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OF THE 


ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, 


EDITED BY 


THE SECRETARIES. 


VOL. XVII. 
Part Il.—Jurty to DrecremsBeEr, 1848. 


& 


“ Tt will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologérs, and men of science, 
in different parts of Asia will commit their Beersaioree to writing, and send them to the 
Asiatic Bh at Calcutta. [t will aa f such communications shal) be long inter- 


CALCUTTA : 


PRINTED BY J. THOMAS, BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, 


1848. 


INDEX TO VOL. XVII. 


PART II. 


Aborigines of Central India, The. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq... .. v.se.ooe 
Addendum on the Anatomy of Ailurus. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. ...... 
Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus, &c. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. 
Arian Order of Architecture, as exhibited in the temples of Kashmir, An 
Piscay_on the, By Capt. A. Cunningham... sci tee denied ¥ 0.04 oe. «npn 
Bal’amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, and Ehanzals? s History of 
mie Erophets.. (By Dr. A. Sprengery sw as ao iene aaaisin oye dejed asap 
Battle Field of Alexander and Porus, Some account of the. By Capt. I. 
PEDO thy eee e, 5 =. n-05 4, «0/046 Beta etelet ava Salen cisin whclalaisi aid) \alaiNee sein) area 
Chepang and Kusunda Tribes of Nepal. By. B, Hi. Hodgson, Esq. ..: «20... 
Maniriasen Map ot Inia, 5's, 0c os. a! caret s/xa! cigs orale ficiAse. viele adie nine sie a siecle 
Coleoptera of Hong Kong, Notice on the. By Capt. Champion, 95th Regt. 
Extract of a letter from Dr. Campbell, to the Hon’ble the President of the 
EAPO SOGISE Ys, 2 a).q dais a ial: Male ty a4 « Siehalt ae ho wal qo edie oiieia’ mofeeiale 6 Sales 
from Dieut) Tey Strachey is... 4.445. 6.0644 va ng esl ens 
Explanation of the Elevations of places between Almorah and Gangri, given 
in Lieut. Strachey’s Map and Journal, .......cceccssceccsccscccece 
Fragments of the History of Mooltan, the Derajét, and Buhawalpér. By 
Prete tn Wiachuaeani ss)” ete. tle whe) «'te add ae tha os wep eiscen lee nidiaie Geis, vy were 
Glacier of the Pindur in Kumaon, Note on the motion of the. By Lieut. 
Her HEVACICY 5 Sige wie oo) g a ge eel ae nace sie we os wens we ae) ee winlsiguadisniasiaeins 
Gleanings in Buddhism ; or translations of passages from a Siamese version 
of a Pali Work, termed in Siamese ‘‘ Phra Pat’hom.” By Lieut.-Col. J. 
MCR glee al gets we're elev seacara an Seana he, ev Sb cidiutre Svsioaialsl shee aie eels: 
Gleanings in Buddhism, A few. By Lieut. Col. 3. Oya) ia ae nal cece» 
Gum Kino of the Tenasserim Provinces, The. By the Rev. F. Mycon rit 
Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katab,’ on Arabic Astronomy, A Passage from. By 
Be SPTOREGU ed d'o dh ge ae as, ole givindo'd \¢.9.0\ 90 pit mo AR #00 9 


Page 
550 
573 
475 


241 


437 


619 
650 


F 
Fd 


iv Index. 


Ikwan al cafa, Notice ofthe. By Dr. A. Sprenger, .....2sccecscccceece 
Inscriptions found in Province Wellesly, on the Peninsula of Malacca, An 

account of several. By Lieut.-Col. James Low, .........0.-sse2 0000 
from Singapur and Province Wellesly, Note on the. By J. W. 


PiatAY, LUSH sisi a'e- +» wise usin sle o/s ties elas «0 pine’ Welnimneaiats 
Journey to Cho Lagan, (Rakas Tal,) Cho Arsen: (Manasarowar,) and the 
valley of Pruang in Gnari, Hundes, in September and October 1846, Nar- 
ration of a. By Lieut. H. Strachey, cjeleie doje «000s iss oie sateen eee 


The Passage from the Dhari Falls to the Hirnphal. By Capt. Fenwick, .. | 


Map of the British Himalayan Frontier in Kumaon and Gurwal, Note on the 
construction of the. By Lieut. H. Strachey,........... eo oinieentes 
Memorandum relative te the seven Césis of Nepal. “By 5. Hi. "Hates Esq. 


Meteoric Iron from the Kharrakpur hills, Description and Analysis of a 


large ntass of. By H. Piddington, Esq)... '.sie5 sci 0s «2 sw/e0's keene 
Micteorological’ Register for Julyql848, 20....%. Soe. cdlae os oc viene 


for August, 1848, eeceeeeooeonvneeeG@oeveeeveeeteeecv ees eotg BCR et ee CF O86 


tor September, W849, "sucess vise clan « Geae oe seine teen 
for October, 1848, one oi2 vs Coe ae wees a On Oo eee 
for November, 18465: icc 'sls ss ee ste scale tials s) 6's ce baie eee 
for December, 1848,. sieree Deere ete nice é 
Notes on the Eastern Desert of Bagi a Gebel Afrit, By ine Ancient 
Porphyry Quarries of Gebel Dukhan, near to the old station of Gebel Gir. 
By ‘Elekeleyant Bey) 7 ifs 's/-leate eltete ates <u" “oe nefttate Pate tals "ale iain fala stale 
Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. ‘By Capt. T. Hutton, ......3, 
Notice of the Kiang, By H. Walker, Esq. . watale tates Melle Savaielisioeer eats 
Observations made when following the Grand Trunk Road across the hills of 
Upper Bengal, Paras Nath, &c.* By Dr. J. D. Hooker, ... 2.20 os oe 
Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, for July 1848,........0e.00. 
for ‘Auipust, TS48)* Assim esc les acts chee sel claves oi a ener 
for September, 1525, “iiss ss sa cinteu's «ou oe «el sla stale ene 


Se 


for’ November, O48 5% tac ise dole bin e's is aliciseratere “s,oh.crehatedetsie eine 


for December, 1848,........... wis we ec 5 otptetninmatelste 
Relics of the Catholic Mission in Tibet. By B. i. is cao Esq. 
Report on the Salt Range, and on its Coal and other Minerals. By Dr. 
racy: ECL GVO, "2. As “eie. sso alislv’ cl ste a! ah abiale’ aleielonthabalate octet aiehsiataianete een 
Resultant System for the construction of Ti Tension Bridges. dag Major 
EAMG OOM WHI, os c\c\ais s/s'sn'a's ce cee Sie ict ola fe weetaintes 
Routes from Darjeling to Thibet. By m Caan Hear at diatalatleletale 
Route from Katmandu to Darjeling. By B. H. Hodgson, waa PE eS 
Temperature of the Hot Springs at Peer Mangal, or Munga, or Mangear, .. 
Tibetan Type of Mankind. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. .........- - 
Extract of a letter from Dr, Prichard to B, i. Hoagead Esq. 


eee 


Page 
183 


Index. 


Verification of the Itinerary of the Chinese Pilgrim, Hwan Thsang, through 
Afghanistan and India, during the first half of the 7th century of the 
enrisvan Era, . By Capt, A. Cunningham, ii. {)<cuds cele d o'lhe Sdacee'aelce 


INDEX TO NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS. 
Abbott, Capt. James. Some account of the Battle Field of Alexander and 
MERE te Se aha aia eirci caret Scanlan sual atel/alst Winn! atagtacatele  Giaiatekar et Me iat waveta: as 
Campbell, A. Esq. Routes from Darjeling to Tibet, .......0..00.0. 
. Extract of a letter to the Hon’ble the President, Asiatic ee 
. Letter on the Elevation of Peaks in the Himalaya, ............ 


Champion, Capt. Notice on the Coleoptera of Hong Kong, ............0. 
Cunningham, Capt. A. Verification of the Itinerary of the Chinese pilgrim 

Hwan Thsang, through Afghanistan and India, ...... ce eccccccescaces 
, An Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture, as exhibited i in 


the eae OE TRASIIUN | 6 of) dale “a seas os oie ate d's, EMM, oe dw ahoi 4, dln ainistia stele 
Fenwick, Capt. Journey of the Passage oor AM Dhari Falls to the Hirn- 
PERE ME Ne ail aSaiin ove @-= ie 'st sfellpta) ular a eave) + wlaiwlaiaiallm oldie (aie aia lawl al glelen aconis eneee ae 
Fleming, Dr. A ane on the Salt mae and on-its Coai and other Mi- 
AE Ire cial cit bev es wich. gs di. cal area aed Wiel eiblla ini ase abt Bem ietera\ nl m/a:e bie\tatdcg oratlen Sater 
Goodwyn, Major H. A Resultant system for the construction of Iron Tension 
SUPE) Vaio) s.0\0.0) «)») #61 cee | dreds sereie eereialisin 
Hekekyan Bey. dues on the ee Baas of Be oe oe ne welsiaeeen oe 
Hodgson, B. H. Esq. On the Tibetan type of Mankind,................ 
a Relics-of the Cathohe Mission’ tm Tibet, : 2:0 choise sss dina easels 
. Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus, .....cecseeeee 
| whe Aborioines-of Central mdia, 6 sss-ccs.ekies)snelevseceececs 
. Addendum on the Anatomy\of Aiurus,) os ie ss.cciisececss ds os 
. Route from ‘Katmandu to’ Danjeling : sos... be seme sc seven seies ve 
. Memorandum relative to the seven Cosis of Nepal,........eeee 
—. On the Chépang and Kiasunda tribes of Nepal, .......eesee0. 
Hutton, Capt. T. Notes on the Nidification of India Birds, ..........3, 
Hooker, Dr. J. D. Observations made when following the Grand Trunk 
Road across the hills of Upper Bengal, Paras-Nath, &c. in the Soane 
Valley ; and on the Kymaon branch of the Vindhya hills,.........-.00. 
Laidlay, J. W. Esq. Note on the Inscriptions from Singapur and Province 
Wellesly, forwarded by the Hon’ble Col. Butterworth, and Col. J. Low, 
Low, Lieut.-Col. James. An account of several Inscriptions found in Pro- 
vince Wellesly, om the Peninsulaof Malacca... (0.0625 ce cece es cece oe 
. Gleanings in Buddhism ; or translations ie passages from a Siamese 


version of a Pali work, termed in Siamese ‘‘ Phra Pat’hom,”’ .......... 


aeomrew Gleanings in Budahisns,® «|. sc «c's 0:06 a's os siatmeie ices 6 00 as 26 


Vv 


Page 


13 


v1 Index. 


Maclagan, Lieut. R. Fragments of the History of Mooltan, the Derajat, 

and Buhawulpur, from:Persian MSS. cls isis cc's =) cbc asda ail eee 
Mason, Rev. F. on the Gum Kino of the Tenasserim Provinces,.......... 
Piddington, H. Esq. Description and Analysis of a large mass of Meteoric 

fron, from the Kharackpur hills, near Monehir,,.. ... s<. 10s <+ ainweeeeieee 
Prichard, Vr. J.C. Extraet.of a letter from,.< 2c <2 «cate oeeloeen eae 
Sprenger, Dr. Aloys. Notice of the Ikhwan al cafa, ......sssesssaacce 


. Balamy’s Translation of the History of Tabary, .......es2ee-> 


. A passage from Ibn an Adab al Katib’ on Arabic Astro- 
TOMY, ov vers ve cace cece ccce cece ses eecoeoeeeeee es e@eeeseeoeoene ses 


Strachey, Lieut. H. Narrative of a journay to Cho pea (Rékés Tal), Cho 


Mapan, (Manasarowar,) and the Valley of Pruang in Gnari, Hindés, 98, 177, 


. Note on the Construction of the Map of the British Himalayan 
®rontier;in Knumaon and Gurwal,.. scree. > ssiacw« versal oe eve eee ee 
« Lieut. Re. Extract offantetter from ,.. soc «cc lsimcies c-6 senna 
. Lieut. R. Note on the motion of the Glacier of the Pindur in 
MASUPNT OTIS vera vats orate cae eos ele! e-0ig'sa’ov% we: ohatabone le are) eialatetione, cale?ors aves steltalene ta tete iene 


Walker, H. Esq. Notice of the Kiang, ee me oe sre ee eave sees eeen et BE ee Oe 


LDP" 


XXI. 


XXII. .. 
XXIII. .. 
BOC... 


DEXV . 
XXVI. 
XXVII. 


XXVIII. . 


XXIX. 
XXX. 
XXXII. 
XXXII. 
XXXII. 
XXXIV. 
XXXV. 


TO THE BINDER. 


Wns 


wn 


The Plates will be inserted as follows :— 


« (The Equus hemionus), .esessccccvesccecssccsscecsceacs 


ce ee re ee ee eeece ese. eee se ee eS st oH oe ee FF FHF Fe BT De ee Be oe BeOS 


ea evvoev ee eeesceeseee eevee ee ee ee Be eeeaeee es Qeve ve eoe ce cease 


. Map to illustrate the route of Lieut. Strachey to Manasarowar. 
. Map shewing the sites of Temples in Kashmir, ............ 


eseoeveve ee @@eoeeeose se ee een eeeeeeeeeoe ere ees ee ©Beeoeeeeese 


ee ee een ee eeeeee eevee eese seve te Oe ee et Bees ere SS svese ee ee ees eaee 


e cd eevee eae a ° eee eeese . ee 
. eees ee ee ee ° eee eree . 
oe ee eve eeee eeeee 
° ee e ee ee eeeece e ee e eeee 
eee eeee . ee ° . ee 
° ® eevee eeesuveesd oe e 


eo @e¢@ee ee ee ee oe eeeeeoe ese ee ee ee se eeeese ee ees eeseee e888 Bese 


ee ee epe ee ee eeeveaeeseese ee oveev eeeeeoeeve ee eeesv ee 2 ee ee Ot ee ee 


(Bearings from Darjecline; Ges). \)<s. sic.e'crie. 0 of clalsia e's) <.0ie «i sieve 
(Battle Field of Alexander and Porus.) ....cceccscecscscees 
Gieeders: of the Sum! Cosy) syste) sis <u ies es) = « clotoltaticts's ‘eisis'e sie 
(Fan, of tie Chepiamig, (11S. i" dias ec) ce se ile pielslaiatGle'aiee ose shes 


RAPALA ARABIYA. 


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6 Jongri and hinngla Chena D2 <2 ae yy, pus 
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7 Yangpoong route, which falls into the Joes ; 


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Tosition of Chamulart 
according to As: Re: Vol. 12 


Position. of Chamatari 


Chapa: Govrnss 
[feces Ma) py Sar Gara bulld Iamerary, 


By DE tamphells Menerary \ Tasiglas,..0 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


-ASTATIC SOCIETY. 


JULY, 1848. 


Notice of the Kiang.—(With Plate.) 


In the month of March last a Kiang or wild ass of Tibet, arrived in 
Calcutta in company with a Hill-poney, to which it had taken a fancy 
and followed every where. It had been sent down by the Hon’ble J. 
Thomason, Esq. Lieut.-Governor of the North-West Provinces, to be 
forwarded to England, and came originally from the plains of Tibet. 
The following description was taken whilst it was in Calcutta. 

It is a male between 2 and 3 years old, and has either been gelt or 
his testicles have not yet descended. He is still partially covered with 
his winter coat. His general form, except the head, which is very large» 
‘is more that of a horse than an ass. Limbs slender, hind-quarters good, 
shoulder small and straight. Head large, nose arched, forehead flat, 
as far as can be perceived, covered as it is with long thick hair. 
Nostrils large and more terminal than in the horse or ass. Ears of 
medium size between the horse and ass, but more approximated at 
their bases than in either of those animals. The eye much more bright 
and intelligent than in the common ass. Mane erect, and the hair, of 
which it is composed, about 4 inches long: no foretop. The coat is 
thick, long and frizzled, something like a camel’s. A thick tuft at the 
end of the tail, which however is not confined to the tip, but extends 
half way up towards the base. Callosities on the forelegs, none on the 
hind ones. Height at shoulder 3 feet 10 inches, or 11 hands anda 
half. Colour ; above, isabella, with a dash of bay or fawn. Beneath, 
and the 4 legs, breast and nose, yellowish white. The whole of the 
trunk has a slight tinge of a bluish or leaden hue. ‘The mane, dorsal 
line, and tuft of tail brown black; the dorsal line expands at the 

No, XIX.—New Series. B 


2 | Notice of the Kiang. [ JULY, 


rump : ears, outside isabella, inside white, tips and outer border brown 
black ; irides gray. He neighs like a horse. 

Manners. The animal is quite unmanageable by any one except his 
own saees. On the approach of a stranger he kicks or bites, and it is 
impossible to get near him to examine any part of his body. He is 
much attached to the Hill-poney, and never leaves him or allows him 
to be taken away. He will eat and drink only in company with the 
poney, which on this account has been sent with him to England. 

The Kiang is the same animal as the Dshikketaei first discovered in 
Siberia by Pallas and named by him Equus Hemionus. The Kiang 
was first seen on the plains of Tibet by Moorcroft, who says it is cer- 
tainly not the Gur-khur or wild ass of Sindh. The latter appears to 
have been considered the Equus Hemionus in Europe, where specimens 
are now living in the Zoological Gardens, and in Mr. Cross’s menagerie, 
London, and at the Garden of Plants in Paris. 

Besides the difference of habitat, there are two points which require 
to be settled before the identity of the Kiang with the Wild Ass of 
Cutch can be satisfactorily made out. The first relates to the nature 
of the voice ; the second to the presence or absence of Zebra-stripes. 

First with regard to the voice, the Kiang neighs like a horse, the 
wild ass of Cutch brays like an ass. 2nd. There are no Zebra-stripes 
in the Kiang, neither in the adult nor in the foal. In the wild ass of 
Cutch, transverse Zebra-stripes are seen on the shoulder in the adult, 
and still more in the foal. Sometimes also the shoulder-cross has been 
seen. In a live specimen at Mr. Cross’s there was a cross-band at the 
shoulder 4 inches long on each side.—Nouvelles Annales du Museum, 
Vali4 ype We 

The habitat of the Kiang is on the high table-land of Tibet, that of 
the wild ass of Cutch in the sultry plains near the mouth of the Indus. 

Mr. Hodgson has described the Kiang as a new species under the 
name of Equus polyodon. The anterior premolar, however, upon 
which Mr. H. bases his new species, is found not unfrequently in the 
common horse, and may be seen in two of the five specimens of the 
head of that animal in the Museum of the Asiatic Society ; whilst 
in the specimen of the Kiang in the same Museum, the anterior premo- 
lar does not exist, nor is there any trace of it. This evidence appears 
conclusive that the Kiang is not a new species, 

Hl. WALKER. 


1848. | Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 3 


Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds.—By Capt. Tuomas 
Hutton, F. G. S. (Communicated by EK. Buyta, Esq.) 


Captain Tickell having made a praiseworthy beginning, in the April 
number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society for 1848, to dispel the 
darkness that has hitherto hung over our knowledge of this portion 
of the history of the Birds of India, I have thought it advisable, being 
in possession of a few facts bearing on the subject, to follow in the 
path he has so well pointed out. 

No. 1.—“ Haliéetus Macei, Cuv. 

I notice this species because Captain Tickell has remarked that it 
“never makes the slightest attempt at defending its nest,—a striking 
contrast to the marvellous tales we read of, concerning the Golden 
Eagle in the Highlands of Scotland, &c.!’ This remark is correct only 
so long as there are eggs in the nest, for no sooner are these hatched 
than the temper of the bird becomes wholly changed, and it will then 
defend its young with fierceness and determination. The nests I have 
repeatedly found and robbed, both on the banks of the Ganges and of 
the Sutledge, and in all cases where they contained only eggs, not the 
least show of resistance was made,—the old birds either sailing away 
with a loud querulous cry,—or sullenly remaining on an adjacent tree 
watching the robbery that was gomg on. On one occasion, however, 
I met with a very different reception, when my servant was attacked 
with an unexpected ferocity from which nothing but my gun could have 
saved him. ‘The circumstance occurred in January 1832, when on my 
way up the country. The nest was placed near the summit of a tree 
growing on one of the Colgong rocks in the middle of the Ganges, and 
contained two half-fledged young ones. The old birds offered a most 
determined resistance, and without the aid of fire-arms we should 
decidedly have been defeated, as they dashed fiercely and fearlessly at 
the man in the tree, who prayed hard to be allowed to descend, and 
was only kept at his post by the promise of reward and fear of the 
cudgel. At first we had to contend with the female only, but after 
one or two rapid stoops and dashes at the robber’s head, which he 
avoided by bobbing under the nest,—finding she could make no im- 
pression, she suddenly uttered a shrill cry, which was responded to 
in the distance, and in an instant after, her mate was seen swiftly 

B 2 


A Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [JuLy, 


gliding to her aid from the opposite bank of the river. The two 
then charged together towards the nest with the rage and fierceness of 
despair, and so terrified the man in the tree, hampered as he was with 
the young ones, that had I not fired at and wounded the Eagles as 
they advanced, they would assuredly have hurled him into the river, 
In this manner however, after repeated attempts to come to the rescue, 
we managed at last to drive them off, and secure the booty. At the end 
of 5 weeks the young ones exhibited as nearly as possible the plumage 
of the bird figured by Hardwicke and Gray as “‘ H. lineatus.”’* 
No. 2.—[“‘ Ephialtes scops,” (L.) : 
&. spilocephalus, Blyth, (a large specimen in 
immature plumage). 
Scops pennata, Hodgson (grey variety) : 
Se. sunia, Hodgson (rufous variety.) ]. 


This species occurs on the Himalaya in the neighbourhood of Mus- 
sooree, at an elevation of about 5,000 feet, and nidificates in hollow 
trees, laying 3 pure white eggs, of a rounded form, on the rotten wood, 
without any preparation of a nest. Diameter of egg 1,3, x 1 ins. The 
nest was found on the 19th March. 

In the 169th number of the J. A. S. for 1846, Mr. Blyth has 
named and described this species as “ Ephialtes spilocephalus,” giving 
* Noctua auribarbis” and “ Athene badia”’ of Hodgson, as doubtful 
synonymes.t In plumage and aigrettes the bird is to all appearance a 
Scops or Lphialtes,—but the wing is that of Noctua or Athene, having 
the 4th and 5th feathers longest—whereas in Scops, as laid down by 
Mr. Hodgson in J. A. S. No. 65 of 1837,—the 3d and 4th are longest. 
Mr. Gray, in his Catalogue of the collection presented by Mr. Hodg- 
son to the British Museum, gives “ N. auribarbis” of that naturalist 
as a synonyme of ‘‘ Athene cuculoides” of Vigors,—but it seems scarce- 
ly probable that Mr. Hodgson would have placed his ‘‘ auribarbis”’ 

* Mr. G. R. Gray, in his Catalogue of Mr. Hodgson’s specimens presented to the 
British museum, erroneously gives H. lineatus as a synonyme of the common Kite of 
India : but the Kites are closely allied to the Haliteti, and immediately connected with 
them by the interposition of Haliastur. ‘The ferocity of the Indian Kite when it has 
young in its nest must have been remarked by most residents in this country.—E. B. 

+ Noctua auribarbis, Hodgson, is now referred by Mr. G, R. Gray (as mentioned 


above) to Athene cuculoides, and Ath. badia doubtfully as the young of Ath. Brodie. 
—E. B. 


1848. ] Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 5 


in the genus “ Noctua,” if the characters of the wing rendered it im- 
proper so to place it. Had such however been the case, the necessity 
for coining a new specific name is not apparent. This handsome little 
species appears to agree neither with Scops nor Athene,—for while the 
wing belongs to the latter genus,—the plumage, aigrettes and nude 
feet refer it to the former. It would now seem however that neither 
Scops nor Hphialtes can stand for a genus of Owls,—the first being 
otherwise employed in Ornithology,—while the latter is a genus in 
Entomology instituted by Gravenhorst. (Vide Nat. Lib. Introd. 
Entom.) It is therefore necessary to form a genus for these Owls. 
No. 3.—‘ Athene Brodiei.”’ (Burton). 

This pretty little species is exceedingly common in the Himalayas in 
the neighbourhood of Mussooree and Simla, and may be heard at 
nightfall uttering its monotonous but not unmusical whistle of two 
notes oft times repeated. Like the last, it nidificates in hollow trees 
without any preparation of a nest. On the I1th May, I found 3 
young ones and an egg just ready to hatch in a hole of a wild Cherry 
tree. The egg was nearly round and pure white, but being broken I 
could take no measurement of it. The young ones were clothed in a 
soft and pure white down. 

In both these instances, namely, ‘‘ 4. nudipes” and “ A. Brodiev,” 
the old females remained in the holes while we cut into the trees, and 
allowed themselves to be captured. 

No, 4.— Caprimulgus albonotatus,”’ Tickell. 
C. nipalensis, Hodgson, (Gray’s Zool. Mise.) 

Of this species, which is a summer visitor at Mussooree, Captain 
Tickell says, the eggs are—‘ fleshy clay colour, sprinkled with 
patches of darker brownish red; female, paler and redder.’ I took 2 
egos of this bird at an elevation of 5000 feet, on the 19th April, from 
the bare ground beneath bushes on the side of a hill, the colour being 
a rich cream white with darker blotches of reddish brown or clay 
colour. Of one the diameter was 11 x 4 inches ; the other was some- 
what smaller. 

No. 5.— Garrulus lanceolatus,” Vigors. 
G. gularis et G. Vigorsit. (Gray’s Il. Ind. Zool.) 

This is one of the commonest birds in the Ilills, usually appearing, 
except in the breeding season, in small parties of 5 or 6, most probably 


6 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [Juxy, 


comprising a family. It breeds in May and June, placing the nest 
sometimes on the branch of a tall oak tree (Quercus incana) ; at other 
times in a thick bush, It is composed of a foundation of twigs, and 
lined with fine roots of grass, &c., mixed with the long black fibres of 
ferns and mosses which hang upon the forest trees, and have much the 
appearance of black horse hair ; the nest is cup-shaped, rather shallow, 
loosely put together, circular and about 4% inches in diameter. The 
eggs are sometimes 3, sometimes 4 in number, of a greenish stone-grey, 
freckled chiefly at the larger end with dusky,—and a few black hair- 
like streaks, which are not always present; they vary also in the 
amount of dusky freckling at the large end. Shape ordinary. The 
nestling bird is devoid of the lanceolate markings on the throat, and in 
this stage is the ‘‘ Garrulus Vigorsw’ of Hardwicke and Gray.— 
“* Bun-sar-rah,” of hillmen. 

No. 6.—Garrulax albogularis, (Gould.) 

Cinclosoma albigula, Hodgson. 

Is very common at Mussooree at all seasons, and appears in large 
flocks of several families united. It breeds in April and May,—placing 
the nest in the forks of young oaks and other trees, about 7 to 8 feet 
from the ground, though sometimes higher, and fastening the sides of 
it firmly to the supporting twigs by tendrils of climbing plants. It is 
sometimes composed externally almost entirely of such woody tendrils, 
intermixed with a few other twigs, and lined with the black hair-like 
fibres of mosses and lichens; at other times it is externally composed 
of coarse dry grasses, and leaves of different kinds of Orchis, and lined 
with fibres,—the materials varying with the locality. Unlike the eggs 
of Crateropus, which are stated to be white,—in this species they are 
of a deep and beautiful green, shining as if recently varnished, and 3 in 
number. In shape they taper somewhat suddenly to the smaller end, 
which may almost be termed obtusely pointed ; the diameter 1,3; x 14 
inches. The usual number of eggs is three, though they vary some- 
times to one or two,—but only on one occasion out of more than a 
dozen, have I found four eggs. The old bird will remain on the nest 
until almost within reach of the hand. 

No. 7.— Trochalopteron ? rufigularis. (Gray’s Catalogue.) 
Crateropus rufimentum, (Hodgson.) 
This species differs from the last in not congregating into large and 


1848. | Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 7 


noisy flocks, but appearing usually, according to my observation, in 
pairs. It*breeds in May, in which month I took a nest at about 6,500 
feet, in a retired and wooded glen; it was composed of small twigs 
externally, and lmed with the fine black fibres of lichens, like the preced- 
ing. The nest was placed on a horizontal bough about 7 feet from the 
ground, and contained 3 pure white eggs. Diameter 12, x 11; and 
shape ordinary. The stomach of the old bird contained sand, seeds 
and the remains of wasps. 
No. 8,—“ Trochalopteron ? setifer, (Hodgson and Gray, Zool. Mise.) 
Cinclosoma setifer, Hodgson. 
C. lineatum, Vigors? 

If the colour of the eggs affords any generic character, this and the 
foregoing species cannot well rank together, for while in that the eggs 
are pure white, as in Crateropus, in this they are pale greenish blue 
(like those of ‘* deridotheres tristis.”)* The nest is loosely and rather 
slovenlily constructed of coarse dry grasses and stalks externally, lined 
sometimes with fine grass,—sometimes with fine roots. It is placed 
near the ground in the midst of some thick low bush,—or on the side 
of a bank amidst overhanging coarse grass, and not unfrequently in 
exposed and well frequented places. The eggs are 3 in number, and 
in shape and size exceedingly variable, being sometimes of an ordinary 
oval—at others nearly round. Diameter varying,—1l,?, x {%;—or 
1 inch x 14; or 14 x 11. The most usual measurement however is the 
second one, or 1 inch x 4 inches. 

In these three species, which have sometimes been placed in Cinclo- 
soma,—sometimes in Garrulaz,—and again in Crateropus,—there 
are several points both of similarity and dissimilarity, in their habits 
and manners. 

In the number of eggs they agree, and there is a general similitude in 
the construction of the nest, more so between the two first—less so 
between them and the last ;—in the colour of the eggs they all differ 
very materially ; the first congregates into large and noisy flocks,— 
turning up the dead leaves and screaming and chattering together in 
most discordant concert. The second is most usually in pairs—some- 
times in a family of 4 or 5 ;—the last in pairs or family of 4 or 5, and 
to be seen under every bush. Its mode of flight and its note are totally 
unlike the other two. Any one observing the birds in their native 


* So in Ruticilla phenicurus the eggs are blue; in R, tithys, white.--E. B, 


8 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [ JuLy, 


haunts, could not fail to perceive that G. albogularis and G. leucolo- 
phus are allied in manners, voice and habits ;—that G. rufigularis, G. 
vrythrocephalus and G. variegatus are likewise allied,—and that Trocha- 
lopteron setifer vel lineatum stands distinct from all; the three forming 
distinct sections of the same group.* 
No. 9.—“ Acridotheres griseus,” (Horsfield.) 
Maina cristalloides, Hodgson. 

This is a summer visitor in the hills, and is common at Mussooree 
during that season, but it does not appear to visit Simla, although it is 
to be found in some of the valleys below it to the south. It breeds at 
Mussooree in May and June, selecting holes in the forest trees, gene- 
rally large oaks, which it lines with dry grass and feathers ;—the eggs 
are from 3 to 5, of a pale greenish blue ; shape ordinary, but somewhat 
inclined to taper to the smaller end ;—diameter 1,3, x 43 inches; or 
1,2, x 42 inches. This species usually arrives from the valley of the 
Doon about the middle of March; and until they begin to sit on their 
egos, they congregate every evening into small flocks and roost toge- 
ther in trees near houses; in the morning they separate for the day 
into pairs and proceed with the building of nests or laying of eggs. 
After the young are hatched and well able to fiy, all betake themselves 
to the Doon in July. 

No. 10.—‘* Acridotheres tristis,” (Linn. ?) 

This too is a summer visitor in the hills, arriving with the preced- 
ing species. The colour and number of eggs are also the same. It 
is curious however to observe that while Mr. Blyth and Captain Tic- 
kell state, that it builds in “ out-houses, verandas and trees,” in which 
last, according to the latter gentleman, the nest is composed of “ twigs 
and grass within,’’—with us in the mountains its habits are precisely 
those of 4. griseus, and as with it, the hole of a tree is selected and 
lined with dry grass and feathers ;—on no occasion have I ever seen a 
nest made on the branches of a tree, and only once in any place except 
the hollows of large oaks ; the exception being in the chimney of my 
house, which the stupid bird had evidently mistaken for a hollow tree, 
and seemed to be amazed that all the grass and feathers dropped into 
it invariably fell to the bottom ; at last it contrived to place some grass 

* The difficulty is to class such species as cerulatus, ruficollis, and others of interme- 


diate character. My imbricatus would rank with /ineatus, and numerous species in 
Capt. Hutton’s second group.—E, B. 


1848. | Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 9 


on a projecting brick. Can this difference betoken a distinction in 
species ? I am inclined to believe it—for why in the plains should a 
nest be constructed among the open branches of trees,*—while in the 
mountains it is constructed within their hollow trunks? If distinct, 
it will, I imagine, bear Mr. Hedgson’s ill-constructed name of “ 4. 
tristoides.”’ + 


No. 1]1.—‘‘ Corvus culminatus,” Sykes. 


[C. ortentalis, Eversmann]. 


Occurs at Mussooree throughout the year, and is very destructive 
to young fowls and pigeons; it breeds in May and June, and selects a 
tall tree, near a house or village, on which to build its nest, which is 
composed externally of dried sticks and twigs, and lined with grass and 
hair, which latter material it will pick from the backs of horses and 
cows,—or from skins of animals laid out to dry. I have had skins of 
the Surréw (Nemorhedus thar) nearly destroyed from their depreda- 
tions. The eggs are 3 or 4 in number and of a dull green, thickly spot- 
ted over with long and sometimes confluent spots and dashes of dusky 
brown or blackish. Diameter 1,9, x 1 inch. 

No. 12.—*‘ Saroglossa spiloptera,’ Hodgson. 
Lamprotornis spilopterus, Vigors. 

This species arrives in the hills about the middle of April, in small 
parties of 5 or 6, but it does not appear to ascend above 5,500 to 6,000 
feet, and is therefore more properly an inhabitant of the warm valleys. 
I do not remember seeing it at Mussooree, which is 6,500 to 7,000 
feet,—although at 5,200 feet on the same range, it is abundant during 
summer. Its note and flight are very much those of the Starling 
(Sturnus vulgaris), and it delights to take a short and rapid flight and 
return twittering to perch on the very summit of the forest trees ; I 
have never seen it on the ground, and its food appears to consist of berries. 
Like our two species of Acridotheres, it nidificates in the holes of trees, 
ning the cavity with bits of leaves, cut by itself ; the eggs are usually 
3, or sometimes 4 or 5, of a delicate pale sca green, speckled with 


* Has Captain Tickell recorded this on his own personal knowledge,—or from informa- 
tion furnished by the natives? If the latter, I suspect Captain T. has been deceived. 

+ Mr. Hodgson’s specimens marked tristoides are specifically undistinguishable from 
those of the plains. In those from Ceylon the general colouring is invariably deeper, but 
there is no other difference.—E. B. 


C 


10 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [JuLy, 


blood-like stains, which sometimes tend to form a ring near the larger 
end—shape oval, somewhat tapering ; diameter 11, x 14 inches. 
No. 13.—‘* Pomatorhinus erythrogenys,”’ Vigors. 
P. ferrugilatus, Hodgson. 

Common from 3,500 feet up to 10,000 or 12,000 feet ; always in 
pairs, turning up the dead leaves on copse-wood covered banks, utter- 
ing a loud whistle, answering and calling each other. It breeds in 
April, constructing its nest on the ground, of coarse dry grasses and 
leaf stalks of walnut trees, &c.; covered with a dome-shaped roof so 
nicely blended with the fallen leaves and withered grasses among which 
it is placed as to be almost undistinguishable from them. The eggs 
are 3 in number and pure white; diameter 1,2, x 13 inches, of an 
ordinary oval shape. When disturbed the bird sprung along the ground 
with long bounding hops so quickly, that from its motions and the 
appearance of the nest, I was led to believe it a species of Rat. The 
nest is placed in a slight hollow, probably formed by the bird itself. 

No. 14.— Pycnonotus leucogenys,” Gray. 
Ixos leucogenys, Hodgson & Gray. 
Brachypus leucogenys, (Hardw., Gray. Ill, 
Ind. Zool. 

Common in the Doon all the year, and in the hills during the sum- 
mer. It breeds in April and May. The nest is neat and cup-shaped, 
placed in the forks of bushes or pollard trees, and is composed exter- 
nally of the dried stalks of ‘ Forget-me-not,’’—lined with fine grass- 
stalks ; eggs 3 or 4, rosy or faint purplish white, thickly sprinkled with 
specks and spots of darker rufescent purple or claret colour; diameter 
44 x 12 inches ;—diameter of nest 23 inches and 13 inch deep. 
Sometimes the outside of the nest is composed of fine dried stalks of 
woody plants, whose roughness causes them to adhere together. 

No. 15.—* Hypsipetes psaroides,” Vigors. 

Exceedingly common at Mussooree in large flocks during the winter 
and spring. In the latter season, when the Rhododendron arboreum 
is covered with its bunches of deep crimson flowers, these birds may be 
seen thrusting their beaks into every flower in search of insects and 
nectar, and the forehead is in consequence then generally covered with 
the pollen and sweets derived from the flowers. It pairs in April and 
appears fond of the wild mulberries and other forest berries which 


1848.] Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 11 


then abound in some of the gles. In March, at an elevation of 5000 
feet, I saw them feeding on the wild cherries. They breed during 
April, May and June, making a rather neat cup-shaped nest, which is 
usually placed in the bifurcation of a horizontal branch of some tall 
tree ;—the bottom of it is composed of thin dead leaves and dried 
grasses, and the sides of fine woody stalks of plants, such as those 
used by Pycnonotus leucogenys, and they are well plastered over extern- 
ally with spiders’ webs ; the lining is sometimes of very fine tendrils, at 
other times of dry grasses, fibrous lichens and thin shavings of the 
bark of trees, left by the wood-cutters. I have one nest, however, 
which is externally formed of green moss with a few dry stalks, and 
the spiders’ webs instead of being plastered all over the outside, are 
merely used to bind the nest to the small branches among which it 
is placed. The lining is of bark shavings, dry grasses, black fibrous 
lichens and a few fine seed stalks of grasses. The diameter of the nest 
is 23 inches; and 13 inch deep. The eggs are usually 3 in number, of 
a rosy or purplish white sprinkled over rather numerously with deep 
claret or rufescent-purple specks and spots. In colours and distribu- 
tion of spots there is great variation,—sometimes the rufous and some- 
times the purple spots prevailing ;—sometimes the spots are mere 
specks and freckles,—sometimes large and forming blotches ;—in some 
the spots are wide apart,—in others they are nearly and sometimes in 
places quite confluent ; while from one nest the eggs were white, with 
widely dispersed dark purple spots, and dull indistinct ones appearing 
under the shell. In all, the spots are more crowded at the larger end. 
Diameter varying from 1 x +4 inches, to 1,4; x 12 inches. “ Bun 
bukri?’ of hill-men, from a fancied resemblance of one of its cries to 
that of a goat. 


No. 16.— Treron sphenurus,” (Vigors.) 


Vinago sphenura, Vigors. 
Ptilonopus macronotus et turturoides. (Hodg., Gray.) © 


Treron cantillans, Blyth, (the caged bird, moulted in confinement.) 
This species, which is the ‘‘ Kookla’”’ of the natives, arrives in the 
neighbourhood of Mussooree in the beginning of April, and remains 
during the summer to breed ; it is usually silent during the height of 
the monsoon, but may occasionally be heard on a brght day. It is 
c 2 


12 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [ Jury, 


probable that it migrates to the eastward on leaving Mussooree, as it 
does not winter in the Doon, nor does it occur there even in summer, 
being apparently a true hill species. In confinement it looses or does 
not put on the maronne mantle which ornaments the wild bird, and the 
plumage assumes a dull greenish-ashy hue, in which state it is the 7. 
cantillans of Mr. Blyth.* The nest is composed of dried twigs, and 
the eggs are usually 2 in number and pure white, and more gracefully 
ovate than those of Turtur risorius. Diameter 1-2; x 13 inches. The 
breeding season is from the end of April till the latter end of June ; 
the nest a slight platform, usually placed in high forest trees. In 
October they collect into small flocks of 6 or 8, and quit the neighbour- 
hood of Mussooree ;—where do they then go to? The female differs 
from the male in the absence of the fulvous colour of the top of the 
head and breast, and in wanting the beautiful maronne colour on the 
mantle and lesser wing-coverts ; the greater wing-coverts are also more 
broadly edged with pale yellow. I observe that Mr. Blyth states of 
this species that it is distinguishable from T. nipalensis, (Hodgson,) 
‘by having but a slight pale yellow margin to only the great coverts 
of the wing; whereas in both male and female, the great coverts, 
tertiaries, and primaries are edged with that colour, although on the 
latter it amounts to a mere thread. These birds are very fond of the 
wild mulberries and other forest fruits. Gould, in his ‘ Century of Birds,’ 
appears to think the species is only found far within the mountains, 
whereas it occurs on the outer or southernmost range overhanging the 
Doon, from an elevation of 4,000 feet, probably to the snows. The Huryal, 
or T. phenicopterus, lays a similar egg, but is confined to the plains, 
ranging up to the base of the mountains but never ascending them. 
No. 17.— Turtur risorius,” Selby. 
Columba risoria, Linn. 
T. douraca, Hodg., Gray. 

This is common in the Doon at all seasons, but only visits Mussoo- 
ree during summer, arriving on the hills about the end of March and 
returning to the plains in October. It breeds in April, May and June, 
making a loose platform nest of dried twigs, with a few roots within ; 
the eggs are 2 in number and pure white ; diameter 1,3, x 14 inches. 


* Tn the bird described by me as Tr. cantillauns, the maronne colour is retained, and 
the green replaced by pearl-grey. I now believe, however, with Capt. Hutton, that 
it is a cage variety of Tr. sphenurus.—E. B. 


1848. | Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang. 13 


No. 18.—*‘ Turtur orientalis,’ (Latham.) 
Columba meena, Sykes. 
C. agricola, Tickell. 
C. pulchrala, Wodg. 
C. ferrago, Eversmann. 

This also is a mere summer visitor at Mussooree, where it arrives 
early in April, when every wood resounds with its deep-toned cooing ; 
—it is not found lower than 6,000 feet with us,—and departs in Octo- 
ber. At Mussooree it breeds in May, making a platform nest on tall 
forest trees; the eggs are 2 and pure white ;—diameter 1,4, x 14 


inches. 
No. 19.— Turtur suratensis,’ (Gm.) 


T. vitticollis, Hodg. 
Columba tigrina, Temm. 

Abundant in the Doon, and arrives in the hills in the end of March, 
leaving again in the autumn. It breeds at about-5,000 feet—and lays 
2 white eggs,—diameter 1 inch X 13. Captain Tickell says, ‘‘eggs 2 
to 6;” I have never seen more than 2 in any nest. 

No. 20.—Turtur senegalensis, (Linn.) 
C. cambaiensis, Gm. 

Arrives at 5,000 feet like the others, about March or April, departing 
again in Autumn ;—its eggs are 2, and pure white ;—diameter 1 inch 
%* +3 [have observed in this, as well as in the foregoing different 
species of Turtur, a tendency in the eggs to become suddenly pointed, 
or slightly nipple-shaped. 

(To be continued.) 


Verification of the Itinerary of the Chinese Pilgrim, Hwan Tusana, 
through Afghanistan and India, during the first half of the seventh 
century of the Christian Era. By AtEx. CUNNINGHAM, Capt. 
Engineers. | 
The numbers are those of M. Landresse, the Editor of the For-Kur- 

K1, which I retain for the purpose of easy reference. Where not other- 

wise specified the distances and bearings of the modern places agree with 

those of Hwan Thsang. The identifications of Landresse and Lassen 
have their names attached to them. The other identifications have 


14 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang | JuLy, - 


been made by myself. My remarks are separated from the text by 
brackets. 

No. 5—Cue-sui or Sut, situated on the river Ye. (Téshkand or 
Shdsh, on the Sihin or Jaxartes—Landresse.) 

Thence at 1000 (166 miles) to the S. E. 

No. 6—Pu-xan, to the East of the river Ye. (Khwékand, 35155 
or Kokdn.) 

Thence at 1000 &@ (166 miles) to the W. 

No. 7—Svu-tTu-i-se-nA, to the eastward of the river Ye. (Satrustah, 
&ineg rdw, Of Ibn Haukal. Landresse gives Osrushna, 4&9 ,0!, which is 
the reading of Abulfeda, of Naser-ud-din Tusi, and of Ulugh Beg.) To 
the north-west is the great sandy desert. (This is of course the sandy 
waste now called Kizil-Kum.) 

Thence at 500 i (83 miles.) 

No. 8—So-mo-k1an, KuanG-x1u or Knane—(Samarkand—Lan- 
dresse.) 

No. 9—M1-mo-no, (Maimorgh,—Landresse. This place is perhaps 
the Indikomordana of Ptolemy.) 

Thence to the N. 

No. 10—Kuer-pu-Tan-na or Tsao. (Probably Kohistan, the Kilah 
Kaukén, wlf3'f, of Ibn Haukal, one day’s journey beyond Derbend, on 
the road from Chagénidn. It seems to answer to the position of the 
rock of Chorienes.) 

Thence at 300 i (50 miles) to the W. 

No. 11—K1u-sHwAnG-nI-k1A or KueEI-sHwanG-No. (Kesh or 
Shehr-i-Sabz. This town no doubt took its name from the Kuei-shang 
tribe of Yu-chi, as noticed by me some years ago in an article on the 
monograms found upon the Ariano-Grecian coins, which was published 
in the 8th volume of the Numismatic Chronicle of London.) 

Thence at 200 li (33 miles) to the W. 

No. 12—Ko-nan, Tune-an—(Perhaps Karshi, or some place to the 
northward of it.) 

Thence at 400 i (66 miles) to the W. 

No. 13—Pu-no, Cuunc-an. (Bokhéra—Landresse.) 

Thence at 400 li (66 miles) to the W. 

No. 14—Fa-t1, S1-an. (This I believe to be an old name for the 
ferry of Char-jui on the Oxus.) 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 15 


Thence at 500 di (83 miles) to the S. W. 

No. 15—Ho-x1-st-m1-K1a or Ho-rstu. (Perhaps dlasadda Marv, 
or Alexandria Margiané, the modern Merv.) 

From So-mo-x1an, at 300 li (50 miles) to the 8. W. 

No. 16—Ko-suwane-na (Kesh, as already noticed in No. 11.) At 
300 % (50 miles) to the 8. E. was the Iron Gate. (This is the well 
known Derbend-i-Ahina, commonly called Kolugha ; a proof of the cor- 
rectness of the identification of Kesh.) 

No. 17—Tv-nHo-1o, (Tochari of Ptolemy,—Landresse.) To the north 
of the Oxus and to the south of the Iron Gate. (It therefore corre- 
sponds exactly with the Tokhdrestan of the Musalman Geographers.) 

Below Tu-Ho-to lies 

No. 18—Tan-m1, on the north of the Fu-ssre-su. (Termed to the 
north of the Waksh-su, or Oxus river.) 

Thence to the E. 

No. 19—Cuut-ao-vyAn-NA. (Chaganidn.) 

Thence to the E. 

No. 20—Hu-tu-mo. (Perhaps the Hamurdn, wl)9+%, of Edrisi, 30 
miles to the eastward of Saganian.) 

Thence to the E. 

No. 21—Iv-man, which stretches to the Oxus on the 8. W. (This 
must be the Shumdn or Nomdn of Ibn Haukal, the Shumdn of Abul- 
feda, and the Sumdn of Edrisi, which was 93 miles to the eastward of 
Hamurdan.) 

Thence to 

No. 22—Kiv-Ho-yan-na. (Perhaps the Andidn of Edrisi and the 
Alubaén of Ibn Haukal.) 

Thence to the E. 

No. 23—Huv-sua. (The district of Waksh of the Mahomedan Geo- 
graphers.) 

Thence to 

No. 24—Ko-ru-Lo. (The well known district of Khuéldén on the 
northern bank of the Upper Oxus.) | 

Thence to. 

No. 25—K1iv-m1-tuo, the mountains of TsunG-LINnG, and to the 
S. W. the river Fa-rsu. (These are clearly the Vallis Komedorum, and. 
the Komede Montes of Ptolemy, with the river Oxus to the 8. W.) 


16 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [JuLy, 


(As the other names mentioned in this paragraph occur again, they 
are here omitted.) 

To the 8: W. 

No. 26—Fo-k1a-Lane. (Baghaldn, to the W. N. W. of Anderab). 

Thence to the 8S. 

No. 27—Ki-Lv-SI-MIN-KIAN. — (Perhaps Khinjan, to the W. of 
Anderab.) 

Thence to the N. W. 

No. 28—Hv-pin. (Probably Mazar near Balkh.) 

Thence to the W. 

No. 29—Fo-xKo, bounded by the river Fa-rsu to the N. (Undoubt, 
edly Baktra or Balkh, and not Badakshin as supposed by Landresse- 
Badakshan is called Po-rHo-TsaNG-NA.) 

Thence towards the snowy mountains. 

No. 30—Yver-mi-THo. (Perhaps Maimuna, the Yehudiah of Edrisi, 
and the EYOYSMOY ANAS2A of Ptolemy, for which I propose to read 
ETOYAHMOY ANAZZA,) 

To the S. W. 

No. 31—Hv-su1-xK1an. (Kushhk, to the north of Herat, the Kasiké 
of Ptolemy.) 

Thence to the N. W. 

No. 32—Ta-ua-K1an. (Télikan.—lIf the last identification is correct, 
the bearing should be N. E. ; as according to Edrisi, 'Talekan stood upon 
the high road leading from Merv to Balkh. Landresse has identified 
this with the lesser Talikan, to the eastward of Balkh, a mistake imto 
which he was led by identifymg Fo-xo with Badakshdn, but Hwan 
Thsdng particularly notices that Ta-La-K1AN stretched to PHo-LO-ssE 
or Persia, on the westward.) 

From Fo-xo, at 100 Z (16 miles) to the S. 

No. 33—Ko-cu1. (There is no map of the Balkh river in existence ; 
this place therefore cannot be identified.) 

Thence to the 8. E. towards the snowy mountains. 

No. 34—Fan-van-nA. (Bémidn,—Landresse.) 

Thence to the E. over a snowy chain and the black mountains. 

No. 35—K1a-pi-suE, at the foot of the mountains of TsuNG-LING. 
(Lassen has identified this with the Kapisa of Ptolemy, and the Capissa 
of Pliny, which I further identity with the Caphusa of Solinus, and 


1848. ] through Afyhanistan and India. 17 


with the Kafshan, wl-2S, or Kushdn, wl9S, of the present day.) To the 
S. of the town, at 40 i (nearly 7 miles) was the town of S1-p1-To-ra-La- 
ssE (in Sanskrit, Sweta-varsha, the “ white district,” perhaps the modern 
Ghorband, from the Sanskrit gaura-vartta, or “white region.”) Thence — 
at 30 i (5 miles) to the 8. mount A-Lu-Nnao, (im Sanskrit, druna, 
““dark red.””) To the N. W. of the capital, at 200 d (33 miles) are the 
great snowy mountains (the Hindu Kush) and to the 8S. W. of the same 
is mount Pr-Lo-so-Lo, “firm as an Elephant,’ (in Sanskrit, plu, an 
elephant, and sdéra, strength.) To the south of Kushdn there is a small 
isolated hill, im Walker's map, which is probably the mountain here 
mentioned.) Thence to the E. at 600 Z (100 miles) over the difficult 
passes of the Black mountains, is the frontier of northern India, and 

No. 36—Lam-puo. Lamghan, Lassen—the district of Ptolemy’s 
Lambate. 

Thence to the S. E. at 100 & (17 miles) across a mountain range and 
a great river, 

No. 37—Na-kKo-Lo-HOo, surrounded on all sides by hills, and possess- 
ing some lofty topes built by Asoka. (Nangrihar, the Nagara or 
Dionysopolis of Ptolemy, and the Nysa of Alexander’s historians ; most 
probably Begrém near Jallilabad. It is the Na-Kie of Fa-Hian, close 
to which was H1-1o, the present Hidda, where Masson opened several 
topes. The name of Dionysopolis was still existing at the time of Mah- 
mud Ghaznavi’s invasion; for Al Biruni mentions the town of Dinus or 
Dinuz, as being situated about midway between Kabul and Parashawar. 
t have a suspicion that the Adinahpur of Abul Fazl, Ayin Akbari, 
2,165, is only a Mahomedan alteration of the same name.) 

Thence to the S. E. at 500 Z (83 miles) across some mountains, to 

No. 38—Kuan-to-Lo. Gandhara—Lassen. The capital is called 
Pu-Lu-sHA-Pu-Lo. (Parashéiwara, the Parshiwar of Abu Rihén and 
Baber, and the modern Peshdwar, a name given by Akbar to denote a 
frontier town.) To the N. E. of the monastery of King K1a-ni-st-K1a, 
(Kanishka) and across a large stream (the Kabul river) was the town of 
Pu-sE-ko-LA-FA-TI. (In Sanskrit, Pushkaldvati, in Prakrit, Pukkalaoti, 
the original of the Greek Mevecdawris, as Pukkala was of the Greek 
TlevxeAa, It corresponds to the modern Hashtnagar or Hastinagara, 
which perhaps derives its name from Astes or Hasti, the chief of Peu- 
kelaotis in the time of Alexander.) To the 8. E. of this was the town 

D 


18 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [JuLy, 


of Pa-Lu-sHa (perhaps the Nicetta of General Court’s map,) from 
which to the N. E. at 50% (8 or 9 miles) stood the temple of Pi-ma, 
the wife of Iswara (Bhimd, one of the many names of Durga, the consort 
of Siva. The temple must have been close to the present Noshehra.) 
Thence to the 8. E. at 150 &@ (25 miles) was the town of U-ro-x1a- 
HAN-CHA, resting on the Indus to the 8. with the city of PHo-Lo-ruv- 
Lo at 20 i (3 or 4 miles) to the N. W. (Taking the recorded distances 
and bearings from Noshetra, and from Pio-1Lo-ruv-Lo, the present 
ruins of Parthdwara or Bithor, the position of U-ro-K1a-HAN-CHA, 
must be looked for in the neighbourhood of Nildéd, which agrees with 
Hwang Thsang’s measurements in two of the best maps, those of Walker 
and Mirza Mogal Beg. ‘The present Attak was built by Akbar: and 
it is besides to the N. of the ruins of Parthdwara, instead of tothe S. E. 
The name is usually derived from <Attak, prevention; and a silly story 
is added that it is so named because the Hindus are forbidden to cross 
the Indus. But the name of Attak belongs to the fown and not to the 
river ; and f believe that the word has a very different signification. If 
_ the original name really was derived from We, artha, prevention, it must 
have been given to the place from the natural obstacle which the rocks 
here present to the passage of the river. Buta preferable derivation 
in my opinion would be from Ya, wz, much, 4, érri, passing over, that 
is, the place of much passage, or in other words the “chief ferry.”” The 
Chinese syllables seem to point to Uétak and not to Attak, and I suggest 
the above as the most probable derivation of U-ro-K1A-HAN-cHA ; for 
the modern name of Attok is, I believe, only one of Akbar’s numerous 
alterations of names, manufactured to suit the frivolous meanings at- 
tached to them by Musalmans.) 

From thence to the N. across mountainss and rivers, at 600 Z (100 
miles) 

No. 39—U-cuanc-na, or ‘the Garden,’ 
(This has already been identified by Lassen with Udydna or Ujjana, 


5) 


capital MENG-HO-LE. 


which has the same signification. The position indicated agrees wigh 
the modern valley of Swit, of which the capital for many centuries past 
has been Manglora; no doubt the Mene-Ho-1i of Hwan Thsang. 
This identification is rendered quite certaim by the mention immediately 
afterwards that at 250 or 260 /: (40 to 43 miles) to the N. E. of the 
capital, and on a high mountain, was situated the spring of A-PHO-LO-LO, 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 19 


which was the source of the Su-pHo-ra-su-Tu, or Swat river, nn San- 
skrit Subhavastu, which flows to the S. W. as stated by Hwan Thsang.) 
To the 8. of Mrene-H0-11, at 200 & (33 miles) was the great forest of 
Ma-wa-ra-NA. (This is no doubt the high jungly hill now called 
Mahdban, in Sanskrit Maha-vana, around the end of which the Indus 
sweeps in the neighbourhood of Derbend. From Turee, the W. peak of 
this well known hill bears E. 71° 30’, and from Akora it bears E- 
55° 40/.) To the W. of the capital, at 50 i (8 or 9 miles) and across 
the river, was a monastry built by Asoka, called Lu-yi-ra-x1a, or “the 
red” (in Sanskrit Lohitaka.) To the N. KE. at 30 & (5 miles) was the 
monastery of Ko-pu-ro. Thence to the W. across the river there was 
a statue of A-FO-LU-CHI-TI-SHE-FA-LO-PHU-SA, (perhaps Aparajiteswa- 
ra Bodhisatwa.) To the N. E. of Menc-Ho-11, over the mountains, 
and ascending the Indus, at 1000 / (166 miles) and over some suspen- 
sion bridges, was the brook Tu-u1-Lo, where once stood the capital of 
Udyéna. (Both distance and bearing point to the Dardu district of 
Darél on the Indus, to the south of Gilgit. The Chinese syllables are 
indeed only a literal transcript of Darél. Fa Hian calls it Tuo-1.) 

Thence to the E. over mountains, at 500 Zi (83 miles) to 

No. 40—Po-.v-Lo, amidst the snowy mountains. (In No. 134, this 
kingdom is said to be to the S. of PHo-m1-Lo or Pémer, and to produce 
*“much gold.” ‘These two bearings from Darél and Pémer point to the 
kingdom of Balti or Little Tibet, which is still called Palolo by all class- 
es of the Dardus. It is besides famed for its gold dust. As Balti like- 
wise abounds in rock-crystal, the Persian y9/3, Bélorgis probably derived 
from the name of this district; and the Bolor mountains may perhaps 
mean simply the “crystal mountains.” The name of Bilor is not how- 
ever confined to Persian; for the Chinese know Puo-u1 or Bilor as a 
synonyme of Sr-pHo-ti-K1A, or Sphatika, watea, “rock crystal.” 

From U-ro-k1A-HAN-CHA, across the Indus to the S. was 

No. 41—Tan-cua-sui-Lo, the boundary of India towards the north, 
and a dependency of Kashmir.—(This is the Sanskrit Takshasila, and 
Pali Takkasila, the Taxila of the Greeks, as noticed by Lassen.—It is 
undoubtedly the present Manikydla, which is surrounded by ruins. One 
of the neighbouring villages is still called Takkdla, a name of the same 
import as Takkasila, and most of the coins now procurable at Rawal- 
Pindi and in the neighbouring villages are brought from Manikyala.) To 

D 2 


20 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwang Thsang [JuLy, 


the S. E. at 30 (5 miles) was a monastery built by Asoka, called ac- 
cording to Fa Hian, Cuu-suA-sHI-Lo, signifying ‘‘tete coupée,”’ (in 
Sanskrit Chutya-sira, Remusat.)—The king was named Cu EN-THA-LO- 
PO-LA-PHO, or “ moonlight’ (a literal transcript of the Sanskrit Chandra- 
prabha.) To theS. E. of the town was a Stupa built by Kevu-Lane- 
Nu, the son of Asoka. (I take this name to be a Chinese rendering of 
Kuloka, which is a synonyme of Jaloka, the name of Asoka’s son, who 
reigned over Kashmir. According to Wilford, one of Asoka’s sons was 
named Kuldta, a name of precisely the same meaning as Jaloka and 
Kuloka. Fa Wian mentions only two topes at this place. 1st,—that 
of Chutyasira, where Buddha made an “offering of his head,” beside 
which was a Vihdra or monastery of the same name—2nd, that where 
Buddha made an “ offering of his body” to a hungry tiger. The latter 
is probably that which is mentioned by Hwan Thsing as having been 
built by Kru-Lane-nu, the son of Asoka. There is no doubt however 
that it is the great Manikyala tope which was opened by General Ventu- 
ra; for the small silver disc found in that tope bears a short mmscription 
of only two lines, of which the upper line reads PAVS Gomangasa, in 
Sanskrit araweeg, “of the abandoned body,” from AW, guna, abandoning, 
and Ww, angga, body. The great tope was therefore built upon the 
spot where Buddha “abandoned his body” to a hungry tiger (abandon- 


ined an inscription which mentions “‘ Kanishka, Maha- 


né son corps dian tigre affamé).—The smaller tope opened by Genera} 
Court also - 


raja of the Gushang (tribe).”’—It must therefore have been built either 
by him or during his reign,—It bears a date also, which I have not yet 
been able to read.) 

Thence to the 8. E. at 700 di (117 miles) across mountains (that is 
over the Salt range) to 

No. 42—SENG-HO-PU-LO, a dependency of Kashmir, bounded on the 
west by the river Sindh or Indus. (Both distance and bearing bring 
us to the position of Sanghela, between the Chendb and Ravi, which 
Wilford identified with the Sangala of Arrian. I could hear nothing 
of this place: but Sagara or Jéngala, with a small natural jhz/, or sheet 
of water, was well known.) 

From Tan-cuA-sui-Lo, across the Sindh to the N. to some nameless 
place, to the 8. E. of which at 200 / (33 miles) was a great stone gate, 
(probably Derbend, where the Indus breaks through the mountains.) 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 91 


Here was a Stupa built by Asoka on the spot where Sakya had made an 
offering of his body. (Close to Derbend, at a place called Kabal, there 
are several topes.) 

Thence to the S. KE. amongst the mountains, at 500 i (83 miles) to 

No. 43—U-ta-su1, a dependency of Kashmir. To the S. W. of the 
capital, at 4 or 5 % (rather more than half a mile) wasa stupa built by 
Asoka. (This is clearly the Varsa regio of Ptolemy, and the Urasa of 
the Raja Taringini, a mountainous district where Sankara Varmma of 
Kashmir was killed by an arrow. It corresponds in position to the 
modern district of Rash, a part of Dhantawar where there still exist two 
small topes, of which one is situated within a mile of Mangali, the for- 
mer capital of the country. The people of Urasa or Varsa, with those 
of Gilgit or Gilit (as it is called by themselves) would appear to be 
jomed together in Pliny’s Aysa-galite, who are named as neighbours of 
the Peukolaite. Mirza Mogal Beg places a tribe of Urasis on the 
Upper Kunar River; and Lieut. Leach locates a clan of the same name 
at the head of the Alingar river. | 

Thence to the 8S. E. over mountains and iron bridges at 1000 i (166 
miles) to 

No. 44—Kua-sue-m1-Lo, Kdsmira,—Landresse. The capital rests to 
the westward ona large river (the Vitasta or Behat) where are four 
Stupas built by Asoka. (This is the present capital called Srinagara). 
To the 8. E. of the new, town at 10 % (13 miles) is the ancient town. 
(This is the present Pdndrethdn, a corruption of Purdnadhisthana, the 
“old capital,’ which is situated 1} miles to the S. E. of the Takht-i- 
Suliman. The present town of Srinagara was built by Pravarasena 
between A. D. 432—462. It was therefore a new town at the period of 
Hwan Thsang’s visit. M. Troyer in his disquisition on the Kashmiriau 
Chronology (Raj. Tar. Vol. II. p. 420) asks whether the Asoka of 
Kashmir, is the same as Asoka Maurya, the grandson of Chandra Gupta, 
and afterwards declares his belief that they were different persons. But 
the accurate Chinese pilgrim in his notice of Kashmir distinctly men- 
tions that one of its former rulers was Asoka, king of Magadha. In fact 
we know from existing inscriptions, engraved with an iron pen on the 
rock for ever at Dhauli in Katak (Cuttak), at Junagiri in Surashtra 
(Gujrat), and at Shah-baz-garhi to the N. E. of Peshawar, that the whole 
of India to the north of the Narbada, from the Indus to the mouths of 


22 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwang Thsang [ Jury, 


the Ganges, was tributary to Asoka Maurya, the Sophagasenas of the 
time of Antiochus the great; Subhaga being only a synonyme of 
Asoka.) 

Thence to the 8S. W. across the mountains at 700 & (117 miles) to 

No. 45—Pan-nv-cua, a dependency of Kashmir. (This is not the 
Panjab, as generally supposed; but Panxuch or Punach, the Punch of 
the maps, a place which answers to the bearmg and distance given by 
Hwan Thsang, and which was undoubtedly a dependency of Kashmir at 
the period of his visit.) 

Thence to the S. E. at 400 & (67 miles) to 

No. 46—Ko-.Lo-cHE-Pu-Lo, also a dependency of Kashmir. (The 
distance and bearing pot to the neighbourhood of Rajaori, on the Tohi 
river. The second and third syllables, Lo-cueE, are a transcript of Raja, 
and the last two, pU-LO, are a transcript of pura. We thus have Raja- 
pura, aname synonimous with Rajdwara, but I am unable to offer 
any explanation of the prefix Ko. Radwar was always a dependency 
of Kashmir). 

Thence to the S. E. across the river at 700 d (117 miles) to 

No. 47—Tuse-k1a—to the E. of which was the river P1-po-cup, 
(the Vipdsa or Byds) and to the W. the river Srn-ru (the Sindhu, or 
indus.) The distance and bearing bring us to the neighbourhood of 
Lahore and Amritsar. Now we know that the latter place was an old 
city named Chek before its selection as the head-quarters of the Sikh 
religion, and the excavation by Guru Ram Das of the Amrita Saras or 
“pool of nectar,” from which the place took its present name.) To the 
S. W. of the large city was the old town of Cux-Ko-Lo. (This answers 
both in name and in position to the Sékala of the Hindus and the San- 
gala of Arrian. The mention of a Stupa here built by Asoka proves 
that Cur-Ko-Lo was a place of note within 50 years after Alexander’s 
death.) 

Thence to the E. at 500 li (83 miles) to 

No. 48—Cui-na-pu-t1, a place built by Chinese, where was the 
ancient domain of king Kia-ni-sse-K1A. (The Chimese syllables appear 
to represent Chinavati, a place which still exists on the Chenab river 
due W. from Amritsar about 90 miles. It is possible therefore that 
there is a mistake in the bearing of this place, “est” for “ouest.” The 


perfect agreement of the two names however—is almost too remarkable 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 23 


for mere accident. If there should be no mistake in the bearing I 
would propose the capital of Katoch or Katochin as the representative 
of Cui1-NA-pu-TI, and the fort of Kangra as the domain of Kanishka. 
In fact we know from Abu Rihan that Nagar-kot belonged to the de- 
scendants of Kanik or Kanishka; and it is possible that the name of 
Kangra may in this case be only a corruption of Kanishka-garha, or 
Kanik-garha. According to the Mogal author Sanang-setsen, Kanika 
was king of Gachu or Gachi (Foe-kue-ki, 248, N.) ; in which name I 
think I can recognize the Katoch or Katochin of the present day. 
Jalandhara is particularly mentioned as bemg in the kingdom of 
Gachu : and an inscription now existing in the city of Kangra calls the 
kingdom Glachchhé-Ra. Perhaps the Gay river, which flows through 
¢he Kangra district, may also have a reference to the same name.) 

To the S. E. of the great town (THsxE-x1A) at 700 Zi (117 miles) was 
the monastery of Tua-mo-su-ra-na, “forét obscure.’ (This is a 
transcript of the Sanskrit tamasa-vana, “dark jangal.” The distance 
and bearing bring us to the neighbourhood of Sultanpur and Dakhani 
Serai in the Jdlandhar Doab; to the W. of which places the whole 
country is covered with a dense jangal.) 

Thence to the N. E. at 140 or 150 & (23 to 25 miles) to 

No. 49—Cuer-Lan-THA-LO, formerly Brahmanical. (This is un- 
doubtedly the well known city of Jdlandhara, one of the oldest places 
im India’ It is the Ku or Zulindrine of Ptolemy.) 

Thence to the N. W. across precipitous mountains at 700 & (117 
miles) to 

No. 50—Kuziv-uv-rto, the boundary of India on the north, surround- 
ed by mountains, and close to the snowy mountains. (Both distance 
and bearing point to the modern district of Kulu on the upper Byas 
river, which agrees precisely with Hwan Thsang’s description, as the 
whole district is surrounded by mountains, and the ancient capital of 
Nagar or Makarsa is not more than 20 miles from the perpetual 
snow.) 

Thence to the N. over the mountains at 2000 i (333 miles) was the 
kingdom of Mo-Lo-pHo or San-pHo-Ho. (This is most probably the 
kingdom of Great Tibet on the Sanpu river : in which case the bearing 
should be east and not north. As Hwang Thsing does -not appear to 
have visited this place the error in the direction is pardonable.) 


24 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [Juny, 


From Kuatvu-uv-to to the S. at 700 @ (117 miles) across high moun- 
tains and a great river to 

No. 51—Sur-ro-ruv-Lo, on the northern frontier of India. (This 
is a literal transcript of the Sanskrit Satadru, the Zadadrus of Ptolemy 
and the Hesudrus of Plmy. The bearmg and distance ‘point to the 
present Lodiana as the site of this town on the Sutlaj. Lodiana derives 
its name from the Afghan family of Lodi, which gave several sovereigns 
to Delhi: but in the Ramdyana I find that the ancient town of Ilu-dha- 
na, the patrimony of the race of Ikshwaka, was situated in this position. 
I believe therefore that, Lodiana was only a complimentary alteration of 
an older name. SHE-TO-THU-LO may have been the name of the town ; 
but it seems more likely that it was only the name of the district lying 
along the Satadru or Sutlaj, as Sindh is the country on the Sindhu or 
Indus. 

Thence to the 8. E. at 800 Z (133 miles) to 

No. 52—Puo-.1-YE-THA-LO, on the frontier of central India. (The 
recorded bearing and distance bring us to Delhi, the ancient Indra- 
prastha. The Chinese syllables represent the Sanskrit Vriha-sthala, 
a place which is named in the Mahabharata as one of the five towns 
demanded as the price of peace between the Kauravas and Pandavas. 
In the Mahabharata the names are Aristhala, Vrihasthala, &c. which 
in the Veni-Samhara are changed to Indra-prastha, Tilaprastha, &c. 
It seems probable therefore that Vrihasthala is only another hame for 
Tilaprastha, and Aristhala a synonyme of Indraprastha. Now Tila- 
prastha still exists as Tilpat, 6 miles to the 8. E. of Toghlakabad, and 
10 miles to the E. 8. E. of the Kutb-Minar. I have a suspicion that 
the much disputed origin of the name of Delhi or Dilli lies in Tile 
prastha. Sanskrit scholars refer the name to fewta, Dilipa, a name 
which is symphonious with fawy. As ancient Delhi undoubtedly ex- 
tended over the hills about Toghlakabad, Tilprastha, if not the actuay 
capital itself, must have formed one of the suburbs of the city. That 
this identification is correct is proved by the following bearing and 
distance. 

Thence to the E, at 500 i (83 miles) to 

No. 53—Moruv-to in Central India. (This is certainly Mathura 
as identified by M. Landresse. I believe that there are now no vestiges 
of the three Stupas built by Asoka.) 


1848.1... through Afghanistan and India. 95 


Thence to the N. E. at 500 (83 miles) to 

No. 54—Sa-THA-NI-SHE-FA-LO. (Thisis undoubtedly the celebrated 
Sthaneswara or Thanesar, to the N. W. of Delhi. Ibelieve it to be 
Ptolemy’s Batan-kaisara, for which I propose to read Satan-aisara. It 
is now known as the Kuru-kshetra or “ battle-field of the Kurus.”” The 
recorded bearing should have been N. W. instead of N. E. and the 
distance should have been somewhat greater.) 

Thence to the N. E. at 400 & (66 miles) to 

No. 55—Svu-.vu-k1n-NnA, bounded to the E. by the Ganges, and to 
the N. by great mountains. To the E. of the capital is the river Yan- 
MEU-NA (Yamuna or Jamna,—Landresse) which flows through the king- 
dom. To the E. of the capital and to the W. of the Jamna was a 
Stupa built by Asoka. (This place would appear to be Sulora or Sa- 
dhaora, under the Siwalik hills to the westward of the Jamna, from 
whence Feroz Shah removed the well known pillar, now called Feroz 
Shah’s Jé¢, which bears an inscription of king Asoka.) 

Across the river on the E. bank was 

No. 56—Mo-t1-pvu-xo, the king of which was of the race of Suv- 
To-Lo (or Sudra). To the S. of the great town, at 4 or 5 (about 
three quarters of a mile) stood the monastery of the patriarch K1ra-nv- 
po-LA-PHO, “lumitre de vertu,” (in Sanskrit Guna-prabha) ; near which 
was the monastery of P1-Mo-LO-MI-TO-LO, “ami sans tache,” (in Sanskrit 
Vimala-mitra.) Mo-ri-pu-Lo would appear to be a literal transcript 
of Motipura, a very common name in India. From the position indicated 
by Hwan Thsdng this place must have been situated at or near the 
modern Behat, where Major Cautley excavated coins and relics of an 
ancient city at a depth of 17 feet below the present surface level of the 
country. The coins discovered there range from perhaps 200 B. C. to 
400 or 500 A. D. 

To the N. W. of this country, and on the E. bank of the Ganges, 
was the town of Mo-1vu-L0 (Mahila) where rock erystal was found. It 
possessed a Brahmanical temple and a holy reservoir on the Ganges, 
which the Indians called “la porte du Gange,” (evidently Haridwara or 
Vishnu’s portal, which is also called Ganga-dwara, or “ Ganges portal.’ 
The mention that there was but one solitary Brahmanical temple at this 
now priest-swarming place in A. D. 629—645, is highly interesting. 
I believe that Haridwara is a comparatively modern name ;—as in the 

D 


26 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang | JuLy, 


Megha-duta, Kalidas mentions only Kankhala. May not Ptolemy’s 
Mapyapa be Tayyapa, or Ganga-dwara ?) 

Thence to the N. at 300 & (50 miles) was 

No. 57—PHO0-LO-KI-MA-PU-LO, surrounded by mountains on all sides. 
(This would appear to be Srinagara, the capital of Garhwél. The Chi- 
nese name is perhaps intended for Parakramapura). To the N. of this 
principality, amongst the snowy mountains, was the kingdom of Su-ra- 
LA-NU-KIU-THA-LO, “famille d’or,”’ (evidently the Sanskrit Suvarna- 
gotra) where excellent gold was found. (This is most probably the 
district about Toling and Garu between the Upper Satlaj and Upper 
Indus, celebrated for its gold dust, and now called Urna-desa or Un-des, 
“‘Wool-country ;”’ which, as described by Hwan Thsang, has Tibet on 
the E. and Khoten on the N. The district of PAN-pHo-Lo, on the W, 
is probably Laddék or Mang-yul. 

From Mo-t1-pu-to to the S. E. at 400 & (67 miles) was 

No. 58—Kuv-pr-sHwane-na, 2000 Ui (333 miles) m extent. (The 
distance and bearing point to the neighbourhood of Biynor and the ruins 
of Hastinapura. I cannot even guess what may be the Sanskrit equi- 
valent of the Chinese syllables: perhaps Kru-p1 may be Kripa.) 

Thence to the 8. E. at 400 i (67 miles) to 

No. 59—O-y1-cu1-THa-Lo, 3000 “i (500 miles) in extent, with a 
Stupa built by Asoka. (This name appears to be a transcript of the 
Sanskrit Uchchasthala, which is most likely the modern Uchchagréma 
or Unchagaon, called Bulandshehr by the Musalméns. The bearing 
would however point to the neighbourhood of Anopshehr and Chandasi ; 
but the coincidence of name is I think too strong to admit of much 
doubt as to the accuracy of my identification. 

Thence to the S. at 260 or 270 ki (43 to 45 miles) across the Ganges, 
and then to the 8. W. to 

No. 60—P1-L0-san-nu—2000 Ui (333 miles) in extent. Ruins of a 
Stupa built by Asoka. (According to the next mentioned bearing and 
distance from SENG-K1A-SHE, or Samkissa, this place must have been 
im the neighbourhood of Karséna, an old town near Khas-ganj. The 
Chinese syllables probably represent the Sanskrit Pi/usdna or “ Elephant’s 
ear-flap,” which is a synonyme of Karsdna or Karisina. It is curious 
that kari and hastin, names for an elephant, are derived from Kara 
(Greek yep) and hasta, both names for the hand, as well as for an 
elephant’s trunk, on account of its being a handy member. 


1848. | through Afghanstan and India. 27 


Thence to the 8. E. at 200 Z (33 miles) to 

No. 61—Kurer-pi-THa, anciently Sene-K1A-sHe, 2000 lc (333 miles) 
in extent. To the E. of the town at 20 k (about 34 miles) was a great 
Stupa. (SENG-kK1A-SHE has been identified by Remusat with the Sam- 
kassa of the Pali works: but the position of this old and celebrated 
place was first pointed out by me. Its ruins, on the E. bank of the 
Kéli-nadi, near Aghat-Serai, are still known by the name of Samkissa.) 

Thence to the N. W. at somewhat less than 200 li (about 33 miles) 
to 

No. 62—Ko-so-k1u-cHeE, Kanyakubja or Kanoj,—Landresse. This 
city was also called Kuswmapura or Flower-town. The king of the 
race of Fr1-sHe (or Vaisya) was named Ko-Li-SHI-FA-TAN-NA, “accru 
en joie.” (This is a transcript of the Sanskrit werwenza, Kalyana- 
sphutana, “increase of pleasure or happiness.” As this king was a 
Vaisya, Hwan Shsang must have visited Kanoj prior to the conquest of 
the Rathor Rajputs in about A. D. 700.) To the N. W. of the town 
was a Stupa built by Asoka, and to the S. E. at 100 / (16 or 17 miles), 
on the bank of the Ganges, was the town of Na-ro-rHI-PO-KIU-LO. 
(This agrees both in bearing and distance with the position of Nanamow 
on the Ganges. The Chinese syllables appear to be intended for Nava- 
dhipokara, or Navadhipushkara, the “new-chief-tank.” In Nanamow 
we have perhaps the first half of the name still preserved im a corrupted 
form, the latter half bemg changed.) 

From Kanoj to the 8. E. at 600 Z (100 miles) across the Ganges, 
and then to the S. 

No. 63—A-1u-THo, Oudh, Landresse ;—5000 & (833 miles) in ex- 
tent. To the N. of the town at 4 or 5 li (about 3 of a mile) was a 
great monastery built by Asoka; and to the W. of this was a Stupa 
built over the nails and hair of Tathdgata. To the N. W. of the town 
at 40 % (nearly 7 miles) and to the N. of the Ganges, was a temple of 
A-seENG-KI1A Bodhisatwa (in Sanskrit, dsankhya). (The distance and 
bearing bring us to the banks of the Ganges below Cawnpore, and close 
to Najafgarh. In this position there is the celebrated temple of Néona, 
a few miles from the Ganges; and on the E. bank of the river between 
Cawnpore and Najafgarh, there is also a much frequented place of pil- 
grimage, of which I have unfortunately forgotten the name.) 

Thence to the E. at 300 (50 miles) crossing to the N. bank of the 
Ganges, to 


28 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang | Juny, 


No. 64—<aA-yE-mvu-K1e1, 2400 to 2500 Ml (upwards of 400 miles) in 
extent. The capital was situated on the Ganges; and to the S. W. of 
it, also upon the river, was a Stupa built by Asoka. (The Chinese 
syllables perhaps represent gtzaa, Ahimukha, “Sun-face” or “Snake- 
mouth.” The distance and bearing pomt to the position of Dalamow, 
a large town on the N. bank of the Ganges.) 

Thence to the 8. E. at 700 Z (117 miles) to the S. of the ives! 
and to the N. of the Yan-mu-na (the Yamuna or Jamna) to 

No. 65—Po-to-na-k1A, 5000 & (833 miles) in extent. The capital 
is situated at the confluence of two rivers. (This is clearly Praydga or 
Allahabad, at the junction of the Ganges and Jamna rivers.) 

N. B.—The total distance from Kanoj to Allahabad is about one- 
third too much. [| suspect therefore that Hwan Thsang must have 
taken the river route, more particularly as both of the places visited were 
on the bank of the Ganges. Admitting this to be correct his distances. 
will agree very well with the distances by water. 

Thence to the 8. W. through a great forest at 500 (83 miles) to 

No. 66—Ku1ao-sHane-mi, Kausdmbi, Landresse; 6000 (1000 
miles) in extent. Statue of Sakya by King U-ruo-yan-na. (Udayana, 
The bearing should be N. W., for according to Profr. Wilson, Kaus- 
dmbi was upon the Ganges above Allahabad : and Fa Hian states that it 
was 13 yojans, or about 91 miles, to the N. W. of Benares. The 
modern Karra, with its extensive ruins, appears to be the most likely 
position of Kausdémdi, as its distance from Allahabad is about a mean 
between Hwén Thsing’s 83 miles of river (60 miles of land) and Fa 
Hian’s 21 miles, that is about 40 miles from Allahabad. Close to 
Karra, on the E. there are two villages named Austa and Kusia-kua.) 

Thence to the N. at 170 or 180 Zi (28 to 30 miles) to 

No. 67—Pt-so-x14, 4000 Ui (666 miles) in extent. (The bearnng 
and distance point to Sdlén on the Séhi river, an old town in which a 
few years ago was found a copper-plate grant of Govinda Chandra of 
Kano}j.) 

Thence to the N. E. at 500 Zi (83 miles) to 

No. 68—Sue-Lo-Fa-si-Tr or Sur-wer; Srdvasti, Remusat and 
Landresse. In this capital reigned King Po-xo-si-na-cur-to. (This 
is the celebrated city of Ayodhya, on the Sarayu or Sarju river, the 
capital of King Prasenajita, the 61st Prince of the Solar race in descent 
from Rama.) 


SS 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 29 


Thence to the S. E. at 500 (83 miles) to 

No. 69—Kus1-P1-Lo-Fa-su-Tu, Kapila-vastu, Landresse. (The po- 
sition of this celebrated city has puzzled every commentator ; and yet, 
as the honored birth place of Sakya Sinha, it ought to be one of the 
best known places in India. The bearing and distance point to Jaun- 
pur, an ancient city possessing many Buddhist buildings, one of which, 
the Uttdla Vihdra, still exists as the Atdla Masjid, the cloistered 
stories of the Buddhistical building having been left untouched by the 
idol breaking Musalmans. This identification also agrees with the posi- 
tion assigned to Kapila by Fa-Hian, who places it at somewhat more 
than 12 yojans, or 84 miles, to the S. E. of Saz-we1; or only 3 miles 
more than Hwan Thséng’s distance, their bearings being the same. But 
in addition to the agreement of both of these authorities, I will adduce 
the name of the place itself, as a conclusive proof of the accuracy of my 
identification. The present name of Jonapwra was, we know, given to 
the city by Feroz Shah in honor either of his cousin Jona, or of his 
grandfather Fakhr-ud-din Jona. This was only a slight alteration of 
the ancient name of Janampura or Janpura “nativity city,” a name 
by which the “birth place” of the holy Sakya was probably more widely 
known than by the dook-name of Kapila. This identification also agrees 
with the statements of other Chinese authors, quoted by Klaproth, that 
Kapila was to the N. of Benares. Ma-rwan-uin gives 1480 li (247 
miles) as the distance, which would carry us to the loftiest peaks of the 
Himalayas. There must therefore be some mistake in his distance.) 

No. 70—Lan-mo, Ramapura, Landresse. (According to Fa-Hian 
this place was situated at 5 yojans, or 35 miles, to the EK. of Kapila 
almost in the exact position of Bhitari, an ancient town, which still pos- 
sesses an inscribed pillar of the Gupta family of about A. D. 430, just 
two centuries earlier than Hwan Thsang’s visit. The Chinese syllables 
are considered by Klaproth and others to be a transcript of Rama: but 
as we find Ma-v-Lawn used for Maharana, perhaps Lan-mo may repre- 
sent Rana.* Now the ruins of Bhitari are all ascribed to a nameless 


* Rdémagrdéma is no doubt the original of Lan mo ;—in Pali, Ramagamo, in Siamese, 
Ramakham. It was one of the eight cities or kingdoms among which the reliques (sarira) 
of Buddha were originally distributed, and the only one from which these were not re- 
moved to Rajagriha. Read in connection with Fa hian’s account of Lan mo, the 
3lst chapter of the Mahavanso which leaves no room to doubt this identification. It is 
there stated to have been on the banks of the Ganges,—a name frequently applied to 
any considerable affluent of that river. But without doing great violence to the bearings 
and distances of Fa hian, Lan mo cannot be identified with Bhetari which is at least 40 
miles too far south to correspond with the subsequent route of that traveller to Vaisali. 
Moreover Lan mo, as well as Kapilavastu, was situated westerly from Kusinagara, which 
Capt, C. identifies with Kusia on the high betwixt Bettiah and Gorakpur,—Ebs, 


30 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [Juny, 


Ram, after whom the place may once have been named. Ptolemy’s 
Selampura would however appear to pomt to the name of Rama in 
Sri-Rampura.) | 

No. 71—K1rv-su1-NA-K1E-LO, Kusinagara, Klaproth and Landresse. 
Stupa built by Asoka. To the N. W. of the town at 3 or 4 li (about 
half a mile) across the A-cut-ro-Fa-T1 (or Ajitavati) anciently called 
SHI-LAI-NU-FA-TI “‘riviére ou il y a de I or” (the Swarnavati or 
“‘oolden’’?) and on the W. bank was the forest of So-xo (or Sdi trees, 
exactly where in Major Rennell’s map I find a “ Forest of Sal trees.’’) 
Here also was a Stupa of Su-pa-To-Lo, “bon sage,’ (or Subhadra. 
The distance next recorded from Benares points to the ruins of Kusid 
on the Chota Gandak river, which are described by Mr. Liston in 
Prinsep’s Journal, vi. 477. The very name is the same, and the ruined 
tope still existing there may be that mentioned by Hwan Thséng. But 
we have a still more conclusive proof in the existence of an image of 
Buddha at this place, which is still called Mata Kunwr, in Sanskrit 
Mrita-Kumdra, or the “dead Prince ;’’ this beg, according to Fa- 
Hian, the very place where Sakya died, on the bank of the river H1-ur- 
AN, in Sanskrit Hiranya, or “golden,” a synonyme of Swarnavati. 
Besides which Hwéng Thsang, (in F. K. K. p. 237. N.) mentions that 
there was a sculpture at this place, in a large temple, representing the 
death of Sakya, which is most probably the very sculpture described by 
Mr. Liston, as James Prinsep states that its compartments display the 
various acts of Buddha’s life. Hwan Thsang also mentions a pillar at 
this place, which I should think night be discovered by a careful search. 
Kusinagara is probably the Kassidia of Ptolemy. 

Thence at 500 di (83 miles) through forests to 

No. 72—Pan-to-n1-sse ; Vardnasi or Benares, Landresse. A large 
town on the Ganges. To the N. E. of the town and to the W. of the 
river Po-Lo-n1 (the Varana or Barna-nadi to the KE. of the city) was a 
Stupa built by Asoka. To the N. E. of the town at 10 & (about 13 
miles) was the “ Deer-Park,” and to the S. W. of the temple was a 
Stupa of Asoka. Beside it also was a Stupa where Mri-rua-ut-yve (or 
Maitreya) received the history of Buddha: and to the W. of this was 
the place where Sakya Bodhisatwa received the history of Kasyapa. 
(The name of Varanasi is derived from Varana and Asi, the names of 
the two small streams between which the city is situated. According to 
Fa Hian there was a temple in the midst of the “ Park of the Deer of the 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. | ou 


Immortal.” In the F. K. K.—note 7. p. 307, Klaproth gives Hwan 
Thsang’s details at length, from which it would appear that the temple 
was on the bank of the Barna river. Following the distance and bearing 
before mentioned the temple must have stood near the village of Secrole 
or Sikror, where the panch-kosa or “ five-kos’”’ route of pilgrims crosses 
the high road to Ghazipur. In that part of the panch-kosa there are 
numerous fragments of Buddhist sculpture and architecture. But the 
ruins around Sérndth offer a much more probable position, as the re. 
mains of three existing topes correspond with the three that were erected 
on spots rendered sacred by three events in Sakya’s life. These spots 
were Ist. That where Buddha seated himself and began to turn the 
wheel of the law. 2nd. That where he related his history to M1-LE or 
Mer-rua-u-ve (Maitreya) ; and third. That where the serpent I-Lo- 
po asked Buddha at what period he should get rid of his serpent body. 
Of the three existing topes only two have names. The largest is called 
Sarnath which is probably a contraction of Strangganitha wryarTy the 
*‘ Lord of Deer” a meaning which, if correct, must refer to the “ cerfs 
de VImmortal” of Fa Hian. I cannot help suspecting that Hwan 
Thsang’s temple was this very Stupa : for he states that the temple was 
more than 200 feet in height, and that the foundation was of stone and 
the superstructure of drick. Now this is a very accurate description of 
Sarnath, of which the lower half is of stone and the upper half of brick ; 
the height beimg nearly 130 feet above the country. With a gilt arrow 
on the top, such as the temple is said to have borne, the height would 
have been fully 200 feet. The second existing tope, 2500 feet due S. 
of Sdrndth is called Chokandi : but this name refers properly to an 
octagonal on its summit with four door ways, which was built in honor 
of the Emperor Humayun having once seated himself there. The third 
tope, situated 520 feet due W. of Sarnath has no name now; but it is 
that which was half pulled down by Jagat Singh, the Dewan of Cheit 
Singh, Raja of Benares, to furnish materials for the walls of a tank in 
Jagat-gayj. The relics found in it were transmitted by Mr. Duncan to 
the Asiatic Society: but they are no longer forthcoming, which is 
very much to be regretted, for as the transcript published by Wilford 
gives one third part of the formula of Ye dharmma, &c. incorrectly, the 
probability is that the same proportion of the long inscription has been 
read incorrectly. Wilford in his usual loose manner always refers this 
inscription to the Sdrndth tope, but without any reason, further than 


32 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [ Jury, 


that it was found in the neighbourhood. In like manner the inscription 
on the London Monument might be called a record of the building of 
London Bridge.) 

From thence down the Ganges to the E. at 300 Zi (50 miles) to 

No. 73—Cuen-cuv, 2000 & (333 miles) in extent. The capital is 
situated on the Ganges. (The Chinese syllables probably represent 
Chacha or Jyja; and as the distance and bearing point to Ghézipur 1 
cannot help suspecting that the Mahomedan name is only a corruption 
of Chachipura or Jayapura. We know that Jajévati or Chachivati 
and Chachéri or Chachandi were both seats of the Chanddl Rajputs. 
Now Chachipura or Ghdzipura may have been another of their loca- 
tions; but I have not been able to trace them beyond the Jaunpur and 
Azimgarh districts.) To the E. of this town at 200 li (33 miles) was 
the monastery of A-p1-THO-KO-LA-Nv “ oreille non percée,” in Sanskrit 
aviddhakarni, a name of the Cissampelos hexandra, which most proba- 
bly gave its name to the monastery. Thence to the 8S. E. at 100 & (17 
miles), and to the S. of the Ganges was the town of Ma-Ha-so-Lo 
(probably some place on the Mdhi river, perhaps Mahasura although I 
know not whether such a place exists on that stream. This is tothe N. 
of the present course of the Ganges: but in my remarks on No. 77 I 
will give my reasons for believing that the course of the river, since 
Hwan Thsang wrote, has gradually advanced to the 8. about 20 miles.) 

Thence to the N. E. across the Ganges at 40 or 50 di (7 or 8 miles) to 

No. 74—Fet-sue-ut, or Vaisali, Landresse. To the N. W. of the 
town at 5 or 6 & (about 1 mile) was the monastery where Ananda be- 
came an Arhan; to the S. E. of which was a Stupa built by kmg Fr1- 
sHE-LI (Visala of the solar race, the 27th m descent from the sun.) 
To the N. W. was a Stupa of king Asoka, and the dwelling of P1-ma- 
LO-KI, “sans tache” (in Sanskrit, Vimalaka “the blameless.”) To the 
N. W. of the city was the ancient town of king Chakravarti Mahadeva, 
and to the S. E. at 14 or 15 di (23 miles) was a great Stupa where was 
held an assembly of Arhans 110 years after the Mirvdna. (This was 
the second convocation described in the Mahawanso.) Thence to the 8, 
at 8 or 9 li (14 mile) was the monastery of Suu-rei1-ro-pu-Lo (perhaps 
Swéta-pura, “white town,” and to the S. E. of that at 30 (5 miles) 
on the bank of the Ganges were two monasteries. (The town of Vaisdli 
has not yet been identified with any modern position. Formerly it was 
believed to be Allahabad; but since the publication of the narratives of 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 33 


the Chinese pilgrims, its position has been looked for in the neighbour- 
hood of the Gandak river. The recorded distances and bearings, but 
more particularly that of the capital of Magadha, which was across the 
Ganges to the south, point to the ruins of Bakhra and Bassar, about 20 
miles to the N. of Patna. In Bassar, we still have the actual name of 
Vasdli, whose citizens are called Passale by Ptolemy and Pliny. The 
ruins of Bassar are described by Mr. J. Stephenson (in Prinsep’s Jour- 
nal, iv.—128) where he expresses his belief, im accordance with the 
general opinion, that these ruims are the remains “of a large city, at 
a remote period inhabited by a numerous and civilized wealthy people.” 
At Bassar there is a brick tope still standing 40 feet in height ; and at 
Bakhra there is a similar brick tope with a stone pillar surmounted by a 
recumbent lion. The height of this pillar above the ground is only 32 
feet, the circumference being 12 feet: but as the Radhia pillar is 39 
feet high with a circumference of only 11 feet 2 inches, it seems pro- 
bable that there must be at least 12 feet of the Bakhra pillar beneath 
the ground. An excavation down to the base of the column would 
almost certainly bring to light an ancient inscription. This might be 
’ only a repetition of those found upon other pillars: but it is quite pos- 
sible that it might be a record of older date, perhaps of the second con- 
vocation which was held at this place, and which was commemorated 
by the erection of a Stwpa.) 

Thence to the N. E. at 500 & (83 miles) to 

No. 75—FrE-.i-cu1; in the north called San-ra-cut, 2000 Li (333 
miles) in extent. The capital is called Cuen-cnu-nu. (The Chinese 
syllables represent faithfully the Sanskrit V7rij2, efs1, which is the well 
known name of a country, generally supposed to be in the neighbourhood 
of Mathura. The Vrije of Hwan Thsang must however be the modern 
Tirhut, or Trihutya, of which one of the chief towns, situated in the 
position indicated, is named Jenjapura, no doubt the CHEN-cuu-Nvu of 
the Chinese pilgrim. The ancient name of this district was Mithila.) 

Thence to the N. W. across mountains at 1400 or 1500 i (233 to 
250 miles) to 

No. 76—N1-puHo-Lo, Nepal, Landresse ; 4000 li (666 miles) in ex- 
tent and surrounded by snowy mountains. (The distance is too great 
but the bearmg is correct. As no details are given, Hwan Thsang does 
not appear to have visited this country. His erroneous distance may 
therefore be pardoned.) E 


34 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [J uy, 


From Vaiséli across the Ganges to the S. to 

No. 77—Mt1-x1e1-THO, Magadha, Landresse: 500 & (83 miles) in 
extent. To the S. of the Ganges is the ruined town of Kru-su-MA-pv- 
Lo, or Kusumapura, “flower town,” also called Puo-rHo-u1-tTsu, 
(Pataliputra or Palibothra, tsu bemg a Chinese translation of putra, 
“‘son,’’ Landresse. Following the indications of the Chinese pilgrim, 
Klaproth has identified this town with the modern Patna: but the great 
Geographer Rennell had done the same fifty years earlier, from the 
measurements recorded by Pliny, apparently on the authority of Megas- 
thenes. That Patna is the modern representative of the ancient Pata- 
liputra is undoubted: but I do not believe that it occupies exactly the 
same position; for according to the distances of Fa Hian and Hwan 
Thsang, it seems that Pataliputra must have been 18 or 20 miles to the 
north of the present town of Patna. As an analogous illustration I may 
mention that the present city of Delhi, or Shahjahdndbdd, is 12 miles to 
the north of the Hindu city of only 650 years ago. But in this case 
the change seems to have been effected by the vanity of successive 
monarchs, who built palaces, forts, and bazars, in their own names to 
the N. of the old city until the present position was at length attained 
by Shah Jahan. In the case of Pataliputra I believe that the change 
has been effected by the Ganges. In approaching Vaisili Hwén Thsing 
states that it was from 40 to 50 i (7 or 8 miles) na N. KE. direction 
from Ma-HA-so-Lo, on the southern bank of the Ganges. Again, on 
leaving Vaisali he first visits a Stupa 24 miles to the 8. E. from which 
he proceeds 13 mile 8. to a monastery, and thence to the Ganges, 5 
miles more in aS. E. direction. From these two detailed statements it 
is clear that the Ganges flowed within 8 miles of Vaisali, both to the S. 
W. and 8S. E. somewhere near the present Singhia. Now the very same 
position is indicated by Fa Hian’s distance of 9 yojans (or 63 miles) 
from Pa-ti-An-ru or Pédtaliputra to the “small hill of the isolated 
rock,’ which is called YN-rHo-Lo-sHI-LO-KIU-HO, or Indrasilaguha by 
Hwan Thsing, and is placed by him close to the small town of Kiv-u1- 
KIA, the Girik of Rennell’s map, which is only 43 miles to the S. E. of 
Patna. The distance here is 20 miles less than the recorded one; 
whilst the actual distances of two different poimts on the Ganges from 
Bassar or Vaisali are 20 miles more than the recorded ones. It seems 
to me therefore certain that the Ganges formerly held a more northerly 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. - 30 


course by about 20 miles; and that the ancient Pataliputra must have 
stood at the same distance to the N. of the present Patna. It is only 
by a supposition of this kind that the recorded distances of Fa Hian 
and Hwaén Thséng can be reconciled with the truth. The very fact 
that the town, which Fa Hian had seen flourishing in A. D. 399-415, 
was in ruins in A. D. 629-645, seems to point to its desertion from the 
encroachments of the river to the south. Since then 1200 years have 
elapsed ; a period much more than sufficient for the production of the 
supposed change by the gradual and successive alterations of channel 
towards the south, a process which is still going on. I do not however 
attribute this change of course entirely to the gradual alteration of the 
channel of the Ganges; for it is probable that the mention by Ma- 
TWAN-LIN, that about A. D. 756 “the bank of the Ho-Lane or Ganges 
gave way and disappeared,” refers to some sudden change in the course 
ofthe river. An extraordinary flood of the Gogra river would have been 
sufficient to have caused the whole amount of southing here contended 
for; in proof of which I will only cite the much greater change in the 
course of the Satlaj which took place about A. D. 1790. This was 
caused by a cataclysm of the river, which having been dammed up by: 
a landslip near the hot springs of Seoni, 18 miles to the N. of Simla, 
suddenly burst through the obstruction, and swept irresistibly over the 
plains until it was stopped by the high bank of the Byds at Hari-ki- 
patan. The new channel became a permanent one, and the junction of 
the Byas and Satlaj, which was formerly at Ferozpur, has since then 
been at Hari-ki-patan, upwards of 30 miles from the old place of con- 
fluence.) 

(From Pataliputra Hwan Thsang proceeds to Gaya, of which he gives 
many minute details, that could only be verified by personal inspection 
or by a very good map on a large scale. Some of them however may 
easily be identified: Suchas the river Ni-LIAN-CHEN-NA, to the E. of 
Gaya, which is clearly the Nilajni river of the Government litho- 
graphed map of the new road. Also the river Ma-wo to the E. of 
which was a great forest, is certainly the Mahona river, on the E. of 
which Rennell places ‘‘ Woods’ extending for more than 20 miles. 
After some further details Hwan Thséng mentions the town of Ko-Lo- 
CHE-KU-LI-SSE, “‘demeure royale,” which is undoubtedly the ancient 
Rajagriha, or ‘royal residence.’ I remark here, asin No. 46, the occur- 

F 2 


36 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang | JuLy, 


rence of the prefix Ko before the syllables Lo-che or raja. As there 
is no doubt whatever about the correctness of the present reading of 
Rajagriha, my identification of Ko-Lo-cHE-pu-Lo with Rajapura or 
Rajiwari, must be equally correct. Not far from this was the small 
town of Ku-ui-xK1a or Girth, the Giryek of Capt. Kittoe; close to 
which was mount YN-THO-LO-SHE-LO-KU-HO, or Indrasilaguha, “ In- 
dra’s rock-cave,’’ which must be the cave mentioned by Capt. Kittoe 
as existing in the immediate neighbourhood of Girik.) 

To the N. E. at 150 or 160 di (25 to 27 miles) was the monastery 
of Kra-pu-TE-K1A. (The bearing pomts to the town of Behar, in 
Sanskrit Bihdra, or ‘“‘the monastery,” but the recorded distance is 
double the actual one. Now as the next recorded distance, supposing 
Behar to be the place intended, is just one half of the real one, I believe 
that there must have been an mterchange of the two distances, an inad- 
vertence of such likely occurrence that I take but little liberty in adopt- 
ing it. An example of a similar kind occurs in Pliny—l. vi. s. 21. 
where the distance between the Hydaspes and Hyphasis is stated at 
29 miles and 390 paces, while the distance between the Hyphasis and 
Hesidrus is given at 168 miles. Tere there can be no doubt of the 
interchange of the two distances. In adopting this correction, the 
monastery of Kia-pu-TE-K1A must have been only 70 (about 12 
miles) to the N. EK. of Girik, which corresponds sufficiently well with 
the position of the present Behar, which i Rennell’s map lies 13 miles 
to the N. of Girik. The name of the monastery in Sanskrit was per- 
haps Kapataka, “ the dove-hued,” or “ antimony-colored,”’ which is 
a good description of the dark metallic-looking stone of Gaya.) 

(Thence to the N. EK. at 70 li, or after correction as above, at 150 or 
160 li, equivalent to 25 or 27 miles, and to the 8S. of the Ganges, was a 
large town. The bearing and distance point to Shunar on the Ganges. 
To the E. at 100 h (17 miles) amongst hills and woods, was the village 
of Lo-yin-n1-LA. This would appear to be the Ruynullah of Ren- 
nell’s map, perhaps for Rohinala, situated at the junction of the 
Dhania river with the Ganges.) 

Hwan Thsang here mentions no less than five kings of Magadha who 
had reigned previous to his visit. Their names are— 

Lo-K1A-LO-A-YI-TO, or Lagraditya. 
Fo-THO-KIU-TO, Ps Budha Gupta. 


(ee eS eee 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 37 


THA-KA-TA-KIU-TO, or TaKATA GUPTA. 
PHO-LO-A-YI-TO, uy Baladitya. 
Fa-CHE-LO, ms Vara. 


Two of these Princes, namely, Budha Gupta and Baladitya, are already 
known to us from inscriptions and coins, and a third, Vajra, is known 
from coins alone, but the others are mentioned nowhere else to my 
knowledge. 

In 1842 I had already identified Chandra Gupta, or ‘ moon-cherish- 
ed,” with the Yu-aat, or ‘‘ moon-beloved,” of the Chinese authors, who 
was reigning in A. D. 428. Afterwards in 1843, when I first pro- 
cured a copy of the For-Kue-x1, I extended this identification to the 
line of Princes mentioned above, and at the same time I arranged the 
whole dynasty chronologically according to the various data which were 
then known. ‘Thus according to the inscription on the gateway of the 
Sachi tope near Bhilsa, Chandra Gupta was reigning in the year 79} of 
the Gupta era—and, following the record of the Kuhaon Pillar, Skanda 
Gupta died in 133 of the same era: whilst, according to the Eran 
Pillar, Buddha Gupta was reigning in 165 of the Gupta era. Besides 
these three distinct dates of their own era, we have the year of Yu-eat, 
A. D. 428, already mentioned, and the period of Siladitya’s reign im- 
mediately preceding Hwan Thsang’s visit. With these data to guide 
me the chronological arrangement of the different Princes of the Gupta 
dynasty already known te us from coms and inscriptions and from the 
faithful though brief records of the Chinese writers, was an easy task. 
As by this arrangement the accession of Gupta, the founder of the 
dynasty, appeared to have taken place m the first half of the 4th cen- 
tury of our era, it very soon struck me that the Gupta era was most 
probably the same as the Balabhi era ; more particularly as it is certain 
that Ujain and Surashtra were subject to the Guptas, whose silver coins 
are of the same type, weight and fabric with those of the undoubted 
coins of Balabhi. This identification of the two eras appeared so pro- 
bable that I at once adopted it. Lastly, in January 1847, on receipt of 
Reinaud’s ‘‘ Fragmens Arabes et Persans, &c.’’ I found, to my equal 
wonder and delight, a decided proof that my identification of the two 
eras was correct. According to Abu Rihan al Biruni, who accompanied 
Mahmud Ghaznavi to India, the year 1088 of Vikramaditya, or the year 
953 of Saké was the year 712 of the Ballaba era, and also that of the 


38 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang | JuLy, 


Guptas. 'This it not the place for the discussion of all the points bear- 
ing upon this period of history. It will be sufficient to mention here 
only a few of the dates established by this discovery for the further 
verification of the truth of the Chimese Pilgrim’s narrative. As the 
Balabhi era began in A. D. 319, Chandra Gupta’s date of 793 is equi- 
valent to A. D. 398%. Skanda Gupta’s death took place in 133 + 319 
== 452 A. D., and Budha Gupta was reigning in 165 + 319 == 484 
A.D. Now, according to Ma-rwan-.in, Siladitya died between the 
years 642 and 648, say in 645 A. D. and as Hwén Thsang says that he 
reigned 60 years, his accession must be dated im A. D. 585. We have 
thus a period of 101 years to be divided between the three reigns of 
Takata Gupta, Baladitya and Vajra, together with the latter portion of 
Budha Gupta’s reign, that is between nearly few reigns, which yields the 
natural term of somewhat more than 25 years for each reign. For the 
period between 452 A. D. the date of Skanda’s death, and 480 A. D. 
the probable period of Budha’s accession, or for 28 years, we have the 
reigns of Deva Gupta, of the Asirgarh inscription, and Lagraditya of 
Hwan Thséng. Thus from A. D. 452 to 585 we have six Princes 
amongst whom to divide a period of 133 years; which gives an average 
of rather more than 22 years for each reign. But this average will be 
lessened by adding the two reigns of Kumara and Skanda: for as 
Chandra Gupta was reigning in A. D. 428 we may safely assume A. D. 
430 as the period of Kumara’s accession. We thus have A. D. 430— 
585 == 155 years, to be divided between 8 Princes, which yield upwards 
of 19 years for each reign,—a natural term within the limits of the 
European averages.) 

From Lo-yrn-n1-La (or Rohinala) to the E. amongst great moun- 
tains and forests at 200 li (34 miles) to 

No. 78, Y1-LAN-NU-PO-FA-TO, 3000 (500 miles) in extent. The 
capital is situated on the Ganges, and near it is Mount Yr-Lan-nv, 
which vomits forth smoke so as to darken both the sun and the 
moon. (The bearing and distance point tothe Fort of Mongir, but the 
Chinese syllables seem to represent the Sanskrit Hirana-parvata, or 
“‘ yed-hill,”’ a name which may have been applied to it on account of the 
flames which must have burst forth occasionally along with the smoke 
mentioned by Hwan Thsing. The existence of two hot springs, the 
Sita-kund and the Raki-kund, within a few miles of Mongir, shows that 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 39 


this part of the country was once subject to volcanic action. There 
cannot therefore be any good reason for doubting Hwan Thsang’s rela- 
tion, more particularly as the present name of the place, Mauna-giri, 
or the “ quiet hill,” would seem to allude to a former period of volcanic 
noise and activity. I am aware that the Brahmans refer the name to 
Mudga-giri, which however can scarcely be the original of the present 
spoken form of Mongir.) 

Thence followmg the 8. bank of the Ganges to the E. at 300 ki (50 
miles) to | 

No. 79—Cuen-puHo, Bhdgalpur, Landresse. The capital to the N. 
rests on the Ganges, and to the E. of it at 40 or 50 & (6 or 8 miles) S. 
of the Ganges was an isolated hill surrounded by water. (‘The ancient 
name of Bhagalpur was Champapura, and as the distance and bearing 
agree with those of Hwan Thsang the identification of M. Landresse is 
undoubtedly correct. The isolated rock surrounded by water must be 
one of those in the neighbourhood of Kahalgaon (Colgong), although 
the recorded distance is much too small. I would propose to read 140 
or 150 instead of 40 or 50 i : this distance would bring us to the well 
known rock of Patharghatta, below Kahalgaon.) 

Thence to the E. at 400 & (66 miles) to 

No. 80—Ko-cuvu-weEn-TI-Lo, also named Ko-cHEvu-Kxo-Lo, 2000 
(333 miles) in extent. On its northern side, not far from the Ganges, 
was a large brick tower. (The bearing and distance pomt to the ruins 
of Gaur, the former capital of Bengal. The Chinese syllables perhaps 
represent the Sanskrit w=gaa, Kachchha-vetra, the “reedy marsh,” 
and TRIS, Kachchha-gurha, “ surrounded by marshes,” or Kachchha 
Gaurha, the “swampy Gaurh,” to distinguish it from the hilly Gaurh 
near Kashmir. In the syllables Ko-xo I recognize the name of Gaurh, 
tie. The only apparent objection to this identification is the fact that 
Gaur now stands some 10 or 12 miles from the northern bank of the 
Ganges ; whilst Ko-cuEv-Ko-Lo would seem to have been on the south- 
ern bank of the river. But it is well known that Gaur was originally 
on the bank of the Ganges, and that the gradual desertion of the river 
has led to the ruin of the city within the last 300 years. It seems to 
me however highly probable that one of the principal branches of the 
Ganges once flowed to the northward of Gaur, through the channel now 
called Kalendri, which connects the Kusi and Mahananda rivers. If this 


40 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [Juny, 


supposition of a northern channel of the Ganges flowing between Gaur 
and Malda should not be admitted, then Hwan Thsang’s statement 
must be wrong, for I have no doubt of the correctness of my own iden- 
tification of the places. A similar mistake is made by the most accu- 
rate of all travellers, Moorcroft, who says that Shah-dera is situated on 
the left bank of the Ravi.* Gaur is probably the Aganagora of Pto- 
lemy, situated just above the head ofthe Gangetic Delta. This may be 
the Sanskrit FAAS, Aganya-Gaurha, the ‘ countless Gaurh,” in allu- 
sion to the multitude of its inhabitants.) 

Thence crossing the Ganges to the E. at 600 % (100 miles) to 

No. 81—Pan-Nna-Fa-TAv-NA, 400, Zi (166 miles) in extent. To the 
W. of the town at 20 2 was the monastery of Pa-su1-pHo (in Sanskrit 
Pushpa, “ flower,”’) and close to the town was a Stupa of Asoka. (The 
Chinese syllables would seem to represent the Sanskrit qreqra, Pdm- 
pasthdna, or Pdémpathdn, “ river-town,” and as a great river was after- 
wards crossed to the eastward, the place must have been situated some- 
where on the Brahmaputra river, at or near the present Chilmari.) 

Thence to the E. at 900 li (150 miles) to 

No. 82—K1A-MA-LEv-PHO, 10,000 % (1,666 miles) in extent. The 
people of this country were unconverted, and had built no monasteries. 
The King was a Brahman named Krv-ma-1o, and surnamed PxHo-sre- 
KO-LO-FA-MA (that is, his name was Kumdra, and his title was Push- 
kalavarmma,) or perhaps rather Pushkala-brahma, as Varmona is a 
Kshatriya’s title.) His kingdom was the ancient Kamrup, the country 
of Ptolemy’s Tamere, and now called Asam, from the conquering Raja 
Chu-kapha, who took the title of dsama or “ unequalled.” The dis- 
tance mentioned by Hwan Thsing pomts to the neighbourhood of 
Gohati as the position of the capital, which is perhaps the Tugma 
Metropolis of Ptolemy. It is clear that Kamrup comprehended the 
whole of what is now known as Asam, for Hwan Thsang proceeds to 
state that amongst the mountains to the KE. there was no great king- 
dom ; and that in two months the southern frontier of the Chinese 

* Travels, Vol. 1. p. 107. I have a suspicion that this is a mistake of the Editor, and 
not of Moorcroft himself—for Professor Wilson has certainly not done full justice to 
Moorcroft, no doubt owing to the confused state of the papers. Thus the description 
of the piers of the Kashmirian Bridges is transferred to the pillars of the Jama Masjed. 
It is no wonder therefore that Thornton was puzzled. A new edition of Moorcroft, 
unmutilated, would be of more value than any other single book of travels that I know. 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 4] 


district of Shw could be reached by very difficult and dangerous 
roads.) 

Thence to the S. at 1200 or 1300 2 (200 to 212 miles) to 

No. 83—San-ma-THA-THO, 3000 (500 miles) in extent: a low 
country on the sea-shore. Near the town was a stupa built by Asoka. 
(The bearing and distance pomt to Sunargaon, the ancient capital of 
the Dhaka district, which lies low and extends to the sea-shore as 
described by Hwan Thsang. The first half of the name of Sunargaon 
or Sundari-grama, seems to be preserved in the Chinese syllables San- 
MA. The greater part of the Sundarbans or Sundari-vana, ‘ Sundari- 
jangals,”’ was formerly comprisedin the Dhaka district. The town of 
Sunargaon was therefore probably so named from its bemg the capital 
of the Sundari district, which is no doubt the Kirrhadia of Ptolemy, 
or the country of Kirdtas, faxra, barbarians living amongst woods 
and mountains.) 

Thence to the N. E. on the sea-shore and in the midst of mountains 
and vallies was the kingdom of Su-ti-cHa-rHa-Lo. (Unless there is 
some mistake in the mention of the sea-shore, this place must, accord- 
ing to the bearing and distance, be identified with Si/het or Srihata. 
But I would prefer reading to the 8. E., which would bring us to 
Chaturgrdma, or Chittagaon, a district situated on the sea-shore, and 
abounding im woods and vallies. The name also seems to agree with 
this identification, as the Chinese syllables are probably intended for 
Sri-Chatura.) 

Somewhat farther to the S. E. in a corner of the great sea was the 
kingdom of Kra-Ma-LANnG-k1A. (The bearing, and the position m an 
angle of the sea-coast pot to the neighbourhood of Cape Negrais, and 
the shores of Arracan. In fact the last two Chinese syllables seem to 
be only a transcript of Rakhang, which is the proper name of Arracan.) 

Beyond that to the K. was the kmgdom of To-Lo-po-t1 (most pro- 
bably the ancient Pegu.) Still farther to the E. was the kingdom of 
SHANG-NA-PU-LO; (perhaps Siam, or Sydmapura, the Samarada of 
Ptolemy.) Still more to the E. was the kingdom of Ma-nHo-cHEen-PHo 
(or Mahachampa, most probably the present Kamboja, of which the 
district along the sea-coast is still called Champa.) Thence to the S. 
W. was the island-kingdom of Yan-ma-na. (The bearing points to 
Java, the Yava of Sanskrit, and the Jabadi Insula of Ptolemy.) 

G 


42 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsdng [| JuLy, 


From San-ma-THA-THO to the W. at 900 i (150 miles) to 

No. 84—Tan-ma-u1-T1, or Tamralipti, Landresse: 1400 or 1500 ki 
(233 to 250 miles) in extent. The capital, situated on the sea-shore, 
enjoys much commerce both by land and water. Near it is a Stupa 
built by Asoka. (The identification of M. Landresse is certainly cor- 
rect ; as both bearing and distance point to Tamluk, which is the modern 
representative of Tamralipti.) 

Thence to the N. W. at 700 i (117 miles) to 

No. 85—Ko-to-nv-su-Fa-La-NaA, from 4400 to 4500 k (733 to 750 
miles) in extent. Near the town was the monastery of Lo-ro-we!-cu1, 
‘‘argile ronge” (in Sanskrit rakta, or in Hindi rdéd, red, and achdla, 
earth:) not far from which was a Stupa built by Asoka. (The Chinese 
syllables appear to represent either the Sanskrit Karana-suvarna, “ the 
golden field,’ or Karna-suvarna, “the golden ear.” The bearing and 
distance point to the districts of Pachet and Birbhum on the Damuda 
river, where Ptolemy places his Sadare, in which name we probably 
have the Suvarna of Hwan Thsang.) 

Thence to the 8. W. at 700 i (117 miles) to 

No. 86—U-cua, 7000 & (1167 miles) in extent. Stupas built by 
Asoka. On its south-eastern boundary and on the sea-shore was the 
town of CHE-LI-TA-LO (in Sanskrit Jalasthala, the present Jaléswara 
or Jalésar) much frequented by maritime merchants. (The bearing 
and distance point to the districts of Midnapur and Smghbhum on the 
Sabanrika river, which have the town of Jaleswara to the S. E. as 
described by Hwan Thsang. Perhaps the ancient name of the district 
is preserved in Lchagarh on the Sanbanrika river, 120 miles to the N. 
W. of Jalesar. 

To the S. at 20,000 & (3,333 miles) was the kingdom of SenG-K1A- 
LO, where was the tooth of For, &c. (This is the Island of Ceylon or 
Stnhala-dwipa, which still possesses an elephant’s grinder, that is 
devoutly believed to be the tooth of Buddha. The distance is much 
exaggerated even by the longest land route. 

From U-cua through a forest to the S. W. at 1200 hk (200 
miles) to 

No. 87—Kune-1u-THo, 1000 i (167 miles) in extent. The capital 
is situated on a steep part of the sea-shore. Language, peculiar: reli- 
gion, not Buddhistical. Ten small towns. The bearing and distance 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 43 


point to the district of Katak or Cuttack, and the neighbourhood of 
Kanirak, where the black Pagoda stands.) 

Thence to the S. W. across a great desert and through a thick forest 
at 1400 or 1500 i (233 to 250 miles) to 

No. 88—Ko-uine-K1a. Kalinga, Landresse: 5000 li (833 miles) 
in extent. Few true believers (Buddhists), many heretics (Brahmanists.) 
To the S. near the town was a Stupa built by Asoka. (The identifica- 
tion of M. Landresse is undoubtedly correct, although the distance is 
somewhat exaggerated. The name of the country is preserved in the 
Kalingum promontorium of Ptolemy ; and the chief town of the dis- 
trict, Chicacul, is Ptolemy’s Kokala.) 

Thence to the N. W. over mountains and through forests at 1800 & 
(300 miles) to 

No. 89—Krao-sa-Lo, 6000 (1000 miles) m extent. The king is a 
Kshetriya. The people are black and savage. (The bearing and dis- 
tance point to the district of Gandwana, the present Nagpur or Berar, 
of which the principal ancient cities were Garha, Mandala, and Ratan- 
pur. The last of these answers to the position recorded by Hwan 
Thsing. The name of Kosala is preserved by Ptolemy as ‘‘ Kosa, in 
qua est adamas.’’) 

Thence to the S. at 900 (150 miles) to 

No. 90—An-tTHa-Lo, Andra, Landresse ; 3000 & (500 miles) in ex- 
tent. The capital is called Putnc-Ku1-Lo. Language, peculiar ; 
manners, savage. The extensive and important Buddhistical ruims of 
Amaravati, to the W. of Nagpur. These ruins are still undescribed, a 
fact which reflects no small discredit both upon the British Government, 
which possesses the country, and upon the Asiatic Society which 
possesses Col. Mackenzie’s MSS. drawings and inscriptions. The latter 
are particularly valuable and interesting, as they refer to a period prior 
to the date of Hwan Thsang’s visit, when Buddhism was struggling 
with Brahmanism but was still predomimant. The most modern of 
these inscriptions says that ‘Place is not to be given to the disputer 
of Buddhism.” It must therefore be older than A. D. 600—while 
the more ancient ones, from the shape of their characters, certainly 
reach as high a date as the beginning of the Christian era.’? The 
Andre Indi are mentioned in the Pentingerian Tables, and the 
Andhras of Magadha are recorded in the Purénas. Andhra is also 

G 2 


44 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwin Thsdng | JuLy, 


one of the ancient names of Telingana, or the country between the 
Kistna and Godavari rivers. This however answers to the Great 
Andhra of Hwan Thsaéng, which is mentioned by Hwan Thsang in 
the next article. 

Thence to the S. at 1000 & (167 miles) to 

No. 91—Ta-NaA-KO-THSE-KIA, also called Great AN-rHa-Lo ; 6000 
“i (1000 miles) in extent. Inhabitants, black and savage. To the 
E. of the town on a mountain was the monastery of WE-PHO-SHI-LO, 
“montagne orientale,” and on the W. was the monastery of A-Fra-Lo- 
SHI-LO, ‘‘ montagne accidentale.’’ (These two names are the Sanskrit 
purvva-sila, or “ eastern mountain,” and apara-sila, or “ western moun- 
tamn.”’ This country, as mentioned above, corresponds with the modern 
Telingéna, between the Godavariand Kistna rivers, of which Warankul 
was the capital for many centuries. Hamilton erroneously states that 
Warankul was built in A. D. 1067, for it appears to have been the 
capital of the Adeva Rajas in about A. D. 800; and I have little doubt 
that it is the Korunkula of Ptolemy.) 

Thence to the 8. W. at 1000 i (167 miles) to 

No. 92—Cuv-ui-yeE, from 2400 to 2500 li (400 to 417 miles) in ex- 
tent. People savage, fierce and heretical. Temples of the Gods. To 
the 8. E. of the town a Stupa built by Asoka. To the W. an ancient 
monastery, where lived the drhan WEeN-Ta-LA “ superieur,”’ (in Sanskrit 
Uttra. The bearmg and distance point to the ‘‘neighborhood of 
Karnil on the Tungabhadra River.” 

No. 93—Tua-.o-pi-cHuHa, 6000 (1000 miles) in extent. The 
capital is K1an-cu1-pu-Lo, Kanjeveram, Landresse. The language 
and letters are somewhat different from those of central India. The 
capital is the birth-place of THa-mMa-PHO-Lo (gardien de la loi) PHov- 
sa (in Sanskrit Dharmma-Pdla Bodhisatwa.) 'To the 8S. of the town 
was a great Stupa built by Asoka. (The name of the country is cer- 
tainly the Sanskrit a1fagt, Dravira or Dravida, of which the most cele- 
brated city is Kdnchipura or Kanjeveram. The language and letters 
are Tamul.) 

Thence to the S. at 3000 i (500 miles) to 

No. 94—Mo-to-xk1v-THo, or Cu1-mo-Lo, 5000 & (833 miles) in ex- 
tent. The.people are black and savage. On the S. this kmgdom is 
bounded by the sea, where stands the mountain of Mo-Lo-ye, tothe E. 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 45 


of which is Mount Pu-rHa-Lo-K1A, from which there springs a river that, 
after winding round the hill falls into the sea. To the N. E. of this moun- 
tain is a town from which people embark for the southern sea and for 
Ceylon. (1 am unable to offer any equivalent for the Chinese syllables, 
unless Cu1-mo-to be a transcript of Komdri or Cape Comorin. There 
can be no doubt that the district intended is the ancient Madura, and 
the Madura regia, Pandionis of Ptolemy, now called the southern Car- 
natic: but the distances from Kdnchipuram and from Ceylon (next 
mentioned) are exactly double the actual measurements. ) 

Thence to the E. at 3000 li (500 miles) to 

No. 95—Sene-x1a-Lo, Ceylon, Landresse. (The various particulars 
related by Hwan Thsang agree with the details of the Mahawanso: such 
as the conversion of the people to Buddhism in the first century after 
the Nirvdéna of Buddha, and their division, two centuries afterwards, into 
two sects.) 

From Tra-io-rr-cuuHa (or Dravira) to the N. through a wild forest 
at 2000 li (333 miles) to 

No. 96—KuncG-K1An-NA-PO-LO, Kankara, Landresse ; 5000 k (833 
miles) in extent. To the N. of the town is a forest of To-Lo, of which 
the leaves are used for writing upon throughout India. To the E. of 
the town is a Stupa built by Asoka. (The Chinese syllables represent 
exactly the name of Kankanapura, the modern Concan, an extensive 
district on the W. coast of India. The distance from the capital of 
Dravira points to the position of the celebrated town of Kalbarga, 
which was the capital of a Hindu principality before the Mahomedan 
invasion. Perhaps Mudgal, which is called Modogulla by Ptolemy, 
may have been the capital of the Kankan im the time of Hwan Thsing : 
although there can be no doubt of the antiquity and celebrity of Kal- 
barga. The To-to is clearly the Tali tree, the leaves of which are 
still used for writing upon. It is erroneously called the Talipat tree 
by book-makers, as Tdlipatra means the “leaves of the Tali,” and not 
the tree itself.) 

Thence to the N. W. through a wild forest at 2400 or 2500 Xi (400 
to 417 miles) to 

No. 97—-Ma-nHa-ta-THO, Maharatta, Landresse: 6000 & (1000 
miles) in extent. The capital to the W. rests upon a large river. 
(Judging from the distance the chief city of Maharashtra must have 


46 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwdn Thsdng [JuLy, 


been at or near Burhdnpur on the Tapti. This town is in the very 
heart of the old Mahratta country, and from its vicinity to the celebra- 
ted fortress of Asirgarh, I have little doubt that it was once the 
capital of the country. Its present name is derived from Burhan 
Niz4m Shah ; but the town is mentioned by Ferishta as a place of 
consequence during the reign of Ahmed Shah, the father of Burhdn 
Shah.) 

Thence to the W. at 1000 i (167 miles) across the river Nat-mo- 
THO (in Sanskrit Narmada, the Namadus Fluvius of Ptolemy, and the 
Narbada of the present day, to 

No. 98—Pa-LU-KO-CHEN-PHO, 2400 to 2500 i (400 to 417 miles) 
in extent. The people live by sea-trade. (The position, on the northern 
bank of the Narbada, and in the vicinity of the sea, pomt to the 
seaport of Baroch, the Barygaza of Ptolemy and the Brigu gacha 
of the Hindus. The Chinese syllables seem to represent Brigu 
champa, 11 which the first half of the Hindu name is correctly 
preserved.) 

Thence to the N. W. at 2000 & (333 miles) to 

No. 99—Ma-to-pHo, 6000 Zi (1000 miles) in extent. The capital 
is situated to the S. E. of the river Mu-Ho. (This is undoubtedly 
Malava or Malwa, of which the ancient capital was Dhdr or Dhdrana- 
gar, situated to the S. E. of the upper course of the Mahi river, the 
Mais of the Periplus, as stated by Hwan Thsing. But both the dis- 
tance and the bearing are wrong ; as the latter should be N. E. and the 
former should be only 1000 & (or 167 miles) which is the exact distance 
between Baroch and Dhar.) In all the five Indies, adds Hwan Thséng, 
the two chief kingdoms for study are Malwa to the 8. W. and Magadha 
to the N. E. The history of the country mentions that a king named 
SuH1-Lo-a-T1-To (or Siladitya) reigned there for 60 years. To the N. 
W. of the town at 20 Zi (upwards of 3 miles) was a town of Brahmans. 
At the period of Hwan Thsing’s visit therefore Buddhism was still 
prevalent in Malwa.) 

Thence to the S. W. embarking and then turning to the N. W. at 
2400 to 2500 hk (400 to 417 miles) to 

No. 100—A-cua-u1, or A-rHo-11, 6000 & (1000 miles) im extent. 
(This description seems rather vague: but by first travelling from Dhar 
to the S. W. to Baroch, and thence sailing along the coast till opposite 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 47 


Satara, a distance of about 400 miles, would have been passed over. 
Satara may perhaps be the place designed by Hwan Thsing, but with- 
out a second clue, it is impossible to determine this name with any 
precision. ) 

From Ma-ua-pHo to the N. W. at 300 dc (50 miles) to 

No. 101—Kaut-cua, 3000 (500 miles) in extent. Without a king, 
being a dependency of Malwa. (From its vicinity to the capital of 
Malwa, this place could only have been a very small principality, per- 
haps Khachrod, 56 miles N. by W. from Dhar.) 

Thence to the N. at 1000 & (167 miles) to 

No. 102—Fa-xa-r1, 6000 % (1000 miles) in extent. Here is much 
merchandize from distant countries. Asoka built Stupas at this place. 
The king is a Kshatriya of the race of Su1-Lo-a-tT1-To (or Siladitya) 
of Malwa. The king of Ko-so-x1u-cu1 (Kanyakubja or Kano) 
named Tu-Lu-PHO-pa-THO (or Dhruvabhatia) is also of the race of 
Siladitya. (Jacquet’s identification of Fa-La-p1 with the celebrated 
Balabhi, the ancient capital of Gujrat, is undoubtedly correct. Hwan 
Thsang’s bearing should therefore have been S. W. instead of N. The 
mention that the king of Kanoj was a Kshatriya is especially valuable 
for the history of India, for by a reference to No. 62, we find that when 
Hwan Thséng was at Kanoj the king was a Vaisya. A change of dy- 
nasty had therefore taken place during the time occupied by Hwan 
Thsang in travelling leisurely from Kanoj to Balabhi. There can be no 
mistake about the king’s caste ; for the Vaisya Raja was named Kalyd- 
nasphutana, whereas the Kshatriya Raja was called Dhruvabhatta.) 

Thence to the N. W. at 700 Ui (117 miles) to 

No. 103—A-NAN-THA-PU-LO, Anantapura, Landresse. 2000 Li 
(333 miles) in extent. Without aking, being adependency of Malwa. 
(It it impossible to believe that any place to the W. of Balabhi could 
have belonged to Malwa. The bearing should therefore most probably 
be either N. or N. E. instead of N. W. This would point to the 
neighbourhood of Anhalwarapatan and Ahmadnagar. The former place 
however formed part of the kingdom of Balabhi: but it may have been 
temporarily annexed to Malwa at the period of Hwan Thséng’s visit.) 

From Fa-xa-ri to the W. at 500 Ui (83 miles) to 

No. 104.—Svu-La-ruo, Surat, Landresse: 4000 li (667 miles) in 
extent. The capital rests to the W. on the river Mu-yi. Through 


48 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [ J uy, 


this country lies the natural road towards the western sea: and the 
people are fond of maritime enterprizes. Near the town is mount Yrv- 
SHEN-TO. The Chinese syllables represent the Sanskrit Surashtra in 


its spoken form of Suratha. M. Landresse is wrong in identifying this | 


with Surat, which is a modern town. According to Hwadn Thsang the 
capital must be looked for im the neighbourhood of Junagarh, a place 
which we know to have been one of the chief cities of the peninsula of 
Gujrat. 

From Fa-ua-r1 to the N. at 1800 % (300 miles) to 

No. 105.—Krv-cHe-to, 5000 fi (833 miles.) Heretics, numerous : 
believers, few. The capital isnamed P1-Lo-ma-Lo. (Both bearing and 
distance point to the modern district of Jodhpur or Marwar, of which 
one of the principal ancient cities is Bérmér, no doubt the P1-L0-A-Lo 
of Hwan Thsang, as its position corresponds exactly with the descrip- 
tion. The name of the district would appear to have been Gujara, or 
Guryara-rashtra, the “country of Gujars.”” In Hwan Thsang’s time 
therefore this name could not have comprized the peninsula, which was 
then known under the name of Surashtra. It would be interesting if 
we could trace the period of the extension of this name to the peninsula. 
I have a suspicion that it must have taken place after the establishment 
of the Rahtors in Marwér, when the original inhabitants of Gujara, 
being dislodged and pushed to the south, sought refuge in Surashtra, 
to which they gave their own name.) 

Thence to the 8. E. at 2800 Zi (467 miles) to 

No. 106—U-cuer-yan-na, Ujjayini, Landresse, 6000 li (1000 miles) 
in extent. Stupa: the “site of Hell,’ built by Asoka. (This is no 
doubt the once celebrated Ujain, as identified by M. Landresse. “ Hell’ 
was the name of a prison built by Asoka before his conversion to Bud- 
dhism, and which he afterwards destroyed.) 

Thence to the N. E. at 1000 & (167 miles) to 

No. 107.—Cut-cut-ro, 4000 i (667 miles) in extent. The king 
is a Brahman, and devoutly believes in the “Three precious ones.” 
(The distance and bearing carry us into the heart of Bundelkhand, to 
the kingdom of Chachivati or Jajdvati, and its capital Kajurdha, which 
are both noticed by Abu Rihén al Biruni. Kajurdha is no doubt the 
Kragausa Metropolis of Ptolemy. The mention that the king was a 
Brahman points to a period prior to the establishment of the Chandel 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 49 


Rajputs, which we know must have taken place somewhere about A. 
D. 700.* 

Thence to the N. at 900 & (150 miles) to 

No. 108.—Ma-yi-sHE-Fa-Lo-Pu-Lo, 3000 li (500 miles) in extent. 
Heretics who do not believe in Buddha. (The Chinese syllables repre- 
sent exactly the Sanskrit Maheswarapura, but I know of no place of 
this name to the N. of Bundelkhand. Perhaps Bhuteswara, on the 
Jamna, may be intended: for Bhuteswara and Maheswara, beng both 
well known names of Siva, are of course interchangeable ; and as the 
distance and bearimg agree with those recorded by Hwan Thsang, it is 
probable that my proposed identification may be correct : more especi- 
ally as the Brahmanical celebrity of Bhuteswara agrees with the mention 
that the place was in the possession of “ heretics’ who believed not in 
Buddha.) 

From Krv-cHe-Lo (or Gaara, Marwar) to the N. through a desert 
and across the Sin-Tu (or Indus) to 

No. 109.—Si1n-tTv, Sindh, Landresse, 7000 ki (1167 miles) in extent. 
The capital is Pi-cuHEN-PHO-PU-LO, (perhaps Pushpa-pura, or “ Flower 
town,’ a very common name for Indian cities. It appears to be the 
Pasipeda of Ptolemy.) Asokahere built many stupas. (No distance 
is given, but as the city was situated on the Indus, the bearing is suffi- 
cient to indicate the town of Alor, which we know to have been the 
capital of Sind, within a few years after Hw4n Thsang’s visit. I should 
prefer rendering the Chinese syllables by Viswa-pura; but Pushpa- 
pura appears to be the more likely name, as it is a very common term 
for Indian cities. Thus both Kanoj and P4taliputra were also called 
Kusumapura, a synonyme of Pushpapura, which in its Pali form of Pup- 
pha-pura, was the common name of Palibothra amongst the Buddhists. 

Thence to the E. at 900 & (150 miles) passing to the E. bank of the 
Indus to 

* Lieut. Maisey in his account of Kélanjjar, (J. A. S. B.—1848—p. 188) errone- 
ously states that the Chandel Rajas of Mahoba were of Brahmanical descent ; hence, 


saye he, “‘ the title of Brimh.” He has apparently been misled by the vulgar pronun- 
ciation of Barm, which is the spoken form of Varmma, “ armor,” a name peculiar and 


AS 
appropriate to the Kshatriya class. 4*4,; Varmma, has nothing in common with Ts 
Brahma. If symphony alone is allowed to guide etymology, bhram or “ black bee,”may 
equally lay claim toa descent from Brahma ; but, unfortunately for the bee, its name 
Ly 
is spelt AHL, ~Bhramara. Both coins and inscriptions spell the name 4H, Varmma: 
H 


50 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang. [JuLyY, 


No. 110.—Merv-.Lo-san-pu-io, 4000 “i (667 miles) in extent. Nu- 
merous worshippers of the Gods: but few Buddhists. (There can be 
no doubt that the Chinese syllables represent Mallisthanpura, or Mal- 
thinpur, now Multin. The bearing should therefore have been N. E. 
and not E. The distance also is too little.) 

Thence to the N. E. at 700 &@ (117 miles) to 

No. 111.—Po-Fa-ro, 5000 2 (833 miles in extent.) Four stupas of 
Asoka and twenty temples of heretics. (Judging from the bearing and 
distance the Chinese syllables may possibly be intended to represent 
Pak-patan, an old place also called Ajudhan, and which is perhaps the 
Ardone of Ptolemy. This identification is however only a guess ; for both 
Harapa and Chichawatin agree equally well with the position indicated, 
and as the Chinese syllables Fa-ro most probably represent the Sans- 
krit Vati, perhaps Chichawatin may be the true position.) 

From Sin-rv to the S. W. at 1500 or 1600 & (250 to 267 miles) to 

No. 112—A-tTu1an-PHo-sHi-Lo, 5000 & (833 miles) im extent. 
The walls of the capital, which is called Ko-cu1-sHE-Fa-to (or Kach- 
chéswara) are close to the river Srn-tu (or Indus), and also not far 
from the shore of the Great Sea. Without a king, being a dependency 
of Sind. Here Asoka built six Stupas. The recorded distance points 
to the modern peninsula of Kachh, of which Kotasir is one of the prin- 
cipal towns. Its position agrees exactly with that given by Hwan 
Thsang, and the modern name is perhaps only a slight corruption of the 
ancient one, although a different meaning is now attached to it. The 
name of the district would appear to be Adhipasila ; the “king’s 
mountain,” or the “king’s rock.” I have a suspicion that the two 
names have been interchanged: Kachcheswara being the proper name 
of the country, and the original of Kachchha or Kachh, of the present 
day. 

Thence to the N. at less than 2000 Zi (about 330 miles) to 

No. 113—Lane-xo-Lo, in Western India: many thousands of i on 
every side. The capital is called Su-ru-Li-sHE-ra-Lo. This country 
is on the shore of the Great Sea. It has no king, being a dependency 
of Persia. The alphabetic characters are like those of the Indians, but 
the language is somewhat different. In the town is a temple of Mihe- 
swara. (The bearing and distance both point to the island of Astola, 
the Asthdla of Ptolemy, and the Thdra of Hdrisi. This name is easily 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 51 


recognizable in the Chinese syllables, which are a literal transcript of 
Astuleswara, the “ Lord of Astula,” an appellation of Siva, as husband 
of Astula or Durga. The name of the district, LANG-Ko-LO-was, is pro- 
bably derived from Lakorian, an ancient town now in ruins, a little to 
the northward of Khozdar. The district would therefore correspond 
with the modern Baluchistan.) | 

Thence to the N. W. to 

No. 114—Pxo-ua-sse, Persia, Landresse. Many tens of thousands 
of Zin extent. The capital is called Su-La-sa-rane-na. This country 


on the N. W. touches Fr-tin. (The name of the capital appears to 


have been Surasthan, no doubt the Ram-Seristan of Ibn Haukal, of 
which the ruins still exist on the Helmand, just above its junction with 
the Hémiin. Fe-trn is of course Europe, or the country of the 
Firingis or Franks, called Phi-ling by the Tibetans, from whom the 
Chinese perhaps derived the name.) 

From A-THIAN-PHO-SHI-LO (or Kachchh) to the N. at 700 li (117 
miles) to 

No. 115—P1-ro-su1-Lo, 3000 @ (500 miles) in extent. Without a 
king, being a dependency of Sind. To the N. of the town at 15 or 16 
i (23 miles) in a great forest, is a Stupa several hundred feet in height 
built by Asoka ; and near it to the E. is a monastery built by the Arhan 
Ta-K1IA-TA-YAN-NA. (The bearing and distance pomt exactly to the 
ruins of Naserpur and Nerunkot, close to the present Haiderabéd. The 
Chinese syllables perhaps represent Patasila, qvetaea, the “ exten- 
sive rock,” or the “expanse of stone,’ a name of the same import as 
Patala, “the extensive abode ;” the common acceptation of Patala, is 
urate, or “ Hell,’ in allusion to its low position in the Delta of the 
Indus. The Tibetans however give it a much more natural etymology. 
They call the town, Yh, Potdla, the “place of boats,” or the 
“Haven.” But as Potala was also the name of a hill, Hwan Thsang’s 
syllables may be rendered Potasila, ‘the Boat-hill,”’ which when applied 
to the rocky Nerunkot, would be as appropriate a name as Potala or 
* Boat-place.” There can be no doubt that it is the Patala of the 
Greeks. Even now it stands at the real head of the Delta, at the point 
of divurgence of the Guni river, which must have been the eastern branch 
down which Alexander sailed. The determination of this pomt we owe 
chiefly to Hwan Thsang’s distances. ) 


H 2 


52 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [JuLy, 


Thence to the N. E. at 300 & (50 miles) to 
No. 116—A-pan-cuna, 2400 to 2500 li (400 to 417 miles) im extent. 
Without a king, being a dependency of Sind. Stupa built by Asoka. 
(Judging by the bearing and distance the place tended must be the 
celebrated Brahmandbéd, which was rebuilt as Mansura. It is the 
“Brahman city’ of the historians of Alexander, and the Harmatelia 
of Diodorus, which I believe to be derived from the Sanskrit Brahmas- 
thala, in its spoken form of Brahmathala. The Chinese syllables would 
however appear to bear some resemblance to Uchha or Uch; but that 
town is more than 300 miles distant.) 

Thence to the N. E. at 900 & (150 miles) to 

No. 117—Fa-ua-nu, 4000 k (667 miles) in extent. Itis a depen- 
dency of Kia-p1-sHe (or Kapisa, now Kushdn.) The language has a 
slight analogy with that of central India. It is said that on the west- 
ward amongst the mountains it stretches to Ki-kuianG-na. (Hwan 
Thsang has now crossed the frontier of Sindh, and entered the territory 
dependent on Kapisa or Kushdn. His bearmg must therefore be wrong 
as well as his distance ; for by following them we only reach the neigh- 
borhood of Aror, the capital of Smdh. But by comparing his further 
progress towards Kapisa, and by taking his distances and bearings from 
that place, together with the name of the district itself, it seems most 
probable that the country around the Boldén Pass must be intended. 
The Chinese syllables are indeed a faithful transcript of Bolan; and 
although the distance is just double that recorded by Hwan Thsing, 
yet the fact that the pilgrim was proceeding from Sindh to Kabul 
almost proves the correctness of my identification, as the Bolan Pass 
was the nearest route that he could have followed. But when joined to 
the absolute identity of name, I think there can scarcely be a doubt as 
to the correctness of the identification.) 

Thence tothe N. W. across great mountains and large streams, and 
past several small towns at 2000 / (333 miles) on the frontier of India, 
to 

No. 118—Tsao-x1v-THo, 7000 & (1167 miles) in extent. Language 
and letters peculiar. Stupas built by Asoka. Temple of the God 
Tsu-Nna, who came from Mount A-Lu-nas (druna, the “red,’’) near 
Kapisa. (Taking the next recorded bearing and distance from Hv- 
pHi-NA or Hupian, Tsao-K1u-rHo must be the district of Arachosia 


SS —— ee 


—— 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 53 


on the Arachotus river. The Chinese syllables indeed seem to point to 
this name. The old capital of Arachotus or Alexandropolis, was situat- 
ed on the Arachotus river; but its distance from Hupian is much too 
great. Ghazni would appear rather to have been the capital visited by 
Hwan Thsaing, as it lies on the high road to Kabul.) 

Thence to the N. at 500 & (83 miles) to 

No. 119—For-.i-sui-sa-TANG-NA, 2000 2 (333 miles) from E. to 
W., and 1000 & (167 miles) from N. to S. The capital is called Hv- 
pHina. The king, of the race of Thu-kiuei (or Turk, Landresse) is at- 
tached to the Three Precious Ones. (The Chinese syllables represent 
Parashasthdna, the modern Panjhir or Panjshir valley, where Ptolemy 
places the Parsii and their two towns Parsia and Parsiana. The 
capital is undoubtedly the present Hupian near Charikar, which was 
the position of the celebrated Alexandria ad Caucasum, called by 
Stephen of Byzantium, Alexandria Opiané. I have discussed this sub- 
ject in my article upon Ariano-Grecian Monograms published in the 
Numismatic chronicle of London.) 

Thence to the N. E. over mountains and rivers, and passing by ten 
small towns, to the frontier of Kapisa, one reaches the great snowy 
mountains, and the PHo-Lo-si-Nna chain. ‘This is the highest peak of 
Jambu-dwipa. From thence a descent of three days to 

No. 120—An-tTHA-ua-Fo, the ancient country ofthe Tu-Ho-Lo (or 
(Tochari), 3000 l (500 miles) m extent. Without a king, being tri- 
butary to the Turks. (This place has already been identified by Pro- 
fessor Lassen with dunderdb to the N. of the Hindu Kush. The Puo- 
LO-SI-NA chain is clearly the Paropainsus of the Greeks, called 
Parnessus by Dionysius Periegesis. That Hwan Thsdng’s appellation 
is the correct one is proved by the Zend name of Mount Aprasin, 
which is accurately preserved in the Parrhasini of Pliny, and im the 
Parrhasu of Strabo and Solinus. The celebrated Greek name of 
Parnassus appears to have been only a fond alteration of the true name 
by the soldiers of Alexander’s army im remembrance of their own 
famous mountain.) 

Thence to the N. W. through vallies and over hills and past many 
small towns at: 400 i (67 miles) to 

No. 121-—Hvo-s1-ro, ancient country of the Tochari, 3000 lk (500 
miles) in extent. Without a king, being tributary to the Turks. 


54 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [Jury, 


(This must be some place on the Ghori river between Baghalan and 
Kunduz. The Chinese syallables appear to represent some name like 
Khosta, but as we possess no detailed maps of this part of the country 
it is almost impossible to identify this place, as well as several others 
mentioned by Hwan Thsang.) 

Thence to the N. W. over hills and through vallies, and past several 
towns, to 

No. 122.—Huv-o, formerly belonging to the Tochari. Without a 
king, being tributary to the Turks. (This is most probably Khulm.) 

Towards the E. at 100 (17 miles) is 

No. 123.—Menc-x1an, formerly belonging to the Tochari. With- 
out a king, being tributary to the Turks. (The bearing and distance 
point to the neighbourhood of Yang-Arek, near which are the ruins of 
an ancient town, which may probably be the Mene-x1a of Hwan 
Thsang.) 

Thence to the N. is 

No. 124.—A-11-n1, formerly belonging to the Tochari. It lies upon 
both banks of the Fa-rsu (or Ozus) and is 300 & (50 miles) in extent. 
(This is undoubtedly the Walin of Ibn Haukal, the Urwalin of Edrisi, 
and the Welwaleg of Ulugh Beg. According to Edrisi (1. 475) it was 
2 days journey to the EK. of Khulm, and 2 days to the W. of Télikén, 
which agrees with the position assigned to it by Hwan Thsang. This 
would place it about the mouth of the Kunduz river, where there still 
exists a Fort called Kilah Zal. Now Ibn Haukal writes the name 
Zudlin, as well as Wdlin. It is probable therefore that Kilah Zal is the 
identical place mentioned by all these writers. Its position on the 
Oxus would of course secure for it the possession of land on both sides 
of the river, as stated by Hwan Thsang.) 

Thence to the E. is 

No. 125.—Ko-.o-nv, formerly belonging tothe Tochari. It stretch- 
es to the Oxus towards the N. (I believe this to be the modern dis- 
trict of Kunduz Proper, which is bounded to the N. by the Oxus.) 

To the E. across a chain of hills and past several districts and towns 
at 300 i (50 miles) to 

No. 126.—Ke-.1-se-mo, formerly belonging to the Tochari, 100 2 
(17 miles) from KE. to W., and 300 & (50 miles) from N. to S. (The 
bearing and distance point to Talikdn.) 


1848. | through Afghanstan and India. 


on 
a] 


Thence to the N. E. is 

No. 127.—Po-.1-H0, formerly belonging to the Tochani; 100 
(17 miles) from E. to W. and 300 (50 miles) from N. to 8. (This is 
perhaps the old city of Barbara, now in ruins, at the mouth of the 
Kokcha river.) 

From Ke-.1-sE-Mo, across the mountains to the E. at 300 dc (50 miles) 
to 

No. 128.—Ssr-mo-THA-to, formerly belonging to the Tochari, 3000 
ii (500 miles) in extent. The rule ofthe Turks has very much changed 
the habits and locations of the people. (The recorded data point to the 
neighbourhood of Tishkén, on the high road between Télikaén and Fai- 
zabad.) 

Thence to the E. at 200 & (33 miles) to 

No. 129.—Po- THO-TsANG-NA, formerly belonging to the Tochari, 
2000 & (333 miles) in extent. The king is firmly attached to the belief 
of the Three Precious Ones. (The bearing and distance point to Fazzd- 
bad, the capital of Badakshdn, of which latter name the Chinese syl- 
lables are only a transcript.) 

Thence to the S. E. at 200 % (33 miles) over mountains to 

No. 130. Yiu- po-K1ANn, formerly belonging to the Tochari, 1000 i 
(167 miles) in extent. The language is slightly different from that of 
Badakshan. (This is probably Yawal on the Wardoj river.) 

Thence to the 8. E. across a mountain chain by a dangerous road, at 
300 (50 miles.) 

No. 131. Krvu-Lane-nv, formerly belonging to the Tochari, 2000 l 
(333 miles) in extent. Without religion, there being but few Buddhists. 
The people are savage and ugly. The king believes in the Three Preci- 
ous Ones. (Judging from the data this must be the present Firganue, 
close to the mines of lapis-lazuli. In fact the Chinese syllables would 
seem to represent some name being similar to this one.) 

Thence to the N. E. by a mountainous and difficult road at 500 i 
(83 miles) to 

No. 132.—Twa-Mo-st-THIEI-TI, or THIAN-PIN, or Hvu-m1, formerly 
belonging to the Tochari. From 1500 to 1600 “i (250 to 267 miles) from 
E. to W., and only 4 or 5 & (about three quarters of a mile) from N. 
to S., and situated between two mountains on the river Oxus. The 
people have green eyes, different from those of all other countries. 


56 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [Jury, 


(The bearmg and distance point to the Wakhdn valley, which agree 
exactly with the description of Hwan Thsang; for from the Sir-i-kol 
lake to the junction of the Shakh-dara, the Oxus is 170 miles in length, 
measured direct on Wood’s map; to which must be added one half 
more for the windings of the stream, making a total length of 255 miles. 
From Ishkashm to Kundut, the valley of Wakhan is from “ a few hun- 
dred yards to a mile in width.” The average width is therefore some 
what more than half a mile, as accurately stated by Hwan Thsang. 
This is one more proof that the measurements of the Chinese pilgrim 
are generally correct. The name of Hu-mi is no doubt derived from 
the Hien-mr tribe of Tochari, whose name is still preserved in Amu, 
the modern appellation of the Oxus. Wakhan is mentioned by Ibn 
Haukal, Edrisi and Marco Polo, and it is, I believe, the Vanda-banda 
regio of Ptolemy.) 

No. 133.—SHE-kuI-N1, 2000 Li (333 miles) in extent. The capital 
is called Wen-ta-ro. This country is to the N. of the Great Snowy 
Mountains. (Sux-Ku1-n1 is the Shakhndn of the present day, and the 
Sakinah of Ibn Haukal and Edrisi.). 

To the 8. of Wakhan and the Great Mountains is 

No. 134.—SuHane-my1, 2500 to 2600 li (417 to 433 miles) in extent. 
The letters are the same as those of the Tochari; but the language is 
different. The king is of the race of Sue. The religion of Buddha 
is held in great honor. (This can only be the valley of Chitral, with 
the lateral vallies of Kafiristan. The name was perhaps derived from 
the Indo-Scythian tribe of SHwaNG-mI.) 

To the N. E. over the mountains by a dangerous road, at 700 i 
(117 miles) is the valley of PHo-m1-Lo, (or Pamer, Landresse) which 
is 1000 &% (167 miles) from E. to W. and 100 & (17 miles) from N. 
to S. and is situated between two snowy mountains. There is the 
great lake of serpents, which is 300 Zi (50 miles) from E. to W. and 
50 li (upwards of 8 miles) from N. toS. It is m the midst of the 
Tsung Sing mountains. (This is the well known lake of Sz-i-kol, at 
the source of the Oxus and in the district of Pamer.) 

To the S. of Pamer, across the mountains is the kingdom of the 
Po-HE-Lo (or Bolor, Landresse) which produces much gold. The S. 
E. part of the district is inhabited. (This is the kindom of Balti or 
Little Tibet, which is called Palolo by the Dardus. From this name 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. 57 


has been derived that of the mountain range of Bolor, and perhaps also 
that of 6elor or “rock crystal.’’) 

Thence beyond the snowy mountains and glaciers is 

No. 135.—Ko-puan-to, 2000 li (333 miles) inextent. The capital 
is situated on a high mountain, close to the river S1-To. The king takes 
the title of Cui-NA-THI-PHO-KIU-TA-LO, “race du dieu du soleil de la 
Chine” (or China-deva-gotra.) The Si-ro, or Sita, is the river of 
Kashgar; and the district appears to be that of Sir-i-kol, of which Tag- 
armi is now the largest town.) 

Thence descending the Tsung Sing to the E. and crossing other 
mountains at 800 i (133 miles) to 

No. 136.—U-sa1, 1000 & (167 miles) in extent. On the S. it 
stretches to the river Sita. The letters and language somewhat resemble 
those of Kashgar. Buddhais held in honor. Without a king being 
tributary to Ko-puHan-ro. To the W. of the town at 200 di (33 miles) 
is agreat mountain. (This appears to answer to the district of Yangi- 
Hisar. It is probably the duzakia of Ptolemy.) 

Thence to the N. over lonely mountains at 500 & (83 miles) to 

No. 137.—Kix-sua, Kashgar, Landresse: 5000 fi (833 miles) in 
extent. 

Thence to the S. E. crossmg the river Sita, the Great Sands, and a 
mountain chain, at 500 di (83 miles) to 

No. 138—Cuo-Kev-x1ra, 1000 / (167 miles) inextent. The letters 
are the same as those of Kru-sa-TaNn-Na, (Ku-sthdna or Kotan, Remu- 
sat,) but the language is different. 

Thence to the E. across a chain at 800 dz (133 miles) to 

No. 139—Kuv-sa-Tan-na (or Kotan, Remusat), commonly Wan- 
wa. The Hiung-nu callit Iv-s1an the other barbarians Ku-ran, and 
the Yin-ru, Kru-ran. It is 4000 2 (667 miles) in extent. 

Thence at 400 i (67 miles) to 

No. 140—Tvu-no-1o, or the ancient country of the Tochari. (This 
is no doubt the district of Khor in Great Tibet, for the chief tribe of 
the Tochari was the Kuei-shang of the Chinese writers, the Korano of 
the coins, and the Chaurancei of Ptolemy.*) ; 


* Dr. Taylor identifies Ptolemy’s Chauranwi with the Garos of Asam, although they 
are placed immediately to the E. of the Byltw, or people of Balti, or Little Tibet. 1 
observe with regret that Mr. B, H. Hodgson seems to admit the correctness of Dr. 

I 


58 Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan Thsang [ Jury, 


Thence to the E. at 600 & (100 miles) to 
No. 141—CueE-ma-Tan-na, or land of Ni-mo. (Perhaps Chdn- 
than, the district inhabited by the Chate Scythe of Ptolemy. 


Verification of Hwan Thsing’s view of Buddhism. 


It may perhaps be urged against Hwan Thsang that, as a zealous 
follower of Buddha, he has exhibited altogether a much too favorable 
view of the state of the Buddhist religion in India at the period of his 
visit. But fortunately, we possess the independent testimonies of two 
different authors, the one a Brahman, and the other a Musalman, whose 
statements fully corroborate the views of the Chinese pilgrim, and vouch 
for the entire truthfulness of his narrative. The Brahman is Kalhane 


Taylor’s identification of Asam with the Serica of the ancients. This isa point that in 
my opinion is wholly without proof, or even probability. It is indeed true that Asam 
and Serica both produced silk : and equally true is it that there was a river in Macedon 
and another in Monmouth, and that there were salmons in both, but this proves nothing : 
for Asam was certainly apart of “ India extra Gangem,’’as was also Great Tibet, includ- 
ing the whole of the country on the Sanpiéi river. Thus Eldanais Galdén, Sagoda is 
Shigatze, Adisaga is U-T'sang or Lhassa, and the Daona Fluvins is the Dihong River. 
The Dabase are the people of Dabus, or Central Tibet, that is of Lhassa, and the Dumas: 
Montes, are the hills of Débus. A glance at the map will show the correctness of these 
identifications ; but we have also the fact that the kings of Great Tibet from B. C. 250 
were Indians of the family of Lichchavi of Vaisali. This alone was sufficient to warrant 
Ptolemy in including Tibet within ‘‘ India extra Gangem.” I cannot enter into any 
details here; but I may mention that the routes from India to Tibet appear to have 
remained unchanged since Ptolemy’s time: for Tosule Metropolis, is most probably 
Tassisudon, the capital of Botan; and Tugma Metropolis must be the capital of Asam; 
whilst Mareura emporium is Amarapura the capital of Ava. The Seres were certainly 
the Ouigours whose name is preserved in the Oichardes Fluvius and Oicharde, in the 
ltaguri, Thagurus Mons, and Thogara, all of which are only various spellings of Ouiguri 
or Ouigours. They were called Kiao-chang or ‘‘ Waggoners” by the Chinese, which 
term we also find preserved in the Essedones of Ptolemy and Ammianus, in the Heniochi 
of Pliny, and inthe Harmatotrophi of Pomponius Mela: all of which are only literal 
translations of the Chinese name. The Seres must not therefore be confounded with 
the Sine, for the latter were the people of China Proper, the former of Chinese Tartary. 
A few minor identifications may also be mentioned, such as: the Psitaras fluvius of 
Pliny is the Su-Tarini, or river of Yarkand : the Sizyges are the people of Sui-Ching :— 
the Damn are the people of Manas, the Asmirwi are the people of Urumtsi or Bish- 
balig ;—and the Throani or Tharrani are the people of Turfan, 


; 
F 
‘ 
q 
' 


1848. | through Afghanistan and India. : 59 


Pandit, the author of the early portions of the Raja Taringini or Sanskrit 
history of Kashmir. According to him 

In about A. D. 560, Galina the minister of Vikramaditya built a 
Vihéra, or Buddhist monastery. T. 3.—Sl. 476. 

Between A. D. 594 and 630, Ananggalekha, the Queen of Durlabha, 
built a Vihdra. T. 4.—SI. 3. 

Between A. D. 680 and 689, Prakdsa-Devi, the Queen of Chandra- 
pira, built a Vihdra. 'T. 4.—Sl. 79. 

Between A. D. 693 and 729, Raja Lalitaditya built a great Vihdra 
and a Stupa in Hushkapura, and in another place he built a great 
Chaitya, as well as a Vihdra. 'T. 4.—SI. 188-200. He likewise 
erected a great copper image of Buddha. T. 4.—SIl. 203. His Prime 
Minister also, named Changkuna, a Turk from Bhukhara, built a Stupa, 
a Chaitya and a Vihira. T. 4.—Sl. 211-215. And the Physician 
Isanachandra, the Minister’s brother-in-law also built a Vihdra. T. 4. 
—Sl. 216. 

Between A. D. 751 and 782, Raja Joyapira erected images of the 
three Buddhas (the “three precious ones”? of Hwan Thsang) as well as 
a very large Vihdra. T. 4.—Sl. 506. 

Between A. D. 854 and 883, Raja Avanti Varmma, for the space of 
ten years, prohibited the slaughter of every living thing. T. 5.— 
Sl. 64. 

In A. D. 933, Raja Partha with his family took refuge in the Vihdra 
of Sri-Chandra, where he was fed by the Srdmanas, or Bauddha mendi- 
eants. T. 5.—SI. 427. 

And between A. D. 950 and 958, Raja Kshema Gupta abolished the 
worship of Buddha and burned the Vihdras. T. 6.—SI. 72. 

The Musalman Author is BeELADOR1, who states that 

“The Indians give the name of Bodd to every object of their wor- 
ship, and they also call an idol Bodd.’’ Reinaud’s Fragmens, &e. pp. 
193, 194. 

Again, after the conquest of Nirun in A. D. 711 “Mahomed bin 
Kasim was met by some ‘Samanéens,’ (Srdmanas or Bauddha mendi- 
cants) who came to sue for peace.” Reinauds Fragmens, p. 195. 

From these passages of Benapory we see that Buddha was still the 
chief object of worship in Sind some 60 or 70 years after Hwan 
Thsang’s visit; and that Sramanas and not Bréhmans were employed 

EZ 


| Chinese Map of India. [ JuLy, 


by the people as mediators with the Musalman Conquerer. The state- 
ments of KALHANA are perhaps more interesting though not more deci- 
sive ; for they show that Buddhism continued to be honored by kings 
and ministers until the middle of the 10th century, at which time the 
Buddhists were persecuted by Kshema-Gupta. It is true that several 
of the Kashmirian Princes also erected fanes to Siva and other Brah- 
manical deities. But this proves no more than that Brdhmanism and 
Buddhism were both flourishing together in Kashmir at the same time. 
Perhaps these Princes had the same feeling upon the subject of religion 
as the Frenchman, immortalized by Smollet, who made his obeisance toe 
the statue of Jupiter in St. Peter’s at Rome, saying, “‘O Jupiter, if ever 
you get the upper hand again, remember that I paid my respects to you 
in your adversity.” Even so the Kashmirian Rajas appear to have 
halted between two opinions, and to have erected temples and statues 
of both religions, in the hope that one of the two must be right. 


Chinese Map of India. 


As an appropriate accompaniment of Capt. Cunningham’s interesting 
paper on the route of Hwan thsang, the Editors insert the annexed 
Chinese Map of India, originally copied by M. Klaproth from the Great 
Japanese Encyclopedia for the illustration of the Foe koue ki. Al- 
though in some particulars it differs from the narratives of Hwan 
thsang and Shy fa hian, bemg the compilation of some unknown Chi- 
nese geographer, who probably gathered his materials from many and 
conflicting accounts, it will be found both useful and interesting at a 
time when public attention is directed to China for the most authentic 
particulars of the early history of this country. 

One of the principal difficulties in identifying the routes of these tra- 
vellers arises from the uncertain length of their metrical standard the 
i, which has been variously estimated at from ith to 4a mile. Nor is 
this difficulty altogether removed when the Indian measure, or yojana, is 
employed. For though it is probable that in ancient times the princi- 
pal high-roads were accurately measured, yet the length of the yojana 
seems to have varied in different parts of India precisely as we find the 


1848. | aN Chinese Map of India. 61 


kros (of which it is a multiple) to vary at the present day. Thus, Cap- 
tain Cunningham by comparing the distances of well identified positions 
in the north-western parts of India, has determined the length of the 
yojana to be there about 7 English miles: but on applying this stand- 
ard to Fa hian’s distances in Magadha, it will be found by nearly half too 
great. For if we protract that traveller's route from She wei (Oude) 
to Pa lian fou (Patna), and assume 7 miles for the length of the yojana, 
we shall place the site of the latter town somewhere in the neighbourhood 
of Burdwan. But if we determine the value of the yojana in Magadha 
in the same way as Capt. C. has done in the north-west, that is from 
the actual distances of well determined positions, we shall find it not 
greatly to exceed 4 or 45 miles; a value which corresponds well with 
all Fa hian’s distances in Behar, and facilitates the identification of all 
his stages from Oude downwards. Thus the direct distance from She 
wei to Kiu i na kie, is by protraction, 30 yojanas ; measured on Arrow- 
smith’s map (Oude to the banks of the Gandak), 120 miles ;—from 
Patna to Giriyek, 9 yojanas according to Fa hian, or 40 miles on the 
map ;—from Giriyek to Kia ye (which by the way, is neither modern 
Gaya nor Bauddha Gaya, but an ancient town* near Bardbar), is a 
little less than 4 yojanas or 27 miles, bringing us exactly to the banks of 
the Falgo ; and so on. 

That this valuation of the yojana is founded upon a true and ancient 
Indian standard may be inferred from the following remarks of Wilford. 
After quoting Pliny’s account of the distance of Palibothra from the 
confluence of the Ganges and Jamna, he remarks that “ Megasthenes 
says the high ways in India were measured, and that at the end of a 
certain Indian measure (which is not named, but is said to be equal to 
ten stadia), there was a cippus or sort of column erected. No Indian 
measure answers to this but the brahmani or astronomical kos of four 
to a yojana. This is the Hindu statute koss, and equal to 1.227 British 
miles. Itis used by astronomers and by the inhabitants of the Punjab ; 
hence it is very often called the Punjabi koss; thus the distance from 
Lahor to Multan is reckoned to this day 145 Punjabi, or 90 common 
koss.”’*+ Itis worthy of remark that the length of the yojana in 

* Ram Gaya? may we commend the investigation of this point to Capt. Kittoe, whose 


intimate acquaintance with that neighbourhood points him out as best qualified for the 
task ? t As. Res. Vol. V. p. 274. 


62 Inscriptions found in Province Wellesley. [Juy, 


the north-west, as determined by Capt. Cunningham from Fa _hian’s 
distances, namely, within a fraction of 7 miles, bears nearly the same 
proportion to the Magadhi yojana as the common does to the Punjabi 
koss. The learned Colebrooke makes the standard koss 2.25 miles, 
and the computed koss one half of that, or a mile and an eighth. 

According to Chinese translators of Buddhist works there were three 
kinds of yojana employed in India; the great yojana of 80 k, used 
for the measurement of level countries, where the absence of mountains 
and rivers renders the road easy; the mean yojana of 60 li, used where 
rivers or mountains oppose some difficulties to the traveller; and the 
small yojana of 40 li, adapted to those countries where the mountains 
are precipitous and the rivers deep. ‘This shows that we must not ap- 
ply an invariable standard to the every portion of these pilgrims’ routes ; 
but rather seek to determine its local value, where practicable, by the 
distance of well identified spots in each neighbourhood. 


AMARAAAAADIADAAAARR AREAL ALDAR AL 


An account of several Inscriptions found in Province Wellesley on the 


Peninsula of Malacca.—By Lieut.-Col. James Low M. A. S. B. 
and C. M. R. A. 8. 


(A.) Consists of a group of seven inscriptions now extant on the 
rather weather-worn and sloping side of a granite rock at a place 
named Tokoon, lying near to the center of the Province, or almost 
directly east of Penang town. The whole probably appertain to one 
period and the same subject. 

The rock was pointed out several years ago to Mr. Thomson the 
Government Surveyor by some Malays, but he examined it hastily, as 
it was covered with jungle and long grass, and it was not until a consi- 
derable time had elapsed that I accidently learned from him its existence. 
I had before this passed for years consecutively close to the spot, yet 
such was the apathy of the villagers, or their ignorance, that no hint was 
given to me about the rock ; and this induces me to mention that owing 
to this indifference and to the suspicious conduct of the native chiefs, 


CHINESE MAP oF INDIA 


LAN ¥ "Ee zot xo/ 
5 NK 
eaten ress 5 


= = 
cv, ear 
Tweaterr ANG 
THIU = RHI 


aus |} 


ob vw 
ota) ONCIT 


Tw 


MUX Q0T A0L 


OM ONVHD OFM WT P4At| 


Z 
/xaue Vo. 
9820 
mA0N FH® 


~ waAox 


¥iy THIAN KovK 
Khotan 


SHA TSY 
sarily BStomey 
desert’: 


ee CHOUNG 
HOA 
Chua 


x, KY SAD 


vv 
$ 
4 U0 KD 
Vpn e y yy 
red 


“7000 2 


4 a\( PEIN TOI 


Shere tee mh 
VYaond wornien 
ehase the head 
hase the heat 


yt tar. Wil FP 
008 
ovr 


Z 
ms 
Taqwa oxvEs 


Kan oF 
72, 


= 


Se LA Po 


oa! NTH? * 
om 107 VE 


“TA LO P¥ CHA “KOU 
| 6000 & 


The li quoted we thus Mop 
Consists of 6 ting, SOUTH 


© T Block Asiatic Lith Tress Coleutte 


1848. | Inscriptions found in Province Wellesley. 63 


I have been left almost entirely to rely on my personal research and 
that of persons trained by me for the purpose, when endeavouring dur- 
ing the past twelve or fourteen years to penetrate through the darkness 
which shut out from common view the archaiology of the countries 
around me. 

I had some difficulty in reaching Tokoon, although mounted on my 
elephant, owing to several almost impassable jheels or payas, as they are 
here termed. My people had built a small hut of jungle wood and 
palm leaves, and after assuring myself of the value of the inscriptions, 
men were set to clear away the jungle and to dig up the ground to 
some distance around the rock. But I was disappointed in my expec- 
tation of finding ruins and other marks of temples and an ancient popu- 
lation. 

The inseriptions were copied by me with the utmost care, the task 
having occupied the greatest portion of the mornings and evenings of 
three days. 

I did not attempt to make a facsimile, as I had no proper materials, 
and had not succeeded with Capt. Kittoe’s plan. But I can safely 
say that the approach to a facsimile is perhaps as near as it would be 
possible to make it. The letters are very, indeed unusually, large and 
thick, for ancient inscriptions, but this peculiarity rendered the task, 
comparatively easy. Finely powdered and very dry chalk was cast 
loosely over the inscription until all the letters were filled. The chalk 
was then brushed off the surface of the stone with a bunch of feathers, 
and thus the lines of words became clear and legible. 

The length of the largest inscription is that of the paper on which 
it has been copied, and as now forwarded (about ten feet). 

That the style of letter is of Indian origin seems to me quite obvi- 
ous, but it contrasts a good deal with the inscription B. (fig.—.) Our 
Brahman and Buddhist Priests here are so stupid that I have not been 
able to derive any assistance from them, and although I can trace some 
of the letters, I think, to inscriptions published in the Journal of the 
Asiatic Society of Bengal, I have not ventured to attempt the decypher- 
ing of them. 

(B.) I discovered this inscription while engaged in excavating 
some old ruins on a sandy side in the northern district of this 


Province. It has been engraved on a sort of slate and seems to form 


64 Inscriptions found in Province Wellesley. [JuLy, 


part only of a much larger inscription, for that portion of stone which 
I have got, appears to have been the upper portion of one of those pil- 
lars which are set up im the areas of Buddhist temples. I have the 
pleasure of forwarding a facsimile of this record made with clay, 
which is perhaps, a novel mode. The clay was fine potter’s earth and 
sand well beaten up along with chopped gunnee bag cloth. The 
stone was oiled and the clay was pressed on it and afterwards dried in 
the shade. 

The Copy was made by me in the following manner. Finely pulveriz- 
ed and dry brick-dust was (as the chalk was in the former instance, the 
stone being then blackish,) thrown over the face of the stone, and then 
lightly brushed off with feathers. The letters now appeared sharp and 
distinct, over these was pasted (with wafers at the edges) a sheet or slips 
of the “ stylographic manifold writer paper’’—and the letters were 
lightly impressed on this paper with a soft pencil, and when the sheet 
was removed any slight omissions were filled in. 

I have in vain tried to discover the remaining portion of the stone. 

I may observe that a copy of this inscription was, so far back as 1836, 
forwarded by me to the lamented James Prinsep, who in his reply ob- 
serves :—“I see it is legible enough. Thus, on the right hand side of 
the stone following the letters are Ma ha ta vika Buddha na ra kta vri- 
ti kanaya vrinni. On the left side, sarova smin sarova tha sarova sidvaya 
cha santa. On the body next to the Kulsa, va na tarchchaya tti karmma 
janchana kan me karino. If I had the facsimile imstead of a copy I 
would have handed you the meaning at once. It is Sanscrit, not Pali, 
as we see by the harmma. The style of letter is nearly that of the 
Allahabad No. 2. Compare with the Hala Canara, published a few 
months ago.” 13th June, 1837. 

As I have not been able to get the numbers of the Journal for the 
above year, I cannot refer to this Hala Canara record ; I may however 
observe that although I have satisfied myself that the Sivaic worship 
prevailed on this coast somewhere about the 13th century, still I have 
reason to believe that the Buddhist religion was co-existent, or at least 
contemporaneous with it. Indeed, a mysterious kind of connection 
seems to have existed betwixt Buddhism and the cult of Siva, which it 
would be desirable to have traced to its beginning. To me it seems that 
the period most probably was that when schismatie Buddhists had already 


1848. | Inseriptions found in Province Wellesley. 65 


overstepped the mere boundary of ratiocination and had fairly recon- 
ciled the two religions, at least for a while, and until the time when 
Buddhism was discarded altogether. The occurrence of the word Bud- 
dha in the inscription points to his worship, and the spire in the centre 
is the seven-tiered one of the Indo-Chinese Dagopas. 

