by^ Bakers of sncb 
apparatus, is a inag of g aa - j et a aet within an iron 
frame, which tn-nt as suppact tar kettle, eance- 
and fiyjagpea. The MXt step is the 
adoption of the pnM|Ml of wB ac ti en which is 
ihown in m aim(4« fona ■ (to ewooo^panying 
figure A. Is this oase n Mkr, with stewpan 



and steamer, is placed over the gas, while a por- 
tion of the heat reflected by the bottom of the 
boiler is made to grill a chop bdow. In place 
of the boiler a pair of Mr, Leoors heat- reflectors 
may be used. These are simple circular vessele, 
made, as already etated, of fireproof ware two or 
more inches deep, and about half-an-inch in 
thickness. Two of these placed together, the 
upper one bottom upwards, form an excellent 
oven fur potatoes or any small pieces of meat, 
Ac, and the heat on the top is suffieient for 
gentle ummering, or keeiung anything hoL 

Tbe complete application of the prineiplea of 
reflectim, diEfuaion, &c, is well illustrated ia .tbe 
two figures B »nd C (p. 794), tbeformer repreeeat- 
ing an apparatus three feet high, and about siztaea 
inches in diameter, capable of roaatmg a joint of 
meat up to lllbL, baking four loaves of bread, 
or ooaking an entire dinner. A deaari^liaB.»f 
the parU of thia ^paratoi will eftplain the pw- 



JOUBNAL OP THB BOCIfiTT OF AKT8, Anonn 29, 187S. 



ciples kdopted by Mr. Leoni. The ring of gu 
it near the bottom of the apparatiiR, above the 
dripping-pan ; on one aide U the gu-pipo con- 



nection, and in the other a neat arrangemeot for 
lighting and extingniBhing the gas. The outer 
cue of the stove is of iron-plate, but within thU 



ie a jacket of heat-refiecting compoaition, an 
inch thick, shown by the broad white line to ' 
left of the door. Between the iron case and the 
compoaition lining is a space all round, which 
greatly economisee the heat, and allows of t 
plet« ventilation when required. The top of the 
stove is aimply covered by one of the heat 
reflector* already mentioned, on which anything 
may be kept hot, or which may be replaced by 



a gaa ring for broiling. The intarior of tki 
Btove may be arranged according to the nqllir^ 
ments of the day. being built np of circak 
atanda made of tbin iron-plate, l^lgnre C tx- 
hibite an arrangement for general cooking pu' 
poses, while B contains four loavea of bread. k\ 
the bottom of C is a heat-diffuaer — a mer«circok 
plate of the Gre-olay composition ; tbia ia naed b 
disaeminate the heat equally, and is necemry ii 
all caaea except roasting when a fierce oentn! 
beat answer! best. When a large piece of mM 

poultry is to be roaated.itisNmply hangfroa 
the centre of ihe frame, the diviaiona being n- 
moved. 

The above description will apply genenflf U 
nearly tbe whole of the cooking atovea made bi 
Mr. LeMii, whether large or email, msad a 
square. For hotels and other large talaUtk- 
ments Mr. Leoni makes roasting app«tdn to 
cook from 100 to '.OOlbe. of meat or poabytt 
once. In these casea the cover ta lift«d by bmu 
of a lever, the body of the machine ia drawi bm 
beneath on rails, and the iron cage of twort^e* 
containing the meat lifted out by meaai at ■ 
light crane. The principle haa been still fiB^ 
carried out by the aanie firm at tlie IxMla 
Hospital, in the '^A'hitechapel-road, where a laigi 
apparatus haa been at work for a coasidenU 
time. This stove ia, for convenience, fita^ 
beneath the floor line ; the roof or re&eetar a 
the apparatus ia attached to an iron trap^ooi 
which fills np the opening, and tlnia eamjitta 
the level of the floor. By means of cogged wbw^ 
the winding up or down of this tnp ia n«h 
done in two or three minntea; a light cr^M b* i 
similar process works np and down an inn lii 
which holda the meat, and in this — — r ^gk' 
minutes are sufficient time for Mte man to fil 
the apparatus with about SOOlba. of meat, mi 
the same time to empty it. The drippag ■ 
carrieil off as soon an produced into a peil at am 
disianco from the gas apparatna, where it ee^ 
at once ; products, fumes, steam, Ac. ere cemM 
off underground into *he flue ; gaa is lit, tnnei 
on or off by means of a special apparatna. boa 
the floor above gronnd, and according to & 
quantity of meat the heat is regulated, by tamis 
on either one, two, or more supplies. IV 
whole quantity of meat is roasted in exeetly iw 
hoars' time. During the roaatiikg the b* 
requires no basting, taming, or any attceli* 
whatever. 

This apparatus was set np in 1670. aad ia 
results are thns summed op in a letter by Mr. J 
Nixon, house -govern or and secrataiy of lh< 
hospital: — ''In the six months ended Stu 
December last (1670), the large roecter ew ii 
use 12fi days, being about six daya aboftof * 
full half-year's work. ThewMte of aaetAoV 
this period averaged aboat H} per evt, ■ 
against 33} noder the old syatama tl nasliif. 



JOURNAL OF THE BOOIErT OP ARTS, August 29, 1873. 



795 



rhOd the oonBamptioii of gas was also rednoed 
rom a daily average of 610 to 250 cubic feet. 
%e aotaal saying to the hospital in 125 days 
ras, in meat, 4,579 lbs., and in gas 44,525 cubic 
Mt, or for a foil yearns working of 261 roasting 
lays very nearly 10,000 lbs. of meat, worth at pre- 
ent prices £296, and about 88,000 cubic feet of 
:aa, costing £17 12s., and representing together 
a tonnal saving in money of £313 12s." 

The following is Messrs. Leonfs statement of 
i pnetical experiment made with one of their 
kmiljr gis apparatus : — 

*' Breakout for five adults and three children 
-two pints of coffee, one pint of tea, half-pound 
i baeoD, half-pound of oatmeal for porridge, 
nx Toonds of toast ; time, twenty minutes ; 
eoDinmption of gas, twelve feet; cost, under 
Hiree-farthings. Dinner for twelve adults and 
Juee children — 6 lbs. leg of lamb (loss, l^lb.), 
Hbs. drioin of beef (loss, 10 oz.), 5 lbs. of 
wUtoes, six large cauliflowers, two large fruit 
in; time, one hour and a half; consumption 
rfgas, 48 feet ; cost, 2id." 

Meesre. Leoni have also applied gas to the 
Rodncdon of steam and baking. They exhibit 
tkigh-pressnre steam boiler, worked widx 36 gas 
Vti, which produces 100 feet of steam per hour, 
vHh t pressure of ten to fifteen pounds per inch. 
i pipe connects this boiler with a steam-cooking 
Ant, having a metallic lining throughout, cover 
adaded, the space between the metal ceasing 
ind the wood lining filled, like the Norwegian 
bxes, with felt. 

MewTB. Billing and Co., of London (4,714), 
bre in their stoves, which are good specimens 
^ work, relied almost entirely on the principle 
of reflection for the operation of roasting. The 
iiM)de idopted is one which has been in use for 
*<nMyein for gas-boating stoves, and originated, 
we believe, in France. The gas pipe is above 
the fflett to be roasted, and thus aU fear of the 
li^er derivmg any unpleasant smell from the 
piocess of combustion of the gas is entirely 
i^^ted. In small apparatus the heat is reflected 
kwnwtrds direct upon the meat, while in larger 
*^6i the reflector is placed at an angle of about 
^ %. behind the meat, and a tin reflector 
l"oed in front of the joint, as in the case of 
in ordiniury coal fire. Above the gas is the hot- 
P»te, and thus one series of jets is made 
^ perform two sets of operations, as in the small 
JM cooker described above ; this looks, at first 
^t like a very economical arrangement, and so, 
"ttder oertain conditions, it is. If a good deal 
>f cooking is to be done at the top of the stove 
^ t Boudl amount below, the economic con- 
"^ are fulfilled, but if these be reversed 
»ew must be a great loss of heat, for a given 
tember of feet of gas can only give a certain 
Munber of degrees of caloric; and, moreover, the 
'^fleeted heat is not equal to direct heat To 



roast below the gas must require a large quan- 
tity, and, as already stated, unless the top heat 
is actually required, there must be loss. A 
chop, or any small article cooks admirably under 
reflected heat, but the system can only be 
regarded as supplementary. 

Messrs. Billings have adopted the good arrange- 
ment of double ' sides to their ovens, and thus 
obtain great regularity and economy of heat, but 
the latter would be much increased by the 
addition of fire-clay linings. The almost un- 
avoidable spilling which occurs in cooking causes 
extremely unpleasant vapours to arise; this 
is in some cases partially prevented by the 
use of sand on the hot plate, and Messrs. BiUings 
have adopted an ingenious mode of cleaning the 
plates; in small stoves the top rails or other 
supports for the saucepans, lift up to allow 
of the plate below being cleaned, and in the 
large stoves this plate is made to draw out, like 
the wooden tray of a bird cage. Messrs. Billings 
make use of the Bunsen burner in various sizes, 
and their pipes and fittings are well arranged. 
The following is their own statement of the 
capabilities of one of their Family Oooking stoves, 
about three feet high by 18 inches square : — ** A 
joint weighing nine pounds, a large family pie, 
a couple of ducks, two sorts of vegetables, fish 
and soup, were all cooked at one time in the 
space of two hours, consuming about 40 feet of 
gas." 

Messrs. John Wright and Oo., of Birmingham 
(4,735), are well known manufacturers of gas 
cooking and other stoves, and the articles which 
they exhibit are neatly got up, in some cases 
remarkably so ; the white tiles, set in neat iron 
frames, present a bright and extremely clean 
appearance. Their ovens and general appa- 
ratus for cooking bread, meat, and all other 
kinds of food, have, we are informed, been for 
some time in use at the Crystal Palaoey 
Sydenham, and many other establishments* 
These makers do not seem to adopt either double 
iron walls or fire-clay linings, and this must be 
regarded as a serious oversight ; the escape of 
heat whi(^ has done no cooking, must always be 
one of the tests of the economy or otherwise of 
such apparatus, and their white tiles, although 
good reflectors, are very far indeed from perfect 
reflectors and anti-radiators. Messrs. Wright, 
however, make use of certain earthen reflectors 
and heat distributors, similar, if not identieal, 
with those of Messrs. Leoni. They declare that 
their ordinary domestic oooking stoves do not 
consume more than a pennyworth of gas per 
hour. 

Oas stoves are also exhibited by Messrs. 
Davis and Son, of Westminster ; Mr. Hall, of 
Battersea; Mr. Mitchel, Mr. Southby, and 
Messrs. Gbavasae and Co., of London ; Messrs. 
Scott and Butler, of Birmingham; Messrs. Verity 



796 



JOURNAL OP IHB SOCIETY OP ABT8, Acotbt 29, 1878. 



Brotiiera, of PaddiDgton. and one or two otkerl eight tto iYatty boni8,«ciioidmff<to tikM npeof ^ 



finne^ kat prase&t no features calling for epecial 
notice. The last-named firm makes use of laige 
fire-day bmaaers, and white potcelain slabe 
baaeatb the hot-plate. 

A word should be said by way of recooiiBeiida-' 
tion of .ike exoeUent French fire^preof ditheaand 
paaifl intsodnoed by more than ome exbibit<nr «if 
gu apparatus. 

Cooking byaoieuis of petrolenm or other hydro* * 
carkons is illuatrated by two exhibits, that ^ 
Mmbtb. Odhner .and Co., of Stockholm <4^307), 
which is a small portaUe apparatus, with two 
lamps, with long, flat wicks ; and the af^natna 
of Messrs. Raadall and Co. (4,730), who apply 
the vaporisation of hydro-carbons to lazge and 
small cooking apparatus as well as to heating 
pmrpoees. These ** vapour stoves/' as they are 
called, are but recently introduced, and require a 
few words of explanation. The fire-place in which 
the Biineral oil b bunt is^ circular, having in the 
centte a small hollow iron cone truncated, a taper 
ring. Behind the stove a small vessel containing 
the oU is mounted on a tall tube, so as to be out 
of the way of danger from the fire ; and from the 
upright tube a small horkontal one passes over 
the top of the conical ring already mentioned ; 
the supply being regulated by a stop-cook, the 
oil is idlowed to drop very slowly from the tube 
into the ring. The oil being lighted bums at 
first in yellow flames, but when the cone and 
fire-pkuteiha^e become hot, which they sooa do, 
the oil is vapoarised at oAce, and bums in the 
form of gm with a blue flame. The apparatus 
seesis to answer ks intended purpose <well, but 
its economy must be ascertained by praotioal 
expa ri m e n t . 'i he invention is Amehoaa. 

A few email apparatus remain to be meatioQed. 
Meaers. Ghavasse and Co., of London (4,704) 
show a family coffee-roaster, in the Ibrm of a 
frying-pan, with cover and interior stirr^ ; and 
a.ueeful portable *' hot*air oven," which coasuits 
of a cfeae^fitting double iron pan with handlea, 
which .may be put on or in any kind of fire, the 
potatoes, chestnuts, or other contents being pro- 
tected from burning by an inner lining with hoies. 

MesBBB. Silver and Co., of London (4,7^2), 
exhibit that valuable invention, the Norwegian 

aj^Mmtua, that is to say, a close-fitting box, with j exhibits one mi the great catteea 
a thick lining of felt, or hair, which is equally { Fronoh army U>r makaiag coffsa. 

Ill .1 «• ml 11 1 * 4* I * 



box For campugning, tiavaUiag, baadnff , 4bK^ 
such a companion ia invalaable ; aad, in .additMn 
to ihis,<itmaatbeiBeirtioned:lkatcaok»|^iA«aik 
B maaner esiOBaB the amallaat poasMe anovntaf 
loss. 

^Mr. Smartt, id BucUiuntJiill (4,73S), ah 
a small machmes-calitd afao^b^re oven^ 
of a tin vessel with oae atither sundler iasiik. 
laad ketwean WikMh la amaM amomit of apaae s 
naitttained, -whidi n »p«rt]y ^ad<w«lh mw^ m, m 
5n the Warren kettles ; ^a-eawer omrlaps hoik 
•v«asals, and itbs mhsAe is taasHy mammad hj 
naeans.of.a<aimplainoveahle handk. Fer keepiik. 
anythiag hot. for wmnning up, and for aookii? 
small things on the -ashes, or beneath a iie, a 
better ormoreaimplaanaagementaoiild aoaMahr 
be uniigiAifed. 

Measrs. Keedham and £ite, of Lon^cn (4,»l&>. 
Mr. Duff; of Leicester <4,7d9), and Mr. B. Joaa. 
of London (4,7^), exhibit aelf-acting and kaaBBf 
roasting machines. These, and most «f Ike 
other small apparatus mentioaed above, mt 
in the Food OkaSy in the upper east qoatet 
where the Atmospheric Ohnm Company (4,lti|. 
show an ingenious portable oooking diab, wkiek. 
when dosed, looks like a gigantic atlver knai- 
ing watdi. It contains a email ataad for cm 
of the two )tin duihes i>f which it ia oooapoicd. 
and a htde tin grate. One dish ia plaoied «a 
a table, the grate wtthin it, aad the albv 
dish aa tte atmd •c'ver tlm grate. The iawer 
dish acts as a reflector, and in tea 
so a chop» egg, or other small viand ia 
by maaaa of waste t>apcr ^only. 

Ia the annexe ' Op ^a o ite the door af the EahaJ 
of Oookery iwiU be found a'^ery n«at appwms, 
calfod the '' Flying Cohimn Portable Btove,* tha 
inivaiBlion of Osptain. Leoky ^^,75 1). It otaiiiite 
of a amall cookkig stove, with canteen £ar iknt 
pemone, aU packed into a atoot iron haakst, 
which will hold eix gaUons of water, aad tks 
weight 4>f the whole is 221faa. It was 
the haft antnma.manaiuvTaB.in aeveral 
and battalionaapd volunteer contingenta ; 
stated SB boiling a kettle or muoapaa widi eigk 
ounoeaAf wood in -eight minutes. 1m the aans 
place, Mr. D. Talleiman (4,7o2), of Loadsa. 

mtk 



valuable as an ice-box or as a cooking apparatae. 
It ia xmly in the latter form, however, that it 
comes within the scope of this report The 
N<N*wegian box is pretty well known ; those who 
arc unacquainted with it will be hardly prepared 
for the fact that food contained in a tin saucepan, 
of wfaioh ike water has only boiled for a few 
minutoi^'when shot .up in the Norwegian -box 
will be aa thoroughly cooked as if it had been, 
kept for the usual time over a fire ; and, further, 
that it iriU raaiaia iiot aad nnsnoilad forirom 



The eoUeotion of cooking apparatws daaa art 
present anytlung new in prinoipie — it < 
poasible that it should — but it exhifaita an < 
of improved worknunship aad many 
adaptations the tvafaie of which caanat be 
looked at a time when the paee of fuel ia <me sf 
the BMat eerioua qaestaona of the day. 



Thanaiaber of TiaitoTs ^m^M to Iha riTiiliair 
during the week ending Saturday, Angoat 23td, «i* a 
ft>Hows :--iSeasD& tidnrt8» T52; on payowiiL 14^. 
totol, le^is. 



JOnSirAL OF THB 800IETT OP ARTS. Bnrmjm €, 1878. 



797 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF AKTS. 

No. 1,086. YoL. XXL 



FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5, 1873. 



JB tu nWMi ti ■ WW i/or th$ Soeithfjhomld U m M r umi io flto Jiorrtanr, 



AOOVffCEMENTS BT THE COHHOIL. 



TBOHVOLOeiOAL EXAMIHATIOirB. 

He sabjeots in which examinations were held 
this year, namely, Ck)tton Manufacture, Paper 
Vsnofaotore, Silk Manufactore, Steel Manuf atittone , 



and Oarriage-bnilding, will be retained in the Ex- 
aminationB of next year, with the addition of 
Cloth Manufacture, Glass-making, Pottery and 
Porcelain, and the Manufacture of Gbs. 

The Progitunme is in preparation, and will be 
published as soon as possible. 



In the report of the Educational Officer 
read at the Conference, held on the 27th June, 
it was stated that tiix candidates had been 
examined at the Technological Examinations held 
on the 17th May. The reports of the examiners 
relative to the papers worked were favourable, but 
at the date above ref titrred to the returns of the 
examiners of the Department of Science and Art, 
relative to the science fiiubf ects, had not been sent 
in. These have now been received, and the results 
are as follows : — 



B, meaoB EUmoituy Stage ; A, Adrsnoed Stage; and H, Hcmoan Stage. 

CAKaiAOB BUIL1>XNG. 





Address. 


Age. 

22 
26 
19 


Ooenpatioiii. 


BcxxMca Subjects.* 


Name. 


Obligatory. 


Optional. 




I. 

Al 

£2 
£2 


VI. 


VU. 


n. 


V. 


Freehand 
Drawing. 


^ywood, J. J. . . 
IWliaa, T. F. .. 
MlllliIl^M. .... 

• 


19, Parker-st., Preston 
42, N%ylor.8t., Cork,. 
42, Naylor-8t., Cork.. 


Carma^e Bmlder 
Do. 
Do. 


£1 
E2 
£2 


A2 
E2 
£2 


H2 

. * 


stage. daM. 
2 1 

• • 

• • 


Passed. 

Paased. 

Excellent. 



Cie above have all complied with the conditions, ! be offered to him on the conditions stated 



and have obtained first-class certificates in the 
cilementaiy stage of carriage building. 

T. ?. Mullins has been awarded the Society 
oi Azti^ prize of £5. The studentship of £50, 
^Wtt ty Her Majesty's Commissioners, wiU 



below.t 

M. Mullins obtains the pnze of £3, offered by 
G. N. Hooper, Esq. 

J. J. Heywood obtains the prize of £2, offered 
by G. K. Hooper, Esq. 









Cotton Mamufagtubb. 
















Address. 

» 


» 
Age. 

22 


Ocoopation. 


BgiMmcb Subjrots. 


Kane. 


Obligatory. 

• 






L 


VLorVn. 


n. 


m. 


V. 


XVL {X2XL 


ICDii Thomas G. 


/ 200, Sonth-st., 
1 Longsight, near 
( Hancbester. . . . 


( Cotton Mann- \ 
\ footnre.... j 


£2 


. . 


El 


Al 


. . 


. . 


. . 


A2 



The above candidate has complied with the con- 
^^Knu, and has obtained a first-class certificate in 

* Yte fcllowlBg is a list of the adeaee sobjeota referred to :— 

Baltfert I. Practfoal, Plane, aod Solid Geometry. 

n II. >f»eh)ne Constmct on and Drawing, 

n III. Build lag Construction. 

M V Pore Mathematics. 

n VI. Throretieal Meobaoies. 

n VII- Applied Mechanics. 

» Vill. AooDstios, Light, and Beat. 

„ X. InorgxDio Cltemistry. 

n XXI. Vegetable Anatomy and PbyAdogy. 

H XXtl. Steam. 

t Rtr Majesty's Commlasioiiera t» the SzhlUtion^ la » letter to 



the elementary stage, cotton manufacture, with 
the Society of Arts prize of £5. 

Major Donnelly, say that, •* with tb6 Tlew of enoonraging persons 
to present themselves (or the examinations in teohnohigy, wbloh 
hayn b«en esUblished by the Society of Arts, they have resulved to 
oflterto icrant three ■todeiitshlps, of fi'ty pounds each, to he awarded 
to the per»>ns who shall aistlnguish themselves the most in the 
tubjeots of steel, stlk and carriages respecttrely, at the eiamina- 
tiona in the present year. 1 hese scholarships are to be awarded on 
condition that the recipients go for a year to some place of soientlAo 
iDitmction, snchas the Royal Sehool of Mines, (b» Royal Gollese 
of Science in Dublin, Owens College, Manchester, or the KngUah, 
Sootch, or Irish Umversltles, or other sebnol approved by her 
M Jesty*s Commissioners, or travel abroad for the purpose of im- 
provttg tMtoselvetfln HMVtadta.** 



798 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIErTT OF ARTS, Sspmau 5, 1873. 



SnBL IlAtnirACTUiix. 





AddiMt. 


Age. 

21 
23 


Ocoopation. 


SomcB Bamntcn, 


Name. 


Obligmtosy. 


OptiaoML 




VI. 


VU. 


vm. 


X. 


XIX. 


I. 


XL 


V. 


WaireBy W* H, ,. 
Jamieson, A. . . . . 


( 2, Upper Crou- 
rd., Kingsliind- 
( park, DuMia . . 
( 7, Little Heath, 
{ Old Charltoa, 
IS-E. 


Engineer. 
Mechanical do. 


A2 
A2 


A2 
A2 


H2 

• • 


A2 
El 


A2 

FaiL 


HfaiL 
El 


H2 
H2 


«•««. dM 

(3 2 

5 3 
(6 3 

2 1 



W. H. Warren has complied with the conditions, 
and lias obtained a first-class certificate in the 
honours stage, Steel Manufacture, with the Society 
of Arts prize of £10. The studentship of £50, 
given by Her Majesty's Commissioners, will be 
offered to him on the conditions* stated in the 
previous page. 

A. Jamieson failed in subject XIX., and has not 
been examined in subject Vlli. ; he does not 
therefore comply with the conditions, but he may 
do so in a future year, and will then be entitled to 
a certificate. 

OEHERAL BZAMI1IATI0N8, 1874. 

The Programme of Examinations for 1874 is 
now ready, and may be had gratis, on application 
to the Secretary. 

These Examinations, in 1874, will be held on the 
evenings of the 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th April. 
The Time-table has been arranged as follows : — 



T n K S D A T, 

April 21, 
From7tolOp.m 



Arithmetic. 

Loffio. 

Fl<nleiiltare. 



WiDirasDAT, 

April 32, 
FromTtolOp m. 



Theory of Mode 
Rn^rlUh History. 
Oerman. 
Spanish. 



TBUaSDAT, 

April 23, 
From T to 10 pm 



Pnliticel Eco- 

nomy. 
Frei»ch. 
Froltaiid Vepre- 

tnbIeCi»l'u e. 



F m I D A T, 

April 24, 

FtomTtolOpm. 



Book-keeping. 
Knflish Lao- 

puagv. 
lUlian 



FsiOAT, April 24, 6 to 7 p.m.—Oictatioo. 

The rule which formerly prevented a candidate 
who had once obtained a first-class certificate in a 
subject from being again examined in that subject 
with a yiew to gaining a prize, has, in accordance 
with the wish expressed at the Conference, held 
on the 27th June, 1873, been rescinded. In future, 
therefore, a candidate who has obtained a first-dass 
certificate in a subject may be again examined in 
that subject, but not more than one first-class 
certificate in any subject will be counted for the 
Prince Consort's Prize, or for the Council Prize to 
Females. A candidate having taken the first prize 
in any subject cannot again take a prize in that 
subject, nor can a candidate take a prize of the 
same grade twice in any subject. 

The Elementary Examinations, held by the 



District IJnions and Local Boards, for whidi papen 
are furnished by the Society, are fixed for the 10^ 
11th, and 12th March. 

Full details in reference to the T^-^'^mina*^^* are 
given in the Programme, copies of whidiiikoald 
be applied for to the Secretary of the Socse^ cff 
Arts, by all intending to come forward as cbh^ 
dates, or otherwise interested in the £xamisaftiaBS. 

A copy of the Programme acoompaain ^ 
Journal to each Institution in Union, and addi- 
tional copies will be forwarded on applicstkm. 



SCOHOHICAL USE OF COAL FOB DOMISHC 

PUBPOSES. 

With regard to these prizes it has been decided 
that testing rooms will be provided, in which tbe 
various competing articles may be tested in ssooes- 
sion, each competitor having allotted to ham ic 
turn a room and chimney, for a limited peziod 
where he may fix his apparatus for the pozpoie o< 
its being tested by the judges appointed by tike 
Society of Arts, the same to be remoTad wba: 
directed by the judges ; such fixing and ifmarrL 
to be at the cost of the competitor. 

The competing articles must be delivered at t^ 
London International Exhibition Building, SosU 
Kensington, on the 1st December, 1873. with t 
view to their being tested, and subsoquenUy shcv: 
in the Exhibition of 1874. 



The Engineer has intelligence of prdiniicj^ 
arniDiremeDls of much ri^iQ^AOce f<ir dowiopiiiir th» «s^ 
Dierf^Hi minemlii io a p«irtion of the South StaflTordstiin ^ 
tricC that will Te>^n\t in the bringinir to market o# «r«iia 
iitillioiu ut tons uf good coal, beaidea much vahiaMi i*** 
stone. 

An immense quarry of lithographic stooe b* 
juar been dinciivered near the small town of Vol^rse^^ 
RaKSiH. A merchnut in Berlin is aaid to have purrttk^ * 
for 100,000 frnnrs. 

It is stated that coal has been found in W«^- 
m'TeUnd, aud that some Middlt^bptuich eapitMlwta *■• *" 
teresred in the dimovery, which they i&i«od 
prNctical aivonnt wirh**at delay. 

The annual consumption of tin in 
EaMpewiM,iB 1868 and 1868, abu>iit 22,000 
24,000 toaa ; in 1871, 27,000 



JOUBNAL or THB SOOCBTY OF ABTB, Sin 



t6.1Wtfi. 



W 



?&0CSSDIVa8 OF THX 80CIETT- 



CUTOB LXCTDBn. 
"Ae Kcond lectnre of Uie third oonna of Cantor 
Lectnret for the Sesrion, " On Winu ; thrar Pro- 
dDotkiD, Traatment, and Uh," whs dstiTered hj 
J. L. v. Thudichvic, Baq., H.D., on Monda;^ 
eTuning, AprO 28th, 1673, as follows :— 

LlCTCM H. 
n< ViUtiatf Witm PnAuud ml 7<rn~-jr«fH, ^lurfu, 
iiFM. IV/yt-arladoi. AmanliUaiat, Ban—, Bmttat, ft.— 
n»uc*l Bid CHumiial OttrralioKi on tkt Cautu af tlutt 
Ihfirml Bnutlt.—Brmdfing, hlailfrittg, Suiphuring, 
Jfiwy, md CbuaHr/tilinf af Jtrti Winn.—Ktfltct a/ 
Simliju Omdmet in ViniJItatien dimiaithtt thi Cn- 
UiMlf nd Suectt* of othtneitt lnfKiti-d*t*i»pii Filiatt- 
tnH mul Oimmirei»l Opiraliinu, — UlAw Spaiiitk Vi 
ftrdiand fTina. 

Dhxsttt or JtaMX MotTO*. 



ctuifad with (agar, that tbe mosto mJadii from Uii 
■ Dnibls tn oontome tbe wIioIb o( It, uid ramuiti (vest, 
Id now eiteot, evpn Hfler fermsntaHnn fang ptoduced 
Ika ordioAr; qoantity of &IoohoI. Tk\» bile U often 
Brio to jmtify nr explain the sweet tiirtn of sberry, s 
ibe lai^ *iitoiiTit or dUlillsd spirit* whiob ia &daad 
1 Pot, ny those vho fpre»d this tale, if ipiriti •< 
M uLU to tbU Bwent liqaorons vinn, it wneld not kei , 
mt, dohiu trannt ond Lhe vii'iaxitadee of iti beiDK kept 
B prirMs hoatf^ it would tunin ferment nnd epoil. 

In the " Trmtdie on Winn," of Thodichnm and 
liprf, p. S38 t< tq., a spwial chapter it devoted to the 
ompanami of the density of Jerei mmt with the 
ptnflc gisrity of moiC prmuoed from different wir*- 
1 Tuiou coanlriei and vxara. Tbii compHrisoa lei 
a the coDolaiioa that ahnrrfiB not natarall; stiongvr 
luo tbe principal wian of Fmnoe and Qetmany ; that it 
I ible lo ocnuaine the wholn of ita ■archarine nutter by 
latnnl tnnnentati'm. and becnine natqral win«, aad, if 
*<i[«lf treated, diies not require either plastering, or 
lukUilion of hrandy, spirits, or boiled must. 

I bin bean able to (Mnfitin this conclosioa by many 
'<aT>tii>ni made at Jen>c upon rnoato* as they came 
^'^ lbs lagara, and subsequently fermented in the 

Oat of 103 noalos, at the average temperature of 70* 

ihr,:— 

red apociGo gtavity 10'76 Biinm£. 



„ 12-10 „ 

,. 12'2S 

.. H'^0 tt 

« H76 T, 

„ 18-00 „ 

13M 
13S0 

7 ;, „ UOO „ 

IhcM moatos came from the mantoo castellano grapes 
D»D in barro-arena soil) nnd trikonportnd to the 
mtaa nn males' bHckn during the time from September 
ii to October 2nd, that is to aar, very late in a very 
Jorai Miuon- The grape* hiid, in leed. been aabjected 
ooh a be«t that many were shrirellel, and other* 



iTaniformed into irj nudnc nwe latt^ar do not ^ 
fiuenoe thespaciflogTaTttyof mottoamadAon tlielkgar, 
'int an mostly lo«t to the wino-makei*. When the Arj 
murk i« *nbaequently catt into t^ roads, or carrisd to 
the dung-heaps or field*, one can see numbers of poor 
iJiildren mmmaging it, and picking out these raisins. 
I slate this in order to du>w that the mostos above de- 
iH;tibed were really highly concentrated liquids, which 
is indeed also shown by the spedBc giavltiea theiuselv«a, 
to hII those who know that Spanish must* Suctoate be- 
tween specific gravity S and It a* extreme*, and sis 
more frequently near the I 
I next observed eight I 
aBaaleat«d grape*, and *l 
13fi; four = 14°; two = 
nix arroba* of brandy of 4C 
gravity was depressed by 
moetcis made on October 
lie pila, two showed 15", 
The heaviest moslo I o 
22° B., and oame from F 
lo the sun during ten days 
All these heavy t 



it allows 
their furmentatioa ariestei 
ot^heir volume of alcohoL _ 
und the best palomii 
my sample*, weigbei 
tb, to have a *peo;flo 
mostos, as well as Uie mostoi 
harro-aiena soil, fermented 
the apace of ten days or so, l 
and were new, dry, thoroug 
it ia shown, by overwhelmi 
"sn so frequently mnde to 

ig^red and brandied wine* 

iver sweet except when it L 

reetened by makan and — ,. _, _ „ 

reetened, and coloured, and brandied, in order to oover 
the natural defects of the taste ; and no aherry of any 
claim to quality is ever sugared or coloured, because 
the makers know very well that pnle. dry wine, with 
the least possible amount ol alcohol, is tax more valuable 
than the cooked and dragged, coloured, sweet and hot 

SuUHnUHO — AlOFaADO. 

be wines in Jeres are all plastered. Bat the comtnon 
» are not only plastered, but sulphured in addition. 
Uiis purpcee « complicated appatatns i* employed, 
listing of the following psft*. A vat, closed on all 
ides, of the nae of a bota, is ni«ed upon a aLsnd. m 
t itfl bottom ia about breast-high ; to the aide of this 
.tt-ti-hcil a little furnace in which the sulphur malohas 
burned. The fumoi of the sulphurous aoid are tiaa- 
ducted by a tube to the top of the vat, nnd IJhen diffuse 
n its cavity. The mosto ie kept in a reservoir under 
.ho vat, mustly buried in the ground, and is repeatedly 
-aisMl tA the top of the vat by means of a puaip. It u 
ipreod out in the vat in the form of s fine shower by 
ni-Bns of a rose, or aiavelike diitributor, and in (ailing 
lecomes impregnated with the sulphuions acid. The 
matches whiuh are burned ate made of broad cotton 
I, and the products of the imperfect oombnstioa of 
bands xre, of oaorae, also admixed with the nnut. 
The quantity of sulphur thus burned to impregnate ea^ 
'lotn amounts (n one-third of a pound, or moM than five 
>iince», and this will yield mure than ten Ounces of the 
lulphuTous oeid gas, and ultimaUly nearly a pound of 
sulphuric acid. As the plastering introduces seveikl 
pounds of sulphuric acid into etwh beta, it is now ex- 
pliiuvd why some descriptions of sherry contain from 
threii to Gve ponn a of sulphuric acid. The acid intro- 
duced wiih the plaster is in a combined state, but that 
intnyluced by sulphuring ia nltimalely oontidiiad ia the 
IrresUte. 

The sulphuring prooois has the effect of somewhat 
retanling farmantataon, in wans weather oot^ in coolaf 



^*8o WWjlftf»l"W''1tal!l*)8(^DtB»Y '01* AttiS,' *SEPrtkilnt 5;' fWI. 



'^^Atlier t#d dkys. 1*he1iM>eeM dtoo Ittts a Hide lo&fre 
flian in mnrt not sulpharea. The IMhly fermented ▼ m< 
has an awfdl smell and taate of biimfetone and TOttei 
eggs, and contains oonsidetible mumtitiei of ■alphitrette< 
h^rogen and other p>t> dW gtB of tiie rednCtion of snl 

' plinTOiis acid. 

The object of snlphtnfng is 'said td be to prevent th< 
'Wine from running into ' ttte aoetons ftotnentation 
Inddentally the free acid of the wine is increased in 
quantity, and thus approaches more to the condition of 
implastored mosto. It seems also that sulphured wine 
becomes clear more quickly tiian unsulphured. Ixj 
letum fbr this advantage, the sulphured wine remains 
in the objectionable state of contamination with sulphu« 
retted h vdrogen fbr a very long time ; and^ after oxyda-« 
Hon of this remains turbid from finely-divided sulphur, 
which is removed with difficulty only. There can alsd 
be no doubt that the sulphuring deteriorates the taste of 
the wine, even after complete oxidntion of the sulphur 
to sulphuric acid. This is so well known to the pro- 
ducers and extractors, that they never sulphur the better 
classes of wine, but only the low common qualities. If 
the Jereaanos had cellars to keep their musts at about 
70^ P. during fSermentation, and if they did not allow 
fheir wines to lie with a great vacuum in their casks at 
temperaturef approfcbioff the fever heat of the human 

' blooa — a temperature well known to be the most suit- 
able for the manufacture of vinegar — thev might easily 
dispense with this practice of sulphunzig, and save 
ih^nselves an amount of trouble in the cluification of 
their wines, which only those can appreciate who have 
investigated the question. If sulphtrrlng saVes the wine 
from becoming acetified, it on the other hand entails its 
being heavily brandied. For the bodega-holners of 
Jerez cannot clarify their wines without raising ^eir 
alcoholic strength to fbrty degrees of proof spirit. 

TsKPBBATnaSS OP FSBMBNtOfO MtJSTS. 

On September 21st, when the temperature of the outer 
air was 76*5^ Fahr., I ascertained the temperature of fer- 
menting palomino mostos to be 90^ Fahr. When ^e 
casks lay in a warmer place, their temperature rose to 
92 and 93^ ; when in a cooler, it fell to 86®. Thoroughly 
fprmented mostos about twelve days old showed 74*5*^. 
When the casks were laid up in rows three hit^b, 
called andanas, I found that the lower rows quickly 
assumed an even temperature of al^t 75^^ while the 
temperatures of the middle idws was about 80^. The 
third or top rows varied between 81^ and 92^. The 
hiiehest temnfvratures were found near open windows. 
I have no doubt that, although these botes completed 
their noisy fermentatian on the even ground, they carried 
a portion of the heat acquired by fermentation up to the 
andana, and that the entire heat cannot be placed to the 
aooount of position. But a certain portion of the heat is, 
no doubt, communicated by the hotter air in the upper 
Mtrttta, which in the day-time rose to 97^, and at night 
fen to 74®. Kow, here is the easy explanHtion of the 
obeervation, that so much wine at Jerea and in other 
parts of the south passes immediately ftom the vinous 
fermentation into the acetous. The temperatures of the 
casks of one of the top to/wb observed were the follow- 
inir:— 87*, 90^ 87-6^ «8<^, 90«,^8«, 90**, 92^ 91«3, 76®. 
An these casks had just completed their fermentation, 
'and were turbid, but beginning to derosit their yeast. 
They were lying in warm places, ana foUowing in a 
certain measure the lead of external chsuKes of tempera- 
ture, and kept near their actual temperature by the heat 
of the air in tiie day-time, which at this period (&e middle 
of (September) was excessive, that is to say, much higher 
tiian in ordinary years. An ^e casks were with vacua, 
that is to say, not fiUad by at least ene^xth of their 
capacity. Under th^se ciroumstanoes, it is, in my opinion, 
impossible that they ahould not diMotly paatf into acetous 
fermentation ; indeed, the wonder is, not that tiiey form 
JhMgar, but ra^tber that any eeeape from •IhiS' Contamina- 
<*m> and ffMudn sound wfae. Tlda stage is^ indeed, the 



most daaearous one for Jerei wines, aaad^, the tin« 
from tixe^'c^esation of the fermeritidion, at wtnoh tiksinDe 
has a temperature of 90^ to 96^'Fahr., snd it tabid, fa) 
that time at which the wine hss reached 75* sad kn, 
and, not being disturbed by eztenul fioctnstioD of 
temperature, has depoeSted its yeast and become 6m, 
Untal the Jeresanos have underground eeUaa in v^ 
to secure their wines, they must take care to fill ap tki 
vacua immediately after the tmnultuous fflrmntition a 
over, ^nd b«ng the casks with safety basga, frlmb vill 
aUow exit to the little carbonic aoid evolved, lod pctvot 
the air from acetifying the hot wine; tnd thejnoa 
not admit air Until the wine is pretty eletf, nd 
its temperature has sunk to at least 76®. In a Bmiki 
manner they must proceed with sll young and til as* 
btandied winee during summer time. The deuv nd 
the oMer these wines become, the more spirit the^ND* 
tain, the more independent they are of heat «si u. 
But it is wdl known that much spirit hinden the 
development of wines, and has, therefore, to be iToi^ 
Kow, if by the exclusion of air in hot seasons ^w^ 
fication of wine can be prevented (which it mostootiBij 
can), then a great part of the neces^ for stfif » 
much spirit to wine is done away with. ConMStir, 
the wine is in a position to become more qnniT <^ 
veloped, and, being developed, it maybe either kftbia 
natural state or brandied for the taste of palitoi tern- 
lomed to bvniifig liquids. 

The fermented wine remains stacked in tbente 
of the bodega until il ia pretty dear of floatiiig ^ 
which is mostly -in January or Februair. It aia 
racked TdesUado), and oome brandy is added to it Fas 
receive naif an arrobe per bota. Common winesntaw 
from one to one and a-half arrobes, of 40^ Cartier. Ob 
the whole it may be said ^at the better the viw,tb 
less brandy is added to it. Those bdtss wfakk hut 
become bad are sent to the still, and those «hicti«^ 
retained are- marked, if they have developed say f«ifc 
qualities, or left unmarked if Uiey remain doottfilind 
on trial. If a wine goes wrong in any of iSTMtlvi^ 
the only remedy applied to it is biandy. acTtf ^ 
ohange in >ita other chemical or in its physioBl nA* 
ditions. 

BraOBs or Wiihb, amd QuALmv. 

Mosto is not only the freehly pressed jnioe d ^ 
grapee, but the name is retained for all temttii^^^ 
up to the time of the first spring racking. Tioof^ 
anno is wine which approHchee or has p^tased ^"^ 
one year. Quantities of wfajo of this qu«»lity«rB gean^ 
termed ailadas. A regular heavy Jeres wine from »*•; 
risa soil remains, as a rule, in an unripe state f6ri^ 
years, and then gradually becomes fine. It rCAiii'*^ 
from the 5th to the 8th year, and then passes int»tf*' 
tilbtdo ; when continued in open cask, and *^*^^ 
develop, it remains in this state from the 9th to tv 
14 th year, and then passes into oloroso; thiieoa<l^^* 
lasts from the 15tb to the 20th year, whereapoo tKi^i' 
becomes secco ; this is, properly speaking a p*«wi '^• 
all ite qualities are exhausted and gone : it » i»» 
properly termed passado. In other parts of Spu^ ^ 
old secco is sometimes called rancio, bat in ^^^ ^ 
word is not used in the same sense, but signifieia n^ 
bad, sour, and mousy wine. From stout fiao ail *^ 
quent qualities may be chained directly by t/»^ 
development. The wine, as it were, skijiB »*•*"'*' 
two, and becomes either oloroso or secco, withfl*^*^ 
been in the amootillado stHge at aU. . 

In the bodega of a distinguished Jeres hooae oa* ^ 
an interesting collection of wines, arranged ^*^J*1 
prfNient all these stages from year to year, 17 in ■■*^ 

When distinguished according to quality tia^/« *^ 
give rise to the following names : — y. 

Palma.— The fine, diy, wines in the second ttd W 
year are thus called. They yield amontilUdo br WJ 
8«»me extractors say that the amontillada <^**^5J^ 
from pHlma is thin, and never becomes oloroso. t)»B* 
mark the amontillado by the sign of the pshnt. 



JOUBNAL 01* TnJB SOCIETY OF ASXS, SiprntacB £, 1873 



801 



afftKsted by acetous 



JhM p§ima ajgnifiet the tame general qualities as 
ibe fomert but noce general and ripe. 

Tuiii paima ia the bigjbi/eat injbeoaity' o| this modifica^ 
tiooi eneooe of amontiUado. 

ralo tortad^ the broken sticky or out stick, the mys- 
terious sign for oloroso. 

LouhUptUo eortado, a better 'wina than the former. 

TrMi jmi^f the highest perfection of oloroao, ^ Oloroso 
muyiihjo" rising m prioe to £120 per butt. 

Some plaoethe oloroso before the palo&a as to quality. 
ProbaUy the palma speaks more to the taste, me paio 
cortado to the nose. 

Out of a large number of butts of wine fr<Hn the same 
Tistafe and vineyard, only a small number develope 
ioto aajr of the aboye qnalities. The largest quantity 
remains 

^<ya, or rap0u, the third quality of wine. This in its 
satozal state is sound and dry, but without prominent 
^ualitiei. Perhaps three-quarters of aU albariza sherry 
tt nya. It is the bulk of the sherries export^ to and 
^k in England. This quality (raya primera) re- 
teaUas in colour and drynesi^. but does not equal in 
amt, Kcco of 20 years. 

■Ihf ray at is a common wine, not dean, but affected 
with some Cault or other. 

lr« rayaa signify wine which nobody will buy — re- 
fiMC Thus it will bo seen that with raya the multi- 
plication of the sign, goes along with the increase of 
Mnen, while with pialma and palo cortado the multi- 
plication signifies increase of good qualities. 

Vvugre, wine which is more or less afftKstei 
wnentation. 

The ngn of a grating signifies wine destined for the 

MtiUery. 

The foregoing distinctions yield nine different quali- 
wt of wine. Of all wine produced in Jerez only a 
10*11 propurtion reaches the highest quality, and it was 
b« opinion of one of the first extractors that there were 
K)t 200 butts of treble palo in Jerez at the time of my 
wt Tht'se signs and distinctions are mainly used by 
^ extractors for their guidunce in buying, and during 
latoring, and are not generally applied to wines as 
lipped. 

Thb C&iadsba. 

This nsme signifies a kind of nursery, in which wines 
t* placed which hare alrea<iy arrived at a certain 
wlityinthe partido. The partido is the entire *' parcel; " 
^t is to say, the total number of casks of one vintage 
™« OM particular rineyard. When this partido has 
*^ diaoWed into its separate qualities^ either by the 
^^pnutoror purchaser, these qualities are now added to 
^er quantities of similar quality, or are simply laid 
r thair side to undergo their probation. We will 
*"un6 ahundrud botas qf paima to have been selected 
Nn t«& different partidos. The hundred casks may all 
jV^lop equally, or all unequally, or only a number may 
^ the normal deyelopment ; the others may go back 
%Tt having their character permanently determined. 
bis twull is attained and observed in the oriadera. | 
^^ oarne is derived from the idea that the vine while . 
«w wloated grows. The extractors say that they grow 
e wine, which has to be interpreted, that they stand 

while the wine nndergoea its changea for better or 
' *oi8s^ and observe and register these changes from 
M to time. If the wine shows signs of an unfavourable 
id it is treated with some spirits, but no other applica- 
Q or regimen is applied to it When wine in the 
•dera has attained certain desired enal^es it is either 
*J^ in its career and prevented &QtA changing any 
^ by receiying its fail complement of spirits, or it 
ucen to the soleras. 

Thb Solvra. 
^ Qusi^ber of botas, which are kept toe^er, and as 
ss pussihle suppliedr with wine of similar character, 
termed a solera. This institution has for its oly'ect 
>M^lft thit, axtcactor^ to svp^ oonstw^tly good wine 



of the same general quality, or, at all events, wine 
which "differs no more in the variation of jears and 
aeaeons thab can be disguised by cartful mixing. li^ 
therefore, a solera, say of amontiliado, consists of sixty 
butts, and the sales of the extractor have diminished 
their contents to one-half, then he has to supply thirty 
butts to make up his solera. These he must obtain 
either from his own oriadera or f^m that of others. 

Now suppose that in the criadera of a hundred butts 
of palma assumed in the previous paragraph, thirty had 
turned into amontiliado, then the extractor would 
probably distribute these thirty butts oyer his solera of 
aixty butts, and haye it complete; but if he obtained 
only ten butts of amontiliado in his criadera he would 
liiatribute these tea over his entire solera, and the butts 
of the solera would contain a yoid of one-third of their 
capacity. On the contrary, if the extraetor were to sell 
thirty botas of his solera, consisting of sixty, he wotdd 
not sell half the number of his Casks; but he would 
draw from each of the casks half a beta, arrobe by arrobe, 
and distribute them equaUy oyer the bptas about to be 
sold. The criadera, therefore, and, still more, the solera, 
in one sense, destroys all individuality of wine as to 
origin and year. When larg^ soleras have to be made 
up from numerous small partidos, they represent, of 
course, a mixture of an infinite yariety of wines ; and 
old soleras represent a mixture of small residues from a 
great number of years, the latest addition being 
probably the largest in quantity. All the deposits 
which the wine forms while in the soleras are left in 
the butts. I was informed by an extractor that he once 
bought the entire and only solera, consisting of 1,000 
butts, of an old Cadiz house, who made only one quality 
of wine. Each cask contained about four eallons of 
black deposit, which was carefully moved with the wine 
when it was taken to Jerez. These deposits must not 
be of yeast, or they will be injurious. Later deposits 
improve the wine, and the storing up of old deposits in 
soleras, e.g,^ during the addition of wine from the 
criadera, has a tendency to clear the wine. So say some 
extractors. Others have no belief in these deposits; 
they mostly consist of drowned mycoderma vini, and 
their significance stands and &lls with that of the fr-eah 
or active mycoderma. 

Colours or SmRxns. 

All young sherry wines which are produced from 
sound grapes are very slightly coloured greenish 
yellow. With adyancing age they get a little more 
yellow, but the fines and amontillHdos are on the whole 
pale, and it is only the olorosos which beeome as du^ 
as amber. The seocos are amber to brownish. I assume 
all such wines to be genuine, dry, free from sugar «and 
boiled mosto. Now, as colour in good wine is an un- 
doubted tfign of age (colour in young wine indicates 
that there were rotten grapes employed amongst others), 
and as many people belieye that age is the highest 
quality to be desirod in wine, the greater part of the 
occupation of the Jerez wine te^e consists in ioaparting 
to young common wines a sham colour^* by -means of 
which it may pass as aged. But as, happily, tbe'finos^ 
amontiUados, and dorosus are highly yalued in the pure 
state, they are scarcely ever coloured by extractors who 
understand their business. The Englishman of position 
and purse drinks raya, of ten or twelve years of age, 
and it is to the imitation of this that all 'effoorts' 
are directed. In this prooess the following agents aro 
employed. 

Arropb. 

The plastered must, as it runs from the press, is boiled 
in a large copper, which is mostly fixed in a building in 
the yinevard. While boiling it is constantly skimmed, 
flfud the impurities and syrup adhering are wown wits 
the refuse, to be fermented and distilled. Seventy-siz 
arrobas of mosto, fresh from the press, yield ultimately, 
4y evaporation, seven and a-half arrobas oi skimmii^p 
and 19 arrobas of arropp. When fiye butts hnye^ bdSn , 



-t z. 



^imfTT :r 







'.. i'. * 



»«*' 



-irt *w*-&-^ zr* >^ -ic •;; :* -n--^- J •' - * *. 



t *T •;• .#»-^ "i '^ 



^\T. 



-k- ^ - i-k 



_:i. i *■ 



I 'X*.-':' -*: \ ". 












gnntjUi tfK *"-* rJfcii.-r^-r. T-r: rLr-u ii,i -tv-r r^i*w.r.^-, 
wlfc^, tR* tT»p«*a ht.* '#=--£ T -r- rr**"-— :, r-ii th- •^uu - 
0p«O3'. rr»Titf. autiiyoarh th.> ii«-i woricnz ihi? pr-^s 
\^:%Uf9»A U-At Ift^ n»nT r»j«ir^ «">r**^>-l ia th-* er--*;*^ 
W/i ■! m*k* th* mr^«v>i h'-arier. Ite «iiyw of tru^r 
r»itin« ii nerer ^-Ktra/rt/^ bj mr^to in tb^ »hort time 
dwrinx whkh Iam m in ronUct with them. Therftfore, 
onUas nwins «« ^nckfyd out from amonj^it the plump 

SspM, sad ti^ated tepuatelf, thej are loot in the mork. 
tak from which mofto for dolce has Tie^m pressed, is 
tnmUid with water and pressed in an bydraolic pn^s. 
and then yields a ou>cto of fall 15'' B. Bot thu is 
not of ffood tMte, and goes to the refuse tiUs to be dis- 
tUM after fermentation. The sweet thick mosto to be 
SDMto into doloe im mixed with one-fifth of its bulk of 
fpirit of 40^ Cartter strength, so that a bota of dolce 
ooiuritt* of 24 arrobas of mosto and 6 arrobas of spirit. 
Aooording to my observation it hns then from B-6^ to 9^ B 
fpeoifio gravitv. It is not sabjf ct to fermentation, but 
form* a doDOsit ; and when decanted from this becomes 
clear, amalgamated, and a little darker by age. Old 
dttlo« (dalce may riejo) is freqaently drunk as a liqueur. 
Mid tha working man take a fflass of it the first thing in 
tha morning, a praotioa which they ciOl, " Tomar la 
Biaflana* 

^iythaaddltlon of such dalce, the various kinds of mixed 
•••try vaoalva thalr swaetaaas. No aheny of any kind 



with KP;«C I n^JTi Til Mi f»cto' 
to bftSfiOL or sAOBtiflado^ All 
-d ti^ tj side, or *mt ahow thti 
^of of ori^ic^T td^-sb-al qwafilM 
i ::.:» ti. i-^ *^/i^xhicr with the ckdi^vahde 

.f-** '•<ir-»rfc», b the rani <rf J-tra viaL_ ^ 

' V it^ 9ip— n« thies»- wiiKs matnnr qok-^'*- ia a bvti^^ 
..'-. ttri^h eTt-n hiu>' it is dkiig«fo«EL «a we faMM^ 
'^^ Arr^^» Taoha. Bat in hot veather A» s ^g{ 
.^ • <£. y tu thetr rwn ii xiijt ssffucaftad by aai P'^'V 
'r«nlT. I am, then-lore, deddtrdly of optaioa IWV 
: r u-v.'-*- of the T«ci«», at It-aat in anmmcir tisK, 
.i. '4ii>h»<L an>i ooly be adopted daring the 
(y^Xober to March. 



Etjlporatiox or Wixx fkox Cases, 

AH win*^ kept in wooden casics diminish ia ^I^^T 
by evap-^ration, partly throngh the wood, part^ ^^^9 
ttie cork» and the bonghole. Tonng wines hfjg 
than old ones. The former are estimated to dindMf 
'H per c»*nt., the latter by 3 per cent, per ansoB. tV 
* ztr^ictors maintnin that all winea become atra<^^ 
alcohol by keeping, but I am not aware that iHK^ 
been proved by reliable experiment. 

HtDRAULIG BtTNGS. 

This instmment is ir.tended to prevent the 
air to fermenting wine, while allowing tadi to _^ 
bonic a»cid gMS. This latter has to pre«a its ^^J^f'W 
a colamn of water. Of conrae the instruoieDt, is*' 
to act, must hf fixed Hir-tight into the bunghole. kl 
bodega I was shown sach bungs, and the extraetarfli 
he had perceived admirable effects from them, bB^^ 
he had not applied them to what they wars ioUi^ 
for, namely, fermenting wine, bat to okl nina W' 
examining the first bung handed to ma, by bbaag» 
at the lower aperture, where the carbonic acii Ml 
enter, I expelled a qaantity of watar, abowtag ^B^ 
hollow of the bang had been nndoly filled Wn viMt 
Tlie next bung I f jund qoita dry, and wit i iaiif t0 
watar at alL The fiiot i% thaaa hallow 




JOUBNAIt«0K TBS 800IET7 OP AS,l»/>JSmvm^ fi^. 1879.. 80a 



*T 





ftiN. la NoYwnber, 1871 » all the wiae of 
which I examined (and I examined many 
of boU«} was covered with this m<^d. • On 
my aatoni«hment to the extractors that they 
ir wines to lie with a vacio and to be oovered 
moold^ i^ey admitted that it was an on* 
feature if the flor appeared on mosto or yoimg, 



4Kl nr^libed J»d« are mUy pUytWNgs^v IW^^an- fooad .nudvi % yp^panM^^cpf ^..oons^apiUs^JWJf^j, , 
i|)«irroitw»llly,fixed» jnst l>eoaitftwt)>ey w,m»4(> of, of oon4itiqqs<».IdMfti9)igiiis)^ tmt^foUaiP^igy^^ 
Jitikk al)PTe,QaBe thegr wenpk «i.;ra«re4aln«iMb,pSj Th4 albtminouM teud. — This is dae to suspended fubiWfi 
yUlirt^ diii not ^ven koi^ thejffjntagpsl, /HWiteWft? i minons matter in a fine state^of drrision. 
.^Hffudo of action* The BoeUria and vihriottet teud* — ^This arises in new 

1. wine of feeble alcohoUci^y and is ooiinteraoted by 

"^^ snlphuring. 

expression JPhr the eztraoto^ signalise the The tartrate of caUium «tfi«f.— This is the whitest BQudj. , 
fnngQS which grows, on the surface of ^rine » and deposits gradually as a white deposit^ but a cask of 
.... tennis J!a2fi; botanists giyeitthenaiilAof | wine affected .with it would perhaps not become entirely 

dear before six or seven years. 

The sulphide of pfttaseium seud. — This is caused by the 
sulphate becoming reduced in the wine in Uie absence of 
oxygen, and the production of peculiar sulphur com- 
pounds. 

The reduced suiphw ecud. — ^This is caused by the re- 
duction of sulphurous acid in sulphured wines, Sul- 
en the first lees ; but thi^ said they liked tl|#j( phuretted hydrogen is first formed^ and causes the wine 
'~e after the first racking^or on the afiadas, oi;i|> to stink horribly ; then this gas is gradually oxidised , 

and deposits finely -divided sulphur, which is one of the 
most difficult turbidities to remove, particularly from, 
organic liquids. This, scud is regularly foimd in all 
, Portuguese white (and not rarely red) wines during 
their first year, and sometimes does not disappear until the 
third year, or some |ime after all the sulphuretted hydro- 



r 



ciittderss and soleras. They said that wina»i 

sound and growing flor, developed best. It 

oaiy to undentand why, or how the fungus 

be unfavourable at one and advantageous at^ 

tioie. On the same grounds it is impossible toi 

Ihat the fungus ta^es.any part in the develop^ 



of the wine — for if it caiiiMd any &vouxabiengen has been oxidised, and all .sulphurous add has l^een 



,tben the first fios ought to cai^se the greatest), 
ipHMutk as it is the largest in. amount, ^or is , 
GmaBonly asspci^ted with the ajupntilladp devdo^^ 
uarely with the oloroso staffs. But I have also 
kh together with mouse .find othftr nast^r tas^Si 
J^oiled wine, and do not bdieve in its specific 
^ The German wine-makers consider kabpa their 
^■t enemy, and carefully^ prevent its formation, 
produoing red wines avoid its formation 
wines, as it completely spoils their puritv and 
Onljr at Arbois, in Uie Jura, is wine allowed 
i^overed with myood^i^ms^ vini, as we kno^ from 
^B desoriptiosu This chemist idso made it 
tbat the flor absorbed oxygen from the air, 
ittvsit to the wine, but not so as to form vinegar. 
Pitter function he attributes to the vinegar £lant» 
ma aceti, which he found frequently mixed 
wise-pjsjp^ and obs^red also that it disi^laoed. 
ined the winie-fun£[us. At Arbois thewm is 
.odd, deep celLars, with vadotin the caski|„ wnid^ 
filled up. The moulds are never removed, 
of wine perish by becoming vinegs^* '• some, 
assume an admirable development. This 
ii said to stand in a direct proportion to the de- 
it of floe. But here the proof of the flor causing 
■development is also wanting. If flor were the 
good aevelopment of wine, nothing would be 
thu to keep wine always covered with it. A 
of red wine and water will grow ,^e wine- 
in a very few davs, and many crops may be 
from the same sudace. The nor thus grown 
placed on the sur&ce of wine required 
This would soon dedde the question 
or not flor causes any favourable change in 
lata certain stas^ The cause of its unfavourable 
at the eaj^iec stages would then require ex- 
j and certainly its .development at these ea^jiy 
■honU be prevented. , 



oxidised or otherwise decomposed. 

While the albuminous and vibrionic scuddiness are 
natural events, and are easily removed by ordinary rea^ 
sonable treatment and flning, the tartrate of calcium and ' 
sulphate of potassium scuds are the result of plastering, 
and most difficult to remove witiiout brandy. T^e 
reduced sulphur scud, and the stinking qualities of 
wines, are the causes of the sulphuring which some 
wine-makers adopt who. do not know how to protect 
their wine from acetiflcation, or \fi give it more acidity, 
if that should be required. All the principal difficultiesi, 
therefore, are artificial, and not inherent in the nature 
of things. If the Jerez wine-makers, had proper subter- 
ranean cellars, they would not require the^ practices of 
sulphuring, and would, I am sure, be quite able to 
remove any turbidity from their wines b^ technical means 
without tnat dest^yer of good .wines, .distilled spirit. 



ybe etuiUi 



SoUDDUfSSB. 

^ vhita pf^TJanagioy ^bidity of wine is called scud-, 
6W, andthematter causing the appearance, scud. It is 
neceMt|7,that tlx^f^zp^tter shonui be in the shape of 
^ (nobej when the liquid is moved, . in a glass ; but 
kindfjf sca4iia th^.most unfavourable. Most of 
«. tarhi4, oondxgpni^,^ of sneqy cannot be xemoved, 
^iaSbmAfh^iiSl^^V^ Mg9 quantilaes 4>f. brandy, 
•ed, sopd. ia.tlia.;(nm,^€a^se of the brandT''^ ^^ 
e^ K9 othai; wdui^es beuu^ sul^ject to such perti- 

^yx4iol^.9^A^PMMjW^J^ jped4.;it»wy oi 



^w^•«i^.•wl^k 



FnrivM. 

Animal Charcoal, — ^Mueh turbid and putnd evil smd- 
ling wine is treated ,at Jeres with uii^al charcoal. 
There are, indeed, extractors who use charcoal as the 
sovereign remedy for all evils, and .leave the conse- 
quences to others to fight out Putrid and evil smells can 
be removed from spoiled wines by charcoal, but the 
dealing suohwioes is only.a temporacy snooesst The 
wine d£iaolves phosphate of oaldum out .of the charcoal, 
and this is deposited from the wine . subsequently in 
minute quantities and remroduoes the toskidity. 

Mudi wine is fined witti blood, which is put wann into 
the beta. The albumen predpitudted by the alcohol causes 
the turbidity to \^ envelnpod,.and drags it to the ground. 
Jullien's powder consists of dried blood9.and is not rardy 
putrid. Blood mostly leaves a little hematin in the wine, and 
makes it darker. It also leaves some acid albumen and 
the salts in the wine^ not rarely also the particular smell 
which is peculiar to the blood, pf all aninials. 

Meat, is also used., for fixuing wines; slices of stei^ 
are merdy Jbiung up in the wine^ and their albumen is 
extracted, and causes a preoipitate. , 

Most commonly albumen from eggs is used for fining; 
the brandied wines. . Fifteen to twenty whites, together 
witii a quanjtity of pommon salt>,|ire put into a beta and 
stirred. After that a, quantity of S||^sh earthy .in the 
condition of a smooth thin |»ste, is added and stirred. 
The muctuiie is a]lq|red,.io «tand> (u^ ^e wine becomes 
dea^ In ^4s cas6^ |dso, the jrarmatkn of a he^v^r and 
oopious precipitate.^?^ doi^iMjl^ Wf^^ slight imp^^n 
called scud. , Wfk» po freq^ie;^ nsod ia uiis oountiT^ 
fordaii&ing shisirrT* is^not WW>>%t f^f^ 



'i4ff*JIW0fl|ctW»ftl Jta general, the cBfficulty 



imy^^wssn 



€04 



JOUBNAL OP THE BOOIETY OP ARTS, Skptbhbto 6, 187S. 



pennanently is veiry great, and is mid to be the principal 
reHAon for the addition of bo mnch bnndy to wine as we 
obserre in it. 

TnrAJAS. 

The wines of all soathem provinces of Spain, par- 
ticolarly those of Montilla, used formerly to be made and 
kept in tinajas, boned in the gronnd of the bodega. 
The tinajas were either large earthenware vessels, con- 
taining about a hogshead each, or they were constructed 
of bricks and cement. I have seen both forms in the 
Jeres district, and believe them to have been here 
also the gon^nsl receptacles. In a vineyard I saw a large 
tinaja used as a dog-kennel ; and in a shed at San Lucar 
I saw sevOTsl timniis of brick and cement, holding six 
botas oach, in a disused bat hardly dilapidated state. 
The dangers of these vessels are well represented in the 

lesend about Don — — *s Sheep. Don was a 

celebnited producer or extractor of wine, at Montilla. 
His reputation grew, it is said, out of one particular 
tinaja, and the beginning of the rise was marked by the 
disappearance of a family sheep, a merino ram. After 
the uipse of' years the celebrated tinaja which had made 
the fortune of the house, had at last to be cleared out, 
and in its muddy deposit were found the fleece and 
i^eleton of the unlucky camero. It is said that, in 
imitation of this remarlnble event (a discovery without 
intention), the montiUanos to this day are in the habit 
of putting the entrails of sheep into their wine. But 
whether ttiis is true or not I cannot say from my own 
experience ; I know, however, that sheep's blood, and 
that in a warm state, is often put into these wiues. 

We are now in a position to appreciate wh^r botas and 
bodegas do not fit 090 another. In olden times wines 
were kept in tinajas, underground, which, in a covered 
space, is virtually in a cellar. When tinajas were dis 
carded and botas adopted, burying was discontinued. 
The necesdty of providing for export and transport 
antiquated tinajas ; but the bota exposed wine more to 
the influence of heat and air. It is curious to speculate 
what anxiety this change must have given to the pro- 
duoets. But the enormous oonvenienoe of the wooden 
cask conquered the tinajas and Uieir society. Now, the 
necessity for security must send the botas underground, 
and they will therefore have to go, not into Uie bare 
earth, where the tinajas go» but into vaults, to remain 
accessible and moveable. 

Notsi on (Uitk$, — ^They are mostly made of Memel oak 
staves, and of Canadian oak staves. One bota now 
costs 9 dolls., equal to 36s. ; but in poductive years the 
price sometiines rises to 16 dols. and 16 dels. 



cask 



6 
8 
2 



dols. = 20s. 
= 12s. 
= 8s. 



t» 



IT 

barille (4 anrobas) 8s. 

2 arrobas 6s. 

1 arroba 3s. 

The practice as regards the treatment of new casks 
differs greatly. Some cause the casks to be burned 
inside whentKe staves are being bent, but do not steam 
the casks. I have heard that some contractors, pos- 
leased of steam-boilers and every necessary apparatus, 
have abandoned the practice of steaming casks, as 
either unnecessary or hurtM to the wood. Other ex* 
tractors do not bum, but steam the casks, and are very 
proud of their pipe*arrangements for this steaming. A 
third series of houses bow bum and steam their casks. 
AU these gentlemen, however, agree in soaking the 
inside of their casks with water for a very long time, and 
frequently renewinr this water, while it remains both 
odourless and tasteless. 

The new wine, of good quality, is here mostly fer- 
nented in old casks, which are retained in the bedega 
and never sold. But the rich proprietors lend new 
oadts to less fortunate producen, to foment their inne 
In; after the i^i^gra^ng and sale the seasoned casks 
mf^ bi)Ok to the 'fffoittfston. 



Bodegas and Wtmi of OtUan m Joitc-^h, oeDir a 
an apartment underground, so constnotsi si te 
withdraw its atmosph«;re from the 'floctnatiSB d 
tomperatore of the external air. The seoaritf 
for such apartments is felt more by tiie r^uJtH^ 
ants of ngoxbus climates, with levcfs wuts 
frosts, than by those of southern ooontriei with lukl 
winters. Accordingly the knowledge and pndm of 
building cellars is more developed in the north thin in 
the souUi of Europe. Cellars have been moitdefelopcd 
in their application to htmt and effervescent viiiM, 10 
that the best are met with in Bavaria and the Oba> 
pagne. In Bavaria they fulfil a twofold purpoie. Ha 
beer is fermented as well as preserved in them after fo- 
mentation. Owing to the low temperatore the fma' 
tation is slow ; it need not be quick, as expomire to tbe 
air does not injure the beer at that low tempentare. 
But the exposure to air has the advHntage of lipeoiB^ 
the beer by oxidising and precipitMting the diMTad 
albuminous matters. For these reasons &ethm or Kght 
Bavarian beer keeps better tlum stronger beer piyw 
by ordinary hot fermentation, when both are ■swff 
exposed to air and heat. The cellars of the niiiig|iii- 
are not so much used for fermenting the mmt, ai M^ 
mentingthe wineasecond time after it isdrawn ist B Wte 
to give it the mousse. This fermentation aigkl tAi 
place in any apartment above ground, and for it thMAr 
IS not absolutely requisite. But the eqoable tuuMin 
of the cellar is required for the deposition of w firt 
formed in the bottles ; in other words fSor the jmd 
clearing of the efferveeooit wine. 

In Jeres, and generally in the south of Sfn fli 
Portugal, there are no ceUars such as I have 6dtd 
above. The wines are always made, fermesfeBd, tfi 
kept in buildings above ground constmotsd for fti 
purpose, and termed bodtga* — in Portogoeee, s^k 
These structures are frequently of ve^ Isrge «■■' 
rather lofty, but they have many windows aa dfc^ 
and their roofs are made of two layers of tikB,]!^ 
upon wooden rafters. The tiles next to the i K^jW 
fiat, like large bricks ; the tiles fiicing the sky, hfff*^ 
are corrugated, and so laid as to form parsHsl nl|eifl» 
furrows. The two layers are fixed upon sseh lik' 
with mortar. Now, this roof oooduets the kit w 
the sun with great facility, and radiates it mAf idB 
the space of the bodega. The bodegas, there fa^y 
very hot indeed ; during the daytime tikflir opfi^ 
condition is only mitigated a littte by dnnghli fl^^ 
In the night they become cool again. The wiacijjii* 
botas follow all these changes within csrtiia w* 
They become cool at night, warm in the day-4Mg 
the^ never readi the extremes of the air. IW M 
which lie highest on the andana which miy ftm w 
third or fourth tier from the ground, sre the a^ 
affected ; those in the second tier less, and so <m ton^ 
on the ground, which are the steadiest in th eir twy * 
ture. Those botas also which lie near apettev^ 
windows are liable to great changes of 
Accordingly, it is often found thnt theupp«i 
toin the greatest and the lower tiers the 
proportion of spoiled wine. Botas near w iadwwff 
frequently spoiled, and all this is just as i toe^jH |w 
Scud, mousetaste, and vinegar threaten copsfaaWg 
bota. With anxious mien the oapatas tastsi t*** 
and marks the changes. This bako of to- ^^j^ 
amontillado a week ago ; these flnos are all in dj^E 
beooming vinegar. He shakes bis head wfails ^^^m 
all, and cannot alter it ; he does not koowthi j^P 
for these ruinous changes ; he ooosoks himself <" ^ 
few palmas wluoh he can inscribe hers sad tha^^ 
brandy over the heads of the nau^ty chOdii^i* 
oondems the worst of tiiem to the sSiL Bith>**S 
power over the ohanges of Us winssL sMhtf i>,g 
or evil, simply because he catanot rsfaisis thiir '**? 
to air and temperature, and such repiIatinB h ^^"*? 
possibly effect becaose he has no esBar. Alti^ff^ 
tSonabto that file gmt mass t»f /era ivtel^im' 




JOURNAL OF THE 800IETY OP ARTS, BiprnBiB 5, 1878. 



805 



ddaknkd, or raioed, owing to the tbsence of cellan. 
I Deed hirdly include in this category of rained winet 
tbote winch require and reoeive lurandy for being pre- 
lemd from icetification and fermentation, in order to 
prore my propoeition, but everybody admits that brandy 
deterioiatei winei» more par&nlarly thoee of good 
qoilit^, aad therefore the &ct of wine having been 
bnndied is rapprened and disg^oised by every poasible 



How diffarent would be the case if the Jeresanos 
vers poaeseed of nroper underground cellars, where 
\hm products might be maintained at the average 
tempertture of the earth in that region. I ascertained 
vhtc thit temperature is in the usual manner, by taking 
on October 3ra the temperature of three deep wells : — 

Poio in a cooperage 64^3 F. 

Ditto en casa de Don . . 64<>33 F. 

Ditto en oasa de Don . . 64^Zd P. 

Ooaieqnently a good underground cellar in Jerez 
OQghtto have the average temperature of 64^5, with a 
m^ Iwht increase in sunmier, owing to the heat 
ndttted into it by windows and doors. But never would 
tlM temperature reach 70, or fluctuate between 70 and 
S6, ai I hHve observed it to fluctuate in bodegas in Sep- 
Msber. J fear to think what the temperature in thoee 
^tikiingB must be in the height of summer. No one at 
'wtt knew it, and after my actual observation it is not 
MMuiy to Boeculate about it 
la lodi celUrs the Jeres wine would undergo a per- 
Bctly normal development. It would be perfectly safe 
1 evsrv respect. It would ferment thoroughly, would 
M)t be liable to Uie acetous or mousv change, and would 
eoocDe dean in a short time. It might be left to 
evelop with the vacio, for at the low temperature the 
ontact with air would be hardly dangerous, probably 
eoefidal. It would probably be always benencial, for 

I a2] botu would be under identical conditions, they 
Mild not fiul of producing identical results. ^ any 
ue. I am convinced that with cellars the Jereaanos 
WiM prodnce 90 per cent of good wine, where now they 
radooe 10 per cent. To this some of the extractors have 
^i^cted by ({uestiona which exhibit more their anxiety 
isa their discernment. They said, **8np^ose we chimge 
» <yle of growing the vine (* growing^ is here used as 
k ictire verb by the extractors, who also speak of 
moving ' and ' edooating,' whereaa their only action oon* 
rti initonding by and seeing the wine behaveand mis- 
^^ * kick,' and mark the result with chalk upon the 
urI}> should we produce any of those very flne quali- 
a which constitute our reputation and main profit ? 
K^ we not depress our wines to one common low 
^1 '^" To this I always replied that the mass of their 
nee wss at a very low level indeed, that half their 
Be had to be exported at £15 per bota, and that £30 
r bota was a high average to assume for the total ex- 
rt, tnd that of fine wine at £100, about whidi so much 
■Si wss made, not two hundred botes were annually 
odoeed and exported from Jeres. That the loss of 
■» Terv high wines, if it were a necessary conseouence, 
iKh I by no means admitted, of a change of vinifica- 
a would be yenr small compared to the loss the 
*™<ws loss — ^inflicted upon the average wines by the 
Itjr condition of the bodegas ; for I said that it was 
onous tihat in the fortnight following the harvest of 
t all wines suffered an immense depreciation owing 
the great heat, which caused the wines, yet hot from 
ictive fermentatioii, to pass at once into the acetous 
Dentation (I have tasted so many winee of that kind 

I I am frilly able to believe that the loss in money value 
ich the Jerennos suffered doring that fortnight was 
lathing like a quarter of a million of pounds sterliBg). 
hese winea-had fermented in cellars, or had been put 
I ceOan after their fermentation, this deterioration 
Id not have occurred, a^d the cellars would in one 
ught hav«x«pHid the cost of their ooostraetion. 

ais it a nutter entirely mgtat from the qneitieii c 



thevado. To prevent misundentanding, I point out 
that I am quite convinced that winea ripen quicker with 
the aid of the vado than without — that wines ripen 
quicker in warm air than in cooler air. But warm air 
and vaoio together force the wine to go wrong, and 
compel the addition of brandy. Warmth without the 
vacio does not easily spoil wine, and vado without 
warmth is a s^e condition for Jeres wine. Therefore, the 
Jerezanos, by transfering their winee to cellars, would 
only insure themselves from loss, although their wices» 
if left altogether in the cellarB, would ripen more slowly 
than in the bodegas. But what would compel them to 
leave their winee always in the cellars? Having got 
them dear and cool, having timed them over the dan^^rs 
of great autumnal and sunmier heat, what would prevent 
them frt>m placing the wines in the bodegas for the 
temperate months of the year, October to A^il ? Why 
should they not in this respect do as the Champagne 
makers do, transport their wines to that cave which is 
most suitable to their then condition f Surdy» to intro- 
duce the conditions of certainty into these operations is 
a desirable thing, and not an innovation to be dreaded^ 
and it can by no means alter the character of their wine 
except for the better, and, therefore, can affect their trade 
only in the sense of expansion. 

Kons ox THB History op Yiticvltvbb akd of thb 
Tbadb in Wims at Jmuz. 

It is probable that viticulture in Jeres is not of very 
ffreat antiquity. In Roman times no wine seems to have 
been made there, while the provinces of Catalonia and 
Valencia produced plenty. The first reliable historic 
evidence of the existence of vinevards at Jeres is in 
the year 1268, when Alonao d Sabio, after having de- 
feated the Moors, rewarded fortv of his knights by 
ffiving to each of them vineyards in bearing, as the 
document of donation preserved in the arohives of the 
munidpality at Jeres has it — " sex aranzadas de vifia '^ 
and land on which they mis^ plant vines'—*' sex aran- 
aadas de tierra para majumo." It does not appear in 
which district these vinevards were situated, but 
an Arabic document, a diary of the field opera- 
tiona of tiie Moorish army, published by the Boyal 
Academy of History, recites that in 1285, whem Oencmd 
Jusuf laid nege to Jeres, he encamped the body of 
his army between the river Guadalete uid the town, in 
vinevards and gardens. This it the plaoe where op 
to this day we find the greater number of Jeres 
^udens and a great number of vineyards. The amiy 
was ordered to out down the vines in the vineyard during 
the 4thy 6tb, and 6th days of May, in order to dear the 
fidds for the encampment, from which we may conclude 
that the vineyards htd considerable exteonon. The 
vineyards presented to the knights in 1268 amounted to 
240 aranaadas, and if they had planted their fidds, might 
have risen in 1285 to double that anmber. Probably there 
were other proprietors besides these knights. The vines 
which the Moorish general ordered to be destroyed were 
in the shape of cepas, the low stocks at present in use, 
and parras, or vines nailed up to walls and espaliers^ 
with whidi the projperties were surrounded. ¥wm those 
times dates a Castuian proverb, which is said to have 
originated as follows e»DiM;o Peres de Vargas was 
pruning his vines, when the King Alomo d Sabio hx^ 
pened to come l^, and entering the vineyard began to 
collect the cut-off branches. Ohu Vargas expresdng his 
astonishment, ths Kins is said to have replied, ** < taL 
podador, tal sannentador," meaning that the Ukbonrer 
was by no means too good forthebri^layer, in this case. 
In the fourteenth century, the Jeres vineyards seem to 
have been neglected, nuunly in eonsequeoce of epi- 
demics of pestilenoe; in 1402 Enrique lIL expressly 
forbade their destruction by the proprietors. But after 
that the cultivation' of the vine took a fresh start, and 
in 1481, when the inhabitants of Jeres ttnd Ptisrto de 8a 
Maria agreed npoa the beuidariet of their rdativa oooi- 
mnneSi and recorded them in docamentSi they mentioiiad 



806 J0UBN,4J[i Q«' IBS SOO^TCY 09 AKTS, Bu|tbww 5, U7S. 



rif^A 4t»^^a. Afc«te-^ ^-^-^.^i- «««. «!./. A,n^ originally occupied by Belgium, and tbcie «« 
e£lS:U%^^2^^ 8hi^edbyVictoria,New South Wde.,«id8ooth 

wriod,j»«wiT6d in Madrid,. it iareUit^4.*^^ Ap/^.lffajia^.wbp ^ave expend^^ abpat £2.(X)0 la 

diuBrrouidin,Marph. prapaiing aud furuiahiAg them. The roon 

TheJerezwiiieo£thefi(Woftt^X5eiiiiMy,wWo^^ ^1,^ Queenaland - coatiibntioft b 

mo4 erteemed. was i^ wipe; for oa September, 13U^ 1 ^^^jj^^^ ^^^ ^^p^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ gcctlled^Ani. 



1410, the town coancil of JereE, desirous of maldiig hxl 
iinportant present ^un presente ^crande) to A^onzo 
Nonez de YillaviceDcio, the Aloade Mayor of Jer«z. who 
was then assisting at the siege of Antiquera, sent him 
ten arrobas of the best red wine. In 1456, the towA 
•council, in expectation of the visit of Enrique IV. to 
their town, ordered that all persQQS.who had wine to 
sell, should sell the best of red, as well as white, at the 
price of six maravedis the azumbre. Nowadays, says 
a modom. writer, '* the mode of malciTig red wine is no 
loiager jcnoyn at Jerez ; and the wants of its population 
and its traders are supplied by the viticulturists of 
Valencia, Cataluiina. and La. Manc^hsp The marayedi 
of the fifteenth century is supposed, to be equivalent 
to fifteen maravedis in the present day ; consequently tho 
axroba of wine was fixed in 1456, at a little more than 
21 reals ; the bota of 30 arrobas, therefore, at 42 pesos, 
(A peso being the imaginary unit by which all wine in 
-Jehet is bought and sold, equal to 15 reals.) This price is 
almost Uie same as in Uie presentday. In 1479 the harvest 
faped* owing to rains in May and continuoiiM J^evantes 
and great heat, and the azumbre of wine rose to 40 
maravedis, which is equal to more than 141 reals the 
an»ba, and 282 pesos the bota. Such prices were, in 
subsequent years, only realised once, namely in 1863, 
when all extractors believed th^e Millennium had begun. 



JLnnf AI nrTEBVATIQVAL ei^hibitiovs. 



The Oouocil, having been informed that her 
Hajesty's Commissioners do not intend to 
ptbliah Reporta on the dififerent departments of. 
the Exhibition of the present yetfr, and looking to 
the gre^ importance to Arts, Manufactmrjes, and 
•Commerce that these annual displays should not 
pass. away without some record, haye. decided to 
undertake that duty, a^d for this purpose have 
engaged the services of gentlemen specially 
skUIed in the subjects of the several sections, 
to prqMure such Reports for publication in the 
Society's JemmaL The Council, however, 
desire it to be understood that, in publLshing 
tl^ese reports, they do not necessarily adopt all the 
views expressed in them, which must be taken 
as those of the writers only. 

The following report is the twelfth that has 
hpvs^ isaiied. The remainder will appear as soon 
as they are complete. 

THE COLONIAL CONTRIBUTION TO 
THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION AT 
SOUTH KEN8INQT0N. 

The contribution made by ihe Colonies to 
this year's International Exhibition comes 
almost, euitirely tron^, Au^tirfdia,, and is cpntained 
yon e ann«xe^ .with. the ezi^ptioa of. the .portiaa 
^T«n QaeenslfBid^ wfaic}i oeoupieB, a, space apart 



tralian" annexe^ but, like it, can be entered froa 
the gallery in which the silk products are ahowL 

What most strikes the eye in the Aiutrsliai 
contribution is the grand display it makes of 
objects of commercial and economic value. T he 
large room occupied by Victoria is in psrticok 
distinguished by this feature. The coUectkio 
consists, first and foremost, of a rich assemblage 
of food-substances, in large and abundant simple^ 
showing every kind of produce that the CoUj 
has to turn to account in this way. whet^/ir 
export or for home consumption. The prwerred 
meats are, of course, in great force, ftnd ift & 
variety which indicates that great enterpiiaev 
being used in the development of this nae- 
what new industry. Besides beef, in thevtriw 
forms of roast, boiled, corned, and spiced, ot 
cheek and kidneys, ox-tail soup, roast veilii^ 
leg of mutton, there are the more InxaiMtt 
viands, roast goose, duck and giblets, rabbit 
boiled, curried, and smothered in onions, sbe^p 
tongues, friccasseed turkey, and kangiroo-uil 
soup. Very fair samples are also exhibit«i{/ 
bacon, salt-butter, and cheese, and even pre- 
served milk. Of com Victoria shows splo^^i 
samples of wheat, the grain heavy and ^ 
bodied. Wheat appears also in the form '^ 
flour, ami of various kinds of bbcuits, incladioj 
macaroons, and ratafi&s. 

The colony believas in its wines, and meuis to 
have them recognised in the home market if «m 
may judge by the number of the samples. Tt^^r* 
are no less than about a hundred and fifty differ 
ent kinds mostly under three years old. T^'^' 
five samples are from the Melbourne district 
and one of these, called Ivanhoe, made from 
the Reisling grape, was selected for the writer to 
taste, as being one of the choicest kind. It ^ 
a sound white wine, a good deal like second-- 
quality Barsac, being dry, well, though notiichh. 
flavoured, and of some strength. It aboali 
even in this early form, be accepted as a wekooi^ 
addition to the English cellar. Several varieti^ 
of mineral waters are likewise exhibited, <»* 
named Coimadai, haying a ve^ pleasant retca* 
blanoe to the best seltaer. 

The fruits that grow near MdbowM «« 
shown in beautifully executed models. Tkey 
inclade^ besides the common English fruity ^ 
citrons, limes, and lemons, and appear most fl| 
them aJso in some form of preserve. The olw 
food substancea which Victoria exhibitB aia ^^ 
barley ac(d oatm^ coqo^ and^sol^bk c t ofl tf^y 
a series of oondimflats^ such aa winftii4r < 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Sbptkmbeb 6, 1878. 



807 



jA powder, tomato Bance, and pickles of 
^8 sorts; also chicory and hops. Sugar 
m only in two samples extracted from heet 

amkg mannfactured articles, leather makes 

jd diow, in the form of white, tanned, aud 

; kangaroo skins; also of calf skins, which 

to be of good texture, soft and yet strong. 

'jK)Ttmanteaus of colonial leather made in 

" jorae are shown ; paper cases, handsomely 

Imd finished, and boots of many kinds, con- 

^ among them being long shining boots 

'%U8e of miners at the gold fields. There 

ho fare of the kangaroo, opossum, wallaby, 

'cat, and bear, with rugs, mats, muffs, and 

cloak made of them. Together with 

iples of washed and unwashed wool, in 

[and bales, are exhibited excellent tweeds 

iwls manufactured at the Victoria Woollen 

^jOeeloDg. There are also small samples of 

116 cotton, silk cocoons of good size and 

I, contributed by Mrs. Neill, and a 
on of ostrich feathers from naturalised 







tfre ores and samples of the metals ex- 
it from them are, of course, prominent ob- 
m the Victorian collection. Gold-bearing 

J from Ballarat is shown in huge blocks, of 
it is s6ited that such as do not yield more 
\& pennyweights of gold to the ton will 
ftbe crushing. Besides samples of extracted 

tvery interesting models of remarkable 
ts of the true size are shown, the largest of 
18 marked the "welcome nugget," Bakery- 
Ballarat, weighing 2,217 ounces, and worth 
W). Fine haematite and iron ore, and large 
of iron, appear in abundance ; also tin ore, 
tin in ingots, lead ore, and lead in ingots 
iJg a large series of articles illustrating 
mate industries of the colony may be 
soap and candles, knife-polish, and 
;, carpet brooms made from millet straw, 
:-powder, a clothes washer and a wooden 
both of home contrivance ; tobacco, 
and snuffs ; artificial manures of various 
tdisinfecring powder, glue, madder, nutgalls, 
ipectacles in colonial-made frames, native 
and table-mats, bricks, tiles, pottery, 
ire-casks, jars, bottles, and filters; and 
limp.shades, chimneys, and jars. There is 
•n extensive series of spirits, essences, ex- 
and oils, prepared from vegetable sub- 
I, among them being a native peppermint 
pied from a species of eucalyptus, tar ex- 
ited from the Ptnus Larix, and pitch from 
^^ptu$ vinUnalU, There are besides speci- 
is of vinegar and ardent spirits. 
Inmeroaa samples of native wooda are ex- 
ted, and two handsome pieces of furniture 
'have been made from them. The one is a 
f** work-table, inlaid with many varieties; 



and the other an enormous sideboard, of carved 
wood, representing, not only fruit and flowers, 
but the animals peculiar to the colony, such as 
emus, kangaroos, wombats, <fec. Its natural 
history is represented by cases of stuffed birds 
and stuffed skins of the edible fishes of the Aus- 
tralian seas, among them a gigantic crab. The 
scenery of Victoria is fully illustrated by draw- 
ings and photographs, and there are also pretty 
models of the rough timber fences and of the 
wooden huts which are in use at the outlying 
stations. 

Of manufactured metals, the colony exhibits, 
besides steel springs and lead pipes, some con- 
venient forms of cooking stoves and ranges 
adapted to home service, but its most ambitioua 
effort in this direction is a powerful stone-break- 
ing machine, driven by steam,, which is being 
kept at work by the inventor, Mr. Hope. Motion 
is given to its powerful grooved jaws by a crank 
working on a heavy fly-wheel that is driven by 
a portable engine of from 3 to 5 horse -power. 
The machine works with great steadiness, and 
deals with stones 15 and 16 inches across in their 
largest measure, delivering from 80 to 12«) cwts. 
of crushed stone per hour. This machine will 
be found in the open-air, outside the annexe. 

The New South Wales collection occupies the 
half of the second room, which joins on to that 
containing the Victorian, and like it is marked 
by consisting chiefly of articles of economical 
and commercial value, the samples however 
being less numerous. 'J here are preserved 
meats, wines labelled Hermitage, Burgundy, 
Madeira, white Pincan, Buckullu ; specimens 
of gold-quartz, and of gold, tin, and antimony, 
both in blocks and in ore ; samples of fine wool, 
and of tweeds mannfactured from it-; large 
slabs of about 40 kinds of wood* and a piece of 
one called the Black Butt, which is still per- 
fectly sound, although it had been in the ground 
33 years. Besides these, which it has in common 
with Victoria, New South Wales exhibits speci- 
mens of coal in sections of columnar forms, so as 
show the thickness and quality of different 
seams. These came from four separate collieries; 
and there are likewise specimens of cannel coal 
from another, and of bituminous slate, which 
yields oil, from a place called Hartley. 

In addition to photographs of scenery aud 
buildings, New South Wales has on the walls of 
its department some remarkable drawings of" 
native plants, contributed by a Miss A. P. 
Walker. Specimens of native sponges are also 
exhibited, and the industrial part of the collec- 
tion is condpleted by samples of colonial India- 
rubber, and of mats made by the convicta at 
Sydney. 

That comer of the New South Wales depart* 
ment which adjoins the Victorian, is given no to 
a large case containing fabrics made from New 



808 



JOUBNAI« .0£ Tm SOOmSY OF AfiTS, SmMfftma^ 5; 187$. 



nelm-Tli^iW, Wjbo ha^. taken great intereet, in 
tba de¥fdopift€iAt of this bn^fib o^ wdAetry) aod 
coa9i0t* of towellii^gs^ S^ts)^ sW^gi coaQi0, 
linen clothe for woalpfl^k« aniio<Hr»TMQk», twitt, 
bleaebe^ and unbkaobe4# Btwtoarp^iMngi ornHM, 
B^asian cloth^ hnckabaglife. plain. tmA dio^-paU 
temed table cloths ai^ napkil^. ladiaa' iigbt 
morning dresgaa^ and, stnngfCoi^ and vTope. The 
w^yen fabrioa- ha^e beoii: ma4ei principally in 
ScoUand, at North Lophaq^. in. N(^{p^ and.at 
Lnrgan in Ireland. Most of them con«iaj^ 
•exclusively of New Zealand flax,, but Bom^ have 
warps of other flaxes^ or of jut«ucotton> o]^«ilk. 
All tha cloU)a are of ezeHlle^tqnality^^d ar^^Qt 
to ba difltingni^hed from th<» ordinary f<9riAs^ of. 
the. goods whose namps they beac^ Besides the 
fabric* the case comiinfi the. raw fibrea of the 
plant in various states ; and in the cei^rjs-of it is 
a salver of Buokland Bilver» in wtuchi the plant 



prixe. Lm^t^. . ranv md eTie». as beii9g respacr 
tively Hi and IQi in/obi^long^ Copper tp. 
pea|» in<)bng0 ing9^. an4 b)Qck«».tlie produce o( 
various mines, and bismuth is also shown i& 
lacg^. ma|#^^ Wlu9^ is eXthli^U^ wei^kiag 
68 lbs. to ihfi imperial buj»bel, , The export i 
wheat from AdeWde in. 1872 was 26,629 Um, 
and of floitf, 34,758 tonsp Ther^ axe the tuail 
samples, of piisftafved meats, also of wines^A 
great ab^nd^W. oC preserved fruits, all of 
fingJii^U kjn^s, fu^4>..bW4es these, cuxmuta nd 
musc^el raiirins from some of the vinejardi 
The exhibition is. ^^mpl^ted, with th^ waul 
phptogjcaph^rOf scenery and placea. 

Q»e«wi»ndi.n^*k*y». it^ greafeat show yilk 
, wQodjS> stuffed birds, and, photogmpha, aU of 
which have been.arrangj^d and diapUyed teas 
to give thjy9,,deparU9(9Dt a very attractive tp- 
pear^ovce. Ij^ the, injierspaces between these osc 
comes upon a variety of ol^ects, which lad, ts 



itself, the Fhornuun^t^nax^ appear!^ modelled in .the snpppsitioA that at. the present tinie 

J^ A T IJ n^i 1 1 • • 1 11 .* il 1 1*1 



Canterbury gold. The salver bears an inscrip- 
tion, stating that it was presented to & Tborne, 
by the. Canterbury Flax AssociSftion. of Christ- 
-chureh, in recognition of hie services in deve* 
loping the usea of the New Zealand 6a^* The 
specimens of ike products of this pla^Lt are < all 
that the colony contributes to the Exhibition. 

In a space of no larger size, and next to that 
which is occupied by New Zealand, both hanung 
been most liberally spared out of its own 
aUowanee by New South Wales, the small 
colony of Natal contrives, to give an ad- 
n^irable exhibition of the chief of its staple,, 
industries. 'i here are beautiful sainples 
of Bug^, of coffee, tea, arrowroot, cayeyane- 
pepper, wheat, tobacco, ground nute and the 
oil obtained from thew, spirits of wine and rum, 
cnrrie-powder* with bananai and tamarind 
chutneysi, and, preserved fniits are also shown» 
All are arranged so as to have for their centre 
a tabular statement of the commercial progress- 
of the colony, giving the yearly v^ue .of the 
different articles of ex^tort, and just above is a 
large map of Natal showing the broad in<bis- 
trial features of the land. The arrangement is 
at^Usacjbjive and business-like at the . same tin^. 
For the tabular statement the colony is indebted 
to the Hon. F, C. Drummond. 

Sonth Australia occupies the other half of 
the second room, and exhibits much th^. same 



things as New South Wales and Victoria. Its 
cpflection, however, is conspicuous for the. beauty 
of the samples of wool and the massiveness of 
the.ingota of metal. Oi the wool much is shown 
in cases, with photographs of the sheep that 
yialded it before they were shorn. But there 
are also entire snow-white fleeces spread upon 
thft tables and hung up against the waU^. One 
fleeotiis marked aa having been. gronrA. in* 5^, 



aaeig&ad 
to ^atfd, that of being. the " cc^ony of samf^" 
Among them are its specimens of sugar, of wkid 
some are hung against .the wall inflatglaxedoM^ 
a few inches square, and looking a good dal 
like pictures of diffi^rent sand-papers. So« 
fio^r specimens are placed in ahow-glssiti 
on the table? The specinvena ooqm (not, 
plj^A^ttions which extend . throng ten de- 
grees of latitude* The other ''sampfai* 
which Q^een8land shows comprise silk, v^est, 
maize, barley, coffee, tea^^arrowroot^ tobicca. 
gums, coal in small cases, gold quartBg and irow 
lead, and. copper ores. Preserved meats appear 
in som^ variety •. and so also dctes wine, bat oa 
close exaniipation it is found that a great anay 
of bottles means only one sample of a tine 
Queensland vintage, named "To<wgaii" sftfr 
the vmeyard that yields it 

Of the really fine and numerous specimens o: 
woods the colony displays, the moat beautify 
are red-cedar, black iron-bark, and cypress jxja 
It exhibits likewise sugar hogsheads and tallov- 
cask^ made of a wood that is called silky-osL 
The specimens of stuffed birds are minis 
numerous and beautiful, and have evidently 
been arranged with great taste^ They an 
grouped in large cases, richly and divsn^f 
filled, and, being dispersed throughout Ai 
department, give it a marked bqghtnvii af 
I aspect. Intermix^ed with them is a 



assemblage of,, photographs of Q^i 
scenery and settlements, which help stiD i 
the, ornamental appearance that has e 
been aimed at in this room. 

There is one very curious, substance i 
the objects in. the Queensland coUectioii. 
'• B6che de mer." It looks like » le 
mass, aj^ is collected on the 8ea-«b<>re, 





iveekB, tm weighing 16 lbs., and the wool of a.| probal^ly a kind of. Holothurw. It is vmloed If 



JbtJfllfMi tSP^fTHS'SQlOfflTr OP ABTS, ^SiB^ttethti 5. «I7B. 809 



Ohintee'^t^SciAwfr as tbe p«<mMar ingrftdient of 
B^he de mer boh p. It may 'Well be so esteemed 
if prepared according to a receipt annexed to the 
specimen, as that directs that it is to be stewed 
in beef or veal stock, and flavoiired freely with 
wine. . , 

RBPORT ON 8TSBL. 

Nate, — In the report on Steel, published in the 
Journal for Atignst 22, it was stated (p. 776) that 
a perforated circular saw was exhibited by 
Meflars. VVhealman and Smith. It should have 
been said that Messrs. Taylor Brothers, Adelaide 
Works, were the exhibitors. 



The number of visitors admitted to the Exhibition 
during the we«k ending Saturday, August 30th, was aa 
foUowu:— Season tickets, 691: on payment, 16,189; 
total, 15,880. *-/».» 

The remoral of exhibits will commence on Saturday, 
the Iflt November, and it is hoped that foreign commis* 
sioneni will so arrange that everything shall have been 
lemoTed by Saturday, the 16th November. 

In Bcooi^anoe with the resolution xmssed at the meet- 
ing for the promotion of technicil edncntion, at which 
his R4»yal Highness the Prince of Wales presided, the 
Court of the Ironmongers* Company have forwMrded the 
wun of £10 to the L«mdon School Board, to enable the 
Board to 8*»nd school children to inspect manufactures 
and their processes at the London International Exhibi- 
tion of this year. 

lAst Siturday erenmg a special lecture -was delivered 
in the 8chool of Cookery to an audience composed of 
toembet* of the Working Men's Club and Institute and 
their fhmilies. The lecture was made to suit the particular 
eUas of hearers that h>«d assembled. A tureen of S'mp 
WM prepared on the pot d feu principle, which was fully 
explainwl, and the spectators were shown how fbr IM. 
cnotfj^h soup could be made for five persons. The cook- 
ing of a dish of trfpe was also practtcuUy illustrated, and 
the bwt manner of frpng potatoes was shown. 



EXHiBITIOHa 



Vioiiui Szhibition Awards.^A first list of awards to 
«3(hibiU)r8 i« the British section appeared in the London 
^xuiU of August 26th. In the OuutU of the 2nd inst. 
a similar list of nwards to exhibitors from the Indiun 
]°vipiA)fuid the British Oojonies was publiHhed. — Messrs. 
Thorttf*, of Norwich, have obtained a medal for ** pro- 
P^S8 ' for a cab. similar to that now shown at the 
lotematioual Exhibition amongst the cabs competing 
w the Society's prizes. 

Aaitrioa at the Vienna BzhiMtion.— -(B'^m a eorte^ 
J^^wfewO'—Althongh the American Department made a 
bad start at Vienna, things have now been ftiirly arranged, 
tod the show made by the United States is by no means 
the worst in the Exhibition bnilding. For new and 
f«lly valuable inventions of public utility the Americans 
^ nnmirpassed. In all other sections we find large 
inantitles of articles which are rather for sale than wt 
*o«^. There are many oljects of art and luxury ; fine 
i^^*«Uery, bronzes, and statues in abundance ; snpetb 
poteebdns %nd glusware ; carpets and One stuffs ,* but 
^Btttely anatVlcde not seen etsry day" in tks ysai* in the 



shOtMofRsgent^tlMt fUid on the Boavelards'des ItaUaas. 
Of oonne the samples exhibited by tnannlkfltmew 
and tradeflmen aro artiitieally made and ex^niBitely 
finished, but aftey all we see very few axtiolee m many 
of the sections which have not long been known to the 
public, and offered for sale in the principal cities ef 
Europe. In the American Department, on the other 
hand, themajotfty of the articles exhibited are entirely 
new to Europeans, or present improvements whion 
are highly creditable to the incentive genius of 
our American cousins. In novelties in agrionl- 
tond ' raachfaiery this nation is unrivalled. There 
is a patent pump, which causes general astonish- 
ment, on account of its great power and extreme 
simpli<ity ; a woolspinner, so simple in its mechanism, 
and yet so wonderful in its work, that it may be £urly 
said to be one of the most renuurkable machines in the 
exhibition. The American sewing machines are well 
worthy of careful examination, some of them exhibiting 
improvements of great value, and all attracting nniversal 
attention. In the preparation of oils, in classifying 
petroleum, in working stearine, in making felt, gold 
pens, dental instruments and artificial teeth, in pre- 
paring starch, in tanning leather, in soda foui\tainF^ 
ships' compasses, military arms, and in the maaufaoture 
of many other articles of general utility, the AmericSAs 
are unrivalled. I was particularly sdrnck with a case 
of bank-notes, specimens of American steel en^ravinp^, 
and a case of dental instruments, made and finished m 
the very highest style known to modem art. In the fine 
arts the Americans are behindhand, nor can they compete 
with the French in jewellery or bronzes ; but in all 
matters perttinin^ to practical industry, the Americans 
may certainly claim the palm. 

Italy atthe^enna Szhibition. — ^Twenty-one diplomas- 
of honour have been awarded to the Italian department 
at the Vienna Exhibition : of these two to the Minister 
of Public Works, for works that have been carried out in 
ItHly. Two diplomHS have also been awarded to the 
&linister of Agriculture, for workmen's houses and for 
progress that has been made in the cultivation of the 
vine ; one diploma to the Minister of Public Instruction ; 
a diploma to the Senator Fiorelli, for report on the ex- 
cavations at Pompeii ; and amongst other well-known 
names wLo have received diplomas may be mentioned 
Cnstellani, <9f Rome, the well-known art jeweller ; Dr. 
Salviaia, of Venice, for mosaics and glass ; the Marquis 
Ginori, ofTlorence, for majolica and the manufiictory of 
mosaics at the Vatican. 

A Ouiosity in Shorthand Writing is shown at the 
Vienna Exhibition by Herr Sehreider, professor of 
stenography at Vienna. It consists of the whole Iliad 
of Homer, written in so small a space as to be enclosed 
in a nutshelL 

Philadelphian Ezhibititn, 1876.— The plan of dassi* 
fication adopted at the P<tris Exhibition of 1867 wiU be 
curried out at the forthcoming Universal Exhibition at 
Philadelphia, that is to say, each cl>«ss of exhibits^ will 
have a space assigned to it, and each country exhibiting 
will have a portion of that space, so that the best oppor- 
tunity will be afforded for comparison. The following 
are the divisions under which they will be arranged : — 
(1) Raw materials — mineral, vegetable, and animHl. (2) 
Materials and manufactures used for food or in the arts^ 
the result of extractive or combining processes. (3) 
Textile and felted fabrics — apparel, costumes, and orna- 
ments for the person. (4) Furniture and manufEictures 
of general use in construction of dwellings. (6) Tools^ 
implements, machines, and processes. (6) Motors and 
trsnsportadon. (7) Apparatus tod methods for the in- 
creflne and diffusion of knowledge. ^8) Engineering, 
public works, tirchitectnre, &e. (9) Plastic and 
graphic arts. (10) Otoieets Hliistrating efforts for the 
impni fe uien t of tike pllyilosl, intellectual, and moral 
condition of man, k^ The Oentenntal Commis- 



810 



JOURNAL OF TQB BOOIBTT OF ARTS, Sumcnn 5. 1878. 



don for the inaugmatioa and conduct of the great 
exhibition haye already made most commendable 
progreet. Committeee nom their numbw, having in 
charge apeoial departments of the vast scheme, are in 
constont session, and the general outline of the work 
aeems to have been fully deyeloped. The site for the 
buildings used for the occasion has already been secured 
in Philadelphia's beautiful park, and Uie fonnal transfer 
of the ground by the city authorities to the control of 
the Centennial dommissioners took place, with suitable 
oeremonies, on July 4th. The decoration of the ground 
Ibr the purpose, the planting of shade trees, &c., is to be 
taken in hand at once. 

Oriental Cengress and Exhibition.— The Exhibition 
of Art, ArchsDology, and Industry, organised by the 
Oriental Congress, was opened, as announced, on the 1st 
of September, at th6 Palais de I'lndustrie in Parisl 



SILK-GROWING IN AUSTRALIA. 

The following communication from Governor Weld 
to the Earl of Kimberley is gratifying, as showing how, 
from all sides of the great continent of Australia, favour- 
able reports on the prospects of successfully rairing silk 
are being received : — 

Government House, Perth, 
SOth May, 1873. 

Mt Lord, — In reference to my former correspondence 
with your lordship, regarding the culture of silk in this 
colony, I have much pleasure in informing you that the 
first small sample that has been sent from this colony, to 
the Chamber of Commerce and Arts of Como, Lombardy, 
has been officially reported upon most favourably by 
that body. The sample has been tested against silk pro- 
duced in the province of Como and the Branssa, which 
has hitherto been considered the finest in the world, and 
for elasticity and strength, and yield per coooon, the 
Western Australian sample gives exceUent results, in 
spite of some easily remedied faults of manipulation. 

2. Mr. Gugerie, a gentleman well able to judge, 
writes : — '' I am now quite certain of the results attend- 
ing sericulture " [in Western Australia], '^and my prin- 
cipal reason for making this statement is, that the 
enclosed sample was produced from seed of an inferior 
kind, imported years back ; and, notwithstanding ^e 
drawbacks of the unskilful management, the mlk pro- 
duced is proved to be of a superior Idnd. 

3. I m^y here mention that I have grown, and am 
growings large numbers of mulberrj' trees for distribu- 
tion, at little expense, by pauper labour, and that recent 
discoveries in the art of sericulture, or, as I believe it is 
now termed, sericicultare, have much increased the 
probability that this industry will be a source of vast 
future wealth for Australia generally, if the people 
can only be induced to turn their attention to it, 
particularly to Western Australia, which is so especially 
adapted to it by soil, climate, and position. — I have, &C., 

Fred. A. Weld, Governor. 
The Right Hon. the Earl of Kimberley. 



Mr. Maraini, of Lugano, says the Stoiu Times^ 
has received permission from the Italian Government to 
study the plan of a oonnecting railway between Lake Mag- 
goire and the Lake of Como, and has applied to the Conseil 
d'Etat <»f Tewin for permission to study the ground for the 
portion from Gandria to Fomasette, on Swiss territory. 

Th& value of the steam engines exported in the 
first seven month« of this year was £1,715,618, as compared 
with £1.416,930 in the corresponding period of 1872, and 
£1,104,152 in the corresponding period of 1871. 

Dr. Clement Winkler has published an essay in 
whieh he stmngly reoommends ti^ use of aluminium as the 
best metal for small coins. 



SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL EDUOAIIOI 

IN ENGLAND. 

The chief encouragement to the soiflntiik initnfita 
of our working classes comes from three eo!irai-&i 
Science and Art Department, the Socie^ of Aiti, od 
the Guilds of the City of London. No doabtthmn 
minor local societies scattered through the lead dntsj 
good work in the same direction, but these three e 
admittedly the principal, and may therefore feiriy be en* 
sidered alone. The funds expended by ^ SoeenoJ 
Art Department come out of the national revenM; tte 
Society of Arts depends upon the volnntarynbRi^ 
tions and donations of its members ; and the C%0«di 
have their own resources from the savings end v^ 
of centuries. 

The only scheme of popular scientifie edoestios vUA 
is entitled to the term *< national*' is that orgussitti 
carried out by the Science and Art Dyrtm aA. Tfe 
as any one who has diligently studied its "Dinrtws 
can testify, is very good as far as it goes. Biih* 
upon the principle of helping those who ire ^Ai * 
help tiiemselves, by paying a oafntation 8T*"*5J? 
students taught according to pr^cribed m H«»^ 
pass certain examinations. Nominally, the W^^ 
a certain fee by the student is rrauired, brt tteti> 
tendency to relax this salutary rule. The I^*"* 
speaks with an uncertain sound; it ia slw»y iBS» | 
mending local schools to become "sdf-tnppoAt 
and to prepare for ultimate withdrawal of Ooiius*' 
aid, and yet no care seems (o be taken ^^^^^^!f?\ 
ment by students. On running down the tsMi «■■ 
charged, we see all kinds of sums mentioafld^n«* 
guinea the course down to a penny a leBKn,*i^*'^ 
and there the word " free." In our ®^"P?*S^f J 
workman is wishful to leom sdoioe, he tf ^^• 
pay. He may not be able to i>ay what hii •■*** 
worth ; in that case, it is advisable to iP^||'*^ 
anoe, and, on the whole, there is no brtler ■*** 
doing this than that adopted by the Sonth ^j'j^ 
authorities. No government can be too "pst^n* 
in the matter of genuine instruction; ^*°7^^^^ 
is not paternal enough, seeing that Sooth ^^^^f^ 
only spends about £25,000 annually on sdeoee taw 
for which sum about 37,000 stndents are tsn ^Vy^^ 
teachers. An important auxiliary to tiie Go'«Jj* 
grant is the munifioent endowment of Sir Joitpk "»' 
worth. i 

The Society of Arts has for many yesrs dow r* 
service, through its annual examinations, in ■t>»'"'|^ 
scientific education. Latterly, the curricolnm^i^ 
revised, And subjects identical with those in tits'** 
Kensington syllabus have been removed. Attbe»J"^ 
time a new class of "tedmological" examiasti**^ 
been organised, which seems destined to take • ^ 
place among the recognised tests of effideney oJp 
country. The scheme is but a year old, aiui ^^ 
persons have as yet been examine under it; bcoc^ t» 
can be said of its results, though its prospects *Pj^^ 
The mode of operation is explained by the Soo^ 
own statement of its object, namely. **tostt|»F*f 
the existing examinations of the Science •■JJj| 
Department, by organising examinations in the 0^ 
and technolosry of the various arts and im<**^*^^ j 




application of the scientific principles mvolrsa JjJJT 
art or manufiicture." It is gratifying to fM tW* 
Commissioners for the Exhib&on of 1861 hsf« *f»J 
to aid the Society of Arts by granring three »*»J25J2 
of £60 each, to the peraons who shall most ^"^"^ 
themselves in the subjects .of steel, silk, and «^,'^ 
respectively at the technological cxaminatkas**^ 
present year. The scholanhips are to be •^**|- 
the very sensible condition—^' that the ^^^f^Z 
a year to someplaoe of scsentiflo instmoliooi*'^* 



JOUBNAL OF THE BOOIETT OF ARTS, SBrmam 5, 187S. 



811 




School of Mines, the Boral College of Sdeiice in 
IXablin, Owens GoUege, Manchester, or the English, 
lootch, or Irish Unirenities, or other school approved 
ry lier Majeslj^s CSommissioners, or trayel abroad for the 
»iax-pose of improying themselyea in their trades." 
loxne of the (Sty Companies are also willing to aid 
l&o Society of Arts by donations, and we beueve the 
^lothworkers* Company intends to fonnd scholarships 
n. ita own branch of manafaotnre. 

^Fhe Tiade Ghiilds of London have been &ir game for 
■^foroiers many years. Perhaps, on the whole, no 
kt^tsMk upon them has been so suooessM as that of eda- 
s&^ionalists. At any rate, the oompaniee themselves 
uawe become as wide awake to their newly-discovered 
inty of enoonraging technical education as most people. 
E^e Tamers' Ocmipany, one of the smallest and poox^, 
•ra« the first to offer medals and the freedom of the City 
as prises for excellence in its own handicraft — a course 
vrlkioh it is intended to continue from year to year. The 
Coaohmakers' Company — another smiul one — ^is follow- 
ing in the same direction ; and one of the richest, the 
Stationers' Company, organised in the spring of the 
present year a course of lectures to persons engaged in 
the Drintinff trades. The lectures were excellent of their 
kim^ bat by no means practical — a thing not at all 
astonishing, since Mr. Ellis A. Davidson, who delivered 
fcl^em, though a skilful artist, is no printer. For Uieir 
first attempt, however, the Stationers are to be com- 
meoded, and it is to be hoped the second will take a more 
practical turn. 

Xhe Trades' Guild of Learning has not yet sufficiently 
developed its plant for it to be brought into consideration 
as a principal agent in technical education, thouffh, as a 
spontaneous movement of those who are to be educated, 
it is deserving of all encouragement 

To oome at length to something practical for the 
present and future, what course is the best adapted for 
stimulating the scientific and technical instruction of 
oar workmen? We have already, in the Science and Art 
Department's scheme, the nucleus of a truly national 
system, and it is strikinglv evident that there are public 
bodies and private individuals who are able and willing 
to asdst in its development. There is also some dispo- 
sition on the part of those needing instruction to take 
sdvsntage of the fiu^ilities at their disposal. Tbe duty 
of those anxious for the spread of scientific and technicu 
education is to cultivate the desire to learn on the one 
hand, and to improve the means of instruction on the 
ofcber. 



IWHITWORTH ENGINEERING SCHOLAK- 

SHIPS. 

At the suggestion of Sir Joseph Whitworth, the Lords 
of the Committee of Council on Education have an- 
nonnoed certain important alterations in the conditions 
under which the scholarships in mechanical engineering, 
founded by that gentleman, are hencefortii to be held, 
the experience in the past competition for the scholar- 
ships having proved to him the necessity of establishing 
mlea which shall ensure that the holders of them shall 
deTOte themselves to the studies and practice neeeesary 
for mechanical engineering, during the tenure of the 
fcholarships. 

It \A therefore resolved that, as soon as possible, that 
is, in the competition of 1876, every candidate for a 
soholarship shall produce a certific-itr) tbnt he has worked 
in a mechanical engineer's ^op, ur iu ihu drawing office 
of such a shop, for two years consecutively. In 1874, 
nine months' consecutive work only in the engineer's 
ahop will be required. The age of intending candidates 
will still remain twenty-two years, as at present. Each 
candidate will be examined in the appointed sciences, as 
also in smithes work, turning, filing, and fitting, pattern- 
making and moiUding, as already established, and the 
tame marks will be awarded as at present. 



In 1876, and the following years, each holder of a 
sdiolarship appointed under these new rules will be re- 

auired to produce satisfactory evidence at the termina- 
ion of evjry year, that he has made proper advances in 
the sdenoe and praotioe of mechanical engineering, \gj 
coming op for an examination simibir to that which is 
l>rescnbed for the oompetition, both in ^eory and prao- 
tioe ; and thus, although the scholarships may still be 
held for three years, they mav be withdrawn at tiie end 
of each year, if the scholar has not maJe satisfiictory 
progress. 

The number of scholarships in the oompetition of 
1874 will be reduced from ten to six. Enoh scholarship 
will be of the fixed annual value of £100, together with 
an additional annual sum, determined by the results of 
the progress made in the preceding year. Then, at the 
end of each yearns tenure of the scholanihip, the scholars 
appointed under these new rules will, as before stated, 
be examined in theory and in practice in tiie same 
manner as in the oompetition for tie scholarships. On 
tiie results of tlus examination the following payments, 
in addition to the £100 before mentioned, wul bo made 
among each year's set or batch of scholars: — ^To the 
scholar who does best in- the examination, £100 ; to the 
second, £60 ; to the third, £60 ; to the fourth, £40 ; to 
the fifth, £80 ; and to the sixth, £20, provided that each 
scholar has made such a progress as is satisfactory to the 
Department of Science and Art, which wiU determine 
if the sum named, or any other sum, shall be awarded. 

At the expiration of three yefua* tenure of the scholar- 
ships under these new regulations, a fiwther sum of 
£800 will be awarded, in sums of £200 and £100. to the 
two scholars of each year's set or batch who have done 
best during their own scholarship. . And in this way it 
will be possible for the best of the scholars, at the end of 
his period of tenure of the scholarship, to have obtained 
£800, and the others in proportion. 

The prises of £100 down to £20 will be awarded 
according^ to the total number of marks obteined by the 
students m practice and theory, in the examination at the 
end of the year, and the prizes of £200 and £100 will be 
awarded by adding together the marks obtained by the 
students at the end of the three years. 

The Whitworth scholarship prospectua wiU be revised 
in consonance with these regulations. 



THE ICE TRADE. 



The following details are extracted from a recent 
article on this subject which appeared in the Standard : — 

^e ice harvest, as conducted in America and on the 
Norwegian lakes and fjords, is an interestin(^ operation. 
It commences when the ice is about a foot thick, and the 
first step is to plane off the snow, or rough surface ioe, 
with an instrument, drawn by horses, called the ice-plane. 
When the required superficies is cleared, the ice-ploughs, 
which are like saws with plough- bandies to them, and 
drawn bv horses, set to work. Their business is to mark 
out the ice-field into squnres of from two to three fset, 
like a chess-board, penetrating the surface from one to 
three inches. The blocks of ice, weighing from two to 
three hundred weight, are then easily detached by gentie 
taps on wedges, or by the use of a kind of crow-bar, 
and floated t&ongh an opening in the ice, or canals, to 
the ice houses, where they are stored most carefully 
with lavers of sawdust between them, for shipment as 
required. Vessels carrying 60U tons and upwards bring 
them to London, where they are unloaded at the Surrey 
Docks, or Limehouse Bafdn, and thenoe conveyed to the 
different ice-stores, in barges on the canals, or other means 
of transport. 

The quantity of ice used in the metropolitan district 
annually has nsen to high dimensions auring tiie last 
few vears. Perhaps it would not be an exaggeration to 
put it at 60,000 tons, not inclnding the ** roogh " ioe , 



013 



JOnKHAij''OF^rmK SOOIBTT OP ARTS, SkprniBK 6, 1873. 



erilootad fron foalM, riTen, and oamb in A* ii«I^li- 

rid of 1i»nbuilt),ff>0 tDU inths TB*r. ThftattirM 

■tanoo, iMioff 44 "(set aerou and 108 feet iatrp, sbd 
holding 4,000 tons. Yet oormstropolitad omtiRrption 
does not wpul tbat of Bo«tini or New York. It ii onlji 
of late 7«ai«, ooarpia.'didj apeakils.-ltet ve haTa 
Wean to ice. Amarisani lure long looked on i< 
nuciwityi and not merely aa a hixor; . Ttxvf i 
almoet bb freely in tlu winter as in the she 
The moderate and, indeed,' free nae of icadilTinkB i 
weather ia eartkinlj wholeaome, and, aa a rale, there U 
no more danger in taking tbeni whrai the body is tery 

hot tiianin bathingin that etste. itia a popular ei 

to tappoee that the ahook in either ewe ia danicen 
It ii HatisEactory to find that ices and iced drioki 
now within the mch of tte rery poor, the fbnnBr being 
obtainable at almoit erer^ street comer for the modeat 
■nm of a half-pnfcy. Uenerally apeddng Utey are 
wholesome, and eren at thia h>« flgnre it ia said a Tery 
handaoniB profit is mnde oat of them. 

Independently of thapeisoiuil pleasure deriTsd from 
tbenaeof iceaaalnxarr. it ii sTslaable article for a 
T»riety of purpoaes. Withont it we conld not huTo the 
npply of flih whictfnowcome'in saoh lat^ quantities 
ftom distant Miing gnrands to our markets. It is true 
Ulat its application does, to a certain extent, deteriorate 
from the wveur al fiih, bat it is better to get a Kood 
aUp^y of flih with the use of ii» thao that it ehonlil Is 
limitM without it Without ioe it would be impoaaible 
to lay tdsgraphio cables of great length in warm lati- 
tudes, for the jratta-percba with which Iher are encased 
wonid melL To obviate this, lanki containing ice ara 
plaoed in oontignity to Ote tanks CDntaiulai; the cables. 
By tfce use of ice breWeis are ennbled to sell their beer 
cheaper. In former times, when ice was ver^ dear, 
tuBneiB generally could only brew onoeaweek. '~ 
aeqnenoe of the time taken for "the wort' 
Icing the tank! this can now be done in 
and brflWlng gneHmi everyday. Bythanse oficethnova 
of salmon and oUier Brii, as well ss the eggs of birds, 
can be transported tbonsands of miles; and thus new 
and naefol forms of animal life are ififfased thnmghont 
the world. For medical and suigiral purposes the ml oe 
of ice is ineallmable. For many affections of the bead, 
■Qoh as SDn-Btrokea. its application ia moet bvueBdal 
and in unmeroos cases iced drinks prod'ine the best 
powible roBulla ; While, for eurgical operHtiiins, the em- 
ploymetitof ice to deaden psin and arrest bEemotrbage 
B now considered iDdispeniable. Tboasradi of tang are 
oaed annnally in our metropolitan hoapitnli. Such ore 
some of the hbcs of ice, and we may, therefore, )ic ffrate- 
fnl that Booh an abundant supply of cheap ioe is alwayl 
at hand for these and other purposes. 

VOTES OH BOOKS. 



^rglua XhteVBtalra,— Par le Dr. Lfcn Boubelran. 
(Anw.- Sarl'ttit). 1873. This little mKnual ia devotwi 
to an espofitlon of the elementary principles by which 
ksalth ii goTemed. Chapters are devoted to "Atmo- 
■pherio agent* ;" "Soil and water;" " Hahitaticm ;" 
inoluding warming, ventilation, fte. ; "Clothing;" 
" Personal hygiene ;" '* Contngiou« and other diseioes ;" 
"Food;" "Eieroisa;" "Sleep;" "Hygiftno des sena" 
ilMllng with the piDper metbod of keeping each senis 
In due health and activity ; and " Mental and physical 
fitrnpatioin." The whole forms a compact but thorougfa 
riwnaMwy*'****'* on tbewbject. 

Ptrach Oovemment propose to appoint a 

WmImIud tolDqulreintothepno'lcabUflyuI makinK 
fW a n>« dtsp-water hsrboor, which' aboil b« : 



^BVBKAI ««TSa. 



ilb^tasn KrtHteted fma ICIk.— Sdiwalbs ^ fmoi 
that if uil of mustsM be added 10 cow's milk la the frm- 
tiDii of one drop tu 11 druna. the milk doaa nMOMtdiii 
evaa after being k^t for ■ nitiai dw aMe ' pgriod. bal Hw fti 
eassfne in traniformnl into albnlAeo. 'IPtMs d ls pTay. nn 
Iai Mandei; ia ooafirmed, it will be of ■onUvaUi iap' 
anoe In the prinud fabric iodostrj. 



Bath Stone— The great e 



[Unsion of the dina 
/ran baa led to theipprHg- 
aioa that tha Bjialing qUMiriea would *oon be nbu'itf. i 
This appn-hansion has b^o dWpeffed by rtie diminn ^ i ' 
lawe etienr i.f'bnilding aiono ia the neirtboiiri»J d O*- 
ham, which ia iinw bring opened by M«wn. BaaMI cd 
Sauadars. T)i» qnanllly ia mffldnit to aapply tbt ai«af 
demand fnr half * Mntary. It will be omnected bj railvij 
with the Oreat Wntetn ay>lent.-BHitBJ JMIf Ac 

The Book Trads.— The Contom-houee retnm 6r IW 
low that tberlportcif ptiotedbouka tnm thii aanrrk 

...I.I VHJ- n-ached gl,4'>2 cwt., of the dvclnri nls •! 

£S83,&14. an inirsWe of no le-n than 19,812 c«. iiit;«m*7, 
ad £184,8r2 invaloa nnt the prooedinp yoM. Ot !»(■*■ 
and, tb« itniiort uf bocjka inio thia coaotrT «•• nati K.IT! 
■t., of the value of £149.1X9. abowing a ^iammill» 
vt. in qoantily, and of £8,240 in vslne. 

Tl 






J0UR1IA.L OP TBB flOOIBVY OF ABT8, 



1^ imSi 



lOllRNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,086. ToL. XXI. 



FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12, 1878. 




AOOVH CEMENTS BT THE COfOICIL. 



emiAL EXAXniATIOWS, 1874. 

The Programme of Exuninatioiifl for 1874 is 
ow ready, and may be had gratis, on application 
the Secretary. 

These Kraminalaona, in 1874, will be bdd on the 
mdngs of the 2l8t, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th April. 
"he Tnne-table has been arranged as follows : — 



r V B I »A T, 

iDrtia, 

iviDitollpin 



rirhoftki 
iMMtore. 



WlDWBDAT, 
Apil 22, 

PromT tolOp m. 



Theory ofModo 
ii^irUfki Hlftory 
Germ in. 
SpanlsAi. 



T H n R 8 DA T, 

April 33, 
From 7 to 10 p.m. 



PoUtiMa Eco- 
nomy. 

French. 

FmttftndVfge- 
Ubl«Calnir«. 



Friday, 

April 24, 

From 7 to 10 p.m. 



Book-kaeplitg. 
Bnglitb L«n- 

guftffe. 
lUlUn. 



FnDAT, A-prll 24, • to 7 p.m.— DIoUtioD. 

■ 

^ role which formerly prevented a candidate 
4io hid once obtained a first-class certificate in a 
Bhject from bein^ again examined in that subject 
nth %new to gaining a prise, has, in accordance 
^ the wish expressed at the Oonference, held 
Q the 27th June, 1 873, been rescinded. In future, 
^erefore, a candidate who has obtained a iirst-class 
vtificste in a subject may be again examined in 
i*t mbjeet, but not more than one first-class 
s^jftctte in any subject will be counted for the 
^JJ^w Consort's Prize, or for the Council Prize to 
^>*^ A candidate having taken the first prize 
^ my nd>jeot cannot again take a prize in that 
^6ot,]iorcan a candidate take a prize of the 
nie grade twice in any subject. 
The Elementary Examinations, held by the 
■triot Unions and Loeal Boards, for whioh papers 

» famished by the Society, are fixed for the 10th, 
^, and 12th March. 

^ detafls in reference to the Examinations ai« 
'cn in the Programme, copies of which should 
appBed for to the Secretary of the Society of 
li, by all huteodfing to come forward at oandi- 
K or otiierwiae intemted in the BzaBBdiurtimtt. 



VATIOVAL TRAra0 BOBOOL 70B WnC 



1. The necessity for a National Training School 
for promoting the art of Music in this country has 
long been f cdt, and has at various periods been 
urged on the attention of successive Gtovemments 
by the highest authorities. Such has been the 
unanimity of all those who are competent to give 
an opinion in this matter that it is needless to 
discuss the question here. Suffice it to say that 
the whole subject of Musical Education in this and 
foreign countries was investigated and fully re- 
ported on by a committee appointed by the Society 
of Arts in 1865. 

2. Although it appears from the Beports of the 
Science and Art Department that the question of a 
State Training School was at one time under the 
consideration of the Lords of the Committee of 
CounoQ on Education — ^Earl Granville being then 
Lord President — ^the Departknent of Science and Art 
up to this time has not taken any active steps 
towards its establishment. It has therefore been 
decided by the Society of Arts to take the initia- 
tive, and establish a Training School by voluntary 
effort, with the full intention that it should, and 
under the confident hope that it will, eventually^ 
be transferred to the responsible management of 
the State. 

3. The fundamental principle and primary object 
of the School is the cultivation of the highest 
musical aptitude in the country, in whatever sta- 
tion of society it may be found. In order to cany 
out this principle to the fullest extent, admission 
to the School will be obtained by competitive exa- 
mination alone. 

4. As the gift of musical ability is found in all 
grades of society, and frequently among the classes 
of very limited means, it is evident that in a large 
number of cases, the student must not only re- 
ceive gratuitous instruction, but also be supported 
during the period of his training. To provide for 
this it intended to establish about 300 scholarships, 
for which the most influential support has already 
been promised, and further support is solicited. 

5. The proposed scholarships will be of two 
kinds, the one to affbrd free instruction by paying 
the students' fees, the other to give free instruction 
with a maintenance allowance in addition. It wfll 
be op&a. to any county, town, public body, or private 
individual to establish one or other of these kinds 
of scholarships for oomi>etition under given limi- 
tations. Should there be more accommodation in 
the school than is requisite for the instruction of 
these scholars, students paiying their own fees will 
be admitted by competition to fill the Tacanotes» 
care being taken tbat they show sufficient aptitude. 

6. It is proposed that tbe School diooldpfo^de 
in the first instance for the free inetrootkm of mbonli 



8H JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ABT8, Sbptbhbkb 12, 



300 soholan. The school fee without xnaintenance, 
it 18 estimated, will be between £35 and £40 a year. 
The maintenanoe allowance for the support of the 
scholar will be in addition to this fee, and in- 
dependent of the school. 

7. The Council of the Boyal Albert Hall are pre- 
pared to devote certain rooms, including . two 



3. By paying the same rate of interest as the 
dividend earned* there is a bond of union estab- 
lished between labour and capitaL 

4. An Act of Parliament might make the depo- 
sits of the industrial classes the first cha^ on the 
estate. 

5. The proprietor of a private establiahmoit, 
whose profits are not made known, might under- 
take to pay, say 7 or 8 per cent when the profiti 



small lecture theatres, to the use of the School at reached that amount or moie, the proprietor giTing 



a nominal rental, when proper arrangements shall 
have made been made for its conduct. This 
assistance is estimated to be worth about £1,000 
a year. 

8. The Boyal Commissioners for the Exhibition 
of 1851 have offered a plot of ground immediately 
adjoining the Albert Hall for supplementary 
suites of practLsing and lecture-rooms, and have 
agreed to grant a lease of the same to Mr. 0. J. 
Freake, a member of the Council, who has most 
mumficently undertaken, at his own oost and risk, 
to erect the necessary buildings thereon. Indeed, 
the plans for these buildings are in a forward state 
of preparation. 

10. The School is under a Committee of Manage- 
ment, consisting of two members appointed by the 
Boyal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851, 
two members appointed by the Council of the 
Boyal Albert-hall, and three members appointed 
by the Council of the Society of Arts, and the 
Committee thus formed consists of H.B.H. the 
Duke of Edinburgh, H.B.H. Prince Christian, 
Admiral the Bight Hon. Lord Clarence Paget, 
K.C.B., Major-General Eardley-Wihnot, B.A., 
F.B.S., Henry Cole, Esq., C.B., Major Donnelly, 
B.E., and Sir William Anderson, K.C.B. 

All communications relative to the establishment 
-of Scholarships, and all inquiries about the Train- 
ing School, should be addressed to the Secretary 
of the National Training School for Music, Kens- 
ington-gore, London, S.W. 

P. Lb Neyb Foster, Secretary. 

mB jrOSSPH WHITWOBTH'S PBIZ£8 FOB THBIFT 

E88ATS. 

Sir Joseph Whitworth has offered prizes of 
the value of one hundred pounds, to be awarded 
by the Society of Arts, for the best Essays on 
the **Advantages that would be likely to arise if 
railway companies and limited companies gene- 
rally were each to establish a savings-bank for the 
wxsrking classes in their employ.'* With this offer 
he has transmitted the following observations : — 

1. Is not a good rate of interest, with perfect 
Moteity, more likely to promote the habit of 
saTinA" than any other plan that can be devised P 

2. Sir Joseph Whitworth suggests that the 
interest to be paid on the deposits should be the 
same as the dividend, with a guarantee that ft 
shisB not be less than 4 per cent. 



an imdertaking to pay not less than 4 per cent 

6. Li the case of Agricultm^, each oomitjmigtLt 
have its savings-bank for the savings of both niee 
and women in the said county, and the intemt to 
be paid might be 6 or 7 per cent. 

7. To do this there might be a rate ooQecfed 
along with the poor-rate, to be caUed the interest 
or industrial rate. 

8. As this rate increased, no doubt the poor-nte 
would diminish, and if the habit of saving beoov 
general among the labouring classes, there vmld 
probably be great gain to the properh'^wmf 
classes, considering the great variety of v^in 
which they have now to contribute for tb«Bipp«t 
of the unfortunate who now make no prorisoii for 
themselves. 

9. In order to realise what might be the pro- 
bable saving to those who encourage the nvagi- 
banks thus suggested, Sir Joseph Whitworth poiti 
to the list of charities, also institutiont, SQchvii- 
firmaries, hospitals, union-houses, prisons, pofioe, 
&c., &c. 

10. In any establishment, if only ooe-tkini of 
those employed deposited savings, they v«M 
have immense influence over the other two^M 
of their fellow- workmen. 

11. Men who spend all their eaznincs m^ 
rally reckless, and become the dupes of sgit^'< 
but the man who has put by some of hii eaniB0 
will be likely to exercise forethought, and vi 
not be led away by others. 

12. In South Wales is it likely there wooMbtic 
been the late turn-out, if the difi^ercnt estibli^ 
ments had each had such a savings-bank u tbi 
proposed ? 

13. In the case of a man or woman hDingii^ 
distress from causes beyond their control, «^ 
better proof could be given that thoy wa« ^ 
serving of sympathy and assistance from t^ 
friends, than the fact that they had pat by nvifip 
at a time when they were able to do so ? The iw 
of action should be to do as little as pos8iU«^ 
those who do as little as possible for theinaehc& 

14. Some of the points to be oonsidCTcd hr^ 
essayists will be the amount to which the stn 
shall be limited, and when the depositor widtf 
withdraw the whole or any part of the ««■ 
posited, what notice shall be given. 

15. The co-operative system is no doch t^^^ 
ing much ^ood, but if the system here d rtj* 
out were aaopted, the greatest good, in the d^ 
time possible, might 1^ effected. 

To the above observations Sir Joseph 
has added the following : — 

I think it will be admitted as desirable ^ 
third of the period of man's existence ahojij^ 
possible, be spent free from the necessity of ' 
and toil. 

The middle period of life is, therefore^ 
when man's energies should be pat ioKh, 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Siptmibeb 12, 1873. 



815 



he greatest amount of work sboiild be done 
hat strict obedience to the laws of health will 
wrmit The experience of industrious men goes to 
troye that the most pleasurable existence is insured 
ix fonowing this ootirse. 

It is therefore wrong, in every sense, for the 
Imalgamated Engineers and other Trades Unions 
combine and endeavour to compel young and 
oiddle-aged men, in the prime of life, to limit and 
edaoe their hours of labour to the exteoit now being 
attempted, and thus prevent them from saving so 
Qoch, and laying it by for that period of life 
rhen man's energies beffin to fail, when work 
)ecome8 irksome, and when rest is necessary in 
irder to pass a comfortable existence. May not the 
ase between the industrious working man who 
ATes part of his earnings, and the man who is 
^ess and will not save part of his earnings, be 
Airly stated thus : — 

That the man who does not save when he is in 
laalth and strength, robs the man who does 
are, because the law compels him to support 
hose who have not saved, and to bury them when 

The principal subjects which the essayists should 
oDsider are the preceding. 

After commending these observations of the 
olightened and liberal donor to the consideration 
i the competing essayists, the Council, however, 
ould further call their attention to the liability 
» frauds of various kinds to which such a system 
lay be subject, such as, for instance, that of colour- 
ble in?estments being made by parties investing, 
» their own names, moneys not bon4 fide their 
ni; and would impress upon the competitors the 
Bportance of suggesting the best means of pre- 
mtiDg such abuses. 

There will be two prizes, £70 for the best, and 
^ for the second best essays. The judges 
'^'▼e the right of withholding the prizes 
%«ther, or awarding lesser sums. 
The following are the conditions to be observed : 

J' The essays must be sent to the House of the 
*^ of Arts, Adelphi, London, addressed to 
e Secretary, on or before 1st December, 1873. 
2. They must be delivered either in print or in 
"i^ucript If in manuscript, they should be 
fJtten dutmctly on foolscap paper, on one side 
"16 paper only. Every paragraph must be 
unbered. 

J- They must be sent in sealed, with only a 
^ or cypher; and a separate letter, also sealed, 
h the motto or cypher marked outside, must 
ompany the essay, giving the name and address 
the writer. 

• Brevity will be considered as a merit. 

. They may have been published anonymously 
MO being sent in. 

• The Society is to have the right of publishing 
two prize essays in its Journal, 

• The award of the judges will be final. 



PBOOEBDIHGS OF THE SOCIETY. 



OAVTOB LBCTUBE8. 

The second lecture of the third course of Cantor 
Lectures for the Session, *'0n Wines; their Pro- 
duction, Treatment, and Use,'* was delivered by 
J. L« W. Thxtdichum, Esq., M.D., on Monday 
evening, April 28th, 1873. The concluding 
portion runs as follows : — 

Lbctu&b II. {concluded). 
Tub YiNvrABDs op San Lucab db Barramboa. 

The situation and extent of the viDoyaids of San Lucar 
is best appreciated by an inspection of the mapof Cooiol 
Suter. 'Jliey are mainly aituated upon alhariza hills, 
and are worked upon the aame principles as the Jerei 
vineyards. Bat at San Lucar all vineyard labours 
throoghout the year are performed a fortnight earlier 
than at Jerez. The vintage is in the beginning of 
September, when the grapes are in a much less ripe state 
than that in which a fortoight later they are harvested 
at Jerez. This is probably caused by the proximity of 
the sea, which in September brings rains and wind^i, both 
of which are destructive of ripe and over-ripe grapes. The 
vines are mostly *' listanes," the same as those which at 
Jerez are term^ palominos. Yiniftcation is the same as 
at Jerez ; plastering, vino de color, dnlce, and bnmdy are 
used to make up the semblance of sherry. But there is 
a speciality produced at San Lucar, which may be termed 
the parallel to the Jerez amontillado, namely, the so- 
called manzanilla de San Lucar. This wine has a par- 
ticularly nice, though thin flavour, while young ; wiUi 
age it becomes very dry, and somewhat bitter. It has 
the character of all wines made from somewhat under- 
ripe grapes, and becomes passado at less than one-third of 
the age of genuine sherries. It should always be termed 
"manzanilm de San Lucar" in full, to distinguish it 
from the wines of Manzanilla, an important vitioultural 
district not far frt)m Seville. The pixniuction and trade 
of San Lucar are in the hands of growers or oosecheros, 
holders, or almacenistas, and extractores, or shippers, as 
at Jerez. When I visited San Lucar, in October, 1871,1 
inspected more particularly the vitioultural pages of £1 
Merino on the east and La Malaya on the west of the new 
road from Jerez. In some of the vineyards labourers 
were alrendy engnged in arranging the soil for the 
winter. The vini^ were kept even lower on the ground 
than at Jerez. Close to San Lucar, I observed orange- 
groves of great beauty, and, as I was told, of great value. 
In San Lucar I visited several bodegas, among oUiers 
that of an old gentleman who was supposed to possess 
the oldest wine in the place. I heard mm relate that in 
1804 he had in his bodega three botas of vino de ookuTy 
which were, to his knowledge, at least twenty years 
old. These three botas had since then, by simple 
AvaporatioD, become concentrated to one. It was sold 
in my presence for ninety pounds sterling, and the 
purchaser thought the value of his acquisition at least 
ten times that sum. I myself, however, looked upon 
thi4 wine as merely a pickle of sulphate of potash, cara- 
mel, and spirit, from which the soul of wine had fled 
ages ago. In the same old bodega in which this relic 
was kept I also observed some of the underground 
tineas of 130 arrobas, or six botas capacity each, 
ext;cuted in brickwork, which in former ages used to 
receive the wine. They had evidently been disused for 
generations, and now served as the playground of a 
numerous colony of rats. 

In another large bodega I much admired some fine 
Manzanilla de San Lucar, ten years old, price in loc9 300 






816 



JOUBNAL OP THE 800IETT OF ABT8, Sbptmmb 12, 1878. 



peaos, eqaal to £46 per bota. I tasted wine of 1870, 
worth, at the time of my viait, from fiorty to fktty pesos, 
which in 1878 would probably sell at 140 pesos, or £21, 
per bntt On the whole I came to the conclusion 
tiiat the San Lucar wines on an average oommand less 
than half the average price of Jeres wines. The wines 
in the bodegas were not highly brandied, but they do 
not come to England in that state. They are dways 
n^ooated in spirit before shipments 

Trs Aloaxda and its IifnioBiroirs Vikss. 

The Algaida is a forest of about 9,000 amnsadas 
in extent, on the south bank of the Guadalquivir, 
to the east of San Lucar. It is reached by a long joumfV 
along the sandy and marshy hanks of the river, through 
fields and forests, and over uncultivated plains of vast ex- 
tent It is surrounded by swamps (marismas) and during 
the rainy season is itself inundated to a great extent. 
The soil consists partly of clay, partly of sand, and in 
many parts it contains dese^ of pure sand. It is 
planted mainly wiUi the sea- pine ( Pmm maritima)^ but 
contains also ^ups of the silveiy elm, and large tracts 
are covered with shrubs of lentiscus. Almost its entire 
border, and many l>irge and small open spaces in its in- 
ierior, are lined with the wild vines, fint described by 
Clemente, which were the principal object of my ex- 
onrsion to the spot. 

I was accompanied by some iHends^ and we engnged 
two foresten to guide and guard us, all being well armed. 
There are no rMds whatever, and paths, beaten by the 
herds of goats of the distant villages, exist only 
round the circumference and in the shrubby parts. In 
walking alonff I soon perceived some wild vines tK>ver- 
ing an oleander bush ; further on, wild fig-bushes Hnd 
trees in nunnben. Then more vines, much pulled about 
by men and beasts. When, after a long waUc, I arrived 
in a part whera white silver-elms form a large continuous 

Soup, I found vines covering the whole of large fir-trees ; 
ere were at the same time brambles and sarsaparilla in 
blossom, creeping up shrubs and treea. From a formid- 
able rampart of brambles, covered with vines, one of my 
oompHuions fetched some vine bnn<^es upon which were 
(on October 18th) eight bunches of blossoms. By this 
means I was enabled immediately to determine and 
to demonstrate to all present, that these garafionas, as 
the Spaniards term the wild vines, are really indig* none 
wild plants, and not stray children of vineyards ; fur all 
the flowers had the stamina reeurvafay which we know to 
be the characteristic of the fomale type of the dinecie 
wild vine, and no erect stamina ; and the recurvation 
was so strong and typical that I observed several stamiQa 
which had grasped the little cap ordinarily pushed 
off the bud, and kept it closely pressed to the flower-stem. 
As often as I bent it back so as to cover the umbi'icus 
the stamen returned again with the cap, and showed 
its nature. 

Such flowera are represented in fis^. 8, p. 6, of Thudi- 
chum snd Duprl's " Treatise on Wine," &c., and the 
account there given of the indigenous vines of Euro- 
pean countries ii confirmed in all essential particulars by 
the foregoing observation in the Algaida. S< me vine- 
leaves were red, indicating black grapes. The shep- 
herds and goats had not left a single berry on this side 
of the for^ We were informed by the foresten that 
the shepherds not only eat these wild grapes, but make 
wine from them. After a long struggle through miles 
of forest, brushwood, and brambles, through sand and 
difficulties of every kind, I at last came to the place 

described bv Glt-mente: — ** In this place the vines form i ^i-*/ «mw»» ««»«.»»•. m^u. *.w«. —- — kA«a« 
impenetrable thickets, magnificent banqnetting halls, the arrope-drenohed raisins ara kept in ths ^^r^ 
most graoefnl pavilions, grottoes, places, covered walka, appearea possible that the product mi^ j^^ 
winding footpaths, crossed walks, )ab\rinths, walle, acetic acid. On subjecting a quantity **r*^5 
arches, pillarSj and a thousand other original and inde- with oxalic add it yielded, however, ^?^?Jjjfj[^ ^ 
■eribable capnoee." This description, which dales fh»m another spedmen 0*8 per oent DistiUsd ^j*^ 
the year 1808, is literally true in Uie pteeent day. From caustic potash the tintiUa yielded an •""^^{'^ 
a large trse I took a vinebranck 50 feet in leogth. Many | containing ftrnmnTiin and oompousd •mm^'^J^ |y 
olbar caasa of tha sana mm w»e hanging down, and 'recognised by the peonllar and dissgresabieatfu* 



foraiiftg a pefefoot ■orecB, in the shads of wUek I nitd 
for some time to admire the phenomenon. 

We then passed milea upon miles of viaei; tilaitw 
struck across the sandy interior of the side of tk« M 
on which flows the Guadalquivir. A march of two km 
through loose sand brought me to a part where ill U 
forms of wild vines were found, ronsd a swamp, in tisr 
most intense oonoentration. A wild fig-tree wti oo*ai 
witii a wild vine ftell of napes. They wen «U at 
blaok, aeidukms, but good to eat The viae vti nsk 
affisotod by the oidinm. The swamp gave me a giod 
idea of the oircnmttaneea under which the ftaal ma 
desoribod in our Treatise, pp. U-16, were liriif. 11 
SalBbausen, the fossil vine leaves are found tof«Aknn& 
the leaves of a fig-tree. The vines are grovmg ia «k 
masses in this forest, that the foreeten ertioutad 
the quantity of wine which could be made, if sHthegitp^ 
could be collected, at a hundred botas. It m proUu 
thnt these garafionas have, by cultivatioii, yieWftl tb 
black palomino, also called tempranillo of die lo^. 
identical with the graciano of the Ebro vilky. ^ 
doctrine which I advocated before this Society s)s«^ 
ago, in a paper printed in voL 18, p. 109 of ^!^^ 
namely^ that the peculiMr wines of the great titinlto 
districts of Europe wero derived from wilder** 
digenous to these districts, and not imported intoua 
by the agency of man, has thus obtained an ispxtot 
confirmation. 

The Yinbtabds of Rota.— Tihtilu pi Bm. 

The soil of the Rota district is almost pore aaA ^ 
the celebrated Rota vegetHbles and fruit, isvtf it" 
tintilla, ara indeed grown upon sand thrown 'V'JJ 
shora by the sea. "fte parcels of land arc all «nc©W 
by sand-wsUs, and these latter ara fixed by *f^^ 
reeils* the well-known caftea. The !»"?*"•. "^ 
small, or, if large, are frequently •'^WividMW'J^ 
reed-palings, to break the force of the wind w Pj 
the sand in its place. The wines in ^e bod^" IIP 
I found to be of three vwy different q«»*** J^ 
first quality, the principal product of the ▼i*?^*^ 
Rota, 18 the tintHla. This is not wine in the <«^ 
significance of the term, but more of a ■If^'T 
from pasBulated grapes or raisins by a peculiar |«* 
The blHck grapes of the tintiUa vine are ^f?^ 
sun, taken off the stalks, and put into np^S^Vr^ 

ud. Must, which has hem /^"^ 



open at the upper end 

to the consistence of a fluid 



ooti* 



TO mo cunaiBMSuuv v» n uuiu Syrup, ant^ ^ i ui 

over the raisins, and the mixture is allowed to rt*** 
macerate, the tops of the casks btjing ^^^f^TJ^L^ 
The raisins now become disintegrated, until w^ ^ 
like a jam. More arrope is added from ^^^ ^l^T 
January the mass is trodden on the lagar and pr^ 
The resulting thick, dnrk, reddish brown IJQO" * ^. 
tintiUa. No spirit, as 1 was informed, » /fV 
it at any time, and therefore the finiahed tint* 
which ia said not to ferment, ought not tojt^^ 
any alcohoL But on tasting the product « ^ 
in one of tbe bodegaa, I found it ^Vjf JJ^ 
slightly effervescent stat<s producing the "^^'j^^ 
pri«-kly sensation on the sides of the *°°^%J^Jjj 
subie<ting a quantity of old solera tintiUa toffliW'rJ* 
I obtained 6-89 per cent by weight of "l**^,*^ 
per cent, of proof spirit. Another specimen w ^ 
from another bodega contained 6*6 per cent l|y **jr 
of alt-ohol, equal to U per cent, of proof •P''*V|^ 
therefore certain that the tintilla of Boto TT; 
alcohol, and that this is probably tiw^«*^ 
I very slow fermentation. From the "PJ^^^-m.* 



JOUBITAL OF THE BOOIETT OF ABT8, BBPvniBia 13, 1878. 



817 



eziiteiioe of iheie ammoniat 10 aooonnted for by the long 
macention which the albuminoiis matters of ^ raiaine 
undergo im the oaaks ivldle moiatened with anope. 
ilthoogh the tintiUa is made from Uaok grapee, it doee 
sot oootain the red or blue colouring matter of their 
bosks, f6r this would require much alcohol and add 
ftr eitrsctiop, as the alcohol is not added and is not 
prodoeed mitU alter the jvioe is s c y a r ato d from 
the hoab; the ooloaiing matter remains behind. 
TitB frost amount of sweetaees and the flavonr of dried 
enpei, together with the mass of extractires and the 
otUo alcohol in juztapontion to the free acidity, make 
tb tialilla an article of the class of agreeable, drinkable 
wnm. AhotafaUofthebestoaalitycoats at Sou about 
X4(l; Vot the onirent price of tne great bulk of the pro- 
duce ii about £20 to £24 per bote. 

The second product of importance of Bota is vino de 
CDkff. The tinto grapes are plastered, pressed, and the 
while most is allowed to lisni^ni. iaioiher ^oaatiiy of 
tibs asme white must is evaporated to the eonsistence of a 
mp, and is added to the fermenting natural must, and 
tteniiture oompletee its fermentation. Then snirit is 
added in Uffger or smaller c^uantit&as. Shis vino de color 
h$ a horrible taste, and is, in fto^ nadrinkable. Its 
piodpid, perhaps only use, is for mixing with pale 
toQLXiy wmes, to give them the external felmfied resem- 
VUnce to the similarly prepared brown, pale, and golden 



It ought therefore to be the object of oendogists in the 
future to prepare— sherry in particular—and other wines, 
so as to exdiule these admixtures. Inthat case the wines 
of Jeres would probably aismnis and hdd the first ^isce 
amongst all wines of the wocld. 



AHW AL IHTEBHATIOV AL 



OHS. 



