4.
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
---t- - < ->>l
APRIL, 1953. VOL. XXII. Nos. 1 (93)
EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
Patrons.
His Excellency The Hon. Sir Evelyn Baring, k.c.m.g., k.c.v.o.
Sir Philip Mitchell, k.c.m.g.
Sir Henry Moore, k.c.m.g.
Air-Vice-Marshall Sir Robert Brooke-Popham, g.c.v.o., k.c.b.,
C.M.G., D.S.O., A.F.C.
«
President,
Hugh Copley Esq., o.b.e.
Vice-President.
R. W. Rayner Esq., b.a., a.l.c.t.a.
Executive Committee.
P. R. O. Bally Esq.,
Colonel M. H. Cowie,
W. Hale Esq.,
J. S, Karmali Esq.,
T. Magner Esq.,
Miss E. J. Blencowe.
J. McDonald Esq., C.B.E., D.F.C.
Miss M. D. Ball.
Secretary.
Miss D. Ewing.
Hon. Editor,
J. G. Williams Esq., m.b.o.u.
Hon. Treasurer.
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Hon. Librarian.
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All correspondence in connection with this Journal should be addressed to
The Hon. Secretary, P.O. Box 658, Nairobi.
(o7
of the East Africa Natural History Society
Journal
APRIL, 1953. VOL. XXII. Nos. 1 (93)
CONTENTS
Page
The Water-Holes at Ijara. (Illustrated)
By Lord R.C. Percy, H.E. Percy and M.W. Ridley 2
Elephants in the Moonlight
By W. H. G. Grant 15
Some East African Hawk Moths (Illustrated)
By Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley 18
Hunting Shells on the Coast of Kenya
By Jane Bailey 20
A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns (Illustrated)
By William Pulfrey 23
The Introduction of the American Brook Trout
{Salvelinus fontinalis) to Kenya.
By Hugh Copley, O.B.E.
Riverside Dwellers of the White Nile
By Mary Myrtle Jaques-Aldridge
The House of the Dhow
By James Kirkman
Obituary
35
(Illustrated)
37
(Illustrated)
40
44
Book Reviews :
46
2
The Water-Holes at Ijara
THE WATER-HOLES AT IJARA
VOL. XXII
NORTHERN PROVINCE, KENYA,
by
Lord R. C. Percy, H. E. Percy and M. W. Ridley.
IN August 1951 the authors went to the Northern Province of Kenya,
with the object of collecting birds and other small vertebrates. During
this expedition they camped by the village of Ijara from August 21st
to 28th. A few general observations on the water-holes in this area, although
made over such a short time, may be of interest, especially to those who
from time to time have access to the area and can take up the story for
other times of the year.
Ijara, at 250 ft. above sea level, lies some 100 miles south of Garissa. The
Tana River is about 30 miles to the west at its nearest point. The surround-
ing country lying in the Acacia-desert grass savannah belt (Edwards 1940)
is flat and covered with bush; but 15 miles to the south east the vegetation
gradually becomes thicker until country with considerable trees (Acacia-
tall grass savannah) is reached. Records for mean annual rainfall are not
available, but for Garissa the figure is 10.3 inches. The rain is extremely
unevenly distributed, generally occurring in April and November-December
and it is probable that this figure will be greater at Ijara because it lies
nearer the cost. At times, however, the area is subject to severe drought.
During the time spent at Ijara the temperature did not exceed 89° F in
the shade. The figure for relative humidity, as might be expected, decreased
with the height of the day to around 45%, but there v/as no extreme aridity
and sometimes there was dew in the early morning. The bushes were in
leaf and at that time formed a refreshing contrast to the arid, sometimes
nearly leafless, bush to the north west.
The soil is light and sandy, but where rain water has accumulated in
depressions or pans, a fine black mud is deposited which cracks on drying
out. It was found that 2 inches below the sun-baked surface, the mud was
damp and extremely sticky. Dead ostracods and gastropod shells showed
that a temporary population of aquatic animals is developed in time of rain
In such situations four somewhat more permanent water-holes have been
dug out in the interest of a few Somalis who graze their stock at Ijara. In
past periods of drought, the few traders comprising the village, with no
business, either closed down or carried on for a while by selling imported
drums of water. The water-holes are roughly circular or oblong in shape.
Water-hole 1 was 6-7 feet deep in the centre with a gradual slope to the
sides where the depth varied from 2 ft. at one side to complete shallows in
other places. It was dug near a temporary rain pool in 1930-31. Its sides
were then more or less sheer to about 6 feet. Up to 1937 it is not known to
have dried up, but in subsequent years it is said to have dried up during
times of drought, and in the middle of February 1951 about five or six
weeks before the rains broke, it is recorded that only a little water was
left in a hole in the middle.
April 1953
The Water-Holes at Ijara
3
Water-hole 2 was about 9 feet deep at one end and at the other there
were shallows. It was dug shortly after water-hole 1, and up to 1937 it never
dried up, and has probably not done so since. It appears to be the most per-
manent water-hole and it is the only one of the four in which water-lilies
NympUaea lotus are growing. They appeared in 1933 and seem to be thriving
Water-hole 3 had shallows all round the sides with a miniature swamp
of rushes at the north end. The maximum depth at the centre was found
to be about 7 feet. It seems to have been dug some time after water-holes
1 and 2. It was observed to be completely dry at the end of February 1951,
Water-hole 4 was very shallow round the sides and its maximum depth
was 9 feet in the centre. Digging was begun in 1933-34.
The water-holes were surrounded by hedges or fences of cut thorn to
prevent animals trampling the edges. In places these had been broken down
As a further measure of control concrete water troughs had been placed at
each. Water-hole 2 did not appear to be much in use, probably because at
that time there was plenty of water in the others which may have been
more convenient. There was evidence that game drank at all of them ex-
cept No. 1, which was nearest the village. Elephant’s footprints were
especially conspicuous at No. 4.
Some dozen measurments with a B.T.H. Capillator taken at various
times on different days gave pH values of around 7.5 for water-holes 2, 3
and 4, and around <S for water-hole 1. A maximum-minimum thermometer
placed on an average 14 feet below the surface of the water and a few feet
from the sides indicated that at that time variations of temperature of the
magnitude of 10°F sometimes occurred in a 24 hour period. Temperatures
from minimum 74 to maximum 84 were recorded. Water-hole 4 gave the
greatest variation having an extensive area of shallows.
Invertebrates.
An abundant invertebrate fauna was present in and around the water-
holes. At that time there was no drought, and5 when digging a hide about
10 ft. from the water’s edge, even earthworms were found. Especially noti-
ceable on the land were large millipedes, many butterflies, large ortho-
pterous insects and empty shells of the giant African, snail Achatina fulica
Fer.
A few members of the more conspicuous aquatic component are recorded
as being indicative of the kind of food supplies upon which the thriving
fish population must directly depend.
As might be expected Diptera, Dragonflies and aquatic Hemiptera were
abundant. Dragonflies recorded were : —
Philonomon luminans Kars. Orthetrum chrysostigma Burm.
Ceriagrion glabrum Burm. Diplacodes Lejebvrei Ramb,
Ceriagrion suave Rs. Brachythemis leucosticta Burm.
Orthetrum brachiale Beuv.
The Hemiptera included an abundance of Notonectidae, Ranatridae and
Corixidae and the belostamatid Sphaerodema nepoides Fab. Waterbeetles
4
The Water-Koles at Ijara
VOL. XXII
belonging to several species were numerous. Identified were Dytiscids,
Rhantaticus congestus Klug and Cybister senegalensis Aube. Gyrinid or
whirligig beetles Dineutes suhspinosus Klug could nearly always be seen
on the surface of the water. Aquatic spiders and freshwater crabs Deckenia
imitatrix Hilgendorf, the latter living by day in holes in the mud, were
also present. Aquatic molluscs were not found' in any numbers Pila ovata
Olivier was present and was more abundant in water-hole 3 than else-
where. Two shells of Pila speciosa Philippi were also found. Though the
authors had little time to search for them, the apparent paucity of molluscs
may perhaps be attributed to the large lung-fish population.
Fishes.
Tw’enty-one specimens of the lung-fish Protopterus amphibius (Peters)*
were captured at three out of four water-holes. The number of larvae colle-
cted, together with the large number of fish seen surfacing, indicated that
there was a thriving lung-fish/ population. Seven larger specimens between
330 and 405 mm were caught on a hook baited v/ith meat; but the remainder
being much smaller, were caught in a hand net from the water weed
Lagerosiphon sp.
As in P.annectens Owen, where it is not unusual, (cf. Goodrich 1930),
but in marked contrast to certain specimens of P.ethiopicus Haeckel from
Lake Victoria, with which they were compared by the authors, the larger
specimens retained considerable vestiges of the external gills of the larvae.
A specimen measuring 384 mm overall length had a most dorsal external
gill element on the right side of 36 mm and on the left of 31 mm. This
specimen and another of 330 mm were full of spawn.
In the spiral valves of three of the larger specimens abundant remains
of food were found. Insects appeared to play a large part in their diet.
Especially pronounced were the crushed remains of beetle elytra. Also
present were the opercula of freshwater snails, the remains of crabs, frogs
and the little fish N othohranchius (see below). In addition, a little plant
material was present; but v/hether this had been taken in accidentally or
not was uncertain.
The changes' in form and growth rate of this species are not known in
detail and the length of the tail filament was found to be extremely variable
often having been broken. Thei 14 smaller specimens showed a fair grada-
tion in length from 18 mm to 110mm, which suggested that the breeding
season may have been a prolonged one that year. If the rate of growth of
this species is broadly comparable with that of the specimens of P.annectens
described under natural conditions in Gambia (cf. Budgett 1901), the small-
est specimens collected would compare with a specimen figured by him
which was about a month old and which had left the nest only a few days
before.
Footnote : *This species requires redescription and will be the subject of a
further publication.
April 1953
The Water-Holes at Ijara
5
In 1925 and 1934 large numbers of small lung-fish were observed in the
slowly-moving flood water formed by heavy rain right out in the desert
country. (H. B. Sharpe in litt.) The Africans sometimes say that they fall
with the rain. As is well known, these lung-fishes can survive drought by
forming so-called cocoons in the mud; and they are sometimes dug up in
this state for food by men, and sometimes even by animals. Larger numbers
of small fish must be derived either from the spill-over from populations
occupying, except in flood-time, stretches of permanent water, which seems
to be the usual method, or from individuals recently emerged from cocoons.
It seems that the latter method may apply in desert country far from per-
manent water. Hov/ soon these fish can breed after coming out of their
cocoons is unknown, as is the minimum size for successful cocooning. In
any case it may be fairly inferred that floodwater, charged with fry, must
be an important factor in the distribution of this species. This would
account for the occurrence of fishes in the water-holes. In the opinion of
the authors, Ijara would be an especially suitable place to make observa-
tions on the breeding habits of these fish, as owing to their abundance,
and the limited extent of the habitat, growth stages can be readily obtained,
Nests were not found, and digging in a dry pan was of necessity very
limited and produced no cocoons.
N othohranchius guentheri (Pfeffer). Five specimens of his little cyprino-
dont were captured in a hand net from the water weed. There were females
and one male in breeding colours. It may be significant that, unlike the
lung-fishes, they were only found in water-hole 2, which is the most
permanent.
Amphibians and Reptiles.
The extremely common and agile frog, Rana mascareniensis, D.&B. was
present in great abundance around the water-holes. It was as usual difficult
to catch, and when pursued would more often seek refuge in dense vegeta-
tion, or, in the case of water-hole 4, in the holes of a termitarium, than in
the water. Large numbers of this species, accompanied by Arthroleptis
minutus Blgr. were also found during the heat of the day in cracks in the
sunbaked surface of the mud in a dried-up pan 200 yds. south east of
water-hole 1. Tadpoles of both genera, together with those of Phrynoba-
trachus sp. were present in the water. Spawn was found in water-hole 2.
Pelusios (Sternothaerus) nigricans (Dondorff). An adult male Black
Water Tortoise was caught on a hook baited with meat from water-hole 2.
A large number of leeches were; found attached to it. These tortoises are
said to be common in water-holes in the Northern Provience.
Mabuya striata (Peters). Of lacertilians this striped skink was by far the
most abundant. Although seldom seen on the ground, striped skinks could
be found in many of the larger bushes. In the heat of the day they were
most noticable basking in the sun. When frightened they would take refuge
in holes in the trunks and branches, and one bush might contain several
individuals. They could sometimes be induced to bolt by placing a piece of
6
The Water-Holes at Ijara
VOL. XXII
lighted tow in a lower hole! and watching at the upper exit. Some speci-
mens contained embryos and an inspection of the gut contents of several
individuals suggested that they were purely insectivorous.
Also recorded were the skink Mdbuya hrevicollis (Wiegm). and the
common gecko Hemidactylus mahouxa Mor.
No snakes were seen except for one specimen of the White-lipped or
Herald snake Crotophopeltis hotamhoeia (Laur.) In the past a python is
said to have frequented water-hole 2.
Birds.
The Avifauna of the Ijara region does not appreciably differ from that
of large areas of similar country in the Northern Province. A week’s obser-
vation gave the impression that the population was at that time of the
year distinctly higher than that of the Tana River area some 100 miles to
the north west. This abundance was more in numbers of individuals than
of species, but passerine birds were definitely more numerous than had
been found and several species were met with that had not previously been
seen by us in Kenya. This was presumably accounted for by the compara-
tively less arid conditions at Ijara and, to a limited extent, by the immedi-
ate proximity of the water-holes.
It was possible to divide the birds seen at Ijara into several groups.
The first group includes those species w’hich are typical of semi-desert
conditions and which are found more or less all over the Northern Province
Their presence at Ijara is thus in no way directly connected with the four
water-holes. Examples belonging to this group are Vulturine Guinea-Fowl,
Golden Pipit (also seen in very arid country near Garissa), Black-faced
Sand-Grouse, Black-head Plover, Buff-crested Florican, Crested and Yellow-
throated Francolin, Bateleur and Dikkop.
This group of birds is chiefly composed of seed eaters, and all are cap-
able of travelling long distances to water.
The second group is typical of the surrounding bush and is directly
dependant on it for its food. The bush consists of thickets of small euph-
orbias and aloes with scattered shrubs of Thespesia danis Oliv. and
Salvadoro persica L. The former of these was much the commonest.
Between the clumps, there was often bare ground. This group was com-
posed mainly of passerine birds, and it is here that the numbers seen were
higher than previously noted in other areas. These birds do not seem to
wander far from water, and thus the water-holes are of importance to
them. They are chiefly insect eaters. Examples are : — Magpie and Superb
Starlings, Von der Decken’s and Grey Hornbills, Turtle Doves, Buffalo
Weavers, Nightjars, Bee-eaters, Mousebirds, Fork-tailed Drongos, and
Waxbills.
Naturally these two groups are not separable with any certainty; but
a third group, the water birds, includes all those species which are
commonly dependent on water for their living. It is due to the water-
holes that they are present. It was found possible to make an estimate of
April 1953
The Water-Holes at Ijara
7
the entire population at that time, as the four water-holes were close
enough to be visited in one hour. The population was not very high be-
cause at that time there was probably water elsewhere in the neighbour-
hood.
It is probable that permanent water elsewhere would at any rate be
well within range of such birds as ducks and herons, as our residents were
often not to be seen for a day or two. We did not explore far from the
village except down the road to the south east.
The population of water birds is asi follows : —
3 Elack-headed Herons
3 African Great White Egrets
2 Yellow-billed Egrets (on one occasion only)
1 Squacco Heron
1 Juvenile Night Heron
1 African Dwarf Bittern (possibly 2)
1 Green-backed Heron
8 Common Sandpipers (number approximate)
1 Wood Sandpiper
1 Green Sandpiper
1 Painted Snipe (male)
13 White-faced Tree-Ducks (2 adult, 11 juvenile)
3 Spur wing Geese
3 Lesser Waterhens (juvenile)
2 Crakes (small, sp. indet.)
Although the above list is not complete, it probably covers most of the
regular inhabitants and gives some idea of the diversity and comparative
richness of the group.
It is probable that observations over a longer period would indicate that
a further group of birds should be mentioned. Those mmre typical of the
wooded country to the east, such as Fischer’s Red-necked Francolin,
Madagascar Bee-eater and East Coast Red-cheeked Cordon-bleu.
Food.
Evidence as to diet was obtained chiefly from the examination of gut
contents. A Night Heron contained the remains of Nothobranchius; and the
South African Stone Curlew contained the remains of a frog. As frogs
were exceedingly numerous it might be presumed that the herons depend
on them for the majority of their food; but a Great White Egret, shot
about 8 a.m., contained only a little plant material and the remains of
insects. A Green-backed Heron was watched one evening clambering about
in the topmost branches of a small tree, trying to catch moths, at which
it was not very successful.
Lesser Waterhens had been feeding chiefly on the seeds of a rice
Oryza eichingeri Peter, water beetle larvae and crabs. The remainder of
the water birds examined contained the remains of unidentified insects.
Around the water-holes, in the long grass, bushes and rushes at the edge
8
The Water-Holes at Ijara
VoL. xxri
of the water, insect life was noticeably abundant. The taller bushes provid-
ed useful look-outs for such birds as Shrikes and Drongos; while White-
browed Coucals, Red-tailed Ant Thrushes, and Ground Barbets were also
often seen. In contrast, the Striped Kingfishers preferred to watch from the
numerous large termitaria and were not seen near any of the water-holes.
A specimen of this species contained a large cricket and an even larger
grasshopper.
At dusk large numbers of nightjars assembled over the water-holes and
hawked for insects in the fading light. They appeared to find the air over
the water holes very rich in insect life, as they seldom travelled far from
their vicinity. Stomachs examined contained a large variety of insects. As
well as Neuroptera and Orthoptera, the following families of insects could
be recognised: Chrysomelidae, Copridae, Aphodiinae, Pentatomidae,
Lygaeidae, Lestidae, Coenagriidae. It is worthy of note that these remains
were such that specific identifications would have been possible in many
cases.
Other insect-eating birds examined included the Juba Little Purple-
banded Sunbird and Kenya Ashy Grass Warbler. Three specimens of the
former contained remains of small spiders obtained from the topmost
branches of the Thespesia trees. One specimen of the latter, a tiny, bird,
contained a caterpillar over an inch long.
We did not examine crop contents of many vegetarian birds. Hornbills,
Starlings and Turtle-doves, which were very numerous, were feeding
chiefly on Commiphora-like fruit; and the Waxbills contained the seeds
of the grass Echinochloa haploclada Stapf. This also made up for the bulk
of the crop contents of Guinea-fowl shot for our own stomachs. These
birds had also been feeding on the following seeds: — Eragrostis sp.,
Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum, Portulaca sp., GUnus sp., Talinum sp.,
Ocimum sp., and Ruellia sp.
Drinking.
In the early morning all species of Starlings recorded and a few black-
faced Sand-grouse were seen drinking at every v/ater-hole. Several diffe-
rent kinds of doves (laughing, red-eyed and turtle)’ were almost always
present in the bushes around the water-holes. They and the magpie star-
lings do not appear to go far for their food, and pay frequent visits to the
water. It appears that the water-holes have an appreciable effect on the
local population of such birds. Francolins and Guinea-fowls were also
seen to drink at times, but most of the other species were not actually
observed at the water’s edge. It was not possible to keep a sufficiently
strict watch to throw any light on the drinking habits of other species.
Breeding.
Only a few birds were breeding at the time of our visit. Some were
accompanied by fully fledged young. This would be expected, judging; by
the state of the vegetation which suggested that the rains were not long
past. The most interesting bird nesting was the Juba Little Purple-banded
April 1953
The Water-Holes at Ijara
9
Sunbird. The nest of this bird has' not been described before. It was quite
common near Ijara, and three nests were found on August 24-27th, two
with eggs, and one destroyed. All the nests were found on the outer bran-
ches of small bushes about 3 or 4 feet off the ground, and were made of
grass and dead leaves. The eggs, spotted all over with dark brown, measure
(two clutches of two eggs) — 15.4 x 11.1, and 16.5 x 11.3.
Other nests found included those of the following species : — Crested
Francolin c/4, White-browed Coucal, White-headed Buffalo Weavers, and
Kenya Voilet-backed Sunbird.
The following species were seen with newly-fledged young; — Buff-
crested Florican, Yellow-throated Francolin, Lesser Waterhen, White-
faced Tree-Duck, Ground Barbet, and Melba. It was somewhat surprising
to find Woodpeckers in areas so devoid of all but the smallest trees, but
there were holes in m.any of them, especially the Thespesia trees.
Systematic list of all birds seen or collected at
Ijara, August 1951.
Ardea melanocephala Vigors and Children. Black-headed Heron. Three
birds seen.
Casmerodius alhus melanorhynchus (Wagler). African Great White' Egret.
Three birds seen. (One juvenile).
Mesophoyx intermedius hrachyrhynchus (Brehm). African Yellow-billed
Egret. Two birds on one occasion.
Ardeola r. ralloides (Scopoli). Squacco Heron. One at water-hole 3.
Butorides striatus atricapillus (Afzelius). Green-backed Heron One seen.
Nycticorax n. nycticorax (L.) Night Heron. One juvenile. Water-hole 3.
Ardeirallus sturmii (Wagler). African Dwarf Bittern. One seen.
Scopus umhretta hannermani C. Grant Hammerkop. One seen.
Leptoptilos crumeniferus (Lesson). Marabou. Two scavenging in village.
Dendrocygna viduata (L.) White-faced Tree-Duck. 13 seen.
Plectropterus g. gambensis (L.) Spurwing Goose. 3 seen once.
Gyps ruppellii erlangeri Salvadori. Abyssinian Griffon. 2 seen.
Pseudogyps africanus (Salvadori). White-backed Griffon. 3 or 4 seen.
Necrosyrtes monachus pileatus (Burchell). Hooded Vulture. Common.
Milvus migrans sub sp. African Kite. Common.
Teraihopius ecaudatus (Daudin) Bateleur. Seen occasionally.
Melierax poliopterus Cabanis. Chanting Goshawk. 1 obtained.
Francolinus sephaena grantii Hartlb. Colonel Grant’s Crested Francolin.
Numerous and breeding.
Pternistis cranchii leucoparaeus Fischer and Reichenow. Fischer’s Red-
necked Francolin. Seen commonly on edge of wooded country to the
south east of Ijara.
Pternistis leucoscepus infuscatus Cabanis. Yellow-throated Francolin.
Common. Juveniles seen,
Acryllium vulturinum (Hardwicke). Vulturine Guinea-Fowl. Very common
in large flocks.
10
The Water-Holes at Ijara
VOL. XXII
Gallinula angulata Sundevall. Lesser Moorhen. 3 seen.
Lophotis g. gindiana (Oustalet). Buff -crested Florican. A few seen, one
bird accompanied by a juvenile.
Sarciophorus tectus latifrons Reichenow. Blackhead Plover. Common and
often seen in threes.
Rostratula henghalensis (L.) Painted Snipe. One seen.
Actitis hypoleucos (L.) Common, Sandpiper. Numerous.
Tringa ochropus L. Green Sandpiper. One
Tringa glareola L. Wood Sandpiper. One.
Burhinus c. capensis (H. Lichtenstein) Cape Dikkop. A few only seen.
Pterocles d. decoratus (Cabanis). Black-faced Sand-grouse. Not numerous,
but a few came to drink every morning.
Streptopelia s. semitorquata (Ruppell). Red-eyed Dove, not uncommon.
Streptopelia capicola tropica (Reichenow). Ring-necked Dove. Probably the
most common bird at Ijara.
Stigmatopelia senegalensis aequatorialis (Erlanger). Laughing Dove.
Common
Oena c. capensis (L.) Namaqua Dove. Although very common to the west,
we saw only one) bird at Ijara.
Turtur c. chalcospilos (Wagler). Emerald-spotted Dove. Not common.
Centropus s. superciliosus Hemprich and Ehrenberg. White-browed Coucal.
Fairly numerous. Two nests found..
Coracias caudatus lorti Shelley. Somali Roller. One seen.
Halcyon c. chelicuti (Stanley). Striped Kingfisher. Abundant.
Merops superciliosus L. Madagascar Bee-eater. Seen mostly in wooded
country to the East.
Melittophagus pusillus cyanostictus (Cabanis). Little Bee-eater. Two seen.
Lophocerus n. nasutus (L.) Grey Hornbill. Although we did not see this
bird in the rest of our travels through the Northern Province, it was
quite common at Ijara. On three occasions in the wooded country to
the East it was seen to accompany troupes of baboons; but we cannot
say if this has any significance.
Lophoceros deckeni (Cabanis). Von der Decken’s Hornbill. Apart from the
previous species, this wasi the only Hornbill we saw, and it was quite
common.
Scotomis climacurus clarus (Reichenow). Long-tailed Nightjar. Very abun-
dant, especially at dusk.
Colius striatus momhassicus van Someren. Mombasa Speckled Mousebird.
Common.
Trachyphonus damaudii hoehmi Fischer and Reichenow. Black-capped
Ground Barbet. Common.
Campethera nubica pallida (Sharpe). Nubian Woodpecker. Few seen.
Mirafra p. poecilosterna (Reichenow). Pinl^-breasted Singing Lark Common
Seen always singly.
Tmetothylacus tenellus (Cabanis). Golden Pipit. This beautiful bird was
very abundant, always in flocks, which were very wary. It flew to the
trees when disturbed.
April 1953
The Water-Holes at Ijara
11
Macronyx aurantiigula Reichenow. Orange-throated Long-claw, One seen
near one of the water-holes in the evening.
Pycnonotus dodsoni Sharpe. White-eared Geelgat. Common.
Erythropygia 1. leucoptera (Riippell) White-winged Scrub-Robin. Common.
Keeping always to the thickest bush, and uttering loud protests if
disturbed.
Neocossyphus r. rufus (Fisher and Reichenow)'. Red-tailed Ant Thrush.
Found in the thickest herbage around the ponds and very skulking.
Calamonastes s. simplex (Cabanis). Grey Wren-Warbler. Very common.
Cisticola cinereola schillingsi Reichenow. Kenya Ashy Grass Warbler.
Common.
Hirundo dbyssinica unitatis Sclater and Mackworth-Praed. Striped Swallow
The only swallow we saw was almost certainly of this species.
Dicrurus adsimilis divaricatus (Lichtenstein). Fork-tailed Drongo.
Eurocephalus r. rueppelli Bonaparte. White-crowned Shrike. Common.
Lanius cdbanisi Hartert. Long-tailed Fiscal One or two seen.
Anthoscopus< sp. indet. Penduline Tit. Some birds seen, but we did not get
any specimens, and the species was not determined.
Oriolus larvatus rolleti Salvadori. Black-headed Oriole. Only two seen,
Creatophora cinerea (Meuschen). Wattled Starling. A few were associating
with the next species.
Speculipastor bicolor Reichenow. Magpie Starling. Very common. The
large and noisy flocks were seen everywhere.
Lamprotomis p. purpuropterus Ruppell. Ruppell’s Long-tailed Glossy
Starling. Rare.
Spreo fischeri (Reichenow). Fischer’s Starling. Rare, associating with the
other species of the genus.
Spreo superbus (Ruppell). Superb Starling. Very common everywhere.
Spreo shelleyi (Sharpe). Shelley’s Starling. A few seen among the last
species.
Buphagus e. erythrorhynchus (Stanley). Red-billed Oxpecker. Small
numbers on the native flocks.
Cinnyris chalcomelas Reichenow. Juba Little Purple-breasted Sunbird.
we found this rare Sunbird abundant, and apart from the next species,
it was the only Sunbird seen. The males were very noisy and much
in evidence.
Anthreptes o. orientails Hartlb. Kenya Violet-backed Sunbird. One nest of
this species was found in a small bush in the village. It contained two
newly-hatched young and the male was seen to feed the female on
the nest.
Dinemellia d. dinemelli (Ruppell). White-headed Buffalo Weaver. Common
Bubalornis albirostris intermedius (Cabanis). Buffalo Weaver. Some seen.
Ploceus i. intermedius Ruppell. Abssinian Masked Weaver. A few seen.
Pytilia melba sub sp. Melba. Common.
Uraeginthus bengalus ugogoensis Reichenow. East Coast Red-cheeked
Cordon bleu. Seen to the East of Ijara only, on the edge of the wooded
country.
12
The Water-Holes at Ijara
Mammals.
VOL. XXII
A number of mammals sp. indet. were listed as seen or heard at Ijara.
Elephants, though sometimes a nuisance at the water-holes, were not seen,
but a skull, numerous droppings and footprints were most noticeable. The
remaining larger mammals. Hyaena, Gerenuk, Dik-dik, Water-buck, Reticu-
lated Giraffe and Zebra call for no special comment for they are typical
of many areas in the Northern Provience. A cat, taken to be a serval, was
seen at night, and we had fleeting glimpses of a small mongoose and a
squirrel that appeared to inhabit a termitarium.
Only one monkey was seen. We came upon it quite suddenly at water-
hole 3. It was inferred to be the common Cercopithecus aethiops. It seemed
to be about to drink but disappeared very quickly. It had probably come
from the wooded country to the East, where numbers of monkeys were
seen by the authors.
The following animals which have no special significance at Ijara were
seen ; the Ground Squirrel Xerus rutilus rufifrons Dollman, several speci-
mens; a white-tailed Mongoose Ichneumia albicauda iheana (Thomas); and
and a hare Lepus capensis raineyi Heller.
The Bats Nycteris aurita K. Anderson, and Tadarida (Chaerephon)
limhatus Peters were common. Though some were brought in by the
Africans, others were found in hollow trees so characteristic of the area.
Trapping for small mammals produced one shrew, one dormouse, and
two species of spiny mouse. The shrew, Crocidura macarthuri St. Leger,
seems to be a very little known species. The type is described from Mera-
fano, Tana River, in 1932. The authors can give no estimate of its relative
abundance or adaptations. The dormouse was identified as Claviglis
parvus True. The spiny mice were Acomys ignitus kempi Dollman, three
specimens, and Acomys wilsoni ahlutus Dollman, two specimens. A further
specimen sp. indet. was destroyed. It was found extremely important to
visit the traps regularly as the ants tended, as so often in Africa, to damage
the specimens left in the traps too long. Though estimates on such limited
data are risky, the authors had’ the impression that spiny mice were relati-
vely common at Ijara. From experiments in placing traps, it was inferred
that these species were arboreal in habit. It seems probable therefore that
further trapping in the area by an experienced naturalist would be of
interest,
A further rodent recorded was the gerbil Taterillus nuhilus illustris
Dollman. This was quite common. No wild mammals were observed
drinking.
Summary.
The water-holes at Ijara are described. Although severe drought occurs
at times, the rains cause extensive flooding over the Ijara area. They pre-
sent no special problems of isolation.
The species of vertebrates seen during a week at Ijara in August, 1951,
April 1953
The Water-Holes at Ijara
13
are recorded. Though inferred to be but a limited proportion of those
present, they are indicative of an abundant fauna. Two groups of animals
are of special interest, the fishesi and the birds.
The little cyprinodont Nothohranchius guentheri was present, and the
lung-fish Protopterus amphihius in abundance. No evidence was found that
these fishes had been introduced by man. They are inferred to have arrived
at some time in the flood water. A few aspects of this problem are dis-
cussed. Larval specimens of lung-fish were readily obtained. Further obser
vations on their life history would be of general interest.
There is a typical Northern Province avifauna at Ijara, noticeably
richer than in areas further West. Three groups of birds are distinguished,
a semi-desert group, a group partly dependent on the proximity of water
supplies and an aquatic group. Notes on,- the food of these birds are given
where obtained, and the observed occurrences of drinking at the water-
holes. A note is given on the breeding conditions of some of the species,
together with a complete list of all the species seen or collected.
Acknowledgements.
• We tender sinecre thanks to Lt-Col. C. H. Stockley, O. B. E., D. S. O.,
M. C., and Mr. C. Chevenix Trench for information concerning Ijara at the
present time, also to Mr. H. B. Sharpe, whose interesting observations in
the past, and knowledge of the area, have been freely incorporated in this
article. We owe a special debt of gratitude to William Hale and the Kenya
Game Department, and also to Mr. J. G. Williams of the Coryndon Museum,
for his kind encouragement and help. In addition, this would have been
impossible without the kind assistance of Mr. E. Pinhey, Mr. P. Bally, and
other members of the Staff of the Museum. Sincere thanks are also tend-
ered to Dr. H. W. Parker, Mr. J. C. Battersby, Dr. E. Trewavus, Captain
C. H. B Grant, Mr. T. C. S. Morrison-Scott, Mr R. W. Hayman, Miss
A. G. C. Grandison and other members> of the Staff of the British Museum
(Natural History), who kindy identified the specimens collected. For draw-
ing the map, sincere thanks are due to Mr. D. P. Graham.
References.
Budgett, J. S. (1901)1 “On the breeding habits of some West-African Fishes,
with an account of the External Features in Development of Protop-
terus annectens, and a Description of the Larva of Polyterus lapradei”
Trans. Zoo. Soc. London 16. 115
Copley, H. Small Mammals of Kenya. Nairobi.
Edwards D. C. (1940)1 A Vegetation; Map of Kenya. With particular refer-
ence to Grassland Types. Journal of Ecology 28. 377
Goodrich E. S., (1930) Studies oru the Structure and Development of Ver-
tebrates. London.
Jackson, Sir F. J. J. (1938) The Birds of Kenya Colony and the Uganda
Protectorate. London.
Swynnerton G. H. and Hayman R. W. (1950J A Check List of the Land
Mammals of the Tanganyika Territory and the Zanzibar Protectorate.
This Journ. 20 No. 6 and 7 (90).
14
The Water-Holes at Ijara
VOL. XXII
April, 1953.
The Water-Holes at Ijara
Plate 1
Vegetation and Inhabitants.
Plate 2.
The Water-Holes at Ijara
VOL. XXII
Water-hole I.
Y'Jater-hole II.
April, 1953.
The Water-Holes at Ijara
Plate 3
Water-hole II.
Water-hole III.
Plate 4.
The Water-Holes at Ijara
VOL. XXII
Nest of Juha Little Purple-handed
Sunhird.
April, 1953.
15
ELEPHANTS IN THE MOONLIGHT
by W. H. G. Grant.
Early in October this year (1952) I had my first chance after forty
years in East Africa of observing wild elephants at very close
quarters. My son, who has a roving job in South Masailand, met
me in Arusha to take me into camp for one night. His battered safari
truck was ready loaded with an equally battered minimum of camp kit.
We scorched along the fine Stirling Astaldi tarmac road at a speed which
terrified me in view of the vehicle’s condition.
At Longido we spent some time depositing hitch-hikers and leaving
sundry messages of an official nature; then, already belated, struck the
track for Kitumbene Mountain, our destination. This track breaks off the
Great North road to the west four miles on the Namanga side of Longido,
and for the first 19 miles does just deserve the name of track. After
leaving the now abandoned magnesite mine, we drove dead into the
setting sun for another 19 miles over a narrow strip of country, from
which some of the thorn bushes and larger stones had been cleared.
Just at dusk we reached a spot where large Acacia spirocarpa trees and
the only green grass seen for many miles, marked the pools at the mouth
of the pipeline bringing down the water of the Olgedju Longishu from its
gorge four miles up the mountain into the arid steppe. This pipe is a
Masai Tribal Authority work of great utility and value.
Kitumbene is one of the so aptly named “ Inselberge ” of that grand
tract of country between the Rift Valley wall and Kilimanjaro. Some
others of these island mountains in their ocean of bush and grassland are
Gelai, Burko, Mondul, Essimingor and 01-donyo Lengai.
We found a Dutch stock inspector already camped at the pipe line. He
had arrived the day before us, and had spent a restless night. He had had
no sleep on account of elephants round the camp, and he warned us that
we would get none either. At this time of year the country is dry for
many miles, except for the little streams which rise in the dwindling
forest caps of the mountains.
The pipe at Kitumbene ends on a ridge of open bush, and a constant
flow of clear, cold water, gushing out, is led by small furrows to a series
of artificial ponds dug by Wambulu, employed by the Masai. There was
copious spoor, and droppings of elephant and rhinoceros at the ponds; but
all round the pipe mouth the ground for 30 to 40 yards was a foot-step
mass of elephant dung. This gave one an idea of the numbers that must
come to the place every night, and we anticipated an interesting experinece
Nor were we disappointed. Fortunately the moon was full and the sky
clear. At 9.30 the first arrival was a single rhino; but he was evidently
shy and watered well below the camp. Little was seen of him.
At 11 p.m. the boys roused us to see a large herd of elephant approach-
ing the ponds. These too were suspicious and did not come very close;
but for some time were seen clearly silhouetted against the sky. It was
16
Elephants in the Moonlight
VOL. XXII
about 3 a.m. when the real show began. Again the boys woke us, and
hurrying out of bed in pyjamas we found some twenty elephants already
in the nearest pond, ten yards behind our tent. They bathed and squelched
round in the muddy water, ignoring us, our tents, cars and camp fires.
The wind certainly was directly in our favour; but at ten yards range
even elephants could not fail to see all the strange objects. Thirst obvi-
ously accounted for their fearlessness. There was nothing but a light
thorn screen between the herd and us. One cow had a very small calf; it
could not have been more than a few days old. She was the only one of
the herd who looked like being unpleasant. She spread her ears and
advanced a few steps in our direction, but to our relief, thought better of
it and moved off with the rest. It seemed that the cattle-fouled ponds
were used by the elephants for bathing only; for drinking they wanted
only the clean water where it actually left the pipe, or in the furrow
heads a few yards from it. Here the herd crowded round, milling and
shoving each other in their impatience for a turn at the water. The bright
moonlight shone on their great wet bodies, and, seen through glasses, even
their eyes were visible.
A big bull with one broken tusk (no big ivory was seen) may have
been the father of the afore-mentioned baby. I saw its mother lead it up to
this bull, who felt the calf over with his trunk, and then lurched away
into the dark. I could almost hear him say to the mother “Not a bad young-
ster, but do keep him to yourself”.
A little later another bull appeared from down wind of the camp; and
despite a fire not many yards away, stood to drink at one of the furrows.
This animal undoubtedly both winded and saw us all, but must have been
so thirsty that he did not care. We put out the fire, and I crept up to
within 19 yards of him (measured next morning) as he stood and drank.
The water in the furrow was only a couple of inches deep so that the
elephant had difficulty in filling his trunk. Having filled it, he lifted his
head high, curled the trunk into his mouth and squirted the water in;
then, with a still further lift of the head, he swallowed. Between each
trunkful the elephant swung his head and forepart round to look at me,
his ears out like tent flies, but his feet never lifted from the ground. When
satisfied at last, he quietly glided off between the cooking pots left outside
the kitchen hut, and disappeared without breaking anything.
Next morning before breakfast we took the truck up the mountain
track which had been used in laying the pipe line, left it at the intake,
and climbed a steep stone-covered ridge to view the forest cap of Kitum-
bene through glasses. There is still much fine cedar (Juniperus procera)
left; but fires are regularly eating in and it is but a matter of time before
the forest is gone. The lifegiving streams will then become irregular in
flow, flooding uselessly in the rainy season, and dwindling to a trickle in
the dry. Heavy expenditure on the pipe line will then have been in vain,
and thousands of acres of grazing below in the steppe will be lost to the
Masai.
April, 1953
Elephants in the Moonlight
11
Efficient fire protection is the most urgent need, but unfortunately this
does not appear to be appreciated by the Masai Administration. Forest
guards, fire breaks and early burning are essential, if the Masai of posterity
are to inhabit the “ Inselberg ” terrain.
My son drove me to Namanga Hotel, where I caught the bus to Nairobi,
after an unforgettable experience, which could not be surpassed by an
expensive visit to any of the famous game haunts such as Amboseli or
Mzima Springs.
SHORT NOTES.
GREY PHALAROPE IN KENYA.
The following note has been received from the Hon. Matthew W.
Ridley.
“ I think it may be of interest to record that on 17 February 1953 I saw
a Grey Phalarope {Phalaropus fulicarius) on Lake Elmenteita. The bird
was swimming about near the shore at the southern end of the lake and
I watched it at short range and could clearly see the thick bill. Although
I have never seen this species before, I know the Red-necked Phalarope
very well and am in no doubt about the identification.”
This would appear to be the first record of the Grey Phalarope in East
Africa, although it occurs in numbers during the northern winter in the
Gulf of Aden. — Ed.
SPOTTED REDSHANK IN KENYA.
On 8 February, 1953, in company with Sir Charles F. Belcher and Mr.
A. J. Lewis, I succeeded in collecting a first-winter male Spotted Redshank
{Tringa erythropus) on Simini’s Dam, South Kinangop plateau. What was
probably the identical bird was observed on the same dam a few weeks
previously.
In the field the Spotted Redshank (in winter plumage) is not unlike a
slim Greenshank in general appearance, but with legs and base of bill
bright orange-red; it lacks the Common Redshank’s white wing patch.
The call-note of the Spotted Redshank when disturbed is characteristic, a
double liquid “ tuoo.” Messrs. Praed and Grant (Birds of Eastern Africa)
do not record this species from Kenya Colony.
John G. Williams;
Coryndon Museum, Nairobi.
18
VoL. XXIl
SOME EAST AFRICAN HAWK MOTHS
By Lt.-Colonel C. H. Stockley.
Hawk Moths had a great attraction for most of us as boys, and in
later days continue to interest through their distinctive appear-
ance and wide distribution; while their erratic appearances in
some years and complete absence in others, whose advantages seem to be
similar, give us innumerable minor problems to work out through observa-
tion. Thus those of us who carry on collecting outside England find old
friends turning up thousands of miles from where we first met with them.
In East Africa the number of hawkmoth species is far greater than in
England, and I have taken 24 different ones in my garden at the foot of
Mount Kenya; most of them are attractive in appearance, and have
distinct habits and markings.
Thus the big Death’s Head, a skull clearly marked in yellow on its dark
brown thorax, is not only an inhabitant of much of the world’s surface but
has two colour forms of the caterpillar which feed on different plants, yet
the moths which emerge do not differ. Take a caterpillar from a Sodom
apple plant, and another from the potato plot, and it hard to believe that
they belong to the same species. The larva, pupa and adult are all
endowed with the power of making a squeaky, snapping noise, which is
quite startling to the novice. The Death’s Head moth, when settled on the
bark of a tree, is very difficult to spot, and is a great exponent of protec-
tive colouration, its wavy dark and light brown streaks merging with the
bark. The caterpillar was very common near Nyeri in 1951, feeding most
destructively on potato foliage. The larva of this species and its near
relations are easily identified through having a short and rough horn with
a kink in it. Two near relations which one is most likely to encounter are
Euchloron megaera and Coelonia fulvinotata, each of whom has a rough
kinky horn on the caterpillar. E. megaera has deep green forewings and
yellow and black hindwings; and although it is commonest near the Coast,
I recently bred out a dozen or more of them at Nyeri. I have also reared
a number of Coelonia fulvinotata, whose forewings are rather like those
of the Death’s Head, but strongly patched with v/hite.
The most beautiful of all moths is the Oleander Hawk (Deilephila
nerii), which I took in 1936 and never saw again until last year, when I
took more on the wing at verbena flowers, and also bred out specimens.
It is tinted in waves of dark and light green curves, shaded with grey
and pink, the whole looking rather like the “ dazzle ” paintings of a ship
protected against submarine attack. Though it is called the Oleander
Hawk, I never found either moth or larva on that shrub, but have most
often found them on a wild vine.
Another hawk moth, Pseudoclanis postica, did not turn up for several
years, but then became fairly common. As the caterpillar feeds on new
shoots of the commonest jungle tree which edges every road, one would
have expected to have come across it much sooner. A large Hawk moth,
pleasantly coloured in yellow and grey, its larva has a slender horn, grace-
fully curved, and very distinct from the larvae of the first group.
The commonest of all our hawk moths, and one of the larger species
found in East Africa, is the great grey Convolvulus Hawk, which is blest
April 1953.
Some East African Hawk-Moths
Plate 5
Larva of Convolvulus Haiok-Moth.
(Herse convolvuXi).
Larva of Fulvous-Marked Hawk-Moth.
(Coelonia fulvinotata).
Plate 6
Some East African Hawk-Moths
VOL. XXII
Oleander Hawk-Moth.
(Deilephila nerii).
Death’s Head
Hawk-Moth.
(Acherontia
atropos).
April, 1953. Some East African Hawk-Moths 19
with a sufficient long tongue to enable it to reach the bottom of the nico-
tiana flowers, so that a clump of these may have half a dozen grey phan-
toms hovering with a deep hum that can be heard a dozen yards away.
Their bodies are barred with pink, and any time between sunset and
dark a sweep of the net through the tobacco flowers whence this deep hum
is heard may secure one or more of them, and the long tongue be examined
with profit.
Fuchsias in verandah boxes ai’e sure to attract an assortment of
“ Striped ” Hawks, whose caterpillars are marked with an “ eye ” behind
the head. Many of them come to light and dash about the ceilings of our
houses, and far more are taken during daylight, settled inside the house.
The larvae are mostly marked along the sides in continuous lines, and
not with separate lateral oblique stripes; and the Striped and Silver-
striped Hawks of this group are great prizes to be collected occasionally
during a fine late summer in England.
There are many small hawk moths in East Africa which are not found
in England, and have no “ trivial ” names. Some of them are handsomely
marked and shaded in red, and one common one, Basiothea medea, has
green forewings with orange hindwings, and is very plentiful at verbena
and phlox. These are among the earliest sunset hoverers, and at times
may even be seen in company with the Hummingbird Hawk Moth, so like
our English Macroglossa stellatarum. There is also another day-flier, the
pied Leucostrophus hirundo.
Our one large and obvious Beehawk is Cephanodes hylax virescens,
which is also common in Southern Asia, and is much attracted by statice
flowers : a handsome insect, with green and red body.
The absence of English names to our hawk moths is a great handicap
to beginners; but Mr. Pinhey, our Entomologist at the Cory ndon* Museum,
has written an excellent book on the commoner butterflies of Rhodesia, to
which he has assigned English names; and I hear that he is about to do
the same for East Africa. I hope this is true, for beginners need encour-
agement, and to those without a classical education the absence of names
in their own tongue is a serious handicap. Brigadier Evans, the world
authority on skippers, wrote a most useful book on the butterflies of India,
supplying them with English names which he collected from those in use
in schools, and furnishing it with a key. It is invaluable, and has enabled
many boys to make a sound start with collecting. Let us hope that Mr.
Pinhey will be able to do the same for East Africa, though the rearrange-
ment of the Coryndon Museum collection, with much new work on the
“ life study groups,” has filled his working hours to repletion for the last
two years.
Perhaps some local entomologist will start on the Hawk moths, and
then on the large and handsome Saturniids, whose larvae in some years
swarm on our roadside trees. It is even possible to plant part of one’s
garden with a view to harbouring both these big groups. For the trees
involved are mainly those we already plant for ornamental purposes (e.g.
Pepper Tree), while the flowers which attract hawk moths are statice,
nicotiana, petunia, phlox, fuchsia and salvia, already welcome settlers
anywhere.
20
VOL. XXII
HUNTING SHELLS ON THE COAST OF KENYA
By Jane Bailey.
OFF you go, prepared to get really grubby and damp, with an extra
container for minute and breakable shells, and a knife to investi-
gate holes in rock and sand; this will save many a sore finger.
Now what does your reef offer ? If dead coral and rock abound, search
all nooks and corners and turn over anything that is moveable. Small and
large cowries should come to light. There are many species of these,
most of which are common, but you may find a rare one or two, and these
have quite a high value. Small Turbo pyramids, mother of pearl, with
pink or cream bases should be here, also the red-brown Cymation, with
its outer hairy covering. Above the water line on the rock face you will
find the duller shells, such as Limpets, periwinkles, chitons, rock murex,
oysters and barnacles; but among these varied types nice specimens can
be found. Cockles and mussels love the mud between the rocks and sea,
and incidentally, cockles are very thirst quenching; also bi-valves of many
kinds and many of the smaller snail types of shell, though most of the
latter will have lost their original owners and have been taken over by
small hermit crabs. If the reef is fringed with mangrove trees, it is worth
looking under the leaves for minute snails attached by sticky threads.
If mud and weed or muddy sand abound, look for the foliated murex
or spindle shell, with its beautiful branching arms and slender stem.
Scallops of every shade can be found, mauve, yellow, brown and bright
red are the commonest. The whelk; the fig shell, which is rare and looks
just like a fig; the varied scorpion shells; the elephant’s tooth, which is a
small slim horn; the Cassis rufa, or cameo shell; large cowries; spined
oysters; sundial or Architectonicia shell; hatchet cones with blue or pink
interiors and cones are all to be found here.
Always investigate lumps of blackness in these parts, for so very often
they prove to be lovely shells. Most of the shells in such an area have a
muddy coating, especially the cones, which need scraping as soon as they
are found. Don’t forget that though most cones are harmless, quite a few
of them have a very bad sting, and as a precaution, I pierce the animal
as soon as I find it, and never put my hand on the barb which lies at the
narrow end of the aperture.
Maybe in your wanderings you will find a mauve leathery growth
among the flatter rock formations. This always yields good results if you
lift up the flaps on the outer edge, for here many a precious specimen takes
shelter.
Should you have a sandy reef, look for long snaky trails, and dig a
knife’s blade down at the trail end. There is generally a small hump
showing where the shell has buried itself. This method has been known
to produce many a beautifully marked Thereba, or Auger shell, also
Turrets and Olives of shades of grey down to chocolate brown. Bubble
April, 1953.
Hunting Shells on the Coast of Kenya
21
shells, the pure white polinices, large red mitra, a host of minute augers
and small transparent shells can be obtained by this method.
Living coral is a camouflage for some of the loveliest specimens. Here
you will find the harp shells, the white milk cowrie, and don’t forget that
the latter covers his whiteness with a black and red spotted mantle, so
only a streak of the white shows. Larger cowries also love coral, and it
is worth while to turn over any movable coral heads. You may find the
mermaid’s ear, which has the appearance of half a shell with holes drilled
down its side. These help it to float and exclude a surplus of water.
Diving in deep water may produce beautiful trumpet shells or conches;
the trochus, which is small in our waters; the African Green Snail, from
which Kenya buttons are made; the pearly nautilus, which is very hard
to get intact; and the Cassius cornuta, which Kenya people love as a door
stop or a lamp holder.
Do not collect dead shells unless to keep as a specimen until its live
counterpart can be found. Dead shells are useless from a true collector’s
point of view. Sunset shells and purple snails can often be collected
intact from the shore on an outgoing or incoming tide, especially at
Malindi. That rare shell may be awaiting you on the next rock; it did
once happen to me; but the best specimens are camouflaged, and are not
too difficult to find once one’s eye becomes accustomed to the search.
So much for the daylight collecting; but should you wish to go further,
take a pressure lamp on the beach at night. Choose a falling low tide, for
then the shells are humping out of the ground to feed, and the light also
attracts them. It is amazing how many can be collected, but don’t forget
to wear strong shoes, as the sea urchins also like to wander round, and
maybe the stone fish “bevu” and young sting ray are out taking the night
air.
So much for collecting, and now you have the shells at home, and they
all have to be cleaned ! Don’t lose heart. Pack your bigger specimens in
a large box full of sand, and bury the box for four or five days. When
you dig it up the smell will be overpowering, but the shells’ inhabitants
will have almost rotted, and a good rinse in a deep sea pool should clean
them of all matter. If you want to be an expert, save all the opercula, or
doors on the animals, scrape them clean and return each inside its correct
specimen. Whilst speaking of opercula, it is a help to lever them up from
the shell and insert a piece of wood or anything handy into the meat
behind, then bury them, for a closely shut shell can hold out for a week
as it retains its inside moisture. The next procedure is to place the clean-
ed shells in a shady spot for a day or two. The ants will finish any resi-
due left inside, and the fresh air will remove any clinging aroma. Smaller
shells can be pickled in weak solutions of methylated spirit or formalin
without coming to harm. Two days should be sufficient; but your cones,
Terebas, and any more of a similar spiral nature, will need a long thin
needle or wire inserted to grab the animal’s tail, which always seems to
get left behind and causes such unpleasant results.
22
Hunting Shells on the Coast of Kenya
VOL. XXII
Now that all the shells are clean, boil some diluted Hydrochloric acid,
one part acid to three parts water, and dip your shells in the mixture.
Beware of dropping your specimens into the acid for only a skeleton will
emerge. Have beside you a bowl of fresh water, and change this if it gets
dirty. Dip, look and dip again, until you are satisfied, then plunge the
shell into the fresh water. Take care that the inside of the shell is kept
acid free, a wad of cotton wool helps here; but it must be removed on
reaching the fresh water. The acid gives a bloom to your shell, and
removes the outer skin from cones. A good collector cleans one cone and
keeps another of the same species intact with the skin or epidermis.
Your shells, having been dried, are now ready for show case or box.
Place a small piece of cotton wool at the base of the aperture for safety’s
sake, and the work is done. It’s been hard, and you may wonder if it has
been worth while; but forget your specimens for a week, and when you
look again you will be very pleased with your work. So good hunting,
and above all, good cleaning.
Letter to the Editor.
FLAMINGOES.
Sir,
I am trying to collect information on Flamingoes in East Africa, and
I would be grateful if I could use your Journal to appeal for any notes
on these birds which your readers may like to send.
In particular I would be extremely glad to receive information on the
following points :
1. The breeding of either Greater or Lesser Flamingoes in East Africa.
2. Records of numbers of Flamingoes occuring on any lakes in East
Africa at any time of the year.
3. Any evidence of migration to or from or within East Africa.
I should be grateful if information could be sent direct to me.
Yours, etc.,
Sgd. M. W. Ridley,
Government House,
Nairobi, Kenya Colony.
10th March, 1953.
April, 1953.
23
A KENYA ALNOITE AND ASSOCIATED SKARNS*
By William Pulfrey.
Abstract
AXONOTLITE-BEARING alnoite dyke and associated skarns, occur-
ing in a limestone near Muhuroni, Kenya, are described. Micro-
metric analyses are given and the mode of origin of the rocks
discussed. The conclusion is reached that the xonotlite of the alnoite was
produced as a result of the assimilation of limestone in the dyke magma,
but that the precipitation of melilite was independent of the assimilation.
Introduction. Alnoite is a rare basic dyke rock of the lamprophyre
family found in alkaline provinces, and characterised by the lack of felspar
and the presence of the lime-rich mineral melilite. It has been regarded
as the hypabyssal equivalent of melilite basalt lavas, which though rare,
are of more common occurrence. The type was first discovered in 1882
on the island of Alno off the Westernorrland coast of Sweden; since then
examples have been found at few places throughout the world, and
alnoites may be accounted a petrological curiosity. The principal localities
where they have been found are Polzen in Bohemia (where the alnoite
was called luhite), Winnet in Montana, Avon in Missouri, Turij in North
Russia, and monticellite alnoite at Isle Cadieux near Montreal. They vary
somewhat in their mineral constitution, but are broadly comparable with
the original alnoite, of which a modal analysis is quoted on a later page.
Melilite basalts have been described from several localities in Kenya
— Mt. Elgon (Prior 1903, p. 250 ; Odman 1930, pp. 481, 489) ; Sigowet Hill,
Seget valley. Lower Kedowa river, and Nyando river in the Nandi and
Lumbwa districts (Prior 1903, p. 250); and near Fort Ternan station where
melilite nephelinite also occurs (Maufe 1908, pp. 47, 49). They have also
been discovered more recently by official geologists on the Legetet Estates
near Muhoroni, and among the Pleistocene Nyambeni lavas of the Meru
district. Dyke rocks containing melilite have, however, been described
only from Mount Elgon where Odman (1930, p. 505) found two types,
melilite nepheline basalts and bergalites, the latter being allied to the
alnoites, but containing neither olivine nor pyroxene, and often having
a glassy base. But until recently no true alnoite had been found in Kenya,
though a rock allied to alnoite was described by Simmons some years ago
from Elgon (1930, p. 39).
Towards the end of 1944 the writer discovered a small dyke of alnoite
cutting Miocene limestones on the Legetet Estates, near Muhoroni (Fig. 1).
The dyke occurs as a few small outcrops on the Northern slope of the
limestone hill.
*Puhlished hy permission of the Commissioner {Mines and Geology), Kenya.
24
A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns
VoL. XXII
Fig 1. Map of the limestone outcrops on Legetet Estates showing the
position of the alnoite dyke.
Exposure is not continuous, but the topographical expression of the
dyke, in spite of the few upstanding outcrops, appears to be a shallow
depression about 20 feet in width running through the limestone area. On
either side of the linear depression the limestone forms low walls, on the
northern of which skarns are exposed at the contact of the limestone and
the dyke.
Lithology. The alnoite is a hard, dark grey rock, with abundant
phenocrysts of dark brown biotite up to six mm. in diameter, and less
frequent black pyroxene phenocrysts up to three mm. in length. The
weathered surface is slightly brownish and rough with numerous small
protuberances v/hich are due to the superior resistance of the pyroxene
grains to erosion. Some of the joints transecting the rock are lined with
white or ironstained calcite.
The skarns are somewhat variable according to the amount of silica-
tion they have undergone. One specimen (WM 5)* is a dark grey, hard,
fine-grained limestone with a li inch wide band crowded with silicate
crystals and magnetite grains up to 2h mm. across, and with a more
sparse scattering of silicate grains outside the defined band. On weather-
ed surfaces the silicate appears dark and often of rounded form, some
gi’ains having a suggestion of dodecahedral shape. On fresh surfaces it is
black and glassy, or sometimes brownish. Scattered among the dark
grains there are also grains of recrystallized calcite up to three mm. in
diameter.
* Numbers prefixed by WM refer to specimens in the
collection of the Geological Survey, Nairobi.
April, 1953.
A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns
25
Petrography. Thin sections have been made of the alnoite and the
proportions of their minerals measured on a recording micrometer with
the results quoted below. Analyses of other alnoites are given beside that
of the Legetet rock for comparison. The percentages are volumetric.
ALNOITES.
nepheline
WM 1
%
6
A
%
Tr.
B
%
C
%
haiiynite
—
Tr.
—
—
analcite
2
—
—
—
cancrinite
Tr.
—
—
—
olivine
1
5
11.5===*
15.0
augite
14
17
6.8
13.8
biotite
22
30
36.3
26.1
amphibole
2
—
—
—
melilite (and alteration
products)
17
33
'j***
18.3
garnet
Tr.
—
—
—
apatite
Tr.
Tr.
6.9
5.5
magnetite
12
5
j^Q Y*;i:**
9.0
pyrite
—
Tr.
0.7
—
perovskite
4
Tr.
3.4
4.7
xonotlite
20
—
—
—
calcite
+ *
10
4.9
7.6
S.G.
2.95
*in melilite.
**pseudomorphs in serpentine.
***approx. composition Ak 4, Ge 59
WM I. Alnoite. Legetet. Average of two thin sections.
A. Alnoite. Stornaset, Alno, Sweden. Johannsen 1938, p. 381.
B. Alnoite. North-west of Stornaset, Sweden.
von Eckermann, 1948, p. 105.
C. Alnoite. South of Hovid, Sweden.
von Eckermann, 1948, p. 105.
The principal differences between the Legetet rock and the original
alnoite will be readily appreciated — there is considerably less melilite
and olivine, a larger proportion of magnetite and perovskite, an appreci-
able amount of nepheline, and a complete lack of calcite in the matrix,
while there is a large proportion of the calcium silicate xonotlite. Some
of these differences are not so marked, however, when comparison is
made with the von Eckermann analyses. Most recorded alnoites or allied
types contain much more olivine than the Legetet specimens, and the
presence of xonotlite, which is normally an endogenous mineral found in
26
A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns
VOL. XXII
limestones near igneous contacts, has not previously been noted in them.
On Stansfield’s (1923) classification the present rock would be called a
bizardite on account of its nepheline content. It is interesting to find that
von Eckermann (1948, pp. 98-110) has described alnoites free of melilite,
which has previously been considered as an essential constituent. In some
cases however, he shows that melUite has originally figured in the rocks.
been replaced by other minerals.
SKARNS
WM 5
%
WM 6
%
WM 7
%
garnet (large grains)
27.11, _ ,
A A )■ 31.5
4.4 j
7.1 1,
I A ( 8.7
1.6 j
20.31
lOA'r-
garnet (granules)
magnetite
10.4
10.0
12.1
pyroxene
0.5
Tr.
0.8
biotite
—
Tr.
Tr.
apatite
2.1
0.6
2.2
zeolites
—
Tr.
1.8
analcite*
—
1.1
—
perovskite
Tr.
—
—
calcite (by diff.)
55.5
79.6
52.4**
S.G.
3.16
*in a veinlet.
**including some hydrated iron oxides.
The variation in the size distribution of the garnet in the first and last
examples is striking in view of the otherwise similarity of the analyses.
It is equally remarkable that the second specimen, though much less
silicated than the other two, has an almost identical iron ore content,
suggesting that little of the iron introduced during metasomatism has
been fixed as iron oxides. This is supported by a chemical analysis of
nearby limestones showing 6.06 per cent Fe 2O3, which would yield a little
imder 9 per cent of Fe 3O4 (magnetite) on reduction.
In thin section the alnoite is a markedly handsome rock
with its numerous poikilitic porphyroblasts of biotite (Fig. 2a).
The rare olivine is fresh and clearly much replaced by the biotite, or
more rarely, the augite, in which it is usually enclosed (Fig 2b). The
largest grain was probably not much more than one mm. across, and most
appears as rounded granules in biotite. It is colourless and optically
positive, i.e. it is an iron-poor chrysolite. The biotite is sensibly uniaxial
and has dichroism X pale straw (very rarely patchily light green), Y=Z
yellowish brown, sometimes with a pinkish tinge. Most crystals are
markedly poikilitic, but rare large crystals have inclusion-free cores,
surrounded by intensely poikilitic outer zones. The biotite occasionally
April, 1953. A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns 2l
fingers minutely into the enclosed melilites. The pyroxene is augite and
occurs in crystals up to 3^ mm. in length. Many are roughly idiomorphic,
but the faces of the crystals are ragged, and occasional grains have fantas-
tic shape indicating extreme corrosion. The crystals are colourless or pale
green with weak pleochroism, X almost colourless, Y = Z pale green, or
sometimes slightly yellowish. The extinction, Za.c, is 54°, and the optic
axial angle estimated from the isogyres is + 2V = 60°, Many crystals
have an irregular outer zone with a few degrees difference of extinction
from the core, though often there is no difference of colour between the
two portions of the crystals. Occasionally crystals are multiple-zoned,
again with no colour differentiation. More rarely there are overgrowths,
a core crystal having different orientation from apparently similar augite
that has enclosed it. Some crystals have narrow oblique zones of poly-
synthetic twinning. Many are replaced irregularly at their margins by
pale green amphibole. Inclusions consist of iron ore, occasionally nephe-
line, and biotite, some crystals being markedly “ sieved ” by the last. On
none, however, have biotite coronas developed.
Fig 2. Microscope drawings of a thin section of the alnoite,
Legetet Estates. WM 1.
a. Augite in upper part. The remainder of the field is a poikilitic
biotite crystal (wide stipple), enclosing idiomorphic nephelines (white),
corroded melilites (central crack and lines), perovskite (heavy borders or
heavy stipple), and magnetite crystals and grains.
b. Olivine (stipple) enclosed in biotite. The separate fragments of
olivine are in optical continuity.
28 A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skams Vol. xxil
The melilite occurs as colourless or, when altered, yellowish tablets,
which are most conspicuous when enclosed in biotite, though they also
occur elsewhere. The melilite rarely encloses nepheline or is enclosed
by it, but none was seen included in the augite. Most sections are narrow
oblongs, but some rounded hexagonal or irregular basal sections are also
present. The oblong sections always exhibit a central basal cleavage,
with, at right angles to it, numerous fibres of an alteration product which
may be partly juanite, a hydrous lime magnesia alumino-silicate (Larsen
and Goranson 1932, p. 354), but which is probably largely calcite, as the
rock effervesces patchily with dilute hydrochloric acid though no recognis-
able carbonate can be seen in the slides. The degree of replacement by
the fibres is variable and is sometimes complete. No peg structures were
observed. The crystals vary in size up to 0.3 mm. diameter and 0.03 mm.
thickness and are often somewhat corroded, and on occasion intensely.
Optically the crystals are negative, and exhibit blue grey or light grey
normal interference colours. The maximum birefringence measured was
0.0062, suggesting a composition, in simplest terms, approximating 75 per
cent gehlenite, 25 per cent akermanite, and that the molecule is poor in
ferrous oxide (Tilley 1929, p. 350). The crystals are apparently unzoned.
Nepheline occurs as square, oblong, or more rarely hexagonal idio-
morphs, which again, though they occur elsewhere, are most conspicuous
when enclosed in biotite. Some crystals in biotite have their edges well-
rounded, and others in the xonotlite matrix of the rock are ragged rem-
nants of original crystals. Occasionally grains occur in the pyroxene. The
prisms generally range up to 0.1 mm. in length and are rarely as much
as 0.2 mm. The crystals are clear except for occasional small doubtful
inclusions.