I have not by any means closed my researches, the obstacles to these, 
as I have elsewhere observed, being numerous, so that further archaiolo- 
gical discoveries may possibly yet be made. 

(C.)—Are Sanscrit verses, out of some book on religion most 
likely, in alto relievo, on the bottom and the four sides of a brazen 
ornamented dish, which was found by me amid some ruins of ancient 
temples in Province Wellesley. They were copied by a man of the 
Brahmanical tribe. 

(D.)—Are impressions taken from two apparently Deva Nagri letters, 
imprinted on a large brick which I found in one of the ruins. 

(E.)—Are two coms one of copper and the other of some mixed 
metal, which last decrepitates on being submitted to the blowpipe.* 

I found one of these in the Keddah country, close to the British 
frontier, and in the bed of a clear stream. My attention was attracted 
by quantities of broken pottery there; and after my people, about 
twenty in number, had laboured for several days in sifting and searching, 
I picked two or three coins myself out of one of the baskets, a circum- 
stance which I am induced to mention in order to obviate any doubt 
which might arise regarding their genuineness. I visited the place a 
few months ago for a second search but found no more coins. 

The second coin was found by me under the foundation of the 
ruins of a small brick building ; this last not however appearing above 
the surface of the ground. The spot is in the northern part of the 
Province. There were several hundreds of these comms im a metallic 
cup. From the emblems on them I consider them Buddhist coins. 

The figure on the coin I have conjectured to be that of some Hindu 
deity. But the chief Priest of the Hindu Temple at Penang insists 
that it represents a king. I cannot make out the obverse. 

While about to close these notes the Journal of the Society for 
February last has reached me. In this number I observet that in- 


* These two coins contain exactly similar impressions. 
+ Page 154. 


66 Note on the Inscriptions from Singapur, Sc. | J uLyY, 


quiries have been made regarding the inscription at Singapore describ- 
ed in the Journal, Vol. VI. p. 680, and that the Hon’ble Colonel Butter- 
worth, C. B. supposes that I may have some portions of the stone on 
which it was engraved. 

I was an unwilling and pained witness to the demolition of that me- 
morial of long past ages, my petition to have it spared being met by 
the reply that it was im the way of some projected bungalow. On the 
explosion taking place I crossed the river from my office and selected 
such fragments as had letters on them. The Hon. the Governor, Mr. 
Bonham, sent to ask me to preserve a piece for him, and this is the 
portion alluded to by Col. Butterworth. 

As the fragments were very bulky I had them, at considerable cost, 
gradually chisselled by a Chinese into the shape of slabs. But they 
are still ponderous. It happens however that the smaller fragments 
only contain the most legible Gf the term is even here really applicable) 
parts of the inscription, the rest being nearly quite obliterated, and I 
have therefore selected them to be presented to the Society. It seems 
to me that this Singapore Inscription (to which I have alluded in a 
paper presently to appear in the Journal of the Eastern Archipelago) 
may probably date from an early century of our era, and I would 
merely here suggest that any one who may set about decyphering it may 
derive assistance by adverting to inscriptions which may have been 
discovered at the ancient Bijanagara in Orissa, or Cuttack, or wider still, 
along the coast of central Kalinga. 


—_ PARBRARLIALRA AAI 


Note on the Inscriptions from Singapur and Province Wellesley, 
forwarded by the Hon. Col. Burterwortn, C. B. and Col. J. 
Low. By J. W. Larpuay. 


The great interest expressed by the late James Prinsep and other 
antiquarians in the remarkable inscription at Singapur induced me, as 
mentioned in a former number of this Journal, to apply to the present 
esteemed Governor of the Straits Settlements, the Hon. Col. Butter- 
worth, C. B. to secure for the Society’s Museum any fragments that 
might remain after the gothic exploit alluded to by Col. Low; a request 
he was pleased very kindly and promptly to comply with. Since then 


1848. | Note on the Inscriptions from Singapur, §c. 67 


Col. Low has forwarded several other pieces ; and though in possession 
of but a small portion of the original inscription, and that evidently 
not the most legible, I felt bound, in justice to the obliging donors, to 
bestow some labour in attempting to decypher at least its character. 

In his brief notice of this inscription (J. A. S. Vol. VI. p. 680) 
Mr. Prinsep remarks: ‘“‘ Numerous have been the enquiries about this 
inscription, numerous have been the attempts to procure a copy of it 
from some of the constant visitors to the Straits for amusement or the 
benefit of their health. By some I was assured that the letters were 
evidently European, and the inscription merely a Dutch record. Others 
insisted that the character was precisely that of the Delhi pillar, or 
that of Tibet. While the last friend, Lieut. C. Mackenzie, who kindly 
undertook the commission, gave it up in despair at its very decayed 
state, which seemed utterly beyond the power of the antiquarian ; and 
m this he was quite right. Nevertheless a few letters still remain, 
enough to aid in determining at least the type and the language, and 
therefore the learned will be glad to learn that Dr. William Bland, of 
H. H. 8. Wolf, has at length conquered all the discouraging difficulties 
of the task, and has enabled me now to present avery accurate fac- 
simile of all that remains any way perceptible on the surface of the 
rocky fragment at Singapur. The following note fully explains the 
care and the method adopted for taking off the letters, and I have 
nothing to add to it, but my concurrence in his opinion that the charac- 
ter is the Pali, and that the purport therefore is most probably to re- 
cord the extension of the Buddhist faith to that remarkable point of 
the Malayan Peninsula. I cannot venture to put together any connected 
sentences or even words; but some of the letters, the g, l, h, p, s, y; 
&c. can be readily recognised ; as well as many of the vowel marks.” 

The condition of the inscription was, indeed, far worse than I supposed, 
and seemed to preclude all hope of decyphering the characters. By a 
fortunate expedient however, and by very patient study, I have been 
able to make out sufficient to determine its language and probable date 
with tolerable certainty. The method I adopted, and which may be 
useful in similar cases to others, was to strew finely powdered charcoal* 
over the surface of the stone, and sweep it gently to and fro with a 
feather so as to fill up all the depressions, the very slightest of which 

* Animal charcoal is better than vegetable, as being specifically heavier. 


Kk? 


“68 Note on the Inscriptions from Singapur, $e. [JuLy, 


was thus rendered remarkably distinct by the powerful contrast of colour. 
By this means and by studying the characters in different lights, I have 
succeeded in decyphermg so much of three of the fragments as is de- 
picted in plate IIT. 

It will be seen from the plate that though many of the characters 
resemble the square Pali in form, and hence misled Prinsep to conclude 
that the inscription was in the Pali language, yet others, and these 
amongst the most distinct, bear no resemblance whatever to that type. 
We may safely infer therefore that the language is not Pali; an infer- 
ence in which I am borne out by Mr. Ratna Paula, whose knowledge 
of that language renders his opinion conclusive. As the character 
could not be identified with that of any of the published Singalese 
inscriptions, I was induced to compare it with the alphabets of the 
Archipelago, and I find it to be identical with the Kawi or ancient 
sacred and classical language of the Javanese, specimens of which 
may be found in Welhelm von Humboldt Ueber die Kawi Sprache, 
vol. 2, and in Sir S. Raffles’s History of Java. We have also in our 
museum a very fine inscription in that character, which has been taken 
by many for a peculiar form of Sanskrita. With the alphabet of 
this language, as gathered from similar inscriptions, I can identify all, 
or nearly all, of the characters ; but of course no clue to the purport 
of the inscription can be obtained without some knowledge of the 
language itself. 

Fig. 1, seems to have been from the upper part of the inscription, 
and is entirely omitted in Prinsep’s lithograph as effaced. Figs. 2 and 
3 I cannot identify with any portion of Prinsep’s plate, much on the 
right hand side of which seems to have been so distinct, that | make no 
doubt had that portion been available, we might have easily transcribed 
continuous sentences. 

The much larger fragment forwarded by Col. Butterworth, still 
remains to be decyphered ; but I confess I feel little inclination for that 
barren labour until there appear some probability of the language being 
translated. Meanwhile we may conjecture with probability that the 
inscription is a record of some Javanese triumph at a period anterior 
to the conversion of the Malays to Muhammadanism, and the following 
notice of this monument in a work entitled “The Malayan Penin- 
sula,’ by Capt. Begbie, Madras Artillery, may assist us in approximat- 
ing its era: 


LUM 
» 


: SENS oy ~Y 
ANS y XY se ~ 
RicDire Eas SARE 
N A \) 
See SS ps << ‘2 YS 
Se a i Pas 
See f ie Sa e oy $ 
N . . xa Oe X 
( SE ; ee: > re) gaun “) AY t 
o a8 \ ~ Nc Sa Ss wat 
NANOS oa —, Sagat (OS aa 
Kya Los ee 
\ = Y SQxr Rc 


hie CN Na f < A 
j SS ‘ if * 
NN AS Se BW: LS Aw BN = 2 


SS NS 


5 


N 


= ; Ai ioc 
£ BS S| 
vg ¢ ‘ ig —> ; S Noo 
Ne 


Fat 
Ure 


Ze 

ZG Wi 
* ya) 

eS Os fis 
Y 


EAN a 
wry YX . i es 
Sy SG ‘ SG =) yy, 
\ ae 
Sx 3 3 ig “2 
RQ ga NSS : 
ae “\s WY Sj Xv ws KS = 
Ee Sy ae ee Xgl Dk A 


C~ = 

s =} ? =) Coe 

SY WF sy aN - é 

\ nis ISS. 

> \W < ‘ ; > 
NS ee Ee 

\ Ss Siam] aN i) 

‘ Sr \ a Md ve» Ne) 


ITO 
Ky, 
MUNOD 


oo 
TAEFMASIA 


‘ 


er. _ i SS to lowy ae? 
b Larbe P ae 
ee We aS 


1848. | Note on the Inscriptions from Singapur, §c. 69 


‘The principal curiosity of Singapore is a large stone at the point of 
the river, the one face of which has been sloped and smoothed, and 
upon which several lines of engraven characters are still visible. The 
rock being, however, of a schistose and porous nature, the inscription 
is illegible. It is said that Sir Stamford Raffles endeavoured, by the 
application of powerful acids,* to bring out the characters with the 
view of decyphering them, but the result was unsuccessful. Where 
such an eminent person has failed, it may be thought presumptuous im 
me to hazard a conjecture on the subject of the language in which the 
inscription was penned, but I may perhaps be permitted to make an 
attempt to throw some light upon asubject so confessedly obscure. Re- 
sorting to the Malayan annals, which, clouded as they undoubtedly are 
by fable and allegory, yet contain many a valuable piece of information, 
we find there mention made of three remarkable stones at Singhapura. 
(I omit the legends attached to the first two, as altogether inapplicable 
here.) The third, though first in order of record, I have reserved for 
the last to be brought forward, because I am inclined to think that the 
evidence is fully presumptive in favor of its bemg the stone now visible 
at Singapore ; it is to be met with at pages 62 and 63 of the Annals. 

“The preceeding pages inform us that in the reign of Sri Raja 
Vicrama, there was a redoubtable champion of the name of Badang. 
Several remarkable feats of strength are recorded of him, but I will 
merely select the one in pomt. The fame of Badang having reached 
the land of Kling, the Rajah of that country despatched a champion, 
named Nadi Vijaya Vicrama, to try his strength with him, staking 
seven ships on the issue of the contest. After a few trials of their 
relative powers, Badang pointed to a huge stone lying before the 
Rajah’s hall, and asked his opponent to lift it, and to allow their claims 
to be decided by the greatest strength displayed in this feat. The 
Kling champion assented, and, after several failures, succeeded in raising 
it as high as his knee, after which he immediately let it fall. The 
story then says that Badang, having taken up the stone, poised it easily 
several times, and then threw it out into the mouth of the river, and 
this is the rock which is at this day visible at the pomt of Singhapura, 
or Tanjong Singhapura.”’ 

* The stoneis a hard siliceous sandstone, upon which this process, if ever adopted, 
would have no effect. 


ca 


70 Note on the Inscriptions from Singapur, ec. [Juny, 


‘* After some other recitals, the annals state that “after a long time, 
Badang also died, and was buried at the pomt of the straits of Sin- 
ghapura ; and, when the tidings of his death reached the land of Kling, 
the Rajah sent two stone pillars, to be raised over his grave as a monu- 
ment, and these are the pillars which are still at the point of the bay.” 

““ Now, the first two mstances are totally destitute of presumptive evi- 
dence ; the last is, on the contrary, full of it. At the mouth of the river 
there is a large rock, which is concealed at high water, and on which a 
post was erected four or five years ago by, I believe, Captain Jackson 
of the Bengal Artillery, to warn boats of the danger ; this is the rock 
fabled to have been hurled by Badang. He is said to have been buried 
at the point of the straits of Singhapura, the scene of this wonderful 
exploit; and there, the very spot where this record is to be still seen, 
the Rajah of Kling, who had been so serious a loser by it, ordered his 
monument to be erected.”’ (page 355-358.) 

In this idle legend, it is by no means improbable that the name of 
the reigning prince is preserved, although the attendant circumstances 
are altogether fabulous. The kingdom of Singapura was founded, ac- 
cording to Malayan accounts, in A. D. 1160; and from that time up to 
1250, when the whole of the Peninsula was converted to Mahamma- 
danism, was subject to frequent invasions from the Javanese. The Rajah 
Vikrama mentioned in the foregoing extract, reigned from A. D. 1223 to 
1236, and his era is very likely that also of the inscription. At all events 
we may be certain that the present inscription is not less, and cannot be 
much more, than 600 years old. Its preservation for so long a period may 
be ascribed in a great measure to its protection from the action of the 
weather by the tropical vegetation which concealed it, perhaps for cen- 
turies. “‘ You remember,”’ writes Dr. Montgomerie, “ the situation of it on 
the rocky point on the south side of the entrance of the Singapore Creek. 
That point was covered with forest trees and jungle in 1819, and the 
stone was brought to notice by some Bengal clashees who were employed 
by Captain Flint, R. N. (the first Master Attendant ;) the men on dis- 
covering the inscription were very much frightened, and could not be 
induced to go on with the clearing, which, if I recollect right, was com- 
pleted by Chinese under the stimulus of high wages. What a pity ’tis 
that those who authorized the destruction of the ancient relic were not 
prevented by some such wholesome superstition !”’ 


1848. | Note on the Inscriptions from Singapur, Sc. 71 


Of the remaining inscriptions furnished by Col. Low the first set 
(A) are in Pali, and are represented in figs. 1 to ad of: Plate: LY. 
Figs. 1 and 2 seem to form a continuous sentence, aay FaATAQ tau 
azafa q aa carfaa (@) cifsra wm (’) sa (?) faw (?) of which 
Babu Rajendralal Mittra has been good enough to supply the follow- 
ing Sanscrit and English version. 

aq aarae fy weafa g aa Tafa tre weafadt | 

Translation. 

“IT acknowledge the enemies of the contented king Ramaunibha and 
the wicked are ever afflicted.”’ 

The inscriptions marked B were published by Primsep in the 4th 
volume of the Journal from Col. Low’s own fac similes, but without any 
attempt to translate them. The drawings, and especially the admirable 
clay impressions now sent, enable us to decypher the character without 
any difficulty and to supply a correct fac simile of the original. This 
method of taking impressions has I believe been employed by Capt. 
Kittoe also. It answers admirably ; and though it-represents the cha- 
racters inverted, this inconvenience is met by observing their reflexion 
m a looking glass. The subjoined versions are likewise supplied by 
Babu Rajendralal : 

Fig. 8 

avataataine Uaatrasy | 

“ This is said by Mannikatha, the protector of all great Buddhas.”’ 

Hiz..9. 

SAU HILY Gala y Tag aqrnraca: | 

«In every form of life knowledge becomes manifest every where and 
im every way.” 

Fig. 10. 

THT aH TATA AATTCH | 

(That) Karma (religious action originating in the hope of recom- 
pense) which sports with passion, is the cause of transmigration.” 

Fig. 11 is mutilated and unintelligible. 

Of the monagrams upon the Tookoon rock and upon bricks, we can 
make nothing, but we give fac similes of them in the plate. 

The Sanscrit lines (C) on the brass ornamented dish, are as follow : 

ataa (eee 
ASTAAT | 
“ Savita, 1399.” 


72 Gleanings in Buddhism. | JuLy, 


‘Maha Sramana,”’ (repeated four times on the sides of the dish.) 
aq 
ZWISAATY 
CaSaTaae 
aCalZ az 
Fay | 

“Sri Maha Sramana is acknowledged to be the mightiest of the 
mighty sect of Sri Dasavala’”’ (a name of Buddha). 

The copper coin is much corroded, but is easily recognised as anci- 
ent Ceylonese. The inscription la@revaa, Srimat Sahasa Malla, 
is legible enough, and enables us to identify the coin with one published 
by Prinsep in Pl. XX. Vol. VI. of the Journal. This prince reigned, 
according to the late Mr. Turnour, from A. D. 1200 to 1230; and his 
coins are, I believe, pretty numerous. 


Gleanings in Buddhism ; or translations of Passages from a Siamese 
version of a Pali work, termed in Siamese “ Phré Pat hom,” with 
passing observations on Buddhism and Brahmanism. By Lt.-Col. 
James Low, M. 4. S. B. and C. M. R. A. 8. 


“Several years after he had become a Priest, Buddha ascended to 
Tavatinsa,* a mountain which touches with its summit the Constellation 
of the Alligator, in order to visit the spirit of his mother. He there 
solaced her with hopes of happy transmigrations when her allotted period 
in this heaven should have expired, and in order to prepare her for these, 
he desired her to repeat certain Bali formule, which he had brought 
from the earth for her use. They are as follow, being taken from the 
Bali work, Phra D’hamma chetphra Kamphi. 

Phra Sanggha. 
Phra Wibhang. 
Phra T’harjanok. 
—— Po’. 
— Kattha Wat’ho. 
Ya, 
Pa. 


* Trayastrinsa, in Sanserit. 


SSNS 
iC bBsVIAHR 
BOR FE E4088 oO 
ePPom | atria 8) 
45 AK & 


| 

k 

| Grigg rug sas apex 
PBF Masons 
Le Corre em 
a ueoM Foy Au g 

| 

| 


| 3 — TEL. 


bers ip ve OT Ai Lo 


he bia er ine boi tv tad 


a an 


aes hits, Agha ees shins at 


rh Ling 


a! | fa: eas tai hey bo ia My ne * 
he nag ae he! Far a dng 
i , i a ‘q F ‘Pes f fig 
. 9 of id ee ee. | 
‘ 4 ae riage as vi t mre eat set r 
. = Re oe, a i 5 . ‘. 
; 3 x “e it , * ae | ae Sant 
al ia ; re ray @ hae 3 
| a, ae S$ ee ht oa 
ey ee Ee ee. 
ix : a. Me ee wr 
5 > 
< 4 F . i" . 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. 73 


‘«‘ Buddha next weighed his mother in the balance against the Pal 
(personified), and having found the beam equipoised, he set forth on his 
return; just three months subsequently to his arrival, when Indra 
learned his intention he summoned to his presence Mattuli, and directed 
him to prepare a golden ladder, which might reach from the gate of his 
heaven down to Jumbo Dwip.”’ 

This may remind us of the armillary sphere of Zoroaster and of 
Jacob’s ladder. “‘On the 16th day of the eleventh month Buddha began 
his descent. The procession befitted the splendor and dignity of Indra’s 
court. This Devatta himself accompanied it, bearing on his shoulder 
the holy Pat’ha or vase. The Brahma, from the heavens of the Brah- 
ma Pari Sachcha, the Brahma Parohita, and the Maha Brahma, also 
attended, sending forth loud blasts from their conch shells, or sanghd. 

When the great Saviour reached the earth this grand cavalcade 
of ministering Devattas departed, and Buddha was welcomed back by a 
mighty concourse of all ranks of the people, eager to listen to his dis- 
courses on virtue and religion. Such is (observes the writer) the effi- 
eacy of the Pali, that several Buddhist Priests, who had retired to a cave 
jn order to recite passages from it, were astonished to find hundreds of 
bats tumbling down dead from the roof. Their spiritual essences (for 
bats may contain migrating souls), thus purified by the holy word, 
soared to the heaven called Hemanaraté, where they became Devattas. 
Those who wish to listen to Bali discourses must perform ablutions, and 
dress in white garments. Then taking incense and sweet-scented woods 
(burning them) and having covered them with a cloth, they will perform 
the usual puja. After having heard the Pali they should take a vessel 
of water and pour out a hbation upon the ground to Thorani, the god- 
dess of earth.” 

I described on a former occasion the places visited by Buddha,* and 
the publication of the Mahawansa since that time, has elucided the 
subject more clearly. 

“Buddha, after arriving at the country Phaya Sali Sawat, the king 
of which entertained him munificently, entered a Buddhist monastery. 
Here he informed his brother-in-law Ananda that his hour was at hand, 
inculeating on him that he should not quit the world at the same time, 
but continue to establish the faith.” 


? ToRSAEsS. 


74 Gleanings in Buddhism. [ Jury, 


«When it became known that the divine Buddha was about to leave 
the world, the four elements forsook their tasks, the heavens and the 
earth shook, and Meru, that king of mountains, bent like a sapling 
before the wind, as if giddy with apprehension, while the rivers rushed 
along with unwonted force. Buddha at length went into the house of a 
goldsmith, who directed a feast to be prepared for him.” It appears 
that ‘ this divine person while in some previous condition of existence had 
slain a Rakhasha named Mara, but in self defence. This wretch Mara 
having entered the assembly, changed his body into a poison and insinu- 
ated himself into a jomt of pork which had been set before Buddha. 
The latter was aware of the trick, but as he courted his fate, he partook 
of the meat and soon after expired.” 

Were it not that the Buddhists themselves do not countenance the 
supposition, we might be induced to conclude that Buddha had been 
poisoned by his enemies, the heretics. 

«Thus Buddha entered Nivan,—the earth groaned from its mmost 
caverns, the holy Ganges wept with her waters,—the plains became 
parched with grief, the forests shed their leaves, and all nature felt the 
shock. This ever memorable event occurred in the kingdom of Samoula 
Raja (Samala ?) 

«Then came Indra, and the Devattas down to the spot. The Rishii 
also assembled along with the Naga and Nagi. Garuda was also there. 

«The body of Buddha was now got ready for the funeral pyre. Ample 
rolls of white cloth, with sweet-scented woods were prepared and a 
Maratapa (q. a type of the sthupas ?) or pyramidal dzer, was constructed 
to hold the body. 

«* When fire was applied to the pile it would not burn—not even when 
held by Princes and Chiefs. A shower of the montha flowers fell from 
heaven. In the meantime Phra Katsop, (Kassapa, a favourite 
disciple of Buddha, who subsequently, as it is supposed, conveyed his 
doctrines to China,) arrived at the pile, when fire instantaneously burst 
forth from the body of Buddha, and consumed it with exception of the 
bones. A heavy rain then fell, and washed away the ashes from the bones. 
Samoula Raja placed the relics in a golden vase, and deposited them 
in a Chaitya (a pyramidal temple). 

Soon after these events king Ajatasatru (Ajatasattu) of Rachakhra 
(Rajagriha in Behar, he is said in the A. R. to be brother of 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. 5 


“SF 


Crishna, or Bala,) mvaded Kosinnarai (Kusimarake, Kusumapuri or Raja- 
matty where the Maha Raja often resided* and said by Wilford to be 
Patna), where Samoula Raja governed. His, Ajatasattu’s army was com- 
posed of the troops of one hundred and one countries.” 

[This hyperbolical mode of describing numbers is also common both 
to the Burmans and Siamese. | 

“These forces posted themselves in seven lines of blockade around 
Kusimaraké, and Ajatasatru despatched a herald to demand the relics 
from Samoula Raja, or to stand a storm, should he refuse to deliver 
them up ; and the latter was just preparmg to march out of the town 
and give battle to the enemy, when Thoula, a Brahman, urged the great 
risk attending an attack on so superior a force, and the sin of waging 
war in such a cause, when much blood must be spilt. He then pro- 
posed to negociate and bribe off the enemy, and as the king acquiesced, 
the Brahman conciliated Ajatasatru by giving to him a large portion of 
the relics.” 

I will stop here to remark that this Brahman must have been a Bud- 
dhist, if we are to judge from the humanity, not the policy of his advice. 

“Four more kings arrived afterwards, and obtained relics and gifts ; 
Indra descended on purpose to decide on the respective claims of these 
Potentates to the Dhatha, or Dhato, or relics. 

Some time after the death of Buddha, Mali Raja, the king of a cer- 
tain country, arrived at Kusinaraké, and solicited a portion of relics, but 
Samoula Raja replied that he had come too late, and advised him to 
gather some of the ashes. He took the advice, and having collected 
enough he returned home and deposited them in a splendid Chaitya.”’ 


* A Buddhist Priest of Bankok gave mea description of the city of this name, which, 
he said is to be found in the Bali works Dhato Webhahang and Maha Parin Mirana. 
But he considered it as having been a Siamese city. They have indeed a province and 
city, so called, having taken the name from the Pali, and which they affirm was an inde= 
pe dent Government before Siam became united undera king. I suppose it to have 
inciuded the province of Kanburi, a place of some note in former days. ‘The present city 
or town so named lies further south than the ancient one, the population having been 
driven south by the inroads of the Burmans. Kusinaraké is said to have been seven 
yojanas in length, with nearly the same breadth, was fortified, had spires on the walls, 
these last being 8 cubits high and was encompassed by a deep fosse. [Kusinagara was 
on the banks of the Gandak not tar from Bettiah ; Kuswmapura was another name for 
Pataliputra, or Patna,—Ebs, | 


£2 


76 Gleanings in Buddhism. (Jury, 


It appears that there were eight kings who received relics. But the 
Brahman just alluded to, proved himself to be a zealous Buddhist, 
for he “secreted arelic in the tuft of hair on the top of his head.” 
“Indra perceived the theft and purloined the treasure, unknown to the 
Brahman ; which he carried to Tavatinsa and assigned to it a chamber 
in a bright fane in the constellation of the Alligator. When the Brah- 
man discovered his loss he raved and tore his hair, but tried to console 
himself by searching at the burning place in the hope of procuring a 
_ few cinders of the body of Buddha. But every remnant had been 
swept of by Mali Raja, with the exception of some very fine ashes. 
These had been licked up by a cow. The Brahman followed the ani- 
mal and collected its dung. This Brahman ever afterwards held cow- 
dung in veneration and often daubed it over his body !!!” 

If there be no other better reason for the Hindu practice of the 
present day of smearing the body with cow-dung, the above may not 
perhaps be an unplausible one, although derived to them from an unor- 
thodox source. 

“* Kasapa likewise concealed a relic in his mouth. Raja Naga also 
secured the left upper canine tooth, and constructed over it a magnificent 
Chaitya in his empire, Patala.”’ 

Kusinaraké is described in the Pali, (but I have not seen the work, 
and here only rely on an extract given to me in Siamese,) as having 
extended seven yojana in length, and having nearly the same breadth. 
The gates were numerous. The walls were eight cubits high, and were 
surrounded by spiral turrets, and a deep fosse encompassed the whole 
A king or raja named Moulara, founded the dynasty here, which was 
carried on through twenty successive reigns at the least, until the ap- 
pearance of Buddha, when Baramma Chakka reigned (Vicramaditya, 
perhaps.) 

This king possessed seven precious things or gems, which like those 
belonging to the court of Vicramaditya according to Wilford in his 
paper in the Astatic Researches, and which were necessary for his state. 
But the poet is omitted. These were.-—A white elephant endowed with 
reason :—a horseof pure pedigree :—a Muniratanang :—the Chakkra:— 
a Muntri or Prime Minister :—a General and a beautiful Queen. 

‘« Ajatasatru inclosed the relics in a magnificent casket, and placing it 
im a superb howda on an elephant, retraced his steps. 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. 77 


“« This Raja had before the occurrence of these events been instigated 
by Devadatta, brother-in-law of Buddha, to conspire against the life of 
his own parents. Stung with remorse, he had vowed to proceed, after 
he should have obtained the relics, on various pilgrimages and wander- 
ings in the desert and forests, to endeavour to atone in some degree for 
his wickedness. 

«« The Raja had spent seven years in this manner when Indra despatch- 
ed his Minister, Wessanikim, requiring Ajatasatru to return forthwith 
to his kingdom and not to molest the peasantry by quartermg his fol- 
lowers upon them. His Majesty obeyed the high injunction, and return- 
ed to Rajagriha. He here proclaimed his intention to raise a glorious 
Chaittya m honor of Buddha to hold the relics he had obtained from 
Samoula Raja.” 

Indra, whose presence appears equally indispensible where great Indian 
hierarchical events are to be celebrated and recorded as in the struc- 
ture of its history and romance, ‘descended from. his bright abode, 
escorted by a glittermg host of 99,991,909 Devattas, blowmg trumpets 
and beating sonorous instruments. He soon fixed upon a spot for the 
relic temple, and by the efficacy of powerful spells, he surrounded the 
site with lines of defence composed of invisible elephants and of other 
wild beasts.” 

“« Ajatasatru having found a propitious moment took a slab of precious 
stone and wrote or engraved thereon, “‘ May a poor Prince find this.” 
He then engraved the followmg sentence upon a plate of gold :— 
‘He who was poor did not see Buddha,—for this reason he was poor, 
although he reigned over an extensive empire.” 

The slab and the plate were then placed below the golden box which 
enclosed the relics, and all were deposited beneath a splendid fane. 

“ Ajatasatru, or Chatta-satru, died without leaving any legitimate 
children, and the kingdom of Rajagéhé or Rajagriha (or as it seems 
also to be here meant Inthapattha or Indrapreshta, or Indrapuri, or 
Ayodia, where had also resided aking of Pataliputra*) had no legitimate 
ruler for the space of three lives.”’ 

Awadi is another name given to this country. 

“‘Ajatasatru went to the infernal shades, because his evil deeds 
outweighed his good actions. Yama siezed him, and imprisoned him 


* Vol, XI. As, Res, p. 62. 


78 Gleanings in Buddhism. [ J uLy, 


in an adamantine apartment, which was guarded by whirling fiery cha- 
kras. There he remains in the hell Kumbhira. Devadhatta was precipi- 
tated imto the hell called Airchi where he stands fast, being fixed by 
huge transverse iron spits. 

«« Ajatasatru could not escape the punishment due for his offences, 
notwithstanding his pilgrimages; and although he had directed to be 
constantly recited the Pali Sanghayanai, and the Maha Chatta and P’hra 
D’hamma, and even had distributed all his treasure in charity.” 

“In the year of Buddha 220 (or B. C. 323) the kingdom of In- 
thapatha was governed by a Prince named Raja D’hammasokarat, 
(D’hammasoka Raja or Asoka.) He was just and humane, so that the 
country flourished under his rule.* 

“« This king having learned that relics of Buddha had been buried at 
some former period in his dominions, sent people im search of the build- 
img which had been erected over them, but no vestige could be found. 
At length an old Priest related that when he was a boy he had 
been sent by his father to make offerings of flowers and fruits ata 
temple, the site of which he then pointed out. His Majesty was highly 
gratified, but desirous of ascertaining the truth of the Thero’s account 
before he should act upon it, he ordered the holy B’hikhuni, or Sibyls 
to be assembled and consulted.” 

I have witnessed this mode of trying to ascertain future events, 
practised in Canara, and the custom also prevails in Siam, where it was 
probably imparted by Brahmans. A sacred dance, in the instances 
which I saw, was performed, during which spirits were invoked to de- 
scend, and were further incited thereto, by offerings of dressed meat, 
and the burning of huge waxen candles and perfumes. 

When the Siamese Priestess, or a young man dressed as one, under the 
name of T’haau Phising, has continued to dance for a good while, or until 
it is believed the spirits are approaching, she encloses with her hands 
the flame of the candle, and when she ceases to feel any heat from it 
the inspiration it is supposed has begun. Her body is then agitated by 


* Much of what is contained in these accounts will be found closely to agree with the 
Mahawanso, but where synchronism exists, I have thought it best to give the whole, 
such being at least a verification from records preserved at a great distance from Ceylon 
of its history above named. 


ry 


1848. } Gleanings in Buddhism. 79 


a holy frenzy, and when fully inspired, she predicts, as her consultors 
believe, the future. 

I have elsewhere described the ceremony which I saw at Jemulabad 
in Canara.* On reference to the Mahawanso (p. 34,) we find that 
Dhammasoka in B. C. 321 had constructed splendid dagobas throughout 
his kingdom, and (in p. 35) that he went in procession on a great festival 
day, to the temple built by himself. 

“Besides the eight Priestesses thus summoned by Dhammiasoka, 
there were many astrologers in attendance. The united predictions of 
the whole were so favorable, that the king was confirmed in his belief 
m the Thero’s veracity. The Priestesses now led the way to the spot 
indicated and His Majesty imstantly set a multitude of people to dig up 
the ground. } 

Before the day had closed, however, the greatest number of these 
labourers had died (magnified to 80,000) owing to their having been foo 
impure in mind for so holy a task.” 

“The king desisted from his attempt and lamented over such a loss 
of human life. In this emergency he prayed to Indra, and this bene- 
ficent Devata sent down Phetsalukan his Minister, (the Harinar- 
guneshi of the Jainas, perhaps,+) who appeared in form of an elegant 
youth bearing his bow and quiver of arrows. The king admired the 
bow, and inquired to what country he belonged. 

The disguised Devatta replied that he came from a great distance, and 
that his bow was endowed with miraculous power ; offering at the same 
time to exhibit these if his Majesty would direct people to dig again at 
the same spot as before, and refusing all offers of reward if successful. 
The kmg gladly renewed his attempt to excavate the ruins. The spirits 
which Indra on a previous occasion had set to guard the Chaittya now 
closed round in terrific array. But Indra’s minister told them to recol- 
lect that the same power which placed them there could remove them. 
Thus admonished they speedily vanished, and the Devatta returned to 
Indra’s heaven. 

The king and his people dug again with increased vigor, and soon 
reached the cavity which contained the relics. And now a glorious 
apparition amazed the spectators. A Devatta, clothed in heavenly vest- 


ments and seated on a superb horse, richly caparisoned, arose from the 
* Paper in the J. A, S, + As. Res. Vol. 2. 


80 Gleanings in Buddhism. [JuLyY, 


excavation, holding in his hands the golden vase. This he delivered 
to the king. The lamps in the cavity still burned brightly and the 
flowers bloomed and diffused their fragrance around.* 

When His Majesty had perused the inscription on the precious stone 
left by Ajattasatru, he angrily exclaimed :— 

“Am I then a poor man or prince, I the King before whom tributary 
nations bow the knee ?”’ 

He had no sooner finished this speech than he dashed the slab on 
the ground and broke it to pieces. 

He next read the inscription upon the plate of gold, and regretted his 
haste in destroying the slab, while he admired the humility of the prince 
who had penned the inscriptions. 

When His Majesty had returned to the city, he called a council of 
priests, astrologers, and wise men or pundits, in order that they should fix 
upon an auspicious site for a magnificent Chaittya in which the regained 
relics might be placed. But this council did not feel competent to 
decide so momentous a case, and the king was at last obliged to go into 
the forest and consult the Tapassa Sokkhalibutta and Thera Malai. 
These holy persons informed him that there was a much holier Thera 
still, named Utt’ hak’ hit, whose abode was below the waters, and that it 
would be by his aid alone that the new Chaittya could be surrounded 
with the requisite invisible walls of defence. 

Raja Naga now felt his palace becomimg warm, and immediately 


* This mention of a horse seems to me to have reference to the funeral customs of 
Tartary or Scythia. 
+ This is an important passage, as the Chinese and Trans-himalayan Buddhists insist 


on making Asoka a contemporary of Sakya Muni ; and in the QEGAN' A 4 ( Hdsangs 


blun), 28th volume of the Mdo, there is a legend of his meeting Asoka when a child 
and receiving from him a handful of earth, as alms, in his begging pot. (Schmidt, Der 
Weise und der Thor, vol. 2, p. 217.) The same story is alluded to by Fa hian, Chapter 
XXxXil. ; In Commenting upon which in the recent reprint of that work, we have ventured 
to doubt if there exist any counterpart of this legend in Pali, or among the Buddhists 
of the south. It is impossible in the present state of our knowledge to account for the 
extraordinary anachronism of the Chinese who make Sakya the contemporary of Muh- 
Wang (B. C. 1000—945) and of Asoka; but it would be no difficult matter to show 
that their chronology contains in itself ample materials for its own complete refutation.— 
Eps. 

t This Utthak’hit is doubtless the Assak’hutta Thero mentioned in the Milanda Raja. 

§ ‘© Whose abode is in Patala.”—As. Res, 


a SS Oo 


— ee ee oe 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. 8h 


emerged above the earth to see who wanted his assistance, but he had 
hardly done so, when Supanna or Garuda pounced upon him, and was 
bearig him off in his talons towards Simphali, when a young priest 
clapped his hands so loudly that Supanna dropped Raja Naga, who 
was much bruised by his fall to the earth. But the priests quickly 
restored him with healing unguents ; and being angry that the honor of 
having saved him belonged to a noviciate, they punished him by getting 
Dhammasoka to send him in search of Utt’ hakhut. 

«“The young priest proceeded accordingly to the bank of the river 
(Ganges) and invoked the ancient man to come forth. It was not long 
before the sage appeared and displayed to the astonished youth a body 
shrivelled like a blasted sapling, and bending under the load of centuries. 
When the ancient learned that his aid was wanted, he took the sacred 
vase under his arm and proceeded to the palace of Dhammasoka. Here 
he found numbers of Arahans or Priests of the superior grade of merit 
waiting to receive from the King their wonted daily bounty or alms. 
These priests pointed out the sage to the King as an exceedingly holy 
person. But although his majesty was surprised at his withered ap- 
pearance, he paid him no particular attention then. He was desirous 
however of putting to the test his reputed sanctity, and told his mahout 
that when the sage should appear next morning, he should push the 
war-elephant at him. Accordingly the mahout rushed next morning 
with the elephant upon the sage Tapassa, who quite unconcernedly 
turned his body a little so that the animal plunged his tusks into the 
ground, one on each side of him. The Tapassa then turned round, and 
patted the elephant thrice on the temples, when it was instantly changed 
mto a stone figure. The King could not fail now to credit the power 
of the sage, and he therefore asked him to be his spiritual guide, also to 
restore the elephant to its original state, and assist in establish- 
ing the Chaittya. Utt?hakhut consented, and then drove off Garuda, 
so that Raja Naga might also grace by his presence the consecration of 
the new temple. 

*‘ All these preliminaries having been duly arranged, a Chaittya was 
built, consecrated and fortified, and a portion of the relics was buried 
underneath.” 

** Dhammasoka now wished to bestow the remaining relics upon the 
Princes of other countries, who on being acquainted with his desire 


M 


82 Gleanings in Buddhism. [Ju Ly, 


quickly arrived and received them. On that day there was a terrible 
earthquake, and Meru waved to and fro like a tree before the storm. 
Indra attended the ceremony of division, and the Rakshas hurried to 
the scene in the hopes of being able to destroy the relics, and the 
Chaittya also. These Rakshas were preceded by a furious tempest ; 
but Utt?hakhut perceived their advance, and having invoked the aid of 
Buddha, he wrapped the vase which he held under his arm, in a sheet, 
and threw it at their chief. The vase became a dog, which instantly 
clung to the Raksha’s neck, and then dying produced so intolerable a 
stench that he fled howling through the world, calling aloud for help. 
But no one would assist such an evil-disposed race. However, the 
Devattas advised him to ask Utt’?hakhut to take compassion upon him. 
The Raksha took this advice, and having been relieved from his misery, 
he became contrite.” 

The narrative here breaks off, and another, which apparently ought 
to have been first in order, commences. 

“There was a king of the country of Thonthaburi, named Singharaa 
(Singha Raja) who had within his dominions a famous Chaittya, in which 
there had been deposited a tooth of Buddha.”’ 

This country is evidently Dantapura, and the king is Singha, or 
Sinha Raja, son of Wango.* 

‘It happened that a king of Chatttibadi coveted this precious relic. 
He therefore despatched a large army against that country. But Singha 
Raja refused to give up the relic, which, besides its inestimable value, had, 
he urged, been Jong in possession of his family. He therefore signified 
to the Maha Raja that he would march out next day and give him 
battle, adding that His Majesty had no right to demand the relic. Next 
morning accordingly at dawn, Singha Raja mounted his huge war ele- 
phant, clothed in dazzling armour of proof, he shone like a_ star 
conspicuous at the head of his troops he advanced on the Maha Rajah’s 
force, and he soon singled out the latter from his bright mail, and ad- 
dressing him, inquired why he had invaded the country to obtain a relic, 
when he might have had a share had he gone to Kosinaraké when the 
relics were being divided 2” 

This appears to bea sort of anachronism, because if this was the 
tooth relic now preserved in Ceylon, it was conveyed there in A. D. 


* Described in the late Hon’ble Mr. Turnour’s Mahawanso. 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. a3 


310, not as might be inferred from this account, within a life time after 
Buddha’s death. 

The Maha Raja replied that he was not at the time aware that Bud- 
dha had entered Nivan or Nirvana. 

Singha Raja then invoked all the supernal powers to aid his arm, and 
directed his elephant to be furiously urged against the great king’s. Both 
armies rushed to battle, and the two kings long contended hand to hand ; 
at length Singha Raja with one blow of his sabre rolled his adversary’s 

head on the ground, the body remaining on the elephant. The troops of 
the Maha Raja now fled and were pursued with great slaughter. 

«Three years after this battle a king of Hemantha Phara, confederated 
with the Princes of four other countries, who having united their forces 
to his, and thus formed an army of three hundred thousand men, 
marched to attack Singha Raja im order to compel him to deliver up 
the relic. 

On arriving before Dantapura the allies encompassed it with trenches, 
and then sent a herald to summon the king to resign the relic. Singha 
Raja requested three days for deliberation, which were accorded.” 

It would appear however that Singha Raja foresaw that resistance 
would cause the loss of his kmgdom; for, continues the account, the 
unfortunate Prince being thus driven to extremity and disdaining to 
fly or to yield up the precious tooth, determined to save his honor by 
perishing sword m hand. He visited his queen, called his children 
around him, and communicated to them his resolve. 

Her Majesty impressed upon the king that resistance to such a power 
would be vain, and urged him to assume the garb of a priest and to fly 
with his family to another country, carrying with him the sacred relic. 
That opposition to such a host resembled an attempt to quench fire 
without water, or like an ember on which a deluge was ready to pour. 
flis Majesty however continued firm, and observed that it would ill- 
comport with the dignity which had descended to him from his ances- 
tors were he to shun the impending conflict without making an effort 
to defend his kingdom ; that the sword was in his hand and could not 
be sheathed. 

He than solemnly enjoined the queen, that in case of his death (or 
defeat) she should disguise herself as a priestess and seek refuge in a 
monastery. Next, turning to his son Thont’ha Kuman and to his 

M 2 


84 Gleanings in Buddhism. [JuLY, 


daughter Hemachala, he desired them, in either of these events, to 
dress themselves like peasants to secrete the relic about their clothes 
and to fly to the coast. ere they should embark on board of a vessel 
and proceed to Lanka, the king of which country had long expressed an 
ardent desire to possess a relic. He added that the time had now 
arrived, as predicted by Buddha, when Dantapura was to fall to the 
arms of five invading kings. He then delivered the relic to the Princ, 
and Princess, and prepared for battle. He first took the bath, then 
clothed himself in the refulgent armour which had before dazzled the 
eyes of his foes. On his head was a splendid tiara, and he held im his 
hand a ponderous mace. After a bloody fight in which the Singha 
Raja was slain, the enemy gained the day. The queen obeyed the 
injunctions of her deceased husband, while the prince and princess escap- 
ed in disguise to the coast, where they embarked in a vessel and sailed 
for Lanka (Ceylon). 

It may be noticed in passing that Raja Singha does not hint even 
at the practice of burning widows, one which Buddhists must have 
abhorred. So that although we find in the Mahawanso that this tooth 
relic was carried to Ceylon by a Brahman Princess, she and her parents 
most probably were Buddhists. ‘After a voyage of three months* 
a tempest assailed the ship and it foundered with all on board excepting 
Thont’ha Kuman (probably Dantakumara in Pali), and Hemachala who, 
still retaining possession of the relic, floated on cocoanuts to the shore. 

They reached it at a place called the Diamond Sands (or that Sai 
Keo in Siamese) but I have not yet been able to procure a complete 
version of the original Bali work so cannot specify its title or the place 
here alluded to. 

Here being afraid they dug a pit, and hid the relic and also concealed 
themselves for three days, subsisting on fruits and roots.” 

These Diamond Sands were probably those on the shore near to the 
present site of Jagannath, which latter has been supposed either to 
have been originally a Buddhist shrine, or to have been erected near to, 
or on the more ancient site of one. In the Mahawanso (p. 24,) we 
find it stated that “the right canine tooth relic was brought to Ceylon 
by a Brahman Princess from Kalinga in the year B. 853 or A. D. 310.” 
The account now digresses a little and is tinged with the marvellous. 


* This must be an error. 


ee ~ 


1848, | Gleanings in Buddhisin. 85 


‘««'There was at the period of this shipwreck a celebrated priest called 
Barémmat’het Thero or Thera, who resided on the hill, Assakano, one of 
he lowest ranges of Meru. He happened to be deeply abstracted in 
devotional contemplations, the force and efficacy of which were such 
that they lifted him up into the air. While thus soaring aloft, his eye 
was arrested by dazzling rays of light which were cast upwards from 
the Diamond Sands. Whereupon he instantly descended and called to 
the Prince and Princess to come out of their place of concealment. 
They related to him their sad tale, which induced him to descend into 
the kingdom of Raja Naga. But the snake-king on his approach 
rolled himself away beyond the Chakkawan, or horizon. The Thero 
however, compelled the Naga’s subjects to bring him back. It seems 
that this Raja Naga had purloined the relic unknown to the Prince and 
Princess, but the Thera obliged him to deliver it up. He then returned 
to the Diamond Sands and restored it to the brother and sister, inform- 
ing them at the same time, that a vessel would touch there in three 
days and convey them to Lanka, and bidding them invoke him should 
they encounter any accident. The vessel, as predicted arrived, and a 
flag being hoisted on shore, a boat from the vessel landed and took off 
the Prince and Princess. A few days only had passed in the voyage 
hence towards Lanka, when a furious storm assailed the vessel, at the 
instigation and desire of Raja Naga, who wanted to regain the relic. The 
captain of the vessel then invoked the Devattas, but without effect, so 
that he began to suspect that the storm was owing to the presence of 
the Prince and Princess (who were strangers to him), and he was on 
the point of throwing them overboard. But they called on the Thero, 
who soon appeared im the form of Supannd, or Gartida, and assuaged 
the gale.* The captain or commander of the ship and his crew wor- 
shipped him, and then he departed. The vessel reached Lanka in three 
months.” 

Fa Hian relates in his account of his voyage home from Ceylon 
that the brahman merchants of the vessel he sailed in wanted to get 
rid of him in the same manner and for a similar reason. 

It is probable that the two vessels above alluded to came from 
Tamaliti. We cannot account for the voyage having lasted three 
months, unless by supposing that the time occupied in escaping to the 
coast is included in it. 


* Garuda is himself fond of occasionally rather of raising than abating a storm, 


86 Gleanings in Buddhism. [Juny, 


The Siamese have placed the Diamond Sands near Ligor, and the 
ignorant amongst them, including most of the priests, consider this 
history as one of that country; and some of the latter were much 
mortified when I poimted out the absurdity of the supposition. The 
accounts however which they have of the history of Buddha and of 
Buddhism, afterwards closely accord with the Ceylonese Mahawanso, 
and other Indian Pali writings. 

‘‘When the ship cast anchor at Lanka the commander took his 
passengers on shore at a place where there was a temple called Lohak 
Phra Satst, and where presided the chief priest or Sanghara, whose 
name was Thassakam Phra Mini, and who was allied to the royal family 
of Lanka. This priest hospitably received the strangers. When 
night arrived, an extraordinary light spread over the temple, and the 
astonished priests found that it emanated from the place where the 
Prince and Princess reposed. ‘The latter then disclosed their names 
and the cause of their arrival, saying that they must deliver the relic 
into the hands of the king. A young priest was therefore despatched 
to acquaint his Majesty with the fortunate occurrence, who happened to 
be then eight yojana distant on ahunting excursion.* He no sooner 
however received the information than he was seized with a holy fer- 
vour, and dismounting from his elephant he walked seven of the eight 
yojanat to his palace, and was lamed by the exertion. The royal 
pair, a brother and sister, were now presented to him, and he allowed 
them a retinue of 500 persons and a suitable establishment to uphold 
their state. 

By his Majesty’s orders a brick and mortar Chetti or Chaittya, or 
pyramidal buildmg, was constructed and was adorned insidet with 
precious stones. The relic brought by the Prince and Princess was 
then deposited in it with great solemnity. 

Three years had passed away when the king of Lanka perceived from 
an ancient prophesy that in seven years from that date a certain king, 
Dhammasoka Raja, would erect a temple at ‘‘ The Diamond Sands.” 
He likewise recollected that there were two Dona of the relies of Bud- 
dha still concealed in the country of Raja Naga. He therefore direct- 

* Yet the killing of animals was forbidden by his faith. 
+ This cannot be the yojana which is reckoned at 9 miles, 
+ The receptacle for relics probably. 


See eee 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhisin. 87 


ed a holy priest to go and bring their relics, but the messenger had no 
sooner reached Raja Naga’s palace, than the latter whispered to his 
brother* to fly with the relics to Meru and hide both himself and them. 
This being done he told the priest that he knew not where the relics 
were. But the observant priest had noticed the Raja’s brother putting 
the relics into his mouth or swallowing them on his departure, the more 
effectually to conceal them. He accordingly followed him to Meri, where 
he found him coiled up and fast asleep with his jaws wide open. He drew 
forth the relics without awaking him, and returned with them to Lanka. 
Soon after this Raja Naga arrived in the form of a handsome youth, 
and solicited a few relics from his Majesty, which were bestowed upon 
him accordingly.” 

His Majesty now ordered a golden ship to be made. It was one 
eubit long, and one span broad. The relics were put into a golden cup, 
this was placed in a vase, and the whole were put into the golden ship. 

A wooden ship was next built having a breadth of beam of seven long 
enbits.”” 

(The length, judging by such a breadth would be about 200 feet.) 

“When built this vessel was loaded with bricks and mortar, and 
abundance of provisions and necessaries, with gold and silver, were placed 
on board. Four golden jars were made for the occasion, and they were 
filled with the poison of snakes. 

T’hont’ha Kuman and Hemachala, being desirous of revisiting their 
country, the kmg of Lanka sent along with them ambassadors to one 
of the five kings, (he) who now ruled there, requesting him to show 
every sort of attention and respect towards them. Two hundred young 
men and one hundred damselst were also embarked, and many learned 
priests availed themselves of this opportunity of spreading their religion 
(the Buddhist.) 

The vessel reached the Diamond Sands in five months,t and the 
Prince and Princess then went on shore accompanied by the priests (of 
Buddha.) 


* Nephew in the Mahawanso, pp. 188, 189, where a longer account is given. It is 
moreover stated that the enshrining of these relics took place in Ceylon. 

+ Labourers apparently. 

+ This might have been an alteration by the Siamese, perhaps in order to make it 
appear that Ligor wasthe destination of the vessel, but more probably it is merely a 
clerical error. 


88 Gleanings in Buddhism. [J uLY, 


The golden ship and its holy contents were carried m procession upon 
the heads of thirty men, to a spot which the astrologers had fixed on.” 

(These astrologers were, we may believe, Brahmans, for this tribe had 
not then become prominently distinct as religionists until a much later 
period, and many were Buddhists.) 

«A square excavation was then dug to the depth of a tall man’s 
height, and proportioned according to the instructions contained in the 
sacred books. Water was next poured into the vase so as to float the 
golden ship, and the whole, as before enumerated, were deposited at the 
bottom of the excavation.” 

In a former description the relics were placed in the centre of the 
building. In the Mahawanso they are noticed as occupymg a compart- 
ment of the famous Anarudha temple, on a level with that ledge or 
part of the basement where flowers were offered ; bemg thus considera- 
bly above ground. 

At each corner of the square ajar or vase (emblematical perhaps of the 
four elements) was placed underneath and filled with the venom of snakes. 
Four priests of known sanctity consecrated the spot, and a tablet of 
stone with an inscription upon it was fixed upright in the pit, its front 
facing the north.* Its import was that “The King of Lanka has order- 
ed this imscription m the language of Lanka [Magadhi?] to be placed 
under the Chaittya as a memorial of the erecting of the same; and of 
there havimg been four holy priests sent by him to superintend its con- 
struction and consecrate it in due form.” 

The materials were then landed, the pit was filled up with stones ; 
and on this foundation the Chaittya was quickly built. 

The vessel now set sail for Dantapuri, which it reached in a little 
more than three months.t The ambassadors of the king of Lanka 
landed here along with the Prince and Princess. The two latter were 
treated (by the ruling Prince) with much distinction, and remained in 
that country. 

The ship returned to Lanka in forty days.t 


* This I take to be a clerical error, and that N. E. if not E. was the direction. 

+ An exaggeration for the purpose before noticed, if not a clerical error. 

{ ‘This is nearer the mark, perhaps, therefore the foregoing lengths of voyages are cle- 
rical errors. Perhaps the stay at the temple is ineluded in the time so stated. 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. 89 


An Account of Dhammisoka, Raja of Awad. 


B. C. 321. “ King Dhammiésoka Raja, the lord of earth and sky, go- 
verned the country of Awadi with strict justice ; and pursued the humane 
and munificent course which great Princes ought to follow. 

In the midst, however, of prosperity and abundance the kingdom was 
suddenly afflicted by a sweeping pestilence. The king consulted his 
astrologers, and they advised him to emigrate with his people to another 
quarter. His Majesty accordingly set out with all his family, and he 
was followed by the largest portion of his subjects. Of these followers 
thirty-one thousand were able-bodied men, [31,000,|* who had their 
wives, children and effects with them. 

This body journied to the southward, and wandered about for seven 
months, when it formed a temporary encampment in the jungle. 
Houses for the priests were here constructed, especially for two (princi- 
pal ones) named Buddha Kamphean, and Achan Buddha Sakon. A 
temple was likewise erected here and a tank dug.+ 

Several years prior to these events Raja Naga had. paid a visit to the 
temple at the Diamond Sands, and as a memorial of his having done so 
he left a precious stone fixed in the fork of a tree. 

This temporary residence of the king was not far distant from the 
above temple, although he was not aware of it. Indra therefore felt 
himself called on to lend his aid. By his order his minister having 
assumed the appearance and dress of a peasant, stationed himself near 
to a spot where a hunter was watching to kill deer for the king’s table.t 
He contrived to bring one before the hunter, who wounded it: with an 
arrow. It went slowly away and the hunter followed it to the Dia- 
mond Sands, where it left him benighted. He mounted a tree for pro- 
tection durmg the darkness, and early next morning he was forcibly 
attracted by the glare of the jewel left by Raja Naga. He speedily 
secured the rich prize and returning presented it to the king, and 
described the nature of the place where he had found it. His Majesty 


* Which would give a total of about 155,000 in all, so that if this account be true, 
and if it was the famous Asoka who is here brought forward, we may suppose that he 
only changed his capital for a while for a more healthy spot. 

+ I cannot find any thing in the Mahawanso respecting this wandering of Asoko. 

+ The eating of animal food had not then been prohibited. 


N 


90 Gleanings in Buddhism. [Juny, 


sent there an artist to make a sketch of the temple, and the vicinity, 
and finding both invitmg proceeded in person to the spot. He march- 
ed with a large retinue and arrived in seven days at a place where water 
and fish were abundant.* Next day he mounted his horse and reached 
the Golden Sands. Here he and his people were encountered by huge — 
crows, which tried to drive them away. His Majesty during the ensu- 
ing night had a dream in which Devattas appeared to him, and said that 
underneath the temple were relics which had been deposited there by 
order of a king of Lanka. Next day the king directed people to dig 
into the Chaittya, but the crows (or spirits in their shape) compelled 
them to desist. The king therefore returned to his camp. 

It is related that the younger brother of this Raja lived in Lansaké, 
and that sickness still prevailed amongst his own subjects. The son of 
the Raja died here, which added to his afflictions. A year afterwards 
‘the Maha Thera arrived at the camp, and the king having inquired 
from whence he had come, he replied that he had been engaged during 
the previous seven years, in the traversing various regions, disseminating 
religious instruction to their inhabitants. 

His Majesty, again accosting the priest, observed that the spot where 
his camp now was had been found unhealthy, and requested that his 
lordship would favor him with the best advise as to where he should 
remove. The Thera then sprinkled holy water about the camp and the 
contagion ceased, and he afterwards advised His Majesty to remove and 
settle at the Diamond Sands. Accordingly Indra sent Maha Tih to 
attend to the wishes of Dhammasoka Raja. 

It happened that at this time Raja Naga with seven heads and as 
many tails, guarded the Chaittya. But no sooner had the king, accom- 
panied by Maha Tuli and a large retmue approached close to it, that 
this mighty snake king was observed to be majestically disentwining 
himself from the huge folds with which he had encompassed the relic 
shrine. 

As he wound off, he left a deep impression on the ground ; which His 
Majesty perceiving, he directed stakes to be driven into the line at inter- 
vals, and it was within this circuit that he subsequently founded a city. 

The king now ordered six thousand (6000) men to prepare bricks, 
and large parties to dig up the soil and clear away the forest. 


* Some river or lake, 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. 91 


Dhammasoka reigned (or staid) quietly here for seven years ; but still 
mortified and unhappy because he had not been able to reach the relics, 
for he desired to place them in a more splendid Chaittya. 

[I may here remark that the disinterring of relics appears to have 
been a favorite act of piety, and curiosity, combined, on the part of 
successive kings or dynasties. 

In this way perhaps, the remains of many temples dedicated, if we 
are to credit the Chinese travellers Fa Hian and others, to the third 
Buddha or Kassapo, may have been swept away. At any rate many of 
the oldest Chaittyas in honor of Buddha the 4th, the present one, may 
thus have been destroyed. | 

«His Majesty accordingly offered a high reward to any one who 
should find the relics and dismhume them. But this proved of no 
avail.” 

I do not know what to think of the recital closely following the 
above. It is doubtless the same in the Pali, as names in it are preserved, 
at least Bali words according to Siamese pronunciation. 

“It so happened that in this dilemma a Butré or Putra of the 
king of Rém, named Kakabhasa, who happened to be trading to the 
country of Takkasila, encountered a violent storm. He had five hun- 
dred souls on board, who supplicating the gods, were rescued from death. 
The ship with much difficulty reached close to the Diamond Sands, 
and observiug signs of population cast anchor with a view to refit. 

The king recollected of having once heard that the people of Rém 
were deeply skilled in working spells, and acting under the belief that 
they were, he asked the commander of the vessel to assist him in 
driving off the spirits which guarded the Chaittya. 

The commander having adopted precautions by erecting a stockade 
at the mouth of the river for his own security in a strange region; and 
having first had his ship peo by his Majesty’s artificers, prepared to 
exorcise the spirits. 

The king now refrained from all food which was of the sorts not 
allowed to priests, dressed himself in white garments, and slept under 
a canopy of cloth, and indeed conformed to all the rules for proceeding 
on such occasions as is contained in astrological books.”’ 

When the procession arrived at the temple the crows began their 
attack, but the first charm set them to flight, and with them vanished 


wn 2 


92 Gleanings in Buddhism. [ Jury, 


and departed all the other spirits. The relics and jars were then easily 
dug upalong with the gold. The king inquired of the Roman if he 
might take the gold, when the latter replied that it should not be sepa- 
rated from the relics during their stay on the earth. To impress His 
Majesty with his veracity, he took a bambu four cubits long and thrust 
it into one of the jars, when many snakes instantly raised their heads 
aloft. He next took another bambu and pushing it into the same jar 
the snakes disappeared. 

The king had prepared a temporary abode for the relics and jars, 
consisting of nime several successive stories.* 

It was now determined to erect another Chaittya, and a spot for it 
was accordingly selected. 

The ground for the foundation was a square of eight large cubits 
[48 feet each side] and it was excavated to the depth of eight cubits,”’ 
[12 feet, for I suppose it to be the short cubit, as the large one is not 
mentioned. | “‘ At the dottom of this foundation a small cavity was con- 
structed of bricks and mortar two cubits deep” [breadth not specified, 
say 3 feet square], “‘ and water tight (after being shut up). 

When all had been arranged the two chief priests before named 
raised up the golden ship on their heads, while each poison vase was 
carried by thirty men. Then three priests, assisted by the Roman com- 
mander, consecrated the Fane, and deprecated wrath and every ill on 
the head of the sacrilegeous wretch who should dare to molest the holy 
precincts. They prayed that the water in the reservoir should ever 
continue to float the golden ship, that the candles and incense should 
never cease to burn, nor the flowers to bloom, until the expiration of 
the five thousand years of the era of Buddha should have expired and 
a new era have begun. Thakhaphasa or Kakabhasd now directed all the 
people to remove to a little distance, after which he recited the one 
hundred and eight Bali invocations ; these being over, the spirits which 
had been scared away speedily resumed their posts.”’ 

I may merely notice in passing that the boat isthe type of the 
earth, the Argha of the Hindts, or rather are we not to consider that 
they had it from the Buddhists, as the latter may have derived it either 
directly or indirectly from the Egyptians, amongst whom it was the 
eymbium.*+ | 


* Seven is the most common number. t Indian Antiquities of Maurice. 


, ‘ - , 
ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 


Sf ee 


1848.] Gleanings in Buddhism. 93 


Osiris, according to Plutarch, was the Commander of the Argo, and 
was represented by the Egyptians by a boat carried on the shoulders of 
men.* 

This Ossa Navicularis, as Mr. Maurice observes, was carried at Egyp- 
tian solemnities by 80 men. ‘Then there was the mystical boat of Isis, 
which according to Lactantius was adored in the same country. It was 
the cup of the sun in which Hercules they say traversed the ocean. The 
Suivi again worshipped Isis in form of a ship.t 

A golden float, crescent-shaped, but less round, was an emblem of the 
ark.f Iswara is called Argha-natha or the Lord of the boat-shaped 
vessel.t There was also the Vitzliputula of South America, who was 
carried in an ark like Osiris and the Jurar of Peru boasted of their 
descent from the sun and moon, that is from Noah, and the ark worship- 
ped in conjunction with these luminaries.§ Faber says that the ark 
was frequently described by the antients as the allegorical consort of the 
principal Arkite Deity.|| 

The Argha is with the Hindus a type of the Yoni, the cymbium of 
the antients, and in it were made offermgs of fruits and flowers.] It 
means a cup or dish, boat-shaped, used for offering fruits or flowers to 
deities.* A third part of the worship of Bacchus consisted in carrying 
about an ark. 

A mare was a symbol of the ark, and we find a horse coupled with 
the relics in the excavation of one of the Chaittyas just described ; a horse 
was one of the most usual symbols of Noah.{ 

“<The Phonecian word Aron denotes either an ark or acoffin. In 
scripture it is the ark of the covenant or a boat, which last was borne 
aloft on the shoulders of the priests exactly in the same manner as the 
Baris of the Egyptian Ogdoad.§ We cannot I think wonder at this 
last resemblance, seeing that Moses had just left the practice behind him 


* As. Res. and other works— Wilford quoting Tacitus. 

t+ Key to Hindu Chronology. 

¢ Wilford. 

§ Faber’s Cabiri, Vol. I. p. 170, and Franklin quoting him. 

|| Do. Do. p. 79. 

q J.A.S.B. Vol. VIII. p. 274, et seq. 

* Ibid, Vol. VI. p. 521, et seq. 

+ Faber’s Cabiri, Vol. II. pp. 332, 333. + Ibid, Vol. I. p. 100. § Ibid, Vol. I. 
pp. 226, 227, 


94 Gleanings in Buddhism. [ Jury, 


in Egypt, unless we first doubt if he had fairly repudiated the God of 
the Egyptians. He retained many of their practices undoubtedly 
when they did not militate against his monotheism. 

“But” observes this erudite author, “ the ark was considered in the 
light of a coffin, as it was supposed to contain the relics of universal 
nature.’ Here is a curious coincidence with the Buddhist custom just 
detailed by our Pali author. 


The Malays of the Keddah coast of the present day use a painted 
boat at marriage ceremonies. The bridegroom and bride are placed in 
it, and it is carried in procession on the shoulders of men. 


This seems to me to be clearly a remnant of their original worship, 
which I have found to have been chiefly that of Siva;* thus so far 
proving the connexion betwixt Mahadeva and the Argha. 


The Arn Breith, or Car of the ancient Irish was, according to Faber, 
‘the ark of the covenant.’? The antients in memory of the ark carried 
about a small navicular shrine, and sometimes even built their temples 
in the form of ships. Then we have the gothic Skidbladner, a ship, 
and Col. Valency describes an ancient Temple near Dundalk in Ireland 
in the shape of a galley. 

In the Bali work Milintha I find three kinds of religious edifices 
mentioned ;— 

Parib’ho’k’ha Cheti, built it is supposed at the spots where Buddha 
had halted during his journies for refreshment. 

In these parts of Buddha’s dress and other things are kept as relics. 

Dhattu Cheti, Dagobas, for the relics of Buddha, or shiral buildings, 

Dhamma Cheti, being an edifice in which the sacred books were to 
be preserved. 

The Cheti or Chaittya, is truly a Mausoleum, varying from a dome 
to bell-shaped, or to a truncated cone, or a building more or less pyra- 
midal, and almost, perhaps, always, placed on a square pedestal. Where 
the type originated I will not pretend to say, but there is a wide field 
for conjecture in the regions of western mythology. 


The Chetti, is the Manakyala,—the Tope, the Burj, Dagob, Dagoba 


* An account of some of the Indo-Chinese nations (Journal of the Indian Archi- 
pelageo) by me. 
t Faber’s Cabiri, Vol. I. p, 219, apud Coll. de rebus Hiber. of Vallency, Vol. V. p. 460. 


OS Ee ee Se ee ee 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. 95 


of Sanscrit, the Dhatugurbha and the Sthupa. The Triloca makes 
it like a Drum, with a swell in the middle. 

Tibetian Dagobas are generally square based pyramids, but some 
have conical and others circular bases. 

In the Calcutta Journal for 1819, a writer (Manatho) states that the 
ruins of a mighty temple then existed near Mirzapore in the district of 
Benares, and that it seemed to be upon the same plan as the temple of 
Boro Bodor in Java. There were also two statues there. Query—Has 
this temple been explored ? 

In the Pali work Ratana Kalapa, we have under the head of Cheti or 
Dagobas, 

1. Upachara Cheti, eight cubits (long ?) 


2. Patimar D’hatu, L2 dos 
3. Semo Sanghang, 4 do. 
4. Uposatha, LL... de. 
5. Cheti Buddho Dhati, 16 do. 


“When the foundation had thus been prepared a pit was dug (in 
front of) the Chaittya to the depth of four cubits and a half. Into this 
there was let down a pillar of stone six cubits long, about 14 measures 
[or 8 feet] of which remained above ground.* This upper part faced 
the Hsané or north-east, and at intervals of a cubit, two other similar 
stones were placed in the same manner. Light pillars were likewise 
erected around the temple so disposed as to correspond with the four 
cardinal points and their subdivisions.” 

In the cave of Islamabad a Mausoleum was found in a compartment 
of the depth of three cubits, and three cubits in breadth or diameter. 
In it were images, a vessel of brass and two bones.t Thus proving 
that it was of Buddhist origin, although this does not seem to have been 
a Dagoba. 

«<A rod of iron was set upright from the centre of the offset of the 
intended spire, and the latter was then built around it. The whole 
building was composed of brick and mortar, and was plastered with 
stueco. The total height of the Chaittya was upwards of thirty-six 
large cubits [200 feet. ]”’ 

It is rather singular that the Indo-Chinese Buddhists yet persist in 


* I am not quite satisfied as to these measurements, they are stated rather obscurely. 
+ As. Res. Vol. IX. 


96 Gleanings in Buddhism. _. {Jury, 


this dangerous custom of supporting one half only of their Dagobas 
with iron rods, and this too while they have learned enough of science 
as to lead them to place on the pinnacles of these rods small glass 
phials as nonconductors. Their preservative properties would I should 
suppose be of small amount. 

«The stucco having been put on the ee was guilded from top 
to bottom, and the four chief priests constructed eight figures of Ara- 
han (the head of a powerful Buddhist sect), and placed them in the 
area of the temple in the attitude of adoration of Buddha. Representa- 
tions of elephants were likewise made and fixed with their heads direct- 
ed from the temple.’ * 

“The Prince of Rome now set sail and departed.” 

“When the people of the neighbouring countries heard of the fame 
of this new Chaittya they flocked to it in order to make offerings. 
They came in carriages and on elephants,” (and in other ways) “and 
some even cast gold under the ground for those who should afterwards 
find it. The Princes of these states also brought their offerings, and 
before departing they erected small Chaittyas, but not having any sur- 
rounding pillars (pariwenas.) 

“The king of Lanka being desirous of knowing what had become of 
the temple at the Diamond Sands, despatched P’haliti and Phalabii, 
who were men of rank, to that place. They were provided with gifts of 
gold, silver, and precious commodities for Dhammisoka Raja. 

When they had waited upon this king they acquainted him that the 
two young Princes of Lanka had quarrelled at a cockpit where white 
men were present, (probably Turks or Arabs,) and that both had died 
of the wounds they had received, and their father the king had sent 
their ashes and bones with a request that His Majesty would allow these 
to be disposed of thus. They were all to be pounded up with mortar 
into a paste, and of this two busts or images were to be formed, one of 
Phra Sri Dhatta’’ [or Buddha, when a Prince,| another of his consort 
Bhimb’ha, and a third of his son, Rahira. Two figures were also 
to be made resembling the deceased Princes, one of which would 
occupy the right hand, and the other the left hand of the image 
of Phra Sri Dhatta. They also expressed the king’s desire, that an 


* | shall also given along with these fragments of Indian History, a few notes respect- 
ing Buddha and these Arahans, or Arahat, 


1848. | Gleanings in Buddhism. 97 


image of Buddha of the same materials, and one of each of the two 
descriptions of lions, should be formed, and that the before mentioned 
images having been added to them the whole should be placed in a 
Vihan or temple to be specially built for the purpose, and that when 
all this had been effected, the circumstances should be recorded upon a 
tablet of stone. To these requests Dhammasoka readily assented and 
they were accordingly complied with.” 

It was a great oversight of the Buddhists when they first admitted im- 
ages, not of Buddha, into their Vihans. I say not of the 4th Buddha, for 
his statue must have been coeval nearly with zs worship, and it is pro- 
bable that statues or images of previous Buddhas existed. Although 
as he had been a Prince and a mortal his votaries could hardly have re- 
quired to be so reminded. I am not aware of the precise period when 
subsidiary images were introduced, but I suspect that if Buddha had, 
as Fa Hian’s account would imply, and the Buddhist scriptures forcibly 
insist on an immediate predecessor (Kassap’6,) whose Chaittyas were 
even then extant, the admission of such images most probably took 
place before Sakya Muni appeared.* In whatever manner, or at what- 
ever period it really happened, the existence of any images in the tem- 
ples beyond those of Buddha, no doubt greatly helped the Brahmans, 
not only when they began to scan the path to hierarchical pre-eminence, 
and to sap the foundations of Buddhism, but when they eventually had 
established a body of heretics or schismatics within even its own Vihans 
ready to tolerate if not to adopt a more extensive polytheism, and thus 
to render the final subversion of Buddhism easy and certain. 


* In the gorgeous description contained in the Pali Mahawanso of the relic receptacle 
of the Mah4 Sthupo. “ At the farthest points of the four sides were represented 
(depicted ) the four great Mythological Kings [ Query— Heroes apotheosized? | Dattarattho, 
Virulo, Ver@pakkho and Wessawanno, also 33 Dewos and 32 Princes, 28 chiefs of 
Yakkhas. This was in B. C. 127. These were subordinate to a golden image of 
Buddha, and near to it stood one of Mahabrahma, bearing the parasol of dominion. 
(One) of Sakko, the inaugurator with his Chank, Pinchasikho with his harp in hand, 
Kalanago and his band of singers and dancers, [which however priests are forbidden 
to listen to or to look on,| the hundred armed Maro (death.)1 The description of the 
relic chamber, however, differs from the accounts which have just been given, in 
which last the relics are placed deep under ground for the sake of concealment, 
apparently, whereas in the Maha Sthupo they were enshrined in a receptacle considerably 
above the level of the ground. 

1 Turnour’s Mahawanso, transl. p. 182. 


98 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. | JuLy, 


In the various accounts above given in the text of the erecting of 
Chaittyas we cannot fail to remark the care taken on every occasion to 
record religious events on stone or metal, and these accounts would have 
bean some proof of this custom even if we had not known of the nume- 
rous Buddhist inscriptions, which are extant, especially those of the 


very Prince last named, Asdka [unless there were two of that name] 


which have of late years been brought to light by our indefatigable 
ortentalists in India. 

After a while Phra P’hutthi Monthéan, a holy priest of Buddha, 
arrived from Lanka im a vessel bringing with him a pipal tree, which he 
privately planted unknown to anybody. Another personage after this 
sailed to the Golden Sands, but was wrecked there and lost most of his 
effects. But he built a Chaittya and a Vihan before he departed.’ 
[The Siamese call him Nai song chém. | 


Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan (Rikas Tal), Cho Mapan 
(Mdnasaréwar), and the valley of Pruang in Gnari, Hindés, in 
September and October 1846. By Henry Stracuey, Lieut. 66th 
Regt. Bengal N. I. 


Askot—i0th September 1846.—At this place I met two fakirs 
late from Manasarowar. No. 1, asurkhi-colored Sunydsi, deponeth that 
walking over Lipu-Dhira into Taklékot, he was forthwith appre- 
hended, abused, beaten, and put in confinement for that night: the 
next morning he was brought up and scrutinized before the Sirdar of 
the place, who at last allowed him to proceed on his pilgrimage, but 
under the surveillance of a Hunia,* who accompanied him to the lake, 
whence he was marched straight back again after performing his ablu- 
tions, permission to make the Parkarma (religious circuit), or to go 
on to Kailas, being steadily refused. The Sunydsi was rather an intelli- 
gent, smart and decent looking person ; which qualities, I presume, ren- 
dered him the more obnoxious to the “suspicion of being suspect- 
ed” for a Sikh or Fering{ spy; he was also guilty of a fine black beard 
—a distinctive mark of the “ out-side Barbarian,” which the Hunias of 
Gnari have held in great fear and aversion ever since the invasion of 


* An inhabitant of Handés, 


ee i Oe es ee ee ee 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 99 


their country by the bearded Sikhs in 1841. The hurried way in which 
deponent was hustled through Pruang prevented his observing any- 
thing worth record. 

Fakir No. 2.—A Jogi, black with dirt, and half fool; he accordingly 
met a better reception than the Suny4si, and was allowed to extend his 
pilgrimage to Kailas without hindrance ; yet he was a year in Bydns 
before he could effect his entrance into Pruang ; for last season there 
was an absolute interdict against all Fakirs, and a companion of the 
Jogi then returned in despair, without accomplishing the object for 
which he had come from the uttermost parts of India. Deponent says 
that Hundes is a “ Bahut sundar jagah; per nahin,—ghdis nahing— 
siwd pathar aur baraf kuchh nahin!”’* beyond which he can give no 
lucid information. 

These pilgrims are said to be the only two who have succeeded in 
reaching Manasarowar, vid Bydns, during the last two years ;—encou- 
raging for me, the third! 

Kela, 15th Sept.—15 days from Almora, might have been done 
in 10, but for the great heat in the low vallies and a touch of 
sickness (partly caused by that) which precluded much exertion, 
detaining me also three days at Petoragarh. The valley of the 
Kali proved not quite so bad as my apprehensions; the first part 
is certainly low and hot enough, the jungle dense and rank in the 
extreme, grass and wild hemp ten feet high, through which we had to 
butt, heads down, in places where the path had not been cleared ; Sal, 
Sissoo and Toon trees, with wild Plantains and Cucumbers, denoting a 
very tropical climate. But this does not extend much beyond the mid- 
dle of the second stage; at Dharchula, (2750 feet above the sea, b. t.), 
the valley expands intoa pleasant level, well cleared of jungle, and 
cultivated with rice. The scenery hereabouts is fine, the valley flanked 
by noble hills, on the west side by the base of Chipula. Thence on to 
Kela is not quite so clear and open, but the ground rises gradually into 
a cooler climate ; the road all the way easy. Relagarh, a ravine with 
a small stream, forms the boundary between the Rabari of Askot and 
the district of Kela. 

The village of Kela comprises a good extent of well cultivated land, 
terraced out of a huge hill side that rises in a steep uniform slope for 

* i.e. very beautiful place, no trees, no grass, nothing but rock and snow. 


GZ 


100 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se- [JuLy, 


thousands of feet above the confluence of the Dhauli or Gori (the river 
of the Darma valley), with the Kali; the houses, or huts rather, seem 
very few and mean. The opposite side of the valley in Déti,* is of the 
same character. 

Here I find Durga Datt Patwdri,+ (Governor, that is,) of Kela, 
Darma, Chaudéns and Byans; one Ahasiat and three Bhétia dis- 
tricts, containing altogether some fifty villages—on a salary of five 
rupees per month ; an erratum, one would suppose, for fifty. 

The Patwari informs me that there has been a murrain among the 
cattlein Darma this year, which has carried off all the kine, and half 
the goats and sheep; from the reports which have reached him, he 
judges that there are not a dozen Zhobus§ left in the whole of Darma, 
and that I should probably be unable to get half that number for my 
expedition across the snow. Lata, Budha|| of Baund, a village of Dar- 
ma, reported that they had 52 head of cattle in his village last year, 
and the murrain has destroyed every one of them. The danger of 
infection still lurking in the villages precludes the introduction of fresh 
stock from Hwtndés this year. Under these circumstances I must 
abandon my intention of going through Darma, as a few baggage cattle 
are absolutely indispensable for a prolonged expedition across the 
passes, in which, as we have to avoid villages and inhabited places, 
myself and party must subsist solely on what provisions, &c. we can 
take with us. They say also that the road up to Darma is in a very 
bad state, and in one or two places rendered all but impassable by 
landslips ; not that it becomes me to be particular in that respect ; 
my difficulties lie the other side of the snow. 

I had expected to get atent from the Bhotias here, but I am now 
told that the people of Darma and Byans have no such luxuries, being 
content with what shelter they can extemporize with blankets amongst 
their Karpach (sheep saddle bags). 


* The Province of Nipal which borders on Kuméon. 

+ Superintendent of a district in Kuméon. 

¢ The Hill-people of the lower Himalaya. 

§ The cross-bred kine between the Yak of Tibet and the Indian cow. 

|| Commonly pronounced Barha, the Headman of a village, or more frequently, asct of 
villages. . This term is equivalent to Kumin, Syana, and Tokdar, and is chiefly used in the 
eastern Pergunnahs of Kumaéon. ‘The tenure connected with these titles is called Barha 
chari, Kumin-char, &c. 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 101 


The Jwdris* have very fair tents, of cow-hair cloth, in one of which 
I found good accommodation (for myself and half a dozen Bhotias) in 
my expedition across the Jwar Pass, last June. The Byansis certainly 
have less need of these things, as their traffic lies mostly among the 
villages of Pruang, and but a short distance from their own homes. 
Tent, or no tent, I now proceed through Byans, going by Kunti and the 
western pass, thence making the lakes (if nothing go wrong), and 
returning through Pruang, by Lipu Dhira, the eastern pass, into Lower 
Byans, My first plan had been to go by Darma and return by western 
Byans, in order to see both of the Bhotia valleys; but the season is 
now so far advanced, that unless my journey on the other side were 
curtailed of its fair proportions, there would be an even chance of my 
finding the Western Ghat of Byans impassable from snow, by the time 
of my return, whereas Lipu Dhura will be safe probably, for the next 
month or two. 

Patwari says that the remnant of the Sikh invaders of Gnari, who 
made their escape into Kumaon, came over Lipu Dhira in the month 
of December 1841. All the other Ghats would have been absolutely 
impassable at that time of year. 

Receive a letter from Hirdu Budha, Thokdar+ of Chaudans, to the 
effect, that hearing 1am going to Darma, he requests that I will 
abandon that route and come his way instead; no reason whatever is 
offered for the said request. But the Patwari explains that the Bhé- 
tias of Daérma, Chaudans, and Byans have heard that the Sdhib Lég 
frequently drop a good deal of money in visits to Jwar and Niti,t and 
often ask him why he does not exert his influence to bring part of this 
lucrative traffic their way. 

16th September.—Descend from Kela, cross the Dhauli (now 
unfordable) by a Sdnga,§ and enter Chaudans, up a long and steep 
ascent, the distance from Kela to Titila, though no more than 
4% miles by the Map, occupying me 5} hours, of which half an hour 
may have been rest. The hill enveloped in clouds, and myself 
drenched with mist and rain, I could see little or nothing of the coun- 


* Jnhabitants of Jwar, the Alpine valley of the Gori. 

¢ Head of a hill district. 

t A village of Garhwal giving its name to one of the passes into Tibet. 
§ A timber-bridge of a construction common in these mountains, 


102 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [J ULY, 


try, but an entire change of climate and botany indicates a much 
higher elevation than Kela, and to my great relief, rice cultivation 
has disappeared. Hirdu Budha tells me that nothing now remains of 
the old Fort, if ever there was one, (the Titlakot of the map) on the 
top of the hill, one or two hundred feet above the village of Titila. 

The people of Chaudans are all Bhotia, carrying on a limited traffic 
with Pruang via Eastern Byans. 

On the road to-day I met many Dunals, men of Ding, a pati or 
subdivision of Déti opposite this, bringing salt and borax from Byéns. 
They are not Bhotia, but Khasia, i.e. people of K.zas-des, which in 
days of yore included all the hill country of which the inhabitants 
were of mixed caste, and impure to the genuine Hindus of Lower India ; 
but the Khasias themselves now rather affect to reject the name, and 
pass it on to the Bhotias, who bear much the same relation to them, 
that they do to the pure Hindus, the Bhotias being a cross-breed, pro- 
bably, between the Khasias and the Hunias of Hundés. 

Thermometer at 54 p. m. 58°, boiled at 198°. Elevation of Titila 
8000 feet above the sea. The village of Sosa is some 250 feet lower. 
Rain at night. 

17th September.—Leave Titila, and after a march of 4} miles by 
the map, occupying near 6 hours, encamp on the Syankwangarh, 
now a considerable stream, under the village of Bunbun, at the foot of 
Rholing-Dhira, the crossing of which constitutes the greater part of 
this march. ‘The ascent is long but easy, probably three thousand feet 
in perpendicular elevation, though the summit of the pass may not be 
more than 2000 feet higher than Titila (owing to some intermediate 
descent of the road), or 10,000 feet of absolute elevation. The whole 
hill is clothed with very fine forest, mostly Horse-chestunt trees, with 
undergrowth of Ninydla (Arundinaria falcata?) much resembling that 
on the Munshari side of Kalamundi,* on the road from Girgaon, (the 
summit of which is 9200 feet above the sea,) and these two are by far 
the finest specimens of forest that I have met with in these hills ; the 
Horse-chestnuts being tall, straight and clean timbers of considerable 
size. ‘The north side of Rholing-Dhtira is of the same character as the 
south, with a descent of some three thousand feet to Syankwangarh. 
My encampment here may be 750 feet lower than Titila,i. e. 7250 


* A pass and range between the valleys of the Gori and Ramganga. 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 103 


feet above the sea, and the village of Bunbun a little above the Garh, 
7500 feet. 

Thermometer 60° at sunset. Thick clouds and mist all day, rain 
at night. 

18th September—Morning so rainy that my companions advise a 
halt, to which I object ; leave Syankwang, and in three quarters of an 
hour reach the village or hamlet of Gala, 13 miles distant, where, after 
all we are stopped by the rain, which increases with promise of continu- 
ance, and the Nirpania-Dhtira ahead is said to be steep and very 
troublesome in foul weather. 

Gala is a mere hamlet with two or three houses, at present uninhabi- 
ted, and a few fields cultivated by the Zemindars of Ring, a neighbour- 
ing village. The vacant cottages accom modate myself and party much 
better than the cuéeha hunting run up for me at Syankwang, which 
would have been miserable quarters indeed in this weather. It is fortu- 
nate that I would not take the advice of my friends to stay there this 
morning. 

Thermometer outside at 4 p.m. 55°. I judge the elevation of this 
place to be about the same as Bunbun, 7500 feet. 

The rain continues all day and all night without intermission. 

19th September.—Still raining and the whole hillside completely 
enveloped in cloud. 

Sumhyaki, son of Hirdu, the Tokdar, who has accompanied us from 
Titila, with laden sheep, &c. for Pruang, objects to proceed in such 
weather as this; so do I. We heard the sound of a considerable 
landslip somewhere in the vicinity this morning. In heavy rain the 
passage of Nirpania-Dhira is rendered unsafe by showers of stone, 
which it is difficult to see and avoid when the air is obscured by mist. 

Patwari Durga, a well educated man in the Hindu fashion assures 
me that Hisndés, the ‘snow country,” is a mistake, originated if I 
remember rightly, by Professor Wilson, and since currently adopted. 

The true name is Hindés, swe, from Su, the “ Hun,” aboriginal 
inhabitants of the country north of the Himalaya, and not derived in 
any way from Tea, Him, snow. Mention of the country and people is 
to be found in the Mahdbhdrat, Markandia Purdna, and other of the 
Sanskrit books which treat of the mythological history of this part of 
the world; both Mun and Tétdr appear as allies of the “ Rékshasa,” 


104 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. | J uLY, 


(now Rdkas) in their battles with the gods or demigods, about the In- 
dian Olympus, Kailas. The great Hungarian scholar, Csoma de Kérés, 
I have heard was endeavouring to trace the origin of his own nation, 
the European Huns, in this quarter. 

Our word Tibet (of which Thibet is a gratuitous corruption) was in- 
troduced to Europe I believe by Marco Polo, and to India probably by 
the Mahomedan invaders and rulers from the North; it appears more 
than once in the Geographical statements of Abul Fazl, Ayin Akbary ; 
and the word is probably of Turki origin, “ 7idd7¢,”” being the term 
now in use with the Usbeks of Yarkand for Pashm, the wool of the 
shawl goat. I am not aware of any authentic instance of the acknow- 
ledgment of the name Tibet by the natives of the country. Turner 
says distinctly that it is called by the inhabitants “ Pue,” or “ Pue- 
Koachini,” i. e. snowy region of the North. ‘The land of Tiburut,” 
in the letter of Soopoon Choomboo to Warren Hastings, dated 16th 
November 1781, (Turner, Appendix III.) is clearly the work of the 
Persian translator, whose style is conspicuous throughout that com- 
position ; and Turner’s allusion (in a note to his introduction) to ‘the 
pronunciation of this name in Bengal, as well as Tibet,” though seem- 
ing to imply the use of the word by the nations of the latter country, 
may with probability be ascribed to the same origin as Soopoon Choom- 
boo’s expression, as it may be observed that Turner frequently applies 
to persons and things of Tibet Hindustani names which must have 
been derived from his interpreters. Continued rain all day and night. 

20th September.—This morning looking a little clearer, or not quite 
so foul, I prepared to start, but by the time we were ready the rain had 
set in again as hard as before, and put a stopper on the intended move. 

Weather continued bad all day, but towards sunset, the dense enve- 
lope of cloud and mist began to break a little, disclosing glimpses of 
blue sky, also of a very dismal looking snowy ridge to the east, Nam- 
jung and Lingaru, inferior spurs of the great mountain Api, on the 
opposite side of the river. A fine starlight night succeeded, with un- 
clouded sky, inspiring hopes for the morrow. 

2ist September.—Fair weather at last, and we resume our journey. 
I did not find the passage of Nirpania-Dhira quite so troublesome as 
the accounts of my native guides had led me to anticipate, but a little 
experience of this part of the Himalaya soon accustoms one to very 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. 105 


queer places. The ascent is tolerably steep, the path mostly in steps, 
but in good order. The proper name of this ridge appears to be Gala, 
a base-spur from the snowy mountain, which the map (incorrectly I 
believe) calls Gula-Ghat; the eastern extremity of it where crossed by 
the road, is subdivided by two shallow ravines into three minor ridges, 
the first from Chaudans, called Yergnachim ; the second Birdong, 
thence is a good view into the valley of the Kali up to Budhi; and the 
Bird Tyungwe-Binaik, which is the boundary between Chaudans and 
hyans : these differ little in height, and may average 3000 feet perhaps 
above the village of Gala, i. e. 10,500 feet absolute elevation above sea 
level. The name Nirpania*-Dhira has been applied to this hill by the 
Khasias, because, in dry weather, no water is to be found on it, and the 
ascent is rather thirsty work. The ascent of Nirpania from the south 
merely leads to an equal descent on the north side, some 3000 feet 
down to Gol4m-La, this side of the Najangar; and the path here is, if 
any thing, steeper, in narrow steps all the way, looking rather precipit- 
ously into the bed of the Kali, which is many thousand feet below. The 
summit of the pass must be near a mile in prependicular height above 
the river. Half way down to Golam-La is a small resting-place for goats, 
&e., called Dandanhyar, a miserable little ledge on the hillside, in a 
jungle of wild hemp, dock, and nettles. The hill is too steep and 
rocky to be very well wooded, though it is not deficient in vegetation. 
I observed some indifferent specimens of Silver Fir, (Picea Pindrow ? 
or Webbiana ?),+ by the Bhoteas called Woman, with the exact pro- 
nunciation of that English word. 

Cypress (Cupressus torulosa), by the Khasias called Saro, by the 
Bhoteas Tangshin, a name which in other districts I understand they 
apply indiscriminately to any tree of the Fir or Pine species. 

Yew, (Taxus baccata,) Khas: Thunir, Bhot : Nharey. 

Birch, (Betula bhojpatra,) Bhot: Shak-shin. 

Rhododendron, (2. campanulatum.) Khas: Buronj or Burdns, Bhot : 
Tak-shin. 

Bamboo-cane, (Arundinaria falcata ? Khas: Ningdla, Bhot : Kwey. 


*« Nir,” without ; “ pani,” water. 

+ For the few Botanical names mentioned in my Journal, Iam indebted to Major 
Madden, of the Artillery, at Almora ; but mistakes in the application of them (if any) 
are entirely my own. 

P 


106 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [| J uLY, 


Sycamore, (deer Sterculiaceum,) Khas: Kamiah, Bhot: Kan-shin. 
From the knotty parts of this tree, they make the coarser sort of tea- 
cups used in Hundes and Bhot,* termed Lahauri Doba; the better 
sort, Talua Doda, are made from the Patgnalia, another of the maple 
tribe (Acer oblongum), which grows on the Southern hill ranges, such 
as the Gaégar,} &c., and is very abundant at Naini Tél. 

White Dog-rose, (Itosa sericea,) Khas: and Bhot: Sephala, the 
leaves of which are rather fragrant, like sweet Briar, the fruit a large 
round Hip, edible, (but not worth eating.) 

A ground-Raspberry (Rubus nutans) Bhot: Sinjang, and the fruit 
Sinjang Lo, orange-coloured, with a pleasant acid flavor; the plants 
I saw grew on the ground like strawberries. 

An Orchis (Satyrium Nepalense) Bhot; Phung, with small rose- 
coloured flowers rather fragrant ; the Bhotias sometimes eat the root, 


raw or cooked. 


On the descent of Nirpania, I saw some monkeys which the Khasia — 


Hindustanis of my party asserted to be the same as the Langir of the — 


plains. I venture to doubt this, as these animals, (Bhot: Kholi) ap- 
pear to have tufts at the end of their tails, and make a grunting noise, 
unlike what I remember of the Langir, though otherwise they are 
much the same. 


The march from Gala to Golam La, not more than 5 miles on the — 


map, took us near 6 hours, exclusive of stoppages for rest, &c. 
Golam L4, a mere encamping-ground, marked by a large (Gneiss) 


J 


rock standing out of the hillside, overhangs the confluence of the ~ 


Najan-gér with the Kali, which is from 1,500 to 2000 feet below; 


the declivity almost precipitous. The Najan-gar comes from a great 


showy mountain visible through the head of the glen; this is marked 
Gula-ghat on the map, but Sumhyaki, Sayanat of the Titil-sosa, calls it 
Yirgnajang, which has some affinity to the name of the river rising 
from its base. The Najan-gar is a most impetuous torrent, falling in 
cascades rather than rapids, over a very steep rocky bed, through a 
deep ravine flanked with precipitous mountains. 

Steep and lofty mountains rise immediately on the East side of the 


* Cis-alpine Himalaya, inhabited by Bhétias. 
+ The outer high range in Kum4on proper, overlooking the plains. 
¢ (Sage.) Head-man ofa hill village. 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 107 


Kali, reducing the valley to a mere gigantic ravine; which is the cha- 
racter of it, in fact all the way from Relagar. Opposite to the Najan- 
ear, an inferior spur with a little comparatively level ground on its 
top, affords a site to the village of Thin, now apparently deserted. 
Behind this rises the ridge of snow seen from Gala ; Namjung, on the 
left, close over the Kali, and Lingaru to the right, some 18,500 feet 
high. The great Peak of Api behind, though 22,799 feet in height, 
is quite concealed by the proximity of its lofty base. The Thampa- 
gar, immediately south of the hill of Thin, rises from a glacier under 
Lingaru, plainly distinguishable from Golam La, by its form, dirty color, 
and. situation below the lowest limit of the snow which lies on the ridge 
above.* These glaciers are well known to the Bhotias, under the 
term Gal, a non gal-endo, perhaps, as they never melt like the supe- 
rior snow. 

The Peaks of Byans-Rikhi I think, are visible up the valley of 
Byans : only partially snowed though near 20,000 feet in height, which 
is owing to the steepness of their rocky summits, I imagine. 

Clouds and a little rain in the evening ; Thermometer at sunset 60° ; 
night fine. 

22d September.—Morning fair, Thermometer at 73} a. m. 521°; 
hoiled to 198° ; elevation of Golam La 8000 feet. The village of Thin, 
on the other side of the river, is about the same height. 

Leaving Golam La, we descend a thousand feet or so, by a steep 
path, and cross the Najan-gar, by a small Sanga, a mile above its con- 
fluence with the Kali. The stream is unfordable at present, rather on 
account of its great fall and rapidity of current, than for the volume of 
water ; in the mile between the bridge and the confluence the fall must 
be 500 feet. The path continues, often in steps, and rather precipi- 
tously, round the shoulder of Pomayyar, a base-spur from Yirgna- 
jang, thence descends and crosses the Malpagar, a small fordable 
rapid, close to its confluence with the Kali. Just above this point, on 
the side of Pamayyar, is Jambe-Odyar, a large cave, said to be capa- 


* It is surprising that the existence of these Himalayan Glaciers, with which the snowy 
range here abounds in all directions, should be questioned or doubted even now, in the 
30th year of British possession of Kumaon ; it is equalled only by the perpetual snow line 
on the southern face of these mountains being fixed by Humboldt at 11,700 feet, an ele- 
vation at and above which we have luxuriant vegetation, and flourishing agricultural 
villages. 


BZ 


108 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &e. { JULY, 


ble of giving shelter to five hundred laden sheep and men in proportion ; 
being out of the way I did not see it. Another great ascent from 
Milpagar ; the path still precipitous and in steep steps, along the side 
of Chantirong: the summit, Umdognyir, a minor rocky projection 
not half way up the mountain side, reaches an elevation of 9,500 
feet perhaps, some half a mile vertically above the river. Thence a 
descent again, not over easy, to the bank of the Kali, a mile or two 
along which brings us to Lamére, a small level encamping-ground, 
close on the river side, with boulders of rock, (Ld ?) 

The Kali here may be 100 feet across and looks as though it would 
be fordable but for the violence of the current. 

A man from Kunti says that snow has fallen in his village lately, 
and that the Kunti passes have probably got more than enough of the 
same. 

This day’s march, about 5 miles by the map, occupied me 61 hours, 
besides half an hour for rest, &c. In the lower parts of the ground, 
neat the bed of the river, I found the sun very hot. 

Thermometer at sunset 613°, boiled at 198°, (same as Golém La) 
elevation 8000 feet ; evening cloudy with alittle rain. 

23d September.—Leave Limare, path easy, ascends a little, and con- 
tinues above the river bank under the side of Yirtashin; a mile on 
crosses a small g4r,* the Takti, and at two miles descends to the Palan- 
gr, a considerable rapid crossed by a Saénga near its confluence with 
the Kali. This gar comes through a deep ravine from Tokong, a 
snowy ridge, of which the opposite side gives rise to the gar of Shela in 
Darma, and there was once a pass this way, but dangerous, and disused 
since lives were lost there some years ago. This Tokong must be 
a secondary spur from Yirgnajang, the Gula Ghat of the map. 

The valley of the Kali now expands a little and gives site to the 
village of Budhi, (the first and lowest of By&ns, and the single village 
of Sub-Alpine Bydns, as it might be termed) on the right bank, above 
the confluence of the Palangar, Here I see a good-sized Walnut tree 
(Juglans regia) by the Bhotias called Kds-shin; a large Barberry, 
Khas: Chotra, Bhot: Ndchi-shin (Berberis aristata), fruit worth- 
less ; sweet red-flowered Buckwheat (Fagopyrum vulgare?) Khas: 
Ogal, Bhot, Palti, and the bitter white (or yellow) flowered sort 


* Mountain-stream. 


ge ee eee oe 


i” i nc celia Ba ch apt we RE 2 


Oe ee Ne ee nee oS 


ad ae 


—— 


1848.] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 109 


(F. esculentum’) Khas: Phdépar, Bhot: Bhey ; Turnips, Khas : 
Salgam, Bhot: Chankan ; Amaranth, red and white ; and Tobacco 
in flower. The above crops are well advanced but not quite ripe yet : 
the two last (Amaranth and Tobacco) do not grow above this. 

The people of Budhi are all Bhotias, but in site and climate the 
village belongs rather to the Sub-Alpine regions, like Chaudans, though 
it lies north of the great snowy mountain Api. Its elevation is 8750 
feet. 

Immediately above Budhi a steep hill ridge advances from the moun- 
tain side on our left (N. W.) and extends across the width of the valley, 
leaving but a narrow passage for the river, close under the mountains 
on the opposite bank. The ascent, though considerable (some 1750 
feet) is tolerably easy, by a fair smooth path, much better than any 
part of the road this side of the Dhauli, the lower boundary of Bhot, 
in this quarter. The summit, Cheto Binaik, at an elevation of about 
10,500 feet, is the entrance to upper Byans. 

On the ascent of the hill some alteration is apparent in the style of 
vegetation ; new species of Fir and Pine take the place of other trees, 
and the undergrowth of weeds, &c. diminishes. At the top the change 
of scenery and climate is complete, sudden and most agreeable, from the 
narrow dark ravine of the lower Kali, with its damp and stagnant 
atmosphere, to an open sunny Alpine valley, with a fair expanse of 
comparative level. The lower parts of the valley towards the river are 
occupied with villages and cultivation ; thence forests of Fir, Pine, and 
Birch, slope up to the base of the surrounding mountains, which rise 
on all sides in noble castellated walls of rock crowned with snow, and 
towering into the clouds; the extreme snowy summits are hidden by 
the prominence of their lofty outworks. If perfection of climate and 
scenery could compensate for inconvenient seclusion and uncivilized 
condition of its people, this place would afford a most delightful sum- 
mer residence ; the top of the hill, or the northren slope of it facing 
the Bhotia valley, would give many fine sites for a house or standing 
camp. 

A gradual descent leads over sloping upland clothed with fine close 
turf, on which Chanwrs* and Zhobus are grazing; then through clean 
open forest of silver Fir (Picea Pindrow or Webbiana, Bhot : Woman, 
and Pine (Pinus excelsa) Khas: Raisalla, Bhot :  Lam-shin.” 


* [Indian name for the Yak of Tibet. 


110 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [ JULY, 


Weeds and jungle give place to flowers and neat shrubs; a fine 
Larkspur; Juniper (Juniperus squamosa) Khas: Padbank, Bhot : 
Pémé (in Jwar they call this Bz) ; another sort of Juniper with sharp 
thorny leaves exuding rank turpentine, (J. religiosa) Bhot : Lhdld, a wil- 
low-leafed shrub, the branches covered with small round yellow berries, 
a strong (edible) acid, (Hippophaé salicifolia) Bhot: Tdrwa-chuk. 

The road passes through Garbia, the first village of Upper Byans ; 
the houses are mostly two-storied but ill-built affairs, and disfigured with 
a quantity of poles stuck about them (for ornament or superstition ) 
in all directions ; they are flat-roofed. The elevation of Garbia 1s, accord- 
ing to Webb, 10,272 feet. 

The fields here contain Barley (Hordeum cceleste) Khas: Ua-jo; 
Bhot: Chamd ; Wheat, Bhot: Ndphal; Turnips, and the two Buck- 
wheats, all ripe or ripening. 

A little beyond Garbia stands the remnant of what was once the vil- 
lage of Chindu, now one or two houses, and a few fields, standing on the 
top of a narrow shelf of ground which the encroachment of the river is 
fast driving to the wall of rock behind. The base of this valley (like 
that of upper Jwar) is formed by an accumulation of old alluvium and 
debris from the surrounding mountain-sides, in strata of considerable ag- 
gregate thickness and loose consistency ; through which the river appears 
to have cut its present channel, three or four hundred feet below the 
site of the villages, and to the great danger of those which are too near 
its bank. The Cheto hill above Budhi is in fact the abrupt termina- 
tion of this elevated bed of detritus, forming southward an acclivity of 
2000 feet or more (in vertical height) ; to the east and north-east, where 
the river breaks through, it appears in cliffs and landslips many hun- 
dred feet high. 

From Garbia the road decends to the bed of the river, and crosses 
by a substantial Sanga, a little above the confluence of the Tinkar, 
which is a large stream (not much inferior to the main body of the 
Kali) coming in two branches from the east and north-east. 

We encamped on level ground by the river side, a little above the 
bridge and under a steep bank, on the top of which is the village of 
Changrew. 

The Kali now turns abruptly to our left (N. W.), through a defile of 
steep rocky mountains, the natural grandeur of which is raised to sub- 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. ill 


limity by the veil of clouds that obscures the more distant and lofty 
parts, and so increases the apparent magnitude of the whole. 

Thermometer at 4 p. m. 60 , boiled at 1942°; elevation 10,000 feet. 
Changrew perhaps may be at the same height as the summit of Cheto 
Benaik, 10,500 feet. 

The Bhotias of Chaudans, who accompanied me thus far, here took 
their leave. I found them a civil and cheerfully working set of people, 
and had no trouble whatever from them. Sumhyaki is a stout, amiable 
and modest youth, deserving of more encouragement than the bottle of 
rum and handful of tea which I was able to give him. The men of 
upper Bydns were assembled to relieve the Chaudansis, and equally 
ready to give every assistance, with Zhobus, ponies, and porters for my 
baggage. 

Patwari Durga Datt having inducted the Buddhas and Saydnas, 
old and wise, into some idea of my designs on the lakes, they volun- 
teered assistance, but also their own plan of operations, which after much 
discussion, I was obliged to reject as incomplete and unsatisfactory, 
their idea being to smuggle me past Taklakhar to Manasarowar, and 
thence straight back again, which would involve much tisk of stoppage 
on the way out, before reaching the Lakes at all, and leave Rakas Tal, 
and its communication with the Sutlej (if any) unexplored. Not till 
late in the evening, I got hold of the right man, Rechung or Rechu, 
Padhan of Kunti, from whom I derived information which decided me 
in adhering to my original intention of going his way. According to 
Rechu, there are two Passes at the end of the Kunti valley ; Lank- 
pya Dhira, on the extreme North West, and Mankshang, a little 
lower down and more easterly; both of them affording direct commu- 
nication to the South and West shores of Rakas Tal, and round that 
lake, either way, to Manasarowar, without passing through such popu- 
lous places as Pruang. The Lankpya Pass, in Rechu’s opinion, is not 
stiffer than the “ Lipu Lekh” of eastern Byans ; though he can’t speak 
to the state of the snow upon it at present, as none of his people have 
crossed the pass since the bad weather, in which snow fell in the 
village of Kunti, and which proves to have been identical with the con- 
tinuous rain which detained us at Gala on the 18th, 19th and 20th 
instant. The Kuntiyals are the only people here who know any thing 
at all about the passes of western Byans ; all the other Bydansis are 


¥i2 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [JuLy, 


absolutely ignorant, even of the names of the Dhiras,* their traffic 
lying almost exclusively with Pruang vid the Lipu Pass, which is a 
more convenient route for all the lower villages. 

Thermometer at sunset 56° ; clouds and a little rain at night. 

24th September.—Thermometer at sunrise 47° (water the same 
temperature) ; weather fair. 

The Bhotias being rather dilatory in mustering one or two requisites 
that I want for the Passes and Hundés, I have to halt this day. 

In the morning I paid a visit to Changrew, up a steep hill, which 
forms a sort of elevated terrace at the foot of the great rocky moun- 
tain Kelirong, within the angle made by the confluence of the Tinkar 
with the Kali. The acclivity is clothed with Pine, Juniper, Dogrose, 
&c. &e. Changrew is much the same sort of village as Garbia; its 
elevation, according to yesterday’s estimate (500 feet above my camp 
on the river bank) 10,500 feet ; it is unfortunately situated on the top 
of very unsafe ground, which is gradually descending by a huge land- 
slip into the bed of the Tinkar, every year carrying away some yards 
of the village lands. The Tinkar below, is a good sized stream, at this 
time of year requirmg a sdnga for the passage of it. Six or seven 
miles up this river, and under Kelirong, is the village of Tinkar, 
and beyond that a pass of the same name (here at least, —the Dhitira 
probably has a proper name of its own), which communicates with 
Jidikhar, one of the villages (and as the ‘“ Khar’ imports, once a fort) 
of Pruang, on the Karnéli, a few miles below Taklakhar. A mile or 
so above its termination in the Kali the Tinkar receives a tributary of 
some size, the Nampa-gar, which comes from the East and South- 
Kast out of two glaciers, the Southern one visible from Changrew, at 
the base of the snowy mountains Nampa and Api. Changrew and Tin- 
kar belong geographically to Byans, and are inhabited by Bhotias, the 
same in every respect as the other Byansis, and sharing in the traffic 
with Pruang by the Lipu Pass. It was a mistake leaving this little 
_ valley to the Gorkhas, when the rest of the district was brought under 
British rule ; the true frontier line was the range of snowy mountains 
on the East, Tinkar, Nampa, and Api, on the other side of which lies 
the district of Marma, the northernmost division of Déti, and the inha- 
bitants of which, like those of Ding, next south, are Khasia and not 


* Dhira—a high mountain-pass. 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 113 


Bhétia. A case occurs on the opposite frontier of northern Garhwal, 
not unlike this of the Tinkar valley, but otherwise disposed of. ‘ Nag- 
poor occupies the Dooab between the Mundakhnee and Alaknunda, 
branches of the Ganges uniting at Roodur-Pryag. From Tirjoo-ke- 
Narain near Kedarnath, however, there stretches down from North to 
South a high range of mountains lying a few miles to the west of the 
Mundakhnee, and the intervening space is occupied by two or three 
Khalsa villages of Nagpoor, but chicfly by the Suda-burt puttees of 
Purkundee, Bamsoo and Mykhunda, rent-free endowments of the 
Kedarnath shrine. In former years of the British rule, there arose 
some doubt whether this tract of country, being west of the river, did 
not properly belong to the Raja of Gurhwil’s reserved territory, but as 
it was proved always to have formed a constituent part of Pergunnah 
Nagpoor, the claim of the Raja was disallowed.’’ (Batten’s Report on 
the Revenue settlement of Gurhwal, Appendix, para. II.) 

Jashpél Budha of Changrew appears to be one of the most decent 
and intelligent of the Byansis. He considers it the-misfortune of his 
village that it was excluded from the British territory, though their 
condition has been a good deal improved, he says, since they have been 
allowed to pay their revenue dues to the Gorkhali Vakil at the Bages- 
war Fair (an arrangement suggested by the late Commissioner Traill 
I believe), instead of suffering the visitations of a Tehsildér; but he 
complains that no abatement of the Government demands has been 
made for the loss of whole fields of their village by landslips. 

The district of Marma lies to the south (by east) of Byans, as Dung 
does from Chaudins. There was formerly a pass from the top of the 
Marma valley into the valley of the Tinkar by the Nampa Dhiura and 
Gar; but this has become impracticable, and the Marma people going 
to Pruang (with which they have some little traffic) have now to come 
round through Ding and Chaudans, for they are also snowed up on 
the north and north-east, having no practicable passes that way into 
Pruang. Marma has iron and productive copper mines: the people 
bring copper pots, &c. to Dharchula for barter with the Chaudansis 
and Byansis: they have a Rajbar; his son, Amar Sing, has come to 
Dharchula occasionally. 

Beyond Marma again, eastward and separated by snowy mountains 
(which are also impassable, I suppose, else the Marma people would go 

Q 


114 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [| Juny, 


that way, as being the more direct into Pruang) lies the district of 
Dhiuli, which is the Alpine part of Bazingia, having direct communica- 
tion and considerable traffic with Pruang via Jidi-khar. 

Dhili, is said to have but one single village of Bhotias, all the rest of 
the people being Khasia. 

Bazingia is ruled by a Raja, now Gajraj Sing, who married a daugh- 
ter of the Mah4r4j Raj Rajindra s(h)4h Bikram of Nipél. _ 

Beyond Bazingia, still further east, are Humla (north) and Jumla 
(south) through which flows the Karnali after leaving Pruang ; and in 
Jumla it receives another branch, the Beri (or Bheri) whence the united 
river goes by the name of Beri-karnali. 

Dense clouds and rain all this afternoon; the hut of bare mats which 
the Bhotias have made for me (very clumsily) is by no means comforta- 
ble in this weather. Rain continues all night. 

25th September.—Morning still cloudy, but rain stopped. We con- 
tinue our journey towards Kunti. The road turns off to our left (N. 
W.) following the course of the Kali, and passing over some very rough 
and steep ground, a ruinous bank of landslip formed by the channel 
which the river has excavated through the loose strata of the valley 
bottom. The mountains rise close on either side in fine precipitous 
walls of rock, the clay slate formation common to these Alpine regions, 
the stratification of which has been violently disturbed, contorted, and 
broken into thousands of castellated crags, the variety of the colors, 
many shades of red, grey and purple, adding to the picturesque effect. 
The mountain to our right is Kelirong ; in the map its upper part is 
called Byéns Rikhi, and the lower part Kourtekh. Byans Rikhi is the 
proper name, not of the mountain, but of the gentleman supposed to dwell 
on the top of it, who appears to be identical with the great Rishi or sage 
Vy4sa or Vyds-deva, reputed author of the Mahabharat, and sundry 
Purans, &c., and Bydns seems to be nothing else than the modern 
form of the old Sanskrit name Vydsa. 

Hirkun (or Hurkun) Budha of Garbia, Tokdér of Byd4ns, who 
accompanies me as Cicerone, &c. asserts that some of the Bhdtias have 
climbed up this mountain for three days and not got to the top (the 
elevation of which is near 20,000 feet.) 

Hereabouts are Jakti on the N. East, and Siti on the S. West 
bank of the river, hamlets cultivated by the Garbidls; they have suf. 
fered much from landslip, and are not permanently inhabited. 


— :1848.] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 115 


Crossing a small Garh, Hangchu, which rises from the base 
of Kelirong, we pass throngh Tala-Kawa, a hamlet of one or two 
houses, the land cultivated by the Gunjials, for which they pay 
rakam* to the Gurkhali government, It is a very picturesque place, 
with a pretty expanse of open fields bordered by copices of Pine, but the 
corn, now under the sickle, is very poor looking stuff. Here the goose- 
berry makes its appearance, by the Bydnsi Bhdtias called Guldum, 
which is also the Hunia name for the Bisehir grapes (and the 
Apricot too); the Jwari name for the gooseberry is Sirgochi: also 
the wild Apple Tree (Pyrus baccata) bearing a very small red crab, 
no bigger than a wild cherry. Both of these fruits are quite worthless. 
The hamlet of Tala-Kawa, is a mile or two higher up, round the 
corner, on the road to Lipu-Lekh, which here turns off to the right. 
Hereabouts we met a nondescript sort of person, late from Pruang, 
a native of Lamjung, in western Nipal on the river Gandaki, called 
also the Kali and the Saligrami. Below Lamjung is Betia, above it is 
Shama, an Alpine district inhabited by Buddhist Bhotias, and communi- 
eating by snowy Passes with Hvndés, which is there, as here, level 
table-land. This gentleman was not wanting in assurance, but could 
give no very clear account of himself, or of the countries through which 
he had travelled. He called himself a pilgrim, but looked more like 
a “Chevalier d’ industrie.”” With difficulty I extracted a few particles 
of information from him; he says that the two principal communica- 
tions between Nipal and Hundés are by Kairong in the western, and 
Nyanam in the eastern quarter, the former of which (also written Kee- 
roo) is known to Indian Geography and is about north of Khatmandu ; 
and the latter should be either another name of Kuti, which is the 
Lhassam frontier village on the road from Khatmandu to Digarcha, &c. 
or else some place close beyond, that though I cannot find such a name 
in any other authorties. From the “ Geographical Notice of Tibet” (J. 
A. 8. No. 4, 1832) by Csoma de KGrds, I afterwards found that Mydn- 
am is the name of the district. These are frontier posts, commanding 
the Passes of Nipal, each in charge of two Zungpun appointed from 
Lhassa, and acting jointly like the Grapan of Gnari. Deba Phundu, 
the late Zungpun of Pruang, is now gone to Kirong in the joint office, 
Kirong must be lower than Pruang, as it has trees and other signs of a 


* Revenue. 


116 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [JuLy, 


more temperate climate. Kham is a country of great extent, north and 
east of Lhassa ; the present Zungpun of Pruang is a Khampa (a man of 
Kham) from some place 20 days north of the capital, south of Digar- 
cha, and Lhassa is the country of Lho, the people (Lhopa or Lhoba) 
Buddhist Bhétias, of Tibetan character, ruled by their own Lamas. This 
is the country, which, after the Hindus, we call Bootan, Bhutan, the 
country of the Daeb or Deb Raja, or the Deba Dharmma, the same 
visited and described by Turner, who unaccountably omits to give the 
proper name of it. ‘ Lulumba,” as Kishen Kant Bhose has it, 
_ Asiatic Researches, 1825, Vol. 15, Art. ITI, is merely ‘ Lho-lungba,”’ 
i. e. the country of Lho, and the “ Lobath” mentioned in Soopoon 
Choomboo’s letter to Warren Hastings, 16th November 1781. Tur- 
ner, Appendix III. is probably a corruption of the same by the Persian 
translator. The ‘‘ Kumbauk’’ there mentioned along with ‘‘ Lobah,” 
and alluded to by the same name, in other parts of Turner’s account, 
is also, im my opinion, a similar confusion of the country, ‘ Kam,” 
with its inhabitants, ‘‘ Kham-pa (the latter corrupted to ‘“‘ Kumbak.) 

By the valley of the Karnali, there are no great snowy ridges to be 
crossed between Humla and Pruang ; so that the route is much easier 
and practicable, longer than the other in the range of the Nepalese and 
British Himélaya ; nevertheless, in the height of winter the Humla 
Pass gets snowed up and becomes difficult or dangerous. 

Descending from Tala-Kawa, the Kunti road crosses the Kali, the 
smaller branch of the river from the N. East, by a small Sanga 150 
yards above its confluence with the Kunti-Yankti, which is the larger 
branch from the north-west. The Kali at this poimt has a bed 150 
yards wide, but contracting into much narrower limits a mile further 
up, and the stream is now all but fordable, though in the height of the 
rains it swells so much as to carry away the bridge here, and the road 
then has to cross higher up. The Kunti-Yankti is a third larger than 
the Kali, both in size of channel and volume of water, and nearly four 
times the length from source to confluence; notwithstanding which 
the eastern and smaller branch has given its name to the united river. 
The name of the Kali is said to be derived from the Kalapani springs, 
erroneously reputed the source of the river, but in fact unimpor- 
tant tributaries merely; and both are so called from the dark color 
of the water ; but even in this respect the Kali is exceeded by the Kun- 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, fe. 117 


ti-Yankti; such are the foolish contradictions of Hindu Geography. 
This eastern Kali, however, is now the actual boundary between the 
British and Nepalese territories, and according to the Bhdtias of the 
place, has always been so ; therefore the map also, though theoretically 
right, is practically wrong in giving the name of Kali to the western 
 yiver, the Kunti-Yankti, and drawing the red boundary line along it. 

Having crossed the Kah, the road now enters on a fine expanded 
valley of considerable length. At this end the flat and habitable, if not 
culturable ground at the bottom must exceed half a mile in breadth ; 
it consists of the same accumulated alluvium and débris that I noticed . 
at the entrance of the valley between Budhi and Garbia, through 
which the river cuts a deep and modern-looking channel, leaving, 
mostly on the east bank, pretty extensive levels for villages and cul- 
tivation, but the fields do not appear thriving; the surface of the 
ground is very stony and the soil probably not so fertile as to com- 
pensate for the backwardness of climate and lazy slovenly tillage of the 
Bhotias. 

The first village here is Gungi; the houses, as usual here, ill-built, 
flat-roofed, two (and some three) storied. 

In the fields are Phaphar cut, and wheat ripe; wild plum trees, 
Bongbale, with fruit like that of the English sloe, and apple trees, 
covered with miserable little crabs. The north-east end of the village 
land has been devastated by a great landslip which came from the 
neighbouring mountain, Tipai, 3 years ago, covering the fields with a 
flood of stony débris. 

On the opposite side of the river is the village of Napalchu, situated 
on the Per-Yankti, a deep gar coming from Namjung (the 2nd of that 
name) a snowy mountain to the south-west. 

From Kelirong we hear the sound of an avalanche, Hiunra, which the 
Byansis call Riz. 

Two miles further on is Nabhi, a village like the others, with a good 
expanse of ripe wheat in the fields; and opposite to Nabhi, Ronkali, 
on the Dangnung-Yankti, which comes froma snowy ridge on the 
south-west, Ronkongper, through a deep ravine, dividing the mountain 
side. A pass across the Ronkongper, now dangerous and disused, 
once led into the Pelangar below Budhi; it was by this route that 
Byans was entered by Rudurpal, former Rajbar of Ascot, and by him 


118 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [ Jury, 


subdued and annexed to the Raj of Kumaon under the Gorkhas. The 
Dangnung is a good sized Yankti, with several Sangas thrown across it 
for the intercommunications of the village, which lies on both sides 
of the stream; and a bridge over the Kunti river connects Nabhi 
with Ronkali. An immense flood of débris brought down by the 
Dangnung, and by a huge landslip from Sildu, the mountain imme- 
diately north of it, has driven the Kunti river close under an ad- 
vancing spur of the opposite mountain, here a wall of bare rock, the 
passage round which is rather precipitous, but not particularly difficult 
or dangerous, the road being built up with some care. Indeed it has 
appeared to me all along that the Chaudans and Byans Bhotias have 
their roads and bridges in much better order than the Jwaris, and the 
natural difficulties of Upper Chaudans are perhaps greater than those 
of Jwar, always excepting the road from Milam to Ding, an impractica- 
ble landslip, than which nothing can be worse. 

Two miles more along the river bank lead to our encampment on 
Mangdang, a small level under the mountain Chachala, cultivated 
by the people of Rongkoli; opposite is Relakang, a similar hamlet of 
the Nadhiydl, at the foot of alow hill spur which advances into the 
valley from the monntain Shangdoli, well wooded with Pine and 
Birch. This hill and a huge rocky mountain Nahl, on the right hand, 
intercept further view up the Kunti valley north-west. 

This day was cloudy, but without rain. Thermometer at 43 Pp. M. 
56° ; boiled at 192°, elevation of Mangdang 11,750 feet. 

26th September.—Morning fair, ‘Thermometer at sunrise 47 . 

Down the valley is a very fine view of the great snowy mountain 
Api, and as we ascend towards Kunti, the Peak of Nampa is dis- 
closed adjoining Api on the north-east, the whole an immense mass of 
pure snow, without-flaw for a mile of vertical height, aud now beauti- 
fully illumined by the rising sun. I have not yet seen such a fine spe- 
cimen of perfect snow on the face of the Himalaya. Half a mile from 
Mangdang the road crosses the Nahl Yankti, a small stream from the 
mountain of that name ; on the opposite side of the river is Ganka, a 
stream rising in a glacier under a snowy mountain. The valley of the 
Kunti now contracts in width, the lower slopes of the mountains on 
both sides leaving little or no level ground at the bottom. The road 
goes along the east bank of the river, over steep and rough accumula- 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 119 


tions of débris from the hill side above ; the Kunti here is shallow, but 
rapid, and 50 or 60 feet wide; the water much discoloured, either in 
fact or in appearance, from the dark slate or limestone rocks over 
which it rushes. 

We cross the remains of an old snow bank in the bed of the river, the 
first met in this journey. 

The Pine trees are now getting scarce; Birch continues and other 
shrubs ; Red Currant (Ribes glaciale), Bhot: Méngle, fruits small and 
insipid ; Black Currant (R. acuminatum), Bhot: Dongole, fruit equally 
worthless, said to be very abundant under Api and Nampa ; Tarwa- 
Chuk (Hippophaé salicifolia) the berries of which are a palatable acid 
when quite ripe, otherwise disagreeably sour; Dog-rose, white and red 
(Rosa sericea and Webbiana), Sephala and Gor-Sephala ; the Vibur- 
num (V. cotinifolium), Khas: Géiyah, Bhot: Kotoble, with purple berry, 
which grows in the lower hills also at considerable elevation ; and 
Wormwood (Artemisia), Bhot: Pankima, scenting the air with its 
fragrance. 

Cross Nampa (the 2d) a small garh from glacier, and snowy moun- 
tain of the same name ; see marks of the Brown Bear, Barji. Further 
on cross two or three small streams coming from the mountain Shak- 
shiram, and on the opposite side of the river are two larger Garhs, 
Selasiti and Kharkulum,” from mountains of the same names. 

Here we are met by some of the men of Kunti come out for Istik- 
bal, Kiti joint-Pudhan, with Rechu (who has accompanied us from 
Chingrew), Tanjan, brother, and Tashigal, son of Rechu, the two last 
young men and boy, clean, well dressed and smart looking, with a 
pony gaily equipped in embroidered saddle cloth and bell-collar ; they 
are as decent looking as the best of Jwari Bhotias, and a marked excep- 
tion to all the rest of the Byansis that I have seen, who are shabby 
and dirty, “ usque ad nauseam ;” but they are merely got up for 
occasion I suppose, and will soon relapse into the general degradation 
of dirt. 

The valley now opens agaia ; the mountains on our right hand recede 
a little and then come round with a fine theatrical sweep to the north- 
ward, enclosing a good expanse of tolerably level ground around the 
village of Kunti. On the other side of the river, the Pechko comes 
through a deep ravine from a glacier, under Gytie Dhura, by which 


120 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, ¥c.  —— [J uy, 


there is a pass into Sela of Darma; this route is practicable and still 
in use; cross Hikong, a stream coming from a glacier under the snowy 
mountain Kariye, through a very deep channel in the low ground 
of the valley bottom, which, the same here as lower down, consists of 
deep accumulations of débris from the surrounding hill sides. : 

The Kunti crops, Ua-jo and Phapar, are just reaped: the barley was 
somewhat damaged by the snow which fell here for three days, the 
18th to 20th instant, and yet they say the injury has been less than 
what they usually experience from frost, which most years sets in, at 
this village, before the harvest is reaped. Pass through the village of 
Kunti, the houses ill built, in 2 or 3 wretched stories, resting against 
the slope of the hill side, and cross the Hidnre, which is a stream like 
the Hikong, coming from the mountain Ginye through a deep ravine 
in the lower ground ; it drives several watermills, Ghato, erected along 
the bank, the machinery consisting of a single horizontal wheel with ob- 
lique floats, or vanes, against which the stream is directed through a 
small wooden trough, and this construction is probably preferable to 
that of two movements, vertical and horizontal; the loss of power in 
the oblique action being no worse than the excessive friction in the 
others, and the single wheel more economical and lasting; the whole 
concern is contained in a mill house (Ghato-chim) some 6 feet cube. 

The proprietors of these mills take 2 seers of flour from each 20 
Nali (about 30 seers) of grain ground for their neighbours. 

Thermometer at 4 p. m. 57°; boiled at 190° ; elevation 13,000 feet, 
which probably exceeds that of any other village in the British Hima- 
laya. 

The appearance of Kunti agrees with my estimate of its elevation ; 
the mountain sides round about have a scanty covering of brown ill 
looking grass with a little Juniper and Dama, the height of a thou- 
sand feet or so, above which is bare rock and thin snow. On the other 
side of the river the mountains throw out some inferior spurs of hill, 
on which are scanty Birch trees, degenerating to mere shrubs, and the 
highest of them not.500 feet above the level of the village. 

Evening cloudy, with a little rain ; Thermometer at sunset 47° ; not 
particularly comfortable in my hut of bare mats. 


(To be continued.) 


Lona silo’ 


Cho Mietparn 


( Mamasarowar) 
15, 250 688 


arngamKhar 255007 
if voo? MoMONANGLI 


Virgie =  Wexihhe’) 


MAP 


faint Benes th to lustrate 


46692 Ja A 


ae tothe Lakes Rakas Tal and 
; d Manasarowar ov Tibet 


Reduced fromthe Origened of EMStrachy. 

4 Represents EncampingYLasture grounds, 

= Monastertes 
L? Strachey5 rote 


cere 


| 
| 
| 
| 
the Narnlive of a Journey 
| 
1 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, 


For Jury, 1848. 


At a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal held at the Town 
Hall on Wednesday evening, the 5th of July, 1848, J. W. Coxviue, 


Esq., President in the Chair, 
The accounts and vouchers for the preceding month were submitted. 
The proceedings of the last meeting were read. 
Dr. J. McClelland and Ineut. J. H. Maxwell having been duly 


proposed and seconded at the May meeting, were ballotted for and 
elected members. 

Mr. Edward Colebrooke, Pleader Sudder Dewanny Adawlut, was 
named for ballot at the August meeting, proposed by Mr. Colvin, 
seconded by the President. 

Read letters— 

From A. Allen, Esq. Officiating Secretary to the Government N. W. 
Provinces, dated Agra, 3lst May, forwarding copy of a Journal of the 
passage from the Dharee falls to the Herenphal (Nerbudda), by Capt. 
Fenwick, late of the Nizam’s service. 

From the same, dated 28th June, received the 5th July, forwarding 
an account of observations made by Lieut. R. Strachey, Engineers, on 
the motion of the glacier of the Pindur in Kumaon. 

From Capt. Thuillier, regarding the form of publication of the 
Meteorological Register kept in the Surveyor General’s Office, also for- 
warding the Register for June. 


From Mr. Hodgson, Darjeeling, enclosing copy of a letter to Capt 
Cunningham on Himalayan Geography. 


From the same, 2 memorandum on the Tibetan type of mankind. 


From Mr. Frith, identifying the insect, of which a drawing was lately 
received from Brigadier Stacy, as the larva of a species of Locusta, 
Gen. Acanthodes. 


From Capt, Hutton, notes on the nidification of Indian birds. 
R 


122 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [JuLy, 


From Capt. Kittoe, fowarding a Sanskrit inscription from Behar, 
with note by Mr. Laidlay. 

From Capt. A. Cunningham, the sequel of his essay on the route of 
the Chinese pilgrim Hwan Thsang through Affghanistan and India, 
during the first half of the 7th century. 


From Colonel Low, communicating four essays and papers :— 


1. An account of inscriptions from the Malayan peninsula. 

2. Translations from Bali works. 

3. Gleanings in Buddhism. 

4. General observations on the contending claims to antiquity of 
Brahmans and Buddhists, with copies of inscriptions, fac similes of 
coins, &c. 

From the Rev. Mr. Mason, on the Gum Kino of the Tenasserim 
Provinces. 

From the Librarian, Rajendralal Mittra, respecting Wilford’s An- 
cient Geography, with reference to Mr. Elliot’s late communication. 


From Mr. F. Gomes, reporter to the Hurkaru, asking whether Re- 
porters for the public press might be permitted to attend the Society’s 
meetings. . 

The question having been referred to the meeting was decided in the 
negative. 

A coin from Lieut. Thurburn, several from Colonel Low, copies of 
inscriptions from the Malayan provinces, two stones from Capt. Frazer 
of Engineers inscribed with the celebrated formula ‘‘ Om! mani padma, 
hom,” in Tibetan and Ranja characters, were exhibited on the table, 
for which the thanks of the Society were voted to the respective donors. 


The communication from the Council regarding Mr. Blyth having 
been renewed in the terms last proposed,— 


Mr. Blyth read a reply to the strictures of the Section of Natural 
History on his alleged neglect of his duties as Curator. 


The Secretary read a letter from Mr. Heatly stating that Mr. Blyth 
had been long exonerated from the charge of the fossils by the Coun- 
cil of the Society. 


The President then proceeded to take the sense of the meeting on 
the several propositions of the Council, the Ist, “ that the Report made 
by the Section of Natural History on Mr. Blyth’s reference be received, 
read and laid upon the table,” having been already carried into effect. 


2. Proposed by the Council, ‘that the Society must decline to for- 
ward or support the application of Mr. Blyth to the Court of Direc- 
tors for an increase of salary or a retiring pension.” 


Upon this.an amendment was proposed by Mr. Newmarch and 
seconded by Capt. Champneys—“ that the Society forward Mr. Blyth’s 
application to the Court of Directors with their recommendation in its 
support.” 


Le 


1848. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 123 


After much discussion the amendment having been put to open vote 
and there appeared 


PemePaMeNOIMENE, oo. sie ois oc x oo 0 sla lOO le a 8 
erentmteiy Curb) 0g NY Pee 1] 


The proposition of the Council was then put to open vote and there 
appeared 


Porpwoposinons .). Jf wl aoocuetse Lpyiles 12 
BEMIS, | Jha e's, ve, she jure « bs le MEE TFG 
The proposition was accordingly carried. | 
The 3rd proposition having been read, “that the Society cannot 
acquit the Curator of serious neglect of duty in permitting the collec- 
tions of shells, fossils and insects to fall into the state of dilapidation 
in which the same are now found to be,” — 


The general sense of the meeting was declared to be that the neglect 
of the fossils should not be included in the censure. 


This word having been withdrawn, the proposition was put to the 
vote and lost. . 


The 4th proposition having been read, “that the Section of Natural 
History be requested to adopt measures for the restoration and 
re-arrangement of these collections.’ 


Mr. Mitchell moved as an amendment, seconded by Capt. Champneys, 
“That a sub-committee, consisting of Messrs. Frith, McClelland, 


and Newmarch, be appointed to adopt measures to restore and re-arrange 
the collections.” 


Dr. McClelland having declined to act on this committee, the amend- 
ment was put to the vote and lost, and the original proposition carried. 


The 5th proposition for the printing and circulation to members of 
the documents submitted in this enquiry having been already acted 
upon, the 6th was read, 


“That the thanks of the Society be voted to the Section of Natural 
History for the service they have rendered to the Society by their 
investigation of reports upon the manner in which the duties of the 
Curator have been discharged.” 


This proposition having been put to the vote was carried by a majo- 
rity. 


The Librarian having submitted his monthly report the meeting 
adjourned, 


J. W. Cotvite, President. 
J. W. Larpuay, Secretary,. 


124 Proceedings of the Asiatic Socicty. 


LIBRARY. 
The following books have been received since the last meeting ;— 


Presented. 


The Silurian System, founded on Geological Researches in the counties 
of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Carmarthen, Brecon, Pembroke 
Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, and Stafford; with descriptions of the 
Coal-fields and overlying Formations.—By R. J. Murentson, 1 vol. 4to. and 
a map.—By J. W. Grant, Esq. 


The History of the Reformation of the Church of England, by Gilbert 
Burnet, D. D. 2 vols. Rl. 8vo.— By THE SAME. 


The Heimskringla; or, Chronicle of the Kings of Norway. Translated 
from the Icelandic of Snorro Sturleson, with a Prelimimary Dissertation, by 
Samuel Laing, 3 vols. 8vo.—By THE SAME. 


The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, No. 14.—By 
THE SOCIETY. 


Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, herausgegeben 
von dur Geschaftsfiihrern. Zweiter Band I. und II. luft.—By tHe Eprror. 


Zakarija Ben Muhammed Ben Mahmud el Camvini’s Kosmographie. Zweiter 
Theil, od ls}—lss, De Denkmiler der Lander. Aus den Handscriften des 
Hn. Dr. Lee und den Bibliotheken zu Berlin, Gotha und Leyden, herausgege- 
ben von Ferdinand Wiistenfeld. Gottengen 1847, 1 vol. 8vo—By THE 
EDITOR. 


The Caleutta Christian Observer for Aug. 1848.—By tue Eprrors. 
The Oriental Baptist, No. 20.—By tue Epiror. 
The Journal of the Indian Archipelago, Vol. II. No. VI.—By tux Eprror. 


Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor Geneval’s Office, Calcutta, 
for the month of June, 1848.—By THe Deputy Surveyor GENERAL. 


Tatwabodhini Patrika, No. 60.—By THE TATWABODHINI SOBHA. 
The Upadeshaka, No. 17.—By tHe Epiror. 


Exchanged. 


The Atheneum, No. 1072. 
Journal Asiatique, No. 52. 
The London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Philosophical Magazine, No. 216. 


Purchased. 
Calcutta Review, Nos. III. and IV. 
The North British Review, No. XVII. © 
The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Second Series, No. 5. 


Comptes Rendus Hebdomedaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences’ 
Nos, 14 to 17. 


iy 
‘ 
: 
an 
m 
bi 


Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of July, 1848. 


Lat. 22° 33 28.33’ N. Long. 88° 23’ 42.84” East. Mag. Variation 2° 28’ 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’. 


Dieta aie ntsanre Maximum Pressure observed at 9h. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. Observations made at 2h, 40m, p. m- fe ‘Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p. m. Observations made at sunsets | m and Mini-|= 2/Rain Gauges 
& Temperature. Wind. & ‘Temperature. Wind. 2 Temperature. Wind. & Temperatue. Wind, 2 ‘Temperature, Wind. 2 ‘Temperature. Wind. Elevations, 
2 7 | aa ® 2 2 = 1 
ma | EI : zs 2 Feet.| Feet.| |. 
2/2 $ 2 < Be EN lite FI s 8 ¢ a We Ws é Ss Oe. |. x $ to | 4 | |g 
al Ke Is a 5 ll ga a 3./& Pelt 3 a 3. | 2 ae a 3 |é {| & a 3/6 pallet a “3 
2/82] 8 A é avis 2 Z aie A Es| 3 3 3 Zz| 2 allies A) EEN ai) = 2 a/5 
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Slee e218 5 a) 22) 3 Ss gsi 2] 2] 3 es BS et || Glia SW EeeR Ie GH 3 || a eal s E Bret eal (ena 
s fgeliie |e is 3 Se CCR ES | fr Hy Bele] 2|e = 3 5 e@|2|2|eé ro ee el) & I 2 = 3 SCN AS. || as 3 ELIS Wen eles ll Saele: 
Ege 2 Se z = Ihe eae Be | teed cet || |e é Bel) ele = Beale ee ce |) 2 = alii ||eales & CARCI EES eat ta tEl ee 
a ja s/o |/5 <2 oho | ponies. a Ss s/o] 9 a <= a o|/o/o/48 < a in 6 < i oe ES} 3 a | 4) 4 j4| 2) 2A 
1 [9.520] 3.2 | aco | a4 |S. Girrotodminllt 92.2 | 91.0 | 85.0 |s, Ciro cumuli. 29,515) 95.0 | 93.4 | £5.5 4|Cloudy. 129.492 | 90.2 | 89.3 | 83.4 |s, Cloudy. 29.465 | 889 | 88.7 | 89.5 |S. Cloudy. 83.6 |S.E, Cloudy, 95, OL 
25| 493] a3.9 | 845 | a24 |S. W. |Cloudy. 83 | 86.8 | B26 |S. Cloudy. 578] 86.0 | 85.3 | 81.3 Ditto 1569) 86.7 | 86.3 | 798 |s,W, | Ditto 1542| 86.4 | 86.2] 794 |S. W. | Ditto Cirro cumuli, | 90. of |) ca 25 
3 | .614] 827 | 83.4 | B14 |S. (Ciro comuli« 92.0 | 91.3 | B47 JS. Cumuli.. 638) 95.8 | 94.9 | 85.3 ‘Cumuli. .597| 98.8 | 97.0 | 86,5 |S. Cirro curmuli. | .576| 98.5 | 96.0 | 85.0 |S. Cirro cumuli, Ditto 99.1 . An a 
4 | 645] 838 | S15 | 823 |S. Ditto 92.7 | 91.9 | 83.8 |S, (Citro cumuli, | 656 | 96.2 | 95.0 | 85.9 (Ciro cumuli, | .598| 98.4 | 96.5 | 845 |, Ditto 1571| 96.4 | 94.8 | 83.2 |S. Ditto Ciro. 98, ell 23 4 
5 659| 22.5 | 93.4 | 81.5 |S. Ditto 91.8 | 91.3 | 83.2 |S, (Cumuli. 692) 94.4 | 93.4 | 84.0 Cumuli. 619) 95.0 . S, W./Cumuli. 591| 94.0 | 92.3 | 83.0 |S. We |Cumuli. ‘Cumulo strati. ae 5 
6 | .663) 81.0 | 820 | 79.8 |S. Cirro cumuli. 91.8 | 90.8 | 83.5 Js. Ditto +670) 94.4 | 93.6 | 83.0 Ditto J S. Cumulo strati. | .584| 925 | 91.0 | 82.8 |S. \Cumulo strati. .|Cirro cumuli. 0.10 6 
7 | .671| 81.0 | 820 | 800 |S. Ditto 88.0 | 88.8 | 81.9 |S. Ditto 591| 91,7 | 90.8 | 82.3 Ditto Ditto 1630] 90.7 | 89.3 | 814 |S. Cloudy. Ditlo re 7 
8 i Ditto 89,2 | 88.9 | 81.6 |S. Ditto 683 | 92.3 | 91.8 Ditto Raining 637 | 83.5 | 83,5 | B1.3 |S. E. Ditto Dito LIT D|8 
98 Cloudy. 86.7 | 85,8 | 81,9 |S. Cloudy. .700| 82.0 | 80.4 Raining. B24 Cloudy. 626 | 83.3 | 82.8 | 78.5 |S. Ditto Cloudy. 
10 Ditto 86.5 | 85.0 | 85.5 |S. Nimbi. “707 | 83.9 | 83.4 Cloudy. 86.9 Cirro cumulie | .651| 85.6 | 85.2 | 80.8 |S. Ciro cumuli. a 
a \Cirro cumuli. 89.8 | 89,3 | 81.8 |S. Cumulo strati. | .699| 91.6 | 91.0 Cumulo strati. 91.2 Cumuli. 608) 89.4) 884 | 81,0 |S. Cloudy. .|Cirra strati. 
12 Ditto 89,8 | 89.0 | 62.2 |S \Cumuli, 653 | 92,2 | 91.2 Cumuli. 91.5 Ditto 572| 91.2 | 89.7 | 81.2 |S. W- |Cumulo strat. 83, Cloudy. 
13 - | Cloudy. 637) 887 | 88,1 | 81.6 |S.3.E. \Cloudy, =} G17) 920 | 90.7 Ditto 549] 98,0 | 92,2 Ditto 513| 92.7 | 91.3 | 92.5 |S. W. |Cumuli. 532| 87.5 8, Cumulo strati. el nen 13 
4 Cirro cumuli, | .610| 91.2 | 89.4 | 80,2 |S. (Cumul - | 570) 94.6 | 91.7 Ditto 484! 97.0 | 94.1 Cumulo strati. | 460) 94.5 | 92,3 | 81.4 |E. Cumulo strati. | 517) 83.7 78, loudy. 0.28 | 0.32 | [la 
15 Cumuli. 525| B84 | 87.2 | 80.8 |N.B.  |Cloudy. 502) 89,9 | 88.8 Ditto 427] 90.5 | 90.8 Ditto 418| 894 | 88,9 | 82.3 |N.E. |Cloudy & thun) 421) 83.4 8. Ditio 0.31 | 0.26 | \15 
16S Druzly. 444] 85,2 | 84.0 | 81.7 |S.S. W.) Ditto 426) 89.9 | 88,9 ‘Cumulo strat. | .383| 89,7 | 87.0 Cloudy. .367| 90.5 | 89.5 | 82.6 |S. Cumuli. 415| 83,7 | 84.2 | 81. Cloudy, 0.20 | 0,23 |O|16S 
a7 Raining. 478] 90.3 Cumuli. 462) 91.2 | 99.2 Cumuli, All) 88.9 | 88,5 Cumuli. .401| 88,8 | 87.8 | 81. Cloudy. Ditto 0.14 | 0.18 | 17 
18 Cumali. 1501 | 89.0 Ditto 4 89.3 Ditto +430 85.2 | 82.8 Raining. 399) 86.8 | 85.7 | Bl Ditto IScat'd clouds. 049 | 0.42 | 18 
19 Cloudy. A24| 87.8 Cloudy. 87.5 Cloudy. 350) 90,9 | 87,7 Cloudy. 333 | 90.6 | 88.6 | 8: Cumuli. ‘Cloudy, 0.05 | 0.07 19 
20 Cirro cumuli, | .373) 88.6 Ditto. 337) 90.4 | 87.8 .|Cumulo strati, | .285} 91.1 | 88,0 Ditto 270| 874) 85.8 | 8: ‘Cloudy. Nimbi, 0,29 | 0.32 | |20 
21 Cloudy. .377| 89.2 | 86.8 .{Cumuli, 1357] 86.7 | 84.5 Cloudy. 85,8 Ditto -312| 86.6 | 85.7 | 81. Ditto Cloudy. 0.10 | 012 | jt 
22 Ditto 1435 | 86.7 | 85.9 Cloudy. Aw) 86.3 | 829 Raining. 82.7 Dit 1362 | 84.3 | B40 | 81.0 |E. Cumulo strati. r Ditto 1.24 | 1.96 | _ [22 
2s Ditto +506 | 83.0 | 81.8 Raining. 485| 83.6 | 83.7 | 81.2 |S.E. _ |Cloudy. : 80.5 Rai nnd thun.| 1435) 80.9 | 80.9 | 78.7 \E. Very cloudy. r Raining. 1.90 | 2,00 | €|238 
cy Ditto 1591 | B84 | 86.0 Cumuli. 555) 91.6 | 89.8 | B14 JE, S, E, \Cumuli, ‘504 85.3 Ruining. -492| 89,2 | 89.4 | 80.0 |E. Raining: 3 Cloudy. oa | O42 | 24 
5 Cirro cumuli, | 583) 82.4 | 82.0 | 79, Cloudy, 81.8 |W.S.W.| Ditto A480, 90.1 | .. |W. Cloudy. 458| 85.0] 93.7 | .. |S. Cloudy & thun| 484] 83,0 | 82.3 Scat’d clouds, 0,16 | 0,20 | |25 
6 Ditto +566 | 90.0 | 883] .. ‘Cumuli. «. |N.E. |Cumuli. ABS 14 iN Cumuli. 447 | 87,0 | 83.3 | 80.) Raining. 2 86.2 | 86.3 Cumuli. 0.98 | 0.40 | 26 
a7 Ditto 532) 88.0 | 86.4 | 81.0 Ditto 82.4 |N.E, Ditto Add B42 Raining. 431) 85.8 | 84,9 | BLL Cumul 84,5 | 84.3 Cloudy. 2,00 | 2.20 | |27 
23 Cloudy. 1517| 83,9 | 82.8 | 80.7 Raining. 78.6 |S. W.  |Raining 64 78.5 | 17.0 \S.W. | Ditto 47) 77.5 | 79.0 | 77, Raining. 78.9 Raining. aerilte 
29 Drizzly. 497 | 80.1 | 80.5 | 784 Cloudy. 83.2 | 79.6 |S. W. |Cloudy, AM 84.4 | 80.7 |W. S.W,|Cloudy. .395| 85.4 | 85,0 | 80,3 |S. W. |Nimbi. 82,8 Cloudy, 5 
208 Cirro ei 1541) 840 | 83.2 | 79.5 Cumuli 86.0 | 80,0 |S. Cumuli. “a2 ga. | 81.2 |S. Gamal 424 | 89.4 | 87.8 | 81.3 |S. Light eumuli. 85.2 Cumull, 
3h Raining. +557 | 85,6 | 84.0 | B10 Cloudy. 86.8 | 82,0 |S. Cloudy. “507 83,0 | 80.3 |S. S. W.|Raining. .507| 84.0 | 93.0 | 80.3 |S. S W.|Raining. B16 Cloud 
Mean 0 | 86,7 | 81.8 29,551| 89,8 | 88.4 | 62,0 129,500) 89.2 | 87.9 | 81.6 29.481 | 88.2 | 87.1 | B14 
‘orrespon F 
29,555 794 80.2 783 29.591 86,8 85.8 B1.9 29.571 88,8 87,6 81.3 20,520 88.5 87,7 81.3 29,500 883 88.9 80.8 29,526 83.2 89.2 79.1 91.0! sae «6 Md 15.69 
The total quantity of rain for 1847 was, 72.36 Ii i i i i f 
i i jicussesisoxescnnsenea 2.36 Inches, ‘The height of the surface of the Mercury in the cistern of the standard Burometer in the Observatory attached tothe Surveyor General's Office above the 
re ay hate hpreed month of 1647 wi 15-03 Mean Level ofthe Sea, having been deduced (rom aseris of Tide Observations taken from a Itegister kept at Kyu! Dock Yard, the results recorded for general 
Lb) seneeneeers 1955 information : 


Lowest monthly average of Mean Tides in the month of February and March above the zero of Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yard, Calcutta, 8.38 Feet. 
Difference of level between the zero of Tide Gauge at Kyd’s Dock Yard, and the standard Barometer at the Observatory, « 26, 
Height of standard Barometer above the level of the Sea, ee rereeeeeee 


21 7 
H. S. THUILLIER, 
Officiating Deputy Surveyor General. 


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iii tt wit “i 


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bee aR wi at 
4 waite tah oa us 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


aot ATL. SOCLETY. 


rw 


AUGUST, 1848. 


DDL DDO nnn. 


Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan (Rdkas Tal), Cho Mapan 
_(Manasaréwar), and the valley of Pruang in Gnari, Hindés, in 
September and October 1846. By Henry Stracuey, Lieut. 66th 
Regt. Bengal N. 1. 


(Continued from page 120.) 


27th September.— Morning pretty fine but clouds still hanging about 
the mountain tops: Thermometer at 8 a. Mm. 38°; must have been 
freezing at night. This valley is so shut in by lofty mountains that 
the sun does not show his face for some two hours after the proper time 
of his rising, and apparent sunset is premature in the same degree, 
so that the day is much curtailed of its fair proportions, which the cli- 
mate of the place can ill afford. 

Here I make my last halt to-day in order to sort my baggage, get- 
ting rid of the greater part of it, and to muster my Bhotias with cattle 
and all other requisites for progress across the snow. I leave all my 
domestic servants, with the impedimenta; the Hindus, including two . 
Paharis, are already hors-de-combat, as much I believe from the after 
effects of the heat to which they were exposed in the lower part of the 
journey, as from the present cold, which is not very severe. My Mus- 
sulmen are still pretty lively, but they probably would become unser- 
viceable to me, if not to themselves at 14,000 feet, so they may keep the 
Hindus company. 

I consider it adviseable also to reduce the bulk of my KAfila as much 
as possible, the better to avoid notice, though my Bhétia companions 

No. XXI.—New Series. s 


128 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. [Aue. 


seem inclined to multiply themselves and their beasts for mutual pro- 
tection against the dangers of our expedition. Hirkun Budha considers 
that one of the greatest risks we have to encounter is the Khampa, 
who he says are little better than organised gangs of robbers infesting 
the vicinity of Darchin and plundering all parties they may meet not 
strong enough to protect themselves; they are in greater force than 
usual this season, attracted by the concourse of people and concomitant 
opportunities of plunder, attending the twelfth year religious fair at 
Gangri. This year the Byansi Bhotias thought it necessary for their 
own safety to enter Hindés in armed parties, to which precaution they 
ascribe their escape from a considerable ‘‘ luting’? and ‘‘mdring.” The 
Khampa are so called from their native country, “ Kham,” which is 
probably identical with the “ Kumbak” of Turner; and pending more 
certain information about them they may be set down as an extensive 
horde of what we call Tatars (vulgo Tartars) occupying a large tract of 
country on the north-east of Tibet between latitudes 30° and 40° and 
longitude 85° and 95°, and filling up the blank in our maps, between 
the Huns of south-western Tibet and the hordes of ‘* Kilmak,’’ ‘ Cal- 
mucs,”’ ‘*Eleuths’” or ‘‘ Tatars of Koko-Nor,” towards the frontier of 
China Proper. These people frequent the province of Gnari in con- 
siderable numbers under the color of trade and pilgrimage ; and they 
bear a general bad character, both Hunias and Bhétias regarding them 
with fear and distrust, particularly in unprotected situations where their 
thievish propensities are said to break into open robbery. On some 
occasions when unusually mild weather rendered the passes of the 
Himalaya practicable during the winter months, they are reported to 
have extended their depredations across the snow, and rifled the houses 
of the upper villages whilst the Bhdtias were absent in their winter 
quarters below. The Khampa however are not exclusively of this 
sort ; one of the tribe, by name Lochambel, who come from a distance 
of 1; month’s journey with salt, Borax and Pashm to Gartokh and 
Pruang, is a wealthy and respectable person, well known and esteemed 
by our Bhotias who have dealings with him. He once, at short no- 
tice, lent Chakwa Garpun 62 Nega of gold, some 20,000 Rs. worth. 
The country of Kham is said to be under the dominion of the Lhassa 
Pontificate, but the extent and nature of the authority exercised is very 
questionable. I doubt whether the Lhassan Court have any regular 


a 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. 129 


system of government established in Kham under their own officers, as 
they have in the province of Gnari. 

I must now introduce my assistant, Bhauna Watwal Khasiah, Brah- 
man, Kumaoni, of Jhirkuni, a village near Lohu-ghat. I believe he is 
the only native of British Kumaon or Garhwal not a Bhotia, that has 
any personal intercourse with Hundés. For many years past he has 
been engaged in a small trade chiefly with Pruang, either on his own 
account or as agent for some of the Almora merchants. ‘The com- 
mencement of his intercourse with Gnari was characteristic: making 
his first appearance at Daba (vid Jwar) he was forthwith arrested as a 
“Nia Admi,”’ and brought before the Zungpun for examination ; he 
pleaded that “in the days of Chand’ some of his ancestors had been 
in the habit of visiting the Jang-Tang* for purposes of trade, and he 
hoped for a renewal of the privilege to himself, on which the Deba 
directed the Clerks to make search in the archives of Daba, where 
sure enough, they found mention of one Bhauna Hatwal, an authorised 
trader from Kumaon some 100 years ago, and the present Bhauna was 
then admitted to free intercourse with all parts of Gnari. For the first 
year or two he went through Jwar to Dingpu, Daba, and the Gartokh 
Fair, but the avaricious interference of certain influential Jwari Bho- 
tias, jealous of the competition with their own trade, threw such impe- 
diments and annoyances in his way that he abondoned that route and 
took to a more limited traffic with Pruang, through Byans ; he met no 
opposition from the Bhotias of this district, who if less civilized than 
their brethren of Jwar, are less sophisticated, and as their own trade is 
chiefly confined to the barter of grain for salt and Borax, Bhauna’s 
dealings in Europe cloths, Pearls and Corals gave them no offence. 
In quest of Pearls and Coral and other merchandise for Hundés, Bhauna 
has been often to Jaipur and sometimes as far as Calcutta and Bombay, 
and he is probably the only man now living who has visited those 
places and Gartokh. He is proficient, colloquially, in the Gnari dialect 
of Tibetan and his ideas generally have been somewhat expanded by 
travel. He was introduced to me, unexpectedly only the day before I 
left Almora (31st October, ultimo) : but having heard previously of his 
qualifications, 1 engaged him to accompany me on this expedition; never 
having been to the lakes by the out-of-the-way route I am now taking, 
he is nothing of a guide, but promises to be useful as informant general- 


* j.e, Uplands of Tibet. 


130 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, se. [AuG. 


ly, and negociator in case of any untoward collision with the Hunias ; 
also as interpreter, for I can scarcely understand these Byansi Bhotias, 
who have a language of their own (a dialect of the general Bhotia lan- 
guage with little affinity to the Hindi,) and their Hindustani is hardly 
more intelligible; they have some imperfect acquaintance with the 
Khasia-Hindi of the lower hills, but speak it hike a foreign language. It 
is a curious circumstance that the Bhotias of Jwar do not speak the 
Bhétia language, but a dialect of Hindi like that prevailing in the lower 
hills ; all the respectable people among them communicate fluently in 
ordinary Hindustani, and a few are literati in a small way. 

The case of Bhauna is one instance to show that the Bhdétia mono- 
poly of the trade between Kumaon and Gnari is ascribable not solely 
to the jealousy of the Lhassan Government but something also to the 
avaricious spirit of the Jwari Bhotias, which seems to have its own way 
notwithstanding the British administration of the Province ; the difficul- 
ties of the Alpine route and snowy passes, the inhospitable climate of 
Hindés, together with the poverty of the markets, and actual insigni- 
ficance of the trade, and much of course to the moral hindrances. Any 
possible extension or participation of the trade, such as it is, by the 
Almora merchants should be sought, I think by the way of Bydns, 
where the Bhotias are more tractable to strangers and the snowy passes 
less formidable to lowlanders. 

As I have before mentioned, there is already some traffic of the 
Khasias from Ding of Doti, which passes through Byans without moles- 
tation. The Niti pass, next in facility to Lipu Lekh, should be similarly 
open to adventurers from lower Garhwal. But to tell the truth, there 
seems little scope for material improvement of the Hunia trade so long 
as the Province of Gnari labours under the political depressions and 
restrictions that emanate from Lhassan tyranny and Chinese influence, 
nor is that system likely to be changed at the mere request, or demand 
even of the British Government. The abolition of the Ladak monopo: 
ly of shawl wool, when effected, may perhaps add to the trade of Bisehir 
and our newly acquired Trans-Sutlej hill districts, but it can do little for 
Kumaon and British Garhwal under present circumstances. It is to be 
regretted that none of the Kashmiri refugees have settled in these 
provinces, where their manufactories could be carried on to great ad- 
vantage from the proximity of the raw material, and now particularly 
that the supply of it promises to be unrestricted. 


ee ee ee 


gp 7 fel eee = 


= 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 131 


A Kashmiri colony and shawl factory in some part of Kuméon or 
Garhwil, is still a feasible and promising project ; but it would require 
encouragement and good management at the outset ; such I believe, 
were bestowed by the local authorities at Ludhiana when the immigra- 
tion of the Kashmiris naturally passed that way. 

Maximum Thermometer in the sun this afternoon, 62° ; evening 
cloudy, Thermometer at 9 p. m. 42°. 

28th September.—Thermometer at sunrise 34° ; morning fine. After 
some delay, on the part of myself as well as the Bhotias, with packing 
and loading baggage, &c., we start soon after noon; the party consist- 
ing of myself, Bhauna, Anand, a young relation whom Bhauna has 
thought proper to bring with him, to assist in cooking dinner, etc : 
though as this is Anand’s first visit to Hundes, or southern Bhote even, 
he is likely to be of small use in manual service: Rechu (Pudhan of 
Kunti) and five other Bhotias, two of whom are supernumeraries 
intended to return to Kunti when the rest of the party get well over 
the pass. I begin to have misgivings about Rechu, who J fear is no 
better than a demi-savage, and I rather regret that I have not taken 
Hirkun, the Thokdar, in his stead, as in fact Bhauna from the first ad- 
vised, but in such a sneaking suspicious way that I rejected his sugges- 
tion in disgust. The other Bhétias are, if any thing more uncivilized 
than Rechu. When first asked who were to accompany me, I said that 
I left Rechu to bring whom he chose from his own village, (as I 
thought the most simple and convenient plan) but the men of Kunti 
raised objections, and after much discussion, it was settled coram 
Patwari and Thokdar, that the service should be equally distributed 
(like the supply of baggage cattle, provisions, &c.) each village furnish- 
ing one man, and then the separate villagers began to assert their inde- 
pendence of one another, and of Rechu, who was mere Pudhdan of 
Kunti they said, and of no authority out of his own village. They will 
cool down a bit I hope, when I get them well into the snow. Not- 
withstanding these bétises and their general rudeness I have had reason 
as yet to be well satisfied with the readiness which the Bydnsis have 
shown in meeting all my requisitions, whatever part of that alacrity 
may have arisen from their inability to distinguish between the Go- 
vernment official and the mere private adventurer. 

Our baggage goes upon six Zhobus, four of which are however 


132 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Ave 


Chanwr (the Yak) which latter appear to be more numerous in Byans 
than the mule breed ; and two more of these cattle go as far as the pass 
to take fuel and assist in relieving the loads of the others in ease of dif- 
ficulties in the snow. We have also a couple of saddle ponies, whieh 
may be of use beyond the pass; these are indifferent, long-legged ani- 
mals, bred in Pruang, whence the Byansis get the few horses that they 
have. The only things in the shape of tents that I have been able to 
get from the Byansis are half a dozen ‘“ Chera,” which are blankets, 
perhaps four yards by two, furnished with loops at the corners and 
sides by means of which with two sticks and a few pegs of Birch tree a 
quasi tent is rigged out in a few minutes to any required size and shape, 
and if necessary the several Cheras are tacked together with the large 
needles and woollen yarn which every Bhotia carries with him. We 
have taken provisions enough to subsist us all for near a fortnight, so 
that we may be independent of intercourse with Hunia villages and 
Ding, in which lie risks of an untimely end to our travels. 

To obviate the questionable appearance of English bottles, as well as 
their fragility, I have filled a lot of Port wine into a pair of the Bhé- 
tia wooden surais, and some rum, &c. into another pair. The spirits 
should do well enough in this style of decanting, but it is a very doubt- 
ful experiment with the Port already deteriorated to the usual Indian 
quality. 

I have of course adopted the Hindustani “ Dhad” of costume, just 
enough to pass muster in the distance, and nothing more, as I have 
not attempted to disguise the Feringi complexion of my face and hair, 
and my clothes are so much cleaner than the cleanest of my compa- 
nions that the contrast entails some risk of attracting notice and mark- 


> 


ing me for a ‘‘ Nya admi,” in a country whose native inhabitants vie 
with their authorized visitors from our side of the snow in the personi- 
fication of filth. I perceive now that I should have had my clothes 
dyed of a dirt colour as the only possible way of getting up a passable 
resemblance to the Byansi Bhotias, or even to my Kumaonis, who are 
also villainously dirty. In Jwar I found some of the head people 
tolerably clean and decent. 

For food, &c. having laid in a good stock of materials, I depend for 
cookery on Bhauna, Anand and the Bhotias. 


All my Hindustani servants, with the bulk of my baggage, &c. re- 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, %e. 133 


main at Kunti, till they get notice of our having crossed the pass, 
when they go down to Garbia or Budhi, and there wait my return to 
lower Byéns by Lipu-Lekh. 

I have instructed the Patw4ri to apprehend nothing particular for a 
fornight or so; if our absence exceed that time to send out scouts in 
the direction of Taklakhar, and in event of our being imprisoned or 
otherwise coerced or maltreated by the Hunias to do what he can for 
our rescue and report the state of affairs to Batten. Thokdar Hirkun, 
the best of the Bydéns Bhotias, takes his leave, with repeated warning 
to me against the ‘‘ Khampa,”’ whom he seems to think worse enemies 
to progress than the Pruang Zungpun and his satellites. 

Leaving Kunti at length we descend and cross the river (though 
here easily fordable I should think) by a small Sanga, and a mile or two 
on cross a small rivulet, Mangdang ; the valley now narrows to a mere 
open glen, the river and the road one or two hundred feet above it, 
gradually rising, and the mountains on both sides decreasing in rela- 
tive (if not absolute) height. A considerable stream, the Toshi-Yankti, 
nearly as large as the western branch of the Kunti River, comes through 
a large ravine, entering the main valley from the northward. The top of 
the opposite ridge of no great height apparently, and only just tipped 
with snow, is said to look into the table-land of Hundes (the western 
branch of the valley of Pruang) but there is no pass this way, the 
mountain being steep and rocky ; and yet some one must have been to 
the top to have seen the said view into Hundes. The Surveyor’s Map 
ealls this stream Kembelchoo. The road continues over a tolerably 
level shelf in the hill side, affording a pretty smooth and easy path a 
few hundred feet above the river. The only vegetation here is grass 
and a few herbs reaching one or two hundred feet above us, and on the 
northern exposure of the hills to our left the snow has descended nearly 
to the limit of vegetation. Having started so late in the day we make 
but a short march to Sangchingma, a mere encamping ground near 
a small stream on the shelf in the mountain side; the river is one or 
two hundred feet below us and not visible from this owing to the depth 
and narrowness of its channel. 

Thermometer at 5 p.m. 41°; boiled at 188°; elevation of Sang- 
chingma 14,000 feet. 

Evening cloudy, with slight symptoms of rain or snow. 


134 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, ce. | AuG. 


My share of our camp equippage turns out to be two “ Chera,”’ one 
stretched tent-wise over a rope between two sticks, and the other 
closing one of the gable ends; which covers altogether an available 
area for lying and squatting of six feet square or thereabouts. 

Night cloudy and cold. Thermometer at 10 Pp. m. 34°. 

29th Sentember.—Morning clear ; at sunrise Thermometer 31°. Ice 
on the still parts of the neighbouring stream and in lotas of water left 
outside at night. 

Leaving Sangchtingma, we continue our journey by a very easy ascent 
over the same sort of undulating berm on the hill side that prevailed 
in yesterday’s march. The ground is covered scantily with grass and 
a few herbs, among which is Poh (Rhododendron anthopogon) now in 

seed ; I saw it in flower in Jwar last June, the whole plant is very 
fragrant, and exported to Hundes for the benefit of the Lamas, who 
use it for incense. 

Monks-hood, or Wolf’s-bane, Atis, (Aconitum heterophyllum) the 
root of which is exported to the plains of India as a medicinal drug. 

A. few scraps of Juniper, and Potentillas not in flower. 

Cross a rivulet, Nikirch, and further on we come to the new snow 
which fell on the 18th, 19th and 20th of this month (when we were 
imprisoned by the rain at Gala in Chaudans) and still lies on the nor- 
thern slopes and other sheltered spots of the ground over which our 
road passes. Cross the Jhtling-Yankti, up which is the Pass into 
Darma over Lebun-Dhira, and we here meet two Sipals* of Darma, who 
have just come this way, with infinite trouble they say, 3 cos in 6 days, 
through deep snow, which however I do not believe any more than the 
height of the pass marked on the map 18,942 feet. This Jhuling is 
the usual halting-place half way between Kunti and the foot of 
Lankpya. Cross another stream coming through Byank-shiti, a small 
pool which must be a permanency (though it would hardly be expected 
from the loose moraine-like appearance of the ground) as there are tra- 
ditions that some Raja of Byans in days of yore indulged his fancy by 
calling the puddle Mantalaw, and one of the neighbouring snowy peaks 
(of no remarkable figure) Kailas, after the great originals of those 
names in Hindés. 

The snow now increases aud our path lies over it constantly. 


* Men of Sibu, in Darma. 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 135 


Cross the Raérub-Yankti, which consists of one or two rivulets 
flowing through a remarkably wide and level bed, that looks much like 
an extinct Taléo, with a single small exit into the Kunti river. 

Beyond this, the snow entirely covers the ground, wherever that is 
level enough to retain it ; it is tolerably deep in the hollows, and on the 
northern slopes, but well frozen and hard enough to afford fair footing 
to man and beast ; the ascent too is very gradual, over easy undulating 
eround; so that we have got on without much trouble; but I have 
suffered something from the excessive glare, my hands and neck being 
already severely scorched. I found a pair of the Bhotia hair shades 
sufficient protection for my eyes, though not equal to the wire-gauze of 
English make. 

After a march of 7 hours, and which strange to say, measures only 
8 miles on the map, we encamp at Phiamangbu, (a mere name) the 
**Dakhna’ (as the Bhotias call the hill-foot) of the two passes. To 
the northward, in front of usis Lankpya, which we cross to-morrow 
weather permitting, and to our right, Mankshang, the direction of 
which is almost eastward from this, and it is said to be rather more 
difficult than the other ; neither of them look very steep or lofty. The 
Kunti river here consists of a small divided stream winding through a 
wide and level bed, now so full of snow that we had some difficulty in 
finding a few feet of bare stones for our encampment. 

Afternoon and evening cloudy with slight indications of snow, or 
particles of frozen mist not enough to whiten the ground, which Bhauna 
says are signs of safe weather, precluding the likelihood of actual snow- 
fall. 

Thermometer at 5 pv. m. 33°; boiled at 185°; elevation 15,750 feet. 

The rarefaction of the air is very sensible here ; what I feel is a mere 
shortness of breath in any bodily exertion whatever ; and in drinking, 
and even in talking, the same symptom is very decided. 

30th September.—I found it rather cold last night, and the thermo- 
meter at sunrise this morning 18° ; a temperature at which it is not 
easy or agreeable turning out of bed. We start accordingly at 94 a. M, 
rather later than is proper with a snowy pass in front. 

Crossing the Kunti Yankti, which rises not far off to the westward 
in deep beds of snow, the stream here shallow and half frozen, we 
ascend the mountain side to the northward ; the valley here comes to 

i 


136 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Avue. 


an end, and no further progress could be made but by scaling the hills 
in one direction or other; the head of the river appears quite im- 
practicable from depth and steepness of snow. Our road lies over 
a moderate acclivity, but completely covered with snow, which goes on 
increasing to an unpleasant depth; the pure unsullied surface without 
the vestige of a track upon it, indicates a recent and heavy fall, since 
which the pass has not been crossed. The glare is intense: the surface 
of the snow is frozen and hard enough to afford tolerable footing to a 
man on his own feet, but the cattle sink deep at every step ; when only 
knee-deep they get on, though slowly, but where the snow meets their 
chests it is with the utmost difficulty that they can gain a step; being 
also exhausted by the rarity of the air which here affects both man and 
beast. I found it useless to attempt riding through this snow, for the 
sudden sinking, plunging, and floundering of the horses was such as 
to knock the breath out of me at every step. The Zhobus would have 
been better for riding here, but it was necessary to have our two spare 
cattle unladen in the front, soas to tread down a passage through the 
snow by which the rest followed with the baggage. At 1 p.m. the cattle 
eame to a stand-still, yet a long way below the top of the pass, and the 
Bhétias seemed inclined to follow the example of the beasts, and began 
to talk of the impossibility of getting further, but as the difficulty did 
not appear to me to be insurmountable, with the two Kumaonis I went 
on ahead to a small heap of stones or projecting rock free from snow, 
where we sat down, determined, or pretending a determination, to pass 
the night there rather than go back, and in hopes of so shaming or 
alarming the Bhotias into better exertion to join, I began to read a 
newspaper (which I had got at Kunti), but soon found it intolerably 
cool work in such a situation.* In the course of an hour and a half 


* On the ascent of this pass I observed that where holes were sunk in the snow by the 
foot of man or beast, or by a walking-staff or otherwise, the snow inside assumed a very 
fine deep colour between azure and sea-green (like Turquoise colour), and I remember 
to have seen the same appearance in the deep fissures at the top of the Gori Glacier 
(above Milam in Jwar), near its origin at the head of the valley, many miles up where 
the substance of the Glacier seemed to be half ice half snow ; this must be the inherent 
colour of the pure rain or snow water, I imagine, (as azure blue is supposed to be of the 
air) for I saw it when the sky was dull and dark with clouds and incapable of reflecting 
any such colour, nor did I ever notice it in the old and dirty snow on the Jwar passes in 
the end of June. 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. 137 


the Bhotias managed some how or other to get the cattle through the 
deep snow which had promised to stop them altogether ; they came up 
to us at 21 p.m. and we proceeded again towards the top. This stage 
of the ascent fortunately proved easier than the preceding, or we should 
never have got over it in the day. Though the acclivity was steeper 
(and for that reason, I suppose) the snow decreased, and occasionally 
patches of bare rock afforded much relief, which was the more needed 
as the rarefaction of the air became more decided ; the Zhobus, Bhotias, 
and Bhauna were not much exhausted, but Anand, the young Kumioni, 
a novice at this work, was quite ill. I felt passing heavy in the head, 
as though a mun weight were huug over my neck, and the ponies were 
grunting and groaning in sore distress; I again attempted to relieve 
myself by riding, but one of the beasts staggered back under my 
weight absolutely unable to carry me one step upwards, and I found 
the struggles of the other more intolerable than my own exertions, so 
I was fain to dismount again and get on the best way I could on my 
own legs. We reached the top of the pass, at length, by 4} Pp. M. 
Two thousand feet is I think sufficient allowance for the vertical 
ascent from our last encampment, Phiamangbu, at the bottom of the 
pass, and the horizontal distance is only 4 miles, which has taken 
us seven hours, however, the time and trouble being doubled I suppose, 
by the depth of new snow; absolute elevation of Lankpya Dhura, 
according to this estimate, 17,750 feet, and it seemed to me something 
inferior to Unta Dhira and Jainti of the Jwar pass, in the ascent of 
which, last June, I felt still more exhaustion from want of air, and 
when those ghauts had not half so much snow on them as now covered 
Lankpya. The afternoon had brought with it the usual clouds which 
obscured the prospect from the top of the pass, if ever there is any ; 
beyond a dull monotonous chaos of snow on all sides, I could see no-— 
thing worth notice in any direction. The imagination of the novice in 
these scenes usually anticipates wonderful prospects from the lofty 
summits ofthe Himalayan passes, the natural and political barrier-wall 
dividing two great kingdoms, from which the eye hopes to range one 
way over terraces of mountains descending to the plains of India, the 
other over vast expanses of Tartarian table-lands. Such views are 
hardly to be realized from the passable gorges of the Himalayan crest 
whence the prospect is intercepted by obtruding shoulders of higher 
TZ 


138 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [| Aue. 


mountains. What nature can afford of panoramic sublimity, the travel- 
ler may see from the heights above Sakh on the road from Laptel to 
Dungpu, and the most exacting imagination might hardly be disap- 
pointed with that glorious view ; some part of that is to be seen from 
the Niti Pass, the only one I believe that admits of any tolerable pros- 
pect into Hiindés; from the top of the Lakhur over Chirchun, I had 
some faint and narrow glimpse of the distant Gangri mountains. 

The possibility of a fall of snow, which might prove dangerous to us 
in this situation at this late hour of the day, hurried our movements 
down the north side of the pass. We descended forthwith, after 
hastily dismissing one of the Bhdtias, with the two spare Zhobus, who 
returned toward Kunti with a message of our having crossed the pass 
in safety thus far. 