The third quality of Bota product, and the one which 
moeohes nearest to wine, is the tinto, or tent of Eng- 
M tothore. It is made by fermenting the juice with the 
koiki, od thus becomes a truly red wine. I have tasted 
tinto thorooghl]^ fermented, dry. Area from sugar and 
Adf aotttious spirit, which was resdly delidons, and showed 
whsttisto might be if properly prepared and left iJone. 
But iodi is not to be, for it is not to the taste of the wine 
■srckaats, who want Rota tent with burning spirit and 
2ot8 of sweet This treatment completely ruins the peouliur 
inelUToar of this wine. The tinto grape of Bota therefore 
frns like the same grape of Tairaffona. It w misused 
fcr the orodoction of tne vilest imitation of port wine 
^ eoafd be imagined, and sol to the British public as 
^Speouh poet " at pioes which are several hundred ^r 
omt. higher than the original cost The unhappy in- 
Ontes of hospitals and oUier charitable institutions ar^ 
ite ptiocipd consumers. The prices of this wine at Rota 
'^ between £4 and £9 per butt As Catalonia can 
^^^•nell Rota in this particular article, the manufacture 
^ Boti it Ukdy to come to an end. 
^ one of the principal objects of these lectures is to 
»^% before the Sodety of Arts new knowledge not 
jl^^nto recorded, I shall not enter upon any long 
^"■^ition of those other vineyards of Spain on which I 
htTtt noting Qoiy>^QQiii]iiQjij(2ii^, Ashortaodavstematic 

M^ant of &em can be read in Thudichum and Dupr6*s 
T^tise, p. 663 to 668. The wines of Catalonia, Arngon 
^Vtle&eia, white as well as red, are almost all plM- 
^"^ iad several Spani^ oenologists have strongly 
P^'^'^'M sffainst this practice, which they term an adul- 
^^<»^ and a fraud. Some wines are unintentionally 
I^'^'t^nd by being kept in underground cisterns of 
'^^^i^t of which the binding and lining material is 
r«tff of Paris. I think it likely that the practice was 
vsooTered in this manner. In the Ebro valley, however. 
Bach wine is made in the purest possible manner, and 
»it not unlftdy that we may be supplied hereafter 
*Bh es^islie wine of modsirate priee from the part 
MUedtheBima. 

On the whde, then, we find that the wines of Spain 
^^ by nature generally excellent, but are easily and 
PfUy spofled in part by tmskilfid and unodentific 
■«^teMnt They ava sabject to oM&y so-oalled diseases 
shioh destroy dbeit valna, and to oooateract ihitm or 
^Ijvresqtt the prodaoers use plaster, solphurous acid, 
||*wdpl>s te ied must, brandy, and sweet must preserved 
■ aloMoL These admizUffes are, however, more or 
"Mo^sstisuslilii beoaasennwholssowft tothaooiM— iir* 



The Oouncil, having been informed that her 
Majeety*8 Commissioners do not intend to 
prbiish Heports on the different departments of 
the Exhibition of the present year, and looking to 
the great importance to Arts, Manofactarea, and 
Commerce that these annual displays should not 
pass away without some record, have decided to 
undertake that duty, and for this purpose have 
engaged the services of gentlemen specially 
skilled in the subjects of the several sections, 
to prepare such Reports for publication in the 
Society's Journal, The Council, however, 
desire it to be understood that, in publishing 
these reports, they do not necessarily adopt all the 
views expressed in them, which must be taken 
as those of the writers only. 

The following report is the thirteenth that has 
been issued. The remainder will appear as soon 
as they are complete. 

AUSTRALIAN PROVISIONS. 

By jr. D. Copeman (Yeats, Auocks, and Copeman). 

The rapid rise of the Australian Colonies may 
be said at the outset to have been due to the 
gold discoveries. The useful functions which 
these colonies performed in furnishing an in- 
crease to the meuUio currency of the world, 
just at the period when Great Britain started 
upon a new career of free trade, under the 
teaching of Messrs. Cobden and Bright, and 
through the instrumentaUty of hir Robert Peel, 
mark an era in the oommercial history of recent 
times. The great representative pyramid of 
gold at the Exhibition of lb51 is still present in 
the minds of Englishmen. Many of our notions 
with regard to i\ustralia have in this manner 
been moulded and perpetuated even to the 
present day. The time has, however, arrived 
when we can regard the new phase upon wluch 
these colonies have apparently entered. The 
International Exhibition furnishes an opportunity 
which might not otherwise have arisen for 
remarking the progress that oommeree and 
agriculture have of late years been making. 
The constant demand for all descriptions of 
food for the population of our own island, where 
the people are so largely engaged in industrial 
pursuits, the mining operations, the spinniag of 
yams and the weaving of textile fabrics, and the 
axtraordinafy Idgh pneea t» whkk the ntoew ariop 



818 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Sbptembmi 12, 1878. 



of life have risen in consequence, have led to 
experiments, hitherto successful, for the intro- 
duction of tinned and preserved meats. These 
matters have been dealt with in a former report, 
and attention will now be more especially directed 
to the other productions of Australia. 

It may be observed that the British market is 
at all times open and ready to receive the pro- 
ducts of any and every part of the globe, 
however remote, either for home consumption or 
for transhipment; that the British trader is 
always willing, and even desirous, if only from 
self-interested motives, to advise, assist, and 
further the preparation of articles that can by 
any means be brought to enter into his transac- 
tions. It may also be said with equal truth 
that, possessing as he does the command over 
an almost unlimited area, and being at the same 
time called upon to cater for a somewhat cen- 
sorious constituency, he is obliged to be critical 
and exacting about the minutest particulars, and 
what does not perhaps strike the producer as 
important becomes with him a matter of 
necessity. The upper and middle classes of 
England have always been consumers of first-class 
qualities of produce, but the artisans have now 
entered the field with apparently equal tastes 
and determination. Although the market has 
been vastly extended by this means, the 
difficulty of furnishing what is required has been 
increased to a degree hitherto unknown. These 
remarks apply more especially to London and 
the manufacturing districts, where only the 
highest prices can be obtained, and where we 
presume our colonial friends desire to acquire a 
permanent and profitable footmg. We have 
seen how America has persevered in a course of 
agricultural industry, until from small beginnings 
andy at the outset, apparently hopeless attempts, 
she has come to occupy a position of importance 
that cannot be gainsaid or disregarded. I 
may cite, for instance, that at the time I 
write^ cheese to the extent of J0,000 hundred- 
weights has been received during one week, 
and this an article which twenty years ago was 
only saleable to meet the necessities of the 
lowest classes. I mention these matters for 
the encouragement of our Australian friends 
who have favoured our International EiXhibition 
with their valuable and instructive collection of 
products. And having thus prefaced this sub- 
ject with opinions upon general questions, 
I proceed to observe the particulars presented 
to notice by Mr. Levey, the secretary to 
the Victorian Commission. I ought to men- 
tion that, owing to the extreme heat which had 
prevailed, many oC the samples had been 
withdrawn, and my attention was confined to 
the following :— 

No. 174 (two sides of bacon), J. Foord, 
Ballarat — ^This specimen is fidrly proportioned 



widi regard to fat and lean, ind more Talaililt 
than if fatter. It is well-oind, from a wM 
hog ; too salt, however, for the Loodos uk, 
but saleable at the present time tt 6(k pv ctt 
The Australian carers and exporten k tb 
market have to guard agaioBt three tki^v- 
First, the extreme heat of the tropics; flMiAf, 
against a cost of more than 44b. to cover ^k 
and insurance ; thirdly, against its arrinlkii 
country between August and Maidi,heoni 
from September to February the maikaUa 
fully supplied both from England and hdai 

No. 176 (two sides of bacon), SamaelHflri» 
son, Melbourne. — The feeding u sopetiortitkt 
American in every respect— the fat lolid, 4i 
colour good; the bacon b well-cored, and itab; 
and if brought over in quantity, eqnal vkoat 
tion to this sample, it would realise attkpMl 
time 44s. per cwt The markets are Mt its 
fair average price, but, during scarce iMvfiv 
home produce this description of \mmvM 
realise 50e. to 668. per 112 lbs., andocoMf 
even more. 

No. 173 (two hams), J. Foord, Banant-Vi 
is well-cut, from a well-fed hog, hot tfio idll> 
the best markets. It has, I thiak, ^ 
salted more than necessary, and if slightlji^ 
it would make the passage and arrive it eqal 
condition. The smaller sizes are alwiji mb 
valuable in proportion. 

Mess pork, Watson and Patterson, VAo^ 
— Shipowners will find this equal, if not«lB^ 
to American, but not equal to Irish orfifl^ 
meat ; but a littie extra attention wooUUit^ 
Up to their standard. At present pneeiv > 
worth 80s. per barrel of 204 lbs. 

Cheese.T— The samples show that gMt ^ 
provements are needed both in coloaringn^* 
the mode oi pre$$xng, Thespecimenitfd' 
flavoured, which may, however, in great bm^ 
arise from the extreme heat tbroogh which ^ 
have passed, both in their passage aad ^^ 
their exposure in the building. This shom li 
the absolute necessity for having the dit^ 
extra pressed for export The mode of eiCDf 
covering the cheese with a doth is tirT ^ 
judicial to the flavour ; it is quite nSe^ ^ 
cover the peel about two inches roondAt'J 
and bottom. Had these cheeses b^ 
sound condition, their present narU**' 
would be 64s. per cwt By way rf* 
couragement to the Australian checM^ 
we would observe that fifteen yean i^^ 
qualities were imported from the nniti<^*| 
how American cheeses fetch prices fai]h|^ 
60s. to 74s.y according to season, andl^^ 
taking the place of ^Wlish dMesei ^ * 
below the quality of the umcy ^lA^i^ea^ . 

No. 177, keg of salt butter, exhiW? 
JeflPry Samuel, Yan Yean.— This was <*V1J 
fine butter, well-mlule, and good in eotosr. ^ 



JOURNAL 9F THE SOOIBTT OF ARTS, SM^rwBSt 12, 1H78. 819 



flavour has become tallowy tbronghout; the 
outaide has loat its proper colour, and presents 
the appearance of tallow. The value at the 
present time is 566. per cwt The stocks- of old 
butter haviag beeu nearly cleared out last year, 
batter of this class is now above its average 
value. Many experiments have been already 
tried by exporters to secure the butters from the 
melting effects of the tropics — all have proved 
failures, the packages generaUy used being old 
porter kilderkins ; but we are bound to believe 
that, inasmuch as batter was formerly exported 
from Oork, and arrived in Australia in good con- 
dition, the same may be done vice versa. We 
recommend the maker to prepare for this market 
from the time it leaves the churn solid butter 
thoroughly cured by a sufficient admixture of 
salt, say 6 lbs. of salt to GUlbs. of butter. The 
difference between its arriving in the state of the 
inapected tub and fit to compete with good 
ordinary salt butter would be 408. per cwt. ; this 
allows a wide margin for going to some consider- 
able expense with the package. The casks oon- 
tainlng the farinaceous articles at the EbLhibition, 
made of silver wattle wood, indicate that a pack- 
age might be prepared which would meet the 
necessities of the case. This should be of well- 
seasoned wood, not liable to shiink, and as nearly 
air-tight as possible. It would be desiiable also 
to eeoure a fast vessel for the transitt ai|d a cool 
place on board for stowage. 

The making of butter has been mostauc- 
cesafully carried on in Holland, Ireland, and 
France, and it would be well if the Australian 
fanaers and squatters would adapt the circum- 
tftances of their case to the examples to be found 
in each of these countries. In ijoUand and 
Ireland there are regular dairy farmers, who 
make this calling their sole occupation, and who 
have a large number of cows, with cow-houses 
and all other appliances. In France, owing to the 
sab-division of property, the farmers are pro- 
ducers of smaller quantities, not sufficient in 
themselves for export, but these smaller quanti- 
ties are collected by the merchants, who attend 
the country markets for that purpose, and who 
carry on, upon their own premises, a regtilar 
sorting, mixing, and packing of the butters so 
collected. Any Vietorian whilst upon a visit to 
this part of the world, would find a trip to Cork 
a remunerative one for gaining an insight into 
the method of packing there adopted. 

Amongst the other articles scattered through- 
oat the Victorian and New South Wales 
Goart, I may mention that the trophy 
oase of biscuits, exhibited by Messrs. Guest 
and Co., contained a great variety of biscuits, 
all, so. far as i can judge, excellent in 
quality, and quite equal to any of British 
manafacture. The vinegar exhibited by Messrs. 
Gatbeil, Butner, and Co., Standard Vinegar 



Works, Prahan, seemed upon trial of the very 
best quality ; in fact, I scarcely ever remember 
having tasted any superior, ihe sugar from 
New South Wales reminded me of the old 
Jamaica sugar of former days, now to a certain 
extent superseded by the more quesdodable 
light-coloured sugar and extraction from beet- 
root. The Tomato Sauce, exhibited by £. Zom, 
Oakleigh, is excellent, and can be produced in 
large quantities, as an article of export. The 
samples of glue exhibited by F. Walker, 
Preston, near Melbourne ; and the candles, 
tallow, and soap, by T. Kelsall, Ballarat, point 
to the use of animal refuse in a country where 
such raw produce must be exceedingly cheap. 
The cigars exhibited by Messrs. White, of 
Melbourne, appear upon trial equal to the ordi- 
nary home-made British cigar. 

Hops.— The sample shown has neither the 
strength nor the flavour of Sussex hops, to say 
nothing of Kent, and, although better than 
samples I have seen in the market, still the 
value is below those produced in the most 
inferior districts in Belgium. 

370. Tong and Hurst, Western Market, 
Melbourne. — Samples^ of assorted Victorian 
jams, viz. :^ Raspberry, bla6k currant, red 
currant, gooseberry, dams(m, strawberry, apricot, 
cherry and gooseberry, and plum. 

There seems to be an opening for the preser- 
vation of fruit, as the variety, both from South 
Australia and Victoria, is good. The large tins 
of the outh Australian » am Company (Limited) 
appear to have attained the desired perfection, 
and are thoroughly excellent and recommend- 
aUe. With regard to the Victorian preserves, 
the apricots do not possess sufficient of the 
natund flavour of the fruit. This is attributable 
to the use of a syrupy sugar, whereas a retined 
sugar, provided all other operations were correct, 
would, in my opinion, rectify this defect, which 
obtains generaUy throughout the other varieties. 
As fancy articles, bought generally by ladies, and 
often allowed to stand open upon the table lor 
breakfast and dessert, • would suggest an im- 
provement in the colour and designs of the labels, 
in this matter I cannot do better than point 
to the highly-finished boxes of preserves im- 
ported from Portugal and France, which serve 
as ornaments to the windows of the Italian shops 
in Piccadilly, Bond-street, and other thorough- 
fares of the West End of London. This may , 
appear a matter of small importance where the 
quality is really good, but in such articles the 
exterior often attracts the eye of the purchaser. 
The preserves of themselves are thoroughly good, 
honeat, and wholesome, and this seems the cha- 
racteristic of all the productions that came under 
notice. This exhibition as a whole in fact im- 
presses me strongly with the feeling that Australia^ 
IS preparing hendf for 9^ profitable business, for 



820 JOURNAL OP THE BOOIETT OF ARTS, Sbptmbkr 12, 1878. 



the management of which experienced and skilled 
hands will be found necessaiy, and the remai*k8 
made have been with the wish to instrnct, so far 
as possible ; but success will only be achieved 
after many experiments, and probably many 
failures. 

P.S. — Since writing the above, attention 
has been especially directed by Mr. Levey to 
some very important experiments in meat pre- 
serving which have recently been made in 
Melbourne. It appears that amongst the new 
discoveries published at the Exhibition held 
there in the latter end of the past year, was one 
made by Mr. James Harrison, a gentleman who 
has had considerable experience in refrigeration, 
and who is the inventor of an ice-making 
machine, largely used both in Australia and 
South America. The terms in which he 
described his process were as follows :— " Fresh 
meat, frozen and packed as if for a voyage, so 
that the refrigeratory process may be continued 
for any required period." By this process, the 
inventor states that the hold of a. ship can be 
filled with the carcases of sheep and cattie, 
which are frozen in the act of being stowed. 
The expense of freezing 500 tons before starting 
will be £100, anc^ of keeping the cargo in a 
frozen state during the voyage of three months , 
£75, or 7s. a ton in all. At the commencement 
of the Exhibition, Mr. Harrison packed his meat 
in a preserving house, erected in a rough but 
substantial way, of common deal boards, in the 
very hottest portion of an unlined zinc building, 
and in the middle of the hottest season in 
Australia. At the end of 25 days, the place 
was opened, in the presence of the Rev. Dr. 
Bleasdale, and the half of a large sheep and piece 
of beef taken out Upon examination the meat 
was found to be perfectiy sweet, and remained 
in that state after the ice was taken away, and 
during lengthened exposure to the air. The 
Commissioners that watched the experiment 
awarded to Mr. Harrison the gold medal of the 
Exhibition ; and so well satisfied are the landed 
proprietors and graziers of Victoria with the 
results obtained, that they have subscribed the 
sum of £2,500 for the purpose of despatching an 
experimental cargo to London. At the time of 
the last mail leaving Australia the arrangements 
were in a very forward state, and the ship 
selected was to leave in the early part of July. 
Its results will be watched with considerable 
interest. The preserved meats hitherto supplied 
are so well known in England that it is needless to 
express any other opinion than this, that much as 
the Australians have advanced in this respect, there 
is still something to be overcome before perfection 
is attained. It is quite possible that the inven- 
tion of Mr. Harrison may give the desired 
results^ if not, however, without doubt patience 
and perseverance will overcome the difficulties. 



and an Englishman may yet enjoy the loxnrT c; 
a roasted " joint " of colonial mutton or beef ii 
a moderate price. 



SUPPLEMENT TO " REPORT OX 
CARRIAGES." 

Some time after this Report was driffiiGp 
there arrived several carriages from Rwsi*, id 
one from Australia. The lateness of thete v- 
rivals tends to support the view tbat the Speea! 
Committee for each department, with the a- 
perts nominated by the City CompinieB (wh<rt 
the Companies are willing to assist), shooid i>e 
called together many months in advance of ^ 
opening of the Exhibition, in order to iDot 
time for letters and notices to reach the awJt 
distant parts of the world, so that toddbe 
exhibitors maybe enabled to prepare their ?w)ds 
and to transport them under very varying «*• 
ditions of climate and opportunity. 

Late as are these arrivals, they arc off?* 
tune and interesting, as illuetrating difitfot 
tastes and manufactures, and show how Bttefiy 
opposite are the ideas of the makers and q«^ 
in the places of their origin, and what diflfew^ 
conditions of service have to be met 

The C and under-spring Victoria Phsefct f«' 
Mr. C. Nellis, of St, Petersburg, is a well » 
and proportioned carriage, and does much om 
to the Russian workmen who made it The «• 
oessive thickness of the wheel-tyres wiD p 
bably astonish the makers of wheds inEngl«w: 
they are, however, found to be necessary oo «« 
Russian roads, which are every year broken up 
by the thawing of the ice-bound surfwe ^ 
spring. 

The stuffing of the body is worthy of iw*^- 
as such work requires to be done with a m^ 
hand, and English workmen have not hithenj 
succeeded in this department as well u ^• 
French, Germans, or Russians. 

The Droski sent by Mr. Jakovleff. also of ^^ 
Petersburg, is a thoroughly national cani*ce 
It is hung on an iron perch, with high O-sp"^^; 
low wheeb, and short axles ; the pnin^ 
seat has no support for the back, and ^' 
driver's feet are supposed to rest on a footp*J^ 
fixed without springs to the nnder-carriage, ^ 
his body and legs are carried by the C-sj«^ 
A leather pad somewhat relieves the concws^ 
but the comfort of drivers is evidentJy not qi^j 
so much considered in Russia as in ^^r 
Such carriages are driven at great «P***^ " 
Russia, and afford quite as rapid a mHst * 
getting about as the Hansom cabs of Lob^ 

The sledge, also from Mr. Jakotleft » ^ 
illustration of how light such vchidei ^^ 
made. The principal seat has do ^^W^ 
the back, and the driver's seat is Aort*'* 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS. Siptbmbbb 12, 1878, 



821 



in widthy while the space provided for his lower 
extremities shows in what singular positions 
some men have to do their work, the receptacle 
being in shape like a wooden bag (were such a 
tHing possible). However, the form and work- 
manship of the sledge are excellent ; and if it 
fhliils its purpose, and those who use it are 
satisfied, why should Englishmen object ? 

The Phaeton sent by Mr. 'Daniel White, of 
Melbourne, is a close copy of American work, 
being very light, and having high wheels and 
long axles — almost as great a contrast to the 
Russian Droski as can well be imagined. In 
point of workmanship the Russian carriages, 
however, 'much excel the Australian one. 

Comparing them with English carriages, there 
IB, however, this great difiference — that the Rus- 
sian and Australian carriages for one horse only 
carry two persons each, and the pair-horse car- 
riage only four; whereas the one-horse carriages 
shown by England, mostly carry four persons, 
sometimes six, and in a few cases six are carried 
in a carriage that forms an open or close one 
at pleasure. 

The English pair-horse carriages carry four 
to six persons, and sometimes eight ; the four- 
horse brakes carry eight persons, and the drags 
fonrteen. So that with the same horse-power, 
a ^eater result is obtained than with the Rus- 
sian or Australian carriages. 

The action taken by the Coach Makers* Com- 
pany of London in order to encourage the art of 
drawing among those who carry on die manufac- 
ture in England, has been before the public now 
for several years, and some of the prize drawings 
are hyng in the French annexe ; side by side 
^th these are working-scale drawings, side 
views, and sections of six carriages, sent by 
Mr. L. Looschen, of No. 8, Erteleff Pereoulok, 
St. Petersburg. This gentleman has probably 
been trained in the school of practical carriage- 
drawing in Paris, and now shows to English 
manufacturers that the proper system of planning, 
and the proper copstruction of carriages are well 
understood in St. Petersburg, and that they 
have formidable competitors to meet where they 
probably little expected to find them. 

Working drawings' of carriages have also 
arrived from France and from Servia, but the 
Russian artist has on the present occasioa sent 
the best contribution of the kind in the Exhi- 
bition, and proves himself very competent and 
clever in his art. 

A similar exhibition of carriages will not be 
held in London for ten years, and it is to be 
regretted that more foreign carriages have not 
been sent, as the interchange of ideas tends to 
progress, creates more emulation, and makes 
known to us the changes taking place in 
▼arious parts of the world; whether England 
holds her ground, or is giving way to rivals. 



In one matter, as regards the export of car- 
riages, the tables prepared by the Board of 
Trade, at the request of the Carriage Committee, 
show a comparative condition of trade that may 
surprise English manufacturers. The exports 
of France, Austria, and the United States, being 
greater than the British, in some cases two-fold. 
I English carriages have held a very high 
; reputation for a long period, and foreign builders 
> readily cede the highest place to the best 
I London carriages ; but there has arisen a great 
I demand for cheap vehicles, both for 'home use 
: and for export, that has taken the trade from 
many competent builders, and closed their 
establishments ; they have been replaced by 
makers that have suited the public taste for 
cheapness, while sacrificing the soundness and 
good qualities that are essential to give per- 
manent satisfaction to home and foreign buyers. 
Combined with this, foreign makers have 
made rapid progress, and it behoves England to 
make strong efforts, if she is to take such a posi- 
tion in the export of carriages as her other 
manufacturers have won for her in the markets 
of the world. 

The namber of visitoTS admitted to the ISzhibition 
during the week ending Saturday, September 6th, was as 
follows: — Season tickets, 693; on payment, 15,555; 
total, 16,248. 



BXHIBITI0V8. 



THE VIENNA EXHIBITION. 

One of the principal features at the Vienna Exhibition 
is the namber of kiosks and pavilions that are scattered 
abont in the park. The namber of these baildings is 
168, some of which are used as caf4s and restaurants ; 
but many, like those of the Austrian Lloyds and Danu- 
bian Steam Navigation Company, are the property of 
large companies or private firms, and contain specimens 
of the products or manofiustures of their owners. 

The above-mentioned companies, as well as the Mari- 
time Department of Trieste, exhibit in their respective 
pavilions a large namber of models of steam vessels, en- 
gines, ropes, and ships' stores of all kinds, that are 
manufaotored at their vards. 

In the pavilions of the Archduke Albert, and of the 
Prince Swarzenberg, samples of the productions of their 
lands are ^own, such as coal, marble, grain, fruit, cheese,, 
wines, beer, sugar, samples of the plants, and implements 
used for their cultivation. 

An obeUsk, built of blocks of coal from the mines of 
the Prince Hohenlohe, each block representing a different 
mine, oooapies a conspicuous place in the ground. The 
pavilion of the Minister of Agriculture, an irregular 
shaped building, contains samples of the produce of the 
crown lands, and of Uie industries that are Gh)vemment 
monopolies. Tobacco of every kind, from Hungary, 
Oioana, Transylvania ; salt^m the Government mines 
of Gallioia,and Salzburg. Amongst the cariosities in 
this pavilion is a luge vessel, said to contain 1} tons of 
meroary, that has bnran obtained from the Government 
mines; on the suHace, which resembles a mirror, a 

I a large oannon bdl floats. 
In a long lateral gallery npwaxds of 200 i^eoiinenB of 



822 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIBTY OF ARTS. Sbptsmbie 12, 1873. 



^nghfl are ■hown, from the radeat form used by the 
Hungarian peasantry, to the latest American notion. 
The dassification of these ploughs, which have been 
oolleoted and arranged with extreme care, adds mneh to 
Umi -value. 

Occupying a place of honour, on a damask coloured 
table, is an old and rusty plough, of the commonest form, 
and the vidtor is informed by the inscription that it is 
the same plough that was taken by Joseph II. from the 
lumd of a plouiarhman, and with which with his own 
royal hand the Emperor ploughed a furrow, much to the 
astonishment of his courtiers. 

In the payilion of the provinces of Styria and 
Osrinthia are shown speeimens of the mioscal products 
for whidi they are noted. 

In the payilion of the Hmte Frgue Preue^ the most 
important newspaper of Vienna, the Walter Printing 
Machine may be seen daily at work ; and on the con- 
tinuons web of paper trayelling at the rate of 16 ndlee 
per hoar the AbeitdblmH is printed. 

Amongst the curiosities at the Vienna Exhibition the 

rat map of the network of the North Pacific Railway 
the American department should not be passed by 
without comment. This sMtp, which is probably one of 
the larffsst liiat has yet been ececuted, measures 42 ft. in 
length by 9^ ft. in width, and represents a tract of country 
1,960 miles in length and 336 miles in breadth^ coyeriog 
an area of 655,200 square miles. Besides showing clearly 
the generid topog^raphioal features of the country, the 
lines of railway opened and in course of oonstruotion are 
distinctly marked. The length of the main line, from 
OolumHa River to Paget's oound, is 2,000 miles. The 
following are the partial distances on this railway: — 
Between Duluth and Bed Biyer, 259 miles ; from Bed 
Biyer to Missouri, 200 miles ; from the Missouri to 
Yellowstone, 250 miles ; from Yellowstone to Helena, 
400 miles ; from Lake Superior to Helena, 1,100 miles ; 
from Helena to the OryiUe Pond, 350 ; frx>m Orrille Pond 
to the Ck>lumbia Biyer, 210 miles ; frx>m this point to 
Kalama, 250 miles; from thence to Paget's Sound, 90 
miles. . 

Five weeks were occupied in executing this map, the 
•draughtsmen working day and night at it, and it is by 
&r the most complete of any map of this region that has 
yet been made. 

The railway material exhibited in the Austrian Depart- 
ment is by far the most complete and numerous in the 
whole buHding, and the workoianship leayes nothing to 
be desired. 



EXHIBITION BY SCHOOLS OF DESIGN AT 

VIOTOaiA. 

The fScUowing account is condensed from the Mglbowne 
jArgui of July 2 : — 

. The third annual competitive exhibition of drawings 
by pupils in schools of design associated wi^ the Tech- 
nological Commission was opened in the annexe of the 
National Gkdlery on July 1st. Both in the quality and 
•quantity of exhibits this exhibition is a decided improye- 
ment on last year's. The rapid pace at which industrial 
developmeot has progressed of late years in nearly every 
<jountry in the world has, here as elsewhere, given an 
impetus to ^e desire for technological instruction. It 
is generally admitted, in fact, that any country whidi 
does not wish to be left behind in ^e race for material 
wealth must not ignore such educatifm. The jdan of 
schools of design esublished tiiree or four years ago in 
Yiotoiia is calculated to supply this desideratum to a 
oertain extent, though it iaUs nir short of the system 
which the colony ought to have. Pupils attending ^e 
schools are volunteers only, and the boys here are, as a 
rule^ no more willing to wo^ when their onHnary com> 
panions are at play than boys elsewhere. The total 
number of pupils on the rolls of t2ie nineteen schools in 
oonneotion witti tiie oommisBion, on the 8Ut Deeembery 



1872, was only 1,417. None of the Mihooli, too, » 
open for mure thtm from, one hour to two bom is cat 
night e^h week. So great, however, is the kmt d 
many of the pupils to be taught, thst ih&f stasdii 
more than one sehool a week. As fitf as it hngtsi^db 
nreient system has certainl;^ done moeh gwi mi 
the sphere of its operation is oootiin^ a- 
pandiog. There vrere in all sixteen sdiook nfHHlA 
Hie exhibits from each school are koag wpufatkm 
the walls, each lot being divided by a red has. IIAe 
drawings are not of the mechanical daai. Ksp«iife 
goes to one of the schools is refused admiBnoDilkv 
Sie profess a desire to be taught, sxy laodseaiie M^ 
only, though the chief aim of theoenuDii^o& ii.ifMM^ 
to promote practical knowledge. The walkansdmA 
with very many coloured and other ersyos ol M 
studies of fruit, landscapes, and the huiaan figoie,Hi«l 
of which show artistic tnste and ability of a bigh mkt 
Indeed, the mere fact that many of the popiktn^ 
sufficient to prove that it would be naosoiUa ti W 
the tuition to strictly utilitarian subjeotL Kortrftti 
exhibits, however, are geometrical, srohiteetaM ^ 
mechanical drawings, comprinng ske te h e s of Wiip 
and columns, ornaments for thedecoialionoftfc ssjwr 
or exterior walls of buildings, illustrstioBS of BSlii^ 
and of many other things in everyday use hj irtiflia 
various trades. There are several plans dywmgt k^ 
ciple of isometrical and ordinary penpeotife,SBMf 
connected with which nmch attention hss efidtflfftai 
bestowed. The examinations in prsctioal ffj^ 
mechanical drawing, architectural drawiag, and &«■■■ 
drawing were to oe held on July 8th. M fc&>^ 
Boberts, the inspector of sdiools, and acting ao^"!* 
the commission, who has vsodsred groat MfW" 
cause of technolo^iical instruction, ^x^futA fttg" 
which is to be submitted to the competiton i&.^|>*^ 
geometry. During the first week the eihib ftiMg 
open daily from 10 a.m. to 6 p.in. There was ao ftg^ 
abont the ^enin^. The eiihihitinn, to ^''i^^^^'l''^ 
was fr^ was yiwted l^ some hnndnwto of psna— w 
day of openiiig. 

.*-Tha8oMtyiiii 



VfttteMl BkMbilioiL at , 

Enoouragement of Arts* Industry, and Gonaon^^ 
decided upon holding an exhibition at Boas a srtyg l 
Tliis exhibition will include every <^l^*°^P^^^|'^'2 
produce and mnnnfiMtTiiv hni no fonign foteti* 
be admitted. 



HINTS TO COLONISTS ON THE CUVB^^ 

TION OF 8II£. 

By B. Vrandi 4lsM. 

f Continued from page 743/* 
Wherever the colonist finds himself loosted, te>j» 
should pluit the mulberry tree. Ths friitshat* 
repay him wdl for all his tnufdils^ itbsiaf s wM^ 
and useful ad|iuKi to his store, and wL "ipM** 
readily. The writer has lived for days at s ^•JP* 
diet of ripe mulberries and boiled rice, end f WJ** ^ 
self in no way the worse Ibr it Cattle will fltf^* 
eat the leavise ; and witen ossen or sheep gat tM^f 
the young leavas, it is somatafms diffisalt to ^ ^^ 
away from the plantation. In Italj, wbss tfai V" 
for rearing the worms is over, what is left of **jJT 
is usuiUly sold for feeding cattle ; and, it ^^^"'''2 
that sheep fed ki«el|r on aiulbsifyissnrsshBisagg^ 
in their wool in a maiked di«rae over thow W*^ 
wise— a thing for our Australian friends to "■■••2 
of." It also makes excdlent hedges, sod msy "JF*^ 
BufKciently cteee, when nsed Ibr this pwp'^r 
Siller a year or twoy a good, sttroog, u si wl ^nsa 

As rogaids tha land a«tabl^ icovidsd itwi*^ 
clay nor chalk, almost aU lands that sny n**rr 
attempt to cultivate are Boitahle. The«MA»J>*^ 
freeloam; ifit]to«]|ghtty«Mdytbti "^ — 



r 



JOURNAL t>P THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Sbptbmbbb 12, 1873. 823 



derfaU^ : add prOYided the position be not too dxr 
extnujrdinary upon what apparently fterile toil it 
t>ir. Ab to aituationa, the slopes of hills where 
can drculate about it appear to be its fityoorite 
m; loir, damp flats are to be avoided, but Uie 
itioDB ntry so much in different colonies that the 
most foinn his own opinion, and tsJce these hints 
A» only, not as rules. The Chinese have thousands 
Ibenrj trees reaching from the Hoohow hills along 
nln of the Grand-canal, to the Tai-ho lake, aU on 
a ootmtry that they are enabled to irrigate the 
I; bat this is never done by bringing water to the 
Mtf but only to within a short oistance of the 
Were the water brought to the tree Uie leaves 
be weak and watery, and not ^ood for the worms. 
kJiwhy a olavey flat is ordinarily about the worst 
{lor a senciculturist, but in a very dry climate a sub- 
retains the moisture would be rather of service. 
aew rich soils of most of our colonies the mul- 
will grow anywhere and everywhere ; and when 
remembered that in many parts of Europe and 
where the land is not good enough for anything 
le mulberry is planted, we may rest assured that 
rill be few disappointments wherever it is planted 
and about the settler's location. 
I are many descriptions of the mulberry tree — 
rn^s, or the black mulberry, the common mul- 
of England ; Morut alba, the white mulbeny, in 
ooontries the very best for producing silk ; Moms 
ioML or Dandolo's mulberry, a variety of the 
laid by both Dandolo (the great authority) and 
* to produce the most beautiful of all siUcs ; Jfonts 
\ or the Philippine mulberry, originally in- 
there from China, was supposed some years 
be the best of all mulberries for sUk culture, but 
has proved that this is^ better adapted to a 
dimate than to any other ; but the mulberry 
to moh different aspects in different dimates, that 
ii (qnnion respecting it is worth much, except 
who have seen and watched the growth of the 
its individual locality, and produced ooooona 
leaves. Many of our best descriptions are 
and in some of the colonies these hybrids ap- 
produce superior results, in crops of leaves and 
V to the pure varieties. 

English mulberry is a ^ood stock, and, when 
from cuttings in the colonies, soon loses many of 
^inctive features, and assumes those of the white ; 
^oold be difficult to recognise in the beautiful luge 
looredglossy leaves one tinds in the South African 
I the progeny of the English tree, and yet it is 
to be so ; and it is a question whether this fleshy, 
nooui, and rather rough leaf, be not a better silk pro- 
oer than the finer, brighter-looking leaf of the alba or 
fj^tiMM, It is surprising how the mulberry may be 
ne to alter its very charMterisUcs by removal to more 
"^joolities. The following, which is vouched for 
' ^wsbted authority, conveys a good idea of the 
Mgee that may be effected in the mulberry by pecn- 
'^•^Bient The red mulberry (Monti rubra) is in- 
rooos to North America, and bears very large, nume- 
B wrinklea leaves, which, idthongh unfit, can be 
oe most excellent food for silkworms, if the tree be 

euatod with rings of bark taken from the best white 
iberry. 

^yearsago the writer, then in South Africa, was 
v^uted for a time by hazarding the statement to a 
Tied botanist that he could, by '^h'^^ging its oondi- 
•i produce leaves from the mulberry tree before 
n which the botanist would class as of another 
option. A cutting was taken and pluited in a 
*wed warm nook, in a rich, free loam, at two 
vand foot less elevation, where the reAise of an 
ontjr stable was fr^uently thrown about it. Two 
» Mter, the parent tree, then five years old, or in its 
>yn a poor dry soU and exposed situation, produced 
Bgb, smaU, dark brownish W ftdl of woody fibre. 



about four inches extreme lengtii, while its progeny, the 
cutting at two years of age, yielded a large, /ifl^ 
bright, green-coloured smooth leaf, measuring 17 inches 
in lengUi by 12 inches in width, and in no in st anoft 
corresponding to the leaf of the original tree. 

The botanut pronounced it to be JKoma alba^ while its 
progenitor was known to be Morutmfra. The ** moral " 
of this anecdote may be thus summed up. Don't bother 
your heads about species, nor wait to get white mulberry 
while you have any other ; take what you oan obtain on 
the spot, and trust to a genial dimate, good soil, and 
proper cultivation to do the rest After all, the results 
of foeding are the true tests, worth more than aU the 
opinions about different descriptions, and the wormitseU^ 
where there is any choice, will immediately select th» 
leaf which is the fittest. 

The mulberry leaf contains five different substanceSb 
1st. The solids or woody fibrous matter. 2nd. The 
colouring matter. 3rd. Water. 4th. The nitrogenoiw 
saccharine. And 6th. Besinous substance. The woody 
fibre, the colouring matter, and the water, excepting 
what in part composes the body of the silkworm, can- 
not be said to be nutritive to that insect ; the saodiarine 
matter is therefore the only part which nourishes it^ 
promotes its growth, and forms its animal substance^ 
and the leaves should contain plenty of this to be ik 
suitable food for the silkworm. The resinous substanoe 
is that which, se(|arating itself gradually from the leaf by 
the peculiar animal organisation, accumulates, dean 
itself and insensibly filto the two reservoirs or silk- 
vessels whic^ form the integral parts of the worm. 
According to the different proportions of these elementi 
composing the leaf, cases will ooour in which a greater 
weight of leaf will yield less that ii usefol to the silk- 
worm, both for its nourishment, as well as with respect 
to the quantity of silk to be obtained horn the inseot. 
The result must therefore be that the silkworm which 
consumes a large quantity of leaves less nutritive, must 
be more fotigued and more liable to disease than that 
which eats a smaller proportion of more nutritive leaves* 
The same applies to those leaves which, though con- 
taining a sufficiency of nutritive matter, carry but little 
resinous substance. In this case the insects would 
thrive and grow, but not produce a ooooon proportionate 
to Uie weight of the worm. 

There is no doubt some peculiar substanoe in the mul- 
berry leaf which is not to be found in any other vege- 
table production. It is easily shown that the 
leaves of all the different kinds of mulberry which nou- 
ridi the silkworm have a kind of granulous surfooe, 
covered with a great number of minnte tuberoules, re- 
sembling fflands, which seem to contain a sort of essen- 
tial oil and give out the odour which the leaves exhale. 
This, some years ago, formed the subject of some careful 
examinations by certain French cheimsts, and they have 
been enabled to ascertain the existence of a matter alto- 
gether peculiar to Uie leaves of the mulberry, having no 
relation to the general principles of other vegetable pro- 
ductions. It if well known that but very few inseots 
besides the silkworm will touch the mulberry, and even 
the aphides seem to be destroyed bv coming in oontaot 
with it Thus, then, if merely by ttie substance of this 
neutral matter the leaves of the mulberry are distin- 
guished from aU other vegetables, and it beins a foot that 
the silkworm feeds exclusively on these leaves, and 
that no other food enables it to make cocoons 
of good quidity, there seems reason to believe that silk is 
only a metamorphosis of the matter in question, and that 
it IS within the range of possibility that some other 
laboratory, besides that of the silkworm, mav be found 
with the power to convert the mulberry leaf into silk. 
At the French Exhibition of 1867 some French chemista 
declared they had disoovered the method, and attracted 
some attention at the time ; bnt we hear nothing mote 
of it, and our colonial friends may rest assured thst» 
althouffh one cannot deny the possibility of such a 
thing, it will be a long time befofte any other lahoff«taiy 



Ht JOUBSAJU or TttB SOCIETY OF ABT8, S»tw»e 18, Vm. 



tbftBtlMiafttMtQkwQimitaelf will snooeed in ooavort- 
i&g ttralbeny leUt <» aay ptrtton of it» into dlk. 

Meisri. fitrtlMllet, Foueokoj, «iLd Ghaptal li&Te 
deelarad tllat silk has vniob. analogv with the tiasae of 
horn, and thai by distillataon they haye ohtained firom 
it oarboojite' of anaienia and a laige portion of olL 
IBoflnrd, in infl paper en the mbieot, addnated 4» the 
I9«tioDal Institate ol CVMuooe (DecMaage dea Sotea), 
giTea an aoaljFBia ooBformable to the obaervationB of the 
three oelebn&ed ehemiato above named. He demon- 
etratea that the yellow ailk oonteina, of gam 24 to 26 
per oent. ; of colouring matter, whioh ia ai vaainoua aub- 
atanoei 66 to 60 per oent ; of a whs, which no doubt 
Jonaa the eatenor briUiaBoy of the aflk, 1*2 to 1*26 per 
«oent ; and a voklile oil, having a atrong diaagreeable 
odour. By theae characteriatioa we may conclude that 
<ailk ia of an inteimediate aature between TegetHble and 
animal, whioh will corfeapond with the qnalitiea dia- 
«efiated by the aboare ohwmata 

(7¥ bt mmt ^m u e ii ) 



THE FDSHBRIES OF KRWFOUNDLAKD. 

The pApera selatin^ to her Hitjeaty'a colonial poaa oa 
aiona contain some mtereating trbeervations upon the 
fishenea whioh furnish the Imgest portion of the ej^rta 
of Kewfonndland, and the chief means of oocupittion for 
the popnlation. The physicMl features of the country 
•aeem peculiarly adapted tor the pnrpoae. The bays 
whif^ indent the whole of the line of ooat^t are among 
the finest in the world. These bays are in turn indented 
*by oountlsss minor bays, inlets, und harbours, which 
•oany tft^ great arms of the Atlantic, kden with the 
flamy traaanre, muny milea into the interior, besidea pro- 
.▼idiag water oommunication of immenae value. The 
cod &hery, which is the staple produce of Newfound- 
land, ia pioaeooted from June tUl October, and affords 
.amployment to the mass of the population, who carry on 
.this fishery around the shines of the island and on the 
'Ooast of Labrador, from whence one-third of the annual 
«atoh is now, during a prosperous season, taken. The 
fishery on the banks is almost ezolusivf ly confined to 
tiie French and Americans. It is remarkable that the 
cod-fishery shows no progress, the catch of fifty years 

• ago bidng almost as great as that of the present time. 
ThttSy wUle the population has more than doubled, there 
has been almost no inorense in their chief means of sup- 
port, which, as experience has proved, is some- 

.wthat variable and pnecarious. The manner in 
which Uie business is conducted between the 

•merchant and the fisherman, is for each of the former to 
•opply food, dothing, btiots, tackle, &c, to a number of 
the latter, to support them and their fiimilies, on the 
ondersfeanding that the fishermen, or, as they are 

Resiled, "dealers," sell to the merchant all the fitih 
taken at the market price, the value of the goods 
aoBplied being, of course, deducted from the cost of the 
fiah. It wiU thus be seen that a bad fisht^ry brings no 
loss to the merchant, except for the quantity of goitds 
gifiaa by him on credit to the fisherman; whereas 
a good voyage brings ample remuneration, as the pricee 

> dmiged for the supplies are exceedingly high, owing to 

, the presuated risk of loss on the part of the merchant. 
Bi Addition to the oommon cod oU exported, a quantity of 

, ood-liver oil ia manafactm«d. The best kind is made 
without boiling, by applying to the livers a slight deg^ree 

, of heat, and straining through thin fi amel or similar 
Gesture. When oarefolly prepu^ it if* quite pure, nearly 
iaofforous, and of crystalline transparency. 

The seal fishery, which ranks next in importance to 
that of the cod, oommenees about the Ist of Maix^ in 
«aoh year* and terminates in May. Of kte the seal 
fiaheiy has greaily declined. Twenty yeara ago about 400 

• I*?**^ ^^"^ annually engaged in i^ now not more than 
haMt hatnamber. Within the last few yean screw steamers 
*— as^loyMl wkhigs«iftaiMQeaa» andthate oaitba 



little doubt that in this fishery steamets willmla^h 
almost ouslusively empbyed. These stesmmsnief 
strongly built of wood, shea t hed with iron st AsInii 
in Older to contend with maases of fioBliii| tt^o^ 
through whioh they must freqaently force tpa^itia 
order to reach the ao a ] a » which are geosnl^tei k 
the centra, and not on the edgea of pai^ of u, Tim, 
the ateamera have a oonnderable advantage iwoilfig 
vessds, the latter beiiig obliged to grope throB^ekaod 
paaaageaiatheieafiidda, or remain at tbesdKiafii 
atrong wi^d dispenea the pack. Another aivi^ ia 
reapect to ateamera oonsiata in beingsUetoooBicioati 
the apot where the men despatch the aesU, vboe^a 
reference to aailing veaaels, the seals are freqseiiljkifil 
at some r^ea firom the ahip, thereby efttuffiat pai 
labour on the akeady hard- worked seslan, it m 
obliged to drag the carcases along the ice to Oiia^ 
tive ships. One-third of the value of the lepkiiMi 
among the oew of the ateamera, and OBs-kilf €%t 
Tt^toB of the aeala in reapAot to aaihog vendi. Hi 
amount advanced to each man is deducted bmmk 
ahare. The merdianta, aa in the case of theciiMaf, 
supply each aealer with food, clothing, &&, in aft^ 
tion of being paid by a suooeesful voyage. Soaiiiaaf 
the value of the fishezv may be gathered fioa ftit^t 
that, in the spring of 1871, the steamahip Qn^ 
bn»ught in seals to the number of 32,000, rdati ittbedl 
£24 000 sterling, one-third of which, m, £8M *■ 
divided among the sealers, say 200, giving to ttci so 
dG40, a sum realised in six weeks. In addition to m1 oil 
a large quantity of seal skins are anansUy eipoi^tb 
number in 1871 being nearly 500,000. Thflr«iz«£« 
kinds of seal, viz., the harp seal, the most TalosU* ciil 
the hooded seal, which has a hood it can dnw o^tf i^ 
head ; the square flipper; and the bay msL 

In the month of June each year the ihora of 5ev* 
foundiand are visited by enormous shosli of Qi|^ tr 
the purpose of spawning. The masses of tba c tkf 
various bays and harbuura are ao great fiut tn iba 
with a aniall landing net will fill a bosi is i c^ 
of houta. So little account ia made of thti di^ 
fish, that it is largely employed in maaoriDf tlti &■ 
and gardens. ISaturalists naiue the ca|ilin 8t^ '^ 
The fiivour of it, when fresh, is deIicioaii,aBdik^s 
a>K)ut that of a sardine. There is litUe doolittH* 
properiy cured, the caplin naight compete «i& ^ 
sardines or anchovies, which, ats so piofitaUi km 
fiaherinen of the Mediterranean. If nuBtly pw 
and dried it would be worth more than a doQirft «*! 
but no attention is paid to this little fiih, the nHf' 
which seems inexhaustible. Herrings are foswl k W 

aoantities, and of the finest quality, on maay p^^ 
le cortst, while the Labrador henings eojoj t «^ 
spread reputation. The chief seats of tki» ^^^^ 
St. George's Bay, Fortune Bay, Bay of likiis* 
Bonne Bay. In the Bay of lalands, dvisf tba*^ 
holes are cut in the ice, and the heoisfi u^ 
in nets; the fishery lasts from Dasea^ * 
ApriL The salmon fishery is abuaduit, «» • 
fish are of excellent quality. In osftini.^^*^ 
this fishery is largo and constantly iaerMf- ^ 
method of taking the fish ib ffenenlly in »*J; 

Elentiful is the supply of £resh ssLnon dnxiaf tkea<<" 
1 St. John's, that it is often sold at fonforfr MfjF 
lb. Owing to the cupidity, selfishnesi, sod fjjr 
on the part of the fishermen, the sahnos ^i^^'^jfu 
pally on the French shons is slowly, bat 'J^JfJ 
becoming exterminated. In the bays ^^ffr^ 
frHqufUtly laid down— sometimes ^*^°^^2^ 
even fifty at a time, and every inlet *^PP^*^^^ 
fish should by any chance lie able to eioip^**^: 
barriers, the rivers are so obstrooted by ^ ft ^P ' 
dams and neta^the latter freqoei^ ^"^SrC 
aoroes, and at cloae Intervala— -tbst it is \^!'^S^i 
this fishery has not long since come to snea^^^^ 
the river obstmotiona axe geosnOy nai0«*r 

antiflifiatad arrival of a mut^d-wts^o^^ 



JOOSSAL OF THB 800IETY OF ARTS, Ssffsmbbi 18, 1878. 



826 



whm A» ktefm fbt iwigfaboiiriioody and it is higbly 
MftUo that Bome lotive meuitrBs should at once be 
tebn by the Qovemmeiit to stop this deplorable state 
d tSun, before the salmon fisheir of NewfoundlaQd 
btoosMS a thbg of the past. With reference to other 
ttflTM^ Bttokm^halibnt, tvrboty and lobsters, are taken 
oithesoail. 



THE BBinSH EXPOBT TRADE AND CX>M- 
MERCIAL TREATIES. 

Ai the modem oommeroial treaties between this 
ooontif and seTstal continental nations have now bei^ 
lifiaoUy long in existence to afford a test of their 
nlse to the export trade of this country, it may be 
mM, as well as interesting, to ascertain what ad- 
n&t^e this oonntry has gained by the pnrtiiil abolition 
of Am pfoteotire system by many ^European states. Our 
Vpot tr^e, as is well known, consists of two brunches. 
M» the exports of the produce of the kingdom ; and, 
MMBdly, the re-exports of foreign and colooial 
Hnhuidise. The last number of the ** Statistical 
Ustnct for the United Kingdom" furnishes the 
latiidci of both these branches of export, and from it 
h» following tables have been compiled : — 



1. TUmI Valm of Brituh mtd Iruh Produce Exported, 




laso. 


18T3. 

million 
£ 
110 
144 


InercMe. 




V»lne. 

million 
£ 
6S 
60 


Percent. 


'<>Svipia8CalM ^..^ 


mtllioB 
£ 
SO 
86 


120 
70 


""*•■ «—.«» «»«.«»—. ««».« • 


136 


266 


120 


90 



Only a part of the new French tariff came into force 
: (he end of the year 1860 ; that yenr may therefore be 
ken as the starting point> and, as will be observed from 
A table above, the increased yitlue of exports from thiit 
antry to Europe in- 1872, as compared with 1860, was 
Ely nuUiona sterling, which was equal to the incrensed 
due of exports to Uie whole of the rest of the globe. 
^ also be seen that the increase of exports to 
BTOpe was in mnch greater proportion than to other 
irts of the world, the former having progressed at the 
te of 120 per cent., whilst the latter only adynnced at 
e rUe of 70 per cent. It should perhaps be remarked 
at, fir &cility of comprehension, all the above totals 
^ been stated in round numbers. 

2. At rtfordt the JSxporta of Foreign and Colonial Pro- 
duce, we hmve the following facte : — 





186S. 


1872. 


Inoreue. 




Valne. 

mUliOD 

£ 
22 
8 


Per eent. 


SnromtBooontries ...... 

tUoclMrpHts — • 


million 

£ 
24 

4 


million 
£ 
46 
12 


91 
200 


■*"••• »..— ■ ..».».»»«—.•. 


2S 


68 


30 


108 



iere, again, we find, although the prog^ressive in- 
ae is not so large to Ekiropean oountiries n% to other 
s, that this branch of trade nearly doubled itst^lf in 
period under eoneideration, the increase in 1872 being 
ity-two nullione sterling. The sup<»riority of our 
Dsntile marine aad^e fiusilities for warehousing in 
counfery axe the chief causes of the increase of this 
ch of trade: fbr it is worthy of lenark that, although 
he tieaty wkh Fraaoe ef 1860, wwA from Austndia, 



and cotton and jute from India, were admitted into 
French ports free of duty in English or French vessels, 
scarcely any direct trade in those articles has taken plaoe^ 
the French imports having been afanoet entirely made 
indirectly through English ports. 

3. Smmmry of Toted Export TVwU. 





1860. 


ISYt. 


loer 


BB^v* 




Yaloe. 


Per eent. 


To Eoropeftn 8tftt« 

To all othtr puts ........... 


mllHon 

£ 
74 
90 


mllltoD 

£ 

166 

16B 


mUlioa 

£ 

83 

68 


HI 
76 


Total 


164 


314 


160 


91 



The above table exhibits the total value of all kinds of 
goods exported from the United Kingdom in 1860 and 
1872. It will be seen that the total export trade of the 
country advanced ninety one per cent., representing a 
value of one hundred and fifty millioos sterling. Of this 
increased export, Europe took eighty-two millions, 
against sixty-eight millions sent to other parts. It will 
also be observed that our trade with Europe is progress- 
ing in a g^reater ratio than with the rest of the worlds 
and that the total value of the trade in the jear 1872 
was only two millions short of that of the entire export 
trade to Asia, Africa, America, and Australia put together* 
With such facts before us, we can hardly auubt that a 
very largB proportion of the increased trade is due to the 
ODHration of our treaties of commeroe with the several 
£uzx>pean states. 



NOTES ON BOOKS. 



Xeohanieal and Arohitactnre Drawing Copies.— By 
W. Busbndge. This is a series of lithtigraphed working 
drawings of the details of various e tginee, machinea, 
buildings, Ac There are short directions attached, and 
a list of the technical terms for each portion of the 
machine described. E!ach drawing deals with a separate 
part of the machine, &c. Thus one sheet gives a design 
for a governor, a second one for a spur-wheel, a third a 
king-post-truss, and so on. It may he added that the 
drawings have been recommended by the Science and 
Art Department as supplying a want much felt by 
teachers of mechanical drawing. 



Six American railway car»> ooAstmoted by the 
Pnlnian Company, have been shipped at Montreal for the 
Midland Railway. Tbey are in vectiooe, and will be fitted 
at Derby by a staiT of men sent over from Detroit. 

The Leeds Corporaticm, having tested wood 
pavements, are aboat to lay them doarn in several imptirtant 
tborongbfaree, and especially near the Leeds County Court, 
whose prooeediogs have thus far been incinvenienoed by 
the noise of vehiclea passing over the stone pavements near. 

Over one hundred and f^t^r kilns, engaged in. 

making crockery ware excluai vely , exist in the United States. 
Thene kilns are capable of producing at the rate of abiiut 
80,000 dollars' worth of ware eai'h per year, making a total 
of the whole of nearly 4,500,000 dollara per day. 

An Amerioan is said to hove brought into use 
a new motive power that proosisea to revolutionise existing 
modes of pnipnlsiio. The mventvr substitutes the vapours 
*»f bisulphide of carbon for steam, the vapours being con- 
densed and used over again with very little loss of the 
chsmicaL The vapours are produced in a water ba^ whidi 
at boiling point ereates ap iessm e of 66Ibs. to the inch, at 
least so says the BoeUm vlohe. 



826 



JOXTRNAL OF THE 800IETY OF ARTS, Septmbir 12, 1B78. 



I 



QBVBKAL H0TB8. 



BritUli Association. — ^The final arrangements for the 
Bradford meeting of the British Assodfttion are as follotrs : — 
The first geaenu meeting will be held on Wednesday, 
September 17, at 8 p.m. predjiely, when Dr. Carpenter, 
LL.D., F.B.S., &o..willresiffi the chair, and the President- 
Elect, Profesftor W. A. Williamson, F.B.S., wUl assume 
the presidency, and deliver an address. On Thursday, 
September 11, at 8 p.m., a soir^ ; on Friday, Septembw 19, 
at 8'30 p.m., a disoonrse by Professor W. C. Williamson, 
F.R.S., of Manchester, on '*Coal and Coal-plants;" on 
Saturday evening:, September 20, a lecture on " Fuel/' to 
working men oniV, by Mr. Siemens, F.B.S. ; on Monday, 
Septemoer 22, at 8.30 p.m., a discourse on ** Molecules/* by 
Professor Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S. ; on Tuesday, Septembor 
23, at 8 p.m., asoirte; on Wednesday. September 24, the 
cooduding general meeting will be held at 2.30 p.m., and a 
grand concert will be driven in St. Oeorge's-hall, at 8 p.m. 
The excursions on Thursday, September 2d, will be to 
Harrogate. Bipon, Studley, Bolton Abbey, Gord>ile Soarr, 
Malham, CUpham Caves, Settle Caves, and Ingleboro*. 
Lists and prices of lodgings, and other general information 
will be given on application at the Local Secretaries* Office, 
Bradford. 

Tunnel LooomotiTes. — ^The Engineer for last week has 
a suggestive article on this subject, apropos of the Metro- 
politan Railway and the defective ventilation therein. After 
pointing out the difficulties which ari^e from the necessity of 
keeping up pressure for a time sufficient for a journey, and 
consequently of keeping the blast on and discharging into the 
air the products of combustion, the article concludes with the 
following novel proposal : — ** We believe that infinitely the 
better plan would be to arrange at each terminus a modifica- 
tion of the Siemens* furnace. Each engine would be brought 
over a suitable gas burner, if we may use the word, and steam 
may be got up with lightning speed. There would be no 
delay to get the fire up. It would only be necessary to bring 
each engine over the gas-burner on a siding, turn on the 
flame, and run up the pressure. Engine would succeed 
engine with perfect regularity, and the production of steam 
would be really oontinnous. In a word, the engines would 
take in heat as they now take in water. And here we must 
call attention to one most important feature of the scheme. 
Not only would the tunnels be kept perfectly dear of f^^ but, 
instead of nsing most expensive coal, the companies could at 
once resort to the use of small cheap slack. Any kind of coal, 
indeed, would give good results in the Siemens' gas producer; 
the saving from this cause would soon tell sensibly on divi- 
dends.'' 

Iron and Phosphoms.^ A new light has been thrown 
upon the manufacture of finished iron by P^>fessor Scheerer, 
of the Mining Academy of Freiburg. The Professor recom- 
mends, for the removal of phosphorus from pig-iron during 
the puddling prKsees, that chlorides of calcium and sodium 
in equal parts be fused together, and introduced into the 
puddling furnace in the proportion of about three times as 
much as the phosphorus contained in the iron. The phos- 
phorus and .the chlorides combine, and are removed in the 
slag. In these days of dear coal the discovery of Profesaor 
Scheerer assumes considerable importance, inasmuch as one 
of the principal objections urged against the use of peat and 
preparations of peat for smelting purposes has been the pre- 
sence of phosphorus— in large or small quantities— in that 
description of fuel. If the elimination of phosphorus is 
reduced to the simple process described, its presence in such 
pig-iron as is intended to be subsequently ** finished" will 
oeoome of minor importance, and the long-predicted rivalry 
of peat with coal will at least assume a formidable appear- 
ance. — Iron. 

Prodnetion of OUnber't Salts in the Canoafni.~A 
natural deposit of Olauber*s salts has recently been dis- 
covered in the Caucasus. In the trial hole that was sunk 
the first foot furnished marl, then grey moist clay 2| feet, 
dark grey bituminous salty day 9 inches, and pure Glau- 
ber's salt bored into 5 feet The entire depont probably 
amounts to 16\ millions of cubic feet The salt in some 
places is entirely free from other salts, and contains only 
B'lO per cent of mechanical admixture. 



Trauparont Paper.— A German invention, neuUy 
pat6nted| has for its object the rendering numorkM txMi> 
parent of paper used for writing or drawing, eithflr vith iak, 
pencil, or crayon, and also to give the paper fucli « mxUa 
that such writing or drawing may be oompletdy remorcd by 
washing, without in any way injuring the paper. Tbt okjd 
of making the paper translucent is that whin nsid is Kbouli 
the scholars can trace the copy, and thus beooois pnfioNt 
in the formation of letters without the expUntttoiu osuflj 
necessary ; and it may also be used in any pUoe vWr 
tracings may be required, as by laying the mper owlhr 
object to be copied it can be plainly seen. WritioK piper 
is used by preference, its preparation coosistiogiofintiati- 
rating it with benzine, and then immediately oostiBf tb 
paper with a suitable, rapidly-dr^in^ vsmiih Mm tW 
bensine can evaporate. The application of vtraitli ii bf 
preference made by plunging the paper in a bsih of it, tat 
1 1 may be applied with a brush or sponge. The viniA i* 
prepared of the followiuAr ingredients :— Boiled bWscfatd la* 
seed oil, 20 lbs. ; lead shavings, lib. ; oxide of ase, 5 Ik, 
Venetian turpentine, ^ lb. Mix atid boil eight boon, Afur 
cooling, strain, and add white gum copal,51bt.,iad^ 
sandarac, f \b.— Journal of Applied Seimee, 

Making Paper from Hopa.— The Maiditme Jm-til 
is informed that it is intended to carry ont in thii ««' 
try^ in an extensive way, the French ia%entiN, iiietr 
noticed in the Journal^ of making paper from the imiii 
the hop-stalk, when the outer skin has heea renvmi Tbi 
substance made from this material is of great soppliMiad 
delicacy, and bv its employment in this manuf acton tv* 
and considerable source of profit will be opeosd for thekif 

£ower< The importance of this discovery tD K^ 
rmers cannot well be exaggerated, for if the lesmiHa 
not prove favourable, and fail to produce first-rslikopi.tii 
paper-making material will compensate for the deAdiKy s 
this respect No doubt the growth of hops will bi iur^ 
dnoed in future in many districts where they are sot bm 
at present, as the large amount of muterial wbidi tbiy *S 
supply for paper -making will alone ensure a good i^ 
for their cultivation. The price of the article is ▼>y^ 
at present 

A Snbstitnto for India-mbbor.— The Satnti^Atfi^ 
states that a substitute for india-mbber hss been fasti i&f 
gum from the milkweed plant, or other plants of the ii|^ 
tribe, and from fiax and other seeds. Tms prooeci 06o«o ^ 
macerating and fermenting the substances, and dm by ei)^ 
ration reducing the liquid so obtained to a thid^ f^ 
mass. The gum produced in this msnncr is iOf*" ** 
possess m*tny of the valuable onalities of iadis^nbhr; n 
is insoluble in water, and may be vuloanised with fttpw- 
The price of pure rubber is now very high, and ths di««t^ 
of an economical substitute is a matter of great iap^u^ 
in the arts. 

Alexandra Park.^The directors of the Akitadn 
PdUce hav<* secured the entire Japanese Colony st tb« *^' 
hibition in Vienna, including the baaaar, Uie Hooriah bcv 
by Dr. S.^hmidel, ths Austrian Consul in Tsngien («»*- 
ito fittingH), and the two Moorish Courts in the Urge «««• 
tion buildiiiyg, besides many other foreign houses, faru*>" 
tents, &c. __^^_^^_^_^_^^.^ 

HOTICES. 



THB LIBBAET. 

The following works have been presentsi*^ 
the Library: — 

Annals of the Queen's College, Birminghtffl. ^^^ 
by William Sands Cox, F.R.S. Vols. 3 and 4. Pwhb** 
by the Editor. ^_^ 

Report of the Forty-sooond Meeting of **»• ^ 
Association for the Advanoement of Soieocs, W* 
Brighton, in August, 1872. Presented by the Aiw*- 
tion. _,, ,, 

Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, y*^; 
parts 16 and 17. VoL 25. parts 1 to 4. Aadtte^ 
ceedings of the Academy. VoL 10, part 4 ; ""JV 
second series, parts 2 to 8. Presenteid by the A«J^ 

Statiftios of the Colony of Victoria fbr Isnvf^jT 
Sickness and Inflnni^. For 1872, Fwi S^ R"*"**^ 



JOUWSMi'^WTBX BOdSn OF AtrrS, BnrrmtBn 19, 187S. 



82T 



numkl OF THE ^SOfilETY t)F tm. 



»o. 1^087, 'H^oL.xan. 



VRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 19, 1873. 






TBQHVOMCaOAL XXAMIRATIOn. 

The subjeots in which examinations were held 
this year, namely, Cotton Manofaoture, Paper 
Manufacture, Silk Manufacture, Steel Manufacture, 
and Carriage-building, will be retained in the Ex- 
foninations of next year, with the addition of 
Cloth Manuftieture, Glass-^maldng, Pottery and 
Poreelain, and tiie Manufacture of Cbs. 

The Programme is in p re pa r a tion, and will be 
published as soon as possible. 



AHVOinrGEMENTS BT THB COTTHCTL. 



0gwnr rr. iratMiiATOwrs, urc 



■of Sxamiaatioiis for 1874 is 
Teadyr-aadonaybe kad.gwiis, on application 
to Hie Secrelmy. 

n^eee ExamoaatiaBs, inl974, will be held on the 
mveMangB of ihe'21«t, 2and, iSSrd, and 24th April. 
IQbe mme-taUe has beeaanaaged as follows : — 



T V ■ 



• DAT, 

toiopm 



Wbdhcsdat, 

April 23, 

Prom7toltp 



n. i^Dm 



Theory oMCkIo 




HVBBDAT, 

April S3, 
7 to 10 p. m 



PattMoal Eoo- 



FnUtandTege- 
Uble Cultare. 



F m I D A T, 

April 24, 
IYom7tolOp.m. 



Book-keeping. 

Aagllsh Lan- 

?u«S«. 
ItaliAxu 



Ymwaj, April M, f to 9 p.m*-^Dtoti4lQn. 

^Oie rule which f onn«tly pi wr ent ed « eaadidate 
kad oBoe obtained a first*-<dass certificate in a 
MIu^^ from being again examined in that subject 
a "view to gaining'A prise, has, 'in •aoeordanee 
tbe wish exp res s ed at the Conference, held 
tlie 27th June, 1873, been rescinded. In future, 
therefore, a candidate who has obtained a first-class 
oerlificate in a subject may be again' examined in 
iStm^ subject, but not more than one first-olass 
m any subject will be comited for the 
Consort's Prize, or for the Council Prize to 
JB^emales. A oaadidaloharing taken the first prise 
±m. may subject cannot agam take a prize in tiiat 
nor can a candidate take a prize of the 
grade twice in any subject, 
le E3emaitacry Examinations, held by the 
I^Btnct Unions and LocaLBoards, for which pi^>er8 
«B9- Inniisked by tke Society, are fixedfor the 10th, 
llth, and 12th March. 

.Kill details in relewnce to thaEaBBodoatiOHa are 
'in tiie Pvegiwnrae,' copies 6i wUdi shotdd 
-applied for to Hie Secretary of the Society of 
lyyaU intending to«ome.fav«VBcd aS'oaMdi- 
iaMosted in tke^Szaniutions. 




wommroML va of ooMi yo& ixnasnc 

PVBFOaES. 

'With regard to these prizes it has been decided 
that testing rooms will be provided, in which the 
various competing articles may be tested in succes- 
sion, each competitor having allotted to him. in 
torn a room and ohimney, for a limited period, 
where he may fix his apparatus for the purpose of 
its being tested by the judges app<Hnted by the 
Sooiety of Arts, the same to be removed when 
directed by the judges ; such fixing and removal 
to be at the cost of the competitor. 

The competing articles' mast be ddivered at the 
Xiondon International Exhibition Building, South 
Kensington, on the Ist Deoraiber, 1873, with a 
view to their being tested, and subsequently shown 
in the Exhibition of 1874. 



HALL-HABXnrO OF JEWSLLSBT.— FBIZS FOB 

S88AT8. 

1. It having been brought to the kn6wledge of 
the Council of the Sooiety of Arts that what is 
termed '* Hall-marking *' of jewellery and articles 
of gold and silver, is inadequate to secure to the 
public that protection in the quality of the 
materials for which it is intended, they have ac- 
cepted the offer of one of the members, Mr. Edwin 
W. Streeter, to place £25 at their disposal, to be 
awarded as a prize for an Essay treating on this 
subject, with suggestions for an improved system. 

2. The Essays nnist be sent in not later than the 
Ist of November, 1873, marked with a motto, or 
cypher only, accompanied by a sealed letter, with 
the corresponding motto or cypher marked out- 
side, giving withbi the name and address of the 
writer of the Essay. 

3. Brevity will be considered a merit. 

4. The Council shall have the right of publishing 
the prize Essay in the JcunuU, and they reserve 
the right of withholding the prize altogether, or 
of awarding a lesser sam> if the judges shall-so 



P. Lb VmTM "Sostkr, Beeretary. 



328 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABTS, SapniUBE 19, ISm 



FBOCEEDINOS OF TEE SOGIETT. 



CAHTOB LECTTTBES. 

The third leotare of the third oonrse of Cantor 
Lectures for the Session, ''On Wines; their Fro- 
dnction, Treatment, and Use/' was delivered by 
J. L, W. Thudichum, Esq., M.D., on Monday 
evening, May 5th, 1873, as follows : — 

Lbcturb m. 

J)4$cripUoH of th$ vineyards of the Alto Douro^fVom p§r» 
tonal observation of the lecturer. Contrast of geological 
position of these vineyards to those of Jeret; varieties of 
vines eulitvated. Indigenous vines in the province of 
JSntre Douro e Minho, Viticulture in the Alto Douro. 
Th$ vintage and wine-making, ^derberrg and logwood. 

The vineyards of Jerez, vhich I described in my 
first lecture, are so beautifiil and productive that 
they mi^ht well be termed the vineyards of Venns. 
Undolatmg hills, easily aocessible from all sides, are 
covered with a luxurious growth of vines, which every 
September finds heavily li^en with an enoitnous mass 
of luscious fruit A poetical enthusiast might call theie 
hiUs the very breasts of nature. Very different is the 
aspect and condition of the vineyards of the Alto Douro. 
Here all is rock, gorge, almost inaccessible mountain, 
precipice, and torrent, while over, or along, all these rude 
features of nature are drawn countless lines of stone 
walls by which man makes or supports the soil in which 
the vines find their subsistence. When opposite Tua, I 
had counted 150 stone-built terraces, one above the other, 
covering the rock which lises almost out of the waters 
of the Douro. I thought that if Jerez was the vineyard 
of Venus, this Alto Douro vineyud must be termed the 
vineyard of Hercules. 

The vineyards of the Alto Douro may be visited from 
Oporto. There are mail>coaches running twice a day 
either way, which deliver their passengers at Regoa or 
Oporto in less than 24 hours ; but it is more convenient 
to travel in a hired carriage, particularly when the 
traveller desires to make studies by the road-side ; 
although the price of such a carriage in the nuddle of 
September, when the great exodus of British merchants 
to the vineyards take place, is, as a rule, eight pounds 
sterling for the night journey. Now this journey is 
often described after the manner in which the Phoeni- 
cians related the dangers of their sea- voyages ; along it 
are supposed to be found defiles like those of Scylla and 
Charybdis. My surprise was therefbre agreeable when 
I drove to the very foot of the vineyards on a beauti- 
fully-Constructed macadamised road, while the scenery 
dunng the whole journey surpassed in beauty many of 
the reputed great sights of Europe. Indeed, the rise 
up to the watershed of the Douro valley is not sur- 
passed by anything I have seen in Switzerland, the 
Fyrenees, or the mountains in central and soutiiem 
Spain. The ascent should be made on horseback, while 
the carriage is being drawn up by the steady bullocks, 
which take half the labour from the carriage-norses. 

YmBs OF THE Pbovinge Entrb Doubo b Minho. 

During the entire journey up to the. water-shed 
the observer sees no vinevards, properly so-called, 
but he sees* all round the houses ana villages, along 
the roads, along the margins of woods, vines creep- 
ing up trees, and competing with their foliage for air 
and sunshine. I observed only black grapes on these 
vines, and all those which I tasted were very add and 
astringent. From them is made the beverage called 



" pireen wine " (vinho verde), from its raemUiitt ^ 
wine made from unripe fruit Hie fruit ii,tn&d^i». 
ripe, and, moreover, never becomes ripe k Uf jih; 
owing to its being grown high up in the air. IfaiiMt 
been able to ascertain what land of ^pet sadiiiete 
vines would yield if they were cultivated m pA Hu- 
tion and low on the ground. On the whole, itlilav 
gave me the impression that these nondeicqitibi^ 
which I also observed in Crests and in woody tj b i , 
covering shrubs and brambles, were like the Tiaanft 
Algaida, described in the farmer lectaie,tn0dlbB 




of the soil, indigenous plants, which, with a mak^s 
help on the part of man in the shape of pnuuii(|i^ 
an enormous quantity of harsh frmt, harin^ U»«Afr 
lation in taste to the wine-berry as a crabnipp bta M 
fine French pippin. The vinho verde is omyprt^ 
in this province of Entre Douro e Minho, lod oi ■> 
wine, particularly none of the qnahty prodoeed ii ■ 
Alto Douro, termed " vinho maduro," npe win, ill* 
grown. 

Soil of thb Alto Doubo Distiki. 

The river Douro, in Portugal, flows thiDSg^ * j| 
with precipitous sides, maimy formed of a d y** 
formation. This reposes upon or alternates ■itt ^S. 
and the latter rock not rarely t^pears os ^"^ 
forming the water-sheds. The clay-schifi fayj| 
viticultural soil, for many reasons. It is etaJ^W* 
into parallel slabs, with which terraces cas be yj 
callea dry walls, requiring no mortar or q ttgP* ! 
I material ; it is eaBily disintegrated by the •^■ffj 
[ and forms a day soil, which retains the ws tgw^ 
tinacity, and allows it to sink deep into the fliH>*2 
schist, where also the roots of the vines aie '^'j'lJ S 
to great depths. The granite, on the other M^J 
most of these properties ; it does not easily tw^^ 



becomes very diy in summer, and then n ^^ 
situated so high abovo the level of the sea tM*^ 



becomes excluded from it by the coldnen of *^J^ j 
resulting from the elevation. A great jpart ^"^^ 
the wine districts could not be pasted with ^^Z 



crops ; the valleys bear a few stripsof Isnd nija"2J 
cultivation ; here and there are some olivei. ^ "Jjj^ 
few fodder plants are grown on the ^'^^^'^'^''^z'JL^ 
wineregion. It is the* vine, and the nasi** ^ 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIBTT OP ARTS, Septembkb 19, 1871 



829 



hag made the rocks of the Alto Douo a ctiltiyfttecl part 
of the earth's snrfsu^. 

TOPOORAPHIGAL NOTBS. 

The topography of the Alto Douro is best understood 

with the aid of tae maps which have been elaborated 

by the late Baron Forrester. The largest and most 

beaatifol of them has, I believe, never been pablished 

for sale, bat only printed for private distribution by 

the baron. A osenil copy, on a reduced scale, was 

pablished by Parliament in 1862, in the Report of the 

Committee on Import Duties on Wines. The limits of 

the cultivation of the vine are on this map marked by 

a red line, which includes what was formerly the district 

under the surveillance of the so-called Agricultural 

Company. The cultivation of the vine is most extended, 

and as reg^ards the production of a particular class of 

wine, most successful, on both sides of the river Oorgo, a 

tributary of the Douro, coming from the north. The 

district west of the Oorgo, usually called the Lower 

, Corgo, has the most ancient cultivation. This begins at 

a distance of about 42 miles English above Oporto, and 

j occupies the triangular space between the Douro and 

: Corgo. The part east of the Oorgo, ending near the 

' river Taah, is termed the Upper Oorgo. On the south 

of the Douro there is also a strip of mountainous territory 

, planted exclusively wiUi vines, but it is much narrower 

than that district on the norUi bank. On the whole it 

[ may be said that the vineyards of the Alto Douro extend 

over a piece of moimtainous country 30 English miles 

in length from east to west, and 10 miles in width from 

north to south. The part of the district above Tua, 

which contains several excellent though relatively new 

vineyards, is now frequenUy termed the Alto Douro 

Superior, as distinguished from the Alto Douro. 

Modes of Plantiko and TaAiKiiio thx Yxxb. 

In the Alto Douro one can see nearly all the varieties 
of culture side by side, but the prevailing mode is a 
I rational low cultivation. Near and below Regoa there 
'are yet many espaliers, forming covered walks, about 
two yards high, over which the vines are trained; 
all tbiese give bad ^pes and bad wine. Above Begoa 
they disappear entirely, and the vines are trained low on 
on the g^und, but the pruning is not so methodical 
as at Jerez, and consequently with the age of the vine 
its bearing part rises higher, sometimes a yard above the 
ground. Grapes grown at that height mostly remain 
sour, and, particularly in dry years, form acid raisins, 
which spoil the wine from the lower fully ripe 
grapes. The viticulturists treat such wines by 
forming layers, bending the highest branch towards the 
ground, drawing it through a trench, and allowing it to 
project at a distance. The young vine is never separated 
from the old stock, and the old stock is never allowed to 
grow brandiies ; such old loop-shaped vine-trunks, pro- 
^ecUng from the earth, and destitute of leaves, are .seen 
m great numbers, particularly in old vineyards. There 
oro vines trained to sticks, as in France and Germany, 
and vines trained without them ; in some vineyards the 
vines were planted through holes in the perpendicular 
walls ; but it app^red that many so planted bad died from 
dron^ht and heat. 

The operations on the soil are nut so methodical as at 
Jerez, There is an excavation made round every v)ne 
in antanm to catch the rain-water ; at the same time the 
rine is pruned. Eeach of the two or three, or more, 
Dain branches of the vine is allowed two or three eyes 
hr the bearing branches, and a spur of one eye with the 
mbaidinry small eye for the growing of wood. All the 
rineTards are kept carefully free from weeds, so that the 
tnn has free play in heating the soil. 

The Douro vines have this p^uliarity in common, 
hat their fruit is not large-sized like the grapes of 
LttdaloBia, nor small-sized like the grapes of Burgundy 
r the Rhine, but medium-sized like that of the paludal 
ines of the Gironde. 



YlNTAOX AND MODBS 07 VlKITIGATION. 

The vintage in the Alto Douro begins at the earliest 
on the 20th of September, and ends about the 10th of 
October. The vineyards in low situations, close upon 
the Douro, are the earliest to harvest, and even then the 
grapes are sometimes over-ripe, so as to be partially 
passulated; the -latest vintages are in the third or top 
region of the slopes. The vintage is executed by men 
and women, all from Gallida, hence termed Gkdlegos. 
These also do aU the other labours on the ground re- 
quired throughout the year; the settled population of 
Portuguese is too small in numbers, and too sickly for 
heavy work ; for the entire district is extremelv un* 
healthy. The Gallegos receive on an average 7d. per 
day in money, and food, which, however, does not 
indnde bread. The daily food consists of a pound of 
salted dry cod, of which large quantities are imported 
into Portugal from Newfoundland, and of a quart 
of a kind of soup, consisting of cabbage leaves, 
beans, and lard, boiled in water. The Gallegos of 
each vineyard not only mess together, but also sleep 
together in the same shed, and any attempt to separate 
the sexes is immediately followed by protests, and, if 
these ard unheeded, by an exodus. The women assist in 
the collection of the grapes only, but the disintegration 
of the grapes, their pruning, &o., is all done by men. 

Thb Laoab. 

The receptacle in which the grapes are collected while 
the vintage is proceeding, in which the grapes aro 
mashed, extracted, and pressed, is termed a lagar. 
It is slways built of stone, generally granite, more 
rarely slate, or masonry. In size it varies, so that it 
may hold the grapes for only a few pipes of wine, or 
for many up to 10 and 16. In the large vineyards there 
are, therefore, lagars of several sizes, so that they aro 
immediately adapted for large and small harvests. The 
i^pe of the lagar is mostly square, or oblong, its depth 
about two feeC or a little more, and its sides v^y in 
lengUi between three yards and eight or ten yards. 

The Pbbss. 

Over and across each lagar is fixed one of the old- 
fashioned lever or beam-presses, of which the sketch 
(see next page) herewith gives an idea. Such presses 
ao yet occur in Wilrtemburg, but they are not any 
longer in use on the Khine ; I have never seen any in 
France. 

TbBADXNO of the GbAPBS— FanMBNTATION. 

After the lagar has received its full complement of 
grapes, or as much as it can convenit^ntly hold during 
me entire operations of viniflcation, a number of GhUlegos, 
with their legs bared to the upper thighs, go on to the 
iHgnr and tread the grapes into pulp. This operation 
lasts from 24 to 48 hours without interruption, the men 
being changed from time to time for refreshment and 
rest. During or after this operation fermentation begins, 
and proceeds, according to temperature, quicker or slower, 
but it is hardly ever very tumultuous ; more frequently it 
falls below the necessary energy, owing to the stone walls 
of the lagar abstracting too much heat. In that case as 
many men as can stand in the ligar are put on to it, and 
they are kept dowly stirring the mass with their feet 
until they have communicated so much heat that the fer- 
mentfition can again proceed alone. When the fermenta- 
tion has so far progressed that the amount of alcohol 
formed counter-balances the specific gravity of the re- 
maining sugar so far as to bring the ^lucometer to the 
ZPTo point, the fermenting mass is again trodden by the 
Gallegos, this time in order to extract the colouring 
matter from the husks. When the wine is as dark as 
may be desired, and a sample runs over a white plate so 
as to leave streaks of thick, dark red dye behind, fer- 
mentation is considered complete. The wine is now 
drawn off by a pump, syphon, or tap, or through a hole 



JOURNAL OF TSE SOdEfTY ^ ASTS, i 



in the bottom of the Ugar, the exit being giurded by 
-•tmie eort of rtniner, and mn Into ■ lu^ wooden onli, 
^rtiich mftj hold from 6 to 90 pipra, and is 'termed > 
'■tanneL" Prom four to eigbt Tulomn of brindy. of 
S'bont 10° Chrtier, are added to every bandrtd vulumee of 
^rine, and tlie mixtore w left to clarify itatlfbygnnt^. 
BsitAMW OM <ram Mods or VmincjnKm. 
Ihi mode of mahing port wine ra evtreniEly mrdlcan, 
•nd the proceedin^i are very crude und elnnentBTy; 
nerertheleM, lo good a product ifl obt«ined thnt Its ftult* 
are, as it were, drowned in tta good riualitiea. Id 
Thodichnm and Dnpr6'B treattae. p. B77, a complete 
Kheme for the reform of the melcing of port wine is given, 
which has already been partially carried out, in the 
Bntamn of 187S. under my peraonal BDpervinon, to Ihe 
Alto Donro, and the wine so prodoeed in now In the 
IiOndon marki-t ready for eoninminion. I can, therefor^, 
refer to it hs a coniplel« juitifleation of oar BciealiRc 
theoiiea, which will, I hope, flad an expanded upplii-atioa 
in the fatare, Tbegreat objn^of the wine mBkenunut 
be to prodncB mod and dunlile wine with only «o moch 
aloohol ae ehiill not be injorioua to Ihe wine drinker. 
Thia rannot be anid to be the cue with the ordinary 
Stick, heavy, ao-called leaded porta of 40 to 42 degree* of 

riof aptit, and for thia TCKeoD whole classea of aociety 
Britain have cenaed to drink any port wine whatever. 
T«t good port wine ii one of the nioet wonderful pniduc- 
tiona of the earth ; and 1 am aure. when viniflcation in all 
Iti branchea and TariHtioDS ahall be once fully undenbH>d 
on the Alto Duaro, it will produce aocb excellent red 
winea ai hitherto haveitot been exported from the Penin- 

MlK. 

Etunumurr Aim Tiodwodd. 
It ia laid that port wine is coloured with elderherriee 
and other d^ea, and aweetened with jeropiga and trfacle. 
beaidea being doacd with brandy ; but I have been 
onable to flod any eviilence of thia, at least ai regards 
Alto Donro wines. Elder trees are V(ry scarce in the 
AHo Donro, and I can in this reapect fully confirm the 
■tatement of Mr. Consnl Crawford. Horvover, the Alto 
Dooro wine, of a good year at least, is so deeply coloured, 
In &ct, 10 eireaaively loaded with coloaring matter, 
that it cannot by any meaas reouire any addition of 
Miunu; and altbough I mast fully maintain the ttet 
•tated in the "Troittiso of Wines, pp. 68, <1 trg., yet 
I belisire that the elderberries than shows lo be ei- 
jOiM ftvm Oporto, an nally naed tor eolounng othn 



viiMi Bma -pott -vim, ^Kfticiflariy the ^ladt-a 
Uonntain porta. Ospe port*, md Sidlisii nl <i 
which an caiTied to Eng-limd, and thoniqi 
irtiBre 'people bay wine ntta )f 



npon the evidence of Mr. Cynv Field, in fe 
port of the Parliamentary CommiUoe of lSi:.M) 
wine is now and thru coloured red by DKau il k 
wood, rnmmonly ^led li^wTMid ; bnttfaaiit^') 
deidonMe wrar, ■■ tt is quKe imposaiUe to ihr 
any kind 'with logwood — Ibr the edonr of hj 
-purple only in alkaline -aolntiati, and nM ii 
which tt is only tawny, Horeorer, itia wtMI 
a qnality -which almost aS port-wine -pi 
IiO^oDd ia nsrer used in trade for i 
pntple, and the lai^ qoantibes 
Ennrpe are naarly eittDaly consomed in tba^ 
by means of iron mordanla, of flm bisak td 
many liinda of ttasnei ,; and, aJthoogh it but a 
pntienlar artists inmhaig and oounterleitiig,! 
pipes of white wine with elderberrira, and p 
astringency with logwood, nererthaloa I lw> 
tuch prodocta would commercially not -pay thi 
troubie of their production, and are, at a!!t <•■ 
an ereeediogly small fnetton of iheviiMak 
■titute tho bulk of the exports bom Opata 
therefore, of opinion that the sooner n diM 
prejudices and errore regaiding elderberrv bI 
in port-wine, the better. There is now soU il 
periiwtly normal wine from the Alto DoaM 
ia made from the finest grapes, fully trw 



ide for dyitt l 
s of logwood A 



brandy whaterer. The -wine ia sold it 
moderate price, considering its body, 1"* 
qualitiea. A few yean ego it was dfriant* 
possible to bring natnrsl port-wine lo L 
wine alToida the tefotation of this Cilhc^- J 
have no doubt that science wilt snEceed n 4 
errors and fiUlacies by which men are bald isj 
bondage, wluch always damages not ooIt^ 

but thoir stomaoha and thair — '—' *" 

Tf OTB. — Hie lecture waa 
the portraits of grapes ahoT 
the Donro distnot, by Pun 
wine ttota the yeara IBtS, 
and free from brandf), II 
brandy), 1871 [iwsat, wiU 



JOSJEUSAL OF THE 800IETT 07 ABTB, Sspt 



IS, I9tti 8» 



of which were taeted after the lecture by many 
penoDfl. The fonr spetiiDeiM of rare old port-wine 
(1816 to 1868) has been presented to the lecturer for 
exhibition to the Society on this oocaaion by T. C. 
Wigbam, Eaq^ formeily of Oporto and now of London. 
The lecturer alao exhimted a wine-akin, in which much 
port-wine i» li— tpeited from the higher mottntainous 
regions on the baokaof men, mulee» and donkeya to the 
hwet regions and depositories* 



AUDAL DCCEBBATIOHAL JUHUUTUHIS. 



The Council, having been informed that her 
Vajesty'ft OonuniMioners do not intend to 
pcbiish Hepofta on the different departments of 
the ^thibition of the present year, and looking to 
the great importance to Arts, Manofaotares, and 
Commerce that these annnal dia|>laya should not 
pass away without some reoord, hanr« decided to 
ondertake that duty, and for this purpose have 
engaged the services of gentlemen specially 
flkflled in the subjects of the several sections, 
to prepare such Reports- for publication in the 
Society's Jonmal, The Council, however, 
desire it to be understood that, in publishing 
these reports^ they do not necessarily adopt all the 
views expressed in than, which must be taken 
as diose of the writers only. 
The following reports conclude the series. 



REPORT ON CHEMICALS (VICTORIAN 

DEPARTMENT). 
By W. H. Walsnn, F.O.ff. 

To people unacquainted with the resources of 
»ur colonies, regarded from the colonist's point 
)f view (which necessarily includes the character 
>f the country colonised and the energy of the 
oloniser). the £u)t of chemicals being produced 
IS ao article of commerce from a colony which 
las only had existence as a separate province 
ince 1850 — scarcely 23 years ago— must appear 

marveL The sequel will show thb to be the 
ue, and that the investment of large capital 
as followed upon the productions of the 
oantry, that wait to be converted from raw 
taterial into those products which a high de- 
ree of civilisation can only appreciate. This 
irt of Australia, namely Victoria, was not 
lown tmttl the commencement of this century, 
he first sales of land took place in 1835, and 
rw, scarcely forty years after, a highly culti- 
ted race of people inhabit it, and claim 
otherhood vvith the most advanced nations 
Km the fiace of the earth. The vegetation 
dt with in the neighbourhood of Victoria, like 
It in other parts of the islan<^ is unique and 
fantio. The race of Eucalypti, with.^eir height 

IdO feet, and their girth of 80 feet, re- 
krkable for the essences, gums,, oils, and 
aloids that they offer; the Acacias^ yielding 
, TUiifgnr, ftlcc^ol^. and rileehn; ioik tha' 



\J^omihorrhoBa AuHmht (the grass tree), yieldbg 
a peouliarly-conatituted resin, are spedmens of 
ve^etoUe life dia^ can only be realised m 
dasoi^ion by analogy with kangaroos, opossums, 
and other exceptional products of these parts of 
the wioikL 

The- Umaljfpiut fflobnim, or blue gum-tree, 
yidds a decoetton which is said to he a sac- 
cesefol rival to sulphate of quinine, on account 
of its eminently antipenodio qualities. 

These quskti s were fir^t brought out, it 
appeaiV) by the enterprise of Mr. Joseph Bosisto, 
phannaoeatical chemist of Melbourne, in 1862 ; 
for, strange to ««ay, dieee medicinal properties were 
not immediately called for by tiie requirements 
of the colonists, as die district is remarkably free 
from all tendency te agueiA complaints. Several 
spedraena of Lia, Euealgpti glohUi and other 
juroduots are exhibited by Mr. Bosisto. The oil 
distilled from the Bmcdly^m ghbulu${0x%13. ao 0) 
is said to be antiseptic. Etuxdi/ptol (Ci t Hto O) 
is antiseptic, stimulating, and dismfectant. It 
should be mentioned that M^. Bosisto has ob- 
taixied the award of the Jury of the Vienna Ex- 
hibition to tiiis colony. 

Amongst the essential oils, the 01. Mentha 
piptritm (true oil of peppermint) and oleosa, 
a powerful solvent of vambh, (fee, claim atten- 
tion« 

A great number of exhibits are made by the 
Royal Commissioners for Victoria, and are pre- 
pared by Baron Von Mueller, director of the 
Botanies! Qardens of Melbourne. Amongst these 
are vamnh from the resin of Xanthorrhcea Aas^ 
traiii^ and alcohol from Eucalffphu glohdm. 
The resin is soluble in spirits of wine, produces 
a.brtghtr red polish on wood, contains cinnamic 
and benzoic acids, and is said to yield picric add 
as a product upon treatment with nitric acid. 

Mr. Joseph Sullivsn exhibits a disinfectant 
which is entitled " double chloride of calcium 
and aluminum." This appears to have completely 
obtained the confidence of the chemical and 
medical auihorities in Melbourne. 

There are at least six chemical works in 
Victoria, having large capital at command, and 
managed by men of business, who bring special 
knowledge to their work. 

The whole of this collection of chemicals shows 
what enei^ combined with adequate knowledge 
may do^in operating upon the mw products of a« 
new co on t r y to develope die most hidden pro- 
perties therefrom in favour of the wants of the- 
human raoe all over the world. 



SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON SOIEN- 

TIFIG INVBHTIONS. 

An interesting saiiea of ohjeota, constructed 
of Ransome*s Patent stone, are now exbibitedat 
the. International Exhihitbn in South Eenabg**. 
ton. These- objeoli^aBe- pboed< m dte* ee wrid e r 



832 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IETY OF ARTS, Septembie 19, im. 



adjoining the rooms that contain the main bnik 
of the scientific inventions, and were not in- 
cluded in the Scientific Inventions department 
of the catalogue at the time that the official 
report of this section of the Exhibition was 
drawn np. The process by which this artificial 
stone is prepared is remarkable for the fact that 
it involves the conversion of a soft and plastic 
substance, that is capable of being readily 
moulded in any convenient or ornamental 
form, into a hard and very resisting and 
durable material. Flint boulders are first dis- 
solved into a paste-like mass, by the influence of 
caustic soda and heat ; the pasty silicate is next 
intimately mingled with fine sand, and in this 
state of mixture moulded into whatever form it 
is desired that it should assume. The moulded 
mass is then hardened by immersion in a bath of 
solution of chloride of lime, which is made to 
penetrate the pores of the compound, either by 
the pressure of water or of air. The hardening 



EXHIBITI0V8. 



SPAIN AT THE \IENKA 




Notwithstanding the citiI war and £hf 
of the country, Spain makes a tery goo4 
Vienna Exhibition. 

Foremost in the list is Ztiloeg&,tQ 
awarded a diploma of honour for the 
mens of Damascene work, in which ait hi ka 
perfection. 

The ancient art of damascenings wh^ 
to have been revived by M. Znka^ ikt 
established an atelier at Guipoxcoa, u po^ 
the most beautiful in the art of metal wM 
its name implies, was first practised, or at afi 
carried on in the greatest perfection, m 
Daniascua, whence it was introdaced into 
Moors. The examples of the skill of the 
workers of a past age leave nothing to be 
are the most notable objects of their dan a 
exhibition. 

Damascene work, or the art of onainentini 
depends mainly upon a chemical reaction, a com- | steel, by making incisions upon its sor&oe ii\ 

pact and insoluble silicate of Ume and a soluble and j ^^^, ^P "^'^ .»°1^ °^ "^^ wire, U p«tif ■«* 
'^ ., J 1.1 'J !• J* u • r J ' partly engraving, and partly carvmg. Atna 

easily-removed chloride of sodium being formed i ft consists of pieces inSd ; as engraving, tk 

when the silicate of soda and chloride of lime ' cut in intaglio ; and as carving, gold ui ~ 
come into contact. The particles of the sand are ! wrought into it in relievo. The general 
cemented together by an investment of silicate of -^^'^-'^^ " ^'*^-^^' ^ ^^*^ that class of work 
lime. The artificial stone resulting from the process 
is stated to exceed Portland stone in strength very 
considerably, and to be equal to concrete in 
its endurance of heat. In some forms it will 
bear from 8,000 to 10,500 lbs. of pressure to 
the square inch without crushing. .It is used 
advantageously for the. construction of chimney- 
pieces, drinking-foun tains, pavements, tomb- 
stones, steps, window-cills, balustrades, vases, 

and sinks. Excellent grind-stones, scythe-stones, i tion ; other vases, of most exqaisii« 
and emery-wheels, are also made of it. It I ornamented in damascene work, are tiwlrf 
has been successfully employed for the con- i «^^» *°^ admirably finished. The daggerlfli 
struction of caissons, and in the form of hollow 
blocks for building sea walls and river embank- 
ments, and a porous kind has been prepared for 
filtering water in large cisterns. It can be con- 
veniently applied as a surface dressing for walls 
of either stone or brick, by first washing the 
material to be protected with a solution of sili- 
cate of soda, and then with a solution of chloride 
of lime. The decomposition of these solutions, 
and the formation of the insoluble silicate of lime, 
take place in the pores of the substance. Four 
gallons of each solution, costing about £2, are 
sufficient, under ordinary conditions, for the coat- 
ing of one hundred superficial yards. The stone is 
prepared upon a large scale at extensive works 
in Blackwall-lane, East Greenwich, under the 
auspices of a company, which is presided over by 
Mr. Henry Bessemer, the inventor of the process 
Mr.Frederick Ransome, being among the directors. 



larly adapted, lending itself to the £antaitici 
of free lines which form so prominent a ^ 
Eastern ornamentation. 

The two shields exhibited by ItL Zoloigaaietl 
of the metallic art The first is damaioesti 
most elaborate character in design andexc 
cution, the other is silver inlaid with iita 
are certainlv uniquo of their kind, and 
and careful examination by all interested i^ 
duction of artistic metal- work of the 
A pair of vases, in the purest Moorish stjl. 
inlaid upon copper, are well worthy i 



^ftt^ 



., I^^nnflf the year 1872 there were in operation in 
ttje United 8tot«ii 812 p«per mills, owned by 706 firms, and 
<« an estimated valvA of over 35,000,000 doUair. 



for mirrors, buttons, ear-rings, handke for 
sticks, snuff-buxes, and caskets of eveij 
attract universal adrainition from the chaiidtf 
design and admirablo workmanship. Tltf 
factory of Toledo has also been rewarded 
diploma of honour for their sword-blades, tk 
ture of which, for centuries, has attained a 
renown. 

The extreme flexibility of these bladea is 
sword, in which the point is bent round so s 
the hilt. The artistic merits of the weapoo* 
by the Toledo factory are certainly below tk* 
and the examples of damascene work and isb 
far indsrior to those exeooted by private ti^^ 
specimens of damascene work by Theodoie 
a former workman of Znloaga, deserro < 
The Moonsh vases of Ysanra, in imitatioa 
extremely chaste in design. 

The Government small-arms hciory exJuW 
of arms, including WordeziB, ChAsas^Utf'^^^ 
which can compete for workmanship with tbow 
beet Belgian makers. 

The collection of nrms of StaiiiiUni 
particularly remarkable for cheapneai.^ Hii 
combine exoellence of workmanship vith " 



Spain carries off the palm in ssddI«xT« Spaiuv 
being celebrated; and the Madrid •Mdlett v^ 
for their work thxoiighout Europt. Tbat tDtf 



JOVBIFAfi- «ip mraS. 8O0IETT OF ARTS, SBPrmiBsr 1^^ 187S: 8BS 



MLbttiitedh im til* SpMiiii» 



ItD ttiy bytha beit FKriBMOfciiiaifim 

f Hwawlhna.BMtaiM.itft old^nnratetfiio, and. 



aano^ctare of fans, which may said to oe a.]inli 
mtf, i»ii^' Mprattnted in MB'4tfpmAmtBi. 
ks ipecimmw of the ooramio axt ixi the ^^aniah 
rtaeoi ase oertainlgr not iafianor to iihtme o£ othan 
trie»y and the exhibits from the pro^nnee of Myvcitt 
iin some excellent samples 'of tezrarcotta. The 
dnof IfoUlB^of Talencia; the enamel tilasoC Manuel, 
^iBd Teilot of Seville, cani compane favousabl^ with 
tilmany^ & well-known- maker. The encanitie tiles 
Ibfda and (Garcia, of Valencia,, are sold at bm Iqw a». 
» M a seal (2^) per 25 squaoe oeniimetrea. 
Ito mamifaotare of cigarette paper seems, to b» a 
iritt^of Spain, if one can judge from the great yaxietx 
ijpd di kilo shown in this depaitment. 
|i aesinoaft products exhibited by ttie Bm^MiS 
h»>CoiIi, fbom Old Castile, maonliEustured in the 
^Kama mountains^ are excellent. 
ftameiw of rook salt,, from the mines of CosdAva^ 
also shown. 

wimena of the agricultural and forest wealth of 
^ are also exhibited in thia department, amongst 
oh may bo mentioned ^e cork tree and saiBJas of 
manufacture, and the wild esparto grass, whioh of. 
yeais has obtained an important commercial value 
frlfcriH^ and is used fbt the manufaotuce of paper, 
a a spedaX building, of two stories, i» exfcubited. atl 
raoaplete collection of the rooks and minerald of 
■lit including sulphur, copper, argentiferous lead, 
teoy> iron, Ugnita^ pyriteat macUe, &e.,whioh;piove 
^v«Ee the mineral reaouoces of Spain pvoperly 
irib^ she would be by far the rxdieat countsy in 

{^ gfouad-floor of this building ia xeearved £ar the 
iftits ol the Minister of War^ which oonatst of models 
ttlilleiy, ammimition-waggons, fire-arms, swords, &o., 
tt the gpvesnment iaotories» and a splendid ooUeetion 
■fedent weaponsy amongst which ma^ be iMBtiQited a 
Asck of tiie time of CbarlesrV., of exoellent workman- 
{^ and superbly chased, being a ch^'d'auam o£ an 
Bcnier of Madrid, Gabriel do iJepoia, bf whoBnit waa 
lie in 1739. This gun ia breeeh-loadiDg, and prores 
6 dd sayingt Ifil sub sole ttovmn. 

2w ^ecimfrns of books and pnnting are only ol seootad- 
csfidlence, with the exception of the exhibiLS'of the 
UHer of Public Instruction, who contributes a com- 
ili collection of the books and educational appliances 
■A in the pul»liA eehook of Spain.. An editio»^ ** Dan 
NbnCe " ia ahown by a Madnd publisher, which would 
\ endit to any printer. 

Hie sorgiical instruments, and artificial limbs in this 
■srtaient as» worthy of atteotion. The furaitnve ex- 
nd in the Spaimh section is also worthy of attention. 
It do not present any especial novelty ; and, generally 
Mkiog, the marqueterie bears a great resemblaBce to 
le fVench. 



mmn X wAlik m, ^ ^ ^ ' ''^r^ ^^ P ^ .^ii^^f^i^ 

paie% aub uspasajm nlMBitiiims to* eootam^ ti»' a» y» - 
moita. ciftm aia»n,0f HMwhihsgy^ and of hortianltitn*, 
Tt is fmlifcw a tafa d that thn appttintmirl^ '^^ ^^'^ a^h.fcAnfc 
wiU b» tiirowtt ops» to B^bMo oompstiftiMi, and tbaiadl; 
aiohitaotBwiU be inrited to contribute plans ; the anthom' 
of the ten mostaimroyed. designs each to receive aKJpriat. 
of £200. The^ecisittB.u|ien thfr s a aosM iul i piaa wiJLh» 
made fUlfaot Jttly* 



BB 



Mladripltia Exhibition, 1876. — The preparationB for 
• Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876, ans 
aduilly maturing, and the work of arrangement en- 
Qsted to the several coonmttees is progressing. The 
scntive commisaioner, Ftofessor Blake, is at present 
Yienaa, majdng personal observatisa of the 
laogesflBft and coaduot of that great displa^T. 
he oommiesion is now in daily sittings at their 
oms, Walnut-stieeA, near Ninth-street, where they 
^▼e emplo\f*l twa seoMlaries and thneec heads of 



, of whom is entrusted with tiie manage- 

ent of some n>efaalty. The necessity of puahixig far- 
ttd as rabidly as possiUs the preparations for the 
JMiotiaa boikhBg^ is Mly vsoognssed. Ths statemeBt 
made that the conumtlee' on plans and sTdutectofe 



BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 

Address op the Pbesidbnt, Pbofbssob Alsxanobb 
W. WlLLUMSOM, Ph.D., F.B.8.,, &c. 

After a ^w words of regpit that Dtw Joule had been 
unable to fiilfil the Midertaking he had mads last yean 
at Brirfiton> to act as preeideBt fbr the raeetang at Brad». 
ford, ftofessor If illiamson entered on a review of tti» 
reoent pao^cessof chemistry and the results it had p»» 
daeed. He dwelt espeoially upoo* reoeni advamjes made 
in the development of the atomic theory, and its im^ 
mense extension since the death of iU founder, Dalton. 
After instancing seveial eaaaspIsBt in whioh the nalnw 
of the theory had been shown— particuhudy ^"^ 
for distinguishing isomeric compounds— he referred at- 
follows to the most recent davelopment of knowledge m 
this direction : — 

The original view of the ooniUtotlon of moleculee was itatlcal, 
and chemlsU only took cognl»t.ce of tho«; changes of pl»ce amonj 
their atoma which result In the disappearance of the mole^ae 
emnloved. and the anpeannoe of new rooleculea formed by Mieir 
^S on"ne ^wSTThui, when a «,.utlon of common ^t 
(aodic chloride) U miwd. with a solution of sliver nitrate, it is w^ 
k^n that the metallic atoms in >*»^ "'P^^^^f^ndte 
change place, with one another, ^^'^'^fi.'^^Z^ ^}^L^t^* 
nitrate; for the silvar chloride »ooo seUles ^..^X^^JSLn^ 
solutioil m the form of an lusolable powder, '^^"f Jj»« ^ther prodoo* 
remains dlswilved In the liquid. But as long as ^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
remained undecomposed each little molecule in it waj »2PP0J~ii 
be chemically at resL A particular ^^J^lX^^'^^J^lZ^ 
combined wli an atbm of chlorine, was supposed to f«3^^,\J 
fixed to it. When this inacilve s lutlon wa. "*«;^ryiJ^ 
sloiUarly inacUve soluUoo of aUver nluate, the 'nlcrehanse of atoma 
iSownto take plane between their respecttre ^Jl^^"^ V^^^^' 
nally explained by the force of predlspo*iog »™nlty. it ^^f^*]" 
ftil^supVoU ihi the properUes of tl»e new compoundsextetej 
and prodilced efliBcta. before the oompoanda themselves had been 

*^Th2i occasion to point out a good many years ago that moleojles 
whtehacpear to be chemically at rest are reading upon one anoth«r 
^SSiii^^SSLhle^nditlon^ In the same ktod o^^T",^^^*^ 
are manifestly in a slate of chemical changc-U«t, for iroUnw. the 
moleciUes of liquid sodlc chloride exchange sodium atoms ^^ ooe 
another, forming new molecules of the «"^%fS*?^"SVo?^" 
gulbhable ttom the first, so ihat, in an aggregate of ">^« "2*^!J; 
fhe apparent atomic rest is the result of the interchange of Ukeatoms 
between contiwious molecules. ^i,rK«»w--« moleoales 

Such exchanges of atoms take place not only ^^""^^.^^^^^ 
ofXu5rcoi5posiUon,but also between ~°"8^«S.^^»,^Jr^i 
Uining different elements. For instance, in a fixture of soaw 
Sloride and poUsslo iodide an Interchange of metamc Jtom? oHh? 
place, forming potassio chloride and sodlc Iodide. The r«ralt ofUje 
Ixf^iagt in ich a case is to form acouple of new ^9}^f^^f^^ 
ft^^orlglnal couple. But these products arc ^^i^i^^j?^* 
^rMlawLf atomi?e« and their action on one another re- 

produaes a couple of molecules of the materials. „_*,h*« mole- 

1^ tt. £;S£S?; JS tS2rMrodu«l».re, In tbdr tam, r-cUog on 
one another, reproducing the materials. ^.^^^ t-„ moleonles 

If one of U»e product* of atomic exchange between two mweomeB 
isLvSwwhUelhTother remains liquid (" ^f ° ,»^*° JS^iSil 
mu2d irtihXer nitjato), or if one isgaseous '^W* "«1^«^ JJ^;?;; 
^iS M^t the^ecu es of the one ktod cannot react on those of 
IS^itLwkKdaSiVeuroduce the materlaU. then the «»2;^.;,J: 
iSS^om^S^iSiialToaoneanother l^^/i^if^i^C^S^wTiSir. 
deeomposmoB. Such comjOet" mutual de^omposit^n j«r w »uw 
JJ^K^Senever they react upon one ano^er «»J";*"^^V^ 
tSSffibe produatt^ot react on one "^.vther a»d "P^^J 
materiaJa ; wher«»» partial deoomposdtlon Ukca ^"J J T^'^^ 
materiAl* form a homogeneous mixture 'rith toe F~«^ ^ ^^^^ 

Now If in any such homogeneous mixture more «**-j**°»*' " "^'tT 
taheTplSi brtween th* iSteriaU ti^n ?«tween ths^nctt, thj 
SSS^malegal- of^the producU ^l^^^^;^!^^^^: 
them are being made than unmade; and reciprocally, ir mow mm 



JODBNAL OF THE BOOIBTT OF ABTS, BiniMm 19^ ISO. 



nilarttli, ud tlii i 



nutarWit tha Dumb 

The mliton mubiL 

SuppDH Itui vt ■m to datan 



aUrUli u of piwtwtii wlMt-aDld lhl> uwt Wby, it rverr 

AtiH ti enrj odv oonplfi of prndavb, vmy ooaple of inktcrlAU 
odI; Biduntlni: luJfu bM ■• anrr ixnpl* of pnjdticU, 



With isgud to the ohjectioni againrt the thaorj, 

I euDot quit thli put oronrml^Mit wlUumt tlladiiifr to the hct 
Ihfct enme frv chBialali cf Buoh emlBoioe h to b« entitled to ttie mntt 

Uet orktiinu It not nmenry l-r the upJwiitlon of Un chuf a In 
tin chemlsl ooD'tlUiUon oT nuttar, ud hm unghi. u lar u 
Boiriblef to rxolDde froo thvlr InofiuffB any sllialon to aloma. 

ItTDUId beoutafplMeoD ttilioeoudoB tooDter Ibiout dlKU- 
donorthcqnHtioiielhiiinaMdi 

t. Ttait t£eH oltjHtan hive m 
fttomlc thAory, nor In the oobgIdi 



tin- phUouphn 

>i^"lnt°tr>\'Bltcr°U liiaal»i)r lUtUblL 
I. Th&t vb*D Uity Interpnt liulr AHAlriee, th 
imielTei neither mnn nnr lea Intltode thu 
ovi ; In ^ , th«y %n DDOonedoiulf ^Idrd bjr 






, .J jm enme of itecbW qii»Hit*i whioh eifurienoe 

I ehoini ID hi nqnl-tw for Iht ueHaiAil pnnnltar ehcmlilrr, ud 
ilch nn neriinly cnlllTnted br tlioee 'bo qulUV tbeaueliei 

I* put of lu Invntlntor li 
1 vlth which h* dalL He 



ODjy» 






Jk> by Bt^eetliv It 
ban fntiDADt ooou 



The next point takea up mi the vUno of eha 
« lUl inatniDient of edae&tioit, and, in ctmunMi «i 
he ■udUm' importiLiioa of kU phTnoU acieooe 1 



•■■s 



BkCh eipvfluLAaL Ko leu «i»qUaI Ii uoane7 of! 
a eipeiimrDlal Inquirer miut ram«mtier uourmtely 






n eAin] ecopv for Tcry oom 
FFit known to he nqnltlle f< 



hi betht moitikllledHduparieiiDed orchimUte. 
to i:tl inch InrumueloD mm the nesrde of pn- 
» u Buy be moet unnil for hit pnrpoea. Thli 
ibtilot Uiroatb tbi nwdlam orwonlai ud ujr 
rt to undcntnBd the pmdie moBUbv of the wonti 
nfnnntUon rtqiilllta tbr till gulduca le llnbla to 
Thu-s elemenliry eierdsee In unlytlsil obe- 



1 ■ ilDcuJirly cKHtlTe tnlnlnf In the hkhll 
I7 la the meuiliif of wprdi OHd by orhen, 
■ aepubleor o^nTeylngwilhootunWjnity tlie 



line b » laa aAstlntj promotfd 
I rhmi l it iT. It le DO hbUI MUI7 1( 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Septemb»r 19, 1A78. 835 



SMb yomf iDTMtlfrator thoi tnlned most «nrt hloMeir to obtein 
90IM ftppolntment, wUoh m%j enable him to do the moet awftal and 
oredlUble work of which he is oapable, whUe oomUnlng the condl- 
tlom molt flftvoonble to hie own Improriuneat. 

Let there be la erery college m maoy Proresionhlpeand Attiftant. 
Alps in each bmooh of solenoe as are needed for the efflolent oondact 
of the work there fobif on, and let every Profemor and Assistant 
hftTe Boch stiary and snob Ainds for apparatus, Ac., as may enable 
Um to deroto all his powers to the duties of his post, under condi- 
tions Ikvourable to the sueeess of those duties; but let eaoh Pro- 
feaor reoelTe also a proportion of the floet paid by his pupils, so that 
it may be his direct Interest to do his work with the utmost attain- 
able eflioiency, and attract more pupils. 

Let every college and school be governed by an independent body 
of men, striTlog to increase its nsefkilness and reputation, by 
sympathy with the labours of the working staff, by material aid to 
them when needed, and by getting the very best man they can, from 
tbeir o*n or any other college, to supply each racaocy as it arises. 

In addition to colleges, which are and alwsys have been the chief 
iostitatioiis for .he advancement of learning, establishments for the 
obeenration of special phenomena are flrequently needed, and will 
doubtless be desirable in aid of a general system for the advance- 
ment of science. 

At present there was a great need of soienoe teachers, 
the supply of whom was checked by two causea ; first, 
the absence of any influence calculated to incline young 
men in this cUrection ; and, second, the improbability of 
their being able to obtain a competent subsiBtence by 
such means. 

There would also be good practical results from such a 
scheme as the aboye : — 

Any manuflkcturer of the present day who does not make ei&- 
elent arraniements fbr gradually perfecting and improving his pro- 
ceases ought to make at once enough money to retire ; for so 
tamnj are moving onwards in this and other countries, that he 
woald soon be lell behind. 

It would be well worth while to esUbllsh such a system of soien- 
Ufle edui-atloo for the sake of training men to the habiU of mind 
which are required for the Improvement of the manufAOturing 
arU; and I have no doubt that the expense of working the sys- 
tens would be repaid a hundred times over by the increase of 
wealth of the community ; but I only mention this as a secondary 
advantage of national education. 

From this point of his address to the end. Professor 
Williamson dwelt principally on the means by which 
the supply of education, technical and other, could be 
inoreaaed. He said: — 

The luystone of the whole structure is the aetton of the State in 
dtatn bating ftmds caretnlly amony schools and colleges propor- 
tionally to the evidence of their doing good work, which conid not 
b« eontinued without such aid. 

I am inclined to think that the Stete ought, as ikr as poirfble, to 
ooDflne Its educational grante to the porpose of maintaining and con- 
tiDalnff good work which Is aotnally being done, and rarely if ever 
to Initiate eduoationai experiments: flitt, because it Is desirable to 
eocoarage private exertfons and donations for the establishment of 
Mhoots and colleges upon new systems, or in new loealities, by 
giving the public full assurance that If any new Instltatloo establishes 
Its right to existence, by doing good work fbr a while, it wiU not hm 
allowed to die off for want of support; and, secondly, because the 
Judicial Impartiality required in the sdministratloo of public funds, 
on the basis of results orwork. Is hardly compatible with anadvooacy 
jf any p-*rticular means of attaining such results. 

On the other hand, experience has shown that special endowments, 
wlik>b tie op funds in perpetoity for a definite purpose, commonly 
Ekll to Attein their object under the altered dronmstanoes which 
tprtog up In later generations, and not unfrequoitly detract from the 
EAcleney of ihe Instltotions to which they are attached, by being 
iM«d for objects other than those which it is their proper function to 
^tromoie. 

IWbeo there is felt to be a real want of any new institution for 
ho inromotlon of learning, men are usually willing enough to 
leTote Ume and money to the purpose of establlshlnc It and 
ft VI Of- it a fair trial. It Is desirable toat they should leave the 
4tate to Judge of their experiment by Ite results, and to maintein 
t or not, aooocding to the evidences ot ite nsefhlness. No insti- 
utioD ought, fbr iU own sake, to have such permaneot eadow- 
Q«cit'« as might deprive its members of motives for exertion. 

The Bteto could not, however, discharge these Judicial ftincttons 
ritboot accurate and trustworthy evidence of the educational work 
one at thv various schools and of ite success. Fbr this purpose a 
eoonl most be kept by or under the direction of every teacher of 
be waekly progress of each pupil, showing what he has done and 
ow be has done It. Official Inspectors would have to see to these 
■cortia being kept npon a tmiform scale, so that their resalte 
ti^t be comparable. The haUt of keeping such records con- 
ac«9 powerfblly to the efllcleDcy of teachers ; and, for the sake of 
M dam derelopment of the teaching system, it ought to prevail 
aocrally. Having such fbll and scoorate means of knowing what 
liportaiiltlea of improvement pupils have o^oyed and what use 
My bavo made of those opportaaltles, Qovemment oa^t to stlrau- 
^ tiMir eaartlons and test their p ro gr ess by periodloal examina- 
U Isof tha atmost impoiiaaoe to allow aay aswaiidloiprorad 



system of Instruction to develop itself f^ly, by the exertions of those 
who are willing to undertake the labour and risk of tnrlng it on a prao- 
tical scale; and the pupils who acquire npon such new system % 
command of any branch of »clenee, ought to have a fsir opportonihr 
of showing what they have achieved and how they have achieved it. 
An able and impartial examiner, knowing the new systems in use, 
will encourage each candliiate to work out his resulte in the manner 
In which he has been teuirht to work out results of the kind. 

Examinations thus Impartially conducted with a view of testing 
the success of teachers in the work which they are endeavouring to 
do, have a fur higher value, and consequent authority, than thoee 
which are conducted In Ignorance or disrefrard of the process of 
training to which the candidates have been subjected; and we may 
safely say that the exami'atlon system wilt not attain ite fhU use* 
fulness until it U thus worked In intimate connexion with a systeok 
of teaching. 

In order to give every one employed in the educational system 
the utmost interest In maintaining and increasing his efficiency, it ia 
essential that a due measure of publicity be given to the chief 
results of th«ir rrspi^lve labours. Schools and colleges ought, to 
a considerable extent, to be supported by the fees paid by 
pupils for the instruction received ; and every Protessor 
being in part dependent upon the fees of his pupils will 
have a direct Interest In attracting more pupils to hU dsnsci 
or laboratories. The fame of Important original inveetlgatloos 
of his own or his pupils, published in the scientific Journals, la 
one of the natural menns by which a distinguished Professor 
attracte disciples, and the success of his pupils in after life la 
another. His prospecte of promotion will depend mainly on the 
opinion formed of his powers fmm such materials as these by th* 
governing bodies of colleges and by the public ; tjr if each col- 
lege is dependent for success upon the efficiency of its teaching staff,. 
ite governing body must do tbeir best to fill up every vacancy as 
It arisen by the apiiointment of the ablest and most successfbl Pro- 
fessor whom they can get ; and anycoUefre which does notsnoMed In 
obtaining the services of able men will soon lose reputetlon, and 
fall off in r umbers. 

There are, however, fbrther advantages to the working of the sys- 
tem to be derived from fbll publicity of all ite more important pro- 
eeedlngs. It will supply materials for the formation of a sound 
pub ic opinion respecting the proceedings of the authorities In their 
various spheres of action. A claim for money might be made upon 
OhDvemment bv the rulers of »ome college upon Inadequate 
grounds ; or a Just and proper claim of the kind might bedisrc> 
garded by Government. Nelthor of these things will be likely to 
happen very often if the applications, together with the evidence 
braring on them, are open to public scrutiny and criticism ; and 
when they do occasionally happen, there will be a natural remedy 
for them. 

If I have snoceeded In making clear to yon the leading prin- 
ciples of the plan to be adopted for the advancement of science, 
including as it neceenrllv must do, national education generally, 
you will, I think, agree with me that, fh)m tiie very magnitode and 
variety of the intereste involved In its action, such systmi roust of 
necessity be under the supreme c<mtrol of Government. Science- 
will never take Ite proper place among the chief elemente of national 
greatoess and advancement until it Is acknowledged as soch by that 
embodiment of the national will which we call the Government. 
Nor can the various institotions for ite advancement develop duly 
their usefblnem until the chaos in which they are now plunged glres 
place to such order as it is the proper ftinction of Government to 
estobUsh and maintein. 

But Government has already taken, and Is cont'nuing totake, action 
in various matters affecting elementery popular education and higher 
sdentiflc education, and it would be difficult to arreet such action, 
even if it were thought desirable to do so. The only practical ques- 
tion to be considered Is how the action of Government can be sys- 
tematlsed so as to give trtn play to the natoral forces which have t» 
do the work. 

By esteblishing oflleial examinations for appolntmeate and fbr 
degreee. Government exerts a powerful influence on the teaching la 
schools and colleges, without teking cognisance, except in some few 
cases, of the systems of teaching which prevail in theoa. Again 
they give grsnte of public money from time to time in aid of 
colleges or uidversities, or far the estebllshment of a hi^h school 
under their own auspices. Sometimes they- endow a profeesorshlp. 
In taking each measure of the kir d they are doubtless Influenced by 
evidence that it is in itself a good thing, calculated to promote the 
advancement of learning. But a thing which is rood in itself may 
produce evil eflbcte in relation to others, or good effiecte Incom- 
mensurate with ite cost Thus examinations affard most valuable 
aid tn educational work when carried on In conjunction with earnest 
teadiers ; yet when established In the abeence of a good system of 
education, they are liable to give rise to a one-sided training con- 
trived with a special view of getting young men through the 
examinations. If no prnperiy-educated yoimg men were found for 
a particular department of the publiS service, and an examination ot 
all candidates for soch appointmeote were to be established 
fbr the purpose of improving the system of training, 
candidates would consider their power of answering each 
questions as appeared like'y to be set as the condition of their 
obtaining the appointments, and they would look out for meo able 
and willing to train them bt that particular work In as direct and 
effective a manner as possitile. The demand f^ such Instmetloa 
would soon be supplied. Some teachers would imdertake to giv» 
instruction fbr the mere purpoee of enabling candidates to get 
throogh the exarainatton ; and by the eontlnuea habit of soch work 
would gradually come to look npon the examiners as mallgBaat 
beings who keep yonths oat of office, sad whose vlgUaaot ongatto 



886 



JOCBllAU QV TSSE ll l Wili.JI ' 1 <W JOfm, Skmnn. 19(. HOL 



efltethr* ibr ttw ymy m a. Onoa dUtvJcSiii. ol^^dirMi 
tertWor ItavtftiMn root; and it knowiLto ipadnce tha dadred 
of fettlKv 3ro«ii«^ men tbnragb tha exMBiueAioas. Ue 
•enotmnifM the tendeoor on the pni. at tbe ne«d1dttie> ta losk 
merely^ to th» ezaailittUon a».the eod and aim oC^ their etedy ;, and^et 
«IaM ofteadwiv Is developed whose eTarrtona am niaMitiilly 11118110 
nletle^ tttoaBofthe examinen. 

There are no doubt teachera with ».inlBDient]|r dear apfiittlienBlon 
of their dnty^and sofllcient aathority^to oonviooaeene (^ thaeaa>- 
didatet that the proper object of their itodf stKuUd bato laeBeaie- 
their power of oaefulness in the career for which they ane pnepaiiQf 
therateltest by thoroughly nuutering up to a praaorlbed peinixMr- 
tain bntoehes of knowledge ; and that until thegr had hontetly taken, 
the meaoe to do thie. and beliered they had dona it efltotoaUy^ theft 
ooi^t not to go up fbr examination nor to with to mmmaina their 
^sareer. 

But It Itdcirirable that all teachers be placed under iu^ oirona* 
siaoeeff that it may become their interest as well as their dnty U> 
oe-operate to the utmost of their powers in the orjeot Air which the 
-examiners are-woriting. For this purpose their records of the work 
d<me under their gnidaoce by each pupil ought to be oirriblly. in- 
spected by the examioers befbre fhuuing their qneations,.andoo^t 

to be aoeeptadaa affording the chief eiidenoe of thaces|«eUiiemeiits 
-ofthafupito. 

This ienot the plaee for oonslderiag how the gmaral fhods-for an 
eflbotive system of naii«ioal edocallon can best be raised, nor how 
existing educationaJ endowments can best be used In aid of thooe 
ftiDds. It is well Iniown that some colleges of Oxford and Genu 
bHdge are- possessed of rich endowments, and that many dia> 
tingairtked memtiers of those universities asadesirouathat theannaal 
proceeds of those endowments should be di&tribnted upon some 
sy^em better calculated to promote the advancement oflearalng 
tlmn that which generally prevails. Indeed, we may ooafidantly 
hope that; true to their glorious traditions, those oollegea will ba 
led, by tlto bigh.minded and enlightened counsels of their members^ 
to rely upon improving usefulness in the advancement of learning 
as the only secure and worthy basis of their action in the use of 
their fhnds, so that they may take a leading part in such system of 
national education as may be moulded out of the preaant chaoa. 

But ^e ibandatlons of a national system of edocatlon ought to be 
laid independently of the present arrangements at Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, fbr we may be sure that the more progreai the system makes 
the mere' easy win become the necessary refionaain tlae older uaivar- 
sitles and colleges. 

It is clearly undesirable that government, slmuld longat delay 
obtaining such ftall and aocurate Imowledge of the exiitlog national 
resooroee fbr educatloQal purposes, and of the manner in which they 
are respectively utilised, as may enable them to Judge of theeom- 
parative prospects of usefulness presented by the various modes of 
distrtbttting educational grants. They ought to know what has been 
done and what is doing in the various public educational estahlish- 
menta before they can judge which of them would be Uaety to make 
the best use of a grant of imblic money. 

We haNre official auttiority for expecting such impartial adniaisr 
tra^^on of educational grants; audit cannot ba doubted that before 
louff doa means will be taken to supply the prelioUnacy oonditiOM. 

You are- no doubt aware that a Royal Comndssion was appointed 
some time ^o in conseqaence of representations mada to Qovaro- 
ment by the British Association on this suhjeofi, aodltiaundaistood 
that their instructions are so fhuned as to direot their partieular at> 
tentlon to the manner in which Government may iMst disldbute 
educational grants. The Commission is moreover composed of most 
distinguished men, and we have every mason to aaticipateffom> their 
labooxa a result worthy of the nation and of the Ttrnmentniit ooei^' 
sion. 

In speaftinr of pnblic educational establishmentv I refiir to those 
wldoh by theh" constitution are devoted to theadvancement of l«anik# 
-without pecuniary profit to their respective iroveming bodiea*. The 
annual expenditure requisite for keeping iiji a. national system of 
popular education will necessarily be oousideiahle from tlie first, and 
wilt become greater from year to year; but once Englishmeu are 
fully aiive to the paramount importance of the object, and see Uiat 
ito attainment is within their reach, we may be sore that its expense 
will be no impediment. England wmld not deserve to reap the 
gierlons flrotte of the harvest of knowledge if she gradgied the 
neoemary ontlay for seed and tillage, were it even t«i times greater 
tlian it will be. It is no use attempting to eatablish a nationai 
system on any other than a truly national basis. Privata and 
coBporate fbnds inevitably get diverted firom popular bm, aAer a few 
geoarationa, to the use of the influential and riohw A nationai 
system must steadily keep in view the impsevemeat of the 
poor, and distribute public funds each year In the nmonor best 
calculated to gfve to the youths of tha poorest claases tuU oppevtft- 
nities of I mpro ve moit proportional to their capaoitiea, so Umt> they 
may qualify' themselves for the utmost naefhlnesa to their oonntiy 
of wfaieh they are capable. The best p^Uojaomity Uu tha prapar 
adminletration of the systoa wUl be found in tha fhll aad apaedy 
pufallelty «t all the particulars of its working. 

It haa been frequently remarked that a great propoctioivof '''-^tf'f^ 
investigatoni are men of independent meanS), who not only saMbaoi 
advaaoeraent as a reward of their labours, but often saccifloa those 
opportmitles of Improving thalr worldly positioa whldi their 
abOltles and fafinence open up to them, tu the salta of quisily 
advaadny homanknowledge. Rich and powerftdman have vary gma^ 
temptations to turn away from scienoa, ao thai fhase wtt^ d a iata 
thelrtimeaa< money to Its service prove to na how traa and paaaai 
lova of s s i e uoe exlsta in this country* wod kow> Inillih— vW- 
onltl«ata<ltwben it li In tlwir powac tn da sa^ 




tl»aaii«oCm 

of s aisa rtla. anifcHty^ aadi to* gtm an. 
sunple of the intelleotoaL 
oftiiaflaaBUh. 
Nawvtba^ 
Ibia^wltlfyao^whaaip w aa til 
msat.of sai4oaa,,to- talw iliaoBly 
towacds tha estahliahmant.flg» ■■■!«■ a£ 
coaotryyaod s lati^ed»to Utera^ 





teiitton-by all pmatloaUe means to thalmiinsmfsnr ihs eMi,al 
to get people gradually to agtaataaoaaadeialtnaadpBMttsiiiNiB 
ofaasioA. YoaiwtlU I tMnivfimLlteitaaatnai^to pramaad 
agreeaaai iato make paopla aoaaider tha oalnral f«n»«U(*lM 
to ba systomaOsad by leglatatioa, with a view of 
to work fretf V for tha dealrad paipoae. When th> 
esstttial to any national systsoa ooma ta ha dnig suffsrisM If 
thosaintorestod in thecaose of ednaaaoinmaaaaaiU awahsiaal 
to carry out the nssssmry liiaialatlvB nnaairaantii 

The higbaat oileea.ia tbaflteta are, aa o«r pm asu t i f i i l siii .gd^ 
man who,, whatever their poUtloal oplnloaa and psi^ tisMlBrt 
infallibly agree in thei r disinterested desire to signalise UMirnfrtR 

terms of oflke by doing any good in their power. C<»Tia« *« 
tlwt amaasura desired by tha leaden of pabite oplalaaiihiaif 
good and naafoi, and. yon are Sana to oairyih And«aalte<te 
hand, England Is.noi wantiog in men both able and wtUioc a«ai 
forward aa the champions of any great cause, and to ikfote Mr 
best powerat^ its-servlm. I may well aav this at Btadflei i^HV 
results aahkvad by yonrMaosher in tha Slemealary fidaetfiaJa 

Objections will of course be raised to any system on ttoi*»j 
dlfHculty and expense, more especially to a oompiets isi w 
system. DllBoult of realisation it certainly most be, ft* it "W** 
the devoted and indefatigable exertions of manyansMeesilv- 
mended man for many a long year. Only shew ho« toeb «v»* 
can be made to produce great and abiding results, snd ttaf "^ "^ 
be wanting. And as fbr expense, you will snrely igree ^^ 
that the more m- ney Is distributed in such ttvfptl »aim^ 
manner, the better for the real grcatneaa of our ooontrr. 

What nobler privilege is attached to the poaMsaiea of moatr*" 
that of doing good 10 our fbilow man? and who waM Pw 
giving finely fit>m hia surplus, or even depriving idoMel' =^»* 
comfbrta, fbr the sake of preparing the riiiaggeoosdoBfr*^ 
of the utmoet toefnlness and consequent bappinett 7 ^^ 

I confidently truat that ihe time will oome when the difcf1»«a 
the annual budget of the Chaocellor of tha Excheqner »*"J^* 
vote for National Education ; and when In some later s:e otrvS* 
shall have passal awam when amoce true alviUsaU«a kisp«nj 
and has fbrmed new centres for its throbbing life, wbea t*^*^ 
bnriten arches to tell of our bridges, and cmmbilag ralsi f ^ 
thasitaaof our gseat aathedrala»-thsa viU tha graitatsrf*^ 
of England's works sund more perfect and mare-faaaBNtftai ^*t; 
then will some man survey the results of Old EnglaiMf i'isbo<n'' r! 
diaeovery of imperiababia truths aod lawa of naaua, aai mj^ 
her eaeigpaad wealth ware aeeompaaAed by soaie aebleraD'w* 
—that whtiaEnglishiBeo were strong and amhitfe»<aomfc*>g 
power, they were true enough to use it Ibr ifts only weHIV^^ 
tfaatoTdalngveodtootheiab 

I nsoal not^ haeaevar, trsqiaaa lo ng er ofaayuai Ihse •^^ 
Und atteatioB. My snldaoi would oany me osiyetl asaw 
wtthauffhBaing'halfdMejmdloetalt . 

If I bafa^snosssded In ooavlaeiag- yoa thai a aaHeaol *^^ 
edaaatlaa ianow naeesaary aad- posrible, and in pereaMttsf r* 
wbaA y on. raapeatively can to pFfrpara tba way fbr t^ I «^ <^ '"^ 
thafiiaii 



frwayft 
laasSt 



BUPMX TBLEaKAPHT. 

SQr V* H: WUttBS^ 

Baplex telegrai^ oonsiate ia telegnyhiag ut ofV^ 
directions, upon one wire, at the Bame time. Thec**^ 
tions for its perfect acoompHshmeatimpIf tb>^^, 
different Btatinns (A and B) each sUixon cu^* 
receive messages at the ssnus tixae with on* ^"^ *^ 
with the sain* ease tltat can b» dmam, andsr utoT* 
ottflMtanees, with two line wires that are (togtlhir*^ 
batteries and instaouhants) entiraly wsparitft fa »^ 
Qthaiv T\m(i mQnirnninBti dnanad rtrnt *— - r^ 
bduigr a^ stetieD A and t^ps at slatloB B (0B9t ctifB"^ 
cator of messages to the distant station, ths ot^ *^ 
ceiYer of mnssaflea horn the sam* diitaal y>« >'^"| ^ 
comflMioicalorBMqr piooeed wiMi his work ^M *^^ 
assiirsnce that Ins oomanmicationswiQ baai««B^^ 
the recefvec at the distant station sa i£ ^J^^J^ i 
his nitin Trnm Tmrriiinfl mnsnagss slsnjt ■ ^^'^'"^'*zL 
rootev Th^i c quMsuw ato a lae dCBsaod thrt ftt igT 
mAjr wnte dowa his mfinspa ftoit ths- smj^^^T 

^ftm m ' ' — ^ — ^ - 1^ iiha 6f««i' 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, September 19, 1873. 



857 



legraph eogineer and a difficulty to be overcome, and 
e case of duplex telegraphy appears, at first sight, to 
too difficult even for him. 

rhe simultaneous transmission of telegraphic signals 
opposite directions between two stations, by means of 
e line wire only, seems to be a perfectly impossible 
9ntion. It appears almost as likely to expect this to 
done as to endeavour to send two distinct streams of 
iter, of different speeds and capacities, along a single 
>e in opposite directions at the same time. There are 
» conditions, however, definite enough ; there are two 
(tnns, A and B, and only the one inexorable wire join- 
Ifthon; these conditions are apparently unmanageable, 
nality the currents sent from the two stations 
not travel simultaneously in opposite directions 
x)iigh the line wire, but the effect of the signals 
each reoeivinff instrument is precisely the same 
though the line were being worked in only 
i direction. Also, to comfort the before-mentioned 
Bgnph engineer (possibly in despair), the said inexor- 
b wire is not the only feature in this problem ; there are 
«r data, which by their peculiarities, number, and 
^stability to circumstances, would appear to tempt 
I engineer ioto this field of investigation and research, 
feween the earth-plate at station A and the termina- 
1 of the line wire at that station, there is an interval, 
Ich, electrically speaking, may be made use of in 
aj ways ; and precisely Uie same condition exists at 
Don B. For instance, the interval may be occupied 
batteries, keys, signal instruments, relays, galvano- 
ton, secondary or local batteries, resistance coils, 
idoisers and oUier apparatus, and these, separately or 
tthmed, offer their aid in the solution of this problem, 
yfSi be shown ultimately, not without promise of 

P» proceed from the known to the unknown, it will be 
U, m the first place, to call the reader's , attention to 
ordinary telegraphic arrangement between two given 
tions, say A and B. This arrangement involves the 
of a "Morse recorder" — a signal receiving instrut- 
at that is worked by an electro-magnet ; in this 
trunent a paper-beanng cylinder, revolving by dock- 
rk, receives a mark from the prepared lever-exten- 
1 of the armature whenever the key of the distant 
Uon is depressed. As one station is furnished pre- 
Jj the same as the other, it will be sufficient to 
^bethe arrangement at station A. Between the 
swire and the earth-plate there are three instruments : 
A <>Dmmunicating key; 2. a Morse recorder; 3. a 
Panic battery. At the key, the line wire splits up 
> two paths, one through the signal instrument, the 
fir through the battery, and the electric current is 
fcble of proceeding * through one or other of these 
li'i according to the position of the key. In 
nonnal ^ position of the key, the signal 
^ment is . included in the circuit, for 
v^^ipt of incoming signals, and the battery is 
Wt of the circuit. When a signal is made, the 
feyy is placed in the circuit by depressing the key, 
[the signal instrument is excluded from any partici- 
jwi in the electric work. To realise how this can be 
ly accomplished, imagine that the wire from the 
ih-plate is divided into two vertical branches, one 
Qding the signal instrument, and the other including 
battery, and that the extremities of the wires pro- 
>U)g upwards from Uie instrument and the battery 
»«5tiTely are brought to a horizontal plane within a 
inches of each oUier. If now a metallic lever, or 
ly " (in connection with the line- wire), be mounted 
a pivot between the extremities, or " contacts," so 
• A spring constantly keeps one arm of the lever in 
^t with the branch wire from the signal instrument, 
the other arm away from the lottery branch wire, 
,^ould represent the nonnal state of the key ; but if 
jcey be depressed, and therefore the power of the 
Bg overcome, the arm tiiat was in connection with 
iignal ins^ment is thrown npwafdt, and the bat- 



tery only is included in the circuit, by the contact of 
the other arm with the battery branch wire. In this 
arrangemnit Mmultanf ous signalling in opposite direc- 
tions upon one lino wire is not possible ; for if the keys 
of the sending iustrunients at A ajld B respectively be 
simultaneously depressed, the currents neutralise one 
another, and, instead of a signal being produced at each 
station, the effect is nii. 

To make duplex telegraphy possible the neutralisation 
of the current must enable each signHl instrument to 
register, and the currents sent to the distant station must 
not affect the home signal instrument. These conditions 
are complied with in an arrangement which is about to be 
described in the second place, and which has recently 
been introduced in America by Mr. Joseph Barker Steams. 
It is as follows: — At station A, between the line wire and 
the earth plate, there are — Ist, a communicating key of a 
peculiar construction ; 2nd, a Morse recorder, having its 
electro-magnet wound with two separate coils ; Srd, a gal- 
vanic battery placed between the key and the earth-plate, 
as in the ordinary method of working ; 4th and 5th, a 
resistance coil and condenser. These two instruments 
together represent an artificial line, in all respectr 
equivalent to the real telegraph line. At station B the 
arrangements are exactly the same as at station A. The- 
only point in which the plan is similar to tho ordinary 
method of working is, that the battery is placed between 
the key and the earth-plate. The currents from both 
stations are so divided and modified that, in case the 
keys of each station are simultaneously depressed, the 
battery current at the home station works its own. signal 
instrument. Unlike the Morse arrangomrnt described 
in the first place, the receiving electio-magnet is sub- 
jected to the action of the home current as well as tor 
that of the distant station. The commnnicating key is 
a lever which is connected to one of the battery poles ;. 
another lever (in direct communication with the earth 
plate) communicates with the lino wire through the 
interior coil of the Morse recorder, and with the artificial 
resistance circuit through the exterior coil of the re- 
corder, thus sending neutralising currents through the 
home signal instrument, when only the home current is 
traversing the line. The key lever is so mounted that 
its normal position is against an insulated stop, but that, 
upon being depressed, it first makes contact with the 
free end of the eiirth-plate lever already mentioned (thus 
momentarily completing the battery circuit at the home 
station, or "short circuiting" its current), and, imme- 
diately after, it raises the Inst-mentioned lever from the 
earth-plate connection, and sends the current along the 
line wire. The momentary completion of the battery 
circuit above described may be called the ** intermediate 
position" of the key. 

The effects of each relative position of the keys at sta- 
tions A and B reewtctively maybe traced out as follows: — 

1st position. — When neither key is depressed ; the 
normal position of the tail of the key-lever being against 
an insulated stop, no current traverses the line wire, and 
no signal is given at either station. 

2nd and 3rd positions — The key of either station 
being depressed, and that of the other station untouched ; 
the current from the sending station passes through both 
coils of its own recorder, and therefore does not affect 
the home recorder, but it proceeds along the line wire, 
and affects the distant signal instrument by means of 
its inner coil. 

4th position. — The keys at both stations being simol* 
taneously depressed ; the line- wire current is neutralised, 
and each signal instrument is worked by its home 
battery, which sends a current through the outer coil of 
its own recorder. 

5th and 6th positions. — ^Either key being in the inter- 
mediate position, and the other ke^ not depressed ; the 
battery of the key in ttie intermediate position is short- 
drcnited, and the other battery is not active, therefore 
no signal is indicated at either station. 

7th and 8th positions. — Either key being in the inter- 



8B& 



ASOBi 



mediate jpotltiooy and the other kef* dtpiMMd; the 
battery of the key ia the intomedBate poiitioiLiaflhorfc» 
circnited^^and the- other battery iwndan cnrrwit ♦^-'^igK 
the imuv ooii of ita diitaat statioo, thMefoce a. mgfial, 
is made at the said distant atatioa. 

9th position. — Both keys being in the intennediata 
position ; both baUetiea are •^'Hr^^mitf^i wnd nft iriffiaj 
18 given at either station. ' 

These nine positiooa are all the pwrtiWfl pontionaof 
the keys rdati^dy to one another. 

At eac^ station the resiotanfie ooila and oondMaer 
separately make direct «>*«?'">inii*fltiffn between thfr«ateE 
coils of the recorder and the earth-piate» By this meene 
in all pcwitions of the keys, aiine of conetMit lengthand 
capacity is signalled throngh. The principle, upon which 
Mr. Stearn's invention depends in'rolvea a (uffaiviitiiJ. 
arrangement^ which is known as Wheatstooe's bridge^ 
For the sake of simplicity this plan haa been deaoiibed 
aa being worked by a.Mbzse«reoonlar^bat it ma? ba 
operatedby meanaof a^elay wtth.doiihL» coils« Tbece 
are other details whiah add to tha ipcfaotioB of tha plan,, 
but which would onmeessaxily *^*^TPi^tftfftft tha. wbal 
•oeaonptioiL 

If the xaader finds diffioi^ in realising eitinr of tha 
foregoing telegraphic arrangemaets, . it will materially 
asaist hisooBoeption if he sketches out tha variona parts 
ac()0Tding to the description. Theaoooant;of the ordinary 
Morse telegraph has been wiittea from. i^ig. 1 in tha 
Tcl4ffnipAie JoumtU for July Idth, 1878, page 197, and 
that of Steams* duplex amtngeinent from Fig 160 in 
Jenkin's ** Electricity and Magnetism,*' page 324. 

Some of the patenta (previous to 186G) that relate to 
duplex tdegraphy are :— Noa. 2,308 and 2,366, of the year 
1864, andlio. 2,608, of the year 1865. Air. Steams' patent 
is dated November 11th, 1872, and numbered 3,344 
A n othe r application for a patent, by Mr. Joseph Barker 
Steams, iiaa been filed on September let last, with the 
title, *' Improvements in electric telagia(4i.apparatna;" 
this ia numbered 2370. 

Duplex telegra|:^y was attempted with more or less 
sueceaa by Dr. Gintl, in 1863 ; also by Edlund, Siemens, 
Friachao, Eden, and Preeoe. By the uaa of thocondenser, 
ita moat sucoeaaful introduotioa waa reaerved for Mr. 
Steama. Sir Charles Wbeatatone haa alae attended to 
thia subject, and successfully employa reaiatanoe coils in 
connection with his magneto^eotric alphabetical signnl 
instrument to accompli^ duplex telegraphy ; hia method 
enablea twice the speed of ordinary telegraphs to ba 
attxuoed, and tha apparatus will werk well, provided that 
the line- is not more than 200 miles long. At a reoent 
trial, forty words per minute, duplex working, were seat; 
between London and Birmingham by Wheatstona's 
automatic recorder. 

The writer is indebted to the above-mentionad works 
for much of the matter of thia artiol<s and ha thankfully 
acknowledges the kind assistanoe of Sir Charlea Wheat- 
stooe; also of Mr. Bobert.Sabine» of the British Tele- 
graph Manufactory. 

Thedifficultiesofduplex telegraphy to thaaappoaiiitions 
telegraph engineer having be^ set forth, and tha means 
of overcoming them -to some degree explained, it is zmiw 
enridanl th at n i s capabilitiea have evolved auooeaa* 



TKe Liverpool Daily Post states that 100 tons-of 
American bar iron, guaranteed equal to Staffurdabire, have 
been aold to a Liverpool firm at £11 lOa., delivered in Liver- 
pool, thua underaelliDg the EngHah iron market. 

The project for establishing various lines of stieot 
railways at Naples hM at lengrh beeo apfwpved t4 hf the 
Mnaini pal Connoi], and there i^ every proapeet ol>tbair Wr r 
commenoed ahortly. 

It ia Mwiiod tiu^ the Argentiiie Bepitblio haa 
•»jNMiih»propori«ao of MM. diarbjuKi C«s to ooBatniet> 
3!dlSl!!?^ tiawiiliig the AodM ior tba •«» of 27 ^^an^^Mr 



QHMraOIL. PASBAfim. 

At the last meeting of tha fteack Qm^f^/Uk 
Society, M» Dafvay da Ltes read a paat «a a 
lapid wt^tim^ a«3ioa. of taarifc batwesa uIm ai 
Dovaa. 

Iniihaalladad totho geogcaphioalpQaitioaifbi- 
land nnd Franan tTm oouatriet so neai to ootaaAo, 
and yet so ineonyeBiently s^Mxaied; aodandMaa 
waa aateniahedy when oomparing the gnat ma 
Bteaaaan whiah ga to other oountriea, with thavap^ 
feaiov maanfr-of tnuuit betwaaa Bnglaad aad Enaia 
He waafirmly conrvinoed that tha tnffic waiki \mm 
BMaa eateodad, and communication eaaiar, by iapr*. 
mania in tho navigation. Unfortunately laigs ih^ iv 
quire large harbaui% of which then aie naaaaatib 
j^enahcoaatof PaadaCalaia* Ho waa4Jaa of opaioa 
thatthogooda mast baoarriad by train inortetoaic 
loaa oftiaaa, awd that tha train .muatba convarai hrijly 
on boaek ship. In v^»nA^ tiia harboor at Dimc a 
w^ adaptediar along shinof tlus kind, on iscMlci 
the magnificent, mola, which will be mada i til l lM i a 
On tha FreMh shoM tharaaca zm hazhooa ^iik^ 
serve that parppaa. 

Tha question was a diffiedlt one. Soma m«^ «oM 
whom wereM£BaBa.8cottBoaaeU, Behic,DfoayndtUq^ 
Darrieux, ^., have decided tbat it woaki ba hmmh? 
to baald a harbour at Calaia aa fine aa that ti^km. 
Tha tide is lesastrong at Calais than at Boulogne o«>l 
to the current which passes through the Cbaaod; te 
slopaof thoooaat at Calaia is, for tha same raMta^aa 
advantagaoua than the alope at Boulogne ; newfty^ 
there aio minor diffiaultiea at Calaia. M-Dopayaal^ai 
haa derived great aaaistance from a work on thebaiiaa 
of that coast, by M. Dnmaa Vance. At Caliii, ™** 
constantly to struggle against nature in P**^^"^^ 
sea from flooding his fieldb, and this wasonly maiBF "f 
raising eatearivo dams. Along that coast the wsm 
for eight hoars, and the ebb flows ibr four koA iL 
Dnpuy da Ldme explained the phyocal leasoos ot m 
pheaomenon. Embankmenta w«?e made to i^,^ 
effects of tha tide aa eaaly aa 1688; and the yeuti:^ 
182U 1822, 1894, and 1842, mark the estabbibBatf*^ 
tha preaent longitudinal as well aa parpaodicolar baiB 
or molea^ 

A speoial study of tha praotioability of diSf^CVIJf 
in the land has shown that Uia pkm was uafa y 

becaoaa tha peart could never be ■•«*^JjT 
enough. On that account it had been thought pnrn» 

to buUd a harbour for the train tnnaport vaaa. ^ 
taking advantage of aamalloUongMland. Thebait^ 
will be formed by a creaeent-ahaped mola, froag^ 
sea« and by another mole nearer the land, ^^i**"*!!^ 
tha slight deoHvity of tha shore oifaa UhtM n 
eatablisbing the projected harbour. 

The alaam-traaaport v»«el ppopoaed will '••'■f 
dimanaioas, meaaaiing 119 metrea in length, aad itf* M 
o*urry foortaan cam for tBav«Uer% and foar c wj^ 
luggago or goode^ The eagina being of fWO k^ 
powers a ateam^ranapait v eaa ol , with her load of iwww 
when loaded with* a u aaa eng e r train, or of Ml «>• 
with a geK)da.taain».and ateaming 18 miles aa ^""J^ 
fairwealher,.will|MMa^vacto Dover in an hootf^ 
minutea; or in aa hour and ai»half. in bed aeaW*^ 
oentiatbaoaaeof ibg»or.vtoleBfeannw*atonBa . 

Bnoy preeaittioa wiU be taken with tha a^ 



qmOitiea^ It will be eaaiett in aaah a. lai^ 
diminiafe the rolling which i» aa iaoonvaaiM 
aangera* There are two. aarts oC xoOing^ <^.f?I 
(from tiie ahiiv.tba othar. froaa- tha waaaa 1^^ 
meet vaolcnt when it. ia ragidaiv btcaov v 
foroo- oaoring the- mov«mant ia. aacuawlat ifa ^^ 
s tosiaer a om tdayed aetnaUy £» that pMSsga '"'IJJIIS 
waveaoooing obtiqua^t bali w e a n aavan aai a»ha»*^ 
eight and a4ialf blowtta Bumta^. 
iiliii thi] rtiiHiM Hill ■miiim itt^ ' "-^ 




JOIVUULL OF m MVUiTT OF iUBTO, SopTnaiE 19, IftTS. 



dS9 



ft nuBOte. Xhe ■ttam»t»Mnpcitt «8bm1 idll aMk» dm 
and ft-luilf moillatinni a mixmto. 

How inll tha tiBim be ftkii^ed aadJandad P«QBieiBay 
idr. The height of the kiidn|g»pier abeva the tbip m 
tohe ieven metres and tweii^ oentiiiietKe. Three-eno- 
OMBive emharkmg plaoee and a dMM^brid|^ of tlustgr 
metres in length and three Tnillimetew deohvHy in eauh 
metre, will oon^plete the eonetmotion'and maohiiwry. 
Botexing the shim the train will ooonpy a plaoe nnder 
Qw deck. That apace will be well ▼enftilaled and nct^ 
rounded with laloona. PaiMngen will be allowed to 
come oot of the carriages and walk on the upper deok. 
Thelooomotire wall remain ashore, being reqniiedonly 
to posh th^ train on board. The thoree 'diffiirent em- 
bukiDg places mentioned aboveare intended to serre — 
two for the tidal trains arriving at (periods 'of ebb and 
flow reipeotive^, and the third half- way betwetn. — Jprea. 



Mgionrof ibe-gtobe. The srandnos iatiUtiy «f 
pcSamia^was in "aasly timsa oanied to its ^rtmost iiodt 
^Jr^DeaDB^llaBesolls iinjjfllion caaals, wlth'wUch %fae 
ooniSky was ewaiywhere latc rsa ot sd, and wome of 4ha 
Ungset of whidi were aaTinUe. Tfaase vs^ona mad 
only again -to "be irrigated by tiie B f e- givin g wateis 
poaring'donm (from Axaimt, %o yield once more in abond- 
anee almost evei^tlhing tiist is necessary to man. Many 



The opnning t^ of the Soudan district has been for 
DADy yeure the hope of the Egyptian GKuremment, and 
aever was there ao much interest di^dayed in it 'as 

B0W. 