The xonotlite forms a matrix for the minerals mentioned previously,
and occurs as radiate fibrous and tufted aggregates. Optically it is posi-
tive with small optic axial angle, and has straight extinction and positive
elongation. The birefringence is between 0.010 and 0.015, and the refrac-
tive indices lie between 1.56 and 1.61, one being a little over 1.5855.
The pervskite is mostly present as sharply idiomorphic octahedra up
to about 0.45 mm across, but also as irregular grains up to 0.15 mm. When
small it appears colourless, but larger grains are brownish yellow, or
rarely the more characteristic pinkish brown tinge of perovskite. It is usu-
ally anisotropic though without lamellar twinning; smaller grains appear
to be isotropic. Rarely it is enclosed in magnetite, and in one case it was
seen to have moulded on nepheline and to have penetrated between that
mineral and biotite.
Magnetite occurs in grains and octahedra up to 0.1 mm. across, lying
in all the other minerals, though often the pyroxenes are devoid of them
or have magnetite grains developed only along their edges. Occasionally
it occurs as thin seams lining nepheline-biotite contacts, and forms partial
coronas around perovskite crystals. Clouds of minute granules are also
present in places. Apatite is present as small slender prisms in the biotite
and as rarer stouter grains associated with analcite. Only one doubtful
April, 1953. A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns
29
grain of garnet was noted — a light brown melanite type, enclosed in
biotite.
The analcite forms colourless isotropic interstitial patches up to 0.3 mm.
across (cf. Bowen 1922, p. 31; von Eckermann 1948, p.99). Associated with
the analcite and xonotlite are small patches of a cancnnite-like mineral.
It is uniaxial and negative, with moderate bifringence.
The remaining mineral of the alnoite is the amphihole, which is fibrous
and secondary, and occurs mainly as fringes on the augite, though small
isolated tufts and fibrous crystals also lie among the matrix minerals. The
colour is variable, pleochroism being X light green, Z pale green or X
bluish green, Z light green. The extinction is Zac = 24°.
Paragenzsis of the alnoite minerals. Several of the minerals present
corroded outlines towards the biotite and there can be no doubt of its late
development. The general scheme of crystallization of the various mine-
rals may be set out as follows, overlap of the mineral names indicating
overlap of their period of formation —
The position of the melilite may be contrasted with that of the St.
Monique (Quebec) alnoite (Stansfield 1923, p. 437), in which it is represent-
ed as being later than the mica, and without idiomorphic shape. In the
alnoitic rocks of Polzen melilite crystallized prior to the pyroxene, some-
times to its exclusion (Stansfield 1923, p. 449).
Minerals of the skarns. The skarns have a much simpler constitution
than the alnoite. Textures are granular and crystalloblastic, the carbonate
forming a matrix for the other minerals. Much of it is fine-grained granu-
lar and dusky, but some has recrystallized as coarse, clear grains.
The most striking feature of the garnet is its occurrence in two genera-
tions, as megascopic grains, and as minute crystals and grains which often
occur as profuse clouds in certain portions of the sections. The granules
are yellow or dusky and usually idiomorphic or “rounded,” ranging be-
tween 0.006 and 0.03 mm. in diameter. There is occasionally a suggestion
that macroscopic garnet grains have been formed by the coalescence of
granules. The large grains are variable in shape ranging from idiomor-
phic to angular non-idiomorphic. The colour is also variable; most grains
have a colour between light yellow and strong yellow, but there are
occasional brown crystals and others are colour-zoned. Some grains have
incomplete brown borders, but occasional grains have brown cores and
rarely crystals have well-developed multiple zoning in browns and yellow-
browns. Frequently zoning ends abruptly at the sharp edge of a grain,
and it is concluded that many of the grains are fragmental. Fragmenta-
tion can be seen in some cases, the spaces left by the parting of fragments
olivine
augite
nepheline
melilite
perovskite
biotite — ? magnetite — xonotlite —
cancrinite
- analcime
30 A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns Vol. xxil
being filled by clear recrystallized calcite. Some of the garnets contain
numerous inclusions of apatite or pools of calcite. This is best seen in a
large crystal in slide WM 5 in which the incomplete outer pale zone is
crowded with apatites, the darker zoned core having few. In another case
garnet has penetrated apatite in irregular growths.
The refractive index of a specimen of the garnet was kindly determined
by Mr. J. F. Robinson of King’s College, Budo, as 1.886 (at 22°C), indicat-
ing that it is a yellow andradite (though probably containing a little of
the grossularite molecule), and where brown a titaniferous andradite,
perhaps in the extreme even melanite. It is mostly isotropic, though
occasional grains are birefringent along cracks.
The magnetite of the skarns varies from idiomorphic to irregular in
shape. Occasional grains have been fractured and subsequently healed by
calcite. Some include small apatites and patches of calcite, and are them-
selves rarely included in garnet.
The pyroxene is scarce, and insufficient is present for accurate deter-
mination of its identity, but it is possibly an aegirine-augite, most of it
being notably pleochroic from light green to yellow green, though rare
grains are almost colourless. The optic axial angle is 80°. Though
occasional porphyroblasts remain entire, most of it consists of much-
resorbed relics, and some is partly replaced by dusky calcite. One grain
in slide WM 6 is surrounded by a corona of garnet granules (cf. Iron Hill
uncompahgrite, Larsen 1942, p. 10) and is much darkened by secondary
iron ore.
Apatite is a common accessory, and is occasionally large. It is often
irregular and frequently enclosed in the garnet, but more rarely in mag-
netite and pyroxene. Some occurs in pools of recrystallized calcite, and
larger grains enclose shreds of calcite.
Biotite was found as small crystals, as small aggregates of crystals, and
as scattered shreds. The colour is variably light brown or green.
Perovskite was noted in only one slide where it occurs as small pinkish
brown crystals. The zeolite present is generally indeterminate though
possibly in one case, where associated with calcite in a veinlet, it is
natrolite. The analcite also occurs in a veinlet.
The paragenesis of the main introduced or recrystallized minerals
of the skarns appears to be —
apatite — pyroxene
— magnetite.
garnet
The possibility of the long-continued crystallization of the garnet is indi-
cated by the large zoned crystal containing apatite inclusions mentioned
above.
Petrogenesis. The question of the mode of development of the alnoite
is best approached through that of the skarns. The chemical composition
of the unaltered limestones not far from the dyke is known, and may be
roughly translated into percentages of minerals as — calcite 85%, hydrated
April, 1953.
A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns
31
iron oxides and manganese oxides (mainly iron) 9^%, apatite 3%, silicates
2^%. The nature and amount of the materials introduced to form the
skarns can be accurately known only when the garnet has been analysed.
In view of the minerals formed, however, it can be reasonably assumed
that the principal radicles introduced were SiOg and Fe20g. These to-
gether with lime from the limestone gave rise to the garnet, carbon dioxide
escaping. Titanium must also have been introduced to form the melanitic
garnet, as there is little titania in the limestones. It is probable too that
a small amount of soda passed from the dyke to its walls, assisting in the
formation of the small amount of soda pyroxene and zeolites.
The zoning of the garnets of some of the skarns is taken to indicate
pulsatory motion of the materials deriving from the dyke. It is also fur-
ther indication that the titania required for the more melanitic portions
of the crystals was most often not derived by abstraction from the lime-
stone.
The fragmentation of the larger garnets is considered as having arisen
by mechanical disruption of the dyke wall rocks after their formation,
followed by recrystallization of much of the surrounding carbonate, so
that fractures are no longer visible in it. The resorption and alteration of
the pyroxene probably occurred at this stage. The small garnets of the
matrix must then have been formed by the fluids from the dyke. An
intermediate stage at which fracturing of the walls could occur may pos-
sibly be explained by the incidence of metasomatism of the limestone
ahead of the dyke and along a Assure up which it was forcing its way,
fracturing taking place when the dyke moved up into the already permeat-
ed zone.
Turning to the alnoite, there is no indication that it did not initially
crystallize from an alkaline melt or a mixture of melt and crystals. The
presence of a considerable proportion of xonotlite (SCaSiOg.HgO) and
perovskite suggests, however, that during emplacement limestone was
assimilated. The presence of melilite would also be taken by some authors
(e.g. Simmons 1930, p. 40) as indicating that limestone had been assimilat-
ed, but as Bowen has shown (1928, p.267), that is not necessarily true. In
fact, if it is assumed that the original magma concerned was of a type
suitable to crystallize as nepheline basalt, as seems reasonable from the
general constitution of the dyke and the nature of lavas of the same volca-
nic sequence, there would be sufficient lime available to account for
all the melilite. The nepheline basalt of Fort Teman, for example, con-
tains 11.96% of CaO (Johannsen 1938, p.343), whereas it can be calculated
that the lime in the alnoite, exclusive of that held in xonotlite, is probably
not far from 11%. Nevertheless there is no doubt that in some cases the
solution of limestone in magmas has led to the production of melilite rocks
(Tilley 1929).
Bowen (loc. cit. p. 259) has shown that in the case of alndites from
Quebec and Montana there is “ no evidence . . . that there was ever a
liquid corresponding in bulk composition with the final product.” In the
case of the first he indicated that the rock consisted originally mainly of
32
A Kenya Ahioite and Associated Shams
VOL. XXII
olivine and augite, which were then attacked by an alkaline fluid, in part
at least the interstitial liquor, leading to replacement by biotite, monticel-
lite, melilite and perovskite. In the present case it seems probable that a
similar process has taken place, the alkaline fluid being the residuum after
crystallization of olivine and pyroxene, though the possibility of a flux of
materials from the parent magma cannot be disregarded. The alnoite
must, however, contain roughly the same amount of potash as the nephe-
line basalts of the area, and it seems unlikely therefore that an accession
of new alkaline liquid was necessary for the reactions to take place, the
residual liquors of the original magma being sufficient for the purpose.
The process of evolution may be conceived as having taken the follow-
ing steps : —
1. The original magma is assumed to have been the equivalent of
nepheline basalt, which on intrusion consisted of crystals of olivine and
probably pyroxene in a basic alkaline fluid. (It should be noted that the
Basement System lies at shallow depth below the Miocene deposits on the
Legetet Estates, and the magmas that gave rise to the lavas and dykes
must have passed through it, but there is apparently no sign in either the
effusives or the dyke that the magmas were affected by it).
2. After emplacement in the lower part of the dyke-chamber augite
would continue to crystallize, olivine being resorbed during the process.
At the same time the composition of the remaining liquid would become
more and more alkaline until nepheline could precipitate. Before nephe-
line had completed its crystallization the temperature of the mass was
sufficiently decreased for melilite, probably containing an appreciable
proportion of the soda-melilite molecule, to begin to precipitate, nepheline
and augite being resorbed concurrently. The latter reaction would lead
to a re-introduction of magnesia and titania into the liquid, on release from
the augite. The liquid remaining would then be a water-bearing solution
containing mainly (K, Na)20, AlgOg and SiOg
3. During stage 2 and as the liquid became more alkaline, limestone
would be dissolved from the walls of the dyke, leading to an enrichment
in lime, most of the COg escaping.
4. At this stage reaction would begin to take place between the already
precipitated crystals and the residual liquid. Biotite, as can be seen in
the slides, replaced olivine, augite and melilite, and to a less extent
nepheline. The reactions may be considered individually as they con-
cerned each mineral —
a. olivine — biotite would form by the addition of (K, Na)20, AI2O3
and H2O from the liquid, with expulsion of some MgO and FeO.
b. augite — biotite would form by the addition of (K, Na)20, AI2O3
MgO and H2O, with the liberation of Si02, CaO, Fe203, and
perhaps Ti02
c. melilite — biotite would form by the addition of (K, Na)20, AI2O3
Fe0(Fe203) and H2O, with the liberation of CaO.
d. nepheline — biotite would form by the addition of K,0 Fe0(Fe20g)
and HjO) with expulsion of NajO and AljOs-
April, 1953.
A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns
33
No precise evaluation of the net result of these exchanges can be made
without knowledge of the chemical compositions of the minerals, and the
amounts of each originally present. But it may be reasonably supposed
that the solution from stage 3 would now have exhausted its supply of K2O
and probably of most of its AI2O3, but would have become still more
enriched in CaO, together with enrichment in FeO (FCgOg), SiOg and TiOg
there being little change in the Na^o content. The enrichment in silica
would account for the intense corrosion of some of the nepheline in the
ground-mass of the rock.
5. During the formation of the liquid of stage 4 the passage outwards
of SiOg, FeO(FegOg), TiOg, and small amounts of NagO) and possibly a little
A1 2O3 in ionic form into the surrounding limestone is postulated. Reac-
tion with the minerals of the limestone would lead to the formation of the
garnet of the skarns, and the little sodic pyroxene would develop. Early
in this process it seems probable that the apatite of the limestone was
first brought into solution and then reprecipitated, while at a somewhat
later stage the inherent iron oxides were recrystallised as magnetite grains.
At the same time magnetite and perovskite would be crystallizing from
the liquid in the dyke chamber.
6. From the liquid then consisting largely of a solution of CaO and
Si02, the hydrated lime silicate, zonotlite, would precipitate until the
solution was largely consumed.
7. The final stage is represented by the crystallization of the remains
of the fluid in what “open” spaces remained, the products being concrinite
and analcime, principally the latter. A little of the final fluid escaped
into the walls where it crystallized as zeolites or as analcime in veinlets.
It is assumed in addition that the replacement of pyroxene by hornblende
also occurred at this late stage, when the temperature had fallen consider-
ably, though there is no positive evidence to indicate in what part of the
sequence it falls.
Such a process accounts for the unique constitution of the alnoite with
its matrix of lime silicate and the constitution of the skarns, and at the
same time supports Bowen’s contention that a liquid excessively rich in
lime is not essential for the precipitation of melilite.
References.
Bowen N.L. 1922. Genetic features of the alnoitic rocks at Isle Cadieux,
Quebec. Amer. Jour. Sci., 5th ser.. No. 3, pp. 1-34.
1928. The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks. Princeton University Press.
Eckermann H. von 1948. The alkaline district of Alno Island. Sver. Geol.
Undersok., ser. Ca, No. 36. Stockholm.
Johannsen A. 1938. A descriptive petrography of the igneous rocks. Vol 4.
Chicago.
34
VOL. XXIl
A Kenya Alnoite and Associated Skarns
Larsen E.S. 1942 Alkalic rocks of Iron Hill, Gunnison County, Colorado.
U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof, paper 197-A.
and Goranson E.A. 1932. The deuteric and later alteration of
the uncompahgrite of Iron Hill. Colorado. Amer. Min., 17, pp.343-
356.
Maufe H.B. 1908. Report relating to the geology of the East Africa Pro-
tectorate. Col. Kept. Misc., No. 45, Cd. 3828. London.
Odman O.H. 1930. Volcanic rocks of Mt. Elgon in British East Africa. Geol.
Foren. Forhandl., Bd. 52, H.4, pp. 455-537.
Prior G.T. 1903. Contributions to the petrology of British East Africa.
Mineral. Mag., XIII, pp. 238-263.
Simmons W.C. 1930. A note on interesting nepheline and melilite rocks
from near Mt. Elgon. Ann. Kept. Geol. Survey, Uganda, for 1929,
pp. 38-40.
Stansfield J. 1923. Nomenclature and relations of the lamprophyres. Geol.
Mag., LX, p. 550.
1923. Extensions of the Monteregian petrographical province to
the north and north-west. Geol. Mag., LX, pp. 433-453.
Tilley C.E. 1929. On melilite as a product of interaction of limestone and
basaltic liquid. Geol. Mag. LXVI, pp. 347-353.
Nairobi, 1949.
April, 1953.
35
TPIE INTRODUCTION OF THE AMERICAN BROOK TROUT
(Salvelinus fontinalis) TO KENYA.
by HUGH COPLEY.
HE American Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) is the North
American I’epresentative of the British Char, such as the Winder-
mere Char (Salvelinus willoughhii). Really all chars can be con-
sidered as varieties of the Alpine char (Salvelinus alpinus). The chars can
be distinguished from the Brown and rainbow trout by their coloration.
The back is dark green becoming lighter on the side, to white on the belly,
often flushed with pale pink or yellow. The back is covered with a marbl-
ing of short black lines, with sinuous lines of black, or rings on the dorsal
fin, while the upper and lower caudal is barred. When swimming the
conspicuous white line with a black base is seen on the forward edge of
the ventral and anal fins. When ready for spawning the lower parts of the
cocks are bright crimson. If identification should be still in doubt, an exam-
ination of the vomer bone in the mouth, will settle the question. In the
trouts the vomer bone, often called the ploughshare bone, is completely
covered with well developed teeth. This bone in the char is broader, shorter
and only carries teeth at the end nearest the throat.
The reason for the introduction of this fish was as follows: There are
in Kenya quite a number of farm dams situated from 7000 to 9000 feet
above sea level which are rain fed, or fed by a small stream only running
for a few months in the year. The water in these dams is far too cold to
support a population of Tilapias. Also, since they have no access to gravel
spawning grounds, trout in such dams will grow but will not spawn, often
dying off when spawn-bound. In an article in a Swedish paper it was
stated that in a number of lakes in Sweden char would spawn on the
muddy side and the ova would survive and keep the lake stocked. Such
a fish was just the answer to our problems, so we immediately got into
touch with D. F. Leney Esq., of the Surrey Trout Farm, Haslemere, enquir-
ing whether any eyed ova, could be procured. Finally some American Char
were found at the Wraymires Hatchery of the British Freshwater Research-
Station, Windermere. We were promised 2000 of these ova when the fish
were stripped, if we would make all arrangements for getting them out.
Mr. Leney took over all that part of the w'ork, and the eyed ova came out
to Kenya with the usual consignment of Brown and Rainbow ova in
January 1949. They were hatched out in a Kashmire box, and by the time
the Hatchery Superintendant arrived in March we had 1,731 fingerlings
for him to look after. It was noticeable that these fingerlings would not
take boiled egg yolk or fish, like the brown and rainbow fingerling; but
would only take liver. We had a disaster in April when we lost 648
fingerlings choked by silt carried down by the river. At the end of
December, 1949, we had 100 fish in the rearing ponds. We found the
American char a far more delicate fish to raise than either brown or
rainbow trout.
36
American Brook Trout Introduction
VOL. XXII
During 1949 we moved 151 American char to three stations for experi-
mental purposes. Mr. Morson let us stock his dam at 01 Joro Orok with 44
fingerlings. and Mr. Baxendale lent us one of his dams, and this was stock-
ed with seven fish on the 14th December, 1949. The main experiment,
however, was made in Lake Hohnel at 14,000 ft. on Mount Kenya. If they
did survive and produce stock, the idea was to stock all the high altitude
rivers and tarns on Mount Kenya ready for the time when this area would
be declared a national Park.
On the 1st of September, 1949, the Hatchery Superintendant, Mr.
Martindale, started off with teh debes each containing ten American char
3" long; two debes to a mule. The highest limit of the bamboos was
reached at 14.30 hrs. and the debes were off loaded and placed in a moun-
tain stream. After the water had been equalised, the fish were placed in
two holding baskets, and left there for the night. The temperature of the
stream water was 5LF. The following morning the fish were replaced in
the debes, and Lake Hohnel was reached at 17.30 hours on the 2nd, Septe-
mber, and 99 fish out of the 100 were safely released in the waters of the
lake, which had a temperature of 51 °F. On the morning of the 3rd Septe-
mber two fish were seen feeding happily in the shallows. The lake was
closed to all fishing.
The 100 fish left in the rearing ponds at the Research Station grew
well, just as well as the Shasta rainbows. On the 13th July, 1950, two
females were found to be ripe and were stripped. This early ripening of
the hens was a surprise, as the brown and rainbow trout of the same age
would not ripen until their second year. In England and America these
fish do not ripen until their third or fourth year. In all seven fish were
stripped, yielding 242 fry in December, which were moved to the rearing
ponds. All fish gave good ova in small quantities; but the cock fish gave
very little milt.
In 1951 the great majority of the hens were spawn-bound, and only
two hens gave a few ova each. The cocks also gave very little milt. We
have a very few fingerlings left. Our experience is the same as that of
German hatcheries — the first stripping is successful but subsequent
strippings are of very little value.
On the 27th September, 1952, the Hatchery Superintendent went up
to Lake Hohnel to see what was doing there. Although he could not
catch a fish, yet he saw about five large fish rising. He saw no small fish
nor any signs of spawning; but he found a dead hen fish, approximately
2J lbs. in weight, which had died owing to becoming spawn bound.
It can safely be said that the results of this importation are a failure
owing to some defect in the environment. Dr. V. van Someren is of the
opinion that the relative hours of light and darkness are wrong; i.e. that
the fish get no winter periods, with short hours of day-light coupled with
too high a water temperature. This failure is a great pity, as the American
char is a bold, handsome fish, which would have filled an empty niche
in the sporting fish of this Colony.
April, 1953.
37
RIVERSIDE DWELLERS OF THE WHITE NILE
hy Mary Myrtle J aques- Aldridge
In the vast, steamy swamps which border the White Nile on its way
through the Sudan are found various Nilotic tribes, and it is strange to
reflect that it was not until three-quarters of the way through the nine-
teenth century that any reliable linformaion at all concerning them
existed. Much remains to be learned. The East bank is inhabited by the
Dinka, the largest of the Nilotic tribes, while the Shilluk are found on
the West bank. The Nuer occupy both banks of the river. All these
tribes dwell in beautifully thatched, circular huts — many raised on piles
above the swampy ground.
The territory of the Dinka extends over a vast area. It is everywhere
flat, and largely swamp in the wet season — a terrain hard on man and
beast. Totemism is strongly developed among these Dinka, i.e. the belief
in a special relationship between a family group, or clan, and a certain
animal, plant or other object. In the case of the Dinka the totem is usually
an animal. If, for example, it is a crocodile, then the people of the group
whose totem it is regard themselves as bound to the crocodile by ties
corresponding to those of human kinship. It is tabu for any man to injure
his totem animal, and many Dinka speak of it as their ancestor and refer
to it in terms identical with those used for human relatives.
And what do they look like, these Dinka? In common with the other
Nilotic tribes they are jet black and the men are unusually tall — about
six feet three or four inches; some have been known to attain a height
of seven feet. They are very thin, with spindly legs. Sometimes they
look really terrifying, their faces daubed with white paint — war paint
— wearing large earrings and carrying enormously long, sharp-looking
spears. It is easy to believe that these warriors have no difficulty in
striking their adversaries with terror. Their* manners, however, are some-
times amazingly at variance with their ferocious aspect as, if one asks
to take their photograph, they will giggle bashfully and pose charmingly
— and then ask for baksheesh.
Some of the women wear silver bracelets from wrist to elbow, some-
times as many as thirty-nine on each arm. Others wear little or no jewe-
llery and are clad in very drab-looking garments. These are probably
married women as, once wed, they have no need to try and catch the eye
of eligible young men and they relinquish their finery to their families
and it may, perhaps, be worn by a younger sister when she reaches
marriageable age.
The Shilluk, not nearly such a large tribe, unlike their neighbours
across the river, who recognise no supreme chief, have a king who is
absolute head and rules by divine right as direct descendant of Nyakong,
the first Shilluk king. Like the Dinka they worship chiefly the spirits
of their ancestors and, again like the Dinka, the Rainmaker is the most
important member of the community. He has absolute authority and is
recognised as being the earthly abode of the spirit of a great ancestor.
When the Rainmaker becomes old, however, he is either buried alive or
strangled and a new one elected.
38
Riverside Dwellers of the White Nile
VOL. XXII
The Shilluk have the reputation of being the best craftsmen of the
river bank portion of the Sudan, for they are excellent thatchers and
iron-workers. Beside canoes they use small rafts made of reed which
resemble almost exactly those used by the ancient Egyptians. This would
seem to support the theory that the Egyptians did, in fact, migrate
South up the Nile.
The men of this tribe sometimes have a row of round scars, often
very raised, like a string of beads, from ear to ear across their foreheads.
Apparently these tribal marks are made at the age of about six years and
the process of achieving them is primitive in the extreme.
A series of punctures is first made with a fish-hook, perhaps with the
string attached, just as it has been used for fishing. Then a half-moon
shaped incision is cut with a short, sharp knife, from one end of the
fish hook punctures to the other. The blood runs down into the eyes, and
is said to have a beneficial effect upon them and to cure all eye troubles,
to which the natives are very subject. Soot, generally obtained from the
bottom of a cooking pot, is finally rubbed into the wounds. The process
may be repeated at intervals, as many as four or five times, until the
desired scar effect is obtained.
The Nuer people are of the same common origin as the Dinka, who
they despise for, they say with contempt, when they set out to raid the
Dinka they leave their shields at home. Their system of totemism is
identical with that of their Dinka neighbours, but they recognise no
divine king, as do the Shilluk, and the Rainmaker has far less ritual
importance. Instead they have a land chief who gives judgement in
disputes, in collaboration with the old men.
Like the other Nilotes, much importance is attached to cicatrisation
and their foreheads are deeply scarred by six horizontal lines, like exag-
gerated frown furrows. The incisions producing these scars are made on
a scale not found in other peoples and have far greater social signifi-
cance, for they form the basis of the initiation ceremonies.
Parents, friends and even young girls may be present at these cere-
monies which are conducted in the following manner. The boy lies on
his back with his head, shaved and annointed with grease, over a hole
which has been dug to catch the blood. The operator squats at his right
side and, with a small sharp blade, cuts outwards from the centre of the
forehead, above the eyebrows up to well over the right ear, down tO' the
bone. This is the main incision and is the most painful, as it severs the
supra-orbital nerve. The next incision is made about a centimeter above
the first, and so on, until six more or less parallel lines have been com-
pleted. The left side of the forehead is then treated in the same way.
Great importance is attached to the boy showing himself courgeous, and
they generally submit to this most painful operation with almost unbeliev-
able fortitude. It would appear that this ceremony takes the place of
the circumcision ceremonies of the East African tribes.
Some of the Nuer cattle present a very curious appearance, for they
have the left horn trained across the forehead, while the right is trained
to point upwards, in exactly the same way as those depicted in the
April, 1953.
Riverside Dwellers of the White Nile
Plate 7
the forehead.
Dinka — wood-ash covering against insects
39
April, 1953. Riverside Dvoellers of the White Nile
ancient Egyptian wall-reliefs in some of the tombs of Sakkara — another
indication of the migration South of the ancient Egyptians.
It is habitual for these Nilotic tribes to go naked, their only adorn-
ment being beads — perhaps a string round the neck and another of the
same colour round the waist. The fashion in the colours of the beads
changes every few years. Many saunter about smoking long pipes, and
the combination of nudity and a pipe is extraordinary. Many smear
themselves liberally with wood ash as protection against the stings of
insects.
The various hair styles of these people are very unusal. Some emp-
hasise the hair-line with a band of orange chalk, probably brick dust,
while others render their naturally frizzy hair quite straight, so that it
stands out like a halo, and at the same time dye it red. This effect is
achieved by plastering the hair and scalp with cow-dung, tying it up in
a piece of cloth and leaving it for about three months. There daub a kind
of white paste over their heads, the hair sticking up in tiny isolated
knobs all over the scalp.
The women of the tribes, like the men, frequently go about comple-
tely naked. Some present a very startling appearance, with their heads
shaved except for a strip of longish black hair running from their fore-
heads across the top of their heads to the nape of the neck. The shaved
portion is dyed red. Some wear small, thick, silver rings through their
upper lips, and the variety of ornament seems infinite-bracelets formed
from a round section of elephant or hippo tusk; strange necklaces of
beads made from large seed-pods bound together with elephant hair;
and some wear huge safety-pins through, their ears.
One fashion among these riverside dwellers is particularly ugly, as
well as most impractical. The upper front teeth are wedged in early
childhood in such a way that they protrude from the gums at an angle
of about ninety degrees. In addition they are sometimes filed too sharp
points. These malformed teeth are a much coveted aid to beauty.
Many, man and women alike, possess a most pungent and unpleasant
odour, due to their habit of bathing themselves in cow urine. They wash
all their cooking utensils in cow urine too, and this acts not only as an
antiseptic, but it makes up for the absence of salt in their diet.
Those who have spent their lives among these primitive Nilotic tribes
have, perhaps unwillingly, been convinced that it is foolish to assume
that every Pagan custom is rooted in savage ignorance and marked by
complete disregard for all moral issues. The point of view of such people,
as well as their reasoning, will of course be strange to Western ways of
thought. There is ignorance, bigotary, and callousness* without a doubt.
Many have been surprised however, at the fundamental similarity of
outlook of black and white on major issues. To both it seems foolish to
deny the existence of a Creator Deity; and the faith of the black is, in
all probability, more vivid and unquestioning. To both justice is an ideal
and the maintenances of law and order among a community desirable,
if not essential.
40
VoL. XXII
THE HOUSE OF THE DHOW.
by JAMES KIRKMAN.
The private houses of Gedi, lying between the Palace and the east
boundary wall of the city, follow a standard plan consisting of a sunken
forecourt and a long front room with doors leading into two suites of two
rooms each. The structure known as the House of the Dhow, which was
excavated last year, follows the traditional plan, but with the addition of
an inner court. Part of this building goes back at least to the beginning of
the period of rehabilitation of the city in the early 15th centruy. It remain-
ed in occupation until the end of the 16thi century, when, from the absence
of characteristic late ceramic types, it appears to have been abandoned,
rather before the end of the life of the city. During this span of two
hundred years it underwent alterations and additions, reflecting vividly
the vicissitudes of a builiding lived in by generations, each with their needs
and problems. Finally, as “the conclusion of the matter”, the large tomb
was built at the north-east corner of the building where the last owner
rests undisturbed. This is the tomb of the Sharif Hasan Saidi bin Abdullah,
incidentally the only tomb at Gedi with a name that has not been for-
gotten. There are traces of an inscription made in the wet plaster of the
tomb, but they are now too worn to be legible. Below the house, traces
of sub-structural occupation were found, similar to the sub-structural
occupation below the mosque at Kilepwa.
The original house seems to have consisted of two series of rooms, but
this building was soon converted into the characteristic Gedi house with
the triple series of rooms. The entrance was at the south end of a long
sunken court or “ukumbi” with a platform in front of the facade
of the house. From the platform, doors led into the house and an
inner court. At the other end of the long front room was a lavatory with
a carefully plastered pit, 27 ft. deep, and a bench and seat for washing.
Behind were two rooms, the last with internal pilasters at the outside
corners and a platform raised about a foot from the ground, on which the
sleeping mat would be laid. The inner court, which was used as the
“haramlik”, or women’s salon, had also three rooms behind it.
This large house was subsequently converted into two by the block-
ing of the doorway between the courts, the opening of a doorway in the
outer wall of the inner court, and the construction of another lavatory
at the end of the front room. At the same time another residence was
built, consisting of rear and side rooms taken from the old house, to which
was added a long room with a narrow sunken court-yard in front of it.
The single small bedroom of the new house has the sleeping platform and
was entered originally by a door with a high sill which was reached by
a wooden step. Other examples have been found at Gedi of this type of
interior doorway, which was particularly approved for bedrooms. Behind
April, 1953.
The House of the Dhow
Plate 8
Views of Gedi and Some Recent Finds
April, 1953.
The House of the Dhoio
41
this room was a chamber without a door, entered by a trap door below
the ceiling, which was a store. These chambers with access from a bed-
room exist in all the houses at Gedi, and it is probable that their primary
purpose was to keep the bags of cowries which were the currency.
The new house was sandwiched between the large house described
above and another house which has not been excavated. At the side of the
new house is an open court or enclosure used as a store, or, less likely,
as a lock-up for slaves at night. It is entered beneath a tall arch and on
the inside is a platform, about six inches above the main level of thp court.
In the wet plaster of the walls of Rooms H and D rough pictures were
incised. The sketches in Room H portraying kites and a. bird, possibly an
ostrich, are the artless scrawlings of children, of more interest to psycho-
logists than archaeologists! But the third, on the wall of Room D, is a
conscious work of art and is a recording of an actual event — ■ the launch-
ing a dhow, perhaps the “bon aventure” that paid for the house. The
picture has unfortunately deteriorated and the drawing has been made
with the help of a photograph taken some years ago by Mr. Colin Campbell
of Kericho.
The roofs of the middle series of rooms and the lavatories Z and AB
were of coral tiles; the other rooms seem to have had red earth and rub-
ble roofs. This is contrary to the normal practice, which is to pay more
attention to the outer than the inner rooms of the house.
The most interesting find archaeologically was the rim of a large bowl
with both ribbed and incised decoration. This sherd came from a cutting
outside the east wall of the inner court A.l, and belonged to the sub-
structural level. It is the only sherd so far found at Gedi in which the
ceramic features of the inhabitants of the Gedi area before the coming
of the Arabs are combined with those of the new arrivals. In this level
were also found sherds of a number of large-shouldred bowls and bowls
with in-curved rims and a dark crimson paint on the inside, which were
common at Kilepwa, but which have been scarce at Gedi.
Some of the finds are shown on Plate 8. At the top is an, iron
point, perhaps a fish-spear. Below this is a plasterer’s trowel, which was
found at the bottom of the lavatory shaft, and two copper bracelets. The
trowel was made at latest in the 16th century; but would have caused
little comment if seen in a mason’s hand to-day ! The two sherds of porce-
lain are: left, a sherd of a celadon dish with fish embossed on base; and
right, a section from rim to base of a, small blue and white bowl with a
broad band of formal decoration below the rim. The pattern is outlined
in dark blue, and it can be dated to' the middle of the sixteenth century.
The two ivory pommels between the sherds were found on the floor of
Room H. The ivory necklace includes more than 150 beads, and came from
the bottom of the lavatory shaft in Room Z. It must have been deliber-
ately thrown in, perhaps to get somebody into trouble. There is no reason
to suppose that “fitina” was any less common in the 16th century than
it is today.
HOUSE OF THE DHOW
House of the Dhow
VOL. XXII
42
44
VoL. XXII
OBITUARY
MOLONY — On 22nd August 1952 the death occurred of the Hon. Mrs.
Evelyn Molony who, as Miss Napier, was the first Botanist employed by
the Coryndon Museum, where she worked from 1930 to 1934.
Miss Napier had always been interested in botany, and after her
ai'rival in Kenya in 1922 she used to draw and paint wild flowers for her
own amusement. In 1929 Mr. Ernest Carr, a keen supporter of the Coryn-
don Museum, saw the flower paintings and felt that they deserved a wider
public; he gave a grant to the Museum for the purpose of paying a
salary to Miss Napier as Botanist for the period of four years. Having
had no previous training in botany. Miss Napier accepted the appoint-
ment with some hesitation. She went home, and after some months in
Kew, where she received a botanical grounding, she returned to start
her post at the Museum in 1931.
Although Miss Napier was always very modest about her accomplish-
ments, one cannot but feel the greatest admiration for the magnificent
work she did in four short years. Not only did she build up a very useful
Herbarium of East African plants, numbering over four thousand mounted
sheets, but she also published a series of papers, illustrated with her own
line-drawings, on the East African Flora for the Journal of the “East
Africa and Uganda Natural History Society”. She adorned the Botanical
Exhibit Room at the Museum with a great many of her excellent water-
colour drawings of indigenous plants, and made four of the six beautiful
colour plates for the first edition of “Gardening in East Africa”, 1934.
The Hon. Mrs. Evelyn Molony.
April, 1.953.
Obituary
45
Miss Napier’s name appears as one of the collaborators in White and
Sloane’s standard work on the Stapeliads published in 1937, for which she
supplied all the local information available on the subject, as well as a
number of illustrations. The authors named Stapelia molonyae after her.
At the Kew Herbarium, with which she continued to collaborate and
where she sent her collections to be studied and named, Miss Napier’s
work was much ajl^ireciated; her plant material was always well preserv-
ed, fully annotated and often amplified with sectional drawings.
Miss Napier went to England on leave at the end of her contract with
the Museum. She returned to Kenya in 1935 to marry Mr. D. W. Molony,
who was farming there, and whom she had known since 1926.
Marriage, with children to bring up and life on a farm, left little
leisure for botanical studies; but Mrs. Molony continued to show great
interest in the Museum, and when ever she found an opportunity she
brought plants for the Herbarium.
When, four years after she had left the Museum, the writer took over
the duties of Botanist, Mrs. Molony was most helpful with her advice,
and greatly facilitated his task. She kept in close touch with the Her-
barium until the outbreak of the war, when her husband joined the Army
and the heavy burden of running the farm and educating her children
fell upon her. Indeed, in addition to her own, Mrs. Molony supervised the
work on other farms whose owners had joined up; and it was only
natural that her visits and contributons to the Herbarium ceased alto-
gether.
However, her interest in the Museum remained to the last. As Miss
Evelyn Napier her name will always be remembered in connection with
its early development, not only for her work, but also her loyal and
charming personality.
P.R.O. Bally.
Sept. 1952.
46
VoL. XXIt
BOOK REVIEWS
“BIRDS OF EASTERN & NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA” : Vol. I pp xxv,
798 (with Index 836): by C. W. Mackworth-Praed and C. H. B. Grant.
Longmans, Green & Co., 1952. Sh. 45/ — .
Bird lovers in Kenya and elsewhere have been waiting a long time
for this book; and it is to be hoped that the second and final volume
will not be long behind the first in appearing. The work as a whole which,
it seems, is, meant by the publishers to form part of an aggregate of bird
books to be entitled “The African Handbook of Birds”, covers the area
comprised by the Sudan and Eritrea in the north, right down to parts,
not very clearly defined, of Nyasaland and Portugese territory in the
south. The present volume deals with all the non-passerine birds, and two
families (Pittas and Broadbills) of the passerines.
Nobody who is interested in birds and can afford a rather expensive
book will fail to secure a copy of Praed and Grant’s work, for which reason
a lengthy description of it here would serve no purpose: a general idea
must suffice, with some suggestions for improvement in the later editions
which must surely come. Perhaps they will take the form of re-writing.
The systematic plan, and the nomenclature must always be the chief
worry of the writers of a new book on birds. It is a step forward, and not
backward as might appear, that in this book the species, and not the
geographical race, is made the unit and given a serial number. There are
653 numbers in this first volume; so it looks as if when the passerines
are added in the second volume the total will run well up to 1500. The
suggestion is made that this might be considerably cut down by a rele-
gation to sub-specific rank of some of the forms which the authors class
as full species; and at the same time by the omission of the sub-headings
(relating to characters, distribution, habits, food, etc.) when races are
being treated. Once per species would be sufficient, and then all that
would be necessary would be an idication of racial character-difference,
and the range, in the case of forms other than the nominate, or the most
important. To take one example from the present volume, nobody with
an acquaintance of the species in the field could doubt that the differ-
ence between Caprimulgus feridus and C. pectoralis is racial only; yet,
following many writers in the past the authors separate them specific-
ally; and habit differences between conspecific races can but seldom be
said to exist.
The marginal distribution maps are a great help; and in some families,
such as the Storks, the marginal black and white drawings are adequate
for identification (except in the case of the Black Stork and Abdim’s where
the smaller bird is depicted as being the larger of the two). The 53 colour-
ed plates do not comprise all species; but they show the majority, and
are well executed and free from the unfortunate over-crowding seen in
Robert’s book.
There are a good many changes in nomenclature from that of Jackson’s
book. This is to be deplored; but it will go on from year to year until
there is some Anglo-American body brought into existence whose fiat
would settle a name for say, at least ten years, when the same body could
April, 1953.
Book Reviews
47
issue revisions, equally authoritative. Meanwhile we must just go on acqu-
ainting ourselves with the new names put forward, remembering that
they in turn may be superseded, and perhaps the old ones restored, as
so often in the past.
For Kenya the new work will not replace Jackson, not only because the
areas covered are not the same, but because the inevitable compression in-
volved in getting so much detail into a manageable compass leaves no
room for anything resembling the lasting charm of Bawana F.J.J.’s field
descriptions — never too long for the nature lover. But you must have
Praed and Grant as well as Jackson, and then all desiderata that the pre-
sent state of knowledge can supply will be met.
The oologist, as always, will remain unsatisfied. He wants more detail
than any book nowadays can reasonably give without getting lop-sided.
But at least really famous doubtful records — everyone of the older
brigade knows which they are — might have been either omitted or
supplemented with references which would have enabled proper evalua-
tion by the younger generation.
In a future edition it is thought that more stress might well be laid
on points of difference between species that are puzzlingly alike on first
acquaintance. What is very superficial to the ornithologist may be baffl-
ing to the beginner.
Lastly, the authors’ statement in the Preface that the book is not
meant for the library shelf, but for use and reference in the field, can
surely be no more than the expression of a pious hope, unlikely of fulfil-
ment. The first volume weighs pounds; and anyone who has taken
Jackson (about 4 pounds to the volume) with him once into the field has
probably never done so again. All right for the car perhaps; but in Kenya
at all events, where the roads are the worst in Africa, damage will be
done even on a car trip. If you think of subjecting this costly book to the
dust, heat and sweat that are the normal adjuncts of African, bird-watch-
ing, get a nice leather satchel made for it with sheepskin lining, or, better
still, buy two copies and keep one rigorously at home. But try your hand
first at identifying a small Hawk in flight by means of the key which
begins at page 116. The present reviewer can only afford one copy and
will keep it handy — but on a shelf.
The pocket volume of African birds has yet to be written.
C. F. B.
“UNDER THE SEA WIND”, by Rachel L. Carson
Staples Press Ltd., London.
This book is by the author of “ The Sea Around Us,” a best seller
in America to which much publicity was given. Many such books have
lately been produced in America, of which the best so far is “The Bay”.
The present book describes the migration adventures of two sander-
lings, the mackerel and that old stand-by, the eel. Interposed with these
are mullet, sea trout, shrimps and many other things, all described in
high-power language. If you know nothing about these things, it is worth
reading. The illustrations in the English edition are by C. F. Tunnicliffe.
H. C.
48
Book Reviews
VOL. XXII
“THE SHOALS OF CAPRICORN”, by F. D. Ommanney.
Longman, Green & Co., London.
Dr. Ommanney was a scientific Fishery Officer on the Seychelles-
Mauritius Fishery survey which was conducted in a 45 ton drifter, the
“Cumulus”. Anyone expecting to find out all about this survey and its
results will be disappointed; but as an account of the author’s impressions
of Mauritius, Seychelles, Aldabra, and many of the small islands, the
book is first class, and written in English up to Ommanney’s best stan-
dard. To the average person, even in Kenya, these islands are vague names
and a holiday' trip to the Seychelles would represent the total knowledge
of the majority. The book is written with wit and humour, and has
good photographs. I advise everyone to buy it.
H. C.
“THE GAME FISHES OF AFRICA”, by Hugh Copley, O.B.E.,
H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., London.
In the author’s note he states that his object in writing the book is “to
help and guide men situated in any part of Africa in their efforts to
catch fish”; and one cannot read many pages before realising that he
has achieved his purpose. It is a book for reference, to keep ready to
hand, and not just to pick up one evening after dinner.
After an introduction in which fish, their organs, senses and functions
are shortly discussed in non-technical language, the book goes on to its
first Section, the Sea Fishes. Each fish which the angler will catch, or
see in the fish markets, is described by its common name, its scientific
name, and its native local name. Distribution, localities and description
are given; and finally, under Remarks, are discussed sporting value, baits,
edible qualities, weight attained, and other information of interest to the
angler.
After sea fishes comes a section on Freshwater fishes, followed by a
section on baits. The indexing is very thorough, having two parts, one of
the common and native names, and the other the scientific names.
The book is illustrated by 24 plates of photographs, and 176 line draw-
ings. The paper and printing is of a high standard and the book a comfor-
table size to handle. It treats of the whole of Africa, and is unique in that
respect. The author says “the book is purely a beginning, much has been
missed, mistakes may occur, and sporting fish may have been omitted”,
but it is a grand beginning, and will be a standard for many years to come.
D. F. S.
“A COLOURED ATLAS OF SOME VERTEBRATES FROM CEYLON”.
Vol. I. Fishes. by P.E.P. Deraniyahala. Ceylon Nat. Museums.
This is volume I of a series of publications on the Vertebrates of
April, 1953.
Letter to the Editor
49
Ceylon, written by the Director, Dr. Deraniyagala, and with his own
illustrations, consisting of 34 coloured plates and 60 text figures.
Naturally the book does not deal v/ith anything like all the fishes of
Ceylon; but it does deal with all the fresh water ones and a few of the
marine families. It can be warmly recommended to any person interested
in fishes and especially in those of Ceylon; and it forms a welcome addi-
tion to the Society’s Library.
H.C.
Letter to the Editor :
RESEARCH ON AFRICAN BATS.
Sir,
I am engaged in working on the status of various African bats and
should be grateful if I could appeal to readers of your Journal to help me
in acquiring specimens. Specimens of any species from any part of Africa
would be most welcome and helpful to me in my research.
Bats are best preserved by being put as fresh as possible into a solu-
tion of 10% formialin or industrial spirits. Before immersion it is impor-
tant that a small slit be made in the belly to allow rapid fixation of the
viscera by the preserving fluid. A pencil written label giving date and
locality should be attached. When the specimens have been in preserving
fluid for two or three weeks, take them out and pack in damp paper or
cotton-wool in a tin, to prevent drying-out, and send airmail parcel post
(6/- per half pound), labelled Natural History Specimens of No Commer-
cial Value to
Dr. David L. Harrison, Bowerwood House,
St. Botolph’s Road, Sevenoaks, Kent, England.
I shall be pleased to refund postage expenses.
Yours etc.,
25 Feb. ’53. Sgd. David L. Harrison.
Editor’s Note. — It is hoped that as many readers as possible will assist
Dr. Harrison in his bat researches. Among his forthcoming publications
is an important one dealing with the bats of Kenya Colony, giving charac-
ters by which our local species may be identified, which will be published
in this Journal. If it would assist any member of the Society who secures
bat specimens, the Editor is prepared to pack and forward these to Dr.
Harrison.
50
VOL. XXII
NOTICE TO READERS.
The Editor has received the following notice from Colonel B. E.
Horton : —
“ House to let, Shimoni, Kenya coast; fully furnished stone lodge,
3 bedrooms, bathroom, inside sanitation, ample water, house-servant.
Secluded, peaceful and trouble-free. Good anchorage. Cheap fish, eggs
and poultry available.
Charter 18 ft. auxiliary sea-going day boat arranged. Apply B. E.
Horton, Shimoni, via P.O. Mombasa.”
The Editor has pleasure in bringing this notice to the attention of
members on his own personal recommendation. Shimoni is one of the
most interesting localities on the coast for a naturalist, especially those
keen on birds (many sea birds breed on an islet just off Shimoni), marine
fauna and butterflies.
Printed in Kenya By W. Boyd & Co. (printers) Ltd,
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
OCTOBER, 1953.
VOL. XXII.
No. 2 (94)
EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
Patrons.
His Excellency The Hon. Sir Evelyn Baring, k.c.m.g., k.c.v.o.
Sir Philip Mitchell, k.c.m.g.
Sir Henry Moore, k.c.m.g.
President.
Hugh Copley Esq., o.b.e.
Vice-President.
R. W. Rayner Esq., b.a., a.i.c.t.a.
Executive Committee.
P. R. O. Bally Esq.,
Colonel M. K. Cowie, m.l.c.
W. Hale Esq., b.a.
J. S. Karmali Esq., b.pharm., ph.c., d.b.a.
Miss E. J. Blencowe, s.r.n., s.c.m.
J. McDonald Esq., c.b.e., d.f.c.
Miss M. D. Ball.
P. J. Greenway Esq., o.b.e., f.l.s.
Secretary.
Miss D. Ewing. -
Hon. Editor.
J. G. Williams Esq., m.b.o.u.
Hon. Treasurer.
W. R. Bowles Esq.
Hon. Librarian.
R. A. F. Brenan Esq., m.a.
All correspondence in connection with this Journal should be addressed to :
The Hon. Secretary, P.O. Box 658, Nairobi.
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
OCTOBER, 1953. VOL. XXII. No. 2 (94)
CONTENTS
Page
The Study of Snails and Slugs in East Africa
By B. Verdcourt
(Illustrated)
52
The Tilapia Fisheries of the Kavirondo Gulf
By H. Copley
(Illustrated)
57
On The Northern Uaso Nyiro
By M. Dalton
(Illustrated)
62
Mudworts in Kenya
By B. Verdcourt
(Illustrated)
65
A Small Outbreak of Euproctis rubrlcosta Fawcett (Lepidoptera,
Lymantriidae) in the Eastern Province of Tanganyika
By J. Phipps
67
Some Speculations on the Sudden Occurrence
History of Lake Magadi
By T. H. White
of Floods in the
(Illustrated)
69
Amboseli National Reserve
By M. Dalton
(Illustrated)
72
Short Notes ...
73
Notices ...
75
Essay
76
52
VOL. XXII
THE STUDY OF SNAILS AND SLUGS IN EAST AFRICA
By Bernard Verdcourt, b.sc., f.l.s.
Most members of the Society probably see a few snails during their
rambles, but have not been able to identify them. Many may not have
realised that they are worth collecting. Much material is .still needed from
East Africa particularly by local Museums. Every member can help by
collecting. Material complete with the animal preserved in spirit is parti-
cularly needed. Almost any species of snail drowned, and then preserved
is of great value for anatomical investigations. Any member thinking of
specialising on a particular group could do a considerable amount of new
work. The writer is willing to receive material at the East African Herba-
rium, P.O. Box 5166, Nairobi and attempt identifications. Any material
received will be put in the study collection of the Coryndon Museum.
Snails and slugs belong to the Mollusca which is the second largest
group in the animal kingdom, following the insects in abundance of
individuals and species. It comes a very poor second, however, there being
perhaps about 70,000 described molluscs as against a million or more
insects. The phylum Mollusca contains a wide variety of animals which
would perhaps not be associated with each other by a layman. Octopi,
mussels, chitons, slugs, sea and land shells all belong to the same phylum.
It is not a very easy group to define; most of the members of it have a
shell which is laid down by tissues known as the mantle; those having a
head develop a highly characteristic rasping organ termed a radula (about
which more will be said in another article); most species have a muscular
foot used for locomotion; and all have a rather com.plicated nervous and
reproductive system. In this paper we are concerned with only two out
of the five main groups contained in the phylum — the Univalves (Gastro-
poda) and the bivalves (Lamellibranchiata). Snails and slugs are of course
closely related to marine shells but students and collectors usually con-
centrate on one group or the other.
Non-marine m.ollusca have always been favourites with amateur natural-
ists and although the group impinges but little on the layman, there is a
vei’y large amount of literature devoted to the subject. There are two
national journals in England alone and 15 others published throughout the
world which are well-known. There are innumerable obscure ones.
Despite thisi general activity the East African fauna is not well-known. If
one finds a snail in Europe, North America or South Africa there are
lavishly illustrated monographs vrhich render naming it easy. If, however,
one tries to name a snail in Kenya one is faced with a very difficult task.
There is no faunistic work which has in it a compilation of the scores of
scientific papers which have been written on East African land and fresh-
water mollusca. This literature is very scattered in German, Italian,
French and English language journals. Unless one has a very good
knowledge of the genera of tropical African mollusca. and an extensive
iibiary the naming of individual specimens is difficult in the extreme.
October, 1953. The Study of Snails and Slugs in E. Africa.
53
There is no professional specialist in the group in East Africa, neither is
there a good collection from which one could at least name by comparison.
The existing collection at the Coryndon Museum is a good nucleus and
when organized and expanded will be invaluable to anyone wishing to
study East African Mollusca.
Mention should be made of the annually published Zoological Record,
a publication the more recent volumes of which are available at the library
of the Coryndon Museum. Abstracts of nearly all papers published on
Mollusca are included in the appropriate section of this publication and
readers can .see what work has been done.
There are other difficulties. The study of East African mollusca is
strangled by the indifferent work of some of the previous students. These
people described large numbers of species from poor “dead” (i.e. devoid of
animal) shells without reference to anyone else’s work at all. The whole
stage is therefore cluttered with synonymy. One sends the same species to
three people at different museums and as often as not one gets three dif-
ferent names back. This state of affairs always happens until a group is
revised and synonymies sorted out. In many groups such revisions were
carried out long ago (birds, mammals, butterflies etc). Without a know-
ledge of the anatomy of a snail it is often quite impossible to put it in its
correct genus. The dissection of a minute snail is a very skilled job. These
early workers paid no attention to this side and the correct genus of several
hundred species will be unknown until material is reobtained from the type
localities and dissected. It will be as well to give a very rough idea of the
work which has been done and what books are available. All the early
explorers and many missionaries (French in particular) picked up a few
shells e.g. Speke and Grant, Burton, Schweinfurth, Last, Grandidier, Emin
Pasha, et al. and these were described chiefly by J. Bourguignat, a Parisian
naturalist well-known for his incredible splitting and enormous output,
who has left chaos everywhere, Crosse and Ancey, both French, Edgar
Smith of the British Museum, the greatest expert of his day, and many
others. Their papers are to be found in Journal of Conchology, Proc.
Malacological Soc., J. de Conchyliologie, and private publications. The
exceedingly odd fauna of Lake Tanganyika which has led to raging
arguments concerning the history of the lake has a voluminous literature
of its own which increases yearly. The earlier literature is admirably
summarised by Cunnington (1920). The first compilatory work is that by
the great expert Edouard von Martens (1898) but it deals mostly with
Tanganyika. Although it is exceedingly rare and the nomenclature out-
dated it is very useful since nothing else has appeared. The monumental
works on the mollusca of the Belgian Congo by Pilsbry and Bequaert
(1919 & 1927) are of great value particularly where the Mollusca of Uganda
are concerned. Connolly’s works on the mollusca of Portuguese East
Africa (1925) and South Africa (1939) are also helpful. During this present
century numerous papers have been published by Preston, D’Ailly, Daut-
zenberg, Connolly, etc. and these may be found in Proc. Zoo. Soc., Rev. Zool.
Afr., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., and elsewhere. Preston’s work was based
54
The Study of Snails and Slugs in E. Africa.
VOL. XXII
entirely on shells and he described things in the wrong genera and even
families. He was a dealer and his work is indescribable. A very useful
summary of his new species is given by Schouteden (1936) and indication is
made as to which of his types are at the Congo Museum (a very large
percentage are). Lists of Smith’s and Connolly’s papers may be found in
the mollusca library of the British Museum.
Following is a list of the families represented in East Africa together
with the main genera which they contain. Typical representatives of the
families are shown on Plate 1. In a future paper a key to the families
will be given and mention made of the most important species.
GASTROPODA (Shells in one piece — usually twisted)
Order PULMONATA (air-breathers)
Fam. Streptaxidae : a predominating group in E.A., often minute, carni-
vorous. Chief genera: — Gulella, Ptychotrema, Edentulina, Gonaxis,
Marconia, Tayloria, Steptostele and Varicostele. (Fig. 1.)
Fam. Helicarionidae : thin-shelled species with animal barely able to
retract into its shell. Helicarion, Sheldonia, Thapsia, Zingis etc. (Fig. 2).
EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.
1. Gulella fortidentata (Sm.) Kondoa-Irangi, T.T., Streptaxidae.
2. Helicarion sp., Helicarionidae.
3. Ledoulxia sp. Ledoulxiidae.
4. an Urocyclid slug, Urocyclidae.
5. Achatina fulica Bowdich, Kenya coast, Achatinidae.
6. a European species of Delima to show the shape of the Clausiliidae.
7. Cerastus nobilior Preston, Muguga, Kenya, Enidae.
8. Caecilioides sp., Ferusaciidae.
9. underside of a Veronicellid slug.
10. Lymnaea caillaudi (Bgt.), Moshi, T.T. Lymnaeidae.
11. Burnupia sp., Ancylidae.
12. Pila adusta (Rve.), Zanzibar, Pilidae.
13. Biomphalaria sudanica (Mts.), Rungwe, T.T., Planorbidae.
14. Caelatura sp., Unionidae.
15. Melanoides tuberculata (Mull.), L. Kivu, Thiaridae.
16. Viviparus sp., Viviparidae.
17. Bithynia humerosa Mts., L. Kivu, Hydrobiidae.
18. Tropidophora sp., Pomatiidae.
N.B. — Many of the figures are generalised and are merely to give an idea of the
shapes encountered in the various families.
Plate 1.
I.
October, 1953. The Study of Snails and Slugs in E. Afi'ica.
55
Fam. Ledoulxiidae ; conical thin-walled shells usually very sharply angled
on periphery. Ledoulxia, Trochozonites, Sitala, Kaliella etc. (Fig. 3.)
Fam. Urocyclidae ; slugs, external shell absent. Trichotoxon, Atoxon, etc.
(Fig. 4.)
Fam. Vitrinidae; like small Helicarions superficially. Vitrina.
Fam. Endodontidae : usually minute and flattened snails. Trachycystis,
Punctum.
Fam. Helicidae : true snails such as English ‘Garden Snail’ usually at high
altitudes in E.A. Halolimnohelix, and numerous dubious genera proposed
by Preston in the Zonitidae !
Fam. Achatinidae : a predominating group, often very large, turreted.
Achatina, Burtoa, Limicolaria, Opeas, Pseudopeas, Curvella, Suhulina,
Pseudoglessula, Krapflella, Bocageia, Nothapalus, Zootecus, etc. (Fig. 5.)
Fam. Clausiliidae : elongate snails abundant in Europe, China, etc. but very
rare in Africa; only two species have been described, both in the genus
Clausilia but certainly not belonging to it. I have found a single specimen
of an Austrohalea at Moroto, Uganda (Oct. 1952). (Fig. 6).
Fam. Pupillidae : minute cylindrical shells of temperate places. Trunca-
tellina, Pupilla, Pupoides, Jaminia, Fauxulus (latter two Preston records).
Fam. V ertiginidae : Preston described an “Alaea” (= Vertigo) but I know
nothing of it.
Fam. Enidae : conical shells. Cerastus, Conulinus, Rachidina, Rachxstia
etc. (Fig. 7).
Fam. Pyramidulidae : predominantly temperate, mostly minute species.
Preston has described an Acanthinula from Mt. Kenya.
Fam. Ferussaciidae : minute white elongate snails. Caecilioides. (Fig. 8).
Fam. Succineidae : usually semiaquatic, but in E.A. often found on rocks
and bark. Succinea.
Fam. Veronicellidae ; peculiar flattened slugs; Ve7’onicella etc. (Fig. 9).
Fam. Lymnaeidae : abundant conical aquatic snails with mouth on right
hand side. Lymnaea. (Fig. 10).
Fam. Planorbidae : flattened disc-like snails, or like Lymnaea v/ith mouth
on opposite (left) side, abundant in stagnant water. ‘Pla^iorhis’ , Biompha-
laria, Gyraulus, Segmentina, Bulinus, Physopsis. etc. (Fig. 13).
Fam. Ancylidae : freshwater limpets, minute shells resembling the familiar
marine limpets in shape but not at all related. Several “Ayicylus" have
been described from E.A. but do not belong to that genus. (Fig. 11).
Order PECTINIBRANCHIA (mouth of shell with a close-fitting lid).
56 The Study of Snails and Slugs in E. Africa. Vol. xxii
Fam. Cyclophoridae : land snails with very rounded whorls. Maizania.
Fam. Pomatiidae : similar to last but with strong spiral grooves. Tropido-
phora. (Fig. 18).
Fam. Pilidae : large globular aquatics often in swamps, Pila, Lanistes.
(Fig. 12).
Fam. Viviparidae: similar to last but more conical. Viviparus, Neothauma.
(Fig. 16).
Fam. Thiaridae : mostly elongated water snails : Cleopatra, Melanoides,
and 16 genera entirely endemic to Lake Tanganyika which are peculiarly
marine in their appearance. (Fig 15).
Fam. Syrnolopsidae : small shells peculiar to Lake Tanganyika. Syrno-
lopsis, Anceya.
Fam. Hydrobiidae ; Minute aquatics. Bithynia ( — Bulimus). (Fig. 17).
Fam. Assimineidae ; small aquatic snails usually estuarine. Preston has
described an inland genus which is dubious. Eussoia, Assimineia.
Order ASPIDOBRANCHIA.
Fam. Hydrocenidae : small littoral shells, mostly South African, one from
Kenya. Hydrocena.
Fam. Neritidae : familiar nerites of the sea. Neritina occurs in estuaries.
Little has been said about the Bivalves but the following families and
genera ■ occur in East Africa: Unionidae (Unio, Caelatura, Parreysia,
Grandidiera, etc.). Mutelidae (Aspatharia Mutela, Iridina, Pseudospatha,
etc.). Cyrenidae (Corbicula), Etheriidae (Etheria). Sphaeriidae (Pseudo-
corbicula, Sphaerium, Pisidium.) (Fig. 14).
REFERENCES.
Connolly, M.
‘The Non-Marine Mollusca of Portuguese East Africa’
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 12, 105 ff.
1925
Connolly M.
'A Monographic Survey of the South African Non-
Marine Mollusca’ Annals S. Afr. Mus., 33, 1 ff. 1939
Cunnington, W. A. ‘The Fauna of the African Lakes. .
Proc. Zoo. Soc., 507 ff.
1920
Martens, E. v.
Beschalte Weichthiere Ost-Africas, Band IV of
Deutsch-Ost-Africa. Berlin.
1898
Pilsbry, H. A.
‘A Review of the Land Mollusks of the Belgian
Congo. . .’
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 40, 1 ff
1919
Pilsbry, PI. A., and ‘The Aquatic Mollusks of the Belgian Congo. . .’
Bequaert, J.
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 53, 69 ff.
1927
October, 1953.
57
THE TIL API A FISHERIES OF THE KAVIROMDO GULF,
By Hugh Copley.
The Kavirondo Gulf is an arm of Lake Victoria and is the main producer
of lake fish ngege or Tilapia, to Nairobi, which provides us with an
excellent fish food. The Kavirondo Gulf is completely within Kenya
Colony and the administration of its fisheries together with the other parts
of the lake come under the Lake Victoria Fishery Board whose head-
quarters are based at Kisumu. Before paying particular attention to the
gulf let us consider Lake Victoria as a whole. The area of the lake is
generally given as 26,000 square miles, nearly the size of Scotland. From
north to south it is 250 miles with a greatest breadth of 200 miles and the
shore-line is about 3,000 statute miles. The shape of the lake can be
compared with that of a soup plate. There is an edge or shelf sloping
from the shore gently to the 100 foot mark and then dropping to form the
rounded bowl of the soup plate with a maximum depth of 270 feet. The
shelf from the shore to the 100 foot line forms the fishing grounds and
here all fishing is done.
The Kavirondo Gulf is a depression covered by lake water about 42 miles
long by an average width of 12 miles which narrows to 4 miles at the gate-
way at Rusinga Island. It is very shallow with a maximum depth of
20 feet. The water of this gulf is not stationary by any means for there
is a diurnal range as much as 18" caused by wind pushing water in the
main lake through the entrance and into the Gulf. When the wind changes
and pushes water in another direction this extra 18" of gulf water fiows
back into the lake. This rise and tall in the water level of the gulf goes on
all the year round depending on the direction and force of the wind.
There are two species of Tilapia in the gulf; the ngege {Tilapia esculenta)
and the mbiru {Tilapia variahilis). It is the ngege which provides the fish
Kavirondo Tilapia Fisheries.
VOL. XXII
export from the lakes as it travels and keeps well. The mbiru is not a good
traveller or keeper and is consumed locally. Again the gulf is predomi-
nantly a ngege fishery whilst other parts of the lake are just the opposite.
The general idea that the ngege is found all over the lake is completely
without any foundation — in fact the ngege shoals are local.
The ngege is caught by means of a 5" gill net and this regulation is
strictly enforced. Other sized nets are used all over the lake for other fish
but this does not interest us. The theory is that by the use of a gill net
with a mesh of 5" no Tilapia will be caught which has not spawned. The
nets are 100 yards long when bought, but when mounted are 60 yards long
by about 5 feet deep. From 3 to 12 of these nets are joined together and
fished as a “fleet”. They are set in the evening at dusk and lifted at dawn.
Just to show the size of the fishery, there are 500,000 5" nets; 250,000 2" nets
and 100,000 seine nets in use on Lake Victoria for one year — a value of two
million pounds.
To work this fishery there are an estimated 30,000 fishermen, as many as
in the whole of the British Isles.
In the Kavirondo Gulf 8,000 5" gill nets are set every night worth £17,000
and their total length is 272 miles. Each flax net lasts 8 weeks if undamaged
or wrecked by hippo or crocodiles. Again 2,200 tons of ngege only are
exported from Kisumu a year.