The first few hundred feet of the descent was extremely steep, the 
slope and quantity of snow very suitable for glissading, but I was not 
in the humour for trying it that way. At the foot of this declivity was 
a shelf of comparative level, beyond which I was unable to see any 
thing clearly for the fall of the ground and the obscurity of the wea- 
ther, and I erroneously imagined that our labours would soon be termi- 
nated by reaching terra-firma. The descent began again in a succes- 
sion of steep slopes on which the snow lay deeper than ever, and in 

‘many places it was of very unpleasant consistency, being superficially 
hardened by frost at top, and soft below, so that it afforded firm foot- 
ing for an instant, and then suddenly gave away plunging us knee-deep ~ 
at every other step. I much admired the style in which the laden 
Chanwrs came down the snowy declivity ; they looked like ships driv- 
jng before a gale in a heavy sea, the snow flying in spray before them, as 
they tumbled through it breast-deep ; what a pleasant contrast to the 
slow toilsome efforts with which they ascended the other side. Half 
way down we crossed great mounds of broken rock that looked very 
much like the moraine of a glacier, and the Bhdotias called it Gal, 
though I could not make it out clearly for the quantity of snow with 
which it was covered in most places. I was now much exhausted with 
the fatigue of eight hours wading through snow, and from the want of air 
which made me gasp for breath at the sudden plunges into soft snow ; 
half stupified and tumbling over at every step, I was at last glad to 
avail myself of the support of Bhauna and Rechu, who were themselves 


1848.] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 139 


still strong and lively. It was past sunset before we three reached the 
bottom of the pass, and we then had the miserable prospect of an ex- 
panse of pure snow covering the whole mountain sides around us, and 
the valley which extended at our feet as far as could be seen through 
the obscurity of the cloudy weather and approaching night, and no 
sign of the rest of our party with the cattle, who had fallen far in the 
rear, unable to tumble through the snow so fast as ourselves. At the 
bottom of the hill, a small ledge of bare rock, protruded through the 
snow, and on this we came to anchor, Bhauna and Rechu attempting 
to clear a space big enough to lie upon, for we expected that we should 
have to bivouac there for the night, and were doubting whether we 
could get one or two Bakus* and Cherast from the baggage in the 
rear. But in the course of half an hour or so I was most agreeably 
surprised by the appearance of the Bhdtias with the cattle floundering 
down the last steep of the snowy descent ; and one of the party going 
a little way down the valley found in the wilderness of snow a small 
oasis of bare stones, a ridge some 100 feet long and ten wide, on which 
we were right glad to fix our.encampment. Verdant meadows, shady 
groves and hospitable roofs have afforded less welcome resting places to 
the weary traveller than this little ridge of bare cold ground open to 
the freezing air. It was night by the time we got the Cheras over our 
heads, and past nine before Bhauna, with a few remaining scraps of 
the fuel we had brought with us from Kunti, could accomplish a lota 
full of greasy tea, on which we consigned ourselves to sleep, too fatigued 
to miss better refection. 

Thermometer at 93 p. M. 20° ; night very cold. 

lst October.—Thermometer at sunrise (or an hour after it, more 
likely) 14° outside; and inside my tent (so to call the two blankets) 
15° ; I have now experienced what Moorcroft relates on one of his moun- 
tain passages in Ladak, the moisture of the breath freezing on to the 
pillow at night, which has also taken some of the skin off my blistered 
face. At9 a. m. the Thermometer was 29°; at this time I was 
attempting to write my diary, when the first dip of ink at once froze 
in my pen, and on looking into the Inkstand I saw the contents of it 
all suddenly congealed in the same way. I found my hands so benum- 


bed with cold and encumbered with gloves that I could hardly use a 
* A kind of hill-cloak, + Small blanket-tent. 


140 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. .[Auge. 


pencil. We are ali of us something the worse for yesterday’s work : 
the Bhotias not much, nor Bhauna, who seems as strong as a Yak. I 
still feel great oppression in the head, or rather in the neck, as though 
a heavy weight were slung over it, and every part of my face not pro- 
tected with beard is as perfectly blistered as though it had been treated 
with cantharides, which signifies little however, as my eyes (always 
strong) have escaped without damage; the glare from the fresh snow 
has been intense, but I found a pair of gauze wire shades sufficient 
protection. It is this glare, I suppose, alternating with the keen dry 
cold of the air, that plays such havoc with a white skin, for the blacks 
are hardly affected by it. I have heard some people talk of darkening 
the face in order to complete a disguise, for entering Hundés, but there 
would be an even chance of the color coming off along with the skin, I 
apprehend. I found my Hindustani clothes troublesome enough ; two 
Paijama and three Chapkan, one over the other, with a slouching cap, 
Pagri and Kamarband, all abominably uncomfortable. Anand, the 
young Kumiaoni, is very unwell indeed, both sick and heavy in the head. 

The place of our encampment here is called by the Bhétias Lank- 
pya-Dakhna or Welshia ; by the Hunias, Larcha; it is near the head of 
a valley which rises from the Byans Himalaya to the South-Kastward, 
and running for a few miles north-westward, turns east of north into 
the valley of the Sutlej. Upwards nothing but pure snow is visible, 
downwards, a few symptoms of bare rock, as the valley expands and the 
mountains on either side subside into hill, and through the opening 
northward is a glimpse of distant blue mountains, part of the Gangri 
range perhaps, on the north side of the Sutlej. The descent from 
Lankpya Dhira opens into this valley from the southward ; the top of 
the pass is not visible from the Dakhna, being hidden by the lower 
declivities, which are rather steep; the way by which we descended 
yesterday looks very formidable; heaps of driven snow rising one 
above the other, in which our track appears as a thin faint streak. 
We tumbled down this somehow or other in two hours, but all of us 
agree that to ascend by the same way with cattle and baggage would 
be an absolute impossibility ; Rechu says that he has never before 
crossed the Ghat in such a state. 

Thermometer at 9 a. M. 29°; boiled at 184°, but fuel was wet, fire 
slow and ebullition imperfect, so that the proper boiling point is 1844 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &e. 141 


probably, and elevation 16,000 feet, and I cannot suppose the place to be 
much higher than the Dakhna of the Bydns side, (which is 15,750 
feet for a boiling point of 185°) the descent this side appearing nearly 
equal to the ascent on the other. 

From Larcha our road lay north-westward, down the valley of the 
Darma- Yankti, the name of the river which flows into the Sutle ; 
the stream winds quietly through a flat bed a furlong wide, stream 
with rough fragments of broken stone, now mostly covered with snow, 
and there was a great deal of ice on all the stiller parts of the water ; 
the declivity is very gentle. We travelled in the bed of the stream for 
the first mile or two, and then over the foot of sloping ground on the 
right bank. Two or three miles down we passed an opening from the 
south-westward through the mountain on the left, coming in two branch- 
es from the Darma passes, Nyue and Kach, which communicate this 
way with Hindés. The Daérma-Yankti has derived its name from 
its alleged origin in this quarter, though as far as I could see, by far 
the principal body of the river is that by which we have descended 
from the base of the Byans, and not the Darma, Himachal; I could 
distinguish nothing in the direction of the Kach and Nyue Dhiuras but 
confused heaps of continuous snow, like the northern side of Lankpya. 
Two or three miles further down at the point where the river turns 
northward by east, the left bank assumes the; remarkable straight and 
regular from which is one of the characteristics of the ravines on the 
northern side of the Himalaya in this part of Hiindés ; it resembles a 
huge artificial dyke running for several miles in a straight line, in a 
steep slope which at this end is I suppose 500° feet in vertical height, 
the top of it being covered with snow. Our path along the right bank 
of the river now lay over undulating ground intersected with a multitude 
of ridges and hollows which proved extremely troublesome to us, fa- 
tigued as we were still from yesterday’s work ; the ridges were all of bare 
sharp stones, and the hollows between them filled with deep accumula- 
tions of snow, recurring one after the other at every fifty paces, for one 
or two miles ; over which abominable ground I found it a choice of evils 
to ride or walk, my pony being asjaded as myself. Below this we came 
to Silangtar, a stream flowing into the Darma- Yankti from the eastward 
in a bed of great width and depth, through a considerable opening in 
the mountains on our right hand, a mere ravine apparently leading to 


142 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. [Aue. 


nothing but Himalayan chaos. Notwithstanding the difficulty of my 
own progress, I had got so far ahead of the Bhotias with the cattle and 
baggage, that I was obliged to wait an hour here before they rejoined 
me. We then crossed Silangtar, and came to easier ground ; the snow 
decreasing as we continued down the valley, then altogether receding 
to the adjacent hill-sides giving place to stunted herbage, and lastly 
to a few scraps of Ddma, the ‘‘ Goat-thorn” of Tibet (a sort of Astra- 
galus) and the only firewood for the traveller in Huindés. Late in the 
afternoon we reached a halting-place called Bhawiti, close under the 
hill-side on our right. The Darma-Yankti is a quarter of a mile to the 
westward of this, flowing through a level bed a furlong wide, with 
the great dyke-like bank rising high on the opposite side; on this side 
the mountains have subsided into steep hills, still abundantly covered 
with snow, between the base of which and the river bed intervenes an 
open bank of undulating ground. 

Our halting-place here is eligible only by comparison with those of 
the last two days; there is just enough Dama for a few fires, some 
shelter under a small precipice in the hill-side and one or two boulders 
of rock, and a most ridiculous Dharmshala consisting of a stone built 
hovel four or five feet cube, just big enough to admit of one Hindu 
squattant. 

Thermometer at 85 p. m. 30°, but this was on the top of the Dharm- 
shala, inside of which I afterwards found that Bhauna had established 
his kitchen, and no doubt the temperature was thus much raised above 
that of the open air. At this time, when attempting to empty a mug 
of water from which I had been drinking not long before, I found the 
contents retained so firmly by a coating of ice that they could not be 
dislodged by the most sudden and forcible inversion. 

2d October.—Thermometer at 7 A. m. 20°, boiled at 185°; elevation 
of Bhawiti 15,750 feet, which agrees pretty well with my estimate for 
Larcha, as we were there encamped in the bed of the river and are now 
two or three hundred feet above it; the fall of the stream between the 
two places appears very moderate, and I did not observe any very 
decided descent in our road over the left bank. The diminution of 
snow here naturally follows the greater openness of the country and 
the distance northward from the crest of the Himélayan range, beyond 
which the formation and fall of snow makes little progress. There are 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 143 


still a few patches of snow lying on the ground about our encamp- 
ment. 

Our road from Bhawiti turned somewhat to our right, north-east- 
ward away from the river, over easy undulating ground, a great relief 
from the troubles of snow and sharp stones that beset our journey for 
the last three days. A mile or two on, we reached an eminence on the 
shoulder of the hill, perhaps 250 feet higher than Bhawiti, and 500 
feet above the bed of the Darma-Yankti, which passes a mile or so 
to the westward ; this spot commands a fine view of the country, and 
as usual in such situations, is studded with the religious structures 


called Choktan or Mdnepdne, little towers of stones, stuck about with 


dirty ragged flags. 

There is an unusual number of these here, erected by some i drain 
they say, after whom the place is callad Ldma Choktan. Before us 
extended a low plain, which on the left, northward, expanded to a con- 
siderable size (many square miles), but to our right, eastward, contracted 
to a mere valley a mile wide, receding south-eastward behind the 


shoulder of hill on which we stood: beyond this valley north-eastward, 


the ground is occupied by lofty hills or low mountains not easily redu- 
cible to a regular plan, but the general tendency of them seems to be 
in parallel ranges running N. W. and S. E., the most distant of them, 
the highest, slightly tipped with snow in streaks here and there, and 
beyond these lie the lakes, entirely shut out from view. The north- 
western horizon is bounded by the Gangri range of mountains mode- 
rately tipped with snow, and remarkable for the deep purple-blue 
color of their inferior rocky parts ; and about the middle of this range 
rises the snow-capped Peak of Kailas, somewhat higher than the rest of 


the lme. Ido not believe these mountains are nearly so lofty as the 


main ranges of the Indian Himalaya. On our left, westward, the view 


is closed by the high bank of the Darma-Yankti, which to the 
northward however, gradually subsides into the lower level of the plain 


first noticed. From what I saw in June last on the road between Laptel 
and Dungpu, and Dingpu to Chirchun, I know that a tract of elevated 


plain lies on the top of this bank extending westward a great distance, 


near 120 miles perhaps, up to the mountains of northern Bisehir, with 

‘no other interruption than occasional clusters of hills, and deep ravines 

‘draining into the Sutlej. The Darma-Yankti, after running northwards 
U 


144 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. [Aue. 


afew miles receives another stream, the Gunda-Ydénkti, rising from 
the Darma Himilaya, after which the united river takes the name of 
Chu-garh (’) (or Chu-gék!), and lower down receives another tribu- 
tary that springs from high ground near Ligchepu, a day south of 
Kyunglung, on the Chirchun road. It thence runs nearly parallel to 
the course of the Sutlej, but in a contrary direction (viz. from west to 
east), from which circumstance it derives its name Biphu-kula, Biphu 
signifying contrary. This Biphu-kula, I believe, before entermg the 
Chugarh, ‘receives the Chinagu, a stream which rises from the north- 
ern foot of the Darma Himalaya, a few miles west of the Gunda-Yankti, 
and. flows nearly parallel to it past Gumpachin, which is half way 
between Chirchun and Kyunglung, and a short journey south of 
Ligchepu. One of the sources of the Indus half way between Misar 
and Gartokh bears the same name, Biphu-kula, apparently for the 
same reason, that its course is opposite to that of the sources of the 
Sutlej, which flow southward from the other side of the same height. 
The Chugarh falls into the Tirthaptri branch of the Sutlej, half way 
between Kyunglung and Tirthapiri. Moorcroft noticed the debouch- 
ment east from the route on the opposite bank of the Sutlej, (15th 
August, 1812) but erroneously supposed the stream to come from 
Rakas Tal, and Hearsay’s map has made the same mistake, inconsis- 
tently with Moorcroft’s own previous observation at Tirthapiri, (31st 
July,) to the effect that the Tirthapuri branch of the river came from 
Rakas Tal, which it does to some partial extent. 

In the low plain to the north-eastward, 10 or 12 miles off, rises a 
small isolated hill, on the top of which was once a fort, called Nima- 
Khar; Bhotias call it, Gyénima; there is no village or fixed habi- 
tation here, but a considerable resort in the summer for the salt and 
grain traffic of the Bhotias from Dérma and western Byans ; it lies 
in the road from Pruang to Gugi, and one way to Gartokh, and on the 
road from Chirchun to Gangri. They say that the Sikhs had a fight 
with the Hunias somewhere hereabouts. Immediately beyond Gyénima 
a long narrow sheet of water is visible ; it is a sort of lake receiving the 
drainage of the low plain and the adjacent hill, on the east, and giving 
off its surplus water occasionally into the Chugérh westward, Beyond 
this again rises a range of hills concealing the bed of the Tirthapuri 
Sutlej. Gyanima belongs to Kyunglung. Wild geese and ducks breed 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. 145 


upon the lakes during the summer, and the people of Kyunglung take 
the eggs. 

In the season of heat and rain the Chugirh is a very considerable 
stream, sometimes unfordable, and perhaps equal to the Tirthapuri 
river ; it is the furthest eastward of the large feeders which the Sutlej 
receives from the Indian Himalaya, and may be considered as one of 
the main sources of that river. 

From Lama-Choktan we descended into the plain by along, but easy 
declivity, and crossed the flat where it is about a mile and a half wide ; 
reaching the middle of which, we saw it extending many miles ina 
long valley confined between the base of the Byans Himalaya, and the 
ranges of the lofty hill which I noticed from Lamé-Choktén. The 
origin of the Karnaliis close upon this valley ; the river enters it a 
few miles further down (south-westward) coming out of ravines in the 
North-eastern face of the Byans Huiméalaya, its principal source pro- 
bably from the north slope of the Mankshang pass, though I could 
get no accurate information on this point. It is a curious fact that 
the sources of the Sutlej and Karnali, main branches respectively of 
the Indus and Ganges, should. lie so close together and divided by an 
almost level plain, across which a man might walk from one river to the 
other in an hour or two, without vertical ascent or descent of 500 feet. 
The case is much the same with the south-eastern source of the Gar- 
tokh Indus (the Biphu-kula) and the north-western branch of the 
Misar Sutlej, which are separated by a mile only of mere rising ground 
(Jilkw4-La), and it would probably be found the same with the Jahnav! 
above Nilang, the main source of the Ganges, yet unexplored by Eng- 
lishmen ! 

The end of this valley appeared to turn southward where it entered 
the head of the Pruang valley, and the view in this direction was ter- 
minated by a huge snowy mountain, the last and greatest of a chain 
which comes from the south-eastward along the left bank of the Kar- 
nali. Iimmediately recognized this remarkable mountain as the same 
that I had seen from the high plain between Dungpu and Chirchun, 
and of which the Jwaris who were with me could give no account ; 
according to RKechu, the Hunia name of it is Momonangli, and the 
Bhotias call it Gurla. It is one ofthe grandest objects I ever saw ; 
from this point of view, the huge towering mass of snow that forms 

Q 2 


146 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [| AUG. 


the upper part of the 1nountain is wonderfully contrasted with the 
dark shadows which the height and steepness of the surrounding hills 
throw upon the corner of the valley at its base. To avoid the possi- 
bility of exaggerating, I reckon Momonangli to be as high as the 
second-rate peaks of the Indian Himalaya, or 23,500 feet, of which 
8000 rise above the level of the valley, and the uppermost 5000 is all 
pure snow. 

I was about to take bearings of this and other points when the alarm 
was given of a horseman ahead, which obliged me to pocket my com- 
pass and assume as much as possible of the Chal of a Bhotia, 
depriving me as I afterwards found of a most valuable observation for 
my survey. The horseman who was coming up the valley from the 
direction of Pruang, fortunately took no notice of us, but crossing our 
path entered the hills in front and was soon out of sight; we also saw 
one or two Ding, i.e. encampments of herdsmen and shepherds, under 
the hills on both sides of the valley, but at tolerably safe distance. 

My Bhotia companions were not a little alarmed at the horseman 
and the Ding, and we edged off to the right in order to give thema 
wide berth, and then ascended the hills on the north-east, throwing out 
an advanced guard of two men to feel the way. This precaution proved 
useful, for soon after on gaining the crest of the hill and looking down 
the other side our videttes found a valley full of Ding ; we then skirted 
along the ridge eastward (or south- eastward) fora mile or two in hopes 
of finding some place to cross safe from observation, but the Ding 
appearing rather to thicken as we proceeded, we gave it up and 
encamped under cover of the hill side, with the intention of effecting 
our transit before daylight next morning. This valley proved to be 
Chujia-Tol, a favourite resort of herdsmen and shepherds from Pruang ; 
and all the best pasture grounds in this country are similarly situated 
in low hollows sheltered between lofty hills. This Chujia-Tol is a 
side ravine running from north-west to south-east, into the main valley ; 
the springs of water that rise init form but a meagre rivulet, which I 
believe is absorbed again before it can reach the Karnali. 

In the afternoon some of our party went into the Tol and had a 
conference with the shepherds, who were after all not over-dangerous 
enemies, for they evinced no curiosity at all regarding their visitors from 
the encampment of Byansis on the other side of the hill; they reported 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 147 


that the horseman we saw was a Government chaprassy (or whatever 
may be the Hunia equivalent to that functionary) come to collect men 
from the Tols for the conveyance of provisions, &c. from Pruang to 
Barka, for the use of a Garpun then encamped at the latter place ; who 
this Garpun was and what he was doing at Barka did not appear; the 
reeular Garpun being usually fixtures at Gortokh, or in the winter at 
Gargunsa, which is one or two days further down the river northward. 

Fuel being scarce and Bhotias dilatory, I was unable to boil the 
thermometer here; but the elevations of the bottom of Chujia-Tol 
may be estimated, I think, at 15,250 feet, 750 below our last camp at 
Bhawiti, and 1000 feet of descent from Lama-Choktan. Our camp here 
was on low hills not more than 150 feet above the bottom, being only 
a mile or so from their termination, where the Tol enters the main 
valley. 

Thermometer at 9 ep. m. 25°. 

3rd October.—Thermometer at 3 a. mM. 24°. We started early 
at 4 a. mM. with moonlight just sufficient for our purpose; descended 
the hilly bank, crossed Chujia-Tol, in which I could see nothing, but 
the flat bottom of the valley appeared to be a furlong or two in width, 
and the stream of water very small; we then ascended again a very 
considerable hill, part of which was very steep and stony, and the 
rarefaction of air so sensible as to give some trouble to myself and my 
pony. We reached the summit a little before sunrise; the elevation 
of it must be about 1,750 feet above Chujia-Tol, i. e. 17,000 feet, yet 
there was very little snow on the top, only a few patches lying in 
hollow and sheltered parts of the north side. The most remarkable 
part of the prospect from this eminence was the Indian Himalaya, 
the view of which extended from Momonangli on the extreme east, 
as far westwards perhaps as Laptel, including all the outer part at 
least of the snowy range of Byéns, Darma and Jwar, and from our 
elevated station we seemed almost to be looking down upon the 
top of the snowy range, which had now lost much of its apparent 
height, but with an increase of visible breadth in the same proportions, 
so that the range assumed something of the appearance of a wide 
field or sea of snow tossed into a thousand heaps in the most gigan- 
tic confusion. It was only at the base of the Byans mountains close 
opposite that I could distinguish any think like a regular arrangement 


148 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Aue. 


of ridges and ravines which tended northward into the head valley 
of the Karnéli, and among which lie the ultimate sources of that 
river ; and to the eastward I could see the Byaéns Himalaya receding 
some way south-eastward, and close opposite to it a parallel snowy 
range of equal height terminating in the great peak of Momonangli, 
which seemed to be the loftiest of any in sight. The bed of the Kar- 
nali that lies in the deep valley between these two ranges was conceal- 
ed by deep shadows and obtruding shoulders of mountain. On the 
extreme west I noticed some distant and very lofty looking peaks and 
ridges of snow, but I attempted in vain to identify these and others in 
eastern Byéns with any of the known points of the snowy range as 
seen from the southward, nor could my companions help me. The 
northern face of the Himalaya thus seen from a commanding station, 
though still much broken into ravines, peaks and ridges, exhibits a 
much more gradual and flatter general declivity, with smoother and 
rounder slopes than the vast rocky walls of the southern face, and a 
much greater expanse of snow, which extends down to the limit of con- 
gelation in a regular line, scarcely broken here and there by a few more 
rocky prominences. The snow line was now, I suppose, between fif- 
teen and sixteen thousand feet, much about the same as on the south 
side ; a zone of one thousand feet or so must be allowed for the vari- 
ation of the line according to the nature of the subordinate slopes, 
their individual exposures, and degree of proximity tothe open country 
northward, in which direction the snow line appeared to me to be some- 
what higher, as I before noticed at Bhawiti. The termination of the 
Himalaya in the table-land is generally abrupt, and well defined, and 
the transition to a new climate seems to be similarly well marked and 
sudden. The great bulk and height of the mountainous range appears 
to arrest the progress of the Indian rainy season, and to the northward 
consequently, there is so little free moisture in the upper air, that snow 
does not fall in sufficient quantities to withstand the heat of the sun 
for many days together, at very considerable elevations : hence the line 
of snow on the mountains that rise from the northern table-land is on 
an average perhaps two or three thousand feet higher than on the 
Indian Himalaya, though the atmospheric temperature on the former 
may possibly be colder at equal heights. The lower plains of the table- 
land which enjoy agood deal of bright sunshine are thus exempt from 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, sc. 149 


lying snow except in the occasional severity of winter; otherwise the 
country would be quite uninhabitable. A heavy fall of snow which oc- 
curred at Gartokh this summer in September (the same three days I 
believe of universal rain on the south side of the Himalaya, or of snow 
on the higher elevations), was considered a most unusual circumstance. 

I expected some view of the lakes from this lofty ridge, but they 
were still hidden by intervening hills, some of which also rose high 
enough to shut out Kailas, and there was no good prospect of the 
country northwards. 

From this pass we descended again as much as we had come up from 
Chujia-Tol, but more gradually, into a level valley with flat bottom, vary- 
ing from one to three furlongs in width, winding between steep rounded 
hills for many miles together, along which we continued till 103 a. mM. 
when a small stream of water made its appearance, and we halted for 
breakfast, &c. The name of this valley is Amlang; a little further 
on it turns northward, and drains into the Gyanima water, which I 
noticed from Lama-Choktén. We were fortunate in finding no Ding 
here, for the place is well adapted for pasturage, and occasionally fre- 
quented by shepherds. I thought it a very pleasant spot—for Hundés. 
The bottom was well covered with green herbage, and the surrounding 
hilis sheltered the valley from wind without excluding sunshine. Here 
we saw some of the wild animals peculiar to Tibet; the Kydng (Equus 
hemionus?) which I shall call the wild mule, for in appearance it is 
half way between horse and ass. The hares, Rekong, differed much 
from any that I had seen elsewhere ; the upper part of the body, head, 
ears, &c. being of an iron-grey color; belly, breast, and inside of legs 
and ears white; rump (and perhaps origin of tail) slaty blue, and a 
long furry white tail. Ramsay (of Gurhwal) has seen hares between 
the Niti pass and Dungpu answering to this description, save the long 
white tails, which he does not acknowledge. I don’t think I could 
have been mistaken in these observations, for I had many good views 
of these animals, who sat upright with reverted ears waiting my ap- 
proach within a few yards; yet in June last I saw many hares in the 
vicinity of Dungpu, which were probably the same sort as described by 
Moorcroft, (July 13th,) near Dam, somewhat different from the Eng- 
lish or Indian hare, but without the remarkable peculiarities “a poste- 
rior’ noticed in these of Amlang. There appears to be some contrariety 


150 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. [Auve. 


in the matter of the tails here, for the field rats have none that I could 
see; the ground was intersected in all directions with the burrows of 
these animals, and I saw numbers of them, looking like diminutive 
Guinea pigs, but of the ordinary mouse colour, 

Thermometer at noon 45°; boiled at 186°; elevation of Amlang 
15,250 feet (about the same as Chujia-Tol). In the sun at noon the 
thermometer rose to 68°. 

Our course from Chujia-Tol to this had been somewhere about east 
north-east. We now turned eastward, leaving Amlang over the low 
hills on the right side of the valley. A mile or two of undulating ground 
brought us into another valley similar to Amlang, through the opening 
of which, north-westward, was seen an isolated cluster of remarkably 
bare red-colored hills, Chulda, not far east of Gydnima, and the 
road thence to Gangri passes under them. In the opposite direction 
the valley was closed by hills over which the top of Momonangli came 
in sight again. A mile further on we entered a third valley ora second 
branch of the last, like the others, but open at both ends and I ob- 
served a slight rise across the flat bottom dividing the drainage into 
Gydnima water north-westward, from that into Rakas Tél eastward. 
We here came upon the western high road leading from Pruang to 
Gartokh, a well beaten track of men and cattle 30 feet wide. The 
eastern road goes between the Lakes, vid Barka, Gangri, &c. Amile — 
down, the valley divided into two branches going eastward and south- 
eastward, the road following the former, and we were proceeding that 
way when on turning the corner of a hill that separated the two vallies, 
we found ourselves entering suddenly into a large Tol full of sheep and 
cattle with encampments of shepherds, The Bhotias recoiled in alarm, 
and we turned back into the other branch of the valley to the south- 
east, but finding this to end in nothing, except hills,a mile up, we 
endeavoured to regain the proper road by crossing the hill side if possi- 
ble ahead of the Ding. On gaining the ridge, however, we saw the 
Tol still occupied by the shepherds, as far as could be traced, so we 
continued skirting along the top, till we were brought up by the sudden 
termination of the ridge, in a passage that communicated with another 
valley, also full of flocks and shepherds, close under our right. we 
were in rather a critical position here, between two fires, and the Bho- 
tias vented their disgust in loud complaints against me for bringing 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 151 


them into it, so I resolved to push through it at once, rather than 
waste time in indecision or retrograde movements. We descended 
accordingly, into the hollow connecting the two valleys, whence we 
perceived the southern Tol to be more extensive than the other, with 
a number of black tents, some of them of good size. There wasa fine 
expanse of verdant pasturage in a flat bottom enclosed by steep hills, 
and a deep rivulet came out of the southern valley through the narrow 
passage into the northern, thence turning east, towards Rakas Tal. 
We crossed this and immediately ascended the hills, which began again 
on the other side, without hindrance from the enemy, who kept their 
camp at tolerably safe distance. Continuing along this ridge of hill 
till sunset, we had the northern Tol with the Dung in it, still close 
under our left. The Bhétias were so paralyzed with fear that I had to 
take the lead myself, though ignorant of the ground, and show the 
way to what I thought a safe corner for our encampment during the 
night, but the want of water obliged us to keep close to the Tol. Thus 
dodging about the hills we were 3 hours in reaching a point not more 
than 2 miles up the eastern valley, at the entrance of which we were 
diverted from our proper course. ‘The shepherds here when visited by 
some of my Bhdtias, proved to be as harmless neighbours as those of 
Chujia-Tol, being quite uninquisitive about us, though our parade along 
the top of the hill over their heads might well have attracted their 
notice and suspicions. It would have been as safe probably and much 
easier, to have walked straight through the Ding by the proper road, 
as my imitation of the Bhotia costume, &c. was good enough to pass 
muster at a little distance, and it is not the vocation of shepherds to 
stop and question travellers on the high road. The timidity of the 
Bhotias to-day was little short of rank cowardice, and rather disgusted 
me, as promising to increase difficulties. Bhauna evinced much better 
sense and spirit. 

Near this I saw some deer, “ Ridékh,”’ i. e. “ Banbdshi,” Jungle 
squatters.” They were in herd, of a dozen or so, small-sized (as big 
as Kakar perhaps) of very pale fawn color, approaching to white, and, 
as well as I could make out, with stag-antlers. 

Thermometer at 9 a. m. 30°. I had no opportunity of boiling here, 
but the elevation must be much the same as that of Amlang, 15,250 
feet. The Bydnsis could not give me any name for this place, but 

x 


152 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. [Aue. 


from the Jwaris I afterwards learned that it is called Jungbwa- 
Tol. 

In the middle of the night one of the ponies amused himself by walk- 
ing over the ropes of my tent, which brought the whole concern down 
upon me: but as it was not very onerous, consisting of two blankets, 
and [ still found breathing room, I thought it better to lie still and let 
matters rest as they were till morning, rather than turn out into the 
miserable cold of the night air, till I could rouse my companions and 
so get the hut set up again. 

Ath October.—Thermometer at 6 a. m. 20°. Up to this time I had 
been somewhat in the dark as to the true position of the Lakes, and 
my best route for a good inspection of them, depending on the map, 
which was uncertain, and the clumsy accounts of Bhétia and other in- 
formants equally vague and doubtful; nor had I much confidence in 
the guidance of Rechu: but I now began to understand the anxiety he 
had shown at the Dakhna to take me by Mankshang instead of Lank- 
pya-Dhiura, for the great easting we had now made from Lankpya, 
without attaining Rakas Tal, proved the Map to be wrong in bringing 
that Lake too far westward, and Rechu to have been right in asserting 
that the direct route to the nearest point of the Tal was by Mank- 
shang, and his object was evidently.to cut the expedition as short as 
possible. I had determined to begin with Rakas Tal,* because it was 
less known than Manasarowar, though geographically more interesting, 
as being suspected of communication with the Sutlej; being no resort 
either for pilgrimage or for Bhotia traffic, the western Lake has been 
less observed by Hindustani visitors, and from its intrieate outline less 
easily comprehended and described by them ; nor did Moorcroft’s im- 
perfect view and accounts of it add much to our information. Rechu 
now affirmed that we were close upon the south-western quarter of 
the Tal, and a debate arose as to which way we should proceed so as 
to have a good view of both the Lakes and of the channels connecting 
the two together and Rakas Tal with the Sutlej, all of which I insisted 
on as essential. The Bhétias were rather inclined to make for Mana- 
sarowar along the southern bank of Rakas Tél, but as I had little con- 
fidence in their intentions, and there was constant risk of an untimely 


end to our expedition, should we be detected, by the intervention of 
* Rawanhrad of Moorcroft. 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 155 


the Lhassan authorities, I resolved first to secure the north-west point 
of Rakas Tal, said to communicate with the Sutlej, and thence return by 
Manasarowar along the isthmus between the two Lakes. My orders 
were accordingly for the Nikds (outlet) of Rakas Tal; all the Bhotias 
seemed well acquainted with it, and saving the presence of the enemy, 
Rechu promised to bring us to the spot by evening. 

Finding no harm to have come from yesterday’s dangers, the Bhotias 
had screwed up their courage a peg or two this morning, and allowed 
me to lie in bed till daylight, though we had to begin our march by 
crossing the Tol. We started at sunrise, course about north of east, 
descending, crossed the stream, the same that we had passed yesterday 
afternoon, which runs into Rakas Tal, and ascended rising ground at - 
the foot of lofty hills on the other side. The shepherds of the Tol were 
asleep in their tents, I suppose, for I sawnone of them. We were now 
again on a frequented road, leading from Gangri to the large Tols near 
our last encampment and thence on to Pruang, and a Rah-gir (traveller) 
suddenly made his appearance over one of the ridges of high ground ; 
he was horsed and armed, and the Bhotias in great alarm declared that 
he must be either a Khampa, come to rob us, or a Government messen- 
ger to arrest us. As we were edging off to the right to avoid the man, 
he seemed to be doing much the same on his part, apparently in equal 
apprehension of us, which emboldened the Bhotias to accost him, and he 
turned out to be a humble shepherd coming from his master’s house at 
Gangri to one of the Tols, where he had flocks at graze; he possibly 
took ws for Khampa and was glad to pass us so quietly. We now came 
in sight of a corner of Rakas Tal, a mile or two south-east, and apparent- 
ly an inlet advancing further west than the body of the lake towards 
the low ground of the Tol, and thence receiving the rivulet before no- 
ticed. The view of the lake enlarged and improved as we proceeded. At 
10 a. M., we reached a point that seemed to lie about the middle of the 
eastern side, a mile from the shore, and well elevated above it, whence 
the lake swept before us in a long irregular crescent some seven miles 
wide, east and west, and twenty long, north and south. The snowy mass 
of Momonangli, was again conspicuous to the south-east, and from the 
base of the mountain a lofty range of hills, partially tipped with snow, 
stretched north-westward, separating the lake from the head val- 
ley of the Karnéli, and forming its south-western banks nearly pavr- 


mo 
yy 
rk 


154 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, se. [ Aue. 


allel to the course of the river. These hills rose abruptly out of the wa- 
ter in bold rocky banks with many deep inlets, promontories, and one 
or two small islands of the same character. This part of the lake is 
altogether so irregular in outline that it could hardly be defined without 
detail-survey and close inspection of every point. The eastern shore was 
bounded by shelving ground and low hills, the south end being a good 
deal recessed, eastward, into a deep bay, the middle part advancing, 
further westward, in a rocky bank of moderate height, and the north 
end sweeping round to the westward, as far as could be seen, with a 
margin of green grassy plain from the back of which the Gangri moun- 
tains rose in dark steep slopes. The main peak of Kailas, now beauti- 
fully developed to its very base, was seen on the extreme left of the 
range, (so far as visible to us), and over the low hills in the middle of 
the eastern shore, a streak of bright blue showed a distant glimpse of 
Manasarowar. The western shore of the lake was undulating ground or 
low hills, over which we had been travelling this morning, at the foot 
of steep and lofty hills here and there streaked with snow. The water 
of the lake was of the clearest brightest blue, reflecting with double in- 
tensity the colour of the sky above, and the northern horn of the water 
overshadowed by the wall of mountain rising above it, was darkened in- 
to a deeper hue, partaking of the fine purple colour that distinguishes 
the rocks of Gangri. Fresh breezes broke the surface of the water into 
waves that rolled upon the shore. The surrounding hill sides, though 
very bare of vegetation, were tinted with many shades of red, brown or 
yellow, happily varied with the margins of verdant grass in other parts 
of the shore, and bright sunshine spread a warm glow over the whole 


landscape, entirely divesting it of the cold barren aspect that might be — 


supposed inseparable from these intemperate regions. The beauty of 
this novel scene appeared to me to surpass any thing that I had seen on 
the south side of the Himalaya; it certainly far exceeded my expecta- 
tions, and I felt already repaid for the trouble of my expedition. 

Our course now inclined to the northward, and as we proceeded, the 
hilly bank on which we had been travelling subsided into level shore 
sloping down to the water’s edge. Our road lay over this for two or 
three miles, the water half a mile to our right ; and as far to our left we 
passed Chabgia Gumba somewhere, not visible under the steep hill- 
side ; this I believe is the only Guméa* on the banks of Rakas Tal. 


* Gumba, Monastery. 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 155 


We met an orange colored Ddda, (inferior monk,) coming from it, 
who passed by without taking particular notice of us. At noon we 
came to the end of this plain under a low spur of hill that advances to 
meet a small bay of the lake, and here halted for rest, breakfast, &c. 

Thermometer at 2 p. m. 54°; boiled at 186°; elevation of the lake 
15,250 feet; we were close upon the water. In the sun the thermo- 
meter rose to 70°. 

The native name of Rakas Tal is Cho Lagan, ‘‘ Cho” or ‘‘ Tsho’? 
signifying lake. 

The shore of the lake here shewed marks of variation in the water- 
level to the extent of a few feet ; ground which appeared to have been 
lately inundated, now half dry and swampy, was covered with a very 
thick efflorescence of soda (or some such salt), which must arise from 
the soil, as the water was quite pure and sweet. 

I found this a most delightful place: the lake was beautiful; quite 
a little sea; long rolling waves broke upon the shore close under our 
feet, and as far out as could be seen the whole face of the water was 
freshened into the “ synpiduoy yeracua’ of old ocean. There might be 
glorious sailing here, if the Lama of Gangri would keep a boat, which 
might be made with Pine or Fir imported from Byans. 

At 3 Pp. M. we continued our journey; course about northward ; 
passed under the small rocky headland, which advanced close to the 
water edge, and then entered on another low flat, bearing marks of 
occasional inundation in places; here two promontories of low clear 
land appeared stretching into the lake for a mile or two, one from the 
south, and the other from the north, covered with green grass, and I 
think I saw Kyang on one of them; they enclosed a large bay, the 
middle of which came close up to our road. High hills were still on 
our left. 

I saw a few wild ducks on the lake here, coarse ill looking birds, 
about the size of the domestic ; color dirty grey and fulvous red ; speci- 
mens of the same sort are occasionally to be met on the south side of 
the snow, I believe ; I saw one myself, last June, on the Sdngas-ktnd, a 
pool in the Gori Glacier above Milam in Jwar; and there were other 
white-looking birds, still more ill-favored than the ducks. I saw no 
signs whatever of the grey goose said to frequent these lakes in the rainy 
Season, and according to Moorcroft (August 10th and 12th) ‘ bred on 


156 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Ave. 


the banks of Rakas Tal’’ ‘‘in vast numbers ;” they had all migrated to 
India I suppose. Nor could I see any thing of the fish, though I do 
not doubt the assertions of the Bhétias that there are plenty of them. In 
the winter when the lakes are frozen over, numbers of the fish, they 
say, are cast up dead along the banks where the ice is broken, and in 
this state the Hunias present them to their Gods as prasdd, but they 
have not the sense to take the fish alive for their own eating. 

The northern horn of the lake was now rapidly narrowing and we 
continued skirting its western edge till sunset, when we reached the 
extreme north-western point, where the lake ended in swampy ground 
interspersed with puddles of water. This is, or ought to be, the Nekds. 
The ground evidently slopes down to Changchung, a verdant hollow 
with pasturage, Ding, &c., a mile or two to the north-westward, but 
there is no visible channel from the lake, and the only effluence is by 
filtration through the porous soil of the intermediate ground, unless it 
be at times of extreme flood, when the level of the lake may possibly 
rise high enough to overflow the margin at this corner. The stream 
so formed flows westward, through an open valley; below Changchung 
it receives the Sar-chu (gold river), a rivulet from the deep ravine 
immediately west of Kailas ; the united stream then takes the name of 
Lajandak, which is also an encamping ground on its banks about a day’s 
journey from Gangri: below this the river receives three other feeders 
from the Gangri mountains, viz. the Kyuktwa ; the Dokpa-chu, (i. e. 
the river of the Dokpa), by the ravine of which a road crosses into 
Bongbwa-Tol, a valley on the north side of the Gangri hills, inhabited 
by a tribe of people called Dokpa, who are the chief carriers of the salt 
from the north country ; and the Yarmigu; the united river then flows 
under Tirthapuri. Dulju is a Gumba on the left bank, half a day 
west of Lajandak, as far south-east of Tirthapdri, and a day and 
a half east of Kyunglung; the most direct road from the last named 
place to Gangri running through the valley by Dulju and Lajandak. 
Moorcroft’s statement regarding the Tirthapuri river, (12th August,) 
agrees with this account of mine, though not with his own of the 15th, 
when hemade the Chugarh come from Rakas Tél. Hearsay’s map 
makes the same mistake, and on the 13th idem, he describes two of 
the four tributary streams from the Gangri mountains large enough to 
be bridged with Sangas, though he did not notice them on his way 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. N57 


out to Manasarowar, lst and 2d August. The effluence of Rakas Tal 
probably contributes less to the Sutle) than others of its numerous 
sources in the Gangri mountains, or the Indian Himalaya, for the 
Bhotias say, that the stream at Lajandak, even after it has received the 
Sarchu, is very inconsiderable. It is a question that can be decided 
only by actual measurement perhaps, whether the main source of the 
Sutle} be not in the Darma-Yankti, for the discharge of the Chugarh 
sometimes, though not constantly, exceeds that of the joint Tirthapuri 
and Misar river, as the Bhotias testify, who are in the habit of fording 
both streams close above their confluence at Palkia. The former is 
liable to great floods in the summer, the discharge of the latter being 
more equable throughout the year. 

The mountains which had run along the left flank of our march to- 
day had here subsided into moderate hills and circled round to the 
westward, leaving the open valley of Lajandak, perhaps three miles wide, 
running in that direction as far as could be seen; on the other side the 
Gangri mountains stretched north-westward, their snowy summits visi- 
ble for many miles, (up to Misar perhaps, 30 miles distant), and the 
road to Misar and Gartokh lies along their base, which merges into the 
Lajandak valley by inferior hills. The Gangri range contmued also 
far to the eastward, rising out of a wide green plain, which extended 
between the base of the mountains, and the northern shore of both 
lakes being visible from this as far as the low hills on the north- 
western corner of Manasarowar. The Lhassa road lies along this plain. 
The most remarkable object here was Kailas, now revealed in full 
proportion to its very base, rismg opposite (northward) straight out 
of the plain only two or three miles distant. The southwest front of 
Kailas is in a line with the adjacent range, but separated on either side 
by adeep ravine; the base of the mass thus isolated is two or three 
miles in length perhaps; the general height of it, I estimate to be 
4250 feet above the plain, but from the west end the peak rises some 
1500 feet higher, in a cone or dome rather, of paraboloidal shape; the 
general figure is not unlike that of Nanda Devi, as seen from Almora. 
The peak and the upper part of the eastern ridge were well covered with 
snow, which contrasted beautifully with the deep purple color of the mass 
of mountain below : the stratification of the rock is strongly marked in 
successive ledges that catch the snow falling from above, forming irregular 


158 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [Aue. 


bands of alternate white and purple: one of these bands more marked 
than the rest encircles the base of the peak, and this, according to the 
Hindu tradition, is the mark of the cable with which the Rakshasa 
attempted to drag the throne of Siva from its place. Fragments of a 
dark purple stone strongly resembling in color the rock of Kailas, 
which I found on the shores of the lake, were a sort of rough jasper. 
The openings on both sides of Kailas disclose only more mountains in 
the rear; the western ravine appears to be two or three miles deep ; 
the back of the eastern recess is occupied by a fine pyramidal mass 
rising In steps of rock and snow, with a curious slant caused by the 
dip of stratification (to the eastward). I conjecture the average height 
of the Gangri mountains to be about the same as the eastern ridge of 
Kailas, 4250 feet above the plain, i. e, 19,500 feet of absolute elevation 
above the sea, of which only the uppermost 1000 feet, or so, was now 
tolerably well snowed, and the eastern summit of the peak of Kailas, 
may be 1,500 feet higher, 1. e. 21,000 feet; at sunset I had a proof of 
its inferiority to Momonangli, the snowy top of which was illuminated 
a minute or two longer than Kailas. But in picturesque beauty Kailas 
far surpasses the big Gurla, or any other of the Indian Himalaya that 
I have seen; it is full of majesty, a King of mountains. 

On a ledge in the base of Kailas, about the middle of the south side, 
is Gangri, by the Hindusténis called Darchin. I could distinguish 
nothing in the site pointed out to me: the buildings are few and mean, 
I believe, and the place of no note except in the way of religious resort, 
the concourse of pilgrims also attracting a little pedling trade in the 
summer. 

Moorcroft, 3rd August 1812, found here “four houses of unburnt 
brick or stones, and about 28 tents,’”’ to which may be added the Gum- 
ba of Gyangtang. 

Through the ravines on either side of the mountain is the passage 
by which the pilgrims make the parkarma ; the ciucuit is performed in 
two days by those who take it easily, but with more exertion it may 
be done in one day. There are four Guméa on the road, viz. Ist, 
Nindi, in the western ravine, on the right bank of the Sarchu, and im- 
mediately opposite the Peak of Kailds ; this is the principal shrine and 
the head-quarters of the Lho-ba Lama. 2nd, Didiphu, which is 
further up the ravine of the Sarcho: thence the pilgrim road crosses 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. 159 


Dolmala, the ridge of the mountain behind the Peak, on which is a 
small pond which the Hindustanis call Gauri-Kiénd ; the ridge is high 
enough to have snow upon it early in the summer. Thence the road 
descends to the 3rd Gumba, Jungdulphu, im the eastern ravine. The 
Ath is Gyanktang, in Gangri, already mentioned. The Sarchu, which 
comes from the western ravine as before observed, flows past Chang- 
chung into the channel of Lajandak, contributing to the Tirthaptri 
Sutlej. This was not noticed by Moorcroft, apparently, on his way to 
Gangri, 3rd August, but it may be the “small river’ at which he en- 
camped on his return, 11th idem. 

From the south face of Kailas, close above Gangri, rises a consider- 
able stream, which the Bhotias called Ld-chu (i. e. the mountain river), 
falling into Cho Lagan, 3 or 4 miles to the south-east of its northern 
extremity. Moorcroft describes this stream, 3rd August, as crossed 
by a Singa just below Gangri, and originating in a cascade close above; 
and 11th idem, he calls it the Darchan-gadrah, a mere Hindustani ge- 
nerality. From the ravine east of Kailas comes another considerable 
stream also debouching into the lake a mile or two east of the La-chu ; 
I could get no other name for this than Barka, which is on the right 
bank of it somewhere in the plain between the mountain and lake. 
This Barka is the third ‘ Tarjum,” 1. e. mail station, on the Lhassa 
road from Gartokh. There is no village, but a standing camp of a 
tent or two, for the couriers. On Moorcroft’s return from Ménasaro- 
war, 8th August, he encamped “near 7 or 8 tents ;’’ 3000 paces fur- 
ther east he noticed ‘‘tents of Tartars and Jwaris ;” 
between the two encampments, ‘‘a watercourse, dry when he went 


and somewhere 


b 


towards Manasarowar, but now two feet deep ;’’ one or other of these 
possibly was Barka. 

These two streams, La-Chu and Barka are the only permanent afflu- 
ents of Cho Lagan from the Géngri mountains. Moorcroft, 10th August, 
makes many more, with Hindi names, but that enumeration of his 
must be set aside, being derived apparently from the report of his Hin- 
dustani companions, and not agreeing with his own account of the 
streams actually crossed on his route along the northern shore of the 
lake: nor indeed do his accounts of streams crossed going and return- 
ing by the same route, agree, inter se. 

In attempting to find a channel of effluence from Cho Lagan, Rechu, 

Y 


160 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &e. [AuG. 


and I, following two of the Bhotias who were equally ignorant of the 
place, went a good way westward towards Changchung and were floun- 
dering about the swampy ground for a long while seeking in vain for 
the channel that did not exist, till at last we perceived that the rest of 
our party, with the baggage, &c. had already turned the northern ex- 
tremity of the lake far behind us, and were now proceeding eastward 
along the northern shore : we followed, and jomed them by dark. The 
Bhotias affirmed that Barka Tarjum was too close to the bank of the 
lake to be passed by daylight without risk of detection, particularly if 
the Garpun should be encamped there with a concourse of people, as 
we had been informed by the shepherds of Chujia Tol on the 2nd 
instant. It was resolved therefore to pass Barka by night; and in 
order to make it later and safer, we halted for an hour, a mile or so east 
from the northern pomt of the lake. We were then so far north of the 
shore that water was not accessible; fuel also was very scarce; so in- 
stead of dinner or tea, I had to content myself with biscuits, port-wine 
(both very bad), and a cheroot. My port-wine in the wooden decanters 
had got sour enough by this time, and nastier than ever. 

At 83 P. M. we resumed our journey, course somewhere about south- 
eastward, as well as I could judge from the moon, and the great land 
marks Kailés and Gurla. The ground became very sandy, and undu- 
lated into ridges and hollows which reminded me of the bank of the 
Ganges. Three or four miles of this brought us to the La-Chu, which 
we found a very large stream, in the aggregate I suppose 150 feet wide 
and at deepest 3 feet, running through a sandy bed here a furlong broad, 
but expanding with much subdivision of the stream towards the lake. 
The passage proved extremely troublesome and occupied us near half an : 
hour: the sandy bottom was soft under the main streams of running 
water, and frozen in the shallows, so as to afford footing for an instant, 
then breaking suddenly under the feet of the cattle and plungmg them 
knee-deep at each step; it was without exception the worst ford I ever 
crossed. Two miles further on, in the same direction and over the 
same sort of ground, we reached the Barka river, which was like the 
other, but a third smaller im width and depth. The ford was not 
quite so troublesome as the La-Chu but the cattle showed the greatest 
reluctance to attempt it. We could neither see nor hear any thing at 
all of the Tarjum, being in all probability a mile or two below it, and 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 161 


as the lake was also out of sight, perhaps a mile off, Barka must be 
two or three miles above the shore, instead of close upon it, as the 
foolish By4nsis had asserted, and the same might be inferred from the 
relative direction of the Lhassa road and the north-east shore of the 
lake. Crossing the Barka river we continued, rather more southerly 
perhaps, over ground still sandy but now remarkably flat and level, 
with a straight dyke-like ridge some 100 feet high close above our left, 
and the lake visible again on our right, perhaps } mile distant. This 
continues without any variation whatever that I could see for six or 
seven miles. ° 

5th October.—At 14 a. M. being at a safe distance from Barka and 
all of us pretty well tired, we bivouacked for the rest of the night. 
With a Baku and Chera for bedding I found it miserably cold, and 
suffered great pain from my Lam (snow-boots) which were damp from 
walking over wet ground and seemed to be nearly freezing on my feet. 
I had kept them on, as I thought for warmth, but got no rest till I. 
divested myself of them. At sunrise, finding ourselves on very bare 
ground with water distant and fuel scarce, we started again, in quest 
of a better encamping place further on, aud one that would command 
a full and close view of Manasarowar. The margin of Rakas Tél was 
now a mile from our road, circling off to a headland, the north end of 
the projecting rocky bank, which occupies the middle of the eastern 
shore, as noticed from the opposite side. The ridge of high ground on 
our left began to break into irregular hillocks. A mile on, we came toa 
large stream 100 feet wide and 3 deep, running rapidly from. east to west 
through a well-defined channel: this was the outlet of Ménasarowar. 
It leaves that lake from the northern quarter of its western shore, and 
winding through the isthmus of low undulating ground, for four miles 
perhaps, falls into Rakas Tal in the bight formed by the projecting 
headland above mentioned. Two or three miles to the eastward, we 
saw the back of an odd looking eminence, in the face of which was 
Ju Gumba, a Lama-shrine on the west bank of Ménasarowar, and on 
the north bank of the Nikds. I could see nothing of the Gumba it- 
self. Having forded the river, the deepest we had yet crossed, we 
ascended a little on to higher ground broken into easy undulations ; 
course still south-easterly. Here we passed sundry pits said to be 
the remains of extinct gold mines, the working of which was stopped 

¥ 2 


162 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, §c. [Aue. 


by some sage auguries of the Lamas, an interference that is often 
exercised by the priests in this country, where superstition is at a 
premium and gold at a discount. I saw a few Kyéng hereabouts. 

On the top of the high ground, we came in sight of the further part 
of Manasarowar, and thence descending a little, reached the middle of 
its western shore, five or six miles from the pomt where we had crossed 
its outlet. At 9 a. M., we encamped under cover of a steep bank, 
close above the edge of the lake, and halted here for the rest of the 
day, man and beast being somewhat fatigued with the long march of 
the preceding day and night. 

The Hunia name of Manasarowar is Cho Mdpdn. In general cha- 
racteristics this lake is very like Lagan, but so much more compact 
in form that our position m the middle of the western shore command- 
ed (what we could not get, from any point as yet visited, on the shore 
of Rakas Tél), a complete view of the entire lake, excepting only the 
extreme western edge of the water which was concealed by the declivity 
of the high bank on which we were stationed. The figure of Mapan 
is, as stated by Moorcroft, an oblong with the corners so much rounded 
off as to approach an oval; the longer diameter lying east and west. 
To avoid the possibility of exaggeration I assent to Moorcroft’s estimate 
of its size, viz. 15 miles in length (lH. and W.) by 11 in width (N. and 
S.) though it appeared to me somewhat larger; I think this would give 
a circumference of some 45 miles, at the water’s edge; divided by the 
eye into four quadrants, each of them seemed, as well as I could judge, 
a moderate day’s journey of 11 or 12 miles, which agree with the 
accounts of pilgrims who make the parkarma usually in 4, 5, or 6 
days, according to their stay at the several Gumba and other circum- | 
stances. Bhauna tells me that Chakwa, ex-Garpun, made the | parkarma, 
(as he himself informed Bhauna) in six days, on foot, as all pilgrims 
do, by way of Dharm. As the Garpun could have been little used to 
walking, it is not improbable that he was content with a daily march of 
7 or 8 miles, 6 of which would make the circuit, as estimated, about 
45 miles. Mapan is bounded thus; westward by the hilly ground that 
separates it from Lagan, of no great height (averaging 250 feet per- 
haps), but rather steep towards the lake, and apparently leaving little 
level shore on the margin excepting at small bays here and there. The 
northern bank begins in a ridge of high ground rising precipitously 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, ec. 163 


from the water’s edge, and extending along four or five miles of the west 
end, the “face of the rock,” noticed by Moorcroft in his walk round 
the north-west corner of the lake, “‘in many places near 300 feet per- 
pendicular.” Thence eastward the shore is a plain three or four miles 
wide, sloping down from the base of the Gangri mountains, which. rise 
behind in a continuous wall. This ground appears to be a continuation 
of the plain on the northern shore of Lagan under Kailas, passing 
without interruption, or with a slight rise perhaps, behind the ridge of 
hills above mentioned. Moorcroft, 8th August, estimates the valley of 
Gdngri to be 12 miles broad and near 24 long: that length may be 
right, but the breadth is not clear; if the 12 miles be intended to in- 
clude the whole basin of the two lakes it is considerably under the 
mark ; and the mere plain between the Gangri mountains and the 
northren shore of the lakes cannot average any thing like that width. 
Moorcroft was then encamped (as I conjecture) in the vicinity of Barka, 
and he possibly estimated the breadth of the plain from its appearance 
at that point, where it is certaimly very much widened by the southing 
of the eastern shore of Rakas Tal. At the north-east corner of Mapan 
the level ground is widened by the rounding of the lake; it looked 
greener than the rest, as though irrigated by streams of water, and is 
said to be pasturage occupied by Ding, &c. This was noticed by 
Moorcroft as “ a plain at the foot of elevated land. . . . to the north-east.” 
On the east side of the lake rise hills and mountains sloping down to 
the water’s edge with more or less margin of level ground at the bottom. 
The northern half of this range is mere hill of no great height, con- 
nected at the north end with the base of the Gdngri mountains, and on 
the south joming a cluster of mountain, that occupies the southern half 
of the lake’s eastern shore: the latter was well topped with snow and 
seemed as lofty as the lower parts of the Gangri range. The south end 
of this mountain was connected with the base of the Nipal snowy 
range by a ridge of inferior hills, behind which rose another mountain 
very similar to the first, but not so far detached from the Himalaya. 
These hills preclude any distant prospect to the east of the lake, in 
which direction nothing more is to be seen than the crest of the Gangri 
range on the north, and of the Nipal Himalaya to the south ; both ap- 
pear to make a good deal of southing ; and the Gangri range, is termi- 
nated twenty or thirty miles off either by actual subsidence in height, 


164 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Ave. 


or by change of direction to the northward, or by both of those causes 
perhaps. On the south side of the lake, (which Moorcroft observes to 
be “ bounded by immense mountains,’’) in its eastern half, rises slop- 
ing ground, then hills, and behind all the Indian snowy mountains, a 
blank dismal chaos, in appearance rather broad than lofty, the further 
end receding southward, and the nearer advancing towards the lake, 
till it terminates in Momonangli. This great mountain occupies all 
the western half of the lake’s south bank; its upper and greater part 
a vast towering mass of pure snow, the base in earthly mounds, almost 
bare of verdure, sloping right down to the water’s edge. The isthmus 
of low hilly ground that forms the western boundary of the lake joins 
the foot of Momonangli. The view which I here obtained of Manasa- 
rowar confirmed my belief of the accounts of native informants, which 
all agree in stating that the lake has no other affluents than a few un- 
important streams rising close by in the surrounding mountains, and but 
one effluent, that communicating with Rakas Tal, which we crossed this 
morning. ‘The two lakes are placed together in a basin, girt about by 
an enceinte of hill and mountain, from which the only exit appears to 
be at the north-western extremity opening into the valley of Lajandak. 

The outlet (Nikas) of Mapan leaves the lake from the northern quar- 
ter of its west side. I was much puzzled to account for Moorcroft’s 
failure to find the mouth of so large a stream as that we forded this 
morning, till at last I heard on good authority, that the entrance of the 
channel is completely closed by a large bar of sand and gravel, conti- 
nuous with the shore of the lake, and the effluent water runs through 
this in a copious stream. THe thus describes the very poimt he was in 
search of, and passed without knowing it: ‘“‘ As the bank approached 
this angle (i. e. the north-west), it declined to gentle elevations 
leading to interrupted table-land, and at its base was a large bay, from 
the bottom of which rose a pyramidical red rock connected with a 
ridge of high land to the higher flats on the north and steep towards 
the south : upon this was the house of a Lama and many Gelums, &e. 
&e.” That was Ju-Gumba, with the outlet immediately under the 
south-west side of it concealed merely by the bank upon the edge of 
the bay. 

{tis a pity that Moorcroft did not get the company of some intelli- 
gent Hunia (as he might easily have done), who would have explained 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 165 


all such matters as this, and have removed many other doubts and errors 
in the course of his explorations. 

The permanent affluents of Mapan are three orfour. First, a stream 
rising in two branches from the Gangri mountains, and falling into the 
lake at the eastern quarter of its north side; the second also from 
the Gangri range, a few miles further east, entering the lake at the 
north-east corner: at the very same point is the mouth of the third 
stream, which rises in Hortol, behind the mountain which I noticed 
at the east end of the lake, and flows round its northern base. The 
presence of these three streams accounts for the greater verdure which 
I observed in the ground above the north-east corner of the lake. 
Sataling is the name of the pasture ground on the bank of the second 
river, through which the Lhassa road passes, and thence along the 
north bank of the third. The fourth affluent is doubtful: a stream 
possibly comes from the Nipal Himalaya into the south-east corner of 
the lake, but of this I could get no certain account. In the summer 
season there are many temporary streams from rain and melted snow, 
and it was probably one of these that Moorcroft saw, and called the 
“«* Krishna river,”’ on the south-west corner of the lake. 

There are eight Gumba on the banks of Mapan, viz. Ist, Tokar, 
somewhere about the middle of the south side; this is sometimes called 
a village, but it is a mere monastery somewhat larger than the others. 

2d, Gusur, at the southern quarter of the east end. 

3d, Ju, at the northern quarter of the east end, on the north bank of 
he Nikas. 

4th, Jakyab, at the western quarter of the north side, where the 
high bank terminates; this probably is the “house inhabited by 
Gelums,”’ with “terraces of stone with the usual inscriptions,’ near 
which Moorcroft encamped 5th to 7th August, 1812, and which figures 
in the old maps (after Hearsay?) most unduly and exclusively, as the 
** Lama’s house.” 

Sth, Langbuna (i. e. elephant’s trunk), in the middle of the north 
side. 

6th, Bundi; at the north-east corner, between the lst and 2d affluents. 

7th, Sarélung, in the middle of the east end; and 8th, Nunukur, at 
the south-east corner of the lake. 

I could see none of these from our camp, nor did I think it prudent 


166 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [AuG. 


to visit the nearest. The exterior view of those which Moorcroft saw 
(Jakyab and Ju), exhibited nothing but huts pitched on steep banks, 
and their main interest, I imagine, consists in our ignorance of them. 

The water of Mapan is quite clear and sweet, and in mass of the 
same fine blue color as Lagan. In picturesque beauty the eastern lake 
is hardly equal to the other; its uniform outline being comparatively 
dull and monotonous, the surrounding hills blank and dreary, and the 
gigantic grandeur of Gurla less pleasing perhaps than the majestic 
beauty of Kailas. The Rakshasa have got, in my opinion, the better 
quarters of the two. 

The depth of these lakes is possibly an average of 100 feet or so, and 
double that in the deepest places. 

I saw no signs of animal life on Mapan, the Mdnasaucas must have 
taken their departure for their winter quarters in India; Moorcroft saw 
numbers of them here in August (1812). 

Thermometer in the sun at noon rose to 120°, part of which must 
have been caused by reflection from a Baku (of white woollen stuff), 
against which the instrument was placed, but in the course of this 
expedition, I had often found the noon-day sun unpleasantly intense. 

At 3 p.m. Thermometer in shade 46°, boiled at 186° ; elevation of 
the lake, which was some 175 feet below our camp, 15,250 feet. 

Bhauna and Anand bathed in the lake, by way of Dharm, and not at 
all for cleanliness, which, as good Kumaonis, they duly set at nought. 

In the afternoon I began to moot the Parkama of Manasarowar ; 
and suggested the feasibility of domg it in 3 or 4 days, myself with 
Bhauna and one Bhétia, taking only two of the Zhobus, without tents, 
bedding, or kitchen, leaving all the rest of the party and baggage to 
wait our return. Bhauna made sundry hollow professions of readiness 
to accompany me to Lhassa, or Peking, if I wished to go so far, but I 
observed him in fact putting excuses into the mouths of the Bhdtias, 
who were all quite aghast at the idea of thus wantonly adding to aimless 
risk and trouble, as they considered my expedition from beginning to 
end. Rechu declared that they had already “ Margaye’’ to a greater 
degree than on any former occasion of their many visits to Hindés, 
and that the execution of my plan alone was wanting to make a calami- 
tous end of them altogether. 

My estimate of the risk of detection was not a tenth part of what 


| 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 167 


they made it, and of the consequences, if we were detected, not a hun- 
dredth (for they talked of gettmg hanged!) ; but with such discontented 
and dispirited companions, I had little inducement to incur the further 
hardships which the proposed digression would have entailed upon 


myself; and the circuit of the lake after all promised no other result 


_ than a little nearer approximation to the true figure and size of its out- 


line, and to the exact position of the few unimportant affluent mountain 
streams, and of the several Gumda round the bank. Putting together 


Moorcroft’s observations, my own, and the reports of native informants 
(the best of which I have embodied in my account), I think the geo- 


_ graphy of the lakes is fixed im the rough, beyond all reasonable doubt, 


| 


though my map cannot pretend to topographical accuracy. 

In the evening, Rechu, with a well assumed air of distress, reported 
that both the ponies had strayed from our camp, and one of the Bhdé- 
tias in search of them for the last hour not yet returned. I havea 
strong persuasion that this was a contrivance of my worthy companions 
to put a spoke in the wheel of my parkarma ; for bemg rather sulky, 
Thad not yet informed them of my consent to abandon that design : 
their clumsy artifice would certainly not have stopped me, if I had re- 
solved upon it, as my own plan had been to go without the horses, rid- 
ing one of the Zhobus when I could not walk. 

Thermometer at 9 Pp. m. 30°. 

6th October.—The ponies not yet found, reported Rechu this morn- 
ing, either to make sure (as he might think) of me and my Parkarma, 
or to preserve the vraisemblance of his own stratagem; and besides the 
Bhétia already detached two others had walked off, as they pretended 
to enquire for mutton at Tokar, but in fact more probably straight back 
to Byans, for they never showed themselves again to the end of our 
journey. Rechu also stayed behind to make further search for the 
horses, according to his own story. We saddled two of the Zhobus, 
distributing their loads among the other four, and the rest of us then 
started for Pruang at 8°20 a. M.; course west of south. Descending 
from the high bank we entered on a small bay of the lake, now half dry, 
with great quantities of efflorescent salt (carbonate of soda, I think,) 
about the swampy grounds. There were two unfortunate Hunias here 
who seemed to avoid us with alarm as though they expected some mal- 
treatment ; they took us for Khampa, perhaps. Crossing this bay we 

Z 


168 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Ave. 


ascended on the high bank again, and then fell into the high road be- 
tween Pruang and Gangri, which is nothing more than a wide and well 
beaten track over hill and dale. Four or five miles brought us in view 
of what appeared to be the south-western corner of Mapan, which was 
rounded off with shallow water; a concentric bar of shingle-sloping 
beach, and then steep hills, connecting the ground on which we were 
travelling with the base of Gurla. There was no sign of any affluent 
stream in this quarter, and the nature of the ground precludes an efflu- 
ent. Continuing along the ridge, and inclining gradually from the east 
to the west side of it, we came in sight of Cho-Lagan again, viz. the 
south-eastern quarter of it which forms a large bay under the foot 
of Momonangli. By an easy descent we reached the shore, and 1} 
p. M. halted at Lagan-Tunkang, which is, or was, a Dharmshila close 
upon the water at the south-east corner of the lake; it now con- 
sists of some roofless and ruinous walls built of shingle stones em- 
bedded in mud; the roof is said to have been burnt by the Sikhs 
under Zordwar Sing, who passed this way during winter and were 
hard up for firewood. There is rather a marine looking beach here 
with concentric ridges and shingle showing variations in the water 
level to the extent of six feet perhaps, above the present surface : 
the shingle and sand are mostly granitic, and the former partially roll- 
ed; only the southern half of Lagan is visible from the Tunkang, the 
northern part being hidden by the projecting hilly banks which I notic- 
ed from the other side occupying the middle part of the lake’s eastern 
shore. The extreme breadth of the lake at this its widest, may be 
eleven miles or thereabouts, equal to the middle breadth of Mapan. The 
south-western bank had the same steep profile and irregular indented — 
outline, as viewed from the other side, and the little islands were visible 
again. Gerard was misinformed about the island in Rakas Tél with a 
monastery on it: there is nothing of that sort I believe: as the Hunias 
have no such things as boats here, the only access to these islands, is 
by the ice when the Jake is frozen over in winter, and they are then 
sometimes visited by shepherds in quest of fresh pasturage. There is a 
story, true or not I cannot say, of a shepherd having thus taken up his 
quarters on one of the islands, and not being alert enough on the ap- 
proach of spring and thawing of the ice, his communication was inter- 
rupted before he could effect his retreat to the shore; he was thus 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 169 


imprisoned for some nine months, and had to live the best way he could 
upon his sheep, till released by the formation of ice again next winter ; 
a miserable and dangerous situation, comparable to that of the Jwari 
Bhotia, who was snowed up for a whole winter at Topi Diinga, a dismal 
pit between the two formidable passes of Kytingar and Unta-Dhira. 

At 2 p. m. we left Tungkang; course south-westerly, crossing a mile 
of flat ground upon the south-east corner of the Tal, with a large 
ravine running through it from the foot of mount Gurla, full of granitic 
shingle, but without water. We thence ascended high ground con- 
necting the base of Momonangli with the range of hills that forms the 
south-western boundary of Lagan. The eminence is many miles in 
breadth, undulated into a number of ridges and hollows, and attaining 
an elevation of 100 feet perhaps above the level of the lake, at the 
highest part crossed by the road ; but further west the hills are higher 
than that, and partially tipped with snow. We were nearly 4 hours 
erossing this hilly ground, something impeded by a very strong south 
wind blowing in our teeth ; towards sunset, we descended into a sloping 
plam, the head of the Pruang valley. 

Gurla rose close upon our left, on our right and rear was the 
southern face of the hills of Lagan, which here range east and west 
for a few miles; in front rose the Byéns Himalaya in dark steep slopes 
with the snowy summits towermg behind, and close below ran the 
Karnéli, hidden in a deep ravine. Projections of the mountamous 
enclosure concealed the opening of the valley from Chujia Tol on the 
north-west and to central Pruang on the south-east. This valley 
of northern Pruang forms an acute triangle, of which the base and 
smallest side, is marked by the hills of Lagan on the north; the two 
longer sides by the base of Momonangli on the east, and the Karnal! 
at the foot of the Byans Himalaya on the west ; the apex of the trian- 
gle being southward at the entrance of middle Pruang. All this 
ground, though flat in the gross, has a sharp slope towards the Karnali, 
and drains into the river by a multitude of deep ravines rising from the 
base of mount Gurla, and one or two from the Lagan hills. In the 
middle of the valley, a mile or two from its north end, a singular little 
isolated hill rises from the plain; apparently the same that I saw from 
the valley between Lama Choktén and Chujia Tol on the 2nd instant. 

We had to cross a mile of very rugged ground covered with a flood 

Z 2 


170 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Avue. 


of granite shingle from the foot of Momonangli; the road said to have 
been made over this by a certain Lama, being nothing better than a 
width of a few feet, very indifferently cleared of the larger stones, which 
have been thrown to the sides of the path; numerous large water courses, 
which in the summer contribute streams to the Karnali, were now all 
dry. We encamped in one of these at 6} Pp. m.; night and fatigue 
obliging us to halt notwithstanding the want of water, I had to dine 
again off biscuits and cheeroots. 

7th October.—Thermometer at sunrise 16° ; ground and tents cover- 
ed with hoar-frost ; hitherto I had seen little or no dew in the morn- 
ings; the increase of moisture in the air here is brought perhaps by 
the south wind blowing up the valley of the Karnali from the Indian 
side of the Himalaya. This place is probably about the same elevation 
as the lake, 1. e. 15,250 feet. 

Rechu and the other Bhotia made their appearance early this morn- 
ing, bringing the ponies with them. Yesterday, Anand lagging behind 
the rest of us on the march, saw two horsemen in the distance, pro- 
bably these very worthies of our own party following at our heels as 
near as they durst. 

We started at 73 a. M., course south-westerly ; 3 miles on crossed a 
very wide ravine full of granite shingle and large enough for a consider- 
able river, but at present there was a small stream only: on the left 
bank is a ruined Dharmshala hight Baldak, like Lagan Tunkang, 
and strewed about with bones said to be the remains of the cattle 
which perished here in the flight of Zorawar Sing’s party from Gangri 
to Pruang. Three or four miles down, and little above its entrance 
into the Karnéli, this ravine is jomed by another from the northward, — 
(one of those we crossed yesterday evening), and in the angle of ground 
between them stands Kardam, one of the three Khar or Forts of 
Pruang, and a large village, the highest up the valley; the fort is said 
to be in a ruinous, or at best neglected condition, without garrison, 
though nominally kept by a “‘ Zungpun’’ of inferior rank (a Kharpun 
probably). Our route continued with very little variety over ridges of 
high ground, alternating with stony ravines, for the most part dry. 
We could now see many miles up the valley to the north-westward, the 
head of which under Chujia Tol we had crossed on the 2nd instant ; 
but there were no points of particular note about it. Five or six miles 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 171 


below Baldak, the narrowing of the Pruang valley brought our road 
within a mile and a half of the Karnali. On the top of the opposite 
bank stood a small village, Dunsala, on a ledge of flat ground under 
the Byéns mountains; the depth of the channel concealed the river 
and two other villages on its left bank, Dumar and Harkang, through 
the former of which passes the road from Taklakhar to Kardam, &c. 
Three miles further down we entered a ravine with a small stream fall- 
ing into the Karnaéli not a mile below. The river here seemed to take 
a turn to the south-eastward after receiving a western branch through 
a deep ravine from the Byans Himalaya. We were still close under 
the base of the huge Momonangli, the snowy top of which was almost 
hidden by the lower outworks that rise in steep earthy mounds with 
little precipitous rock, which is very much the character of all the 
mountains hereabouts on the north side of the Himalaya. Pruang has 
got a reputation, amongst our Bhotias, for great fertility ; and with 
diligent cultivation it doubtless may produce some scanty crops of bar- 
ley and peas, but its advantages in this way can only be by comparison 
with other places still more sterile than itself, for I can assert that the 
upper part of the valley, at least thus far, is barren im the extreme ; 
indeed it seemed more destitute of vegetation than any of the low 
eround I had yet passed over, and the “ Damé,”’ goat-thorn, still the 
sole shrub, was certainly much scarcer, though perhaps from the con- 
sumption of it for fuel by a dense population. At thé best however, 
upper Pruang cannot compare in natural fertility with the most sterile of 
the inhabited parts of our Cis-Himalayan Alpime valleys, such as the 
vicinity of Kiinti in western Bydns, or of Milam in upper Jwar. 

We now halted at 1 p.m. and encamped for the rest of the day, 
having approached as near as was safe (or according to the Bhotias, 
much nearer) to the large village of Toiyon. The road to Lipti-Lekh, 
the eastern Byans pass, lay through the very middle of this, and other 
thickly inhabited ground beyond under Taklakhar, which we thought 
it adviseable to pass by night. 

In the course of this morning’s march we had passed some native 
travellers on pilgrimages from Kajarh, with whom we exchanged salu- 
tations, and shepherds grazing their flocks in the hollows along our 
road. Our present encampment too was close below a Déng in the 


same ravine; but we were not troubled with particular notice from any 
of these quarters. 


172 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [AuG. 


Thermometer at 2 p. m. 56°, boiled at 187°; elevation 14,750 feet. 
Kardam-khar is probably about 15,000 feet. Thermometer in the sun 
rose to 76°. The south wind blowing up the valley of the Karnali was 
disagreeably strong, though I am not sure that the temperature of the 
air was depressed. thereby. 

Our Bhotias went to the Ding for milk and mutton: the shepherd 
was very stingy with his milk, but I got just enough to qualify half a 
lota of tea, which was the most, and perhaps the only, refreshing 
draught that I had enjoyed since leaving Kunti: hitherto I had sub- 
sisted on Bhauna’s decoction, which was made with a liberal mixture 
of ghee. The Bhotias make their tea with soda (Bal), which extracts 
the color, and, as they fancy, the taste of the trash they get from the 
Lhassa merchants at Gartokh ; the decoction, which is boiled for a long 
time, with plenty of ghee also, tastes more like broth than tea. In the 
matter of mutton, the Bhotias insisted on bringing goat, which I rejected. 
The Tibet goat is the most elegant of his tribe, small and handsome as 
a deer ; but his virtues reside rather in the fleece than in the flesh. 

We resumed our journey at 7-40 Pp. M., course east of south; a 
bright moon little past the full rising soon after, gave me a fair view 
of the principal objects in the vicinity of our route. 

Leaving the ravine in which we had been encamped, we crossed a 
mile of high ground, and then entered another ravine wider and deeper 
than any we had yet crossed in the Pruang valley: a steep descent of 
some 500 vertical feet, brought us into a flat bottom half a mile broad 
covered with a profusion of rough granite shingle, of which a very 
indifferent clearance had been made for the road. The length of the 
ravines was inconsiderable, the foot of the mountain being hardly a mile 
from our left, and the Karnali a furlong below our right. For want of 
light perhaps, I did not see the houses said to stand on the river bank, 
but our road passed through fields belonging to the village, and chan- 
nels for the irrigation of them. 

It was on this ground, the ravine of Toiyon, that the Sikh imvaders 
of Gnari under Zorawar Sing met their well deserved end. After 
having mastered the whole province, and established himself in Pruang, 
Zorawar took it into his head to go to Gangri with the greater part of 
his men: when there they were surprised by the arrival of the relieving 
army of Hunias from Lhassa, and attempting to effect a retreat, a 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. 173 


flight rather, to their position in Pruang, they were here overtaken 
and destroyed, but more by want and cold, for it was the middle of 
winter, than by the prowess of the Lhassa army, who were probably a 
viler rabble, though far more numerous, than these bastard Sikhs, the 
refuse of the Jamu hill districts. The Smgs well earned their fate 
by the indiscriminate robbery and violence which they perpetrated on 
the unoffending Hunias of Gnari: ruined villages and impoverished peo- 
ple still shew the brand of their devastations throughout the country. 

On the south side of the ravine ran a good sized rivulet, crossing 
which we ascended the left bank, here not more than 100 feet high, 
but rising to double or treble that elevation by high ground close upon 
our left, (eastward). On the corner of level ground, some half a mile 
wide, between this hill and the Karnali, stands the village of Toiyon, 
straggling loosely over the next mile of the road: there are houses 
also on the eastern eminence, besides the hamlet, which we passed on 
the other side of the rivulet. The greater part of the area I have 
assigned to the village is occupied by the fields, amongst which the 
houses are scattered here and there, singly or in small groups : I could 
see nothing in the shape of a street excepting the rows of Choktan 
walls and towers, rumous inelegant structures of stone and mud, that 
lied the road in considerable numbers: none of the houses were within 
a hundred yards of our road and most of them further, so that I could 
see little of their construction, but they seemed to be rather long than 
lofty, with very few doors or windows, the walls whitewashed, and 
crowned with dark lines, which from their low shallow appearance 
could be coverings to the walls concealing a flat roof to the interior body 
of the house. Bhauna explains that the houses are built in hollow 
squares, two-storied, with a flat terrace roof above, which is dignified 
with the name of a third story: the apartments are ranged round an 
open court in the centre, to which all the windows are directed, a single 
doorway in the middle of one side, being the only aperture in the outer 
walls. This construction, however, is by no means universal in Hundes, 
for at Dingpti in Gugi, I myself saw numbers of houses quite open to 
the front, though otherwise as above described, and very like the dwell_ 
ings of the Byansi Bhotias. The dark summits of the walls, are the 
eopings formed by layers of Démd, Hompu, or other brushwood laid 
upon the top of the parapets and weighed down by stones. 


174 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &e. [Ave. 


Turner (Chapter VII. Teshoo Loomboo) was at a loss to understand 
the object of this crowning to the house walls which he found equally 
prevalent in the province of Chang; in Gnari it is intended merely as a 
coping to protect the walls from rain and snow, flag-stones suitable to 
that purpose being rarely procurable. The annual renewal of these 
cornices, together with a general repair and ornamenting of houses, 
forms one of the observances of the ‘‘ Lo-sar’’ festival, the Tibetan new- 
year’s day, which many possibly have some affinity to the new year’s 
day of China, the principal festival of that nation. The ground-floors 
of the houses here are appropriated chiefly to cattle and whatever else 
cannot find room in the dwelling apartments of the family in the upper 
story. 

We heard and saw some signs of life indoors; musical noises and. 
voices, lights and shadows; but ourselves passed unnoticed except by 
the dogs, who did their best to give the alarm. 

The harvest here, which is mostly barley and peas, had been all reaped 
and carried; the fields were quite bare, but showed marks of careful 
tillage, beg imtersected with a multitude of artificial watercourses for 
irrigation. Priang is m advance of Byans with its harvest: this must 
not be attributed to superior temperature of climate, but rather to the 
greater amount of sunshine enjoyed by the former, the valley being 
more open, and the far smaller quantity of ram and snow on the north 
side of the Himalaya, and something I believe to the palpable neglect 
of the Bhotias in their agriculture, which they postpone to their trading | 
affairs, leaving the tillage of their fields almost entirely to their women. 

The elevation of Toiyon may be estimated at 14,500 feet, viz. 250 
feet below our last encampment. 

This village is the head-quarters of one of the three Makhpun of 
Pruang, who are the hereditary superiors of as many small circles of 
villages, responsible for collection of revenue and keeping of the public 
peace, but entirely subordinate to the Zungpun of Taklakhar. 

Beyond the village was an easy descent for a mile, but the road very 
stony, by which, after crossing a small rivulet, we reached the left bank 
of the Karnal. 

The river here appeared to be about as rapid as the Kali in the 
middle of Byans, and in width such as to be spanned by a Sanga, 50 
feet long from pier to pier, and of the construction common on the 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 175 


south side of the Himalaya, but more carefully built than any I have 
seen in Kuméon. Probable elevation of the bridge (200 feet below 
Toiyon) 14,300 feet. 

The right bank of the river rises abruptly to the height of two or 
three hundred feet; above the bridge in cliffs of conglomerated earth 
and shingle, with Lima caves in them, overhanging the river; and 
close below in steep slopes and landslips up which we ascended. The 
top was some,250 feet above the river, and for a mile in length an open 
level with higher ground rising on our right (westward). Here on the 
roadside occurred a line of Choktan wall and towers, remarkable chiefly 
for its extreme length, which was not short of a furlong I suppose, and 
exceeding any I had yet met with. At the end of this elevated level 
we crossed a very deep ravine connected with the bed of the Karnali, 
beyond that a ridge of high ground, and half a mile further on a se- 
cond ravine like the first, ascending from which we wound over the 
shoulder of a steep rounded hill which sloped down to the river on our 
left (eastward) to the depth of 250 feet below the road, rising as much 
above it on our right (westward). The hill side was here and there 
broken into small cliffs and prominences; the top was studded with a 
moderate assemblage of houses like those of Toiyon. This is Takla- 
khar, by the Hindustanis called Takla-kot, which is a fair equivalent, 
as “ Khar’ signifies a fortress: the fort however was not visible to us. 
Half a mile from the last ravine brought us to the south side of the 
hill, which is formed by the Tidya-Chu, a very deep and wide ravine 
with a river coming from the westward out of the mountainous base of 
the Byéns Himalaya. On the northern corner of its confluence with 
the Karnéli, is the village of Beli, whence the inhabitants of Takla- 
khar have to fetch their water, the hill above being destitute of it. The 
south side of the hill is very steep and ruimous, being little better than 
a great landslip strewed with fallen masses of the conglomerate (earth 
aud shingle) that forms the more solid parts of the soil. We descend- 
ed by this and forded the Tidya-Chu, a very considerable stream not far 
inferior I suppose to the main branch of the Karnili. 

Ascending the right bank, which was steep and some 200 feet in 
height, we found a pretty extensive level on the top, entirely occupied 
by fields, like those of Toiyon, quite fallow and scored all over with 
channels for irrigation. These marks of irrigation point to the fact of 


2A 


176 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [AuG. 


the great dryness of the climate in Pruang, compared withtthat of the 
neighbouring Cis-Himélayan Alpine valley, in which the natural rains 
during the summer supply abundance of water for all cultivation. The 
crops of Pruang are raised by artificial irrigation during the height of 
the Indian ramy season. From this ground we had a good, (moon- 
light) view of Takla-khar, which extended along the top of the oppo- 
site bank: the principal development of the place appears to be east 
and west, the extreme length in which direction may be a quarter of a 
mile ; and to judge from what we saw of the east end, and from the 
descent of the buildings in parrallel terraces this side, its breadth 
must be inconsiderable ; a mere strip along the top of a narrow ridge. 
I could see nothing of the Khar or the Gumba, which are the principal 
edifices ; the former is said to be well built, with lofty walls and nume- 
rous apartments, capable of holding a thousand men; but the fortress 
has the fatal defect of beg without water, the nearest supply of which 
is, as above mentioned, in the village of Beli at the bottom of the 
hill: there was once a walled passage communicating with this, but it 
is now ruined, and so far obliterated that I saw no vestige of it, as we 
crossed the east-end of the hill. The Pruang Zungpun resides in the 
Khar, but without any garrison whatever. The Gumba is a large 
building adjoining to the fort, and stocked, they say, with some 300 of 
the monkish order. Many of the houses of the place belong to people 
of the neighbouring villages, and are used chiefly as depots for their salt 
and grain, the traffic in which with the Bhotias of Bydns, and the peo- 
ple of Dhuli, Humla, &c. constitutes the main resort to Takla-khar. 
The village, with its Khar and Gumba, may perhaps equal in extent 
the north-eastern suburb and bazar with the town fort of Almora. I | 
estimate the elevation of the summit of Takla-khar to be 14,750 feet, 
viz. 500 feet higher than the confluence of the Tidya-chu with the 
Karnali. 

Nami is a small village on the south bank of the Tidya Prydg, where 
there are the remains of field-works made by the Sikhs under Zorawar 
Sing, who (to command water I suppose) took up his position here in 
preference to occupying the fort above. 

When he went on his fatal pilgrimage to Gangri, his Lieutenant, 
Basti Sing, with the remaining party, went over to Kirow, the district of 
the third Makhpun on the other side of the Karndli, and thence after the 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 177 


destruction of their commander and comrades, effected their escape by 
Lipu-Lekh into Byans and Kumaon. 

Our road now turned to the westward ; half a mile up the right bank 
of the Tidya-chu stood Maghram, a small village, of note only as being 
the residence of the second Makhpun, whose district, ‘‘'Tidya,’’ les on 
the south side of the Chu. The elevation ofMaghram is about 14,500 
feet, being 250 above the bottom of the Tidya-chu. 

«There was a sound of revelry by night,” a noisy concert of singing 
and instrumental music, very like the oratoris of the Hindus, proceed- 
ing from the Haweli of the Makhpun; perhaps, as Bhauna suggested, 
on the occasion of his son’s marriage, which promised to come off about 
this time, and Pruang Zungpun might possibly be among the wedding 
guests. We saw dark shadows of men flitting across the lights through 
the open door. I longed to approach and look in upon the strange scene, 
which would have been rendered doubly strange by the sudden appari- 
tion of a “ Feeling’’* visitor, but the diversion was not worth the pos- 
sible cost to my companions, if not myself. The Bhotias indeed, thought 
it unsafe to keep the road which passes close to the village, and we 
struck across the fields to the left under a range of hills, bounding the 
cultivated flat of Maghram on the southward. Two miles from the 
Tidya-chu, brought us to another ravine with a small stream coming 
from the south-westward, and entering the Tidya-chu a little above 
Maghram. Tashikang, is a hamlet on the west bank of the confluence. 
Three or four miles up the ravine we came to Pala, a Diéng,in which I 
observed a good collection of cattle and a few shepherds’ tents, &Xc. 
Here the ravine divided into two branches from the south and from the 
west ; our road turned up the latter, called Ningri, where a mile further 
on we halted at 3-40 a. m. 8th October, and being now close to the 
foot of the pass we bivouacked till morning. 

This night I had fortified myself with an extra Chapkan and Paijama, 
which with the excitement of the stolen march through the thick of the 
“*Chinese Tartars,”’ had kept me warm and comfortable enough: the 
first time I may say since leaving Kunti, that I had felt any thing of 
the sort at night. The worst inconvenience I experienced this night was 
the difficulty of opening my watch to time distances, and of writing a 


* The Tibetan form of ‘‘ Feringi.’’ 


178 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [Aue. 


few pencil notes for my field book, &c., my hands being nearly disabled 
between cold and gloves. 


This place, Ningri, is but a narrow ravine far recessed in the Byans 
Himélaya, with little to be seen but bare walls of rock with glimpses of 
snowy summits behind. There was so little fuel forthcoming that. I 
could not boil my Thermometer here, but the elevation may be estima- 
ted at 15,000 feet, 100 feet above Pala, which I reckon to be 500 feet 
higher than Maghram, the ascent up the ravines from that place being 
very moderate. 


Bhauna, with Anand, now returned to Pruang to visit his friend 
Tidya-Makhpun, realize some debts and pick up the news. With the 
Bhotias I started for Bydns at 8.25 a. M. course westward (by south) 
up the Ningri ravine. We met severel Hunias on the road with laden 
sheep, &c. and they stared at me with no little astonishment, as I now 
showed my face without reserve, but none of them presumed to ask 
questions, which were rather defied by the confident air of the Bhdtias 
who had regained their courage now that the danger (such as it was) 
was over; among a party of Hunias I met “ the man of Lamjung” 
again, who also recognized me with some surprise ; he appeared to be 
doing a little in the salt and grain line in partnership with some Kham- 
pa. They asked three rupees for “Puppy worth a timashi, for which I 
had offered a rupee. 


Three or four miles of straight and tolerably easy ascent by a fair 
road (for these parts), brought us to the top of Lipt-Lekh by noon. 
Seven or eight hundred vertical feet of the summit was pretty well 
covered with snow, but this was for the most shallow and well frozen, 
or when otherwise, so beaten down by the traffic of men and cattle, as 
to make a very good path, over which we travelled without any difficulty. 
The sun was shining bright, but the passage of snow was not long 
enough to entail any injury from the glare, though that was of course 
considerable over the snow. The rarefraction of the air was sensible 
but no way distressing to any of us except the ponies, who seem to 
have very little endurance in this matter. Altogether, I found the as- 
cent nothing more than a pleasant morning’s walk, and that after an 8 
hour’s march through the preceding night. A Barometric measurement 
of this pass made by Manson, 14th October 1828, made the elevation 


1848.| Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 179 


16,844 feet (Calcutta Gleanings of Science, April 1829), which appears 
to me rather in excess. 


Lipu-Lekh, like most of the other passes, does not command any ex- 
tensive prospect ; I saw nothing but low ugly looking snowy ridges on 
all sides, a partial glimpse of Gurla, and a spur of bare hills down be- 
low in the direction of Takhlakhar. 


We met with several cut Pine trees near the top of the pass, in pro- 
cess of transport from Bydns to Pruang. Wood, both for carpentry and 
fuel is an article of regular traffic this way ; for Pruang, the upper part 
of it at least, is utterly destitute of trees; as far as I could see down to 
Taklakhar the vegetation was of the scantiest sort, even Dama bushes 
being rather scarce. 


The descent down the south-west side of Lip was long but not 
steep, and I found much the samequantity of snowason the north-east side. 
The road fairly made or naturally good, follows the right bank of the Kah, 
which rises in water courses under the pass. The spot marked on the 
map “ Mandarin’s Camp,” I suppose to be the delta of level ground 
at the entrance of a ravine, with a stream coming from the eastward, 
which opens through the left side of the main valley three or four miles 
below the top of the pass ; this ravine had a wide level bottom near a 
mile long, terminated rather suddenly by steep snow-topped mountains, 
said to be impassable: its elevation, according to Webb’s map, is 14,- 
506 feet ; there is no vegetation here except grass and small herbs. 
_ The origin of the absurd name ‘“ Mandarin’s Camp,”’ may have been 
in the circumstance of a former Zungpun of Pruang having come here 
to visit Captain Webb, when that officer was surveying in Bydns (in 
1816?) Deba Phiindu, the Pruang Zungpun who was relieved last year 
(1845) was the son of Captain Webb’s visitor, and then a mere boy, 
accompanied his father on this occasion. He appeared to have derived 
a favourable impression from the interview, or the present of a fowling 
piece which terminated it, and when last in Pruang, in the office for- 
merly held by his father, is said to have expressed his desire to renew 
the intercourse with any English gentleman who might visit Byans. It 
is well for himself that he had not an opportunity of doing so, for any 
proceeding of the sort if known to his superiors would certainly have 
lost him his ‘ Zung’” at the very least. 


180 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Aue. 


I looked in vain for the great snowy mountain, which rises close 
above the left bank of the Kali between Lipi-Lekh, and the “ Manda- 
rins”’ ravine, as marked on the map under the name of ‘ Koonlus,” 
nor could the Bhotias tell me any thing about it. I have seenit, how- 
ever, from the Deo Dhura, between Lohu-ghaét and Almora, and its 
position must have been fixed by observation from some such distant 
points of view. The snowy summits, though towering to the height of 
22,513, and 21,669 feet, are here quite hidden by the nearness of the 
steep and rocky base. 


Below the ‘* Mandarin’s Camp,” vegetation began to increase, first 
Dama and Juniper shrubs, then birch trees, and at last gooseberry 
bushes and the upper limits of Pine forest. At 3-20 p. m. having walk- 
ed rather quick down the hill far ahead of the cattle, &c., I reached 
Yirkha, which is a small hamlet with one house and a few fields, on 
the right bank of the Kali, just above the confluence of a large stream 
coming through a deep ravine from the westward. The elevation of this 
place is near 13,000 feet, (I suppose that is), according to Webb’s sur- 
vey, which makes the Kalapani bridge some way lower down 12,742; 
but the vegetation appeared to me very luxuriant for such an elevation, 
and the village of Kinti, which I made 13,000 feet, is more cold and 
sterile than Yirkha, and it must be 10 miles road distance from the 
top of the pass, though less in a straight horizontal line. Here I 
found quarters in the vacant cottage which, though low, dark, and 
dirty, felt absolutely luxurious after the miserable discomfits of my quasi- 
tent in Hundes; and the change of climate was no less agreeably © 
marked. 


The pass which we had crossed to-day was a wonderful contrast to 
all the others that I have seen. A march of 7 or 8 hours had brought 
us, with nothing beyond a wholesome fatigue, from a passable encamp- 
ing-place close above a pasture ground on the Huindés side, into a plea- 
sant smiling hamlet, green with shrubs and yellow with harvest, in a 
sheltered Alpine valley, the bottom terraced for cultivation (here and 
there) along the river bank below. 


Lipti-Lekh must be passable for the next month or two, if no fresh 
snow should fall in the interim, indeed, I can readily believe the pas- 
sage might be effected safely even in the middle of winter, if not over- 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 181 


severe, only with proper arrangements and precaution. It was rather 

from the want of such arrangements than from absolute extremity of 

climate, that the Sikhs under Bashti Sing suffered so much damage to 

life and limb in their winter-retreat from Pruang by this pass. The 

commander, obliging his mento carry him ina Dooly, escaped unhurt, 

and those who were maimed by the frost accused him, perhaps justly, 
of imposing on them more than a fair share of exposure. 


The cattle came in 2 or 3 hours after me, all foot sore, I suppose 
from the abominable stony ground of Pruang ; the ponies, as usual the 
least enduring, were dead lame. 


In the abscence of Kumaonis, who had hitherto cooked my dinner 
for me, when I had any, I was obliged to divide the kitchen operations 
between Rechu and myself, and the result was not much worse than 
the average of the last 10 days from the hands of Bhauna and Anand. 
I regaled the Bhotias with all that remained, which was nineteen-twen- 
tieths, of my wine and spirits in the wooden bottles; Rechu had pru- 
dently declined my offers of it in Huindés, because “when the wine is 
in, the wit is out,’ and they had then great need to keep their wits, 
(such as they were) well about them. 


9th October.—I enjoyed such luxurious rest in the little mansion of 
Yirkha, that I was not on foot till 10 a. m., after my last breakfast of 
greased tea and biscuits. 


We crossed over to the left bank of the Kali under Yirkha, a mile 
below which is a good-sized stream coming through a deep ravine from 
the eastward, with plots of cultivated ground at the confluence, very 
similar to Yirkha ; thence recrossing the river, the road lay over a great 
landslip which, for some years past, has quite obliterated the former hot 
spring of Kaélépani: the name however has been transferred to another 
spring further down on the left bank of the Kali, (to which the road 
crosses again,) but the water here is neither black nor hot, nor any way 
remarkable. Below this the valley begins to expand, and gives room for 
Shangduma, a very pleasant little maidan on the left bank of the river, 
beautifully planted with Pines. It was here that the Commissioner 
(Lushington) had his interview with Bashti-Ram Sing in September or 
October, 1841, 3 months before the Sikh discomfiture and flight from 
Pruang. Close below Shangduma, is the hamlet of Mala-Kawa. The 


182 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [AuG. 


valley of the eastern Kali then opens into the main valley of the Kinti- 
Yankti, our road falling into the Kinti road at the hamlet of Tala- 
Kawa, and thence entering on ground already sufficiently described in 
my way to Kunti. 

Having tried in vain to reconcile the map with what I saw of the 
ground between Lipi-Lekh and Garbia, I have come to the conclusion 
that the map is wrong in many particulars. The position of Kalapani, 
if the same site as that pointed out to me, may be about right, but 
from that to the «‘ Mandarin” the distance is very far short of the truth, 
leaving no room for the two confluent streams of Yirkha and the other, 
which have been omitted accordingly ; on the other hand the “ Koonlus 
Peaks’ interfere with the necessary corrections, which if the position 
of the former has been truly fixed by distant triangulation, indicates 
some radical error in the survey of the valley. The Kali meets the 
Kunti river at right angles a long way above Changrew, and not as the 
map has it, in an acute angle tending south-eastward towards that 
village. The confluence of the Tinkar river is equally misdirected ; it 
should come obliquely from the north-eastward running close under the 
village of Changrew. 


It was more than 5 hours’ walk from Yirkha to Garbia, where I ar- 
rived at 35 p. M. I here found my servants and all that I had left be- 
hind at Kunti, and I was not sorry to exchange the inhospitabilities of 
Hindés for some of the comforts of civilized life again. 


It cost me the rest of the afternoon to clean myself, ablutions having 
been quite out of the question during the last 10 days; even now my 
face was only just enough recovered from the blistering of Lankpya — 
Dhira to bear a gentle application of warm water. On looking into the 
glass I was quite astonished at my own visage ; my nose was one entire 
cicatrix, contrasting strangely with my cheeks, which had alreedy 
changed their skin and were now a coior that I had never known since 
boyhood in England ; such roses are to be gathered only in the gar- 
dens of Hundés, 


(To be continued.) 


ee 


1848. | Notice of the Ikhwan al safi. 183 


Notice of the Ikhwin al safi,* by Dr. A. SPRENGER. Communicated 
by H. M. Exnuiot, Hsq. Vice-President. (Continued from the June 


number.) 


12 (25.) A man is a microcosmos_yat~ ple ule! wl. The authors 
explain the subject of this chapter in the following words: “Know, O 
brother, that the knowledge of one’s ownself is the key to every science, and 
this is threefold ; first man ought to be acquainted with the component 
part and economy of his own body, and with all those qualities which are 
independent of the influences of the soul ; secondly, he ought to study 
the soul and its qualities independent of the body, and thirdly, he ought 
to understand their joint action.’ They compare the animal economy 
with the systems of the heavens. According to their opinion every 
thing is formed under the influence of the stars, and every thing must 
therefore bear a resemblance to them. This is the leading idea of the 
natural sciences of the Arabs. The openings of the body, (the ears, 
eyes, nostrils, mouth, orifices of the breasts, navel and the sabylan) 
answer to the signs of the zodiac; the five senses correspond with the 
five planets, reason with the sun, and understanding with the moon. 
The principal functions of the body are equally likened to the seven 
planets; they are the power of attraction Kslx! 5,2, of retention 
KSwlN Fel, of assimilation &<d (13,2, of secretion des15,8!, of nutri- 
tion & 512! 3,1, the vegetative power lM! &521, and the plastic 8>%'I 
$) 9-21. Every element is predominant in one part of the body: in the head, 
fire: this is attested by the sparkling of the eyes and the rapidity of 
the motion of the senses; in the chest air is predominant, for it 
contains the organs of respiration; in the abdomen water, and in 
the lower extremities, on which the body rests, the earth. This idea 
has been revived and expanded by Professor Oken in his natural 
history. 

13 (26.) On the growth of partial souls in the human body, 
RSs! Lexy! gied Sa2a5 (29. The authors explain that this life is a 


* Since I wrote the first part of this notice I found one of the authors of these 
memoirs mentioned in the following terms: ‘‘ Zayd b. Rofa, one of the authors of 
the Ikhwan al safa, was extremely ignorant in tradition, and he wasa liar without 
shame.’’ 

2B 


184 Notice of the Ikhwdn al safa. [Ave. 


period of probation, during which the soul ought to be perfectionated 
and prepared for a future state : knowledge is the food of the mind. 

14 (27.) On the extent of the powers of the human mind to pene- 
trate into the mysteries of the universe ; lus W&LE 9, 

15 (28.) What is life and what is death ; eogalldsalo.. 

16 (29.) On pleasure and pain both of mind and body and in this 
life and in the life to come p¥ Vly wlol Xsale 5. 

17 (30.) Causes of the difference of languages wola Vics Usa! Me... 


Ill. Section. 


1 (31.) On the origin of things according to the notions of Pytha- 
goras. It is shown in this chapter that God has created every thing 
(in opposition to the opimion of those who maintain that the word is 
eternal), and that the system of the world is contained in the units of 
the decimal system. 


2 (32.) On the origin of the logos Us (i. e. intellect considered as 
a substance and not as a faculty). 


3 (33.) The world is a human being magnified sly Sc Nas rey is? 
su! at pital wl. 


4 (34.) On intellect (as a faculty of the mind), and the object of 
intellect U sheets Nast! 9 

5 (35.) On the revolutions and orbits of the stars jlyoMg yy 30.9. 

The authors enter at some length on the sideral period, or Yugas of 
the Hindus, which became known to the Arabs by a translation of the 
Siddhanta. 

6 (36. ) On Love dine! |Kaaleo |. 

7 (37.) On the resurrection sad immortality of the soul Kaleo, $ 
9S cra. 

8 (38.) On motion wll sto lial 9. 

9 (39.) On cause and effect eNc wate, 7 

10 (40.) On the nature of simple and compound bodies a0. 3 
Comerlly. 


IV. Memoirs on law &« 901i! Lslos ort. 


1 (41.) Onthe different religionsand philosophical sects Ws! dJl,sty4I -: 


This chapter is very long, but the reader, who would expect to find 


any facts on the systems of philosophy or heresies then in vogue among 


1848. | Notice of the [khwan al safa. 185 


the Arabs would be much disappointed ; the authors dwell here as else- 
where on generalities, and repeat their dreamy speculations on astrology 
and natural philosophy as they do in every chapter. 

2 (42.) On the road to God ;—admonitions to a virtuous and pious 
life argc) | ul GrybIdgalo 8 é 

3 (43.) On the faith of the Brothers of purity, and on the religion 
of the Rabbdniary was ly nddve g (Ques wl gd! 9 Rist wlas ces 

Qorhazry derives the word 35.2) from lee ; this may be etymogically 
wrong, yet in several Sufi books, (among others in the Kashf al-Mahjtb,) 
in Sa’dy, &e. “ brothers of purity,” and “‘ Sufis,”’ are used as synonymous 
terms. The tenets of this fraternity are chiefly explained in parables 
A physician came into a town, in which the plague prevailed ; he disco- 
vered a remedy by which he cured a man; and by degrees he gained 
the confidence of the whole town. The physician is likened to a pro- 
phet. The duty of sacrificing one’s self for the good of others, is illus- 
trated by the story of Zopyrus: the hero, however, is a counsellor of 
the King of the Hayatilah, and the enemy is Fyroz, King of Persia. 
The authors conclude that the body is for the soul, what the egg is for 
the chicken, it must be destroyed before the soul can find life and free- 
dom: we must, therefore, despise pam and death for higher cbjects. 
Examples of devotion are quoted from the life of Mohammed and. his 
followers. The authors do not neglect to mention the great example of 
resignation: they give an outline of the life of our Saviour, which is 
exceedingly well worked out to illustrate the principle of their fraternity. 
They complain in several passages, that their contemporaries were 
devoid of a practical belief in the immortality of the soul ; and they show 
that Abraham, Moses, and other prophets, as well as Plato, Aristotle, 
and most of the philosophers were actuated by the conviction of another 
life in their actions. 

4 (44.) I give the first part of this chapter in a translation and in 
the original. 

On the social intercourse of the brothers of purity ; on the mutual 
assistance which they rendered each other in the spirit of true 
charity ; on their benevolence, affection and kind-heartedness. The ob- 
ject of this treatise is to inculcate unity, and the duty of aiding each 
other in worldly and spiritual concerns. 

*“In the name of the most merciful God;—Know, O dutiful and 

2B 2 


186 Notice of the Ikhwin al safa. [Avue. 


mild-hearted brother! (May God assist you and us, with his spirit!) 
that wherever our brothers may be, they ought to have a private place, 
where they assemble at fixed times, and from which strangers are 
excluded. They are to converse on their sciences and discuss their 
esoteric knowledge. They ought to dwell particularly on the science 
of the soul, sense, objects of the senses, reason, and the objects of rea- 
soning, and speculation, and on the study of the mysteries of the divine 
books, and revelations, and of the sense of the divine law. But they 
ought not to neglect the four mathematical scieuces, that is to say, 
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and theory of music. They ought, 
however, particularly to occupy themselves with theology (and meta- 
physics) which is the great object of life. They ought not to be pre- 
judiced against any science or book, nor ought they to be biased against 
any sect, for our sect comprizes all sects and all sciences, in as much as 
it consists in speculations on all things, that exist from beginning to 
end, both those which form the subjects of our senses, and those which 
we can be comprehended only by our reasoning faculties, and both inter- 
nal and external, natural and supernatural objects ; but we penetrate into 
the essence of things deriving them from our common cause and origin ; 
they emanate all from our world and soul with all the difference in the 
composition of their masses, and diversity of genera, species and varie- 
ties. We have already mentioned in the second memoir, that we de- 
rive our knowledge particularly from four books: first, the writmgs of 
sages and philosophers ; secondly, revealed books as the Pentateuch, the 
Gospel, the Psalms, and the Qoran and other books of the prophet, the 
meaning (but not the expression) of which was revealed to them by 
angels. Thirdly, books on natural philosophy in which every thing is 
described, as it is now. The subjects of these books are the order of the 
spheres of the heavens, of the division of the zodiac, the motion of the 
stars, the disunion of this volume, the succession of the seasons, the 
metamorphosis of the elements, the diversity of natural bodies, viz. of 
animals, plants and minerals and the productions of art; these are 
pheenomena and forms of existence. All these things contain a recon- 
dite meaning, but men see only the outside and do not penetrate into the 
mysteries of the works of the Creator. Fourthly, books on metaphysics 
(or mystics), which only the pure are to touch, and which were written 
by the hands of scribes honoured and just, Qordn 80,15. They con- 


1848. ] Notice of the Ikhwin al safi. 187 


tain effusions representing the essence, genera, species and varieties of 
the souls, and therefore, (I read ',9,29) the soul is moved, carried 
away, guided, and regulated by them, and through them, and out of them.* 
Souls manifest their actions, and go through various conditions in 
the progress of time and during the periods of the conjunctions and 
revolutions of the heavenly bodies; some descend at times into the 
abyss of incarnation, others rise at times from the darkness of their 
union with a body ; they awake from the period of thoughtlessness and 
neglect, they rise on the day of judgment and justice, they pass over the 
bridge, they enter into paradise, or hell, they are detamed in the bar- 
zakh or remains in the draf, as it is mentioned in the Qoran (22, 102.) 
Behind them is the barzakh to the day of judgment,t and (7, 44), 
“upon the draf are men, who know every body by his mark,” &c. 
These are the men, who are “in the houses which God has permitted 
to be raised, and, that his name be commemorated therein, men cele- 
brating praise in the same morning and evening, men whom neither 
merchandizing nor selling diverteth from remembering God, and the 
observance of prayers and the giving of alms,” (Qoran 24, 36, 37.) 
This is the condition of our distinguished brethren, imitate them, O bro- 
thers, and you will find in these our memoirs every information which 
you require respecting these sciences. 

Know, O brother, that the favors of God are innumerable, yet they 
may be brought under two heads, with several sub-divisions ; the one is 
physical, and the other moral ; to the former belongs wealth, and to the 
latter knowledge Men fall under these heads into four classes, some 
possess wealth but no knowledge, others possess both; some possess 
neither, and some possess the latter and not the former. He who pos- 
sesses both, ought out of gratitude pray to God that he may send him 
one of our brothers, who is without either, that he may .comfort him ; 
he ought to assist him with money to support his life and to instruct 


* Tt is likely that ‘‘ books,’’ has here a mystical meaning; in the dictionary of 
Suff terms p. 42, the words uti” OWS, «the manifest book,” are considered as 
equivalent with ‘‘ universal soul,”’ bl) IQ, 

+ It would lead us into too long details to explain the mystical meaning of these 
allusions to Muhammadan mythology and the Qoran. Those who take an interest 
in the subject I must refer to the Kashf-al-mabjub or the Ma’arif al-’awarif or the 
Fotahat. 


188 Notice of the Ikhwdn al safé. [Aue, 


him in order to insure his happiness in the life to come, but the donor 
ought never to reproach him for what he has received, nor treat him 
with hauteur, for he knows that He who made the poor made the rich ; 
he ought to make no distinction between a real son and a spiritual son ; 
he educates the former, spends money on him and makes him the heir 
of his fortune after his death. It is related of the prophet that he said 
to “Alyy: “I and you are the fathers of this nation.”* Christ said in 
the same sense to the apostles: ‘‘I have come from my father and your 
father,” and it is said in the Qoran, “the religion of your father Abra- 


33 
. 


ham.” All these are allusions to spiritual paternity. The prophet 
says “every relationship ceases except that with the prophet.” He also 
said ‘QO children Hachim, don’t act so that on the day of judgment 
other people bring forward their works and give your relationship to 


me, for I cannot do any thing for you.” 


In this passage he means the 
relationship of the blood which ceases with our body, but the relation- 
ship of the mind continues; for the soul remains after the dissolution 
of the body. And if any one thinks that the son whom he has begotten 
will keep up his memory after his death, he ought to recollect that 
if he leaves a spiritual son, he will keep up his memory in the assembly 
of the learned and of the good, when he may have acquired a name for 
his knowledge, and he will invoke the mercy of God upon him, when- 
ever he may mention his name. We mention in this manner, our spiri- 
tual father much more frequently than the father who has begotten us, 
and we invoke the mercy of God upon him. If a man should think 
that his son by blood will be of use to him in his old age, and that he 
will support him, he ought to recollect that it frequently happens that 
a spiritual son, when he has come to maturity in wisdom and knowledge, 
will by his erudition improve the mind of his master and contribute 
to his salvation without his being aware of it. It is said in the Qordn: 
“You do not know who is more useful to you, your fathers or your 
sons.” 


* The prophet says: the faithful is the brother of the faithful by father and mother. 
Abraham said: who follows me is of me. God answered to Nuh when he said my son 
belongs to my family ; “ he is not of thy family for he has misbehaved. It is said in the 
Qoran when the trumpet will be sounded there will be no relationship between them and 
none will intercede for the other.” It is clear that relationship by blood is of no use for 
the world to come. 


1848. | Notice of the Ikhwan al safa. 189 


If any one of our brothers is rich but uninstructed, it is his duty to 
seek one of his brothers who possesses knowledge and is poor, to take 
him into his house and assist him with his wealth. His well mformed 
brother is to communicate to him his knowledge in return. Thus they 
help each other to improve their conditions im this world and in 
the life to come. But the rich ought never to let the poor feel his 
dependence, nor to treat him with hauteur on account of his poverty ; 
for wealth is a worldly possession, by which the life of this body, durmg 
our stay in this world is sustained ; and knowledge is a spiritual posses- 
sion, and the sustenance of the immortal soul in the world to come; the 
soul is better than the body, and the life of the soul better than the life 
of this body ; for the former is finite, it diminishes and ends, whereas the 
life of the soul in the world to come is eternal. It is said in the 
Qoran, “ You suffer on that occasion only the first death.” The well 
informed brother must not envy the other for his wealth, nor despise 
him for his ignorance, nor must he boast of his knowledge, nor is he to 
expect a remuneration for imparting to him his knowledge. Their rela- 
tion is like that of the hand to the foot: they are equally connected 
in one body and assist each other. The hands do not expect thanks or 
payment, if they put the shoes on the feet or extract a thorn from 
them ; nor do the feet expect a reward, if they convey the hands to 
the place which is conducive to their growth and rise, and where they 
escape the danger of being cut off; for they are members of one body 
and must preserve and assist each other. In the same way the ear 
does not reproach the sight, if it hears the call, nor the eye reproaches 
the ear, for seeing the person from whom the voice comes ; for they are 
faculties of the same mind, and the welfare of the one, is the welfare of 
the other. In the same manner the brothers of poverty ought to assist 
each other in worldly and spiritual needs. 

The assistance which the poor, who is possessed of knowledge, and the 
rich, who is ignorant, ought to afford to each other, may be illustrated 
by an apologue: Two men made in company a journey through a desert, 
one had his eyesight, but he was weak and had so many provisions 
with him that he was unable to carry them. The other was blind, but 
strong and without provisions. The former took the latter by the 
hand and lead him, and the blind man carried the burden of the seeing 
on his shoulder, and they both lived on these provisions. In this manner 


190 Notice of the Ikhwan al safa. [Aue. 


they both arrived safely at the end of their journey. In the same man- 
ner our brethren ought not to reproach each other for having saved each 
other. Mutual assistance ought to be afforded between two and two, 
or more. The ignorant is like the blind, the poor is like the weak, and 
the rich like the strong, the well mformed resemble the seeing, the 
journey may be compared to the union of the soul with the body, and 
the desert with the life of this world, and the safe arrival with salvation 
in the life to come. 

Those of our brothers who are poor, but possessed of knowledge and 
cannot find a rich man who will enter in partnership with them, must 
be patient and wait for better times; for they may be certain that 
God will help them and will send them a comrade or a brother who will 
make easier to them the burthen of poverty, as he has promised it to his 
saints. For him who trusts m God, he will open an outlet, and he will 
help him when he does not expect it. It is also said in the Qoran 
God will facilitate to him who trusts in him his undertakings. He 
ought also to recollect that he who possesses knowledge is better than he 
who possesses wealth, as it has already been explained. 

He who possess neither knowledge nor wealth ought to thank God 
for what he has, and thus to render himself worthy of more, as it is pro- 
mised in the Qorén—‘“‘If you are grateful we are sure to better your 
condition.”’ His mind will be pure, his morals good and he will be 
free from bad principles: he will love his family and what is good, and he 
will be patient and contented with what God has allotted to him. And 
he ought to remember that he who has good morals has a better lot 
than he who possesses wealth and knowledge ; for there are instances that 
a man has wealth and knowledge, or one of the two, and yet he is defec- 
tive in the above qualities, for it frequently happens that philosophers 
who write books on ethics are the most immoral characters, whereas 
simple-hearted men are generally the most moral. Good morals is 
one of the greatest gifts of heaven, as it is said in the tradition, good 
morals, sustenance and death are all the work of God, but He praises his 
prophet for his morals in the words of the Qoran, “thou hast good 
morals.” It is also said in the Qordn :—If thou hast bad morals 
everybody will avoid thee.” It is said that aman with good morals 
will enjoy im paradise the same happiness as a man who fasts and 
spends the night in prayers. Morality is the characteristic of the 


1848. | Notice of the Ikhwin al safa. 19} 


angels and of the blessed in paradise, as it is said in the Qoran: ‘“ They 
(women) said by God, this (Joseph) is not a man, he is an exalted angel.” 
Bad morals are the peculiarity of devils and the tenants of hell, who 
envy each other, as it is said in the Qorén :—<“ And the seduced shall 
say to their seducers, verily ye shall not be bidden welcome ; ye have 
brought it upon us; and a wretched abode is hell.’ They will be to- 
gether in hell. 

Know, O brother (may God help thee!) that the faculties or qualifi- 
tions of the mind of our brothers with reference to the matter to which 
we allude, are four ; first, purity of the substance of the soul : the quick- 
ness of perception and impressiveness ; this qualification is necessary for 
the artisans of our republic as mentioned in the second book. This is 
the faculty of intellect which distinguishes between the objects observed 
by the senses ; it comes after the faculty of speaking at an age of about 
fifteen years; an allusion is made to it in the Qorén: ‘ When your 
children have attained puberty they have no longer free access.” We 
call man of this class in our memoirs “ pure” and “kind.’’? Above 
this class is the class called ‘“ masters,’’ who are the rulers, that is to say, 
the guardians of the brothers. They treat them with muildness and 
kindness, this is the administrative faculty which is acquired after the 
intellectual faculty at an age of thirty years. God alludes to it in the 
words (28, 13.) “ And when Moses had attained his age of full strength 
and was become a perfect man, we bestowed on him wisdom and know- 
ledge.” We call this class in our memoirs our “distinguished and 
good brothers.’”” The third class is above this. It is the class of 
reigning kings who are able to defend themselves against opposition by 
kindness and mildness and by contributing to the welfare of their ene- 
mies. ‘This is the religious turn of mind (administrative faculty or the 
talent of ruling) which developes itself after about the fortieth year 
of age. To this refer the words of the Qoran ;—“ And when he had 
attained the age of strength, that is to say, when he was forty years, he 
(Solomon) said, O Lord, bestow knowledge upon me that I may thank thee 
for the favour which thou hast conferred upon me and upon my parents, 
and that I may perform good works which thou shalt approve of.” 
We have called this class in our memoirs “distinguished and honored 
brothers.’’ The fourth class is above this, and may one of our brothers 
in whatever class he may be aim at it. Men of this class are completely 

Pa 


192’ Notice of the Ikhwin al safa. [Ave. 


resigned, they receive the assistance of God and behold truth, (i. e. the 
deity). This is the angelic condition of mind which is acquired after 
fifty years of age, and which prepares man for departing from this life. 
After this condition of mind follows the exstatic (death), the soul ascends: 
into the heavenly empire, and beholds the resurrection, judgment, and 
the entering into paradise. To this allude the words of the Qoran 
(89, 27.) ‘O thou soul which art at rest, return unto thy Lord, wel} 
pleased with thy reward and well pleasing unto God, enter among my 
servants and enter my paradise.” Again “place me among the heirs of 
the delightful paradise!’ Joseph alludes to it in his words (12, 102.) 
“O Lord, thou hast given me a part of the kingdom, and hast taught 
me the interpretation of dark sayings. The Creator of heaven and — 
earth! thou art my protector in this world, and in that which is to 
come: make me to die a Moslem and jom me with the righteous.” 
Christ alludes to the same in his words to the apostles: ‘‘ When I 
have departed from this temple I shall stand in the air on the right 
side of the throne before my father and your father, and I shall inter- 
eede for you. Goto the kings in the different parts of the earth and 
call them to God, and be not afraid of them, for I am with you, where- 
ever you may go with help and assistance.” Muhammad alludes to 
the same in his words “‘ you will meet me (on the day of judgment) on 
the tank.’ These traditions are well known among traditionists. 
Socrates alluded to the same fact on the day on which he had to drink 
the poison, he said, ‘I separate from you, but 1 go to honoured bro- 
thers who have preceded me, &c.”’ Pythagoras says im the same sense 
towards the end of his golden verses. ‘‘ If you do what I have ordered. 
you will reside in the air.” Molthar (?) says in the same sense, “The 
king asked to his Wazyr, who holds this theory? He answered, “those 
who know the empire of heaven,” &c. Wecall the attention of all our 
brothers to this subject, God leads whomsoever he choses on theright path. 
Many verses of the Qoran are in this sense, viz. all the verses in which 
paradise, its tenants and pleasures are described. The conditions for those 
who aspire to eternal happiness are four :—first, to profess the truth of 
it ; secondly, to meditate on this subject illustrating it by similes and in 
other ways ; thirdly, a firm faith thereon; fourthly, by actions which . 
correspond with this belief. A man who believes in it without meditating | 
believes blindly, and he who reflects on it without firm faith is a sceptic ; 


1848. ] Notice to the Ikhwén al safa. 195 


and if a man was to believe and not to act up to his faith, he does not 
do his duty, and if a man denies and disbelieves it, he isin ignorance. 
“* As to those who believe not in the life to come, their hearts deny the 
plamest evidence and he proudly rejects the truth. There is no doubt 
but that the fire of hell is prepared for them, and that they shall be 
sent thither before the rest of the wicked.”” Know that a man who pro- 
fesses this doctrine, and reflects on it will find in his mind four qualities 
which he had not before :—first, elevation of the mind above the body ; 
secondly, readiness to seek for purity which is in harmony with the mind ; 
third, hope for happiness after this life; fourth, faith im God: on 
all these subjects he is strengthened. 

Know that the believers in the Qoran and the books of the prophets 
may be divided into four classes which only they themselves know :—first , 
some profess their faith by their tongue, but do not believe it with their 
heart ; second, they profess their faith with their tongue, and believe it 
with their heart, but they do not understand its meaning ; third, they 
profess to believe and distinguish (understand), but-do not act up to 
their faith. The first class of these has but little knowledge and un- 
derstanding, and therefore though they exert their ingenuity, and reflect 
on the meaning of the books of the prophets, their intellect is insuffi- 
cient to comprehend it, for they do not comprehend. the literal meaning 
nor the recondite sense. This is the reason why they disbelieve it in 
their hearts and doubt on it. Those who profess and believe do reflect 
and know that a doctrine on which the prophets, the Imams and the 
first Khalifs and all righteous Moslems, and every distinguished man 
agreed, must be true, yet their intellect is not strong enough to enter to 
it, and to feel its truth. Those who fully understand it, but do not act 
up to it, are guided by God, but they have not aid to enable them to do 
their duty ; they stand alone, and every business cannot be performed 
by one man, on the contrary in some instances a combination of many 
individuals is necessary. This is particularly the case with the divine 
Jaws and nomos. A man must possess at least forty qualifications and 
there must be at least forty men united to attain this object. 

The rest of this chapter treats on the choice of a friend, and on the 
choice of a Pyr or Teacher. The author is here even more verbose than 


usual which renders a translation almost impossible. 
2P 2 


194 Notice of the Ikhwan al safa. [Aua. 


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Assi) ese (il Dpioll Li Sy wlambll » oles! 


wy” Wo y8e wey, dry) 3 as’) 3 Bo sgl) 0 plow!) este 


1848. | Notice of the Ikhwan al safa. 195 
Las be 3 BOMal) | 0 Come a Lai lee SM sks] wos” 
SEE) yey gPo Serer Vil MN, Re!) yd, 
col piwsl ESM) ess pe yd) arle ahs ole Dan 
Ba] 5 slo!) Caz hal ypelal palie, SIS) owe 
atiol » yale» coll, gles! yo thi geld y YK I 
usle codly WLLK , dy? Bhd cas peel) usd] isk ule giao] 
Lailee Bat la, polls ps US 72 GR3.9 hyo] 3 kash) wire 
bia ely] e sil 3 Jas 52 esl eto cash! 0 Lib], 
als § yuu usd hl &S Nad] ware] Y] Lemos J ust! dad SI 
23 yaad y Lbye 5 {elgl 5 Lali} 5 Crp 2s] yp > us? 5 oa 
Lys g Lal S\e3] yl Late Lenakx? ell , Leas Wu y= 
Lay bib=/], dyadly cobs) 3] cols), opt] poo 3 ode ae 
ols lel], lel Gyo BU tpdey lat), glaadI pad 1 $6 
a olpiell y cole’) Cg! Lapin 5 ybruil) » Bas) ag yo Uday 
Big b dS) eo 9 ad bent 9] soli Weloy 9 bl pall, gle Lailym 
so L$ Ie le \545, 5) re 5 Lave 5) ey 


Ui Ss ote prt cel cist pele ots IH ylial 
Jey es pr\orun WS yydyx2 Slay ws} ,c¥] csle 9 sles ILS 
\ 43 as ia Koa ase ei eo aie al] wel Legh be aw 
Wy59S alee DI Gal eye sae As shat Mila i= pe 
842 2! yo WIS) ay] gq Msi bal Willy | 5 Uday dy pilivc 
gos) ¥ ass Bow) ho a) rio yh 2 ran Ls] eels bas prix] 
¥ pass ely] rd Js es 3 hada \prosst “i > aye AU} 3) ha sare 


ow. { wee? 
Bas dunce} EAA) | 108 Briana) E65 SM 5 Age 209 | coms ardor] 


bn5 


196 Notice of the Ikhwan al safi. [Aue. 


Sires 5 ‘ack Gi wi prides a)! alin ephebsl| | eppers] 
Lane ad iy oye erie a ple Git ll | SP ut pte a Jbl 
Se), ela] Gy % we Lal, anal SASS Napier , wy” erie 

La} asl) era wy dale oy oy zo all] ex] Le Sub Sd yl Legos 


All] gU3] Le ud yo Aw ly y Legon Lays ye Jd yred WIA U0 
dole uye Boles» tayyt y dll la gd whe Spam ty pay Stoll yy 

che cyl ye HS GU yST lo gs EW and ay we =i 
tale God yl M gts) y al ldy0 alld) al V ic, Seca cell 
SA) aye cod) yl play sharon d » cflal po asle gals co 
BRDA) g Bisys loss ust ame J pl ote yoo a) eS; glee] usa] ,2 
wei) NS 255 day J] gye dxoe boo aiyys ys le po agle 
Jays Cgilducs!) ahi) 3 oh yl ad | ileal) ak) le ytd 


JY xi}, ra g Sale all] Pa bgt Nas? rae Sunas!} &b9] ia | 
yo!) 4s 
T 


 prgell JS 5 ded] $82 Io) Les], bi) bac al us?) wr x! 
om ails sie os p des! dgle wprlyl JG, dels aul 
cst! ue ust SM yl je n> ¢ unt} dale co J 958 al) re 
pilot Bat Jb, phe 2 vs ai) Shel yo Cpe ail JIB 
nd) wy! ess wy! J stunts Do Siro gs phe Loins) Mts dy) Ce 
pital age goad] 3 ginal loys sya DI gd gail pte: 
eel io ‘hg all] JB, als us!) DIE 0 tenho volyest 
all} | be ust] SE eS Cpped ghbiy Days Gers ap D) nays est) yl 
pide cha le Jy AI) Repel age gable Cenand Slaw 5 ale 
Chel D SE pGlonile SIU y pplacl Lolasllags pl Loree J 
13) ehiiy Lad Sebi lace erndl) ey ly) Lad] Ld alll 0 esac 
CppRL rly gy) Agiladill Ryall) Coasts y plas) lees] 


B53 5 ot i silts } ass). w) oss ws wis shad] lys dx: &s9 ls 


i 


1848. | Notice of the Ikhwan ai safa. 197 
olen g shodsd] UH="Us 5 853 ss] pe wy) at lays Rg Aas 
dT US 453 WS agle pays y AU Aapis doko yii3 13) pac!) Jal 

‘ apb ys Jan!) GL) ys Nika ps) Gab Uayly Godlee us 
us) aa SR wy) we wh wis Lob] isle emp Lawo ps) erste 
gly bog Jdy5 Lia) Jee) Cghe Adare» ys Ja! ha2ss Loss ee 
doles giiia yl gledalll adc Eel, yell, plall » deks'l 

“ dJy8) _ Sad abl) Zo “on ah ‘hehiniat AS ae 
@ uy” |e 85 p29 Alle 0 Jae Bris g Be] donde y Soll Sip 
rae ust Lato LW) enrel e Yo] isle lato Lylets , 
), le wy? a) Bhan) 9 Led3 lal use a welt Bast wy! JJ) used 
Jd 2 duos! Ham ly alty daildme Rd lll yy wkd) sbist 
BAM Io ee Ural Bm Ge pay Agila AGG ball Liat 
dausllE se pot pdM Bytes dune!) dye iyo phe (pill igor 9 
gent ¢, ea 5 Js: 3 hii, pve ¥ vo ul Sanz!) an w 
ead? Jas cols aU) $3 LoS Fas oo ¥dho ght $53), he us? 
dest) y) 6 , ple us 


6 ee? us? >) Soliadl woge)] ve 
oy Jim Lopigled y Laplace? gb Lalo 3 colar lags Gye tie 
say Nodal 5 Seyly dull ks doles lip lin , ale, 
roth} anole) omy riven, le Lo} eas Leyiglas ny 
J, 5) ym aS yi \ a0 Lana yd] 4) - Lew Say shady o> Se, 
es! Lately 13] upoel uy wh: ») whey! S) ‘bes ha 
Loge y, $V zhi!) aa wy” By Ky By WS pains g US shud us| 


Laghve do], HS phe, Loa th Vay chos] ely?s dal, ince cod) Leys d 


198 Notice of the Ikhwan ai iit [AuG. 


53] Kron} 13) pcos] cle ue) zou] on Bice) 7 
Sdo), rad wey? ee Ko dbo] 3})] }3) goal] ole ws pro] J, 
us? Lad glad Teg i yd ce Lege Sol, Ms rama LoJlail -. 
ere lanka 5) cauigiee Ls bal Ls 3 lieth rns) ane 
wien Ls] 5 oo] c eile nd owl] wp) ws wr w 
ral Kila y dha lal use rau Jel used rau bi leo jie ef! 
uplay jae Lia], pale 1) ws? doles jb) Usd rams ex] usd 
a; EKO wow) LBARD phd) Reine his pus Gyb)) 3 usb} 
dals a; &20 rd yy , dnl] US 53 gael p> TF bloc cosh.) ass 
cle Alest ptaa] 8s Lgecdlos), Bald ydohs — ceocdldny par 
Lod da 3 Urls Leda s l=! 2! \,h5 3 mi MESiRe Lame) 9 5 KAAS 
ves) loys Y 55 geo 5 ash ) wd bls? cs }y dhoLo use Bas Sol 
wi } on) wr SY a5 dll } 3 dioLo Lepdbve dal, re Se &S eve. Lekooe 
che] rae wd wbsrds yada]. Y), usec Jb ale’. My ya5),) 
duns!) po pol] dye? 9m Gr ybll, path dite) ey Us gill 
io Nis BAT Fs! us? Sle), Wall Syss'l gb Ulacll, 
Gy ay) us Le}, Lid], on ce web ay cd shat] Lis |S] 
ay pe Wiyds ge Ql pode J a cul be gp yk2e yl AI geass 
SEF ALY, dees BA JAI pe dlott Le ake LbRE! ob) pl 


o 


es 
Somme ee ee eee a 


Leta (90 B95 92 9 lays? A ast al | ase) ws 3 els Basis 

Kr 3 Vag 850 | Oe a Jas al) a2 ie ae) es) JY; ere ) 
lel wy J! Gy usa] abi ele] ws wy uso] os! baz wl al 
tensin Slolly lerom gS, Lid) old © 5 pers] sls! Knee hav 


Sanslly wail opty bo Yds y bis Wallac 5 dus] pte de) 


lo $3 ade ARS Vagiyl3 Nas 3 \ang3 ghee Nas 5) Lab Bdge > ptt 5 


1848. } Notice of the Ikhwan al safa. 199 


ape Ledoce als iS] wy a usa] us $ ykabg wl al Usk, 
Ler gy Pas a's cle % Sing asle Ughs ah) of GAS) dans ais 


cody Cp aye el g whiedas) ei Sia JE (Sat alll dey LS daz 
gis 3) abo Aas ; ea al usd os3 Ui), d] os? ple usd Ys je 
Lay Agel) Fpld Kal, yas epee FaWlaT 2 La pale 

ieee uso] w! ¢ Ina wy) a Ligeia Ns wy? BS Cho iS AU pans 


om ens Les sho J] a Rae 5 eh) Rivoli y ed! ot uy? 


opti 8 AIUD elall, Sal ve Cgbel coalll aye yi 
WUSS gill flea! ade ote Gi py erdaly Jolly ell hel 
gd AT yydads lllaic stole Lelyd lod Ll 3, ke 
Cpral bel yd Jy WL pol spud og hee gol UT yyyele y gtd I 
gis) o> yl Gpd dls Ure, LS GIS Vd PD 9 tis we H 
aglat al) & 8 8 ps!) 8 JB LS plebll Sled alll ale 
Ja yje pda pa 35, ry oe Se cee ls pines 


JY aka Gis rm ple 5 &) 5 dale all} ile Jdos” LSeS) 


ee ee 


lal Ble \as Cn dS y 9 uhsd JY 5 pane ee er WHI, 
ag SEI asta uses? hs 3} w! 43 33 , yo a, “ Vyas 
dks y AGUS) GUAT oye C gl | ye wd esi] ptlall day dig 


USLe Mae aa J Le a ee a 5 she et his!) cs 


rr rr i es 


Se ee —_— ——— ——— 


ass] * ve ye UN lam rf Usp S) Cb 853) alll 504) ra 
Kc yw 5 JSet8] ¥ Nem y fipreg hd pgm s\o.o J] ee)! dale Wins? y 
2G 


200 Notice of the Ikhwan al safa. [Aue. 
wluyns] lao! Speall ala SB) o> y RSW) allball 
duns! alee os r) Lauer ia Sy cee dx bab US] S58) Ie Sadyly “a 


aa 5 aad tl |} phdvo iil et lal aa Lal Ida SI 
red] she 5 yl SI tf gh g Sh rund) Corgd shay!) da ve 
By) By glpdd) gle dst], easily ddaidly Lapel] sthel , 


duns! aye wy” dha wl das dlslas] oe 3!) usle Sly 5) isoks| 


>) le, Kom ee * dauatly ya) zy lif 3 ds Neb BSB) sit] bs!) 4 
Ge WU) a3 aly ad D) staal) Gils] Listy 6b pipsowe) endl 


ely selogels ealan!] Getic gles bsS yoo egy KAD 


Gly pe I lds dite) Cale) yb ade glial gay alaall , 
Bayly) age ctl) F 5B) omy sake) 35 Flyloo) » abl, 


sat) eh | ion 5 V8) pal ar wan Suns! Ny dey 


eR ee igh a hs) ls ie! L) 5 Ja caiuet oy ae 


——— ———— — 


we? rare oil es BAD y3 iste heel wl cowl, ae 9 ue de 
Wycods ust ) us®s $d Gy sal aly 1] “Lass} Giles) bly, 


FdDlinve 9 AVL] Jon, pphansll Ns®s ib 43 Secs] us? eicls eS) 
ducllalyo 0 di orlamod dey Saylyll Kclell Sal usta Gell 
waas ley clyrall $5 a3 Lente 5 Spal! Bilao!) gles Sagaall 
pics! y yyy eaegll ye Rel sSll fla) dalAds awd) enySle dl 
e2 » Jeless yi | bas" aga pula! clas) 5 


re es ——— —=—— 


pers ee ee 


pe ae penn 5) as us? wre Kid » a) bid) 2 


he Dm 9 ps Leal] 9 és ey Bim ks 9 PS was estes! BBS si] 


es ae 


“aclall Qa ays usiiale 5. ye eo sii. 33 oy Jaye 


iat ae Se Sooo 


Lelaaro shtty? YD, Walle re Lee wells 3 ol pases ae 


1848. | Notice of the Ikhwdn al safa. 201 
ws WU 
ot Asc A Low o sly Cs § w33), UE Sead le Ln bs 
ep che pty phil ply aale AUT ce dos ll Lev 5 pf 


Na) a3) ybhaylyss ASB awa! LQ) lawl) psa be ishisl , 


Lew] Lv 3ds)] ols] dic Sp geive gio 5 Bs gv censdsla} , 
ul Nas Id] eel C2455 gl evs] ue ax bo} Bau Ma) 
Ll yb Leda 4 or) AY, elys oly] ug! weet 1K) 
Le eles wy! — 3} lo) we? EsdN] Bbw) 8 Cpr ypeis let] 
SLlall yh JS ose paphe Lal ally Ms Tyd) O68 gat Sipe 
wrgSlo wyg5 p32 one! 4? JY vee) xd2 (ja) uw? 2 Syd jg! Je ss 
USE al), Ledoce lS] Jeers Les] es % ude us? shoul] 


ballsa> w! Yi] Ks? bysd5 col] 9 pbiane b],.0 We Shing 


5 Tom 


oy” es . 1 p keoad y lal, Yue!) E80 es TUS 
stagger! Bheld LGM UG) Slat der yl ped lor C3 hin 
eels creel y SbeM ye Coyyds pedlidel ype! Ul, poll Ian 
dleladk S gad) alll, hic, pads Guralll aww) , 

we B ypaio pb bull LyBoll ol abel, pod) Ide! Aline! Jlocdl_ gs 
br Gadaelly lyase BLS oyySy ay Gada phe A jywates] » IWldre 
rahe wy po Mads MS tire!) atl sliatl a piste sé 
AU) SB date wyySy aalds al Siall ped) Jas ylablly odd, thre 


Lada) SS a3 dyes J Glad ayy) audi yo amt Livia (be 

le gs WLAN SU) duce! ne Coppi Cpaill £5 

slay) at ak a ells only liiyo( celal 

BBM) 221551) dunce!) pair] Insid dic Ble), jill ed, 
2G 2 


202 Notice of the Ikhwdn al safa. [Ave. 
wyB la pe DS gl pled s PLS, pei lor plod yaa), alll 
Bi Nive dns} ole Na ev wesell £ pds, hess 3) AAG , 
Biluls 80 5) dalds Sana se dilul pe lmdal Yas Log5 yxy ¢ 
peer y Gdare y hoy) daily y Apilecs Wale ro anil Gorey 
SA pd Alby Guae yao Ailuly Bol abe Calys lh pe oS, 
Joy eo AS ppatny prey Alons 5G Jl5 Wd pro], ec wo? GO) as 
Asha pileo jai J ai) alde alls) Aya) Lid) BUS) agle 
ASluaby 3103 Coa!) Le) Yas Sas, auld o Cid Real] USI Lal , 
cseill Sales! | 0 Mdm Sieg) plas y Sis Cod yps aly Gare 
wl MLS), ytadpell dog Ig SUA) abgbe? le enka) of 
wpparianall y cgphooll y Cplill sds ay 3), athe gall gx! be 
AS} }s) 6 yeas blBe 5 wphod 5 dogs A, bisoa al wy) jg) 
poss 7 oy ty ese Ln Ul, alist tS spas , 


FyScol) ju) Falk? Coainl, vaiyl, al) a8 4 Lsalles sy 


eal ele a) css! 2) of 5 polen as] peste hissd) Cet 
wy doy ehe_yel DS Unt, die » a) ia ae ie aioe 
gelyaeld yo] Bele 3 pps] zos| . chs 2 L3) re yp 


al) ad ‘hessian iilb ye tai Sey 5) gels? I, 7 + eh 


5 (45.) On faith and on the morals of the Moslems Bale. 
Waesel) Jledrs wlestl. 

6 (46.) On the divine law ose! Cg] Sar lo U, 

7 (47.) On praying to God su ca) Keo} EQS uns 

8 (48.) Phenomena of the spiritual world ‘or of supernatural 

beings (ytgilas NM les! &a5 23, 

9 (49.) Onthe different kinds of Government Koolgedicl Py BOs 

10 (50.) System of the whole world Byawls adled! Oni &.0s5 

11 (51.) On the magic and con ik os weed 

yuring rele lg | iuate 
12 (52.) Conclusion s\a2)) yd! led ii, 


1848. | On the motion of the Glacier of the Pindur. 203 


Note on the motion of the Glacier of the Pindur in Kumaon. By Lieut. 
R. Stracuery, Engineers. 


In No. 181 (August 1847) of the Asiatic Society’s Journal, I gave 
an account of the Glacier at the head of the Pindur River, in which it 
was noticed that I had been unsuccessful in an attempt to measure 
directly the motion of the glacier. In the past month (May 1848), I 
again visited this glacier, chiefly with the intention of making an accu- 
rate measurement of its motion; and the result of my operations I 
now propose to detail. 

About 200 yards below the small tributary that enters the main gla- 
cier from the N. W. an old moraine, grown over with grass and bushes, 
which vouched for its present stability, offered a convenient station from 
which the motion of the ice could be observed. ‘The moraine is heaped 
up against an almost perpendicular wall of rock, sufficiently high to 
command a view of the greater part of the surface of the glacier along 
the line on which observations were to be made. This line, which is 
nearly perpendicular to the general direction of the glacier, was marked 
by two crosses painted white, one on the rock in contact with the old 
moraie, the other on a cliff on the opposite side of the valley. A 
stake was driven into the moraine, at its highest point, close to the 
rock on the line between the two crosses, and a Theolodite was set up 
over it. Five other marks were also made on the glacier, at intervals 
along the same line, by fixing stakes in holes driven in the ice with a 
jumper. These marks, which were all carefully placed on the exact 
line between the crosses by means of the Theodolite, were completed 
at about Oh. 30m. p. M. on the 21st May. 

On the following day the Theodolite was again set up on the same 
place as before, and being properly adjusted, the cross-wires of the 
telescope were directed to the cross on the cliff on the opposite side of 
the glacier. A stick was then set up near the first of the five marks 
that had been made the previous day, and was, by means of signals, 
moved up or down the glacier, till it appeared to coincide exactly with 
the cross-wires of the Telescope, and consequently to be exactly on the 
lie between the two crosses painted on the cliffs. The distance between 
the centre of the stick and that of the fixed mark was then measured, 
which evidently showed the downward progress of the ice at that point 


204 On the motion of the {Aue. 
of the glacier since the marks was made the day before. The same 
process was repeated at each of the other marks. 


On the 25th May the progress of the fixed marks was again mea- 
sured in exactly the same way. The results of these measurements are 


as follows: 
Distances of fixed marks from standard line. 
Time of observa- At east foot {Near the 
tion. On the west|On the me-| of medial jmiddle of |Onthe east- 
moraine. |dial moraine] moraine. the clear ice.!ernmoraine. 
hm 0 0 0 0 0 
21 May, 0 30p.m. ft. in. ot." mn; ft. im: | team it. In. 
22 May, 1 15 p.m. 0 54 1 02 y.-'@ 1 02 0 62 
25 May, 8 45a.m. ey 2 92% 2) dd. Gd eae 1 52 


The motion in 24 hours of the several marks will also be found to 


be— 


Mean motion of Ice in 24 hours, (in inches.) 


Date. On the} On the |At east foot) Near the| On the; Approx. 
west mo-| medial of medialjmiddle ofjeast mo- mean Tem- 
raine. moraine. ; moraine. |the clear ice.|raine. perature. 

21 to 22 May, 5.3 11.9 11.6 11.9 6.5 430F. 
22—25 May, 57 7.6 8.4 8,8 3.8 38°F. 
General mean, 5.5 9.7 10.0 10.3 al 


The progress of the lower extremity of the glacier was likewise 
approximately measured by observing the apparent angular motion of a 
pole fixed on the top of the eastern moraine, and of a conspicuous rock 
lying not far from the middle of the glacier. 


The results of these observations are : 


Mean motion of Ice in 24 hours, (in inches.) 


Date. 
On the moraine. Near middle of Glacier. 
19th to 20th May, 3.0 a ‘ 
20th to 23rd May, 6.2 8.1 
23rd to 25th May, 5.3 10.8 
General mean, 48 9.4 ; 


| 


1848. | Glacier of the Pindur in Kumaon. 205 
The comparison of the motion of the lower and upper parts of the 


Glacier is: 


Mean motion of Ice in 24 hours, (in inches.) 
On the middle of the Glacier- 


“On the lateral moraines. 


— 


9.4 


10.0 


Lower part of Glacier. 4.8 


Upper ditto, 5.3 


At the time of my visit to the glacier hardly any of the last winter’s 
snow remained on its surface. The weather, which was tolerably fine 
up to the 22nd May, after that day became very bad. Besides a good 
deal of rain, about 3 inches of snow fell on the 23rd, and as much on 
the 24th, and on the morning of the 25th, the clearer parts of the 
upper end of the glacier were still covered with snow, though it had 
melted on the moraines and open ground near the glacier. This bad 
weather appears to have had considerable effect in retarding the motion 
of the ice. 

I may as well here mention that the motion of the Mer de Glace, as 
measured by Prof. Forbes, varied from 27 to 9 inches in 24 hours, in 
different parts of the glacier, and at different times between the months 


of June and September. The motion of the middle part of the glacier 


of the Aar is also stated by M. Martins to be about 71 métres per 
annum, which amounts to about 72 inches in 24 hours. 

The elevation of the foot of the glacier, where the Pindur leaves it, 
determined by the comparison of corresponding Barometrical observa- 
tions, made there and at Almora (5586 ft.), is 11,929 feet above the 
sea. The elevation of the station where the Theodolite was fixed to 
measure the motion of the glacier, was similarly found to be 12,946 
feet ; and the elevation of the surface of the glacier near its lower end, 
at a distance of about 6000 feet from the Theodolite station, being 
about 12,140 feet; the slope of the surface of the glacier is about 73 
degrees, 


206 Notice on the Coleoptera of Hong Kong. [Ave. 


Notice on the Coleoptera of Hong Kong, by Capt. CHAMPION, 95th 
Regt. (Communicated by Dr. J. McLexuanp.) 


It may not be generally known by Indian Naturalists, that a very 
complete collection of the insects of Hong Kong, especially its Coleop- 
tera, has been made by John Bowrmg, Esq. a Member of the Entomo- 
logical Society of London, who has been for some years a resident of 
the Island, and is an excellent practical Entomologist and Naturalist. 
As Mr. Bowring returned to England by the April Mail, it is to be 
hoped that he will not neglect the opportunity of publishing such of his 
collection as remain at present undescribed. 

The insects made up for sale by the Chinese, and usually arriving in 
England ina very mutilated and unscientific state of preservation for 
the cabinet of the Entomologist, were described as far back as the time 
of Fabricius, and of Donovan in 1798; with this exception, there have 
been very scanty notices of other Chinese insects (consult Dejean’s Cata- 
logues of Coleoptera) until Mr. Hope, in March 1842, published half a 
century of the Coleoptera of Canton and Chusan, collected by Dr. Can- 
tor, at a period when he was too much of an invalid to collect largely. 
An almost unexplored field thus lay open to Mr. Bowring on his arrival 
in China, and although his means of research have been almost entirely 
limited to the little Island of Hong Kong and neighbourhood of Macao, 
the result of his labours has been very successful. Part of his new 
Coleoptera and Homoptera have been published in the Annals of Natu- 
ral History, Vol. IV. December, 1844, by Adam White, Esq. There 
is reason to believe that insular and mountainous Hong Kong is more 
productive in its Entomology than the opposite coast although the 
general features of the mountains there resemble those of Hong Kong, 
and produce a similar Fauna. Macao seems to differ more than would 
be expected from its distance from the Island. Already is Mr. Bowring 
in possession of upwards of six hundred Coleoptera from these two 
localities. 

Mr. Bowring and myself paid much attention this winter to the col- 
lection of the Carabideous Genera, the rarer species of which, as in other 
countries, appear to frequent marshy localities or the summits of moun- 
tains. Several fine species were there captured in tolerable abundance, 


and possibly belonging to new genera. Amongst those whose genera 


| 


f 


; 


1848. | Notice on the Coleoptera of Hong Kong. 207 


were recognised are a fine Galerita, several Chleenii, three species of 
Helluo, a Panageeus, several large Pherosophi (Brachinidze), a Clivina, 
Dyschirius, Casnonia, and Agra or Leptotracheilus. The beetles be- 
longing to Badister, the Amare and Harpalide, are of small size. ‘The 
largest Carabideous form has much the appearance of Omaseus—it is 
thirteen lines long. Including the Tiger Beetles and their allies, with 
Carabideous Beetles, Hong Kong cannot produce much under three score 
of species ; a very large number for a small island, the geographical 
position of which is tropical. The Carabideous genera are the most 
abundant of all the insect tribes during winter in Hong Kong, some 
forms commencing to appear with autumn. In April they are very abun- 
dant, and I still find a few in May. They now however give place to 
the Cicindelidz, none of which are found here during winter. Of Cicin- 
dela Mr. Bowring mentions ten species ; Colliuris longicollis, is found at 
this season on the flowers of Bauhinia Vahli(’?) W. and A. Tricon- 
dyla pulchripes (White) on Litchee Trees, differing in habit from its 
congeners, by being found on trees, not at their roots. It is apterous, 
like other species. A small species of Lebia and of Brachinus is found 
on flowers. Scarites has not hitherto been found in the Island, and 
Calosoma and Carabus proper are probably confined to Northern China. 

Water beetles are abundant in pools of water during the spring months, 
and comprise genera from the giant Trochalus to the more minute 
but still teresting forms. At the same season Coprophagous Insects, 
are abundant. Onthophagi, armed cap 4 pie, yielding in interest to few 
of the Indian species, and so numerous that I believe fifty species in an 
estimate were no exaggeration. Copris, Onitis, Hister and Aphodius, 
as might be expected, and parhaps the largest known species of Sisyphus 
on record—the 8. Bowringu (White), remarkable for the extraordinary 
spinal projections from its coxee. Similar spines occur in S. senegalensis. 

The Brachelytreous genera are far from abundant, and the forms 
small; one of the largest is a small Emus, 6 lines long. 

Of other families of insects the mass are found at the commencement 
of summer and during the summer rains, between April and August. 
Disselicus Cantori is found in Hong Kong as well as in Chusan. There 
are many interesting species belonging to the Melolonthideous or Ceto- 
nideous genera, and those soft-bodied insects, amongst which Lampyris, 
Cebrio, Malachius, &c. are classed. An Atractocerus is of very rare 

2H 


208 Notice on the Coleoptera of Hong Kong. [| Ave. 


occurrence. LElateridee and Buprestidae not very abundant. Dorcus 
on the mountain range above Victoria in June. I am not acquainted 
with any Chinese species of Passalus, a genus abounding over India and 
the Archipelago. The Mylabride few in species, but these abounding 
in numbers. The Heteromerous genera tolerably numerous, but princi- 
pally found under stones on hills; not on the sea-shore as in the Medi- 
terranean. Cossyphus has not been found. The Helopidee which 
devour Agarics under bark are scarce, for trees are restricted to a few 
ravines in Hong Kong. Notwithstanding this there are numerous forms 
of the Longicorni and Curculionide. They are found on bushes if 
trees are wanting. Mr. Bowring had a true species of Tetraglenes (a 
Manilla genus) with the four eyes quite distinct. To one of the fami- 
lies which bring up the rear of the Coleoptera, belongs Sagra purpurea, 
found on Euphorbia antiquorum (S. lugubris in Ceylon, is found on the 
Castor Oil plant)—Donacia having been found in Ceylon* may possibly 
occur in other parts of India and China, but has not been found here. 
There are many interesting species of Galeruca, Crioceride, Clythride, 
the pretty Platycoryne bifasciatus, Tortoise Beetles, and some of our 
early favorites the Vaches a Dieu, one of which is a very large sized 
species. 

A few days before Mr. Bowring’s departure 9 specimens of three 
new species of Paussus were added to the Entomology of the Island. 
They were all found under stones, and two of the species in the nest of 
a small yellow ant. I believe this will prove the first notice of Alpine 
Paussi. I think Indian species have usually been recorded as being found 
in low ground, but all these had reached the highest elevation to be 
found in this Island: upwards of seventeen hundred feet. The three 
species all crepitate, and at least one of them has a discharge staining 
like that of a Brachinus. I am not certain that both sexes crepitate. 

I must leave Mr. Bowring to tell his own tale of Coccoideous para- 
sites found on the Dragon-fiy and on the common Fulgora Candelaria, 
an inhabitant, but not illuminator, of the Pumplemos Trees. 


* When at Point de Galle I observed that the leaves of a species of Limnanthe- 
mum (L. Wightianum) which grows in tanks, were devoured by a Carabideous larva, 
and a few months after found a species of Donacia on it. I cannot find any notice 
of Donacia as an Indian or Javanese genus. 


1848. ] Notice on the Coleoptera of Hong Kong. 209 


The few remarks I have made on Hong Kong Coleoptera may pos- 
sibly attract the attention of Indian Entomologists to the descriptions 
which I trust Mr. Bowrmg may find leisure and inclination to make 
when in London, where he will have access to the numerous Indian 
genera lately published. I have done far too little whilst abroad in 
Entomology to be more than a mere field collector, which must be my 
apology for the unscientific mode in which my notes are put together. 

Out of the six hundred Sp. Mr. Bowring has collected of Chinese 
Coleoptera, at least fiveh undred require careful search amongst flowers, 
or under stones or other localities. Hong Kong is chiefly Indian in 
its forms, but the capture of so many Carabideous genera leads to the 
supposition that Northern China, where a true Carabus is found, must > 
contain some interesting Beetles approaching to the European forms. 
The Chinese are a nation who, satisfied with the knowledge they acquired 
centuries back, remain stationary and have no turn for the advance 
which science has made in every branch in Europe. They are not 
likely to do much for the science. 

Central China is nearly on the same isothermal line with the Medi- 
terranean; although more southerly in latitude. Its climate and pro- 
ductions are however very different. Cold dry weather and northerly 
winds during winter, cold fogs during spring, extreme moisture accom- 
panying the setting in of the South West Monsoon durmg May and 
June, after which there is excessive heat until autumn, when the wea- 
ther becomes rainy and very changeable. In Southern Europe, rain in 
winter; dry heat from spring to autumn. In vain do we look on the 
sea shore of China for the Scaritidee and Pimeliz so abundant im the 
Mediterranean. The cold season is in no country very productive of 
Insects; that of Hong Kong produces numerous species of the only 
ones likely to be found during that season of the year—the Carabideous 
forms, whilst the China Pine, Dog Violets, Azaleas and Honeysuckles 
are in blossom. From all I know of Hong Kong Entomology I should 
say that the scanty notices hitherto published respecting China Proper 
give a very inadequate idea of its Entomological resources, and that 
when the time arrives that its interior can be explored, many novelties 


will reward the labours of the Naturalist. 


210 Journal of the passage from the [Ave. 


Journal of the passage from the Dharee falls to the Hirnphal, by 
Captain Fenwick, (late of the Nizam’s Service) in charge of 10 
boats laden with coal, by order of R. N. C. Hamitton, Esq. 
Resident, Indore. [Communicated by order of the Lizut. GovER- 
wor, N. W. P.| 


Srr,—On receiving your instructions at Timmournee to examine the 
Nerbudda from Hindia to the falls of Dharee, I proceeded to the for- 
mer place, where I arrived on the 29th of January, and have now the 
honor to lay before you the result of my expedition. 

2nd. About Hindia the river does not appear to be applied to any 
useful purpose, and the only available boats or boatmen, are those em- 
ployed at the different ferries or ghauts. 

3rd. The boats are consequently unfitted for ascending and descend- 
ing the more difficult parts of the river, being too broad and low-sided, 
and the boatmen are unskilful in their use. _ 

4th. With some difficulty I succeeded in procuring from a village a 
few miles above Hindia, a boat that from its shape was more suited to 
my purpose, and having fitted it with mast and sail, and engaged boat- 
men, I started on the afternoon of the 30th January. The boat was 
flat-bottomed, 19 feet 9 inches long, and 4 feet 9 inches broad. 

5th. I was accompanied from Hindia to Mundaar by two canoes 
lashed and manned by fishermen; these I found most useful, as they 
enabled me to precede the larger boat in places where from the shallow- 
ness of the water its progress was necessarily slow. From Mundaar I 
permitted them to return, as1 found I could dispense with their assist- 
ance for the remaimg part of the journey. For any purpose of 
traffic these canoes would be perfectly useless, as the waves in the rapid 
parts of the river completely fill them, and if laden they would sink. 

6th, From Hindia to the junction of the Ajnal river the Nerbudda 
is unusually favorable for navigation ; near the foot of Joga, we were de- 
layed by some rapids, but to boatmen well acquainted with the river, 
they would be impediments of no moment. 


7th. Commencing at the Ajnal river, the bed of the Nerbudda ex- 
tends to nearly double its usual width, and is divided into many small 
shallow streams running between rocks and jungle, the inclination being 
s0 great as to give this part of the river more the appearance of a 


1848. | Dharee falls to the Hirnphal. 211 


collection of mountain streamlets than the course of an important river. 
At the junction of the Machneh river, these rapids cease, and the stream 
is concentrated into one large deep pool to the head of the Mundaar 
falls, a distance of 2 miles. 

8th. The Mundaar falls are almost as high and the descent of water 
more perpendicular than the falls of Dharee, which in general character, 
they closely resembled. Towards the southern bank a smaller stream 
makes the same descent in a number of short drops, down which my 
boat was dragged by 30 men, but in places it was almost carried. 

9th. From Mundaar to Basnia, opposite Chandghur, the river resumes 
its usual character of pools and shallows. 

10th. From Basnia to within a few miles of Dharee, high abrupt 
rocks rise on each bank of the river, which flows between them, 
hemmed in to about + its usual width with rapids almost every mile, at 
one place it narrows to 34 feet! 

11th. I reached Dharee at noon on the 7th of February, having thus 
been 9 days on my way. 

12th. From my personal observations and the enquiries I was ena- 
bled to make, I am of opinion that from the junction of the Ajnal river 
to the bottom of the Mundaar falls the Nerbudda is useless for naviga- 
tion. 

13th. From Basnia to near Dharee the river is only just passable, 
and I fear that the number of men who would be requisite to take a 
laden boat down it would make the cost of carriage equal to, if not 
greater than what it would be on land. 

14th. It is impossible to conjecture how the rise of the river during 
the rains may affect this last portion of the stream. It appears to me 
that it would probably cover the difficulties, but the boatmen hold a 
contrary opinion, and until a trial has been made in that season the 
question must, I fear, remain undecided. 
April, 1848—Dharee.—The boats bemg laden below the falls were 

loosened from their moorings at sunrise on this date. _ 
5th. (4 mile)—Ringaye “tur.”* Not difficult; there is a good sandy 

beach or landing place here on the Poonase side, but the jungle must 

be cut for five or six hundred yards from the road to the landing 
. place. 


* Tur, a rapid. 


pi2 Journal of the passage from the [Ave. 


(34 miles) Deep water the whole way, detached rocks on the 
river, but not dangerous. At Kumla-tur 5 feet water with bad 
rocks in the channel. This is considered one of the worst places 
between Dharee and Mandhata. Laden boats are let or eased down 
with ropes, and empty ones dragged up. 

(1 mile) A narrow passage near the right bank, 6 feet water, 
detached covered rocks here and there, to be carefully avoided. 

(1 mile) Deep water, ruins of Kinchgurh on the right bank, and 
junction of the Kunnair river. 

(2 miles) A fine, large, broad, deep pool all the way. Rocks 
here and there. 

Buckutgurh.—A rock in the middle of the river, the point just ap- 
pearing above the water. 

(+ mile)—Chota Chokee ‘‘ tur’? —4 feet water, not difficult. 

(; mile)—Motta Chokee “ tur’’—4 feet water, but rocks in the 
channel, narrow passage, boats of more than 6 feet beam could not 
pass without great danger. Laden boats are let or eased down with 
the ropes, and empty ones dragged up. 

(4 mile)—Kote Keira.—A deserted village on the left bank. 

(; mile) —Sillanee. 

93, by the Natives 5 coss from Dharee.—Some rocks from above 
Kote Khera hidden under water, to be carefully looked after. 

6th. (2 miles)—Byron purun “tur’’—4 feet water, passage narrow, 
with 3 turnings, difficult for laden boats, which are let down with 
ropes, and empty ones handed over through small outlets, with less 
than one foot of water. 

On Karjee Mandhata. 

(; mile)\—Markundee “ tur’ —4 feet water, narrow passage. 

(? mile)—Kookaree.“ tur’ —4 feet water, narrow passage. 

(3 mile)—Bhallarow “tur’—4 feet water, considered (and is) a 
very difficult one, extending for more than one hundred yards. Laden 


boats are carefully let down with ropes. 

(44 miles)—A very deep and broad pool all the way from Kathar 
(or Kothoun) Ghat, some hidden rocks here and there, but not dan- 
gerous. 

(4 mile)—Choario “ tur’—4 feet water, rocks in the channel, 


passage, narrow as usual; Chorour river joins here on the right bank. 


1848.] Dharee falls to the Hirnphal. 213 


(4 mile)—Dherra Ghat. 

(13 mile) —Kheiree ditto. 

(1 mile)—Mylu Kheiru.—A_ Goojer village on the night bank. 

(; mile)—Katghurra “ tur.’’—This rapid extends about 600 yards, 
and is studded with rocks, channel dangerous. Between 4 and 5 
feet water. Laden boats let down with ropes ; it must in the present 
state of the river be always difficult. 

(3 mile)—Bimlay Sur.—Temple and Dhurrumsallah on the right 
bank. 

($ mile)—Alliagram.—On the left bank, one Bunneeah. 

(124 miles) —By the Natives 6 coss from Sillanee.—Fowls procura- 
ble with trouble. 

N. B. It appears to me from the present state of the river between 
Dharee and Alliagam, that boats of more than 6 feet beam, 30 or 35 
feet in length, with 24 feet wall sides, flat bottom 1, the bottom side 
planks of one log scooped out, would be the only one that could be gene- 
rally used. During the very height of the river in the monsoons, I 
think no boats could live at some of the places where most danger- 
ous whirpools and high waves-must be formed. The boatmen corro- 
borate this opinion. 
8th, Sunset. (1 mile)—Semala.—Right bank, left bank, just below 

Gowmookh Dhurrumsallah. 

(1 mile)—Pithnuggur—left bank. 

Kupas-thul—right bank. 

(4 mile)—Wa ke ‘“tur’—5 feet water, 8 feet channel, in the 
middle, numerous rocks on either side. With one foot water, going 
over them, the boat struck constantly. 

(1 mile)—A7rian—right bank. 

Khygam.—Left bank. 

Note.—The Rapid “ Vakee tur’ may be said to extend almost the 
whole way. Channel in some places not more than 8 feet wide; in some 
parts very bad, only 1 foot water over the rocks. Boat let down with 
ropes. 

(2 miles) —Saugoor.—Right bank, Oomatter left bank ; fine broad 
and deep pool. 

(1 mile)—Rawere.—Left bank, broad deep pool the whole way. 

Setoke and Kowreea,—Right bank. 


214 Journal of the passage from the [Aue, 


(4 mile)—Ditto.—Rapids the whole way, very difficult and danger- 
ous. In several places not more than 1 foot water over the rocks, 
with which the bed is studded. 

(4 mile)—Surkaree “ tur’?—300 yards, 6 feet water, but dangerous 
from high waves, side rocks, and a fall of 3 feet. 

Bakawan—left bank. 

+ mile)—Bhandwarra ‘ tur’—5 feet water, m one place very 


+ mile) —Murdana Ghat.—Left bank. 
Bysesan—xright bank. 
(72 miles)—Ditto.—4 Coss according to natives from Alliagam ; left 
at 11 a. m. arrived at sunset. 
9th. Left Murdana Ghat at sunrise, and arrived at Mundlaiser at 2 ep. mu. 
(2 mile)—Murdana “tur.’—Extending 300 yards; channel, in 
some places, 8 feet wide, 2 feet water. 
(1 mile)—Puthrar—Right bank. Nagawan—left bank. 
(1 mile)—Bhutyan—left bank. 
(2 miles)—Soolgam.—Rocks all the way and shallow in many places. 
(72 miles) —Mundlaisir.—In many places very shallow, with rocks 


the whole way, but nowhere dangerous, though very tedious ‘for 4 


laden boats, studded also with low grass islands. 
13th. Evening at Myhesur. 

(1 mile)—Shallow with rocks. 

(3 or 23, 33 miles)—Fine deep pool and broad. 

15th. Evening at Sasradarrah. 

(1 mile)—Fine deep broad pool. 

Sassadarrah falls and rapids extend for about 400 yards; Surruh 
falls of 314 feet, channel 8 to 10 feet wide, very bad rocks in the 
channel. Empty boats let or eased down with ropes with great difti- 
culty. 

16th. Left Sassadarrah at 12 o’clock, and arrived at Akbarpore at 5 
p.M. Here the Assa and Bombay road crosses the Nerbudda. 

(4 mile)—Channel narrow and deep, it would be very bad, I think, 
in the rains. 

({ mile)—Channel widening to 100 yards, 18 inches water at one 
place ; boats led over. 

(> mile)—Broad pool, not very deep. 


bo 
_ 
or 


1848. ] Dharee falls to the Hirnphal. 


Zallempore.—Left bank. 

(4 mile)—Deep and broad pool. 

Tulkootee.—Right bank. 

(1 mile)—Channel between rocky islands. 

Lussungaum. 

Manwa Phal ‘“tur”’—Channel 8 feet, 4 feet fall, 2 and 3 feet 
water, very bad rocks on either hand. The boats were half emptied, 
and let down with ropes, and men holding on each side. Re-laden at 
the bottom of the rapid, 30 or 40 yards. The rapid winds along for 
30 or 40 yards, dashing against the rock on either hand with great 
force. The boatmen behaved remarkably well and the bildars were 
very useful. 

(24 miles)—Shallow in a few places, but generally broad, open and 
deep. 

Akbarpore. 

(5 miles)—3 coss by the natives. 

17th. Left Akbarpore at 9 a. m.; two of the boats changed, bemg old 
and in a leaky state ; arrived at Kubhes at near sunset. 

Moorgurree.—Opposite to Akbarpore. 

(1 mile)—Chota and Burra Khul.—Right bank. River open and 
deep all the way. 

Akbarpore “ tur.’—50 yards, 15 inches water over the rocks, loose 
stones removed from the channel, rapid not dangerous but tedious. 
Boats handed over, or rather dragged along. Three hundred yards 
below there is a ford. 

(4 mile)—A rapid.—18 inches water over the rocks ; boats let down 
with ropes about 50 yards. 

(4 mile)—Peepulda.—Right bank, a little above there are some 
rocky islands, but the channel is deep, and a pool the whole way 
from the last rapid. 

(¢ mile)—Chiklee.—Left bank, many bad rocks. 

Nimbalee.—Right do. Channel along the left bank. 

(32 miles)—Pencil memorandum lost on board. 

(14 mile)—Adulpoor.—Left bank, pool all the way from Cheklee. 

Bhowa.—Right do. 

Bhowns sur “‘tur.’—40 yards, 2 feet water over the rocks, 8 feet 
passage, channel winding, difficult and dangerous. Boats let down 

oe 


& 


216 Journal of the passage from the [Ave. 


with ropes with much trouble. This is one of the worst rapids im 
the river ; at the bottom there is a fall of 3 feet, 7 feet passage ; rocks 
on each hand, and a very bad and dangerous one in the middle of the 
outlet, to be feared the most. This rock should be removed. 

(1 mile)—Pool, deep water, rocks here and there. 

“‘Burreea.—Left bank. 

Kola “‘tur.’—100 yards, 2 feet water and less, very bad and diffi- 
cult at the end from a rock in the middle of the channel. 

(4 mile)—Kathora.—Left bank pool all the way. 

(84 miles)—4 coss by the natives. 

18th. Left Kuthora at 6 a. Mm. arrived at Kirmee at 5 p. m. 

(4 mile)—Bilkeswar Pagoda.—At the point of Dhurmapooree 
(Cheit island) 2 miles long. Right channel dry, left channel a broad 
pool, 6 feet deep, a rock in the middle opposite the temple. 

Dhurmpooree.—Right bank. 

Khoo Nuddee. 

(4 mile)—Khoojawan.—Good pool, 6 feet water. 

(7; mile)—Burreea.—Left bank, good pool, Jhow jungle along the 
right bank. 

(14 mile)—Huthnawar.—Left bank. 

Kinkoto.—Right bank, pool all the way to this. 

Huthnawar “ tur’’—Shallow rapids for 500 yards, boats dragged 
over the loose stones in several places. 

Ghatmora “tur.’—Fall fo 3 feet, 7 feet passage, and very bad. 
Boats led down with ropes held on each bank, 4 feet water. This 
rapid is called Ghatmora tur. 

(4 mile)—Ghatmora Phal.—5 feet water, 10 feet channel: a fall 
of 2 feet, boats taken over with bamboo poles very dexterously. 

(4 mile)—Rocky island and shallow. 

Khutargam.—Right bank. 

Nundgaum.—Left bank. 

(} mile)—Soolgaum.—Right bank. 

Bahmongaum.—Left bank, river studded with rocks and low islands | 
shallow all the way. 

(+ mile)—Viswanath Khera.—Pool, with rocky islands. A narrow 
passage along the left bank, a small rapid with 4 feet water. Rocks 
in the channel. 


1848. | Dharee falls to the Hirnphal. 217 


(3 miles) —Moharpur.—Right bank,a small Pagoda. Good pool 
the whole way, with some rocks here and there. 

(4 mile)—Nuktiaki Phal “tur.’—Not bad, 5 feet water, 10 feet 
channel. 

(} mile)—Deep pool, Cheekly, left bank. 

(4 mile)—Bad rocks, some under water, some just appearing above, 
6 feet water with a slight stream. 

(¢ mile)—Man River joins here on the right bank, pool with rocks 
here and there. A rapid with rocks of loose stones, 2 feet water. 

(3 mile)—Neemla “tur.”’—Bad rocks in the channel, boats let 
down by the hand, 2 feet water, channel 8 feet. 

(= mile)—Broad deep pool. 

Nulwaee.—Left bank. Deb Nuddee joins here on the left bank. 

Kuthwa.—Right bank. 

(1; miles) Lohara.—Left bank. 

Mullimgam.—Right bank. Broad, deep pool all the way. 

(14 mile)—Kirmee.—Left bank. 

Burdha Bagory.—Right bank. Deep and fine broad pool the whole 
way. 

(123 miles)—6 coss according to the natives. 

19th. Left Kirmeeat 7 a. m. arrived at Lahna Burda at 5 pe. om. 

(14 mile)—Pool with sunken rocks and rocky islands. 

(} mile)—Pool ditto ditto ditto. 

Ansurpoora.—Left bank. 

Surwapoora.—Right bank. River covered with sunken rocks, and 
rocky islands, deep channels in some places, and 2 feet water in others 
[ntricate passage, but not dangerous. 

(= mile)—The same state of the river continued. 

Cherasein “ tur.’—Very winding and bad channel for 300 yards, 
In one place 15 inches water, boats let over by the hand. 

A bluff high isolated rock in the middle of the river 150 yards be- 
low the rapid. 

(¢ mile)—Marrpoora.—Left bank. 

A small rapid. 

Oordhumia.—Right bank. 

Shallow continued. 


218 Journal of the passage from the | Aue. 


A very shallow part, 9 inches water, a channel had to be made by 
removing the loose stones from the middle and piling them up on 
each side for 150 yards, to deepen the stream to 15 inches, when the 
boats were dragged over. Half the day taken up in the above work. 

Another shallow 6 inches water. The stones removed as above, and 
a channel formed of 15 inches depth for 30 yards. 

At 300 yards another similar shallow overcome in the same way. 

A bad rapid to be worked through very cautiously, though deep, the 
channel being very narrow with rocks. 

(} mile) —Dunterwarah.—Left bank. 

(1 mile)—Pool full of rocks under water, the boats striking on 
them constantiy. 

Gollatta.—Left bank. 

Peerkhewa.—Right bank. 

(14 mile)—Rocks and shallows and deep channels, imtricate passage. 

Lahna burda.—Left bank. 

Semurla.—Right bank. 

(6 miles)—3 coss by the natives. 

The laden boats require 18 inches of water to float freely. The 
largest boat is 31 feet long and less than 5 feet wide, laden with 2% 
Manas. 
20th. Left Lahna burda at 7 a. o., arrived at Chikulda at2 Pp. m. 

(1 mile)—Achohta.—Right bank. 

Pool with rocks here and there. 

(14 mile)—Fine deep pool, some rocks along the left bank. 

Ekeelara.—Right bank. 

Orohee.—Left bank ; a ferry here ; a tope of fine tamarind trees. 

Five hundred yards, dangerous hidden rocks with some of their 
points just appearing in the middle of the river. 

(1 mile)—Good pool. 

Kawthee.—Right bank. 

Shallow, 2 feet water, studded with rocks ; no regular channel. 

300 yards, Keemana “tur” (bow-shaped) 2 feet water deepest chan- 
nel, with bad rocks in the middle, boats constantly striking on them. 
In one place the boats were let down with ropes. 

(1 mile)—Shallow with rocks and loose stones the whole way. .« 
Boats continually striking on them ; there is a ford here. 

Ganglee,—Right bank. 


1848. | Dharee falls to the Hirnphal. 219 


Peeplodh.—ULeft bank. 

(+ mile)—Shallows. 

Domee Khul “ tur”’—A very bad rapid, 15 inches water, rocks in 
the channel, against which the current rushes with great force. A 


fall of 3 feet boats; dragged over, some loose stone bemg removed. 

(1 mile)—Shallows and rocks ; 15 inches water in some places. 

Bhaboot.—Left bank. 

Jowhoor.—Right bank. 