The Mmittur fyi/pUm .gives some particulars of the 
propoeed line in the valley of the Nile, which would be 
989 kik in length. The first section estends on the 
ight bonk of that river to Kuha, and will be 259 kile. 
n length. The second section coneiets in a noble bridge, 
which crosses the Nile at this point. The third, 349 
tils, in length, extends to Amikoula and the frontier, 
&m this place to Chendi, a distance of 281 kils. From 
Chendi the Nile is navigable, and continues so without 
intunption to Gondokoro, close to the Albert Nyanai, 
thus menin^ out a Jiighwi^ linto .the ^rety heart of 
Omtiti A£aea, where there is a teeming ipopcdation 



mm be coveiped with ootton, tending 
to the employmeiKt of the waany asillion apindlee of our 
knd. 

The sstabHshment of anew and ea^ Hne of ceaummi- 
oalion belywean tiie fiast and the West would obviously 
Bubserwe many noble proieots ; and the proposed restora- 
tion of the ancient nmteof the Euphiutes has therefose 
tiie strangest clwim upon the sympathy and support of all 
who fed an interest in advanidng the prosperity, civilisa- 
tion, and happiness of nations. It is not too much to 
say, that no existing or projected railroad can compare 
in* -point of interest and importance with that of the 
Bnphrafees Valley. It will bring two quarters of the 
glooe into juataposilion, and tbme eontinents, Europe,, 
Asia, and AustraliM, into closer rdation. It will bind 
the wast population of Hindostan by an iron link with 
the peaple of Aurope. It will inevitably entail the odo- 
nisation and rnvdHsation of rtbe f^stat valleys of the 
Supbrataaaad Tiffga,ifasHresnBeitationiBaBBodemshan»e 
of Babylon and Nineveh, and the rf*-awakenin|f of Otasi- 
phon and Bagdad of old. Ahhouf^h various routes have^ 
been suggested with the view of bringing Great Britain, by 
means of railwwy eommnnication, into oloser oonnection 
with India and her other dependencies in the East, and 
of semiring at the wame time the immense political end 
stTHtegic'desidertttum of an illternutive highway, Ibere m 
none— HMTgues our author— whiuh oombines in itself ae* 
many advuntnges as'Aeanciedt'route of the Buphrate»— 
the route of the Emperore Trajan and iTuUan, in whose^ 
steps, in more reoent times, the Great Napoleon tntendedto- 



raitmg for an outlet to extend their rproduots end fevti- 

ifte largely extended areas to augment the industry and | follow, when the Bnssian eampeign turned his energies in 
smnwroe of Egyi^t and the world. Somedistance above I another diredion. The special advantages described by 
3nodi is Khartoom, a kirge and important town of i Mr. Andrew are briMfly these :— ^It is the most direct 
4),000 inhabitants, whiohds the capital of the Soudan route to India. It is the shortest and the cheapest, both 



irovmoss.^ This district is eoLtiemely 'feitile, producing 
o/Tee, grain, ootton, sugar, etc, anti is also one of the 
;reat huntixigtgrounds of Africa, producing ivory, ^Id, 
ttc The cost of this line is estunated at iB4 500 per 
akunetxe, or four millions sterling, for the whole line, 
^c h i di ng stations, warehouses, dodcs, qw^y etc., and it 
nsU be completed in three years. 



THE BXIPHRATKS VALI^EY RAILWAY.* 

3%e pwnphlet by Mr. Andrew, upon the advantages 
f the Saphratss VaDey Bail way, ie a powerful appeal 
> the Government and people of Bngl»md, more espe- 
tally so^nst in view of the recent diplomatic inter 
hangia with Russia, in regard to that wery Indd^n 
Imjia which this route is specially intended by its 
iufostoia to cement with this country. 

Tat hv inbroductionlf r. Andrew points out the great his- 
maal tntevett andimportaneeattaching tothe line which 
e advocates. The countries through which theEupfartites 
owB were formeriy the most pn^uctive in the world, 
hrougffaoat these regions the fruits of temperate and 
"v^cml dimes pew in bygone days in luscious profu- 
on. The sou everywhere tt^m^d wUh vegetation. 
[uoh of this has since paassd away. Ages of despotism 
sd miamle have imiosred unavailing the bounty of 
htare. But the land is full of hidden riches. The 
Ktnral elemeiits df itswueient grandeur still exist in the 
texhanAtble fortility of the country, and in the cfaival- 
los ohaia^lar and bearing of many of the tribes ; nor 
Ln tlie day be fn* distant when it is destined to to- 
une ^ita place among the Juieit and moit prosperous 



^PsUsy Boaie to IadlB,**a>y W.T. atadrew, 



for constructing and working a niiVway — so free from 
engineering difficulties, that it almost appears as though 
deeigned by the hand of nature to be the pathway df 
nations between the Bast and the West ; the most surely 
defensible by England, both of its termini being in the 
open sea ; and the 'most likely to prove remunerative. 
Both in sn engineering and a political point of view, the 
Eupbiates route is stated to posssss great advan- 
tages €ff**T any of the others which have been proposed. 
All the mutes which have been euggeited from places in 
the Black Bea are open to the fetnl objection, that while 
Ihey would be of the greatest service to Rnssis, they 
would be altogether beyond the control of Great 
Britain, while the engineering difficultiee with which 
they are surrounded are of themeely(>s sufficient to 
exclude them from practical coorideration. Some 
persons have advocated a simple through route^ from 
Constantinople to India, but such a project is too 
vast to be at once undertaken with any hope of suooess. 
At the same time it is observed that the Euphiatea 
Valley Railway as proposed, from the Gulf of Scandereon 
to the Persian Guff, has been specially designed with a 
riew to its ultimately forming part of a through line to 
the head of the Persian Gulf, while it is capable also of 
being, in due time, extended eastwards to Kunachee, 
the port of India nearest to Europe. A rejrnlar mail 
service being already in opemtion on the maritime per- 
tione of the Euphratsa route to India-^maintained on the 
Mediterranean side by French ateampaokets, calling tii 
Alexandretta, and between the porta of the Persian Gulf, 
and Kunachee and Bombi^,'by the vesseiaof the British 
India Sisam Navigation Company, a -railway of little 
more than 900 miles in length, from Beaadaroon (or 
Akauaairetta) on the Meditemmean, to Kownit (orGnni) 
ontlm'Pemian-Gal^iBalltliatisx«quir«d to seenm^ar 



8K) 



JOURNAL OF THE SOdETT OF ABT8, Sbptbmbkb 1% 1878. 



QB iho immwiHft political and strategio advantages of a 
complete alternative route to India ; a shorter and more 
xapid route than now eziats, and onOf moreover, which 
compares vM'jr favourably with the fied Sea, both as 
regsxds climate and the fiikoility and safety of Uie navi- 
gation in the maritime portions of the journey. 

The cost of the proposed railway, aooonung to the 
estimates of competent en^pneers, would be under nine 
millions sterling ; and His Excellency Musurus Pacha, 
the Turkish Ambassador, has officially intimated the 
readiness of his €k>vemment to raise the requisite funds 
by means of an Ottoman loan, with the counter-guarantee 
of Great Britain, as in the case of an Ottoman loan 
raised in 1854. The grand impediment to the improve- 
ment of the Sultan's dominions is the want of the means 
of intercommunication, and no line would promote more 
effectually tht* ir good government and prosperity, or do 
more to develop their really prodigious resources, than 
that whii^ would lay open to the capital and energy of 
the West the expansive and fertile plains of the 
Euphrates and Tigris. Looked at, therefore, in every 
light, historically, politically, and commerdally, the pro- 
posed restoration of the ancient route of Uie Euphrates, 
throwing open the portals of the East to the commerce 
of the world, and to the arts, sciences, and civilisation 
«f the West, is an interesting and noble scheme, fraught 
with consequences of the highest moment to the destinies 
of our race. 



THE ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY. 

Hie works of the St. GK>thard tunnel are progressing 
most favourably, and on the 26th of last month 6*90 of 
heading was driven at the Airolo, and on the following 
day the amount of progress made was six metres. The 
contractor^ M. Favre, to encourage the workmen, has 
wisely o£fered a premium to the miners should the 
length driven exceed that established by him as a 
proper day's work. The great difficulties that were 
met with at first, from the quantity of water which 
hindered the progress of the work of tunnelling at this 
end, have in a great measure been overcome ; and as the 
length of heading increases, there is every reason to 
anticipate that very little water will be met with. 

The tunnelling machines used at this side are those 
known as the system Dubois and Fran9ois, and are 
similar to those adopted by the *'Soci6t^ de Gharbon 
de Marihaye," and by the *' Companie pour Textraction 
de rhuile minerale k Anzin." The total length of these 
machines is 2*20 ; their width, 0*23 ; and height, 0*32. 
'Die diameter of the cylinder is 0*07, and weight 220 
kilegrammef. Six of these " perforators ** are mounted 
on a carriage, similar to those used at the Mount Cenis 
tunnel, running on rails, which are laid down as the 
work proceeds, and worked backwards and forwards as 
required by the little locomotive *• Tesdn." 

With the Dubois and Francois boring machine a hole 
from 15 to 20 cent, in depth per minute can be 
drilled in schist, and in calcareous rock the rate of 

g regress is estimated to be twenty times greater than by 
and. 

At the entrance to the tunnel the valley has assumed 
a most animated appearance, and the little mountain 
village of Airolo has now the aspect of a manufac- 
turing town ; upwards of a hundred houses have been 
built for the accommodation of the workpeople, who are, 
for the greater part, Piedmontese. Five large build- 
ings have been established near the works, one 
of which is used for workshops, another for the engineer- 
ing staff, a third for the steam-engines which are used 
at present for driving the tunnelling machinery. In the 
largest building will be pbiced the great compressors, 
which will be used later on for compressing the air for 
£? boring machines; and a canal is now being made 

wSSi^^.n ^i****'. ?' * «~* ^^^^ *^ove this buUding, 
which wiU furnish the motive power for driving the 



oompressors. The construction of tins canal, n^ii 
being out in the solid rock, ia orogressing rapidly. 

The works of the railway, m>m BsUiuona to BianoL 
and from Biasco to Faido, are commenced in serni 
points. At Lugano the works are alieadf omamtd 
near the road, to which it runs parallel, aa also a ttai 
near the Mont St Salvatore. 

The ruins of the castle of UnderwaldeD, at BelSanoi, 
have been purchased by a company, who intni Void- 
ing a large hotel, from which a magnificent riavrftk 
vaUey of the Tidno, aa £ar as the Lago Maggion,ii 
obtained. 

During the month of July the following prognu vm 
made at the tunnel : — 

At the north end, at Gkwschenen, the length of heal- 
ing driven during the month was 61 metna, makitf a 
total of 259 metres driven up to the Slst July. Tht 
length of tunnel completely excavated was iocnuedfroa 
150 metres to 200 metres at that end. At the tatA end, 
at Airolo, 47 metres, of heading were driven, mn^ i 
length of 266 driven up to the end of July. Tb« k^th 
of tunnel completely opened ont was inoiWaed froa !lt 
metres to 253 metres. The total lengUi of hcaiiof 
driven up to the above date was 525 metrea, and lb 
length of tunnel completely Excavated 453 ipetrei Ihi 
averMge number of workmen employed daring tbaBoaft 
of July was 945, and the greatest number emploj«d ia 
one day at these worths was 1,159. 



SILK SUPPLY. 



A correspondent of the War§hou»tmen und l>r^ 
Trade Journal writes on this subject as followa:— 

The increased price of labour, of coal, &C., tbesndtf 
and consequent increase in thn price of silk of hte yaa 
each have their particular bearinjg upon the trade, tk^ 
each is different Those acquainted with the i2kliNi 
know there is a defidoncy in the supply of tht ^ 
article, which has been increasing for upwards crfttaa 
years. China, Japan, and other oouotnesbongwUi 
to meet the demands of the Western trade, the sarFf 
was still left deficient And it is generally adfflitted thit 
the one great need of the silk trade at the present tisf i 
an ample supply of good quality silk at moderate TKt^ 
How to obtam this is the question most immediaUlv n- 
quiring an answer. It has been argued thst, falk^ 
the visit of the Shah to this country and other Eon^ 
nations, the history of Persia will enter upon a sev a 
and that the development of the country will coma>eaa 
One of the results of this, it is expected, will be th« if 
portation from Persia to this country of large qoasM* 
of fine silk. But as this is not yet an acoompliihed^ 
it will be wise to ascertain, if poesible, wheUitfth«« ■ 
no new fields whence silk can be exported. ThiitJ* 
doubt, means also fields where the siUrwonn a iJ^ 
berry tree can be cultivated. An eminent tnthw 
(Mr. B. F. Ck)bb, in the now extinct Silk St^flf J^^ 
on this subject says that many of our vast ot^o^f 
sessions are admirably adapted for the retxvur af^ 
worms, and that the mulberry tree will flonriA iJJ 
rianUy, the climate being admirably adapted taj* 
processes. Especially are the African coloniea ^^Jj 
Natal being peculiarly adapted both in cHnsUoaP 
to this purpose. In those countries there ait ijg 
rich promise open to the enterprise of capitsIiitL mj^ 
suitability of the climate. &c, to the operati'*^ 
silk produce have been fully demonstrated ^^{^^ 
ments. In Australia, New Zealand, Ceylon, ffzz 
there are numerous districts of many thooawf'"'^ 
admirably adapted to the production of silk, ft^ 
said by Bir. Cobb *' that there are in the Britiiiic 




tt 



many more." This is a bold statement bst **^^ 
be denied without a great deal of oarefol sad bbb"* ^ 



JOURNAL OF THE 800IETY OF ARTS, Ssptbmbsb 19, 1878. 841 



TSft^^'on. Ooe £sict ia qaite dear, however, that 
oolonuts as vet have not thought it worth their while to 
cnltiTato ailk, preferring, on the contrary, aheep-fturoung, 
ootton-raifling, and even sugar-planting, the latter heing 
IS Qnfamiliar to the English settler aa the cultivation of 
the mulberry tree and the silkworm. The fact is only to 
be account^ for by acknowledging that erroneous 
opinions, sustained by bigotry and prejudice, have been 
K) long oncontradicted that wey have become accepted 
IS hds. This is to be regretted, for the chief want of 
the silk trade will ere long be felt more sewely than 
rrer, and is even now leacunff to An extensive use of 
cotton in ribbons and other fabrics, to the depreciation 
}f the quality of the goods and the detriment of tnule 
in the looig run. 

What, &en, is wanted is that these vast fields avail- 
ible for the cultivation of silk should be utiHsed. Men 
>f capital, and men of industiy, the millionaire and the 
vornng man might combine in an enterprise calculated 
greaUy benefit the trade and commerce of the mother 
)OQntiy. 



X)NSTJMPTION OF HORSE-FLESH IN FRANCE. 

According to the report of the Comity De la Viande 
• Cheval, there were consumed in Paris during the 
m half of the year 1867, 893 horses, asses, and mules, 
hich supplied 106,030 kilogranmiee of meat ; during 
M first half-vear of 1870 (before the war), 1,992 
oimals were slaughtered, giving 366,440 kilogrammes 
r meat : lastly, during the first half of the present year, 
le figures amounted respectively to 5,186 animals, and 
B3,840 kilogrammes — not including hearts, livers, 
nine, tongues, &c., which are consumed in common 
ith those of neat cattle. The provinces exhibit, says 
IS report, the same progress as the capital in tiie con- 
anption of horse-fle&. 

Horses slaughtered for consumption fetch, on an 

rermge, from 125 to 150 francs each, so that the 

dustry has added 100 francs per head to the value 

worn-out, but not diseased, horses. In the words 

the report, the public wealth of France is in- 
wsed^ by the eating of horse-beef to the extent of 
millions of fruncs. It is beyond question that 
Tse-meat is received with considerable favour in 
*nce, but the high price of butchers' meat and general 
poverishment have doubtless considerably aided the 
agrees of horse-butchery. 



The Brazilian Parliament has authorised the 
rvroment to construct railwa3rs and to raise a loan of 40 
liooa of milreis for the purpose. This loan may be raieed 
ler at Rio Janeiro or abroad, as the government may think 
aad it ia further empowered either to oonatruot the various 
» aad sectiona for itaelf, or to accord subventions or 
inoitflcs of interest to 7 per cent to contractors. 

\^ pejK)rt comes from the far north to the effect 
t a railway is projected across the mainland of Orkney, 
reea Kirkwall and Stromneaa, with a view to meeting 
line through Caithness, whiclk will be opened for trafilo 
tin a twelTemcnth. 

rjemlfine is the name of a new mineral species, 
nbed by Von Kobell. It is # phosphate of magnesia 
flaoride of calcium, occurring at Bamle, in Norway, and 
tin«d in compliment to the Norwegian geologiet, Kjerulf. 

he tunnel of the Col de Tende has been com- 
3ed at both ends aimultaneoualy ; the rook is found to be 
dually hard, and it is feared that the pieroements will 
fnt great difiUculties. 

new line of railway is proposed from Bome to 
em by OaeU; the Minister of Fublic Works offers no 
lition, but the Government will not accord any aubven- 



C0BBS8P0HDBH0B. 



BHEEA FIBRE. 

Sm, — It is undoubtedly true, aa Mr. Simmonds re- 
marks in one of your former numbers, that the progress 
of the rheea has been very slow, and, in &ct, so far aa 
my observation <^ctends, it is less used now than it was 
formerly. If it is ever to be manufactured extensively, 
it must not cost mure than £50 per ton, but the last that 
I imported from China cost upwuds of £80. My opinion 
is that it is only a low price that will sell it; amu>ugh it 
is the most promising, it is also the moat deceptive nhre 
that is known. After it has been hackled or combed, it 
looks almost as well as silk, and has almost as mudi 
lustre; and I gave up using it for fear of its being mixed 
with our white sUk sliver, which would have caused us 
serious loss, as they will not take the same dye. Un- 
fortunately, all this lustre vanishes the moment that it 
is twisted and dyed ; it is then almost as dead and dull- 
looking as cotton. It is true that I have seen some 
beautiM handkerchiefs made from it, but they do 
not wash or wear so well as linen. The same remark 
applies to China grass cloth of native manufacture; 
it does not wash or wear well, and is indeed very infe- 
rior to goods made from the same fibre in England, 
which is owing to the fibres being gummed together 
instead of being twisted ; and although it looks well, it 
is worn out directly. Many years ago, when I had no 
practical knowledge of the fibre, I was so pleased with 
it, that in a rash moment I sent Mr. (George Thompson 
(the celebrated anti-slavery advocate), at a considerable 
expense (some thousands), to India, to see what oould be 
done. His mission ended in nothing but my obtaining 
a fSsw bales of coarse fibre, so coarse, that it was of little 
vaJue. I then turned my attention to China, and suc- 
ceeded in obtaining abundant supplies of a very first- 
dass article, at wluit I considered at that time a very 
moderate figure, say about £80 a ton, but I did not then 
know all its defects ; it has only been by practically 
carrying out the manufacture that they have been 
developed. But with all its friults it would be used to 
an enormous extent if it could be laid down in England 
at £50 per ton, and I think it can be produced at much 
less. The machine patented by Messrs. Sandford and 
MaUory, which by the efflux of time is now open to the 
public, will dean the fibre when fresh cut in the most 
admirable maimer, at a very slight cost. And as to the 
cost of growing it, that cannot be much, as it is 
attended with very little trouble or expense. 

Whilst I am writing I wish to inform Mr. Bennodi 
(who remarks that '* although Lister and Co. were on 
the list of velvet exhibitors, he could find nothing of 
theirs in the exhibition ") that they could not possibly 
get their goods ready in time, although an extension was 
granted at their request. We were anxious to show that 
we bad made some progress in weaving velvets by 
power, and that there was a prospect that, before another 
decade had passed, we should not only be able to 
supply the home demand, but that we should compete 
successfully in the open markets of the world. At the 
present time we haVe room and power for as many looms 
as would produce about as much as all the looms of 
Crefeld put together; but owing to bad trade, more 
especially in low vdvets, and keen competition, we are 
increasing otir productions very slowly. It is, however, 
simply a question of time, as we have no doubt that we 
shaU be able to drive all foreign competition out of the 
market. We are also preparing to do a large business 
in ribbon velvets, although there is not a single loom of 
the kind at work in this country at the present time, 
excepting tho model loom at our works. 

8. C. Iiismu 

8«pt. 10, 1873. 



fODBIKAli «W VBB-BOaiirFT OP AXtS, Bmnrnittm^ K, TOt 



eznsiAi. vosxR. 



BooialT for PhyiiMl BMMwh— The Aihmaun pub- 
■i.ha. tho fn11nvin> nuEa from Dr. Frsderutk Outhris, of Xha 
-"I Jiruh 



Boyd Sobaal of Hinw, JniyB4ttMt :- 



(aim « Mtioty far.yhyBOkl MMudk— for ■bawiag .nav 
phyiicat facti lad naw bmuu lor iboviu old OOM i foT 
^^Lkig known Dovhoms *ul (uragn phjnMl dlfooroiw, 

1 for the bettar knt-'-" ' ■■ ' "• ' 

phy«i(»l work. 1 
_.jteW, andnho«ro' 
byaued to wrHstO' 



and (or the bettBT kuowledM one of __ — .. „ 

to ph;nc^ work. Yoa wbo oare tor thsbahis af Moh t. 
■oefety, and obo ire wittiivto hdp in Ita tasking, awhen- 
~ irHBtO'M tor that MU^Ma brfM Hba M af 
'WbarwuonnanrUl'lMaahiedtO'iaBalaowto 
Maafc-^&Mtay-" »■"" '. MnttJ^rfcm.'W." 
Bodal 'Mbbm 'OOBfHw.— The veroDtBrath wmnil 
CoDKrcM of the Sodal edtnoe AHodatian will be bAl-at 
Norwioh en Octobrr lit «iH -■Maaialve 4a;*, 'onln 'tha 
pnMam; of Lo>d HengtaMo. j^araatlaBMnaf tha 
nR,aawa ban alraady mantioagd, will ba a'aaailai; 
cdEDsatiDoalubibilioD, the abject afwhidi ia to brias 
BDtloe tka latest MMBuAo*fplanaes. for the iapraTen 
IbepnblioheBllhand theptimolioaDf ediunlioD. IntaaUog 
•xhibitore ahoald make eerly ap^iliiialioa tor ipaoe to the 
aecratar;, Mr. Jamse HebinwiD, 1, Adua-etiwt. Adelphi. 
Tbe three apoiial eubjacta for diacoHion In the Health kc- 
tion, nnder the ohalmun^ip of Ciiptain Douglai Odtm, 



I. "What are ifaemi 



and what an tbebi 



isof«d- 



IML-<Higti piicei ^bm a tariwj1> 




.tort*ld.l,000'«u^, ^ 

focMied tor the pnrpoaasf vukioslhia mMk,iai\»viat 
d*veli^n*Q( of the Hfijunau Diial.A«U*.Hip» iUI> tp 
remote Uua hcMtofon. — Jru». 

latelradTaai 
nagsi and,! 
beeipectad ni 

Bngliehmar at m. — ._ . 

he balisrea, not oolrbeeaae -Engliifa ii brv 
dtnued'thmnnr elber-toBgno, b«tAo*««n««B«.i 
aaat'EnrapeoM,'^ nuHe-eaaHyaoqaned t^ T *> 




betiet brnnttiBK Ma-nHtaaak. "ar^AmSja^ 

of European Spidera," enlirely in Bnglub-m "(li liM 

too, that {*>;■ tbe >ame aotborilr) none ol woKrjta 

need be aihimed tu own tt. 

ArtifleUl Sngju— In tlie French vorid of iiUi!>^ 

ienoe, icTHl eOMaticm-faaa beeo-prddneed ))r«'d^'*' 

nery, die importsnoe of which, it il^torB»«liiik'".J 

nnpuenible tooalctUAle. n 



[7 pnjiaiea, and wli 

ig the-aaniain lave I 
diploma far moliaal ttOaan at 
ItWiranladF 3. What frovuiooa ai 
BaUfiae Aot, 10 •• lo — 

D finla.— tlt'Oftaa fasppacattlut 

„.. _ . . ■■ alll lint hatab.'froEiiifrapar 

nawSathampg-teep-hJwi inpiaa Br tii ^ itdnnngtheTiMir 
MUha,aT.fr*m ild hanag bami ^kmafrad darins ila Mniage, 
il bnmght hmi ^ dialaat ousDln. It ia, thanfsie, a moat 
lo^iOTtaat uaKet for the aericdcaltntiat, beldB pnnkasins a 
hatoh of snin, to enenra himaelf of ita eoundneee. A i impls 
Duana of detaeting wbalher tbe fiatn ii &t far hatehiuK ii 
to ateep a piiuh of it lor a'tew aeaondeln water,~heatKl to 
bdUiwpoint; it anind' the afiga will immediately -aanme' a 
flnsluac eolonr ; it, on the olber band, tbe gnia'is bed, il 
wiUtam,af«arimmeT*ianin'bailing water, an aabyordirty 




;i«oovery ■ 

lodity of suohfienan 
liihed ic the French papers are not eMfflt Ml. ^W 
TOoh esaftporation is lery iikeiy, ihii art dm™! "J 
poerfbly bring abontaebangointbe iBMBl*iin"«"' 
fc-it is annpB M ned Oukt by rta nawpiwa" "P"*"* 
made not oaettiie mora than 5t. per IW Ukfrw*" f 
iattWng per lb. ; --■ ■^- ' '- ' ■-.■•«" 



Undergroand Saihrayt in AmeriM. — The city 
of Baltimore ia in poBeeeeion of ao nndergruuiBl railway 
ngtem first amoogat Amerioan'oilioB. There are now *wo 
dietinot lines of tunaele in Billimnre, wbieb ' have bean oeo- 
pleted At ■ ooat ot uariy flvsiaiHIooa of ■taHna,whaTefcy 
near); eil the Taiiaaa aaUwayi oeDtrang in tha d^ have 
barn broneht iolo coasesioo. Tbe ondargreaid nilway 
oooaiata of the Ballaatot«and PolamtotanD*l> wbaoee itez- 
tenda in a north-eaaterly dir«tian through tbe city, ncdar 
aoma Iwenty-nioa atreeUi uid aietmee, eiDStgiDg al NorUl- 
anoue, wb«« it jiane the track of the Hurtham Central 
Railway. The Uoioa tnnnel uiCands from tide-waler at the 

avennea, to the Northern CcQtrsl Railvey. The total length 
of the BaHimore luidergroand rail ways ia three mibee and a 
iMlf, ot wUch'abuet two nflee are eloaed tanaaU, aad the 
Temaislflr open cuta, over which the anaeta are carried 0:1 
hidgM. the turuu-l arehee are fnu 22ft. to 33 ft. 6111. high, 
MtdfromSfitt. <o27lt. wide, fiieriogiot brick Itiiak (from 
itons ipiingers), Iwoked wilh rabble maeonry. 

Bmmie from Ja^am.— The Britiah Oonsal at Hiofo, 
Japan, nnoria 'a erport af beonxa lo fonign oonntriM 
in 18^2 to tke value at ASHfOfi dab., and neUoaa.that a 
huge perUan of it waa f nmiahed by die Buddhiat teniplea. 
The dienearegBBiant ahown to that eeet by the OuTemmmt, 
and tbe apprepriaiion lo imperial parpaaae uf thereranuea at 
many of the i<^a[>l»a, have ioduccd Ibe piieeli.to realiee aa 
muidi of their movable property as poertblo ; and the maeatva 
belle, wbiofa formed a aUHking feature of theee tonpln, hare, 
with other brooia nrticlea ef nee md ornnnent, fomd their 
way into tbe baoda ot forein meRdunia. The hich price ot 
oaapar^in Bngland made It profitable to ahip the broDia 
thluur, and then extraot bom it the copper it oeatafaa. 



_ beetroot. HiBuiefoTwari,tk«.*>a^ 

■acture of ujgar would be plaeed in the btnis "I ***"■ 
ifchemiiAla. It iaaddrd that thediamveiw.M. J*(** 
already eold hii inveniinn to a cumFaa; fur B" « 
l.aoOflOO fianea, who intend to wort tka im**- 

Coal in India.— Efforta are bMog niadeliy*''*^, 
overnotent to develop (tie areitt lUBanil nMOw . 
lunlry, especially lbs coal-fl^lda of Baai(aDi-"'**-"i' 
» mUea from Caleotta. ' ■- "' ""'»*' ' 



only fiSifwr oao C , i c ia oi 
to l*u-tbirda ef-|be •nrl 
EoKliah Doal. It ia, 
ateamere, but may be 




In Bhnpahire, a«d 1,10 
bf eertatn St«ab«dafaiM 
oomptny. Bpeeiinana ol 



JOUBSAL OF THB 800IBTT 07 ABT8, SnnHBn 26, 1878. 



84S 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,088. Vol. XXL 



FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 26, 1873. 






AHVOinfCEMEVTS BT THB COTTHCTL 



GEVERAL BXUiniATIOVS, lt74. 

The Programme of Examinations for 1874 is 
DOW ready, and may be had gratis, on application 
to the Secretary. 

These Examinations, in 1874, will be held on the 
eyenings of the 2l8t, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th April. 
Fhe Time-table has been arranged as follows : — 



T V B S D A T, 

April 31, 
Prom 7 to 10 p. m 


WSDNBSDAT, 

April 33, 
FromTtoiepm. 


TB urns DAT, 

April 33, 
FromTtolOpvtn. 


F m I D A T, 

April 34, 

From T to 10 p.m. 


AjiUun«Uo. 

LK>ffio. 

norionltnre. 


TtMOiyofMaiio 
EoKUah UUtory. 
0«rmaD. 
Spanish. 


PoUtloal Eco- 
nomy. 

Fronoh. 

Fruit and Vege- 
table Culture. 


Book-keeping. 
engUeh Lan- 
guage. 
lUllan. 



FuoAT, April 84, 6 to 7 p.m.— Diotation. 

The rule which formerly prcTcnted a candidate 
who had once obtained a first-class certificate in a 
mbject from being again examined in that subject 
irith a Tiew to gaining a prise, has, in accordance 
p^th the wish expressed at the Conference, held 
>n the 27th June, 1873, been rescinded. In future, 
iieref ore, a candidate who has obtained a first-class 
sertifieate in a subject may be again examined in 
hat subject, but not more than one first-class 
»rtificate in any subject will be counted for the 
?rinoe Consort's Prize, or for the Coimcil Prize to 
females. A candidate having taken the first prize 
a any subject cannot again take a prize in that 
nbjeot, nor can a candidate take a prize of the 
ame grade twice in any subject. 

The Elementary Sxaminati<»is, held by the 
>iBtrict Unions and Local Boards, for which papers 
fe furnished by the Society, are fixed for the 10th, 
1th, and 12th March. 

Pull details in reference to the Examinations are 
;iT6ii in the Programme, copies of which should 
« applied for to tiie Secretary of the Society of 
Lrts, by all intending to come forward as oandi- 
Ates, or otherwisa intarMied in the EraBMnattoiw. 



TEOmrOLOeiOAL xzaxutatiovs. 

The subjects in which examinations were held 
this year, namely, Cotton Manufacture, Paper 
Manufaotore, Silk Mannfactore, Steel Manufaoturay 
and Carriage-building, will be retained in the Ex- 
aminations of next year, with the addition of 
Cloth Manufacture, Glass-making, Pottery and 
Porcelain, and the Manufacture of €bs. 

The Programme is in preparation, and will be 
publidied as soon as possible. 

In addition to subscriptions already announced, 
the Council have to admowledge the following 
contributions to the Prize Fund : — 

The Worshipfnl Company of Clothworkers £105 
G. N. Hooper, Eaq. 10 10 

Also as a special contribution to a Prize Fund 
for the Examination in Carriage-building. 

G. K. Hooper, Esq * £10 10 



PBOCBEDIHGS OF THE 80CIETT* 



OAHTOB LECrUBES. 

The fourth lecture of the third course of CantOT^ 
Lectures for the Session, '*0n Wines; their Pro- 
duction, Treatment, and Use,*' was delirered by 
J. L. W. Thudichtth, Esq., M.D., on Monday 
evening. May 12th, 1873, as follows :— 

Licnjiia IV. 

WhiU varietiet of wine produced in the Alto Douro, IVaiM- 
port of the wines from the vineyards to Oporto, Treatment 
in the lodges of the holders and shippers at Oporto, 
Unirandisd and dry natural Alto Ifouro wines. Causes 
of the use of brandy and jeropiga ; neglect of scienlijic 
guidance here aUo^ but the processes being more simple the 
vatHety of results not so great as at Jerez. Change in 
theport'wine drinking public in England. Description 
of other Portuguese vineyards. The Bairrada ; Termo of 
Lisbon ; Valley of the Tagus ; Bueellas ; Fable of the 
transplanted Rhenish grape ; CoUares ; Torres Vedrat. 
General remarks on the nature and difficulties of 
JPortuguese viticulture and vinifUation, all based upon 
personal observations of the lecturer. 

Many thouaand pipes of white wine are a nim ally made 
in the Alto Douro, aad exported mainly to Russia and 
IreUnd— very little goes to England. These wines are 
not distinguished either by the ^pes from which they 
are made, or by the qualities which they obtain in the 
oourse of their development. I have repeatedly pointed 
out how all the great qualities of Jerez wines are de- 
pendent upon a few dominant species of vines, how 
sweet wines are derived from the Pedro Jimenez ; high- 
flavoured amontillados and fines, from palomino ; oloroso 
aualities from mantuo oasteUano ; how Rota wines owe 
tieir important chflaracteristics to one vine, the tintilla. 
In a similar manner we shall see in future lectures how 
the wines of Burgundy oome from one kind of ^gnpSr 
that of the pineaa ; and Rhine- wine is characterised by 
the Eiessling. The Alto Douro white wines are not 
thus ffhftnM^=<Hf^ ; they are not produced from any 
doninant vine, or viasi^ Uit are the product of the 



844 



JOURNAL OF THE 800IETT OF ARTS, Septbiibib 26, 1373. 



oommixture of a great yariety of fruit firom fireqaoDtljr 
heterogeneous yarietiefl of vines, amongst them the 
ar^ito, boal, verdelho, codega, malrasia fina, estieito, or 
rabo de oyelha, carnal, Donna Branca, gonveio estimado, 
moscatel. Of these the rich bearers, yielding ooarse 
musts, termed castas grossas, are most faTOored by the 
growers, and the resmt appears in the wines. The white 
grapes are not grown in the best situation, but only in 
second and third-rate vineyards. The Alto Douro wine 
districts, as a whole, may be considered as oondsting of 
hills only, without any valley- bottoms between them ; 
the declivities of the hills, all supported by numerous 
terraces, as described, may be convenientlj divided into 
three zones. The lowest zones, nearest to the river and 
its tributaries, produce the first daas of red wines ; the 
second zones, occupying the middle of the slopes, pro- 
duce the second-class; and the upper zones, situated 
near the top of the hill, or covering the tops of the lower 
hills, are mainly planted with white rines. These 
latter are also planted on the lower zones of the higher 
lying valleys away from the Douro. The white grapes 
are, like the red ones, fermented with the husn and 
stalks, and in this particular the vinification differs from 
that of most other wine countries ; for in these, white 
musts are generally pressed out of husks and stalks 
before fermentation. In consequence of this practice 
the Alto D^iiro white wines acquire an astnngency 
frequently amounting to harshness. This may make 
them more firm and less liable to spoil, but it greniXy 
prolongs the time necessary for their maturation. They 
are olso arrested in their fermentation by the addition of 
brandy, and, not being so sweet or so fully ripe as 
the red musts, require more frequent admixture of 
artificial saccharine ingredients, such as arobe, jeropiga, 
or sugar. In consequence of this they acquire no very 
high vinous character, even when kept long in bottle. 
On the contrary, they frequently develop in bottle a 
heavy disagreeable odour, termed bottle-stink, which 
can only partially be removed before the wine is placed 
on the table by decanting the wine and ventilating it, 
so that the air may influence the wine, and disp^ or 
oxidise the bad smelL This is also a fault of many of 
the red ports, which they acquire by being bottled at 
improper periods and while in an improper condition ; 
the cleaner the wines are when bottled the less they 
develope of this bottle-stink, and perfect Alto Douro 
wines have not, and ought not to have, any of it. 

T»'AN8P0RT OF AlTO DoU&O WdTBS. 

Many of ilo vineyards are so situated that no animal 
can be led to them, and their produce has therefore to 
be carried to the lagares on the backs of men. Many 
of the lagares, ag^in, cannot be reached with vehicles, and 
the wines tuAde on them have therefore to be trans- 
ported downhill on the backs of animals ; and as it would 
be impossible to use casks f(ft that purpose, the wines are 
carried in bags made of the skins or animals. These 
wine skins ait> called " odres,'* and I have here such a 
skin from the Alto Douro. It is made from a goat-skin, 
and is teken from the dead animal in such a manner as 
to injure it in the least possible degree. The hair is 
only shortened, not removed, and the hairv side is 
turned inwards. This is done in order to leave the 
epidermis or scarf-skin intact on the surface of the thick, 
strong, leathery skin; for this soarf-sldn is very im- 
penetrable to moisture, whereas mere leather would be 
very penetrable. The skin is mnde more impenetrable 
and imputrescible by being covered over the entire in- 
side with ')mifluid pitch, or wood tar. I have seen 
thousands^ these bags in use in the Alto Douro. Some 
merchants! this country seem to think that these odres 
are a matter which must be kept a secret from the lovers 
of port wine ; and it happened to me, at a meeting of the 
Committee on Wines, of the International Exhibition, 
in Kensington, that., when speaking about these odres, I 
was flatly contradicted by a port wine merchant, and told 
^at there was no -such thing used in Alto Douro. And 



yet I had, but a month before, seen afcringa of hones, malas, 
and donkeys, each carryiof two of ihme odres full of winev 
in the establishment of the partner of this very wla»- 
merchant who so vehemently oontradictei nieL aad had 
seen the wine from Uie odres poured into the totiels 
of the partner, whence no doubt it 'found its wrty to 
Oporto in due course. The odres are also used in SfiatA, 
as is popularly known from the romance of **Daa. 
Quixote," b^ Cervantes. And if, during vintage tine, 
you travel in Italy, Spain, or Portugal, yon Cr^ocotly 
see a number of these skiiis, mostly distended with air, 
hanging up, either to be prepared for use, or to b» 
washed after use. I am not aware that wine is nowadays 
anywhere preserved in them. They frequently imput 
a pitchy taste to the wine, which is never got rid of: 
when made from the skin of he goats, they alio oomntimi- 
cate the goat-flavour. In Spain odres are treqaeni^j 
made from pig- skins. 

When the wine is collected in the tonels in the 
adegas attached to the farms, it is is ready for the tra* 
vellers of the mercantile houses, who now taste, seIoci» 
and buy. The wine is left in the adegas, nntfl, in 
winter time, the water in the river Douro is high enough 
to admit of loaded barges travelling to Oporto. T)ae: 
wine-merchants from Oporto then send up their wxae- 
casks, some filled with brandy (I have- seen many 
casks of Berlin shape, with Berlin brands in the adegis 
of the Alto Douro, and therefore believe that much 
Berlin spirit is put into port-wine), the brandy and wine 
are mixed, put into the casks, returned to the rirdr, sai 
shipped to Oporto. The manner in which the wlae- 
casks, all of the size called pipes, holding IIG 
p;allons, are brought down the hills to the rrvo; 
IS very remarkable. They are brought on strong carta, 
each laden with one pipe only at a time, and drawn 
by two oxen. The carts are of the rudest bat most 
solid construction, and the oxen are of the finest breed, 
large and very powerful. The labour which these oxeo 
perform in bringing such a pipe of wine down the stooy. 
rocky, horrible mountain roads, is reaUy a most astonish- 
ing performance of muscular work. The wheels of the 
carts are fixed to the axle-tree on which the top of the 
cart rides by two forks. This arrangement causes mock 
friction, by which a creaking noise is produced, which 
can be heard at great distances, particularly at night. 
The more noise an axle-tree makes the higher it 
is valued, and the peasants vie with each other 
for the possession of the cart which makes the greatest 
noise. 

At last the wine in the pipes arrives at the nr^r-st'ie, 
and is shipped in boats to Oporto. The m^niwr in 
which these boats are loaded and steered is well topve- 
sented on the map of Forrester. Arrived in Oporto, it if 
carted to the sheds called lodges, and then laid up. 1^ 
treatment which it receives Uiere mainly consists in tiie 
addition of brandy from time to time ; the brandy is k«pt 
as low as possible, in order not to increase the expense 
more than is necessary. The last and principal dosing 
with brandy is only inflicted just before the wins it 
shipped. If the wine is not sweet enough, a quantity d 
jeropiga is added ; this, when legitimate, coansts d 
sweet must preserved by the addition of one-fifth of xti 
volume of brandy of 40^ Cartier, and therefore corres- 
ponds to the Jerez dulce. If in bad years, or from any 
other cause, the colour of the wine is not so deep as anar 
be wished, some deep-ooloured wine is added; and sow 
elderberry may be used now and then, but, as alresdj 
stated, this is not frequently used in making op AHo 
Douro wine. Those wines which are not utixel w^ 
anything except brandy, not even with other wines sf 
similar quality, but of different origin, are called vintage 
wines, and are kept by themselves. Their data is pre- 
served, and they are m<ide much of by the m^^clMott 
Those wines which are not kept by themsdres, bot art 
mixed with other qualities, the product of diffei>pnt »»» 
and different years, are termed factory- ports, and coast:* 
tute the great mass of the wines exported. 



J JIJHNAL OF THE SOOIEPY OF ARTS, Sbptbmbbk 26, 1873. 



845 



Chanqi IX THs Tastb op trb Public as Bboabdb 

POBT. 

Mach has been written and said regarding the in- 
jarioos character of strongly-brandied port wine, and in 
conaeaaence the mpre polite classes of society have almost 
entirely turned from port wine, and do not drink it any 
longer. I have been present at dinners to which ten or 
twelve gentlemen sat down, and not one took port when 
it was brought round. An Oporto merchant in London 
gave a dinner party to twenty gentlemen, and not one of 
these was found to drink even a single glass of the mer- 
chant's own best vintage wine. If this antipathy should 
contioue, it might, perhaps, aid in the reduction of the 
brandy in port wine to below deiirium- tremens point. 
(This diseisQ is common among spirit drinkers, and 
tho:ie who consume much strong port; it cannot be 
produced by drinking natural wines with less than 26 
degrees of proof spirit, even in large quantity.) I have 
no doubt that wnen the objection, namely, excess of 
brandy, shall have vanished, many oenophilists and 
persond of good taste will return to port, the natural, 
ml I- flavoured, flne-coloured, invigorating, and wholesome 
wine, which, as regards bouquet, body, vigour, and last- 
inar qualities, and as regards its wonderfully exhilarating 
effect upon body and mind, is not surpassed by the red 
wines of any other land. But, it must be observed that, 
although some classes in England have ceased drinking 
port, others have taken to it, and in consequence the 
triide in port wine has not at all diminished, buthas rather 
increased. The fact is, the port which was formerly 
generally bought by gentlemen, clergymen, noblemen, 
fcc, and Uid down in uieir cellars to mature for years, 
is now mainlv bought by publicaoB, tapped, and sold in 
^laaaea at 4d. each. This is t^e case, not only in this 
country, but in America, and even in Newfoundland. 
Fhe fiahermen there, a ^eat proportion of whose fish is 
consumed in Portugal, in return get a quantity of this 
>ort wine, and ease the difficulties of their climate and 
dtoation by enjoying this most delicious drink. 

The price of port wine in the district varies between 
A and 15 milreis per pipe of 636 litres. In Oporto, £15 
o £20 is an average price of good factory port. Fine 
rines and old wines rise to £80 per pipe. 

Thb Wixb CouwraY of thb Baibbada. 

This is a ver^ new wine country, but probably in the 
ourse of time it will develope into something of import- 
Jice. The Bairrada lies between Oporto and Lisbon, 
ather to the south of Ooimbra. The Portuguese Bail- 
ray runs through the middle of it. The wine grown 
a the middle of the district, which includes both 
ed and white varieties, is called vinho de embarque^ or 
tiat which may be exported, whilst that grown in the 
ater belt, and its prolongation towards the north and 
tie soatb, which is not fit for exportation, but is used in 
iie country, or distilled for brandy, is cUlei eoMutn'. 
'he soil there is chalky, of the so called li ts formation. 
*ha wines of that country are frequently taken to 
>porto, and there made up into common clasi port- 
ines by a small admixture of Alto Douro wine. They 
ne brought to London mainly for the purpose of being 
^-exported to the oolonios, and many butts of them ^o 
» Russia and to America. The wines are peculiar m 
litfy that though dark coloured when young, they 
lickly lose their colour, and in four or five yeard, if not 
islated by other means, they get so pale as to resemble 
<I port. But they also lose their quulitv, and there- 
re they cannot be advantageously reared and kept by 
lemselvea. That arises again from the want of consi- 
»ratioQ for the principle which T have stated ; and be- 
muse there is in the Bairrada no dominant grape, but 
te peasants who g^w these vines mix up every sort of 
-ape they can lay hold of, and the consequence is a 
ant of character and firmness in the product. The 
-ape mainly grown there is the baga, which means 
rry. It is a small-berried, dark-coloured grape. 



There is also grown a little of the souzao and a little of 
the bastardo, which gives some flavour, but there are no 
coloured grapes like the moorisco or tinta, or tinta 
Franoisoa. There is also a white wine, made, as in the 
Alto Douro, from the boal and ten others; and the jero- 
piga, or sweet juice made by mixing spirit wiUi sweet 
must, is largely produced, and further abafado, or must 
stopped in the middle of its fermentation by spirit, 
&c. Must is sometimes boiled down, and to the syrup 
is added brandy. Then there is also made arobe, 
which is the juice of the grape itself boiled down 
to a thick syrup, either alone or in company with 
a quantity of quinces, apples, and other fruit I 
quote from the Government report of Portugal, 
where it is stated the arobe can be of two kinds, viz., 
simple and compound. The first is the concentrated 
must produced by the action of heat ; the second, or 
compound arobe is made with sugar and quinces, apples, 
and other fruits. I have been very careful to lay before 
you accurate information, to eliminate that which is 
erroneous, and to know and state only that which is 
true, and it is for this reason I have quoted this passage 
from the Report of the GK>vemment of Portugal. Now 
these practices are not at all done with the purpose of im- 
posing upon the customer. They are the results of dire 
necessities and difficulties in the vinification, such as it 
would really require the highest skill ai^d science to 
obviate ; and if you consider the poor peasant, who has 
no means and no scientific guidance, but simply the help 
of a copper and a little brandy, you may probably Iook 
upon these practices with a very different eve to what 
you would if you looked upon them simply as mal- 
practices, adopted for tixe purpose of cheating the con- 
sumer. 

Thb Yinbtakds Abouicd and Nbab Lisbox. 

There iB a quantity of wine grown round Lisbon. 
It is called " termo,'' from being grown within the 
bounds of Lisbon, but there is not much of it, and it 
does not constitute an article of commerce, and there- 
fore need not further detain our attention. Along the 
Tagus, south-west from Lisbon, there is that beautiful 
vilbige Carcavellos, which once had a very flourishing 
production of from 1,300 to 1,500 pipes a year, and stiH 
enjoys a reputation, though the production is now 
entirely destroyed. It was one of the first fields invaded 
by the oidium, and when I was there two years ago, I 
believe the whole production did not amount to five 
pipes, for most of the vineyards have died out. I have 
hero a specimen of Carcavellos wine, which illustrates 
very well some of the difficulties of Portuguese vinifica- 
tion. It comes from a farmer in Caroavellos, who had a 
very nice pUce, but his wine was thick and turbid, 
viscid, and sulphury, and had the mouse-taste; and yet 
the mattirial from which that wine had been made was 
of the finest description ; and if it could be properly 
treated it would be really a verv high-class wine, and 
fully justify the reputation which Caroavellos ecgoyed 
in Uie past. 

YlNBTABDS 07 OOLLIBM. 

Qcing along the shoro of the Tagus, and turning 
northwards round the mountain of Cintra, we come to the 
celebrated vineyards of CoUares. They can also be 
reached by coming down the valley from Cintra, and 
perhaps Uiat is the most agreeable way of getting there. 
The vineyards of Jerez, as I have told you, aro situated 
on undulating hills of dialk. Those of the Alto Douro 
aro rocky, but Uiose of CoUares aro situated on sand, 
thrown up by the billows of the Atlantic. Owing[ to the 
:ihifting naturo of this land, the peasant proprietor is 
obliged to adopt some device to keep his vineyards and 
his wine too. The vineyard is divided into a number of 
small parcels, of the size of an ordinary sitting-room, 
each 01 which is surrounded by a hedge of green reeds or 
cafias. The doors which lead from one to the other aro 
I also formed of these living reeds, so that when you pass 



M6 



JOURNAL OF THE 800IETY OF ABT8, Bkptiuibbb 26, 1873. 



from one depaituMnt to anotiker you beod tlio rtoda 
aronder with the hands, and walk tfarouf^h, and the door 
oloaeB of itself behind yoa. In spite of ^is pteoantion, 
when after a windy night theowner of the vineyard conies 
to look at his yineyard, he often ftnds his vines oovered 
np with sand, and he ii obliged to dig them ont. Bnt 
tms apparently barren and mipropitioQS soil yidds a very 
exoellent prodnot. The soil is constantly nioist the heat 
of the sun strikes it all day long, and the vines lie on the 
^[roond, in immediate proximity to pore sand. The result 
18 the excellent wine of Cdllares. Here is some of the 
red wine made firom a grape called the "ramisoo," and 
from that only. The qualities of this wine are based 
upon one dominant vine, and it is lor that reason I have 
such p^reat confidence in the wine. It is because of that 
that it quickly matures, is uniform, greatly improves in 
bottle, and will keep, although its alcoholity is one of the 
lowest, beinp^ only between 8 and 10 per cent. It is a 
Tory firm wine also, as it requires no spirit to be added 
to it. It is a wine very little known in this country. It 
hfts a flavour of its own whidi cannot be compared with 
•any other, derived entirdy from the ramisoo grape. It 
is a moat agreeable and wholesome wine. About 1,500 
p^es are made in the district. 

ThB VDnTJLBD OF BuCSLLAS. 



«flido entirely, and I shonld say : — ^ Tou Portn^iaMe kan 
intellectual men in your countey; youhaveagovenunait 
oommission, consisting of exoeUent botaniiti, dera 
mechanicians, aooon^ished chemisti, and other bb 
of science ; they give you these excdleut repoits, Mi 
of information and good advice ; ft^low their iidTioa, ad 
you will produce excellent wines, which all tha worid vill 
be very glad to buy; i^ however, you go on makingt^ 
compooj^is, depend upon it the whcne of ywa tnde m 
white wine will go to ruin." 

Wmis or Tonnns Ykduas. 

This is a celebrated name in the history of ^ Bdtal 
army. A good many thousand pipes of wine are grovs 
there, but owing to the disregard of the prindplei I linf 
mentioned, and owing to the tact of the wine bebgnide 
from mixed grapes, it acquires no particular qmbtj, lad 
though apparently good to drink in the fint yair ts 
two, in the third year it frlls off a little and kM iti 
quality, although it does not spoil. Of the mtsj Btna 
u>r which Portugal had a reputation in the vitikfial 
world, there remains yet to be mentioned lAmdia, 
which lies on the Tagus, nearly opposite Lisbon, md in- 
duces a mild though somewhat sweetish, bat to fons 
people yery agreeable wine. It requires way cawft! 
Keeping for several years, but afterwards acquires tU tk 
fine properties of the natural and finer AHo Donn 
wines. I have no doubt that if it were more aaob 
tifically treated, and if tiiere was more of it, fte 
Lavraoio would soon acquire a high rq;>utatioii. 



Gbkxiull Fbatukbs of Pobtoouub Won Huam* 

In the Alto Douro, as weU as in Uie Bainadi ai 
eveiywhere else in Portu^, all the wine ii nadfl is 
the lagars, peculiar troog^ made of stone DMxti^j^ 
sometimes of wood, in which the wines fenn«9it Tb^ 



from OoOares to Centra, and theoee inland, 
wa c o me round to the vineyaid of Bucellas. It is said 
tkal the Bn oe ll aa wine is made from the hock grape, 
alleged to have been transplanted there by the Marquis 
of FooibaL All over Portagal the Marquis of Pombal 
is reneiBbered as a vitimltarist, and a man who took 
great interest in the promotion of viticulture and wine 
makisjT. I have gone tiirough pretty well all the vine- 
raids tbt^Tv, and h«ve asked many experienced persons, 
but hari? not been able to find any hock grapes there 

whatever. The only grape mown tiiere, from which ' are very large, about six yards square, and, thooglL in 
the geamine Bscellas is made, is the Arinto. At first ' good years that entails no disadvantage, in ystn vben 
sight the Arinto has a little slmAmty to the Hook grape, the heat of the season is excessive, or where the bwat 
as it is a saaUl-berried grape, hot it is disBmilar in other is nterrapted b^ rains, the lagar system entsih eray 
r espe ct s, perticnlarly by its pnasussing a large bunch, disadvaiitage which injuriously affects the wine, fioo^ 
It reminds om of the grapes oa tiie south slopes of fte times the lagar is partly filled, a ^aandty of gufii 
Alps, and has nowhm the small aiae of the grapes being heaped in one comer ; then ramy weather ooaai 
iaoganous to the Bhenish countries. Its wine and the grapes are allowed to lie in the comer ftr i 
■oms^ hst res<mVles hoek in preserving a Kttle sweet- week ; then, perhaps, the vintage is continued, sad sav 
in good years, and, on ute other hand, in br'ing gjapes— perhaps more rotten than the first— are thzovs 
"iveiT sour in bad years. I have here yarioos in, and the lagar is filled up. During that tim 
of Bucellas wines 'i^iich I shall ask you to if the grapes were ripe, a partial iermentatkn ^h 
taste. Here, for example, is a specimen which I con- set in. If the mass were heated, a portioa vmU 
aider to be spoilt, as, thou^ originally a fine wine, it has ferment, and the air having access, it would f^^ 
been mixed with boiled wino. In consequence of that ; a process of decomposition. Then when the was a 
it ha£ a peculiar murkinem and fiilse fluoresoence, which ' made it has to be sulphured, not only for the PfT|'f 
does not go away for some years. It always tastes of ' of prevpnting the aoetifioataon, which has begun tlisi^ 




pose, for tt>e Jfinglish taste. I do not believe myself 
IS the English taste, for it is rather like a bad imiUtion 
of bad sherry. This second specimen is a very beauti- 
fdl wine, which I have had two years in bottle. I de- 
canted it, and there w«« three ts^lespoonfuls of deposit 
left behind, showing that the wine was bottled a great 
deal too early. This is second-class Bucellas. But here 
I haye now a perfoot specimen of 1870 wine, which jou 
see is brilliant. Tou will be able to apprecttte the fine 
qualities, high flavour, and refreahing, acidulous whole- 
some nsture of that wine, and you will agree vrith me 
that the reputation which the vineyard has acquired in 
the past was well deserved. Here is a specimen of wine 
sold in Lisbon, and here is a specimen which will 
diow you how wine may be ruined by being mixed 
with boiled wine. You see a thick, brown crust 
deposited on one side of the bottle, lliat is caused by 
ttie wine having been mixed with boiled wine. The 
addition of arrobe, of whatever k^d, whether compound 
or simpla, of brandy and colouring matter, ia huitf ul to 
^^^piality; therefore, with those practioes, I should 
«*o '^ ^"rfiatsyer. I diould put them 



wines when made are not put into oellan, bat u* ui 
kept above ground, in large cadn or tonels, and th*^ 
never full. In a good year they may be three psito^ 
whereas in a bad year uiey may be only ooe-ttiid «* 
quarter full, and there is always n gremter or a mMJr 
surfooeof wine exposed to the air. Thenif inthe piMt 
the temperature rises very high, the surface t**™^***?? 
by mould, a quick acetiflcation takes place. At Baow* 
I was in the shed of a poor woman, whose ealj pv^Pfy 
consisted of a vineyard, and c^ a shed and teim of ^ 
worth, perhaps, £60. She had not tasted it for a boffM 
and when I tasted it I told her it was vinegar. 1 "g 
never forget Uie iace of the poor woman when slyfay 
her wine, and she said, "Yes. it is vinegar.'* So U-i^JP* 
out the place, owing to the absenceof undefgro«dcm''J 
where Uie wine can be keptawuy from the exuem^*'* 
in the summer, and owing to the omission of pwyyj ^ 

kinff of the wine— owing, fort"* • 



oautions in the making „. 

the poverty of the peo(]^ who oan only obid to W 
one mat vessd in which thsy keep their '^■rv'jjj 
unable to buy new casks of a waallsr Ase, whicb tm 



JOUBHAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABTS, SvnicBu 26, ISU. 817 



oonld fill to the boBg, and thereby prevent the air getting 
at the wine when hot and in a dangerona state— owing to 
these dindTantigeB, and to the peonliar dimatei there 
are produced masaee of fungi in all Portugneee winee, 
juflt as there are in the Jerei wines. These are called 
nabe, and when these small microscopic fungi, visible 
onlj by the microscope magnifying 600 diameters, grow 
more numerous, the wine becomes at last thic^ and 
TiscoQS, and ii called ** gordo/* Then the wine 
acquires this horrid mouse taste, which is the 
destroyer of many^ of the moat beautiful Jeres wines. 
The miest Jeres wines are liable to have this horrible 
mouse taste, and the merchants will tell vou that if wine 
gets a mouse taste, it will become a good wine ; but that 
IS rather a psjadoarical assertion. Out of 100 butts of 
wine having meuse taste, perhaps about 10 good ones 
are obtains, but a vast quantity never recover, and 
these the eztractois send to the mL Here is a speci- 
men of Carcavellos with the mouse taste, such as it is 
in perfectioD, so that aziy one who likes to acquaint him- 
self with it may do so. It is filled with those nube. Here 
is a specimen of Torres Ko vas wine, which has the general 
appearance of all white Portuguese wines a few weeks 
mat the vintage. When I was at Bucellas I saw in 
the cellars of the Marquis of Freixial twenty large 
tonels full of this thick, horrid tasting, suphurv, 
abominable liquid, which nobody could ever guess would 
in the course of a year or two transform itself into 
potable wine. When the wine merchant gets this wine 
he treats it according to his science, but in order to show 
you that it need not be wholly lost, I will show you 
some wine here, purified by chemical means. It is 
simply a process for taking out the dirt, bad colour, and 
fungi, and there is the result ; so that you can see that 
although it is very unpromising at first, by means uf 
a little chemical operation a penectly nice clean-tasting 
fluid is produced, and all the mouse taste is gone. 

The power of these fungi is so ^reat that in some 
Portuguese vintages not only a portion of the must is 
concentrated to increase the sweetness, but the producer is 
actually obliged to put the whole of hin must into the 
oopper, and give it a boiling up, in order to kill the 
fiangL He does, in fsct, on a large scale with his must 
that which M. Pasteur at Paris has proposed as a general 
principle for the purpose of preserving wines, namely, 
iM>at the wine so as ^j kill the s, ores, and thereby set 
up a healthv fermentation, whereas otherwise there 
Would have been a diseased fermentation, and conse- 
qoently a very Bad product. 

Now let us for a moment consider the result of the 
li£a of these fungji. Plants, as you know, live on car- 
bonic acid water and ammonia and salts, and fungi are no 
ezoeption to that rule. It is frequently said that fimgi 
do absorb compound materials — that they are not de- 
pendant upon the carbonic acid in the atmosphere, as 
oUier plants, but that they do, as it were, like animals, 
devour compound food. That may be the case with re- 
^ard to some which live in the air, but those which live 
lA fluid do not do so, for I can show you that when the 
carbonic add is withdrawn by other means than heat 
titke fungi cease to live, sink to the bottom, and are inert : 
that is to say, they are killed or suffocated, and do not 
live much longe^, and consequently i( is proved that the 
nube fuxigi require for their ezistexice the presence of car- 
bonic acM. And it is for tlus reason e?iaently that they 
mx9 present in the Isjgeat quantities in the youngest wine 
The younger the wine the more nube, and the older the 
wine the less carbonic acid it produces and the quicker the 
Asbe ^oes down. Every Jeresmerohant will tell you that 
attj wine which succeeds at all cures itself. Itrequdresno 
partioular process for getting rid of the smell. The fior 
also cures itself, provi&d the wine has at least 29 degrees 
af proof spirit. This flw is a fungus on the top of the 
wine, which requires a large quantity of carbonic acid 
szL ovder to live. Bemove the carbonic acid, and what 
takes place f The fungus dies. That has not been 
nmiesfltood, but the practice has beta based stdoUy on 



that plan. Every wine merchant who knows anything 
about oenology will tell vou that if the wine containing 
this nube be strongly shaken, the fungi condense, aacl 
sinks to the bottom. The portion of we carbonic add 
escapes attrition ; however, if the wine, after shaking, 
be analysed, it is found that a large quantity of car- 
bonic add has been evolved. If you take that wihe, 
and put it under an air-pump, and exhaust the carbonic 
add from it, and allow no air to get to it, and then put 
the cork in, the wine will, in a very short time, be dear, 
and you may decant it dear, sound, and healthy from Uie 
deposit. ^ I mi^ht go on and tell you a variety of 
observatbns whidi i have made, and which, no doubt, 
in the course of time, will, together with ihe communi- 
cations of the highest importance offered by M. 
Pasteur, make the producer of wine independent of 
brandy. And what will take place then will be simply 
this, that those who like brandy can buy brandy in one 
bottle and wino in another bottle, and mix them, whilst 
those who do not like hot wine can drink normal wine 
without brandy. I shall now condude what I have to 
say on Portuguese viticulture. The land in itself, poor, 
yet climatically highly endowed, is capable of producing 
a variety of the most beautiful grapes, and a variety of 
wines, which, if properly made, would not be surpassed 
by those of any other country. The people ax^ good- 
natured, industrious, and hard-working, and they have 
what is very agreeable to a person who comes from this 
country, a great regard for an Englishman. If these 
good people would oontinue to plant their vineyards 
with particular sorts of grapes, such as have been proved 
in the great Alto Douro districts, in Bucellas, or Cd- 
lares, to be so excellent ; if they were to abandon that 
horrible practice of making sweet and cooked wines ; if 
the^ were to study a little the conditions by means of 
which they mieht avoid Uie natural dimatic difficulties 
which produce funjg[i and addity, if they introduced a little 
more deanliness mto their sheds, and if they were to 
have their cellars underground, if they were to avoid 
these large tonels and aiiopt small casks, I have no 
doubt Portugal, one of the most easential English vine- 
yards, would produce other wines besides port, whidi 
would be of the greatest use hygienioally and socially 
to this country. We have a great trade with Portugal 
in other respects, taking there our manufactures, and 
bringing away in return large quantities of produce, 
cattle, grapes, figs, apples, and a variety of other articles 
too numerous to mention ; and I have no doubt an im- 
proved quality of wine would find in this country a very 
ready and grateful market. 

NoTB. — ^It has been stated in the Food Journal, 
that there is a peculiar affection of the wines of the 
Alto Douro, called the agrodoce, or sweet-sour; and 
the Viscount De YiUa Maior, in his work on wines, 
enumerates tiie vihagre disease ; the amargo, or bitter- 
ness ; the gordura (which, according to my opinion, is 
only a continuation of the nube disease) ; and then he 
ives, fifthly, the agredoce, which, he states, is a form of 
isease different from the first four, which spoils port 
I do not think, from my inquiries, that the 



di 



wme. 



agredoee is a particular disease. I believe it is 
nothuig but a transformation of a part of the 
alcohol into vinegar, in such port wme only as 
contains from two to three per cent, of sugar which 
was not previoudy fermented; thus a wine is ob- 
tained which tastes on the one dde of vinegar and on the 
other side of sugar, in fact, a compound which, if it 
was a littie sweeter, one might very well drink as people 
do raspberry vinegar. I have no doubt that is a paralld 
to it It is not at all like the bitterness of Burgundy 
wines, which arises from a totally different cause. I 
therefore believe that the agredoee is a matter of no great 
consequence as affecting port wine ; but we shall see in 
the next lecture that there are other infiuenoes of nature 
such as Uie phyUozera, that insect whidi now destroys 
millions of hectares of wine in the south of France, 
and the oidium which has destroyed the 



848 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Sbptehber 26, 187S. 



vineyardsi and which is ahoat to destroy those of 
Bacellas, as it has destroyed to a great extent those of 
Madeira. These are actual enemies, whiah destro^r 
many vines in the ground, as nube and other fungi 
destroy the wine produced. When we come to consider 
the Girondc, we shall find there a particular pestilence 
which destroys the vines by thousands — a kind of tumour 
all over the bark. Here I have a specimen, which will 



The chimeras form a renvu'kable class of bronzes. 
Amongst them is the Chinese kerin, with ih6 ^ head of 
a unicorn, the body of a horse, and the feet of the stag,** 
the unicorn itself, the tortoise with dog's head and flow- 
ing tail, somewhat resembling that of the cock, only k^ 
flat. The chimeras at the exhibition are some of the 
finest possible examples of dark green bronze. 

Trotting about amidst these grotesqne brazen bcasU 



affects the vine stock. 

We have thus made a complete survey of the Tines 
and vineyards of Spain and Portugal, and in the next 
lecture we will pass on to a consideration of French 
wines, and you will then see what an agreeable and 
remarkably interesting contrast there is between the 
processes by which t£e wines are grown and made in 
the Peninsida, and the more inland countries of France 
^nd Germany. 



EXHIBITIONS. 



illustrate the peculiar nature of that disorder which is a beautiful little Japanese dog, like a King Charioi 
. «. . .It • . , spaniel, but with a little pug nose, which may well have 

been the original type of the caricature muzzle of these 
chimeras ; it was a happy idea to introduce this eiegutt 
little creature amongst the fabulous animals in bronxe. 
It is a curious f»ct, that while the Japanese reproduce 
leaves and fiowers with the greatest fidelity, all their 
figures of animals are conventional and inartistic ; there 
is no study of the muscles or bones — nothing but an 
approximate an J most rude approach to the general pti>> 
portions of the form, and a fair imitation of the ordnuiy 
attitude of the animal. 

The second room is principally devoted to tlie smaller 
bronzes, chiefly obiects of ornament or of general 
use,^ casts of animals, &c. ; this is a very fine coIl«c- 
tion, many of the examples being of the highert 
character. There is a series of bronze bottles, as pun 
in outline as if they were oast in the period of the best 
Greek art, and a collection of exquisite table ornaments. 
Amongst other objects are two pairs of heavy broose 
stirrnps, beautifally inlaid with nlver, and a number «f 
beautifully pierced perfume burners and other objects of 
like character. The '* sonorous plate"* is m variety et 
the gong, a plate of fine bronze, with thickened and 
curved ed[ges, suspended by silken cords, and s^uck with 
a very small covered stick, a gong for the ose of sens* 
tive people. 

In this room is also a very good collection of iHoe- 
trated Japanese and Chinese books, many of thetn e<nBic 
in the highest degree. 

There are also a few curiosities from Mongolia, in- 
cluding two " 8ama's *' head-dresses, one of which is in 
the exact form of a Glengarry cap, and is surrounded 
with something much like a small door-mat, airaa^ed 
after the fashion of the horsehair crest of the Life 
Guards ; the whole is of the colour of tow, and is a xmM^ 
grotesque object. 

The third room contains some fine photogra|^ of 
Indian notabilities ; a series of fruits, full-sire, whole 
and dissected, by a Javanese artist, admirably executed ; 
a most extraordinary work in silk, representing the in- 
fernal regions after the Japanese idea, brought from thf 
house of the late Tycoon at Ovens, destroy el % 
few years since ; a few admirable specimens of tl» 
famous Satsuma faience ; a series of curious portnuts 
of Buddhist ascetics and hermits; m coUecdoa of 
fine wood carvings ; two cloisson6 enamel jars* «t 
least five feet in height, mounted on bohl rarvvd 
wood stands; a small collection of Canton fnmiton. 
massive carved wood chairs, with marble and alabaslff 
seats and backs, cabinets, &e. ; two superior Japanaip 
screens, of many leaves each, with scenes in a ro;*! 
palace and in the streets, admirably painted on a tnh. 
solid gold g^und, perfect in their way; a fine specimec 
of silk tapestry, the subject being a celebrated phyaicisc. 
who is receiving his patients under the trees in a gardn ; 
and a very choice collection of embroidered and c/Uba 
garments and fabrics. In this room is also a good c«h- 
lection of photographs, of Java and other scenes, tsapleB. 
and personage. 

In another room are two small aquanams, contaJDOf 
one, a specimen of the carious telescope fish ot J^sa. 
so called from the creature's eyes being moonfeed «s il 
were on short tubes projecting from each side of th* 
head ; but this is not the only peculiarity of ths fiik 
It is about four inches long, deep, and yiry rhtthkf in 
the body, of an intense gold odour, with blaiotk fia^ «d1 
with a double or divided tail, the parts of which ■■• art 
at angles, forming a Y reversed (a) whso 



PARIS ORIENTAL EXHIBITION. 

This exhibition, arranged by the Council of the 
Oriental Congress, is now open in the place of universal 
exhibitions, the Palais de 1* Industrie, in the Champs 
Elys^es. It is called Oriental, after the name given to 
the Congress itself; but it consists mainlv of Chinese 
and Japanese productions, particularly the latter. It 
occupies the g^eat central room, which used to form the 
salie d'honneur of the picture exhibitions, when, during 
the empire, the official works, with a few of the largest 
and best pictures, were collected here, and four other 
rooms of considerable dimensions. 

The collection is very remarkable, consisting of se- 
lections from the rich stores of M. CsmuschC and of 
contributions by Baron Meritens, M. Achille Chevrillon, 
and others, including several ladies ; and it has this great 
recommendation, that instead of large masses of China 
and other articles, nearly the whole of the objects are 
choice specimens, and some probably unique. 

The bronzes form the largest, and perhaps the most 
remarkable group. In the first place must be men- 
tioned the great figure of Buddha, 20 feet high, and 
nine feet square at the base, from the temple at M6- 
gouro ; several large bronze lanterns, used outside the 
tem|)les, great perfume burners, bells and other temple 
furniture, which, considering their size and elaborate 
forms, are marvellously fine examples of bronze 
castings. The smaller bronzes of the same character, 
such as sacrificial vessels, perfume burners, bells with 
prominent bosses cast upon them, which are played 
upon by means of a small wooden mallet covered 
with leather, small lamps in ele^^ant carved wood 
frames, are all unsurpassed for the colour of the 
metal, the thinness and the perfection of the casting; 
there are, amongst other things, some bell-shaped 
lanterns for covering lights, which for delicacy in bronze 
work are as remarkable in their way as the famous egg- 
shell china; one or two of these, measuring perhaps 
fifteen inches in height, and pierced in ornamental 
patterns all over, seem little heavier than if made of 
wood, some, indeed, are so elaborately pierced that they 
look more like nets than metal work, and being lined 
with semi-transparent material, must have a very pleasing 
effect when lighted up. 

An ex voto tablet, brought from a Japanese temple, is 
curious, with a large coiled snake in bronze and several 
smaller votive offerings attached to its surface ; and 
there are several figures of gods and sacred personages 
of considerable size and great beauty as castings. The 
collection of vases is perhaps the finest ever brought 
together in Europe, and there are a number of 
ehaufrettti, covered braziers fDr warming the hands, 
which are the perfection of decorative bronze work. 



JOUBNAti OF THB SOOIBTT OP ASTS, flvrunafr 26, 187S. 






behind. Tha other tbimI coateini ufaeimenB of the 
macTOpodee of ChinA ; these fish h»ve all heeik heed in 
PaxiBand Uie latter are of the fbortl^ generalkwi. 

Natural history is farther repreeeated hy a coUeotiea 
of the Tuaeah yama maX and other aUk worma, whieh 
feed OR the oak, ailaAthas, oaator oil plant, S^e^ feme 
of them alike ; together witti speeioiaia of silk, yanie, 
and £fthric8, contributed by the well^nowa natorakat, 
H. Gaeria M^neTille, and others, and showing the 
pi o ^ r eee that has been made of late in spinning and 
dyemg these silks. 

The collection of articles from India is insignificant 
as compared with those to which we are accustomed at 
home ; bat there are some beautiful specimens of fabrics, 
inlaid work, &c. There is, however, one set of Indian 
products which certainly should not haye been admitted 
m an Oriental ExhibitiOD, namely, tables, chairs, &c., 
of European design, executed in India, and honey- 
combed with carving and piercing. These honible 
productions have too often offended the eyes of the 
admirer of Oriental art, and are here most specially out 
of place. 

In 1867, a quantity of this decorated furniture was 
sent for exhibition in Paris, but was very propesly 
placed entirely out of sight. 

To conclude, the exhibition is completed by three 
cases of articles of the greatest beauty and rarity, leni 
by various private persons, and almost exclusively of 
Japanese origin. Here are small specimens of the most 
famous ceramic wares, red and oukcr laquered articles, 
of tho finest finish; jade, rock crystal, and other 
carvings, and other examples of the highest Japanese 
decorative art 

The Oriental Exhibition will remain open for some 
time, so that those who are devoted to, or only admire, 
the m irvellous ingenuity of the art- workman of the 
Far £4st will h'we ample opportunities of visiting it, 
and wUl find an automal day none too long for a 
careful examination of the collection. 

Ti^nma Exhibition. ^According to a Swiss paoer, the 
diplomas obtained at the Exhibition bear the foilowiag 
proportion to the population of the several countries : — 
Switxerland, one per 108,006 inhabitants; Belgium, 
one per 250,000; Germany, one per 410,000; Austn^* 
Hungary, one per 433,000; France, one per 462,000; 
Holland, one per 650,000 ; Sweden and Norway, one per 
655,000 ; Denmark, one per 900,000 ; Ghmat Britain, one 
mr 1,222,000; Italy, one per 1,405,000; Hussia (in 
Kaiopt) one per 3,550,000, 



In Buenos Ayres it is stated that 2,910 houses, 
or one-tenth the total numbw of the houses in the oity,eigoy 
the water supply. 

The new buildings of Owens College, Man- 
chester, of which Mr. Watarhovae is the architect, will be 
opened during the next month. 

Among the latest projects broached in America 
is that of taking oil in pipes from the petroleum regions to 
tlie sea-board. 

The Commission of Enquiry on the proposed 
tunnel between Dover and Calais will be opened immediately, 
the neceaaary order having been sent by the French Oovem- 
teat to the Prefect of the jDepartment of Pas de Calius. 

A system of tramways is to be oonstnioted at 
Versaiiiea. The network ia ariikcipally iatsnded to unite 
the stations of the Western of France at Versailles with the 
palaoa of the National Assembly and the Trianon. 

The Glasgow Bewage Coaunittee hare reported 
to the Town Couneil that, aftar all thsir eaperiments, they 
oannot reoommead any plan lor the pnrifloatioii of the Clyde, 
■a they snggast that a Boyal Conmisaion shonkl be apolied 
for in Older to obtain the •fidaaea of sons eaifasat 
mlhoritles. 



HINTS TO COL0NI81B OX THB CUUSTVA^ 

TK>N OF SILK. 

Bj B. Yranois Cobb, 

fCbnimtted firom page 92AJ, 

In esmnsBciaga mulberry plantatioB it is impeialive 
that the land shcmld be well brelran up and aerated, and 
that roots and stabble should be get nid oU 

In virgin soilsespeeially there are alwajrs a great many 
germs of dsAsreot plants, and for .the first year the land 
must bo kept clean, so as ta give the yonng mnlbeny 
cottiags every advantare. After the first year they 
can take care of themsmves, and kill down most other 
things that grow aboot them. Wherever the '* bush" 
grows Uiick, there is a certainty of the mnlbei r y tree 
doing well, and a little extra labour in tha beginainff, in 
clearing, grubbing ap toots, and preparing the land lor 
the plough, is w^ spent, and will repay the labourer* 

In cases where the nnlberrT is to be utilised for other 
purposee, as wc41 as to yield leaves, saoh as to proteot 
young coffee or cotton firom stton^ winds, the mode of 
planting out must accommodate itself to the pur|»ose8 
for which it is required ; bat where a plantation is to 
be made, the land should be well jdooghed first, and 
then furrows ploughed the length of the field, if poa- 
sible, in the same direction as tiie prevailing winds blow. 
In countries where north-east and south-west monsoons 
blow for six months each way, of ooutse the lines should 
be north-east and south-west; but, in other plaoes, 
colonists must form their own opinions of the most pre- 
valent winds. The olriect of this is to allow the air to 
permeate among all the trees, and in tropical or aessu 
tropical climates this is of .great advantage, for where it 
is not so. the upper surface of the mulberry leaf has a 
tendoicy to acquire a homy consistency, which readers 
it unfit for food for the worms. On the slopes of hills it 
is a matter of le s s er moaaeot ; but even thm it is desit- 
able. 

The soil and locality mast guide ttie plaatc^ to a great 
extent as to the number of trees he plants in an acre, 
but the two extremes may be taken at 400 and 1,000 ; ia 

setting out the rows of cuttings what is called the *S)ai»- 

c c a M 
cunx arrangement" • e^a^ is a very good one to 

follow ; but in planting trees in rows, plant two or even 
three at six feet, and the next at twelve feet, the use of 
the twelve feet being to eeonomise labour in the gather- 
ing the leaves, as well as to drive a plough through 
occasionally, and lighten the soil, besides the advantage, 
if made in the course of the prevailing winds, of letting 
the air through. 

It should be borne in mini that it is not sufficient that 
the tree should flourish when left alone, it is placed in the 
position it occupies in order that it may be subjected to 
a most trying and severe ordeal, viz., that of having its 
lungs torn off— an operntion which, if continued without 
respite, would destiay the tree. 

There are three methods of propagating the mulberry 
— by seed, by layers and by cuttings : of these, the last 
is considered the beat ; but there are circumstances under 
which either of the others may be preferable. As regards 
propagating by seeds and nurseries, one must be^^ at 
the beginning and first catoh one's seed, and this is not 
so easy as it at first sight appears. The Cape Govern- 
ment nas gone to some considerable expense and trouble 
in getting seed from France ; but our own experience 
coincides generally with the results of their experiments, 
and we would advise southern colonies to obtain seed 
from other southern colonies rather than from Europe, 
the voyage from colony to colony not haying the same 
effect on seed genially as croaaing the line has. It is 
difficult to say exactly whan or how the loss of vitaliW 
occurs; but it is a fiust that seeds like that of the mul- 
betry appear to lose their power to germinate, and wheth« 

tha Toyaga be shorttnai by aateasm's paaMge or not* 



860 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABTS, SKPTSMBn 26, 1878. 



the lesolt leemB to be the same. Bat there are colonies 
in the Bonth where the mnlbenry seed is all that can be 
desired, and the means of* sending it from colony to 
colony are simple. Natal and the Maoritiiis both send 
sugar to Austedia, and both can tfupply the seeds of 
good descriptions of the mulberry tiee. One of the 
siinplest meUiods of preparing the seed is as follows: — 

C&oose the fruit of those trees which hare not been 
stripped of their leaves that year, or eren the year 
before, if possible. Mulberries, the seed of which is 
intended to be kept, should be gathered perfectly •ripe, 
which may be known by the iruit beginning to ftUl 
from the trees, by its soffaness, and, if examined closely, 
by the kemcd being completely ripened in the small shell 
which encloses it It is a very good plan to shake the 
tree moderately erery day from the time the fruit begins 
to ripen, until the beet of the fruit is gathered. 

These mulberries should be spread thinly on a clean 
table in some airy, cool place, in order that they should 
attain their full ripeness; they should be turned fre- 
quently to prevent fermentation or heating. After 
treating them thus for three or four days, let them be 
soaked in water until tiiey break easily in the hand, and 
thus dissolve, so that the grain is separated from the 
pulp which mixes with and floats on the water. After 
Doing briBkly stirred in several waters, the beet seed will 
sink to the bottom, while the pulp remaining will float 
on the top, and may be poured ofL The seed should 
then be spread on cloths or blotting paper, and dried in 
a shady, auy place, stining and turning it frequently to 
prevent heating, which it has a tendency to do ; and if 
Dy any accident it should do so, even to a small extent, 
it may as well be condemned at once, and thus save 
further disappointment and trouble. When thoroughly 
dry, it should be put into a moderately tight vessel, and 
kept in a dry place. 

In propagating from seed, it is necessary to prenare a 
nursery for the young seedling; a rich alluvial soil, 
where it can be had, or a numured soil well watered, 
must be got ready for the reception of the seeds. 

A method which saves much trouble, and rarely fails 
where it can be put in practice properly, is this : — Hav- 
ing prepared the nursery and du^ a series of little 
tr^iches 3 to 6 inches deep, take a piece of old, rotten, 
nntarred rope, or a small hayband, or something of the 
same rough and soft description, and, having cut it the 
same length as the trenches, take a handful of the rii>e 
fruit and rub it up and down the old rope until it is 
smeared pretty equally with the ripe mulberries ; now 
place it in tiie trench, and, having covered it up, keep it 
well watered for some days, and continue to do so in a 
lesser degree until the seedlings make their appearance 
above ground. 

This is rather a lazy method, and, like most lazy 
habits, has its concomitant evils. The seedlings m^ 
come up too thick, and required to be thinned out If 
the rope does not rot readily, it causes a difficulty in 
transplanting the young roots, which will be found en- 
tangled in the rope ; but, for a colonist, it carries the 
great inducement of saving labour and time. The care- 
fully dried seed, on the other hand, can be mixed with 
sand, and by this means the danger of sowing too thickly 
will be entirely avoided. 

Planting by layers is the surest, but at the same time 
the slowest, of ail methods ; it may, however, be com- 
bined with the others, and where large plantations are 
to be raised with as great speed as possible, all methods 
should be used at the same time. 

This method of bending a young branch into the 
ground, and staking it down, is so well known that it 
scarcely ne«ids here a len^^y description : the objection 

rierally raised against it is, that when the time arrives 
sever the connection with the parent tree, it leaves 
t^o <^flr8pring weak and sickly, until it has recovered 
•uffloient strength to get over the loss of the dependanoe 
it has hitherto had upon the parent main-roots, and this 
causes additional delay, as, untU the plant has thrown 



out a full quantity of roots of its own, it will not bear 
stripping of its leaves. 

The best method, especially for oar ooloniea, is by 
cuttings. It really seems as if in most colooiei the 
size of the cutting did not matter much, provided it bad 
perfect wood formed, and contained either small brasses 
with buds, or buds upon the cutting itsell The 
cuttings may be any convenient length, 12 to 20 tac^a^ 
and should be plimted two-thirds in the ground and 
one-third out Once planted, it is of the greatest ta- 
portance that they be wate^d constantly; indaed,so 
necessary is this, that when the watering is diflSeolt to 
attend to, it is advisable to plant the cuttinga in a motit, 
damp soil, and after the roots are developed, reaeve 
them with sufficient earth about them to |ire^reat the 
roots being laid bare, or their position alt^^ ; evea 
then it is necessary to water after the transplantatiaB. 
Winter or before the rainy season sets in is the beet tiae 
to plant out In very <fry, hot climates probably the 
system of lasers may be better, for the reason that Uja* 
do not require so much watering; but local circmn- 
stances alter matters of thii sort so much that in this, 
as in many other cases, the planter most be the best 
jud^ of what times and methods are the most suitable 
to ms particular locality. 

Another method of propagating the mulberrr is by 
transplanting parts of the roots of old trees ; bat this is 
a system which colonists in new countries will have littk 
chance of attempting, although a five year old tree viQ 
be found to part with a portion of its roots withoal 
injury to the tree, and in some cases, where the rooCs 
have Decome very extended frt>m being in poor aoil, aad 
manure has been applied about that pc^on from whence 
the root was removed, the tree has appeared to be 
benefited b^ the operation. In dry, sandy soils the 
mulberry wiU^ send its roots great lengths in seardi of 
moisture, to the detriment, frequently, of adjoiniftg 
shrubs ; and so in coffee plantations, where the mulberry 
has beoi used as aprotector of the young oofr«e frtn 
the prevailing winds, the time will come when the mul- 
berry must be removed, or it will destroy the coffee. A 
root if put into good soil, wiU sometimes send up three 
or four shoots, which may be allowed to remain far the 
purpose of obtaining cuttings when Uiey are thinned 
out. 

But a good cutting, which has taken kindly to the 
place it has been planted in, is generally a stro:3ger and 
better shrub at two years than a seedling or ztxXling si 
three. 

The following may be considered as general mka, 
subject to some modification from the effects of difEerat 
climates and soils : — 

The leaves of a full grown tree contain more ulk- 
producisg properties than those of a young one. 

The largest sized leaves are from trees two to fbar 
years old, and these become smaller as the tree a|:«a 
Large leaves are not necea'«arily the best, they genenfiy 
contain too large a proportion of water. 

Leaves that are spotted or mildewed ehould ht 
avoided; but where food is scarce, rust-spotted kaves 
may be given, as the worms will eat round these spols 
without touohing them. 

The worst leaves, and those which alwa>*8 ii.jiu« the 
worms, are such as have what is called *' manna** upce 
them, or are wet from dew or rain, or have been heated 
from having been packed in too great quantitka, aod 
left too long before being spread out 

Great care should be taken to prevent the leavea heft- 
ing shortly after being gathered, as fermentatton rapidly 
sets in, and quickly altexB the saccharine and other com- 
ponent parts, consequently, leaves should not be allowed 
to remain long oomnressed in the baskets or sacks ia 
which they are placed when gathered. 

The colder the dimate, the Isss frequently abould Iht 
leaves be stripped, and oare should be taken to letve tiM 
young trees sufficient leaves to keep tip the circtilstioB. 



JOUBNAL OF TBE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Septimbib £6, 1878. 



861 



SPUN SILK. 

The foUowiogpaper waa read by Mr. S. 0. Lister, before 
Section ii (Mechanical Sdenoe) of the British Aasocia 
lion, oo Monday, the 22Dd inst. : — 

The trade of Bradford has hitherto been almost ei- 
doflively confined to the maonfactore of goods made fiom 
combed wool, technically termed ** worsted goods." It has 
lon^ been felt ttiat it would be advantageous to the town 
if othet tndes could be introduced, as it is very evident 
that If tlie worsted basinets 's not prosperous the whole dis- 
trict most sofler, since these tiwns which have the greatest 
varie*y of manufactures may always hope to have the 
greatest prosperity and stability, a*, whilst one trade may 
be adventely affected, another may be prosperous, and so 
act aa a counterpoise. It is for this rea«on amongst others 
thai the recent mtroduction cf spun silk, on a large scale, 
at Maoningham mills, mty be considered a<t highly 
t>eneficial to the town. It will aho facilitate the oombi 
nation of silk wi'h worsted, whereby a higher cla*-8 oi 
goods may be obtained. 

S*.>me e-^iimare may be formed of the diflSculty with 
which this attempt is beset by reference to the character 
of the material when compared with wool, cotton, and 
Sax, the treatment of which by mechanical means has 
been attended with so many ditficulties. 

Silk, which, according to the best authority, may be 
regarded a^ a gum exuding from the worm, is produced 
as a continuous film pres^ through an infinitesimally 
imall aperture, just as gutta-percha thread is produced by 
preanng ttiat material through hol*;s by the pressure of a 
die. 

The length of fibre constituting a ooooon is stated by 
Count Dandrilo (probably the highest authority on this 
mbject) a** about 650 > aros. Such a length of fibre cannot, 
i^f course, be dealt with as spua silk, for which purpose it 
mast be broken down in'o convenient lengths. Some 
lifTerence of opinion exists ss to whether the thread of silk 
.instituting the coaoon i'*, to to ^>eak, cut or broken, or 
joly poshed aside for the emergence or extrusion of the 
motb» bat the experience of silk winders, that with care 
the eame lengths o' fibre m ly l)e obtained from the pierced 
la froai the onpierced cocoon, leads to the cvnelusion that 
Lhe thread is not cut or I roken, but only thrust aside. 
Whether this emergence is or is not facilitated by a fluid 
?mittt:d from the animal is a subject deserving the atten- 
[>»a of the phy^iologist. 

The cocoon, besides the continuous thread constituting 
IS interior mass, has an external coa'ing or covering ot 
ioa^ or waste hilk, hitherto cooridered as refuse, and not 
reated by mechanicsl means. In the throwing or ordinary 
treatment of the thread of »ilk from thecoc )on, waste silk 
4 also pro luced, w.iich, except as to the waste fro n the 
■etrer deocription of ^ilk, ha<< generally bi^en considered 
ID t dealt 7iih as rubbish. From these two sources Isrge 
liian itiee of waste silk may be obtained, which, though 
iJtlierio considered as rabt*ish, is nojr being sucoessfUlly 
;rKated by mechanical means, so th%t waste silk which a few 
rrSLTA ^go waa sold at Is. 2d. per lb., is now selling a( from 
U. to do. a pound, and imported annually t>y thousands of 
ule9. 

Shoold the experiment now in progress at Manntngham- 
oilLs be aucces^ful, as there is every prospect of its tieing, 
rtnployment will be aflforded to from 4,000 to 5,000 
>eraooF, in workios up what has hitherto been a refuse 
ato a aaeful and elegant manufacture. 

We may also anticipate the establishment, or rather the 
e-eatablishroeot in this country of the velvet trade, and 
iik bat- plush ttade, now carried on abroad by band 
abooreritf, in placet in which manual labour is veiy low- 
uicedy and able to compete snoceasfyilly with the imperfect 
naohinexy hitherto employed in those trades. 

Betuming to the contrast of silk with wool, cotton, or 
Ux, H may be obaerved with reference to these liMt- 
lAzned sabetaoeea, that wool oonsitts of serrated fibres of 



from 4 to 15 inches, having ftom 1,560 to 2,700 serra- 
tions in an inch, Ufon which Its felting I'roperty depends ; 
that cotton consittsof fibres of from 1 to lj[ inches in 
length, not serrated; an<t that flax strands connist of 
alternate fibres held together by gum, of fiom about one- 
eighth of an inch, as in the Formium tenaz from New 
Zealand, to 2) inches, as in the Belgian flax. 

The mechanical treatment of these last three sub- 
stances is known as combing, «cardii>g, and I ackling. 
The shorter staples of wool are subjected to cardiiig, ae a 
preparatory process. 

The use of the screw gill for a preparatory process in 
treating wool contributed much to tlie great success during 
the present omtuiy of wool-combing by niachiner)', 
the result of which has been to rt^duoe the co t fn m 
2)d. to }d. in ordinary wool, and from 2d. to }d. 
per lb. in the best descriptions of Botaity wool; to 
this, however, mu^t be added the saving of loss due to 
pilfering, also the saving of the cof>t and labour of ex- 
amining each lot of wool as brought back comtied lo the 
warehouse, from which it had been taken to be combed 
by hand labour. This great economi.-al achiivement 
results from the fact that machinery admits of 
work of the lowest commercial \aUie toeing made of 
nearly equal value with the highest ; ro that the wool of 
the whole woild is now availabL' f^r the woif«ted manu- 
facture. 

The nrocess of treating the waste silk fwm 'he cocoon 
is a^ follows: — The waste nlk is placed in lar^e vessels 
capable of holding (torn 600 lbs. to 800 Jbs. of the WKsre, 
which is saturated in dilute soap and water, at a tempe- 
rature of about 170** Fahr. Atter a few days immersion, 
fermentation takes place, which is allowed'to continnc 
from 10 to 20 da>s. according to the nature of the ►ilk 
under treat'uent. It is th^-n removed from the bath, and 
passes through rotatory washing rollers (>uch a^ fve us* d 
in th^ wool processes) and thorviughU »coiiied and 
cleansed. For special purpcees, as for producing per- 
fectly white yams, the ►ilk u boiled fur three or four 
hours in soap and wat r, until the whole of t'te gum 
is effectually discharged. The silk is then thoroMguly 
dried. The next pro^^is that of preparation for the comb, 
by the use of screw- gill«. 

As waste is worth comparatively little, no efTort inspired 
by the nett-silk p'oducer to reduce it to a >• iniinum. It 
is therefore evident that the spun-silk tra le must le 
ciroQmscri»>ed to the quantity made ; bevond that it is 
at present impossible to go, and for that rea^oti ii is tlie 
smallest of all the textile manufactures. For 4,000 y»^ars 
past silk has been treated by one process only, namely, 
that of winding from the cocoon. It is the natural cour* e 
of things, as, hy that mean*, although expensiv- and 
tedious, a continuous thread is obtained, wtii«h hai a 
lustre and stren^'U that cannot be eqtiaUed bv atty other 
system. Recently, however, effort** have t>een and are 
now being made by Messrs. Lister and Co. to gr«iw 
cocoons to be treated altogether by spun-silk machinery, 
their idea being that for those to whom pric^f i- no object 
silk will continue to be treated as heretofor*, I ut for the 
million, where price is everything, it will in future be 
produced by spun-silk machinery. How far they may 
or may not be right, time will show ; but, if they should 
succeed, instead of being, as it now is, the sulalle^t of om 
textile manufaotore-, it would, during the iiexi half- 
century, in all probability, take rank in value next to 
that of cotton. 

The machinery ordinarily used for »pun silk is much 
the Fame as that for flax. The first procefs after the gum 
has been discharged, or partially so, is technically termed 
** dressing,*' which is synonymous to that of ** hackling'' 
in flax, and the machines used are similar. The material 
under prooe^s is held in *' books," or other holders, and 
worked by teeth until suflkiently cleared from imporitieji. 
It is then taken to the drawing. f ram e«, and roved and 
■pun. These processes, as they are well understood and 
extennvely pnotlsed, require no farther notice here. 



852 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETY OF ARTS. SaraMBU '^ 1878. 



Me«rt. Lifter uid C(k bav«, during a iiiiabeT of y«aiB» 
fpent large sumt of OMOwgr (nMrly a quarter of a milUon) 
in perfictmg tho various procMaet fur trtaUng ttlk-MniiU, 
and have taken several palenta fur the sawe. The moot 
important machines are those iisad for ooosU^f , of whioh 
there are five, each adapted l'(»r apeoial d««c«iptioBB of 
work. It ii well known that tbe oonUiig of weol wat a 
task of no ordinary diffiouUy, and sngsgvd all the eacrgy 
and talent of the trade, for half a century before it was 
finally act-omplished ; but the diAioultie^ of treatiug and 
working silk are a hundred-fold grest«'r. Of this there 
can be no better proof than the f^.-t that, wJisrvss there 
are a dozen succesftful wool combing mach'n^s, there are 
no silk contbs, excepting those worked at Manaingham. 
Although the su'ti expended appears to be large, still it is 
not so v\hen we know that more thau double the money 
was spent on wool-coaibiiig by various inventors and the 
trade generally. 

At the present lime we may cons'der the comb'ng of 
silk an accomplished fact; ^till iUe setni-hand process of 
dres^ing is able to rival, and even, in some descr.ption^ of 
silk waste, to beat the cooib. This must always b.* the 
case where machinery supplants diflQcult and delicate hand 
proi*e>s«s, but eventually machinery Aust trinnph, be- 
cause manual labour is stationary, wh^-reas mechanic il 
contrivance!* are always progressive. It is the hame with 
the patent velvet loom, another of Messrs. Lister and Co. 's 
spe« ialities; it u making slow but sure progress, whilst the 
hand loom continues unchanged — it is now, as it ever has 
been, one of the most irksome and tedious machines coo- 
ceiva*>le. The patent loom has co^t a considerable sum 
of m ney, but with patience and perseverance we believe 
it is destine^} to give us baok the velvet trade, which we 
have altiios' altogether lost. Is mode of action is entirely 
ditTereut from that of the hand-loom, but I cannot pos- 
Fib'.y describe it 8ati>f4ctorily without the aid of drawings. 
I may observe thit the works at Manningham are per- 
hap-* not so remit kable for their ezt nt (although by far 
the largest si k mills in Europe), as because they will be 
chiefly engag^-d in manufkciuring articles tliat icaroely, if 
at sll, are made elsHswhere in iilngland. such a^ velvets, 
hat plush, and ribbon velvets. Before closing this paper, 
a short description of these works may not be devoid of 
interis . 

Tiiey will have a fiontage of 3^0}ardsanHratonroad, 
and 150 in d^-pth, thus covering an area of about 52,000 
square yards. The mill will con^aio 18,000 square yards, 
and the warehouse 15,000, together about 28,000 yards. 
There sre eight engines, of abo«t &,500 indioated horse- 
power; and, when all the maehioery is runidng, will 
employ from 3 to 4,000 workpeople. On the opposite si ie 
of the road, that is, on the east side, there i^ a larg«i pisee 
ot v.ic^nt land, containing an area of 40,000 yard^, upon 
whicii it U intended at a favourable time, that is, when 
bull J ing materials are cheap, and the pr.»ent concern is 
oiganise*! and fuUv at work, to build another mill and 
weaving shed, capable of doing the work which is at pre- 
sent performed at Halifax and Adding Warn mills. This 
concrDtration of the busi&esi would increase the house- 
power to about 5,000, and also increase the hands to 5 to 
0,000. W (>n the works are thu-^ completed there will be 
room for 1,()00 velvet loomo, 8 to 10,000 |daiu silk, and 
3 to 400 ribbon looms. 

There will also be s*;veral hundred spinning frsiaes, 
mules, doubling frames, co ubiog machines, siid other 
ma hinery. 

In conclusion, I would reoMiric that I have in vain 
sought for any d-^sorip'ion of the manner in which the 
silk is produ<-ed by the worm. I am quite aware that 
it is in the fir.-«t instance in a state of gum, and that it 
exudes through two orifices by (1 supp<iee) the mechanioal 
pressure of the worm, but how the gam is converted into 
silk is, I confess, a mysteiy to me. I make these re- 
marks hopioK that some one who may have given hm 
attention to the subject may be able to »»plaiq the maonar 
in which it it aoeouipUahed, At tho pcesant lino iharo 



are tons ( f si k noils too short Cor spinning purposes, a&d if 
it could be ascertained by what chemi^^l agency the gvs 
is ooovertod imo sttk, we might Umm hc^* tbat nsrsw 
might be (oaad to reconvert tho siUl noil into gum, amd 
in that manner lead up to a oew manufacture, an-l lar- 
fully employ that whldi is now of Htrte t&hir. 



DB. SISUBNS OK FUBL. 

On Satnrd^ evening last, a leeteM, "* Go Fad," ra 
delivered at Bradford, to a woridng^elsos andiaM^, bj 
Br, Siemens. Tho lecturer divided nio s^^eot ioto fin 
prinoipal heads : — 1. What is fuel ? 2. Woesce is tuH 
derived? 3. How should fuel be uaedP 4. Tbe coal 
question of tho day. 5. Wherein ooossla the fmel of Ut 
sunP 

Fuel, in the ordinarv acceptation of tho tcsm. is 
carbonaceous n^atter, which may be in Dm o^id, the 
liquid, or in the gaseous condition, and which, in oaa> 
bining with oxvgen, eivee rise to the phenooenofi ci 
heat. Ck>mmonly speaking, this developaMQt of bst 
is accompanied by flame, because the oobotancs pn- 
duced in combustion is gaseous. Bat oooabostioa is act 
necessarily accompanied by flame, or even by a dia^j 
of intense heat. This was shown bv numerooa expen- 
ments, so that any substance might be called fool wkick 
is capable of entering into combination with angShtf 
substance, and in so doing gives rise to tho phenomaA 
of heat. In thus defining mel, it might appoor at ir« 
sight that we should find upon our earth a great rineCy 
and an inexhaustiblo supply of substancoe that migltt 
be ranged under this head, but a closer inreotigatica 
would soon reveal the fact that its supply is cxtrawlr 
limited. Coal alone presents itself as carbon ami hydio- 
sen in an unoxidised condition. Am to tho aootte cf 
fuel, the lecturer urged that it could only be oV 
tained from the result of the sun*s aotion on the ^irtL 
When our present stores were exhaustod we might 
perhaps, utilise the direct heat of the sun, bat we ooaU 
never expect electricity to supply our wants. 

On the question of the proper use of fuel. Dr. ^asoj 
illustrated this by three examples, which, he o^id, mftt 
typical of the three great branches of conaomptioo, vis.. 
a. The production of steam power, b. The docoeetf 
hearth, e. The metallurgical furnace. Ho showed ha« 
economy in the production of steam power wma tSetuC 
by improved mechanical arrangementa, and iUoiftratn^ 
this by reference to the Corless variable expansion p-t 
in domestio fire-places. He showed how a ■ra^^*' c&it 
might be obtained by the use of Captain QaUct i 
stove.* In metallurgy he described his own furt...- 
These all exemplified methods of economising c.«- 
sumption. 

On the coal question Dr. Siemens spoke as i<dkm — 

In takiu the 105 mlUlon toos of coal ooasomed ia tak mmr'r' 
last year fur oar basis, I estimate that if we oooM rmake ^••r 
minds to consume onr coal in a oareful and J«Hq kKi» minir. «: 
oordiiig to cor present lights, we should ba able t« wJmml xh^fm- 
sumption by 60 million tons. The rtaHaaflnn of each as mmmm3 
would certainly involve very considerable expendluor of 
and most be a work of time. Bnt what I conteod is, tkai aer 
grass in effeoUng eeonony oaght to ba aoee i s ra lt d In owl er to < 
bliah a l>alance between the present prodocUiia an4 tat i 
Increasiog demand for the effects of heat. In looking 
statistical returns of the progressive increase of popaladQa, « 
powar employed, and of the increaaed p rod— n oa eC inm a 
A«., we find that our aeaessitles liifiiasi at tlM imSa of i^ . 
10 per cent, per aannrn, wliereaa our ooal 
only at .the rate of 4 per cent., showing that the telaac* tf S v^ 
cent, is met by what may bo oallod oer '* fait ail imf 
Now^ eoosldertng the mmmcm maigla for lausmamwi 
I oontand that wa ahoold not rest satiiflad with tUs ral 
lectoal progress, which inTolred an annual dcAeit o< t4.0iSi|B^ ^ t| 
be met by iucreased ooal conanmpttou, bat that w^akottd 
iatelleotaal progress np ta the rate of o«r iaaHliiU |M«aw^^] 
which maans weahonld naka the ooal produetlao 
quantity for several generatloos to ooote, by 
successors may be expected to have sflteted 




• Foradeasrip«looorMsslov%sss1l» 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Sbptbmbbr 26, 1873. 863 



ilvance toward the theoretical limit of effect, which, as we hare 
een, layi lo fkr above any actual resolt which we have as yet at- 
ained to, that an annual contamption of 10 million tons would give 
acre than the equivalent of the kinetic energy which we actually 
onsume. 

He lasUy glanced slightly at the question of the re- 
^neration of the sun's heat upon its surface, saying that 
he sun might be looked upon in the light of a gigantic 
urnace, in which the same materials oi combustion are 
ised over and oyer again. 



SCIENCE TEACHING AT THE UNIVERSITIES. 

The third report of the Commissioners on Scientific 
nstruction and the Advancement of Science is devoted 
o an examination of the resources now available for 
cientific instruction at Oxford and Cambridge, and the 
nanner in which those resources are applied. As it is 
n the nature of ^uch a commission to inquire and report, 
ather than to suggest alteration and reform, the chief 
aterest in the recently-published Blue-book lies in the 
act that it provides an exhaustive summary of the present 
ondition of things. The proposals of the commissioners 
ire, of course, of a tentative sort, and merely such as 
night prepare the way for future change. 

Although they comd not avoid touching, here and 
iiere, on various topics only accidentally connected with 
he subject of their investigations, — such as questions re- 
ating to the tenure of fellowships, the proposed scheme 
for the examination of first gprade schools b^ the universi- 
,iefl, and other kindred matters — the commissioners have, 
n. the main, strictly confined themselves to the investi- 
ion of the state of scientific instruction, properly so- 
ialled, mental and moral science, of course, being ex- 
cluded. The folio wing was the classification they adopted 
a collating and condensing the evidence submitted to 
hem : — 

I. The courses of study and the examinations. 

II. The professoriate. 

III. The scientific institutions within the universities. 

IV. The colleges. 

V. The relation of the universities to technical edu- 
cation and to education for scientific professions. 

VI. The duty of the universities and the colleges with 
•e^rd to the advancement of science. 

With regard to the courses of studv, the first question 
taken up, that of matiiculation examinations, or the pro- 
posed substitute, an examination corresponding to the 
German AbHurienten fxamen^ to be conducted by the 
ani versitiee at the schools, has no very special connection 
with scientific, as distinguished from literary culture. It 
mriv be sufficient to observe that the approval of the 
commissioners is, for various reasons, given to the 
'* Lroaving examination." As to the proposed arrange- 
[nonts for the scientific curriculum, one great point to be 
lecided is this — should '* arts " (literw humaniores) and 
science be kept distinct, so that from his first entrance the 
itadent should fix upon his choice, and follow it separately 
to the end ? The present idea — though the idea is per- 
tiaps a dying one — is that the students should be encou- 
raged to make their range of work as wide as possible at 
first, and should afterwards devote themselves to one 
special branch. Till within the Inst few years — and this 
is more specially true of Cambridge — there were only two 
recognised branches of study, classics and mathematics. 
For the first year the undergraduate was expected to 
devote himself to both alike. For the two next years 
his time was to be devoted to that one subject which he 
found best suited to his powers and his tastes. Such 
was the scheme of both university and college examina- 
tions. The ** previous examination " includra both sub- 
jects, and so did the first year college examinations. 

Aa the science of mathematics grew, it was foimd 
that those who hoped for the first place in the tripos 
must derote the whole of their university course to the 
one study, and this practically they did, though without 



encouragement firom either university or college 
arrangements. Then the importance of pbyiscal science 
began to make itself felt, but only as an adjunct. Pe- 
grees in science alone are still looked npon as only a 
valuable addition to the old degrees in arts ; they have 
not yet received their due appreciation, and nntil qmte 
lately it has never even been suggested that science alone 
should qualify for a university degree. The opinions 
offered by those examined before the Commission 
were very various on this point. Some urged that suf- 
ficient general education might be expected from schools^ 
and that for the higher culture the whole three years of 
the university course should be devoted to one branch 
alone ; also, that work enforced on a student against his 
inclination was always unprofitable to him. Utder* 
argued that the university degree should be a mwrk ot 
more than proficiency in one department of knowledge 
only. To Uiis view the commissioners themselves lean, 
for, while decUning to express an opinion as to the 
desirabUity of requiring from every university student 
of science a certain amount of Greek and liatin, 
they say that they consider it essential that some evi- 
dence of literary culture should be required by the um- 
versity from every student; and, they add, "In the 
interests of science itself wo should not be disposed to see 
the standard of literary attainment which is expected 
from the scienUfio student placed at too low a level. 
Rather, we regret that a principle so sound in itself 
should receive only a one-sided application; and ad- 
mitting, as we do, that literary cultivation up to a cer- 
tain point is indispensabb for the scientific student, we 
are of opinion that, in like manner, evidence of corres- 
ponding scientific culture should be required from the 
student of classical literature or of theology. This 
might be effected by means of an examination Uke that 
of the «» Previous examination" or " Responsions.^^ 
The idea of a degree, to be called " Bachelor of Science, 
is naturally condemned on the groimd that its mere 
novelty would render it inferior, at least in Public esU- 
mation, to the well-known " Bachelor of Arts ; but the 
proposal for a Doctorate in Soience is looked upon with 
some favour. A suggestion that university scholwrships 
in natural sciences should be founded is of obvious 
utility, but it must also be remembered that the reason 
that existing university scholarships are so highly 
esteemed is that the competition for them is so great, and 
this competition arises from the fact that the subjects m 
which they are given are the same as those m which the 
highest university distincUon is to be gained. It^o^/d 
be long before a natural science scholarship could take 
rank with the Hertford or the IreUnd. The umversity 
prizes for special subjecto never attract very large com- 
petition, highly as they are valued as distinctions. 

It will not be necessary to s^y much on Part II. of the 
report, the Professoriate. The commissioners give a 
very complete analysis of the present scientific teachmg 
staff at Oxford and Cambridge, and of the suWwxts 
taught both by the professors and in the colleges. They 
also give, for purposes of comparison, a similar schedule 
relating to the University of Berlin. They recommend 
the appointment at either university, of several new 
professors for various subjects now insufficiently treated, 
and the establishment of one entirely new chair— applied 
mechanics and engineering. They propose---without 
exacUy stating how such an object is to be attained— 
that the professors should assume a larger shwe than 
they at present undertake of the teaching work of the 
university, nor would they agree to the separation of 
the duties of research and instruction. Some suggestaons 
are thrown out as to the election of the professors by a 
special board of scientific men, and for the formation of 
an administrative council of science. . ^. ., 

Part III. on " Scientific institutions within the mu- 
versities," merely gives an account of such establish- 
ments, with hmte for their improvement. They are, as 
it is needless to remark, utteriy inadequate for the 
requiremento of tiie universities. 



8M 



JOURHAL OF THE 800IETT OF ABTS, B 



26, 187S. 



InreUtaon to tii*«oUegQ% with whioh Ptft IV. dMk, 
-UiA aHentkifi of tlie OomniMrifm was prmfiimlly directed 
to the ibUo viDg jMnte:--(I) The ■e hfi b rAip t ; (2) The 
feUowhice; (a) The«yi»tiiitioaof the mitxnction given 
in the ooUegee in releftftOQ to theiaetrvotioagiTenintiie 
iinivi«itiee; (4) CkntrihatioBe Iran the coUegee to a 
fond lor wiimMit/ impoiei. 

With regard to 1 andfl^ it was evident thai m £ur 
diare of the rewde for eaoeeMfal voriL wee not allotted 
to idence. An ofiiniom ie o«prceMd that it waa of 
gveat inportaaoe, wUh the view of ptoraoting the atndy 
of natural aeieoce in the ficat grade achook throoghont 
the oooatry, that th«e abonld be an imm e diate , and 
nltimat^y a large, ineveaae in the nomber of ac^olar- 
aluM offered for thia wihject by the ooUegea. 

The question of fdlowahipa waa a lar^ one, and oonld 
hardly be treated from the adentifie aide alone. Ulti- 
Diately the Goouniaaionera pd forward the following aa 
the chief pnrpoeee to which, in their jodgmeott the 
ahonM be 



diftcotttM lfl« wiriek aleoA tetts-e^oC aey atl«ul te #» « 
oomplrte adncailoo Is ctvll iinliiaeilif ai iktm TTiimiiki 
Aeooffdiac to the evldcaee wUdIi v« hft^s tekaa, ao mmk. of tkk 
ilf ttoo moat of nwowMtry be pficticaL thai & comptot* tiakiinl 
ednatiao la en^Deerteg oaaoot potsibly be ^ireB ia e tow UiftU 
there are no maootectaree. On the other haad, the prrf—faei «f 
o^ dvel eogt miml p g betfc i«qalra,ihoagliiadSltaa(t 
very thoroogh ead my eKtesilwe prriinitaMrT mimtMk 
trainiiiK; aad m theee pre fei riona the fjeeliay appears to be free^ 
that the highest possible derelopiBent liuKild be gireo to ttee 
prslhataary stodlsa. It Sa oar opteioD, thOTeA>re, mi fk 
mdremties duxild prorlde to the folleat SKtsat for the thsHilial 
Instrootioa of rach profeealonal stndenta. 

** There would ptobahljr ha bo dIAoalty In teeanas tka 
oluect, so far as the profearion of medldiie is ooaen-eed, if ite 
department of Uology In each of the tmlreraHies sboold hamtta 



** In the first pteoe a ceftsln bat not a very hvye p ro p ortloe of the 
MIowshIpe will be always required as ai prssent, for the payment of 
the persons entrusted with the management of the college estates, 
and with the government and adminlstrmtloa of the coU^:es 
themselves. 

^ Sccoodiy, a large namber of the IbUowshfps is at pr cee nf em- 
pl^tyed, aad probably a stUl larger number oagbt hereafter to be 
ompioyed, in connexion with theinstraction given in the colleges. 

•' Thirdly, a smaller, but still a considerable nnmher of fellowships 
ought to be employed as Terminable Priae Fellowahips. 

^ Fourthly, a cerain number of fellowsbipt ooght, as we have 
already said, to be united with professorsbit>s In the university ; the 
University professor becoming ex.qfkw a fellow of the college and 
a member of Its governing body. 

** Lastly, U Is, in our opinion, most important that a oertaia 
nambcnrof fellowships should Im appropriate*! to the direct promo- 
tion of learning and research in various directions." 

Thia is hardly the place to diacnaa the queation of 
fellowahip tenure into which tbe oommiaBionera found it 
needfal to enter. They had little to recommend, but 
they decided that what waa to be deaired in the intereata 
of natural science atudenta waa-not that the number of 
fellowahipa appropriated to them AeuM be immediately 
increased to any very great extent, but that they ahould 
be beetowed with more regularity than at preamit, and 
that their number should increaae proportionately with 
the number and cUdma of the atudenta. 

With regard to 3, they were not favourable to the 
proposal that eaoh coUege separately should inatatute a 
laboratory for educational purpoeea. The better aeherne 
seemed to be that of praviding a labocatery for a group 
of colleges, and this they thought ahould be done, proper 
provision being made for the due apportionment of work 
Detween college and university estaoliahmenta. LectursfB 
in natural science they would have at cmoe iq^poinM, 
but the plan of appropriating aeparate oollegea to scientific 
atudenta they could not approve. 

As to Part IV., the commissioners could only urge that, 
whenever the time mi^ht come when the collegee should 
be called upon to contribute to the university chest, a large 
proportion of such oontributiens should be devoted to the 
aid of scientific study. 

Part V, on "The relation of the universities to technical 
education, and to education for scientific profssaiona," doea 
not offer many novel views. The commisaionen urge the 
necessity that the university should lay itaelf out to pro- 
vide science teachers, a dasa now much requited. 

On the subject of tecdinical education, they expreas 
themselves as follows :— 

•• The principal professions for which extensive preliminary 
scientific studies are required, are, the profession of medicine, the 
professions of consulting and manufsoturing cbemlstry, and of civil, 
meohaoloal, and telegrsplilo engineering in all its various branches. 
IVlth regard to all of these the tendency of a great amount of the 
evidence which has been laid before us is to show that the Universities 
ought nut to undertake to give direct prof^sional or technical 
inetruotion. For example, the diAenlties In the wsy of making 
eitlier Oxford or Cambridge into a great School of Medicine are 
very oonsidersble. It is snffloient to advert to the size of the towns, 
and the consequent stnallness of the hospitals that could be placed at 
the disposal of the students, as one olroomstanue amongst maay 
which would render snob aa attempt aBadviisbla. Nor are the 



«*With regard to civU engineering at Cambridfe, the ^* 
sooian FrofeaKw gives » coarse of leetorea ou the Pit Ki ^ sT 
mechanism, and the pcofee ao r of experiraiaital phyiAci giw eoena 
on diiftrent bmnotaea of that sobjeet, tmt there is no pTttaair 4 
dvii engiaesring nakaa the Jaekaontan profaaior esa ta nfuM 
assooh. Tlie oaiy pceiimiaary fnarsftien thiit is cAwd hy>t 
University of Oxford is that to be obtained In the Hyde laaibSt; 
and considering the great nnmber of snl^ecta -mhkh hsn Is te 
laaght la that iaatttatton. It would be iDo asMh to espwi %ti » 
eoarae of Instractloa ooeld be |»ovlded there exactly ssini ts ftt 
wants of professional stadenta. The first step towards tascMif ihai 
wants would be to provide a profesaonAiip of dvfl ecgtaeertic***^ 
to pbMe soeh appliaaoes at the disposal of the proflMsors! ssafai 
eeahle him to give to stadeelstaaeBdtag to devote thcnKlvestsast 
pcoCssslon the same kiad of asrtstsnne which Is bow gtvta eUb « 
much ability and suoeess in Scotland at Edinbargh and Gtei(M* 
and in Ireland at Trinity CoUc^, and ia the colleges of tbe ipm^ 
Uahrenlty. 

The anbject of Part Tl., "The duty of the univmilia 
and the coUegea with regard to the advan<»oaii o( 
science," ia discussed at considerable length. The coia- 
missioners start by saying, that the j regard as a mun 
function of the universities the promotion of odgual 
work in science. They say : — 



** The proposals to which we attaoh the moct tmpoctssse eli^ i 
view to tbe enconrsgement of original research at Urn Uairwiltipw* 
~(1) The establishment of a complete seicBtiile pro fe sso ri sto ; Il> 
Tbe appropriation, under oertaln ooodittoaa, of MtoesMps tn tia 
maintenance of persons engaged in original rtecaieb. Bak i> 
addition to these m«in proposals, other suggestions ar« rertwiiini I? 
the evidence before us, to which we would call especial sttt-tt^-H t 
That laboratories should be founded expresriy intended for roes.*^ 
and for the training of advanced students in the methods of rmarA 

(2) That sclenUflc museums and oollectloos slwraikl be maba^lui f 
an extent be>ond what Is required for purely educatiooal parp«e> 

(3) That a doctorate in sdenee shouM be instltoted.** 

Such are the main suggestions of the report* ikmA 
it of course containa much for which no apace oa » 
found here. It is evidently a work of careful ttteu^ 
and the reault of conaiderable thought. What bow i«- 
mains to be seen is the effect its propositions v21 indtft 
in the universities themselves. 



THE BOYAL NAVAL OOLLEaE, ORSENWia 

The establishment of a naval oollttge at Gramviti 
recently only a suggestion for the utiliaation of tbe vscot 
bmldings so long recognised aa the abode of oar ««a- 
out seamen, has now become an »Aftftw^p^i^i>«<l fict. h 
ia a matter for congratulation that the fine naf^^ 
buildings, identified for upwards of two oeatiiM«i3k 
the naval history of England, should now be vd m 
a college for the higher education of the offioen of dhi 
navy. For some time past about fifky sub-lieabna^ 
have been located at .Greenwidiy and have bean naif- 
iug education in mattera relating to nangatioot M ft* 
college will not be opened fully until the lat of OklAv 
whcua some 250 officers will enter upon a oouna of il^r 
calculated to be of Tery great advantaipe to thsoi ia ftff 
profeaaion. 

The origin and aim of the college are biidT ■ 
follow^ : — Although at one time Greenwich Hospital wm 
tenanted by aa many aa 2,700 penaionera, yet amoa <te 
men have had the option of receiving their pcnainat tf^ 
living with their fnends, or of remaining ii^ itMAf^ff ^ 
Greenwich, they have moatly pseferred ue lanair tltar 
native, and hence the number living within tha ^k a 
the hoapital has rapidly deeceeaed, until oa the lail ooa- 



JOURNAL 09 THB SOOIBTT OF ARTS, Svptbmbvb 20, 1878. 



855 



OQ when tke men were alioirod to eltoose, in OdolMr, 
$69, only 81 4eoted to remain, and theee were moitly 
kTAlids, so thai the oorridors, dining-rooma, and 
)nmtori«a beoame nraotioaUy deserted. IIm in- 
ifficient promton for the thorough edaca^on of 
iTiI officers at Portsmooth prompted the 8ngg*eetion 
lat the batldings at Gtreenwioh would be extremriy 
etl adapted for Uie establishment of a complete 
[aval UniYersity. This suggestion met with very warm 
ipport from the most influential quarters^ and in 1870 
le Admiralty appointed a oommibtee on the *' Higher 
Idocatioii of Kaval Officers," and directed it to consider 
'hether it was desirable to limit the place of study to 
16 OoUe;^ at Portsmouth, or whet^r the vacant build- 
igs at Gtreenwidi could be utilised for the purposes of 
lucaiion. The evidence brought before the committee 
rent to show that the scientific tramtng of naval officers 
rifl fxe^edingly deficient, and that this deficienoy was 
} a great extent due te a want of the necessary facili- 
m for the systematic teaching of science ; and as the 
ommitte« believed that this branch of education is of 
ery great and growing importance, it embodied in its 
sport the proposal to add such opportunities and fkcili- 
iM for the instruction of officers in languages, chemistry, 
aetallurgy, geology, mineralogy, and naval tactics as 
light be necessary, at the same time fomishing, as 
eK>re, instruction in steam, mathematics, nautical astro- 
omy, and field fortification. One-half of the committee, 
idodin^ the Director of Naval Sducation, were strongly 
1 favoor of establishing such a college at Greenwich, 
lie matter however remained in abeyance until 1872, 
rhen another committee was appointed by the Admi- 
alty to report upon the suitableness of Greenwich 
losjpital for a navid college. This committee oonsisted 
I liord Gamperdown, Admiral' Tarleton, Dr. Woolley, 
Xrec t OT of Naval Eduoation, and Mr. Lovelaoe, as Sec- 
elary, and its report being fovourable, the necessary 
Iterations and changes in the buildings at Gkeenwioh 
r«re proceeded with. These changes oonsisted in an 
knost entire reconstruction of the interior of the bmld- 
Qg, together witii the formation of suitable lecture and 
Ini-rooms, two very fine and laige labomtoriee, one 
>r physical i : mce and one for chemistry, and a 
lUBeum for navul models, &c. These alterations are 
tfll not quite complete, although the woric is being 
aptdly pushed on. The School of Naval Architecture, 
t present located at South Kensington, will be absorbed 
1 the Greenwich College. A minute of the Board of 
admiralty, publinhed on January 12th, 1873, set forth 
be g^meral scheme of the college stating that the 
allege at Greenwich shall be so organised as to pro- 
ide for the education of naval officers of all ranks 
bove that of midshipman, in all branches of theoretical 
nd scientific study bearing upon their profession. The 
dvantages of the college will also be open to officers of 
)e mercantile marine. The number of students at the 
oHege will render it possible not only to carry out 
M tra o ti on by individual tuition, as hitherto, but to 
aeofo a staff of eminent professors to arrange lectures 
nd classes, and to provide . chemical and physical 
fcborntories on a scalo which has hitherto not been 
oasible in any naval establishment. The proposed 
g m i o s of study are divided into thirteen sections, oon- 
■tififf of the following subjects : — 1. Pure mathematics, 
»la«ng co-erdinate and higher pure geome^, and 
IBiBrential calculus of variations. 2. Applied mathe- 
wtica, viz., pneumatics, mechanics, optics, and t^e 
beortas of sound, light, heat, electricity, and magnetism. 
. AppKed mechanics, including the theory of structures, 
bs principles of mechanism, and the theory of madiines. 
. Mautioal astronomy, surveying, hydrography, wiUi 
writtme geogfraphy, meteorology, and chart drawing. 
. Experimental sciences ; («) physics, viz., sound, heat 
■A bght, eleotridty and magfnetism ; {b) ohemistry ; 
t) BMtalhirgy. 6. ICarine engine^n^ in all its 
■siifihui 7. Naval arehiteetnre in all its branches. 
, F0ctifioation, military dfmwing, and* naval artillery. 



9. International and maritime law, law of evidence, and 
naval courts martial. 10. Naval history and tactics, 
including naval signal and steam evolutions. 11. Mo- 
dem languages. 12. Drawing. , 13. Hygiene, naval 
and diraatic. The college at Gk^enwich will replace 
the one at Portsmouth, although gnnnerv wiU be taught 
on board H.M.S. BxeMtnt, and practical surveying also 
at Portsmouth. The stafT of the college will consist of 
a prerident and his assistant^ a director of studies, and 
tlM various professors, togetiier with such lecturers as 
may be necessary to make the course of instruction com- 
plete. Rear- Admiral Sir Astley Oooper Key, F.R.S., an 
officer of great experience, has been appointed President; 
Dr. S. Archer Hirst, Vice-President of the Royal Society 
and Presi<^cnt of the London Mathematical Society, has 
been appointed Director of Studies; Dr. Debris, Pro- 
fessor of Ohemistry in Guy's Hospital, has accepted the 
appmntment of Profenor of Chemistry ; and Professor 
Rcanold, M.A., of Oxford, tlie Professorship of Experi- 
mental Physics. Under such auspices, and with such a 
staff', the Ro3ral Naval College will doubtless prove a 
very important element in tiie naval education of the 
Allure, and will be the means of placing within the reach 
of every officer a course of education second to none in 
the kingdom. The oollege, as above mentioned, is to 
open on Wednesday next, the 1st of October. 



TRADE OP JAPAN. 

A letter from Na^^asaki, in the Hamhiirg Chrre9pondent^ 
says that the foreign merchants in Japan loudly com* 
plain of the stagnation of trade in that country. The 
enormous importation of foreign industrial products has 
reduced prices generally, and there are large quantities 
of goods ia store for which it is impossible to find pur- 
ohMers. In Japan itself the sources of production are 
not sufficiently developed to bring tho exports to any- 
thing like an equality with the imports, and trade suffers 
accordingly. ** The truth is,*' proceeds the correspondent, 
*i that people in Europe are under an illusion ns to the 
real state of affairs in Japan. There can be no greater 
mistake than to suppose that the masses in Japan have 
the same thirst for knowledge and desire to obtain the 
advantages of European civilisation as those Japanese 
who come to studv in Europe. The reforms which the 
government has introduoed after the European model 
have not given the natives any idea of European 
culture, or accustomed them to foreign goods. Hence 
the great majority of articles of European manufMoturei 
and especially of fancy goods, with which the Japanese 
market is filled, do not attract the Japanese public, and 
things of this kind are, as a rule, only purchased by the 
foreign residents. Moreover, though Japan is a beauti- 
ful country, it is not a wealthy one. Tea and silk are 
almost the only articles of export. As for the copper mines 
which have been discovered in the interior, the Japanese 
authorities oarefully watch them« and will not allow any 
foreigner to come n^aar them. The Japanese themselves, 
on the other hand, have neither the necessary scientific 
knowledge nor the instruments for working these mines, 
so that at present Uiey are praotioally valueless." *' There 
is no danger," adds the correspondent, ** of a com- 
mercial crisis ; but there is ver^ little prospect of the 
foreign merchants extending their operations, and any 
one coming out to Japan just now to open a business 
would find such a task under present circumstances 
almost impossible." The oorrespondent also warns per- 
sons who think of seeking employment in the country as 
engineers, teachers, or artisans, that they have not the 
smallest prospect of obtaining any employment, unless 
they make a fixed engagement with the Government 
before leaving Europe. 



The exports of British railway iron to Pern in 
the first (Hx mondis of this year weieonly 6,467 tons, as com- 
pared with 21,491 tons hi the eoirssponding period of 1873. 



8o9 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OP ABTS, Sbptbkbbb 26, 1878. 



INDIAN RAILWAYS, 

Long siQce fought oat ia England, the battle of the 
gauges has yet to be decided in India. It is hardly 
po88ibIe to overrate the importance of a question which 
will affect the development of an immense empire, and 
consequently nearly touch the well-being of an enor- 
mous population ; but in order to form any opinion on 
this fiercely-debated subject, it is absolutely necessary 
to glancA at the Indian railway system as it exists at 
present, inasmuch as one of tne. chief arguments in 
jfavour of the maintenance of the broad-gauge is based 
upon the inconvenience that would be incunred in gift- 
ing a new narrow-gauge system on. the great trunk 
lines already buil^ opened, and in fiUl working 
order. At the present moment the railways of India 
open for traffic extend over 5,511^ miles, distributed 
over the three presidencies with tolerable imparti- 
ality. Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras are brought into 
communication, and the peninsula may be crossed a 
third time by a line from Madras on the eastern or 
Goromandel side, to Beypore, near Calicut, on the 
western or Malabar coast. Starting from Calcutta by 
the B^t In lia Railway, the traveller may proceed vid 
Allahabad to Jubbulpore, in the central provinces, and 
thence bv the Great Indian Peninsula North-Elastem 
line, viA Bhosawal to Bombay. Leaving Bombay by the 
South-Eistijm line of the same great railway, he can 
^et to Rainhoor in the Hyderabad territory, and bend- 
ing still further southward, reach Madras by the line of 
the same namp, while from Madras he can, by the South- 
western line, attain Beypore. In addition to these great 
arteries, the Indian line is continued from Allahabad by 
Agn, to Delhi whence the Soinde, Punjab, and Delhi 
Railway runs by Loodiana, Umritsur, and Lahore to 
Mooltan. It may be remarked, parenthetically, that the 
battle of the gauges commenced on the proposed exten> 
sion of this line from Delhi to Peshawur, in the extreme 
north-west, and the construction of the Indus Valley 
Railroad from Mooltan, vid Rohree and Kotree, to Kur- 
rachee, with the object of ensuring unbroken communi- 
cation between our great frontier post of Peshawur and 
Calcutta on the east, and Kurachee on the west. 

An important consideration added to the difficulty of 
the question .of break of gauge, as it was conceded on all 
hands that these lines in the north-west are to be con- 
structed less for commercial than strategical purposes, 
and the necessity of bringing Peshawur into communi- 
cation with the military centres of both presidencies was 
considered by many to entirely outweigh all financial 
difficulties. 

The present 6,611^ miles of open railway afford, of 
course, a very inadequate idea of the ultimate develop- 
ment of the Indian system. Large figures are spoken ot 
and it has been stated that an addition of at least 10,000 
miles must be made before the resources of the vast 
peninsula of Hindostan may be considered as fairly 
stimulated by oommunications. The construction of 
2,109 additional miles of railroad has already been sano* 
tioned. the balance remaining in the condition of ** pro- 
posed " lines, but at the present rate of progress the day 
at which the railway system of India will be fully deve- 
loped is far off". Twenty years have been required to 
achieve the present mileage ; and lest too great hopes 
should be raised of more rapid construction in the future, 
it may be well to remark that the rato of production has 
been very unequal. In 1853 only 21) miles were open, 
and between that year and 1861 a gradual advance was 
made to 1,58 1| miles, when a great bound was made, 
inasmuch as in 1862 no less than 770 miles were opened. 
Thenceforward a gradual rato again prevailed, bringing 
the open mileage up to 5,078 J in 1871, and to 5,383| in 
1872. Thus only 304} miles were added in 1872, while 
during the first six months of 1873 but 127 miles have 
been completed. At this rato of construction it would 
take from thirty to forty years to cover India with the 
'proposed" network of railways. 



Many causes, physical and political, hare contributed 
to retard the dev^opment of Indian railways, and to 
swell their capital account to the enonnoos sun of 
£94.500,000. The East Indian Railway has in particBkr 
suffered sererely from political distorbaiioea. Fii«t »me 
the Sonthal rebellion and then the mutiny. The loa 
entailed by these calamities is estimated at not less than 
£3,000,000, a heavy burden on a line constructed on tbe 
expensiYe principle of commencing operations simalta* 
neously in various places. 

Difficulties of a more permanent kind arise from tk» 
peculiar nature of the Indian rivers, which are sobject 
to extraordinary vagaries. Rifing in mountain ru^a, 
some of which are thousands of miles from the a», 
these streams literally cut their way through a soli azki 
yielding soil, and often forsake their ancient chaantl its 
a new one, thus leaving tracts of land, once amiling vitik 
verdure, in the condition of arid and unprofitable dimuL 
In the Punjab, a remarkable instance of this peeoliarity 
occurred in 1790, when the river Bias, which ooce bad 
an independent course to the Chenab, fertiliang the 
country through which it passed, forsook its aaeiei^ 
course, and was diverted into the Sutlej, leaving its o^ 
bed a dry ravine, and ruining the country to whidi tL 
once brought prosperity. Another desert tract, acsr 
Bhawulpore, dates its origin from the drying up of tks 
ancient Saraswati, which once flowed through the hesxt 
of the country to the Indus. The ancienfc track it 
now a wasto dry channel, with ruins of old towns dotlvd 
along its banks, half buried in sand-drift firom the d«ecl 
All Indian rivers are subject to these wanderings 
and shiftings, but the Indus is the moat eooentric ol 
them all. This great river flows through an aUwal 
plain, almost every portion of which has at wame 
time or other formed part of the channel of 4fe 
Indus or its branches. These frequent ahiltingt an 
accounted for by the river building itself a species oi 
causeway by constantlT raising its bed. Thia slow bat 
certain operation is due to the enormous qnantity el 
silt brought down by the river and deposited frradoaDy, 
on account 'of the comparatively low rato of Telodly 
maintained across a level plain. Thus the bod and the 
banks of the Indus are continuaUy rising abova tJto 
level of the surrounding country. When a certaia 
height is attuned, the banks fail to withstand the 
pressure; a break in the natural level occurs; thiaii 
widened with inconceivable rapidity, and the whole 
river pours over and seeks ariother course. The Indaa 
has worked its way from east to west. In 710 (ajx.^ % 
Hindu dynaaty existed at Alor, and the ruin of Ajt 
was cau*3ed by the Indus moving to the west. The mai 
of government was then moved to Brahmanabai, tW 
ruins of which are now forty-five miles to the east «/ 
the present channel of the Indus. Last year tiie Ganfv 
displayed a dangerous tendency to shift its ocmne^ a&A 
it is at the present moment difficult to predict the fateiT 
course of the river near to Bhaugulpore. Swollen wisk 
the heavy rains of last year, the river changed tta ooassr. 
and approached from a distance of two miles to wiihaa « 
few feet of the railway. Fortunately it went no fdrthst;ial 
another heavy flood may convert what was onoe a raflaar 
into the new bed of the Ganges. Throughout tbe ma^r 
great damage is done annually b^ floods. Diaaaten hiv* 
occurred to several railway bridges, and hare 
arisen from the dini<Mr''.v t^f securing proper 
in a soil subject to a scour of 50 to 60 feet in depth. TW 
bridges oyer the Gkmg^ at Cawnpore and st R«jf W% 
and that over the Ramgunga at BareillT, hare 4^^*fi 
immense trouble. During Uie floods of last jear tte 
Sutlej -bridge, on the Punjab Railway, save way, al- 
though the foundations of the piers had Deen laal sfi a 
depth of 40 feet below the bed of the river. 
more of the Punjab bridges were seriously 
On the Bombay, Baroda, and Central Indian 
the bridge over the Par river was swept aw^ 
the monsoon in Septomber last, and Uie *^ * ' - 
the Orunga and Damaungunga riveis 




JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Septkmbib 26, 1878. 



867 



Craffie was stopped for six weeks, but by the exercise of 
^r«at energy temporary stroctnres were erected, and all 
hree bridges have since been restored. The absolute 
lecesdty for carrying the foundations to an immense 
lepth, and fortifying Uiem in almost Pelasgio fashion, 
IAS of oourse added considerably to the time and ex- 
>eDse required to complete the bridges now in course of 
^oQstraction. The cost of the Punjab Northern Rail- 
ray, for instance, is enormously increased by the 
)ridges over the Raree, Chenab, and Jhelum. These 
^reat rivers will haye to be crossed by bridges 
imountxng in the aggregate to 17,000 feet, erected 
it a cost estimated at £1,125,000. Many minor 
bridges must be erected, and before reaching Peshawur 
he ludiis will have to be crossed below Attock. Touch- 
ng this latter great work opinion is divided, inasmuch 
la it haB been proposed to e^ade the difficulties of bridge 
oakingf by the construction of a tunneL The construo- 
ion of the Indus Valley Railway, from Moultan to 
votrre, is complicated by the necessity of crossing the 
$atley near Bhawulpoor and Ihe Indus at Rohree. This 
alter bridge will be a formidable undertaking, as one of 
ta spans will be 600 feet in the dear, but on the other 
land the foundations will be rocky, and the probabUity 
)f the river undermining them will in this case be 
escaped. The Rajpootana Railway will also require 
lome import>(nt bridges, the longest of these being that 
>ver the Jumna, at Agra, about 2,000 feet long, con- 
osliog of 16 spans, 142 feet between centres of piers 
bunded on three wells 12) feet in diameter, ani sunk 
W) feet below the low-water level of the river. The re- 
n&ining bridges on this line will aggregate about 2,600 
incal feet, but one of the rivers, the Amanishah, is 
rabject to an extraordinary scour, and will require 
(pecial precautions. 

In almost everv case at least one mighty and treacher- 
>as river has to be crossed. The Ho&ar State Railway 
rill be only 86} miles in length, connecting Khundwa, 
k station 352 miles from Bombay, with Mhow and Indore, 
Hit has vet to cross the Nerbudda, a rapid river whidi 
ises in flood time 66 feet above its ordinary level. It is 
be spanned by 13 openings, making a total of about 
|,560 lineal feet The consideration of these important 
acts would apparently lead to the conclusion that the 
ligh rate^ of construction so* much complained of in 
[aiian railways is due more to the eccentric course of 
[ndian rivers than to the difficulties of the land portion 
ft the route or the errors of engineers. 

From a financial point of view the Indian Railway 
lystem can hardly be regarded with unmixed satisfac- 
ion. In the inception of the great schemes now car- 
ied out it was deemed impossible for the Government to 
indertake the work of construction itself. Recourse was 
lad to the guarantee system, under which the Qovem- 
nent has b^n obliged to pay a heavy amount to mcike 
food the difference between the nett earnings of the 
ompanies^about 3J per cent. — and the five per cent, 
piaranteed. As the total capital which on the 3l8t 
tfarch last had been advanced for expenditure on the 
ruaranteed railways amounted to £91,686,025, the annual 
Laty of making good the deficiency adds a heavy item 
o the liabilities of the State. In the year 1871 a sum of 
^1,740,720 had to be charged upon the revenues of the 
»untry, and in 1872 this charge declined very slightly, 
o £1,731,660. The net amount paid on account of 
ruaranteed interest up to 1872 was £21,349,118, so that 
he present year will probably see a total achieved of 
£23,000,000 paid in differences oetween the earnings and 
pzaranteed interest, with a probable continued outJay for 
leveral years of at least £1,500,000 per annum. 

Of Ute years the State has itself undertaken the con- 
traction of railways on a larg^ scale. Ten new lines 
irc s^ictioncd, and many of these are in process of con- 
ftniction, thr<»e of the minor branches being already open, 
fhe chief State undertakings are the Punjab Northern, 
he Indus Valley, the Rajpootana, and the Indore rail- 
"^ySt extending in the aggregate over 1,304} miles. It 



was the proposition to constraot these new lines on the 
metre, or 3ft. 3}in. gauge, that provoked the battle of 
the gauges transferred m>m India to England during 
last spring. As the 5,511} miles open are alTon the broad 
or 5 ft. 6 in. gauge, much unwillingness was naturally 
shown to incuf the inconvenience of ,a break of gauge, 
especially in the case of the Lahore and Peshawur and 
Indus Valley railways. It was urged that as these lines 
were mainly for strate^cal purposes, a break of gauge at 
Lahore, on the one side, and at Mooltan on the other, 
would be fatal to the rapid conveyance of troops and 
maUritl of war to Peshawur. The length of these two 
lines together was only 750 miles, an immense sum must 
necessanly be spent in bridges, and it was not worth 
while to forego the advantage of an uniform gauge from 
Csdcutta through Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Lahore, to 
Peshawm*, to effect a trifling saving on the last 270 miles 
of the line, which, passing through a thinly-inhabited 
country, holds out but little hope of immediate commer- 
cial sucoess, the solitary item to be depended upon being 
about 100,000 tons of salt from Dindadaw-Khan. To 
secure even this, a branch line would be needed, and the 
opinion was strongly advanced that commercial and 
financial considerations weighed but little in comparison 
with the strategical importuice of a through line to our 
great north-western frontier, just touchuig the Indus 
Valley line from Kotree to Mooltan. The advocates of 
the uniform gauge of 5 ft. 6 in. maintained that, as 
Mooltan already communicated with Lahore by a broad 
gauge line, and Kotree with Kurrachee by a similar line, 
it would be absurd to incur one break of gauge at Kotree, 
another at Mooltan, and a third at Luiore, while the 
expense of laying a third rail from Kurrachee to Kotree, 
and from Mooltan to Lahore would be at least £345,000. 
The Indus Valley scheme could not be defended on com- 
mercial grounds. Beyond the region of artificial irrigpa- 
tion, the oountnr was poor and sparsely inhabited, wmle 
in the cultivated part native boats would compete with 
the railway for traffic. 

On the side of the narrow gauge, strong reasons of a 
financial character were advanced. Narrow gauge lines 
could not on! V be constructed at a great saving — variously 
estimated at from £400 to £1,000 per mile— in the cost of 

1>rimary construction, but could be worked at a much 
ower percentage on tiie earnings than the bread gauge. 
The present Indian lines open for traffic formed only a 
small proportion of the gigantic railway system that 
must one day prevail. The cost of differences in 
interest was enormous; it had reached over twenty 
millions, and showed no signs of reduction. Perseverance 
in a costly system of construction and working could 
onlv result in financial disaster. Recent experiments in 
various parts of the world had shown the economy and 
efficiency of the narrow gauge. Even the 3 ft. 3} in. 
gauge was unnecssarily broad, as 3 ft., or perhaps 33 
inches, would suffice to meet all the requirements of a 
poor country, where immense distances must be traversed 
in order to secure traffic at all. A mistake had been 
made in the first place, an annual deficit of a million 
and three quarters had been incurred, and it was mani- 
fesUy dangerous to persevere in a system which had 
proved a failure. The proportion of working expenses — 
53 per cent. — ^to gross receipts, was cited as a proof of 
the desirability of a narrower gauge. 53 per cent., 
the average, hardly showed with sufficient clearness 
the state of affairs, inasmuch as this average was greatly 
affected by the low rate of expenses incurred by the 
East Indian Railway, which traversed the rich territory 
of Bengal. On the East Indian main line the expenses 
only reached 41 per cent, of the gross receipts, while on 
the Great Indian Peninsula, 58; on the Soinde, Pun- 
jab, and Delhi, 86; and on the Calcutta and South 
Eastern, 91 represented the percentage of working 
expenses. Finally, it was declared that the difficulties 
of *' translading " had been much over-rated, and even 
were this not the case, it would be better to incur the 
first outlay of putting down a third line on ezirting 



868 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIfiTT OF ARTS, Svnnn 26, 187S. 



nulwajTBi to perpetufttiaf the iai/tiaX mkteke of tke 6 fL 
6 ia. gauge. 

From the ifertlUgical atondpoint the ftdvoeatM of the 
broad gauge woiild a|>pear to have the beat of the 4Mqgii- 
me&t, but the flnaiH^l dtfioulfeiea aug g eet od by their 
opp<nieiiti appear diffioolt to get over. Siace the «&!«• 
mated diaooiMlon laat tpring a cooipreauae baa been 
propoeed. It baa been aoggeated that the melve gauge 
mi^bt auffioe for the Indue VaUcy, but that^eoouti- 
nuity of the broad gauge ahould be maintained freai 
Inhere to Peshitwnr. By thia meana coanmunicalaoii 
with Calcutta woiUd be unembanuaied, and in the con- 
struction of the Indus Valley line money would be aaved. 
It oan, howoTer, be hardly OTerloeked that as the stra- 
tegical r«MOM 4'itf0 of the Indus line is direct oomaftu- 
nication between Kurraohee aaKl Peshawur, a third rail 
would have to be laid down not only from MooUaa to 
Lahore, but ako from Lahore to Pasha wur, and that the 
question will arise whether the saving effected in the 
construction of the 480 miles of the Indus Valley on the 
metre gauge will or will not be oounterbalanoea by the 
cost of laying down a third rail over several hundred 
miles of tiack P But the adherents of the narrow-gauge, 
if they must rest content with half a loaf, will probably 
declare that the cost of ooastruotion is unimportant, 
when compared with the gviater qusation of working 
expenses. . 

OBITXTART. 



eRSBRAL H0XS8. 



The^ Boeial Seiemee CosgreM.^— The pro g r amm e of p- 
eeedingt of the spprcMiofaifa^ Ongress to oe bsM ftt Norviek, 
under ^0 preeioenoyof Lord Houghton, is nwr tnaphli 
The business will open on Wednestey, the lit of Odobr, 
wi«hsmeeliBgef the CounoU, after whkh tbenvOl Ut 
servioe in the Cethedrsl, the Lord Bishop «l XortHA 



The Earl of Hardwieke.—The death of the Earl 
of Hardwicke took place on the 17tfa instant, in the 
seventy-fifth year of his age. The late earl entered 
the navy at the age of sixteen. Amongst the earliest 
active service which he saw was the bombardment 
of Algiers, as a midshipman in the Quern Chmriottt. 
In 1825 he received a captain's commission, and 
ultimately attained to the rank of admirul. His loid- 
ship began his political career in 1831, when he sat in 
the House of Gomraons for Reiffate. In the sucoeeding 
year he successfbily contested the county of Cambridge, 
which seat he held until the 18th of November, Igfi, 
when he succeeded to the earldom on the deatii of his 
undo Philip. In t^e year 1843 the University of Gam- 
bridge (where he had graduated in 1835) conferred upon 
the earl the honorary degree of LL.D., and ten years 
later on, the sister university paid him a similar msjrk of 
esteem. In 1852 he was call^ by the late Lord Derby 
to act as Postraaster-G^eral, and he held the post of 
Lord Privy Seal under the same statesman's second 
administration in 1858-59. Lord Hardwicke became a 
member of the Society in 1855. 

Br. Donald Dalrymple, X.P.~The death of Dr. Donald 
Dalrymple, M.P., happened on Friday last, at Coldecot, 
near Southamplon, the seat of Count Montefiore. He 
died from an attack of diarrhoea. Dr. Dalrymple was a 
native of the city of Norwich, where he was bom in the 
year 1814, and was educated for the medical profession. 
He became a member of the London College of Physicians 
in 1859, but retired fr^m the profession about ten years 
ago. The deceased gentleman will be principally re- 
membered on account of his persevering efforts to reduce 
the crime of drunkenness by the Habitual Drunkards 
Bill. He was a magistrate and deputy-lieutenant for 
Norfolk, and chairman of the Board of Gk>vemors of 
Elin^ Edward's School Norwich. Since Uie last general 
election he sat for Bath, but he had announced his in- 
tention of not again offering himself as a candidate. 
Dr. Dalrymple has only been a member of the Society 
since 1871. 



The tunnelling of the Col di Tenda is at length 
fairly oommenoed at both ends : the works, however, are pro- 
gressing more rapidly on the Tenda side than on that towards 
Lfmone. The rocks met with are said to be extrerady hard 
and difilcnlt to pisroe* 



proaching die sermon; and in the evenimic thein«ag«il 
address wiU be delivered by the praddsnt. OothefoUowiu 
day the exhibition of sanitarv and educatioQal apptntu nl 
appliaaoea at the Drill-halL kindlylent for the oocangi, viH 
be opened with an addre«s t>y the High Sheriff of NorirKk 
The address of the president of the Council, Mr. 0. W. 
Hastings, will foUow, after whieh the departmeati viM m* 
in their respective rooms, and in tike eveniag a acnr^ vill hi 
given by the looal Sxeoutive Conunittee in St. Aadiev'»4idL 
On Friday morning Mr. Josmh Brown, Q.C., viU ddlhv 
his address as preaidsat of the DcmutDsent of Jsni prn to f* 
and Amendmeat of the Law ; and alter the uw a tis gi ^J^ 
various departmtnts for the rsading and discuMion of na> 
a working men's meeting in St. Andrew's-hall. at vfan ^ 
Mayor wul preside, will conclude ths business of thaday. Oft 
Saturday an address on education wQI be delireitd hf Pi*- 
fessor W. B. Hodgson, LL.D., and after ths rinBrol tbi 
departments the President of the C ong res s will discnwe Ai 
certificates and priaes to the snooeaiful oandidalcs at the M 
Cambridge middle-olaiv examination. The sMroi « 
Captain Doughs Oalton, C.B., F.R.S., president o< At 
Health Department, will be given on Holiday waiaf^ 
The departments will meet as uaaal in their reipectivanoact 
and in the evening a grand ooacert vill be p^m in St 
Andrew's-halL Mr. Thomas Braasvr, M. P., will daUwr )m 
address on Economy and Trade on Turaday, and aftff tt« 
business of the departments a soir6e will be f^^m blfi* 
Andre wVhall by the Mayor. The ooncln'iiu nettiBli 
preceded by a meeting of the Council, will be hridoo tbi 
Wednesday. In connection wiUi the oo ngrf fi tboe viD ■ 
a conference on female eduoatien, and in the ExhibitioaM 
addresses will be d^vevsd daily in the afteraooa oa m 
subject of the artkdes axhiWssd in the varioas dimm- 
Baoursions to various places, it ia understood, tfs ^moC 
arranged. 

Szpoiitoii in Mus€:i ns.~Mr. Hodgson Putt, in 1 
recent letter, referring to the success of the riaitiflf ^ 
Working Men's Chib und Institute Union to F«» 
museums or ooUeotions when there were such ^wdM ^^^'^ 
ing as Professor Owen, Dr. Birch, Dr. Shsrp, fd 
Mr. FeUowss, says that the experiment raiM t fat » 
portent queotiea whetherthe Governinent should notcnvK* 
at every public museum of sdenoei art, or natanl m^ 
similar means of enabling the public to apprehend tbawA* 
ing and purpose of those collections. At present thae n^ 
costly treasures render the greatest service to the la^ 
student and the teacher ; but why ahould not thry bt v 
instrumental in raiaiog the tastes and pursuits oi thoiiv? 
crowds who annually vidit them, and oome away as vi* a 
they went P What would be easier than to arrangf *•*■ 
certain hours weekly eaeh department should have « »* 
expositor who should in clear and popular style iBdifls>>** 
range and value of the knowledge which so^ eo«tf* 
illustrated and fouadtdP At the end of such ^^ 
questioaa might be answered, and the names of boob ^ 
geated for those who wished to pursue the gn*t ^*^T^ 
opened to their view. By the regular provinoaaf QJ^ 
guides and teachers, the advantage to be derrnd b^"* 
nation from our public collections would be unspeakaVr** 
hanced. 

Another Haw Motor.— A new motor has rcosatly^ 
patented in America, the operation of whidi is as foU^*?^ 
Oil is sprayed into the cylinder behind the ptstoo, **^j!^ 
mixed with air, is ignited at the proper time by aa w»^ 
attachment The conaequent expansion d rives '^Ij'f 
forward, the momentum or the fly-whed returu^ft l^* 
former position. An ejector supplies the oil fra* tl>a"^ 
to the sprayer, the injector being connected lo •p'J^Jf^ 
driven by a crank attached to the mala shaft. SMtfs 
much ths same thinr in ttiis oountiy many yssiti^^ 
turpentine instead of oil. 