Now what of the Tilapia? The first question for everybody concerned,
including the housewife, is “Can this go on for ever?” and secondly “Are we
catching too many tilapia and exhausting the stock so that in years to come
there will be no fish or very few fish to catch?” This depends on another
question “Is the stock of fish in the gulf a closed stock say of 13g million
fish or is the number of fishes caught made up by migrations of fish from
the main stock in the lake?” It wil be seen that this is a most important
question, for if we have 13^ millions (these figures are purely a guess) of
Tilapia in the gulf and catch 4;j million of mature fish every year can the
9 millions left keep the fishing going? On the other hand if 4g million fish
come in from the main lake every year and keep the stock of 132 million
up to strength and we do not catch more than 4J million every year the
fishery goes on for ever. Into this simplified picture comes a disturbing
element. The population of Kenya, all races, is increasing at no mean
rate and has a greatly increasing spending power; all can afford to eat more
fish, and therefore there are more mouths clamouring to be filled. Whereas
42 million fish per year may satisfy these mouths this year, as the years
pa.ss they will want 6 million fish then 8 million fish and so on. Consequ-
ently the pressure for more fish from the gulf will increase, so back we
come to our two questions. If the fish population is a closed one, spending
its life cycle in the Kavirondo Gulf, a continued increase in the fishing
effort will in the long run catch every fish and the fishery is doomed. If
however the catch per year is made up from the stock of fish in the main
lake the fishery will continue for many more year, but again if the
number of fish caught goes on increasing there will come a point when the
October, 1953.
Kavirondo Tilapia Fisheries.
59
fishery is doomed, for there will not be enough increase in the main lake
tilapia each year to make up for the number of fish caught by the fisher-
men in the Kavirondo Gulf and other fishing grounds.
I have endeavoured to show these two different schools of ideas in a
simple diagram. The full line A shows shoals entering the gulf, spawning
and then returning to the main lake. The dotted line B shows the presum-
ed migration of closed shoals which spend all their life in the Kavirondo
Gulf. Now the first thing to do is to follow a fish or a few fishes and find
out what it or they do in a year, two years or better still in three years.
“Simple my dear Watson” until you look at the Kavirondo Gulf, then go
to Rusinga Island and have a look at the lake, and there seems a lot of
water. Again think that we are trying to visualise what 13J million
fish are doing in that vast amount of liquid. This can only be done by
marking fish and then catching them again to find out their migrations.
A good start has been made by Commander Cole and his men of the Lake
Victoria Fishery Service who are catching and marking a number of tilapia,
which they let go with a fervent prayer that they will be caught again by
some native fisherman who will bring them back to them with a correct
story of where he caught them and the exact date. It is heartening to know
that marks are coming in.
In time we shall know if the tilapia spends its life in the closed gulf
or migrates and circulates in the main lake. The marking experiments have
started in the gulf but in time will be moved to the entrance. Somebody
will say that’s all right with marking and getting back the few but they
are a tiny proportion of the whole population. They are, but as the tilapia
is a shoal fish with very few stragglers we can consider the few caught as
representative of the movements of the whole. So far our reckoning has
been on a very simple basis but many complications set in which make a
fishery officer go bald long before his time.
If we go to other great fisheries we find that certain fish, cod and herring
for instance, show natural fluctuations in abundance and these fluctuations
are in cycles of 10 and often 25 years. It has been proved with cod and
herring and is believed to be true for other fish like menhadden, sardines,
tunny etc.
Among the natural causes producing these fluctuations are the influence
of favourable or unfavourable hydrological or physical conditions such as
temperature, light intensity, currents, storms by surface agitation of the
water, variation in food supply, variation in natural enemies, variation in
the number of eggs spawned, variation in migrations of young and old fish,
variation in population pressui’e and others.
The most important environmental factor for the survival of the larval
fish and hence the future of the brood of the year is the presence of the
proper food in proper quantities at the stage of development when the
newly hatched larval fish has used up its yolk sac and must feed on phyto-
plankton or microscopic food. If that food is not there iust when all the
60
Kavirondo Tilapia Fisheries.
VOL. XXII
millions of tiny tilapia want it, mass death will occur affecting the fishing
adversely two or three years hence. It is gradually being x’ealised that this
may be the predominant factor in the whole history of the tilapia and we
know nothing about it.
The only way we can find out how the fishery is working is to study the
catch of fish made from the gulf every year, for the catch should follow
the up and downs of the fish shoal. This is the only way we can do it as
we cannot know the number in the shoal every year or the number born
— I wish we could.
The curve of total catches (Fig. 2) shows two peaks of abundance, one in
1935 and another in 1943, but it also shows that the peak in 1943 was much
lower than that in 1935. The curve also shows a cycle of 8 years, up to
1947. After 1947 the fishery gradually stabilises itself to a total catch of
5 million fish and a catch rate of 1.9 fish per net per night. In other words
the fishery is in equilibrium; but any increase in the number of fish caught
should affect the catch rate per night, and the fishery would progressively
decline until it did not pay the fishermen to catch a fish. The gradual
decline in the curve (Fig. 2A) from 1937 to 1940 was due to the low price
received for fish with an upward increase in the price of nets. Supposing
one converted all the nets set in tlie gulf every night to nets which would
catch twice as many fish i.e. 3.8 fish per net per night and still keep the
October, 1953.
Kavirondo Tilapia Fisheries.
61
fishing in equilibrium then half the number of nets only could be allowed
to fish each night. The number of fishermen does not matter. This fishing
effort, as it is called, also depends on the cost of each net together with
working costs, which shall be below the price the fisherman gets for his
fish. If the working costs go up and the price received for the catch remains
stationary, then the number of fish caught will decrease as the fisherman
will look for another job. The fishery benefits as it gets a rest, but the
general economy of the Colony suffers.
It seems therefore that the fishery is in eouilibrium, but we want more
fish to feed the increasing population as the years go by — what shall we
do? The ngege is not the only fish in the Kavirondo Gulf or in the lake.
Other fish must be exported, like bagrus, butter fish, lungfish which are
good wholesome food, and the sooner this is done the better.
I hope I have convinced any reader that firstly the fisheries of Lake
Victoria are very large, for a yield of 80,000 tons of fish a year by 30,000
fishermen is no small fishery. Secondly various environmental factors for
the spawning stock are of vital importance to the successful continuation
of the fishery. Thirdly to hold the present position other species of fish
have got to be exploited.
Finally how is the fishery controlled and how much does control cost?
The lake fisheries are controlled by the Lake Victoria Fisheries Service
under the leadership of Commander G. Cole who has 3 ships and 6 Fishery
Officers for a lake the size of Scotland. The total amount of money avail-
able for the service in 1953 is £20,128 equally divided between Kenya,
Tanganyika and Uganda. In other words the people of Kenya pay £7,000
a year towards a service which regulates the use of 850,000 nets; producing
80,000 tons of fish, keeping 30,000 fishermen at work and providing 800,000
people with fish. Such is dirt cheap at the price.
WHAT FUTURE JOURNALS WILL CONTAIN
The Editor wishes to inform readers that every effort is being made to
improve the standard of the Journal and to render it of greater use to
members. With this end in view two series of articles will commence
shortly, “The Identification of Birds of Prey in Flight” and “The Identifica-
tion of East African Marine Shells”. Mr. B. Verdcourt introduces the
latter series with a fully illustrated account of the Cowries. A number
of species of these attractive shells are not represented in the Coryndon
Museum’s collection and an appeal for specimens is made to anyone who
may be at the coast. Any contributions from your own Cowrie collection
would be most acceptable. Thank you.
John G. Williams,
Hon. Editor.
62
VOL. XXII
ON THE NORTHERN UASO NYIRO.
By Merrell, Dalton.
The success of the smaR Lodge, erected by Kenya National Parks on the
banks of the northern Uaso Nyiro in 1950, may be seen by the many
delightful entries in the Visitor's Book proving that a camp of this
description is appreciated, not only by so many of our own local people,
but also by those drawn to it from places as far afield as South Africa,
England and the United States. Members of the Walt Disney Film Co.,
for instance, made successful sequences of elephant, giraffe, buffalo, etc.,
when camping on the river in August last, (1952), and the studio report,
as quoted to us by Mr. and Mrs. A1 Milotte who were taking the pictures,
states “they, (the studio) particularly liked the ones of the birds, remark-
ing on the brilliance of the colour”.
A couple from Natal, both keen ornithologists, remarked on the tame-
ness and variety of the birds, and were thrilled to find the nests of no less
than seven different species inside the small lodge perimeter.
This Lodge, which consists of four double cottages built of cedar logs
and thatched with makuti, is situated some thirty four miles from Isiolo in
the Marsabit National Reserve. The bandas are built close to the river,
and are almost opposite the spot known to the local Samburu as ‘Nyama
Yangu’ (or Newman’s camp), for this was the headquarters of one of the
greatest elephant hunters of his day. Huge acacia trees and Aphania
senegalensis (which rather resembles a mango but is no relation), make
dense green-black shade. Along the banks, there are dom palms, and,
further upstream, fine specimens of Piptadenia hildebrandtii and Tana
poplar.
But the belt of vegetation is perilously shallow, great chunks of bank
are devoured during the bi-yearly floods, and the debris of dead wood is
considerable. Two of the worst factors, however, are the indiscriminate
burning of trees by honey hunters, and the ravaging of bark, young trees
and shoots by the multitudinous goats owned by the Samburu, and also
by the Turkana who reside along the south bank of the river.
The opening of a track through the Reserve that extends from the main
Marsabit road up to the old Barsalinga crossing, and beyond to the Maralal
escarpment, has been very effective in stopping poaching on the north
side. This is also patrolled by National Reserve scouts.
Those interested in game photography should have little difficulty in
obtaining pictures of elephant, rhino, buffalo and other game. Elephant
families are frequently seen bathing in the river in the hottest time of day.
Lions are less easily come across, largely due to the nature of the bush
and their wandering habits, but a pride of thirty was reported near
Lolokwi — that great flat-topped hill that is such a well known N.F.D.
landmark — in the first quarter of ’51, and odd lion have often passed close
to, or even right through, the environs of the camp. This area is best
A group of elephants on the northern Uaso Nyiro.
October, 1933.
On the Northeni Uaso Nyiro.
63
visited during the driest months for then the game is, of necessity, con-
centrated on the river which is at lowest level. Hundreds of animals water
along this river, and the ground is a network of tracks graduating from the
enormous footpads of elephant to rhino, buffalo, zebra, and giraffe, the
spoor of countless antelope, the impress of the cat tribe, hyaenas, apes,
mongooses, down to the tiny etched tracks of birds. Crocodiles are numer-
ous and lie out sunning themselves on the open sand banks : they take
toll of many sheep, goats, and buck, and have been known to pull down a
full-grown giraffe which was drinking in the river.
Yet a pair of Egyptian geese, which frequented the shore opposite one
of our temporary camps, were utterly indifferent to the crocodiles and
wandered about plucking tufts of grass within a foot or two of the drows-
ing monsters. I once saw a crocodile driven out of its mud pool by two
of the geese which pursued it to the water’s edge with furious hissing and
honking !
Impala abound around the Lodge site and have become increasingly
tame, treating a car, quite rightly, as a tiresome intruder ! Grant’s gazelle,
gerenuk and oryx are more shy, but the waterbuck are quiet enough as
are the giraffe and handsome Grev^^’s zebra.
Baboons move about in troops of fifty or more. Do they patrol their own
‘beat’ one wonders? It seems probable that families keep very much to
certain localities providing the larder remains good. After a day of
gleaning in the bush for insects, scorpions, seed, and wild fruits the troop
returns home to the river foi’' a drink, later to climb into comfortable
and safe forks and niches in the fig and acacia trees for their night’s
lodging.
It is fascinating to watch a party out foraging. The troop is usually
accompanied by a sentinel, some old man baboon who gives utterance to a
resounding ‘hoch’ if danger threatens whilst the rest busy themselves dili-
gently turning over stones and digging for grubs and beetles. The baby
baboons when tired, or too small to keep up, are carried on their mother’s
back or tummies, often sitting erect like miniature jockeys.
Baboons move with a peculiar loping stride and must cover a consider-
able area of ground as well as combing that ground very thoroughly. It is
surprising how these heavy animals can roost in c|uite light foliage, and
when the wild figs and other fruits and berries ripen they seem able to
reach the further clusters with the agility of any monkey.
The quantity of riverine birds seems to vary with the seasons. Wood Ibis
and Jabiru Stork are more rarely seen but herons, egrets, bittern and geese
are fairly common, especially at low water when the catchments made by
old logs, boughs, reed islets and driftwood hold an infinite variety of insect
life and the green grass of the banks is alive with frogs, grass-hoppers,
mice and beetles. And surely, the Goliath heron, standing with bent knee,
long powerful beak poised to strike, shadow I’eflected in the stream, is one
of the loveliest sights to be encountered on the river? The tracks of these
64
On the Northern Uaso Nyiro.
VOL. XXII
great birds, unlike the flurry of plover and scratching of guinea fowl, are
grave and ponderous as befits a conscientious fisherman.
Other birds to be recognised in this area are kingfishers, parakeets,
orioles, green and gold bee-eaters, gorgeous rollers, sunbirds, plovers and
wagtails, flycatchers, drongos, hoopoes, woodpeckers, gay yellow weavers
and their sombre and quarrelsome cousins the sparrow weavers, red-wing-
ed starlings and louries to name a few of them. The guinea fowls in the
vicinity of the Lodge are tame as poultry, and there are enormous flocks
of the brilliant vulturine species, more showy from the photographer’s
point of view than is the gentleman in the helmet. There are plenty of
game birds too, francolin, sandgrouse, and lesser bustard. Greater bustard
are more usually found in the open country between Barsalinga and
Wamba and the Maralal escarpment. Birds of prey include the magni-
ficent Bateleur eagle, the fish eagle, the crested hawk eagle, eagle owls,
hawks, harries, vultures and kites.
A small stone bird bath in front of the bandas has done much towards
creating an atmosphere of friendliness, and the weavers, pigeons, hornbills
and doves, and delightful little Grant’s francolin like miniature bantams
now hop about on the open ground joined by gregarious starlings. Please
spare your crumbs for them !
Most local residents are aware that the N.F.P. is a ‘closed’ area, and
this necessitates taking out an outlying district pass from the District
Commissioner, Isiolo, or from the D.C. Maralal, (Samburu) should you
come in via Rumuruti. The camp is so popular that it is wisest to book
well ahead, and this is done through National Parks head office, post box
number 2076, Nairobi. The charge is moderate enough, being only five
shillings per head per night, and all that is required of you to bring is your
bedding, (beds, nets, and “Dunlopillo” mattresses are provided), personal
effects, crockery, food, and tableware, cooking pots and a servant for your
own convenience. Your banda contains a large table on the veranda,
several chairs, a long bath, a basin, and hot and cold water is laid on to
every cottage.
There is a guide resident at the camp whose services can be hired for
five shillings a day, and there are two loop roads to explore, one leading to
the top of fiat crowned Archer’s Post hill, (site of the original Post through
which all mail, stores, etc., were transported by camel, donkeys, and
bullock wagons to the forward stations of the frontier), and the other
circles round Koitogor, a rugged massif, where, if you go early enough,
you should find rhino, and perhaps buffalo and elephant, as they wend their
way back into the scrub after their nocturnal watering at the river.
As petrol can now be obtained at the Lodge it is easy to make various
sorties. The road to the camp leads on for some seventy miles upstream
and eventually hits off the Wamba Maralal road at the foot of the escarp-
ment. Or you can turn off part way, and, with the help of the guide,
cross a wide plain which is a short cut over to Wamba and a very favour-
ed spot for rhino which can be seen wandering about right out in open
ground or browsing along the edge of the thicket.
On our first visit to this plain we counted nine rhino !
October, 1953.
65
MUD WORTS IN KENYA
By Bernard Verdcourt, b.sc., e.l.s.
The genus Limosella L. (Scrophulariaceae) or ‘Mudwort’ as it is called in
Britain is very little known in East Africa although several species occur.
This short note is intended to draw attention to these interesting plants
since in all probability undiscovered .species remain to be found and even
the commoner ones are very poorly represented in herbaria. All are small
aquatic or semi-aquatic herbs with leaves and flowers radical in basal
tufts a few inches in diameter. Three species are mentioned in Flora of
Tropical Africa IV (ii) p. 352-3 (1906), but none is recorded from Kenya.
KEY TO THE SPECIES
A Leaves ovate or elliptic, blades floating abruptly narrowed into flne petioles;
rest of plant submerged; flowers sessile;
Leaves narrowly elliptic 3. L. africana Gluck
Leaves oval 2. L. capensis Thunb.
AA Leaves oblanceolate or elliptic, blade merged gradually into a long" coarse
petiole; plant growing on muddy banks; flowers stalked
1. L. major Diels
AAA Leaves linear or subulate 4. L. macrantha Fries
NOTES ON THE SPECIES
1. Limosella major Diels. This has been recorded from Eritrea and South
Africa. It was recently discovered by P. J. Greenway and C. F. Hemming
at the foot of the escarpment on the Naivasha road in a seasonal Swamp
together with sedges, Crassula, etc. in open Acacia woodland. The flowers
are pale blue and the plant produces runners. The whole plant is rather
fleshy. Greenway & Hemming 8768 (E,A. Herb., and Kew).
2. Limosella capensis Thunb. This species is known from South and South
West Africa. It seems to be frequent in very seasonal ponds and swamps
e.g. at Muguga on murram. Verdcourt 641 (E.A. Herb and Kew) and Elmen-
teita, Soy Sambu Estate Bogdan 1054 (E.A. Herb, and Kew).
3. Limosella africana Gluck. This has been confused under L. aquatica Linn,
the common European species and is recorded from Abyssinia and the
Cameroons Mountains. Mr. Bogdan has collected this species at Elmenteita,
in plains round the lake, pools in saline pan with rock bed. Bogdan 3034
(E.A. Herb, and Kew).
4. Limosella macrantha Fries. This species has not been seen but was describ-
ed and figured by its author from plants found in the Aberdares at over
10,000 ft. R.E. & Th. Fries 2691 (Uppsala). The figures may be found in
Acta Hort. Bergiani 8, 49 (1925).
Further material from other localities in East Africa is must desired. I have
not seen Fries’s material fi-om Mt. Kenya which he calls L. aquatica Linn.
66
Mudioorts in Kenya. VoL. xxil
Fig. 1. “Mudworls” : —
(a) Entire plant of L. major Diels, x i*.
(b) flower of ditto, x 4.
(c) leaf of L. macrantha R.E., Fr., x h.
(d) Leaf of L. capensis, x J.
(e) ditto, showing position in water.
(f) Leaf of L. africana Gluck, x
A RARE HAWK
A juvenile plumaged Ovampo Sparrow Hawk {Accipiter ovampensis
Gurney) has been added recently to the ornithological study collection at
the Coryndon Museum. In this plumage the Ovampo Sparrow Hawk is
very similar to an adult Rufous Sparrow Hawk {Accipiter rujiventris
Smith) but differs in having buff margins to the feathers of the upperparts
and wing coverts and a paler crown.
The donors of this valuable specimen are Mr. & Mrs. C. F. Cockburn of
Nairobi. The hawk was secured by a native with a stone as it was .standing
over a young chicken it had just killed.
The Editor.
October, 1953.
67
A SMALL OUTBREAK OF EUPROCTIS RUDRICOSTA FAWCETT
(LEPIDOPTERA, LYMANTRIIDAE) IN THE EASTERN
PROVINCE OF TANGANYIKA
By John Phipps, m.sc., d.i.c., m.i. biol.
In December, 1952, a heavy infestation of castor oil plants (Ricinus
communis) by lepidopterous larvae was noted at Mtibwa Estate by Dr.
F. Leutenegger, Soil Chemist, Tanganyika Sisal Growers’ Association.
Mtibwa Estate is a new estate near the village of Turiani, which lies
about 80 miles north of Kilosa on the road to Handeni. It was planted in
1952 with castor oil (seed imported from Italy) and pawpaw {Carica
papaya). In the surrounding area, a good deal of castor oil is grown by
African cultivators.
No steps were taken to control the infestation, and by mid-January,
1953, it was found that the castor oil was completely defoliated and the
larvae had begun to attack the pawpaw. The advice of the author was
sought, and a visit made to the estate on 22nd January, 1953.
By this time about 70 acres of castor oil had been cut down, and the
larvae were distributed over the grass. A large number had crossed the
narrow track separating the castor oil from the pawpaw, and some of the
latter trees were already fairly heavily attacked. The larvae were found
particularly on the leaf bases, where the lower leaves had been cut away,
and on the fruits, which had been cut for the collection of the juice. A
number of fruits were almost completely consumed and some trees must
have contained hundreds of larvae. Penetration into the pawpaw area
had not proceeded beyond the tenth row. There was almost no attack
on the leaves.
Elsewhere on the estate, 30 acres of castor oil remained standing and
these bushes, though almost completely defoliated, were heavily infested.
Here too, movement of larvae to nearby pawpaw trees had occurred.
A minor but very unpleasant feature of the infestation was the irrita-
tion produced by the urticating hairs of the larvae. A large number of
larvae were to be found on both the inside and outside walls of the
temporary European house on the estate, where they were seeking shelter
in order to pupate. Numbers of pupae were also found in the cracks and
crevices of the house.
Control Measures. Some very makeshift tests were carried out in the
laboratory before visiting the estate. 5% DDT in kerosene was found to
kill only after more than 24 hours exposure. “Gammexane” P 520 (6.5%
gamma) in water killed after 12 hours, but as this had been tried in the
house in an unsuccessful attempt to get rid of the larvae, it was thought
unwise to depend too much on it. “Dieldrin” wettable powder also required
more than 12 hours to kill. “Gammexane” dust (“Agrocide” 7) and finely-
Euproctis ruhricosta in Tanganyika.
VOL. XXII
ground pyrdthrum powder appeared to have a more rapid action, but the
most rapid and complete kill was obtained with pyrethrum extract dis-
solved in kerosene. It was accordingly decided to use this as an emergency
measure. Pyrethrum extract containing 25'/ pyrethrins was added to
kerosene to give 0.3% pyrethrins and this was sprayed on very lightly
using “Four Oaks Knapsack” sprayers. The high concentration was used to
avoid damage to the plants by the kerosene. Unfortunately, much of the
spraying was done by unskilled labour, and some of the trees received far
too heavy a dose, with the result that a small number died. The results
otherwise were quite satisfactory, as very few larvae could be found any-
where on the pawpaw two days after spraying. Those trees which were
sprayed as lightly as was intended, were not damaged.
The narrow track between the castor oil and the pawpaw was widened
and the earth dusted with “Agrocide” 7, to prevent re-infestation.
A number of adult moths were seen, and it is anticipated that these may
become very numerous later.
Castor oil plants on some African plantations were examined. They
were found to be also heavily attacked, and it cannot be expected that the
area will yield much harvest this year. According to the local natives,
these larvae are present every year, but do not normally cause damage.
It seems very probable, however, that some reduction in yield is usual, and
it may well be that the outbreak of 1952 — 53 was connected with the
unusually dry weather.
Acknowledgement. I am indebted to Mr. E. C. G. Pinhey of the Coryn-
don Museum, Nairobi, for the determination of the moth Euproctis rubri-
costa Fawcett.
A CHECK LIST OF NATAL BIRDS
Readers who contemplate visiting South Africa will be interested to
learn of the appearance of a check list of the birds of Natal and Zululand.
This most excellent publication is the work of that indefatigable ornitholo-
gist, Mr. P. A. Clancey, Director of the Durban Museum & Art Gallery and
is published by that institution.
In addition to being an up-to-date list of all species and races of birds
known to occur in the areas covered, a brief account of the status of each
is given and details of their distribution. The author is to be congratulated
on producing such an accurate and useful addition to African ornitholo-
gical literature.
The Editor.
October, 1953.
69
SOME SPECULATIONS ON THE SUDDEN OCCURRENCE OF FLOODS
IN THE HISTORY OF LAKE MAGADI
By Dr. T. H. White.
Along what is apparently an old shore-line of Lake Magadi, at a level
of about 35 to 40 feet above the present level of the soda, limestone moulds
(“external casts”) of logs and twigs are common. (Fig. 1). They are particu-
larly abundant on the eastern shore of the eastern arm of the lake.
Recently, Mr. P.R.O. Bally, of the Coryndon Museum in Nairobi, gave
me a similar mould from Lake Hannington, still containing the remains
of a twig. He had questioned the local natives about the occurrence of such
limestone-encrusted wood, and was informed that according to their tribal
lore a great flood had occurred about thirty generations ago, killing many
people and leaving the trees encrusted with stone.
I have never found more than a few fibres of vegetable material within
the moulds from Magadi, but it is of some intex'est that over twenty years
ago a twig was dredged up in mud from a depth of 10 ft. 9 in. below the
soda. This gave rise to much speculation at the time, and it was sent to
the Natural History Museum in London. The report of the Museum
authorities was that the twig was, geologically speaking, very recent,
ana might have been buried for anything from a few days to some
thousands of years ! (Stevens, 1932).
At and above the wood-mould level, shells of the giant snail Achatina
fulica are common. Mr. B. Verdcourt of the East African Agricultural
Research Organisation kindly identified these for me, and gave his
opinion that they were probably not more than a few hundreds of years
old. The species does not occur alive in or near Magadi now, and indeed
the only living snail I have seen in Magadi was a solitary specimen of
Bloyetia. I have, however, found a few fragments of a shell of Achatina
of much more ancient date in some gravel below an old lake bed, about
100 feet above the soda, some three miles south of Magadi.
Parkinson (1914) and Temperley (1951) comment on the layer of black
mud that lies beneath the soda at a depth of about 10 feet. Temperley
refers to it as “accumulating at the bottom of the lake.” Recent investiga-
tions by the Magadi Soda Company Limited indicated that the mud is
not in fact at the bottom of the lake, but is merely a layer below which
there is a considerable depth of soda.
All of these facts could be explained by a comparatively recent flood-
ing of Lake Magadi, which, if it took place at the same time as the Lake
Hannington flood, would have been about thirty African generations ago,
say 500 years, i.e. about the year 1450. This would correspond more or less
in chronology and level with one of the lake levels in the Nakuru area
designated G6 by Nilsson (1952). An influx of fresh water would dis.solve
the top layer of soda, and on evaporating would leave behind it a layer
70 Lake Magadi Floods. Vol. xxir
of mud beneath re-crystallised soda. The occurrence of Achatina would
fit in with less dry climatic conditions then than now.
If it is accepted that the main pluvials of East Africa in the Pleistocene
period were in some way analogous to the chief European and Indian
glaciations, there seems to be no reason why lesser pluvials should not be
associated with minor climatic changes in Europe. Pettersen (1912) states
that the world’s most recent period of rigorous climate occurred about
the year 1433. This correlates pretty well with the estimated date of the
Hannington flood.
Floods of the late Pleistocene pluvials have left considerable beds of
silt in the Magadi area. Those that I have had leisure to investigate occur
at heights of up to three hundred feet above the level of the soda. Some
of these contain wood-moulds, but they also contain rootlet-holes far
below the depth that any present-day plants reach. This seems to indicate
that during the great pluvials the water of the lakes that formed was not
highly alkaline, since no vegetation will grow in soil saturated with
alkaline spring-water. Furthermore, compressions and sub-fossils of fish
(kindly identified for me by Mr. H. Copley of the Coryndon Museum as
Tilapia nilotica), which are considerably larger than the present-day small-
species Tilapia that occur in the alkaline spring-water, are found in these
beds and also bear out the conclusion that the water of Magadi was much
less alkaline in ancient times than any flowing into the lake today.
Unless the vast soda-deposit of Magadi is of very recent origin this calls
for some explanation. In the case of the higher and most distant beds
(which extend to the Nguruman escarpment about 20 miles west of Magadi),
the comparative freshness of the water could conceivably have been due
to dilution. Dilution would probably not explain, however, the features
of the lowest beds — the “High Magadi Beds” of Temperley — which do
not extend for more than half-a-dozen miles from the edges of the soda,
and that only in a north-south direction by reason of the echelon-fault
topography of the area.
The High Magadi Beds contain silt of two main types. There is a lower
layer, un-varved with an earthy fracture, and an upper layer, varved with
a shaley cleavage. Where they overlie the chert series the lower layer rests
upon what is apparently a thin layer of colloidal silica, varying from an
inch to ten inches in thickness, interspersed with narrow bands of black
mud containing black compressions of Tilapia in vast numbers. The earthy
layer of silt contains only sparse and fragmented fish-remains that re-
quire prolonged searching for. In the upper varved layer there are numer-
ous T. nilotica compressions at various levels (Fig. 2).
These features are not easy to explain, but it occurred to me that they
might be accounted for as follows; Initial intermittent floods brought
fresh-water fish into contact with the siliceous springs that then existed,
killing them in large numbers and leaving the lower compi'essions in and
just above the silica. Then there occurred a massive flood, bringing down
with it the soft unconsolidated lacustrine deposits of an earlier period
Fig. 1. — Limestone TwigyMoulds.
October, 1953.
Lake Magadi Floods.
71
from the surrounding country, with their fish-rernains that became frag-
mented in the process. This silt rapidly sealed off the silica and the soda
so that a comparatively fresh-water lake formed, which in time deposited
the varved silt in which the fish that died in dry seasons were well-
preserved. A rough estimate of the number of pairs of light and dark
bands in the upper layers of the High Magadi Beds is 15,000.
Still earlier floodings could have caused the beds of cherty gravel,
partially consolidated into a breccia by siliceous material, that occur near
the Hospital at Magadi. Temperley points out that the chert series was
probably laid down before the faults that formed the “Magadi Scarp”
occurred. These faults probably raised the gravels to their present level.
They shew several layers entrapping menisci of alluvium that contain
silicified roots and twigs.
The hypothesis of sudden floods — much greater than the recent
Hannington flood — is not a new idea. Gregory (1921) suggests just such
a cause for cenozoic fossil beds of a different nature elsewhere. Such
floodings in the Magadi area, over a period of perhaps half a milion years,
could account, by frequent recrystallisations, for the extraordinary purity
of the soda deposits in Lake Magadi.
A cogent question is “Will the lake be flooded deeply again?” for such
a calamity would be of serious economic importance. The answer is yes
— but, if the climatological deductions of Pettersen are correct, and if
pluvials in East Africa are related to European climates, not for four or
five hundred years !
I have to thank the Magadi Soda Company Limited for access to un-
published material, and also Messrs. Bally and Copley of the Coryndon
Museum, Messrs. Baker and Thompson of the Kenya Geological Depart-
ment, Mr. Verdcourt of the Agricultural Research Organisation, and Mr.
Saphira of the Kenya Game Department, for their help, and especially for
their tolerance of my amateur peregrinations and ruminations.
References
Copley, H. (1953) Personal Communication.
Gregory, G.W. (1921) “The Rift Valleys and Geology of East Africa”,
London.
Nilsson, E. (1952) “Pleistocene Climatic Changes in East Africa” Proc. 1st.
Pan-Afr. Cong. Prehist. 45.
Parkinson, J. (1914) “The East African Trough in the Neighbourhood of
the Soda Lakes”, Geog. J. xliv. 4. 33.
Pettersen, O. (1912) “Climatic Variations in Historic and Prehistoric Time”
Svensk. Hydrog-Biol. Komm. Skrift. No. 5.
Stevens, J.A. (1932) “Lake Magadi and its Alkaline Springs” (Unpublished
report to the Magadi Soda Co., Ltd)
Temperley, B.N. (1951) “Report on some Geological and Geophysical
Observations in the vicinity of Lake Magadi”. (Unpublished).
Verdcourt, B. (1953) Personal Communication.
72
VOL. XXII
AMBOSELI NATIONAL RESERVE.
By Merrell Dalton
Amboseli lake, an area of .some ninety square miles, still fills in the
rains, a time when the National Park lodge is closed to visitors, the game
scatters, and the Masai tribesmen are able to move out to other grazing
grounds. In the dry months an enormous quantity of Masai stock as well
as thousands of head of game are dependent upon the water in the swamp
around 01 Tukai where the lodge and Gethin’s well known ‘Rhino Camp’
are situated.
It is truly an amazing sight as the living frieze of animals starts moving
across the dry white lake beds to the green of the swamp : a veritable
‘sundowner parade’ of wildbeeste, zebra, giraffe and gazelle, interspersed
here and there with well regulated flocks of sheep and goats and black,
white, red and piebald cattle.
The ground in the vicinity of the swamp is literally pulverised, and a
fine dust rises in clouds like white steam, often completely enveloping
the entire landscape. On a clear day, however, or before the wind or
trampling hoofs disturbs it, the scenery, with its pale lake beds, forests of
green-gold acacias, (fever trees), belts of palm and emerald swamps with
the background of Kilimanjaro, its majestic dome sprinkled by snow, forms
an unforgetable and magnificent spectacle.
Some safari firms now include a tour of the main swamp at 01 Tukai
as part of their game-viewing programme when at Amboseli, and, although
seasonal, many different species of waterfowl as well as storks, egrets,
plover, and the sacred ibis can usually be seen foregathered along the
open margin. Colonel Gethin, (Namanga river hotel) who knows this
area so well, tells me that large flocks of duck come in with the rains, and
are occasionally joined by knob-nosed geese; lily trotters have been noted
there, whilst pelicans frequent a small pan, north east of the camp, where
water lies out for some time after the smaller soaks have turned to sun-
baked mud.
During sundry patrols around this swamp we continually saw white
egrets, sacred ibis, Egyptian geese, stilts, the Saddle-billed stork, (a soli-
tary specimen), many small waders which I took to be sand
plover, three or four wood ibis, great white herons, grey herons, bittern,
and the usual noisy parties of blacksmith plover. Both greese and the
sacred ibis were extremely tame and obviously used to visitors !
At the southern end of this swamp there is a tiny spring, hidden among
rushes and ferns, where ice cold water bubbles straight from Kiliman-
jaro’s snows. This spring and its overflow feeds the swamp area, and it is
quite usual to see elephant, buffalo and sometimes a Bohor’s reedbuck
feeding along the edge of the reeds and the feathery papyrus. Hippo are
in residence at 01 Tukai, but are seldom seen outside in the dry weather
Wildebeeste at Amboseli — Typical Landscape.
Egret and, Sacred Ibis — 01 Tukai Swamp.
October, 1953.
Amboseli National Reserve.
73
though their tracks are evident, showing the progress of their nocturnal
wanderings. A drive round this vicinity usually produces a “mixed bag”
gazelle, dikdik, possibly oryx, (Callotis), lesser kudu, I’hino, lion, kongoni,
cheetah bat-eared fox, baboon in large troops, giraffe, and of course the
ubiquitous gnu and zebra.
Visitors will not fail to see Greater bustard which are present through-
out the whole of the Amboseli Reserve in enormous numbers, there are
plenty of lesser bustard, yellow-necked francolin, Grant’s francolin,
guinea fowl and plover; ground honrbill are often seen, and those solemn
scavengers Marabou storks stand ghoulishly in groups around the water.
One evening no less than four great Bateleur eagles had come there
to drink, and a glorious sight they made with their scarlet ceres, beaks
and feet, and black, busby-like crests, against the brilliant green of the
rushes and grass ! Inside, however, the stand of papyrus is so high and
dense that the only indication of feeding buffalo, rhino, or even elephant,
is the flutter of the white cattle egrets as they hover up and down de-
ticking their huge charges.
SHORT NOTES
A Species of Door Snail in Uganda
Very few members of Door Snails (Family Clausiliidae) have been re-
corded from Africa south of Abyssinia.
Austrohalea africana (M. & P.) occurs in South Africa. Two species refer-
ed to the genus Clausilia (but certainly not belonging to that genus sensu
stricto) have been found in Tropical East Africa but are so rare and their
habitats unknown that no further material has become available for
anatomical investigation.
During October 1952 I discovered a single specimen of a snail belonging
to either Balea or Austrohalea. It was on the bark of Acacia albida Del.
together with numbers of Succinea sp. (there are several terrestrial species
of this genus in E. Africa) at Moroto, Karamoja District, Eastern Uganda.
Despite several hours searching on every available tree no further speci-
mens could be found. Undoubtedly further specimens will be found in
East Africa but the record of a single Clausiliidae from Uganda is of
interest though the species is not known and even the genus uncertain.
Door Snails may be recognised by their elongated, spiral form and
brown colour, but see illustration (figure 6) in my Snails and Slugs paper
in the present Journal.
B. Verdcourt.
28th October, 1952.
A Meat-Eating Duiker
It would be interesting to hear whether any readers of the Journal have
known of a duiker eating meat ?
74
Short Notes
VOL. XXII
“Teeka”, the young female duiker owned by Mr. Taberer, Warden of the
Amboseli National Reserve, ate fresh raw liver, picking the bits out of the
dog’s plate with evident enjoyment ! She appeared regularly at break-
fast time to ask us for small pieces of bread but showed no interest what-
soever in toa.st, biscuits, vegetable or fruit. The rest of the day was spent
foraging around the Lodge among the weeds, leaves, and grass under the
fever trees.
I have asked several white hunters and game wardens if they have
heard of duikers eating meat but so far no one seems to have had a similar
experience.
Merrell Dalton.
The Temporary Preservation of Small Birds with Fine Table Salt.
The simple method described below will enable persons without train-
ing in field taxidermy to collect specimens of small birds — up to weaver
size — for the Coryndon Museum, Nairobi. Birds preserved by the follow-
ing method will remain in good condition for at least ten days, probably
much longer. It is most important that fine Table Salt only be used.
Method :
1. Open the bird’s beak and pack in as much salt as possible, pushing it
well down into the crop with a match-stick.
2. Burst the eyes with a pin and pack in as much salt as possible.
3. Make an incision over the abdomen (not the breastbone) and remove
the viscera with a pair of forceps. Note the sex and condition of
gonads. Rupture the diaphragm by pushing the points of the forceps
upwards into the thorax. Pack the abdominal cavity and thorax
with as much salt as possible.
4. Label the specimen (in pencil) with locality, date of collection, sex,
collector and colours of soft parts.
5. Roll the specimen in soft paper or cotton-wool and pack in a card-
board, tin or wooden box and post airmail to John G. Williams, The
Coryndon Museum, P.O. Box 658, Nairobi, Kenya Colony. Label the
parcel “Natural History Museum Specimens : of no commercial
value”.
6. Your assistance in adding to our collection v/ill be greatly appreciated.
Thank you.
J. G. Williams.
Kalinzu Forest Fruit Bats
On 8 January 1953 Mr. H. C. Dawkins and I were camped at a sawmill
in the south of the Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, and shortly before
October, 1953.
Short Notes.
75
dusk we noticed large numbers of bats flying overhead towards the north,
one to three hundred feet above the forest. In the visible part of the sky,
which represented a .section of the stream of bats less than half a mile
wide, we counted them passing at a rate of three to four hundred a minute,
from 7.20 p.m. (possibly before) to at least 7.45 when it became too dark
to see. We had no evidence of the total width of the bat stream, but there
was no noticeable falling off in density on either side of us. The figures
indicate that probably more than 10,000 bats were involved.
The great majority of the bats flew steadily and purposefully on their
way, but a few weaved among the treetops and half a dozen fluttered
round and temporarily settled in a tall Parinari holstii in the mill clear-
ing. A specimen collected has been identified as Eidolon helyum, a species
known to occur in Uganda and western Kenya.
I observed this flight later in the month when I was again staying at the
sawmill, so it is evidently a regular nightly movement and not a seasonal
migration. I watched for their return one dawn but saw nothing, so I
presume it takes place in the dark. Three problems wait to be solved :
where do the bats roost, and where and on what do they feed? To the
south is partially cultivated grassland with valley forests; to the north
lies the forests, then grassy hills with banana shambas in the valleys, and
then the Lake George flats. If they feed in the forest, the most likely
fruit seems to be the Parinari or Grey Plum, which is the most abundant
tree there.
Stanley in “In Darkest Africa” records a similar bat flight when camped
near the Aruwimi or Ituri River.
H. A. Osmaston.
Notice :
The 11th International Ornithological Congress, presided over by Sir
Landsborough Thomson, London, will be held in Basel (Switzerland) from
May 29th to June 5th 1954.
During the week of the Congress, 5 days will be devoted to meetings
and 2 to excursions. Before and after the Congress (May 25 — 28 and June
7 — 19) excursions will be arranged, to enable members to become acquaint-
ed with the Swiss avifauna, especially in the Alps and Lower Alps. The
Congress fee is 30 Swiss francs.
The prospectus, containing registration form and detailed information,
will be distributed this summer. Applications to attend and to contribute
scientific papers, should be sent in before February 28, 1954 and address-
ed to : —
XL INTERNATIONAL ORNITHOLOGICAL CONGRESS,
ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN, BASEL/SWITZERLAND,
which is at disposal for any inquiries needed.
Basel, June 1953....
76
VOL. XXII
ESSAY
The Committee of the East Africa Natural History Society has pleasure
m publishing one of the prize-winning entries of its recent Natural
History Esssay Competition.
WHY DO WE PRESERVE WILD LIFE?
An Essay by Francis Ojany, aged 17, of the Alliance High School, Kikuyu.
It has been established that there is a close relationship between the
lives of plants and animals by which any interference with the one must
necessarily affect the other. Nothing lives or dies unto itself; everything
is a retainer to some other part of nature. Cats have to do with the clover
crop in England and with the incidence of plague in India; earthworms
effect the wheat supply and water-wagtails the success of sheep farming.
Bees and flowers are hand in glove; the thrush plants mistletoe and ants
sow the seeds of the broom. Long chains bind successive generations of
plants and animals together and any disturbance of the links making up
these biological chains upsets the delicate balance of nature.
To many unthinking people, it would seem that the preservation of wild
life in the Colony or indeed anywhere else was a project unworthy of
serious consideration or one deserving the expenditure of money and time.
From a purely humane point of view, the idea of killing animals wan-
tonly is surely something rather dreadful and brutal to most men. The
indiscriminate destruction of plants is senseless since it destroys some-
thing of beauty; cruelty to an innocent dumb creature with feelings pos-
sibly as sensitive as our own, is something far worse and unworthy
of civilized man.
Before we ever dream of destroying the wild life in the Colony, surely
we should try to discover valuable biological relationship between man
and animals. In this age of electricity, steam and jet-propulsion, man
remains more strangely dependent for his existence upon animal life than
upon anything else. He has made animals to be tamed and trained to
do work. He uses their products every day of life, and as a result his
attitude towards the animals he has subjugated has been wiser than his
attitude towards his fellow creatures.
We have much too to learn from the heritage of wild life in the Colony.
If we look back into the distant past, we can there learn that man was
not the first home-maker; he was not the first engineer; he was not the
first to make provision against the morrow. He was anticipated in each
sphere by the brute creation; insects, birds and mammals, set an example
that he was slow to follow and we may still learn if we so desire valuable
lessons from the bee and the ant, the squirrel and the beaver, the gazelle
and the lion.
Studies on wild life are now helping to solve the mystery of the past.
The testimony of the rocks, brought to light by the palaeontologist, corre-
October, 1953.
Essay.
77
lated with the examination of the developing embryos of existing repre-
sentatives of mammals, are making plain many of the details of the long
story of mankind.
The importance of preserving the wild life of our Colony further comes
home to us when we realise that men and women from all over the world
are beginning to want to make regular pilgrimmage to this Mecca of
animal life, for one of the greatest attractions of East Africa is the marvel-
lous abundance of its wild fauna. From the point of view of the sportsman
and the naturalist, it would be an evil day when the herds of game dis-
appeared from the veldt. Governm.ent has wisely guarded against a repeti-
tion of the meaningless slaughter which has destroyed the interest and
recreation of thousands of men and. women in other parts of the world, by
carefully considered Game Regulations. These, while liberal to the sports-
man, aie framed with a due regard to the protection of game. Yet better
still are the efforts of those who with imagination and foresight seek to
preserve in National Parks and reserved areas, the wild life of our Colony.
If the present system is continued and expanded, there appears to be no
reason why East Africa should not retain its happy hunting grounds for
generations to come.
Today in our National Parks, the plains at most seasons of the year,
teem with game of all description and nothing can be happier than an
afternoon spent amongst these lovely creatures who are beginning to lose
their fear of man and of his weapons of destruction. Nothing could be
sadder than the time which is coming and faster than we think, unless we
make adequate provision, when the habits and haunts of our v/ild creatures
will be but memories, recorded in books cherished and preserved, written
by those who remember, back in those wonderful days, when wild animals
once roamed over our Colony and where nature once put on her most
glorious show.
OBITUARY
As we go to press we very deeply regret to announce the death of
Mr. H. J. Alien-Turner. Mr. Turner was closely associated with the
Society from its inception and was a member of committee and vice-
president for many years. When the Natural History Society started
the first Nairobi Mluseum in 1911 Alien-Turner prepared the initial
exhibits, and from, then on he was intimately associated with the work
of the Society and of the three successive Museums.
Mr. Alien-Turner fiist came to Kenya in 1908 as chief taxidermist
to the Smithsonian Institution Expedition led by Colonel, later Presi-
dent, Theodore Rooseveldt. He is deeply mourned by a widow and
four children. A detailed obituary will appear in our next Journal.
PRfNTED IN Kenya By W. Boyd & Co. (printers) Ltd.
6 06 /
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
FEBRUARY, 1954.
VOL. XXII.
No. 3(95)
EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
Patrons.
»
His Excellency The Hon. Sir Evelyn Baring, k.c.m.g., k.c.v.o.
Sir Philip Mitchell, k.c.m.g.
Sir Henry Moore, k.c.m.g.
President.
Hugh Copley Esq., o.b.e.
Vice-President.
R. W. Rayner Esq.,- b.a., a.i.c.t.a.
Executive Committee.
P. R. O. Bally Esq.,
Colonel M. H. Cowie, m.l.c.
W. Hale Esq., b.a.
J. S. Karmali Esq., b.pharm., ph.c., d.b.a.
Miss E. J. Blencowe, s.r.n., s.c.m.
J. McDonald Esq., c.b.e., d.f.c.
Miss M. D. Ball.
P. J. Greenway, Esq., o.b.e., d.sc. (hon.). f.l.s.
Secretary.
Miss D. Ewing.
Hon. Editor.
J. G. Williasns Esq., m.b.o.u.
Hon. Treasurer.
W. R. Bowles Esq.
Hon. Librarian.
R. A. F. Brenan Esq., m.a.
All correspondence in connection with this Journal should be addressed to : ;
The Hon. Secretary, P.O. Box 658, Nairobi.
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
FEBRUARY, 1954. VOL. XXII.
No. 3(95)
Cover Design — ‘VULTURES IN FLIGHT’ — by P R. O. Bally.
CONTENTS
The Identification of Kenya Birds of Prey in Flight. Part 1,
Vultures. (Illustrated)
By J. G. Williams ... 78
Bird Notes from Molo. Part 1, The Dam.
By Mrs. D. M. Sheppard ... ... ... ... ... ... 80
Africa’s Rarest Cowries. (Illustrated)
By L. E. Berry 82
English Names for Kenya Moths.
By A. L. H. Townsend ... 86
Common Names for Moths : Another View.
By E. C. G. Pinhey 89
An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature.
By Dr. D. G. MacInnes ... ... 90
Notes on the Aloes of Southern Ethiopia & Somalia. (Illustrated)
By Dr. G. W. Reynolds ... 102
Tree Euphorbias as Timber Trees. (Illustrated)
By P. R. O. Bally ... ... ... ... .. ... . . 105
The Identification of the Spoor and Dung of East African
Mammals. Part 1, Antelopes. (Illustrated)
By Dr. P. R. Hesse ... 107
Obituaries 106, 111
Book Reviews
115
78
VOL. XXII
THE IDENTIFICATION OF KENYA BIRDS OF PREY IN FLIGHT.
PART 1, VULTURES.
By J. G. Williams.
Birds of Prey in general — there are some exceptions — with their
confusing sequence of immature and adult plumages form a group which
the beginner finds difficult to identify in the field. Even with the aid of
the various well-illustrated bird books which are available in East Africa
the recognition of raptorial birds is not easy. Descriptions in such books
are usually adequate when one is working out the identity of a dead hawk
and helpful when one can examine a resting bird through glasses. But
they fall short of the ideal where a bird of prey flying overhead is concern-
ed. The object of this series of papers is to fill this gap in our literature.
‘ Anyone desiring a wider knowledge of our birds of prey is strongly
advised to make use of the study collections housed in the Bird Room of
the Coryndon Museum, where a series of specimens of most species, illus-
trating age variation and dimorphism, may be laid out for inspection. It
is only by studying such specimens in addition to the perusal of the litera-
ture that one can really get to know our vultures, eagles and hawks.
The Vultures.
The appearance in flight of vultures as a group is rather difficult to
define. Briefly their smallish heads, generally broad wings and short tails
are diagnostic. Vultures are also more likely to congregate in the air in
numbers than is usual with most other birds of prey.
RiippeH’s Griffon Vulture.
Gyps ruppellii rilppellii (Brehm). Plate 1.
Adult. Wingspan 8 feet. The two main distinguishing features are the
scaly or spotted appearance of the underside of the body (formed by dark
brown feathers with whitish-buff tips) and a series of narrow white lines,
sometimes broken, on the underside of the wings. At close quarters the
bill is seen to be pale greenish-grey.
Immature. Differs from the adult in being brown, streaked blackish
below, with a narrow white streak parallel to the fore edge of the wing.
In this plumage extremely difficult to distinguish from the immature
White-backed Griffon, but slightly larger.
White-backed Griffon Vulture.
Pseudogyps africanus (Salvador!). Plate 1.
Adult. Wingspan 7 feet. The White-backed Griffon has uniform pale
buff underparts, a dark crop patch, black head and bill and a broad white
band along the fore edge of the wing. In some examples the white wing
band is much broader than is shown in the illustration.
Immature. Underparts dark brown with indistinct blackish streaking.
Very like the immature Ruppell’s Griffon but a little smaller.
til*
j i .
Wij'k -?K-adr j
Whit€*beacleci Viitbyi'e. twmahire
Plate 1. Vultures in flight.
Tii
h
I
fir
I
‘ ^ ..
k
m
Lappef-faced Vulture
C 9 y pi s (3 f) Vu i t U !' 6
f y p 1 1 1 i o V u 1 1 u re . immature
Hooded Vyitui'e
Plate 2. Vultures in flight.
February, 1954. Identification of Kenya Bii'ds of Prey in Flight.
79
Nubian or Lappet-faced Vulture.
Torgos tracheliotus nuhicus (Smith). Plate 2.
Adult. Wingspan 9 feet. This is the largest and most powerful of our
vultures. Underparts of body blackish-brown with two contrasting white
thigh patches and a short white streak along the fore edge of the wing.
The reddish head and large bill are good field characters at close quarters.
Immature. Resembles adult but thigh patches often brown, not whitish.
White-headed Vulture.
Trigonoceps occipitalis (Burchell). Plate 1.
Adult. Wingspan 7 feet. This is a very distinct species. Its field char-
acters are white head, blackish breast, white abdomen and thighs and dark
wings with a large white secondaries patch.
Immature. Differs from the adult in lacking the white secondaries
patch, but has a conspicuous white line bordering the under wing coverts;
abdomen and thighs usually mainly white (see plate 1).
Egyptian Vulture.
Neophron percnopterus percnopterus (Linnaeus). Plate 2.
Adult. Wingspan 5 feet. In adult plumage the Egyptian Vulture is easy
to recognise, being entirely white except for black flight feathers and a
yellow face, the tail is diamond shaped.
Immature. The first immature plumage is entirely brown, followed by
a grey, then a grey and white dress until the bird reaches maturity. It
is best identified by its diamond shaped tail and rather narrow wings. The
Hooded Vulture has broad wings and a short tail.
Hooded Vulture.
Necrosyrtes monachus pileatus (Burchell). Plate 2.
Adult. Wingspan 5 feet. This is an entirely dark-plumaged vulture with
broad wings and a short tail; there is sometimes a little white on the crop
and thighs, and the wings have a curious silvery lustre in certain lights.
Immature. This plumage is very like that of the adult from which it
does not differ in any important detail in flight.
80
VOL. XXII
BIRD NOTES FROM MOLO — 1. THE DAM.
By Mrs. D. M. Sheppard.
To any bird lover a stretch of water, however small, is an irresistable
attraction; there is always something to watch. If one’s hopes of seeing a
rare duck or wader are rarely realized there are still the birds of the reeds
and grass verges, the birds that come down to drink and those that fly
overhead.
Since I came to live up here just eighteen months ago the bird life of
our dam has proved a fascinating study, particularly having regard to our
altitude which is nearly 9,000 feet. The dam is quite small, only about
three acres, very shallow and weedy, lying at the foot of a steep hill on the
edge of the forest.
Last year, when there was still plenty of water our more common
residents were two pairs of Red-knobbed Coots, which bred in July,
Dabchicks, Moorhens, Black Crakes and Yellow-billed Ducks varying from
a solitary pair to forty or fifty. African or Southern Pochards were fairly
regular visitors and sometimes we would have a pair of the attractive
Red-billed Teal or their more drab cousins the Hottentot Teal. In April
of last year a solitary Garganey was seen on two occasions, presumably
on migration. In August I was excited to spot my first White-backed
Ducks and so fast asleep were they (a party of five of them among the
water-lily leaves) that it took me some time to identify them, their white
backs only showing when preening or in flight. They remained with us
almost continuously until the dam started to dry out in December.
Our most common small waders are Green and Wood Sandpipers, the
latter very tame and in large numbers in February when the rapid drying
up of the dam made conditions ideal for them. During this month a Marsh
Sandpiper was also seen and the Common Sandpipers visit us occasion-
ally. In December and again in February we were lucky to have a pair
of Stilts for a few days. In January and February two pair of Snipe be-
came temporary residents of the grass verges. They would sit so tight
that they were in danger of being caught by the dogs. Whether they were
the Ethiopian or Common variety we were never able to discover.
In July I went to England for three months and returned to find the
dam empty save for a few small puddles but one pair of faithful Wood
Sandpipers were still with us and an occasional Green one still visits us.
Of the large wading birds, we have had Grey and Black-headed Herons,
Hammerkops, Yellow-billed Egrets and the stately Kavirondo Cranes as
regular visitors. Sacred Ibis and White Storks were seen in February,
and in May, for the first time, we had a Saddlebill Stork. I have always
associated this magnificent bird with lower and warmer regions but he
February, 1954.
Bird Notes from Molo — The Dam.
81
seems to like it up hei’e and has been a fairly regular visitor ever since.
But our greatest thrill was when, one day last month, we spotted two
strangers stalking about the dry floor of the dam and these turned out to
be a pair of Woolly-necked Storks {Dissoura episcopus). Their visit, alas,
was all too brief, for as we were watching them from close by a Mountain
Buzzard swooped out of the forest and saw them off in no uncertain
fashion. They circled over our heads, then up and up they soared to such
a tremendous height that even through our field glasses we could no
longer see the two specks that were our Woolly-necked Storks.
But it was not long before we had another new species to add to our
list. About three weeks ago a solitary Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) appeared
and at the time of writing (November 26th) is still with us. He is a big
bird, a good deal bigger than Abdim’s and very smart with his red legs
and bill.
And what of the little birds that find their living around the dam and
among the rushes ? Wagtails are the most numerous and varied. Wells’
and the African Pied species are residents — the latter, though, preferring
the garden to the dam. During the winter months we have large numbers
of Yellow and Blue-headed, and solitary Grey Wagtails have been seen on
migration.
Yellow-throated Long-claws and Pipits (species unidentified) are also
residents as is the ubiquitous Stonechat. At intervals large flocks of Masai
Waxbills swarm among the rushes and sometimes we are lucky enough to
have an influx of the beautiful Malachite Sunbirds — though what should
attract them to the dam, where they perch on the rushes, I have never
been able to discover.
And last, but by no means least, mention must be made of the birds of
prey that are so much part of the life of the dam. Augur Buzzards,
Mountain Buzzards and Crested Hawk Eagles are always to be seen some-
where near and in the winter months African and European Marsh
Harriers and Pallid Harriers quarter in fields around. All these species
have been seen on many occasions motionless on the ground either on the
edge or on a tuft of grass in the middle of the dam, the male Pallid
Harrier looking from a distance very like a seagull. The ducks are very
nervous of these birds of prey, particularly the Harriers, and when the
'water is too low for them to be able to take cover in the rushes they
become so jumpy that they will make off as soon as one appears in sight,
often before I am able to spot it. The sandpipers, on the other hand, take
little notice of them.
On one occasion our dogs put up a Marsh Owl in the long tussock grass
near the dam. It flew a short way then flopped down in the grass again,
repeating this several times and never going far away.
And so when my husband comes in from riding or I from walking
before breakfast, the first question usually is — “Seen anything new on
the dam today?” and there is nearly always something of interest to
record or discuss. Life is never dull with a stretch of water nearby.
82
VOL. XXII
AFRICA’S RAREST COWRIES.
By Lloyd E. Berry, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
There are places in the world where collectors of marine shells may
find a greater number of species than is provided by the African coast, but
the “Dark Continent” has the distinction of providing some of the most
interesting and rarest shells.
Many shell enthusiasts collect all groups or families of shells; others
concentrate on certain families such as the Cypraeidae, more commonly
called Cowries.
Cowries are considered to be the “aristocrats” of all shells, for in their
natural state they are found with a high glossy polish and need no human
means of bringing forth their beauty.
The east coast of Africa offers over 45 species of cowries for collectors
who know where and when to search. The south-east coast from Mozam-
bique to the Cape offers a large number of these, among them some of
the rarest.
As many of the East African cowries are quite common over the whole
of the Indian Ocean, east to Australia thence north into the Pacific Ocean,
we will attempt to list only those considered rare or semi-rare. The names
as given are first the genus, then the species followed by the name of the
authority or person’s name who described the particular species.
The East African cowrie that seems to be number one on all collectors’
lists is the one known as Bernaya fultoni Sowerby. The exact number of
this species in collections is not known, but it is certainly very few. How-
ever, it is not a cowrie to be had by combing the beaches unless perchance
a dead specimen has been washed ashore by storms. (See figure)
It is a deep water shell, usually obtained by dredging or trawling.
Another source is the stomach of a fish commonly called the “mussel-
cracker” which seems to prefer molluscs of various sorts for its food
instead of small fishes.
The collector who is acquainted with fishermen or with people working
in the canneries should have a better opportunity of obtaining this species
if he is not already equipped with a boat for dredging or trawling. If
fishermen would only realize it, the value of this shell is greater than
the fish within which it is found !
Bernaya fultoni is easy to identify for it is among the larger
cowries, the average size being from 55mm to 70mm in length and 35mm
to 40mm in width and height. It can be called pear-shaped with the top
being quite humped. The dorsal or top markings are irregular and scattered,
One of Africa’s Rare Cowries, Bernaya fultoni Sowerby. The specimen
illustrated above is in the collection of Mrs. H. Boswell of Johannesburg,
to whom the Society is indebted for the photographs, (x 0.9)
February, 1954.
Africa’s Rarest Cowries.
83
of a reddish-brown or chestnut colour on a light background. The lateral
or side markings become a series of large dark spots which carry part
way over on the base, which is white. The teeth on both columellar
and outer or labial lips are coarse and red in colour. The known locality
for this shell is around the Natal coasti and specimens have been collected
in St. Francis Bay.
Cypraeovula amphithales Melvill is also a South East African cowrie
ranging from Durban to Port Elizabeth. It is considered rare. To the
beginner or unobserving collector this shell may be and has been mistaken
for the more common Cypraeovula capensis. However, its average size
is 24 to 27mm which is 3 or 4 mm shorter than capensis in length. The
dorsum or top of amphithales is smooth whereas the ribs or ridges and
grooves on capensis continue over the top from side to side. The sides or
lateral zones of amphithales are spotted and on the few shells I have
observed the left side was spotted so densely that they became almost a
solid dark pattern or wide line along the full length of the shell. This
never occurs in capensis.
Both of these species have a pale brownish to yellow background with
an irregular dorsal blotch of a darker brown. The dorsal blotch on
amphithales is weak and irregular and could be called just a group of
irregular markings whereas the dorsal blotch on capensis is solid or just
one marking.
As I have never seen a fresh specimen of Cypraeovula fuscorubra Shaw
I can only give the minor details of it from drawings and photographs
which I have seen. It is sometimes known as C. similis Gray. It occurs
:around the Cape Hope region and my one dead specimen is from Cape
Agulhas. Schilder’s book on the Cypraeas lists this shell as common but
I have found it difficult to obtain, even from collectors who live where
it occurs.
I presume it to be a deep water shell and dead specimens are washed
ashore by storms. The dead specimen at hand measures 41mm in length.
The columellar teeth are short and do not extend over the inner lip.
The teeth on the labial or outer lip are also short but more coarse and
extend the full length of the lip. The aperture is wide, especially so at
the anterior end. The shell is gibbous or swollen and inflated. The left
side is round and full with a convex base, whereas the right side has a
rather heavy margin which continues the full length of the shell and
over both terminals. The base in fresh specimens is a pale rust colour
and the teeth are white. The dorsum or top is of a dark rust colour,
darker than the base and has no spots on the top or sides. This shell is not
to be confused with the common Cypraeovula fuscodentata which appears
m numbers around Port Elizabeth and Port Alfred.
I am sure that most collectors in the area of Algoa Bay, Port Alfred
and East London are familiar with the little Cypraeovula edentula Gray
84
Africa’s Rarest Cmvries.
VOL. XXII
which is about 5/8 to 7/8 of an inch in length or approximately 22mm. This
cowrie is rated as common in its area and has a pale tan background with
an irregular dorsal pattern of darker tan or brown with dark brown spots
on both sides; the right side has a heavy margin while the left side is
smooth and rounded or inflated. The teeth in edentula are almost
obsolete.
I mention edentula only for comparison with the little Cypraeovula
algoensis Gray, which appears much the same in shape, size and colour
until one observes the base. In algoensis the dorsal colour may be more
light in shade but both lips are adorned with teeth. The occurrence of
algoensis compared to edentula is in the ratio of about 1 to 200, therefore
I place it in the class of being rare.
Palmadusta contaminata distans Schilder can be classed as very rare
for there are very few of these in collections. It is considered large if
over 2 inch or about 13mm. The teeth are small to obsolete, the right
side is margined. The colour of the top is pale yellow or cream with faint
brown spots, the spots being more numerous on the sides. The teeth and
base are white.
The South East African Palmadusta ziczac is called variety or sub-
species misella Perry. Its average size is slightly larger than Palmadusta
contaminata and is from 16mm to 18mm in length. The colour is an off-
white with a series of zigzag or arrow markings of pale brown or chestnut.
The base and teeth are yellowish. This shell is not to be confused with
Palmadusta diluculum Reeve; diluculum is large, very dark and much
more common than ziczac, although at one time it was called by that
name due to its pattern.
Erosaria marginalis Dillwyn. Although this cowrie is most uncommon
its range extends from northern Kenya to the northern Cape Hope area.
Its average size is about 1 inch or 26 mm and it cannot be confused with
any other cowrie in this area. Its ground colour is a pale rust with a
trace of lavender throughout. The terminals and base are lavender in
colour. The columellar teeth are numerous but short while those on the
labial or outer lip are slightly larger and coarser but less in number. The
pale rust coloured dorsum is marked with numerous dark brown spots
interspaced with pure white spots about one half the size of the brown
ones.
The only shell that comes close to marginalis in appearance is Erosaria
helvola but helvola lacks the lavender colour on the base. Helvola is also
a much heavier and solid shell. Its average size is also smaller.
Africa offers many other rare cowries on its northern coast. There are
also several on the west coast rated from common to rare but there seem
to be few collectors around Cape Verde where they occur, consequently
there are few of these in collections.
February, 1954.
Africa’s Rarest Cowries.
85
Collectors searching for cowries will be wise to confine their hunting
to rocky shores and coral reefs. Many cowries prefer to remain under
rocks and are inclined to avoid sandy beaches for the grains of sand get
under the mantle and cause irritation. However, a few in the Phillippines
do bury themselves in coarse sand, like members of the olive family.
With the latest improvements in the aqua-lung, skin divers are able to
go to greater depths (over 100 feet) and many cowries are now being
collected from reefs and rocky bottoms that before were not obtainable
except as dead specimens washed ashore.
For the benefit of those who are not familiar with the curing and
cleaning of cowries, it is well to know that these shells can be ruined by
improper cleaning methods. Many believe that boiling will blister or
crack the shell but I have had very good luck with this method but only
by placing the shells in cold water andl bringing it to a boil for not more
than two minutes, then allowing to cool slowly.
Blistering and cracking is caused by dropping the shell in water that
is already boiling or dipping them in cold water while still very hot, causing
too sudden contraction or expansion.
A slower method is to place the shells in cold water and let the meat
decay. The water should be changed every 48 hours for a week or ten days.
Some good results have been obtained by placing the shells overnight
in the ice compartment of an ice box or refrigerator as this causes the
meat to shrink.
In all cases, a small knife and bent wire are handy tools for removing
the animal.