({ mile)—A bad sunken rock in the middle of the river, one of the 
boats got over it, and was nearly rolling over. The rest of the river 
a fine broad pool with 5 or 6 feet water generally. 

(; mile)—Pool, 5 feet water. 

Kusrawath.—Left bank. 

(1} mile)—Rocks and shallows; channel between irregular low 
rocks, &c. &c. 

Chikulda. 

(83 miles)—4 coss by the natives. 

22nd. Left Chikulda in a boat 30 feet by 4% feet. 

(14 mile)—Pool, 6 to 8 feet water. 

Bilkhera.—Left bank ; 4 feet water. 

Shallow, 18 inches water. 

Rocks. 

A small rapid, 1 foot water. 

(14 mile)—Shallow in some places with less than 1 foot water, 
little rapids and rocks. 

Nand gaum.—Left bank. 

Kaper Khera.—Right bank. 

(+ mile)—Shallow the whole way, boat stroved along. In some 
places not 6 inches water sandy bed all across the river. 

(+ mile)—Ditto.—A nice little pool, 5 feet water, no rocks. 

Rocks scattered all across the river with irregular channels of 4 and 
5 feet water. 

(4 mile)—A bed of rocks, narrow channel, 3 and 4 feet water. 

(= mile)—River spread with rocks, a small pool, 4 feet water. 

Kutora.—Left bank. 

(3 mile)—A fine broad, deep pool. River spread with low detached 

rocks. Channels between deep water. 


20 Journal of the passage from the [Aue 


(+ mile) —The same as above. 

Sonearil.—Left bank. 

Kuronje.—Right bank. 

(14 mile)—Fine deep pool. A small bed of rocks in the middle 
of the river, dangerous. 

— (4 mile)—Kotra.—Right bank. 

Pool continued. 

Ooree Nuddee joins here on the right bank. 

Pool continued. 

Rocks on the right hand. 

(3 mile)—2 feet water, low sunken and some appearing rocks spread 
all over. 

(4 mile)—Megnatk “ tur.’’—9 inches water, full of rocks in the 
channel. Scarcely any passage at all. The laden boats could not 
have got over a fall of 3 feet. 

A small old pagoda on the right hand, exactly opposite the fall. 
My boat was literally lifted over. 

Another similar rapid, but not so bad. 

Gooee Nuddee joins here on the left bank. 

(13 mile)—Deep pool, two or three boats just above the water. 

(4 mile)—Goulia “ tur’’—4 feet water, bad rocks im the channel, 
and at its outlet. 

(; mile)—A small rapid, 9 inches water, no regular channel. 

(; mile)—Bluff peak of the first hill on the immediate banks of 
the river ; right bank. 

Fine deep and broad pool. 

(4 mile)—Pool continued, sunken rocks, some just showing them- 
selves above the surface of the water. 

Ruins of the Gurhee of Deheir on a hill on the right bank. 

Dehewr.—Right bank. 

(1 mile)—Pool continued broad and deep. 

Beyasein Phal.—A. shallow ; stones to be removed ; not 6 inches 
water. 

(4 mile)—Peyasein.—Left bank. 

(1 mile)—Deep broad pool with numerous sunken rocks ; Jhow 
jungle on the right hand, resort of tigers. 


1848. | Dharee falls in the Hirnphal. | 221 


Moorgutta “ tur’’—3 and 4 feet water, channel winding and bad 
with rocks. 

(4 mile)—Moorgutta.—Left bank. 

(14 mile)—Pool with sunken rocks, shallow ; no regular channel. 
“Tur” shallow, &c., good for } mile. 

Dhurmray.—Right bank. 

(144 miles)—According to natives 7 coss. 

23rd. Left Dhurmray at 6 a. m. for the Hirnphal. 

Dharm Ray << tur.’—Considered the head of the Hirnphal passage , 
18 inches water, had rocks for 200 yards. 

(1 mile)—Small pool with rocks, 4 feet water, a rapid, 18 inches 
water, 6 feet channel. 

River full of rocks ; deep water. 

Hirnphal.—Deep channel, 8 feet wide, current not strong, no fall ; 
two bluff rocks in the middle of the river, one on either hand from 
the Phal. . 

(4 mile)—Deep channel between rocks, 10 or 12 feet wide. 

(+ mile)—Deep narrow pool, slight current. 

Hirnphal Ghat.—A fall of 6 feet in our passage, 8 or 10 feet, with 
projecting pointed rocks on each side, very bad and dangerous, 100 
yards rapid. 

Fall 3 feet, not so bad as the first, but difficult from the water dash- 
ing on a projecting rock on the right hand ; channel 10 or 12 feet. 

100 yards rapid. 

Fall 4 feet, much like the above. 

Deep channel below the rapid. 

Left hand channel from Hirnphal. 

300 yards deep and clear ; channel between rocks, deep and clear. 

Channel between rocks, deep water. 

(2 mile)—Fine deep broad pool, no rocks. 

The bed of the river covered with low, sunken and small isolated 
rocks. No regular channel, in some places 6 inches water, over the 
rocks, and then suddenly deep ; no passage at all. 

At 10 a. M. returned to Dhurm Ray, and at 11 o’clock set sail for 

Chikulda, with a fresh westerly breeze ; arrived at 3 Pp. M. 


222 Tibetan type of Mankind. | Aue. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Tibetan type of Mankind.—By B. H. Honeson, Esq. 


Pénjtir of Lhassa, 30 years old. 


Total height, ee ee ee eee 
Geneth of head, oi. foe omen le os ac 0 9 og) ae 
Girth of ‘head, 0. Sor ae os ie Oe coc vn beeen ie 
Crown:of headsto! lips fy Pen, Sat Loe. 2° Gow os 
Hip;to, heel, iss... 4. spate e bene Gee eres « 3 Ate Fillo ck 
Breadth. of chest only... oc) iiisg ete eae 1 4 0O by curve. 
Sim. PUT, EG, POM, wees ce ae Le see | ee 
Ave andMhand,’ >... .20%5.02,. 2.) See. ee 
Ginth: of chest,:i.... 0 bes. dune Vato Rasta online eth Shy Oly ge 
Ee 201k 01 ee 17 eae PI ogee a pe a) ee 0 Al 0G 
Gir or forest, vs. eee Pe ee ee ee 0 9 21,8 
Girth of thigh, 2 4 9h) LPP Ae, 2. OUST a gee 
Garth: of calf, 114. sonia. Paap he eee 1 ondvoetge 
Heeneth Of LOG ti i eas ehcp ate ect aka. ole 010 0/8 
Breweth Ol TOG. Corer. ook we aes os casi ets re O 3. imie 
Hength of heads, 22 er ae Se ee OF ar 
Breadth pfthead)® auevduarne mit A Selb 04 0) 


A fine young man but low in flesh from sickness, and the muscles 
flaccid. Colour a clear ruddy brownish or brunet rather deep hued, as 
dark as any of the Cis-Himalayans, and as most high caste Hindus. 
No red on cheeks which are sunk and hollow. Hair moderately coarse, 
black, copious, straight, shining, worn long and loose, divided from the 
top of head. Moustache very small, black. No symptom of beard 
nor any hair on chest: sufficient on mons martis where it it black and 
on armpits also. No whiskers. Face moderately large, sub-ovoid, widest 
between angles of jaws, less between cheek-bones which is prominent 
but not very. Forehead rather low and narrowing somewhat upwards ; 
narrowed also transversely and much less wide than the back of head. 
Frontal sinus large, and brows heavy. Hair of eye brows and. lashes, 
sufficient. Former not arched but obliquely descendant towards the 
base of nose. Eyes of good size and shape but the inner angle deci- 
dedly dipt or inclined downwards, though the outer not curved up. 
Iris a fine deep clear chesnut brown. Eyes wide apart but well and 
distinctly separated by the basal ridge of nose, not well opened, cavity 


1848. | The Gum Kino of the Tenasserim Provinces. 223 


being filled with flesh. Nose sufficiently long and well raised even at 
base, straight, thick and fleshy towards the end, with large wide nares 
nearly round. Zygome large and salient, but moderately so. Angles 
of the jaws prominent, more so than zygomeze, and face widest below 
the ears. Mouth moderate, well formed, with well made closed lips 
hiding the fine regular and no way prominent teeth. Upper lip long. 
Chin rather small, round, well formed, not retirmg. Vertical lime of 
the face very good, not at all bulging at the mouth, nor retiring below, 
and not much above, but more so there towards the roots of the hair. 
Jaws large. Ears moderate, well made, and not starting from the 
head. Head well formed and round but larger 4 parte post than A 
parte ante or in the frontal region, which is somewhat contracted cross- 
wise and somewhat narrowed pyramidally upwards. Body well made 
and well proportioned. Head well set on the neck, neither too short 
nor too thick. Chest wide, deep, well arched. Shoulders falling, fine. 
Trunk not in excess of porportionate length compared with the extre- 
mities, nor they compared with the trunk and whole stature. Arms 
rather long, within 4 inches of knees. Legs and arms deficient in 
muscular development from sickness. Hands and feet small and well 
formed with instep hollow and heel moderate. ‘Toes not spread, nor 
splay foot. Mongolian cast of features decided, but not extremely so, 
and expression intelligent and amiable. 
Darjeeling, 30th April, 1848. 


The Gum Kino of the Tenasserim Provinces.—By the Rev. F. Mason. 


In a valuable article by Dr. Royle on Gum Kino, reprinted in the 
Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India, which 
ostensibly enumerates all the various regions from which it has been 
imported into England, there is no mention of this article being im- 
ported from this Coast. Yet long before Dr. Royle compiled that 
communication, more than one consignment had been made by parties 
in Maulmain to houses in London of Gum Kino to the amount of a 
thousand pounds. 

It was brought to Maulmain by an English merchant from the Shan 
States, and stated by him, as our Commissioner at the time informed 


oe yt 


224 The Gum Kino of the Tenasserim Provinces. [Ave,. 


the writer, to be the production of the Pa-douk, the same tree as the 
one in Maulmain thus denominated by the Burmans. Several years 
before I had directed attention to this tree as producing an astringent 
Gum resembling Gum Kino, but the Medical Officer to whom I sub- 
mitted specimens of the Gum, said it was ‘‘a kind of Dragon’s blood ;” 
but after it was known that the Gum of the Pa-douk had been sold in 
London for the veritable Gum Kino, another medical gentleman tried 
in his practice the exudation of the tree in his compound in the place 
of the Gum Kino im his stores, and reported the effects the same; that 
their medical virtues were alike. 

The next inquiry that arises is for the genus and species of the Pa- 
douk. When I first came to the Coast, all the English residents of 
my acquaintance called it “‘ Burman Senna,”’ and the surgeon of the 
station told me that he believed it was a species of Senna. The Rev. 
H. Malcom, D. D. President of Georgetown College Kentucky, who 
came out to India a dozen years ago in order to go back again and 
write a book, has stereotyped in his travels, “‘ Pa-douk, or Mahogany, 
(Swietenia Mahogdni) is plenty in the upper provinces, especially 
round Ava, found occasionally in Pegu. In a native Pali Dictionary, 
found in the Burmese monasteries, Pa-douk stands as the definition of 
Pe-té-tha-ld, and the corresponding Sanscrit word in Wilson’s Dic- 
tionary, Wlawre, is defined Pentaptera; but the Pa-douk does not 
belong to that genus. In Piddington’s Index, however, Peetshala 
stands as the Hindee name, and in Voigt’s Catalogue, Peet-sal as 
the Bengalee name of Pterocarpus marsupium; and this brings us 
nearer the truth, for Pa-douk is a name common to two different spe- 
cies of Pterocarpus, but which look so much alike that they are usually 
regarded as one species. Undoubtedly one species is P. Indicus and 
the other, I presume, is the one named by Wight, P. Wallichii, but 
which was marked in Wallich’s Catalogue, P. Dalbergioides, from 
which differs in no well marked character excepting that the racemes 
are axillary and simple, while in that they are termimal and “much 
branched.” Wight says, of P. Wallichii in his Prodromus, “ stamens 
all united or split down on the upper side only ;”’ so they are some- 
times in our tree. In the figure that he gives in his Illustrations they 
are represented as diadelphous, nine and one, and so they are seen 
occasionally in our tree; but the more common form is that of being 


1848. | Relics of the Catholic Mission in Tibet. 225 


split down the middle into two equal parts, of five each, as in P. Dal- 
bergioides. The wood two resembles it. ‘ Not unlike Mahogany, but 
rather redder, heavier, and coarser in the grain.” It is often called 
“red wood” at Maulmain, and from the color of the wood, some of the 
natives distinguish the species “‘red Pa-douk’”’ being P. Dalbergioides, 
and ‘‘ white Pa-douk,”’ P. Indicus. 

Both these trees produce an astringent gum, which has been ex- 
ported for Gum Kino, or whether it was a mixture of both it is not 
possible to say. Probably the latter, as the native collectors would 
not probably make any distinction. Possibly it is the production of 
neither. It may be that P. marsupium is fround in the Shan States, 
for it grows, I believe in Assam, and the man that did not distmguish 
the two species, in Maulmain, would not distinguish them from a 
third, at Zimmay. Be that as it may, this is certain, that these pro- 
vinees can furnish the commercial world with a large quantity of Gum 
Kino. If the result of the experiment which was made be correct, we 
have a great abundance of it within our own borders, for the Pa-douk 
is one of the most common forest trees in the provinces from the Te- 
nasserim to the Salwan. It furnishes a considerable portion of the fuel 
that is sold in Maulmain. But if not it is certainly abundant in the 
neighbouring provinces, whose only avenue to market is through our 
territories. 

To enable the Members of the Society to detect any errors into 
which I may have fallen, accompanying this paper are three pack- 
ages, ViZ. 

No. 1. A flowermg branch, and young fruit of P. Wallichiz. 

No. 2. A flowering branch of P. Indicus. 

No. 3. A specimen of the Gum Kino brought from the Shan States 
and exported from Maulmain. 


To the Secretaries of the Asiatic Society. 


Sirs,—lI had recently the honor to transmit to you the last relics of 
the Library of the Catholic Mission in Tibet. I have now the honor 
to forward to you transcripts and translations of those grants of land by 

A & 2 


226 Relics of the Catholie Mission in Tibet. [Aue. 


virtue of which the Mission, after its expulsion from Lassa, was esta- 
blished at Patan, m the valley of Nepal, under the late or Néwari 
dynasty of that kingdom. 

The original deeds are inscribed on copper, and they were put into 
my hands recently by Doctor Hartman, the Catholic Bishop of Patna, 
(who is also superior of the Nunnery here,) with the observation that, 
though frequently shown to learned Pandits and Europeans, the Mission 
since its ejection from Nepal had never been able to gain the least 
inkling of the meaning of these documents. The fact is that the deeds 
are in the Néwari language, or that of the aborigines of the great valley 
of Nepal proper; and, as I believe the Society possesses no sample of 
that tongue, I fancy that the two transmitted may be acceptable, though 
interlarded with a deal of Sanscrit ; the circumstances of the case giving 
the deeds an interest for Europeans, which most of them in India will 
probably recognise. I am glad to hear that the books forwarded to 
His Holiness the Pope have been graciously accepted, and I apprehend 
that transcripts or printed copies of the present communication will be 
likely to prove an acceptable addition to those singular relics of the once 
famous Christian Missions of China and High Asia. 

I have the honor to be, 
Sir, 
Your most obedient servant, 
B. H. Hopeson. 


afe staugquisweanasyfayatcatireg Shara. 
PASS AAaLIsIaNeea yaaa «=—|- ACTA TAATE 
Cfaqafean eT ASA UTICA STATA ATA AL sa AT 
CT TH AACA SS ae sae auc aa fwafamarartsraat 
WARE WRT wisufa St Wawa agqea- 
qaageatat we aatfastany! squAwEA qa- 
uaa was wtzanfats strasifses aa verted 
Biqemarstayaraasaweaa daa sayafsTar 
weautsaa: aayWVW ye wcautusEeTA chau: 


1848.] Relics of the Catholic Mission in Tibet. 227 
ald S YASUTa: LAH HaAA ATA ATTATTHALS Gears. 
reefer wpuufefad qatar aeererewrfar 
faureufcufefaa watarata afanfe wert fotcutc- 
fax uwuafeat wacsiafe Frewfaurefaa sarex 
wrufefad snataeat o F we HIT © WRITATT WIR 
FW TAUTATT AIRF WR AIG 2 GIR FR AT 
g afearaaat | saa Seitraadtaveryar |) Tas 
ceuta Stel CAVA AMsT Wag dR AIM Bet 
to BHI 


afe slaagqufawcaqaaafayatca frcrey Baars 
AUSCAM AL ITAINCLAIATAAT AAA AFAATH FA- 
AS AAU SACHRIL ATH ACA CILIA Aa- 
CATAMARAN ZIEMaAl Bat aacfasifaata| wa- 
meat arcaa aus ufsantat saa wheat 
aa vardiad afaueresfaqeaadarasa weewa 
LynWAUsas: ATaTSIAHTA Alaa Gata: afdvear- 
aya wet yaa: wats agar wey chau: Tayi 
wanda = wattaeemfia aseuftfad qo. 
atfeat wa faufasurfn waemer ufefad! aaariq 
Say ¢ FITM Sx RAIALAL re ReilaS RW Fa FAT | 
galt MATA AIAATA Wa ware eearta Blawwac 
AMUFC G voe Waals ¢ Sqaarecraatahed || Bw | 


228 Relics of the Catholic Mission in Tibet. [| AuG. 


Translation of two Téimbapatras granted to the Catholic. Church in 

Nepal by the late or Néwdr dynasty of that country :— 
(Titles omitted.) 

Rajya Prakas Malla Deva, Prince of Nepal, hereby grants for the 
Padri’s establishment a beautiful garden situated in unappropriated 
ground without and above the Dhara (fountain) of Tanigal Tol, and 
also an open quadrangled house of four stories. The boundaries of the 
location are as follows: West from road of Matsyéndra’s Rath,* 
North from the Tavo Bahal road, East from the land of Kachingal 
Kayasth, South from the house and land of Amersinh Babi. And the 
following is the extent of the grant, viz., for the house, the measure of six 
house allotments, and thirty-eight cubits square in excess, and for the 
garden, fourteen house measures and twenty-one cubits in excess there- 
of. Such are the boundaries and extent of which the above illustrious 
Prince has been pleased to give, whereof is eye witness Chandra Sékar 
Mall, and the inscriber of the deed of gift is Kotiraéj Jéshi,t and the 
date of gift, 874 of the Néwar eera,§ dark half of the month of March, 
6th day. 


(Titles omitted.) 

Jaya Prakasa Malla Deva, Prince of Nepal, is pleased to assign for the 
establishment of the Padri, a beautiful garden situated in Talsithali of 
Wontu Tol, in an unoccupied place,|| and also a two stories openly 
quadrangular house. The bounds of the location are, West from Jaya 
Dharma Sinh’s house, South from the houses of Dhanju, Siryadhan, 
and Puranéswar, East and North from the main road. The subjoined 
is the extent of land assigned, viz., for the house itself, the fixed mea- 
sure for four houses and 16 cubits, 7 fingers’ breadth in excess; and, 
for the open quadrangle within the house, three quarters of one house 
allowance and twelve and half cubits in excess, exclusive of a private 
road or access of three quarters of one house measure with twenty-two 
cubits over. For the garden or grounds the space assigned, is the 


* See note to transcript, in Roman letters. 

+ Khain the original. Itis the quantum of land allowed for an ordinary house in a 
town ; a house and land measure in towns. 

t Daivagya in Sancrit, is Jéshi in the vernacular of Nepal. 

§ 104 years back. 

|| That is, without infringment on private property, which is, and was then, perfectly 
respected, the Government tax being not } of the net produce, and the land selling for 
25-30 years purchase, even beyond the limits of house building. 


1848. | Relics of the Catholic Mission in Tibet. 229 


allowance fixed for 13 houses, and # and 3 cubits and 4 fingers’ breadth 
in excess,* such are the boundaries and extent of the gift of the above 
named illustrious Prince. Eye witness, Raj Prakas Malla Deva; date, 
862 of the Nepal era, November, 10th dark half of the month. 

True translations. 


B. H. HoneGson. 


Transcript in Roman characters of one of the deeds. 


Swasti srimat+ Pastipati charana kamala dhuli dhisarita siraruha 
sriman man¢swarishta dévata baralabdha prasada dédibyéman mandnnata 
ravikila tilaka hantimdaddhaja nepaléswara sakalaraja chakradhiswara 
maharajadhiraja sri sri Jaya Raja Prakasa Malla Deva paramabhat- 
tarakénang sadé samara viyayinang. Prabhu thakutra sana banarayatasa 
chongno Padrika puchini sikrakwongré gécchiwané namné prasadi_kri- 
tam tanigl4 tdla itiphisi chakalang choutajawo griha sangyakang 
rathamargénat paschimatah Tawo Bahar ond miargena  tittartah 
kachingla kayashthaya bhumy4 pirba tah Amar sinh Babtyaé griha 
bhumya daksinatah ¢tesang madhyé thdtéchatra ghatana dt ashta 
tringsa hastadhika shashta kha parimitang pushpya batiké ¢kvingsati 
hastadhika chaturdasa khdé parimitang aénkatopi ché khalshi kisityé- 
chméa kebo kha slaramapi ki niyéchi§ vaté yulo Pratita sri sri na bak- 
sish prasanna jiya atra patrarthe drishta sakshi sri Chandra Sekara Malla 
Thakira sambat 874 Népalya chaitra badi 6 Daivagya kotirajena likhi- 
tang subham. 


B. H. Hoveson, 
Darjeeling, 1st July, 1848. 


* This extreme precision may seem remarkable. But it is the mere indication of what 
is still more remarkable, viz. an admirable system of land measurement and of public 
record and registry which prevailed under the Néwari dynasty and which would do 
honour even to the British Government of India. The professional land measurers, 
called Déngi or Dongil, were a separate craft, carefully instructed and exceedingly 
jealous of intrusion on their mystery. ‘Ihe institution is still to be found under the pre- 
sent or Gérkhali dynasty, but in a state of decadence. 

pep tpat is the great orthodox Deity of Nepal, whose symbol is the four-faced Ling 
or Phallus. 

$ Matsyéndranath is the great heterodox or Biddhist Deity. His car festival or Ra- 
thyatra, is so famous that in the above deed the street is designated, as that through whies 
the car annually passes (rathmarg) without even specification of the name. Nuilius 
secundus is the Matsyéndra of Patan. 

§ In the original the ciphers as weil as the names of the Néwar numbers are inserted. 
I have omitted the former, which are those in use in the plains, 


230 Temperature of the hot springs at Peer Mungul. [AuG. 


Temperature of the hot springs at Peer Mungul, or Munga, or 
Mungear.* 


The following means of Temperature was taken from Major Baker’s 
note-book, and were taken by him, Lt. Maclagan, and myself. 
Temperature of 1st Spring. 


4th Sept. 1844, 11.30 a.m. Temp. of water, 119° F. Temp. of air, 89° 25’ F. 


— Do. 445 P.M. Do. 118-25/ Do. 86. 
— Do. 95 — Do. 117. Do. 86. 
5th Do. 545 A.M. Do. 119. Do. 78. 
— Do. 95 —— Do. 119. Do. 83. 
Temperature of 2nd Spring. 
4th Sept. 1844. 11.45 a.m. Do. 127.5 Do. 91, 
— Do. 455 P.M. Do. 126.25 Do. 86.5 
— Do. 9.25 — Do. 126.05 Do. 80. 
5th Do. 5.50 A.M. Do. 128.25 Do, 78, 
— Do. 9.15 Do. 128. Do. 83. 


2° 25/ hotter than the hottest Spring of Switzerland. 


Temperature of 3rd and principal Spring which is the saint’s shrine, 
and which feeds the Alligator ponds. 


4th Sept. 1844, 5.30 p.m. Temp. of water, 99.F. Temp. of air, 85.5 F. 


The water of these springs, where it first issues, has a slightly sul- 
phureous smell and taste, but after a short exposure to the air, becomes 
perfectly sweet and pure; it leaves a slight blackish deposit on the 
pebbles. The rocks in the vicinity are found in ridges nearly concen- 
tric curves. The strata appear to dip from the centre of the curves 
at an angle varying from 50° to 80°. They consist of an upper 
cap of coarse limestone overlaying coarse soft sandstone, below which 
the strata is hidden by debris. The rocks abound with exuvize of 
zoophites, echini and pectines, a few coats of small spiral and bivalve 
shells are met with, but in no abundance, till nearing the Hub or 
Pub river beyond the basin formed by the curved ridges, small fossil 
crabs and other fossils similar to the Kurrachee fossils are met with in 
abundance, but none of the rarer sort that distinguish the Kurrachee 
bed from all the other formations in Scinde. There are a few other 
springs in the neighbourhood of these hot springs, but they are cold 


* All three names were given me. 


1848. | Temperature of the hot springs at Peer Mungul. 231 


and chiefly salt. The other hot springs of Scinde that I am acquainted 
with, are the Lukkee and Gazee Peer springs ; the latter I have not my- 
self seen, but Lt. Maclagan gave me the following account of it. ‘“‘ There 
is a hot spring on a considerably elevated plateau upon the hill called 
Bhil, above Gazee Peer, a saint’s shrine, a few miles west of Shah Hus- 
sun, on the Munchar Lake. ‘Temperature of the spring not observed ; 
I could not hold my hand im it for any length of time. The water fills a 
small reservoir under a clump of trees, then escapes ina narrow stream 
which flows along to the edge of the plateau, and throws itself over the 
rock in a white cascade.’ I was unable to visit it, as I had intended 
doing, but the sulphur springs near the village of Lukkee, I visited ; the 
following is a memorandom of their temperature. Like the springs a 
Mungul Peer, they are three in number, but are much more highly im- 
pregnated with sulphur, but their temperature is not so great. : 


Temperature of sulphur springs near Lukkee pass, lower Scinde. 


Ist Spring at 12 a. m. Temp. of water 102° Farh. of air in shade 82° Farh. 
2nd Spring at 1212 a.m. Do. Do. 103° ”? Do. in sun 86 Farh.’”’ 
3rd Spring at 2 P. M. Do. Do. 105° ”’ Do. in shade 68 Farh.”’ 


Water boiled at third spring by my Thermometer, at 212° 75’, and at 
Kurratchee by same Thermometer at 214°—Difference, 1° 25’. 
Nos. 1 and 2 might almost be called one spring, as they are separated 
only by a foot or two of rock. No. 3, being some little distance from them 
at the foot of left hand, and largest cleft, but the waters of all unite and flow 
through the lower range or rather ridge of rocks, and are then lost in the 
sandy bed of what must, during the rams, be a mountain torrent ; the water 
collected in the pools, while I was there had an azure hue: there is a great 
deal of sediment contained in it on first issuing from the rocks, which is 
deposited, as it flows along the margins of the stream and on the stones 
at its bottom in a red, yellow and white, and all three combined crust- 
like congealed froth, but what it contains I know not, I had no means 
of analysing the water properly, for I had no scales to weigh the water 
experimented upon, or the residuum after evaporation ; but on adding a 
“little nitrate of silver to about a wine glass full of the water, a consi- 
derable flaky white deposit fell immediately to the bottom, which shortly 
after acquired a violet hue, and on exposure to the sun’s rays became 
ak 


232 Temperature of the hot springs at Peer Mungul. [Aue. 


almost black; on adding a few crystals of Barytes to another glass 
full, the water in which was perfectly clear, it at once became like 
milk and water, but shortly after it settled, a considerable white deposit 
fallmg to the bottom of the glass. On addition of a little potass to 
another glass of water, a few minute bubbles of air or gas escaped from 
the crystal, but eventually the water became slightly turbid, and on clear- 
ing, a slight white deposit, but very shght indeed, on the bottom of the 
glass, but I had no means of weighing the deposits, and have since lost 
them. The high range of rocks in their vicinity are a kind of soft 
limestone, at least the parts exposed to the weather and air are soft and 
white, almost like chalk, but with small crystals of I think sulphur in it. 
The lower range or rather ridge is coarse sandstone, capped with lime ; 
the strata in some parts is almost perpendicular, and in others curved. I 
scrambled up to the top, the view from which was most curious, a jumble 
of hills of all sizes, shapes and colours ; the lower ones, apparently full of 
beds of gypsum, as the continuation of them beyond the Lukkee pass, 
which I examined, was full of that substance. Nasseer Khan attempted 
to work the sulphur here, but found it a loosing speculation owing, I 
fancy, to his not having descended deep enough, through the blue mar! at 
the base of ridge. 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ASTATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, 


For August, 1848. 


At a meeting of the Asiatic Society, held at the Town Hall, on Wed- 
nesday, 2nd August, 1848, 

J. W. Coxuvixe, Esq. President, in the Chair. 

The Proceedings of the former meeting were read and confirmed, and 
the accounts and vouchers were laid on the table. 

Mr. Edward Colebrooke, having been duly proposed and seconded 
at the July meeting, was ballotted for and elected a member of the 
Society. 

Cudbert Bushy Thornhill, Esq. was proposed for election at the 
September meeting by J. H. Batten, Esq. and seconded by H. M. 
Elliot, Esq. 

Babu Gobind Chundra Sen, proposed by Raja Satya Churn Sen, 
seconded by Mr. Colvile. 

Read notes, intimating the withdrawal of Jas. Hume, Esq., E. Lind- 
stedt, Esq. and Major Goodwin, from the Society. 

Read a letter from H. M. Elliot, Esq. Secretary to Govt. of India, 
forwarding, by order of the Governor General in Council, copy of a 
letter from Lieut. W. H. Parish, with the specimens of rocks and 
plants therein alluded to. 

From the same, forwarding, by order of Government, the Diary of a 
trip to Pind Dadun Khan and the Salt Range, by Andrew Fleming, Esq. 
M. D.—Ordered for publication in the Society’s Journal. 

From M. Luzac, Netherlands minister for Home Affairs, dated Hague, 
17th April, 1848, announcing the despatch to the Society’s address of 

Zu 2 


234 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Aue. 


the Zoological, Geographical, and Ethnological portions of the work 
recently published on the Natural History of the Netherlands Foreign 
Possessions. 

Ordered, that the marked thanks of the Society be returned to M. 
Luzac for this handsome donation, 

From Dr. Cantor, a Catalogue of Malayan fishes, collected princi- 
pally at Penang.—Ordered for publication in the Journal. 

From the Rev. John Barlow, M. A. Secretary to the Royal Insti- 
tution, Albemarle Street, acknowledging receipt of the Society’s: Jour- 
nal, Nos. 185, 186. 

From Messrs. Allen & Co. announcing receipt of 77£ 10s. from the 
Paris Agency, and the shipment of the spare volumes of the Re- 
searches. 

From Dr. McClelland, communicating a note on the Coleoptera of 
Hong Kong, by Capt. Champion. 

From Dr. Albrecht Weber, dated Berlin, 3rd May, 1848, regarding 
the contemplated Oriental Publications of the Society, with a note from 
Dr. Roer on the same subject. Referred to the Oriental Section. 

A note on the Singapore Rock inscription, of which fragments had 
been forwarded by the Hon. Col. Butterworth, and Lieut.-Col. Low, 
by Mr. Laidlay. 

From 8S. G. T. Heatly, Esq. presenting for the Society’s Library, a 
set of the ‘‘ Repository of Arts,” in 50 vols. 

Mr. Heatly being present at the meeting, the thanks of the Society 
for this handsome donation were tendered him in person by the Pre- 
sident. 

Read the followmg communications from the Council of the Society. 

Council of the Asiatic Society. 


An application having been made by Mr. Frith, for the presentation to 
Charles Huffnagle, Esq. Consul of the United States of America, and a mem- 


ber of the Society, of one of the specimens of Flexible Sandstone in the Mu- 


seum, the Council, having referred to the Section of Mineralogy and Geology 
for their advice, have the honor to present the report of the Section, in which 
the Council concur. 
W. B. O'SHAUGHNESSY, 
Secy. of the Asiatic Society. 


July 28th, 1848. 


aS 


1848. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 235 


Resolved, that one of the specimens of Fexible Sandstone be pre- 

sented to Dr. Huffnagle. 
Council of the Asiatic Society. 

The Council of the Asiatic Society. unanimously recommend that Dr. 
McClelland be elected a member of the Sections of Natural History and of 
Mineralogy and Geology: Dr. McClelland’s consent has been obtained to this 
proposition. 

W. B. O'SHAUGHNESSY, 
July 29th, 1848. Secy. of the Asiatic Society. 


On the question being put to the vote, Dr. McClelland was unani- 
mously elected a member of the Sections of Natural History, and of 
Geology and Mineralogy. 

Council of the Asiatic Society. | 

The Council submit a report from the Oriental Section, regarding the pro- 
posed publication by the Society of two Arabic MSS., the one containing 
definitions of Grammatical terms, the second a brief Cyclopzedia of all the 
sciences cultivated by the Arabs. The Council concur in the recommenda- 
tions of the Oriental Section. 

W. B. O'SHAUGHNESSY, 
July 29th, 1848. Secy. of the Asiatic Society. 


To Dr. W. B. O’SuHauGHNEssy, Senior Secretary of the Asiatic Society, 
Dated, Asiatic Society, the 21st July, 1848. 

Sir,—By direction of the Oriental Section I have the honour to transmit 
to you a letter from Dr. Sprenger to the address of Mr. H. M. Elliot, dated 
the 30th May last, forwarding two Arabic MSS. which he proposes to be 
published in the Oriental Journal. 

2. The Section beg to support the proposition and to recommend, that the 
Society should also avail themselves of the kind offer of Dr. Sprenger to 
superintend the printing of the text at Allahabad. They would at the same 
time suggest, that agreeably to the scheme laid down for the publication of 
Oriental works by the Society, Dr. Sprenger be requested to favour the 
Society with a translation of the text. 

3. Should the Council approve of the proposition, I will lose no time in 
making such arrangements with Dr. Sprenger as to secure uniformity of 
paper, title page, &c. of his work, with the preceding number of the Biblio- 
theca Indica. 

I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Your most obedient servant, 
E. Rorr, 
Secy. of the Oriental Section of the Asiatic Society. 


236 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Aue. 
Lucknow, 30th May, 1848. 


My peEAR S1r,—I take the liberty of enclosing two small Arabic works 
which the Asiatic Society might perhaps consider worthy to form part of the 
proposed Bibliotheca Indica. The smaller contains definitions of grammatical 
terms, and is tolerably correct the larger is a short Encyclopeedia of all the 
sciences cultivated by the Arabs. It gives a definition of each science, its 
subject, and the names of the principal works thereon. The MS. is unfor- 
tunately not free from clerical errors. To forma good octavo volume I 
would recommend that Jusy’s Bibliography of Shiah Literature and Shah- 
rashub’s appendix to the same, be added ; they are both very small, useful and 
so rare that, as far as] am aware, not even their name is known in Europe. 
I have an old copy of both, and can obtain the loan of one or two copies. 

It would be necessary to edit these four treatises with great care, and I 
would have great pleasure in superintending the printing. It would be 
cheaper to have them printed at Allahahad or Agra, than at Caleutta. Paper 
might be sent up by the Society in order to maintain uniformity of shape. 

I take this opportunity to recommend two works of Kalkachardy (of the 
9th century of the H.) which would form one good volume, and which appear 
to me to be of the highest importance ; one is called Gy! Glan! PP my Maks 
and the other Sheen ye alas 23 255} 2 wlio, dts, They pik treat on 
the Genealogy and history of the Avabie ey aud are the ground-work of 
Arabic history. Two copies of these two works are available here, and I am 
very anxious to publish them. I am certain they would be well received in 
Europe. The latter is the smaller and rarer of the two ; if the Society should 
not like to undertake both at once, they might first publish this alone. 

I am your’s very faithfully, 


A. SPRENGER. 


Resolved unanimously, that the proposal of the Oriental Section be 
adopted, and measures taken immediately for the publication of the 
Arabic Works as suggested by Dr. Sprenger. 


To Dr. W. B. O’Suaucungsssy, Senior Secretary of the Asiatic Society, 
Dated, Asiatic Society, the 2\st July, 1848. 
Sir,—By direction of the Oriental Section I have the honour to forward 
to you the accompanying list of works selected by Babu Hurry Mohun Sen 
from the list of lithographed and printed books which Moulavee Abdullah 
submitted to the Society. 
2. The Section do not attach much value to the greater portion of these 
works, but as they are offered in exchange of our publications, of which a 


25) eee 


os, ae 


1848. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 237 


great. number of superfluous copies is on our shelves, the Section have 
approved of the selection, and beg to recommend the exchange of these 
works for those publications of the Society which the Moulavee has men- 
tioned in his letter. 
3. The original application of Moulavee Abdullah is herewith returned. 
I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Your most obedient servant, 
E. Rorr, 


Secy. of the Oriental Section of the Asiatic Society. 
The above recommendations are approved of by the Council of the Asiatic 


Society. 
W. B. O'SHAUGHNESSY, 


July 29th, 1848. Secy. of the Asiatic Society. 


Resolved that the recommendation of the Section be adopted. 

Read the following communication from the Oriental Section, recom- 
mending the purchase of 50 copies of Mr. B. H. Hodgson’s work on 
the Aborigines of India. 


To Dr. W. B. O’SHAuUGHNESSY, Senior Secretary of the Asiatic Society. 
Asiatic Society, August 1st, 1848. 
Str,—I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 
30th ult., forwarding for the examimation of the Section a copy of the first 
part of Mr. Hodgson’s work On the Aborigines of India. 
2. The Section recommend the purchase of 50 copiesjof this very interesting 
work by the Society, the expense to be borne by the Oriettal Publication Fund, 
3. The copy of the Aborigines is herewith returned. 
I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Your most obedient servant, 
, E. Ror. 


Secy. of the Oriental Section of the Asiatic Society. 
On the question being put, Mr. Laidlay moved as an amendment, 
which was seconded by Mr. Mitchell, and carried, that the Society sub- 
scribe for 100 copies of the work, paying for the same from the Oriental 
Fund. 


The communications for the Council and the Sections having been 
disposed of, Mr. Mitchell brought forward a proposition to the effect 
that a Sub-committee be formed, consisting of Dr. McClelland, Dr. 
Falconer, Mr. Blyth, and Mr. Piddington, for the purpose of arrang- 
ing and cataloguing the fossils. As this proposition were not seconded, 
it was not put from that chair. 


238. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 


Mr. Laidlay submitted specimen plates of a proposed work in folio, — 
entitled ‘Illustrations of the Archaiology of India.’ It is proposed 
to issue this work in occasional numbers, affording the means of pub- 
lishing im a more satisfactory manner than can be done in the Journal, 
the results of Antiquarian Researches undertaken under the patronage 
of Government or otherwise. The plates submitted were prepared from 
the beautiful drawings of Lieut. Herbert, and were much admired. Refer- 
red to the Council of the Society. 


eh 


J. W. CoLviLe, President. 
J. W. Larpuay, Secretary. 


LIBRARY. 
The following books have been received since the last meeting. 


Presented. 

Bishop Burnet’s History of his own Time: from the restoration of Charles 
II. to the treaty of Peace at Utrecht, in the reign of Queen Anne. London, 
1840, 2 vols. Rl. 8vo.— PRESENTED BY J. W. Grant, Esa. 

An Analytical Digest of all the reported Cases decided in the Supreme 
Courts of Judicature in India, in the Courts of the Hon. East India Com- 
pany and on appeal from India, by Her Majesty in Council. By W. H. 
Morley. London, 1848, 6 parts—By THE GOVERNMENT OF BENGAL. 

The Journal of the Indian Archipilago, Vol. Ii, Nos. VI, VII.—By Tue 
SAME. 

Ditto ditto —By THE Epiror. 

Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General’s Office, Galontta. for 
the month of July, 1848.—By tHe OrriciaTtinc Depury Survreyor 
GENERAL, 

The Calcutta Christian Observer, for September, 1848.—By THE Epiror. 

The Oriental Baptist, No. 21.—By Tue Epiror. 

The Upadeshaka, No. 20.—By tHe Epiror. 

The Oriental Christian Spectator. Vol. IX. No. 7.—By THE Epiror. 

Tatwabodhini Patrica, No. 61.—By THe TATWABODHINI SABHA. 

Nityadharmanuranjica, Nos. 62—65.—By Tur Epiror. 

Madras Journal, No. 33.—By THE Epitor. 

On the Aborigines of India, by B. H. Hodgson, Esq. being Essay the first, 
on the Kocech Bodo and Dhimal Tribes.—By rus AuTHor. 

The Pilgrimage of Fa hian, presented by J. W. Larpiay, Esq. 


Eachanged. 


ee 


oh 
ik 
i 


Journal Asiatique, No. 53. 
The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, Nos. 217—18. 
The Picnic Magazine, No. VI. 4 
The Atheneum, Nos. 1073—5. Fi 
Purchased. ; 
Lectures on the Physical Phenomena of Living Beings. By Carlo Mat- 
teucci. London, 1847, 12mo. 
Waterhouse’s Mammalia, Vol. II. XY 
Journal des Savants, Jan. to Avril. i 
The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No. 14. ‘ 
The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, No. 6, N.S. 
Comptes Rendus, Hebdomedaires des Séances de l’Academie des Sciences. 
Tome XXVI. Nos. 18—20. 
The History of Hyder Shah. By M.M.D.L.T. Caleutta, 1848, 8vo. 
2 copies.—PRiSENTED BY PRINCE GHOLAM HyDER. 
Karomu 1 Lydari, in Persian. 4to. 2 copies. —By THE SAME, 


Meteorological Register hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of August, 1848. 


Lat. 22° 33/28". 33 N. Long. 88° 23' 42”. 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28’ 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’. 


: Maximum nnd Mini-}2 Sl pas, G 
Oservations made at sunrise. ‘Maximum Pressure observed at 9h. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. Observations made at 2h. 40m. p.m. Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p. m. Observations made at sunset. plaxicinin ian etia lE 2 Rain Gauges 
= =r 
7 | 2 1 " 9, ny ra . 
2. Fi ey Vi Temperatures Wind. a Temperature. Wind. a Temperature, Wind. = Z| Elevations. 
& ‘Temperature. Wind. 8 Temperature. | Wind a Temperature. | Wind. P 8 : | ge 
A |= 2 Ce ae : me = = 
5 : cs é 3 . é z, z 4 | a a Feat. = 
a \F Fi ‘2 3 « 3 gil 2 é : = Si Ye & a | 8 3 a a 
6 is = = 2 2 2 2 nH =| 2 ; 3 [33 : =| a s 2 - & =] é : Ei 4 
a BS 8 alls 2 2:| 5 a] 4 2 Zs| 3 s| & 2 A is 3 zeae. | all Se ileau Neues 3 il 
Cialis z 2 = 2 g 3|= = Sm lesa lias = 5 | s = = . S|] 4 Ells = = 3 : = 
eae Sal wemrsalies = s2| 5 a| = S 3 | 2) a || 2 S| 2 | | 6s. = BPs | SS ist i ca | Gl ey 5 H Es els 
= < & = = a s S < Ge 3s S o ee. S| s 2 2 2 = — 2 2 S 3 5 : é a 2 [fle 
2 e | 2 3 3 E 2 e 3 2 AW OP aS g 3 | 2 ee a g 5 ec} |] é2 WS 3 EE 2/2) 3 g 5 3 € | 2 fg 2 
5 £/)/2/= z 2 = Le 2 = al lier je z = le ie | Be 5 Fi me We || = = aerate EB ERI Ce & 3 
a 5/5/51] 4 2 Salis 5 | 4 < S| onl o) | ia o | 5 jie | 4 4 a |S|/s/o/ 4 Selon | Rom! |\aca|preu 4 test |) alee 
=7 = :. 5 i 7 2. Nim | g9.2 | 873 | 81,0 |S. 90.8 | 90.0 Ss. \Cumuli. 90.1 | 89.2 | 82.2 Cumuli. 9,589 | 86.0 | 85,9 | 80, Cumull. 91,2 | 89,9 | 78. 1 
“4 | 729 778 [SE |Clouds. Srrasilleae 220 uni, 880 | 87.2 | 820 |S Ww. 86.7 | &6.4 SW. |Cloudy. 85.7 | 95.8 | 812 ‘ICloudy. 556| 845 | 85.0 | Bly ICloudy. goa | 95.3 | 80. 2 
3 a3 bss comul 629 | 870 820 Ditto 907 | 89.6 | 82.8 |S. 8. W 91.2 | 89.9 S. Ditto 88,0 | 97.2 | 82.2 Cumulo strati. | (533 85.8 | 86.0 | 82 Cumull. 92.8 | 87.9 | 83 3 
‘ ae £09 |S: Cirrocu.cloudy| 1617 | 86.3 812 Cloudy. 87.2 | 86.8 | 80.1 Cloudy. "545| 87.0 | 86.6 S.W. | Ditto 87.0 | 86.8 | 80.8 Cloudy. 534) o4.5 | B54 | BLL Cloudy, 87.3 | 85.5 | 83. 4 
2 : 2umul | 89.6 | 88.3 | 81.2 |W. S.W.|Cumuli. 492) 90.7 | 89.2 $.W. | Ditto 481| 88.9 | 68.5 | 82.0 V|Cumulo strati. | .514| 82.0 | 80.9 Raining. 916 | 86.5 5 
a B28 ee eumas fee liso erin, 89.2 | 887 | 820 |W S.W.(Cumulo strati, | .490| 89.9 | 883 W.S:W.|Cumulo strati,| [480] 87.6 | 86.7 | 81.0 Raining Ms3| gia | 32.2 Ditto 91.0 | 85.5 6s 
5 ae ities 45 | 818 Cloudy. 87.9 | 85.9 | 1.2 |S.S. E. |Cloudy. 509 834 | B29 Se Cloudy. “482| 85.0 | 85,0 | 81.5 |Cumulo strati. | 7501) 83:5 | 83.0 Cloudy. 872 | Bul 1 
8 Ditto. 83.5 | 80.7 Ditto 86.6 | 85.4 | 81.2 |S.S. W. \Cumuli, 15] 91.8 | 904 3 (Cumulo strati, | .496| 90.7 | 89,3 | 824 Ditto 506 | 84.4 | 83,9 Ditto 92,0 | 86,7 a 
‘ S. Cumulo strati, 87.3 | 86.4 | 80.5 |S. Cloudy. 86.5 Cloudy. .552| 88.2 | a7.2 | 80.5 571 | 84.0 | 84.2 8. Curuli. 8.8 | 84.9 9 
0 2 (eeu roa a3 ‘s Tay ea ao2 | 876 | 81.9 (5.8, W.|Cumuli 75 Cumulo strati, | :566| 884 | 87.8 | 82.3 oY Boo 80.6 | 85.1 10 
i a 874 | B19 88.7 | 87.9 | 81.8 |S. Cloudy. 874 Cloudy. 156 | 88.3 | 87.4 | 81.7 i Sr [ease ill cee llewe 3 ie 90.3 | 86.2 il 
159 | i ss 85.8 | BLO 87.5 | 85.8 | 81.3 |S. W. | Ditto B42 Ditto 517 | 84.0 | 93.1 | 80.8 Raining. 519) 83.9 | 82,5 | 79.5 |S.W.shp, Raining. 90/3 | 86.2 12 
i ¥ 2,9 | 79. Cloud 475| 80.9 | 81.2 | 78.4 |s. W. 138 
7 zs 563] 80.8 | 803 | 79.0 Rainiog. 81.9 | 81.9 | 79.5 |W.S. W)_ Dito 24 Raining. .454| 83.0 | 89.9 dy. z i .4 |S. We |Cloudy. 
ie | (530) 702 Cansmai. | ‘ses| so7 | #50 | 203 . |Cloudy, 89.7 | 88.4 | 804 |. S. W.|Cumulo strati | .499| 88.5 Ditto. 1494) 818 | 81.2 | 78 Ditto. 1513] 81.0 | 81,0 | 78.4 |W .N.W)Scat’d clouds. iv 
15 1556 | 80.2 Cloudy. 86.2 2 | 803 Ditto 901 | 88.8 | 81.6 |S. W. Ditto “0 a ch an Ba aa te 2 fe oe on ae 15 
16 at 20 Nil ao: || ean |) coal ies ence) 89.6 | 87.8 | 82,7 |N.E. |Cloudy. 533 | 89,7 Cloudy. 523| 88.8 | 87.7 co |) ee. {Il 03 Pa 16 
5 | 80.7 |E. ‘Cumulo strat, 90,8 | 89.5 | 80.8 |E. Cumulo strati. 92,7 Cumulo strati. 90,7 | 97,9 | 81-5 |s. E, cc cf a V7 
18 Raa 81.0 |E. Ditto, 91.3 | 904 | 82.5 | 87.9 Ditto 89.2 | 88.0 | 80.7 |B 18 
19 85.0 | 81.0 Dito. 85,8 | 83.2 88.0 Cloudy. 89.0 | 88.2 | 79.7 |S, E, 19 
ms |. 80. frcce ||| as oo aa |) oral lines eA || a5 |e ea || 28 Bono Ealjcna. [} Sr |} co x 5 208 
21 = ra A a 87.0 | 810/E. Cloudy. 639 | 905 | 88.0 | 81.8 Cloudy. 586 | 87.7 Cloudy. .568| 86.5 | 85,8 | 89.5 |s, Cumulo strati. aa 
3 Ecce fest eee : coal les re 3 Sallis P| ieee a (| eres 2 : 2 3 
24 “5 26 35 28 83,0 | 80.5 |S. W. Cloudy. 848) 81.2 Cloudy, 535) 81.2 Cloudy. 1520) 83.2 | 83,5 | 81.0 js. bo |} os ee - ei tees 24 
25 . ney oa oe 565 B45 Ditto. 86.8 | 82.7 Ditto 486) 89,8 Ditto B5.8 | 81-7 |S. Ditto . we as cone 25 
26 560) 79,3 | 800 Cloudy. 620 | 839 \Cumuli. 84.0 | 80,0 Ditto 533) 85.7 Cumulo strati. 89.2 | 79-8 |S,W. |Cumuli. 516) BLT W.S.WCloudy. 26 
87S | .571| 784 | 79.3 ‘Cirro cumuli. 623 B40 Cloudy. 89.2 | 82.6 ‘Cumulo strat. | 534) 89.8 ‘Cumuli. 84,8 | 80.0 |S. S,W. |Cloudy. 587| 83.4 W.  |Scat’d clouds, 278 
28 | ‘6i7| #00 | 81.0 Cumuli. 657 874 (Cumulo strati, 89.3 | 81.0 Ditto 599 | 92.0 Cumulo strati. 80,7 | 81-0 |S. Cumulo strat. | .589| 87.0 Comuli. 28 
29 819 Cloudy, 716 87.8 Ditto. 674 89.5 | 81.0 |E. Ditto Raining. 87.7 Nimbi, a .509| 82.6 Cloudy. ey 
20 | 805 Cumull, “662 87.0 Ditto. 1623 85.5 | 80.0 |S. E.  |Raming. Cumulo strati, 89.1 Cumulo strat. | (559 | 86.9 Cumulo strati. 30 
31 | 80.9 . |Cien, 645 87.0 | Ditto. 621 874 | 79.9 |S. Cloudy. Ditto 89.2 Ditto ‘543 | 86,0 Ditto ja) 
Menn |29.585| 60.2 | 60.8 | 79.3 29,63 65.5 83.9 


Mean 01 tie Corresponding month of Inst yours 
29585 80.0 80.5 19.2 29630 86.6 865.3 815 29,604 88,9 87.6 81,7 29.547 87.8 87.4 87.7 29,533 87.0 85.4 80,8 29,548 84,1 84,0 80.1 


‘These Observations have been made for the most part, with a supply of new and firstrate Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government ; a brief description of the Instruments seems necessary. 
Ist—Vhe Barometer is a standard Instrument by Newman, diameter of the tube ae Anche ‘The following is the comparative shewing of this astrament and those Barometers which were in use at the Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1844. 
Ditto * 514 Ditto = 


2o1].—The Thermometer is a Standard Tnstrument by Newman, on metal Seale and graduated to £ of a degree, 


ren, ~ 29, 667 
we Bulb Hywrometer by Newmau, graduated to single degree divisions, the difference between Standard Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Instrument is ++ 0.2, the Temperature of the dry Bulb is taken from the Standard Thermo adverted 
taken into calculation, 


4th,—Masiiour and Mioimam ‘Thermometer by Newman. The difference between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer js ++ 0.7 for the former and—0.23 for the latter. 
Sth, — Temperature shewo in Columa 47 of a 4 


‘of Solar reflect, momneter, in sua's rays, is acquired by means of a Newman's Muxtinum I'hermometer having « black bulb,—I'he above Instruments, excepting the Thermometer placed in the sun's ray, are fixed atabove 4} feet from the ground, to a post, in a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed to the airand sheltered from any influence 
EY lection. 
The height of the Surface of the Mercury in the Cistern of the Standard Barometer in the Observatory attached to the Surveyor General's Office above the Mean Level of the Bee having been deduced from a Series of Tide Observations taken from a Register kept at Kyd’s Dock Yard, the result is recorded for general information. 

eet 


Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yard Calcutta, 8,38 
Difference of Level between the Zero of ide Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yard, and the Standard Barometer at the Observatory, . he 2 26,59 Total Quantity of Rain which fell in 1847 was L. THUILLIER, Carratn, 
Height of Standard Barometer above ihe Level of the Sea, 7 182 Ditto “Ditto” up to the Ist September 1848,, OFM Tate Office 
“ . " = * ti — =| +. = x 


—_—, 


2 ; ky 


a0 hy Tier’ 
birt eS My aber 


are) | 


f Ne q by REL HE 


y | ut im A f 
: wa 
2 bea > iy ‘ 
" mh n ay? i ee + A ery 


WAT WE thalp 
r - 


© 


c 
\ 
) 
ie ae a a: _ as 
SKETCH MAP 
showing the sitions of the different Timples un 
KASHMIR. 
| 
H Swe, & rvtigh Mile J tuok 
“ F 4 
6 hard £ gq ” 
‘ an eum eter ate 


Bn Kibars 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ASTATIC SOCIETY. 


SEPTEMBER, 1848. 


an 


An Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture, as exhibited in the Tem- 
ples of Kashmir. By Captain A. Cunntneuam, Engineers. (Com- 
municated by H. M. Exxiot, Esq. Secretary to the Government of 
India.) . 


INTRODUCTION. 


1. The architectural remains of Kashmir are perhaps the most 
remarkable of the existing monuments of India, as they exhibit un: 
doubted traces of the influence of Grecian art. The Hindu temple is 
generally a sort of architectural pasty, a huge collection of ornamental 
fritters huddled together either with or without keeping ; while the Jain 
temple is usually avast forest of pillars, made to look as unlike one 
another as possible, by some paltry differences in their petty details. 
On the other hand, the Kashmirian fanes are distinguished by the grace- 
ful elegance of their outlines, by the massive boldness of their parts, and 
by the happy propriety of their decorations: ‘They cannot indeed vie 
with the severe simplicity of the Parthenon, nor with the luxuriant 
gracefulness of the monument of Lysicrates: but they possess great 
beauty ; different indeed, yet quite their own. 

2. The characteristic features of the Kashmirian architecture are 
its lofty pyramidal roofs, its trefoiled doorways covered by pyramidal 
pediments, and the great width of its intercolumniations. The Grecian 
pediment is very low, and its roof exceedingly flat: the Kashmirian 
pediment, on the contrary, is extremely lofty, and its roof, high. The 
former is adapted for a sunny and almost rainless climate, while the 

2M 


242 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


latter is equally well suited to a rainy and snowy climate. But besides 
the difference of climate, there was perhaps another reason for the form 
of roofing peculiar to the two countries, in the kind of material most 
readily procurable for building. In Greece, it was stone; in Kashmir, 
it was timber. The former imposed low flat roofs with small intercolum- 
niations: the latter suggested lofty roofs and wide intercolumniations. 

3. In the Kashmirian architecture the great width of the mterval 
between the columns (which is constant) is perhaps the most charac- 
teristic feature of the order. Indeed, I have a suspicion that this dis- 
tinctive mark of the Kashmirian style was well known to the Greeks ; 
for an intercolumniation of four diameters, an interval seldom, if ever 
used by themselves, was called Araiostyle, a name which would appear 
to refer to the intereolumniation common amongst the Hindus or 
Eastern Aryas, the Apeo of Herodotus. The vulgar etymology of 
Araiostyle, from Apoos “rare,” seems extremely far-fetched, if not 
absurd; while the etymology of the “‘ Arian columnar interval,” appears 
both natural and appropriate, as the intercolumniation followed by the 
Aryas of Kashm{r was never less than four diameters. 

4. Now the interval between the Kashmirian pillars being always 
Araiostyle, I feel melined to call the style of architecture used by the 
Aryas of Kashmir, the “Arian OrpeErR.”’ This name it fully merits ; 
for it is as much a distinct order of architecture as any one of the more 
celebrated classie orders. Like them it is subject to known rules which 
confine the genius of its architects within certam limits. A Kash- 
mfrian pillar is indeed distinguished from all Indian pillars by having a 
base, a shaft, and a capital, and each, besides, bearing a certain propor- 
tion to the diameter. How unlike is this to the columnar vagaries of 
the Hindus, which are of all shapes, and of all dimensions. A favorite 
Hindu pillar has the lowest fourth of its height square, the next eight- 
sided, the third sixteen-sided, and the upper part round; another has 
a double capital with a low flat base; whilst a third has a shaft of only 
one-fourth of its height; the remaining three-fourths being all base and 
capital: and yet these three pillars may be neighbouring columns of 
the same temple. 

5. The superiority of the Kashmirian architecture over all other 
Indian buildizgs would appear to have been known to the Hindus them- 
selves ; for one of their names for the people of Kashmir is Shdstra- 


ee 


' 
S 
4 
t 
1 
i 
i 
; 


1848. ] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 243 


shilpina, wratafera, or “architects,” aterm which could only have been 
applied to them on account of their well known skill in building. Even 
now the Kashmiris are the most expert handicraftsmen of the East ; 
and it is not difficult to believe that the same people who at present 
excel all other Orientals as weavers, as gun-smiths, and as calligraphers, 
must once have been the most eminent of the Indian architects. 

6. Before entermg upon any details of the Arian order of archi- 
tecture, and upon the comparisons naturally suggested between it and 
some of the classical orders, I will first describe the present state and 
appearance of the principal buildings that still exist in Kashmir, all of 
which were accurately measured by myself in November 1847. They 
are entirely composed of a blue limestone, which is capable of taking 
the highest polish, a property to which I mainly attribute the present 
beautiful state of preservation of most of. the Kashmirian buildings ; 
not one of these temples has a name excepting that of Marttand, which 
is called in the corrupt Kashmirian pronunciation, matan, but they are 
all known by the general name of Pdndavén-ki-lari, or “ Pdéndus-hous- 
es,” a title to which they have no claim whatever, unless indeed the state- 
ment of Ptolemy can be considered of sufficient authority upon such 
a subject. He says, “circa autem Bidaspum Pandovorum regio’— 
The kingdom of the Pdndus is upon the Betasta (or Behat), that is, 
it corresponded with Kashmir. This passage would seem to prove 
that the Pandavas still inhabited Kashmir so late as the second cen- 
tury of our era. Granting the correctness of this point, there may be 
some truth in the universal attribution of the Kashmirian temples to 
the race of Pandus, for some of these buildings date as high as the end 
of the 5th century, and there are others that must undoubtedly be 
much more ancient, perhaps even as old as the beginning of the Chris- 
tian era. One of them dates from 220 B. C. 

7. Most of the Kashmirian temples are more or less injured, but 
more particularly those at Wantipur, which are mere heaps of ruins. 
Speaking of these temples, Trebeck* says, ‘‘ It is scarcely possible to 
imagine that the state of ruin to which they have been reduced has 
been the work of time, or even of man, as their solidity is fully equal 
to that of the most massive monuments of Egypt ; earthquakes must 
have been the chief agents in their overthrow.” I have quoted this 


* Travels, v. 2—p. 245. 


244 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


passage to show the utter confusion that characterises the ruins of the 
Avantipura temples. In my opinion their overthrow is too complete 
to have been the result of an earthquake, which would have simply 
prostrated the buildings in large masses. But the whole of the super- 
structure of these temples is now lying in one confused heap of stones 
totally disjoined from one anothor. I believe therefore that I am fully 
justified in saying, from my own experience, that such a complete and 
disruptive overturn could only have been produced by gun-powder. 
I have myself blown up a Fort, besides several buildings, both of stone 
and of brick, and I have observed that the result has always been the 
entire sundering of all parts, one from another, and the capsizing or 
bouleversement of many of them. Neither of these effects can be 
produced by an earthquake. It seems also that Trebeck and Moor- 
croft would most likely have attributed their destruction to the same 
agency, had they not believed that the use of gun-powder was unknown 
at that time: for, in speaking of a traditional attempt made by Shah 
Hamadan to destroy Marttand, they say, ‘‘It is fortunate he was not 
acquainted with the use of gun-powder.”’ I admit that this destruc- 
tive agent was most probably unheard of in Kashmir so early as the 
reign of Shah Mir Shah of Hamadan: but the destruction of the 
Kashmirian temples is universally attributed both by history and by 
tradition to the bigotted Sikander, whose idol-breaking zeal procured 
him the title of But-shikan, or “Ikonoklastes.” He was reigning at 
the period of Timur’s invasion of India, with whom he exchanged 
friendly presents, and from whom I suppose that he may have received 
a present of the “ villainous saltpetre.” This is not at all unlikely ; for 
the furious Tamerlane was as great an idol-breaker as Sikandar himself. 
Gibbon, it is true, denies that either the Mogals or the Ottomans in 
1402 were acquainted with gun-powder: but as he points out that the 
Turks had metal cannon at the siege of Constantinople in A. D. 1422,* 
I think it is no great stretch of probability to suppose that gun-powder 
itself had been carried into the East, even as far as Kashmir, at least 
ten or twenty years earlier; that is, about A. D. 1400 to 1420, or 
certainly during the reign of Sikandar, who died in 1416. 

8. Even if this be not admitted I still adhere to my opinion that 
the complete ruin of the Avantipura temples could only have been 


* Decline and Fall, c. 65—note. 93. 


ae ene ge Ce 


GRECIAN PILLARS 


DORIC 


Fig. 


WY Lt 


CORINTH. 


a 


HEL | LA 


ATHENS. 


Parthenon 


ELEVATIONS or KASHMIRIAN PILLARS. 


of 

By. 4: age 

OF, 

| \ : 

| re 
| | ES 
HI | ~ 
z 

Taliolim lel 


MARTTAND. AVANTIPUR. 
Porch. Penistyle : Peristyle 
205" 19; as 


NB. Kadlis of Wlirteam one half, of Lower Diameter, 


feo 


. a . + . n 


“A PLATE Viti 


rrmmk — squsire 


re 
PAMPUR. SRINAGAR. 
Peristyle. Isoluted Pillar. 
¥ 
¥ 


i 


T Bleck Avisic Lith Breve Caleuita: 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 245 


effected by gun-powder, and I would then ascribe their overthrow to 
the bigotted Aurangzeb. Ferishta* attributed to Sikandar the de- 
molition of all the Kashmirian temples save one,which was dedicated to 
Mahadéva and which only escaped ‘in consequence of its foundation 
being below the surface of the neighbourmg water.’ In A. D. 1580- 
90 however Abul Fazl+ mentions that some of the idolatrous temples 


b] 


were in “ perfect preservation ;” and Ferishta himself describes many 
of these edifices as beg in existence in his own time, or about A. D. 
1600.{ Besides, as several of them are still standing, although more 
or less mjured, it is quite certain that Sikandar could not have destroyed 
them all. He most likely gave orders that they should all be over- 
turned ; and I have no doubt that many of the principal temples were 
thrown down during his reign. For mstance, the tomb of his own 
Queen in Srinagar is built upon the foundation, and with the materials 
of a Hindu temple: likewise the wall which surrounds the tomb of his 
son, Zein-ul-Ab-ud-din, was once the enclosure of a Hindu temple—and 
lastly, the entrance of a Masjid in Nowa-Shehra of Srinagar, which 
according to its inscription was built during the reign of his son Zein- 
ul-Ab-ud-din, is formed of two fluted pillars of a Hindu peristyle. 
These instances prove that at least three different temples in the capital 
alone must have been overthrown either by Sikandar or by one of his 
predecessors. But as the demolition of idol temples is not attributed 
to any one of the earlier kings, we may safely ascribe the destruction 
of the three above mentioned to Sikandar himself. 

9. But besides the ruthless hand of the destroyer, another agency 
less immediate, but equally certain in its ultimate effects, must have been 
at work upon the large temples of Kashmir. The silent ravages of the 
destroyer who carries away pillars and stones for the erection of other 
edifices, have been going on for centuries. Pillars from which the 
architraves have been thus removed have been thrown down by earth 
quakes, ready to be set up again for the decoration of the first masjid 
or tomb that might be erected in their neighbourhood. Thus every 
Mahomedan buildmg im Kashmir is constructed either entirely or in 
part of the ruins of Hindu temples. An instance of the transfer of 


* Briggs, v. 4—p. 465. 
+ Ayin Akbari, v. 2—p. 124. 
~ Briggs, v. d—p. 449. 


246 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Supr. 


materials I saw myself in November, 1847, when the rums of Nur 
Jehdn’s palace (itself built of Hindu materials) were daily being 
removed for the construction of additional buildings attached to the 
Sher-garhi. To the other cause I would attribute the disappearance of 
the second pillar that within the last 25 years adorned the gateway of 
the Wantipur temple. One only is now standing (see Plate XIX.), but 
Moorcroft* in 1823 saw two, “each supporting masses of stone of 


extraordinary size.”’ 
10. From the description of these temples given by Ferishta it 1s 


evident that some of them were much more perfect in his time than 
any of those are which now exist. He describes them correctly enough,+ 
as being situated within quadrangles and resting upon raised terraces— 
but they had transferred the ‘massive solid columns, each of a single 
stone,’ from the peristyles to the temples themselves. The apart- 
ments within, he adds, are small, beg im general only 12 feet square, 
and on the walls are sculptures of human figures, some representing 
mirth, others grief. In the middle of one of the temples there is a 
throne, cut out from the solid rock, on which is a minaret with a dome.”’ 
The last was most probably a Buddhist temple with an interior chaitya. 
Unfortunately, no trace of this now exists, unless indeed the description 
may be taken as bearing a distant resemblance to the Buddhist cave 
temple of Bhaumajo. 

11. The great size of most of the blocks of limestone and the enor- 
mous massiveness of others, which have been used in the construction 
of the Kashmirian temples, perhaps first led the people to ascribe their 
foundation to the race of Péndu: for even now they gravely assert that 
none but giants could have raised such ponderous masses. When I 
assured them that I had seen blocks of twice the size of the largest 
drawn upon carts in England, they politely shrugged their shoulders, 
and seemingly assented, saying, ““It may be so” (hoga), but they evi- 
dently did not believe it. Iam convinced however that none of them 
knew the exact size of these blocks of limestone, and that they have 
only a vague impression of their magnitude being much too great for 
the weakened powers of man in this iron age to move. I measured 
several of these stones—one lying to the right of the gateway of the 


* Travels, v. 2—p. 244. 
t+ Briggs, vy. d—p. 446.. 


tt ee 


‘ 


- 
wor 


yoog P= HEU, WY ‘2[¥2g 


“Ih — 00h “Ay 9319383 


‘ 


\WHSY™ * NVH134ud Nvd ay 


“VAAGVHVIN 7° 10aMWAs WuYMS3 


anise 


MIA 


SSN3HLV 4¥ 
WNBHLOINS 34 40 OS1LNOd 
ana wows 


BYNDI4 AlivAyWO 


YVAVHd 


Ogu dy vamaisraDa Digg my le ang oy) Ae map 


SiN 


tee 


ae 


ein 


Lara 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 247 


Avantipura temple (Plate XIX.) was 10X52} feet—and Vigne* men- 
tions one of almost exactly the same size, over the entrance to the inner 
chamber of Marttand. Its dimensions were not less than 10 feet in length, 
by about a yard in thickness. The lower roofing stone of the Payach 
temple is 8 feet square by 4 feet in height. As a cubic foot of the 
Kashmirian limestone weighs 1663 tbs., each of the above blocks must 
weigh nearly 17 tons.—But even such massive blocks, although heavy 
enough for all purposes of solidity, and sufficiently large for the greatest 
stretch of Kashmirian intercolumniations, were much too small to suit 
the exaggerated ideas which had been formed of Pandavan architecture. 
Accordingly we find even the sober Ferishtat gravely asserting that 
“many of the stones are from 40 to 60 feet in length, and from 3 to 
15 feet m thickness and width’’—or just four times the actual size of 
the blocks which I have measured. The other dimensions given by 
him are also much exaggerated: thus, he says that the walls of the 
quadrangles are from ‘500 to 600 feet in length, and in many parts 
nearly 100 feet in height.” The longest side of the Marttand quad- 
rangle is 249 feet on the exterior, and the height of the gateway was 
about 54 feet, or just one half of the dimensions stated. I have quoted 
these passages to show how little dependence can be placed in the most 
detailed dimensions even of the most trustworthy native authors; and 
I now proceed to describe the temples themselves from my own notes 
and measurements, with occasional illustrations from Moorcroft, Hugel, 
and Vigne. 


I1.—Temple on the Takht-i-Suliman. 


1. The oldest temple in Kashmir, both in appearance and according 
to tradition, is that upon the Takht-i-Suliman hill. It is now called 
Sankardéchdrya; but the Brahmans in the valley were unanimous in 
their belief that its original name was Jyeshteswara. Its erection they 
ascribed to Jaloka, the son of Asoka, who reigned about 220 B. C. 
The old Hindu name of the hill however was Sandhimdna-parvata, 
which is said to have suggested the Mahomedan designation of Takht_ 
i-Sulimdn, from the similarity of sound between the two. The name 


* Kashmir, v. l—p. 390. 
t Briggs, v. 4—p. 445, 


248 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Serr. 


of Sandhimdna was derived from the Brahman minister of Jayendra, 
who reigned from A. D. 341 to 360, or no less than five centuries anda 
half after Jaloka. Now the attribution of the Jyeshteswara temple to 
Jaloka rests solely upon the authority of the following verse of the 
Raja Tarangini, B. 1, v. 124 :— 


yfast weeRe Maat faa | 
Wa AARIUSl FA Ga Bret fear 1! 


which is thus translated by M. Troyer :— 

«‘Aprés avoir répandu a Srinagari la vénération du premier Rudra, 
il se ralentit de sa ferveur pour Nandisa par l’absence de la fontaine 
(sacrée.) 

2. In the original the word which is translated “premier Rudra,”’ 
is Jyeshta-Rudra, a name of exactly the same meaning as Jyeshteshwara, 
the “‘supreme lord,’’ and which is used here only as a synonyme of 
Siva, who in this same verse is likewise designated by another name, as 
Nandisa, or *‘ Lord of Nandi,’ his attendant bull. It is true that the 
verse distinctly attributed to Jaloka the extension of the worship of 
Jyeshteswara throughout the city of Sriagar; and that the temple of 
Jyeshteswara on the Takht-i-Sulimén was within the bounds of the old 
capital, which extended from the Takht-i-Sulimaén as far as the present 
Panthasok to the south-east. Both the position and the name of the 
old temple therefore agree very well with the record of the Raja Taran- 
gini, and which is still further borne out by the undoubted antiquity 
of the building itself. On the very same authority the Brahmans like- 
wise ascribe the building of a temple to Nandisa, at the place now 
called Nandymarg, behind Bij Bih4éra.—But as the actual erection of a 
temple to Jyeshteswara is not distinctly mentioned, some shadow of 
doubt must always rest upon this attribution. 

3. It would naturally be supposed that the hill must have been 
known by the name of the temple that crowned its summit: instead of 
which it is called Sandiména-parvata. Perhaps some part of this hill 
may have been the scene of the burning of Sandhimana’s body; for 
after the cremation, when he became regenerated as Arya Raja, he is 
said to have built on that very spot a temple named Sandheswara.* 
The belief in this miracle would have been quite sufficient for the attri- 


* Raja Tarangini, B. 2—v. 134, 


. 


ee ee ee eee 


PLATE Vill. 
TEMPLE of JYESHTESWARA 


‘ FRIEZES. 
ow tHE TAKHT- I- SULIMAN HILL. 


Nt? 


ENTRANCE Awo ENCLOSING WALL. SRINAGAR 


MARTTAND 


EBlevanon 


MARTTAND. 
4.0, 100 


ENTRANCE ano ENCLOSING WALL. 
7 
as 
S Hlevation, Suction: ¢ 
| ee s 
a b = = 2 


BASEMENTS 


ml a) | \: = = = See ee ; ‘ os TAKHT-1-SULIMAN BHAUMavo PAYACH MARTTAND 
Wi tatatapay si 
| A : 


A Cunningham delt- j | 


TR ra 

aie ce 
AnD : 

‘ Ui 


a 


x 
+ 
¥ 


PLANS or TEMPLES ano ENCLOSURES, KASHMIR. 


temic cy PADMASWAMI, PAMPun. 


toms oe ZEIN-UL- AB-UD DIN'S mornen. 


SRINAGAR. 


TEMPLE or JVYESHTESWARA ox SANKARACHARYA ENCLOSURE or ZEIN-UL-AB-UD-DINS Tome, 


ON THETAKHT~=1~ SULIMAN HILL. SRINAGAR. | 


pire) ewuws SoU ws 1 


5c, 20 Seale, Me® Inch—1Boot. °° 


woe — 
ee aaali 


we 
pv eeeeinh { = 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 249 


bution of a new name even to an old locality ; and as the name of San- 
dhimiana still clings to the hill, we must perhaps rest content with the 
assumption that such was the fact: and that the temple of Jyeshtes- 
wara on its summit was most probably built by Jaloka about 220 B. C. 
In this case the ruins which exist just below the temple may be the 
remains of that named Sandheswara. They are mentioned by Vigne, * 
who likewise considered them to be the remains of a temple. 

4. Vigne also assigns the building of the upper temple to Raja 
Gopaditya; but the Raja Taranginit merely states that he erected a 
Jyeshteswara upon mount Gopa, which may be, and probably was, only 
another name for the Takht-i-Suliman: but of this we have no evidence. 
Now Gopaditya reigned from A. D. 238 to 253. It is quite possible 
therefore that the temple of Jyeshteswara may have been either repaired 
or rebuilt by Gopaditya, who at the same time may have imposed his 
own name upon the hill. 

5. The situation is a noble one, and must have been amongst the 
first throughout the whole valley which was selected as the position of 
atemple. It stands one thousand feet above the plain, and commands 
a view of the greater part of Kashmir. 

6. The plan of this temple is octagonal, each side being 15 feet in 
length. The entrance, the back, and the two flank walls are perfectly 
plain; but the other four walls are broken into a succession of salient 
and re-entermg angles, as shown in Plate IX. The light and shade 
thus produced offer an agreeable variety to the bald massiveness of the 
other walls. The height of the origmal temple cannot now be ascer- 
tained,t as the present roof is a modern plastered dome which has, I 
believe, been built since the occupation of the country by the Sikhs. 
The interior, which is a circle of 213 feet in diameter, is perfectly plain 
and very dark; the entrance being a narrow passage only 3% feet in 
width. The walls are therefore 8 feet thick; which I consider as one 
of the strongest proofs of the great antiquity of the building. 

7. The basement of the temple has much the same style of mould- 
ing as those of the Bhaumajo and Pdyach temples: but it differs from 
them in being but slightly projected beyond the face of the wall. The 


* Kashmir, v. 2—p. 59. 
7 B. l—v. 343, 
{ See Note in the Section on Basements. 


250 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


different members are altogether more massive; and in my opinion 
betoken an earlier style of building. 

8. It is surrounded by an octagonal enclosure parallel to the 
walls of the temple, at only 7} feet distance. This enclosing wall 
is 3 feet 2 inches in thickness and 4 feet 2 inches in height; and 
stands upon a basement 5 ft. 2 inches broad, and 10 inches high. The 
lower portion, 23 feet in height, is ornamented both on the outside 
and inside by small rectangular panels, 1 foot 83 inches in height 
by 11} inches in breadth, and 22 inches in depth: and in each of these 
panels there is a pointed arched recess 5} inches in depth. There are 
twelve of these recesses in each of the seven unbroken sides of the 
octagonal enclosure. The- whole number of recesses is therefore 84: 
and in each of these I presume that there was once a miniature lingam 
or emblem of Siva, as in the larger chambers of the Saiva temples at 
Avantipura and Pathan, to be hereafter noticed. The top of the wall, 
1 ft. 4 inches in height, is triangular in section and perfectly plain. 
See plate VIII. In this primitive example I think that I can trace the 
germs of that style of enclosure, which, by gradual development, was 
afterwards expanded into the noble colonnade of Marttand. 

9. The temple is approached by a flight of 18 steps, 8 feet in width, 
and enclosed between two sloping walls. At the foot of the steps there 
is another wall of the same upper section as that of the enclosing wall 
of the temple: and in the middle of this wall is the entrace, which is 
closed by a wooden door. An elevation of this entrance with part of 
the enclosing wall is given in Plate VIII. It is 6 ft. 10 inches in height, 
and 1 ft. 114 mches in width. The top is semi-circular, with a few 
parallel and perfectly plain mouldings, which are joined to the similar 
mouldings of the sides by short horizontal returns. The perpendicular 
mouldings rest upon plain bases, which are made flush with the outer- 
most building. The top is surmounted by a melon-lke ornament, 
similar to that which crowns the summit of most of the Kashmirian 
buildings. 

10. A further notice of this most ancient example of the Kash- 
mirian entrace and enclosing wall will be given hereafter, as well as a 
comparison between it and the later specimens. 

11. In the right hand flank wall, at the point marked A, there is a 
small slab about 10 inches square, which formerly bore a Pergian inserip- 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 251 


tion dated in A. H. 1069 or A. D. 1659. I copied this inscription in 
1839: but since then it has been so completely defaced by the Dogar 
soldiery that I could with difficulty trace the name of Takht-i-Suliman. 
How little did the idol-breaking Aurangzeb anticipate such a reverse of 
fortune ! 


Ill.—Cave Temple of Bhaumajo. 


1. This little temple, which is only 10 feet square, and not quite 16 
feet high, is the most perfect of all the existing buildings of Kashmir. 
It stands in a cave which is partly a natural fissure, and partly an exca- 
tion of the limestone cliff at a short distance from the holy spring and 
village of Bhavana or Bhawan, and at about 4 miles to the N. E. of 
Islamabad. At this point the hill projects into the plain, and has been 
naturally scarped by the action of the river Lambodari, or Lidar, of 
which a considerable branch still washes the base of the cliff imme. 
diately beneath the great cave. There are also many other narrow 
fissures at different heights above the ground, which are known as 
Siva’s cave, Bhimé-Devi’s cave, &c.; and there are likewise numerous 
square chambers hewn out of the solid rock at its base, which once 
were most probably the monastic dwellings of Buddhist priests. The 
large cave in which the temple stands, is situated considerably higher 
than the others, it being upwards of 60 feet above the level of the 
river. 

2. The cave and temple are both known by the name of Bhaumajo ; 


which in the Kashmirian Tésra character, is written Wsrorge 
Bhaumajova. But I cannot help suspecting that it is only the Sanskrit 
Hrasifaeg Bhauma-jyotis, the “ Planet Mars.” This derivation however, 
the Kashmirian Brahmans would not allow, though they admitted that 
Bhauma was the name of a Rishi. Now as Vrihaspati, or the planet 
Jupiter, is also the name of a Rishi, Bhauma may certainly be consi- 
dered as the Regent of the planet Mars, if not as the actual star itself, 

3. There is not even a traditional clue to the date of the building : 
but I have little doubt that it is one of the oldest of the Kashmirian 
temples. Indeed its massive simplicity, its unadorned pilasters, its 
unbroken tympanum, and its plank-like roof, all point to a much earlier 
period than that of the most ancient of the authenticated structures, 

2N 2 


252 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [SEpr. 


excepting only that upon the Takt-i-Sulimin. The wonderful temple 
of Marttand, as the Hindu historian himself calls it, with its lofty roof 
and highly ornamented walls, was built either in the third or the fourth 
century ; and as its style differs fully as much from that of the plain 
low-roofed temple of Bhaumajo, as the style of the Parthenon does 
from that of the temples of Pcestum, a considerable interval must have 
elapsed between the dates of their construction. The building of this 
temple cannot therefore be placed much later than the commencement 
of the Christian era. 

4. In plate X. I have given a plan and an elevation of this temple : 
together with plans of the caves of Bhaumajo and of Bhima-Devi. 
The latter is a straight narrow fissure, 160 feet in length, which gradually 
widens out towards the end into two small chambers, from 16 to 20 feet 
across, and from 12 to 15 feet in height. In each of these there is a 
shapeless waterworn stone, whichis considered holy by the Hindus. The 
larger cave of Bhaumajo is 55 feet long, 25 feet broad, and from 10 to 
20 feet in height. Baron Hugel* erroneously states that this cave is 
about ‘20 feet long and 12 feet high and broad,”’ but these dimensions 
must certainly have been recorded from memory, for mine are given 
from measurements made by myself. Moorcroft did not visit these 


caves, and Vigne+ was deterred from entering by the stench of innu- ~ 


merable bats. Before I visited it I had all the bats turned out, and 
their dung removed: but still the task of measurement was rendered 
extremely unpleasant by a villanous smell, and still more by the myriads 
of bugs which were swarming over the glistening walls of the temple. 

5. There are numerous dressed stones in the interior of the cave, 
and there are also two low stone walls flanking a narrow pathway, which 
leads to the steps of the temple. The same arrangement I have 
observed in most of the Buddhist temples in Ladék and in Upper Kané- 
war: and I am therefore disposed to consider this building as a Bud- 
dhist structure. The existence of the numerous excavated cells at a 
short distance from the cave would seem to prove the correctness of 
this appropriation, as they appear to have been the usual accompaniments 
of the monastical institutions of the Buddhists; being destined either 
for the reception of figures or for the dwellings of the priests. 


* Eng. translation, p. 36. 
tT Kashmir, v. 2—p. 4, 


| 
c 
‘ 
- 
‘ 
. 
; 
a 


ano iS = — CE 


. PLATE x. 


CAVE TEMPLE 
of BHAUMAJO , KAsHMiR. 


we [ 


+ 7 € 7 
Seale, {* Inch = 1 Foot. 


Seale. 4 Tuch- 40 Feet 


“PALOS—"PULT |S 


4 er 


ee 


ae 


F Se ty: 


scare 


Fagin ee 
t 
ee aaa ~~ 


a 


1848.] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 253 


6. The temple of Bhaumajo is a square of 6} feet, interior side, 
with walls 1 foot 10 inches in thickness. The doorway is small and 
low; being only 23 feet broad, by 4% feet high. It is surmounted by a 
pediment, of which the tympanum is occupied with the trefoiled deco- 
ration common to all the Kashmirian buildings. In this instance how- 
ever the trefoil is a mere ornament, as it rests upon the architrave 
which covers the pilasters of the doorway, instead of being supported, 
as is always the case in other examples, upon slender independent pilas- 
ters of its own. Yet even in this temple, although the architrave ig 
unbroken, it is still somewhat retired in the central portion immediately 
above the doorway. Its erection must therefore have preceded in date 
that of all the other temples of Kashmir, in which the architrave is 
always completely broken through, and the base of the tympanum is 
reduced to two short returns of the horizontal mouldings of the pedi- 
ment, each of which serves as a sort of upper abacus to the pedimental 
pilasters. In the oldest of the Kashmirian buildings the architrave 
forming the base of the pediment was no doubt preserved in its full 
integrity ; but I was unable to discover a single example of so early 
a date. 

7. Another peculiarity in this temple consists in the height of the 
doorway pilasters, which are made flush with the top of the main 
pilasters and walls of the buildmg: whereas in all other examples the 
crowns of the doorway pilasters are generally made of the same height 
as the bases of the main pilaster capitals, or even lower, as at Marttand. 

8. Lastly, the pyramidal roof of the Bhaumajo temple is remarkable 
for its extreme lowness, the height being only one half of the breadth 
of the temple, instead of being exactly equal to it, as in most other 
examples. Like them it is broken into two portions ; but it wants the 
dividmg band of ornament, which characterizes all the other temple- 
roofs. In this respect the roof is an exact copy in stone of the sloping 
timber roofs usual in Kashmir; such for instance as those of the build- 
ings in the Shalimar garden. I therefore consider this as an undoubted 
proof of the antiquity of the temple. 

9. The entrance to the cave of Bhaumajo has a structural doorway 
covered by two pediments; one within the other, and each having a 
trefoiled tympanum. The smaller trefoil rests upon the architrave of 
the pilasters, which, as in the temple itself, is partially retired m 


254 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


the middle; but the outer trefoil is supported upon independent pulas- 
ters; and the architrave, which would have interfered with the inner 
pediment, is altogether omitted. Perhaps it was this necessity, of either 
breaking or omitting the architrave of the outer pediment that even- 
tually led to the same treatment with the znner one. This entrance 
was formerly gained by a flight of steps, of which some of the stones 
still remain, but not in position, and I obtained access at first with 
some difficulty. 


IV.—~Temple of Pdyach. 

1. This elegant specimen of Kashmirian architecture is situated on 
the bank of a small sparkling brook at the little village of Pdéyach, or 
as it is written in Nagari yta=x Pdyachchha, which most likely derived 
its name from the stream: yT@ pdya signifying “water” and wae, 
achcha “clear.” ‘The full name of the hamlet is Payachchha-gréma, 
the “village on the clear stream.”’ The name of the temple itself has 
been forgotten; but three different Brahmans informed me that it was 
built by Raja Nal, Nar, or Nand. This is not mdeed very precise ; 
but in the absence of all other records this close agreement in the name 
becomes of value. Even the slight variations of the traditional name 
would seem to give a clue to the right one; for there is but one Raja 
throughout the Kashmirian list to whom these different names can be 
applied. This prince is Narendrdditya who was also called Nandravat, 
in which names we have both the Nar and Nand of my informants. 
Now in the following verse of the Raja Tarangini the erection of a 
temple is directly attributed to this very prince. B. 3—v. 383 

Waa Gray Teaiea Taya | 
MAUGCAA Bl AUAAlAG BATA || 
which I translate as follows :— 

““Padmévati bore a son named Narendriditya or Lakshana, who 
built the temple of Narendraswdmi.” This Raja reigned between the 
years 483—490. A. D. 

2. There are but two other princes of similar name posterior to 
Nandravat, namely Nirjita-varmma, and Nandi-gupta. As each of them 


however reigned only one year, and as the Raja Tarangimi does not © 


mention any temples of their construction, it seems highly probable 


PLATE Xi 
’ 


TEMPLE 47 PAYACH > KASHMIR. 


PROBABLE DATE— A.D. 483 490, 


Plan of Roof 


Section of Hust, 


ELEVATION of tHe NORTH SIDE oF THE 
TEMPLE or PAYACH, KASHMIR. 


PROBABLE DATE, AD 483-490. 


Broudth —= 8 Fat 
Haught —= 16 Fea, + Iriches 


T Black tate Lah Frees Chere 48 


vs 
samen? Coy 
Scalet Inch =] Foob 


s = —— es 


—__—.—~ 
——— 


PLATE XII 


ne ll it Ea 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 255 


that the attribution made by me is correct. Indeed the fortunate agree- 
ment of the tradition with the record of the native history of the 
country almost increases the probability to certainty. And yet in spite 
of this remarkable concurrence I cannot help harbourmg a suspicion 
that this temple owes it erection to the same period as that of the well 
authenticated structure at Péndrethan. Vigne* also was of opinion 
that this was the most modern of the Kashmirian temples. I have 
been led to this suspicion solely by the great similarity of the internal 
decorations of the two temples. But at the same time I must confess 
that the ground-plan of the Payach edifice assimilates more closely with 
that of Marttand, than with those of later date at Avantipura, Pathan 
and Pandrethan. 

3. But there is another evidence in favor of this appropriation in 
the fact that both the temples of Pdyach and of Narendraswdmi were 
undoubtedly dedicated to Siva. The dedication of Payach is known 
by the presence of a lingam which still stands intact in the middle of 
the building, and by the representation of the Bull Nandi upon the 
capitals of the supporting pilasters of the trefoiled niche. The name 
of the enshrined Deity in the temple of Narendraswémi is ascertained 
by the title of Swdmi, which is one of the names of Siva. It is true 
that a Swdmz does not necessarily signify a Saiva temple; but unless 
otherwise specified it is always intended as such. Altogether therefore 
the balance of evidence and of probability is decidedly in favor of the 
early date which I have assigned to the temple on the concurrent 
authority of tradition and of the record of the Raja Tarangini. 

4. The remarkably perfect state in which this temple still exists is 
no doubt, as suggested by Vigne, partly owing to its retired situation 
on the westward and immediately beneath the steep side of the Karewat 
(or elevated alluvial flat) of No-nagar. This position is some miles 
to the eastward of the high road leading mto Kashmir, and entirely 
screened from observation by the Karewah from any point of the great 
thoroughfare along the bank of the river. But I attribute its preserva- 
tion chiefly to the extreme solidity of its construction: the walls being 
made each of a single stone, and the roof of no more than two stones. 
A reference to plates XI. and XII. will show the disposition of the six 
stones, which form the superstructure of this temple. In the former 

* Kashmir, v. l—p, 392. 


256 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Srepr. 


Plate, A. B. C. D. E. F. and G. E. F. H. K. I. are the two roofing 
stones, and I. L. N. R. P. and M. K. T. S. O. are two of the four 
stones which form the walls. In the latter Plate, A. B. C. and D. are 
the four wall stones. 

5.—An attempt has once been made, as noticed by Vigne, to pul] 
down this temple ; but either through accident or superstition, or per- 
haps solely owing to the difficulty of moving such massive stones from 
their positions the attempt was fortunately abandoned. The design cer- 
tainly could not have been to destroy the temple, but only to remove it 
to some other position ; for the attempt was made with the upper stone 
of the roof which still remains displaced about five inches to the east- 
ward. In the elevation of Plate XI. I have, for the sake of symmetry, 
restored this stone to its original position. A destroyer would no doubt 
have made sure work by beginning below; as the removal of a single 
corner-stone would have completely overthrown the building. 

6.—The removal and appropriation of the Hindu temples would ap- 
pear to have been a favorite practice with the Mahomedan saints of Kash- 
mir, who thereby acquired a double benefit: renown during life by the 
overthrow or desecration of Idol houses, and a lasting tomb after death 
by the appropriation of the Idol houses to themselves. ‘Thus Syad Ma- 
homed Feroz appropriated the Hindu temple of Panthasok qranta, of 
which one cloistered recess yet exists ; and Syad Mahomed Madani ap- 
propriated another temple, of which two of the fluted pillars of the per- 
istyle, and the intervening trefoiled recess, with the human-headed birds, 
are still standing within the tomb. 

7.—This elegant little temple is only 8 feet square in the superstruc- _ 
ture and 21 feet high, including the basement, which is almost a literal 
copy of that of the cave temple of Bhaumajo. The mouldings indeed 
are exactly the same both in form and in disposition, which may perhaps 
be taken as another indication of the antiquity of the Payach temple, al- 
though there are some slight differences in the relative proportions of the 
different members. The temple has four doorways with a flight of steps 
to the eastward : and in the niches formed by the trefoils over each door, 
way there are sculptured representations of Siva and of other Hindu dei- 
ties. The roof as usual is broken into two distinct portions by an or- 
namental band. This band is divided into square spaces alternately pro- 
jecting and retirmg. The latter are occupied by flowers; but the pro- 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 2a0 


jecting ends are carved into three upright mouldings slightly rounded 
at top and bottom and surmounted by a straight and horizontal band. 
The resemblance which these bear to the dentils of classical architecture 
is remarkably striking: and I suspect that these diglyph ornaments are 
a direct imitation of the Doric, and not an accidental likeness. In 
either case they represent the ends of beams. In the former they are 
the ends of the beams overlying the architrave: im the latter the lower 
set are the ends of the beams which supported the pyramidal roof, while 
the upper set are either the ends of the horizontal ties of the wooden 
tresses; or of the beams of an upper floor im the roof, a construction 
particularly common throughout the eastern hills of the Punjab. 

8.—Each of the blank sides of the upper roof is appropriately occu- 
pied by a niche similar in form to the doorway of the temple: but the 
head of the niche is semi-circular and not trefoiled, while the upper part 
of the tympanum is filled bya flowered ornament. The common tre- 
foil was however also used in this position as may be seen in the small 
temple which crowns the isolated Srinagar Pillar represented in Plate VI, 
as well as in the upper part of the roof of the Pandrethin temple. Last- 
ly the top is crowned by a melon-like ornament surmounted by a con- 
cave-sided cone, which forms a very suitable finish to the building by 
preserving the pyramidal form which is the characteristic feature of the 
Kashmirian architecture. 

9.—In the interior the walls are plain, but the roof is hollowed out 
into a hemispherical dome, of which the centre is decorated by an ex- 
panded lotus flower. Vigne* erroneously says that the “ceiling of the 
interior is radiated so as to represent the Sun.’ But, in addition to 
my experience and knowledge of Hindu decorations in general, I have 
the testimony of the accurate Trebeck, who states that the interior of 
the temple of Pandrethan was “ quite plain with the exception of a large 
lotus sculptured on the roof.” A reference to my drawings of the 
two roofs, which were made from measurements, will prove the truth of 
Trebeck’s description as well as of my own. Vigne was probably mis- 
led by his belief that the temple was dedicated to Vishnu, as Surya or 
the Sun-god ; but the presence of the lingam as well as the representa- 
tions of the bull Nandi, decides, beyond all possibility of doubt, that the 
temple was appropriated to Siva. 


* Kashmir, v. 2,—p. 41. 
2.0 


258 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


10.—The lower edge of the dome is ornamented by three straight- 
edged fillets and by a beaded circle. The spandrils are filled by single 
naked and winged figures (of rather spirited execution), who with out- 
stretched arms and legs would appear to be supporting the roof. Vigne 
calls these three figures jins or genii, which unfortunately are Mahome- 
dan creations, and have no more right toa place in a Hindu temple, 
than the angels Gabriel and Raphaél. They are probably Yakshas ; 
the demigod inhabitants of mount Kailasa—which was the favourite re- 
sidence of Siva. ‘The dome itself rests upon the cornice which is formed 
of six plain straight lined mouldings, as shown in Plate XI. Anenlarg- 
ed and beautiful specimen of this roof may be seen in that of the Pan- 
drethan temple delineated in Plate XXI. 


V.—Temple of Marttand. 


1.—Of all the existing remains of Kashmirian grandeur the most 
striking in size and situation is the noble rum of Marttand. This ma- 
jestic temple stands at the northern end of the Karewah (or elevated ta- 
ble-land) of Matan and between three and four miles to the eastward of 
Islamébid. This is undoubtedly the finest position m Kashmir. 
The temple itself is not now more than 40 feet in height; but its solid 
walls and bold outlines towering over the beautiful fluted pillars of the 
surrounding colonnade’give it a most imposing appearance. There are no 
petty confused details ; but all are distinct and massive and most admi- 
rably suited to the general character of the building. 

2.—Many vain speculations have been hazarded regarding the date 
of the erection of this temple, and the worship to which it was appropri- 
ated. It is usually called Péndavon-ki-laré or ‘‘ House of the Pandus”’ 
by the Brahmans, and by the people Matan. The first is exactly the 
same as Moorcroft’s Khdna Pdnduwa which is only a Persian rendering, 
that was most likely derived through his Mahomedan Munshi. The 
name recorded by Hugel and Vigne of Kaura-Pandu has, I believe, no 
reference whatever to the Kaurawas as supposed by them, but bears pre- 
cisely the same meaning as the other terms; Gharo-Pdéndava bemg ano- 
ther Kashmirian name for “‘ House of the Pandus.”’ The true appella- 
tion however is preserved in Matan, which is only a corruption of the 
Sanskrit Marttand ars, or “the Sun,” to whom the temple was de 


| 
: 


PLATE Xill. 


TEMPLE 


—— Ah, 
[ Pet Get || Sia r 
rene eee Seema ee 
jo. He! Oo. on ei O f0| (oI oO oO col ot Oo Of 
1a 
an 
= 
site 
roe 
See be 
eo dl i) =a 
a ahs 


TEMPLE 


AMRITESWAKA = 


A: ane 
TEMPLE. oF 
Near BHAWAN, KASHMIR. 


The existing portions wre’ sheaded: 
The restorations are plas, 


TEMPLE BUILT A.D. 490- 565. 


colommane ,, A.D. 693-729 


Scale, 20 Feet-1ach 
7a. 


MARTTAND, ox tHe SUN, 


Lee 
2 
ee 


phe 


ae oe CEI 
. , Y* 


etal ~-> -—9 aes. 


- : 
rr, 


; 
it 
$ 


th wee 


4 wee we 
er een ee 
Pian Su = ore 


PLATE Xiv. 


VIEW 
OF THE 
TEMPLE of MARTTAND, on tHESUN, 


eae BHAWAN , KASHMIR: 


WITH ITs 


PYRAMIDAL ROOF ResToRED 


The existing portions are shaded. 


The restoration are plain 


TEMPLE sult A.D 490-558 


COLONNADE , , A.D. 698-729 


a $ ‘ w ee M4 fiat 
ay —_—_— ee ——L - 4 — 


Weale. & Feel =f Inch: 


S| 


| 
| 
| 


[ass 


1) bm 
= = - Ai, 
—— = = hry] a M 


eas y 


IT Deruxe Lith: Fras Catoattn., 


1848. | Lissay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 259 


dicated. The temple itself is mentioned in the following verse of the 
Raja Tarangini: B. 3—v. 462. | 


wife cugtafeawa Gaara | 
4 fawofeaa ariwat yeatega i 


which is thus translated by M. Troyer, vol. II. pp. 112—462. “Il con. 
struisit aussi dans le village Sinharotsika un sanctuaire au soleil, le- 
quel, sous le nom de Ranapuraswémi, acquit une renommée répandue 
partout.” 

. 2.—In the original the term used for the Sun is Marttand ; and there 
can be no doubt therefore that the celebrated temple of Matan or Mart- 
tand is the edifice referred to. But the name of the temple which was erect- 
ed by the King is Ranapuraswdmi, or as it is called in the next verse 
Ranesa, both of which terms have precisely the same meaning, as “ Lord 
of Rana” or Ranaditya, and would usually imply the king’s devotion to 
Siva. In M. Troyer’s translation however the temple is expressly said. 
to have been dedicated to Mérttand or the Sun; and as this name hag 
adhered to the building down to the present day, there can be little 
doubt of the correctness of my appropriation. There would appear to 
be a slight error however in M. Troyer’s translation in the transfer of 
the epithets from the sun himself to the title of Ranapuraswami. 1 
have consulted two intelligent Brahmans upon this point, and as their 
opinion agrees with mine I will venture to give my own rendering of 
the above couplet, as follows :—— 

Heim the village of Sinharotsika, erected (a temple) named Rana- 
puraswami to the famous all-pervading Sun.” The true name of the tem- 
ple would therefore appear to be Ranapuraswdmi, which has been com- 
pletely superseded by that of Marttand; the deity to whom it was de- 
dicated. 

3.—I have a suspicion however that two different edifices may possi- 
bly be indicated in the above verse. In support of this we have Ist, 
the probability abovementioned that the temple of Ranapuraswami 
must have been dedicated to Siva, and 2nd, the fact that the author of 
the Raja Tarangini in mentioning the erection of the surrounding colon- 
nade calls the temple by the name of Mérttand and not by that of Rana- 
puraswam. Judging from these two points alone, I conclude that two 
different temples are most probably referred to; the principal one dedi- 

5k 


260 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


cated to the sun as Mdrttand, and the smaller one to Siva as Ranapura- 
swimt. 'This view receives further support from the record of the next 
succeeding verse of the Raja Tarangini. B. 3.—v. 463. 


VIAIAA AY UA TIA Aa: | 
afautaa CUE Wy Sasa VT (1 


which I translate thus :— “ Amrita prabha, one of the king’s wives erect- 
edan Amriteswara close to the south side of Ranésa.”’ Here the substitu- 
tion of Ranésa as a synonyme of Ranapuraswami increases the former 
probability almost to a certainty that the temple so named must have 
been dedicated to Siva, as Isa is a title peculiar to that God. 

4.—We have thus the mention of no less than three distinct temples 
which correspond exactly both in number and position with the existing 
buildings now known by the general title of Matan or Marttand. To 
the northward, within 43 feet of the principal temple, which I assign to 
Mirttand or the Sun, there is a small edifice containing two chambers, 
which from their shape and dimensions could only have been intended 
for the reception of linga or emblems of Siva ; and this I suppose to 
be the fane of Ranapuraswimi or Ranésa. Again, due south from this, 
exactly as described by the Kashmirian author, there is a corresponding 
Saiva building that can only be the temple of Amriteswara. The accu- 
racy of the description, as well as the names of the different fanes, are 
thus verified by the relative positions of the existing buildings. These 
are faithfully represented in Plate XITI. in which the northern detached 
building or wing must be the temple of Ranesa, and the southern one 
that of Amriteswara. 

5.—If the correctness of this attribution be admitted, some slight al- 
teration must be made in the translation of the first quoted couplet of 
the Raja Tarangini, which might I think be rendered with almost equal 
accuracy as follows: ‘‘ He, in the village of Sinharotsika, erected (a tem- 
ple) named Ranapuraswami, near (that) of the famous all-pervading Sun.” 
All difficulties are thus removed by this slight change, which has every 
probability in its favour, although perhaps not strictly allowable. 

6.—The period of Ranaditya’s reign must next be determined. Ac- 
cording to the native historians, * he was the most powerful Prince of 
the line of Gonerda, and equal to Rama amongst the race of Raghu. 


* Raja Tarangini, B. 3—v. 473. 


ELEVATION of tHe PERISTYLE of THe TEMPLE or MARTTAND, or THESUN; 


PLATE XV. 
near BHAWAN, 


/ 
fo 


— 7 


Ke : 
plarararay 1a 
mM aman 


Li Z 


——=— ills 


[= 


; 


H 


Saar eae Z ae ems 
= == - + = 
| T = r 
Sorte 80% be tema en chee reo een ne ae ce. Ns Fa COE Ce I}, eye Wrepee == Mewes Does poe ulLtes Me anyylieeire woe. ok ote 
n - - e fe aS Fa 
1 Carnirgpam dell, cree Seale $tnch=i/ Fic 2 


44 
% 


ee 


q 
ape | 
; j ‘yy “i ye 
‘yiinieleap a ah eae 


1848. ] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 261 


The same authority also says that he reigned for 300 years; and M. 
Troyer, the learned translator of the Raja Tarangini, has attempted to 
unravel this knotty poimt of Kashmirian chronology, but in my opinion 
without the least success. I believe that the native author must have 
mistaken the Vikraméditya of Ujain, who placed Matrigupta upon the 
throne of Kashmir for the celebrated Vikramaditya Sakari of Ujain. 
Now the mention of Dinars in the reign immediately preceding, proves 
that the author’s Vikramaditya could not have lived until after the 
period of Roman ascendancy in the east, when the Indian trade was 
followed by Roman sailors, and when, as we learn from the Periplus, 
the Roman denarii were exchanged with advantage against the gold 
coin of the country. Now Dinirs are also mentioned in the Sdchi tope 
inscription of Chandragupta of Magadha, who flourished during the end 
of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th centuries, who was also Lord of 
Ujain, and who on his coins takes the title of Vikramaditya. These 
facts no doubt must have misled the Kashmirian author, who, to fill up 
the gap that thus resulted, could fortunately invent no better plan than 
the miraculous lengthening of one Prince’s reign to 300 years. 

7.—I published this identification of the Vikramaditya of Kashm{ri- 
an history with Chandragupta Vikramaditya no less than six years ago, 
in the Numismatic Chronicle of London ; and I still adhere to the gene- 
ral correctness of my Kashmirian chronology published at the same 
time, which places the reign of Ranaditya between the years 480—555, 
A. D. In a disputed point of chronology however which involves the true 
date of the erection of a temple, the wonder of Kashmir, it may be as 
well to quote the dates given by other authorities. According to the 
Raja Tarangini, which is followed by Troyer, Ranaditya flourished be- 
tween the years A. D. 217—517. According to Wilson’s corrected 
chronology, he reigned from A. D. 545 to 568 ; but this date must be 
curtailed by 21 years, the amount of Wilson’s own error, which wil] 
place Ranaditya’s reign between the years 524—547, A. D. Now as the 
different dates of Ranaditya’s death correspond within a few years, or 
between 517—555, A. D. it seems quite certain that this Prince must 
have flourished in the earlier part of the first half of the 5th century. 
We may therefore safely assume A. D. 500, as being within a few 
years of the true date of the erection of the two subordinate temples of 
- Ranesa and Amriteswara. 


262 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. |Sepr. 


8.—The date to be assigned to the large temple of Marttand. itself 
can only be conjectured, as I can find no mention of it in the Raja 
Tarangini. The plan of the body of the temple, as already noticed, is 
very similar to that of Payach, which I have assigned to the reign of 
Narendraditya, the predecessor of Ranaditya. In the later temples of 
Avantipura, Pathan, and Pandréthan, all the porticos of the four sides 
project considerably more beyond their main walls than those of the 
older temples of Bhaumajo, Payach, and Marttand; of which the 
particos are almost flush with the rest of the building. Taking these 
indications as slight proofs of rather an earlier style, I think that the 
erection of the great Sun-temple may perhaps be ascribed to a some- 
what earlier period than that of the building at Payach. Now amongst 
the predecessors of Narendraditya I find only two who were sufficiently 
powerful to have erected such an extensive and costly building: namely, 
Arya Raja, who reigned from 360 to 383, A. D.; and Meghavahana, 
who reigned from 383 to 400, A. D. As the latter however was a zea- 
lous Buddhist, the erection of a sun temple can scarcely be attributed 
to him. The date of its foundation may therefore be fixed approxi- 
mately at A. D. 370, during the reign of the zealous Saiva prince, the 
regenerated Arya Raja. 

9.—As the temple of Marttand is the most celebrated specimen of 
the Kashmirian architecture, I think it right to state every suggestion 
which presents itself for the determination of the true period of its 
erection, I will therefore give another version of the recording couplet 
of the Raja Tarangini, which appears to me quite as probable as the 
former one. This new rendering is as follows: “ He, in the village of 
Sinharotsika, erected (a temple) named Ranapuraswimi, (and another) 
to the famous all-pervading Sun.” This version attributes the erection 
of both temples to Ranaditya, who reigned about A. D. 500. But 
whichever rendering may be accepted as the correct one, the date of 
the foundation of the temple will still be within the limits of little more 
than one century—or between A. D. 370 and 500. 

10.—Fortunately there is no doubt regarding the date of the erection 
of the noble peristyle of Marttand, which, thanks to the author of the 
Raja Tarangini, is distinctly recorded in the following verse, B, 4— 
v. 192— 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 263 


a sahearnqrar Waray J | 
WUBI Cla AAAla WT oA | 
which I translate thus :-— 

«‘This benefactor likewise built an enclosure of polished stone around 
the wonderful temple of Marttand, and the town of Drdkshdsphita, 
(abounding-in-vines).”? The compound word akhanditasma is rendered 
‘solid stones” by Troyer, but although it means ‘‘ unbroken” or “ un- 
cut,” it also signifies “‘ without crack or flaw’—and I have therefore 
translated it by ‘polished’? to make the description agree with the 
actual peristyle alluded to, of which the walls are noé solid, while the 
stones are certainly polished. 

This statement refers to the celebrated Lalitaditya, who reigned over 
Kashmir from A. D. 693 to 729, or certainly 200 years after the latest 
date to which the erection of the temple itself can be attributed. This 
long interval is sufficient to account for many improvements of style 
which are observable in the colonnade, and more especially in the mould- 
ings of the bases and capitals. The practice of constructing enclosures 
around the old existing temples, as well as of repairing and re-building 
the ruimed ones, would appear to have been less uncommon in Kashmir 
than in India. Thus we find that Asoka* built a stone enclosure 
around the old brick temple of Vijayesa; and that Didda Ranit repaired 
the surrounding walls of all the temples that had suffered by age or 
fire, and erected stone enclosures around other temples. 

11.—The mass of buildmg now known by the name of Matan or 
Mirttand, consists of one lofty central edifice with a small detached 
wing on each side of the entrance; the whole standing im a large quad- 
rangle surrounded by a colonnade of fluted pillars with imtervening 
trefoil-headed recesses. The central building is 63 feet in length—by 
36 feet in width at the eastern end, and only 27 feet in width at the 
western or entrance end. It contains three distinct chambers, of which 
the outermost one, named Arddha-mandapa, or the “half temple,” 
answering to the front porch of the classical fanes, is 18 feet square. 
The middle one, called antardla, or ‘mid temple,’ corresponding to the 
pronaos of the Greeks; is 18 feet by 43 feet; and the mnermost one 
named garbha-griha ov “womb of the edifice,” the naos of the Grecks, 


* Raja Tarangini, B. l—yvy. 105. 
ft Ibid. B. 6.—v. 307. 


264 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


and the cella of the Romans, is 18 feet by 33 feet. The first is open 
and highly decorated, in accordance with its name, mandapa, meaning 
literally ‘‘the ornamented.’ The middle chamber is likewise decorated 
in the same style: but the inner chamber is perfectly plain and closed 
on three sides. The walls of the temple itself are 9 feet thick, and its 
entrance chamber only 45 feet thick, bemg respectively one-half and 
one-fourth of the interior width of the building. 

12.—On each side of the porch or arddha-mandapa, flush with the 
entrance wall to the westward, and with the outer walls of the temple, 
or garbha-griha, to the northward and southward is a detached building 
or wing, 18 feet long by 13} feet broad, with a passage 4} feet wide 
between it and the wall of the entrance chamber. These wings, called 
paksha, correspond in some degree with the srepwuara of the Greeks. 
It is true that the latter were attached colonnades, while the former were 
distinct buildings. But as both were attached to the main edifice by a 
roof supported upon architraves, there is much similarity between them. 
That such was the case with the wings of Marttand I feel confident ; 
for the width of the passage between the paksha and the arddhaman- 
dapa being exactly one-third of that of the wing itself, the roof which 
covered the two would have been an exact square, which is the very 
form required as the basis of the pyramidal roof of the Kashmirian 
architecture. I am happy to be able to quote the opinion of so sensible 
and accurate an observer as Moorcroft* in favor of my views. His 
words are, ‘Opposite to these extremities also were the two wings or 
chambers, connected formerly by acolonnade with the centre.” As 


my opinion was adopted some months before I was aware that Moor- — 


croft had formed the same, the coincidence of our independent conclusions 
may perhaps be considered as the next thing to positive proof. 
13.—Vignet also would appear to have come to a somewhat similar 
conclusion, for he gives an opinion that these wings were jomed “by a 
flying buttress to the upper part of the central building; particularly as 
the remains of part of an entablature projecting from the top of the left 
wing towards the centre building would seem to countenance such an 
opinion.” The existence of this piece of the entablature, which en- 


tirely escaped my observation, most satisfactorily proves the correctness _ 


* Travels, v. 2—pp. 255, 256, 
+ Kashmir, v, l—p, 891. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 965 


of my proposed restoration of the roofs of these detached buildings. The 
connexion was formed by the prolongation of the entablature of the wings 
over the intervening passages to the walls of the entrance-chamber. A 
similar connexion of a detached pillar with a building may be seen in 
the view of the Avantiswami temple, Plate XIX. Vigne is however 
undoubtedly wrong when he says that these wings appear to have been 
a mass of solid masonry, for a reference to Plate IX. will show that 
each of them contained two chambers, which were most probably des- 
tined for the reception of the Saiva emblems called Ranésa and Amrites- 
wara. 

14.—As the main building is at present entirely uncovered, and as 
the upper portions of the detached buildings have long since disappear- 
ed, the original form of roof can only be determined by a reference to 
other temples, and to the general form and character of the various 
parts of the Marttand temple itself. In Plate XIV. I have restored the 
roof of the principal building by continuimg the pedimental mouldings 
of the porch upwards until they meet at G. The horizontal denticulated 
member R. 8. is borrowed from the temple of Payach, and from the 
little temple which crowns the Srmagar column in Plate VI. The inter- 
position of this member is fully authorized by its occurrence in all the 
pedimental niches of the interior of MArttand, as well as in those of the 
recesses of the colonnade as shown in Plates XIV and XV. The angle of 
the roof itself was obtained by making the sides of the pyramid parallel 
to the sides of the doorway pediment ; a rule which I deduced from 
the same treatment being observed in the interior niches of Mart- 
tand itself, as well as in the roofs of the Payach and Pandrethan tem- 
ples. The same rule is also followed in the niches of the great temple 
at Pathan, and with the small temples in the Bardhmula Pass. The 
denticulated member H. K. is inserted for the same reasons as are giv- 
en above for the pediments of the porch. The crowning pinnacle, or 
Kalasa, F, is added on the authority of the Payach temple ; and lastly, 
the small projecting pedimental niches G. L. and M, are taken from 
the Payach temple and from the small Srimagar column in Plate VI. 

15.—Now it is remarkable that the total height of the temple, E. F, 
thus obtained, is exactly equal to twice its width, C. D: for this propor- 
tion would seem to have been the favorite and most usual practice (if 
indeed it was not the invariable rule) followed by the Kashmirian archi- 

2P 


266 ||  Kssay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


tects. Thus the height of the Payach and Pandrethén temples, of the 
Marttand and Avantipura cloistered recesses, and of the porch-pediments 
and niches of Marttand itself, were all just double their respective 
widths. This agreement in the relative proportions of my restored roof 
of Marttand with those deduced from other examples, is a presumptive 
proof of the correctness of my restoration. 

16.—The entrance-chamber and the wings I suppose to have been 
also covered by similar pyramidal roofs. There would thus have been 
four distinct pyramids, of which that over the inner chamber must have 
been the loftiest, the height of its pmnacle above the ground being 
about 75 feet. That of the entrance-chamber must have been about 65 
feet, and that of each of the wings about 40 feet. If pyramidal tops be 
added to the three buildings in Vigne’s front view of this temple,* a 
very good general idea of the original appearance of Marttand may be 
readily obtained. 

17.—Such was once the grand mass of building dedicated to the wor- 
ship of the Sun: a mass, 75 feet im height, 63 feet in length, and the 
same in breadth, including the wings. The entrance was gained by a 
wide flight of steps, which are now covered by ruins. On each of the 
other sides was a closed doorway, surmounted by a trefoiled arch, and 
covered by a pediment which rose to a height of 60 feet. At the angles 
of the building on each side of the doorway were stout pilasters, which 
were divided into panels, each decorated with a miniature representation 
of the Arian style of temple. These pilasters sustained the entablature, 
and gave a look of strength and solidity to the walls which was absolute- 
ly required for the support of the vast and massive roof. This lofty 
pyramid. of stone was itself rendered lighter, and more elegant in appear- 
ance by being broken into two distinct portions separated by an orna- 
mental band, and by the addition of small niches with pointed roofs 
and trefoiled recesses, all of which were in strict keeping with the gene- 
ral character of the building. 

18.—The interior was equally imposing. On ascending the flight of 
steps the votary of the Sun entered a highly decorated chamber, with a 
doorway on each side covered by a pediment, with a trefoiled headed 
niche containing a bust of the Hindu triad. This representation was 


* Kashmir, v. 1—p, 388. 


Ds Ope Om On 


= 


TOURS 


VIEW or rae INTERIOR or ux TEMPLE cr MARTTAND, on THE SUN. 


PLATE. XVI. 


T Bleck Aviat Lith Brews Calcua 


1848.]. Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 267 


itself only another symbol of the Sun ; who was Brahma, or the Creator 
at Morn, Vishnu or the Preserver at Noon, and Siva or the Destroyer at 
Even. This is the ‘‘ Mystic orb triform’’ of Sir William Jones’s hymn 
to Surya. On the flanks of the main entrance as well as on those of 
the side doorways were pointed and trefoiled niches, each of which held 
a statue of a Hindu divinity. That in the larger niche I presume to re- 
present the Sun himself, while those to the right and left are probably 
intended for some of his wives, for Chandri or the “ Moon,”? when in 
conjunction, for Sajnya or “ Intellect ;” for Prabha, or “‘ brightness” — 
or for Aswini, one of the constellations. The same representations were 
repeated in the niches of the opposite wall. In Plate XVI. I have 
given a sketch of the northern wall of this chamber ; and a view of the 
southern wall may be found in Vigne’s travels.* 

19.—In his sketch of this chamber however the decoration of the 
entablature which surmounts the niches is altogether misrepresented. 
Its true character will be seen in Plate XVI. where the leading feature 
is a niche formed of a trefoiled-headed arch resting upon half engaged 
semicircular pillars. Each of these niches contains a seated figure 
connected with the Hindu Mythology, and is separated from its neigh- 
bour by a plain pilaster. 

20.—The interior decorations of the roof can only be conjecturally 
determined, as I was unable to discover any ornamented stones that 
could with certamty be assigned to it. Baron Hugel doubts that 
Marttand ever had a roof ; but as the walls of the temple are still stand- 
ing, the numerous heaps of large stones that are scattered about on all 
sides can only have belonged to the roof. The northern wing has still 
a portion of its roof remaining ; and there are besides two curved 
stones lying on the top of a heap to the northward or right of the 
temple, as shown in Plate XVI. which certamly must once have formed 
part of the circular portion of the ceiling. A reference to Plates XI. 
and XXI. of the Payach and Pandrethan temples, will show the 
arrangement and decoration of two of the smaller Kashmirian roofs. 
The same treatment, which is also of common occurrence in India, was 
most probably followed with Marttand. The corners of the square 
were first covered by overlapping stones, which reduced the opening to 


* Kashmir, v. l—p. 390. 
2P 2 


268 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


an eight-sided figure ; the angles of the octagon were next covered by 
other stones which formed a figure of sixteen sides; and lastly, an 
upper course of curved stones completed a circular opening which was 
covered either by one or by two large blocks, hollowed out so as to 
form a dome like that m the Payach example. I have been led to 
conclude that such was the style of the Marttand ceiling, from the 
existence of the two curved stones mentioned above ; which as the tre- 
foiled arches are still perfect, could only have formed part of the cir- 
cular portion of the ceiling of one of the principal chambers. 

21.—The interior of the xaos or cella called, garbha-griha, or 
“womb of the edifice’ by the Hindus, was quite plain. This want of 
ornament was perhaps designed to prevent the votary’s attention being 
withdrawn from the contemplation of the chief object to which the 
temple was dedicated. No vestige of the consecrated image has 
escaped the destructive zeal of the Musalmdns : but there can be little 
doubt that the chamber once contained a figure of the Sun-god, Mart- 
tand, in his chariot, drawn either by seven or by four green or yellow 
steeds. The former is the number usually seen in modern representa- 
tions: but the latter is found upon a very ancient copper seal which 
was discovered amongst the rus of Ayodhya. The green color is 
that given in the present day; but the yellow is that assigned by the 
venerable Vedas. The chamber was lighted during the day by semi- 
circular openings over the closed doorways on the three sides, but in 
the evening, as the entrance was to the westward, the image of the glo- 
rious Sun was illumined by his own setting beams. 

22.—Indeed I can almost fancy that the erection of this Sun-tem- 
ple was suggested by the magnificent sunny prospect which its position 
commands. It overlooks the finest view in Kashmir, and perhaps in 
the known world. Beneath it lies the Paradise of the East, with its 
sacred streams and cedarn glens, its brown orchards and green fields, 
surrounded on all sides by vast snowy mountains whose lofty peaks 
seem to smile upon the beautiful valley below. Such is the daily pros- 
pect from this happy spot: but there are occasional scenes which for 
sublime magnificence, can scarcely be equalled, and certainly cannot be 
surpassed. Thus when the blue sky was completely shrouded by heavy 
masses of clouds which spanned the valley from side to side, I once 
saw the evening sun burst suddenly forth through the Barahmula Pass, 


——— — _ 


——s ee 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 269 


The change from gloomy dark to brilliant light, 
Was instantaneous :—then from peak to peak, 
Through the whole length of Kashmir’s happy vale, 
The setting sunbeams, from that canopy, 
Reflected, over hill and stream and tree 

Poured downward such a blaze of golden light, 
As filled the heart with joy unspeakable. 

There as the sun went down, the dusky pile, 
First lost the gladdening brightness of his eye— 
And hill and dale, temple and tower and tree, 
After his retreating footsteps, one by one, 

Sank neath the flowing wave of murky night. 


The vast extent of the scene makes it sublime ; for this magnificent 
view of Kashmir is no pretty peep into a half-mile glen, but the full 
display of a valley sixty miles in breadth and upwards of a hundred 
miles in length, the whole of which lies beneath the ken of the “ won- 
derful Marttand.”’ 

23.—The temple is enclosed by a pillared quadrangle, 220 feet in 
length by 142 feet in breadth, containmg 84 fluted columns. This 
number was, no doubt, designedly fixed by the later architect, and is 
another proof of the dedication of the temple to the sun. For this 
number, the famous chourdsi (84) of the Hindus is especially emblema- 
tic of the sun, as it is the multiple of the twelve mansions of the eclip- 
tic (typified by 12 spokes in his chariot wheel), through which he is 
carried by his seven steeds in one year; or it is the product of his seven 
rays, multiplied by the twelve signs of the Zodiac. The 84 pillars are, 
therefore, most probably intended for that number of solar rays. Thus 
even the colonnade is made typical of the Deity to whom the temple is 
consecrated. 

24.—The entrance or gateway stands in the middle of the western 
side of the quadrangle, and is of the same width as the temple itself. 
This proportion is in accordance with the ideas of Hindu architectural 
grandeur: for the rules laid down by them, as quoted by Ram Raz, 
give different proportions from six-sevenths to ten-elvenths of the 
breadth of the temple, for that of each different style of gateway from 
the most simple to the most magnificent. Outwardly the Marttand 
gateway resembled the temple itself in the disposition of its parts and 
m the decorations of its pediments and pilasters. It was open to the 


970 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


west and east, and was divided into distinct portions, forming an inner 
and an outer portico, by a cross wall with a doorway in the centre, 
which was no doubt closed with a wooden door. On each flank of the 
gateway, the pediment was supported upon massive fluted pillars, 174 
feet in height, or eight feet higher than those of the quadrangle. One 
of these is still standing to the south of the entrance ; and the style of 
architrave and entablature which connected these pillars with the gate- 
way, may be seen in the view of the ruined temple of Avantiswami, repre- 
sented in Plate XIX. I suspect also that the front and back pediments 
of the gateway were supported upon similar large pillars: but it is pos- 
sible that the square foundations, which I observed in front, may have 
been only the remains of the wing-walls of a flight of steps. The roof 
was, no doubt, pyramidal ; for a portion of the sloping mouldings of its 
pediment was still to be seen on one side, and I also observed the same 
at the Avantiswami temple. 

25.—It is probable that each corner of the quadrangle must have been 
covered by a pyramidal roof supported upon large pillars, for there is a 
broken column yet standing at the 8. W. corner, and the bases of three 
others are still to be traced close to it. It was this broken column that 
puzzled Vigne so much, as he appears to have taken it for an isolated 
pillar, which* once bore an inscription ; but as the pillar is fluted this 
conjecture must be abandoned. In Plate XIV. will be seen the roofs of 
two of these corner buildings, according to my ideas of their size and of 
their connexion with the adjoining roof of the quadrangle. On the out- 
side also at the S. W. angle, I found one of the stones of the decorated 
entablature, 34 feet in height, (see Plate VIII. Fig. I. Marttand,) which 
could only have belonged to such a lofty building at the corner as I 
have supposed. The decoration of this entablature is similar to that of 
the interior of the temple, but considerably plamer. This was, perhaps. 
designed as being more suitable to the exterior which is throughout less 
highly ornamented. 

26.—In the middle of each of the long sides of the colonnade there 
is a pair of large fluted pillars, 13 feet in height and 83 feet apart, 
somewhat advanced beyond the line of the peristyle. On the northern 
pair of columns, the transverse architraves, connecting them with the 
wall of the peristyle, are still standing. I suppose that these pillars 
earried an entablature, 35 feet in height, of the same description as 


§ eS Gee Ct 


OR Re a Ts 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. g71 


that which has been assigned to the corner buildings, and covered by a 
similar pyramidal roof. Theheight of the roof, in this case, is deter- 
mined by making the sides of the pyramid parallel to those of the 
pediment over the doorway of the intervening recess. In Plate XV. I 
have given a restored elevation of this porch, with the adjoming parts 
of the peristyle, from which it will be seen that the total height of the 
building C. D; thus obtained, is exactly twice its width A. B. As the 
same proportion is observed in the height of the recessed doorway, 
where G. H.=2 E. F, and also in the temples of Payach and Pand- 
rethan, as well as in Marttand itself, there can be little doubt that the 
general disposition of my proposed restoration is nearly correct. 

27.—Both Vigne and Professor Willis (on Vigne’s authority) have 
taken these central porticos for side gateways; but a reference to my 
plan in Plate XIII. will show that the square-topped doorway leads 
only toa small-chambered recess, similar to those between the other 
pairs of pillars. There are, however, two flank entrances to the quad- 
rangle, one on each side, between the second pair of pillars to the west- 
ward of the central porches. These I suppose to have been closed by 
ornamental wooden doors. : 


28.—The quadrangle itself contained seventy round fluted pillars, 


_ and ten square parallel pillars, which with the four pillars of the central 
_ porches, make up the number of 84, that was sacred to the sun. Of 
these about one half, all more or less imperfect, now remain standing, 

as shown in Plate XIII. Lach pillar was 93 feet in height, and 214 
inches in diameter, with an intercolumniation of 6 feet 93 inches, 
| Immediately behind each column, there was a square pilaster, one fourth 
engaged, appropriately called Kudyastambha or “wall pillars” by the 
Hindus. This peristyle is of the class called peripteral by the Greeks, 
_as the pilasters were exactly one diameter distant from the pillars. Be- 


tween every pair of these pillars there was a deep recess with a trefoil- 
headed arch, covered by a pediment, and supported upon small pilasters, 


or rather upon half-engaged pillars. The imposts were surmounted by 
) human-headed birds facing each other; anda similar bird looking to 
_ the front, ornamented the horizontal mouldings of the pediments. Each 
| pillar was connected with its pilaster, and with the main wall by a trans- 
_ verse stone beam, which being broader at top than at bottom, bore the 
| appearance of an upper capital to the pillar. In my elevation, Plate 


272 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


XV. where the perspective view of these transverse stones is not shown, 
the general effect looks rather heavy, which is not really the case ; for 
excepting those of the pair of pillars, immediately in front, all these 
transverse beams are seen resting upon the wall. Their moulded ends 
cannot, therefore be mistaken for upper capitals. The greatest and 
most characteristic distinction therefore, between the Arian and Classic 
orders, lies in the disposition of the architrave. In the latter it lies 
immediately over the line of pillars; whilst in the former it is placed 
over the transverse beams. There are consequently no metopes in the 
Arian architecture. 

29.—About one-third of this entablature still exists, principally on 
the north-eastern side of the quadrangle : but the mouldings have been 
so much injured by the weather, that their character could only be con- 
jectured, from the general outline relieved against the sky, to be much 
the same as that of the transverse beams. The upper part of the roof 
of the quadrangles has entirely disappeared, but with reference to the 
pointed character of other Kashmirian roofs, its form might have been 
restored conjecturally as triangular in section, the height bemg some- 
what less than the base. Luckily the enclosing walls of the temple on 
the Takht, and of the old Hindu temple now occupied by Zein-ul-ab- 
ud-din’s tomb are still perfect ; and although they are on a small scale, 
and of a primitive style, without columns, yet the division of their walls 
into arched recesses is precisely the same as that followed in the main 
wall of Marttand. The roofs of the former are both triangular in sec- 
tion; and such no doubt was that of the Marttand quadrangle. Fur- 
ther, as the Zein-ul-ab-ud-din example exhibits small breaks or mould- 
ings on each face, so might it be presumed that the roof of the 
Marttand peristyle was likewise broken into two portions by an orna- 
mental band, exactly similar to that which I have assigned to the temple 
itself. As, however, this would impose the observance of the same 
treatment with the roofs of the central porches and corner buildings, I 
have not adopted it in my restorations; principally because Ido not 
think that the general appearance would thereby be improved, and 
partly because the intervention of the ornamental band would make the 
total height of the central porches somewhat more than twice their 
own breadth, which was the proportion strictly adhered to during the 


best days of Kashmirian architecture. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. | 273 


30.—The outer walls of the quadrangle are ornamented by a succes- 
sion of trefoil-headed panels, similar in shape and size to the recessed 
openings of the interior. Vigne,* by some oversight, says, that the 
“outside is completely a blank and unornamented ;” a statement that is 
refuted by his own sketch of the temple, which represents the exterior 
walls as decorated exactly in the same manner as I have described them. 

31.—It appears that some other smaller temples must once have 
existed within the quadrangle: for there are heaps of stones as well as 
some traces of foundations at the different places, marked W. X. Y. and 
Z. in Plate XIII. I have a suspicion also, that the whole of the interior 
of the quadrangle was originally filled with water to a level within one 
foot of the bases of the columns ; and that access to the temple was 
gained by a raised pathway of slabs, supported on solid blocks at short 
tervals, which connected the gateway flight of steps with that leading 
immediately up to the temple. The same kind of pathway must have 
stretched also right across the quadrangle, from one side doorway to the 
other. Similar pathways still exist in the Shalimar gardens, as passages 
across the different reservoirs and canals. On the outside of the quad- 
rangle and close to the northern side of the gateway there is a drain, 
by which, of course, the surplus rain and snow water found its exit ; 
thus keeping the surface of the water always at the same level. The 
temples at Pandrethan, Ledari, and in the Barahmula Pass, are still 
standing in the midst of water. Ihave, therefore, but little doubt that 
the interior of the quadrangle of Marttand was once filled with water. 
A constant supply of fresh water was kept up by acanal or water-course 
from the river Lambadari or Lidar, which was conducted along the side 
of the mountain for the service of the neighbouring village of Sin- 
harotsika: of which the only remains now visible, are fragments of bricks 
and pottery that lie scattered over the fields for about half a mile. The 
object of erecting the temples in the midst of water, must have been to 
place them more immediately under the protection of the Nagas or 
human-bodied and snake-tailed gods, who were zealously worshipped 
for ages throughout Kashmir. 

32.—In conclusion I cannot do better than quote the last words of 
the intelligent Moorcroft+ regarding Marttand. ‘In its present condi- 

* Kashmir, v. l—p. 395. 
+ Travels, v. 2—p. 256, 
2a 


274 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


tion,’ says he, ‘the palace of the Pandus is a precious specimen of 
ancient art, and deserves a foremost place amongst the remains of 


Hindu antiquity.” 


VI.—Temple at Pdémpur. 


1.—At Pampur on the right bank of the Behat, six miles to theS. E. 
of the capital, and midway between it and Avantipura, are the remains 
of a Hindu temple, of which the basement and a few feet of the super- 
structure are still standing. To the westward at 100 feet is a beautiful 
fluted column, guite perfect, and a portion of a second fluted pillar of 
large dimensions, with a square-headed doorway behind them, which now 
forms the entrance to a Mahomedan tomb. An elevation and section of 
the perfect pillar is given in Plate VI. 

2.—The temple was a square of 22 feet, with four porches, somewhat 
advanced beyond the main walls of the building. Its height, following 
the Kashmirian proportion, must have been about 44 feet. It was no 
doubt also surrounded by a colonnade of fluted pillars, with the inter- 
vening recesses, of which the smaller column and doorway mentioned 
above are perfect specimens. The existence of a larger column likewise 
shows that there were porches in the middle of each of the long sides of 
the quadrangle. But more than this cannot now be determined, except- 
ing, perhaps, the name and date of the erection of the temple, which are 
recorded in the following verse of the Raja Tarangini. 3B. 4—v. 694. 


THe Wdiaie Ata: Taye TAT I 


‘Padma (the maternal uncle of Vrihaspati) built Padmapura, and a 
Padmaswam.”’ 

Now as I could not discover any other ruins excepting those above 
described, it may be presumed, that they are the remains of the temple 
of Padmaswami, which was built during the reign of Vrihaspati, be- 
tween A. D. 804 and 816. The modern name of Pdémpur is the Kash- 
, which means 


mirian corruption of the Sanskrit Padmapura TAIT 
«*Padma’s town,’ andhas not even the most distant allusion either to 
the lotus, or to the beauty of its women—as suggested by Vigne.* 


* Kashmir, v. 2—-p. 31 


1848. | Lissay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 275 


VIil.—Temples at Avantipura. 

1.—The ruins of Avantipura are situated on the right bank of the 
Behat, about 18 miles to the 8. E. of the capital, and midway between 
it and the temple of Mérttand. Avantipura was built by Avanti 
Varmma, between A. D. 852, and 883, and the opposite Karewah (or 
elevated table-land) of Nonagar, or “new-town,”’ was so called from 
this recently established city, Vigne* erroneously states that ‘* Nona- 
gar signifies a place where there are nine lacs of inhabitants,” which he 
calls an exaggeration of the former population of the Karewah. No- 
nagar might mean the ‘‘nine towns,” but it really signifies only the 
“*new-town’”’ as I have stated above. 

2.—The ruins consist of four different temples, of which the two 
that are the nearest to the capital, one on each side of the road, are 
completely overturned. They are besides so entirely covered by heaps 
of stone and rubbish, that I found it impossible to trace their former 
extent. The other two temples have also been overturned, but their 
foundations, and the outlines of their surrounding colonnades are still 
existing. The larger one of the two is situated immediately upon the 
high road, and to the N. W. of the small village now called Wantipur. 
The smaller temple stands at half a mile to the S. E. of the other and 
close to the village. 

3.—In the Raja Tarangini I find only the record of the erection of 
two temples at Avantipura itself. There are, however, several other 
temples mentioned, but without any specific localities. The Brahmans 
assign the two smaller temples, which are completely ruined, to Sura 
Varmma, the King’s half brother; but the Raja Tarangini merely 
states that this Prince erected a Swdmi and a Gékula, or temples to 
Siva and to Krishna. The larger temples they assign to Avanti 
Varmma, and I think that there can be but little doubt of the correct- 
ness of this attribution. For besides the probability, that the larger 
temples would have been built by the King himself, their names of 
Avantiswimi and Avanteswara declare their dedication to Siva. Now 
this was undoubtedly the case with one of the two existing temples, in 
which by an excavation that I made in the corner of its surrounding 
quadrangle, I discovered the pedestal of a lingam or emblem of Maha- 
deva in the trefoil-headed recess between the pillars. 


* Kashmir, y, 2—p, 39. 
2a 2 


276 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


4.—The erection of the two temples by Avanti Varmma is assigned 
to different periods, in the followmg verse of the Raja Tarangini. 
B. 5, v. 45. 
gaaaitad aa casera Bat | 
faurg STRUTS saat TAT | 
«This wise one erected Avantiswémi before he became King, and 
Avanteswara after he had attained sovereignty.” 
5.—Now as there is a very considerable difference in the size of the 
temples, as well as in the extent of the surrounding quadrangles, it ap- 
pears to me that the respective periods of their foundation may be 
safely inferred by assuming, that the smaller temple was built by 
Avanti Varmma, before his advancement to the throne, and the larger 
one after his accession, when his increased means enabled him to erect 
a more costly edifice. For the sake of distinguishing the one from the 
other, I have taken this assumption as correct, and have named the 
two temples accordingly ; the smaller one as Avantiswami, and the 
larger one as Avanteswara, under which names I will now de, 


scribe them. 


Temple of Avantiswami. 

1.—As Avanti Varmma ascended the throne in A. D. 854, the erec- 
tion of this temple may be placed a few years earlier or in about A. D. 
850. The ground-plan is a square of 34 feet, with pilasters at the cor- 
ners, 5 feet in thickness. The porches are 21 feet wide with a projec- 
tion 14 feet in advance of the pilasters. The superstructure of this 
temple has been entirely overturned; and although amongst the con- 
fused heap of stones, there are many which still preserve portions of 
the different mouldings and decorations almost in their original fresh- 
ness, yet I feel that it would be presumptuous to attempt even the sim- 
plest kind of restoration. From the stones which still exist I can say 
positively, that the temple had a porch on each side, with a trefoil- 
headed arch covered by a pediment; similar in general appearance to 
the Marttand example, but differmg somewhat in details. For instance 
the imposts of the smaller pediments, within the trefoils, were sur- 
mounted by human-headed birds, and the horizontal lines of mould- 
ings of the larger pediments were surmounted by colossal human heads 
similar to those represented on the Pravareswara Pillar in Plate VII. 


Piate. XIX. 


GATEWAY «no RUINED TEMPLE or AVANT! SWAMI at AVANTIPUR. KASHMIR. 
A.D. 832 — B54 


T Black, Anta Lith Brege Caleuire, 


a 


as 


1848. ] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 277 


In the interior niches too the figures were not carved out of the pro- 
jecting mass of wall, as at Marttand, but were detached images placed 
in the recesses prepared for them. If the height of this temple bore 
the same proportion to its breadth, which was followed in other exam- 
ples, as at Paéyach and Pandrethan, and as in the small temple which 
crowns the Sri Nagar column, it must have stood’about 68 feet above 
the plain. 

2.—The size of the surrounding quadrangle can be distinctly traced 
on the south by some broken pillars which are still standing, and on 
the North and East by the line of superstructure resting upon the 
columns; and not as stated by Vigne,* by the line “ of stone work that 
formed the dase of the colonnade.’”’ Vigne’s mistake was a very na- 
tural one: for the whole of the interior of the quadrangle has at some 
time been silted up as high as the top of the entablature of the peris- 
tyle. When I first saw this ruin I felt certain that such was the fact, 
by observing that the line of stone work on the North was much higher 
than the tops of the broken pillars to the South. I therefore made an 
excavation, 20 feet in length, in the North-eastern corner of the quad- 
rangle, which fully proved the correctness of my anticipations. And 
further, that the silting must have taken place before the reign of 
Sikandar Butshikan, in A. D. 1396-1416, as the human-headed birds 
are not in the least injured, every feature being as perfect as when they 
were first carved. This excavation also showed that the filling up of 
the quadrangle must have been gradual at first, for the floors of the 
trefoiled recesses of the peristyle were built up with stone flush with 
the upper portions of the bases of the columns; an unsightly work, 
which I can only suppose to have been rendered necessary by an un- 
forseen influx of water and its attendant silt. 

3.—The final and complete silting up of the quadrangle, whether 
by the gradual process of years, or by some sudden catastrophe, had 
fortunately been the means of preserving the greater part of this peris- 
tyle from the defacing fingers of time, as well as from the destroying 
hand of Mahomedan bigotry ; perhaps at some future day to be unveil- 
ed by European archeeologists jp all its virgin beauty. 

4,—In the inside the quadrangle is 172 feet in length by 1462 feet 
in breadth, the longest sides being to the North and South. In the 


* Kashmir, vy. 2—p, 25. 


278 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Serr. 


middle of the West face stands the gateway, which is somewhat similar 
in plan to that of Marttand, excepting that the outer porch is only one 
half as long as the inner one. It is besides not more than 22 feet wide, 
or two-thirds of the breadth of the building, a proportion much smaller 
than any of those used in southern India, as detailed by Ram Raz. . To 
the right and left of the gateway there were the same pillars as at 
Marttand; but these had 24 fluted sides instead of 20. One of these 
pillars is still standing, as shown in the view, Plate XIX., but when 
Moorcroft visited Wantipur m A. D. 1823, there was a pillar on each 
side of the gateway, for he particularly remarks* that “two masses are 


each side of the entrance, and each supported by a single pillar, were 


of an extraordinary size.’ The large fallen stone to the right of the 
gateway measures 10.% 5 X 24 feet, and is probably one of those 
noticed by Moorcroft. The roof I suppose to have been pyramidal, with 
projecting pediments similar to that of Marttand. 

5.—In the middle of each of the long sides cf the quadrangle there 
was a porch supported as at Marttand, upon a pair of large fluted pil- 
lars, of which those on the south are still visible above the ground ; and 
I presume that there were similar buildings at the four corners, as 
suggested in the description of Marttand. The peristyle itself consisted 
of 10 square pillars, disposed in the corners, and on each flank of the 
side porticos, and of 60 round fluted pillars, which together with the 4 
large porch pillars, made a total of 74 pillars in the colonnade. An ele- 
vation of the north-eastern corner of this peristyle is given in Plate 
XVIII. This is the portion that I excavated, and which, with the ex- 
ception of the upper row of stones, is just as perfect and fresh-looking 
as when it was first executed. The general style is similar to that of 
Marttand, excepting that the bases of the column are almost plain, and 
that the capitals are without ornament, whilst on the contrary the pedi- 
mental pilasters of the intervening recesses are highly ornamented. 
The shafts of the pillars are much more graceful, being somewhat higher 
in proportion to their breadth: but the beauty thus gained is more than 
counterbalanced by the large plain bases. Behind each pillar there 
is a pilaster of the same height, with mouldings exactly similar to those 
of the square pillar represented on the right hand in Plate XVIII. 

6.—The trefoiled-heads of the intervening recesses are joined to the 


* Travels, v. 2—p. 244, 


ELEVATION of tHe PERISTYLE 


° PLATE XVIII 
or ree TEMPLE ur AVANTISWAMI, 


AT AVANTIPUR , KASHMIR. 


Sestle, % Inch te f Feet 


ehh 


elke 


= 


TD Cree Lith; Prese Calanta 


—————- — +e _ ip. 


je 


‘ eat Se aa 


RE on Terme peer 


Stee 


re 


[ 
i 
| 


are 


1848. | Essay on the Adrian Order of Architecture. 279 


side mouldings of the opening by short horizontal returns, whereas at 
Marttand they spring at once from the sides of the doorway. The or- 
naments of the two pairs of pilasters which I excavated differ from each 
other; and it is possible that different ornaments were used for every 
pair: but I think it more probable that only these two styles of orna- 
ments were used for the alternate pairs of pilasters throughout the 
whole extent of the quadrangle. The trefoiled-heads are shorter, 
although the doorways are five inches higher than those of Marttand ; 
but this difference was imposed by the more obtuse angle of the pedi- 
ment, which heightened its supporting pilasters, and consequently redu- 
ced the space of the tympanum. The only other difference that need 
be noticed is, that the capitals of the pilasters are highly ornamented, 
while the bases are quite plain: a contrast which I have already obser- 
ved in the treatment of the pillars. 

7.—In the right-hand recess of Plate XVIII. I discovered the pe- 
destal of a lingam, from which I infer that the whole of these recesses 
must once have been occupied by emblems of Mahadeva. 


Temple of Avanteswara. 

1.—The raised foundations of this temple, which still exist in a very 
perfect state, form a square of 823 feet. The whole of the superstruc- 
ture has been overturned and the foundation is now covered by a con- 
fused heap of stones, which from its convenient situation on the im- 
mediate bank of the river, has no doubt formed a mine of materials for 
all the principal buildings that have been erected in the capital for several 
centuries. Thus the foundations and walls of the Juma Masjid, as 
well as of all the buildings, reservoirs and canals, in the Shalimar gar- 
den, are constructed of the squared stones brought from Hindu temples ; 
of which many still retain the Hindu mason’s marks, as well as the re- 
mains of ornamental sculpture. As a proof of the extent to which this 
temple has been pillaged, I may mention that ‘not asingle pillar of the 
ninety-one which once formed the colonnade of this noble pile now 
remains. 

2.—This lofty temple was built by Avanti Varmma after his accession 
to the throne, between the years 854 and 888 A. D., and the edifice 
must have been worthy of the king. For if its height followed the same 
proportion of two breadths which is used in all the other temples, it 


280 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. | [Sepv. 


must have been the loftiest edifice, not only in Kashmir, but m India. 
The width is 824 feet: its height therefore would have been about 165 
feet, or perhaps a few feet less, being considerably more than twice 
that of Marttand. 

3.—On each side of the temple there was a flight of steps with a front 
of 283 feet, supported by flank walls 173 feet in length. These walls 
still remain, and I believe that the steps yet exist uninjured, beneath 
what Moorcroft* justly calls a “ confused mass of ruins.” According 
to him the edifice must have been ‘“‘a square temple with four doors 
approached by broad and spacious porches.” This description corres- 
ponds exactly with that which I have already given as the most proba- 
ble style of superstructure of the other temple, which is the same as 
that of the temples at Pathan. 

4.—Of the surrounding quadrangle nothing but the foundations can 
now be traced, excepting to the westward, where parts of the gateway 
walls, and of the sides of the recesses are still standmg. The gateway 
itself was similar in plan to that of Marttand, and much about the same 
size; but its width did not bear the same proportion to that of the 
temple. In the Marttand example the width of the gateway was made 
equal to that of the temple itself, or rather to that of the arddha-man- 
dapa, or outer-chamber, whereas in both of the Avantipura examples 
the width of the gateway bears a very different proportion. In the 
smaller temple it is made two-thirds of the width, or exactly equal to 
that of the projecting porches ; whilst in the larger one it is only one- 
third of the width, or just equal to the front breadth of the flight of 
steps leading up to the entrance of the temple. 

5.—In Plate XVII. I have restored the plan of the quadrangle of this 
temple, from the few stories which still remam in their original posi- 
tions, guided by the plans of the Marttand and Avantiswami examples. 
The foundations of many of the pillars still remain; and as the exist- 
ing stones prove that there were both pilasters and recesses, the ground- 
plan of this peristyle must have been almost the same as that of the 
others. This plan shows a quadrangle 216 feet long and 190 feet 
broad, containing 86 recesses, from which two must be deducted for 
the side doors, leaving the favorite number of 84 for the reception of 
as many Linea or emblems of Siva. For this number, although dedi- 


* Travels, v. 2—p. 243, 


es ee 


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Py ‘sag— rsa OV 
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BIWHSY “ YMA ILNWAV 1Y 


MAX Sanna SIdW3L 4 sNYTG 


i ge p 


saly 


eh ay 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 281 


cated to the Sun, was also much used by the votaries of Mahadeva, as 
well as by others, on account of its auspiciousness. Thus there are 84 
temples to Mahadeva both at Ujain and at Barmawar in Chamba ; and 
at Depalpur in the Panjab, there are said to be 84 towers and 84 wells. 

6.—I presume that there were elevated pyramidal roofed porches at 
the angles and in the middle of each of the long sides of the quadran- 
gle, as at Marttand, and at the other Avantipura temple ; and that the 
walls of the peristyle were similarly covered by a roof of triangular 
section. 

7.—Forster calls this place Bhyteepoor, a name which has puzzled 
Vigne exceedingly ; although it has evidently originated only in a slip 
of memory, which could not restore the true name, from the inherent 
imperfection of the Persian alphabet,in which character Forster was 
obliged to keep his Journal. I suppose that he must have written 
Bhantipur, in Persian characters, j93442, which, when he came to reduce 
his remarks into English, he might easily have read as Bhytipur. At 
any rate there is no doubt regarding the identity of this place, both on 
account of his recorded distances, and of his description of the temple, 
which he* calls “a shapeless pile of ruins.” 


VIII.—Temples at Pathan. 
1.—The temples of Pathan are situated on the high road leading to 
the Barahmula Pass, at 16 miles to the W. N. W. of the capital. Their 
erection is attributed by the Brahmans to Sankara Varmma, who reigned 
over Kashinir between the years 883 and 901. The Raja Tarangini, 
however, simply records the erection of two temples by this Prince, in 
the town of Sankarapura, which he had himself founded. The identi- 
fication of this town, with the present Pathan, is asserted by all the 
Brahmans, who write the name qa, Pathan, which means “a road,’’ 
and not gwa, “a town.” The new city may, perhaps, have been so 
named, because it was in the midst of the high road, leading from the 
capital out of the valley to the westward. The foundation of these 
temples is recorded in the following verse of the Raja Tarangini, B. 
2. Vv. 157 :— 
AA FH LAL BCUSTH ST: | 
ata weer fafaraa | 


* Travels, 8vo. vol. 2p. 9. 


282 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Serr, 


“This Prince, equal to the king of gods (Indra), in conjunction 
with her (his wife Sugandha) erected in that excellent town (Sankara- 
pura) temples to Sankara gauresa and to Sughandesd.” 

The two temples are rather less than half a mile apart, the smaller 
one being situated to the S. E. of the larger, as is likewise the case 
with the two temples at Avantipura. As there is no other clue for our 
guidance than difference of size and decoration, I have supposed that 
the larger temple, which is highly decorated, was built by the king m 
his own name, and that the smaller one, which is plain, was erected in 
the queen’s name, and I have thus distinguished them in Plate XX. 


Temple of Sugandheswara. 

1.—The ground-plan of this temple is similar to that of Avanti- 
swami. The porticos, however, have a much greater projection, and their 
recesses are formed into separate chambers, 6 feet by 4 feet, which 
most probably once contained linga: for I found the pedestals of three 
of those emblems, which had been converted into Mahomedan tombs, 
within fifty paces of the temple itself. These porches were all sur- 
mounted by pediments of high pitch, covering trefoiled arches, which 
rested upon independent pilasters, as in the Marttand temple. The 
roof was, no doubt, pyramidal, and the total height of the buildmg, 
estimated at twice its breadth, must have been 48 feet. The inner 
chamber is a square of 12 feet 7 inches, and-is quite plain. 

2.—I am unable to say whether this temple was surrounded by a 
pillared quadrangle or not;. as I could not find a single trace of a 
column on any side. To the eastward, however, in front of the entrance 
porch of the temple, and at 68 feet distance, there is part of a large 
door-way or gate-way, and of a wall of squared stones. To the north- 
ward and westward. also, at 50 feet from the temple, there are shallow 
trenches partially filled with stones. These I believe to indicate the 
lines of the surrounding quadrangle, which must have been completely 
carried away down to the very bottom of its foundation, as there is 
nothing now remaining but a trench to mark where it once stood. It 
is curious that the fate of these Pathan temples should have been 
exactly the reverse of that of the Avantipura temples. The latter were 
entirely overthrown, while their surrounding walls have escaped ; in the 
one almost entirely, in the other partially. The former temples, on the 


pirate XX 
PLANS or TEMPLES 
At PATHAN , KASHMIR. 
Tempe or SUGANDHESWARA 
A.D. 883-901. 
EAST 
- 


— — age \ - 
TEMPLE or SANKARAGAURESWARA. 


AD. 883~ 901- 


$ 


4 
+ 


ee 
= Set 


PLATE XXI. 


385; 5. ce ae eco nce cea cae es eT PMT 
POH DMT ATHIS, 


TEMPLE of MERUVARDHANASWAMI at PANDRETHAN KASHMIR 


A.D. 913-921 


. 


Ca ‘ 
225 


sa ay 
SS 


WoyT OUT AY PAS 


s 2 x ert aoe! 


x 
iS 
N 
8 
SN 
S 
S 
S 
SY 
q 
eS 


MLA Me 


WOU 


UM MIN A LDS WME NS 


Plan of Roof 


A. Cumringham dete 


Ag, Soe Srey 
h els. 4 a 
Bie 4 TR Or 4, 


al a) 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 283 


contrary, have been saved, while scarcely a trace now remains of their 
surrounding walls. 


Temple of Sankara-gaureswara. 

This temple is similar in plan, and in internal arrangement to the 
former ; but the porticos, like those of Avantiswiémi, have only one 
foot of projection beyond the walls of the building. The entrance is 
to the eastward ; and leads to an inner chamber, 17 feet square, which 
is quite plain, as in the Marttand example, and as in other Kashmirian 
temples. The side walls ofthe entrance are, however, decorated by very 
elegant niches containing statues after the fashion of the Marttand 
entrance. Each of the side porches opens into a chambered recess, 
81 feet long by 5 feet broad. These are now empty, but no doubt they 
once held linga. The porticos are of the same style as those of Mart- 
tand, with pediments of high pitch covering trefoiled arches. 

2.—The walls are still standing, although much injured. It will be 
sufficient, however, to state, that this temple is very like Marttand, both 
in its style and in its present state of preservation. In size also it is 
much like the back view of Marttand, but somewhat smaller. The 
ground-plan is a square of 335 feet, which, if the usual proportion was 
observed, would give a height of 67 feet for the top of the pyramidal 
roof above the ground. 

3.—I could not discover any traces of a surrounding wall, although 
I have no doubt that one formerly existed, as my examination of the 
precincts of the temple was cut short by a heavy and continued fall of 
snow, which obliged me to leave the place. 


IX.—Temple at Pdndrethin. 

1.—The Pandrethén temple is situated 14 mile to the S. E. of the 
Takht-i-Sulimén. The name is a corruption of Purdnadhisthdna, and 
means simply ‘‘the old capital,’ which, we know, was situated on this 
side of the Takht. For the Chinese Pilgrim, Hwan Thsang, particularly 
notices, that the old town stood at 10 Zi (or 12 mile) to the S. E. of the 
new town. Now the present city of Srinagar was built by Pravarasena, 
who reigned from A. D. 432 to 464: it was, therefore, a new town at 
the period of Hwan Thsang’s visit, between the years 629-642 A. D. 
There are but few ruins now existing on the site of the old town, but 

2R 2 


284 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


carved stones and architectural fragments are numerous; the lines of 
old walls can be traced in the grass, and the fields. «° covered with 
broken pottery. These remains extend for nearly thre les, from the 
foot of the Takht-i-Suliman to Panthasok, at which pla: two piers of 
an old bridge are still existing, one just above the surface vf the water, 
and the other just below it, the position of the latter bemg marked by 
the stillness of the water over it. The people assert that these piers are 
the remains of a stone bridge, which once spanned the Behat at this 
place. The colossal Zinga and other remains about Pandrethan induced 
Vigne* to imagine, that they might have formed “ part of a city and vast 
Hindu temple.’ The existence of an ancient city on this spot may, 
therefore, be considered as fully established on the joint testimony of 
Vigne and myself: and that this ancient city was the old capital, is esta- 
blished beyond all doubt, both by the record of the Chinese pilgrim, and 
by its present name of Pdndrethdn, or “ ancient chief town.” 

2.—The temple of Pandrethan, from its vicinity to the capital, has 
attracted the notice of most European travellers, who have spelt the 
name in as many different ways. Moorcroft calls it Pdndenthan ; 
Vigne, Pandrenton ; and Hugel, Pandritan. The last is the same as 
the Kashmirian Tékri, in which it is written (HHH Pédndretan, but 
as it is spelt qizara Pdéndrethén in modern Nagari, and as the final 
syllable is a contraction of the Sanskrit, erat sthdn, I have preserved 
the aspirate. 

3.—The erection of this temple is attributed to Meru-Varddhana, 
the minister of Partha, both by tradition and by the Raja Tarangini in 
the following verse: B. 5—v. 266. 

feu: qumfusta aeaeaaterar 
Rixaiaearaarat a aa Beas Il 

‘The minister Meru erected in the ancient capital, [Puranadhistana, 
or Pandreth4n,| a temple called ‘Sri-Meru-Varddhana-swami.’”’ The 
building of the temple is recorded between the years 89 and 97 of the 
Kashmirian era, equivalent to A. D. 913-921; and it is afterwards 
mentioned, between the years 958 and 972, as having escaped destruc- 
tion, when Abhimanyu, Nero-like, set fire to his own capital, on which 
occasion the Raja Tarangini relates n B. 6—v. 191. 

atae far se aalTTATay | 


AAA GAVIA VT CATS AWNSBTA || 
* Kashmir, vol. 2—p. 36. 


Pate XXiL. 


‘ 


VIEW or me TEMPLE of MERUVARDHANASWAMI ar PANDRETHAN, KASHMIR. 
A.D. 913-921. 


TEs dass Lith Frere Calcuca 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 285 


«This fire consumed the noble edifices planned by Vetala (an aérial 
spirit, or Ariel) from the temple of Varddhana-swami as tar as Bhikshu- 
kipdraka, the “asylum of mendicants’”—a Buddhist building. 

Now, as this is the only temple situated in the old capital, of which I 
can. find any record, there can be very little, if any, doubt, that it is the 
very same building which now exists. For, as it is surrounded by water, 
it was of course quite safe amid the fire, which reduced the other lime- 
stone buildings to mere masses of quick lime. Perhaps the same cause 
has also preserved it down to the present day: otherwise it could scarce- 
ly have escaped the hands of the Mahomedan spoiler. Its dangerous 
vicinity to the capital was more than counterbalanced by its inaccessi- 
bility. I have, however, a suspicion, that it must have been converted 
into a Mahomedan tomb ; for both the interior and exterior figures and 
ornaments have once been plastered over ; a practice which the Maho- 
medans often followed, as the cheapest and readiest way of adapting the 
sculptured Hindu buildings to their own purpose. This was done in 
the Hindu cloisters around the Kutt Minar at Delhi, and in all the 
Hindu temples in the fort of Gwalior. 

4.—Baron Hugel calls the Pandrethan edifice a “ Buddhist temple,” 
and states that there are some well preserved Buddhist figures in the 
interior. But he is doubly mistaken; for the temple was dedicated to 
Vishnu, and the figures in the inside of it have no connexion whatever 
with Buddhism. Trebeck swam into the interior and could discover 
no figures of any kind: but as the whole of the ceiling was formerly 
hidden by a coating of plaster, his statement was at that time perfectly 
correct. The existence of the figures was first discovered in 1846 by 
Lord Elphinstone, who informed me of the circumstance: and before I 
visited the temple, I took the precaution of sending some men to re- 
move the plaster, as well as a small boat for the purpose of gaining 
access to the inside of the temple, by which means I was able to ascer- 
tain the true character of the interior decorations. 

5.—Hugel* further states, that the piece of water is 600 feet in 
diameter, and that the Natives believe it to be ‘unfathomable.’ But 
he is again doubly incorrect, for the tank is a square of not more than 
125 feet wide ; and it could not have been larger in his time, as it ig 
surrounded by trees ; by chénars on the city side, and by willows on the 


* English transl, p, 124. 


286 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


other three sides. And so far is it from being considered unfathomable 
by the Natives, that when I directed the Mahardja’s head-boatman to 
send a small boat to the temple, he declared it would be of no use, as 
the pond was “dry” (khushk) ! Its actual depth in November was 
3} feet, 2 feet only being water, and the remainder foetid mud. Vigne 
says that it was 4 feet deep; and as Trebeck swam to it, it is certain 
that is is sometimes even deeper: but at no time can it exceed 5 or 6 
feet in depth, as the banks are very low, and are besides cut through 
for the purpose of drawing off the water for irrigation. 

6.—The Baron’s estimate of the size of the temple is very nearly 
correct. He calls it a square of not more than 25 feet, the real size 
being 22 feet. But the actual size of the square is only 18 feet, as 
the four porticos project two feet on each side. In the niche over the 
northern door there still exists a squatted male figure with the Brah- 
manical cord over the shoulder: but the figures which once adorned the 
other niches have long since disappeared. 'These doorways have square 
tops covered by pediments, which rest upon the jambs of the door, the 
tympanum being occupied by a trefoiled niche that contains the figure. 
This again is covered by another pediment, which also has a trefoiled 
tympanum. The trefoiled arch rests as usual upon small pilasters on 
each side of the door, but the pediment is supported upon bold square 
pillars, which are attached to the building by short walls of less breadth. 
This is an innovation, which most decidedly betokens a later date, a fact 
already established from history: but it is also a great improvement 
upon the earlier style ; as the boldness of the projection and the retire- 
ment of the connecting walls afford a great and pleasing variety of light 
and. shade, which is altogether wanting in the same parts of the more 
ancient buildings. See Plates XXI. and XXII. 

7.—The roof of the temple which is still nearly perfect, was a pyra- 
mid resting upon a line of horizontal denticulated moulding, and 
divided into two portions, by an ornamental band of the same moulding, 
on a level with the summits of the four porch pediments. See Plate 
XXII. The blankness of the upper portion is relieved by a trefoil- 
headed niche on each side, which is remarkable for its extreme small- 
ness and for its want of a pediment. This is also another innovation, 
but I think not a happy one, as from the lowness of their position there 
must have been ahigh unadorned bald-looking surface, left above each 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 287 


of them. It is, however, probable, that the upper portion of the pyra- 
mid was again subdivided by another band of denticulated moulding, 
which would have completely relieved its bald appearance. And this 
seems the more likely to have been the case, as the lower portion of the 
roof is only one third of the height of the pyramid. Each portion | 
would then have possessed its own ornament: the upper one being 
crowed. by the melon-like fruit, common to all the Kashmirian buildings. 
The total height of the temple, if the usual proportion of two breadths 
was observed, must have been 36 feet. 

8.—The interior is now filled with water; but I presume that the 
temple was originally only surrounded by it; and that the villagers, tak- 
ing advantage of its low situation, must have closed the drains, which 
formerly carried off the surplus water, so as to create a pond for the 
irrigation of their fields. In November the floor of the temple was 
fourteen inches below the surface of the water. Now the very existence 
of a floor proves, in my opinion, that the interior of the temple was 
formerly dry, and that the water must have been kept below that level 
by drains. Indeed two of these drains leading towards the river are 
still in existence. The access to the temple was, probably, arranged in 
the same manner, as the crossings of the reservoirs in the Shalimar 
garden ; by large blocks of stone, placed at intervals in the water, car- 
rying a roadway of long slabs from the outer edge of the water to the 
entrance of the temple. 

9.—In the interior arrangement, see Plate XXI., itis remarkable that 
the southern doorway differs from the others; but with what object I 
am unable to say. The usual, I believe the invariable practice of the 
Hindu architects, was to place the entrance of a temple either to the 
eastward or to the westward ; so that the enshrined image should daily 
receive the beams of the sun, either im the morning or in the evening. 
Such in fact is the arrangement of all the other temples in Kashmir ; 
and I am, therefore, puzzled to say what could have been the object of 
the present variation. It is true that with four open doorways the 
interior would have been illumimed, both by the rising and by the setting 
sun: but it appears to me, that the enshrined image must have been 
placed to the northward, and immediately in front of the doorway on 
that side; for I found the iron mortices, which received the door pins, 
still quite perfect. This side must, therefore, have been closed by a door, 


288 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


which would seem to point to the opposite doorway on the south as the 
usual entrance. But the reason for such a departure from the common 
practice still remains unaccounted for. 

10.—The ceiling is formed of nine blocks, four of which rest over 
the angles of the cornice, and reduce the opening to a square, which is 
just one half of the size of the other. The same process is again 
repeated with an upper course of four stones, by which the opening is 
still further narrowed to a square of 4 feet ; and lastly, this opening is 
covered by a single stone decorated with a large expanded lotus, sur- 
rounded by a beaded circle. The smaller angles are occupied by naked 
human figures, something similar to those of the Payach ceiling, but 
without wings. These figures besides have only one leg and one arm 
outstretched, which affords more variety than the other treatment at 
Payach. Each of the larger angles is filled with two figures holding 
out a garland, which falls in a graceful loop between them. The whole 


rests upon a cornice supported by brackets, which were so much de- . 


cayed that I found it impossible to trace their decorations or even their 
exact shape. The spaces between the brackets were also much injured ; 
but they appeared to have been filled with some kind of ornamental 
drapery hanging in curved folds. 

11.—I was unable to discover any remains of a surrounding quad- 
rangle ; but from the square form of the piece of water in which the 
temple is situated, I feel confident that it must once have had a stone 
enclosed, similar to those of the other temples, although perhaps neither 
so large nor so highly decorated. The numerous squared stones still 
lymg about prove, in my opinion, that it must once have had an 
enclosure of some kind. Indeed some portions yet remain of the walls 
which formerly surrounded the water; but there is no trace whatever 
either of pillars or of trefoiled recesses. 


Other Temples. 


Before closmg my description of the Kashmirian temples, I will quote 
from Vigne and Hugel some accounts of other buildings, which I was 
prevented by different circumstances from visiting, although I obtained 
a fair view of two of them across the Behat through a good telescope. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 289 


X.—Temples at Lidar. 
1.—Vigne who is the only person that has seen these ruins, describes 
them* as follows: ‘At Lidar, or Lidarpur, are two old Hindu temples. 
One resembles the centre building at Marttand, but is much smaller : 
the other I was informed, was very old indeed; and I have no doubt 
of the fact, it being built in the centre of a small pond, now, however, 
overgrown with reeds and rushes. It may have been built by Ledder 
Khan, one of the earliest Princes of the Pandu line.” In Vigne’s map 
the name of this place is spelt Lidu ; and from its position I have 
no doubt that it is the village of Ludaho BeEI, called also Dadhu- 
mand Gopal, in a list of Kashmirian villages, which Mirza Ahad gave 
me in 1839. I made enquiries regarding this place from several Brah- 
mans whilst I was in the city; and agam at Pandrethan, Pampur and 
Wantipur ; but the constant reply was, that there were no ruins of any 
kind at Ludaho. As I was pressed for time, I, therefore, gave up my in- 
tention of going to that place, judging that a visit to the ruins, which were 
not. well known to the people, would scarcely repay me for the loss of 
time, and might probably entail my being caught in the snow. And 
I was the more ready to forego this visit, as Vigne himself does not 
include them in the list of temples, which he considered worthy of 
inspection. 
2.—Regarding the period of their erection, therefore, I cannot possi- 
bly offer more than a vague approximation: for Vigne’s idea, that one 
of them must be very old, because it stands in the centre of a small 
pond, is completely disproved by the fact, that the temple of Pandre- 
than, which is also surrounded by water, is the most modern of all the 
authenticated buildings of Kashmir. The dates of their erection must 
— certainly lie between A. D. 400—900, and we might not be far wrong in 
assigning them to the period of Lalitaditya’s reign, between A. D. 693-— 
: 729. For his great city of Lalitédityapura, now only a small village, 
| called Latapur, is only 3 miles to the S. E. of Ludaho: and we know 
_ that it was the practice of the Kashmirian courtiers to erect temples as 
_ well as dwelling houses in the neighbourhood of places founded by their 
_ kings. 


| 3.—I have a suspicion, however, that the place is much older than the 
| 
| 


time of Lalitaditya, for in the Raja Taranginit it is related that Raja 


* Kashmir, vol, 2. p, 35, t B. l~v. 8. 
28 


290 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


Lava bestowed Levéra of Ledari upon a body of Bréhmans. Now this 
name of Ledari must surely be the original of Vigne’s Lidar and Lidar-. 
pur. We may therefore, perhaps consider Ledari as a place consecrated 
to religion, so early as the reign of Raja Lava, who was a contemporary 
of Darius Hystaspes. But I do not suppose that either of the temples 
can be so old: for their style, according to Vigne’s deseription, is simi- 
lar to that of Marttand and of other temples of a much later age, 
while it has nothing whatever in common with the undoubtedly ancient 
temple of Jyeshteswara on the Takht-i Suliman. 


XI.—Temples at Kakdapur. 


1.—Both Wilson and Troyer have identified Kakapur and Gaumoha: 
with the Khagi and Khuna-musha of the Raja Tarangini, which are said, 
to have been bestowed upon the Brahmans by Raja Khagendra, who 
was the grandson of Lava, and, therefore, a contemporary of Artaxerxes 
Longimanus. I agree with the former of these identifications: but 
there is no such place as Gaumoha; for the representative of Khuna- 
musha is the modern Khunamoh aaquIy, which is situated at the foot 
of the hills at 3 miles to the N. N. E. of Pampur. 

2.—Vigne* dismisses the ruins of Kakaépur in a few words—“ Ait 
Kakapur, a village under the Karewah, or elevated plain of Pampur, is 
an old ruied temple, but scarcely worth visiting after Marttand.”’ As 
the name is spelt Kakdpur in Vigne’s map and is so quoted by Thornton, 
it strikes me that this must have been the name which Vigne noted 
down whilst in Kashmir, and that the new spelling of Kdkurpur, origi- 
nated afterwards from a desire to derive the name of the place from. 
one of the Afghan tribe of Kakar. 

3.—These ruins are not at present of much interest ; but as the larger 
temple is hidden by rubbish as high as the frieze of the interior, it is 
possible that an excavation might bring to light as fine an edifice as any 
now existing, and perhaps a much more perfect one: as the exposed 
frieze of the southern wall is even now in very fair preservation. A part 
of the gateway of this temple is still standing to the westward ; and as I 
was afterwards informed, some pillars of its surrounding quadrangle yet 
exist in a neighbouring Musalman shrine or astén. This is the astdnu 


* Kashmir, vol. 2—p. 31. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 291 


of Vigne, for the Mahomedans are unable to pronounce any double con- 
sonant of which s is the first letter. Thus our names of Smith and 
Sturt become e-Smith and e-Sturt. 

4.—Near this upon the bank of a canal there is the basement of a 
second Hindu temple with a flight of steps leading down towards the 
water: but I could discover no portions either of its superstructure or 
of its surrounding walls. 

5.—It is admitted above, that the town of Khdgi-pura, or Khigen- 
drapura, now called Kéképur, was founded by Raja Khagendra, who 
lived in the 5th century before Christ. But the temples are, undoubted- 
ly, of a much later date, as we know that the pillared quadrangle could 
not have been introduced until at least one thousand years after his 
time. The frieze also appeared to me to bear a very striking resem- 
blance in style to that of Marttand. With these indications, we may 
not, perhaps, be far wrong in assigning the erection of this temple to 
about the same period as that of Marttand, or even somewhat later, say 
about 600, for the pillared quadrangle of Marttand itself, which is the 
earliest authenticated example, was not erected until A. D. 700 


XI1.—Temple near Bartihmula. 

1.—‘‘ Most of the ruins in the Baréhmula Pass’’ says Vigne,* “are 
well worth visitmg. The top of the oldest of these, on the right bank 
of the river, has been a small but perfect pyramid, is surrounded by 
water, and has quite preserved its shape.” Hugel+ also notices this 
building in the followmg terms. ‘About two miles from Barahmula, 
there is a Buddhist temple in ruins in a small tank. I judged it to be 
most probably [of the same age ast] that of Pandrethan.” 

2.—When I passed along this road the whole country was covered 
with snow, which must have filled the tank, and have hidden the tem- 
ple, for I never observed any object that bore the slightest resemblance 
to a temple, although I was on the look out for it. It is still more 
curious, that this temple twice escaped the observation of Moorcroft and 
Trebeck, who twice travelled the road between Baréhmula and Gingal, 
and in the month of August when there was no snow upon the ground. 


* Kashmir, vol. 1—p. 406. tT English transl. p. 173. 
{ I have supplied the words included between the brackets, as the sense is incom- 
plete without them. 


i 


292 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Serr, 


3.—I tried in vain to discover a name for it; as the ignorant Maho- 
medans only knew it as the But-khdna or Idol-house. No name is 
assioned to it by Hugel; and Vigne simply calls it But-dal, which he 
translates “Lake of the Idol,’ but which really means the “ Tank 
Idol.’ From Vigne’s description it would appear to be similar in size 
and style to the temple of Pandrethaén; and this likeness must have 
struck Hugel, otherwise I know not on what grounds he considered it 
to be of the same age as that temple. As these authors would seem to 
agree regarding its striking likeness to the Pandrethan temple, we shall 
not perhaps err very much by assigning the date of its erection to the 
ninth or tenth century. 


XII.—Rums at Jampura. 


1.—These remains are noticed both by Hugel and by Vigne. The for- 
mer* says, “ Three buildings at Jampura attracted my curiosity. The first 
in the form of a sepulchral monument, was a circular edifice about 30 
feet in height, on which stood a square chamber; but to what time 
or faith the monuments belonged I had no means of discovering.” 
Vignet says, ‘‘ Farther on, upon the banks of the river, and close together, 
are the remains of three other buildings, the first of which appears 
originally to have been a tomb, the second a temple, and the third 
a fort.” 