JoUUNAL OK TUK hOOlfclTV OF ART6, Ootobbr 3, 1873 



859 



mmM OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,089. Vol. XXI. 



.f RID AT, OCTOBER 8. 1873. 






ASnOVMOMMSSTS BT THB OOITHCIL. 



VATieVAL MITBEinf 8 AVB PVBLIO SBUOATIOV. 

A special Meeting of Council was held on 
Wednesday, the Ist October, to consider the 
subject of National Museums and GhJleries, and 
their bearing on public education. 

A Standing Ck)nmuttee was appointed for the 
purpose of bringing under Parliamentary responsi- 
bility the national museums and galleries, so as to 
extend their benefits to local museums, and to 
make them bear on public education. The follow- 
lure the several objects i^ view for effecting this 
purpose: — 

1. All museums and galleries supported or sub- 
sidised by Parliament to be made conducive to 
the advancement of eduoatioH and technical instruc- 
tion to the fullest extent, and be made to extend 
^eir advantages to the promotion of original 
investigatiQns and works in science and art. 

2. To extend the benefits of national museums 
aud galleries to local museums of science and art 
which may desire to be in connection, and to assist 
them with loans of objects. 

3. To induce Parliament to grant sufficient funds 
to enable such objects to be systematically collected, 
especially in view of making such loans. 

4. For carrying out these objects most 
efficiently, to cause all national museums and 
^^alleries to be placed under the authority of a 
xamister of . the crown, being a member of the 
oabinet, with direct responsibility to Parliament ; 
thereby abolishing all unpaid and irresponsible 
trostoes,' except those who are trustees under 
bequests or deeds, who should contiuue to have 
tlie full powers of their trusts, but should not be 
charged with the expenditiiro of. Parliamentary 



5. To enter into correspondence with all existing 
local museums and the numerous schools of science 
and art (including schools for music) now formed 
throughout the United Kingdom, and to publish 
suggestions for the establishment of local museums. 

6. Also to cause the Public Libraries and 
ICuaeums Act (18 and 10 Vic. c. lxx.)to be enlarged, 
in order to give local authorities increased powers of 
acting. 



NATIOHAL TBAIHIHG SCHOOL OF MUSIC, 

KENSINGTOK. 

The first stone of the building for this school 
will be laid in the month of November by his 
Hoyal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, K.G., 
Chairman of the Committee of Management. His 
Boyal Highness ia expected to return from the 
Crimea about the 13th of November. 



YBinS FOB CABS. 

The Committee of Judges, consisting of the Duke 
of Beaufort (chairman), lieut-Col. Eardley Wilmot, 
R. A. (chairman of the Council), Lord Arthur 
Somerset, Capt. Candy» Mr« A. Cassels, Mr. H. 
Cole, C.B., and Col. Henderson, Commissioner of 
Police, report as follows : — 

Sixteen competitors sentinvehides to^e hiter- 
national Exhibition for the prizes o£fered by the 
Society. 

The judges, in the first instance, held three meet- 
ings for inspection, and at their second meeting 
made actual trial of all the carriages. The judges 
thereupon came to the unanimous oonolusion that, 
although there were some of the carriages which 
exhibited considerable merit, there were none of 
suffidei^t merit to warrant the judges leoommend- 
ing any for reward, and a notification to this effdct 
was communicated to all the competitors. The 
judges were, however, of opinion that there 
were six which were worthy of further 
consideration if certain objections coidd be 
satisfactorily obviated and suggestions for further 
improvement carried out ; and, accordingly, to these 
six competitors a statement to the foregoing 
effect was made, with an intimation thftt if they 
were willing to send in further improved oamages 
the judges would take them into consideration. 
Accordingly the judges held a vieeting on the 29th 
September, and inspected the further improved 
cabs sent in by the six selected competitors, and, 
after a careful examination, they arrived at the 
conclusion that — while there was no one carriage 
which was of such a character as to entitle it, above 
all the others, to the first prize — there were four 
which exhibited very great improvement on the 
cabs already in use, and they therefore recommended 
that the total amount offered— vias., £120— should 
be divided equally between these f oun, as IoUqwi :-n- 

Tvo-Whbblbiis, 

Caora, Norwich ^M 

Forder and Company, Wolverhampton ..*... 30 

Four-Wheblebs. 

Jjambcrt, 66, Great Qaecn- street £30 

Quirk 8nd Norminton, 8, Nolberwood-slroet, 
Kilburn 30 

Both the 1 ft ttor carriages admit of being used open 

or shut. 



860 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobkb 3, 1873. 



The judges desire to express their commendation 
of the four-wheeler sent in by Messrs. Standfield 
and Orosse ; but, inasmuch as this firm had not 
been selected to send in a four-wheeler to the re- 
stricted competition, it could not be taken into con- 
sideration. 

The judges cannot conclude their report without 
expressing their heartiest thanks to Captain 
Clayton for the ready assistance and facilities 
whioh he was so good as to afford them in carry- 
ing out their inspection. 

(By order of the Committee), 

P. Le Neve Posteb, 

Secretary, 



C0AL.CUTT1NG MACHINERY. 

The following paper was read berore Section G (Mecha- 
nical Science) of the BritUih Association, by Mr. William 
Frith, on Monday, Sept. 22. He said :— 

The object of the paper was to submit for consideration 
some maitera touching the htstoiy of cutting coal in mines 
by mechanical means. There were now several distinct 
modes of doing the woil:, and doinfi: it well ; but it was 
not in the power of the author to give aoy reliable infor- 
mation upon the competitive status which the successful 
machines held towaros each other, and be therefore con- 
fined h'mself more particularly to the introduction of coal- 
cutting machinery, driven by compressed air, and the 
results obtained from the invention now known as 
**Frith'8 machine," the first that ever succeeded in reduc- 
ing to actual practice the cutting of coal in mines. When 
the severe nature of the employment of manual labour to 
the '* hewing cf coal** was con»idered, and the great 
dangers whidi beset that occupation were taken into con- 
sideration, it was not surprieiDg that much sympathy should 
have hetm always excited in favour of the coal-working 
dasfl. The statistics of the comparative longevity of the 
working classes showed that the duration of the lives of 
colliers — apart from Fpecial accidents — was lamentably 
low. The reallv bard work of a colliery fell upon the 
** hewers,'* and the effect was very often to stamp the men 
with the mark of thehr trade, and, through the con- 
strained position of their daily toil, to alter and dis- 
tort many of the mors delicately-formed persons. In 
1862 some experiments were ooomienced at West Ardsley, 
hy the employment of compressed air, to actuate a cutting 
instrument in the form of a pick. It was to be moved on 
the face of the coal, striking in a line and with such force 
as would cut a groove deep enough to admit of its being 
easily taken oat. In the early stages there were many and 
ferioQS discoura^g symptoms disooTcred, but on the 
whole it was beheved they would be overcome by perse- 
verance. Intelligence was what was required to manage 
these nuushines, rather than muscular development, and 
any youth of ordinary capacity would in a few days acquire 
sufficient knowledge to do so. In 1761 Michael Menzies, 
of Newcastle, obtained a patent for cutting coal in mines, 
and that was the earliest evidence of any attempt having 
been made to produce a n^echanical coal-cutter. His 
plans, having regard to the time at which they were pro- 
duced, were remarkable for the'r ingenuity. Menzies 
proposed to give motion to a iieavy iron pitk, made to 
reciprocate by means of spars and chains, carried dowft 
the pit, and with wheels and horizontal spar<>, on rollers 
extended to the working places, and there to ** shear '* 
the coal exactly as now. In the same patent Menzies 
included a **saw*' to cut the coal, and although 
nothing came from his labours, he di^pUyed so much 
mechanical linowledge as to have deserved success. During 



the hundred yean that followed, more than a hoDdred 
other patents were granted, but not one that appfoschwl 
nearer to success than the invention of Michtel Manzief. 
In compressed air. however, in so £ir as the rooriDg powrf 
was concerned, every requirement wa-* found, ai»d firoa 
the date cf the experiments at West Ardsley, in 18^,tbt 
question was undoubtedly settled. The eUsiio onjpcrty 
of air under compression was an old and weU-kDOTB 
power, bat until these experiments had been comply, 
Its value was but imperfectly understood, snfl, its fn'tw 
beneficial influence bein^ dormant, it was nnapifecitttd. 
The engine for oompressmg the air wa« generally plsced 
on the surface, near the top of the shaf« ; a receiver w* 
fixed in close proximity thereto, and the air ^an tikfli 
from the compi-essor to the receiver, thirty feet in leaith 
and four feet in diameter. The density vas g€iw»Dy 
of about three atmospheres. Iron pipes of su&iest 
area were laid on from the receiver to the bottom d 
the shaft, and there, being split into smaller am. 
were led in every needed direction thiOTgh 
the roads and passages of the mine, extctly ai th« 
gas and water sei vices were laid on in our towns. At 
the entt-anco into the working places a screw-joint '^ 
stop-cock were fixed to the iron air- pipe, at which pent 
an india-rubber hose, fifty or sixty yards in length (wtbe 
length of the * bank " might require), wai icT«wsd«B; 
the other end of the hos^ was attached to the cotdog 
machine, and when all was in readiness the up at the i^ 
ceiver was turned on, and the air rushed down throoghoot 
the whole service of pipes. The air did not requira «o be 
forced tiom the receiver, for by its own elasii i^ ii»» 
carried forward at a velocity correspunding te m 
density. Apparently it lost none of its 40wer ly di«uo«, 
except the frictional retardation, and machine* weie wok* 
ing nt arly two miles distant from the air-engine, withoU 
any material loss of force. As lo the cost of compwed 
air, although it is admittedly not a cheap power rdati^tlj 
to steam, yet there was no other availaUe power to ch«w 
or so good for the purpose of cutting coal in mineA. Wits 
well-constructed machinery 46 or 60 per cent, of the aei« 
power exerted would be given off in compresssdiffti* 
denidiy of three atmospheres with the receifer, ind iW 
pressure wassufficient for effectually working the inachiii«7- 
Some makers of air engines olfered to guarantee a mm 
larger product, but the author based bis calculations (fffl 
the smaller yield. If the demity were much higbsr tbiB 
three atmo6pheres,1hero was a nutterial increase in tiK fn^' 
tional heat disengaged by the act of oompreasioo. Tl^ 
engines did not work with the same ease ; and tbe rent 
of experience was, that at 45 to 60 lbs. the mMsmm 
point of economy was attained. Calculating its cotf, isd 
taking a 40-horse power boiler to consume lOlht of «i 
per hour per horse power, or two tons of engine coil p^ 
day of 11 hours, at Ss. per ton at the jat, the cort w^j& j 
per day. That boiler would drive an engine of wtec* 
power to supply four coal-cutting machines, bring ^iF^ 
aay for each machine, and each machine wuiUd cA wtn 
coal in any given time, and do it in a better maoncr. u 
an ordinary seam, than 12 men; it fcdlowed, thac^ 
that the equivalent of a man's power exerted fbr srt* 
day in cutting coal would be obtained, out of coapn^ 
air, at a cost in fuel of but 8Jd. At evay sw ■ 
the piston, the air was discharged from the c^lio^*' 
the coal-cutting machine at a temperatoie^ of »|^ 
freezing point, compressed into one Uiird of iti 8«*8* 
bulk, and it had been found that the working of uil> ^ 
machine had had the elTect of 'reduciog the lemptfsW 
at the working face of the coal to the extent d t»>> 
degrees of Fahrenheit. Occasionally, ice was fonnrf »* 
tho e.<cape valves of the machine, but without piodtia^ 
any inconvenience to their woildng. Now, anrwag**** 
would reduce the temperamre of a mine, was an ^ 
timable advantage. It diminished the risk of c'H^' 
and by increasing the vrlocity of the Tcntilatiog wn** 
it rendered the occupation i f a miner mi re lolftaW* •*■ 
more healthv. There wasanother useful purpose iod«s*^ 



JOURNAL OP THB SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbr 8, 1873. 



861 



to the use of coal-cutting machiDeiy in niin&<«, and thit 
was ID the event of a pit being on fire. At We«t Ardsley a 
"blown out shot** ignited the gas and set fire to the goaf. 
It extended to the face of the coal, and had taken sti-ong 
bold of l», and the whole pit was in the greatest danger. 
There was a large water tank at the surface for fupplying 
the boilers and coke-ovens, and the manager promptly 
connected the air-^ipes to the water-tank, and turned the 
water into the fire. In less than an hour the fire was 
oompleiely extingoished without any serious damage. 
On a previous occasion the same collier}- was on fire and 
had to ite closed up. That 6re cost many thousards of 
pounds. It happened before the introduction of the coal- 
carting machinery. Compresfed air «as alsi becoming 
ex^ensvely used f.>r »* hauling " purposes, and with very 
great advantage. Small engines could be set up wherever 
comrenience or necessity might require ; I hey were por- 
table, and removable at a trifling expense, and available 
where no other mechanical power for tractienal purposes 
eould be obtained. It was also valuable for pumping 
water and " drilling " the boles where the coal has to be 
•* blasted/* or broken down by the hydraulic press. The 
maehino for cuttin,«r the coal had for several years been 
employed at West Ardsley without any interruption. 
Ita weight was about 16 cwt. for an ordinary sized 
inaohio«*, its length 4 feet, i(8 height 2 feet 2 inches, and 
the gauge 1 foot 6 inches to 2 feer. It was v«iry portable 
and easuy transAtrred from one bank to another. The 
front and hind wheels of the machine were coupled 
together in a similar manner to the coupled locomotive 
eogine. The "pick" or cutter was d .uble - headed, 
whereby the penetrating power was considerably increased. 
The groove was now cot to a depth of 3 it. to Sft. 6in. 
at one ooorse, wherea*, by the old form of a single blade, 
the machine parsed twice over the face of the coal to ac- 
complish the same depth. The points were loose and 
oottered into the boss, so that when one was blunted or 
broken it could be replaced in a few moment^. It dis- 
pensed with the necessify of sendiog the heavy tools out 
of the pit to be sharpened, and was an immense improve- 
ment upon the old pick. When all was in readiness for 
work, tlie air was admitted, and the reciprocating action 
commenoed. It worked at a ipeed of sixty to ninety 
strokes per minute, varying according to the density of 
tha compressed air, the haixlners of the strata to be cut, 
or the expertneis of the attendant. As to the quantity 
of work in ** longwall," a machine would, under favour- 
able circumstances, cut twenty yards in an hour to a dep*h 
of three feet, but ten yards per hour was very good work, 
or sixty yards in a shift. This was about equal to the 
day's work of twelve average men, and the persons em- 
ployed to work the machine were one man, one youth, 
and one boy, who removed and laid down the road, and 
cleared away the dibrit. The machines were built so strong" 
that they rarely g<»t out of working condition. Some of 
those working at West Ardsley had been in constant use 
for three or four years. At that colliery there were about 
eight nyachioes in use. One of the seams was so hard 
and difficult to manage that it could not be done " by 
band,*' and the proprietors bad to abandon, and did 
abandon it, but now, ny the employment of the machines, 
it was worked with ^rfect ease. It was a thin cannel 
seam with layers of ironstone, and the machines now 
*• holed" fur about 1,200 tons per week. The groove 
made by the machine was only two to three inches wide 
at the face, and one and a half inches at the back ; 
whereas by hand it was 12 to 18 inches on the face, and 
two to three inches at the back. In thick seams worked 
by hand the holing was often done to a depth ot 4 ft. 6 in. 
to 6 f'., and the getter was quite within the hole that he. 
bad made, and where the coal did not stirk well up 
to the I o«»f, or where there was a natural parting there 
was great didicnlty and danger from " fulls of coal ; " 
bat l»y machine ••holing?,'* with a pcriVctly horizontal 
groove, when the coal falls, it Mraply s tiles upon Ma 
own bed, and has no tendency to fall forwaid. For an 



outlay of ^5,000 all necessary power and plant for the 
regular working of eight machines, with two in reserve, 
would be [Ht>vided ; and, estimating that each machine 
would cut 60 yards per day, the product in a four feet 
seam would be 85 tons per day, or per week say 600 tons 
per machine, or 4,000 iOTi% in idl. At that rate of ezpen- 
ditureand work done, an allowance of 2d. per ton would in 
three years liquidate the entire outlay. But there was no 
reason why the machines should be restricted to a single 
ahift daily ; indeed, it was f«r more economical to work 
double shifts ; there was no additional outlay of capital, 
and, to far as depended upon the machinery, the output 
might be easily increased to 8,000 tons per week. As to 
the relative co(«t4 of cutting the coal by hand and by 
machine, in i e Middleton Main or Silkst )ne bed, where 
the depih of the mine was 160 yards, the coal four 
feet thick, and there were two bands of shale, with a thin 
layer of coal between them, by hand-labour 80 men would 
produce 60 tons per day, or two tons each, and by ma- 
chine 17 men would produce the same tonnage. The 
saving in number, therefore, would be twelve men to 
every 60 tons, or upon a oolliery getting 4,000 tons per 
week, the saving would be 182 men. The cost of dwell- 
ings properly to domicile one-half of this number would 
exceed the first outlay of capital in furnishing a first- 
class colliery with first-class machinery for cutting the 
coal, and it must not be foi^gotten that the equipment of 
the hand cutters in tools formed a considerable item in 
the first cost of fitting op a odlieiy. It had been generally 
soppoaed that the miohines weie not adapted for ** pillar 
and stall work." Tliat their locomotion " is not so easy 
as that of men *' must of course be admitted, but they were 
removed from place to plaoe with little more trouble than 
a full corve, and careful experiments proved that there was 
in <* pillar and stall " about equal advantage as in ** long 
wall.'* There were some advantages in the machine over 
the hand- working, which pertained to the general mine 
account, viz., the lai*ger siae of the coal brought out, and 
an increased average price, on sale, with a saving in 
timber and other stores. In conclusion, Mr. Frith ob- 
served : — '* Considering the vast extent of the trade in 
coal, and the stupendous consequences of a short and in- 
sufficient supply, and believing that the speediest adoption 
of coal-getting machinery is desirable, I have myself 
made some efforts to stimulate that object by an offer of a 
premium of £500 for the best machine that could be 
produced, but those efforts have failed, and I now sub- 
mit that the question is one specially entitled to the sup- 
port and encouragement of the government, and that the 
britidi Association is pre-eminently the channel through 
which that object could be obtained in the best manner." 



During the first few days of Septemher, 23 ships, 
of an aggregate burthen of 46,880 tons, passed thronah the 
Suez Canal, yielding a transit revenue of about £20,000. 

The great international bridge across theNi« 
agara. between Bufblo and Fort Erie^ is expected to be oom- 
pleted and epened in the course of this month. It was com- 
menced hi October, 1870, and its cost will be about £220,000. 

The demand for Cape Breton (Nova Sootia^ ooal 
continues good. The quantity of coal raised and snipped 
from Nova Scotia, up to the middle of this jwt, was in 
excess of the extraction of the corresponding period of 1872. 

The Time9 correspondent at Calcutta states that 
the Sirdar of Sanjoo and aome Yarkund officers have arrived 
at Shidoola, with a firman from the Atalik, ordering an 
honourable reception to Mr. Foniyth*s mission. 

The Agricultural Department at Washington 
announces that in an average of 96 districts in the United 
States the wheat crop in quantity is equal and in quality 
superior to that of 1872. 

The Turkish Ministry of Public Works has under- 
taken the construction of the Yamboli and Shumla road 
section of a projected line between the Pbilippopoli and 
Adrianople, and Varna and Rustchuk lines. 



862 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbk 3, 1873. 



PRIZE LIST OF THE SOCIETY HSDUSTRIELLE 

ifE MULHOUSB. 

Die foUowmg is a tranfllaiioa of the list of the priaes 
offnrad yj thu Societjr. It is giyea here for the sake of 
oompariBon with ike premimn ust of the Society of AitB. 

It najr ht well to axentnXi tiiat the tbUowiog pruee, 
nKhyerrfew exoeptionS» are ^eii te geoeral oompett- 
tton* They wiU be decided fn May, 1874. 

There ai« Hiree daiaee of medalS) aU of Woiuse, hut 
diffoiisff in Btflec—lCedalfl of honour; let olaw medals ; 
and Snd tiasa nedala. 

BPECIAL PRIZES. 

Emllo Dollfus Prize {medal cf honour <md a turn qf 5,000 franei), 
gtvea every ten veftrs to the author of the dIseo>Very, Invention, or 
Applicstlon irhieh proves of Uie greatest vala« to the iDdostriM of 
tiie HMat-RtdD since the iMt f fa actng «f the priM^ (To be given In 
1879.) 

Dnnlet Dollftts Prize, ^e sacie ss ^ib fll)o^e, tmt to be gtvm 
Ih 1874. 

QslAlh^ Prtee, a sun of I,t00 fnxmk a veir, to b^ aistribated ohder 
Mitain eondltioos aofeng Alsattsn workmea of good eondaot and 
iBduftrloos habits. 

OBNfiBAL PRICES. 

Cbhboal Abtb* 

I. An eaav on the thiorr of the maaoflaotwe of Turkey red. 
{lit €lais medal.) 

9, A theoretical essay estibttshtog tiie chemical ootiMtnents of 
the fobstanoe, or sabstanceft, whf«h aooompany idisarlne in garandne, 
and whfoh, in concert with this coleariag maMev, produee the dyes 
called garanclne. List elau medal.) 

3. For the manofaoture and delivei^ to the CallcD manufkctorl&s 
Of Alsace 6f an artificial product, «iipab1« of entirely repltoiDg the 
eolourtag matter of garanehia, and which, both as regards pric« and 
4«antity, is fitted for iodastrial purposes. {Medal of hoihiMr,) 

4. For the preparation of vivid lakes Arom garanclne, bodi Ved 
khd violet. {Medal of honow.) 

6. For a sttostanoe which <*in be used to thlclceB ooleon, sixrs, or 
AresslogB, fend which will replace, at a saving of at least 26 per emt^ 
all ttie substances hlUierto employed for these puri>08e8. {Medal nf 
Tionour.) 

e. Por b st^Atanee irMoh can tepllwe tlie dry albumen (tf eggs In 
the manufkotore of printed calicoes, and give a large saving <Ai the 
price of albumen. {Medal of /ionctir.) 

7. For colourless albumen from blOOd, whicJh Mil not boloitf by 
rvapom6on. {Medal of A^tfouf .) 

8. For aa important i mpwve m qu t ta the bleaching ef wool or 
silk. {Mtdod ^ hfm<mr.) 

9. For a method of bleaching which will remove ftrom unbleached 
teotton all amylaceous substaticcs, wHliout injuring the tissoe, and 
iri^out any great increase of expense. {Medal afkoncmr. ) 

IS. finay on the employment of resins in the bleaohing of cotton 
fabrics, (let da$t metial). 

II. For an ink for mailtlng cotton fkbrlcs Intended to be dyed 
With plain gronnds, red, puce, and other dark colours. This Ink 
most show ))iainly after undergoing all the operatioBS required ibr 
ttieeedyes. {Ut class medal). 

12. For an essay on the actidb of different kluds of cotton under 
procctaes for bleaching hnd colourhig. {Medal ef honour.) 

13. For a blue which can be used for dyeing wools blue, and which 
will resist the action of steaming and lignt. (1<^ doss medal.) 

14. For any Improvement in chemical products as regards purity 
and coucentntlob— «clds, alkallefe, 8oai«, .louring matteri) and 
<i6coctlons. (let ekm medal ) 

15. For oae or other of the following colours:- Metallic red, 
dark metallic green, metallic violet, garnet, and a shade of the 
Mrles from pearl grey to dark, capable of bett^ prtatei by rollers 
with aUramea as thiokeaing. {Medal qf hmemr.) 

16. For a theoretloal and practical essay on opchiaeal red. 
{Medal of honour.) 

. 17. For a transparent green, reidtrtlng tight and soap, %hoM 
l«1gtita«»k lotenaitT, Applicability to cotton fatirics, and price, 
reader Its use possible In manufttctures. {Medal rf hoiuntr,) 

18. For an essay on this question : Can IndlgoUne be reoorered 
m>m its feulphurlo add compounds? {2nd class medal.) 

19. For the first who delivers to the calico manulfcctorlet of AHace 
an artificial prodoot replacing advantageously the bine colowrlng. 
matter of Indiffo. {M^al qf honour.) 

20. For the first who delivers to the calico ma&nfiictorteB of Aliace 
an artificial product replacing advantageoosiy the Milpharie add 
derivatives of hMUgo. {let dost medai. ) 

21. For a new process of fixing, by printing, aniline colours In a 
teore complete way than by albumen. (l«( eUtsa medal.) 

22. For an anlOne black, soluble In any vehicle, which can terre 
as a dye, and can resist the action of lighi and soap, as well as true 
anillue black. {Medal of honour.) 

13. For a new black of the same intensity and the same solidity 
as aniline black, which will not weaken the fiiln-lc, and will bear 
contact with all other colours, especially those mixed with albumen, 
without itself Injuring the shades with which ii Is associated, llsi 
dass mtdal. ) 

24. Fur an essay on the composition of anlUne bHdu (MUal of 
honour.) 



25. For a scarlet red susceptible of appIicaUona similar to thote of 
the aniline colours, which will not be more fugitive than than, ad 
not dearer than a cuchineal orimsoo. ( ifedol qf honour. ) 

2«. For any reproduction, by an artificial or aatarat slkaioU,«r 
the reactions which, with aniline, toluidine, naphty lamioe, pnte« 
red, blue, green, and black. The essay thoxM be aerampaated fiih 
samples, and Mil reedve a price even If hMtnatriislly laaw^fcatili, 
{Medeil 4tf honour.) 

87. For a method of increasing the solidity of artiftGlal eoknrisi 
matton. {Midid qf honour.) 

28. Fbr a certain and piacHcallBfeUied of bHngfagaalllitlMk, 
immediately after prlniing, to ttie tnaximvm cf ox^atlsA, vithoa 
having recourse to ageing, and without damaging the fttwic tr 
injuring the metal employed for printing. {1st elau meieL) 

29. For the Introduction Into mannfaetnres of calicoes pHated b 
a new colour, which is developed and fixsd oniler ooadltioiu sMkpm 
to those under which aniline black Is produced ; which rikall aho tt 
Impervious to air and light, and resist the action ol sMp, tlkslki» 
and acids. ( Medal of hon our. ) 

39. For a metallic alloy or other smbetMice fitted to wan fer 
doctors, and which unites to the elasticity and hardncM ef asal tto 
property of not causing any chemical action in th« prescacc of sdd 
colours. Or colouin charged with certain naetalllc laUs. {Meiti of 
uonour.j 

31. For any great I mp r o ve m ent In the engiaviag of sylMo. 
{Medal qf honour t or 1st class medal.) 

32. For the best practical manuals on one or other of tb« fblbTtaf 
salrjectst—lst. Engraving printing cylinders. Snd. Engfaviscpcist- 
tag blocks. 3nL Bleaohing cotton, wool, wool and CDCtoa, riA, 
heiBp and lineo. ( Mednl qf humour qfthe let or lad dan, muirtug 
to the merit qf the esstqf.) 

33. For an essay on this question — At what degrees of taap ui 
beat does the decompoaidon of orordaots act wtth most rsplfitr^ 
Bost advantage ? {\st class iseedaL) 

34. For a new cylinder nuohitic, able to print at least ei^ ttdna* 
at a time, and ofTerlng some advantages over those at prcscal ta- 
ployed. ( Medal qf hdutmr.) 

35. For introdndi^ or manufacturing in Atmoecyliadaiof oa- 
Iron, covered with copper by electro.platia«, which are to bcasad a 
printing calicoes. ( Medal qf honour. ) 

89. For a series or new cofours, with metafile bsMS, uflflkssfeskle 
by the action of air and light, lliew eolonra, sportally hrtoM tt 
for UM as plain colours, must be fixed otberwi«e tiiM ^ aai« 
and be able to bear washing. ( Medal qf kammr.) 

37. The best system of vats for dydng and soeptng. (UitJas 
medal.) 

3B. For the discovery or tntrodootloa of a method uaetel ta a< 
manufacture of printed fabrics or chemical products. (if«M if 
hcnotfr qflhelstor 2nd class.) 

39. For a method of recovefring the anlphnr contaioed hi hjfdfe- 
Bulphnri c aeid. ( lf< ehms mtdal. ) 

40. For an appaiatus tranamitting themtometrical indlakaofli ta 
a distance. {1st class medal.) 

AX. For an apparatus marking automatically the tenpattsnnxi 
the hygrometrical state of the air In tb« diylmr-hoassscf cs8a 
fisctoriee. ( l st clou modal. ) 

42. For a new method of treating the di<ferent kinds cf oil vti 
for lubricating machines. ( Medal cf honour. ) 

43. For an essay on the relative infiammablllty of ths 8B«i1. 
vegetable, and mineral oils used in woricahofa fbr lobrfcatiac 
machines. ( l« clau medal. ) 

44. For on essay indicating some process by which mloenl'lh 
may be rendered heas inflammable while their lubricatlr^ pnv>iln 
are preserved. ( Medal qf honour,) 

45. For the produetlon of caroiioic acid by synthesis. (Md^f 
honour.) 

46. For introducing Into nanufhctures artificial ofrlae. (BM 
<I^Aono«r.) 

47. For ttie pr^Aration of vermilloa on cotton fhbrloB. {UM « 
honour.) 

48. For a blue, analogous to nitramarlne as to shade and »lAf 
to be fixed on Ikbrics of cotton by a chemical proeen, iHthn^ » 
help of albumen or any other thickening aobatance {vodaoii*^- 
hesion by coagulation. ( Medal q; honour. ) 

49. For a practical method of extracting firom ganaehw &< 
orang« red colouring matter, the price of which will adalldf^ 
on of this product in printing cotton thbrica. ( JfMol ^AmmtJ 

50. For the first delivery to the cotton £aotories of AtsHt d% 
pipeclay, either natural or artificial. In impalpable powder, "taft 
will serve to thicken the colours used fbr cylinder prtnttaf : h^^ 
be entirdy free from the hard and sandy sofaataness whka**^ 
always accompany it. ( 2ntf dsss medal. ) 

51. For the best system of vats for dyeing, (isi dass me^) 

52. For the produdtlon of carmloic acid by ^mthesla. 

Mbobasical Aars. 

1. For an nsayon the spinning of ootton.Xo. SO to 200 
{Medal qf honour.) 

2. For an essay on the spinning of oombcU irool, aftsr 
system now knoWn. The essay must be aceonifMiied with 
plans, and wiin descriptiuns of all the maohiaf used In Iht 
{Ut floss stiver medal ) 

3. For tlie Invention and use In Alsace, with advantif* 
systems now known, of a machine, or Mrire vf tuudUum 
all kinds of I ng-*taple cuiu.na r.*r combing, In a iaof« 
manner than that at present in usa. ^ JTrt^M. ./ homeur.) 

4. For tlie invention and u>c lit Abaor, with adn 
the systeau now known, of a raathme, or »H» W — 
for opening and cleaning aU kinasol shoit-staple eottoat. 



um*^ 



P'U't 



JOURNAL OF THE 80CIErr OP ARTS, Octobkb », 1^70. 



963 



two|j > rty fsr tlie aetiia of ou4%, prrparing oMehiBes, 
wmMiim, If; ftt the tlBM of tHe Snvention, Mf sQch 
macfaioea exist for short-staple cottons, wr Am* iii|r Mtftlofoiis 
machines. ( Medat of kotmmt. ) 

•w F«r «lM IbViDtiM Md «se to Al«aec, wHh advaoUire ov«r the 
sysl rtW i M rwIiw u iii^ofaogis Mag BMofalne, or»>iigaofi«chin»ahii>es. 
An* tft« MlOTt-ctsple ootton nsei fbr splniiiiig the •rriinarf mmbers, 
and wiiteh may adTsntsg^oiisly replace the carding, or one of tketwo 
OknlingB, and eren, if posrible, to a great extent, the beating and 
or oleaoioig of the cotton, as the Heilmann and HUbner 
macUoek now Oo for the loog-sliple and the fi"e spnn 
ooltDM. {Utdmlqfhotumr.) 

«. For a method of wFodTbg the threads on b 'bbhis or spindles, 
more •eonomlcal than that now in osc. (Isf ctau medal ) 

T. For aa essay on the motlre power necessary to piit In motion a 
nrtcs of mactdoes, nndel' various systems. ( Medal n/ kommr.) 

8. Fbr a simple and pracncal m(>thod of clearing tho cotton from 
the cylindrical cards of the Hfllmann and HUbner carding 
machinw. ( IsT eiast mtdml. 

9. For a complete well-groanded theory of carding, with a 
d a wiiHitl dn of Vie diflbtvut Mods of oardi. ( Uedml ^ Aowoiir mid 

10. Fur an exhaustive essay on the virttiiiiiif eff IndlMi cotloh. 
( ifoltfff «^ honowr 9r Iff cfoM medal.) 

11. For the maoufactare and sale of new fabrtea In the depart* 
vent. \Mietiu» medai) 

ts. T^ the dresstng of fine-span, above No. Tt, on Ihe deing 
■MebbM. t VWra/^Aottowr.) 

^3. Fof Ml important iif*provenent In tfiemiAhod 1^ weavinfr»MCli 
as a ■topplns' motion, under theforra of a ibimple a pp ii mtuB , wkksh will 
not Mwifeie wKh Hw woi%nan tn Ms wor%, and wfll stop the lo<^m 
erer^ thae That a thread of the warp breaks; the stmnltaAeoas 
w^avrng of iwo pieces on one loom ; JoMng, while In modon, any 
broken warp thre.tds; change of shvtiYe dating wotkifi, wMiont 
a top p te «nd wtthont flaw hi the flibrte; remarkable hnprovement 
In the amsngemetit of harness, Ao. ( Mednl qf homeur.'S 

IS. Tor the firflt who nses tn the department of the tlaiit.lthtn a 
i t tnm en eh' g ' oh a new system, only ouiisunitn g nine kilogrammes 
of tienm per horse^wwer per honr, the motive power to be 
by a dynamometer on the fly-wheel shaf;. (JN«M <tf 
"•J 




1%, Per » new means of dete mi t ning the qntntHy of water orried 
hytbe«lcuno«tofhoifera. (Ifsrfal ^^ene ni mtivo^frtmn.) 

IS. For a new improvement In the oonstmolton or a ainn gement 
of «mtsr4nhe boilers. (Mednl fif Aonoir.) 

It. For the fint huHder who constraets and pnii wp In Ihe depart- 
swnt of the Ifant-lHiln fixed boilers, other ttinn wnter^ohe bolters, 
wMdh tvtn five It per cent, of tti« heat given ont \if Che ooals 
hvroed tn the fhmaoe. ^JMIof <|^Aovi4Mir.) 

la. Vor the heat stokers of the boiler furnaces of stationary 
e«tl>c*> t^Sfr «^}«er mtdali^ antijhe mmi of 190, 90, 2i, 25, and 25 
/rwMCf.) 

19. For an essay, based on s suflBcient number of experiments, 
which must be detailed In an accompanying note, on Uie relation 
w^Scft exisrs In the various sorts of steam engines between the indl- 
CBted and efl^ctive horse-power. ( Medal (if honour and 1,000 francs.) 

Mu For an improved Betf-calcntatlng steam engine. {FirU-dmst 

SI. fW an essay, accompanied by a sufficient number of experi- 
ments, oo the dimensions of the chimneys of steam generators. 

< Me^mt 4/ AoMonr oad too ftane$. ) 

SS. Fbr a new system of economical heating of boilers, founded 
on tbe principle of the preliminary transformation of the 
ecndrastfues Into gas, and permitting, If required, the collection of 
tbe firodacts of the distillation of the ooal. ( Medal qf honour. ) 

BlTILDIlVO. 

23. For tbe best essay on the most convenient methods of con- 
s' meting the bntidiogs and machines for a cotton spinning-mill, or 
of m power-loom f«ctory. ( Medat ^f honour and 500 francs.) 

24. For the maoufuolare and sale in the department of the Haut- 
ithin of lees expensive bridu tliAn those now In use. (Medal of 

25. For the best plan for workman's bouses. {Medml qf honour 
fQJrmncM.) 

. Macriki Accimnrrs. 

t. For the tftdustrlai estaMlsimient in the Haot-Rhin which, 
ei|«al conditions, shall have applied to the arrangements of its 
maeiihies the most complete precautions scainst accidents, or for the 
bnlhlen who have most sought to apply theie preoaution;. (Medal 

27. For the invention and use in an eslablishment In tbe Haut- 
Rbin of an instrument or arrangement not yet employed in the de- 
fiartaient, fitted to avert fmm the workmen the accidents caused by 
the mAChlncs or belts, shafting, Ac. ( Mrdal ef honour.) 

2S. Special prise fbr the directors of manufactories associated wllh 
tho object of preventing accidents. Iho prise goes to the director 
who has taken ttie greatest precautions against the chances of 

mSCELLAKEOUfl PRIZES. 

29. For new researches, theoretical and practical, on the movement 
and ttie cooling of steam in large steam pipes. {Itt elau medal and 
t,VM ^TieMe.) 

30. For a complete assay on the tmnsmMon of motive power. 

< Ue^at qf honour and bOO/ranes. ) 

31. For a new method of treating the dUTerent kinds of oil proper 
tar lohricatiitg machines. ( Medal qf honour.) (8eo prize No. 42 for 
Chemical Arts.) 



St. For an essay on wanainv srerkAopa hf 
therein; more especially spinning workshops (ls<i 
500 francs.) 

33. For the e x ecu tio n of n project tor nstrtinlng water by means 
ofdykes or weirs, applied to one of tiie whet ns mi'w s In the depart- 
me nt of t he Haut-Rhin, and^iaMeefMAtNnf Mm «»nMe^#Mt M 
prerenttag fioods, Sfnd ef fonninip, dnrta^ ^T oeaeiMai % m&tnh of 
water for agrlenltaral Mii Indnstvial parponea. {m^mtwfhmmu/t.) 

34. For the invention and er 
applicable to eleam geoeraton. {Medat sf ktmomt.^ 

86. Fnr an essay on ttM Motlre pu n u mummmrfhapt^ tatftotton 
the various machines of a spinning-mill or pei 
essay Should be 
^Medal of honour.) 

36. For the best essays, in the form of practical 
or manuals, applying to one or other of the following industries,) 
intended specially to be put Into the hs«ids of hnftfls of Wtntuhopa, 
fOrensen,. and workmen. Cotton -spinnkifft spinning efnonhed wool; 
spinning of earded wool ; apinsiinf ofe^lk-wastet wpsetna' «ei 
twfstlngof ootCon,wool,orslik( mnnuflselwie of paper; 
ef maf^iusa. In theae vwiesM lod«alHeseBe«r eth e r of the isUewlnV 
subjects may be (rested by Itself Erection of maohioes; li 
in general ; Hghting workshops ( ksaiing { 
power; pr«oantions against aoeilents 4ne te , 

■sent of steam engines and boilers. (2 mrdaU qfhomom^ 1 itt i 

euays.) 

3T. For a new machine for cylinder 
at least eight ^oloarB at a time^ and 
thoesnewinnse. {M*dal^hoiaomi\) <ftee 
Arts' prizes ) 

88. For an alloy of meiti, or other 
advantageously, under all drenmitsnei 
b) the eooetmction of machines, {ioi 

SO. For the first baker hi the ' 
ofiers for sale 40,000 kilngranunes of 
{Medal ^honour.) 

40. For a new method or ap pami as 
spinning rooms and weaving rooms (he< 
to fadiitate the work, {latclmst modoL^ 

41. Foranyimpnrtnntimproveaaent1nthe«elbod«f4 
belts for transmitting power. ( iot olest mo d m l . ) 

48. For tbe teventien nnd nnpllcatian «f a 
gauging the tempemtare «f the geaeeus prodnelsof ihe 
under steam generators. < Medai of honour. ) 

4 J. For varions improfnmsnts l« centrifugal nMMhhML i§mdtam 

vtathi 
httherto 





Atled «e ffee ihe nir nf 



tnilio 






44. For an improvement in the 
arrangement of pumps, sAirdii^ better resnite than 
obtained. ( Isf class medal ) 

48. For an rssay--oaloulated from ecperimenls-'en the nn n fiit i ona 
requhred for making wells hi M nihenes or its env ir ens. <Ml ~ 
medal and OOO^niscs.) 

46. For a rotary, forcing suction-pomp, giving equal 
the beet piston pumps In use in tne department of tlM H nn frBh Io; 
the raising ooKnnn must be at least % mbhrss, and Mm pitee, inr ihe 
quantity of water raised, less by half. ( Modal qf h t m m ■> 

47. For a gas-motor presenling some advantagw ^mt ftote 
hitherto tried at Mulhonse. i Medal qf htmm .% 

48. F«« applying to Mnlhouse n tramway fsr the » i(l>o ri #f 
inerchandi8% nnJ speeiaUy eoni, nv ai la hls fer oemaen Mnii. <tar 
class m e da l .) 

48. For the first appUca'ioo to Mnlhonse of « new n it a ni of 
ttnnsport, dertgned eai eciaily tor shett d i einnces, nnd fit to IhetHhae 
oommunicatiou in tbe interior of nlmvellMJtorf. (itf dhit ««inl>| 

80. For the invention er iotrodnelion ioio the H m ^ IM i h i ef n 
counting apparatus of revolutioMS or strobes, n ppi ionbie to amtnifi, 
shafting, and al-o pamie, Ac The jntoe not te ct bisJ ilMnt 20 
francs. {Ut class medai.) » 

61. For 8 new indicator, speohOly d e iignsd tar «m np l Il M of 
looms, and capable of vegitteriDg np Oo 18i 8 B m mt i wt kmf mtmgin 
(1st class mrdal.) 

52. For a new burner for cosl>gaa, utilising more tboron^ljr than 
known burners the light produced by combustion ; It must tie simple 
and cheap, and grounded on a new principle. ( Medal qf honour.) 

63. For a simph) automatle method of regoUtlng tiM nd i n lm l e n of 
steam into bleaching, or dyeing vata, so that the oonsumidlon of 
steam may always correspond with the desired rtsolt. {MtMtaf 

honour.) ^, _. 

54. For an essay determlulng the most reasonable propoftlont to 
adopt for the parts of tlie machinery which are oxiKMed to tMoOon, 
such as trunnions, pivots, tooth-wheels, &o , undet the ovdinntr 
concJilions of lubrication. {Medal qf honour.) , , ^ 

65. For tbe iutroduction and employment in tbe laanstry of the 
Haut-Rhin of a machine or mechanical apparatus, the retntt of Ihe 
use of which would be a great economy of hand labour, wbidi wooM 
more than repay the eost of Ito erection and nuioteoaaoe. ( Modal 
of honour.) . . ... .^..^ 

66. For the introduction into a Ia«ge industrial bntlAtng in oovrso 
of erection in the Haut-Rliin. single-storied or In stories, of a system 
of ventilation utilising the fresh air of tbe nights or of subterranean 
places, maintaining the Interior air at a temperature of five degroea 
centigrade at least below the medium exterior t«m|Hiratn«e4nring 
tbe greatest summer heat, and that witliout Injuring the working 
conditions of the establishment. ( Medal qf honour.) 

67. For introducing Into the Tlaut-Khtii a mechanical rrftlgeratlog 
apparatus, capable of maiotainlog, without much expense, la a rjoiu 
containing machines lieated wi*h strani or gaa,a maximum tempera 
turo uf 30 degrees ccntigiado during the grcato8t summer heat, and 



864 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, (Jotobeb 3, 1873. 



that withoat iojuiy to the working condition of the nuohines. 
iiitdoiqfkotKmr.) 

Natural Histost avd Aoiuculturb. 

1. For ft geognotUcal or mioeralogioal descrlptioa of a part of th« 
department. (I $t or antf docf medal. ) 

X For a olaaalfied catalogae of the plants of the arondinemeots of 
Halhonse or Belfort, or of only one or two cuitons In these arron- 
dissementi. {\»t or %itd dan tmedoL) 

3. For an essay on the (knna of Alsace. {\tt class medal.) 

4. For an essay on the cellular cryptogams of the Uant-Rbin. 
{Ut or 2iui class medal.) 

5. For a study on the sabterranean water-lerel of the plains of 
Snndgan, and e^peciaUy of the arroodisseroent of Mnlhouse. (Is 
or 2ii«f dass medal.) 

PRIZES OF THE COMMITTEE OF COMMERCE. 

1. For an essay treating of tfie dUfbrent uies of alcohol in the 
industrial arts, and pointing oat a new and practical way of 
**denataralislng** this Ilqaid. The process indicated must reconcile 
the interests of industries with the demands of the excise. (Medal 
of honour.) 

2. For the commercial house in China, Japan, Australia, or India, 
which first proves that It has sold, during one year at least, 100,000 
francs* worth of the Industrial producti of the Haut-Rhin, aUd that 
at a sufficiently remoneratlTe price to allow of the trad* being 
carried on. (Jdedalqf honour.) 

3. For an essay gl^ng an account of the commerclftl houses 
founded by the English in China and Japan since the conclusion of 
the las' treaties of commerce between these countries and foreigners. 
( ifedal qf honour.) 

4. For the tenant or proprietor who, breeding sheep in Alsace, 
perfocti the race of sheep in the country as regards the firmness and 
evenness of their wool, by crossing it with the Champagne breed or 
other analogous French breed. The flock must consist of at least 
600 head, bom in Altacs. ( Ut class medal.) 

6. For a sure and practical method of refaeing the surface of 
oopperor bronze cylinders which have been engraved for printing, 
so »s to preserve their nriglnal circumference, without injuring the 
capacity of the metal for taking a new graving. (Ut class medal. ) 

6. For researches made in China or Japan with the object of pro- 
curing from these countries raw material which will save at least 20 
per cent. In producing certain chemical pmdnct*, such as tartaric 
acid, citrate acid, borax or boracic add, Ac. ( 1st cta*s medal. ) 

I. For any consul who, by means of information supplied to the 
Industrial Society, may have contributed or shall contribute to 
esUblish new commercial relations between Alsace and the countries 
to which he is accredited. ( Medml of honour. ) 

8. For the Algerian planter who proves that he was the first to 
fkimlsh, during three consecutive years, one or more Alsatian 
spinning-mills with cottons of his own growing, of regular qaallty, 
and, as Car as possible, approaching the medium quality of long- 
staple Georgia in length, strength, fineness, and brilliancy. (Medal 
qf honour.) 

9. For an essay pointing out sattsfkctorily the Influence which the 
rapidly increasing production of wool exercises over cotton in- 
dustry. Point out in this essay at what rati the production of 
wool, especially of Australian, lias increased during the last ten 
years ; describe the light fabrics made of pure wool, wool mixed with 
silk, thread, or cotton; indicate approximately the respective 
qoantltles produoed in tVance, England, and Germany, and their 
prices in the principal European markets. ( Medal of honour. ) 

10. For an essay, written from a practical and fliancial point of 
view, discDSsing the establishment ot a canal, drawing the water 
supply from the Rhine, by Huningue for example, which should 
descend to Strasbourg, traversing the departments of the Haut and 
Bas Rhin. ( Medal qf honour ) 

II. For the person or society which introduces and practises the 
culture of madder In Algeria. ( Ut class medal ) 

12. For the best essay on the utility to the commerce and industry 
of Alsace of having a complete system of transport by water* ways. 
{Ut class medal.) 

PRIZES OF THE COMMITTEE OF HISTORY AKD 

STATISTICS. 
Medal qf honour qf the Ut or 2nd class, according to merits/or: — 

1. A complete history of one of the principal branches of industrv 
of the Haut-Rhln. 

2. Complete biography of one or more of the principal inventors 
or promoters of industry in the Haut-Rliin. 

3. Statistical researches on the working population of Mnlhouse ; 
Its history, condition, and methods of improving that condition. 

4. Determine, by incontestable evidence, the variations, during the 
last century in the Hau^-Rhln, of pay for a day»s work. Show the 
price of a hectolitre of wheat, and other necessaries of life during 
the same period. 

6. A map of the department of the Haut-Rhln during the Gallic- 
Roman period. 

6. A map of the feudal divi ions existing in the Haute Alsace at 
the beginning of the 17th century. 

7. A list of the industrial establishments of the Haut-Rhln in 
1789 and 1870. 

a. Hht ry of the means of communication in th? Haut-Rhin, 
with an examination Into their influenre on comment «l prosperity. 

9 History of the means of communication In Alwce, and their 
influence on comme^ and industry. 

10. Critical stndy.wumerating and estimating the archatoloy'cal, 
M.Htnriral. and statlstiBftl work done In Alsace »ince the beginning <>f 
the vresent oentnry. N 



11. Value, in present French mooey, of the dlArsat eolaiesmst 
in Alsace fh)m the 14th oeotnry ; point oat thdr eoaacdiai vtt 
those of adjoining oountries. 

IX Same work for weights and measures. 

13. Production of autbentiod'jcumsnta relatinr to the oMmei 
of cotton Indnstry in Alsace, from the 13th to the ITth esstsiiaa 

14. Practical gnkle for tourists in the Vosges. (To be vritta k 
French.) 

15. Short history of the town of Molboosenatn flMpcrMofiti 
union with France, written with a special view to Its IsglilitkB, 
and the customs and the habits of its cltteens. {Uedtl sflmm 
and 100 firanes.) (To be written in French.) 

16. A monograph or history of any particalar plaoe Is Alaa, 
from the most ancient times up to the present ; or aa lotertrtir 
historical essay about all or part of our province ; or a eolIstiiM 4 
historical researches on the same subject. {Utor^mi ckst mdsl.) 

CO^CMITTEE OF PUBLIC TmLITT. 

For a collection of at least 400 arithmetical problson, for 1h« w 
of primary schools, and for adult classes in indostrial tovas. (Ur 
or 2nd class medal according to met it.) 

2. For a statistical essay on the f6od-sopply of MsOmh. 
( Medal qf honour. ) 

3. For an essay on the principal improvements introdassd dnisf 
the last 10 years In one of the following point-*, as leprfa ^ 
working-classes:— I. Food supply. 2. Clothing. 3 Lodcissaad 
heating. 4. General hygiene. 6 Economy and provideaee. 4 is- 
struotlon and recreation. ( *tedal qf honour. ) 

4. Prise for a study of the means of oombatiog extcsalrt b»tii 
gronnd-fioor or garret workshops, and storied boUdtofi, «^ 
aspect, large expand of glased snrlace, or InclUistion of sM^n. 
exposes them particularly to the son during the sumnter. 

5. Prise for an essay on the improvonents in flre-enfiBei, dsrief 
the last ten years. 

6. Prise for an essay, showing the best organbatioiifbrtiKflr^ 
service In industrial establishments, and the precantioBB nvid tt 
avoid ur lessen the risk of fire in tlie woricsbops nbsn issgmm 
trades are carried on. 

7. For an essay treating of the possible results lo the Hsst^Bkls. 
of woriclng, by a society par acttons, tho^ lodostrks vhiA. *« 
their origin have been in the hands of a society en nam esOeeiif,''^ 
of the means of remedying the defecU which this mv sists ' 
things might have from some points of view. ( Medml e/ksmv) 

8. For any Indtutriai undertaking, society en mom eslketif,* 
society DOT actions, anonymous or en eommmudise, es t sMiii» d liw 
1872, which shall have assured to iU workmen by its stststastpet 
of its profits, to be dedicated to encouragements for eeoaoBy ^ 
providence, or to aid them Id any other way. ( Medal of Aeaw) 

9. For an apparatus to renew the air qnlekly la the drrisf- 
houses used to oxidise aniline black. {Ut dass medsL) 

PAPER INDUSTRY. ^. 

1. For the production and use in Fraaee of a whits palp ftohm 
by the chemical disintegration of wood. The prime cost rftfeb 
paper-pulp should be such that it can be used either aloas or nixe^ 
and replace rag-pulp advantageously, in white wrifiac W^- ' 
paper for printing of the usual kinds. ( Medal qfh u msm r ead iON 
/ranes.) 

2. For the best essay on the bleaching of rags. ( Modal ^ ksaai') 

3. For the best essay on the sising of paper. {Ut dass wudsL) 

4. For a method of neutralising or diverting 
is often injurious to the manufiaclnre of paper. 

6. For a statistical essiy -on Uie conditfon of the paper i 
the principal states of Europe (France, EngUnd, Genaaar. Il>Ir> 
Prussia, Spain, and Belgium) and in the United States of Aaoio. 
{Ut dass medal.) 

COMMITTEE OF THE BEAUX-ARTS. 

1. For an essay on the practieal utility of drawing is esaseeii* 
wlt^ handicrafts, arts, and trades. ( Medal <^ kommr.) 

2. Prize for a special history of styles, fbrms, and eolosn «M 
have been most successful in printed fabrics, from tlw iat * *"** ^* 
this industry in Mnlhouse up to the present day. 

3. Prize for a detailed memorandum c^ the styles of pfWN k 
vogue during the seasons 1872 73 and 1873-74, and their eai;l«!r*'' 

4. Prize for an analysis of the best methods nsed la kart^ 
drawing at Ports, Lyons, Toulouse, and in the Schools ef ^"^ 
founded in England and Germany during late years. Stats skit*' 
best style of teaching for pupils designed for Industrial car****- 
who only remain at school for two or thi«e years, and stndjiH**^ 
two hours daily. 

BflSCELLANEOUS PRIZES. 

1. For any important improvenaent ia anv branch of tftt ■** 
fkoturingor agricultural industry of the Baot-Rhln. {Isler^ 
class medal or medal qf honour. ) 

2. For the introduction of any new industry Into the Bast-B^ 
and for the best essays on indnstria wlUch can be Ih^nmi f * 
Introduced into the department. If a new ladnstry Nis qai^*>*> 
it must have been in active work In the departmmt for at ls^<* 
years. ( Medal qfhonour^ orUtor Qmd dass wtedat.) 



w. {UtcUssmdsL] 
Ing the electricity rttf 
jer. {1st dass usiA) 
of the paper tnis^ * 



PRIZES GIVEN BY THE ASSOCIATION FOR OCltOO'^ 
AGAINST MACHINE ACttlDBNTS. 

1. A silver medal for the Invention and employ meot of a M*'* 
preventing the numerous accidents due to the o«r of ehtalsrss^ 

2. Silver medals fbr an essay grounded on the arnagm^^ 
already existing or In use for preventing acddenta lo etraahr i 



JOURNAL OP THE BOOIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbr 3, 1873. 



865 



S. A tUver medal for the iDvention of an arraogeinent for prerent- 
iBf Aoeldeota caased by eiroolar oombs ia the maobines for pro 
ptfinff wool for fpianlog. 

4. A silver medal to the manager of any ectabllshment who sha*I 
hare applied aatomatio cleaning to 20,000 tpindlM, or, in establish- 
mentt wfaidi only use firom 10 to 2i,000, to the whole number. 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN PRANCE. 

Hie following accoant of the present state of trade 
edocatioil and apprenticeship in France is given by a 
oomspondent of the Pall Mall Gazette, If the view 
taken hj the writer is correct, the state of technical 
edaoation in France is, in many respects, little better 
than it is in England : — 

The number of men who try to promote social reforms 
in France by other means than politics, and without 
invoking GK>yemment aid, is not large, but the few of 
this kind who have arisen from time to time have 
generally done much good ; and it should be an en- 
oonraffement to imitators that nU the really useful 
French charitiee — crdches, convalescent homes for work* 
men, mechanics' loan societies, institutions for the deaf, 
dnmb, and blind, and those admirable co-operative re- 
treats, like the Hospice de 8t Ferine, where the aged of 
both sexea find a cheerful home for a siim which would 
scarcely suffice to keep them alive elsewhere^have all 
been bom of private enterprise. The last institution 
dee to the unassisted initiative of a few pu' lie-spirited 
individuals is that of apprentice schools, an 1 these pro- 
mise to render such valuable services to Fi>>nGh trade 
that a few details concerning them may be ot interest. 

Since the first Revolution, which abolished all trade 
oorporationa, the position of French apprentices has been 
very unaatasfactory. The old guilds, with their anti- 
quated roles, and their rage for public banqueting, 
were not perhaps, progressive bodies ; but in their own 
rough way they kept an eye on apprentices, reproved 
and even punished the masters who were remiss in in- 
structing them, and maintained among the apprentices 
themselves a wholesome emulation by means of frequent 
examinations, badges, and money prizes. There were, 
in £ujt, trade degrees like those in a university ; and 
an appreatioe, however rich he might be, could only be- 
come a mast^ and set up shop after having obtained 
three certificates of proficiency. The first was bestowed 
after two years of apprenticeship ; the second, with a 
coloured badge, at the end of the fifth year ; and the 
third, with a silver badge, when the apprenticeship 
was coD<duded — ^in a brilliant manner, lliose who de- 
clined submitting to these formalities might, indeed, 
establish thcitaDselvee in country districts, or on Uie 
outskirts of large cities, but tliey were not admitted 
to the gnilds; they enjoyed none of the privileges 
or protection extended by the State to those who 
plied their trades in the usual way, and their general 
situation was precarious and undignified. As a result 
of this system French mechanics were renowned the 
whole world over. If they went abroad, every country 
was ready to welcome them ; and when it happened 
that fhe^ emigrated in large numb^v, as after the 
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, they soon founded 
pro8p«roas communities, like that of the weavers in 
Spitslfields and of the watchmakers in Geneva. 
The Berolution should have confined itself to reforming 
the corporations by obligin|^ them to be less arbitrary 
and exclusive. The sweeping away of all the gvdld 
rules in the name of freedom was a popular measure in 
that it tnuitiplied enormously the number of master 
tradesmen, and brought into the cities thousAids of 
peasants who under the old state of things would not 
nave been able to earn a living thero; but as an imme- 
diate consequence the reputation of French handicraft 
was lowered, and trades of which France had possessed 
almost a monopoly — the glove, fenther-dyeing, and 



fancy furniture trades amongst others — became accli- 
matised in foreign countries. To remedy this evil, which 
was beginning to tell disastrously on the exports, Napo- 
leon I. allowed the guilds partially to reconstitute them- 
selves under the name of associations ; but, owin^ to 
repeated wars, which drafted all able-bodied men into 
the^ urmy and rendered apprenticeships useless, these 
societies had no £Eur chance of acting till tiie Restoration, 
when they blossomed out with some force as political 
agencies, and were suppressed as a nuisance. Since then 
trade syndicates have been formed, and also trade 
unions ; but the object of these has been onlyto further 
the pecuniary interests of men or masters. The task of 
developing the artistic or scientific ezo^ence of trades 
has b€«n left to chance or to a few technical schools for 
adults, which, after perfecting workmen at a great cost, 
mostly had the satis^tion of seeing them depart to 
America or England, where the best wages were to be 
had. 

Apprentices meanwhile have had no one to look after 
them. A French mechanic's son is generally bound 
apprentice at haphazard, his special aptitudes for the 
trade he is to exercise being in no manner consulted. 
Either his father has been brought up to the trade in 
question before him, or if the boy be one of a numerous 
fomily, the sole point eonsidered has been which trade 
called for the smallest premium. Now in the guild 
times premiums never varied, and care was taken that 
every tradesman who accepted apprentices should be 
thoroughly qualified to teach them. Nowadays, no 
qualification being needed, it is naturally the most inca- 
pable tradesmen who are keenest in trying to secure 
apprentices by low premiums. They take in a boy as 
pupil and treat him as a servant, send him out to carry 
parcels, make him sweep the shop, wash up plates and 
dishes, and let him pick up many more bad habits than 

Sood lessons. On the other hand, if a master does his 
uty conscientiously, he risks seeing his apprentice bolt 
as soon as the latter can earn paid employment *, and as 
the law of 1860 relating to indentures gives a master no 
assistance in recovering an absconding apprentice ex- 
cept with the parents* consent, the parents are often the 
first to advise their sons to break away, especially if the 
sons bring any of their earnings home. The system is 
thus bad at the core; for, setting aside the cases 
where an apprentice serves his time Caiirly under 
a good master and becomes a first-rate workman 
by the age of twenty, most boys either g^w up to 
be lazy and ill-conditioned young vagabonds, only fit for 
soldiering or street rioting, or go out into the world as 
half-trained mechanics, artisans of eamelotef or shoddy, 
and bring the national workmanship into disrepute. On 
this last point the experience of recent years is but too 
eloqueni--for nine-tenths of the journeymen tailors, 
shoemakers, upholsterers, carriage-makers, and watch- 
makers in Paris are Qermans, Belgians, and Swiss. Yet 
there is no natural reason why this should be so. The 
Frenchmen of the last century made better coats and 
boots than the rest of the world, and their descendants 
might continue to do so still, were apprenticeships 
properly conducted. If twenty or thirty thousand 
Parisians famish in chronic misery in the slums of 
Montmartre and Belleville, while as many Germans 
earn their broad comfortably in the better quarters of 
the town, it is not that French masters are unpatriotically 
anxious to employ German labour. The G^ermans are 
better taught, that is all. They beat the French in war 
by education, and they are defeating them in peace by 
the self-same weapon. 

Apprentice schools, of which two are being founded, 
one at Havre and the other at La Yilette, in Paris, 
purpose to cope with this state of things by giving boys 
a trade education at a cost but litUe higher than that of 
the primary education in communal schools. The special 
aptitudes of boys will be taken to account, and the 
mechanics set to teach thorn will be the best that can be 
procured ; the boys will also be admitted very young. 



866 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, October 3, 1878. 



80 that t&eir training may begin two or three years 
earlier than a atual apprenticeship. Originally, the 
committee of gentlemen who started this scheme in- 
tended to manage the schools privately by the aid of 
ft>lantary contribations ; bvt the Havre snd Puis town 
oonncils having taken the whole plan under their 
patronage, and voted funds for the support of the schools, 
K IS probable that the first scheme will be much ex- 
tended, and that a special school will eventually be set 
atoart for each sort of handicraft. Meantime, the 
Ktttionid Assembly will be appealed to that the ap- 
pren l we Itiws of 1950 may be rendered iv*ore stringent, 
and that ft may^nt>vtde im^tecftors to see that apprentices 
SAPe better SEttended to by tweir masters. If ^ese refoinw 
fincoeed — as otie must certainly hope thej will — in 
rendering the worlring Masses of FWnee more induBtrkMu 
and contented tlum they at present are, a greater step 
will have been made towards regeneration and rewtmehe 
than any of the distracting projects of restoration or 
eonsolidalion at prssent mider discussion can ever ctei- 



THB OEIEKTAL CONGRESS IN PABIS. 

The finrt session of this new institution in Paris has 
Unai nated, after twentjr-one meetings. 

A feH report of the prooeedings, s^ papers read, will 
be drawn ^ and printed for circolation amongst the 
members of the Congress, hot this operation will require 
oonMderable time, and, moreover, the report will pro- 
bably not be published. 

In the fixst plaoe^ it may be mentioned that the 
Moond session of the Ocmgress n fixed to take place in 
liondoo. 

The addreas of his Excellencv, Sam^-Sima, the 
Japanese Envov in France, naturally created great tn- 
tei^BSt, especially as he spoke in exoklent Frenoh. He 
expressed the great sympathy whk^ his Government 
foil in an undertaking whseb, amongst other important 
vesolts, would^ it was hoped, laid to ^e formation of 
a European Hngnistic alphabet, ap^ioable to the publi- 
cation of Japanese woito. 

The fc^lowing are ejit rac te from the Minister's 
flpeech: — 

** Your presence here to-day, gentlemen, is the first 
pnbHc illustration in Europe of Uie entrance of Japan 
into a cornmunity of object and views for the future, 
with the Western nations. We have already estaUished 
political and commercial relations, but this is the first 
ci^eation of an tntellectual connection, and I doubt not 
Hhat edncntion will some day attain in Japan a power 
whicfe will enable vs to establish with you, in our turn, 
those social relations which alone really unite nations, 
because they alone dispel ignorance and prejudice. 

** I beg leave to draw your Attention to a question 
which may haw a very useful bearing: Japanese 
writing has, in practice, ceased to be purely alpha- 
betical — it has become to a considerable extent ideo- 
graphic. In this mixed form it answered our purposes 
nntil we came into communication wi& foreign nations, 
but now that we begin to employ European ideas and 
words, we find that it is almost impossible for ns to 
write them. It is therefore absolutely necessary that 
we ritould reform our sj'stem of writing. We are 
akeady eiigaged in the study of ^us important subject, 
and I take upon myself to point out those facts, in lAo 
hope that you will aid us with the light of your intel- 
lects. 

" W© are laying here the foundations of a mutual 
association for the benefit of all ; but you will not, I am 
sure, aoouse me of national egotism whon I declare 
frankly that I hope my country will profit more thsn 
Europe by your labours, for we have more need of your 
assistance than you have of ours." 
1 i? *^y ^ ^" appeal it was announced a few days 
ifttttv «t a meeting of the Congress, that what ttie 



Ambassador desired had been aooomylished kasMk 
satisfactory manner, and the Prendo^ AdaM lEfiC^ 
annonnoed that the task ot transcribing JapaasMtoA 
in European letters had been aooom|dished. 

It is almost unneoessafy to state ^atthe fonsifoitf 
an alphabet of Roman characters, and an ortbognDhj, 
raised many difficult problems; the alphabet alo» 
presented J^eat difficultiea, for neatiy the vhois of tbf 
immense Chinese vocabulary has gradually beea i8tn> 
duoed into the Japanese laaguge. ^e ivgum 
declensions also presented groat difficulties, as (juriiBm 
at the present time six or seven cas^ while, aocorasg Ifi 
a critical examination of the different gntnmtifit 
categories of tho Nippon idiom, dey really rfraildoBly 
form two. 

The new alphabet was formed in the boiom of ^ 
Congress itself, by the representatives of Prance, Bbj- 
land, Italy, SwitaerUnd, Pi ussta, and Holland, aod hv 
r eof i ved tiie sanction of most of the known Japmaeii 
Europe, and Dr. Richard Lepsuis, of Beriin, awed tli 
Congress that he should be pleased to adopt it iaks 
universal linguistic alphabet. 

Several Japanese savants assisted in ^6» diaviag ^ 
of this alphabet, one of the greatest indnoesMBts l!ac 
that with the innumerable signs at prssent ia ui a 
Ja|>an it is almost impossible to cstsblisii good Mn- 
papers, for which the Japanese have a great mm; «i>k 
a well-oondncted press they hope to be able to ooalnJ 
at onoe with the corruption aod fiauUs eC the kai 
governments and the ignorant prejndioes of the pso^ 
and, we may add, of the <dd bainios. A oaiio«flto<y 
is told respecting the editor of a Jeddo joanal kMl 
snppresseo, after repeated warnings, who^ iosteid ^ 
bemg imprisoned and heavily fined, as he wwU 
have been a short time since, was ap p s iato d Vt 
the minister to a post of great ta^ortiBee is t^ 
government. 

Amongst the subjects treated hj Uie CoBgren w 
that of ue political, social, and industrial otpam^ 
of Japan, introduced by M. Ed. Mndar de Moailjea, vi»> 
had resided for a long time in the conntry, and tkit d 
the religion and monJity of the people, the latter ith- 
tive to the carious fact that the Japanese saeae to rgff( 
on prind{4e the notions of modesty aocepfted \^^ 
nations. The majority of the speakers maanlaioid ^ 
the Japanese were remailrable fmr h^ nondi^ ■> 
the president, Admiral Rose, declared, after \m% eof^ 
in the country, that the "Japanese woiMn wm b«G 
respects an Eve before the fall.'* 

M. De Rosny, the originator of the CoogrciB, desstbee 
the religioQS changes which are going on in i*^ 
desoribiz^ the characteristics of the new fona ai K«^ 
Buddhism ; while a Jfl4>anese savant, M. Imnaas9. «^ 
spoke French fluently, followed in the same salQecl, v^ 
lamented t^e unfortimate influence of the dosvBM ^ 
Confucius. Finally, it was annonnoed that a vi^ 
congress, on a bams of edectioism, was to be heU ^ 
Yeddo shortly. 

The vexed question of the ethnography of the JafSitf 
naturally occupied mudi of the time and alteslitf* 
the congress, but the discussions were for too laof, v 
too involved to be capable of analysis in this pisoe; * 
of the most remarkable assertions, howevcs^ ^"^ i, 
mentioned: — M. De Bosny, professor c^ Japanew a ^ 
College of France, stated that the mtam of oow^ 
writing was identioidly the same as that of the Jipv*^ 
and that ^e language of the latter people fscsoi^tfei 
greatest sonlari^ in the orthography, «Bdgta>H>*f^''' 
only with the Manchou, Mo^nl* and Thtbii idi^ 
but also with the Turid^ Hag^nuv tfld Hs*^ 
languages. 

The subject of silkworm rearing and breediair v** ^ 
course not forgotten, and M. Goerm HenevtUr ir*^ ^ 
result of his long studies of tho true silkworms i^^^M^ 
as well as of the ramo-«i«i and other siBc-yiBM 
insects. 

Mr. Robert Douglas, of the British Mnwao^ i^v* 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETY OF ARTS, Ootobeb 3, 1873. 



867 



[aoed the interestinff subject of the ancient liistory of 
Jhtiui, and Bucceedeain obtaining the promises of many 
»f tlie Oriental soholara present to assist in a transla- 
io& of the official annals of the dynasty of the Han. 

M. Daoaorier, of the Institute, communicated the 
'results of hifl long researches on the origin of the oceanic 
rmoem, from Madagascar to Easter Tsland, in Eastern 
['ol^^aeu^and from Formosa and Hawaii to the southern 
imita of New Zealand ; and a Dutch savant, the Abb6 
lAx^ieaxkotf recounted Uie ethnographical results of his 
oomeys in a central district of the island of Borneo, 
rhere, as yet, the Ahhh is said to have been the first ex- 
^orer. 

M. Chalvet de Itoohemonteiz read to the Congress an 
kccoont of his researches into the relationship of the 
kiicieBt Egyptians and the Berberes, and the affinity of 
heiT idioms. Other and very important communica- 
MM0 related to the ideas entertained by the ancients of 
1^ immortality of the soul; the necessity for a new 
zmnaUtien of the Scriptures ; the history of the litera- 
nre of Syria ; the epoch of Zoroaster ; the date of the 
2end-Avetta; the origin and peculiarilies of the &*e- 



A long^ discussion occurred on f^e origin and literature 
>f the ancient peoole of India, and especially of the 
BVeofih possessions there. 

'The list sitting of the Congress was devoted to Keo- 
GrToek and Arminian literature. 

Taking all the difficulties into account, the first 
[>cieBtal Congress has achieved great success, and if, 
with, Oxe exception of the formation of a series of Roman 
ilMZHclen for Uie writing of Japanese, no very practical 
nesnlfe haa been effected, a large number of important 
inb^ecks has been broached, and tn the spirit of the 
^ajMLneao it may be said that the pubHc intellectual 
nteroourso of uie fitf East with the West has been 
inan^uraled. _ 



iMiiA 



finCrS TO COLONISTS ON THE CULTIVA- 
TION OF SILK. 

By B. Yrtt&oiB Oob%. 

f Continued from page 850^. 

A.t ptti a uot there is bmt one silkworm that is worth a 
wloa lai** lAtention, via., the bombyx moii, or malberry 
tilkworm of Europe and China. The many other 
fceacrifitioii of oak^eedws, ailanthus, pemi, cynftfaia, and 
ivon. Uie beautiful yama nun, may be diamtssed as a de- 
Mltfb «LBd a «aare, to colonists. 

IliA tnoA vaeful of all is tha yama mai,* and from this 
sm dOttMflSB fe>e obtained one of (he most valuable silks 
cno'^ni. Let as, l^refore, consider why this is not 
iroitli a oolmist^ attentioa. 

I^to Jwi MW ie rdel this cocoon, and work it into 
ManStfol nibricB ; bat they are the only people that do 
toi, ttnd ooneqoently the only market for Uie cocoons 
Would alt preMBt be in Ja|Mm. A consignment of these 
iioou o fta to Jujpmi woidd not onlv result in the loss of 
iiifr «o«t of prodootion, bat would most probaUy ontail 
t tataim ibr a balance oa tiie account sales, the proceeds 
lot being sufficient to pay freight, insurance> and 
If, ^en, iAoM would be the result of the 
wlut woaid foUew from the inferior de- 
f 

Tt is not sufficient tiiat the castor-oil plant grows in 
€ft tna fsotoaios wherever the soil is ploughed, 
being bowut— ttiat the Aihmthns glanduloaa may 
9iifTe tenuiantly with little or no care. Until there is 
\, market in Europe for these tnssah cocoons, which at 
sreaettt ^ete is not, colonists can employ their time 
better tlian in rearing them. 

Tha only market at present for tussah cocoons is in 
[fxdia, where the natives, with the most perfSect indif- 
ference (o the value of Ume, slowly '* reel" them upon 

* A fine specimen of this silk U exhibited thii year st the Inter- 
LAti uU Exhibition, and takes the highest class among Japans. 



their knees, feet, or small bamboos. It is true that in 
Western China we find garments made of a wild dUk, 
produced by a species of oak feeder, but this does not help 
the colonist, whose object must be to produce that 
which is convertible into more money than it has coat 
him to produce, and the only description of silkworm 
which has any chance of doing this is the bombyx mori. 

M. Gu6rin M^neviUe may be able to demonstrate the 
feasibilitv of rearing certain oak-feedors on the Conti- 
nent, and Lady Dorothy Neville has exhibited silk made 
from the cocoons of the ailanthus in England, but 
neither her ladyship nor M. M6neville has ever demon- 
strated how a commercial success was to be obtained frott 
rearing the ailanthus worm. 

Interesting and praisworthy in the highest degree a& 
these attompts and experiments have been, they tend but 
to prove beyond all doubt that the same labour and 
capital expended upon the mulberry and bombyx mori 
would proauce an infinitely greater monetary result; and 
colonists must remember that this is the final test to 
which ^1 their results must come ; and whether they rear 
sheep, plant sugar or coflTee, or ** educate" silkworms, 
the operation must be a commercial success as well as an 
experimental one, to be continued. Attention Is drawn 
here strongly to tiie commercial view, because, should at- 
tempts be made, and prove to be labour lost, so fieur as 
the culture paying the colonist, it would then be more 
than ever diffici^t to get persons to try again, howevar 
convincing the arguments might bo that a different 
culture would succeed better. 

As assisting materially in giving hints to colomsts, 
subjoined are extracts from a ** Report on Silk Culture in 
the State of California," by Itfr. William Baldwin. 

To the efforts of the late Mr. Prevost, a Frenchnian, 
residing on the Guadaloupe River, near San Jose, in this 
State, California is mainly, if not entirely, indebted for 
the introduction of this great industry. He was its 
earliest pioneer, and a perfect enthusiast in its cause, not 
sparing himself, his time, or his money, in promoting its 
advancement. 

Mr. Prevost's attention was first attracted to the 
subject by observing how peculiarly favourable ^e 
climate was for the prosecution of this industry ; the 
freedom from rain, thunder, and lightning during a great 
part of the year, more particularly during the monUis of 
May, June, and July, when the worms are being fed, 
and the absence of electrical disturbances in the atmos- 
phere — a matter of paramount importance. 

In 1864 he procured some mulberry seed from France, 
that grew up with a rapidity and luxuriance tru^ 
surprising. Ho then had some eggs imported from 
China, and some tdso from France. They all arrived 
in the spring of 1860. The Chinese were not very good, 
but the lot from France hatched out finely. Thoy pro- 
duced superior cocoons, tho samples of which for- 
warded to France were pronounced to be of first-rate 
quality. From 1860, however, until 1866, very little 
interest was taken in the new industry. But m this 
year, through the efforts of Mr. Provost, the attention 
of the State Legislature was directed to the subject, 
and its action has been the moans of ^ving an 
impetus to the pursuit, and of placing it in its present 
position. 

The policy of the United States generally, and of 
California in particular, has been to foster by aid, 
monetary and otherwise, her native industry of every 
description. Acting in this spirit, and considering tho 
importance of the subject, tho Legisluture in 1866 passed 
a Bill entitled " An Act for the Encouragement of Silk 
Culture in California." In the Act it is provided that 
" there shall be paid the following sums for each of tho 
articles herein enumoratod, grown within the State of 
California, for the term of four years from the passage of 
this law ! — 

•' First— For each plantation of flvo thousand nvlberry 
trees of the age of two years, — ^two hundred and fifty 
dollars. 



868 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, OoxoBia 8, 1878, 



in moderation of course, the healthier will tiieleaTti 
the mulberry be — the more gluten and roiteawce i 
they give the worms. The mulberry, when nljotod 
excessive rain or moisture, secretes m its Iflavai a sort 
watery poisonous fluid, and this afTects the woau wi* 
kind of diarrhoea, which is most fiital to then. Bil 
wherever the mulberry thrives, the wormi thrm u* 
The mulbeny thrives wherever vines grow wdl; m 
deed it has been found that the cultivation of ^ tva* 
is pretty weU limited by that of the latter. ^ PJJ 
well where the average temperature does Bflt M Wjf 
49*^. Perhaps the best temperature for tk »« < 
during the periods of hatching, feeding, sad •|W»>^* 
from 66^ to 76*.» Wh«i the thermometer Wm to J 
they then refuse all food. But let it be imdentoodtii 
in these latter remarks I refer to two, or it B«t,ttfll^ 
months of the year, the remaining nine or ten wsf ofl 
paratively unimportant For instance, in Ouitoft I "i 
the winter averages about 44®, and the somow w.\ 
again in Mibin the winter is only 36^ and the Bimmff^ 

But the great desideratum is the absence of w^Ji 
Prom the time of hatching to the third age, tt«n»^ 
lightning proves very injurious ; but in tbe ^•jVJP 
when the worm is about to spin the cocoon, eWn^ 
in any quantity proves fataL 

In OaHfomia, as elsewhere indeed, a itiff (^Jf » 
gravelly soil is not well adapted to thegro^«^ 
mulberry tree, the best soil being a rich, loofl^oy w* 
The rich low bottom lands, too, MW ?* 
found favourable to its growth; but I **«»*•** 
cHmate like New Zealand's, where the JWB^ 
greater than in this country, the dnff ■JI 



*' Second — For the production of each one thousand 
silk cocoons, — three hundred dollars." 

The assistance thus offered by the State proved highly 
advantageous in promoting the development of the young 
industry. Public attention was directed to it. The 
State Agricultural Society lent its powerful aid ; many 
persons were induced to enter into it; andthenceforwaru 
the culture of silk in California progressed steadily, if 
not rapidly, and its permanency became secured. 
Thousands of trees were planted in 1866, and the 
numbers were still further increased by cuttings in 1867, 
in which year there were 400 lbs. of seed imported from 
France as well. In the year Just ended, it is calculated 
there were upwards of four millions of mulberry trees in 
the State. The industry, however, was by no means 
saccessfiU throughout the State during the year 1869. 
Then, for the first time, the production of the worm 
ended in partial fsulure, in many localities. 

That this unhealthiness of the worms of 1869 was local, 
the result of circumstances easily explainable, I have 
little doubt. I have looked carefully into the matter, 
and think the disease may be explained in the follow- 
ing way : — ^The season of 1869 was a most unfavourable 

one. Again, artificial processes injurious to the worms 
had been adopted, with the view of checking their 

early hatching. The spring was cold, and the growth 

retarded beyond the usual tune ; and not only was the 

vegetation backward, but the leaves of the trees were 

found to contain a large quantity of watery fluid. Now, 

one of the g^reat chanu^ristics of Califomian vegetation 

is the absence of such moisture, and it is this fSeict, 

amongst others, that makes the State so admirably „ kat»wc» mm^ «^ »»» «^»».^, — . 

adapted to the pursuit of silk culture; for the more gluten lands would answer better for planting ; sail fr^** 

and the less acid contained in the mulberry leaves, the experience I have acquired since my visit to Ouu^ 

stronger and healthier are the silkworms. There was 1 1 am quite satisfied there are many province* ibJ*' 

yet another reason. The coldness of the latter portion Zealand where the culture of the nUc canbe carrieda 

of the spring had been preceded by some hot, sultry 

weather, and it was found that many of the eggs had 

begun to be hatched before the supply of food was read^. 

To prevent this, the eggs, in many cases, were placed in 

ice boxes,* and where this was done the failure was 

al-nost universal. Everybody knows that in the 

culture of silk the health of the eggs is a matter 

of the first importance. They must be healthy 

eggs, the produce, that is to say, of healthy worms ; but 

they must also be preserved in a healthy condition. For 

nine or ten months of the year, thereiore, the eggs of 

the animal are kept in some dry, cool place, — generally 

in a cellar free from damp. But the mistake made last 

year, to which in a great measure may be attributed the 

severe loss amongst the silkworms of the season, was the 

placing the eggs in refrigerators, after the hatching had 

once commenced. The experience gained by the silk- 
growers was, however, dearly bought. With a little 

caution and some consideration they might have known 

that, once the embryo was formed in the eggs, the ex- 
posure of these afterwards to a very low degree of 

temperature was certain either to impair the strength 

or destroy the life of the young worms. It is needless, 

perhaps, to pursue the inquiry further. I have, I 

think, said sufficient to show that the disease was 

local — Uie result of exceptional causes. I may, however, 

add, as confirming this view, that I have just returned 

from a visit I paid to the largest silk cultivation in this 

State, where 1 saw upwards of three millions of silk- 
worms in their several stages, — from that of hatching to 

the spinning of cocoons— and all were healthy, vigorous, 

and free from disease of any kind. 
The climate and soil are, of course, deserving of our 

first and greatest consideration. If the climate is un- 
favourable and the soil unsuitable, to attempt the culture 

of silk would be mere folly, and end in a complete 

failure. As a general rule, it may be laid down that 

the drier the climato the bettor.f The less rain there is, 

• A fatal error— germination had already oommeneed. 

+ Not necessarily so; the silk districts of the nerth of China an 
certainly not very dry, but tbe drainage Is grood, which Is of more 
I mportance. -> Ed. 



successftiUy and profitably. As a rule, WT "^J^ 
fruit trees thrive well answers aim for the ™™52 
the successful culture of the peach is the ■'"'•/J 
The peach is very sensitive, its foliage being ^"T tJ? 
to atmospheric influences; and its l^ealthiiwwi^FJ 
duction of fine-flavoured fruit seem to i»*2? tl S 
and temperature where the mulberry floarim* •» 
silkworm thrives. ^ 

The different varieties of mulberry trt«J5^^ 
numerous, but in the State of California three ta8*w 
are used in tiie culture of silk. j^^^ji.^ 

The varieties refered to are. the Mono mmf»^^ 
Moru* alboy and the Monu morttti, . 

The Morut muiticauiit, or Chinese aulbeny,**^ 
rapid-growing tree, producing a ^T«t <l'»"*^^^f^ 
soft, tender leaves, which have hitherto ^>«5a^5 
monly used here for feeding the worms ^^^2 
age; but, as I shall hereafter explain, «^P^[J*^ 
by the manager of the plantation I have ^^fw'ITJ 
seem to show that even for this purpo se it »a »^ 
the other two varieties. It produoes, iw>'*«^*^ 
quantity of leaves than either the Mtrm ••Jr^y 
Moms *Horetti, and it poBse«es this adyantags m«^ 
it grows readilv from cutting ; but its }*]• ?2 
water more readily, and for this reason it n ■"•■^ 
for moist climates. ^j. 

The Monu alba, or white mulberry, is the "JJjJji 
pally used in European countries and In^t^"**^ 
— jj 4.V £q^ ijpQjj itg leaves pf>^, 

The experienoe of Oal ' ' 

,.w.w it the third variety, tl 

w uoMor adapted to its climate and sot., n-- -wa 
does, stronger and hardier, and producing ^^-^j 
and with more sustenance than the Mtrm w^ '^ 
habits and appearance of the alha and '"•'Jjjj i^ 
what similar, the former bearing white and TIj^ 
purple berries, however. In most of tbo **^"2i 
cultivations I have seen in the state, all tt»*J^ 

• M. Roland says a lower temperatara. (*s i»t^^ 
Society of Arts, asrd April, 18T3.) 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, October 8, 1873. 



869 



je planted in about equal numbers, the trees making 
^ry rapid growth, some of the cuttings of the tnulH' 
auiii being eight or ten feet high within the tw^ve 
Dontha. It is said that three years' growth of the trees 
a Califonua is as much as fiye years' in European 
oontries. 

(lb be eontinuedJ) 



ENQLAJn) AND CENTRAL ASU..— THE 
KASHGAR MISSION. 

The Ihili^ Nines of Saturday last published an ez- 

rtct from a private letter written by Mr. Ashton 

Ventworth Bilke, who has been for twenty months 

nTeUing in Russia and Central Asia, which shows the 

isngers which menace the Atalik Chusee from the side 

tf Russia, and the possibility of serious misunderstand- 

Qg between England and Russia if we should imdertake 

he defence of Yakoob's neutrality. The Daily New 

utiier remarks that Mr. Dilke, who is living with 

loanan officers, writes evidently with a strong bias in 

iToor of the Russian view of the conduct of the Atalik 

fazee. Mr. Dilke's letter is dated frt>m longitude 81 

\^ snd latitude 42.30 N. He was, in other words, 

a the Thian-Sban Mountains, one hundred miles 

aat of Lake Issyk-kul, and one hundred miles north- 

•st of Aksou, the place where the Atalik Ghusee was 

img, which is two hundred and fifty miles north-east 

f Ksshgar and Yarkand. 

MUSARTjAuoimr 11. 
Some 150 miles south of Kouldja, in the Thian-Shan 
loontains, lies the port of Musart, formerly on ti^e Rus- 
un and Chinese frontier and the head of the pass to 
iksou, in the territory of Cashgar, where Yakoob Beg 
\ sow living, a pass now almost entirely superseded by 
be Naym Fass, on account of its great difficulty. How- 
Ter, last year, when all the preparations had been made 
ff taking Cashgar, the Kouldja force of 1,500 men 
roold have marcned over this nass to Askou. At the 
miB time, the force on the Naryn or Upper Syr- 
)ana, generally a small one, but then reinforced by the 
0th battalion, sent from Yernoe, under pretence of road 
ad bridge making, and by the 1,500 men stationed at 
[aiakol, on lake Issyk-kul, were to have fallen on 
ksbgar itself, which can be reached in four days' march 
vom, the Naryn, and which, of course, could have 
fiwed no valid resistance toso unexpected an invasion by 
,000 men. Though Yakoob Beg then averted the danger 
y timely concessions, and though his ambassador has 
sen received by the Emperor, it is probable that the 
bvians will soon demand great concessions in trading 
i s ttiuB , and, if they are not granted, will use force. The 
nsent position of Russia here is not enviable, and can 
•idly be allowed to last long. The Sart merchants, from 
Isdigar, trade freely with the Kirghis, crossing the fron- 
Eer without hindrance, and gaining enormous sums from 
^ poor Kirghis, who have but an indiiSerent idea of ttie 
■lue of money, by exchanging cloth for sheep at the rate 
fa rouble a sheep, while riieep in the markets of Margilan 
ndNamayan cost six and seven roubles each, and by lend- 
igthem money to pay the yearly Russian tribute. Among 
be Kirghis they can always gain the upper hand of the 
toBsian traders by their knowledge of Uie language and 
Banners, by the proximity of their markets, and by the 
wt that the Kirghis will not buy European cloth, and if 
lisy cannot get it horn the Sarts, will go ragged. Now as 
meSartsorossthe fh>ntier and trade without passport or 
ermit) and can sell all they will at Cashgar and Kokan, it 
la easily be seen what an advantage they pnoesess over 
tassian traders, who, when once ^e few xnilitary and 
fficials are snppUed, must seek a market in Siberia or 
lassia, thousands of versts away, and are burdened w th 



onerous taxes and formalities. Yet it must not be 
imagined that the Sarts are at all thankful for this ; t^ey 
merelv laugh at the simplicity of the Russian officials as 
manifested in their tendency to favour the native rather 
than the Russian, a tendency far too strongly marked 
here among the higher officials. An Ambasisador from 
Yakoob B^ has lately been received by the Emperor, 
and assurances and promises will be exchanged Hberally ; 
but, what is really more important, a Russian tnuiing 
caravan is now at Cashgar, and the Russian policy will be 
greatly influenced by the reception wiUi whic^ it meets. 
This reception entirely dependi on Yakoob Beg himself, 
who is so intensely feared at Cashgar, that he ha^ only 
to lift his finger and not a huid wiU be laid on Uie Rus- 
sians, whereas in Bokhara or Kokan not all the well- 
Imown fftvounible tendencies of the rulers can save Rus- 
sians from insult and even violence. Tliough the Kirghis 
cannot live without the Sarts, yet ^e^ disluce and despise 
them greatly, much as the Poles despise the Jews, but are 
at a loss what to do without them, for the Kirghis are 
essentially an aristocratic race, and their chief objection to 
the Russians arises from the fact that they are now all 
equal ; that the nobles, the *' white bones " in Kirghis, 
have lost all their old titles and privileges, and that the 
meanest of their tribe can call them before a Russian court 
of justice. The Earghis, like all Orientals, are extremely 
litigious, and though the Russians have sdlowed them to 
keep their native courts in cases arising among them- 
selves, yet as the loser invariably appeals to the Russian 
court, they are beginning to resort chiefly to the Russians, 
who are quite overwhelmed with their complaints, gene- 
rally^ most trifling. Horse stealing is a universal off'ence, 
and is looked on lightly unless uie horse happen to be 
Russian, when the punishment is taken by the Russians 
into their own hands, and is very severe. However, as 
they area cowardly race, they seldom touch Russians, and 
two Cossacks wiU pursue a dozen Barantachis, or horse 
stealers, without a shadow of fear as to the result. 



C0&&E8P0HDSHCS. 



SCIENCE AND TECHNISM. 

Sib, — The consistent and persevering efforts the 
Society of Arts has ever been foremost to make in 
any plans which gave promise of developing the ma- 
terial resources of Uie country, and extending the know- 
ledge of the people, have naturally culminated in schemes 
and objects of instruction and eaucation. 

From statements which have appeared in the Journal 
during the last twelve months or more, it seems that an 
effort is to be made to ascertain and rew^ard such learn- 
ing as is comprehended in the term '* Technology." On 
page 734, *' Technological Examinations " are stated to 
be arranged, of which the '* Programme is in prepara- 
tion, and will be published shortly." 

Now it may be said to be more than probable — indeed, 
actually certain— that the public, as a body, are not in- 
stantaneously receptive of new terms. The number of such 
terms amongst the pioneers of intellectual and handicraft 
development is really alarming. Much has been said 
and written of " science teaching," '* natural science 
teaching," '* technical knowledge," and now we have 
*< technologictd examinations." Would it not be well to 
make an endeavour to describe what each of these is in- 
tended to convey, or to show, if possible, that there is 
a needless mntiplication, and therefore necessary con- 
fusion in terms ? Accept this letter as a first approxi- 
mation to such an end. 

A few years ago, the term *' science" was generally 
restricted to mental, moral, and metaphysical work; 
recent times have intitxluced social and political sciences. 
There seems, however, now a tacit acquiescence in the 
view that, when the word '* science " is used alone it is 



870 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Qotq bbr 3, 181S. 



intended to comprehend all that is known in physics and 
chemistry. Although hotany, geology, ssoology, &c., 
are *^ natural '* sciences — and when first the compound 
name was used they were comprehended in it — yet it is 
not so now. The expectation is a reasonable one^ that 
the prefix ** natural" may soon be omitted, and then 
'* science " will retain the meaning which custom seems 
to have assigned to it. 

" Technological examinations,*' which the Society of 
Arts proposes to introduce, seem to comprehend both the 
knowledge which might guide the development of a 
special branch of industry, and Uie handicraft skill of 
the artisan. If this view be correct, then the terms seem 
not well chosen. "Technology" is a description — a 
verbal description of arts — "a treatise on arts." A 

Cion may be able to write such a treatise and have no 
dicraft skill — he need not be an artisan. Judging from 
the whole tenor of the action of the Society, those who 
could thus pass an examination in ** technology " are not 
those whom the Society aims to improve. On the 
contrary, in the intended examinations, the handicraft 
skill, as well as mental knowledge of the examined, are 
to be investigated. Therefore a wider range is given 
than the woxxl '* technology " expresses. 

Instead of ''Technological examinations in cotton 
manufacture, paper maniuacture, silk manufacture, steel 
manufacture, uiere might be " Examinations in the 
technics of cotton, paper, silk, and steel." 

These, however, are very minor considerations ia the 
questions which ike heading^ of this letter suggests. It 
might, sir, be worth a plaoe in the pages of the Journal 
if those who are so competent and who so zealously 
promote this important branch of naticmal welfare would 
nut clearly forth what should be done and what should 
pe left undone by those who would hopefully and 
tliccessfully develope ^ instruction in science and 
technics." This might perhaps be divided into the two 
parts, *' instruction ana *' examinations." The Society 
IS an examining body, but it must examine in accord 
with the plans of those who instruct. There must be a 
thorough understanding between the instructors and 
examiners. Such an understanding is in England gene- 
rally wanting. That is no reason why the Society of 
Arts should perpetuate either this or any other of the 
numerous anomulios of our social state. — I am, &c., 

A. J. T. 



BB 



eSVB&AL H0TB8. 



VatnrftUy Ck>loiir«d 8ilk.-~In the Ckronique de la 
Boci^U iPAeehtnatatioH, M. Buhnet states that . by feeding 
silk-wormB <m vine-leaves he has obtained silk of a fine red 
oolour ; and that by giving the worms lettuoe-leaves, they 
have produced cocoons of an emeiald-green colour. M. 
Delidon de St Gilles, of Vendue, has also, by feeding silk- 
worms—during the last twenty days of the larva period — on 
vine, lettuce, and nettle-leaves, obtained green, yellow, and 
violet cocoons. 

Ike Duplex Telegraph.— The American Institute of 
New York has awarded "the Great Medal of Honour" to 
JoMph B. Steams, for the invention of the duplex telegraph, 
whion has made a revolution in telegraphy in the United 
States, and has been adopted by the postal telegraphs in this 
oount^. The American Institute is a very old and eminent 
society, and is understood to haye made the present award 
after a most careful and exhaustive examination as to the 
novelty and value of the invention. Only two other medals 
of this class have been issued by the Institute since its 
foondation, the conditions upon which they are awarded 
being such as to exclude all inventions and improvements 
except those of the highest importance— via., first the 
machine or prooess mutt have superseded all others 
previously employed for a like purpose ; second, it must have 
created a revolution in the art or business in which it is em- 
ployed.— Jim^, 



Haphtha as Fuel tn Locomotives.— The Busii 
Steamship and Bailway Company annoonoe that thff bi^ 
found naphthaj^r steam generation in looomotiTH, Tory ad- 
vantageous. The materul employed by the oomsny k ^ 
crude oil from the Caucasian ana Volga regioiis, •aa,<aBw H 
bv weight the amountoonsamedwasaboutone-hatf tkatotod 
The arrangem^it for burning naphUia is stated to U «< ad 
a nature that no difficulty wl be experienced in iabi&ttt« 
one for coal oansniiiption in place of it, ihoold it bef(d 
desirable to do so. 

Indioator for Carriage Wheeli.— A device forio^ 
ing the distance run by a oairiage has reosDtly bem pttsJ^ 
by Messrs. Durham and Hupton, of Lowestoft It ocai* 
of a small measuring apparatus concealed in a box, id^oa 
he fitted within an ordinary patent axle-cap. ToiHi^p» 
anoe, an axle thus fitted precisely resamblei snj (Am ok 
but on taking off a small lid or cap an index ii dkkM 
showing the number of miles run since the iodsivu^ 
Its jprimary object is to provide job-nMstsn nd ItfMi <4 
carnagaa with some means of ascertaining the dittumnB^ 
their vehicles. The mechanism is of the simplttt «i««A 
and not likely to get out of order. The i^paiatBi is d tern 
applicable to any carriage whatever. 

Vew Byttem of Pneumatio Velegn^L— TvoFrb'^ 
engineers propose to substitute ammoaiscsl sss ^^ 
pressed, or ratified air, in despatch tubes. TMejii^na 
boxes are, in this system, forcM along the tabslyB^^ 
the gas disengaged from its solution in water ^nMUia 
heat at one end of the tube, while at the other m tke pf 
is absorbed by water. By this arrangement tlis ffof P* 
serves continually, and as the two operatiansprooetdi^ 
taneonsly the tubes are always filled with the gi*-,^ 
^paratus at each end of the line, aa weli ss at ^^' 
mraiate station, consists of two boilers, one of ^^^i^ 
partly filled with a saturated solution of ^ S*^^!|2| 
sufficiently to disengage the gas, which conpsn* ^\ 
in a receiver. The gas, before entering the ^^^ 
through a long ^linder filled with quicc-lims»vbk^o*- 
pletely dries it. The other b<nler contains a oertu&fo^ 
of water, at the temp^^ture of the atmosphere, to i b^^j j^ 
gas in front of the dispatch box, uid produce fiie ^*^ 
draught The two boilers invert the action suoceBi^* 
it is not stated how the cooling of the witer ia tka i 
managed. 

CulUy»tio4 of Beet in Cauada.~Belbrsvtf7la^^ 
a Canadian paperj the attempts which are XKivbeii^Biv^ 
establish a new industry in Canada, the caltivBtiaa o. t* 
sugar beet, will have proceeded so far that some idee ^^ 
formed of the probabilities of success. Th<»e ^^^T^ 
with authority on the subject say that ths soil of ^^^"1* 
highly favourable to the cultivation of this f^J^ 
vial sandy soils, day lands, and oalcareous avp^, ** * 
Lawrence valley being just such sofl as the heet1hiii«>' 
Europe. The diniate, too, wHl suh the beck «iD.»J<^ 
least aa may be judged from the &at that >M*K*3iJ!P 
observations as inade at Montreal show ths condifiosivi^ 
and moisture to be perfectly fulfilled. Lsst T«f ^J: 
actual cultivation were made at Montreal, Qn»eeii!°f^ 
Hyacinthe, which furnished results of the not !f*?^[ 
nature. The low degree of temperature in wiatff *** 
favour very greatly the preservation ef thswe^*^ 
liable to ferment with a sudden rise of tempci styj * . 
lose its saccharine qualities. The greatest drsv^^ 
found is an insufficient supply of raw nsteriil ; ^^ 
can be little doubt but that the company viU la^ 
securing the amount required, between ten sad t»yg,J^ 
lion pounds weight of raw materialf unkes thiy "^ 
very unfortunate in their first harvest. 



V0TI0B8. 



OAnOB LSCTVBBB, 

The publication of the fifUi I«'*n^^i!' 
Thudichum's course, ••On Wines; their Pr^" 
tion. Treatment, and Use," Is postponed » '^^ 
sequence of the author's absence on iho Co^^ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABTS, Ootobkb 10^ 1878. 



871 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Kq. 1»090. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, OCTOBER 10, 1878. 






AmrOVJrOBMENTS BT THB OOTrVCIL. 



0BVEBAI BXAXnrATIOHS, 1874. 

The Programme of Examinations for 1874 is 
now ready, and may be had gratis, on application 
to the Secretary. 

These Examinations, in 1874, will be held on the 
evenings of the 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th April. 
The Time-table has been arranged as follows : — 



T a ■ s D 1 T, 

April 21, 
FiPomTtolOpJD 



Arithmetlo. 

Loirlc. 

Plorioattare. 



WkDVIBDAT) 

April 32, 
From 7 to 10 p.m. 



TheoiyofMoaio 
EDglish History. 
OermMi. 
Spanish. 



Tb urns DAT, 

April 23, 
From 7 to 10 p.m. 



Political Eoo- 
nomy. 

Preach. 

Fruit hnd Vege- 
table Culture. 



F » I D A T, 

April 24, 
Fh)m7tolOp.m. 



Book-keeplrtg. 
Bnglish ~ 

Italian. 



Fbioat, April 24, 6 to 7 p.m.—Dictation. 

Tho rule which formerly prevented a candidate 
who had once obtained a first-class certificate in a 
gabJ9et from being again examined in that subject 
with a view to gaining a price, has, in aooordanoe 
with the wish expressed at the Conference, held 
on the 27th June, 1873, been rescinded. In future, 
therefore, a candidate who has obtained a first-class 
ceitifioate in a subject may be again examined in 
that subject, but not more fhan one first-class 
certificate in any subject will be counted for the 
Prince Consort's Prize, or for the Council Prize to 
Females. A candidate having taken the first prize 
in any subjeot cannot again take a prize in that 
Bubjeet, n<v can a oaodidate take a prize of the 
same grade twice in any subject. 

The Elementary Examinations, held by the 
DhsbrM Unions and Local Boards, for whidi ptupen 
are fnnushed by the Society, are fixed for the 10th, 
11th, and 12th March. 

Ftdl details in reference to the Examinations are 
^ven in the Programme, copies of which should 
be i^^^d for to the Secretary of the Society of 
Arta, by all intending to come forward as candi- 
d»te0, or otherwise interested in the Examinations. 



nCHHOLOGICAI XXAXIVATIOVS. 

The contribution of one hundred guineaa from 
the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers, which 
has already been announced in the Journal, will be 
offered as a fioholarship in the subjeot of cloth 
manufacture, upon conditions to be stated in the 
programme. The derk of the Company, Mr. 
Owen BobertS) in a letter to the Society's Bduoa^ 
tional Officer, says: — 

'* The Company will avail themaelvas of the proposition 
of the Council of the Society of Arts in regard to the 
nomination of an examiner, who will undertake the neact 
year's Technological Examinations in the snbjects eon- 
nected with cloth manufactoiv ; and the Company have 
voted the sum of one hundred gnineas towwds prizes, 
Sec,, in connection with the special addition of cloth 
manofaotore to the programme of next year/' 



THE EliPLOYliENT OF WASTE SILK.* 
By P. L. Simmends. 

One of the eharacteriatic features of the age is the 
great attention given to the working-np of waste and 
residues from manufactures. The wastes of the principal 
textile industries, cotton^ flax, wool, and jute, have b<^ 
for some time lar^ly utilised, but it is only of late years 
that much attention has been given to the working-up 
of waste silk, although this is one of the scarcest and 
highest-priced of the fibres we employ. There were 
difficulties, however, in the way of its utilisatiim which 
required the erection of special machinery, and it was only 
the greatly enhanced price of si^k that gave an impetus to 
invention, and has lea to the more general employment 
of waste silk in different countries. In the silk manu- 
facture there is a considerable waste made^ of from 30 to 
S3 per cent, in the various pr^minary processes, which is 
only worth about one-fourth of the value of the raw silk. 
One of these inferior products, called, on the Continent, 
"(Hson/* which consists chiefly of the rough, loose 
silk on the outer coat of the cocoon, mav, by care and 
attention, be considerably reduced, and the short waste 
is now extensively utilised. 

It is difficult to arrive with any precision at estimates 
of the quantities of waste silk available. The late Mr. 
Winkworth. in reporting to the Society^ ten years ago, on 
the silk trade of Italy, from personal mvestigationa, set 
down the waste or ref^ise of coooons, after reeling, In 
Italy, at 984 tons per annum besides 197 tons of double 
cocoons, which are also a species of waste, as they 
cannot be reeled in the same manner as single 
cocoons. AT"Apg eur imports of silk there is a very 
considerable item under the hfead of " silk waste, knub^ 
and husks." From 1857 to 1860 Ihe average annual 
import of this was about 20,000 cwt. ; from 1861 to 1865, 
30,000 cwt. The next four years the imports were some 
what lower, averaging 28,000 cwt. ; but of late years 
more has been received. In 1871 as much as 38,594 
owts. were imported, and last year 3,260 bales of silk 
waste were shipped from Calcutta. The short fit res of 
waste silk have Uttle intrinsic value; but when carded with 



• Th!i article wis In type before the paper on the nroe subject 
(pobllshed In the Jommai of Sepr. 2S) was reed by Mr. Lister beCbre 
the British JLssoctalloo. Although it goes partly orer the seme 

Sonod, it in maoy reB{>ects supplemeoti the IiiforoMtioD given by 
r. Lister— [Ed.] 



870 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Qotobbr 3, 187$, 



intended to comprehend all that ia known in physics and 
chemistry. Although hotany, geology, zoology, &c., 
are *' natural ** sciences — and when first the compoand 
name was used they were comj^rehended in it — y^ it is 
not so now. The expectation is a reasonable one, that 
the pre&s ** natural*' may soon be omitted, and then 
'* science '* will retain the meaning which custom seema 
to have assigned to it. 

*' Technological examinations,'* which the Society of 
Arts proposes to introduce, seem to comprehend both the 
knowledge which might guide the development of a 
special branch of industry, and Uie handicraft ^ill of 
the artisan. If this view be correct, then the terms seepi 
not well chosen. "Technology" is a description — a 
verbal description of arts — "a treatise on arts." A 

Cion may be able to write such a treatise and have no 
dioraft skill — he need not be an artisan. Judging from 
the whole tenor of the action of the Society, those who 
could thus pass an examination in " technology " are not 
those whom the Society aims to improve. On the 
contrary, in the intended examinations, the handicraft 
skill, as well as mental knowledge of the examined, are 
to be investigated. Therefore a wider range is given 
than the wora " technology " expresses. 

Instead of ''Technological examinations in cotton 
manufacture, paper manimictui^ silk manufacture, steel 
manufacture,' tnere might be "Examinations in the 
technics of cotton, paper, silk, and steel." 

These, however, are very minor considerations in the 
questions which the heading of this letter suggests. It 
might, sir, be worth a place in the pages of the Journal 
if those who are so competent ana who so zealously 
promote this important branch of national welfare would 
nut clearly forth what should be done aad what should 
pe left undone by those who would hopefully and 
•^ocessfully develope ^ instruction in science and 
technics." This might nerhaps be divided into t^e two 
parts, " inslruction ana " examinations." The Society 
is an examining body, but it must examine in accord 
with the plans of those who instruct. There must be a 
thorough understanding between the instructors and 
examiners. Sudh an underitanding is in England gene- 
rally wanting. That is no reason why Uie Society of 
Arts should perpetuate either this or any other of the 
numerous anomalies of our social stnte. — I am, &c., 

A. J. T. 



Vaphtha as Fuel tn Loeomotiyef . — ^The Busoiaii 
Steamship and Railway Company announce that they bava 
found naphthauf or steam generation in looomotiws, rmj ad- 
vantageous. The material employed by the oompapy is tha 



BB 



eSVB&AL H0TB8. 



Vatnrally Coloured Silk.— In the Chronique de la 
BoeidU (T Aeelitnatation, M . Ruimet states that by feeding 
silk-wonns on vine-leaves he has obtained silk of a fine z«d 
colour ; and that by giving the worms lettuce-leaves, they 
have produced cocoons of an emeiald-green colour. M. 
Delidon de St Gilles, of Vendue, has also, by feeding silk- 
worms—during the last twenty days of the larva period — on 
yine, lettuce, and nettle-leaves, obtained green, yellow, and 
violet cocoons. 

The Duplex Telegraph.— The American Institute of 
New York has awarded *Vthe Great Hedal of Honour" to 
Joseph B. Steams, for the invention of the duplex telegraph, 
whion has made a revolution in telegraphy in the United 
States, and has been adopted by the postal telegraphs in this 
oount^. The American Institute is a very old and eminent 
■ooiety, and is understood to have made the present award 
after a most careful and exhaustive examination as to the 
novelty and value of the invention. Only two other medals 
of this class have been issued by the Institute since its 
foundation, the conditions upon which they are awarded 
being such as to exclude all inventions and improvements 
exoei^ those of the highest importance— viz., first the 
machine or process mutt have superseded all others 
previously employed for a like purpose ; second, it must have 
created a revolution in the art or business in which it is em- 
ployed.— Zimw. 



crude'^oUfrom^CaucasianandyolMi^Vions^ana^alimi.nd 
bv weightthe amouBtoonsamedwasaboutone-half tbaiot eoaL 
The arrangement for burning naphtha is stated to be of sosb 
a nature that no difficulty will be experienced in snhstitQtang 
one for coal consomptiim in place of it, should it be foond 
desirable to do so. 

Indieator for Carriage Wheeli. — ^A device for indicat- 
ing the distance run by a oairiage has recently been patented 
bv Messrs. Durham and Hupton, of Lowestoft. It omisii^s 
or a small measuring apparatus concealed in a box, which csa 
he fitted within an ordinary patent axle-oap. To all ^)pear« 
anoe, an axle thus fitted prsdsely resembleB any other axlsi 
but on taking off a small lid or cap an index is diarineed, 
showing the number of miles run since the index was kL 
Its ^mary object is to provide job-mastsn and letten of 
carnages with some means of ascertaining the diatanoe ran by 
their vehicles. The mechanism u of the simplest character, 
and not likely to get out of order. The appanUoa is of eeone 
applicable to any carriage whatever. 

Vew flyitem of Tnenmatio TMegraplL — ^Two French 
engineers propose to substttnte ^mmnnianal na for com- 
pmaed, or ratified air, in despatch tubes. Toe cylindrical 
boxes are, in this system, forced along the tube by mesne of 
the gas disengaged from its solution in water 1^ inaans ol 
heat at one end of the tube, while at the other eikd the gas 
is absorbed by water. By this arrangement the aame gsa 
serves continually, and as the two operations proceed simul- 
taneously the tubes are alwa^ filled with the gaa. The 
apparatue at eaoh end of the Ime, as well as at each inter- 
mediate station, consists of two boilers, one of whidi is 
partly filled with a saturated solution of the gas, heated 
sufficiently to disengage the gas, which oompresaee itself 
in a receiver. The gas, before entering the tubes, paaaa 
through a long cylinder filled with quick-lime, which cod- 
pletely driee it. 'The other boiler contains a certain quantity 
of water, at the temp^^ture of the atmosphere, to ahaorh the 
gas in front of the dispatdi box, and produce the neoesssry 
draught The two boilers invert the action sn cc ass i vdy, b<rt 
it is not stated how the cooling of the water in then is 
managed. 

CiUlivatioiA of Beet ia Canada. — Before very long, aayi 
a Canadian paperj the attempts which are now being nsade to 
establish a new mdustry in Canada, the cultivatioii of the 
sugar beet, will have proceeded so far that«ome idea may be 
formed of the probabilities of success. Thoaa who speak 
with authority on the subject say that the soil of Canada is 
highly favourable to the cultivation of this plant, the aSo- 
vial sandy soils, clay lands, and calcareous claya of the St 
Lawrence valley being just such soU aa the beet thrives ia ia 
Europe. The climate, too, will suit the beet w^ eo fv at 
least aa may be judged from the fact that mateoratogiflsl 
observations as made at Montreal show the ooaditiana of he«l 
and moisture to be perfectly fulfilled. Last year triaU of 
actual cultivation wera made at Montreal, Quebec, and St 
Hyacinthe, which furnished results of the most promistag 
nature. The low degree of temperature in winter is ssid to 
favour very greatly the preservation of the root, whkh is 
liable to ferment with a sudden rise of temperature and so 
lose its saccharine ouslities. The greatest drawback to ks 
found is an insufficient supply of raw material ; but Ihsre 
can be little doubt but that the oompany will snfcard k 
aeouring the emount required, between ten and twenty mil- 
lion pounds weight of raw material, nnkes thtj rhriH be 
very nnf ortnnate in their first harvest. 



V0TI0B8. 



OAVTOB LBGTUBB8. 

The pubUoation of the fifth leotm« ol Dr. 
Thudichum's course, "On Wines; their Prodnc- 
tion. Treatment, and Use,*' is postponed in con- 
sequence of the author's absence on the Continail, 



JOURITAI. OF THE SOOIETT OF ABXS, Ocnant 10^ 1S73. 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, 



Ho. 1,090. Toh XXI. 



FRIDAY, OCTOBER 10, 1878. 



J dm Mr M . JMflit, U 



AWOVffOBlCEllTa BT TSE OOflVOIL. 



eXVSBU XZAVDIAnoHS, 18T4. 

^Zlie Progrtunme of Examinations for IST4 Is 
now ready, and may be hod gratia, on applioatioii 
to the Secretary. 

These ExaminatJoM, in 1874, will be held on the 
eraninga of the 21at, 23nd, 23rd, and 34th April. 
Tba Time-table has been arranged as follows : — 



Aprtlll, ' 
FnaTtaigp-m 


April M. 


April 13, ' ArrilM, 
ftonUWiep.m. FronHtoldp.Di. 


ArtIhai«Uii. 


Thwry of Mario 
EnnUiti Hutorr. 


UbliCuliDra. 



FuDtT, April M. a to 1 p.m.— Dilution. 

The role whioh formerly prevented a candidate) 
who had once obtained a first-class certificate 
ealq«et from being agftin examined in that aubject 
irith a view to gaining a prise, has, in aooordanoe 
^Hi the wish oxpressod at the Conference, held 
on the 37tb June, 1873, been rescinded. In future, 
therefore, a candidate who has obtained a flist-dass 
oettiflcste in a subject may be again examine 
that subject, but not more Uian one first-class 
oertffioate in any subject will be connted for the 
Prince Consort's Piiw, or for the Council Prize to 
Fem^et. A candidate baving token the first prize 
in any subject cannot again take a prize in that 
■(^eot, nor can a oandidate take a prise of the 
same grade twice in any subject. 

The EIemeut«ry Examinations, hold by tlie 
EHsbriot Unions and Local Boards, for whioh pi^nrt 
are fninished by the Sodoty, are fixed for the 10th, 
1 1th, and 12th March. 

TnU details in referance to the Examinationfl are 
^-VBD in the Programme, co[aes of which should 
b« ^iplivd f(» to the Secretary of the Society of 
Axil, hy all intending to come forward aa oandi- 
dades, or otherwise isterestcd in the Examinations. 



raCHSOUWIOAL ZZAKUATIOMB. 

The oontribntion of one hundred guineas from 
the Worahipfnl Company of Clothworkers, which 
has already been announced in the Journal, will be 
offered oa a Boholarship in the aubjeot of cloth 
manufacture, upon conditions to be stated In the 
programme. The clerit of the Company, Ur, 
Owen Boberts, in a letter to the Sode^'a Bdiua* 
tional Officer, sayi: — 

"The Cempany will stbU thMnsolvM of the propodttra 
of the Council of the Society of Arts in regard to tbe 
nomination of an examiner, who will uodntaks tlie ncatt 
year's Teohnologiotl Exuninslions in the snbJeoU eon- 
Dotted with cloth manurMluiV' ; and the Company hare 
roted the sun of one hnndrad gnintas toward* prtees, 
&c., in conneotioo with the special addition of oleth 
to the programme of next year." 



TOB EHPLOYHEMT OF WASTE SIUL* 



One of the ohaTacteriatia fe 
great Bttention given to the v 
reeiduca from muniTacturei. T 
teitilo induatrioi, cotton, flax, ' 
for soma time lawely utilised, 1 
Uut much ittauUon has bean 
of wast* silk, although this ia 
bifthnt- priced of tbe fibres •» 
difficultly, howeToT, in tba <ra] 
required the arectioa of special a 
the greatly eDhaJjcod pcicti of si 
inrentioD, and has led to tbe n 
of waste silk in different counti 
faoture Qiese is a coiuidurabto 
33 per cent, in tt>e various pr^i 
only worth about ono-fbuith of 
One of theae inferior producU, 
"frisoD," which conaiila Dhic 
silk on the outer coat of tbe i 
attention, be considerably redu 
is now Bitensively utilised. 

It is difficult to arrive with 
of tbe quantiliea of waste silk 
Winkwoitb, in leporting to tli 
the silk tnde of Italy, from i 
down tbe waste or reftisa oi 
Italy, at 984 ton* pet aiinnm 
eocoons, which are also a 
camiot be reeled in the 

)Q*. Among our import 
ooiuuleTable item onder the ll 
and hosks." Trom I8S7 to 

iport of thi* was about 20,0C 
S0,000 owt. Tbe next four ye 
what lower, averaging 28,00i 
more has been received. L 
owta. were imported, and lai 
waste were shipped from Cal< 
wa*te silk have lUtle inkinsic 1 



jmtTui dT Bspi. H) wu nad by Mr. Liiln M 
■IIOB. AlUiosgti II torn panlr ma Iba h 
' nsptctllupplcnieDUtbc inronuatlnD gkrn 



872 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbb 10, 1878. 



intelligence and accaracv, and spun very evenly, tbey 
serye^eitheraloneormixea with other silk, wool, or cotton, 
for the mann&otore ofgoods of anch beauty as to appear 
entirely made of silk, llie fibre is made into shawls, spim 
taUk handkerchieff^ and other mixed goods. The Italians 
and Swiss have given much attention to this branch of 
industry. The silk is cs^ed, roun, and manufactured 
into threads on the same principle as raw cotton is oon- 
yerted into yam. 

The spinner cuts it into short lengths of somewhat 
less than an inch, and wiU produce as even a thread from 
this short fibre as the reelor from his continuous thread 
of raw silk from the cocoon. 

At the Dublin International Exhibition in 1865, Lan- 
zani Brothers, of Milan, showed silk waste, carded by 
huid and power, illustrating the recent progzess that had 
been made in this utilisation. Silk carding in the city 
of Milan is carried on by a dozen manufacturers, who 
employ upwards of 2,000 operatives, men, women, and 
children. The annual production there is set down at 
over 250 tons. 

For every pound of raw thrown silk produced, wound 
direct from tne-cocoon, there are left from 12 to 14lbs. 
of waste, technically known as **frison," '^galetta," 
pierced and double cocoons, ^^baasinas," ftc. By the 
use of machinery for softening, dressing, and combing 
this raw waste, extensive spinners in England and some 
of the European countries prepare and spin it into yam, 
which, being much cheaper, and possessmg even sjeater 
evenness of thread than tnat from raw silk, enters largely 
into competition with the latter. It is extensively used for 
the finest.ribbons and velvets, and also in the manufacture 
of ^ece goods and sewinK silk. Silk waste consists 
partty of noils from, floret suk manufactories and partlv 
of thread waste frt>m spinning mills and silk worn. It 
is spun on madiines made for the purpose, by the appli- 
cation of the carding system in some and combing in 
others, and appears m the trade on the Gontinent under 
the name of "bourette" silk. Dr. Grothes, of Berlin, 
states that it was formerly only used for the manufacture 
of stuffs for gun cartridges. Later, F. Pasquay, of 
Wasselheim, produced closer textures and webs, which 
were used ror forage haversacks and tents Ia the 
French army. Pasquay, in the meantime, had made 
from the same material very pretty dyed burl yams, 
which have, however, been agam supphuited by cnan^ 
of fashion. The firm of D. J. Lehmann began first, m 
1867, to use these yams as warp for waterproofs, and 
with increasing success, as the burling prop^es of the 
texture lent a peculiar effiBot to the doth. The 
preeent proprietors! of the manufactory belong- 
ing to GreUing Brothers, at Berlin, applied this 
material to the manufacture of satin plush, by 
maldn^ a texture with bourette silk on one side 
and raising it by carding. By this mode of treatment 
also, the lustre of the silk showed itself to perfection. In 
Lyons bourette silk has lately been used ror closer stuffiB 
with twill face, and these stn£b are printed with steam 
colours, with large patterns, for furniture coverings, 
which is a very duraole materiaL This article is also 
fit for dyeing, but it must be previously washed and dried, 
llie treatment is the ^une as in dyeing ordinary silk, 
proper care being taken to preserve and attain as great 
a lustre as possible. Another use of waste silk is that 
adopted by Messrs. McLintock and Sons, of Bamsley, 
for silk-down dothing, toralium quilts, under-shirts, 
ladies' and gentlemen's dressing ^wns and jackets, 
ladies' and gentlemen's vests, smokmg cape, chest pro- 
tectors, etc., interlined witn silk down and quilted 
throughout 

The scardty and increased price of raw silk has given 
enhanced importance to that obtained from double 
ooooons. This quality, formerly only used for secondaj^ 
•rtides, has been greatly improved m reeling and dean- 
Ing, and now entm largely into consumption ; one silk 
firm in Paris takes the first rank iz% working this 
speciality. 



At first, it was thought that the cocoons of the 
oil and ailanthus feeding silkworm could not be reeled ; 
but in 1859, Dr. Sacc reported to the Society of Aodi- 
matisation, at Paris, that at Grubwaller, Mr. Heorj 
Schlumbei^er, one of the most skilful spinnCTS of Alfw, 
had worked up the silk obtained from them, like that from 
the pierced coooons of the ordinarr silkworm, into 
various fabrics ; and he valued them like ordinary waste 
cocoons, at 2s. 6d. to Ss. 4d. the kiloj^ramme. In the 
condition of short tangled silk for carding, it enters into 
the category of fioss ulk and fabrics ; and mixed with 
wool, cotton, and other materials in spinning, it adds 
much, by its brilliancy and solid qualities, and Is also 
appredated for its abundance and moderate price. Bvi 
the naturally open cocoons of the Bomhyx A rri m itm aad 
Cynthia, can now be reeled as readily as those of the 
ordinary silkworms. 

Owing to the g^reat demand made of late lor the 
supply of silkworms' eggs (seed or grain), in Europe, a 
much larger quantify of pierced cocoons have been 
thrown upon the market, frt>m which the moth has been 
permitted to make its way in order to supply eggs. 
These waste cocoons have hitherto had but a small vme. 
But fr^m these refuse cocoons, as weU as from empty 
coccoons, the silk can now be reded and utilised, uider 
the processes of the Countess Cornelian, Dr. Forgemol, 
and others. 

M. Aubenas, silk spinner, of Lorid (DromeV in 1864 
presented to the Society of Acclimatisation oi Paris, a 
collection of specimens of silk from the ooooons of 
Bombyx Arrindea and Cynthia, reded mechanically with 
an apparatus of his invention. The moth, in leavii^ 
the cocoon, reduces the wdght of the latter by five- 
sixths. The dry skin of the larva, and the envelop 
of the nymph which remain, wdgh also about 12 per 
cent, of uie empty cocoon. 

The average yield of raw silk from 100 kilogTBaiiiics 
of four different races of French cocoons, experimentalised 
on by M. Guerin Meneville, was about 8*548 per cent, 
and 2*567 per cent, of floss or wastesilk. It also appeals 
that there is a loss in forking of 3*489 per oent^ caased 
principally by evaporation and by the extmotioa <tf 
various residues which have no value. 

The following table shows the relative waste in the 
coooons of the ordinary silkworm and that of the Aikm- 

thus: — 

MnlbenTwoRn. AUsattan. 

Klloft. KJloc 

Fredi ooooons 100000 .• 100-000 



Weight of chrysalis 



• • 



Wdght of husk 



Loss in spinning 



• • • • 



83*334 • 

16*666 ! 

2042 . 

14*624 ! 

3*489 , 



11135 
Weight of waste silk . . 2*567 



Baw silk obtained 



8*568 



83*154 

16*846 
4-549 

12*^T 
2*934 

9*863 
2158 

7*205 



Silk reding is Umited to the unwinding of tlb 

and to the twisting of frtmi 2 to 30 of the sinrie and toy 
fine threads, which cannot be used done. The reeibg 
of waste silk is similar to tiie spinning of other fibres, 
the object being to dear the raw matend a»l prep a re it 
in a proper manner, so that strings or filaments nay be 
formed which can afterwards be twisted into tfatesda. 
The process of treating waste silk is comparathrdy a 



one. 

Cocoons containing the chrysalis are reded hyntadag 
them in basins of boiling water for a certun tnas^ to 
remove the gum which binds the silk threads oa the 
cocoon. They are shaken about with a small hasth 
brush, and tne threads adhering to the broom at* 
stretched and united together in number agreed mm. 
(six or more) to form a united thread, which axe ^ttrr^*^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbr 10, 1878. 



878 




to ft hook, twisted and passed on to tiie reeL These 
cocoons are entirely dosed and contain tiie chrysalis, 
iHuoh has been first stifled or killed, to prerent its 
emerging. The oocoons duace aboat miadly in the boil- 
ing w&ter in the basin, revolving until the whole of the 
ou— vHbich may consist of from 600 to 1,500 yards, 
Aooording to the size and breed of the worms— has been 
woand off the husk. Bat open cocoons cannot be 
treated in this way. The water would enter i^ the 
and canse them to sink in the basin, and if 
are beaten, or moved with the broom, to get at the 
of the threads, they become flattened, and mixed 
up in an inextricable manner. The raw silk cannot, 
tiiereforei, be obtained from them in a similar manner to 
that porsaed with closed ooooons. Dr. Forgemol, in 
reeling doable cocoons, has a particalar scooring or 
cleaning process for eadi kind of cocoon, and a special 
kind of reeling, aooording to the natore of the ooooons. 

If they are cu)sed,thej are placed in receivers; if open, 
they are fixed on needles. Hot water and basins are 
reodered onnecessary, the cocoons being reeled simply 
moistened. The process was patented in December, 
1861. 

At the PAris Exhibition, in 1867, Dr. Forgemol, who 
liAd already received many gold and silver medals for 
h^ discovery, showed a fine collection of raw silk, of first 
mod second qaality, reeled from pierced cocoons of the 
■Okworm moth and the various oak-feeding moths, 
Ytms mmi, Fimffii and Myiitta, from doable cocoons of the 
ailanthas and castor-oil worms, and from JB, Faidh$rhi% 
MnptTUB and (kcropia. Specimens of the silks were 
also shown dved, twisted, organrined, and in the shape 
of sewing-silK, with silk pieces^ and dresses made from 
the silks. 

The working of waste silk necessitates a greater 
number and more complicated machines than those 
which operate. upon raw silk. Some of the waste, 
kDOwn as *'frison8," resulting from the first process of 
reding from the cocoons, requires to have the gum re- 
moved first Other wastes and residues, from ulterior 
operations of spinning and weaving, can be directlv 
transformed. These differences, easily ^wroeived, 
neoearitate two classes of machines, suited for either 
carding, combing, ftc 

The principal spinning mills for waste silk are in 
England, SwiUserluid, and France, although Italy and 
Germany flJso give some attention to this industry. 

The several kinds of silk waste are^l. Husks and 
k3inbe in the gum. 2. Huskfr and knubs discharged of 
the gum. 8. Dressed waste, discharged and out to a 
uniform length for carding. 4. Dressed perforated 
ooooons. 5. Dr e s se d husks and knubs. 6. Dressed 
China gum waste. Waste silk as imported is worth about 
jC20 per cwt., wlulst raw silk is worth six times as much. 

Bwitierland made a great display at Paris, in 1867, of 
the utilisation of waste silk ; especially interestiDg was 
the OQ^eotion of threads of waste silk shown by Bale. 
Thia odlective exhibition was very remarkable as a whole, 
aa well as for the superiority of each of the specimens 
eootribated to it It occupied the first place as regards 
thia branch of industry. Among the euiibitors were^ 
A. B^, Kriens, Lucerne, who showed spun floss silk ; 
If organti and Go., Lugano, Tessxn, carded waste silk ; 
Uto Bothen Floss Silk Spinning Company, Lucerne, spun 
floas dUk ; Yidlon, Mivelli, and Co., of Bale, spun floss 
aOk ; D. Taddie, Faudria, Tessin and Torricelli and 
lArati, Lugan, Tessin, carded waste silk. 

An. engineering contemporary states that the collection 
of madiinery ^own at the Vienna Exhibition for waste 
ailk apinning has never before been equalled. Since the 
off - 



the mftffhftn^c^l preparation and working of 
silk by HoUinweger, of Kolmar, astonishing pro- 
„ has been made in this branch of industrv, especiaUy 
Switaerland, Alsace, and Baden ; whilst Thomas 
Qreanwood, of the flrm Of Gh'eenwood and Batley, of 
\tsAw, has taken a prominent place in the improvement 
of the machinery used in this industry. The carding 




machines for waste silk shown by Messrs. Theodore and 
Frederic Bell, of Eriens, Lucerne, are on €hreenwood*s 
system with only a few alterations. The firm of BeU 
is well and feivourably known for the construction of silk 
combing machines, having but lately put up the most ex* 
tensive silk mills now in existence— those of Hessri. 
August, Yill^, and Co., of Amplepius^ near Lyons; 
whOst the finn itself possesses extensive silk mills. 
Messrs. Bell exhibited at Vienna a beater for the treat- 
ment of macerated coooooa and waste rilk, an opener, 
and a combing or hackling machine for tearing asunder 
the raw matm^ and cleaning it afterwards. Besides 
the two large machines already mentioned, Messrs. BeU 
have erected similar ones at Mailaud, Turin, Ohiasso» 
Bene, Vagienna, and several places in Switaerland. 
The exhibition of waste silks of all sorts at Vienna was 
also very rich and wc^ arranged.^ 

At the present London InteSrnational Exhibition, Mars- 
den Brothers and Holden, of lily-lane-mill, Halifiix. 
show yams made from waste silk, called spun silk ; and 
Mr. H. Tucker shows in operation in tne machinery 
court, Ghroenwood and Batley's beautifol combing 
^Bftchinery, in operation, for preparing and spinning 
waste silk, and the uses of such silk. The mechimiBm of 
this machinery was very taSLj^ described by the Rev. 
Arthur Bigg, at page 558 of this volume of the Journal, 

The re-wor^g up of old silk pieces has not yet 
attained to any commercial importance ; but when we 
find old woollen and cotton rags so extenrively re- 
worked, it is not at all improbable that the higher- 
priced and less-worn material sOk ma^ be «re long 
re-converted by chemical and manulacturmg appliances. 
Attention was publicly drawn to this f&ct at the Paris 
Exhibition in 1867 ; and in the jury reports mention is 
made of a process adopted by Mr. John Hadwen, of 
Eebroyd, near Halifiix. The jurors observed that while it 
was found difficult to obtain the waste raw material of 
silk, such as spoiled oocoons, knubs, and husks, at seven 
or eight francs the Idlogramme {and theM lose from 26 
to 30 per cent in cleaning ana preparing), old dyed 
silk fiibrics and waste sewing-silks have been procurable 
for many years, at something like half-a-franc to a franc 
the kilogramme. 

One great obstacle to the utilisation of old silk fobrics 
is the present injurious practices resorted to in dyeing, 
to give weight to the silk, bv adding gambler and 
other drugs to the dves, which tan the fibreii and neces- 
sarily deteriorate it for wearinir. - 

In China, a tenacious sort of packing paper, as strong 
as linen, is made from silk waste. The lower class of 
Chinese use it instead of pocket-handkerchiefo. 

When Europeans toox the first samples of endless 

Eaper to China, and defied the Chinese to manufacture a 
ke article without the expensive £3,200 machine which 
had just been invented by L^ger Didot, these industrious 
artisans, whom no difficmt^ deters, offered the English 
merchant to furnish him with as much as he required, 
of any width and length. They did this, as they had 
promised, by replacing tiie £3,200 machine witii one of 

£1 12s. , , 

The following is their process : —Thev grmd and 
divide the silk waste, and then put it in a large trough, 
which they expose to the sun. The silk, which is lighter 
than water, gradually rises to the surface, and forms a 
pellicle, to which the sun promptly gives a sufficient 
consistence to enable it to sustain a small traction. A 
workman adroitly seizes an extremity of this kind of 
cream between two small pieces of wood, and ^ntly 
draws it out of the trough, the water in which is kept 
level with the top ; as ne takes out this sheet, other 
particles of silk rise to the surface, and join themselyes 
to the end, and this continues until all the paper ma- 
terial is withdrawn from the trough. Usually, the sheet 
is only twenty feet long and three broad, according to 
the size of the trough or vat These sheets are spread 
out upon the grass to dry, but care must be taken to 
turn them. Q^ie endosurea used for this purpose re- 



874 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Octobbb 10, 18T8. 



aemble bleaching fields. When the Chinese wish for an 
endless sheet ^which thej themsolres consider useless) 
they roll the silky pellicle npon a cylinder adapted to 
the troiiffh, by joining dried sheets to the one then being 
made. This yellowish paper is used for packing stnflb 
and hardware. It is not very equal as regtmis thickness, 
bat it is so strong that a sraall piece eamlysostains the- 
weight of two pounds without breaking. This strength 
Is owing to the threads of silk, some of whic^ are, after 
the manufkcture, two or three inches long. 

Hie waste silk from the cocoons was 90 mat in France 
iome yean ago, that a celebrated ohen^ advised its 
being used as manure, but a better employment has now 
been fonnd for it— the uses which I have spedfled. 



HINTS TO COLONISTS ON THE CULTIVA- 
TION OF SILK, 

Bj B. yraneii Cobb. 

ftkmUmitd frem jn^ 860.^ 

^ When I want to hatch my egffs,*' writes Mr. Prevoet, 
" I simply take the papers on wnich my eggs are from 
my cellar to my garret, and there the heat caused by the 
sun through the roof makes them hatch promptly, which 
they generally begin to do on the third or fourth day.** 
Then commences the real business of the silk-grower, 
the feeding and careful management of the worms. 

When it is ready for spinning the cocoon the worm 
ceases eating, and is observed to move* about uneasily, 
and trying to ascend to carry on its spinning ; its nec«, 
too, becomes wrinkled, and its bodv soft. It is now 
necessary to prepare some place in which the cocoon can 
be fastened. Boughs of willows or other small bushy 
twigs are used for this purpose, as is also straw.* Hie 
cocoon is generally spun in four or five days ; and in six 
or seven oays after this — that is to sav, in about six 
weeks from the time of hatching — ^the cocoons are 

Sthered, and such of them as are not required for 
tching purposes are exposed to the ra^s of the son for 
four or five days, until the chrysalis inside is killed. 

Whatever eggs are required for use the following year 
or for sale, must be produced from the moths or butter- 
flies which emerge from the cocoons. Beforo destroying 
the chrysalis, it theroforo becomes necessary to calculate 
what quantity of eggs will be required, and, as a basis 
for doing so, it is said the female moth lays 300 eggs ; 
thero are 40,000 eggs to the ounce, which will thereioro 
requiro 140 pairs of moths for production. The best 
cocoons aro always selected for this purpose— such 
ooooons as aro large, firm, and bright in colour. They 
aro selected, too, in equal numbers, male and female 
— the former being easily known by their smallness, 
length, narrowness, and sharp-pointedness at both ends 
— ^the female being laraer, rounder, and moro like an 
egg in shape. Having being first strinped of the outside 
floss, the cocoons aro next laid, in single layers, in open 
paper boxes or baskets, and then put awav m some dark, 
warm, but airy place. About the twelfth day after the 
oocoon has been formed, the moth emei^es from it in the 
form of a buiterfly ; the male generalfy appearing first, 
and being known bv its smaller size and tne fluttering 
of wings ; tbe female is larger, and seldom moves. If 
the eggs be of the annual variety, the papers on which 
they aro laid are deposited in tin boxes perforated with 
holes ; the lids are carefully fastened, ana Uie boxes put 
into some dry, cool place, and there kept until the fel- 
lowingMav. This is the plan adopted in California. If, 
however, the worms be of the bivoltine or tri vol tine 
species — that is to eay, if their eggs hatch twice or throe 
times during the year— the eggs, instead of being laid 
aside in the manner just described, are put in some warm 



JL^^aL^J^?^^^^^^ Roland'i ■ystem of ocbellotwcocon- 
Bien, u detonbed In Abore paper. 



place, and in about eight days th^ wiH hstA, tbi 
worms going through the stages mentiopcd pferioidy. 
There are three varieties of silkworms in Gslifianift: 
the annuals, which hatch only onoe doting the yss; tk 
Mvoltines, whose eggs hatch twioa in the sessn; mi 
the trivoltines, three times ; but the annuals sn priad- 
pally, if not entirely, used by the nlk-growsB of tk 
■late. Theyalleg«,afareMonfQrthii,thatbflii4s^ 
question of laboiir, the one crop from the saml u 
hotter than two fiom the bivomBes, or thnefrottlk 
trivolUnes. Tlie ooooons of the two lattsr sn wA 
smaller, and, thavdbre, so mneh the less valablstba 
those of the amraal species, for the longer tha silk thnak 
the higher the prioe it feidies. Mice are ymj 4eStn»- 
tive to eggs, worms, and oocoone. 

Ths Bavisvilub Silkwobm KuaoET. 

In order thoroughly to undsntaad silk oiltais in il 
its different stages, and to enable me to repost apoa Hn 
details horn practical experienoe, I ooosidflved it Bfe» 
sary to visit one or two of the principal msgntaaia k 
the state. This I aooordingly did, and shall aov pn* 
ceed to give an account of this visit The lirgtil if 
these nurseries is situate near Davisville, in Tab Ouaty, 
and about eighteen or twenty miles froa Baa as M sto . 
This property consists of five hundred sens of iiai is- 
dulattng land of a rich friable soil, and was psreksM^ 
two years ago fbr thirty dollars an acre; it wsi ifio- 
wards taken over by a company of five or six gmtkfff, 
one hundred acres of it being planted with ths Udw 
different varieties of mulbeny trees, and the rwisisilff 
with apples, pesrs, vines, and other frmit treea lu 
estimated value now is 140 dollaia — say £36 tbt ten. 
At the time of my visit there were about 700,0M yotsg 
mulberry trees growing on the groonda Vmmu 
through these fJimtations, I reached the cooococmi ist 
men*s dwelling, pleasantly placed on the hig^ sfoiDd, 
and shaded byclumps of the large native fSk siulff ibe 
cotton tree. Thero aro two oooooneriee on the pnpaty ; 
one of them being rented to four f^renchmsn, wao an 
supplied with eggs and mulberry tree% and retire hsK 
the gross prooeeds to the proprietors ; the other ooc- 
tained upwards of three milliODe of warms in tbir 
different stages of development, and was a soene of bsif 
activity when I entered it The oocoonery ttsalf ii i 
long narrow building, supplied with three vntilslonia 
the top of the roof; and built of wood ; H is IMfcil 
long by 30 feet broad, but 16 feet by 80 is psrtilafiUii 
off n>r a hatching-room and a room to cot tkoisBva ia 
each of these being 16 feet by 16 ; the space, thovfon; 
in which the worms aro fod is 85 foot by SO, aod t^ 
height of the walls of the building is 16 feci IV 
building is also ceiled and floored ; has sixteen wiadsw 
which slide in grooves lengthwise, eight in the baClc«> 
and eight in the top, and eight in cMh gaUs-cai. Mir 
below and four above, having thus forty-eight viadovt 
in all, besides four doors, one in eaoh end and nde. Oe 
windovra were all open, and are so left dunf tk 
whole time the operations aro earned on, imlcai vks 
very cold or wet, the rays of the sun being pravvtai 
from penetrating by ooarae oanvaas saeew ^ktd 
against the windows. The internal amngemeots «b« 
as follows : — Lengthwise along the feeding>roov is> 
eight rows of slight posts fastened to the esihagia^ 
floor ; each two of these rows were 6 feet 6 inches vi'^ 
snd at every twenty inches were battened sow 
throughout. Thero wero thus foo^ rows sad fear 
walking spaces along the room, and eadi row bsi bim 
tiers, rising one above the other, 30 in^cs mA is 
height ; on ths fburth tier thero is a platfono, wcaAti 
by a ladder, as a man on the mnnd coald ost reecli 
higher, to attend to the worms. Between eaeh of tkHe 
tiers the worms are placed on ahceta of paper I toei 
9 inches by 2 feet, the paper lying looesly on a woo^ 
frame of the same »ixf « made of laths or othsr mhov 
pieces of wood. I'l. omeath the build^, and ital««d 
from the outside, licre is an excavaticB about Uft« 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, Ootobbr 10, 1878. 



876 



■qvate and 7 higb, where tlie mulberry leayei are put 
•id kept ireah uatil required for uae. There ia a atoTe 
m line fmtahing-goom for uae, if required, whioh seldom 
or eTer happens ; and in the other small room are two 
wftrfiine a, something like ohaff-outters, uaed for cutting 
«^ tbe mulberry leares. It must not, howeyer, be aup* 
poaed that bmldings such as this I haye attempted to 
ofltonbe are in ^;e^Bral uae^ or that they are neoessary in 
owiying on this industry. A fr^unet^ & oool room, a 
Imixq or other shed, may, with a litUe fitting up, be made 
to answer eyer^ purpose. There must be no smeUs nor 
doaeness; punty and plenty of air and warmth are the 

Qiinese are employed in the establishment, aa being 
€liei4»er, and generally understanding something about 
the management of worms. Under the guidance of 
M(mneur Blano, the able manager, and Mr. Reed, the 
obliging managing ^director of the company, I carefully 
examined the yarious details of the operation, remaining 
in the cocoonery the whole day. To commence with the 
hatohing-room : — The worms are here hatched, and, at 
tlia end of the day, eyery day's hatching remoyed on to 
tlie paper trays preyioualy described, which must be ti^en 
nuuiced with the day of the month. This keeping of 
eyeiy day's hatching separate is absolutely and essentially 
neonasary, otherwise the worms on the same paper would 
moult at different times, and some would require feeding, 
whilst others would re<}uire to be left alone undisturbea. 
The manner of remoymg the young worms is this : — 
Xiong^ narrow strips of uie mulb^ry leaf are laid upon 
them, on to which th^ immediately cUmb, and the strip 
of leaf is then placed on the paper tray which is intended 
iixr use. The process is the same throughout, except 
that, after the first age, young mulberry twigs are sud- 
■tituted for the leayes. The tray, dated, and thus filled 
yrith worms, but not too closely, or so as to overcrowd 
one another, is then carried into the feedinff-room, 
fklaoed upon one of the shelves or tiers, and food placed 
i^on it. During the first age the worms require little 
nod, but that food must be finely cut up. The food is 
ooaiaer the second age, and coarser still the third age, 
when, indeed, the leaves are sometimes given entire, as 
tbey always are during the fourth age ; branches are 
anpplied to the worms of the fifth a^e. After each 
moulting, the remains of leaves and skins are cleaned 
oiF the papers, the worms being meanwhile removed in 
the mannw already explained. There is a fifth cleaning, 
too, between the fourth moulting and the commencement 
oi spinning the cocoon. Monsieur Blanc has the worms 
M lOur times in the twenty-four hours, namely, at 6 in 
Qie morning, 10 in the forenoon, 3 in the afternoon, and 
ai S at night. The worms of the fburth and fifth age, 
6^»eciallythe worms of the fifth age, are fed day and 
nightu I>uring this latter age they eat more than they 
do an the rest of their lives together, and must never be 
aUowed to want ; for the more they eat, and the fitster, 
the greater will be the quantity of silk they spin. The 
worms whi(^ were ready to commence their cocoons had 
dried branches or twigs of oak placed upright along two 
aidea of the paper trays, bent at the top, along the bottom 
of llie shelf or tier above. Bugs and mice Imd begun to 
he deetructiye to the worms, but, to prevent this, deep tin 
howla werebeing placed underneath t^e uprights, and filled 
either with water or lime. The fioor of uie cocoonery, 
too^ was sprinkled twice or thrice daily with water. 
IC Blane was making some very inteiesting experi- 
menta, at the time of my visit, in crossing the Gali- 
ftimian annuals with the French and Japanese, and 
seamed yery sang^uine that the result would give a 
Iwgw worm uid a much hardier one, which womd pro- 
cteoe a more valuable oocoon than is now producea in 
either of these countries. An ounce of eggs produces 
ftoB 38,000 to 40,000 worms ; 80 oa. had been hatched 
1^ M. Blaao, and the result was about 8,000,000 
Of worms. By keeping the eggs back, he expected to 
hatah altogether about 8,000,000 worms, whicm would 
gjhpe him about 23,000 oa. of eggs, all of which are 



already ordered at 4 dola. an oosce, making the fohuna 
about £ 19, 1 25 for the season. One thoussnd six hundred 
pounds of leaves are required to feed the wormA hatched 
nomanounoeof eggs; that is to say, 38,000 worms. A 
tree two years old generally producea fkom fiye to ieyea 
I>ounds of leaves : oonsequently, it would take 260 tresi 
to feed thia number. £Lere the y oimg trees are plucked 
when they are 12 months M, but M. Blano ia <»poaa4 
to thi^ andxieyer touchea the leavea of the treat lit Bayia* 
viUe until they are two years' growth* A trea flye yaam 
old, if not picked before, produces 40 lbs. of leaves ; if so 
picked* 26 Iba., increasing the quantity of ita leaves as it 
grows in age. For persona entering into the bosineaa aft 
a distance, trees one or two years old are reoommended« 
They are safely transported, naving been sent firom Oali- 
forma to Europe. The propagation by layera and cut- 
tings is safer than by seeds ; the industry, too, can be 
entered into at once, without having to wait a couple of 
years. The cost of the^rees is l&om 76 dels, to 100 dols. 
the thousand. 

There have been no ooooons exported hitheiio eioept 
perhapa in alew instances, where some haye been sent 
to France or Italy ; but these were only samples, and 
therefore limited in supply. The reason of this is that 
the supply of eggs raimd m Oalifomia has hitherto been 
insufficient to meet the demands of foreign countries ; 
and as the production of these is much more profitable 
to the growers than the raising of cocoons, silk growers 
have eonfined themselves exclusively to the former. 
There is no practical experience to be obtained upon the 
matter. M. Blanc, however, informed me that the silk 
should not be wound off in this country, as it can be done 
much cheaper and better at home ; and fi)r this reason 
the cocoons unwound are preferred by the manuiiMsturers. 
He intends exporting some this year as an experiment^ 
and tiie plan he proposes to adopt is, to dry the cocoons 
by steaming them, and afterwaros pressing them. The 
process is very simple. 

A box of sneet iron is fitted up with a fidse bottom, 
say eighteen inches above the real bottom, made ox 
wire doth, and the space between a little more than 
half filled with water. The box Is then laid upon 
the fire until the water boils, when the cocoons are udd 
upon the &lse bottom, and there kept for ten minutes. 
They are then removed, and thoroughly dried in the 
atmosphere, when they are pressed in a hydraulic press, 
and r^y for export In carrying out uie process the 
greatest care must be taken in seeing that me ooooons 
are entirely dry before putting them m the press. 

I have, in a previous part of this report, oasnaHy 
referred to the fact that one of the cooooneries at Dayle> 
ville was occupied by four Frenchmen, who, as an 
experiment, had been suppHed by the proprietors with 
25 ounces of eggs, and food for the worms, the gross 
returns from the transaction being equally divided be- 
tween the men and the proprietors. The Frenohmen, 
of course, found all necessary labour, and delkeyed aU 
other expenses. The following estimate of the |isoAta 
was supplied to me by Monsieur Blano : — 

25 ounces ^ of eggs X by 88,000, number ci worme 
in 1 ounce, = 950,000 ; 950,000 worms, allowing te 
casualties, produce 900,000 cocoons; 900,000 ooooons. 
divided by 350, the usual number of coooosis In a poond 
weight, give 2,285 lbs. 

2,285 lbs. cocoons, at 4s. 2d. per lb. . , ^70 } 
Half of this makes the proprietors' 

share , , {238 

The Frenchmen*s expenses will be — 
Their keep for six weeks, 

say £18 

Six extra men for ten 

days 8 10 

26 10 

Giving them a net profit of £212 for six weshs' work. 

The quantity of leaves required to feed these million 
worms will be about 46,000 lbs., 1,600 Iba. being the 



876 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIBTY OP ARTS, Ootobrb 10, 187S. 



foantity allowed for an ounce of effgs, or 88,000 worms, 
f we allow 5 lbs. of learee to eadi tree, and this is a 
low estimate, we find that 9,000 trees, two acres sa^r, 
give a gross retom of £476. This, however, I am in- 
clined to think high, mj own (pinion being that from 
£120 to £160 an acre may be expected, and that the 
expense of cnltiyating and attending the wonns may be 
pat down at from £26 to £35 per acre, leaying £100 an 
acre as the dear profit. This is certainly an estimate, 
erring, if at all, in placing the return below that actually 
obtained. 

This year it is supposed upwards of 20,000,000 of 
cocoons will be exported, when a more accurate estimate 
as to the profits can be obtained. 

[To be continued,) 



BILK SUPPLY. 



The following correspoodenoe illutinttes the progress 
recently made io aericicnliore in Western Aastrafia :— > 

iVtmt (7. Brady^ Sag., KL.8.^ to the Hon, the Colonial 

Secretary, 

New Soath Wales, 25th jMiiury, 1873. 

Sim, — I have the honour herewith to hand you, for the 
information of the Gbvemor of Western Australia, feome 
printed matter having reference to the establishment of 
silk culture in Australia. 1 beg you to be good enough 
to direct his Elxcellency's attention more partictdarly to 
statements io regard to features in the maoagemeot of 
sUkworm establishments which are calculated to render 
the industry peculiarly suitable and profitable to Atis- 
tralians. 

First, to the circumstance that we are in posses^ion of 
the finest and most profiuble brood stocks in existence, of 
silkworms newly imported, as well as others, now for 
several years successfullv aoclimitised, and special to this 
country, both of which are recognised by the higher 
European authorities as not only unquesfionably healthy, 
but of varieties roost appreciated and desiderated in the 
leading grain and lilk-purchadng countries. 

Secondly, to the remarkable and important experience 
gained in the colony, proving at once the pracicability 
and the advantage of rearing silkworms (ot truly annual 
races) more frequently than once a year — a plan which 
admits of seveial crops a-year being rsised by any indi- 
vidual establishment having inexhaustible supplies of 
food leaf, and of three crops being raised at any time in 
one season, at the will of the proprietors, from eggs laid 
by moths during the preceding seafH>n. 

The brood stocks and the improved methods of rearing, 
&c., are the fruit exclusively of my own study, experi- 
ence, and labour. 

I submit for your inspection a sheet of specimens of 
cocoons (reared at my place, Curl Carl, Manly), a glance 
at which will convey to yoor mind that which no amount 
of writing can do, namely, the least diflference, in quality 
and in quantity, of the produce of different varieties of 
silkworm. 

This view will enable you to explain to your govern- 
ment the difficulty of imparting to others ideas which 
shall serve the avoidance of unprofitable exertion (which 
has hitherto been a material impediment to success), and 
and of impressing inexperienced persons with sound useful 
knowledge on this subject. 

I much regret it is not in my power to famfaii you with 
printed copies of various notices in Europe, as well as in 
America, regarding experience developed in the long, 
arduous, and expensive operations carried out by me in 
this colony, while introducing, expeiimenting upon, and 
acdimatiring valuable kinds of sakwcrms (both in-door 
and out-door feeders), and in rescuing many important 
races perishing (and finoe utterly lost in Europe) from 

The papers are nearly all out of piint, and I h»veoopies ' 



only of part myself for refnenoe, bat should 
at any time induce me to reobostnict mv own notsi, nd 
the comments of others thereon, I will takeoaro toMUi 
you with copies. 