To make a collection more interesting and of greater value, always
label every specimen as to locality, date found and the name of the
collector. Other information may be written on the label but these three
items are essential. In the event of exchange other collectors will request
exact data with specimens.
Some families of shells are seldom found alive but whenever possible
it is better to collect live specimens. Dead shells have little value unless
very rare.
Experienced collectors avoid specimens which have been dipped in
varnish or lacquer to make them shine or look pretty. Cowries have a
natural polish and do not need any help from mankind to make them look
beautiful.
83
VOL. XXII
ENGLISH NAMES FOR KENYA MOTHS
By A. L. H. Townsend.
In the number of this Journal for April 1953, Col. Stockley makes the
suggestion that someone should invent English names for the Kenya
months. This wholly admirable suggestion has been made more than once;
but it does not appear to have been taken up. “Admirable”, because there
can be little doubt that many potential entomologists, particularly among
the younger generation, are scared off a study where they find such
mouthfuls as Sphingaeniopsis, Odontocheilopteryx, and Thaumetopoea
apologetica to be common and necessary currency. It has often been
noticed how few and how small the insect collections are that appear
among the Schools’ exhibits at the Agricultural Shows: a fact which
seems to show lack of interest in entomology among the young people
of the Colony. Why does this difference exist between the children of
Kenya and those of England, who are at present showing more interest
than ever before in the study of insect life? There must be some reason,
in a country where insects are so numerous, interesting, and beautiful.
Is it partly because of this matter of the names? If so, cannot simple
English names be introduced to supplement those monstrosities (necessary
to the scientist, but not, at first anyhow, to the ordinary person) mentioned
above? This article has been written in the hope that it may start the ball
rolling. It is purely tentative, and deals with the Moths only; my know-
ledge of the Butterflies is too slight for me to venture on any suggestion
of names for them. There are many people far more competent than
myself to undertake that.
There are difficulties, not the least of which is that many of our
Kenya Moths may already have acquired names elsewhere — in South
Africa, for instance — and to name them here might lead to confusion.
But this would be straightened out in time, and does not seem to be a
sufficient reason for postponing an initial effort. To invent an individual
name for each of the enormous number of our moths will be a vast task,
and take a very long time. But, again, that does not seem to provide a valid
argument against making a beginning.
Certain principles may be suggested, to begin with.
1. Species with names already well-established in England will, of
course, retain them. There are more of these in Kenya than may be
generality known.
2. The use of “Kenya” — or of any Kenya locality — as a prefix, should
be avoided, since it may well prove, later on, to be inappropriate. The
species may not be confined to Kenya, or to the particular locality. (Any-
one who has studied the African moths will know that there are a very
large number with the scientific name “capensis”, which occur in many
places besides “The Cape”).
February, 1954.
English Names for Kenya Moths.
87
3. Where the scientific name is clearly descriptive of the moth, or of
some individual characteristic or peculiarity, it should be translated and
retained. An instance of this is “hirundo”, the Swallow; surely a most
happy name for this delightful little Hawkmoth.
4. Well-established Group-names, such as Hawks, Tigers, Footmen,
Pugs, etc., should be used when possible; that is, when their use does
not make the name unwieldy.
5. Some Group-names however, such as Carpets, Rustics, Arches, have
been stretched almost to absurdity in the English list. These should not
be further extended.
6. “Proprietary” names; Wahlbergi, Platti, Jacksoni; should only be
retained in English if no more elegant or appropriate name can be found.
7. Names should be easily intelligible, and not grotesciue or absurd.
(How many English entomologists can say what is meant by “The
Engrailed Clay”, “The Cousin German”, or “The Setaceous Hebrew Char-
acter”? Or what could be more grotesque than “The Beautiful Snout”!)
Here are a few suggestions, made with great diffidence, and covering
only a few species from a small number of Moth-families.
SPHINGIDAE (Hawkmoths).
There are five of these in Kenya with well-known English names, the
Death’s head. Convolvulus, Oleander, Striped, and Silver-striped Hawks.
These need no new names.
Suggestions : —
H.osiris Greater Silver-stripe. H.eson
H. balsaminae Clay-striped Hawk. L.hirundo
M trochilus Lesser Hummingbird. B.medea
B.charis Rose-and-silver. P.grayi
P.falcatus Hook-tipped Hawk. Ps.postica
SATURNHDAE.
Since the only English species is the well-known “Emperor”, it seems
that it may be well to keep this name with appropriate prefix, at least
for those species with “target” markings on the wings. It may be necessary
to keep the many “proprietary” names in this family; e.g. Nudaurelia
rothschildi, Rothschild’s Emperor.
ARCTHDAE.
The “Footmen” lend themselves to descriptive names. D.pulchella is
already known as the Crimson-speckled.
E.peperita Dusty footman. E .sanguicosta Red-edged footman.
E.distigmata Colon footman. E.discifera Cloudy footman.
L.bipunctigera Twin-spot footman. M.chalybeata Steely footman, etc.
Olive-striped Hawk.
Swallow or Swallow
hawk.
Green Jewel.
Brown-tipped Hawk.
Black-based Hawk.
88
English Names for Kenya Moths.
VOL. XXII
SYNTOMIDE.
A few well-known species : —
A.chrysozona
M.lateritia.
Gold Belt. Th. negus (phasma) Phantom.
Vermilion. M.flavivena. Yellow-veined.
NOCTUIDAE.
There are a number named in England; C.loreyi, Cosmopolitan;
Eux.segetis, Turnip moth ; Eux.spinijera, Hubner’s Rustic : H.peltigera,
Bordered Straw; and several others. I will suggest names for species of
two Genera only out of this immense family.
O .materna Chequered Orange-wing. O.fullonica Comma Orange-wing.
O.divitiosa Broad-bordered Orange-wing.
Those few will suffice to show the idea I have in mind.
To bring this project into being will require co-operation • — much
co-operation. It is possible, even probable, that in the Kenya Schools or
elsewhere, there are names already current of which I am ignorant. If
anyone interested cares to send me these, or suggestions for others, I
will do my best to proceed with the next step, which is to secure the
adoption and publication of the names. One stipulation however is
necessary. The name, or suggested one, must be accompanied by the
scientific name of the moth. (This can easily be obtained from the Museum)
The reason is clear. A communication saying “A good name for that
common moth, white with red blotches on the wings, would be ‘Nettle-
rash’” will not be very helpful. It is almost impossible to recognise a
moth from a casual description.
In this matter of adoption and publication, the help of the Natural
History Society, and of the Coryndon Museum, will clearly be necessary,
and I feel sure that it will be forthcoming. Both these institutions are
keen to increase the number of Naturalists in the country, and realise
that one way of doing so is that now suggested — the provision of “easy”
names for the insects. Perhaps a small committee might be set up to
accept or reject suggestions, and to choose between alternative ones.
Perhaps the Editor of this Journal would agree to publish occasional lists
and the Museum authority to incorporate the new names in the label-
system of the collection. At any rate, the first thing is to get a list of
names. Let us get on with it.
Plusia.
P.limhirena
P .indicator
Othreis.
Broken Y. P. orichalcea
Pointer. P.sestertia
Brass-wing.
Plutocrat.
February, 1954.
89
COMMON NAMES FOR MOTHS — ANOTHER VIEW.
By E. C. G. PiNHEY.
Mr. Townsend’s suggestions for common names for moths are admirable
in many ways. If we lived here in a geographically confined space like
Britain, or like Mauritius to come nearer our Region, I would say by all
means use popular names for all our larger Lepidoptera, our so-called
“Macrolepidoptera”. In our unconfined tropical zone, however, we have
many thousands of moths which fall into the above category and having
myself attempted to use common names for all the four hundred and
sixty odd species of butterflies in Southern Rhodesia I have modified my
views about extending such titles further.
The lack of popularity with moths in Africa is not just due to the
scientific names. In Europe, for instance, while British amateurs have
strings of common names for moths, collectors on the Continent are not
blessed to this extent with such encouragement. Yet there is no dearth of
continental collections of moths. Again, there are many beetle collectors
in Britain and although many of these (beetles) are of striking appear-
ance only a few have popular names — more so in the case of groups
than species. Who, for' example, would be so rash as to try and popularize
the genus Apion with common names ? Attempts have been made in
Engand to tack such names on to insects of other families without marked
success. Even the amateur Lepidopterist in Britain must learn specific
names if he is to mingle with older collectors or join societies,
Nci, it would appear that the main cause of the lack of interest in
African moths is the shortage of comprehensive, popular, well-illustrated
literature. What are the reasons for this state affairs? Firstly the over-
whelming number of species of moths (or other insects) in almost any
African territory. Secondly the shortage of collectors and entomologists
with spare time and sufficiently versed in the subject to wnhte books on
them. Thirdly the cost of publication of well-illustrated works. *
If the general opinion is in favour of popular names then they must,
for practical reasons, be confined to the two most popular families of
moths, Saturniidae and Sphingidae, both containing highly attractive
insects and neither being overwhelming in number of species. To attempt
names for other families, such as' the thousands of Agrotidae (Noctuidael)
would be like plunging into a morass, complicated enough as it is to the
advanced student and beyond the pale for the beginner.
* Mr. Pinhey is working on a general book on African entomology —
'“An Introduction to the Study of African Insects.” Editor.
90
VOL. XXII
AN EXPLANATION OF SCIENTIFIC NOMENCLATURE.
A Glossary of scientific names, commonly found in East African
Ornithological Nomenclature.
By D. G. MacInnes, Ph.D., M.B.O.U.
It is a common, though entirely erroneus belief, that the “latin”, or
scientific names of birds and animals are invented, without rhyme or
reason, by the experts, with the dual purpose of impressing and confusing
the amateur. Moreover it is thought that one of the primary requirements
of such names is that they should be long, complicated and unintelligible.
The following notes and glossary are therefore put forward as an attempt
to explain briefly the system employed, and to enable the amateur to
understand some of the names which, at first sight, appear to be so in-
comprehensible.
Colloquial names vary not only in different countries, but also from
district to district, and it was partly owing to the resulting confusion that
the great Swedish naturalist Linne (Linnaeus) devised a method, publish-
ed in the 10th edition of his “Systema Naturae” in 1758, by which the
entire Animal Kingdom was classified and divided into groups, or species,
each of which was given two scientific names. In order that they should
be of international value, Latin or Greek names were used. The first, or
generic name, indicated a relationship within a group of species, whilst
the second, or specfic name, distinguished the related species from one
another. Thus the Mistle-Thrush, Song-Thrush, Fieldfare, Redwing,
Blackbird etc., being clearly allied species, all have the first name Turdus,
which is the Latin word meaning a Thrush. Occasionally, as in this case,
the generic name is just the Latin or Greek word for the group, but more
often names are composite words drawing: attention to some characteristic
feature of the species (e.g. Turdus viscivorus = Mistletoe-eating Thrush
= Mistle-Thrush),
In the days of Linnaeus, ornithology was not the highly developed
science that it is today, and although the original classification is largely
maintained, it has been necessary to subdivide some genera into sub-
genera, and many species into sub-species or races. For this reason a
trinomial system of nomenclature has been introduced, and in addition
to the generic and specific names, many birds have been given a third
name, known as the subspecific- or racial-name. The subspecies is
usually distinguished on geographical grounds, coupled with some
recognisable variation in colour or form, and the third name thus often
indicates the locality, consisting of a place-name wth the latin suffix
— i, — ae or — ensis. Where a species has been divided into two or more
subspecies, the one originallj" described is known as the “nomino-typical”
race, and the third name is then merely a repetition of the specific name.
February, 1954. An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature.
91
For instance, in 1823 Lichtenstein described the Cape Rook under the
name Corvus capensis. In 1919, Laubmann pointed out that in the province
of Kordofan a smaller form occured, which he named Corvus capensis
kordofanensis. Thus the original South African race becomes Corvus
capensis capensis Licht.
The ornithologist who “invents’’ a name to describe a new race or
species, is known as the “author” of the name, and when referring to a
bird by its scientific name it is customary to add the name of the author.
Many bird-names date back to Linnaeus or other early ornithologists,
and in some cases subsequent research has shown that a group of species
originally assigned to a single genus, really represents two
or more genera, which must be named separately. In this case the name
of the first author is put in brackets, to indicate that the name now
employed is not exactly as originally proposed. For example, Linnaeus
included the Rock-Thrush with all the other Thrushes, and called it
Turdus saxatilis, but in 1822 Boie showed that it was generically distinct,
and proposed the new generic name Monticcla. The name therefore is
now Monticola saxatilis (Linn). In this case, since no subspecies have been
described, it is unnecessary to duplicate the second name.
All too frequently authors have followed the line of least resistance,
and have named species after the individual (human) who first collected
or recognised it. Occasionally there may be some justification for such
a course, but descriptive names are generally preferable, and, on the
whole, more usual.
In such a system of nomenclature, duplication of names is clearly to be
avoided except within a single species, although some specific names
may recur in several different genera. The Greeks and Romans did not
have separate names for all the different genera that are recognised
today, and it becomes increasingly difficult for the expert to find suitable
names to define new genera. In addition to the direct use of the appro-
priate Latin or Greek words such as Aquila (Eagle), Torgos (Vulture) etc.,
or the composite descriptive words such as Erythropygia (Red-rump) or
Macronyx (Long-claw), many generic names have been derived from
other sources. Some have been compounded from pre-existing genera, giving
rise to such names as Butastur {Buteo + Astur) and Circaetus (Circus +
Aetus) : others bring in a pre-existing name, with a prefix or suffix to
denote a certain similarity, hence Alaemon (a kind of Lark) : Pseuda-
laemon {false- Alaemon), or Crex (Corn-crake): Crecopsis (Crake-like),
whilst others again make use of a diminutive (Calandra — Calandrella :
Psittacus — Psittacula). Many names are descriptive of habits, both real
and immaginary (Campephaga = Caterpillar-eater : Caprimulgus =
Goat-sucker), or of habitat (Actitis = Shore-dweller ; Schoenicola =
Reed-dweller) : place-names may also be used, in a latinised form
(Balearica, Terekia, Ruwenzorornis, etc.), and occasionally proper names
are employed, for example Sheppardia, Smithornis and others.
92
An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature.
VOL. XXII
Perhaps the most interesting names are those derived from the fascina-
ting legends of Greek mythology. Pandion, king of Athens, gives his nam.e
to the Osprey, and the name of his daughter Procne, who was transformed
into a Swallow, is perpetuated in several Hirundine genera. Pandion’s
second daughter Philomela (Song-lover), had her tongue cut out by her
wicked brother-in-law Tereus, to serve some evil purpose of his own,
but the gods made up for it by transforming her into a Nightingale.
Halcyon, daughter of the wind-god Aeolus, married Lucifer’s son Ceyx,
who was subsequently drowned at sea. Awaiting his return on the shore.
Halcyon saw his body drifting on the tide, and after appealing to the
Gods, both she and her husband’s spirit were transformed into Kingfishers
and granted immortality.
Most of us acquired, at school, at least a smattering of the classics, and
bearing in mind that most scientific names are simple or composite Latin
or Greek words with a perfectly ratonal meaning, we begin to realise
that they give no cause for alarm, but are, indeed, highly instructive and
often entertaining.
The following glossary defines, perhaps somewhat loosely at times,
the meaning and derivation of the majority of the composite names
commonly found in East African Ornithology. Space does not allow for
a complete list, and some names have been deliberately omitted, either
because their meaning should be obvious, or because the derivation is
obscure, but by breaking up a doubtful name into its component parts
and looking them up separately, it should be possible to elucidate it with-
out difficulty. If in doubt about the construction, look up the first three
or four letters, and the rest follows. It must be admitted that there are
some gaps which can only be attributed to the author’s abysmal ignorance
of the classics, but it is hoped that these notes may serve to diminish
that sense of awe and frustration which the sight of a complicated scien-
tific name so often inspires in us.
Glossary of Scientific names and name-roots.
L = Latin.
G — Greek
= ;
a composite name
a — , an —
G
without
afer. afr —
L
african.
acantha
G
thorn; spine.
affinis
L
related.
Accipiter
L
Hawk.
agap —
G
love.
acer
L
sharp.
agr —
L
field.
acredula
L
k'nd of bird.
alar
L
of the wing.
aero —
G
top; summit.
albi — , albo —
L
white.
act —
G
shore.
albicauda
=
white-tailed.
acuta
L
sharp.
albiceps
—
,, headed.
aeginthis
G
sparrow.
albicollis
=
„ necked.
aeneus
L
brassy.
albicrissalis
„ bellied.
acneigularis
=
brazen-throated.
albifrons
=
„ fronted.
aeruginosus
L
rusty.
albigularis
., throated.
aetho —
G
unusual.
albirostris
=
,, bellied.
Aetus
G
Eagle.
albiventris
—
,, bellied.
February, 1954. An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature.
albonotatus
=;
white-spotted.
arete
L
narrow.
Alcedo
L
Kingfisher.
arcticincta
—
narrow-banded.
alius
L
another.
arcuatus (arqu-'
L
bowed; curved.
alopo —
G
fox
Ardea
L
Heron.
als —
G
woodland.
ardens
burning.
amaur —
G
dark.
ardesiacus
L,
slate-grey.
amauroura
=
dark-tailed.
argaleo —
G
difficult.
ambi — , amp'hi-
- LG both.
argent-atus,
ambigua
L
doubtful.
— eus
L
silvery.
amblio —
G
blunt; stupid.
aridula
L
of the desert.
ana — •
G
similar to; like..
arizelo — •
G
distinct.
andro
G
man.
armatus
L
armed.
angusti —
L
narrow.
arundinaceus
L
of the reeds.
angusticauda
=
slender-tailed.
Astur
L
Hawk.
anomalo —
G
uneven; unusual.
atimast —
G
neglected.
anous
G
stupid.
atri — ■
L,
black.
anthos
G
flower.
atricapilla
=
black-haired.
apalo —
G
soft.
atriceps
,, headed.
apatellus
G
illusory.
atrifrons
—
,, fronted.
apis
L
bee.
atrocaerulea
=
black-blue.
apiaster
=
bee-eater.
aureus
L
golden.
apivorus
bee-eating.
aurantiigula
=
golden-throated
apl — ■
f ;
simple.
australis
L
of the south.
arbor
L
tree.
axilla
L
arm-pit.
badius
L
brown; chestnut.
B
brachyurus
short-tailed.
— baenus
G
climber.
brady —
G
slow.
baeo —
G
small.
brevis
L
short.
balaena
L
whale.
brevirostris
short-billed.
balaeniceps
=
whale-headed.
brunnei —
1 ,
brown.
barbat-us, — ula
L
bearded.
brunneiceps
—
brown-headed.
— bates
G
dweller.
brunneigularis
=
,, throated.
bathmo —
G
graduated.
brychus
G
roar; bellow,
b' — , bis
L
twice.
bu
G
ox.
bifasciatus
=
two-banded.
bubal
G
buffalo.
binotata
=
two-spotted.
Bubo
L
Horned Owl.
borealis
L
of the north.
bubul
L
of cattle.
braccae
L
breeches.
buccal
L
of the cheek.
brachium
L
arm.
buccina
L
trumpet.
brachy —
=
short ta'led.
buc(c)inator
L
trumpeter.
brac'hyptera
=
short-winged.
Budytes
G
Wagtail.
brachyrhynchos
=
„ b'lled.
Buteo
L
Hawk.
C
caeruleus
L
blue; violet.
caniceps
=
grey headed.
caesia
L
grey.
canicollis
=
., necked.
cafer
L
of Kafirland.
cantans
L
singing.
calam —
G
of reeds.
cap ell a
L
goat (bleater)
calandrella
G
dim : of Calandra,
capillus
L
hair.
Lark,
capistratus
L
banded.
calva
L
smooth; bare.
capra, capri—
L
goat.
campe
G
caterpillar.
caput, capit —
L
head.
campestris
L
of the plains.
carunculata
L
wattled.
campt—
G
shoulder.
casm —
G
open mouth.
cani — ■
L
grey.
castaneus
L
chestnut.
VOL. XXII
94 An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature.
castaneiceps
chestnut-headed.
citriniceps
=
yellow-headed.
cauda
!
tail.
clarus
L
clear.
centr —
G
spine; spur.
climaco —
G
barred.
cephal-o, — us
G
head.
climacurus
=
barred-tail.
ceps
L
head.
clypeata
L
shielded.
ceras
G
horn.
clyto —
G
glorious.
cercus
G
tail.
cneme, ( — us)
G
knee.
cex’ia
G
chest.
cocc —
G
grain; berry.
certhios
G
small-bird.
Coccyx
G
Cuckoo.
cervix
L
neck.
— cola
G
dweller.
cervinus
L
tawny.
collis
L
neck.
Ceryle
G
Kingfisher.
collaris
L
collared.
ceuth —
G
hidden.
concinnus
L
neat; pretty.
Ceyx
G
Kingfisher.
concolor
L
of one colour.
chalco —
G
copper; bronze.
contra
L
opposite.
chalcomelas
=
bronze-black.
conus
G
cone; forehead.
chalcomitra
=
bronze-crowned.
conirostris
=
cone-billed.
chalcopterus
=
„ winged.
Corax
L
Raven; Crow.
clxalcospilos
=
„ spotted.
corona
L
of the crown.
chalybaeus
G
steel-coloured.
corruscus
L
wrinkled.
charadr —
L
of cleft; gully.
cor3^-s, — th
G
helmet; crest.
charit —
G
graceful.
cosm-o, — eto
G
adorned.
charmosyna
G
agreeable.
cossyphos
G
singing bird.
cheilos
G
lip.
costa
L
rib.
chel
G
cloven; forked.
coxa
L
hip.
chelidOD
G
swallow.
craspedo —
G
bordered.
Chen
G
Goose.
crassi —
G
thick.
chlamys
G
cloak; mantle.
crassirostris
=
thick-billed.
chlidon
G
ornament.
creas
G
flesh; wattle.
chloro —
G
yellow-green.
Crex
G
Crake.
chlorochlamys
green-mantled.
cricos
G
ring.
chori —
( ;
dancing.
crinis
L
hair.
chroma
G
colour.
crissa —
L
belly; flanks.
chryso —
G
golden.
crista
L
crest.
cichla
G
kind of thrush.
croc-atus, — eus
L
saffron-yellow.
Ciconia
L
Stork.
cruentus
L
bloody; red.
cilium
L
eyelid.
crumen
L
pouch; bag.
cinclos
G
kind of bird;
crura
L
legs.
lattice.
crypto —
G
hidden; secret.
cinctus
L
banded.
cryptoleuca
hidden-white.
cinerea
L
grey.
cucull-us, — atus
[ ,
hood, hooded.
cinereiceps
grey-headed.
culmen
L
summit.
cinereocapilla
„ haired.
cuma
G
wave.
cinereola
! ,
ashy.
cun — ( — ae)
L
cradle.
cinnamomea
L
cinnamon.
cupreus
L
copper.
cinnyns
G
small-bird.
cyano —
G
blue.
Circus
G
Harrier (hawk that
cyanocephalus
=
blue-headed.
flies in circles).
cyanogenys
blue-cheeked.
cirrhos
G
tawny; grey.
cyanolaema
=
blue-throated.
cirrhocephalus
grey-headed.
cyanoleuca
=
blue-white.
cist —
f ;
shrub.
cyanostictus
=
blue-spotted.
citrin —
L
lemon-yellow.
cypselos
G
martin; swift.
D
dactyla
G
toe.
dendro —
G
tree.
dasy —
G
hairy.
dens, dentate
L
tooth; toothed..
decipiens
L
deceptive.
derma
G
skin.
i
February, 1954. An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature.
95
di—
G
diaphor —
G
dicro —
G
dilutior
L
dimidiatus
L
dioptr —
G
diplo — ■
G
dipn —
G
diss
G
e — , ex — -
L
ecaudatus
—
ecto —
G
edulis
L
elachior
G
Elanus
G
elos
G
Emberiza
L
empid
G
endo — ento —
G
— ensis
L
ephippio —
G
epi — -
G
eranos
G
eremo —
G
erism'a
G
erithacus
G
falcin-ellus
L
famosa
L
fascia ( — tus)
L
fasciinucha
=
fasciiventer
=
ficus
L
flammulatus
L
flava
L
flavicrissalis
=
flavigaster
flavigula
=
flavilateralis
flavirostris
flavitarsus
flaviventris
twice.
different.
forked.
weak.
half; halved.
scout.
double.
food.
double.
without; lacking.
tail-less.
outside.
edible.
small.
Kite.
marsh frequenter.
Bunting.
gnat.
within.
from (place).
saddle.
upon.
lovely.
solitary; gentle.
prop.
solitary.
sickle (dimin).
renowned,
band, banded,
banded-nape,
banded-belly,
fig (tree),
flame-coloured,
yellow.
yellow-flanked.
,, bellied.
,, throated.
„ flanked.
., billed.
,, legged.
„ bellied.
dont
dorsal
dorsostriatus
drepano —
drepanorhynchus
drymo —
dryo —
dusa
E
Erodios
erythros
erythrocephalus
erythroceria
erythrogaster
erythrophthalma
erythrops
erythropygia
erythrorhyncha
— estes.
eu —
euro — . eurys
euricricotis
eurocephalus
excubitor
eximia
exustus
F
flavivertex
flavocincta
flavotorquata
fluviatilis
fren-atus, — um
fringilla
frons
fulg-ens, — idus
Fulica
fuliginosa
fulva
fulvopectoralis
funebrea
fuscus
fusconota
G tooth.
L of the back.
=- stripe-backed.
G sickle-shaped.
= sickle-billed.
G forest.
G tree.
G of the sunset.
G Heron.
G red.
= red-headed.
= ,, chested.
= „ bellied.
= ,, eyed,
r— ,, faced.
= ,, rumped.
= „ billed.
L eater.
G straight; true.
G wide; eastern.
= wide-ringed.
= wide-headed.
L sentinel.
L distinguished.
L of the desert.
= yellow-crowned.
= „ banded.
= ,, collared.
L of the river.
L bridled.
L finch.
L forehead.
L shining.
L Coot.
L sooty.
I. yellow-brown.
= fulvous-breasted.
L dusky; dark.
L dark.
= dark-backed.
G
galactos.
G
of milk.
gibber
L
hump.
gal-eo, — er —
L
helmeted; crested.
glareola
L
of gravel.
gaster
G
stomach; belly.
gluteal
G
of the buttocks
gelo —
G
laughing.
gnathos
G
jaw.
gena
L
cheek.
gracilis
L
slender.
genys
G
jaw; cheek.
gracilirostris
=
slender-billed.
geo—
G
of the earth.
graculus
L
jackdaw.
geranus
G
crane.
griseus
L
grey.
96 An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature. Vol. xxii
griseigula
=
grey-throated.
gymno —
G
bare; naked.
griseopygia
=
„ rumped.
gymnobucco
bare-cheeked.
gular
L
of the throat.
gymnogenys
„ cheeked.
gutt-ata, — ’era
L
speckled.
Gyps
O
Vulture.
H
haema
G
blood; red.
hippolais
L
singing-bird.
'haematocephala
=
red-headed.
hirsutus
L
hairy.
hal —
G
of the sea.
hispid
L
bristly.
hamatus
L
hooked.
holo —
G
whole.
haplo —
G
simple.
homo —
G
similar.
harp —
G
sickle; Kite.
hoplon
G
weapon.
hedy
G
sweet.
horus
L
sun (Anc. Egypt).
helios
G
sun.
humeral
L
of the s'houlder.
'helo —
G
marsh-frequenter.
hydro —
G
water.
hemi —
G
half.
hyla
G
wood; copse.
Herodios
G
Heron.
hyper —
G
above.
hetero —
G
different.
hyphantes
G
weaver.
hi at —
L
cleft.
hypo—
G
underneath.
hieros
G
sacred.
hypochlora
=
yellow-underparts.
hierax
G
falcon; hawk.
'nypostictus
=
spotted „
himant —
G
leather strap.
hypoxanthus
—
yellow „
ianthinus
L
violet.
I
infuscatus
L
dark-coloured.
iant'hinogaster
=
violet-bellied.
ingens
L
large.
icter
G
yellow; (Oriole).
insignis
L
marked.
Ictinos
G
Kite.
intercedens
L
coming between.
igneus
L
fiery.
interpres
L
go-between.
igneiventris
=
fiery-bellied.
iolaema
G
rusty-throated.
ilio —
L
of the flanks.
irrisor
L
mocker; mimic.
illas, illad —
G
kind of thrush
irroratus
L
mottled.
imberbis
L
beardless.
isabeline
greyish-yellow.
indicator
L
guide.
— ius
G
of; dweller.
infulatus
L
banded.
ixos
G
berry; reed.
j uncus
L
of rushes. .
J
Jynx
G
Wryneck.
labium
L
lip.
L
leuco —
G
white.
laema
G
throat.
leucogaster
=z
white-bellied.
laetus
L
joyful.
leucolophus
=
,, crested.
lais
G
kind of thrush.
leucomela
white & black.
lamella
L
small plate.
leucomystax
=
„ moustached.
lampr —
G
shining.
leuconotus.
,, backed.
lanius
L
butcher.
leucoparaeus
=
„ cheeked.
lateralis
L
of the flanks.
leucophrys
=
,, browed.
lati — . — us
L
broad.
leucoptera
„ winged.
latifrons
—
broad-fronted.
leucopygia
„ rumped.
latistriatus.
=
„ striped.
leucorhynchus
=
,, billed.
lepid-a, — us
L
neat.
leucotis
=
„ eared.
lepldo —
G
scaly.
limno — •
G
of marsh or pone
lepto —
G
slender.
linea
L
line.
lestes
G
robber.
lingua
L.
tongue.
February, 1954. An Explanatioji of Scientific Nomenclature.
97
lio — , liss —
G
smooth.
lucidus
L
bright.
lithos
G
stone.
lucidipectus
=
bright-breasted.
littoraU-S
L
of the shore.
lugens
L
in mourning.
longipennis
=
long-winged.
lugubris
L
mournful; dark.
longirostris
=
,, billed.
Luscinia
L
Nig'htingale.
lopho —
G
crested.
luteus
L
orange-yellow.
M
machaer
G
dagger.
melitta
G
bee.
machus
G
battle.
melittophagus
=
bee eater.
macro —
G
large; long.
melos
G
song.
macroceras
large-horned.
melocichla
singing-thrush.
macroura
long-tailed.
mentalis.
: .
of the chin.
maculata
1 ,
spotted.
Merops
L
Bee-eater.
maculicollis
=
spotted-neck.
meso —
G
medium.
mialaco —
G
soft.
micro — ■
G
small.
malaconotus
=
soft-backed.
m'.cror'nynchus
=
small-billed.
marginatus
L
of the shore.
Milvus
L
Kite.
mega —
G
large; long.
minus'culus
L
little.
megar'hyncha
=
large-billed.
mitra
G
head-dress; crown.
melas
G
black.
monach-a, — us
G
solitary.
melamprosopus
=
black-masked.
mono —
L
•alone; one.
melanocephala
=
„ headed.
montana
L
of the mountains.
melanogaster
=
,, bellied.
morpha
G
shape; form.
melanoleucus
=
black & white.
Motacilla
L
Wagtail.
melanonota
=
black-backed.
mulg-us
L
milk; suck.
melanops
=
black-faced.
multi —
G
many.
melanoptera
,, winged.
musc-a, — i —
L
fly.
melanorhynchus
=z
,, billed.
muso
L
banana.
melanota
,, eared.
myct—
G
fungus.
melanoxanthus
=
black & yellow.
myi ( — as)
G
fly.
melis
L
honey.
myrmecos
G
of ants.
meliphilns
honey-lover.
mystax
G
moustache.
naias
I ;
water-nymph.
N
nigricollis
black-necked.
nanus
L
dwarf.
nigrifrons
„ fronted.
— nastes
G
occupant.
nigripennis
,, winged.
nasutus
L
long-nosed.
nigriscapular'.s
=
„ shouldered.
nautes
G
sailor.
nigrodorsalis
,, backed.
necros
G
corpse.
nigrotemporalis
=
„ templed.
nectar
L
'honey.
nigroventris
=
,, bellied.
nema
G
thread.
nitens
L
coloured.
neo—
G
new.
nitidus
L
s'hinning.
neso —
G
islander.
nivea
L
snow.
netta
G
duck.
notatus
L
spotted.
niger, nigri —
L
black.
notum
L
back.
nigricauda
black-tailed.
nuchal
L
of the nape.
nigriceps
,, headed.
nycti — ■
L
of the night.
occiput
1
back of head.
o
— odont
G
tooth.
ochro —
G
yellow.
oecetor
G
in'habitant.
Ocnos
G
Bittern.
oedos
G
swollen.
ocular
L
of the eye.
Oena
G
Dove.
— odius
G
of; by the way.
Oenanthe
G
Wheatear.
An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature.
VOL. XXII
onax
G
onych
G
ophthalma
G
ops
G
— opsis, — opius
G
orbito—
L
oreo
G
Orestes
G
ornis
G
pachy —
G
pachyrhyncha
=
pada
G
paludis
L
paludicola
palustris
1 ,
pan — , pam —
G
pammelaina
=
para
G
par-aeus, — eia
G
parra
L
Parus
L
parva
L
pastor
L
pecten
L
pectus
L
pecuarius
L
ped
L
pedilo —
G
peli
G
Pelia
G
peltata
L
pennis
L
penth —
G
percnos
G
percnopterus
=
periss —
G
permista
L.
personata
L
perspicillata
L
petrosus
L
phaeo —
G
phaga, ( — us)
G
phalacro —
G
philo —
G
phoenico —
G
pholi —
G
phoneus
G
— phonus
G
phorm —
G
— phorus
G
Phoyx
G
— phrys
G
phylla
G
phyto —
G
picta
L
king.
claw.
of the eye.
eye; face.
appearance; — like,
of the eye.
mountain,
mountaineer,
bird.
thick; fat.
thick-billed,
tree,
mars'h.
marsh-dweller.
marsh.
all.
ail black.
besides.
cheek.
bird of ill-omen.
Tit.
small.
herdsman.
comb.
chest.
grazing.
foot.
sandal.
black.
Dove.
with a shield,
wing,
sorrow,
dark.
dark-winged.
uneven.
mixed.
marked.
conspicuous.
of stones.
dark.
eater.
bald.
loving.
crimson; purple,
scaly,
m.urderer.
voice.
woven basket,
bearer.
kind of Heron,
of the brow,
green; leafy,
of plants,
painted.
orthos
Ortyx (ortygo--)
ostrinus,
Otis, otus
Otis
Otus
ourus
oxy —
P
pictipennis
pileata
pinar
pirum
platalea
platy —
plectes
plectron
plegadis
pleura
ploceus
plumbeum
pod
podex, podic —
poecilo —
poecilolaemus
poecilosterna
pogon
polem
polio —
poliocephalus
poliolopha
poliop'hrys
poliopleura
polioptera
poliothorax
pomast
porphyreo —
porphyreolaema
prasina
prion
Procne, Progne
proct —
prosopu.=
psalido —
Psar (psarus)
pseudo —
Psittacus
pternistes
pter-on, — yx
ptilos
ptyon
pulchra
pumilus
punctata
G straight.
G Quail.
L purple.
L ear.
G Bustard.
L Horned Owl.
G tail.
G sharp.
= painted-wing.
L capped.
G dirty.
L pear.
L spoon.
G flat.
G plaiter; twister.
G spur,
G sickle.
G flanks.
G plaiter; weaver.
L grey.
G foot.
L rump.
G mottled.
= mottled-throat.
= „ breast.
G beard.
G war-like.
G grey.
r= grey-headed.
= ,, crested.
= „ browed.
= „ flanked.
= „ winged.
= „ breasted.
G lid; cover.
G purple; russet.
= purple-throated.
L green.
G jagged.
G Swallow.
G of the hind-parts.
G face-mask.
G shears.
G Starling.
G false.
G Parrot.
G one who strikes
with the heel.
G wing; feather.
G feather; wing.
G fan.
L beautiful.
L dwarf.
L spotted.
February, 1954. An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclatwe.
99
purpureus
L
purpureiceps
purpureiventris
=
purpuropterus
pus
( ;
pusillus
L
quad —
L
rallus
L
recurv —
L
rhamph-us
G
rhino —
G
rhipis
G
— rhis
G
rhodo —
G
rhodogaster
rhodopareia
rhodophoneus
--
rhynchos
G
riparla
L
roseus
L
roseicrissa
=
rostrum
L
ruber
L
sagitta
L
salp-inctes
G
sarki —
G
sarothron
G
saxa, (saxatilis)
L
scapularis
L
schistaceus
G
schizo —
G
sc'hoeno —
G
scirpaceus
L
sclero —
G
scopt —
G
scopus
G
scoto —
G
scute
L
sei — -
G
seicercus
=
semi —
L
semirufa
semitorquata
sibilatrix
! ,
silvanus
L
soma
G
sparsus
L
sparsimfasciatus
speciosa
: .
purple.
purple-headed.
„ bellied.
,, winged,
foot,
small.
four.
Rail; thin.
bent back or up.
bc-ak.
nose; rasp,
fan.
nose,
rosy.
rosy-bellied.
,, cheeked.
,, murderer,
beak.
frequenter of
stream-banks,
rosy.
rosy-flanked.
beak.
red.
arrow,
trumpeter,
flesh; wattle,
broom.
rock; of rocks,
of the shoulders,
slaty.
cloven; forked.
of reeds.
of reeds.
hard.
mimic.
watchman.
dai’k.
shield.
shake.
tail-s'haker.
half.
half-red.
half-collared.
whistler.
of the trees.
body.
scattered.
sparse-banded.
handsome.
pycnos
pygargus
pyg'-a
pyren
pyrrho —
pyrrhopterus
Q
quadrivirgatus
rubiginosa
rubrifascies
rudis
rufi — , rufo —
ruficapilla
ruficollis
rufidorsalis'
rufigula
rufinuchal'-s
rufipenms
rufiventris
rufobuccalis
rufocinctus
rufocinerea
rufocinnamomeus
rufogularis
rupestris
s
speculum
sperm
spheno —
sp'henurus
spilo —
spilogaster
spiza
splendens
spora
squamatus’
Squatarola
stagnatilis
stegano —
steira
stelgid —
Stella
steno—
stephano —
stephanophorus
sternum
stictus
stictilaema
stigmato —
stigmatophorus
stigmatothorax
G strong.
G white-rumped.
G rump; tail.
G fruit-stone.
G bronzy; reddish.
= bronze-winged.
= four-striped.
L
rusty-red.
L
red-faced.
L
wild.
L
red.
—
red-haired.
,, necked.
—
,, backed.
=
,, throated.
=
,, naped.
=
„ winged.
,, bellied.
red-cheeked.
=
,, banded.
=
red & gx’ey.
red & cinnamon
red-throated.
: ,
of rocks.
L mirror.
G seed.
G wedge; bill.
= wedge-tailed.
G spotted.
= spotted-belly.
G finch.
L shining.
G seed.
L scaly.
L Black-bellied
Plover.
G of pools.
G covered; webbed.
G keel; wattle.
G scraper.
L star.
G narrow.
G of the crown.
= crown-bearer.
G chest.
G spotted.
= spotted-throat.
G spotted.
= spot-bearer.
= spotted chest.
100
An
Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature. Vol. xxii
stilbo —
G
shining.
striolatus
L
striped.
stiphros
G
sturdy.
Strix
G
Owl.
stoma
G
mouth.
Strut'hio
L
Ostrich.
strephus
G
twister.
sub —
L
under; below.
strepitans
L
noisey.
sulphuratus
L
sulphur-yellow.
strepto —
G
pliant.
supercilium
L
eyebrow.
striatus
L
striped.
sycobius
G
of fig-trees.
striatipectus
-
stripe-breasted.
Sylvia
L
of the woods.
tachy —
G
swift.
T
tigr —
G
striped.
taenia
G
band.
tinniens
L
tinkling.
taeniolaema
banded-throat.
tmet —
G
dividing.
tarsus
( ;
leg; foot.
Torgos
G
Vulture.
tegmen
L
cover.
torquata
L
collared.
tel —
G
at the end.
trachelos
G
neck.
tenellus
L
tender.
trachy —
G
rough.
tenui —
L
slender.
tri—
L
three.
tenuirostris
slender-billed.
tricho —
G
hairy.
tephro —
( ;
ashy-grey.
tricollaris
=
three-collared.
tephrolaema
grey-throated.
tricolor
=
„ coloured.
tergum
[ ,
back.
trigon
G
triangle.
testa
L
shell.
Tringa
G
Sandpiper.
thalassa
G
sea.
tristigma
three-spotted.
thamno —
G
of shrubs.
tristriata
,, striped.
theio —
G
run.
trocho —
( :
wheel; round:
— t'hera
G
hunter.
troglodytes
G
cave-dwellers.
thorax
G
chest.
trogon
G
gnawer.
— threptes
G
nourished.
Turnix
L
Quail.
threski —
G
sacred.
tympanum
L
drum.
thrix
G
hair.
Tyto
G
Owl.
thylax
G
bag; pouch.
U
undosus
L wavy.
unicolor
= one-coloured.
uni —
L one.
Upupa
L Hoopoe.
unicincta
= one-banded.
— urus
G tail.
venter
L
belly.
V
vinaceigularis
purple-throated.
venustus
L
pretty.
virens
L
green.
vermis
L
worm.
virgatus
L
striped.
vermiculate
=
fine wavy lines.
viridis
L
green.
vertex
L
crown.
viridisplendens
shining-green.
verticalis
L
of the crown.
vitelline
1 .
yolk-like; yellow,
versicolor
L
parti-coloured.
vittatus
L
banded.
vidua
L
widowed.
— vorus
L
eater.
vinaceus
L
wine-like.
xanthos
G yellow.
X
xanthomelas
- yellow & black.
xantholophus
= yellow-crested.
xanthophilus
= yellow-loving.
February, 1954. An Explanation of Scientific Nomenclature.
101
zona
zonurus
Z
G band. zoster G band; girdle.
= banded-tail. zosterops = banded-eye.
References.
Henderson, I.F. & W.D. 1949.
A Dictionary of Scientific Terms. 4th Edition, by Kenneth, J.H.
Jaeger, E-C. 1950.
A Source-Book of Biological Names and Terms. 2nd Edition.
102
VOL. XXII
NOTES ON THE ALOES OF SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA AND SOMALIA.
By Dr. G. W. Reynolds.
The Coryndon Museum Expedition to Southern Ethiopia and Somalia
was organised to facilitate the investigation of Euphorbia, Monadenium,
succulents, and general botanical collecting by Mr. P. R. O. Bally, and
for the investigation and study of the genus Aloe by myself. Mr. A. Money-
Kyrle accompanied us on Quelea and other research.
The species of Aloe recorded from Southern Ethiopia and Somalia had
been imperfectly described, type material was scanty and incomplete, and
there were no figures. Until I could visit type localities and study plants
on the spot, I had little hope of ever being able to recognise or identify
those species. My special interest therefore, was to visit those type
localities, try and establish identities, write up full descriptions, secure
photographs, and prepare herbarium material. In a short article such as
this, notes must of necessity be very brief and sketchy, but descriptions of
new species and full notes on identities, etc., with photographs, will appear
in a forthcoming issue of the Journal of South African Botany.
The first part of our travels took us northwards to Isiolo, thence to Wajir
and Moyale on the Ethiopian border. The termitaria north of Wajir were
impressive, some of them being 6-9 feet broad at the base, and reaching
15 feet in height. (Fig. 1).
In Ethiopia we visited Mega and Yavello, while I went alone up to Agere
Mariam. It was a surprise to find that Aloe secundiflora Engler (plentiful
near the Athi River road bridge, 23 miles S.E. of Nairobi — where plants
llower in April-May) occurred in numbers near Moyale and repeatedly
along the road to Mega and up to Yavello, west of Yavello, but not seen
east of Yavello on the road to the Daua Parma River (Fig. 2).
A distinctive new species with deeply channelled much recurved leaves,
a paniculate inflorescence with dense racemes of clavate orange flowers
was found in considerable quantities on arid plains 48 miles N.W. of Moyale
(Fig. 3) and also north of Mega and Yavello. It was also noticed 14 miles
south of Buna in Kenya. Many Aloes, found in full flower at Mega turned
out to be A. Rivae Bak. (Fig. 4). This species also extends northwards to
Yavello and beyond. A. horanensis Cufod. had been described from “near
Dubuluch, coming from Yavello”, but certain plants found in that region,
(about 26 miles north of Mega), which fitted the description, turned out to
be crosses between A. secundiflora and what I believe is A. otallensis var.
elongata.
Yavello proved a most interesting place. Another new species of Aloe
was found there, a shrub, related to the East African shrubby Aloes, but
Fig. 1.
Termite mound, north of Wajir, Northern Proihnce, Kenya.
Fig. 2. Aloe secundiflora Engler 16 miles N.W. of Moyale, Borana, S. Ethiopia,
Fig. 3. Aloe new sp. 48 miles N.W. of Moyale, Borana, S. Ethiopia.
Fig. 4. Aloe Rivae Bak. flowering at Mega, Borana, S. Ethiopia.
/
Fig- 5. Termite chimney at Yavello, Borana, S. Ethiopia.
Fig. 6. Aloe microdonta Chiov. 20 miles S. of Bulo Burti, Somalia.
February, 1954. Aloes of Southern Ethiopia & Somalia.
103
differing from them all in having copper-brown leaves, cylindric spotted
flowers only 27mm. long, with 10mm. pedicels.
At Yavello Mr. Money-Kyrle secured about ten specimens of the rare
bird Zavattariornis stresemanni, a species of crow, black, grey and white in
plumage with leaden-blue bare skin around the eyes. Mr. John William:s
tells me this rare bird is known only from the Yavello district and provides
the link between the crows and the starlings.
Yavello is also famous for its great turritiform termitaria, reported to
occur only in that region. I photographed one slender lofty specimen which
was over 25 feet high (Fig. 5).
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Yavello is a small circular building
surrounded by a stockade of poles. The sloping roof is crowned with a
horse-shoe shaped arrangement of wire threaded through eight or ten
ostrich-egg shells, each shell being about one foot apart. One Ethiopian
told me that the egg shells were merely ornaments; another said they were
placed there to keep the devil away.
From Yavello the road leads eastwards, sloping gently down to the Daua
Parma River, then it climbs up to Neghelli. Mr. Bally was overjoyed at
finding a Monadenium, which might be M. majus described from Harar.
Masses of plants were found, in full bloom, for 20 to 30 miles south of
Neghelli, in country where no Aloe was found. From Neghelli south-
eastwards to Dolo is not Aloe country, but Mr. Bally found much in the
way of Euphorbia to interest him.
Near the Ganale Doria River in Ethiopia we ran across some baboons,,
the like of which I had never seen or heard of before. They had long
shaggy hair around the shoulders, while the lower half of the body and
hindquarters was flesh-coloured and devoid of hair. I don’t know their:
name, but a good vernacular name for them would be the “Fur-cape
baboon.” (Probably Hamadryas — B.V.)
From Dolo we followed the road southwards to Lugh Ferrandi, thence
to Iscia Baidoa where large quantities of the most attractive Adenium
somalense were in full bloom. Some plants were 8-10 feet high, their
clusters of brilliant deep red flowers decorating and enlivening an other-
wise drab landscape.
Bardera, on the Juba River, was reached, and we headed southwards for
Gelib and Margherita. This was an important area for me since it con-
tained a few Aloe type localities. A. microdonta Chiov. was recognised at
last. It is distinguished by having deeply channelled much recurved leaves,
with a paniculate inflorescence with oblique to almost horizontal branches-
of laxly flowered racemes with secund red flowers. A. Ruspoliana Bak.
(type locality Mil Mil in the Ogaden) was also found in numbers and it
eventually transpired that this species and A. Jex-Blakeae from the Horr
Valley, Kenya, are conspecific.
104
Aloes of Southern Ethiopia & Somalia.
VOL. XXII
A. Stefaninii Chiov. is merely a form of A. Ruspoliana, while A. defalcata
Chiov. proved to be a mixture of species, the channelled recurved leaves
of A. microdonta having been mixed with the capitate yellow-flowered
racemes of A. Ruspoliana.
A. Pirottae Berger was found in several localities and so was A. tricho-
santha Berger var. alho-picta Schweinf.
A. Ellenbeckii Berger, described from along the Juba River south of
Bardera, and as having flowers allied to those of the East African species
A. lateritia, in the Section Saponariae, was not found anywhere. From
what I have seen of the vegetation of the Juba River I doubt very much
whether any Aloe sp. allied to A. lateritia, is to be found in those regions.
The tree. Euphorbia Robecchi, is common in parts of the coastal area, and
is used at the saw mill near Kismayu for making slats for crating bananas
for export to Italy.
Queleas are also giving the Italian agronomists much trouble in the irri-
gated lands along the Juba River near Gelib and Margherita, so much so
that cereals can no longer be grown. One Italian told us that in 1946 he
had 1,000 acres under rice. Then the Queleas came in flocks of millions,
darkening the sun, and wiped out his entire crop in two days. He fired
his shot-gun into the air, and with that one shot brought down no less than
634 birds. It is now clear that unless some scheme of Pan-African control
is organised, and that soon, on lines similar to those of the Desert Locust
Control, nothing less than a major disaster will overtake Africa’s cereal
cultivation, to say nothing of some of the grasses.
From Kismayu we journeyed up to Mogadishu, finding numbers of
A. microdonta, and lesser quantities of A. Ruspoliana on the way. Caralluma
somalica, with its dense heads of yellow flowers, was seen near Merca, not
far from the sea.
We had hoped to press on to Hargeisa in Somaliland Protectorate, but
got no further than Bulo Burti, 135 miles north of Mogadishu. Here, with
broken springs, the rains imminent, and threatened with the real danger
of being bogged down and cut off, we reluctantly decided to follow the
dictates of wisdom, and turn back.
Returning to Kismayu and travelling via Beles Cogani and Liboi, we
reached Garissa and Nairobi only one day before the rains came, and the
closing of some coastal roads.
Our expedition had covered 3,750 miles, and I returned to Johannesburg,
filled with gratitude that my investigations had been blessed with every
success.
I am indebted to the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, for a travelling grant which made possible my Aloe investiga-
tions in Ethiopia and Somalia.
February, 1954.
TREE-EUPHORBIAS AS TIMBER TREES
By P. R. O. Bally.
105
Tree-Euphorbias or “Candelabrum Trees” which are so characteristic of
the tropical African scenery are generally considered to be of no economic
value.
It is true that native tribes have a number of uses for them.
The dried branches were used for carrying fire, for, once set alight, they
continue to smoulder for many hours. The Kikuyu use the pith of the
candelabrum tree as a roborant and fattening cure for old men.
The latex of many of them, diluted in water, serves for a purge for cattle
and man, but it is not without danger, for it is used also in the preparation
of arrow poison and for killing fish.
In parts of Central Tanganyika, the straight, light stems of a tree
Euphorbia make rafters for native huts.
The outer portions of the branches of Euphorbia contain large quantities
of latex contained in long, branched latex tubes which are distributed all
over the plant. The latex contains starch grains, amorphous resin, mucil-
age, mineral salts, a virulous resinous substance called euphorbon, and
rubber.
The dried latex of certain species has for centuries been used as an ener-
getic rubeficient or blister, but nowadays its use is restricted to veterinary
practice.
During World War II, when, with the Japanese invasion of the Far East,
plantation rubber had become scarce, the latex of many South and Tropical
African tree-Euphorbias was analysed for its rubber content, as a possible
substitute, but none of them contained rubber in sufficient quantities, be-
sides there were technical difficulties in separating the rubber from the
other constituents of the latex.
There are, however, two species of tree-Euphorbias which are of consid-
erable economic importance : in Eritrea, a country much eroded and with
very poor rainfall, there occurs Euphorbia abyssinica (Fig. 1) in vast num-
bers. It grows to a height of 40 ft. and more, with a clean bole of consider-
able length and diameter. The Italians soon found that the wood with its
soft, parallel fibre is particularly well suited for the manufacture of
matches. When dry, it burns easily and evenly. A large factory in Asmara
produces matches not only for local consumption, but also for export. The
boxes, too, are made from the same timber (fig. 2).
From the shavings, sawdust and other waste which are pulped and
treated in a special plant, a strong brown paper is made.
Unfortunately the growth of E. abyssinica is very slow indeed, nor has
any effort been made to regenerate the cut-out stands of the tree, and it is
only a matter of time before supplies of this timber will be exhausted.
106
Tree Euphorbias as Timber Trees
VOL. XXII
In the coastal regions of Somalia — semi-desert country except along the
Juba River and along the Webi Shebelli, — the tall Euphorbia robecchii
Pax (Fig. 3) abounds and dominates the otherwise stunted xerophytic tree
growth. From its soft, odourless timber, the crates for shipping the bananas
from huge plantations run by the Italians along the banks of the two rivers^
are made.
E. robecchi has a particularly acrid and obnoxious latex which — even
in the minutest quantities — causes virulent inflammation of the mucous
membranes and a drop of which raises blisters on the skin.
Before the tree is cut, a fire is built around the base which scorches the
bark and destroys the latex. The trees are then felled, the branches chop-
ped off and left behind to be used for singing the latex of other trees.
The logs are then taken by lorry to the sawmill in Chisimaio (Fig. 4)
whence the bananas are shipped to Italy, cut up into slats and made into
frames for the crates (Fig. 5). The wood has to be used green, when it is
tough and resilient. Once dry, it becomes brittle and looses most of its
strength, so that the crates can be used for one single voyage only.
Already, the timber has to travel many miles to the factory, the neigh-
bourhood having been thoroughly cut out, but E. robecchi is exceedingly
common over a great portion of British and Italian Somaliland, in the
Northern Frontier Province of Kenya, it extends South into the Tsavo
National Park and further South into Northern Tanganyika where the most
Southernly limit seems to be near Mkomasi.
Peter R. O. Bally,
Botanist,
Coryndon Museum, Nov. 1953.
Photographs by the author.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
(1) Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. n’r Nefasit, Eritrea.
(2) Euphorbia robecchii Pax n’r Maungu, Tsavo National Park.
(3) logs of E. robecchii at the sawmill in Chisimaio.
(4) frames for banana crates, stacked at the sawmill, Chisimaio.
^ OBITUARY ?
Air-Vice Marshall Sir Robert Brooke=Popham j;
The Society is grieved to hear of the death of Sir Robert Brooke- 'j'
Popham, G.C.V.O., K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., A.F.C. During Sir Robert’s *:*
stay in Kenya as Governor he was a Patron of the Society. Although
ijl war broke out during his stay in the Colony with all its complications %
and anxiety. Sir Robert was interested in the affairs and well-being
ill of the Society. ;>
H. Copley.
Fig. 1. Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel.
r-
5
L.
Fig. 3. Making matcJi boxes from Euphorbia timber in Asmara,
Fig. 4. Logs of Euphorbia rohecchii at Chisimaio Saiomill.
Fig. 5.
Crate-frames made from Euphorbia robecchii.
,W.
February, 1954.
107
THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE SPOOR AND DUNG OF
EAST AFRICAN MAMMALS.
By Dr. P. R. Hesse
PART I. THE ANTELOPES
Introduction
As the primary function of these articles is to illustrate the tracks and
droppings of the more common mammals found in East Africa, only the
briefest of notes on the animals will be given. They are designed to
indicate the type of country in which to expect the tracks shown and
whenever possible definite localities have been named. Neither the spoor
nor the dung of every East African mammal has yet been encountered by
the author and so the series of articles is by no means comprehensive.
It must be remembered that although the spoor as illustrated shows the
complete imprint of the foot, in practice a perfect track is seldom found.
Moreover, the following points should be borne in mind when attempting
to identify spoor ; —
i. The hooves of antelope tend to splay out when the animal is run-
ning. In these cases the marks of the hoof tips will be much
deeper than usual and the rounded, back portion may not show
at all.
ii. The young animals of a large species often make tracks similar to
those of mature animals of a smaller species. If such is the case
however, the similar, but larger footprints of the adult female will
almost certainly be found at the same time.
iii. In many cases the imprint of the hind foot is slightly different to
that of the forefoot.
The dung of antelopes is frequently found not as separate pellets but
as a compressed mass. Normally however, the characteristic shape of the
pellets can still be seen. When young animals are present their smaller
dung can cause the same confusion as their smaller spoor, until one comes
across the larger droppings of the adult.
Dikdik Rhynchotragus kirkii (Kiswahili: dikidiki, suguya)
There are four races of dikdik found in East Africa generally dis-
tributed in bush and dry country. As they have a habit of return-
ing to the same place to deposit their droppings, the dung is found
as heaps of small, black pellets. The spoor can easily be confused
with that of the Blue Duiker.
108
Identification of Spoor & Dung of E.A. Mammals. Vol xxii
Steinbok Raphicerus campestris (Kiswahili: paa, dondoro)
These are of general distribution and are found in grassland or bush
where they occur singly or in pairs. The dung is similar in appear-
ance to that of a dikdik but rather smaller.
Klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus (Kiswahili : mbuzi mawe, ngurunguru)
This antelope is found in mountainous and rocky country and con-
sequently the spoor is but rarely seen, particularly as normally only
the tips of the hooves touch the ground. It differs from that of the
other small antelope by having broad, rounded tips. The klip-
springer has been recorded from the Ngong Hills, Kedong Hills, the
Naivasha ax’ea, Kilimanjaro, the Pai’e Hills, Moshi, Arusha, Tabora,
Dodoma, Mbeya, Kigoma, Iringa, Mwanza and Musoma.
Common Duiker Cephalophus grimmia (Kiswahili: paa, nsya)
Generally distributed and found singly or in pairs, this duiker
inhabits tall grassland, thin forest and bushland. Like the dikdik
it returns to the same place to deposit its droppings which are very
like those of the dikdik although without the pronounced “pear-
shape” of the latter.
Blue Duiker Cephalophus monticola (Kiswahili; paa)
The Blue Duiker is found singly or in pairs in forest and thick
bush. Once again the droppings are found in localised heaps.
Red Duiker Cephalophus harveyi (Kiswahili: funo)
This duiker is found in the bushland and forests of high localities
such as the Aberdares, Usambaras and Kilimanjaro. Its spoor is
much larger than that of the preceding duikers although of the
same shape. Its dung similarly is much larger.
Yellow-backed Duiker Cephalophus sylvicultor (Kiswahili; paa)
This is the largest of the duikers and is found singly or in pairs
in forest. It occurs in the Mau Forest. Its footprint compares
both in size and shape with that of a bushbuck. No sample of its
dung has yet been found.
Oribi Ourehia ourehi (Kiswahili; taya)
Usually found in couples or small parties in thin bush. Sometimes
it is found in mountainous country such as the Mau district. Its
dung is similar to that of the common duiker but is longer and
thinner. Its spoor is similar to but much smaller than that of a
hartebeest and apart from the type of country might be mistaken
for that of a Thomson’s gazelle.
Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus (Kiswahili: pongo, mbwala)
Found singly or in pairs the bushbuck is generally distributed in
forest and bush. It is abundant near Lamu, the Mau district
D! K - OIK
sr e iNooK
KLIf>SPf\INC£ft
rCLLOw backcd duiker
ORlBI
RED DUIKEP,
BUSHBUCK
Plate 1. “Spoor and dung of E. African Antelopes." (natural size).
Plate 2. “Spoor and dung of E. African Antelopes.
(natural size).
TT
\
7
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>V 1
y/'
t
I
r
\
J
1
/
,f
i
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f ?
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ifiiln
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Plate 3. “ Spoor and dung of E. African Antelopes.
(half natural size).
SABL£ ANT£LOP€
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ELAND
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Plate 4. “Spoor and dung of E. African Antelopesf* (half natural size).
February, 1954. Identification of Spoor & Dung of E.A. Mammals.
109
Aberdares, Kikuyu, Ithanga Hills, Bukoba, Mwanza, Musoma and
Kondoa. The droppings consist of small pellets which are usually
found stuck together in an irregular mass.
Thomson’s Gazella Gazella thomsonii (Kiswahili: lala, kinokera, swala
tomi)
These are widely distributed but found mainly in herds on the
plains of Masailand. Their dung consists of surprisingly small
pellets and is rather variable in shape as shown in the illustration.
Grant’s Gazelle Gazella granti (Kiswahili: swala grant!)
This gazelle is also widely distributed, usually found in herds on
open plains but sometimes in Acacia bushland. Its spoor is similar
in shape to that of the Thomson’s gazelle but is twice as large.
Gerenuk Litocranius ivalleri (Kiswahili; swala twiga)
These long-necked gazelle are found in small parties in Acacia
bushland. They occur in the Magadi-Natron-Manyara part of the
Rift Valley, the Tana River area, from Tsavo to Kilimanjaro, the
Pare Mts., Kikore and the Umba steppe. No sample of their dung
has yet been encountered.
Impala Aepyceros melampus (Kiswahili: swala mwekundu, swala pala)
These are found in herds all over East Africa except near the coast
or in forests. The spoor approximates in size and shape to that of
a Grant’s gazelle but its dung is thinner and without the “pear-
shape” of the latter.
Reedbuck Redunca arundinum (Kiswahili: tohe)
Reedbuck are found in couples or small groups in reedy valleys,
open grassland and thin forest. They are known to occur on the
Athi Plains, along the Tana River, the Ithanga Hills and Buiko.
The footprint is normally sharply pointed at the tip which helps
to distinguish it from that of the Impala which often occurs in the
same district.
Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus & K. defassa (Kiswahili : kulo, ndogoro)
These antelope are found in herds, small groups or as a solitary
bull in bush, forest and reeds. The two races become mixed in the
Aberdares and Ngong district. Their droppings vary with the
seasons, being hard and as illustrated in the dry season but soft and
cattle-like during the wet season.
Hai'tebeest Alcelaphus huselaphus (Kiswahili: kongoni)
These are found in herds on the plains and in open bush; they are
very common on the Athi Plains. The spoor is about the same
size as that of the waterbuck but is much narrower at the tip.
The dung is similar in shape to that of an eland but is considerably
smaller.
no
Identification of Spoor & Dung of E.A. Mammals. Vol. xxii
Greater Kudu Strepsicei'os strepsiceros (Kiswahili: tandala)
Found singly or in pairs in bush and scrub country, the Kudu has
been recorded from Marsabit, Mt. Rulat, Baringo, the country north
of Elgon, along the Tana River, Kigoma, Tabora, Dodoma, Iringa,
Mbeya, Mpwapa, Kondoa, Bagamoyo and Songea. In spite of its
weight the kudu makes only a very slight track, its footprints being
more narrow than those of the other large antelope. Its dung
tends to be barrel-shaped.
Lesser Kudu Strepsiceros imberhis (Kiswahili: tandala mdogo)
The Lesser Kudu is found singly, in pairs or in small parties in
thick bush and dry, stony country. It occurs in the Shimba Hills,
at Lamu and at Nyeri. Its spoor is only half the size of that of the
Greater Kudu and could be mistaken for the track of a Thomson’s
gazelle. No sample of its dung has yet been found.
Sable Antelope Hippotragus niger (Kiswahili: palahala)
Found as a solitary bull or in herds in thin forest and bush, this
antelope occurs in the coastal region of Kenya as far inland as Voi,
at Lake Jipe, Kilosa, Geita, Songea, Tunduru and Kilumbi. The
spoor is similar to that of a waterbuck but much larger and the
dung resembles that of the hartebeest but with straight sides
coming sharply to a point rather than gradually rounding off.
Roan Antelope Hippotragus equinus (Kiswahili: korongo)
This antelope is found as a solitary bull or in small parties in thorn
bush and open forest. It has been recorded from the Mau district,
the Uasin-Gishu Plateau, Tabora, Kigoma, Mbeya, Kondoa and
Ufipa. Being heavy and hard treading, these animals usually leave
well marked tracks which although about the same size as those of
the Sable, are more broad and curved at the tips. The dung is
similar in shape but nearly twice as big as that of the Sable.
Eland Taurotragus oryx (Kiswahili: pofu)
The Eland is found in herds in bush or open grassland. It is fairly
common on the Athi Plains, Ithanga Hills, Guas Ngishu, Nyeri and
Baringo. The spoor of this heavy antelope is deep and well defined
except on hard ground. Being almost semi-circular at the tip, the
footprint can be confused with that of a small buffalo.
Blue Wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus (Kiswahili: nyumbu)
Wildebeest are found in large herds on open plains. The spoor is
usually well defined as the animal treads heavily. The dung
consists of surprisingly small pellets which are however, normally
found as fairlv large, compressed masses.
February, 1954.
Ill
OBITUARY
H. J. ALLEN TURNER
Although Allen Turner only joined the permanent staff of the Coryndon
Museum in 1941, he had been associated with the organisation of Museum
Services in Nairobi from the very beginning.
The first Museum in Kenya was a small building • — now pulled down —
which stood near the present Kingsway Police Station. It was built for
the East African Natural History Society in 1911, and was very small.
Turner, who had only been in the country a few years prepared many of
the first exhibits. From then on Turner collected for the Museum in all
branches of its work, and again and again prepared exhibit specimens.