2.—As stated by these authors, there are three separate buildings at 
Jampura, of which only one is described by Hugel, who appears to 
have considered it of a sepulchral character. Vigne also calls it a 
tomb. I examined it carefully, and I am of opinion, that it is a Maho- 
medan tomb. ‘The upper portion is a square structure of small stones, 
with a circular arch-way in the middle of each side. ‘The lower part, 
which is built of large dressed stones, must have been the foundation 
of some Hindu edifice : but I rather incline to believe, that the stones 
were removed from the Hindu temple next described. 

3.—The middle building, which Vigne calls a temple ; is undoubted- 
ly the remains of a stone edifice, similar to the temples in Kashmir. It 
is built of large squared stones, many of which are very massive. On 


* English transl. p. 173. 
{ Kashmir, vol. 1—p. 178. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 293 


the river front the wing walls of the entrance flight of steps still remain, 
and the greater part of the basement is quite perfect. There is also 
a considerable portion of the superstructure still standing, about 10 feet 
in height. 

4.—The last building, which Vigne dignifies with the name of a fort, 
is only a large square room, of which three sides are still standing upon 
a mound of rubbish. The total height varies from 20 to 25 feet, I pre- 
sume that it was only a dwelling house, built by the headman of the 
neighbouring village, out of the ruins of the adjacent Hindu temple. 


XIV.—Temple at Bhaniyar. 


1.—In Kashmirian, Takri; this name is written SBPACT, Bhawd- 
niyar, which would seem to prove, that the temple must have been 
dedicated to the goddess Bhawani, the wife of Siva. It is situated 
on the left bank of the Behat, at 13 mile beyond the fortlets of Athari, 
Sankargarh and Noshehra. Hugel* simply describes it as a ‘‘ Buddhist 
temple in good preservation.” Its name, however, completely refutes 
this opinion of its Buddhistical destination. Vignet dismisses it quite 
as briefly, as “an old Himdu ruin by the path side.’’—It appeared to 
me to be the most perfect of all the temples that I had seen ; and I 
should certainly have visited it, had I not been prevented by the con- 
tinued fall of snow, which had almost closed the road, and had more 
than half concealed the temple. The gateway and surrounding walls 
are still standing, but the former, which is of the same style as those 
in the valley, is without roof. A portion of the temple roof still re- 
mains ; but the whole work is without ornament, and 1s altogether 
much inferior to the great temples of Marttand and Avantipura. Owing 
to the number and thickness of the trees, which filled the interior, I was 
unable to discover, even with a good telescope, whether there was a 
colonnade around the inside of the enclosing wall, or not. The outside 
of the quadrangle, however, is ornamented by numerous trefoil-headed 
recesses, similar to those of the Marttand peristyle. Both of these 
must have escaped the observation of Vigne, as he states,{ that “there 


* English translation, p. 174. 
+ Kashmir, vol. 2—p. 176. 
} Kashmir, vol. l—p. 394. 


294 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


isone peculiarity about the older buildings of Kashmir, and that is, 
that * * the wall surrounding the peristyle has, as usual, a colonnade 
in the interior, but its outside is completely a blank and unornamented.”’ 


XV.—Temple near Dydmun. 


1.—On the left bank of the Behat, at 33 miles to the N. E. of Uri, 
and at less than half a mile from the village of Dyamun, and on the 
opposite bank of the river, there is a small Hindu temple in very good 
preservation. Baron Hugel* calls it “a Buddhist temple still in good 
repair, and built in the same style as those of Kashmir. * * Its 
name is Brangutri.” Vigne’s account+ is much more detailed. He 
says,— Proceeding thence towards Uri, we pass two more ancient 
Hindu temples, of the same style of architecture as those of the valley. 
The colonnade which surrounds one of them, is im a good state of pre- 
servation, it is also evident that the top of the building in the centre of 
the peristyle, and now about ten yards high, was once pyramidal. The 
remains of a massive flight of steps are still in position before the 
entrance.” * * «All the remaining ruins I have seen, are of lime- 
stone ; but this which is called Bryn-kutri, differs from them m being 
built entirely of granite.’ 

2.—The name which the people gave me was Brinkar ; but I suspect 
that the name recorded by Hugel and Vigne is the more correct one ; 
for Kotart @1Z@, which means a “naked woman,” is also an appella- 
tion of Durgd. It is probable, therefore, that the temple contained a 
naked image of that goddess. Indeed, the whole name may, possibly, 
have been Varna-kotari awatea, the “painted” or the ‘golden 
Durga.” The enshrined image might have been a gilé one. 

3.—The period of the erection of this temple, as well as that of 
Bhawanigarh, cannot be ascertained except within wide limits. For there 
are no data to guide us, save the existence of colonnades, which fixes 
the time of their construction between the fifth and tenth centuries. 


Having completed the description of all the Kashmfrian temples that 
I have myself seen, or of which I can find any account, I will now 


* English translation, p. 174. 
7 Kashmir, vol. 2—p. 176. 


1848. ] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 295 


proceed to an examination and comparison of their different details one 
with another, and with the rules laid down by the architects of Greece 
and India. But before noticing the different parts and various details 
of these buildings, I will first enumerate the Sanskrit names of the 
principal mouldings which are used in the Kashmirian architecture. 


XVI.—Kashmirian Mouldings. 


ABACUS, BUC, uttara, the “uppermost.” This name is used for 
every superior member, of whatever shape it may be. 

ANNULET, Gea, Pattaka, a “bandlet.’”?> This occurs in all subor- 
dinate positions, both above and below the principal mouldings. 

ApapuyGe’, Jet, Prastara, the “spreader.” This name is given 
to any overhanging moulding. It occurs in the Marttand and Avanti- 
pura capitals, as well as in those of Pampur and Srinagar. In the 
latter, however, it is straight. 

ASTRAGAL, BRT, Khsudra-padma, the ‘‘little-lotus,” is used in 
both of the Marttand pillars, as the lowest member of the capital. 

Dano or Facer, We, Gala or “neck.” It occurs in every base, both: 
of pillar and building. ) 

EpPiTRACHELIUM, Wyre, Adhigala, or “above-neck” is used as its: 
name implies. 

Fintet, wg, Patta, “a band.’ This moulding is sometimes used 
independently as in the Payach basememt, immediately above the 
quirked ovolo. When it is placed in the middle of the torus, which is. 
its most usual position in these mouldings, it is called ytfaya, A’lin- 
gana, the “embracer,”’ because it embraces the member to which it 
is attached. 

FILLETED-TORUS, HALTSATA, Kumuda-patta-bdindha, the “lotus- 
fillet-bound.” This is the upper member of several basements: it is 
also used in the base of the Marttand and Pampur pillars. 

HyrorTracHeLium, Yyad, Upagala, or “beneath neck,” is used in 
the position indicated by its name. 

Purntu, sara, Updna, the “undermost,” is the lowest member 
both in bases and in basements. 

QuiRKED Ovoto, 7a, Padma, the “ Lotus,”’—or Weratt, Andikar, 
the “ege-shaped.’’? The Padma is used for any double curve, such as 


296 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


the quirked ovolo, the Cyma recta, or the Cyma reversa. Anddkar is, 
however, the proper name for the quirked-ovolo. When it is decorated 
with the egg ornament, like the Marttand and Pampur pillars, it is called 
qewayaq Andava-padma, the “ egged-lotus.”’ 

TRACHELIUM or Neck; ae, Kantha, or Wat, Grivd, or we, Gala. 
This occurs in every example of Kashmirian capital, immediately above 
the lower ovolo. Gala is the most common term. 

Torup, gaz, Kumuda, the “lotus,” is a very favorite moulding, 
both in pillars and in basements. 


XVII.—Of Temples. 


1.—The Kashmirian temples are of three kinds, the oblong, the 
square, and the octagonal, and these again are subdivided into the 
closed and the open. The closed temples have only one entrance, and 
are called faata, Vimdna, which means literally,a scat or throne of the 
gods. The open temples have door ways on all four sides, and are 
called awy, Mandapa, from Manda, ornament, because these open 
temples are mostly decorated all round, while the inner chambers of 
the Vimina are generally quite plain. 

2.—Of the oblong Vimdna, the only example that now remains is 
the temple of Marttand, of which the length is equal to 12 breadth. 
It is closed on three sides. Of the square Vimdna, there are, at least; 
three examples in the cave temple of Bhaumajo, and in the two temples 
at Pathan. It is probable that there were many more; for I suspect 
that the smaller one (and perhaps also the larger one) of the Avantipura 
temples, was of this description. Of the octagonal Vimdna, only one 
example now remains in the ancient temple of Jyeshteswara, on the 
Takht-i-Suliman. 

3.—Of the mandapa there is but one kind of which the best exam- 
ples are the almost perfect temples of Payach and Péndrethin. 'The 
entrance chamber or arddha-mandapa of Marttand is also a perfect 


specimen of this kind, although attached to a larger building to which 
it is subordinate. 


1848.] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 297 


XVIII.—Interior Arrangement. 

1.—According to the practice of the Hindus, the oblong temples were 
divided into three distinct chambers, of which the outermost was called 
arddha-mandapa or “ half temple,” the central one was named Yacttet, 
antaréla or “ mid-temple,”’ and the innermost was denominated WA, 
garbha-griha or “womb of the edifice.’ The size of these chambers 
increased by an arithmetical progression from the outside. This arrange- 
ment is quite different from that of the Greeks, who in a temple of three 
apartments, placed the xaos, which was always much the largest room< 
in the middle between the pronaos and the posticum. The Kashmirian 
architects, on the contrary, judging from the plan of Marttand, which 
is the only example, adhered to the Hindu arrangement of the cham- 
bers but rejected their relative sizes. Thus the outer chamber of Mart- 
tand is a perfect square ; the mid chamber is one fourth of this square ; 
and the mner chamber is three fourths of it. In this arrangement it 
is remarkable that the outer chamber is exactly equal to the areas of 
the other two chambers—a size, which agrees with its name of arddha- 
mandapa or half temple. In this respect the Kashmirian architects 
would appear to have adhered strictly to the original rules, from which 
the Hindus themselves had departed. Something like this is, however, 
mentioned by Ram Raz who,* quoting the Kasyapa treatise says, the 
arddha-mandapa or portico is “‘sometimes made broader than the 
garbha-griha, in which case the width of the former is either once and 
a half or twice that of the latter.” 

2.—The two kinds of square tempies would seem to have had their 
respective arrangements of interior which were almost invariably ob- 
served. Thus the Mandapas of Payach and Pandrethan have a square 
chamber, with an open doorway, on each side; whilethe Vimanas of 
Pathan have only one doorway, leading to a central square chamber, 
and an open porch leading to a small chamber on each of the other 
three sides. The length and breadth of these chambers are made one 
half and one third respectively of the breadth of the principal chamber. 
Both of these arrangements are somewhat similar to those followed in 
India Proper in temples of the same shape. 

3.—In the positions of the entrances there are also some slight varia- 
tions. Thus the doorways of the temples of Marttand and of Avan- 

* Hindu Architecture, p- 50, 


298 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


tipura are to the westward; those of the Takht-i-Suliman, of Pathan 
and of Payach, are to the eastward; while that of the Pandrethan tem- 
ple alone is to the southward. In the Payach temple the water-spout 
is on the northern face, which is in accordance with the practice 
observed in India, where an eastern entrance has a northern water- 
spout, and a southern entrance an eastern spout. 

4.—On the whole, I think, that the general arrangement of the Kash- 
mirian temples has so much in common with those of India, as to 
warrant the deduction that the rules of the two countries were originally 
derived from the same source. 


XIX.— Dimensions. 


1.—The relative proportions observed in the three dimensions of j 
length, breadth and height, offer one of the best means of testing, whe- ’ 
ther the practice of the Kashmirian architects was mdependent and 
original, or was borrowed from that of their Indian neighbours. Unfor- 
tunately we have only one specimen of an oblong temple to furnish the 
required proportions between length and breadth, as all the Kashmirian 
temples, with the single exception of Marttand, are either square or octa- 
gonal. The length of the Marttand temple is 63 feet, and its breadth 
36 feet ; its length is, therefore, equal to 13 breadth; orif we compare 
it with the breadth of the portico, which is 27 feet, then the length is 
equal to 24 breadth ; which is a very close approximation to the Hindu 
rule, given by Ram Raz* of 25 breadth. It is probable, therefore, that 
the same proportions between the two dimensions of length and breadth, 
which were observed in India, were also followed in Kashmir. 

2.—With regard to the Kashmirian temples, there can be little doubt, 
that the rule which was almost invariably practised, was to make the 
height of a temple equal to twice its breadth. The single exception to 
this rule is the cave temple of Bhaumajo, of which the height is only 
equal to 14 breadth. This sole departure from the usual custom may, 
possibly, have been imposed upon the architect, owing to want of height 
in the cavern; but the style of the roof itself seems to favor the opinion, 
that it must have been so designed, and as the proportion is one of those 
used by the Hindus, I think that there can be but little doubt that. the 


* Hindu Architecture, p. 50. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 299 


architects of Kashmir observed at least some of the rules that were 
followed in India. 

3.—Raém Raz, quoting the Kasyapa says,* that “ Vimdnas are divided 
into five sorts, with respect to their magnitude.”’ 
lst.—Séntika, the “ quiet looking” or “‘ modest,” height 


These are called, 
1? breadth 


2nd.—Panstika, which Ram Raz translates “bulky,”.. = 14 ,, 
3rd.—dayada, the “triumphant” or “ excellent,’.... == 13 ,, 
ath. — Ad bata, the “ wonderful’). 2. 2....0..6 03 nh08 Seeds holy, 
5th.—Sarvakdma, the ‘ all-pleasing,” .......... meee 1} r, 


Of these different kinds that which was most in esteem in Kashmif 
was undoubtedly the last. The cave temple of Bhaumajo must be 
ranked as panstika Vimdna or “bulky temple,’ a name which its 
massive appearance fully merits. But all the other temples of Kash- 
mir were certainly of the last kind, the sarva-héma or <“all-pleasing.”’ 
It is, however, remarkable, that the author of the Raja Tarangini when 
speaking of the temple of Marttand, calls it adbhuta, the “ wonderful,” 
the very name which is applied to another kind of temple of very nearly 
the same relative proportions, as those of Marttand itself. This epithet 
of the historical poet I consider as merely an accidental coincidence, 
for in his first mention of Marttand he calls it sarvatogatam “the all- 
pervading,” a name which is somewhat similar to that of sarva-hdma, in 
which class the temple of Marttand must undoubtedly be ranked. 


XX.— Basements. 
1.—Basements are appropriately called upapita eqqte, or “ under- 
seats’ by the Hindus and also sometimes adhastha arg, or “under- 


9 


fixtures ;” which names are exactly equivalent to the Greek Smedpa 
and simooracts. 

2.—The basements of the Kashmirian temples may be divided into 
two kinds, the massive and the light, according to the character of their 
mouldings. In Plate VIII. I have exhibited five different specimens of 
the Kashmirian mouldings, of which three belong to the more massive 
order, and two to the lighter one. 

3.—The former style which is adapted in the temples of Takht-i- 
Suliman, Bhaumajo and Payach, is distinguished by a massive filleted 
torus as the crowning member, with a straight fillet above and below. 

* Hindu Architecture, p. 49. 
27 2 


300 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


Under this is the dado, or plain straight face, which is of about the 
same height as the torus itself. Beneath this is a quirked ovolo of 
bold projection surmounted by a straight fillet, and under this is the 
plinth, of which the dimensions vary in the different examples. Of 
these the Takht-i-Sulimén specimen is the most massive, and as it is 
further characterized by the total want of projection in the face, which 
is flush with the wall of the building, and which I take to be an un- 
doubted sign of antiquity. 

4.—Of the lighter kind of basement, there are two examples, of 
which that of the enclosing wall around the tomb of Zem-ul-ab-ud-din 
is probably the more ancient one as it is distinguished by the same want 
of projection in its face which has just been noticed in the Takht 
example. In this kind of basement the filleted torus is altogether omit- 
ted ; and its place is supplied by an abacus, which in the earlier speci- 
men is supported by an apophygé, or prastara, broken by several annu- 
lets; and in the later specimen by a cyma recta surmounting two 
annulets. The remainder of the earlier basement is similar to those of 
Bhaumajo and Payach, but with a much less projecting ovolo. The 
Marttand example only differs in having its face broken into three 
annulets, something like those of the Doric capital, which are separated 
from the upper member by an astragal. 

5.—The last basement is that of the wing-buildings of the Marttand 
temple of which unfortunately I have no detailed measurements. Its 
height is of course the same as that of the large temple; but it differs 
entirely in its details, which are however almost the same as those of 
the pedestal of the largest interior niche. See Plate XVI. The decora- 
tions of the face are precisely the same, and on the sides towards the 
large temple, where they have been covered from the weather, these 
decorations are still in excellent preservation. 

6.—It is impossible to say whether any particular rule was observed 
in determining the height of a basement, as we have not sufficient data 
to guide us. In the Bhaumajo and Payach examples, the height of the 
base is exactly one fifth of that of the whole temple, whereas in that of 
Marttand the basement was only one fifteenth of the whole height. If 
the Bhaumajo proportion had been used for the temple on the Takht-i- 
Suliman, its height would only have been 28 feet and 14 mech. As 
however this dimension is exactly three fourths of its extreme breadth, 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 301 


and one third more than its interior diameter, it seems highly probable 
that such may have really been its full height. The four plain sides 
were most likely covered by pediments, in which case the base of the 
pyramid would not have been much broader than the interior width of 
the temple. My present opinion is that the height of the basement 
was made entirely dependent upon the height of the roof. Thus the 
whole temple being two breadths in height, of which the walls were one 
half, the height of the basement would of course depend upon the 
pitch that was given to the pyramidal roof. If it was determined to 
make a lofty roof, the basement was of course lessened in height; and 
vice versa, the basement increasing in height as the roof became more 
flat. 


XXI.—Walls. 

1.—The walls of a building are called dhitti, fafa, and kudya, 
qa, in Sanskrit, but there are many other names now in use that are 
not of Sanskrit origin. In the Kashmirian temples the walls are made 
entirely of large blocks of grey limestone fastened together by iron 
clamps, several of which are now exposed in the walls of Pandrethan.- 
As no cement has been used in the construction of any of the walls 
that I have seen, Vigne is undoubtedly wrong when he states that the 
stones “‘are cemented with an excellent mortar.’* Thornton has 
noticed this statement and with much judgment has preferred the 
account of Jacquemont, who says that these walls are “sans ciment,”’ 
although he modestly declines deciding in favor of the French traveller. 
As I have myself seen these temples and have examined them carefully 
I am able ‘‘ tantas componere lites” by stating positively that no cement 
whatever has been used in the walls of any of the Kashmirian temples- 

2.—The dimensions of these walls vary very considerably, those of 
the older temples being thicker in proportion to their interior breadth 
than the later ones. Thus the thickness of the Takht temple walls is 
four elevenths of the interior diameter: that of the cave temple of 
Bhaumajo is two sevenths; those of Marttand and of Pandrethan are 
one fourth, while that of Payach is only one sixth. This gradual 
lessening in thickness, supposing each diminution to denote a more 
recent period, agrees exactly with the successive dates that have been 


* Travels, vol. 1.—p. 386. 


302 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


assigned for the erection of the different temples. The only exception is 
that of Payach but as the four walls of that temple are formed of 
single stones, nothing is more likely than that the architect should 
have made them thinner than was the usual custom in his day, chiefly 
on account of their superior strength, but partly also to lessen their 
weight in transport. As the other temples at Pathan have small cham- 
bers on three sides which are constructed in the thickness of the temple 
walls, the architect was obliged to increase the thickness of the solid 
parts of the walls to one half of the interior diameter in order to gain 
sufficient strength and solidity for the support of the massive pyra- 
midal roof. 


XXII.—Lntablatures. 

1.—The Greeks called the whole of the upper part of the super- 
structure, including the capitals of the columns by the general name of 
emtudv: but the Hindus discrimimate between the capital of a pillar 
and the entablature itself. The former they call adhistambha ata, 
which means exactly the same as the Greek epistylium: the latter they 
call urddhasthita or urddhastha, Zam, the “ high fixture,” which is 
equivalent to the Greek emoracis, although not literally the same. Its 
exact meaning would be rendered by a:mocracis, but 1 am not aware that 
such a word has ever been used. 

2.—The upper parts of the temple have in general been so much in- 
jured and are besides so inaccessible that the correct delineation of the 
entablatures was a work of considerable difficulty. In the cave temple 
of Bhaumajo, which is the oldest complete building there is no en- 
tablature whatever ; unless indeed the narrow line of arehitrave which is 
interposed between the top of the walls and the base of the roof can be 
considered as such. In the next example, that of Payach, this is some- 
what enlarged, although still of very small dimensions. It however 
consists of three separate parts, which for the sake of distinction alone 
may be called architrave, frieze and cornice. The lower member is 
formed of two plain straight mouldings or bands, of which the higher 
one projects slightly over the other. The middle member is twice the 
height of the lower one and consists of a denticulated ovolo; while the 
upper member or cornice which is of the same size as the lower one, is 4 
plain straight moulding or band similar to that of the Bhaumajo temple. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Arelitecture. 303 


3.—The next specimens in point of antiquity are those of Marttand, 
of which we have no less than three examples, two belonging to the 
exterior, and one to the interior. These show a considerable improve- 
ment over the former specimens, and at the same time bear a decided 
general resemblance to the entablatures of the classical orders. That 
of the great temple itself is 4 feet in height or exactly equal to one 
diameter of its supporting pilasters. Its division into architrave, frieze, 
and cornice is distinct and unequivocal. The first which is 1} foot in 
height is equally divided into two plain mouldings each sloping inwards. 
The second which is of the same height is straight and perfectly plain ; 
while the third which is only 1 foot in height consists of an ovolo sur- 
mounting two fillets or annulets. So far this entablature agrees in 
general distribution with that of the classical orders: but it differs from 
them most materially in its total want of projection, the line of the 
frieze being flush with that of the supporting pilaster. This may per- 
haps be reckoned as a defect ; but I am inclined to consider it as an im- 
provement with regard to the purpose for which it was destined. For, 
if the entablature had been projected beyond the line of the perpendi- 
eular walls of the building, the vast pyramidal roof would have appear- 
ed much too heavy for its supports. See Plate XIV. Such in fact is 
the case with the late example of the Pandrethan temple, im which the 
roof and its supporting entablature project considerably beyond the 
pilasters. See Plate XXII. In the low Grecian pediments this pro- 
jection is undoubtedly abeauty: but in my judgment any projection, 
in a pediment of high pitch has an extremely top-heavy appearance. 
Indeed the European practice with steeples which are the most lofty 
description of pyramidal roofs, fully bears out my opinion, as their 
bases are never made broader than the width of their supporting 
towers. 

4.—The second of the Marttand specimens belongs also to the exte- 
rior; but to one of the porches of the colonnade and not to the temple 
itself. It is therefore a more recent example by upwards of 200 years. 
Its height is 3} feet, and it is divided into three distinct and equal 
parts, which may, as in the former examples, be likewise called 
architrave, frieze and cornice. The first consists of three plain mould- 
ings, which are in proportion to each other as 1, 2, 3; the uppermost 
being the smallest and having also the least projection. The frieze is 


304 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


divided into triangular-headed niches which contain single seated figures ; 
and at each end there is a small pilaster for the support of the upper 
member or cornice. This last, which has a projection equal to its 
height, is divided into several small mouldings, the uppermost being 
two bold ovolos. See plates VIII. and XV. 

5.—The third specimen from Marttand belongs to the interior of 
the outer chamber, which may perhaps be of somewhat later date than 
the larger and plainer building. It is represented in Plates VIII. and XVI. 
In this specimen the frieze has been considerably enlarged, and the lower 
member is reduced to a mere band, only 9 inches in height and per- 
fectly plain. The frieze which is no less than 4 feet in height is divid- 
ed by pilasters into several spaces, each,of which contains a niche with 
a trefoiled head resting upon small pilasters, which are themselves sup- 
ported by panelled pedestals. Hach niche is occupied by a seated 
human figure. The cornice, which is 1} foot in height, consists of two 
members, of which the upper one is an ovolo of 6 inches, decorated with 
square-topped leaves; and the lower one is a straight face of 1 foot 
divided imto triangular-headed niches. This is the richest as well as 
the most elegant of all the Kashmirian entablatures. And yet its lead- 
ing feature has been altogether mistaken by Vigne, who has represented 
the figures enshrined in the niches as a row of four-leaved flowers.* 
Unfortunately he selected for his sketch that side of the building which 
was most injured. He seems also to have been contented with giving 
the general forms and outlines of the masses, and thus to have lost all 
those numerous peculiarities of detail which characterize the different 
parts of one style of architecture from another. 

6.—The next entablature I found upon a single stone which is now 
used as a flank wall to the entrance of the tomb of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din’s 
mother. It is probably of about the same age as those of Marttand. 

Like them it has its frieze divided by pilasters, and its cornice is the 
same as that of the Marttand interior. The decorations of the intervals 
between the pilasters are however quite different, although of the same 
style. On asmall scale they resemble very closely those of the walls 
of the quadrangle, but without the peristyle. Like them they have 
the spaces between the pilasters occupied by trefoil-headed recesses ; 
but they differ in the want of covering pediments. There is one thin~ 


* See View, vol. 1—p. 390. 


1848. ] Lissay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 305 


however in this entablature which is particularly worthy of remark ; 
namely, that the corner recess is a square-headed trefoil, instead of being 
round like the others. I notice this fact the more prominently as 
Professor Willis has suggested that such was probably the original form 
of the trefoil. Its occurrence in a corner position is in perfect keeping 
with the treatment followed with the corner columns which are likewise 
made square instead of round. 

7.—The last entablature is that of the temple of Péndrethan. See 
Plate XXII. It is exactly the same as that of Péyach but with the 
addition of a good-sized plain architrave beneath the fillets of the denti- 
culated moulding. This specimen confirms the truth of what I before 
observed, that the height of the entablature appears to be increased in 
each successive building. Thus in the present example the height is 
equal to one fourth more than the width of the supporting pilasters. 
This superior height and apparent stability may have been given solely 
on account of the extra size of this particular roof, which projects con- 


siderably beyond the walls of the building. 


XXITI.—Roofs. 

1.—All the existing roofs of the Kashmirian temples are of pyra- 
midal shape. In Sanskrit this form is called sikhara fat, which 
means a peak of any kind as wellas a pyramid. Throughout India 
generally the same form is also observed; but the sides of the roof 
usually swell out considerably into a kind of paraboloidal pyramid, 
unlike those of Kashmfr, of which the sides are invariably straight. 
The same style of wooden roof is still common in the valley, but it 
is seldom of so high a pitch. In most of the temple roofs, as at 
Bhaumajo and at Payach, the pyramid is broken into two equal por- 
tions, which are divided by a broad moulding. The Pandrethan roof 
however was probably divided into three portions; and in the little 
temple which crowns the Srinagar column we have an example of a 
four-storied roof. This number of breaks on stories im the roof as- 
similates the Kashmirian style very closely to that of the Chinese ; 
and this similarity is still farther imereased almost to identity in the 
wooden roofs, which have also four stories. In these the ends of the 
corner beams are usually finished off with alligators’ heads, somewhat 
raised above the bottom line of the sloping planks of the roof, and 

2uU 


306 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


bearing a singularly striking resemblance to the turned up corners of 
the different stories of Chinese buildings. As the Chinese religion was 
borrowed from the Indians chiefly through Kashmir, the mtroduction 
of the Kashmirian style of temple must naturally have followed upon 
the establishment of the new belief. This resemblance between the 
sacred buildings of the two countries may therefore be taken as a strong 
evidence in favor of the statement that Buddhism was introduced into 
China by five hundred Kashmirian Arhans during the first century of 
the Christian era. None of the stone roofs now existing have these 
ornamental corners, nor do I think that they could ever have had them ; 
unless perhaps some of the very earliest buildings, in which the wooden 
roofs may have been more closely imitated. 

2.—The masonry of the roofs is constructed entirely of horizontal 
courses. The ceilings are first formed by overlapping stones, which 
gradually diminish the opening to a size sufficiently small to be covered 
in by asingle stone. Over this the interior of the pyramid ‘was most 
probably hollow. Such at least is the case with the Pandrethan roof, 
which has a window im each of its four niches lookmg into the hollow 
part of the roof. I have little doubt that the same plan was followed 
in all the other roofs; partly perhaps to lessen the great weight of the 
pyramidal mass, but chiefly for the sake of economy. 

3.—The flattened top of the pyramid in the Payach example is an 
elegant pinnacle formed of a melon-like fruit surmounted by a concave- 
sided cone. In Sanskrit this is called kalasa @w¥, which means the 
topmost point of anything. Thus the famous Rana Sanka, the Sisodia 
chief who opposed Baber, was called the Aalasa, or pinnacle of the 
glory of his native country, Mewar. 


XXIV .—Interior Decorations. 


1.—The interior decorations are of two kinds; namely, those of the 
walls and those of the ceilings. Of the latter there are but two speci- 
mens, which have already been fully described in the accounts of the 
Payach and Pandrethén temples. Under this head also should be 
included the soffits of the trefoiled arches, which, in the only existing 
example at Marttand, are divided into square panels, each containing an 
expanded lotus flower. | 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 307 


2.—The decorations of the walls are quite different, and are in strict 
keeping with the general character of the other parts of the building. 
They consist chiefly of trefoil-headed niches covered by pediments 
supported upon pilasters. These are called karna-hutah, wWHe:, or 
*‘side-niches,” by the Hindus. In Plate XVI. I have given a view of 
the northern wall of the entrance-chamber of Ma4rttand, which is the 
most highly-decorated of all the Kashmirian interiors. The large 
temple at Pathan has a single niche (with double pediment) on each 
side of the entrance; but the interior chamber is quite plain. In 
Marttand however there are four distinct masses of ornament on each 
side of the interior, each differing in its details from the other, but all 
having the same predominating type of a pediment supported upon 
pilasters. Over the right hand niche there is a small indistinct object 
or tablet supported by a couple of naked and winged figures, which are 
well-conceived and neatly executed: while both above and below the 
left hand niche there are panels occupied by small trefoil-headed recesses. 
The base of the large niche to the left of the door is ornamented with 
various figures in very high relief. The middle figure is a seated man ; 
and on each side of him there is a human-headed bird. Next to these 
are elephants, and beyond them are lions. In all the niches also the 
capitals of the pilasters are occupied by these same human-headed 
birds, which, though not so natural as the favorite ox-skulls of the 
Grecian metopes, are much more pleasing. 


XXV.—Porticos. 

1.—The different porticos have been fully described in the accounts 
of the various temples ; but there are some points of difference as well 
as of similarity that require a more particular mention. Of the former 
the most striking is the difference in height in proportion to that of 
the temples to which these porticos are attached. In that of Bhau- 
majo the portico is exactly of the same height as the temple itself. In 
the Payach example, as well as in the little temple on the Srinagar 
column, the porch reaches only to the centre of the pyramidal roof ; 
whilst in the Pandrethan temple it is highly probable that it did not 
reach higher than one third of the roof. 

2.—Another point of difference consists in the treatment of the 
pediment itself, which, in the Bhaumajo, Payach and Pandrethan speci- 

2U 2 


308 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


mens, is unbroken. In that of the little Srmagar column, and most 
probably also in that of Marttand, the pediment was divided into two 
distinct parts by horizontal returns of its mouldings, the same as in the 
pyramidal roofs of Payach and Pandrethan. 

3.—A third point of difference lies in the projection which is more 
or less bold in the several temples, apparently according to their rela- 
tive antiquity. Thus the portico of the ancient Bhaumajo is flush with 
the pilasters of the temple ; whilst in the modern examples of Pandre- 
than and of Pathan, the portico is advanced 2 feet and 3 feet respec- 
tively beyond the main pilasters. In the intermediate examples the 
projection varies from a few inches in the Payach and Marttand porticos 
to 14 foot in those of Avantipura. 


XXVI.— Wings. 

1.—In Sanskrit all side buildings are called paksha 7a, or “ wings,” 
and pakshdla Gate, or “side-temples.”” The small buildings attached 
to Marttand are the only examples of this kmd now existmg im Kash- 
mir. I cannot therefore presume to deduce any rules from a single 
specimen ; but I may be permitted to notice a few of its leading features. 
For instance, the exterior dimensions of the Marttand wings are made 
exactly the same as those of the principal interior chamber. Again, the 
width of the wing is equal to one half of that of the entrance end of the 
temple, and its length is equal to one half of that of the other. Some 
of these proportions can scarcely be accidental ; but nothing further can 
be deduced from them than that the dimensions of the wings would 
appear to have been about one half of those of the temples. 


XXVIT.—Gateways. 

1.—The gateways of the Hindus have different namés according to 
the class of buildings to which they are attached. Thus a royal gate is 
called dwira-harmmya SIC¥ei, or the “ palace-gate ;’— that ofa large 
public or private dwelling is named dwdra-shdla gI< wre, or “ hall-door ;” 
whilst that of a town is called gopura age. The last two are also 
applied to the gateways of temples, which are however more generally 
known as dwéra-mandapa 4IXawq, or “temple-gates.” According 
to the Sanskrit works quoted by Ram Raz, the Hindu architects divided 
the different kinds of gateways into five classes, each bearing a certain 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 309 


proportion in its width to that of the temple to which it was attached. 
This proportion increases gradually from six sevenths, the breadth of 
the most simple kind, to ten elevenths the breadth of the most mag- 
nificent. The several names are as follows : 


1.—Dwéra-sobha, the “beautiful gate’? — width oot 
2.—Dwéra-shdla, the “hall-gate,”’ DiktOyimisioat. «side =e 
3.—Dwédra-prasdda, the “ elegant-gate,’ ditto, .......... == 4. 
4.— Dwira-harmmya, the “ palace-gate,” ditto, .......... = %- 


5.—Gopura, the “ town-gate,”’ Citta,» dulerueed. vibd 


= 
~ 


If we might judge from the few examples that now remain, none of these 
Hindu classes would appear to have been known to the Kashmirian 
architects; or, if known, they were certaimly not followed. For the 
gateway of Marttand is exactly of the same width as that of the temple 
itself, while those of Avantipura are only equal to two thirds and to one 
third of that of their respective temples. The first is equal to the width 
of the temple itself; the second to that of its entrance porch ; while the 
third is only equal to that of its flight of steps. These different grada- 
tions would seem to point out that the Kashmirians possessed some 
tules relative to the widths of their gateways which were founded upon 
the sizes of the principal masses of the temples, and not upon any pro- 
portional parts of the temples themselves. 

2.—But these are the larger gateways that were constructed during the 
most flourishing period of Kashmirian architecture. The gates of older 
times were mere doorways in the enclosing walls. Such for instance is 
that of the temple of Jyeshteswara on the Takht-i-Suliman hill; and 
such also is that of the enclosing wall around the tomb of Zein-ul-ab- 
ud-din. (See Plate VIII.) This last however is a closed doorway ; the 
actual entrance being a gateway of larger dimensions, similar to those 
of Marttand and Avantipura. 

3.—The exterior ends of the gateway walls were divided into panels, 
each decorated with a miniature temple. These ends were in fact only 
square attached pillars with bases and capitals complete. The gateways 
were no doubt originally covered by pyramidal roofs and attached por- 
ticos ; and they were therefore exteriorly only smaller temples. 

4.—It was in their interior arrangement that the gateways differed 
from the temples, as they were open at both ends. Of the four existing 
gateways at Marttand, Avantipura, and Zein-ul-ab-ud-din’s tomb, three 


310 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [SEepr. 


of them have a transverse wall exactly in the centre of the building; 
while the fourth, that of Avantiswami, has this cross wall nearer to the 
outer end than to the inner one. Lach of these cross walls had a door- 
way in the centre, which must once have been closed by a wooden door. 
The gateways were thus divided into two open porches, of equal size, in 
the first three temples ; but differmg in the last, of which the outer 
apartment was only half of the size of the inner one. 

5.—The interior decorations of the gateways were also similar to 
those of the temples : as all the side walls of the four existing examples 
are ornamented with trefoil-headed niches covered by pediments. All 
of these must once have held statues or sculptures of some kind, ex- 
cepting only, those of the gateway leading to Zein-ul-ab-ud-din’s tomb. 
But these last were certainly never completed, as each of the niches 
is filled by a square mass of rough stone, which was no doubt destined 
by the architect to be carved into some divine form, or some mytho- 
logical group. 


XXVIITI.—Zneclosures. 


1.—Réni Didd4, the Messalina of Kashmirian history, is recorded* 
to have repaired the ruinous surrounding walls of some temples and to 
have erected new enclosures around others. Thus every Kashmirian 
temple would appear to have been surrounded by a wall of some kind, 
more or less decorated according to the magnificence of the enclosed 
shrine, and larger or smaller according to the means at command. 
There are however only three existing enclosures in the valley itself; 
namely, those of Marttand, Avantipura, and Zein-ul-4b-ud-din’s tomb, 
all of which have suffered considerably by the hands of the spoiler. 
But in my accounts of the temples themselves I have given grounds for 
supposing that those of Pathan and Pandrethén must once have pos- 
sessed enclosing walls of some kind ; and I have no doubt that a minute 
research would discover the traces or remains of a surrounding wall to 
the temple of Payach. Of the temples in the Bardhmula Pass beyond 
the valley, two still have their enclosures somewhat perfect. The third 
I have not seen ; and Vigne unfortunately does not notice this point. 

* Raja Tarangini, B. 6—v. 307. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 311 


2.—These enclosing walls were called prékdra 3T&TT, both in 
ancient and in modern times, and in India as well asin Kashmir. I 
have been unable to discover any rules for their dimensions that would 
appear to have been followed by the Kashmirian architects, owmg per- 
haps to the fewness of the examples which now exist. I have no doubt 
however that certain rules were observed, and that they were founded 
upon various multiples of some of the dimensions of the enclosed 
temples. Thus the Marttand quadrangle is 2203 feet long by 1423 
feet broad in the interior; the former dimension being exactly equal to 
3% times the length of the temple, and the latter beg 14 foot more 
than 4 times its breadth. With the Avantipura temples a similar 
practice may be traced. Thus the quadrangle of Avantiswdmi is 172 
feet long by 1464 feet broad, which dimensions are respectively 5 times 
and 47 times the width of the temple. Thus also the quadrangle of 
the Avanteswara temple is 191 feet long by 171 feet broad, or respec- 
tively 23 and 24 times that of the temple itself. 

3.—As the fractions of these last proportionals of the Avantipura 
temples are very small, it seems probable that some other rules must 
have been observed with them, but of what description it is difficult to 
conjecture. I have tried multiples ofthe diagonal lines of the ground- 
plans, which would seem to answer very well, as the results which they 
give are in large fractions. In the Avantiswdmi temple they are 34 
and 3 diagonals, and in the Avanteswara temple 1} and 13 diagonals. 
I do not however lay much stress upon these results, which after all 
perhaps owe more to chance than to design. 

4.—I say nothing regarding the dimensions of the octangular court 
which surrounds the temple of Jyeshteswara on the Takht-i-Suliman 
hill, because its small size was most probably imposed by its confined 
situation. The space on each side was however exactly equal to one 
fifth of the diameter of the temple. 

4.—The style of these surrounding walls has undergone even a 
greater change than that of the temples themselves, although the same 
predominating forms have been preserved throughout the different 
gradations, from the most simple to the most magnificent. The earliest 
of these enclosures is that of the temple of Jyeshteswara, which was 
most probably built about 220 B. C. In this example I think that I 
can trace the first germs of the Kashmirian style. The walls which 


312 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Serr, 


have triangular or pedimental tops are divided ito square panels, each 
containing a pomted arched recess. In the next example, which is that 
of the enclosure of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din’s tomb, the very same treatment 
is observed, but with some ornamental additions betokening a later date. 
Thus the poimted arches do not rest immediately upon the upright sides 
of the recesses; but are jomed to them by short horizontal returns ; 
while the most characteristic feature of the Kashmirian arch, the trefoil 
is here observed for the first time, in the recess immediately on each 
side of the entrance. The same trefoiled arch is also used in the door- 
way of this enclosure. In these early examples the lower arcs of 
the trefoil are of very small size, being only one fourth of that of the 
upper one. This wall has also the same triangular or pedimental top, 
but with the addition of two plain mouldings or annulets on each face. 
Its thickness is also considerably less than that of the other, although 
its height is somewhat greater. 

5.—Between the ancient simplicity of these enclosures, and the 
majestic colonnade of Marttand, the difference is very great indeed ; 
but so also is the interval between the dates of their erection, which is 
upwards of 900 years. During this long period there must have been 
a constant and yet gradual succession of improvements, which at last 
resulted in the production of one of the noblest enclosures in the known 
world. Amongst the earliest improvements were most probably the 
insertion of plain pilasters im the spaces between the panels, and the 
enlargement of the lower arcs of the trefoil to the same size as that of 
the upper one. Both of these are well shown in the Srinagar Frieze 
of Plate VIII. In this specimen, as well as in those of the Marttand 
friezes, are first observed the small triangular-headed recesses in conjunc- 
tion with the trefoil ; from which I conclude that the next improvement 
was the addition of the pediment over the head of the trefoil, and the 
consequent enlargement of the wall in all its parts. This increased size 
would naturally have led to the successive enlargement of the recesses until 
they had attained their present dimensions of distinct chambers. The 
next step in advance was perhaps the gradual disengagement of the 
pilasters from the walls until they became independent square pillars. 
After this the change to round columns was easy and natural; and the 
insertion of new pilasters in the old places, must have quickly followed 
upon the disengagement of the others. 


1848. ] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 313 


6.—Such I presume must have been the gradual improvements and 
additions that were successively introduced into the Kashmirian style 
of architecture until the simple enclosure of the old temple of Jyesh- 
teswara, was expanded into the magnificent peristyle of Marttand. 

7.—The pillars of all the colonnades now existing in Kashmir are 
similar in style and in general appearance, but somewhat different in 
their relative proportions, and in the mouldings of their bases and capi- 
tals. As these columns are, in my opinion, the noblest specimens of 
the Kashmfrian architecture, I will now examine them in minute detail, 
for the purpose of comparing them with some of the classical orders. 


XXIX.—Pillars. 


1.—There are several Sanskrit names for a pillar, but the most usual 
one is stambha ew, which is derived from stha @, “staying,” or 
“‘standing,”’ and is an exact equivalent to the Greek eruacs. As this 
name is still used throughout India for a pillar, I do not think it neces- 
sary to notice any of the numerous Hindi names which are of less 
common occurrence. ; 

2.—The Kashmirian pillars are of two kinds, round and square: 
and are distinguished from the numerous varieties of Hindu pillars 
generally by bemg always divided into the three distinct members of 
base, shaft and capital. The square pillars are used in all corner posi- 
tions where superior strength and solidity are required. to support the 
greater weight of those parts of the superstructure. In the only exist- 
ing examples at Marttand and Avantipura, their faces are panelled. 

3.—The round pillars are used throughout the colonnades, and for 
the support of porches of all kinds. They are always fluted, the num- 
ber of flutes beg 16, but sometimes 20, and even 24. These fluted 
pillars would seem to have been the favorite ornament of all the Kash- 
mirian buildings, both Hindu and Mahomedan, as they are found, more 
or less perfect, in every place of note throughout the valley. Some- 
times they are discovered lying by the road-side ; occasionally they are 
seen standing amidst the ruins of the temples which they once sur- 
rounded, but more generally they are found attached to the doorways 
of Mahomedan masjids and tombs. 

2x 


314 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr. 


4.—The relative proportions between the heights and breadths of 
the Kashmirian pillars are given in the following table : 


Lower Dr.| Height, | Multiple| Inter-|13 Inter- 
Inches. | inches. of Dr. | coln. |  coln. 


| | 


Marttand Gate 25.940 | 209.250 85 |138.00| 207.000 
do. Porch 24.430 | 155.500 3 102.57| 153.855 
do. Peristyle| 21.500 | 113.250 = 81.56} 122.340 

Avantipura Gate 24.430 | 233.235 96 - 


do. Porch | 20.750 | 171.375 Fo. (IA Qap Iiy Lace 
do. Peristyle| 17.875 | 122.750 $ 85.62] 128.430 
Pampor Pillar |e P1250 | 70-500 3 


Bhaumajo Pilaster | 10.375 66.250 62 44,250) 66.375 


The lowest multiple amongst these is that of the peristyle columns 
of Marttand, which is almost the same as the 54 diameters of the 
Doric columns of the Parthenon. In the Marttand and Avantipura 
examples the proportions increase rapidly, and not according to any 
rule that I can discover, although no doubt some rule must have been 
followed by the architects. I will hereafter show that the intercolum- 
niation is always two thirds of the height, and I think it very probable 
that the height was dependent upon the interval, which was itself 
dependent upon the number either of pillars or of recesses, that the 
architect had determined upon introducing on each side of the quad- 
rangle. 

5.—In the above table I have given a column of heights, calculated 
at 14 intercolumniation each, which correspond almost exactly with the 
measured heights. I have therefore but little doubt that the practical 
rule followed by the Kashmirian architects was to make the height of 
the pillar equal to one half more than the width of the interval. 


XXX.—Flutes. 
1.—All the peristyle columns of Marttand, Pampur and Avantipura 
have 16 flutes: the larger columns of the porches have 20 flutes; and 
the still larger ones of the gateways have 24 flutes. But the number 
of flutes did not always depend upon the size of the columns; for there 
is a fragment of a pillar standing near the tomb of Zein-ul-db-ud-din’s 
mother, which has 24 flutes and is only 1 foot in diameter. This how- 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 315 


ever is the sole exception to the general rule, that the number of flutes 
should increase with the diameter of the column, sixteen being the least 
number that is ever used. Thus the Pémpur pillar, which is 114 inches 
in diameter, those of the Marttand peristyle, which are 212 inches, and 
those of the Avantipura peristyle, which are 172 inches, have all sixteen 
flutes. Of the 20-sided pillars there is a fragment of one near Zein-ul- 
ab-ud-din’s tomb, which is only 193 inches in diameter ; while those of 
Marttand and of Avantipura are respectively 24} inches and 203 inches. 
Of the 24-sided pillars the Marttand and Avantipura examples are re- 
spectively 26 inches and 24} inches. 

2.—The flutes of the Kashmirian pillars are extremely shallow, none 
of them being more than from one quarter to three-eighths of an inch 
in depth. They must therefore, as nearly as [ can determine, have 
been formed by radii of the same length, as those of their respective 
pillars. In this, as well as in the number of their flutes, they assimilate 
more closely to the Doric column than to any other of the classical 


orders. 


XXXI.— Bases. 
1.—The base of acolumn is called Adhastambha WQaaw, or “ be- 
neath-pillar’” im Sanskrit, a name which is exactly equivalent to the 
Greek SrocrvAwv. The following table exhibits the relative heights and 
breadths of the different Kashmirian bases, side by side with the lower 


diameters of their respective pillars :— 


| 
Lower | Height. |Multiple | Width./Multiple 


Dr. of Dr. of Dr. 

Marttand Porch 24.43 29.75 1.21. | 31.50 1.28 
ditto Peristyle| 21.50 | 25.75 119. 26, 70 1.24 
Avantipura Peristyle! 17.87 | 28.00 VO7 | 27-00 ideas 
Pampur Pillar 11.25 18.00 1.60 | 15.00 1.33 
Bhaumajo Pilaster | 10.37 14.25 4 1.37 4 13.75 1.32 


According to the results shown above there would appear to have been 
‘no constant rule observed by the Kashmirian architects for determining 
either the heights or the breadths of the bases. The former range from 
1.2 to 1.6 diameter, and the latter from 1.25 to 1.5 diameter. In 

2x 2 


316 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Srpr. 


Marttand the relative proportions were exactly the same for both of the 
existing examples: namely, 14 diameter for the height, and 14 diame- 
ter for the width. 

2.—There are but five different specimens of the Kashmirian base, 
of which that of Avantipura is almost plan. (See Plate VI.) Those of 
Marttand and of Pampur agree generally m the character of their 
mouldings, which may be thus described. The upper member is an ovolo 
with astraight fillet above, and an apophygé below. The next is a 
filleted torus, with a fillet both above and below, and surmounting the 
straight face or neck of the pillar. In the large Marttand pillar the 
torus is plam. Beneath this is a quirked ovolo with a straight fillet 
above and below, and the last is the plinth. In all of these the upper 
and lower members are of the same height ; that is the ovolo and apo- 
phygé are equal to the plinth. 

3.—In figure 8 of Plate VI. there is another variety of base belonging 
to a broken pillar near the flight of steps leading from the river to the 
tomb of Zein-ul-b-ud-din’s mother. In this the central member or 
filleted torus is omitted, and a plain face is inserted between the ovolo 
and the plinth. There is no clue to its date: but whether it be of an 
earlier or of a later period than the other examples, it is by no means an 
improvement upon them. 


XXXIT.— Shafts. 
1.—The shaft is the portion of the pillar to which the name of 
stambha, or “stay,” more especially belongs. It is an exact equivalent 
of the Greek gzvaos. There would appear to have been no fixed and 
unalterable rule for the height of the shaft ; at least I can discover none. 
The various examples range from 375 to 475 diameters in height, the 
average being 3.88, or as nearly as possible 4 diameters. This indeed 
is the height of all the finest specimens of the porch pillars of Marttand, 
of the doorway pilasters of the perfect little temple of Bhaumajo, and of 

some well preserved columns in Nowa-shehra of Srinagar. 


XX XITI.— Capitals. 
1.—In Sanskrit the capital is called Adhistambha afar, or “ above- 
pillar,” which is precisely the same as the Greek emisrvawy.  Accord- 
ing to Vitruvius, the Doric capital was half a diameter in height, the 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 317 


Ionic capital three-fourths of a diamieter, and the Corinthian capital, the 
last improvement of the Greeks, one whole diameter. Now in all the 
examples that I have seen, excepting only that of Avantipura, the height 
of the capital is made equal to the upper diameter of the column. If 
this was not borrowed, the Kashmirian builders would seem to have 
decided upon the same proportion as the Greek architects for the height 
of a capital. For the Greek capitals were made in parts of the upper 
diameter, and not of the lower diameter. Thus the Parthenon Doric 
capital is exactly one half of the upper diameter in height. Such also 
are the Doric capitals of the Propylzea, of the temple of Theseus and of 
the old temple at Cormth. From the annular channel it is true that 
the height is one half of the lower diameter: but measured from the 
lowest annulet, the height is exactly one half of the upper diameter. 
And this was undoubtedly the capital of the pillar; for I believe that 
the annular channel was intended solely for the reception of a metal 
ring to prevent the splitting of the columns at top from the insertion of 
stone or metal fastenings for the purpose of holding the architraves. 
And yet these channels are slavishly copied now-a-days, and left empty. 
So also did the Chinese tailor copy the sailor’s jacket, patches and all. 

2.—In the Marttand examples the capital is divided into three nearly 
equal parts, of which the lowest consists of an astragal and an orna- 
mented echinos ; above which is the neck of the same width as the 
upper diameter of the column. Over thisis a fillet and a high apophygé 
surmounted by two fillets, and a second echinos, or quirked ovolo. In 
the square pillars the apophygé is made straight, most probably to 
assimilate it more closely to the straight-lined character of the columns. 
In the Avantipura example the same triple division is observable, but in 
unequal parts ; the upper portion being the least, the middle one some- 
what larger, and the lowest portion the greatest. 

3.—In the Pampur example the upper member is only one-fifth of 
the height, while the central and lower members are each two fifths. 
In this specimen the lower echinos, which has thus been enlarged, has 
a row of lotus leaves surmounting the egg ornaments, which are them- 
selves separated by rows of small beads. The central portion has also 
been altered ; for the epitrachelium, or adhikantha, is here divided into 
two portions, the upper one being, as in the other examples ; while the 


lower portion is made to swell out into a filleted moulding. In all these 


318 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Supt. 


examples the lower portion of the capital is round, and the upper por- 
tion, square, 

4.—Vitruvius says that the practical rule followed for obtaining the 
width of the Dorie capital was to make it one sixth more than one dia- 
meter. But the Doric capitals were only half a diameter in height, 
while the Kashmirian capitals are exactly one diameter. If therefore 
the same rule was followed by the Kashmirian architects, the excess 
over one diameter should be the double of one sixth, or one third of a 
diameter ; and such in fact is the case, as will be seen by an inspection 
of the fourth column of the following table. The theoretical rule re- 
garding the width ef the Cornithian capital, according to Vitruvius, was 
to make the length of the diagonal of the abacus equal to twice the 
height of the capital. This rule however will not apply to the other 
classical orders, nor to that of Kashmir. But there is another one which 
" gives results so nearly corresponding to those of the practical rule, that 
there can be no reasonable doubt that it was the theoretical rule fol- 
lowed by the architects of both countries, although I am not aware that 
it has hitherto been noticed by any author. This is to make the width 
of the capital equal to the hypothenuse or diagonal of the square of the 
upper diameter. In the fifth column of the annexed table I have given 
the different dimensions according to this calculation. On the whole, 
the results of the practical rule appear to agree better with the actual 
widths of the capitals than those of the theoretical one, although both 
of them correspond with the real dimensions within fractions of an inch, 
In Kashmir as well as in Greece, I should suppose that the architect 
made his calculations by the theoretical rule, while the mason worked 
by the practical one. In my opinion the coincidences are much too re- 


markable to have been accidental. 


———— 


Lower |Upper | Width of| Practice. | Theory 
Dr. Dr. | capital. | D+ 3 |Hyp.of dr 


Marttand Porch..| 24.430 | 22.910) 32.500 | 32.570 | 32.395 
Ditto —_—Peristyle} 21.500 | 20.600) 28.500 | 28.666 | 29.133 
Avantipura Peristyle| 17.875 | 16.875} 27.000 | 23.865 | 23.833 
Pampur Pillar...) 11.250 | 10.625} 14.250 | 15:000 | 15.026 
Srinagar Pillar..| 14.500 |14.250) 19.500 | 19.332 | 20.153 | 


OT 


1848. ] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 319 


XXXIV.—Diminution. 

1.—The rule laid down by Vitruvius, for diminishing the thickness 
of a pillar, is to make the upper diameter one sixth less than the lower 
one in a column of 15 feet in height, and one eighth less in a column of 
50 feet. According to Ram Raz, the practice of the Hindu architects* 
was to divide the lower diameter into as many parts as the number of 
diameters in the whole height of the column, and to diminish the thick- 
ness by one of those parts. 

2.—In the following table of comparison I have given the actual dimi- 
nutions of the Kashmirian pillars side by side with the calculated di- 
tninutions according to the Greek and Hindu rules. But as all the 
Kashmirian pillars are under 15 feet in height, I have taken the pro- 
portional parts of 4¢2 D, according to the different heights. Thus the 
Marttand porch pillar being 13 feet high, I have taken 73¢hs of 2 th 
D; and the peristyle pillars of Marttand being only 3 ths of 15 feet in 
height, I have taken that proportion of 22 D. for the diminution, and 
the same for the others, according to their relative heights. 


Calculated Dimn. 
Lower | Upper Actual 
Dr. 


Dr. Vitruvius.|Ram Raz. Diva: 


Marttand Porch..| 24.430 |22.910| 3.528 3.840 1.520 

Ditto Peristyle| 21.500 | 20.600) 2.583 4.096 0.900 
Avantipura Ditto, | 17.875 |16.875) 1.986 | 2.648 1.000 
Pampur Pilar} T2511 62Z51: 02750 1.760 0.625 
Srinagar Ditto, | 14.500 |14.250) 0.483 | —————|_ 0.250 


Both the Greek and Hindu rules would appear to be based upon the 
same principle, that the diminution should lessen as the height increased. 
But neither of these rules apply to the Kashmirian pillars, in which 
the diminution increased with the height. The practical rule would 
appear to have been, to lessen the thickness by one quarter of an inch 
for every cubit of height of shaft, and not of pillar. This is certainly 
the most simple as well as the most natural mode of diminution ; for 
as the shaft is the part that is diminished, the amount of diminution 
should be made dependent upon its height, and not upon the total 
height of the pillar. 


* Hindu Architecture, p. 38. 


320 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr, 


3.—The following table exhibits the diminutions of the Kashmirian 
pillars, along with the heights of the shafts, and the total heights of the 
columns. Beside these I have placed the scale of diminutions caleu- 
lated at one quarter of an inch per cubit of height of shaft. The 
remarkably close agreement of the numbers in this last column with 
the actual measured diminution, is, I think, a sufficient proof of the 
correctness of my deduced rule. The practical rule amongst the Kash- 
mirian architects was most probably to lessen the thickness of the shaft 
by one third part of a finger, or angula, (=¥% inch) for every cubit, or 
hasta, of its height. 


Total | Height | Actual | Calculated 
height. | of shaft.}| dimn. |diminution. 


ee SS 


5: | 0.250 | 0.239 


Srinagar Pillar. 4.14 eo 

Pampur Ditto. 5.114 3.6 0.625 0.586 
Avantipura Peristyle. ..| 10.22 6.54 1.000 1.072 
Marttand, | Ditto... ...:.) 9.0% Dey, 0.900 0.930 
Ditto Perch. 2S eV a 2S 8.72 1.520 1.44] 


XXXV.—Intercolumniations. 

1.—The distance between the pillars of the Kashmirian colonnades, 
measured at the base of the shaft, 1s never less than 4 diameters. After 
a careful examination of all the examples, I have been unable to discover 
any rule, founded upon multiples of the diameter, that is suitable to 
the Kashmirian order. But I have found what appears to me to have 
been the practical rule used for determining the distance between the 
columns, which is, to make the interval equal to two-thirds of the total 


height of the pillar. The following table shows the results of this rule, 


side by side with the measured intercolumniations :— 


Height. | 3 Height. | Measured 


Inches Intercols. 

Masttand pa Gate. fe .2). cee) 209.20 139.50 138.00 
Ditto Barony ot, 2 kd tule: Loo.o0 103.66 | 102.57 
Ditto Peristyle eo. 1 T1825 75.50 81.56 
AvantipunayePoreh: foes. os oie<t) oy N77 116.11 114.25 
Ditto Pemstylen st. cant. Gl22.70 81.83 85.62 


|Bhaumajo: (> Pilgpter......'... 66.25 44.07 44,25 


| 


_ 1848.] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 321 


I suspect however that the height was determined from the mterco- 
lumniation, and that the latter was altogether dependent upon the 
number of pillars, or of recesses, which the architect was obliged to 
introduce within the limits of each side of the quadrangle. 

2.—The Sanskrit name for an intercolumniation is antarastambha, 
Sactaay, or antarapdda, Watare, both of which are exactly equiva- 
lent to the Greek mecoorvAtoy,, or “ between-pillars.”’ 


XXXVI.—Pilasters. 

i.—Pilasters, or kudya-stambha, aera, ‘‘ wall-pillars’”’ as they are 
aptly called by the Hindus, are used in all the ancient buildings.of 
Kashmir. They have the same three divisions of base, shaft, and capi- 
tal, which distinguish the pillars of Kashmir from those of India 
generally. They have also the same proportions and the same mould- 
ings of base and capital, and differ only in the decorations of their shafts. 
The earliest examples in the cave temple of Bhaumajo, have a plain 
simple panel upon the shaft. Those of the Payach and Pandrethdn 
temples are quite plain, while those of the great temple of Marttand, 
Avantipura and Pathan are divided into several panels, each decorated 
with a miniature relievo of the Arian temple. 


XXXVII.—Isolated pillars. 
1.—Column at Srinagar. 

1.—On the outside of the Jama Masjid, in the city of Srinagar, there 
is a small isolated pillar, which has not to my knowledge been noticed 
by any former traveller. Its top is crowned by a nearly perfect little 
temple with a roof of four stories, which alone is sufficient to render it 
one of the most interesting remains of the Kashmirian architecture. 
The base is nearly all hidden beneath the ground; but it was most 
probably a plain cubic block like that of the Avantipura pillar. Its 
shaft has sixteen sides, and its capital is similar to those of Marttand, 
but somewhat plainer and more massive. The little temple which 
crowns its summit is invaluable for the illustration of the Kashmirian 
style of sacred edifice, as it offers the only existing specimen of a four- 
storied roof—and of porch-pediment divided into two distinct portions, 
of which the upper half overlaps the under one. The same style of 

Tay 


322 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Serr. 


pediment was undoubtedly used for the porches of Marttand, but only 
the lower portions of the horizontal mouldings are now remaining. 


2.—Pravareswara Symbol at Pdéndrethan. 

1.—The gigantic fragments which in plate VII. I have joined together 
into one lofty pillar, have attracted the notice of most European tra- 
vellers. The largest piece, marked No. 1, in my Plate, is thus described 
by Moorcroft*—‘* One large stone of a conical shape had the appear- 
ance of a lingam; but the peasants said it was a mark for the ball 
used in playing chaugdn, employed by a race of giants who formerly 
dwelt there.’ Vigne also calls it a lingam, which it undoubtedly is, as 
may be seen by a reference to Plate VII. This fragment is 163 feet in 
height, and 6 feet 10 inches in diameter ; the upper part being a sphe- 
roidal topped cylinder, and the lower portion a poligon of sixteen sides. 
There is also another large lingam 6 feet in height, but only 6 feet in 
diameter, and with no more than eight sides. I presume therefore that 
it was most probably not connected with the larger pillar. 

2.—The fragment marked No. 4, in my Plate, is by far the most 
interesting of these remains. Moorcroft, continuing his former account, 
thus describes it :—‘‘ Another was pointed out as the goal, but proved 
to be the upper part and capital of a huge polygonal pillar, the shaft 
of which was seven yards in circumference. Traces of figures on its 
upper part were distinctly perceptible.”’ Vignet calls it the ‘capital 
and five feet of the shaft of an enormous limestone pillar.”’ ‘The 
plinth,”’ he adds, “‘is much damaged, but enough is left to show that it 
was composed (at least I thought so) of four gigantic female busts.’’ The 
upper part is undoubtedly composed of four busts, or rather half-length 
figures, but they are most unequivocally males, and not females. The 
fragment is now lying upon its side on the top of a low flat spur which 
puts out into the plain, opposite the village of Lajan, between Pandre- 
than and Panthasok, and at rather less than half a mile from the Pan- 
drethan temple. A view of its situation is given, at the top of Plate 
VIL. where it is seen lying to the left of the restored pillar. This frag- 
ment is also a polygon of sixteen sides, with a diameter of 6 feet 10 
inches. Vignet states its thickness at “about 5 feet ;’? but the more 

* Travels, v. 2.—p. 241. 
t Kashmir, v. 2—p. 36. 


1848. ] Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. $25 


accurate Moorcroft makes the shaft “seven yards in circumference.” 
My diameter of 6 feet 10 mches gives a circular girth of seven yards 
and somewhat less than six inches. The true diameter may therefore 
perhaps be only 6 feet 9 inches, which would give a circumference 
of 7 yards and 23 inches; for Moorcroft’s measurement was the 
ageregate of the 16 sides, which would of course be somewhat less 
than the circumference of a circle of equal diameter. The difference 
between our measurements is therefore almost too small to be worth 
notice. 

3.—Moorcroft’s statement* that no other remains of sculpture were 
discoverable in the immediate vicinity of this large fragment, shows 
that he did not, on that occasion, make use of the same active research 
as was his wont. For by cutting away the bushes behind the upper 
part of the stone, I found two different portions of the heads of these 
gigantic busts, of which unfortunately the more perfect one fell to pieces 
in turning it over. The other fragment is that which I have inserted 
as No. 3 of Plate VII. in the restored sketch of the pillar. The mouth 
is ten inches long. The portion marked No. 2 in my sketch is conjec- 
turally supplied from a large head which I found amongst the ruins of 
Avantipura. As the treatment of the hair is similar to that observed 
with the human-headed birds in all the temples of Kashmir, it is pro- 
bable that my proposed restoration preserves the general style, although 
perhaps not the actual details of the original. 

4.—The upper portion or great lingam No. 1, is situated at a few 
hundred yards from the last, on the side of the sloping bank ; and on the 
plain below is the fragment marked No. 5 in my Plate. This is called 
baror, or the “ cat,”’ by the Kashmirians, from some fancied resemblance 
to that animal. Vignet calls it a “large block on which are rudely 
sculptured the knees and legs of a gigantic sitting figure.’ The knees 
are certainly not visible now, and I fancy that Vigne must have been 
mistaken in his supposition about them. 

5.—In restoring the different portions of this pillar to what would 
appear to have been their original positions, I have been guided chiefly by 
the identity in the dimensions and in the number of the polygonal faces 
of the two principal fragments, and partly by the near positions which 

* Travels, v. 2—p. 241. 
Tt Kashmir, vol. 2, p. 36. 


324 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Serr 


the different pieces now occupy with regard to each other. Vigne calls the 
distance from the principal fragment No. 4, to the base piece No. 5, about 
‘“‘halfa mile.’ But he is certamly wrong ; for the whole distance between 
the hill upon which No. 4 fragment is lying, and the Pandrethan temple, 
is somewhat less than 700 yards, and the base piece No. 5 stands about 
half way between them. 

6.—My belief is that the pillar originally stood inits present position 
as shown in the view in Plate VII.; and that it was cut out of the solid 
rock by the quarrying away of the hill on all sides. The total height 
must have been fully 36 feet ; for I have not added a single piece to the 
remaining fragments, excepting only the necessary restoration of the 
upper parts of the heads. The style of long-plaited tresses appears to 
be similar to that which was usually given by the Greeks to their caryatid 
figures ; a specimen of which from Athens is shown in Plate VII. 

7.—Vigne* has hazarded a conjecture that the large fragment No. 4 
is the capital of a great Garuda pillar, which was erected at Parihasa- 
pura; and that it was removed to its present position perhaps by Sankara 
Varmma. But asit has already been shown that the largest stones 
which the Kashmirian architects were in the habit of using in the tem- 
ples do not weigh more than 17 tons, it is scarcely possible that this 
vast fragment, which contains 375 cubic feet and weighs upwards of 
28 tons, would have been selected for removal from Parihasapura to 
Pandrethan, a distance of 20 miles. I have already stated my belief 
that this gigantic lingam was cut out of the solid rock in the very spot 
where it now lies prostrate. Vigne mentions the “ flat surface’ which 
has been cut in the rock close to it; but he does not notice the exis 
tence of a large rough square plinth upwards of seven feet across, which 
is also hewn out of the solid rock in the middle of this platform, and 
on which I believe that the pillar formerly stood. 

8.—If I am correct in my restoration of these various fragments into 
one gigantic lingam, the period of its erection is, I think, ascertained 
beyond all doubt in the following verse of the Raja Tarangini, B. 3— 
We OO 

| aaa faure: ys vaca | 
que yorufasta afar fafa aera 
which is thus rendered by Troyer : 
* Kashmir, vol. 2, p. 37. 


1848. | Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. 325 


“* Aprés avoir erigé un symbole dedi¢ a la divinité supréme, joint 4 un 
cercle mystique, il consacra plusieurs-sanctuaires dans Vancienne ca- 
pitale.”’ 

In this version the words “la divinité supréme”’ are a translation of 
Pravareswara, which was the name of the Saiva symbol erected by king 
Pravareswara ; and the words “ l’ancienne capitale,”’ are a translation of 
Puranadhishténa, which is now called Pandrethan. The consecration 
of a famous lingam at Pandrethan is therefore clearly attributed to this 
Prince, and as it is the only one mentioned throughout the history, there 
is every probability that the gigantic Priapian fragments now existing are 
the remains of the Pravareswara symbol. This Prince reigned from 
A. D. 400 to 415. His pillar is therefore the oldest authenticated 
column in Kashmir. 


XXXVIITI.—Coneluding Remarks. 


1.—I have now given a complete description of all the existing tem- 
ples of Kashmir, with a detailed account of the different parts and 
various mouldings of which these edifices are composed. I will there- 
fore close this long notice with a few general remarks upon the Kash- 
mirian style of architecture, to which I have ventured to give the name 
of the ARIAN ORDER. Even at first sight, one is immediately struck 
by the strong resemblance which the Kashmirian colonnades bear to 
the classical peristyles of Greece. This first impression is undoubtedly 
due to the distinct division of the pillars into the three members—base, 
shaft, and capital, as well as to the fluting of the shafts. On further 
inspection the first impression is confirmed by the recognition that some 
of the principal mouldings are also peculiar to the Grecian orders, but 
more especially to the Doric. Thus the echinos, which is the leading 
feature of the Kashmirian capital, is also the chief member of the 
Doric capital. A still closer examination reveals the fact that the width 
of the capital is subject exactly to the same rules as that of all the 
classical orders excepting the Corinthian. 

2.—Even the temples themselves, with their porches and pediments, 
remind one more of Greece than of India; and it is difficult to believe 
that a style of architecture which differs so much from all Indian 
examples, and which has so much in common with those of Greece, 
could have been indebted to chance alone for this striking resemblance. 


326 Essay on the Arian Order of Architecture. [Sepr, 


Professor Willis admits the probability that the Kashmirian pediments 
may have been borrowed from those of the Syrian Greeks, and he 
founds his opinion upon the fact that the trefoiled arch of the Kash- 
mirian temple rises high into the tympanum of the pediment ; a practice 
which was not introduced into the classical architecture until after the 
commencement of the Christian era. But the Professor had not I 
believe, seen any examples of the older Kashmirian buildings, such as the 
enclosing walls of the temple on the Takht-i-Suliman and of the tomb 
of Zein-ul-4b-ud-din, as well as the perfect little cave temple of Bhau- 
majo. Of these specimens the first dates as early as 220 B. C. at 
which time the Kabul valley, and even the western Punjab, was occu- 
pied by the Bactrian Greeks under Euthydemus and his son Demetrius. 
If therefore it is admitted that the Kashmirian architects have been in- 
debted to those of Greece for their pediments, for their fluted columns, 
or even for any of their minor details, I think that they must certainly 
have borrowed them from the temples of their immediate neighbours the 
Bactrian Greeks, and not from the buildings of the distant Syrian Greeks. 
I think also that had these pediments been imitated from the later 
Romanized examples, the copyists would scarcely have overlooked the 
structural arches which occupy their pediments. In fact the forms of 
the principal Kashmirian mouldings, which are all guirked ovolos, or 
echini, could only have been borrowed from the pure Greek style of an 
earlier period than the Roman innovation of circular segmental 
mouldings. 
3.—Another striking resemblance between the Kashmirian architec- 
ture and that of the various Grecian orders is its stereotyped style, which 
during the long flourishing period of several centuries remained unchang- 
ed. In this respect it 1s so widely different from the ever-varying forms 
and plastic vagaries of the Hindu architecture that it is impossible to 
conceive their evolution from a common origin. I feel convinced my- 
self that several of the Kashmirian forms and many of the details, were 
borrowed from the temples of the Kabulian Greeks, while the arrange- 
ment of the interior and the relative proportions of the different parts 
were of Hindu origin. Such in fact must necessarily have been the 
case with imitations by Indian workmen, which would naturally have 
been engrafted upon the indigenous architecture. The general arrange- 
ment would therefore still remain Indian, while many of the details, 
and even some of the larger forms might be of foreign origin. 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan. 327 


4.—As a whole I think that the Kashmirian architecture, with its 
noble fluted pillars, its vast colonnades, its lofty pediments, and its ele- 
gant trefoiled arches, is fully entitled to be classed as a distinct style. 
I have therefore ventured to call it the “ ARIAN ORDER,’ a name to 
which it has a double right; firstly, because it was the style of the 
Aryas or Arians of Kashmir ; and secondly, because its intercolumnia- 
tions are always of four diameters, an interval which the Greeks called 
Araiostyle. 


PALL LLLLPLPLLPLLPLLIPIOOOOOnw” 


Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan (Rékas Tal), Cho Mapan (Ma- 
nasardwar), and the valley of Pruang in Gnari, Hundeés, in Septem- 
ber and October 1846. By Henry Stracuey, Lieut. 66th Regt. 
Bengal N. I. 

(Concluded from page 182.) 

10th October.—Parties of Hunias, mostly Khampa, frequent Bydns 
at this time of the year, for the usual traffic, bringing sheep with salt 
and borax to be exchanged for grain. One of these, now encamped at 
Garbia, inform me that they are Khampa, natives of ‘‘ Chang,” i. e. 
the province of which Digarcha is the capital ; Kham proper, the origi- 
nal seat of their tribe, is a long way off, between U, i. e. the province of 
which Lhassa is the capital, and Gyanak, 1. e. China, and they know little 
or nothing about that country, as their families have been long since 
settled in the vicinity of Digarcha, and their trading excursions have 
always been in this direction, away from Kham. 

Immediately east of the mountains which bound that side of Cho- 
Mapan near the Sdmo-tokchim Tarjum, in the district of Hor Tol, rises 
a stream, Chima-Yungdung, so named from the profusion of the sand, 
» “ Chima,” which covers the ground about, probably the same granitic 
debris that spreads for miles around the base of Momonangli. This 
river flows eastward past Digarcha and Lhassa, and informants recog- 
nize the name of “‘ Brahmapitra,” as applied to it by the Hindus of 
Nipal ; or pretend to do so, for I am not sure that the Nipalese do iden- 
tify the river as the Brahmapiitra. 

The Gangri range of mountains subsides at Tankcham-Tarjum, the 
next east from Sdmo-tokchim. Wor Tolis Jang-tang, i. e., untilled 
pasture ground, and belongs to the province of Gnari, subject to the 


328 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan. [Sepr. 


Garpun of Gartokh: the people of that ilk have the reputation of being 
great thieves ; their head-man is ‘“‘ Goba Lobjang.” 

Beyond Hor Tol, eastward, lies the district of Tosher, by some _ pro- 
nounced Doshel, also Jang-tang ; it is subject to the Zungpun of Sdku 
Zing, or Saka, which is the centre of the province next east of Gnari ; 
how far from the Nipal frontier uncertain. 

Bhotias brought me the skin of a Barji, the brown bear, which Trail 
has improperly called ‘‘ Tawny :” the color is not tawny, i. e. tenny, 
which implies a tendency to yellow, but a fair umber brown: some 
people have an idea that this beast is white or turns white in winter, 
which the Bhotias assured me is never the case. Maximum thermo- 
meter in sun 92°; in shade at sunset 46°. 

11th October.—Hoar frost at sunrise ; thermometer 320; maximum 
in sun during the day 82°; at 4 vp. m. 50°, boiled at 194°; elevation 
of Garbia 10,272 feet, 

The barley here is now under the sickle, but much of it seems still im- 
perfectly ripe, and I doubt whether all of it ever can ripen properly, 
the due quantum of sunshine being so much curtailed by the high sur- 
rounding mountains at all times, and throughout summer by the con- 
stant clouds. The gooseberries appear to be in the same predicament ; 
no great loss, for they are utterly worthless. 

I must mention, once for all, a strong south wind prevails here, 
and which is of universal occurrence in all the Alpine valleys of the 
Himalaya, penetrating also to the north side of the snowy ranges, 
where there is an opening through the chain of mountain, as I observ- 
ed it in the valley of Pruang, and other travellers have noticed the 
same in Kunawar. 

In Jwar the village of Martoli is notorious among the Bhotias for its 
** Pon,”’* being from its elevated site towards the bottom of the valley - 
particularly exposed to the current of air from the lower regions. This 
wind appears to be the end of the great westerly current which prevails 
over the continent of northern India, and here impingning on the south- 
western face of the Himalaya, enters all the valleys that debouch in 
that direction. It here follows the universal custom of rising at mid- 
day and attaining its greatest intensity in the afternoon. ‘They say that 
this Bhotia ‘‘ Pon” reverses its direction, blowing down the valleys at 


* “ Wind,” 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 329 


night ; I was always too fast locked in sleep to attest this fact myself, 
but I hed it from the best Bhotia authority, Hirdu Budha, Thokdar of 
Chaudans. 

It is also observable that immediately over all the principal moun- 
tain-torrents, a very strong wind blows in the direction of the current, 
and in strength proportioned to the volume and rapidity of the stream ; 
this I take to be a mere mechanical action of the moving water by which 
it drags along with it the superjacent stream of air in contact with its 
surface. On my way up here in the beginning of September, when dis- 
tressed with the great heat of the lower vallies, I often experienced 
much relief, by sitting on the banks of the streams or on the bridges, 
in these cooling currents of air. 

Budhi, 12th October—Maximum Thermometer in sun during the 
afternoon 104°; at 21 p.m.in shade 62°, boiled at 197°; elevation 
8600 feet ; the village is 150 feet higher, i. e. 8,759 feet ; Thermometer 
at sunset 52°. 

Another party of Khampa Hunias, one of them a decent-looking 
man, rather intelligent and understanding a few words of Hindustani, 
gave me the following information. 

Four rivers rise from Gangri, according to Tibetan mythology, from 
the mountain itself or the lakes; in geographical fact (which informant 
properly distinguished from the legend) from their vicinity nearer or 
further, they are, 

Ist. (The Indus); Sing-Chin (or Jing) Kamba (or Kampa) on 
the northward, fabled to spring from the mouth of the Lion, (Sing ?) 

2nd. Lang-Chin Kamba on the westward (the Satrudra or 
Sutluj) from the mouth of the Ox (Lang.) 

3rd. Onthe southward Mapchu Kamba (the Karnali) from the 
Peacock (Mapchu.) 

4th. The Brahmaputra, to the eastward, Tamjyak Kamba, from 
the Horse (Tam? or Tamjyak 2) 

In his exploration of the Sutluj in 1819, Herbert obtained the same 
names for these four rivers, allowing for differences of corrupt pronun- 
ciation by illiterate informants, (Asiatic Researches, 1825, Vol. XV. 
Art. VI.) 

Chima Yungdung is the local name of the sandy ground in which the 
last river rises: it is said to originate in springs. East of its source in 

22 


330 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, §c. [Sepr. 


Hor-Tal, this river takes the name of Hru-Zhungbu, or as Turner 
has it, Erl dwomboo, by which it is known at Zhigatze and Lhassa. 
In Hor-Tal, somewhat this side (i. e. west) of the Tankcham, 
Tarjum, which is the next east of Samoo Takchin, there is a third 
lake, the Gungyut. Cho, similar to Lagam and Mapan, but smaller, 

The Tarjum, next east of Tanksham, is Tukshum, in the district of 
Toshel. 

Hor-Tal is the most eastern district of the Gartokh Ilika, and 
Toshel the most western of the next province, (name unknown) under 
the Zungpun of Saka, (or Saku-Zung.) The boundary between 
the two provinces is the La of Maryum, i. e. a hill ridge over a 
village of the latter name. The country to the west of this is called 
Todh Gnari Lungba, i. e. the province of Upper (or further) Gnari, 
or simply Gnari, It once formed the easternmost province of the 
dominions of Ladak, a circumstance which gave a pretence for the 
claim and invasion of the Sikhs under Zorawar Singh, after their con- 
quest of Ladak proper. 

The Gangri mountains subside about Maryum La; probably the La 
itself is a terminating spur of the Gangri range; beyond that, eastward, 
extends table-land with smaller, more irregular and detached hills, all 
the way to Lhassa, and as far as informant knows to the northward. 

East of Maryum La, the general name of the country to Lhassa 
inclusive is Bod, (Unde, Indian name Bhote ?) but it is doubtful to me 
whether this does not comprise the whole of what we call Tibet, in- 
cluding Ladak and Balti on the north-west, and perhaps Kham on the 
north-east. . 

Jung Gaéldéng Phropang, (i.e. realm of the Emperor’s sway, or 
something of the sort,) appears to be rather an extraneous political 
designation, than a native proper name indigenous to the land and its 
people, and if the term was rightly explained to me it looks like a 
recent introduction by the Chinese since the growth of their power in 
that quarter. 

The Hunias know China proper by no other name than Gyanak, and 
the Chinese are, Gyami. Guinak, the capital of Chinese Tartary, is in 
fact a city of Nibelungen, built by Moorcroft. Peking is Tashi-tikur, 
i. e. the city of ten thousands. 

The above may explain the information got by Herbert from the 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, §e. 33) 


Sayana of Namja in Hangarang, that the country beyond Shipki is 
called by the Kanawaris Jang, by the Tartars Galdang Paprang ; 
beyond it is Kamling (i. e. Kham?) and Gehna (i. e. Gyanak ?) 

The term Jang-Tang merely denotes uncultivated pastoral high 
lands in contradistinction to Rung-Tang, which signifies low lands, 
with villages and agriculture; thus the people of Ladak call the dis- 
trict of Rudukh on their eastern border, Jang-Tang, as being more 
bleak and unreclaimed than their own sheltered and less elevated 
vallies: hence also the appellation of Rungba, by which the Hunias 
designate all the Bhotias from the south-side of the Himilaya. The 
remains of an old boundary wall at Chirchun (which the Jwaris stu- 
pidly omitted to show me, when I was there in June last), are called 
Jang-tang, Rung-tang ; the wall was raised, according to tradition, to 
mark the frontier between Hundes and Khasdes, or some fraction of 
it, for parts of those countries, and absurdly enough at this point, the 
boundary being defined beyond all miste’.. by the natural barrier of 
the snowy range, which here separates the northward and southward 
rivers by a single mountain ridge ; a better debateable land might have 
been founda few miles to the westward at Laptel, where the river, 
though rising on the north of the double snowy range of Jwar, ina 
valley easily accessible to Hundes, turas southward again into the Girthi 
valley south of the Niti passes. 

The southern part of Gnari is called Gugi, (or Gokey,) which in- 
cludes the valley of the Sutlej, perhaps all the way from Kyunglung, 
and the plain of Gyanima to the Shipki frontier. 

On the north side of the Gangri mountains is a valley hight, Bong, 
or Bongbwa, Tal, Jang-tang, inhabited by shepherds, and salt carriers. 
North (and east ?) of that are the salt and Borax fields, and north 
(east?) of them the Gold mines, which appear to be the Ultima Thule 
of Gnari. 

Pashm (Shawl Wool), is produced abundantly in the eastern pro- 
vinces of Bod as far as Lhassa, though not equal perhaps in quantity 
or quality to that of Gnari. The people of U-Chang, (i. e. the provinces 
about Lhassa and Digharcha) are so ignorant and unskilful, that they 
use up their Pashm along with the wool, even for the basest purposes, 
such as making ropes, &c. The superior quality of the Ruddukh 
Pashm arises not only from the coldness of the climate there, but also 

22z4 2 


332 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Szepr. 


from the skill of the Ruddukh-pa, in combing it out without shearing 
the fleece ; in Gugi and Pruang, where this article forms a small, and 
that illict, fraction of their trade, the people are content to shear it 
along with the hair, from which it is afterwards picked with much 
trouble. Of late a few Bisehir people have been taking a little Pashm, 
(twenty or thirty cooly loads yearly) through Pruang by Humla and 
Jumla to Bairaj, i. e. Baraich, in north-eastern Oude (formerly a flour- 
ishing town and mart of importance), whence merchants buy and take 
it to Lucknow, and it is there disposed of to one or two Cashmiri Shawl 
weavers, who have lately settled in the city. 

Informant thinks that if there were any steady and remunerative 
demand for the Pashm in Kumaon and, Gurwal, it would not fail to 
find its way across the frontier, notwithstanding the Ladak monopoly ; 
for the Lhassan authorities in Gnari, are not incorruptible (except in 
matters of foreign intercourse), and have no other agency for effecting 
the prohibition than the people themselves, who are interested in evad- 
ing it, most of them having flocks which produce the shawl wool, but 
no manufacture that can render it worth keeping in their own hands. 
Moorcroft in 1812, found the Garpan themselves ready to dabble in 
the contraband traffic, and they are known to do the same to this day. 

The Nipalese have little intercourse with Gnari: being ignorant of 
shawl manfactures, they have no demand for the staple product, Pashm, 
and for every thing else, they have as good and better markets on their 
own frontier, and especially in U-Chang, to the eastward. <A few of 
the Gorkhas visit Gangri on pilgrimage, but they seem to be prohibit- 
ed from mercantile traffic with Gartokh. Of the western districts (as 
already mentioned), Déng and Marma have a small trade with Pruang 
through Bydns, and Bazinjia by Dhuli. 

The Gorkhas pay tribute to China, their Vakil taking it all, or part 
of the way to Peking, probably to Lhassa only, every third year; the 
payment is nominal, being usually equalled or exceeded by the value of 
presents given in return by the Chinese to Nipal; but it is doubtless 
still understood as an acknowledgment of the imperial supremacy. 

The Humla pass, following the opening made through the snowy 
range by the valley of the Karnali, is very much easier than any of 
the other routes, in the British Himalayan frontier at least, though in 
the middle of winter, the higher parts of this road are of course dif- 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 333 


ficult and even dangerous. The people of Humla and Jumla are said 
to be such a lawless set, and so little restrained by the weak Govern- 
ment of the Gorkhas, that traders would have no great security by this 
route, even if the opening into Pruang were not barred, as now by the 
Chinese system of Lhassa. 

After this the Khampa treated me to one of their complimentary 
chorusses ; the whole party of them, half a dozen men and women, 
joining hands in a semicircle, sang together, if such an unmusical noise 
could be called singing, keeping time with a most uncouth swinging and 
swaying motion,—as good dancing as their song was music. On the 
British side of the snow, this performance is generally expected to ter- 
minate in bakhshish, and my Khampa would not stop till I silenced 
them with my silver. 

Budhi, 14th October.—Thermometer at sunrise 42°. The air filled 
with what appeared to be the larvee of Locusts? or the Lame, as they 
might as well be called; they seemed to be the same sort of animals, 
whose skeletons I saw on the top of the Gori Glacier in Jwar last June. 
Thermometer at sunset 54°. 

Golam La, 15th October.—A very stiff march; 63% miles on the 
map, occupying 7% hours. Having started with all my people rather 
late, i.e. at 7}, a. M. I got my breakfast at Golam La by 4 p. mM. 
The road from La-mare to this is very precipitous, in steep and nar- 
row steps, the greater part of the way, and yet I got over the worst 
places in a Dandi* (being lamed by tight shoes). The Bhotias were 
very clumsy at this work, being quite unaccustomed to it, but managed 
to tumble along somehow by dint of main strength; and as for ease to 
myself it was merely a transfer of exertion from legs to arms to keep 
my seat under the violent tilting to which the Dandi was subjected. 

This road would be utterly unfit for riding on; indeed it would be 
bad for a led horse. 

As well as I can make out, Za in the Bhotia language signifies a 
large rock, and these two places, La-mare and Golam-la, derive their 
names from the great boulders lying upon the encamping grounds. 
Thermometer at sunset 60°. ! 

16th October.—Golam-la. Thermometer at sunrise 50° ; at 7 A. M. 
52° ; boiled at 198°; elevation 8000 feet ; the confluence of the Na- 
janggarh with the Kali is some 15000 feet below. 

* A hill litter. 


334 Narrative of a Journey o Cho Lagan, &e. (Serr. 


I found the march from Golam-la to Gala easier than yesterday’s 
journey ; though in steep steps a good part of the way; one main 
ascent and descent across Nirpaniah, is less troublesome than the suc- 
cession of rugged ups and downs, between Budhi and Golam-la; this 
stage too is better shaded than the other, an advantage even at this 
season, the mid-day sun being still too hot. 

We met a smiling rosy-faced Tinker on the top of Nirpaniah, who 
gave me a drink of water, and informed me that his pass is not so easy 
as Lipu Lekh, and the snow on it more troublesome, because his village 
has but 5 or 6 Man (families) whose small traffic is insufficient to 
make a good beaten path, Gala; comfortable quarters again in the cot- 
tages which afforded us so opportune a retreat in the three days’ deluge 
of 18th to 20th September. Thermometer at 44 p. m. 62°, boiled at 
199°; elevation 7500 feet; the Kali hidden by the steepness of the 
ravine, is perhaps 1500 feet below. 

Thermometer at sunset 66°; the sudden rise of temperature caused, 
I believe, by clouds which gathered in the evening. 

17th October.—Gala.—Thermometer at sunrise 49°; marched to 
Titil Sosa, so Hirdu Budha names the encamping ground between his 
two villages. Thermometer at 44 p. m. 62°; boiled at 198°; eleva- 
tion 8000 feet; Thermometer at sunset 57°. 

18th October.—Titil Sosa.—Thermometer at sunrise 50°: marched 
to Kela. Darma Bhotias inform me that they call their river the 
Darma Yankti; others say the Gori, which is also the name of the 
Jwar river. The names Kali and Gori are derived from the peculiar 
color of the water of those rivers at their sources. The Khasias of 
Kela call the Darma river Dhauli, as down on the map; and Patwari 
Doorga Dutt thinks that this name is supported by the authority of the 
Purana, which treat of these localities. Nyne Dhura, the eastern pass 
of Darma, is a little stiffer than Lankpya (of western Bydéns). The 
Glacier lies on the north side of it towards Hundes. The one man 
and some 100 laden sheep were lost this year, not on the Glacier, but 
by an avalanche which overwhelmed them at night in their encampment 
at Dawa, the Dakhna of the pass ; this side, Kach, the western pass of 
Darma, has Glaciers on both sides : some say it is dangerous and not 
frequented. Lebun Dhura, from Darma into N. western Byans, still 


frequented, is steepish and snowy; but not so high as Lankpya; the 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. 335 


18,942 feet of the map is undoubtedly a mistake, perhaps for 16,942. 
The pass into Ralam of eastern Jwar by the Phula Yankti between 
Sibu and Marcha of Darma, is difficult or dangerous and rarely tra- 
versed. alam is a colony from Darma and the alliance is still main- 
tained between the two (by intermarriage, &c.), the Bhotias of Ra- 
lam holding little intercourse with the rest of the Jwaris. Gyuc-Dhura, 
from Sela of Darma, to Kunti of Byans, by the Pechko-Gankti, is 
difficult but still traversed ; this year, one crossing the pass found the 
bracelets and other remains of a Darma woman who eloped this way 
some years ago and perished in the snow along with her abductor. 
The Sobhula and Balch route into Munshari (traversed by Commis- 
sioner Trail) is always easily passable in summer; it can hardly be 
called an inter-Himdalayan pass, being below the south end of the 
Panch-Chula snowy range, and probably not much higher than Chipula, 
13,500 feet, to which the Balch ridge adjoins on the south. Nota 
single head of cattle, informants aver, is left in Daérma except one or 
two of this season’s importation from Hundes, and many of the sheep 
and goats have died of the same murrain: the village lands have been 
thrown out of cultivation for want of cattle to plough. 

Kela is renowned for the excellence of its ghee, to which I can my- 
self bear testimony, having swallowed a quantity of it im Bhauna’s tea 
when we were in Hundes. 

Thermometer at 43 Pp. m. 72°, boiled at 204°; elevation 4750 feet : 
the confluence of Dhauli (alias Gori, alias Darma Yankti), and Kali, 
about 1000 feet below; Thermometer at sunset 69°. 

19th October.—Kela.—Thermometer at sunrise 58°. Patwari Dur- 
ga-dutt takes his leave; he is an excellent sort of person, deserving of 
more Parwasti, than he has hitherto obtained. 

March to Relagarh.—Thermometer at 44 Pp. m. 78°, boiled at 
205° ; Kali 300 feet below. Thermometer at sunset 68°: elevation of 
confluence of the Relagarh with Kali river, trigonometrically (?) by 
Webb, 3794 feet. 

20th October.—Relagarh. 'Thermometer at sunrise 57°; marched 
to Dharchula. Thermometer at 5 p.m. 69°, boiled at 207°; elevation 
2750 feet; Kali 150 feet below ; Thermometer at sunset 67°. 

21st October.—Relagarh. Thermometer at sunrise 56° ; heavy dew; 
march to Balwakot, very picturesque scenery all the way, through wild 


336 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Sepr. 


forest, along the course of the river, and climate now pleasant ; Ther- 
mometer at 5 p. M. 67°, boiled at 208°; elevation 2250 feet; Kali 
close below ; Thermometer at sunset 56°. 

Here I found the dirty Jogi, whom I had met at Askot on the 10th 
September ; he grinned foolishly when I had told him what I had seen of 
Kailas and Manasarowar, and then propounded his own ideas about the 
lake and mountain, which were silly and superstitious. 

22d October.—Balwakot. Thermometer at sunrise 53° ; heavy dew. 

Bhauna (with Anand) made his appearance this morning. From 
his delay I had apprehended that something had gone wrong with him 
at Takla-khar, with reference to our illicit visit to Hundes; but hap- 
pily nothing of the sort occurred, his stay in Pruang being protracted 
for his own pleasure, and some delay in collecting the money due to him 
(from Deba Chakwa and others) on former transactions. Chakwa 
himself is in Lhassa now, but has an agent still resident in Takla-khar. 
Bhauna met the usual cordial reception from his old Mitr, and Aradh, 
(trading-correspondent) Angdah the Tidya Makhpan, which was the 
more good-natured as the Makhpan forthwith taxed Bhauna with his 
contraband introduction of the Feling, and seemed well assured of the 
fact, though stoutly denied by the offender. I suppose that his informa- 
tion must have come from some of the Hunias at Ningri, whom I had 
there allowed to stare at me without let, and these doubtless passed the 
report on to Tidya; subsequent notice from the Ding on the north of 
Toiyon, where we were encamped on the afternoon of the 7th instant, 
might have shown that we had come from the northward, and passed 
through the middle of Pruang by night, Bhauna indeed finding the 
ground safe, sufficiently owned the impeachment by propounding 
excuses for the act in question, on the score of his necessary subjec- 
tion to the orders of his English Masters. The Makhpan observed, 
that as we had not been openly caught in the fact nothing further need 
be said about it; indeed as we had succeeded in effecting our passage 
through his district, his own interest required absolute silence on the 
subject, for if known to the Lhassan Governors their resentment would 
attribute our success to the Makhpan’s negligence or connivance ; 
and in their barbarous code, the admission of the meanest stranger into 
the country, is high treason. If it were not for this fear of his tyran- 
nical masters, old Angdah said that he would be most happy to give a 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, §e. 337 


welcome reception to any one, black or white, introduced by his friend 
Bhauna ; and this I know is the feeling of many of the respectable 
natives of Gnari. At the time of our visit Pruang Zungpan was for- 
tunately away from Takla-khar, attending on the Garpun, or Ship-chet, 
or Garpun, lately arrived from Lhassa, and then encamped at Barka: 
and this explains the report we had from the shepherds of Chujia Tal 
on the 2nd instant. I have not been able to ascertain precisely, who 
these dignitaries from Lhassa were: according to Bhauna, (who is by 
no means accurate,) there was a Garpun, an officer of higher rank than 
the Garpun, accompanied by one “ Charon.” From Jwari Bhotias, 
(who are better authority,) I afterwards learned that before they had 
left Gartokh (end of September) “ Charon,” the same that was Chap- 
rang Zungpun from 1843 to 1845, had arrived from Lhassa, in the 
capacity of ‘“ Ship-chet,” a sort of Special Commissioner, deputed to 
investigate and administer the affairs of the province, on this occasion 
more particularly to remove from his office for certain previous offences 
in a former situation, the senior Garpun, Dhinkar-sah, whose successor, 
Tannakar Gajjun, had not arrived when the Jwaris left Gartokh ; per- 
haps he was now one of the party at Barka. 

With some hesitation, after Bhauna hinted at the extreme probabi- 
lity of Angdah being appointed Tokdar of Tidyah on a salary of 50 Rs. 
per month when the English took possession of Pruang, the Makhpan 
directed his son Angil to write down some items of information which 
I had commissioned Bhauna to bring from Pruang: Bhauna being 
illiterate in the Tibetan language though proficient in the dialect of 
Gnari colloquially, interlined Angil’s notes with a transcript of the 
Hunia words in Hindee characters, the result of which document I 
shall give at the end of my journal, much augmented and corrected by 
other information derived from the most reliable of the Jwaéri Bhotias. 

Garjia Ghat, 22nd Oct.—The valley of the Kali between Dharchu- 
la and this, which on my way up—11th to 13th September, was pesti- 
lentially hot, has now got cool and pleasant, but I doubt its salubrity 
yet; the little Quinine I had with me was not a tenth part of what 
was required by the Fever and Ague patients who crowded round me 
from every inhabited place this side of Kela. 

The Rajbari Karinda (agent) caught two of the Bdén-mdnus, the wild 
men of Chipula, for my inspection, I saw nothing very remarkable 

3A 


338 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. (Serr. 


about them, except an expression of alarm and stupidity in their faces, 
and they are perhaps rather darker and otherwise more like lowland 
Hindustanis than the average of Kumaon Paharis. I imagine they 
were dressed for the occasion: one of them brought mea Nazar, a 
miserable fowl, in a wooden bowl of their own manufacture. They are 
civilized enough to make these wooden bowls for sale or barter in the 
villages of Askot, whence they supply their few wants. They live un- 
der temporary Chappers, frequently moving from place to place amidst 
the jungles of Chipula; their principal subsistence being certain edi- 
ble roots of wild plants and what game they can -catch, and they occa- 
sionally get presents of cooked food from the villagers. They have a 
dialect of their own, but some of them can communicate with their ci- 
vilized neighbours of the villages in Pahari Hindi: all that my visitors 
would say in my presence was in answer to a question on that head,— 
that there were five or six ‘maw’ (families) of them. The Askot 
people could tell me nothing at all about the history of these Bdn-mdnus : 
but I imagine they are the people whom Traill calls Rawats or Rajis, a 
small remnant of the aborigines of the Hill country, or of an ancient 
tribe driven into the jungles by subsequent invaders from the lowlands. 

It is a pity that some effort is not made to reclaim them from their 
bestial mode of life; they are a quiet, inoffensive set of people, and 
might probably be found tractable to civilization. 

The river (Gori) here has subsided very much since we crossed it, 
10th September, by a Jhula of cables. A large rock now dry in the 
middle of the stream affords a pier for two Sangas, which the Asko- 
tites have built in such a cutcha fashion, that a few days since some | 
of them were thrown off (by the swaying of the loose timbers), and 
had a narrow escape of drowning. One of the iron suspension bridges 
would be a great convenience here, this ghat being the only direct com- 
munication with lower Kumaon for the districts of Dharehula and 
Kela, (Khasia;) Chandans, Darma, and Byans, (Bhotia.) 

Thermometer at sunset 63°; boiled at 208}°; elevation of Garjia 
Ghat, by Webb, 2,094 feet; Barometricaily b. t. 1918 feet. The con- 
fluence of the Gori with the Kali, 13 miles below this, is 2059 feet 
above the sea level (by Webb’s book). Jhula ghat on the Kali, a run- 
ning distance of 14 miles below the confluence, is 1875 feet, so that the 
fall between the two is 184 feet, being at the rate of 13 feet per mile. 


1848.] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 339 


23d October—Garjia Ghat ; thermometer at sunrise 52°; Dew. 

Askot.—Camp 50 feet higher than the village. Thermometer at 
4? p. m. 76°, boiled at 204°; elevation, trigonometrically by Webb, 
5089 feet. Thermometer at sunset 63°—(elevation b. t. 4519 feet). 

24th October.—Askot. Thermometer at sunrise 53°; Dew. 

Stnghali Khan.—Camp 50 feet below the Khan (Pass). Thermome- 
ter at sunset 66°, boiled at 202° ; elevation of pass, 5,650 feet. 

25th October, Singhali Khan.—Thermometer at sunrise 50°. 

Satghar.—Major Drummond’s hut at 100 feet below the top of the 
pass ; thermometer at sunset 59°, boiled at 2013°; elevation of pass 
6,000 feet. 

26th October, Satgarh,—Thermometer at sunrise 50°, 

27th October, Petoragarh.—Drummond’s house (25 feet higher than 
the fort, which by Webb is 5,549 feet), 5,574 feet above the sea by 
barometric measurement; Thermometer at 5 p.m. 64°; boiled at 
202°, (Elevation b. t. 5,328 feet). 

28th October, Kantaganu Bungalow. Thermometer at sunset 64°, 
boiled at 205°; elevation 3,900 feet. 

29th October—Dhdrgdérah Bungalow. Thermometer at sunset 65° 
boiled at 204° ; elevation 4500 feet. 

31st October.—Lohaghat, (Ramsay’s house.) Thermometer at sun- 
set 63°, boiled at 202°; elevation b. t. 5,630 feet. Webb makes one 
of the houses here 5,649 feet, the Hospital, I believe; they are all near 
the same elevation. 

lst November—Pharka Bungalow ; elevation by Webb 5,914 feet ; 
Thermometer at sunset 61°, boiled at 2014° (b. t. 5,880 feet). 

3rd November.—Deo Dhura, (vulgo Dee) Bungalow, elevation by 
Webb, barometrically 6,867 feet, Thermometer at sunset 53°, boiled 
at 1993° (elevation b. t. 6948 feet.) 

Ath November-—Dol Bungalow. Thermometer at sunset 52°, boiled 
at 201° ; elevation 6,100 feet, 

5th November.—Almora. 


340 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. [Sepr. 


APPENDIX. 


The present ruler of the Lhassan dominions, Bod-chi-Lama, is 
Kushu Gewah Ringborchy, of which terms the first and last are titles, and 
perhaps the Gewah also; as imported in the general title here given 
(by Tidya Makhpan), he is the ecclesiastical head of the Budhists of 
Tibet, of the prevailing sect, at least; the Gelukpa, the same as called 
elsewhere Dalai Lama, and Putala Lama, Puta/ah being the name of 
his monastic residence near Lhassa. The Bod-chi-Lama, is properly 
vested with the supreme control in temporal, no less than spiritual 
affairs throughout his own dominions, and in former days I imagine, 
that it depended very much upon the personal character of the reigning 
individual, what part of his temporal power was delegated to subordi- 
nate ministers ; but of late years the predominance of Chinese influence 
at Lhassa has probably relieved the Lama from all the cares of govern- 
ing his own dominions; under color of his name, and through the 
agency of Lhassan ministers, the country is ruled in fact by the Resi- 
dent Imperial Commissioners. 

Formerly the Chinese Deputy at Lhassa was an Amba, Military 
Resident (?), with a regiment of 500 Chinese soldiers. Two or three 
years ago two Gyami, came to Lhassa, of such mean exterior that they 
attracted no notice, till after some time spent in private enquiries and 
observations, they suddenly produced their commissions and assumed 
the supreme authority under the style of ‘‘ Tungtang,” which they still 
hold ; the Amba with his regiment of 500 remaining under their 
orders. 

Kushu Panjan Ringborchy, is the present Chan-: Lama, (that is, 
superior of the province of ‘“‘ Chang,” of which Digarcha is the princi- 
pal town, Zhigatz Zung, the fortress, and Teshu Lumbu, the monastic 
residence,) a degenerate successor, and according to the superstitions 
of Tibet, a re-incarnation of the great Teshu Lama, Punjun Irtinnee, 
of Turner, who 70 years ago was in the fullest exercise of the political 
administration of his province and enjoying great influence beyond it, 
throughout the countries of Tibet and China. Chinese usurpations 
must now have reduced the Lama of Chang to the insignificance of a 
mere monk like his senior brother of Bod. 

The principal officers of state in Lhassa, and actually employed in 


1848. | Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &e. 341 


the executive under the control of the Chinese “'Tung-tang, are as 
follows : 

1. The (Bod-chi) Gelpu, now by name Dorchey-chang ; the Wazir, 
or Prime Minister. 

2. The Kalan Sechu, and 

3. Kalan Sheta, according to Angil; but the Jwaris say, that 
there are four Kalan, whose personal names, or sur-names rather, are 

Sheta, 

Dhuril or Dhuring, 

Rakshya, and 

Thomba. The particular functions of this office are unknown 
to my informants, but a ‘“ Kalan Sheta,” is said to have come to Gar- 
tokh 8 or 9 years ago, with plenary powers for settling the affairs of 
Gnari. 

4. Four Debun. These appear to be Military Officers, Generals. 
One of them came with the (so called) army from Lhassa to annihilate 
the Sikh invaders of Gnari in 1841, which being accomplished (whether 
by the Debun and his troops, or by frost and starvation), he continued 
to reside at Gartokh with the principal authority, civil as well as mili- 
tary, till 1845-46, when order and security being restored, the Debun 
was recalled to Lhassa, and the administration of the province left as 
formerly, to the two Garpun. 

5. Four Réiban; also Military Officers of secondary rank, equiva- 
lent to Colonels? Inferior to these are Gyakpun, i. e. Centurians, a 
Gya, Centum, 100. 

6. Four Garpun. Office unknown. 

7. The Ship-chet, (not given in Angil’s list,) is an Officer well 
known to the Jwaris; one of this rank came to Gartokh, (as previously 
mentioned) in August or September last, with Commission amongst 
other things to remove from his office the senior Garpun: he appears 
to be a sort of Special Deputy, with extensive powers, superior to the 
local governors. 

Next to these come the Garpun and Zungpun, the local Governors 
of provinces and districts. 

Gnari is said to be the only province dignified with the superior rank 
of Garpun (?) The title is said to be derived from the name of their 
head-quarters, Gar. The place of the fair is called “ Gartokh,” also 


342 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [Supr. 


Gar-Yarsa, which signifies the residence for summer, (from Yar, heat 
or summer), the winter quarters being at Gar, ‘‘ Gunsa,” (from Gun, 
cold or winter), two or three days further down the river north-west 
from Gartokh. The two Garpun act jointly, and the court so formed 
for the administration of the public affairs is termed ‘“ Lankya.” 
There is some trifling difference in the rank or authority of the two 
Garpun; the senior is styled Urku-gung, in writing abbreviated to 
U-gung ; and the junior Urku-wa, written U-wuk : they are also called 
Urgu-Ma and Urgu-Ya respectively, as mentioned by Traill. The 
Garpun have each a Sherishtadar, Zungnirh, and these two sometimes 
form an inferior Lankya, for the disposal of minor cases. Nirba 
(mentioned by Moorcroft,) denotes simply an ‘‘ Agent” or man of 
business, of any sort; Dunik,a writer or Secretary. 

The Zungpun derive their title from Zung, signifying either Fortress 
or Government, or both; and most of them still have their head 
quarters in quasi-forts, most frequently, in Gnari at least, without 
garrison. They also hold the general government of their several 
districts. In many places there appear to be two Zungpun acting 
jointly like the two Garpun of Gnari, as at Saka, centre of the province 
next east of Gnari, and (according to the man of Lamjung,) at Kirong 
and Nyanam (?) on the Nipal frontier; and this perhaps is the usual 
arrangement where they have independent charge, in direct communi- 
cation with Lhassa. In the province of Gnarithere are four Zungpun, 
entirely subordinate to the Garpun, in single charge of the four fron- 
tier stations, viz. on the northward, Rudukh, which includes supervision 
of the communications with Ladak. 

South-westward Chaprang, including control of the Bisehir frontier? 
the communication with Chongsa, the Alpine valley of the Jahnavi 
Ganges, of which Nilang is the principal village, and that by the Mana 
pass with western British Gurhwal. : 

Central, Southward, Daba, (Dapa is a provincialism of the Niti Bho- 
tias,) the Zungpun of which has charge of all the Nitiand Jwar passes 
on the British frontier of east Gurhwal and western Kumaon; and 
south-eastward, Pruang ; head-quarters in Takhla-khar, with surveil- 
ance of the Darma and Byans passes into eastern Kumaon, and of the 
road to Humla of Nipal, at the bottom of the Pruang valley. 

These provincial Governors, Garpun and Zungpun, come from Lhas- 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Se. 343 


sa or the adjacent country, and, for Gnari at least, are never natives of 
the province under command. Their regular term of office is 3 years, 
at the expiry of which, being relieved by successors similarly appoint- 
ed, they return to Lhassa to give an account of themselves, which if 
satisfactory may result in further appointment. E.G. Deba Phundu, 
Pruang Zungpun from 1843 to 1845, is now, (according to the man of 
Lamjung) one of the joint Zungpun of Kirong. Dhinkar-Sah (i. e. 
Son of Dhinkar) late Garpun of Gnari, came from the Zung of Kirong, 
and before that was Zungpun of Chaprang. Sometimes merit or inte- 
rest may extend the tenure of the same office by one individual to 
double the ordinary period. Deba Chakwa, a wealthy trader, well spok- 
en of by our Bhotias, was Garpun of Gnari for 5 or 6 years from 
1840 to 1845. 

Some say that the revenues of the provinces are farmed to the 
Garpun and Zungpun, who may make what they can for themselves 
above the state contract, being paid no regular salary: it is certain that 
the people suffer the most arbitrary exactions, approaching sometimes 
to indiscriminate robbery. 

The term Deda either above or prefixed to the names of persons or 
their official titles, answers to the Hindustani affix, ‘“‘ Sahib,’ and is 
applied particularly to the Officers of the Lhassan Government who 
are distinguished by the Top-Knot, a peculiar mode of tying up the hair 
(kept long) on the crown of the head with a skewer through the knot, 
in the fashion of the Chinese; the losing of this top-knot is a form 
that accompanies deprivation of office. Moorcroft’s Deba at Daba was 
the Gunpun ; his Viziers at Gartokh and Daba probably the Zungnirh 
of the Garpun, and the Nirba or Dunik of the Zungpun, Trail, follow- 
ing Moorcroft in these imaccuracies. Rajas, Viziers and the like in 
Tibet are, once for all, mere Hindustani fictions, which should not be 
retailed any further by English writers. The present Garpun of Gnari 
are— 

1. Tannakarh Gajjun (according to Angil’s note) Urkugung, re- 
cently appointed in place of Dhinkar-Sah, who, as before mentioned, 
had his top-knot united by the Ship-Chet the other day: the latter, in 
succession to Jurkwah, had been in office only one year: and his pre- 
sent disgrace, they say is for his having made certain unauthorized 
remissions of revenue from ryots of Kirong, where he was previously 


344 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [Sepr. 


joint Zungpun, which occasioned disturbances on the subsequent extor- 
tions of his successor. 

2. Shungdub Lingbo, Urkiwa, appointed in 1845-46 in succession 
to Chakwa. This Shungdub, says Debu, has been to Calcutta via Ni- 
pal or Lo (?): he is well disposed towards us, and says that the repul- 
sive attitude maintained by the Lhassan Government with regard to the 
British in India is solely the effect of Chinese dictation at their 
Court. 

Present Pruang Jungpun (succeeded Phundu this year) is Shak 
Chumba; said (by the man of Lamjung) to be a Khampa from some 
place 20 days north of Lhassa, and (by the By4nsis) to trouble him- 
self very little with public business, leaving it as much as possible to 
his Nirba. 

Daba Zungpun is Chep-Chungba, also appointed in 1845-46. The 
Zung-Chungpun is the Government Mercantile Agent, a person of 
rank and consequence, who comes every year from Lhassa to Gartokh, 
and thence on to Ladak, before the war with the Sikh usurpers in that 
quarter. The principal article of this state traffic is tea, mostly of the 
coarsest sort made up in bricks: and this trash is disposed of by the 
barbarous expedient of forced sale for double or treble its real value. 
The whole quantity of tea to be inflicted on the province is made over 
to the Garpun, who distribute it to the several Zungpun, and they again 
to the heads of villages and Tals, who finally divide it equally among 
the families, and payment is realized by the reverse process. 

The principal Gold Mines of Gnari (situated east or north-east of 
Rudukh) are farmed to a Sar-pun (Sar, Gold) on triennial contract with 
the Government at Lhassa. 

The Gnari Pungkag Chuksum, are thirteen chief districts of the pro- 
vince under their own native hereditary chiefs (Pun) subject to the 
Lhassan Governors : they are 

1. Dokachya, and 

2. Jimkangnonu, both in the Zung of Rudukh. 

3. Chumurthi, on the south bank of the Gartokh Indus, to the 
extreme west of Gnari, on the Pitti frontier. (?) The best of the 
ponies (some of them very good) imported into Kumaon by the Jwari 
Bhotias, are bred in this district, and brought for sale to the Gartokh 
fair, where the Jwaris buy them. 


1848.] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, §c. 545 


4. Nabru, also on the south bank of the Gartokh Indus, between 
Chumurthi and Gar. (?) 

5. Chajua, exclusively pastoral, in the west end of the valley of 
the Shajjan Indus, east of Gartokh, or else in the lower (and southern) 
part of the valley of the Rudukh Indus, north of Gartokh. With 
regard to which Rudukh river, the Jwaris assert (positively), that it is 
a distinct branch flowing past Rudukh from north and south, meeting 
the Gartokh Indus near Tashigang, a day or two below Gargunsa, 
whence the united river runs north-westward to Le, &c., and not, as 
existing maps have it, the lower part merely of the Gartokh river be- 
fore its entrance into Ladak; but this is doubtful, as others assert as 
positively the opposite. 

6. Bongba (or Bongbwa) Tal, further east up the Shajjan valley 
and north of the Gnari mountains; consisting of two divisions, viz. 
Bongmeth, that is, lower, and 

7. Bong-toth, that is, upper Bong, the two being under separate 
Pun; one of my informants says that one or other of the Bong Tal is 
south of the Gnari range, on the east of the province, but Bhauna’s 
version of Angil’s note makes this Bang, distinct from Bong, which 
he also duly mentions as north of Guari, and the residence of the 
Dok-pa, who are the carriers of the Salt and Borax from regions fur- 
ther north. Bongbwa Tal is a pastoral district, without villages. 

8. Hor Tal, a pastoral district without villages, lying east of Cho- 
Mapan, between the Gnagri mountains and the Nipal Himalaya, said 
to communicate by an easy pass (or passes) with Jumla, direct, with- 
out intervention of Humla, from which circumstance may be gathered 
this fact, viz. that the main ridge of the Nipal Himalaya continues to 
make a great deal of southing far east from Momonangli, and much 
further than I could see any thing of it, in the course of my route to 
the lakes and Pruang. 

9. Toiyon. 

10. Kiron. 

11. Tidy; these three are circles of villages, as before described, 
in the valley of Pruang ; and their headmen have the title of Makh- 
pan, which is of military origin. 

12. Kyungbuchya, the environs of Daba. 

13. Tashikhausar, of Chaprang; and 14, Rakshyanonu, on the 

3A 


546 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. [Sepr. 


right bank of the Sutle) (?) west of preceding (?) These three are 
agricultural divisions of the district of Gugi, i. e., the trans-Himalay- 
an valley of the Sutlej (?) 

Here are 14 Pun-kag, though my informant started with 13 only ; 
nor can he, nor I either, explain the discrepancy. 

There are many other districts of inferior size and note, either includ- 
ed in the above or independent of them. Angil mentions. 

Namdung, Majjan, and Jangyn, all north of Gangri, without further 
particulars, Kyunglung he states to be under the Zungpun of Daba, 
and informants say that the remains of an old Fort there are kept by a 
functionary styled Kharpun, i.e. Killadar, Fort-holder, a native of 
Lhassa, but of inferior rank, and no power or importance. 

Gyanima (whatever it may be worth) belongs to Kyunglung. 

The villages of Pruang are distributed as follows : 

Keli, Lakun, Dela-ling and Kauru, belong to Toiyon on the left bank 
of the Karnali, in the north-eastern quarter of central Pruang: the 
present Makhpan is Pimba. 

Tidya, on the right bank of the river in the southern quarter, com- 
prises the villages of 

Maghraur, (the Makhpan’s residence.) Nami, Chumi-thang, Chil- 
jung, Tashikang, Kaga, and Beli: the Makhpan is “‘ Angdah,”’ and his 
son (who wrote some miserable notes for me) Angil. 

Kongarh-Dawa is Makhpan of Kiron, in the south-eastern quarter 
on the left bank of the river, the district including the following 
villages :— 

Kongarh, (the Makhpan’s own village, I suppose.) 

Totakh, Dangya-chin, Manw, Chelugang, Shujey, Dojah, and Gajjan. 

Kardam, the northernmost village of Pruang, with a monastery, 
and quasi-fort, is under a Zungpun of inferior rank, (or else a Khar- 
pun) perhaps a native of the place; he has to furnish the Tarjum at 
Barka. 

The village of Kangjey belongs to Deba Nerchang, a Lama of Tak- 
lakhar, who is also proprietor of Churjia Tal. 

Taklakhar, which contains a large monastery. 

Shaprang, Lwakh, by the Hindustanis called “ Loha- Kot.” 

Chokhrokh and Khajarh, which the Hindustanis call Kachar-Noth, 
the lowest village at Pruang (south-eastward) with a monastery, &c. a 


1848. | Narratiwe of a Journey to Cho Lagan, §c. 547 


place of considerable religious resort; these all belong to the Lhoba 
Lama of Toklakhar and Khajarh, who is perhaps subordinate to the 
great Lhoba Lama of Dindi (vulgo Gangri.) The latter is superior of 
all the Gumba about Gangri and Mapan, his own monastic residence 
being Dindi, in the ravine under the west side of Kailas. 

These Lhoba Lamas are, strange to say, (as imported by their title,) 
natives of Lho (the Indian Bootan, and a fresh relief of them comes 
all the way from that country every third year; formerly, says Debu, 
persons of respectability, but of late, unaccountably, grown ‘snob- 
bish,” as though the church were on the decline in Lho. 

The Lhassan Government have no other military force in the pro- 
vince of Gnari than a Militia of the country people, in the extremity 
of disorder and undiscipline; and this even has become very much 
neglected since the fear of the Sikh invasion died away; at best it is 
represented to be a most unwarlike rabble, utterly useless against an 
organized enemy. Magh or Makh is the generic name for this army : 
Makhmi soldiers; and hence the title Makhpan, originally military 
chiefs, now peaceful villagers. Formerly three Regiments (also Makh) 
of 500 men each, used to muster at Gartokh, styled the Igru, Kungru | 
and Indu; these are now merged into a single Makh, nominally of 500 
men, but rarely mustering the full compliment. The Makh is assem- 
bled for two or three summer months during the Gartokh fairs and 
drilled by a Gyakhpun, (centurion :) the men get no pay, subsist, arm, 
and accouter themselves, and at the end of the exercising season are 
dismissed to their houses with—a fine of 3 Rupees each for their bad 
performance ! 

This is an extreme case of rare occurrence it is to be hoped. Bhan- 
na, when late in Pruang, found the soldiery better treated. The quasi- 
garrison of Taklakhar had been recently discharged, as no longer 
required in these pacific times, and each man, who had served for the 
last three years, of course subsisting himself all the while, received six 
rupees, sum total of his pay for the whole period. 

Such are the Chinese Cavalry and Infantry, who repulsed Captain 
Gerard’s invasion of Tartary. 

In Gnari there are four chief Kanbu or Kambu, i. e. Bishops ? or 
Abbots? of the Gelukpa sect ? viz. at 

1. Rudukh. 


548 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. [Sepr. 


2. Rabgyaling, or Rabling, probably in the district of Nabru, or 
elsewhere, west of Gartokh ; 

3. Tholing (or Ling), and 

4. Shebiling, in Taklakhar ? 

Each of which rules 25 Gumba, (Monasteries,) the Priors of which 
are Lamas, with establishment of many inferior Monks, Dada or 
Gelong. In Gnari the Nuns are styled Chemu, and not Ani, which 
latter word signifies woman simply, of any sort. 

The Salt and Borax Mines of Gnari, or fields rather, ‘ Lha-lhaka, 
as Lhdali-lhaka, (by Herbert I think or Gerard? erroneously given as 
the names of districts) lie to the north of Bongbwa Tal, across moun- 
tains that round the north-east side of the valley of the Shajjan river, 
paralled to the Gangri range, and in the eastern part of the Zung of 
Rudukh. The two salts, I understand, are obtained from different 
spots in the same vicinity, and both worked in the same way by wash- 
ing the earth taken from the surface of the ground in which they are 
developed by natural efflorescence. These salt fields are open to all 
who choose to adventure their labour in them, on payment of a tenth 
part of the produce to the Government, which has an excise establish- 
ment for collecting the dues on the spot. The proceeds form, perhaps, 
an item in the general contract for the revenues of Gnari between the 
Garpan and the Lhassan Government. 

Soda also (carbonate of Soda) Bul or Pul, is abundant in many 
places, (I saw much of it, as mentioned, about the shores of the lakes,) 
but appears to constitute no trade like the others, though in Hundes it 
is used generally for helping the extract of Tea, the universal beverage 
drunk in vast quantity ; and by the higher classes, who sometimes wash 
their hands and faces, as a substitute for soap. 

The principal Gold Mines, Sar Chaka, are ten days journey beyond 
the Salt Mines, further north, or north-east, (perhaps on the north- 
western borders of the Kam country ?) in a district otherwise uninhabit- 
ed? named Sar-bachyad? These are farmed by a Sarptin, on triennial 
contract direct from Lhassa, independent of the authorities in Gnari. 
Deba Chakwa however held this contract for the last 3 years in which 
he was Garpan Urku-wa at Gartokh. He paid to the Lhassa Treasury 
17,000 Rupees per annum; had 170 miners at work, for whose sub- 
sistence he used to send supplies of Satu, Ghiu, Tea, &c. from Pruang, 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, Sc. 949 


the ‘‘ Sarbachyad” country being barren, Jang-tang. These mines are 
worked in shafts and galleries under ground ; the gold is found in the 
pure native state (in silicious sandstone (?) or in quartz rock?) : it un- 
dergoes no other process than washing and sifting before it enters the 
market, and after that requires little or no refining. The metal is some- 
times found in large masses ; the Lama of Gangriis said to have one 
weighing 5 Nega, 1. e. near a seer, and there are problematical stories of 
other masses of such supernatural size and shape that the Lamas pro- 
nounced them spiritually dangerous and insisted on their being consigned 
to earth again. The raw gold grains, as they come from the mines, con- 
stitute the main part of the heavy currency of this country, in which 
there isa great dearth of coined money ; that also arising, I believe, from 
foolish superstitions and state interferences ; of late years our Bhotias 
have circulated some of the Company’s Rupees in Gnari, but so infa- 
tuated are the people, that they persist in keeping the exchange of this 
coin down to four timashis, though its intrinsic value is nearer six of 
them. The Sar Shu, by the Hindustanis called Phetang, is 8 masa, 8 
or 9 Rupees worth of this gold, tied up in a minute bundle of paper 
and rag, which passes for money with the trouble of repeated scrutiny 
and weighment. 

The Government Mail Establishment. for conveyance of Dispatches 
between Gartokh and Lhassa is styled Tarjum, and the same name is 
applied to the several stations of relay. At each Tarjum, there is a 
superintendent of some sort, or one or two horsemen, who are furnish- 
ed, like all the state requisitions in this province, by roster or some 
equivalent arrangement from the neighbouring villages or Ding. The 
several stages are from double to treble an ordin ary day’s journey for 
a traveller with cattle, baggage, &c., that 30 or 40 miles, being propor- 
tioned to what is considered a day’s work for a single man and horse, 
(the horses being poneys, but good ones.) Under ordinary circum- 
stances, the post travels by day only, and at such a rate as to make 
one stage daily, sometimes two perhaps. There are no stated times, 
probably, for the dispatch of the mails, expresses being sent as occasion 
may require. The establishment is intended for the Government service 
only : and if private individuals get the use of it, it must be by interest 
with the Government Officials. There are 22 Tarjum between Gartokh 
and Lhassa. These places, being about 10 degrees of longitude asun- 


550 Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &c. [ Sept. 


der (from 803 to 903° east), and the geographical minute in this 
latitude nearly equal to the English mile, allowing for deviations from 
the straight line and for southing of the route from the parallel of 
Gartokh to that of Lhassa, the whole distance must be seven or eight 
hundred road miles, which would make the Tarjtim stages average some 
35 miles each. My map shows near 40 from Nakyu to Misar, and 
about as much from Misar to Barka; the route from Gartokh to Misar 
being copied exactly from the map after Moorcroft and Hearsay, Nakyn 
fixed by information with reference to Gartokh, and Barka by my own 
survey. 

Angil has given me the following list of the Tarjim from Gartokh 
as far as he knew them. 

1, Nakyu; this is only 5 miles from Gartokh. 

2. Misar; furnished by the people of Kyunglung. 

3. Barka; in the plain under Gangri, north of Cho Lagan ; furnish- 
ed from Kardankhar of Pruang. 

4. Tokchin, or Samo-tokchin ; and 

5. Tandang, or Tankcham; these two in the district of Hortol, 
and thus far in the province of Gnari. 

6. Dukshum, or Tukshum ; and 

7. Dodum;; these two in the district of Doshel or ‘ Tosher.’ 

8. Samku. 

9. Saka or Saku; the head-quarters of two jot Zungpun. 

10. Uksey; the last 5 in the Zung of Saka; and twelve more, un- 
known, on to Lhassa. 

Digarcha is 2 or 3 Tarjum this side (west) of the capital. 

There are no fixed Tarjum establishments between Gartokh and the 
frontier stations of the Zungpun, dispatches being forwarded on those 
lines, Taul, i. e. gaonsare, from village to village, or Ding to Dung, 
or by single messengers. 

Postscript, 25th July, 1847. 

The above journal had left my hands and was past revision long be- 
fore I saw for the first time the valuable notice of Csoma KGrés on 
Tibetan Geography (Article I. No. 4, Asiatic Society’s Journal for 
April, 1832), as also Jos. Cunningham’s Article on Kunawar, &c. in 
the Asiatic Society’s Journal (Vol. XIII. p. 172 et seq.) containing 
much accurate information. 


1848. ] Narrative of a Journey to Cho Lagan, &e. 551 


I have no opportunity at present for tracing in detail the agreement 
or discrepancy between our several statements where we touch upon the 
same points: but I think I may say generally that my rude oral infor- 
mation is in the whole well corroborated by the literary investigations 
of the learned Hungarian. 

My chief mistake appears to have been is assigning the eastern Tibe- 
tans of Kham national existence too independent of their common 
country, Bod, and perhaps a geographical extension too far to the 
north-westward. In the tribe of Brukpa, vulgo Dakpa, mentioned by 
Csoma de Kérés, I recognize the inhabitants of the Jang Thang, north 
and east from Gartokh, the country of the Salt and Borax fields, and 
of the Gold Mines. 

I have availed myself of Csoma Ko6rés’s article to insert the Tibetan 
name of Tisein my map, over the Peak of Kailas, as also to correct 
my Kam and Lo, to Kham and Lho; 1 had omitted the aspirates of 
the initial consonants in these names, because they were by no means 
clear in the pronunciation of my informants. 

Other of my Tibetan names would require correction to agree with 
the orthography of Csomo Kords, but it 1s as well to leave them unal- 
tered, as their present form indicates the popular pronunciation current 
on the frontier of the British Himalayan provinces, Kumaon and Gurh- 
wal, to which locality both my map and journal have particular 
reference. 


a Pas 


& tetas Bg hy nator 


iota aiken esas 


wes pene 


tig May cits gy Signin a 
ie emia band by: 26 hah 
riby, Si ya tipi etd j a 

i feonhrbai: ih alte 


oo 


bem dine vee ied V7 


Meteorological Register hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of Sept., 1848. 


Lat. 22° 33/28’. 33 N. Long. 88° 23’ 42”. 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28' 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’. 


Maximum and Mini-] 3 
Observations made at sunrise. ‘Maximum Pressure observed at 9h. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. Observations mi Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p,m. Observations made at sunset. mut Thermometer, |& & Rain Gauges 
] E 
° ; - 2, 7 , 
Temperature. Wind. & ‘Temperature. Wiod. % Temperature. | Wind. ‘Temperature. a Temperature. | Wind, a Temperature. | Wind. & =| Elevations, 
aS 2 — SS 2 — 2 2 — 
sz z = a z | 
: : z : 3 F a a 2 z : z 4 Feet.| Feet.| |. 
2 é # 3 Sls 2 WE Ne Fy = 2 = oe a eaulies & IEE le Z 3 Fe 
z Hy aaa 2 Bailes a| 4 g #2] 3 5 2 3 2) 4 2 Ba} oe 2 2 #2) 3 aa|iee 2 . $2 
3 Z 2) 2 Ey Paen teal hey | cd e ieee aeu eae es = o1"% | Bile = Wrelelala See lsailesaleaulbea ais 5 i Z 2|3 
= ef he=f Ih Ga g s 5 a |< |e 3 Ss Al || sah || es | S 2) S| here. s Si ies = ais) 3 5 s 5 Z| 5/3 
s ‘2 2 3s 2 S €s 2 2 = 3 2 2 2 S 3 3 2 2 2 rl 2 2 > z 2 = S S a Calas alee 
3 ccf || | ES 2 = Beate: lice 2 = = es 2 z a a |e é = Sirs || eee || & eh ee 2 z 5 |s B) & las 
é sils|o]a4 < a °)s)s/o}] 5 = 3 6 | a 2 o|/si|o}a < 6 |5/5 < es 6/cs] 4 < la | a S| 3 ile 
jl 2 | 
Cumulo strat. | 29.656 87. Cumulo strati. 81.5 |S. W. |Cumulo strati, [29,569 91.9 | 89,9 | 81.7 Cumulo strat, 90.1 | 883 | 81,0 |S. W. |Cloudy. 85.9 | 843) 812 |3,  \Large cumuli. 
4 ae oie Glenys. 728 Ditto; 810 Rain Sthuodg.| 654] 85.1) 85.1 | BLS Cloudy. 83.1 | 830 N.E. | Ditto 660 829 | 880 | 80.9 |N. E. |Cloudy, 
S 79.4 | 60.8 Dito Cloudy. 79.8 Cloudy. 1680} 821 | 82.2 | 792 Ditto 3,1 | 828 % Ditto 81.9 | 820 | 795 |e. Diito 
798 | 80.3 Drinly. 732 Dito. 209 Cumuhcloudy.| (645) 83.4 | 81.0 | 73.9 Rain Sthundg| (637) 80.2 | 79.8 | 781 |S. E.  |Drzly. 792 | 780 |s, Raining. 
2 Ditto. 166 Ditto. Drizzly, .655| 802] 799.) 780 |3. E.  |Cloudy, 79.9 » |Cloudy,. 81.1 | 78.1 |S. E,  |Scat'd clouds, 
fat | 02 Cloudy. 1168 Cirro oumul . |Cumulo strat. | i6a4| 849) 823 | 793 |5. BE. | Rawiig. 853 Cumuli. 2 | a2.2 | 790 |s: Cloudy. 
78.8 | 79.5 \Cirro comuli. 176 Cumulo str Ditto 676 | 874 | 86,0 | 813 |5. W.  |Cumuli, x 63 | 85.3 = |Cumulo strat. 85.5 | 836 | 80.5 |s, Seat'd clouds. 
79.9 | 80.4 Ditto nt) Dito. Dito 1628 | 90,0 | 892 | B20 |5. Cumulo strati, | 1612) 883 | 87.7 | 81.8 |s. Cloudy. ¥5.1 | 85.0 | 80.9 |S. W. |Cloudy. 
| 3. W r 05 86.1 | 96.0 1 
04| 804 | 81.3 Cirri. “758 Ditto 721! 88,7 | 883 | 820 |S. W.  [Cloudy. 655] 905 | 89.6 | 80,8 |5.W. |Cumuli, 89.5 Comuli. 661 6. Comuli. 
ios | Za] ato | 88 Cumulie 1779 Cumalie Tao 896 | 888 | 80.3 [5.Wahp. Dito i685 | 889 | 882 | 825 |5. W.  |Cirro cumuli. 87.8 Cloudy. 672| 85.3 | 85.5 Seat'd clouds. 
i | “692! 81.7 | 82.3 i, 692 Ditto 658 90.1 | 894 Curoulo strati, | 569) 915 | 90,5 | 830 |5.W. | Ditto 894 Ditto 1561 | 80,0} 79.4 Cloudy. 
12 | 595] 79.3 | 80,2 | 681 Ditto 639, 91.3 | 90.1 Cloudy. 92.2 | 91.4 | 844 |WV.S.W |Gloomy, fo || eo ce a “sc ues 560} 88.0 83.5 Ditto 
13 | 6:0] 78.7 | 79.3 | Generallyclear} .691 Clear. .667/ 919 | 91,0 | 800 |N. W. .693| 928 | 918 | 810 |N.N.W|Cumuli, 907 | 77.5 |\ Cumuli. 597| 83.9 Clear, 
V4 | -704) 80.7 | 81.3 Ditto 46 .|Pew Cumuli, 718 904 | 883 | 80.0 |N.E. |Cumulo strat. | 664) 909 | 89.7 | 80.7 |W. Cunmulo strati, 89.2 | 79.3 |N. Ditto _ | 660) 884 Cirris 
15 | .759| 80.0 | 809 Clear. 09 Cumulo struti, | 772 91.0 | 89.5 | BOA |W. Ditto .720| 890) 87.9 | 80.8 Ditto 5.2 Su Cumulo strati, | .714| 87-7 Cumuli. 
16 | .007| 79.5 | 80.9 Cloudy. 1840 Cumuli. <607| 889 | 87.3 | 80.1 |W. Dito ‘736 | 93.2 | 91.9 | 79.7 Ditto ) Ditto «737 84.9 Cloudy. 
vs | 2a] 798 | 208 Generally clear) 839 Clear, 800! 924 81.0 Ditto | ais jw. Ditto 0 Cloudy. 737 Ditto 
18 | .759| B12, 820 Cin. 181 Ditto 751| 931 79.4 y.|Cumulis 794 |W. Divo 3 Cumulo strati, | 1685 Citri. 
13 | (727) 802 | 81,3 Clear. 167 Ditto 732, 936 187 Clear. 787 \N.N.W,|Cumuli. 4 }Cumuli. ‘689 Clear, 
© | .751/ 800 | B13 Ditto 791 Ditto 1749) 93.7 71.9 Cumuli. 76.8 |N. W. |Cloudy. Dito Cirro cumuli. 
| 
a | .772) 82.2 | 23,0 Cloudy. 83.8 | 77.9 |N.E |Cloudy, .159| 922 | 899 | 80.9 Ditto 81.9 Cumulostrati. | 694 | 903 Cloudy. Cloudy. 
22 | ‘i1| 802 | B12 Ditio, 87.9 | 815 |3.S. E. |Cumulostrati. | (804) 927 | 908 | 80,7 E,|Cumulo strati. 79.8 Cloudy. 721| 23,2 . (Raining. Comuli. 
% | 167) 79.4 | 808 Clear, 860 | 79,9 |S.W. | Ditto, 1739| 919 | 910 | 8B Ditto | Bla Cumulo strati. | (649) 923 Cumulo strati, Cuinulo strati. 
43} .707| 80.8 | BLT Ditto, 87.6 | 80.8 |W. Dito. (711) $2.0 | 91.3 | 818 Ditto BL9 |W. Clear, 621 | 94.0 Clear. Clear, 
2% Bla | 82.2 . Cirro cumuli. 730| 90.9 | 90.2 | 823 Cumuli. 82.0 Cloudy. 83.0 Cumulo strati. 91,9 Cloudy thundg, 823 | 830) 788 Cloudy. 
% 80.8 | 81.7 . W. |Cleur, 750/ 90,9 | B94 | 81.3 Ditio 83.3 |Cunuli. 798 Cloudy. 86.3 V. |Clouily,. 84.7 | 84.9 | 80.2 Dito 
u 80,8 | 817 . 3. Cirti. <764| 909 | 89.8 | 81,7 Ditto 850 Cumulo strati. 79-4 |S. Ditto 87.0 Ditto B48 | B43 | 794 Ditto 
28 79.3 | 40.3 5. S. E. |Cirro cumuli, “734| 8.95 | 87.5 | 81.5 ‘Curmulo strati. 813. Ditto 81.3 JN. W. |Cumulo strati, Bud Ditto 83.0 | 82,9 | 79.2 (Cumuli. 
99 | .769| 79.4 | 79.9 | 728 |S. E. 821 | 98.4 | 87.0 | 81.5 |E. Ditto, .770| 913 | 892 | 813 Ditto 793 |N.E. | Ditto 87.0 | B49 Ditto 82.1 780 |s, S, W,|Soat'd clouds, 
% | .786| 78.3 | 79.0 | 77.7 |N. E. *840| 883 | 87.4 | 806 |S. BE. | Ditto, Bos} 920 | 901 | 79,8 Ditto 78.0 |B. Cloudy. Ditto 85.0 Cirri. 
Mean |29.723 | 80.1 | 80.9 | 79.1 29, 768) a2 879 | 607 29783, 904 '88.8)| 209 80.5, 
| i 
TOU Of last year 


x 792 B02 794 29.704 87.5 86,3 all 29,676 89.2 86.6 B18 29,612 88.6 87.2 80.5 


29,598 86,8 85.7 80.0 29,613 B43 B40 79.1 


These Observations have been made for the most part, with » supply of new and first rate Instruments received into the Olservatory, by orders of the Bengal Government ; a brief description of the Instruments seems necessary. 
It—Ihe Barometer is astaudard Lnstruveat by Newman, dudineter of the tube 0.504 Inches. I'he following is the comparative shewing of this Lastrumeat aud those Barometers which were in use at the Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1844, 


90.6 Difference, 5.51) 6.21 


Barometer by Troughton used prior to the Ist of June, 1844. Observations reduced to 320 Fahrenheit. + 29, 493 
Ditto es Ff ‘fi ri » 0.514 Ditto Ditto Diito Col. Everest used from Ist of June to Bist of August, 1844, .... Ditto Ditto « + 29, 687 
: > No, 52 Standard Barometer by Newman used from Ist of September, 1844, Ditto - 29, 654 
2o1,—The Thermometer is a Standard Instrument by Newman, on metal Scale and graduated to $ of a degree, No. 86.... Ditto.ss. Ditto .-.-- Ditto.ss.sfrom 3d of April, 1847. Ditto . « 29, 667 
Beal Bulb Hivkronudler by Newinsn, graduated to siagle degree divisions, the diffreuce between staadurd Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Instrument is + 0.2, the Temperature of the dry Bulb is taken from the Standard Thermometer, and in the event of the quantity moisture, dew point, or dryness, being required, itis necessary the difference adverted to 
We taken Into calculations 


Ath, jaximum aod Minimum Thermometer by Newman, The difference between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is +- 0.7 for the former and 0,23 for the latter, 


Sih FL: Keverature suewa ia Column AT ofa Viermormeter, 1m sun's ray, is wequired by means of & Newinan's Maximum Thermometer having « black bull.—ie above Lastraments, excepting the Thermometer placed ia the sun's rays, are fixed atabove 4} feet from the ground, to a post 
olur retlectiva, 


a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed to the nirand sheltered from any influence 
The height of the Surface of the Mercury in the Cistern of the Suodard Barometer in the Observatory attached to the Surveyor General's Office above the Mean Level of the Sea, having been deduced from a Series of Tide Observations taken from a Register kept at Kyd's Dock Yard, the result is recorded for general information. 


Feet 
Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd’s Dock Yurd Calcutta, + 8.38 E 
Difference of Level between the Zero of Lide Gauge ut Kyd's Dock Yurd, und the Standard Barometer at the Observatory, ca+.- see + 2659 onstage ac Nee rine 
—_ 5 
Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea, .. 18.21 


In charge Surveyor General's Office. 


ee 


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ere 3 ey 
a hited < 


ert ost { 4 t } at 


pherne vd 3? 
-tPae A mis 


poe as fis Rip deh 


‘ 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ASIATIC SOCIETY. 


OCTOBER, 1848. 


Observations made when following the Grand Trunk Road across the 
hills of Upper Bengal, Parus Nath, §c. in the Soane valley ; and on 
the Kymaon branch of the Vindhya hilis—By J. D. Hooker, 
M. D. R. N. Hon. Member of the Asiatic Society. (Communicated 
by the Hon ble Mr. Justice Couviue, President of the Asiatic 
Society.) 


The followmg observations were made with the view of instituting 
a comparison between the vegetation of the various areas, differing in 
soil, elevation and general custom, which I traversed (chiefly in com- 
pany with Mr. Williams* of the Geological Survey,) and the climate 
which accompanied these changes, and to whose operations the distri- 
bution of species is to be traced. 

The Instruments used were all of the best construction, chiefly by New- 
man, and were uninjured up to the last observation recorded. ‘Those 
made with the portable Barometer, may be relied on as very accurate, 
the instrument having been adjusted for me with extreme care. 

The observations for Temperature were often made where constant 
shade was not to be obtained. Every precaution was however taken 
to avoid radiated heat. 


* J here beg to return my most sincere thanks to Mr. Williams, not only for the 
opportunity he gave me of observing over a very interesting country: but for the 
many facilities he afforded and the uniform kind assistance I received, both from 
himself, Mr. Haddon, and the other gentlemen attached to his camp in which I was 
aguest. Few trayellers have commenced their investigations under such favor- 
able auspices ; and to these much of what value the accompanying observations may 
possess is due. 


a 8 


356 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


For the wet-bulb observations, distilled water was invariably employ- 
ed; and the minimum temperature taken, which is not indicated if the 
bulb be loaded with water, as is too often the case. 

The observations for nocturnal radiation are not so accurate as ifa 
parabolic reflector were used; they are however sufficiently demon- 
strative of the state of the atmosphere. 

Those taken by exposing a naked thermometer on a non-radiating 
substance, removed from the surface of the earth, as the top of a 
broad brimmed Shola hat (the bulb quite free) may I think, be depend-_ 
ed upon. 

Those again indicative of the radiation from grass, whether dewed or 
dry, are not strictly comparable ; not only does the power of radiation 
vary with the species, but much more with the luxuriance and length 
of the blades, with the situation, whether on a plane surface or raised, 
and with the soil upon which it grows. Of the great effect of the 
surrounding and subjacent soil I had frequent instances ; similar tufts of 
the same species of grass, radiating more powerfully on the dry sandy 
bed of the Soane, than on the alluvium on its banks; the exposure 
being equal in both instances. 

Experiments for the surface Temperature of the soil itself, are least 
satisfactory of any :—adjoining localities being no less affected by the 
nature, than by the state of disintegration of the surface, and amount 
of vegetation in proximity to the Instrument. 

Such observations however are not useless: the mean of a number 
taken synchronously with those for the Temperature of grass and 
for free radiation, affording valuable results, especially if compared 
with the power of absorption by the same soil of the sun’s heat during 
the day. 

The power of the sun’s rays is so considerable, and protracted 
through so long a period of the day, that I have not found the temper- 
ature of running water, even im large deep streams, so constant as was 
to be expected. 

On a few occasions the temperature of the soil at considerable depths 
was obtained by sinking holes. My daily progression and the exceed- 
ing hardness of the baked alluvial soil, prevented this being fully 
accomplished, except on a few occasions, and as connected with the 
Register the observations will be detailed. 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 357 


A thermometer with the bulb blackened affords the only means the 
traveller can generally compass, if measuring the power of the sun’s 
rays. It will be seen that by this I have recorded a greater amount 
of solar heat than was supposed usual in India. 

A good Photometer being still a desideratum, I had recourse to the 
old wedge of colored glass :—that used was so constructed as to be 
equivalent to a wedge of a uniform neutral tint, the distance between 
whose extremes, or between perfect transparency and total opacity was 
equal to 12 inches. A moveable arm carrying a brass plate with a slit 
and a vernier, enables the observer to read off at the vanishing point of 
the sun’s limb, to ~1,th ofaninch. I generally took the mean of four 
or five observations, but place little dependence upon the results. The 
causes of error are too obvious for notice here. As far as the effects of 
the sun’s light on vegetation are concerned, Iam inclined to think that 
it is of more importance to register the number of hours or rather of 
parts of each hour, that the sun shines, and its clearness, during the 
time. ‘To secure valuable results this should be done repeatedly, and 
the strength of the rays by the black bulb thermometer registered 
at each hour. 

Finally, with regard to the hours at which the observations were 
taken, the three principal ones, 9 a. M., 3 Pp. Mm. and 9p. mM. were those 
adopted by the antarctic expedition. A morning observation was added, 
because the 3 A. M. one is seldom available for the traveller especially if, 
besides the toils of the march he has other pursuits. The most useful 
observations at that hour are perhaps those for the temperature of the 
grass, soil, &c., which vary little for many consecutive hours in the night, 
and are losing by radiation till the sun’s power is felt. 

I much regret not being at present able to enter ito these computa- 
tions, which would render the following observations more useful. I 
have preferred recording them thus early to detaining them for an indefi- 
nite period. Their publication will enable many to point out to me 
better modes of observation; and direct a few how to conduct such 
enquiries. I would also hope there are some who are, like myself, 
seeking for comparative observations, and to whom these will be wel- 
come, as are all similar ones, made in other parts of India, to me. 

The more important results which these will give, with more or 
less accuracy are :— 

3B 2 


358 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


The mean height of the granite table-land from Taldanga to Dunwah 
pass, and of Parus Nath, its culminant point, above the plains of Behar 
(below the Dunwah pass) and the sea. 

The mean height of the plains of Behar from the Dunwah pass to 
the Soane, and absolute height of pass. 

The fall of the Soane between Kemch (above Bidjegurh) and Dearee. 

The altitude of Rotas Palace, i. e. of the Kymaon range above 
Akbarpore. 

The altitude of the Ghaton pass in the Kymaon at Roump, and 
mean altitudes of the Table-land extending thence to the Bind hills at 
Mirzapore. 

Altitude of the plains at Mirzapore. Fall of the Ganges between 
Mirzapore and Bhaugulpore (approximately). 

Mean temperature, Dew-point, force of vapors. Weight of vapor 
ina cubic inch of atmosphere, and rate of evaporation as calculated 
from the wet-bulb thermometer on the plains of Behar, and the afore- 
said table-land. 

Mean amount of nocturnal radiation from the exposed thermometer, 
from soil and from grass, at the aforesaid place. 

The barometrical elevations have been computed with great care,* 
but so materially does the fluctuation of the mercurial column in Behar, 

upper Bengal, and the other tracts of country visited, differ from those 
at Calcutta} that they give but approximate heights. 

It has been asserted by a most excellent Meteorologist (Jas. Prinsep) 
and one more practically familiar with the climate of India than any 
other; that a few observations made at any part of N. India are so 
comparable with those at Calcutta, that from such the difference of 
elevation of the latter and any other station may be deduced with 
considerable accuracy. This no doubt holds true for the more level 


* T cannot sufficiently express my obligation to my friends, J. and C. Muller, Esqs. 
for the assistance they have afforded me, in these and other computations whose results 
are detailed in this paper. Many of the observations were reduced by these gentle- 
men and the elevations determined, and all of them revised from various formule, 
some of them very complicated. What errors therefore are to be attached to the 
results, may be safely laid to the observer’s charge, not to the Instrument, and still 
less to the computations. 

tT In Calcutta, in Feb. and March the sunrise observation is generally higher than 
the 9 p. M, of the previous night—on the hills and plains traversed the opposite was 
almost always true. 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 359 


country ; but amongst the hills, the changes in the state of the atmo- 
sphere are so sudden and their effects so local, that the Barometer there 
often continues rising during 12 hours or more when the mercurial 
column is stationary or even falling at Calcutta, and vice versa. There 
are even instances on record of moderate elevations determined from 
monthly means, varying upwards of one hundred feet ; that of Gurgaon 
is from the mean of one month’s observations, 868 feet ; by another 
month’s 817. Nasirabad* (by Lt. Col. T. Oliver) from one month’s, 
1430 feet, from another 1539 feet: the mean of two following years’ 
observations again shew a perfect accordance. In cases where there 
have been continued steady weather and coincidence in the fluctuations 
of the column, much reliance may be placed on the height so computed 
from a comparison of the indications of good Instruments, provided the 
proper correctionst be employed. A little practice will give the obser- 
ver some idea of what indications are most trustworthy. When the 
elevation is to be calculated from the means of several maximum or mini- 
mum observations, it is necessary to take into account the daily range 
at the two stations; which varies not only at different positions, bu 
with each month; for instance in February of one year at Calcutta 
the mean daily tide is 0.147.; and at Kotgurh as low as 0.028. 

A considerable amount of difference in elevation is also due to the 
formula employed ; that which I have adopted is the usual one modified 
by Daniel, who corrects the specific gravity of the atmosphere by the 
Dew-poimt.t In India the humidity of the air varies so greatly in differ- 
ent stations, that I think this correction should not be overlooked. It 
is to be remarked however, that (as Mr. Muller first pomted out to me,) 
in the last edition of Daniell’s work, there is a discrepancy in my results 
as worked by the rule or by the example: the method adopted as shewn 
by the example, seemed to us the most correct, and except when other- 
wise stated this is always employed. 

A very excellent formula is that used at the Surveyor General’s office, 
for a copy of which I am indebted to Captain Thuillier, an officer to 


* Jour. As. Soc. 1835 (January, No. 37. p. 49. 

+ In those Barometers of Troughton and Simms, used in India, I do not find a 
measure of the diameter of the tube to accompany the Instrument, and the correc- 
tion for capillarity is hence too frequently disregarded. The diameter of the bore 
is generally 0.25 inch, and the consequent correction 0.040 always to be added. 

t Daniell’s Meteorological Essays, Ed, 2. (1845.) v. 2, p. 46. 


360 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


whom I am exceedingly obliged for the prompt and kind manner in 
which he has afforded me effectual assistance in various ways. 

The Dew-point has been calculated from the Wet bulb, by Dr. 
Apjohn’s formulz, or, where the depression of the Barometer is consi- 
derable, by those as modified by Captain Boileau.* The saturation 
point, by dividing the tension at the dew point by that at the ordinary 
temperature. Weight of vapor, by Daniell’s formula. 

For the means of availing myself of Mr. Williams’ kind invitation, 
so soon after my arrival in India, I am mainly indebted to the President 
of the Asiatic Society, who not only anticipated my wants by himself 
equipping me for a mode of travelling widely different from what I had 
been accustomed to, but has forwarded my views by every means in his 
power, and shown the warmest interest in my pursuits and kindness to 
myself, Darjeeling, Aug. 1848. 


My botanical outfit was all procured for me at the Botanic Garden» 
by the kindness of Dr. McLelland, to whom I return many thanks for 
the valuable assistance and advice he afforded me, and the ready manner 
in which he placed every aid the noble establishment he then super- 
intended could command, at my service. 

January 30th.—Jomed Mr. Williams’ camp at Taldangah, on the 
Grand Trunk Road, a dawk station near to the western limit of the 
coal basin (Damoodah valley). 

Leaving early the following morning, I had no opportunity of in- 
specting the fossil plants of this field im situ. An examination of a 
noble collection sent to England by Mr. Williams, (previous to my 
departure,) throws but little light on the age of the formation, as com- 
pared with the more northern ones. The genera to which the species 
belong are, some English, a few very remarkable ones Australian, 
and many others peculiar to the Indian coal fields. The European 
genera or species, are more allied in appearance to those of the Oolite 
formation than of the carboniferous era, but I take this resemblance 
to be possibly accidental, and not to demand a reference of the Indian 
coal beds to the period of the English Oolite. Arguing from analogy, 
it is difficult to suppose that the cotemporaneous Floras of two coun- 


* Journal of Asiatic Society, N. 147, (1844) p. 135. 


1848. ] Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 361 


tries as widely remote in geographical position as in physical features, 
should possess any plants in common: and especially so large a propor- 
tion of species, that a recognizable number of these should survive that 
wreck of a Regnum Vegetabile of whose existence the coal and its ac- 
companying fossils are rather the Index than the Historians. It is 
certainly very remarkable that any distinct relationship should exist 
between the English and Indian coal fields, and that it is betrayed by 
a genus so peculiar as Glossopteris, which is further common to the 
fossil Flora of Australia; but this circumstance loses value from the 
fact of prevailing forms of Ferns being common to species from all 
parts of the world, and yet indicating no affinity between such plants, 
which are only to be recognized by their fructification, an obsolete 
character in almost all fossil specimens. The Oolite coal of England, 
again, abounds in representatives of existing tropical plants—these are 
absent in the Indian coal fields; which on the other hand presents us 
with novel forms of vegetable life, some of them common only to this and 
to the Australian fossil Flora, and equally distinct from any known living 
or fossil vegetables. In short, the Indian coal fossils are more widely 
dissimilar from any living plants either of the temperate or tropical 
Flora, than are the fossils of the oldest English carboniferous period. 
I do not moot the question of the age of these beds in a geological point 
of view, for that subject is in able hands; though having now visited 
the Australian, Indian and English Oolite beds, I may add that the two 
former present the strongest features incommon, both in poimts of 
extent, and in position (geologically and otherwise), as also a wide 
difference in their Floras from those flourishing over them. 

The Rev. Mr. Everest, in some excellent remarks on this coal field 
considers the position of the beds relatively to the general features of 
the surrounding country, as evidences of the coal haying been deposited 
im hollows between the granite hills which rise out of the plain, like 
islets.* 

I had no opportunity of verifying this theory, which is perhaps 
hardly compatible with the proofs (and these are ample) of the relative 
position of the coal-beds having suffered much change since their depo - 
sition. 


* Gleanings of Science, 1831, p. 133. 


362 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


The workmen employed at the pits use water from the hookah in pre- 
ference to any other, for the manufacture of gunpowder, but I could 
not ascertain that there were any good grounds for this choice. The 
charcoal is made from an Acacia (Catechu 7); that from Justicia 
Adhatoda is more generally used in India; Calotropis wood in Arabia. 
The pith of all these plants is large, whereas in England, closer-grained 
and more woody trees, especially willows, are preferred. 

A few miles beyond Taldangah the junction of the sandstone and 
gneiss rocks forming the elevated table-land of upper Bengal, is passed 
over. From beyond Burdwan the country slopes gradually up to Tal- 
dangah, but travelling by dawk at night, I could not estimate the 
amount of rise. From the latter station the ascent is still gradual, 
without any material interruption at the change in geological formation. 
Both sides of the road, and both formations are singularly barren, and 
the primitive rocks perhaps more so than the sandstone, from the copi- 
ous effloresced salts, and frequency of masses of granite and quartz 
protruded through the soil. Good-sized timber is nowhere seen: 
the trees are stunted, chiefly Butea frondosa, Diospyros, Terminalia, 
and shrubs of Zizyphus, and Acacia, Grislea tomentosa and Carissa Ca- 
randas. 

The altitude of Gyra is about 652 feet above the sea: it is the 
first station on the primitive table-land, which extends from this to 
Dunwah pass, and whose culminant point here is Parus Nath; Main 
path being another plateau, I believe on the same range of hills, but 
further 8S. W. Parus Nath, the eastern metropolis of Jain worship, as 
mount Abo is the western, is seen towering far above all the other emi- 
nences, and so isolated as to form from every side a noble feature in the 
landscape. All other hills are low ridges, running in various directions. 
Bamboo certainly forms one third of the jungle on these hills, and from 
its tints, varying from bright green to absolute whiteness, it gives some 
variety to the coloring. dAcanthacee, in number of species, prevail 
beyond any other natural order, both as herbs and bushes; but the 
Zizyphus is the next plant in abundance to the Bamboo, and next the 
Carissa Carandas. 

The cultivation is here, as elsewhere along these elevated plains, very 
wretched, for though alluvion is spread over the schists, the rocks are 
so dislocated as often to be thrown up at right angles, when their de- 


1848. | Observations made on a Botaneal Excursion. 363 


composition produces a very barren soil full of salts. The bosses of 
ungrateful quartz render this sterile country more hungry still. Rice 
fields are scarce and scattered ; I saw very little corn, grain, or castor 
oil ; no poppy, cotton or Carthamus. A very little sugar-cane, with 
dhal, mustard, rape and linseed, include nearly all the crops I ob- 
served.* Palms are very scarce and the cottage seldom boasts the 
banana or tamarind, orange, cocoa-nut or date. The Mahowa tree 
however is common, and a few Mangoes are seen. 

February 2nd.—Marched to Fiteoree, the country being more hilly 
and still ascending to this station which is 824 feet above the sea, 
Though the night had been clear and star-light, no dew was deposited, 
and therefore for the future I took the temperature of the grass, both 
after sun-set and before sun-rise, as also of a Thermometer with a naked 
ball exposed to the sky on a non-conducting material. During the 
whole time I spent on this table-land the temperature of the grass never 
sunk to that of the Dew-point, though the nights were always fine. The 
copious dews that I had experienced on the much drier Egyptian desert, 
between Cairo and Suez, were equally remarkable for their abundance, 
as their absence is here. The only cause for this that I can assign is 
an almost imperceptible haze, which may be observed during mornings, 
producing that peculiar softening of the tints in the landscape which 
the artist can well appreciate, but whose presence does not interfere 
with a perfect definition of outlines in distant objects. 

The nights too are calm, so that the little moisture suspended in the 
atmosphere, may be (during these nights) condensed ina thin stratum 
considerably above the mean level of the soil, at a height determined 
by that of the surrounding hills. The cooled surfaces of the latter 
would further favor this arrangement of a stratum of vapor above the 
heated surface of the earth, with the free radiation from which it 
would mutually check. Such strata may even be seen, crossing the 
hills in ribbon-like masses, though not so clearly on the elevated region, 
as on the plains bounding the lower course of the Soane, where the 
vapor is more dense, and the hills scattered and the whole atmosphere 
more humid. 

During the 10 days I spent amongst the hills I saw but one cloudy 
sun-rise, whereas below, whether at Calcutta, or on the banks of the 


* The Tussar silkworm is reared in some parts of the hills, especially the northern, 


oo 


364 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


Soane, the sun always rose behind a dense fog-bank. This was when 
close to Parus Nath, and the effect of a slight east wind, forming, first 
a stratus amongst the mountains to the west, which gradually rose, 
obscurmg the whole sky with cirrho-cumulus. On all other mornings 
the sun-rise was clear and cloudless ; though through a visible haze. 

At 914. m. the black-bulb Thermometer rose in the sun to 130°. 
The morning observation before 10 or 11 a.m. always gives a higher 
result than at noon, though the sun’s declination is so considerably less, 
and in the hottest part of the day it is lower still (83 p.m. 109°,) 
an effect no doubt due to the vapors raised by the sun, and which 
equally interfere with the Photometer observations.* The N. W. winds 
invariably rise at about 9 a. m. and blow with increasing strength till 
sunset ; they are no doubt due to the rarefaction of the air over these 
heated plains, and being loaded with dust, the temperature of the atmo- 
sphere is raised by the passage of a warm body, which at the same time 
that it varies the temperature in the shade, depresses the black-bulb 
Thermometer. The increased temperature of the afternoon is there- 
fore not due wholly to the accumulation or absorption of caloric from 
the direct sun’s rays, but to the passage of a heated current of air 
derived from the much hotter regions to the westward. It would be 
interesting to know how far this N. W. diurnal tide extends; and if it 
crosses the Sunderbunds or upper part of the Gangetic delta ; also the 
rate at which it gathers moisture in its progress over those damp regi- 
ons. Of its excessive dryness at Benares, Prinsep’s observations give 
ample proof, and I shall compare these with my own observations, both 
in the valleys of the Soane and Ganges, and on the elevated plains of 
Behar and Bengal and of Mirzapur. 

Observations with the black-bulb Thermometer, though confessedly 
imperfect, are of considerable interest, and that they have attracted little 
notice in India is evident from a paper of Capt. Campbell,+ who men- 
tions that in Lat. 18° N. 43° is the maximum effect he ever obtained, 
and that Dr. Baikie has shown 24° to be the maximum on the Neel- 
ghery mountains in January. In February and March I have repeated- 
ly observed a difference of upwards of 50°, and on one occasion of 68°. 
These were in Lat. 25°N. On the Kymaon hills (alt. 1104 ft.) 


* See Analysis of Observations. 
7 Calcutta Journal of Nat. His. v. 2. p. 185. 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 365 


I have registered the black-bulb Thermometer at 150°, a temperature 
and difference so little short of what has ever been observed in higher 
latitudes that we must look to other causes than distance from the 
Poles for the generally diminished power of the sun’s rays in and near 
the tropics. The low results cited by Daniel* were all obtained from 
Pelagic stations, as are Capt. Campbell’s, compared with my own ; nor 
have I on the tropical and sub-tropical coasts of Africa and S, America, 
or on the ocean at a distance from land, ever obtained results at all to 
be compared with these. Itis much to be regretted that an instrument 
so simple and easy of observation should be so neglected. The value 
of its indications are approximate only, but not the less necessary, as 
may be gathered from the circumstances of the few experiments I have 
been enabled to make tending to invalidate a theory grounded on a 
comparison of all the observations hitherto made in low latitudes.+ 


* Meteorological Essays, Ed. 2. v. 2. p. 110. 

tT Since writing the above I have met with a paper by the Rev. Mr. Everest 
‘On the Meteorology of Ghazipur :’’ in which a record is contained of observations 
taken with a Thermometer laid on black wool and freely exposed to the sun in the 
months of September and October. (As. Journ. 1833, p. 605.) The range of the ex- 
posed Thermometer in these observations coincides very nearly with my own. The 
maximum being attained at 11 a. m. and the greatest difference observed is also at 
that hour (50°.6). 

Dr. McLelland,* who has made some excellent analyses of the meteorological 
phenomena of India, attributes the haze of the atmosphere during the N. W. winds 
of this season, wholly to the suspended earthy particles. That such may be the case 
to a great degree is clear, for the amount of the haze is evidently proportioned to 
the force of the wind during the prevalence of the Diurnal breeze. But the haze 
is always present, even in the calmest weather, when it is only to be accounted for 
by the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. Extreme dryness, (which here is so 
marked that there is no deposition of dew,) is in all parts of the world usually 
accompanied by an obscure horizon. 

Capt. Campbell also objects to the conclusiveness of Dr. McLelland’s theory, 
citing those parts of Southern India which are least likely to be visited by dust 
storms, as possessing an equally hazy atmosphere, and further denies its being in- 
fluenced by the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. (Cal. Journ. Nat. His. 
v. 2. p. 44). Ihave observed the same phenomenon in oceanic islands, when the 
‘surface rocks were pewerfully heated by a tropical sun, and the air extremely dry, 
and I have further remarked a brilliantly clear atmosphere with a similarly low Dew 
point in the Antarctic Ocean, where the horizon was ice-bound: hence it is pro- 
bably not so much the amount of vapor as its tension that determines the trans- 
parency of the atmosphere. 

When on this subject I may add that even on the ocean the air is sometime so 
brilliantly clear that Venus is visible at mid-day during a strong sun-light. I have 
seen that planet in the north tropical Atlantic under similar circumstances to what 
Dr. Campbell did at Kemedy, (Cal. Journ. Nat. His. v. 2, p. 279,) but have not 
with me the date or corresponding observations. 


* Cal. Journ, Nat. His, ve 1, ps 52. 
3 ¢ 2 


366 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


February 2nd.—Proceeded on to Tofe-choney (or Top-chaunsee.) 
General features similar to those of yesterday, but the country more 
wooded and ascent considerable ; alt. of station 900 feet. Tanks here 
are covered with the usual water plants of India: Villarsia Cristata, 
Nymphaea, Chara and Potamogeton. The increased shade favors the 
growth of several ferns, as Lygodium, Pteris, Adiantum, Cheilanthes 
and Selaginella. The situation near the foot of Parus Nath, a heavily 
timbered lofty mountain rising abruptly, and terminated in a rugged 
ridge, is very pretty. A few rock Lichens are found here. Many tree, 
appear, with Nauclea, Bignonia, Combretum and Bauhinia, Gmelina 
arborea and parvifolia. Butea frondosa continues abundant. In this 
district the greater proportion of Stick-Lac is collected from Butea ; 
in Mirzapur, a species of Sponia yields it, and the Peepul very com- 
monly in various parts of India. The elaboration of this dye, whether 
by the same species of insect, or by many from plants so widely differ- 
ent in habit and characters, is a very curious fact. 

February 3rd.—At 3 a. mM. the temperature was 55°, and to the 
feeling very cold. This being the most convenient station from whence 
to ascend Parus Nath, we left early in the morning for the village of 
Maddaobund, on the north base of the mountain, from whence a good 
path leads to the summit. 

Following the Grand Trunk Road for a few miles to the west, after 
passing the base of the mountain, a narrow path strikes off to the north 
winding through low valleys and over finely wooded plains, covered with 
noble trees of Bassia, like Oaks in a park, Fict, Gmelina, two species 
of Diospyros, Buchanania latifolia, Nauclea cordifolia, Semicarpus 
anacardium, Bauhinias, with clumps of large Bamboo. The under- 
shrubs are still of Vitex, Carissa, Grislea tomentosa, Zyzyphi, and 
stunted Butea; the grapes wiry and harsh, Adropogons, Anthristia, 
Saccharum, &c. Some villages at the west base of the mountain occupy 
a better soil and are surrounded with richer cultivation ; palms and 
mangoes and the tamarind, the first and last rare features in this part 
of Bengal, appeared to be common here, with fields of rice and 
broad acres of Flax and Rape, through the latter of which the blue 
Orobanche Indica was swarming. The short route to Maddaobund, 
through narrow rocky valleys, was impracticable for the elephants, and 
we had to make a very considerable detour, only reaching that village 


1848. ] Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 367 


(on the north base of the mountain) at 2 p.m. All the hill people we 
had observed were a fine-looking athletic race ; they disown the tiger as 
a neighbour, which every palkee-bearer along the road declares to carry 
off the torch-bearers, torch and all. Bears they say are scarce and 
all other wild animals. 

The site of Maddaobund, elevated 1217 feet, in a clearance of the 
forest, is very beautiful. Fine tamarind trees and a superb Banyan 
shadow its temples, and the ascent is immediately from the village up a 
pathway worn by the feet of many a pilgrim, from the most remote 
parts of India. 

The village was crowded with worshippers, whose numerous vehicles 
of all shapes and build, reminded one of an electioneering in an Eng- 
lish country-town. Though so well wooded the forests of its base are 
far from rich in species of plants. 

February 4th.—At 63 a. Mm. having provided chairs slung on four 
men’s shoulders, in which I put my papers and boxes, we commenced 
the ascent; at first through woods of the common trees, with large 
clumps ef Bamboos, over slaty rocks of gneiss, much inclined and slop- 
ing away from the mountain. The view from a ridge 500 feet high 
was superb, of the village, and its white domes half buried in the forest 
below, and of the latter, continued for many miles to the northward. 
Descending to a valley some Ferns were met with, and a more luxuriant 
vegetation, especially of Urticee. Wild Bananas formed a beautiful, 
and to me novel feature in the woods; these I took for granted 
were planted, but I have since heard that the plant is wild in the Raj- 
mahal hills, N. E. of this (and of which these mountains are a con- 
tinuation) and hence no doubt here also. A white-flowered Rubiaceous 
plant (Hamiltonia suaveolens) was everywhere abundant, and very 
handsome, with many Acanthacee and Leguminose, but few Crypto- 
game. The mounds raised by the white-ant appear to me not an 
independent structure, but the debris of clumps of Bamboos, or of 
the trunks of large trees which these insects have destroyed. As they 
work up a tree from the ground, they coat the bark with particles of 
silicious soil, glued together, carrying up this artificial sheath or covered 
way as they ascend. A clump of Bamboo is thus speedily killed, the 
culms fall away, leaving the mass of stumps coated with sand, which the 
action of the weather soon fashions into a cone of earthy matter. 


368 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


Ascending again, the path strikes up the hill, through a thick forest 
of Sal (Vateria robusta) and other trees, spanned with cables of 
scandent Bauhinia stems. At about 3000 feet above the sea, the 
vegetation becomes more luxuriant, and by a little stream, I collected 
5 species of Ferns, some Mosses and Hepatice, all in a dry state how- 
ever; Licus artocarpifolia ? which sends hanging tufts of leafless twigs 
from the limbs, was abundantly covered with fruit. Some Smilacee, 
Disporum, Clematis, a terrestrial Orchideous plant, and Arginetia, next 
appeared, and still ascending Rowburghia viridifiora, an increased num- 
ber of grasses and Cyperacee are met with ; the Hamiltonia ceases, and 
is succeeded by other bushes of Verbenacee and Composite. The 
white-ant apparently does not enter this damper region. On ascending 
to 3500 feet the vegetation again changes, the trees all become gnarled, 

stunted, and scattered, and as the dampness also increases, more 
- Mosses and Ferns appear. Emerged from the forest at the foot of the 
great ridge of rocky peaks, stretching KH. and W. 3 or 4 miles. Abun- 
dance of a species of Barberry and an Osbeckia marked the change in 
the vegetation most decidedly, and were frequent over the whole sum- 
mit, with coarse grasses, Cyperacee, and various bushes. 

At noon reached the saddle of the crest, where was a small temple, 
one of 5 or 6 which occupy various prominences of the ridge. 

The wind, N. W. was cold, the temp. 56°. The view beautiful, but 
the atmosphere too hazy. To the north ranges of low wooded hills, and 
the course of the Barracker and Adji rivers. To the south a flatter coun- 
try, with lower ranges, and the Dummoodah river, its all but waterless 
bed snowy white from the exposed granite blocks it strews along its 
course. East and west the several sharp ridges of the mountain itself ; 
the western considerably the highest, and each crowned with a white 
temple. Immediately below, the mountain flanks appear, clothed with 
impenetrable forest, here and there interrupted by rocky eminences. 
To the north the Grand Trunk Road shoots across the plains, like a white 
thread, stretched as straight as an arrow, spanning here and there the 
beds of the mountain torrents, with the pretty bridges of my friend 
Lieut. Beadle. 

On the south side the vegetation was more luxuriant than on the north, 
though from the heat of the sun the opposite might be expected. Thig 
is owing partly to the curve taken by the ridge being open to the south 


7? 


ual 
a ae 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 369 


and to the south winds being the damp ones. Accordingly, plants which 
I had left 3000 feet below in the north ascent, here ascended to near the 
summit, such as F2c?, Bananas and various weeds. A small short- 
stemmed Palm (Phenix) was tolerably abundant, (propably P. Ouse- 
layane, Griff.) and a small tree of Pterospermum, on which a species 
of grass grew epiphytially: but too withered to determine; it formed 
a curious feature. 

The situation of the principal temple is very fine, below the saddle 
in a hollow facing the south, surrounded by forest and the Banana 
and Banian. It is small but handsome, contains little inside to remark, 
but the sculptured feets of Parus Nath and some slabs of marble with 
Boodh idols ; cross-legged figures with crisp hair and the brahminical 
cord. These, a leper covered with ashes in the vestibule and an offi. 
clating priest, were all we saw. 

Pilgrims were seen on various parts of the mount in very considerable 
numbers, passing from one temple to another, and leaving generally a 
few grains of dry rice at each ; the rich and lame were carried in chairs, 
the poorer walk. 

The culminant rocks are very dry, but in the rains may possess 
many curious things ; a fine Kalanchoe was common, with the Barberry, 
a beautiful Indigofera, and various other shrubs ; a Bolbophyllum grew 
on the rocks, with a small Begonia, Telaginella, Davallia and some 
other Ferns. There were no birds, and very few Insects, a beautiful 
small Pontia the only butterfly. The striped squirrel was very busy 
amongst the rocks, which, with some mice and the traces of bears, 
includes all 1 can say of the Zoology of the summit. 

On the top and shoulders of the hill there is a considerable space for 
establishing a small Sanatarium, and the climate is no doubt highly 
advantageous, as is the proximity to Calcutta, and the acceptability of 
the country. Mainpath however, is probably a far more eligible site, 
equal or nearly so in altitude, much more extensive and only a night’s 
dawk from the Grand Trunk Road. The height of the saddle I made 
to be 4,233 feet,* above the sea, and the following observations may 


* Calculated by Daniell’s Formula, for correcting the specific gravity of air by 
the Dew-Point, By Sir G. Shuckburgh’s Formula, the height is 4,261.8 feet. Of 
the two Peaks visited the easternmost is 4,148.4, the flag-staff 4,348.2. feet. 


370 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion, [Ocr. 


give some idea of the temperature as compared with that of Calcutta 
and the plains below the mountain. 


Comparision of Wooded-gully in Parus Nath. 


Alt. 2,126 ft., with Plains at Base alt. about 1000 ft. and Calcutta 
at 9 A. M. 
Wooded-gully. Base. Calcutta. 
Tempe. 5 ain sien DIR ape y ULE 2 ee 
Decca tp te Ose use «ot OY 60) ace ee rr. 
Tea es cu cos Soh tee Dae a eras 28.2 
Saturation. ,..... O60 Te. cap UOa0, ian nes 
Plast. of vapour... 0.203 —.... 0.204. ©) ae ea 
Interesting as the Botany of Parus Nath proved, its elevation did not 
produce such a change from the flora of its base as I had expected, 
This is no doubt due to the extraordinary influence of a dry atmo- 
sphere and barren soil. That the atmosphere of the summit is more 
damp as well as cooler than at the base, is proved as well by the obser- 
vations as by the vegetation; the results of the former as compared 
with the means of those taken below are: 


Comparison of Saddle or Crest of Parus Nath with Calcutta, and 
with the Plains at the base of the mountain, at 3 ep. Mm. Feb. Ath. 