I am not m a poiitioD to undertakA any firssh etttsnriN 
which will materially interfere with the eooduot of mf 
own establishment (now removing to Astooy, oo t^ 
Tweed Biver, N.S.W., mA Brisbane, QaaeMUnd), Ml 
would beg you to do me the favour to expccas to Hr. 
Weld my desire to do anythioff in my power toAffthv 
his design to make this valoaUe inda*tiyprMiti«ihleii 
the colony, under his government, and to nlaioe BBVStf- 
sonal services as far as they may be available at hM Ke* 
cellenojr's command. — I have, dnr., 

CaABi.ia 'Bum. 
The Honourable B. P. Bailee, 

Colonial Seoretary of Western AnstnUa, 
At present In Syda^. 

Manly, Hew Soath Wales, 13th FUnaiy, vet 

Sib, — ^With reterenoe to my letter to you, dated SKh 
January, and to subsequent oonversattona and coneipa- 
denoe, I have now the honour to submit the ffMomw% far 
the consideration of your government. 

To introduce and estabUsh the economic coBxueof dft 
on a rational basb in any country where it is d«w io the 
manual working portion of the population, ic is muBSaikf 
expedient at the beginning, by sound instroctiuii sad the 
force of actual example, to set people at ooce to woik m 
the right way. On this head I need not do noretba 
ask your attention to the printed matter in your poa» 
•ion, and only allude to the produciive value of aiikvsoH 
when their rearing is a genem occopation and canisd oi 
in a systematic maimer. 

The monev value of the silk crops of the world if 
enormous, and the financial 0|ieratioiis they gNe rin U> 
between widely different communities immensely sffoat 
and facilitate trade in generaL The instance of Japsa ii 
a notable example. A demand for silkworms' ^QgsalcDS 
has not only created a vast and entirely new trade, hot 
has in a marvellously short time comjidetely ofiaet the 
traditions and revolutionised the character of a popilitisa 
said to be as large as that of Great Briuin and IrsuDd; i 
has infused a ferment which has already wrought iinnifai 
efiecte ; introduced or created elements wbieh have Mt 
only poweifWy influenced progress in Japan, bet 
materially affected the commence and prosperity of othv 
countries. 

It may be that these phenomena, as regards Ja|aB» 
may not retain their present form, and it is quite oetuii 
that if any other country could supply the commodity fsQk^ 
worms' eggs, jot grain, which has wrought the wankfAl 
revolution rererred to) so largely wantM in Garof«, of a 
quality superior to that of Japm, and mote rtrifaMt to 
European requirements, a portion at lesst of the mda 
may be diverted, and, if judiciously managed, gndoaDy 
extended. Tou are aware that ttie Japan gnin, efvaths 
best of its kind, by no means satisfies the extgeDocs d 
Europeans as to quality, though, such as it la, this IssI 
season has seen the tranffer of about £700,000 steil^ ta 
hard cash, independent of other trade, from £aro|Mn 
silkworm rearers into the haixls of the tilkit of tj 
of Japan. 

This significant fact should be oonsdersd So its 
bearings ; and if it should appear to your 
politic in the ipterests of your colony to take 
place within reach of vour colonists the adrsDiagesof Ik* 
particular industry, I would suggest that propsr sl^ 
should be taken at the outset to afod to leUlen ^nfm 
knowledge, example, and experieoee with art of 
silkworms, together with 0[^K)rtttnity to obtain Ai 
and profitable brood- stock. 

I am fully convinced that silkworais snd their 
food-plants will thrive in Western Aoittalia. I 
you have special advantages in poeitioo,ssweU asi 
to make the industiy profitable if proprily imdiisltiud ; 
and I shall be glad to cootribote to iti m t nnm to tba 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobir 10, 1878, 



877 



itmosi of iDj power, both in the coodact of a govermnent 
»8tabliflhxiient, aod alio by myself settling and residing at 
least a portion of the year in the colony. I am prepi^ 
o Bopply ^oyr government with suitable healthy brood- 
itock of sUkwonnfl for the general benefit of the colony, 
md, at the same time, to establish fkrms and Victories on 
ny owo acooont in approved localities, if SAtisfactory ar- 
aiigemaDts can be maile to induce and justify me la so 
ioing. 

It appears to me that a government establishment for 
mblic porpoies in regard to silk should co-exist with 
irivate silk farms and fiMtories. The farmer should em- 
ploy all otherwise waste labour cf a superior dasi>, in 
arming plantations on public popertr, in keeping them 
n order, and in constant extensions, so' that in a few years 
i considerable amount of food-leaf may bo available for 
dlkworms. The director should impart instruction to sll 
persons employed, bo far as may be practicable, and in 
particular he should tmn a numler of apprentices or 
others ; these latter should pay the government for the 
id vantages ihey get, and be dealt with as individusls 
PFho may be expected in due time to take independent 
ind useful action in carrying the industry into various 
parts of the oolooy, 

A private silk &ctory would he expedient, in view of 
the neceisity of bringing private inteiests to co-operate in 
establishing markets for the produce, whether silk or 
grain, particularly the latter, which could only be realised 
under guarantees, and espe* ially to provide that obvious 
requirement— a market in the colony for small quantities 
of produce. 

I am so entirely unacquainted ^^ith Western AuBtralia, 
and its social condition, I am quite at a lot's to form esti- 
mates as to expenditure. 1 must theref re restrict my»elf 
to indicate in a rough way what may be wanted for a 
government establishment. First, a* suitable tract of 
land should be set apart for the culture of silkworms, both 
indoors and out. Secondly, this land must be first 
thoroughly cultivated and planted with appropiiate 
kinds of food- plants, and then constawtiy maintained clean 
and in good tath. Thirdly, buildings must be provided 
which, though as inexpensive as may be, should yet be 
Boflkiently well cooi>tructed, and of material! to keep in 
good order, without fiequent repairs or renewala. Beyond 
these items, and what they necessarily imply, tools, fit- 
tings (of the simplest character), utensils, ios«r\mients, ^c, 
no great outlay need be incuried ; the ^iIk could at ottce 
be disposed of in the form of cocoons, and the "graining" 
effected by an arrangement with skilled pemns, who 
alone coold make it profitable, or. indeed, fell grain at 
any ptioe. 

If I am made to understand that my personal presence 
in Weitern Australia would be agreeable, I could, upon 
timely notice, proceed thither fur a few weeks, and do my 
best to asfiiBt your government to initiate operations, and 
afterwards devote a portion of each year to personal super- 
intendence and direction, should my services be so demred. 
Further, 1 would, while absent from Western Austxalia, 
atrend to matters that would have to Le attended to, such 
as the maintenance of fresh and conbtnnt renewals of 
brood-0tock,already aoclimatised,aodproperiyhybernated, 
wherewith to raise silk and grain for ut^e in Western Aus- 
tralia and export thence to Em ope. 

I now reply to your inquiries $eriaiim ;— 

1st. The extent of land required tor a public silk estab- 
lishmeot ? — This is nearly a matter of choice. So long as 
there is suflkient acreage (say twenty aciea and upwards) 
to prodnoe a substantial amount of leaf of one kind, ana 
one quality of that kind, the extent is immaterial ; but 1 
woukl recommend a oonsideiable scope of land to be re- 
served, both to provide (ot fhture enlargements, and to 
avoid intrusion, though, perhaps, stritngers would not be 
10 cbjectiooable to a public establishment as detrimental 
to the management of private ai&iis. 

2nd. The nature, cost, and extent of buildings ieqni^> 
inclusive of fittings? (I understand exclusive of dwell- 



ings). — These would be best of the humblest materials. 
Lower walls of rammed earth or dry stooe, to firm a base- 
ment of an even cool temperature ; an upper story of. the 
same, or of studs at appropriate distances, to hold a light, 
str(H)g, textile fabric (common ** cheesecloth " answers 
extremely « ell), stretched all round ; roof of thatch (grass 
tree, so abundant about Sydney, makes an admirable as 
well as durable oover| ; floor, however, should be of good 
timber, wih both bslcony and verandah all round, the 
former enclosed with rough matting, tatty, or trellis, to 
mrtially break the force of the wind, which yet should 
be free to pass in and out through the cheesecloth walls. 
The extent of each building should be from 60 or 100 up 
to 200 or 800 feet in length, by 20 or 80 wide. It is ex- 
pedient not to rear more than ten ounoes in any building 
at one time ; leas is decidedly preferable. Silkwormeriea 
should be numerous rather than extensive, as I will ex- 
plain by word of mouth rather than make this commuid- 
cation more lengthy. The fittings required are plain 
tables, racks, and so on. The whole may be of common 
bush-stuff, the work rustic in the truest sense. 

drd. Probable outlay for tools and tho nature of them ? 
— By tools 1 mean axes, hoes, ploughs, and so on, of com- 
mon husbandry and horticolture, and (to add to your 
query) by utensils I mean hurdles, trays, leaf-cans, knives, 
thermometers, and such like, or materials and labour to 
make them. 

4th. Amount of land to be granted to me as an induce- 
ment to settle in Western Australia ?— Four sections 
(square mil«^s) of good land. 

6th. What period of each year I should propose to 
spend there?— It would be absolutely necessary for me to 
be on the spot some time beforehand to direct prepara- * 
tions and gef ready for rearing ; to conduct and explain 
the mode of hatching silkworms' eggs ; to conduct and 
discipline the rearing ; to watch and control, as well as 
provide for the cocoonlng ; to direct the sorting of cocoons 
and selections for silk and for grain, together with pre- 
paration (if neces»ary) of cocoons for market. The strain 
of this work on one individual, who would for weeks 
be oecessaiily occupied night as well as day until some 
leamera were Qualified in a ceitain decree to relieve him, 
would at fint be very ^at but unavoidable. 

6th. Would the penod embrace the whole process to 
be learned? — Yes, it should embrace the whole proceea 
(perhaps including graining, slso, to a select few, if suitable 
for this particular work), and should include what is neces- 
sary in outdoor work, as to cultivation, Ac, 

7th. The amount of salary I should deem adequate to 
the services given? — Under the circumstances I would 
accept £860 a year, fixed salary, for a term of yean, with 
percentage on proceeds of »ilk and grain. 

8th. The per centage on sale of silk? — Twenty. 

9 th. The per cent age on pruoeeds of grain? — Fifty. 

This last item, however, is one requiring a good deal of 
explanation. In my own affain 1 pa^ fifty per cent, for 
the hybernation and realisation of grain in Europe, 1 my- 
self being responsible for the quality of breed, quality of 
grain of breed, and its proper preparation for export— 
thus, for every ten shillings, practically I guarantee and 
am personally liable to the extent of one pound. Of the 
ten shillings pertaining to Australia I should claim five, 
leaving five as the net result for the rearing. To exemplify 
— suppose ten ouixsee yield one thousand ounces of grain, 
worth £1 per ounce, £500 would be absorbed in the expenses 
of h>bemating, retailing, and realising in Europe, £620 to 
the farm and £250 for my share. 

To resume Ko. 2 and 8 queries, as to cost. The ex- 
penditure contemplated being principally labour, I cannot 
e(>timate the cost, having no experience and no data as to 
Western Australia ; but £200 ought to suffice for such 
tools, materials, light, utenrils, insUtunents, &c, aswould 
have to be purchased. 

In conclusion, I must gusrd you from supposing that I 
here refer to more than rearing (at any rate at firsts unless 
you see fit to add out- door sukworms to our effi>rts, in 



878 JpURx^TAL OF TJ^B SOOIETY OP ARTS, Ootobhb 10, 1878. 



whioh case I should be very desiroiu to do the needful 
other than annual mulberry silk worms (and these indoois 
only). !t*he operations which you may have understood 
I have earned on for *olong in acuiimatiidng and natural- 
izing many dif&r<;nt kinds <*f worms involve ren'arches 
and provision in many ways quite unsiii'ablo for a govern- 
ment to undertake ; they are such as can only be carried 
out by private individual')^ and only by private individuals 
who are not constrained as to localities for separate rear- 
ing and isolation of the various iuseots, as well as of the 
dilerent plants for their support. — I have, ifec, 

Cbablib Bbapt. 
The Honorable F. P. BarleA.^ 

Coionlal Secretary of W^ero Australia, 
At present In Sydney. 



SILK FROM JAPAK. 

The nlk season of 1872-73 has been, to say the least 
an unfortunate one throughout for tbe expoiiters. The 
pricea at which it opened left, with very few exoeptions, 
severe losses a«painst the rates that were ruling at home ; 
nor had the buyers any opportunity of makmg up for 
those losses, because the forei^ markets exhibited, from 
and after September, a continuously falling tendency 
without any intermission or rally, until last May. At 
one time only would there have been a possibility of ob- 
taining a reduction of prices, viz., after the holidays in 
January last, when tbe natives, tired of holding oo, 
began to show symptoms of giving way, although not 
yet enough to leave a sufficient margin. But, instead of 
waiting still longer, some of the U)reign houses threw 
away the advantage of their position, and, yielding to 
the desires of the dealers, did, as we have said above, 
accept considerable quantities of silk for consignment to 
Europe on account of the latter, under what tuma out 
now to have been unreasonable advances. Having thus 
bad their pressing wants unexpectedly relieved, the 
Japanese resumed their firm attitude, and the opportu- 
ni^ of establishing a fall was irretrievably lost for all. 

Unquestionablv the severe losses of the exporters are 
much to be deplored ; but for those who have dispas- 
sionately and maturely considered the subject, a useful 
lesson has been taught which should serve as a rule for 
the future. The course of business of the last season 
brought out a fact, on which too little stress had pre- 
viously been laid. The foreign houses in tiie East were 
lately in the habit of looking too much to the past, and 
not enough to the present, wants of the European con- 
sumers. Whilst they wore overlooking the fact that the 
production in Europe has almost entirely recovered from 
the disease of the silkworms, they, at the same time, paid 
too little heed to tbe increased imports of Asiatic silk 
into Euroi)e. The home markets have become gradually 
glutted. The consumption is now, and has been for 
some time past, unable to cope with the production, and 
so much is this the case that many people consider the 
recent check to the crop in France and Ital^ to be rather 
a stroke of good fortune than of ill-luck. 

Enough has been said hero and elsewhere to show that 
the stocks of old China and Japan silk existing at this 
time on the home market are sufficient for a whole 
year at a moderate average rate of consumption, such as 
the present; and if we add to them the estimated exports 
fbr &e season 1873-74, the disposable quantity will be 
vastly in excess of the wants of the manufacturers. 
And what consequences may be looked for P That prices 
may fall again even below the present point. It is a 
truth, which we sre loth to repeat, that tm article be- 
oomes depreciated in proportion to its abundanoe, and 
9iee verMf and such is now precisely the ease with silk. 
It is quite clear to us that umess the exporters pay mode- 
rate prices this season, they will sooner or later find out 
their mistake. The Japanese dealers, like the Chinese, 
liAve heard of the late irosts in Europe, and are tr3ring 
to lioroe the ntes up. But they are, or aflSsct to be, igno* 



rant of the state of stocks at hone ; thej vet^ 
upon the usual eagerness of buyera to aeeiira the «ai 
arriv^ of the new produce at almost any ptiesw M 
done quite lately in the tea market. — Jtipmt Mmk 



AWVU AL IHTBUN ATIOVAL BXHIBITXOn. 



NATAL PEESERVBD FRUTPB. 

The Messrs. Jameson, of Durban, ezhilat a aoiBAwhat 
iliteresting series of preserved fruits at the Tntwrnatkaal 
Exhibition of the current year, which tbey axe endea- 
vouring to make articles of export firom Katal to FingWxd. 
The circumstances which favour this entecpriee axe ahoa- 
dance and dieapness of the two prime inKredientfr— tbe 
sugar and the fruit; some speciality in the -veg^bk 
productions of the colony ; and the comparative conpad' 
ness of the production for sea transport — a by no meaoi 
unimportant consideration, as a freii^ht of SSa. a tat 
means, under the circumstances, an addition to the aeQifii 
price of only Uiree-quarters of a farthing the pound. 

First and foremost in the series stands the amatun^uii 
(sometimes called Natal plum) jam, which is mainly 
notable as being preserve from a really wild iadigezurai 
fruit, the berry of an apocynaceous plant, the Ardmmt 
grandifiora^ which grows in great abundance all alos^ 
the Natal sea-coast. This jam is firm, and nearly hkf 
that of the quince, and has a rou^h add flavour, imme- 
diately suggestive of uncompromising wildneaa. It t$ a 
curious and agreeable preserve. The "gooeeberryjellj* 
is not a true groicille; it is produced from a BolaniirfaBa 
plant, the Physalia pubescens, which grows aa a oouse 
weed pretty well over South Africa. The f^t» in ite 
ordinary npe state, has a strong, rank, not altofithff 
agreeable flavour ; but this is very much sabdned, tnd 
indeed almost eradicated, in this preserve, only ranaxa- 
ing in the form of a faintish smell. The jelly ia pJeaaast^x 
sharp, without having the rough metal-like nexd. of thit 
amatungulu. The guava jelly has the full tmaHs ci the 
West Indian preserve, and the pine-apple jam baa tbe 
rich, almost too luscious taste for whicn the Natal poMe 
are famed, and which leaves the penalty of a u^ht 
soreness on the tongue after too nree an indulceofe 
The ** loquat " is a very sweet and firm preserve, al%;itllr 
resembling quince marmalade, but with less pr onooa c ei 
individual flavour. It is made frt>m the fruit of a ptast 
of the apple tribe, namely, the JSn'oholtyajapomum^ which 
is very delicious in its unpreserved ripe state, bavtof 
the flavour of the apple grafted upon the f^eih d t^ 
melting peach, with large apple pips taking the plaee of 
the stone, and ripening in massive bunches. Lika th; 
melting peach, the fruit is almost too delicate Ibr a pf*- 
serve. Its most refined and exquisite qualities da sat 
survive the bath of boiling sugar. The rxmeSl^ Is tU 
preserved bract of a mallow-like plantt the ffph'vw 
sabdraffa, which makes a most estimable suhstitela f# 
red currant jelly. There are three Natal frtnta whk^ 
do not appear in this contribution from Meena. Ji 
but which are of such hi^h capability asd excel 
the preserved state, that it is to be hoped Uieir 
is but a temporary and passing incident in thia 
attempt to establish a Natel fruit export Theee aba 
are the granadilla, the fhiit of a passkm flower, tbs 
Passijhra edtdit^ almost without a rival for delicate fraf> 
ranoe and perfume ; the Kei apple, the frmt of aa in- 
digenous ebonaceous plant, that niniishes another ygfj 
good substitute for currant jeUy ; and the St Haloa 
peach, whioh resembles in the preserved state a v«vy«a- 
cellent yellow plum. The shadock mannalMle «tf Natd 
might perhaps also be spoken of in mrailar Uiisiu of 
regret, as it is a worthy substitute for the Seville 
marmalade. 

The Messrs. Jameson contribntei two Twy good 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbr 10, 1»73. 



879 



vn&oa of Natal ohntne^, with the preseryed fniitB ; one 
tnade feoni the tamarind and the other from the hanana. 
rha specimen from the hanana is especially excellent, 
tnd well desarring of all that can he said in its praise. 
A^dvaatage has heen vefy skilfully taken of the com- 
paratiToly tasteless and nrinaoeoos palp of the hanana 
to malce it the vehids of flavours hoirrowed from other 
indiy n oiis productions of mare prononnoed taste and 
higher qnali^. The ohutney is so sweet that it may be 
vury ttpprapnaiely used as an adjunct for yenison or 
hannnb of mnttcti, hat it is, at the same time, agreeably 
iab-«oid and warm with choice oarminatiyes, among 
which tiie Nbtal ginger stands prominently in the fore* 
groand. This delicate and piquant chutney is semingly 
as haxmlees and wholesome as it is tempting to the 
palate, and may certainly be welcomed to the English 
table as an established and staple article of colonial 

The Ooyemor-General of India has appointed a com* 
mittee lo take steps to haye India more worthily repre- 
sented in arts and manolactares at the forthcoming 
International Bxhibition than it has been hitherto. 



EXHIBITI0K8. 



VIENNA EXHIBITION. 

Hie Society of Arts and Manufactures in Vienna haye 
periodically distributed, for the last thirty years, a 
number of silyor medals and diplomas to weU-deserying 
managing foremen, artisans, and operatiyes. On the 
occasnon of the Universal Exhibition the Society re- 
sohred to extend this distinction to the foreign countries 
represented at the Exhibition, and to distribute a number 
of their large silver medals and diplomas to operatiyes 
specially recommended by their employers through the 
respectiye commissions, as being worthy of that custinc- 
tion. 

T1mt9 were in all 184 examples of the great silver 
medal, with diploma, of the Society, awarded to Austrian 
and Hungarian industrial foremen uidheadjoumeymei), 
and one hundred medals, with diplomas, were reserved 
for foreign countries* Of that number ten were allotted 
to Great Britain, and the persons to whom this excep- 
tional distinotioA was awarded, on the special recom- 
mendation of the firms by whom they are employed, are 
the following : — 

1. Hr. Charles Frederick Lewis, for 12 years in the 
employ of M^ssn. Hancocks and Co., jewellers, London. 

SL Mr. Henry Fellows* for 26 years in the employ of 
Measre. EUdngton and Co., electro-plate manufacturers, 
Binnlnghara. 

8. Mr. William Kershaw, for 63 years in the employ 
of M ci s siS . S. Lawson and Sons, machine manufacturers, 
Leeds. 

4. Mr. Charles Lord, for 10 years in the employ of 
Meflsn. B. W. Winfield and Co., brassfounders, Bir- 
min^uun. 

6. Mr. Henry Gkrland Matthews, ibr 6 years in the 
employment of Messrs. James Gtibbs and Co., chemical 
maaore manufacturers, London. 

6. Mr. John Leete, in the employment of Messrs. 
Croeao and Blackwell, manu&ctunirs of vinegar and 
pteMTvee, London. 

7. Mr. Frands Henk, for 10 years in the employment 
of Measi*. Mintons, diina and mi^olica ware manuiac- 
tnreni, 8toka>apon-Trent and London. 

8. Mr. Thomas Wells, for years in the employment 
of Messrs. Hesse and Lubin, perfhmers, London. 

9. Mr. Patrick MaokiUanGniig, for 12 years in the em- 
pkymont of Mr, James Aitchison^ jeweUers, Edinburgh. 

10. Mr. Thomas D. Warner, in the employment of 



Messrs. B. M. Wanser and Co., sewing maehtne mafiu- 
facturers, Hamilton, Canada. 

The medals and diplomas awarded to Austrian and 
Hungarian foremen and operatives were distributed at a 
special meeting on the 27th of last month. 



The French exhibitors at Vienna have been remark- 
ably fortunate. There were 4,764 exhibitors in all de- 
partments, and nearly one half of these, or 2,800, re- 
ceived an award of one kind or another. 



Philadelphia Exhibition. — The managers of the 
American Centennial Exhibition intend to appoint 
agents, who are to proceed to the soveral islands and 
colonies in the Pacific, and to the whole southern coast 
of Asia, from the Philippines to the head of the Persian 
Gulf, for the purpose of securing for the Exhibition of 
1876, a complete msplay of the products, the wealth, the 
industry, and the resources of that part of the world. 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 

The annual report published by the Minister of Public 
Education gives the following partioulars respecting 
education in Italy during the scholastic year 1872-73: — 

The number of students registered at tho Boval 
Universities was 5,614, and in addition to this number 
1,333 persons were allowed to attend the course of lec- 
tures, making in all 6,497. 

At the Universities of Camerino, Ferrara, Perrugia, 
Urbino, 284 students and 22 non-students, in all 806, 
attended the course of lectures. 

At the Royal Institute of high studies at Florence the 
number of students was 214. 

The Literary and Scientific Academy of Milan num- 
bered 26. 

At the Royal School of Application for Engineers the 
number of students was 173, and at that at Naples 186. 
The Technical Institute of Milan was attended by 209 
students, and the Normal School of Pisa by 41. 

Two hundred and ninety-five students were registered 
at the schools of Veterinary Science of Milan, Turin, 
and Naples. 

The royal lyceoms are 79 in number, with 4,228 pupils ; 
the royal gymnaaiutns 104, with 8,462 pupils. In the 
royal coUeges, which are 26 in number, there were 2,208 
pumls. 

The following schools received subsidies from Qo- 

vemmont : — 

ftanct. 

82 schools in Piedmont , , . . . 67,290 

19 „ Lorobardy 49,810 

10 „ Venetian provinces .... 1£,660 

24 „ Emilia 62,800 

14 „ Tuscany 31,200 

17 „ Marshes, Umbria, and 

Roman provinces. . . , 20,800 

64 „ Neapolitan provinces . . 90,360 

6 „ Sicily 6,200 

The number of elementary schools throughout the 
kingdom was 41,713 (being 3,413 more than were opened 
dunng the previous year). Of this numbOT 21,363 were 
for boys, and 16,280 for girls. 33,666 were public 
and 8,167 private schools. The number of pupils 
attending those schools during the scholastio year 
1872-73 was 1,723,007, showing an increase of 146,863 
on the number of the previous year ; of this 960,617 were 
boys, and 762,490 gurls. The total number of pupils 
attending the public schools was 1,646,820, and those of 
the private schools 177,187. The total number of 
teachers in these schools was 43,423, being an increase 
of 3,102 on the number of the previous year. Of these 
23,212 were teadiers in the boys' schools, and 20,211 in 
the girls' schools ; the public schools bong ooiduoted 
by 84,^^ teaohersy and the private by 9,114* 



880 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ABT8, Ootobme 10, 1878, 



There stall xenuun 90 oonuDTmee without hoys' schods 
(38 less than during the previous year). The niimher 
of commimes without schools for g:ixls is still larger, 
heing 603, or 160 less than last year. 

Daring 1872 the public libraries of Italy were fre- 
quented Dy 853,991 readers, against 757»734 in the 
preyious year. The number of books giyen out to read 
were 1,218,889 in 1872, against 1,098,104 in 1871. The 
total number of books purchased tor these libraries in 
1872 was 13,872, sgainst 12,290 during the preyious 

year. ^^_^_^_^_^«^^^^_ 

NICKEL MINES. 

Ho^t of the nickel of the world, until within a few 
years, came from Qermany, but the diacoveiy of mines in 
America has entirely driven the foreign article fh)m the 
market, and conadenble quantities are now exported to 
Europe. But one depo^ii is being worked in America, and 
is believed to be the largest yet discovered in the world. 
The mine lies in Lancaster ooonty, Pennsylvania, aboot 
three miles south of the Gap Station, on the Pennsylvania 
Railroad. It is on the high land separating Chester and 
Pequea Valleys,* region rich in ndnerals; tor, besides the 
copper found in connection itith the nickel, there are Urge 
deposits of iron and limestone a thort distance south. The 
existence of copper th^e was known many years ago ; 
indeed, it was taken out 70 years ago, bat the mining was 
never prosecuted with much vigour, and afforded little 
profit. 

The copper was impure, bat about the year 1856 the 
material mixed with it was discovered to be nickel, and 
S8 the depth of the mine incresses so it predominates. 
I'he ore i« vi-ry hard, and the mining is carried on alto- 
gether by blasting. There are a few Cormsh miners to 
take the lead, but the rest are Americans. A Cornish 
pumping-engine, of 75-horse power, draws half a barrel of 
water at every stroke from the mine, which is 240 feet 
deep, and another brings the ore to the surface. The ore, 
in appesranoe, is iron grey, very heavy, and in some 
pieces the bright copper ore is very prominent. The 
smouot taken fiom the mine varies from 400 to 500 tons 
per month. The mining snd manipuU'ion of tliis 
amount requires 175 hands employed here and at the 
furnace. The ore has to be liauled in waggons about 
half a mile to the fumaco^, which are situated on yery 
high ground, and overlook the beantifnl Pequea Valley. 
This sitnation was chosen partly that the wind might 
caiiy awsy the nosious smoke and gas, and partly because 
of the stores of limestone and flint in the neighhourhood. 

The process sdopted is first to throw the ore between 
the jaws of a ponderous iron breaker, by which it is re- 
duced to small fragments weighing al>6ut half a pound 
each. Tht-nce carts convey h to the kilos, which are 
constructed ynry much like the old-fashioned lime-kilns, 
except that thesH.have a very tall smoke-stack, to increase 
the draft. A kiln, holding 80 or 90 tons, b filled with 
ore and kindled with a little wood. It bums for aboot 
six weeks, its own gas supplying the fuel for burning out 
the impurities. This fitst step towatds purification is fol- 
lowed by a process almost precuely similar to that to which 
iron is subjected. There are three large furnaces, and into 
these the ore is put, mixed with powdered flint snd lime- 
stone (the former predominating) and coke. About three 
draws are made in 24 hours, for the work does not »top 
either night or day, two sets of hands being empWed. 
The product of the furnaces is passed through iron rollers 
and crushed to powder, in order that it may be more easily 
transported to Camden, New Jer.-ey, where the final pro- 
cess of separating the nickel and copper, and preparing 
each for the market is effected. No waste is allowed. 
The ore duat, large quantities of which sre made in 
dtilling and blasting, is mixed with flux and day, baked 
in square bricks, and reduced in the furnaces, just as is the 
rest of the ore. 

The pore nickel commands a high price, varying, of 



course, according to the demand, hot tewig^fag oier tt? 
dollsrs pCT pound. Not oolj does this viiiMSB^ifihan cf 
the material fbr the nidcel coins, but ni^el is bebg a- 
tensively used In plating Ir.to and ol^r metsl* snl is 
ysrioos compounds. The whcQe property is owned hf a 
Philaddphia gentleman, who has, by bis easigy ad 
capital, not trnj opened up a new bransfa of isdiiiiiy to 
the American artisan, bat has taken another step tossrde 
making the Americui independent of other ssliaoa. 

Thus it is that Peonsylania, tfaioogh her raldbfe 
mineral depodts, is increasing her wealth by Buamgaid 
manufacturing interesta, as well as by wofUagter mbI 
valuable agricultoial t e rr ii oi y . — Inm. 



MEAT FROM THE ANTIPODES. 

The following letter appeared in the BsMt ofWeto- 
day week : — 

Sir, — On this nde of the world we hayehesrd of peofk 
in England being in great straits throngh theseamtjind 
high price of butcher's meat, and we have eodearoovd 
to feed our hungry brethren fn*m the abundasoe of ov 
bleating flocks and lowing herds, by seodiag then 9S 
preserved meats in various forms ; but as we are told tkt 
It is too much cooked, and not what they are ised to, 
one of our deyer men has hit upon a piMn whidi sill 
enable us to send whole carcases of beef snd mottiB, a&i 
to land Uiem in England or any other part of tlie mcU 
in the same condition as that in which they were Aiffd, 
Bv the Norfolk, which sailed from Port Philip oo tfa 
28rd of July last, the first shipment of our AnrtraEic 
beef and mutton in their natural state wss made. IV 
process by which Mr. Harrison, the inventor of tk 
scheme, proposes to preserre ihe meat is by fie^ 
it into ice, or as near an appr.jach to thai cos* 
dition as meet can be brought to by inteuB oAL 
The meat will remain as a lump of ks ill 
through the tropics, and till the voyage is over, sod wIko 
taken out will be exactly in the same condition m vb^ 
put into the ship** hold, with this difiiereoee, that it mart 
be hung up to thaw for sbout 24 bour^ before being coobei 

There is a mi«taken impresBion existing with rQgsrd to 
frozen meat — that is, that it will not ke«-p long afi«r kii^ 
thawed, but that decomposition at once sets in. Tlia 
may be the oa»e with meat that has <mly been tonsd 
vn&. ice, and the temperature of which is bardy 3S d«|. 
or just a little above freeang point. Deconpoadoe fKt 
on at this temperature, th^igh ilow]|y, as the .^BBaei ^ 
the meat are still in a liquid slate. Bot this i« via ^ 
care in Mr. Harrison's system. Eveiy psitick of Ma- 
ture in the most is converted into ice, and the Ultk ^ 
cules of crystallised water can be seen scattettd tkn<^ 
the meat when it is cot with a knife. By oareftdly e^ 
ducted experiments it has been proved tbat Bcatfraffs 
by this eystem will sotually keep longer than aeal is tto 
rame relsttve position aa regards the time of k sysg 
before being frozen. Nor is then any diantegotte a 
rupture of the elastic fibres of the meat by tiie frecBsg « 
thswing. 

Peo^e in England may be doubtful at finA, as I s» 
Sir, but when they eat, as I hope they will be ah Wtej^ 
soon after you receive this letter, a slice of s good '^^^ ^ 




right plan has been discovered. 

Before making 'his shipment by the NorjtA^ 
of experiments were made to aaoeitain vafioai psistt ^ 
importance, such as the quantity of ice ^^"'P^^^J^ 
voytLge, snd the best and moat economical o<ii-c«Dditti«BK<i 
heat for the protecUon of the iee. The lenH was iksi 
articles which are shipped fiom here in Isne ^|M|*^ 
every year were (bond to be the best posatde ■tfc^ '< " 
for this purpofe. These are wattle 4v aeoKSi tn ^ 
tanning purposes, and tallow. Agreater t^ickisn ci ua 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIETY OF ABTS, Ootobu 10, 1878. 



881 



i 



sabstftnce is, boweyer, required to produce the lame 



The cold is applied to the meat in something of the 
tome way that heat is applied in cooking, but as every- 
IriDg Australian is just the reverse of everything at our 

ripodes, so the foe is put on the top of the vessel instead 
under it. Heat has the property of rising, from the 
aqpaosbn it causes in fluids, while cold sinks from the 
ioniradion cauf^ed by it. You cannot boil a vessel of 
rater by putting the fire over it, and likewise you cannot 
ttese a vesiel properly by putting the ioe below it. The 
oe with a proportion of salt graduated to the temperature 
MDired is put above the iron tanks containing the meat, 
lod the brine resulting from the mixture is intensely cold, 
md trickles over the sides of the tank, keeping it at a 
tempezatare which can be regulated by incressing or 
iimiiiirhiog the proportion of salt. Around the whole a 
protecting envelope of tallow and bark is put, which koepe 
the outer air from melting the ice. 

At the &rewell luncheon to Mr. Harrison, meat which 
bad been frosen by this process for eighty-five days was 
saten l^ all present, and pronounced to be undistiuguish- 
lUe fVom the fresh butcher's meat. I need not point out 
to } 00, Sir, what a boon it will be to the poorly fed mil- 
lioot in the old country if the flocks and heirds of Australia 
can thus be luought to thrir doors ; nor need 1 say for my- 
Klf, and aU other Australian equatteis, that we shall be 
too happy to be the means of aflording them a good 
dinner, not, perhaps, without the motive that carries the 
flag of England's merchant navy to every port. The 
bent fit arising from this new industry, if it be successful, 
wOl not be confined to the consumer and producer, but 
will be shared by shipowners, merchants, iron and coal 
masten, and all the many ramifications of trade springing 
froin these important interests. 

1 endose two cbvulars which will explain the cir^mm- 
sUnces of this experiment, and I am sure yon will join 
with me in wishing every suoceM to the enterprise. 
I am, Sirs, yours very truly, 
Saxusl Wilson, Chairman of the Committee 
for exporting Frozen Meat. 

OaUdfli-ball, Eatt St. Rilda, Melboyrne, 
Aiigiutl2. 



OUB TRADE WITH THE GOLD COAST. 

The trade between this country and the Gold Coast, 
though ineoosiderable in amount when compared with tliat 
of many of our eolooial pofsessiooa, is still larger than the 
trade between this oonntiy and either Sierra Leone or 
Gambia. It is also worthv of notice that, since the year 
1860, both the imports from and exports to the Gold 
Coast have veiy eonriderably increased, the former being 
risen from £51,677 in 1860, to £899,654 in 1871 ; and 
the Utter from £106,069 to £477,168 in the same year. 
The fioregoing an&ounts are exolosive of the valtto of 
bolfion and apede. The trade between the United King- 
dom sad Gambia and Sierra Leone, on the other hand, 
remains almost stationary. The chief articles imported 
from the Gold Coast in the year 1872, were palm-oil, 
oletgiBoas nuts and kernels, raw cotton, skhis, and ivory, 
the most imporiant article being palm-oil, the value of 
which exceeded a quarter of a million sterling. The 
prinsipal exports of British produce, in the same year, 
were ootton piece goods, apparel, and haberdashery, 
hardware and cutlery, iron and firearms, gunpowder, 
stoves and empty casks, and cotton yam, the chief article 
being cotton piece goods, the value of which amoimted to 
076,000 steriing, out of a total export of £418,000 ster- 
Bog. There is also a small re- export trade from this coimtry 
to the Gold Coast, consisting, m the year 1872, of spirits, 
tobaeoo^ wioe, rice, and besds, the whole amounting to 
the value of £28,780 sterling. The employment afforded 
todifppiog in the above trade in the year 1872, was as 
firflows:^ — Entered with cargoes in the direct trade, from 
the Gold Coast, 21 Teasels, of 8,789 tons, of which three 



vessels, of 591 tons, were foreigners, and cleared with 
cargoes in tlie direct trade to the Gold Coast ; 40 vessels, 
of 7,227 tons, of vkhich eight vei>se)s, of 1,858 toni>, were 
foreigners. Next to the trade with the mother countiy, 
the most important commercial transactions that the G<>ld 
Coast has with foreign nations are those carried on with 
the United States of America. The trade with Germany, 
France, and Holland, is very insignificant. 



THE RAILWAY SYSTEM EST TUBKEY. 

The railway, whose establishment in Turkev has iust 
been inaugurated by the opening of the line from Con- 
stantinople to Adrianople, is based on a projected rail- 
road to Noyi, of which the above line forms a part. 
This line will pass through Boumelia and Bomia, and 
be ooimeoted at Novi wi& the Croatian linee. It will 
unite by the shortest roads the four lar^^ towns of 
Turkey — Constantinople, Adrianople, Phihppopolis, and 
Sophia, which are the centres of the industry, commerce, 
and civilisation of the oountrv. In the south the lines 
from Uskuss to Salonica, and from Adrianople to Enos, 
has been opened for public traffic during the past twelve 
months. 6oth of these lines terminate in harbours of 
the Algian Sea. Hie principal Turkish merchants are 
now endeavouring to induce the Government to build a 
line to Gkllipoli, so as not to make Enos the only outlet 
of Turkish commerce, and it is probable that the 
Government will accept this proposal. There are fdso 
the lines from Varna to Rostchu^ and frt>m Kustendjie 
to Csemavoda, which have been opened for the last two 
years, but have hitherto, owing to their isolation, not 
paid their expenses. The total length of the railways 
now open for publio traffic in Turkey is about 1,350 
kilometres. Of the other lines which are about to be 
constructed by the Government out of publio funds the 
most important is that from Sarembergto Sophia, which 
was commenced a few weeks ago. This Ime will be 
connected bv a short railroad to Nish-Heeinacz with 
the Servian lines. The line frt>m Adrianople to Shoumla, 
which is also in course of construction, would connect 
the Turkish railways with those of Roumania and 
Transylvania. The Bomian lines, from Sophia to 
Kostendil and frrom Kostendil to Banialuka, are now 
being surveyed. Nearly all the above lines will be of 
great strategical as well as of oonmiercial importance. 



OBITTTABT. 



Sir Xdwin Landieer.—There is no need to reproduce 
in these colunms any lengthened notice of one whose life 
has already been so frilly chronicled in the daily press, 
and that more especially as the deceased baronet waa not 
a member of this Society. To the Society, however, most 
be allotted the honour of having been the first publio 
body which recognised the genius that afterwards de- 
lighted so many thousands of the artist's countrymen. 
In 1814, the ** Silver Isis Medal " of the Society was 
given to '* Master Edwin Landseer," for *' a drawing of 
a hunting horse." 

Cornelius Yarlej.— By the death of Mr. Yarley, on 
the 2nd inst., the Society lost its oldest member. Since 
1814, when he first joined it, Mr. Yarley took an active 
and energetic part in all the Society's labours. Fcr 
some years the Transactions were illustrated by his draw- 
ings, and it is oidy within the last year that he ceased to 
be a regular attendant at the Society's meetings. As a 
draughtsman and a painter Mr. Yarley possessed con- 
siderable merit, and was the last survivor of the founders 
of the Wator Colour Society. Science is indebted to 
him for various improvements in the camera lucida, the 
camera obscura, the microscope, and the telescope. Mr. 
Yarley had nearly completed ms ninety-second year when 
he died. 



JODRNAL OF THB SOOIBTY OP ABTB, OoroBBa 10, 1878. 



QXVXXAL V0TX8. 



PnwmtlMl ol FtMd. — ProfeMOT Booi^ngAnlt itatM 
tlul a qMBtitj of b«t-tea, hsTiiiK bam mbailtUd ume 
■ight jan dgo to > tampentnn at 30 itgnet Cant for 

■CTenl houn, hai ntnuaed in p«rfecU)' pwd conditita nf 
to the preMDl time. Sugar-cuiojiiice was, at the umetiiDe, 
rabJBOted to this treatnimt, uid «■■ fouDd to be in excellent 
oondiliaB. fimli labelanoea b«d, of ooune, bam k«pt in dosed 



ChkuMl TuMy«. — A itesm-Ti 



nl ( 



Capt Dicev'a 



1 N»r5- 



II h* 800 feet lon^, u^ dnw lii feat ot 
wnTp aw cBDUia an let^ aikd tvamy, with oonraiieat 
ftlliiil^ aod due alt«ntiiNi to vantilMiaa, Particuian wiil 
Im Sinn in ■ f Btare Jiiunial, 

Iron In fUM/im.—'The high prioa of Iron In EnrUnd 
ha* rariTsd dlwiaHian u to tlw probabilit)! ol ili proBtabla 
ndnotioa in Yioloria, Aiutnlla. A fnah diKUTerj of 
&tn mliwnl* haa raoaotlj beai niportad at WalJeran 
littlabaroadlbeZlwK.ao tlwirealBniside. Uagnatlc 
brown hitmatiti*, anrt Dlaf-band ore an iLaledtobaTa . ... 
toimd in ckaa proiimin to limealona, ooal, aiii&i»H:Iay, and 
all within thraa milaa ot a railwaf atatioir. It ia propoaed to 
■Urt k Uaat fuinaoa. 

BailwAf lleaplBi CanikfM. — A ileeping 
haa jnat hean atarled to run on the Lundon or 
Watfani Haitwar. The inloriur of the uIood, wmcn cuu- 
lift! of three puaeoger unDpartmenta aod two UTatoiiee, one 
al aaoh end, will itaL Fgur pcr»iu in each cuiupartnienl bj 
day, and ileep the wme Dumbar at nfftbt. Tbo ammg^ 
menta for Ibalatter are as fullowa:— Tbo four teala, wbich 
are made in (he tmnei, in eacb ot the tbtw compartmenta, 
and can eaailj ba drawn forwaid lo ai lo me«t in the centre, 
wiU aoooBmodate two pareona at nigbt, and there are npper 
bartha tor two otlwr pacaona : thaaa dnriDtt the daf are aoa- 
pandtd agaiBat the not, and brioK oarriad b; quadranta or 
laaj-toega, and balasioe-vaichta (anaeen), are wilf inn 
down to a height of about four (aal from the door at nighl. 
To enable the paaaensera lo raaoh theae bertha with aaae, a 
pair ot nuiveablB fatdiiig-ilapa i* carried in each of the coni- 

Cmenta, to conatmnied br mpxni of a moveable top, aa to 
I a rending or olhpr i»blo during tbe day. The biterior 
of the nloon la handaoiuf-l} fl11i<J up^ 

Baaonraea of Sicily.--A WUu papor ghe» tho fat- 
lowing partlcoUm of iho " Iiiubiesta InduelrialB," or com- 
Diisaion for the inquiry iotu tho ioduMnal condition of Sici);, 
which waa held at Palermo and other prinoi pal towns of tbo 
iaiaud some months ago. The lulphur minea formed, of 
oanrae, an important subject in the investiuation ot (he oom- 
miaaioQ, and capecjally those of Lemara. By mcana of im- 
prDvemeuta that hale been lately introduced in the form of 
machinary, dninaj^ of tbe minea, &c., the prodaoe bos 
been triplad in tour years, and frum 15,000 tons it bM risen 
to 60,000. It was the opinion that it would be desirable for 
the railway company to facilltala the means iiE tranaport, and 
thatUieexporttax snould bealHiliihed. Several teodtng ship- 
Ownan were examined, and from their eTideaco II appears 
that ahip-tnulding was on the Inoreaee. and one ship-bmldar 
Blatad uat wtkanaa foitn«rly he bnilt no veesels eioeedinc 
800 tana, ha now treqnoitly reaeira] ordera for Ebip* ot 500 
tona, bnt that he conBidered wnges loo high tor the quality 
of work raquiiad. The PreBidcDt of tho "Trinacrla Steam 
Narintion Company " reported that, Innluding four steam- 
vessels building In England, Ihsy had tim ateamen. The 
dinotorot the "Oretea Foundry amploya TOO handt, and 
works 2/)00 tona of metal a year. The iron tLsed is nii^ied 
from Engiand and Belgium ; that of Lombaidy ia excel- 
lent, but the aspply ia losnOidEnt. As to coal, it cornea from 
England. Ha makes s(eam-engjn« and agriculture ma- 
ohinary, wMob are chiefly aent lo Greece and Turkey. There 
are 18 manotaoCurera of brua bedsteads at Palermo ; and 
aince 1871 a cvasiderable number have been exported lo the 
Continent. Although the com mi rision has elicited undoabted 
ptoofs ot nrogrees, when it Is addtd that the wages of the 
workmen have increased by 20 per cent, dnring the laat Btb 
years, and now aland at frgm 3.60 to 3 fr. per day, we have 
ftuths-erldencsof theaametaats. 



nban ^ tk 



Snuaa Maltuj AmwIaIIok.— 
tlon fot-allGefmanjhaaiiutbeas tam«d, at Fnskfbn^' 
dw-ltain^ altar two imjtl ootifet«ioa. Barg ■ ■ 
Hohraobt, ot Barila, ia chairman. BiiTgooa;ata'Brbartl,(< 
Uanloh; Dr. Lm^ of Cidopu; PriTrCaaacilkr Tbi» 
tnpp, of Frankfort 1 Frivy Conncillar Wiabe,af Bcdia; sad 
Bai^omuler Wintw, of Dantxie, are m«— *■ — -* •'■ 
managing MnnciL Tlia aaaociation baa for 

promotion of a aoimder aani' j— i-i-« — * 

the empire. 



Collage, 62, LeadanhaU-alreeL for the study of the taacu(> 
of Holland- He haa been indoced lo do tlua ua tbe nffo- 
tiona of Hi. Hyda Clarke, in the Socaety'B prcgiaaaa, 
becauae the Netberiaiids and Dutch langna^ ia if end 
Talne commercially, being the langtuge of Java ■■ lb 
Dntch East Indiaa, aa also of Bnrimun and the DUA Val 
Indies. It la also tbe Unnags In whioh Uif* traaaHteis 
are carried on in our Caps uoloiuea and the flepablin of ^ 
intarior ot Booth Africa. Dr. Bikkera bu a)aa bign ■ 
oonraeof ughl leotnieaon Um aoieni — ' ' 



—A report, is bi 



e CHy >(*■ 



Bsport OB AaphAlte PareinentB.- 
torm of a detailed table on the nrious t 
of isphalle laid within the dly of LoDdoa, baa ban p 
by Mr. Hay wood, eogineer and anryaTi - •- — - "— ' 
Commisslonera, and printed by their a 
nowallogather 35 atreeta, or portiada ^ atocMa, ft 
ot which the carrioge-waya ha*B beem pamA »itfc aahfbslia 
One ot the pavenMBta has been down three yean oad aia 
montha, two for two yeara and two montha, ^htna xatm 
two years, fenr under atam Tear, and flre tuider aia mvtit^ 
at the time of Inspeotlon. The moat niUDeraiu purtimi tan 
been laid by the Val da Travera Company, hoi sbi^ slfar 
kinds hare been tried, and the taboUr nport. t"" ^ 
nametoua notes and remarks, is a Tolnable and a 
one, and should bs looked to by all who ai 
iabfeet of rosda. 



JOURNAL OF THE bOOlETY OF ARTS, October 17, 1878 



883 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 

Ko. 1,091. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, OCTOBER 17, 1873. 



MU 



/orthe8oeUtif9h<mldbeaddr«sMdtoth$S9er«taryt 



AVHOVJfi 



Mil .i:^. 



!S BT THB OOinrCTL. 



IBOHVOLOGICAL SXAMISATIOVB. 

The sobjeots in which examinatioiiB were held 
thia year, namely, Cotton Manufacture, Pai>er 
Manufacture, Silk Manufacture, Steel Manufacture, 
and Carriage-building, will be retained in the Ex- 
anxznationfl of next year, with the addition of 
dotli Manufacture, Glass-making, Pottery and 
Porcelain, and the Manufacture of GNis. 

The Programme is in preparation, and will be 
published as soon as possible. 

In addition to subscriptions already announced, 
the Council have to acknowledge the following 
contributions to the Prize Fund : — 

The Woishipfal Company of Clothworkers £105 
G. N. Hooper, Esq 10 10 

Also as a special contribution to a Prize Fund 
for the Examination in Carriage-bmlding. 

G. K. Hooper, Esq £10 10 

8XK 108XPE WHITWOBTH'S PBIZSS FOE THRIFT 

B88ATS. 

Sir Joseph Whitworth has offered prizes of 
f9ie Talue of one hundred pounds, to be awarded 
by the Society of Arts, for the best Essays on 
the *' Advantages that would be Ukely to arise if 
railway companies and limited companies gene- 
rally were each to establish a sayings-bank for the 
working classes in their employ." With this offer 
he has transmitted the following observations : — 

1. Is not a good rate of interest, with perfect 
geom i ty, tnore likely to promote the habit Of 
Mir^ig than any other plan that edn bo devised ? 

2. Sir Josepn Whitworth suggests that the 
interest to be pftid on the deposits should be the 
•gone as the dividend, with a guarantee that it 
dhiill not be less than 4 per cent. 

d. By paying the same rate of interest as the 
dividend earned, there is a bond of imion estab- 
lished between labour and capital. 

4. An Act of Parliament might make the depo- 
of the industrial classes the first charge on the 



h* The proprietor of a private establishment, 
wiiOfie profits are not made known, might under- 
take to pay, say 7 or 8 per cent, when the profits 



reached that amount or more, the proprietor giving 
an undertaking to pay not less than 4 per cent. 

6. In the case of Agriculture, each county might 
have its savings-bank for the savings of both men 
and women in the said county, and the interest to 
be paid might be 6 or 7 per cent. 

7. To do this there might be a rate collected 
along with the poor-rate, to be called the interest 
or industrial rate. 

8. As this rate increased, no doubt the poor-rate 
would diminish, and if the habit of saving became 
general among the labouring classes, there would 
probably be great gain to the property-owning 
classes, considering the great varied of ways in 
which they have now to contribute for the support 
of the unfortunate who now make no provision for 
themselves. 

9. In order to realise what might be the pro- 
bable saving to those who encourage the savings- 
banks thus suggested, 1^ Joseph Whitworth points 
to the list of charities, also institutions, such as in- 
firmaries, hospitals, union-houses, prisons, police, 
&c., &c. 

10. In any establishment, if only one-third of 
those employed deposited savings, they would 
have imm m^aft influence over the other two-lhirds 
of their fellow- workmen. 

11. Men who spend all their earning are gene- 
niUy reckless, ana become the dupes of agitators ; 
but the man who has put by some of his earning 
will be likely to exercise forethought, and will 
not be led away by others. 

12. In South Wales is it likely there would have 
been the late turn-out, if the different establish- 
ments had each had such a savings-bank as that 
proposed P 

13. In the case of a man or woman falling into 
distress from causes beyond their control, what 
better proof could be given that they were de- 
serving of sympathy and assistance from their 
friends, than the fact that they had put by savings 
at a time when tiiey were able to do so P The rule 
of action should be to do as little as possible for 
those who do as little as possible for themselves. 

14. Some of the x>ointB to be considered by the 
essayists will be the amount to whioh the savings 
shcdl be limited, and when the depositor wishes to 
withdraw the whole or any part of the sum de- 
posited, what notice shall be given. 

15. The co-operative system is no doubt effect- 
ing much good, but if the system here sketched 
out were adopted, the greatest srood, in the shortest 
time possible, might be effected. 

To the above observations Sir Joseph Whitworth 
has added the following : — 

1 think it will be admitted as desinble that one- 
third of the period of man's existence should, if 
possible, be spent free from the neces;dty of labour 
and toil. 

The middle period of life is, then fore, the time 
when man's energies should be put forth, and 
the greatest amoimt of work shotdd be done 
that strict obedience to the laws of health will 
permit. The experience of industrious men goes to 
prove that the most pleasurable existence is insured 
by following this course. 

It is therefore wrong, in every sense, for the 
Amalgamated Engineers and other Trades Unions 
to combine and endeavour to compel yoimg and 




8^4 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Octobbb 17, 1873. 



middle-aged men, in the prime of life, to limit and 
reduce their hours of labour to the extent now being 
attempted, and thus prerent them from saTing so 
much, and laying it by for that period of life 
when man's energies besin to fail, when work 
becomes irksome, and when rest is necessary in 
order to pass a comfortable existence. May not the 
case between the industrious working man who 
saves part of his earnings, and the man who is 
reckless and wiU not save part of his earnings, be 
fairly stated thus : — 

That the man who does not save when he is in 
health and strength, robs the man who does 
•aye, because the law compeb him to support 
those who have not saved, and to bury them when 
dead? 

The principal subjects which the essayists should 
consider are the preceding. 

After commending these observations of the 
enlightened and liberal donor to the consideration 
of the competing essayists, the Council, however, 
would further call their attention to the liability 
to frauds of various kinds to which such a system 
may be subject, such as, for instance, that of colour- 
able investments being made by parties investing, 
in their own names, moneys not bon& fide their 
own ; and would impress upon the competitors the 
importance of suggesting the best means of pre- 
venting such abuses. 

There will be two prizes, £70 for the best, and 
£30 for the second best essays. The judges 
reserve the right of withholding the prizes 
altogether, or awarding lesser sums. 

The following are the conditions to be observed : 

1. The essays must be sent to the House of the 
Society of Arts, Adelphi, London, addressed to 
the Secretary, on or before 1st December, 1873. 

2. They must be delivered either in print or in 
manuscript. If in manuscript, they should be 
written distinctly on foolscap paper, on one side 
of the paper only. Every paragraph must be 
numbered. 

3. They must be sent in sealed, with only a 
motto or cypher ; and a separate letter, also sealed, 
with the motto or cypher marked outside, must 
accompany the essay, giving the name and address 
of the writer. 

4. Brevity will be considered as a merit. 

5. They may have been published anonymously 
before being sent in. 

6. The Society is to have the right of publishing 
the two prize essays in its Journal. 

7. The award of the judges will be final. 



HALL-XABXnrO OF JEWXLLEBT.— PBIZS FOB 

S8SAT8. 

1. It having been brought to the knowledge of 
the Council of the Society of Arts that what is 
termed ** Hall-marking '' of jewellery and articles 



of gold and silver, is inadequate to seonre to the 
public that protection in the quality ol the 
materials for which it is intended, they have ac- 
cepted the offer of one of the members, Mr. Edwin 
W. Streeter, to place £25 at their di^KMal, tobe 
awarded as a prize for an Essay treating^ on this 
subject, with suggestions for an improved system. 

2. The Essays must be sent in not later than the 
Ist of November, 1873, marked with a motto, or 
cypher only, accompanied by a sealed letter, with 
the corresponding motto or cypher marked oot- 
side, giving within the name and addresa of tiie 
writer of the Essay. 

3. Brevity will be considered a merit. 

4. The Council shall have the right of pnblidnng 
the prize Essay in the Journal^ and they lo a oi f B 
the right of withholding the prize altogether, or 
of awarding a lesser sum, if the judges dbaU so 
recommend. 

P. Lb Nsvb Foster, SeerUmry. 



BCOVOMICAL Va OF OOAL FOR OOKKXC 

PUBPOSIB. 

With regard to these prizes it has been decided 
that testing rooms will be- provided, in which ik» 
various competing articles may be tested in snooei- 
sion, each competitor having allotted to him in 
turn a room and chimney, for a limited period, 
where he may fix his apparatus for the pur pose <rf 
its being tested by the judges appointed by the 
Society of Arts, the same to be removed' wImb 
diluted by the judges ; such fixing and remonl 
to be at the cost of the competitor. 

The competing articles must be deUvered at thi 
London Litemational Exhibition Building, Sosth 
Kensington, on the 1st December, 1873, irith • 
view to their being tested, and subsequently diown 
in the Exhibition of 1874. 



The ceremony of turning the first sod in the .^ 
Btmction of the first railways m Penift took pl»os faldf at 
Resoht, on the Hunt, in praeenoe of the fortign '^^nnH mi 
residents. Upwards of a mile of earthworic is rmnplstid- 

Prof essor Heeren has analysed Muahet stccI, md 
finds that, ezdnding carbon, and perhaps traocs of ot^iwl 
stances, it contains 8*3 per cent, of t n n gstc n sad 1*73 w 
cent, of manganese. Untemperad, thissteri Toaiata A* & 
but after tempering St becomes much softer 
3rields. 

It is stated that considerable 
▼ails in the oil regions over the discoTery in the '. 
of a fonrth sand rock, which promises to be mosw 
the prodnotioa of petrolemn than either of the 
doomg stratas of tne second and third. 

The American Government oontemplstea 
ning a line of telegraph along the ooaat of New Jmm^ hm 
Sandy Hook, at the entrance to New York H«rbo«r, to Ofi 
May, at the month of the Delaware. Tbia line ia «» «Bstf 
the varioas life-saving stations on the New Jcnty eatf; mi 
it is to be used to order the dinplay of cautjooary aSg^^ A 
shnilar svrvey has been msde along the coast of Ma^Ms^^^ 
for the same purpose. 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, OotoAbr 17, 1873. 



886 



HINTS TO COLONISTS ON THE CULTIVA- 
TION OF SILK. 

By B. Vlrftaeis Oobb. 

(Continued from pag$ B76,J 

The fbregoing report from California should not be 
noehred as an authority, but rather at an aid, showing 
the experiences of the early rearers of a country the 
olimat» of which assimilates so dosely to that of many 
of cor oolonies. 

Of primary importance in the commencement of silk- 
rearing is to have ffood seed, or eggs ; not only 
should the seed be of good quaJity and of a healthy 
breed, and distant from any locality where disease has 
been, but it should be selected from a country where the 
climate assimilates as much as possible to tmit where it 
is proposed to develop the seed. It is better to transport 
seed nom a colder to a warmer climate than the reyerse. 

The neglect of these precautions has already led to 
much disi4>pointment, and in many instances where 
" graine " or seed has been sent from a northern to a 
aoathem hemisphere, the unusual stimulant of heat 
applied in crossing the tropiss, at a time when, in the 
ordiiiary course of events, the eggs should have been 
experiencing the coldest period of their hybernation, has 
BO diatorbed Uie natural course, that premature incuba- 
tion has set in, and the worms show such a tendency to 
degenerate that, unless carefully tended by experienced 
hands, they continue to retrograde until the cocoons 
become worthless. 

Seed sent frtmi Europe to the colonies cannot be sent 
too soon after it is laid, and then should be treated with 
great care, and kept, as much as circumstances will per- 
mit of, dry, cool, aerated, and free from contact with the 
■teftm of engine-rooms or bilge water ; this latter will 
polaon seed, and thus seed suspended between the tim- 
oera of a ship, under the impression that the situation 
waa the coolest in the vessel, has been found at the end 
of the voyage discoloured and bad. Neither should the 
seed be plaoed in the ice-houses of steamers, for the great 
aiul sudden chan^ from heat to damp cold has the 
eflbct of so tnjnnng the worm, that although it may 
attain maturity, it will scarcely ever produce a good 
cocoon. The misfortune is that in cases of injury to the 
•r^, it is very often not perceptible until the worm has 
attained the last stage, when, having given all the 
trouble and caused all the expense it can, it either dies 
or apins a miserable abortion of a coco3n, as unlike 
those of its progenitors as can well be. 

In procuring seed, it is well to know the history of it, 
and also to be furnished with specimens of the cocoons 
from whence the moths have emerged that produced the 
seed. It would be probably better now to obtain gua- 
rmnteed reproduction of Japanese annuals from Europe 
than trust to the chance of obtaining good seed from 
Japan. 

The following, from Mr. Troup's report of his journey 
m Japan, conveys a good idea of the little dependence 
^uit aan be pjaoed upon the fret of Japanese seed 
actoally coming from a good district: — 

M June 23. Left Tonezawa early, and passing through 
ICa-uchi and other towns and villages, arrived at Ko'id^ 
In the afternoon. The town of Yoneiawa itself is large, 
but the houses appear not to be so well built, nor the in- 
hahitantB as a rule so well to do as those of the country 
TiBages. The latter, in which the silk culture is appa- 
rently tiie staple occupation of the i>eople, have about 
ttiem' an air of great comfort and tidiness. Koi'd^, a 
rather large trading town, is one of the chief centres of 
tbB silk culture. The worms in Tonesawa this year 
weie generally pronounced superior ; but the quantity 
waa sud not to be very large. The intention here also 
appeared to be to make seed mther than silk. We dis- 
covered at this place that a practice was carried on 
which cannot be characterised by any milder term than 
tbmt of a fraud. It appears that the Tonezawa seed 



having obtained some reputation for superiority, oocoona 
already formed have becm brought this year from Joshiu 
to Koid6 to be hatched and lay their eggs there. These 
eggs will thus oome into the market as Yoneiawa seed. 
The empty cards ready to receive these eggs, already 
bearing the Tonesawa stamp, were shown to us, and the 
persona engaged in this transaction appear to have little 
care for the reputation of their seed, provided they can 
make some money by the operation." 

The high prices ruling of late years for good seed of 
20s. to 2&, and even 308. per oz. must not be mistaken 
for the normal values ; such prices have been given by 
European rearers, entirely in hopes of replacing the 
diseased races that were causing such heavy losses year 
after year. About half the above quotations would be 
a more correct price for the colonist to base his calcula- 
tions upon. 

Nearly all seed now offered for sale on the Italian 
markets is now subjected to what is called a " micro- 
scopical analysis," and unless the report given by the 
experts be a favourable one, it would Be extremely 
difficult to realise anything like a remunerative price. 

Gk)od '* graine " should be of a bright gray colour, 
evenly spread upon the cards, not in raised masses in 
one part and scantily covered in others ; in the lumped 
masses the lower eggs have scarcely a chance of result- 
ing well, and as they generally are the first to hatch, the 
worm is frequently smothered before it can extricate 
itselt The " graine " should be flat rather than round, 
and a slight convexity of the upper surfrce is considered 
by many to be a good feature. It would be a good rule 
never to purchase eggs that one knows nothing about, 
and can get no history of. 

A correspondent, writing to the Califomian Fanner, 
states as follows : — 

** The beneficial results to the community to be de- 
rived fitom sericiculture, are not based so much upon its 
high per-centage of profits in investment, as upon its 
being one of the most potent means for diversifying our 
industries, because it can be profitably prosecuted in all 
portions of our State, thus most effectually frvouring and 
mviting immigration. 

" Having once established our mulberry plantations, 
and while continuing their most careful cultivation, the 
proper work of the sericiculturist begins. The greatest 
caru will be required in selecting healthy eggs of the 
most approved varieties. The best Japanese varieties 
appear to be raised most in accordance with natural 
methods, are perfectly hardy, and produce silk of the 
finest quality. These should be our main reliance, and 
by keeping the different varieties distinct, preventing 
by the utmost care their hybridisation, destroying at 
once all the worms whenever they show signs of diseitse, 
and selecting wdl formed cocoons for hatdoing, we may 
secure the beet eggs, and with them supply the ever in- 
creasing demand of the European trade. In a warm 
climate it proves difficult to keep silkworm eggs from 
being hatched prematurely before there is sufficient feed 
for them, or to frtcilitate efforts to prolong the season. 
We should early endeavour to find accessible localities, 
either in the northern part of the State or the higher 
mountain regions, where the temperature is more even, 
and remains until June lower than in the valleys ; here 
depositories for silkwarm eggs could be located at small 
expense, to be drawn upon as wanted by the owners, 
such localities can only be found by careful trial and 
observation.'* 

In addition to the Japanese varieties mentioned, there is 
a fine breed that has lately been obtained from the Taiho 
or Namsing district of China, of which very encoura^ng 
reports were received from Italy last year, the first time 
they had been introduced into Europe. The cocoon is a 
brilliant pure white, and much esteemed. From this 
breed the best TsaUee is made. 

Having obtained good seed, the best method of pre- 
serving it in that condition unUl the proper time for in- 
cubation arrives becomes a matter of vital importance ; 



886 



JOURNAL OP THB SOCIETY OF AETS, Ootobbb 17, 187S. 



however good the seed may he, if it hatches hefore the 
mulbeny leaf is ready for it, a oommeroial faihire most 
result; for, although worms may be kept alive and 
apparently thriving upon lettuce, black currant, and 
many other leaves, the experimentalissr must never 
dxpcK^ to produce cocoons fiK>m such feeding as will take 
a good classification on the market. Many ingenious 
contrivances have been tried to meet this difficulty, but 
hitherto unsuccessfully. One of the most saoceesfiil has 
been by means of prepared leaves gathered the preceding 
year, dried rapidly, so as to retain as mudli of the 
different component vegetable parts as possible, and thrai 
powdered and put away in jars or arr-tight packages. 
When wanted, the powdered leaf is mixed witii a little 
gum mucilage, or sweetened water, and spread about for 
tiie worms to feed upon. It has been stated that worms 
thus fed up to the second age have thrived better than 
those fed upon the leaf itsdf ; but our readers must take 
this for what it is worth, and not place too much con- 
fidence in any substitute for the yonng, firesh leaf. Where 
seed can be kept at an even temperature of about 4d° 
Fahr., until carried to another country, and the trans- 
portation takes place at a time when the temperature is 
about the same or a little colder, and again be kept in a 
dry, darkened chamber, at about the same temperature 
of 45**, incubation may by these means be retarded for a 
considerable period, so as to allow time for the mulberry 
trees to put forth leaves. 

This was demonstrated by the illustrations of serici- 
culture at the South Kensington Museum last year, 
where eggs from Italv, kept cool there until the winter, 
and then sent to England, where they were kept in a dry, 
dark, but airy chamber at a steady, low temperature, were 
successfully retarded in their incubation for more than a 
month beyond what might be considered their normal 
period, and when sot to hatch incubation set in at once 
with scarcely a failure ; the whole hatched in the heated 
tropical departments of the Hortioidtural-gardens in 
within four days of each other, and as hatched were re- 
moved to the cooler temperature of the adjoining 
museum. 

Captain Mason, at Yateley, has also succeeded in 
making his hatching agree with the foliation of his trees, 
and nothing could be more satisfactory than the quality 
of the cocoons he has produced. 

A great trouble crops up when seed has to be trans- 
mitted from the northern to the southern hemisphere, or 
vice vfrsd, or even from the far east, when the seed is 
transmittted by the steamers vid the Red Sea. 

As already shown, the stimulus of the unusual heat 
during the voyage, occurring at a time when in its 
normal condition it should remain perfectly quiescent, 
shortens the period of hybernation, and seed so acted 
upon is not to be retarded by any means but at the 
expense of the health of the worm and the value of the 
cocoon. 

This is still more vexatious in the case of seed sent 
across the lino to our southern colonies, where not only 
is the seed stimulated to eariy action by the heat of ^e 
tropics during the passage, but, arriving during the 
southern summer, it appears impossible to prevent some 
of the worms hatching, and, as they do this in small 
batches, the best mode of treatment seems to be to force 
them all out ; but this is not at all an easy thing to do 
without future injury to the cocoon, for the egg^ like 
most other things in nature, has its allotted time to rest 
quiescent ; and to shorten this, by forcing incubation, 
can only be done at the risk of deteriorating the breed. 
In sending seed from the southern colonies to Europe 
for sale, it will be advisable to ship off as soon as possible 
after the seed has bi^en laid, and, supposing the worms 
to have been reared in the spring of a southern hemi- 
sphere, this would probably enable them to reach their 
destination in Europe in January or February. The 
stimulus of the voyage inducing an early incubation 
might then be an advantage, as their natural time would 
i>e the end of September or the beginning of October; 



and, hybernation having been shortened by the ms^ 
two to three months, such soed might be made foiBi 
in Europe a valuable second <»rop. This ia, howfrer, i 
matter which only actual ezperioi&nts can prove. 

Most seed, especially Japanese, sent ifom a nortkn 
to a southern hemisphere, has a tendency to undx^ t 
dmnge from nnivoltini to bivoUini — that is to afv^ 
pro«luce twice in the year instead of aoet. It iiBflt 
difiioult to understand how this axisea. The tias si 
foliation of the mulberry in the north is ahoot Afol m 
May, early or late as the seaaons may be, and tks swd 
laid in June in the course of nature ^*fa4u^a danif fte 
following April or May. When tcansported to tk 
southern clime, all this is altered, amd one is oMt by thi 
paradox that midsummer is at Christai&s, the spnag ia 
October and November, at which time foliation is yuof 
and at its best, and the mysteriooa inflnrmcf cf ipnof 
pervade nature. 

The imported seed soon feels the effects of th«e it^ 
fluenoes, incubation sets in, vitality is "Tf^Hf^^^ «&d 
the seed hatches months before its normal time. Wks 
the importation has been from a colder to a vuwr 
climate, it frequently happens that the eggs laid bj Ibi 
moth of this eariy incubation manifesC a tenioi^ U 
hatch again at the original nominal period of 1^ Mctm 
spring, and thus an annual breed of a m^TtV** dbna 
may become bivoltini in a southern one. 

It has been a subject of considerable ^if^amtm vbicb 
of the two races, the annual or the bivoUini, is tha mssi 
remunerative to the rearer. In Europe the expeiieecp 
of the last few years with the bivoltini xaoos of Jimb 
have completely discouraged their further inlnMhiclKB, 
and doubtless, as the old native races becoaie n^UnL 
they will entirely supersede the bivoltini ; but wiAaa^ 
this may be so in Italy, it does not follow thil tbt 
bivoltini are unsuited to the colonies. They hari I6i 
advantage of going through their different stagesqiidar 
than the annuals, and where the mulbexry floariihea it 
does not appear that the gathering: the leai^es kr ^ 
second crop does much, if any, harm to the tree. Hi 
test after ail will be in the result Oertainly the vsUA 
of silk of one crop of many of the A»i«nMl* exeeeds w 
of the two crops of bivoltini, and of of course the lakiar 
is much less. Last season in Italy the cocoons froa op 
crop of good annuals, realised in many oases more Boacf 
than two crops of the ordinary bivoltini, and Ihii ma^ 
be the final test for the rearer. One dtsagrceahle hiM 
of the bivoltini is that of making dn]>pionB or spinaxBi 
double or treble cocoons, which is so much lots if abeavj 
carriage has to be incurred, as the value is oompan&fdj 
so small that duppions woodd hardly pay to send &sk • 
great distance. Whatever a oolomet may be indeo!* U 
do hereafter, he should make it a rule to oomaeooe iiiot 
the very best annual seed possible to obtain. 

Before proceeding further, it will be well for Ik* 
who propose adding silk-rearing to their other khocot> 
consider with what they have to deal, and a few of U»* 
peculiarities of the worm. 

The breathing of silkworms is not from the hssd \d 
from the eighteen small distinctly- madced a p e sUu esflS 
each side of the body, and an3rthing whi^ closes ssyfi< 
these apertures, such as overcrowding, Soc, most le de- 
trimental to the health of the worm. 

The body of the caterpillar has no canal by nstfs ^ 
which the fluids of the mulberry leaf can he m ^uM ti 
and as but a very small portion passes with the evnio; 
the remainder has to be got rid of by tnuuminte 
through the skin ; hence the ill effects of a sadM dS\ 
or cold draught, against which latter the worms may U 
observed to shelter themselves behind leaves or elsev^^h 
while the feeding, of suoh vital importance to the itaicr. 
is discontinued. The peculiarities above mentieBcd psnft 
to the requirt^nents of the worm, vix., a frve taxcvmf* 
of air, but without draughts ; aiMi in the leguIatiaB <^ 
the magnanerie the windows ahould nerer, except in b4 
climates, be opened on the windward side. 

Light they rejoice in, but sunshine is to be ataJ^ 



JOURNA;^ of fHB 80aiEr.y of arts, Ootobbb 17, 1878. 987 



Bj^ecially in tropical or semi-tropical countries, where it 
70uld soon be fata)l ' Scents of all kinds are injurious, and 
bia is to bo borne in mind, when sc'hoining to protect them 
£^ipst their many enemies. Tobacco dmo&e should be 
•rolifWted, for it is very hurtful if in contact with them, 
nd even'thp scent opt in the air of the apartment will 
requently cause tliefto to cease feeding andT become rest- 
Baa. IjDud noises ai'e also detrimental. " 

The Jem pernturo ' apd amount of moisture in the at- 
lOfl^erc of the raagnanerie atiould bo matters of the 
[Toatest' attention, the readipgs of the hygrometer being 
8 important rfs those of the thermometer, and sometimes 
loro 80 ; for ft will h6 found that when artificial heat 
/i8 "been applied to raise the temperature, and the 
cntflalion rtot Bufficient to carry off the moist, vitiated 
ir, that the worms will cease feeding from no discernible 
aas^ and when such is the case, the external air 
lust be admitted at once, notwithstanding it reduces 
he temperature, when it will be found that, with a colder 
utputer'atmospnere, the worms will resume feeding. 

Trtiunder storms affect the worms adversely, but the 
teriod at which they suffer most appears to be during the 
lose heat immediately preceding the storm, fhis is to 
^ mUfgatod by a person passing through the mag 
lon^rid with a flaming bundle of straw or other material 
•reporeU for the purpose, which bums without offensive 
mwl. 'a persoil walking backwards, and waving the 
Ume, will cause a circulation to set in and make a marked 
cnprovement in the aspect of the worms. 

Any ^ite of excessive electricity in the atmosphere 
liatiurbs the repose of tlfe worms, and whf^n con- 
inued and severe sometimes induces a serious disease — 
. species of dysentery or cholera — which is infectious, and 
B communicated by healthy worms touching the excretii 
r discllarKes of the diseased ones. This disease should 
►e carefully watched for, and at the very first appeur- 
nce every worm, not only diseased but those that ha^o 
oached any of the discharge, either on the leaves, nets, 
iT trays, should bo at once destroyed. The only chance 
or lh.e cultivator is to stamp the disease out at once 
»efore it spreads. 

A somewhat similar disease, but not so deadly or con- 
agioua, sometimes occurs when the worms have been 
ed upon the leaves of suckers from the roots of the treos, 
ft those from young trees in damp ground. It can be 
QCOKoiaed by the worms emitting from their mouths 
jxd the pores of the skin, pirticularly the little point at 
he tail, a viscid, greenish, semi-fluid mucus, which, 
vhen rubbed over the breathing pores, effectually closes 
hem, injuring the health of the worm so treated, and 
(polling the cocoon. Starvation for a while is said to be 
he cure, but it is a question if a worm which has been 
io affe<!ted and cured will ever be able to spin a good 
»coon. 

As a rule, silkworms are much more likely to suffer 
rom quality than quantity of leaves, and any peculiarity 
n tt^ leaf should be sufficient to condemn it m the eyes 
)f tne colonist, who generally has the leaf in abundance 
irouzid him. 

■Rie first thing to be considered is the magnanerie. 
rhe writer has seen most beautiful cocoons produced 
Vom a magnanerie which was probably the perfection of 
loch things. A brick building, slated and ceiled, with 
renlilalors under the roof, ventilators at each end of the 
"oom, and in the windows ; steam pipes, and an Amott 
itove were supposed to be able to regulate the atmos- 
pheric conditions to the greatest nicety ; thermometers, 
Jarometers, and hygrometers were at either end of the 
iuildings, and the feeding frames and silk nets rU that 
»uld be desired. The leaves were cut With mathema- 
ical exactness by a pretty machine, weighed out into 
rations, and Dandolo's rules followed exactly. Without 
)eing able to find one fault, or suggest one improvement, 
he writer left that building, convinced that it was a 
Sulure. 

At another time he found a man and a woman tending 
olkworms in their mngnaneriety and producing very fair 



cocoons. This was on.the opposite side of the world, and 
wasxertainly rather opposite to the description abo^e. 
Four stakes had been driven into the grouna, on the top 
of which, and a^und, three side mats had beeh snspended; 
some short stakes, driven ' Into the ground Of what 
by courtesy one may term the Inside of the magnanerie, 
and another application o# pol«fl andnifets, Ibrmdd the 
shelves on which the worms were behig rsardd^ LaaVes 
and small branches of mulberry were pttohed in aoofong 
the worms when it siHtdd the convenience of tfafpropHe- 
tors ; rude bunches of straw were given the worms jbo 
spin in ; and, notwithstanding the violaUon of ahnc«t 
every rule laid down by Damfolo, they manag^ to pro^ 
duco as a result very fair cocoonS, and it Ws« iflipbstibie to 
deny a certain suecess, although on a larger scale the 
probability is that failure would have been certain. It 
seems, therefore, iiladviBable to attempt to give any 
positive instructions as to what like a magnanerie shonM 
be. The colonist may bo guided by the climate, and the 
meteorological tables of a series of years, and if he finds 
the weather to be depended on for the couple of months 
necessary for his operations, hd can then erect a mag- 
nanerie, at as little cost as possible, ^ suit the loc^ty 
and climate. Of course, tike less Capital ipv6ste4 In 
buildings and plant, the belter chance of a oomfnercial 
success; and the simpler the "means by wjiuoh a cerj^n 
result can be brought about, the better for th9 agri- 
culturist. 

(To be continued.) 



ASPHALTE PAVEMENTS IN LONDON. 

A report by Mr. Haywood, the engineer to t)ie oom- 
misoioners, on the condition of ssphulte pavements in t|ie 
City, has recently been published hy order of the Com- 
missioners of Sewers. This report embodies tbo rejsults 
of Mr. Haywood's inspections up to April lasjU In order 
to obtain sufficient data for the examioMtion, portions of 
many of the pavements were cut out, in order to ascer- 
tain whether they had lost materiaUy in thickness. In 
neariy all cases some such diminution was proved to 
ha^e taken place, but the conclusion arrived at was that 
it would not he possible to aseertain the exact loss in any 
oase without making a considerahls numher 0/ openings. 
When first laid tte same thickness was never exactly 
pursued throughout, and in the case of those laid in ihe 
shape of heat^ powder considerable compression i;akes 
place. On the whole, there was no doN^ht that the 
asphalte had somewhat diminishf d in thickness nnder 
the wear of the traffic. 

On the subject of the repairs executed, it was not easy 
to obtain accurate returns, the companies bdng bound 
to maintain the pavements in repair for a certain number 
of years. The results of the investigations are giv^ ^l 
a tabular form. From this It appears that there are now 
altogether twenty-five streets, or portions of streets, jn 
the City of which the carriage-ways have been paved vith 
asphalte ; one of the pavements had been dowp' for 
3 years and 9 months, two for 2 years and 2 vojip^t 
eighteen under 2 years, four under 1 year, and ^ve 
under 6 months, at the time of the inspection. 

In nineteen places the Val de Traven asphaUe (cQip- 
pressed) is laid, and amongst them are the two oldest 
specimens, that in Threadneedle-street, which was teid 
as a specimen by the Asphalte Company £ree of ehai^ge, 
and that in the Poultry and Cheapside ; the former ^s 
now been down 4 yean (8 years and 9 months in April), 
and the latter 2^ years. The older portion is in good 
condition, but the newer is beginning to require exten- 
sive repairs. On the other pavements the report gene- 
rally is favourable as to surface condition. Val de Tj^vers 
(mastic) has been down two years in George-yard, and is 
in good condition. 

Mourotier (compressed) and Soci^t^ F^n^aise des 
Asphaltes (compieMed) have each been hid in Princes- 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Coroini 17, 187S. 



itieet nndBT a jetx. Both are in gi>od oonditioiL, bat the 
latter doai not uem to have been well laid. 

Tiimmer (maatic) lias been laid in tbiee plaoeo, Lom- 
boid-atreet, Hooi^ate-atreet, and CornbiU. Thia tbowa 
oonndeiable wear, espedall; in ConUiil! and Loobaid- 
•treet ; in MooTgnte-Btieet Qie snrfiuM ia genenUf good. 
Thia baa been down bma one to two jekH. 

BamatC'a aapbalte (maitio) ii down in four plaoet, 
Uoorgate-atreet, Oarter-lane, Lothborj, md Biihopa- 
gate-»traet. Tbat in Uoocgats-Btreet hai been in nae a 
year aad a-b&lf, and boa been mach rapaiied ; the othsn 
for abort periods oolj. Some of thia ia good, the rsat ia 
reported on unfiiToaiably. 

Haeata (oompreased blocki), Trinidad (oompieaBed), 
and Patent Britiah (maatic) ware laid down, bat after- 
warda remoTad and rapUced by Val de TnTsn oom- 



TbB raoonabnotion of J^ian, the ei 



n of the mint, 



aotiona — the carel 
into the cnatoma of Iha Weat, and tha oharader for 
aptitude erinced fay tha Japaneae Ihemsdvaa, are hope- 
ful ligna for the fatnre of that country, where the pet^e 
aeem anzioiiB in all thin^ even in lanfttuge, to 
aaaimilate tbemaelrea to the model of oar own inatitn- 
tiona, Tbe oapitaliala and mercbanta of Great Britain 
will watch for ngai of awakening in thia, aa in any other 
part of tbe world, however remote, where tbey can dia- 
cem even the germa of thoae ptinciplea which, by ei- 
perienoe, they have found to be ancceaafol in Huax 
practical reaalta. Tbe report of the Britiah Conaiil at 
Yaddo oontaina mention of certain oocarrence* beyond 
tbe ken of oaanal obaerTera, which introduce na more 
fully than any mere dry atatemenla, into what ia aotoally 
taking place in that country. Mr. Dohmen, u we can 
well imagiue, eiperienoea conaidenble dilHcolt^ in ob- 
taining inforinatioii respecting tha trade wbioh, if it had 
been poeaible to collect, woald doubtlem have aerred aa a 
gnide to exporters, but in the absence of wbioh we are 
glad to trust to tbe personal eiDerienoe and obserration 
of a well-infbrnied resident. Writing from Ycddo, the 
capital, he obaerrea that the ocntomption of foreign 
gooda appears to be very conaidenble. Almoat in every 
street a certain nnmber of shops may be seen where 
nothing but foreign artiolea are offered for sale. It 
would be idle to speculate on tbe future of direct foreign 
commerce, cbangea of every kind occorring bo eaddeiilj 
and unexpectedly ; it i», however, nataral to j — -'--■- 
that, where tbe actual coDaomptioD ia there will 
ally be direct oommeroiBl transactiona between 
porter and tbe oonanmer, whatever may be tbe obatadee 
tbat have to be overcome. The railway between 
Yokohama and Teddo, which ia being oonatmctod by 



opening to the pablic ia expected to take pla(» at 

distant date. The first tine of telegraph, which at the 
outset met with so mach oppcaition on tbe part of cer- 
tain narrow-minded Japaneae, baa now become so 
popular that talegrapbic wires are springing up in all 
directiona within the capital. Already the Mikado's 
Palace, the Foreign-office, the Bonrd of Worka, and 
the Tokei-fu are in telegraphic communication with 
the Kanagarva-ken, and eight atatioiis 
to the pnblio ia varioua parts of ' 



of Gnglisb sapeiintondents, ia deeply engaged 
■truoting tha line to Hiogoand Nagasaki, whenoeYoddo 
will soon ba in direct communication with the whole 
world. Besidea these advantages, the establiahmant of 
a bank, on tbe foreign principle, and aodor the sapi " 
n English banker, which the Tokei-fu 



facilitiee for engaging ii 
foreigners hitJlerto unknown to them. 

Important changes, it appears, are taking pbes b Ebe 
capital The ex-Damios, aince tiiey became iiwi— iij 
of their estates, have hastened to part with ^itt 1^ 
no longer oonaidered necessai; to their digii%. Ibot 
costly palaces are allowed to tumble dawa into iMa 
of min and neglect, from which even tbe Iiimtnl odi 
itself, and tbe magnificent mauaolenmi of tps 6h£p» 



gatew&ys and bridges leading to i 
of themselves, and a foreigner, wbo, a taw jean lui, 
hardly dared to look at this wondeifol itronfbold, n^ 
now &eely ascend its toweta, overlockisg Ibe tmima 
of the Mikado, wilhoat meeting even a ntekaqiK, b 
is difficult to ondeistand what abject tha gorniel 
;an have in view in allowing monaoieots. ones tb ^ 
of Japanese of all classes, and in wbidi all tha Binq 
and b,bour the country could produce ssem to ban tta 
laviahed. to go to wnck and rain, anlees, pabtptith 
Imitation of the Commuoiiti flf hn 



tended ca of u 



. Bi-fuiiftt 

It organising, will afford the Teddo merchanta 



and other monuments. Tbe costly artida of futteir 
and ancient arms which once Adorned the prinodf svw 
inga of tbe Damios may now be seen in Iba itgpi' 
dealera in antiquities, and may be h^iighl ^'**^ 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, October 17, 1878. 889 



lla1>)iBhment where foreign instruction is given is the 
Uinejo (school), under the sapcointendence of the Rev. 
fr. Verbeoky an American missionary. The number of 
nmils is about 400, of which 200 are instructed in £ng- 
lu, and the other 200, in about equal proportions, in 
M Eranch and German languages. Besides languages, 
H oUier branches of elementarv education are taught ; 
Bd if the scholars eo through tne various classes regu- 
igrly, they will doubtless acquire at the Eaisiejo a suffi- 
lent knowledge of what is necessary to cairy on inter- 1 
borse with foreigners and with foreign countries. Be- 
Ides the establishment above named, there are a number 
if independent schools, both under native and foreign 
aanagement, in which foreign lan^^uages and mathe- 
dSEtics are taught. Great progress is abo made in the 
;rt of stndjring medicine — 186 pupils receive instruction 
i the Eastern school. Another school, where medicine 
nd surgery are taught, is the Naval Hospital, at present 
etablished at Takanawa, in the building which was 
ormerly the British legation. The totid number of 
Tapanese boys frequenting schools in Teddo amounts to 
19,181. This, out of a population of not quite 800,000 
nhabitants, shows that nearly every Japanese is being 
auffhtto read and write. A naval school has also been 
!Stiu>liBhed for the education of yoong Japanese in the 
lit of navigation. There are at present 226 boys re- 
viving instruction from twenty native teachers. At 
iresent ther^ is only one foreign instructor attached to 
he establishment, namely, Lieut. Brinklev, R.A., who 
laa charge of the artillery branch. It is believed to be 
he intention of the government to en^a^e some eighteen 
English naval officers and non-commissioned officers for 
iie purpose of putting the establishment on the footing 
>f a naval college. The government have eng^ed an 
Unerican agricultural mission — or scientific commlsaioD, 
IS it is calLdd — of which General Oapron, late Commis- 
doner of Agriculture at Washington, is the head. The 
>bject of lubis mission is to improve the breeding of 
mixnals and to bring the soil of Japan under scientific 
niliivation. Their field of operation is to be the island 
>f Yeso. 

The population of the capital city has been set down 
)y various writers in Japan at from 1,500,000 to 
(,000,000, but from information supplied to Mr. Consul 
[>ohmen by the municipal government, it seems that 
3ven the lowest of these estimates in considerably 
exaggerated. According to the last census, taken since 
;he restoration, the population consisted of 416,812 
nales and 363,609 females, or 780,321 souls in all. The 
'ormer number includes 6,151 priests. The disparity 
>etween the number of men and women is owing to the 
>re6ence of a large number of homeless creatures called 
* coolies," whoperform all the rude manual labours of 
;be citizens. Yeddo is, no doubt, large enough to con- 
tain 3,000,000 inhabitants, but, except in the commercial 
>art8 of the town, it is very thinly populated, llie 
3opalation of Japan is given as follows: — 16,733,698 
inales and 16,061,199 females, or 32,794,897 in all. The 
urea covered by the capital is given as 19,602,733 tsubos. 
ChiB statement does not indude the streets, canals, 
idvers, and moats ; taking these, at a rough estimate, to 
^ver one-eighth part of the town — which they certainly 
lo — ^the whole extent of Teddo will be 21,828,076 tsubos, 
:>eing equal to 18,040 acres, or 28 square miles; and 
Jiia oity is therefore, in point of area, next to London, 
;li6 largest in the world. What is called the military 
l^oarter includes the Mikado's palace, which, by itself, 
xiuat cover nearly a square mile of ground ; the various 
^yemment departments, barracks, parade-ground, and 
inch of the residences of the ex-Daimios and Hatamotos 
^the nobility and gentry of Japan) as have not been 
taken possession of by tne government in the abolition 
>f the feudal system. l%e temple g^unds consist 
chiefly of the burial-places of the cx-Shoguns or 
ryooons, namely, Shiba and Ny6no, each of which is a 
imall town in itself. The unoccupied ground is that 
ifhere formerly stood the princely dwellings of the 



nobles, which have either been demolished by the 
government, or have been abandoned by their owners, 
who are now no longer in a position to keep up such 
expensive residences. Some of these properties cover 
from twenty to thirty acres of land, and the most 
wealthy of the nobles possessed half-a-dozen of such 
places in Yeddo. Such of them as are not yet wanted 
for government purposes are being used as vegetable 
gardens and as mulberry plantations. The appearance 
of the city has certainly not improved by the late 
changes, and it must taxe a long time before the old 
splendour of the caoital can return, in some modified 
and, it is to be hoped, improved shape. 



PRESERVING GRASSES, FERNS, AND 

FLOWERS. 

The following details in the art of preserving flowers, 
&c., are given by a lady correspondent of t»ie ViHa 
Gardener : — ** Grasses should be gathered early in July, 
if we desire them to retain their bright hues without the 
aid of art. Gathered then, tied up in large bunches, and 
hung away in a dark closet, they come forth at our 
bidding, fresh and green as when plucked. Now, by 
brook side or in shady places, we can find graceful 
grasses, which will prove additions to our winter bou- 
quets, but Uiey will lose their colouring, and require a 
dip into Judson's Green Dye. Dry them again, and 
thay will last for years. Wild oats, feather- ^rass, and 
all their various species are very ornamental in winter, 
and mingled with the everlasting flowers — Aeroelimum, 
Xeranthemum, and the white, yellow, and crimson 
Helichryiume — ^thev vie with their more perishable 
sisters, whos«i glones are on the wane. We have just 
arranged two small vases for the coming winter. The 
brilliant pink and white Aerocliniums add much to their 
beauty. The white Helichrysufm can be dyed a bril- 
liant purple or scarlet with ** Judson's Dyes," and 
exquisite bouquets can easily be manufactured. These 
'* everlasting" flowers should be gathered as soon as the 
outer leaves open. Tie them up in bundles, as you 
pick them, and hang up, flowers downwards, to dry. 
Treated in this way, the steins are straight, and more 
easily used. They can be hung to dry in one's chamber, 
not requiring a darkened place. Most of these flowers are 
allow^ to remain too long upon the bushes, and their 
beauty is spoiled. As they become dusky under the 
frequent sweepings of carpets, we dip them in cold water; 
their petals close entirely. We dip the grasses also, 
to cleanse them, else they will acquire a dingy hue. 
Many persons like crj stallised grasses. These are easily 
made by dissolving 1 lb. of alum in a quart of boiling 
water, suspending the grasses just over the steam — not 
to touch the water— and as it cools, the crystals gather. 
Grasses need not be dyed before they are crystallised. A 
few of them mingled with the green grasses and brilliant- 
hued flowers light up well. Ferns are much sought after 
for floral decorations. Their feathery plumes, pinnated 
leaves, and graceful forms are very beautiful. They differ 
from tiie grasses, for those gathered late in autumn retain 
their colours better than the fresh ferns of June. The 
sap has hardened in their leaves. We have gathered 
them late in November, when they were surrounded by 
snow, and they have kept green all winter. The running 
fern is a lovely decoration for walls and pictures. Its 
flowers add much to its grace and beauty, but it fades 
quickly, and by Christmas but a faint green remains. 
Dip them in ** Judson's Dye" (following the directions 
given on the bottle for dying ribbons), and you will keep 
their lovely colour. After .they have been thoroughly 
pressed in heavy books, then dye them, spread on paper 
to dry in the shade, and then press again. Thus treated, 
they will last for years. Maiden-hair, the most graceful 
of our ferns, soon loses its colour ; but dj ed, it is an 
addition to every collection of grasees or ferns. Parsley 
fern is very beautiful ; its soft feathery leaves are always 



w» 



JOUB3IAL or THB 



::i:wi:-« 



or ABTS^ OoTovn 17, }p79- 







i£ gxt&exed !ifie ia 




sis^ie it 



v« pais to :£« 



cn^:«r aai'h better. 

xas.T-':*. ^ ir«rl '■ ».T*i of 

i 7 {. tBre% or oner 
t5c ts ire 



or 




BvsdMss c/i7-«d3M«R9 Ln t^ b* p«r:Lucd «f all 

cf yutex it ve «: ^ i . I :t w^ caa SLtks &e« 
thAa tl> •^ ^x^:«f4 f r k^. Gallier the 
pi k •'ct aH ili« c-'t f. cl^xvL^^ frca <lirt; and drf 
in 1^ aoii ; tb^ iip ini-: * J ii* s't IH*, 
'piafCTs to dry by £r* or mli^t. W 
year a ▼'sy ftnely'C^red nvDaa, dr^ ia a V;>t 
matk tmrvi tom^ o£ the ori^^mkl cciomr 
hrowm hmm viih it. Tbm w« ti> k Ui« 



oU dkirt,tK4 



to«rtk<r. and «• tke cirtfet 



■ 

TECHSaCAL BDUCATIOK.-THE BRiDND | 
BUILDIKa TRABS TECHNICAL iOBOOL' I 

{Troxnihe ArckUeet.) * 

Tike want of wen-iDstnicted men »f naitei, (i^ift 
aiidkHimcmeii,beiDgitmigl7£eUini}«Me,nM '. 
tke BMter bmUeno! BnuifoTiml860,to abUikt 
tzade tedmical evening uhaoi, (or t)ie jrooag kb 
engagedm the bnsiaefia. The placet oC tb iM , 
is to inatmct the men ina sqc^^ Kpotlfidgt d 
.their trade, hot it has been SoM Ltamsrj \i> 
0*^ i hATe daMca for re&ding, writing, uA Kitiusctic, u 
■Mt nombcrm of the apprentic«e have Uenw i^ wl id 
It fre«A, ' in their dementary c-ducation, *n4 it » W 
to sJnjpe ito ^ ^0 te*ch technical idence to thoje ¥^0 wri f^i 
"'h^ p*" from di&roltytaikd whose knowledge of aiithffle^ 11 obcn- 



pLiycd at the abopa.* 



, There are Ibnr teachers in the sdxool, three d ik> 
, hcii GoTemment certificates, and we hav* 4BriiH ■ 



».» I i.-<: 



CIAL rssTRUcnox. 



Uflt week, in 



I paat jtar pot them under Government inipeeft^ fc 

I we are in an nnfortiinate position with oar kt^ 

' edocmtioa. The daaa of instruction riren ipd ienii% 

. Meaia not to have been andentood by the SdnumU 

Department and np to now they have jgnondDonot 

important knowledge— that knowledge ▼hiA ij 

inatmct a workman correctly and imntifcillj » w 

lest manner of obtaining the true linet from w." 

can with confidence produce the most comjWidfW 

of work, such aa wreaths, twists, scrolls, cnrm Pj 

u required in staircases, bsadis* » 

^ ., „ , J , the intersections and forms o(^»«iikJy 

the title * 0>mm«rcial A- i..emj ' shoul i sa^^^t «•> mu' h haring different angles ; the manner of owdwpl J 
that is narrowing ani d«^prv«Biig. ard & • Lule that ia lensth of ansle rafters, and the lines br calli^tv 
elerating or thoaght- inspiring in c-d'ic iti'jo. Pt^rman- 
pbip, arithmetic eopecially the merciotiie ni]<e« md l'>ook- 
keeping, with a modicum of 5"^;r*j>hy. have fonn*^! the 
gtntrlf' of most of such ar'fi'^:ui*s — un^'urthy namesikt^s 

of the ancient Acadeni-. To Dr. Yt-ats, of London, circular upon circular arch; ^^^ '^^ J^ ^ 
belongs, in large metsure, the honour of haTing in hia |orm of *rch has an irreguUr side, all '^^^'^f.^ 
own school at Peckhdm, aa well aa by his writinga, careful formation, and which can only w «Wg 
diooe much to redeem commercitl instruction from this ^y a true development of geometiiiHnAjj 
quite unnecessary, if hith*-rlo jnst, n?proich. In four ig also the case with skew arches when |»W 
volumes which he has lately pnblishetl, he tn^ts sue- executt^ and when built in Iwge whw- •»•■' 



Dr. Hodgson, as Presilect of the Ed ication Secti n 
ol the Social Science AascKiadoo m* ' ; n^ at Norwi- K 

his opening adiresR. said: — ** In this 
oountry. it ia at first sight not a 
little sorpriaing that cofnmeniU inatmctioa should ruik c4her forms required m 
k>w. Doabtltss it is nu( without some reason that nuaonry 



length of angle rafters, , i »— 

same;thecut and length of puilins s^sjwi Wfi*™* 
especi dly where the rafters and purlms s« ™^^ 
true a\ stem of developing circles in all then nmw* , * 
lines for the formation of each *»• "^ 



true 



fitwt, the natural history of commerce, its raw m^tenals ; class workman in the building trade, and tt "jr!V 
•ecoiid, the technical history of commerce, or its J know, a knowledge peculiarly their owb- .JJ'JL. 
processes of manufacture; third, the growth and vicis- been taught in schools. Architects as ads* b»»^ 



fitudes of commerce ; fourth an i la^^t, recent and existing little of it ; it is workmen's lore ; it has h«n •^J'^T 

commerce. To these volumes I must refer you for the ,aid some ten per cent, of the workmen s*!: ^ 

development of his plan. But at h gl ince it is obvious knowledge of such subjects; yet ^''"JJJj; ^ (^ 

that the subject thus treated ranges over a very ^nde, and ninety per cent might be if B^ch .•wjjjj^^^j^ 



rich 
geology, 

hwtoryt 

of the earth, their characteritttics, the artificial changes 
that they undergo, their geographical distribution, and 
their economic uses — in tho hitttory of inventions and 
discoveries made in the art^ the story of the rise and 
growth of commerce, and tho principles by which trade 
IS and should be regulated — an intelligent and a well- 
trained teacher must find ample materials for an educa- 
tion at once high, and wide, and deep, thoroughly prac* 
tical and utilitarian in tho best sense, yet fraught with 
moral lessons and intellectual stimulus. It is to be hoped 
that the five noble schools of the Edinburgh Merchants* 
Companv, with their 6,000 pupils, will ere long lead the 
way in this direction, new to this country, though well- 
known on the Continent." 



In 1848 the United States had 6,000 miles of 
completed railroad. In January, 1873, the total had grown 
to 71,000 miles in actual operation, with 8,000 miles more in 
oourM of oonetrnction. The average railroad growth of the 
United States for the last five years has been nearly 6,000 
AUes per saaum. 



quainted 
workmen*^ 
to take council 



•s go6metry,'and itWuld ^J^jf^lj^ 
10 laice council with men who are P^^^!lJ2j^|» .' 
our technical schools — men who not omy 'T^iiid . 
into actual practice in tho school, jj^jjj^ jf qs | 
theories in our school with actual co^***"*^^ tm , 
pupils are studying the skew ^^^^,,?^Jtn5 




Technical schools can never ha?e **^^ ^ 
Government until this technical ^^^7^ 
understood by the Science and ^.-jftp- ^ 
Architectural drawing ia well ^^jf^Jg^a'iM J 
that provision is made for successftil . *J^JJb>i^ 
in this difficult, and, to worlonen, Dao5*^^T?!Jiiiitft 
of scientific technical drawing, there is ^rXsrf**'' 
I do not think it is from want of wilji^ r^^'ftn 
but from obscure ideas as to the 8»»^J*^ j^J fc*^ 
earn a little money 1^ present to as»» vLiutt*- 
Technical Schools by the results of •^^^'^^^^^^ 
tion ; but, aa the examiner^ do not ^^^^^ ^^ 
subjects that are the most importantj^ |^ «f 
the result is that the industry and p'*'^ 



JOUBNAL OF TSB SDOIBTY OP ABTS, Ootobbr 17, X87a 



891 



stadenta and teachers is not discovered hy them. I trust 
the time la not far distant when a real technical examiner 
will be sent to every trade, and vhen every tirade will 
have its technical school. We have had from the open- 
ing of the school an average of fifty young men attending 
the classes four nights a week, from seven to nine o'clock. 
The charge is from Za. to 5b. per quarter. The majority 
of the masters pay for their apprentices. Tlie school 
can accommodate a much larger number than attend, 
yet the results are good. 



APPLICATION OF METERS TO STREET-LAMPS. 

The Paddington Vestry have d/^ded that the supply 
of gas to street-lamp^ ^ that parish' shall be regulated 
by meter, and tP attain that object an application was 
lately made to the gas referees, under section 48 of the 
Imperial Gas Act 1869, to proscriji^e and certify the 
mode of ascertaioingthe quantity of gas consumed by 
the public lamps. The referees, Messrs. William Pole 
and A> Vernon Harcourt, in their reply, state that they 
have every confidence that the system prescribed in their 
communication will accomplish the desired end in a 
convenient way, and with justice to both parties. The 
communication in question prescribes that the meters, 
which are to be enclosed in water-tight iron boxes, shall 
be of tne most improved coDstrucIion^ a^d made by 
makers of acknowledged reputation, and shall be set 
into the ground at the foot of the lamp-column. A 
meter is to bo attached to every twelfth public lamp, 
and the average consumption oi the lamps to which 
meters are attached shall be taken to represent the 
average consumption of each public lamp. The lamps 
are to be fitted with burners and governors of a pre- 
cisely tdmilar character, and those, as well as the meters, 
are t» bo tested and put in repair if necessary, or oftener 
if the company wish to do so, at their own expense. 
The arrangements for lighting and extinguishing are 
le£t to the parties to settle amongst themselves ; but the 
referees recommend that, although under section 84 of 
the Act the muintenance and repair of the meters legally 
fall o^ the parish, the actual care of all the appur- 
tenances should be vested by arrangement In the gas 
company, subject to inspection on behalf of the parish. 
The register is to be road and recorded by two officers 
going round together on behalf of the parish and the 
gas company respectively, and if the record of a meter 
should vary more than twenty per cent, from the 
quantity it ought to consume, the record of the meter 
bhall be omitted on takin£^ the average, and the meter 
itself shall be tested and re-adjusted. Several minor 
regulations are laid down, and it is provided that all 
disputes shall be referred to an arbitrator, to be agreed 
on by both parties, or, failing such agreement, to be 
nominated by the gas referees. According to competent 
gas engineers, ihe supply of ^as by measurement to the 
metropolis would e£fect a saving of a half-penny in the 
pound in the lighting rate, or about £40,000 per annum. 
Up to the present Paddington is the only parish which 
h£^ adopted this system. 



A company has recently been organised in 
PhiUdelphU for the purpoM of working a process for pre- 
paring aa enamelled briok for building purposes. 

The Canadian Government has erected light- 
bouses on the south side of Hamilton Island and on Stone 
point on the River St. Lawrence. These lighthouses are 
W(K)den structures, each about 27 feet high ; the illuminating 
app'iratUA is catoptric. 

The most recent application of the sand jblast is 
lor ci«anioK the fronts uf buildings by removing the si»ut, 
dtt»t, and other substanoes therefrom. The impact of the 
•aod ou the surface removes the soot or dust from all the 
cr«s vices and indeutatioas without perceptibly interfering with 
tbie sbarpnoM of the arohitectoral ornamentation. 



THE WINES OF BOBDEAUX. 

It is satisfactory to see that the restoration of peace 
between France and Germany has enabled trade to 
return to its ordinary channels, and to recover its vitality 
and activity, and to resume the dissemination of its 
benefits. At the end of 1869, the English Treaty had 
been in operation ten years, a period quite suffici<jnt to 
show its effects, and the consequences are apparent in 
all branches, exportation, importation, and navigation, 
where the increase in the traae of France was enormous, 
greater even in proportion than in the United Kingdom, 
In the general export account a particular statentent is 
made of the quantity and value of tho Girondo wipes, of 
which the principal part is shipped at l^rdeaux. 1 here 
has been an increase since 1859 of 124 per ctnt in tbft 
quantity, and 73 per cent, in the value ; this difierencf 
of increase arising from the great proportion of the 
cheap wines dipped during the last two yesirs. The 
increase has been nearly three times as great in casked 
wine as in bottled, and the trade with England has talcen 
the same character. About one-sixth of the total ex« 
portation goes to the British dominions, to which the 
increase since 1859 has been nearly 200 per cent. In 
ordinary years the department is esa mated to produce 
1,250,000 50- gallon casks of red and white wine, ex- 
porting about one-half of that quantity. Like other 
crops, vintages vary consideiably Irom year to year both 
in quantity and quality. Thus, Chateau Lafiite, and others 
of the first or highest of the five established classes, which 
have been sold to the merchant in a good year at £70 a 
cask, have in a bad year been bought at £6, and tho 
most common wines, those of low wet soils, similarly 
range in price between £2 and £7 a cask. From a^ 
account of the vintages of the last eleven years, the iied 
wines of 1864, 1865, 1868, and 1870, were all excellent 
in colour, aroma, and body, whilst the white wines were 
best in 1861-64-65, and 1869. In the latter year, the 
first-class white wines wore bought up early, and mad9 
a most profitable purchase, as they proved to bo worth 
one-half more than they cost. 

Mr. Consul Hunt observes that the white wines are 
not known in England as they deserve to be. There is 
perhaps no wine in the world that, for richness of 
flavour and fullness of aroma, can be compared with the 
Chateau Yquen of 1861. The range of prices current 
daring the same pericvi also shows what risks may be 
incurred by inexperienced purchasers, and what an 
opening there is for passing on them wines of high 
name, but roally of low quality. Indeed, if the extent 
to which wines with tho labels of classed growths are 
found in all European countries be compared with their 
actual production, it will appear that this opening is 
not neglected. Of the red wines annually made in the 
departm^ estimated at 1,000,000 casks, one-fiftieth 
part is from classed vineyards; the remainder consists of 
about 12 per cent, of good table wine, 20 per cent, of 
medium, and 66 per cent, of low quality, unolassed. No 
dependence, however, can he placed on the accuracy of 
the total estimate. There are no tithes or fiscal chaxges 
on wine in the growers' hands, and no other public or 
trustworthy means of knowing the quantity made by 
them. Thanks to the sulphur treatment, the wine 
growers have quite averted the losses threatened by the 
oidium vine disease in the years 1854, 1855, and 1856, 
when they had great reason to apprehend the speedy 
and complete extinction of their vmeyards. In those 
years the classed wines, which had usually yielded be- 
tween 10,000 and 15,0U0 casks, fell to less than a third 
of the lowest number, and there were estates of hundreds 
of casks that yielded next to nothing. Those who desire 
to secure the claret now bottled of the vintage of 1868, 
a year that has not been equalled since 1848, and may 
not be seen again for another twenty years, should be 
careful to give their orders to trustworthy shippers, 
houses of established credit, who, whatever may be the 
price, will deliver the quality they are paid for. 



892 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbb 17, 1878. 



THE 8ERAING WORKS. 

With the exception of Knipp*8 femoos steel works at 
Ems, the works of the Cockenll Company, at Seraing, 
near li^ge, are the largest in the world. These works 
were estahlished hy an Englishman, named John 
Ck>ckerill, who at the heginning of the present centnry 
settled at Li6ge, and introdoced there the constmction of 
machines for wool spinning. On his death, his works 
were continued hy his two sons, James and John, who in 
1817 hought from the Netherlands p^vemment the 
palace of Seraing, where the;p' estahlished works for 
the constmction of steam engines and machinery for 
spinning flax. The Seraing works continned to increase 
rapidly, and John GockeriU introdaced the smiting of 
cast-iron with coke into his estahlishment, and pnschased 
the grant of coal mines upon which the works stand. 
The working of the factory was chiefly supported hy orders 
of the government, and soon afterwards sopplied all the 
engines for the Belgian network of railways. After the 
decease of John GockeriU, a joint-stock company was 
estahlished, to continue the operations of the deceased, 
which comprised coal and iron mining, the reduction of 
the ores, the manufacture of cast and wrought iron and 
steel, the construction of machines, and mechanical and 
manufacturing engines, iron bridges, and ship-building. 

The graduia improvements of the works, whidi have 
been continually enlarged, have brought the productive 
power of the various departments to their present state. 
They now comprise four collieries, with eight shafts and 
24 steam-engines, together of 900 horse-power, giving 
employment to 2,400 workmen, and producing annually 
360,000 tons of coal. The coke ovens give employment 
to 140 persons, and produce 140,000 tons of coke annually. 
The number of iron mines belonging to this company are 
80, with 17 steam-engines, of 306 horse-power collec- 
tively, 800 workmen, and an annual production of 150,000 
tons. Five blast furnaces yield annually 55,000 tons. 
Ten Bessemer converters produce 17,000 tons of steel. 
The production of the rolling mills is 40,000 tons, in 
rails, girders, bar and sheet iron. The forges produce 
1,500 tons. 

The engine-shops contain 368 lathes, planing 
machines, drilling, screwing machines, &c, giving 
employment to 1,400 workmen, and producing yearly 
7,000 tons of machinery. The bridge and boiler shops 
employ 500 workmen, and turn out 6,000 tons of boilers, 
Ac., yearly. The total steam-power used at the Scnraing 
works (including collieries and mines) is furnished by 
212 steam-engines, of the collective power of 7,595 
horses, and the number of workmen employed in the 
different departments is 7,830. 

In the Antwerp ship-bnilding yard there is the usual 
stock of tools appropriate for a ship-builder's jrard, two 
steam •engines, of 15 horse-power each, and 680 workmen. 
The immense area of the works is intersected by 22 
kilos, of railway of the usual gauge, and 12 kilos, of 
narrower tramways. 15 locomotives are employed for 
working these lines, and a number of horses. The 
works communicate with the Meuse by means of a 
canal and two wharves. 

The wages paid annually amount to 8,500,000 francs 
(£340,000), and the production of the various depart- 
ments from 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 francs (£1,000,000 
to £1,200,000V. The annual consumption of fuel is 
350,000 tons. The establishment owns a large infirmary, 
counting 85 beds, and an orphan asylum containing at 
present 41 Children; it also possesses a dispensary, and 
delivers medicines gratuitously to the workpeople and 
their families. Attached to each department is a re- 
fectory and kitchen for the me^ of the workpeople ; and 
some baths have been built at the collieries for the 
miners. Lastly, a society for relief and pensions is 
instituted, without being compulsory, for the people of 
the works. 

The Seraing works, up to the Ist Januarv, 1873, 
have constructed 2,100 steam-engines, varying from 



4 to 600 horse-power each, for mannfiictoring purpocs^ 
900 locomotives, 81,540 sets of mechanical ttppazatw, 
and various pieces of manufacture of erery kind. T^ 
shipyards have supplied 282 vessda of ev e r y kind. Tki 
Cockerill Company are in position to tun ont amnally 
100 locomotives, 70 marine engines, and a large q a ant i ij 
of every description of work, iron, sled, rafla, te. 




ON THE CULTIVATION OP FLAX BY THE 
PRE-HISTOBIC RACES OF SOI7THB&5 
EUROPE. 

A Florence sdentifio periodical publiahea the ioQiomm^ 
particulars of the cultivation of flax by tbe pga- h irtorie 
races of Southeni Europe, taken from * nvwiWr writta 
by Dr. Oswald Ueer, a well-known botanist : — 

The cultivation of flax has been carried on ior 5i,tOI 
years in Egjrpt^ and has always been one of the moit 
diffused plants in that country. In ancient Babjteia, 
Palestine, and on the Black Sea, flax ooenpaed a mmabt 
position. It seems to have been coltivnted in Qnaet 
during the pre-historic period, and at an eerir date vti 
carried into Italy, while its cultivation in opeia wss 
probably originated by the Phceniciana nnd OBtha* 
ginians. It is also met with in the oldest 8i ' 
trine villages, whilst at the same time no 
fobrics manufactured from wool are to be £oiBid 
This is considefed to be a remax^ble fact, ainei t^ 
sheep was one of the oldest domestic •«iw*^if^ aad «■ 
known during the stone period. Hie impoasilalifyof 
shearing the fleece by means of stone or Done iapfe- 
ments is supposed to have been the reason whj wooBea 
£fibrics were not used. It is thought proMble flbst 
the skin, with the wool attached to it, wna used ior 
clothing. The lake dwellers probably receiTed flax fren 
Southern Europe, from whence fresh seed moek km 
been derived from time to time. The varieitr cnttnitod 
was the small, native, narrow-leaved kind, from Ike 
coast of the Mediterranean, and not that whidt isnev 
grown in Europe. It must, therefore, at this mM 
have been cultivated in Soutiiem Europe, althoi^lD^ 
Heer could not ascertain among what people and at 
what age this took place. If this coidd be di aiw t m d ft 
would be an important point in the determinatian of t^ 
antiquity of the lake dwellers. At tiie time «C tte 
Empire both summer and winter flax were onlftaTatai ia 
Italy, as at the present time ; but the variety that «ss 
grown in Egypt has not been determined. It le "' ^" 

Srobable that the narrow-leaved sort waa fti 
uced, and after that the Roman, and then the 
vsrieties followed. The common plant baa 
arisen from the cultivation of the narrow-leaved* 
the Roman winter flax and the Linum mmhifmtm 
tute the intermediate stages. The original homm eC tihe 
cultivated flax was therefiwe on the shores of tkeMsi^ 
terranean. The Egyptians had probably coltmAii % 
and from them its use was doubUess disanminalini B 
is possible that the wild variety and the winter 
grown elsewhere at the same time, when the 
variety had long since driven them outof oae in 




A rich mine of argentaf erous lead ia trtatad to 
have been discovered in the depsrtment of £x»*YftaMa 
The scene of the discovery is only a short distance ftattl^ 
sea. 

It appears that in the first sevai montki ti 
this year coal was imported into Franoe to the ealMftW 
4,044,146 tons. In this totsl Belgian coal flgmei Ut 
2,400,000 tons, and English for about 1,SOO.OS6 tana. 

Within 17 years, the extent of cofibe land 
vated in Ceylon has increased, as nearly a« poasiUa, M !■ 
cent, the number of plantations risinfffroB 401 ts UV, 
the crop from 374,000 to 760,000 owts. The oQk«<cia 
duce has therefore increased 100 per eenL. bat fhs i 
yield per acre has decreased from o*6owts. t» 4^ 




JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobkr 17, 1873. 



893 



THE COLLEGE OP PRECEPTORS. 

The following correspondence, relatiye to the College 
of P^recepton, and its daims to publio recognition and 
assistance in the work in which it has so long been 
engaged, for the improvement of Secondary Education, 
has been forwarded to the Journal for publication : — 

To TBI RioB7 How. W. E. Olaostoitb. 

Sir,— The Coaudl of the College of Preceptors have obeerred that 
varioos chaoges have recently taken p'aoe, or are about to take place. 
In the arraoffements uader which some of the leading literary and 
identille aooletlet receive aceommodaUon for their offices ia baUdlngs 
beluiif Ing to the Crown ; and they therefore veotore, most respect* 
fUly, to uke the opportonity of placing before yon the following 
•taUmeot respecting the objects, operations, and present position of 
the College, and to nrge. for the consideration of Her BfjO^^** ^- 
veminent,ihe claims of the institution to participate in those advan- 
tages which have long been aioorded to other societies of a kindred 
natore. 

The College of Preceptors was founded in 1846, and incorporated 
br Royal Charter in 184S, for the purpose of sdvandng the interests 
of education generally, but more especially among the middle classes 
of Um community. At the time of its incorporation, though the 
attention of snooessljre Oovemments and of the publio had for many 
years tieen directed to the organisation and improvement of primary 
edocatlon, nothing had been done, or even attempted, with the view 
of elevating that of the middle chMses, by Ikr the larger proportion of 
whom then, as now, were educated in private schools. The first 
effMis of the College were aimed at raising the standard of instmetloo 
in these schools, which fkt>m the first embraced schools for girls as 
well as schools for boys, by establishing examinations of Teachers, 
la which teaching power as well as acQuirements could be tested, and 
so b aeq n s n tly, by examinations of the pupils, which have now 
developed into sn extensive system carried out in various parts of 
the eoontry, as well as in London. The first class certificates 
awarded by the college at the pupils* examlnatlcms are recognised 
by H«r lisjeety's Judges, and by the various medical Corporations 
of the United Kin«rdom, as exempting candidates frum the entranoe 
examinations otherwlte imposed bv the Incorporated Law Society 
and by the General Medical Council on all persons intended ft>r the 
legal and medical profesaions ; and of the examinations generally it 
may not oniairly be said that they have led the way to the Insttto- 
Uon of other examinations which have exercised, and continue to 
exereise,an important iofluenoi on the improvement of secondary 
odoeation in England, amongst which may be mentioned the 
Univanity Local Examinations, those of the Society of Arts, and the 
varloas legal, medical, and other professional entrance examinations, 
some of which, as those of the Royal College of Surgeons, and of 
tha Boyal Veterinary College are conducted, on behalf of those 
bodies, by tbe Board of Examiners of the College of Precepturs. 
Tha total number of persons examined annually by the Collage has 
BTeraged, for some years past, about 3,000— a number whloh greatly 
exceeds that of the candidates who present themselves annually 
befbre any other examining body especially concerned with the 
edeoatSon of the middle classes. Besides the establishment of 
thcae examinations, the College has stimulated the Interest of teachers 
in their professional work by periodical meetings for the reading and 
diaovmAoD of educational qoestions of a practical character, by 
eovnee of leotaires on methods of teaching, and by the foundation of 
a proflHtorslUp of education, and a training course of lectures and 
leaaons for middle and upper class teachers, which latter has been 
attended with a success which amply proves that li has met a public 
w«o( hitherto nnprovkled {for. As a result of these efforts the 
college has gradually gathered round Itself, as will be seen bv the 
acoonpanyiog list of members, honorary members, and examiners, 
many of tne most distinguished educators of the country, and has 
been instrumental In carrying out many of the improvements In the 
hlgrher ednoation of the community wUch have taken place dnrirtg 
tbe last quarter of a century. It may be added, that since the date 
of its Ineorporatioo, the college has expended upon these objects a 
sam of upwards of £40,000, derived mainly fh)m the subscriptions of 
Ha members, aad the fees paid by candidates at its varioiu examl- 
BAtlona. 

It will be seen that the college has in this way, for many years 
paat, endeavoured to perform for the secondary education of this 
oovntiy functloiw which, in other countries, are performed by the 
State, Iml nevertheleis, up to the present time, it has never received 
r eeognltion, enoooragement, or assistance in any form from the 
Oovemment. The oouneil venture, however, to hope that the in- 
oreaeing interest which is now manifested by the public in ail matters 
oonneoted with secondanr education, wHlgo tkr to support the claims 
of the College, as the only corporate body, consisting almost entirely 
of middle and upper claM schoolmasters and sohoolmlttresses, and 
d«TOted specially to the advancement of that portion of the general 
odnnation of theooontry with which they are ooneeraed, to be placed 
on an eqnai footing. In reference to state aid, with those soeieties 
vr hloh are devoted to the advancement of special departments of lite- 
rmtore, sdenes* or art. 

The request, therefore, whidi I have the honour, bv direction of 
Use CotuioU, most respectftally to prefer, is, that Her Msjest}''s Oo- 
vemment will be pleased to cmislaer whether the iinportance of the 
in i^di the college Is engsged, and the efforts which the 
ibers have made to carry it out with sncoess,do not Justly entitle 
Hw Corporation to some assistance fh>m tbe state, and I am to sub- 
mit irlieth«r tndi asslstaooe might not be given In the form of ac- 



commodation for the offices and lectnre-rooms of the College, either 
in those portions of public buildings which have recently been* 
vacated by the removal of various learned societies to BurUngton, 
House, or In any other public buildings that might be more suitable ; 
and I am directed fbrther to ask whether, in the event of the claims 
of the College being deemed worthy of any consideration, you would 
be pleased to rsceive a deputation from the council, when they would 
be prepared to place the matter more folly before you, and to give 
sudi loformaUon on points of detail as yon might require. 

I am, Ac., 

JoBji R. (ySntLf Secretary. 
College of Preeeptors, Uth July. 

To TBI Sbobbtart or tbb Collbok or PaBOBPtomfl. 

Treasury Chambers, 4th August, 1873. 

Sir,— The Lords Commlsrioners of Her Mi^esty's Treasury have 
had under their careAiI consideration the application addressed to the 
Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone on behalf of the College of Preceptors 
by jrou, dated 14th ult.. In which are urged the claims of tlut Insti* 
tntion to participate In the advantages which have been accorded to 
other societies, by being assigned accommodation for the offices and 
lecture-rooms of the college in some public building. 

I am directed to acquaint yon that my lords do not think it advi- 
sable to extend Airther the principle of granting aid by the State to 
learned societies, and they regret therefore that they are unable to 
comply with your application. 

I am. Sir, your obedient Serrant, 

R. R. W. LlBOBB. 



VOTES OV BOOKS. 



La Xatiare Madioale ohai las Chinoia. Paris. (G. 
Mmsou) 320 pp. — We have received from Dr. J. L. 
Soabeiran a copy of tlua work, which he hat prepared 
in oo^jonotion with M. Dabry, the French Conaal in 
China, and the importance of which may be judged of 
from the fiict that the French Gkivemment haye deemed 
it deeirable to publish it at the expense of the State. It 
furnishes some curious information as to the medical 
knowledge and practice of the Chinese. Although this 
nation is so highly advanced in all that relates to arts 
and manu&otures, and while possessing a general know- 
ledge of the usee of the principal drojgs, and animal and 
vegetable substances used in medicine in Europe, they 
stiU retain a good deal of barbaric superstition as to the 
presumed virtues of many inert and ridiculous products. 
In collecting, arranging, and classifying scienti&cally 
the animal, vegetable, and mineral substances forming 
the materia m^ca of the Chinese, Dr. Soubeiran has 
done good service, and it is not improbable that many of 
the medical substances used by the Chinese, and alleged 
to have useful properties, will be carefully examined and 
tested. Some conous information is furnished as to tea, 
opium, and other articles of commerce ; and there is a 
valuable Chinese and French vocabtilary, which will be 
found useful for reference in occasionally identifying 
products. There is much interesting information as to 
the oils in use. For instance, a bland species of castor 
oil IB used for culinary purposes ; in the north an excel- 
lent oil is obtained from the kernels of the apricot ; the 
so-called tea oil, a yellowish oil used for burning, is made 
in large quantities in Hon* nan and Kiang-si from the 
seeds of Camellia oleifera. 




Tho Turkish Minister of Posts and Telegraphs 
has intimated that a new line of telegraphio communication 
with Greece has been opened bv way of Tohesme and the 
island of Sdo. The price of a BUigle twenty-word despatch 
from Constantinople to Syra has been fixed at the verv stiff 
rate of 6s. 9d., an almost prohibitive tariff, one would think. 

The nfracombe (Tasmania) iron companies have 
been doing little or nothing pending the completion of their 
smeltiog and other appliances. The promoters of a company 
formed for working iron deposits at Penguin Creek are pro- 
grssaing with their arrangements. 

A Bill authorising a loan of £100,000, for the 
construction of a railway and telegraph from Oeraldton to 
Northampton, and a line of telegraph from Newcastle to 
Champion Bay, has been passed by tbe Legislative Council 
of Western Australia. 



(1^894: 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, October 17, 1878. 



dzHzAil HOtM 



Soyal jUbert Hall.— Tho Mtuical Time$ for October Ist 
■ayt : — " A record of tho excellent organ performances at the 
BoTfti Albert Hall is due to those artists vrho have so 
sealously laboured to bring into more prominent notice an 
instrument \fhicb, up to a very recent date, has been so 
strangely neglected in this country. In addition to the 
interesting recitals given on Sundays, Mr. W. T. Best has 
blayed most of Bach's organ works, the Concertos of Handel, 
the six organ Concertos of Mendelssohn, besides several 
adaptations, including Bach's Concerto in the Italian style, 
Sobnmann's Allegro Brillaata in D flat major (Finale to his 
Etudes Symphon%qftes)y and Ltset's new mafch ** Yon Pels 
zum Meer. On the 4th and 5th ult., Dr. Charles Maclean, 
organist of Eton College, gave recitals on behalf of Dr. 
Staiaer. His programmes containea extracts from authors 
not often heai^ upon the organ, among which should be 
specially noticed an Allegro from Rubinstein's Pianoforte 
Sonata in F, and an " Andante expressivo" by Brahms. 
With these ezoeptions Dr. Stainer has occupied his post 
at the organ on Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays, ae* 
tides many weHrknown classical works, he has included 
movements by Merkel, Sir W. S. Benuf'tt, Henry Smarts 
J. B. Calkin, Sir F. Ouseley, Agnes Zimmermann, &c.| 
and an older school of music has been represented by Corellii 
Cbuperlli, Murshbauser, D. Scarlatti, and others." It thed 
Proceeds to give a list of the works which have beez^ 
performed in the hall, at fhe series of daily Exhibition 
Concerts, given by Messrs. Novel to, Ewer and Co., in con- 
nection with Her Majesty's Commiseioners, under the oon- 
dnotorship of Mr. Bomby. 

Amateur Orchestral %6tihtfy Itoyal Albert Hall.-- 
The weekly practices of this society, which H.R.H. the 
Duke of Eiiinbnrgh initiated last season, will be resumed on 
Friday evenings in the Lecture Theatre, South Kensington 
Museum, the use of which has been kindly conceded to the 
Booiety by the Committee of Council on Education. The 
first pnotioe will be held on Fridav, 7th November, at 7.30 
tKBL It is understood that H.B.H. the nre»ident will pro- 
bat^y be present at the second practice. It is yery desirable 
that candidates for admission to the orchestra should make 
application before the end of this menth to the Hon. Secre- 
tary, Amateur Orchestral Society, Royal Albert Hall. 

Prodnctioii of Goal in Sweden. — The production of 
ooal in Sweden has not increased very rapidly. In 1870 the 
quantity raised exceeded only by 5 per cent, the yield of the 
previous year. There is a prospect, however, at present that 
the production will be g^'eatly increased by the discovery of 
large fields in the province ox Skara. lying in the south of 
the kingdom, and through which tne railway from Gote- 
berg to Stockholm runs. Trial borings have been made, 
and in one case, at a depth of 560 feet, twelve different 
seams have been found, varying from 3 feet to 8 feet in 
thickness. Several companies have been organised to work 
the new mines. This discovery is of the greatest importance 
to Sweden, as the export of timber from that country has 
leaohed its maximum, and the demand for charcoal for 
melting purposes has made wood very scarce and dear. At 
present Sweden imports coal from Great Britain, but it is 
anticipated that she will soon export this fuel to other 
ooimtnes. These ooal-fields, according to the opinion of 
eminent geologists, are widely extended. 

Ooaitantinople Water Supply.— The conetruction of 
a new reservoir at Ihsond^r^, for the improved water supply 
of Constantinople, has been suspended. The labourers who 
had been set to work have been dismissed, and a number of 
hotses employed have also been sold by public auction. It 
is stated, however, that the enterprise is not definitely aban- 
doned, but that the work will be resumed in the spring. Old 
Byzantium was renowned for an abundant supply of water, 
and had 200 large cisterns and subterranean reservoirs. 

Glauber's Salts.— There is in the district of Alcanadre 
(province of Logrono, Spaio) a natural deposit of Glauber's 
■alts, which amounts to 73,440,000 cubic feet The deposit 
is crossed by the railway fix)m Tudela (pro^dnce of Navarre) 
to Bilbao, at a 196 kilometres distance from that seaport. 



Cnltiire of Arrowroot in Vatal. — Arrowroot has nsv 
become literally a staple production of NataL Tbt plui 
doee not require a first-class soil. It grows very resdL7, 
and yields heavy crops on coast lands, which an cetirciy 
valueless for the growth of sugar. Upon these §naod« i 
is deservedly a great favourite with the colonists. There an 
now 628 acres of land employed in its growth, whiek jidd 
yearly from half a ton to 12 owt. of f ecula (stnt^) for «i^ 
acre. The market value of the arrowroot now monfM- 
tured in Natal every year is about £9,000. Tbs OQltirai»a 
of arrowroot reauires out a very moderate capital at itsitaf, 
and is attended by quick and large retuna. Cuttings frm t£ 
roots, something after the fashion of the oottings oil poti^ 
are put Into the ground in rows, in the months of flsii l MiM 
and October. The roots are ripe at the end of the vet 
season, and the manufacture of the starch is csnitd a 
during the dry months of winter.— /(mrvMi/ «f ^^ff^ 
Sciencit, 

Bailwayi in the Argentine Bepublie.— A Bi»si 
Ayres paper gives a full account of the oeremooy eomweui 
with the oommenoement of the Rosario Railway. Tlwloi, 
with its various branches, repreeents a total of oOOmiks, at 
will start from Almafiro, passing throojgh the httls tovi d 
San Martioo, dose to Pilau, and from tbenoe to Capiltsr jet 
Senor, and thence in a straight line to Roaario, a dtrtucva< 
186 miles. By the terms ofthe oonoeesion the maia liat vi 
have branches to the various towns and ports along tbt nsfe 
The extent of these branches will be as follows :~&na, 
21 miles; Salto and Rozas, 10 ; San Nicolas and Pmcs:, 
70 ; Arrecif es, 25 ; San Pedro, 20 ; Baradero, SL Tk 
country through which the trunk line and its brsnciM pm 
is admitted to be the richest and moat thickly popekt^d a 
the province of Buenoe Ayres. 

lUiipbiiilding in Italy.— The number of ^pi IxA 
during 1872 in Italy was as follows : — 

No. rtm. 

Genoa 66 88.89t5 

Csstelamare 14 6,9M 

Porto Manrizio 6 S,845 

Venice 5 2,461 

Spezia 3 2M 

Naples 3 1,230 

Palermo 1 480 

97 55,911 

Of these, five were steamers of upwarda of 150 toot. TV 
above, of course, does not include smaU ooaatiag — "-^ ' 
which upwards of 200 was built. 



IrOTICES. 



soscitmiOvs. 

The Michaelmas subsmptions mte dne, tf^ 
should be forwarded by cheqiie or PoBt-<^ 
order, crossed '* Coutts and Co.," and made ft?- 
aUe to Mr. Samnal Thomas DaTonport, KBOcai 
officer. 

THE LIBBABT. 

The following works have been preseoMt 
the Library : — 

La Matidre H6dicaIo chez los Chinoi5, par l4 IM.> 
J. L6on Soubeiran et D. de Thieraant. PreeeDV*!'^ 
Dr. J. L Soubeinui. 

Report of the Commissioner of EdacttiaB ftc l-^'* 
Presented by the Bureau of Education, WashiBJtt)'^ 

Experimental inquiry into the Mechanioal tVofr'--* 
of Fagvrsta Steel. By David Kirkaldy. VnteM*' 
the Author. 

Heport of the Fresh Water ^iah toki Fi«kfl»« ' 
India and Bnima. By Surgeon- Major Ftmea 1"* 
F.LS., F.Z.8 



JOUKNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, October 24, 1873. 



895 



IPURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Ho. 1,092. Vol. ZXI. 



FRIDAY, OCTOBER 24, 1878. 



AU 



ion^ W,C, 



199 OITirCEMEKTS BT THB GOITVOIL. 

1 

GKITEBAL EXAKIlf ATIOVB, 1874. 

The Programme of Examinations for 1874 is 
now ready, and may be bad gratis, on application 
to the Secretary. 

These Examinations, in 1874, will be held on the 
erenings of the 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th April. 
The Time-table has been arranged as follows : — 



TEOHHOLOOICAL SXAMIJIATIOHB. 

The subjects in which examinations were held 
this year, namely. Cotton Manufacture, Paper 
Manufacture, Silk Manufacture, Steel Maniifacture, 
aud Carriage-building, will be retained in the Ex- 
aminations of next year, with the addition of 
Cloth Manufactiire, Glass-making, Pottery and 
PorDelain, and the Manufacture of Gkhs. 

The Programme is in preparation, and will be 
published as soon as possible. 

In addition to subscriptions already announced, 
the Council have to acknowledge the following 
contributions to the Prize Fund : — 



T ■ a D A T, 

April 21, 
From 7 to lOp.m 



Ari'hmctlc 
Floricoitorp. 



WKDITRtDAT, 

April 22, 
From7tolOp m. 



Theory of Mmrfc 
Gn^Uth History. 
Qenn»n. 
Spanbh. 



Tbursdat, 

April 23. 
From 7 to 10 p.m. 



Political Eco- 
nomy. 
French. 

Fruit and Vege- 
I table Culture. 



F R I p A T, 

April 24. 

From 7 to 10 p.m. 



Book-keeping. 
Bngllsh LftD- 

[talian. 



Fbidat, April 24, 6 to 7 p.m.— DicUtion. 

The rule which formerly prevented a candidate 
who had once obtained a first-class certificate in a 
subject from being again e^uimincd in that subject 
with a view to gaining a prixe, has, in accordance 
^th the wish expressed at the Conference, held 
on the 27th June, 1873, been rescinded. In future, 
therefore, a candidate who has obtained a first-class 
certificate in a subject may be again examined in 
that subject, but not pipfc than one first-class 
^Iprtificate in any subject will be counted for the 
fIriDce Consort's Prize, or for the Coimcil Prize to 
Vemaltf. A candidate having taken the first prj^e 
in any s^ject cannot again take a prize in that 
gubject, nor can a candidate take a prize of the 
same grade twice in any subject. 

The Elementary Examinations, held by the 
District Unions and Local Boards, for which papers 
are furnished by the Society, are iixed for the lOi^, 
nth, and 12th March. 

FuU details in reference )tp the Exi^inatiops are 
giren in the Programme, copies of which should 
be applied for to the Secretary of the Sodety of 
Alts, by all intending to conie'^orw^rd as candi- 
datei, or otherwise interested in the Examinations. 



The Worshipful Company of Cloth workers £106 
G. N. Hooper, Esq 10 10 

Also as a special contribution to a Prize Fund 
for the Examination in Carriage-buOding. 

G. N. Hooper, Esq £10 10 



PROCEEDINGS OF T^E 80GIET7. 



CAKTOB LECTURES. 
The fifth lecture of the third course of Cantor 
Lectures for the Session, "On Wines; their Pro- 
duction, Tre^ment, and Use," was delivered by 
J. L. W. Thudighxjh, Esq., M.D., on Monday 
evening. May 19th, 1873, as follows : — 

liXCTUBB V. 

The icines of France compared to those of Spain and Por^ 
iugal. The Qironde, itt vineyardt^ rinesy and varieties 
of wines. The Bourgogne and its productions, Belgian 
appreciation and sweetness of Burgundy wine. The tcins 
requires the procidi. The Champagne ; peculiarities of 
viticulture. Chemical treatment of effervescent win« to 
ensure its soundness. Absurd notion of some writers on 
champagne ; of the same on second toines and sugar-water 
wines. 

The wiASS qf Franojd may conveniently he considered 
in five great groups, namel;^, those of the provinces on 
the Mediterranean, the ancient Languedoc, termed Vins 
du Midi; those of the valley of the Garonne and 
Gironde, commonly termed wines of Bordeaux ; thoso of 
the Hhone-v^ey; wines of the Bourgogne; apd wines of 
the Champagne. Thev are never txeated witl^ brandy 
to the same extent as the Spanish and Portuguese wine^, 
and the highest qualities are never treated wi^ any 
brandy at all. filtering is only practised m the 
sopthem provipces, and applied more particularly to red 
wines. The white wines of Sauteme, Burgundy, and 
Champagne are neye^ plastered or brandie^. Sife^t, or 
so-called Uquorous ^ines are produced in the sot^om 
departments, in the Sauteme oistrict, and in the Cham- 
pagne ; hut they differ in kind among each other, and 
the only wine that has any resemblance to the heavy 
peninsular wines is tfxe red wine of HoussiUon. 

From Uiis it follows that vinification requires less 
extraneous aid ;n France, that the art of p^roducing 
wines of natural compoflition and strength is there more 
developed than in the Peninsula. More than this, the 
French wine merchants can do for the wines of the 
Peninsula that which the Peninsulars themselves cannot 
do for their own wines. I quote a pasfago fi'om an 
important letter which I have lately received: — ** You 
are aware of the differential duty in this conntry 



89G 



JOUUNAL OF THE SOCIBrV OF ARPS, Ootoubb 24, 1873. 



(England) in favoor of the wines of France of lower 
alconolic strength than 26 degrees. In rirtne of a treaty 
between Portugal and France, the manufaotures of 
France are admitted at about half the duty imposed on 
those of England, and the wines of Portugal are reci- 
procally adoiitted on easy terms into France. Hence 
large quantities of the lowest dais of Portuguese red 
wi^es are now imported into Bordeaux, and there 
judiciously mixed with the weakest possible French 
wine, so as to come into this country at the low duty, 
and under the attractive title of the ^Gladstone' 
clarets. Another daas of the same mixture is exported in 
much larger quantities to the Brazils and the river Plate. 
teUs me that he now sells his pin ordinal 'e to the 

French buyers at a price one-third higher than he was 
accustomed to do in years gone by.'* In a similar 
manner large quantities of Spanish wines are imported 
into France, and re-exported as French wines to other 
countries. 

I must tell you that the informant C , mentioned 

in the letter just quoted, is a Portuguese gentle- 
man, landowner, and grower of wines in the district of 
Torres Yedras. Please notice that what he sells to the 
French buyers is his vio ordinaire. Now, compare to 
this the following fiust: — When some time ago a quantity 
of the best red Torres Yedras wine was imported to this 
country it could not be sold at any price, Uiough it was 
better and cheaper than any of the '' Gladstone " clarets. 
This is the result partly of the astonishing ignorance of 
Uie public as r^ipards wines, partly of the extremely 
limited information possessed by wine merchants, as a 
body, of their own business. They pay well for 
Gladstone claret which is compounded thus : — The pro- 
ducer, who did sell and would have sold his wine direct 
to London, say, for £10 the pipe, now obtains £15 from 
the French buyers. These carry it to Bordeaux, mix it 
a little, put it in hogsheads duly branded, and sell it at 
£20 for two hogsheads at Bordeaux. So that the con- 
sumer of the Gladstone claret pays at least double the 
amount of money which he need have paid could he have 
been supplied from Torres Yedras direct ; and the British 
wine merchant loses at least the £5 wluch the Bordeaux 
m e rchant, more active, cunning, and instructed than his 
British wnfrkrt^ puts into his own pocket. In a similar 
manner the Boraeaux market is largely supplemented 
from the Alto Douro, as I have been reliably informed : 
and when we take into consideration the large amount 
of Spanish wines transformed at Cette into what by any 
other name would taste the same, we must admit that the 
wines of Spain and Portugal come to us in many shapes, 
and that they must, at least in part, be so similar to 
French wines as easily to pass under their names without 
detection. 

France produces no white wines which can be com- 
pared to those of Jerez, plastered and brandied as they 
are. She produces no red wines which in body and 
flavour are equal to the Alto Douro wines; but she 
produces wines of eminent finesse, such as the M6docs 
and Burgundies; she produces tiiat peculiar French 
wine, effervescent champagne. Bi all her genuine 
productions she stands unrivalled, and when we consider 
their quantity we may, perhaps, derive some consolation 
from tne fond belief that " Gladstone " duret is only a 
small addition to them. 

The Gironde is a beautiful and rich province. Its 
most valuable part is the M6doc. There an undulating 
gravelly soil, easily penetrated by the frequent warm 
rain which comes frt>m the Gulf of GhMcony, bears that 
beautiful twin pair of vines, the Oarbenet tauvignon and 
the Carmenire, The vines are kept low on the ground, 
trained to espaliers not above a foot high. Each vine 
when pruned has two bearing, or fruit branches, and 
two spurs for wood. The new wood does not grow much 
above a yard in height, and altogether the MMoc vine 
is the smallest of any which I have observed. 

The tillage of the soil in the vineyards is throughout 
effected with the plough drawn by oxen. The opera- 



tions have for their result to keep the earth avty iem 
the plants during the period of arrested vegetaiioB, tui 
to heap it up around them, and keep it inalooM^^ 
during the period of active growth. The Tintafv k in 
September, and vinification is quick and simple. The 
grapes are trodden by men on platforms and the polp 
and juice are transferred to large vats, whers fen&aUi* 
tion is completed. During this prooets the hoib ini 
stalks rise to the top, and form a dense cake (chspwi;. 
This protects the wine below frt>m the exoeoif e infliKius 
of the air, but its upper part not raielv becomes iooe- 
what acetified or putrid. This, therefore, ia remored 
by careful vignerons, and only that part of the hiub is 
left in the vat which is vinous and perfectly svnC 
This is now beaten, broken, and submeiged by meau of 
suitable instruments, in order to bring the hosb in coc- 
tact with the new wine, so that it may extrtct ill thi 
colouring matter. The operation is repeated until task- 
plete, and the wine is then drawn off*; the hasb ip 
pressed, and the whole of the new wine is i mm edittft y 
placed in new casks of 228 litres each, called **W* 
riques." In these it completes its slow ferme&feiticc, 
and becomes clear. It is then racked and laid ip tn 
''chais" above ground, or in cellmrs bdov groimd, caul 
r^uiy for sale. During this period samplea fat ta^ 
are not taken from the bunghole, which remaina tonn 
to one side, and with the bung submerged in wine, bvi 
from a hole bored into the bottom of the caak. 

The wines of the M^doc are all red, and of Terf osi- 
form character, though greatly differing in qaalitjr. 
They are divided into classified and non-dsaaified vioii 
To the first rank of the dassifled belong thoae in 
great properties, termed chateaus, from the halatatuE 
attached to them, under whose names so many naan 
committed. It is impossible, in the space aUottadto w, 
to give you the details of the other dassss, but yoa v^ 
find them in the works which treat of the Wt^M 
W. Frank, by Oooks, or by Armailhac, and in tkechipttf 
of our English '* Treatise on Winee,*' already qaotfli 
The wines which do not belong to any of the fire cImb 
are termed "citizens" and *<peasaniB" (^MV^iM ni 
paytans,**) The first of these have again d«frHi ^ 
quality, namely, superior, good, and ordinary o&esk 
but the paysans are mostly held to be of oneqioliAJ 

Immediately surrounding Bordeaux b tbsdiitzi^'^ 
the Graves, so termed, it is said, from its grar^ v^ 
It produces both red and white wines, of whick toe 
former resemble those of the ll^doc, to the <AA 
for example, that Chateau Haut Brion, an estate k d* 
Graves, ranks with the four first-class estalea of « 
M6doc, and is always mentioned tog^er with thoti* 
if it were situated in the M6doc The white vom 
resemble those of Sauteme, but are mock !■* 
esteemed on account of a peculiar obi 
taste, which is termed fiinty or earthy, and tbe 
of which has not yet been explained. To ^ 
south-east of the Graves, and bordering opcB « 
river G^aronne, is the district of Sauteme. Tb"**! 
most beautifni part of the Gironde, and in ita g«B^ 
features has much similarity to the Bhinepn, mt 
Mayence. All the hills snd slopes are covend ^^^^ 
twin-pfur of vines, the semillon and the saurignsa. p^ 
are cultivated in a manner which differs from tbsf>ti»^ 
ture of the M6doa The vuiee are tninel to pwaai"" 
stakes, and their bearing branches rise with age ^^J* 
ground up to two and three feet above thegromid- Tm 
grapes are white and of medium siie; thqr b*'*"' 
peculiar feujulty of b'^coming very swert without P'JJT 
tion, so that while vet plump they yield a moit ^^ 
does not during feioienta^on lose the whole of iti*f|^ 
but remains sweet, and sometimes greatly b»i «ww 
the addition of any spirit The collection of the fn?<* 
is effected in several stages, so thatoevexalqiult^" 
wine are produo« d from the same vineyard. ThtTmtaf* 

go provided with scissors and baskets, snd cat«i^ 
nest and ripest berries one by one. lliess, ate p^** 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, October 24. 1873. 



89: 



Dfi; andfenn<mtatioD, yield the wine called *'head-wine " 
tite)^ a Bweet, liqaorous winn, which has taken the place 
)f Lunel mnscat, and is almost entirely contumol in 
loaaia. It is rery expensive, and the produce of 1865 
tame, in cask, at the Castle of Yqa^me, to 158. per hottle. 
rhe second dass, or the less saccharine herries, yield a 
vine which after fermentation contains no saffar, but 
becomes dry, and is termed the "middle wine " \mili4u), 
rhifl is Santeme, commonly so-called, and is an 
idmirable wine for the dinner-table. All the grapes 
f hich have not been used for the former two qualities 
TO ultimately thrown together, pressed, and uie wine 
aade from them is termed '*tail^' ("queue"). When 
ill the grapes, or the three varieties of wine, are thrown 
ogether, the result is termed " ensemble.*' In order to 
>TOdiice as much sweet wine as possible, the vintagers 
lave to go as many as ten or eleven times through the 
rineyanu at intervals of several days. This production 
>f sweet wine for Russia has depressed all quakties of dry 
$ internes which are suitable for the English taste, and 
n consequence it is probable that its consumption will 
>econae still more limited than it has been hitherto. 

On the right bank of the Qaronne there are extensive 
rineyards producing red wines, which are exported from 
Sordeaux under the name of the town. They have no 
)rominent qualities, and are therefore frequently mixed 
vith some MMoc wine and exported as such. On the 
ow marshy ground in the fork formed by the confluence 
>f the Garonne and Dordogne, which is termed ** Entre 
leux Mere," large quantities of wine are grown. They 
ire termed manh- wines (vins de palus), and in warm 
rears attain considerable quality. But the viticulture of 
his district is entirely calculated to produce quantity, 
ind therefore it selects vines with medium sized grapes, 
fuch as the " verdot " and the " rrerlot,'* and trains them 
■)n espaliers in such a manner that each stock has from 
two to three tiers of bearing branches. I have here a 
lample of pure verdot wine, made in 1865, which then cost 
£5 per barriqne ; in 1867 it had doubled in price. It is 
;>robable that the vines of the marshes prosper so well in 
Lhis part because it is their native land. 

To the north-east of the Gkironne are yet some dis- 
tricts which produce much wine, those of iiboume, St. 
Gmilion, and the hills upon the banks of the Garonne 
»lled the " C6tes." The St Emilion wines are fine, 
but thinner than the M6docs ; they are also paler in 
colour ; for some reason or other they are not esteemed 
in England, where the eve and taste of the wine-drinker 
ire perhaps too much influenced by deep-ooloured young 
[>ort8. The wines of the Cdtes are all white ; they are 
»igerly bought by the Bordeaux trade^ mixed with deep 
coloured wine of Narbonne, and sold as red wines to 
Transatlantic markets. In 1867 I saw a consignment of 
rach wine at Bordeaux, which was sold at 9s. the dosen 
bottles, in one-dozen oases, packed— cases, bottles, and 
corks included. 

If any of my audience should be without bxperience 
[n the purchase of Bordeaux wines, and yet desire to ac- 
[|uire 8om&, I would advise him to dispense entirely with 
names, and simply to select red or white wine according 
to his taste and according to the price to which he 
desires to limit himself. There are in the wine-trade, 
onfbrtunately, few or no guarantees against substitution, 
fcs we see, again, from the story of the *' Gladstone " 
claret above related; and it would therefore be pre- 
ferable if the public, instead of asking for names, con- 
tented themselves with a general thing, such as sherry 
or port, and compelled the merchants to abandon felse 
labels. The only final control of the consumer as to 
genuineness is in his own palate. 

The wines of the Bourgogne used to be more esteemed 
in England than they are now. This arises from the fact 
that &ey require management, and that neither mer- 
chant nor consumer will take that trouble. If the wine 
ferments a little in bottle, the consumer becomes excited 
and the merchant is annoyed. Now the Belgians know 
better. They go to Burgundy, buy the fine wine 



in the first year, and bottle them immediately. No 
doubt they risk that some of them may ferment a little, 
and become what is called '* frisky ;" but they preserve 
the fiavour by this early bottling, and remove the little 
carbonic acid by decantation from the deposit and 
shaking. Thus it is that the best Burgundies are drunk 
in Belgium, and the rest of Europe gets but little of 
them. The vine from which Burgundy is made is the 
black pineau, or golden plant, the same as that 
ixooK which the white cmunpagne is made. Its 
grapes in favourable years beoome very saccharine, so 
that a small per-oentage of su^^ar escapes the first fer- 
mentation. This makes the wme unsafe for a year or 
two, and the Burgundy people avoid a seoond fermenta- 
tion by adding a little brandy, from 1 to 2 per cent, of 
absolute alcohol of the entire wine. The wine thereby 
becomes a little stronger and more heady, but the increase 
in alcoholicity is not one-third of that which is infiicted 
upon the weakest port wine. Burgundy still remains in 
s^^ngth below 26 degrees of proof spirit Hiere seems 
no great objection to this slight alooholisation, as it 
jffeserves flavour, prevents fermentation, and, according 
to prominent French authors, also has the effect of pre- 
venting the so-called diseases, or of postponing their 
most destructive effects. 

The reputation of the Burgundy wines is sorely 
tried by the substitutioui* which are made of the wines 
of the district of M&oon and Beaujolais. The substitu- 
tion is less objectionable if the wines are made from 
the genuine Burgundy grape — the pineau above men- 
tion^ — but they become i3)ominable when for pineau wine 
is substituted that of the gamay. This vine is a vigorous 
plant and rich bearer, but its wine is ooarse and mostly 
add. By its addity and deep colour it is very suitable 
for bein^ mixed with water, and drunk after tne French 
habit, with meab. 