When the second Museum, which is now the C.I.D. Headquarters, was
built, he again co-operated in the preparation of the new Museum for
opening, and added many more exhibits to it, while keeping so much in
the background that few people realised the extent of his work.
When the Coryndon Memorial Museum building was put up and the
Society transferred its collections there in 1929 and gave up its other build-
ing, Turner again played a big part in arranging the exhibits, and added
to them on very numerous occasions, from that time onwards.
As a field collector Turner was outstanding. His powers of observation
and his knowledge of so many branches of Natural History so extensive,
that again and again he was able to collect specimens new to science,
which might otherwise have passed unnoticed for many more years. To
him was due the discovery of the rare water porcupine in Nyanza Province,
to him the honour of finding birds and insects new to science, to him we
owe the discovery of not a few important prehistoric sites. In botany too- —
although not a botanist — he was always on the lookout for new and rare
plants, and found not a few that had previously escaped notice.
As a museum technician Turner was especially skilled in plaster casting
and his reproductions of fish and reptiles is unsurpassed. He also was
excellent at making models from photographs and drawings, and his hand-
made models of the first Coelocanthe and of various extinct fossil fishes
have been, before now, mistaken for casts, when in fact they were merely
created from photographs.
With his passing Kenya has lost a man who did more for the advance-
ment of its Natural History than any single other person.
L. S. B. LEAKEY.
On November 27th 1953 Henry J. Allen Turner passed away at the age
of 77 years. Allen, as everybody knew him, was a dearly beloved charac-
ter known throughout the Colony, and also to many naturalists outside
112
Obituaries.
VOL. XXII
Kenya. His general field knowledge was considerable, as he had collected
for most of the great museums all over the world.
Turner came to the Colony in 1909 as a taxidermist to Messrs. Newland
and Tarleton, the Safari outfitters, in order to take charge of the trophies
of the Roosevelt expedition which was led by the late Colonel Roosevelt
and his son, Kermit Roosevelt. When Mr. Edmund Heller stayed on
Turner accompanied him as collector and taxidermist, and the great collec-
tion of East African specimens now in the Smithsonian Museum, Washing-
ton, owes a tremendous lot to his care and skill. For many years Turner
collected for many of the big museums, and he was renowned for the
beautiful condition in which his specimens were despatched.
It is not generally known that for several years he ran a nursery garden
on the Kinangop, and introduced into Kenya many of the bulbs, flowering
shrubs and fruit trees which we now take as a matter of course.
His association with the Natural History Society dates back to its incep-
tion; he was intimately bound up with its development and was one of its
most loyal supporters. When the embi’yo museum started in 1911, Turner
prepared the birds and mammals which formed the nucleus of the present
collections of the Coryndon Museum. He saw and actively participated
in the move to the original drill hall; then to the present Coryndon Memo-
rial Museum; and finally in the crowning glory of the new extensions. It
was a great day when he saw these halls opened to the public by His
Excellency the Governor; and I know how deep were his feelings that he
should live to see his hopes so worthily fulfilled. I remember that after
the crowd had gone that evening, he and I were quietly walking through
the new Churchill Hall and he turned to me and said ; “You and I never
expected to see this day, but we have and I am content” : — a tribute to
his beloved Museum.
Turner’s real love was fishes, and his work in modelling these creatures
was supreme. For those who follow him he has left the exhibits in the
Churchill Hall as a lasting tribute to his artistic skill. To my mind, much
of his work in modelling lizards — - and particularly frogs — cannot be
equalled anywhere else in the world.
From early days he sat in at the councils of the Natural History Society,
and he was for many years a Vice-President. In the early years he was
a great fighter for the preservation of the fauna and flora of the Colony,
and never ceased to press forward the need for National Parks, in com-
mittee, when on delegations to the Government, or in the Press. His satis-
faction was deep when National Parks became a part and parcel of the
Colony.
Many a lady visitor to the Museum expressed the opinion that Turner
was “a dear”, and that word thoroughly expressed his character. He was
indeed “a dear”; but he was also a sturdy fighter if ever the future of his
Natural History Society, his Museum, or his birds and animals were in
danger.
H. Copley.
Allen Turner working on fish casts at the Coryndon Museum.
February, 1954.
Obituaries.
113
A PERSONAL APPRECIATION
Natural History suffered a great loss on the death of Mr. H. J. Turner in
November last and it is felt that a few personal reminiscences may be of
interest to his many friends.
My first acquaintance with Allen Turner started over 30 years ago. After
leaving school I made a trip round Africa with my mother and stayed a
considerable time in Nairobi. During that period some time was spent
in assisting Dr. van Someren in the development of the first small Museum
belonging to the Natural History Society situated near the Norfolk Hotel.
One day a large man dressed in riding breeches and leggings with a wide
hat and wearing not inconspicuous side whiskers called at the Museum.
He asked me if I was interested in beetles. In reply I said that there were
few forms of life for which I had a higher regard, and he expressed delight.
He then produced several cartridge boxes containing a fine collection of
beetles which he had made at Kakamega in 1915 and subsequently when
doing war work on Lamu and Manda Islands. These insects were in ex-
cellent condition and had been very carefully preserved. Allen Turner
then said that he would like to give me this collection if I would take an
interest in it and have them named and worked out. The collection was
later taken by me to London and was returned to this country when I came
here permanently to live in 1926. It is now in the Coryndon Museum col-
lection. This was the beginning of our friendship and co-operation in the
collection of Coleoptera which lasted until his death.
At that time and for some later years, Allen Turner was employed by
Sir John Ramsden and was for some time Manager of the Naivasha Cream*-
ery. In 1932 when the so-called “Gold rush” occurred at Kakamega, Allen
Turner, H. L. Geeson and myself went together to try our luck at this new
venture. We duly pegged an area of land on one of the most attractive
sights in an area situated on Kuhu Hill overlooking the Yala River. After
a great deal of enthusiasm had been expended, our results were very simi-
lar to the majority of prospectors. We saw no gold whatever but did not
lose a great deal of money. After Geeson and I had returned to Nairobi
to our normal occupations. Turner remained at Kakamega but needless
to state the only acquisitions made were some very interesting insects new
to the Museum collection. A year later the British Museum sent an expe-
dition to collect on certain East African mountains and their first objective
was the Aberdare range. We all stayed at Turner’s house which wes
situated by the Naivasha Forest Station and we accompanied the expedi-
tion during their trip over the mountains. It is an interesting fact that,
although most of the members of the expedition were young men in their
early twenties, Allen Turner who was then probably in his early sixties
always led the way. This was by no means easy going as it rained almost
continuously and the ascent of the Aberdare Mountains, although short,
is, through the bamboo zone much steeper and much harder going than
similar areas at the same altitude on Kenya and Kilimanjaro.
114
Obituaries.
VOL. XXII
After a year or two Allen Turner was given a job at the East African
Pavilion which was opened at the Johannesburg Exhibition. This he en-
joyed very much and I am sure added greatly to the interest of visitors
by his stories of the early days in East Africa.
A further important expedition which Allen Turner accompanied was
one organised by the East African Natural History Society to the Chyulu
Hills. Here the expedition stayed for five or six weeks, and conditions
were not made more comfortable by the fact that all water had be carried
some six or seven miles.
Soon after the last war started in 1939, Allen Turner joined the perma-
nent Staff of the Coryndon Museum as taxidermist and general preparator.
Here he remained doing the work he loved until the last illness before
his death. His work is well-known to many visitors by the beautiful
coloured casts of fishes which are exhibited in the Fish Hall.
Although Turner was a general field naturalist of high standing, in later
years his greatest interest was m adding to the collection of insects and he
always showed a particular affection for the Coleoptera. Many new species
of beetles discovered by him have been named after him and it always
gave him particular pleasure to see the large number of insects bearing
the name “turneri” in the collection. Although his knowledge of entomo-
logy was confined mainly to observation in the field, he had a wonderful
eye for a “species” and often when out collecting he would remark on
picking up an insect he felt this was something new either to Science or
to the collection. He was a true Cockney by birth and was always a genial
companion on safari, his unfailing sense of humour and kindly spirit were
a continual joy to all those who had the pleasure of being with him on
these occasions.
After a long illness he died at the age of 77 and his loss to East African
natural history is irreparable.
A. F. J. GEDYE.
February, 1954.
115
BOOK REVIEWS.
THE BIRDS OF THE BELGIAN CONGO
By James P. Chapin.
Part III
being Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,
Volume 75A. New York : 1953. pp. 821.
The first part of Dr. Chapin’s work was published as American Museum
of Natural History Bulletin Vol. 45 in 1932 and covered the families Os-
triches to Button Quails inclusive. The second, Vol. 75 of the Bulletin series,
appeared in 1939. It dealt with the remainder of the Non-passerines, ending
with the Woodpeckers. The third, the present part, has occupied Dr.
Chapin for 15 years, subject to wartime interruptions. It comprises the
Passerine families of the Pittas and Broadbills, Larks, Wagtails and Pipits,
Bulbuls, Cuckoo-shrikes, Babblers, Warblers, Thrushes, Flycatchers and
Swallows. The remaining Passerines will be dealt with in Part 4, which
will appear as No. 75B of the Bulletin in 1954.
The reviewer is impelled to say at the outset that he is quite sure all
interested in African oimithology, indeed bird-lovers everywhere, will wish
the author health and strength to complete this great work with his own
hand.
The plan of Part 3 adheres to that of previous volumes. Each family is
prefaced by a key to the genera which the family comprises. Then each
bird, be it race or monotypic species, is dealt with in a separate article.
Where a bird has not yet been recorded for the Congo, but probably does
occur there, it is given a short article but under an italicised heading in
square brackets. Keys to the species, and occasionally to races, precede
the treatment of the forms to which they relate. There are 14 plates of
photographs at the end of the book before the index and 36 figures in the
text.
The contents of the separate articles are arranged in the following order :
— synonymy and literature-references, specimens examined, distribution,
indication of differences between races so far as concerns the Congo and
neighbouring areas, habitat, and finally general field notes, nests and eggs.
In this last Dr. Chapin, where he may not have material of his own, occa-
sionally permits himself to reproduce, with acknowledgements, the observ-
ations of others.
One feels that this is a book by an ornithologist for ornithologists, and
so willingly dispenses with long detailed descriptions for which reference
can be made to existing works. So also with ‘English’ names : Dr. Chapin
points out how inapt such a name as Crombec is for the Sylviettas, and he
116
Book Reviews.
VOL. XXII
might have gone a good deal further. Roberts’ invaluable book is, for the
English reader, disfigured by scores of names which have obviously had
to be invented for the occasion and which he can neither pronounce, under-
stand, or remember. It is found that European boys quickly learn at least
generic names in the simple ‘Latin’ of scientists, and it is surely better to
refer to a bird as a Brady pterus than as a Swamp Warbler when it neither
lives in swampland nor sings.
In general, the families and genera in this book follow the order of
Sclater’s Systema, but Dr. Chapin emphasizes that in the Timaliidae,
Sylviidae and Muscicapidae the dividing lines are not always clear. Here,
as in the matter of size of genera and deciding how much difference from
a near relative entitles a bird to be regarded as a separate species, and how
much as a geographical race only, opinion must come in. One qualified
person may take one view, another another. There is no mathematical
formula which can be applied to express the numberless degrees of rela-
tionship; we have at most only three words to express what a form may
show, and must just do our best. It seems to this reviewer that Dr. Chapin
steers a fair midway course between “lumpers” and “splitters”. In the
matter of other people’s naming of races, one senses that if a competent
ornithologist living so to speak on the spot, and with an obviously ade-
quate mass of material before him, has decided that such-and-such a
population constitutes a nameable sub-species because of the (stated)
differences which it exhibits, then Dr. Chapin does not lightly cast that
name into a synonymy. If in such a case he does reject the name, he gives
his reasons and the reader is in a position to judge for himself. Would
that this example might be generally followed.
Birds do not recognize political boundaries. Especially in the particular
case of the neighbouring forests of Ituri and West Uganda, there is such
a close resemblance between the avifaunas of the Congo Beige and the
British territories in East Africa, that there is little Dr. Chapin writes th:.t
can be said to be without bearing on some bird or birds within our borders.
To go into every such relationship would take up space greater than can
be allowed for this review, and the reviewer has therefore looked at the
matter from the standpoint most natural to himself as a resident in Kenya
and selected some of what seem to him the most interesting cases which
affect our Kenya birds, whether in systematics or nomenclature; at the
same time reminding the reader that other selections might equally well
be made fi’om the viewpoint of a birdman for the other territories.
To give some details : —
First, the family Alaudidae. The singing bushlark so commonly heard
and found breeding at Magadi in the rains (if they fall) is shown, follow-
ing Grant and Praed, to have been wrongly named cheniana in the Sys-
tema : it should be Mirafra cantillans schillingsi Rchw. In a footnote Dr.
Chapin suggests that the matter may be carried still further : the race name
February, 1954.
Book Reviews.
117
may more properly be meruensis Sjostedt, and the whole cantillans group
be referred to the south-eastern species javanica Florsfield. That would
make, if both suggestions are adopted, our bird M. javanica meruensis.
M. alhicauda, also found in Kenya, e.g. at Nakuru, must be closely related
to javanica also, it would seem, although specifically distinct. This reviewer
can vouch for it that the songs of the Magadi birds are strikingly like that
of M. cheniana in the Orange Free State, but that neither is ordinarily a
mimic, such as are both javanica in Australia and albicaudm in Kenya.
Dr. Chapin is not satisfied of the correctness of the division of the plain-
backed pipits (Fam. Motacillidae) into two sibling species, a light coloured
one vaalensis and a dark one leucophrys. He would leave all in leucophrys
(the earlier name). The form goodsoni (found at Nakuru) thus remains
Anthus 1. goodsoni. Otherwise it would become .A. vaalensis goodsoni.
Most of Van Someren’s new races described from the Chyulu Hills are
sustained, upon the principle, rro doubt, to which reference is made above.
The colour-dirTerences between the various Yellow Wagtails (to which
the generic name Motacilla is restored instead of Budytes) are carefully
described : only one species, flava, is recognized for all.
There are three small Bulbuls found side by side in Kavirondo forests,
Andropadus c. curvirostris, A. gracilis gracilis and A. ansorgei kavirondensis
(the Charitillas g. kavirondensis of the Systema). The differences are point-
ed out : it lies now with field observers in that locality to see whether nests
and eggs can be distinguished.
For the Pycnonotus bulbuls the specific name harhatus is used to include
all the species from North Africa to the Cape Province except capensis and
nigricans: and there is at least a hint that these two, and xanthopygos of
Syria and Aden, might also be brought into the same category. Field
workers would agree: there is scarcely any noticeable difference between
any of them in habits, voice, nest or eggs, and the existence of overlap
anywhere is doubtful.
The co-existence of Phyllastrephus terrestris and P. strepitans on the
coastlands of East Africa is accepted. It would be of interest to know
exactly what differences there are in nests and eggs in those areas.
The genus Nicator, hitherto placed among the Shrikes, is removed to the
Bulbuls, and the East African form gularis is accorded specific rank.
Neither of these decisions will command universal acceptance, but reasons
are given.
In the Campephagidae the species Campephaga quiscalina is separated,
but the rest, in which the males may have a red or a yellow shoulder-patch,
or none, are treated as intergrading geographical races of one widespread
118
Book Reviews.
VOL. XXII
species phoenicea. This seems a good and natural solution of a long-
standing difficulty.
The forest-inhabiting babblers which up to now have been variously
grouped under the genera Alcippe, Turdinus, Ptyrticus, Illadopsis and
Pseudoalcippe are re-arranged into three genera — Malacocincla, Ptyrticus
and Pseudoalcippe; and, as is done in Jackson, the bird formerly called
Alethe poliothorax is added to the assemblage as a Malacocincla. We have
in Kenya, of these little known birds, M. julvescens and M. rufipennis re-
presented by races at Kakamega, and M. pyrrhopterus and P. ahyssinicus
at higher levels. For M. poliothorax a locality in Kavirondo is given.
In Turdoides, the ‘Happy Family’ genus of scrubland Babblers, the sug-
gestion is made that plebejus and jardinei form but one species. Of these,
plebejus is the older name. That would give us in Kenya two races of
plebejus, namely kikuyuensis from the Escarpment to Mau, and cinereus
in the Nyando Valley and north to the Turquel. But note that T. melanops
(not hitherto questioned as a separate species) is found alongside plebeius
at Naivasha and Kisumu so that care in identification is necessary since
this is a genus of which all members are much alike in habits, voice, nests
and eggs.
Coming to the Sylviidae, Dr. Chapin agrees with Austin Roberts that by
priority the yellow-bellied, grey-backed Eremomelas ought to be called
E. icteropygialis and not E. flaviventris or E. griseoflava, since there is but
one species and the first is the earliest name. Another group of Eremomelas,
pusilla-canescens, are also brought together into a single species, for which
the name must be pusilla. Our one form in Kenya (Highlands west of
Rift) becomes E. p. elgonensis VanS. (incidentally, the reference to the
B.B.O.C. near the top of p.269 should be to Vol. 62, not Vol. 61).
The genus Apalis (for which we may congratulate ourselves on the fact
that no given ‘English’ name seems to have a chance against the scientific
one) has long created taxonomical trouble, in the two widespread groups
which may be called the spot-chests and the bar-throats respectively. In
the former, the jlavida-caniceps group. Dr. Chapin considers all should be
united under one specific name, though Dr. Van Someren and Messrs.
Grant and Praed think otherwise. Once again, it is mainly a question of
the ordering of known facts, though we might usefully have more skins
from the area of alleged overlap of species on the east side of Lake Victoria.
In the second, the bar-throats, we have as a comparatively recent addition
to our avifauna griseiceps from Chyulu. This is treated by Dr. Chapin as
probably a race of thoracica of South Africa, which would lead to the wel-
come simplification of there being but one species all the way up from the
Cape with, however, some striking racial differences en route.
We may thank the meticulous care which Admiral Lynes devoted to the
genus Cisticola, for the fact that so few forms, considering how large a
February, 1954.
Book Reviews.
119
genus it is, have been added since his day. The chief change, for which
indeed Lynes himself was prepared, is in the transfer of the species
angusticauda to Cisticola from Apalis. One cannot yet feel altogether
satisfied that chubhi and hunteri may not form a single species, but Dr.
Chapin merely raises the point without deciding more than that they are
closely inter-allied, as field acquaintance shows.
The question of the best arrangement of the forms commonly grouped
under the genus-name Calamocichla, and in particular whether we have to
do with a sibling pair of species, does not seem to the reviewer convincingly
settled. Dr. Chapin finds there are in fact siblings, both widespread, a
smaller one gracilirostris with in Kenya the races leptorhyncha on the
coast, jacksoni at Kisumu and parva in the Highlands; and a larger species
rufescens which so far as we in Kenya are concerned occurs only on Lake
Victoria, in the race nilotica side by side with the small bird jacksoni.
Against this, nobody else has questioned that the Naivasha bird, parva, de-
spite its unfortunate name, must be regarded as a large species, since the
type measured in the wing 78 mm., well inside Dr. Chapin’s key measure-
ment of “males usually exceeding 73 mm”. Dr. Chapin, however, considers
that another criterion may be usefully applied; for he says that all the
races of gracilirostris in tropical Africa differ from rufescens in having the
base of the mandible pinkish-buff and the lining of the mouth bright orange.
Yet Dr. Van Someren writes of nilotica (1922 p.231) that it has the gape
orange in the adult and yellow at earlier life-stages. The nests shown in
the text-figure on Dr. Chapin’s p.448 as those of rufescens are very like,
both in structure and attachment, those of parva found in papyrus on Lake
Naivasha, and quite unlike those of jacksoni at Entebbe, whose eggs, also,
are noticeably smaller than parva’s. Jackson (p.l046) describes nests of
parva at Naivasha but seems to imply that they were not built in papyrus
but in reeds near papyrus. If that is what he means, such a site for any
Calamocichla’ s nest has not been seen by the reviewer, who has found
many in the papyrus. Can Jackson’s nests have been those of the smaller
sibling? And may it be that he just did not happen to come across the nests
of the larger species in papyrus ? Here is some work for the young and
keen to take on. We need much more material.
Chloropeta, undoubtedly in all its habits a genus of Warblers, is removed,
one hopes for good, from the flycatcher family. C. similis Richmond, the
forest-dweller, is recognised as being distinct from the brushwood and
river-margin inhabiting C. natalensis. For two birds whose songs are so
dissimilar, it is surprising that it is so hard to find any consistent difference
in the eggs.
The removal of Hylia to the Warblers is perhaps not so clearly justified,
but if it does not deserve a family to itself it at all events is no Sunbird :
nidification and egg show so much. Among Turdidae, Erythropygia
harhata of the coast and the next belt of country inland is taken into the
120
Book Reviews.
VOL. XXII
southern genus Tychaedon, while the migrant Galactotes, which in its races
syriacus and familiaris is a winter-visitor to Kenya, becomes a member of
Erythropygia as has long been suggested by writers. The zavnbesiana-
leucoptera assemblage, now treated as one species, and the distinct species
hartlauhi, are all that is left of Erythropygia as it formerly was. This is
another useful simplification : there is much variation in the amount and
depth of breast-markings in these ‘African Nightingales’ as the Percivals
of Mamandu used to call them, as might be expected with a bird widespread
over differing levels, but ^all the nests and eggs are much alike.
The robin-like Sheppardia cyornithopsis lopezi is noted as occurring in
Kavirondo. S. sokokensis Van S. from the Sokoke Forest can hardly be
more than a race of the same species, constituting one more instance of a
bird found in the country about Lake Victoria and turning up again at
the coast in slightly different form, with no near relatives on the interven-
ing higher ground.
Large specimens of the Common Wheatear appear from, time to time in
Kenya as winter migrants. These are now tentatively assigned by Dr.
Chapin to Oenanthe oe. rostrata. But ‘Ibis’ 1931 p.234 should be referred to.
Another migrant wheatear is common about Nairobi and Karen buildings
at the same season; its name is now Oe. pleschanka again, this antedating
leucomela which has been for some time in use.
Neocossyphus, a rare bird but a striking one, must surely have been omit-
ted from Jackson by oversight. It occurs sparsely in the coastal scrubs of
Kenya.
The changed systematic arrangement of the better known thrushes of
the genus Turdus will cause some surprise among field ornithologists. Dr.
Chapin rests his conclusions, however, on field observation as well as on
the study of skins of all forms involved. The result is that the Kurrichane
Thrush of the Systema, which is there accorded a distribution from the
Transvaal right up to Senegal, is now limited to the south of a line which
may be roughly described as Tanganyika, Katanga, North Angola. Uganda
birds (centralis) which have been considered as conspecific with the Kurri-
chane and are very like that bird in habits, nests and eggs, are now placed
m one species with the Olive Thrush of the Cape (olivaceus) : this species
is now treated as extending over most of the continent north to Eritrea on
one side and the Gambia on the other. But excluded from olivaceus are
the forest Thrushes found from Mlanje Mountain north and north-east-
wards through Ruwenzori, Kivu, Kenya and the eastern highlands of
Tanganyika to Abyssinia and Eritrea, in suitable localities of course. These
now become races of T. ahyssinicus Gmelin whose type-locality is Abys-
sinia. Turdus tephronotus from Lamu and parts of that coast does not fall
to be considered closely by Dr. Chapin, and there is also a form near
centralis in the Kerio Valley which is at present of uncertain status. It
February, 1954.
Book Reviews.
121
would be interesting to see a series of skins from the Eritrean high plateau
where is would seem that olivaceus and abyssinicus may meet.
In the flycatcher family, the Muscicapidae, the species Alseonax cinereus
is transferred to the genus Hypodes, of Cassin, and its race cinereus is con-
sidered to include all Kenya birds of the species. It should, however, be
kept in mind that van Someren (1922 p.96) found that his race kikuyuensis
from Kyambu could be distinguished from Voi and Tsavo birds, and that
Sclater agreed with this differentiation.
The difficulties in the taxonomy of the sibling pair, and perhaps others,
in the genus Bradornis are not wholly cleared up. Perhaps study of nests
and eggs might help to a solution, for in Ukamba we find the siblings side
by side {microrhynchus and pallidus or griseus), the former making a
stoutish though small nest lined with feathers or at least generally with
some feathers in it and laying uniform olive eggs, while the latter makes
a smaller transparent nest and lays heavily marked eggs. Pallidus ranges
from Nyasaland right up to Eritrea and its eggs, though varying in size,
are always of one type ; microrhynchus’ eggs are not yet known except
from the drier parts of Kenya and from north-eastern Tanganyika.
For Alseonax minimus (Heuglin) Dr. Chapin substitutes the specific
name adustus, thus making the races in Kenya {interpositus, marsabit and
chyulu) all geographical forms of the Dusky Flycatcher of South Africa.
Field naturalists will probably find that this conforms to their own ideas.
The lake-side flycatcher which uses old weavers’ nests to lay in, and
which is called by Jackson Alseonax aquaticus, is put back into Muscicapa.
The race at Kisumu is infulata Hartl. In the genus Diaphorophyia (small
forest flycatchers not unlike Batis in appearance and habits) the name of
the species which we know as jamesoni, which inhabits Nandi, is changed
to blissetti and the Nandi bird in consequence becomes D. b. jamesoni
Sharpe. Another change in this genus is that D. ansorgei silvae of Jackson
becomes D. concreta graueri Hartert. This is found in Kavirondo.
Terpsiphone (this name is restored for the Paradise Flycatchers in place
of Tchitrea) is bound to go on causing systematic difficulties owing to the
(assumed) hybridisation in West Africa whose effects have spread far to
eastward and are observable in Kenya. The crossings have been between
two western forest-inhabiting species, rujiventer and rufocinerea, with
viridis of bushland and savannas. What Dr. Chapin does is to give us
(figs. 28-31) drawings which, if they do not say the last word, will at least
help the student to grasp the salient elements in a position so complex that
it may fairly be said to have no parallel in the bird-life of the Ethiopian
Region.
The Blue Flycatchers which have generally been called Erannornis now
revert to the older name Elmdnia. From experience, this has the merit of
122
Book Reviews.
VOL. XXII
being easier to spell than the other, but it may be confused in memory with
that of the warbler-genus Eminia.
One of the three forms of crested and fantailed flycatchers (genus
Trochocercus) found in Kenya, T. b. vittatus Rchw., has its name changed
to T. cyanomelas hivittatus Rchw. This name is considered by Dr. Chapin
to apply to all birds of the species from the coast inland to Mr. Uraguess:
but Dr. Van Someren has distinguished central forest birds by reason of
larger size.
There are few changes among the Hirundinidae, but the generic name
of the Grey-Rumped Swallow becomes Pseudhirundo, and the Rock Martin
of Kenya is to be Ptyonoprogne fuligula rufigula instead of F. r. rufigula
as it is in Jackson. Dr. Chapin seems to suggest that Hirundo aethiopica
of the tropics might be treated as conspecific with the South African bird
alhigularis. Habits and nidification are the same, and the only differences
are in size and the continuity of the breast-band, which seem hardly enough
to rest a specific differentiation upon.
This review has emphasized the taxonomic value of Dr. Chapin’s work
because it is primarily scientific in character and outlook : but in almost
every article there will be found something to interest the lover of birds
and much also for the general reader, dealing as it does with what is still
largely an unspoiled part of a fascinating continent. Those who have already
had some experience of nature as it reveals itself in the dark forests of
Africa may well, as they read, imagine themselves treading once more on
the carpet of damp leaves under the dense shadow of great trees and thick
undergrowth, listening awhile as human footfalls cease and the creatures
of the primeval wilderness begin to move again, to the rustle of small
animals and the voices of a hunting-party of birds following up a line of
safari ants for what they can get in the way of insects, be it only the ants
themselves.
The reviewer apologises if he has been insufficiently critical. He just
does not feel able to criticize. But he can and does appreciate and thank
the writer, and with him the native assistant Nekuma, for good work done.
C.F.B.
A PRELIMINARY LIST of the BIRDS OF NATAL and ZULULAND, with
a short account of the status of each; prepared by P. A. CLANCEY,
Director, Museum and Art Gallery, Durban. October 1953. Published
by the Durban Museum, pp. 85.
Zululand is part of the Province of Natal, yet is so often thought of as
being a distinct area that Mr. Clancey did well to include the name in his
title.
The list comprises 561 species as compared with 875 for the whole Union
in Austin Roberts’ book.
February, 1954.
Book Reviews.
123
In general, the arrangement is that of Vincent’s Union-wide list (Jack
Vincent, A Check List of the Birds of South Africa, Cape Times, 1952).
Inevitably, there are departures from Roberts, a highly individualised
work, in the treatment of species and races as well as of genera. There is
no general agreement on such matters, and there will be no uniform result
in print till some accepted outside body acts as arbiter.
The subdivisions of which Mr. Clancey makes use are Orders, Sub-orders
(where convenient). Families and Genera. As is done in ‘The Ostrich’
the names of species are printed in capitals, the same as family-headings.
The particular race or races of each species occurring in the area are given
in italics below the species-name, and in every case the author of the name,
specific or racial, is given following it. Generic names are placed, in roman
type, at the head of the species which they comprise. On the right hand
side of the page is the English name, and beneath that a few words indi-
cating status. A serial number is given to each species, the series running
right through. There is no index, but the list of Families at the beginning
enables a reader who has some idea of his birds to find any species he
w'ants speedily.
The whole layout is clear, concise and easily scanned; it would, this
reviewer thinks, have been still clearer had specific names been printed in
roman type, leaving capitals to family-headings.
One notes a tendency to enlarge the genus beyond what is usual. Exam-
ples are: — the genus Erythrocnus disappears in Butorides, Stephanoaetus
in Polemaetus, all the other Bustard genera in Otis, Cinnyris and Chalco-
mitra in Nectarinia, etc., etc. Some of these look like stretching the notion
of genus even beyond the bounds of what is convenient. Without question,
Roberts’ narrow view met with scant approval from ornithologists working
outside South Africa, and parochialism must be avoided : but it has to be
kept in mind that a whole generation almost of young South African bird-
lovers have to be brought back gently to the right road if they ax’e to be
brought back at all. Mr. Vincent has shown the way; one only hopes that
Mr. Clancey may not have overshot the mark by his drastic expansions.
It is most important to have the country behind its natural leaders in the
science, and understanding why.
In some cases it is thought that Mr. Clancey has been over-ready to
accord specific rank where the modern current runs in favour of treating
the forms in question as subspecific only. Such instances are Haematopus
moquini, Charadrius marginatus, Larus hartlaubi, Upupa africana, Mota-
cilla lutea, Nilaus nigritemporalis. No two systematists seem able to agree
on what should be done with Calamoecetor (or Calamocichla) and Mr.
Clancey’s English names for these birds do not cast any further light.
Indeed, necessary as a purge was to get rid of some at least of the names
which Mr. Clancey stigmatises as “egregious”, it might have been better not
to disturb Mr. Vincent’s ones for this genus.
124
Book Reviews.
VoL. xxn
There are a lot of cases where it seems best to cut the Gordian knot by
using the scientific name as the English one. Nicator, where Mr. Clancey
does this, is a good case in point: it is easy to remember, it does not preju-
dice the issue of whether the bird is a Shrike or a Bulbul or something
else altogether, and every naturalist who knows the bird uses it already.
Why not treat Batis the same way ? and why not Cisticola tout seul in the
case of another much-referred to group ?
Mr. Clancey’s List is a most useful contribution to the mosaic of work
on the ornithology of the Ethiopian region which by the efforts of many
is gradually being shaped into unity; but there are still many almost-
blanks to fill, some larger, som.e smaller. Every ornithologist who concerns
himself with Africa must look forward to the day when someone will do
for this generation what Reichenow did for an earlier one. The model
is there, and could hardly be improved upon, but there have been advances
in systematics since Reichenow’s day and an enormous mass of material
has accumulated awaiting analysis and utilisation. It is a life’s work for
somebody, English, American or may it be German as before, and it will
entail the expenditure of much money : but it will have been worth it if
it can be faithfully done.
C.F.B.
A CHECK LIST of the BIRDS of NY AS ALAND (including data on ecology
and breeding seasons). By C. W. Benson, B.A. (Cantab.). Published by the
Nyasaland Society (P.O. Box 125, Blantyre), and the Publications
Bureau, Secretariat, Lusaka, 1953. Price 6/- (to Members of the Nyasa-
land Society 5/-).
The author’s aims are set out in his Introduction. Since Belcher’s book
was published in 1930, about 150 forms (including races) have been added
to the Nyasaland list, mostly by Mr. Benson or through his efforts. There
has thus been a great increase in our knowledge of the birds of the Pro-
tectorate : indeed, thanks to the fortunate circumstances of there being
on the spot a worker so well equipped for obtaining and assessing informa-
tion, the rate of ornithological advance has been greater in Nyasaland than
in any other part of the Ethiopian Region that comes to mind. Mr. Benson’s
material has, in the main, already been published from time to time in
ornithological journals, but these are not easy of general access and it was
an excellent idea to give it now to the general public in this form. Rarely
can there have appeared a book on birds in which so much detail has been
compressed into so small a compass without loss of clearness or accuracy.
The reader must at the outset remember that this is a scientifically-framed
list of birds inhabiting or visiting a particular area, and not an account of
their habits or a description of their appearance : for such, recourse must
be had to other works, to which Mr. Benson makes reference.
The nomenclature, with few exceptions, is that of Praed and Grant in
their work on the birds of eastern and north-eastern Africa now in course
February, 1954.
Book Reviews.
125
of publication; where that is departed from, a reference is given to the
authority followed.
After the Introduction, the first part of the book is a description of the
various kinds of bird-habitat which are to be found in Nyasaland, divided
first into dry and wet areas and then each of these subdivided again into
areas which by reason of their distinctive vegetation or other differences,
in character exhibit corresponding differences in bird life. Every field -
worker knows how birds are affected by type of locality, but it has not
often been set out so methodically in print for a large area.
The List itself is immediately preceded by a Table of Families which can
be scanned at one opening so that, index apart, a species can be found in
a moment or two.
With 609 species to be enumerated, all unnecessary matter must, one
sees, be cut away; and there must be constant resort to abbreviations. The
result cannot help reading a little bare and skeletonized to one who casual-
ly dips into the book — the average entry must take up less than an inch
— but a little patience will show the ornithologically-minded that this is
a veritable mine of exact information, at once a conspectus of the indi-
vidual species and a guide to amplified accounts. It is thought that a better
idea of the nature, scope and value of the book will be given by example
than description, and here is one taken at random, which happens to deal
with one of the smaller hawks, the kestrel of England and of South Africa :
“ 61. Falco tinnunculus. Kestrel. B.57, R.123.
(a) (PM) F. t. tinnunculus. Once; Bembeke 1. (67).
(b) F. t. rupicolus. Above 2,000 ft. Rocky Hills, on which
breeds, also tobacco barns.
(Br.) VIII, 1. Lisiye, tobacco barn (Rf.) 36. 67. ”
That terse note, expanded by reference to interpretations of its abbrevia-
tions, all to be found in the book, conveys the information that the Kestrel
is dealt with in Belcher’s Birds of Nyasaland at p.57 and in Roberts’ Birds
of South Africa at p.l23. Next, that two forms of it have been found in
Nyasaland; firstly the type race as a palaearctic migrant but with only one
record, an occurrence in the month of January at Bembeke, a place 6 miles
S.E. of Dedza Boma, which was published in ‘The Ibis’ for 1940 at p.284,
and secondly the South African race as a permanent resident at levels
above 2,000 ft. a.s.l., where it inhabits, and nests in, rocky hills. It also
nests in the high brick barns in which tobacco is cured on the plantations.
The sole breeding record of this resident form in Nyasaland relates to a
nest found at Lisiye 8 miles north of Mphunzi in Dedza district in the
month of August in a tobacco barn. Finally, further references are given
to the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, U.S.A.,,
and to “The Ibis”.
126
Book Reviews.
VOL. XXII
This will indicate sufficiently how much is told, and how little space
wasted.
After the main List, there follow six appendices. The first gives 15
species listed by Belcher but which are for one reason or another now
rejected. The second is a list of ‘possibilities’ — 29 in number. Appendix
3 is a full, if highly compressed bibliography. No. 4 is a gazetteer of all
localities in Nyasaland which are mentioned in the work. No. 5 is an
alphabetical list of native names of birds, with authorities. Finally, No. 6
is a short ‘Addenda’.
There is an Index of Genera, which is all the index an ornithologist needs
to any bird-book.
One obvious criticism is that the name of the original describer of the
species by the scientific name which it bears in the text, is not given. This
is usually done in a work of the scientific importance of Mr. Benson’s book,
though it was not done by Roberts. The direct uses of giving it are several.
A name may be resuscitated after a long interval, or it may be a quite
recent bestowal; and in either case one would like to know, why the
change? At other times one wishes to be able to check a priority. Or,
again, so simple a matter as a mistake in spelling seems to be on the tapis,
and yet in certain cases such a mistake must stand; is this one ? There
are, indeed, few spelling mistakes to be suspected in the present work, but
one does seem to see such in ‘baboecala’ (415) ‘aibifrons’ (556) and ‘Pogoniu-
lius’ (287 and 288). It is perhaps not of great importance to English readers
whether the ‘umlaut’ is there or not in words of German origin such as
‘fiilleborni’ : but it changes the pronunciation, and in fact it is the better
practice to insert it, if in the original.
There are some items of interest to ornithologists in Mr. Benson’s book
to which particular attention may be drawn. The evidence for local breed-
ing of the Osprey (nestlings being fed) is convincing if the observer was
reliable. Ten occurrences of Porzana marginalis indicate that this rail is
not so rare as had been supposed. Clamator jacohinus is considered res-
ponsible for some at least of the blue eggs found in Turdoides’ nests. It
may be remembered that all of this Cuckoo’s eggs ih South Africa are
white, as also was one taken from the oviduct by Jackson at Namanga in
Kenya. But Abyssinian eggs described by Erlanger were blue, as are all
Indian ones. The data given concerning Centropus suggests that possibly
the senegalensis and monachus groups may be conspecific. (The reference
to C. s. hurchelli under No. 212 is not quite clear). Every field naturalist
who knows the birds’ calls will agree with Mr. Benson in placing Capri-
mulgus fervidus as a race of C. pectoralis; one wonders if the same test
will confirm the conspecificity of C.guttijer with C. poliocephalus, which
also has a most distinct call. The specific name narina for the more common
of the two Trogons may or may not be a person’s name; one would like to
know the origin of it in Stephens’ mind. Mr. Benson accepts the view.
February, 1954.
Book Reviews.
127
rejected by Dr. Chapin, that the long-billed pipits belong to a sibling pair
of species, the dark leucophrys and the light vaalensis. Priority must de-
cide, but it seems a pity that we have to label so common an African species
as Richard’s Pipit ‘novaezeelandiae’ . Mr. Benson indicates that he con-
siders Syrian bulbuls of the genus Pycnonotus to be conspecific with
tropical birds by using for the latter the specific name ‘xanthopygos’, but
does not show why the earlier ‘harhatus’ should be superseded. A most
interesting observation recorded under species No. 433 suggests doubts as
to the distinctness of Camaroptera hrachyura and C. hrevicaudata. Pos-
sibly hybridisation ? At the same time as Mr. Skead is finding evidence of
crossing between Zosterops virens and Z. eapensis in the Ciskei, Mr. Benson
emphasizes the difficulty of separating Z. virens from Z. senegalensis. These
species seem distinct enough in Kenya; but the whole genus in Africa
needs a review in the light of more material than at present seems avail-
able. The occurrence of the Mascarene Martin (No. 465) at Lake Chilwa
in mid-winter is something wholly new for Africa. A suggestion that
Ploceus nigriceps is conspecific with P. spilonotus and P. cucullatus would,
if translated into actuality, simplify the taxonom.y of a difficult group;
cucullatus appears to be the oldest name.
In deciding for his list the question, good species or only a race ? — Mr.
Benson has leaned towards the older school (perhaps following Messrs.
Grant and Praed whose first volume alone has up to now been seen by the
public) and away from the biological concept used by Mayr and other
modern American writers; but he frequently points out the alternative
without adopting it. There are cases of doubt throughout the list : in par-
ticular, one notices that of the various Yellow Wagtails, usually treated as
conspecific but here as separate species. Differences of opinion will always
exist on this head; the unfortunate thing is that until there is some recogn-
ized arbiter on at least the Anglo-American level, the differences will go
on perpetuating themselves in print, to the puzzlement of the novice who
will be the ornithologist of tomorrow and needs encouragement.
This is indeed an excellent book, which everyone interested can afford
and should order while it is still in print. It seems to the reviewer as good
value, having regard to contents on one side and price on the other, as
has been put before African bird-lovers for a very long time.
C.F.B.
THE BIRDS OF WEST AND EQUATORIAL AFRICA by David Armitage
Bannerman Vol. One, Struthionidae to Picidae — Vol. Two, Eurylaemi-
dae to Ploceidae. In all pp. 1526. 1953, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.
£6.6s. net.
These two volumes represent the pith of the matter contained in the
author’s great work on the Birds of West Africa which was published by
the Crown Agents under governmental authority in eight volumes, of which
128
Book Reviews.
the first appeared in 1930 and the eighth in 1951. That larger publication
is now hard to obtain: we noticed it recently in a bookseller’s catalogue
priced at £48 with no indication of condition. The present work is no
ordinary abridgment, but a complete rewriting, and in consequence it
makes admirable reading. There is an abundance of those black-and-white
drawings which do so much more than one would have thought possible
to reproduce a bird’s true appearance and so facilitate identification, with,
for full measure, 54 beautifully executed plates by Lodge, admirably pro-
duced. A change of title will be noticed. It was found that three-quarters
of the 1536 forms inhabiting West Africa range right across the continent,
so that the Congo Beige, the British Territories in East Africa, and the
Sudan have geographical representatives of them, if not the identical
species or race. These eastern forms are now dealt with in the text, which
gives the two volumes a positive advantage over the larger work for orni-
thologists in East Africa. The merits of the lesser bulk need not be stress-
ed. The same drawings of heads and feet to illustrate family character-
istics are here, as in the earlier volumes, and there are as many keys as
the field-worker could possibly want. There is less detailed scientific
matter, and more general talk about the bird; which is really what is most
appreciated by the seeker after retainable knowledge : if one misses any-
thing it is the abundant field notes which were so liberally disposed through
the larger work; these have had to be compressed into more general state-
ments of fact from the nature of the new book. We hope that everyone
who can do so will get himself a copy of this book while it is still in print :
it is an addition to one’s library that will surely never be regretted.
C.F.B.
-V-:
PRINTED BY W. BOYD 8! CO.. (PRINTERS) LTD
/
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
JUNE 1954. VOL. XX\T. No. 4
SPECIAL NUMBER.
EAST AFRICAN COWRIES.
EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
Patrons,
His Excellency The Hon. Sir Evelyn Baring, k.cjvi.g., k.c.v.o.
Sir Philip Mitchell, k.c.m.g.
Sir Henry Moore, k.c.m.g.
President.
R. W. Rayner, Esq., b.a., a.i.c.ta.
Vice-President.
H. Copley Esq,, o.b.e.
Executive Committee.
P. R. O. Bally, Esq.,
Colonel M. H. Cowie, m.l.c,
W. Hale Esq., b.a.
J. S. Karmali Esq., b.pharm., ph.c., d.b.a.
Miss E. J. Blencowe, s.r.n., s.c.m.
J. McDonald Esq., c.b.e., d.f.c.
P. J. Greenway Esq,, d.sc., o.b.e., f.l.s.
R. W, Barney, Esq.
Secretary.
Miss D. Ewing.
Hon. Editor.
J, G. Williams Esq., m.b.o.u.
Hon. Treasurer.
W. R. Bowles Esq.
)
Hon. Librarian.
R. A. F. Brenan Esq., m.a.
All correspondence in connection with this Journal should be addressed to
The Hon. Secretary, P.O. Box 658, Nairobi.
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
JUNE, 1954.
VOL. XXII.
No. 4 (96)
Cover Design “Tiger Cowry”
CONTENTS
The Cowries of the East African Coasts.
By B. Verdcourt
By P. R. O. Bally,
Page
(Illustrated)
129
129
VoL. XXII
THE COWRIES OF THE EAST AFRICAN COASTS (KENYA,
TANGANYIKA, ZANZIBAR AND PEMBA)'
By Bernard Verdcourt
(East African Agriculture and Forestry Research Organisation)
A desire has been expressed for a paper of this nature and there is an
excuse for writing one since all the monographs of which those by Hildalgo,
Melvill, Kiener, Reeve, Sowerby and Roberts are the most important are
rare and out of print. It is just possible that at least one of the 2,700 papers
which have been written about cowries deals with the East African coasts
but if so, it is certainly not generally known. The most important work on
the group is the recent “Prodrome of a Monograph on Living Cypraeidae"’
by Dr. F.A. Schilder and Dr. M. Schilder (Proc. malac. Soc., Bond., 23, 119-
231, 1938-9). The volume containing this paper is also out of print. All the
species known to occur on our coasts are included in this present paper.
Rarities have been included since they are needed for the museum collect-
ions.
The Cowries (Cypraeidae) form a family recognisable at a glance, the
shells being colourful, polished, more or less ovoid, rounded on the back
but flatter below; the base is crossed by an aperture extending lengthways
and bordered by ridges or teeth, usually numerous. The spire of the shell
is reduced or sometimes entirely absent when adult. There is no operculum
or ‘lid’ closing the entrance of the shell as is the case in most families in
the order to which the cowry family belongs. The mantle or part of the
body which lays down the shell has two large side flaps which meet over
the back of the shell when the animal is in motion thus resulting in the
high polish so characteristic of the family. The structure of the shell and
general appearance of the animal is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The sexes are
separate but identical in appearance.
At one time the family included several groups such as Trivia and Erato
which are now referred to families of their own. The whole of the cowries
were at one time included in the single genus Cypraea but this has now
been split into numerous genera. Many species have been divided into races
or subspecies. In the descriptive part of this paper these accurate names
have been used. At the request of the editor English names’" have been
given to encourage beginners but the collector is recommended to give up
this unscholarly practice once he becomes interested and to use at least the
specific names. The racial names need not be used but are included here
for completeness. There are 165 species of true cowries recognised at
present (this number has been much exaggerated in some popular books)
and 41 of these are recorded from our coasts by the Schilders, with three
exceptions represented only by one subspecies ie. 44 forms in all. The
writer has disregarded six of these records but recorded five other species,
’"Those used by Wood (Index Testaceologicus, 1828) have been employed
where suitable.
r
M
fiS'
5
•Si
V
Fig. 1 — Top and botttom views of a cowry, b=back, m=margins and mth=mouth.
Fig. 2 — A Money Cowry with the animal extended, F=foot, M=mantle and S=shell.
Fig. 3 — Columellar teeth of h : Blasicrura hirundo, o : B. owenii, and k : B. kieneri.
Fig. 4 — Top and bottom views of Pustularia globulus.
1
June, 1954.
East African Cowries
130
the total thus being 43. A few of these species were not available for
illustration in either the writer’s or the Coryndon Memorial Museum collec-
tion and the writer is indebted to the following persons and institutions
who have kindly made donations or loans of material, or who have helped
in other ways : — Mrs. Cockburn, Mrs. Ryall, Mrs. Finch, Miss Lewis, Mrs.
Dingle, Mrs. Bailey, Miss Watkins. Miss Tudor, Mr. Barrow. Capt. Pitman.
Mr. Mohinder Singh, Mr. Dickie, Mr. Berry, Mr. Clancey, Mr. Parsons, the
late Col. Maxwell, Lt. Shelley, Mr. Bailey (Seychelles), Mr. K. D. Smith,
Mr. R. C. Wood, The Peabody Museum of Natural History, Los Angeles
Museum, The Pietermaritzburg Museum, and The Mauritius Institute.
The photographs are the work of Mr. C. F. Hemming and are largely
responsible for whatever value this paper has.
A key based on the scientific classification of the family would not be
of much practical value and the one devised is based chiefly on size and
colour. After the species has been found from the key, the identification
may be checked by referring to the brief descriptions of the species and to
the plates. The index to species at the end of the paper refers to both plate
and page numbers. It should be noted that juveniles can be identified only
by using a comparison collection and the key will work only for fresh
adult specimens. Juveniles may be told by their unfinished appearance;
the edges of the mouth are sharp with only traces of teeth, the pattern is
blurred and unformed and the spire is conspicuous. Worn shells should be
discarded as unidentifiable and thrown away. Scientific nomenclature is
that used by the Schilders and subsequent generic splits have not been
utilized.
KEY TO THE EAST AFRICAN COWRIES
1 Shell 5 cm. long or more 2
1 Shell under 5 cm. long ... 11
2 Base of shell and/or teeth coloured ... 4
2 Base and teeth white, rarely an obscure blotch on
the base ... 3
3 Sides of shell rounded when viewed from end.
Lowermost spots purplish-black ... Cypraea tigris
3 Sides of shell straight when viewed from end.
Lowermost spots usually brown . . . Cypraea pantherina
(Note: some forms of C. vitellus are over 5 cm.
long but such specimens have not yet been record-
ed from E. Africa. They would key to tigris here
but may be distinguished by having white spots
on a brown ground.)
4 Teeth violet, back flesh-coloured
4 Teeth not violet, back differently coloured
Cypraea carneola
5
5 Shell cylindrical
5 Shell ovoid
6 Base and sides uniformly chocolate-coloured
6 Base and sides paler not chocolate-coloured
Talparia talpa
6
8
7
31
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
19
19
VOL. XXII
Shell 7 cm. long, back with brown rings
Talparia argus
Shell 10-11 cm. long, back with obscure spots and
minute white pinhead marks
Callistocypraea testudi-
naria
Back with white line joining the extremities. This
line has white blotches joined to it, see Plate 9
Back without a line or with a simple line with
Mauritia mappa
no blotches joined to it
9
Sides and base uniformly chocolate or purple
brown
Sides and base white, tinted, or spotted
Mauritia mauritiana
10
Base whitish, teeth brown. Shell 6 cm. long
regularly reticulate
Base flesh-tinged, teeth brown. Shell 7.5 cm. long.
The white spots on the back tend to be joined by
Mauritia histrio
white lines
Mauritia arahica
Teeth violet, back flesh-coloured
Without the above combination of colours
Cypraea carneola
12
Back with raised granules or pustules
Back without raised granules or pustules
13
14
Shell 1.4 cm. long, lilac with chestnut ends
Shell 2-3 cm. long, pale brown with whitish
Staphylaea staphylaea
pustules, ends not chestnut
Staphylaea nucleus
Base or teeth coloured or spotted
Base and teeth white or slightly tinged only at
15
the ends or sides
(N.B. — Several species are included in the key
twice because this character is a little difficult
and slightly coloured specimens might be included
in either group.)
33
Shell globular with produced ends, small 13 mm.
long and 7.5 mm. wide, orange with brownish
spots
Shell usually larger, never so globular, and ends
Pustularia globulus
much less produced
16
Base dark orange, back with numerous close white
specks and chestnut spots, ends pale lilac
Not as above
Erosaria helvola
17
Back with bands containing zigzag marks
Back without zigzag marks
18
19
Back brown or purple with bands of white zigzag
lines; shell 1.6-2. 8 cm. long, base whitish
Back fawn or yellow; shell 1.8 cm. long, base
Palmadusta diluculum
yellowish
Palmadusta ziczac
Sides with clear violet spots, base flesh-coloured,
teeth orange-salmon
Sides without violet spots
Cribraria chinensis
20
20
June, 1954.
East African Coiories
132
20 Ends and teeth orange (actually teeth white
bordered by fine orange lines), back with white
spots often somewhat raised at the sides ... 21
20 Not as above 22
21 Teeth crossing the entire base
21 Teeth not crossing the entire base
Staphylaea staphylaea
Staphylaea limacina
22 Sides, base and teeth all dark brown ... Erronea onyx
22 Not as above . 23
23 Sides uniformly chestnut or dark brown, middle of
base and teeth white
23 Sides spotted, not as above
Erosaria caputserpentis
24
24 Teeth or grooves between them darker than the
rest of the base
25
24 Teeth paler or the same colour as the rest of the
base
28
2.5 Grooves between the white teeth brick-red, back
spotted
25 Grooves between the brown teeth whitish, back
Cypraea lynx
reticulate
26
26 Sides rounded shell cylindric; sides and base
pinkish-slate, spotted with blue-black spots,
more on one side than the other
Mauritia scurra
26 Sides more angled, shell ovoid; sides and base
whitish or brownish with purple spots equally
numerous on both sides
27
27 Shell humped, sides more vertical with spots
rather large and more discrete
27 Shell depressed, the sides extended horizontally
(margined) with blue-black and brown spots run-
ning together. The dorsal reticulation and spots
Mauritia histrio
are smaller than in histrio
Mauritia depressa
28 Edges margined, the margins pitted or indented
above, marked with spots and lines
28 Edges not or scarcely margined, not indented,
29
spotted, but without lines
31
29 Each side with large squarish blotch of blue-
black on margin; base spotted
29 Sides without large blotches but with the usual
Erosaria nebrites
spots
30
30 Extremities with terminal chestnut blotches, back
with brown spots and whitish specks
30 Extremities not blotched, back with white spots
often ringed with brown; sides and base violet
Erosaria gangranosa
tinted
Erosaria viarginalis
31 Shell usually over 2.5 cm. long, base brownish
flesh-coloured, grooves between teeth a little
darker
31 Shell under 2 cm. long, base white or yellowish,
grooves not darker
Erronea caurica
32
31
32
133
VoL. XXII
32 Base yellow, sides with larger spots ... Palmadusta felina
32 Base white often spotted, sides with minute dots Blasicrura kieneri
(N.B. — If the specimen has not yet been identi-
fied and you still think it has a coloured base
continue with the key — a few species may have a
tinge of colour below but still be included in the
next part of the key.)
33 Back clear yellow, white or greenish-yellow, un-
marked or rarely with an orange ring. The sides
of the base may be tinged yellow ... Monetaria moneta
33 Back not as above, if with an orange ring then
not yellow
34 Back with a conspicuous brown blotch on grey-
blue ground, edges orange-brown ... Blasicrura stolida
34 Not coloured as above
35 Margins spotted with marks usually different
from those on the back
35 Margins not spotted but back pattern may descend
down to the margins
36 Shell conspicuously margined, with indentations
round the margins which are also marked with
raised dots and dashes; margins with a dark
blotch on either side crossing the margin (absent
in a rare variety) ... Erosaria erosa
36 Not as above
37 Shell margined and pitted (rather obscurely) on '
one side; small 1.3-1. 6 cm. long, ends blotched with
chestnut or orange ... Erosaria gangranosa
37 Without the above combination of characters
38 Back with bands of zigzag lines ... Palmadusta diluculum
38 Back without bands of zigzag lines
39 Shell about 4 cm. long, back pale brown with
white spots, sides with numerous dark brown
spots ... Erosaria lamarckii
39 Shell not as above, mostly under 3 cm. long
40 Back greenish-blue with very numerous distinct
brown spots ... Erosaria turdus
40 Back differently marked not spotted but often
with minute speckles or ‘freckles’
41 Shell about 2-2.7 cm. long, back with three inter-
rupted transverse milky brown bands. Side spots
sparse ... Crihraria teres
41 Shell smaller differently coloured
42 Side spots large, base yellowish ... Palmadusta felina
42 Side spots minute, base white
43 Extremities blotched brownish-lilac below, back
brownish, side spots almost obsolete ... Palmadusta fimbriata
43 Extremities blotched blackish above, back blue-
green, side spots numerous
34
35
36
45
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
June, 1954.
East African Cowries
44 Apical columellar teeth the longest (text lig. 3)
44 Middle columellar teeth the longest (see text for
B. owenii (Sow.) )
45 Sides of shell and usually the edges of the base
broadly dark brown or chestnut
Sides pale, not as above
45
46
46
Back bluish or pinkish with a bright orange-
yellow ring (annulus)
Back without a yellow ring
47 Back white with three strong chocolate-brown
bands
47 Back without or with vague bands
48 Back brown speckled with white spots
Back not marked with white spots
Blasicrura kieneri
Blasicrura hirundo
Erosaria caputserpentis
49 Shell 2.5-5 cm. long, back milky-brown
49 Shell smaller, back brown with numerous round
white spots
50 Shell elongate about 3 cm. long, slate with lines
of dark purplish-black dots and dashes, ends
orange ( variable ) .
50 Shell under 2 cm. long, differently coloured
51 Back with faint pinkish-brown bands and very
fine oblique orange hairlines which form angles
near the margins (visible under a strong lens and
when one knows what to look for they are just
visible to the naked eye); not spotted
51 Back whitish, freckled with pale brown, with
obscure central band, ends with a conspicuous
brownish-lilac spot on each side
Monetaria cmnulus
Palmadusta asellus
Cypraea vitellus
Cribraria cribraria
Luria Isabella
46
47
48
49
50
51
Palmudusta clandestina
Palmadusta fimhriata
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SPECIES
Globular Cowryf
Pustularia globulus (Linn.) subsp. brevirostris Schilder
Description : — Shell globular with produced ends, 1.3 cm. long and 0.75
cm. wide, back orange often with brownish spots, base yellowish-orange,
teeth pale, middle ones running together.
A very rare species, fresh specimens have been seen from the Seychelles
(Bailey) and worn specimens from Likoni, Kenya (Ryall). Since the photo-
graph of this species is poor a line drawing is also given (Fig. 4)
Grooved Cowry
Staphylaea staphylaea (Linn.) subsp. laevigata Dautz.
Description : — Shell ovoid 1. 7-2.0 cm. long, back brownish-purple or
greyish-brown, with small white spots and traces of raised whitish granules
along the edges; extremities chestnut, base orange tinted, teeth extending
across the base. Frequent to rare.
yNB Either spelling Cowrie or Cowry may be used.
135
VoL. XXII
Note . This is a variable species which tends to merge with the next one.
One form of it is sufficiently different to be remarked upon. This form is
short about 1.4 cm. long, back grey-lilac with raised whitish granules. It
corresponds with the descriptions of some of the eastern races and needs
further investigation.
False Grooved Cowry
Staphylaea limacina (Lmk.) subsp. interstincta (Wood)
Description very similar to the smooth form of S. staphylaea but larger
2-2.7 cm. long, back purplish-brown with white spots; teeth not extending
across the base. Frequent.
Wrinkled Cowry
Staphylaea nucleus (Linn.) subsp. madagascariensis (Gmel.)
Description : — ■ Shell ovoid ends produced, about 2.6 cm. long, back with
brownish pustules joined by ridges, whitish or pale lilac in worn shells;
teeth extending over the entire base. Rare.
Malindi (Pitman); Dar es Salaam (Mohinder Singh); Shanzu (Finch).
Gangrene Cowry
Erosaria gangranosa (Dill.) subsp. reentsii (Dunker)
Description : — Shell small ovoid, 1.3-1. 6 cm. long, back yellowish-brown or
greyish with numerous whitish spots and a few obscure brown spots, ends
with chestnut blotches on either side, sides whitish with obscure spots, one
side margined and punctate. Ends orange below, rest of base white. Rare.
I have seen no East African material. Schilder says rather rare. Specimens
are probably in existence in some of the many private collections in the
country.
Star Cowry
Erosaria helvola (Linn.) subsp. argella Melv.
Description ; — Shell ovoid 1. 8-2.8 cm. long, one side margined and pitted,
back variable, turquoise or pale with close small white spots and larger
superimposed chestnut spots in varying proportions, extremities pale lilac,
margins and base orange-chestnut, a band just above the margins deep to
very deep chestnut. Common.
Snake’s Head Cowry
Erosaria caputserpentis (Linn.) subsp. caput-serpentis
Description Shell ovoid, base flattened and margins angled, 2.7-S.6 cm.
long, back whitish with a reticulum (network) of chestnut or dark brown
(equivalent to white spots on a dark ground) and often a white line joining
the pale ends; margins and edges of base dark brown or chestnut, middle
part of base and teeth white. Common.
Margined Cowry
Erosaria erosa (Linn.) subsp. erosa
Description : — Shell ovoid, sides margined and ridged, 2.1-4 cm. long
(much larger specimens occur in some other areas); back bistre oi giej.-
June, 1954.
East African Coiories
130
brown with numerous small whitish spots and a blue-grey line connecting
the ends; margin with brown ridgelets and a squarish grey-brown blotch
in the centre of each side crossing the margins. Base whitish with few
orange-brown spots on one side. Teeth coarse extending to one margin.
Frequent.
Note : — Another race or subspecies is supposed to occur rarely but I have
not identified it amongst any material I have seen. A very striking variety
lacking the side spots or blotches is represented in the Museum collections
by two specimens — Dar es Salaam (Dingle) and Mombasa (Leete). The
status of this needs further investigation.
False Margined Cowry
Erosaria nehrites Melvill
Description : — Very similar indeed to E. erosa but the blotches do not
extend over the margins and are more chestnut than greyish. These blot-
ches are often joined across the back by a darkish zone. The species is also
more triangular and the base is tinted and spotted. Rare.
Note : — I have seen one unlocalised specimen from our coasts and it is
identical with one which I have from Port Sudan. Schilder claims that
the two should belong to different races nebrites nebrites and nebrites
mozambicana but I see no difference in the solitary specimens I have seen;
rather would I seriously question the absolute specific identity of this
taxon from E. erosa.
Rare Margined Cowry
Erosaria marginalis (Dill.) subsp. marginalis
Description : — Shell ovoid 2.6 cm. long, back pale olive with white spots.,
some ringed with brown; sides and base tinted with violet, edges with
purple dashes and dots. Teeth numerous. I have seen no specimens of this
rare species from our coasts.
Lamarck’s Cowry
Erosaria lamarckii (Gray) subsp. lamarckii
Description : — Shell ovoid about 4 cm. long, back bistre or pale brown
with numerous whitish spots some of which have purple dots in them; and
a pale line joining the ends. Margins and ends with dark brown spots,
base pale. Frequent.
Thrush Cowry
Erosaria turdus (Lmk.) subsp. turdus
Description Shell ovoid, base rather flattened, about 3 cm. long, back
pale greenish-blue with very numerous yellow-brown spots like a thrush;
sides white with large spots and some indented dots near the ends, base
and teeth white. I have seen no specimens from our coasts but the species
is very abundant in the Red Sea.
137
VoL. XXII
Schilder records the nominate subspecies as frequent and the subspecies
zanzibarica Sull. as rare on our coasts.
Ringed Cowry
Monetaria annulus (Linn.) subsp. camelorum (Rochebr.)
Description ; — Shell ovoid 2-2.7 cm. long, back bluish, pinkish or greyish
margined by a fine bright orange-yellow ring (ie an annulus); margins
very pale flesh, base white. Abundant, one of the commonest cowries. It
lives on sandy bottoms.
Money Cowry
Monetaria moneta (Linn.) aggregate.
Description : — Shell ovoid, 1.5-2. 6 cm. long, white to deep yellow or
greenish-yellow, base mostly white. Common. Schilder records only fossil
M. moneta from East Africa but this must be a slip.
Note : — There is supposed to be a rarer species similiar to M. moneta —
M. icterina (Lmk.). This is reputed to be more elongate, larger and supposed
to have minute differences in the teeth. I cannot satisfactorily distinguish
these species nor have I been able to understand the supposed differences
mentioned in Schilder’s statistical paper on the genus Monetaria.
Onyx Cowry
Erronea onyx (Linn.) subsp. adusta (Lmk.)
Description : — Shell ovoid about 4 cm. long^ back dark chestnut sometimes
with obscure bands across and an obscure line joining the ends, base and
sides dark brown, teeth red-brown. Rare. Two specimens in the Coryndon
Museum. Mombasa (Tudor).
Thick-Edged Cowry
Erronea caurica (Linn.)
Description : — Shell ovoid or elongate-ovoid, 2. 5-3. 5 cm. long, rather thick-
ened at the edges, back pale bluish or white densely mottled with khaki
freckles, usually but not always with two pale bands readily distinguish-
able. Sides flesh-tinted, with dark purple-brown spots, base tinted with
flesh colour, the grooves between the strong teeth being darker. Very
abundant.
Notes : — There are two races recorded elongata (Perry) and dracaena
(Born) but I have not distinguished these satisfactorily amongst the several
hundred specimens I have seen. This species has often been wrongly deter-
mined in East Africa as Luria lurida a totally dissimilar Mediterranean
species. Who began this absurdity I can not imagine ! It has also been
confused with Cribaria teres — the dorsal patterns are a little similar but
the teeth are entirely different.
June, 1954.
East African Coiorics
False Three-Banded Cowry
Pahnaclusta clandestina (Linn.) subsp. passerina (IVIelv.)
Description : — Shell ovoid about 1.7 cm. long, pinkish or pale bluish,
faintly banded, ornamented with faint yellowish-brown hairlines which
form angles here and there (a lens is needed to see them at first until one
knows just what to look for). Rare. I have seen only three local specimens.