Parus Nath. Plains at foot of. Calcutta. 
Meni yk ws kh HMDA e yey Ae I SS ee eee 
M97 Pavan Joey wine te PBL. ows MBG.B oe RRS 
Diffonies: eck bow (BRP ioy 6 iim -vROiS~ Slee ans ae 
Sates. cebeed MRSBOgiee) 18260 Ua meee 
Vap. ead aos eNO ao). .o weATdew, Dope 


Waste scend es O.1500% wo. 05248 (a eo eeee 
Winders vols ee tn Wep ec AWS 4s 
Sky. . sobuiilagys) vs varedaagew) lea 


Of plants ands typical of a moister atmosphere, I may mention 
the genera Bolbophyllum, Begonia, Ferns, Atginetia, Disporum, Rox- 
burghia, Panax, Eugenia, Myrsine, Shorea, Miilettia, the Mosses and 
foliacious Lichens ; which appeared in uncomfortable association with 
such dry climate genera, as, Kalanchoe, Pterospermum, and the dwarf 
Phenix. Add to this list the Barberry, Clematis, Thalictrum, 27 
grapes, Cardamine, &c., and the mountain top presents a mixture of the 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 371 


plants of a damp hot, a dry hot, and of a temperate climate, in fairly 
balanced proportions. The prime elements of a tropical Flora were 
however wholly wanting on Parus Nath, where are neither Peppers, 
Pothos, Arum, Palms, (except the starveling Pheeniz,) tree ferns, Scita- 
minee at this season, Guttifere, Vitis or Laurinee. 

In the evening returned to the village, I left early on the following 
morning, following Mr. Williams’ camp who had gone on to Sheergottee. 

In the valleys near the base of the hill were many fine trees, the 
Buchanania latifolia abounds, with large Terminalias, Diospyros, 
Lagerstremia, and Wrightea tinctoria. A magnificent Cesalpinia 
(paniculata ?) hung in festoons over some of the trees, a perfect cata- 
ract of golden blossoms, relieved by a dark glossy foliage. 

At Doomree (alt. 986 ft.) the hills are of gneiss, and hornblende 
schist, with a great deal of quartz ; no palms or good trees of any kind. 
The curious genus Balanites, with Aigle marmelos form abundant bushes. 
The spear-grass is far too common for comforts in Botanizing. 

Feb. 6th.—Left Doomree, walking, for Lieut. Beadle’s Bungalow. 
The country around Baghodur is still very barren, but improves consi- 
derably in gomg westward, the ground becoming hilly and the road 
winding through prettily wooded valleys. Nauclea cordifolia is very 
common and resembles a young Sycamore. Crossing some well-bridg- 
ed streams the road rises a good deal, and at the highest point measured 
1429 ft. above the sea. The Bombawx, (Semul) now leafless, is not uncom- 
mon, and a very striking tree from its buttressed trunk and gaudy scar- 
let flowers, swarming with birds, which feed from its honeyed blossoms. 

At 10 o’clock the sun became uncomfortably hot, the Therm. being 
only 77°, but the black-bulb Therm. 137°. At noon arrived at Lieut. 
Beadle’s at Beleuppee, from whom I experienced a most hospitable 
welcome. Staying there two days I enjoyed his society during several 
excursions to the hot spring, &c. I further profited much by his excel- 
lent knowledge of coloring and appreciation of the natural features of 
the surrounding country to which the beauty of its landscape is due. 
The most frequent trees are still the oak-like Mahowa (Bassia), Nauclea, 
Mango, and Ficus infectoria.. These are all scattered however, and do not 
form forest, such as in a stunted shape, clothes the hills, and consists of 
Diospyros, Terminalia, Gmelina, Nauclea parvifolia, Conocarpus, &c. 

The rocks are still hornblende schists and gneiss with a covering of 

3D 


372 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


alluvium full of quartz pebbles, Efloresced salts are frequent in the 
exposed rocks, and. probably inimical to Lichens, which though common 
hardly ever assumed the foliaceous form. Insects and birds are more 
numerous, with Jays, Crows, Doves, Sparrows and Maina (Pastor), also 
the Phenicophaus tristis, (Mahoka of the natives,) with a voice like 
the English Cuckoo as heard late in the season. 

Height of Beleuppee above the sea 1139 feet. 

In the evening visited the hot-springs, situated close to the road. 
These are four in number, rise in as many little ruined brick tanks, about 
2 yard across. Another tank, fed by a cold spring, about twice that 
size, flows between too of the hot, and only two or three paces distance 
from one of the latter on either hand. 

All burst through the gneiss rocks, meet in one stream after a few 
yards, and are conducted to a pool of cold water, about 80 yards off, 
by bricked canals. 

The temperatures of the hot springs were respectively 169°, 170°, 
173° and 190°; of the cold, 84° at 4 p. m. and 75° at 7 a. M. of the 
following morning. The hottest is the middle of the five. The water 
of the cold spring is sweet but not good, and emits gaseous bubbles ; 
it is covered with a green floating Conferva. 

Of the four hot, the most copious is about three feet deep, bubbles 
livelily its gasses, boils eggs, and. though brilliantly clear, has an exceed- 
ingly nauseous taste. This and the other warm ones deposit salt in a 
very concrete state, on the bricks and surrounding rocks. 

Conferve abound in the warm stream from the springs, and two 
species, one ochreous brown, and the other green, occur on the margins 
of the tanks themselves, and in the hottest water ; the brown is the best 
Salamander, and forms a belt within the green: both appear in broad 
luxuriant strata, where the water is cooled down to 168° and below to 
90°. Of flowering plants, three showed in an eminent degree a constitu- 
tion capable of resisting, if not a predilection for the heat ;, these were 
Cyperacee all, a Cyperus and Eleocharis? having their roots in water 
of 100°, and where they are probably exposed to greater heat, and a 
Fuirene? at 98° ; all were very luxuriant. 

From the edge of the four hot springs I gathered seven or eight 


species of flowering plants, and from the cold tank five, which did not 
grow in the hot. 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 373 


A water-beetle, Colymbetes ? and Notonecta, abounded in water at 
112°, with quantities of dead shells; frogs were very lively with live 
shells, at 90°, with various water beetles. Having no means of detect- 
ing the salts of this water, I bottled some for future analysis. The 
situation of these springs (called Soorooch-kand) is very pretty, near 
the mouth of a valley. They are objects of worship of course, and a 
ruined temple is seen close behind, with three very conspicuous trees, 
a white thick stemmed and leafless Sterculia, whose ramuli bore dense 
elusters of greenish red, fetid and viscid flowers ;—a Peepul and a 
Banyan. 

On the following day I botanized in the neighbourhood with but 
poor success; an oblique-leaved Ficus climbs the other species and 
generally strangles them. Two other epiphytial Orchidee occurred on 
the trees besides the one previously alluded to, an dAngrecum and 
Oberonia. Cuscute of two species swarm over and. conceal the bushes 
with their yellow filaments, especially chokmg the Vitex Negundo ? 
Mucuna is common, and a most disagreeable mtruder, the cowitch of its 
pod flymg about with the wind and causing intolerable irritation. 

February 8th.—Left Lieut. Beadle’s early, following Williams’ camp. 
The morning was clear and cold, the temperature only 56° ; crossed the 
nearly empty broad bed of the Burkutta river, a noble stream in the 
rains, carrying along huge boulders of granite and gneiss.—Still ascend- 
ing, measured the highest part of the road, 1492 feet, and suddenly 
came on a small forest of a peculiar looking tree, quite new to me. 
This proved to be the Indian Olibanum, Boswellia thurifera, conspicu- 
ous for its pale bark, and patent curving branches, leafy at the apices. 
Its general appearance is a good deal that of the mountain Ash; and 
the leaves, now copiously falling, and red in age, were actually reddening 
the ground. The gum was flowing abundantly from the trunk, very 
fragrant, clear and transparent. Many of the trees were cut down and 
had pushed leafy ramuli in great abundance from the stumps. The 
ground was dry and rocky with little other vegetation, no Orchidee 
grew on the trees, and but little grass under foot. Kunkar here re- 
appears in the alluvium. Another Phenix occurred here, similar to, but 
different from the Parus Nath species, probably Pacaulis ; it is wholly 
stemless, and I saw male flowers only. 


Suddenly descending to the village of Burshoot, lost sight of the 
3 D2 


374 Observations made on a Botanical Exeursion. [Ocr. 


Boswellia, and came upon a magnificent tope of Mango, Banyan and 
Peepul, so far superior to any thing hitherto met with, that we were 
glad to have hit onso pleasant a halting-place fora bivouac. There are 
a few lofty Borasst here too, great rarities in this soil and elevation ; 
one about 80 feet high towered above some wretched hovels ; displaying 
the curious proportions of the trunk in this tribe of Palm: first a short 
cone, tapering to one-third the height of the tree, the trunk then swells 
to two-third height, and again contracts upwards to the crown. 

Beyond this, to Burree, the country ascends again, is tolerably 
wooded, but otherwise sterile and very dry. Burree (1275 feet) is a 
barren place, which we left at daylight on the morning of February 9th. 
So little to be observed that I had recourse to examining footsteps, the 
precision of which in the sandy soil was curious: looking down from 
the elephant I was amused to see them all in relief, stead of depress- 
ed, the slanting rays of the eastern sun producing this mirage: the 
effect was curious. Crossed another shoulder of a hill on this undula- 
ting road, at an elevation of 1524 feet, and descended to the broad stony 
bed of the Barrucker river, an affluent of the Dummoodah, and hence 
of the Hooghly. Except im some cotton cultivation, there was little 
to be seen, and before us no more of the wooded hills that had been 
our companions for the last 120 miles, and whose absence is a sign of 
the near approaching termination of the great hilly plateau we had 
traversed for that distance. Chorparun,* the next halt, is situated on 
an extended barren flat, 1311 feet above the sea, and from it the 
descent from the table-land to the plaims below is very sudden. 

February 10th.—At daylight left Chorparun, and descended the 
ghat or Dunwah pass, as it is called, to the great valley of the Soane, 
and to the level of that of the Ganges at Patna. The road, though 
very steep, is admirably carried zigzag down a broken hill of gneiss, 
with a descent of nearly 1000 feet in 6 miles, of which 600 is exceed- 
ingly rugged and steep. The pass is well wooded, with small trees, 
among which the Boswellia is conspicuous, now pushing its flowers 
from the leafless apices of the branches. Quartz and Felspar are the 
prevalent minerals, and barren enough in every respect, except support- 
ing this low rugged wood and abundance of Bamboo ; Bombaz, Cassia, 
Acacia, and Butea are likewise frequent, as is a Calotropis, the purple 

* Hill above Chuparun, 1322 ft. 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 375 


Mudar, a very handsome road-side plant, which I had not seen be- 
fore, but which, with the Argemone Mexicana was to be a compa- 
nion for hundreds of miles before me. All the views in the pass are 
very picturesque, though wanting in good foliage, such as Ficus 
would afford, of which I did not see one tree. Indeed the rarity of the 
genus (except F’. infectoria) in the native woods of these plains I have 
traversed, is very remarkable. The Banyan and Peepul appear, (as 
the tamarind and mango and Mahowa ?) always planted. 

Dunwah, at the foot of the pass, is 633 feet above the sea, and nearly 
1000 below the mean level of the highland I had left. Every thing 
bears here a better aspect; the woods at the foot of the hills afforded 
better botanizing ; the Bamboo (B. stricta?) is green instead of yellow 
and white; a little castor oil is cultivated, and the Phenix sylvestris 
(low and stunted) appears about the cottages. 

In the evening left Dunwah for Bahra, the next stage, over very 
barren soil, covered with low jungle, the original woods being apparent- 
ly cut for fuel. 

February 11th.—Left Bahra, alt. 477 feet (from one observation 
at sunrise only) at daylight, for Sheergotty,* where Mr. Williams was 
waiting our arrival. Wherever cultivation appears the crops are 
tolerably luxuriant, but a great deal of the country is very barren, 
yielding scarcely half a dozen kinds of plants to any 10 square 
yards of ground. The most prevalent were Alax scandens, two Zizy- 
phi, and the ever-present Acacia Catechu? and Carissa carindas. 
The climate is however considerably warmer and much moister, for I 
here observed dew to be formed, which I afterwards found to be usual 
on the low grounds. ‘That its presence is due to the increased amount 
of vapor in the atmosphere I shall prove, the amount of radiation, as 
shown by the cooling of the earth and vegetation, being the same in the 
elevated plain and lower levels. 

The following is an abstract of the Meteorological observations I 
was enabled to make. From these it is evident that the dryness of the 
atmosphere is its most remarkable feature, the temperature not being 
great, and to this, combined with the sterility of the soil over a great 
part of the surface, must be attributed the want of a vigorous vegeta- 
tion. Though so favorably exposed to the influence of nocturnal radia- 

* Alt. of road, at 284th mile-stone, 474 ft. 


376 Observations made on a Botanical Exeursion. [Ocr. 


tion the amount of the latter is small. The maximum depression of a 
Thermometer laid on grass never exceeding 10°, and averaging 7° ; the 
average depression of the dew point at the same hour amounting to 
25° in the morning ; of course no dew is deposited, even in the clearest 
star-light night, which I attribute in part to the extreme desiccation, 
and in part to the operation of the light haze alluded to above. 


TABLE-LAND OF BIRBHOOM AND BEHAR. 


“4 . 
Temperature. | Wet Bulb. 2 Dew Point. 8, . | Saturation. 3 
eh SR Ea eS a od 
. < “ Ge 
5 Sips 8) .8| Fg 28 
: 43| cals o Ralda| 2 25 
Os [SG Slea S| os So\nd| GS] 5 QP 
: oo S | Hi|? S : . H 9 = 
elelale| si a7ae ||) ePereiga| sl alel § 
SS | Se) me tS Al Gu eh 2h eile Gy) Bo Wie \eeiata eteal ee 
Sun-rise --|56.6|65.2|46°3 18.9 48.2] 12.5) 6.0) .276 as 52.0, 23.3 31.7| 10.4; 3.088) .550| .680) .330 v 
9 A. M. --|70.1)77.0) 61.2) 15.8) 53.7| 19.3] 14.3] .264| 37.9) 52.7, 24.5 39.2/24.3) 2.875) .330) .450} 260 of 
3 P. M.----| 75.5] 81.7] 65.2| 16.5, 55.3) 22.5) 16.7) .248) 36.0 uae 24.3) 48.4| 34.9) 2.674) 260] .320} .190 7 
9 P. M.----!61.7| 66.2 55.5110.7 49.3 20.5! 9.0'.248' 36.1' 50.0 *9.1'56.9] 16.2! 2.745! .410|.590).140) 10 
Extreme variations of Temperature-+--++-++e+seeeer sree ere 35.4 
A oD) ae Saturation: -- ++ cr cececceecccsccsvece 54.0 
55 diff. between Solar and Nocturnal Radiation: --- 96.5 
* Taken during a violent N. W. dust storm. 
TABLE-LAND OF BEHAR AND BEERBHOOM. 
Solar Radiation. 
Morning. | Afternoon. 
fee - Black) 7. ‘A Bla ; 
T ime, ine Bulb. Diff. Phot. Tim, Th. Bulb. Diff, Phot. 
9} A. M. 77.0) ¥30) B30 ae 33 81.7] 109 21.8) we 
10 Faecis esiains 69.5 124) 54.5} 10.320 3 80.5} 120 39.5) 10.320 
110 Ec Te 77.0 137 60 56 3 81.5| 127 45.5} 10,330 
O ciara epinmiece 63.5 94) 30.5) 10.230 34 72.7 |. -105 32,3) 10.230 
OO. wiacuaimeuis 61.2 106} 44.8 ae 3 72.5| 110 37.5} 10.390 


Dencesencns| 67,0) . BEA 49.0; . 10,350) 6 


Mean. ...e6- 69.2) 117.8; 48.6; 10.300)) .. {7 7.7} 114.2) 36.4; 10.318 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 377 


TABLE-LAND OF BIRBHOOM AND BEAR. 


Nocturnal Radiation. 


rs] o 
Sunrise. q 9P.M 3 
tan S on bod P= as = 5 She 
3s —i— ts lo) oo fo 
eee as |. 2 Ad | as % 
o ~ oe 
2B a & ae 2E S. ag - 2 & 
Pe BS dy BS), |B ca ei Pee 
al erp se A eB a = 7, 
Exposed Th, ....e00-| 51.1 4, 90! 6 56.4 5.3 7.5 7 
On Earth. evvee ecose 48.3 2.5 Suu 3 53.8 4,9 5.5 6 
On Grass. .... oe Saakte 46.6 6.2 9.0 5 54.4 7.2 10.0 7 


On one occasion, and that at night, the dew point was as low as 9°.1, 
with a temperature of 66°, a depression rarely equalled at so low a 
temperature ; this phenomenon was transient and caused by the passage 
of a current of air loaded with dust, whose cooling particles possibly 
absorbed the atmospheric humidity. I neglected to collect any of the 
powder. From a comparison of the night and morning observations of 
Thermometers laid on grass,—the earth,—and freely exposed, it appears 
that the grass parts with its heat much more rapidly than the earth, 
but that still the effect of radiation is slight, lowering its temperature 
but 2° below that of the freely exposed thermometer. 

As compared with the climate of Calcutta these flat hills present a 
remarkable contrast, considering their proximity in position and 
moderate elevation. 

The difference of temperature, deduced from the sunrise morning and 
afternoon observations, amounts to 4°, which, if the mean height of the 
hills where crossed by the road, be called 1133 feet, will be equal to a 
fall of one degree for every 288 feet. This is below the usual equiva- 
lent for that height: Playfair assuming, 1° equal to 270 feet of elevation, 
and more recent observers 1° as equal to 250 feet. A comparison of 
the solitary temperature taken at the top of Parus Nath with the 
cotemporaneous one at Calcutta, gives 1° of temperature for every 211 
feet, which is agai much above the assumed standard. 

In the dampness of the atmosphere Calcutta contrasts very remarka- 
bly with these hills; the dew point on the Hooghly averaging 51°.3, 


378 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


and on these hills 38°, the corresponding saturation points being 0.559 
and 0.380. 

The differences between sunrise, forenoon and afternoon dew points 
at Calcutta and on the hills, are 13°.6 at each observation ; but the atmo- 
sphere at Calcutta is proportionably drier in the afternoon than at sun- 
rise, than it is on the hills: the difference between the Calcutta sunrise 
and afternoon saturation point bemg 0.449: and the hill sunrise and 
afternoon, 0.190. The march of the dew point is thus the same in both 
instances, but owing to the much higher temperature of Calcutta, and 
greatly increased tension of the vapor, there the saturation points answer- 
ing to these dew point temperatures, are very different. 

In other words, the atmosphere of Calcutta is loaded with moisture 
in the early morning of this season, and is comparatively dry in the 
afternoon; in the hills again, it is scarcely more humid at sunrise 
than at 3 p.m. That this dryness of the hills is partly due to eleva- 
tion appears from the disproportionately moister state of the atmo- 
sphere below the Dunwah pass. 

A retrospect of the ground passed over is unsatisfactory, as far as 
botany is concerned, except as showing how potent are the effects of a 
dry soil and climate, upon a vegetation which has no desert types. At 
another season, probably many more species would be obtained, for of 
annuals I scarce got a score of species. In a geographical point of 
view the range of hills is exceedingly interesting, as being the N. E, 
continuation of a chain which crosses the broadest part of the Penin- 
sula, from the gulf of Cambay to the junction of the Ganges and 
Hooghly at Rajmahal. This range runs south of the Soane and Vin- 
dhya, which it meets I believe at Omerkuntuk ; the granite of this and 
the sandstone of the other, being then both overlain with trap. Fur- 
ther west again, the ranges separate, the present still betraying a 
nucleus of granite, forming the Satpur range, which divides the valley 
of the Taptee from that of the Nerbudda. The southern is, though 
the most difficult of definition, the longest of the two parallel ranges, 
the Vindhya continued as the Kymaon, terminating abruptly at the 
Fort of Chunar. The general and geological features of the two, 
especially along their eastern course, are very different. This of gneiss, 
hornblende-schists and granites, in various highly inclined beds, through 
which granite hills are pushed, most of them low, but one culminating 


1848. ] Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 379 


remarkably, Parus Nath, around whose base the overlying gneiss rocks 
dip, radiating from it. The N. E. Vindhya again are of flat beds of 
sandstone, presenting a dead level, with no eminences or signs of 
upheaval, overlying a non-fossiliferous inclined bed of limestone. 
Between the latter and the Parus Nath gneiss, come (in order of super 
position) shivered and undulating strata of metamorphic quartz, horn- 
stone, hornstone-porphyry, jaspers, &ec. These are thrown up, by 
voleanic action, along the N. and N. W. boundary of the gneiss range 
and are to be recognized, at the rocks of Colgong, of Sultangunge and 
of Monghyr, on the Ganges, as also various detached hills near Gya, 
and along the upper course of the Soane. From these the Soane 
pebbles are derived, which are equally common on the Curruckpore 
range, as on the south banks of the Soane :—so much so in the former 
position, as to have been used in the decoration of the walls of what 
are now ruined palaces near Bhaugulpore. 

A very gradual ascent, over the alluvial plains of the west bank of the 
Hooghly, then over laterite, succeeded by sandstone of the Indian coal 
era, leads to the granite table-land properly so called; a little beyond 
this the latter reaches an average height of 1130 ft. which is continued 
on upwards of 100 miles, to the Dunwah Pass, in short. Here the 
descent is sudden, to the plains, which, continuous with those of the 
Ganges, run up the Soane till its valley is narrowed beyond Rotasghur. 
Except for the occasional ridges of metamorphic rocks mentioned above, 
and some intruded hills of greenstone, the lower plain is stoneless, its 
subjacent rocks bemg covered with a thicker stratum of the same 
alluvium, which is thinly spread over the higher parts of the table-land 
above, though even there collected in beds of enormous thickness in 
the depressions. The plain here dividing the Kymaon range from that 
of Parus Nath, is full 80 miles across, with a mere elevation of 400 ft. ; 
beyond which the ascent to the Kymaon is more abrupt than 400 in 
the descent at Dunwah. This alluvium is, to my as yet unpractised eyes, 
a most remarkable formation, and with its inclosed kunker, appears as 
if deposited quietly and synchronously over the Kymaon, the Parus 
Nath range and the intervening broad valley of the Soane. Broad 
bold and headstrong as the latter river is, it seems to have played no 
part in the formation of its own valley, for in its upper bed, where the 
valley is scarcely two miles wide, and where the Kymaon sandstone 

3 .E 


380 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


escarpments all but plumb the river, there is still a narrow strip of dead 
flat alluvium, with kunker, as hard and tough as many rocks, through 
which the river eats its way, cutting channels with perpendicular sides 
in both margins, and which shield the rocky hills on either bank. A 
thin bed of vegetable mould, the result of decomposition, or perhaps 
aided by occasional overflows of the stream, caps the alluvium ; but the 
latter is distinctly a formation antecedent to the birth of the river. Of 
all problems referring more immediately to Indian geology, this appears 
to me the most interesting; whether we regard this vast deposit in a 
purely geological light or as that depression of hills and elevation of 
valleys, which has smoothed so much of the surface of the continent 
from the Himalayah to Cape Comorin, producing uniformity of outline 
and of concomitant features, over many thousands of square leagues, 
favoring the ravages of conquering races, and the propagation of creeds, 
of populations and industrial arts. On passing over the mountainous 
districts one is astonished at the isolation of the tribes, inhabiting the 
rugged hills of Curruck from Parus Nath and Rajmahal, but a uni- 
formity prevails amongst the people north of the range, and along the 
Gangetic plains, from Benares to Monghyr, more marked than between 
any two neighbouring counties in England. 

To return to the Parus Nath range (or table-land of north Bengal) it 
is the great water bed of this part of India. Rivers flow from it N. W. 
and N. into the Soane; the Rheru, the Kunner, the Coyle and innu- 
merable smaller streams. A few insignificant nullahs also find their 
way to the Ganges. The more considerable ones debouche in the 
Hooghly, as the Dummoodah with its affluents, the Adji and Barrucker, 
the Cossye and Dalkissori; and still others, the Subunrika, Brahminy 
and north feeders of the Mahanuddy flow to the Bay of Bengal. 

Hence, though difficult to define from its gradual slope to the east- 
ward, its broken outline, (so different from the ghat ranges of sandstone 
or trap rocks,) and from the impracticable nature of the country 
forming its southern boundary, it is a range of great interest, from its 
being the source of so many important rivers, and of all those which 
drain the country between the Soane, Hooghly and Ganges—from its 
position directing the course of the Soane and forcing the Ganges which 
strikes its base at Rajmahal, to seek a sinuous course to the sea. In 
its climate and botany it differs equally from the Gangetic plains to the 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 381 


north and from the hot damp and exuberant forests of Orissa to the 
south. Nor are its geological features less different, or its concomitant 
and in part resultant characters of agriculture and native population. 
Still further west than Mainpath, this range is continued, probably 
ascending, till it meets the Vyndhya at Omer-kuntuk, there the great 
rivers of the peninsula have their origin, these two ranges meeting and 
combining to throw of the waters mainly in opposite directions. The 
Nerbudda and Taptee hence flow west to the gulf of Cambay, the Cane 
to the Jumna, the Soane to the Ganges, and the northern feeders of the 
Godavery to the Bay of Bengal. Further westit appears to me that 
they again separate, but are still to be recognized by geological fea- 
tures, though these are masked by the presence in common to both 
of enormous overlying masses of trap.* 

February 12th.—Left Sheergotty (alt. 463 ft.) crossmg some small 
streams which, like all else seen since leaving Dunwah Pass, flow N. to 
the Ganges. Long low ranges of hills, isolated, and together forming 
no apparent system, rise abruptly out of the plain. These are chiefly 
of volcanic rocks, syenite and greenstone, forcing up, and sometimes 
injected through broken masses of gneiss, metamorphic quartz, horn- 
stone, &c. All the rocks composing them are of excessive hardness and 
covered with a scanty vegetation, approaching absolute sterility. Many 
of them occurring between Sheergotty and the Soane, are better known 
to the traveller from having been telegraphic stations. Some are much 
impregnated with iron, and whether for their color, the curious outlines 
of many, or their position, they form quaint, and in some cases pictur- 
esque features in the otherwise tame landscape. 

At Muddunpore alt. 442+ ft. a thermometer, sunk 3 ft. 4 inches in 


* [ laid these views when very crude before my friend and present host B. H. 
Hodgson, Esq. and received such assistance in fixing them as few could afford. I 
am anxious, thus early, to record my deep sense of obligation to one who is my 
master in the Physical Geography of Asia, because, living as we are in constant 
intercourse, and entertaining views, so consonant on enquiries of this nature, the 
pupil is apt to forget, how much the results of his own efforts are enhanced in value 
by the directing hand of his preceptor. 

+ I need hardly say that I hope for the indulgence of the Indian Geographer dur- 
ing his perusal of this sketch. It is given with the view of eliciting contradiction 
or confirmation, and perhaps with too much of that confidence which my superficial 
knowledge of a great part of the country in question inspires. One end will have 


one 


382 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


the soil maintained a constant temperature of 71.5°, that of the air vary- 
ing from 77.5 at 3 p. M. to 62. at sunrise. 

Road to Nourunga highly cultivated, with the Phenix more abundant, 
and many of the weeds of the cultivated grounds, the analogues of the 
corn-field plants of England, and in many cases the same genera, and 
almost universally belonging to the same natural order, as Labiate, Scro- 
phularine, Solanee, Leguminose, and Boraginee, Caryophyllee, Vero- 
nica, Anagallis and Graphalium luteo-album ; both the latter very pre- 
valent European weeds, were abundant, and are amongst the few English 
plants common to India. The ground in some places was spangled with 
the blue flowers of the beautiful Lwacum tetragonum ? as English upland 
meadows are often with its ally Gentiana campestris. At 312 mile- 
stone the elevation of the road from one morning observation is 371 ft. 

At Nourunga I sunk two Thermometers in partial shade of Palms. 
One at 3 ft. 8 in., the other at 4 ft. § in., with the following results : 
Time § Temp. of Air.| Shade.{at 3 ft. 8./at 4 ft. 8.| Temp. at 3 Pp. mM. 

Feb. 13th, 9 vp. m.| 60 71.0 71.5. lof the same day 71° 
10 p.m.| 60 72.0 72.0. |Maxm. of bk. bulb 
14h, oA. MM.) D7. 70. 71.5. |Thermometer 119°. 

At 5 a. m. I took the temperature of the earth at lesser depths. 
Surface soil, 53 The elevation of Naurunga is 342 feet, and the 

1 Inch. 57 soil bored into, was an excessively tough allu- 
Di nae 58 vium which however seemed to part with 
AP gt 62 its heat from nocturnal radiation very rapidly. 
Gi ase 64 The three observations at 3 feet 8. and 4 feet 8. 


been served should it lead other travellers and enquirers to group geographical features. 
A stranger in, India is overwhelmed with local details. In no British possession 
have I found a community so conversant with the local geography of that whole 
country, of which each individual can see but little; none where a new comer may 
accumulate information so rapidly, so accurately, and I may add without flattery, so 
pleasantly. But still the broad features are neglected, the dependence and direction 
of the rivers upon the elevation and disposition of the land, the connection of those 
with geographical phenomena, of more remarkable simplicity in India than in any 
similarly extensive country, and the possibility of arranging a knowledge of details by 
a due regard to the bearings of all these. Very many can indicate with precision the 
position of an untold number of towns and the mouths of as many rivers, but how 
few will point the finger to Omer-kuntuk if asked for the fountain-head of all the 
great cis-Himalayan streams, though these span an area of 10 degrees of latitude 


and 16 in longitude, 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 383 


are not sufficient to draw any conclusions from, but they appear to 
indicate the transmission of solar heat accumulated during the day 
downwards, between 9 p. mM. and sunrise of the following morning. 

February 14th.—Marched from Naurunga to Barroon on the Soane, 
crossing several streams, one deep. It is curious that all the streams 
between the Dunwah pass and the Soane itself run parallel to that 
river and into the Ganges, even the westernmost of them, as the Pompon, 
some of whose feeders at the great trunk road, run parallel to the Soane, 
within a mile of that river, but instead of finding their way to it, seek 
a northward course of nearly 100 miles to the Ganges. This indicates 
a more rapid fall of the land towards the N. than to the W., and 
further, a depression between Dunwah and the Soane, which I believe 
occurs about Naurunga, and from whence there is a rise towards the 
Soane. Nothing can more clearly indicate the tenacity and durability 
of the alluvium through which the small streams wind their way. The 
body of water lodged in this depression would else, during the rains, 
find a course into the Soane, instead of keeping parallel to it for so 
many miles. The fall of the Soane itself however gives the northerly 
dip of the land towards the Ganges more clearly. My observations 
both at Barroon on the E. and at Dearee on the W. bank (opposite) of 
the Soane, makes the river here about the same level as that of the 
Ganges at Benares, which Prinsep estimates at 300 feet above Calcutta. 
Now the length of the Ganges between Benares and the mouth of the 
Soane is about 150 miles, witha fall of as many feet. The length of 
the Soane between Barroon and the Ganges is 70 miles with a fall of 
upwards of 150 feet,* producing of course a current most unfavorable 
to navigation. 

Barroon is situated on the alluvial bank of the river (elevated 345 
feet) and on as naked and barren a looking country as well may be, the 
broad expanse of sand which the river exposes in the dry season, resem- 
bles a desert, which like many other similar expanses of sand on the 
Ganges, has its mirages, its simooms, and the other phenomena of an 


* All these elevations are above the sea, must be considered as mere approxi- 
mations, and are intended to give the general outline of the land. Had I detailed 
surveys of the countries in question, they would of course have been preferred to 
my own very rough geodetical operations, and which were not taken with the view 
of determining levels primarily. 


384 Observations made on a Botanical Exeursion. [Ocr. 


Australian or African desert to a miniature. Its surface in the day is 
heated above that of the neighbouring country, at night cooled below it. 
The stars appeared to twinkle more clearly on its banks, and I thought 
I could during the early morning detect a current of air flowing from 
its cooled atmosphere to that surrounding the warmer alluvial plains. 
Rhamnee, Carissa, Olax, Acacia, Menispermun and a tall stiff and dry 
Malva, formed the pervailing vegetation, with Cuscuta, Cassytha, a few 
Asclepiadee and withered grass. Though this is the coldest season, 
the sand was heated to 110° and upwards where sheltered from the 
wind, and to 104° on the broad bed of the river. 

To compare the rapidity and depth to which the heat is communicat- 
ed by pure sand, and by the tough alluvium, I took the temperature at 
some inches depth in both. The mean of a good many observations at 
different holes, gave the following differences between the temperature 
of a column of sand in situ 16 inches thick, at 2 p.m. and 54. Mm. 
the following morning. 


Feb. 14th 2 p. m. 15th, 5 a. m.| Diff. 


Air in shade, 81° 62 18° Maximum of black-bulb 
Surface, 108 43 64.5 |therm. during the day 126°. 
liinch,.. 100 50 50 |Min. of radiation at 5 a. M. 
Seay py 85 Bi 28 [from a naked bulb therm. 
Gi rss 73 67 6 |48.2. (exposed over the sand). 

i ss Se ae 7 68 4 


* Sand wet at this depth. 


That the alluvium both conducts the heat better, and retains it longer, 
would appear from the following, the only observations I could make 
owing to the tenacity of the soil.* 

Hard alluvial bank of river. 
2 p.m. Surface 104°. 
24 inch, 93°. 
5 _,, 88°. Sand at this depth, 78°. 
5 a.M. Surface 51°. 
28 inches, 68°.5. 


* The plan I adopted was suddenly to remove a large clod of alluvium and insert 
a very small thermometer bulb into a perpendicular side of the hole thus made. I 
should be glad that any one could suggest to me a better method, feasible for a tra- 
veller. The increment or decrement of heat is so rapid for a few inches below the 
surface as to render its determination with any accuracy very difficult. 


1848. ] Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 385 


Hence the difference between the heat of the surface of the alluvium 
and of the same at 5 inches is, 16° during the day, but of a similarly 
disposed column of sand, 30°. 

During the night again acolumn of 28 inches of alluvium presents a 
difference of 17°.5, one of sand as nearly as I could ascertain of 16 
inches, 24°.5, 

This effect of sandy deserts in causing extremes of heat during the 
day, and cold at night, is thus readily to be apprehended, and in the 
case of the larger area covered with sand, the effect of radiation is pro- 
bably much increased. Thus in the desert between Cairo and Suez 
a surface heated in the middle of December to 90° during the day, 
presented on the following morning, before sunrise, a dewed surface of 
470.5, the increment of heat in digging down to 10 inches was 9 
degrees: so powerful is then the effect of nocturnal radiation, that a 
column of 10 inches was cooled at its base to within 9 degrees of its 
exposed surface ; while a similar one on the Soane had its base temper- 
ature 24° above that of the surface, &c. 

Observing the flowing sap of a vigorous Calotropis plant growing 
the sand to maintain a temperature of 72° in spite of the great heat 
of the surrounding soil, I dug about its roots and obtained that temper- 
ature at 78 inches where the sand was wet, and from whence its roots 
derived their moisture. As at 15 inches the temperature was still only 
72° and its roots did not appear to descend so deep, it is evident that 
the plant was pumping up moisture with such rapidity as to bring the 
fluid to the surface as cool as below. That this coolness of the sap is 
due to the ascending currents, is proved by taking the temperature of 
the leaves, which were at 80° (constants). 

The low temperature of the leaves exposed to the sun (which heated 
the sand to 110° and earth to 104°) is probably due both to the coolness 
of the ascending sap and evaporation from the leaf’s surface, as the 
activity of the circulation is regulated by the rapidity of evaporation. 
On the same night the leaves were cooled to 54° by radiation, the sand. 
to 51°, and before sunrise on the following morning the Calotropis 
showed 45°.5 and the sand 42°. I neglected to observe the temper- 
ature of the sap at this time, but supposing it to be that of the earth 
at the same depth (15 inches) which was 68°, we must admit the leaves 
to be heated only 8° by solar radiation and cooled 22°.5 by nocturnal. 


386 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


Two thermometers sunk in the alluvium here gave the following 


results :— 
The air. Soil at 3 ft. 6. Soil at 2 ft. 4. In both cases 
9 p. M. 62° 70° 70° perfectly ex- 
ll P.M. 72 72 posed hard al- 
53 A. M. 53.5. 48.5. 68.5. luvial soil. 


Here again, as at Nourunga, there is a decided increase of temperature 
after 9 p.m. I cannot suppose however, that it is due to a heating of 
the soil to that depth, so rapidly as the 9 and 11 o’clock observations 
would seem to indicate. | 

February 15th.—Crossed the Soane to Dearee on the opposite bank ; 
at this season there is but little water and the body of the current runs 
close to the W. shore; all else is sand, representing in its major and 
minor undulations those of the ocean. The progressive motion of the 
_ waves was very evident, and produced by the sand from windward 

flying off one ripple and heaping against the weather bank of the ripple 
to leeward; thus though the particles of sand preserve an onward 
course, the waves are advancing against the wind or retrograding, that 
in front: being added to on its weather side. A few islets of laminated 
sand occur in the bed of the sand, little oases, green with waving crops 
of much diseased wheat and barley. Alt. of Dearee 334 ft. 

February 16th.—From hence our course lay up the Soane, leaving 
the grand trunk road. Marched from Dearee this morning to Tilothi, 
through a rich and highly cultivated country, covered with indigo, 
cotton, sugar-cane, Carthamus, castor oil, poppy, and various grains. 
The Zizyphi are larger, Cuscutas cover even tall trees with agolden 
web, and the Capparis acuminata, was in full flower along the road side. 
Tilothi, a beautiful village situated in a magnificent tope, is close to the 
river, and about 5 miles from the foot of the Kymaon, which here pre- 
sents a precipitate sandstone escarpment. The plants along its base were 
precisely the same as those of the Dunwah pass, and on their tops 
those of the base of Parus Nath: Buchanania, Boswellia, Terminalias, 
Acacias, Bauhinia and the white-trunked naked-armed Stéereculza 
fetidissima. ) 

A hole was sunk here again, for the thermometers, and as usual, 
with great labour; 8 men took as many hours to bore 5 ft. with a very 
heavy iron yumper, so exceedingly tough is the soil ;—the temperatures 
obtained were— 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


1848.] Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 387 


Air. 4 feet 6 inches under good shade of trees. 
eye Me G49 ra” 77° 
Pe eae te! 76° 
Tacks wm 588D! et 76° 


This is a very great rise (of 4°) above any of those previously 
obtained, and certainly indicates a much higher mean temperature 
of the locality. I can only suppose it due to the radiation of heat 
from the long range of sandstone cliff, exposed to the south, which 
overlooks the flat whereon we were encamped, and which though 4 or 5 
miles off, forms a very important feature. The differences of temper. 
ature in the shade taken on this and the other side of the river are 
2°8 higher on this side. 

February 17th.—Proceeded up the Soane to Rotasghur, where a 
spur of the Vindhya stands abruptly forward. 

The range, in proceedmg up the Soane valley gradually approaches 
the river, and beds of limestone are seen protruding below the sandstone 
and occasionally rismg into rounded hills, the paths upon which show 
as white as do those through the chalk districts of England. The 
overlying beds of sandstone are nearly horizontal, or with a dip to the 
N. W.,; the subjacent ones of limestone dip at a greater angle. Before 
coming to the village of Akbarpore, at the base of the spur, the road. 
passes over the foot of a curious detached conical hill of limestone, 
capped with a flat mass of sandstone, whose edges, from the more 
rapid decomposition of the subjacent support, overhung the top of the 
hill. At its base the beds of some are undulating and an anticlinal 
line is passed over ; beyond this the escarpment of the Vindhya sweeps 
backwards from the river, and returns as the spur of Rotas, which thus 
forms one horn to a grand amphitheatre of rocks, enclosing a wooded 
valley. The forest creeps up the sloping base of the precipices, whose 
crests are shaggy also with a rough jungly wood. ‘This view of the 
conical hill with its sandstone cap, the grand sweep of the scarped 
rocks, returning to form the fortress-crowned spur of Rotas, and the 
foreground of wooded valley, is exceedingly fine. 

During my stay at Akbarpore we had the advantage of the society 
of C. E. Davies, Esq. who was our guide and instructor during 
some rambles in the neighbourhood, and to whose experience, founded 
on the best habits of observation, | am indebted for excellent informa- 

3.F 


388 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


tion. On our excursion to the top of the hills, we passed one of 
those beautiful built wells, about 60 ft. deep, and with a fine flight of 
steps to the bottom. Now neglected and overgrown with flowering 
weeds and creepers, it afforded me many of the plants I had only 
previously obtained in a withered state ; it was curious to observe there 
some of the species of the hill tops, whose seeds doubtless are scattered 
abundantly over the surrounding plains, and only here find a congenial 
climate, where the coolness and moisture of their natural level are 
imitated. A fine fig tree growing out of the stone work spread its 
leafy green branches over the well mouth, which was about 12 ft. 
square; its roots assumed a singular form, enveloping two sides of the 
well walls, with a beautiful network, which at high-water mark, (rainy 
season) abruptly divides into thousands of little brushes, dipping into 
the water which they fringe, thence descending to the earth below. 
It was a pretty cool place to descend to, from a temperature of 80° 
above, to 74° at the bottom, where the water was 60° ; and most refresh- 
ing to look, either up the shaft to the green fig shadowing the deep 
profound, or along the sloping steps through a vista of flowering herbs 
and climbing plants, to the blue heaven of a burning sky. 

The ascent to Rotas is over the dry hills of limestone, covered with 
a scrubby brush-wood, to a crest where are the first rude and now 
ruined defences of the pass. The limestone is succeeded by the sand- 
stone cliff cut into steps, which leads from ledge to ledge of the strata, 
and gap to gap, well guarded with walls and archways of solid masonry. 
Through this you pass on the flat summit of the Kymaon hills, covered 
with grass and low loose forest, amongst which paths run in all direc- 
tions. The ascent is about 1200 ft. a long pull in the blazing sun, 
even of February. The turf is chiefly of spear-grass and Nardus, — 
which yields the favorite oil, much used in domestic medicine all over 
India. The trees are of the kinds mentioned before, especially the 
Olibanum, Wrightea, Diospyros and. Terminalia ; the Sal (Vatica robus- 
ta) is rare, from being universally cut down. The curious Hymenodyc- 
tium thyrsiflorum grows asa scattered tree. A pretty octagonal summer- 
house with a roof supported by pillars, occupies one of the highest 
points of the plateau; it is called 1485 ft. above the Soane, and com- 
mands a superb view of the features mentioned before. 

From this to the palace is a walk of 3 miles, through the woods. 


1848. ] Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 389 


The buildings are very extensive, and though now ruinous, bear evidence 
of great beauty in the architecture: light galleries supported by slender 
columns, long cool arcades, screened squares and terraced walks, are the 
principal features. The rooms open out into flat roofs, commanding 
views of the long endless table-land on one side, and a sheer precipice 
of 1000 feet on the other, with the Soane, the amphitheatre of hills, and 
village of Akbarpore, below. 

This and Bidjegur, higher up the Soane, were some of the most 
recently reduced forts, and this was further the last of those wrested 
from Baber in 1542. Some of the rooms are still habitable, but the 
greater part are ruinous and covered. with climbers of both wild flowers, 
and the naturalized garden plants of the adjoining shrubbery. The 
Nyctanthes and Guettarda, with Vitex negundo, Hibiscus abelmoschus, 
Abutilon indicum, Physalis, Justicia adhatoda and other Acanthacee, 
and above all the little yellow-flowered Linaria ramossima, crawling 
like the English Z. cymbalaria over every ruined wall: all this is just 
as we see the walls of our old English castles harbouring to the last the 
plants their old masters fostered in the garden hard by. 

On the limestone walls several species of crustaceous Lichens abounded. 

In the old dark stables I observed the soil to be covered with a 
copious most evanescent efflorescence, apparently of Nitrate Lime, like 
soap-suds scattered about. 

I made Rotas Palace 1576 feet above the sea, or 1177 feet above the 
village, so that this table-land is here only 50 feet higher than that I 
had crossed on the Grand Trunk Road, before descending at the Dunwah 
pass. Its mean temperature Mr. Davies informs me, is probably about 
10° below that of the valley below, but, though so cool, not exempt 
from agues after the rains. The extremes of temperature are less 
marked up here than below, where the valley becomes excessively heated, 
and where the hot wind sometimes lasts for a week, blowing in furious 
gusts. 

The climate of the whole neighbourhood has changed materially ; and 
the fall of rain, which has much diminished, consequently on felling 
the forests; even within 6 years the hail-storms are far less frequent 
and violent. ‘The air on the hills is highly electrical, owing no doubt 
to the dryness of the atmosphere, and to this the frequent formation 
of hail-storms may be due. 

3 F 


390 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. (Ger? 


The Zoology of these regions is tolerably copious, but little is known 
of the natural history of a great part of the plateau; a native tribe, 
prone to human sacrifices, is talked of. Tigers are far from unfrequent, 
and bears numerous, they have besides the leopard, panther, viverine 
cat, and civet. Of the dog tribe the pariah, jackal, fox, and wild dog 
called Koa. Deer are very numerous, of 6 or 7 species. A small 
alligator inhabits the hill streams, a very different animal from either of 
the Soane species.* 

During our descent we examined several instances of ripple mark 
in the sandstone ; they resembled the fluting of the Sigillaria stems, 
. In the coal-measures, and occurring as they did here, in sandstone a 
little above great beds of limestone, had been taken for such, and as 
indications of coal. 

On the followmg day we visited Rajghat, a steep ghat or pass up 
the cliff to Rotas Palace, a little higher up the river. We. took the 
elephants to the mouth of the glen, picking up Mr. Davies in our way, 
who had taken his wswal before break-fast walk, of from Akbarpore to 
the top of Rotas! and down by the Rajghat pass. Dismounting we 
followed a stream abounding in small fish and aquatic insects, (Dytisa 
and Gyrini), through a close jungle, to the foot of the cliffs, where 
there are indications of coal. The woods were full of monkeys, 
and amongst other plants I observed Murraya exotica, but scarce. 
Though the jungle was so dense the woods were very dry, no Palm, Aroi- 
dee, Peppers, Orchidee or Ferns. Here, at the foot of the cliffs, which 
towered imposingly above as seen through the tree tops, are several 
small seams of coaly matter in the sandstone, with abundance of pyrites, 
sulphur and copious efflorescences of salts of iron: but no real coal. 
The springs from the cliffs above, are charged with lime, of which 
enormous tuff beds are deposited on the sandstone, full of impressions 
of leaves and stems of the surrounding vegetation. In some part of 
their course the streams take up quantities of the efflorescence, which 
are scattered over the sandstones in a singular manner. 

At Akbarpore (alt. 399 ft.) Ihad sunk two thermometers, one at the 
depth of 4 feet 6 inches, the other 5 feet 6 inches, which both indicated 
76° during the whole time of my stay, the air varying at the surface 


* For the better part of this information and much other of value, whose inser- 


tion would cause this paper to exceed its proper limits, I am indebted to Mr. Davies- 


1848.] § Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 391 


from 56° to 79°.5. Dew has been formed every night on the plains 
since leaving the hill at Dunwah, the grass being here cooled 12° below 
the temperature of the air. 

February 19th.—Marched up the Soane to Tura, passing some low 
hills of limestone, between the cliffs of the Kymaon and the river. 
Collected Ulmus integrifolia, a small Clerodendron, and pretty bell- 
flowered Asclepiadeous plant crawling over the hedges. Botanized on 
the banks of the river, which is lined with small trees of Ficus, Ter- 
minalia, Phyllanthus, Trophis, and various shrubs, one, a very sweet- 
scented Vitex, with clusters of white flowers, also V. agnus-castus ? (or 
Negundo.) On the shaded banks, abundance of a Myosotes like Cyno- 
glossum, Veronie, Potentilla, Ranunculus sceleratus, Ramewx, several 
herbaceous Composite and Labiate; Tamarix formed a small bush in 
rocky hiliocks in the bed of the river, and in pools several aquatic 
plants, Zanichellia, Naias, Chara, and a pretty little Vallisneria, and 
Potamogeton. Riccia was very abundant. The Brahminy goose was 
common here, and we usually saw in the mornings immense flocks of 
wild geese overhead, flying. North elevation of Tura 443 ft. 

Here I tried again the effect of solar and nocturnal radiation on the 
sand, at different depths in the sand, not being able to do so on the 
alluvium. Temperature of air 87°. 


Noon. Daylight of following morning. 
pamicen LOO. Ce ee Pe 2° 
Brine Lge re ARUN 5b? 
Be Nditto® SS ENN POL t tyr ee 
Pepe OA eee aD re 67° 
Saito 77" Sand“ wet? s.'.3. 73° wet 
To-do 76%) ditto... My ened. ty 74° 


As from above Tura the Soane valley narrows very rapidly, I shall 
give here an abstract of the Meteorological observations taken since 
leaving the Dunwah Pass. 

The difference in mean temperature, (partly owing to the sun’S 
approach) amounts to 2°5 of increase on the Soane valley, above that 
of the hills. The range of the thermometer from day to day was 
considerably greater in the upper station (though fewer observations were 


* Thermometer employed not registered above this temperature. 


392 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


there recorded) amounting to 17.2 in the former and only 12°8 in the 
lower station. The range from the maximum to the mmimum of each 
day amounts to the same in both, above 20°. The extreme variations 
in temperature too coincide withm 1°4. 

In the hygrometric state of the atmosphere, this of the plains 
differs most decidedly from that of the hills. Here, as I remarked, 
dew is constantly formed, which is owing to the amount of moisture in 
the air, for nocturnal radiation is more powerful on the hills, though it 
never caused a thermometer to descend to the dew point there. The 
sunrise and 9 p. M. observation on the lower level give a mean depres- 
sion of the D. P. below the air of 12°.3, and those at the upper level of 
21°.2, with no dew in the former case and a copious deposit in the latter. 
The corresponding state of the atmosphere as to saturation is 0.480 on 
the hills and 0.626 below. The only causes I can assign for this seem 
hardly sufficient : they are the more uniform depth and presence of the 
alluvium and the frequency of rivers; and what perhaps is even 
more powerful the shelter afforded by the Kymaon hills from the dry 
N. W. winds ; though it is difficult to conceive that hills of only 1000 
feet elevation can influence much a valley 80 miles broad (between the 
Kymaon and Dunwah.) 

The vegetation of the Soane valley is exposed to less extremes of 
temperature, than that of the hills. The difference between solar and 
nocturnal radiation amounting here only to 80°.5, and in the former 
case to 96°.5. Thereis no material difference in the power of the sun’s 
rays at the upper and lower level, as expressed by the black bulb 
thermometer, the average rise of a thermometer so exposed over one 
in the shade, amountimg to 48° in either case, and the maximum occur- 
ring about 11 a.m. The decrease of the power of the sun’s rays in 
the afternoon is much the most rapid in the valley, coinciding with a 
greater reduction of the elasticity of vapor and of humidity in the 
atmosphere. 

The photometric experiments show a greater degree of sun’s light on 
the hills than below, but there is not in either state a decided relation 
between the indications of this instrument and the black bulb thermo- 
meter. From observations taken elsewhere I am inclined to attribute 
the excess of solar light on the hills to their elevation ; for at a far 
greater elevation I have met with much stronger solar light, in a very 


1848. ] Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 393 


damp atmosphere, than I ever experienced in the drier plains of 
India. Inadamp climate the greatest intensity may be expected in 
the forenoon, where the vapor forms a thin and uniform stratum near 
the earth’s surface; in the afternoon the lower strata of atmosphere 
are drier but the vapor is condensed into clouds aloft which more effec- 
tually obstruct the sun’s rays. On the Birbhoom and Behar hills, where 
the amount of vapor is so small that the afternoon is but little drier 
than the forenoon, there is little difference between the solar light at 
each time. In the Soane valley again, where a great deal of humidity 
is removed from the earth’s surface and suspended aloft, the obstruc- 
tion of the sun’s light is very marked. 

T have given a few observations on the temperatures of the leaves of 
two plants during the night, drgemone Mexicana and Calotropis proce- 
va, to which I shall allude when more shall have been taken. 


Dunwau To SoANE River, AND UP SOANE TO TurRA, 
Fepy. 10TH-197TH. 


Coal 4 

Temperature. | Wet. Bulb. | Dew Point. als: Satura- 3 

S > 9 |_ tion. iS 

. . ra 5 . C= Eh) a Se 

§| §| 32 §| §] Sx Sy 
; eal | ele al Se 38 
d| Sia leees| sr |g (2238) @B | a) ,J..j83 
e\e\ele eis BS 18) el sens Sele) es Fs 

7 2i/=\e\a)/24 al a Sleds Gl) eu ee. eel | be 
Sunrise, | 57.6 62.0) 53.5) 8.5/51.7) 8.5) 3.8} 0.352 46.1) 53.6) 40.6 16.9| 7.0} 3.930 .680|.787|.566| 10 
9 A. M----| 74.0) 81.0) 63.5] 17.5 59.5 18.5) 4.0] 0.382] 48.5) 56.7| 38.0 33.5] 6.8] 4.066 .460|.818|.338) 
3 P. M.----| 77.6) 87.5) 71.0) 16.5) 59.9 26.0, 6.8] 0.357) 46.4) 60.0] 36.0) 44.2/ 11.0] 3.658 .352|.703].937| 9 
9 P. M.--:- 64.5) 68.7; 60.0 8.7 55-5) 10.5) 2.5 0.870/47.5 55.6| 41.0, 24.1] 4.4] 4.014) .572|.860|.452| 10 

| 


° 
Extreme variation of Temperature----++--+-+-+-+.+++- = 34.0 


39 as oo Saturation -----+-..s-e-seere = ,623 


»» diff. between Solar and Nocturnal Radiation = 80.5 


394 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


Dunwau To Tura. 
Nocturnal Radiation. 


| 


Sun-rise. 9Pp.M 
‘ aoe : : ; coaD 
y cs] | wi x & & vi 
Bi edeteRmeme i 2 | Gn alates 
Ss — ont ee | a acs iS oS 
SF paheeiet Mi GEE || pS, a So | eB 
g si ilsaizg = sg Ses i238 
Sy ial ean ge Sg hateae Pails 
Exposed The Voore 4.5 8.5 9 59.9 4.6 11.5 10 
On Earth, ..} 54.0 ayy 9.0 9 60.7 3.8 10.5 10 
On, Grass, <<.| 51.5 6.2 (eo 8 56.4 8.1 13.5 10 

DunwaH To TuRA. 
Solar Radiation. 
Morning. Afternoon. 


Time. | Temp. ae Diff. | Phot. || Time. |Temp. 


9 P.M. 70.0) 125 55.0/10.300 ||4 p.mM.| 76.5 
Wie celeni oe 120). 119 38.0/,10.230 ||3 ....| 80.0 
10% ....| 71.5) 126 54,5/10.300 ||3 ....} 76.0 
LO acne fenC\ i hld 45.0/10:2207 3 ..5. 1% Si.o 


LO ecsniees| 200.0). 122 42.0) .. oe oe 
105 Sens) o 7e0h 128 3070)-4.4 <* ar 
Mean ..| 75.4} 1228} 47.4] 10.262 oe 80.0 


Dunwan to TURA. 


Black |) 
Bulb. Diff. Phot. 


90) “ASea) 7 se 
105) 25.0) 10.210 
102} 26.0) 10.170 


105.7} 25.7) 10.190 


Nocturnal radiation from plants. 


9 P.M. 


tropis. * {mone. 


ee 53.0 | 14.0 


Sun-rise. Y x: 
Air Calo-| pig | AtSe-| pig Tea Calo-| pie | Arge- Diff. 
Temp. .. |tropis. mone. 
5. | HN gtgs| aoe m0 5} 0296 67. | a 
55.0 | 49.5 | 5.5 47 8.0 67 


56.0 | 11.0 


64.3 | 58.5 | 5.8 57.0 7.3 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 395 


February 20th.—From Tura we have again to cross our little army 
over the Soane, the Kymaon cliff approaching too near the river on this 
(W.) side, to allow of our passing along their base. 

The river bed is very sandy, and about 1} mile across (apparently). I 
found the male Vallisneria flowers after a great search ; it is impossible 
to distinguish them from the gnat’s eggs, with which the pools swarm. 

The stream was very narrow, but deep and rapid, obstructed with 
beds of coarse agate, jasper and chalcedony pebbles. A clumsy boat, 
here took us across to the village of Dumersolah (or Soanpore) a 
wretched collection of hovels. The crops thin and poor, and no palms 
or good trees. Squirrels however abounded, and were busy storing ; 
descending from the trees they scoured across a road to a field of tares, 
mounted the hedge, took an observation, foraged and returned up the 
tree with their booty, quickly descended and repeated the operation of 
reconnoitering and plundering. 

The bed of the river here is considerably above that at Dearee, 
where the mean of the observations with those of Barroon made it 
about 300 ft. The mean of these taken here and on the opposite side, 
at Tura, gives about 420 feet, indicating a fall of 120 feet in only 40 
miles. Near this the sandy banks of the Soane are full of martins’ 
nests, each one containing a pair of eggs. The deserted ones are 
literally crammed full of long-legged spiders, (Phalangium) which may 
be raked out with a stick and come pouring down the cliff like corn 
from a sack; the quantities are quite inconceiveable. I did not observe 
the martin feed on them. 

The entomology here resembled that of Europe, more than I had 
expected in a tropical country, where predacious beetles, at least Cara- 
bildee and Staphylinidee are generally considered rare. 

The latter tribes here swarmed under the clods, of many species too, 
but all small, and so singularly active that I could not give the time to 
collect well. In the banks again, the round egg-like earthy chrysalis 
of the Sphinx Atropos ? and the many-celled nidus of the leaf-cutter 
bee were most common. 

A large Euphorbia (£. ligulata ?) is common all along the Soane and 
used every where (since leaving Dunwah) for fencing. I have not seen 
the #. Indica ; and the LE. tereticaulis very rarely since leaving Cal- 


cutta. ‘The Cactus is nowhere here. 
3G 


396 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


From this place onwards up the Soane, there is no road of any kind, 
and we must be our own road engineers. The sameness of the vegeta- 
tion, and lateness of the season made me regret this; having expected 
both luxuriance and novelty in these seldom visited and never botanized 
wilds. Before us the valley narrows considerably, the forest becomes 
denser, the country in the S. side broken with rounded hills, and on 
the N. the noble cliffs of the Kymaon dip down to the river. The 
villages are smaller, more scattered and poverty-stricken, with the 
Mahowa and Mango as the usual trees : the Bangar, Peepul, and Tama- 
rind being rare. The natives look more ofa jungle race, are tall, athle- 
tic, erect, much less indolent and more spirited than the flat and 
listless natives of the plains. 

February 2\st.—Started at day-light: but so slowly and with such 
difficulty, through field and wood, and across deep gorges from the 
hills, that we only advanced five miles in the day, the elephant’s head too 
was aching too badly to push, and the cattle will not advance when the 
draught is not equal. What is worse, it isimpossible to get them to pull 
together up the inclined planes we cut, except by placing a man at the 
head of each -of the 6, 8, or 10 in a team, and playing at screwtail ; 
when the obstinate animal sometimes capsizes the vehicle. The small 
garrys and hackeries got on better, though it was most nervous to see 
them rushing down the steeps, especially those with our fragile instru- 
ments, &c. 

Kosderah, where we halted, is a pretty place, elevated 473 feet, with 
a broad stream from the hills flowing past it. These hills are of lime- 
stone, and rounded, resting upon others of hornstone and jasper. 

The camp was pitched by three small trees of Paper mulberry (I take 
it) which I had not seen before, and are scarce here. 

Following up the little stream, gathered two species of Potamogeton and 
the Vallisneria, the latter forming an elegant green carpet in very rapid 
water, the corkscrew stems always on the stretch. Two Aschynomynes 
abounded, with a Jussiewa, Cyperus, and several grasses. At the 
rapids the stream is crossed by large beds of hornstone and porphyry 
rocks, excessively hard, and pitched up at right angles, or with a bold 
dip to the N. The number of strata was very great, and of only a few 
inches or even lines thick; they presented all varieties of jasper, flint- 
rock, hornstone and quartz of various colours, with occasionally seams 


1848. ] Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 397 


of porphyry and Breccia. Hills of these rocks, and similarly heaved 
up, skirt the granite range of Parus Nath from the Ganges to as high 
up the Soane as we went, and perfectly similar rocks occurred again on 
the Ganges, at the N. of the same range in theislet rocks of Monghyr, 
Colgong and Sultanpore ; they appear to form a deep bed, overlying the 
gneiss and granite above mentioned, and to be thrown up by the great 
range. 

The numberless little rocks of the rapids were elegantly fringed with 
a fern I had not hitherto seen, probably Polypodium proliferum, and 
which is the only species the Soane valley presents at this season. 

Returning over the hills, found the Boswellia, Gmelina parvifiora, 
with the common trees of the heights, also Hardwickia linata, a most 
elegant leguminous tree, tall, erect, with an elongated coma and the 
ultimate ramuli pendulous, covered with bipartite leaves. 

All the hills were covered with a shallow bed of alluvium, en- 
closing abundance of agate pebbles and kunker, the former derived 
from the quartzy strata above noticed. 

At night the fires on the Kymaon hills blazed splendidly, the flames 
in some places leaping from hill to hill. In front of us a gigantic letter 
W. is written in fire. 

February 23rd.—Start at daylight, moving the camp .up the river 
with great difficulty to Panchadurmah (elev. 492 feet). High N. W. 
(the prevailing) wind generally commences at or before sunrise, and 
moderates at sun-down: this in the narrowed valley blows with very 
great force, and is so loaded with dust that the hills close by are often ob- 
scured: on their subsiding the atmosphere clears remarkably suddenly. 

February 24th.—Following up the Soane to Pepurah, (elev. 517 ft.) 
the country wooded, very wild and picturesque ; the Mahoowa tree andCe- 
drela,Nauclea, Hardwichia very abundant with Terminalias, Pentapteris, 
Pongamia, Ehretia levis, a small tree, covered with white blossoms, 
and the new foliage deep green, shining and viscid. A fine Stry- 
chnos forms a dense foliaged tree, 30—60 feet high, some pale yellow, 
as if dying, others deep green, both in apparent health. Feronia Ele- 
phantum and Algle marmelos very abundant, with various Leguminous 
and Rubiaceous trees ; Sterculia and the dwarf Phenix, which I have 
never found in fruit or indeed in flower except at Dunwah. Peacocks 
abound in the woods, and monkeys. 

3G 2 


398 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


One of my garrys is broken hopelessly and advancing on the spokes 
instead of the tyre of the wheels. By the banks of a deep gulley here the 
rocks are well exposed, of shales resting on the limestone, which is nearly 
horizontal ; and this again, unconformably on the quartz and hornstoneé 
rocks, which are confused and tilted up at all angles. In one place I 
observed the strata of the latter to run horizontally for a few feet, 
and suddenly to be turned up at right angles; with an arc less than a 
foot in span. | 

A spur of the Kymaon, like that of Rotas, here projects to the bed 
of the river, flaming at night with beacon-like fires of the natives, 
lighted to scare the tigers and bears from the spot where they cut 
wood and bamboo. The night was bright and clear, with much light- 
ning, the latter attracted to the spur, and darting down as it were to 
mingle its flame with that of the forest; so many flashes appeared to 
strike on the flames, that it is probably the rarified air in their neigh- 
bourhood attracted it. 

February 25th.—Awakened between 3 and 4 by a violent dust 
storm which threatened to carry away the tents. Our position at the 
mouth of the gulley, formed by the opposite hills, no doubt accounts 
for it. The gusts were so furious that it was impossible to observe the 
barometer, which I returned to its case on ascertaining that any indica- 
tions of a rise or fall, in the column must have been quite trifling. 

The night had been oppressively hot, with many insects flymg about ; 
amongst which I noticed a Forficula, a genus so rarely known to take 
to the wing in Britain. 

At 83} a.m.it suddenly fell calm, and we proceeded to Chahnchee 
(elev. 482 feet), the native carts breaking down in the passage over 
the projecting beds of flinty rocks, or as they hurried down the inclin- 
ed planes we cut through the precipitous banks of the streams. Near 
Chahnchee passed an alligator, just killed by two men, a foul beast, 
about 9 feet long, of the Mager kind. More absorbing than its natu- 
ral history was the circumstance of its having swallowed a child, that 
was playing in the water as its mother was washing her utensils in the 
river. The brute was hardly dead, much distended by the prey, and 
the mother standing beside it. A very touching group was this : the 
parent with her hands clasped in agony, unable to withdraw her eyes 
from the cursed reptile, which still clung to life with that tenacity for 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 399 


which its tribe are so conspicuous ; beside these the two athletes leaned 
on the bloody bamboo staffs, with which they had all but despatched 
the animal. 

The Butea frondosa is abundantly in flowers here, and a gorgeous 
sight. In mass the inflorescence resembles sheets of flame, and indivi- 
dually the flowers are eminently beautiful, the bright orange red petals 
contrasting brilliantly against the jet-black velvety calyx. 

By the river found two species of Gnaphalium, Paronychia, Tamaria, 
adwarf Acacia like Phyllanthus, Wahlenbergia, Campanule, Lepidium, 
Sagitalia ? Vallisneria and Docks (Rumex Wallichic) in abundance. 
Cumin and many other herbaceous plants ; tortoises are frequent on the 
rocks, but pop into the water as approached. 

The nest of the Megachile (leaf-cutter bee) was in thousands in the 
cliffs, with Hphemeras, Caddis worms, spiders and many predaceous 
beetles. Lamellicorn beetles are very rare, even Aphodius, and of 
Cetonie I did not see one. 

The poor woman who lost her child earns a scanty maintenance by 
making catechu ; she inhabits a little cottage, and has no property but 
two cattle to bring wood from the hills, and a very few household 
chattles, and how few of these they only know best who have seen the 
meagre furniture of Dangha hovels. Her husband cuts the trees in 
the forest and drags them to the hut, but he is now sick and her only 
boy, her future stay it was whose end I have just related. Her daily 
food is rice, with beans from the beautiful blue flowered Dolichos, trai]- 
ing round the cottage, and she is in debt to the contractor, who has 
advanced two rupees to be paid off inthree months by the preparation 
of 240 tbs. of catechu. The present was her second husband, an old 
man, by whom she never had any children, in which respect alone, did 
she think herself very unfortunate, for her poverty she did not feel. 
Rent to the rajah, to the police, and rates to the brahminic priest are here 
all paid from an acre of land yielding so wretched acrop of barley, that it 
more resembles a fallow field than a harvest. All day long the natives 
are boiling down the catechu wood cut into chips, and pouring the decoc- 
tion into a large wooden trough, where it is inspissated. 

This zillah is famous for the quantity of catechu its dry forests 
yield. The plant is a little thorny tree, erect, and bearing a rounded 
coma of well remembered prickly branches. Its wood is yellow, with 


400 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


a dark brick-red heart, most profitable in January and useless in June, 
(for yielding the extract.) 

February 27th.—Left for Hirrah, (elev. 536 feet) through a similar 
country to that passed yesterday. Rocks all highly inclined, often 
vertical, of ribbon-jasper quartz and hornstone ; monkeys, parroquets 
and hornbills, pigeons, owls and flocks of peacocks. Found a legumi- 
nous tree very like the Butea in every respect, but with small white 
flowers (probably B. parviflora) so abundant as to appear as if snowed 
upon. A Gardenia? with large yellow fruit eaten by the natives. Phyl- 
lanthus emblica, Kydia calycina and the dwarf Phenix. 

February 28th.—Marched to Kotah (elev. 542 feet), the path leading 
over hills with the bed of flinty rock projecting every where, to the 
utter ruin of our vehicles and the elephant’s feet, and then over undulat- 
ing hills of limestone ; on the latter found a tree of Cochlospermum, its 
curious thick branches spread out something awkwardly, and each is 
tipped with a cluster of glorious golden yellow flowers, as large as the 
palm of the hand, and very beautiful. I think Lindley is certainly 
right in referring it to Cistee; it is a tropical Gum-Cistus in features, 
produce, color and texture of petals, and their caducous frail nature. 
It is a superb plant. The bark abounds im a transparent gum, which 
the white ants seem fond of, for they have killed many trees here. 

At Kota, a small village at the junction of the Soane (elev. 543 feet), 
beside a river of that name, we encamped, and experienced another 
furious dust storm from the N. W. 

Scorpions appear very common here, of a small kind, 14 inch long. 
Several were captured and one stung one of our party on the finger ; the 
smart was burning for an hour or two, and then ceased. 

February 29th.—Being now nearly opposite the cliffs at Bidgegurh, 
where coal is reported to exist we again crossed the Soane, and for 
the last time. The ford is some three miles up the river, to which we 
marched through deep sand. On the banks saw a species of Celtis or 
Sponia covered with lac. This tree is said to produce it here in great- 
est abundance, as the Butea does at Burdwan and the Peepul in many 
parts of the country. I donot know which yields the best, nor whether 
the insects are different. ‘The merchants do not distinguish the kinds. 
The bed of the river is about # mile broad, and the rapid stream 50 or 
60 yards, and breast-deep ; the sand firm and silicious, with no mica ; 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 401 


nodules of coal are said to be washed down here from the coal bed of 
Burdee, a good deal higher up, but we saw none. 

The cliffs come close to the river on the opposite side, their bases 
wooded and teeming with birds. The soil is richer and individual trees, 
especially of Bombax, Pentapteris and Mahowa, very fine; one tree 
of the Hardwickia, about 120 feet high, was as handsome a monarch 
of the forest as I ever saw, and it is not often that one sees trees in 
the tropics, which for a combination of beauty in outline, harmony of 
color, and arrangement of branches and foliage, would form so striking 
an addition to an English park. 

There is a large break in the Kymaon hills here, through which our 
route lay to Bidgegurh and the Ganges at Mirzapore, the cliffs leav- 
ing the river and trending to the N. in a continuous escarpment 
flanked with low ranges of rounded hills and terminating im an abrupt 
spur (Mungeza Peak) whose summit was covered with a ragged forest. 
Kunch, the village at which we halted is elevated 556 feet above the 
sea ; four alligators basked in the river, like logs of wood at a distance, 
all of the short-nosed or Mager kind, dreaded by man and beast; I saw 
none of the sharp-snouted or Gharial, so common on the Ganges, where 
their long bills, with a garniture of teeth and prominent eyes peeping 
out the water, remind one of geological lectures and visions of Ichthyo- 
saurt. 

Botanized over the ridges near the river, but found little novelty. 
The Mahowa, Ehretia, Hardwichia, Gmelina, and especially Diospyros 
and Terminalia are the prevailing timber; the Cochlospermum on the 
very hottest and driest ridges, imitating the Cistus in habit ; (and like 
the C. Ladanum,) it is streaming with gum as was the Mahoowa and 
Olibanum. Catechu and Rhamnee are ever present and ever trouble- 
some to the pedestrian. Phenix acaulis frequent, and in some places 
the woods appeared on fire from the bushes of Butea frondosa in full 
flower. 

March \st.—Left the Soane and struck inland over a rough hilly 
country, covered with forest, good 1000 feet below the tops of the 
Kymaon table-land, which, as I stated above, here recedes from the 
river and surrounds an undulating plain, some ten miles either way, 
facing the south. With nothing but narrow paths much contrivance 
and labour were required to get the carts on. In one place I descend- 


402 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


ed to the empty bed of a mountain torrent, which had cut a _perpendi- 
cular valley through at least 30 feet of alluvium. Thence we plunged 
into a dense forest, chiefly of the above mentioned trees, with Zizyphi 
and several species of Acacia ; a Pterospermum different from the more 
common or Parus Nath species, together with that plant, occur in the 
woods,with dwarf Bauhinias, but neither Ferns, Lichens, mosses, Orchi- 
dee, or other tribes of a damp climate. Our course was directed towards 
Mungeza Peak, a remarkable projecting spur or nose of the Kymaon, 
between which and a conical hill the path led. Whether on the elephants 
or on foot, the thorny Zizyphi, Acacias, &c. were most troublesome, 
and all our previous scratchings were nothing to this. The low hills 
are round-backed masses of sandstone, with beds of shale interposed, 
but no coal. Peacocks and jungle fowl are very frequent, the squabling 
of the former and hooting of the monkeys constantly grating on the ear ; 
other birds were very common. From the defile we emerged on to an 
open plain, halting at the village of Sulkun, elevated 671 feet. 

In the afternoon examined the conical hill, which, like that near 
Rotas, is of stratified beds of limestone, capped with sandstone. A 
stream runs round its base, cutting through the alluvium to the subja- 
cent rock, which is exposed and contains oblate spheres of limestone. 
These spheres are from the size of a fist to a child’s head, or even 
much larger, are excessively hard and neither laminated nor formed of 
concentric layers. What they are I cannot tell, but have seen similar 
spheres from the Silurian rocks of Wales. At the top ofthe hill the 
sandstone cap was perpendicular on all sides, and its dry top covered 
with small trees, especially of Cochlospermum. A few larger trees were 
of Fici, which clung to the edge of the rocks, and by forcing their roots 
into the intestines detached enormous masses, affording good dens for 
bears and other wild animals. From the top the view of rock, river, 
forest and plain, was very fine, the edge ranging over a broad flat girt 
by the scarped hills of the Kymaon. The latter were continued along 
the Soane banks, further west, in a rugged range of hills. 

From Sulkun the isolated table-topped hill of Bidjegur is seen, with 
its one large tree and the Palace at top, but the distance is considerable. 

We were delayed three days at Sulkun, from inability to get the 
carts, &c. on, and my time being precious, I here took leave of Mr. 
Williams and his hospitable companions and started for Mirzapore. Mr. 


1848. } Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 403 


Felle, a gentleman attached to the Revenue department, whom I had 
the pleasure of meeting at Sulkun, kindly escorting me to his residence 
at Shugunj, and forwarding both myself and collections with camels 
and elephants. 

Both the climate and natural history of this flat on which Sulkun 
stands, are similar to those of the banks of the Soane ; the crops are 
wretched, as are the people (Koles), an athletic-looking race however, 
often armed with spear and shield. At this season the dryness of the 
atmosphere is excessive. 

Before leaving the Soane valley to ascend the Kymaon portion of the 
Vindhya hills I shall give an abstract of the Meteorological observations 
taken since leaving Tura. 

VALLEY OF SOANE RIVER, TurRA TO Suukun, FesBy. 20TH— 


Marcu 3p. 

Temperature. Wet Bulb. a Dew Point. 2B Saturation. 3 
snp oS : 33 
§| Sips ,8| 8) £8 82 
xn Dla 2) Mm\| smn) 3c 
‘ Gilg hee eal agiaa| Ss" | . ‘Bs 

g/ e/a eles ee Sle eFaree |8) 314] 8 

1 See. IRN ein MR) at =| a Ile = a = 
Sun-rise - -| 56.8] 70.0] 50.0) 20.0) 52.5) 10.0) 1.5) .380| 48.3) 53.1) 41.1, 17.3) 5.4) 4.240) .754) .831] .570 12 
9 A. M. --|82.0) 89.0) 69.0) 20.0) 61.2) 24.3) 12.0] 385] 48.7] 60.2) 40.3, 45.2/22.0| 4.097) .342/ .488] .226 11 
3 P. M.----| 88.6) 94.7| 81.5) 13.2) 62.4] 30.2) 14.5] .289| 40.8} 50.9) 32.3) 57.2} 25.1) 2.975|.211|.598|.154| 11 
9 P. M.----!68.0| 74.0'61.0] 13.0156.8 15.0! 6.0'.369! 47.4' 51.8] 42.6! 27.1] 10.2! 3.933! .511|.703| .415 1h 


Extreme variation of Temperature.-+-----+-+-+++-+-++-== 44,7 
99 Py) sy Saturation:+++-+--+-++-+2++2-e00-+== 677 
diff. between Solar and Nocturnal Radiation---- 100 


: TurA TO SULKUN. 


: a Nocturnal Radiation. 
| , : par] 3 
Sun-rise. = 9P. M a 
2 2 
= Sie ° = ; | 
Boj bee) ee] oS 5 fe | ae | we 
Se ees ig S At | at] = 
o aT | a0 oO @ 
Sa ec) iis es ee 
o ie ey ane = ee o nee oo SS 
He | = Z ~ a = Zz 
Exposed Th. ....02.| 51.7/ 4.1] 8,0] 9 61.2 6.8) 105! 10 
TENGE cc cccascce| Oa. 3.4 7.0 9 64,3 4.6 8.5 9 
Poa Grass. ...ccscecs| 48.8 tO TLS 9 55.8 11.8 17.0 9 


3H 


404 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


TuRA TO SULKUN. 


Solar Radiation. 
Morning. Afternoon, 

Time, | Temp.| #.4¢*| Diff. | Phot. |/Time.|Temp. | Bek) pitt, | Phot. 
115 a. M. 85.5 129} 44,5 = oP.u.) 85.0) 116 30.5 af 
WO, craetteat 89.0 132} 43.0 oe ee 92.5| 128 35.5 . 
NOON: sce ss 90.0 132) 42.0; 10.140 ie 92.0] 120 28.0 e 

fs 85.0| 130) 45.0 was BOS | ROG Ne Mae alg 

86.0) 138] 52.0 Ke 93.5| 144] 50.5 

i 90,0; 138] 48.0 ce aes tae " 

~ Means... 87.5, 138.2} 45.7} 10.140)... | 90.6| 127.2] 36.6) .. 


Tura TO SULKUN. 
Nocturnal Radiation from Barley. 


Sun-rise. 9 Pp. 


F 


Temp.| § | & |3-2) ef jis] a || Temp. Ss D A lh cl Fae 

: oie = |e = .. | cy | Diff.) s “S. | Diff.) & = | Diff. 
Air 3 Q |O s Q Ie 5 faa) Air. 3 'S) : < ¢ 

61. | 56} 5.0)56.5) 4.5/57.0) 4.0 68.5 - (56.01 12%6 
57. | 46/11.0) 48.0) .9.0/50.0) 7.0 70.0) 65.0| 5.0} 67.0} 30 
Dye. | o2\| 20 <1 00.01 7-0 69.0) .¢ +-<. |57.0-112.0) 57.0) Fam 
BSeo) G2) G25) cs tas . 74, 59.0) 15.0) a” jee 
57. | 52| 5.0 Sel) sie : 62.5] 51.5) 11.0 a6 - 
BU.) 451" 5.0) 45.5), 4:5): 5 67.5| 67.5) 10.0|62.5} 5.0) .. 

50.5} 43) 7.5) .. | . ee 61.0) 50.0) 11.0 oe 

56.0 is 49.0} 7.0 

55.8) 49.8} 6.0/50.0) 6.0) 51.5} 6.2 68. | 53. | 10.7/60.9 | 9.2) 60.0) 9.1 


eens 


The upper course of the Soane being in some places confined, and in 
others exposed to furious gusts from the gullies of the Kymaon hills, 
below Kotah, bounded by a continuous precipice of 1000 feet, and above 
it expanding into a broader and flatter valley, presents many fluctuations 
in temperature. 

Exposed to the influence of radiation from so extended a surface, the 
mean temperature is much above that of the lower parts of the same 
valley (below Tura) the excess amounting to 5°.4. The nights and 


| 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 405 


mornings are cooler, by 1.2 degrees, the days hotter by 10°. There 
is also 10° increase of range during the 13 days spent there; and the 
mean range from day to day is nearly as great as it was on the hills 
of upper Bengal. 

There being much exposed rock and the valley swept by violent dust 
storms, the atmosphere is drier, the mean saturation point being here 
454°, and in the lower part of the Soane’s course 516°. On the other 
hand the variation in the amount of moisture suspended in the atmo- 
sphere is more variable than even on the hills above alluded to; the ac- 
cumulation of moisture in the calm nights and closer parts of the valley 
being great; it is rapidly swept away by the periodic dry wind of the 
day. 

A remarkable uniformity still prevails in the depression of thermo- 
meters exposed to nocturnal radiation, whether laid on the earth, grass, 
or exposed to the influence of the sky alone; both the mean and maxi- 
mum indication coincide very nearly with those of the lower Soane valley 
and of the hills. The temperature of tufts of green barley laid on the 
ground is one degree higher than that of short grass as it grows; Arge- 
mone and Calotropis leaves maintain a still warmer temperature; from 
the previous experiments the Agemone appeared to be considerably the 
cooler, which I was inclined to attribute to the smoother and more 
shining surface of its leaf, but from these there would seem to be no 
sensible difference between the radiating powers of the. two plants. 

Here, as on the hills, there is less difference between the forenoon and 
afternoon indication of the black-bulb thermometer, than in the more 
open valley, which is to be accounted for by my having been obliged to 
choose too late an hour for the forenoon observation. 

The rapid drying of the lower strata of the atmosphere during the 
day, as indicated by the great decrease in the tension of the vapor and 
the saturation point, from 9 A. M. to 3 p. M. is the effect of the great 
violence of the N. W. winds. 

March 3rd.—Rode to Roump, at the top of the pass in the hills 
called “Ek powa” (or one foot) ghat. Thevillage of Markounda, at 


| the foot of the ghat, is situated by a stream running over flat beds of 


limestone, fissured as to resemble a tessellated pavement ; the fissures 


were filled apparently with volcanic matter, but the evening was too 
fast closing in to allow of my examining it. This, the only ascent to 


3H 2 


406 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


the top of the hills for many miles around, is evidently the result of a 
fault, which has effected so broken an outline, that our path has been 
carried over the shattered crags. It is steep, rocky and covered with 
brushwood. On either side the precipices are sheer for many feet. At 
the summit we entered on a dead flat plain or, table-land with no hills, 
except along the brim of the broad valley we had left ; where are some 
curious broad pyramids, formed of slabs of sandstone arranged in steppes. 

March 4th.—Proceeded from Roump, which is about 400 feet above 
the plain, and 700 above the Soane, to Shahgunj, where I enjoyed 
Mr. Felle’s hospitality for a few days. 

The country here, though elevated is, from the nature of the soil and 
formation, much more fertile than what I had left. Wateris abundant, 
both in tanks and wells, and rice fields, broad and productive, cover the 
grounds, tamarinds and mango topes now loaded with blossoms, occur at 
every village. 

It is very singular that the elevation of this table-land (1103 feet 
at Shahgunj) should coincide with that of the granite range of upper 
Bengal, where crossed by the grand toll road, though they have no other 
feature but the presence of alluvium in common. Scarce a hillock 
varies the surface here, and the agricultural produce of the two is widely 
different. Here the flat ledges of sandstone retain the moisture, and 
give rise to none of those impetuous torrents which sweep it off the 
inclined beds of gneiss, or splintered quartz. Nor is there here any 
of the effloresced salts so forbidding to vegetation where they occur. 

Wherever the alluvium is deep on these hills, neither Catechu, Oli« 
banum, Butea, Terminalia, Diospyros, dwarf Palm, or any of this 
group of plants are to be met with, which abound wherever the rock 
is superficial, and irrespectively of its mineral or chemical characters, 
whether granite, gneiss, hornblende schists, hornstone, limestone or 
sandstone. On the other hand, the Banyan, Peepul, Mango, Tamarind, 
and even the Banana and Sugar-cane are found on the alluvium, though 
from the elevation and exposure these cannot attain the dimensions they 
do on the banks of the Ganges. 

Acacia Arabica is abundant though not seen below, and very rare to 
the eastward of this meridian, for I saw but little of it in Birbhoom or 
Behar. It is a plant partial to a dry climate and rather prefers a good 
soil. In its distribution it in some degree follows the range of the 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 407 


camel, which is its constant companion over thousands of leagues. In 
the valley of the Ganges I am told that neither the animal nor plant 
flourish east of the Soane, where I experienced a marked change in the 
humidity of the atmosphere on my passage down the Ganges. It was 
a circumstance I was interested in, having first met the camel at Tene- 
riffe and the Cape Verd Islands, the westermost limit of its distribu- 
tion; imported thither, however, as it now is into Australia, where, 
though there is no Acacia Arabica, 400 other species of that genus are 
known. 

Mr. Felle’s bungalow (whose garden smiled with roses in this wilder- 
ness) is surrounded by amoat, fed by a spring; it was full of aquatic 
plants, Nymphea, Damsonium, Villarica cristata, Aponogeton, three 
species of Potamogeton, two of Naias, Chara and Zannichellia (the two 
latter indifferently, and often together, used in the refinement of sugar), 
In a large tank hard by, wholly fed by rain water, I observed only the 
Villarica Indica, no Aponogeton, Nymphea or Damasonium, nor did 
these occur in any of the other tanks I examined, which were otherwise 
. well peopled with plants. This may not be owing to the quality of the 
water so much as to its varying quantity in the tank. 

All around here, as at Roump, is a dead flat, except towards the 
crest of the ghauts, which overhang the valley of the Soane, and there 
the sandstone rock rises by steppes into low hills. During a ride to a 
natural tank amongst these rocky elevations, I passed from the alluvi- 
um to the sandstone steppes, and at once met with all the prevailing 
plants of the granite, gneiss, limestone and hornstone rocks previously 
examined, and which I have enumerated too often to require recapitu- 
lation, a convincing proof that the mechanical properties and not the 
chemical constitution of the rocks regulate the distribution of these 
plants. 

Rujub-bund, (the name of the tank) is a small tarn, or more properly 
the expanded bed of a stream, for art has aided nature in its forma- 
tion: it is edged by rocks and cliffs fringed with the usual trees of 
the neighbourheod ; it is a wild and pretty spot, not unlike some birch- 
bordered pool in the mountains of Wales or Scotland, sequestered and 
picturesque. 

Here again the Aponogeton and Villarica cristata grew, with several 
Potamogetons, Chara, Zannichellia and a floating Utricularia. 


408 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


At 7 Pp. M. a tempest which had been gathering from the 8. W. 
broke over Shahgunge, the lightning was very vivid, and the violence of 
the wind great. No rain fell, nor did the barometer indicate its 
approach. ‘The day had been very close and sultry. 

A columnar Luphorbia, (HE. ligulata?) is commonly used here as a 
fencing, its pith is septate, a curious character, generally supposed to be 
peculiar to the pith of the Walnut tree. This is a matter of some interest, 
a fossil plant of the coal formation having been refered to the family of 
the Walnuts solely from its presenting this character. 

One of the prettiest optical phenomena I have witnessed is fre- 
quent in the clear skies of these elevated regions: that of the false 
sunrise and sunset, often consisting of beams converging from the 
opposite horizon and meeting at the zenith the direct sun’s rays. I 
have seen it equally vivid against a pure blue sky and against dark 
lowering clouds. The zodiacal light also shines with peculiar bright- 
ness, almost outshining the milkyway at times. 

From the few days’ observations taken on the Kymaon hills Bip tem- 
perature of their flat tops may be regarded as 5° higher than that of 
the valley, which is 500 feet below their mean level. I can account for 
this anomally only on the supposition that the thick bed of alluvium, 
freely exposed to the sun and not clothed with jungle, absorbs the sun’s 
rays and parts with its heat slowly. This is indicated by the increase 
of temperature being due to the night and morning observations, which 
are 3°.1 and 8°.5 higher here than below, whilst the two of 9 a.m. 
and 3 p. mM. are halfa degree lower. What little alluvium there is on 
the Soane banks along its upper course is covered with jungle, thus 
excluding the solar rays, whilst the disproportionate amount of sterile 
rock rapidly parts with its heat and reduces the nocturnal temperatures. 
The vastly superior vegetation, both arboreous and herbaceous, of the 
Kymaon hills, is conclusive in favor of their superior soil and climate. 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 409 


TABLE-LAND oF Kymaon Huts, Marcu, 3pn-8tTu, 1848. 


Temperature. | Wet Bulb. fa Dew Point. 2B Saturation. g 
buetlé el a c 
scuihabe bie Sees Sy 
; Ke | Son sy plaza feta ||! Est! 
: é |. S36. /5.3\-4 3, i SOMmo| ee 4 fee 
5 K |S = BPR \A bas Bt Ieee eS.) 2 leah lige 
=] oS Oo o oO SS o Ss = 3) oO] woe o sj an) Ss p> 
Se deena G | Ait. |S |e |e Al Ale alalalZ 
Sun-rise. - -| 65.3) 69.0/57.5|11.5|57.7| 8.0] 6.0 wae aie 55.5145.9, 14.1|11.6| 4.710.647 |.741|.648 4 
9 A. M----|81.6) 83.5/79.5) 4.0/65.3/19.0 |14.0|.468 54.5 57.9/49.0 12.9 |33.0] 5.000 .421|.479).344 3 
3 P. M.----|88.1) 90.0/84.5) 5.5/63.3]26.5 |21.5|.324/43.7|47.8/37.9 46.6 |42.2| 3.417'.240).295! .214 8 
9P. M----/71.1)76.0/68.0} 8.0 |60.3|13.0 aE oe ae 56.7|46.8 21.9|13.8] 4.707 Pe 491 4 
Extreme variation of Temperature. --++++s+-eeseeees = 325 
29 99 a9 Saturation --eeccsccecccccore = .527 
>» diff. between Nocturnal and Solar Radiation = 110.°5 
TABLE-LAND OF KyMAON. 
Nocturnal Radiation. 
ee 
Sun-rise. 9 P. M. 
é Ss é Ga 
2 le | & Zi 2 i 5 _ 
Ss ae Ae | se s A: A. | Bs 
Sy 5) eon 2 = = [=| a e t=] OQ ~— 
2 B < <q oes oO 3 i Sis 
Ses sz eee le | Sa leg 
abe eot OS Seal Aue bly cBeihh tes s (42 
B Fen} en ) aH can} Co) ° 
Exposed Th.} 59.5 | 3.5 3.5) 2 71.5 3.3 7.0 3 
On Earth, ..| 56.0 1.5 Lp, 62.5 5.5 5.5 1 
On Grass, ..| 54.7 8.2 S25 2 61.0 8.2 11.0 a 


The variations of temperature too are all much less in amount, as are 
those of the state of the atmosphere as to moisture, though the climate 
is rather damper. 

On the subject of terrestrial radiation the paucity of the observation 
precludes my dwelling. Between 9 p. Mm. and sunrise the following 
morning I found the earth to have lost but 6°.5. of heat, whereas a 
mean of 9 observations at the same hours in the valley below indicates a 
loss of 12°. 

There is as little similarity between the climate of the Kymaons and 
upper Bengal hills, as between their geology or outline, though so near 


410 Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. [Ocr. 


in geographical position retaining the same mean level. The differences 
are analogous to them between the Kymaon and upper Soane valley, and 
are due to the very different surface soil and means of supporting vege- 
tation. 

Though the mean temperature deduced from the few days I spent on 
this part of the Kymaon is so much above that of the upper Soane 
valley, which it bounds, I do not suppose that the whole range partakes 
of this increase. When the alluvium does not cover the rock, as at 
Rotas and many other places, especially along the southern and eastern 
ridges of the ghauts, the nights are considerably cooler than on the 
banks of the Soane ; and at Rotas itself, which rises almost perpendicu- 
larly from the river, and is exposed to no such radiation of heat from a 
heated soil as Shahgunge is, I found, the temperature considerably 
below that of Akbarpore on the Soane, which however is much shelter- 
ed by an amphitheatre of rocks. 

March 7th.—Left Shahgunge for Mirzapore, following the road to 
Goorawal, over a dead alluvial flat without a feature to remark. 
Turning north from that village, the country undulates, exposing the 
rocky nucleus and presenting the usual concomitant vegetation. Occa- 
sionally park-like views occurred, which when diversified by the rocky 
valleys, resemble much the noble scenery of the forest of Dean on the 
borders of Wales. The Mahoowa especially representing the Oak, with 
its spreading and often gnarled branches many of the exposed. slabs of 
sandstone are beautifully waved on the surface with the ripple-mark 
impression ; of which impression a specimen was picked up at Rotas. 

March 8th.—Having encamped at Amoee last night, I proceeded on 
to Mirzapore, descending a steep ghaut of the Bind hills by an excellent 
road, to the level plains of the Ganges. 

During the few days spent at Mirzapore with my kind friend, C. Ha- 
milton, Esq. I was surprised to find the temperature of the day cooler 
by nearly 4° than that of the hills above, or of the upper part of the 
Soane valley, the nights on the other hand were decidedly warmer. 
The dew point again was even lower in proportion, 7°.6 and the climate 
consequently drier. The following is an abstract of the observations 
taken at Mr. Hamilton’s house on the banks of the Ganges. 


1848. | Observations made on a Botanical Excursion. 411 


Mirzarur TERRESTRIAL RADIATION AT 
SUN-RISE. 


Air in Shade. | EXPS*4) pip, |Exposed on) pig | Exposed| pipe 


Th. : earth. * lon grass. 
60.0 55.0 5.0 ae os 52.0 8.0 
62.5 54.5 8.0 56.0 6.5 52.5 10.0 
63.0 55.5 7.5 50.5 12.5 50.5 12.5 
58.0 53.0 5.0 54. 4.0 50.0 8.0 
Mean, 60.8 54.5 6.3 53.5 7.6 51.2 9.6 


Mirzapur, Marca 9rxH-l3rn, 1848. 


Temperature. | Wet Bulb. | ., Dew Point. 2 a Saturation. 3 
Ds og . 
| He | oe i || ge Sy 
/ os alsai-e HS 
: 4 (2) [12 na e) i S| (a) 
ely & | 4 oli & sf =e Sei os oo la ale 2a 
Piet | Sie) a la) 2 S|/8)/8+e/8)8e1$ le) 8 isk 
Slealeilelzale]|e Stele] hee he Ss es ees 
Sun-rise, --|61.1| 63 | 58 | 5 | 48.8) 51.5, 47. Sealed 39.7| 29.7| 32.8 seal 2.574) .405| .450].327) 3 
9 A. M----| 76.1) 83 | 71 | 12 |58.5) 56.5 51.7| .302/ 41.9) -. | -- |52.3)15.7) 3.271) .324).603).176) 3 
ee Meee GG se. | sesl|) - 8 1.61-724.3, 295] 41.3] -- | -- |44.7) -- | 3.089! 964] -- 1 
9 P. M.----|76. | +--+ | -- | -- |63.5/12.5] -- -480) 55.2) -. | -- |20.8] -- a Bul 1 
During my passage down the Ganges the rise of the dew point was 


very steady, the highest means being at the lowest point on the river, 
Bhaugulpore, which as compared with Mirzapore, showed an increase 
of 8° in temperature and of 30°.6. in the rise of the dew pomt. The 
_ saturation point at Mirzapore was .331, and at the corresponding hours 
at Bhaugulpore .742. (Saturation being represented as unity.) The 
_ observatious were taken at the house of my friend Dr. Grant. 

_ It is remarkable that nocturnal radiation as registered at sunrise is 
much more powerful at Mirzapore than on the more exposed Kymaon 
_ plateaus; the depression of the thermometer freely exposed being 3° 
_ greater ; that laid on bare earth 6°, and that on the grass 1°.4 greater 
on the banks of the Ganges. 


412 A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


A Resultant System for the Construction of Iron Tension Bridges.—By 
Major Henry Goopwyn, Bengal Engineers. 


DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPIECE. 


The view of the wreck of the Brighton Chain Pier as here exhibit- 
ed, is a fac-simile copy of Pl. 90, of the “‘ Theory, Practice, and 
Architecture of Bridges,” published by Mr. Weale in 1843, in which 
the following brief, yet speaking account is given. The span of each 
curve is only 255 feet with a deflection of yzth. The damage to the 
structure occurred in October 1833, when two curves and their platforms 
were destroyed. The second from the land side had twenty suspending 
rods carried completely away and many others seriously injured; the 
third division had 58 suspending rods destroyed. The chains were 
greatly deranged, and three-fourths of the platform and railing com- 
pletely destroyed; the two divisions presenting an awful run. A 
rapid undulation was produced in the platform during the storm, and 
it sank nearly 6 feet on one side, presenting an inclined plane trans- 
versely. 

It is remarkable, that notwithstanding the violent injury which the 
storm produced, the Longitudinal Iron bearing bar, with a Sectional 
area of only 4 square inches, was not broken, though it suffered severe 
torsion. A bar of the above Section supported the girders of the 
roadway to which the planks were fastened, and which bars were upheld 
by the stirrups at the lower ends of the suspending rods. 

These remarks are made with reference to paragraphs 3, 4, 5, and 6 — 
of the following Memoir, and the frontispiece itself introduced as an 
evidence of there being some great defect in the principle of construc- 
tion which admits of a structure, which has been pronounced one of 
Sir Samuel Brown’s best works, being thus seriously deranged by merely 
its own weight thus acted on. 

The following practical conclusions are chiefly drawn from the 
demonstrated results of a “Memoir on the quantity of Iron necessary 
in a Tension Chain Bridge,”’ by the Rev. J. H. Pratt, and published in 
the CLXXXVI. No. for January 1848, of the Journal of the Asiatic 
Society of Calcutta, and although a modified Taper Chain system had 
been drawn out and partially put into practice by me before the appear- 
ance of Mr. Pratt’s theory, its principles agree so entirely with my 


» nt 
oe 


mae Dat: Se Aa ie he ; 


of Chis thy. with 
Fey ve ost rideicesl, 


a “e, 24. 
r a iA ne 


at 


ty Mb ek Tri be 


\ Meenir’” taaneiy Udy, 
nee ail. ape, rr Sha male why 


shen pet, ty ayenin 224 
5 t wehseal thee. poalway. sh. 
f ntopenti be Chae) pen ae pit 
Fiorvvidi or boniae tbeeit,: phi 
: ty, Sut hited frrw! ¥ ‘alka 
Sas late  Blshtagl Dien hs Hip Saabs ay, tay in | WitAae cd 
nd sei dediets TAGS a EXO COC, Ves unat hy 
' “ Bile aN sa E # ey cbegtton aaa. virial 
| vat loa abit yswier, A ciwiiuwaeds.) 


oe WEP Miyagi" gee jie reaignn 


a Ah Ne fh iN Wh Bid ett liner et wlan 
be itn Rael M 4) ag yet ie for teil iss ting roe 
hy. hint - ie (wr sduiven «heim. wy Wein is 
iy sare - nannies iin. aqui): Lege 


- ‘ ‘ a 
a as 


os itpolos b ian iaiil 


com ee 1 Se weit mat, 
asl bh eS a a hing tir 


ai gi Lennie, act fevawet’ dag 


7” , = 
wets : ST an eee on 
me sack) |), | 
en ¥ Ww Os ky ny OT) UE » 
ere te. Bi 
| ty 
es i * 


y Rie 
="t 


4 


innoiiseat Sieh ghruatures,. 
‘ ae Gh dey end, Mae: pire 


hi : ve 2 ti ¢ tH, , Se tuey, 3 


ah piposed: rey itns 2" i 


oamarege ‘hedthe stein, eset 


weighty i rT Sy va iA? ieee jd p 


Ce: lian Pm gm fy > tar yt tend 8 Sty ee Sper tote 48 me 


ee 
i 


tn 


i Z ” u 7 
OO ee 


— See 


— eictia we Ze ———— oe a — sop es 
iia ang =e = a LZ LAG OTE: GF 


L__ LY 


(AE =a Zz Ye ii : 


3 


Git = Oi cae 


= 


meee (me NAP 
Zo hh 4! 


as ‘2 
. Be 
BE Z- REED 


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ere hintinniteminteitttitiet 


“HIXX Id | 


1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 413 


own experience, and its demonstration is so clear, that I have been 
induced from the wish to promote the advancement of such structures, 
to place the following exposition of my system on record, feeling sure 
that unbiassed minds will, on perusal, be divested of the timidity with 
which the extreme, or Dredge’s Taper Chain system has been received, 
as its errors have been admitted and corrected ; whilst, if there be any 
virtue in the present uniform chain system, the proposed ‘‘ Resultant’ 
will be found to possess them in an eminent degree, ‘and yet freed from 
its acknowledged defects. 

The fact demonstrated in the above named ‘“‘ Memoir’ is simply this, 
that in all Iron Suspension Bridges of equal span, and breadth of 
platform, the quantity of Iron in the main parts must be the same, and 
that quantity which “is necessary to enable each part to sustain the 
greatest tension to which it may be subjected when the roadway is 
loaded to the greatest extent, is altogether independent of the principle 
of construction or form of the Bridge,” provided of course that the 
principle be sound. 

2. This is a very important conclusion, but whilst I freely admit 
the soundness of the doctrine, I am not fully satisfied as to the correct- 
ness of the writer’s practical deductions therefrom, viz. that the 
old system of suspension, consisting of a uniform chain and vertical 
drop-bars, is the most proper for adoption under all circumstances. For 
such an opinion the author of the above “ Memoir” gives his reasons, 
which, as might have been expected, are weighty enough, but “good 
reasons must per force give way to better,’ and notwithstanding what 
has been advanced above, I think the scale may yet be turned in favor 
of the opposite opinion, viz. that the old, or uniform chain system is 
by no means necessarily, and under all circumstances the most desire- 
able for adoption. 

3. If the strength or stability of a structure to resist a constant 
dead weight, were alone the pomts for consideration, the advantages 
adduced in favor of the uniform chain system might be conclusive ; but 
wherever failures of Suspension Bridges have occurred, they have in 
almost every case been caused not by a steady, uniform dead strain, 
exceeding the power of the materials to resist, but by the effect of a 
much smaller load or weight in a state of motion. Not, for instance, 
during a trial by means of a proof load uniformly distributed, but by 

312 


Al4 A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


the motion of a far smaller weight, as of a company of soldiers march- 
ing in step, as occurred to the “‘ Broughton” Bridge, near Manchester, 
nay, the great “ Manai’’ Bridge which was calculated to be equal to a 
load of 1245 tons im excess of its own weight, and the “ Brighton’ 
Chain Pier, (vide Frontispiece and description thereof ), to an extra load 
of 100 tons, have both been nearly destroyed by merely their own 
weight when put in motion by a violent wind. The large suspension 
Bridge at “‘ Montrose,” which when first put up was proved by a dead 
weight of 970 tons, being the greatest it would have to bear, was des- 
troyed in a similar manner. 

4. The disastrous effects which have already oecurred, and may still 
be apprehended from such causes, to bridges on the uniform chain sys- 
tem, are so universally admitted, that they need not here be further 
dwelt on; it will suffice to notice that no bridge of large span in any 
exposed locality, is ever put up without some special arrangement to 
counteract the vibratory and undulatory, tendencies of the structure. 
This protection is sometimes attempted by means of guy-chains, some- 
times by a system of side and under trussing, (as in the Hammersmith 
Bridge,) at others by counter chains, (as in the Brighton Pier), the 
latter being imtended to enable the platform to resist the lifting power 
of the wind from below. 

5. From the result of the opinions on the disastrous effects of gales 
on the Menai Bridge in the years 1826, 1836, and 1839, and especially 
when during the latter, 148, or one-third nearly, of the suspending rods 
were torn asunder, no other conclusion can be drawn, than that the 
tubular rods introduced between the chains, the trussing of the road- 
way, the small brace chains, &c. did not preserve the bridge from the 
effects of the combined motions of the vibration, and undulation, of the 
chains,* which were the primary cause of the injuries sustained, and the 
reason is evident, viz. that these accessories contended against the effect, 
without attacking the cause. It will be therefore evident, that, some- 
thing more than strength to resist a known strain in a certain direction, 
is required, and however true the main position demonstrated by the 
Rev. Mr. Pratt may be, it still remaims an open question whether, in 
order effectually to meet the varied strains and trials to which Suspen- 

* Vide Report by Mr. Provis, resident Engineer. Trans: Civil Engineers, Vol. 3. 
page 357. 


1848.] Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 415 


sion Bridges are peculiarly liable, some other arrangement of the same 
quantity of Metal, as is now given to bridges on the uniform chain 
system, may not with advantage be employed. 

6. Here it will not be irrelevant to observe that all the expedients 
had recourse to, for the purpose of counteracting the vibration and: 
undulation of the uniform chain bridges, not only, of course, increase 
the expense, and weight of the structure, but absolutely negative the 
principal advantage expected from, and claimed for, that system, (viz. 
the simplicity and directness of the strains,) in the ratio of their attain- 
ing the object for which they were added, i. e. the stiffness of the 
whole. 

7. Before proceeding to show, and I trust to prove, what will be a 
more advantageous disposition of a given weight of metal in a bridge 
ef known size and proportions, than that which would be attained by 
the uniform chain principle, it will be necessary to notice a mode of 
construction for which a patent has been obtained by Mr. Dredge, who 
proposes to erect bridges of equal, or even greater strength, than those 
on the uniform principle, with about $d of the quantity of iron usually 
employed in the latter; but as the practicability of such a result is 
wholly at variance with the demonstration proved by the calculations 
of the Rev. Mr. Pratt, now under reference, and as no one has yet 
impugned the correctness of the formulee on which the strength of the 
uniform chain system is calculated, it is scarcely necessary to do more 
than base the rejection of Mr. Dredge’s extreme taper chain system on 
the grounds of its non-conformity with the rules quoted above ; unfor- 
tunately however, the Ballee Khal Bridge near Calcutta, originally 
constructed in strict accordance with this principle, which fell by its 
own weight, and the mability of the “ Kubudduk” Bridge near Jessore 
in Bengal, to withstand the ordinary proof trial, together with its subse- 
quent failure, sufficiently confirm the accuracy of Mr. Pratt’s conclu- 
sions. The iron work of the latter bridge was constructed by Mr. 
- Dredge himself. 

8. In the beginning of this ‘Paper’? I remarked that I had 
practically, i. e. experimentally corroborated the fact demonstrated in 
Mr. Pratt’s Memoir* and the failure of the Ballee Khal Bridge led to. 
so much study and research into the principles which should govern a 


* Vide account of ‘‘ Experiments’’ at the end of this Memoir, 


Al6 A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


Taper Chain Bridge, that the result has been an encouragement to 
combine the Taper Chain with the uniform system, possessing in con- 
junction the advantages of each, with the positive defects of neither, 
and which I will presently explain, after glancing at the evils which are 
acknowledged to exist in both the above principles. 

9. The most important fact gleaned from the above experience and 
research is one entirely overlooked by Mr. Dredge, viz. that where 
strength or section of Iron is taken away from the chains, it should be 
made good in the Longitudinal Beams to which they are connected. 
Not that the precise quantity abstracted from the former should be 
added to the latter, but that additional strength should be given to the 
beams bearing a certain ratio to that taken from the cham. Mr. 
Dredge, and the uniform chain system, afford instances of opposite 
extreme cases. In the former, the section of the outer longitudinal 
beams at the centre, where the chains are a minimum, should be nearly 
equal to the entire section of the chains at the point of suspension, the 
portion of beam in the centre of the bridge standing in place of the 
chain theoretically, and almost so in practice ; in fact the longitudinal _ 
beam is an indispensable item in the Dredgeian combination, whereas 
in the uniform system the reverse is the case, for by the non-diminution 
of the chain in the centre, there is no absolute necessity for the longi- 
tudinal beam as a component portion of construction. 

10. The principal defects of Mr. Dredge’s extreme Taper system are, 

Ist. The hazard of trusting a bridge, whatever the span may be, to 
the strength of one, or even fwo rods at the centre, for (admitting for 
the sake of argument, that the section there may not be disproportion- 
ed to the strain) yet the fracture of the link in the centre, (and being 
so slender there is the greater probability of such an event there than 
elsewhere) would be attended with very dangerous results; the conclu- 
sion therefore to be drawn from the admitted inexpediency of confiding 
in the strength of so small a section of iron in the very centre of the 
bridge is, that the chain should not diminish so rapidly as, in the 
extreme Taper system, it does. 

11. 2Qndly. As noticed above, the section of iron in the longitudi- 
nal beams is uniformly weak throughout with reference to the tension 
at the centre, which, where the beam comes in place of the chain, is 
infinitely great, as compared with that exerted near the standards. 


1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 417 


12. Here, as regards the second defect, it may be objected, that 
Mr. Dredge never intended his bridges to be sustained by tension in 
the longitudinal beams at any point of their length, assuming in his 
theory that “the tension at the centre is a cypher.” The capacity of 
the platform to resist compression in the two half curves, and not the 
power against tension, being brought into action. 

13. Such has been Mr. Dredge’s view and his rule of construction, 
but experience on a full sized scale, (independent of the failure of the 
bridges above noticed) has satisfied me that there is not strength in the 
combination of the platform to resist compressive power. The defect 
was proved as follows :— 

14. The whole of the iron work of a complete half curve of a 
bridge of 120 feet span and 16 feet width of platform, was put up in 
the Government Iron bridge yard on standards erected of masonry for 
the purpose, thus: (See Fig. 1.) 

The centre link was carried out horizontally in its proper position, 
and attached to a wooden beam abutting against two trees. The cen- 
tral ends of the longitudinal beams were left free, as shown above, the 
other ends being built firmly into the masonry in their cast iron boxes, 
whilst the half platform rested on three posts on each side, to preserve 
the horizontality till the whole was put up. Every thing bemg in 
position, the transverse beams, railing, &c. fixed, it is evident that on 
the removal of the posts the structure would not fail, if there was 
sufficient stiffness in the combination of the framing, to resist the 
compressive action by the combined oblique pull of the auxiliary rods 
depending from the cham; accordingly the posts were one by one 
removed, when it was immediately seen that there was not that degree 
of stiffness in the framing to resist the amount of compression from the 
centre towards the standards, for when all the posts were removed, 
about one-third of the length of the platform from the standards was 
bowed out 25 inches, as in the annexed figure. (See Fig. 2.) 

There was at this time no extra load on the platform, and the con- 
clusion seems obvious, that unless the longitudinal beams be kept 
straight by tension from the opposite half curve, the framing could 
hardly bear its own weight, far less be equal to a traffic load of 112tbs. 
per square foot. in other words, the combination and scantling assigned 
by Mr. Dredge have not strength to resist the compression ; the stability 


418 A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


therefore of the structure must depend on the capability of the longi- 
tudinal beams to resist tension. . 

Mr. Dredge has in fact carried the principle too far, and has conclud- 
ed that, because the lowest pomt of a chain is that of least tension, 
such an arrangement may be effected by which there shall be none at 
all. He has also assumed perfect rigidity for his platform, which is 
composed of a flexible combination, and which, if in the slightest degree 
displaced, causes collapsion of the whole. 

15. The third defect in the extreme Taper chain system is the 
great obliquity of the central auxiliaries, and the great difference in the 
angles of obliquity ; varying from 10° at the centre to about 65° at the 
standards ; the strains to which they are exposed by equal weights are 
consequently very unequal. This conclusion hardly requires elucidation, 
but the subjoined diagram (Fig. 3.) drawn to a scale, and on the princi- 
ple that, when three forces are in equilibrio the strains in each direction 
are proportional to the sides of a triangle in the direction of the forces, 
shows the actual tension on the central oblique rod, and in that nearest 
the standard, of a bridge constructed strictly on Mr. Dredge’s system, 
the angles of attachment being 59° 19’ at the standards, and 9° 30’ at 
the centre. (See Fig. 3) or as in Fig. 4, the weight being in both 
eases expressed by unity. (See Fig. 4). 

The tension on the first oblique rod from the pier will be 1.18 and 
the horizontal tension 0.6, whilst that on the central oblique rod will be 
6.14, and on the horizontal line 6.05, so that equal sections of iron 
are strained in the proportion of 6 to 1. 

16. The advantages of the above system are, first, that a considera- 
ble portion of the platform is supported by rods direct from the stand- 
ards, thus leaving a diminished tension due to the chain, and secondly, 
by the oblique action of the auxiliary rods the system is retained under 
the dominion of a certain amount of Tension, rendering the roadway 
free from the injurious effects of undulation and vibration, and making 
the transit more firm and pleasant. 

17. The defects of the Uniform chain system are, 

Ist. The whole weight of the bridge is supported by the chains, 
rendering them very heavy, massive and costly, as also more suscepti- 
ble of receiving the impulse, which in storms is the primary cause of 
the destructive motion given to the roadway. 


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1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 419 


18. 2ndly. The platform being wholly supported by the action of 
gravity, the equilibrium of the system is disturbed by the most trivial 
causes, the transit even of a single foot passenger over a bridge of 200 
feet span produces a sensible vibration, whilst the motion of heavy 
bodies is attended by effects actually injurious to the structure, and it 
may therefore be readily conceded, that the effects of storms is very 
much to be dreaded, of which the Menai, the Brighton Pier and Mon- 
trose bridges are instances. 

19. Few, if any suspension bridges on the uniform system are 
constructed on any very close calculations of the strength of the differ- 
ent parts; generally a very wide margin is allowed over and above the 
power required by calculation; thus the Menai bridge is equal to a 
permanent load of nearly 400 tons above the weight of suspended 
roadway, added to a full load of 75 tbs. per square foot ; and the bridge 
at Montrose is equal to nearly 100 tons in excess of the entire load to 
which it can be subjected, yet notwithstanding this excess of strength 
in actual section of iron im the chains, these bridges have been in 
imminent danger of total destruction when uwxloaded, from what may 
safely be called the defects of construction; surely nothing need be 
added to show the inexpediency of providing a vast excess of strength 
in any structure to meet a dead weight which it can never be subjected 
to, and at the same time leave it unprotected to encounter the danger 
of disruption to which at any hour it may be exposed from natural 
causes ? 

The lately constructed bridge at Hungerford Market over the 
Thames, 676 feet span, has a sectional area of 312 square inches, 
and as the actual tension on the chains, even with the enormous as- 


sumed weight of 170 tbs. per square foot of platform, could not exceed 


1420 tons which @ 9 tons per square inch, requires 156 square inches, 
there is exactly double the section or strength necessary for the struc- 
ture. 


Resultant System. 


20. I will now proceed to explain a system which only proposes to 
do what the formule in Mr. Pratt’s Memoir says may be done, which is 
based on the experience and research I have above noticed, and which 
proves what it engages to do, ina manner, I trust, unexceptionable. For, 

3K 


420 . A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


already have the Ballee Khal bridge, the Kubudduk bridge, and five 
other bridges of spans varying from 200 feet to 120, which were origin- 
ally constructed on the extreme Taper chain principle, been (as far as 
was practicable) remodelled on the system I am about to advert to, 
and most of which have now been erected 3 years, fully proved by 
previous loading, and subjected to very heavy traffic and storms. It 
is merely a different application of the uniform chain system, though 
it partakes of both that and the Taper chain; I term it ‘‘'The Resul- 
tant,”’ indicating thereby that the chains by construction, are m absolute 
strength, and in the direction of their links, “ Resultants’ of the 
tensions due to the adjoining link and auxiliary depending therefrom. 
It is in fact emphatically a system of equilibrium. The chief differences 
between it and the old system consist in a modified reduction of the 
section of iron in the chains from standard to centre, with a correspond- 
ing increase in the horizontal power in the opposite direction ; in fact, 
transfering in part the horizontal tension, which, together with the ob- 
lique, is borne by the chain in the uniform system, to the line of the 
platform by means of the deviation of the suspending rods from the 
perpendicular. 

21. In the uniform chain system, as is well known, the suspending 
rods are vertical. In the “ Resultant,” they are set at an angle with the 
roadway, and in proportion to the deviation of this angle from the 
vertical line, a new element is brought into operation, viz. tension in the 
horizontal lme. This does not affect the principle of construction, but 
only renders necessary a new distribution of the forces required to sup- 
port the structure ; this will be evident from the consideration of annexed 
diagram (Fig. 5.) which represents the principle of the uniform chain, in 
which the oblique and horizontal tensions are borne by the chain alone, 
and as these are nearly equal, the power or section of the chain in 
either direction from point D must be equal also. (See Fig. 5). 

Here the weight of the portion of platform A to be supported is 
sustained by a single force B, from the main chain C.C. If therefore 
A=8 tons, the rod B must be equal to that strain. Fig. 6, is an 
example of the ‘ Resultant’? principle, in which the portion (See 
Vig. 6) of platform weighing, as before, 8 tons, is supported by two 
forces, viz. the oblique rod B, in the direction b D. and the horizontal 
force E. Supposing the angle at b to be 30° the rod B. will be strain- 


1848. ] Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 421 


ed with a power of (the weight x by cosecant of the angle b)=16 
tons, whilst the horizontal force or (weight x cotangent of the angle 
b)=14 tons. 

Now although in the first instance the actual tension on the rod B is 
only 8 tons, and by that the weight is upheld, whilst in the second the 
total amount of sustaining power is 16-+14==30 tons, yet mark the 
difference of effect on the chains from which such rods are suspended. 
In a bridge of 160 feet span and 20 feet width of platform (for exam- 
ple) the area to be supported will be 3200 square feet, which, at 120%bs. 
per square foot will be 172 tons. With an angle of suspension of 15° 
the tension on the chain in the uniform system will be 3 weight x by 
cosecant of the angle of suspension, or 14? x 3.86332 tons. 

In the “ Resultant” system (vide Fig. 17, in which the entire series 
of strains have been worked out as shown in the table) the extreme 
tension on the chain, or that due to the upper link, is 192.82 tons, the 
difference being made up in the tension on the horizontal beam, for 
which a proportionate section of iron is allowed, and this horizontal 
beam is not an extra item introduced merely to meet the strain, but is 
a component part of the system of framing of the platform, and as 
necessary to the whole as the platform of any ordinary suspension 
bridge. ; 

Here then it is apparent that, in Fig. 5, the weight supported verti- 
cally causes a tension of 332 tons on the upper link of the example 
above mentioned, and that a proportional section of iron must be given 
to meet that strain, and not only that, but the same section must be 
continued throughout the whole series of links; whereas, as in Fig. 6, 
the extreme tension on the chain, with an equal load, is only 192.82 
tons, so that its section can be reduced in the proportion of 1 to 1.72 
in the upper link, each link in the descending curve becoming lighter 
in proportion to the extent of diminution allowed ; in addition to which 
advantages the chain links, by the oblique position given to the suspend- 
ing rods, are strained in the direction of their length, the most favora- 
ble to which they can be exposed. Finally if the weight of the 
whole series of chains, links, and vertical rods in the old system, be 
compared with the chains, oblique rods, and longitudinal beams of the 
“ Resultant” system, for any given bridge, it would be seen that the 


two correspond as nearly as can be obtained in practice. This I have 
3K 2 


422 A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


proved beyond doubt from the result of those bridges enumerated in 
the 20th paragraph, as remodelled on the “ Resultant’’ system. 

22. I will now detail the theory on which the “ Resultant’ princi- 
ple is based. 

In Fig. 7, A B C represents the chain of a tension bridge, the 
centre link of which is above the level of the railing; a bed, the 
roadway, or suspended platform, (See Fig. 7,) the small portions 
xx being supported by the abutments. Let 1, 2,3; 3,2,1, be the 
auxiliary oblique rods from the chain, the angle of those at the centre 
not being less than 25° and those next the standards not greater than 
45°. It is evident that the platform is entirely upheld by the auxiliaries, 
and it is to them therefore that our attention is first directed. 

23. The auxiliary rods being by construction attached at equal 
distances, it is intended that each set shall bear an equal duty or ten- 
sion, and as the stiffness of the platform to resist the force of gravity 
is uniform throughout, the whole series of oblique rods benefit equally 
thereby, and being thus common to all, it may be omitted in consider- 
ing the strains on the auxiliary rods. (See Fig. 8). 

Suppose the platform to be divided into as many equal parts as there 
are oblique rods, thus giving to each rod an equal load, the points of 
attachment of which being the centres of gravity, we have six rods, 
1, 2,3, 3, 2, 1, supporting the equal portions of platform having corre- 
sponding numbers. 

24. The several portions of the platform acting by gravity whilst 
the sustaining force is oblique, a third force is necessary to preserve 
the whole in equilibrio. This force is, in the present system, tension in 
the horizontal line as shown in annexed Fig. 9, and acting from the 
standard towards the centre. These three forces, viz. vertical, oblique, 
and horizontal, being in proportion to the radius, cosecant, and co- 
tangent of the angle of obliquity; the tensile force being that under 
consideration, it is necessary to connect the portions of the platform 
in Fig. 8, in such a manner that the weight or force of gravity shall act 
freely, whilst the several parts are prevented from separating. Fig. 10, 
will show the meaning. 

Here we have the tensions on the several portions 1, 2, 3, on one 
side, or half span, counterbalanced by an equal amount of tension on 
the portions 3, 2,1, of the opposite half, hence the greatest strain is in 


1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 423 


the centre, which has the pull of 3+2-+1 acting on it ; the connecting 
link between 2 and 3, being strained with the tension of 2+-1, and that 
between the parts 1 and 2, with the strain due to the part 1 only. Now 
the outer longitudinal beams of the system stand in the place of the 
connecting links of the above Fig. 10, and are exposed to the varying 
tensile forces as described along the whole length, the amount of each 
of which admits of easy calculation, and whilst the precise spot of the 
greatest effect can be exhibited, the exact amount in every portion of 
the system can be accurately ascertained, and consequently provided for. 

25. The following Figs. 11 and 12, will show the relative tensions 
in the oblique and horizontal directions, in both Mr. Dredge’s and the 
present ‘ Resultant” systems. Fig. 11, showing the strains where the 
oblique rod angles vary, as practised by Mr. Dredge from 10° to 60°, 
and Fig. 12, the strains where the variation of the angles is only from 
25° to 45°. (See Figs. 11 and 12). 

The force of gravity being represented by unity in both cases the 
extreme difference in the amount of tension in the oblique rods of Mr. 
Dredge’s combination is as 5 to 1, and in the horizontal beam as 10 to 
Fy (Fig. 11.) whilst in the “Resultant”? system under adoption, as 
shown in (Fig. 12.) the variation of tensions in either direction between 
the centre and standard is as 1.4 to 2.2 greatly to the advantage of the 
latter. 

26. Now to apply the same principle of the composition of forces 
to the chain, so that the system may be in equilibrio. The span, width 
of roadway, its construction, the spaces between the oblique rods, and 
angle of the central one being determined, the weight to be assigned to 
each set of auxiliaries may be safely assumed at 120 ths. per square 
foot of platform, including the weight of the structure. 

27. The tension on the centre, or horizontal link may be arbitrarily 
assumed, i. e., it may be made any proportion of the link at the point of 
suspension, thus tapering the chain 3d, 4th or jth, part of the sectional 
area of the upper link, for it is evident that by the arrangement of the 
angles formed by the first link from the centre and first set of oblique 
rods, the strain on the centre link may be =0, or 1000 tons, as is 
shown in annexed Figs. 13 and 14, where it is clear (Fig. 13.) that the 
tension on the centre link c. b. is increased or diminished as the line 
c.e. (the prolongation of a.c.) approaches nearer toc. b. or c. d.; 


424 A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


the tension on c. b. will be a maximum when a, ec. b. are in one line, 
and a minimum (Fig. 14.) when a. c. d. are in oneline. The minimum 
of the central angle has however been practically determined to be 25°, 
with a view to the equilization, as far as practicable, of the strains on 
the entire series of oblique rods. 

28. We have thus the means of assigning to the centre link any 
amount of power ; its ‘direction, (horizontal) is known as well as the 
tension and direction of the central oblique rods, we have therefore two 
forces, the magnitude and direction of which, with reference to each 
other, are known, from which to obtain a resultant, which shall be the 
first link from the centre. And here it must be borne in mind, that the 
height of the point of suspension and consequently deflection of the 
chain depend on the power of the centre link, for the resultant, or first 
link from the centre will form a greater or less angle with the horizon 
as its direction approaches less or more to that of the centre link, and 
the resultants arising therefrom, as the series of the chain draws nearer 
to the standards, will all be similarly affected. 

29. The first resultant from the centre link and oblique rod is 
obtained from the following expression, (Fig. 15.) 


Suppose given A B==200 centre link. The actual forces in 
A C= 33 centre oblique rod. (the bridge designed 
for the “Jumna” at 


ONAL TSOP A Ba 25° en. tee sete oni! Jeera 
to find the magnitude and direction of A. D. 
By Trigonometry, 
A D?=A C*+A B’—2 AC. A B. Cos: A BD 
=A C*-+A B?+2 (A C. A B Cos: A B) 
==1089-+40000+(13200 + 906) 
A D= 4/53048=230.32—magnitude of A D. 
Again, 
AD:sin.BAC:: {0PU csi CAD 
° e ee AN B ° e 4 ° 
Sina Oa 20e 4... los, 9° 625948 
Ae. ae ine! i ae ate 2° 301030 
11: 926978 
A DS=Zav' ois. . soak Ju 2) BOZaa2 


Angle C A D=21°.32! NOL aim 9: 564646 


PUXAXY. 


es 


2 


wares Gi 


1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 425 


And angle C A B—angle C A D=25°—21°-32/==3°.28, or angle of first 
resultant A F with the horizon. Thus the magnitude and direction of 
the first link are found, and the link is a true resultant of the two 
forces acting at its lower extremity. In like manner can each link be 
ascertained till the series is complete, and thus a perfect system of links 
and auxiliaries will be obtained in equilibrio, under the maximum strain 
to which the structure can be exposed. 

30. By reference to annexed Fig. 16, the formation of the chain 
will be readily understood from the mechanical construction, as, shown 
in the dotted lines, which are the forces taken froma scale of equal 
parts, and correspond with the results obtained by the mode of calcula- 
tion above referred to. (See Fig. 16.) 

The points of attachment, e, e, e, of the oblique rods and platform, 
are originally known, the span being divided into a number of equal 
parts ; the length of the links or points d. d. d. are found by the annex- 
ed formule (Drewry, p. 172). 


/ (deflection + deflection)? - semichord’ = semilength of chain, which 


must be computed ohne of the centre link. The semi-length 
thus obtained is to be divided into as many links as are required, which 
will of course depend on the number of spaces of the platform upheld 
direct from the standards (Fig. 17). The deflection may be assumed. 
any proportion of the chord line from a 10th to a 15th. In small 
bridges the latter is the best as affording greater rigidity, with but little 
extra material ; in large spans, perhaps a medium, or 3,th will be found 
most practicable. In the above Fig. 16, ac,ac, represent the strains 
on the main chains, a d,a d, the tensions on the oblique rods, and 
cd, ec d, the resultants. 
31. In a bridge on the resultant system of 500 feet span and 24 
feet width of roadway, if the chain were made to taper at the centre 
_to 3th the section of the link at the point of suspension, which in this 
case would be equivalent to the tension of 1014 tons, the central link 
would have 9 times the strength, that in the extreme, or Dredge’s taper- 
ing system, would have been assigned to it, whilst from the position of 
the resultant link, and collateral oblique rods, the iron in the centre, does 
not hang as dead weight tending to produce vibration by the slightest 
cause, as in the uniform system, but is kept under the dominion of tension 
drawn in the direction of its length, and thus preserved steady and rigid. 


426 A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


32. In paragraphs 24, 25, the principle that is to guide the con- 
struction of the longitudinal beams has been given, viz. as the third 
force acting by tension horizontally to preserve the equilibrium with the 
oblique force and that of gravity ; and in paragraph 9, full explanation 
of the reason of the above arrangement has been entered into, and it 
has also been shown that provision can be made to meet the several 
amounts of tension acting on the beam in the horizontal line. If this 
were all that the longitudinal beam had to perform, a construction 
similar to Fig. 10, would answer the purpose, and the section of the 
different portions might diminish from the centre, towards the standards 
in proportion to the variation of the strains produced by the auxiliaries, 
but as these beams are intended to bear the vertical weight of the 
platform together with the heavy traffic load, and other contingencies, 
a compact or uniform section should be retained in bridges of small 
span equal to that demanded at the centre, which will be the most 
advantageous to the system, and facilitate the actual construction, 
though in larger spans a considerable reduction of section may be 
effected between the centre and standards. 

33. The “ Resultant’ system as above elucidated, cannot surely 
fail to present many valuable points for recommendation, professing, as 
it does, practically to coincide with the theoretical and analytical con- 
clusions of the author of the “‘ Memoir’ under notice, and moreover, 
whilst it is divested of the positive defects of both the systems which 
have been simultaneously reviewed, a powerful resultant is obtained 
from the composition of the advantages or forces of each of them. 
This system has been somewhat hastily ‘damned with faint praise,” 
by some, because they would not take the trouble to ascertain its prin- 
ciples of construction ; it has been passed over by others, from absolute 
inability to understand them, simple as they are, but from what has 
been shown above it will be clear that, with the condemnation of the 
‘Resultant’ system, the uniform must be included, the latter being 
nothing more than an extreme case of the general system in which the 
strain on the chain is a maximum, and the horizontal tension is 0, 
whilst the system of Mr. Dredge in a way aims at, (but does not 
attain,) the opposite extreme, where the tension on the chain is a mini- 
mum, and that on the horizontal line a maximum. 

34. It now remains to show another advantage of the “ Resultant”’ 
system with a diminishing chain. The annexed Fig. 17, is the con- 


1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 427 


structed resultant curve of abridge of 160 feet span as designed, with 
the several forces and angles delineated, and the subjoied table shows 
the forces from which each link has been obtained, their magnitude 
and direction; it will be obvious that the horizontal tension of each 
portion of platform supported by an oblique rod will be communicated. 
through the medium of the side longitudinal beams from the standard 
to the centre, so that the tension on one half the bridge is counteracted 
by that on the opposite half; this amount of tension in a loaded bridge 
of large span is very great, (600 tons in a span of 500 feet, and 24 
feet wide) being the sum of all the horizontal tensions A+B+C+D+E, 
&c., and as the ends of these side beams are securely built into the 
standard masonry, the swaying of the structure from side to side, or 
undulation vertically under the influences of storms, or other ordinary 
destructive causes, (excepting to a very slight extent) is prevented. At 
the proof trial of the Ballee Khal bridge, 250 feet span, after its recon- 
_ struction on the Resultant principle, the transit of a large elephant, and 
24 pounder siege gun (See Fig. 17. also Table next page) with all its ap- 
purtenances, caused no sensible vibration, or visible depression, whilst 
at the conclusion of the ceremony the entire platform was covered with a 
dense crowd of villagers, who, on the departure of the Governor and suite 
came to witness the opening, and congregated as far as they were able to 
one side of the bridge, thus giving fair proof of the stability and rigidity 
of the structure. 

35. If therefore, as demonstrated by the Rev. Mr. Pratt, the 
quantity of iron calculated to resist a certain dead weight, be the same 
for bridges of equal span and width, and of equal strength, whether 
the metal be distributed, as in the uniform system, or as in the “ Re- 
sultant,” it surely is no small advantage in favour of the latter, that, by 
construction, it is defended from the severe trials to which all bridges; 
even when unloaded, are exposed, from the momentum which a compa- 
ratively light body obtains when put in motion. 

36. The extra aid usually applied to suspension bridges on the 
uniform system for the purpose of stiffening them, has been found 
absolutely necessary, and duly commented on in paragraphs four and 
five, and whilst such means are almost indispensable in the old system, 
to compensate for vicious construction; in the resultant system they 
form an essential part of the principle; and considering the results of 
the experiments on a full-sized scale, (vide end of this memoir) the 

3.1L 


[Ocr. 


A Resultant System for the 


428 


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*yurT o13UI,g a0) ue, 6) 6) (4p! 0 aj s[) 10: 8) Piece ee lige @useiiw es) ue! mil! ie. 6) mie, 6) 10 e+] ee ee oe erl ae ee eo ee 08 ‘yUI] 81309 

"SUO J, 
‘syuy uUmya| “Uuoz.UL0Y "UbdOy "wipya "spod| *U0zILOY) . p 
"YUuvT uo uorwuayz\yzun syur|-g070 Se spowanbiygo folyzim spo.w ee we) 


anbygo fo\saybuo foanbygo fo”? anp\f{fo yury 10 szunzqpnsay, 


f0 u017180T 40 szunzynsiumys fojaands auo saoog lay? Oursoduoa soto, 


-ay 70g \sanbupy— | foqyhiay \sapbupr sjunsason\sajpbup | 


le, together with the theoretical soundness of the details, it 


‘LI 4ig  aag 
‘moLfasay? PaViwzg0 szuDznsay ay7 yzun ‘spoy anhyqo puv syuvT fo saouog ayn Suamoyy ajqv,y, 


favourable reports on those bridges actually constructed on the resultant 
princip 


good quality that such a structure can require, to recommend it. 


appears neither reasonable or consistent to object to it s 


Way 4 i: ae | 5 
ae (> abhe. ar . oh ti (beh ; 
¥ . 3 
i ary 4 ua} 


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yee wel ‘eye q Hh, | ee + ‘ ¥ 
ay ihe Sot Sh apis ae at wey aM. hy 
{ a ¢ y 1 r ; 
a oe Se st “ss ne 
4) c= ( 


r a es Mash 3 
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Heeaye? ve Ba al Yo ‘eek usd i Eee reg 
sinh of vad chai i on 


a 
‘ % "i ‘hn y 
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> LAD? 5 aad 
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4 al 
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Creita 0 
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Ny 
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Cita a 2 


JAXX Td 


1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 429 


Results of a series of experiments instituted for the purpose of testing 
the newly proposed Resultant Taper Chain principles. 


Pl. XXIV. Fig. 1, is illustrative of the first experiment, which was 
intended to test the theory of a system based on the “resolution of 
forces,” as explanatory of the proposed construction of the Agra bridge. 

The idea of compression in the horizontal line having, from actual 
proof, been deemed untenable in bridges of any ordinary span, the 
opposite power of tension has been admitted as the third in the series 
to produce an equilibrium jointly with those of gravity, and the tension 
in the oblique direction from chain to platform, thus: (See Fig. 18). 
The oblique and horizontal force in a series bearing theoretically a 
certain proportion to each other with reference to the obliquity of the 
former, the weights at each point being uniform; this experiment was 
instituted to prove practically how far that theory was correct. 

It was also intended to illustrate practically the theory relative to the 
position and power of the chains, the links of which are calculated to 
be true resultants from the two forces immediately below them in the 
chain, viz. the link and oblique rod attached to the lower extremity of 
that resultant. 

Fig. 1, shows the experiment which was to prove whether, indi- 
vidually or collectively, the several sets (three forces applied to any 
point to produce equilibrium) of forces which may be applied to any 
single rod, link, or the entire series of rods and links, will be propor- 
tionate to the different strains, which are those calculated as due to the 
parts of a bridge cf 100 feet span, 16 feet wide, constructed on the 
above principle. 

The experiment was on full scale as regards heights and distances, 
but formed of material ,+,th of the strength of the real bridge, the 
uniform weights at the points of junction of the oblique rods with the 
platform being in the same proportion, allowing 120 tbs. per square 
foot. 

The point of suspension is 2 feet from the centre of the standard, 
making the half span of the chain 48 feet. 

The power of the centre link, by actual construction, was made equal 
to 4th that of the upper link, or whole amount of tension which would 
be due to a uniform chain, and the angle of the central oblique rod de- 
termined to be 30°., the deflection being ith. 

3.L 2 


430 A Resultant System for the [Ocr 


The chain was not at first attached, but the forces necessary to pre- 
serve equilibrium at the points of attachment of the oblique rods with 
the platform, first attended to, as follows, each of the portions of plat- 
form (c, c', c*, &c.) being separate at first, and afterwards flexibly 
connected. 

To the portion (c) with a weight (d) of 56 tbs. was attached a single 
rod (a) passing over a pulley at point of suspension; a weight (x), and 
part of weight (Y) passing over a pulley im a horizontal line, were added 
im such proportions till they produced an equilibrium, i. e. till the por- 
tion of platform (c) was made horizontal by the joimt effects of the 
two weights x and Y. 

The subjomed table shows in its several columns what the propor- 
tions of the weights (x, x', x’, &c., and Y) should be, theoretically 
calculated, to produce equilibrium at the different points as the rods 
were successively attached ; and it also shows what the actual weights 
were particularly applied in succession, as well as the collective results 
on the whole series, with the differences. 

At the distance of 7 feet the oblique rod (a') was attached to a second 
piece of platform (c'), with its weight of 56 ths., which latter was also 
connected to the piece (c) flexibly ; the weight (x’) appended to the rod 
(a) and weight (Y), increased till the equilibrium was produced, or 
both pieces of platform (c, c') were in a horizontal lme. In like man- 
ner were all the obliques (a’, a’, a*, a°,) attached to the several portions 
(c’, c*, &c.) of platform, and the weights added and corrected: when 
the whole series was complete, the weight Y had attained its maximum. 
The table will show the differences between the actual weights (Y, Z, x', 
x?, &c.) and the numbers on the plate, which are those mathematically 
calculated as due to the several rods and beam. 

The result shows that the whole were increased slightly beyond the 
calculated amounts; but this may be attributed to the friction of the 
chains upholding the oblique rods, which passed over cast iron pulleys 
9’ diameter. It will be observed, however, that the increase was pro- 
portional: thus the originally calculated weight (x') due to the oblique 
rod (a') was 74 tbs., but, to produce equilibrium, required to be increas- 
ed to 95, and the calculated total amount of Y was 406 Tbs., afterwards 
practically requiring 519; but the numbers 74 and 406, are relatively 
proportional, to 95 and 519. 


1848. ] Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 431 


To prove the proportions due to the chain lmks in connection with 
the rest of the parts, the oblique rods were severally disengaged from 
the pulleys, and attached to the chain as follows. The rod (a°) was 
first attached to the centre lnk (b*), the outer end of which was fixed 
to a chain passing over a pulley, and to which was appended weight x°. 
The lower end of the link (b*) was likewise attached to the junction of 
the two rods, and its upper end to a chain passing over a pulley with 
weight x" appended, the intermediate pulley and weight x° being remov- 
ed. In this position was remarked the amount of the weights required 
to produce equilibrium, and what proportion x*, which denoted the 
tension on link b*, bore to the numbers mathematically calculated: the 
result of the whole is shown in the table, and the annexed Sketch, the 
position of the rods at this period: (See Fig. 19) (b*), being a 
true resultant of b’ and a®*. Each ‘other link (b’, b*, &c.) was then 
added in succession, the weights (x*, x°, &c.) being withdrawn in turn, 
and that attached to the link under iavestigation being increased as 
the experiment approached the upper link (b), when the weight Z de- 
noted the total tension on the upper link. 

Thus was shown the separate tension on the oblique rods, the hori- 
zontal tension on longitrtlinal beam, and the tension on each link of the 
chain : the results, as compared with theory, are noted in the table, and 
are satisfactorily approximate to each other. 

It was stated in the report of the Committee on the Ballee Khal 
bridge, and referred to in the ninth paragraph of my statement on the 
resultant system, before alluded to, that the power of the longitudinal 
beam at the centre, added to the power of the centre link should, toge- 
ther, be nearly equal to the power of the upper link, so that whatever 
power was taken from the chains in the centre, should be compensated 
for in the longitudinal beam. Now the result of the experiment entire- 
ly coincides with that opinion, and confirms the view taken of this part 
of the construction. The total corrected amount of weight Z was 
1086 tbs., and the sum of weights x° and Y, or 572+519—=1091 tbs. 

Experiment the second, Fig. 2, was proposed by Colonel Forbes, on 
Mr. Dredge’s extreme oblique principle, with the sole exception that 
the central portion of the roadway beam formed the horizontal connec- 
tion between the first slanting links on each side of the centre, thus, 
in the Fig. 2, as before, c, c', c’, &c., denote the platform, b, b', b’, the 


432 A Resultant System for the [Ocr. 


chain, the lower link of which is attached near the centre to the longi- 
tudinal beam at c*. In this position only can Mr. Dredge’s theory of 
a vanishing strain existing in the centre link (N, dotted line) be granted ; 
but at the same time the roadway beam must be equal (nearly) to the 
full section of iron in the upper link, as the result proved. The weights 
Z and Y were alone necessary for this experiment, the weights a, d, d’, 
d®, d’, being, as before, + cwt. each. 

The span of this half curve was only 40 feet, yet it required 1242 tbs. 
at Y, and 1302 ths. at Z, to produce equilibrium, being a greater weight 
than in the former experiment, in consequence of greater tension being 
called into action by the greater obliquity of the rods ; and a proof that 
in Mr. Dredge’s construction there is not iron enough in the centre of 
the longitudinal beam to resist the tension existing there. This experi- 
ment showed much more rigidity than the former one, being more 
powerfully acted on ; but to have manufactured it sufficiently strong to 
resist the tension, would have entailed a heavier outlay than the 
former. 

There is no doubt but that this construction of making the longitu- 
dinal beam act centrally as part of the chain would tend to stiffen the 
structure, and might simplify the details in small spans; but in large 
spans, where the centre link is of great substance, and with a double 
chain, practical difficulties occur which would render the centre link a 
necessarily distinct feature, and prevent its absorption into the roadway 
beam. 

The reason why the chains are drawn tangent to the railing is to 
enable the railing to be placed centrally under the chains ; for if the 
chains were tangent to the roadway, though there would be a decrease 
in the height of the standards, there would be a loss of 2 feet in width 
of platform ; for with a wide chain dipping below the railing, the stan- 
chions supporting it must be placed 1 foot on each side, within the 
central line of the chain, in order to avoid contact with it ; and an extra 
2 feet of platform is more expensive in its consequences on the amount 
of iron than an additional 4 feet of masonry on the standards. 

Experiment 3rd, of which Fig. 3 is illustrative, was a construction 
on the resultant principle, similar to experiment 1, carried to a much 
larger extent. The Fig. 3, shows only one half of it, as it was an entire 
eurve of 490 feet between the points of suspension, the lengths of the 


1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 433 


rods and beam, heights and distances, being to a full scale, whilst the 
sectional area of the iron was ~1,th part of reality. The sections of 
the whole of the parts are given, and proof calculations that each was 
correctly proportional to the full sections of the actual bridge. The 
standards were formed of spars, firmly supported by struts in front* 
and stayed back with ropes and chains, the latter having tackle on them 
to correct the perpendicularity of the masts, should they yield to the 
load. 

The horizontal beam was upheld by forty-four rods from the chain 
and six direct from each standard; the chain double, tapering in the 
centre to a power equal to ith the upper link. 

The angle of the centre oblique rod 25°, and that of the one next 
the standard 38° ; so-that there was only a difference of 13° between 
the two extremes, divided amongst twenty-eight points, or a difference 
of tension between the extremes in the proportion of 2°63 to 1°62. 

The deflection of the chain was equal to th the span. 

The section of the longitudinal beam at the centre, added to the 
section of the centre links, was equal to the sectional area of the upper 
links of the chain. 

The whole of the experiment being, as before said, =1,th part of 
reality, is.a model of the curve, which was designed for the Agra bridge, 
and the result of this experiment will go far to prove the correctness of 
the theory advanced. 

The calculations show the proportional load for the experiment to be 
1352 Tbs., at the rate of 120 tbs. per square foot of platform, to be 
uniformly distributed over 56 points. This was done by slinging a 
basket at each point, and gradually loading them up to the amount of 
57 Tbs. each. . 

When loaded with 24 tbs. in each basket, or 51 tbs. per square foot 
(exclusive of weight of experiment), the deflection in the centre, after 
the masts were made upright, was 12” only in the centre. 

With an additional load of 16 tbs. per baskest, making in all 40 tbs., 
or 84> ibs. per square foot of platform, the deflection in the centre was 
5z mches, and midway between the centre and standards, on one side 
1;", and on the other 24”, on account of the greater flexibility of one 
mast than the other. When the full load of 57 Tbs. on each point, or 


* Left out in drawing, to prevent confusion. 


434 A Resultant System for the |Ocr. 


120 per square foot, was put on, the deflection was 13} inches in the 
centre. This load was allowed to remain on 3 days: it was subse- 
quently unloaded and re-loaded several times with nearly the same 
results ; and after the lapse of 17 days from the period of its first being 
loaded, when all the weight was taken out of the baskets except 24 
ibs., which is proportional to the weight of the suspended platform of 
the real bridge without the traffic weight, the longitudinal beam sprang 
up to within #ths of an inch of the horizontal line on which it was first 
constructed. 

Thus was this very extended curve, formed of such exceeding slen- 
der material, not any of which could be proved before it was put toge- 
ther, found equal, proportionally, to the greatest amount of the traffic 
load that could on any extraordinary occasion come on the bridge, with- 
out derangement of any of its parts: the combination appeared as stiff 
under the load as could reasonably be expected with such slender wires, 
and fully bore out the results detailed in experiment No. 1, and the 
mathematical demonstration of the powers of the bridge, as set forth 
in the specification of the Agra bridge. 

Subsequent to the above detailed loading, I continued adding weight 
to the baskets, and correctmg the masts as well as the power of the 
tackle enabled me to do, till the weight in each baskest amounted to 
81 ths., when the longitudinal beam was torn asunder at the distance 
of 25 feet from the centre, and the whole immediately buckled up. 

The breaking weight was therefore 174 tbs. per square foot of plat- 
form, or a tension of 15 tons per square inch of that slight material, 
the weldings of which were with difficulty made, and the strength of 
which there was no means of proving. 

I cannot imagine any further proof to be necessary of the efficacy of 
such a system as has been proposed, manifestly having for its object the 
avoidance of the defects of both the uniform and extreme oblique 
system, combining the strength and solidity of the former with the 
rigidity, economy, and more scientific construction of the latter. 

In this construction, admitting the action of tension in every direc- 
tion, and where the rods and bars are drawn in the direction of their 
length, the full amount of tension that can possibly affect every part of 
the structure can be accurately ascertained, and thus certain data are 
afforded from which to proportion the sectional areas of every part of 
the bridge. 


1848. | Construction of Iron Tension Bridges. 435 


Scantlings of Rods of Experiment No. 3. 


if Upper link. .. at bd a pndeods. 

2 59 ‘i Le a ff en 

[ee 28 

“ssa e4 

= 5 93 a5 
z . » SF bof one inch. 

ear,” 23 

» i 64 

logue i 2 Ms ce hae 

1 a. es re a oie Paar 

ries; = a o “ft Sie 

(_ 12 or centre, b; SA ag re ee 


Oblique rod 3” diameter. 
Longitudinal beam at centre 1” x 3.”. 
is y 7th space from centre 1” y 2”. 


Explanation of the relative proportion between the Experiment and 
the real Bridge. 


Full section of two chains, one side of the real bridge. 
Upper link, 17 bars 2” X 1/=34” X 2"—68 square inches. 
Diameter of experimental upper link, 26 of one inch. 
Area of which ‘178 and °178 * 2 ch.=346 section of two chains. 
-346 X 176=67°8, or section of real bridge. 
Area of platform, real bridge, 468 * 11==5148 square feet : 
5148 X 120617760 ths. on real bridge. 
6177603156 tbs. total load for experiment. 
196 
3152==57 tbs. on each point of experiment. 
56 , 
Area of oblique rods of real bridge 2°405 each. 
Diameter of rods of experiment 4” or sectional area *012: 
012 K 1962-352, or very nearly the section of real bridge. 
Sectional arc of longitudinal beam of real bridge at centre, 37 inches ; 
remainder 27” beyond the 7th oblique rod. 
3M 


436 A Resultant System, Sc. [Ocr. 


Sectional of experimental beam at centre 1’ * 3/=="188 ; and +188 X 196 
=36'848, or nearly the section of real bridge. 
Remainder of section, 1/% 2.’=—='141 at the 7th rod: 
"141 X 196=27°636, as nearly as possible the section of real bridge. 


Table explanatory of the previously calculated theoretical tensions, and 
subsequently practically proved results, on an experiment undertaken 
to test the Taper Chain “ Resultant” system. 


Oblique rod |Chainlink|Total tension hori-| Total tension up- 


forces. forces. zontal line. per line. 
1 i t 
=) e e = e =} e 
= a a= = a = am 
SS 

5 |e a Sa ee S a 

o EK o o s o 2 
LL i RR es 2250) eae RS ia at 
[val Bs — ee Mm és mM . e— 
ed} 8 | 8 S| |2s| 8) 2] |o3/ 818 
(=) o om Pah om (e) o os raat oo ot Pa 
rte — ~~ m= ~~ ~ erst | Se ~~ o 
> el o o o > wel 2 o > 3 5) 
oO i} aa ins] oo — ios) ca Ds iss} a 
me = om on ioe! = = io loa] Fi 
Aa Py | A = PH P| A oa | 

x ora} 68 b |814 


x* or a®| 92/107| 25 | b® | 596 /W| 406 | 519 | 113 |B 814 |1068/272 


SLLLPLPLLPLLPPYIYPLYV PIP PLIIVYYII 


1848. | Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary. 437 


Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, and Ghazzily’s His- 
tory of the Prophets ——By A. SPRENGER, Lsq. M. D. (Communicat- 
ed by H. M. Exxiot, sq. Vice-President. 


Messrs. Silvestre de Lacy and Dubeux complain justly of the great 
incorrectness of the copies of the Persian translation of Tabary, and 
their discrepancy from each other, which is so great that little reliance 
can be placed on the book; that which is affirmed in one copy is not 
seldom contradicted in another. Ithought this circumstance might be 
owing to a difference of original editions made by the author himself; 
a comparison of several copies however does not bear out this hypothesis ; 
the various readings cannot be reduced to a certain number of original 
texts. 

If we consider the age when Tabary was translated (between A. H. 
350 and 366) and the comparatively modern language of the copies 
which we possess, another hypothesis suggests itself, viz. that these 
corruptions and discrepancies are owing to attempts on the part of the 
copyists to improve the obsolete expressions of the original. Though I 
have never met witha very ancient MSS. of Bal’amy’s Tabary, this 
supposition has been confirmed by the discovery of a work of Imam 
Ghazzily (who died A. H. 505), which I believe has hitherto escaped 
the attention of bibliographers. 

In the Moty Mahal library of the king of Oudh is a Persian MS. 
in 4to. of 250 pages, with the following title page written in the same 
hand in which the text is written : 


Owe aby! csals robo dI i> Kode) pl lett alos! b 2400 FEN) ures Wl 
cM! od} slag)! 5 y=” wslig!! cogl>9 pylsll eole Slates} wlblas Le) 


os Lpal (sic) uy? do=” dla 52! 


‘History of the prophets, compiled by the learned Hojjat al-islam 
Zayn al-dyn abi Hamid Mohammad, the son (sic) of Ghazzély (sic).’’ 
The MSS. is executed in a very beautiful naskhy character, and is the most 
ancient, and one of the most correct Persian MSS. that I have seen. It 
was probably written in the sixth century of the Hijrah, and abounds 
in peculiarities in spelling, as will appear from the extracts given below. 


9 


oa Mw 2 


438 Bal’ amy’ s translation of the History of Tabary, [Ocr. 


On comparing this book with the Persian translations of Tabary it 
appears that the latter embodies the whole of the former. It is indeed 
likely that the History of the prophets of Ghazzaly is nothmg more 
than an abridged edition of Tabary. This seems to be borne out by 
the circumstance that the invocation of God and of the prophet,* with 
which every Mohammadan book begins, is literally the same in our 
copy of Tabary and in Ghazzély, only the words gy) dem? 22> 9:1 JG 
coysbJl_y2,= are omitted by the latter. In the same copy of Tabary 
we find the beginning of the first chapter of Ghazzaly preceded by 
the words “know that Abu Jafar Mohammad b. Jaryr Tabary says 
in the beginning of his work.’ But in another copy of Tabary, this 
passage is wanting, and there is a different invocation+ of God and the 
prophet. On the other hand, as the Persians have taken so great liber- 
ties with their translation of Tabary, it is possible that they have 
inserted the whole of Ghazzaly’s book into it. 

Be this as it may, this valuable MSS. enables us to restore a large 
portion of our copies of Tabary; moreover it is of great intrinsic 
value; it contains the passages of the Koran alluding to the ancient 
prophets, most skilfully arranged and connected, and illustrated in a 
natural manner and with great perspicuity. It is the only book which 
gives us aclear view of Mohammad’s notions of the prophets ; all other 
Mohammadan books on the subject are filled with fables, which not only 
belong to a later time but to different countries. ere is the index of 
Ghazzaly’s history,t which differs but little from that of Tabary. 

1. Discussion on the object of the creation, fol. 4. 

2. Tradition of ’Abd Allah b. ’Abbas from the prophet on the descrip- 
tion of sun and moon, fol. 7. 

3. Discussion on the duration of the world, fol. 9. 

4. Discussion on the creation and in how much time it was accom- 
plished, 10. 

5. On the first inhabitants of the world, 14. 


* Tt begins: é' plots st US O23 saMy sl Js Jas edt aU Sac 


+ It begins: int Slow! Cod GaP ol coll ere stl! che Ul aglatl AY ners? 


Jl 
€ 


+ An index to Tabary is contained in the Zeitschrift der Detschen Morgenl. 
Gesellsch. II. 2. p. 159. See also DuCrux’s translation of Tabary. 


1848. | and Ghazzily’ History of the Prophets. - 439 


6. The angels worship Adam, 15. 

7. The devil deceives Adam and Eve, 17. 

8. Adam descends from the Paradise, 18. 

9. Adam performs the pilgrimage (to Makkah). 

10. Cain murders Abel, 19. 

11. Adam the father of mankind. 

12. Prophetic mission of Adam and his son Seth, 21. 

13. Question of Abi Dzarr Ghifary respecting the death of Adam, 22. 

14. Seth the son of Adam, his children, and those who reigned on 
earth. 7 
15. The first who worshipped fire and introduced musical instru- 
ments, 23. 

16. Story of Idrys. 

17. Noah, 23. 

18. Nimrod, 26. 

19. Hid, 27. 

20. The Thamiudites and their prophet calih, fol. 30. 

21. Abraham, 33. 

22. The flight of Abraham, 37. 

23. Death of Nimrod, 39. 

24. Birth of Ishmael, 41. 

25. Abraham settles Ishmael (at Makkah), 41. 

26. Abraham pays a visit to Ishmael, 42. 

27. The people of Lot. Birth of Ishak, 42. 

28. Hospitality of Abraham, 43. 

29. Abraham sacrifices his son, 46. 

30. Abraham and Ishmael build the temple of Makkah. 

31. Death of Sarah, 51. 

32. Death of Abraham, 51. 

33. On Abraham’s words, “ O Lord, let me see how thou awakest the 
dead,”’ 53. 

34. Story of Ishmael; his prophetic mission and his death, 54. 

35. Story of Ishak, 54. 

36. Story of Esau and Jacob, 55. 

37. Story of Joseph, 56. 

38. Zalykha and Joseph, 59. 

39. Joseph released from prison, 62. 


440 


40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 


Bal’ amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, [Ocr. 


a 


Arrival of Joseph’s brothers, 66. 
Job, 72. 

Sho’ayb, 74. 

Moses, 78. 

Birth of Moses, 79. 

Flight of Moses to Madyan, 83. 
Prophetic mission of Moses, 85. 
God speaks to Moses, 85. 

Moses goes to Egypt to Pharaoh, and with Aaron he conveys to 


him the message, fol. 89. 


49. 
50. 


Pharaoh is drowned and the Israelites leave Egypt, 95. 
Moses goes to speak with God and the Israelites worship the 


golden calf, 99. 


ol. 


106. 


52. 
53. 


History of the cow and the carnage among the children of Israel, 


Moses and Khidhr, 109. 
Moses and. the Israelites leave Egypt ; they come into the coun- 


try of the giants, whom they fight at Jericho, in the Balqa and at Jeru- 


salem, 112. 


54. 
55. 
91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 
95. 


Death of Moses and Aaron in the desert, 115. 

Joshua heads the Israelites and fights the giants, 116. 

The Table, 119. 

The town on the sea shore, 119. 

Christ’s ascension to heaven, 120. 

Death of the Virgin Mary, and execution of John Baptist, 122. 
Kings of the Romans, from Christ to Mohammad, 122. 


Unfortunately the copy is defective and gone; the most important 
chapters are wanting, the lacuna is after chapter 55. I give here the 
heads of the wanting chapters according to the index of the book. 


56. 
57. 


Qardin and Moses. 
The kings of the Israelites after Moses and the march of Ma- 


nujchr. 


58. 
09. 
60. 
61. 
62. 


Kaykobad. 

The prophet Hizqyl. 

The prophet Elyas. 

Alyasa’ and the kings of the Israelites after him. 
Samuel. 


1848. | and Ghazedly’s History of the Prophets. 441 


63. Samuel and Tali. 

64. War of Talit with Jalit (Goliath). David slays Jalit. 

65. Talat, his intention to kill David and how God leads him into 
his own snare. 

66. David. 

67. Solomon. 

68. Solomon and Bilqys. 

69. Solomon and the Devil; his temptation ; an image is put on his 
throne (Koran 38, 33.) 

70. Death of Solomon. 

71. The Ant in the story of Solomon and David. 

72. The Horses in the story of Solomon and David. 

73. Rehoboam son of Solomon. 

74. Kishen and Zarj, the king of India. 

75. The prayer which was acceded to. 

76. Kings of the Israelites. 

77. King Lohrasp. 

78. His son Gushtasp. 

79. Kings of Yuman after Solomon. 

_ 80. Buhman and his son Dara whom he begat by his daughter 

Homay. 

81. The elder Dara. 

82. His son the younger Dara. 

83. Dz al-Karnayn (Alexander) and his reign. 

84. Greek kings after Alexander; the kings of the Satrapies. 

85. Birth of Mary and how she was destined to serve God (Koran 
3, 31.) 

86. Birth of John Baptist. 

87. Birth of Christ. 

88. Flight of Mary and Christ. 

89. Zacharias put to death; prophetic mission of his son John. 

90. Prophetic mission of Christ. 


History of Hid. 
From the time of Noah to the time of Abraham, which is a space of 


one thousand two hundred years, there was no prophet except Hid, 
whom God sent to the ’Adites and Calih, whom he sent to the Thami- 


442 Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, [Ocr. 


dites. Ad and Thamiud were not two kings but two tribes descended from 
Shem the son of Noah. The father of our tribe was ’Ad the son of 
Uz b. Arem b. Shem b. Noah. The father of the other tribes was 
Thamid b. Gether b. Arem b. Shem b. Noah. *Ad had many children 
who were collectively called ?Ad (Adites). Thamtd had also many 
children and they were called Thamud (Thamuaites). In the Koran 
the people of Ad are called ’Ad and Iram (Aremites). It is said in 
the Koran (86, 3). ‘Dost thou not see how thy Lord acted with ’Ad 
and Iram.”’ Sometimes they are called by this name and sometimes 
by the other. Tabary observes in this book that the commentator of 
the Koran and the learned said: the reason why it runs in the Koran 
‘‘their brother and not his brother’ is that under the name of Thamid 
the tribe of Thamid is to be understood ‘To Thamid we sent their 
brother Calih’”’ and not “his brother.” 

The ’Adites and Thamiudites lived in the steppes of the Hijaz between 
the territory of Makkah and Syria. The country of the ’Adites was 
near to the country of Makkah, but the country of the Thamudites was 
farther from Makkah (this is precisely the position which Ptolemy 
assigns to his Tamuditee and Oadite. The ’Adites seem to have been 
still existing in the second century after Christ. All Mohammadan 
authors besides Tabary and Ghazzdly say that the ’Adites lived in 
the uninhabitable desert of Ahgaf, the latter inhabited a district called 
Hijr, which is on the frontier of Syria on the extremity of the steppes 
of the Hijaz. ‘The inhabitants of Hijr have accused the prophets of 
falsehood.’’ The inhabitants of Hijr in this passage are the Thamu- 
dites. The ’Adites and Thamiudites were the descendants of cousins 
and descended from Iram, but the ’Adites flourished earlier and the 
Thamiudites by two hundred years later. The ’Adites are also called 
the first ’Adites and the Thamidites are called the second ’Adites. In 
the Koran whenever one of the two is mentioned the other is mentioned 
as well, and the name of the ’Adites stands first, and that of the Tha- 
mudites last: as (26, 123.) “The ’Adites accused the prophets of 
falsehood,” and subsequently (v. 141), the Thamiudites are mentioned 
again (41, 14). “As to the ’Adites they were overbearing on earth,” 
and after that (verse 16) “‘ and as to the Thamidites, &c.’’ In another 
passage itis said the ’Adites and the Thamtdites. The same is the 
case wherever they are mentioned. 


1848. | and Ghazedly’s History of the Prophets. 443 


The ’Adites were stronger in body and more powerful than the Thami- 
dites. There wasno nation on earth equal to the ’Adites in tallness or 
strength. Every man was twelve spans high and some of them were so 
strong that if they struck the foot on the dry ground they would sink 
into it to the knee. They built houses in their country which were in 
keeping with their strength and of almost everlasting construction up to 
this day : if you see a strange building it is called ’Adian “ Iram dzat 
imad, &c.” It is said in the Koran “ Do you not know how God has 
acted with the ’Adites, who were the Lords of ’imad.”’ *Imad is a pillar 
and the meaning of the passage is that they were in stature like pillars ; 
every one of them was like several pillars in height and strength. In 
another passage they are compared with palm roots “they are like 
palm roots strewed about on the ground.” 

They were idolators: God sent Hid to them who was the son of 
their uncle; his name in Hebrew is Ghather. In the Koran he is 
called their brother “their brother Hid.’ Brother has a double 
meaning, brother by relationship and brother in faith. Hud was their 
brother by relationship and not by religion. Hud called them to God 
saying : “O people, worship God, you have no God besides him.” Proud 
of their strength they said to him “ Who is stronger than we?” They 
were fifty thousand men strong, and then therefore they said “ what 
tribe ismore numerous than we?” ‘* Do you not see that God who has 
created them is stronger than they are?’ Hd was incensed and said 
“Do you build a landmark on every place to direct yourselves? And 
do you erect strong edifices hoping that you may continue to live for 
ever,” ‘and if you are at feud you are at feud with giants; you seize 
them without mercy and you do not let them loose before they are dead, 
fear God and obey him.” After this Had enumerated to them the 
bounty of God. ‘Fear that God who has given you what you know, 
who has given you cattle, children, gardens, and springs of water.” 
Cattle are mentioned first in this passage, because the wealth of the sons 
of the desert consists in the sheep, cows, camels and the like. The 
reason why first their property is mentioned and then their children, is 
that children may be a misfortune, and a rich man can easily obtain 
children. In another passage it is said “wealth and children.” Here 
again wealth is placed before children, because wealth is most esteemed 
with men, Hud preached fifty years but they answered him “it is of 

3.N 


444 Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, [Ocr. 


no consequence for us whether you preach ornot.” ‘O Hid, thou as- 
sertest that these our Gods are no Gods, but you do not prove it, and 
therefore we will not give up our Gods on thy telling us todo so, and we 
will not obey thee.’ ‘We are certain thou art mad, and these our 
Gods, whom thou dost not worship have made thee mad.” 

In short Hud preached to them fifty years and no body believed in 
him, and those who did believe in him held their faith secret, and did 
not show their faith openly. After a long time Hid despaired of suc- 
cess. God knew that no one believed, and decided on punishing 
them; their spring of water which we have mentioned, became dry, 
and all their cattle died; they had three years no rain; they suffered 
of draught. It was the habit in the whole of Sham to go to Mukkah 
and offer there sacrifices and invoke God, though the inhabitants of 
Sham were unbelievers. At that time not a trace of the Kabah was 
left, having been destroyed by the deluge, and it was not rebuilt before 
the time of Abraham. This prophet (who lived later than Hud) raised 
the temple again. Yet the unbelievers knew that the soil of Makkah 
was sacred heaven, and they had preserved tradition, from the time 
previous to the flood, that there had been the house of God. The 
sacred territory was therefore always esteemed, and every one who was 
in need was aware that none but the God of heaven could help him. 
If they wished that a sick person should recover, or if a prisoner was 
in the hands of the enemy, or if there was an oppressor with whom 
they could not cope, they went to the spot on which now Makkah 
stands, offered sacrifices and invoked God on the top of that hill. The 
cause of this was that God never left the world without evidence of 
his existence, nor was mankind ever in complete ignorance. It is true 
there was no prophet in those days who showed to mankind the road, 
but God made the sacred territory the proof of his existence, for as 
they were there assisted in their needs, and as they saw these miracles, 
they knew that there was a God besides those idols and that he does all 
these works. This was the proof of God for mankind which left no 
excuse for an infidel who might say I did not know better, or I have not 
heard the name of God, there was a proof of the existence of God and 
it was just that those who would not believe should be thrown into hell. 

When the ’Adites were in great distress they said: Let us send 
messengers and sacrifices into the .sacred territory that they may pray 


CS 


1848. | and Ghazzily’s History of the Prophets. 445 


and that we may obtain rain, They sent a man of the name of Loqman. 
_ He was the eldest, the most influential, and the strongest man among 
them, and was nearest to "Ad in descent: he was Loqman son of 
Loqaym and grandson of ’Ad, and was secretly united with the prophet 
Hud. They also sent another man of the name of Marthad b. Sa’d 
who professed the religion of Hud and who was equally one of their 
chiefs; there was another man with them of the name of Qayl, who 
was an unbeliever and an adversary of Hid, but he was the greatest 
chief of the three, they sent these three men with much cattle, sheep, 
cows and camels, and they gave them orders to sacrifice them at Mak- 
kah and to pray for rain from God. The distance to Makkah was 
three days’ journey, Hid said to the ’Adites: “‘O people, believe in me 
that God may give you rain if you want it. Pray God for pardon, 
then repent your sins and he will give you fair enjoyments, and he will 
increase your strength.” But they shut their ears to the admonitions 
of Hud and dispatched these three men to the country of Makkah. 
They had relations at Makkah who lived on the hill. The tribe of 
Mo’awiyah b. Bokr received them as guests, and told them to enjoy 
three days their hospitality and then to attend to the object of their 
_ mission; they spread the tables, gave them wine to drink and amused 
them with the singing of slave girls. One whole month they spend in 
drinking and did not think of their tribe. After the lapse of this time 
their hosts became mindful that they had forgotten their tribe, and they 
were sorry first, for the ’Adites were their relations, yet they were 
ashamed to turn them out of their houses and make them attend to 
their work. They therefore taught a song to the slave girls that they 
might call to their mind in music the drought of their country. As 
soon as the messengers had heard the singers mention their tribe their 
memory was awoke and they said we have committed a great error in 
forgetting our countrymen: they broke up m order to perform the 
sacrifices. Marthad and Loqman who believed in Htid professed their 
faith and said to Qayl who was an unbeliever, if our tribe was to believe 
in Had, it would rain by itself and there would be no need of these 
sacrifices. Qayl knew that they believed in Htid; he was not afraid 
of the destruction of the tribe, and left them and went on the top of 
the hill; the place for sacrificing was on the hill of Mina. He killed 
the sacrifices turned his face towards the heaven and said, O God of 
3 N 2 


446 Bal amy’ s translation of the History of Tabary, [Ocr. 


heaven, thou knowest that Iam come here in need; my need is not ~ 
sickness from which I wish to be relieved, nor captivity from which I 
want liberation, but I want rain for my tribe who are nearly perishing 
from thirst. He thus spoke and prayed until three clouds made their 
appearance in the air, one was white, one red, and one was black. A | 
voice came from the wind: Choose which of the three clouds thou 
wantest, that it may go to thy tribe! He said to himself I know that 
this white cloud is dry and that it contains no ram; I do not know 
what there is in the red cloud; but in the black cloud is rain, for if a 
black cloud comes its rains. He therefore exclaimed I wish that the 
black cloud should go to my tribe. In this black cloud was the wind 

of destruction. God ordered the angels of destruction to bring the 
black cloud to the country of the ’Adites. Qayl descended from the 
hill and went to his two companions, and said a black cloud came with 
rain and I sent it to my tribe, saying this he sat down with them to 
drink ; the cloud went to the *Adites and it was preceded by a wind. 
When the cloud came near they were delighted that wind, clouds, and 
rain were coming, “and when they saw it coming to their valleys 
they said this will bring rain.” But Had knew that it was the pun- 
ishment; for God had informed him thereof and he said, ‘On the 
contrary this is what you have brought untimely upon yourselves ; 

it contains wind by which a painful punishment will be inflicted upon 


5) 


you.” When it was over their heads it stopped, and a sterile wind broke 
forth from it—* And in the ’Adites when we sent against them a sterile 
wind’’— Aqym (sterile) is that from which there flows no advantage. 
Wind may be very useful after this world, it brings water for trees and 
makes them fertile, it propels ships on the sea, it carries sweet odors, 
it cools water, but a wind which has none of these advantages is called 
"Aqym (sterile). In another passage of the Koran the wind is called 
’Aty (destructive)—“As to the ’Adites they were destroyed by a cold 
and destructive (/Aty) wind.” All the quadrupeds which they had, 
were taken up from the ground by the wind and carried into the air, 
from whence they fell to the ground and were dashed to pieces. “ What- 
ever it touched was reduced to rotten bane.’ When they saw this they 
said, have patience, for after the wind it will rain. They went out of 
their houses into the open field were they sank into the ground to their 
thighs and stood there with great courage. Hid thought they were 


1848. | and Ghazedly’s History of the Prophets. 447 


coming to him in order to express their wants, and that they would 
believe in God but they did not believe. The wind came and took 
every one of them up from the ground and carried him up into the 
air from whence he fell to the ground and died. They were strewed 
over the ground like trees, “‘as if they were palm trees thrown on the 
ground ;” “they are like the roots of torn up palm trees,’ whoever fled 
was overtaken by the wind thrown to the ground and killed. The 
women had remained in their houses, they were equally raised from the 
ground and struck against the walls until they were dead. This wind 
lasted a whole week. ‘God caused the wind to assail them seven 
nights and days successively.” Not a soul of them remained alive 
except Hud and those who believed in him: they suffered no harm 
from the wind. ‘‘ When we sent the punishment we saved in our 
mercy Hid and those who believed, we saved them from the heavy 
punishment.” The three men sent to Makkah were during all this 
time in that city feasting and remained ignorant of the fate of their 
tribe, until a man of another tribe who had passed the valley of the 
*Adites and had seen them, arrived at Makkah and give intelligence 
that they had all perished except Hid and those who believed. The 
two believers rejoiced, but Qayl, who was an unbeliever, was sorry; he 
got up and ascended the hill of Mind; Loqman and Marthad accom- 
panied him, and said to him, believe in Hud, to avoid thy destruction. 
He answered, I have no object in life since my friends are dead, and 
raising his head he exclaimed: O God of heaven, if it istrue that my 
tribe is destroyed, destroy me as well. A wind came which took him 
up from the top of the mountain, threw him on the ground, and killed 
him. The two men who believed in Hid heard a voice which proceeded 
from the hill: «‘ Whatever each of you wisheth ye shall have.” Marthad 
b. Sa’d said, I wish that I should have a sufficient quantity of wheat to 
be able to afford to eat wheaten bread all my life. He obtained it; he 
descended from the hill and went to Makkah where he remained till he 
died. Loqmén said, I wish to have a long life. He heard a voice, 
saying: However long thou mayest live thou must die in the end. He 
answered, grant it! The voice said thou shalt have the life of seven 
vultures! He also settled at Makkah. He used to visit the top of a 
hill where the vultures laid their eggs and watch the chickens. When 
they came from the egg he took them away and took care of them. 


448 Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, [Ocr. 


Thus he kept seven vultures in succession, the last was called Lobad. 
Loqmén and Lobad died at the same time. Tabary observes that a 
vulture lives eighty years; but according to other accounts, they live 
longer. Htid remained with his follower in the country of ’Ad and 
lived fifty years after the "Adites and died at an age of 150 years. 
There was no prophet for one hundred years after Hud until the time 
of Calih and of the Thamiudites. There were only kings, and every 
one hada different religion, one was an idolater, another was a fire- 
worshipper, &c. This continued to the time of Calih. 