To bf eontinuid. 



EZHIBITI0H8. 



AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS. 

A New York journal thus speaks of the value of the 
various industrial exhibitions vrhich are held through- 
out the States :— r 

'* To the superficial observer it may seem that our in- 
dustrial fairs and expositions are being multiplied to such 
an extent as to greatly overdo the matter ; in short* to 
use a slang phrase, but a most expressive one, that they 
are run into the ground. In this immediate vicinity we 
have some hidf a dozen fairs, more or less. There is the 
Mr of the American Institute, of the Brooklyn Indus- 
trial Institute, the Newark Industrial Exposition, the 
New Jersey State Fair at Waverly, and several minor 
ones. Then, at the West, every large dty has its an- 
nual gathering. Chicago, St Louis, Louisville, Cincin- 
nati, &c., have all orgamsed permanent expositions ; and, 
we are happy to say, have met with wonderful success in 
the task. The fair at Cindnnati, we understand, is this 
year a success beyond all expectation, and the same may 
be said of the others. In New England we have numer- 
ous gatherings of a similar character — ^the New England 
State Fair, which is held at MvsUc Park, near Boston, 
being particularly noticeable for its extent, the excel- 
lence of its management, and the variety and beauty of 
the artides exhibited. llien we have our own 
State Fair, and special fairs at Bochesler, Bu£Ealo, 
&c., together with local fairs in upmost every 
county. So that it would almost seem tliut the matter 
ia, to a certain extent, overdone. But, on tho other hand, 
when we come to consider the relations uud influences 
of these organisations, we cannot help feeling that they 
are accomplishing a most desirable work, i nd advancing 
not only our material but our intellectu; 1 and moral 



898 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Octobkh 24, 1873. 



progrefls. For it is an andoabted £&ct that humanity 
everywhere demandii recreation, uociability, and amose^ 
mcnt ; and if we can cause purely industrial tedn to take 
the place of the circus and the horse-race we hare accom- 
plished a great good, eren if no other result were to 
follow. Bat these fiiirs perform a higher office than 
merely to act as a substitate for the qnefltkmable ammse- 
ments we hare mentioned. If well-artanged and pro- 
perly carried oat, they perform a three-fold ftmction, 
fterrmg at once to afford to the yoong tile most perfect 
and pleasant means of becoming ihsqaainted with the 
natai^ of oar great indnstrial opCTations and prodncts ; 
to oar Tnanafactarers and prodaoers generally, acting as 
a stimolant to perfection, and affordmg a means of com- 
parison and conseqaent improyement ; and, lastly, per- 
forming an office which^ though p^hape the least digni- 
fied, is not the least uaefal, m bringing these prodacts 
to the attention of those who may possibly become pur- 
chasers. The educational inflaencee of oar great indos- 
trial £drs we regard as perhaps the most important 
and osefol of ^ the offices performed by them. 
Those who are in the habit of attending these gather- 
ings matt have obserred the large nnmber of young 
people always preeent ; and those who have accompanied 
a small party of yoong people throngh the £ur must 
have obsoxed the delight and eagerness with which they 
drank in the new streams of information thus opened up 
to them. For some years past no fair of the American 
Institute has occurred to which we have not availed our- 
selves of our privilege as members, and iaken a few 
young people to see the wonders there exhibited. Their 
delight at seeing the actual operations of the great in- 
'dustrial arts carried on before them, the interest ^th 
which they listened to such explanations as we ooold 
give, and Uie deep impression which the whole thing 
&ft on their minds, has convinced as of the value of the 
fair as a means of imparting such knowledge. It is not 
often that we can gain access to the ateiiers of the actual 
workman ; and even if we could, the dirt, noise, and 
confusion are enough to deter many who would enjoy 
an examination of the same things as presented in fairs. 
** It is, therefore, with great pleasure that we observe 
that the managers of most of our f^urs realise this truth, 
and are yearly increasing the extent and efficiency of 
this department of their exhibitions. Kor, in doing so, 
do they act with injustice to those exhibitors who come 
more purely for competitive and advertising purposes. 
As soon as Uie feeling that oar fiedrs are great educational 
institutions, as well as places of amusement, has taken 
hold of the public mind, the better class of our citizens 
will patronise them still more liberslly ; the general fund 
will be enlarged, thus giving new mdlities for exten- 
sion ; and the crowd of visitors will be increased, thus 
giving greater advertising advantages to the exhibitors ; 
and we trust that, on the other hand, the general public 
will appreciate the earnest efforts which the managers of 
our ftors are evidently making to attain this end. New 
York, Brooklyn, and Newark have no more commend- 
able institutions within their limits than tiie industrial 
expositions which now appeal to them for support." 



to her Majesty's Royal Commission. October 2Ut, 187S." 
Mrs. Owen was also presented with a case of jeweUery, 
on which a similar inscription was engraved. * 

Canadifta BzhibitioiL^The kst advices firom Otfwfai 
report that the Quebec Provincial Exhibilioii promiKd 
to be most successful. There were OTcr 6,000 entriee. 
A series of lectures on affricoltoisl enbieets "^rt ts b« 
given daring the etoiliigS iHdfo the eadiibitlan rsfsakied 

open. 



iJ£. 



^snna BzhiMtion.— The report is contmdioted that 
the exhibition will remain open until the 23rd November, 
as originally intended ; it will be closed on Sunday, 
November 2nd. — On Tuesday evening, at Willis's Booms, 
a testimonial was presented to Mr. Philip Ounliffe Owen, 
the secretary to her Majesty's Royal Commission at the 
Yienna Exhibition, in recognition of the valuable services 
which he rendered to the British exhibitors. The testi- 
monial consisted of a cheque for 1,300 guineas and a 
piece of plate, on which was inscribed: — ♦*To Philip 
Cunliffe Owen, Esq., this silver dessert service, and a 
purse of 1,300 guineas, are presented by 275 British sub- 
scribers, at the Vienna Universal Exhibition, as a small 
token of their esteem and regard, and in remembrance 
'' i exertions on their behalf whilst secretary 



HINTS TO COLONISTS ON THE CTTLTITA- 

TION OP SILK. 

By B. Francis Cobb. 

(Continued from fkr^t 88 7 v/ 

Of late the seed produced by the open-air nwceas li 
Mons. A. RoUnd, of Orbe, Switzerland, has obtained a 
reputation which is becoming each season more e^t^* 
lii&ed, and some of the largest rearers in Italy hire&c* 
certified to ttie value of the breed. The ordeis fbr Qm 
grain the last two seasons have been mach in exo^ <i 
what M. Roland could supply. The value of Oaa U 
colonists becomes manifest when it is known that thrcu^ 
the energy and indomitable perseverance of Mrs. BUJrr 
Neil this valuable breed of silkworms is already b it*- 
Australian colonies, and being succe^iilly reptodftwi 
there. This ladv, bv means of a 8kilfiiU--coxitr>fil 
refirigerator, produced while crossing the tnjpita « 
artificial winter for the seed to hyb<2mate in, and thai 
avoiding the deteriorating influence of onseas-^naUe ha 
weather while crossing the tropics, has raised in t^:: 
colony worms of all the strength, Talue, and fre^ti 
from disease of the original race amon^ the Jon 
mountains. In a pamphlet published in Melbo«ra^ 
after giving an extremely inttrvaling di.6cripti<ai of Ki 
peregrinations in Italy in search of a silkworm of pet 
breed and without disease, and, oiler almost despaicz-r. 
stumbling by chance on M. Roland, Mrs, Neil thu 
describes her subsequent successes : — 

*' London was at last reached, and the thret it 
four weeks I passed there were entirely taken sp i^ 
securing the various fittings for a mainianene. ThtB u 
ioe-box had to be invented, in which I eoUld sectfi* b^ 
air and light, as well as cold, during the psMag r «ci W 
Australia, so as to imitate, as near as posi&le, th« S^» 
winter, and prevent the hatching of the eggm ma^ tfc? 
usual period in Europe. 

'* It was at this period that, throng the v^ Tfj**** ^' 
Sir D. Oooper and Sir A. Brady, I obtained the all-pover- 
^ help of the Peninsular and Oriental O o tnp— y, m^ 
made the acquaintance of Mr. Francis Cobb, tho late hM 
secretary of the Silk- Supply Association, fixon vkcoB £ c^ 
tained very valuable hints. Many were the irrTWnititftf** 
we had to' discuss the matter. Mr. Ash, of Oxios^^fOV, 
undertook to supply a box, in which the llii iiaisMlut 
should range from 44® to 60*^, provided it mtm ckaqr* 
daily with ice. Then follow^ some r^rrrnt mit- 
ings, with Mr. Bayly, of the Paninsolar and Oxsvk' 
Company, and Mr. Peter Le Kere Fester; ui' 
the Society of Arts. Mr. Bayly promised thai r««rr 
assistance should be given me, and an extern flun^* 
of ice was ordered to be placed on board et SMe% aai 
also at Galle. Time passed quickly when so mmA ^^ 
to be done, and I spent more time than was pkaasfu a 
going to and fro in the ondeiground railway, l e^ ^inf «» 
but few opportunities for vidting my own friefida. AS 
one of these meetings at Sir Antonio Br^'% Mx. CV^ 
proposed that I should retain to Milan. This w«a^ * ^ 
the fourth time, and I had hoped to have tak«B ay tl 
grain at Lyons, and gone on throogh MazBoilhBr ; % . 
on learning from him what an advantage it woodd k« .• 
see this patent reeling machine, as bemg the a 
suitable for us, with a dgh I agreed toretraee my 
Milan ; and, as if to reward me for so much extra ts«-«>-: 
I made the acquaintance in Venice of Mr. Baw^v : 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbk 24, 1873 



899 



BTu#n, wh6 lifts ft{iit*e sent me a handsome present of the 
best kiiids of ttinlberfj trees, and who also introduced 
me to th($ ai^nts of the Peninsular and Oriental Com- 
paii)r, from Whom I received ererj attention and assist- 
anM in theit power. 

•'When 1 arrired at Milan. fUmished with creden- 
tiftlt from tte Society of Arts by the Secretary, 
I il once t^lised the ralue of the adrice, for 
I foand M. Kellef*S xhaohine all we could possibly 
wish, being a Slow reeling one, conjfequently any 
intdHsenl eolonial girl oould laam to rec^ in a few days. 
In all uie other machines, the rapidity with which the silk 
is reeled renders it impossible for a girl to become a profi 
cientt tiflless she begins as a child ; anderen after yedrsof 
training, tinless she has a very (|aid1t eye, she cah never 
become a flrSt-clasS i^elw. FMm M. Keller t obtnihed 
the ^rticularS df t)Hces contained ih the chapter devoted 
to *hi# Silk and brganzine.' His fllatut-e is a vust 
estftblishmetit at Como, which I went over, ahd there 
saw many hundreds of women in his employment Pre- 
viotta to this I had revisited Orbe, where 1 went to see 
mt old fHends, ahd discuss fbt* the last time our plena 
for 1873 and 1874 ; the grain with which M. Roland 
entrosted me for reproduction in Australia Was 
placed in my charge, and I proceeded onwards 
by Milan towards Verona. The weather there was 
nnushally hiild ; the thermometer reaching 70** caused 
me iOme dread fbr the eggs, but oh entering the station 
and explaining my difficulty, the polite officials changed 
my ticket fbt we night train, And the chef at the buffbt 
placed Ihv ptedohs box in a cool cellar, and at night I 
oontihiied toy jonrttey to Venice, where I had tWo davs* 
resty iind, thanks to Ahtonlb, Mr. Brown*S admirable 
servant, I eihbarked with every comfort and no t^uble. 
At Anbona my excellent friend Mr. Hodgplon brodght 
mA an hygrometer, fbr testing the moisture inside the ice 
box. Allwent on well till leavlni^ Alexandtia, when I 
had rftther 11 difficuHv about a carnage. The Weather ih 
l^ftyft Wfts Warm, aha a direct current of air wss rf'quired 
thi^m^hont the night After some time the P. and O. Com- 
pany^l atent came to my assistance, and I was locked in 
aafbly with ihy boxes for the hi^ht. At Suez a sut^ply of 
<^iarSoal was required, and, for tsar of accident^ I obtained 
8 Sttttp^ of lettace seeds, and good soil in boxes, being 
deten&med to save Uie race, if all else failed, 'the ice 
p foceft i commenced here, and about every ten days I 
asamined the boxes, and changed the charcoal ; at 5 a.m. 
each tnotiiin^ the ice-box was fully charged, and at 11*30 
p.m. erery night some eight or t^ pounds of lee, kept in 
a KorWefi;ian bo± fan admirable contrivance), was broken 

S\ flcnd plaoed in the ioe chamber of the box. At Galle. 
e tihange from Ship to ship was carelhlly effected, and 
an Went well till hearing Melbourne, when It was dis- 
covered that the ice was melting too rapidly. The in- 
defktigaUe purser of the Bangalore provided numberless 
blankets in whh:h to roll the remaining blocks of ice. 
It bein^ Suhday night none could be obtoined in Mel- 
bontHe, thohgh a telegram had been sent on entering 
tbn Heads. The weather was very sultry, and in 
fear and tfembling did we dose in the last block of 
The instant we reached Sydney a supply was pro- 



ice. 



cured, and t left the old ship with the kind wishes of 
the captain and officers for the success of the experiment. 
It was not until tiie following morning, when Mr. Brady 
examined the grain with a Strong glass, that I felt sure 
that luccMS had been obtained. He pronounced the 
g^rain to be in perfect condition." 



The headinc^ of the Hoosao Timnel from the 
central shaft to the west end have been to far advanced that 
Cbe workmen in each now hear tba daily blasts in the other. 
Only-4 few months are required to blast out the intervening 
foek. 

Tho Ihnes of India says that a scientific geo- 
^rnhical survey of native SikkiA is in contemplation by the 
asdttflHtles. 



THB FROZEN AUStRALlAK MEAT BXPERI- 

MBNT. 

The letter of Mr. Samuel Wilson, chairmah of the 
Melbourne committee for exporting frozen meat, pub- 
lished in the Journal of the 10th ihSt, drew fr^h atten- 
tion to the experiment of sending carcases of beef and 
faiutton from the Antipodes to this coutlttt. Since thd 
snccessfbl trial at the last Melbourne ^xhibiUoh of Mr. 
Harrison's method of preserving uncooked ti^t oy the 
application of ice, gre^t interest has been felt in the 
blatter ; and particmaily so since it oecatne khOwn that 
the Norfolk had sailed from tort Philip, ofi the 23rd of 
Juiv last, with soihe twenty tohs of beef and mhtton, in 
half and qu*irter cat-cases on board, frozen in kCoordanbe 
with Mr. Uarnson*s hiethod, and in change of Mr. 
Harrison hfnwelf. When the arrival of the Mrfo/k ih 
the Thames was announced, several gentlenien Weht 
down to Qravesend on Sunday last, u) welcome Mr. 
Harrison and his cargo, and many more Wete l)^eSent on 
\ionday morning when the vessel came Into the South 
West India Docks. A Sad disanpointtoeht Was ex- 
berienced, when it Was found that Mr. Harrison had hot 
been successful in the application of his prihciple on 
boalil the Kotfolk, and that the greater pdrt of the U6At 
had been thrown overboard before half the joUHiey home 
had been accomplished, and the test Som6 time after- 
wards. The simplo accoUht of the failure Ihay be put 
in half-a-dozen words. The 8il|)ply of ioe pfematurely 
failed through the faulty conStHiCtion Of the apparatus, 
and consequently the meat became SUbjeet to the usual 
process of decomposition. 

What may be called the official abcohht of Ihe fblldt^ 
is that supplied by Mr. Levey, the Secretary to the 
Vlcterian Commissioners to the International Ethibitlon. 
It is as follows:—" The experiment of shipping frosen 
meat frpm Australia to Ebglandj which haS been tried 
on board the Norfolk, has resulted fbf the tfeseiit in dis- 
appointment. M.r. James Harrison, who had eharge of 
the experiment, attributes the failure entirely to the 
hurried way in which the preparations were made. The 
contraet for the flttingt was not DempleSed until a week 
after the stipulated time, and as the ship sailed punctually 
to date there Was no opporidnity of testifag the apparatus. 
Aftet i^etting to sea it was ft>aiul that the leaka^ of eold 
brine— upon the maintenance and eirenlatifttt of which 
the success of the process depended— Was m tt«at, and 
the waste of ice m etcessive» that (hilnre seeMed In- 
evitable. On the 84th dar out the greater part of the 
meat was thrown oYerboatrL Aboiit a ton was kept, ill 
the hope that witii the remaittihg ice it might be brouf^l 
to London, hot when fM the AsolreS the last ef the ie# 
melted, and nothing f\irther eoold be done.*' 

It is haidly neoeesary to say mor0 on the ■ttbjeot M 
present, but it must be distlnetly tmderstoeil thai ttid 
fkilure on board the Norfblft does not involvti any Bub^ 
statttial doubts as to the soundness attd praotioahility ef 
Mr. Harrison*s freesing principle. He oonelasivsly d»» 
monstrated Uie truth of his \heety at the last Melbo^ime 
Exhibition, wheh he constructed an ioe-ohamber tmdef 
the supervision of the authorities, in which tot some wlMAl 
he kept a large quantity of beef and mUttoA in a (WHxa 
state. When the meat was taken ont and tilAwed it WW 
fbnnd as sweet as when it was idaoed in the ieechaMb^M 
and, when cooked, its taste was not disMnguishable ftott 
ordinaiy butchers' meat. Moteovefv the taeat^ when 
exposed lo the external atknospherO) which tanged ftoth 
a temperature of 63*> to •«• Fah.» kept perfccUir gonl 
fbr between 70 and 80 houM, during whieh period, Moi 
time to time, portions were cooked. This long ooua 
ttnnanoe of the meat in a sound state^ after being ekposed 
to the air, may be noted as contrary to tiie generally<» 
received idea ttiat meat which has been snbjeoted to re^ 
frigeration decomposes more quickly than that which has 
not been so tieated. It must> however, be temembexed 
that, by Mr. Harrison's system, the meat is throughly 
froeen, every partiole of moisture bdng converted into 



900 



JOURx^AL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Ootobmi 24, 187S. 



ice ; and experiments have proved that meat firozen by 
this system will, when thawed, actually keep longer 
than ordinary butchers* meat In addition to the ex- 
periments at the Melboame Exhibition, Mr. Harrison 
nas snocessfully carried out others with even still better 
result. At a feu'ewell luncheon given to him before 
sailing, meat which had been frozen, as Mr. Wilson tells 
ns, for 85 days, was eaten by all preeent, and pronounoed 
to be undistinguishable from fresh butchers' meat. 

We must, therefore, only look on the experiment as a 
faSiuxe pro hde vice. The importance of the matter, as 
well as the scientific interest felt, will, without doubt, 
cause the experiment to be renewed at the earliest oppor- 
tunity. Sincere sympathy is due to Mr. Harrison, to the 
public, and indeed to the Food Oommittee of the Society, 
who were anticipating with no little interest atrial of the 
meat itxperienced persons have every confidenco in Mr. 
Harrison's system ; but whether it can be conducted on 
board ship, or indeed under any circumstances, at a cost 
which would make this means of transport a commercial 
success, is another matter, the possibility of which can 
only be ascertnined by experiment That fresh meat, 
preserved by cold in some waj or other, will ultimately 
be brought in large quantities to our shores from aU 
parts of the world is very probable. The great question 
IS the question of the cost of manufacturing ice or 
cold air, and of preserving ice when once made. 
Professor Gamgee is direotmg his attention to the 
transport of fresh killed meat, which he maintains 
can be preserved even in hot weather, for seven or eight 
days, by cooling down the carcases to 40^ or 45° F^. 
immediately after slaughter, and maintaining that tem- 
perature by the use of compound tubular refrigerating 
machines. He considers that the cost of this process 
would be but trifling, and that a large trade might be 
done in this refrigerated meat if steamers were specially 
constructed for the purpose. In the meanwhile, it would 
be as well to suggest that Mr. Harrison should make some 
experiments in this country before he again leaves for 
Australia. 



TEXTILE EXPORTS OF SWITZERLAND. 

In a statistical report relating to the trade intercourse 
between the United States and Switzerland, furnished 
by a correspondent of the New York Herald at Geneva, 
some information is given respecting the export of 
embroidered cotton goods, the produce of St Gall. A 
few years ago the exports barely exceeded 100,000 dol- 
lars, while during the past year it exceeded 2,000,000 
dollars, and the manufacturers have orders in hand from 
the United States which will employ all available labour 
for the next 12 or 15 months. There are two distinct 
articles under this head — namely, hand embroidery and 
machine embroidery. The first-named gives employment 
to upwards of 12,000 persons, mostly women and 
children, whose wafes vary from 25 cents, to 50 cents, 
per day. Hand embroidery consists of cotton tulle and 
muslin, used for curtains, handkerchiefr, and numerous 
articles of ladies' dress. The tulle uised as g^und- 
work is imported from England or frx>m neigh- 
bouring factories in Alsace. Machine embroidery 
gives employment to nearly ^20,000 persons. Each 
machine is worked by an able-bodied person and an as- 
sistant to thread the needles, with an additional assistant 
for every two machines to mend defective- places. 
Wag^ are paid per hundred stitches ; the price of labour 
varying according to the operator, averages about 4i« 
per day, the assist mts earning about Is. 3d. The 
machines formerly employed in most kinds of em« 
broidery consisted simply of a kind of frame, while those 
now in use are of an exceedingly ingenious character, 
increasing many times the rapidity of working, as well 
as giving greater variety and richness in design. The 
needles have a point at each end, with eyes in the middle, 
sttAched to a kind of carriage. They travel over the 
wob, passing the threads in and out, while pincers take 



hold of the needle at one end of the web and aend it huSt 
to the other. Machines have lately been introdnoed 
capable of working more than 100 needles at ooee^ th«s 
producing an inmiite variety and beaoty of p ftt t wns , 
DO far the working of the new system has been ksfi 
secret, but there is now a machine si work in the Vuena 
Exhibition. The web employed for common emhroidfliT 
consists of cotton cambric, which, as well aa the tibsw, 
is produced in Switzerland and Alsace. 



SWAN RIVER MAHOGANY AND JARBAH 

WOOD. 

This is a local name given to aspecies of Enoalyptei 
{E. marginata of Smith) restricted to Weetem Anairatis 
Jarrah, or Djaryl, is the aboriginal name, and it Is eon- 
monly called mahojp^y by the colonistai, frtim its «mi« 
larity to the wood nom Honduras and the West ladiea. 
It is applicable for furniture and evesy purpose for 
which ornamental wood can be required, aovne ef it 
being of the very finest grain, and showing muck 
figure, mottled curls, feathers and exereeoeneee, a Ma- 
ture peculiar to colonial wood, and highly effeieiKve in 
point of ornament 

The tree p;rows to an immense size, attains a gnttl 
height, and is very plentiful Of this wtx>d it wae etated 
some years ago by Admiral Sir James Stirling, befoe a 
committee of the House of Commons, that tliers is 
sufficient to build 20 British navies. 

None of the neighbouring colonies ponees tbnber of 
similar character, or endowed with equally ▼alnaUs 
properties. The advantages of this timber are ite ^eat 
strength, hardness, and closeness of grain, comboicd 
with durability under exposure to either salt or istdk 
water. It is never attacked by white ants or by the 
teredo navalis^ which abounds in tropical and aemi-tn^ical 
seas, and this confers upon it an additional valne. It 
somewhat resembles the red gum in appearance, bat tke 
grain is darker, finer, and closer than that of the latter 
wood, and it is susceptible of a very high polish, vbkh 
brings out a rich, dark hue. It is invaJnabla t» the 
Western Australians, who use it for shipbuilding, jam, 
and railway construction, as well as for the interior of 
buildings and for furniture. If cut at the proper 
when &e sap is down (a precaution too littLe 
to), it will be found to be the most enduring of all 
On this condition it defies decay ; time, weather, 
the white ant and the sea-worm have no efEwat npoa 
it The Jarrah is much sought after for railway 
sleepers and telegraph posts in India and the 
It is admirably adapted for dock-gates, piles, and 
purposes, and for keel-pieces, kelsons, and for _ 
heavy timber in shipbuilding. The timber is bon^ 
by Government in the construction of military 
in Ceylon, where it is supplied at little more than half 
the price charged for Indian teak. Possessing sack 
advantages as the jarrah timber does, there can ba little 
doubt of its commanding an extensive market, and ptov* 
ing useful in a variety of ways, as weU as remiimiisliis 
to the enterprising individuals who have embarked thacr 
capital in it 

The chief objection raised against it is that it ia liable Id 
" shakes,** the trees being very commonly w***"*-**^ si 
the heart. In the colony vessels of conaideraUe bartibfls 
are built entirely of this wood, the peculiar propertias of 
which render copper sheathing^ unnecessary, althovgk 
the sea-worm is most abundant in those waten. 

Although this valuaUe wood has hitherto beea bat 
little known beyond the colonies, it will donbtlaas shott^ 
come into more general use, as two companies have baA 
formed for supplying the market on a large acaUe^ estt 
Indian and the other colonial. The latter was ( 
about two ^ears since under the title of the 
Australia Timber Company, and the Govenunenl 
to it 320 square miles of jarrah, tooart, and 
country, with 2,000 additional aorea of land for 
mile of railway made by the company. The i 





JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, October 24, 1873. 



901 



-■* 




'nbarvet. 



K * 



land 



^. .company is abont twelve miles from Geog^phio 

\*1^ch lies to the north of Cape Leuwin. The 

_. 'I'ttesift of a loading jetty, which was completed 

7" 'r& ^ doBQ of last year in Uiat bay ; a lino of rail- 

,.~ *. Wre miles in lengtii from the bay to the timber 

. . 'rm and mills for sawing the timber. The company 

^^^*m> be able to supply janrah timber at the same 

"^^flluurged for red gum — a greatly inferior timber. 

— ^"^ifuptjij hare worn at Ballarat, where they have 

a large store of jarrah and tooart wood. 

wood is a species of white gum, and has a 

grain, is extremelv hard, cannot be split, and 

of enduring great heat without rending. The 

^^itood has been sugf^ested for use in gun carriages, 

* ttnt of its non-liabilihr to split. 

;Mmber of this tree exhibits the wonderful quality 

flK absolutely impervious to the inroads of the 

=^E,ihe teredo, and ohelurA, those minute creatures 

ive to wharves, jetties, and any sort of naval 

e exposed to the water of the sea ; it equally 

attacks of termites. In these properties the 

ee of Victoria largely shares. The mahogany 

has in Victoria been brought, for the first time, 

under cultivation, and as clearly the natural sup- 

this important timber will, sooner or later, prove 

to the demanded requirements, it must be 

s a wise measure of the governments of 

md Italy now to establish this tree on the Medi- 

shorea, a measure for which still greater 

ire locally afforded at Melbourne. The 

of timber, when used in the construction of 

and jetties, involves an interesting and 

i inquiry, or account of the costliness of these 

and the rapidity with which they are apt to 

to the attacks of those marine animals, the 

the diminutive chelura. In a report made at 

e some few years ago by Captain Ferguson, 

harbour master, it was stated that these ereo- 

Hobeon's Bay alone, have cost the sum of 

; and, at the present rate of their- decay, it will 

to renew them in the course of fifteen or 

When the pillnrs become bored by the 

or eroded by the action of the chelura, until their 

is reduced to one-half, the whole superstructure 

and immediate repair or renewal is 

it examination and repairs are therefore 

and it must be obvious that in deep water these 

I are attended with the iitmost difficulty. It 

little curious that hitherto no kind of wood has 

to resist these agencies but the Swan River 

y. Examination of its structural peculiarities 

the presence of cells of extraordinary size and 

', Ur aufpassing those which have been previously 

in other woods. 

to these in size and numbes are those of the red 
^Buealpptut realrata, Schlecht). This timber resists 
Mmg time the destructive agency of the teredo, and 
only to the Swan River mahogany. In Ogle*s 
Western Australia, it is stated that a jetty at 
BivOT, which had been built in the early days of 
MlMlony, of oak procured from a wreck. Was completely 
flimyed by the teredo, whereas the mahogan3r similarly 

«had not been touched by it A pile which 
med part of the Swan River wharf since 1832 
^M BBit to the Melbourne Exhibition 30 years after- 
Mill vntoodied. The structure of Eu, rottrata, or 
All nm, presents cells of a beautiful red colour, com- 
IMV^ as a double series, and accompanied by even 
abundant infiltration than either of the ironback 
»Ib, sinoe it appears diffused in the woody fibre. 
Ib scaxeely a more splendid object fi»r the micro- 
ttiaa a well-illnminated section of these cells in the 
0inn. This is a very valuable species of timber for 

B«itraordinary endurance of the wood underground, 
tor this reason it is highly valued for fence posts, 
Ai^ and ndlwa;^ sleepers ; for the latter it will last a 
loMn yoars, and if well selected much longer. 



- 1 





In order further to prove the durability of this wood, 
three logs were recently sent to Victoria which had 
for the last thirty years formed a portion of the Cause- 
way Bridge, at Perth, over the Swan River. They were 
drawn by the Gk>vemment and forwarded to Melbourne, 
with a view of exhibiting the capabilities of this wood. 
The logs aro about twenty feet in length, with a dia- 
mater of about twelve inches, and having been sawn 
down the full length and polished, exhibit the splendid 
grain of the wood to great advantage. The piles when 
drawn appeared to be as sound as the day on which they 
were driven in, although they were half under water 
the whole of the time. A piece was sawn off the whole 
lenp^th of each of the three piles, one surface being 
polished and the other left rough, so that the soundness 
of the timber is apparent. The &cts connected with 
these piles are vouched for by Mr. Manning, C.E., clerk 
of the works at Freemantle, Western Australia. In con- 
trast to this may be mentioned the circumstance attend- 
ing the use of three heavy sheer-legs of Baltic timber 
during the construction of the same bridge. The por- 
tions of these legs which were under water were com- 
pletely riddled in the course of ten months by the ttredo 
navaliSf whilst the three jarrah piles do not show the 
slightest signs of insect ravages after thirty years' im- 
mersion in the same water. The immunity of this wood 
from the attacks of insects, whether land or marine, has 
been proved by analysis to be due to the presence of 
tannic acid in the wooid. 

For piles it should be used whole (not cut into 
quarters), either round or hewn ; the former is preferable, 
there being very little sap, and the outside portion of 
the heartwood is stronger than the inner portions, near 
the centre; hence the desirability of keeping the 
annular rings complete. Captain Hybut, of the Lord 
Raglan^ also brought recently to London a log of this 
Jarrah timber, being a pile taken firom a old jetty at 
Freemantle. It was driven 30 years ago, and had been 
under water during the whole of that time< It is as 
sound as on the (£iy on which it was driven ; and, in 
order that there might be no mistake about it, the 
government seal is affixed to it, and it is accompanied by 
a certificate signed by the governor of Western Aus- 
tralia. This timber can be had in any quantity. The 
Jarrah wood is being used for the Macbras railways, and 
is much approved. 



M. Xenos has applied for a concession for tram- 
way lines to connect Athens with the environs, the Pirsus, 

The value of the railway carriages exported in 
the first nine months of 1872 was £26,166 ; in the same period 
of the present year it amounted to £105,444, being an increase 
of nearly 400 per cent. 

A number of the leading tradesmen in Oxford- 
street have signed a circular expressing the opinion that a 
noiseless pavement is desirable for the roadway ia Oxford- 
street, and stating that they are willing to bear a portion of 
the oost of laying it down. 

Mr. Todd, Postmaster-General of South Aus- 
tralia, has been lecturing at Adelaide upon the great Austra- 
lian overland telegraph. Mr. Todd sUted that during the 
first six months of this year the overland line had yielded a 
revenue of £64,000. 

Since the opening of the Chesap^ke and Ohio 
Railway, the development of the coal and iron resources of 
Virginia is making rapid progress; seventeen coal mines 
and seven iron mines are now in operation alon^ the line, 
and twelve blast furnaces will shortly be in operation. 

The United States Signal Service has recently 
constructed a telegraph line to the summit of Pike's Peak, 
in Colorado, which is said to be the highest point reached by 
any line in the United States, or perbapa in the world. The 
height is said to exceed 11,000 feet. Kegular reports as to 
the weather are to be sent to Wasbiiigtoo three times daily. 



902 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ASTS, October 24, 1873. 



THE VALUE OP LEEDS SEWAGE. 

The following report by the Sab-Committee on 
TJtiliBation of SeWage upon Manures at the Knoatrop 
Sewage Works, has been laid before the Streets and 
Sewage Committee: — 

*' Li order to test the relative valae of the native 
guano produced by the ABC process, at the Knoetrop 
Sewage Works, the committee have had six plots of 
l^rass land, each half an acre, treated with various dress- 
ings. On each plot they put 30s. worth of each sort of 
manure, but the carriage, labour of spreading, and subte- 
quent dressings, caused a difference in the cost of ttie 
several plots ; and, in that treated with street sweepings, 
the quantity laid on was so much in excess of what was 
proper that the result is of little use for comparison, and 
it is probable that next year, with no further dresaiog, 
this crop may be very good, and the benefit then ap- 
pareilt. 

^* From the first the Peruvian guano appeared to take 
the lead, the grass behig higher Uian the rest, including 
that on the plot dressed with native guano, but when 
cut the weiffnt of hay wal not heavier, having much 
more of the long strong stalks, whilst the native guano 
had more herbage and fine grass near the roots. 

'* The grass was all cut at the same time and made into 
hay, the finest quality of all, as decided by a competent 



judge, being that grown on the plot maattred by the 
native guano. He says : — * During my examination (of 
the hay) I pointed out one part of the stack which I oob- 
sidered the finest quality ox hay, and Mr. Craren at ooee 
said, *^ That is the nay grown on the plot of land tDamired 
by the native guano. 

'* Ko additional value is put oft the hay <m this i^ 
count The opinion of the teine judge uixm tiie after- 
g^rass is annexed to the report oh eacn plot. The Kp- 
nended statement, Table t., shows the coat of the vMoas 
oressings in detail. 

** The Irei^ht of hay proddced, the value of thft otip, 
and the duality of the after-gras8 on e^ plot tret« m 
Shown below in Table ll. 

*' The native guano was calculated ai the site of 
^i Idd. pef too, and it will thus be seen thai ttlA i«ldlt 
is slightly superior to that obtained by thfe rame valu 
(dOa- worth) of Peruvian euano at £l5 pet ton, and, 
whilst it is admitted that the Perurian is exhaoAtdd fibs 
first yedr, it is claimed for the native goano that the 
effect will be seen for one year or more anerwatdi. 

** The committee propose to test this by allowiiur fk» 
several plots to remain exactly as they now are, trnwitil 
an^ fre& dressing, and see the result nett yett, Thi 
bommittee were surprised to find that the native teanve^ 
which is composed of a mixture of native goane tsl 
night soil, valued at jS4 per ton, produced 2 cwt. 2 qr. Itfft. 
less hay thah the native guano, which haa no tiil±iar« 
of night soil. 



Tablb Ii 



808. of each awt of manure. 



1. Street Bwespings 
*i. Stable manure... 

8. Pemvian guano 
i4. N'ative manure 

6. Ifitite guano ... 

6. Stowage mod 



(Quantity itted. 



T. C. 

17 11 
7 10 
2 
7 

8 

1 



Q. 







2 

I 





L. 









7 





Price of 

tnaiiure per 

toa. 




CMittir 




i 16 



OWtof 

aad 
laboor. 



2 








tt. 
12 
16 
2 
1 
1 
7 



d. 



6 

10 

10 

10 

4 



Oostof broA, 
hattow, and 

extra 
treatment. 



I. d. 
i 6 

1 6 



1 6 



Areaef 



tbUloo^flf 



2 a. A. 
4 a • 
sat 

If 16 

ll to 

mm 

1 ifii* 



I 



• TUb niaiiure was paxchased Ikt Kabstrop, aiti tlM tattsge 
■t- There was more carting and trsspaMiBt Ob thMpMthia 



not 

—^* — 
omer. 



TABLfe tl. 





Cort With 

labour 

&c. 


Weight of 

baf 
produced. 


Hay 
per 
cwt. 


tilneof 
the crop. 


VSlae above 
manore. 


Less than 
value of 
maaUre. 


AA#-9ihaL 


1. street BweepiBm 


« s. d. 
4 8 6 
"2 8 
1 12 10 
1 11 10 
1 11 10 
1 18 10 


cwt, qr. lb. 
18 1 28 
15 1 4 
14 i 

11 2 9 
14 19 

12 


s. d. 
4 
4 
4 

4 
4 
4 


£ s. d. 
2 13 10 
8 1 f 
2 16 7 
2 6 4 
2 16 7i 
2 8 


£ B. d. 

• • • 

18 1 
18 9 
14 6 

51? 


£ 8. d. 
19 8 

• •• 

• •• 

• •i 

• «• 

• • • 


Beit crop of ailer^asa. 

Second Dttt orop o* Kbet*-^fct^k», 
Nearly eqnal to Meobd. 
Ujrht crop, but fiaa qoaMkif. 
Stall lighter crop, but flncr qoaSlr. 
Lightest crop, and pooKt ^vBty. 


2. Stahle miniire 


8, 'ppnivfun vnftiiO 




6. Kative iraano 


6. SeWftjre mud 




Total 


18 6 10 


80 2 17 


• •• 


16 2 6i 


4 6 4i 


• •• 






••• ••• a*^ 


Deduct loM on No. 1 


• • • 


• » • 


• •• 


• •• 


19 8 


» • • 






£2 16 8| 





1*^ 



Two methods by which tolegraphic despatches 
may be received and sent in a railway train in motion are 
report«>d from America. 

The Itsliftn minister of Public Works has issued 
a circular, urging the prefects to give an impetus ta the 
creation of neceBsary oommeroia) roads. 

The value of tlie timber exported from Sweden 
In 1871 was £3,204,500. of which £1,696,498, or about 63 per 
oent., want to Englanu. The kinds most ia demand are 



)it props, lathwood, sleepers, and split wood. After 
Britain, Denmark, Prawa, and f ranoe receive the 
largest amount. 



3:::s%: 




Accotding to the IXmeB »/ Indm 
mens of Zantibar ooal, sent by the politieal 
Oov^mment of Bombay, have been favoumbly . 

The South of Scotland Oompreeeed 

Company hat» oomnenosd the regular man ttft g liai^ 
on Kirkooanell moss. In a short time It ia « 
abundance of the new f ael will be in the mai^eL 

Asphalte pATement ia to be tried in _ 
A large number of Seyssd blocks are storaA 
Aqnanmu. and the Works Committee hate 
recommendation ttxtm the Surveyor that aa •'■^ , ,, 
ment should be laid on the south side of Junotion-nafl* 




JODRKAL OP THE BOOIET? OF ARTS, Ootobbr 24, 1873 



THE FOOD OP THE FRENCH WOBKUTa 



^...n^iuuuu iiii;diitl7 read a paper on tliia subject bo- 

n>rH Um Paru Academy of Uedicine, which has attracted 

I cim«idanlila aUMitiaii. The doctor hat collected a large 

' •looaat of faeta^ and Mtmuged them in an effective 

One of the moat itrikina; imtancea of the vali 
animal food was deriTed from the de)MTtmeDC of the 
TarD, where there wu an indiutrial estabUshment em- 
I plojiag- H30 men, who lived principally on vegetable 
food. M, Talabot, who waa the dirootor oWhe estab- 
tithment, about the yem 1836 found that the aick fund, 
eatabliahed to_ Rive the men during fllnea* half the 
amount of their ordinnry wagon, was conatantly in debt ; 
ho tt«li meuflurBB for tUo intruduction of butthoni' meat 
into the food of the men, and the effect waa ao great that 
the kverage lo« of time per man on account of iilaesa or 
fati^e waa redUcrf from fifteen to three days peraonum. 
The animal food had aaved twelve daya' work a year per 

^a ahaence of meat in alimentation, aaid Dr. Bertillon, 
ai Haller had before noticed, baa moreover an injurioua 
effect on the superior faoultie* of I□an,aa1rellashuph7- 
D^. BertiUonatatod that the theoretical rationof 1,000 
^mnmee of bread and 286 grammpa of meat, waa almoat 
identical with the ration of the French soldier, which 
had been arrived at by more observition, namely,, 760 
BTBD^mea of household bread, 316 grammes of white 
bresd for the soup, 2S3 grammes of meat, and £00 
grammra of carrots and other ve^tablei. 

The caie is, however, far different with the general 
population of France. M, Le Flay has ahown that the 
Tine-dressers of Anoagnac eat foor meals a day, and 
meat with two of them ; but that the case ia very difftrent 
daewhere. The vine-dreiMrs of Morvan. for eiample, 
eat meat only_ about once a year, tho peasants of Maine 
twice, the minen of the mountains of Auvergne six 
timsa, and the weavera of the Sarthe on ffU days only. 
Xho people of Brittany are the woiet oft of all. M. tc 
Play affirms that the greater part of them never tasle 
meat mt all, and only a few of them Gve or aix times a 
year, at the great religious /#(« of the Patdons. Finally, 
nyi U. Le FUy, tho groat mass of French workmen— 
the agricultural labourers— scarcely consume any meat. 
The following table ie given bv Dr. Bartillon to show 
the relative coosomption of animal food as compared 
with .regatable, the latter being taken at 100 :— 

English workman 377 

French sailor 317 

Agricultoral labourer in the Taud 168 

„ „ North of France 7-7 

„ „ COTT^ 4.S 

„ „ Taocluse 3'3 

Ijombardy workman 30 

Dish „ 10 

Kor does the French psaaant obtain the buis of hia food 
from the moat nutritive and precious of the oereala — 
irheat ; entire departmenla depend principally on buck- 
wheat (Mrrium), maize, millet, cbeatnnta, Ac. 

It is in the latt named disinherited distriots, sayg 
K. Bertillon, that the mortality is the greatest, though, 
inatead of their beii^ insalobnons, it is in BriLtany, the 
Alps, and the Limonnn, where we go to breathe the 
paMst air, thoogh these countries have no other condi 
tioa in common but poverty and insufBciant nourishment. 

"Dte privileged regions, on the oontrarr, are those in 
^rliieh the population is well fed, tho Aube, Burgundy, 
tfa« Qironde, the Eure, &c. In the great towns tba mor- 
tality is incnaaed by excese, late honra, and unwhole- 
acwne drinka; but it is very sad to say that M. Bntillon 
abowa that all thcM cansea are aorpassed in effect by the 
misery which weighs on the peuanta in healthy districts 



with soft climates. The Collowiog tuble shows the mor- 
Ulity per thousand of the populaliun in the Jepailmonti 
of Finistire, the Seine, and the Aube, where neitbir the 
misery of Britunny nor the anii-hjgitnic condiliona of 



Aj«. 


FiDbten. 


Se... 


.*. 


From 6 to 10 yean .... 


U-70 








8T8 


9-97 


-5-01 


., 16 to 20 








„ 21 to 30 , 


I3'G6 






„ 3ito« „ .... 


I3'40 






„ 41 to 60 , 


17-2.i 


16'36 


844 


„ 61 to 60 „ .... 


28711 


!6'62 


14-40 


„ 60 and above .... 


79- 


76 10 


60-70 



"In our climate," aaya tl 

good fi>od to enable him to rci 

although bmine is unknown 

louain, the erveAaJt of t 

lourlou of Auvereno, 

m they form the only foo 

as the potatoes of the half-fa 

A cry of alarm has been 1 

{ depopulated ; more infa 

number of deaths of ac 
(our of their life is groiitoi 

1 pec ted— intelligence and 
ewer interested and calun 
ad ; but when the f»cte ui 
itn the cauaea are clearly | 
ministrutoiB, under a ben< 

flgainat them and to WHm 
Vila which nru slowly deii man og n. 
M. BerUllon's mi-moir contains forty charl«, ar 
.ccount of the cost of publication a subscription 1 

r'n fiir the purpose, but it is hoped that the Acii 
Uedicine, with the aid of the Govemment. will e 
the author to place the important reeults of his la 



before the w 



rfd. 



PARIS NATIONAL SCHOOL OF DRAWING 
AND MATHEMATICS. 

e new oatablisbmcnt, which ia intended for the in- 
tion of all those whose occnpationa include the up. 
plication of tho flue arte to industry, is situated in the 
school quarter^No. 6, Hue de I'Ecole de Medicin.: — 
' 'loa just isaued its programme for the current sea- 



and the eveninx classes once, a day, uod the duration of 

ch ia grneralW from two to three hours. 

In the mommg clasaea the work includes drawing 

from the livingmodel, or from the antique, and from the 

□und, the study of the figure, of animals, fijswera and 

imament, everyday; professional stuiliea of furniture, 

Bsea, bronzea, tapestry, paper hunginga, deeuiative 

panels, to., copies and compositions, arilhmotic, 

algebra, fractiona, loftarithma, equationa of the first and 

ind degree, rectilinear gtomrtry and trigonometry 

^e a week: geometric drawiu^ twice a week; per- 

,. itive and its applications twice a week; aoulplure, 

includingthe figure, living aniniala and plants, compoai- 

tion of omamenlf, and hiHtly, engraving on wood during 

eight boora each day. 

In the evening schools the course of study is nciiily 
the same, but t£o professional studies mentioned above 
are replaced by the history and compcaitionof omament, 
iUusti>tedpncticallybyaprofessor;and there U a special 
class for arohitectute and conatruction, including 



904 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Octobeb 24, 1873. 



tive geometry, shadows, perspective, stone cutting, statics, 
strength and stress of material, and, lastly, architectaral 
composition and perspective as applied to sculpture. 

The professors appointed to direct the school include 
MM. Faure, Cabasson, Etex, H^din, R^bout, Rouillard, 
Aim^ Millet, Pannemaker, Ruprich- Robert, Train, ana 
other names well known in the art world of Paris. 

Such is one of the means by which our neighbours, in 
the midst of all their difficulties, are doing all in their 
power to instil into the minds of the working classes, and 
of youth, the principles of art and science and the ele- 
ments of taste ; the lesson is an important one to all who 
have a due feeling of the value of tirt. 



THE CHEQUE BANK. 

As an entirely new financial and commercial experi- 
ment, the establishment of the Check Bank deserves some 
notice. Whether the plan is or is not successful, it is 
certainly quite new, and its progress will be watched 
with considerable curiosity. 

Up to the present time no attempt has been made to 
extend to the less wealthy classes the advantages of the 
banking system that has g^wn Up for the benefit of the 
comparatively rich. It has always been considered that 
it would never answer a banker's purpose to keep an 
account for any one who was not prepared to deposit 
and leave a considerable sum in his hands. By the use 
of this money the banker recompenses himself for the 
trouble he takes in keeping his customer's accounts. 
The natural consequence of this has been that the con- 
veniences and advantages of making payments by cheque 
have been denied to the very large class of people who 
cannot afford to keep a considerable sum of money by 
them. How great a convenience is thus lost, it is hardly 
needful to say ; the ease and the safety with which money 
can be transmitted by cheque are alone sufficient reasons 
to make everybody who can afford it keep a banking 
account. In some countries of Europe, Italy for 
example, a system of small banking accounts has arisen, 
and there are banks where an account can be opened 
with 100 francs. Business on such a small scale 
would probably never answer in London, and for this 
reason an attempt is now made to start a new system 
of a simpler character than that employed for large 
transactions. 

The Cheque Bank proposes to open an account with any 
person for any amount, giving in return for the cash 
paid in, cheques up to that amount. These cheques have 
stamped on them the full amount for which they can be 
drawn, and they vary in value from £1 upwards. But 
though the cheque cannot be filled up for more than a 
certain sum, it can be drawn for any smaller amount, 
the balance being put to the credit of the drawer. The 
result of this is, that for every cheque issued the 
necessary amount to pay it lies in the bank, and it thtis 
carries with it a guarantee of its own genuineness. Each 
cheque is therefore like a bank-note, except that it can 
be drawn for any sum below its maximum. A possible 
drawback may be that the cheque, like a note, possesses 
an intrinsic value, and that its owner, if he lost it, even 
when blank, would lose the money, or at all events have 
some considerable difficulty in obtaining it. Also, any 
rogue into whose hands such cheques might fall, would 
only have to fill them up in his own or any other name, 
and, so far as appears at present, there woiUd be nothing 
to prevent his getting the money for them at any 
bank in connection with the Cheque Bank ; eventually, 
of course, the fraud would be detected, but as the 
guanintee lies in the cheque, and not in the name 
of the drawer, it would be accepted without sus- 
picion by strangers, in a way that cheques, as now em- 
ployed, are not. Such drawbacks, however, may not in 
practice prove of any importance, and if the system 
becomes widely known and popular, it may prove useful 



by offering a new method of cifculstiofL, aad by 
collecting and rendering available for trade pvrpoaei 
a large aggregate mass of small sums now kept oat of 
general circulation as a reserve for small peymfloti. 

With regard to the management of ^e moo^fs en- 
trusted to it, the necessity for being prepared to pay 
any amount of calls upon it predndet this baok firem 
investing Uiem. It, therefore, depositi them in otiier 
banks, so that they are at once available. Unkr 
no other system could the safety of the pir oj ec t be 
ensured, but by thus distributing and dividmg ita de- 
posits it proposes absolute secori^ to its cnstomen. 



CORRBSPOHDEHCS. 



PRESERVED FRUITS, &c 

Sir, — Some thirty years ago the Society of Azta la- 
ceived from Australia samples of wine, and alao of drisd 
figs, peaches, &c., the product of those coloniea ; bat, 
though much has since been done to extend the cnltaie 
of the vine and improve and extend the mannfiutare of 
wine, but little result has yet appeared in our markets; 
while the preservation of fruit and its shipment to tka 
country has been almost entirely disregarded. At the 
present time, however, I am informed that Bamplea of 
Australian quince, peach, and apricot jama are '*^'' - 
able. This has recalled to my mind an old 
which was long since published in the Society's liat, 
pointed to the fact that in the tropics, as veil ae a 
Australia and other British colonies and poaseviim^ tlie 
fruits there produced in such abundance, and throvB 
away, might be utilised and placed in oar marlceta at 
highly remunerative prices, if some enterprising 
itsdisbi could be found who would direct their 
to the proper preparation and preservation of 
am quite aware that guava and such like jdUef and 
serves are at present made and sold, but tiie 
limited, and more of a fancy than a general trade. 
of the preserve is poor in flavour and bad in ooikiar, 
owing to the imperfect methods used in their _ 
the old method of boiling and mashing the fniit in 
over a hot stove in open pans being commoal3r 
As a result, the sugar settles and burns at the 
of the pan, the fruit is discoloured, is not 
over-sweetened, and at the same time the high 
ture of the boiling syrup drives off the K^t 
oils which should be retained, and are, in reality, the frait 
essences which it is desired to preserve. In Uiie bdipe of 
preventing waste, and improving and extending^ the pve- 
duction of preserved fruits, I venture to suggeet tint fke 
water bath or a steam jacket should be used in the 
paration of jellies and preserves where friiita of 
flavour are (jftolt with ; that the fruit should not be 
up, as is at present the case, thereby affording tba 
possible facility for getting rid of the esKntial oL. , ..*- 
the juices of the fruit mixed with the sugar aihoaU bt 
cooked separately, and to a grreater extent than tbe liraA 
itself; and in other cases the use of the vaCQiini yaa 
might be resorted to with advantage. 

We know that so deUcate an article aa milk ia dejamf 
of its water, and preserved in combination with 
to an enormous extent, and no trace of injuy ta 
flavour results. Why, then, should so large 
tion of the flavour of fruit be lost in tiie \n ik *m of 
preserving it ? I am glad to see that, within tfaa '. 
or three years, considerable quantities of frtdta 
placed on our markets, preeerved in tin cans bj tha 
ing process now so largely employed in the _ 
of meat, but many of them are weak in fiat 
watery in character, though some recenthr i 
are a great advance on the first aamploi 
Cannot those who preserve fruit gather i 





JOURNAL OP TUE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Octobkb 2^, 1^73. 



W6 



of practical value from those who deal with the prc- 
iervation of vegetables P Is it impossible to dry some 
of the fruits by means of currents of hot air, or, better 
still, cannot the process of drying by means of dry cold 
air, introduced and described to the Society by Mr. 
Bachanan, a 3rear or two since, be applied in the prepa- 
ration and preservatibn of fruits for Uie English market; 
and is it impossible to create an entirely new trade, such 
aa & fancy biscuit trade, by combining the preserved 
fruits with other products, viz., sugar, flour, eggs, &o., 
and import them in tins to this country P — I am, &c., 

H. a. H. 



RAILWAY SIGNAI^. 



Sir, — The terrible frequency of railway accidents 
has induced me to offer through the medium of your 
journal the following suggestions : — 

That the signalling should be electrical and automatic. 

That instead of the driver having to notice aignali^ at a 

lon^ distance from him, through rain, fog, and other 

atmospherical conditions, entirely adverse to careful 

observation, an index hand and plate should be 

attached convenient for observation on the engine itself, 

labelled with the notices most required, such as stop, 

dazi^r, &c., &c. That within a certain distance of all 

stations, any two engines on that portion of the line 

should complete an electrical circuit, causing a bell to 

rini^ on each engine, thus signalling their proximity to 

esich other. The electrical communication to be made 

from the stations by means of wires laid parallel with 

the metals, and connected with sets of stuas that a pro> 

jecttnfl^ rod from the engine would touch in passing, and 

that coold be raised or lowered at the option of the 

si^^naller by means of levers or otherwise. This is, of 

course, a rough outline of a plan, but one I b^eve that 

could be easily worked out, and would be the means 

of saving much valuable life and property. 

I am, &c., 

Edward Dunmoeb. 
Bodovaio, LUndodno, Norlb Wftles, Oct. 6, 1873. 



SMOKY CHIMNEYS. 



Sib, — In the month of December, some years ago, 
»Taral rooms in my residence, Llwynofia, near Mold, 
rendered useless by a violent pouring out of smoke. 
I was just leaving to visit friends in the neighbourhood 
of ^Denbigh, for the purpose of attending a ball in that 
town ; during the night the ball-room itself was visited 
by pnfEs of smoke. This circumstance naturally re- 
mxxtded me of the state of my own house, and the very 
slender prospect of a merry Christmas on our return. 

The following morning, in company with some of my 
yoimg friends, in the garden of my hostess, I caught 
sight of the parapet of a bridge over a road, which my 
imagination converted into a chimney, for the purposes 
of experiment. I mentally constructed a casing round 
ity open at the top. I considered that an opening in the 
lower part of one side would receive the wind nom six- 
teen points of the compass, and that a similar opening 
on the opposite side would take it in from the remaining 
points, so that a current of air would rise on the wind- 
ward side of the chimnev, and so carry off the smoke. 

On returning to Mold I procured an ordinary round 
ohimney-top, and had it cased with zinc, according to 
mj theory. It stands from 16 to 18 inches high, and 
the casing of zinc is about 1} to 2 inches from the 
earthenware. There is a square hole in the zinc, about 
thz^ee inches in diameter, on each side, communicating 
with the outside hollow tubes or chambers. 

It was placed on my chiumey the following day, and 
has never been removed since. It entirely answers its 
purpose, as we have not had a particle of smoke frx>m 
that day to this. These tops are now made entirely in fire- 
clay both in Ruabon and Buckley, and can be delivered 



In London at six shillings each, the weight being ninety 
pounds. 

The great success in Chester has been at a chimney at 
the Ra^ed Industrial School, Broughton, as the heaa of 
a college in Cheshire had attempted to cure it and 
entirely failed. My steward tells me that he has sold 
120 of them, and I have placed from 40 to 50 on my 
own property. — I am, &o., 

C. BUTLBB ClOUOH. 
Chester, 11th October, 1873. 



eEVB&AL V0TB8. 



Ck>lonial Manufactures. — ^The New Zealand (Govern- 
ment have offered the following bonuses to stimulate colonial 
manufactures :— £5,000 for the production of 1,000 tons of 
pig-iron of marketable quality. No bonus will be given for 
less than 100 tons. £2,000 for the production of 250 tons 
of sugar, manufactured in the colony from the beetroot. 

A natural Sand-blast — A curious instance of the 
attrition of fflass by sand is noticed by a correspondent of the 
Builder, writing from a village on the coast of Northumber- 
land. In a house near the shore it was noticed that in -some 
of the windows many of the panes of glass were completely 
obscured, or ** ground," by the action of the wind and 
sand blown against them. The obacoration was so com« 
plete that the effect of " ground glass " was produced. The 




so, by the action of the wind and sand. 

Camphor Wood. — ^This wood promises to become, at 
no distant day, a very valuable and important article of com- 
merce. It grows freely in tropical oounlriee, without culti- 
vation, and especially thrives near the sea-coast, where it 
may be easily obtained for shipment It attains large pro- 
portions, being sometimes found fifteen feet and upwards in 
diameter, and of prooortionate height It is very valuable 
for carpenter's work, being light, durable, and not liable to 
injury from insects. Its aromatio, agreeable perfume is also 
well knovm. The wood is strong and verv durable, and is 
especially applicable for ship-building, and may be applied 
to all purposes for which teak wood is used. Camphor 
wood piles have been known to remain in a good state of 
preservation over a himdred years. 

Commerce of Algeria. — ^The French Minister of Com- 
merce haa just completed an account of the oommerco of 
Algeria for the years 1867 to 1872, both inclusive. It 
appears that the imports amouot to 196,000,000 franco, 
and the exports to 112,000,000 francs only; the number 
of vessels employed in the trade amounts to 4,000, with a total 
of 800,000 tons; of these vessels and tonnage, 1,611 ships 
and 579,000 tons are under the French flag. The principal 
imports into Algeria are sugar, wines and spirits, conee, olive 
oil, woven fabrics, and small wares ; the principal items of 
export are raw hides, wool, tobacco, canes, rushes, cereals, 
and vegetable hair. With millions of acres of forest land the 
export of timber from Algeria is so small as not to be enu- 
merated. 

Fibre of the Ixtle Plant.— A writer, in an American 
paper 
Ixtle 

the southern 

for iU lustre, strength, and flexibility, without kinking. 
Within the thin envelope which forms the leaf, there is a 
perfect skein of thread of extraordinary tenacity, length, 
and fineness. .The outer covering or cuticle can be easily re- 
moved by a chemical process^ and the whole fibre made 
available without further expense. The idea of the writer is 
to use all the refuse leaves not employed for ropes or textile 
fabrics, for paper, cured and baled like hay. The Ixtle 
fibre, according to the writer, requires but little cultivation, 
and the leaves can be dried for a few days in the sun. , It is 
open to question whether a fine quality of paper for banking 
cannot be made from the fibre. The plant, it is said, can be 
brought to New York for less than fif ly dollars per ton. 




J 



906 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, October 24, 1878. 



Tin in Ifew Bouth Walei. — An allavial tin lode near 
Jfllamatong Lake, in the parishes of Ahington and Blake- 
field, in the Cooma district, New Sonth Walee, ie about to 
be worked "by a Sydney proprietary on behalf of tne dis- 
coverers. Tne allavial tin in this neighboorhood is said to 
be an extvemely rich deposit, and it is no doubt geologically 
connected with rich openings made at Moweobah* 

Bailwayi in Pern.— Peru now posseaeea a railway 
across the Andes, which is representi^ to be the greatest 
modem triumph of engineering skill. Passing from the sea 
coast directly over the mountains into the interior, it asooids 
by a long series of remarkably easy grades and beautiful 
curves to the highest point ever reached by a locomotive, and 
through some of the finest scenery of the South American 
mountain regions. 

Telegraphic Clocks.— In Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, an 
electric clock has been establlsbed to move the hands of 
seventy different clocks, scattered all over the city. The 
motive clock is powerful, and has a pendulum composed of 
hollow coils of copper wire. These swing to and fro over the 
poles of horseshoe magnets, and every time they paM from 
one pole to the opposite a current of electricity is called up 
inductively in the coils, flows up the wire, and thence to the 
seventy dials, giving a current of an opposite nature at each 
swing. Behind each dial is an astatic, permanent magnet, 
suspended on a pivot, and surrounded by a coil of wire, and 
it rotates upder the electric influence irom the wires. A 
small weight may be used to each dial if the hands are heavy, 
and the pivoted magnet may merely regulate the time. Of 
course every clock will be exactly alike, and will run with 
very little atteution. To prevent the pendulum of the motive 
clock from moving too fast by the increase in the length of 
vibmtion of the pendulun^, a magnetic bridling apparatus is 
attached. 

A Vew TTie for Ice. — Coaxing iron ^)>es to accommo- 
date themselves to oircumatanoes is fpmething new in 
engineering. The St. Louis Republican describes the mode 
of operation. The weight of the St. Louis-bridge is at pre- 
sent supported by cabl^, and while this is the case the ex- 
pansion and contraotion of the tubes by heat are of no con- 
sequence. It will be different when the last tubes have to be 
fitted. From the slackening of the cables the aroh at the 
centre will ** settle ** about three inches. Provision has been 
made for this by increased length of tbe tubes, all the calcu- 
lations being based on a temperature of 6(^^. At the tempera- 
ture of 60^ it is known to the sixtieth of an inch what would 
bo the intervening space between the approaching tubes, and 
the dimensions of the last joints were adjusted accordingly. 
Only once, however, has the weather been favourable for the 
operation, and, after wasting some time, it was determined to 
try to reduce tbe temperature artificiallv. Barlv one morn- 
ing 45 tons of ice were applied to the tubes, and bound on by 
gunny bagging. At 3 p.m. Uie expansion had been reduced 
about two inches. FinaUy, the appUcation proved successful. 
On the following day the connectmg tubes were put in, and 
the first arch completed. 

Aeronantioa in America. — The American aeronaut, 
Mr. Samuel A. King, intends during September to make an 
extended balloon voyage from Buffalo, New York. For this 
purpose he is building a large balloon to replace the " Mam- 
moth," which was destroyed by the recent great fire in 
Boston. It is Mr. King's purpose to make tbe longest over- 
land voyage, if circumstances favour, ever yet accomplished. 
It is no part of his plan to go out over the ocean, to ex- 
plore the sea, but he expects to be able to settle something 
about the upper currents when he comes down. His voyage 
is undertaken wholly in the interest of science, and, in view 
of the extraordinary degree of attention now being drawn to 
the subject of meteorology, the results will be regurded as of 
much more than ordinary importance. From a communica- 
tion made by Mr. King in 1871 to the 'Washington Philoso- 
phical Society, it appeared that out of 170 aerial voyages 
made by him during the past twenty-five years, about twenty- 
five per cent, showed that the currents of the atmoi^phere 
were moving to the north-eastward ; » second twenty-five 
per cent, gave westerly currents ; and a third gave north- 
westerly currents. Ths remaining forty voyages were about 
equally distributed among northeny, southerly, and easterly 
currents. Mr. King^s experience, therefore, agrees with that 
of most European aeronauts, who have repeatedly testified 
that* there is no constant westerly current of air prevailing at 
any altitude above the earth's surface which they have Men 
able to reach in their balloons. — Nature. 



Inatmction of Artifaaa in l^ennn. — The great ex- 
hibition of Vienna is to be commemorated by the eetsUiah- 
ment of an '* athenaamn,*' aa it is called, aKmelled afta- the 
Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers of Pans, and tiie Mnaenxi 
of Industry at Brussels, lor the special instmetiaii of work- 
men and small mannfaotuzeFi. It is to be installed in th« 
midst of the industrial quarters of the capitaL A ^bt^ 
quantity of drawings, designs, models, instruments, m a rhtrtf i, 
tools, raw and partially manufactured materials, have been 
promised by exhibitors, and Baron Schwarz-Senbom, diieettf 
of the exhibition, has presented a collection of between tbx«$ 
and four thousand volumes of books connected with iadnstrial 
exb||>ition8. The establishment starts with a capital of 
than £11,500. 



The TnmerB* Company'i Prisei. — ^The Lord Mayer pre- 
sided last week in the Egyptian-hall of the Mansion-hoiiB6i,st 
^be fourth annual distribution of these prizes. Their origia 
was explained by Professor Tennant, the master of the eoa- 
pany, and the general results of tbe present oonrpetrtioci for 
excellence of turning in ivory and stotxe by Mr. ThonH 
Furshaw and Dr. William Pole, two of the judges in cither 
department. The Lord Mayor, before presenting the ehi^ 
prizes, congratulated the company upon the soooees whiek 
had attended its efforts to promote technical edocation la the 
trade with which it was more immediately conpectsd, and 
referred to similar ipducements held out bv other City Guilds 
mentioning in particular the Coachmakers and Paperstainers 
Companies. Ue thought, however, more was to be mco^m- 
plisbed in the matter of technical education by the nn:»d 
action of all tbe guilds than by individual efforts, and hjp«d 
at the forthcoming aggregate meeting on the subjeet^ to bs 
held in that hall, the Turners* Company would bring tbA 
experience to bear upon the proposed combination. Thi 
prizes were then distributed. The money prizes wtn 
given by the BaroUess Bnrdett-Contts. In some ooadndmg 
remari(8 Professor Tennant noticed the excellence of tks 
work from Whitby in jet, two prizes and the first booon/y 
certificate having been carried off by oompetitons fron it^ 
town. 

Kew Befdgerating Apparatna.— On Tneedny M 
some experiments were made at the factory of Mesttrs. Siekt 
and West, Mason- street, Westminster-road, to test the ' 
ing of an ether refrigerating apparatus, invented by Ci 
Frederic Warren, R^. The apparatiu consists &l s 
steam-engine, to which is attached a second cylinder for oog- 
densing ether vapour. Tbe cold produced by the expsosiea 
of the condensed ether is utilised by being oooimnnkstsd 
to brine contained in pipes, around which ihe ether cir- 
culates. The brine thus cooled is used in its torn estho' 
to freeze water or to cool air, the water being ooa- 
tained in reservoirs immersed in a vessel of enld haatt 
and the air being conveyed in pipes, which winds back- 
wards and forwards in such a vessel. The eCbcr tsr 
ployed, being contained entirely in dosed appsimtas» ^ 
scarcely at aU wasted, and little more than its first GoaT nssd 
be taken into account. In the experiments, the mmshirs « 
the outside of the pipes leading to the refrigerator vas ngiSf 
frozen ; and the atr of the room, after being witbdxmwn ss » 
temperature of 62 deg. , was almost immediatelv retn. * *^ 
it at 45 deg. ; while, as this process continued, tbe 
ture of tbe room was rapidly reduced and might ea«9y\ 
been brought to the freezing point and so msinfasined. C^ 
tain Warren claims that the temperature of any limited i 
can thus be kept down to almost any required defnnee; i 
proposes to apply the method to the ooastmotion of cold \ 
hereon boara ships, to be nsed for storing fnek jpgv 
or, in the case of merchant ships, for the converaioe of 
able freight Thus he would have a cold chamber for b 
dead meat, say from Aberdeen to London, and wonld ; 
plish this at a very small expense ; but he does not thank •• 
possible to freeze a whole cargo of dead meat, so sls to obvW* 
internal putrefaction during the long voyage from Ansrrvla 
He proposes, however, to cool railway carriages hi bat dr- 
mates, to provide cool vans for tbe conveyance of " 
and other provisions in India, to cool the air ada 
hospital wards in hot climates, and to provide an 

supply of pure ice at almost nominal coat. Met ^ , 

and west nave prepared the necessary manbiiMs for s£ 
these nurpoees. Captain Warren asserts that «ne ci 11* 
cool <mambers would allow a man-of-war to 
month's supfdy of fresh meat and Vegetables for har 
company. 




JOUliNAL OP TUB SOOIETY OP ARTS, Ootobbk 31, 1873. 



907 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



No. 1,093. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, OCTOBER 31, 1873. 






AnrOUSCSMEVTS BT THI COTTHCIL. 



BXTHVAL-GBXSV MTJSEVII. 
The following corresppndenoe has taken place 
between the Eight Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P., 
and the Secretary of the Society : — 

Th0 SHTttary of the Society of Arte, to the Right Hon. 

W.E, Gladstone, M,P. 

8rd Jolj, 1878. 
SiK, — A. memorial relative to the beneficinl action of 
the Bethnal-greeD Museum haf been prepared by the 
Sooiety of Arts for presenta ion to you. 

It has been signed by one hundred and fifty members 
of the Council and of Uie Society, of whom twenty-two 
are peers, and sixty-three are members of the House of 
Cotnmoins. In additon to the above, thirty-seven peers, 
and siztj-three members of the House of Commons, 
not members of the Society, have expressed their con- 
currence in the object of the memorial. 

I am directed to request that you will have the kind- 
ness to receive a deputation to present the memorial, 
and to name a day for doing so, giving, if possible, at 
least a week's notice. 

I have the honour to be, Sir, 

Tour obedient servant, 
(Signed) P. Lb Nbvb Fostbb, 

Secretary, 
9%e Bight Hon. W. B. (Hadstone, IC.P. 

\£etelo8ur$. — ^The memorial, with signatures attached, 
aa nas already appeared in the Journal S\ 

Mr, Ourdon to the Secretary, 

10, Downing-fltreet, WhitobalL 

July 6Ui. 1873. 

3u^ — Mr. Glads^no desires me to acknuwledge the 

r^oeip^ of your letter of the 3rd inst., requeatin^ uim to 

receive a deputation to presezU a memorial trom the 

Socdety of Arts, on the subject o|: the museum at Bethnal- 



J am directed to express Hr. Gladstone's sincere re- 
set that the pressure of his duties, as First Lord of the 
Treftsnry, renders it absolut^y necessary that he ^ould 
oonfine his attention to those matters which fall directly 
within his province ; and he therefore trusts that those 
on 'whooe behalf yon have Imtten will kindly excuse 
him if he asks them to address themselves to ths JPrivy 

I have the honour to remain, 

Your most obedient servant, 
(Signed) W. B. Qvanoy. 

P.I«K«fe7oiter»Biq. 

"^ The Secretitry to Mr, Qurdon, 

floototy foi th* BncoarageineDt of ArU. Manufkotoret, and 
Commerce, John- street, Adelphi, 
18th July, lb73. 

StSL, — ^I have brought before the Council your letter 

if the 5th July, in reply to mine of the 3rd July, asking 

klr. Qladstoue to receive a deputation to present a 



memorial from this Society on the subject of the Bethnal- 
green Museum. The Oouncil observe that you express 
Mr. Gladstone's legret that the pressure of his duties as 
First Lord of the Treasury renders it absolutely neces- 
sary that he should confine his attention to those matters 
which fall directly under his province, and his trust that 
those on whose behalf the reception of a deputation was 
sought will kindly excuse him if he asks thein to address 
themselves to the Privy Oouncil-office. 

I am directed, in reply, to point out that the memorial, 
having relation to a subject of vast importance to the 
education, general cultivation, and social welfare of the 
people, did appear to the Ouundl to bring the subject 
strictly within the consideration of the Prime Minister, 
rather than of a department of the Government. More- 
over, it did appear to the Oouncil that the deep interest 
which the subject excites is manifested bji the unusual 
character of the signatures, being those of sixty peers 
and 130 members of the House of Oommons attaehed to 
the memorial, and justified the Oouncil in asking for the 
special attention of Mr. Gladstone himself. 

Under these circumstances, the Oouncil submit their 
conviction that the subject involves oonsiderationf of 
principle and policy worthy the attention at the Prime 
Minister of this country, and too wide in its poUtioal and 
fiscal considerations to be dealt with effectually by any 
single department of the Government. 

They, therefore, respectfully decline to adopt Mr. 
Gladstone's suggestion that they should address them- 
selves to the Privy Council-office. 

I have the honour to be. Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 
(Signed) P. Lb Nbtb Fostbb, 

Seeretiuy, 
W, B. Gordoo, Esq. 

* 
Mr, Ourdon to the Secretary, 

10, DowDing-ttreet, Whitehall, 
Jaly 22, 1ST8. 

Sib, — I am directed by Mr. Gladstone to acknowledge 
the receipt of your letter of the 18th instant, and to re- 
quest that you will be kind enough to acquaint the 
Council of the Society of Arts that the intention of the 
'reply to your communication of July 3rd was to point 
out that, in regard to a subject of the nature of that 
which you bit>ught before him (viz., the beneficial 
action of the Bethnal-green Museum), which falls pro- 
perly within the province of a department of the State 
appointed to deal with it, the First Lord of Uie Treasury 
could not take the initiative out of the hands of that 
Department. 

This Mr. Gladstone would be doing were he to receive 
the proposed deputation ; and he would be acting con- 
trary to the rules of ndministration which are necessary 
for the conduct of public business. 

If^ however, the Society of Arts think fit to favour 
him with a written communication, Mr. Gladstone will 
himself correspond with the proper department con- 
cerning it. 

I have the honour to be, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 
(Signed) W. B. GuBOon. 

P. L« Neve Foster, Esq. 

The Secretary to the Eight Hon, W, B, Gladstone, M.P, 

Society for the Encoaragemeat of Arts, ManaflMtortt, 
and Commerce, John-etreet, Adelphi, W.C., 
Sth Ootober, 1S78. 
Sib, — ^The Council of the Society of Arts have directed 
me to reply to Mr. Gurdon's letter of the 22nd Jtdy, in 
which he states that, << if the fiootsty of Arts think fit to 
place before you a written communication, you would 
yourself correspond with the proper department con- 
cerning it." 

The deputation which desired to have the honour of 
waiting on yuu, aod explaining in detail the objects of 
the memori^, would have sUUed that, in their view, the 



908 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, October 31, 1873. 



experiment of the Bethnal-g^een Museum is suggestive relations between the labour market and tho nuUttfj 



of the following points : — 

1. That a general popular desire exists for such 
museums, and that it would be good national policy for 
the Gk>yemment to encourage the establishment of them. 

2. That, like primary elementary schools, it would be 
impossible that such museums could, without State aid 
and inspection, become part of a national system, aiding 
technical instruction and secondary education. 

3. That this question, unfettered by any denomina- 
tional di£Bcultie8, is quite ripe for solution ; that the 
necessary expenditure for aiding museums of science and 
art would be advantageous from every point of view, even 
remunerative as respects commerce ; and, further, would 
be auxiliary in promoting morality and social good order. 

4. That Qich museums are absolutely necessary to the 
industrial progress of the country, which is behind other 
countries idready in the possession of them. 

6. That the time has come when it is necessary that 
all public museums and galleries of works of science and 
art receiving Parliamentary aid should be brought under 
an intelligible system of administration, controlled by a 
responsible minister of State, so as to render them 
auxiliary to the development of local museums and 
galleries. 

The Oouncil submit that these are subjects not only 
of general policy, but involve some new principles 
of aaministration, large financial considerations, the re- 
form of old institutions, &c., which it is the province of 
the general Government, and not of any single depart- 
ment, to deal with. The Council especially desired that 
the answer they might receive should come direct from 
yourself as Prime Minister, i hey could not hide from 
themselves the knowledge they possessed of the several 
departmental difficulties which attended the opening of 
the Bethnal-green Museum, and that Uiey had l^n 
made cognisant, through Parliamentary returns and the 
revised estimates for 1871-2, of the opposition which the 
Treasury, as lately administered, had persistently ofiered 
to carrying into effect the decisions made by her Majesty's 
Gkrvemment in 1866, for conducting the Bethnal-green 
Museum. , 

The Council respectfully request you to have the 
kindness to bring this memorial before her Majesty's 
Government. They hope it will meet with favourable 
consideration and lead to decisive action ; and they will 
feel obliged by receiving an answer upon it at as early 
a period as oonvenient. 

I have the honour to be, sir, 

Your most obedient servant, 
(Signed) P. Lb Nbvb Fostbb, 

Secretary, 

The Rlf ht Hon. W. E. GlMtotone, M.P. 



Mr, Ourdon to the Secretary. 

10, Downinff-fltreet, Whitehall, 
7th October, 1878. 
Sir, — ^Mr. Gladstone desires me to acknowledge the 
receipt of ^our letter of October 6Ui, the contents of 
whidi he will not fail to make known to his ooUeagues. 

I am, Sir, your obedient servant 
(Signed) W. B. Gxjbdon. 

Fe Le Keve Foster, Esq. 



service of this country. It has appeared to then that 
these relations are intimately connected with the Arts, 
Manufactures, and Commerce of this country, and nam 
questions of high and growing national impoiiuae, 
whilst they apparently present, increasing d ifBon lt if^ , 
both as respects enlistment and desertion. 

The Council, therefore, believing that the enltivataa 
of drill in schools was most desirablo, have, daring tk^ 
last three years, instituted annual reviews of the district 
and other schools in and about the metropolia. The fint 
review was held by H.S.II. the Duke of Teck, at tfe 
Crystal Palace, in 1870; the second by H.R.H. Vwiact 
Arthur, in the Royal Horticultural-gardens, in 1871; 
and the third by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, in the 
Royal Horticultural-gardens, in 1872, the lads faaviD^ 
been previously inspected by H.S.H. Prince Edward trf 
Saxe- W'eimar, in Hyde-park. At each review abcot 
4,000 lads attended, and Uieir discipline and maxKBavrei 
were highly commended by military anthoritiea, asd 
particularly by the late Field-Marahal Sir Joha 
Burgoyne, a copy of whose letter is annexed. 

The CouncU believe that the difficult economic qaentim 
involved in the due maintenance of the military lorce «f 
this country would be beneficially inflaenoed by tk 
encouragement of drilling in schools. It appe«n to 
them that this healthy and useful exercise should mt be 
limited to a few schools of a particular kind, bat that it ii 
most desirable that it should be introduced in allsekook 
for all grades of society, and should eventually be mait 
compulsory, as in Switzerland. Jt is true Utat dxiUia« 
is recognised in a negative way by the levised codeof tbc 
Committee of Council on Education, but it does mt 
appear to be sufficiently encouraged. And tike CooBeJ 
of the Society of Arts venture to imiH'eas upon yoa \^ 
its due encouragement appears to them to be an 9&peeu, 
function of the War Department with xeimmm t 
recruits. 

The Council venture to think that the tioie hasazrintf 
when reviews, such as they have held, might be extea^-i 
to different parts of the langdom, and placed onder tte 
direct administration of the War Departments 

The Council desire me to express to you their th^£b 
and feelings of satisfaction at the policy which you hav? 
announced of connecting the soldier wUh uaefol 
tion during the period of his military service. 

The Council f urthw express a hope that yon will 
with them that the evidence which may be obi 
from other countries on this subject is wcothy of Ibti» 
tigation at the present time, and they direct mm ^ 
inquire if you would be willing to name two mBattiry 
officers, to join with a Committee of the SocieCy of An 
in investigating fully the connection of tbe b '*"* 
system of Switzerland with the industry of the 
of that country, and report generally upon it^ 
I have the honour to be, Sir, 

Tour obedient tervant, 
(Signed) P. L» N«t» Fi 

The Right Hon, Edward OrdweU, M.P., Ac 




40 



SCHOOL BRILL. 

The following oorrespondence has taken place on 
this subject between the War-office and the 
Secretary of the Society: — 

The Secretary of the Society of Arte to the Bight Hon, 
£dward Cardwell, M,P. 

21th February, 1873. 

Sm. — The Council of the Society for the Encourage- 
ment of Arts, Manufactures, and Commene have 



*^ 



Lord Lonedowne to the SeereUuy. 



instructed me to address you on the subject of tbe ' me to f^xprees his regret that there are no 



Pau-M^, tith jQir» U3- 
Snt,— I am directed by the Secretaxy of 8ttte 1- 
War to ac<iuaint you, for the information of the 

of the Society of Arts, that he has had und«r 

tion the proposal that the reviews of achooW a 
about the metropolis, instituted by the Society^ i 
to encourage the cultivation of drill in th( 
should be extended to diffmnt parts of the 
placed under the direct administration of thif 

Mr. Cardwell understands that this piopOM 
involve, besides the C08t of inspection, CAssg^ 
I vc3rance, for refreshments, and for prise*, aodL feu* 




Journal of the bOOIETV of ART^, October 31, 1873 



909 



disposal from which each expenses could be defrayed ; 
bat he deairea me to express his willingness to em- 
ploy any means in his power to facilitate the object 
which the Society has in view, and to inform you that 
if anj schools, or association of schools, of sufficient 
position and standing, who can show a sufficient number 
of drilled boys to make an inspection desirable, will 
apply to His Boyal Highness the Field- Marshal Com- 
m a nding-in- Chief for an inspecting officer, their request 
win be &voiirably considered. 

I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 

Lansdownb. 
The Secretary, Society of Arts, 
John-ftreet, Adelphl. 

The Secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 

18th July, 1873. 

Mt Lord, — ^I have the honour to acknowledge your 
lordship's letter of the Uth inst., No. *°1**, in reference 
to the review of school drUl, as proposed in my letter of 
the 27th of February last. 

The Council desire me to express their high gratifica- 
tion that their efforts to establish drilling in schools 
throughout the country should have received the appro- 
bation of the Secretary of State for War, and that he is 
willing to employ an^ means in his power to facilitate 
the object the Council have in view, though at present 
he is unable to comply with their wishes by reason of 
having no funds at his disposal for the purpose. 

The Council, however, trust, and venture to urge, that 
Mr. Secretary Cardw^ll will be pleased to take steps, at the 
proper time next year, for placing the necessary amount 
upon the estimates, and seek Paniamentary sanction for 
the required expenditure, say £500 at least, for continu- 
ing the experiment in London. 

I am to add that the Council propose to address the 
Lords of the Committee of Council on Education and the 
School Boards on the subject of introducing drill into 
schools. As the knowledge of this correspondencd will 
be very acceptable to the members of the Society, I am 
to remark that, if there should be no objection, the 
Council propose to lay it before them. 

1 have the honour to be, my Lord, 

Your Lordship's obedient servant, 
(Signed) P. Lb Nevb Fosteb, 

Secretary, 

Th« JjoTd Lanadowne. 

Lord Lamdowne to the Secretary, 

Pall-maU, 16th Augiut,1873. 
Sib, — I am directed by the Secretary of State for War 
to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 11th 
ult., on the subject of the introduction of drill into 
schools ; and in drawing your attention to the commu^- 
caiion from this office of the 11th ult, to inform you that 
while perfectly ready to fulfil the engagements therein 
undertaken, Mr. Cardwell cannot promise to make any 
roecial provision in next year's estimate for the object 
the Council have in view. 

I am to add there is no objection on the part of the 
Secretary of State to the correspondence which has taken 
place on this subject being laid before the members of 
the Society. I am. Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

J. C. W. Vivian. 
The Secretary, Sodety for the Encouragement of Arts, 

John-«treet, Addphi. 

The Coraicil have appointed a deputation to 
wait on Mr. Cardwell on this subject. 

nrSTITUTIONS. 

The following Institution has been received into 
Union since the last announcement : — 

Qnobec Institute, 15, Lower Scymour-streef, Portman- 
square, London, W. 



KATIOVAL MTJSEnilS AlTD 0ALLXBIS8, AHD 

P1TBLI0 BDTTCATIOV. 

The Council have passed the following 
resolutions: — 

1. That the undermentioned persons be invited 
to serve on a standing committee for the purpose 
of bringing under Parliamentary responsibility the 
nation^ museums and galleries, so as to extend 
their benefits to local museums, and to make them 
bear on public education. The following are the 
several objects in view for effecting this purpose:— 

2. All museums and galleries supported or 
subsidised by Parliament to be made conducive to 
the advancement of education and technical in- 
struction to the fullest extent, and be made to 
extend their advantages to the promotion of 
original investigations and works in science and art. 

3. To extend the benefits of national museums 
and galleries to local museums of science and art 
which may desire to be in connection, and tq assist 
them with loans of objects. 

4. To induce Parliament to grant sufficient 
funds to enable such objects to be systematically 
collected, especially in view of making such loans. 

6. For carrying out these objects most efficiently, 
to cause all national museums and galleries to be 
placed under the authority of a minister of the 
Crown, being a member of the Cabinet, With direct 
responsibility to Parliament; thereby rendering 
unnecessary, for the purposes of executive ad- 
ministration, all unpaid and irresponsible trustees, 
except those who are trustees under bequests or 
deeds, who might continue to have the full powers 
of their trusts, but should not be charged with the 
-expenditure of Parliamentary votes. 

6. To enter into correspondence with all existing 
local museums and the numerous schools of science 
and art, including music, now formed throughout 
the United Kingdom, and to publish suggestions 
for the establishment of local museums. 

7. Also to cause the Public libraries and 
Museums' Act (18 and 19 Vic. c. Ixx.) to be 
enlarged, in order to give local authorities increased 
powers of acting. 

Proposed Coxmittbe. 



Earl of Carnarvon. 

Earl Russell. 

Lord Elcho, M.P. 

Lord Goo. Hamilton, M.P. 

Lord Houghton. 

Lord Lyttelton. 

Sir Thomas Adand, Bart, 

M.P. 
Sir Antonio Brady. 
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., 

M.P 
Right Hon. Sir Stafford 

Northcote, Bart., C.B., 

M.P. 
Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S. 



Sir 8. Waterlow, Bart., 
Lord Mayor of London. 

Sir Jos. Whitworth, Bart. 

Right Hon. Sir John 
Pakington, Bart, M.P. 

Right Hon. W. J. Henley, 
M.P. 

Right Hon. Cowper Tem- 
ple, M.P. 

The Honourable Mr. Jus- 
tice Grove. 

Thomas Ashton, Esq. 
(Manchester). 

E. A. Bowring, Esq., M.P. 

Dr. Carpenter, F.ILS. 



910 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, October 81, 1878. 



Henry Cole, C.B. 

Montague Corrv, Esq. 

W. De la Rue, F.R.S. 

B. B. Eastwiok, Esq., M.P. 

Gabriel Ooldney, Esq., M.P. 

Principal Gh'eenwood (of 
Owena College, Man- 
chester). 

John Henderson, fisq., M.j^. 

Br. Hooker, F.B.S. 

0. Wren Hoskyns, Esq. 
M.P. .^"^ — 1 

James Howard, Esq., M.P. 

Prof. Huxley, F.B.8. 

U. J. Eay.Shuttleworth, 

M.P. 
George Melly, Esq., M.P. 
8. Morley, Esq., M.P. 
Dr. Muuat. 



A. J. Mundella, Esq. M.P. 

Prot Rosooe, F.R.S. (of 
Owens College, Man- 
chester). 

Lyon Playfair, Esq., O.B., 
M.P. 

Hodgson Pratt, Esq. 

Prof, ^msay, P-R^S. 

0. Seefy, jail., Edq., M.P. 

Oolooel Stilaige, F.R.8. 

E. Thomas, Eaq., F.B.S. 
(AtnensBum Club). 

(George Trevclyan, Esq., 
M.P. 

Thomas Twining, Esq. 

Professor Tyndall, F.R S. 

G. W. Ward, Esq. (Not- 
tingham). 

Prof. Williamson, F.R.S. 



Also the heads of the City Companies for the time 
being. 

Also the Chairmen of Local Committees of Schools o{ 
Science and Art, and of Local Museums Committee*. 

Also the members of the Legislature who signed the 
Bethnal-green memorial. 

In abgence of Ghainnan of Connoil for the time 
being, Lyon Playfair, Esq., C.B., M. P., to be re- 
quested to aot as Chairman of the Committee. 



PBOOEEBIVOS 07 THS SOCISTY. 



OAKTOB LECTTTBES. 
The oontintiation of the fifth lecture of the third 
course of Cantor Lectures for the Session, '*0n 
Wines; their Production, Treatment, and Use,'* 
was delivered by J. L. W. Thtjdichum, Esq,, M.D., 
on Monday evening, May 19th, 1873, as follows : — 

Lectuhb V. 

{Oonlinued from page 897.) 

The effervescent wine, which, from the country of its 
{ffiain, is termed Champagne, is one of the most essen- 
tialiy French discovenee or inventions. It is made 
mainlv from the same grapes from which Burgundy wine 
is maae, particularly inmi the black pineau. This some- 
times surprises persons who learn the circumstances for 
the first time. It is, therefore, woU \o mention that the 
juice of the pineau is colourless, like that of white grapes 
generally, and remains colourless if separated quickly 
enough from the coloured husks. Tbe colouring matter 
is thus shown to be insoluble in the juice ; but When the 
juice has fermented, it easily dissolves the colouring 
matter, and red wine, Uke red Burgundy, is the result 
For this reason, all coloured Burgundy is fermented with 
the husks, like all coloured still Champagne, whereas all 
colourless, t.^., white Burgundy, all white still Cham- 
pagne, and all effervescent Champagne, is fermented 
after complete separation ftom the busks. The culture 
of the pineau vines in the Champagne may be termed 
viticulture by constant rejuvenescence. The vines 
are every three years sunk into the ground, and one 
year's wood only is allowed to project Irom the ground 
and form the new vine. This gives to the Champagne 
vineynrds the aspect of constant youth, and much of tbe 
character of the vine is, no doubt, determined by this 
peculiar ^^node of growth. The vintage in the Cham- 
pagne is ihe most cleanly harvesting operation which 
one c«n wi#h. Every bunch of grapes is careAilly 
ut, and B^iTit through a cleaning operation by 



practised hands, so that it contains onlr Mmnd oi 
ripe berries, and a minimum of stalk. If o(her wtbt- 
making people would take a lesson from tbe desaHow 
of the practices in the Champagne, it would be i mt 
advantage to their prodncti and to wins-driBtm. 
Carrried in panniers, on donkeys and mules, ths mpei 
arrive at the cleanest of press-houses, ana sis imiw* 
diately subjected to pressure in the cleanest of \tm^ 
They are not previously disintegrated by snch ^rooeatf, 
as treading or passing througn crushing roUen. The 
presses are therefore very powerful instruments, sorpuh 
mg all other wine-presses in efficiency. Tbe mvA 
which flows from them is tasted from time to tine, and 
only those portions which are suitable are retained for 
champagne ; those portions which are rough from admixed 
juices of husks and stalks are kept apart. The i^ledai 
must is now freed from gross impurities by a procoi 
of subsidence, and is then filled into bairiqwi to 
undergo the first fermentation. ^ In ordinary ye«ii Art 
whole of the sugar is fermented, and yields aboat S or 9 
per cent, of alcohol ; but in very good years a BftJl 
quantity of sugar escapes this first tonentatioQ, 
and remains in the wine, to yield, by a second ftr* 
mentation in tbe bottle, the efferveecenue whi^ ii 
desired. The wine which has lost all its sogar in fbe 
first fermentation, requires therefore an addition to it of 
sugar before it can acquire the mousse in bottle. It 
will therefore be seen that two fermentations vti R- 
quired in the production of mousseux wine *, one in cuk. 
to decompose the bulk of the sugar, and prodnoe aloolHi 
or rather wine, and one of the young wme in bottlfl to 
produce effervescence. 

The particulars of the steps which lead to perfect 
mousscux are interesting, and capable of accnr^ ip> 
preciation from a scientific point of view, as ve h*Tf 
shown in the repeatedly- quoted treatise. Great cut • 
bestowed upon the clarification of the young winebj 
means of isinglass, previous to its being drawn i&tv 
bottles. Then the acidity and sugar of the wine ai 
carefully adjusted, so that it shall contain exactly tn 
per cent, of uniermented fermentable sugar. Tbe 
qualities are mixed so as to produce large parade of vice 
of uniform quality. This sweet wine, termed claiift ii 
now filled into the ordinary bottles and corked, in tfa« 
manner in which we see the champagne corked when it 
is quite ready for use. The bottles are stacked in rooof 
of rather a high temperature, and begin now to feriLeflt 
This is observed by the fact of the wine becoming ttr- 
bid, and by the breaking of a few bottles here and that 
with some report of an explosion, ^^^len this itag* >* 
reached, the bottles are carried to a cooler cellar, whffi 
they complete their fermentation and deposit tbe ye&A 
When the wine has become auite clear again, and i3 
tMe yeast is collected on the side of the bottle, thehM'^ 
is so manipulated that all the yeast settles in a ma^ 
lump upon the cork. This has now to bo removed ft«5 
the bottle by a skilful operation, termed *' disgcii|7B{. 
llie wires and strings which hold down the oora an cA 
and the cork is allowed to be expelled by the Inlets 
pressure, together with all the yeast and imparity. 1^ 
loss of wine caused by this is filled up with sonw cfcn 
wine, and the wine is now sweetened by the addxtioo u 
a solution of sugar, commonly termed liqueur. ^5 
the wine, when disgorged in the effervescent itatf> i^ 
what is termed quite dry — that is to say, not in tbe ltf<^ 
sweet, but tastes rather rough and unpleasant, frooitkt 
mass of carbonic acid dissolved in it. The liqosorv^ 
is used is most commonly a saturated solution of ^^ 
candy in old mature good wine, and nothing die^ 7** 
common wines more complicated liqueur) are nuid^^i^ 
wine, sugar-candy, some brandy, and some fitvoDrn^ 
materials. The quantitv of liqueur introduced T»r* 
between 10 and 28 c<jntihtres per bottle of about 80^- 
litres. For special dry champagne, such as is prefcnn 
by some consumers in England, a lessor per*oest«if* t 
taken. Chemical analysis of finished champogna >^** 
us that it contains from 5 to 6 J per cent, of sugSf. 1^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP AKTS^ Ootobeb 31, 1878. 



911 



wine thuB cleared find sweetened is again corked, and 
wired, and stringed ; tho bottles are washed, labelled. 
and covered with tinfoil, to preserve tho cork from mould 
and insects, packed in boxf-g or b.iskots, and sold to the 
coti9tinien. 

[T his part of tho leotnre was illustrated hy the pn- 
fjttannce h^te the audierco of the whole of the ottera- 
tlotti d<4eribed ; btrttles with the deposit wot* exhibited* 
then diigortTHd, adjusted, liquear was hdled, and 
tti the •aba»'qu'>nt opprations petformed to prepare 
the wine for use. This demonstration was made 
iar the lecturer by M. Mandart, cooper, of Cratrhed- 
&iara, London, in tlm usual manner, and with aU the 
approved apparitu.i and machint-ry as used in the first 
estublishments in tho Chtuipagne. Tho wim-s iri the 
various stages of hnit or dry, of sweet i-T finished, or 
liqileared, and iho liqiu^ur its if wer*^ tested by many 
persons of the nudienf-e. Many r^rieties of flni«<hed 
e^tn|M^ne, fn>m ehean qualifies to his^h-prieed caMnet 
trmes were also exhihitot by tho lecturer, and tasted by 
tbeandience at the comlusion of the lecture. The sum^ 
WHS the case with regard to Bordeaux and Butfirundy 
^ine^ of which comnir^n as well as sele* ted, or clut»sified, 
hi^ qiutlities were exhihittnl as iHuHtrations, and tasted 
hy many persons of tho audience.] 

It has thus been dcmon^itrat* d to you. that the nianu- 
ucture of champagne, thoui^h theoreiically simple, is 
nevertheless a complicated mechanical operation, re- 
^uirin^ above all cleanHn»S9, skill, jjnod taste, capital, 
And good cellars. Indee<i th^ skill which is brohght to 
b»«T Qpon the tnanqfacture of this attractive beverage 
•lw»ys excites my most nnboundt^d admiration. So do 
the cellars whi<h the people of the Champagne have 
do|^ in fheir chalk rocks, like so many huge natmal 
Caverns. In these labyrinths there reigns an ever-equal 
temperatore, and the wine is therefore never disturbed 
by floctuatioDS of temperature, so that by this 
aoeplate repose it attains that brilliancy which is the 
main cause and condition of its stability aft<r dis- 
fiprgement. But champagne, too, has its accidents, 
lot it is subject to those unfavourable chancres cmsed 
hy fungi, which are termed diseases. The most 
dangerous and common disease used to bo visco.vity 
or ropioess. Against this disorder the manufacturers 
have now an almost certain prevtntion, in the variors 
fbxms of tannin, from nnt- galls, from ciitechu, or 
fto^ grapQ-knsks and kernels, 'i'bis remedy was 
given to them by M. Fran(;()i.^, a scientific chemist, 
of Rheims; and so universal has been its applica- 
tion and success, that viscous champagne is now 
■caroely ever heard of or met with. Thero are some 
pervona and writers of a certiin class who de- 
nounce this addition of tannin as an ndultention, and 
Cndeavoor to make champagne ridiculous or disliked by 
deMribing it »« a cooked, liquored, brandied, sugar- 
fiaadied, tannified, &c., compound, indeed, as the most 
execrable and unwholesome drink that the world has 
ever seen. I warn yon to be on your guard against 
these publishing sophists. They denounce sherry, port, 
bock, and champagne all in no measured terms, and in 
a manner which shows their almost comical want of 
iofurmation as regards these wines, and while so de- 
nonncing thero, sell them, nevertheless, to anyone who 
Irill buy them from their shops. You recognise them 
easily by the panacea which they propose for all the 
Avila inflicted by all the favoured wines, namely, the 
recommendation of Greek and Hungarian wines. These 
latter alone are pure and natural, sity these sophists, all 
other wines are impure and unwholesome, or the pro- 
ducts of fraud. It is not necessary for me to expose in 
detail the groundlessness of these accusations, and the 
hoUowness of these reoommenditions. They have been 
pmctically judged by the disastrous commercial results 
of their operations, and the veidict of the public. All 
the newspapers in Christendom, even though led by the 
Ixmdon Titnea, will not succeed in persuading people 
that Grreek and Hungarian wines are better than cham- 



pagne and sherrv. The wines of Greece and Hungarr 
have merits of their own, but they cannot be ihade evi- 
dent by declamation and unmeasured abuse of established 
beverages. I must here also allude to the attempt which 
jwme of these people have made to throw blame upon 
Dr. Dupre and myself, for having in our treatise de- 
Hcribed the methotls of making second wines, according 
to the processes of Petiot and Th^nard, and of improving 
the wines of unfavourable years, according to the pro- 
••f saes of Chaptal and of Gall. As regards 8»*cohd wines, 
they have been made, and are made, annually in large 
quantities in all wine-producing lands. Thus, ill Spain, 
water is poured on the murk, and the fermented prodnc^ 
termed **Hgua de pie," is drunk in some parts, distilled 
in others. In the Alto Douro this agua de pie yields a 
winn rixing in its alcoholicity to 6and 7 per cent. (Viscount 
of ViHa-Msijor, in his report to the Portuguese Govern- 
ment), and constituting the drink of the labourers on the 
estates (pipa do lavrador). In the whole of the Sauteme 
district the workpeople make such wine, and drink it 
with phtisure and benefit. In the Champagne and in 
Burgundy, such wine is made, and consumed by those 
who make it (piquette). The Italians have it, ahd term 
it " piccolo." In Austria and Hungary it passes by the 
name of "hansel," which in English would be *' Johnny," 
or wine which is the drink of the typical Servant class. 
Now Petiot's prtx'ess consists in nothing else than in the 
addition to the water used in this process, of d certain 
quantity of pure cane siigar, in order somewhat to in- 

I crease the alcoholicity, and bring it near to th^ of first 
or natural wine. The objectors are very angiV 
that such wine is better than the mere piccolo, or small 

' wine, made with water only. But no one can relieve 
them of the fact ; and tho workpeople prefer the sugar- 
water wine to their former water- wine ; and, as Professor 
Nehsler, of Karlsruhe, has shown, they prefer it to any 
natural first wino which can be bought fbr the same 
mon( y. Why, indeed, should the application of sugar 
to the increase of the quantity of wine be not 
ju5t as justiRahle as the application of sugar to the 
increase of the quantity of beer P Millions of pounds 
of sugar (both grape and cane sugar) are annually 
used in breweries in this country, and it is difficult 
to o>»ject to thtt practice, for the vast improvements 
in the production of beer in late years are mainly due to 

( this judicious introduction of sugar as an element of 
brewing. Now, as regards the processes of Gall and 
Chaptal, I consider it perfectly ridiculous to raise any 
opposition to them, for they are absolutely needed in bad 
ye^rs, even in good viticultural situations, and are no 
more hurtful or objectionable than the processes b^ which 
alcohol and acid are adjusted and determined m beer. 
What, indeed, is the viticulturist to do with wine which 
is good in every respect except that of being too acid P 
Does anybody expect that he will be inclined, or even 
able, to east it into the gutter P Has such wine not for 
centuries been made drinkable by chalk and potash, and 
many other agents P And is it reasonable to censure 
a process which puts these heterogeneous agents aside 
and applies homogeneous agents to the must for ihe 
correction of its faults P 

Considering all this and many other points on which 
time forbids me to dilate, I must warn you against those 
sycophantic declamations of persons who try to profit 
by virtuous professions. I happen to know their prac- 
tices, and am able to state that they are the same as the 
worst I have witnessed in the course of my inquiries. 
They plaster, colour, dye, and boil ; they chalk, potadi, 
and tannify ; they flavour, mix, and, in short, treat in 
all the old-approved iashions their own wares, and 
ultimately misrepresent them perhaps more than those 
of other people. But all this need not frighten any 
sensible man. I do not believe that as much as a single 
cask of Petiotised or Gallicized wino has ever been im- 
ported into England. I have never seen or tested any. 
These wines have their own spheres amongst the popula- 
tions which produce them, and are not articles which 



012 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Octobbb 31, 1878. 



have a future in the shipping trade — for no art can ever 
compete with nature for quality and price. The cheapest 
wines and the best will always be the most natural ones, 
provided that science helps the producers to preserve 
them from the beginning. No artificial product, made 
with the aid of crystallised sugar, can ever be so cheap 
as natural must at the vineyard. When the English 
public shall have become acquainted with this fkot, and 
have taken the trouble to get prepared rationally, 
and brought to England the wines with which, for ex- 
ample, Spain is overflowing, then this fictitious fear of 
Hrttflcial wines will come to an immediate and necessary 
end. 



THREATENED SUPPRESSION OP THE 
SOOTH-KENSINGTOM MUSEUM. 

To the Secretary of the Society of Arte. 

Sib, — ^I request you to print, in the Society's 
Journal, the address which I delivered on 2()th 
Oct. to the students of the Hanley School of Art ; 
and I beg leave to ask my fellow-members to 
read it, and to help me to avert the suppression 
of the South Kensin&^n Museum. 

The Government, before the late change in the 
Chancellorship of the Exchequer, proposed to 
effect this suppression by destroying the indi- 
vidual Parliamentary responsibility of the manage- 
ment, which had successnilly created the museum, 
and to substitute the irresponsibility of a Board of 
fifty trustees of the British Museum, a principle of 
management now exploded. The members of the 
Society have an especial interest in the main- 
tenance and progress of this museum. It specially 
aids the great work of the Society in promoting 
Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. It is the 
useful offspring of the Ghreat Exhibition of 1851, 
which could never have come forth without the 
essential help given by the Society of Arts. They 
assemble in it in thousands once in the year as 
their festival. 

I ask the Council to allow a meeting of the 
Society to be called, to request the Government at 
once to abandon this project. — I am, &o., 

Vestry Cole. 

Oct. 24, 1873. 

Art Students of Hanley, — In competition 
with 122 schools of art in the United Kingdom, 
your school has the proud distinction of ranking 
fourth in merit, according to the figures given in 
the annual report of this year. This eminent 
position is due to your ^ood works, based upon 
a comprehensive and national svstem of science 
and art applied to productive industry, the estab- 
lishment of which the nation owes to the wise fore- 
sight of the late Prince Consort. That system 
provides for the instruction in science and art of 
all classes of the people and grades of society, 
offering to all different steps of instruction, m 
schools elementary and special, in the circulation 
of examples, and in public museums, forming an 
essential part of the wnole. The system, although 
allied with State aid, is a 'purely voluntaiy one. 
It has now existed for twenty years, and has taken 
root in the country and in the colonies; it is 
imitated in Europe and the United States. The 

demand of the people for this instruction in science ^ 

and art has increased annually, until it has now | Adam SmitE had made the same suggvstioi > 
reached the cost of about a quarter of a million a century before, but it had never been acted ofi. 
year. And this annual increase, which affords an So little was the subject undentood that ^t- 



index of the public desires — as Mr. Lowe told fi» 
House of Commons, before he was Chanodlor of 
the Exchequer — ^is ** tiie great merit of it" 

I propose to take this occasion to diow yoa hov 
mat is the debt of gratitude due to the Priooe 
Ccmsort, and to put on record my personal koow* 
ledffe of his labours for public insitruotionin leiatt 
and art. I shall connect with them a short lustoij 
of the working of tiie present system of scMnceul' 
art instruction since your Hanley school wis fint 
established. The school was founded in 18i7. 11» 
average number of studdhts was sixty-Beven gdIj 
for the first five years. There were at thit tiiM 
only twenty local art schools, most of them op- 
pressed wiUi debt and difficulties. There wus 
elementary drawing taught in schools for the poor, 
and no public attempts at scientific instanetioB. 
There were no training schools for teaohen in either 
art or science. The total number of pupils in tU 
the art schools did not exceed five thou^id. Hist 
were no museums of an industrial character md 
aim. The Qreat Exhibition came in 1851. Tbe 
Prince Consort, the f oimder of that work, wu ilso 
its commander-in-chief. He won not only wiA 
brilliant success that great battle against pqn- 
lar prejudice and ignorance, but converted the 
enemies of science and art into friends. I reeoUed 
Sir Bobert Inglis coming up to me in tiie ^la- 
house in Hyde Pe^k. He grasped both mybindit 
his fine, venerable, monastic face blushing lib i 
peony, and said, •* This is a work to thank Eeaim 
for I I confess I opposed the idea. I owwd 
the building in Hyde-park, but now I mike nj 
apology. *' Please to remember Sir Bobert ww tks 
stounchest of Tories. He was called in the Hom 
of Commons " the member for heaven." He itood 
up against Catholic emancipation ; he voted igsioit 
the Keform Bill, and for the boroughs of one tote; 
he voted for the Com Laws; he beat the dnn 
eocleeiastic loudest of the loud. He wm De?er 
known to alter an opinion, but he did ate his 
opinion once, and about this Exhibition, and he 
became a staunch friend to it, and weloomed^ 
results in promoting the diffusion of scteMetn 
art. 

The exhibition made Prince Albert (not As 
called Prince Consort) alive to the urgent wiiti 
of his adopted country for bettar tedmioil ia- 
struction. At the close of the exhibition, he 
persuaded Lord John Bussell, the Prime MinKtc, 
to authorise an attempt to reform the schoc^^ 
design. Hanley was then called a school of deeigB ; 
and, in 1852. Lord Granville, then Vioe-Pwetot 
of the Board of Trade, invited me io give iq> ■! 
duties in the Public Becord Service, ana to tiy ^ 
a year what I could do with the schools of denga- 
The Department of Practical Art, accordingly. ** 
founded. In a month or so after my appou^iafBi 
Lord Derby became Prime Minister for the M 
time ; and Mr. Henley, my inunediate chief, vif 
hisPresidentof the Board of Trade. Prince llh«t 
enlisted his sympathies with science and art ift* 
struction. One of my first reoommeDdstioa^ 
which it was my duty to submit to Mr. Henl*?' 
was that the artisans of the country should be 
offered help in learning geometric^ drawing, oa 
that small prizes should be given for raoo«& 



JOUaNAL OP THE S* OrRTY DP AU'lS. October 31, IS73 



913 



Porter, the Btatistioiazi, then the secretary of the 
Board of Trade, opposed my advice. * * He did not 
Mnk it the duty of the State to help carpenters to 
earn geometrical drawing.** Mr. Henley decided 
he contrary ; he did thiiS: it the duty of the State, 
Old there are now thousands of artisans besides 
he fltodents of the Hanley school who have to 
hank Mr. Henley for hiis sagacious decision. 
>tiiing this year, at the instance of the Prince, 
he Queen graciously consented to allow the de- 
Mirtment the use of Marlborough-houseas thehead- 
iaHrt^ns of the new system. Her Majesty and the 
Pnnoe lent objects of priceless value as specimens 
tt industrial f^. The finest collection of Sevres 
KJToelsin ever shown to the public was obtained 
rom the Queen's stores in the several Boyal 
)alaoe8. The Prince interested himself to secure 
he Bemal collection, and succeeded in obtaining 
kbout a fourth part of it for the country. When 
he Cbvemment — not yet trained to know what 
QMolioa was— declined to purchase the Soulages 
!]oUection, the Prince headed a private guarantee 
and with a thoussuid pounds, and the collection 
?S9 at last secured to this country. The late 
^Urquis of Salisbury cut through all red-ta^ 
iiffioolties in the purchase, and Mr. Lowe, m 
1865, stoutly defended the purchase against the 
Treasuij and Audit-office. 

The tune approached for resigning Marlborough- 
lOQse for the Prince of Wales* use. Prince Al^rt 
)er8uaded Lord Palmerston to submit an estimate 
o Parliament for erecting the temporary iron 
>ailding at Kensington, called the " Boilers,** and 
he new collection of ornamental art and offices of 
he Science and Art Department were removed 
here. A year or two before this event Lord 
lherdeen*8 GK>vemment, at the Prince's sugges- 
ion« enlarged the Department of Practical Art into 
me for Science and Art, and Mr. CardweU appointed 
3r. Lyon Playfair, who now represents so well 
n Parliament the University of Edinburgh, to 
>rgani8e the science branch. Thci country has 
greatly to thank the late Marquis of Salisbury 
md Sir C. Adderiey — one of the members for your 
tivision — ^for the earnest aid they gave in found- 
ng the present science organisation. South Ken- 
Bngton thus became the centre of Science and Art 
nabiiotion throughout the United Kingdom. 

You must allow me to contrast the working of 
Rieh instruction in 1 862 with that now going on. I 
rill take Art first, as the elder bran<ui. In 1852 
here were only 20 art schools, with 5,000 students, 
pftying £2,600 in fees ; now there are 122 schools, 
rith 22,800 students, paying £24,800 a year. 
Saoley school had only an average of 70 students, 
trying £45 a vear; now it has 214, doing more 
uid infinitely better work, and paying £138 a 
fear. There was no teaching in schools for the 
?oor, now there are 194,500 children taught draw- 
Ag. There were no night classes for artisans, 
y>w there are 538 classes, with 17,200 students. 
^7 able colleague, Mr. Richard Bedgrave, has 
^▼en essential assistance in securing these results. 
^ respects Science, there were no Science schools 
w daises before 1854, now there are 948, with 
36,783 students, and I must say this result is 
^^eatly due to the ability of Major Donnelly, who 
is the youngest man I know with the oldest head. 

I luust state briefiy a few facts about the South 
Konsington Museum. The nation obtained the 



ground on which it stands for one-fourth its pre- 
sent value, through the influence of the Prmce 
Consort. The Natural History Museum now at 
last erecting to the west of the Kensing:ton Museum, 
is on ground obtained at a third its present value, 
through the Pace's labours. In the year 1872, 
the South Kensington Museum itself was visited by 
upwards of 1,156,000 persons. I caU,that some- 
thing like a pilgrimage ; its art library was used 
by 19,750 students ; its educational library by 
15,300 persons — clergymen, teachers, and others 
interested in elementary education, coming from 
all parts of the country to consult it. The museimi 
circulated, without accident, to local exhibitions, 
upwards of 5,400 paintings, objects, diagrams, &a, 
which were visited by more than 604,000 persons. 
It lent to local schools of art for study upwards of 
1,300 objects, and 2,100 books, prints, &c., relating 
to fine arts. I will not trouble you with accoiuits 
of the successful working of other museums, in 
Dublin and Edinburgh, all branches of the Science 
and Art Department, but I must say that the 
country*s thanks are due to Lord (Jranville, to Mr. 
Disraeli, to the Duke of Buckingham, and the 
Marquis of Ripon, for the museum in Bethnal- 
green, which was opened in state by the Prince of 
Wales, to the great gratification of the hard- 
working people of that poor, unfashionable district, 
which had not seen royalty for two hundred years. 
This museum has been visited by more than a 
million of persons in the first year. No accident 
has occurred, and the East-end h^is been quite as 
well behaved as the West-end. 

I recommend Hanley to go and study what Not- 
tingham is doing in founding a permanent museum 
for its town. Let the corporation of Hanley go 
and do likewise for the Potteries, with the co- 
operation of the other boroughs. Each borough 
cannot have a ^ood museum ; but there could be a 
^lendid centred one. Last week the Nottingham 
Town Council determined to have its mumcipal 
museum. 

People are still apt to look at Museums as mere 
collections of things ''rare and curious,** things 
for learned people only, for rich people only ; for 
dillettante only. Prince Albert and his followers 
looked at them from a very diflferent point of view — 
the point of view of Science and Art applied to 
productive industry. What does the architect do 
who wants to learn his profession ? He looks at 
buildings. What did Flaxman do when he applied 
himself to pottery ? He studied Greek pottery. 
What did Herbert Minton do to get a rank for his 
manufactures, which compete successfully with 
Sevres ? He collected and studied the master- 
pieces of Sevres. Why is Mr. PhiUipps, the 
jeweller, trusted to set jewels with good taste ? 
Because he studies the ancient and medisBval 
models. What gave Pugin his reputation for 
Gothic metal work but his study of medieval 
models ? What has created a trade in majolica in 
this country but the Soulages collection ? What 
has given the Graces, and Jackson and Graham, 
and Gillows, and Hollands, &c., their reputation for 
art furniture, but their knowledge of ancient 
examples ? It is simple savage ignorance, and 
priggish^ pedantry, not to recognise the absolute 
necessity of examples of art, eajdly consultable by 
by the public, who are consumers ; by the manu- 
facturers, who are producers ; and by artists and 



914 JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootob^ 31, 1871 



artisans, as students. Where are they to consult 

them, if not in Public Museums? Why is the 

Frenchman more apt in industrial art than the 

Englishman ? Because, for a century he has had 

his Museums in Paris and every large town free 

to him; and public Museums are necessary for 

science as well as art. The collection of diagrams, 

of educational apparatus, and of specimens of 

natural history, are indispensable to the managers 

of schools and teachers. Where is there any 

6ollection, except in the Bouth Kensington 

Museum ? Why does the Admiralty have a 

museum of the models of ships ? Do you think 

mechanical science would be in the state it is, if 

our engineers could not consult the examples of 

their predecessors ? The fact is, that if museums 

are not educational, but are only peep-shows, and 

monopolised by the few extremely learned men, 

they are of a very limited value. 

It now becomes my painful duty to tell Hanley. 
and all the schools of Art and Science in the United 
Kingdom, that this organisation, so wisely insti- 
tuted and bravely fought for by the Prince Con- 
Sort, whieh has already borne fruits greatly prized 
by the nation, and imitated by foreign nations, 
and is so indispensable for the progress of this 
country, commercially, socially, and morally, is 
now in great jeopardy. The Government, as con- 
stituted in last August, a little mesmerised and 
innch garotted, had it in contemplation to make 
changes which were directly opposed to the further 
development of the present Science and Art system, 
and to the beneficent spirit of all the aims and 
labours of the wise Prince who had started it. 

The Science and Art Department has hitherto 
won its position and flourished under the inesti- 
mable advantages of a management which insured 
individued Parliamentary responsibility. In diffe- 
rent ways the Department has had the sympathetic 
support of statesmen of all political parties — of Mr. 
Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton), of Mr. 
Henley, of Mr. Cardwell, of Lord Stanley of 
Alderley, of the Marquis of Salisbury, of Earl 
Granville, of the Duke of Buckingham, of the 
Duke of Marlborough ; so it had of the Marquis 
of Ripon, — but I jsay with deep sorrow he suc- 
cumbed to a malevolent influence bef oi*e ho resigned 
office. I even believe that the evil spirit drove him 
out of office. He is succeeded by Lord Aberdare, 
who took an intelligent interest in the South Ken- 
sington Museum when he was Vice-President of 
Education. I appeal to him to continue its friend. 
Manufacturers of Hanley and the Potteries well 
know what business is, and that nothing but 
muddle and bankruptcy follow where there is no 
individual responsibility. Are you not surprised to 
learn that it was actually contemplated that the 
culminating point of the Science and Art system, 
and its necessary complement, the Kensington 
museum, was to be dissevered from that system, 
and placed in the had in the hands — of whom ? 
Can you ofuess ? His Grace the Lord Archbishop 
of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor, the Speaker 
of the House of Commons, the Bishop of London, 
— (why not Archbishop Manning and Dr. 
Cumming, and Mr. Spurgeon as well ?) — the First 
Lord of the Admiralty (not sufficiently engaged 
in inventing Devastations)^ the Lord Chamberlain, 
the Home Secretary, the Colonial Secretary (with 
the Ashantee war on his hands), the Indian Secre- 



tary, the Lord Chief Justice of the QneeB'i Bilidi, 

also of the Common Pleas, the AttOTner-OeBtfil, 

(hutlly recovered from his Hchbome lalXRtfB), flu 

Solicitor-General, the Mast^ of the Bdh-wt 

having lots of leisure — ^besides some thirty otbets 

of the highest distinction, well worked wifli oiby 

business. You iprill ask why bnrthai thsl bmi( 

excellent, over- worked prelate, the ArohluboBof 

Canterbury, whom I respect much, with ^ aofi* 

tional won of settling if Hanley School of Alt 

should or should not borrow a tea-cup or dkh ai i 

pattern from the Kensington Museum ? Or if a» 

parHcular object should be bought for its use, au 

^h&t price should be paid for it? Why was tin 

proposed ? Because a hundred years ago the Aieb- 

bishop of that day was named by an Act of Ftf' 

Uament to see th^t a lottery was f sirly dnwi, 

which lottery was to be the means of rian% tk 

wind to establish .the British Muasnm. T^ 

immoral lottery created the Archbi^op, andCSuffl- 

ceUor, and Sp«Eiker trustees, to see fi^ play, ■»! 

nonfr" they have grown to a corporatioii ol abort 

fifty trustees. In simplicity and doubt, you vSI 

ask, are fifty trustees the proper adminirfratoif (rf 

public money to the ext^it of hundredsof Uhwb^ 

\ a year for Science and Art ? Would the Pottnie* 

I trust these fifty great men to get them 20, or pta 

i 10 per cent, profit on their pottery ▼»«»? lAn^ 

not. But what said the present Duke of 8ome«t 

I and Lord Canning, afterwards Goveraor-Ganni 

in India, and Lord Houghton, and Joseph Hoaa, 

in 1850, who then were Boyal Commiesiooos te 

inquire into the way in which these Chachtfi 

these lawyers, these Ministers, &c., had peffonw 

their duty as trustees of the British Mweaii. 

" On the whole," says the Duke of Sonieifet(«» 

present duke, whom they have muded byoarag 

him a trustee, Ac), ** the ooncluri<m has li« 

forced upon us, that the mode in which the tfoslw 

have exercised their functions of goTernmertin*^ 

Museum has not been satisfactory." Mr. Owfwy 

(whom Mr. Gladstone has sent out as 0<|''*'* 

of Ceylon) assured the House of Commoni in w 

that the British Museum was ** in hopeless co^ 

sion ; valuable collections wholly hidden from tk 

public, and great portions of otiiers in dsag«*^ 

being destroyed by damp and neglect." ^ l^ 

the Edinburgh Review said :— " The state <rft« 

collections is a national disgrace. An ovcfcw*** 

building, most unsuitable for exhibitioii, mo** ■•' 

healthy to visitors, and destructive to ^^^f^ 

from insufficient ventilation ; ill-cared lor ^^ 

lighted ; specimens of sculpture disterrf ^ 

dirt ; specimens of natural history crowqe d m eg * 

which are not dust-tight, and sluttishly '**^*^ 

labels wanting — throughout an air of sleepy, ••' 

temly shabbiness.*' ^^ 

I think I can make you best unda*taB« w 

wotdd be the working of the proposed ^'''^^'Jjf 

showing you what now happens to a Hsnley ^JJ" 

who comes up to London to visit the Bin* 

Museum and the South Kensington ^^^'^'^ j! 

will suppose that he comes up to town t<'^*'* ^ 

end of the Christmas holidays, fle ■''^* 

Euston Station. No railway tenninas is w^ 

mile of the British Museum, so he histotik»» 

cab, or walk. He goes there on a Tnesdsy. **' 

finds the gates closed. He asks for Sibms** 

He is told that the Museum is not op«»J^ 

Tuesdays, except to a party of fifty. "Oh, «?■ 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, October 31. lf<73. 



915 



he student, " perhaps you will allow me to wait 
nd join the party." **Nothine of the kiiid — 
ou are no party of fifty, and cairt be admitted." 
' Please, air, may I come to-morrow ? " ** No ; 
a-morrow is the beginning of our washing-up 
rede" " Then can^t I enter for a whole weS ? " 
' No ; it's our general wash, and we shall be in 
he ihkk of soap-suds and steam." The student 
raits until the washing days are over, and pre- 
ents himself on a Saturday morning, at ten o'clock, 
rhen he is told there is no admittance till twelve. 
Li last he gains admittance. Looking like a * * young 
oao from the country," he is made to sign liis 
ftme in a book. The policeman looks at him well 
nd puts hia mark in a book to eount him. He 
kids, notwithstanding the watlung, that the 
luseum looks very dark, and vmells very fusty. 
king a plumber and glazier by trade, and in- 
snrted & windows, he perceives that there are 

sde<iuate arrangements for opening the windows 
nd for ventilation. He passes through the statue 
laUeries, but cannot see many of the objects for 
^t of light, and does not understand the label- 
ing, as he has not been taught Latin and Greek. 
h wishes to look at some etchings of ornament, 
nd tings a bell at the print-room door, where he 

1 told he must get a special permission, so he otm- 
ot enter now. His brother, being a working 
Bweller at Sheffield, and having read Mr. Lowe's 
peech at the last Cutlers' feast, which informed 
im that the Treasury had spent several thousand 
Knmds in jewellery, he makes an eflPort to 
ee it, but fails altogether. He is sent from 
ttssage to passage, to find out where it is. He 
I made to ring a bell, and is finally told that he 
lust apply to the learned keeper* who is not to bo 
[mnd, and whom he has not uie honour of know- 
ig. His son Tom, being something of an entomo- 
»giBi, he wanders about for an hour or so on a 
ommission to find the insects, which, as well as 
lost of the specimens of natural hirftory, are im- 
terfectly labelled, and many of them so crowded 
nd dusty that he cannot see them properly. By 
his time he has cauffht what is well known as the 
' museum headache, * so ho seeks for refreshment, 
le descends to the vaults of the building, there to 
bd that ho cannot get any, because the trustees 
Ave given up that business. Mr. Melly, his 
&«mbar, had given him an introduction to Mr. 
Winter Jones, to obtain an admission to the read- 
ag-room, but he found he had left it behind him, 
lid so he could not get admission. Now, let me 
ontrast these antiquated obstructions with the 
leQities which the Hanley student will find 
t the Kensington Museum. He comes up 
y the railway from Hanley, not to Euston, 
ut to South Kensington Station, which puts 
tni down within some 200 yards of the 
uiseum. He finds the place open every day in 
lie week at ten o'clock. It is never closed for 
teaning and repairs. I could tell the Archbishop 
be secret how to do it, if his Orace really desired 
do the work. Three davs it is open until ten at 
ight. (Mr. Panizzi would have done the same 
>r the reading-room at the British Museum, 
nt the Archbishop and the forty-nine trustees 
revented him.) The Hanley student is counted 
) by a turnstile. He is not called upon to si^ 
is name or to give up his umbrella. If his wife 
od the baby are with him, baby is even admitted. 



Being an art student, he can consult theArtLibraiy 
and ^educational Library by showing his ticket, 
and he gets admission for a week for sixpence. 
He can draw any object he sees. He finds every 
object labelled, and is told what the nation has 
paid for it. He finds chairs and benches in plenty 
to sit upon. He can eat when he pleases. Even 
princes and princesses are glad to come to the re- 
freshment room. He can wash his hands when he 
wants to do so. He finds the light perfect for the 
pictures, &c. Appropriate, new, and unobtrusive 
decoration, the work of his fellow-students, he may 
find everywhere. The clean mosaic and tile fioor 
contrast favourably with the dusty, brown-pajaer 
coloured stone and wooden fioors of the British 
Museum. The buildings are cool in summer and 
of equal warmth in winter. He can breathe freely 
and gets no headache, tie can look freely at the 
jewellery and the priceless gems lent by the Duke 
of Marlborough, the Duke of Devonshire, or Mr. 
Beresford Hope, without disturbing or boring a 
very learned keeper. The spirit of the place has 
always sought to attract the public, its paymasters, 
to come as often as possible, and give them a 
hearty welcome. 

Hanley students! Art and science students 
throughout the country ! I appeal to you. Are 
you going to permit this work of the Prince 
Consort's — ^matured and organised with great atten- 
tion and the labour of years — to be destroyed, and 
this insult to his memory to be perpetrated f Will 
you suffer the means of your own instruction to 
be taken away, or muddled with old world-decay- 
ing notions ? If my opinion, based upon fifty 
years* official experience, be worth anything, I 
publiclv and with confidence assert that the pro- 

Iect is impracticable, and if attempted must fail, 
f I know the feelings and common sense of the 
nation, it will not stand it, just as they would not 
stand the Zanzibar Contract or the Match -tax, and 
other errors of a similar source. I oall upon yon all 
to tell your wishes in a constitutional voice to your 
representatives in Parliament, to urge them to 
protect your best interests and rights, and this 
national property, from unprincipled invasion and 
threatened indignity, and I offer to you, and all 
interested in Science and Art instruction, my 
humble services, if I can be any use during the 
rest of my life, to preserve from the hands of the 
ignorant spoiler your privileges, and the institution 
which the Prince Consort founded. 



The first consignment of Queensland sugar, made 
with a view to test the EDglish market, was brought to auo- 
tiun on FridajF last, bv Messrs. W. Anderson snd Co., at the 
London Cummercial Sa)^ Rooms, and partly disposed of, the 
prices realised being considered satisfactory. The sugars 
s«*ld were fiom the Ouvemment establitihment on the island 
uf St. Helena, Moreton Bay. 

There is said to be enough iron ore in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Black Hiv^r Falls, Minnesota, to supply 
the whole demand of the United States for the next ten 
centuries. The State geologist is authority fur the state- 
ment. 

The telegraph is making rapid strides in South 
America. It is expected that in September, Valpariso, 
Santiago dt Chili, Buenos Ayres, Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro, 
Babia, and Pernambuco, will be linked together by wires. 

It is proposed to enlarge the St. Philip Canal, 
at the outlet uf the Mississippi Riyer, at an estimated ezpea- 
diture of 12,000,000 dollars. 



916 



J0Ua.<AL Oh THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobilb 31, 1873. 



ANNUAL INTEINATIONAL KXHIBITIONS. 



The following rales have been issned by her Majesty's 
Oommissioziers for the preparation of diagrams of ancient 
and motiem buildings of all countries in Division 11., 
Glass 9 (civil engineering), architectural and building 
oontrivances, of the Exliibition of 1874 : — 1. The dia- 
gmms should be of a bold scenic character. 2. They 
should be executed on canvas, and may be in oil colour 
or distemper. 3. They may be executed in colours or in 
monochrome. 4. They should be perspective views. 6. 
Each diagram should be at least 5 feet by 10 feet, but 
single diagrams ought not to occupy more than 10 feet 
in height and 20 feet in length. 6. £ach diagram should 
be attoched to a roller, and sent rolled. 7. The scale 
should be clearly marked upon each diagram. 8. Her 
Majesty's Commissioners would be glad to have the right 
of purchasing the ding^ams, if for sale, at the prices 
attached to them. 



KXHIBITIONS. 



RISE OF INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS. 

The following sketch of the growth of exhibitions is 
taken fh)m the Philadelphia Cmtetinial Chronicle: — 

*'The taste for public exhibitions has ever been the 
evidence of the industrial and commercial activity of a 
people. If we turn back to ancient history, we find that 
the great wealth of the cities of the Mediterranean was 
due to the fact that the bazaars of Tyre and Carthage 
brought together, through commerce, the wonderful 
riches of the then known world. At a later period, 
Rome, after having conquered many peoples, desiring to 
assimilate them under the dominion of the Cs&sars, com- 
menced public exhibitions, at which were brought 
together the different productions of the globe, com- 
prising precious stones, pearls, rare woods, steel armour, 
crystals, amber, embroidered cloths, and other objects of 
Tiuue. After the invasion of the Roman Empire by 
barbarian hordes, this industrial ehain was broken, to 
be taken up again in the Middle Ages ; for the great 
fairs held at Leipzig. Nijni Novgortxl, &c., were cer- 
tainly national exhibitions. In Italy and France, 
county and town fairs have been held for many years ; 
and these all go to prove that, as the cause of civilisa- 
tion advances, so does the desire for public exhibitions. 

At a later date, 1699, an exhibition was held in 
Leyden, which, among other curiosities, contained a 
Norwegian house built of beams, side by side with a 
mermaid's hand, a crocodile, a Roman lamp, a Persian 
pipe, Arabian jewels, Chinese paper, Egyptian linen, 
&C., &C. In 1756 and 1761, prizes were oiOTered by the 
Society of Arts in England. Franee in 1797, founded 
the first of her national fairs, at which were 110 contri- 
butors. The second took place in 1801, with 229 ex- 
hibitors. 

" This was specially an International Exhibition, and 
due to the efforts of the French Government ; for the 
Minister of the Interior issued a notice inviting the con- 
tributions of other nations, and stating that prizes would 
bo given, particularly, however, to inventors in improve- 
ments in wool machinery*. For the purpose of securing 
greater perfection in this machinery, the exhibition was 
postponed for some months. Special committees of ex- 
perts wew formed in each department of France, who 
made the selwMion of thoso articles of manufiotures and 
pmctical inventions deemed worthy of a place. This 
exhibition was held in the Graml Court of the Louvre. 
The feport of the jury is very interesting, indicating, as 
it does, the appreci;ttk>a then held by pcactical men of 



the value of these exhibitions, as follows : — 'There u ««* 
an artist or inventor who, once obtaining ihuf a pablit 
recognition of his ability, has not found his reptttatiov 
and business largely increased * Special attentzoo wis 
paid to the cost of each article, and Uie best ma a n s cf 
diminishing that cost, to the advantage of all oonccraed. 
The parties receiving the gold medal on tiiia oc c Mi oa 
dined with Napoleon, then First Consul. These ezhili- 
bitions were kept up for several years, as follows : — His 
third was held in 1802, with 540 exhibiion; the font^ 
in 1806, with an increase to 1,422; the fifth in 1S19, 
with 1,663 ; the sixth in 1823, with 1,648 ; and othen 
in 1827, with 1,795 ; in 1834, with 2,447 ; in 1839, witi 
3,2ai ; in 1844, with 3,960 ; and the eleventh in 1^9, 
with 4,494 exhibitors. 

*' In Great Britain, exhibitions were held at London bf 
the Society of Arts in 1846, 1847, 1848, 1S49; atCoKk.ii 
1852 ; and at Dublin, in 1853. The reealls of 1819 aai 
1844 were so very satisfactory, that in 1849 the EogU 
Government became much interested, and the fint steyi 
were taken for the International Exhibition of ISIL 
This, the first of the really great exhibitiona, was vi^«d 
by 6,039,000 paying visitors, there were 13^,937 flzki- 
bitors, and the receipts were over 2,500,000 dollara, wA 
a balance after paying expenses of over 1,000,000 doQazi. 
As an evidence of Uie attention given, and the efieflt 

Xn the minds of able and experienced jod^es, of tibs 
ance shown by our own country at that exbifaitiaB. 
the following extract is taken from the report of t^ 
French Commissioners; first making r efer ents to tk 
United States, France, and Great Britain, as the tijRe 
nations showing the most progress in this dizectaoL, 
it continues as follows : — ' Massachitseta, to t^ 
west of the Atlantic, occupying a territory much Isa 
fertile than the basins of Uie Mississippi, tike La Pha, 
or the Amazon — ^Massachusets has growrn by agrknlnsf, 
but principally by mechanical and mannfactminjr s* 
dustiy. It has placed itself at the head of genius di 
art, in the midst of one hundred and twenty states of t^ 
New World. To its too limited territory has heen sdd4 
the wealth of two oceans ; to the whale fisheries of tL? 
Polar Seas have been sent more fishermen than thses^ 

gopulation of the countries washed by their w^si. 
eeking in Asia the treasures of the equator, the preeav 
drugs, perfumes, &o., of the torrid zone, it caxfenb t^ 
obligation with blocks of pure ice taken firosa its en 
lakes. To gain firom her flowing waters an mattmii^'q 
power, falls, cataracts, and rapids are mitde oas •£ t. 
move machinery. It has not been snfficient thst «i 
should have Cambridge as an Alma Mater ; bat to tM 
have been added Manchester, Gla8«<ow, I>«d% wsi 
Halifax. For the half century now before na, lbs ;»- 
pares against the Colossus of British indiMtry a wir i 
giants ; it has already commenced. Kew Engtaad «pai 
the second war of independence, and tfie cop qs eit f^ 
be the independence of arts.* The cosnmitSee ia ^ 
report devote some 300 pages to oor p ro gi u u s vqp to t^ 
date, taking in state by state. 

*' That the history and results of the world's &tn k^ 
Industrial Exhibitions h ive shown steady »r%A bailiff 
growth, appears from these figures : — T^ft Ttdim , 1^-. 
13,937 exhibitors, 6.039,000 paying viaitois ; Psris, l»^ 
23,754 exhibitors, 5,162,000 paying riaitois; Loai.% 

1862, 28,653 exhibitore, 6,211,000 paying visitQia; Fs^ 
1867, 50,226 exhibitors, 9,921,698 paying 



PHILADELPHIA EXHIBrnOX. 

The following is the classification ad0pti<4 by tk 
ITnited Stntes Cbmmission on the IntexnafcioKal XTrx*^ 
sil Exhibition of 1876 :— 

Dbpabtxktt L 
JKmt MmUri^ Mtrntrmf, nyvTai*^. 

Group 10. — Minerals, ores, boIlixB^ 
and melalhtrgical pfodncts. 




JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, October 31, 1878. 



917 



iGroup 11. — Agricultural products used chiefly for 

Group 12. — Arboriculture and floriculture. 

Group 13. — Forest products. 

Group 14. — ^Aromatic, oleaginous, saponaceous, stimu- 
latm^y and sarootio substances of vegetable growth, 
re^etable drugs, and perfumes. 

Group 16. — Fibrous substances of yegetable and of 
tnimal origin used in the arts. 

Group 16. — Animals, live stock, &c. 

Group 17. — Fish and aquatic life and fish products. 

Group 18. — Animal products used as fooo, or as the { 
basis of manufactures, exclusive of aquatic products. . i 

Group 19. — Preserved meats, vegetables and fruits. ' 



Dbpabtment II. 

Maieriais and Manufactures u$ed for Foody or in the Arii \ 
th4 result of extractive or combining processes. 

Group 20. — Extracts and compounds of animal or 
ree«table orgin, used chiefly for food. 

U^roup 2 1. --Potash, soda, and ammonia, salt, bleaching 
powders, fertilising compounds, mineral acids. 

Group 22. — Oils, soaps, candles, illuminating and other 



Group 23. — Chemical and pharmaceutical prepara- 
tions. 

Group 24. — Paints, pigments, dyes, colours, turpen- 
tines, oils, and varnishes. 

G^roup 2d. — Patent medicinal compounds, perfumery, 
eeafXkoes, pomades^ cosmetics, aromatic vinegats, &c. 

Oroup 26. — Cements, artificial stone, concrete, and 
beton. 

G-roup 27. — ^Tho ceramic art, terra- cotta, fuience, por- 
celain and glass. 

Q-roup 28.~£xplosive and fulminating compounds. 

Department HI. 

Textile and Felted Fabrics, Apparel, Costumes, and Oma^ 

mentsfor the Person, 

GSxoup 30.-— Yams and woven goods of vegetable or 
animal materials. 

O-ronp 31. — Woven and felted goods, of wool or mix- 
tnre« of wooL 

Oroup 32. — Silk and silk fabrics, and mixtures of 
■rhich silk is the predominating material. 

Oxoup 33. — Knit goods and hosiery, including under- 
wremr made of piece goods. 

Oroup 84. — Clothmg, ready-made clothing, military 
olotluxig^, costumes, and clothing for special objects. 

Oronp 35. — ^Hats, caps, boots, shoes, gloves, mitCens, 
flbc^ straw, and palm -leaf hats, bonnets, and millineiy. 

Oroup 36. — Laces, embroideries, trimmingpi for 
sIo4liizigrt furniture, and carriages. 

Oroup 37. — Fine jewellery, and metallic or mineral 
arnaoxents, worn upon the person. 

Oroup 38. — Ornaments, artificial flowers, coifi'ures, 
buttons, trimmings, fans, umbrellas, sun-shades, walking 
pti**^*^, aj^ other ornaments of dress or adornment, ex- 
•HittTO of jewellery. 

Oroup 39. — Paper, paste-board, card-board, wall- 
pa,pery and paper industry generally. 

Department IV. 

J^tmiiure and Manufacture o/ general use in Construction 

and in Dwellings, 

O-roup 40. — Heavy furniture for parlour, chamber, 
i^xd the library. 

G^roup 41. — ^Table furniture of glass, china, and metal. 

Ci-roup 42. — Mirrors, stained and enamelled glass, cut 
^xid engraved window glass, and other decorative ob- 

G-roup 43. — Apparatus and fixtui*es for heating, light- 
[0 A-V *nd cookinjf. 

4GFroup 44, — Hardware used in construction, exclusive 
>£" lX3ol8 and implements. 



Department V. 
Tools, Implements, Machines, and Presses. 

Group 60. — ^Machines, tools, and apparatus of mining, 
metallurgy, chemistry and the extractive arts. 

Group 61. — Machines, tools and apparatus of agricul- 
ture and forestry, and of alimentary industry. 

Group 62. — Machines and tools for working wood, 
metal, or stone. 

Group 63. — Machines and implements of spinning, 
weaving, felting, paper-making, sewing, and making 
clothing and ornamental objects. 

Group 64. — ^Machines and apparatus for type-setting, 
printing, stamping, embossing, and for making books ; 
paper- working, miscellaneous hand- tools, machines, and 
appliances used in various arts. Cutlery. 

Group 68. — Instruments and apparatus of medicine and 
surgery, of relief to the wounded ; sanitary apparatus 
and methods. 

Group 69. — ^Instruments and apparatus for the de- 
struction of life, for hunting, trapping, and fishing. 

Department VI. 
Motors and Transportation, 

Group 60. — Motors and apparatus for the generation 
and transmission of power, and for lifting and moving 
fiuids. 

Group 61. — ^Vehicles and apparatus of transportation 
on common roads. 

Group 62. — Railways and railway plant. 

Group 63. — ^Railway rolling stock and apparatus. 

Group 64. — Hoisting and hfting apparatus. 

Group 66. — ^Transportation upon suspended cables. 
Aerial transportation. P&eumatic transportation. 

Group 66. — Boats and sidling vessels. 

Ghroup 67. — Steam-ships, steam- boats, propellers, and 
all vessels propelled by steam or other fixed motors. 

Group 69. — Boats or vessels designed for special 
purposes. 

Department VII. 

Apparatus and Methods for the Increase and Diffusion 

of Knowledge, 

Group 70. — Educational apparatus and methods. 

Group 71. — Typographic aids to the preservation and 
dissemination of knowledge. 

Group 72. — Charts, maps, and graphic representations. 

Group 73. — ^Telegraphic instruments and methods. 

Group 74. — Instruments of precision, and apparatus of 
physical research, experiment and illustration. 

Group 76. — Meteorological instruments and apparatus. 

Group 76. — Mechanical calculation, indioatiug and 
roistering apparatus, other than meteorological. 

Group 77. — Weights, measures, and coins ; weighing 
and meteorological apparatus. 

Group 78.--Chronometric apparatus; time measures of 
all kinds. 

Group 79. — Musical instruments and accousUo appa- 
ratus. 

Department VIII. 

Engineering, Public Works, Architecture, ^. 

Group 80. — A^cultural engineering. 
Group 81. — Mining engineering. 
Group 82. — Civil engineering. 
Group 83. — Dynamic and industrial engineering. 
Group 84. — Bailway engineering. 
Group 86. — Public works and architecture. 
Group 87. — Submaiine constructions, foundations, 
piers, docks, &c. 

Group 88. — Military engineering. 
Group 89. — Naval engineering. 

Department IX. 

Plastic and Graphic Arts. 

Group 90. — Sculpture. 
Group 91. — Pttiniiog. 



918 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, Ootobbb 31, 1878. 



Group 92. — Line drawing, engraTingf and die-rinldiig. 
Oroup 93. — Chromo-lithography and lithography. 
Group 94. — Photography. 
Group 95. — Industrial designa. 
Group 96. — Mosaio and inlaid work. 
Group 97. — Arohitectund deaigna and modela. 
Group 98. — Decoratini? and fumiahing of interiora of 
public and piivate buildings. 

Group 99. — Landscape gardening. 

Dkpabtmxi^ X. 

Objects iUustrating Effort* for the Improvement of the 
Phyeieal, Intelleetual, tmd Moral Condition of Man, 

Group 100. — Physical derelopment and condition. 
Group 101. — Sanitary. 
Group 102. — Benevolence. 
Group 103. — Government and law. 
Group 104. — Religious organisations and systems. 
Group 105. — Education. 

Group I06.--In8titution8, societies, and organisations 
having for their object the promotion of science. 
Group 107. — Co-operative associations. 
Group 108. — Music and the drama. 
Group 109. — Exhibitions of works of art and industry. 

Viaiima Industrial Exhibition, 1878.— The Vienna 
Exhibition absolutely closes on the 2Qd Novemb^ with- 
out any final ceremonial. — The Artisans' Reports upon 
the Exhibitiont prepared under the auspices of the 
Manchester Society tor the Promotion of Scientific 
Industry, are to be published on November 1st. The 
reports are thirty-one in number. 



this would give 2,376,000 dolls, u the inerauBd laeat 
of insurance which must be paid anniudlj on leeoat i 
the dangers of the Straits of Florida. T1uitiix««ti, 
in ten years, or less time, amount to a lom safioi^ a 
all probability, to pay for the entire coit d ^csi^ 
and would in a great measure be iSTed bf id » 
session. Nor is this the only Btrisg ^ vwii 
effected by the canaL A large additional HnBfti«> 
meroe would be accomplished from the oie Wiwii i 
the diort and uninterrupted passige acm Ihd^^ 
the ship-canal, instead of the long and obrin0til|i^ 
sage around the peninsula now usel 

Mr. Cndknd, the British Consol at HoUe. mAt 
this proposed canal, once constructed, woulp^ 
valuable to that city, not only on account of mra$^ 
her business in insuraooe, kc^ bat became it M 
afford cheap water transportation tohsrroatirfa» 
meroe, while the routes of oommeroe of tba Soi&i^ 
lantic ports must, of necessity, hare expenan tB» 
portation by railroads. Assuming SdflM,Alibni,a 
the point at which commences oompetitioa ltf«i 
Mobile and the two porU of the South Atkat Jcfat* 
trade of the interior, the proposed canal will ofaM 
1,080 miles of water-transportati<Hi by iiTer, dap^ 
and ocean, on the Mobile route for 437 Ts^dm 
road, and 170 miles of ocean-transpoitatiMiflatki^ 
vid Savannah. Considering that the coft of «ii» 
transportation by ocean, good riTer, and ahijMailii 
least eight times cheaper than that of railroi44» 
portation, it is dear that Mobile will njoftev 
canal great advantages over the Soath Atlantic fm 
competing for the trade of the interior. Tk M^ 
exports which now pass around the 600 miU rf ^ 
gerous navigation of the Florida PaaBytabagtb^ 
ending June 30, 1871, would amount to Tfili*" 
dolkn, whilst others estimate the totd at l,067.aMI 
dollars. If the latter figures are correct, and tki*# 
ment that the construction of the Florida Aip<a 
would reduce Uie premiums on insurance 3-&hi (i ^p 
cent., the annual saving to commerce from tM •** 



THE FLORIDA SHIP CANAL. 

The Board of Trade at Mobile have been memorialising 
the Congress of the United States for an appropriation 
to commence a survey for a ship canal, to open communi- 
cation between the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the ^—m — >* ""-™ — •-"© — . .^ 

Atlantic Ocean, through the Florida Peninsula. The ' alone would amount to 2,878,734 dollara,andmaV 
proposed canal might commence at Tampa Bay, and the i' would save as much more 
gulf side of Florida. At that point there is a naturally 
well-protected harbour, with ample depth of water for 
•hips drawing 20 feet, and the channel could be perma- 
nently deepened. E^ist of Tampa Bay, in a distance of 
12^ miles across the Peninsula of Florida, at its narrowest 
part, with one exception, the map shows on the Atlantic 
coast depths of 27 and 28 feet of water, quite close to the 
shore, and thence to the bruad expanse of the Atlantic a 
free and unobstructed way for vessels. A breakwater 
will be required there to form an artificial harbour for 
the protection of vessels. 

^ From hU the information published on the subject, de- 
rived from those familiar with the proposed route of the 
oanil, it is believed that a very efficient ship canal, with 
adequate depth of water, could be made without great cost. 
The land is level across the proposed route, with only a 
few feet elevation above tide water. The importance of 
such a canal cannot be overrated. The passage around 
the southern point of Florida, which vessels engaged in 
the North Atlantic trade, entering and leavioj? the 
Gulf, are compelled to make for about 600 miles, is 
narrow, subject to tornadoes, and is beset with con- 1 
oealed reefs, upon which a rapid current has a tendency 
to carry vessels. The consequent dangers are such that 
it costs on an average three-eighths of one per cent 
more to insure for a Gulf than for an Atlantic port. 
Twenty- five years ago the amount of commerce com- 
pelled to use this passage was estimated at 320,000,000 
dolls, per annum. Taking the increase of commerce 
since then at only ten per cent., the present oommeroe 
using the passage would be 352.000,000 dolls, per annum. 
If the value of the vessels is assumed on an average at 
eight tenths of tht^ir cargoes, the property passing 
through the Straits of Florida will amount to 633.000,000 
doUs. per annum. Three-eighths of one per cent, on 



To estimate the interest on time asTed wooU bi 
cult, but the distance, for instance, betwt« tht pjta 
Mobile or any northern or foreign port, wtM « 
shortened for steam -ships two or ***'*® ***J5J??Jj 
or going out, or four or six days in theroontlnM" 
for sailing vessels, six or eight daya, or taet^^ 
the round trip. But the advantages of wAiP*} 
does not end here. Mr. J. J. Williama, •^Jjjj 
the Tehuantepec route, under the direction of wWJ 
States Government, estimates that 2,000.0W *»J 
would be added to the commerce of the (Wf ''"^^ 
were cut across the Isthmus of P^UAma, a i " ** 
vastly enhances the importance of this P'^J^VJ^S 
it is thought that had a canal exiated tt» jjaj*? 
years insurance companies would have m«dgM^*|^ 
dends at a premium of one- half of what "JJ^Jv 
usually charged. Its great importance '•*^^*^?"j- 
enlarge upon. The SUta of Alabama htf ^ 
memoralised Congress for its survey and swlW* 
and the Committee of the Senate promptly "jgP^^lj 
recommending an appropriation to tnat uh^ ^ 
States are preparing to move in the ""**^«|^ 
National BoaA of Trade, sitting at *^«Ti*^\J 
in October, last year, unanimooaly wsoN< ^^ 
moralise Congress for the same object All ^•■Jx 
nations would be benefited by ths oonitnct«i»* 
Florida Ship-Canal. 



The American Manufacturer say* *^S2 
7,000 acr«s are cleared of tiojber ench we^k day *^2k J^ 
Slates. Of the annual crop 76,000,000 ^-"^j;**^! 
fuel, and twice as much ' ' "^"^ 



3 



to fenotnir. Tba^«^ -^ 
North America consume no lass than mfff*^"^* 



acres a year. 



/L 



JOUBNAL of the BOOIETY of ABTS, OoTOBift SI, 1873. 



COBEVSrOVDZirCB. 



OOLONIAL WINES, fto. 

t,— In the lout iuae of the Society's Journal 70a 

good eoough to insert some soggeetioiu, forwaiiled 

BjKlf, la relntion to the method of treatment to tin 

oedia the preaerration of tropical and othur fruite, 

Ell, jelUea. marmalades, tec. Fenrin^ to eacroHch 
f an jour BpBcaldid not allude toother direction* 
lich it Hppean to me to be posaihle now to utiliso 
II producta. I refer more eepectallj to the prepa- 

I of winei and Ijqueun from the pineapple and 

II froiti. DoubUaaa the difSculty which han 
trto stood in the way of the manufacture of wioiui 
\e tropics was that of oontrolling rvrmentalion ; but 

— * haTe cold-produdnK machinea, which 1 am 
haTe beeo introduced at Che C^pe, and h^ive 
kted prscticabla Ihe brewing of b«er thtre. I 
bre to sugB^t that Iha contrul of the fermentation 
working of mnata could be governed by liko appli- 
and I venture to tbink that if pineapple wioe was 
in OQT market, or liquenrs of like narour nere 
Inable. there would be no difficulty in fiecnring a 
]r sale for such oommoditib*. 

iming from wines, which mii(hlbe very varied, I would 
^on picklus asanutberanicle of commerce but little 
•deSto, and but slightly importsd from foreign mtr- 
Ua home consamptian; but I have a vivid recol- 
in of having eaten delicioualy aromatic pii-klea in 
yoDth, obtained through frieada who traded with 
East. I may mention picklpd lemon caps, richly 

Kand mellowed by age, as one of the moat fragrunt 
I ever tasted. 

r'B are many fmiU and vagetables aied in 
India Iilands which might be udvaotageously 
pai«d and brr ught into our m>irkel«. 
'have [ffobably said enough to direct attention 
ubject, and will therefore not trespass further 
■pace, but append the following letter received 
Ur. D. Tallcrman since the publication of my 
rioos letter ia last week's Journal. 
F H. Q. H. 

Ht Sub Sis,— I have your fovoors. Thanka for Uie 

gfijienoM and memoranda in i> dried fruits ; they 
iil< opportune, ai by the HcUpBiamt, J ust arriTed from 
uDlh Australia, I am in receipt of a case of these 
rticles^ comprising Tainins (two kinds), curranW, 
prieota, apples, plums, and almonds. They are not yet 
Wded, and I shull not fail to Icnep you advised as soon 
1 1 i«c«iva them, in order that you may inspect them, 
Uiar hen or at the Society's rooms, should they bs 
ifflcdsndy interesting. Faithfully yours, 

b AatnlUn Meat Acoicr (Tillrmun^) Com- 
puy, LlmlUi], 113, Cuiaoo nnet, £.C., 



OBITUA&T. 