Three-Banded Cowry
Palmadusta asellus (Linn.) subsp. asellus
Description : — Shell ovoid 1.3-2 cm. long, whitish with three distinct bands
of chocolate-brown across the back. Schilder does not record this from
our coasts but I have seen about seven specimens of it. Rather rare.
Pale Zigzag Cowry
Palmadusta ziczac (Linn.) subsp. misella (Perry)
Description : — Shell ovoid 1.8 cm. long, back whitish with transverse
brownish bands and darker intermediate areas of yellow or fawn zigzag
lines, base yellow. Rare. Mombasa (Dickie).
Dark Zigzag Cowry
Palmadusta diluculum (Reeve) subsp. diluculum
Description ; — Shell ovoid 1.6-2. 8 cm. long, back dull purple or chestnut
with two marked and one less distinct transverse band of white zigzag
marks, ends with purple-brown marks, sides with chestnut spots, base
white. Frequent.
Cat Cowry
Palmadusta felina (Gmel.) subsp. felina
Description : — Ovoid, about 2 cm. long, back blue-grey with obscure
yellowish bands and abundant small khaki freckles. Sides with blackish-
purple spots, ends with similar spots on either side, base and teeth
yellowish. Rather rare but Schilder states ‘common’.
Note ; — Similar to the Swallow Cowries but side spots much bigger.
Small-Toothed Cowry
Palmadusta fimbriata (Gmel.) subsp. durbanensis Schilder
Description : — Shell ovoid or ovoid-elongate, about 1.5 cm. long, back
whitish or faintly blue tinged, with numerous pale brown freckles and
a double brownish band across the middle. The ends have a conspicuous
purple-brown spot on either side. Base white, teeth small. Rare. Likoni
(Ryall); Mombasa.
Note : — Specimens of this have been wrongly called P. microdon (Gray) in
collections in Nairobi. Schilder records the race chrysalis Kiener of micro-
don as a fossil from Mombasa. The specimens I have seen are undoubtedly
fimbriata which Schilder does not record from north of Mozambique.
VoL. XXII
]3f)
False Swallow Cowry
Blasicrura kieneri (Hidalgo) subsp. kieneri
Description : — Shell ovoid 1.2-2 cm. long, whitish or yellowish on the
back with three blue-grey zones partly separated by narrow crooked pale
zones. There are irregular blotches and tiny spots of dark purple-brown
and chestnut on the sides and fine brown specks all over the back. There is
often a dark interrupted band crossing halfway across the back, and two
purple-brown blotches at either side of the ends. Base and teeth whitish.
The columellar teeth (i.e. the teeth on that side of the mouth that continues
into the shell) are longer at the top (particular the top three) than they
are at the bottom (text fig. 3). Common.
True Swallow Cowry
Blasicrura hirundo (Linn.) subsp. francisca Schilder
Description : — Very similar to the last species but sides thicker. Back lack-
ing the dark interrupted band, teeth rather fine about 16-17 columellar
teeth in shells 17 mm. long. The columellar teeth are longest in the middle
and gradually become shorter towards the ends (fig. 3). I have seen no
specimens from our coasts.
Note : — In the Coryndon Memorial Museum there is an unlocalised
specimen which may have been collected on our coasts. It is Blasicrura
oioenii (Sow.). It is similar to hirundo, but more ovoid, with the sides more
margined. The marginal spots are more numerous and the teeth are longer
and coarser, there being about 12 columellar teeth in shells 17 mm. long.
B. owenii is recorded by the Schilders from Mauritius, Madagascar and
Natal. The specimen agrees best with the Mauritian race which may well
extend northwards but until further material has been collected this
record remains dubious. B. owenii is figured in the plates and B. hirundo
may be identified from fig. 3.
Square-Spotted Cowry
Blasicrura stolida (Linn.) subsp. diauges Melv.
Description : — Shell ovoid margined on one side, about 3 cm. long, ground
colour of back grey-blue with minute brown specks and a large trapezoidal
brown mark about 1 cm. long in the middle of the back; there are two
vertical brownish streaks on the side which is margined, and on the other
side two less distant stripes join with horizontal stripes which extend to
the ends. The ends and margins are spotted or marked with orange-brown
and the base although predominantly pallid is faintly tinged with the
same colour. The only fresh specimen I have seen of this rare species is
a superb shell collected at Sandy Bay, Ukunda by Mrs. Parsons. Kilifi
(Lewis, very worn shell).
Long Cowry
Cribraria teres (Gmel.) subsp. alveolus Tapp.
Description Shell ovoid-elongate 2.3-2.7 cm. long, back white with
June, 1954.
East Af?'ica?i Coivries
140
palest blue tinge with numerous yellow-brown markings which may be
described as forming three diffuse transverse bands and five to six longi-
tudinal bands, none of solid colour. Sides and base whitish, a few brown
spots on the sides. Teeth rather fine. Rather rare. Shanzu (Finch). Diani
Beach (Watkins) and several unlocalised specimens.
Note This species is a little like E. caurica but has totally different
teeth.
Violet-Spotted Cowry
Crihraria chinensis (Gmel.) subsp. violacea (Rous.)
Description : — Shell ovoid about 3 cm. long, back tinged bluish marked
with fine khaki pattern, margins flesh-coloured with conspicuous violet
spots, base flesh, grooves between the strong teeth orange-salmon. Un-
common.
Note : — also called C. cruenta, a later name.
Spotted Cowry
Crihraria crihraria (Linn.) subsp. comma (Perry)
Description : — Shell ovoid 1.6-2. 2 cm. long, back brown with numerous
round white spots giving a conspicuous speckled appearance. There are
traces of three bands. The margins and base are pure white. The animal
is scarlet. Rather rare. Shanzu (Finch), Malindi (Tweedie).
Isabelline Cowry
Luria isahella (Linn.) subsp. isahella
Description : — Elongated shell, more or less cylindrical, up to 3 cm. long,
back pale slate or dull brownish-purple with longitudinal interrupted lines
of dots and dashes in dark brown, ends orange, base white. Teeth numerous.
Common.
Tortoise Cowry
Callistocypraea testudinaria (Linn.) subsp. ingens Schilder
Description : — Shell large, elongate 10-11 cm. long, back brown with
brownish spots and white indented pin-point-like spots, base flesh-coloured
or brownish, teeth white. Rare. Zanzibar, Jardini (Dingle). There is a fine
specimen from the Mozambique Channel (Laing) in the Coryndon Museum.
Pheasant Cowry
Talparia argus (Linn.) subsp. contrastriata (Perry)
Description : — Shell elongate cylindrical, 7-8 cm. long, back pale brown,
three-banded, covered with numerous brown rings, base ornamented with
two or four large dark brown spots, usually two on either side of the
Bernaya teulerei Caz. There is a dubious record of this from Zanzibar and
it is here omitted. B. fultoni (Sow.) might also occur.
141
VOL. XXII
brownish mouth. Rare. The only local specimen I have seen is one from
Malindi collected in the lagoon within the outer reef (Shelley).
Mole Cowry
Talparia talpa (Linn.) subsp. imperialis Schilder
Description : — Shell elongate about 6 cm. long, ground colour pale yellow
with four broad brown bands, base dark chocolate brown, grooves between
teeth pale. Frequent.
Map Cowry
Mauritia mappa (Linn.) subsp. alga (Perry)
Description : — Shell ovoid, pear-shaped 6-7 cm. long, back brownish to
violet-brown with rows of hieroglyphics and a wide white line joining
the extremities. This line is peculiarly branched with blotches joined to it
by stalks, along its length. Base and sides white or pink, teeth rich orange.
The sides have numerous small conspicuous purplish spots extending over
the base. Schilder states ‘rather rare’ but I have seen no local specimens.
R. Wood has collected it at Mombasa (in litt.), The one figured is a speci-
men from the Philippines.
Jester Cowry (also known as Green-Spotted Cowry).
Mauritia scurra (Gmel.) subsp. scurra
Description; — Shell cylindrical, sides rounded, about 4.3 cm. long, back blue-
green with olive-chestnut reticulation. A line connecting the ends is not
reticulate but of the ground colour. Sides and base pinkish-brown or slate.
Lateral spots blue-black, more on one side than the other, teeth chestnut.
I have seen only one specimen — Kilifi, Aug. 1953 (Lewis). This was collect-
ed on the outer reef in deep water at low tide. Schilder does not record this
species from our coasts but as it occurs in Mozambique its appearance here
is not surprising.
Arabic Cowry
Mauritia arahica (Linn.) subsp. immanis Schilder
Description ; — Shell ovoid with flat base, about 7.5 cm. long but variable,
back yellowish with irregular chestnut lines interrupted by scattered spots,
also a pale line joining the ends. Sides bluish-white or flesh-tinted with
large purple-black spots. Base bluish or flesh-tinted, teeth chestnut. Fairly
common.
Harlequin Cowry
Mauritia histrio (Gmel.)
Description ; — Similar to M. arabica but smaller, 5. 2-6. 2 cm. long, back
with a regular netted (reticulate) pattern enclosing white spots, base white.
Common.
June, 1954.
East African Coicries
142
Flattened Harlequin Cowry
Mauritia depressa (Gray) subsp. dispersa Schilder
Description : — Similar to M. histrio but much more depressed and sides
distinctly margined and expanded. Marginal spots blue-black and brownish,
superimposed and running together. Back chestnut, reticulate, but the
spots in the reticulation and the side spots are much smaller than in
M. histrio. Base tinted, teeth finer than in M. histrio. Extremes of this
species are distinct but I have seen intermediates. I have seen a specimen
from Dar es Salaam (Dingle) which matches exactly material from the
Seychelles. The species is not recorded from East Africa by Schilder.
Black Humped Cowry
Mauritia mauritiana (Linn.) subsp. mauritiana
Description : — Shell ovoid with flat base and angled margins, about 8.5
cm. long, back dull purple and yellowish with a superimposed reticulation
of chocolate brown, so that the general effect is chocolate with numerous
fairly large pale round spots. Margins and base dark purple-brown, teeth
dark chocolate, grooves pale, teeth white inside at one end (fossula).
Frequent.
Tiger Cowry
Cypraea tigris Linn, subsp. tigris
Description ; — Shell ovoid, large, 6.5-10.5 cm. long, back whitish with
blue or yellow tinge, densely spotted with dark purple-black spots which
run into each other and also a longitudinal brown curved line joining the
extremities, base white. This species is very variable and very many colour
variations occur — some almost unspotted. It is such a well-known species
that it will not present any difficulty in naming. The name is a misnomer
since no stripes enter into the pattern. Common, often on sandy bottoms.
(Schilder states only ‘frequent’)
Panther Cowry
Cypraea pantherina Solander subsp. pantherina
Description : — Similar to C. tigris in many respects but less ovoid with the
ends more produced and the sides vertical and not rounded. This difference
in shape is quite constant and very distinct once it is appreciated. Shell
about 6-7 cm. long. The colouration of the back is very variable indeed —
white with brownish-purple spots is the most frequent, the lowermost spots
being orange-chestnut and not blue-black as in C. tigris. Some shells are
very different in pattern and even uniformly deep chestnut with only
traces of spots showing through. The columellar teeth are finer and more
produced than in C. tigris. Dar es Salaam (Dingle, Mohinder Singh). This
species is common in the Red Sea and readily obtainable there. It has not
been recorded from the E. African coast and these records need confirming
by the finding of living specimens. They may have been thrown overboard
at Dar or mixed in some way with other specimens. Its mention here must
not be taken as a new record for our coasts.
143
VOL. XXII
Lynx Cowry
Cypraea lynx Linn, subsp. lynx
Description : — Shell ovoid 3-4.8 crn. long, ground colour pale buff or
yellowish sometimes with a purplish tinge, covered with a mixture of
small and large more or less round dark brown spots, base white, edges
usually with dark brown spots, grooves between the white teeth orange
or orange-red. Abundant.
Fallow Deer Cowry
Cypraea vitellus Linn, subsp. dama (Perry)
Description ; — Shell ovoid 2. 5-4. 5 (rarely 5 or even 6 in specimens from
other parts of the world) cm. long, back milky-brown with two rather
obscure pale bands, marked with numerous white spots of various sizes.
On one side of the shell near the margin there are numerous close vertical
brown lines which are distinctive but rather obscure. Base white or
whitish. Frequent to rather common.
Flesh-Coloured Cowry
Cypraea carneola Linn, subsp. sowerhyi (Anton)
Description : — Shell very variable in size and shape, 2.5-6 cm. long, back
flesh-coloured with 4-5 darker bands, base pale, teeth bright violet. Very
common.
It is hoped that this paper will enable the public to name any cowry
they may find on our coasts. It must be emphasised that if this paper is
used for identifying cowries from other coasts mistakes are likely to be
made. A good collection of Cowries is now housed in a separate cabinet in
the Bird Room of the Coryndon Memorial Museum and is available to the
public on request.
ADDENDUM
Mr. R. C. Wood has informed me that he has collected Erosaria poraria
(Linn.) at Mombasa. This species is not recorded by the Schilders for E.
Africa and has not been included in this paper. Mr. Wood’s information
came too late for the species to be properly included but the following
data will allow it to be recognised. Using the key it would run down to
couplet 14 and then to 15. It can be differentiated from the species that
follow by a couplet to be inserted as follows. —
16* Base of shell and margins pale lilac, mouth whitish,
back buff-brown with numerous white spots ring-
ed with brown ... Erosaria poraria
16* If base lilac then shell not coloured as above
16
June. 1954.
East Ajrican Cowries
144
To the description included in the couplet above may be added —
shell about 1.7 cm. long margined on one side, with a few indented pits
along the margin.
INDEX TO SPECIES
When the cowry has been named from the plates or the key the following
index will show on which page the fuller description may be found. Since
many people prefer to lump all the cowries in the one genus Cypraea the
inaex is arranged by specific names only.
annulus
137,
PI.
3 &
4
limacina
135,
PL
1 & 2
arabica
141,
PI.
11 &
: 12
lynx
143,
PL
13 & 14
argus
140,
PI.
9 &
10
mappa
141,
PL
9 & 10
asellus
138,
PI.
1 &
2
marginalis
136,
PI.
1 & 2
caput-serpentis
135,
PI.
7
8
mauritiana
142,
PL
11 & 12
carneola
143,
PI.
13 &
; 14
moneta
137,
PL
3 & 4
caurica
137,
PI.
7 &
8
nebrites
136,
PL
5 & 6
chinensis
140,
PL
3 &
4
nucleus
135,
PL
1 & 2
clandestina
138,
PI.
3, 4,
& 17
onyx
137,
PL
13 & 14
cribraria
140,
PI.
7 &
8
owenii
139,
t.f.:
3, PL 5,
depressa
142,
PI.
11 & 12
6
& 17
diluculum
138,
PL
5 &
6
pantherina
142,
PL
13 & 14
erosa
135,
PL
7 &
8
poraria
143.
felina
138,
PL
3 &
4
scurra
141,
PL
9 & 10
fimbriata
138,
PL
1 &
2
staphylaea
134,
PL
1 & 2
gangranosa
135,
PL
1 &
2
stolida
139,
PL
5 & 6
globulus
134,
t.f.‘
4, PL
1 &2
talpa
141,
PL
9 & 10
helvola
135,
PL
5 &
6
teres
139,
PL
7 & 8
hirundo
139,
t.f.:
3
testudinaria
140,
PL
15 & 16
histrio
141,
PL
11 & 12
tigris
142,
PL
15 & 16
Isabella
140,
PL
5 &
6
turdus
136,
PI.
3 & 4
kieneri
139,
t.f.
3. pi
. 5,6 &17
vitellus
143,
PL
13 & 14
lamarckii
136,
PL
7 &
8
ziczac
138,
PL
5, 6 & 17
,11.
•V.' .1''."
‘
PUSTULARIA GLOBULUS
GLOBULAR COWRY
STAPH YLAEA STAPHV1.AEA
GROOVED COWRY
PALMADUSTA ASELLUS
THREE BANDED COWRY
EROSARIA GANGRANOSA
GANGRENE COWRY
■)
STAPHYLAEA NUCLEUS
WRINKLED COWRY
STAPHYLAEA LIMM^INA
FALSE GROOVED
COWRY
EROSARIA MARGINALIS
RARE MARGINED COWm
PALMADUSTA FIMBRIATA '
SMALL TOOTHED COWRY
Plate 1 "East African Cowries (Natural Size}"
STAPHYLAEA STAPHYLMA
GROOVED COWRY
PALMADUSTA ASELLUS
THREE BANDED COWRY
EROSARIA GANGRAMOSA
GANGRENE COWRY
]'
PALMADUSTA FJMBRIATA
> SMALL TOOTHED COWRY
PUSTULARIA GLOBULUS
GLOBULAR COWRY
STAPHYLAEA NUCLEUS
WRINKLED COWRY
STAPHYl..^A LIMACINA
FALSE GROOVED
COWRY
EROSARIA MARGINALIS
rare margined cowry
Plate 2 ‘'East African Coteries (Natural Size)
lil-M-
EROSARiA
THRUSH
TURDUS cmnmmA chwensisI
COWRY
VIOLET SROTTE& O
yONETARIA y-ONETA
IWtOMEY COWRY
monetaria
RINGED ■
AHMUU
comm'
PALMADUSTA FEL-INA
CAT COWRY
■ PALMADUSTA
,„... ^ ^ ^
Plate 3 “East African Cowries {Natural Size)"'
V
)
,v
I
1
/
\
- ^r" ‘
{,
MONETARIA
MONETA
MONETARIA
ANNULUS :
MONEY
COWRY
RINGED ■
COWRY
V; ;■ 1
PALMADUSTA FELiNA
1 f
CAT COWRY
PALMADUSTA
CLANDESTINA g
FALSE THREE
BANDED COWRY
Plate 4 “East Afi'ican Cowries {NatiLval Size)”
BLASICRURA S TO LIDA
Square spotted cowry
PALMADUSTA DILUCULUM
DARK ZICZAC COWRY
EROSARIA HELVOLA
STAR COWRY
PALMADUSTA ZICZAC
PALE ZICZAC COWRY
EROSARIA NEBRiTES
FALSE MARGINED COWRY
LURIA ISABELLA
ISABELLINE COWm
BLASICRURA KIENERl
w H
FALSE SWALLOW COWRY
BLASICRURA OWENII
OWEN’S SWALLOW COWRY
Plate 5 '‘East African Cowries (Natural Sizef
A
B L A SICRUR A S TO LIDA
Square spotted cowry
PALMADUSTA DILUCULUM
DARK Z 1C ZAC COWRY
j)
EROSArUA NEBRITES
FALSE MARGINED COWRY
EROSARIA HELVOLA
STAR COWRY
PALMADUSTA 2ICZAC
PALE ZICZAC COWRY
LURIA ISABELLA
ISABELLINE CCWRY
BLASICRURA KlENERl
FALSE SWALLC^ COWRY
I
BLASICRURA OWENII
OWEN'S SWALLOW COWRYJ
Plate 6 ‘'East Ajrican Cowries {Natural Size)”
‘
' i ' .i
■ »n
)
1. •. . •; A
1
y
..-fc (
EROSARIA LAMARCKii
LAMARCKS COWRY
ERRONEA
thick- E[
EROSARIA tROSA
MARGINED COWRY
CRIBRARiA TERE
LONG COW
EROSARIA CAPUT-SERPENTIS ,
SNAKE'S HEAD COWRY y
Plate 7 ‘'East Africaii Cowries (Natural Size)''
r
CRlBRA^iA CRIBRARIA
. SPOTTED COWRY
EROS ARIA LAMARCK 1 1
LAMARCKS COWRY
EROSARIA EROSA
MARGINED COWRY
ERRONEA- CAORICA ,,,
rmm-BBQEB cwry"'’
.
CRIBRARIA TERES
LONG COWRY
EmsmiA CAPUT-SERPENTIS
SNAICE'S HEAD COWRY ^
Plate 8 “East African Cowries {Natural Size) ’
MAURITIA MAPPA
MAP COWRY
TALPARIA TALPA
MOLE COWRY
TALPARIA ARGUS
PHEASANT COWRY
Plate 9 “East African Cowries {Natural Size)”
MAURITIA SCURRA
JESTER COWRY
TALPAftIA TALPA
■ mole comm
MAURITIA MAPFA
■ MAP comr
MAURim SCURRA
■'JESTER COWRY
TALPARIA ARCUS
PHEASANT COWRY
Plate 10 “East African Cowries {Natural Size)
-■■'I
MAURITIA ARABIGA
ARABIC COWRY
MAURITIA MAU
BLACK HUMPED
MAURITIA HiSTRIO
HARLEQUIN COWRY
Plate 11 “East African Cowries {Natural Size)
MAURfTIA ARABICA MAURI TIA MAUWTIANA
ARABIC COWRY BLACK HUMPEDXOWRV
MAURfTIA DEPRESSA ■
flattened harlequin cowry
MAURtTl'A -HISTRIO
HARLEQUIN COWRY
Plate 12 “East African Cowries {Natural Size)'’
t
\
■ r- '
)■
.r
i -
I
■n
¥ ■
J
r
■■ ':.Vt
I
■\<Y.i
■ I
' »t'
\
i
(
(.
CYPR/OEA PANTHERINA
PANTHER COWRY
ERRONEA ONYX
ONYX COWRY
CYPRAEA CARNEOLA
FLESH COLOURED COWRY
CYPRAEA VITELLUS
FALLOW DEER COWRY
CYPRAEA LYNX
LYNX COWRY
Plate 13 ''East African Cowries {Natural Size)
CYPRAEA CARNEOLA
FLESH COLOURED COWRY
CYPRAEA PANTHERINA' . ERRONEA ' ONYX
PANTHER COWRY- ^ , ONYX COWRY
CYPRAEA VITELLUS
FALLOW DEER COWRY
CYPRACA LYNX
LYNX COWRY
Plate 14 ''East African Cowries {Natural Size)”
0: CALLISTOCYPRiCA TESTUDINARIA
£ TORTOISE COVySY
CYPR^A TIGRIS
tiger cowry
Plate 15 ''East African Cowries (Natural Size)
CALLISTOCYPR^A TESTUDINARIA
TO RTOISE , COWRY _ ,
Plate 16 “East African Cowries (Natural Size)"
/ ^
Plate 17 “East African Cowries” (x 1.8)
a.
Palmadusta
ziczac, base.
d.
Blasicrura
owenii,
base.
b.
Palmadusta
ziczac, back.
e.
Blasicrura
kieneri,
base.
c.
Blasicrura owenii, back.
f.
Pahyiadusta
clandestina, back
g. Palmadusta clandestina, side.
f-/
. -
i' .
■ '
'i'
t.
%
k--'
(:- .,:,
I ' ' "
•IS®!
■.m
fe? ■
•il'
■J
7
4 ■ f.
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
MARCH, 1955
VOL. XXII
NO. 5 (97)
r
EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Patrons :
His Excellency The Hon. Sir Evelyn Baring, k.c.m.g., k.c.v.o.
Sir Philip Mitchell, k.c.m.g.
Sir Henry Moore, k.c.m.g.
President :
R. W. Rayner, Esq., B.A., A.i.c.T.A.
Vice-President :
H. Copley, Esq., o.b.e.
Executive Committee :
P. R. O. BaUy, Esq.
Colonel M. H. Cowie, m.l.c.
W. Hale, Esq., b.a.
J. S. Karmali, Esq., b.pharm., ph.C., d.B.A.
Miss E. J. Blencowe, s.r.n., s.c.m.
J. McDonald, Esq., C.B.E., D.F.C.
P. J. Greenway, Esq., D.sc., O.B.E., F.L.S.
Secretary ;
Miss D. Ewing
Hon. Editor:
J. G. Williams, Esq., M.B.O.U.
Hon. Treasurer :
W. R. Bowles, Esq.
Hon. Librarian :
R. A. F. Brenan, Esq., m.a.
All correspondence in connection with this Journal should be addressed to
The Hon. Secretary, P.O. Box 658, Nairobi.
Journal
of the East Africa Natural History Society
MARCH, 1955 VOL. XXII No. 5 (97)
Cover Design “Greater Flamingo” By P. R. O. BaUy
CONTENTS
Page
The Food of Flamingoes in Kenya Colony. (Illustrated)
By M. W. Ridley, Dr. B. L. Moss and Lord Richard C. Percy . 147
The Breeding of Lesser and Greater Flamingoes in East Africa.
By L. Brown . . . . . . . . . . .159
The Cowries of the East African Coasts — Supplement 1. (Illustrated)
By B. Verdcourt ........... 163
The Identification of Kenya Birds of Prey in Flight. Part 2. (Illustrated)
By J. G. Williams 165
On a Second Collection of Reptiles and Amphibians taken in Tanganyika Territory
by C. J. P. lonides. Esq. (Illustrated)
By A. Lovcridge ........... 168
Obituary ............. 199
Book Reviews ............ 200
Letters to the Editor
203
147
THE FOOD OF FLAMINGOES IN KENYA COI.ONY
By
M. W. Ridley, b.a., m.b.o.u., B. L. Moss, ph.d. and Lord Richard C. Percy, b.sc., f.z.s.
CONTENTS
Introduction
Material and Methods
Field Observations
Food of the Greater Flamingo
Food of the Lesser Flamingo
General Remarks on the Alimentary Canal and its Contents
Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Explanation of the Plates
INTRODUCTION
Flamingoes are among the most numerous and important birds inhabiting the Rift Valley
Lakes in Kenya (Fig. 1). The food supplies that can support such populations are therefore of special
interest. The work that has been carried out on the ecology and bionomics of the lakes on which
they live is well known. (E.g. Beadle, 1932; Jenkin, 1932; 1936.)
Lakes Hannington, Nakuru and Elmenteita are the lakes chiefly favoured by flamingoes. They
are shallow and extremely alkaline, sodium carbonate being the main alkaline salt. They contain
no flsh (see Worthington, 1932). Lake Magadi, where soda deposits have been exploited com-
mercially since 1919 (seePulfrey, 1947), and Lakes Elmenteita and Nakuru contain the most alkaline
waters and, being reasonably accessible, are famous for their flocks of flamingoes. Fish and higher
plants are found in the fresher waters of Lakes Naivasha, Baringo and Rudolf, and flamingoes are
relatively less numerous on these lakes.
Lakes Elmenteita and Nakuru show considerable fluctuations in level, Nakuru sometimes
drying up completely. It was entirely dry for long periods during 1953, but as soon as any water
collected after rain, flamingoes appeared in considerable numbers to feed. These two lakes are
relatively small, with surface areas of approximately 7 and 14 square miles respectively, in comparison
with Lake Naivasha (64 square miles) and Lake Rudolf. Lake Rudolf is much the largest lake
of all, being some 185 miles long with a maximum width of 37 miles and a surface area of 2,923
square miles. Little is known concerning its flamingo population.
Of the two species of flamingo in Kenya (see Mackworth-Praed and Grant, 1952) by far the
more numerous is the Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor (GeofTroy). Sometimes the population
on Lake Hannington reaches a figure of about two million and in July 1953 this species formed
over 99% of the total flamingo population on that lake. The Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus
ruber roseus Pallas also occurs in large numbers and it has been thought desirable to include the
rather limited data obtained on this species as there is evidence that the two species have different
diets although they are found in the same habitat.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Owing to the peculiar structure of the beak and tongue, flamingoes are able to utilise very small
organisms as food, consequently field examinations alone are of little use and a microscope is
necessary to investigate fully the diet of these birds.
40 flamingoes were obtained of which 9 were greater flamingoes. 24 skins have been placed in
the Hancock Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne.
In addition to field examinations, the contents of various portions of the alimentary canal of
29 specimens were preserved for subsequent laboratory examination in either 5% formalin
or 70“'o methylated spirits (industrial). In the case of 5 of the lesser species and 4 of the greater,
the entire alimentary canal from oesophagus to cloaca was also preserved. Samples of mud and
water from the birds’ feeding grounds were collected.
148
Preliminary investigations were carried out at Lake Elmenteita in November-December 1951
(see Ridley and Percy, 1953). Subsequently M. W. Ridley made expeditions to all the principal
lakes in the Kenya Rift Valley. Specimens were obtained from most of these localities. The
majority came from Lake Elmenteita in November-December 1951 and 1952, April and
June 1953, and Lake Hannington in July 1953. Evidence was also obtained from Lakes Magadi
and Naivasha in March 1953 and one bird was secured from t^erguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf, in
September 1953.
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
Both species of flamingo appear to feed during the greater part of the day although, in common
with many birds in the tropics, they are most active at dawn and dusk. During the heat of the day
the birds often sleep.
At dusk flamingoes become very active and fly around the lakes performing intricate manoeuvres
and calling loudly. On Lake Elmenteita it is possible that some birds may flight away altogether,
returning soon after dawn. If this is so, it can only be conjectural why or where they go.
It is conceivable that they visit other lakes up or down the Rift Valley, either to drink, wash or
roost. Lesser flamingoes are occasionally found dead in large numbers beneath telephone wires,
particularly near Suswa in December 1952. This may be the result of their nocturnal wanderings
or their migrations through Africa, about which very little is known. Some were also seen by
Mr. P. R. O. Bally flying south at dawn at a great height over Lake Naivasha in July 1953 and their
spasmodic occurrence on this lake points to a temporary resting place on these journeys.
On Lake Hannington, but nowhere else, lesser flamingoes were seen to drink at places where
freshwater springs flowed into the lake and to flight considerable distances to do so. When drink-
ing, flamingoes sip the water and then raise their heads vertically above their bodies to swallow it.
This is in contrast to their method of feeding which is to walk (or swim in deep water) slowly
forwards only occasionally raising the head slightly above the horizontal. There is a noticeable
difference in the behaviour of the two species when feeding although they are not necessarily
segregated from each other in separate flocks.
The greater flamingo (Fig. 2) normally immerses the whole head in such a manner that the upper
mandible is buried in the mud and the bird’s head faces back towards its legs. Then, with a
sideways motion of the head, not unlike a man scything, the bird moves forward at a slow but
steady pace. Occasionally, about every 10 paces, the head is raised just above the surface with
the neck bent for a few seconds presumably to breathe. Some birds in deep water “up-end”
like ducks or swans but the majority feed in 1 to 2 feet of water and the young birds tend to feed
closer to the shore than the adults. The legs of juveniles (Dec. 1951) which were about 10
months old were approximately 2/3 the length of those of the adults. Other greater flamingoes
were seen to walk along the shore line apparently feeding on the beach drift.
The lesser flamingo (Fig. 3) seldom immerses the head but skims the surface of the water with
only the upper mandible just below the surface. Generally they walk forward “scything” in the
same way as the greater flamingo but sometimes they advance much more quickly with little or
no sideways motion of the head. On occasions they may remain stationary, pivoting on the legs
and swinging the head rapidly through 180 degrees. The majority feed in shallow water near the
edge but some birds can usually be seen all over the centre of the lakes.
THE FOOD OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO
The diet of this species, which in India may even include small fish (see Ticehurst, 1923),
has been the subject of much discussion. It is now clear (see Yeates, 1950) that the small numbers
of birds examined from different localities throughout its range, which in the north stretches from
Western Europe into Asia, make general conclusions of doubtful value. It must also be borne
in mind that traces of organisms that are insignificant in a bird’s diet are to be expected when the
contents of the gut are studied in microscopic detail.
In Kenya (see Table 1), the birds do make use of the following food supplies : — chironomid
1 arvae, copepods, corixids, seeds and higher plant fragments.
149
Chironomid larvae were detected without difficulty in the majority of birds examined and at
Lake Elmenteita in 1951 they comprised the principal food of the specimens then secured. The
larvae are selectively sifted from the mud.
The copepod Paradiaptomus {Lovenula) africanus (Daday) was also abundant both then and in
1952. Copepods were present in several birds and one specimen had been feeding exclusively
upon them.
At times the following corixids are also abundant in Lake Elmenteita : — Sigara ( Vermicorixa)
lateralis Leach, Micronecta scutellaris Stal and Micronecta bleckiana jenkinae Hutch. These insects
were found in some birds.
Both at Lake Elmenteita and Hannington seeds formed a small proportion of the food. Some
of the seeds came from the Sedge Cyperus laevigatus L., which is common on the edges of these lakes,
but some were unidentified. McCann (1939) records similar seeds in India.
In addition various higher plant fragments that had fallen into the water consisting principally
of cell walls, were found in the stomachs. They were specially noticeable in the two specimens
taken from Lake Hannington. It is doubtful if much nourishment is derived from this type of
material which appears similar to beach drift and in all probability it is mostly taken whilst the birds
are straining animal food from the lakes.
In one individual from Lake Elmenteita, along with typical stomach contents, a significant
quantity of blue-green algae and diatoms was found (see Table 1, No. 6.). Whilst the structure of
the beak and mode of feeding are not specially adapted to straining minute organisms from water,
the occasional presence of algae in significant quantities in the stomach is not surprising since it is
frequently so abundant on the feeding grounds.
The authors (through the kindness of Col. Meinertzhagen and Lord William Percy),
have been shown greater flamingo stomach contents taken at Port Sudan which consist of a pure
mass of the gastropod Tympanotonius fluviatilis Potiez, a diet in essentials similar to the Cerithium
diet recorded for the subsp. ruber in the New World (see Chapman, 1905). Chironomid larvae
(see Salim Ali, 1945) and seeds have been recorded for India. In addition a crustacean
diet has been mentioned for Egypt (see Meinertzhagen, 1930).
It is possible (see Gallet, 1950) that greater flamingoes may derive nourishment at times from
simply swallowing mud rich in bacteria and decaying organic substances but no birds examined
were feeding in this way.
THE FOOD OF THE LESSER FLAMINGO
Lesser flamingoes feed on algae (see Jenkin, 1929). During the present work a rich algal
flora consisting of both blue-green algae {Myxophyceae) and diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) was found
both in the stomach contents of lesser flamingo (Plate I) and in samples of lake water.
Sometimes, as in birds secured from Lake Naivasha (see Table 1, Nos. 25-27), the stomach
contents resembled a rich culture of one diatom species only, Navicula sphaerophora (Kiitz) Pfitzer,
whereas other samples contained a large variety of species.
At Lake Magadi algae form a dense feltwork an inch or more in thickness around some parts of
the shore, particularly near the entry of a hot spring. This feltwork consists mainly of filamentous
blue-greens, Oscillatoria and Phormidium species together with colonial diatoms, all bound to-
gether in mucilage. Amongst the filaments were colonies of Microcystis flos-aquae (Wittr.)
Kirchn., Aphanocapsa elachista W. & G.S. West and Pleurocapsa sp. Some filaments of Spirnlina
subtilissima (Kiitz) were also present as well as a species of Navicula. A bird (see Table 1, No. 24)
shot in 1953 on Lake Magadi contained exactly the same species although the filamentous forms
had been broken up into short lengths.
Samples of mud and water collected from Lake Elmenteita also contained a variety of algae,
though none of them in such profusion as in Lake Magadi. Collections made in 1952 included ; —
Spirulina subtilissima, Oscillatoria terebriformis Ag., Chroococcus limneticus Lemm., Gyrosigma sp.
and a few specimens of Coscinodiscus sp. and Cymbella sp. The stomachs of birds collected while
feeding on Lake Elmenteita in April and June 1953 (see Table 1, Nos. 15 and 16) contained the
same diatom species and small fragments of the filamentous blue-greens.
150
Arthrospira platensis (Nordst) Gomont (Plate Ij Fig. 8) was the dominant species from. Lakes
Hannington and Rudolf (sec Table 1, Nos. 17-23 and 29), but on all occasions this alga was extremely
rare on Lake Elmenteita, though it was originally here that the birds were observed feeding mainly
on this species (see Rich, 1931 : For the occurrence of this alga at Lake Rudolf, see Rich, 1933).
Whilst the algal diet of the lesser flamingo is the usual one and the one that clearly supports
the vast populations of this species, it became clear from the first two birds collected that the
specialisations of the beak which are peculiar to it, do not exclude it from taking other food. These
two solitary birds, which had broken wings, were obtained on Lake Elmenteita in November 1951,
when the great flocks of lesser flamingoes disappeared and there was very little algal growth in the
lake. It was found that they had been feeding like the greater flamingoes on chironomid larvae,
corixids and seeds (see Table 1, Nos. 9 and 10). Occasionally fragments of higher plants are
taken in (see Table 2, Nos. 10, 16 and 24).
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ALIMENTARY CANAL AND ITS CONTENTS
The alimentary canal of Phoenicopterus was studied by Gadow (see Gadow 1879). There is
no significant difference between it and that of Phoeiiicoiiaias (Plate II) but the beaks of the
two species are very different, the latter having a straining mechanism of much finer mesh. The
nomenclature used in this paper follows that of Chalmers Mitchell (1901),
In an adult lesser flamingo, the length from pylorus to cloaca (the intestinal tract) measured over
three metres. Most of this length is taken up by Meckel’s tract. In all birds examined, the latter
and the duodenum were packed in some regions with cestodes of the genus Hymenolepis.
Examinations of the oesophagus of some of the flamingoes studied immediately after death
suggested that a relatively small but steady stream of food is passing down the oesophagus into
the proventricular region of the stomach throughout the long periods during which the birds are
feeding, though on one occasion a pure mass of unaltered chironomid larvae were found in the
dilated portion of the oesophagus (which lies low down in the neck and is not a true crop), as though
temporarily stored in this situation. Very little water appears to be taken in with the food.
The stomach consists of a glandular proventriculus and muscular gizzard with a hard internal
lining. Grit was always found in the stomachs of the birds examined and the food is subjected to
intense grinding (Plate I, Pig. 2). Some grit was also to be found in the intestinal tract and it there-
fore passes out with the faeces.
The size range of the grit from the stomachs of the two species from similar feeding grounds
in Lake Elmenteita was found to differ (see Pig. 4), and this difference was also noted at Lake Han-
nington. In each case the particles were angular and somewhat rounded at the corners but as a
whole the material is finer in the lesser species. It is inferred that this is due to the different straining
mechanisms of the beak in the two species.
Reference to table 2 shows that diatoms are found in the intestinal tract of greater flamingo
but this cannot be taken as evidence that theyform a direct food supply of any importance to the
species since it was found that diatoms frequently formed the bulk of the gut contents of
the chironomid larvae on which they feed. In the main therefore, they may be regarded as the
products of the break-down of previously ingested larger organisms. Attention has already been
drawn to specimen No. 6 (see table 1). This bird does appear to have obtained both diatoms and
blue-green algae direct in significant quantities.
The frustules of diatoms are resistant to digestion and traces of other food in the intestinal
tract tend to be insignificant by comparison. Chitin from insects and the cell walls of higher
plants were also found.
In contrast to the greater flamingo, reference to Tables 1 and 2 (see Nos. 1 1-29) shows that diatoms
and blue-green algae are the significant elements in the food of the lesser species.
151
The authors are indebted to the East African Fisheries Research Organisation for pointing
out to them that the diet of the lesser flamingo is very similar to some fishes (e.g. Tilapia esculenia)
which in certain lakes feed largely on algae. G. R. Fish has established the remarkable fact,
however (see Fish, 1951), that the blue-green algae which arc frequently abundant pass through
the Tilapia’ s gut undamaged.
The entire alimentary tract of three lesser flamingoes (see Tables 1 and 2, Nos. 16, 24 and 28),
which had been feeding prior to death mainly on algae, were studied. In two of these specimens,
traces of blue-green algae, although negligible, were present in the intestinal tract, together
with, in all three, a great abundance of empty whole diatom frustules and fragments.
On the highly probable assumption that this material had previously been in the stomach in
a condition similar to that actually found in stomachs (see Plate I), the observations recorded in
this paper as a whole may be taken as showing that blue-green algae are digested together with
diatoms and that tlie cell contents of the diatoms diffuse out even though the frustules are not
necessarily broken (in Plate I compare Figs. 1, 2, 6 and 7 with Figs. 3, 4 and 5).
Whilst the material was clearly quite inadequate to state that all species of algae are digested,
there was no evidence that any quantity of any species pass undamaged through the gut.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
I'he lesser flamingo habitually feeds on algae in the alkaline lakes of the Kenya Rift Valley.
The variety both of blue-green algae and diatoms found in the samples from the lakes, and the
occurrence of the same species in the stomachs of the birds feeding there, suggests that they are
able to utilise as food any microscopic phytoplankton available.
The food of the greater flamingo is variable. Small invertebrates are its principal food though
some algae, seeds and fragments of higher plants are taken in. Unlike the lesser flamingo, no
evidence was found that this species relies directly on the food resources of the phytoplankton.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to record their grateful thanks to those who were so helpful to them in
Kenya, to Miss Penelope M. Jenkin for her kind advice and to the staffs of the Kenya Game De-
partment, the Coryndon Museum, Nairobi, and the British Museum (Natural History). Thanks
are also due to the Survey of Kenya for supplying data, to Mr. D. P. Graham for drawing the map,
and to Mr. C. J. Duncan and the staff of the Department of Photography, King’s College, University
of Durham.
REFERENCES
Beadle, L. C. (1932). The waters of some East African lakes in relation to their fauna and flora.
J. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) 38, 157-211.
Chalmers Mitchell, P. (1901). On the intestinal tract of birds, with remarks on the valuation
and nomenclature of zoological characters. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.) (2), 8, 173-276.
Chapman, F. M. (1905). A contribution to the life-history of the American flamingo. Bull.
Amer. Mus. nat. Hist. 21, 53-77.
Fish, G. R. (1951). 'Dig^^tion 'm Tilapia escidenta. Nature. 167, 900-901.
Gadow, H. (1879). Versuch einer vergleichenden Anatomie des. Verdauungssystem der
Vogel. Jena. Z. Naturw. 13, 133-138.
Gallet, E. (1950). Flamingoes of the Camargue. Oxford: Blackwell.
Jenkin, P. M. (1929). Biology of lakes in Kenya. Nature. 124, 574.
Jenkin, P. M. (1932). Introductory account of the biological survey of five freshwater and alkaline
lakes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), 9, 533-553.
Jenkin, P. M. (1936). Summary of the ecological results, with special reference to the alkaline
lakes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), 18, 133-181.
152
Mackworth-Pread, C. W. and Grant, C. H. B. (1952). Birds of eastern and north eastern
Africa. (1), 1, 80-83. London: Longmans, Green.
McCann, C. (1939). The Flamingo. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41, 12-38.
Meinertzhagen, R. (1930). Nicoll’s birds of Egypt. 2,454. London: Hugh Rees.
Pulfrey, W. (1947). The geology and mineral resources of Kenya. Bull. Imp. Inst. Lond.
45, 289.
Rich, F. (1931). Notes on Arthrospira platensis. Rev. algol. 6, 75-79.
Rich, F. (1933). Scientific results of the Cambridge expedition to the East African lakes 1930-1-7.
The Algae. Trans. Linn. Soc., (Zool) 38, 18-275.
Ridley, M. W. and Percy R. C. (1953). Notes on the birds of Lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony.
Proc. Univ. Durham phil. Soc. 12, 103-118.
Ridley, M. W. (1954). Observations on the diet of flamingoes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
52, 5-7.
Salim AH (1945). More about the flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Pallas)) in Kutch.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 45, 586-593.
Ticehurst, C. B. (1923). The birds of Sind (part 5). Ibis. (11), 5, 439.
Worthington, E. B. (1932). The lakes of Kenya and Uganda. Geogr. J. 79, 275-97.
Yeates, G. K. (1950). Flamingo City. London: Country Life.
Zahl, P. A. (1953). Flamingo Hunt. London: Hammond, Hammond.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES
PLATE I
Samples from beak, stomach and intestinal tract of Phoeuiconaias minor from Kenya lakes. 1 to 5
Naivasha, 6 and 7 Magadi, 8 Rudolf (Ferguson’s Gulf).
1 . Navicula sphaerophora from beak.
2. The same from gizzard. In two diatoms the cell contents are still intact. A piece of
grit is shown near the top right-hand corner.
3. Grit and empty frustules from Meckel’s tract.
4. Frustules from caecum.
5. Frustules and fragments from large intestine.
6. Filamentous blue-green algae from gizzard.
7. Part of 6, principally OsciUatoria sp. more highly magnified.
8. Arthrospira platensis from gizzard.
PLATE II
Stomach and intestinal tract of Phoeniconaias minor, slightly displaced to the right.
c., caecum. duo., duodenum. giz., gizzard
lint., large intestine. Mt., Meckel’s tract
prov., proventriculus. t. testis.
I
PLATE I
1
153
Fig. 1. Rift Valley Lakes.
154
Fig. 2. Greater Flamingo feeding attitudes.
Fig. 3. Lesser Flamingo feeding attitudes.
155
■Histograms showing the approximate relative amounts by weight of various sizes of grit in the gizzards of eleven flamingoes
from similar feeding grounds on Lake Elmenteita. The finer particles are not shown.
A-E Phoenicoptenis ruber, F-K Phoemcmiaias minor. (By permission of University of Durham phil. Soc.)
FOOD FOUND IN THE OESOPHAGUS AND STOMACH (proventriculus and gizzard) OF FLAMINGOES
156
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Date \
collected ■
1
28.11.1951
2.12.1951
1.11.1952
17.7.1953
23.11.1951
26.11.1951
11.6.1951
29.3.1953
23.3.1953
Locality and 1
Specimen No. j
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Elmenteita
3
Elmenteita
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Hannington
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Elmenteita
9
Elmenteita
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Elmenteita
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159
THE BREEDING OF LESSER AND GREATER FLAMINGOES IN EAST AFRICA
By L. Brown
During 1953 Lake Hannmgton, situated 30 miles from Nakuru in the Rift Valley, supported
an average population of approximately one million flamingoes of both species. The Lesser
Flamingoes, Phoeniconaias minor, exceeded the Greater, Phoenicoptems ruber, throughout the year
by 20 to 1. Observations at intervals between March and December 1953 showed that although
about 4,500 nests altogether were built by P. minor no successful breeding actually took place at
Lake Hannington. A total of five eggs were known to have been laid in a small colony but they
were immediately knocked off the nests by their owners or trodden on. Even supposing, however,
that all these 4,500 nests had reared young they obviously could not account for the enormous
population of Lesser Flamingoes that exists. On Hannington this was estimated at between
one and a half and two million by the writer in March 1953 and at two million by M. W. Ridley
(in litt.) in July 1953.
Visiting Lake Hannington in June 1954 I found that this enormous population had practically
disappeared. There were no more than 30,000 flamingoes on the lake altogether and there was
no sign whatever of breeding activity. Following upon the good rains in April and May 1954 in
the Rift Valley a considerable number of flamingoes appeared on Lakes Elmenteita and Nakuru
(which had been dry in the 1953 drought) but the combined population on these lakes could not
possibly account for the numbers which had left Lake Hannington. It was evident, therefore, that
the great hordes of Lesser Flamingoes must have gone somewhere else, and it may have been to
breed.
In an endeavour to ascertain the facts I made an aerial survey of lakes in Southern Kenya and
Northern Tanganyika on 20th and 21st August, 1954. I was accompanied by P. R. O. Bally of the
Coryndon Museum. The routes were as follows. On 20th August from Nairobi over Lake
Magadi, the west shore of Lake Natron, the Embagai Crater Lake and Lake Manyara to Arusha.
On 21st August from Arusha to Lakes Balangida Eidahan and Balangida Lelu near Mount Hanang,
thence to Lake Eyasi and from there via Oldeani up the east side of Lake Natron back to Nairobi.
The Embagai Crater Lake was visited as a note had appeared in ‘Oryx’ 2 (1953) ; 140, that flamingoes
had been found breeding in this crater. It was not possible on this aerial survey to visit the
Ngorongoro Crater on account of cloud.
The following were the results obtained from this survey.
La/ee Magadi. A large number of adults, chiefly Lesser Flamingoes, but no signs of
breeding.
Lake Natron. A very large breeding colony was discovered, described in detail in the subsequent
paragraphs. There were possibly 500,000 adults of both species, chiefly Lesser, on various parts
of the lake.
Lake Manyara. Large numbers of adult Lesser Flamingoes and some Greater but no signs
of breeding.
Lake Balangida Eidahan and Balangida Lelu. Completely dry, no flamingoes.
Lake Eyasi. All practically dry except for a few patches of water, totalling several hundred
acres in extent, on one of which there were about 4,000 Greater Flamingoes.
Embagai Crater Lake. A line of flamingoes all round the shore but no indication of breeding;
the lake did not appear at all suitable since the shores are steeply shelving and not mud. There
is another Embagai lake and the one visited, which is high on the Rift wall, may not be the one
referred to in the note in ‘Oryx’.
160
Part ol the colony on Lake Natron was first viewed on 20th August at the southern end of the
lake. There is a large expanse of water here caused by the inflow of stream and springs, which
extends up the eastern and western shores in long narrow arms. About the middle there is a
large dry tongue of soda-mud. Flying round the edge of this soda flat we saw large numbers of
downy young Lesser Flamingoes. One group totalled about 1,000, with several smaller groups
of 50 to 100 near them, about 1,500 all told in the water. Several other groups of young were visible
on the soda flat itself. We flew in the direction of these herds of young birds for about a mile and
there found a number of scattered nests in groups of two or three or even singles spaced widely
apart in a manner unlike any flamingo breeding ground previously reported. We thought that the
young we had seen must have come from these nests but in the light of later discoveries this may
not have been so. The young in the water were accompanied by a few adults but it was evident
that they had been largely left to themselves. They were about the size of a fowl and were covered
in grey down. As we did not wish to remain long over Lake Natron on 20th August we flew on
to Arusha, meaning to return the next day.
On 21st August we flew direct to the spot where we had seen the young birds; their numbers
had increased considerably since the day before; the number in the water at the edge of the soda
flat was now not less than 3,000. A small group had already attempted to cross the long arm of
water running up the east side of the lake, presumably with the intention of reaching freshwater
springs under Mount Gelai. The numbers in the water were being augmented rapidly from a
string of groups and odd young birds which could be seen trekking across the soda flat from the
north. This string extended for possibly two miles, with groups of youngsters along its length,
and with isolated herds of young birds walking across the soda by themselves — an amazing sight.
Flying in the direction from whence the string of young birds came, we first passed over the
scattered nests seen the day before, and a little further on located a very much larger colony of
nests. This colony was roughly triangular, possibly a quarter of a mile long, and could not have
contained less than 50,000 nests. It was a compact colony, but like the groups of nests built on
Lake Hannington in 1953 it consisted of clumps and lines of nests with bare spaces between, rather
than a continuous mass of nests. On Hannington the average density of nests in colonies built in
1953 was 1.4 per square yard, with groups of a density of 4.5 per square yard and bare spaces
between; the Natron colonies did not seem quite so dense. All these nests were empty and it was
assumed that they were the source of the young birds then trekking across the flats, although
other herds of young had obviously gone to the water in other directions since we could see them
standing in it.
About half a mile to the west of this great colony was a bay in the salt flat and here we came upon
further large colonies at a much earlier stage. Most of these also had hatched young but the chicks
varied greatly in size — from the size of a partridge to very small helpless creatures still in the nest.
A large number of nests at the western extremity of this colony still contained newly-hatched
chicks or eggs. My impression was that there was only one egg in each nest but owing to turbulence
over the soda flat it was practically impossible to hold the binoculars still as the aircraft bumped
and there may have been two lying close together. The chicks and eggs in the younger colonies
were guarded by adults and it was evident that as soon as the young could walk they were taken to
water. It was also evident that after a certain age the young were largely abandoned by their
parents, since all those trekking across the soda flat were unaccompanied. One would have thought
that such youngsters would be helpless against the attacks of birds of prey and this is probably the
case for isolated individuals. One herd of chicks, however, over which we flew very low, ran to-
gether with their heads towards the centre and burrowed beneath the bodies of their companions,
forming themselves into a compact knot in much the same way as a Rugby football scrum. This
is presumably a defensive reaction against birds of prey.
161
At the western extremity of this huge colony of Lesser Flamingoes there were at least two
colonies of Greater Flamingoes, each consisting of 50 to 100 pairs, with eggs or very small young.
This is the first breeding record for the Greater Flamingo in East Africa. They were easily
recognisable from above by the following characteristics : —
(a) larger size; (b) general paler pink colour; (c) the much more brilliant red m the wings
when opened. It seemed probable that among the older, now deserted colonies, there had been
a certain number of Greater Flamingoes’ nests, since among the herds of Lesser Flamingo chicks
there were generally some chicks which stood head and shoulders above the others, were clad in
a much darker shade of down and looked as though they might be Greater Flamingoes.
There were a number of scavenging birds on the outskirts of this colony; they included several
Ruppell’s Griffons Gyps ruppellii, at least one pair of Tawny Eagles Aqiiila rapa.x, and a Lappet-
faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotus. These birds were doubtless subsisting upon the dead or weaken-
ed adults and young which could be found scattered about in any colony of this sort. They were
sitting very close to the flamingo colonies and their presence did not appear to be resented.
The total number of young, eggs, and occupied nests seen in all these colonies was estimated
roughly at between 100,000 and 150,000. This may be an over-estimate owing to the difficulty
of making a satisfactory count from a small bumping aircraft moving at 100 m.p.h., but it is based
on considerable experience of estimating numbers at Lake Hannington. It is, at any rate, evident
that a large part of the breeding flamingoes of East Africa were doing so on Lake Natron in August
1954, though by no means all the adults on the lake were breeding. M. W. Ridley (in litt.) told
me that in 1953 he estimated the number of first-year immatures on Lake Hannington and other
places as about 150,000 or more in a population of over two million. If this is a regular proportion
of first-year young to adults it is likely that Lake Natron is one of the major breeding sites in East
Africa, if not the most important.
Other points of interest in regard to this colony are as follow ; —
(1) It is evident that the Lesser Flamingo breeds in much the same way as the Greater Flamingo,
building a mud mound nest, 6-15 inches high and about 10-12 inches across the top, laying an
egg in the depression on the top and hatching it in the normal way. Many eggs are found washed
up on the shores of the Rift Valley lakes from time to time, and there were some about the shores
of Natron on 4th September 1954, but it is evident that the flamingo does not simply drop its eggs
on the shore and leave them to hatch (vide Grant and Mackworth Praed: Birds of Eastern and
North Eastern Africa, p. 82, London 1952). These derelict eggs must either be washed off nests
or dropped by the birds when visiting springs of fresh water.
(2) This colony would have been invisible from the shores of Lake Natron since it was at least
three miles from the nearest shore below Mount Gelai. It would have been possible to walk right
round the lake and be unaware of the colony’s existence. Local Africans will say that flamingoes
simply produce their young in the water. If this site on Lake Natron is regularly used, which
seems probable, the first sight Africans would get of the young birds would be when they migrated
to the freshwater springs running into the lake (which many of the young birds we saw were about
to do). As this does not occur obviously until the young birds are about half grown the supposition
that flamingoes produce their young out in the water of the lake would not be unreasonable on
the part of a primitive African.
162
(3) The environment in which the young birds are produced is exceedingly harsh. Nests are
doubtless constructed of wet slushy mud on the edge of this soda flat but the half-grown young
were able to walk across several miles of solid soda which must have been at a high temperature
and which was probably injurious to the skin of any ordinary animal. The concentration of salts
in the water at the breeding place must also be great since Lake Natron is shallow everywhere
and in large areas the red-brown algae dominate the blue-green which are the normal form in Lake
Hannington. Any fresh water which the small young demand must, therefore, be provided by
the parents which presumably go to the freshwater springs and collect it. The young are likely
to need fresh water since immatures on Lake Hannington show a greater freshwater demand
than adults.
(4) Mr. G. H. Swynnerton of the Tanganyika Game Department has kindly forwarded to me a
report of flamingoes breeding on Lake Rukwa. This states that according to the local natives
the adult birds became flightless when they had young and while helpless were caught in large
numbers by Africans and used for food. In the Natron colony I saw no sign that the adults had
become flightless and I also feel fairly certain that anybody attempting to run down a flamingo in
water and mud would have a very poor chance. However, close acquaintance with a breeding
colony is necessary before this point can be clarified.
(5) Egg laying had evidently continued for some time, since the oldest young were not less than
20 days old, and the latest nests still held eggs; laying probably continued for at least a month.
I formed the general impression that the earliest nests might have been the scattered small groups,
followed by the big triangular colony, and followed, as the water receded, by the other colonies
in which small young or eggs were seen. The older nests were completely high and dry, but the
newest colonies almost on the water’s edge. There were, however, no visible nests in process of
construction (such nests have a characteristic black appearance) and there seemed no likelihood
of further egg-laying. Within the main colonies there had evidently been synchronisation of
egg-laying in groups. There were many such groups or sub-colonies in which the young were
all of almost exactly the same stage of development, indicating that 50-200 pairs had laid together
on the same day or at least within a day or two.
Subsequent to this flight, on 22nd August, I walked round most of the western shore of Lake
Elmenteita. In view of the exceptional numbers of flamingoes on the lake in 1954 — more than I
have ever seen on Elmenteita at any time since 1946 — I thought it possible that there might be some
signs of breeding. There were not less than 100,000 adult flamingoes of both species on the Lake,
with many P. ruber among them, but no sign whatever of breeding and indeed most of the terrain
is unsuitable being stony or rocky as opposed to muddy.
On 4th September 1954 I made an unsuccessful attempt to reach the Lake Natron colony on
foot. The soda flat was separated from any accessible spot on the shore by a considerable expanse
of water and I tried to cross one of these arms of water at a point I had marked from the aircraft
as being approximately the narrowest. The water was very shallow overlying a soda crust, and I
had nearly reached the far side when I became firmly stuck in the mud, with the result that large
chunks of solid soda got inside my gumboots and I sustained severe soda burns of the feet which
kept me in bed for three weeks. It is evident, therefore, that this colony will not be accessible
without specialised equipment. It remains to be seen whether it is a regular breeding haunt and
this will be best established from the air. Aerial photography might possibly be used to make
an actual count of nests on another occasion. The birds with eggs or small young did not appear
to he unduly disturbed by our aircraft, but birds standing in the water or accompanying herds of
large young took wing very readily. It should be possible to avoid desertion of colonies caused
by low-flying aircraft (as has apparently been known in the Camargue) if sufficient care is taken.
East African flamingoes appear in any event to be much tamer and easier to approach than those
of the Camargue.
163
THE COWRIES OF THE EAST AFRICAN COASTS
SUPPLEMENT I
By Bernard Verdcourt
(East African Agriculture and Forestry Research Organisation)
Since the publication of my paper of this title (1954) two further species have been recorded and
sufficient data are given here for them to be identified. Reprints of this note will be available
for pasting into the back of the original pamphlet. Certain correspondents have intimated that
they have data on the habits, animals and eggs of our species, subjects on which the author is woe-
fully ignorant, and it is hoped that some of these people may be induced to publish their observations
either in this journal or elsewhere.
Palmadusta gracilis (Gaskoin) subsp. notata (Gill).
Graceful Cowry. (Fig. 1, c and d.)
Description : — Shell pyriform or ovoid 1.6 cm. long and 0.9 cm. broad, back blue-green with
very numerous pale brown dots and traces of two transverse bands reduced to some obscure grey-
brown curved streaks. Margins cream, the right hand one suffused grey-brown with scattered dark-
brown spots. Terminal spots purple-brown and ends blotched purple-brown below, base cream
or yellowish. The animal is scarlet, matching the substratum on which it was found.
Kenya, Ras Ngomeni (S. Rawlins). Mr. Rawlins writes as follows: “Five or six specimens
have been found ... all at depths of about a foot below chart datum on the seaward side of the barrier
reef which extends in a southerly direction for about 1,500 yards, commencing at the extremity
of Ras Ngomeni. The molluscs were on a red coralline growth on the underside of coral boulders.
The area is open to the full strength of the S. W. Monsoon and intercepts the permanent northerly
coastal currents. It occurs together with Mauritia mauritiana and Thais spp.”
This race is recorded by the Schilders from the Red Sea to the Gulf of Suez and Djibuti, the
Persian Gulf and Mekran Coast.
Using the key and calling the base ‘coloured’ although it is only slightly tinged, it would key
to couplet 32, felina and kieneri, both of which it resembles slightly. It differs from both in having
the ends blotched purple-brown beneath. If the base was considered white, then it would key to
42 or 43, felina and fimbriata. P.fimbriata is its closest ally and has the purple blotching beneath
the ends but P.fimbriata is a much narrower species, 1.25-1.4 cm. by 0.7-0. 8 cm., with very much
smaller and more obscure marginal spots. The two species were once rather confused.
Palmadusta punctata (Linn.)
Brown-spotted Cowry. (Fig. 1, a and b.)
Description : — Shell ovoid-pyriform 1.7 cm. long and 0.95 cm. wide, the lower end rather
projecting. Back tinged with flesh colour, vaguely banded as in P.clandestina, covered with distinct
fairly numerous brown spots. Terminal spots at each end rather larger and darker brown. The
projecting lower end is margined and slightly orange-tinged. The base of the shell is whitish
or faintly tinged, with the teeth and lower end very pale orange. Animal red.
Kenya, Malindi, on deep new reef in five feet of water at very low tide (J. M. Nightingale).
Mombasa, Florida reef, opposite the golf course (R. S. Benton).
164
The nominate race is recorded by the Schilders from Mauritius to Natal, Seychelles, Chagos
Archipelago and Gulf of Aden and is everywhere rare.
Using the key and assuming the base to be coloured, the teeth are very slightly darker than the
rest of the base and it would key to couplet 24 but is very much smaller than any of the four succeed-
ing species. If the base was considered white or tinged it would key to couplet 40, but differs
from E. turdus in being a very much smaller shell with different coloration.
Cribraria teres and C. chinensis.
Both these species have red animals.
Fig. 1. (a) under side of Palmadusta punctata.
(b) upper side of ditto.
(c) upper side of Palmadusta gracilis.
(d) under side of ditto.
165
THE IDENTIFICATION OF KENYA BIRDS OF PREY IN FLIGHT
PART 2, FALCONS, HOBBIES, KESTRELS AND PYGMY FALCON.
By John G. Williams
The group of Birds of Prey dealt with in this paper, with the exception of the Pygmy Falcon,
may be recognised in silhouette by their long, pointed wings and generally narrow, never forked,
tails. (See Fig. 1.)
Fig. 1. Silhouette of falcon in flight.
African Peregrine Falcon.
Falco peregrinus perconfusus. CoLL. and Hart.
Adult. Crow-sized; throat whitish, contrasting with remainder underparts which are greyish
buff with numerous transverse black markings; upperparts dark slate-grey, no chestnut or buff
patch on crown.
Immature. Upperparts dark brown and no buff patch on crown; underparts buff, heavily
streaked black.
The European Peregrine is an uncommon winter visitor to East Africa: it is larger and paler
than the resident race. All races and plumages of the Peregrine differ from the Lanner Falcon in
having dark crowns with no buff or chestnut patch.
Lanner Falcon.
Falco biarmicus biarmicus. Temm.
Adult. Crow-sized; resembles Peregrine Falcon but underparts paler and white throat does
not contrast with breast; upperparts much bluer and paler than Peregrine, with a conspicuous
buff or chestnut patch on crown.
Immature. Like immature Peregrine but with buff crown patch. Two races of Lanner
Falcon occur in Kenya, the South African nominate race in the south, with very few dark markings
on the underparts, and the Abyssinian race in the Northern Frontier Province and Turkana, with
heavily streaked underparts.
Teita Falcon.
Falco fasciiuncha. Reichw.
Adult. Large pigeon-sized; field appearance not unlike a small Lanner Falcon but with a
distinctly short tail and more rufous underparts; rufous-buff patch on crown and nape conspicuous.
The immature plumage is unknown.
European Hobby.
Falco subbuteo subbuteo. Linn.
Adult. Dove-sized; upperparts dark slate-grey, appears bluish in some lights; underparts
pale buff, heavily streaked black. The African Hobby differs in having the underparts deep
chestnut and the back bluish. Both species are extremely streamlined with long very pointed
wings, and are very swift in flight.
Immature. Like adult but browner, less grey, above.
166
African Hobby.
Falco cuz’ieri. Smith.
Adult. Dove-sized; not unlike European Hobby in build but underparts deep chestnut
with black streaking not conspicuous in life and upperparts bluer.
Immature. Like adult but upperparts rather browner and more heavily streaked below, the
streaking sometimes apparent in field, hut not conspicuous as in the European Hobby.
Sooty Falcon.
Falco concolor. Temm.
Adult. Pigeon-sized; plumage dark grey, not easily distinguishable in life from the less rare
Grey Kestrel, but has central tail feathers longer than others, giving a wedge-shaped termination
to the tail. Like the Grey Kestrel it is often crepuscular in its habits.
Immature. Like adult but with some buff and grey markings on underparts.
Eastern Red-footed Falcon.
Falco amurensis. Radde.
Adult. Small dove-sized; generally gregarious, often seen with migrating flocks of Lesser
Kestrels; male dark grey with conspicuous chestnut under tail-coverts and white undersides to
wings ; female has grey head, barred grey and black back and buff underparts streaked with black.