Ghazzaly. 
# Slat owe GLE SL GIS CoN heel 3 UR 
2 yeh a_proi) kro us? pede Khe oa sit clas cyt AU ons edo ¥ 
& (O] Fr0 same is Jt i” 
SIS WS oF ois Ge ke ade! 
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¢ SLO Kyo g 822 eye BOs! 9 POT yt SESS 1 IE 
# Gyleal) S251 5 Wi ose Go yl 5 10 
By eabwJI alc cero! &25 | 


1848. | and Ghazzdly’s History of the Prophets. 
% WLS Gy gg74) G08 
% prclind| Bale yo d09 
a pdled! dale (rill elle 9 age) hai 
# pdled) Sale als!) pstlyst bad 
a pled! dsle pat pst Sys? 55 
% Sia} dale ogre} sila 35d 
# piled} Sale Urzene! dy 
% Pied dale Onsmued) prstlye! wy Cael 
x edend| Eile aren paelyel & b5 
% ele! dale (ge! My 9 byl 253 955 
% pdbnd| Sale pall Bake erde 
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2 sland} lepake rs} asauol 9 aadlal sliy 
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x ees} dale pe! Sas 
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% WBawes 9 (S4} &09 
% oe wy? pall! Sghe LBwegs 9 ye 
% Palend! Kale duoys Bydl Sgy0 


e @dled! &ghe qoy:! das 


fee 


aad 


450 Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 
% Hsrion KOs 
% Uerngr &25 
# deity dIyo 
% EO Gl her 9 Sy=* 
% (og Coys 
% Bled AU] SalS Qyamr Loaoge &n05 
€ Wyld Zo Mla! Fd! 9 wee ~9 Gl pO gd! denego yee 
% raw jf beg? ly a5! pws! os wy 9 W959 Woe 85,6 
% N= d1093 sls) Gola IE paw ge Glas 
at Oxityaol Codd (68 O& 9 Cod kily Flt duad 
% yracey her 0 &28 
lid 5 Hyslae't GSyl gd) Uatlyaet calt Gy ye deeey? TID 
% plat! ayo (lst y [ely 9 led,b 
x &siI| 69 wg) lay lg? 90 $l9 4 
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#% Solel} etda 
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% eng 9 wal Sad Oe 
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x Mel} dta2aS yas 


% cians pm Om 


[Ocr. 
ier 
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8 
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IA 


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Te 


1848. | and Ghazzily’s History of the Prophets. 
% Ql Colt eyom 
% a5 yao! us is BOS (y0 [oS CI Soletl ews! IOS 
+ cst OS gado! do 
% calle 9 Ontged! atom 
% Walla oslo is 9 alle e Wallb Gye Sida 
% & ye SU} BOs s o‘slo ss Gyo 8 wiles wh gllb LOS 
% 91d YOR 
% 9919 EY Uyodln Vddo 
2 ee read sl (yotlac Lom 
Kane 5 ists sels & (ydd cs wlbsaJ} e (yetlee Sudo 
% Lyerlne Cols, 
% SAR GY Credle jest Gyn Sed] cite 
# 0519 oy? cred BSI Gye Uae!) eyo 
#519 Ut Wlerles Gy pady Syde 
% dS] Ello ZI39 Wks oydo 
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# pelle wep eodl shlo eyda 


% dSLe 9 cry Ws AIO 
3.0 


452 Bal’ amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 


E WSs gba} Syl jlasl 5) co lad ORS Cy cba Soha! Jo 


[Oct. 
Aq 
2 loys ym fie Jy ge 
#8) wt dost ye eude 41 
# demge Sy Syde 9 PF 
% domt®s pty By=® eyom ar 
% dps? SUI Fyn) 9 Le; Uke sudan 4f¢ 
# Uortl By ada 40 


The following extracts will enable the reader to compare the ancient 
text of Tabary as preserved by Ghazzaly, with the modern text, as found 


in our copies of Tabary. 
be discovered in India or in Persia. 


I still hope that a copy of the original will 


Text according to our copies of 
Tabary. . 
ke sds agh probs ell erty 3 


&S_woless es 9 praleas dy ko 
ols e33 syne) edb Sale ty gos 
pialiagle She s te 23 cgl OS alive ys 
d903 9 oF wily o30) p38 Coom |) 
31 Ost Slay 99 GySa) odng2 Elbe 4; 
Shs oslo &le o> cy plas W!di5 53 
ele ort Cyo9% WY! gle jay als ly Kans 
ty 99 5% yl 9 pales | Kale én uy 
Lbs ty Bland 50 9 Old gs slams Was} 99 
pases ee Eile Cod dilyA dJ 


&4.2 wt APs) colds Us dav] css 


Text according to Ghazezdly. 


CHOY pddlyf O59) U oy) O55 ily 
Ca yelass 9 le Com) 9.9 9 yy 
ale 95 Coo ty 9! OS 99% Ko yyai 
oo ly give 3 dodlas dy! gline ys 
Elle 403 9 dle 4 yleoyd ages 95 
w1035,3 5! Dhag? Blas 99 EsSaly dig 943 
ole joy!) Shar 8 zo) wt ple 
dice ot ale wo aul we be ww 
wrt le ot get 091, Mls Ss 
ly ole (yy oo! es urd eles oy py! 
dle ly Saad Sod slows IMT wylos} 99 


SMF YO} 9 by d9e3 9 Codldilyd 


1848. ] 


Text of Tabary. 
i re ly we. 08 3 Oil gd ole, I 95 


Cd 
F7aLs ao 


wits 3 we 0 pale! 1Dgd wale! 
Kgsby awl gc! ty Gy Bly S151 slat 


3% ly (ylang! w9> rw! gc ly KLanS 


3 “Jl WF wade y igs ped 9 dilyd 
302 99529 5) ot) Te es Bas 
eb ty dyed wig 9 Say! wl 
BUa Cowlyd I) does e539 oy! 
9 ols ie | wala fidgalh ss 298 
O5 993 Shi953 gle! 89 95 905% yee) 
pI 9 5X0 540) wlyo ile &y oly 
WA} 9 O94 piKpo5) SS4} Ole Eps} 
Sybs wl 5 => 5! ag? give) ayes 
Gila jle™ ‘Koy UG yy) ala 
SEF SaS ail’, ed glad glod 
09 E> Gls » ae = 
9972 dle e333 ere) e953 aSRYY) age! 
wyldi5 59 5! dott dds) o Fo!) ne 995 
prt Sale o3092 coi Gx? claw wr py) 
does 999 Woy pdarys gle ay3 Sal 


S99 le amt 9d Wylal Glan s she 


dye! ly See) ON 9d Js! ols ly gle» 


and Ghazzaly’s History of the Prophets. 


453 
Text of Ghazzaly. 


I EOION A goed ty Shad Sad ylon 


Sige jb dle, I ols eo dd leicotads 


Zs 
owes 


50 Gyo us® bo; ole Sy 1 Us 
° 
oO! 9S phy as BONS) Labs Oil gc 
Lele 9 wldmko os os! wile Cyd 
pola! and | re oS HOG Saas 
1) Spe3 583 Gyahen pds slat eaki 
WMA ,F Some gd 1 d—e3eyd9 99) ali 
BIS! enihiy Ile pall ares iy 
Ptah z 

SlE* Sisly 398 99 5 syedy ole 
M rte} 9 So 6740} Clo Cgdiggs 
W9}.9 Oy? Elig'd Aes gle cyar05 y 
Sot SLO! 9 92 93 p99 S903 51 Se 
& LAS 9) Al Grbysy yay! els 
85" OS yl als dies &ipls 
ol=~I, coin pel += i 1S 

S'S 9 S50) 19593 dee! 33 jee 
C'S} 79 ily Say! OF alias 8 Syy,0 
Ody pst ols ead ey, Odd 9! eo! 
comgd cilitiel wla09 Error 096) ay3y 
loges9 MM pd Sgt gle Wy ley a9 ¢ flaw 
SF la yt Why og OMA JM gle 


a Oo 


454 
Text of Tabary. 

bss 8 (55) 051 ole es gil 

ly ols ee dS oly wlan! ude 


oe I's “ 
RS wr! 9 1) dod Cos dS ols 
2050 


spar7 9S STs os all Sle Gas 


e 
av asa 


Io_sihaals oe Uels wd Cola ho 9 


Ody) 93 «533 S94) 3 oles esi “ 
Bie ¥ 


do GA 0) OS's aya GE 
C527? 99 79 9 le 099 9 gay Vly 
lode 9 a9 TO GH! Sajh0 1) 
CSF O89) 91 GY & oy) 9735 
lalis yost Gytvey Wor g GoAS,9 9315 U 
Gg odly (Silo 9 le SGlig abyss 
rnd S)5) cols 4F lay® 59 y-! 
OAS eh ols cols Ly] cra 5933 
Ist os? c593.9 Sips S ody 52 9 
dc 4 es An's bi Wm O51 9Ka0 ols 


298 44 os” 


i Ou ole diy Ne) we 
wo wy t yom S10 J [92s dls Zeomd_y3 pol 
idles CglOd OF ye” ly co dahins 
NglOA QS SpE dlexI| wld ey! Alar, 
Shy 9 Cg AML 5! Wrytneg D099 wrgdne 


csighee (Sy yt URS Cul d lay! 


tiki R40 Coleg ery? 9 Ub 5! diay: 


Bal’ amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 


[Ocr. 


Text of Ghazzdly. 
SU 1) 9d _yd Caw | Sov wy lors! Sdn 


ty ygas urs hale raat SAS ob 2 Sey 
ily cabesell J va aki ees bJ 43 
ee pike Be is i Gales bJ43 d aes TOns4 
wns, Se is9 wa eo) Lei 

oly bys Lass! es pd ree ly “, 
det cs93 Spee HN gle g cul 8555 
d98 HS WlSty 55 9 rah Gls? 
S712 (GSLs ale 053 Coy yt} 9 Shy 
isla ad vlog og yl Baily 
215] say ABS wre) posh SF 
Pe S cyte) WI 9 Cody! ay? WHE 
aSilim Wl Bd gd Og 5S Lsl& youl 
jayrlg lady rgd HF OSL Wlodygle 
Lyi ght y} slodeel Coolgiy Lee ja 
wld ei Qld Ad obL,A Coole 


odlsh Ac idive ae a a SARS 


o oD ee 


&) ghar FGI ORS Co dahins je 
Slat 9 glee WlasglOAd gle dlpr2, dy 
Uykae 


Gar SAFi O22 


Wg hae Oda uss! 9 Le us Opes) 
22d g'> 9 99 9 VL jf diay: 


Og dO whale ,s! 1) Lady! 


1848. | 
Text of Tabary. 


7“ a 904 


WK wads! 9 a Carded Wlilosd & 

9.7% 94 O40 sh- 
cab Um Sgle Ux? jlx*I ees 
Liphas 9 whale rd & Ip lag wryd g 
fy Alas slat! wld ily oF oilo 
orasar 
is Rane wi 0 CPs rel 9d 
Wawel cr 1) sds ee ott “ (pls 
wi) 9 39) GHA wle! Wee F 
Wlhy 9 dg Crys or wlauls 
d9d glad Coto 9 glee obdaly 
co yelas gln 99 wylirsle Ly odled| dale 
O92 wld! re me a dbend| Bale vod g 
d52 9 eden “sale ex wloij, js 
dy) ple lye» awl col) wit 
cai ele ey ORS9 st Oy ZS wo 
Vyslagt dled Cotod 9 edad! dale 


oe 


pals! wo Wy dz! BN) 19 9d oly 
Aad 


CE Moys 51559 HF Wh oly 9 log? 
Plant Sale O9d9 W2d yd oly J W2a3! Bs 
od & ES 9 oid Colds! [ili 
ee Met, ene og” 2 ad I 907 
was XyX0 AI Gye aS bo Aig drc! 
BF OAswoy do wry 9 ahwyd [plod 


polos Ape) S3laot a > ly lapros 


and Ghazedly’s History of the Prophets. 


455 
Text of Ghazzdly- 
ad 9 & gla Js! j= eos wend 


ly yg tg) ls colo OI S9! we pe 


3 3 op pls 3 els isl ae 3 os) 


7roe ag 
9 1o92 ‘oa tas 0 whe jot, 3 oly’ 
« ° ZA 
a Ad Joly Ody 1, CpT 90 poly? 
tye O92 End 99 yy S09 
9691) wlarsl o 929 op204 Mog? aly} 
eed 8}g3 S985 WIA Col OS? 9495 
; " ro) ° hte ail oF Sa, ee 
Ks GI (500 v) fgdas} aod ls 
i i a Bie aa 
ee adn vy ly Us 3S Kglde w.0 
°. e a ’ ° ° 
CS9 839 395U! Oelan! ISO ds I ylepeco 
ye BRS 9 dad ASQ 9 Coyyd 
ty be (gh rem 36980 51 855 Wood 
00 yh sia} 9 Wd Oslgd lds 
amd ydirds bo 5! oy DRT Oy 92 


al ted 


aU wt ae voll ef de lad SIy3 slydis 
Z GLa 59 a OF 47 - ws 


1 y3 Lang! oe ur woawel 9d cs99 o2y3T 


' aT 2 &) ate erect eai'9 dy eS wlic 


CE AS Oa rd 
09m “7 av- re 2 


poled gave woes 


2 97,0 6 


2 Wyn 


4 


56 


Text of Tabary. 
9 NAB 659359 63 coy wldast ors 
2a2 S Ses 
>» css Lo 3! %59 bwo Set) ae Y nig 
Qos 9 MS LIdS Ilo SF Hama) 


do) dy” ss) slot? 5! gh packs wy Lins! 


wd Sls (lod MS Lde I) lo 8F 


e2I OID ser 


9% eels sil ai ae oh 3 i 


% OI oF a Bo 


LMI 9 52 ws! see ¥59 ree os! 
8S abeifo) 28S Cowl goles ol! 
wlan! 3 Oy lay ty ti Lass! BSC glOS wt 


70 I0F 


wai! rors wade! oF Clic Lys lars! 


2od. 2a7 
Wolo Sic PEN ) ) pA) ist we d JX, 


“2-00 oo eas +d 


2 Boe, Sa cz 


aS Fu 2 


pid & 
Pe EO. ae 


9 OS ged Gy SAS 4 Yo? 


ADR sm 


Sides ‘vila I dailo wlagla 
i r > 4 


d2 93S pee pe Oye. Gas 
LE —yis,5 ped 9 obbe we 
CPuLEE! 9 9) Hoary & & 99 wT 
idle ty 9! GB dijtos 5L 5 i! cw y 


nS % o, 


cslod 3! writ 3 5 a PUL iS 


Csledesd Cog OAS lop | ye dtu yy 


Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 


[Ocr. 
Text of Ghazezdly. 


oh Fern 


use CSS col= os wsols’ 
Lib Sy SAS cosh Mili, Sais Ly 


9 yt pha! 9 pis” as Wy usee 


wldigla whe Ero gf OS (on 
2% Be AP%senIn 


wy sis poses PCA TIRSETS (0 ds! ‘ye 
wrt S Sayah othd? 1) Cem S Wee s 
pstaltiet od a sheng duo les 
IIa 1) of G ayylod jl y jf Cuwey y 
os * o SL ope, 5 
(gd Steerblg alll IegeteusghS 
e ' 
Oahs wlo,d log ddwyl Ue s 56 
dyed ure Lind 52 a dA co lpdex) Cpe 
0 as fea esi Rai 9 Uodisd &),9 


@ 


Beis sh 2 | a a ieee Ao 


ees ees cle ls re «0! Weelad 


os F 4 eee 9 ve AIS 2 


Poy wide paste wld i! wr 3 
g 


cglos wl 5! O2 pad b yas ad oats 
6 | 


at ol ake whey lara AG 
wldss 59 9 OLY ska opto laid 8 
ad 2 ol oledig » oleh » dle 
wloro Saf ok whl sha wl 
ye 93 ) diswo 98 ord ly os bly 
rm? SSI} BESS 5 O99 Eye! ddile yg 
camif WOH 3 Cpe aS ol ty flo 


wloizys Ses pg trmdly y O33 99 wl 


1848. ] 


Text of Tabary. 
wf dyS sh lang! 53 dgbles (gloss 


AI9B4s sritense 2 I BP Fs) SE oe 


~ 5d} weelss Ly haa ovo! eocul gaily 


ZUR a A ee 2 of 


ry One 9 aS. 9 wae cml 


oe A 


Oe ae 5 AS wadec BG 
le alc 
pe ‘os 2 et rs usta! 


DD wl ly Ud BF ColOR Eylj! Dawe yhs 
O39 9 ob!s he 3 Oke wy?! 
hye Se ST cobpeiiion 5 Uyilaogs 9 
wll Biwel ge dS ols ty Lo! Dem 
Hidw9S glF 3 d52 col rhe Whly yo 
ds rls werd! crt! 9 hdl 
tins! 6 cond? Cyd dil eK y 
era Go iy ot ycshule 
pore sin 80559 5! Srneya are 7! 
Eyed OSS 95 Shao pd ae Chante? 
| dig! adledl dale dg Cyr W103} ro 
Dilyd Coad Glad Cglod! le sly 
wlast wls oly Oi 9 dS dacy0 9 


ae fall Pe 


| Gals” S| yao HIASOS gg Weld Clee 


mt fF Po” 


orbs 5I vw ee ad el whe 
cstle® 9 BOY Ohy (.alyd obind 
W921 99.5 pd! ye gly be 4 xox 
IIS Kha eh yO sili 


2 §oS @ 


en! les iin Uidaiea lo og by 


and Ghazzily’s History of the Prophets. 


45 
Text : ae 


FI” a- 


ESI} 3 ayS oly 03) 99 5 oss ty J le 


I 53 Labal 3% 29) Us selys $ gla iy le 


ees Ja 9 ol os? use flow solv 


SIS Glam lydg ole we Oh) 9 Oilyd 


4 oe Lar gt 4ae 6cOr5 8F 


ilu Bio) ~ cl eke 4! Lghe Sl yms 
$d Al gdgKIdds 0} grosses cyalhe 
9 o- ! ? 


wodzy y5 si hs SF ma Sy hat 


et 
&isay lide is 3 ah la nie pl J 1,5 


3 9 B,3 we Wat vs Bee a ley 
os ae STs) 5 a 


pikes Si oS lo 


Waren 


ty bo AS | 
&3 Le wglod cyl is sis5 cso 
cshs0 9 os CHO 9 os! wetas 
prtly= rt) econ pdly=ijh Cramd 
oe Ca i & Sr*Fo 8 Z 

Wax Std] YW yd wl W999 
re) cs S pails uke. \wo fyb Gat 
Go A OE 

yp gg bo wl toad cpl» epeN S3l gad 

BIS 1929 1) cokers ese y wlins| 
| piling) floo SIE gy Cpr ds! 
DOs 9 9S Cog? Cel 9 Uiyd 


whdy dyed rd o4 978 BST 


| Woyd awe la) | SAT 5 tad wih) us” 


458 
Text of Tabary. 

(aca el (2) wo ects 

|e - call eo-e@ 
uy! a5 us! jk Mylo dy Ly ddita’ 
Ek Eto 9 O08 6 be Whar 
3 8S & be 9 Coayslsd (chase 
BY Sy WLIO Qydil ead Ips? 
gOS Silda Wty 98 93 Sty Kyddly 


Cheetil s gnI 2a F £ 
Kans SF 13s! Vl oR) Wt HS pla 
~~ @& @ 


Zia & 


o oF 


Bity20 93 8S atgS wy2u! om Lig T 
Blysy Lyi be wblad Eyl s gods 
Colds! Hilal loo SIEY (yay 00,5 
S29 vioy 5 95 at Dig gles 
us” wl sds HHP Cd OID 9 sh 
ovo, slant E39 ee Uy OATS 
lig s1 dd avg) allen! Sle O40 
tyiliyl af cmeted gd colad 
Sod OF Cold wT dif Glas 
Bidye! S60 wl ye 9 ob CLES 
wlll yy bas? 9 als Wb las daw 9 
2 pl Eroy &F Whos yo WT » glist 
co dldenst L whl 653%, oto) jle™ 
wlsy3 lt y Coo] 5X0 (53405 
(GOS I yd fy dedlss CSO 9 CoO, 


it by Sig ado9) WtyIl AF dia ye 


Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 


[Ocr. 
Text of Ghazzdly. 
d9% 9 OF slit cory) We 
dled gOS 9 OM Obey) Wy Losi 51 
w! OSS wads { yolang &S rn igang 
Dem 3 Oo Sad wana Col tine 
la flow Smog Hd 74) S4d Wyle whl 
wlégiys bsFy aol Wl wlewT 51 
Woe oss els Gyr) 5! l=S 405 niks| 
Colom 9 (S395 wl ss =f 9 
6 Oda s® gd) Sigh ty Uas 56 
oS dg Oyoy yl Ly SIL 4 Coddags 
O9! ddsb en wls5b 39 5 | ésla 
PadLyt! CoS @dband Kale padly| e395 
ie 80 WT 6 Wy oy! OT 
yh} 8K yh) Ctl CS Oddwd/S 
lat igh S952 Koad 9 rw | (o> 
Ad ew! law) pola SIS 
S54 1) ey> Wy)! Os! (Byrd? Gy yb 5! 
Coo 94 csiala 1 pS yh 3 CG OdL (9 
law] gl dd paca le ors! cohen lo 
I) Jlene wee 9 Way DIyhilyy 


Ly mF wd 9 Cgdbbwe|yd cele 


1848. | 
Text of Tabary. 


wos wlagb W3y jos do OdS 
CPL d94 dudsl osbenJt dale poh! yl 
wy! 6F SSSI use? wl ya cr | 
3! as oy “ale I= 8S Md_! 
CoOSLSIS S$) ly Cy> wl, we, 
Oo> det alog¥b xt G y= ASIEN 9 
Zoria ody bale jG 2 sls 455 
Beals WS. egdet gia latS50, 
dls fobs > I Wola coal. ay 
59 Wl} 59 9 WHY wee 4S Iyy 
al) amg d Sie) ct Eyes 
cg HONS? | GA 355 OT poy! 
9) wls colpkale ojlss Colo ur? 
didyS wos! wleliw » Lyle y Cod y5 
b GIA» ald SE pot wre} 554 
orseay & Loy, 9 o Odom &} youl less 

. , ; 
Og es yrolas plan! kale d9% 3 
a5! GoiI,d clos! |) GIS a8 
we 8 rej & of Cyd aly 


(ood! OY coool Od Lille 


and Ghazzaly’s History of the Prophets. 


459 


Text of Ghazzdly. 
wea cod Ered amd) CS phos | 
whys 9 Conia &Xv0 Brase) cooaly 
Aas ye glOS 85 OT yo 3 9Eg MOS 
992 WT sets! Olas CoNdilgS? by 
cee ly (pho) UcSles Cg | pes 
B1SK IRS 9 ty Gla 4g gylas 
cals ey Oph _prolay jl; WIyd 9 
CFs HEN) p> Coded 8h) by 
wls [dole we! We (upd dS 
CoM ood Liodle ce! 9 (goes ws) 
rom (GIO Lyla (6S Cg atdens! Oy 
OSS gst? 9! larly Sri us® wy lay cyst &) 
GISyt 09 de 9 55 gloss mul 
yo! dy dey 56 lad? Ela bi 
wr SF EAS oid y op Cem 
pgloh es> ot Js Poasans lcdlss 
dike yi ly 9! we G o92 |) Ue 9 52 
/ ta eae “Iv 
WIP LAY SET OM Syoy | ysley 
gw) HAIL OOo CHE” gl P9978 
Icy b paes 273 wh » 2 = pate 259 
ly os whew} 51 out WIyb \yhvo ass 


o..2 


460 


Text of Tabary. 


OGL Co pte 9 Crm Cote Wilh 
Aes Colds dala crt 9 dF 
SCGIOA E> WT Wlkr 4 AS ly) 
Us 9 55 CglOd py) a55d 1G Wlirgt yo 
(phi 051,35 9 ogg CE™ ly of O48 
ha piuildi Lydd @AUS co 85 
I) Colo ils O92 wlan! 53 OS a 
cry W'S op & god 9 Adwyy 4 
dle ea5y ds wm IF Os> ws 
Joy b AMIRI SMmifod Cube y 
whyb 3 osf wl 539 ley pains? 
Og yf yaa! cg Sang lowe i! OgT 
A232 Cy WL eld OS wlsdpo j 
alg crm & 9 Oy) WIS Stal s 
edd! dalc Ry.) ly S92 S355 
gs? whey wleowe 51 5 o91 sdu9,8 
eb o52 Coax? So WT s Gddlo 
S92 yd gh Fg! Orme Cy! Beyer 
3019 )8 WEST Co5) 9 29) prbed! ale 
pisses d92 GL Oly 5! pd 9 O93 
BT 3350 Gy 9 yh Oy OLS 0b 


dst by og 9 6 9 O52 slholy 


Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 


[Ocr. 
Text of Ghazzdly. 
whist 519 Wl 5) ab orgless 
olay 9 wry 9 d51 hyo lant y Vlas 
ee ct Wle) 9 92 ASo5) Gants 
93% L Oks yo.9 991 Sp ole Ge 
91 AL _ ro Cady 9 o9t he _proleny 
29! dp WHOs! 9 Ota Uy! Op! Oy 
phe r 9 jy SOF os? $O2995 904 9 
cb os) (sox? 12 d4e 9 a9) wilde! 
d92 ards o98 U9 993 915-9 OLS 91 
no yD Crd 09) Xo yo wleag | phe y 
sland oly yea & ISK QI (Ly Ey 
cyl OLS 4 ddry 9% 5 Wl dirwoyS}! 
Ma O3S wl s 5Sod 1) Wb ha 
Odbrg& Wl [lo gles Codd 
ASO Cyd} whe wld whe ys 
| basal piled sale 39% 95) 81) 8} 9) Sue 
Calo G ds 9 Ss Gye 2? os! 0 
Dad {oe wy 951 Hdd Wb |, lo idle 


99> 9 a? SB. A P.O en 
Ig299 ha) in) Ip Re iao| ollas aJ,s 


7DI ofn 74 707 44 4 a wt 
Ks fad om 9 Wwe [slic eo &sJ\ 
os # 

e a 


(yao 'y (3 Dg lro 2 ys \y &) Kine wi 3 


W[Orglinggcd AXg) Lildagi 9 Hoof sho 


1848. ] 


Text of Tabary. 
yn 9 O9d Quarts rdlendt &ilco 


ly Dyno 729 Ly Gy) Soo ded Kyler! 
didw 959 91F 51 ghar wll rhe 
Boy Oyydns OATES Hyd g LB, 
CglOS 519 SASS LETH LIL,S (yet s 
who dralgd wh) ly Lyle wast 
So 9 a9) BI) 8) 9) Ano A509 wylitg! 
(yes e38 ly 28 {pa laagl oledt she 
OY Nled gles GGlod U ough 


a>, ACEP AR SI, 


oo bee Iy pia “wf ESeIEES ODS 


ee) CY he ne 


iy oe pdsle Aven Juss : ) &) {t lS we) 
“EI, 09 
ws wlas 98 e 553 rad ys 
(yd Kaw (yd! g DIAL aad Sale yo 
ey} & ddl ge 9 Higby? 1) 
3! pe Moz) Wlaygd 1y Klis! a%o 
Siglo (5) 8995 Wij! Sle alas’ 
wlog20g Qdy9T Og 79 Hyildny! O99 SL Ey! 
D3) gle wildy) 6F SKI 1d 9 OILS I 5 
ON od) so0T GdwlA Ylylas 
3S 2ST 9 ordb who 3g) Sas 
5d 5S sly O29 Cf gduio Urs 
WS 9 Vio Todi y Licdy 


and Ghazzdly’s History of the Prophets. 


461 
Text of Ghazzdly. 
Lyd Ning) 983 Cyd Sy _g20 BF 51 Wady? 
33) S00 OS HIS 4 v5 9,5 csy!a whey 
Sprtive bo)'Ss sig ordls Wlaypo Leys 
wy le stars Hyls wls Lslocig og Be 
stl NIT Sybo Wlh5aiF 9 volo 
joa tle Sly Nad grad Wd) 9 
51 day ovolad oly WS Grhiyyd ys 
gsr Sdmd!9 Wis wlepo yt shady 
1) Cpe ro? BXeNy) Sy Sree) wls{ 
Md gd cse® ee 9 1 BOS Epg01y9 
w bers} Wlaas gd ee dls e? ati re 
St Lpleg! CF OMS! y exe 9 diay 
BS GL» OS war Glyde BI 
ee ly wybo waa wl Dike 295 
BH Sap 9 Ql 17 G odd oT 


(ey Lael 


els p29 ok wyd ddiaG 


Ww) we BRAS 51 99) (50 Wha! 3 
ge gd Gda wh _,bo 3! a9 


on tf * 5 us cS Oe 
DIILS 9 ue] ols CM 2s> ex)! IO Ades 


ly YI py? GS ptdyS LA leo GS 


Vilas 6 S Odineld 53 rioys 9?! 


Or GF We 9 O40 EX! Oy 


| BaF 1d |) GAS Wx2d Dag? BOYS 


3 P 2 


462 
Text of Tabary. 


Bal’ amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 


(Ocr. 
Text of Ghazzdly. 


l"T glSz iad fyzso Cyd) 9d | p90 OF Ly (Ss Cyst OMRT 1) ado 


O33} io JO] ey2d S90! g dle) 
wl 9 Co) Ss Widwwyd CSgney OF Layo 
Saws 93 I) 9! 9 Spite fygetnvo igh SD 
Uy db198 gle 095 1) 91 OS oly 
omy YL 0 Mogtr 8GS Up 
dS CBylyd syd yd Lildy! AF 
ere My) 9! Olpslespes ole @35 
U9 SLA jt ty Wldy! &F HdIy 
S| Xd0T SF Sdaw y9 oF bs W943 
eghtd 952 Kriz &F 1) WlS5asS wT 0 
ty Wass WT 9 2 y2d Ode 
2 yen *% SNE O93 pe Jd () madgoly 
AN) NaS wd pd Els?» Os LI 
(sale (sy! estes e Glew Qew 
wold x bid eS bo wylo oks l= 
Sid de 9 pet Cy ly Clogs dls 
wo wl HT (da led a Urol eso 
x Ul wy! Chess 43 Gar pie 
S52 Ledad Gr! cylis! Wee Cry 
oes wis X9 50 Is Som yO)! Coy! 
wt! Wee O92 Wlasi_y af Sis » 


b 637 ont ob Vyas! od dadcns 


SoS (SOO 9D ayys be ad Sl dy 
Lib 3 etl 9 CodeT whl [ ySlsinst 
doe clans | vy rnd |S Kas codemg lad 
HIB) Sly gd SMa 51g didgs 802555 
99) beds ae) end OLs 1 Slay 
amily 5 cole CS dds) oS _yaoyt g 
yey SS LIL Why ho aS 
CSO Col wt y dS weno] ao. 
Salar lert! ow OS us 1d 9 wleash 
es Samad jlods 53 Gyo rola g roof 
HAL) SF Ca ydeel Bg abl pl (9 
9? Pres whl ESXi pr 9c 
swore Sdle (SiS 5S ty Chad 
_y| bao Bg Sage ley y) wrk s) 
is 9 Sadan (St olinmsls (ged 9 Ovof ys 
dL) 1995! CajloT a Blame (S19 Ewe 
GY CAIpS PLoS _y1! hoe Crt 31 OF 
cr! GF CS oS b 553 43 aydy G 
Od YL gd Crmayd OF pile Oadws 
O91 A 9( wlror SF pilOd Spe orl 9 
lo CF o52 WHE 9! Wlyo sly p19 


CoF Wy 951 coool glawe pt! 9 


1848. | and Ghazzdly’s History of the Prophets. 463 


Text of Tabary. 


Pe ays ers fo bguy ike oihaks (ey Sesthd ge 
piss dels 1 id a? 
cy lant Os) phd Lsly 9 8S odhael yd ys 
BU 995 o dead Bale ygd ly af OS 0 9 
U5 9 3595 Las!) HIS ytd O92 
piled \Sahe dgy Lo ° 93 751 5S SIRS ly 
coo] lye Lydleng| cea os 9% 
Wout e 9 cchediad blog yal 
SYOR Et Wye Gs? ooo et 
lias! ps 23,8 pid ophshy wliy 5! 
Ps cig lets 
“pt wd OS p20 O} OAw) 5ly? basdy 
x yes ye 9 3 Wedd | yt we lene] 
slat gVloalel! , oy I oly oly 
Wib SbJas 9 74F Gy! UW! # ODls J 
ow lasig Gai ello » lysiw 
# ole! GU yb pa jlE™ 3,9 # phew 


cs! ouy8 


5) aye8 yd y!98) 5 9 BOARDS gOS 


(slp) 51 80388 Hl oT 93 oly? 
C539 C5! WS Ixy 9! Hele 9h Ay’ 
wVks 3! ws> Urs wlfos. FADS 


po % lsos Bt y cra Sy wed 


Text of Ghazzaly 
Paige sles! Ertl GS oS Fils 
WA, oN 9 re (glo d9) plas ol 
Eeyd Ly Blas ys wt U5 9059 ty wids 
wo] d959 B95 5! ever M3) ole 59 
HS 9 cards hs A rL90 OT Cay 
hs OLY woF ys slow 3! OS 
CHD 9 Sy abe 92) ys) OT g Crmmnitd 
SANs ghd slay)! Wye do (cod Ilys 
z) ol us NOS Coole dws y wy Vana! 
rat Led a 2 
lads cds &J,3 ww) d's 9 de} ys 53 


22 058 05.9 Of “0-90 5 2 2 Pree 


ee reg 


is Sand (Sd Gs? de 9 gees Lele 


delle) lod fy 9) CS Gmtlos OT 


oP 4a Oe 


Wo 9d Uy 20h Libby! 9) KOS xT 


pnecrare pila) 
urs W) Wlos Ya9 2) J pide rw 
(7 Fup 

arog by dawwy Gy leiy! pao pil) wae 


Saleen dwoT Waris)! mare ob ws 


Bae AP oe 9 
gl gls us 3 0 Ua ys 5° Coloss 
77 Laer | 

279 70 SH Ww 89926 “Nore 


| smd Col keRive di] Whe Goo ol 


464 


Text of Tabary. 


ue) it 9 & G20 LoS 63 Cyl 
xy be ute wyly as % (355° cso 
coms # Laid y pho Pas! yy! 
Bs awly Cgld& Cg! 45 O55 wake 
(Kal y prey (yo SOD awe | 31) 
wry! EF G0 ayld Cawely CglOS 9S 
Ziv ims Gros csy!o 3b Wb & 
glad Shop L& Coley 6F ox 
SUL ly! Gos od Cle GIL 
wis! gl&gl 85 orhwleet 9 ood 
GIs! aianf leads s 3! Chas af Silos 

WO 55s Uyee Oly Good 9! aT 
999) Usd 9! ali ao oof sldols oo! 
OB 5) gS ap) Sd I og 98 
Wtglic $y) Crmdl 93 Cola af l=T 
&i2F 63 ow] 5b 9 oy? Lpo'd 53 
was od Gyly a yed a OS Gas 
wy? ¥ Wad goo Live ons oe ne 
Cel 8 WES Cyitiy BI Yieos 
Slamto{ SS wp lds (yad Cr Fe (300 
Yi 20 wi leo l=) ot} Ly plod | 
r= idm Glas x gSinold Sa} 


Sg5 a) aha eset x bleally ws! | 


Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 


Text of Ghazedly. 
yy 9 Spry) OE LAGE SS SF eran! 
cs teag2 9 CFL G yoy lpahihs’ g y Ah 
cdl 2 9 O8Fo yur ly only yd 
LT Sods LES isi” wt 5!9 93! Ge 5 

0 + 0°28 2 
é- > shuts Ri eid dolled U, 
- 027 

O95) Syso oly a ile re 
3 ys! ussonei us? daile 5 
zo Ue Ertls OD gl CSdgd 
WH 31 OL 92 Cole slam Lpilitys 
Soria de be yrs 28,59 
Cae! Nene 2 
we) d3 lo AP sex} s,s dySs Syl Bly 5 

i) Sno A 


pies mig as iI male teiae as 


! ee 


Ledlee 9 5d us ox a) {gil wi wee 
39553 ay sled Whl 9 MSL SLEdS 


do SIX &42 cst Wo awd 9s 


Hd:O9 fy OT w laa Wem CPs 


wslyly ok Ur 5! is DAS pve S508 


“gales HOT way Lita 51 ay? 


OI Kmnadd 9 (alae U3 Ody) 999 cs (yh?) 


OWT O5 1 919 9 DOsg Kb dig SG Ung 5 


[Ocr. 


a 


1848. ] 


Text of Tabary. 
Mr Qaulb moet sl le cglOAly af 


b=}! draw) bes ba! Ty aalibd Mssvo &F 
aie PAs she wos? pS 9 
ost DY 93 le Vi Ehet 5 ailydd ws 
2 Sly Er9ld 9 1p 9 1d Gs)! 
eet. 5.ghsine ys 
wales? (0 dF csild 9 god ly 2.98 
BS awed sleds 5) uy mle of Sof 
rely SF: med prwe( 5) 9 dl yd easle 
Ps? Pr> WHE ESaly Ply 
aioe Sila pshineyS 5! 8S |) phy 9S 
lox? wT | dw b oS ley urs 
SPL Sr 552.9 Odes CS oles! yout 
cyt! &F of Gils 19% 51 Ly gly Slaee 
Page © iS os 2! pelos 52 knwo 
W258 5 9 6 &zo5 |oyhbsyd! 9! Syd 
ae lrody ro? 563 Sele Dada yd! Crd | 
piles eye 


ott wits do) & whb 


OT Wl We ble 4 oy Ul 
Bb 9 5K 1) Shaan 99) gd] slave yd | 
Sie 22S 9b! yd Blane 5)! Gs & y 5 


D9 LOS 912034 Slaw ys! WIAs 9 9 pH 


and Ghazzdly’s History of the Prophets. 


465 
Text of Ghazezdly. 
Its 23S? wre) 3! S58 


Sad DG catiSyy 955) WhO 9 oe 


ese Ohae ly eS jy 5 ty ly 


92,0 96%4 


ie | re’ ds tled 6,3 wks (40}_yd 


Lo yd wary Wom we Oe Ji 
@¢@ g 
_J 


43 ls wry 5S 


lg rhe 3 ust! 
1! ae Coe (eVICgke dbSlund} 
997 9 2nF Oise 


ed jel ail dls Ay3 hiv 


0-09 
ol wns? 2k lias 5) SS 5 a 


My? SY al a Ot 91 Cyad 5! 
pot Ulst ph iy yg EG 9 05 
W243 95 us ort (A) 3! Valens] 9 dds 
Sad 95 (6 192d IOS s!3d Cyd jM9 
Wold GT joi 22a GAS 1 


on 7 2 ™ 

lao Sled 195 955 bln wlag, 
09s Kea Pa 02 nn 

Lis 2 pre als a ils 3° or Ewe re 


Fg ¢ 
ls rally! Us ets Gels uh 


aT Pod &ale olans d32_,K0 


‘cies a ob a BOO (0 v0 
oe 0% ; 27 Se 


W794) wre 054 4) Be 20S 

tis a d2/0 wy bre 9 lo»® 

a ag 7s 60 03 2.950 6 

urls He WOE Ly rr Las? 
g@\ as 2 


Kove 2 Moy! Kvn) KS 4S wy Lns(9 5 


466 
Text of Tabary. 

35079 ly wilds Kia 9 tehlsd Cg lOS 
CaF WyAPpt g MOST Ly slow p21 O 
OnT doy3 855 3! a5 5 O33 ale 
BF I yiloal 9 Cig WL Cope! 
025 copes polbess? wily sy slaw 52! 
cyl 9 rms WIGS Cott WALL 5g 
OS co 91 Ly Sy gleagds 2355 93! 
cols Sry) WLS] S95) 93! Woe 
On] 53 531 9 oT ob OLS Ky yh 
0 elles Cg lod SS EEG Sal, wil s 
2 wal? va Sate ae: 


, ie. Pre sf dbase el 891) Laks 


oe 
nd 
Oo On On RA 


prewd| dale dod 9 (5 Lee Vile ra 
Co!OS 5S caw! ee wt ES Smad (9 
we 9 | yildad! ds $9 53867 'y 9! dbles 
GA 095070) 4 4h ne 


cae 
ton & cols “| [5 Us 
bae 


OlKweg lb Syawy Was! gt pl Wee wal 
Cd 


$ Fie =10, 


rea IOs Las 


HT wry le oI}! exe ob oT» 


27ae he O 


Lec y | of ste eS) wo Se ENG 


on 794 Ow 


50 44 


erie Wooly 1 ah.deh) « 2B tt. .9)! 


la his 9 a0 | dyae 9 dj2 2 OT 


Sylar GIS Coley) 9 Ly 209! Ge 


Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, 


[Ocr. 
Text of Ghazzdly. 
OMB yA ig Diy ygd use? 9 
° 95} SY Kans) CS > hs oy SMT Eos ) 20 ty 
do aiSSS 43 ols C58 \y3 epatg gle 
af S19 pad Ip Lay! ggs SOO WT 9 
BSi19 9d Ko Sods Sila SIA da 
C29 9d Ext! Dag! Bg gd 
ess ce) | slg a3 5 page Goa Le 
pg ws LA 93 dopa Sim 9951 Cpigd 


Sy w Laat grils Oe 5) Cs si $5 


ay aoe SLI |) fy dad 5) 91 L 


SG Le od Cope SHO 5a) 5] Vy 
wy Lag! pod 120 dd 9) Nes bleays 
is! H8Sy 0,559 pur g OS (5605; 
we (nan yoy cog 9S 1) Lew T glad 
CF SIMO 431 00 Nd S12 00 ers 
9 S53 895 505! Lt 9 9 OWT? Cools 
S92 SF 99 Wey Yy Ord} _y! 9 
plat 855! 153 Land | ESKYS) $097 wy bes 
042 5 Carte ES? ed US of 
dw yt dpe Obs Gly did 
lode oo pois | ye i lye ww 
)9% Epos wh es ly 43} ) es 


def 50 B99 Sy) WOT Sle! 1 91 


1848] 
Text of Tabary. 
do) Giadiic Cog yi! &F gal 5% 9 
85 wo og Sxile 9 diyyG ae 151 
wyling! yao yd 9 Cawol WIds cole ol 
d9? C52 lem L pila! AS 529 olen b 
3 HL 9 apt Ine 9 SI?! oS J! 
es ttl: (Na3 otc aSiligs 5,9 
prey) Cailax Sl ashe e5h ss e 


L ’ - e e 


calle 85 a9) Yiige'1 OT ies 


Ryo Bogn959 9 aman cs O27 4 97) laws 


cgo0F sot ot, wT 8 Cosa 2 
Ose LH Blo A we 
S35 SdH ob OT Gf,o whi! 
cP? 3! 65 Oy he SKS hae ly 
war 1@ DIA 51 Ces oot Whe we! 
W829? 514 y W249} Sole 59 HoT 
O99 Mlk bg ry 5 diay 9 99 
“som &S Cenid (OA) wos! odhend| bale 
(GIOS? 9 OMS COIVA 9g ALT yp 9 
ge? 02? wis! 5% de 5 56 


O74 7) aS” Owls AS Wleo) yi 9 


and Ghazeily’s History of the Prophets. 


467 


Text of Ghazzily. 


le 8d 4 pod GS Crmitinds tx 'ga95 wt! 
Br Ly 9! _y Cows PP lyd eS Eve 2.08 
eo at st 3 a ytd Oba 3 Ae Sok 
ols 53 20S eras | 19 en 0s d 720 Og Lay 
bSe3 e il ie GS 2d yee 
‘=| (SOB 3 KOS pas pd 9 Lawns dd 
Iy (pS ,8 Mrz! y OF GLA CpS,S LS 
Co d0T erg yd &stS}! Wee giddy x& 
eSyF 280 G Corry y US oz 
oy ob ot eS S ote 54 wary 
cote 583% oat Ly wylaad es 
hd (Sieg: ye dae) alinges 
Cold fet g came leo sie Pd 
d92 5 cheng 5 as HES pitas pie ie 
Hdsles ole Ere Whe 0 OT L 
eta Syot Um) Slee sIEY ole cos 5! 
CAL3! 589 dye Sle BIEE y owe 91 
eu ey G td ln Xo 350 
lass a J bw ove wlydv!y d5039 
y (Sty2 9 Noy? Selo dod og 
Sans stad (Std? 
by G BigS 5 9 owys GHIT Ss » 


x ll ayle cIbe 
3 Q 


468 Bal’ amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, [Ocr. 
Text of Tabary. 


Cred SS yo | eshe w hae (gO) O31 5a re Igdeo ty gl 65 whey st o.35 uns 
99} Smeg po? Camry 9 Daan hs Cy} wi d) sod dle} 65 abozs est a) 
uP dle jl Sy w'! oy Ay pS awn dnavy i=” Ly cg WS] SSA 
wl yt x Sus} wl» sidol 91 Shop Wy 640 G0) Bbw} ol 
Sgmeyl Nyro Bw Lath gil Gym exe thsi 1G 5 lomdi sb9 Codd) 
she cP > # Ais 9 yagi es UT ORS x Sgatel| dat yl w JI ot % Yo 
ist whet lias «ye wed yo Cs | O95 gal sp Kas U Gye esa 
pstlds Ibee 85 oad jrolyy ogg? Samay Od by 9 9) OMA phy 68 
= ons les ot es Myo Sie wlor dod S52 Coy vw use 
92.9 dr) Pst 9 SHS by St oly Say Ky 91 gy RG Ep 
yolist cS 31)08 YE boyd Wye Wl}! Sy 9 GES y 95 Ede} 


50% deel 03 


Uv Gls noe we. ld CgIO& y Sls duo 87% Sis sidgs 
2 0209 9 

ly dept " KQ33 9 Goh? ty by S Ay SF dio Wom CM ,xdiro 
wld dd, 98 eds 9 45 Lisi wt Lo ye C9 Sls 52 9 dg? os chy] 
39! eS og GS wis! Whos C59) Wi) ye y KE Ky oly 4 plo 
Own) (4% Sm 9! wy br ys 5S Od gst 98 5! 9 Outd 9} csraSes ES wlels 
edlnt| syle oy Sef edlenll Syle oy Ely ozdsg XyS pro}! Ono ye 5b 
OD) bm pe) CGIO& ! 10 dod Ly a5) Ae by? G 3% ) lnbemnso oles Ly wn 
: Ze oh ; ag 

aed | &lse dy rw B= lyr! Wem _y?! wlye 65 oo! Som wens 
ddl Idd apd Wlelewe Go 5) 2 Yleld oiiKis,s of os 
pry LE D5 1g G SLB 1 OT CET dle! Sle 992 diloyS Lint Lye 


3) A} 42 9 Sy ty 29 Oly Cooly crcl Glad fyi Yolo 


1848. | and Ghazzaly’s History of the Prophets. 469 


Text of Tabary. 
IplSst 9 oe jos! U3 le? gl orks loygy wad Leste 8) 8S Lest g euhS 


SUS C82 oly Cyl Hypo OU 95 ged ylyto 9 LIS 52 yd} 5! 
779 Ge 2 IT 0 ane Bayi . 

des Wh ale goged dS EM isd CGlod SIL 994 blawo lds! ys jy) 
ge ad 


hace 77.0 ceQs 096 OrG 8 4,7 207 0 gp OIZ oF INIK Goes 

co Ka les 9 Ste ee pee Lo yp? &S PP ae rai Jy? IySto | 3 Oges Lo ls 
rd 

ae vo iti 647 ¢ 0% oe 0 Oja-0 on 748 » 9790 see 203 2 


re ds 53 ys aia os 3 5 ls*! \ pels desir? ee clyde 0 gpamnce 
7.2 9 098 veo t) 

~ ey re. nce its pe Bue Jas 5 wil, &estes cht ey 0 ge i g ye 
& co bw S519 edlend | Bile ,woldrs dy% pho bed Com y Lady! 531 wht 
ce Le SS ce Ky L3 gel Lys Last Boddy 55 adhd &ilc Oot9 ONd92 U5 


Pi id 3e¢ AS 2% Gerzn3 2°S. PInP 


ph &20 1 gio els log2 ass Ly yo s ea CE aJSa Us ROA¢ 


an 4 ae 0 oS 700" oa 
MYg) Shands dSes whist o35 wl 9 pie wids a a lin! 9 lio 


Co_phos! ys oof use esdye (ds U MILB! OS rBls NyygE* 10 Cano 2 . 
&S oof pd wy Last yea SEBS 5. ols (58!9? cpraly es? O31 Ed Shanta) 
S ooo wl LP? dy? Bdd9 55 902 erent) dale sed Ko stad Sie sya 
Colo y0 C519 Claws y NSS sols bes S09 yy Lot S92 Wy g0 
oie 3! oy Kiwmaias eprkes 9 ajo ox) as a Say wt » MSS Ua 9 55 Ly 
as LAA dg Uso BF pops SS SLY or? oigd wl ESTES e33 
cslod Ly ee Us tls 6035 ole ai 51 Aas LY oS, aol 
SI bye pai gb OB SUD Cy gS 9 Crme! Crwely Oy Gyal Sk Gilasll 
92) OP 9 99239 B95 pee 3! Nala OLY Cooly WUiee® (pos LsS 
piled! dale ogo Gay ay yo dial Col9d SS wo 9 WL cues 
PrlaSi Sale yo 5197 als Colod 5 y53 4 lI jfole ST Lyi ings 
WEI olod GB ohy 5 by Cope etya od Ey ole, Yliul 


ces Lye yer ALU BSilia pail [yo ptlydA 2 obyo ada ly ld 
oa a 


470 Bal amy’s translation of the History of Tabary, [Ocr. 


Text of Tabary. 
cero Ww WF les oped U ays |, Sy SSed 9 OS lal gy, 


MIS Cs stlaoly slool QD bili ots ps Foy ly 9) tobias Colo Cas 
wl Esl Cee opt Sho GiGodp 1) WLS 4 abl Gale 9 dlayes y 
. ° a ° A oo o* 2g Z 
ju aS ies (oh Myo cps ies f wi rw pdf lv WARD 9 ole _ys 
Bi ‘ = Zz 6 eo F of 
wl ON yp (F095 LJow 8 jho SF otsS Etta Caw ly on le ae 
bale d32 9 iad 493 oC ons wlan CPE LyF 3d od Cro Ea) 
ae Sieh 239 GB o95 loo gle“ 9 ovo eden! BLS Yqd yee 9 Crm 'yd 
rr SMI (Seek) Si ov ANGELS hi enS fei diay! oy |S igre ae ivoaes 
Ga a : oi seas 9) es? 9 
What follows is not found in Ghazzaly. 
Wy Oyo ob Ud bad dy! BS 9S che &ss Shh os) cr» las wets 
Slat oy cle b oS Gale Users god Sle Gla 6 Coo 
8 Sawyer 9 OT F159 dhe Ent Cops oF prog Sheniind ade Kl] us) 
iN oa iy 5S Bae AU. Lee Bas KEIG) ghOS traf olST poring ll educl 
2 ey wc. 76) ae) Core 
ES use le Wileuys Ui as on ls WS! dd ey bl Sioa ols, Eoin | 
west & dyladiol # obey! 9 ake bas! $15 bs yy CoM Cord clot y 


a slay? Ww Jo 1 ISU Gay hh Ayo pdshy ewe! Coled 31) co! 
: ; 


1848. | and Ghazzily’s History of the Prophets. 47] 
Cytd< gad! v0] Ara | Lass Cr rhe 9 Semel (pS a) dale dl ube doe” Os 
ails? HES Cpa gh cales s yak i aile ume alc aly we Gl 
AU 15) a us EW) si bole G Pays WAS) 94 LAY Ch 9 pon 3! wn. 
ols WP 5! sled 93153 Saye olto (54993 det Led CglOd 1,5 E28 dic 
aye cgdpuy Glan WF wyidy Orme! Ske gh Gis 8S 1) 91 Ons 
WS whys 6F 298 dis all os) He ties pitas! ale o9 5 51 was 
O92 3953 Cg O22 Jal 3! cada Ly ibs 5 oJ ue aS oF dy cuit 
KigS ys 8S wlaeyy KG E* YOR Crd Y C5) d GES! pdgery edleo! dale 
Ups 9 d9 OSS ge yo bla ost Ls) S50 pak are go park ao] ae 
ty clad dale O32 Eb? 9 340 els) 3! soles exes eS) yor! GLA w'ds ur)! 
9 303} leg O99 Boden! 2) gS jlys 9d) amy YOM Lyl gd l=) ys 


Se a At 


ire al ae ove ly aS ayy) BIS 93 l= i lay 3! Ooz Bolys ex OT pao _yd 


ae 


-0 60 of o 9 F290 IN7 0 “eg 57 8 oS o%%5 

ee aa oles cal ee 9508 ole soy I) oe i Jem) gst d32 
0 4°84 Ge eve ?, 0 PA 0 4 094, 2. 0,08 

oli 2S cms ele (aul exer Ips? 8 ean) ee Jae wads 
- eo oe ) 


G pdt oles b boltals ole psbs eroly a9 we sO cglod 
whe ose Sha esr OW Sod Oy pd poo lw ys alo 3b YOshes ya a3! 
wy? 3 ce yg ly 5! 3 O5p9 9 siaS use analy nS [Ono AAS &is at 
dn Ly Sid 1) gle eos Wom a5 QE 5 os 98 wits O19 BIOS yids g Qi}q40 lay 
As? F Soy? 809K) clea! Sle ggig SF Maggs Glo Lye Wat LrArse 
pie ow ob2%)) U2 ga Sandee witha? ory G21 Erg Oiggd Lg 
oo diy93 give Ely 5) be 9 9S 355 I) Cog Whotys echo d | &alc és Se) 
mete lars! pyhee 9 O99 sj Sad oA Wlds dod gle x? 5! wld. 
awed Xd Acres 9 CSlbS 4 erols 3 Lmeihe 9 cles! pr y> Ur? os 


# O52 (ge® Orw) lS" 65 wlhs? Cpas god Wty Sod Gyrtray y Lis 5 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ASTATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, 


For SerremBer, 1848. 


The usual monthly meeting of the Asiatic Society was held at the 
Society’s house on Wednesday evening, 6th September. 


The Hon. J. W. Couvite, President, im the Chair. 
The proceedings of the last meeting were read, 
The accounts and vouchers for August were submitted. 


Baboo Gobindchundra Sen and C. Thornhill, Esq. having been duly 
proposed and seconded at the August meeting, were ballotted for and 
elected members of the Society. 


The following gentlemen were named as Candidates for election to be 
ballotted for at the October meeting. 

Capt. Pakenham, Body Guard, Capt. Powel, Ship ‘‘ Precursor,” 
proposed by Mr. Frith, seconded by Mr. Laidlay. 

Capt. Banks, proposed by W. Taylor, Esq. seconded by G. A. 
Bushby, Esq. | 

Lieut. F. W. Stubbs, Artillery, proposed by Lieut. Staples, seconded 
by Mr. Laidlay. 

Read letters— 

From G. A. Bushby, Esq. Secy. to Govt. of India, Home Dept. 


regarding the past and future application of the grant for Oriental — 
Publications. 


Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 473 


Home Department.—No. 685. 


From G, A. Bususy, Esa., Secretary to the Government of India, 
To W. B. O'Shaughnessy, Esq. Secretary to the Asiatic Society, dated the 29th 
July, 1848. 


Sir,—With reference to my letters Nos. 240 and 247, dated 24th April 1847, I 
am directed by the Governor General in Council to inform the Asiatic Society that 
the Hon’ble the Court of Directors, in a Dispatch recently received, have authorized 
the grant to the Society of the privilege of drawing upon the Company’s Dispensary 
for monthly supplies of spirits of wine not exceeding ten Gallons, on the under- 
standing that a part of it will be applied in preparing specimens of Natural History 
for transmission to the Museum at the East India House. 

2. The Hon’ble the Court of Directors have also sanctioned the remission of the 
demand to which the Society has become liable by the misapplication of the Govern- 
ment grant of 500 Rs. per. mensem for the publication of Standard Oriental works ; 
and have authorized the continuance of the allowance, on condition that it be scru- 
pulously applied to the collection and publication of Oriental works of interest and 
utility, an annual account being furnished to the Government of the appropriation 
of the sums received. I am accordingly directed to request that such accounts 
_ may be regularly furnished in future, and that a Statement be submitted of the ap- 
propriation of the sums received by the Society since April 1847, when the misap- 
plication of the allowance was brought to notice. 

3. With reference to the employment of this grant in the publication of the 
Vedas, you will be pleased to inform the Society that the Hon’ble Court have sanc- 
tioned the printing of the Rik Veda in England. It will therefore not be necessary 
to undertake the publication of that work in Calcutta. There are, however, other 
Vedas or portions of them which it is desirable to preserve through the means of the 
press, and which may very properly become the objects of the Society’s attention. 

I have the honor to be, Sir, 
Your most obedient Servant, 
G. A. Bususy, 


Secretary to the Government of India. 
Council Chamber, \ 
The 29th July, 1848. 


From W. Seton Karr, Esq. Under Secy. to Govt. of Bengal, for- 
warding a communication from Mr. Robinson, on the languages spoken 
by the Tribes inhabiting the valley of Asam and its confines. 

Referred to the Oriental Section. 

From H. M. Elliot, Esq. Secy. to Govt. of India, Foreign Dept. for- 


warding a narrative by Capt. Reynolds of our former relations with the 
Densgarie Garrows. 


474 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 


From Capt. Thuilher, Officiating Deputy Surveyor General, forward- 
ing Meteorological Register for August. 

Communications were received and presented ;— 

From Dr. Aloys Sprenger, through H. M. Elliot, Esq. a Notice on 
Tabary and on an Historical work of Ghazzily. 

From Prince Gholam Mohamed, presenting 2 copies of a Persian 
work, and 2 of English Memoirs of his grandfather and father, Hyder 
Ali Khan and Tippoo Sultan. 

From H. Cuming, Esq. acknowledging the receipt of a bill of 
exchange for £25 10s. and requesting to know whether he is to continue 
to forward the Conchological Works of which portions had been sent to 
the Society. (To be referred to the Section of Natural History.) 

From M. Eugene Burnouf, dated Paris, 10th January, regarding the 
edition of the Vedas now publishing by the Society. . 

From Lieut. R. Maclagan, Principal of the Poostu College, forward- 
ing some fragments of the History of Moultan. 

From Messrs. Allen & Co. announcing shipment of the stock of copies 
of the Researches—also volumes of the Mahabharat and Mega. The 
expense amounting to £31 7s. 

From Lieut. J. Strachey, forwarding two papers to be printed with 
his brother’s Journal on the height of places i his route and on the 
construction of the map. 

On the disposal of the business of the evening, Mr. H. M. Elliot, 
V. P. after adverting to the heavy loss the Society had sustained by the 
death of Brigadier Stacy, so eminently distinguished for his anti- — 
quarian zeal, proposed the following resolution which was seconded by ~ 
Mr. Laidlay, and carried unanimously. 

“That the Society testify their respect for the memory of Brigadier Stacy, 
C. B., one of their most distinguished and hberal contributors, by entermg 
upon record, their regret at the loss they have experienced by his death; and 
that this resolution be communicated by the Secretary to the surviving mem- 
bers of his family.” 


aa re 
Meteorological Register hept at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta, for the Month of Oct., 1848. 


Lat. 22° 33/28", 33 N. Long. 88° 23' 42”. 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28' 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’. 


| 


= : IM «J Mini-|? , 
Observations made at sunrise. Maximum Pressure observed at 9h. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. | Observations made at 2h, 40m, p. m. Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p.m. Observations made at sunset. RaWEn TT hecngeaeter E)Rain Gauge) 
e - a 
Temperature. | Wind. Temperature. | Wind, ‘Temperature Wind. Temperature. | Wind. ba Temperature. | Wind. 2 Temperature. | Wind, z =| Blevations, 
2 2 £¢|— 
; £ | : 3 : 2 Z| Feet.| Feet.) |» 
3 : 3 : 3 < x le | | 
3 2 # i} . ba 2 < 3 5 c = 3 e B & 3 Ps 2 1 40) 4 11g 
5 5 z| a i my || a é 3 fa 5 a Erol is a a Salle allot a “3 
a £ Z ||| © 2 a cal |[e 3 = i 8 2 By e 2 z 2 a) Fi Eales 4| : 2 ; 
Z Selle) leslie = CN SN St |e S Sas i Ss = alee ae = EN ee aS ]) etl) = Eel eeadl seller |e = é G li6a 2 
& A ili) St |e ro All |b 3 iS er el Wet) aE) 3 a | Paci = san (ica (eal lls . faa (iesn|Saliee s 5 EIA al) 3 14 
S 2 e|e 2S 3 < s lal 3 g 2 2 5 3 ry St lias 3 a Seis 3 cy SI) ees 3 3 = é E|€| 8 | 5 fe 
5 Zl pea|bea| ine é Saale! || all 2 = a2 Z z evi |e 2 FS sel eal [ne Ee GE EN] SAE 
I sijelo} 4 4 s|sis|a4 = 3 | 5 a 4 o/o]6 5 6 | 4 4 (ee |e Os) | eal aes 2 lz |e) a |als\ ak 
1s A 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8S 
9 
10 
i 
12 ‘ 
13. |Inches| © Inches] © linches| © ° Inch. | ° —- hace Hr 
14 |29,695 | 76,2 | 77.8 | 76.4 |E, Rainy. 29,731 | 79,3 | 79.4 | 783 Rainy. 29,790 | 82.8 | 82.6 | 80. |p ‘Cloudy. 847 Cloudy. 796 |S Cloudy. 129.658 Cloudy, 79.9 oo. Me 
45S | 642) 81,1 | 81.7 | 78.7 |s. Ditto. IT) 77.0 | 789 | 76.9 Cloudy, 3 Ditto. { 83.3 Ditto. 7 Ditto. cr) _ Dit toda! 1 
16 | 817] 75.3 | 75.9 | 72.0 |S. W. |Cirrocumuli. | (e08| 82.0 | 81.5 | 763 |Cumuli. 8 “|Cumuli, 1798) 86,0 Ditto. ii Ditto. “BIL Geo'ly clear, ib) es 
17 | 876) 75.9 | 76.5 Ditto. 1898] 84,6 | 83.0 | 729 Cumulo strati, Cumulo strati, | .£08) 90.1 |Cumuli. ara | 784 |W. |Clear. B16 Clear. 20.4 Migs [ove | 
18 | .44| 77.9! 788 Cumul. 2876 | 85.7 | 84.8 | 77.6 Clear. Clear. 1777 | 88.6 leans 86.0 | 754 | Ditto. a Ditto. ran ee Santa 
19 862) 74,2 3 .\Clear. 919 | 86.1 | B47 | 76.5 -|Cumuli. Cumuli. B21} 89.3 B.|Cumulo strati. 87.0 | 75.3 |; mulo strati. ‘umuli 910 1 fi - 0 
20 | .906| 75.8 | 753 Ditto. 1971} 86 158 Clear. Ditto, 1819 | 89.8 Cumuli. 87.0 | 745 lear. 90.7 m4). | | fe 
2) 933 9 | 135 Ditto. .964| 84.8 | B40 | 76.6 |\W.N.W.Cumuli. (Cumulo strati. BAS Cumulo strati. Ditto. _Ditto, 80.3 | 29 111.9) 
223 | .906 747 Ditto. +950) 86.0 | 85.8 | 76.4 |N. W. |Cumulo strati. Ditto, 90,3 Ditto. Cumulo strati. Gen'ly clear, | 90-4 | 85.0 : 
23 | 902 U8 Ditto. 2961 | 85.8 | 84.8 | 763 |W. Ditto Ditto. Bae Ditto. Ditto, \Clenr. 9.2 | 826 Bee at 
a 928 75.0 Ditto. £969 84,7 | 78.0 |N. Cumuli. ‘Cloudy, 86.8 Ditto, Ditto. Ditto. 63,1 | B24 ve oc 
25 | 07) m4 Ditto. 90.019 83.8 | 75.9 |N. W, | Ditto. 76.4 |N.W. |Cumulostrati. | .916| 87.2 | 87.5 Cumuli. Cumuli,. Ditto. 89.0 | 82.8 * f 
26 | .990 73.8 Ditto. 035 BA. 6.2 |N. Ditto. Ditto. 89.9 | BBA Curmulo strati. JClear, Ditto. 60.8 | 823 nee . 7 
27 | .967 12.5 .|Cirri, 007 74,8 |\W.N.W. Cirri. Dio. BAS | 87.6 Ditto. ert. inris BBY 1/815. 74,0 }) he ” os 
28 037 12,7 y., Clear, 29.989 75.6 W. Cirro cumuli, 83,8 | 87.5 Ditto, irr cumuli« Cirro cumuli, | 89.2 | 816 | 74.0 [111 a Fy 2 
208 | .o55, 15.0 4|Cirro cumuli. | 20,001 4,9 | 764 |S Cumulo strati, | .957| 83.8 718 |N.W. | Ditto. 809 90.8 | 88.3 | 76.9 |W.N.W.| Ditto. Cumulo strati. Cir. 908 | 8y.8 116.0 
30 | (960 75.8 |S. S. W,| Clear. 002 843 | 774 |S. mule 1959| 85,7 y Ditto. 1884 | 80.9 | 8&3 | 75.6 |N.N.W.| Ditto. Clear. - 
31 970 43 Ditto. 016 84,2 | 77.9 |W. ~ Clear. 960} 89.2 Ditto. +887) 90,7 | 89.2 | 754 |W.S.W.| Ditto. (Cumulo stati, ‘Cumulo strati. 
Mean |20,802 748 29998) Ba | B96 | 168 20.809 86.6 | 9.631] B84 | 87.2 | 76.0 83,1 | 76.5 


Mean of the Corresponding month of last years 


29,869 752 16.0 74.9 29,920 B43 89,9 78.6 20879 86.7 86,2 78,6 29,816 87.5 87.6 794 + 29,809 86.7 85.4 76.6 29,820 83.3 828 76.5 89,0 545 5.86 
‘These Observations have been made for the most part, with n supply of new and first rote Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government ; a brief description of the Instruments seems necessary. 5 i 3 
Ast—Vhe Barometer is w standard Instrument by Newsman, diameter of the tube 0.504 Inches. The following is the comparative shewing of this Instrument and those Burometers which were in use at the Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1844, |Tarometer by Troughton used prior to the Ist of June, 1844. Observations reduced to 92° Fahrenheit. 29.408 
Dito ” ” am 5 » 0.514 Ditto. Ditto Ditto Col, Everest used from Ist of June to Gist of August, 1844, 2.00 
rt is Yo, 52 Standard Barometer by News 9.854 
2od.—The Thermometer is n Standard Instrament by Newman, on metal Scale and graduated to + of a degree. ba Suandan Barometer ly Newman used fren Lot of Baptenibeny sur 
ar vet, Bull Hysromuter by Newnan, graduated to single degree divisions, the diffzrence between Staadund Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Tnstrument is -+ 0.2, the Temperature of the dry Bulb istaken from the Standard Thermometer, aud ia the event of the quantity moisture, dew point, OF dryness, being required, itis necessary the adverted £0 
inken into calculation, 


Ath.—Maximum and Minicoum ‘Thermometer by Newman. The difference between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is +-0.7 forthe former and 0,23 for the latter. 


Sth. Tae Tee perniare showa in Columa47 ofa Thermometer, ia sun's rays, 1s acquired by means of a Newinaa's Maximum Uhermometer haying a black bulb.—Whe above Lostruments, excepting the Thermometer placed in the sun's rays, are fixed ntabove 4} feet from the ground, to a post, in a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed to the airand sheltered from any influence 
of Solar reflection. 


The height of the Surface of the Mercury in the Cistern of the Standard Barometer in the Observatory attuched to the Surveyor General's Office above the Mean Level of the Sen, having been deduced from a Series of Tie Observations taken from a Tegister kept at Kyi's Dock Yard, tho result is recorded for general information, 
"eet. 


Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge nt Kyd's Dock Yard, Calcatta, core H. L. THUILLIER, Carrain, 
Difference of Level between the Zero of Tide Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yard, and the Standard Baroweter at the Observatory, . anos 26,59 Officiating Deputy Surveyor General, 
Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea, «+++ 1821 “The fall of fain from I6t to 19th inclusive. The Total fall of Rain from Jan. to Oct. 1Wile-- HE Tnehes. In charge Surveyor Generals Office. - 


SEE eee on ‘a — onl eat a = =—" ‘ = OE eS 


ihe 


germ ai 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ASIATIC SOCIET ¥. 


NOVEMBER, 1848. 


Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus, in continuation, with 
sundry miscellaneous emendatory Notes. By B. H. Honeson, Esq. 


In presenting to the Asiatic Society of Bengal my paper on the struc- 
ture and habits of Ailurus, I noticed the circumstances which had tended 
to render my account of the anatomy less full and satisfactory than I 
could have wished, and I promised to take the first fresh opportunity to 
rectify and complete that account. I now proceed to redeem my pledge 
so far as my materials and the very frail state of my health have allowed 
me sotodo, Last month I obtained a couple of young Wahs alive. 
They were taken from the nest, a perforation in the bole of a lofty 
decayed tree, and were about half grown, male and female, alike in 
every respect of size and colours. They must have been born in April 
or May, and were certainly six months old when I got them. | Yet they 
had not quitted the retreat in which they were born, nor had their 
mother ceased to tend them; whence we may safely infer that the 
period of infantine helplessness is much protracted in these most singu- 
lar animals. So long as they lived they were fed with milk, or milk 
and rice. But they died in about 15 days under the terrible process of 
cutting the molar teeth. Each was from 12 to 13 inches long between 
the snout and anus. Testes of male in the groin, that is void of scro- 
tum. Penis small, sheathed, directed forwards and downwards, and 
upon the whole assimilated to the same organ in Felis and Viverra, 
rather than in Canis or Paradoxurus,* though void of all semblance of 

* Paradoxurus differs greatly from the Felines and Viverrines in the canine cha- 


racter of this organ, which is large and plainly directed, in its sheath, along the abdo- 


No. XXIII.—New SERIES. 3 


476 Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, aud Stylocerus. | Nov. 


preputial sac or gland, and lastly, furnished with a small simple bone. 
Teats of female 8. Her vulva simple, that is, without trace of prepu- 
tial gland. Anus of both with a large nude margin, but no appearance 
whatever of special anal glands, and no other semblance of pores than 
two very shallow simple reduplications of the skin, having a central 
lateral position (one on each side), probable only subservient to the 
lubrication of the parts. Peroneum of both sexes hairy and void of all 
trace of glands. 

Ailurus ochraceus. Soft anatomy.—Male 124 inches long from snout 
to anus. The male’s thoracic and abdominal viscera are as follows :— 
The lungs have 4 main and 6 total divisions, and are disposed bilaterally 
on each side the esophagus. The liver has 3 main divisions, that is, 
the laterals and the central. Of these the laterals are bifid, and the 
central, trifid, and there is no lobulus, so that the total divisions are 7. 
The lateral lobes are the larger and are very unequally divided. The 
gall-bladder is half imbedded in one of the clefts of the central lobe, 
and is of an elliptic shape, pouring its thin yellowish bile into the intes- 
tine about two inches below the stomach by one long clear duct. The 
pancreas is a very fragile, colourless, glandular, linguiform organ lying 
parallel to the biliary duct and close in contact with it. I could not 
satisfactorily trace the pancreatic ducts; but there seemed to me to be 
one, very short, put off from the lower or posteal end of the organ, and 
entering the intestine close to the entrance of the biliary duct, perhaps 
4 inch above it. Spleen 3 inches long by two, dark-coloured as a giz- 
zard, tongue-shaped, and lying along the greater arch of the stomach 
with merely membranous attachments thereto. Heart 14 inch long by 
13 of greatest diameter, muscular and firm. Stomach pyriform, inclin- 
ing to hemispherical and decidedly of the solvent type, though its outer 
coat shows some faint signs of muscularity upon the surface of its equa- 
ble, thickish and membranous walls. Inner coat of uniform surface, 
void of folds or bands. Orifaces nearly but not quite terminal. Greater 
arch of the stomach 74 inches ; lesser, 2 inches. Towards the pyloric 
orifice is a sort of subsidiary stomach, extremely glandular and resem- 
bling in character but not in position the succenturiate ventriculus of 


men. The special secretory glands are preputial and form a parallelogramic nude 
subvalvular field, in the centre of which lies the large membrum. In the female the 
lips of the vulva are the seat of the glands. 


Fl. XXXVI. 


foreula Salvania. 


7. Black, Asiatic Lith: Ress. Calcutta 


haa 


1848. | Anatomy of aerus Porcula, and Stylocerus. 477 


birds and of some few mammals. It has longitudinal bands along the 
imner surface and is very thick-coated. Intestines about 43 lengths of 
the animal, that is, somewhat shorter than in maturity; 4. 103 long, 
of large equable diameter, void of coecum, and exhibitmg on their inner 
surface nor valves, nor folds, nor other retardatory processes, not even, 
I think, a valvula coli to distinguish the small from the great intestine. 
And, in fact, no such distinction has place, the intestinal eanal being of 
equal breadth throughout and similar aspect internally,* save the last 
6 inches, which are wider, thicker-coated and furnished internally with 
longitudinal bands, not unlike the post ventricle above noticed. 

Kidneys 1 inch long, elliptic and lobulated, there being 3-4 distinct 
divisions of the body of the organ under the strong and uniform cortical 
substance or cover. 

Soft anatomy. (Female.) The liver has 7 divisions in all; the right 
and left lobes about equal and bifid, but very unequally so ; the central 
lobe, smaller and trifid. 

The elliptic gall-bladder is freely suspended between the larger 2 lo- 
bules of the central lobe and discharges the bile into the intestine by a 
large clear duct about 2 inches long, and which enters the intestine 
about that distance from the stomach. The lungs have 4 chief divi- 
sions, but 6 in all, the 2 latter being very subordinate. The spleen is 
dark-coloured, tongue-shaped, and lies along the stomach longitudinally 
and centrally on its outer arch. The pancreas, in form, structure, and 
position as noted m the male, seems to discharge the pancreatic juice 
into the intestine just below where the bile enters it. The intestines 
are 4. 93, of one equable diameter of half an inch, and void of ccecum 
or valves internally. The stomach is a large, membranous and simple 
sack, showing something of muscularity without, but no folds or bands 
of any sort within. I could not satisfactorily determine the form of the 
uterus in this young subject. 

Hard anatomy. (Male.) Cervical vertebree 7, dorsal and ribs 15, 
lumbar 5, sacral 3, caudal 18. Total 48. Carpal bones 7, metacar- 


* This remark refers to salient retardatory, and not to minute secretory, processes 
(villi) characterising the inner surfaces of various intestines. 

t+ I have some doubt as to the number of sacral and caudal vertebrz, because the 
former are not clearly distinguished from the proximate vertebra by any of the 
usual signs of anchylosis, depression, &c. The circumstances which have determined 


ee 2 


478 Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. [Nov. 


pal 5, digital 3, for each digit, fore and aft, save the innermost, which 
has but 2. Tarsal 7, exclusive of the os calcis. Metatarsal 5. Digits 
5, before and behind, with very free action on each other, and the so 
called thumb not much removed from the front, and of course not at 
all opposeable, being articulated in the same plane with the rest of the 
digits. | 

The alze of the atlas and falciform process of the axis are small, 
and so also are the spinous and transverse processes of the vertebre 

generally. The pelvis is short, broad and obliquely deflected from the 

plane of the spinal column. It is feeble too, owmg chiefly however to 
the very imperfect anchylosis or osseous blending of the vertebree of the 
sacrum. The bones of the pelvis in front (ossa pubis) are united mere- 
ly by cartilage and form a short bridge of which the keystone is want- 
ing. The ribs, of which 8 only, I think, are true and 7 false, are much 
eurved or bulged; and this, with the large flat muscles laid over them, 
gives an ursine breadth to the chest, despite the narrowness of the ster- 
num. ‘The sternum is long, and consists of 7 bony cylindric pieces very 
distinctly articulated and having a very small ensiform cartilage. Ad- 
mirable a climber as is the Ailurus, it has no clavicle, nor even pseudo- 
clavicle or os-claviculare ; and as I have noticed the same thing in other 
eminently scansorial subplantigrades, I am rather surprised at the un- 
qualified terms in which recent and eminent anatomists* express them- 
selves on the subject. 

The scapula is a stout broad triangular bone, but somewhat rounded 
along the superior elongate margin. Its glenoid cavity is rounded but 
inclines to an ovoid rather than a strictly special form. It is deep 
enough to afford secure lodgment to the condyle of the humerus, but 
not so deep as to interfere with free motion of the fore limb. The keel 


me in regard to the joints constituting the sacrum are, distinct enclosure between 
the pelvic bones (ilia) and the openings for the passage of the nerves. In regard 
to the coccygeal vertebrz an envious rat, which ate off 3 or 4 of the vertebre be- 
fore I had completed my examination, but not before I had roughly counted all the 
joints of the spinal column, is the cause of my doubt. 

* Lawrence and Coulson apud Blumenbach. Manual, Eng. Edit. of 1827, p. 49. 
Carpenter is more guarded. An. Physiol. p. 469. And Bell, The Hand, p. 46. It 
is possible I may have overlooked a very small os claviculare. And it is difficult to 
decide whether what I have assumed to be the metacarpal bone of the thumb be not 
rather the first phalanx. 


Se ee Se 


<> 


1848. ] Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. 479 


of the scapula is strongly developed, and at its anteal extremity termin- 
ates in a cylindric process which advances as far forwards as the fore- 
most part of the scapula, and appears designed to prevent dislocation 
of the shoulder in climbing when there is a violent outward pressure on 
the shoulder-joint. The acromion and coracoid are very slightly deve- 
loped. The humerus is a single, stout, cylindric bone, as long as the 
radius and furnished with very large articulating surfaces at each end, 
especially the lower, towards which the strong ridge for the attachment 
of the supinators is conspicuous. The radius and ulna are quite separate, 
nearly equal in size and strength, cylindrico-depressed, with very ample 
and perfect articulating surfaces. The olecranon is small, like the os- 
calcis. The carpal bones are beautifully jointed so as to allow the freest 
motion to the wrists ; and the digits play with the greatest freedom on 
one another. The talons or claws, fore and aft, are very highly curved, 
and much compressed. They have deep bases which are suddenly con- 
tracted forwards where they are grooved underneath. Their pomts are 
very sharp, and they can be turned over the penultimate phalanges as 
completely as in Felis, but they are only partially sheathed. The femur 
is as long as the tibia, a single, stout, cylindric bone, very similar in size 
and form to the humerus, and like it, distinguished by its enlargement 
at the distad end suited to afford room for the finest jomture. At its 
proximate or upper end is a very distinct neck, oblique to the shaft, as 
in the human subject, only thicker and shorter perhaps; and the ball 
and socket-joint whereby it is united to the pelvis is not so deep as in 
man, so that the leg has much freer motion, very similar indeed to that 
of the arm, wherein however the glenoid is not so round or so deep. 
The tibia and fibula are completely separate; the former stout; the 
latter, feeble, but both entering into the composition of the ankle-joint 
and both cylindric in form. The tarsus is as finely articulated as the 
carpus and the posteal digits have as free play as the anteal, both being 
quite alike m size and shape. The above details of the skeleton of 
Ailurus exhibit more conformity with the Plantigrade than with the 
Digitigrade model, except in regard to the talons, which are thoroughly 
feline or musteline. The separation of the ossa pubis* appears to be a 


* It is possibly only an effect of non-age. The interval of the bones is very 
narrow. So short is the pubic bridge that it appears to run as much transversely 
as longitudinally. 


480 Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. [ Nov. 


remarkable character of Ailurus associating it, quoad hoc, with the 
Marsupials. Blumenbach (Man: pp. 46 and 53) and after him all 
others have noticed the length of the humerus and femur as a special 
character of the Plantigrades, and particularly of Ursus, their type. 
Quoad locomotive organs, Ailurus is very decidedly framed on the plan- 
tigrade model. Nor will it fail to be remarked how decidedly the small 
feeble processes of the cervical vertebree in Ailurus sunder it from the 
Carnivora par excellence. Yet Ailurus has their talons and even their 
nutritive viscera, whilst its masticatory organs are of a diametrically 
opposite character. Such is the snigma we are contemplating, which, 
however, may be thus far explained that if width of gut be allowed to be 
equivalent to* length, the extreme breadth of the intestines of Ailurus 
will bring them into harmonious correspondence with its triturant den- 
tition. And we may always rest assured that there are no real anoma- 
lies in nature, how surprising soever, and at first not wholly intelligible 
to us that rich variety of means by which the same end is accomplished 
without violation of a given model of organization. But the state of 
my health warns me not to prolong these comparative remarks, which 
will be better made by others. I proceed therefore to my next subject, 
the Pigmy Hog of the Saul forest, an apparent second species of which 
form I have recently discovered in the Sus-Papuensis+ of New Zealand. 
Since my account of that most rare and interesting animal, the Pigmy 
Hog, was submitted to the Society, I have been so fortunate as to obtain 
another and complete specimen of an old male. He was sent to me 
alive from the Saul forest, but died on his way up, and though the en- 
trails thus became considerably corrupted before the examination took 
place, there was no destruction of parts, nor any thing to impede a just 
appreciation of the structure of the soft as well as hard anatomy. To 
enable me the better to appreciate the structure and affinities of the 
Pigmy Hog, I procured and dissected at the same time a sample of the 
ordinary domestic hog of this place, which is native to the Tarai though 
imported largely into the mountains, to satisfy the appetites of the lazy 
and carnivorous mountaineers. 

Porcula Salvania. Soft Anatomy. A fine mature male. Length 


* Blum. Man. p. 112. In the mature Ailurus the width of the intestines is one 
inch. 
ft Voyage de la Coquille, as quoted in the Penny Magazine, voce Sus. 


AR cen at St ME TE 


1848. | Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. 481 


from snout to vent 26 inches. Colour a clear amber brown. Pelage 
ample, ordinary. No mane. A strongly marked mystaceal tuft. 
Testes and penis as in Sus, but only 6 mammee, which are clearly deve- 
loped in the male, and are much more remote from each other than in 
_ Sus, the type of which has 12 teats. Liver 2 lobes, each sub-divided 
into 2, and no lobulus? 4 divisions in all. Gall-bladder half embedded 
m the great cleft, 1{ mch long by $ wide. Biliary duct 3 inches, dis- 
charging the secretion into the nutritive canal close to the pyloric oriface 
of the stomach, so that the bile seems rather to pass into the stomach 
itself than into the intestine. Lungs 7 divisions in all, and more nearly 
- equal in size (as are the lobes of the liver) than in Sus, but otherwise 
similar. Heart 23 inches by 2 of maximum width. Spleen very long and 
narrow like a Manis’ tongue, 63 inches by inch. Position and general 
_ character as in Sus, but the organ is very decidedly longer and narrower 
in Porcula than in Sus. Pancreas too much decayed for examination. 
Stomach 102 inches along the greater arch, 3 inches along the lesser, in 
_ shape like the segment of a circle or crescent, longer and narrower than 
_in Sus, and having a fundus in every respect of length and width much 
_ less considerable than in Sus. The orifices are more remote than in 
_ Sus ; and the fundus, which contracts teatwise and is curved like a ram’s 
_ horn towards the zesophageal canal, almost touches the cardiac orifice, 
| partly by reason of this incurvation and partly because of the nearly 
| terminal position of the upper orifice. Otherwise the stomach has the 
usual characters of Sus; but it is perhaps thicker in the coats. Great 
intestine 9 feet long and 12 inch wide, singly and slightly banded and 
sacced, whereas the same intestine in Sus is doubly and strongly band- 
ed and sacced. Cceum 42 inches by 2 inches, conoid, not sacculated 
atall. In Sus the ccecum is banded and sacculated like the colon, and 
is also much more capacious than the plain coecum of Porcula. Lesser 
intestines 144 feet long and # inch wide. 

To summarize the differences in the chylopoietic viscera of Sus and of 
 Porcula, we may note that in Porcula the stomach is narrower, has the 
orifices more terminal, and altogether is of a much less retardatory cha- 
_racter in regard to the passage of the food; that the great intestines 
and coecum of Porcula uphold the same character of diminished retard- 
_ ation, the ccecum being less in size and void of sacculee, whilst the colon 
“is only singly and slightly sacculated, not doubly and strongly as in 


482 Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. [Nov. 


Sus; that the intestines are shorter* m Porcula and more equally 
divided into great and small gut, thus yet further continuing the cha- 
racter of diminished retardation of the passage of the food; that the 
lobes of the lungs and liver of Porcula show less disparity of relative 
size and that its liver has apparently one lobule less than in Sus; that 
the spleen is much longer and narrower in Porcula ; and lastly, that this 
Lilliputian member of the Suidee or Hog kind has invariably six remote, 
instead of twelve proximate, teats. 

Pigmy hog. Osteology. 'The cervical vertebre are 5, the dorsal 
and ribs 14, the lumbar 6, the sacral 5, the caudal 10. Total 40. All 
these bones bear in general a resemblance to those of Sus, both as to 
number and character, the only material difference bemg the extraor- 
dinary diminution of the caudal vertebree, which are 10 in Porcula, 20 
in Sus. The sculls of the two with the same general characters, have 
two important disparities, to wit, that the length of the facial portion of 
the cranium is greatly contracted in Porcula, which likewise wants the 
characteristic and normal nasal bone of Sus. It should further be re- 
marked of the scull of Porcula that in consequence of the diminished 
length of the face the molar teeth are carried much more backwards 
than in Sus. The extremities of the two types have characters too 
similar to make it worth while to enumerate the bones of the legs and 
feet in Porcula, which however differs from Sus, and approaches the 
Peccaries by the unusually diminished size of the inner back digit. 

It will be seen above that I have assigned 5 cervical vertebra to 
Porcula, and by implication, to Sus also. Both in fact are so charac- 
terised beyond all possibility of doubt, and I call attention to the facts 
with reference to the unqualified language of the most eminent Anato- 
mists and Physiologists} to a contrary effect. Thus Doctor Carpen- 

* As compared with the tame, but perhaps not as compared with the wild, hog. 
Porcula has 10 lengths for the intestines, great and small; and so also has the wild 
Boar, though the tame Pig has 13 and 14 lengths. (Blumenbach’s Manual, page 114.) 
Some other differences may be resolved in the same way: but other and material 
ones, not. 

+ Blumenbach, Cuvier, Laurence, Coulson, Carpenter. (Manual, p. 42. Animal 
Physiology, p. 46).) 

Cuvier makes one exception to the otherwise universal 7 cervical vertebre among 
the Mammalia. His exception is the 3-toed sloth. (Legons d’Anatomie com- 


paree, 1. 154.) 


1848. | Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. 483 


ter in his very recent work of 1844, “ It is remarkable that the number 
of the cervical vertebrae should be the same in all Mammals, the long 
necked Giraffe and the seemingly neckless whale having each 7 vertebre, 
like all the rest.” 

I cannot lay my hands upon any osteological formula for Sus, and I 
am aware that the tame breeds of the Pig manifest a strange variability 
in regard to some parts of their osseous frame-work. But I believe 
such deviations do not belong to the vertebree of the neck in Sus, and 
upon the whole I think that the citations and quotation I have given 
will fully justify my having called special notice to the 5 vertebree in 
the neck of Porcula, a perfectly and exclusively wild type. 

I now proceed to the Stilthorns or Muntyacs. 

Stylocerus Ratwa. Soft anatomy and cuticular organs. Young 
male, procured in April, died in October. Two-thirds grown yet not 
the least sign of horns. Small knobs as m the female in lieu of horns. 
Eye-pits large. Mufle large. Facial creases conspicuous, and their 
glands developed. Feet-pits in the hind extremities only, but there 
conspicuous. Inguinal pits none. No calcic gland nor tuft. Canines 
distinct but not yet exserted from the lips. Mamma4. Liver with 
one grand lobe very partially divided, and a second small lobe. Gall- 
bladder none. Lungs with a primary dichotomous division. Right 
lobe quadripartite ; left, tripartite and a lobulus. Spleen round, flat, 
attached to outer side of paunch. Pancreas tongue-shaped, narrow, 
pale ; its ducts vague and doubtful. 4 stomachs a lordinaire. Great 
gut 10. 10.0. First foot, or that next the ccoecum, as wide nearly as it, 
or 2 inches. Coecum 13 inches by 23, void of sacculation and banding. 
Small gut 41. 0. 0. very narrow, the average width being half an inch. 

Osteology (from a mature specimen). The vertebre of the spinal 
column are as follows: Cervical 7. Dorsal 13. Lumbar 7. Sacral 5. 
Caudal 13—14. Total 45-6. The sternum consists of 7 bones, which 
are broad and flat, except the first and last, and these are narrow and 
cylindric. Ribs 13, whereof 8 are true and 5 false. The ribs are 
compressed, or very little bulged laterally, and the chest exhibits the 
perfection of the ‘“ thorax carinatus’” type, whence one is_ rather 
surprised at the breadth and flatness of the sternal plates; the very 
reverse moreover (to add to the riddle) being equally true of the broad- 
chested climbing Wah! Ensiform cartilage of the sternum large and 

38 


484 Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. [ Nov. 


spatulate. Reverting to the spinal column we note that the vertical 
and lateral processes of the cervical vertebrae are very imconspicuous, 
while the spinous processes of the dorsals are of perfectly uniform and 
very inconsiderable height. These are interesting points, having such 
harmonious and direct reference to the short neck and light head and 
horns of the Mantjacs. The processes of the lumbar vertebrae, on the 
other hand, are well developed; the spinous chiefly in depth (fore and 
aft), and tne transverse in length. The spines of the lumbar and dor- 
sal vertebrae are about equal in height. ‘The vertebree of the neck and 
back, possess extreme mobility. The sacrals are anchylosed, and have 
but small vertical or lateral processes. The ilia of the pelvis are united 
to the first, and first only, of the sacral vertebrae. The pelvis has the 
usual characters of elongation parallel to the spine in all its parts, even 
the symphysis pubis or pubic bridge being perfectly longitudinal and 
not less than 12 inch in extent. The bones of the extremities have the 
ordinary number and character with one signal exception, to wit, that 
the humerus and femur* are nearly as long as the radius and tibia, the 
length of the metacarpus and metatarus being I thmk proportionally 
diminished. T’o those who are conversant with Anatomy this elonga- 
tion of the Ist joint of the legs will seem strange, and the more so 
when I add that the whole bones of the forelimb of the Ratwa are so 
far from any approach to perpendicularity or rigidityt that they are 
signally remarkable, even among Cervines, for the opposite characters. 
The fact is that the Ratwa has no powers of sustained speed or exten- 
sive leap: but it is unmatched for the facility with which it passes 
unscathed and delayed under that low, tangled and rigid undergrowth 
of the forest which forms its constant abode. I have seen the Ratwa 
often chased to death in an hour by a couple of the rude bowmen of 
these hills, aided by 3 or 4 chiens de rue. And on the other hand, I 
have, whilst stalking the Ratwa, myself been constantly foiled and 
amazed by the rapidity with which the creatures would glide out of 
sight and reach amid dense thickets of bamboo by a succession of - 


* Length of humerus 48 inches, of radius 4,9; inches, of femur 5} inches, of 
tibia 6, inches. 

+ See Bell’s fine remarks on the rationale of the structure of the limbs in fleet 
quadrupeds, and especially of their fore extremities. (Treatise on the Hand, p. 54, 
et alibi. ) 


1848. | Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. 485 


rapid bendings of the spine and limbs that enable them to wend on 
their way without kneeling or a moment’s pause, where there were 
scarcely six inches of free perpendicular passage room. It is no, their 
speed, a quality of which they have little, but this weasel-like flexibility 
of the spine and limbs that enables the Ratwas, amid the peculiar 
copse-wood they inhabit, to foil their great enemy the wild dog or Cyon 
primevus. The Mantjacsof the genus Stylocerus or Stilthorn, though 
strictly Cervine animals, are no doubt the most aberrant of their family; 
and the singular habits I have just remarked on may serve, in part at 
least, as a key to the apparent anomalies, but real adaptations, of the 
Cervine model of structure as seen in them. Who, for instance, that 
has observed the Ratwa, whether at rest or in motion, has failed to 
remark the invariable and extreme low carriage of the neck and head? 
Now this I apprehend is as clearly referable to the length of humerus, 
which protrudes and depresses those parts, as it is perfectly suitable to 
the exigencies of the animal’s position and its consequent comfort and 
safety. | 


I solicit the particular attention of those who have perused my 
Essay of the Ruminants of India (Journal, No. 180) to the following 
emendata et addenda. Character of the Cervidee,—add Gall bladder 
wanting. Genus Rucervus, for type C. Elaphoides vel Duvaucelli, read 
Types C. Elaphoides et Duvaucelli. Captain Hutton assures me I 
may safely recur to my old notion that these two species are not identical, 
for that he possesses live samples of both. I conjecture that Mr. Gray’s 
C. Smithii is but a synonyme of Duvaucelli verus. Genus Procervus ; 
I have procured another specimen of this very rare animal, but alack ! 
the horns were cast. It was a male and mature, and had no interdigi- 
tal pits. Nor had the original specimen, nor my description of it, 
though the corrector of the press was pleased to make me say other- 
wise in print.* 

Genus Rusa, for Feet-pits in all 4 feet, read Feet-pits none? Two 
recent specimens of the Jarai show no foot pores, and Captain Hutton 
assures me that his samples are similarly characterised. Wherefore I 
must presume mistake in my Nipalese memoranda, a portion only of 

* See Vol. XVII., page 690, line 2. The expression there is ‘‘ Feet-pits none.” 
—Ebs., 

38 2 


486 Anatomy of Ailurus, Poreula, and Stylocerus. (Nov. 


which, of very various dates and unequal value, was saved on my hur- 
ried departure for Europe. 

Genus Axis. Read canines in males only or in both sexes. And 
below as follows: Their breeding time is spring, their rutting season, 
autumn, They gestate about 6 months. Horns cast in January, and, 
in confinement at least, not perfect till June-July. With September, 
when the horns are in full perfection the males begin to rut. 

Character of Moschidee,—add Gall-bladder constant; and in the 
native names, for Miuskhi haran, read Muskh simply. Character of the 
Cavicorniz minores, add Gall-bladder constant. Character of the 
Antilopidee for canines constant, read canines rare. Genus Antelope, 
add canines none. So also Genus Gazella. Genus Tragops. The name, 
I hear, is pre-occupied. Wherefore I substitute Tragomma. Colonel 
Sykes (Zool. Journal) says of this type, ‘“‘ Eye-pits very small.” But 
there are certainly none in my samples nor in those of Procapra, though 
there be slight depressions in the sculls of both. Such embryotic 
organs however cannot be admitted as characters of genera, how inter- 
esting soever they be as indications of those links by which genera are 
connected. 

Genera 13, 14, 15, 16. Add to the generic character of each, 
Canines none. Native name of Nemorhcedus, for Saraw read Sardon, 
vulgo Sarrow. Genus Kemas, for Calcic tufts? read, No calcic gland 
or tuft. 

Genus Hemitragus,—add Horns in both sexes. 

Genus Capra,—add no eye-pits. 

Note. I have just ascertained by careful experiment that goats gestate 
5 lunar months. Genus Ovis, the assertion that the wild type or Ammo- 
noides gestates 6 months rests necessarily on native information. I feel 
confident that the gestation is identical with that of domestic sheep. Car- 
vicornize majores, character of the group, dele “laterally ;”” and for mufle 
large, read mufle variable. Character of Bovinee, for large angle, read acute 
angle, and for mufle very large, read mufle large and constant. Genus 
Bos. Type Bos domesticus, add this note. Domestic types are bad, but 
I have none other to refer to, Bos being a form proper to temperate 
climes and authors having rather lumped together than discriminated the 
various wild types of Bos and its allies. I believe however that Bos 
Scoticus, the Chillngham breed, and the Wizend of Germany, are genuine 


1848. ] Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus. 487 


wild types of Bos, as above defined, and if so, they should be at once and 
exclusively substituted and cited. Bubalus is the tropical, Bos the 
temperate, and Bison the Arctic, type. We cannot therefore look for a 
true wild Bos in India where it is represented by the very distinct but 
allied forms Bibos et Gaveeus. The range of these latter beyond India 
is unknown ; but judging by Cuvier’s expressions I should say that some 
of his fossil and extant animals belong to one or the other. Genus 
Bibos. Character. After Cranium massive, add, nor compressed nor 
depressed. Genus Bison. Add as a note. Blumenbach says the 
Aurochs has a suborbital sinus. This, if correct, must refer to the 
scull some slight depression on which may indicate an embryotic char- 
acter of analogy with other genera. But, as already observed, no 
osteological indication of that sort can be admitted as a generic charac- 
ter, for there is no developed and apparent organ. The Bison has 
some singular analogies with the cervide and this may be one of them. 
The Yak, a genuine Bison, has no trace of real suborbital sinus. I have 
now two female Yaks which came to me in December enceinte. They 
ealved in April and July; and I am assured that the domestic Yak 
drops its calf at all seasons save dead winter. One of my young ones is 
very vigorous and sprightly, and its mother also: the other, dead. 

Genus Bubalus : for Types Bubalus buffelus et B. Arna, read, Type 
Bubalus Arna, and add to the note, after ‘‘ true Buffaloes,’? of which 
the Arna is the unquestionable, best and sufficient type. The tame 
animal is therefore needlessly as falsely cited. 

It having been asserted in the Journal, No. 177, that that noblest of 
all the Indian Cervines, C. Affinis, is, in fact, not an Indian species at 
all, but an American, of which my sample was purchased for the Court 
of Nepal by its Vakeel at Calcutta, I beg to state, first, that this idle 
story, originating with the vanity of the Upadhyas, was, with all the 
other circumstances of the case, thoroughly sifted by me and the Dur- 
bar before I published the species, and, next, that having referred the 
point a fresh to the present Resident Major Thoresby upon the appear- 
ance of the cited No. of the Journal; that gentleman wrote me as fol- 
lows: ‘“‘The story trumped up in the Journal, is baseless. The Deer in 
question was shot in the Morang, so far as appears in Ran Bahadur’s 
time, as was stated to you after much investigation.” 


488 Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. [ Nov. 


Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet, by A. CAMPBELL, M. D. Superin- 
tendant of Darjeeling. 

In March last, I had the pleasure to forward to the Society an Iti- 
nerary from Darjeeling to Lassa, which appeared in the April No. of 
the Journal; I would not so soon again be a contributor of conjectural 
information regarding this portion of the Himalaya if any thing at all 
was known to the Society of its geography: orif circumstances did not 
preclude the obtaining of precise information by the travels and obser- 
vations of competent geographers. So it has been however, and the 
Sikim division of the mountains, with the contiguous border of Thibet, 
is as yet almost unknown to the public. This will, I am sure, be ac- 
cepted by the Society as a sufficient excuse for the presentation of these 
Routes. 

They have been compiled with a good deal of trouble from native 
travellers. The rude diagram annexed, exhibits the line of 7 routes from 
Darjeeling towards Thibet. Five of these pass all the way through 
Sikim to the Thibet frontier, and cross the Snowy range to the east of 
Kunchinjnga.* The remaining two run through Sikim to the north 
and westward of Kunchinjinga, and uniting at Yamgatcha in the Nepal 
territory, cross the frontier of that state into Thibet by the Kangla- 
chema Pass. 

Boundaries of Sikim.—Sikim is continuous with Thibet on the 
north and east from the western shoulder of Kunchinjinga to the 
Peak marked Notolah. Its south-east boundary is formed by the 
Rungoh river, which rises from Notolah and falls into the Teesta, divi- 
ding it from Bootan; on the north-west the boundary with Nepal is 
formed by the Kanglanamoo spur of Kunchinjinga and the continuous 
ranges of Singalelah, Phugloot, Jonglah and Myong, to the head of the 
Mechi river; on the west by the Mechi river and on the east by the 
Teesta river. The southern boundary is on the plain and continuous 
with our Province of Purneah. 

Mountains.—The grand feature in the geography of Sikim is Kun- 
chinjinga ; it towers over all the neighbouring peaks of the Himalaya, 
and is I believe, one of, if not, the highest mountain in the world. The 
highest peak is about 40 miles north by west of Darjeeling, and is a 


* For ‘‘ Chola route,’’ see Journal As, Soc. for April 1848. 


eS 


1848. | Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. 489 


stupendous object from every part of Sikim. Besides the highest peak 
of Kunchinjinga, and forming portions of this glorious mountain, are the 
subordinate ones of Pundeem, Kubroo, Nursingh, &c. covered with per- 
petual snow. To the north-east of Darjeeling and at no greater dis- 
tance are the snowy peaks of Chola, Gangri and Yakla. These latter 
mountains, with the giant Kunchinjinga, form the great barrier be- 
tween India and Thibet in this direction, and lying under their mighty 
shadows is the sub-Himalaya, which forms the principality of Sikim. 
Rivers.—All the rivers of Sikim noted in these Routes have exit in 
the plains by the Teesta, or the Koosi. The Teesta is the great 
drainer of Sikim, and receives all the waters of its upper regions. The 
lower hills being drained on the west of the Darjeeling Tract by the 
- Balasun and Mechi, and on the east by the Mahanuddi. The feeders 


_ of the Koosi which occur in the route via Kanglachema No. 1, all rise 


chinjinga, and by a south and westerly course fall into the Tambur or 
most eastern branch of the Koosi, the principal feeders of the Tees_ 
tah. West of Kunchinjinga are the little and great Rungeet, the Rum- 
mam, the Kullait, Ratong, Chooroong and Rungbee. From the east of 


: 
in Nepal to the. north and west of the Kanglanamoo spur of Kun- 


Kunchinjinga the Rungbo, Lachoong, Lachen, and the Teesta proper 
so called, which rises in the eastern face of Kunchinjinga itself. The 
| Rungbo is sometimes called the little Teesta, and divides Sikim from 
_ Bootan above its junction with the Teesta, whence to the plains the 
| Teesta is the boundary between these two countries. 

| The Tashirukpa and Choomachoo of the Route No. 1, rise in Thibet 
| and are feeders of the Arun which is, I believe, the greatest branch of 

‘the Koosi. 

The Machoo noted in the Yakla and Chola routes runs through 
| Bootan and reaches the plains I believe by the Gudada, which falls into 
_ the Burumpootra at Rangamutty. 
| | I hope by and by to furnish the Society with a protraction of these 
routes by Major Crommelin. 


| 

| 

| No. I. 

Route Jrom Darjeeling to Digarchi (Shigatzi) by Jongri and the 
Kanglachema Pass of the Snowy Range. 

1. Seriong vid Tuqvor.—Cross the little Rungeet, ascend to Goke, 


| 


| 


| 


490 Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. [Nov. 


cross the Rumam and then ascend to Seriong, which is a village inhabited 
by Limboos and Lepchas. Direction north. 

2. Hee.—Ascend to ‘‘Murmium Lah,” then descend to encamping 
ground—a village of Limboos. Direction north. 

3. Pemiong Chi.—Descend about a cos crossthe Kullait river ; ascend 
gradually to Linchong in an easterly direction, thence to Tigzhuk still mm 
an easterly direction and by a gradual ascent. From Tigzhuk the direction 
is north and the ascent steep to Pemiongchi. The Kullait rises at Singa- 
lelah or Tolimbo. Old Sikim is about 2 miles from Pemiongchi to the 
east. The Lepchas name the Old Durbar “‘ Pheeoong Ghurry ;”’—the 
Bhotiahs ‘‘ Rabdengching ;’”,—Limboos “ Lapteuchi.”’ 

4. Yoksum.—Descend to ‘‘Chongpoom ;” cross the Ringbi Nuddi 
ascend to Tingleng, a village of Bhotiahs, Lepchas, and Limboos. De- 
scend to and cross the Ratong river, whence ascend all the way to Yoksum 
where there is much level ground and which is a place of ancient note, 
Before there was a Raja of Sikim, there were three Goompas here, and 
it was the head Lamas of these who agreed that it would be desirable 
to have a king for their country, and they accordingly despatched Agents 
to Gantoke, whence the first Raja of Sikim was brought and installed. 
This individual had previously come from Thibet, was a Khamba, and 
the ancestor of the present Raja. ‘“ Yeuk,”’ in the Lepcha language, 
means a chief; ‘“‘ Yeuksum”’ is three chiefs, hence the name of this place 
as the residence of the three great men above alluded to. Direction north 
by west. 

5. Jongri.—Ascend gently in a westerly direction from Yeuksum. 
Descend a very little and cross the Ratong river, whence you ascend all 
the way to “Jongri.’ The Ratong rises from Kunchinjinga, takes a 
westerly course, where it is crossed in this march, and then turning 
round Yeuksum runs east to the Great Runjeet, which it joins at Tassi- 
ding, thus— 


G x River. 


Yeuksum. 
O 


1848. | Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. 491 


« Jongri” is at the west foot of Kunchinjinga and half a day’s journey 
or less from the perpetual snow. The snow lies at Jongri for two or 
three months in severe winters and is continuous with the snow of Kun- 
chinjinga, which descends a long way below Jongri and lies there in 
severe weather. 

6. Yalloong.—Descend to the Choorong Nuddi, which is about 4 or 
5 miles in a north-west direction, then ascend to the Kanglanamoo 
ridge, which is a spur of Kunchinjinga; thence descend to Yamgatcha, 
and go along the Yamgatcha choo due west to Yalloong, which is at the 
confluence of the Yalloong choo and the Yamgatcha choo. The Choo- 
rong rises from the east face of the Kanglanamoo, and falls into the Ra- 
tong, half a journey below Jongri. The ridge of Kanglanamoo is the 
boundary of Nepal a and Sikim, and always has snow onit. The Yam- 
gatcha choo rises from tne north-west side of Kanglanamoo, and runs into 
the Yalloong river, which falls in the Tambur river two journies below 
Yalloong. 

The Tambur is the great eastern feeder of the Koosi. Yalloong is a 
village in the Nepal territory, through which passes the trade from 
Thibet with Nepal and Sikim by the Walloongchoong and Kanglachema 
passes. Singalelah is about three journies from the crossing of Kang- 
lanamoo above described, in a south and west direction. The ridge 
is continuous to Singalelah. Laden Yaks, sheep and goats, travel from 
Jongri to Yalloong and onwards by Kanglachema and Walloongchoong 
to Thibet. Direction N. W. 

7. Kanbacheu.—Cross the Yalloong and ascend to the ridge of 
_ Choomjerma, whence descend to Kanglachen, which is a village of Bho- 
tiahs on the river of the same name. Opposite the village—and across 
the river—is the Tassichooding Goomba, which belonged to Sikim when 
the Raja occupied the old Durbar, but since then it is in the hands of 
the Nepalese. The Kanbacheu river is a feeder of the Tambur, into 
which it falls one day’s journey below Tassichooding Goomba. Direc- 
tion N. by W. 

8. Nangola.—An easy journey, the usual stage for unloaded travel- 
lers being “ Yangma.” Cross to the Tassichooding Goomba and ascend 
gradually to Nangola. Direction west by north. 

9. Yangma.—Descend to the encamping-ground, which is on the 
Yangma river. On the opposite bank is “‘ Mending Goomba.”’ 

3.7 


492 Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. [ Nov. 


The Yangma and the Walloong river unite half a journey below 
Mending Goomba and their united waters fall into the Tambur one day’s 
journey from their confluence, whence the course is southerly. You 
may go on from Mending to Thibet by Walloongchoong,but the tho- 
roughfare is to 

10. Kanglachema.—Direction west by north. The route lies along 
the Yangma for half a journey, then leaving the river ascends to Kangla- 
chema, which is the boundary of Nepal and Thibet, and is always under 
snow. The descent from Kanglachema to the Choomachoo is about 
5000 feet ; road good. No trees on north face of Kanglachema, nor any 
on this side above ‘* Yangma’”’ 

11. Choomachoo.—Descend to this river, which runs west by south 
and into the Arun. It is the source of the Arun. At the crossing is 
the Tashirukpa Chaiten (Chaitya) a very fine and large one. Here 4 
roads meet, viz. the Yangma road just described. 2. The Walloong- 
choong road. The Tokpay road, leading from Duncoota by the Arun 
river. Shingsha is at the junction of the Choomachoo with the Arun; 
there is a gola here. I have been to it from Tashirukpa all the way ; 
the bed of the Choomachoo is the route for the greater part of the 
way; after leaving the bed of it I crossed the Kakula Pahar to Shing- 
sha. It is too far round to go by the river all the way. From Tashi- 
rukpa to Kakula is nearly level ; quite a plain, but very cold; Shingsha 
is in Nepal and here it is mountainous. 

The Tashirukpa choo is a small stream which falls into the Chooma- 
choo at the Chaitya. 

12. Koodoojong.—Along the Tashirukpaall the way. The direction 
is north, country level and pretty well inhabited by Bhotiahs. No cul- 
tivation, it is too cold for anything to ripen. The people live by trad- 
ing and get their supplies from Shingsha on the south: and also from 
the north. They keep Yaks, make butter from their milk and sell it. 
There is a Thibetan officer stationed here. He is styled ‘‘ Neabo.” 

13. Chankpook Goomba.—The route lies all the way in the bed of 
the Tashirukpa river, which has still a southerly course. The country 
is level, and at the Goomba there are about 40 houses. There is culti- 
vation here and wheat ripens; also pease, radishes and turnips. Koo- 
doojong is like Phari; nothing ripens at either place. They are too. 
near the snowy mountains. The country along this march is quite 


level. 


1848. | Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. 493 


14. Sarrh.—Direction north. The Neela range is crossed on this 
march. The ascent is commenced about half way from Chankpook, 
and is not above 500 feet. No snow on Neela in August, or till the 
cold weather. 

15. Badong.—Direction north, country level, but not cultivated ; 
thinly inhabited by herdsmen who keep herds of Yaks and live by the 
sale of the butter, which is very fine. There are no trees nor shrubs 
even. The Yaks browse on short grass, and people use their dung as 
the only fuel. 

16. Dobtah.—A hundred houses here or more. The people are all 
Bhotiahs, and cultivate a good deal. They are subject to the Sekim 
Raja and pay their rents at Choombi, which is 4 horse journey to the 
east via Phari, 6 on foot. The country is quite level from Badong to 
Dobtah, but very bare and stony. There is a large lake close to Dob- 
tahjong and east of it. It takes more than a day to walk round it. 
It is very deep and has sweet water. The Tashirukpa rises from it. 
The name is “'Tsomootethoong,”’ which means the ‘‘ Lake the mule 
drank of,’”* and the origin of this is as follows. “‘ There was a well here 
originally, but a mule one day knelt down and drank out of it. No 
‘sooner it did so than the waters rose and formed this large lake.’’ The 
neighbouring lands are irrigated from it ; the banks are grassy, and it is 
well stocked with good fish. ‘There are no trees to be seen here and 
the cultivation is confined to wheat, pease, turnips and radishes. 

17. Kochoochen.—About 5 cos over a level bare country, but thinly 
inhabited. There isa hot spring here which is used medicinally ; it rises 
out of the level ground, not from a hill. The Sikim Raja visits it when 
he comes to Dobtah from Digarchi. When at Choombi he uses the hot 
springs of Kamboo Sachoo, which are near the Phari road at Bukcha. 
Kochoochen belongs to the Thibetans, not to the Sikim Raja. Direc- 
tion north. 

18. Shejong or Bhejong on the She river. This is the residence 
of a Soubah, and has about 100 houses. The route is due north and 
over a level country, i. e. there are but small hillocks scattered over a 
plain. No trees except the willow, which however is not indigenous 
but brought from a distance—Lachen-Lachoong. The only crops 
grown are wheat, pease, radishes and turnips ; grass is abundant ; rains 


* Tso, lake; te, mule; thoong, to drink. 


Go 
a 
bo 


A94 Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. | Nov. 


fall but seldom. There is more rain at Phari and Choombi than here. 
The ‘‘She” choo, which runs close to the village and the Soubah’s 
residence, has here a westerly course, and I believe it falls into the 
Yaroo. The “Jong” or Shoubah’s dwelling is on the top of a small 
hill, and this is the general usage in this part of Thibet. 

19. Looghri.—Direction north ; cross the Shechoo, which is fordable ; 
at 2 cos further on ascend the Lassoom ridge, which is 2 or 300 feet 
high, and descend to your ground, which is on the plain. | 

20. Digarchi.—About 5 miles due north over the level land, which 
is very bare, nothing to relieve the eye except a few willows and the 
““Shaboo,” a large tree brought from a distance and much liked in 
Thibet. Around Digarchi there is a good deal of cultivation, which is 
irrigated from the Painomchoo, which falls into the Yaroo about 2 cos 
below Digarchi. This is a good-sized river, not fordable in July, 
August and September; “it runs from the eastward, bemg close to 
Giangtchi, where it rises I do not know. Itis as large as the great 
Rungeet ; the ferries are served by leather boats. There is a bridge over 
it at 4 miles above its confluence with the Yaroo. The Yaroo comes 
easterly and takes a northerly turn at Shigatzi.” 

The Tingri road from Nepal is joined by this route a cos from Looghri. 


No. 2. 


Route from Darjeeling to Yamgatcha by Yangpoong Gola and Doom- 
donglah. 


This route runs through Sikim to the west of the Jongri one, and by — 
Tuqvor and Seriong to Hee, and thence to 

Lingcheet.—Cross the Kullait river and ascend to Lingcheet ; direc- 
tion north by west. 

Talett.—Ascend to the top of the Tengchok Yongchek ridge, cross 
it and ascend to this stage. Direction north-west. 

Phiongdang.—Descend to the Rungbee-nuddi and go along its banks 
to this encamping-ground ; direction north. The Rungbee falls into the 
Ratong below Yoksum.* : 
Choonjom.—Along the Rungbee all the way and due north. The 


Rungbee rises from the Singalelah ridge. 


* See Jongri route. 


1848. ] Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. 495 


Yangpoong.—Leave the Rungbee to the left and ascend to this place, 
where there is a customs chokey of Sikim. Salt is brought into Sikim 
by this route from Thibet, but the trade is liable to interruption from 
the Nepalese, who stop its passage in the portion of their territory 
through which the road runs beyond Choolongkook. 

Gomothang.—Ascend the Pekionglah ; cross the ridge and descend to 
this stage, which is on a small stream of the same name. 

Chodomdong.—Cross the Gomothang stream and ascend along it to 
this place. There is a lake here which is the source of the Gomothang ; 
it runs easterly and falls into the Ratong below the junction of the 
Choorong with that stream. 

Choolangkeok in Nepal.—Ascend to the crest of Domdonglah, cross 
it and descend to this ground. The Domdonglah ridge forms the pre- 
sent boundary between Nepal and Sikim, and isa continuation of Kung- 
lanamoo. There is a small stream at this stage; it isa feeder of the 
Tambur Koosi. 

Yamgatcha.—Ascend and cross the Giroonglah, whence descend to 
this stage, where you fall into the Jongri road. 


No. 3. 
Route vid Lachen and the Latong Pass. 


From Choongtam, at the confluence of the Lachen and Lachoong 
rivers to 

Dema.—All the way along the Lachenchoo, direction north-west. 

Latong, on the plain of Thibet.—About 5 cos from Dema ascend to 
the ridge of Latong, cross it, and without any descent you are on the 
Table-land of Thibet. On either side of the pass there is a high peak. 
You can go round by the bed of the Lachen, but the pass is the better 
route. Taloong is on the Lachenchoo, which rises to the eastward 
from a lake near Cholamoo.* The Lachen cuts off Kunchin from the 
range to the eastward. 

Geeroo.—Over the level land in a north by west direction, and here 
you join the road from the Dankia pass. There is a fifth route to Thi- 
bet east of Kunchinjiga and west of this Lachen one, of which I have 
no particulars. It strikes off at Garrh+ on the Teesta, whence the 


* See Lachoong route. t+ See route by Lachoong. 


496 Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. | Nov. 


next stage is ‘‘ Barfok,” thence Lingjah “Ba; at Taloong, the 
confluence of Taloong and “Ba” streams there is a Goomba. The 
Teesta proper is left to the west at Lingjah, where it is crossed to the 
east bank. The road beyond Taloong is not known to my informants, 
but it goes along the stream of this name and over the Tekonglah into 
Thibet ; Takong is a continuation or spur of Kunchinjinga. 


No. 4. 


Route from Darjeeling to Choombi by the Yakla Passage of the Snowy 
Range. 


1. Darjeeling to Sumoong.—Via Lebong-Ging and the guard-house 
above the Rungeet. Cross the Rungeet at the cane bridge, and ascend 
in an easterly direction to the encamping-ground, which is about 1000 
feet above the river. 

2. Chadam.—Divrection easterly, with a good deal of ascent ; Chadam 
is about the same elevation as Namgialatchi, from which it is one day’s 
journey. 

3. Namten.—Direction northerly and easterly. The road skirts 
the base of Tendong, and there is little ascent or descent. The Ting, 
a small feeder of the Teesta, is crossed on this march. 

4. Took on the Teesta River or Changchoo.—Descend all the way 
from Namten to the Teesta. The Rungbo river falls into it 2 cos 
below this ferry. 

5. Nadok.—Cross the Teesta on a bamboo raft (Sa pan) and as- 
cend in a northerly direction to this place, which is inhabited by 
Lepchas and Bhotiahs. 

6. Dikeeling.—Ascend almost all the way in a northerly direction. 
Dikeeling is a permanent village of Bhotiahs, with a good deal of culti- 
vation in wheat, barley, maize, rice, kodu, buckwheat, &c. 

7. La Ghep.—This is not the “La Ghep” on the Tumloong and 
Chola route, but it is the same name for the same thing ; it means, ¢he 
other side of the mountain, and it is here so called by the T hibetians, 
and means the other side of Yakla or the Pass. It would be quite cor- 
rect in aresident of this side of Chola to call Tangzoo, La Ghep.* 
Ascend all the way from Dikeeling. There is snow here all the winter, 


* See route from Tumloong to Phari, Journal As. Soc. for April, 1848. 


1848. | Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. 497 


and no permanent habitations onward to Choombi. Yak herdsmen 
however frequent La Ghep and Yakla in the summer and rains. 

8. Bangrong.—Direction west by north with very little ascent ; cross 
the Bangrong Choo, a small stream which falls into the Rungbo.* | The 
forest continues to Bangrong and beyond it. The Doom Shing (yew) is 
abundant and so is the Kema, a large flowering tree which is peculiar to 
the snowy regions. It is common at Jongri.f ‘There are seven sorts of 
Kema distinguished by the colour of the flower.’”? The Kemais neither 
Rhododendron or Magnolia ; flowers in May and June, is strongly scented. 

9. Yaten.—Direction east by north; a gradual ascent. The forest 
ceases before reaching this place, which is bare and rocky. Snow in 
winter, no inhabitants. The pass of Yakla is close by; travellers put 
up in caves at Yaten.{ 

10. Charafook.—Ascend about 100 feet to the Yakla passage, which 
is Over a narrow ridge; cross it and descend all the way in the bed of 
the Yakla Choo to Charafook. From Yaten to Charafook is not more 
than 4cos. Above the Yakla passage on the left is the peak of Gan- 
geri, not more than 600 feet high. It is not covered with snow during 
the rains, is visible from Darjeeling, and is a peak of some note, and 
venerated. by the Lepchas ; it is second however in this respect to Kun- 
- chinjinga, but annual sacrifices are made to it, and a festival held in 
honor of it. To the right of the Yakla passage there is no peak or ele- 
vation of the ridge. The Yakla Choo falls into the Chola Choo (Tangzoo 
Nuddi, of printed Itimerary to Phari§) a cos from Gangajong, at which 
place their united streams fall into the Machoo. The course of the 
Machoo is east and into Bhootan. Gangajong is 3 or 4 cos to the east 
of Charafook. 

11. Chooméi.—Direction north; a short way from Charafook you 
leave the Yakla Choo, and at 2 cos you cross the Chola Choo ;—about 
a cos further on and beyond E-tok you fall into the Chola road from 
Tumloong. There is forest at Charafook and onwards to Choombi, 
principally of pines and yews. 


* The Rungbo divides Sikim from Bhootan tothe east of the Teesta ; its course 
to the Teesta is westerly. 

+ See route to Digarchi via Kanglachema. 

t There are two lakes to the east of the road near Yaten. 

§ Journal As. Soc. for April, 1848. 


498 Routes from Darjeeling to Thibet. [Nov. 


No. 5. 


Route from Darjeeling to Digarchi by Lachoong and the Donkialah 
passage of the Snowy Range 


The stages from Darjeeling to the Teesta are the same as those noted 
im the route to Tumloong, viz. by Namgialatchi and Temi to the Sam- 
phoo or Sanadong Ghat, whence keeping the west bank of the river the 
next stage is 

Kedong.—The road is difficult and runs for the most part paralle] 
to the river, and about 500 feet above it. General direction north 
by west. 

Garrh.—West of the Teesta, ascend from Kedong to Singdam, which 
is a Lepcha village, thence descend to Garrh. Road difficult. 

Balla Samdong, on the Teesta.—Direction due north ; descent all the 
way te the Teesta. 

Rungoon.—Cross the Teesta at the Balla Ghat* by a cane suspen- 
sion bridge, and ascend to the encamping-ground ; direction north, road 
good, and habitations along it. 

Singtam.—Ascend a short way, cross the Sngtam ridge, then descend 
to this stage, at which there is a village; there is a small stream which 
runs west to the Teesta. 

Miangh.—Ascend the Miangh hill, cross it, and descend to the en- 
camping-ground, direction north-west. The united streams of the 
Lachen and Lachoong fall into the Teesta below Miangh. 

Namgah.—A good road, north by west, moderate ascent to Namgah, 

Tongh.—About half way from Namgah you come to the Lachen 
Lachoong Choo, along the east bank of which lies this place. The 
Lachen choo rises from a lake beyond the snowy range, and after run- 
ning west, penetrates the range at Latong, where there is a passage 
into Thibet, to be presently described. It unites with the Lachoong 
Choo at Choonetan, one day’s journey above Tongh, and forms the La- 
chen-Lachoong feeder of the Teesta. ‘The Teesta proper rises from the 
east of Kunchinjinga. The Lachoong rises from the Donkia mountain 
and runs down the passage that bears that name and to which this pre- 
sent route appertains. 


* Sandong is Thibetian for ferry. Samphoo, the Lepcha word. Changchoo is 
the Bhotiah name of the Teesta ; Lepcha, Runew ; Limboo, Toongwama. 


1848. | Routes from Darjeeling te Thibet. 499 


Choongtan.—At and just above the junction of the Lachen and La- 
choong. There is a Goompa here, and a few houses of Lepchas; rice 
grows at the riverside. 

Lachoong.—The road, which is pretty good, lies all the way along the 
riverside, west bank. The river is as large as the little Rungeet. 

Yeumtang.—All the way on the west bank of the Lachoong, and 
close to it ; direction north, road good, no inhabitants, and forest heavy. 

Momay Samdong.—Still along the west bank of the Lachoong. 
There is a warm spring here; no forest, some Juniper bushes only. 

Cholamoo.—Leave the Lachoong at Momay, and after proceeding 
some distance ascend the Donkia Lah for about 300 feet, when you 
cross the ridge through a pass or depression in it, flanked by two high 
peaks, which are not snowed before September. The pass itself is not 
snowed before November, and may generally be crossed till December, 
if the winter is not severe. The Lachoong is formed at Momay, by 
numerous small rills from the Donkia mountain. 

From the pass to Cholamoo the descent is very steep and may be 
about 800 feet. Here begins the plain of Thibet. No inhabitants at 
Cholamoo. 

Geeroo.—Direction west, road good and all the way over level land, 
which is quite bare of vegetation, and generally stony. The Lachen 
road over the Latong pass falls in at Geeroo. 

Kambajong.—Direction west, road good and over level land, which 
has occasional hillocks rising from it. A village of Bhotiahs here, and 
some cultivation. The station of a Soobah. 

The road from Choombi to Dobtah and this place is by Phari, which 
is three journeys to the east.* 

Uchee.— Direction west and over level ground. Hot springs here of 
some celebrity, they deposit a white salt, called Peu, which is I believe 
carbonate of soda. No inhabitants here, country very bare and 
barren. 

Koorma.—Direction north, cross the Tagilah, a ridge of 3 or 400 
feet high, within a short distance of Uchee, then along a sandy plain 
to Koorma, which has 100 houses or so. The people are pastoral and 
traders, no cultivation. 

* The stages are Dokshala, Mendingbooding, Phari; the road is easy and over 
the plateau of Thibet. 

3.U 


500 Report on the Salt Range, | Nov. 


Potheet.—Direction north, road good and over level ground, no 
houses, a “‘ Dennkang”’ or rest-house. 

Rhejong.—Cross the Kiongola, a range of 300 feet or so. Direction 
north. Here you fall into the road from Dabtah to Digarchi. The 
Rhe Choo, which runs to the west, flows by the village. 

Lassoom, and thence to Digarchi, as by the Kanglachema route. 


Report on the Salt Range, and on its Coal and other Minerals. 
By AnpRew Fiemmine, M. D. Kdin., Assistant Surgeon, 
7th Bengal N. I. 


On approaching the salt range from the Jhelum opposite Jelal- 
pore, a traveller is at once struck with the brick-red tint and bar- 
ren appearance which the strata forming the principal part of its steep 
southern escarpment present to view, and with the peculiar white color 
of the rock, which particularly to the westward, seems to cap the range, 
resting on the inferior red strata, with which it forms a striking 
contrast. 

Height and course of salt range.—Its height as stated in Malte Brun 
and Balbi’s Gazetteer is 2100 feet above the level of the sea, and from 
Jelalpore the hills stretch W. 8S. W. until within about 20 miles of the 
Indus, when they take a turn to the north, crossing that river at Maree 
and Kalibag in a N. W. direction, from which latter place they divide 
into two or three branches. 

The part of the salt range which first came under our observation 
was in the neighbourhood of Pind Dadud Khan, where we arrived on — 
the 19th March 1848. From thence, after examining a locality 10 miles 
to the eastward called Baghanawalla Davee, we crossed the hills to 
Choee and Kutass, marched down along the foot of their northern 
declivity to Noorpoor, crossed over the low hilly district towards Mok. 
hudd, on the Indus, came down that river by water to Kalibag, which 
we reached on the 14th April, and from whence we returned along the 
south side of the range to Pind Dadud Khan, where our labors closed 
on the 28th of that month. 

By adopting the above route, we were enabled to obtain a general 
idea of the structure of both sides of the range, and though, on account 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 501 


of the lateness of the season, the extreme heat of the weather and the 
shortness of the time allotted for our researches, we were unable to 
examine in detail the whole extent of the hills, yet from the uniformity 
of character which, with one or two exceptions, these present at the 
different points visited, we feel assured that little of practical importance 
has been overlooked, and that the conclusions we have arrived at will 
generally be found correct.* 

Foot of salt range.—Intervening between the Jhelum and the accli- 
vity of the salt range in its eastern part, there exists a level plam which 
extends west towards the Indus and stretches down between the two 
rivers. In their immediate neighbourhood cultivation is pretty exten- 
sive, but towards the foot of the hills, the soil becomes extremely barren 
and is covered with a thick saline incrustation of sulphate and muriate 
of soda, which to most plants appears to be highly injurious. 

Water.—The water in this plain becomes more and more brackish 
as one approaches the hills, that which issues from their base being 
a perfect brine and quite unfit for culinary purposes, the inhabitants 
being entirely dependent for the supply of this necessary, on rain water, 
or water brought from the Jhelum or upper point of the range, and 
which is collected in tanks. These are generally kutcha except in the 
neighbourhood of Pind Dadud Khan, where through the exertions of 
Misser Rulla Ram, the intelligent Superintendent of the salt mines, good 
sized pucka tanks have been constructed and yield anabundant supply 
of sweet water to the miners and natives around. 

Rolled Boulders.—The commencement of the acclivity of the range 
is marked by a succession of small hills of a reddish sand, in which rol- 
led boulders of rock become more and more numerous as one ascends, 
and at last cover the base of the hills. These are of all sizes, from a 
filbert up to a ton in weight, and consist of granite, gneiss, mica slate, 
porphyry quartz, limestone and red sienite closely resembling what is 
known in Scotland under the name of Peterhead granite. 

* Since writing the present report we have had the pleasure of perusing a paper 
by Dr. Jameson of Saharunpore, which was reprinted from the Asiatic Society’s 
Journal for 1843, in a late number of the ‘ Bombay Times,’ and contains an account 
of his observations made during a trip to the salt range, which generally coincide 
with our own, although in some of the details we will be found to differ. We re. 
gret extremely not having been aware of the existence of this interesting article, 
until we found it in the pages of the Bombay paper. 

o 2 


502 Report on the Salt Range, [Nov- 


Red sandstone conglomerate.—These boulders have resulted from the 
disintegration of the rocks superior to them, and particularly of a coarse 
red conglomerate on which the other strata of the range appear to rest, 
and which only here and there crops out under a coarse rusty red 
sandstone. The conglomerate is best seen on the Indus below Kalibag, 
where the imbedded boulders are numerous and of the same character as 
those to the eastward. In this, as also in the sandstone superior to it, 
no organic remains could be discovered. 

Red sandstone.—Red saliferous marl with Gypsum and rock salt.— 
Succeeding to the sandstone, which varies in the thickness of its strata 
at different points, is a red ferruginous marl including beds of gypsum, 
both earthy and saccharine angular masses of which stand out in bold 
relief on the sides of the hills, the softer matrix having been washed 
away by the rains. The marl contaims large crystals of Selenite or 
crystallized Gypsum, known to the natives under the name of Aberach, 
but they seem neither acquaimted with its valuable properties when 
burned or of that of the Gypsum, which can be had in any quantity and 
with a very trifling amount of labor. The saccharine variety is generally 
of a light grey color with a shade of blue, translucent on the edges and 
yields a plaster of Paris by calcination, of good quality. 

But of far greater importance are the deposits of rock salt that the 
red marl includes, and which we will merely allude to here as charac- 
terizing it, which though irregular in the depth of its deposit, seems to 
attain its greatest thickness in the neighbourhood of Pind Dadud Khan, 
thinning out towards Baghanawalla to the east, where no salt 1s excavat- 
ed, but yeilding that mineral in abundance in all the western course of 
the range, with the exception of one or two localities, where the hills are | 
of small altitude. 

Variegated sandstones.—Above the marl, a breccia of masses of 
gypsum, sandstone and limestone cemented im a red calcareous matrix is 
occasionally to be noticed, lying unconformably on the marl, and to 
this succeeds a series of arenaceous and argillaceous beds, the prevailing 
color of which is blood red and presenting all the characters of the 
usual variegated strata of the saliferous formation. In the lower part 
of this series at Baghanawalla there occurs a succession of blue slaty 
soft argillaceous sandstones of considerable thickness, becoming highly 
calcareous towards their upper part, and above these is a light fawn 


1848. | dnd on its Coal and other Minerals. 503 


colored limestone on which rest the variegated sandstones and conglo- 
merates interlaminated, with their beds of a bluish green indurated clay, 
nodules of the same being abundantly diffused throughout the strata. 
This limestone, though in appearance resembling magnesian ore, does 
not contain a trace of that earth, and is, as far as we could ascertain, de- 
void of organic remains. 

Saline efflorescence.—Up to the highest point to which the variegated 
strata extend, their surface, as well as that of the rocks inferior to them, 
are incrusted with a saline efflorescence, which by solution in the water 
which flows down the valleys, renders it a perfect brine. 

Absence of Organic Remains.—Ripple marks are by no means uncom- 
mon in the sandstones which, with the exception of what probably may 
be Fuci, are particularly free of fossils, a fact quite in conformity with 
what is usually observed in other countries in the red strata of the varie- 
gated sandstones. Whether these originally contained organic remains 
is a question which it is impossible to solve, but the same action, proba- 
bly igneous in its origin, which has caused the peroxidation of so much 
iron in the strata, and to which they owe their color, may have destroyed 
any traces of organisms which at the period of their deposition they 
may have contained. That the rocks composing the salt range have been 
exposed to violent disturbing agencies is evident from the contorted and 
confused appearance which in many places they present, and from the 
general dip of the strata to the N. at angles varying from 40 to 50 
degrees. What the elevating power may have been which has raised 
these to the position they are now in we will not presume to offer a 
conjecture, but the absence of Plutonic rocks in situ among those of the 
salt range, might lead us to seek for an explanation different from the 
usual one which these afford of the elevated position of strata. Much 
of the disturbed appearance which the red marl and sandstones present, 
is the result of ordinary causes, the most important of which are the 
periodic rains which in tropical climates produce such extraordinary 
effects, and in the salt range by undermining the rocks, cause immense 
slips, which give rise toa state of confusion among the strata often 
most embarrassing to the observer. 

Caleareous strata with Fossils—Above the variegated sandstones 
are others of a lighter tint alternating with light yellow sandstones, cal- 
careous conglomerates and coarse limestones. These are well seen in 


504 Report on the Salt Range, r [ Nov. 


the neighbourhood of Pind Dadud Khan, at Noorpoor to the westward, 
and are much developed at Kalibag. To the east of Pind Dadud Khan 
they are very deficient, and do not exceed a few feet in thickness, being 
represented by a soft yellow fine grained friable calcareous sandstone 
and yellow marl. 

In these strata organic remains, exclusively of marine origin, are found 
in considerable abundance, particularly at Kalibag, Musakhail and Noor- 
poor. Nummulites and other Foraminifera abound, becoming more and 
more plentiful at a higher position in the series of rocks forming the 
range. 

At Kalibag Belemnites associated with Ammonites, species of Echino- 
dermata corals, &c. occur, their color being light brown. The former 
have never been found in strata inferior to the Lias formation, and this 
circumstance, together with the fact stated by Professor Ansted in his ex- 
cellent work on Geology, that Echinidee for the first time in an ascend- 
ing order appear in rocks of the Oolitic Aura, induce us to believe that 
the variegated strata of the salt range are succeeded by others of a dif- 
ferent formation, which in all probability belong to an age more recent 
than the Lias. At Musakhail, about 10 miles E. of the Indus, the 
fossils found in the limestone differ considerably from those of other 
localities, and will be noticed hereafter. 

Lower Yellow Marl.—We have alluded to a yellow marl as occurring 
above the calcareous strata. This is seen along the whole of the range, 
presents a strikingly uniform appearence and is full of marine shells, 
some of which do not occur in the strata inferior to it. 

Bituminous Shales including Seams of Coal.—The marl forms the 
basis of a series of bituminous shales interlamimated with beds of blue 
clay and full of iron pyrites and large crystals of gypsum. These shales 
differ much in thickness at various points, and include seams of coal. A 
few shells are occasionally to be found in the shales similar to those of 
the marl on which they rest, and in a marl of the same character which is 
superimposed and passes into a very compact limestone of a light grey 
color, sometimes however separated from it by strata of a yellow calcare- 
ous sandstone of no great thickness. 

Upper yellow Marl.—The upper marl is in some places so compact 
and composed of the comminuted remains of shells and a few corals, as 
almost to entitle it to the name of shell limestone. From it we obtained 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 505 


two species of Echinide and a single tooth resembling that of a shark, 
which is the only trace of the remains of vertebrata, we had the fortune 
to discover. 

Compact Nummulite Limestone with Flints—The compact lime- 
stone, from its light grey, almost white color, and the great abundance 
of flint nodules deposited in it in regular layers, together with the 
appearance of its fossils, which are sometimes incrusted with a white 
chalk, has a certain resemblance to some of the older members of the 
cretaceous formation. 

Chemical character of Limestone.—Its fine grained, almost flinty 
appearance, at first sight induced us to believe it was highly saliceous ; 
but this is not the case, it beg a very pure limestone, rapidly dissolv- 
ing in diluted acids and leaving a mere trace of clay or mud. Its wea- 
thered surfaces have a glazed appearance, and present occasionally an ooli- 
tic structure, which is caused by the numerous nummulites and other 
foraminifera which frequently form the rock. The influence of these and 
of the more minute but not less wonderful class of infusorial animals in 
building up the crust of the earth is well illustrated in the strata of the 
salt range, all of which appear to be of marine origin, the sea at the time 
of the formation of the upper deposits having been highly charged with 
calcareous and saliceous matter, which through the agency of these 
minute organisms has been separated from their solutions and deposited 
in the masses we now behold. This limestone, which for the sake of 
distinction we will call nwmmulite limestone, forms the ridge of the hills 
presenting a steep southern escarpment from 150 to 200 feet high and 
giving to the range the peculiar white color before alluded to. It pre- 
sents indistinct marks of stratification, except in its lower part, but re- 
poses conformably, as far as we could ascertain, on the rocks inferior to 
it. Its surface, as exposed in the precipices on the southern escarpment 
of the range, weathers into large cubical masses, which give it the 
appearance of a wall built of loose fragments of rock, which by their 
gradual disintegration have fallen down and cover the declivity of the 
hills over a considerable surface, rendering their ascent a matter of no 
ordinary labour. | 

On surmounting the saliferous strata the saline efflorescence before 
noticed, as occurring on their surface and on the banks of the small 
streams which flow down the ravines, entirely disappears, and the water 


506 Report on the Salt Range, [Nov. 


which issues, but in small quantity on the south side of the range from 
the strata above, is sweet and pleasant to drink. 


General appearance of vegetation.—The difference in the character 
of vegetation in the two districts is also striking in the extreme. Where 
the salt prevails, the few plants which occur are, with one or two excep- 
tions, diminutive and unhealthy, but on reaching the limestone their ap- 
pearance changes toa lively green, grasses and ferns are to be seen along 
the sides of the rivulets; and an Acanthaceous shrub which abounds 
generally throughout the range, becomes of at least twice the size. But 
the contrast is even more striking when the summit of the range is 
reached. 


From this the limestone dips to the N., presenting on the northern 
declivity of the range a series of valleys separated by rounded hills. 
By its disintegration, it yields a soil which in the valleys is productive 
of excellent crops of wheat and barley, where the loose stones have been 
removed. These are generally piled up around the fields into low walls 
and remind one of the peculiar fences so common in the counties of 
Kincardine and Aberdeen in the north of Scotland, and known under the 


name of consumption dykes. 


Calcareous Tufa, used as a source of fine Lime.—In some places, but 
particularly in the neighbourhood of Dundhote, Choee and Kautass, the 
surface of the limestone is covered with a deposit of calcareous Tufa, 
passing here and there into Travertine, and frequently containing im- 
pressions of leaves and fragments of wood. This Tufa is extensively 
burned by the natives and yields a lime of a perfectly white colour, ad- 
mirably suited for a buildmg cement. The nummulite limestone is also 
burned for chunam, but as the Tufa is soft and easily excavated, it is 
generally preferred. It has apparently been deposited from springs, 
the waters of which were charged with calcareous matter, held in golu- 
tion by carbonic acid, but none of these appear now to exist. 


Springs.—Springs are generally abundant in the limestone district 
on the N. side of the salt range, but no hot ones occur as far as we 
could discover. The natives assert that such do exist, but those pointed 
out to us as hot, were at the time we visited them, cooler than the at- 
mosphere, being on account of the depth from which they spring, un- 
affected by the ordinary changes of atmospheric temperature. Such 


1848. ] and on its Coal and other Minerals. 507 


springs usually indicate the mean annual temperature of the district, and 
hence appear to be hot in winter and cold in summer. } 

Tank of Kutass.—At Choee several streams of water issuing from 
the limestone hills unite to form a good-sized clear stream, along the 
grassy banks of which a road leads to Kutass, famous for its tank of 
water, a sacred resort of the Hindoos, and around which numerous 
faqueers have taken up their abode in fine mansions built by different 
Sirdars who have made them over to the holy men. This tank is sup- 
plied by the stream above mentioned, and has no apparent outlet from 
the limestone rock which surrounds it. Its depth is declared to be 
unfathomable by the faqueers and natives of the place, who informed 
us that Runjeet Sing, Burnes and several others had tried to ascertain 
it, but without success. A faqueer too, it is said, was engaged for two 
years manufacturing a rope, but in this period could not make one of 
sufficient length to fathom its abysses. 

Being anxious to ascertain the truth of the statement, we got a 
charpoy tightly bound on four inverted gurrahs, and having seated a 
man on this frail craft, directed him to navigate it about the tank, tak- 
ing soundings in our presence, at the different pomts, stated by the 
Faqueers and others as those of greatest depth. To their great disgust 
however, the deepest part was found not to exceed 23 feet, and as the 
soundings were repeated in so many different places within the area of 
the tank, we are inclined to believe that its depth is entirely fabulous, 
and that the story has been invented and perpetuated by the cunning 
faqueers, with the view of conferring greater sanctity on their pleasant 
residence. Probably the water escapes to a lower level through some 
crack or fissure in the limestone, and we suspect that a considerable 
stream of water which we observed to the westward at a place called 
Nurwa near Kuhar, is the drainage of the above tank. At the time we 
visited it, thousands of pilgrims were bathing in its clear waters, and a 
fair was being held in the town, giving the place quite an air of bustle 
and importance. 

Soft Sandstone strata with Conglomerates, §c.—All along the 
north side of the salt range from Kutass to Noorpoor, the nummulite 
limestone occurs full of flints, rising up by aseries of rounded hills with 
intervening valleys to the ridge of the range. ‘To the north of Kutass 
and extending east and west along the foot of the hills, strata of a 

oi ae 


508 Report on the Salt Range, { Nov. 


much more recent date occur, resting on the limestone and gradually 
covering it from view. These consists of calcareous conglomerates, in- 
cluding small boulders of primitive rocks, sandstones and limestones, 
identical with those found in situ in the range, and gradually passing 
into highly calcareous friable grey sandstones interlaminated with beds 
of blue and red clay, occasionally inclosing patches of conglomerate, 
which towards the Indus at Mokhudd become very abundant. The 
dip of these strata diminishes regularly as one descends from the range 
into the plain, stretching north to the Hazara country and westward to 
the Indus, where they are nearly horizontal and are covered with a very 
thin soil on which but little vegetation exists. On the banks of nul- 
lahs and neighbourhood of wells which are but thinly scattered the 
water being at a great depth from the surface, fair crops of barley, 
wheat and grain are raised, but the culture of the two former is rather 
precarious from the great droughts to which the district is liable. 

Gold.—Gold is obtained in considerable quantity in this district, be- 
ing washed from the sands, which have resulted from the disintegration 
of the soft strata in the beds of the numerous nullahs which intersect 
the country and during the rains pour their waters imto the Jhelum 
and Indus. 

With the exception of some indistinct vegetable organisms associated 
with masses of jet near Kuhar to be afterwards noticed, and still more 
indistinct traces of amulidze in a fine indurated clay, we did not observe 
any organic remains in these strata. The large amount of calcareous 
matter which the soft sandstones contain and which by solution in a 
weak acid, leaves the sand in its original state, has doubtless been de- — 
rived from the calcareous waters which seem to have existed at the 
time of their formation. At no point does the lime appear to have 
been more extensively diffused through the strata, than at Mokhudd, 
where the Indus, about 300 yards wide, rushes with considerable force 
between two walls of conglomerate, presenting the appearance of a 
hardened mortar into which, in a soft state, rounded boulders of all 
kinds of rocks had been indiscriminately thrown. 

From Mokhudd downwards to Kalibag in the course of the Indus, 
admirable sections are seen of these more recent strata on both sides of 
the river, which from a position of comparative horizontality, gradually 
ascend towards the central ridge of the range, and at Dundhote, about 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 509 


2 miles above Kalibag, dip to the N. at an angle of 35°, forming rug- 
ged precipices of considerable height, which overhang the river. 

The sandstones become more and more compact as the central ridge 
of the range is approached, have a dirty red colour and are seen to rest 
on the nummulite limestone, beneath which the usual deposit of bitu- 
minous shales, strata of variegated sandstones and saliferous marls oc- 
cur, and are well seen at Kalibag, where the Indus escapes irom its rocky 
channel into the wide plains of Esaukhail and Kutcha. 

Coal of the salt range.—¥rom the remarks which we have made in 
the course of our report, it will appear that the oldest formation noticed 
in the salt range, and that on which the others are based, is a number 
of what is commonly known under the name of the new red sandstone 
formation—a formation, which as far as the observation of geologists 
have yet extended, invariably occupies a position superior to the true 
coal measures in the crust of the earth, and has never yet yielded a coal 
of any commercial value. The neglect of this fact has on too many 
occasions been the cause of the outlay of large sums of money by in- 
dividuals who, had they possessed but a slight amount of geological 
knowledge might have saved themselves from much disappointment. 

The remark of Sir H. De la Beche, on this subject, is so true, that we 
give it in his own words. He says, ‘‘a little black shale or piece of 
lignite is often sufficient to cause the expenditure of £2 or 3000 in 
localities where there is not the slightest probability of success.” 

“Good bituminous coal,’ says Ansted, “fit to be worked extensively 
for economical purposes, does not occur out of the carboniferous group 
of rocks in Great Britain,’ and the same rule applies to the continent 
of Europe. To declare however, that no good bitumimous coal will 
ever be found on the surface of the globe except in the position above 
stated, would be rash in the extreme, and the researches of Professor 
Rogers in Hastern Virginia, in the United States of America, would 
Seem to render it extremely probable, that the thick beds of coal, 
which there occur, do not belong to the true coal measures, but repre- 
sent on a large scale, the coal fields of Brora in Sutherlandshire, which 
has been worked from time to time since the close of the 16th century, 
and which by the researches of Mr. Lyell and Sir Roderick Murchison, 
have been clearly proved to belong to the oolitic formation. Similar 
deposits of coal occur and have been worked at Scarborough, &c., but 

3x2 


510 Report on the Salt Range, [Nov. | 


these, as well as the lignites of the tertiary strata of the Rhine, &c. 
present characters so totally different from those of true bituminous 
coal, and usually contain such a large amount of earthy matter inti- 
mately mingled with their component structure, that they are incapable 
of giving out a continued heat, and have only been worked, in the 
absence of other fuel or in localities where they occur near the surface 
and are easy of extraction. 

We have already mentioned the bituminous shale, or in other words, 
the carboniferous deposit of the salt range, and its geological position 
among the other strata. That it is more recent than the saliferous 
formation we entertain no doubt, and are inclined to refer it to the oolitic 
era, believing that the coal in general character will be found to bear a 
close resemblance to those coals above alluded to as occurring in that 
formation. 

General character of the Coal.—In general appearance the more 
compact specimens of the coal of the salt range, procured from parts 
of the seam out of the reach of atmospheric influence, resemble that 
variety known under the name of splint coal. It is however much 
softer and more brittle, and its relationship to the more imperfect class 
of coals, known under the name of lignites, is established by the fact 
of the occurrence of patches of brown half-decomposed vegetable 
matter associated with it, and at times to be found included in its most 
compact portions. 

To the natives of the district its properties, as a fuel, are unknown, 
but under the name of Sangee Momiai, it is used by them as a medi- 
cine, given internally in powder along with milk, in all bruises or wounds 
both of men and animals, the cure of which it is said greatly to faci- 
litate. 

The coal is somewhat difficult to ignite, and at first emits a large 
quantity of smoke. When combustion however is once established, it 
burns without caking, gives out a considerable amount of flame and 
heat, and leaves a large quantity of ash. 

It is particularly free of iron pyrites, which abounds in the bituminous 
shales, with which it is invariably surrounded, and hence in burning 
gives out no sulphurious smell, an objection to which lignites m general 
are liable. 

For the purposes of steam navigation, or when flame with a moderate 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 511 


amount of heat is desireable, we believe this coal would answer well, 
but it is certainly not adapted, from the small amount of coke it yields, 
for the smelting of ores, where a high and continued heat is so urgently 
demanded. 

The point of the salt range where the coal appears to be best deve- 
| loped, is in the neighbourhood of Pind Dadun Khan and to its eastward, 
while towards the Indus, and particularly at Kalibag, it does not occur 
in a seam of any size, but is spread through an immense deposit of 
bituminous shales, in thin films, rendering them admirably adapted for 
the purposes of alum manufacture. 

All the localities which we had an opportunity of examining, where 
the coal crops out, are on the southern escarpment of the range. It is 
best seen at Baghanawalla, Keurah, Dundhote, Ruttipind and Noorpoor, 
where the coal is of pretty good quality and in considerable quantity. 
At Mukrass, and Numbhul, or Bukkh, the same coal occurs but it is 
of inferior quality and in but small quantity. 

We shall notice these different localities as they are situated, proceed- 
ing from E. to W., and here we may state that it appears to be the 
same seam or seams, which run along the whole extent of the carbo- 
niferous deposit. 

Baghanawalla Coal.—This coal was first brought to the notice of 
Sir H. Lawrence by Lieut. Robinson of the Engineers, who forwarded 
samples of it to Lahore in the autumn of 1847. From these we made 
an analysis, the results of which, along with a few remarks on the general 
character of the coal, were laid before the Asiatic Society in February, 
1848. 

Baghanawalla Davee is a small village about 10 miles E. of Pind 
Dadun Khan and about the same distance from Jelalpore. The coal 
seam occurs in a ravine about 3 miles N. E. of the village among the 
hills. The access to it is very difficult and steep, and no beast of bur- 
den can at present approach it. It is included in shales and yellow 
marl resting on the variegated sandstone strata, above which is a shell 
limestone passing into cherty limestone, which apparently is the repre- 
sentative of the calcareous deposit so abundant to the W. but which at 
this point is but little developed. This is not more than a few feet 
thick, and on it rests a grey friable sandstone, which is succeeded by a 
Series of soft arenaceous strata forming a range of low hills running 


512 Report on the Salt Range [ Nov. 


N. N. E. towards mount Doomeyala, and between the village of Futti- 
poor and Mount Tilleh. In some places, and particularly where it crops 
out in the ravine, the coal appears of good quality ina seam 5 feet 
thick, and on each side of this can be traced for at least + a mile, in 
some places appearing to degenerate into highly bitummous shales, 
The seam dips conformably with the strata above and below to the N. 
N. W. at an angle of 45° or 50° which would render the sinking of a 
shaft through the strata superior to the coal, in such a locality, a 
matter of considerable difficulty and expense. 

Keurah Coal.—This occurs above the salt mine village of Keurah 
near Pind Dadun Khan, and about a mile to its N. E. It is seen 
cropping out on the side of a ravine, the access to which is as difficult 
as to the locality last described. The coal is found in the same geolo- 
gical position, above the variegated sandstones, and is included in a series 
of thin laminated sandstone marls and bituminous shales, the latter of 
which are charged with aluminous earth and iron pyrites, and are here 
and there incrusted with an efflorescence of sulphate of iron and alu- 
mina. The seam is about 2 feet thick and rests on a blue clay inclosing 
septaria, into which we dug 6 feet without getting through it. In this 
as well as in the shales large crystals of gypsum are abundant. The 
coal appears to dip with the other strata to the N. W. at an angle of 
from 40° to 50° and may be traced across the ravine for about 30 yards, 
where it seems to thin out among the blue clay on which it rests. 
Where exposed to the atmosphere it is very brittle and covered with a 
yellow crust of iron alum, but on digging into the seam it is of good 
quality, pretty hard and compact, but here, as in other places, affording 
abundant evidence of its imperfect mineralization. Above the coal 
shales the same yellow marl occurs, and is succeeded by a considerable 
deposit of the nummulite limestone, on which repose a series of soft 
sandstone strata, that have evidently been much disturbed. 

Ruttipind Coal.—This locality is to the W. of the road to Kutass, 
and about 3 miles from Keurah. The coal occurs among shales from 
30 to 40 feet thick, full of large crystals of gypsum and pyrites and 
interlaminated with their films of yellow clay. Two seams occur, the 
lower one two feet thick, and separated from the upper, by shales of 
about a foot in thickness. This measures 4 ft. and along with the other 
may be traced down a deep ravine for 50 or 60 yards. The coal does 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 513 


not appear so good as that of Keurah, being very brittle and containing 
a quantity of earthy matter. The dip of the strata is here to the N. at 
an angle of 35° to 40°. Above the shales is seen the yellow marl and 
then a bold escarpment of nummulite limestone, on reaching the top of 
which the village of Ruttipind is seen in a valley on the northern de- 
clivity of the range. 

Dundhote Coal.—This seam is only about 2 feet thick, occurs in a 
similar position and is of much the same quality as the last. The only 
access to the locality is by a footpath very difficult to ascend, and 
above the coal seam the nummulite limestone with flints rises to the 
top of the range on which the Fort of Dundhote is built. 

Mukrass Coal.—Coal also was found at this locality by some of 
Misser Rulla Ram’s men, who brought me specimens, on my return from 
the Indus. It is of inferior quality, but evidently part of the same 
seam as noticed above. 

With the exception of Baghanawalla the localities mentioned are in- 
cluded in a circle of 4 or 5 miles, in the neighbourhood of Pind Dadun 
Khan, and though these were all we had an opportunity of examining, 
yet doubtless at numerous other points both E. and W. the same seam 
will be found to crop out if due search be made. 

Noorpoor or Nilawan Coal.—We are satisfied on this point, as at 
Noorpoor, 15 miles west of Pind Dadun Khan, we found a coal of a 
character identical with what occurs to the eastward. It is to be seen 
above the Nilawan salt mines, in two small 8 inch seams, included in 
shales on which a steep escarpment of the nummulite limestone rests at 
least 150 feet high. The coal seam dips to the N. W. at an angle of 
from 25° to 30°. 

Numbhul or Bukkh Coal.—Between Noorpoor and the Indus only 
one locality came to our notice, where coal occurs. This was in the 
neighbourhood of Musakhail, about 3 miles from Numbhul, at a place 
called Bukkh. The position of the coal appears identical with that to 
the E. being included in shales beneath the nummulite limestone form- 
ing the ridge of the range. It is best seen in a deep ravine formed by 
a stream which escapes from the hills into the plain near Musakhail, 
presents a charred appearance, and patches of it occur in a calcareous 
white sandstone which is in relation with the shales at their inferior 
part. This appearance is no doubt the result of the shales charged 


514 Report on the Salt Range, | Nov. 


with pyrites, having during the oxidation of the latter undergone spon- 
taneous combustion, a phenomenon of frequent occurrence, and one 
which has produced much mischief in some of the British collieries. 
From the,shales downwards to the base of the hills on the S. W. side, 
there is a development of calcareous strata evidently superior in geolo- 
gical position to the red saliferous marl, and which we have observed no- 
where in the range to the same extent. 

In contact with the shales is a calcareous sandstone which gradually 
passes into strata of limestone of a light bluish-grey color, containing 
abundance of nummulites, and towards the base of the hills enclosing 
layers of flmts. These latter have a brownish tint, derived from 
peroxide of iron, with which they are frequently incrusted, but in none 
could we detect organic remains, which abound im the limestone, and 
particularly in its lower strata, which are of a much darker tint, and 
coarser character, than the upper beds. From the former we obtained 
several specimens of shells of the genera Productus, Terebratula, and 
probably one Spirifer, associated with Ammonites, Belemmites, &c. The 
appearance of these fossils, as well as of the limestone in which they are 
imbedded, is more ancient than that of any of the other fossiliferous 
strata we have noticed. Shales of the genera Productus and Spivifer 
are generally considered characteristic of strata inferior to the Lias, and 
abound in the magnisian limestone. There are however exceptions to 
this, and at least 3 species of Spirifera, and we think one or two Producti 
have been found in the Lias itself. Terebratulze are by far the most 
abundant of all the fossils we noticed in the limestone, and this genus 
has been found to occur through all the strata from the chalk forma- 
tion downwards. 

At first sight we were inclined to believe that we were dealing with 
magnesian limestone, but on subjecting a portion of it to chemical ana- 
lysis, we failed to detect any magnesia in its composition, which earth 
does not, as far as we can ascertain, exist in any limestone of the salt 
range. 

We regretted much that our time did not permit us to examine this 
interesting deposit more thoroughly, as we are satisfied that from it a 
very fine collection of Fossil shells could be made, by which the true age 
of the caleareous strata might be established. In the ravine where the 
coal is seen beautiful sections of the strata are exposed to view, which 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 515 


from the top to the hollow of the range seem to dip to the N. E. at an 
angle of 45°. 

From the preceding details of the character of the coal seams, it will 
be apparent, that a very considerable quantity of fuel could be obtained 
from the various localities mentioned. At present however no beasts 
of burden could reach the places where the coal crops out, these being 
near the top of the range, and hence, until aroad or path could be made, 
a work in these rugged hills of some difficulty, the mineral would have 
to be carried by coolies to a depot, from whence it could be removed by 
bullocks, mules or camels, to the banks of the Indus or Jhelum. 

By working the coal from the surface when it crops out, and parallel 
with the seam, it could be easily obtained, although considerable an- 
noyance would be experienced from the falling in of the soft strata and 
loose boulders of rock which cover it. Until some locality is found 
where the coal seam appears of regular thickness and not developed in 
nests or patches, as we are inclined to believe is the case in the salt range 
generally, we could not recommend to government the propriety of 
attempting mining operations, except on a small scale, and by way of 
experiment. Perhaps Baghanawalla Davee and Keurah would be the 
most favorable positions for such attempts, which could be made at a 
moderate expense, labour being so cheap in the district and the inhabi- 
tants experienced in mining. 

Jet Coal.—Besides the coal seams we have noticed, we met with 
a variety of coal at Kuhar, on the north side of the salt range, and at 
Kalibag, on the Indus, totally different both as to the geological position 
in which it is found, and in its physical characters, but in a commercial 
point of view, likely to be much less valuable than that we have previ- 
ously described. Itis what is known to geologists and mineralogists 
under the name of Jet, and never occurs in quantity sufficient to render 
its mining a work of any practical importance. ) 

Kuhar Jet Coal.—This coal occurs among the soft calcareous sand- 
stones which skirt the base of the hills. Itis best seen at a place called 
Nurwa, a little to the N. of Kuhar, where a clear stream of fresh water 
has cut its way, to the depth of at least 200 feet, through soft sand- 
stones interlaminated with beds of red and blue indurated clays, which 
dip to the N. N. W. at an angle of 25°. The coal occurs in flattened 
masses resembling the compressed trunks of trees, is of a glistening 

o ¥ 


516 Report on the Salt Range, | Nov. 


black color, with a brown streak, and sectile when first removed from 
the rock. Its broken surfaces present a distinct woody structure, and 
brown patches of imperfectly carbonized wood, resembling peat, are fre- 
quently to be found in it. The Jet occurs but in small quantity, and 
would never be worth working. 

Kalibag Jet Coal.—This coal, though in external appearance the 
‘same as the last, occurs in a totally different position, bemg found in 
strata inferior to the regular carboniferous deposit, and separated from 
it by a series of calcareous sandstones of a light yellow color, which are 
highly fossiliferous. Beneath these follow a succession of conglomerates 
of the older rocks and variegated sandstones and clays, towards the 
lower part of which occurs an extensive development of highly bitu- 
minous shales, in some places closely resembling coal, and interlaminated 
with strata of a white fine-grained sandstone, in which, as also in the 
shales, detached masses of jet occur, occupying a horizontal position, 
and may be picked out in considerable quantity. About 40 or 50 
maunds of this coal and about the same quantity of bituminous shale 
supposed to be coal, were taken as fuel by Capt. Christopher in his re- 
turn trip down the Indus in the “‘ Conqueror” steamer. The results of 
his experiments with the jet coal, have, as was to be expected, been very 
favorable, and it is only to be regretted that the coal exists in small 
masses, evidently the remains of trunks of trees and no regular seam. 
In almost any portion of it which we excavated the woody structure 
was apparent, and in numerous specimens which we have preserved, 
nests of peat are to be observed in their interior, showing the imperfect 
mineralization of the coal, which presents even a less close approxima- — 
tion to the character of true coal than that which occurs in the regular 
carboniferous deposit. 

The very short time we had at our disposal while at Kalibag, and the 
extreme heat of the weather, prevented us from examining the locality 
with the care we could have wished ; for though our short search for 
coal was unsuccessful, the extensive development of bituminous shales 
in the strata around afford a hope that a seam of coal (though not of 
the true coal measures) may be found, which will yield a fuel suitable 
for the purposes of steam navigation. 

In no part of the salt range have we seen a locality so fraught with 
interest, as at Kalibag, where strata are developed in many respects 


1848. ] _ and on its Coal and other Minerals. 517 


different from those to the eastward, and from the careful examination 
of which much geological and probably practically useful knowledge 
may be obtained.* | 

Iron Ore.—The frequent occurrence of the most valuable of the 
British iron ores, known under the name of Black Band Ironstone, in the 
true coal measures, induced us particularly to search for this mineral 
and other iron ores, which might be found in relation with the carboni- 
ferous deposit of the salt ranges, but we regret to record that we met 
with but little success. Veins and nodules of hematite or red peroxide 
of iron, are abundantly diffused through all the strata of these hills, but 
the want of suitable fuel to reduce the ores to a metallic state, will, we 
fear, prove an obstacle to its being turned to much account. At Kam- 
goorum, 30 miles to the W. of Kalibag, iron is manufactured, probably 
from this ore, wood charcoal being used for its reduction. It is brought 
to Kalibag in the form of lumps of pig iron, which appear to be of infe- 
rior quality. 

Petroleum.—This mineral is of frequent occurrence in the hills 
around Kalibag, and is obtained in considerable quantity at Jabba, S. 
of the Indus, and about 7 coss from Kalibag. It exudes from the 
rocks and floats on the surface of water. It is known to the natives 
under the name of Gunduk ka tel, who use it in place of oil im their 
lamps. We had not time to visit the locality where it is found, but from 
the enquiries made we are satisfied that it exudes from the neighbour- 
hood of bituminous alum shales, and is probably one of the results of 
their destructive distillation, when undergoing the process of spontane- 
ous combustion. ‘The petroleum is of the consistence of tar, has a dark 
brown color, most penetrating smell, and burns with a yellow smoky 
flame. Its medicinal properties do not seem to be known to the natives, 
who use it only as a source of light. 

Sulphur.—Associated with the petroleum, sulphur is also found in 
small quantity, and its origin is probably identical with the former. 

_ Lead Ore.—The only other mineral which we shall notice is the 
galena ore or sulphuret of lead. This occurs in grains or small cubical 

* We regret extremely our not being able to append a series of analysis of 
the coals from the different localities mentioned in the preceding pages, in conse- 
quence of the loss of the greater part of a small stock of chemical apparatus which 


we possessed, and which for a time we will be unable to replace. 


x we 2 


518 Report on the Salt Range, [Nov. 


crystals in a limestone near the Keurah salt mine, and in a similar rock 
on the N. side of the range, on a hill called Kuringuli, 2 miles N. W. 
of Choee. The natives give it the name of Soorma, believing it to be 
sulphuret of antimony, of very fine quality, and is consequently in 
much repute among them as a cosmetic. It however contains no anti- 
mony, its only impurity being a trace of. silver, which is generally pre- 
sent in galena, and sometimes in such quantity as to render its extrac- 
tion a work of commercial importance. In the localities above men- 
tioned the mineral occurs in such small quantity as to be of no value. 

On the Salt Mines.—The mines from which the principal supply of 
salt is obtained, are those of Keurah, in the vicinity of Pind Dadun 
Khan, of Surdi, near Kuhar, and of Maree and Kalibag, on the Indus. 

The general superintendence of these is entrusted to an agent of the 
Lahore state, Misser Gyan Chund, who, with his son Misser Rula Ram, 
reside at Pind Dadun Khan, where the largest salt depot im the dis- 
trict exists. 

Salt mine village of Keurah.—The mineral is brought in greatest 
quantity to the depot, from a village called Keurah, about 4 miles dis- 
tant, and around which no fewer than 10 shafts are sunk into the red 
marl for the purpose of extracting the salt. From the foot of the hills 
a narrow path, strewed with boulders and masses of rock, which have 
fallen from the height above, leads through a deep ravine to the salt 
mine village, which is built in terraces on its east side, and is inhabited 
by the miners and their families during the dry season. In the rains, 
on account of the heat and musquitoes, they desert Keurah and take 
refuge in the small village of Tobu, which is built on the opposite side 
of the ravine, but at a considerable height above the salt mines, and 
where they enjoy a cool breeze and an immunity from the attacks of 
their winged tormentors. 

The inhabitants of these villages amount to about 650, four hundred 
of whom are employed in the salt mimes, an occupation which, if we 
may judge from their appearance, does not seem to be particularly pre-— 
judicial to health. 

Of the mines around Keurah two particularly deserve notice, and 
receive the names of the Keurah and Sujoowalla mines. 

Keurah Salt Mine.—Thisis a little to the E. of the village, and on a 
higher level, the path leading to it passing over red marl containing 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 519 


angular masses of gypsum. The entrance to the mine is by an opening 
cut in the marl about 7 feet high, and leading into a passage which pre- 
serves throughout a height of 6 feet and a width sufficient to allow two 
individuals to pass. 

From the entrance to the end of the workings, the distance is 640 
feet, where a chamber has been excavated entirely out of the rock salt 
40 feet long by 30 feet broad, and about the same height, in which at 
the time we visited it men, women and children, were busily engaged 
quarrying the mineral by the light of small oil lamps, formed of the 
salt and hung by iron hooks on its walls the crystalline surface of which, 
reflected the light on a deep pool of brine situated in one corner of the 
chamber, and which is said to communicate with several of the neigh- 
bouring shafts. 

In the interior of the mine, which was remarkably dry, the heat was 
most oppressive, and the thermometer hung on the rock salt stood at 
85°, while in the shade at the mouth of the shaft it indicated 75°. 

The appearance of the miners as seen in the dim light which illumin- 
ed the mine, was highly striking, their faces and bodies being covered 
with a saline incrustation. Their dress is of the lightest description, 
the men wearing nothing but a bit of cloth wound round their loins, and 
a pad of numdah or thick woollen cloth tied over their skins to protect 
them from injuries from the sharp angles of the salt or blows from their 

instruments. These are but few, the one of most importance being a 
hammer sharpened at one end into a highly tempered point, combining 
advantages of a pick and chisel. With this and a small crowbar, al- 
most all the salt is excavated, large hammers being occasionally requi- 
site to fracture the larger masses of the rock. 

The salt is generally removed from the mine in square lumps of such 
a size, that two will form a good load for a camel, by which animals it 
is conveyed, after being weighed at the mouth of the shaft, to Pind 
Dadun Khan, where it is sold at the rate of Rs. 2 per maund, the miners 
receiving from two rupees to two rupees eight annas per 100 maunds; 
according to the quality of the salt turned out. 

Varieties of the rock salt.—The mineral occurs in three varieties, the 
pink, the white and the transparent, but the former is preferred by the 
natives for culinary purposes, from its containing, it is said, less Reshuh, 
a term the exact meaning of which we could not discover. ‘The pink 


520 Report on the Salt Range, [ Nov. 


color is generally supposed to be derived from organic matter, and is not 
the result of the admixture of a minute portion of iron or manganeese 
which the color might have led one to suppose. 

Chemical characters.—When submitted to a chemical examination, 
all the three varieties of the salt are equally pure, and contain neither 
sulphate of lime nor chloride of magnesium, the common impurities of 
the mineral. In consequence of the absence of the latter, it is very 
slightly deliquescent, an advantage which it possesses over common 
bay salt, which if exposed to a moist atmosphere, rapidly attracts water. 

What the thickness of the deposits of salt may be it is impossible to 
ascertain, but certainly that of the principal bed, in which the chamber 
is excavated, cannot be less than 150 or 200 feet. It does not seem to 
occur in regular strata, but rather in masses of irregular thickness, in 
which a stratified structure is observable, the general dip being to the 
N. at an angle of from 30° to 40°. These masses are separated from 
each other by portions of marl, including beds of gypsum, and are seen 
all along the sides of the passage, where they are occasionally worked. 
By the passing and repassing of the miners, portions of gypsum and 
salt have become highly polished in some places, and in the floor of the 
passage, where very imperfect steps exist, are extremely slippery. 

Great annoyance is experienced particularly during the rains when all 
mining operations are suspended, from the falling in of the roof and 
sides of the various workings, which might in a great degree be pre- 
vented and many lives saved, if proper means were adopted to support 
the marl and soft rock, as the salt is removed from beneath. At 
present this is done in a most careless manner, and hence the frequency 
of accidents to the unfortunate miners, whose life is one of ill-remu- 
nerated labour. 

According to the Superintendent of the salt mines, from 48 to 50,000 
maunds are annually obtaimed from the mimes around Keurah, the one 
just noticed yielding alone about 15,000 maunds. 

Sugoowalla mine.—This mine yields a very large quantity of salt of 
the best quality, and is very easily worked. The entrance to it, is about 
3a mile to the E..of the Keurah one, and ona much higher level. 
From the surface, one descends the passage by a series of imperfect 
steps cut out of the marl, in which beds of salt occur close to the mouth 
of the shaft. 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 521 


In the interior of the mine, enormous masses of the mimeral are to be 
seen, which have become detached from the roof and sides, and under 
which the various passages lead to an immense distance in the interior 
of the hills. 

The temperature of this mine was much lower than that of Keurah, 
but having accidentally broken our thermometer we were unable to make 
any accurate observations. The amount of moisture which exists, and. 
which is seen trickling in a small stream down the steps in the passage, 
may possibly be the cause of the comparative coolness of the mine, the 
roof of which was in several places covered with stalactites of salt 
upwards of a foot in length. 

We were warned against entering this mine, which is considered 
unsafe, its roof and sides being rent and cracked in all directions. How- 
ever any risk run was well repaid by the magnificent spectacle which 
the resplendent walls of salt afforded, dimly illumined by the twinkling 
lights of the miners. 

Surdi Salt mines.—The salt mines of Surdi, about 10 miles to the 
W. of Pind Dadun Khan, have been more recently opened than those 
around Keurah, and appear to be constructed on a better plan, good 
flights of steps beimg cut out of the salt, which occurs in quantity close 
to the surface, and the roof of the passages well supported by strong 
beams of wood. ‘The salt is of excellent quality, and remarkably com- 
pact. As it is raised from the mine it is conveyed on camels to a depot. 
about 2 miles from Kuhar, on the road to Kutass, none of it being 
sent to Pind Dadun Khan, but yielding a supply to Cashmir, and the 
districts to the N. of the salt range. 

Kalibag Salt.—The salt is worked on both sides of the Indus above 
Kalibag, which village is built on the side of a hill of red marl, which 
extends along the N. bank of the river about a mile, and in which a 
vast deposit of rock salt exists. 

The mineral is very near the surface, frequently cropping out and 
behind the terraced houses of Kalibag, forming a wall which overhangs 
the village. It is chiefly worked in the bed of a nullah called the 
Loon, a name derived no doubt from the character of its water, and 
which enters the Indus on its north bank opposite the village of Maree, 
where a large quantity of salt is also obtained. 

No shafts are sunk in the marl as at other places, the rock salt hay- 


522 Report on the Salt Range, | Nov. 


ing fallen down in immense masses from the heights above the nullah, 
requiring only to be broken into portions fit for removal. On the east 
side of the marl hill the salt is of excellent quality, the transparent 
variety occurring in great abundance, but on the west side towards Ka- 
libag, it is mixed with a great deal of marl and hence is little worked. 
The stratification of the salt is more apparent here than in any of the 
mines to the eastward, and the strata appear to dip to the N. W. at an 
angle of 40° . | 

The marl abounds in gypsum, which generally is of an earthy charac- 
ter, the saccharine variety being less abundant than in the other locali- 
ties we have noticed. 


APPENDIX. 
On the Alum Manufactories of Kalibag. 


Alum Shales.—Next 1 importance to the rock salt which the strata 
of the salt range afford, are the Bituminous shales, which abound in all 
its extent, in connection with the coal seams, and from which, at Kali- 
bag, Alum is extensively prepared. 

These, as before mentioned, contain clay, abundance of iron pyrites, 
and their seams of coal, by the mutual reaction of which on each other, 
especially durmg combustion, an alum is formed. 

The shale or rol, as it is technically called by the natives, is brought 
from several localities in the neighbourhood of Kalibag, the principal 
workings of it being at a place named Chatah, where the shales, corre- 
sponding to those in which the coal occurs to the E. of the Indus, are 
about 200 feet thick. 