Sr. Orww Calnrt, F.B.B., F.C.8.— The death has just 
been announced, from Manchester, of Dr. F, Calvert. 
I'he illness which caused it was contracCod at Vinnna, 
whither he had gone to act as juror in the Intemalianal 
Exhibition, and. as he had been fir Borne time in an nluiost 
hopuleaa condition, ita ttTiuination, whigb occurred OD 
Friday laat, the 24tb, was by no means sudden or unex- 
pected. Aa an annlytical chemist Dr. Oalvort's renown 
was European. He left Eng 






IB— dofi 



In the United Stat«9 the Qortsherria ooal-cuttinir 

schines aie aaid to be in great request, and no fewer than 
" iw bwag oonairuclad. 



AoooT^ng to tlie Oaeela Induttrial, Meyer, a 
ivil -nfinair h'lr disooveied that IheintruductUmovi-r night 
t fivm half a litn la a litre of ammonia into the amal^una- 
OD luk for mirrors, entirely prevents salivalliin and aimliar 
snagaasnts among the wurkmeo, due to the merooiial 

A pnwpectafl has been issued of the Prideaux 

'ilHit CeaWDt Compuiy (Limited), which is formed fur ibe 
oipoHi of pnrvhuiuK ibe riKhti ascured by the lata Mr. 
*bittua Fhdeanx, uoder rayai letlura pab^t, fur an inven^ 
0B, whereby the waata of gai, soap, and chemical works ia 

bs cftet of Bit ami damp, and for working the same. 



icured many h 
on by the awarus woicn ae 
iirsued the Htudy of chui 
laiatant chemist at thu Gob 
.aster, ChevTOol. Soon al 
3 commenced reading a i 
Hocioty of ArU on cbumist 
n February 12, 1861, broi 
f Mons. Chevreu! in relati< 
bject being to explain upoi 
lied, and to point out tbeii 
irangBment of coloured fah 
f I80I. At a later dale, wl 
,Kiaed to establish Cantor It 
tion bis bearly support, ai 

lecturra on " Cbeiuistry appiuu uj uie atlb. ii» auu 
ered courses on '* Ijyntheaii and the Production of 
Organic Suhetancea." on ''Aniline and Coal Tw 
" ' ira." and on " Dyes and Dye-stuA other than 
ne." He contributed many valuable paper* to the 
. „ I of thu Sociuty'a Jiiurnal ; and, had hi* life been 
spared, be cuntorapUted a fur more active and intimata 
reUtiOQsbip with the Society in reference to industrial 
education. In 1816 he sntuad in Manchester, and waa 
Soon alter appointud Professor of Chemistry at the ito)V 
Institution there. He was also for some time a lecturer 
at the Uanchester Huhool of Medicine. His connei^tion 
with the Manchester Sanitary Association led him to 
hygienic investigntions — unu of the principal resuiU of 
rbich was a patent tor the application and prepamtion 
if carbolic acid. In Ihis he followed up the discoverjsa 
>f thu Prussian, Kunge. Another of his patenlj was for 
desulphurising coke by meuns of chloride of sodium, and 
this has lud to an extonsive business. In tome other 
directions Dr. Calvert's persiatent eiperimrnla weT« 
doomed to become commercially valueless just at the 
moment when they hud attained to sac(?i-ss in the laboni- 
tory. This was the caao with a patiint for sizing cloth, 
Hnd with anotbi-r f >r the pro<luctiun of aniline colour*. 
Dr. Gilvort's process for obtaining the aniline fromi^oa] 
tar was soon superseded by its mure pioBtable prepara- 
tion from benzine. Dr. Calvert made a srrics of etaho- 
rata experiments with picric acid for dyeing purpoMa, 
and also with tannic aiids for tanning l»uthi-r. In 
scientific circles great interest attiched to Dr. Calvert's 
protoplasmic investigations, some of t'e rreulta of 
which were communicated In a paper read at the meet- 
ing of the British AssoiiMtion in K<linburgh some year* 
ago, and afterwards published in the Trunsiictions of ths 
Boyal Sucinty. Dr. Culvejt was a Fellow of the Ituyal 
Suciaty of ^gland. a Fellow of thu Chemicil Society, 
and an honorary F1.-II0W of the Chemicnl Society of 
Paris. He was also a member of the Koyal Academy of 
Turin, and of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. 
Ha became a member of the S'rciety in 1853. 

The production of coal in the Pas-de-Oalau— a 

oamparaiivi'ly new French Oual- field —ia said to sqaal 
2,000,000 luns annuxlly. 

It is stated that the Servian OoTemme&t has 
reJBuied all ibBpnip<«Hla m«d<< 10 it fur the ouostructiun of 
the GonlempliiKa Servian railway*. 



920 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Ootobeb 31, 1873. 



QENBRAL N0TB8. 



Teehnical Sduostion in Japan. — Two gentlemen in 
Japan, Messrs. McVean and Joyner, are making designa for 
a technical school in Jeddo on a very extensive scale. The 
school is to accommodate ahont 360 scholars, and foreign 
teachers are to be appointed to give instractioo. 

Another Textile Plant.— The plant known in North 
America as the wood-nettle, was discovered some years since 
on the Alleghany Mountains, at an altitude of more than 
5,000 feet ahuve the sea level. Some living apeciinena which 
Mr. Ruzel, the discoverer, took home, were disposed of to 
the Prussian Minister of Agriculture, who was desirous of 
ascertainiog the valne of the plant under cultivation. The 
results so far appear to be favourable, and the Laportea 
jpustulatat as a textile plant, is now occupying much attention 
in Germany. Being a perennial, the laportea does not 
require to be sown every year, and in this respect has some 
advantage over hemp and flax ; besides which, it is said to 
be far less troublesome, and less expensive than hemp in the 
preparation of its fibres. In the wild state it grows from two 
to three feet high, but as grown in Berlin it has already 
reached a higher stature, which it is probable will be still more 
extended by careful cultivation in suitable soil. The experi- 
ments which have been made as yet, to a limited extent only, 
as to the quality of the fibre, tend to the conclusion that it will 
form ft valuable addition to our textile materials. 

Kew Fire Engine. — A new fire engine, the invention 
of Mr. Thomas Atkins, civil engineer, recently underwent an 
experimental trial in a field at Lady well. The principle con- 
sists in saturating the water thrown on the flame with a 
gaseous compound, consisting of 18} parts of carbonic acid, 
H carbunic oxide, and 80 of nitrogen, manufactured from 
charcoal, which possesses the importabt advantage of very 
slowly efiervescing, although introduced at a high pressure. 
Its cheapness is another advantage, the cost not exceeding Is. 
for 1,700 square feet. The working standard is 160 lbs. to 
the inch, but it can be stored at 1,000. The experiment at 
Lady well was reported as fairly successful. A pile of 
faggoted brushwood and shavings, well saturated with tar, 
and about twelve feet in length, was set flre to, and it speedily 
burst into a furiutu blaze. Mr. Atkins then attacked it with 
his hose, and in a few minutes completely extinguished the 
flames, with the expenditure of about 17 gallons of fluid. 
One of the great merits claimed for this invention is the 
complete destruction of the asphyxiating qualities of smoke, 
which, it is said, is rendered capable of being breathed with- 
out inconvenience. 

Indian Bailways — Tlio extent of railroad open in 
India at Midsummer, 1873, was 5,511 miles. The gross 
revenue of the year 1872 was £6,351,617; the passenger 
traffic producing over two millions, and the goods* traffic 
nearly four millions. The expfuditure amounted to £3,482,394, 
leaving a net revenue of £2,869,223. The guaranteed interest 
advanced by the government in the year amounted to 
£4,600,883, leaving £1,731,660 in excess of the reoeipto from 
the traffic. The expenditure (m guaranteed railways to 
March, 1873, has been £91,686,025, and on State lines to the 
end of 1872, £3,492,322, making the expenditure of capital 
£95,178,347, exclusive of the land for guaranteed lines. Since 
the commencement of railway operations in India materials 
of the value of nearly 30 millions sterling have been sent 
from the United Kingdom. The number of persons em- 
ployed on the railways open in October, 1872, was 56,804 ; 
above 50.000 were natives of India. At the end of 1872 there 
were 61,940 proprietors of Indian railway stock and deben- 
tures; 388 were natives. In the year 1872 there were 9 
passengers killed and 58 injured ; but there were only 1 killed 
and 37 injured from causes beyond their own control, the 
other 8 killed and 21 injured owing their misfortune to their 
own misconduct or want of caution. But there were also 78 
trespassers killed, 2 persons at level crossings, 108 servants 
of the company or of contractors, and 14 " miscellaneous," 
makinf? in all 2ll persons killi d. The number <»f passcnirers 
in 1872 was 20,325,596, cxclui^ivo of 1^,859 periodical ticket 
holders. The third and fourth diss pnsseng-ers constituted 
nearly 94 per cent, of the whole numbers, and c^'ntributed 77 
per cent, of the receipts frotn pHUPenger trafl^c. 



Eeonomieal Confnmptio& of TueL — ^Tlie IRrhfliitinr 

which will be held in Manchester by the Soeiety for the I^ 
motion of Scientific Industry, of applianoea for Hmtmrptm, 
will be opened on the 18th De(»mber rtexJL BxhSnlara ia- 
tending to exhibit should send in their appilcatioDs at enaa 
In connection with this subject a gnaaeEoan faaa plaosd a 
gold medal at the disposal of the couidl of the Socialf , fv 
the best specimen of peat fnel that aball ooom nearaet to eoal 
in its use and character, special regard being had to lis dkat^ 
and rapid production. 

Captain Lyon's Indian ^ewi. — Hemben will ha ^ 
to learn that, owing to the laige amount of iatoctt csciledhy 
Captain Lyon*s exhibition of his phol<^^pha «€ lafin 
temples. &c, at the Society of Arts last seaaoa, be was a^ 
sequently requested to exhibit the serieeat the R^yal 
tution, Albemarle-street ; tho Midland InstitnliaA. 
mingham ; and the Philosophical Soeietj, SheffieU ; 
general public are now to have an opportoni^ of exa 
those marvels of Indian art and iodnatiy bj the exhilatia& < 
the entire series at the Crystal Palaoa on the 3rd« dth, and 7tk 
of November, at three o'clock. 



HOTICES. 



THE LIBSABT. 

The following woilu have been proMDted to 

the Library : — 

Chemiatianity, a poem, >»y J. Oarringtaii flcJhii. 
F.C.S. Presented by the Author. 

Local Taxation. A paper read at the Local 8gkscb 
Congress, by J. J. Colman, M.P. Preoented Irf the 
Author. 

Keports of the Qovemment of Lidia on Ib£K 
Harbours, by George Bohertson. Fr«oented by the 
Author. 

Keports of the United States Paient^sffioe lor tf63, 
1870, and 1871. Seven voLi. Presented by tho 
missioners of Patents, Washington. 



MEST1N08 FOB THE JSBVUJXB 



How. ...Boyal Qeofnuphioal, 8j^. 1. Prasfdenfa 

2. Captain Markham's Becent Viait to 

the Discoveries of the Polaris. 
Society of Engineera. 7^. Mr. Fenr F. 

Economic Uiiea of Blast Funaoa StagV 
Boyal InstitntiDn, S. Oeoeiml Hoothl^ Meeting. 
Farmers' Club. 54. Mr. J. J. MechL **Azeaot 

our Losses by Live Stock Preventable r* 

TuES. ...Biblical Archaeology, 8&. 1. Mr. Geo. Smith, *"Ola 
menta of an Inscription giving pait of flw 
from whioh the Canoa Off Beroans was eofaed."' % 
Geo. Smith, **On a New Ptaffinent 
Canon belonging to the Beigna of Tlglafh-^ 
Shalmaneaer." 
Zoological, 8^. 



Wkd. ...Miorosoopiad, 8. 1. Mr. 8. J. 

Acarellos." t. B«v. W. H. Dolliager aadl)». 
*' Farther Beaoarehes into the Lifc Bjatorj <tf 
Oeologioal Sodecy, 8. 1. Mr. H. Woodward, ** H 
bearing on the inquiry coooenun^ ftnu 
between Birds and Beptitos." S. Praf 
** On the Skull of aspedes of H Mik er i^m , 
Crag of Suifolk." 8. Mr. J. W. Hnlk«, " 
the Astrsgalus of Igwmodom MmmarOi** 4. 
Hulke, ** Note on a Ltmb-booe of a 
f!rom the Kimmeridge Cky." 5 
** Supplementary note on t^fptOapko^emV 

TBUB....Linn{Ban, 8. 1. Br. Hooker, "On 

Br." V. Rev. C. A. Johns, ** On tiie Ab aa rn ial 
of a Seedling, De^mium mmdicmmta,*^ 
Chemical, 8. 1. Mr. Barry Orimshatr and Hr.QBi 
lemiovr, *'On Amaatfaylio Add and Kecmal 
Alcohol » 9. Mr. David Howaxd, ** Oia tbe 
Properties o' some Modifioatiaoa of the 
loids.^ a. Mr. J. B. Hannay, ** On the 
Carbon Dtsnlphide and .the Aotian of 
chloride upou that Substance." 4. Mr. H. F. 
** On the Biftunation of Nitrmtea ia IVitable 




JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Notbcbib 7, 1878. 



921 



lOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. 



Ko. 1,094. Vol. XXI. 



FRIDAY, A07EMBER 7, 1873. 






ahotw 



MH i:i 



!S BT THB COmrCIL. 



VOnCES TO lfK¥BinM> 



Obdinaby Mbetinos. 

Hie One-Hiindred-aiid-Twentieih Session of the 
kxnetj, will commence on Wednesday, the 19th 
roYembeTy when the opening address will be 
eliTered by Major-General F. Easdley-Wilmot, 
LA., F.B.S., Chairman of the ComiciL 

The following are the dates of the Wednesday 
vexdng Meetings, the chair being taken at eight 
'dock: — 

1873. 



Kr YBMBBB • • • 

„ Dbobmbba 

1874. Januabt 

FSBRUABT . . . . t . . . 
M^ltfTir , 

ApaiL 

Mat 



— — 19 26 



n 



» 



4 
4 

6 



10 
14 
11 
11 
8 
13 



19 
17 
21 
18 
18 
15 
20 



28 
26 
25 
22 
27 



29 



The Afiniiftl (General Meeting will be held on 
one 24th, at four o'clock. No visitors are ad- 
litted to this Meeting. 

For the Meetings preyions to Christmas, the 

>Ilowing arrangements have been made : — 

KoyntBsa 19. — Opening Address \y Major-General 
', Eaudlbt-Wojiot, BJL, F.B.8., Chairman of the 
oonciL 

fO» this $9ming the Prince Qmsorfa Priu, the Priue 
Med at the Technological Examtnatione, and the Medah 
verded during the laei Seeeion^ ioiU be preeented by the 
hairman.J 

NovsMBBB 26. — '*0n the Hanufacture of Iron and 
teel," by Sir Francis C. Kkowles, Bart. 

DseiMBBa 8. — "On Australian "Vines and Wines," 
f J. T. Fallon, £eq. 

DacBMBBE 10. — ^*0n Mechanical Processes for pro- 
idng DeooratiTe Designs on Wood Surfiices," by 
BOMAS Wbttbubn, Esq. 

DscBianB 17. — ** Whitby Jet and its Manufacture," 
r JoBif A. BowxB, F.O.8., Science Master, Whitby 
ibooL 

Each Member is privileged to introduce two 

lends to every Meeting, and a book of blank 

:ket8 has been forwarded for this purpose. 

CAirroB Leotubes. 
The first course of Cantor Lectures for the 
iSDin^ Session will be **OnSpeotrum Analysis as 
ded by and aiding the Arts," by J. Nobman 
(X2KTXB, Esq., F.B^S.y and will consist of two 



lectures, to be delivered on Monday evenings, the 
24th November and 1st December. 

Lbgtubb I. — NoTBHBBR 24th, 1873. 

On the application of Photography to Spectroscopic 
Besearches. 

Lbotubb n. — ^Dbgbmbbb l8T, 1873. 
On Spectroscopy in its quantitatiye relations. 

The second course will be on the ''Chemistry of 
Brewing," by Dr. Chables Gbaham (University 
College, London), and will consist of seven Lectures, 
to be commenced on Monday, the 8th December ; 
two to be deHvered before Christmas, and the 
remaining five after Christmas, as follows : — 

Lbotubb L — ^Decbmbbb 8th, 1873. 

Hietorical and Preliminarg, — History of ^ brewing. 
Varieties of imin used. Chemical examination of the- 
properties of cellulose, starch, dextrine, grape sugar,, 
elutus, &c. Action of nitrogeniaed substances on stan^ 

Lbotubb U. — ^Dbgbmbbr 15th, 1873. 

On Malting, — ^The germination of seeds. Chemical 
changes produced. Examination of the processes of' 
steepmg, germination, and kiln-drying. English and 
Bavarian methods contrasted. Chemical examination of 
malts, with some analvtical methods adopted for the use 
of the master brewer (Braumeister). 

Lbctvrb m. — January 12th, 1874. 
On mashing. 

Lbcturb rV. — January 19th, 1874. 
On Boiling. Hops, their properties and uses. 

Legturb V. — January 26th, 1874. 
On fermentation. (Primary.) 

Lbgtubb VI. — ^February 2nd, 1874. 
On fermentation. (Secondary.) 

Lbgtubb Vn. — ^February 9th, 1874. 
The beer of the future. 

These lectures will include a chemical examina- 
tion of the chief features of the methods of brewing 
adopted in England, Scotland, Germany, Belgium, 
and Norway, with proposals Jot the prevention of 
acidification and other destructive changes which 
occur in beer. The lectures on fermentation will 
include an account of the nature and chemical 
functions of the various yeast plants. During the 
course, chemical tests will be described for the 
guidance of the brewer in the mashing, boiling, 
and fermenting processes, and for testing the 
purity of the water and utensils used. 

Other courses will also be given during the 
Session, one by Professor Babff, M.A., having 
been already arranged. These Lectures are open 
to Members, each of whom has the privilege of 
introducing two friends to each Lecture. 

Tickets for the above lectures will be forwarded 
to Members, with the Journal, m due course. 

PBIZE CABS. 

His Eoyal Highness the Prince of Wale^^ 
President of the Society, inspected, on Satotdflti; 



M2 jrOCTBNAL OW THB 800IBTT 09 ABTS, NoTunin 7, W7S. 



morning, in the oomtjard of MaribOTongh-howe, 
the four cabs selected by the Sooietyof Aits' judges, 
viz., an improved hansom by Messrs. Forder and 
Co., of Wolverhampton ; a two- wheeler of novel 
construction, by Thorn, of Norwich; a fonr-wbe^er 
by Lambert, of Lond(Mi ; and a four-wheeler by 
Quick and Norminion, of London. The two latter 
can be used either open or shut. His Boyal 
Highness expressed himself pleased wiih the 
Yehides, and considered them improvements on 
those at present in use. It is und^^tood that his 
Boyal Highness gave an order for one of Mesm. 
Forder's for use at Sandringham. 

FOOD COXKITTSB. 

The Committee met on Monday last. Predent — 
Mr. Benjamin Shaw (in the chair), Sir Antonio 
Brady, Major-General Eardley-Wilmot, R.A., 
F.R.S., the Rev. J. E. Hall, Mr. J. Y. Manley, Mr. 
E. C. Tufnell, and Mr. J. A. YouL 

The Secretary laid before the Committee a 
shoulder of mutton, which, under his superin- 
tendence, had been preserved in a refrigerator for 
twenty-six days. This meat was in a sound and 
excellent condition. Ti.o Committee directed the 
Secretary to have the joint cooked, and report 
upon it. It was cooked on the following day, and 
the Secretary reports that it was in capital order, 
and most excellent in flavour. The lowest tempera- 
ture to which it was exposed whilst it remained 
in the refrigerator was 34^ Fahr., as shown by a 
minimum thermometer enclosed with it. The 
Committee had also before them specimens of 
meat preserved in a raw state by a secret process 
in Buenos Ayres, in the month of April last, as 
certified by the Consul of that place. Portions of 
it were cooked and tasted by the Committee. 



The f<^owing Prizes are offered by the Soinrt; 
of Arts in each of tiie nine subjects. 

To the best candidate in HonouxB, £10. 

To the best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £T. 

To the best candidate in the Elementary Qnde, 
£6. 

The following special «il<iit«^y"4il Priaes sr 
offered : — 

By the Wordiipful Company of Clothwo^»f, t 
Scholarship of one hundred guineas, to be awardDd 
to the best Candidate in Clo& MWyi irf it^^ ^ ^ i^ j^- 
suming that in the opinion of the CoodgQ be 
reaches a sufficiently high standard. The Candi- 
date who obMa» this Scholardnp most spend ik 
least one year in some place of a Jientifio instmoiica, 
to be appro ved by^ Ibe OouncQ of tlie Society of Arts 
and by the Court of the Clothwavkan rrnmenj 

By Wyndham S. Portal, £eq., to th# Seeoed nd 
Third best Candidates in the 
Paper MaAufaetere : — 

APriwof Jj 

A Priz» of •►...,...... % 

By O. N. Hooper, Esq., to 1h» Seoend mi 

Third best Candidates in the Elementwy 6nde, 
Carriage BuOding : — 

A Prise of IS 

A Prize of J 

By the Wordripful Company of Spectacle Makcn, 
to the Seoond-best Candidate in Honoors in t^ 
Advanced Grade and in the Bknkeatary 9radr 
respectively, in the Manufactnie of Gla»: — 

A Prize of ., £^ $ 

A Prize of ,..•• 3 2 

A Prize of , 2 2 



TBCRHOLOOICAL SZAKUrATIOn. 

The Programme of Examinations in the techno- 
logy of the Arts and Manufactures of the country 
for 1874, is now ready for issue. These examina- 
tions will be held annually, in conjunction with the 
examinations of the Science and Art Department, 
and due notice will be given of the particular sub- 
jects selected each year. 

The subjects for the year 1874 will be Cotton, 
Paper, Silk, Steel, Carriage-building, Pottery and 
Porcelain, Gas Manufacture, Glass-making, and 
doth Manufacture. Candidates, in order to obtain 
certificates in any of these subjects, must pass the 
examinations of the Science and Art Department 
in certain sciences, which are specified in the pro^ 
gramme as bearing upon the particular art or 
manufacture. In addition to these, special papers 
irill be set in the technology of each manufacture, 
1^ eacamiiMn appointed bgrthe Sooielgr of Axle. 



The examin%ti<m8 of the Soieinoe and Aii D«- 
partmeot will be held during the first three wtA 
of May, the technological paper bemg worked o& 
the evening of the 16th May. Hie dates of tl^ 
Science subjects are givcaa in the Scieooe Dnectocr, 
published by the Science and Art Department 

In order that these ExaminatioiM may ic«Bt W 
suocessfid in promoting technical edncatiaih i& this 
country, it is desirable that enoonragemeni sbft^ H 
be given to, candidates by the ofl^ of pmse and 
Bcholarriiips. With this object ttie Oonndl mp^e^ 
to the trade guilds of the city of Ixmdoo* to laff- 
chants and manufaotnren, and to mambefs af t^ 
Society generaUy, to aid t^em by oontzibiitiBg^ 
the pisfle fdnd. 

"While espresang their tlMmke fsr tfao 
they have ahreadj zeeeBved, halAi fh»n the 
panics of the City of London and ♦rom ptivai? 
individuals, the Council would repeat the i^peal. 
made last year, when the scheme of TedmoiogieaJ 
Examinations wf» first put forward, tar JbrAe 
funds to enable them to proseoote and c aii^ oafte 
^ite estirefy Hie plan ^wftiflh hv been dtOTm tip. 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOOIBTT OP ABT8, Kotmbbe 7, 1878. 9SS 



enxRAL VLunMAxmn, 1074. 

Tha IVogmmme of Ezaminatioas for 1874 is 
now ready, and may be had gratis, on application 
to the Secretary. 

These Examinations, in 1874, will be held on the 
erenings of the 2l8t, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th April. 
The 'Hme-table has been arranged as fpUows : — 



T U ■ • D A T, 

April ai, 
FnMDTtolOp.m 



Arithmet&o. 
FU>rioaltere. 



Wbokbsbat, 

AprUaa, 
FromTlolOp m. 

■ « ■ 



Theory of Music 
Rni^llsh ftbtory. 
Q«rmAii. 
SpanUb. 



TH UBS DAT, 

April 23, 



From 7 to 10p.m. From 7 to 10p.m. 



Political Eeo* 

nomy. 
Preooh. 

Praitand Ve^- 
I table Culture. 



F m I D A r, 
AprU34, 



Book-keeping. 
Bngllsh Lan- 
guage, 
[tailaa. 



FUDAT, April 84, • to Y pjn.— DioUtloQ. 

The role which formerly prevented a candidate 
who had once obtained a first-class certificate in a 
sohjeot from being again examined in that subject 
with a view to gaining a prise, has, in accordance 
with Uie wish expressed at the Conference, held 
on the 27th June, 1873, been rescinded. In future, 
therefore, a candidate who has obtained a first-ckss 
oertifioate in a subject may be again examined in 
that subject, but not more than one first-class 
certificate in any subject will be counted for the 
Prince Consort's Priro, or for the Council Prize to 
Females. A candidate having taken the first price 
in any subject cannot again take a priae in that 
subject, nor can a candidate take a prize of the 
same grade twice in any subject. 

The Elementary Examinations, held by the 
District Unions and Local Boards, for which papers 
are furnished by the Society, are fixed for the 10th» 
11th, and 12th liaroh. 

FuQ details in reference to the Examinations are 
^ven in the Programme, copies of which should 
be applied for to the Secretary ol the Society of 
irts, by all intending to come forward as candi- 
lates, or otherwise interested in the "RTraw^iTiitiari^g^ 



A diseorery of considerable economic Tahie has 
nst be0o made in Newfoondlaiul in rhe shape of a boae^toiM, 
rhicb, in testure and quality, liTak the far-famed oil-etone 
)f Turkey for ahiupening the finer edged toole^ and i« of na* 
imited ejttent 

It is estimated that the cotton crop of Cali- 
omU in 1873 will amount to a the«aand balea, of whioh 
nearly half will be exported, the remainder heing leqoired 
or home ooni»amption. 

In the first ten days of October, 29 ships, of an 
KirreK^te burthen of 66,200 tone, paaeed through the Suez 
-anftl. The traoait reremie oolleeted by the oompaoT dnrimr 
he ten day* wae X28400. 

The Turkish Minister of Poets and Telegr^hs 
93 intimared that a new line of telegraphic oommunioation 
ith Qvpeoe hie been opened by way ci Tobeeme and the 
iand of Sdo. 

A veoenilw xniUished statement shows that 
inog the twelve months beginning with Sepfember, 1872. 
id ending Angvat, 1878, there were 1,300 acddents upon 
Qwm in the Unitod BtOv, by whidk 841 penuiit 
lied, 1,410 injured. 



PEOCSSDIVOS or TEE SOCISTT. 



OAVm LBOTUSBS. 

The sixth and concluding lecture of the third 
oourse of Cantor Lectures for the Session, '*0n 
Wines; their Production, Treatment, and Use,'' 
was ddivered by J. L. W. Thubiohuic, Esq., M.D.« 
on Monday evening. May 2d1ii, 1873, as follows :^- 

LaorvKB YI. 

7%$ Wines of Oirmtm^, Mienling^ a typ$ of houquetted 
Ufinet. Ctattifioation of tK$ Wines of the World, ae deter" 
mimed hy quedity, fuantity^ vmtue in the market of highest 
and lowest qualitiss. Active ingredients of Wine ; mm 
ofehemieal analysis ; use of Wine to the healthy, whether 
old or yowtg. Wine, tmder what conditions preferabh 
to all other aleoholis liqmds. Wine should be a beveraySf 
not a dram. Use of Wine to the delicate and sick. SeUe» 
tion and prices of Wins, Proposed modjication of the 
import dutiee, to ndjuet them to the dimatie d^eulties of 
Spain attd Portuged, 

The priaoipal wine*produoing districts of Cermany 
are the vmlleys of the Rhine and its tributary rivers. 
There is also wine produced on the Saale and Uie Elbe» 
but tiie nature of the ptoduct is such that it never forms 
an article of trade out of the producing districts. German 
Austria also produces much wine, of which a small 
quantity is exported, notably wines of Voelau. For our 
present purpose, we must confine ourselves to a considera- 
tion of the typical Gtotnan wines, namely, those of the 
Rhine. They are characterised by a peculiar bouqueL 
the product of the Riessliag grape. It may be estimated 
that about half the vinps of the Rhine valley consist of 
Riessling plants, and it is probable that this vine is 
indigeneous to the Rhine valley. It grows in other parts 
of the world when traas|^nted to them, but has never 
yet been found to nroduoe the high qualities of wine 
sosh as it 3riekls in the Rhine-gau. Being a small vine, 
its fruit is developed near the soil, and receives its radia- 
tion of heat ; ila bunch is not large ; its g^pes are also of 
small siae, with little juice and much aci 1, with a hard 
skin, capable of withstanding inclemencies of the seasons^ 
and with g r o a t ability to ripen late in the year, while 
hanging on the vine, almost to the beginning of tiie 
winter frosts. In very warm years its musts are verv 
sweet, and the wins, alter fermentation, retains a smyaU 
quantity of sugar. In hotter climates, such as Styria 
and Hungary, it becomes granulated on the stock, and 
the wines become too sweet, too fiery, and are without 
any of the bouquet whioh distingui^es Rhine wine. In 
the Palatinate the Riessling is frequently acoompaniedby 
the Tramiaer. The name whidi this wine heart would 
indicate that it came from Tramin, a little town in Tvrol^ 
but travellers who have visited Tramin on purpoee have 
not found a single stock of this kind of vine in the dis- 
trict. This latier vine also ooours in pure sets, and is 
then used for wine made from its grapes only. It ripens 
somewhat earlier than the Riessling, and therefore yields 
a tolerable harvest even in years m whioh RienUng re- 
mains very bad ; but the flavour of its wine is alwajrs 
much slighter than that of Riessling. It has a thick and 
so-called **fiit*' taste. It gives the impression of body with 
little aoid and much smoothness. In exchange for that 
remarkable property it is, during its early stages, very 
much inclined to become viscid. The third variety of 
vine frequently grown on the Rhine is the Svlvaner, or 
Austrian ; its gra]^ are dosely set on the bunch, and 
therefore rot easily in wet years. They are very 
jnioy and sweet, particularly near the ripe husk, and 
irive in good years an elegant spirited wine. 
But they are most oommonly mixed with 
Binsnljug gsapss^ to w hyi^h they impart mildttflss 



924 



JOURNAL OF 'THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, November 7, 1873. 



while recdying flavonr. In Baden much wine is made 
£rom the ChasselaSf there termed Chitedel ; the we]l> 
known Markgrafler is made from this vine only (and I 
have lately learned from Aostralia that there is a proha- 
hility of this vin^ yielding an excdleot prodoct there). 
In. Alsatia and the Palatinate it enters, fr^uently to the 
extent of one-third, into the sets in the ordinary Tine- 
yards, and helps to produce a mild, though flavourless, 
wine of low alcoholicity. Another variety of vine grown 
on the Rhine is the Elhling, or Alhe, ana its varie^, the 
Kleinberger. This vine has been supposed to be iden- 
tical with the Pedro Ximenes of the sherry district, but 
in the first lecture (see Journal, p. 771) I fully explained 
the error which now for more tluui two hundred years 
.has been repeated in many books and articles on grapes 
and wines. The characteristic Rhine-wine grapes are 
. all small-sized ; the Chasselas alone has medium sized 
grapes, and gives, with few exceptions, inferior wine. 
The Pedro Ximenes has large sized grapes; and is 
therefore a plant which can only succeed and mature 
fruit in the open air in the most southern parts of Europe, 
and would probably fail on the French shore of the 
Mediterranean. In the district of R&desheim a vine was 
formerly much cultivated which is termed the Orleans. 
At present it is almost extinct, less than one-half per 
cent, of the vines of the Rhine-gau being made up by this 
variety. The black or blue varieties of grapes grown on 
the Rhine are all descendants of the Burgundy pineau. 
Ingelheim and Assmaushausen are the centres of this 
production, of which much is now used for the manufiio- 
ture of effervescent wines. 

The wines of Alsatia have of late been much canvassed, 
mainly on German patriotic g^unds. These wines are 
nearly all white, and genuinely German ; they never 
'found a market in France, and the only purchasers dur- 
ing the time of German protection were the Swiss. In 
consequence of these unfavourable conditions, the sur- 
face under viticulture in Alsace has during this century 
diminished by one third of what it was in 1800. Since 
the conquest in 1870 much Alsatian wine is carried into 
the interior of Germany and there consumed. There 
have been even enterprising travellers who have sold 
Alsatian ** cabinet " wines. With regard to this it must 
be stated that there is no wine grown in Alsace which 
rises higher than the flfth grade of Rhine wine in 
general ; and the best Rappoldsweiller wine (Ribeau- 
vill^ in French) sold at Strasburg is worth about 2s. per 
bottle. The Palatinate, or Rhenish Bavaria, produces 
a large quantity of middling and inferior white wine. 
The mode of training the vines is here altogether pecu- 
liar, and different from that in any other country. It is 
called the '* double chamber cultivation" (Eammerbau), 
and ** closed, low- frame training;" and can only be 
described by means of drawings, such as we have given 
in the Treatise on wine at pp. 531 and 632. In all the vil- 
lages east and south of the village of Haardt the '*open 
low frame training" is usual. The celebrated situations, 
Ruppertsberg, Deideehein, and Forst also have the open 
low -frame training. Palatinate wines are mostly made 
from the mixed set of vines, Riessling, Sylvaner, 
Chasselas, and Kleinberger ; Traminer also enters, but, 
if possible, is made separate. The character of 
4hese mixed wines, in good years, is very agreeable) 
but never very high ; they never reach the character of 
Rhine-gau Riessling wines. They begin to lose quality 
-and bouquet in the fourth year, when Rhine-gau wines 
begin only to be fully developed. They are therefore 
mainly destined for rapid consumption during their 
younger years, and should not be kept, as they will 
never improve by keeping in the same manner or de- 
gree as Rhine-gau wines. For this reason Palatinate 
wines are relatively cheap wines, and as the annual pro- 
duction rises to 80,000 fuder, of 1,000 litres each — there- 
fore 800,000 hectolitres,— they supply an agreeable 
beverage to a large portion of the population of Ger- 
many. In the estimation of the Germans, ** Ptalzer " 
stands to " Bheingauer" wine in the lame relation 



as in the estimation of theBngHsh « liars^** stands to 
*' Shenr." The wines of Rhenish Heosia are similar to 
those of the Palatinate on the one hand, and thoM of 
the Rhine-gau on the other. They are therdore fro* 
quenUy us^ at Mayence, in the pla«e of either of them, 
being mixed with other Palatinate or Gan wine, to im- 
part the desired flavour. The vineyard aouth of the 
Liebfrauenkirche, at Worms, prodaces the *'Iiebfrn- 
milch," a Riessling wine of some booqoet. Befoce 
describing the wines of the Gau, we will make a mo- 
ment's excursion up the Maine to look for the winea of 
Franconia. They are mostlv soar liqcnds, whk^ ne 
one but a Franconian is likely to relish. I have tasted 
some of the best and dearest, at Wnrzborg, and find 
them flflh class, Stein and Leiste excepted. Tbeai 
latter reputed situations produce better liquids, ad 
Stein in particular, perhaps owing to the pecahir 
bottles, termed ** bodnbentel," in which it is sold, 
enjoys a certain notoriety in England. Bat mach of ^ 
wine which is sold under the name of Stein wine is 
London is Palatinate wine, which in Mayence and other 
places is filled into bottles of the shape of the hoAh 
beutel, and then sold as Stein. The Rhine-gan, or tih 
trict north of the Rhine from fiochheim to St. Gosi, 
produces the finest wines of Germany ; Uiey are so vrS- 
known, at least by fame, as hardly to require any spftkl 
description. Hochheim. Rauenthal, Steinberg, JqI^boB' 
berg, and many other names of almost eqwd repfotaiua, 
occur on all wine merchants* lists, on all wine lufi a 
hotels nearly all over the world. No doabt the he^ 
wines are splendid products of nature and art, but thar 
quantity is very limited. The entire Gau prodsre ia 
good years is about 10,000 stuck, equal to nearly 20,0«l 
butts. The Rhine-gau produces, Uierefbre, abont flnff^ 
sevenths as much wine as the sherry district propo. 
But, as alreadv stated, too much of what ia now-a-^js 
sold under high-sounding names is mixed wine haris^ 
a basis of Palatinate or Hessian, and an acoomplkiiB^ 
dose of Oau wine. It is to be hoped that the GenMsi 
will abandon this abuse of names, which are for Us 
most part direct untruths and used with a foil knowtsdcf 
of their falsehood, and will introduce the JeressysleKV 
Soleras, by which all falsehood (so long at least as tb 
wines are Jerez grown) is avoided. Therefore I advise cf 
audience never to buy hock by the false light of a urac, 
but by the guidance of thetongueandthe jaagvMBtof oosi- 
parison with standards ; even price is no criterion of obbl 
for the most genuine growths vary so mucli in qaaox; 
in different years, or in different casks in the same vnz. 
that Schloss Johannisberg, as an example, ia sold o&ax3j 
by the stewards of Prince Mettemich at the caatle iftv^ 
varying in price between two florins (3s. 4d.} per bottk 
and twentv florins (£1 13s. 4d.) per bottle. Kow, ff vat 
consider toat a good Palatinate wine ooght to be cV 
tsinable in London at 2b. per botUe, and a good BksK- 
gauer at frt>m 3s. to 5s. per bottle, you have the bouls '< 
practicable prices for the laiger quantity of hoci. 
Cabinet wines will fetch high fancy prioee^ boteaa HK^t 
be current articles of trade. Indeed, the txadera do &s 
like to deal with them, because they leaTe fictle pit^ 
when obtained, and then the quantity of these vtr<% a 
so small that the business when completed is agaiB e- 
important The consumption of hock in Eng-laDd sa 
indeed, diminished during late years, and when I «•> 
aider the prices asked by the Gennan dealers and t^;^ 
travellers, I am not astonished at this result Spsskfac 
hock, however, finds more favotir in this coofitty; mc 
with regard to this, indeed, the plaving with TiaTwsf te 
been abandoned. The finest sparkling Rieading^ wief » 
made at Eltville and Riidesheim. 

The Moselle wines are mostly fHQk-etut wtaa^ ol 
possess as little flavour as the Fianoonia witMs^ 1M «* 
made with much more care. Sparkling 
in this country ; it derives its 
Muscatel — ^from elder-flowers, and is really < 
duct of art Muscatel ^pes do not 
borders of the Moselle River. 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, November 7, 1873. 



925 



The white wines of the Rhine are distinguished by 
nerer containing added distilled spirit ; they are never 
coloured, plastered, or boiled, and in these respects are equal 
to the best products of the Gironde. For these reasons 
thev are equall;^ wholesome to drink ; they produce none 
of tne inconveniences of the brandied wines of Jerez and 
Oporto. Perhaps you have heard of military port, and of 
public dinners, and how the delirium tremeru, which 
sometimes affects persons partaking of these drinks 
and festivities, is said to be caused by the coffee 
drunk after the dinner, and not by the brandy- wines 
drunk during the same. But humour cannot ward off 
the reality, which I have myself observed, that brandied 
wines, the ordinary ports and sherries of commerce, are 
sufficient to cause delirium tremens in habitual drinkers 
belonging to the higher classes of society. Of course a con- 
fliderable quantity of such wines must be consumed 
before that result is attained, and the result is attained, 
in strong men particularly, without their passing at any 
time into the state of drunkenness. Now this extreme 
effect of the habitual use of excessive quantities of alcohol 
by means of loaded wines is never observed to arise from 
the use, even in very large quantities, of the natural 
wines, free frx)m added brandy, of France or Germany. 
There are authentic cases of well-to-do, respectable 
persons, now living on the Rhine, who drink daCy a large 
number of pints of the country wine of these parts (I am 
credibly informed up to sixteen pints), have never been 
known to be drunk, and suffer from no ailment referable 
to alcohol. Of course these cases are mere exoep- 
tiona, and I only refer to them to show that even such 
quantities of alcohol as must be contained in such 
large volumes of weak wine are not able to pro- 
duce alcoholic madness or delirium trement, I would 
never advise or countenance the use of any alcoholic 
drink except in the most moderate auanti^, such as 
to aid digestion, raise the powor ot the heart, and 
exhilarate the mind. I have stated the physiological 
limits of these quantities, based upon the serious experi- 
ments and observations, with the aid of chemical analysis, 
in some evidence which I gave some years ago before 
the Food Committee of this Society, and which has been 
printed in the Journal, and I can Uierefore refer to that 
for further particulars on the subject. Now, as to 
Rhine wine, the Germans say that there is no other 
beverage in the world which hfis the power to make men 
merry to the same extent, and causes them to sing in 
Bnch strains and with such fervour. Wine has been 
praised by the poets of all ages and many nations, but 
the number of poems in praise of Rhine wine, and the 
nnmber of melodies to which they may be sung, exceeds, 
X believe, that of all songs in praise of other wines taken 
together ; and if we believe the testimony of the great 
€^man poets themselves, they have been indebted to 
Rhine wine for some of their best thou8:hts and fcelinprs, 
just as were Anacreon and Horace to the wines of their 
respective times and countries. The latter even goes 
BO lar as to say, what I believe has nover been disproved, 
that poems made by water-dnnkers have never been 
known to become classic or even survive a season. This 
eonnectioB of wine with song has been deeply felt by 
some very practical people in this country, and the in- 
teresting work on wine by Mr. Shaw, for example, not 
oidjr describes the wines but also gives the songs re- 
fonng to wines of Biaey nations. Such collections 
might be continued and extended to the praises in prose 
by clsssicwl writers, and in this collection the sermon of 
the priest on the Rodinsberg, who estimated the good- 
ness of Gkxl by the quantity of wine which he was enabled 
daily to consume (the sermon is recorded at full length 
in (>oethe's works), should not fail to be included. 

I regret to be unable in the sp:ice of time allotted to 
this lecture to speak of the wines of Switzerland, Italy, 
fimigary, Greeoe, Australia, and America. Italy is very 
aettTO just now in promoting its agriculture ;^ there are 
many viticallaral societies throughout the peninsula, and 
they organise exhibitions and lotteries to sell the produce 



which is brought to them ; but all these efforts will avail 
but little before viticulture, as a whole, is placed upon a 
more rational basis, and grapes are grown near to the 
soil, instead o!^ as bow, high in the air. Italian wines, 
including those of Sicily, are singularly destitute of 
flavour, and in those which have any it is too often 
artificial, and in the white varieties produced by aromatic 
resins or gums. This artifidal flavour I have, however, 
never found in the sweet and brandied wines of Sicily. 
The Marsalas, though brandied up to 36^ proof-spint, 
and sweetened with raisins or condensed must, are not 
plastered, and apparently not provided with extraneous 
flavours. Lately, some new kinds of Sicilian wines have 
been introduced into England which deserve commenda- 
tion, because the alcohol in some of them is kept much 
below the quantities which prevail in Marsala. 

Hungarian wines have been much commended, I 
may say vaunted, for a number of years, but their 
consumption has by no means increased. There 
are some firms whose names are identified with 
this Hungarian business, and who sell considerable 
(quantities of wine, as is easily seen from the " duty-paid 
bst *' of the customs. But I am credibly informed that 
the importation of Hungarian wine is only a small part 
of the business of these firms, and that their principal 
business is done in port and sherry. Hungary has a 
great wine, namely Tokay, and a great vine, namely the 
Formint or Moslavina, from which Tokay is made. The 
other vines of Hungarv produce no characteristic wines, 
no matter how much skill mav be employed in the imi- 
tation of the great wines of places of reputation. And 
as regards the skill which is applied to the preparation 
of Hungarian wines, this must be very small indeed on 
nine out of ten properties. For only about one^ eighth 
of all Hungarian wine (of which the total quantity pro- 
duced annually is much smaller than what is commonly 
stated) is supposed to be capable of being so prepared as 
to become fit for European or universal trade, and of 
this possible quantity only a small fraction, namely about 
60,000 hectolitres, is annually exported from Pesth, the 
principal market for Hungarian wines. Taking a Ger 
man stiick as twelve hectolitres, wo find that this expor- 
tation amounts to about 4,000 stiick, being less than 
half the production of the Rhine-gau (10,000 stiick per 
annum), and less than one ninth of the production of the 
Jerez district The English public are not likely to 
become great consumers of Hungarian wines as long at 
they are treated as if they were cabinet and fine wines, 
and rated at prices which exclude them from current 
consumption, even among the rich. 

The reputation of Greek wines has suffered much 
injury from the excessive praise of interested partisans 
and involved speculators. I believe that there are some 
varieties well worthy of public attention ; but when it is 
attempted to make us believe that they excel Jerez 
amontillado, we must protest against such a perversion 
of the simplest matters of fact. Of Australian and 
American wines we have only verv partial information. 
The Americans have a great inland market and a high 
protective tariff to aid their viticulture, but the Aus- 
tralians are desirous to export wine to the mother country, 
and we should like to see them, as well as other importers 
who will bring us wholesome, natural, cheap wines, suc- 
cessful. 

Now you will, perhaps, inquire what I mean by a 
chenp wine. I propose to call cheap wines all those 
whicn can be sold retail in London at prices varying 
between twelve and thirty shillings per dozen bottles.' 
Wines at prices varjring between thirty and rixty shil- 

' ' " * *" " — *-' —'-'i; and 

cabinet 
in 

quantity, and so much sought after, that they can never 
become popular bererages. But amongst the cheap 
wines there are excellent qualities, fulfilling all the 
hygienic and gustatory conditions demanded for com- 
fortable and wbdesome living. The great bulk of all 




926 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETT OF ARTS, NovBMBia 7, 1873. 



the winefl of Jerez, Oporto, LiaboxL Baroelonaj 

Yalencii, Alioante, Gette, fioideaaz, or the Rhine, 

of Austria, and Hungary, are cheap winei. Yoa 

may read of high prices in ttxe lists of sherry exporters, 

Boch as £1,000 per batt ; but tiiese are idle fictions, which 

I will not stay to explain. There are not 200 butts of 

sherry at Jerez at any time which would fetch £200 per 

butt. The mass of sherry is exported at £15 per butt, 

and the average value of all sherry exported is £28 per 

butt. The same applies to Oporto. The mass of port 

wine is exported at a price somewhat between £22 and 

£25 i>er pipe, and the finer wines at £50 to £80 are few 

and far between. And so it is with all the places I hare 

mentioned. The great bulk of their exports consists of 

cheap wines. It was upon the importation into England 

of cheap natural wines that the eye of the legislature was 

directed whon the duty was reduced, and to this 

object the attention of all wine merchants must be 

directed who want to make a position other than that 

arriyed at by a routine now become obsolete. We have 

•ome cheering facts of this kind before us; some Spanish 

houses sell Spanish natural, or nearly natural, wine 

(though it is plHstered^ at 12s. per dozen bottles ; others 

sell red Oatalonian wine, of claret character, free from 

brandy or sugar, at the same prices. H6rault wine is 

sold at the sttme price. It is said that these cheap wines 

are mere decoy birds put out by the relative houses to 

attract customers, and sold at prices whidi leave little 

or no profit to the vendors. Even if it were so, which I 

do not believe, I should consider this a great advantage, 

as it affords to the public the means of becoming 

acquainted with the cheapest qualities of wines which can 

be placed into the market witJhout loss, and so as to pay 

expenses. 

A classification of wines is always a process which is 
liable to cause much displeasure to those concerned; 
but I owe a few words to you on this sabjeot, particularly 
in reply to inquiries addressed to me. I plaoe sherry and 
its congeners at the head of all wines, even though 1 
admit that it is deteriorated by plaster, brandy, colour, 
and dulce. If it were not so deteriorated, Jerez wine 



as toon as the natural wines of Jerea and Opocio mn 

freely obtainable in the market^ they will press thtt 
brandied liquids out of oonsnmpfaniB. Already a qp(»* 
tity of such natucal wines, in the prodaction of which I 
have taken some personal interests has been impottei 
into London^ and the feasibility of the prooM^ whic^ 
was hitherto stoutly denied, has been proved. 

You are aware that all wine imported into Pinglsitf 
pays a Customs duty, which for natural unfortified wins 
has been fixed by Parliament at one shilling per 8*^^^ 
The law has most liberally defined as natural wine all wbm 
which contains less than 26 per cent, of proof spititL 
equal to 12 per cent, of absolute alcohol by weiA^ht, and 
14*6 per cent, of absolute alcohol by volume. AU wioe 
which contains more than that proportion of tpirtt) or 
alcohol, is assumed to have received an addition of 
distilled spirit (or of wine containing distilled spirit), and 
is chargea with a Customs daty of 28. &!., if it does not 
surmount, in its alcoholic strength* 42 per cent, ot 
proof-spirits. All alcohol above 42 per cent is chargsd 
the same duty per degree as distilled spirita, ij»^ 
lOs. fid. per gallon of proof-spirit. Against this amngs- 
ment much opposition has oeen raised, particularly by 
the Spanish and Portuguese governments, and thetrMlsA 
in fortified wines, or rather in wines fortified to bs^ 
yond 26 degrees. Upon ordinary Retries and poxt^ 
with their 35 to 42 per cent, of proof-sptrit^ Uia 
duty seems onlv a mir impost, inasmuch as if 
brandy by itself has to beiir a heavy duty, it is not 
fair that thnt brandy should go into consumption almoii 
untaxed when mixea with wines. But upon wines nssr 
to 26 per cent, the duty sometimes weighs heavily* and» 
with regard to these, a slight alteration seems juwsoqsl 
I have explained in former lectures that viscosity and 
sottddiness disappear from southern wine when it cca^ 
tains 29 per cent, of proof-spint; further, that flior 
(German, kahu, French, Jleur, the mycoderma vini) <&- 
appears from wine when it contains S2 per cent, of praaf> 
spirits. In order to permit wines to remain at aa<3x low 
alcoholicity, they should he charged (wines with from 
26 to 32 per cent, of proof- spirits) a modified doty oi 



would be without question what I expect it to become in Is. 6d. per gallon only, instead of the 2s. 6d^ wnidr 
the course of a longer or shorter period. The second ; bears heavily upon them. All wines containing from SS 
place of wines is occupied by those of the Alto Douro, ' to 42 per cent, of proof-spirits should, as hitiicvte, bt 
port wines so called. This is even now apparent, though churgeid 2s. 6d., that is to say, the idc duty in propor- 
ihese wines are jet much deteriorattd by the masses of tion with the spirit excise. 

brandy with which they are mixed. Third in rank I am reminded by the hand of the clock that tmj tune; 
come t) 6 wines of the Gironde, particidarly those of the is over and my task is completed. I have en 
Medoc. They are superiorto the former two classes by the 
absence of brandy and other admixtures ; but the\ are infe- 
nor in body (extractives apart from alcohol) andf vinosity, 
and are not rarely very acid. Fourth in rank I place 
Champagne and the white Burgundies. Fifth in rank I ; now for the public to turn this new information to ths 
place the wines of the Rhinegau ; sixth the red wines , best possible use, then the objects which the Socie^ 
of Burgundy, M&con, and Beaujolais ; seventh those of ^ had in view when they appointed me one of their Cantor 
the Palatinate. Greek, Austrian, and Hungarian wine lecturers will be fully attained. In conclusion, I beg to 
ffO into the sixth, seventh, and eighth categories ; | say that I highly appreciate the honour which the 
Tokay excepted, of which the sweet variety may be Society has conferred upon me, and thank most sincei 
classed with the fourth, the szamorodnies with the \ the several audiences of my lectures for their kind 



to impart to you as much original matter as was in my 
power, and such, particularly as rosards the wines <■ 
Spain and Portugfal, has been obtained by me only at tibe 
cost of much travel and of much labour. It 




seventh class. This classifioation is based upon the 
qualities, total (j^uantities of products, prices, average 
fuccess in years, m short it is the average result of aeon- 



patient attention. 

(The lecture was illustrated by varioos 
mens of Rhine wine. Palatinate, Bhiaegau, Hochhrnimsffj 



<7picsl 
, Hoohh 



sideration of all the fetors which make a wine of use to and Hessian, all of which, at the conclusion of the 



the greatest numbers at the least cost. 

It is a general experience that the stronger wines are 
preferred in winter, while the natural wines are sought 
after in summer. In fact, the brandied wines are in- 
tolerable in hot, and not very useful, but bearable, in 
oold weather. Similarly it is found that delicate per- 
sons cannot bear the brandied wines, but are able to 
digest, and ate benefitted by natural wines. All these 
oondtiions have been so ably put forth bv maav members 
^f the medical ptofassion, ^lat I need not dwell upon 
thsm at length ; we may compromiM the^uestion as long 
M we are unable to get the natural wines which we want 



were tasted by many persons of the audience.) 




In answer to W. A., the appeareooas he 
in easting would doubUssss be caasad by the pn 
small air bubbles. The explotioB would bs prodooad by tfce 
Midden generation and expansion of vaDuaiaca&sae^iMSi ea 
the sudden admisiion of the molten mataX Any saoa«tmr» tn 
•ttoh oases pr^Kluees a serious explosion by its aadden 
formation into steam. 



Aoeordrogto the advices from Paaama* 
„ siveeoal-fieldshavebeeafoiandinUismiMeof the 

and drink, that is to say, those with whom they sgi'ee between Panama and AspiawaU, and ia 
iBftTdflnkthelortifl^winea. But I hare qo doubt that the Atlantio by the Eio Indio. . 




L-i-. 



!.** 



- *. 



JOURNAL OP THE BOOIETY OP ARTS, Noveiibee 7, 18» 



917 



XATXOVAL TRAUOlie SCHOOL FOB MIUIG. 



liaSM OONSBRVATOnUB DE MUSIQUE. 

In passing tfaromgli JA^ge I took f^vantaffe of 

'. iit» opportunity to visit the covservatoiie uiere, 

^ .fliaoii Uk. P. Le Neve Foster i^Kirted vpoa it in 

~ 1865, certain changes have taken place. This 

- flBMrnorandiiin ^lould idierefore be regarded as an 

- agpindix or report supplemental to tne one above 

mentioned. 

1. The Conservatoire de Musfqne at Li^ge was 

' established in 1827, by ihe nephew of Me^uL It 

~ is supported by fwds provided-~4ialf by the 

C klf WHa tiit, wlacdk coatdbutes 80,000 fraaos, and 

ksif by t^ liwMoiyaility of li^ge aod theprovinoe. 

,^ AU clasaea of oandidates are eligible for admission, 

\ ineffective of their nationalities. At the present 

time there are upwards of 350 students, male and 

.,- female. 

% The general adiniixist»itien is under a Council 

. <ji AdsBAEKtratien, composed of distingniriied men. 

Tbe iftirestioQ of tbe sttadies is confided entirely to 

ihe director, who km do wn the methods of mstruc- 

turn to b^ pursued by the professors. 

3. The Minister of Pubhc Instruction, after con- 
' coltin^ the wishes of the Director, gives the final 

SHDction to the i^pointment of professors. ** B^- 
pdtitetirs," who nay be nBgaraed as acting in a 
•eapEcity similar to that of tke pupil-teacher at the 
Sovdtfi KennigtoE Art Training School, are ap- 
.nointed by the Director, and are paid small 
nonoraria (100 or 200 francs per annum) as 
^ooouragements. 

4. There are thi^ee grades or classes of Professors. 
nose in the first class, such as instructors in 
stringed instruments, rsceive from 2,400 fraEcs to 
3,000 per aaanua ; instmotors is wind instru* 
I— nis'Trom 1,600 francs to 2,000 fruics, and in- 
si^ructors in solfeggio and singing 1,200 francs. 
Bath professor gives three lessons a week, of two 
hours* duration each. 

6. The school is divided into two divisions, male 
astd female, which attend respectively on separate 
-days of the week. The male students attend oa 
IfoBdavs, WednesdvySi and Fridays, from 8*45 to 
10^45, m>m 11 to 1, and from 8 to 5. The female 
jibidents attend on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and 
Saturdays, from 11 to 1, from 2 to 4, or from 3 to 
^, and from 4 to 6 or from 5 to 6. There are, in 
most cases, distinct professors for the male and 
female classes. In the female <^as0 some of them 
;Ere women, and the ** r^p^teviB ** selected froat 
the female stisdents. In both divisions the idasses 
eoDflist of eight stedents each, and a »ngle lesson 
does not exceed two hours' duration. The students 
practice at their homes, and merely attend the Con- 
.aervatoire for instruction. 

6. Candidates for admission obtain, by success- 

IUDt parsing at ^ competitive examination, 

fltodnDtdiipe as vacEOoies may oooar. Ko outside 

ftmateur can enrol himself a student by pay- 

lasmt. The course of instruction varies in ex- 

.tent between three and seven year& Those who 

ate successful in entering the Conservatoire at an 

•enHy age generally devote two years, or two and 

a-ltiuf years to ** preHminarv instruction.*' At 

the conclusion of each term the students undergo 

^eBaBBfBations. Thobe who h«ve made no advance 

in ti^eir studies are dismissed by the director. In- 



stmction in sollbggio and chonl singing is obliga- 
tory for all students. 

7. OoBoerts and Ivtieal perfovmanoes are given 
by the students in the principal theatre in £e^, 
there being at the present time no accommodation 
for such performances in the Conservatoire. 

8. The practice rooms are about the same size as 
those in me Paris Conservatoire. There ore about 
twenty of tiiem, with two moder«te sioed examina- 
tioE rooms. The general acosmmodation is, how- 
ever, found to be inadequate to the requirements of 
the institution, and a change to new premises is 
contemplated. 

9. The following is a tabular statement of the 
number of professors, &o., employed : — 



CItBm. 



Solfeggio 
Piano 



..•r*...t*.. 



ConyositioE, Har-^ 

many, &c j 

Choral Music 



Singing 

Piaao and Insts. 
duets, tnos, &o. 

Organ 

Operatic Music . . 
DeaiwEtttion ..., 

VioHn 






Men. 



WOMBN, 



I * 






3 B^p^tileuTB. 

The Direetor. 
1 
1 

1 



X 
1 
i 

2 Professoiv. 

3 R^petiteurs. 



No.' oC PMkftBBdnk 



2 
3 

3 Prof. Adjolnts. 

3 R£p(6titeui«. , 

The Director, 

1 

1 

1 

lB^p6feitean 

1 



One Professor for each of flie following Insttu- 
xaents:— ViokncAllo and Contrabossoi, Flute, Clarionet, 
Oboe, Bassoon, Hora, Taba, TromboB«, Comet. 

Total number of Professors, 31 ; and 3 Prof, adjoints. 

Total number of B^p^titeurs, 10 

10. The Director, M. Badoux, who has held the 
post of director ouly since last year, most courteously 
afforded all the information in his power, and has 
promised to forward, when ready, wie new regula- 
tions which are under revision. 

AidUf S. Cols. 

Oct. 1873. ^ 

t2— 



MViikiMI 



AMSVALJMTKBXMaOVAL BZHIBITIONS. 



REPORT ON WINES FROM THE 
COLONY OF VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA. 

By X L. W. ThvilshmM, ILB. 

1. I received from the agent, Mt. Levy, 
twenty-seven bottles of wine, which had been 
for some weeks in the Exhibition, standing 
upright. 

2. When I received them I observed that 
they were all more or less turbid, and what is 
called out of condition, and this was confirmed 
by the tasting and closer examination of two 
samples. 

8. I determined therefore to clarify the wines 
by deposition and decantation befote tasting 
them, and with that view laid them in my cellar 



928 



JOURNAL OP THE 800IBTY OF ARTS, Novembeb 7, 1873. 



in a horizontal position, so that the corks were 
submerged in wine. 

4. When they were all brilliant, or nearly so, 
they were all skilfully decanted with the aid of 
a silver spout and aeriphore. Each bottle left a 
quantity of turbid, undrinkable residue, of which 
the quantity is below in each case mentioned in 
cubic centimetres. (A bottle of wine may be 
assumed to hold from 760 to 800 cubic centi- 
metres.) 

5. The wines were then tasted and the rela- 
tive judgments recorded. These were con- 
firmed by repeated trials, and are put forth as 
fair approximations to the truth. 

6. The bottles were mostly well got up and 
properly corked ; but some were badly corked 
with conical corks, of which the thin ends pro- 
jected uselessly into the neck of the bottle. 

7. This circumstance, and the fact of the 
wines having been standing cork uppermost 
and dry for some time in the Exhibition, may 
account for much of the turbidity in the wines, 
and may perhaps have caused some or all of 
them to be of lower quality than they were 
originally. 

(1.) Victoria white wine (J. G. Francis), 
vintage 1869. 80 cubic cent of thick, brownish 
residue; the rest brilliant Is artificially 
coloured, contains either boiled wine or tannin 
in excess; possibly the must contained many 
rotten grapes. No flavour or value. 

(2.) White Ivanhoe (Chas. Maplestone), 
vintage 1868 ; bottled 1870. 20 cubic cent of 
thick residue, milky and flocculent. Probably 
Rei8sling ; close taste. Little value. 

(3.^ Reissling (James J. Fallon). 33 cubic cent, 
of thick residue, rather brown, not very thick ; 
contains spirit ; is mousy. 

(4.) Victorian white wine (J. G. Francis), 
vintage 1869. 60 cubic cent of milky brownish 
residue. Clear taste, somewhat characteristic; 
confined odour ; an attempt at bouquet 

(5.) Garbinet ( Jas. J. 1* allon). 10 cubic cent 
at bottom, containing trifling amount of sus- 
pended matter. No resemblance to Bordeaux 
Carbinet wine; a sweet, sugary, not brandied 
wine ; very clear, sound ; sufficiently, not deeply 
coloured. A very nice thing, though, being 
sweet, somewhat dangerous. Reminds of young 
natural port wine, though leas flavour, No 
expressed bouquet 

(f^.) Verdeilbo (Jas. J. Fallon). 20 cubic cent 
undrinkable, but very trifling amount of sus- 
pended matter. Peculiar nice flavour ; pure in 
taste ; sweet, vinous, dear. A valuable wine ; 
the beet of all white varieties. 

(7.) Shiraz (James J. Fall<Hi). 40 cubic cent 
thick and undrinkable; big particles floating. 
TVine with a half-colour (Schiller) ; no bouquet ; 
touch of acid ; si^'eetish, lastly bitter. An im- 
perfect wine 



(8.) Victorian red wine (J. G. Frauds). 
Burgundy grape, vintage 1869. 25 cubic cent 
thick and undrinkable. Dirty brownish red 
colour, fluorescent at margin ; very unfavourable 
aspect; stinks; no Burgundy character; thin to 
taste ; very astringent and bitter. Very bad 
wine ; equal to wine sold at Lisbon at £4 per 
pipe. 

(9.) Bed Ivanhoe (Charles Maplestone). 20 
cubic cent, residue, slightly turbid. Goodidi 
colour ; slight odour, but thin, peculiar bouquet; 
fresh taste ; little vinosity. 

(10.) Carbinet (F. G. Elemm). About 20 
cubic cent, of undrinkable, suspended red colour* 
ing matter. Good colour ; one colour only, b«rt 
slightly brownish and fluorescent ; slight bou- 
quet, confined. Well kept wine, but somewhat 
brandied. 

(11.) No. 1 Sauteme (Joseph Best), vintage 
1871 . 50 cubic cent undrinkable and very milky* 
Strongly dosed with elder-flower ; no similarity 
to Bauteme of any kind ; confined taste. The 
flavour of elder is strongest on the tongne, less 
perceptible to the nose. 

(12.) Victorian red wine (Joseph Best), 
grape (Hermitage and Pondgnac), vintage 1870. 
4o cubic cent of thick (with red matter) im» 
drinkable residue. Wine of half a coloar 
(Schiller), amethystos-looking ; curious Httk 
bouquet, perhaps elder flower (?). 

(13.^ Carbmet(F.O.Klemm). 60 cubic coit 
thick (with red colouring matter) reaidiial wine. 
Slight flavour; one colour; very astringent; 
sweet, and sharp like alum, increasing upon ^ 
tongue by contact In Burgundy "taaae** ^miws 
colour of old wine, not young. 

(14.) Hermitage (1869) (Gail PaU). 5 cabie 
cent, thick with red matter, undrinkable. Peca* 
liar little bouquet; one colour; faculty for 
quality. 

(15.) Verdeilho (1872) (GariPahl). 12 c^bie 
cent of thickly turbid (brownish) resdue. Like 
6 and 17 ; flavour less than 6 and 17« but 
characteristic There is faculty in this wine as 
in the others. 

(16.) Pineau Blanc and Verdeilho (Bnkm 
Brothers). 40 cubic cent ofmilky,tttrbid residue. 
Tastes of the sweetnces of the veideiDio fiist* asd 
of the sourness of the pineau afterwaids. 'Wovld 
make good effervescent wine if properlr tremted. 

(17 ) Verdeilho (1871) (Cari Pahl). *€u nbk 
cent residue ; thick, reddidu tStxnka ; is 
branoied. Resembles No. 6 in some of its good 
qualities, but flavour ia »a a tnrd by la 
able taste. 

(18.) Hermitage (187"»(CWPaW>. 25 
cent undrinkable. Thii^k, very red tnrbiifiir, 
and deposit crystalline. Yomig wiae ; i 
wine, probably made from midcr-ripe 
grown among weeds. 

(19.) OarbittetB««vigBca(BnkaBmlMnV«0 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP AftTS, Novembsb 7, 1878. 



929 



^bic cent, of thick, carmine-coloured residue ; 
Iioge deposit. Slight flavour ; a well-bi^aaoed 
wine; no BordtaMt flavour; BWeetteli astri*- 
MAty. Bofliewhat ^e^n, but a valuable wine; 
Ae best wine attiongat the red varieties. 

(20.) Victorian red wine (Jacob Deppeler). 
'Chape, hermitage and Burgundy; vintage lr71. 
60 cubic cent, of thick, dark-red residue ; much 
deposit Australian flavour ; a smoky taste of 
Hungarian ; green and astrin|zent wine ; wine 
of two colours, but colour not fine. The darkest 
•0(^ured wine among t^e red varieties. 

('^1.) Hermitage (J. S. Johnston). 40 cubic 
*<sent of turbid residue ; no (or litUe) deposit 
Scarcely one colour, about sevea-eigbtks. A 
^ery good wine. 

(22.) ReissMng, 1871. 25 cubic cent, of some- 
what turbid and undrinkable residue. Biessling 
flavour confined, but characteristic of plant; 
•could be mistaken fbr a Rhine wine ; probably 
btandied. 

(23.) O. P. Reissling. 100 cubic cent, very 
turbid residue. Is brandied ; has had raisins in 
oiafciBg ; no Reissling flavour ; flavour like the 
Test, peculiarly disagreeable ; sourish ; probably 
bottled in an unfit state. 

(24.) Sherry, 1871. 70 cubic cent turbid 
residue, deposit. No sherry flavour ; dose taste ; 
not brandied or sweetened, nor coloured. 

(25.) Burgundy, 1870. 8 cubic cent of residual 
^frine turbid ; rod deposit eoating intemdlavirfMe 
^ bottle. Good flavour ; little green ; not bad 
to drink. 

(26.) Ngarveno (John Davies). 15 cubic cent 
vendnal wine; oehry deposit. A tiiia wine, 
jprobaMy with Reisi^g in it ; confined odour and 



(27.) August Heine, Bendigo. ISoabiecent. 
ioHbfd rendoe ; but little deposit. No flawur ; 
Mtterish; unpleasant taste left on tongue after 
drinking. 

6. The producers must be commended for 
gtmtxng the names of the vines from which the 
wines were made, the years and places of pro- 
duction. I can discern in all these wines a 
certain future, provided always that their pro- 
dueCion askd treatment is effected in obedience 
ia Bcienttfically estabUshed truths. 

9. The Exhibition contains two photographs 
of Victoria vineyards, exhibiting accurately the 
conditions under which wines are most fire* 
qwtmntly reared in thai colony. One is the wdl* 
trimmed clean vineyard attached to the habita^^ 
tfott of a-flMn of pii9pet)ty, well off in tiie world. 
^Fhe other is a irin^rd intended fbr profit, in a 
dfjBorderly state, fflled up two fe^t in height 
firom the soil with a thicket of weeds, out of 
wWcb the vinei atmggle to sunlight 

10. I belietB &Bt some of the wines tasted 
pt^ceed from well-kept vineyards, others from 
Bucik Tineyards iUM with weeds; the^ wiaes 



which I have termed green seem of the latter 
class. 

11. On the whole the wines are such as to 
encourage the hope that, by continued improve- 
ments in culture (foremost the eradication of 
weeds) and in wine^making, the colonists may 
succeed m producing wtnes fbr their own con- 
sumption, and have some over for export I 
have not had any statements as to prices and 
quantities produced. I should advise the colonists 
to pr^uce clean and uniform staple articles of a 
cheap kind, without losing themselves in exces- 
sive variations. For tliis purpose co-operation 
by means of companies seems essential. 

12. The wines Were mostly below 26 per 
cent, of spirit, but many were slightly fortified. 
None were plastered or (with exception of one) 
artificially ookmred; none contained artificial 
saccharine matter. Two* sweet wines of low 
alcoholicity seenled to be sweet by a natural 
process of fermentaUon at a high temperature. 
There was evidently not a single attempt to 
imitate or counterfeit composite kinds of wines, 
such as ports or sherries ; and in this principle 
I see a guarantee of progress in the future. 

13. The Australian colonists must ascertain 
the most suitable varieties of wines for their 
several localities suitable for its culture. For 
this purpose they should establish agricultural 
experimental stations, supported and controlled 
by the State, to which scientific men, and par- 
ticularljr chemists, should be attached. At these 
stations the agriculturists could receive all neces- 
sary advice to aid them in overcoming the 
uadoubtedly great and numerous difficulties 
which impede the production of good wine in 
new countries. 



EXHIBinOK OP lS7i« 



Her Makety's Commissioners bare issued the follow- 
ing spi^ciajf note on the fine arts division : — 

1. The attention of artists and manufacturers is 
especially cfdied to Division I. of the suhjects chosen for 
the series of Annual Intemdtional Exhibitions. Hitherto 
the exhibition of works of fine art has been too much 
limited to Uie display of pictures and sculpture, dis- 
sociated from purposes of utility ; and it mav be doubted 
whether a picture on enamel or on pottery, destinHl to be 
applied to a piece of furniture, or a sculpture in wood 
intended for a picture-frame, however great its merits, 
would find anyplace in tbe ezhibtticfM of the Roval 
Academy of London or in any of the nnmerons other 
exhibitions of the works of artists. Btill less would a 
Oasbmere shawl or a Persian dttrpet, the chief toccellenee 
of which depended npon its oomtmiatton of colours, find 
ia sny of these exhibitions its proper place. 

% Booh a complete separadon of artistic work fhmi 
objects of utility may indeed be nid to be only the 
characteristic of modem times ; fbr in the ancient and 
medisBval periods tiie highest art is to be found in alliance 
with the meaaeit materials of Bansfactnre. Thn Btrus- 
fm^m painted oa vases of clay sabjects which still charm 
as by tkeir beauty of oompos^n and ddlful drawing ; 
and the finest works of BaffaaUe were designed as deoors- 
tiooi for biMigingi to be mads of wod. 

a, ItisiaNnSdthat thsse sshibiliens sfasfl fomlib 



930 



JOUBNAL OF THE SOOIETT OF ABTS, Nonembbb 7, 1873. 



the oppoxiunity of stimulating the revival of the ap- 
plication of the artist's talents to give beantj and re- 
finement to every desoription of object of utility, whether 
domestic or monnmentaL 

4. In the annual exhibitions every work in which fine 
art is a dominant feature will find proper provision made 
for its display. Painting, on whatever surface, or in any 
method, sculpture in every description of material, en- 
gravings of fdl kinds, architectural desi^ as a fine art, 
every description of textile fabric of which fine art is a 
characteristio feature, in short, every work, whether of 
utility or pleasure, wnicb is entitled to be considered a 
work of excellence from the* artistic point of view, may 
be displayed in the exhibitions under the division of fine 
art. Whilst the manufactures which fall within Division 
II. will have been brought under review in a series of ten 
years, the fine art division will recur annually, so that 
the greatest possible encouragement may be given to 
progress in the application of art to objects of utility. 

6. Every artist workman, moreover, will be able to 
exhibit a work of merit as his own production, and every 
manufacturer may distinguish himself as a patron of art 
by his allianoe with the artistic talent of the country. 
In the fine art section tiie artist may exhibit a vase for 
its beauty of paintinjg^, or form, or artistic invention ; 
whilst a similar vase may appear in its appropriate place 
among the manufactures of the apuointed year on account 
of its cheapness, or the novelty of its material. 

The committee appointed to airange and carry out the 
exhibition of foreign and colonial wines in 1874 desire to 
call attention to the advantages that may be obtained by 
exhibiting wines on this occasion, and to point out that 
it affords a better opportunity of brin^g the wines of 
Australia more directly before the notice of the English 
and Continental buyers than has ever before been avail- 
able. The arrangements tor seeing, tasting, and obtain- 
ing samples of ^e wines will allow of close and careful 
comparison with the various Continental wines exhi- 
bited of the same character and class : which comparison, 
the committee venture to hope, will be of some value. 
The committee also will be glad if exhibitors, where 
practicable, will send specimens of the soil where wines 
of a superior exceUence or quality are grown, together 
with particulars of cUmate, temperature, &c, and infor- 
mation as to mode of growing, making, and maturing 
the wines, where those processes differ from the methods 
ordinarily in use on the Continent ; to which mi^ht be 
added, age of the vines, per-centage of saccharine in the 
must, produce per acre, so., &c. 

The committee are of opinion that, if a majority of the 
growers will send specimens and information as here 
suggested, it cannot fail to have a material and beneficial 
influence, not only in extending the consumption of 
colonial wines, but also in improving and perfecting 
their ^^wth and manufacture, by the interchange of 
statistics and experience with growers of the older and 
more famous wine countries. 



kind likely to be interestinp^ to the publio will be dispond 
to lend them for exhibition. Her Majesty's Commis- 
sioners are particularly desirous of obtaining Iftrge paint- 
ings of a scenic chax«cter, or like diagrams. To tfaoss 
proprietors of interesting speoimens of arofaitectart whs, 
not already possessing pictures of tiiem, may be desooos 
of having them painted for this Exhibition, the Comiiit»> 
doners are prepared to furnish the names of stndflnli of 
art schools who are competent to produce mch l e pt ew D - 
tattons, together with their tenns. 

Her Majesty's Commissioners have decided to invito 
the owners of pictures painted by the following artisU to 
intimate their willingness to lend such works tor thels- 
temational Exhibition of 1874, and they request to be 
fkvoured with any information respecting them. 

Painters in Oil, — John Constaole, R.A., died 1837; 
Augustus 'E^g, R.A., died 1863; David Roberts, bX, 
died 1864 ; David Wilkie, R.A., died 1841. 

Painters in Watera (hloure,—-^. Coney, died 1833; J. 
S. Cotman, died 1842; F. Maokensie, died 18^4; 8. 
Prout, died 1862; A. Pugin« died 1832; J. M. W. 
Turner, R.A. (architecture only), died 1851 ; C. Wild, 
died 1886. 

Growers and importers who desire to inspect the raalli 
in the Royal Albert Hall, which will be applied for tike 
purposes of the Exhibition, may do so on presenting thai 
cards i^ the Queen's entrance of the Royal Albert Hall 
between two and four any afternoon up to Satusday, 
16th November. 



SXHIBITI0H8. 



In order to perfect the illustrations in the class of civil 
engineering, architectural and building contrivances, 
her Majesty's Commissioners have decided to make spe- 
cial arran^ments for exhibiting large photographs of 
new architectural buildings, espeoally gentlemen's 
country houses. Photographeis are invited to submit 
views of such buildings and to send them suitably framed 
to the Exhibition Building on the 6th Mardi, 1874. 
Only those photographs will be eligible which measure 
not less than 24 inches by 18 inches. 

Her Maieety*s Commissioners have decided that a 
portion of the London International Exhibition of next 
year shall consist of a collection of paintings or drawing 
representing such andent Mid modem buildings, pubhc 
or nrivate, as are remarkable ftir arohitectiind beauty or 
style. Thej trust that proprieton of pic^aies of this 



^ennft Szhlbition. — ^The exhibition was closed os 
Sunday afternoon, by two of the Archdukes, withost 
oeremonT. On the southern terrace three large mUitm 
bands played the National Anthem. This was fo^ 
lowed oy chbors from the thousands of persoos 
present.---Seventy thousand articles have been ex- 
nibited at the Vienna show, and 26,002 awards have 
been distributed. Of this aggregate number d 
premiums 421 were diplomas of honour, 3,024 medals lor 
progress, 8,800 medals for merit, 8,326 medals for good 
taste, 978 medals for art, 1,998 medals for oo-opentioe, 
and 10,466 diplomas of merit or hon<»aUe mentks. 
These were awarded as follows: — ^Aostria (withoitf 
Hungary), 6,991; Oermany, 6,066; France, 3,141; 
Italy, 1,908 ; Hungary, 1,604 ; Spain, 1,167 ; En^i^ 
and colonies, 1,166; Russia, 1,018; Switserland, 7S2; 
Belgium, 612 ; Norway and Sweden, 634 ; Turkey, 47*; 
Portugal, 441; United States, 411; Deomaric, 90t; 
Holland, 284; Roumania, 238; Japan, 217; 111 sail 
202; Greece, 183; China, 118; Egypt, 76 ; RepoUks 
of Central and South America, 44 ; Persia, 29 ; Moroeca 
Tunis, and Tripoli, 20; Madagascar, dbc, 10 ; Mcaaea, 
9; Mexico, Siam. and Turkestan, each 1. — A YieoM 
telegram states that the number of visitors to thfO Exhi- 
bition from the opening day to Uie close was 7>2&4,6$7, 
of whom 2,196,360 ent^ed without payment. 

Industrial Exhibition at THnldad.— The Conwpo^ 
ing Committee of the Society of Arts announce '" ' 
Industrial Exhibition will be held at 
Tkmidady in the monjbh of Deosmber. 



Prises fbr Besigis of Philadslphfa »*^tw^^ 

ing, 1876.— The United States Cantennial 
at a meeting held in Philadelphia, on Augnst tdc 
according to the Polytechnic Bulletin, awandad Ife 
premiums of 1,000 dollars to each of the antBors sf As 
best ten of the competing designs for the 1876 &fti- 
bition Building. From these tm the design fa tkt 
buHding will be selected, it being understood thst Hh/dr 
authors have the privilege of amending their dssigas fc«- i 
ton competing for tiie msn prissw 



JOURNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novimbbb 7, 1873. 



931 




T=« TO 00L0NIST8 ON THE OULTIVA. 
■^,v TION OF SILK. 

•*»' By B. Yraneii (Jobb. 

(Qmtinued from pag9 899.> 

28rd AprQ, 1873, a paper by Mona. A. Roland 
at the Society of Aits, and pabliahed in the 
the Society, ^o. 1,066. It is to be hoped that 
hoa been copied into the Colonial newspapers, 
should stud^ it well, especially those parts 
to " education in the magnanerie " and *' ap- 
^fc" and bear in mind that when M. Roland speaks 
^^H[jLhou,** the colonist has probably the identical 
[rf Ifllough somewhat changed by aocumatisation, in 
^'^ tenon Cape mulberry, which was imported into 
*^^S|M years ago by the Dutch East Indiamen coming 

' ^ wr H. Roland nor any other guide can giro all the 
l' *' itton necessary to suit every position, and colonists 
JKerclse their own ingenuity in making their 
ents as complete as possible for their own re- 
ts. For instance, M. Roland says nothing, and 
has no knowledge, of the hot winds ; yet the 
knows well, from unpleasant experience, that it 
necessary to protect me worms from this, and, as 
always comes from one quarter, a thick grove 
may be made to do much to mitigate its effect, 
mies of the silkworm are innumerable, and again 
ity of the colonist must be exerted to find means 
plish that for which no rules can be laid down, 
iit, for instance, is probably One of the most trouble- 
^f te id dangerous little insects of all the enemies of the 
iL It is difficult to speak of instinct in connection with 
J3!k*i^cal movements, and unless the rearer exercises 
^^'^ constant care and vigilance, he will find himself 
~ and out-manoeuvred by this most artful and 
little pest. Beetles, cockroaches, spiders, 
birds, and even monkeys will all destroy the 
if they have the chance, and the labour of three 
or a month may be rendered futile in a single 



\ •. 




ittts. 



odours affect the worm unfavourably, while 

apparently of a similar nature, do not appear to 

sea by them. Thus, where a West-Coast neno 

had gathered what one might call an apron-full 

. 8, except that the '* apron " was formed by part 

only garment she wore, the worms refused to eat 

ves, while leaves gathered by a Kafir, and cut by 

<^Were not objected to at all. Tar, known as coal-tar, 

lied to the supports or legs of the stands, to pre- 

ants climbing up, made the worms unquiet, 

vegetable, or Stockholm tar, although giving out 

powerful scent, did not disturb them to the same 

been stated by an authority entitled to every 
that if four lightning conductors were erected at a 
I of a few feet from each comer of the map^nerie, 
it six feet elevation above the highest pomt of the 
[ttnd at the mean level of the roof connected by wires, 
[ an arrangement would prevent a good deal of 
ht disturbance the worms suffer from when the air is 
liarged with electricity, as, shortly before a thunder- 
lonn — a period of oonmderable danger to the worm, 
inecially at the last stages shortly before mounting, for 
us frequently induces diseases already alluded to. The 
ondeDined wire-rigging of ships make cheap and excel- 
fent oonductors for such a pur^sa, and the experiment 
lonld be well worthy a fiur tnal. 
The drying the cocoons is important, but simple, 
kimost any sort of an oven will suffice. To destroy the 
Ifeafity of the chrysalis at as low a temperature as pos- 
^B is what is required, and generally that of 160^ to 
loo Fahr. is sufficient It should be borne in mind that 
ha lower the temperature at which the pupa is killed 
bd better for the cocoon, too great a heat making the 
Dk brittle. An old &sh!oned brick oven is very good, 




for if it be closed, and the cocoons allowed to remain 
until it is cold, they will be found partisdly desic- 
cated; but the best method, where it can be 
adopted, is by dry or high pressure steam ; not 
only is all danger of scorching removed, but the 
colour of white cocoons is bettor preserved. An 
ordinary iron-bound cask makes a very good means 
for operating. It should be fitted with divisions, for 
resting the cocoons upon, of basket ware, or any- 
thing else that will allow the steam to penetrate easily, 
and not discolour the cocoons, avoiding iron wire, &c., 
The lid is then fitted as tightly as conveniently can be, 
and a small tap fitted to it Another tap for the admis- 
sion of steam is placed below, and a trap for the drain- 
age from the sides of the cask. On the steam beiug 
admitted from below, the lid tap is opened sufficiently to 
allow the air and steam to escape, and this tap must never 
be quite closed, for it is necessary that the steam should 
continue escaping. When the chrysalis has been killed, 
it will be found that the cocoons are dry, and only require 
desiccating by exposure to the sun and air, or a hot, dry 
room. It wiU be found that a good cask will stand quite 
sufficient pressure to keep the steam dry, provided the 
escape in the Hd be not closed. 

After the cocoons have been steamed for about twenty 
minutes they should be well dried in the sun, or by 
means of a heated apartment, and, when thoroughly 
desiccated, they may be packed in the most convenient 
form and sent to their destination. Press packing will 
not injure them if the desiccation bo complete, but 
if any moisture remains they will mildew and spoil. 
Complete and thorou/^h desiccation, so that the chrysalis 
will pound to dry dust is ^^ absolute necessity. 

In concluding these hints, it cannot be too strongly 
impressed upon the colonist, that different places and 
climates require different modifications, that the in- 
telligence of the colonist must be exercised to the utmost; 
and in the case of anything adverse happening, the cause 
must be sought for until discovered, when the remedy will 
generally be found to be easy. Experiments should be tried 
upon new grounds, and before committing one*s self to 
any serious extent rearing on a small scale should have de- 
monstrated the suitability of both climate and leaf. The 
height above the sea-leyef has a considerable influence 
upon the time required for the worm to pass through aU 
its stages, and the dryness or humidity of the atmo- 
sphere are equally important matters to be carefully 
studied and calculated for. 

The following extract from the speech of Professor 
Huxley, •F.R.S., to the British Association, in 1870, 
demands the most careful consideration of all seri- 
ciculturists : — 

''The silkworm has long been known to bo subject to 
a very fatal infectious ana contagious disease called the 
muscadine. Audouin transmitted it by inoculation. 
This disease is entirely due to the development of a 
fungus, Botrytit bastiana, in the body of the caterpillar ; 
and its contagiousness and infectiousness are accounted 
for in the same way as those of the fly disease. But, of 
late years, a still more serious epizootic has appeared 
among the silkworms ; and I may mention a few facts 
which will give you some conception of the gravity of the 
injury which it has inflicted on France alone. 

".The production of silk has been for centuries an im- 
portant branch of industry in Southern France, and, in 
the year 1853, it had attained such a magnitude that the 
annual produce of the French sericicultuie was estimated 
to amount to a tenth of that of the whole world, and 
represented a money value of 117,000,000 of francs, or 
nearly five millions sterling. What may be the sum 
which would represent the money-value of all the in- 
dustries connected with the worlang-up of the raw sUk 
thus produced is more than I oan pretend to estimate. 

** Silkworms are liable to many diseases ; and, even 
before 18-53, a peculiar epizootic, frequently accompanied 
by the appearance of dark spots upon the skin (whence 
the name of ' p^brine,' whicn it has reoeived}, had been 



932 



J0UB5AL OP THE SOOIETr OF ARTS. NovMBEtt 7, 1878. 



noted for its mortality. But in the year following 1853 
Hub malady broke out with such extreme violence, that in 
1856 the mlk-crop was reduced to a third of the amount 
which it reached in 1853 ; and, up to within the Ust year 
or two, it has never attained half the yield of 1853. 

'* In 1858, the gravity of the sitnaUon caused the 
French Academy of Sciences to appoint commisBionexB, 
of whom a distmguished natumlist, K. de Quatrefagea, 
was one, to inquire into the nature of this diiease, and, 
if possible, to devise some meant of staying the plague. 
In reading the report made by H. de Quatreuges, in 
1859, it is exceedingly interesting to observe that this 
elaborate study of the p^brine forced the conviction 
upon his mind that, in its mode of concurrence and pro- 
pagation, the disease of the silkworm is, in every 
respect, comparable to the cholera among mankind. 
But it differs from the cholera, and, so fiir, is a more 
lormidable disease, in being hereditary, and in being, 
<inder some circnmstances, contagions aa well as in- 
fectious." 

'*The Italian naturalist, fHippi, discovered in the blood 
<of the silk worms affected by this strange disease a multi- 
tude of cylindrical corpuscles, each about -g^n of an inch 
long, lliese have been carefully studied by Lebert, and 
flamed by him, PankUtoph^Um ; for the reason that, in 
•abjects in which the disease is strongly developed, the 
corpuscles swarm in every tissue and organ of the bodv, 
«na even pass into the undeveloped eggs of the female 
moth. But are these corpuscles causes or mere conconii 
tants of the ditosso f Some naturalists took one view and 
■some another; and it was not until the French Qovem- 
ment, alarmed by the continual ravages of the malady, 
and the inefficiency of the remedies which had been sug- 
gested, despatched M. Pasteur to study it, that the ques- 
tion received its final settlement, at a g^reat sacrifice, not 
onlv of the time and peace of mind of that eminent 
philosopher, but, I regret to add, of his health. 

" But thesacrifioe has not been in vain. It is now certain 
that this devastating, cholera-like p^brine is the effect of 
the growth and multiplication of the Panhittophyton in 
the silkwonn. It is contagious and infectious because 
the corpuscles of the Panhutopkyton pass away from the 
bodies of the diseased caterpillers, directly or indirectly, 
to the alimentary canal ot healthy silkworms in their 
neighbourhood ; it is hereditary, because Uie corpuscles 
enter into the eggs while they are being formed, and, 
consequently, are carried within them when they are laid, 
and for this reason, also, it presents the verv singular 
pecoliarity of being inherited only on the mother's side. 
There is not a single one of all the apparently capricions 
4ind unaccountable phenomena presented by the pSbrine 
but has received its explanation from the fact that the 
disease is the result of the presence of the microscopic 
organism, Panhittophylon. 

** Such being the facts with respect to the p^brine, 
what are the indications as to the method of preventing 
it P I: is obvious that this depends upon the way in which 
the PtmhUtophyton is generated. If it may be generated 
hy abiogenesis, or by xenogenesis, within the silkworm or 
its moth, the extirpation of the disease must depend ubon 
the prevention of the occurrence of the conditions under 
which this generation takes place. But if, on the other hand, 
the PanhistophytoH is an independent organism, which is 
no more generated by the silkworm than the mistletoe is 
generated by the oak or the apple-tree on which it grows, 
though it may need the silkworm for its development in 
the same way as the misletoe needs the tree, then the 
indications are totally different The sole thing to be done 
is to get rid of and keep awav the germs of the PanhiBto- 
phyton. As might be imagined, from the course of his 
previous investigations, M. Fasteur was led to believe that 
the latter was the right theorv; and, guided by that 
theory, he has devised a melixod, of extirpating the 
-disease, which has proved to be completely suc^ssful 
ivherever it has been properly carried out. 

** These can be no reason, then. £br doubting thni* 
mosmg i&Mlcti contagious and infectious diseases of gzea^ 



maligmtT are osmsed by lainnts ssgsftissMv vUeh m 
produced from pre-eadsting g^an» or homogiensu; md 
there is no reason that I know offer believing that wbil 
happens in inseetft may not tnka plsDe in Um higiot 
animals.'* 

Finally colonisU are reminded that these hints dwoU 
not be taken as rules, but rather as aids Co those vko an 
endeavouring to enrich thtdr Afferent localities b; is- 
truducing the cultivation of the most beMififal prodw- 
tion yet known, which — though but the prodnet of 4 
worm— dates back to the periods of boaiy aktiqiiit^iiid 
has been handed down as a oonstant acooBpaaaeot of 
royalty to the present age. 



Oim KATIOKAL xussuiia 

The fbUowing srtid»jmiim soldeflt ^femiift A^ 



" The question started by Mr. Cole, and to s%id va 
alluded to some lengtii last week, is likely to zvcehi 
some additionid impetus by the publication of s asn^ 
spondence betwt>en the Society of Arts and Ifr. (^td- 
Stone, on the subject of the Bethnal-green tfESesBL 
The Society of Arts, having contributed to thbcaAd 
that museum, and watched its p r o g r ess carefiiny. p^ 
pared a memorial for submission to the GominHtt 
through the Premier, having for its end iha wofg^Am 
that larger supplies should be voted by PafiicaMflKo* 
wards the establishment of museums, libniiet, tsd 
galleries of science and art, in such of our IslM tcsB 
as are prepared to bear a certain share in ue cotf. 
The memorial was signed by sixty peen, sad s tei* 
dred and thirty memb**rs of the House of OoosiQa^ 
who sunk politicfll difCo^nces in their detift to ]»• 
moto a worttiy object. A matter of etiquette pnmid 
Mr. Gladstone from recdving a d«putetion oo tne toMi 
and he referred the Society to the Privy Cooadl Ofitfi 
But the memorialists resMctfully ded&ed to sppetl to 
an^ one save the Prime minister, and he has tcsed ti 
bnng their suggestions before ths notios of ui «i* 
leagues. Thus Oie matter stands. 

**The suggestion of the Society of Art^Bksfbt of 
Mr. Cole, is only part of the great quattioe of Cbeifr 
organisation of the national musettdis. Tfili W «^ ■ 
important enough for a ' cry,* nor can wt hops ttit mt 
government will take it up very earneitly. Bot, un^ 
Uieless, it is one of high importance, and one ^^^ 
all who are concerned for the maintenance of ottimIM 
superiority in manufactures must feel a deep 'aUfA 
The necessity and utility of museums fi sckDovM|ii, 
their very existence proves this. Allthst renMtssti to 
maintain Uiem efficiently and eoonomioaUy, t veil 
which is by no means well done yet, and probsblys^ 
will be until some comprehensive scheme of msaigasait 
is adopted. As at present constituted, maseooB b^J*! 
broadly dirided into three types — first, that of fte Sosik 
Kensington, Jermyn-street, and Bethnal-greeo siomw* 
in London, and the Albert Museum in Ez«tM^-« tj^> 
the actually usefbl museum, where the srtiMB '■VJ* 
illustrations of manufacturing operations, sad the tftu 
may find examples iff the masterpieoes of old. Ha 
everything is nent, orderly, and simpls; flo oljrt* 
without a label, irhich explains dearly iHiat k iii^ 
spectators need not wander about a^nig ew& 
tions of incomprehensible curiositiei, itbiok cm 
in their mindB wonder, but no istovA J^ 
second type is that of the British MusesoHvuHi 
purely scientific Museums like this sre KatMfid ^ 
the country, coiitainiiig vast nui&bets of qmM 9^ 
mens buriea ifi drawers and cases, adorasd «itk ^^ 
labels; museums wherein the populacan)Tesb«i*» 
awe, partly at the monstrous ol^ts displayed to »* 
gase, and partly at the tremendous naanes «^J7 
bear. These musenms are only fitted fox «j«v 
persons; they are next to useless to othsH^uw' 



r' 



JOUBNAL OP THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Notbmbeb 7, 187S. 



933 



^een lately dome in the Biitiah and Ipswich 
'^HM, lapenntendents and curators are wilhng to 
from their hiffh level, and escort bodies of simpler 
liuoogh the ooUections, givin^^ as they go some 
I aoooimt of the more prominent objects. A third 
kof moieam is scarcely to be found in any national 
IB^oiL It is usually seen in small country towns, 
leduty oases are arranged in ill-lighted rooms, and 
Mde the receptacle of rubbi^ brought by resident 
lemen from all parts of the world — one giving a 
heition of minerals for which he has not room ; 
lier, a few drawers of butterflies of which he has 
fa tired. South Sea islanders' weapons, elephants' 
3, and other spoils of the chase sre scattca«d about 
Droers and on walls, and the collection of oddments 
ibbed a ' museum.' Our readers can draw on their 
i exveriesce for other details on this subject, and we 
miuih mistaken if they do not agree with us that the 
"gj that is expended with but Uttle useful result on 
local and nn^onal museums is almost or entirely 
wn. away." 

tier recapitulation of the five points insisted upon by 
Society of Arts in connection with the museums, the 
ia concludes : — ** We are disposed to go even farther 
I this, if necessary. If we are to have a good system 
chnical education, all our resources in we shape of 
Bums must be thorou^hl;^ utilised in connection with 
ind it will be no injustice to existing interests, or 
$nit;r to the memory of deceased donors, to totally 
ganise the system — if it can be so called— on whid^ 
ffloseums are managed. Unquestionably this is a 
t icheme, and one which must be attempted, if at all, 
he Government Vested interests will, as always, 
in opposition, but public opinion must insist on &e 
possible use being made of public property, whether 
Qseums or elsewhere." 



PUBLIC MUSEUliS AND LIBRARIES. 

le Connoil propose, with the assistance of the In- 

dons, to publish monthly in the Society's Journal 

un of the visitors to the following public museums 

galleries, all of which are supported by Parliament. 

following returns for October have been made up 

iprssemtdate: — 

No.ofVIdtort. 

ritish Museum 

ational Ghillery 

ationai Portrait Gallery 

ew Qardens and Museum 

)uth Kensington Museum 65,497 

ethnal-green Museum 36,405 

eological Museum, Jermyn-street 2,552 

itent-office Museum 19,814 

linbargh Museum of Science and Art . . 24.875 

iinburgh National Gallery 6,781 

iinborgh Museum of Antiquities 5,761 

ojal Dublin Society : — 

Natural History Museum 

Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin 

ublin National GhiUery 

oological Society, Dublin 10,223 

nseum of Irish Society, Dublin 

>wer of London 9,760 

reenwich Painted Hall 

e afl^regste production of locks of all descrip- 
at XvilleDball now exceeds 32,000 docen per week. 
»eka vary in price from |d. to 10s. apiece, and in aize 
^le they present an almost infinite variety. 

o total number of blast furnaces in America 
9 wiw 153, yielding 54,000 tooa of iron ; at this time 
m nearly 600, yiel£ng 2,000,000 tons per annum. 



THE TRADE OF GENOA. 

The consular reports from Italy show amost satisfactory 
condition of affairs, more espedaily at the nort of Genoa^ 
which has contributed, in proportion to tne importance 
of her position, to the remarkable commercial activity 
of the whole country. The progress in the trade, ac> 
cordingto the custom-hotise registers, is really remark* 
able. The imports in 1869 were valued at £9,300,388^ 
in 1870, £9,499,380, and in 1871 at £10,299,035. It is 
especially satlsfiaotory to note the great increase in the ex* 
ports, and to remark that the increase has taken place in 
all the important articles of home produce, namely, wine, 
oil, grain, silk, cotton, hemp, hardware, machineir, &c. f 
whereas, where there has been a decrease, it has been in 
artides not of home growth or manufiaoture, but in the 
re-export of foreign goods. The value of the exporte 
in 1869 was £1,370,808, in 1870, £3,374,732, and in 1871 
£4,449,324, The movement of shipping in the foreign 
trade had again increased in 1871 over all previous years, 
the largest proportion being in the bands of the 
Italians themselves. 

In the coasting trade the tonnage had fallen off*, and 
seems likely to mrther diminish so soon as the railwa^s^ 
coastwise and inland, put Geneva in communication with 
the rest of Italy. The coast line has been pushed on 
with energy on both sides. The line to Nice was finally 
open to traffic in the month of March, 1872. The tcumel 
through Geneva, uniting the east and west coast lines, 
was expected to be finished very shortly. On the east 
coast only about 4,000 metres of the principal tunnels- 
have still to be excavated, and it is stated that the line 
can be opened the whole way to Spezzia b^ the end of 
1873. llie line from Savona towards Turin is now being 
steadily carri^ on, after a long pause caused by financial 
difficidties. The harbour works and various extensions 
and improvements, undertaken at the expense of the 
municipality, are being carried on contmuously but 
slowly, as in spite of the enormous octroi duties imposed 
by the town, the financial position is not flourishing, 
and by no means keeps pace with the great fortunes 
being rapidly realised by Uie inhabitants. No one who 
has seen the quantity of new houses and of whole streets 
that have been built in the last ten years, would have 
expected tlie results of the recent census, which show 
only a trifiing addition to the population ; but the ex- 
planations are to bo found in the very great increase in 
the population of Sampierdarina, and of all the villages 
or communes in Uie immediate neighbourhood. The 
increasing population having been mirly driven out of 
Ctenoa by the enormous octroi duties which are now im- 
posed, not only, as formerly, on food and drink, but on 
everything, almost without exception, that passes the 
gates — not even excepting articles that, by the policy of 
the State, are allowed to pass the customs duty free. 
'Die imports of raw cotton had been considerable, whilst 
the cotton-mills and manufactories were unusually active. 
Power-looms were rapidly increasing in number, and the 
same progress seemed likely to follow with regard to 
spindles, we number of which, so far, had been small in 
proportion to the quantity of yam rec^uired for the 
consumption of the former. The smaller mdustriee had 
all fiouri^ed. The vermicelli and biscuit-bakers, soap- 
boilers, and candied fruit-makers profited especially by 
an increased demand for export. 

From various causes alluded to by Mr. Brown, the 
British Consul, the trade of Genoa has met with a re- 
markable propulsion. The political features had been 
such as to favour in the highest degree the growth of 
every kind of financial undertaking. "With the French 
defeats and the siege of the capital, the infiuence so long 
and arbitrarily exercised by Paris over the Stock Ex- 
change of Italy has become a thing of the peat. Genoa, 
as the richest and most commercial of Itaban cities, was 
the first to take advantage of the opportonibr of founding 
new inatitntions to supply the want so long felt of greater 
banking facilities at home, and the eagerness with which 



934 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCflETY OF ARTS, UbvaMWB 7, 1878. 



the first companias im% taken vp Vy the {mblic iaduced 
more and more to come forward, till no less than seven- 
tnen fi«sh ettabliilimoDts, with limited UabitHy, have 
been started, representing collectively a capital of 
£5,2d0«000 sterling. The price of Italian x«nte had 
steadily risen during the year, and this in spite of a verj 
heavy income-tax, which came into effect in July. Ttna 
increase in the valae of the public securities argsed a 
considerable amount of confiaence on tbe part of tite 
nation, largely justified by the actual course of events in 
the peninsula. Politically and flnancially, whether the 
peaceful and definite occupation of Rome, on the one 
hand, or the immensely incrcasi'd production and im* 
proved income of the coun* ry on the other, is considered, 
everything has gone well 1 ^r Italy. In the solution of 
the Koman quPBtion there U a solid guarantee of order 
and quiet for the future, w!\ile the very comforting 
returns of oommeroe and taxUion show very satisfactory 
first fruits of the prosperity of a united Italy. 



LSAI) WATBR-PIPBa 



Pore water is a grand luxury, and so are oCher pnre 
things ; but it is not necessary to lighten nervous and 
ignorant people out of their wits about contamination. 

The outcry avainst lead* pipes has been as load in Paris 
as in London ; out whilo our authorities have lefb the 
matters to chemists ami the press, the Municipal Council 
of Paris has taken a different course, and expresses the 
results arrived at in the m(«t straightforward language. 

Petitions against the use of lea 1-pipes had been already 
sent to each member of the counciX when an article ap- 
peared in a Paris journal, and was republished by several 
others, stating that the municipal authorities had receive 1 
a petition that the oommittee uf hygiene had pronounced 
ai^inst the ose of lead-pipes, but that the authorities 
still pt^rsisted in employing them. All these assertions 
were £atly contradicted the ot^er day at the meeting of 
the oounciL The administration had not received a 
petition, the committee had nia le no report at all on tlie 
subject, and the oivic authorities did not use lead pipes ; 
they were used by the wat*T company and private in- 
dividuals whom they supplied. Moreover, it was argued, 
the use of lead pipes dates back to a very remote period 
without any accident having been proved against them. 

The employment of leaden pipes for water was de- 
clared to presi;nt no dan<;er, but a patent had been taken 
out for the manufacture of leaden pipes hned with tin, 
and the petitions which have been referred to seem to 
have been drawn up and distributed about by a person 
interested in the new manufacture in question ; and the 
same person was apparently the author of the article 
above alluded to, which app 'ured in various journals. 
As to the assertion that public opinion had been 
g^roatly affected, the council (ynild only say that not a 
single complaint on the subject had reached it. 

However, experiments had bet'n made, and engineers, 
chemists, and medical men, who had made them, bore 
witness to the fact, that the passage of water through 
leaden pipes had caused no accident, and presented no 
danger whatever. 

The opinion of the Acidemy of Sciences will be taken 
on the subject, and if any more accusations should be 
made against the administration, the prefect will appeal 
to the tribunals also. 

A naember of the Council said that if there were any 
eensetion caused in the public mind it was that of fear 
that leaden pipes should be officially prohibited, and 
thus house pToprietors put to great expense without any 
Bamtary advantage whatev* r. 

M. Belgrand, the able director of the water and sew- 
ege service of the city of Paris, said that the number 
of ^rsona who paid for a supply of water in their houses 
m Tans was 40.000 ; and, taking the average length of 
the servtee-pipes at 40 metres, the total length of the 
■ervice-pipes would be about 1,600,000 metree— just a 



thmisand m9es. T^ereplaoement of tiuslaogthofjcit 
would cost a large som of money ; still if tbt maitfy 
existed it mmt be done ; but thecv really did aof a* 
Ihe riigHeet danger frmn the nse of lead pipea 

Experimente Ind been m»de in tiie labontDryof & 
engineer diarged with the testing^ ^ the tOsDiBti^ 
power of gas; and the following are the ieulti:-li 
epentting witii five litres of wvter oonoeotoitei ty 
evaporation, tbe most sensitive tests did not docA 
the existence of silts of lead. It is trm tbt &- 
tilled water has an active effect on lead, feniBg 
csrbonste of lead, bnt it only reqnins o » 
finiteshnal <|tmotity of c a rbonate of lime is the vh1« 
to pr e v e pt it acting on lead, and all the vfter ni 
in Paris is in this condition, even nun-vatfr, vkiik 
meets in the atmosphere with lime, in the fbrm of p-Ttitr. 
in sufiloient qna&tities to prevent action on lesd. 1^ 
fact «erres to explain why leaden^ pipss lest in liBgl 
indefinite usnod, wnile esst or wrooght iron p^* ^ 
worn ont n a Ufw yean. 

There remain still some leaden conduits n Yuk 4. 
tiie epoch ptoDably of Fh9i|^ie Aogute, wiridit, if tki 
water nnd any effect upon tttem, would by tins tioK bn 
been pierced Kke a siere. 

The authorities do not in any way oppose Q» i» if 
pipes lined with Ian ; bett they present the disadmaft 
of being dearer than the ordinary kind, aod« xaexwrn, 
the presence of the tin causes asperities when the nU»^ 
ing has taken place, which fkvoar obstmetMBa ii ^ 
pipes. 

The Prefect insisted on this point, tlat the d^ a 
completely disinterested in the question ; it does oat ^ 
use any lead pipes. Lastly, leaden pipes vhid In 
existed in Paris for centuries have xaAtxpna so site- 
^ tton whatever, either in their s tr ac t me or their ior 
surfaces, a positive proof that water has so cAcS ^ 
lead. 

After liiitening to these arguments and expUait}^ 
the Council passed a speeial vote that the ohemlMSi s' 
the Prefect and of M. Belgrand should ht insertsdist^ 
minutes* 



MBASITRfiH&NT OF CASKS. 



In enumerating and describing the new i 
ao<|uifed by his de pait iwsnts ia the ssens «if tk ^ 
year, the Warden of the Standards statss that h» 
obtained from Berlin a specimen of the cubic »pikiniEi 
for verifying casks, adopted by the Geraua 
Commission. Although somt^ objectioss «« 
the proposed verification and stampiag of ctfb is 
Germany, when the project of law for the icfibtM ^ 
weights and measures was before the CiMiauttwsl tk 
Federal Parliament, yet the propositaun «u ewtaiOx 
adopted at the express desire of the Gfraus «isr^ 
growers. The Warden euggesta it as asat^eet «nftk 
consideration whether a sinular reguUtien stwaklailW 
adopted in this country, more particularly in mfMt if 
ale and beer casks. For a long period •■ch a ncwiea 
was in foroe here, and was exercised b? thi ^^9^ 
Company of London. An Act of 1^31, U Hewy VUL ;. 
4, directed that casks were to be nude by arafieei d 
the craft of coopers only. The barrel of beer wa k sb* 
tain.36 gallons, and of ale 32 gallons; the kild«kia«lB 
contain half and the firkin a quarter of thQS» fB*''^ 
They were to be of just and good aeaser^ « ■* 
above and not under ; and every artifiotc «si * 
put his proper mark upon every one of thec> ^ 
cooper was to make any other vessel for be* ff ^ 
of a greater or lesser number of barrsK toJ '* ^^ 
marked upon them the tme and certsia nunbers^^Bi* 
thoy contained, to the end that eveiy person ndflt)^ 
the contents thereof No other casks thaa wA ft 
marked were allowed to be used by beer and aZc l *i^ 
wader penalties^ Ragulatkms were ail* isbIs rM 
to the oons^nctlon and vctil l uaClu i B of sesp ciAs. i*J 
Coopers^ Company nws eoapoweted to moA^^ 



JOURNAL OP THE SOOIETY OP ARTS, JSTovembbr 7, 1873. 



935 



Rich casks, taking with them an offioer of the mayor, and 
lo'ezamtne them, and If found oorreot mirk them with 
St. Anthony's cross ; if defective they might seize them, 
ind caose them either to he amended or homt. and a 
penalty to be imposed on the owner. The regulations 
>f this Act were, by 31 Bliz., c. 8, extended, so ftir as 
Doight be, to foreign casks imported into Englxnd, and 
used by brewers; the Coopers Company to gnuge t^em, 
md mark their capacity upon them. The Warden of 
the Standards suggests thnt if such a res? ulation should 
^ included in the contemplated legislative measure for 
mproving our system of weights and measures, it would 
iffbrd wh it would appear to be a muoh needed security 
5o the pu^dic for obtaining their proper measure of the 
intents of casks; but thdt further inquiries upon the 
subject may btj dnsirable, more piaticulcirly as to altera- 
ions in th« capacities of casks which m iy occur from 
imo to time ufter verification, arising from coopering. — 
Tima, 



THE LOWER DANUBE. 

The m^t important provision of the Treaty of Paris; 
x^ndu'lel in the yenr 1806, as regards the D inube, was 
(he creation of two International Commissions, one 
atllfid the European and the other the Hiverain. The 
Srst, coGopised of dtjlejgatos from Great Britain, France, 
lostria, Busaia. Prussia, Turkey, and Italy, was charged 
irith the task of executing the works necessary to clear 
khe mouths of the river of the aandb inks and other 
)b8tacles, b»«ginniDg at Issaktcha. a iKunt about twelve 
mim above the commencement of the Delta ; the neces- 
lary funds fur carrying on the works .to be obtained by 
If vying tolls upon shipping. This Cjmmi&iion was to 
iiave Usted two yeaxs, and was then to have boon suo- 
ieeded by the Riverain Commission, composed of dele- 
ates from the states bordturing on or traversed by the 
Danube, niimely, Austria. Bavaria, Turkey, Wurteia- 
borg, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Servi.i, The former 
Commission assembled at G.Uata. in Nov., 1856, and, 
laving caused a detailed survey of the whole field of the 
Delta to be made, they consulted several eoiinent en- 
^eere for the purpose of determining their choice of 
iie particular outlet and channel beat suited for im- 
>rovement. Several plans were cons>'quently furnished 
yy persons who had studied the matter on the spot, 
>at they differed so muoh from each other that the 
[Commission was unable to come to a decision. Mean- 
while, attention was devoted to the temporary improve- 
nentof the Sidina mouth and channel, and the bar was 
xeated on a principle proposed by Sir Chtrles A. Hartley, 
;he effect of which was most encouraging. Piers composed 
)f double rows of piles, filled up and supported on each 
tide by loose stones, were run out ovi)r the bar, so as 
o confine the water flowing out of the river, and form a 
»ntin nation of the stream. This work was begun in 
ipril , 1858, when the depth of water on the bar was 10 
'eet. In 1861 the eff*jct of the piers wis to deepen the 
channel to 14 feet in January, and to 17 J fuetin August. 
[n 1863 thf-re was a teoxporary reduction to 13 J feet 
)ut henceforth, and up to this day, the depth of water 
tver the JSulina bar has never been less than 18 feet; tho 
r&riations now are between that and 20 feet. This gre it 
uccess not only enabled all ships of tho ordinary size to 
>nter or leave the river without lightening, but trans- 
ormed the Sulin'i into the best port of refuge on this 
ide of the BLick Sea. Whilst these works were going 
ni« political events and other circumstanr*es prevented 
ny decision from being come to respecting the fin^l 
election of the mouth for permanent improvement, and 
much monny hiid been spent by the Commission that 
t was at last resolved to make the works at Sulina per* 
aanent by consolidating the piers with massive stone- 
rork« which hiS been done, and to leave the choice of a 
letter mouth ao open question. 

OonmU Ward, to whose report we are ixulebtpd for this 



information, states that ifhen the European OommisBioii 
commenced its labours the trade on the DcUiube was 
carried on almost entirely in sailing-ships seldom 
drawing more than 12 feet of watar. 8team navigation 
was, comparatively speaking, in its infancy. For tho 
great majority of ships which aaoendad the river tea 
yoirs ago a permanent minimum of II feet would have 
been suffioient, bat the rate at which the traffic of ships- 
has gone on increasing was qmte unforeseen. Increase 
in the sise of a ship implies, of course, an inoreased 
draught of water ; and the average register tonnage of 
4^ or 513 tons ooiresponds with a draught which gene- 
rally exceeds 15 feet, so all the steamers descending the 
river drawing 16 feet or moie have to lighten to a 
draui^ht of at least 6 inches less than the water osrw -the 
shoals. The expense of lighterage i^jsges between £100 
io £3t>0 for each steamer, and it is attended baeides with 
much loss of time, which to steamers is of very great 
importance. The want of a sufficient and permanent 
depth of water in the Sulina braneh consequently 
raises the cost of steam navigation on the 
Dmube very materially, and the expense of lighten* 
ing is the more burdensome hs it can never be 
foreseen or c ilculated. The insufficiency of the bro^idth 
of the channel is another source of expense, still more 
unforeseen and impossible t) calculate. Daring the ten 
yea^, 1862 to 1871, 213 collisions, 525 stran^ogs, and 
12 wrecks were recorded by the commission, and wore 
entirely caused by the difficulties of the navigation, in 
consequence of the narrowness of the stream. The 
British shipping suffered 44 collisions, 52 serious and 56 
slight strandings. No approximate estimate can be 
mtde of the loss occasioned by the oasualtieo, but in 
many cases it has been heavy. It has not unfrequently 
h ippen^jd that a large ship grounding across the stream 
has stopped the pnssage entirely. 

With regard to tho commercial interests involved, we 
arc likewise informed that during the period which has 
elapsed since the Russian war, the trade with Great 
Bnt iin has increased still more than it did during the 
Riissittn occupation of the mouths of the river. The ex- 
ports, consisting always of cereals, vary in qa mtity, ac- 
cording to the abundance or scarcity of the crops ; on 
the whole there is a continued but decided inrrease, 
corresponding with the extension of agriculture. Indian 
corn is now so largely consumed in England that nearly 
the whole quantity exported by sea from the Principali- 
ties goes to Great Britian. Taking one year with 
another, the value of the exports to Great Britian may 
be stated at £1,500,000. The imports from Great 
Britain have also greatly increased, principally by reason 
of the ^kcilities and cheapness of steam navigation, and, 
in a minor degree, by the introduction of new articleSy 
such as agricultural steam machinery, and implements, 
Portland cement, railway materials, and others formerly 
unused or unknown. The value of these imports m<iy be 
set down at an average of £1,000,000 ; and, to give 
still further extension to British trade, greater facilities 
should be afforded to steam navigation, and the 
interests of the importers of British goods should 
not be so entirely sacrificed to those of the British 
shipping as they now are. The imfitness of the 
S.ilina branch for the navigation of steam -ships 
has already been described. The only remedy 
now is to open the St. George's month, so as to enter at 
once into a broad, deep channel, reauiring very little 
expense to improve it. It was calcul ited fifteen years 
ago th-it the cost of removing the bar and imoroving the 
channel would be £500,000, a sum considered to be too 
great for the navigation to bear. The experience gained 
by the construction of the piers at Sulina proves that 
similar works could be executed at St. George's at a cost 
much below the former estiaoatey and although £500.000 
is a heavy burden on the navigation, the sum whioh 
the European Commission has already levied exceeds 
that amount, and £47.000 a year on the average con- 
tinues to be levied for the purpose of paying the debt of 



936 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novbmbir 7, 1878. 



the Oommisnon, and of keeping up a bad channeL 
According to the amount of the toUa levied, and the valne 
of the imports and exports by sea, it is obrioos that the 
material obstacles to the navigation of the river affect 
Great Britain infinitely more than any other nation, and 
in a national point of view it is important to indicate 
how much British commercial interests would gain^ by 
their removaL Shipowners will make no complaint; 
they will sabtnit to pay any rate of toll, and to bear with 
the inconvenience of the Snlina branch so long as they 
find the trade profitable, which no doabt they do. Bat 
what that trade would be if the St. George's Channel 
were opened, can easily be understood. The largest 
steam-ships which come to the Danube might then enter 
and leave, ascend and descend the river without lighten- 
ing, without pilotage, and without the risks of collisions 
«iia groundings. 



COBBSSPOHBEHCB. 



REVOLUTION INDICATOR. 

Sir, — ^Ever since ships were propelled by steam/ and 
more especially since the '* screw" and ** direct engines" 
were aaopted, it has been a desideratum to provide a 
** revolution indicator," which would inform the officer 
on deck, and the engineer in charge of the engine, what 
are the number of revolutions per minute ; and that this 
information should be obtainable immediately with 
accuracy by the officer on deck himself, without any 
reference by him to the engineer, or to any one else, and 
by both, without any necessity for counting the revo- 
lutions, which involves the further necessity of using a 
watch, and requires a lantern to be brouj^ht on deck at 
night to the officer of the watch on the bridge, which, 
in bad weather, is often impossible. 

Various plans have been proposed, but none have as 
yet been successful. They have, as a general rule, been 
dependent upon the centnfuffal action of weights, as in 
the *' governor" derised by Watts. The motion of the 
ship, in rolling and pitching, seriously affects the accuracy 
of this description of " revolution indicator." 

To men-of-war an accurate " revolution indicator " 
would be invaluable, particularly — 

1. In Fieett, — Inaccurate station-keeping, which 
leads to much signalising, to reprimands, to irritation, 
to grievous waste of time, is caused chiefly by the un- 
noticed small accelerations and retardations of the engine, 
arising, amongst other causes, from changes in the mean 
pressure in the cylinder, and these again result from 
alteration in the vacuum, in the pressure of the steam in 
the boiler, or both. ** Revolution indicators" would in- 
form the engineer in charge and the officer on deck of 
any change in the number of revolutions, whether in 
excess of or in diminution of the number ordered to be 
maintained by the captain. In fogs, so common in the 
Channel, " revolution indicators would be highly 
prized, and aid materially in keeping the fleet in close 
order. 

2. In Single Ship*. — Many a hazardous error in the 
assumed position of ships, and many a wreck, would 
have been prevented if the officer in charge of the deck 
could have detected immediately that the engines were 
being allowed to make more or fewer revolutions than 
had been ordered. 

As it does not appear that there is any prospect of the 
want bein^ supplied without the incentive (so often 
successful m previous cases) afforded by the offer of 
the Society of Arts medal, I submit that the Society 
offer their gold medal for the best '* re volution indicator^' 
AilflUin^ the following conditions : — 

(V\ Smiple in principle and construction. 

(2) Not easily disordered, and easily refitted in case of 
accident. 



(3) Accuracy not dependent upon the ihip beif ^ 
right or steady. 

(4) To indicate, wherever placed (and tben ibadili 
one on deck and one in the engine-room) thfimUotioai 
per minute at all times, by night and day, ifuiedii^f 
oy simple inspection, without the neceiaty of ooosto^oi 
the use of a watch. 

(5) Moderate in first-oost and oostof fifctiof. C«tti 
be stated. 

(6) Harg^of inaccuracy not to exceed about tvof9 
cent. 

(7) To be independent of ihia "< Patent Lot^" it 
<' Berthon Speed Indicator," and the " Cooaier," Ad 
which instruments fulfil offices distinot from th^ d» 
sired " Revolution Indicator." — I am, &c., 

Alfbsd p. RTnza, Fitt-Aimtd, 
5, yictoria-«trMt, Wattmhutar, Oetobor SCh, mi 



THE SILK DEPARTMENT— INTERNiTIOSAL 

EXHIBITION. 

. SiB, — ^When I, somewhat reluctantly, aavadd tk 
responsibility of reviewing this department, 1 ^ p 
fearlessly and in good fki&. When I law a i^j^ 
the Warehousemen and Ihraptri Tmi* Jw/wAM^^ 
my opinions as regards the capability of the moak* 
turers of Coventry were disputed with oaofi&nldi 
acerbity, I took no notice of the anonymou vBts- 
Subsequently a letter, on a portion of the Btme s#9<i 
appeared in the Timee^ signed " William AMett," ^^ 
was in part conclusively answered by ProfewrljSB 
Levi. 

I have to-day received a oopy of the Ownir^ Itf^ 
containing the accompanying letter, written ^ Sl 
Thomas Stevens, of Coventry— whoee looms st v» 
and productions, shown at the InternatiaDal Exb- 
bition, have excited so mudi admiration^'^CA^ 
himself, his brother manufactuzeis, and djen 3 
Coventry against the acousations of incompeAexr* 
freely charged by Mr. Ablett I take no pert in di 
controversy, but as sustaining the accuracy of tfctB" 
port published in the coluoms of the /wnw/ f/ * 
Soeietj/ of Arts, I leave the matter in the haadi of v. 
Stevens, who seems to be wdl able to hold hit ova-i 
am, &c., FnANca Bcnroci 

so. Wood-street, B.C., OctobertSth, 1873. 

To the Editor of the Coventry SerM. 

Sir, — Will you allow me to say a few wordi in «** 
ence to the article copied in your hut from the ^** 
housemen and Drapett* Trade Joumsi f 

Personally I have very little to compliin oC aafl 
that the writer assumes that we do not ama£><:^ 
ribbons. 

It is very rarely that we are without an ord<» of •« 
kind for the very class of ribbon he gives the Frwichai 
first place for ; and we not only make for thie BiatH> 
often for the Continent and America, expemivi^ if 
ribbons. The same writer, I believe, a iewd»n 
wrote to the London Timee^ stating the enormooi a 
he used to get when he was in the Coventry tnda 
large orders are given now, but, as then, sie 
verbally, and if the goods are wanted thsy are 
not, it IS no order at alL 

With regard to his assertion that Coventry oo't 
pete with any Continental manufaotoren of nhta. 
that she can only make a return when the fofoga 
can't supply the market, this is eo ridicaloae that 
acquainted with the matter knows that it m a ' 
misstatement, and that orders are given in " 
early, esnecially for (^eap ribbons. The hi^ 
facturer here of this class of ribbon has for sm 
successfully competed with tiie Swiss. He ss yt ^ 
can dye colours creditably ; this has been J»w 
and over again during the last few years, and it »V 
known that the best dyen in Coventry cifl dyt ob*^ 



JOURUf AL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novbmbbb 7, 1873. 



937 



lA well M thoie on the Oontment, in proof of which large 
[aantities of coloured silk are seat to Coventry for that 
rorpone. A farther proof ia, both Eaglish and foreign 
IrysalterB and dealers in dyeing materials prefer to carry 
^Tontry dyed skeins of silk to show their colours ; it is 
Jso admitted by German, French, and Swiss, that 
joventry can d^ aniline blaes better than any place in 
;he world. With regard to his statements about black 
dik dyeinff, many ot our manufacturers have tried the 
Dontinent^ dyers^ but find there is no advantage what- 
nrer ; that they can get it weighted as heavily in this 
country, dyed as brightly, and at a cheaper rate, and in 
iess time, than on the Continent ; in nict, one of our 
>lack dyeinff establishments is as large (with one excep- 
ion) as half a dozen such houses on the Continent ; and 
Jiere is now in Coventry 20 times as much black silk 
ised and ribbons made as there were 15 years ago, when 
ihis said writer was in the trade. 

As for Coventry manu&cturers not having any double, 
iieble, four, or six shuttle battens, it will, perhaps, be 
Information for the writer to know that there are ten 
imes as many as there were 16 years ago. The watered 
cibbons he speaks of, to mv own certain knowledge, 
foreign houses have offered large sums to Coventry 
}9op\e to get the method and machinery that we have to 
water these g^ods. 

In reference to histheory that Coventry manufacturers 
ihould throw the silk, and, he assumes, dye it, it is 
ibsard. 

We know what silk we want to make our goodfl of, and 
can get it by giving orders, as good as a foreigner ; and 
[ have always understood that the division of labour is 
bhe proper way to produce goods cheap. 

Lord Palmerston used to say that ** any fool could find 
halt," but it is much better when they can show us how 
to improve. This same writer came to Coventry some 
fears ago, as, he said, to revolutionise the ribbon trade ; 
bat he so utterly failed that ever after he has been like 
some men who fail in love-making, and fortheremiinder 
of their life take every opportunity of saying that all 
iromen are false, and not to be trusted. So he, every 
time he has the chance, declares Coventrv to be unable 
to compete with a foreigner ; and, what is worse, refuses 
in^ answer to what he says to be published in the 
Warehousefnen and Drapers' Trade Journal^ 

Yours truly, 

Thomas Stbvbns. 



THE CHEQUE BANK. 



Sib. — ^The writer of the article in the last number of 
the Journai on the Cheque Bank, while generally hopeful 
>f the suooe^ of the ^'experiment," intimates apprehen- 
non of more than one *' possible drawback," though re- 
cognizing that ** in practice " they may not *' prove of 
my importance." Had he stated tiiat idl cheques of the 
Oheque Bank are crossed cheques, and drawn to order, 
be would have supplied the answer to his h^rpotheses. 
For, since the cheques are crossed, the writer is entirely 
wrong in saying tbat any rogue finding cheques of the 
Bank would have *' nothing to prevent his getting the 
money for them at any bank in connection with the 
CSieque Bank." A crossed oheque ma^ pass through 
wy number of hands as money ; but it will not be finally 
i^aibed unless presented by a banker, who will know 
horn whom he rsoeived it, whilst the feature of the in- 
ioisement of ohequea to order diminishes the number of 
oases of improper use of cheques generally, because it 
{oes to supply means of detection. An accomplice ready 
bo take the cheque of the Cheque Bank would not help 
the ocigtnal culprit much. Any other individual would 
Dfliely receive the oheque more readily than one not of 
the Cheque Bank ; in foot, an ordinary person would take 
i just as he would a bank-note ; that is to say, usually 
lot without some knowledi^e of the person giving it to 
lim* There is no protection needed for the publio 
beyond such precautions asate at present exercised against 



forged and stolen notes. Under any possi ble supposition 
the innocent holder of a cheque of the Cheque Bank, 
having received the cheque as the genuine representation 
of money in the Bank — which it must be under what- 
ever circumstances, short of forgery of the paper and 
form — will be protected ; the cheque will be, and cannot 
but be, cashed when presented, like any other crossed 
cheque. 

The proper question — one of publio morals — is whether 
temptation is thereby held out to crime ; or it is, what 
are the facilities for dishonesty allowed to the finder of a 
cheque-book or cheque-form, or of a oheque filled up and 
signed P As to the latter, the finder has to personate 
the individual to whom the cheque is made payable, and 
commits a forgery; so thus he runs risk. As toUie 
former, should he forge a name, or even sign a fictitious 
name, he runs risk ; whilst, moreover, he must pay the 
oheque to some person whose name, r^ or fictitious, will 
be on the face and back of the cheque. Thus there are 
difficulties calculated to deter commission of the appre- 
hended acts. 

It remains only to consider the position with the bank 
of the depositor of the money in the bank who has lost a 
cheque-book or cheque-form, or a cheoue that he had 
signed and filled up. He oould scarcely have had the 
loss excepting through carelessness, therefore he, and not 
the bank, might properly be made to suffer the conse- 
quences. But where a cheque-form had not been signed 
by the depositor, the Bank would have had no authority 
from him to pay the cheque, therefore it would be obliged 
to make good to him the money. When the Bank receives 
notice from a depositor of loss oi a cheque- form or cheque- 
book, I believe that it merely requires indemnity against 
a double payment of the amount, and assistance, if 
needed, in diaDOvery of any culprit ; and supplies a new 
form or book for the cost of stamps and commission, 
amounting to one shilling for the book of ten cheoues or 
forms. I^bably, however, the Bank would decline 
further dealings with the careless customer. 

In short, the question financial is one for the share- 
holders of the Bank, who, like those of other banks, must 
suffer to some extent ^m forgeries ; and there is none 
that concerns the public, unless it be said that every 
new tiling posseesine intrinsic value is to be rejected on 
the score of morals, because the introduction of it might 
be followed by some amount of crime. — I am, &c., 

Edwabd Hall. 

6, CUTfrton-ttreet, St. Oeorgo'f-sqoare, 8.W., 
October 3»tb, 1873. 



EXPLOSIVE AGENTS. 

Sib, — ^More than twenty years a^ I became acquainted 
with the formula for the composition of a white powder 
that was said by the inventor, a French chemist, to be 
at least two-thirds stronger than common gunpowder. 
As I found it to be very readily manufactured, and without 
danger, I made up a considerable quantity in the form of 
the old Enfield ball-oartridge. I furnished many gen- 
tlemen belonging to various volunteer corps with a few 
rounds of ball cartridge, chai^ged with 50 grains of white 
powder instead of 75, the ususd quantibr. They were all 
fired off at t^eir respective butts, and the general expres- 
sion was that the bullet was rather quicker in reaching 
their targets than with their own nowder, also that they 
felt much less recoil on their shoulder, as was naturally 
to be expected from iiie diminished charge. My French 
white powder is, therefore, in every respect a fair and 
practical substitute for common gunpowder, especially 
as ohemioallv considered ; it yields 1,165 volumes of gas 
and vapour lor one fired, while the common only yields 
1,022 for one. 

Some years since I forwarded, by desire, thirty rounds 
of white powder ball-cartridge, Enfield pattern, to the 
Board of Ordnance for trial, but they were returned to 
me, unopened and untried, because they contained chlorate 
of potash, as also because I unfortunately, at the same 



938 



JOUBlf AL OF THE 800IBT7 OF ABTS, Noysmbbr 7, ld78w 



time, reoommendod the groasiii^ of the barrel by sooie 
means after diaoharge, aa operatioa th>it thA Bo trd coa- 
sidered to be incompatible with military practioe, bat 
now, however, oniFenaL So long aoo aa uxe year IS27 I 
adopted grease for the barrel at eaoh discharge when oat 
back-shooting in Soathem Africa, and astonished the 
Oape Datchmen with the comiMirative aUence and qalok- 
ness of my shots. 

The manofikctore of this white powder is entirely fioee 
from danger, as all the ingredients, when alone, are un- 
inflammable. The chlorate, pruisiate, and «u^>tr, are 
groand separately into fine powder, in a common flour 
mill, ana afterwards thoroughly mixed by passing 
through a continaous cylindrical sieve in such quantities 
as may be required for delivery. It is to be noted alio, 
that some of the chemical compounds reoenily put for- 
ward as substitutes for common .gunpowder can be 
properly guaranteed. 

There are several objections to the geneial use of this 
white powder as a subetitute for the common. It is 
liable to take fire if strong acid should bo aooidentally 
spilt upon it, an aocident very uaUkely to occur, for 
adds are not usually kept in powder nagaainee, or in 
ammunition waggons. It is incapable of granulatiou, an 
inconvenience m handling, but not aU afft^ting its 
efficiency, ^d finally that it is too quick of ignition, 
for, in tne opinion of the artillerists of the present day, 
slow, that is bad, powder is more efficacious in causing 
range and penetration than quick, that is good, powder. 
They formed their opinion upon experiments withtbepho- ' 
tochronograph,but do not take into account the temporary 
yielding or pulsation of our modem guns, built wholly of 
soft iron, whereby a per-centage of the force of the ex- 
plosion is lost, as regards the oxplusion of the bullet by 
quick, that is strong, powder, whioh, if the body of the 
gun be an absolutely uuyeildtng mass, would, of course, 
produce the longest range and greatest ponetrition. A 
very simple experiment proves, however, that white 
powder is not too quick ; for if the long vent or toachhole 
of a heavy piece of or In inoe be primod with it, a con- 
siderable portion of time wHl elapse between the firing 
of the priming and the explosion of the oharge. 

In order to remove prejudice I have of late made a 
black granulating powder, quite equal in explosive, — I 
should rathersay " expulsive " — ^power, bv memy substi- 
Russian lampblack, the purest carbon known, for the 
cane sugar in the French formula. This black and 
granulated powder can scarcely be distinguished in ap- 
pearance fron the common, but 50 grains of it does the 
work of 76 grains of ordinary black. 

The process I adopt for granulation of my species of 
gunpowder dispenses with the old-fnehioned coming- 
house of our powder-mills, and would, therefore, entirely 
remove all danger of exploaicm, which, generally speak- 
ing, takes place with loss of life about once a month. 
My granulating process is precisely the same that had 
been carried on for some oenturies past in the manufac- 
ture of seed macaroni, which has of late years been 
patented by a fiction in law as a new invention for the 

Surpose of making coarse pottery. My system will 
eliver the finished powdor in the shape of dry, hard 
grains, of any requif^ siae, into the powder'-OHsks or 
other receptacles, ready for immediate tmnsport, without 
the intervention of the hand of man during the whole 
^ooess, with the exception of supply and regulation. 
Kbne^ of the many chemical preparations now put ao 
|>rominently before the pubUo are really fair and prac- 
tical substitutes for common black, such m are the two 
powders above described, both equally suited for «m>ill 
aruis, shells, and heavy artillery, but not poMeassd of 
patent right. J charged a two^iaoh mortar in the 
possession of one of the great firework m^Ears in the 
borough, wadded up to the muisle, and, on firing it, he 
declared that in the oouree of his experience he had 
never met with sooh powerful stufl^ and so manai^eable 
toc^I am, 40. H. W. B. 



V0I88 OV JOOKS. 



PrindplM of BseoratiTa AacigA. — ^Br C. 
Pb.D^ kc (CmmM, PstUr, amd aJfUy The obhd d 
this book ^ to asiiiit the sjrt-edu'^atAom of those w^ seek 
a knowledge of ornament, as aftphed to oar mdaifcriai 
maoufiictures. The greater part of it hasalratdya^ 
peared in the pages of Messrs. OaaseU'a ^ T«9chakt: 
Eiuoator,'* but some freah maUar ha»W«a add«d, anifta 
whole revised. The first chaptar ia goneoal asd ntto- 
doctory, and the subjects of the auoceiMiine chftpt^ss ai 
as follows*— **Col'Jur," " Furuitnre," ** DooorAti-ja «rf 
buUdinga.*' 'Carpets," "Cortaia Aatoriala, kc^" 
*• Hollow vessels," " Har Iware," And ** Suiacd glMs." 
There is thus given a tolacablv oompcebensive ^bkch of 
the various me^ns by whioh decoration may be apsQsd 
to our dwelling-houses and their aarroondiAga, anate 
book is therefore one containing much iafomiataon, Mt 
only Jfor the artificer and workman, but for erayoM 
who cares to surround himself with foroia of beauty sad 
truth, in plaoe of the insipid and trivitl shapes as- 
happily but too often produced by the boildua aid 
furnishers of the day. It is a vary notioeable £«e^ &at 
while in furniture of the more expensive aort ths beft 
and purest taste is very frequently shown, yet the ntfa 
of tawdrineas and b td UMta is by no mean^ at aa ead, ss 
regards the common house furniture of our mi idle-claasak 
Doubtless, much has been done in the wny of *« 3 Brata> f 
the tastes of every rank of life, nor ia it by anr xaauu 
the least important among tho many aacowsful tosks tte 
Sjciety has aocompUshed, thtt it has boes t^^imiy Or 
stromental in ou I ti voting an artistic and educitaJ tisSe 
for beautiful forou among those whoae m*«na f«jr Jidtks 
ec^oymeat of such forms iu any matarial other tk-sa 
wh^ is com-iioa and inaxpeoaive. One of the aMit 
potent means of education is poovidad by tits ^akty 
with whioh— through improved industrial pi iida i— ^ 
the common objects of our every-day life may be bcai^ 
fled and adorned. Naturally the growth of a pane 
taste prodttoee a larger demand lor objecta of ait-watk* 
mansbip, tmd benoe again ariaea the i^eed for a hi fha r 
education of the workman — a need the Socteiy w«s tht 
first public body to reco^^nise, and which it alwtyi bss 
done, and always will do its best to supply. For boekl 
of this character there is, therefore, a large and incfiM 
ing demand, and if they are wall and carefully prepared 
they are certain to meet with a ready aooaptume attkr 
hands of the great working-olass public. 



Oatalogae Kathoditme da U BibUetkfSqma 4s ri 
des Beaux Arts.— Par Ernest Vtnet. (i'arti). 1W 
library of the Eoole des Beaux Arta ia of renot fa^ 
m'it' on ; it was only opened in the beirinaing ef tka 
year 1&&4, and from that time till the end of lait fmg 
thirty«>two thouaand pcfaooa had visitad the rsstef^ 
rooms. When M Viaiet was appointed ''libcMta''a^ 
the school in 1662, there whs rodly no library ; s.iiv 
books in the class-rooms, and a few moi«> in the Uta 
were all the literacy tre a s uro s, and the latter w«re ■■> 
ceasible ; in two years he otdlected a Talnable lihiaiT; 
since langely inereased ; and in 1 864 aeon wnimi lawliif 
room WHS opened for stuJents, artiata, asud lovon «f jK 
M. Vinet hna now provided the rcadaa with a •raB^Mi 
ci&talogue, a rare thing in the Paris libranea. Tb» «ai^ 
lotfcue in queaftion is rlaasifif>l, and pr u vida d wHh m 
alphabetical indrx of authonT namea aad titl«a of 
moaa wotks ; and the fAasaiiratieo, ia tha subm t 
adopted by M. VifMt in the «« BibUogi»|ihie das 
Arts,'* whieh is now in course of pahlioatieo. 1W 
entrances and reforenoes are i^eiy folL Tbaae tw« washi 
are valoable oontributiona to ti&e kabliomiphy W the 
arte, so well oemmeoeed hj o«r own MpartaMot «( 
Scieaoa and Art. 



JOURNAL OF THE 800IETY OP ARTS, Novbmbeb 7, 1873 



9S9 



fltndlM of BlMt Ifumoo ItMuiiimts. ~~~B^ M. L. 
Gnmer. TnmBlated hj L. D. B. QordoB, F.R.8.E., &c. 
[E. 8, King and Cb.J — ^The name of VL, Gruner is nastu- 
nllT better known in Franoe than in ISngLind, thongh 
to thOM, even in this country* who have studied deeply 
and scientifically the subjeot of blast furaacea it is sof- 
fidently familiar. Hr. Ghnrdon has been le4 to tMsisli^ 
his ** Etude but let Hauls Foumeanx *' by the oonridM^* 
tion that iron-masten and oihers, to ^Aiom aleiM the 
work would be spedaUy interesting, ar» in genoral not 
likely to read a technieal book in a foteign koguage. 
For ii should be understood that this is entirdy a^ tech- 
noal work, and one of a decidedly abstruse natnre. M. 
Orunar founded his treatise prinoipully upon the weit- 
kBcwn experiments of Mr. LKywthian Bell, tlm P^ 
■dent of the Iron and Steel Institute, and their 
lesolts he has digest into a ^ concise and conve- 
nSent form. It is only within a comparatively 
short period that any really scientifio observations 
hs>rs been mside on the physioal ^benonetta of 
His bfant farnace, but the present work u<me may serve 
to dbow how rapid has been the progress of such know- 
l^e under the efforts of the eneraetio investigators who 
have worked at the subject. The first part of the treatise 
Is devoted to accounts of recent modifications in Uie fur- 
naces and their practical and economical effects^ Such 
changes have of late chiefly consisted in their enlmge* 
faint, and the results of thu ass elaborately oaloulatod. 
Tbs neoct principal point is the dis cu ss io n of the theory 

CO* 
proved by Mr. Bell, th«t the ratio of qt^ in ths esnaping 

gases is the index to the working of the furnace. Then 
nOow sections on the oahme cofisumed, on that absorbed 
by the reduction of the ore^ At;., and by the fusion of 
the skg, the dec omp os Hi on of tbelimeetone, frc, on that 
lost by radiation, on that reoefved by the famace, and on 
the sensible heat carried off* bv the gases. Following 
come numerous examples of various furnaces, giving the 
calorific power of coke consumed. There are then some 
remarks on the effects of various modifioatiosis in the fur- 
naces and the methods of working, and seme final pagos 
on certain French fcmaees. The appendix contains 
viiriom notes by the translator, srnd includes " A Brief 
HisloTj' of the Theory of the Blast Furnace," &c., sn 
well as a set of tables for calculations. 



Central Asian BaUway.—M. de Lssseps is undauntedly 
purMiiag hip project for a railwuy from O i e nbut ft ts 
reohawur. Through the RiMsian ambassaior at FariiH BL 
d« Leraeps has obtaiued a passport auiboriffing him and his 
son to travel through the provincea from Orenburg to Samara 
cand, in order to enable him lo ooavsy to the pnblio a per- 
mnal araurance of the soundness of his schemek The great 
promorer is still sanguine, and talks of having the line from 
Orenburg to Samereand cotapleted and opned for traffic 
withia six years. 



Philadelphian Cnrpst MhniiiMtiirs. — There 
between 5,000 and 6,000 weavers emphijcd in the 250 carpet 
manufacturies i»f the Richmond distriot, Philadelplua. 
besides about 8,000 reelers and spoolers. The number Ha. 
looms i8 estimated at 8,600, from which 800,000 yaida of 
ingrain damask. Tenet ian, two and three-ply oarpets are 
turned out weekly. The number ofvards manumctured 
annually has averag*^ 41,600,000. The amount of capital 
invested, 3,000,600 dels. 

Old BaUmy Tkkolii--Oiinosity hM oocaria— lly 
en altnMked by the t|ais«uu of whttt hsoenes of nil ths 



oaneelkd railway tiokets P The average number issued in 
Pima ia abMt 30,000 daily, making an annual toM of 
10,940»000. and ths figure for ths whole of Franeeis oaloukited 
at 40,000ve00. Ths weight of eaoh nhwsel of ewdboard is 
one gnuaaw^ and ttw sum i«a>h«d 1^ the eonrpanieB selling 
thran wholesals to the papsr*makers, to be rettiade, is from 
16,000 to 18,009 ' 



Technical Education in Belgium.— The Antwsrn 
branch of the ** Denier des Ecolsa " Society has just opsaed 
a technical school for young ladies from the Belgian middle 
classes. The pupils, who are to contribute a nominal monthly 
fee of three francs towards their schooling, will net only be 
enabled to learn in that establishmeot some profession or 
trade salted to their capacities and inclinations, but, in addi- 
tion to this, they will be permitted to follow a course of in- 
struction in four modem languages. 



OBXSXAL SOTBB. 



Boar Osal. — Some oorrespondence has lately been 
going on in the lHme9 on the sabjert of carriage of coal by 
ndlway companies. It appi>ars that one company refused to 
carry coals from the pit's mouth to a private consuuMT, upon 
the ground that by doing so they would ** irive ofience to 
their cnMomeni, the coal merchants." It is uoderstoitd that 
this refof'al is bawd upon a decision gven in the case <tf Oxlade 
T. the Or*«t Western Railway Company, some time afro, to 
the (Sect that they were not *' conim4»n canio-s of coal.** A 
writer in the Times suggests that herein lies the secret of the 
deamesi of coal, and if this argument is unMiund, at least it 
appears that the preaent distress might be alleviated by such 
pmttta competition. 

lOMonsI P a i tag s.— With Tefsrence to the improve- 
ment of Boulogne harbour, and to the conference which was 
held some short time ago between Sir Bdwtfd Watkin and 
the Minister of the Interior, M. Dfseilligny, at Boulogne, it 
is stated that the Enquete Nautique has reported in favour 
of the profM>sed improvements of the harbour, said that the 
public inquiry, or Enquete d' Utility Pnblique, is summoned 
to meet on the 28th November, atter which the question wtU 
as finally before the Department of Ponts-et-Chauf(^es, and 
&sa on to the Chamber. It is also said that the Folkestone 
Town Council have teeolved to support any scheme having 
for its olgect the enlargement of the harbour and retention el 1 
fhs Continental traflic ^ 



of Osal fai Fraaes.— The Parliamentary 
GooiUffi«mon which was recently appohrted by the French 
Aasembty te inquire into the causes of, and the remedies for, 
the preneat high price of coal, has presented its report. It 
appears that the annual consumption of coal In rranoe in 
1860 was 14,000,000 tons, of which 6,060,000 tens were im- 
ported* At present the consumption ia 22.000,000 tons, <^ 
which 8,000,000 tons are imported. The home production 
has, therefore, increased from 8,000,000 tone to 14^000,000 
tons in the 13 years. The export is trifling, only 350,000 
tons against 200,000 tons in lo60. Nv practical measures 
for alleviating the present dearth of fuel am brought forward 
in the report, but some good has been done by the facts 
which' have been collected, especially these rsisAhig to the 
actual coal area in France. This is stated te oover 864,500 
acres, but a large proportion of it has not yet been explored, 
and nothing appears to be known as to the oest at which the 
coal can be raised in the unexplored districts. 

Submarine KaTigation. — It is stated that there ia now 
being constructed at Cronstadt a submarine veasel of enor- 
mous dimensiims. In it two thousand tons of iron and steel 
have been employed. It is propelled by two powerful air- 
engfawa, will be armed with a formidable ram, and wiH carry 
all the means for fixing to the hulls oi vesaela large eyMsdeis 
ol powder which it oan afte i w wda explode by electrici^. 
Two glass eyes will enaibls the eesw to find their waty abonl, 
and they mxf o h eoss their oeusss at what depth thi(y plasas 
below water. 

Bilk in Torksy.— The production of silk, all kinds 
inclusive, in this country between the veers 1846 and 1857 
was equivaltvt to the yearly average of 9^,000 Ibsi, worth 
£016,000 sterling, of whmh quantity, 152,670 Iba., of the 
value of £141,250, were produced by factory labour. Frau 
1858, in which year the prodaeticn wee first afftcted by diiN 
ease, to the present day, the yield baa gradually ttXkm. off, 
and the average yield of the last fourteen seasens haa not 
been more than 303,000 Ibsw, valued at £6il0,000. Of this 
production, however, from 80 to 90 per cent, has been faeto^ 
reeled silk. Haod-ree*led silk ceased to be ptoduesd hi 1867. 
At this day 90 per cent of the yield in ooooons is oooverled 
into reeled silk by factory labour. The balaaes of the esof 
not manipulated in the factories is re|nss«ted by prodqos 
exported m its first form of cocoons. 



9iO 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novbhbbr 7. 1873. 



Vew Zealand Ctold.— The yield of gold in New Zealand 
up to the end of 1872 wme 6,718,218 ooncea, valaed at 
£25^14,260, of which the north iaUnd famished 734,269 
onnoei, worth £2,563,307. This gold is obuined by lode- 
mining in igneoos rooks belonging to the Neozoic epoch. 
The eonth island famished 5,983,979 oanoes, yalae 
£23,250,953, chiefly obtained from the metamorpbic rooks by 
allanal washing. 

Tbnie 8ol-fli Teaeheri* Asaoeiation.— Thia Inatitation 
(}n. onion with the Society) has jast pablished its foorth an- 
nual report, the tone of which is very satisfactory. The 
object of tne association in the matoal improvement in music 
of its membOTB, and to thi^ eid it holds meetings and weekly 
cIsssBS for the stady and practice of music. One of these, 
the theoTT of music and staff notation, is specially intended to 
prepare for the Society's examination. The pmsent number 
of members is 66. * 

South Amerioan Cattle. — ^The importation of live bul- 
locks from America to the Clyde by the New York steameri 
is now an established fact Two of these bullocks were 
brought over about the end of July by Messrs. Henderson 
Brothers, the ownen of the Anchor line of Clyde and New 
York traders, and landed safely in Glasgow. These were 
■n oeseded by two in each of the two following steamers, 
and all met with a ready demand. Messrs. Bell and Son^ 
eariy in August, began to import on their own acoonnt, aod 
brought over six in almost eaob of the steamers arriving that 
montL In September the numbers increased to ten. and 
even twelve, per steamer. The total import of bullocks in 
July numbo^ four ; in August, thirty-eight ; in September, 
aeventy-two. 

Pi^er aa a Building Material. — ^The use of paper as 
a substitute for wood in the construction of railway carriages 
has long been known, and paper wheels have been used 
successfully in the United Btates — in which oountrr 
paper collars, hats, shirts, waistcoats, and other '* notions 
eeem first to have originated—but the use to which this 
material can be put seems now to be without limit, as there 
is a paper churdi aotuallv existing near Bergen, which is 
is capable of containing about 1,000 people. It is otroular 
within, and octagonal without The relievos outside, and the 
atatues inside, the roof, the ceiling, are all of papier maehi^ 
rendered waterproof by saturation in vitriol, lime water, 
whey, and white of egg. 

The Goal Fielda of China. — ^There has long been much 
talk of the extensive coal fields within the Chinese Empire, 
but nothing definite has been published concerning them. 
M. Louis Strauss, Consul for Belgium at one of the Chinese 
ports, now furnishes the IntUpenaanee B$lae with the follow- 
ing figures as to the extent of the coal formation in the 
northern provinoes of the Empire :— 

8q. miles. . 

In Chiensi 9,000 

In ChansL 28,000 

In Tchyli 30,000 

In Ching-King 20,000 

87,000 

In addition to these there are the coal deposits of Formosa, 
an island off the Chinese coast, 10,000 square miles, making 
the total ooal area 97,000 square miles. 

BafM. — Some experiments have recently been made at 
Birmingham upon a new invention by Mr. Geering, of the 
Apollo Works. This consists in the arrangement at the 
MMkof the door and in front of the look, or at any <^er re- 
quired part, of a series of cylindrical steel rods or bars, which 
are earned by bearers in which they are capable of freely 
rotating. Tub rods are placed side by side, and as near toge- 
ther as ii compatible with their perfect freedom of motion. 
In the experiments a doeen and a half of hardened steel 
drills, driven by steam power with a pressure of about half a 
ton, were employed to penetrate the iron and steel plates. On 
the tool coming in contact with the revolving bars, however, 
it made no impression on them. There was no ** bite " for 
the drill on the steel rods, but instead there was a sound of 
the **olioking" of the rods quite loud enough to give an 
alarm. The noise is caused by the rotary motion of the rods, 
which on pressure from the drill turn on their axles and 
move from under the tool, thus preventing the drill having 
a bearing upon Ihem. The expenmenU were of the severest 
kind, and In nearly every instance the steel drill was broken 
when it oame ta oontaot with the revolving rods. 