Very kestrel-like in appearance and hovers like that species.
Immature. Closely resembles adult female.
Red-necked Falcon.
Falco chiquera nificollis. Swains.
Adult. Dove or pigeon-sized; a thickset falcon with grey and black barred upperparts; crown
and nape reddish-butf; underparts barred black and white. Not unlike a Lanner or Teita Falcon
when seen at some angles, but immediately distinguished from those species when its black and
white barred belly is seen. Often frequents localities where Borassus palms are growing.
Immature. Resembles adult but is browner above.
European Kestrel.
Falco tiurMiiculus tinnimcnlus. Linn.
Adult. Dove-sized; male has black spotted chestnut back, buff underparts with scattered
spots and a black tipped, blue-grey tail. The male Lesser Kestrel has an unspotted chestnut
back and is smaller. The female is dull rufous with indistinctly barred upperparts and spotted
underparts; tail barred brown and black, sometimes tinged grey. The female Lesser Kestrel is
smaller, not easy to distinguish in fleld, but is more gregarious in its habits. The White-eyed
Kestrel has very bold barring on the upperparts and a grey rump and grey, black banded tail.
Immature. Closely resembles the adult female.
The resident East African Kestrel (Falco tinmmculus carlo) is a much darker bird than the
northern nominate race. Kestrels observed between June and August may be identified safely as
this race.
White-eyed Kestrel.
Falco rupicoloides arthuri. (Gurney.)
Adult. Dove-sized; pale rufous in colour with conspicuous broad black barring on upper-
parts; rump blue-grey; tail blue-grey with black bands; sexes alike. The contrasting blue-
grey rump and tail are the best field characters in flight to distinguish the White-eyed Kestrel
from allied species.
Immature. Resembles adult.
167
Fox Kestrel.
Falco alopex. Heuglin.
Adult. Pigeon-sized; very long wings and tail; entire plumage, except flight feathers, rich
chestnut-red with black streaks; sexes alike. In flight, in some Lights, appears brilliant copper in
colour. In Kenya found only in northern Turkana, where it frequents chffs.
Immature. Resembles adult plumage.
Lesser Kestrel.
Falco naumanui ttaitmawti. Fleisch.
Adult. Small dove-sized; resembles European Kestrel, but more gregarious in habits, generally
observed in flocks ; male differs from European Kestrel by having unspotted chesmut back. Female
closely resembles female European Kestrel but is smaller and undersides of wings and tail appear
paler.
Immature. Closely resembles adult female.
Grey Kestrel.
Falco ardosiaciis. Bonn, and Vieil.
Adult. Dove-sized; an entirely grey species; very like the Sooty Falcon but central tail
feathers not longer than others. Often crepuscular in its habits and preys to some extent on bats,
which it catches in flight.
Immature. Like adult, but rather browner in colour.
Dickinson’s Kestrel.
Falco dickinsou. Sclater.
Adult. Dove-sized; plumage pale grey except for back and wings which are blackish; rump
conspicuously pale when bird flies away from observer.
Immature. L.ike adult, but browner in colour.
Dickinson’s Kestrel occurs mainly where Borassus palms are growing. It has not yet been
collected in Kenya, but there are sight records of the species in the extreme south. It is quite
a common bird on Pemba Island.
Pygmy Falcon.
Poliohierax semitorquatus castanonotus. (Heugl.)
Adult. Shrike-sized; the smallest African bird of prey; occurs generally in acacia country.
Field appearance more that of a shrike than a hawk; plumage grey above, white below with black
and white wing and tail feathers ; female has dark chestnut patch on back. Flight swift and undulat-
ing, the bird dropping when leaving perch.
Immature. Resembles adults but more buff in colour.
168
ON A SECOND COLLECTION OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
TAKEN IN TANGANYIKA TERRITORY BY C. J. P. lONIDES, Esq.
By Arthur Loveridge
(Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.)
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction . . . . . . .168
Systematic Discussion of the Material .... 170
Bibliography of Literature Referred to in the Text .197
INTRODUCTION
When, four years ago, I published a report (1951a, pp. 177-204) on material taken by Mr.
lonides during the years 1947-1949, 1 remarked that, judging by the number of new fossorial species
he had discovered, southeast Tanganyika was herpetologically the least known section of the
Territory. The present paper deals with 1563 specimens, chiefly collected during 1950-1952,
and submitted to me for study. As a result of lonides’ industry I think it might be fairly said that
herpetologically the Southern Province is now among the best known areas of the country.
With characteristic generosity Mr. lonides has donated some of this material to the British
Museum, over 500 specimens to the Coryndon Memorial Museum, Nairobi, and the remainder
to the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. In the following pages these last
are referred to by the letters M.C.Z. followed by their registration numbers which, of course,
do not necessarily correspond to the total of any particular series as the balance has been sent to
Nairobi. In cases where all of a series have gone to Nairobi, one or more of lonides’ field numbers,
preceded by the letter “I”, has been cited in order to identify it. For, with few exceptions, lonides
added greatly to the value of the collection by carefully tagging each individual with a serial number,
locality, and date — thereby providing precise data as to breeding seasons and, to some extent,
incidence.
However, it is as well to emphasise once again that deductions regarding the relative abundance
of species in the area covered by this report cannot be made. This is on account of the collection
submitted being selective, i.e. lonides forwarded to me only those species in which he knew I
was interested, principally forms whose variational range was inadequately known. The wealth
of statistics that has resulted is too extensive to publish here, but has been entered on cards preserved
in the Museum of Comparative Zoology where it is available for checking by interested students.
Indeed, it is for the convenience of future investigators that the M.C.Z. numbers are here cited for
specimens displaying unusual variations or exceptional measurements.
Generally only “records” or outstanding measurements are furnished, the total length being
followed in parentheses by that of the head and body, then the tail, which, if truncated, has a plus
sign added. Except for a very few, specifically mentioned, each of the 1,084 snakes, and almost
every other specimen, has been measured and its scales counted. A considerable and tedious
task where series range from 50 to 150 individuals. The more important results have been con-
densed into a few lines of print.
109
For convenience the localities from which material was obtained have been hsted alphabetically
in the text. They are :
Kilimarondo, Nachingwea District
Kilwa, Kilwa District
Kitessa Forest, Matengo Hills, Songea District
Lihuni, Liwale District
Lipumba, Matengo Hills at 3,900 feet, Songea District
Lindi, Lindi District
Liwale, recently incorporated in the Nachingwea District
Luhila, Songea District
Luhuu Juu, Liwale District
Lumesule River, rises on the northeast Tunduru/ southwest Liwale
border and empties into the Rovuma
Manyoni, Central Province
Masasi, Masasi District
Mbeya, Southern Highlands Province
Mbwemkuru, Liwale District
Mehangoni, Songea District
Miguruwe, Kilwa District
Mtepera, Kilwa District
Nachingwea, Nachingwea District mcludes the former Northern
Masasi, northwestern Lindi, and all of Liwale District
Ngahama, Kilwa District
Rovuma River, forms frontier with Mozambique
Ruangwa River, Lindi District
Ruponda, Nachingwea District
Songea Bcma, 3,800 feet, Songea District
Tunduru, Tunduru District
Following the locality the collecting dates are given with the month in roman numerals. I
should like to invite the attention of East Africans to this method which I adopted thirty years
ago so as to avoid ambiguity in this increasingly international era. When an English field collector
writes 1.5.54 on a label he intends it to mean the first of May. When an American reads it, however,
it is January 5th. Some American entomologists now write v.1.54 for 1st May, personally I
think a better balance is achieved by placing the month in the centre as l.v.54 and retaining the
logical sequence of day, month and year. Occasionally the same date occurs on widely separated
localities due to lonides’ African collectors being in different areas.
In this report only a single species is described as new, viz.
Ancylocranium iotiidesi sp. nov.
a strange-looking, wedge-snouted, worm-lizard of which four examples were obtained in the
Kilwa District. In 1953, however, I designated as paratype, a large and distinctive gecko
{Pachydactylus tetensis) actually secured by lonides on the Lumesule River, near Liwale, before
I captured the type on the Zambezi River, near Tete, though the Tanganyika specimen did not
reach me until long afterwards.
Other additions to the herpetofauna of Tanganyika Territory contained in the present collection
3JB : —
Tetradactyliis fitzsirnonsi simplex (Laurent) of Congo
Typhlops tettensis tettensis (Peters) of Mozambique
Schistometopum gregorii (Boulenger) of Kenya Colony
Biifo anotis (Boulenger) of Southern Rhodesia
170
Not only is the serpentiform, whip-tailed lizard {simplex) also recorded here as a genus new
to Tanganyika, but the species is new to Northern Rhodesia. The blind snake {tetiensis) replaces
a tentative identification of T.t. ? ohtusus in the earlier lonides’ collection. The monotypic caecilian
(gregorii), taken near the Ruvu River, has for the past sixty years been known only from the delta
of the Tana River and vicinity. An earlier (1925) Tanganyika record of the earless toad {anotis)
was based on an erroneous identification of mine, long since corrected.
Among other items of unusual interest I might mention the rediscovery after 40 years of what
is apparently the second known e.xample of a limbless skink {Scolecoseps acontias). The second
Tanganyika record of an aquatic snake {Lycodonomorphus r. whytii); further examples of a recently
described shovel-snout {Prosymna pitmani). The occurrence of four related species of centipede-
eater {Aparallactus) at Liwale, raised a problem which is now unravelled — to facilitate recognition
of the four species a synoptic key is provided. A study of the 150 night-adders {Causus defilippii)
shows that the midbody scale-rows range from 13 to 17, not just 17 as has been thought for the
past 90 years.
However, this report is not concerned merely with questions of taxonomy. Included are notes
on breeding, diet, enemies, parasites, together with interesting observations on snakebite, native
names, and other items which Mr. lonides has kindly permitted me to extract from his letters.
REP T I L I A
GEKKONIDAE
Hemidactyhis niahouia (Jonnes)
d (1.1553) Liwale. 2.xi.49.
Preanofcmoral pores ofd, 47 (cf. Loveridge, 1947a, p. 167).
lonides writes that at 10 a.m. on 17th November, at Mohamedi Makuliro’s village of Mlembwe
Juu, he observed a halfgrown House Gecko {mabouia) seized by the neck by a Two-striped Skink
{Mabitya s. striata). A ten-minute contest ensued, during which, by a rapid succession of snaps,
the skink improved its hold and the gecko apparently succumbed. The attack occurred on an
unbarked, horizontal pole supporting the banda roof, and during the struggle the combatants
moved along the pole, sometimes above, at others beneath it, until eventually they ended up on the
roof outside. There, taking the gecko’s head into its mouth, the skink gulped down its prey,
the tip of the latter’s tail disappearing about a quarter of an hour after the engorgement started.
The skink (1.4306) was then caught and preserved with its meal intact.
Hemidactyhis mercatorius Gray
cj, $$ (M.C.Z. 52401) Liwale. 5.xi.49 & 23.vii.50.
Preanofemoral pores of cj, 36. This name of Gray (1842) for a Madagascar gecko takes
precedence over gardineri Boulenger (1909), described from Farquhar Island, and persimilis Barbour
and Loveridge (1928c.) of Dar es Salaam. Gray’s Palm Gecko was recovered from the stomach
of a Hemirhagerris n. nototaenia.
Lygodactylus grotei grotei (Sternfeld)
4 2 (M.C.Z. 52402-3) Kilwa. 9-25.viii.50.
(J $ (M.C.Z. 52404-5) Liwale. 24.vii.& 27.ix.50.
Preanal pores in(?<^, 4-7 (two have latter high number) ; on 27th September, the ? was gravid with
eggs measuring 6 X 5.5 mm. Twenty-two other grotei collected at Liwale by Mr. lonides were
forwarded to the British Museum.
171
Lygodactylus picturatus picturatus (Peters)
15 3 $$ (M.C.Z. 52406-7) Kilwa. 10.viii-30.x.50.
3 1 ? (M.C.Z. 52408-9) Liwale. 10.ix.49-23.vii.50.
Preanal pores in (JcJj 6-9 (7 have the higher number), average 8. One Painted Gecko was
recovered from the stomach of a Hemirhagerris n. nototaenia.
Phelsuma dubia dubia (Boettger)
S (M.C.Z. 52410) Kilwa. 25.X.50.
Preanofemoral pores in 25. Owing to its habitat being in the crowns of coconut palms this
Malagasy gecko is rarely collected, it has only been taken at four other localities along the Tanganyika
littoral.
Pachydactylus bibronii turiieri (Gray)
2 (Jc?, 2 (M.C.Z. 52411-2) Kilwa. 26.viii-30.x.50.
cj, 4 $$ (M.C.Z. 52413-4) Liwale. 14.vii.50.
juv. (M.C.Z. 52415) Tunduru. 6.xii.48.
Males lack pores. On 27th October, three $$ held shell-less eggs almost ready for laying.
The recognizable contents of half-a-dozen stomachs examined consisted chiefly of termites with
an occasional beetle, but most of the food had been finely masticated by the powerful jaws of these
big geckoes. Parasitic nematodes were numerous in the alimentary tract.
Eight additional turneri from Kilwa were sent to the British Museum.
Pachydactylus tetensis Loveridge
o (M.C.Z. 51753) Lumesule River on Liwale border. 29.iii.48.
This is a paratype of a large and distinctive gecko related to tuberculosus (Boulenger),
characterized in part by the possession of from 12 to 13 preanal pores. In the original description
I (1953e, p. 175) copied the different rendering (Lungsole) of the label. Mr. lonides, who adds
this fine species to the herpetofauna of Tanganyika, informs me that Lumesule is the preferred
spelling. The paratype was taken far up the river about two hours walk south of the Mbwemkuru
River, at the same spot where five Amblyodipsas have been taken on various occasions.
AGAMIDAE
Agama cyanogaster (Ruppell)
S (M.C.Z. 52416) Kilwa. x-xi.50
2 dc? (M.C.Z. 52417) Liwale. 1948-49.
Preanal pores in two rows of 10 above 10, totalling 20.
Agama mossambica mossambica Peters
juv. $ (M.C.Z. 52418) Lindi. l.v.49.
15 cJcJ, 11 $$ (M.C.Z. 52419-20) Liwale. 2-20.xi.49.
3 $? (M.C.Z. 52421) Tunduru. 1949.
A dusky network is present on the throats of some $9 and all (JcJ, but, in addition, the throats of
adult(J(^ are pale blue with a dark blue basal patch.
172
Mr. lonides (20.xi.51) points out that in my (1951a, p. 179) previous report on reptiles received
from him, in referring to mossambica being gravid at Liwale in mid-December I should have said
“towards the beginning (not end) of the rains”. In 1949, the year in question, the rains at Tunduru
commenced on 23rd December, though normally they start in mid-December and end about mid-
April.
From Ruponda Mr. lonides forwards the following observation which we both think refers to
this agama. On 4th April, 1950, Mr. B. D. Nicholson of the Game Department was sitting
in his tent when he saw a bush squirrel (Paraxems flavivittis exgeanus) chase a six-inch lizard up a
tree. The lizard endeavoured to dodge its pursuer, but the squirrel had it in a flash. So quickly,
in fact, that the observer failed to note whether the lizard was caught by the squirrel’s claws or
seized in its jaws. All but the head was eaten. A $ mossambica was found in the stomach of a Tiger
Snake (Telescopus s. semiannulatus) by lonides on S.v.50.
CHAMAELEONIDAE
Chamaeleo dilepis dilepis Leach
lonides (7.ii.50) reports that the Common Flap-necked Chameleon is known as kinyonga to
the Ngindo. As food for some Boomslangs (DispJioIidiis rypiis) he placed a large chameleon in
their cage, and at intervals of about half-an-hour introduced two geckoes for the Hissing Sand
Snakes {Psammophis s. sibilans). As each gecko, approximately five inches in length by two-and-a-
half inches in girth, was put into the cage, the chameleon promptly caught and ate it. In due course
the chameleon itself was seized and swallowed by a Boomslang. See remarks also under Thelotornis
k. capensis and Dispholidus typus.
Brookesia brachyura ionidesi Loveridge
Brookesia ionidesi Loveridge, 1951a, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 106, p. 179; Kilwa, Southern
Province, Tanganyika Territory.
cJ (M.C.Z. 52422) Liwale. 21.iv.50.
$ (M.C.Z. 52423) Luhila, Songea. x.50.
Since describing this pigmy chameleon I have been able to examine the type and fresh Nyasa-
land material of brachyura (Gunther), of which lonides’ Short-tailed Chameleon is clearly a northern
race. In the key to all African Brookesia which accompanied the description of ionidesi, the southern
Tanganyika reptiles referred to as brachyura were actually an undescribed species which I (1953e,
p. 190) have since named nchisiensis. Kilwa paratypes of B. b. ionidesi have been presented to the
Coryndon Museum by Mr. lonides.
lonides writes (20.ii.50) that these Brookesia are very hard to find during the dry season. To-
wards the end of January through February, however, they appear to gather around the whitish
fruit of a tree called mikwambi, or may be found on mbazi. [Possibly the fruit attracts small flies
or other insects ? A.L.] They are known as kitoga in Ngindo, and kipande by the Yao.
Some idea of their diminutive size may be obtained from the fact that the above-listed measures
45 (37 + 7) mm., the gravid ? only 51 (43 + 8) mm., though in October the developing ova were
still small.
SCINCIDAE
Mabuya quinquetaeniata margaritifer (Peters)
40 (M.C.Z. 52424-39) Kilwa. 19.vii-30.x.50.
3 (M.C.Z. 52440) Liwale. 7-21.vii.50.
2 (M.C.Z. 52441) Masasi. 5.ix.50.
Midbody scale-rows 42-46, average 42.8 for the 45 skinks. This means that they are referable
to the South African race margaritifer, described from Tete (27 topotypes average 42.2 midbody
scale-rows) instead of to the Tanganyika (and Nyasaland) race as one might have supposed!
173
Largest (J (M.C.Z. 52424), 228 (110 + 118) mm., largest perfect $ (M.C.Z. 52430), 222 (93
+ 129) mm., but surpassed by a tailless $ with a snout to anus length of 101 mm. In October ova
are small in all Kilwa $$. The bright blue tail of a young specimen was present in the oesophagus
of a large adult.
Mabuya maculilahris comorensis (Peters)
? (M.C.Z. 52442-3) Kilwa. 17-23.vui.50.
Midbody scale-rows 32-34. Larger cJ, 239 (82 + 157) mm.; $ 207 + (80 -|- 127 ■'■) mm. This
$, taken on 17th August, held spherical ova measuring 17 mm.
Mabuya maculilabris boulengeri Sternfeld
(J, 2 $$, juv. (M.C.Z. 52444-5) Kilwa. 8.viii-31.x.50.
Midbody scale-rows 30. Length of (J, 214+ (92 -b 122+) mm.; larger 216 (90 + 126) mm.
The latter, taken on 31st October, held six eggs measuring about 14 x 10 mm.
Mabuya planifrons (Peters)
(J ? (M.C.Z. 52446) Kilwa. 10-13. viii.50.
9, juv. (M.C.Z. 52447) Liwale. ll.xi.49-7.x.50.
Midbody scale-rows 30. Larger $, 330 (116 -|- 214) mm.
Mabuya striata striata (Peters)
juv. (M.C.Z. 52448) Kilwa. 1 1-12. viii.50.
(Jci, 9, juv. (M.C.Z. 52449) Liwale. 7.xi.49-2.iv.50.
The subocular fails to reach the lip on the right side of M.C.Z. 52449; midbody scale-rows
33-34. Largest c? (C.M.), 230 (101 + 129) mm. The 9 taken on 2nd April, holds eight eggs
containing small embryos. A caterpillar, cockroach, grasshopper, spider and vast numbers of
termites were present in the two stomachs examined. One skink was observed seizing and swallow-
ing a halfgrown gecko, Hemidactylus mabouia, which see. The Common Two-striped Skink is
known as kiuluundwa, fide lonides.
Mabuya varia varia (Peters)
99 (M.C.Z. 52450) Kilwa. 13-17.X.50.
9 (M.C.Z. 52451) Kitesa Forest, Matengo Highlands, Songea. 28.V.50.
20 (M.C.Z. 52452-9) Liwale. 13.vii-9.x.50.
Midbody scale-rows 30-32 (but only ten of the Liwale series were counted). Largest perfect
$ only 144 (48 -b 96) mm.; largest 9 (M.C.Z. 52451), 144 + (69 + 75 +) mm., but tail regenerating.
The following data was derived from breeding 99 examined.
28th May
13th July
23rd July
7th Oct.
7th Oct.
8th Oct.
8th Oct.
9th Oct.
13th Oct.
17th Oct.
held very small ova (at Kitesa).
„ 6 eggs measuring about 5x5 mm.
,, fully scaled and pigmented embryos.
,, 5 eggs ca. 7 X 8 mm., containing colorless embryos.
,, 7 eggs ca. 7 X 8 mm., containing colorless embryos.
,, 7 eggs ca. 5 X 5 mm., without embryos.
„ 5 eggs (irregular) containing minute embryos.
„ 7 eggs ca. 7 X 7 mm., without embryos.
,, very small ova (at Kilwa).
„ very small ova (at Kilwa).
Ablepharus wahlbergii (A. Smith)
25 (M.C.Z. 52460-6) Kilwa. 21.viii-l.xi.50.
7 (M.C.Z. 52467) Liwale. 21.vii-5.x.50.
174
Midbody scale-rows 22-26; lamellae beneath fourth toe 13-17 (but counts were made on only
seven skinks from each locality). Largest perfect (I. 2451), 88 (40 -f 48) mm., and $ (I. 2634),
90 (40 + 50) mm.
On both 21st July and 9th September, two ?? each held three eggs measuring 8x4 mm.
Five of the Kilwa series taken between 15th and 27th October are young ones of from 18 to 26 mm.
in length. Many termites were present in the two stomachs examined. Five Wahlberg’s Snake-
eyed Skinks were recovered from the stomachs of as many Psammophis angolensis.
Scelotes tetradactylus tetradactylus (Peters)
1 (M.C.Z. 52480)
1 (M.C.Z. 52481)
1 (M.C.Z. 52482)
Kilwa. 26.X.50.
Liwale. ii.52.
Songea. 14.i.50.
Midbody scale-rows 22-24; supraciliaries 4; fingers 4; toes 5; lamellae beneath fourth toe 3.
Length of largest, a<S (M.C.Z. 52482), 128 (83 -|- 45) mm.
Riopa sundevallii (A. Smith)
2 (M.C.Z. 52468-9) Kilwa. 19.vii & 31.X.50.
20 (M.C.Z. 52470-9) Liwale. 21.ii-ll.vii.50.
3 (M.C.Z. 52540-1) Mbeya, Tukuyu. x.52.
Midbody scale-rows 25-29, average 27.1; lamellae beneath fourth toe 10-13, average 11.3.
Largest perfect c? (M.C.Z. 52476), 223 (115 108) mm., surpassed in head and body length by
a $ of 130 mm., whose tail, as is usual in this species, is regenerated. The smallest, taken on 9th
July, measures 68 (39 -|- 29) mm., the tail being intact. One was recovered from the stomach of a
Lycophidion c. acutirostre. Sundevall’s Skink is known as kijengamahuta in Ngindo according to
lonides.
Melanoseps ater rondoensis Loveridge
15 (M.C.Z. 52487-95) Liwale. 7.xi.51.
1 (M.C.Z. 52484) Songea. ii.52.
4 (M.C.Z. 52485-6) Tunduru. 14.i.50-4.ii.52.
The Songea skink clearly conforms to the race from Rondo Plateau and not to the larger M. a.
matengoensis from the Matengo Highlands to the south of Songea.
Midbody scale-rows 18-20 (20 only on I. 2194, ex. Liwale); original tails (only 10 are perfect)
included in length from snout to anus 3 to 3.3 times. Largest (J (M.C.Z. 52492), 131 (101 -f- 30)
mm., though exceeded in length from snout to anus by another 10 mm. longer; largest $ (M.C.Z.
52487), 166 (125 -|- 41) mm. Consequently both considerably surpass any in the type series of
24 which I obtained on Rondo Plateau near Lindi. On 10th April one $ (M.C.Z. 52489) held
small, but developing, ova, while M.C.Z. 52487 (exact date unknown) holds six roundish eggs with
a diameter of about 4 mm.
Scolecoseps ? acontias (Werner)
juv. (M.C.Z. 52483) Kilwa. 26.x. 50.
Midbody scale-rows 18; supraoculars 2; supraciliaries 2; nuchals 2 only. Length 52 (40 -t-
12) mm. Werner’s brief description contains no mention of supraoculars, supraciliaries, or nuchals.
Nevertheless I tentatively refer this limbless two-inch skink to the species of which the only known
example was collected by Eichelbaum at Dar es Salaam in 1903, and described by Werner in 1913
(1912). I have spent more fruitless hours searching for this elusive sand-burrower at Dar es Salaam
than I care to contemplate. Mr. lonides is greatly to be congratulated on the capture of this choice
rarity. It is quite definitely not 5. boulengeri Loveridge of Mozambique, a species which lacks
supraciliaries and differs in many other ways.
175
GERRHOSAURIDAE
Unless otherwise stated it may be assumed that the undermentioned representatives of this family
conform to the keys furnished in the revision (Loveridge, 1942d, pp. 483-543).
Gerrhosaurus major grandis Boulenger
$ (M.C.Z. 52496) Kilwa. 18.viii.50.
S $ (M.C.Z. 52497-8) Liwale. 14.ix.50.
Ventrals from collar-row to anus 33-34; femoral pores 14-17, average for six counts 15.3.
Length of S (M.C.Z. 52497), 505 (205 -f 300) mm., a record for this race. It remains to be seen
whether grandis of Zululand can really be maintained as distinct from typical major of Zanzibar;
it appears increasingly dubious. One would at least expect the plated-lizard from Kilwa, a coastal
locality, to be referable to major, but it is not. Only by extensive collecting in the areas of inter-
gradation will we be able to decide on the limits of the ranges.
Unfortunately these robust spiny-tailed lizards, almost two feet in length, are not easy to preserve
on account of their subdermal bony plates being impervious to alcohol; the tails especially are
apt to decompose and drop off after a week or two. This can be prevented only by inserting the
point of a very sharp knife between the median rows of scales on the underside of the tail about three
inches from the anus. Then cut towards the anus; should one attempt to do so in the opposite
direction the readily discardable tail will simply fragment. A knife or scissors may be used to make
an incision along the entire length of the lateral groove where it will be concealed. Through the
opening thus made the viscera, with the exception of testes or ova, which should be left, can be
removed. Failure to do this almost invariably results in decomposition setting in though often
not apparent for a week or two. Under any circumstances, with so large a reptile it is advisable
to decant the weakened alcohol after three or four days and replace it with fresh.
lonides remarks that the Kilwa plated-lizard was basking on the side of a termite hill and retired
into one of the openings. The reptile was strong enough to resist all efforts to pull it out by the tail;
it was eventually withdrawn by tying a string around the groin in front of the hind limbs. On
30.vi.52 lonides saw one of these lizards in the stomach of a cobra (Naja n. nigricollis). Libulanjenje
is the name by which this Uzard is known to the Ngindo.
Gerrhosaurus nigrolineatus nigrolineatus Hallowell
juv. (M.C.Z. 52499) Liwale. 19.vii.50.
Known as mkwangula to the Ngindo {fide lonides), this quite typical Black-lined Plated-Lizard’s
stomach held, in addition to beetles and millipedes, a 68 mm. centipede, though the lizard itself
measured only 353 (98 -f 255) mm. lonides recovered one from the stomach of an unusually large
Psammophylax t. tritaeniatus.
Tetradactylus fitzsimonsi simplex Laurent
Tedradactylus
(sic) fitzsimonsi simplex Laurent,
1950b, Revue Zool. Bot.
Afr., 43, p. 350
Kundelungu,
1750 metres, Belgian Congo.
d (M.C.Z. 52500)
Luhila, Songea District
X.50.
$ (M.C.Z. 52501)
Mchangoni, „
X.50.
$ (M.C.Z. 52502)
Songea, „
ii.52.
No member of this serpentiform genus has been taken in Tanganyika Territory previously,
and Mr. lonides’ captures provide fresh evidence of the herpetofaunal affinities with the southeast
Belgian Congo. This recently described race differs from other forms of fitzsimonsi in having
the nostril pierced in an entire nasal, bordered by the first labial ; and the absence of a claw on the
vestigial hind limb.
176
The Museum of Comparative Zoology has other examples of simplex, viz.
cJ 9 & juv. (M.C.Z. 47410-2) Mambwe Mission, N.R. ix.44
and though none of the six differ appreciably from Laurent’s two types, data derived from them
does extend the known range of variation.
Supraoculars 2-4; supraciliaries 2-4; dorsal scale-rows transversely 12 -)- 2 reduced, longi-
tudinally 61-66; ventrals transversely 6, longitudinally 60-66. Length of head included in the
length from snout to anus 5.1 to 7.3 times; into that of tail 3 to 3.6 times (that it was only twice
in Laurent’s paratype suggests a regenerating tail). Larger cj (M.C.Z. 52500), 170 + (60 4- 110+)
mm., as tail regenerated, for the other cJ (M.C.Z. 47140) measures 259 (56 -|- 203) mm., largest 9
(M.C.Z. 52501), 306 (68 + 238) mm.
In February one 9 held two eggs measuring about 10.5 X 5.5 mm.; in the October 9 the eggs
were respectively 11.5 / 7 mm. and 13 X 5.5 mm.
CORDYLIDAE
Cordylus cordylus tropidosterman Cope
S, 4 99 (M.C.Z. 52503-7) Kilwa. 12.x-6.xi.50.
6 (IcJ, 7 99 (M.C.Z. 52508-14) Liwale. 10.vi.48-30.x.50.
Though eight different counts were made on each individual in this fine series of Eastern Girdle-
tails, the only extensions to the ranges given in the revision (Loveridge, 1944p, p. 15) are : Lower
labials 4-6; transverse rows of dorsals 24-28; transverse rows of ventrals 26-30. Also the previous
maximum length for a 9 is exceeded by M.C.Z. 52511 measuring 186 (103 -H 83) mm.
Eight 99 held from 2-4 embryos, those at Liwale on 30th September being very small and still
in the eggs which measured about 20 X 10 mm. Embryos at Kilwa on 12th October measured
21 4-15 mm. and an embryo cJ of 26 4- 22 mm., ranging to those of 6th November measuring
32 4- 23 mm. The stomach of one lizard held an unusually large cricket, that looked like a
Brachytrypetes, together with a long-limbed Palystes-Iike spider. Parasitic nematodes were also
preserved.
Likorembako is the Ngindo name for tropidostertmm according to lonides.
LACERTIDAE
Nucras boulengeri boulengeri O. Neumann
juv. (M.C.Z. 52524)
9 (M.C.Z. 52525)
juv. (M.C.Z. 53107)
cJ (M.C.Z. 53108)
(? (M.C.Z. 52526)
Kilwa. 27.vii.50.
Liwale. 17.vii.50.
Miguruwe. 8.vii.53.
Mtepera. 7.vii.53.
Songea. 22.1.53.
Dorsals definitely smooth, at midbody in from 44-50 transverse scale-rows -f 2 4- 6 ventrals ;
femoral pores 12-14. Though the younger specimens exhibit a light vertebral line, surprisingly
enough all agree with the typical race from Lake Victoria, and not with N. b. kilosae which is dis-
tinguished by keeled scales and colour. One S had managed to overcome and swallow a relatively
enormous black cricket.
Latastia johnstoni Boulenger
9 (M.C.Z. 52527)
3 ,?(? (M.C.Z. 53109)
9 (I. 4141)
2 c?(^, 19 (M.C.Z. 53110-1)
Liwale 15.vii.50.
Miguruwe. 7.vii.53.
Mtepera. 8.vii.53.
Ngahama. 9.vii.53.
Dorsals keeled; midbody scale-rows 50-54, of which 6 are ventrals; femoral pores 14-17
a side. The largest, a Miguruwe d', measured 203 (55 4- 148) mm. On 15th July one 9 held three
eggs measuring about 12x7 mm. The remains of a lizard, apparently referable to this species,
were in the stomach of a Liwale Burrowing-Adder {Atractaspis b. rostrata).
177
Ichnotropis squamulosa Peters
juv. (M.C.Z. 52528) Kilwa. 27.X.50.
juv. (M.C.Z. 52529) Liwale. 1.x. 50.
Midbody scale-rows about 49-53, of which 10 are ventrals; dorsals keeled; femoral pores 12-14.
Holaspis guernheri laevis Werner
1 (M.C.Z. 52515) Kilwa. 29.X.50.
10 (M.C.Z. 52516-23) Liwale. 24.vii-29.ix.50.
2 (I. 2187-8) Tunduru. ll.viii.48.
Midbody scale-rows 72-96, of which 6 are ventrals. Largest, a cJ (M.C.Z. 52520), 107 (47 -|-
60) mm. All agree in having, in addition to the black vertebral and dorsolateral lines, a single
black lateral line, which recently (1953e, p. 233) led me to revive Werner’s name for East African
examples of this arboreal lizard.
Mr. lonides remarks (20.xi.51) that owing to the adroitness with which these lizards hide,
their presence in a district is often unknown to the natives. He also points out that in springing
from one tree to another a Holaspis will cover quite a long distance laterally.
AMPHISBAENIDAE
Ancylocranium ionidesi sp. nov.
Type. Museum of Comparative Zoology 52530, an adult S from Kilwa, Southern Province,
Tanganyika Territory. Collected by Mr. C. J. P. lonides, 21st August, 1950.
Paratype. M.C.Z. 52531, a juvenile with same data as the type but taken on 18th October,
1950. Also two adult $$ (M.C.Z. 53112; and I. 4109, now in British Museum) from Kilongo,
Kilwa. Collected by Mr. C. J. P. lonides, 4th and 5th July, 1953.
Diagnosis. Differs from somalicum (Scortecci, 1930), and agrees with barkeri Loveridge (1946e,
p. 74, fig.) in having only a single pair of shields (parietals) immediately behind the rostral on the
vertebral line. Differs from barkeri as follows : —
31 (20 -b 11) segments in a midbody annulus; median ventrals in a single
transversely dilated series; 222 annuli on body, 5 on tail (but this is almost
certainly regenerated as its posterior half lacks annuli) ; only the type from
Mbemkuru River, Lindi, Tanganyika Territory, known . . . barkeri.
34 (18 16) segments in a midbody annulus; median ventrals scarcely broader
than their fellows; 302-327 annuli on body, 19-23 on tail; only the typccj, two
adult $$ and a juvenile paratype from Kilwa District, on east coast north of
Lindi, T.T., known . . . ionidesi.
Description. Rostral enormous, compressed, arched, with sharp cutting edge; nostril pierced
m the rostral (left side) or in a nasal that anteriorly appears fused with the rostral (right side and in
paratype); nasal sutures indicated on three sides; no prefrontals; no frontal; no postfrontals ;
a single pair of very small, widely separated shields on either side of rostral correspond to the
parietals of barkeri, each being immediately above a narrow, vertically elongate ocular which is
bordered anteriorly by the rostral, posteriorly by the first annulus; eye hidden; no temporals;
upper labials two (the third labial of barkeri being reduced to a small scale at the commissure of
the mouth), second larger and immediately below the ocular, whose anterior corner rests on the
first labial; lower labials three, the first minute, the third enormous ; mental tremendously elongate,
ribbon-like (owing to fusion with both the anterior and posterior sublinguals of barkeri) bounded
posteriorly by a row of four elongate gulars, which again are followed by a row of six similarly
elongate scales flanked on either side by a relatively small shield.
178
Body annuli 327 (I got the same number on the paratype at one counting, but owing to it being
somewhat macerated at one point neither my colleague Benjamin Shreve nor I could get the same
count twice; we feel that 327 + or — is the more accurate way in which to state the paratype’ s
annuli) between the rostral and the row corresponding to the posterior edge of anal opening;
34 (18 + 16) segments in a midbody annulus, the median ventral series not, or but scarcely, broader
than their fellows; six anals (clearly so in paratype, obscured by extruded hemipenes in holotype);
no preanal pores.
Color. In alcohol. White, uniform ( ? flesh-pink in life).
Size. Total length of holotype cJ, 215 (196 + 19) mm.; of larger paratype $, 217 (200 -|- 17)
mm.; of juvenile paratype, 107 (97 + 10) mm.
Collector's original numbers, 2551, 2719, 4109 and 4117 respectively.
Amphishaena ionidesii Battersby
60 (I. 1996
. . . 3475)
Liwale.
16.ii.50-20.vi.52.
S 9 (M.C.Z.
52532-3)
Liwale.
30. hi. 50 & 16.xi.51
9 (M.C.Z.
52542)
Liwale.
21.X.52.
9 (M.C.Z.
52534-5)
Songea.
16.vii.51.
40 (I. 1728
. . . 3622)
Tunduru.
ll.i.50-19.iii.52.
In view of the previously published (Loveridge, 1951a, p. 184, Fig. 1) data derived from an
even larger Liwale and Tunduru series of this interesting worm-lizard, it scarcely seemed worth
while to devote the time necessary to a detailed study of this fresh material. However, one new fact
of outstanding interest is that on 16th July a Songea $ (M.C.Z. 52535), with a snout to anal length
of 130 mm., held two embryos, unpigmented except for their black eyes, measuring 42 and 45 mm.
over all. Also on 21st October a Liwale $ (M.C.Z. 52542), measuring 202 (180 + 22 ) mm., held
two embryos, unpigmented except for their eyes, measuring 76 and 77 mm. over all. Previous
maximum measurements are surpassed by a (M.C.Z. 52532) of 210 (185 + 25) mm., and $
(M.C.Z. 52533) of 212.5 + (190 -b 22.5 +) mm., the tail being regenerating. Nematodes (preserved)
were present in the intestines of the last named specimen. lonides Worm-Lizards were recovered
from the stomachs of Calatnelaps u. unicolor, C. u. warreni, Amblyodipsas k. ionidesi Chilorhinophis
c. liwaleensis.
VARANIDAE
Varamis exanthematicus microstictus Boettger
5 (M.C.Z. 52536-9) Liwale. 12.xi.49-19.xi.51.
The following data, like that derived from a series of Savanna Monitors • that I (Loveridge,
1942e, p. 330) obtained at Mikindani, extend the ranges given by Mertens (1942e, p. 351) who has
shown that ocellatus Heyden is a synonym of typical exanthematicus (Bose) of Senegal and the Sudan,
and should not be applied to the dry country monitors of Kenya and Tanganyika.
Nape scales (without surrounding disc) distinctly larger than those on occiput and centre of
back; midbody scale-rows 137-143; ventrals from collar fold to level of insertion of hind
limbs 86-100.
The coloring in alcohol of the nine-inch juvenile is light grey, handsomely variegated with black
and white. Most conspicuous is the black line from eye to shoulder, two slightly narrower ones
from the occiput converge on nape only to diverge again till they terminate by merging with the
black lines encircling the first pair of white ocelli between the forelimbs; in all there are five rows
of these black-edged ocelli (2 to 5 in a row) between fore and hind limbs, followed by a sixth on base
of tail that is more or less fused and bar-like, forming the first of a dozen hght annuli that alternate
with grey or black interspaces on the black-tipped tail; the fore limbs are grey variegated with jet
black and pure white, the latter forming crossbars on the toes. Below, creamy white, a large
blackish patch on the base of the throat; breast, belly, and tail crossed by numerous narrow
wavy dark lines arranged in pairs.
170
Holotype of Ancylocraniutn ionidesi (M.C.Z. 52530). 8 x nat. size.
180
The ocelli have disappeared entirely from one of the third-grown specimens (M.C.Z. 52538),
whose coloring is striking as a result of the black markings showing a tendency to coalesce and form
crossbars. The coloring of the massive-headed old ^ is a nondescript dirty brown or black,
relieved by a certain amount of yellow variegations.
This magnificent (M.C.Z. 52539) has been skinned out and the body removed, but owing to
the toughness of the hide its present measurement of 1430 (660 -)- 770) mm. should be substantially
correct. The juvenile (M.C.Z. 52536) described above is only 230 (110 + 120) mm., the smallest
I have ever seen.
Mr. lonides remarks that they had quite a tussle to secure the nearly five-foot male but that it
quickly succumbed when given a drop of nicotine. At my request he is endeavouring to ascertain
where these dry-country monitors lay their eggs. He wrote (20.xi.51) me that outside a hole at
Lihuni, in the northern part of Liwale District and miles from water, he found some undoubted
Varanus eggs, broken and with indications that they had been swept by a grass fire. As this was
in mid-October it appeared certain that the eggs had been lying exposed since the previous rainy
season.
The old cj harboured many ticks which have been identified as Aponomma exornaturn Koch by
my colleague Dr. J. C. Bequaert.
TYPHLOPIDAE
Typhlops schlegelii niucmso (Peters)
2 (M.C.Z. 52543-4)
153 (M.C.Z. 52545-600)
2 (M.C.Z. 52601-2)
4 (M.C.Z. 52603-5)
6 (M.C.Z. 52606-9)
26 (M.C.Z. 52610-22)
Kilwa. 30.x & 3.xi.50.
Liwale. 18.i.50-iv.52.
Nachingwea. 4.xi.51.
Ruponda. 26.xii.51-7.iv.52.
Songea. 16.v.50-ii.52.
Tunduru. 26.xii.49-29.ii.52.
1 am confident that never before has so fine a series of the Eastern SchlegePs Blind-Snake been
brought together. In part this was due to an intensive search for the rare T. t. tettemis, only three
of which were turned up during the period covered by this report. It would be interesting to know
why two species, so similar in appearance, should exist in a ratio of three to 193! T. t. tettemis
can most readily be distinguished from the lineolate form of miicruso by the number of midbody
scale-rows, consequently I counted every individual in the above series with the following results.
Midbody scale-rows 30-36, viz. 30 (27 ex.), 31 (3), 32 (99), 33 (13), 34 (42), 35 (1), 36 (8), average
for 193 snakes 32.3; midbody diameter included 25 (M.C.Z. 52552) to 46 (M.C.Z. 52596) times
in total length, however, only 7 are 40 times or over, and only 10 are under 27 times. Total
lengths range from 125 (123 -f 2) mm. (I. 3127) to an adult $ (M.C.Z. 52581) of 580 (574 -|- 6)
mm., while the largest verified S (M.C.Z. 52596) is 460 (455 -t- 5) mm. Such large examples are
quite exceptional, however; indeed only 15 of the 193 snakes are over 400 mm., while 65 measure
less than 200 mm., the average for the entire series being 246 mm.
It is interesting to note that the smallest of all, measuring 125 mm., was taken on 6th December,
the next smallest (128 mm.) on 13th November, and that each month thereafter there is a steady
increase in average size until April. The average size and monthly incidence of mucruso under
200 mm. is: November, 127 mm. (3), December 156 mm. (28), January, 174 mm. (17), February,
178 mm. (3), March, 178 mm. (7), April, 191 mm. (5), May, 150 mm. (2), June, 145 mm. (1),
July, 145 mm. (1). From which it seems fair to assume that the usual time for the young to appear,
if not hach, is about the beginning of the rains — mid-November to mid-December.
The coloration is highly variable, but if the material be sorted into the three main types (cor-
responding to similar color variations in T. p. punctatus), the number assigned to each is as follows :
blotched (100), checkered (12), lineolate (81).
One North Zambezi Blind-Snake was recovered from the stomach of a Calamelaps u. imicolor.
181
Typhlops tettensis tettensis (Peters)
7 (British Museum) Liwale. 27.iii.48-6.iii.49
2 1 $ (M.C.Z. 52523-5) Liwale. 17.ii.51-i.52.
Midbody scale-rows 22; midbody diameter included 32.3 to 46.6 times in total lengths ot
from 210 (206.5 -t- 3.5) mm. to 420 (415 + 5) mm.
The single snake (M.C.Z. 50066) that I referred to as “tettensis ? ohtusus Peters” in my report
(1951a, p. 186) on the first lonides collection, is, of course, the typical subspecies. Last year I
was able to study the seven specimens presented by Mr. lonides to the British Museum, also the
type of obtnsus, besides a series of the latter I collected in Nyasaland. In ten of the eleven examples
of t. tettensis that I examined the preocular is in contact with 2nd and 3rd upper labials, in
only one snake (R. 1819 in the B.M.) it is in contact with the 2nd only. In this it agrees with
Peters’ Fig. Ic (of PI. xv.), while Fig. la corresponds to the majority.
As a similar variability occurs in both the other forms it is necessary to abandon this as a key
character and present an entirely revised key to this little group. Though there are 22 midbody
scales in all 12 r. tettensis known, and 24 in all five rondoensis, they range from 22 to 24 in the 12
known ohtusus. The colouring and slender habitus of ohtusus is such that I now doubt whether
its relationship to the other two is really subspecific, but in view of the difficulty in distinguishing
them it might be as well to treat them as such until more data has accumulated regarding their
variation and distribution.
Typhlops hraminus (Daudin)
1 (M.C.Z. 52626) Liwale. 11.x. 50.
Midbody scale-rows 20; diameter of 3 mm. included 50 times in total length of 150.5 (147
+ 3.5) mm. Every additional record of the inland migration of this Indian Worm-Snake — long
established on the East African littoral — is of interest.
LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE
Leptotyphlops conjwicta conjuncta (Jan)
1 (M.C.Z. 52627) Kilwa. 17.X.50.
11 (M.C.Z. 52628-33) Liwale. 17.ii.50-13.iv.52.
1 (M.C.Z. 52634) Manyoni. 24.viii.51.
Midbody scale-rows 14 (but only a few counted); midbody diameters included 48.5 to 80
(M.C.Z. 52634) times in total lengths of from 92 (85 -|- 7) mm. to 220 (205 -f 15) mm. (M.C.Z.
52633). It is the 200 mm. Manyoni snake that extends the previous diameter/ length range of
from 32 to 72 and which differs from all the rest in being brown above and below with the head
somewhat darker and the end of the tail jet black. Otherwise in coloration the series is glossy
black, uniform, or below brown ; in one almost white along median line of belly.
BOIDAE
Python sehae (Gmelin)
Known as chatu in Ngindo according to lonides, who writes (30.iv.50) that on four separate
occasions he has known young pythons to be caught in fish traps; which suggests that they may be
partly piscivorous when young.
Twice (8.V.50) he has found them eating birds, viz. “a red-eyed dove” and a “fork-tailed drongo”.
On the morning of 19.x. 52 lonides observed a python, slightly over four feet in length, lying
along a branch with its head concealed in a long, though narrow, fissure in the trunk. After captur-
ing the python lonides examined the crevice in which was tightly wedged the body of an adult male
ground-squirrel {Xerus sp.). Finding no marks on the body, lonides concluded that the squirrel
had died as a result of being seized by the head. Presumably the python had entered the hollow
182
tree through a second hole, above, and seized the squirrel in its nest which was in the cavity. Then,
either unable or unwilling to swallow the body in so confined a space, the python had been
endeavouring to drag it through the fissure when disturbed. Whether it would have succeeded is
questionable, to judge by the difficulty lonides experienced when he attempted to extract the corpse
with a pair of tongs.
COLUBRIDAE
Natriciteres oUvacea uluguruensis (LovERiDGE)
3 $$ (I. 2344, etc.) Liwale. v.50-i.52.
$ {M..C.Z. 52635) Mbeya. x.52.
$ (M.C.Z. 52636) Songea. 17.V.50.
Midbody scale-rows 17 ; ventrals 130-139; subcaudals 70-77, but tails of two others truncated.
Smallest, taken early in January, measures only 155 (110 -1- 45) mm. Mr. lonides informs me
that the snake labelled Songea was actually taken on the Rovuma River a dozen miles from Songea
Boma.
The data derived from a much longer series (of which half were sent to the British Museum)
contributed by lonides in 1950 were utilised in a revision of the genus of which a key and synopsis
has been published (Loveridge, 1953e, pp. 248-252). These snakes belong to a group that has
erroneously been referred to eight different genera, including Natrix and Neusterophis.
Lycodonomorphus rufulus •whytii (Boulenger)
$ (M.C.Z. 52637) Songea Boma. 12.V.50.
Midbody scale-rows 19; ventrals 159; subcaudals 47. Total length 709 (590 + 119) mm.
This water-snake agrees with the Nyasaland type in sex, midbody scale-rows and subcaudals,
but in length surpasses all previously known examples of this race. My reasons for transferring
“Glypholycus whytii Boulenger” to Lycodonomorphus were recently stated (1953e, p. 252, 255).
Mr. lonides is to be congratulated in securing the second known specimen of this race from Tan-
ganyika Territory.
Its stomach contained the hind legs of a frog (Rana fuscigula) and the entire digestive tract was
riddled with worms. These have been identified by Mr. J. T. Tucker as a $ Oxyuroidea besides
both sexes of a Kalicephalus, probably /C. micrurus. In the mesentery were two Dracimculus sp.
and numerous encapsuled larvae of one of the Physalopteridae.
BoaedoJi lineatus lineatus (Dumeril & Bibron)
juv. $ (M.C.Z. 52638) Liwale. 20.iv.50.
Midbody scale-rows 29; ventrals 213; subcaudals 50; preocular 1 (R) or 2 (L); temporals
1 -b 1 (R) or 1 -f- 2 (L). Beneath the ventral scutes of the preanal region are many mites.
Lycophidion capense capense (A. Smith)
(J $ (M.C.Z. 52639) Liwale. 29.iv.50.
? (M.C.Z. 52640) Ruponda. 26.xii.51.
Midbody scale-rows 17; ventrals 180-193; subcaudals 33-43. Chin and throat mostly white.
Lycophidion capense > < acutirostre Gunther
$ (M.C.Z. 52641) Liwale. 7.xii.50.
? (M.C.Z. 52642) Tunduru. 31.xii.51.
183
Midbody scale-rows 17; ventrals 162-165; subcaudals 22-28. Chin and throat black like
the rest of the underside. In both colour and subcaudal counts these snakes agree with acutirostre,
but because of their intermediate ventral count I continue to treat these eastern snakes as inter-
mediates, besides which it will be noted that quite typical capeme also occurs at Liwale.
The stomach of the Tunduru snake held the remains of a skink {Riopa sundevallii).
Mehelya nyassae (Gunther)
juv. (J (M.C.Z. 52643) Liwale. 21.iv.52.
$ (M.C.Z. 52644) Tunduru. 3.ii.52.
Midbody scale-rows 15; ventrals 168-176; subcaudals 64-66. For some reason young Nyasa
File-Snakes are extremely scarce and the cj measures only 233 (190 -|- 43) mm. I have taken this
reptile in Nyasaland and Kenya, but never in Tanganyika though there is a single record from
the Usambara Mountains.
Philothamnus hoplogaster (Gunther)
(J (M.C.Z. 52645) Kilwa. 22.viii.50.
7 cJdj 20 $$ (M.C.Z. 52646-59) Liwale. 13.iii.50-14.iii.52.
2 1 ? (M.C.Z. 52660-1) Ruponda. 25-28.xii.51.
3 $$ (M.C.Z. 52662-3) Tunduru. 29.xii.51-4.ii.52.
Midbody scale-rows 15, except in three (M.C.Z. 52651-3) which, though possessing 15
anteriorly, at actual midbody have only 13, 12, and 11 respectively; in this character, therefore,
they agree with niacrops though outside the range of that species in the number of their ventrals
and subcaudals. Ventrals ofcJcJ, 144-154; of $$, 148-164; subcaudals of<JcJ 87-101, of $$ 73-89,
thus achieving a slight extension in the ranges stated in my revisionary key (1951c, p. 4). One c?
(M.C.Z. 52661) has 81 subcaudals, but a close examination of its tail convinces me that the point
has been regenerated.
In life the napes of several Liwale snakes evidently displayed handsome black crossbarring or
paired spots. Largest c? (M.C.Z. 52647), 645 (445 -f- 200) mm.; largest $ (M.C.Z. 52651), 720
(530 -i- 190) mm., both below the verified records. 15 $?, taken in November (3), December (7),
and January (5), are distended with large ova. The stomach of one (M.C.Z. 52650) contains
many eggs that appear to me to be those of the burrow-laying frog (Arthroleptis s. stenodactylus).
On the throat of another snake is a tick.
Philothamnus seniivariegatus semivariegatus (A. Smith)
5 cJcJj 2 $$ (M..C.Z. 51383-5, 52664) Kilwa. 13.viii.50-6.ix.51.
4 6'd, 4 ?? (M.C.Z. 51379-82) Liwale 4.v.49-5.iv.50.
2 c?(?3 4 $$ (M.C.Z. 55665-7) Tunduru. 26.viii.48-26.ii.52.
Midbody scale-rows 15; ventrals 174-194; subcaudals 136-159. The Tunduru series are
all heavily spotted. Other data obtained from this series has been used for a generic revision now
in manuscript. To the Ngindo this bush-snake, like the last, is known as njoka mahamba (green
snake), or simply namahamba (the green one), a name that cannot be considered specific.
Meizodon semiornata (Peters)
c? ? (M.C.Z. 52668-9) Kilwa. 25.ix. & 7.xi.50.
22 22 $$ (M.C.Z. 52670-98) Liwale. 8.xi.50-25.iii.53.
3 cJcJ, 3 $9 (M.C.Z. 52699-702) Tunduru. 31. xii.51-23.ii.52.
Midbody scale-rows 21; ventrals 159-198 (dd 159-182; 9$ 182-198); subcaudals 76-88 (dd
76-85; 9? 76-88); lower labials 9-10, the first 4 or 5 in contact with the anterior sublinguals;
preocular 1 (95 sides) or 2 (9); postoculars 2 (103) or 3 (1); temporals 2 -|- 1 (1), 2 -f 2 (81) or 2 -1-
3 (22). Largest d (M.C.Z. 52668), 590 (455 -f 135) mm.; 9 (M.C.Z. 52685), 767 + (600 + 167 t)
mm. The majority are of small size, however, the youngest d being 209 (160 49) mm. and 9
only 218 (165 -f- 53) mm. with unhealed umbilical scutes.
184
With a single exception (March), the ten youngest snakes were taken in November or December.
Seasonal incidence of capture for the entire series was Sept. (1); Nov. (4); Dec. (15)j Jan. (l)j
Feb. (5); March (13); April (5); unspecified (6). Unquestionably these 50 snakes constitute
the finest series of Semiornate Smooth-Snakes ever assembled. I have always regarded the species
as scarce, having taken only ten examples in as many years collecting. However, it is a savanna
species and my investigations were chiefly in montane-forest country.
lonides remarks that acj (M.C.Z. 52674) had a newborn rat in its stomach.
Prosymna pitmani Battersby
2 dd, 2 (M.C.Z. 52703-5) Liwale. 25.xii.51-v.53.
Midbody scale-rows 19; ventrals 141-157; subcaudals 17-27; preocular 1, rarely 2
(on right side of M.C.Z. 52704 only). Length of larger 255 (225 -f 30) mm., of larger $, 308
(285 + 23) mm.
As this recent discovery of Mr. lonides was based on two from Kilwa, the above series
naturally provide some extension of its known variation as well as of its range. Judging by a
revisionary study of the genus which I hope to publish in due course, pitmani — the only member of
the genus with 19 scale-rows — is probably ancestral to a. stuhimanni.
lonides suggests (5.i.53) that as all three Kilwa specimens were taken within a somewhat
restricted area, their distribution may be locahsed.
Prosymna ambigua stuhimanni (Pfeffer)
3 cJd, 3 ?? (M.C.Z. 51399-400, 52706-7) Kilwa. 2.iii.50-9.xii.51.
23 S3, 26 $$ (M.C.Z. 51388-97) Liwale. 17.i.50-27.iv.50.
3 33, 1 ? (M.C.Z. 51398, 52708-10) Tunduru. 1 l.i.50-31.xii.51.
Midbody scale-rows 15; ventrals 130-155 (33 130-142; $$ 145-155); subcaudals 20-33
(33 30-34; $$ 19-28); postoculars 2 (108 sides), rarely 1 (9), or absent (1); temporals 1 -F 1 (1),
1 -F 2 (110), 1 -F 3 (6) or 2 -F 2 (1). Largest;? (M.C.Z. 52709), 232 (193 -F 39) mm.; $ (I. 3536),
274 (250 -F 24) mm. On 5th January and 23rd February $$ were gravid with large eggs.
Dasypeltis scaber scaber (Linne)
4 33, 2 ?? (Brit. Mus.) Liwale. V.D. (lonides coll.)
1 cJ, 4 (M.C.Z. 52722-4) Liwale. 13.xi.-15.xii.51.
$ (M.C.Z. 52725) Nachingwea 4.xi.51.
$ (M.C.Z. 52726) Kilwa. 29.X.50.
Midbody scale-rows 23-27; ventrals 197-243; subcaudals 54-68. Other data derived from
this series of egg-eaters will be utilized in a revisionary study of the genus by Cans. On 26th April,
1952, when about to pack a pair of these snakes for dispatch, Mr. lonides found them in coitu.
Dasypeltis scaber medici (Bianconi)
$ (M.C.Z. 52721) Liwale. 28.viii.50.
Midbody scale-rows 25 ; ventrals 247; subcaudals 72. The repeated recurrence of this “race”
in the same localities where typical scaber is found, will receive attention in the forthcoming paper
to which reference is made above.
Telescopus semiannulatus semiannulatus (A. Smith)
2 ?? (M.C.Z. 52727-8) Kilwa. 27.viii-29.x.50.
7 33, 7 (M.C.Z. 52730-9) Liwale. 10.ii.50-15.iii.52.
3 (M.C.Z. 52729) Nachingwea. 4.xi.51.
3 9 (M.C.Z. 52740-1) Tunduru. 29.i.50-31.xii.51.
185
Midbody scale-rows 19; ventrals 202-232 (cJc? 202-216; $$ 216-232); subcaudals 58-75 (dd
66-75; $? 58-71); temporals 2+2 (16 sides), 2+3 (20), or 3 + 3 (2). The number of dark,
saddle-shaped blotches on body and tail are highly variable, ranging from 22-33 on the body,
6 to 15 on the tail. Largest d (M.C.Z. 52735), 588 (480 + 108) mm.; largest ? (M.C.Z. 52741),
765 (650 + 115) mm. In the stomachs of each of the two smallest, both under a foot in length,
was a gecko, viz. Lygodactylus g. grotei and L. p. picturatus respectively, while lonides informs
me (8.V.50) he recovered a $ Agania m. mossambica from one adult, a swallow-like bird from another.
Trinomials are used on account of T. s. heetzi (Barbour) of Southwest Africa, which is dis-
tinguished by having 21 midbody scale-rows and an entire anal. It appears to have more blotches
(31-39 + 18), possibly fewer ventrals (d 202; $ 218), and fewer subcaudals (d 50; $ 46).
Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia hotamboeia (Laurenti)
? (M.C.Z. 52742) Liwale. 25.iv.50.
Midbody scale-rows 19; ventrals 147; subcaudals 38; preocular 1; postoculars 2. On
11th December, 1951, a ? laid an egg on lonides’ verandah.
Chamaetortus aulicus aulicus Gunther
$ (M.C.Z. 52743) Liwale. 27.vii.50.
$ (M.C.Z. 52744) Ruponda. 13.vii.50.
Midbody scale-rows 17; ventrals 190-196; subcaudals 95, the tail being truncate in the other
specimen. The stomach of the Liwale snake held two juvenile Hyperolius, the Ruponda reptile
the remains of an Arthroleptis s. stenodactylus.
lonides informs me (14 & 28.vii.50) that the Ruponda snake was in a bamboo, the Liwale
specimen among bamboos by the river, but that two others taken by him were in miwale palms
at Liwale Boma. He suggests that secretive habits may be responsible for the scarcity of aulicus
in collections.
Hemirhagerrhis fiototaenia nototaenia (Gunther)
$ (M.C.Z. 52745) Kilimarondo. 10.xii.51.
1 d> 7 ?$ (M.C.Z. 52746-50) Kilwa. 4.iii.48-2.xi.50.
9 ddj 30 $? (M.C.Z. 52751-81) Liwale. 17.i.48-29.iv.53.
Midbody scale-rows 17; ventrals 156-170 (dd 157-166; $$ 156-170), average 159.3; subcaudals
69-80 (dd 70-80; $$ 69-80), average 73.6; upper labials 8; preocular 1; postoculars 2 rarely
1 (on right side of M.C.Z. 52751 only); temporals 1+2. Largest d (M.C.Z. 52746), 330 (250
+ 80) mm.; largest $ (M.C.Z. 52747), 359 (270 + 89) mm. On October 16 a $ held two elongate
eggs measuring 15 X 3.5 and 20 X 3 mm. respectively; on 27th October another $ held two eggs
measuring 18 X 4 mm. and 20 X 4 mm.; on 29th May a third snake held four eggs approximately
24 X 6 mm. Stomachs of two snakes examined held geckos, viz. Hemidactylus mercatorius and
Lygodactylus p. picturatus.
It will be noted that there are no sexual differences reflected in the scale-counts. Counts
were made on all but four of the entire series and the averages go far towards reducing the alleged
disparity in ventral and subcaudal counts as between nototaenia and its western form viperina.
I am inchned to question the old record of 98 subcaudals. However, so far as these 47 snakes are
concerned, the difference in dorsal pattern (cf. Bogert, 1940, p. 76, fig. 12) still holds good.
Known to the Ngindo as kitandamba, i.e. one found among “ndamdamba” beans, but loosely
applied to Psammophis angolensis, Chilorhinophis and Aparallactus sp.
Rhamphiophis oxyrhynchus rostratus (Peters)
lonides kindly sent me the following note regarding breeding. Writing on 20.xi.49, he re-
marks that a scarcely halfgrown Eastern Beaked-Snake had just laid three large cylindrical eggs.
On 27.X.50 he says that on the night of 16th October a $ laid four eggs, on the night
of the 17th six more, on the night of the 18th two, at midday on the 20th two, at night on the
21st one, and appeared to be still carrying two eggs when he wrote. Known to the Ngindo as
njoka uhono, i.e. sesame snake, from the resemblance of its scales to sesame.
186
Psammophylax tritaeniatus tritaeniatiis GUNTHER
18 (M.C.Z. 52812-23) Liwale. 26.iii.50-12.iii.52.
3 (M.C.Z. 52824-5) Songea. x.50-ii.52.
2 (M.C.Z. 52826-7) Tunduru. 9.vi.50 & 3.iii.52.
Midbody scale-rows 17j ventrals 139-154; subcaudals 50-59; rostral as broad as (15 examples),
or broader than (8) deep; upper labials 7 (right side only of M.C.Z. 52812) or 8, the fourth and
fifth entering the orbit, or fifth only (right side only of M.C.Z. 52815); lower labials 9-11, the
first 4 or 5 in contact with the anterior sublinguals; preocular 1, rarely 2 (on 5 sides only);
postoculars 2; temporals 2 -|- 2 (2 sides), 2-1-3 (35), or 2 -|- 4 (9). Largest S (M.C.Z. 52812),
574 (460 -f 114) mm.; largest $ (M.C.Z. 52813), 629 (510 -|- 119) mm.
In December, 1948, lonides collected three hatchlings, apparently just emerged, aU together.
On 13th, 15th and 17th December, 1951, he obtained three more in the same general locality.
Two of these measured 140 -f- 33 mm. and 140 -|- 39 mm. respectively. Another juvenile,
taken in February, 1952, is 170 -fi 41 mm. The largest $ {vide supra) had a Black-lined Plated-
Lizard {Gerrhosaurus n. nigrolineatus) in her stomach.
In April and December, 1948, Mr. lonides obtained half-a-dozen of these White-bellied Grass-
Snakes at Mbwemkuru, in southern Liwale District, at altitudes under 2,000 feet. This discovery
of which he wrote me (19.V.49), was largely instrumental in my realization that the dark-belhed
montane form {T. v. variabilis) occurring above 5,000 feet in the mountains of southern Tanganyika
Mas a recognizable race to which I had consistently misapphed the name T. t. tritaeniatus.
Psammophis angolensis Bocage
?
2 33, 1 ?
1 (?, 1 ?
12 33, 14 $9
1 9
1 (?, 1 9
2 99
(M.C.Z. 53114) Gahama. 9.vi.53.
(M.C.Z. 52782-4) Kilwa. 12.x.50-21.viii.52.
(M.C.Z. 52785-6) Lipumba, Songea. 30-31. v.50.
(M.C.Z. 52787-806) Liwale. ll.iv.50-27.iii.53.
(M.C.Z. 52807) Msuega. 6.ix.52.
(M.C.Z. 52808-9) Ruponda. 26-28.xii.52.
(M.C.Z. 52810-1) Tunduru. 5-8. i. 52.
Midbody scale-rows 11; ventrals 135-153 (too many of the snakes in the Liwale series are
immature to permit of sexing with confidence; if a sexual difference in ventrals does occur it is
probably cJc? ? 135-141 and 99? 141-153); subcaudals 56-68 (no sexual difference); upper labials
8, fourth and fifth entering the orbit, except on one side of 5 snakes where it is 7,
with the third and fourth entering; lower labials 8, the first 4 in contact with the anterior
sublinguals, or 9 (on 3 sides only) with 5 in contact; preocular 1, possibly 2 (in M.C.Z.
52784); postoculars 2; temporals 1 -t- 2, rarely 1 -f 1 (on 6 sides only out of a total of 72).
Largest (M.C.Z. 52809), 368 (277 + 91) mm.; largest 9 (M.C.Z. 53114), 430 (315 + 115) mm.,
the smallest (M.C.Z. 52796), 133 (100 + 33) mm., taken in January as were four of the five measur-
ing less than 200 mm. in length.
On 6th September, at Msuega, a 9 held 4 elongate eggs ranging from 15-18 x 5 mm. Stomachs
of 8 snakes held remains of skinks, in 5 instances identifiable as Ablepharus wahlbergii, and
an egg of the latter. Possibly this dwarf form of Psammophis largely confines its diet to wahlbergii,
as its gape would scarcely permit of its taking most adult skinks. A young P. angolensis was re-
covered by lonides from the stomach of a Burrowing-Adder {Atractaspis b. rostrata).
Thelotornis kirtlandii capensis A. Smith
lonides states (13.X.50) that he placed an average-sized Cape Vine-Snake, about a yard long,
in a box with a fair-sized Chamaeleo d. dilepis. Though the snake had been caught only a few hours
before, it promptly seized the chameleon by the back and for several minutes held it, head down-
wards, clear of the ground. After the initial struggle which followed its seizure, the chameleon
offered little resistance. Eventually the snake worked its jaws along to the head of the chameleon
and then swallowed it. Immediately afterwards this same vine-snake struck at a House Gecko
{Hemidactylus mabouid) but, missing, did not follow up the attack.
187
lonides was intrigued by the fact that Boomslangs (Dispholidus typus), though habitually preying
on chameleons, rarely manage to master so large an example at the first attempt. He had supposed
that the potent venom of a boomslang was necessary to overcome the resistance offered by a large
chameleon. Yet the vine-snake had managed to gain control very quickly, though apparently the
venom of a vine-snake is less toxic. At least lonides supposes so, for he has frequently been bitten
by vine-snakes without noticing any after effects, even on occasions when he has allowed them to
hang on and chew. One should not overlook the possibility that the rear, venom-conducting
teeth may not have come into play if the gape of the particular snake did not permit it.
Dispholidus typus (A. Smith)
S (M.C.Z. 52828) Songea. 22.xii.52.
Midbody scale-rows 19 j ventrals 179; subcaudals 120. Total length 1115 (800 -|- 315) mm.
Colour green, the usual livery for males in this general region. On 4th July, 1949, lonides observed
a pair of Boomslangs in a tree, intertwined and apparently mated; one was green, the other brown.
Females are usually brown, but an examination of the Dispholidus material from all over Africa
preserved in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, reveals that this is not a hard and fast rule,
lonides writes (20.ix.52) that black Boomslangs, apparently of both sexes, occur at Liwale in addition
to the green and brown adults. Besides which there is the juvenile hvery, somewhat similar to that
of the Vine-Snake, of grey spotted with pale blue on the nape and back, especially anteriorly. Older
juveniles lose the blue spots. One young male, reports lonides, was just assuming the adult
colouring, being green with black between the scales anteriorly, while posteriorly it was a lighter
green.
In December, 1948, lonides wrote that a captive Boomslang, gentle but rather nervous, refused
to look at lizards though readily tackling fair-sized chameleons (Chamaeleo d. dilepis). On 20.i.50
he wrote of a nearly six-foot long, dark-olive snake that seized the largest chameleons unhesitatingly.
Occasionally disputes arose over the possession of a chameleon, resulting in the contestants
embedding their poison fangs in each other and holding on, sometimes for considerable periods.
In one instance a larger Boomslang engorged, together with a chameleon, the head and fully six
inches of its adversary before the latter managed to extricate itself and withdraw. Apparently
no ill-effects were suffered by the vanquished snake for lonides continued to keep it in health
for some time afterwards. Occasionally, following fights between Boomslangs, there is a certain
amount of haemorrhage but lonides concludes these snakes have developed some degree of immunity
to the venom of their own species.
On 30.vii.52 he wrote that he understands one of the attendants at Durban Snake Park had
succumbed to the bite of a Boomslang, though there was some possibility of hypersensitivity
having developed after immunization by antivenene.
Calamelaps unicolor unicolor (Reinhardt)
3 <?<J (M.C.Z. 52835-6) Liwale. 19.ii-25.iv.52.
Midbody scale-rows 17; ventrals 159-167; subcaudals 25-26.
lonides informs me that he sent a third snake with 17 and a fourth with 21 midbody scale-
rows to C. R. S. Pitman, who carefully verified the counts. The four races of unicolor differ
apparently only in the number of midbody rows, being 15, 17, 19 or 21 as one proceeds
from Portuguese Guinea east to Tanganyika where three of the races are present. It seems absurd
that three races should occur at Liwale, unless geographically it is their meeting place and an area
of intermediates. Nevertheless, until more light can be shed on the ranges of the respective forms,
it seems advisable to assign these three Purple-glossed Snakes to the typical race. In many colubrid
snakes the number of midbody scale-rows varies in a species within restricted limits, in others
— hke Chilorhinophis and Aparallactus which are closely related to Calamelaps — it remains static
for the entire genus.
The stomach of one snake held a worm-lizard {Amphisbaena ionidesii), another a young blind-
snake (Typhlops s. mucruso).
188
Calamelaps unicolor warreni Boulbnoer
-i 10 2? (M.C.Z. 52837-42)
(M.C.Z. 52843)
9 (M.C.Z. 52844)
Liwale. 26. ii. 50-26. iv.53.
Ruponda. 28.xii.51.
Tunduru. 14.i.50.
Midbody scale-rows 19; ventrals 162-204 (cJcJ 162-170; 22 191-204); subcaudals 17-27 (<?<?
24-27; 22 17-21). An unfortunate misprint — showing 2 subcaudals as 17-32, instead of 17-22,
occurs in the synopsis of scale-counts accompanying my (1944q, pp. 159-169) revision of this genus.
Largest 2 (M.C.Z. 52844), 632 (600 -h 32) mm. The stomach of one Liwale snake held a worm-
lizard (Amphisbaena iondesii). See also remarks under u. wiicolor.
Amblyodipsas katangensis ionidesi Loveridge
(J (M.C.Z. 52849) Kilwa. 16.vii.51.
10 <?<?, 13 22 (M.C.Z. 52850-67) Liwale. 2.vi.50-19.xi.52.
1 (J, 3 22 (M.C.Z. 52845-8) Tunduru. 30.xii.51-21.iii.53.
Midbody scale-rows 15; ventrals 165-205 165-184; 22 178-205); subcaudals 15-25 (dd
22-25; 22 15-20); postocular one (39 sides) or absent (17). Underside of nine snakes are more
or less checkered, of 17 wholly black. Otherwise in substantial agreement with the original des-
cription (Loveridge, 1951a, p. 193) except that the maximum measurements are now surpassed
by a d (M.C.Z. 52850), of 320 (291 -t- 29) mm., and a 2 (M.C.Z. 52851), of 370 (346 -j- 24) mm.
The stomachs of two A. k. ionidesi held worm-lizards (Amphisbaena ionidesii).
Chilorhinophis carpenteri liwaleensis Loveridge
4 dd> 9 22 (M.C.Z. 52829-34) Liwale. 23.iii.50-20.i.52.
Midbody scale-rows 15; ventrals 218-256 (dd 218-230; 22 241-256); subcaudals 19-29 (dd
27-29; 22 19-23); tail included in total length 10.5-19.1 times (dd 10.5-12.9; 22 16.6-19.1);
in this instance sexing is based not on dissection but on the characters set forth in the generic key
and original description (cf. Loveridge, 1951a, pp. 194, 196). Largest 2 (M.C.Z. 52832), exceeds
previous records by measuring 360 (339 -f- 21) mm. Two of the series had recently swallowed
limbless lizards of a species (Amphisbaena ionidesii) also discovered by Mr. lonides. Known to
the Ngindo as kitandamba, a name applied also to Hemirhagerrhis, etc., which see.
Aparallactus sp.
In 1948 Mr. lonides sent me a pair of centipede-eaters from Liwale that were superficially so
similar it was difficult to believe they represented two distinct species. However, though with a
query, I (1951a, pp. 199-200) correctly assigned them to A. werneri and A. c. capensis. Subsequently
I wrote to Mr. lonides soliciting his co-operation in securing a good series of each in order that I
might elucidate relationships and more conclusively establish the scope of variation within each
species. Mr. lonides responded magnificently, and the following notes — based on a critical
examination of over 200 snakes that involved several weeks of study — reveal the distinctness of
the two species in question.
In my revision (1944q, pp. 181-213) of these little black-headed snakes, I treated lunulatus
(then ranging from the Transvaal north to the Belgian Congo and Tanganyika Territory) and
concolor (then ranging from Tanganyika Territory north to Eritrea and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan)
as full species. However, Witte and Laurent (1947, p. 110) synonymized concolor with lunulatus
though stating (p. 113) that such synonymizing was only provisional and that possibly concolor
should be recognized as a race of lunulatus. Unfortunately they figured a typical concolor as lunulatus.
In the east the subspecific suggestion appears to reflect the situation, but in the southern Sudan
the position remains confused for we have typical lunulatus at Torit (6 ex.), Terangore (3 ex.) and
Nimule (2 ex.), but concolor also at Nimule (4 ex.) and Magwe (1 ex.) which is about 36 miles south-
west of Torit.
Until more material from Uganda and northern Kenya is available the area of intergradation
cannot be plotted satisfactorily.
189
The lonides material has effectually cleared up a potential problem, however, for he wrote me
saying that the snakes I was calling uluguruensis (which was based on a series of all-black adults)
appeared to be the same as what the British Museum determined as guentheri (based on a white-
collared juvenile). The fine series, representing all ages, obtained by lonides, enabled me (1953e,
p. 150) to synonymize uluguruensis with guentheri, which I had to recuscitate from the synonymy of
capensis. Nor can guentheri, though so closely related to capensis except in colour {vide infra),
be regarded as a race of the Cape Centipede-eater for both occur together at Liwale in miombo
savannah. Previously I had supposed that guentheri (as uluguruensis) was the montane-forest
representative of the savannah-dwelling capensis, a view which lonides points out (4.vii.50) is unten-
able. He was pleased to learn that his suspicions were confirmed, and the white-collared blackish
juveniles eventuaUy turn into uniformly black adults.
It is surprising to find four members of the one genus occurring at Liwale, especially seeing
that the diet of aU appears to be restricted to centipedes. At least one centipede being recovered
from one of each of the four species. As Aparallactus species invariably have 15 midbody
scale-rows this character has not been checked except in a relatively few individuals.
It is hoped that the accompanying synopsis and table of variation will prove useful in aiding
others to identify their material with greater ease.
Synopsis of Aparallactus occurring at Liwale
1. Postoculars 2 (rarely 1); parietal separated from upper labials by temporals; first lower
labial in contact with its fellow behind the mental; head black; nape with a light-edged
six-scale-wide, black collar; back and tail pinkish buff to reddish brown; below white; size
up to 390 mm. (a $ cotype from the Usambara mountains) . . . werneri.
Postocular 1 ; parietal in contact with^ fifth, rarely fourth, upper labial ... 2.
2. First lower labial in contact with its fellow behind the mental; color varying from those with
head black, nape with a light-edged black collar; back and tail reticulated pale brown above;
below white; to those that are uniform black above and plumbeous below; size up to 525 mm
(a $ topotype from Tete, Mozambique 1. lunulatus).
First lower labial separated from its fellow behind the mental ... 3.
3. Young are black above with two light-edged collars separated by five to seven scales; back
and tail uniform plumbeous or steely blue; below throat white, and body basically so but
heavily infuscated with grey. Adults uniformly black above, black or grey below; size up
to 400 mm. (an Amani paratype of the syn. uluguruensis) . . . guentheri.
Both young and adults coloured much the same as werneri-, size at Liwale up to 315 mm.
(410 mm., in Cape Province of the Union of South Africa) . . . c. capensis.
DATA DERIVED SOLELY FROM THE lONIDES MATERIAL
Species of
Aparallactus
Post-
oculars
Parietal
and 5th
labial
First
lower
labials in
Ventrals
in (?(?
Ventrals
in $9
Caudals
in SS
Caudals
in ?$
werneri
2
separated
contact
139-150
147-162
38-45
33-41
l. lunulatus
1
contact
contact
146-155
153-175
52-60
49-55
guentheri
1
contact
separated
137-150
152-163
44-52
42-48
c. capensis
1
contact
separated
129-140=
132-158
38-46
36-46
* Separated in only one of the 129 snakes examined.
* 152 in a solitary, but unquestionable, (? (M.C.Z. 52007) which in this one respect
seems to have a feminine characteristic.
190
Aparallactus werneri Boulenger
27 <?<?, 49 $$ (M.C.Z. 51701-19, 52868-74) Liwale. 21.xii.49-26.i.52.
Ventrals 139-162 (cJcJ 139-150; $$ 147-162); subcaudals 33-45 (<?(? 38-45 ; $$33-41); preocular
1 ; postoculars 2, rarely 1 (on 12 sides only); temporals 1 + 1 ; upper labials 5, the second and third
entering the orbit; lower labials 5, the first pair in contact behind the mental, the first 3 in contact
with the anterior sublinguals. Largest (J (M.C.Z. 52868), 271 (230 -1- 41) mm.; largest $ (M.C.Z.
52871), 269 (230 + 39) mm.; smallest (J and $ (M.C.Z. 52870, etc.), 113 (96 -f 17) mm.
In the report on lonides’ earlier collection I (1951a, p. 199) queried the identification of the
solitary werneri (M.C.Z. 50093) partly because of its colour (buff like whereas the extensive
series of topotypical werneri that I collected in the Usambara Mountains was distinctly olive),
partly on size (the cotype was 120 mm., longer than the largest Liwale specimen), and its postoculars
(the normal two on the right but only one on the left). This condition occurs in 4 of the 76
snakes, but 4 others have a single postocular on both sides. The slight difference in size does
not furnish reasonable grounds for recognizing a savannah race; the olive hue of the forest-edge
reptiles is fugitive, after almost 30 years in alcohol, and the Amani snakes are now as buff as the
Liwale reptiles.
Aparallactus lunulatus lunulatus (Peters)
2 (M.C.Z. 51750) Kilwa. 19.vii-2.xi.50.
5 (?(?, 11 $$ (M.C.Z. 51745-9, 52875-9) Liwale. 13.iii.50-15.iii.52.
(M.C.Z. 52904) Masasi. 19.vi.51.
$ (M.C.Z. 52880) Nachingwea. 3.xi.51.
cj (M.C.Z. 52881) Ruponda. 26.xii.51.
4 (?<?, 2 $$ (M.C.Z. 52882-6, 52903) Tunduru. 29.xii.51-12.i.52.
M.C.Z. 52903 is the only one of the series which agrees with the northern A. h concolor in having
the nasal well separated from the preocular, though in two or three others hese scales meet in a
point. See also remarks under Aparallactus {vide supra).
Ventrals 146-175 (<?<J 146-155; $$ 153-175); subcaudals 49-60 (<?(? 5? f 0; $$49-55); preocular
1 ; postocular 1 ; temporals 1 -|- 1 ; upper labials 6, the third and fourth er. ering the orbit; lower
labials 6, rarely 7, the first 4 (3 on right side of I. 3685) in contact wi^h he anterior sublinguals.
Largest perfect ^ (M.C.Z. 52875), 407 (320 + 87) mm.; largest perfect $ (M.C.Z. 52906), 459
(370 + 89) mm., but both sexes exceeded in head and body length by specimens of 390 and
340 mm. respectively, with truncated tails. Truncated tails are present in only 6 (4 of which
are $$) of the 27 specimens listed above.
In colour these snakes range from a typically reticulated, pale brown $ (M.C.Z. 51749) of 370
mm., with traces of about 30 dusky crossbars on the dorsum and uniform white below; or a young
220-mm. cJ (M.C.Z. 51750) that is plumbeous above with a black, posteriorly light-edged, nuchal
collar; below uniform white becoming greyish posteriorly, to specimens that are uniformly black
above and white- throated below with each ventral white-edged ($ M.C.Z. 51748) or wholly
plumbeous ($ M.C.Z. 51749).
Aparallactus guentheri (Boulenger)
Aparallactus guentheri, Boulenger (part), 1895, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), 16, p. 172: Zanzibar
(possibly coast opposite. Omit Angola. Based on a faded juvenile displaying a nuchal collar).
Aparallactus uluguruensis, Barbour & Loveridge, 1928, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., 50, p. 132;
Nyange, Uluguru Mountains, Tanganyika Territory (based on ten collarless and almost uniformly
black adults).
18 t?c?, 22 $$ (M.C.Z. 51730-44, 52887-900) Liwale. 4.i.50-5.i.52.
2 $$ (M.C.Z. 52901-2) Tunduru. 18.i. & 4.ii.52.
191
Ventrals 137-163 (^<J 137-lSOj $$ 152-163); subcaudals 42-52 (t?(^ 44-52 ; $$42-48); preocular
1 ; postocular 1 ; temporals 0 + 1 + 1 ; upper labials usually 6, the third and fourth entering the
orbit, rarely 5, with the second and third entering (on right side only of M.C.Z. 51739 and
52891); lower labials either 5, with the first 3 (73 sides) in contact with the anterior sublinguals,
or 6, with the first 4 (8 sides) in contact. Largest perfect^ (M.C.Z. 51736), 375 (300 + 75) mm.;
largest $ (M.C.Z. 52893), 392 (320 + 72) mm.
Colour. Above, black, except in young which have two white collars, the anterior about
one scale in width (but expanding on the sides) immediately behind the parietals, separated by
6 or 7 (4 or 5 on Mbololo and Mlalo snakes) black scales from the posterior collar which
is about 2 scales wide (but expanding on the sides). Below, black, uniform except in young
which exhibit a variable amount of white from mental to a point below the posterior nuchal collar
with which it merges. The Liwale series displays every stage in the disappearance of the white
coUar and gular markings as throat and neck become suffused with darker.
lonides (4.vii.50) points out that this species which, as uluguruensis, I had assumed was the
montane-forest representative of c. capensis, occurs alongside capemis in miombo savannah. He
noted with pleasure that his suspicions regarding the white-collared juvenile becoming the uniformly
black adults, had proved correct.
Aparallactus capensis capensis A. Smith
3 $$ (M.C.Z. 51751-2) Kilwa. 16.x.50-9.xii.51.
25 <?c?, 25 $$ (M.C.Z. 50094, 51720-9, 52907-54) Liwale. 21.ii.50-7.xi.53.
$ (M.C.Z. 52936) Nachingwea. 4.xi.51.
2 $$ (M.C.Z. 52901-2) Tunduru. 31.xii.51 & 25.i.52.
Ventrals 129-158 (cJcJ 129-140 and one, M.C.Z. 52007, with 152; $$ 135-158); s-ubcaudals
36-46 (cJ(J 38-46; $$ 36-46); nasal in contact with preocular except in two specimens (M.C.Z.
50094; 52911); preocular 1; postocular 1; temporals 0 + 1 + 1 except in M.C.Z. 52009
where the parietal is separated from the fourth upper labial (as in werneri, which species it is not,
as the first lower labial is well separated from its fellow behind the mental) ; upper labials 6, the
third and fourth entering the orbit, except on one side of two snakes where it is the second and third
of 5 or 6 labials respectively; lower labials 5 or 6, the first 3, rarely 4 (three sides) or 5 (one side),
in contact with the anterior sublinguals. Largest c? (M.C.Z. 52910), 271 (215 + 56) mm.;
largest $ (M.C.Z. 51729), 315 (257 + 58) mm. Smallest (M.C.Z. 52908), 121 (97 + 24) mm„
and $ (M.C.Z. 52925), 113 (95 + 18) mm., both being taken on 2nd April, 1951.
ELAPIDAE
Elapsoidea sundevallii decosteri Boulenger
juv. cj (M.C.Z. 48951) Ruangwa River. 1941-2.
3 cJ(?, 1 $ (M.C.Z. 52937-9) Liwale. viii.45-20.i.52.
2 <?<?, 3 $$ (M.C.Z. 52940-3) Tunduru. 30.i-26.ii.52.
Midbody scale-rows 13; ventrals 145-157 (tJt? 149-157; $$ 145-147); subcaudals 16-23 (rjcj
20-23; $$ 16-17); nasal in contact with (in 7 snakes) or separated from (in 3) the preocular.
While one 168 mm. (J (M.C.Z. 48951) displays 11 white crossbands on the dorsum, plus 2 on
the tail, their width being about half that of the chocolate-brown interspaces, another cJ (M.C.Z.
52938) of 252 mm., shows almost as little white as the eight adults. Largest J (M.C.Z. 52937),
576 (540 + 36) mm., largest $ (M.C.Z. 52942), 490 (462 + 28) mm., but neither are records for this
race. On 30th January the smallest $ held 4 eggs measuring from 21-23 x 8 mm.; on 26th
February the largest $ held eight eggs from 20-21 x 7 mm. The stomach of one Tunduru snake
held the forepart of a frog, apparently Hemisus m. mannoratum.
I have included the Ruangwa River specimen, presented to the museum by Mr. R. de la B.
Barker, as it is the first record of this race occurring in Tanganyika Terr tory.
192
Naja nigricoUh nigricollis Reinhardt
juv. c? (M.C.Z. 52944) Tunduru. 5.i.52.
Midbody scale-rows 19; ventrals 174; subcaudals 62.
lonides writes (20.i.50) that a four-and-three-quarter-foot $ captured in a fowlhouse promptly
disgorged five hen’s eggs. For seven weeks he fed her on rats, which she took readily,
and periodically milked her of venom. At the end of that time she died. [Possibly from loss of
venom which is a potent factor in a snake’s digestion. A.L.] On 30.vi.52 lonides saw the corpse
of a cobra that had swallowed an adult Great Girdled-Lizard (Gerrhosaurus m. grandis).
Writing on 16.xi.52 lonides tells of an incident which had occurred that morning at Luhuu
Juu in Liwale District. On the previous day a fish trap (ngonyo), having been removed about a
hundred yards from the water, was left on open sand where it filled with grasshoppers (panzi)
that could not possibly escape. In the morning the surrounding sand revealed the tracks of a $
nigricollis which had circled about the trap before entering it. The distended stomach of the reptile,
which was about four and a half feet long, showed she had recently fed well and there was not a
single grasshopper left in the trap. If the cobra did not swallow them, the sole alternative would
seem to be that some other creature had entered the trap, eaten the orthoptera, and then itself
been swallowed by the snake. However, there were no tracks on the sand to substantiate this
theory, besides which the bulge in the cobra was long and gradual — instead of abrupt as would
have been the case if the swelling was caused by the presence of a toad, bird, or rodent.
Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis (Gunther)
juv. $ (M.C.Z. 52945) Liwale. l-15.iii.52.
juv. S (M.C.Z. 52946) Tunduru. 20.i.53.
Living examples of this mamba from Kilwa and Masasi have been sent to the London Zoological
Gardens by Mr. lonides.
Midbody scale-rows 21-23; ventrals 257-259; subcaudals 108-116; colour olive; mouth
membranes black. measures 620 (500 4- 120) mm.; the $ is only 3 mm. longer.
lonides states (5.i.53) that in October, 1952, he suddenly came upon a large polylepis at close
quarters. The mamba raised its head with about a foot of its body clear of the ground as it spread
a hood so large that lonides took a good look to be sure it was not a cobra. Meanwhile lonides
retreated to gain possession of his snake-stick which was being carried by a man behind; before
he got it, however, the snake made off. Again on 5th January, 1953, lonides surprised a female
which started away but, on finding herself followed, turned about as she spread a quite pronounced
hood, though smaller than that of a cobra. The mamba reared up about two feet from the ground.
After remaining motionless for a while she slowly advanced towards a small patch of grass that lay
between them. For a short time she continued to stare at lonides over the grass, then made for
a termite hill. lonides gave chase, caught her, and later sent her to the Regent’s Park Zoo.
VIPERIDAE
Atractaspis hibronii rostrata Guntoer
d (M.C.Z. 52950) Kilwa. 23.viii.50.
34 dd, 37 $? (M.C.Z. 52951-53000) Liwale. 10.i.50-10.iv.52.
^ (M.C.Z. 53001) Mbwera near Madaba. 24.ix.52.
2 $$ (M.C.Z. 53002) Ruponda. 5.iii.50-26.xii.51.
11 10 ?$ (M.C.Z. 53003-19) Tunduru. 26.i.50-9.iii.52.
In the report on lonides’ earlier collection I (1951a, p. 202) used the name bibronii for Tanganyika
snakes as the then available information regarding South African bibronii did not justify separation.
After the paper was in galley a belated reply arrived from Dr. V. FitzSimons of the Transvaal
Museum, furnishing the midbody scale counts for their material of bibronii from south of the
Zambezi. Of 17 snakes from Southern Rhodesia; Bechuanaland; Transvaal and Natal, all but
three had 21 midbody scale-rows. Consequently I follow Laurent (1945, p. 335) who revived
rostrata for the snakes north of the Zambezi where it will be noted that specimens with 23 scale-
rows predominate.
193
Midbody scale-rows 21 (3 specimens), 22 (1) or 23 (92); ventrals 220-251 (<JcJ 228-248;
220-251); subcaudals 18-28 (cj<? 21-28; $? 18-23; unquestionably overlapping as both sexing
and extreme counts have been double checked); preocular 1, except in M.C.Z. 52980 where
it is fused with the supraocular on the right side, and M.C.Z. 53000, 53016 on both sides; postocular
1 ; temporals 1-1-2, except on right side of M.C.Z. 52989 where it is 1 3, and M.C.Z. 53009,
53013, where the anterior temporal is fused with the fifth labial, making it the largest, otherwise
upper labials 5, rarely 6, the third and fourth entering the orbit, the fourth largest; lower
labials 5, rarely 6, the first pair in contact (except in M.C.Z. 52999, where they are separated)
behind the mental, the first 3 in contact with the anterior sublinguals, third lower labial much
the largest. Largest (M.C.Z. 52951), 600 (562 + 38) mm.; largest $ (M.C.Z. 52976), 677
(645 + 32) mm.
While the overwhelming majority are uniformly black above and plumbeous below, three
Liwale (S<S and four $$ have pure white anals, and several others are more or less white about the
lower jaws and throat. The MbweracJ is blackish grey above and entirely china white on the upper
labials, lower flanks and undersurface, the two being separated by a scale-wide, dusky, lateral line.
One 547 mm. $ (M.C.Z. 52980), is an ivory white albino.
The albino Atractaspis was concealed in a piece of dry and rotting wood that was being split
for fuel. The parti-coloured Mbwera male was also taken from a hollow log.
The stomach of one adder held the remains of a lizard, apparently Latastia johnstoni. lonides
reports removing a young Psammophis angolensis from another.
Writing on 27.iii.50, lonides states that a few days previously one of his porters was jabbed in
a finger by a small Atractaspis. lonides opened the puncture with a razor blade and rubbed in
permanganate. Except for a rather swollen hand the man, who was possibly more frightened
than hurt, seemed all right at time of writing. On 17.xii.51 lonides wrote: “Yesterday a porter was
struck by one fang of a large Atractaspis. I injected him with 10 c.c. of FitzSimon’s serum and,
except for a swollen hand, he seems to be alright.” lonides reports that on 30th December 1951
he was struck on the finger by an Atractaspis (I. 2390). For 24 hours no treatment was adopted
but pain at the site of the punctures was severe enough to prevent lonides getting much sleep
the first night. Next day hot fomentations were applied to the site of the bite, but without opening
the punctures. The hand had swollen to above the wrist and there was pain and swelling in the
armpit. Next day these symptoms began subsiding and by the fourth day had receded to the first
joint of the affected digit. By the eighth day — 7th January, on which he wrote me — the discoloration
surrounding the punctures had almost disappeared.
Causiis rhoinbeatus (Lichtenstein)
2 (?<?, 2 $$ (M.C.Z. 53105-6) Songea. 28.viii.48-ii.52.
Midbody scale-rows 17-18; ventrals 140-148; subcaudals 23-29. Almost uniform brown or
grey above, a variation that crops up in other parts of the range of this widespread Rhombic Night-
Adder. Larger (J (M.C.Z. 53105), 554 (495 -|- 59); larger ? (M.C.Z. 53106), 613 (555 -|- 58) mm.
2
62 S3,
2 (?<?,
Causiis defilippii (Jan)
$ (M.C.Z. 53020)
3 $? (M.C.Z. 53021-2)
74 $$ (M.C.Z. 53023-100)
4 $? (M.C.Z. 53101-2)
2 S3 (M.C.Z. 53103-4)
Kilimarondo. 10.xii.51.
Kilwa. 3.viii.50-9.xii.51.
Liwale. 24.iii.50-28.xii. 52.
Ruponda. 25-26.xii.51.
Tunduru. 7.iii.52.
As this series contains more than three times the total number of defilippii recorded in the
literature since Jan first described the species in 1862, it presents so many variations that I have
dealt with them in more than usual detail. Hitherto, for example, the number of midbody scale-
rows was thought to be only 17!
Midbody scale-rows 13-17 (13 in M.C.Z. 53021 only; 15 in 10 Liwale snakes; 16 in 40; 17
in 99); ventrals 109-130 {33 109-121; $$ 117-130; however, as only 10 (Jc? have as many as 117
or over, and only 4 ?? have as low as 117 or under, it might be said that 33 usually range from
194
109-116 and $$ from 118-130); subcaudals 13-18 (cJd 13-17; $$ 11-17); preoculars 1 to 2
(though 1, through fusion, on 8 sides only); suboculars 1 to 2, rarely 0 or 3 (18 sides with 0; 94 with
1; 80 with 2; and 8 with 3); postoculars 1 to 2 (though 1, through fusion, on 7 sides only);
temporals 1 -b 2 (3 sides), 1 + 3 (2), 2 + 2 (2), 2 + 3 (251), 2 + 4 (37), 3 + 3 (2), 3 + 4 (2),
3 + 5 (1); upper labials 5 to 7 (but 6 on all but 12 of the 300 sides) excluded from orbit, except
on 5 sides; lower labials 8 to 10, usually 9, the first 3-5, usually 4, in contact with the anterior
sublinguals.
Largestc? (M.C.Z. 53104), 348 (320 + 28) mm.; largest $ (M.C.Z. 53051), 406 (380 + 26) mm.,
the latter surpassed by one of 412 mm. in Chicago Natural History Museum. SmallestcJ (I. 3706),
113 (105 + 8) mm.; smallest $ (M.C.Z. 53100), 139 (130 + 9) mm.
As to hatching, these vipers being oviparous, the eight youngest snakes, their total lengths
being under 128 mm., were all taken in March.
On
l-15th
Mar. at
Liwale, a ?
held
5
eggs
measuring
from
about
15
X
11
to
18
X
10mm.
5,
14th
Dec. „
33 35 33
„
6
33
31
33
33
14
X
7
33
16
X
7 ,
>>
19th
33 33
33 35 33
35
6
33
33
33
33
15
X
9
33
17
X
9 „
20th
33 53
33 33 33
33
6
33
33
15
X
7
33
16
X
9 „
23rd
33 33
33 53 33
33
3
33
33
33
16
X
8
33
17
X
7 „
»
25th
33 3)
33 33 33
33
8
33
33
33
33
15
X
8
33
16
X
8 „
5J
26th
33 33
Ruponda,, ,,
33
8
35
33
35
33
15
X
8
3>
16
X
8 „
3)
26th
33 33
33 33 33
53
6
33
33
53
33
about
15
X
7 „
33
26th
33 53
33 35 53
33
6
59
53
33
33
„
24
X
9 »
The intestines were frequently choked with the hard parts of insects (heads of ants, beetles, etc.),
but presumably these had been liberated by the digestive juices from the stomachs of amphibia
swallowed by the adder. One large millipede, however, may well have been swallowed by the
snake. Amphibians were usually too digested for identification, but I was able to recognise the
following species: Bufo r. regularise Arthroleptis s. stemdactylus; Phrynohatrachus (?) acridoides
and Spelaeophryne methneri.
A tick {Amblyomma sp.), at present unidentifiable as to species, was attached to the throat of
one Liwale viper. Defilippi’s Night-Adder is known as kihambi to the Ngindo {fide lonides).
Bitis arietam arietans (Merrem)
6 foetuses (M.C.Z. 52947-9) Tunduru. 2&10.i.52.
Five, dated 2nd January, are still in the foetal membranes, a (M.C.Z. 52948) measuring 205
180 + 25) mm.; the $ (M.C.Z. 52949), dated 10th January, measures 206 (190 + 16) mm. All
are from a brood of 57 reported by lonides as present in a single $. lonides, writing on 8.V.50,
says that a Puff Adder killed at Mandera, British Somaliland, “which must have measured over
four feet,” held the horns of an adult S dikdik whose partially digested remains filled the stomach.
Lipili or lipiri is the Mwera, not the Ngindo, name writes Mr. lonides.
AMPHIBIA
CAECILIIDAE
Schistometopum gregorii (Boulenger)
(J (M.C.Z. 27901) Ruvu Ferry. 25.V.51.
As Ruvu Ferry is only a few miles north of Bagamoyo, in the Eastern Province of Tanganyika
Territory, this record constitutes a noteworthy southward extension of the range for a species
heretofore known only from north of the Tana River in Kenya Colony.
Body annuli 117 (primaries only; 137 with secondaries); midbody diameter 8.5 mm., contained
35.3 times in the total length of 300 nun. Both stomach and intestines appeared to contain only
mud.
195
BUFONIDAE
Bufo carens A. Smith
4 $$ (M.C.Z. 27902-3) Kilwa. 10-21.viii.50.
cJ (M.C.Z. 27904) Liwale. 12.iii.49.
$ (M.C.Z. 27905) Songea. 15.V.50.
The customary pair of dark lumbar spots of the Red Toad are absent in this rj, which measures
78 mm. from snout to anus.
Bufo regularis regularis Reuss
? (M.C.Z. 27906) Kilwa. 12.viii.50.
$ (I. 2339) Liwale. 16.iv.50.
This is the widespread Square-marked Toad originally described from Cairo. A young one
was recovered from the stomach of a night-adder {Camus defiUppii).
Bufo anotis Boulenger
? (M.C.Z. 27907) Kilwa. 25.viii.50.
This Earless Toad, taken during dry weather at the edge of a small lake, is new to Tanganyika
Territory; for the toads from western Tanganyika that, in 1925, I erroneously referred to as anofit
I subsequently described as a new species {ushoranus). The Kilwa specimen, 35 mm. in length,
has been compared with nine topotypes of anotis from Chirinda Forest, Southern Rhodesia. It
differs only in that its rich gamboge yellow undersurface lacks the markings which are present in
all Chirinda toads, though in two of them the markings are reduced to one or two brown flecks in
the pectoral region.
RHACOPHORIDAE
Chiromantis xerampelina Peters
4 (M.C.Z. 27908) Kilwa. 1 l-21.viii.50.
1 (I. 2432) Liwale. 17.vii.50.
2 (M.C.Z. 27909) Tunduru. 8.1.50.
The two largest $$ (M.C.Z. 27908-9) are only 68 and 70 mm. long.
Afrixalus fornasinii fornasinii (Bianconi)
13 (M.C.Z. 27910-1) Kilwa. 12-25.viii.50.
Ten are typical, having an anteriorly acuminate, broad, brown, vertebral stripe; the backs
of the other three are uniform, thus agreeing with Megalixalus fornasinii var. wiicolor Boettger
(1913) which Noble (1924) referred to the synonymy. This disposition I have consistently sup-
ported, for such variants occur in most large series. Consequently I disagree with Laurent’s
(1951c, p. 24) recent revival of unicolor subspecifically for a $ from Gazi, Kenya Colony, whose
vertebral stripe was reduced to an oblong spot. Nor can I concur with Laurent’s action
in resuscitating loveridgii Procter (1920) as a subspecies of fornasinii to whose synonymy I referred
it. Length of largest, a $, 36 mm.
Hyper olius concolor tuberilinguis A. Smith
$ (M.C.Z. 27912) Tunduru. 8.i.50.
Length 29 mm. Recently I (1953f, p. 354) have discussed this race at considerable length,
stating that I regard Zambezi examples ofcitrinusGu'aih.tT,?in.dH.sansibaricusloveridgei{C3kUTcnt),
1947, from Kitaya, Ruvuma River, Tanganyika Territory, as synonyms.
Hyperolius pimcticulanis subsp.
? (M.C.Z. 27913) Tunduru. a.i.50.
196
From posterior border of eye to the anus the light lateral band is edged above by a very narrow
brown line, while below, from groin to eye, by a very broad brown band which is continued from
front of eye to nostril as a relatively narrow stripe. Gravid. Length 28 mm.
Hyperolius parkeri rovuniae Loveridge
$ (M.C.Z. 27914) Kilwa. 25.viii.50.
Length of adult, snout to anus, 23 mm.
RANIDAE
Rana galameusis bravana Peters
3 juv. (M.C.Z. 27915) Kilwa. 25.viii.50.
Lengths are from 35 to 38 mm.
Rana oxyrhynchus oxyrhynchus A. Smith
7 (M.C.Z. 27916) Kilwa. ll.viii.50.
3 ? (M.C.Z. 27917) Tunduru. 9.vi.50.
Largest $$ from above localities are 52 and 48 mm. respectively. Each frog has been in-
dividually tested and found to conform to the typical (lowland) race as defined in my (1953f, p. 369)
key to the amphibia of Nyasaland.
Rana mascareniensis mascareniensis D. ET B.
3 juv. (M.C.Z. 27918) Kilwa. ll.viii.50.
Only 23-29 mm. As with the preceding and following species of Rana these frogs have been
tested by the aforementioned key.
Rana mascareniensis uzungwensis Loveridge
$ (M.C.Z. 27919) Liwale. 18.vu.50.
Length 41 mm.
Rana ansorgei BoULENGER
$ (M.C.Z. 27920) Kilwa. 21.viii.50.
S, 3 (M.C.Z. 27921-2) Tunduru. 6-8.i.50.
The above records reveal the distribution of this species as trans-African (Benguela to Kilwa)
in these latitudes. Tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind limb reaches eye (Kilwa), end
of snout or just beyond (Tunduru); length of tibia more or less than half the length from snout
to anus; first, second, third and fifth toes with two phlanges free of web, fourth toe with three
phlanges free. Length of^J (M.C.Z. 27921), 45 mm., of gravid $ (M.C.Z. 27922), 48 mm.
Rana ornata ornata (Peters)
$ (M.C.Z. 27923) Kilwa. l.iii.50.
The type of this handsome frog came from I'aita, in Kenya, and I am anxious to obtain examples
from there, even more so of the very similar Rana inacrotympanum from west of the Juba River,
Gallaland. No one has obtained any of the latter since it was described over 40 years ago and
197
I very much doubt whether frogs from the Northern Frontier District are really distinct. Un-
fortunately these frogSj characterized by two longitudinal white lines on an otherwise black throat,
being burrowers, appear only for a brief period at the onset of the rains.
Rana adspersa edulis (Peters)
(J $ (M.C.Z. 27924) Tunduru. 8.i.50.
Lengths of 140 and 145 mm. respectively, but the sexing of the deviscerated $ was done by
the collector. Mr. lonides also informs me that these bullfrogs are called bumi (pi. mabumi) by the
Ngindo in distinction to the Swahili chura which is applied to frogs in general by the Ngindo.
In their eagerness to feed, these voracious bullfrogs will gulp down almost anything. The
stomach of one held a piece of bark measuring 29 X 23 mm., a stout leaf 35 X 12 mm., and numerous
twigs of which the largest was 23 x 1.5 mm. In addition to the usual mass of indeterminate
insect remains, my colleague Dr. P. J. Darlington recognized the 45 mm. antennae of a cerambycid,
a longicom, and a hard-shelled tenebrionid.
Phrynobatrachus acridoides (CoPE)
1 (I. 1716) Tunduru. 8.i.50.
The state of preservation of this 25 mm. frog leaves its specific determination slightly conjectural.
Stomach distended by ants, one of which was apparently a driver (Dorylus sp.). One
Phrynobatrachus was recovered from the stomach of a night-adder (jCausus defilippii).
Hemisus marmoraturn marmoratum (Peters)
3 (I. 2281-2, 2300) Liwale. 25-28.iv.50.
Lengths are from 21-33 mm.
BREVICIPITIDAE
Spelaeophryne methneri Ahl
$, juv. (M.C.Z. 27925-6) Litumba. 30-31. v.50.
$ (I. 2299) Liwale. 28.iv.50.
A young one was present in the stomach of a night-adder (Causus defilippii).
Litumba is at 3,900 feet in the Matengo Highlands of Songea District, so that the capture of
these Scarlet-snouted Frogs by Mr. lonides extends the known range considerably to the southwest.
One stomach held small beetles in addition to numerous ants’ heads. The fat bodies were very
distended as if in preparation for aestivation. Length of 48 mm., of ?, 55 mm. Diameter of
largest ova in the ? almost 2 mm.
Phrynomerus hifasciatus bifasciatus (A. Smith)
<? ? (M.C.Z. 27927-8) Kilwa. 12.viii.50.
<J (I. 2266, 2241) Liwale. 15-16.iv.50.
BIBLIOGRAPHY!
Bogert, C. M.
1940.
“Herpetological Results of the Vernay Angola Expedition.” Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist., 77, pp. 1-107, figs. 1-18, pi. i.
198
Laurent, Raymond
1945a. “Contribution a la Connaissance du Genre Atractaspis Smith.” Revue Zool. Bot.
1951c.
Afr., 38, pp. 312-343.
“Catalogue des Rainettes .Africaines (genres Afrixalus et HyperoUus) de la Collection
du Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris.” Ann. Soc. Roy. Zool.
Belgique, 82, pp. 23-50, figs. 1-2.
Loveridge, Arthur
1942d.
“Revision of the African Lizards of the Family Gerrhosauridae.” Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool., 89, pp. 483-543.
1942e.
“Scientific Results of a Fourth Expedition to Forested Areas in East and Central
Africa. IV. Reptiles.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 91, pp. 237-273, pis. i-vi.
1944p.
“Revision of the African Lizards of the Family Cordylidae.” Bull Mus. Comp.
Zool., 95, pp. 1-118, pis. i-xii.
1944q.
“Further Revisions of African Snake Genera.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 95, pp.
119-247.
1946e.
“A New Worm-Lizard { Ancylocranium barkeri) from Tanganyika Territory.” Proc.
Biol. Soc. Washington, 59, pp. 73-74, pi. xiii.
1947a.
“Revisions of the African Lizards of the Family Gekkonidae.” Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool., 98, pp. 1-469, pis. i-vii.
1951a.
“On Reptiles and Amphibians from Tanganyika Territory collected by C. J. P.
lonides.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 106, pp. 177-204, text fig.
1951c.
“Synopsis of the African Green Snakes (Philothamnus inc. Chlorophis), with the
Description of a new Form.” Bull. Inst. Roy. Sci. Nat. Belgique, 27, pp. 1-12.
1953e.
“Zoological Results of a Fifth Expedition to East Africa. III. Reptiles from Nyasa-
land and Tete.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 110, pp. 141-322, pis. i-v.
1953f.
“Zoological Results of a Fifth Expedition to East Africa. IV. Amphibians from
Nyasaland and Tete.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 110, pp. 323-407, pis. i-iv.
Mertens, Robert
1942e. “Die Familie der Warane (Varanidae). III. Taxonomic.” Abhand. Senckenberg.
Naturf. Ges., No. 466, pp. 237-391.
Witte, G. F. and Laurent, Raymond
1942c.
“Liste des Lacertidae du Congo beige et Description d’une Espece nouvelle.” Revue.
Zool. Bot. Afr., 36, pp. 165-180.
1947.
“Revision d’un Groupe de Colubridae Africains (Genres Calamelaps, Miodon, Apral-
lactus et Formes affines).” Mem. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique (2), fasc. 29, pp.
1-124, figs. 1-132.
1 Where a date is followed by a letter of the alphabet, it indicates a particular paper listed
in a comprehensive (1880-1955) bibliography of African herpetology which it is hoped to
pubhsh in due course. Where no letter follows the date it implies that the author in
question pubhshed only a single article on African herpetology during the year in question.
f?V-
•>* ...
t
-‘Jf
■ ■■ ■'
..M:
, .7 - 'ti
199
AN APPRECIATION
MAJOR KENNETH DE PLANTA BEATON
Ken Beaton, known to a wide circle of friends as a man of many attributes, started
life in Blantyre, Nyasaland, in 1905, where his father was General Manager of tlie African Lakes
Corporation. At the age of two he went to Scotland, and again moved with his family to Kenya
in 1910. They hved on a small farm near Nairobi, where it was Ken’s particular task, even at
this young age, to tend cattle, horses, donkeys, dogs, cats, poultry, and a variety of young wild
animals, which he also regarded as his friends. Educated first at the Government School, Nairobi,
and later at Melville College, Edinburgh, he returned to Kenya at the age of 19 to be apprenticed
to Major Dunbar of Sotik, on a coffee farm. Here was a hfe which Ken really enjoyed, for it
gave him sufficient leisure to pursue his great interest in wild life, to learn the ways of the big beasts
of the Chepalunga forest, and to go on many a safari. Ken’s father then purchased a farm in Sotik,
and imported a couple of hounds and a hunter, which enabled him to become a great enthusiast
of the Sotik Hunt, and later M.F.H.
The war period saw him at once in the K.A.R., where he took part in the Abyssinian campaign
and the battle of Gondar, later to be stationed in Madagascar, and finally as O.C. Troops, Zanzibar.
On demobilization he found that his farm had been ruined by lack of adequate supervision, and
in 1946 he joined the Kenya National Parks as warden of the Nairobi National Park. His great
love and knowledge of wild animals shone through his delightful weekly articles in the “East African
Standard” and enabled so many readers to know some of the denizens of the Nairobi National
Park almost personally and by name. Having so successfully completed the initial development
of the Nairobi National Park, particularly through its difficult stages, he was then seconded to the
Uganda Government to undertake the development of the Uganda National Parks, where he later
became Director and Chief Warden. With his great knowledge and resourcefulness, in a remarkably
short time he brought the Queen Elizabeth National Park forward to a point where in 1954, he
had the honour of entertaining Her Majesty the Queen and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edin-
burgh, as guests of the Park.
It was indeed a tragedy that even before 1954 was out, Ken Beaton was no longer spared to
fulfil further plans he had in mind for the development of the Murchison Falls Park. His many
friends and all lovers of animals will always feel a certain sadness at the loss of Ken Beaton, but
they will remember him as a man with a charming smile, a friendly disposition, and good company
under any conditions. His work, both in Kenya and Uganda, will stand as a memorial to one
who devoted so much zeal to the protection of wild animals.
M.H.C.
200
BOOK REVIEWS
“The Freshwater Mollusks of Uganda and Adjacent Territories,” by G. Mandahl Barth, d.sc.
Annales du Musee Royal du Congo Beige, Octavo Series, Science Zoologiques Vol. 32, pp. 207 and
05 text figs. 7x11 inches, Tervuren 1954. (Paper covers.)
It would be very difficult to overestimate the importance of this volume. It is the first general
study of a group of snails for a whole territory to appear since Von Marten’s “Beschalte Weichthiere”
nearly 60 years ago. The main importance of the paper does not, however, rest there. A very
large number of papers have appeared on the Mollusca of East Africa — several hundred in fact,
most of which merely describe a large number of new species based mainly on the shells alone.
In a group like the Mollusca where most of the classification depends on the soft anatomy, the
chaos resulting from this is unbelievable, particularly in a group where the shells are similar. For
instance several dozen Helicariom have been described only a few of which had their anatomy
examined at the time of description. Until each species has been re-collected in the type locahty
and dissected, it will not even be possible to say how many genera are represented in the group,
let alone arrange the species. In the Freshwater Mollusca there are several genera where, from a
study of the shells alone, every different author has suggested a different means of classification.
Moreover, these very genera contain species with extremely polymorphic shells. Unfortunately
this holds true particularly for those genera (Bulinus and Biomphalaria) which are important vectors
of the Schistosoma spp. which cause Bilharzia. Many recent papers have appeared concerning the
shells. One author sinks the lot into two species, another recognizes a dozen or so^ still another
recognizes a dozen but this time a different dozen and also disagrees with the other’s names. It
is little wonder that the medical profession are a little dazed about all this. Mandahl Barth
has based his main conclusions on anatomy and his arrangement of the species is therefore, I
think, much more trustworthy than any other previous attempts. Dr. Mandahl Barth was brought
up in the rigorous Danish anatomical “school” so well exemphfied by the works of the late Dr.
C. M. Steenberg. This book is recommended to all the serious students of malacology and tropical
disease workers as a profoundly accurate book. It is certainly not the last word on the subject
by any means and parts are out of date already. For instance Biomphalaria adowensis and B.
ruppellii are probably conspecific and not separate species as treated in his book. So much depends
on seeing the original types which in a polymorphic species are difficult to interpret.
Mandahl Barth deals with 126 species and subspecies which are adequately illustrated by line
drawings. He has found it necessary to erect three new genera in the Planorbidae and quite a
number of new species and subspecies. Some of his names may be commented on — Physopsis
is treated as a subgenus of Bulinus — aU the “Unios” are treated as Caelatura. One unfamihar change
which, however, seems plausible is the segregation of the African Viviparus into a genus Bellamya
(actually erected long ago by Jousseaume). The anatomical evidence given is rather striking
but it will be a change which will take many years to become accepted. I have also found the
species and subspecies of this genus accepted by Mandahl Barth rather difficult to separate and
think that further study over a wider range will reduce them.
The book is written in English, a concession which many continental writers make, knowing
full well our painful ignorance of their languages. It is well printed on good paper as is usual
with the publications of Belgian Museums, but there are rather numerous misprints. I think
a deep debt of gratitude is due to the Belgian Museums in post-war days for coming to the rescue
of scientists looking for pubhshers. Many publications (including some of my own) have been
produced in record time at great expense to themselves.
B.V.
(Note; It is proposed shortly to place on view in the museum a smaU exhibit of Bilharzia-
carrying snails.)
“The Veronicellidae of Africa (Mollusca Pulmonata),” by Dr. Lothar Forcart. Annales du
Musee Royal du Congo Beige, Octavo Series, Science Zoologiques Vol. 23, pp. 110 and 5 plates.
7x11 inches, Tervuren 1953. (Paper covers.)
The Veronicellidae (or Vaginulidae as they were once better known) are extremely interesting
201
and rather attractive slugs. This revision of all the African species is a valuable study which
must have entailed a considerable amount of work. I am not qualified to discuss Forcart’s con-
clusions since I know nothing about the anatomy of the group, but I feel he may have erred on
the side of “lumping”. Seven taxa are recorded from our area and may easily be identified by anyone
who has this book and is mildly skilled with dissecting instruments.
The retouched photographs illustrating the anatomy are novel, but I am not convinced that they
convey as much as a line drawing, although they undoubtedly give a more accurate picture of actual
shape. The photographs of the beasts themselves are excellent and reproduced as only collotype
can reproduce with every original detail faithfully depicted. Unfortunately external features are
rather useless in this group as in most slugs.
Dr. Forcart’s kindness in using the Enghsh Language has led to inaccuracies which would
not otherwise have occurred — the English is quaint and in places quite difficult to understand and
misprints are rather common. This does not, however, detract from the value of this addition to
the books on African Mollusca.
B.V.
“Exploration Hydrobiologique du Lac Tanganyika (1946-47).” Resultats Scientifiques Vol.
Ill Fascicle 1. Lamellibranches, by Eugene Leloup, pp. 154 and 8 plates and innumerable
text figures, 10 x 13 inches. Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique. Brussels
1950 Vol. Ill Fascicle 4 Gasteropodes by Eugene Leloup, pp. 274 and 13 plates, 1953.
This large quarto work can only be described as sumptuous on a scale associated with the
previous century only. The text figures are in hundreds and the plates illustrate a very large
number of shells. These two works (which I have had bound together) are essential for any
student of African Mollusca and will enable any shell from the Lake to be named.
The number of works dealing with or touching on the mollusca of this lake is now over a hundred!
This great interest is due to the fact that a certain section of the snails (“thalassic”) in the lake
have a truly incredible resemblance to marine shells. This led to the now discarded theory of
an inland Jurassic sea. It is now believed that the resemblance is due to parallel evolution in a
very ancient body of water.
Various conchologists, notably J. R. Bourguignat, multiplied the number of genera and species
occurring in the lake to an alarming extent. He even split one species into two genera and over a
dozen species. This has complicated matters. I rather feel that Leloup has erred in precisely
the opposite direction. In Edgaria nassa forma grandis he has for example compressed dozens
of species formerly distributed among three genera. Apart from figuring many radulae I believe
this sinking has not been done with any anatomical basis though I admit that it is the result of
examination of a vast amount of shells. His treatment of the non-thalassic Planorbidae etc. is
similar and directly contradicts the conclusions of Ranson and Mandahl Barth, to mention only
two anatomists.
Everyone interested in shells should have this work since one can give a name to anything one
may find in Lake Tanganyika. It is written in an easy French style easily understood even by
poor linguists.
B.V.
“Etudes sur les Mollusques de I’Afrique Centrale et des Regions Voisines. I Vertiginidae
et Valloniidae,” by Dr. W. Adam, pp. 725-817 with 25 text figures; extracted from Volume Jubilaire
Victor Van Straelen Tome II. 4vo. Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique 1954.
This very painstaking revision deals with a group of mostly minute shells, some only 1-2 mm.
in length. It is mainly concerned with the Belgian Congo but deals with many species occurring
in East Africa. The figures which are the work of Mme J. van Melderen-Sergysels are exquisitely
executed.
B.V.
(The reviewer regrets that he does not know the price of any of the works mentioned since aU
were complimentary copies. They are obtainable from the museums and institutes concerned.)
202
“Birds of Arabia,” by Colonel R. Meinertzhagen. (Oliver and Boyd, 1954. One voL, pp. 624,
plus 19 coloured plates, 9 photographs and many text figures and maps. £4. 4. 0.)
Books describing the birds of a given region can usually be grouped into three classes, each
intended for a certain type of reader: (a) those designed for the ornithologist-collector; (b) those
designed for the field-watcher, and (c) those designed for both.
As an example of class (a), take Jackson’s “Birds of Kenya and Uganda” — features: large
size, with a limited number of coloured plates containing few birds per plate, and with detailed
keys for the identification of specimens in the hand. For class (fe), take Peterson’s “Birds of Europe”
— features: small size, with many coloured plates containing many birds per plate, and with de-
tailed notes for the identification of birds in the field. For class (c), take Praed and Grant’s “African
Handbook” — features: medium size, with many coloured plates containing several birds per
plate, and with abbreviated specimen-keys and notes for field-identification. On the whole I
feel that the “hybrid” class (c) is at a disadvantage in trying to combine two subjects, each of which
requires individual treatment; therefore, I think that classes (a) or (b) are preferable.
The volume now under review is a very fine example of class (a). One of its most striking
features is the quality of the coloured plates, mostly done by Mr. D. M. Reid-Henry. They are
wonderful !
Mr. Henry has few, if any, equals in the way he makes his birds look alive. Take, for instance,
his drawing of an Olive Thrush (PI. VI): the bird is simply overflowing with vitality!
The Arabian backgrounds to several of the plates are strikingly beautiful also : look, for instance,
at the blazing desert sunset in the Lammergeier picture (PI. XI), or the cool mountain valley in
the Green Pigeon picture (PI. XIV).
The book would be well worth buying on account of the plates alone, but the letterpress is
excellent also. Colonel Meinertzhagen is one of our most original (as well as distinguished)
ornithologists, and a speciality of his, which cannot be too much praised, is to delve into what one
might call the byways of ornithology, concerning which he launches into fascinating little digressions
here and there. For instance, I will mention some topics discussed in the book, from a summary
at p. 72: bird collisions; fainting and feigning death; love of sweet food; pattering and puddling;
variation in colour of eggs; animals drinking salt water; and recognition by birds of the Sabbath
and the gun. You could hardly have a more catholic list than this!
In the course of the introduction a number of major topics are discussed in detail, of which
the most interesting, to me, was on desert coloration. The author, whose experience of the subject
must be unsurpassed, feels that the pale-buff “desert colour” possesses, as its primary advantage,
the maximum capacity to neutralize the heat of the sun, and therefore, to keep the birds cool.
He does not deny that desert coloration also possesses a protective value against predators, but thinks
that this is a minor advantage as compared with protection against climate.
The detailed list of birds seems to be very good too. Included in this there are some useful
reviews (with maps, not confined to Arabia), of certain species, such as Pycnonotus capensis, the
African Bulbul, and Streptopelia tiirtur, the Turtle Dove. With reference to the latter, it is inter-
esting to note that the author considers our East African species X. lugens to be a race of turtur
— partly, I gather, on the grounds that the calls of the two birds are “precisely similar”. Both
calls are well known to me and I would agree that there is a striking similarity in pitch and time,
but they are not identical — higens has a deep, growly song which is nearly an octave deeper than
the shrill, purring song of turtur. In view of this fact, the question whether lugens may still be
regarded as a race of turtur requires reconsideration.
Both the letterpress of this book, and also the plates, are reproduced to perfection, for which
the publishers, Messrs. Ohver and Boyd, deserve every credit.
M.E.W.N.
203
“I Drank the Zambezi,” by Arthur Loveridge. (Lutterworth Press, London: 1954: pp. 287,
many photographic illustrations. 15/-.)
Those who have read Mr. Loveridge’s two previous books, “Many Happy Days I’ve
Squandered” and “Tomorrow is a Holiday” will be pleased to welcome this third popular work
to their bookshelves. Forsaking Tanganyika on this occasion the author describes, in his lucid
and easy-to-read style, his safari in Nyasaland during 1948 and 1949. The purpose of the “ulendo”
was to collect natural history specimens for Harvard’s Museum of Comparative Zoology. His
adventures are related in a form which retains the reader’s attention throughout the book, whether
the reader be interested in Natural History or merely in travel.
The reviewer was most interested — and somewhat amused — to note that Mr. Loveridge makes
no mystery of either Mlanje Mountain or of the Nyika Plateau, as does the author of another book
whose path Mr. Loveridge crossed when on his journey!
Mr. Loveridge knew and loved Africa and the African in the period prior to 1 939 : his reaction
to and comments on the post-war changes are both reasonable and pointed. This is a book every-
one interested in Africa must own.
N.M.
204
LETTERS to the EDITOR
The Editor,
The Journal of the East African Natural History Society.
Sir,
I was most gratified to read Sir Charles Belcher’s generous and detailed review of “A Check
List of the Birds of Nyasaland”, by myself, in Journ. E.A. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxii, no. 3 (95),
1954, pp. 124-127. His contribution to it, both indirectly by his own book on the birds of Nyasa-
land, and directly by the mass of breeding data which he provided me with, cannot be
over-emphasized.
There are a few points arising therefrom which seem worthy of further mention : —
(a) Page 125, final paragraph: The reference to Belcher’s “Birds of Nyasaland” and to
Roberts’ “Birds of South Africa” are not to pages but to the serial number allocated to the
relevant species. This is explained in section 2 of the Introduction.
(fc) Page 126, fourth paragraph: I realized that omission of authors’ names for both species
and races might arouse comment. Thus see also Macdonald, “African Affairs”, vol. 53,
no. 211, 1954, p. 172, and Vincent, “Ostrich”, 1954, p. 102. The explanation for this
is of course given in section 2 of the Introduction, i.e. economy of space.
The “umlaut” was inserted in the original typescript wherever applicable. But the
printer found its retention impracticable. Nevertheless, I feel that the printer has carried
out his share of the task extremely well.
ic) Page 126, fifth paragraph. The reference 90 to local breeding of the Osprey is to Nyasa
Journ. vol. 4, no. 2, 1951, p. 50, and reads as follows : — “African fishermen call the Fish-
Eagle ‘nkwazi’, and the Osprey ‘chakame’, and I have been told by those on Likoma
Island that the latter nests there during the dry season, in baobab trees. Mr. R. C. Wood
has in fact seen an Osprey’s nest, in which there were young, at Chiromo, on the River
Shire. Unfortunately he has lost the detailed notes, including the date, which he made
at the time, now more than thirty years ago.” Sir Charles would doubtless agree that
Mr. Wood is an entirely reliable observer.
It is worth mentioning that I have recently (13th December 1953) collected at Bulaya,
Mporokoso district. Northern Rhodesia, a Claniator jacobinus containing a fully developed
egg. This is turquoise blue, not white, in colour; size approximately 21 19 mm.
(see also Belcher, “Nature in East Africa”, ser. 2, no. 2, 1949, p. 17). The parent is white
below, with chin, throat and chest tinged slightly grayish. A clutch of three similarly
coloured turquoise eggs of Turdoides leucopygia was collected in the same locality on 27th
October, 1953.
Ceutropus senegalensis and C. tnonachus (notwithstanding Verheyen’s observations in
“Exploration du Parc National de I’Upemba. Oiseaux,’’ 1953, p. 323, I still prefer to
follow Chapin, “The Birds of the Belgian Congo,” vol. 2, 1539, p. 211, see reference 134
in my Check List, in regarding C. cupreicaudus as a distinct species) have a wide area of
overlap in the Ethiopian region, according to the distributions as given, for example, by
Chapin op. cit.
The reference to C. s. burchellii under no. 212 is certainly not clear. The sentence
in question would read better as follows : — “Habitat as last, and indistinguishable from
C. s. burchellii in field.” C. senegalensis fiecki is of course easily distinguishable from
C. superciliosus loandae even at a considerable distance by the absence of a superciliary
streak and by the black rather than brown colouring on the head. In these respects C.
superciliosus burchellii resembles fiecki rather than loandae, even though it is conspecific
with, and, as indicated, intergrades with loandae.
The calls of Caprimulgus p. poliocephalus and C. p. guttifer are practically, if not entirely,
identical. Reference 128 in the Check List, i.e., “Ostrich,” 1952, p. 151, is the key to
this. I have heard this mellow and beautiful call in northern Nyasaland, at Nyeri and
Ngong in Kenya, and in southern Abyssinia (“Ibis”, 1945, p. 508). On taxonomic con-
siderations, too, I have no doubt that C. p. poliocephalus and C. p. guttifer are conspecific.
205
The name “Narina” was first given to the commoner of the two Trogons by its dis-
coverer, Levaillant, and is derived from a Hottentot beauty for whom he professed great
admiration; see Stark & Sclater, “The Birds of South Africa,” vol. iii, 1903, p. 122.
In regard to Anthus leucophrys and A. vaalensis, so far as I am aware, no striking difference
of behaviour, voice, etc. has been definitely found between the two. This would have
been perhaps better put down as another of the doubtful cases, as that of the Yellow Wag-
tails which Sir Charles mentions.
I had not had the opportunity to investigate the question of the correct specific name
for Pycnonotus. In this and other such cases I followed Mackworth Praed and Grant’s
nomenclature. I only deviated from this on the basis of personal experience, or where
some other author had given reasons for using a different name which seemed over-ridingly
convincing to me. Greater emphasis might have been laid on this in section 2 of the
Introduction.
C. W. BENSON.
C/o Game and Tsetse Department,
P.O. Box 72,
LUSAKA,
Northern Rhodesia. 20th July, 1954.
MEAT-EATING DUIKERS
Sir,
In the Journal, p. 73, antea, Mr. Merrell Dalton asks if any readers have known of a duiker
eating meat. The following may therefore interest him.
During the Campaign in East Africa in 1916 I was at General Smuts’ Headquarters and one
of my subalterns had for a time a tame duiker that used to rehsh scraps of meat.
The Africans of many tribes have told me during the last 40 odd years that duikers stalk and
eat fowls. Whilst serving in Uganda over 30 years ago the R.C. Bishop confirmed this. He said
he was losing fowls, so one night left his car facing the fowl-run, and on hearing a commotion,
switched on the headlights and found a duiker was the cause of the trouble.
On one occasion when out shooting in Kenya I observed a duiker stalking guinea fowl. But
the latter were too wary and the duiker did not secure one.
I have many times told the Africans to prove to me that duikers attack fowls, and they have
since done so. About dusk some years ago they called me to witness a stalk. The duiker approach-
ed stealthily on the feeding fowls and we waited and watched. Eventually it was close enough
to seize one with a rush and I shot the duiker in the act with the fowl in its mouth, though not much
hurt.
H. F. STONEHAM
Director (Stoneham Museum, Kitale)
Printed by
African Standard Ltd.
Nairobi
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