Tranimlaaion of Motioa. — Profl Sylveater haareceotij 
made a discovery which is likely to ereate aome int«K«il,ait 
only amongst mathematidana, but also amongst niechsiirim 
ana instrument-makers. B^ means of a sort of Uxy km^ 
he has succeeded in converting spherical motion into plae 
motion^ result, we believe, hitherto looked upon as vkAb^ 
able. This discovery will form the subject of a oonanaiQi- 
tion which Mr. Sylvester is announoed to lay befoe te 
London Mathematical Society at its Annual Qeaeimi Msrtmt 
on Thursday next (November 13). — Nmt%tr^ 

Coinage in 1878. — ^The year 1872 waa reoarkaHe fir 
an extraordinary and unceasing demand for all <lsiwiMim r 
tions of gold, silver, and bronzeeoin. The following wsi tks 
wdght of metsl issued :— Gold, 119 tons ; aUver, U7 loai; 
bronae, 114 tons. The total number of pieeea atrttck to 
62,841,048, as against 30,022,404 dniiner 1871, and tWr 
value, real or nominal, £16,426,663 10s. The valoeof tfe 
British coins strack dnnng the year was— gold, £15,lll|flSl 
10s.; sUver, £1,265,780 Os. 3d.; bnmxe, £47,;3tl 3s. U. 
making a total of £16,424,142 13s. 4d. 

Bailwaya ia JaTa.— The report haa jmt been pabhAad 
of the Commission appcrfntsd some mo nt hs ago to essolBt 
the question of the financisl oondttioina on which a ciimnsilw 
could be granted to private persons for the euusAmctiea d 
railways in Java. The Commission were also inetrvelsd t» 
indicate the direction to be taken by the seversl linaa. lis 
Commission propose that 960 kilometres of railway tes 
should be constructed. The concession will be granted bf 
private tender to those who can provide the beat guaraaina 
without distinction of nations. The e on csesi on is graaM 
for ninety-nine years ; when this term is expired the Sisli 
becomes the owner. If the ooets of constmetioa exosed tks 
estf mate, the Government will oontribute from sixty ts nin^f 
per cent, of the amount 

lolnbie Olaaa in the Arts. — ^The emptoToaemt of ftii 
substance in the arts is rapidly extending, and it haa bseims 
indispensable in manv induBtnal branehee. It aeeme to be 
specially well adapted to the prodnotion of cemsnts; 



intimately mixed with fine chalk it is found that a haxd < 
will be formed in from six to eight hours. With po* 
sulphide of antimony a bUck mass is prodnoed, wfaidh 
susceptible of taking a high polish, ana poeseases than s 
supero metallic lustre. Fine iron dust gives a gray-Usck 
mass of great hardness. Zinc-dust gives a rray mass ^ 
much hardness, and having a metallic lustre. Zinc 
can be readily repaired by its aid.— /eMme/ of ik$ 
Institide, 




HOTICES. 



THE LXBRABY. 

The following works have been preaented to 
the library : — 

Studies of Blast Fumaoe Phenomena. Bjr M. I* 
Gruner. Translated by L. D. B. Gordon, FJKAK, 
F.G.S., &o. A. S. King and Co. Pceaentod by the 
Publishers. 

Transactions of the Institution of Kaval Archiisatih 
Vol. xiv. Presented by the Institution. 

Statistics of the Colony of Viotoria for 1872. Pst l» 
Population. 

The Journal of the Eoyal Geographical Society. TeL 
xlti. Preeented by the Society. 

Waste Products and Undeveloped Substancest W P, 
L. Simmonds (new edition). Presented by the Aitthnr 

The following work has been puzohaaed for ^b» 
Library : — 

Protection against Fire, by Joseph Bird. 

KBSnVOI FOB THE EMSUIMB WXIL 

BCoir. ...Boyal Oeographical, 84. 

Tubs. ...Antbropolagical Institute. 8. Mr. JohnBab(asaa,*<M 
Modem Ixtoomotives. des^nsd witka TkrvtoBmMBV* 
DurahiHty.andFadlttjorHepairs; toteths Vilk Hift 
particalars of Daty Perfttmed, aad tks GmI tf 
Rep«in.*> 

TmTB....IiondonMatheaiatiealBociety,8. AansaK 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OK ARTS, NovMBia 14, 1878. Ul 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY- OF ARTS, 



No. 1,096. Vol. XXL 



FRIDAY, NOVEMBER U, 1873. 



AU 



/orth*aockhftfumUlbeaddrma$dtoth$8tertimnf. 



ilHirOUHCEHENTS BT THE COUKCTL. 



KOTICSS TO XEMBEB8. 



Ordinaby MEExmas. 

The One-Hundred-and-Twentieih Session of the 
Society, will oommence on Wednesday^ the 19th 
November, when the opening address will be 
delivered by Major-General P. Eabdley-Wiijcot, 
E.A., F.KS., Chairman of the Council. 

The following are the dates of the Wednesday 
evening Meetings, the chair being taken at eight 
o'clock : — 

1873. November — — 19 26 

„ ^^^^ftCEMBBR . .« 3 10 17 — — 

1874. January — 14 21 28 

February 4 11 18 25 

March 4 11 18 25 

ApBif. — 8 15 22 29 

May 6 13 20 27 



» 



»» 



»t 



>» 



The Annual General Meeting will be held on 
June 24th, at four o'clock. No visitors are ad- 
mitted to this Meeting. 

For the Meetings previous to Christmas, the 
following arrangements have been made : — • 

November 19. — Opening Address by Major-General 
F. Eakdlby-Wil8U)T, R.A., F.R.S., Chairman of the 
Council. 

fOn this evening the Prince Consort's Prize, the Prizes 
gained at the Technological Examinations, and the Medals 
att?arded during the last Session^ xcill be presented by the 
Chnirman.J 

November 26. — *^0n the Mimiifiicture of Iron and 
Steel,' ' by Sir Francis C. Knowlbb, Bart. 

Dbtevber 3. — "On Anatralian Vines and Wines,'* 
by J. T. Fallon« Esq. On this evening Sir Dakiel 
CooFBB, BdTt., will preside. 

December 10. — '*0n Mechanical Processes fbr pro- 
ducing D^-corative Designs on Wood Sorfaoes," by 
Thomas Whitburn, Esq. 

December 17. — " Whitby Jet and its Manufacture," 
by John A. Bower, P.C.S., Science Master, Whitby 
School. . 

Each Member is privileged to introduoe two 
friends to every Meeting, and a book of blank 
tickets has been forwarded for this purpose. 



Cantob Lbctubes. 
The first course of Cantor Lectures for the 
ensuing Session will be " On flpedsnim Analysis as 
aided by and aiding the Ar1»," by J. Nobman 
LoCKTmi, Esq., F.B.8., and will consist of two 
lectures, to be delivered on Monday evenings, the 
24th November and 1st December. 

Lecture L — November 24th, 1873. 
On the appUcadon of Photography to Spectroscopic 
Besearches. 

Lbctusb n.— Dbobmbbr IST, 1873. 
On Spectroscopy in its quantitative relations. 

The second oonrae will be on the "Chemistry of 
Brewing," by Dr. Chablbs Gbaham (University 
College, London), and will consist of seven Lectures, 
to be oomm«ioed on Monday, the 8th December ; 
two to be delivered before Christmas, and the 
remaining five after Christmas, as follows : — 

Lecture L — ^December 8th, 1873. 

MietorieeU and iVe/imiwflry.— History of ^»"^i?- 

Varieties of grain used. Chemical exammation of the 

properties of cellulose, starch, dextrine, grape sug^, 

gluten, &c. Action of nitrogenised substances on starch. 

Lecture II. — ^December 15th, 1873. 

On Malting,— The germination of seeds. Chemical 
changes produced. Examination of the processes of 
steeping, germination, and kiln-drying. English and 
Bavarian methods contrnsted. Chemical exammation of 
malts, with some analytical methods adopted for the use 
of the master brewer (Braumeister). 

Lecture III.— February 2nd, 1874. 

On mashing. 

Lecture IV.— February 9th, 1874. . 

On Boiling. Hops, their properties and uses. 
Lbcturb v.— February 16th, 1874. 

On fermentation. (Primary.) 

Lecture VL— February 23nD, 1874. 

On fermentation. (Secondary.) 

Lecture VII.— March 2nd, 1874. 

The beer of the future. 

These lectures will include a chemical examina- 
tion of the chief features of the methods of brewing 
adopted in England, Scotland, Germany, Belgium, 
and Norway, with proposals for the prevention of 
acidification and other destructive changes which 
occur in beer. The lectures on fermentation will 
' include an account of the nature and chemical 
functions of the various yeast plants. During the 
'course, chemical tests wiU be described for the 
' guidance of the brewer in the mashing, boiling, 
land fermenting processes, and for testing tk© 
' purity of the water and utensils used. 

Other courses will also be given during the 
Session, one by Professor Babff, M.A., having 
been already arranged. These Lectures are open 
to Members, each of whom has the privilege of 
introducing two friends to each Lecture. 

Tickets for the first course are forwarded to 
Members with this Journal, 



942 



JOURNAL OF THE BOOIBTT OF ARTS, Novembbr 14, 1873. 



POOD COXIOTTSS. 

The Food Committee will hold a meeting in the 
Society's Great Room, on Friday, the 2 let No- 
vember, at four o'clock, when Jajces Ha&bisok, 
Esq., of Melbourne, will lay before the meeting a 
full account of his proceedings in reference to his 
recent attempt to import frozen meat from Aus- 
tralia. BENJA3UN Shaw, Esq., Chairman of the 
Food Committee, will preside. 

Members of the Society and their friends are 
invited to attend. 

The meat which was preserved in tallow, by M. 
de la Peyrouse's process, and sent to Buenos Ayres 
and back in March last, by way of test, returned 
on September 11, and on examination it appeared 
that the result was by no means satisfactory. 

TSOHNOLOOICAL SXAiaJIATIOVS. 

The Programme of Examinations in the techno- 
logy of the Arts and Manufactures of the country 
for 1874, is now ready for issue. These examina- 
tions will be held annually, in conjunction with the 
examinations of the Science and Art Department, 
and due notice will bo given of the particular sub- 
jects selected each year. 

The subjects for the year 1874 will be Cotton, 
Paper, Silk, Steel, Carriage-building, Pottery and 
Porcelain, Gas Manufacture, Glass-making, and 
Cloth Manufacture. Candidates, in order to obtain 
certificates in any of those subjects, must pass the 
examinations of the Science and Art Department 
in certain sciences, which are specified in the pro- 
gramme as bearing upon the particular art or 
manufacture. In addition to these, special papers 
will be set in the technology of each manufacture, 
by examiners appointed by the Society of Arts. 

The following Prizes are ofifered by the Society 
of Arts in each of the nine subjects. 

To the best candidate in Honours, £10. 

To the best candidate in the Advanced Grade, £7. 

To the best candidate in the Elementary G^ade, 
£5. 

The following special additional Prizes are 
oflfered : — 

By the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers, a 
Scholarship of one himdred guineas, to be awarded 
to the best Candidate in Cloth Manufacture, pre- 
-suming that in the opinion of the Coimcil he 
reaches a sufficiently high standard. The Candi- 
date who obtains this Scholarship must spend at 
least one year in some place of s ientific instruction, 
to be approved by the Council of the Society of Arts 
and by the Court of the Clothworkers Company. 

By Wyndham S. Portal, Esq.. to the Second and 
Third best Candidates in the Elementary Grade, 
Paper Manufacture : — 



APrizeof £S 

APrizeof J 

By G. N. Hooper, Esq., to the Second t&d 
Third best Candidates in the Elementary Gnd«. 
Carnage Building : — 

APrizeof £3 

APrizeof 2 

By the Worshipful Company of Spectacle Miken, 
to the Second-best Candidate in Honours in the 
Advanced Gbade and in the Elementary Gndf 
respectively, in the Manufacture of GImiSb : — 

APrizeof £5 5 

A Prize of 3 3 

APrizeof 2 2 

The examinations of the Science and Art De- 
partment will be held during the first three weeks 
of May, the technological paper being worked os 
the evening of the 16th May. The dates of ik 
Science subjects are given in the Science DirectisT, 
published by the Science and Art Department, 

In order that these Examinations may reaUv Xi 
suooessf ul in promoting technical education in tliis 
country, it is desirable that encouragement aliDold 
be given to candidates by the offer of prize« sad 
scholarships. With this object the ConiKnl appeal 
to the trade guilds of the city of London, to mer- 
chants and manufacturers, and to members of tlif 
Society generally, to aid them by contributing to 
the prize fund. 

While expressing their thanks for Uie aasistsnoe 
they have already received, both from the ooon- 
panies of the City of London and ^rom private 
individuals, the Council would repeat the appeiL 
made last year, when the scheme of Techndogial 
Examinations was first put forward, for fnrtia' 
funds to enable them to prosecute and cany out in 
its entirety the plan which has been drawn op. 



OSirSRAL EXAXIHATIOn, 1874. 

The Programme of Examinations for 1S74 is 
now ready, and may be had gratis, on applicztiao 
to the Secretary. 

These Examinations, in 1874, will be held (m ^e 
evenings of the 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th April 
The Time-table has been arranged as follows : — 



T U B S D A T, 

April 21, 
From 7 to 10 p.m 


Wbdmcsdat, 

April '1% 

From 7 to 10 p m. 


Tb CR8DAT, 

Atril 23, 
FromTtolopm 


F B t i» A r, 

A(«fi3V 
F>oi»7tol«p» 


Arithmetic 

Loirio. 

Plorioaltnre. 


TbeorfofMiudc 
eD;;lUh Ubtory. 
Oerman. 
Sp^nUta. 


PoliUCAl F^v 

nomy. 
French. 
Fruit and V«t«- 

table Culcorc 


ItAliu 



Fbioat, April 24, 6 to T pJB.—DietAtloB. 

The rule which formerly prevented a csndwiati* 
who had onoe obtained a first-class cerHficzte m % 
subject from being again examined in that sn>>je^ 
with a view to gaining a prize, has, in aocordsner 



JOURNAL OF TBS 800IBTY OP ARTS, Novbmbir 14, 1873. 



943 



with the wish expressed at the Conference, held 
on the 27th June, 1873, been rescinded. In future, 
therefore, a candidate who has obtained a first-class 
certificate in a subject may be again examined in 
that subject, but not more than one first-class 
certificate in any subject will be counted for the 
Prince Consort's Prize, or for the Council Prize to 
Females. A candidate having taken the first prize 
in any subject cannot again take a prize in that 
subject, nor can a candidate take a prize of the 
same grade twice in any subject. 

Tho Elementary Examinations, held by the 
District Unions and Local Boards, for which papers 
are furnished by the Society, are fixed for the 10th, 
nth. and 12th March. 

Full details in reference to the Examinations are 
given in the Progranmie, copies of which should 
be applied for to the Secretary of the Society of 
Arts, by all intending to come forward as candi- 
dates, or otherwise interested in the Examinations. 



THE GOVERNMENT AND OUR NATIONAL 

MUSEUMS. 

The following is abridged from Natur$ of last week : — 

We referred last week to the intention of the Goyem- 
ment to transfer one of the metropolitan museams, 
under the control of a responsible Minister of the 
Crown, to the fifty irresponsible trustees of the British 
Museum, this step being contemplated without referring 
the question either for the opinion of the Science Com- 
mission now inquiring into these subjects, or for the 
authority of Pariiament. We have learnt since that the 
manures for effecting this change are in active progress, 
Lord Ripon and the trustees of the British Museum 
haying agreed that the transfer was to be made if prac- 
ticable. Sir Francis Sandford, Mr. MacLeod, and Major 
Donnelly, on behalf of the Science and Art Department ; 
and Messrs. Winter Jones, Franks, and Newton, on 
behalf of the tniotees of the British Museum, are now 
busy as Commissioners to find out if the transfer be 
practicable. 

What the Commissioners will propose as practicable 
is of coarse known only to themselves, if it be known 
eyen to them. Thus much, however, is known — The 
Sooth Kensington Museum must remain the head- 
quarters of science and art teaching:, unless that too is 
to be pat under the Archbishop of Canterbury and his 
CO- trustees ; and if not, then there must be a dual govern- 
ment in one and the same building, unless Mr. Lowe's 
project be abandoned. 

The pubb'o has had alreiady a specimen of this 
kind of dual Government at the South Kensington 
Maeeum, which has had disastrous results for science. 
When the "Boilers "were first erected in 1856, tho 
Commissioners of Patents had assi^rrK d to them a por- 
tion nt the south end of the buildiug fur ixM" 1 Inj 
those mechanical and scientific objects which, under a 
fiction, were supposed to have durived their origin in 
*' patents.*' It was necessary that the visitors to all 
parts of the ** Boilers ** and to the picture galleries 
should pass through the "Patent Division." The Lord 
President made sensible rules for admitting the public 
on three days, open from 10 H.m. to 10 p.m., and three 
days called " students' days,*' when persons not students 
paid sixpence etch, or ten shillings a year, the object 
being to have three days free from ctowds and kept 
quiet for stuly. After a while the Commissionera of 



Patents were scandalised at thus receiving public money 
(they are the instruments for takinfl^ seventy thousand 
a year from inventors, and misapplying it to general 
taxation), and they said they preferred crowds every day 
as the most convenient public arrangement. The 
authorities came to open discord on the point, and the 
matter could only be resolved by separating the 
"Patent" from the other collections. So the Patent 
Commissioners built a separate entrance for themselves. 
What has been the result f About eight millions of 
visitors to the South Kensington Museum, who would 
otherwise have seen the " Patent Museum," have not 
done so, and tho oommiwioners have deprived them- 
selves and their museum of the moral support of these 
great numbers. And what has been the result of this ? 
The Chancellor of the Exchequer has been allowed to 
sack more than a million of pounds sterling, reahsed 
from the taxes imposed on inventors* patent fees, and 
has not allowed one farthing to be spent for the provi- 
sion of a suitable building for the " Patent Museum." 
Anything more discreditable to the nation than the 
building now crowded with models cannot be conceived. 
Many of the passages are not eighteen inches wide! 
What the present Lord Chancellor, the head Patent 
Commissioner, would say if he were ever to see it, can- 
not easily be imagined. We advise his lordship to hold 
a board in the building as soon as possible. It will pn>- 
bably be the first board of patent trustees that ever sat 
there. We are satisfied that the result would bo that he 
would instantly cause the present exhibition to be closed, 
and adequate space found elsewhere. Th( n what have 
inventors got in return for the tax of a million drawn 
from them ? And what may not invention have lost by 
this indefensible principle of taxation F 

Although, as we have stated, this proposal was made 
without reference either to the opinion of those to whom 
the interests of Science and Art are more precious than 
they are to the members of the present government, or 
to Uie opinion of the House of Commons, we learn that 
Mr. Mundella has extracted a promise from Mr. Glad- 
stone that nothing shall be decided until Parliament 
meets again. Mr. Gladstone is perhaps surprised that 
there is any public interest in the subject. In the 
meantime, to assist him to form a correct judg- 
ment, we advise every learned society which takes 
any branch of science under its care to memo- 
rialise the Prime Minister, and point out the crying 
necessity of a minister who shall be responsible to Par- 
liament for science, among other matters, and for all 
museums; that to transfer a museum already so re- 
presented to irresponsible trustees is a step worthy of 
the n.iddle ages; and, finally, that while the South 
Kensington system represents everything that is best in 
the way of progress, so much, to say the least, cannot be 
urged in favour of the present management of the British 
Museum. 



One of the first results in the rise in the price of 
coal has been the formation of a oompany in France, whose 
object is tu utilise the power of the ocean tides on the French 
coast by proper machmery. The first experiment fs to be 
made at St. Malo, where the tide rises nearly eighty feet, 
and ovfrfl iws many square miles of flats. 

The Yorkshire College of Science is likely to be 
soon commenced, as only £5,000 remains to complete the 
required amount, and oU Monday last the promoters resolved 
to organise local committees to raise this sum. 

Samples of the Philadelphia and Beading Bail- 
r<)ad Cumpany*s coals are to be analysed, and the results 
sent to the Ouvemments of Russia and France, in order to 
find if the American ooals oonld be used on their railways. 

An undergronnd railway has been constructed 
in the city of Constantinople, and the contractors are 
now finishing up the termini. It will soon be open for 
traffic. 



944 



JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OP ARTS, Novwibm 14, 1873. 



INDIAlf HAHBOTTRS. 

The following letter appeared a short time hack in the 
Skipping and MgreaniiU 0autt4, It may perhaps serve 
to illastrate the paper on *' Indian Hturhoors,'* read last 
session hy Sir Arthur Cotton, E.K, at one of the 
Society's Indiam Conferenoes : — 

Sm, ~So1id bre»kwmt«n, dther of stone or ooneret* mavtmy, are 
of DO permanent use, and are doinip gceat harm in sereral plM^es, by 
•oting at iriiUierers or Cull retort of Mtid, mad, or ahioirlef and thns 
forming fresh hurs or sln{)es on the weather sides. Again, if a vessel 
rans airalnsl this solid masonry, the result is wrecUnf; the ship and 
destroying wholly or partially the expensive masonry of thnt 
breakwater, wi Joh wan oonsiruoted professedly to protect shi|)S from 
wreck and destruction. I have offered my propositions, thr ^ugh 
Tour J >umal, for a practical substitute for s<>li<i breikwaters, 
by float IniT ilmlier breakwaters, described in the ^tpping and yter- 
cmntile Cfiuett4-t Apt I and May, 1872. Theae allow the sand or 
Biitto KO ihrough them* by a triple screening, with the sea waters 
or waves, which latter bticome broken and reduced in their passage 
through t^e skeleton breakwater and over the dead water i all <st, 
fbrrain;,' a quiet ant hora;;c refnjje for sh^ps on its lee side, when 'vpt 
a heavy gale is blowing on the weather side. The silt, sand, < r 
gravel, whi«-h cuUeits on the sea beds, after screening throutrh the 
floatio}; breakwater, can be rem n c>i by steam dro Ipes, behind the 
breakwater, whenever req Irotl. Sljiuid an unfortunate ship b-^ 
driven in a lale of wln«l, with loss of rudder and beyond control, 
againiit the floMting t m er breakwater, they would e«ich, ship and 
breakwater, rebound t*! ihe blow, as a railway carriage doo^toa 
fixed railway l.uffer, whl.h latter cannot I te made to retreat or re- 
bound, as the fl'Miting bnskwAter will and does, if tliese fl'»atlnjr 
breakwaters, constructed on my principle, were effectively nmored 
00 safe anchorage grounds, they would endure and be perf.'Ctly 
effective, for 60 to 60 ye\r9 at least, and could then be replaced by a 
new in place of an old breakwater. The cost wnuM befrom five to six 
times less than that of a solid or stone breaHwater, the practical en- 
darance of the latter tieing very dnu'aful in some cases, while in 
many others it proves to bo a very destructible and als^t destructive 
construction. A very few years henco, perhaps months, will pass 
over the riif- « of several st ne breakwaters, which have been most 
wrefchctlly ro struct- d. in defiance of the laws of nature and 'n oon- 
emptot'real pra Mii-alengineeilnic. Th<j«e floating timber breakwaters 
are the only real corrictivo for the yearly calanililes, res<ilting 
principally fmrn the south-west mon8v>n, i.i (he Hay of Uenjal, and 
in the Ar bia'i Sea or the Indian Ocean. The present harbours of 
Calcutta, Madras Rangoon, False Point, C -canatla, Masalifuttam, 
and ('o oinbo. ia IJeigai Biy, and Bombay, Kurrachee, and Cape 
Comi»rin, in ihf Indi tn Oceai», suffer mo e or le*s, an«l ould be pro- 
tectcl from > onrly destruction by a face a d flank of floating break- 
waters, moor « I en echelon. These ml(;ht be nrramred in straight 
lines, or in curves or i.ow« outward towanls the sea, and not inwanis, 
asb%ys,a8the H<. yhea<l breakwater was conntructcd, and which 
latter must sooner or later lead to Its total destruction, b\ one of the 
gales fn»ra the Irish Channel. A portion of the l(am«ffate ilartmnr 
was siuiiiarly misconstructed, with the bend i'.ward^ instead uf out- 
wards, and yet this false principle is occasionally supi ortod. 

If ntw hiir- ouis ar- to le constructs i on the c« sts of India, to 
meet the rai idly Increasinir commercial trade in Import^ andexporrs 
the l»e»t sltuittlon « f all ihat can l»e selecto^l i* the i mer iiav or 
natural ha-^b mr of Cutch. which is appn»a-heti through th-? Qulf of 
Cutch, and lias another outlet (or inlet) further northward, with a 
large piece of island ground lyin;r hctwcen the two stream*, with a 
sea froiita.:c a«i.| ahar'-our frontage, the latter possessing all the ad- 
rantag s ot Liverpool witti none of .ts di»advaiit.»fe8, and will no 
doubt ere lo g be ouistituted the tinest har'x>ur in the wor'd. The 
next in com,>;irts»>n i«. a little more southwani, in theGuIfof Cam'ay, 
^ here, I. y form!. ig a curve I eh<ton of fl .ailnj hreakwatyrs i>n Its' 
seaside or entrauce from the Arabian Sea, a maguificent harbour 



(■a thnaW oreaMl and fanBMd at a. I 
and astonlshme'it of any nnprejodiced man most be feh sad a- 
iiiimd that Bombay and KoRaohee have bad the jimftisaa a 
Catch and Cambay natural harbours, bot it Is pocstble aad frM>a 
this reaaltMl from th« fact tliat Uomtaar nMrokaali. aad •4m 
equally interested in taking oare of theauelTes, forget tkn Ai 
pabllc benefit, or coontry's good, bad also claims to ^e rwort-M. 
wbi«h must I ow toon be shown by tiM practical aioptlea <tf ( ttk 
and Cambay Harbours for India. Hence Bombay aod Kvnte 
mitt. In a vary (bw years, plaj saeond fiddle to the ottar tn, 
which ara eao « so much better in erery possible ctrcorastaaep. ft 
ArthnrCotton*8 suggestions fyr otm lurbonra are (bll'>«ed t? Vr 
truly valuable propositions for the formation of a eootjaoosi Iw< 
canals along the ooa^ or shores of India, fh>m Rangoon to Cakfs%, 
on to Madras^ to Cape Comorin, to Bombay, aad onwatd ia IJae !»• 
temally to Moultan, with diverging, lateral, or spreading brute 
of rlver«, oaaals, and stsam tramways, Aom the pp>posel "Ona' 
»hore Canal,'* which will tauverse throngh about 3,S04 miln of enc 
and country, from Rangoon to Monltan, s p f eadlng imsKOM tmr 
and commerce throughout India, by nnltlag^ all the great linnmt 
railroads with the canals and tramways, Ac The great qMTiat i 
cost or outlay for oonstraoting these canals and steam tnn«ayt en 
bo answered by the fact that, when once acoomplLshel (wtirti t^ 
should be wlUi all possible speed] at an erpendtuire of not 1mi»*h 
£12,000.000 sterling, it can l>e followed up by anoth<;r £I2*MK 
sterling for harbour extension and Improvements, wh ch sH** " 
follow, or Iceep pace rather, with the CMial and tr tmway ••enors.- 
intemal coram inications. The retnm interest on the capital -^sf 
would surely and certainly be good, and by forming a siokJ^fai 
the whole first cost and expenditure would be clear-^l frt»in m la- 
mense revenueof tol Is, oolleetsd finom the canal due* on thovaaiirf 
millions of tons of goods, minerals, cattle, manufactares, pauiaf • 
and from India and all part^ of the world, "Hie ruto'e a g - jp T^t p ' 
India from external fiws would be met by our secoha^ iktfiM 
will of our 160,000,0 >0 dependents.— Tours, Ac., 
London, June 28, 1873. W. AUSTIN, CI 



Wm>. 



VEBTIIIGS FOB THE lUreUUi0 WJUUL 

Tubs. ...Zoologioal, 8ft 

Civil Engineers, 8. Dlecoasioti upon Xr. BrAisM t 

paper, ** On B£odem Locomotivea.** 
Statistical Society, 7| . Inaogurml Addiens byDr. 7i2« 

A. Ony, F.ILS. 

80CIBTY OF AHT8, 8. Openmj? AddrwoftlffCh 
Hnodred and Twentietli Seaaion by M^jor-Trveni F 
Kardley-Wilmot, B.A., F.B S , Chairman of OaanL 

Geol«>gical, 8. 1 Mr. J. W. Hulke, "SaffplttorsaiT 
N<ite on Hyp (iapkodon Poxi/.** 9 Hr T ]UI«! 
Reade, *' The Dnft-beds of the North- weft of FasiiBl- 
Port 1. Shells of the Lanonahire aod c^v^bife Li«- 
level Boulder-day and Sands." 3 Ifr. &■ D Vv^ 
shire, •*Note on a Deposit of Middle IVstrer 
Gravel near Leyland, Lancanhirq.'* 4. Mr E ti 
Fbrdham, ** Notes on the Straetaresoinctiiae>d«nlf^ 
in Chalk." 

Linnaaan, 8. 1. Mr. Groves, "Monte Anrentapv ■* 
Flora in July." 2. Dr. Dickie, ** Ch^llpaser Er^eS- 
tlon— Bermudan Algpee." S. Dr. Dt-'bie, "Ak*^ 
M<iuritiu8." 4. Bev. C. A. Johns, ''Oriraiadud 
Delphinium" 
Thcb.... Chemical Society. 8. 1. Mr. E. T)ivu^ " On the (frnxx' 
Properties of Ajonmoniated Ammonia Nitro.**." t It 
H J Buasell, ** On the Action of Hrdntfcn on ^t4^ 
Nitrate" 

Fri a^CIETY OF ABT8, 8- FbodOommittre Mt.Jwm 

Harrison on his Eecent Attempt to hstptvt FMe 
Meat fh>m Australia. 



INDEX TO VOL. SJH 



945 



INDEX TO VOL. XXI. 



Abbotk Mr., on idiool mualiMrttoni, Tl 
Abel, F. A., dUe ,• imprnyemeoU in nuum- 

Ikctare of gun-eottoo, 478 
Ab«rd<-en, *^x)ilbiUon at (tee ** Exbuitiqew **; 
Aafdemy of SciMicet in Paris, 92 
Account books in lUly, 127 
AckU on stooe, extteritnents with, 135 
Adam*, W. bridges, ol/iimary, 2 
— ^— , (the late), on the patent 

laws, 380 
Address, (ipening, by Mi^or-Gen. Bardley- 

Wllnv^t, 2 
Adelaide t iversity, 135 
Adatieraieit c^SVe in France, 636 
Adoltcxmtion of food, MUr^ 486 

■ of gtt:iIiO, 548 

Aerottautlcs in America. 343,906 

Africa, We^t, British settlement in, pap*r. 

Governor Ut-nneasy, 436 
Agrlcnlturai engineers in France, 193 

implements in Italy, 137 

Alb«rt-haU Amateur Orchestral Bodety, 136, 

894 

, fete to Shah of Persia, 456; 630 

~-, orgaa performances in, 261, 

367, 894 

medal (see ** Mkdals **) 



Albameu fn*m milk, 812 

Alcock, ^-^ir R., oiu.f England and Central 

Akiershot Military ExhibiUon (see "Exhi- 

ni<i Krf") 
Alexaudrm Palace, notice of. 607 

— , opening of, 648 

, plans for reconatmction. 



hl3 



, porchssea for, from Vienna 



Exhibition, b26 
AliceriM, coniro*-ice of, 906 
Allis4*D, £.,c(isc., conference of Institations, 

642 
Alomitiium for i>raa11 coins, 810 
America, semnitu ics in, 343, 906 

UxhibitioQ, centennial of 1876 (see 

**ExiutmioN") 
•^ at If aahrille (see "Exm- 

■moKd") 

—— , nickel mines in, 880 

, catUe from, 940 

, raiiWi«y8 In, 316 

— , tr-ide mark-> in, 69 

, undergrf»und railways in, 648, 842 

, University of Artaand Trades m, 71 



American coal, 3d3, 660 

_— Ittdusuiai exhibitions (see "Exm- 

BITI09& '* ) 

pat«>nt office, 131 

seal lock, 92 



Analyses of London road, 62 

Aocient c<>«>king utensils. 230 

III Je«tji In London Exhibition of 1878, 

report on by C D. Fortnum, 639 
Ad Jet SIM), ^ir James, ditc., signalling at sea, 

306 
Andes, telegraph acroaf, 19 
Aniline at a preventer of putrefaction, 488 
^Uck dye for cotton goods, 192 



AoiHne, re^, nvw, 899 
Annnai oonferenoe, report of, 636 

general meetlnfr, 617 

Intamational Bxbibltlona (fee ** Ex- 

H1BITIOK8**) 

Ansted, Prof., <Uto., the Virginias, 349 
Anttqaitl«, Pera\lan, 19 
Antwerp, people's library at, 69 
Apprentice schools in Paris, 195 
Arrowroot in Natal, »94 
Arch»«>logical discovery at Home, 135 
Architects, naval, meetings f<>r 1873,380, 398 
Architectural art in India, po})^, T. Soger 

Smith, 278 f«//«r, Hyde Clarke, 287 
Arctic exploration, 91 
Argentine republic, e'ncatSon In. 660 

— — , railways In, 894 

Argyll, Duke of, reply to deputation at 

Indian (>fficp, 434 
Army caechanioal works in Italy, 128 
Arntz, Mr., due., lenses, Ac. in street lamps, 

406 
Ari in Australia, 660 
, architectural in India, paper^ T. Roger 

Smith, 278 ; /«(/er, Hyde Clarke, 287 

congrress at Vienna, 741 

exhii'ition at Versailles, 18 

school (female) in liavaria, 131 

school at Venice. 166 

Ariesiaii wells in Chicago, 166 
Artificial clouds, 342 

flowers in Italy, 130 ' 

fuel, 633 ; Mt<rs, 18, 58 

stone, 344, 431 

sUicar, 842 

ArilMi s, iniitructi n of, in Vienna, 906 
Arts, Royal Academy of, election of secre- 
tary, 698 

school at Sydney, 508 

and trades university of, in America, 71 

Asbe&tos in Tasmania, 316 

Asia, CealiAl, and England (see '* Cmstbal 

Asia") 
Asphalte | avemont, report on, by Mr. Hay- 
wood, J<52, 8«i7 
I pap«^r, 780 

roofing, 633 

Asphaltes, account of the, by Dr. Meyn, 

11,36 
Atkins' fire engine, 920 
Atlantic telegraphy, Ulters^ Rev. H. Highton. 

343, 362 ; Prof. Jeukin, 362 ; C Vai le« , 362 
Austin, W., If tier on ludlan harbours, 944 
Aiutralia, ari in. 660 

, cargo of froxen meat from, 899 

, mineral oil in, 732 

(Western), silk oultare in, 676 

, silk growing in, letter from 

Governor Weld, 810 
Atisiralian gold, i)rittleneas bf, 71 
meat, di*^tributiou of meals to 



working classes, 669 

— patent office, 236 

— preserves, ItUert D. Tallennan, 



919 



provisions in London Exhibition 
of 1873, report by J D. Copeoun, 817 
tin, 677, 906. 



B. 

BayiadtOQal At, 780 

Balcer, W., report on steel in London Exhi- 
biUon of 1873, 773; app«'ndlx to, 809 

, W. H., diMe.^ Conference of initita- 

Uons, 642 

Bale^inc coal. 842 

Balfour, Sir O., ditf.^ England and Ca&tral 
Asia, 327 

Ballooning in America, 343 

Bamboo stems, paper fmm, 104 

Bartley, O. C. T., ckair.^ condensed milk 
manu&otore, 449 ; disc., economy of foel, 
376 

Bass, M. T., M J*^ ditc^ sUte purchase of 
railways, 610 

Bath stone, discovery of, 812 

Batty, O., kltrr, economy in consumption of 
coal, 234 

Bavaria, female school of ari in, 131 

Beads, glass, duty on, 316 

Beer, production of, in Austria, 698 

Itees-wax, ceresino a substitute for, 193 

Beet in Canada, 870 

, snjrar from. In Italy. 19, 128 

Belgluro, technical education in, 939 

Bell, O. W , letter^ fire insurance, 194 

Bells, coronation, prraented to South Ken- 
sbtgton Museum, 64>8 

Beinett, Sir J., Uik^r, taxation of institu- 
tions, 634 

Bennoch, F., repori on manufactured silk in 
London Exhibition of 1873, 734; letter on 
report, 936 

Bequest by T. Howard, 6 

Berger, M., report on collections of tobacco 
pipes, 67 

Berlin, fishery exhibition (see "ExniBi- 

TloB»") 

, satdtary condition of, Utter^E. Chad- 
wick, C.it , 86 

Bessemer, H., disc.^ ships for Channel pas- 
sage, 201 ; leuer on, 271 

-, presentkilou of Albert Modal 



Auattla, prodootlon of beer in, 698 



to, 73 



-, offer of a medal to Iron and 



bteol Institute, 479 

— sai«>on i>hip, 37 

steam tioat company, 66 



Bethnal-green Museum, declaiaiion signed 

as to, 10, 268; oorresponaence with Mr. 

Gladstone, 907 
Hirma, mineral wealth of, 748 
Birmingham, scicntifiu college for, 568 
Black, aniline, 192 
Blaine, D. Roberton, obituanf, 3 
Blanford, W T.,pap^,the mineral resources 

of India, 386; disc, £• glitnd and Central 

Asia, 328 
Bleaching by new process. 176 
Blennerhassctt, Sir Roland, ehair.t British 

aettlements in West Africa, 436 
Blind, raised mai«for, ;0 
Board of Trade libmry, 344 
Boat-lowering apparatus of Dr. Nicholas, 261, 

253 
Bombay, exhibition (see ** ExutemoifS ") 
Bone-dust from Mel bourne, 72 
manure in i'aiy, 129 



• difse., dlsouailen at a meeting. 



9i6 



INDEX TO VOL. XXI. 



Bonnewell, Mr, di$c.^ improvement in manu- 
facture of printing types, 338 

Books, export and import of la 1872, 812 

—— - , notes on— 
Catalngne m^thodique de la bIbliothk|ae de 

rdcr>le des beaux arts, f 38 
Dictlonnalre techoolofrique, 467 
Geometric tumlnfr, 315 
nistoire de la C6ikmique, Its 
Hyg ^e ^^mentaire, 812 
La Mati^re medicale ches let Chlnois, 893 
Manuel du microsoope, 648 
Mechinlcal and architeotore drawing 

copies, 82S 
Our seamen, 31S 
Our worli in Palestine, 19S 
Principles of decorative design, 938 
Round the table, 607 
Scientific handicra t, 778 
Boldier's manual of sanitation, 633 
Studies of blast Aimaoe phenomena, 939 
1 heory and practice of linear perspective. 

Turning for amateurs, 633 
What to do in disinfection, 778 

Booth, J. B., ktttr, lighUng street gas by 
electricity, 293 

Bordeaux, education of working cla«ea in, 
132 

— — exhibition (see ^'ExmBmoKB") 

, tcientiflc instruction in, 86 
■ , wines of, 891 

Boston fire, papers In, 176 

Botly, W., diu., technical education, 31; 
horse nails, 48 ; incombustible wood, 161 ; 
lighting street gas by electricity, 292; 
edible s'arches of commerce, 364; con- 
densed milk, 464 ; Improvements in manu- 
facture of gun-cotton, 478 ; state purchase 
of railways, 608; annual meeting, 623 

Bourne, dtst., state purchase of railways, 
666;^^cr. 746 

Bousslngsult's meat preserving procesf, 882 

Bowrlng, O., di$e , rosary in India, 470 

, Sir John, obiluary, 39 

Bowron, J., tf>sc., the Virginias, 260 

Boyes, J., Utter ^ storing potatoes, 68 

Bradford Art Treasures Exhibition (see 
•* l^xaiBinoKS 'M 

— ^— ; British Ajsociation at (see 
"BsirisH Association!") 

Technical School, 890 

Br dy. Sir Antonio, rAatr., the Virginias, 
238 



, letter, silk ooltore, 876 

Brakes, railway, onntiouous, 430 

Bramwell, P. J., due., economy of fuel, 374; 
State purchase of railways, 602 

Brass, white, 163 

Brassey, Thomas, M.P., chair., algoalling at 
sea, 298 

Brickmaking in Italy, 128 

Briggs, T., /er«r. State purchase of railways, 
747 

British Association, meeting for 1873, at 
Bradford, 732 ; arrangements for, 826 ; pre- 
sident's address, n33; paperty on spun silk, 
by 8. C. Lister, 861 ; fuel, by Dr. Siemens, 
862 ; coal cutting machinery, by W. Firth, 
860 

— exports and commercial treaties, 826 

— — settlements in West Africa, paper. 
Governor Hennessy, 436 

Broderiok, Mr. <ft<c., horse naili, 48 

Brunse ttom Japan, 842 

-^— work, exhibition of In Paris, 36 

Brooke, Mr. <f<«r.. State purchase of rail- 
ways, 649 

— , W., letter, edible starches of com- 
merce, 383 

Brown, J., <fise., lighting street gas by 
electricit*, 292 

finishes, patents on, 63 

Buckland, P., fish oollectloo at South Ken- 
sington, 480 

Buckle, John, prise fbr school efficiency, 
157 ; annual report, 632 

Buenos Ayres, meat from, 19, 922 

scientific society for, 668 

Bnilders' technical school, Bradford, 890 

Bum, Msjor, dUe , EngUnd and Central 
Asia, 327 

C. 

Cab, Improved, In Leeds, 224 

Cat>s, piis^ for improved, 9, 661 ; annual re- 
port, 821 ; award of, 869 ; inspection of Inr 
President, 921 



Calls, prizes for improved, alteration in time 
of trial. 61 

and their history, 359 

Calvert, Dr. F. C, obituurp, 919 

Campbell, Dr. A., dxte., England and Cen- 
tral Asia, 328 ; n>SMry in India, 469 

, deputation to India office, 434 

Camphor wood, 905 

Campin, F. W., disc., technical edoeation, 
31 ; guilds and their functions, 187 ; State 
purchase of railways, 666 

Canada, l>eet In, 87u 

Cjmadlan exhlbi > Ion. ( See ** Ezbditioxs.**) 

— — — graphite, \ 76 

^— patent office, 488, 648 

-^— - petroleum, 276 

Canal, Cavour, 176 

through Isthmus of Corinth, 780 

for ships through Florida, 918 

Canals from St. Loais to Savannah, 101 

CandlfSin Italy, 129 

Cantor Lectures, *' The Energies of the Im- 
ponderables, with especial referenca to the 
measurement and utUiisation of them," by 
the Rev. Arthur Rlgg, tytlabui, 136; lec- 
turee, 550, 624, 651, 671, 682, 699, 718; 
letter. Rev. H. Highton, 632 

— ^— " Practical Api>licatlons of 

Optics to the Arts, Manufactures, and to 
Medicine,'* by Dr. C. M. Tidy, fytta6M, 
20; lectures, 98, 111.117, 144, 163; tetier$, 
155 ; J. F. Strealfeild, 174 

**0n Wines, their produc- 



tion, treatment, and use.** by Dr. Thudi- 
chum, eytlnbuty 400; lectures, 766, 781, 
799, 815, 828, 843, 895, 910, 923 

Cape diamonds, 34, 92, 155, 294 

— — of Good Hope, silk from, 7, 51 

Carbolic acid for preserving food, 680 

Carbon prints on |M)itery,3I5 

Cards fur woollen, &c., manufactures in Italy, 
128 

Carpets in Italy, 129 

, manufiMture of, in Philadelphia, 

939 

Carriage wheels, indicator for, 870 

Carriages in Italy, 129 

in London Exhibition of 1873, re- 
port on. by G. N. Hooper, 706; supple- 
men tto, 820 

forrailways. (See " Railwats.**) 

Carter, R. B., report on surgical instruments 
in London Exhibition of 1873, 6U 

Cask making by machinery, 411 

Casks, measurement <>f, 934 

Cassels, A., elunr., silkworm grain, 413 

— ^— , deputation to india-uffice, 434 

— • dtsc.^ progress of India, 213; 

Indian harbours, 517 

Casting, compression, 647 

Catoptric lamp, 488 

Cattle, export of, Uom Italy to France, 
255 

show (Smithfield), 85 

at Vienna (See •* ExH tBt TiOHB**) 

from South America, 940 

— — — transports, ventilation of, 459 

Cattrall, Mr , disc., hnise nails, 48 

Gancaxus, (iUubcr's sal's in, 826 

Caulfield, Mr., dtse.. State purchase of rail- 
ways, 646 

Cavaila tobacco, 132 

Cavour canal, 175 

Co .tennlal (U.S.) Exhibition of 1876 (see 

** EXBlBITIONtt *•) 

Central Asia, deputation on, to India-office, 
433 

, the Kashgar mission, 869 

— — , objects from, 363 

— and England, poper, Robert 

B. Shaw, 319 : note on, 358 

—— , M. de Lessepe* sdieme for rail- 
way in, 680, 633, 731, 939 



, letter. General 
Eardley-Wilmot, 659 

Asian railway, 6P8, 633, 731, 780, 



939 

Cereslne, a substitute fur beeswax, 193 
Certificates under Elementary Edncatioa Aot, 

letter, 90 
and prizes awarded at graerml 

examinations, 1 873. 570 
CeyloD, oofTee in, 235, 882, 892 
Chadwick, Edwin, C.B., chair., economy of 

Pae\ for domestic purposes, 366 
— —- • , disc., progress of 

India, 311, 363 ; ships for Channel passage, 

969; State purchase of railways, 606; 

annual meeting, 63S 



Chadwick, Edwin, C.B., letter, Msitan 

condition of Berlin, 86 

, on oaiUtflil pobti 

of art and sdenee for a prograiBse kr fti 

Shah of Persia, 614 
— — ^— , »tat«n)eot t4 



postal telegraph progress as eotspsnivl* 
trading companies, 611 

J. ri.,*fi9e., ship* f'V tS- Ow»' 



passaige, '£&! 
Cliairman of eoandl, election of, for VMA 

session, 661 
Chalk as fuel for raUways, 231, 296 
** Challenger.** voyage of, 102 
Channel pneumatie postal dispatch, 39 

(sea also **:^IU1S''), cfs- 



ibg address, 8 
155 



939 



imgoo, 86 



^, IC Alexaadrovikl^ bar. 

(annual repoHV 696 
corre&poodencein T'Ikws.Sl 
hartwora, im^xtTed ibr, at, 

', M.Dnpuy De LoaM,n, » 

'oa,68; 



•, InTsntions f«-, 16, 37 

,l0ll<rs,265,296;A.Befl«y 

18, 66, 70; 8. J. Mackie,39: FelixSm- 
meriy, 71 ; E. Hnnr, 234 ; G. PeaooO, 23t . 
C. Cooke, 294 ; H. Davi>, 294 ; J. Wttr, 
382 

-, Sedley-Dioej boat «ar,sa« 



stmction of, 883 



ships for the, peper,\ss 
Lieat.-Col. A. Straoge, 1 9% 218, 367 

-, visit to AOfTt l4weH,m 



tunnel, commloioo of inquiry oa,W 

Chapman, Captain, diac, ships (br th 
channel passage, 322 

-, Mr., di»e., horse nslls, 49 



Charred papeis, preserving, 104, 171 

Cheetham, J., due, progress of India, 713 

Chemical respirator, 636 

ChemicsOs (Victorian) In London Esht^Aka 
of 1873, report by W. H Walcan, fiSl 

Cheque bank, account of, 904 ; letter, C. BsB. 
937 

Chevrenl, Mont., award of Albert naiil is, 
637 

Chicago, artesian welkin, 166 

Chimneys, smoky, letter, C. B. C1o6gh, IK* 

China, railways la, 354 

Chinese Art Exhibltioa in Paris (sec ^£n)- 
Binows.") 

Chltaon, Mr., disc., ImprovviMnti la Diii> 
fkotnre of printing typea, 338 

Churchill, Lord Atf.ed, chair^ Baaria, 
her indostries, A^c, T6 ; lmpn<vcBeBa ^ 
the mann&cinre of printiBg types, 30 

, <ftse^ sUfi ir 

channel passage, 223 

Cinchona In India, 195 

Cindonati Indostiial ExhlUtka (sse'^ti- 
mniTtoiis.**) 

City companies and technical cdacslktB:- 
C'oaokmakers* Ball, spec^ of Dak* ^ 
Edinburgh, at, 217 ; Coachmakcn* Cxm- 
pany's prises, 362, 413, 469, 711, 711. 
Stationers* Company *b leetnrvs, J43;f% 
Press on, 411 ; Painter** Sraiacn* l^sa- 
rany's prises, 364; Spectacle Haim' 
Company's prizes, 413; nthiMCvn' 
Company's prises, 413; Mercets' Con- 
pany*s prises, 413; Drapers' Cuaqpaaj** 
413; Vintners' ComFaoy*s pfiiesi 4U. 
Salters* Compaaj's prisas «U; QBik- 
workers* Company's prisca, ii\ M3: 
meeting of, 606 ; meeting in A Ibm BsS, «• 
to vlsita of otty icfaoois, 633 ; a«fereKv ■ 
Exhibition 546 ; Tamers t'omr^ay'sr-nMi 
698 ; 906; Cordwainers' CocnpaBy's prvak 
699 ; meeting at Marit^wtitgh Howie, ns 
scholarships for Board schools, 764 ; S»M- 
smiths* Oomr«B7*« prises, «T<*i In> 
mongers* Company's dcoatloB fcr sckaA 
visit, 809 

Clanricarde, Marosds of, dtair. (sO<«*al 
meetings), purdiaae of laiiways faff 9* 
sUte, 606, 646, 662 

Clark, T , f^er, eoooofuleal stnm, 343 

Clarke, General, deputation to ladki-cAes» 
454 

, Hyde, rfisr., Roada, *«, ••; JF^ 
gresa of India, 214; the VlrglrJM, 9i»> 
England and Central Asia, 336; osaeal 
rcaoorees of India, 3!t3; BritMsetfi««*t» 
in AfH«a, 449 ; rosary la Xudla, 4fll ; 
porohase of railway^ 64t 



IKMX TO VOL. XXI. 



U7 



Cterke, Hyd«, ktitn, technical tdntatlon, 33; 

•reldtectarml art in India, 287 
Claj, Mr^ d^se.. Bnssla, Ac, 82 
Cloeks, te'^^i^Taphtc, 9<M 
CloUiin .17,138 
Qotharo. k rs* company and taebnlaal adaca- 

tioo, 605 
Cloiids, artificial. 342 
ClooKb, C. B., tetter, smoky chlmnayt, M6 
C<^q hinak era' oompany'a pHtat, 2ft2, 469 ; 

tar xeport on exhibition, 716 

■ I report of 



', 713 
Coal (aee also " Fokl*') 
at B»|rdad, 780 

. Balearic. 824 

, canianre of, by railways, 939 

^— In Chinm, 940 

cattlu^ machinery, Mr. WUUam Elrth 

on, 860 

in D^matla, 104 
r, »39 

, in France, 939 

dust, utilisation of, 507 

, eoooomy in consumption of, ktttr, Q. 

Batty, 234 ; C. Cooke, 632 
in the Faro Ules, 72; UUtr, Sir W. C. 

Trevelyan, 90 

in India, 842 

at;d irrm industries, {lerils of, litter, 

J. A Franklin, 155 

in Italy, fi9 

in Minorca, 842 

• from Nova dcotia, 861 

, price of, m 1830, 411 

, pHzea for planu for economical use of, 9, 

41 ; e>»nimittee on (see ** Coiuuttsbs ") ; 

anaoai report, 621 ; arrangements for teil- 

lag, 79H 

in Sweden, 894 

in U' Ited States, 343, 660 

, ntiiiaat on of waste, 193 

Cobb, U. >-'., hints t<) oolo:.i>ts on silk culti- 
vation <»e©**i?u.K»') 
— — — > , report on raw silk In the 

London Exhil»ltion of 1873, 727 

-, disc., kilk worm grain, 420 



Cockei ill's steel works, at Seraing, 892 
Coffee, oilalterated, iu France, 636 

In C»-yloo, 2J6, 882. 8»2 

n^atiojc, economy in, 748 

Coinage iu l!:i73, 940 

, platinum, 488 

Col de TeiicU tunnel, oommenoement of, 841 
Colby, J., IHter^ state porohate of railways, 

459 
Cold, pro-% isions preserve J by, 344, 660, 880, 

89>, 922 
Cole, Alan S , report on Conservatoire de 

Moalque at Paris, 681 ; at LKge, 927 
1 Henry. C.B^ testimonial to, 696 ; speech 

at lianley School of Art, 912 
College of Preceptont, application for State 

aki» 893 

, Br>yal Naval, at Greenwich, 864 

Ci>lley, Itev. Edward, diic., incombustible 

wood, 162 
Collier, Dr., di c, Russia, Ac., 81 
<?olomb. Captain, chmr , street gas lighting 

by electricity, 288 
tPaptr, signalling at sea, 

29* ; let/er, F. K. W. Lanchlan, 343 ; C. 

Cooke, 383 
CoUmlal oontribotions to London Exhibition 

of lo73 (see ** ExuiBiTiom'*) 

- xnanDfactare*, prizes for, by New 

SSemland Government, 90S 

products, annual Kew-gardens re- 



port oo, 696 

Fines, letter 1 919 



Colonies (annual report), 619 
Colour and viiion. Utter, 155 
Commerce, French treaty of, 1873, 742 

, Algerian, 906 

Cooiniercial Instruction, Dr. Hodgson on, 890 

■ treaUes and British trade, 826 

Coaf3aiTT«a8 : — 

AJI»V*U iKTKmSATIOyAL EXBIBITIONB, 1873 

an«l lt*74 (8ee**ExBmmoii8") 
Cabs (see also **C«b8"), annual report, 

6'^1 ; 630, 661 ; report of Judges, 869 
CosirLAOHATiow,197,358,27ti,-^Oi« ; etideuce, 
"W. P. Reynolds, 309 ; W. Swauton, 338, 
495 ; J. Vuick, C.E., 355, 377 ; R. Raw. 
llnson, 407: Capt Tyler, 422; W. C 
Bf yine. 499; Capt. IhtvifS, 500; Samuel 
BhMTp, 537; U. Marten, 549; evidenctr 
b^lbre Mouse of Commons Commitiee, 



CoTTDM BtnTLT.'7 ; ^smual report,- 617 

ECOHOMICAL USB OP CHAL (sCO alSO 

** CoAi "), 197 ; annual report, 621 
Food:— Meat fWun Centnl Qneeoslsnd, 
157 ; De la Peyronse's process, 318, 942 ; 
Barrison*! process, 9«2 ; annual report, 
617 
Gab Am Witxs Supply, 197 
In>u (sec also India Conferences), 298; 
deputation to India-office, 345, 365, 413, 
433; annual report, 618 
MoMOAL (see also "MmiO"), 7, 365,637, 

681 ; annual report, 619 
Biu BtrrPLT 7 ; silk ft-om Cape, 318 ; Mrs. 
NellL'a experiment^ 319 ; annual report, 
618 
Stsbl (see also "Stbbl"), annual report, 

621 ; Judges* report, 661 
TaAOTioN OH RoAOi, arrangements fbr 
experiments, 413; annual report, 619 
Compression casting, 547 
Concrete syphons on canal **Qninturo 

Sella,*' 68C 
Condensed milk manufkcture, jpopcr, L. P. 

Merriam, 460 
Condensers, steam eneine, 275 
Conference, annual, report of, 635 
Conferences, India (see ** iHou**) 
Conflsgration, committee on protecting me- 
tropolis against (see ** CoMMrrrxKs") 
Congress on social science, 1873, 842, 858 
— — — at Vienna- on patent rights (see 

" Patwit Riohtb") 
Conservatoire ties Arts, Paris, 86, 175 

de Mualque, Pai is, report on, 681 

■ Li^ge, report on, 927 

Constantinople water supply, 894 
Conversazione, 661 

Cooke, C, disc, "Russia, Ac.,'' 82; the 
Virginias, 249; signalling at se*, 308; 
Utitrt, Channel passage, 294 ; sea signals, 
30; economy in co'l, 632 
Cookery, national school of, 748 

, school of, (see ** ExHiBirtoKs ") 

Coolcing apparatus lit London Exhibition of 

1873, report on, by G. W. Yapp, 787 
^-^— — utensils, ancient, 230 

, medlaval, 485 



Cooper Sir Daniel, due., silk-worm grain, 420 
Copeman, J. D., report on Australian pro- 
visions in London BxhlbiUon of 1873, 817 
Copland. Mr., diMc., lightiug street gas by 

electricity, 29'i 
Coppt-r deposited on Iron by electricity, 228 
— mining in the Vale of Aosta in Italy, 
130 

pyrites, extraction of precious metals 

fhun, 255 

sulphate of. Its manufacture and ap- 



ro-^; 



annt'.il report, 61 ; I'tfer, ^:l 



plications, by w. H. Walenn, 744 
Copperthwdte, Mr..dMC.,eo«inomy of fuel, 376 
Corluih, Isthmus of, c«nal throu h, 780 
Cornwall Polyteohiitc Society, 536 
Coryton, J., disc , ships for the Channel pas- 

ssge, 222 
CosUn, Capt., diic.. Improvements in rifles, 

493 
Cotterlll, F. C, dUe., State purchase of rall- 

Wiiys, 603 
Ck>tton, Lieut -Gen. Sir A., jM^^sr, Indian 

harbours, 509 

, Irtter, progress In India, 295 

Cotton KOodM, mildew in, 39, v32 

manufttCture In Italy, liB 

supply assuciation,/«</er, J. Watts, 680 

sop»>ly, committee, (see Committxxs) 

Council, election of for I2Utti session, 623 

, leport of for 119th se»i>ion, 617 

Cowper, Mr., disc , condensed milk, 455 
Cresswell, Mr., diac , conferenoe of iiuti- 

tutions, 642 

Crltchett, C-, report at educational con- 
ference, 635 ; disc., 642 

Croll, Col., Irtter, piece-work sentences for 
prisoners, 506 

" Cropper* printlnff machine, 102 

Crossley, Sir Francis, obituary, 3 

Crossness, guano company nt, 234 

Crystal Palace, ok^jeoufrom Ontral Asia at, 
363 

tor New York, 155, 487 



D. 



Dalmatia, coal In, 104 
Dalr.v niple. Dr., obituary, 858 
Daniry, Mr., ditc, mineral resources of 
Indis, 393 



Danube, Lower, ' 935 

trade of, 341 

Dalles, Capt., tvideiiee, conflagration oom- 

mlttM, 500 
Davis, Capt., <Nsc, ships for (Tbannel passage, 

221 

, H., letter, Channel passaae, 294 
Dawbam, R., dtsr., annual met^ting, 623 
Dawson, Capt., due., signalling at sea, 307; 

Improvements In rifle^, 493 
Deal and dumb instructioh. Utter, L. Van 

Oven, 58 
Defries, Mr. disc,, lenses, Ac. In street lamps, 

406 
Delhi sore, tetter. Lord Mark Kerr, 212 
De LDme, M. Du(<uy,on Channel i avage, 838 
Denison, Mr., diic., England and central 

Asia, 327 
DepuUUon to Indla-ofllce, 345, 365, 413, 433 
Derby, Earl of, chair., purchase of railways 

by the SUte, 691 
Dlsigrams printed by photography, 508, 633 
Diamond cutting, 175 
Diamonds, Cape, 34, 92. 165, 294 
Dicey, Capt., disc, Uiips for Channel pas> 

page, 218, 272 
Dic«y ship ( see also ** Charkel Passaob** ), 37 
Dieppe Exhibition (see *'ExuiBmo>8") 
Digester, Papin's, 13 1 
Dilke, Sir C, disc., Rus»ia, ftc., 83 
DIpnsll, Mr., disc., lightiug street Ismpa by 

electricity, 292 ; condensed miik, 454 
Disinfectanrs, cheap, 229 
Didlar, Mr., disc., horse nail% 48 
Donnelly, Mijor, diic, technical education, 

31; confereuceuf iustitutluns, 642 
Dougall, J. D., disc, imp ovemeots in rifles, 

494 
Drawing and mathem;iUcaI school of Farls, 

903 

teachers* coropet'tion In Paris, 679 

Drew, Frederick, disc., England and Central 

Asia 327 ; mineral re ourc< s oi Ind a, 393 
Dried fhiits in London l.xbibition of 1873, 

rejorton by R. Witheriiy, f84 
Drill, school, 8, 620 ; correst^ondencc on with 

War-office, 907 
Dublin Industrial Exhibition (see ** Exmai- 

TIORS **) 

Ducle, Earl of, chair., lmpr..<vcments in 

breech-loading rlfl«s, 489 
Duncan, Mr., dtsc, condensed milk, 454 
Dunmore, E., letter on railway signals, 905 
Duplex telegraphy, 87u; W. H. Walenn on, 

836 
Dutch language, classes for, in City of 

London College, H82 
Dye extracts in Italy, 129 



E. 



Eames, A., disc, condensed milk, 45 1 

Eardley-Wilmot, R A., F.R.8., Mi^.-Gen., 
cAotr., opening address, 1 

, deputation to 

India-office, 434 

; — , elected chair- 
man of Council for session l''7J-74, 661 

— , letter, Cential 



Asia, 669 
Earthenware in Italy, 130 

s'oves in Italy, 128 

Eastwlck, Mr. disc, England and Central 

Asia, 326 
Echoes in public bulldlnjrs, 71 
Economical consumption of fuel (see 

*'FuBL"; 
Economy of fuel for domestic purposes, 

p€^i>er, Capt. Gallon, 367; letter, U. W. 

Reveley, 4»6 
Edible atarches of commerce, paper, P. L. 

Simmonds, 346; Utter, W Bro<ke, 383 
Edinburgh, technical school for, 2J5 

, Duke uC o» technical education, 

217 
Edson, M. B., disc, guilds and their fun otlons^ 

18i; ships for Channel pas^a>;e, 223 
Education (elementary )act, certificates under. 

Utter, 90 

' in Argentine republic, 660 

bill In Melb'urne, 136, 315 

, comnivrcial. Dr. Hod son on, 890 

of girls in HolUt^d, 136 

— in luly, 879 

in New York, 136 

■ scho:ar»hii>s ••y City companiu 

for hoard schools, 764, 8« 9 

' technical, in Belgium, 939 



948 



INDEX TO VOL. XXI. 



Edaoation, technical, and City Companies 

(see "CiTT COMPAUIBS") 

, ooachmaken* prizes. 



469 



254 



company, 605 



on, 217 



810 



-, college for Glasgow, 
- and dothworkers 
-, Duke of Edinbm^h 
• ia England, Iron, on, 



pany's prizes. 778 



in France, 866 
, Goldsmiths" Com- 

in Japan, 920 

— ^— , Ucturci in Glasgow 

mnseam, 487 

— . — — . Indostrlal instrnctioa 

in Mellx>urne, letter^ S. RoberU, 135 

-, lectures at Stationers*- 



hall, 343, 411 



and the mesns of 
promoting it, Ptiper by T. Webster, 21 ; 
leltert^ Hyde Clarke, 33; Rev. A. Rigg, 
34 ; G. C . Mast, 56 ; Rowland Hamilton, 56 
-, meeting at Marl- 



lx>roagh-house, 715 



and scientific instmc- 
tlon in England, Jron on, 810 

— school at Bradford, 



800 



235 



132 



school for Edinburgh , 

— school at Zurich, 678 

of women, meeting on, 38 

of working classes iu Bordeaaz, 



Educational conference (Social Science Asto- 
elation and Scholastic Registration Asso- 
ciation) 130 

— ^^ officer's report, 635 

Edwards, Mr., diee., economy of fttel, 376 

Egg trade in France. 193 

Eirypt, railways in, 839 

Elba, iron mines of, 19 

Election of council for 120th session, 623 

Electric leak indicator, 556 

-^— light, experiments at St. Peters- 
burgh, 779 

, Gramme's, 4 84 

. W. H. Walenn on, 381, 398 

Electricity, lighting and extinguishing street 
gasllghtit by, paper^ by W. Lloyd Wise, 
288; fo^/«r, J. B. Booth, 293 

Electro-depositing copper on Iron, 228 

Electrotype moulds, to make conducting, 234 

Elliott, Mr., disc.. State purchase of rail- 
ways, 603 

Ellis, Dr., due., technical education, 32 

Elmslie^ meat tins, 532 

Emerson, Mr., di$e,^ architectural art in 
India, 286 

Endowment ftmd, sabtoriptlons to, 386, 401, 
489, 540 

Energies of the imponderabUs, with especial 
reference to the measurement and utilisa- 
tion of them, by the Rev. Arthur HIgg (see 
*' Caktor Lectukb!*'*) 

Energy, science of, letter. Rev. H. Highton, 
632 

Engineers, agrloultaral in France, 193 

England and Central Asia, letter. General 
Bardlcy-Wllmot. 659 

— ^— — — — — ,p<ij>fr,by Robert 

B. Shaw, 319 

Engraving on wood, new process (Piano- 
type), 633 

F^ssays, pri/e (nee '• Prizes") 

Etherldge, Mr., disc., the Virgln'as, 260 

ExAMHtAHOMs, Mr. Abbott on, 71 

-^— — (annual report), 620 

— — — — — ^— , list of prizes and 
certificates awarded in 1873, 570 

, report on (1873), 635 

— — , table of results (1873), 6)9 

Gbs SEAL .'Council's resolutions 



as to programme of 1874, 717 

.— , programme for 1874, 895 

, Tbcunulogic «L of 1873 :— 



Chairman's address, 8 
Birmingham Daitv Poet and Oaaetteotk, 253 
Clothworkers' Company's scholarship, 871 
Contributions to prize fund, extra prizes, 
413, 699, 843 

Offer of scholarships by H.M. Commis- 
sioners for the ExhIUGlon, 433 
Programme foC'lt73, 61 
Resultsofin 1873,797 



EXAmXATlOKS, Tbcbxolocical, of 1874 :— 
Additional suljects fur, 717 
Prizes for, 894 
Pr«>gramme for, 992 
Exhibition, Aundal Intkbnatioiial, of 1873 
Admission during arrangement, rules for, 

147 
Army and navy, fine arts exlilbltion of, 

253, 275 
Australia at, 35 
Aut-tral an court, 658 
Bayeux tapestry, 312 « 
British goods, rules for reception of, 251 
Cabs, prizes for (see ^^CojaaTTBES** and 

"Cabs.") 
Civil engineers, conversazione, 546 - 
Coach and coach harness makers company, 

prizes by, 252. 459, 713, 716 
Coach makers^ visits of, 632 
Colman's mustard, 630 
Colonial annexe, 224 
CoMMiTTBBS, meetings of :• 

Ancient objects, 251, 294 

Carriages, 34, 83, 147, 216 

Colon tal. 224, 'J5), 294 

Cooking, 34, 67, 83, 121, 147, 167,215,224 

Drinking and smoking, implements for, 
67, 101 

Fine arts, 251 

Food (fl»b), 215 

(grocery and drysaltery), 190, 

224, 340 

r«incs, spirits, and beer), 251, 275 

French art, 190, 216, 2S1 

General pur|«ises, 67, 340 

Scientific inventions, 35, 83, 274, 357 

Sculpture, 67 

Silk a.d velvet, 34, 50, 83, 167, 215, 251, 
312,456 

Steel, 34, 50, 67, 121, 275, 340 

Surgical Instruments, 34, 60, 116, 167, 
251, 310 
Conferen^te of City companies, 53?, 546, 716 
Cookery, lecture on tt> Working Men's 

Club a«d Institute Union, 800 
, school of, 14H, 340, 367, 456, 546, 

678, 721. 809 ; viviis of schools, 614 ; 

visit of HM. the gueen, 502 
C«K)klng stovt'S, 632 
Council's annual report, 621 
Deceased British artists, works tf, 101,276, 

312 
Drinldng utensils, ancient, 115 

' , classification of, 167 

Fine arU, 121, 147 

Fine art sales In 1872,84 

Fish collection, 480 

Food, sale of specimens, 262 

Foreign academies, n^otiatlons with, 60 

Foreign goods, rules for reception of, 147 ; 

dates for ditto. 148 * 

Horticultural Society, arrangements with, 

425 
Indian court, 516 
Jai an at, 60 
Lectures on. In the building, by Mr. P. L. 

Simmonds, 741 - 
- Lifc-s iving apfiaratQS, 3)^, 456 
Music, ditily performances of in Albert- 

Imli, 251, 357,894 
Nafcil, preserve*! fruits, 878 
Opening, date for, 275 
Otiening, 409 
Palut. indestructible, 776 
I'al itlngs. British and foreign, in 1873, 216 
Persia, Shah of, visit of, 456, «30 

— — — Programme for, 612 

Photographs, condition of tender for 

taking, 252 
Picture*, 603 
, exhibition of on system of British 

Institution, 224, 251 
PrI'zes lor reports, offer of by the Coach- 

mnkcis* Company, 716 
Progress, 340 ^ 

Queen, H.M. the, visit of to, 602 
Uueenoland annexe, 613 
Koinoval of goods, 809 
Bbpobts:^ 

Ancient olijectf, by CD. Fortnum. 539 ■ 

Australian provisions, by J. D. Cope* 
man, 817 

wines, by J. L. W. Tbudi- 

chum, M.D., 927 

Carriages, by G. N. Hoopsr, 705 ; sup- 
plement to, 820 

Chemicals (Victorian department), by 
W. H. Walenn. 831 

C 'lorlal contrlbntions, 803 



Cooking apparatus, by 0. W. Ttpf, TQ 

Dried fruits, by Richard With*rtf , w 

Fo*>d Preservation, S»*8 

Machinery, and procetsn er^at^d. 
therewith, by Rev. A Rij:?, M 

Scientific inventions and dts>*T«ria,b; 
Dr. Maim, 750 ; suppleineDt to, m 

Silk and velvet maautsctora, bf F 
Bennoch, 734 

Silk, raw, by B. F. C^bb, I« 

Steel, by W. Bi«k<T, 771 ; n^ to, «•• 

Surgical instroments,' by K. :i. laiB, 
644 

Swords and military arau of stw!,bf( . 
Owen, R A , 723 

Annual report on, 671 
Sand blast process, 532 
Schools, admioion of, .^79, 632, 7:9, •SS 
Season ticket h »Ul«rs, pririlf^-i .<iii,*"< 
Silk conference, 613 
Sllkwornm, 740 
Steel In, Engineering oo, 39$ 
Steel in, offer of S<>c.ety'« pj'.<i o*4U te. 

41, 7J, 137, 217; annual lep rt, ►.:; 

Judges report, 661 
Surgical instruments, cnllect^oos^ \Vt 

— — — — ■ , LafH "O, *S4 

Tobacco pipes, collections of, roiflrt^y K. 

Berger. 67 

, AVTiVkL lyrBtHATin^tA^nf I'TJ - 

Architecture and civil e-i;l'»certVt t-. 

916, 930 
Australian wines In, 930 
Buildings, ancient and mMem, rJ^f' 

preparation of diagrams 916 
Deceased British artists, names ftltcH. 

730,930 
Fine arU, 929 
Mannfactnres, with raw prodfiw,^*^^ 

and processes, regnJattoos f »r e\Iji^*-E: 

759 
Prize for stoves (scea'so "Pejio'L*!.^' 
Scientific inventions and di»cment^ nrfs- 

Utions as to exhibition, 7M 
Wines in, 930 

, Aberdeen, 605. 547 

, Aldcr»hol(nillittry) 4T3 

— — — , ancient needl- work, 54T 

, Berlin, fi-hery, 125 

, Bouit*y, 39 

, Boriicaiix, 51 

-^-^ , Bradford art treawre*, «« 

— of Chinese and Jaian««Kti 

Paris, 777, 810, 843, 8t« 

, Cincinnati irdasUuU 54T 

, Dieppe (tioe arts). 4'T 
-, Dnbiio, 61, 173, 397, 414 
., industrial. Will eiiive",::* 
-. industrial and fine a*i» i^w- 



sures, Wlgan, 115 

, Kioto (Jaian), 150 

of leather work, Ntnthauft* 



459, 67H, 777 

, Uchfieid, 547 

— — of life saving apparsto*. S-4,*** 

, Lima, 18 

-:: , Madrid, 741 

, Melbouine, 115, 125 

, Milan, 102 

, Mosc'W roSytcetini*, 1^^' 

awards, 84, 149; costof nicJals.S~Jti "■^'''• 

C. 8. Windover, 363 

, Nashville (r.S.),3Jl 
, New Yio-k 169 
•, Norwich sanitary, 431 
•, Paris bronze wofk, 3i 
-. Paris, of norks 'f *'^*^' 



artists, 226 



, Philadelphia c«bt*Mial, ' 

1876, 84, 547, 696, 777, b09. WS. <% "^K 

, Quebec. 898 

— , Rome, 822 

— — , Santiago, M 

— , Trinidad, 931 

, VersUllt« art, IS. 35 

, Victoris, at enila**' ^^ *^" 

catalogue of, 440 ; offl ial nsconl, «♦> 

•, Victoria, t«chnoloslcaI,«».* 

ViBKJIA, Of lb7S:— -"** 



Admission, cost of, 425^ 
Agricultural machinery, 167 

, trial of, 41^ 

Algiers at, 777 
America at, 35, 341, 397. b09 
American Geographical Society at. 3U 
Art congress at, 741 

, works of, 741 y 

Artisans' visit to, from BlrmltMtHs«, O' 
, f? r:^ V. ne'.^T •,;»•.<** 



INDEX TO VOL. XXI. 



94d 



iUtions, Vienna, of 1873 {amtinmed):^ 
nstnlia ftt, ZtfO 
vards, 776, (»09, 930 

, proportions of, 849 

elgiam at, 631 

)iler tlieds, 6^7 

•ok' indlnir. 380 

ntish commlasion hoase, 634 

exhit'itors, b*nqaet to, 804 

exhlblt«jr», 151, 190, 3ft8, 425 

sliding for, 1«3, 468 
ip« dUmoDd, 294 
iiAfo^ne, liritisti, 169, 467 

— , Frencli, 69< 

— , general, 604 

ittle show, awards, 687 
^ng of, 89^, 91«<, 930 
MD and seed exhibitors, 380 
— , market, 716 
iucational ot^ects, 115 
tcurMoD a-rangements, 716 
ranee at, 36, 116, 151 
reoch art. 18, l**© 

estitbltOTS, 879 

floe art, 312, 667 

workman, arrangementa for ylslt of, 

eo ogical charts (France), 777 

orec show, «14 

tdia at, 8i 

iventlona, pri>tcotlon of, 102, 122, 325 

alian restaurant, 18 

Aly at, 6jI, c09 

sp^nat, 341, 4 LO 

spem se commhsion, 312 

pwellery, British, 483 

Mi%k%, P2l 

•Agings for p ofcssors and teachers, 397 

-y teachers*, accepted, 777 

lachinery, 458 

iajolica ware, 634 

i»r of N. Pacific Railway, 822 

I'^el houses, 397 

lonaooat, 78'i 

>r«QiQ^ arrangements, 467 

ceremonial, 481 

— , date for, 426 

>weQ, Mr., testimonial to, 777, 898 

»arii at, Ul 

tian of, 19 J 

*<rft<ry, English fine art, 312 

*rogTes8 << 425 

^Iway arrangements, 81,368 

ilfles(Doiigall*s),468 

l^teto, 425, 606,716 

iossia at, 458 

UiorthuMl curiosity, 809 

)ps)n at, 31'^ 631, 832 

)tore(Adaau'),467 

fAble, by T. Jacob, 426 

rttrlteyat,4t0 

Trpogrsphy (English), 368 

^ienna Society of Arts^ medals, 879 

^i itors to, 647 

^••ter presa, 604. 822 

"sodbiiry type. 678 

tiiWtljos, American Industrial, 897 

•^ — international, rise of; PhiladelpMa 

"^'^mnial ChronfcU on, 916 

U'l^iTe agents, letter, 937 

'tract of meat, 156 

'PhfAtes vailey railway, 839 

««pe, miles of railway In, 189 



P. 

»5tory act la Bwitxerland, 91 

wtng of photographs, 171 

?;;oJslcs, coal in, 72; l*iUr, Sir W. C. 

"weliran, 90 

^rnr, Dr., (Km., progrest of India, 265 

V^^n, James, auHr., arohltectoral art in 

Id4U, 278 

ibre of l«ie plant, 905 

-"fOt L. puttulaiay 920 

-MAAcim), notes on by P. L. Slmmonds, 

rrf ''o retmsa^ 69 

jwoai material, siipply of, 8 

^w, C. H., cWriV, 3 

VfiDs, Mr., di*e,y oo certain improrements 

>a the manaCactnre of printing types, 336 

ue-iDaking in Italy, 128 

jnsnw. annual report, 622 

uundal statement fbr session 1872-8, 589 

'ai»od, gold 10, 680 

! — ", trade of, 151 

•••JlMua-r •, frf!er, G. Bell, I9i 



fire engine, Atkins*. 920 

, protection against in New York, 195 

, steam versus, 171 

Fireproof fabrics, 255 

■ houses, 171 

Fires, prevention of, IMer, 631 
Firth, William, on coal cutting machinery, 

860 
Fish collection (F. Bockland*s) at South 

Kensington, 4b0 
— fVom Norway, 343 
Fisheries of Newfoundland, 824 
Fishery exhibition at Beriin, 125 
Fitzjame«, Mr., disc., lighting street gas by 

electricity, 292 
Flax, New Zealand (see " Phobmium Tbhax") 

in Southern Kurope, 892 

Florida Ship Can^l, 918 
Flowers, artifld*! in Italy, 130 
Food adult rati«)n, Utter. 486 

committee (see •* Committeks *') 

— — of French working classes, 903 

^— , past action of Society in relation to, 4 

, preservation of (see also *' Meat**), by 

acetate of soda (Sau's process), 745 

, carbt)lic acid used in, 680 

liy cold (Boussingault's 



process), 882 



', report on. In London Exhi- 



bition of 1873, 6H8 

by migents, 780 

Fordred, J.., disc, galvanic batteries, 



66 



economy of fuel, 375 
Fortnum, C. D., report on ancient objects in 

London Exhibition of 1873, 639 
Foster, P. Le Neve, chair. , use of lenses and 

reflectors in street lumps, Ac, 402; disc, 

technical education, 32; Russia, Jkc, 82; 

progress of India, 213; edible starches of 

commerce, 354 
, Jun., M^, sabterranean 

hydrology, 67 

-, Dr. C Le Neve,/e</er, sulphur deposits 



of Krisnvik, 173 
Fox, W. H , on continuous railway brakes, 

430 
France, adulteration of coffee in, 536 

, agricultural engineers In, 193 

, dear coal in, 939 

, ea trade lo, 193 

, export of cattle flrom Italy to, 256 

, historical and artistic military mu- 
seum of, 313 

, horseflesh consumed in, 841 

, marine measurement in, 163 

, science and general teaching in, 86 

■, scientific progress in 1»72, 172 

, technical education in, 865 

Francis, VV., disc., lighting gas by electricity, 

292 
Franklin, J. A., disc., State purchase of 

railways, 6I8 : letter, perils of iron and coal 

industries, 155 
French treaty of commerce of 1873, 742 

working classes, food of, 903 

Fresco-painting, new system of, 135 
Fruits, preserved, letters, 904, 919 
Fuel (see also ** Coal*' and " Pbat *) 

, artificial, 633 ; letters, 18, 58 

, Indian com as, 135 

. economical consumption of, exhibition 

of inventions at Scientific Industry Society, 

Manchester, 920 

, economy of, 175 

— — — , for domestic ptirposes, 

pop^r, Capt. D. Oalton, 367 ; letters, H. W. 

Reveley, 486 ; Q. N. Shore, 732 . 
>, peat in Italy, 20 



for railways, chalk as, 234, 296 

— — , Dr. Siemens on, at British Association, 

1873. 852 
— , tan bark as, 136 
Furniture in Italy, 127 



O. 



(telloway, O. B., cNie., ships fof Channel 

passage, 271 
Gait, W., paptr, pnrohase of railways by the 

State, 591 ; resumed discussion on 605, 645, 

•62 ; statement on, by B. Rlsch, 660 ; Ittttrs, 

J. Colby, 659; 8. Bonme, 746; T. Briggs, 

747 
Oalton, Capt Douglas, paptr, eoonomy of 

ftiel for domestic purposes, 367 
Galvanic batteries, jMfMr, by Rer. H. 

Hlghton, 62 i Mf«r, by Rtv. H. Hlghton, 



Gas, air, 71, 532 

, water, 233, 469, 507 

, manufacture of, for illuminating pur- 
poses, piipw, T. Wills, 519 
.Ruck's, 233, 507; Greenhough*s, 632; 

Parker*^. 536 

and water supply, inquiry as to, 197 

, Committee on (see " Committkrs ") 

Gas-lamps, street, lisjhtiii}? and extll)g^i^h!ng 

by electricity, paper, by W. Lloyd V\ Ijo, 

288; letter, J. B. Bo..th, 293 
Gas-llghtlng in New South Wales, 235 
Gas-stokeis' stilke, Tl 
Gawler, Col., memorandum on Central Asia, 

436 
Geelopg meat pre'orving company, 633 
Genoa, trade ol', '3Si 
Geology, lectures on, by Prof. Tennant, 116, 

399, 680 
German sanitary assochitl'>n, %%2 
— -~— silver, man^j^aiiese in mannfacturo of, 

660 
Germany, labour in, 190 
— — — , traction engines in, 156 
Gill, Mr., disc., improvement in manufacture 

of printing types, 337 ; letter, 486 
Girls, education of, 136 

, schularshii^s for, 384 

Gladstone, Mr., correspohdcnce with, as to 

Museums, 907 
Glasgow museum, technical lectures in, 487 

technical college, 254 

Glass beads, duty on, 315 

msnufiicture In Italy, 128 

, soluble use of, 940 

— — , Venetian, 316 

Venetian blinds, 315 

Gla&s.lined water pipes, 315 

Glass-spin^'ing, 172 

Glauber's salts in Caucasus, 826 

in Spain, 894 

Gloves in Italy, 126 

Gold lo Finland, 680 

in New Zealand, 940 

lace atid trimmings in Italy, 128 

Gold Coast, trade with, 881 

Goldsmiths' Company's prizes for de^irn^ 

Ac., 778 
Goodenough, Capt., disc , signalling at sea, 

308 
, Col., disc., lighting street gas 

by electricity, 292 
Gore, M. tl., disc., manufkoture of gas, 531 
Graio, preservation of, in vacuum, 226 
Gramme's electric light, 484 
Grant, Baron, chair., suiphur deposits of 

Krisuvik, 137 
Grantham, John, due, ships for Channel 

passage. 220, letter, 274 
Graphite, Canadian, 176 
Grasses, preservation of, 889 
Graves, Samuel R., M.P., obtlumy, 174 
Gray, T., disc., signalling at sea, 306 
Qrazebrooke, Mr., disc.. State purchase of 

railways, 665 
Greece, labour in, 152 
Greenhough, Dr., air gas, 532 
Greenish, Thomas, chavr., edible starches of 

commerce, 346 
Greenwich Royal National College, dc- 

scrip'ion of, 865 
Greer, Mr., disc.. State purchase of railways, 

649 
Guano, adulteration of, 548 
— — company at Crussne^s, 231 
Guilds and their functions, pap^r, by Dr. 

Teats, 176 
Gun-cotton, Improvements in manu&ctureof, 

paper, S. J. Mackie, 470; letter, H. W. 

Reveley, 535 
verstis gimpowder, Utter, II, W. 

Reveley, 535 
Gunpowder, new kind of, 19 
Gwynn, W. J., di*c.. State purchase of rail- 
ways, 665 



H. 

Bale, Mr., disc., lenses, Ac. in street 
lamps, 406; silk worm grain, 421 ; British 
Settlements in Africa, 449 ; improvements 
in manufacture of gun cotton, 476 ; Im- 
provements in rifles, 494 ; Indian harbours, 
618; Stote purchase of railways, 611; 
annual meeting, 623 

Ball, E., disc., technical education, 31; 
guilds and their fhnctions, 188 ; Mter^ ^ 



C'lCi'.c bi 



oo 



?37 



960 



IMOTXTOTOL, 



H&ll-aiarking of Jewtf lery, pdM ^ttntd for 

essay on, TfO 
. annotl report, 9St2 

HtaniltoafR^UtUrou teabuloaledocitfon,56 
Hanley school of art, speech of Mr. dole 

at,»l2 
Harbours, Indian, paper ^ Sir ▲. Oottoo, 609 ; 

letter, W. Austin, 944 
Hanlwickc, Karl of, obituary ^ 8A8 
Harrison's process of meat preservatkm, CIO, 

880, 899, 942 
Hay, Lord WlUiani, chair.^ Indian hatboors, 

609 
Haywood, Mr. report on asphalte pare- 

ments, 882, 897 
Head, Mr., tH$e., Russia, Ac., 82 
— — ', J., on steam locomotion on common 

roads, 411 
Hemp in Italy, 129 
Heonesse/, Governor Pope, paper^ British 

SettlemenU in West Africa, 436 
Hiddlngh, Dr., award of medal to, for Gape 

silk, 617 
HlKhton, Rev. H , tel^rapblo experiments, 

67; paper, galvanic batteries, 62; letter*, 

276; 4»6. Atlantic telegraphy, 343, 362; 

science of energy, 632 
Hill, F., 4is<'., State purchase of railways, 609 
Hodgson, B.. deputation to India office, 434; 

memorandum on Central Asia, by, 436 

, Dr., on commercial Instruc- 
tion, 890 
Hollatid, education of girls in, 136 
Hooker, Dr., deputation t4> India office, 434 
Hooper, (;. N., report on carriages in London 

Lxhibilion uf 1^73, 705 ; hupplement to, 820 
Ho|)s, paper from. 764, 836 
Horsc-desh, consumption of, in Frsmoe, 841 
-^-— ualls, manuf ^cturo of, by machinery, 

piper, by J. A Huggett, 44 

show, at Vienna (s^e **ExfliBrno(i8'') 



Hoseason, i apt., due, ships for Channel 

passage, 223 
HotchklHs, Major, piper, the Virginias, their 

agricultural, mineral, and oommercial ra- 

sources, 238 
Houses, fire-proot, 171 

, wholesome, 170, 233 

Howard, T., beques*. by, 6 

Howe, Elias, memorial to, 69 

HowlanU, Mr., d%$c., manufkctnre of gas, 632 

Huggftt, J. A., paper, ** Manufacture of 

hurso nails by machinery, 44; tfifc, 49 
Hunt, H., Utter, lleasemer ship, 224 
Hydrology, sJbterrauean, IcUer, P. Le Neve 

Fo*.lvr, Juu., 67 



Iceland, sulphur in, paper, C. W. Vincent, 

137 ; l(tter» on, W. Stielford and Dr. C. Le 

Neve Foster, 173 
loe-makirij^ r,y machinery, 748 

trade, tandard on, 811 

, use ot. In engineering operations, 906 

Impondcrji)>ics, the energies of the. Cantor 

lectures, by the Rev. A. Bigg (see 

"Cantos LKcruacs**) 
Impn^vements in manufiictttre of printing 

types, poper, by J. R. Johnson, 330 
Inc miliusilblo wood, paper^ by D. O. 

Macomi»er, 158 
India (see also ' Cintral Asia") 
, architectural art in, paper, T. Roger 

Smith, 278; letter, Hyde ClarkO, 287 
— , central, ap|)ointmvnt of government 

mining engmeer, 660 

, cinchona In, 196 

, ooal in, 1872 

, Committees (see ** ComnrrsKB") 

— — CONKKEEKCES, 119th SuetOM :— 

1st Meeting:— Progress of India during the 

last fourteen years, by J. H. Stocqueler, 

205 
2nd Meeting .'—Continuation ot paper by 

Mr. Stocqueler, 259 
3rd Meeting : - Architectural art in India, 

by T. Roger Smith, 278 
4th Meeting :— England and Coitral Asia, 

by Robert B. Shaw, 319 ; note on, S58 
5th Meeting: -The mineral resu uro es of 

India, by W. T. Bhtnford, 386 
0th Meeting: -The rosary in India, by 

WillUm Tayler, 461 
7th Meeting: —Indian harbours, by Lieut.- 

Gen. Sir Arthur Cotton, 699 

, exh'Mt on of views of, by Cftpt. Lyon, 

4'. i,9,io: 9:) 



of. 



W. T. 



India, mineml casoonMS 
Blanfivrd, 386 

—^ , money orders f'»r, 104 

^— office. depuUtion to, 345, 366, 413, 433 

-^— , pr««Tess or, during last foitrtaan yean, 
paper, by J. H. tftooqueier, 205. 959 ; letUr 
■from Lord Mark Kerr, on the Delhi »ore, 
2U; Dr. Mouat, 262; GoL lAwdie, .267 ; 
Sir A. Cotton, 295 

. rosary ln,pap^, by W. T»yler, 461 

India-rubber, suhativute for, 836 

Indian harbours. p<^Kr, by Sir A. Cotton, 609 : 
Wier, W. Austin, 944 

railway:}, »-66; »20 

Indicator fur carrisige wheels. 870 

Industrial museum at MiUm, 175 

Ihk, portable, 316 

iHsriTUTiosiai, annual confcence, 648 

, PaocgKuixoa or :— 

Ashby de la Zouch Touqg Men's Mut. 

Imp. S >oiety, 74 
Quebec In»iiiute, 908 

Ton'o Sol-fa T«aohers* Association, 346, 940 
Watfonl Public i i'.rary, 177 
Westoiloater Worthing Men's Club, 83 

, taxation of, le'ter. Sir J. 

Benne't, 6 5; J. 8. NoMwritt,547 

Insurance, fi e, UUer, O Bell, 194 

International exhibitions (see ** Exhibi- 
tions") 

tel'graphy, 66 

Inventors, rewards t'>, 73 

— , protection of. at Vienna Ex- 
hibition (see *• Ex><iBiTioxh**) 

Iodine, glaoi A aceticaciii a solvent for, 684 

Iron, American, undt-rselliog English, 838 

and co^l intiu^itries, perils of, letter, J. 

A. Franklin, 155 

, cipper deposited on by electricity, 228 

, decrease in export of to Peru, 865 

manufacture In Italy, 128 

— mines of Elba, 19 

, removal of pho^ph'^rus from, 826 

in i'asmania, 235, 315 

in Victoria, 882 

Italian money orders, 104 

Italy, coal in, 59, 842 

, export of «attle to France, 256 

, mines in, 730 

, m^uisierial inquiry into oondition of 

manufactures, 125 

, peat in, 20 

, public Instruction in, 879 

^— , railway sta Istlcs In, 69 

, ahipbuilUiug in, 894 

— >, sut^r from beet, oot in, 10 

and Switat-rlaod,cail«saysin, 176 

, yield of cocoona in,-4M4 

Ixtle plant, fibre of, 906 



J. 



Japan, bronze from, 842 

, exhibition (see " ExHiBmoss'*) 

. first railway In, 126 

« paper hats ami slates in, 760 

, patent laws in, 62 

, progress in. 344, 888 

, silk from, 878 

, silkworm In, 173 

, tech I deal education in, 920 

, trade of, 856 

Jap* nese art exhibitions in Paris (8ee**£x- 

HUITIOKS") 

Jnrrah wood from Swan river, 900 

Java, railways n, 9-tO 

Jenkin, Prof., ie/l<r, Atlantic telegraphy, 362 

Jennings, G., on " Wholesome Houses," 2.13 

Jewellery, offer of prise for essay on ball 

marking of, 750; annual report, 622 
Johnson, C , diee., StUe purchase of nil- 



ways, 666 



J. R., paper, improvements in 
maitufacture of printing types, 330; <ef/<r, 
383 ; letter, R. M. Gill, 486 

Jones, Dr. Bence, ohttvary, 431 

— , C-ap . C , diMc., improvement in manu- 
facture of gu<t-Qotton, 479 

•^— , U.,<'ii.., State purchase of railways,648 

— ^, J., due, Stat^ purokaae of railway 8*649 

J ale,, paper from, 536 



K. 
fcashgAB Minion (Mealao ** CciraaAL.Aaa"), 

869 

Ki., 1 ., on p- ch e of railways ty V. ? 



BtaU, 426 ; tfisc.. State pnehsis ti x£. 

ways. 664 
Kerr, Lord Mark, i9tMr,D«lhlsDr% 113 
Ke tr, annual report on coloaial jmdemjtle 
Khi gloves in lUly, 136 
Kieseri e, properties and otaof, IM 
K'oto, Exhitdtioa (see ^ Exhsbcdo^*! 
Kisch, B., ^isc, SUte |Muckase«fafl^n|\ 

648; statwmeBton.650 
Krisuvlk, sulphur deposits of, pafmX.% 

Vincent, 137; letter$, W.SbsUiHit sB^fic 

C. Le Neve Foster, 173 
Krupp's steel works, value of, 761 



Labour In Germany, 190 

in Greece, 15J 

Ladd, Mr., dlisc., lighting street gu bf ii» 

tricitv.291 
Ladlguin, A., electric light, 779 
Lamp, catoptric, 48H 

, miners' safety, 275 

Lamport, O., disc., economy rf bel, STC 
L'^ndseer, Sir Kdnln, ehitttary, "ti 
Lafiguage, common fedoittific, hi3 
Lansdown, Mr., d't; , State pucbsx nt lu^ 

ways, 666 
Lauchljin, F. R. W., /ettsr, sigiuis slia,aa 
Lava a»a building material, 251 
Lavender country, the, 103 
Law, Rev. W., digr.^ ^vaaic bstJedn,* 
Lawton, T., diMC , ooafiefeaM cf i itiaRiF. i, 

641 
Lawrence, Edwin, diee., geild* sad istr 

HMicajns, 186; lighting ^tn^ ^3 tj *c 

tricity, 292 ; «di4jle sUrch» of to^mn 

351 ; improvement? in b tn-iC* tart 'ii,.»- 

oott '0, 478 ; State purchase of iaaw«>* SM 
Liwrie, Col., UUer^ pr«i:m» of I*j», J^ 
Lead, separation of Mlver fr<m, m 

water | ipes in Par s, 93* 

Learning, trades' guild uf, 431 ; odq'ksl-^'A. 

5<«8. 616 
Leather, exhibition of; at liortlMiaptd ^ 

'* ExHisnioits." ) 
Leeds sewage, value of, 90S 

, wood pavements In, F25 

Leete, Mr., disc, inoomboatitrk voed, l-i 
Lenses and reflectors to %trfxthM^feff. 

T. A. Skelion^4o2; nate««,4fc 
Lesseps, M. de, proposed nUwaj ia Oeb» 

Asia, 588, 633, 731. 939 
Letters, re^tratlon of, 733 
Levi, Leoue, paper, on RnnJA, ber ial* 

tries, Sec., 75 
Levy, J. H., due., confStraoce of iitf iat^ 

643 
Library of Board of Trade, 844 

— , people's, at LJ^ aod Afli«trp. i 

, of Society, «idltioBs tn, 2s,4 .*- 

72, 92, 104, 116, 136, 156. ITI, »: -^ 

31B, 384, 411, 469, 6^ €34, 66«, lis- > 

826, 894, 920, 940 ' 
Liihfield oxhlblUon (sm "ExfiOtuss.^ 
Liebig, Haron, •MfiMrry, 430 
Li^ge, people's lUirary at, 69 

conaerratoire de mosiqoc, fT» 

Life-saving apparat.is, exhtbiJdc c^ ^^' 

410, 456 
^kttsr, H. W.b«:" 

399 
Light, revolving, for trala slgssb, fiS 
Lighthouses, telegraphs between, 7i 
Lima exhibition (see *'EiHi«mt««&") 
Linen and hemp goods in Italy 12' 
Lister, S. C, /elic»*, on BUea fib r. Ml 

, onapan aUii, Bl 

Lithography in Italy, 127 

L>ock, seal,92 

Looomotives fbr tanneU, Av«Mr«B^ *3 

~ , naphtha »s fad Pt, STi 

London mod, analyses of, 53 



School Board, work Ibr. 17 
L. puiiuiata^ fibre at, 920 
Lucerne, scarcity of mMk in, I7i 
Lucifer matches in Italy, 129 
Lyon, CapL, exhibitioa of laflsn riitt U» 
74, 93, 105, 920 



Machinery in Lcndon ExMWUmi qTI^"' 
report on, by Rev. A. Rigg, 556 

Mackie, 8. J.,popw,lmprov««<oisli«^ 
£sctur« of gnn-cottoa, lX9iktttr, B.» 
Kcv.:e: ,675 



INDEX TO VOL. XXI. 



951 



tkJe, S . J ., disc., ahips for Chaimel pusage, 
13, 273 

— » /«"«•, Channel passage, 39 

ship, tetltrsy 265, 295 

»mber, D. O., paprr^ rendering wood 

icomtmstlbie, 158; ttttfr, O. W. BcU, 194 ; 

**e^ tens*-*, ^;., In street lamps, 406 

Iras tramirays, 166 

Arid, «xhlbiti«>n at (see **Exhiiitio98**) 

gcntA a« a food presenratlTe, 780 

?n«t, powerful, by M. Janin, 616 

t»o;fany from Swan River, 900 

itUnd, W^ depatatiun to India^fflce, 434 

I let. SJr L., «fwr., England and Central 

isU, 326; chair. ^ miueral re&oorces of 

ndia, 346 

lanchester mildew." 39, 233 

soieatific Industry society, S4% 

— — society's ex- 

IblUon of fuel saving Inventions, 920 

Dgaaci« Id manuiketare of German silver, 

80 

an. Dr., report nn scimtUio inventions in 

<oodon Exhit.ition of 1873, 750; snpple- 

tvent to, 831 

, rfWc, silkworm grain, 421 

nofisctarcs, ministerial inquiry Into oon- 

Ition of. In luly, 125 

p*, rmUcd for the blind, 70 

rlaof , tMJSt of, at Bologna, 135 

line measurement in France, 153 

rt«a, H., t9idtnce, conflagrations eom- 

aSttee, 649 

xtln, George, dfic^ technical education, 32 

aoo. Sir J., scieutific college founded by, 

A8 

iSt, Q. C, di$e.^ technical education, 31 ; 
noomt'Ostible wood, 162; guilds and their 
bnetIon>, isT 

, l^ter on technical edooation, 56 

ktchet, ItalUn, 129 

,8i»edlsh,256 

ithematicai and drawing school io Paris, 903 
(Qean, J. R., M.P., obuuary^ 698 
tLeod, Sir Donald, oMfsiary, 59 
illinn, Mr., disc., edible surches of com- 
merce, 354 
eunremeut, marine, in Fkance, 153 

of Casks, 934 

»t, Australian, distribntioo of meals 
unongst working classes, 659 
— , eareo of frozen, result of experi- 
ment, 899 

— , Coitral Queensland, 167 
— , extract of, 156 

— preserving (see also "Food Pb«- 
PsavEio" and '^ Comuittsi, Food*') at 
Get^ioTig, 633 

, by aniline, 488 

, Bousingault's process, 882 

, carbolic acid, 680 

, by cold, 344, 660, 880, 899, 

922,942 



S99, 943 



-, Harrison's process, 660, 880, 

-, by magenta, 780 
-, Peyrouse's process, 31 8, 942 
-, Sau's process, 745 
■ in Sweden, 363 
in taliow, 318, 943 

— , raw, preserved, 69 

— from Kueuus Ay res, 19, 922 

iCDALS : — 

Albert gold, presentation to Mr. Bessemer, 
73 ; announcement of past awards, 297 ; 
award to M^ns. Chevreul, 537 ; annual 
report, 617 

Bessemer, for Iron and Steel Institute, 479 

Gold, to Dr. HIddlngh for Cape silk, 617 

Offer of gold, fur steel, 41 

And prizes, presented by chairman of 
conneil, 10 

Stiver to T.WiUs, 617 

ledisvai cooking utensils, 485 

leeting, annual general, of the 119th 

session, 61T 

[xBnN(;.-<. Okdinart, of the 119th session, 
1872-73:— 

1st Meeting :- Opening Address by Msjor- 
Gcncral Eardley-Wilmot, R.A., F.R.8., 
Chairman of Council, 3 

2Bd Meeting:— *• On technical education 
and the means of promoting it," by 
Thomas Wet^ter, Q C., F.R.8., 21 

3rd Meeting :— ** The manufacture of horse- 
nail i by machinery ," by J. A. Huggett, 

4th Meeting:-** Galvanic batteries," by 
tht Rev. 11. Hlghton, 63 



5ih Meeting:— **Rtta«ia, her industries, 
commerce, and nieans of communica- 
tion," by Leone Levi, 75 

6th Meeting:— ** On the sulphur deposits 
of Krisuvik," by C. VV. Vincent, 
P.C.8., 137 

7th Meeting :—*• On rendering wood in- 
combusiible," by D. O. Macomber, G.K., 
158 

8th Meeting :—** Guilds and their func- 
tions," by John Teats, LL.D., 178 

9th Meeting:— "Ships for the Channel 
passage," by Lieut.-Col. A. Strange, 
F.R.S., 19S 

10th Meeting :- Continued discussion on 
Lient-Col. Strange's paper **On ships 
r>r the Channel passage," 218 

11th Meeting :— << On the Virginias ; their 
agricultural, mineral, and commercial 
resources," by Major J. Hotchkiss, 238 

12th Meeting: Continued discussion on 
Lieut. -Col. Strange's japer, **0« ships 
for the Channel passage," 267 

13th Meeting :— ** Un gas- lighting by elec- 
tricity and means tor lighting and ex- 
tinguishing street and other lamps," by 
W. Lloyd Wise, A.LG.E., M.I.M.B., 
388 

14th Meeting :— ** On signalling at sea, with 
especial rvference to signals of distress," 
by Captain Colomb, R.N., 298 

15th Meeting:—** On certain improvements 
in th;; manufkctnre of printing types," 
by J. R. Johns'>n, 310 

16th Meeting: -** On the edible starches of 
commerce, their production and con- 
sumption," by P. L. Siramonds, 346 

17th Mt'Cdng:— **0n the economy of fuel 
for domestic purposes," by Capt. Douglas 
Gallon, C.B., F.R.8., 367 

18th Meeting:— ** On the practical nse of 
lense* and reflectors in artificial Illumi- 
nation, with especial reference to street 
lighting, by T. A. Skeiton, 402 

19th Meeting:— ** On tlie production of 
silkworm grain, by Mons. A. Koland, 414 
-,Extkao«dijiabt:— ** On the British 



settlements in Western Africa," by 
Governor Pope Hennessy, C.M.O-., 436 

20th Meeting:— ** On the condensed milk 
manuflscture," by L. P. Merriam, 450 

21st Meotinir :—*> Improvements in the 
manufacture of gun cotton," by S. J. 
Mackie, C.B., 470 

22nd Meeting:—** On recent improvements 
in military breech-load in? rifles and 
ammunition," by Captain O'Hea, 489 

33rd Meeting :— '** On some recent pro- 
cesses for the manufacture of gas for 
illuminating purposes," by T. Wills, 
F.C.8.,519 

, ExTKaoROiKART : — "On the pur- 



chase of the railways by the State," by W. 
Gait, 591, 605, 645, 662 

-, Special, for election of members. 



624 
Melbourne, bone dust from, 73 

, Education Bill, 135, 316 

exhibition (see ** Kxhibitio5s *) 

^—~- museum, classes in, 548 

, silk growing in, 568 

— — , technological and industrial com- 
mission in, tetter. 8. Roberts, 135 
Memorial portrait of Sir J. C. Ross, 19 

— as to museums, correspondence 
with Mr. Gladstone, 907 

to Secretary of State for I^di*, 436 

window (annual report;, 620 



Mendelssohn scholarships, 195 

Merriam, L. P., paper, condensed milk 

manufacture, 450 
Merritield, C. W., disc., ships for Channel 

passage, 221 
Mes>ina, industries In, 535 
Meters for st' i et lamps, 891 
Metric ccmii lesion (International), 69? 
Mexican oysteni, 255 

Meyn, Dr., account of the asphalts, 11, 35 
Microscope, test plate for, 92 
Milan exhibition (see ** ExiuBmorvs ") 

, Industrial museum in, 175 

Mildew (*' Manchester"), 39, 232 

Milk, aibumi*n fh>m, 812 

(c ndensed) manufocture, popsr, L. P. 

Merriam, 460 

, scarcity of in Lucerne, 176 

'* Mineral c tton " for steam Jacketting2S14 
r^ouroes of India, paper, w. T. 

Blanford, 386 



Minerals In Birma, 748 

Miners' sufety lamp, 275 

Money orders, Indian, 104 

Montgomery, Col., due., the Virginias, 260 

Moon, pfaotofrraphs of, 72 

Morse, S., obituary, 3 

Mortleman, Capt., Mt«r, ships for Channel 
passage, 271 

Moscow exhibition (see ** FxHiBmoMS*') 

exhibition, lett«r,C. 8. WiBdoTer,363 

Moser, Mr., disc, horse nails, 49 

Motor, new, 858 

Motion, transmission of, 940 

Mouat, Dr., letter, progress of India, 263 

Mud, analyses of Lond- n, 52 

Muir, W., dise., annual meeting, 623 ^ State 
purchase of rai'ways, 665 

Mulhouse, prizes offered by the Soci^td 
Industrielle of, »62 

Munro, Capt.. ''ir., lighting street lamps by 
electricity, 2 - 1 

Museum, llc.li ...!-grecn, declaration signed 
as to, 10 

, French historical and artistic mili- 
tary, 313 

, industrial, at Milan, 175 

— at Melbourne, 548 



, scholastic, in Paris, 19 

, tfoutli Kensington, bells presented 

to, 568 
Mu8<.>nms, Mr. Hodgto» Pratt on exposttsrs 

in, 858 
, correspondence with Mr. Gladstone 

on, 907 

of science and art in New York, 

and galleries, resolutions of CoimcU 
on, 859, 909 ; Iron on, 932 ; returns from, 
933 ; Na ure on, 943 

Music, national training school for, an- 
nouncement of establishment, 733 

, an- 

noancement by Council, 749 



254 



— , an. 

nouncement as to laying foundation stone, 
859 
, Chair- 



man's address, 7 

, donation 

from Fishmongers' Company, 197 

, Lord Cla- 



rence Paget on, 778 



-, meetings 



at Clarence House, 365, 637 

, report on Paris Coiiservatoire, 681 

-, Li^e Conservatoire, V27 



Mtuical Instruments, curious, 175 
Mylne, W. C, evidence, conflagrations com- 
mittee, 499 



N. 



Nails, horse, machine-made, paper, by J. A. 

Huggett, 44 
Naphtha as fUel for locomotives, 870 
Nash, VVailts, di$e., improvements in maon- 

facture of gun-cotton, 478 
Nashville (US.) Industrial exhibition (see 

**ExinBiTi«»jf*") 
Natal arrowroot, 894 
National health society, 104 

museums (see ** Musiuiis**) 

training school for mnslc, (see 

"Mrgic") 
Naval architects, meetings of for 1873, 380, 

398 
College at Greenwich, description of, 854 

Navigation, submarine, 939 * 

Needlework, ancient, exhibition of (see 

**ExHiBinoss"| 
Nelll, Mrs , experiments with silkworm grain, 

319,668 
Newfoundland fisheries, 824 
Newman, Mr. disc, condensed milk, 466 
New t-outh Wales, gas lifrhtlng in, 235 
Newton, Mr., disc, the VlrKinlas, 250 
New York, Crystal Palace for, 156, 487 

. education In, 136 

exhibition, see ** ExeiBiTiOTO *» 

— ^^ , protection agains*; fire In, 196 

, science and art museums in, 254 

— — , tramways In, 39 

New Zealand flax (see Pkormium Temax) 
■, g'ld in, 940 



— , government prizes for coloni 



mannfactores, 905 

InsUtute, 104 



Nicholas' boat-lowering apparatus, 961, 263 



952 



liTBEX TO VOIi. XXI. 



Kieholf>n, J., dife , Bos^U, Ao., tt 

Nickel miiMa in Amarit », 880 

NoMwTitt, J. 8., dkc.t ooaftrance of Initite- 

tioiM,«43 
————, letter, tezatioa of liutiia> 

tlons, 547 
Morthani^toaflxhiUtioB (see ** ExHumoKS **) 
Northuini^rland-hoiue, meeiluff m to re- 

noiral,3M 
Nonvesiui isb, 343 

eeiDf* preeerved in iklns, 363 

Norwich noltary exhibltioa iam " Ksdbi- 

TIOW8 ") 
Nathall, MAjor-Qen., chmir,, ntogieM of 

lDdia,259 

O. 

OBrrcAKT Notices: — 
Adams, W. Bridires, 2 
Bbine, D. RobertOD, 3 
Bowrlnj, 8lr John. 39 
CWvert, Dr. F C, 919 
Cmetley, 8»lrF.,M.P, 3 
Dalrymple, Dr., 858 
Fielder, C. B., 3 
Oravot, Samuel R., M.P.174 
Hardnrloke, Earl or, 868 
Jonee, Dr. Bence, 4 '1 
Landscer, Sir Edwin, 881 
Leiblir, Baron, 430 
McClean, J. It ,M. P., 69s 
McLe d. Sir Dooald, 59 
M-trs'', S., 3 

Ronald*, Sir Frnncls, 764 
Salom 118, Sir David, 716 
Startn, J , 116 
flykes, CmI., Srt.r., 3 
TIte, Sir vv., 431 
Varley, C»mp|ina, 881 
WesUiur>', Lord, 716 
Westniac tt. R., R.A., 3 
Zet and, Earl Df, 507 

^i!*"v *^"n*-» Pf^P^r, Improvements In 
brci?ch-!..adi(!K rifles, 48^ ; note on. 632 

on, mineral, in Australia, 732 

Otis ill Italy, 129 

Ommaiuiey, VIcc-Admlral, C.B., F.R.8., 
ehatr., ships f . r Chanuel pas&age, 198. 
21», 267 

r~~ • <''«*.,M^'naninff at sea, 308 

Optics, pr.)c(lcal application of to arts, 
mmnfactiirts., and to medirlue. Cantor 
Ieclur(.s i.y Dr. Tidy (,ee "Castor 

Organ |»erf..riifanco a' Albert-hall (See "Er 

lUMTOKV) 

Ori' n al congrws In P«rls, 777, 810, 848, 866 

0->ti u lies III South America. 59 

Owen, C.'l., report on sworrls and military 

arm. of .teel, lu the Lon-jon Kxhib tion of 

1^73, 723 



"Ex- 



Paria exhibition of bfoaxe irotk (i 

BIBinOKd'*) 

, exhibition of works of living artlsti 

(tee *♦ ExBiBinoys " ) 

, lead water-idpes in, 934 

, national school of draidoff and 

mathemaiiox, 903 

, Oriental congrres* to, Ttt, 810, 818, 861 

, report on conservatoire de moBique, 



Printloff m^&dn*, *• Crepfw,* Ui 

prtMBi in Italy. 117 

typei, impnmmmh Is 

tore, M^, J. K. Johnoa, a 

383: ft. M. Olll, 486 
'*»l^«>««i phoe-wafk MsteMH lot, Vfr, 



661 



', scholastic mnaenm in, 19 



Parker's gas 636 

Patent laws in Canada, 648 

In Japan, 62 

, revision of, 400, 411 

, the laf W. B. Adams on, 380 



offica, American, 131 
', Aostralian, 236 



in Canada, 488 



rights' congress at Vienna. 310. 732. 

Ul. 778 ^ 

Patents on brashes, 63 

, report of oommissionsn of, for 1872, 

«12 * • 

Pavements (asphalte) report nn, by Mr. Hay- 
wood, 882, 887 
■ , ■«w, statements as to metl's. 780 

Peaoork, fapt. E., letter, description. of non- 
rolllBg boat, 224 ; m> del of abown, 274 

Pearsall, T. J., rfiic, Incombtratiide wood 
161 ; lighting street gas by electricity, 292 

Pttat M fuel, 660 

fuel, IfitfT, G. N. Shore, 732 

in Italy, 20 

P«nDsyIva*<la. p^trolenm in, 8a4 

Persia, oomoMueeiitent of rallwaya in 884 

, resiturces of, 763 * 

, Shah of, el«i U«« of ashonoimry mem- 



Col Crol^ 

Prize forecnnomleal ose of enal,9,4l ; 

report, 621 ; arraageoeofcs fiv tc«ii^ a 
f.»r essay on haU-marklH, TH: 

report, C33 
for school ^fidaocar, U7: MMoMm. 

port, 622 ^ 
, offer of by Sir J. WUtwerfk fcr w 

on thrift, 669 ; aanoal rmsL «^ ; ir 

tlcularsof,tl7 'v**. •**, |r 

forsteeHnexhlkitlonof l873,41.n,l» 

217 ; annnftl report^ <2I ; jadgo^ r^o* 

641 

Prizes and oertiflcates awaidsd at 

examinations, 1^73,^ 6lo 
by Coarhtnwkcg* Coombt, m 

JodgsB* report, 7U 
for design, by GolimUte' Cmms 



forimprored caks, 9. H, M: ; nae 

of Jodges. »9; Insnesi tit mU ^ 

President, 921 ^ 

af»d medals, prasBotatioatf hr^ 



, P- C, Ics imrmial to, 777, 89H 
Oysters, Moxioun, 255 



P. 



Pacific States, salmon from, 92 

Pa-fcf, A., disc, slips for the Chaimel oas- 

— — , Lor.l riarenc.% on national traiidnp 
school for muftic, 77s ; rhair, m.mufmture 
of !.as fur HhiuiiiialiDtr purpospv, 619; rfi«r 
I.hprovrm.nis in manufacture of irun- 

Oo toii.47!> * 

Painters' Stalnors' Comiuny's prizes for 

paHui'ifT, aei 

P-lni» 1. .1. Hindo, Q.C, M.P., chair., tech- 

nicui nil (• ijKit, 21 
Paper as building ui.iterial, 940 

iruu bamboo stems, 104 

fi*'>m hop*, 764, 826 

- — - from Jute, 635 

makiiip. early experiments in. 230 

manufacture in Italy, 127, 128 

, transparenj, b26 

trcjitrd with Ji-sphu!te, 780 

wheels, 236, fio7 

Paper* charred, 1 reserving, id 175 
Pap n s diiioster. 133 ' 

Pamffine, moans iV.r c louring Mack 235 

pIh-^/T' '"'«"''«« <«n«ii ton to, 668 
Paris (See also " Fhanob") 

"— academy of seience, 92 

y api renti e schords, 196 



her of the Society, 681 

r -— -•"mi t«l pototoin progmmmo 

lk»r, E. Chadwick, 614 

, visit to exhibition, 630 

Peru, railwav s In, 906 
Penivia I antlquiUee, 19 

|>e roleam, 234 

Petroleum in raiiada, 276 

—- , further supply of. 884 

^— , Peruvian, 23t 

, supply, 882 

Peyr«.iise's meat pre>eiving proeees, 318 942 
Philadelphia Exhibition, (bw "Exhibi- 
Tmws.') 

crjiet manofacture, 938 

Pbllraophical instruments In Iialy, 137 
Phormium tmax, lett:r, C. Thornc, 68, 174, 

Phospb<«tw ;»nd ir«m, 826 

Photographic prinii, p for diagmaK. 608. 633 

Photographs, fiidiii^ of, l7l 

of ilie m«KMi, 72 

PhotomefiT, i>ew, 680 

Physical f PS -arch society, proposal for, 842 
Pian..^ in Il.ly, 127 

Pirce-uork sent-noe> for prisonets, Ulter, 

Col. Troll, 51^6 
Piar o'ype, 633 
Plailiinm c'tinair^, 488 
Pneumatic postal desimtch for the Channel 39 

tflejfmpM, 870 * 

Pom|H?ii. srcam engine al, 633 

Porcupine as food, 195 

• OS!-, ffico retfulati -n as to registration 732 

Pos'al prieomaii.' channel dispatch, 3» ' 

»y>tem, tHegrmphy as^^rt of, 6 

— -- t«»»egraph pmyress coinimrcd with 

that of tradltp compantes, 611 
PofaroPs, stori.a'. lette , J. Uoycs, 5d 
Pottery. carU.n print* on, 316 

612 ' ^''^" *'"'** <»nf*«^ee of iottltuUooa, 
^ 8.'8' "^'*''*''°' °" t'^l'ositore In museoms. 
Preceptors, college of, application for SUte 

Precious meals, extraction of from copper 
pyrites, 255 wppcr 

Premium list, annual report, 623 

''ri'serva'lon • f rrass^s, 889 

Prj>jeived fruit*, leittrs, 904; D. Tallerman, 

— moat (see *-M-aT," "Food," and 

"COMMITTKK, F0..D") 

^'t^r's'^"' • ^M "M*^-. conference of InsUto- 

'''fnllts m""'' ^^ ' "'*"*"** i*»onross of 
P.id.iiux, W.. disc, guUda and their 

func ions 189 ^^ 

Pliniloglu Italy, 127 



man«<f coandl, 10 

for painting, l^ BaiataH 

Company, 384 

for taming offered by 



- ■ — — Cua 

|Any, 608, 906 

Provliiona, presanrrd (see ** H 'sr * *f^m^ 

"Fucns," AMD "CoMMirrcK, F.© =•) 

— — ; ". c^rrisfelaib*,]!: 

Pta« an artllery gunpowder, au 
Pabllc iostmclion in Italy, «2S 

Queensland sasNU>, 915 

meat, 157 

Q«dck, J., nmtm^ bcAm Cortarix:* 

Conimtttee. 356, 577 

Quicksilver mioe» at ValUlta, 313 

Qaintoro iMIa canal, out«re«e syriWBi a. 
680 71— — 

B. 

Rabbit's hair In textile bhics. 6U 
RaiUay brakes, oontiiui. a* 439 

carri-'ges, exj*rt of. Ml 

, sloeiM p, asi, »43 

^— — in CanUal A>ia, tM, «3a, Im.O 

scheme, 58t«, 633, 939 

in l.ophraltt valley, >39 

, fir^t in Japan. 125 

freitrhtajfe in Italy, la 

— ml*c» in E Toje, i^ 

— — plaot In Italy, 12s 

, St. Gotl.anl. 155^ 355. 433, 7-< . ■ 

siiraals, imter, L. iiv&Bioic^ lb.. 



, Simidon. 743 
Btailsti<alo lu. ^,&» 

- sys«em in Tmkej , 5*. ^A 

- ticket*, B39 
wheels, paper, 2--6. 507 



Railways in Am«n<»,3L5 

in the Argeiiiine repaMicai 

, elialk as fi*el far, 23», sso 

ill C^ina, 265 

in K^pypt, 83s» 

, Impn-vcd canriaxv scats fer, 4ri 

1 1 India, 8S6, 920 

in Italy and Siritserla*!, 1» 

In Java, 940 

in Per la, runraf ncssBssi sL e** 

In Peru. 906 

, pp'J ct for single nUk,«U 

, |urcUa»« of by Ike Ma^Jfr.A 

Kcr on, 436 



lug of Btatisiical Society, V0 



Mali GomHU en, 745 



/tf 



on, by W Gait, 601 ; . 

606, 6 5, 662; ^Talrme^t <h, br A £ja» 
§60 ; iHttrt J . Colby, 65» ; ». »aaw. *« 
T. Brigga. 747 



Review on, 667 

in Servia, 780 

In Turfcoy, M, ftai 

•andefvruaBd,ln AiB«««,M».*tt 



IMJEX T0 VOL. XXL 



958 



teU»ptat,iTs 

bvlinKm, Sir H. C, db«ir., progre» of 

Iiidk ilariiiff Im6 fiMWtfeo y9»SMj 20S; 

Itwglii^imt Cmtml Aite. 31» 

EkvUxtt »n, R , (\B ,<ii'«c.,galninio batteries, 

M; ships f(>r ChAonel pinage, 204» 222; 

ecDomnyrirAiel,375; silkworm grsln, 4*21; 

ffUencfb' A>ro CoDfturrations Comtniitee, 

467; on " wholewiioe houses," 170, 233 
bd, ne« Aniline, 3§f 
bset'sloe-iiuchin*, 749 
t««i. E. J., <»n Dicey ship, 38 
tefrigerating apparatas ( Warren's), 908 
IqKHt of Council fbr 119th session, 017 
teporta on London I>it«mational i^hlMtlon 

of 1373 (see " Brm m'.ss ") 
ts^^rstor, cli^niieai, 5;{0 
lireiey, H. W., Utiers^ grnn-cotton. 5*^8 ; 

•corK.mi<al stove*, :*03; savin^j life at set, 

3W; economy of fuel, a%9 
Wewj'f school drill, 8 

leriews of hooks (see ** Books, Notk^ o^ ** ) 
irrolaUcm imiicator, Uttar^ Admiral Ryder, 

:»jrno!d*, W. P., evidence to conflagratloa 

fl')'nmitt'P, 3' 19 

»«a fi.ire, le ter on by S. C. Lister, 841 

— , nntM on hy P.L Simm'^nds, 7»?0 

3fl«, breech-l'^adi tg. impmvcm -nt* In, 
Vtjitr, Cipt. O'llea, 489 ; note on, 632 
igg. HeT. A' thor. Cantor leetti'-es on the 
ewTriftg of iho imponderables, with es- 
Pfcfal refet*nce to the mpasaremotit and 
atilivatlon of ihetn (see **Caktoh Lec- 
mts") 

■"— . report on machinery In 

LoQfion Exhibiilon of Wl\ 568 

-^ , / tter. technical cdnca- 

tjon, 14 ; (hsir.^ luacbiae-maUe horse nals, 
43. 4$, 49 
f*dii,8t«am on, 411 

.rructure "f, « 

ohwi-s 8., / tttr. t^-chnolnBical nnd indus- 
trisl ioAtructi »•» in Melb^-ume, 135 
oWtnn, Mr., rfisc, coafcreiiC) of inslitu- 
tkns €46 

i-^iins.H, ^ir S|>enc«;r, di%e.y ships for tho 
Thann I pussage, 270 

[jUn-l, M., p^tptr. prodaoUon of sllk-worni 
raia, 414 

cm*', arfhTeoIoj,dc 1 dis-ovcry at, 135 
— — , f««ii>nal exi IbliiuQ at (8t*o*'ExHi. 
cm<>ys' ) 

^asliK Sir Franc's, obUuary, 761 
-»fiij|f >if asphalte. «33 
«»y ill ludlx, p-'per, W. Tayl-r, 461 
:^ Sir .}. ., mem rial po trait of. 19 
>yai Ac (delay of Arts, eleotiou of secre- 
tary, 638 

ttck'« ftatent pn** 23S, 507 
i«ii, h*-- industries, Ac, paper, by Prof. 
Le>ne Levi, 75 

rler. Admiral, ieitert revolution indicator, 
&3i 



8. 



fei 9J0 

.(>oth,ini HoHiice. 176 

;; milw y, 155, 265, 6T3, 780, R40 

'iriti '0, preyonti >n of iiy amniooia, J>19 
iTion friMu the Pacific Stares. 9J 
lomo IX, Sir David, obi'uiry^ 7.6 
n*! blast f«ir cleariiri:; imildlngs, 91 

, .1 naiurni, 905 

ia exhiblUoa fsoe ** Exiini- 

noxs *' ) 

ad«ict> lalos, 696 

nitary condition of Berlin, Uttfr^ E. Ohad- 

lick, 86 

— aasociat'on of rJermany, 883 

— — Kxrdbiti n (see '* Exn hitioss' ) 

MisgTj xbibition (s^-e " ExiiiBiTiosri") 

uiden, Mr., dt'sc.^ Indian harhoun,5l8 

tt's fiKMl pr«Her\ log process, 746 

ywcll, M- , cftJ^:., ffuiids Mid their functions, 

1)0; annual mociing, 623; State parch .tse 

)f railways, 646 

bolar>|i||,H for »;Irl8, '^84 

Elastic miiscuro id Pars, 19 

l»ol b<>ard work for London, 17 

scholarships by City oompaotea, 

rM, 809 

^1 drill (annual report), 620 

•, correepondeoce wtth the War- 



tllee on, 908 

— of arts in Sydney, 608 

■— 'f drawing and mAtbematloa 

*aris, 903 



In 



School, modal. In Raiisi 19. 
— — efficiency, prizt for 

r«pMrt,62S 
of popular cookery 

TIONS") 



167 ; aannal 
(tee **EzaiBi- 



Sc*eoce and art mnseums In New York, 264 
— — — teaoiiiiiK in Fruieo, 86 

and technKm, Utter. 870 

— ^— at thHuaivertttiea, 863 
-Sciences, Acadamv of^ in I'a is, 93 
Scientific c ilege for Rirmlngha n 668 
^— — — Yoiiah're. 941 



930 



Industry society of Manchester, 648, 

Instri:ments in Italy, 127 

— > instruction, third report of com- 

mi^son on, h53 

— Indentions in London Exhibition of 

1873, repoK on, by Dr Mann, 75u ; supple- 
meut to. 831 

- languago, a common, 842 

projrresa In Prance in lt*72, 172 

socle lies. Joint-stock (.ompany, 

165 

— — society for Roenns Ayre*, 688 

— and technical education in England, 

/ron on, 810 
Scott, W. L., itt'te., condensed milk, 464 
Sea, apparatus for a ving Ufa at, 3ij0, 410, 

456 ; Utter, H. W. Reveicy, 399 
— — sickness and Channel |>as»age, letter, 

A. Seitley, 18 
, Mf^nall nt? at, paper, C«l>t. Colonb, 

29ji; l9tter$, F. R. W. Lmchlau, 3*3; C. 

Cooke, 383 

wrack, 59 

Seal 1 »<>k, Aroeiioan,93 

Scats, Impr vid, for railway carri^g.»«, 487 

Se<l ey, A. J , 'lUe., ship* fo- Channel |)a»- 

saKe, 21 9, 273; h-ferg Channel i ns«»ge, 

IH, 56; twinbuat in hurricane uf D^e. 8, 

IK72, 71 
S^dley-Dicey boat (see also "ChaniI^l 

PsWAOB'), 88i 

Selwyn, t apt., rfiVe., fraprovcments in rifles, 
49:i 

S "raing steel works (Coekeriirs), 893 

Servian railways, 7X0 

S H^imal not i-o, i2oth session, 921 

Sewagrf ' f Leeds, vaiue of, •♦ii3 

^h \\ of Persia, omiited p'int:iin prosmmme 
for, E. fhitlwlc .. :»14; visit to Exllil)itli>n, 
6 JO; : dmis»ioti >, honora y member <»f 
Society, bHl 

^harp, S., evidc •• before C'ufl ignitions 
Commlitee, 537 I 

J'ha V, R.it»ert H , /^ per. England and Cen- 
tral A la, 31 I ; n«>U'On,35s ; mm«»randum 
on Central As a I'y, 4 5 

Sh»*lf trd. W., lettr, sulphur dejiosits in Kris 
u/ k, 173 

Siiip-i*uil.linirln Paly, 891 

vcnt'latl ii. and pumping, self-working 

appaMiu> for, 2 i'» 

Ships f'r tho Channel pes^aflrn (see also 

'*t'H*NNELpA3Hw.L'M,prjWr,''y Lit'Ut -' • 1. 

A. Stran e, I9'<, 21% .«7; rf«r., 274; 

W/er#, Capt. Morlein in,27i; II B^^s-mer, 

271; J Oranti»«m, 274 
?^h<»re, G S., Ifitrr^ . conomy of fnol, 732 
Stinj, comnierc- a d trade in, 194 
Sit ii , n^sou'C'S "f. ^82 

, sulphur in, 16^; letter^ 194 

Strifi rftuMn (fibre*, i»9 
Siemens, Dr., on fuel, 852 

furnace tor *t.H. I, 431 

Sign till gat sea, with est>e>-ial reference to 

signalsof ilhtre«i'*,p"p,r, by Capt. ('olomb, 

2«-i; letferi^ F. B. W.Lauchlan, 343; C. 

Cooke, 3p3 
Silk fr-m Cape of Good H 'pe, 7, 51 

cocoons, yield of in Italy, 484 

confere tce. (See " Exit Mi«tov-< ") 

cultivbtion. hiiitH on, tt> roionista, 743, 

822, 849, 867, 874, 8«5, 89H, 931 
—»- culture in Weittern Aunralia, 876 
downs, utilisation of (P. L. Simmondf), 

482 

growing in Australia, letter ftom 

OovtTiior Weld, 810 

growing in Melbourne, 668 

growing In Syria, 61 

In Itily, 126 

from Ja|>aii «78 

manufacture, improvements In, 164 

in United SUtrs, 487 

^— naturally wdoured ^70 
— -(inanufactuietl) in tlie Loialon ExhlH- 
tion of 1873, report on by F. Bennoch, 734 ; 



ItUert oa rvport, F. Benno<di and T. 

Stevens, 93t 
(raw) in the London Exhibition of 1873, 

report on by B. F. Cobh, 727 
, spun, p«p«r at British Association, 1873, 

by S. G. Usier, 861 
, general supply of, 840; letter, O. 

Thome, 318 

committee (see •* Coiunmn ") 

^— In Turkey, 839 

, waste, employment of, by P. L. 

Simmonds, 871 
Silkworm eggs at London Exhibition of 1873, 

740 

ffraio, 319, 668 

, production of, in Italy, by 

cellular system, 730 

-, paper, by M. Roland, 414$ 



Utter, 632 

, selection of, 843 

in Japan, 173 



Silver, separation of from lead, 548 

SlmmoBds, P. L., P"per, o<liblo -starohn of 

oommerce, .346 ; letier. W. Bro*)ke, 383: 

<Hmc., goUds )>nd their functions, 187 ; 

British settlements In Africa, 449 

■ , iiotoson Pkortnium tetuu. 



226 



871 



, employment of wa-te sillc. 



-, lectures in L'^ndon Exhibi* 



tion of 1873, 741 

, notes f>n the Rkcea fibre, 

760 ; letter 8. C. Li-ter, 841 

, uiiiiiaiion of silk downs. 



482 

S'mplon railway, 743 

Skelton, T. A., paper, uso of lenses and re- 
flectors In street lauijis, &c., 402 ; note on, 

48H 
Sleeping carriages (see ** Rart.WATB ' ) 
Suiarft, W., due, borsf* nails, 49; lighting 

street gaa by eleo licity, 293; lei>ses, itc 

in street lam|K<,405 ; silkworm grain, 421 ; 

coi dcnsod iniW, 464; gas monufrcture, 

632 
Smith, T. Rojrer, pap^r, architectural art in 

In'lia, 27M; U tei; Hyde C*l irke, 2»7 
Smith, W., tiUe , lno>mhiJstihle \vim.«1, 161 ; 

edible 8t>rches of commerce, 354 ; aunual 

meeting, 623 
Smlthfield oluh cattle show, 85 
8in«)ky chimneys, /W'er, C. B. Clon^rh, 906 
Soap and can'lie<f, sttanne, in 1" ly I2J 
water, etftict of oji Incaudcaceat metal, 

136 
Social science oongreai, 1873, Hi 2, 858 
Soda, acetate of, aa a means for preserving 

foo-l, 746 
Socidt^ industrlelle de Mulhouse, prize list 

. f, a63 
Society of Arts for Victoria, 298 
^— — for physical research, proposal for, 

812 
Societies, scientific, joint -stock company for, 

155 

■ , industry of Manchester, 

548, 920 

, — , for Raenos Ayr?*, 568 

Solar heat, use of in eujineering, 634 
Sopwith, T.. disc, the Vrginiaa, 249 
South Ken»ington Adu^eura, a dent needle- 
work at, 647 
, threatened sup- 
pression of, 912 
Spain, 01aul>cr's >alt« In, 894 
Squire, W. S., chair., improvements in 

manufacture of guji-cottoo, 470 
Stanley. Mr , diec., horse nads, 48 
Starches, e .iWe, of commerce, P'*per, P. L. 

Simraonds, 346 ; letter, NV. Brooke, 383 
Startin, J., obituary, 116 
State coach of her Majesty the Queen, 

description ot, 713 
the Lord Mayor, description 

of, 714 
Sutioners* ooropany, lectures on technical 

education, 343, 4il 
Steam engine, early history of, 19 

, at Pomi ell, 633 

engines, value of export of in 1871 



and 1h72, 

■ on roads, 411 

, substitute for, 836 

9er»u* fire, 171 



Stearine o.ndles and soap in Ha^y, 129 
Steel In London bxhibition, prise for, 

41, 73, 137, 317 ; annual reiiort, 831 ; Jodgat* 

report, 661 



954 



INDEX TO VOL. XXI. 



SImI In London Exlrb'tlon of 1873, report 

on, by W. Baker, 773; note to 809 
— , Siemens* famoce, 4'M 

work* at EaMf>n ( Kmpp't>, raloe of, 764 

works (CockerilVs), at Seraing, 892 

Stephonsun, H. P.^UisCj manaflsotare of gas, 

631 
Stevens, T.^Mtrr on report on silkio London 

Exhibtlonof 1873, 936 
Stirlinc, Sir Walter, (rise., Inoombostible 

wood, 163; silk-worm grain, 433 
Stocquelc -, J. 11., paper, pf^gren of India 

during the la<t fourteen years, SOS, 369 ; 

letters, E. riiadwick, and Lord Mark 

Kerr, 212; Dr. Mouat, 363; Col. Lawrie, 

367; Sir A. Cotton, 295 
Stone, artificial, 344, 431 

, eff -ct «if atidi on, 135 

, (Ba'h) die 'Very of, 812 

StovtTfl, earthenware. In Italy, 123 

, econ.iruical, UtterB, T. Clark, 343 ; H. 

W. Uoveley, 3^3,486 

, prir* f T ( see " Pricks* *) 

Strange, Lieut. -Col. A., chair., galTanlc 

batteries, 62 ; paper, ships for the channel 

Sissair*', I9rt, 218, 367; letters. Captain 
ortleman, 271; H. Uessenier, 371; J. 

Grantham, 274; disc.f State purchase of 

railways, 608 
Strangcways, Mr , </i>;., printing types, 338 
Streatfelld, J. F., leiter, optics applied to arts, 

Ac., 174 
Street lamps, applic.tti m of melers to, 891 
^——' gat lamits, Ui/htln^ and extinguishing 

by «-leotriciiy. fusptr, W. Lloyd Wise, 

388 ; letter, J B. Booth 
, use of lenses and re- 



flectors In, rapcr, by T. A. Slcelton, 403; 

note on, 488 
Streeter, Mr., oflf^r of pHses for essay on 

hall marking of Jewellery, 760; annual 

report, 623 
Strong, Mr., <//«e., conference of lostitutions, 

643 
Submarine navigation, 939 
Subterranean hvlralogy, tetter, P. Lo Neve 

Foster, Jan., 67 
Sub-Wea dc-n exiloration^, 71, 264, 411 
Suez canal, traffic through, 1872-3, 732, 861, 
Sugar, artificial. Rt3 

frf>ra beetrr»ot in Italy, 19, 138 

s »r;:h > In italy, 130 

■ In Queensland, 916 

, a test for pure wat^'r, 633 

Sulphur de, oslit of Krl<iuvik, Iceland, jMp<r, 

by C. W. Vincent, 1H7; Utters, W. Shel- 

ford and Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, 173 

In Slrily, 169 ; letter, 194 

Summerly, Felix, /e//er, Channel passage, 71 
Surgical Instrumen 8 in London Exhibition 

of 1873, rep'Ht on by R. B. Carter, 644 
Swan River mahogany and Jarrah wo«hI, 900 
Swanton, W., evlde oe before Conflagration 

Committee, 338, 495 
Sweden, coal in, 894 

, meat from, 363 

Swedish match«>s, 266 
Switzerland, faclorv act in, 91 

' and Italy, railways in, 176 

, telegraphs in, 698 

— — , textile exports of, 900 

Swords and niilltaiy arms of steel In London 

Exhibition of 1873, rejort on by Col. 

Owen, 733 
Sydney school of arts, 608 
Sykes, Col., ohi'uary, 3 
Sylvester, Pn>f., <»n transmission of motion, 

040 
Symons, E. O., disc., Incombnstiblo wood, 161 
Syphons, concrcto', on Canal Qninturo Sella, 

680 
Syria, silk growing in, 61 



T. 

Tallerman, D., letter, Australian preiervef 

919 
Tan bark as fuel, 136 
Tannin/ In ItStTy, 126 
Tasmanian iron, 'i35, 316 
» asbes OS, 316 

Taxation of Insiitiiii. Ms,iWter», Sir J.Beonett, 

636; J. 8. Noldwritt, 647 
Tayler, William, p^tper. rosary In IndU, 461 
Taylor, Capt, dUc, Indian harbours, 616 
Technical e<lur«ti(m («eo "Eouoatiom" ) 
Technological Examinations (see "Exam- 

WATIOXS") 



Telegraph, pnenmfttio, 8T0 
-^— — poles, 608 

f postal), progress compftred wHh 

that of tnkdlng oompaniet, 611 

for US. sivnal service, 901 



Tele.;raphic clocks, 906 

experiments, Mter, H. Hlgfatoa, 

67 

Telegraphs, trans- Andine, 19 

in SwiUerland, 69-* 

Telegraphy, Atlantic, letter. Rev. H. High- 
ton, 343. 363; Prof. Je .kin, 363; C. 
Varley, 363 

— , duplex, 870 ; W. H. Walenn on. 



836 



-, wiihont Insulation, 67 ; Utter, 



Rev. H. Highton, 486 

, international, 86 

, as part of postal system, 6 

Tennant, Prof., cise., technical education, 33 ; 
annual meeting, 633 

. lectures by, 1 ] *.. - w .; ,o 

Testimonial to Henry Cole, c.b., uj9 

to P. C. 0«reo, 777, 898 

Teat plate, miemsooplo, 92 

Teuion, Seymour, di$c., confereace of insti- 
tutions, 643 

Textile exports of Switzerland, 900 

Thoriie, C., letUre. Pkormimm ietuut, 58, 
174; f ilk supply, 318 

Thrift, offer o( prize for essay on, by Sir J. 
Whit worth, 669 ; annual report, 631 ; par- 
ticulars of, 717 

Thudlohum, Dr., Cantor lectures, on wines, 
their production, trwttment, and use (see 
**Ca»to« Lbctorbs") 

, report on Australian wines 

in London Bxhibllion of 1873, 927 

Tidy. Dr., Cantor lectures, on the practical 
application of opMcs to the arts, manufac- 
tures, and medicine (see **Cas(tur Lbo- 

TCRM*') 

Tin, Anstralian, 677. 906 
Tins (Elmslie'») for preserved meit, 633 
Tlpnell, Mr., disc., guilds and their func- 
tions, 189 
TIte. ^ir William, obUuarif, 431 
Tobacco, CavalU, 132 

lipes report on collections of, by 

M. Berger, 67 

Town!>hend, Dr., disc., progress of In tla, 367 
Traction engines in Qermany, 156 

on roads (see ** (^ommittbbs*") 

Tracy, Mr., due., guilds and their functions, 

IHH 

Tradoof Fiuland, 151 

- of the Lower Danube, 341 

■ marks In Amerlv'ji, 69 
Trades gnila of learning, 431 

■■ ■, conference on, 688, 

616 

Trains, rev living signal lights for, 631 

Tramways, Hutrheii s method ('f laying, 504 
in Madras, 166 

in New York. 39 

at Vers lilies, 849 

Trans- Andine telegraphs, 19 

Transparent paper, 826 

Treasurers* annual statement of accounts, 691 

Trevel>an, i«ir W. C, Utter, coal In the 
Faro Isles, 9<> 

Trcwby, Mr., disc., edible starches of com- 
merce, 354 

Trin dad Exhibition (see ♦' ExHiBrno:fh") 

Tufnull, B. C, chair., annual conference of 
Institutions, 635 

Tufneli, T. R., chatir., incombustible wood, 
157 

Tunnel locomotives. Engineer on, 836 

Turkey, railways in, 59, 881 
, silk In, 939 

Turners' Comjiany's prizes fur turt.lng, 698, 
906 

Twin-boat In the hurricane of 8th Deo., 1873, 
letter, A. Sedley, 71 

Tyler, Capt., disc.. State purchase of rail- 
ways, 663 

, evidence. Conflagrations Com- 
mittee, 423 

Types, printing, Improvementi in manufac- 
ture of, paper, J. R. Johnaon, 330 ; Uuer, 
3»3; R.M. Gill, 486 



U. 

Umbrella manufacture In Italy, 127 
Underground railwav^ in America, 646, 843 
United States coal, 343, 660 



Unltad States Blgoal swke, tstognffc 

901 
^— — — — silk manatetore, 467 
Unhrersltles, teieDce teaebtsf fti, eo 



V. 



Vallalta, qaloksilTar mlMs at, 313 
Van Oven, L., letter, on deaf aod isi^ 

stmctlon, 68 
Vareck, or sea wrack, 59 
Varley, Comellua, letter, Atiaatl: 

graphy, 263 

f, 8tl 



Vanghan, General, diec, pmgress of 

313; mineral resources of ladia, 3M 
Venetian blinds of glasa, 316 

glass, 315 

Venice, art school at, 166 

VentllatioD of cattle traosporta, 456 >1 

Vermouih In lUly, 1 JO 

VenaiUes ExklblUoii. (See « 

nan.**) 

Victoria exhlUUon. (See *' Kiiiwnaai ' 
———' , Iron In, 863 

'■■, Society o^ Art* for, 
Victorian ohemtcal«i;> Lood'^i ExbMtL-fl 

1873, report by W. U. Waleoa, fit 

, edoeation Bill, 3U 

school of deaign, exkiMfiM 

drawings at, »>33 
Vienna Exhibition. (See •* ExaiBTWfi.'') 

, instruction or artisans i i, 9M 

, congress on patent rifku (i 

♦• Patetts") 
Vlgnoles, G. B., diee.. State portitase of i 

ways, 603 
Vincent, C. W., foper, sulphur dspuaa 

Krisuvlk, 137 
Virginias, the, their agricaltural, 

and oommerdal rauareea, f« p er , 

Hotohkiss, 336 



W. 

Walduck, Mr . dfee., silkworm grsi»,49 
Walenn, W. H., diet., lightia^ ^trcd gss 
electricity, 392 

— — — , depositing cjpper cm ir« 

electricity, 238 

■ , on duplex tel^praphy. Of 

, on elecuio ligiii, .5*1, » 

, manuiacturv and 



tlons of solpiiate of copper. ;«4 
-, report on Vic tor*aa« 



in London Exhibition of 1h73, f9\ 
Walker, W., diec., improveoMnts is rlisi,^ 
Wallace. Dr., disc., lightlag ttreet fas 

electricity, 293 
Ward, Capt., disc., signalling at Sea, 
WanI, 8., dite., progress of iodls* aM 
Warden, J., ttse., Russia, Ac.^ 81 
War ofBoe, correS|toiidence with tfae, oo icbJ 

drill, 908 
Warren's refrigerating apparato, 96( 
Water and gas supply, Inqoiry ss t^ 19? 
-^— , commltue oa (a 

"COlOnTTBfS") 
gas, 333. 459 



pipes, glass lined, 3U 
, lead in Parts 934 
, sugar a test for pore, 633 
' snpply ia Buenos Ayroa, M9 
in Onstantlnople, iM 



Watts, J., letUr, late oottoa supply i 

tion, 680 

Weilden exploration (see "Sirn-Wtii*rt'^ 
Webster, T., Q.C, ckatr., juUili ami tb*-* 

functions, 177 

; teehiifeal 



tloQ and the means of i*Y)m<.riog it. ^ 
leUers, Hyde Clarke, 33; Rev. A. Mr, -J 
, diee., tkkye for 9^ 



Channel paasage, 367 
Weights and measures in Italy, 137 
Westbury. Lord, ebitamry, 715 
Westmaoott, Rlohsrti, obttmrn^, 1 
Whaling bark, st«sm, 71 
Wheels paper, 336, 607 

, carriage, lodicAtor for, 876 

White brass, 163 

-, J., letter, ohaaaej 



isj 



Whitehaven tndiutrial EchU«tiaii ( 

niBlTIO^S**) 

Whltworth engineering soholankipa^ 
tlons for 1875, 811 



Ei 



INDEX TO VOL. XXI. 



955 



prutworth. Sir J., othr of prlxa for osny on 
tkrift, S6» ; annoal roport, 621 ; particalAn 

o<;tit 

' Whol««oin« houses,** 170, 333 

?7i<sB, industrial and floe arts treasarss 

exhIbitioQ (sm **ExBiBinom") 
i?iJde, Mr., ai$e.y mineral reeooroesof I ta, 

»3 
wamm^tm, Pr<if., address as President of 

Bn&ah AaK»clation, 833 
^Is, T., award of medal to, for paper on 

gas, 617 

mannfsotore of gas for 



iUtimia«ting purposes, 619 
unifoo, Mr., dise.^ horse nails, 48 
ffUsoo, 8., ItUer^ Harrison's meat preserving 

HOOflSB, 880 

iVlDdoTer,C.S., letUTt Moseow ezhlUtion, 368 
Bftauloir, memorial (annnal report), 630 
Vine in Italy, 139 

, Anstralian, in London International 

BxhIMtlon of 1873, report on, by Dr. 

Thodieham, 927 



Wines of Bordeaux, 691 

— , oolonial, letttTt 919 

. their produetion, treatment and use. 
Cantor lectures, by Dr. Thudiohum (see 
"Oamtoe Lbctubb") 

Wise, W. Lloyd, papn; lighting and ex- 
tinguishing street gas lamps by electricity, 
288; leUir.J. B. Booth, 283 

Witherby, R., rtport on dried fruits in 
London ExhiblUon of 1873, 584 

Women, education ot^ meeting on, 38 

— — , union for education of, scholar- 
ships offered by, 384 

Wood engraving, new prooess(pIanotype),633 
, J. T.. disc., silk worm grain, 422 

——^ pavements in Leeds, 826 

— pulp, 265 

~ rendered incombustible, paper, D, O. 
Macomber, 168 ; Mter, G. W. Bell, 194 

Woodcroft, B., Uttir, international patent 
Uw. 741 

Woolin Italy, 126 

Woollen manufacture in Italy, 128, 139 



WurtemlHirg school, 175 
Wyatt, Sir M. D., chair^ roiwy in Iiidis, 
461 

T. 

Tapp, O. W., dite., incombustible wood, 161 
, report on cooking apparatus in 

London Exhibition of 1873, 787 
Tardley, Mr., dUe., Incombustible wood, 162 
Tates' miners* safe^ lamp, 276 
Teats, Dr., paper, guilds and their ftmctiont, 

178 

^—^ , disc., technical education, 30 

Yorkshire College of Science, 943 



Zerill, Dr., disc., rosary in India, 469 
Zetland, Earl of, obiiumry, 607 
Zurich, female students at, 136 
, technical school at, 678 



ERRATA. 



Fsfe 36, col. 1, line 10 from bottom, for " 16 to 20 inches*' read 
"* H to li inches.'* 

I*a?e 130, col. 2, lines 43 and 67, and page 131, col. 1, line 3, for 
" Rev. A. nigg" read " Dr. Rigg." 



Page 360, col. 2, line 33, for <' R. B. Biddulph" read " B. Biddnlph 
Martin.* 

Page 631, col. 2, line 29, for " Lima" read " Siena.** 

Page 776, col. 2, line 28, for '* Wheatman Smith" read "Taylor 
Brothers." 



CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE READINa-ROOM. 



The Council beg to acknowledge, with thanks to the Proprietors, the regular receipt of the folloi 

Journals and Periodicals daring the year : — 



WBSIUiT. 

Anticjoary. 

Asiatic. 

Architect * 

Athenffium. 

British Journal of Photo- 
graphy. 

Builder. 

Building News. 

Builders* Weekly Beporter. 

Chamber of Agriculture 
Journal. 

Chemical News. 

Colliery Guardian. 

CosmopoUtan. 

Draper. 

Engineer. 

Engineering. 

English Mechanic. 

Farmer. 

Gardeners' Chronicle. 

Herapath*8 Kail way Journal 

Iron. 

Journal of Gas Lighting. 

La Discussion 

Land and Water, 

Les Mondes. 

Metropolitan. 

Mining Journal. 

Moniteur des Arts. 

Musical Standard. 



■ Nature. 

;_ North British Ai^iculturist 
^Photographic News. 
Public Opinion. 
Queen. 

Revue Scientifique. 
School Board Chronicle. 
Spectator. 

Sessional Proceedings of 
the Social Science Asso- 
ciation. 
Warehousemen & Drapers' 
Journal. 

FORTNIGHTLY. 

Publishers' Circular. 



MONTHLY. 

Art 

Atlantic Monthly. 

Bookseller. 

Bulletin de la Societe 

d' Encouragement pour 

r Industrie Nationale. 
Bulletin de la Societe 

Imperiale Zoologiquo 

d'Acclimatation. 
Bulletin du Mus6e de 

rindustrie. 
Clicker. 
Educational Times. 



Food Journal. 
Fortnightly Review. 
Hatter and Umbrella Trade 

Circular. 
Horolo^ical Journal. 
Indian E'onomist. 
Journal of Applied Science. 
Journal of tne Chemical 

Society. 
Journal of the Franklin 

Institute. 
Journal of the Horticultural 

Society. 
Journal of th^ National 

Life Boat Institution. 
Journal of the Pharma- 

ceuticjil Sc^iety. 
Journal of the Photographic 

Society. 
Journal of the Quekett 

Microscopical Club. 
Lithographer. 
London, Edinburgh, and 

Dublin Philosophical 

Magazine. 
Long Ago. 
Ocean Hiarhways. 
Presse Scientifique des 

Deux Mondes 
RnvueM^ritime etColoniale. 
Sugar Cdue. 



Symons' Meteortl^ 

M>4g4zinc. 
Tttlegraphic Journal 

Electric^ R'^vie*. | 
Workman*s Magazine. 

QUARTBRLY. 

Journal of the Aa| 

Society. , 

Canidian Natarilist I 

Journal of Scieooe. i 
Journal of Educ^tion- 
Jonrnal of the Get^ 

Society. 
Proceedings of the Gfl 

g^sts* Assodation. 
Journal of the Lmd 

Society. 
Journal of Mental Sifl 
Nav<tl Science. 
Journal of the Roval C 

graphical Society 
Journal of the Royal Sy5 
Journal of the K^ivul Is 

Service Institution. 
Journal of the Statist 

Society. 
Journal of the Virt 

Institute. 
Trans ictions of the I 

logical Society. 



LOHDON: PBINTBD by W. TROUNCB, GUUSITOR-STREBT, OKANOSRT'LAITB. 












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