Regular shafts are sunk for the purpose of excavating the shale, and 
one of those we measured, extended 207 feet from the entrance. From 
the soft character of the strata accidents to the miners are of very fre- 
quent occurrence, the risk of which, as in the salt mines, might be con- 
siderably diminished were proper means taken for the support of the 
roof and sides of the shafts. In one of these, the shales spontaneously 
took fire, five or six years ago, and from its mouth a column of smoke 
resembling that from the funnel of a steamer is constantly issuing, no 
means being taken to extinguish the chemical action going on in the 


interior. 


im 


| 
| 
| 


| 


| 
: 
| 
) 


1843. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 523 


_ The rol or shale, as it is brought to the mouth of the pit, is placed 
in bags made of kummul or country blanket, two of which are loaded 
on bullocks, a narrow path having been made to enable them to ascend 
and descend the rocky side of the hill to the bed of the Loon nullah, 
from whence a road leads by the side of the Indus to Kalibag. 

_ Price of the Alum Shale at Kalibag.—In this way the shale is landed 
at the alum kilns at prices varying from 14 to 17 maunds for the rupee, 
the workmen being supplied with mining instruments, but obliged to 
provide bullocks at their own expense. 

Alum Kilns.—The kilns form the most striking feature of Kalibag, 
their red mounds rising up here and there im the middle of the village, 
and the smoke which issues from them tainting the air to a consider- 
able distance around. 

Injurious effect of Alum Kilns on the health of the inhabitants of 
Kalibag.—The injurious effect of impure air on the workmen employed 
about these kilns, is abundantly manifested in their sickly, emaciat- 
ed appearance, many of whom labor under chronic affections of the 
lungs. Goitre prevails to a considerable extent among the inhabitants 
of Kalibag, but whether this is attributable to the pollution of the at- 
mosphere by carbonic and sulphureous gasses, to the highly calcareous 
waters of the Indus, or to other more obscure causes, we will not venture 
to offer an opinion. In other parts of the salt range, we did not notice 
particularly the prevalence of goitre, whereas at Kalibag it is very com- 
mon, some of the tumours being of large size. 

Number of Kilns in Kalibag.—In the village there are no fewer than 
14 kilns, to each of which the necessary arrangements for the prepara- 
tion of alum are attached, but at the time we visited Kalibag only 12 
were efficient. 

Formation of the Kiln.—In preparing the kiln, a thin layer of 
brushwood (generally 'Tamarisk jungle, which abounds on the banks of 
all the Punjaub rivers) is spread on the ground to an extent varying 


_ according to the size of the one about to be constructed. On this a 


layer of the rol or shale in fragments is deposited to the depth of 


_ about a foot, to which succeeds a second layer of brushwood and then 


another of shale. When several of these have been arranged, the kiln 

is set fire to from below, care being taken that the combustion is not 

too rapid, which from time to time is moderated by sprinkling water 
3 Z 


524 Report on the Salt Range, [ Nov. 


on the shales. The kiln being well lighted, fresh layers of shale and 
brushwood are added, and when the whole has attained the height of 30 
or 40 feet, it is left to burn, 6 or 8 months being generally sufficient to 
effect the thorough decomposition of the mass, which when completed 
has a brick-red color from peroxidated iron, its surface being covered 
with an efflorescence of alum, containing a large proportion of sulphate 
of iron or green vitriol. 

Preparation of the Alum.—Close to the kiln, and on a level a little 
below its base, there is a baked earthen vat 12 ft. square by 1 ft. 5 in. 
deep. Into this a portion of the burned shale is thrown and lixiviated 
with water for several hours, which rapidly acquires a dark brown color. 
When a saturated solution of the soluble matter in the shale is obtained, 
it is drawn off from the vat by an aperture in its side (which during the 
lixiviation is stopped by a plug), into another vat of similar size, but on 
a lower level. Here the crude alum liquor is allowed to deposit any 
mud which it may contain, and is then run off into a third but smaller 
vat on a still lower level, where it is again allowed to deposit any remain- 
ing impurities. From this it is transferred into an iron evaporating 
pan, where it is rapidly boiled and mixed with a brownish impure salt 
called Jumsan, from which it derives alkali necessary to convert the 
crude alum into an alum of commerce. When a proper quantity of 
this has been added, which is judged of from the appearance of the 
liquid, the whole is allowed to settle, and the clear brown alum solution 
removed into vats, 8 ft. 8 in. long, 5 ft. 5 in. broad and 1 ft. 5 in. deep, 
a series of which are arranged beneath a shed, close to the evaporating 
pan. In these the solution, which is concentrated to a point a little — 
short of that of crystallization, is allowed slowly to crystallize for several 
days. During that time small alum crystals are formed of a slightly 
pink color, derived no doubt from the impure mother liquor which con- 
tains a quantity of muriate and sulphate of iron. When a considerable 
crop of alum has separated, the crystals are removed from the vat, 
slightly washed with cold water on a sirkee frame and allowed to dry, 
These are afterwards fused in an iron pan, in their own water of crys- 
tallization, and when in a fluid state, are removed into large conical 
earthen jars or gurrahs, 1 ft. 8 in. deep, the same breadth at the shoulder, 
and 6 inches wide at the mouth, where for eight or ten days they are al- 
lowed to crystallize. At the end of this period a hole is made in the mass 


1848. | and on its Coal and other Minerals. 525 


of alum, which is generally hollow in its interior, the gurrah imverted 
and the uncrystallized alum liquor, should any remain, allowed to escape. 
The gurrah is then broken and the alum moulded to the form of the 
vessel, and removed to the depdt for sale and exportation. _ 

By acting on successive portions of the kiln im the manner above 
described, the whole is by degrees exhausted of the alum which it 
contains. 

Quantity manufactured.—The average daily expenditure im all the 
Alum works at Kalibag was stated to us to be only Rs. 12, while the 
amount of alum annually prepared is about 12,000 maunds, which at 
Rs. 3 per maund, the price of the article at the manufactory, will yield 
a return of Rs. 36,000 per annum. 

It is indeed singular that a process almost identical to that employed. 
in European alum works, should have been discovered and adopted by 
the natives of India, and practised by them for several hundred years. 
We could not ascertain how long alum has been manufactured at Kali- 
bag, but the proprietor or Malik of the place, by name Ullah Yar Khan, 
a remarkably obligmg and intelligent old man, informed us that his 
ancestors for eight generations had carried on the trade. 

Alkaline base of Alum.—We have stated that the substance from 
which the alkali of the Kalibag alum is derived, is a brown salt called 
Jumsan. This seems identical with the saline efflorescence so abundant 
throughout the N. W. provinces, and particularly so in all the grass 
jungles and waste ground in the neighbourhood of Lahore, and which is 
chiefly composed of sulphate of soda, with a little common salt and a 
trace of carbonate of soda giving it an alkaline reaction. 

For the supply of the alum manufactories the efflorescence is scraped 
from the soil in the jungle E. of the Indus, and is particularly abundant 
in the plain which skirts the S. side of the salt range at the villages of 
Gurree and Tuttee, 8 or 9 miles from the Indus. The efflorescence is 
denominated Kullur, and from it Jumsan is obtained by treating the 
former with water and drying up the solution of its saline matter in gur- 
rahs exposed to the sun. 

This on analysis turns out to be nothing but a mixture of sulphate 
of soda and common salt, with varying proportions of carbonate of soda, 
its quality depending chiefly on the amount of sulphate of soda which 
it yields. 


am 2 


526 Report on the Salt Range, Sc. [ Nov. 


In all the commercial European alums, as far as we can ascertain, the 
alkaline base is Potash or Ammonia—the former alkali beg charac- 
teristic of British alums, while the latter occurs in those of France. In 
the alum of Kalibag however, and in another sample of alum of a dif- 
ferent external appearance, which we obtained in the Jullundur bazaar, 
soda forms the alkaline base, a fact which the addition of Jumsan to 
the crude alum liquor first led us to suspect, and which a chemical ana- 
lysis of the alum has subsequently confirmed. A soda alum, as far as 
we can ascertain from the chemical or pharmaceutical works we have at 
present access to, is only known as an interesting chemical preparation ; 
but we are not aware that such has been noticed as a staple article of 
commerce in the N. W. provinces, and probably throughout British 
India. 

Purity of the Alum.—Considering the coarse apparatus in which the 
alum is prepared, its purity is astonishing. It effloresces considerably 
on exposure to the air, hasaslight pink color, arisig from the presence 
of a little iron which strikes a blue color with yellow prussiate of potash, 
and only contains a trace of muriate and sulphate of soda. 

Besides the alum we have just noticed, another kind is prepared, 
from a light grey shale, containing silky crystals of what appears to be 
subsulphate of alumina. It is found associated with the other alum 
shales around, but in small quantity. To prepare the alum, the shale 
in coarse powder is mixed up with the impure liquid, from which the 
alum crystals have separated. The mixture is then dried in the sun, 
in irregular shaped masses of about a seer in weight, and which are of 
a brownish color. When dry they get a second dip in the same alum 
liquor, and are again dried, becoming of a tawny yellow color, in which 
state, under the designation of Kaee, they are sold to dyers at 8 annas 
per maund. This alum isa mixture of sulphate of alumina and sul- 
phate of iron, and where mixed with the infusion of pomegranate rind 
yields a good black dye. 

Although alum is only manufactured at Kalibag, yet as the same 
shales occur in quantity to the eastward, similar manufactories might be 
established with advantage in other parts of the salt range—the only 
obstacle being the difficulty of access to the shale deposits, which, as well 
as the coal, might be brought to the foot of the range on bullocks, were 
paths made similar to the one which leads to the Kalibag alum shale 
pits before noticed. 


1848.] Elevations of places between Almorah aud Gangri. 527 


Explanation of the Elevations of places between Almorah and Gangri, 
given in Ineut. Strracuey’s Map and Journal. 


The elevations of places on my route to the lakes of Gangri, addi- 
tional to the few that were already determined by the Trigonometric 
and Barometric operations of Captain Webb, have been deduced, in the 
way common with ill-equipped private travellers, from the observed 
temperature of boiling water. 

My thermometer was small and bad, unfurnished with proper boiling 
apparatus (which is essential to correct observations), and lastly, it was 
broken before any comparisons could be obtained with a standard 
instrument to ascertain its error, for which purpose I had sent it to the 
Simla Observatory. The deduced heights are therefore liable to a wide 
range of uncertainty, for which I have been obliged to make arbitrary 
allowances, assisted only by a few boiling observations at or near places 
of known elevation on my route, which are inserted in the accom- 
panying table. As my instrument was not readable to less than half 
degrees,—that is, when boiling in a common kettle over a smoky 
wood-fire,—the elevations cannot pretend to any precision within 250 
feet, and I have, in most cases, therefore, made them up to the nearest 
quarter thousand ; but the other causes of error, affecting measurements 
of this sort, will at least double that range of uncertainty, and the 
results cannot be considered anything better than rough approximations 
within 500 feet or so. 

I have made the calculations by Prinsep’s Tables (given in the Asiatic 
Society's Journal), which, though not strictly correct or complete, suffice 
for such rough observations. ‘The mean temperature of the stratum of 
air under measurement (which materially affects the resulting eleva- 
tion), is calculated as is done by Herbert in his Survey of the Alpine 
Sutluj (vide Asiatic Researches), by assuming the rate of refrigeration 
of the atmosphere to be 1° Fahrenheit for every 300 feet of elevation, 
and by deducing, according to this supposition, the temperature of the 
air at the level of the sea from the observed temperature and the 
approximate height. 

I have reduced one or two Barometric observations by Manson, 
recorded in the Asiatic Society’s Journal, for a few places about Ralam 
and upper Jwar, the mean temperature of the column of air being 
calculated as just explained, and neglecting the minor corrections, for 
temperature of instrument and decrease of gravity, as likely to be com- 
pensated, more or less, by the capillarity of the tube, regarding which 
no information ig forthcoming. 


[ Nov. 


Elevations of places between Almorah and Gangri. 


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aud aAOge 3993 NNGL pezseMIisy ‘(senea) asty, JO 3%eq tg 


532 Note on the Construction of the Map of the [Nov. 


* Note on the Construction of the Map of the British Himdlayan Fron- 
tier in Kumaon and Garhwdl, by Lieut. H. StRACHEY. 


My map is based on the Indian Atlas, Nos. 65 and 66; the cis- 
Himalayan parts of which, being the result of Mathematical Survey, 
I have copied exactly, with the following alterations and additions : 

1. Some alteration made about the extreme north-eastern Kali in 
Byans, the original being decidedly wrong. 

2. Other occasional defects in the positions of small streams, villages, 
&c. here and there amended, from observation or information. 

3. Glaciers inserted in many places: these for the most part show 
the general position merely as derived from information or distant view ; 
approximation to the true size or figure being attempted only in the 
Gori Glacier above Milam in Jwar, from personal inspection. 

4, Entry from information, of sundry inter-Himélayan passes between 
the several Alpine valleys of Kumaon: there are doubtless many more 
of these remaining to be mapped im northern Garhwal. 

5. All elevations of places to be found in Capt. Webb’s book, reduced 
to sea level by the addition of 87 feet for the (supposed) height of his 
Calcutta comparisons above the sea; and the mean of all measurements 
given where more than one is recorded for any place. I have also got 
elevations of one or two places onthe Alpine and sub-Alpine Kali (nei- 
ther in Webb’s book, nor in the map), from Vol. XII. Asiatic Re- 
searches, adding 72 feet for correction of the starting point from which 
they were derived. trigonometrically in Webb’s survey. 

6. In south-eastern Jwar, I have marked in the map the Ralam 
valley, with the Pass from upper Jwar, Barjiganw-Dhura: the village of 
Rélam, and the river down to its confluence with the Gori at the 
entrance of Munsh4ri: im northern Jwar details have been given of the 
intricate passes into Tibet. 

The last mentioned additions to the maps of the “‘ Indian Atlas’’ are 
mostly from my own observations, in June, 1846, which, though 
unaided by surveying instruments of any sort, will give an idea of the 


* This map, a part of which only has been reduced to illustrate Lieut. Stra- 
chey’s Journal, will be published hereafter, but it seems desirable that these re- 
marks on its construction should be printed with Lieut. Strachey’s other papers. 


-—-EDS. 


1848.] British Himdlayan Frontier in Kumaon and Garhwil. 533 


ground preferable to the total blank left by the surveyors. I have 
obtained the elevations of a few places on the route from- Bhuni to Ra- 
lam and from Milam to the Unta-Dhura pass, from the Barometric 
measurements given by Manson in Vol. XI. (part If. 1842, No. 132, 
Article III.) Asiatic Society’s Journal, which, being without any compa- 
rison, I have reduced in a manner similar to that adopted for my own 
boiling observations. Manson makes his own measurement of Unta- 
Dhura “about 17,500 ft.’ but, according to my computation, it is not 
less than 18,200 ft. and the latter elevation agrees much better with 
my own personal experience of the pass and adjacent places, as also with 
Lieut. Weller’s boiling observations. 

I have also availed myself of the account given by Lieut. Weller Gn 
Asiatic Journal, No. 134, 1843) of his journey to the Balch pass in May 
and June 1842, but his boiling observations were far too loosely con- 
ducted to give any thing in the shape of certain measurement for the 
elevation of places. 

The most probable mistake here and there, doubtless must be much 
error, is in the longitude of Laptel and the Balch pass (as also Chirchun, 
&c.) which should, perhaps, be a mile or two further west, so as to 
make the Balch route to Dungpu more direct than that by Shelshel 
Sakh, &c., as the Bhotias declare it to be. I was not sufficiently aware 
of this till my map was past further correction, but the fault may easily 
be remedied in another copy. It will be observed in this quarter that 
I have made the British frontier include a good deal of ground unex- 
plored and omitted by the surveyors: the valley of Laptel being so 
much more open and accessible to Gnari than to Jwér or to Painkanda, 
it seemed questionable whether it did not belong to Lhassa, but I have 
allowed its place in the boundary map to be decided by the flow of its 
water into Painkanda, so as to advance the British frontier to the crest 
of the Balch mountains and the low pass into Shelshel: the value of 
the ground itself is little or nothing to either party. Lieut. Weller 
then penetrated not “three day’s journey into Chinese Tartary” (as a 
certain “‘pilgrim’”’ supposed) but just up to the frontier line ; Laptel has 
been visited by two or three other English travellers, but for venatic 
rather than geographical purposes. 

Between the Jwér passes and upper Painkanda the map is compiled 
from the best information I could get of the Jwari Bhotias. The 

4a 2 


534 Note on the Construction of the Map of the [ Nov. 


Girthi valley has been once explored, I believe, by Manson and Irving 
in 18—? but without any record of results that I am aware of. My 
accounts of the Hoti valley between Laptel and Niti were very obscure 
and contradictory, and in this part of the map there may be great error! 

The central part of Munshari is studded with a multitude of small 
villages and hamlets, the sprmg and autumn residence of the Jwari 
Bhotias, not half of which are shown in the Atlas No. 66. I have 
endeavored to supply the defect from information, and my map shows 
the approximate position of nearly all these places, but they are so 
crowded together that I was forced to omit the names of many of the 
hamlets. 

In the trans-Himalayan part of my map, I have copied all of the 
Indian Atlas No. 65, which shows the explorations of Moorcroft and 
Hearsay in 1812, taken, I believe, from actual rough Survey of Hear- 
say’s, though not so acknowledged on the map, and the positions there 
assigned to Gartokh and all the principal villages, rivers, &c. in the 
route of those travellers, remain unaltered up to longitude 81°, saving 
the direction of a stream here and there, which I had reason for know- 
ing to be otherwise. Last of that longitude, where the Atlas No. 65 
terminates, is the result of my own explorations now recorded, includ- 
ing the lakes with the details of Kailas, and Gangri, the eastern and 
south-eastward sources of the Sutlej, the sources of the Karnal, Mo- 
monangli, and the valley of Pruang, with its numerous villages. My 
survey was a very rough one, made with pocket compass (Smalchalder) 
and a watch: I took bearings of my course here and there, as I observed 
any particular change of direction, as also of Kailas, Momonangli, &c., 
from many different points, and I estimated my distances from noted 
times by supposed rate of progress according to nature of ground: from 
the road distances thus computed (at very moderate rates) I made 
liberal deductions for the map protraction, so that my errors are, I 
trust, always on the side of diminution rather than exaggeration. As 
even these rough methods of observation were often mterrupted by night 
marches, &c. the survey is, of course, inaccurate in many respects ; but, 
at the worst, I suppose that the place which I have assigned to Kailas, 
the furthest extremity of the survey, lies within a circle of 5 miles ra- 
dius, described about the true position, and other parts accordingly. 
Kailas and Momonangli were placed from the average of a number of 


1848.] British Himdlayan Frontier in Kumaon and Garhwil. 535 


intersections. In such rugged country no good flyig-route survey is 
possible without constant latitudes: I regret that I had no instrument 
for getting them. I ascertained the deviation of my compass by bear- 
ings of the principal peaks of the Kumaon snowy range taken from 
Binsar (a high mountain near Almorah) compared with the protraction 
of the same upon the Atlas No. 66. This gave an average of some 33° 
eastern declination, which I was obliged to apply to my survey of the 
lakes, &c. as I could get no means of checking my compass on the spot, 
in the whole course of my route from Almorah to Kangri; however 
inaccurate this process and its result may be, it is good enough to match 
the other operations of my survey. 

My topography of Pruang from anocturnal survey and bad informa- 
tion is far from perfect; some of the villages given in Angil’s list are 
wanting, and the place of others doubtful, but it will give a fair idea of 
the position of the four principal places, Kardam, Taklakhar, and Jidi, 
the three Khar and Kajarh (Kocharnatti), of which the second Khar 
only is exhibited in previous maps under its Hindustani name of ‘ Tak- 
lakot,”’ and all the rest superseded by names and places purely fictitious. 

It will be observed that in the trans-Himdlayan part of my map 
(as also east of the Kali) I have given a rough representation of hills 
and mountains over extensive tracts of country which the Atlas (65 and 
66) leaves all blank. These delineations of the mountains of Gnari, 
are such as I could make from partial and distant views, with scarcely 
any data for details or true positions of ridges, &c., but I thought it best 
to adopt this method, however inaccurate, because the other, contrasted 
as the blank is with the vivid representation of the cis-Himalayan moun- 
tains, tends insensibly but forciblly to convey the still more erroneous 
impression of a vast continuous plain on the north side of the passes, 
whereas the face of the country of Gnari is, for the most part, extremely 
mountainous. 

It would have been interesting and useful (and may still be so, should 
the wanting material be hereafter forthcoming) to compare my delinea- 
tion of the lakes, and adjacent places, Gangri, &c. with Hearsay’s map 
of the same, but I have not been able to find any authentic copy of the 
latter, including the parts east of longitude 81°, which lie outside of the 
Atlas No. 65; the last mentioned map does indeed show the north- 
western part of Rakas Tal, with an effluent falling into the Sutlej be- 


536 Note on the Construction of the Map of the [ Nov. 


tween Tirthapuri and Kyunlung, but this at least, 1 have proved to be 
quite wrong, no part of the lake extending so far west, and the river in 
question being properly the Darma Yankti, rising in the Byans Himé- 
laya. In order to make this part of Hearsay’s(?) map unite with my 
own, I have been obliged to bend down the portion of his route next 
east of Tirthapuri 2 or 3 miles to the southward, so as to enter the 
Gangri valley south of Kailaés and Darchin, and the rivers crossed. by 
this route have been similarly adjusted to meet the Lajandak Sutlej. 
In other respects Hearsay’s map, as also Moorcroft’s narrative, agrees 
very well with the information I have received from the Bhotias, and I 
have been able to identify many points of the route of those travellers 
with the Bhotias’ descriptions. In the hilly ground between the Sutlej 
and Gartokh, I have merely had to insert the names of a few streams, 
encamping-places, &c. in Gugi, i. e. the valley of the Sutley ; I have 
added some villages anc hamlets and corrected the names of others pre- 
viously mapped, together probably all that exist (and more than are at 
present inhabited) from Mangnang eastward, many villages in Gangri 
were ruined by the plunder of the invading Sikhs in 1841, and have 
since been deserted. I could not get so much information about the 
country west of Mangnang, and the mapping of that part is compara- 
tively defective, but I have obtained a material correction for the course 
of the Sutlej there, and the position of Tholing, hitherto wrong on all 
maps. 

All the routes in Gnari, with the several encamping-places on them, 
are the result of most minute inquiries, where not personally explored. 
The road from Laptel vid Shelshel to Dungpu, and thence back to 
Jwaér by Chirchoon, I explored myself in June last, 1846, without sur- 
veying instrument however, and the present draft of it is subject to the 
possible correction suggested for the positions of Laptel and Balch, (viz. 
a mile or two more westward.) For the routes on information, I am 
indebted chiefly to the Jwéri Bhotias (particularly to the family of the 
Patw4ri of Milam) who so far surpass the others in intelligence that I 
learned more from them about the lakes and Pruang than from the 
Byansis, whose constant resort is to those places, and these parts of my 
map are perhaps as correct as they could be made without personal 
exploration. 


A separate paper, accompanying this, gives all requisite particulars 


1848.| British Himdlayan Frontier in Kumaon and Garhwal. 537 


regarding the determination of the elevations of places on my journey 
to the lakes, which are entered on that part of the map. 

My orthography is always after the system of Sir W. Jones, and the 
Asiatic Society, but for Hunia names it follows the simple Hindustani 
pronunciation of the Bhotias, and not the complex Tibetan spelling, 
which can only be mastered by a critical knowledge of the language. 


I have had to ascertain de novo and re-write most of the names of - 


places given in the Indian Atlas, the mistakes of which surpass belief : 
those which I have now given are, I hope, tolerably correct for most of 
the places in Kumaon and in Guari, but I had not equal opportunity 
for revising those of Garhwal. 

In my map I have made and explained the distinction between agricul- 
tural villages and mere temples and monasteries, places permanently in- 
habited and mere encamping-grounds, and all other requisite discrimi- 
nations, the neglect of which simple but necessary details, together with 
the abominable kakography of names, has much impaired the value of 
the sheets in question of the Indian Atlas. 

The separate sheets of the Atlas (Nos. 65 and 66 at least) though 
with scales, margins and other marks of completeness, omit to state 
their scale referred to a known standard, and their mode of projection, 
I had no access to authentic information on these points, till after the 
completion of my own map, and the latter was drawn, from one or two 
old copies of the Atlas, the paper of which had lost its proper size and 
shape, so that my scale is 25 miles to 6 inches, the nearest Aliqout 
measure that I could find to my originals, instead of 4 miles to one 
inch, as it should have been. My map differs from the Atlas also in 
its graticule, being on the conical development, which I adopted for 
its facility of execution (being without proper drawing instruments) and 
in ignorance of the projection applied to the Atlas. The latter I have 
since found to be based upon the most scientific elaboration, emanating 
from high authority, notwithstanding which it is palpably inferior to 
the simple geometrical process of the conical development, both in 
theoretical accuracy and in facility of practical application. My copies 
of the Atlas, sheets 65 and 66, gave the length of the meridional arcs 
sensibly in excess of the truth (like the Tables of Baily) ; in my map 
I have reduced them to the lengths given in the tables of Pearson, &c. 
(after Lambton). In other respects however my map does not pre- 


538 Description and Analysis of a large mass of [ Nov. 


tend to any accuracy of execution, for which I had neither the requisite 
mechanical appliances nor sufficient time, but all the cis-Himélayan 
part of it traced from the Indian Atlas is quite correct enough for prac- 
tical purposes: the trans-Himilayan ground, nowhere fully explored 
or accurately surveyed, is of course open to much correction. 


PEDAL 


Description and Analysis of a large mass of Meteoric Iron, from the 
Kurruckpore hills, near Monghyr. Presented to the Museum of the 
Asiatic Society, by Captain W. 8. SHerwiti, B.N.I. By Henry 
PippinetTon, Curator Museum Economical Geology.—With two 
Plates. 


The Museum is indebted for this magnificent specimen to our valued 
member and.active contributor, Captain W. S. Sherwill, of the Revenue 
Survey. 

Upon his first visit to the Museum some months ago I showed this 
gentleman amongst our mineralogical treasures and curiosities, the Aero- 
lites, and next to them our specimens of meteoric iron, upon which he 
remarked that he had a large lump of iron “‘0f some kind” which had 
been found in the Rajmahal hills “a good deal like that.” I begged 
of him forthwith by all means to send me at least a specimen of it, 
which he did, and my conjecture (from his account of its qualities, such 
as toughness, &c.) that it might prove a mass of meteoric iron, were, 
after some baffling in the research which mineralogical chemists will 
understand from the chemical details which follow, was crowned by 
indubitable proofs that it was so! Captain Sherwill, when recently here, 
at my request desired a friend to send the whole mass down, and the 
Society now possesses this most valuable specimen, which I proceed first 
to describe as to locality and physical properties, before detailmg my 
examination of it. 

Locality. 

Captain Sherwill’s note is as follows : 

“The accompanying mass of iron, supposed to be of meteoric origin, 
was found imbedded in the soil on the top of the forest-clad Kurruck- 
pore hills near Monghyr. It had been exhumed and worshipped for 
many years by the hillmen.” 


IN G99 70"-2US 8 Madey he payuesagy 


‘son THbIeYy SIH ecodpnsmay oy) rwoy u0.ly 2400p py fo sev a 
opp UorbUrpPYy 
sg 
& kg ee 4 Pig 


Horizontal Sector. 


Vertical Section 


\ | ie YB 


_ i re 


ie al 
% 


\ oo" 
Pe Re hep oe 


Horizontal and verticad Sections 6 y Capt” Shae 
Mass of Meleoric lron shuwn um Plate XIX. 


: . f y id ’ hin * = 7 
i 5 a soll > i * 268 Sy ae y wires = Py ma Gee, a 


1848. | Meteorie Iron from the Kurruckpore hills. 539 


He added in conversation that the gentleman who first obtaimed it 
was an Indigo planter, but omitting to note his name, I have not been 
able to make further enquiry as to any traditions about it. Captain 
Sherwill also mentioned that there are native forges in the vicinity, but 
he has sent us some of their ores, which are common brown iron ore, 
and of their smelted masses, which are quite different from the speci- 
men, and this would not have been worshipped. without some very special 
reason for it. Our mass is also, to say nothing of its physical and 
chemical properties, of a size and weight far beyond what any native 
forge could produce, at a cast, and moreover, is most certainly not cast 
iron. Nevertheless before submitting it to the scientific world as 
meteoric iron, we are bound to omit no proof direct or collateral, that it 
is really and truly such, and this will be, I trust, my excuse, if thought 
prolix. 

I proceed now to describe our specimen, noting in parallel columns 
coincidences from Mr. Mornay’s description of the great Brazilian mass, 
(Mornay and Wollaston, in Phil. Trans. Vol. CVI. for 1816,) Pallas’ 
description of the mass of Siberian iron, which is now known to be 
meteoric, from the French edition of his voyages, (Vol. VI. p. 346, and 
following,) and from several descriptions and notes on meteoric iron, 
from various sources in the Quarterly Journal of Science, which I shail 


note as I proceed. 


I.—E external appearance. 


Our specimen is a block of a 
somewhat conical, oviform disk- 
shape, standing, as it were, on a 
sort of foot, as in the plates,* but 
it must be supported by a block of 
wood not to fall forward. It is 
slightly truncated at both ends. 
Its colour is, in some parts, mostly 
at the more prominent knots and 
bosses, a chesnut brown, in others 
and in the numerous cellular cavi- 
ties with which it is in many places 
honey-combed, it is more of a dark 
iron-slag colour. Generally it re- 
sembles in colour a mass of some 
of the more compact brown iron 


The mass of upwards of 3000ibs. 
in weight from the banks of the 
Red River, Louisiana, and now in 
the New York Institution, is de- 
scribed as ‘shape irregular, inclin- 
ing to oviform, much broader at 
bottom, where it has rested on the 
earth, than at the top, mclinmg 
somewhat in the manner of a cone,” 
Quarterly Journal, Vol. IX. p. 193. 

Mr. Mornay’s description and 
drawing of the Brazilian mass gives 
also a sort of foot on which it stands 
as well asa tail behind. He says 
also that the foot is about six 
inches in height; colour of the 


* Plate XXIX. is a perspective view of it, Plate XXX. are vertical and hori- 


zontal sections to scale. 


4B 


540, 


ores than anything I can liken it to ; 
but they are rarely or never honey- 
combed. Small water-worn speci- 
mens of this last named mineral 
sometimes are so, and one of these 
magnified, or a huge lump of dark 
coloured ferruginous Kunkur, gives 
one the best mineralogical notion of 
the appearance of our large speci- 
men. If seen in the bed of a tor- 
rent it would indeed have been 
thought a mass of water-worn iron- 
stone, if no accidental friction had 
shown its bright metallic streak, 
which is apparent upon the slight- 
est scratch ; except at the few sco- 
riaceous parts. 

When closely examined there are 
seen to be parts which are evident- 
ly more scoriaceous and cellular in 
appearance than others. Ina very 
few places minute fragments or 
patches of a yellow and reddish or 
orange-coloured felspar or sand- 
stone-like mineral, with a_ slight 
gold-coloured lustre in a strong 
light, are found imbedded and evi- 
dently fused in, with the scoriaceous 
part ; sometimes having a very little 
green glassy mineral hke broken 
bottle glass fused around or close 
to them; both are highly brittle, 
and in such minute quantities, and 
so imbedded in the mass that it is 
only by careful poring over it with 
a magnifier that they are detected ; 
and it is impossible to do more 
than to obtain minute blowpipe 
fragments, from which it however 
appears clearly that the glass is 
Olivine, being just fusible on the 
edges, and first discolouring, and 
then so far disintegrating as to fall 
to pieces when touched, after two 
or three days’ digestion in muriatic 
acid; which then gives the reac- 
tion of peroxide of iron.* The 


Description and Analysis of a large mass of 


[Nov. 


Brazilian specimen that of a ches- 
nut, but with thick flakes of oxide 
below. 

The glossy surfaces of his block 
are not smooth, but slightly in- 
dented all over, as if hammered 
with a rather large round-headed 
hammer. 

The Siberian specimen, Pallas 
thinks, was originally covered with 
a rough ferruginous (oxided ?) crust 
which had been broken off to obtain 
pieces of it. 

The brown colour of the sur- 
face of the block is merely a very 
thin coat of rust, for the slightest 
scratch with a knife produces a 
bright metallic streak.—Pauuas’ 
VOYAGE. 


* The olivine of meteoric stones does not gelatinise like that of basalt and other 
volcanic specimens, (See Vol. XIII. of Journal, p. 884, Examination of the Kandeish 
Aerolite.) Specimens are too small and scarce for us to ascertain what this is owing to. 


1848.] Meteoric Iron from the Kurruckpore hills. 54] 


yellow sandstone-looking miner- 
al when digested in muriatic acid 
loses its colour, and the acid gives 
traces of iron. The mineral is 
then a compact dead white-co- 
loured mass, like milk-quartz, and 
before the blowpipe it proves to be 
quartz without any trace of alumina 
or magnesia. 

The lower or foot part of the 
specimen is much more corroded 
than the upper part (as if it had 
oxidated more rapidly by lyimg on 
the damp ground?) In some of 
the cavities a lining of a pitchy 
lustre is to be detected, but this 
does not appear to be the remains 
of nests of crystals, as in the Bra- 
zilian and Siberian specimens. 

Our mass having laid apparently 
in an exposed situation in a bun- 
galow, has yet many specks of 
white-wash upon it, which will not 
scrub off, and as to use an acid 
would [I fear alter the fair appear- 
ance of the specimen, I have thus 
preferred to allow them to remain. 


II.—Dimensions, Weight, &c. 


The dimensions of this mass of 
iron taken with callipers, are as 


follows : 

Inches 
Extreme length,.......... 15 
Extreme breadth, ........ 122 


Greatest thickness from the 
foot to the bosses at the 
vertex, ... 92 
Average thickness, exclud- 


ing the foot, about...... 84 
Thickness at the small end; 53 
Breadth at the small end, . . 74 
Diameter of the foot, which 

is somewhat circular,.... 72 
Diameter of the foot at the 

|. (eee 6 
Foot de from the lower 

part about . AUR ND area 14 


4p 2 


542 


Its weight, carefully taken for 
me by Mr. Laidlay, in a good ba- 
lance, is 1 factory maund, and 36 
seers, or 1563 ths. English. I have 
cut off a small piece, and Captain 
Sherwill told me he had taken a 
piece or two, besides the one he 
first sent down, so that altogether 
its original weight must have been 
close upon 160 tbs. English. 


Description and Analysis of a large mass of 


[ Nov. 


The weight of the Elbogen mass 
of Meteoric Iron in the cabinet of 
the Emperor of Austria at Vienna, 
is 141 tos. German, or 174 Tbs. 
English. 


III.—Internal Structure and Appearance. 


I have not yet been able to de- 
tect in our specimen any decided 
crystals. On one splinter I cer- 
tainly found a erystallized facet, 
and traces of them are to be seen 
frequently, but nothing sufficiently 
distinct for us to speak of it as 
bemg crystallised ; however, this 
may exist, and be partially des- 
troyed by the violent action of 
separating any fragments from the 
mass. 

When a portion of the metallic 
part is broken or cut off, it is of a 
bright platina-white colour, and 
when polished and acted upon by 
a dilute acid, it exhibits the damask 
watering known to be a character- 
istic of meteoric iron. Its frac- 
ture may be called very sharply 
uneven, and cellular, exactly resem- 
bling that of a tough rod or bar, 
of iron which has been torn 
asunder; and it almost pricks the 
fingers upon handling it rough- 
ly. It is full of small cellular 
cavities, which give it almost. a 
spongy appearance in some places. 


Pallas, p. 350, says of the Sibe- 
rian mass that,— 

The crust beg taken off, the 
rest of the mass is a soft iron, 
white at the fractures and full of 
holes like a coarse sponge, and he 
goes on to describe the olivine with 
which the cavities of it were filled. 

The Santa Rosa and other masses 
are also described by Bossingault, 
(Quarterly Journal Science, Vol. 
17, p. 395,) as cellular and with- 
out a vitreous coatmg—malleable, 
of a granular structure and easily 
giving way to the file; of a silvery 
aspect, and of Sp. Grav. 7.3. Ano- 
ther mass at Santa Rosa is de- 
scribed as cellular, very hard to the 
file, malleable, of a silvery aspect, 
and of a fracture resembling tilted 
cast steel. Another mass is said 
to have exhibited small facets in 
its fracture, malleable and of a sil- 
very lustre. 

The damasking appearance is 
stated in the Quarterly Journ. 
Vol. 5, p. 372, (upon what autho- 
rity is not given) to have been first 
pomted out in Germany, and to 
have been found in all the well 
known specimens of meteoric iron, 
as well as in the grains found in 
meteoric stones, but as not to be 
found in some of doubtful origin. 


1848.] 


Meteoric Iron from the Kurruckpore hills. 


043 


1V.— Magnetism. 


I have not been able to detect 
any thing approaching to polarity 
im our mass. It attracts lke 
common iron both ends of the nee- 
dle indifferently. 


V.—Hardness, 


It is by no means hard, being 
readily indented or flattened at the 
bosses like any soft iron, and yield- 
ing easily to the file. It is how- 
ever of extraordinary and almost 
incredible toughness, so that, while 
it yields to the cold chisel, or steel 
wedges, to a certain extent, it is 
half a day’s work for a native car- 
penter with steel wedges to cut off 
a small piece from the metallic 
part. In the few scoriaceous parts 
pieces are much more easily de- 
tached, but when these are pulve- 
rised, the grains and minute por- 
tions of the metallic iron amongst 
them, are beaten into tough fiat 
disks. 

It has been found by Messrs. 
Jessop and Co. to forge easily at 
a moderate heat and a forged piece 
is exhibited. 


Dr. Wollaston failed also to find 
any polarity in Mr. Mornay’s 
fragments. 


Toughness, §c. 
I had provided myself with a 


sledge hammer, and tools for cut- 
ting off some specimens of the 
iron, but it was with the utmost 
difficulty, I could detach the few 
small pieces which you have seen. 
— Mornay. 

Though Pallas in the preced- 
ing page, (that is, his French trans- 
lator) has, as just quoted, called 
the iron soft (doux), he now says 
in the next page, 351, using the 
words dur and compacte to express 
tenacity and toughness, that, The 
iron is so hard and compact (dur 
et compacte),* that three or four 
smiths have employed ten and 
twelve men with steel wedges, and 
sledge hammers to cut off a piece, 
which weighed at most two pounds. 
In one instance only did they suc- 
ceed in cutting off a piece, which 
weighed about a pood, (36 tbs. 
English.) 


Remarks on the foregoing physical characters. 


Amongst these the shape of our Aerolite is certainly the most notice- 


able, and we are at first sight much puzzled to account for the foot-like 
appendage, which, as was naturally enough at that time supposed by Mr. 
Mornay in the Brazilian mass, we are inclined hastily to suppose a ramug 
or branch attaching it formerly to some larger mass. 
however showed for his specimen by digging under it, that there was no 


Mr. Mornay 


mass or vein to which it could have been attached, and improved che- 

mical research now satisfies us that there is no terrestrial native iron 

which contains Nickel and Chromium, and on this conclusion we rest 

in addition to other collateral evidence for the meteoric origin of our’s. 
But the foot still remains to puzzle us. 


* The proper words are fenace, tenacite. 
prop , 


544 Description and Analysis of a large mass of [ Nov. 


We first attribute it to the more rapid oxidation of the part in con- 
tact with the soil, but the legend says it was dug out of the ground ; so 
that while it was imterred, if it was altogether so, the whole would have 
been equally subject to oxidation. When dug out and placed as an 
object of worship it probably was kept under cover ; but the expression 
and the account are altogether too vague to serve us as data from which 
to deduce conclusions. It is doubtless possible (though but remotely 
so) that the foot may have been formed by the gradual oxidation of the 
lower part, yet this we should think—supposing the mass to have been 
originally an egg-shaped lens, and as compact below as above—would 
have gone on equallly over the whole of the lower surface, instead of 
one part of it, and also at the large end (at c in Plate I.) but it has not 
done this at all, and so, unless we also suppose unequal tendency to 
oxidation, this process does not satisfactorily account for its present 
shape, and this moreover, we cannot fairly suppose, because at present 
the foot is as hard and as metallic as any other part. One supposition 
only remains, 1. e. that there might have been more of the scoriaceous 
or earthy parts below, which have separated in time from the mass, and 
the traces of these parts are,it is true, more frequent below and at 
the rim of the disk than on the upper part. Yet this is very poor aid 
to prove that there ever was so much more of it, as this supposition 
demands, and it seems now as little liable to oxidation and decomposi- 
tion as any other part, and if we admit this fully, still we have the ques- 
tion of why the metallic nucleus (for such it would then be) has assum- 
ed this shape ? which is in fact coming back to our original enquiry. 

I think one way of accounting for it may be this— 

If we suppose a ball of semi-fluid matter (whether rendered so from 
heat or otherwise) to fall vertically to the earth’s surface without break- 
ing into fragments, such a mass would, it is clear, form a circular and 
lenticular disk, which would be more or less flattened at the lower sur- 
face; for the motion of the mass would be then derived from a single 
force, the earth’s attraction, and the resistance would meet it in a line 
directly opposed to that motion. 

But if we supposed our semi-fluid mass to fall in any line deviating 
from the vertical, as in one for example like that of the arrow in Plate 
X XIX, we have then altogether anew state of things ; forhereare first two 
forces in the mass, the vertical (from attraction) and the projectile force, 


1848. | Meteoric Iron from the Kurruckpore hills. | 545 


and then the resistance of the earth, which no longer meets the other 
forces in their direct path. If we next suppose the mass to fall diago- 
nally upon a tolerably soft soil—and our mass, if semi-fluid, must have 
done this, for if it had fallen upon a hard one it would have been broken 
to pieces, unless indeed it fell in a solid state from the heavens, which 
we do not assume*—we can suppose it also to be driven into the 
earth for a certain distance till the vertical part of the force was ex- 
hausted, but during this process the projectile force would, particularly 
for the part above ground, be urging forward the remainder of the mass, 
so as upon its final cooling to produce a disk somewhat like what we 
see in our specimen, and place the centre of gravity somewhere in a 
line about that which I have marked at a. 6. in Plate XXIX. 

In the course of this cooling we might also find that one part of the 
mass, being more rapidly cooled by the contact of the earth, would be 
more porous, which our mass is ; and that the lower and front part of 
it (the front part in relation to its supposed motion) might be drawn 
out into a ridge-like prominence, which 7s the case with our specimen 
also ; and I have marked this ridge, which however is sharper and better 
defined than there shown, in the vertical section at 2. in Plate XXX. 

With means at command it might perhaps be possible, as by project- 
ing a ball or mass of softened fusible metal on a yielding soil at various 
angles, to test the truth of all this, which I beg to be understood as 
submitting as a mere theory, but even if we were to obtain a solid some- 
what in the form of our specimen, we should merely thereby increase 
the probabilities that this was really the cause of its assuming this shape; 
for, after all, its original form may have been nearly what we see it, and 
upon the hypothesis of these bodies being origmally projected from the 
Lunar Volcanoes, we may suppose it to be a huge lava-dropt detached 
from some mass of botryoidal concretions, and blown into the sphere 
of the earth’s attraction. The coincidence of our mass with the Brazilian 
one in having a foot (though it wants the tail which Mr. Mornay deli- 
neates) is too remarkable to be passed over. I have been unable to 


* There are instances of stony Aerolites being found in a soft state immediately 
after their fall, but Ido not recollect any of the metallic ones being so found. 
Nevertheless we may fairly assume that, as less heat is required, the probabilities are 
that they also fall in a semi-fluid state. 

T A French writer would have a better word, ‘‘ une larme de lave,’”’ or lava tear. 


546 Description and Analysis of a large mass of [Nov. 


find a copy of Bongainville’s voyage, and to consult Boussingault’s work, 
if they give any description of the forms of the masses noticed by them ; 
and it is one of the great difficulties which all colonial research labours 
under, that we are either wholly deprived of references or can find only 
the brief and abridged notices to which scientific periodicals are neces- 
sarily limited, and which for some part of the matter in hand are wholly 
insufficient for our purpose. 

Since this was written I find in the Quarterly Journal of Science, 
Vol. 12 for 1822, p. 330, an account of some meteoric stones, one of 
which fell in Courland, on the banks of the Kolupschen Lake in the 
presence of some labourers, and was hot enough to burn their hands 
when they touched it. It is said to have penetrated a foot and a half 
into a dense dry clayey loam, and that its shape when entire resembled 
a rounded anvil, of which the narrow end was undermost. This is 
not very explicit, but it serves to show that there may be a tendency to 
these elongated anvil-like forms either with or without afoot. The 
Chinese give all manner of fantastic names to the stones recorded in 
their annals to have fallen from the heavens, of which some it is known 
are iron, such as “ anvils, hammers, nails, hatchets, &c.’’ and our own 
name of thunderdolé and the German Donneraxt (Thunder-axe) seem 
related to this sort of popular record of these phenomena. 

I put any classical conjecture with diffidence, but a curious question 
arises here. Is this falling of anvil-shaped masses from heaven (in the 
case of our Indian specimen, and the Brasilian and Courland ones too, 
they are of iron) the parent source of the myth of the Lemnian Vulean’s 
bemg hurled from heaven by Jupiter on the island of Lemnos? where 
the anvil-God was “ received’’ by the Sintians? as described by Homer, 
Book I. 1. 593. 

Kdrmecov év Anuve odrtyos 6éTt buds ev7jve 
“EvOa wé Sivties &vdpes &pap Kouloavto,wecdvT a. 

Literally, 

‘Till upon Lemnos I fell, and but little of breath was remaining, 
When of the Sintian men I was received, at_my falling.”’ 

The paraphrase of Pope being inexact I do not quote it. The little 
of breath (6uuds life, soul, ardour, &c.) may well be understood as the 
mythic amplification of the original fact that the Vulcan (the meteoro- 
lite) was nearly cold when he reached the ground and was approached ; 


Fy 


1848. | Meteoric Iron from the Kurruckpore hills. 547 


and certes, our Indian Sintians of the Kurruckpore hills, ‘‘ received”’ 
and comforted their Godling, in the worship they paid to him, and 
perhaps also have their legend and myth respecting him, if we could only 
obtain it ? More than one of these wonderful bodies were worshipped by 
the ancients and have been even held to be personifications of the heathen 
divinities. The thunderstone in Crete, regarded as the symbolof Cybele ; 
the Ancyle or sacred shield of Numa, and “the mother of the Gods” 
at Pessinus, are all cases which will readily occur as fortifying my 
conjecture (see Art. Meteorolites, Ure’s Dict. &c.) Cicero (De Natura 
Deorum, Lib. III. par. XXIII.) describes four well known Vulcans ; 
the Athenian, Egyptian, Lemnian and Menalian or Liparian Vulcans. 


Chemical Examination. 


The examination of the siliceous specks and olivine I have already 
described. 
The specific gravity of a small specimen of the metallic part, 

carefully chosen to avoid cavities, was, .............--. 6. 76 
Meeeeenc eravity of the forged bit 18): .)...<..+d.6.000-b 4. Ol 
RMSE sca. ao so1 25s) hs ae irre eetains nh vies ah impel fe ols, 9h wr5 im beagiee 4. 03 

I have satisfied myself by repeated ati careful examination that our 
Specimen contains 


Tron, 
Nickel, 
Cobalt, 
\ Chromium, 
Silica, 
Alumina, 
and traces of Arsenic and Selenium. 

But these again are most variable in their presence and amount, so 
that no two assays will give like results, and thus the whole contradict- 
ing each other, as it were, renders it 1mpossible to give a quantititative 
analysis either of the metallic or the scoriaceous parts in any degree 
satisfactory. 

I estimate therefore from several trials that the metallic part con- 
tains about 


4c 


548 Description and Analysis of a large mass of [Nov. 


Whetallie. WOU aren: Terme ante Mes ocala Od Sie en 
Lea <n er ik ses Sane Sheeler ie als edict eet Sea ec Sy eid oy BQ 
Ailnnaing. ante, [jose 1: \ Spates a etots bn a iecay} wide ata lL. 50 


100. 00 
With traces of Arsenic. 
The Scoriaceous part 

BTEC MIR 7c ce ARO SM ROO reg 77. 00 
Rel EP ei HR RL 0 MRE A RRC AMR SE ive 
RENO. i) a:fern ose) no aati e «eR ae. a oleae 
Cee te Me So's sacs bah ce calla cel BRR a sass cS o.20 
Nickel... ae Ce aes Ag ME a AO ease a a a L. 
Chromitim;,. |... :'s Sree hes Ped, coe 50 


Arsenic ang ‘Selemiuwy,. 6.4 c:0:m, 2.00, debe tie eee Traces. 

It seems at first sight to be treating the subject loosely to give only 
these approximate quantities, but it was only after long and repeated 
and most careful work that I could be satisfied of what I have above an- 
nounced, and that it was wholly impossible to take any one analysis as 
representing the average constituent parts of the specimen; but I do not 
regret my labour, for it enables us to explain how it is that chemist after 
chemist in Europe, and these men of the first talent, have successively 
differed in their results, or have found new products, such as the Chro- 
mium, in the same specimen in which others had failed to detect it. It 
is evident to me that they obtained assays from different parts of the 
specimen* and have thus differed, as I again and again found I did from 
myself, tomy no small surprise and perplexity. 

And philosophically considered this is what (so to speak) should 
really occur, for if we admit these meteorites to be revolving round us 
as their primary, and thus to be, for us, a sort of satellites, we might 
jmagine that if the earth, when zé too was an incandescent asteroid had 
fallen, like our specimen, in upon some huge siderial primary, and had 
been there ‘‘ examined and reported upon” that a chip from about the 


* And indeed this is a matter almost of course. The small specimens brought 
from foreign countries and the minute fragments obtained from great museums as 
special favours must all have been very imperfect averages of the whole of any large 
mass. 


1848. | Meteoric Iron from the Kurruckpore hills. 549 


Cape of Good Hope might have given different results from a splinter 
off Cape Comorin ; and a knob from one of the Andes, with a vein of 
silver in it, might differ widely from a fragment of Madagascar or Sibe- 
ria or Sussex. When our specimen was an incandescent spheroid (as- 
suming it to have once been so), the scoriaceous and purely metallic 
parts may have made spots and districts on the nucleus as marked as 
the various formations of our globe. 


In the examination of both I find a minute portion of the insoluble 
residuum described by Boussingault, (Journal of Science, Vol. 17. p. 
395,) which is in the form of a black dense granular powder,* and in 
ours is wholly insoluble in nitro-muriatic acid, and even fusion in caustic 
potass alone has very little effect upon it. The only menstruum which 
will properly act upon it, being a mixture of caustic and nitrate of 
potass, which by long fusion dissolves out the chromium as a chromate 
of potass, when the powder is first carefully pulverised, and the heat 
kept very high. By the blowpipe the chromium is readily detected by 
microcosmic salt on the platina wire, the iron separating as a metallic 
bead, and the assay bead remaining dull from the silica in the compound. 
It appears to be a silico-chromate of iron, but with such minute assays 
it is impossible to say more at present of such a refractory compound 
than that it contains silica, iron and chromium, the silica and iron being 
in large proportions and the chromium in a very small one. It may 
possibly be a siliceous sub-chromate of iron ? 


With reference to the presence of the arsenic (which was distinctly 
ascertained by Marsh’s process), and to what I have said above as to 
the successive oversights of first-rate chemists, the following extract 
from a notice of M. Walchner entitled “Observations on the general 
distribution of copper and arsenic” in the Comptes Rendus Septembre, 
1846, which I take from the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 
may not be out of place. 


After affirming the presence of copper and arsenic in many iron ores, 
mineral springs, soils, rocks, &c. the author goes on to say,— 
“It now remained to demonstrate that these metals were equally 


* I think also so described by some other chemist, but I cannot now find the 
reference. 


4c2 


550 The Aborigines of Central India. [Nov 


contained in meteoric iron ores,* my first experiments were made on 
the meteoric iron of Pallas, well known and repeatedly analysed by 
distinguished chemists, and in reality I have found in it both copper 
and arsenic, algo in the Mexican meteoric iron of Yuanhuitlan, near to 
Oaxaca, brought home by my colleague M. Sommerschu principal 
engineer of mines; in a meteoric iron from Tennessee described by M_ 
Troost in Silliman’s Journal ; and finally ina fragment of the great mass 
of meteoric iron, deposited in the museum of Natural History of Yale 
College in Connecticut. Consequently it is not only at the surface of 
the earth that iron is mixed with copper and arsenic, but also in the 
solid portions of other celestial bodies.” 

Copper I have as yet failed to detect in our meteorite, but I should 
be far from affirming that it does not exist im it. 

H. Prppineron. 


The Aborigines of Central India.—By B. H. Honeson, Esq. 


At the close of last year I had the honour to submit to the Society 
a summary view of the affinities of the sub-Himilayan aborigines. I 
have now the honour to submit a similar view of the affinities of the 
aborigines of Central India. The extra copies of the former paper 
which were sent to me by the Society I forwarded to Colonels Ouseley, 
and Sleeman, to Major Napleton, Mr. Elliot of Madras, and other gen- 
tlemen, with a request that they -would get the vocabulary filled up 
from the languages of the several aborigines of their respective neigh- 
bourhoods. The three former gentlemen have obligingly attended to 
my wishes, and I am assured that Mr. Elhot also is busy with the work. “ 
Of the seven languages which I now forward the comparative vocabu- 
lary of, the three first came from Chyebossa, where Colonel Ouseley’s 
Assistant, Capt. Haughton prepared them; the 4th and 5th direct from 
Col. Ouseley himself at Chota Nagpur ; the 6th from Bhaugalpur pre- 


* M. Rammler of Vienna has found the arsenious acid in the peridot of the meteo- 
ric iron of Pallas (Pogg. Annal, 1840, No. 4.) 


1848. | The Aborigines of Central India. 551 


pared by the Rev. Mr. Hurder; and the 7th from Jabbalpur where 
Colonel Sleeman’s principal assistant drew it up for me. 

The affinities of these tongues are very striking, so much so that the 
five first may be safely denominated dialects of the great Kol language ; 
and through the Uraon speech we trace without difficulty the further 
connexion of the language of the Kdles with that of the “ hill men” of 
the Rajmahal and Bhaugalpur ranges. Nor are there wanting oblious 
links between the several tongues above enumerated—all which we may 
class under the head Kél—and that of the Génds of the Vindhia whose 
speech again has been lately shown by Mr. Elliot to have much resem- 
blance both in vocables and structure to the cultivated tongues of the 
Deccan. Thus we are already rapidly approaching to the realization of 
the hypothesis put forth in my essay on the Koch, Bodo and Dhimél, 
to wit, that all the Tamulians of India have a common fountain and 
origin, like all the Arians; and that the innumerable diversities of 
spoken language characterising the former race are but the more or less 
superficial effects of their long and utter dispersion, and segregation, 
owing to the savage tyranny of the latter race in days when the rights 
of conquest were synonymous with a license to destroy, spoil and en- 
slave. That the Arian population of India descended into it about 3000 
years ago from the north-west, as conquerors, and that they completely 
subdued all the open and cultivated parts of Hindostan, Bengal and 
the most adjacent tracts of the Deccan* but failed to extend their effec- 
tive sway and colonization further south, are quasi historical deductionst 
confirmed daily more and more by the results of ethnological research. 
And we thus find an easy, and natural explanation of the facts that in 
the Deccan, where the original tenants of the soil have been able to hold 
together in possession of it, the aboriginal languages exhibit a deal of 
integrity and refinement, whilst in the north, where the pristine popu- 
lation has been hunted mto jungly and malarious recesses, the aborigi- 
nal tongues are broken into innumerable rude and shapeless fragments. 
Nevertheless those fragments may yet be brought together by large and 
careful induction; for modern ethnology has actually accomplished 


* Telingana, Gajerat and Maharashtra, or the Maratta country. 
+ Brachmanes nomen gentis diffusissimee cujus maximapars in montibus (Ariana 
Cabul) degit, reliqui circa Gangem. Cell Geogr. 


552 The Aborigines of Central India. [ Nov. 


elsewhere yet more brilliant feats than this, throwing upon the great 
antihistoric movements of natious a light as splendid as useful. But, if 
I hold forth, before hand, the probable result of this investigation in 
the shape of a striking hypothesis in order to stimulate the pains-tak- 
ing accumulator of facts, and even intimate that our present materials 
already offer the most encouraging earnest of success, I trust that the 
whole tenour and substance of my essay on the Koch, Bédo and Dhi- 
mal will suffice to assure all candid persons that I am no advocate for 
sweeping conclusions from insufficient premises, and that I desire to see 
the ethnology of India conducted upon the most extended scale, with 
careful weighing of every available item of evidence that is calculated 
to demonstrate the unity,* or otherwise, of the Tamulian race. 


* This unity can of course only touch the grander classifications of language, and 
be analogous to that which aggregates, for example, Sanscrit, Greek, Teutonic and 
Celtic. , 


553 


of Central India. 


wgines 0 


The Abor 


1848.] 


Tyoer9g 
DIV 
oyor yf 
voy 

é pueptoy 
H Y01g 
Tpped 
ILA 
yey 
Suvqoy 
H ey0g 
eM 

H md 
ur 

SI 

OMB AL 
query 
afdX 
{OTN 

§ meqq 
TAvyy 
ren 
N1eq 
Bary 
qeArrogq 
ela 
ede 
Biv 
9300q 
11978 NT 
9341 
amnyedtp 
ayqeg 
Bir vqueg 
"1puUoy *L 


OAV 
931V 

H 491 
Bay 

H O10) 
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sty 
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nsag 
TRL 
919 
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dug 
UIT 
aqory.) 
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gue xy 
HV 
uediry 
T1931 
Aemyoy yy 
Airy 

H 9uld 
axe 
10 
93.19G 
suri 
eqo0yy 
H 948N 
ns9y 
Ind 
req) 
19d 
ouder ‘Ae 
‘yoyouloy “9 


“‘nIpUuy pouzuay fo sabonhun) youbiuogpy ayz fo havjngno0y aaynundwog 


2 BSIVIAT 
eS 
ueygie yy 
bare 


Pe 
H vo 
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myyT 

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qn 
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1848. | Fragments of the history of Mooltan. 559 


Fragments of the history of Mooltan, the Derajdt, and Buhawulpoor, 
Srom Persian MSS.* By Lieut. R. MacuaGan. 


1. Account of the arrival at Mooltan of Mulik Sohrab, Doddéee 
Beléch, with Ismael Khan and Futteh Khan, his sons, and of Hdjee 
Khan and Ghizee Khan, from the country of -Kéch Mekrin: and the 
foundation of the Derapit. 

It is related in the history called Huft Goolshun, that in the year 
874 H. (A. D. 1469,) Sooltan Hoossein, son of Sooltan Kootub-ood-deen, 
upon the death of the latter, obtained the government of Mooltan. 
He held the forts of Shér and Chuneewut, Kot Kuror, and Deen Kot. 
Sheikh Yoosoof, who had been removed from the government of Mool- 
tan on the appointment of Kootub-ood-deen, came to Sooltan Beldl 
Lodee, governor of Delhi, and earnestly entreated his assistance. The 
Sooltan sent his eldest son, Bareek Shah, with a well appointed force. 
As soon as the Delhi troops appeared before Mooltan, Sooltan Hoossein 
issued to oppose them, and a battle ensued. Bareek Shah was dis- 
comfited and returned to Delhi. 

It was at this time that Mulik Sohrab, of the iat Dodaee, along 
with Ishmael Khan and Futteh Khan, his sons, and others of their 
tribe, arrived from Kech Mekran,+ and entered the service of Sooltan 
Hoossem. As the hill robbers were then becoming very troublesome 
im (the province of) Mooltan, Sultan Hoossein rejoiced in the opportune 
arrival of Mulik Sohrab, and assigned to him the tenure of the country 
from the fort of Kurér to Deen Két. On this becoming known, many 
Beloches came from Kech Mekran to the service of the Sooltan. The 
lands, cultivated and waste, along the banks of the Indus were assigned 
to the Beloches, and the royal revenue began to increase. The old 
inhabitants of Dera Ghazee Khan and Mooltan relate that after Mulik 


* These MSS. were obtained at Buhawulpoor in January, 1846. I have only one 
of them in the original now with me. The other I translated at the time, and have 
no means now of revising. 

T Sir J. Malcolm mentions (Centr. Ind. II. 175), that mercenaries used to come 
annually from Mekran to Central India for service. Are there Beloches there now ? 


560 Fragments of the history of Mooltan. | Nov. 


Sohrab’s arrival, Hajee Khan with his son Ghazee Khan, and many of 
their kindred and tribe, came from Kech Mekran to enter the service of 
the Sooltan. 

When the tracts along the Indus were in the hands of Mulik Sohrab 
and Hajee Khan, Mulik Sohrab founded a Déra named after Ishmael 
Khan, and Hajee Khan another with the name of Ghazee Khan. 

During the lax and indolent rule of Muhmood, the grandson of Sool- 
tan Hoossei, Ghazee Khan seized the greater part of the dependencies 
of Mooltan and assumed the government. On the death of Ghazee 
- Khan, his son Hajee Khan succeeded to the same extent of authority, 
and, taking advantage of the weakness of the government of Hindoo- 
stan,* took possession of several districts on the Indus, towards the 
south, and became independent. His successors, each on the death of 
his father, took the name of his own grandfather,—being thus Ghajee 
Khan and Hajee Khan alternately. 

When Mohummud Hoomayoon Badshah reigned at Delhi, and the 
countries of the Punjab, Mooltan and Sindh came into the hands of 
the Chooghutta princes, Ghazee Khan the 5th, having come and pre- 
sented himself before the above named Badshah, and made presents, 
obtained the Déra, (Ghaézee Khan) and its dependencies in jageer: the 
charge of these districts and of all their affairs being committed to 
him. In like manner throughout the Chéghtaee supremacy, the jageer 
above named was secured to his family in regular succession. 

In the year 1152 H. (A. D. 1739,) Nadir Shah fought and con- 
quered Mohummud Shah, emperor of Hindoostan. Mohummud Shah 
resigned to Nadir Shah the fort of Attok, and other places to the 
north and west; also Mooltan, the Derajat, the country of Sindh, and 
Cabul.+ When, consequent on this, the Badshah, with the design of 


* Now under Ibrahim Lodee. 

+ The act of cession is thus given by Hauway in his history of Nadir Shah— 
after preface :— 

‘‘The ministers of the Sultan, who is merciful, and the emperor, who is august, 
formerly sent ambassadors to us to treat of certain demands with which it was our 
purpose to comply. The ambassador, Mahommed Khan Turkuman, not long since 
arrived here from Kandahar to remind us thereof; but our ministers having 
delayed the embassador and postponed answering the letters of his sublime majesty, 
it at length produced such a misunderstanding between us, that his victorious army 


1848. | Fragments of the history of Mooltan. 561 
marching upon Sindh, came from Déra Ismael Khan and arrived at 


came into Hindostan. We encountered in the fields of Karnal, where victory arose 
in the east of his undeclining fortune. 
* * * * 2 * * 

‘‘ But in regard to the illustrious family of Jurghin,* and the honor he professes 
for the original tree of Turkan, out of the greatness of his soul, and the overflow- 
ings of his humanity, he has been pleased to restore to us the crown and gem of 
Hindostan. 

“In consideration of this act of generosity, which no father has ever shown to a 
son, nor any brother to a brother, we make over to him all the countries to the 
west of the river Attok, and that of Scind, and Nala Sunkra, which is a branch of 
the Scind. That is to say Peishor with its territories; the principality of Cabul 
and Gasna; Hazarijat, the mountainous residences of the Afghans; with the 
castles of Buckhor, Sunkor,t and Khoudabad ; the passes, territories and abodes 
of the Tchoukis and Ballouchees, with the whole province of Tata: also the castle 
of Ram; the towns of Chun, Sumawali, and Ketra, with all the castles, towns, 
ports, villages, and open country, from the first rise of the river Attok, with all 
the country comprehended within its branches, till it empties itself into the sea at 
Nala Sunkra. 

‘‘ These we freely give up to the dominion of the powerful sovereign of Persia, 
and from henceforward our officers and subjects shall evacuate the same and resign 
the property and government to the Persian king, to be disposed of at his pleasure, 
We renounce all our right to command, controul, or collect revenues in any of 
these dominions. But the castle and town of Lohre Bunder, with all the country 
to the eastward of the river Attok, and of the waters of the Scind and Nala Sun- 
kra, shall, as before, belong to the empire of Hindostan. Dated at Shahjehanabad, 
the fourth of Mohorim, 1152.’’—Hist. of Nadir Shah, Chap. 11. 

There is no mention of Mooltan, which by the terms of the cession, as here 
given, is retained by the sovereign of Dehli. The meaning of the ‘‘ towns, &c. and 
open country from the first rise of the river Attok, with all the country compre- 
hended within its branches, is shown by the last paragraph to be restricted to the 
country west of the Indus. (Mill, II. 457), says ‘‘ part of Mooltan’’ was included 
in the ceded territory, but he seems to reckon it among the ‘‘ provinces west of the 
Indus.”’ Col. Tod, alluding to this cession, says Mooltan was surrendered, (I. 419). 
It will be seen from the 4th paper here translated that the Sobahdars of Mooltan 
were appointed from Delhi until 1767, 28 years after Nadir Shah’s invasion. The 
‘¢ Nala Sunkra, which isa branch of the Scind,’’ is generally considered to be the 
Goonee, which now falls into the Sindree lake, and the country to the west of which 
used to be called Sancara. May it not be the river now called Nala or Nara, which 
passes Alor, at one time an important branch, and perhaps the main channel of the 
Indus? Mr. Hanway has this note :—‘‘ Thisis sometimes called Nale Sengure, 


* This word is sometimes wrote Gourgan, + This is sometimes wrote Sekir. 


562 Fragments of the history of Mooltan. [ Nov. 


Déra Ghazee Khan,* Ghazee Khan the 10th, who lived at that time, 
having paid his respects to the Badshah, obtamed the royal favor, and 
was confirmed in the tenure of the Déra and its dependencies. On the 
death of this same Ghazee Khan without issue, in 1172, H., (A. D. 
1758,) none of his kindred and country succeeding to the govern- 
ment, they became dispersed in various directions. ‘The Déra and its 
dependencies accordingly lapsed to the sovereign of Cabul; and Maha- 
rajah Koura Mull} was appointed governor by Ahmed Shah. After 
this Meeén Gholam Shah obtained the government, which he held for 
16 years. 


which seems to be the island betweeen the Indus and what De Lisle calls the river 
Drintade.’’ 


* The occasion and route of this march upon Sindh are thus given by the autho- 
rity before quoted: ‘‘ After passing the Indus, he directed his march to Peishor, 
where he halted for some days. * * * * From thence, continuing his route 
towards Cabul, he detached Abdul Baki Khan, with five thousand horse, to receive 
homage from Khudayar Khan, governor of Pekier. (This country is to the south 
of Cabul on the Indus bordering upon Multan: I do not find it laid down by De 
Lisle. There are several forts, and strong places in it, such as Lokheri, Sekier, 
and Tekier. The people in this country are partly Mahommedans and partly Pagans). 
This Khan had refused to pay homage to Nadir, now sovereign of that country ; 
and collected a considerable body of forces to oppose the Persian army. * * * * 
Abdul Baki Khan soon arrived on the frontiers of this country, but was in no situ- 
ation to reduce Khudayar Khan by force. * * * * Abdul Baki informed the 
Shah of the circumstances he was in. Nadir being now near Kandahar sent his 
treasures and heavy baggage under a numerous convoy into that strong fortress, and 
then directed his course south-east through the country of Hazarijat. * * * * * 

‘** Assoon as Nadir arrived in the neighbourhood of Kbudaabad, the Indian Chief 
retired with his riches to Emir Kiout, a strong fort on the opposite side of the 
river Hest-nud, &c. &c.’’—Hist. of Nadir Shah, by Jonas Hanway, p. 393. 

One would think Nadir could scarcely have been near Kandahar at that time, and 
if he had, his course thence would not probably take him vid Déra Ismael Khan, 
as the MS. says. 

If Hanway’s note, given above in parenthesis, means that Roree was included in 
the country of which Nadir was ‘‘ now sovereign’? this would give grounds for 
supposing that the Nara is the boundary before alluded to. But no great import- 
ance is to be attached to his geographical notes of those regions. He is apparently 
quite unconscious that ‘‘ Pekier’’ and ‘‘ Sekier’’ are what he before gave as ‘‘ Buc- 
khor’’ and ‘‘ Sunkur, sometimes wrote Sekir.’’ 


+ He had been governor of Mooltan since 1746, and now received charge of 


Déra Ghazee Khan in addition. 


1848. ] Fragments of the history of Mooltan. 563 


In the reign of Tymoor Shah, first Zeman Khan Dooranee governed 
three years, then Mirza Khan Atukzye, 9 years; Sumundur Khan 
Badoozye, one year ; Saadut Khan, son of Mirza Khan, one year. 

In the reign of Zeman Shah, Asaad Khan, brother of Futteh Khan 
Barukzye, governed for two years ;—Sumud Khan Populzye, two years ; 
Sheikh Kumur-ood-deen, one year ; Ibrahim Khan Populzye, one year ; 
Sumud Khan, brother of Futteh Khan, three years ; Nuwab Abd-ool- 
jubar Khan, three years; Hubecb-oollah Khan Suddozye, two years ; 
Mohummud Zeman Khan Barukzye, three years.* 

In the reign of the Shahzadah Muhmood, Sumundur Khan, two 
years. 

Again, in the reign of his majesty Shooja-ool-Moolk Muhummud 
Zeman Khan Barukzye was governor of the Déra, when in the year 
1230 H., (A. D. 1814,) Maharaja Runjeet Singh took it from him, and 
conferred the tenure of that place, along with Hurand and Dajil, and 
the rest of its dependencies, on Mohummud Sadik Khan, (father of 
the present Nuwab of Buhawulpoor,) on an annual rental of 4 lakhs. 

A. D. 1831, in 1247, Runjeet Singh took into his own hands the 
district of Déra Ghazee Khan, and the rest of the country on that side 
of the river held by Nuwab Mohummud Buhawul Khan, and the 
administration was committed to General Ventura. He remained two 
years, and after him, Deewan Sanwun Mull was appointed Nazim. 

Mohummud Ruheem Khan, and Mohummud Yar Khan, of the family 
of Ghazee Khan, now live at Déra Ghazee Khan (1845). Only two 
wells (land) are granted to them for their subsistence. 

The Belochees having no royal house, have not been in the custom 
of making historical records from which details might be gathered, 
regarding the ancestors of Ghazee Khan. 

2.—Account of the attack of Huree Singh, Chunda Singh, and 
Gunda Singh, called Bhungee,+ on the estate of the Buhawulpoor 


* This gives a total of 17 years, but the reign of Zeman Shah was only of 7 
years’ continuance. Timoor Shah died in 1793, and Zeman Shah was dethroned 
by Muhmood, his brother, in 1800. Perhaps some of the first of these names 
should be transferred to the previous reign, and part of the three years of the last 
named governor may have extended into the reign of Muhmood. | 

7 Thus designated, I was informed, not from their being of the caste so named, 
but from a progenitor, a noted bhang eater. 


4k 


564 Fragments of the history of Mooltan. [Nov. 


government ; and the capture and occupation by these Sirdars, of 
Mooltan and its dependencies. 

From the ‘Jawaheer Abbaseeuh,’ containing a history of the Abbasee 
Khalifs, ancestors of the Buhawulpoor rulers,* and from well-informed 
aged individuals, we learn that in the year 1180 H., (A. D. 1766,) the 
above named Sirdars made a descent upon Kussoor, from the Gunghoora 
valley, and took much spoil, jewels, com, gold and silver. Encou- 
raged by their success, these chiefs looked to further conquest of coun- 
try and plunder, and many pergunnahs and estates in the Punjab, 
fell into their hands. In the same year, having arrived with a large 
force, on the further side of the river (Sutlej) opposite the fort of 
Moobarikpoor, in the Buhawulpoor country, which is 7 coss from the 
bank of the Sutle}, they prepared to invade the Buhawulpoor territory. 
The Khan, Mohummud Moobarik Khan, (great grandfather of the 
present Nuwab,) ordered his nephew and heir, Mohummud Buhawul 
Khan the 2d, to cross and oppose the Sirdars on the other side. An 
agreement was made that the country beyond Pak Puttun, on that side 
of the river, should remain in the possession of the Sirdars, and the 
country on the left bank of the Sutlej, as much as belonged to Mohum- 
mud Moobarik Khan, and the other Daoodpootra chiefs, should con- 
tinue as before, in their possession. 

In the year 1185, (A. D.1771,) Chunda Singh and Gunda Singh went 
again against Kussoor, in consequence of the complaints of the brahmans 
against the violence of the Afghans of that place. They destroyed 
Gurhee Abdoor Ruheem Khan, and took four lakhs of rupees fine from 
the zumeendars of Kussoor, Humeed Khan, and Othman Khan, Dow- 
lutzye. 

On hearing of the death of the victorious Ahmed Shah,—of the 
accession of 'Tymoor Shah, and the weakness of his rule, they hastened 
to subdue Mooltan; and ordered Mujja Singh, at the head of his forces» 
to attack and pillage Khaee and Sadoollapoor, and the surrounding 
places on that side of the river subject to Mooltan, and held by the 
Bhawulpoor government, and other Daoodpootra Khans. On this, 
Mohummud Moobarik Khan directed Mohummud Buhawul Khan, 
(afterwards his successor) to cross with the Daoodpootra chiefs and a 


* See ‘‘ Account of the origin of the Daid Putras, by Munshi Mohan Lal,’’ in 
the 7th Vol. of Journ. As. Soc. Bengal. 


1848. | Fragments of the history of Mooltan. 565 


select force, and oppose Mujja Singh on the other side. In this 
encounter several Daoodpootra chiefs were killed. On the other side 
many Singhs were killed and wounded. Mujja Singh himself was shot, 
and the rest fled. Mohummud Buhéwul Khan, after this victory, 
returned to Buhawulpoor. 

In the year 1186 H. (June 1772,) in the month Rubbee 1., Mohum- 
mud. Moobarik Khan died, without offspring, and Mohummud Buhawul 
Khan succeeded his uncle. 

At this time Hajee Shereef Suddozye was appointed Soobahdar of 
Mooltan by Tymoor Shah. His predecessor, Nuwab Shooja Khan, on 
bemg removed, went to Shoojdabad, his own jageer; and having ar- 
ranged his affairs there, came to Buhawulpoor, to consult Buhawul 
Khan about getting rid of Hajee Shereef Khan. The Nuwab after this 
returned to his own jageer. 

But Hajee Shereef Khan became careless in his government of Mool- 
tan, and did not remit the stipulated payments to the Badshah’s treasury. 
Having disagreed with Mirza Shereef Beg, who was appointed Tuhseel- 
dar, this Mirza went to the Durbar of Tymoor Shah, and, along with 
Lala Dhurm Das, merchant, mhabitant of Mooltan, brought the requir- 
ed amount of revenue and obtained the tenure of Mooltan. Hajee 
Shereef Khan, being displaced, took up his abode at Buhawulpoor. 
After some days, a difference arose between the two renters; Dhurm 
Das was shot by a servant of Shereef Beg, and the Mirza seized the 
effects of the murdered man. At length, having come to his senses, in 
dread of retaliation, and punishment by the Badsha, he secretly sent 
for Sirdars Chunda Singh and Gunda Singh, promising to deliver up to 
them the fort of Mooltan. The Sirdars, immediately on the receipt of 
the letter, perceiving the attainment of their object, marched with a 
large body of their forces from Umritsir, and came with the utmost 
expedition to Mooltan. 

Mirza Shereef Beg, to save his name, made a show of resistance by 
matcblock firing, and then fled to Tuloomba, 40 coss north of Mool- 
tan. Not considering himself safe there he came to Khyrpoor, in the 
Buhawulpoor territory, 24 coss eastward from Buhawulpoor. There he 
died. The Sirdars became masters of Mooltan and its dependencies, 
and oppressed and plundered the district of Shoojaabad. 

In 1190. (A. D. 1776,) Nuwab Shooja Khan died at Shoojdabad, 

4&2 


566 Fragments of the history of Mooltan. [Nov. 


and was succeeded by his son Nuwab Mozuffur Khan. At this time 
the Sirdars came from Mooltan with a design of plundering Shoojaabad ; 
but their purpose being defeated, they returned to Mooltan. Their army 
however spoiled the Shoojéabad district. In consequence of this, Nuwab 
Mozuffur Khan, in 1191 H. (A. D. 1777) came to Buhawulpoor, desiring 
the aid of Mohummud Buhawul Khan. The Khan also received an order 
from Tymoor Shah to expel the Singhs from Mooltan ; accordingly, tak- 
ing the Daoodpootra chiefs and a select army, came with Nuwab Mozuf- 
fur Khan to Mooltan, and laid siege to the city. After 23 days they 
gained admittance within the city wall by the wicket of Sheikh Rajee 
Goordézee on the west, and began to slaughter the Singhs and plunder 
the residents of the city. At this time the Sirdars were staying at 
Umritsir. The Kiladar of Mooltan, who had been placed there by the 
Sirdars, with a force, being unable to offer opposition, retired into the 
citadel, and sent a swift messenger with an account of the state of things, 
to the Sirdars. The Daoodpootra chiefs had taken much spoil, and 
without leave from the Khan had betaken themselves to their own 
homes, when Sirdar Gunda Singh, with a large force, came with all 
expedition from Umritsir, and engaging in battle, Buhawul Khan and 
Mozuffur Khan retired fighting to Shoojiabad. Thence, Buhawul 
Khan came to Buhawulpoor, and Mozuffur Khan remained in Shoojé- 
abad, sending daily accounts to Tymoor Shah, of the disturbances, and 
the tyrannical behaviour of the followers of Nanuk. The Badshah, on 
hearing of the overbearing conduct of the Singhs, ordered Sirdar Behroo 
Khan, with a proper force, experienced in war, to proceed and expel 
the Singhs from Mooltan. In 1192 H. he came to Mooltan and besieged 
the fort. The fort was nearly bemg taken, but Tymoor having occa- 
sion to be engaged in hostilities at Tooran, (the Toorkomans having 
extended their conquests to the very gates of Khorasan), Behroo Khan 
was recalled, and, raising the siege, he returned to Cabul. Tymoor’s 
operations at Tooran having ceased, Sirdar Ali Muddud Khan was 
sent with a large army to expel the Singhs from Mooltan. Tymoor 
himself, to afford a support to the Sirdar, came to Peshawur and 
encamped there. Ali Muddud Khan, coming with great speed to Mool- 
tan laid siege to the fort, and reduced the inhabitants to great extre- 
mities. It happened that a party in the Badshah’s army entertained a 
wicked design upon his life, on the discovery of which he recalled Ali 
Muddud Khan. 


1848. | Fragments of the history of Mooltan. 567 


In 1193 H.(A. D. 1779,) the Badshah himself came with great celeri- 
ty, with a conquering army, and having arrived at the Kedgah* a cannon 
shot north of Mooltan, directed the city to be besieged. Ina short 
time it fell into his hands. At this time, Sirdar Gunda Singh was at 
Umritsir, engaged in a controversy with his brethren, consequent on the 
death of Chunda Singh, so that he had not an opportunity of coming 
to Mooltan, to afford assistance and recover the place. The Kiladar of 
Mooltan, having no hopes of aid from the Sirdar, and fearing the fury of 
the Shah’s army, surrendered, and quitted the Fort, having, through 
means of Abdool Kurreem Khan, an Afghan of the tribe Babur, whose 
family were in the fort, obtained protection from the Shah for himself 
and his comrades. The Shah, entering the fort, caused his sovereignty 
to be again proclaimed, and bestowed the Khelut of Soobahdaree on 
Nawab Mozuffur Khan; with a lakh of rupees for the repair of the fort 
ard city walls, and houses of the people, then marched towards Cabul. 

Thus, the time these Sirdars held possession of Mooltan was from 
1186 to 1193 H. (A. D. 1772 to 1779.) 

3.—Account of the country on the further side of the river (Sutlep) 
which continued to be held by the Buhawulpoor government, and other 
Déoodpootra chiefs during the supremacy of the rulers of Khorasan in 
the Soobah of Mooltan. (The people of the Buhawulpoor Sircdr and 
Déoodpootra Khans yearly sent the regular payments to the Soobah of 
Mooltan, and constantly expended money in advances to the cultivators, 
and in the repair of forts and wells for their own benefit). 

From the ‘ Tuwareekh Abbaseeuh,’ and verbal information from old 
persons well acquainted with the circumstances, its appears that in 
1159 H. (A. D. 1746,) Maharaja Koura Mull, who is well known by the 
erection of the fort in the Mooltan country, which bears his name,t 

* This appears to be the place which our two unfortunate political officers occu- 
pied on their recent mission to Mooltan. The description, ‘a cannon shot north of 
Mooltan,’ agrees remarkably with circumstances related to have occurred on that 
occasion. It is stated that after Mr. Vans Agnew was wounded, ‘‘ Khan Singh con- 
veyed him towards the Eedgah outside the town, which had been assigned as their 
residence. Directly they got into the Eedgah, the guns of the place opened on 
them, and continued firing the whole day. The range however was too long, and 


no damage was done, &c. &c.”’ 
Delhi Gazette, May 3, 1848. 


+ Gurh Maharaja, a fort about 28 miles from Mooltan, and 3 from the right 
bank of the Ravee. 


+ 


568 Fragments of the history of Mooltan. [Nov. 


was exalted to the Soobahdaree of Mooltan by Nuwab Moéen ood 
Dowlah, eldest son of the Nuwab Wuzeer Kumur-ood-deen Khan, one 
of the ministers of the throne of Delhi;* and having killed in battle 
outside of Mooltan, the Nuwab Hyédl-oollah Khan, entitled Shanuwéz 
Khan, entered on the government of Mooltan. In that year, (A. D. 1746) 
Nuwab Buhawul Khan, the Ist (great-great grandfather of the present 
Nuwab, Buhawul Khan the 3rd), founded the city of Buhawulpoor, and 
maintained a friendly correspondence with the Maharaja. At this time, 
Nuwab Jan-nisér Khan, at the instigation of Sheikh Mukhdoom Rajee 
Goordézee, withdrew his allegiance from the Shah. The Maharaja, 
having come, by desire of Nuwab Moéen-ood-dowlah from Lahore for 
the purpose of chastising Jaén-nisar Khan, arrived by way of Kutchee, 
near Tanween, at the place where now stands Khyrpoor, in the Buha- 
wulpoor territory. The Khan of Buhawulpoor, having in compliance 
with a summons, come to this place, had the satisfaction of meeting the 
Maharaja Koura Mull. Thence they went together to Tehr, called 
also Pooshtuk Wejranuh, near Khan Bela, in the district of Déra Ghazee 
Khan. The fort of Khan Bela was taken in one day, and Jan-nisdr 
Khan, coming down to the river, fought for three days. At length, 
during the night, he fled, leaving his camp standing on the bank of the 
river. After this victory, the Maharaja having settled the affairs of 
that neighbourhood, and bestowed goods and land on Buhawul Khan 
and the Daocdpootras, turned towards Mooltan. He handed over also 
to Buhawul Khan, the village of Adum-wahu, on the other side of the 
water, opposite to, and four coss from Buhawalpoor, on a rental of 
4000 rupees. 

In 1163 H. (A. D. 1749,) Nuwab Mohummed Buhawul Khan died, 
and was succeeded by his brother Mohummed Moobarik Khan. He, in 
1165 H. (A. D. 1751,) purchased the lands of Sheenee Bukhree and 
Mudwala, from the zumeendars of Tehr, also Bet (the island) and 
Donewala, from Mukhdoom Sheikh Rajee Goordezee, and brought them 
into cultivation. In 1174 H. (A. D. 1760,) he received the district of 
Loodun, as a friendly gift from Shaik Soobhan, the proprietor of Pak 
Puttun. In 1181 H. (A. D. 1767,) Nuwab Ali Mohummed Khan 
Khakwanee received the Soobahdaree of Mooltan from Ahmed Shah, 


* And from the first MS. we find he was subsequently appointed Governor of 
Dera Ghazee Khan by Ahmed Shah. 


1848. | Fragments of the history of Mooltan. 569 


and Sirboolund Khan (Suddozye) was appointed by the Badsha to Déra 
Ghazee Khan. Nuwab Ali Mohummud Khan having taken Déra 
Ghazee Khan and the Kinjoor district with the aid of Mohummud 
Moobarik Khan, gave him lands according to agreement, in the southern 
part of Kutchee, in the districts of Kinjoor, and Dera Ghazee Khan. 
After this, he assigned to the Khan, on a rental of 8000 rupees, the 
lands on the further side of the Sutlej, of Khanwah, Kuhlwan, Adum- 
wahu, Sirdarwah, Buhawulwah, Futtehpoor, Emamood-deen-poor, and 
Sheikh-wahn, and he cultivated these districts. In the same year 
Nuwab Ali Mohummed Khan having taken the land of the zumeendars 
of the Mylsee tribe from the zumeendars of Futanee, gave the same to 
Mohummed Jam Khan Déaoodpootra of Khyrpoor, on a rental of 400 
rupees. He built the fort there named Mylseean and cut canals for 
irrigation. 

In 1181, when Ahmed Shah returned from his expedition to Hindos- 
tan, Nuwab Ali Mohummed Khan, with his son, paid his respects. The 
Shah being enraged against Ali Mohummed Khan on account of the 
disrespect he had been guilty of towards Nuwab Shooja Khan, caused 
the Nuwab and his son to be slain, and sent both the bodies into Mool- 
tan, as a warning to others—that no one in future might treat the Sud- 
dozyes with incivility. The Soobahdaree of Mooltan was conferred on 
Nuwab Shooja Khan. In 1194 Buhawul Khan, the 2d, rented the 
Pergunnahs of Juttoe and Mudwala and others surrounding, from Mirza 
_ Khan, Nazim of Dera Ghazee Khan, and brought them into cultivation. 

In the year 1200 H. (A. D. 1785,) Tymoor Shah came down upon 
Buhawulpoor. Mohummud Buhawul Khan leaving his country, went into 
the desert, and the fort of Duradwur fell into the hands of the Shah. To 
the charge of this fort, and the Nizamut of Dera Ghazee Khan, Shah Mo- 
hummud Khan of Mooltan was appointed, through the interest of Abdool 
Ghufar Khan. Mouladad, a Goojur, rented from the Badshah the Kinjoor 
district in the territory of Dera Ghazee Khan, and the southern districts 
of Kutchee, which had been in the hands of the Buhawulpoor Govern- 
ment. In the meantime, Mohummud Moobarik Khan, eldest son of 
Mohummud Buhawul Khan, presented himself before the Badshah, and 
obtained favor. The Badshah moved towards Cabul. Buhawul Khan 
came back from the desert to Buhawulpoor. Shah Mohummed Khan 
and the other Afghans of Mooltan, having, on the capture of Durawur 


570 Fragments of the history of Mooltan. [Nov. 


fort, imprisoned and punished the Daoodpootras who were inside, the 
Khan, now collecting a great number of boats at the ferry of Oochh, 
crossed to Seetpoor and captured the families of Shah Mohummed 
Khan and other Mooltanee Afghans in charge of Durawur fort. He 
then brought them to the outside of the fort of Durawur, and left them 
there. On this, Shah Mohummud Khan and the other Afghans, be- 
holding the disgrace of their families, made a truce, quitted the fort, 
and went with their families towards Dera Ghazee Khan. Thus the 
Khan came again into the possession of his country. 

In 1222 H. (A. D. 1807,) Nuwab Moozuffur Khan went on a pil- 
grimage to Mecca, and his eldest son, Mohummud Sirafraz Khan, tre- 
mained in Mooltan in his father’s stead. As a mark of friendship he 
rented to Buhawul Khan the villages of Adumwahu, Khanpoor, Sheer- 
gurh, and Khaee, on that side of the river—and the Khan brought 
these districts into fine cultivation. 

In 1225 H.(A. D. 1810,) Ahmed Khan Mooltanee and Dhoomun 
Singh, jemadars in the Buhawulpoor army, haying rebelled against the 
Khan (Mohummud Sadik Khan), crossed to the Khan’s rented lands on 
the other side of the river, and committed havoc upon them ; Nuwab 
Sirafréz Khan, notwithstanding his father’s injunctions, doing nothing 
to prevent this proceeding of the jemadars. The Khan’s army with 
the Daoodpcotra chiefs crossed and fought with them. On both sides 
many were killed, Ahmed Khan among the number, and his comrades 
fled. The Khan sent 12,000 rupees to the heirs of Ahmed Khan. 
The Khan, in consequence of Sirafraz Khan’s not having hindered the 
jemadars from raising this disturbance, reckoning also upon the feeble- 
ness of the Cabul government since 1213, discontinued making any 
payments for the districts he held on that side of the water. 

In 1230 H. (A. D. 1814) the army of Maharaja Runjeet Singh 
arrived in the neighbourhood of Déra Ghazee Khan, and along with 
the army of Mohummud Sadik Khan (of Buhawulpoor), seized the 
Déra, and its whole district from the hands of Mohummud Zeman 
Shah. At the Khan’s desire, the Déra and its district were conferred 
by the Maharaja on him, on an annual rental of 4 lakhs of rupees. 

In 1248 H. (A. D. 1831) Déra Ghazee Khan, and all the lands on 
that side of the river cultivated by the Buhawulpoor government, whe- 
ther rented or received in free gift, were taken by Maharaja Runjeet 
Singh into his own hands. 


1848. | Fragments of the history of Mooltan. 571 


list of Soobahdars of Mooltan. 


A. H. 1135, (A. D. 1722).—Hyat oollah Khan, (Shah-nuwaz 
Khan,) son of Zukureeah Khan,* was appointed by Wuzeer Kumur-ood- 
deen Khan. In 1152, accompanied Nadir Shah to Sindh, and received 
the title of Shah-nuwaz Khan. 

In 1159, having thrown off his allegiance to the Wuzeer, Maharaja 
Koura Mull was appointed. The Nuwab was killed outside of Mooltan. 

A. H. 1159, (A. D. 1746).—Koura Mull (Maharaja) (Khutree, 
Tribe Zdod).—Obtained the appointment through Moéen-ood-dowlah, 
son of Wuzeer Kumur-ood-deen. 

The Maharaja generally lived at Lahore. Was killed in battle with 
Ahmed Shah Badshah. 

A. H. 1160, (A. D. 1767).—Ali Mohummud Khan, Khakwanee— 
(Nuwab.)—Appointed by Ahmed Shah. He ill-treated Shooja Khan 
Suddozye, and the Badshah, on his return from Hindoostan, hearing 
the circumstances, put to death him and his son. 

A. H. 1182 (A. D. 1768).—Shooja Khan, Suddozye—(Nuwab. )— 
Was displaced, having displeased 'Tymoor Shah. 

A. H. 1186, (A. D. 1772).—Hajee Shereef Khan, Suddozye— 
(Nuwab.)—Removed after six months. 

A. H. 1186, (A. D. 1772).—Mirza Shereef Beg Moghul, (Nazim,) 
and Dhurm Das.—They disagreed and Dhurm Das was killed. Mirza 
Shereef secretly invited Chundra Singh and Gunda Singh, and the 
Sikhs came into power. 

A. Hl. 1187, (A. D. 1773).—Sirdars Chunda Singh and Gunda Singh 
—(Malik)—were expelled by Timor Shah, who appomted Nuwab Moo- 
zuffur Khan to be Soobahdar. 

A. H. 1193, (A. D. 1779).—Nuwab Mozuffur Khan—(Nuwab.)— 
Maharaja Runjeet Singh attacked Mooltan. The Nuwab was killed, 
and Lala Sookh Dyal appointed. 

A. H. 1232, and A. H. 1873 V. (A. D. 1816).—Sookh Dyal— 
(Soobahdar.)—Deficient in his remittances. Was imprisoned and dis- 
placed. 

A. H. 1876 V. (A. D. 1819).—Sham Singh, Kashmeeree—(Kardar.) 
—Imprisoned and deposed after six months. 


* Zukureeah Khan, governor of Lahore at the time of Nadir Shah’s invasion. 


4 FP 


572 Miscellaneous. [ Nov. 
A. H. 1876 V. (A. D. 1819).—Budun, Huzéree—(Kardar.)—Failed 


in his accounts. Confined and removed. 

A. H. 1878 V. (A. D. 1821).—Dewén Sawun Mull—(Nazim.)— 
Ruled well from the day of his appomtment. Was shot by a robber in 
the month Kartik 1901, and was succeeded by his son Deewan Moolraj. 

A. H. 1901 V. (A. D. 1844) Dewan Moolréj—(Nazim.) 


MiIscELLANEOUS. 


Extract of a letter from Dr. CAMPBELL, to the Hon ble the Prest- 
DENT, Asiatic Society. 


I am sure that the members of the Asiatic Society will be greatly 
interested to learn something of the travels and proceedings in the 
Eastern Himalaya of our distinguished Honorary Member Dr. J. D. 
Hooker. 

He started from Darjeeling on the 27th of last month, fully equipped 
and attended, for a trip to the Kanglachema pass of the snowy range: 
and with the purpose of returning by the western shoulder of Kun- 
chinginga and Jongei to Darjeeling. 

Circumstances prevented his commencing his journey through Sikim, 
the direct route. He was therefore very fortunate in being able to go 
through the Nipal territory, and is ‘now journeying in a portion of that 
kingdom which has never before been trodden by any European tra- 
veller. . 

For the first week he was subjected to much annoyance from the 
quarrels and desertions of his Bhotia coolies, and other numerous mis- 
haps inseparable from new venturers in new lands; but a light heart 
and enthusiastic spirit are matches for all the ills that travelling flesh is 
heir to, and so it has been with him. On the 4th, but after making 
seven journeys of a distance that might have been got over in 3, but for 
the above disasters, he was on the top of Nangbi—say 14 miles W. of 
Darjeeling, at an elevation of 10,000 feet above the sea, and the tem- 
perature at daylight down to 21° of Faht. This was a trial for his 
followers, which the lightly-clothed and chicken-hearted portion of them 
could not stand against: and after relieving him of some of his stores 
about a dozen of them left him to his fate without their assistance. 


1848. | Miscellaneous. 573 


This compelled him to make more exertion for the purpose of getting 
into the road from Harngachy to Walloongchoong, and on the 9th he 
was at Sakiagong, on a tributary of the Konke river, and ready to move 
northwards for the snowy range. 

He was therefore at that date in a fair way to attain his object, for 
he says:—“I got a glorious round of angles yesterday, Phughloot, 
Nangbi, &c. which will do well to fix my position. This is a lovely 
country, and I am enjoying myself vastly, have a few new plants, lots 
of observations, and we go north to-morrow.” 

I shall not fail to report progress as I get it. This is a most im- 
portant and interesting expedition, worthy of Dr. Hooker’s powers, and 
of it. It will give materials for maps, climatology, botany, &c. &c. for 
a portion of the Himalaya altogether unexplored and unknown. 


Addendum on the Anatomy of Ailurus, by B. H. Hoveson, L£sq. 


I had scarcely despatched to you my description of the anatomy of 
Ailurus, deduced from two junior specimens, when my shooters killed a 
mature specimen in my own immediate vicinity, at an elevation of about 
7300 feet. It proved to be a female, mature, but only just so, and was 
killed in a lofty tree. As this type is the sole representative of a family, 
’ and is one of the most anomalous of quadrupeds, I shall make no 
apology for troubling you with a few additional remarks on its anatomy, 
not however needlessly reiterating what has been already noted, and is 
free from doubt. 

Ailurus fulvens? A female mature but not at all aged, 203 inches 
from snout to vent. Has the deep ochreous red of the superior sur- 
face of the body, tipt largely with aureous; whence, and from the pre- 
sently to be noted anatomical differences, I conjecture it may be fulvens 
and not ochraceus. 'Teats 8. No anal glands or pores. Lungs with 
3 main divisions, about equal, and each composed of one large and one 
small lobe, 6 lobes in all. Liver also with a primary triple division ; 
its right lobe largest and almost equally bifid; its left lobe next in size 
and also bifid, but less equally; its central lobe, smallest of all and 
trifid. Consequently 7 lobes in all. Gall-bladder empty, collapsed, a 
long ellipse, 13 inch long by 2 inch wide, very freely suspended in the 
cleft of the central lobe of the liver. Its duct, large and distinct, 2 

4¥F2 


574 Miscellaneous. | Nov. 


inches long, enters the intestine about that distance below the accessory 
stomach. Pancreas 2 inches by 1, parallelogramic, with the angles 
rounded off, its lower margin closely attached to the intestine, and 
throwing off a small short duct which discharges the pancreatic juice 
into the gut about } ich above the opening of biliary duct. Spleen 
5 inches by less 1, shaped like a manis’ tongue. Kidneys 14 inch by 
3, and not lobulated internally as in the juniors. Uterus with very long 
horns, each 2+ inch in length, and small round dark ovaries, each # 
inch in diameter. Bladder 24 inch, empty and collapsed. Intestines 
83 feet long, wide, gradually lessening in width from above downwards 
from plus ~ inch to minus 3 inch, excepting the last half foot which is 
1 inch wide. This last named portion of the intestines has its coats 
remarkably thickened and furnished internally with longitudinal bands. 
Elsewhere the intestinal canal shows no trace of bands or other pro- 
cesses. Stomach empty and collapsed, 84 inches along its greater, and 
23 along its lesser, arch, exclusive of the accessory stomach, which is 
3 inches long and 1} inch wide. The true stomach is a hemisphere in 
shape and is membranous, with thin equable coats and no internal bands 
or folds. The accessory stomach is very thick and firm coated, elastic, 
between muscle and gland, and has its inner surface marked with strong 
longitudinal bands. The orifices of the true stomach are quite terminal, 
and the false stomach commences at the pyloric or lower end of the 
true one. 

Teeth &. 1:1.5:5, the deciduous premolars of the lower jaw being 
forthcoming. Crowns of the molars noé¢ flattened, nor showing any 
crusta petrosa, as was the case in the two very perfect but older speci- 
mens from which my original description was taken. The crowns in 
this sample are covered with enamel and furnished with numerous conic 
tubercles, sufficiently salient but blunt. Cervical vertebree 7, dorsal 
14, lumbar 6, sacral 3, caudal 18, all very satisfactorily ascertained, and 
again compared with the skeleton of the juniors which shows beyond 
a doubt 15 dorsals and 5 lumbars. Ribs 14, whereof 8 are true and 
6 false. Sternal bones 7, cylindric. Forward process of the keel of 
the scapula not cylindric as in the juniors, but flattened and having a 
subordinate process arising from its base. These may be the acromion 
and coracoid. At all events there are no other processes answering 
thereto. Considering the very free action of the arm in Ailurus it is 


1848. | Miscellaneous. 575 


remarkable that the former process infringes considerably on the field 
of rotation of the humerus. ‘There is not the least trace of a clavicle 
or pseudo clavicle. This I have very carefully ascertained. Lastly, it 
should be noted that the ribs are not much bulged, contrary to what 
was remarked in the juniors; and that the ossa pubis and the sacral 
vertibree are, each of them, osseously united, as usual, the opposite 
characters of the precedent skeletons thus proving (as anticipated) the 
effects of nonage merely. 

In comparing the above details with those priorly given one can- 
not but note with surprise the remarkable disparities of the teeth 
and of the spinal vertebre. My former description of the teeth 
was taken from two very fine skulls which showed no signs of decay, 
though it would now appear that they must have belonged to aged 
subjects, the crowns of whose molars had been worn down greatly 
by use. That very use, however, must have been a grinding or tritur- 
ant one; and, singularly as the character of the molars is now altered, 
the sheer fact of wearing in such mode and degree seems to de- 
monstrate that extreme lateral action ef the jaws for which I con- 
tended, but with which it is not so easy to reconcile the style of the 
dentition exhibited in the present subject.* What is the normal state 
of the teeth? and how can we be justified in regarding that state of 
them as abnormal which is found in lusty and vigorous specimens of 
the animal? The intestinal canal of the present sample is 5 lengths, 
as before, not so remarkable, however, for width, but more so for the 
very singular and almost identical modification it undergoes at either 
extremity. It would seem as if both these peculiarly structured parts 
of the intestines should be regarded as quasi stomachs, and their effect 
in harmonising the alimentary canal with the dentition (whatever its 
normal character) must be material. The variation in the number of 
the dorsal and lumbar vertebre is another remarkable peculiarity of 
Ailurus, as to which however I will only add that the fact is unques- 
tionable, having been carefully and repeatedly seen to. As already 
hinted, it may be a mark of species. 


* The salient processes of the crowns of the molars are more marked than in 
Ursus: yet the relative narrowness of the lower jaw continues as noticeable as in 
prior specimens, so that any efficient action of the teeth must be by movements of 
the jaw, essentially lateral, notwithstanding the deep cylindric hinging ! 


576 Miscellaneous. [Nov. 


Letter from Dr. CAMPBELL, on the Elevation of Peaks in the 
Himalaya, Se. 


To the Secretaries Asiatic Society, Calcutta. 


GENTLEMEN,—I am enabled, by the kindness of Colonel Waugh, the 
Surveyor General of India, to furnish the Society with the following 
results of the operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey in this part 
of the Himalaya in 1847. 

I have also the pleasure to forward a small and beautifully executed 
Chart of a portion of the Survey, received from Colonel Waugh some 
months ago. 

It was sent to me after the publication in the Society’s Journal of 
my Itinerary to Phari, to illustrate Colonel Waugh’s views regarding 
the position of the celebrated “‘Chumalarr’ and of the “Chola” 
mountain of that Itinerary. When Colonel Waugh left this place in 
November last, after having satisfied himself in the course of his previ- 
ous operations of the position of “ Chumalari,”’ by observations from 
Tonglo and Sinchal, I took some Lepchas and Bhotiahs who had 
travelled into Thibet by the Phari route, with me to the top of Sinchal, 
to point out Chumalari to them; as they were positive in stating their 
belief that it was not visible from any part of this neighbourhood, 
when I said ‘there is Chumalari,” the whole party exclaimed—“ No, 
it is Chola, and not Chumalari.”” I took pains to ascertain the rea- 
sons of their dissent, and afterwards wrote an epitome of them to 
Colonel Waugh, who thanked me for doing so, said he would file my 
note with the other documents, and while adhering to his former opi- 
nion said, asfaras I recollect—‘ but you may rely upon it that I shall 
not finally decide the point until you are satisfied that I am right.” 
Thus the matter rested until Colonel Waugh got a copy of my Itinerary 
to Phari, from the Journal for April last, when he informed me that the 
delay with respect to the results of the Darjeelmg Trigonometrical 
operations, although greater than he had anticipated, could not then be 
considered a matter of regret, as it had put him in possession of evid- 
ence to prove the identity of his mountain with the great Chumalari of 
Thibet. ‘The evidence alluded to,’ he said, ‘is contained in your 
paper published in the Asiatic Society’s Journal for April 1848. This 
valuable contribution to conjectural Geography, has arrived in good time 


1848. | Miscellaneous. 577 


to be of service to precise Geography, and I am exceedingly obliged to 
you for the information it contains.” He then very clearly and fully 
argued the whole question, and concluded by saying that the well-timed 
publication of the Phari Itinerary had enabled him to substantiate that 
the Peak seen from Sinchal is Chumalari, at the same time he satisfied 
himself that the “Chola” of that Itinerary is the ‘‘ Chumanko”’ of his 
Survey. On these two points I am alike satisfied, and am very glad 
indeed that in communicating the dissent of my hill people from the 
conclusions of Colonel Waugh, I was the means of so soon shewing the 
triumphs of accurate science over the obstinacy of local ignorance. 
This is the history of the Chart now forwarded: and I doubt not that 
the Society will be glad to possess so correct a delineation of these 
exquisitively accurate observations, pending Colonel Waugh’s own publi- 
cation of the results of his important operations in this quarter. I have 


arranged the results of the Survey which most interest me under three 
heads. 


lst.— Elevations at and near Darjeeling. 


Marjectns Fill above the séa,-..2..........--—~ 7165 
BilePatarhirhest point,..........-..0.0.. 7432 
oT el le ei aaa nee a ase ta an 7134 
oem a ea, 6880.3 


Drimpbell’s House, of. 0.000 ie 6966 

Bryn Gwyn (Major (Sabine ees fe ee AG 
Lebong, (Mr. Grant’s house),.......... aT IER 6039.3 
Sinchal—“hiehest pomt, ...0.. 0.0.0.8. 08 eee) 8606.7 


2nd.—Llevations in Sikim—Sub-Himalaya, 
mengene—called Aratat, - .). «meas 0 sles cam v's 8662.8 
asic ms sss 68 a: cn inlay eee Pee lata a 10079.4 
Ds 6 sins ois ale. aco nnd Se le we wait 7 FOO 20 2 


3rd.—Elevations of Peaks in the Himalayan Range, seen from 
Darjeeling. 
1 Kunchinginga, West Peak,*.............. 28,176.6 


* This is, I believe, the highest spot on the surface of the globe. Distance from 
Darjeeling 45 miles. Elevation of the stations on the plains in the Chaet :—‘‘ Bun- 
durjoola, 246 feet. Thakoogunj (summit of tower) 267.3; Doom Dangi (Do.) 


312.8. These three stations are in the district of Purneah. 
A. CAMPBELL. 


578 Miscellaneous. | [Nov. 


2 S Ditto; EastiPeakilediace .). osinav eo O7geeb 
Sud UNNOD;). 1a. RRs MER aber |S a eee eee 
A. Kabtooted s. suis SOR Ree lato. bi0,, gh eee 24,004.5 
5 Powhmnry?. cere tiewetial swine dade. Zoaslfoss 
Oy AD), Divi) imei ae Realises) ot La reat 22,581.9 
7 \indeemi,).:. slg oer: tard: Joc eled LY, saan 
SDs Date fens encase bye eget bape 5 iii tn 19,242.10 
9) Black Rigtls, ons: to teentl i. ache mas bebe ae 17,556.9 
LO Nursing, pa. encdugdges.d aides eden 
la Wola. 5. euiieuiin «ooh. wert: eee seh LO. 
2 yMeaprhopehiyy *: asiucweidl. wou) oot. 2 . 14,509.2 
Thibetan Mountain. 
hinialani*®, eee oe eae ee 23,929.2 


Your’s truly, 
A. CAMPBELL, M. D. 
Darjeeling, Nov. 23rd, 1848. 


Extract of a letter from Lieut. R. Strachey, Engineers, (communicated 
by the How ble Mr. Tuomason.) 


I just write a few words to let you know that we have come back 
from Tibet. We returned here yesterday, having got along without any 
difficulty any where. We left this on the 2nd, as I before wrote to 
you, and got over all the passes on the 7th ito the “table-land.” We 
halted the 8th, and on the 9th got to the Sutlej, some miles below Ky- 
unghing. Thence we returned back towards the southern edge of 
Rakas Tal, reaching Gyanima, or Nimakhan, on the 12th, On the 14th 
we got within sight of Rakas Tal,and encamped near its southern shore. 
On the 15th we went on towards Manasarowar, which we reached on 
the 16th, encamping about a mile or so below Tu-Gamba, the monastery 
at the effluent from the Lake; we went up to look at the outlet, which 
was quite unmistakable. The opening is in an elevated beach, and 
might perhaps be overlooked when the lake was low. The beach of which 
I talk is rather curious, being evidently the effect of the waves of the 
lake, and raised perhaps 6 or 8 feet above the level of the water on one 
side, and of the low ground outside the beach on the other. These 
beaches are common to both lakes, and are, I suppose, the result of the 


1848. | Miscellaneous. 579 


frightful winds that blow there, of which we had most freezing exam- 
ples. I never felt any thing like the wind (excepting at sea) either for 
cold or intensity ; it was absolutely frightful. Onthe 17th we returned 
from Manasarowar ; on the 19th, we crossed over into the valley of the 
Karnali, up which we came, passing Lama Choktan on the 23rd, and 
arrived at the foot of the passes at Chirchun on the 24th. The next 
day we came over the passes, three in number, of which Unta Dhura is 
the lowest. The highest ridge crossed will probably be upwards of 
18,500 feet above the sea. 

From the accident to my barometer, I can’t give even any approxi- 
mation to heights yet—i. e. until I make comparisons with the baro- 
meters left here, which I hope to do in a day or so. 

The main results of our visit to Tibet are to see that the plains are 
very evidently produced by Lakes or Sea. The great mass of them 
being perfect gravel to a depth of 800 or 1000 feet, to which extent the 
great ravines cut into them. 

The part of the country towards the long lake of Gyanima, seems 
to have been much more recently under water than the other, and in 
fact appears to be in many places even now imperfectly drained and 
subject to flood. The whole of the country from the lake of Gyani- 
ma to Rakas Tal, and along almost the whole of the southern edge of 
the latter, is a great eruption of volcanic rock, and the bar between the 
lakes is probably also caused by this trap eruption, as it consists of 
gravel (exactly such as now exists iz the lakes) to a height of 6 or 800 
feet above the present level of the water. 

With some difficulty I got an observation of the elevations of Kylas 
and Gurla, from which I hope to get a decent approximation to their 
height. The dreadful wind almost stopped me altogether—blew away 
both ends of the tape used for measuring a base for me to work upon, 
and prevented any thing like real accuracy. 

The valley of the Karnéld, Pruang, &c. is also certaimly part of the 
same great deposit of gravel as the rest of the plain to the westward. 

The country generally is more hilly than I had anticipated. The 
plain more flat, in fact perfectly so, with hills rising abruptly from it. 
The plain seems to run along the northern foot of the Himalaya, the 
Sutle] apparently having hills along its southern bank all down its 
course as far as we saw. 

4G 


580 Miscellaneous. [Nov. 


We found none of the recent fossils of large animals, of which I 
have got indifferent specimens from Bhotias which I had hoped to see. 
They seem to come from more to the westward. An almost unlimited 
supply of fossil shells may however be got on the passes into Tibet, and 
some specimens I have got from 18,000 feet at least, probably higher 
up. 

In the latter part of our trip the thermometer has been as low as 15 
or 16° at sunrise—but it became rapidly colder at last, and we before 
suffered more from the violence of the sun than from cold. 


Tibetan Type of Mankind. 


To the Secretaries of the Asiatie Society of Bengal. 
GENTLEMEN,—The accompanying remarks upon a series of human 
skulls, collected by me in the valley of Nepal, and forming part of the 
general osteological* collection made in the sub-Himalayas and deposit- 
ed in the British Museum, are from the pen of the celebrated author of 
the Physical History of Mankmd. The novelty and the importance of 
accurate ethnological research in India, together with the eminent quali- 
fications of the commentator on these materials, will, I fancy, readily 
induce the Society to give a place in its Journal to Dr. Prichard’s 
observations, hereto subjomed. Symbhunath and Sankmul are places 
of interment or cremation in the valley of Nepal, and there the skulls 
were procured: Dr. Prichard rightly conceived that the skull No. 8 isa 
typical Tibetan, and the skull No. 4, a normal Néwar, one; and it is 
very satisfactory to me to find this gentleman’s estimate of the physi- 
eal character of these races as deduced from the crania so perfectly 
correspondent with that deduced by myself from the living subjects. 
I am, Gentlemen, Xe. 
B. H. Hopeson. 
Darjeeling, November, 1848. 


* A recent letter from Mr. Gray, the Curator of the British Museum, ac- 
quaints me that this collection, the first of the sort ever deposited there, has prov- 
ed the nucleus of an osteological collection in the great national Institute of Eng- 
land, which already rivals that of any Museum in the world, save the French one, in 
the single department of Fishes. 


1848. | Miscellaneous. 581 


Extract of a letter from Dr. PRicHARD, 


dated, London, August 11th, 1848. 

“IT am much interested in your researches, and as you requested, 
I went on the first favourable opportunity to the British Museum and 
carefully examined your skulls; I enclose the description of them. The 
impression I derived for the examination is that the Tibetans have the 
heads of the Chinese, Tartar or Mongolian type, but that the type is 
. not quite constant among them—some of the Bhotia* skulls have very 
little characteristic difference from Europeans. I suppose No: 8, may 
be considered as typical, and the rest as deviating from it. No. Sisa 
strongly marked Tartar or Turanian head. 

The Néwars+ appear to have this type very much softened down, in 
every particular approximating to the European type. I take No. 4 to 
be typical of the Néwars. It is the most unlike an European, and the 
most like the Bhotia No. 8, but in every respect less barbarian and less 
like a Mongol. 

The collection is a very valuable one.” 


Skull marked No. 8, ticketed as that of a Hillman, probably a Cachar 
Bhotia, procured at Symbhinath. 


Deseription.—Skull large, apparently that of a tall and large man, 
not particularly heavy. Vertex high.—General aspect like that of a 
Chinese skull. 

Front view.—Face broad and flat, particularly in the plane of the 
cheek bones. Zygomatic arches large and prominent forwards and out- 
wards. Outer corner not rounded off as in the skulls of Esquimaux, 
but angular. Nasal bones flat—hence the breadth and flatness of the 
face. 

Mouth rather prominent, the upper jaw being prognathous, and the 
lower jaw large. Supra-orbital ridges rather strongly marked. The 
outer part of the upper orbital edge, above outer angle of the eye, 
thick and prominent. 


* Bhotia is equivalent to Tibetan ; Bhét being the Hindu, and Tibet the Moslem, 
name of the country. My skulls belonged mostly to Cisnivean or Kachar Bhotias. 
t The Néwars are the people of Nepal proper, or the great Valley.—B. H. H. 

4G2 


582 | Miscellaneous. [Nov. 


Vertical view.—Mead oval (seen above) : oval figure rather long, viz. 
the longitudinal diameter is long in proportion to the transverse. The 
oval figure narrower in the anterior than in the posterior part. Occi- 
put protuberant (not truncated as Retzius thinks it is in the Tartar 
races), vertical ridge or crest, strongly marked. 

Basis of the Skull.—Basis broad (as the basis of the Esquimaux 
skull in the plate of 4 basis in my Researches into Physical History, 
vol. 1.) 

Zygomatic areas (meaning the nearly oval spaces in the view of basis 
cranil, which are enclosed externally by the Zygomatic arches) large 
and open as in the figure of the Esquimaux skull above mentioned, but 
not so oval in shape, the anterior part being more square and angular. 
Foramen occipitale small. 

No. 10, Cachar Bhotia—Symbhtindth,—Skull a good deal like No. 8, 
but not so flat-faced. Maxilla superior, prognathous.—Alveolar process 
round, not so square as in No. 8. Nasal bones not so flat, but face 
broad in the plane of the cheek bones.—Margins of the orbits thick 
and prominent, both above and below the orbital cavity. 

Basis.—Zygomatic areas large, open, square and angular anteriorly. 
This is the most characteristic trait, and gives rise to the breadth of the 
face. 

No. 2.—Hillman—Bhotia—Symbhunath.—Vertical section of the 
head (vertical figure) of an oval form. Face not broad or flat. Nasal 
bones prominent. Orbits square. Forehead high and well formed, having 
the prominences which Gall calls organs of comparison well developed. 
Whole form of skull approaching the European type, and wanting all 
Chinese and Mongolian characters, except one, viz., the cheek bones 
are square and angular, and the zygomatic areas in the basis cranii, 
large and square anteriorly. 

No. 4.—Hillman, probably Néwar, procured at Sankmol. 

Head large, nearly of the same size as No. 8, and in general shape 
resembling it, only with all its peculiarities softened. 

Cheek bones rounder, not so square and angular. Zygomatic arches 
not nearly so large. Zygomatic areas viewed in the basis cranu, not 
nearly so large and open. 

Nasal bones much more prominent. Face not nearly so wide and 
flat. Upper jaw equally prognathous, but the alveolar process not so 


1848. | Miscellaneous. 3 583 


square, straight, or broad, anteriorly—more rounded. Head oval— 
Occiput prominent. Scarcely any vertical ridge or crest. 

N. B. All the characters seem to be much softened and approach- 
ing the European type, as compared with the Bhotia heads. 

No. 7.—Hillman, probably Néwar, procured at Sankmol. 

Face not so broad and flat as the Bhotia No. 8, more rounded and 
prominent in the profile. Head rounded with longitudinal diameter 
shorter. 

Differences from European type as follows—Cheek bones a little more 
prominent laterally. | 

Zygomatic areas, seen in the basis cranii, much larger and more 
open than in an European, and square anteriorly like those of the Bho- 
tia No. 8. 

Upper maxilla somewhat prognathous. 

No. 16.—Man of the Néwar tribe and Bandya division. Like No. 4 
but more European. Face not flat. Cheek bones not laterally projecting 
—Alveolar process of the upper jaw prominent—Vertical ridge strongly 
marked, Zygomatic areas and orbital cavities like European. 

Lower jaw small. 

No. 15.—Another Néwar Bandya. 

Head round, oval, with longitudinal diameter short. 

Face rather broad and flat, but not so much so as in the Bhotia No. 8. 
Nasal bones more elevated. 

N. B. The chief characters different from the European type are in 
the shape and size of the zygomatic arches viewed in the basis cranii. 
Areas more open and their anterior edge angular and square. 

No. 20.—Skull from the plains, near the Ganges. Head nearly 
European ; a bad European head. 

(Signed) J.C. PRICHARD. 


584 Miscellaneous. | Nov. 


Notes on the Eastern Desert of Egypt, from Gebel Afrit, by the an- 
cient Porphyry quarries of Gebel Dukhan, near to the old station 
of Gebel Gir ; with a brief account of the ruins at Gebel Dukhan, by 
HEKEKYAN Bey.—(Communicated by Capt. NewBo.p.) 


These rough but interesting notes, on a part of Egypt so seldom 
visited by travellers as its Hastern Desert, were written by my friend, 
the Bey, in English ; and I have adhered as closely as possible to the 
original, with but trifling alteration. The notes would have been more 
valuable had a map been laid down of the route, with a list of bearings 
and distances, and more detailed observations on the general nature of 
the country traversed. The porphyry quarries of Gebel Dukhdn, 
(Mons Porphyritis) are probably coeval with the celebrated breccia 
quarries of Wddi Keneh, and worked in the time_of the first Osirtasen, 
the supposed Pharoah, who ruled over Egypt in the time of Joseph. 
The beautifully coloured porphyries, green, purple, and red, and much 
of the basalt used in ancient Egyptian sculpture, were derived in great 
measure from Gebel Dukhdn, and its vicinity ; whence they were pro- 
bably conveyed to Coptos on the Nile, and thence easily distributed to 
various parts of Egypt. The Wadi from Gebel Dukhdn to Keneh, the 
ancient Koinipolis, a little N. of Coptos, is to this day called the Stkhet 
el Arabiyeh, the high-road of the Carts. 

It is not very clear why the Arabs should give the name Dukhin 
wl», which literally signifies smoke, to this mountain. We have no 
evidence of any volcanic eruptive activity within the historic period. 
It has probably got the name from its colour, particularly when viewed 
from a distance under a deep blue sky, or from the smoke of the town 
and huts of the workmen. 

The remains of the inscription copied by the Bey from the frieze of 
the temple near Gebel Dukhdn, bear the name of the emperor Adrian, 
with the surname of Trajan, whose son by adoption he was. The 
temple is dedicated to Sarapis the great, [with his titles of Pluto and the 
Sun, All HAIQI MEFAAQI SAPATIHAI| and to the other gods in the same 
temple. Small temples to Sarapis are very common in the vicinity of 
mines and quarries. As Pluto he is supposed to preside over demons 
and the evil genii, who the orientals imagine, watch over the treasures of 


1848. ] Miscelianeous. 585 


the earth. Gebel Dukhdn lies in about latitude N. 27° 16/ and longi- 
tude E. 33°. There is an ancient road leading from it to Myos Hor- 
mus, an old port on the Red Sea, from which it is distant about 32 
miles as the crow flies. 


Hekekyan Bey’s Journal. 

April 17th, 1844.—Sandstone is the prevalent rock for the first half 
hour, succeeded by granite, gneiss, black and red basalt, to Wddi Keneh. 

April 18th.—Granite and porphyry were the prevalent rocks during 
this, and the two following days’ march. 

April 21st.—Granite and basalt. The road from Dukhdn to Keneh 
is called the Sikket el Arabiyeh (the road of the chariots) to this day. 
There are the foundations of a station at Wadi Billi. 

April 22nd.—Up Wadi um Yesutr, granite and basalt. 

April 23rd.—Fort of Gebel Dukhin. Here is a temple of white- 
spotted granite with four Ionic columns; the altar still standing in its 
original place. On the frieze is a Greek inscription of which the 
following is a copy :— 

YUEP SOTHPIAX KAI AIONIOY NIKHS TOY KYPIOY HMON 
AYTOKPATOPOS KAIXAPOX TPAIANOY XEBAXTOY KAI TOY 
TIANTOS AYTOY OIKOY ATI HAIOI METAAQT ZAPATITAT KAT 
TOIS XSYNNAOIS OEOIXS TON NAON IKAI TA ITEPI TON NAON 
ENA POITOS KAIZAPOX ECHPIANOS EWIPANNIQ MAP- 
TIAAL EDAPXQ AEYIPTOY MAPKOY OYAIIIOY XPHSIMOY 
EDNITPOMEYONTOS TON METAAAON ETI TW MTPOKOYAHIANOY. 

Above the Nakdbah, on the left side of the valley, is a Tellaah, up 
which there is a well of sweet water, probably a spring. The Tellaah 
contains green plants. The Nakdbah below it is composed of some 
ten tortuously branched spreading trees, giving an agreeable shade. 
There is a well close by them, and ruins adjoinmg, whose remains indi- 
cate the site of a regularly laid out plan of buildings, and show that 
water must formerly have abounded here, and that gardens were kept up. 

The Wddi here expands into an amphitheatre. The clear purple 
cross of Gebel Dukhdn (W. by N. W.) under a dark blue sky, crown 
the more sombre and gloomy mountains of porphyry, amidst which 
the Widi serpentines. Tufted shrubs and plants of every shade of 


* auyumrou 2 


Pp 


586 Miscellaneous. [Nov. 


green, each with its blossom of varied colours, grow among the masses 
of purple, green, red, and black porphyries, under shady archways 
formed by the bending branches, and foliage of the Nebdkh,* whose fruit 
was as yet green. 

We took water of the Maitha, and, debouching out of the valley, 
struck down into Wddi Billi, and ascended it as far as the Silloa, when 
we halted. This part of Wadi Billi is full of Persica and Seyaleh, (Aca- 
cia seyaleh), and numerous kinds of plants; the Arabs say that the lower 
part of the Wadi contains forests of Seyaleh. The inferior granites 
here are more friable, and whiter; they have rounded surfaces and 
summits,+ and are free from dykes of felspar. The upper granites on 
the contrary are more rugged and perpendicular as the height increases: 

There are in WaAdi Billi signal-posts, mile-stones, guard-houses, forts, 
wells and stations. Near Ain Abu Markhah are quarries, and traces of 
buildings, Sakiyas,tgardens, a citadel, magazines, brothels, sacred groves, 
temples, priest’s residence, baths, forum, villages, grottos, pottery, 
ereen sarcophagus, troughs, blocks of green, purple porphyry, and of 
black grey-veined breccia. Many Tarantulas (Abu Sheddath).§ 

Wadi Guttar runs in the direction of the crags of Gebel Dukhan, 
but after passing the well in the middle of the Wddi it sweeps souther- 
ly towards Gebel Altardsh, runs into Wadi Keneh, receiving along its 
course Wddi’s Altardsh, Gerzoo, Kohel, and others. 

The well station in the middle of Wadi Guttar below the Mazra, is. 
150 feet square ; it contains the remains of buildings, with strong walls, 
and there are the remains of buildings, stables and out-houses outside. 
A dyke with walls 6 feet thick runs across the Wdadi, probably to 
retain the water for cultivation. 

April 26th.—Left for Kench, and reached Tellaat el Um Gesher, on 
the summit of which we found rain-water. Here is a Roman station 
of unburnt brick, with an area of a fort with towers at the angles 
(bears 8S. S. W. by S. from Gebel Dikhdén.) A large gateway in the 
centre opens upon the valley. The enclosure, which is about 300 feet 
long by 200 feet, contains a saki, and a cistern of cement 20 feet 
by 15, now both filled with sand. Outside, towards the N. and close 

* Nebkh, Rhamnus nabeca. T. N. 
+ Probably felspathic gneiss. T. N. 


t A watering place, a canal. T. N. 
§ Lit. Father of the Spiders. T. N. 


1848. | Miscellaneous. 587 


to the cistern, are the traces of an extensive village, apparently regu- 
larly laid out. This and the body of the place, and its interior build- 
ings, are of blocks of dark green felspar, serpentine, &c. from the neigh, 
bouring mountains. Fragments of silicified nummulitic limestone, por- 
phyries, granite, and pottery are scattered about. 

April 27th. —In 3th of an hour we emerged from the Mikhayeneh, 
and left the granite behind. We now crossed a vast Farsh,* even and 
hard as if Macadamized. We were four hours in crossing it to Gebel Gir. 
The Farsh is called Gaé}+ Tiir. The old station of Gebel Gir stands 
on a hill. Here are the remains of a reservoir and a lake 300 feet in 
diameter and 20 feet deep. They are now filled up almost, and plants 
grow at the bottom. There are the remains also of several cisterns 
and three aqueducts all dry. Attached to the station in the valley are 
the traces of regularly laid out stables and lodgings built of limestone, 
and two excavations; the smaller of which is near the N. of the outer 
station : the excavated matter is thrown out in the form of a dyke. 

The formation is of argillaceous sandstone, in alternate layers, with- 
carboniferous plastic clays; under which are the ferruginous clays and 
sandstones. 

Immediately over them is the silicious limestone, capped by num- 


mulitic limestone. The argillaceous sandstone contains layers of shales, 
bivalves, &c. 


* Fersh oy, signifies a wide field or plain, also a bed, spread out, T. N. 
T donb els more properly the G of Gaa should be the guttural kaf. T, N. 


SAR nen 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ASTATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, 


For Novemser, 1848. 


The usual monthly meeting of the Society was held on the evening 
of Wednesday, the lst Nov. 1848. 

The Hon’ble Mr. Justice Coivite, President, in the chair. 

The accounts and vouchers for September and October were presented. 

The followmg gentlemen having been duly proposed and seconded at 
the September meeting, were ballotted for and elected members of the 
Society :— 

Capt. Pakenham, Body Guard. 

Capt. Powel, Steamer ‘ Precursor.’ 

Capt. Banks, Assistant Sec’y to Govt. of India, Mily. Department. 

Lieut. Stubbs, Bengal Artillery. 

T. A. Anstruther, Esq. Madras C. 8. was named as a candidate for 
ballot at next meeting, proposed by Walter Elliott, Esq. seconded by 
J. W. Laidlay, Esq. 

The Rev. J. Richards, Chaplain, Madras Establishment, proposed by 
Rev. J. Long, seconded by Rev. Mr. Keane. 

Notes were received from the followmg members, requesting their 
names to be withdrawn :— 

W. Storm, Esq. Calcutta. 

W. Thornhill, Esq. Nainee Tal. 

Read letters— 

From G. A. Bushby, Esq. Sec’y. to Government of India, forwarding 
for deposit in the Society’s Museum, 30 pieces of ancient sculpture 
collected by Capt. Kittoe. 

From the Hon’ble Mr. Thomason, enclosing extract of a letter from 
Lieut. R. Strachey, Engineers, announcing his return from the lake 
Manasarowar. 


Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 589 


From the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, returning 
thanks for the Society’s gift of 28 volumes of Oriental works, published 
by the Society. 

From Lieut. Col. Goodwyn, Engineers, communicating a paper, with 
plates, on Taper Chain Suspension Bridges. 

From Col. Low, giving cover to copy of inscription, and announcing 
despatch of a further portion of the Singapore rock inscription. 

From Rev. Mr. Mason, sending a notice and drawing of a Tenas- 
serim Pine. 


' From Captain Hutton, a second article on the nidification of Indian 
Birds. 

From Captain Newbold, forwarding notes by His Highness Heke- 
kyan Bey, Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society, on his visit to 
the Porphyry quarries of Gebel Dukhan. 

From Dr. Hooker, Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society, (commu- 
nicated by the President,) a narrative of his visit to Parusnath, Rotas 
and the table-land of Behar. 

From H. M. Smith, Esq. communicated by Capt. Sanders, giving 
an account of the supposed efficacy of the leaves of Aristolochia Indica 
in the treatment of a case of snake bite. 

From the Editor of the ‘‘ Revue des deux Mondes,’’ Paris, soliciting 
contributions of papers for that Journal. 

Resolved, that the Society subscribe for a copy of the Revue. 

From the Librarian, proposing a reduction in the scale of prices of 
the Oriental publications of the Society. 

Referred to Oriental Section. 

From H. M. Elliot, Esq. presenting for the Library a copy of la 
Mezeraye’s History of France, and for the Museum an Egyptian vase 
taken from a Mummy case. 

Dr. O’Shaughnessy presented a copy of Mr. Laidlay’s version of, and 
Notes on the Pilgrimage of Fa Hian, and proposed the following resolu- 
tion, which was seconded by Mr. Heatley, and unanimously adopted :— 

That Mr. Laidlay’s version of the travels of Fa Hian be forwarded 
to the Oriental Section for their examination and report, and with the 
suggestion that it appears highly deserving of adoption by the So- 
ciety. 


An apology was read from Mr. Piddington, for his absence on ac- 


590 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 


count of illness, and Mr. Blyth made his usual monthly report on the 


Zoological Department. 
LIBRARY. 
The following books have been added to the Library since the last meeting. 
Presented. 


Histoire de France, par Francois de Mezeraye. Paris, 1643 ; 3 volumes 
folio.—By H. M. Extiot, Esq. 

Prosodie des langues de l’Orient Musulman, specialement de l’Arabic, 
du Persan, du Ture et de l’Hindustani; par M. Garcin de Tassy, Paris, 1848, 
8vo.— By THE AUTHOR. — 

The Report of the British Association for the advancement of Science, for 
1847, London, 1848, 8vo.—By THE ASSOCIATION. 

The Journal of the Indian Archipelago, for Augt. and Sept. 1848, (two co- 
pies.) —By THE BENGAL GOVERNMENT. 

Ditto ditto for Sept. 1848.—By tHe Eprror. 

The whole works of the most Rev. James Usher, D. D., Vol. XV.—By 
THE BoARD AND FELLOWS oF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN. 

The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Vol. XVIII. 
part I.— By THe Society. 

The Calcutta Christian Observer, for Oct. 1848.—By THE EpiTors. 

The Oriental Christian Spectator, Vol. IX. No. 9—By THe Epiror. 

The Oriental Baptist, Nos. 22, 23.—By THe Epiror. 

Meteorological Rigister kept at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, for 
the months of Augt. and Sept. 1848.—By tHe Deputy SuRVEYORGENERAL. 

Statistics of Sugar produced within the Presidencies of Bengal, Fort St. 
George, and Bombay. Calcutta, 1848. (Pamphlet)—By THE GOVERNMENT 
oF BENGAL. 

Plans of the Captured Sikh Trophies, Folio—By tHe Mitirary Boarp. 

Inscriptions on the Captured Sikh Trophies, 4to.—By THE SAME. 

Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Asiatic 
Society, (Pamphlet).— By THE Soctery. 

Upadeshaka, Nos. 21, 22, 23.—By rue EpiTor. 

Tatwabodhini Patrica, Nos. 62, 63—By tHe TATWABODHINI SOBHA. 


Exchanged. 
Journal Asiatique, No. 54. 
Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society, Vol. VI. Part III. 
Jameson’s Journal, No. 89. 
The Athenzum, Nos. 1082—5. 


Purchased. 


Alison’s History of Europe, Vols. XVIIT. XIX. and XX. 

Atlas to the above, 16 Nos. 

The Kalpa Satra, and Nava Tatwa: two works illustrative of the Jain Re- 
ligion and Philosophy, translated from the Magadhi, by the Rev. J. Steven- 
son, London, 1848, 8vo. 

The Edinburgh Review, No. 177. 

The North British Review, No. 18. 

The Annals and Ma gazine of Natural History, Nos. 7, 8. 

The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, No. 219. 

Journal des Savants; April and July, 1848. 

Comptes Rendu Hebdomadaires des Seances de |’Academie des Sciences, 
Nos. 2] and 25, Vol. XX VI. and Nos. 1 to 4, Vol. XXVII. 

The Calcutta Review, No. XIX. 


(A correct Report) W. B. O’SHauGuNeEssy, Secry. 


_ Meteorological Register kept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of Nov., 1848. 


Lat. 22° 33' 28’, 33 N. Long. 88° 23’ 42”, 84 East. Mag. Variation 2° 28’ 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 45’. 


‘Observations made at sunrise, Maximum Pressure observed at 9h. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon. Observations made at 2b, 40m. p.m. Minimum Pressure observed at 4 p.m. ‘Observations made at sunset. Soesiaieas aaa Rain Gauges, 
13 
Temperature. | Wind. & Temperature. | Wind. Temperature. | Wind. & Temperature. | Wind. ba Temperature. | Wind. % Temperature. | Wind, fa ® || Btovations, 
2 z 2 2 2 | zs |— 
3 a z = 3 3 : sei r FP : 
“ ¢ s * 3 3 3 3 4 B | Feot.| Feet! | 5 
3 . 2 2 3 5 3 = < 3 = taal AA 3 s re 3 . Fy S Ja-| a} a7) ig 
E é sles lisa aye || 3 sat Weal z2| 2 ais |e elle S|) ee ij: 
2 eile |3 3 = Baile | erales = Siz | 2 = = 5 | 5 5 5/2] 2 = EB || = 3 4 2 s [3 s|3 
fe Baas = ge(/42)2|)2) 2 3 2/2/21] 2 = 2\2 s eis/2| 2 z/< : 3 5 g|g Be 
s 2 3 3 Ba| 2 3 2 3 3 H 3 S S 3 s 2 g z Po 3 2 2 3 s & a A ‘o se ils 
z 2\/2|2| 2 z bel2/2]2)| 2 = ft Wis Mio | 2 z 22 2 a 2 2 2 |< z z 5 s|3/] 8] & \sié 
2 s\lsls 5 = A ri rt} 6 < On |Lon |: =) <- o|s <a ss 5 Ci) a < 2 aja/s|3 eA 
e ° “ 2. S = e Q Q = C (al 4} ° | Tosh. toch, 
1 14.8 | 15a | 725 Cloudy. +|Cloudy. 89,9 | 82.5 | 76.6 »|Cloudy.. a5 iCldy. Cir. cum, 84.0 | 83.8 | 75.2 al N.N.W.Cirro cumali, o 75,2 105.8) «6 | 1 
2 71.6 | 720 | 69.0 |N.N.E,|Cirro cumuli. Clear. 87.4 | 866 | 74.7 \Cirro cumuli, 89.0 Cirri. 880 | 85,7 | 726 a2 NINA) Ditto. . 729 |y1a6) 6. | te 2 
3 70.5 | 71.2 | 69.9 |N.N.W./Clear. Ditto, 88.0 | 86.5 | 73.8 iClear. 883 3,|Clear. 873 | 85 8 N. jClear, TLO |LISA) ae as 8 
‘ 71.3 | 72,0 | 71.0 |N.N.W,|Clear. Ditto. 86,3 | 85.5 | 73,2 ‘Cumulo strati. 85.8 \Cirro curnuli, B48 | 82.2 cS N.N.W.|Cirro cumuli | 887 Tid |109.8) «. « [D) 4 
5S 69.4 | 69.9 | 67.0 Ditto. Ditto. 1949 | 85,8 | B44 Clear. 863 Clear. 83.7 81.2 | 69.8 |W. N.W.[Clear. 87.2 10.0 |105.8) 5 
6 70,8 | 708 | 67.0 Ditto. Ditto. 960| Bid | 83.9 Dito. 5 Ditto. 83.8, 208 | 70.5 W.) Ditto. 86.8 7028 |i 6 
5 70.0 | 703 | 66.8 Ditto: Bid | 83.2 Ditto. 45,1 Ditto. 32 80.4 Ditto. 86,2 7 
8 69.9 | 70,0 | 67.3 Ditto. 83,7 | 83.0 Ditto. 86.2 Ditto. 828 Ditto. 87.0 8 
Ditto. 815 Ditto. Bid Ditto. a7 Ditto, 1858) 79.3 Ditto. asa | 76.2 9 
Ditto. 80.7 Ditto. 834 Ditto. 20.8 Ditto, 1850 | 78,7 Ditto. BAT | 154 10 
Ditto. 81.3 Ditto, 83,7 Ditto. £07 Ditto. 904| 783. Ditto. B48 | 748 loll 
Ditto, Ditto, 1929] BLS | 80.8 Ditto. 3.1 Ditto. 20.3 Ditto, 860} 79,0 Ditto. 84.0 | B45 “ ha 
| Cirro strat, .|Cirri. 946] 82,2 | 804 Cumulie 900) 83.2 ’.Cumuli, 807 Cirro strati. 
5 reall ie on cee ret] Po Bes ae 3 a |e -» |<. 10.13 | 090} |I5 
Drizzly. Cloudy. .|Cloudy. {866} 60,3 “Cloudy. loudy. .879| 77.5 146 | 947] 2. | .. | {I 
E.|Cloudy. Drzaly. Ditto, .907| 77.6 Ditto, 910) 78.5 tt Ditto, 997) 76,3 73.7 | 98.9) he 
Cloudy. Cloudy. Ciro cumuli, | 30,019) 83.7 “Cirro cumuli. 30,016 | 84.3 V,|Cirro cumuli, Clea 71,0 |109.7| . qjie 
|Clear. N. E.|Clear. E,/Clear, 019) 4.2 Clear. 2014 | 83,2 Clear. Ditto. 67.9 /107.0) «4 Ha 
Ditto. Ditto. Ditio. 017 | a3.4 ‘Cumuli. Did) 82.6 Cumuli, Ditto, 65.0 [106.6 «. | .. | |? 
Ditto, W. [Cumuli. ‘Cumuli. 29.981) 83.5 Ditto. 129.981 (Clear. eran 84.5 | 75.8 | 67.0 |106,7| .. . ak 
E.\Cirro strati. V. ‘Cumulo strati. | 30,011! 83.6 Cumulo strati. Cumuli, Ditto, 84,2 | 75.1 | 66.0 108.0) oe 2 22 
ACumuli, Cumuli. .017| 64.0 Cumuli. Ditto, Ditto. aus | 75.5 | 60.5 |to4s| 2. [28 
Ditto ‘Cumulo strati. | ,008) 62.9 Ditto. Ditto, Cirro cumuli. 67.6 |104.0) «2 | ae ae 
.|Cloudy. 81,2 | 69,0 |) Cumuli, 4 | Cumulo strati, Ditto. 67,6 }105,7| .. 
(Cirro cumuli, 81.0 | 67.0 |N Ci #26 | Cin W.. |Cirro cumuli, 66.4 [1002 
Cumuli. 810 | 67.9 [NI Clear. | Cumulle W.N.W,|Clear. 66.4 |107,0) 
Cin. 79.8 | 687 |N.N.W,|Cumu | Ditto. 67.6 |N. W. | Ditto. 64,7 105.8 
.|Cirro strati, f,\Cumulo strati. | 090) 82.3 | 81.3 | 69,3 [N.N.W,)_ Ditto, 684 Cumulo strati, 66,0 |107.0) .. ” 
Foggy. Cumuli Jo72| 82.3 | 81.3 | 69.4 |N.W. Clear. 67a Clear. 63,7 |106.7) «- | 
. 84.9 | 76.6 a8 [100.4 018 0.20 
SS SS Se ee ee 


(ean OF tha Corresponding month of last year 
20,955 672 67.8 60.5 30.008 77,6 77.5 70.5 29,962 81,0 804 70.1 29,902 B22 81.6 709 29,992 81,5 80.1 69,2 29,900 78.5 77.5 69.0 Bh ls cet ce (dO) O50! 


‘These Observations have been made for the most part, with a supply of new and first rate Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government a brief description of the Instruments seems necessary. e 
AsL—Thie Barometer is a standard Instrumant by Newman, diameter of the tube 0.504 Inches. ‘The following is the comparative shewing of this Lostrument and those Barometers which were in use at the Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1844. Barometer by Troughton used prior to the Ist of Juno, 1844. Observations reduced to 32° Fabrenheit. 
Ditto ” * ” fi » O81 Ditto. Ditto... Ditto Col. Everest used from Ist of June to Bist of August, 1844. + Di 

1 “ No. 52 Standard Barometer by Newman used from Ist of September, 1844, 

2nd.—The Thermometer iso Standard Instrument by Newman, on metal Scale and graduated to 4 of a degree. oO. 88 Ditto los =< «aafrom 3d. of April, 

Sed-—Wer Bulb Hygrometer by Newman, graduated to singla degree division, the dffereuce between Standard Thermometer and dry Thermometer of this Instrument + 0.2, the Temperature of the dry Bulb is taken from the Standard Thermometer, wod iu the event of the quantity moisture, dew point, or dryness, 
lakeo into calculation, 

4th—Maximum and Minimum Thermometer by Nowman, ‘The difference between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is -+-0.7 for the former and 0,23 for tlelatter. ; B 

othe the Temperature wa in Column dl ofa Thermometer, in sun's rays, is acquired by means of a Newman's Muximun Thermometer having a black bulb.—Whe above Instruments, excepting the Thermometer placed in the sun's rays, are fixed atabove 4} fect from the ground, to a post, in a thickly choppered house, and are freely exposed to the air and sheltered from any influence 
Solar reflection, 


‘The height of the Surface of the Mercury in the Cistern of the Stundurd Barometer in the Observatory attached to the Surveyor General's Office shove the Mean Level of the Sea, having been deduced from u Series of Tide Observations taken from a Register kept at Kyd's Dock Yard, the result is recorded for general information. 
‘ee! 


H. L. OEY hath 
Officiating Deputy Surveyor General, 
us charge fibetsiate General's Office. 


Lowest Monthly Average of Mean Tides in the Months of February and March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yarl, Calcutta, 
Difference of Level between the Zero of Tide Gauge at Kyd’s Dock Yard, and the Standard Barometer at the Observatory, « 


Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea, 
= Ek 


oS 


4a 
a. 


a 


{ 
PP ete 


4 


- i ipl an ctr eS mg 


‘@ 
« 


by 


se va 
it OS aS. a. 


oe ate ate ae 
eae ) a te2 . 


aw 


v7 = 
~ a -€ 
~~ = - ah 
— > 
_-—-2 
ee... 
= > 
2 as = 
=a 
ea : 
é ae agen > 
ees i “A wa ; i ~ 2 
é Siero 7. : 
See} ee tz: 
Fe lg a et RET th al = P 
ot ‘ 
-.~* 
¢ yy - 
—" P 


eee < 
AOS Sh ep eae a. F 
oan ee Se oe eel 

, of 


Sf A Rice 


a he — _ > 


to 


= 4 
~ Zz ’ + 5 
“48 
* 4 " 

- 
= 
~ 

- 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


MolLATIC SOCIETY. 


ese een 


DECEMBER, 1848. 


A few Gleanings in Buddhism, by Lieut.-Col. Low. 


The following are some of the memoranda, most of which I made long 
ago while looking over Bali and Siamese books, in presence of Siamese 
Buddhist priests. I do not profess an acquaintance with the Pali lan- 
guage, but I had in my service until his death a Siamese, but not a 
priest, of Bankok, who was, for his country at least, a proficient in it. 
I had not, unfortunately, leisure to avail myself of what he did know of 
the language for acquiring a competent acquaintance with it, and any 
how the want of a Pali grammar and dictionary would have been a 
serious obstacle. 

Some of the Siamese contend that the present Buddha had no right 
to enter Nirvana or Nirbritti, as Ais period had not arrived, and that he 
attained to this dignity by practising a deception upon Yakaré Ariya, 
his elder rother, he himself being the fifth. The deception is thus 
described. These two brothers proposed to justly determine which of 
them was best prepared for the divine condition of Nirvana, by a trial 
of superhuman skill or power. Two lotus buds were placed before 
them. Turning their persons from these, but in opposite directions, 
they repeated certain sacred formule, and on resuming their positions 
found that Ariya’s bud had blossomed, but that his brother’s had not. 
Buddha, pretending some informality, required another trial; and dur- 
ing this he deceitfully changed the buds, and thus appeared the victor. 
Ariy4, by his intuitive knowledge was aware of the trick ; but being of 
a humane disposition he said nothing, and permitted Buddha to enter 
Nirvana. 

No. XXIV.—New Series. 41 


592 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [ Dec. 


This must, I should think, have been some heretical doctrine ; for it 
can hardly be believed that a religion so based on morality as Bud- 
dhism is, would at the threshold of its origmal temples, have tolerated 
such a breach of it. I feel convinced, that the comparatively pure 
Buddhism, which was carried from Ceylon to Cambodia by Buddha 
Ghésa, and thence by others to Siam, perhaps through Laos, was 
greatly adulterated, and assumed more of a polytheistic character than 
its hitherto rather theomachistic dogmas had permitted; about the 
time when the brahmans had fully achieved the superiority in India 
over the Buddhists, and had spread themselves as religionists to the 
eastward; and when the heretical Buddhist sects, let loose from all 
restraint, disseminated their own doctrines far and wide. 

Much learning and ingenuity has been expended in the West in the 
endeavour to trace Western Buddhism to the east, but perhaps the pre- 
valent impression on the mind of the eastern orientalist is that it 
originated in the west and was there the parent of Indian Buddhism, 
if not indigenous to India. Hinduism too, under the form and impress 
in which we now find it, must have been brought to India from western 
regions, if it was really the religion of the drdhmans as a tribe of 
foreigners, and not in the main, as I cannot help considering it to be, 
a particoloured pantheon, tenanted by deities possessing most incongruous 
attributes, and jumbled up with monstrous and polluted imaginings, and 
ehimeras dire ; and thus laboriously and cunningly erected, by the brah- 
mans, for the gratification of their lust for power, and of their hatred 
of the Buddhists, on whom they had for centuries kept fixed their 
basalisk eyes, and not with that expanded desire, which the Buddhists 
seem to have entertained for the amelioration of the moral condition of 
mankind. 

In admitting that Buddha had a preeursor in the same path as 
himself, we are by no means called upon at the same time to unreflect- 
ingly adopt the predecessors of the latter, although there would be 
nothing, morally, to prevent our even admitting them suppositively ; 
for we should in this case have only to discard the lengthened periods, 
astronomical or fanciful, which have been assigned to the three first 
Buddhas, and to bring them nearer to the Jills of mortality, to render 
them manageable. 

The Buddha of the present period, dating from his apotheosis im 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 593 


B. C. 543, seems to have had no connexion personally with the nations 
of the west. But from his religious system, whose roots seem to pene- 
trate to a greater depth than any one appears yet to have reached, or 
may perhaps be able to reach, and of the volumes, of which not per- 
haps more than a mere fractional portion has yet been classically 
examined, rays of light may hereafter emanate to brighten the path 
both of history and archaiology. 

The fact that scarcely any of the names by which Buddha is known 
are patronymical, but mere titles, leaves open a wide field for their 
application, and might give rise to a belief that they, or some of them 
at the least, might have appertained to previous deified mortals. 

Of the names, worldly titles, and parentage of the present Buddha, 
there is now I believe no doubt, and the principal ones may be found 
in the Mahawanso. 

But if any of the names or appellatives now bestowed upon him as 
contained in the following list, could be proved to have been borrowed, 
a clue might possibly be found to their original application. 

Sir W. Jones gave us a list of Buddha’s names, but I believe they 
are Hindu ones, and most of them also used by Buddhists. But I 
apprehend that whatever we may receive from that source, relating to 
Buddhism, cannot, unless corroborated by Buddhist writings be depended 
upon. J would even look with suspicion upon Buddhist works com- 
posed in Sanscrit, for when this language superseded the Pali or 
Magadhi, a change was gradually advancing, the brahmans were spread- 
ing their nets in secret, heresies were corroding the but lately purified 
doctrines of Buddhism; and the use of Sanscrit rendered it easy for 
both heretics and braéhmans to color, distort, eliminate or falsify all the 
Buddhist books which fell into their hands; and which they hoped at 
least to be able to dovetail into their own system, when they should 
find it convenient. 

The rest, as it is suspected, or rather known, they destroyed. 

The names of Buddha, in general, according to Sir W. Jones, are— 

1 Muni. 2 Sastri. 3 Munindra. 4 Vinayaca. 5 Samanta. 6 
Bhadra. 7 Dharma Raja. 8 Sugata. 

And his titles— 

1 Sacyamuni. 2 Sacyasingha, 3 Sarvartha-siddha. 4 Sud’hodhani. 
5 Gautama. 6 Arcaband’hu, or kinsman of the sun. 7 Maya or 
child of Maya, (delusion) or Mayadevisuta. 


594 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. (Dec. 


Buddha is a word, he adds, commonly used for a mere wise man, 
without supernatural powers. 

Buddha, like Samana, seems to have been a name or title bestowed 
on priests, as well as on the Buddha of the period. Samana Khi- 
tama, or the man divested of passions, beg the Samanakhodam of 
Siam. 

When Budd’ha, or a Buddha, has nearly attained to perfection, he is 
termed in Siamese sacred Pali books Paramabédhisat [Bod’hisatwa]. 

I extract from the Siamese Pali work ‘ Milinda Raja, the following 
titles expressive of nature’s divinely favored : 

Soté pattimagga. 
Sakidagé mimagga. 
Anaga mitto. 
Arahatta ditto. 

Sota patti Phala. 
Saki déga mi Phala. 
Anéga mi Phala. 
Arahatta Phala. 

The periods assigned in the Milmda Raja to the five Buddhas are— 
For the Ist, from the consolidation of the world, 12 antara Kalpas. 
Ditto 2d, 10 antara Kalpas. 

3d, 4th and 5th, also similar periods. 

After Metraiyo a space of 12 antara Kalpas will occur, when Sampatti 
Maha Meg will appear. Then a period will ensue of 6264 antara Kal_ 
pas, at the end of which the world will be consumed by fire, and a new 
world will be created or will arise, to be called Sangwatto. In the 
‘Ratana Kaldpa Mettaiyo’ is described as having been a Bodhi Satwa, 
of whom there are three classes,— 

1. Ughati tango, supremely wise. 

2. Wipachi, of great purity of mind, &c. 

3. Néyo, possessed of great perseverance ; ‘great mental power mili- 
tates against purity of soul. 

The other names and titles of a Buddha, but whether all are strictly 
Pali J shall not pretend to say, are: 

Sri Saraphet. 
Buddhi lakhana. 
Buddha baltabarém. 
Chinnasi. 


ee ee eee 


1848.] 


A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 


Saraphet charangst 
Chimarat. 
Budd’ha Rattana. 
Salsada chan. 
Yanna Sappanyo. 
Kassa P’halayan. 
Samasam Budd’ho. 


995 


Bardmma. 

Sri Sakhot. 

Bardmmaé Buddhi Satwa. 

Barémmaming. 

Barommanat. 

Barommayan. 
These are titles of Buddhas who have already been and will again be : 
Sattha. Samantachak’ khu. 
Dasabalo. Buripanyo. 
Sabbanyo. Maraji. 
Dipaduttamd. Narasiho. 
Munindo. Narawaro. 
Nathd. Dewa Dewo. 
Chakkhima. Loka Guru. 
Angiras6. D’ hammasimi. 
Lokanatho. Tathagato. 
Anadhiwaro. Sayambhu. 
Mahesi. Warapanyo. 
Winayako. Nayako. 


In the Pali (Siamese) Ratana Kalapa it is stated that there are 


three Bodhi 


Satwa. 


I find in it also a list of seven Buddhas ending with Gotama, which 


with Metteya, who is yet to come, will be eight in all. 


They are 


1. Wipassi, his son Sawajakhanda, and his wife Sudano. 


2. Sikk’hi, his son Attila, and his wife Sabbakama. 


3. Wessabhu, his son Stippabiddha and his wife Stichita, (which is 
the name of one of Indra’s wives). 
4. Kakisando, whose son was Anttaro, and wife Aparojini. 


5. Konagamand, son Sattawaho, wife Suiwattati. 


6. Kassapo, son Wjita Sena, wife Sunanda. 


7. Gotama, son Rahula, wife Bimba Bhagawati. 


596 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [ Dec. 


Wipassi and Kaktisando rode on horseback when they went to be 
ordained as priests. 

Sikhi and Koénagamano went on elephants. Wessabhi was conveyed 
ina chariot. Kassapho in a moving palace (Q palankin) and Gotama 
rode on a horse. 

«An account (observes the compiler of the Ratana Kaldpa) is to be 
found of the ages of all of these Buddhas in the book called Buddhaéni 
Puriwatta, Vol 3d.’’ 

In Wipassi’s time, it is further observed, a cheti or relic fane was 
built by Pinabbasuto nama Setthi. 

In the time of Kakusando, a temple or dagoba was erected by 
Abhita Setthi. (I cannot find the proper name of the place but it 
was doubtless Abhayapura where king Abhayo reigned). 

In Konagamana’s time a cheti was built by a rich man at Uggo 
Setthi. The city was Waddha, and Raja Samiddho reigned ; a famine 
prevailed during this time. [Here the royal garden—the city—the 
prince Samiddho—and Adam’s-peak are described as in the Ceylonese 
Mahawanso}. 

In Kassapa’s time Stmangitla erected a cheti, which was named 
Yarama, (the Thuiparama of Ceylon perhaps was named after it.) 
This was in the country of Wesilipiré to the westward in Manda- 
dwip, and the Raja was Jaiwanto or Jaiyanto and Adam’s-peak was 
called Subhakita. ‘The country was much disturbed during this time. 

In Gotama’s time, a temple was erected by Anata pindi maha Séti. 

The Maha Sammati Wangsa, or a genealogy of Buddha from the 
same work. 

1. Rojo Wararojo. 

. Maha Panatha who came after many ages had lapsed. 
. Maha Dewa Raja. 

. Kala Raja ka Raja. 

. Sanjaya. 

. Maha Dipati Jayaséna had two sons. 

. Jaiyansena who lived in Lanka. 


Noe Ao & WwW bd 


. Dipakdmara. 
Jayasena married into the family of Sakya Raja of Kapila-Wat- 
thi. He slew his father (Q. in-law) and became king of that country. 
Dipaktiméra became king of Dewa Lanka and he had a son. 
Jaiya Dipa and a daughter Kachayana (or Yena). 


1848.] A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 597 


Jaiyasena’s son was Sihahand and his daughter was Yasodra. 
Jaiyasena married Kachaiyana, and they had five sons. 
Suddhod’ hana. 

Dod’ hana. 

Sa’lodhana. 

Suk’ kodhana. 

Amitod’ hana. 

And two daughters Amitta and Palita. 

Jaiyadipa married Yasddra who had 

Janadhipati, son. 

Kakayana, daughter. 

Janadipatti married Sinanda Dewi, and they had for issue— 

~ ne ee Daughters, and 

2. Pajapati 

1. Dantapavi 4 Sons. 

2. Suppabudd’ha 

The latter married Amita, and they had two sons. 

1. Subhada Kabhaiyana. 

2. Dewadat’ha. 

Sudodhana son of Jaiyasena and Kachaiyena married Maha Maya. 
Their son Sidhatta Kimara, who married Bimba alias Subhada Ka- 
chaiyena. Their son was Rahula. 

Barommialak’ hanat. 

Bhakk’ hawa. 

Somdet Satsana. 

Karunna (Karunya). 

Maha Krasiat. 

The following are from the Milinda Raja Four Budd’ho, or classes of 
priests and titles. 

1. Suta Budd’ ho—who are deeply read in Pali learning. 

2. Chatu sachcha ditto—applied to learned expounders of the doctrine. 

3. Pachék’ha ditto—those whose virtuous deeds have brought them 
to the threshold of Nirvana. 

4. Sapp’hanyo ditto—who were divinely gifted or mspired with holy 
knowledge. 

I have a Pali book in my possession bearing the title of Thassachatta 
SESLIOA SH as the Siamese pronounce the words, or the ten sepa- 


598 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. | Dec. 


rate states of existence of Buddha. It is in as many volumes, and is 
rather bulky. With the help of my native assistant I many years ago 
made short abstracts of each of these sections—and should I find that 
they may be at all useful in elucidating the history of the kings of central 
India, and not yet translated, they can be forwarded for the Journal of 
the Society. 

The ten states of the earthly existence of Buddha previous to his 
becoming a Buddha; from the Pali. 

Te Ja Su Né > Ma» Bhi Chao NG Wi oWe 


Yy 
6S Fa Fe Me cls Yeaiie on Reel ane 
Dae. 3 


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] 


Y 
aleesesesa Ela migé. 
2 


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699/3899 P’hicha nak’ha. 


3 
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S27 Wichita ; 
4 
HIST HIEIESQ Ne’raya kakh’ata. 
nae 
9257245 AN Umaungkha pichta. 
oo RM 
6 
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$3 1E2T FT 55/6 $7839 Alambhaya hétita. 
7 
y 
$550%55 e399 Yaya piichita. 
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8 
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5S WIS LEI Panhang wichita. 
er) 
9 
VY V Nest 
55EMNES SENSES Yakké mahithita. 
2 a 
10 


y 
SSESUOSEES7 Wangkaté pap’hachitto. 
n y 


y 
(Oro eS Phra sidhata or thatha, 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 599 


The Siamese have, but not contrary, I suppose, to the spirit of Bud- 
dhism, treated Devadatta (or their Thewathat), the persecutor of 
Buddha throughout his ten states of existence, with more considera- 
tion than he would have, under like circumstances, met with from the 
brahmans. He did indeed smk down through the weight of his mis- 
deeds into hell, where he is to remain for one half of an infernal day, 
each of which is equal to five hundred and six years in the heavenly 
regions—while one day of such a year is equivalent to one thousand 
earthly years ; but, then again, after having undergone this almost eternal 
fiery trial, he will return to the earth, become an Arahat, a degree of 
sanctity to which (only) eight [of Buddha’s] disciples attained, and 
after teaching for seven days will enter Nivana. 

Wilford remarked that the Buddhi Satwa of Siam calls Salivahana by 
the name of Devetat. 

My observation does not confirm this, although it is not improbable 
that the brahmans introduced the belief amongst some of the Siamese 
priesthood. In a drawing whichI got long ago from a Siamese Bhiku 
or Bhikchu or Buddhist Priest, this Devadhatta is represented in the 
lowest or fifth mansion of hell, undergoing his punishment. Wilford, 
in the Asiatic Researches, describes this victorious personage under the 
name of Tacshaca, observing that he was “ crucified by order of Buddha, 
on an instrument resembling the cross, according to the writings of 
travellers into Siam. By others he was impaled alive upon a double 
cross and hurled into the infernal regions, and Samana Gautama fore- 
told that he would be a God in reality.” 

Hence too, certain writers, wishing, with a very misplaced and mis- 
chievous zeal, to have it believed that the Buddhists received their 
ideas of Devadhatta or Devodassa, from the Christians, although the 
latter person lived and sinned B. C. 543, at the latest, have adduced 
this cross as a proof of their position. I subjoin a correct copy of 
the representation in my drawing as above alluded to. From the marks 
_ of blood on the arms and legs it should seem that it is intended to 
represent him as having been nailed to the four beams, and not impaled. 

“King Aryya is the same with the Pra Aryya-sira of the followers 
of Gautama in Siam and other countries to the eastward of it. He is 
the mighty pre-chief of the Arryas or Christians, and with him Buddha 
waged war, as well as with Azs disciple Praswana. 

The Aryya Raja is also the same with the Deva Twash’ta or Deva- 

4k 


600 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [Drc. 


tat, who was crucified by order of Buddha.”’* <‘‘ Dévatat being, several 
times worsted in his wars with Buddha, made overtures of peace, and 
Samana Gautama consented on three conditions, first to worship God, 
then his word, and lastly himself. This last article was rejected, and 
Tevatat was worsted in the next battle and was taken prisoner, and im- 
paled alive by order of Buddha, and his limbs trussed up upon a dow- 
ble cross, and in that state hurled into the infernal regions.’+ I sus- 
pect, with exception of Devatat’s enmity to Buddha, the rest of this 
account is apochryphal ; first, there was no prominent self-existent God 
in the then Indian systems ; secondly, it does not appear that Buddha 
inculeated at any period the worship of himself in his earthly shape, 
and doubtful if he did so in his future one; and thirdly, such a cruelty 
inflicted on his enemy was in direct contradiction to the whole tenor of 
his life, which was marked by practising and preaching humanity, for- 
giving even the person who poisoned him. 

Buddha’s disciples were we know numerous enough. They are 
classed by the Buddhists of Siam as Arahdns. The chief of these 
was P’hra Arahan, but he is stated in the 10th Vol. of the Asiatic 
Researches. “‘to have been Siva or Uranus, who both preside over 
astronomy.’ But the mference or identification does not appear to me 
to have been proved. His followers are likewise described as having 
at one period been the most powerful amongst the heterodox sects, 
meaning the Buddhists in this instance. 

The Phra Arahan are borne on the Siamese war flag under the sym- 
bol @ 8 as there were eight of them—and they are represented in their 
various stages of the metempsychosis under various forms of half-human 
half-bestial ; or with human heads peeping out of shells, as in Sancha- 
dwip. 

In the Pah Book called by the Siamese Milin, which I have sup- 
posed to be the Milinda Raja, and of which I have, as already noticed, 
a copy, there is a section or passage descriptive of the Arahantd, who 
are rated at 100,000. Amongst these were pre-eminent 

Assakhutta Therd, who full of divine inspiration, abode on the top 
of the mountain Yukhunthan, (Vicuntha, I suppose,) and who had 
gone to call Nagasena down (from heaven) when he was a Devatta. 


* As. Res. Vol. x. p. 44. t As. Res. Vol. x. pp. 94, 95. 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 601 


P’hra Naga, who while a Devatta in Tavatinsa, abode in the palace 
Kétumti in the west. 

Réhana Therd, who was the teacher or spiritual guide of Phra Naga 
until he became priest, and who attended him during the succeeding 
seven years, until he attained to be Soda, or perfectly versed in holy 
writing, language, and ordinances. 

P’hra Naga was also called P’hra Arahatta when his time of entering 
the state of Nivan or Nibritti was at hand ; and he had become perfect in 
divine knowledge, and the Dhammanga sacred language. His con- 
dition then was that of essassdkaram, or of one freed from all earthly 
affections and passions. His residence was in Pataliputro. This holy 
man also met with Milinda at the Vihan of the priest the Aytban 
Asangk’haié pariwénd, where were multitudes (80,000) of his followers. 

Maurice* curiously classifies the Buddhists thus, on what autho- 
rity I forget, but I think on Wilford’s :—“ Mahadeva is believed by the 
Jainas to have assumed the form of Arahan or Mahiman, accompanied 
by his wife Mahamauya’”’ [Buddha’s mother Maha Maya is perhaps 
here meant]. “The heterodox Indians [by which he here means 
. Buddhists] are divided into three sects. The followers of Jaina, on 
the -borders of India, the Buddhas in Tibet, who perverted Devodasa, 
and the Arahan, said to have been formerly the most powerful, and 
whose followers now reside principally in Siam.”? But I have shown that 
the Siamese do not apply the name to Buddha. The order too I think 
should have here been reversed. The Buddhists, or so called Arahan 
first, the Tibetans second, and Jainas the last, for I cannot help being 
of opinion that the Tibet Buddhists received the doctrine after it had 
changed its dress from the Pali to Sanskrit: leaving the most orthodox 
class in possession of the original books in the Pali, while the Jainas 
are confessedly heterodox from both. 

Other noted Buddhists were Anirid’ha, Maha Kachaya, Meghi, 
Khonthan, Assachina, Mahanama, Avapa, Bhakkhaivama, Chiin- 
dha, Maha Thero. This last personage is invoked to cure diseases, 
and is believed by the Siamese to have been a celebrated astronomer. 

Ananda, Kachaya Upphakhutta, Aniriid’ha, Malaiya, Kassapha, 
Ubali, Simp’hali, Dattharatha, Anghuliméra, who seems to be the 
Angulimala who was instructed by Buddha.+ 


* Indian Antiquities. tT As. Res. Vol. II. p. 387. 
4K 2 


602 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [Dec. 


It is related of this disciple that he was instructed in his duties as a 
priest, by a high caste brahman, who became much attached to him. 
He was then however, it seems, of the brahminical sect, for, as the 
legend runs, this partiality of the spiritual guide towards him so excited 
the enmity of several other noviciates that they conspired, and accused 
the favorite to the brahman of carrying on an illicit amour with his 
daughter. 

The brahman, dissembling his rage under the mask of friendship, 
and with a view to lead to his destruction, sent for the disciple, and 
communicated to him as a secret a mode by which he would assuredly 
attain to Nivana without further study. This was to frame a necklace 
of 109 human sculls (Siva’s necklace occasionally). The disciple fol- 
lowed the advice, and had by waylaying travellers and killmg them 
collected 108 of these sculls, when Buddha appeared before him in 
order to prevent a meditated matricide. The disciple, ignorant of his 
rank, pursued him to slay him, but Buddha rose into the air, and 
admonished him, and he, dreading the consequences of his conduct, 
besought Buddha to pardon him, and place him on the list of his 
spiritual sons. This legend was doubtless fabricated at a modern 
period, for if true, which it cannot be, this convert must have been 
instigated to these reputed and foul murders by a priest either of 
Kali or of Siva. But it shows how corrupted Buddhism must have 
become to countenance, as a fact, so attrocious a transgression of the 
law. 

The birth and life of Buddha, as recorded m the Siamese sacred 
books, agrees closely with the description given in the Mahawanso 
of Ceylon. The Buddhists attracted so little notice of the learned 
until some few years back, that I did not think it worth while to pub- 
lish all of the translations which I had made of portions of Buddha’s 
history. I think it probable that a copy of the Mahawanso may exist 
in the archives of the palace at Bankok. But no visitor seems yet to 
have had access to any Siamese Library there. 

The Siamese have been deeply embued by the brahmans with a 
mania for astrology, necromancy, and their kindred arts. The following 
are some of their invocations, which the Sanskrit scholar will readily 
trace to their source. Kmpiricism too, being fostered in Siam, these 
invocations are in high repute with their faculty. They are believed 


———— es eee 


ee 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 603 


to have been conferred on Buddha by five Devatta Patitha-tha, whose 
names are given in the Milinda Raja. 

Om.—The all-powerful invocation which was framed by the mighty 
Indra and Sri Rama and the divine Devattas of all degrees for the use 
of man in his several occupations and perplexities. 

A. U. M., according to the Asiatic Researches* is Vishnu, Siva, and 
Brahma or Brahmé. It is the everliving of the ancient Tartars.+ 

Faber notices of this celebrated triliteral word that it thus occurs 
om-phic-al, or the oracle of the Solar God, which the Greeks changed 
into om-pha-lus, and the Latins into umbilicus.{ I have alluded further 
on to this enigmatical triliteral, in connexion with the worship of the 
sun as the great first Cause and supporter of life throughout the whole 
of animated nature, according to the ancient Persians. 


Invocations. 


May the beneficent and powerful throughout the three worlds, 
heaven, earth, and hell, namely, the glorious Indra or Ph’ant’ha, and 
Narai or Sri Rama, with all the good and benignant inferior deities 
give efficacy to their own potent invocation for the attainment of our 
present desire. 

And thou Sri Sarap’hat, who art Buddha or Samana Khatama, and 
art now in the enjoyment of heavenly rest, who art purified from, and 
exalted above, every earthly affection, who when called upon, art omni- 
present, who knowest all hearts, who alone possesses the power and 
privilege of walking upon the waves of the ocean, who nicely discri- 
minateth betwixt good and evil, virtue and vice. And ye inferior 
Devattas who adore Buddha T’harani, and thou, O Iswara [P’ho pen 
chau, of the Siamese, or literally “man become Lord| who established 
or made the heavens and the earth and all that is in them.” 

Who also framed the equinoctial line [typified by a threefold thread 
or platted lme, and which is used to encircle a new building or a ship 
to consecrate it]. 


* Vol. V. p—. 
+ Key to Hindu Chronology. 
+ Faber’s Cabiri, Vol. 1. p. 66. 


604 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. | Dec. 


Who art invisible, intangible, and a respecter of Buddha, although 
his superior. ‘OQ come with all the benignant powers of that divine 
Bemg (Buddha). He who established the Pali, founded the sacred 
order [the latter one it is to be supposed] of the priesthood, and exhi- 
bited in himself a pattern for imitation to the world.” 

If such were the tenets of early Buddhism, they were much fewer 
and more theistical than they now are. 

*‘And thou O Manla phi chai, the famous physician of old, whose 
works have enlightened posterity and Saleng.”’ 

«And thou Yama, ruler of the infernal abodes, and Hunuman and 
Phra Thammayai, and P’hra Thammayan, lend your aid. And ye O 
Maha Changkli, and P’hra Lai Darakan, come and render abortive the 
machinations of evil spirits. And ye all also Krot—Kalinghérat— 
Phonlawibat—Taling Sakh’an—Narai Seng—Narai Kraméu—Kam- 
mayéu—Thammay’i—Sonthaya—Ratri and T’hdranisan, the latter of 
whom wrote a book describing whatever there is of evil in Jumbo 
Dwipa, in air, earth, or water, and injurious to men, come all and 
prove propitious. 

«‘ And may these invocations which I am going to repeat prove effi- 
cacious, seeing that Iswara deigned to employ them ;—Maha Samai, 
Maha Chai, Maha D’hammachak, Maha Thassahak, Wi-pasit and 
Parit. 

«And may ye O Buddha ong, and Thitp’ha nangkén and Widok 
Thautrai and Sut and Winai be gracious. 


«And may I be aided by the Maha Chat or the ten states of existence 
of Buddha (the fourth) which a priest received from that holy one 
when he had undergone the tonsure at the lake Anaudat [ Manasarowara|] 
previous to or at the period when he entered holy orders, and who had 
seated himself below a pipul tree.” 


“At this spot the divine sage was visited by all the Devattas. It 
happened that a Yakhsha named Marathera, arrived at the same time. 
Now this Rakhsha had formerly proffered his daughter in marriage to 
Buddha along with the sovereignty of the whole world, at the end of 
7 days, but had been refused, because the offer was coupled with the 
condition that he should abandon his design of becoming a priest. For 
Buddha contemned the riches and glories of this world. When Bud- 


1848. ] A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 605 


dha had retired and was reclining beneath his pipul tree (Bo tree), this 
Rakhsha attacked him out of revenge. But Tharani, the goddess of 
earth, came instantly and rescwed Buddha [not yet a Buddha] by over- 
whelming the Rakhsha in a lake of water which she wrung from her 
ebony tresses.” 

[This goddess is depicted in this attitude in a Siamese cosmogra- 
phical drawing in my possession in a compartment betwixt the earth 
and hell. She occupies the left corner, and Mekhala, I think, the 
right, and betwixt the two are two snakes entwined and recumbent, but 
with their heads erect]. 

*“May Methangkaro [a title of Buddha] approaching by the portal 
of the N. W. render propitious this spell. 

Muni Deva, Muni Nagha. 
Muni Buddha, Muni Phala. 
Sapphé sattru winat santi.”’ 

[| Aparagita protects on the N. W.—ds. Res. vol. vii. p. 83]. 

«« May Sakya Muni K’hatama resplendently enthroned in the N. prove 
favorable to this spell, [another title of Buddha. | 

Sappha Deva. 

Pisa Chewa. 

Deva Alawakat’hayo. 

Picha K’hattha latang t’hittawa. 
Sapphé Yakk’ha. 

Palayanti.” 

[Varahi riding on a buffalo protect me on the north.— As. Res. vol. 
vil. p. 83. ] 

“May Saranangk’haro [another title of Buddha] gracing the N. E. 
render powerful this spell. 

Wipassisara namat’h6. 

Chakk’ho matsa (or massa) sirimat6é. 
Sik’hitsa pinawat’husa. 

B’hib hata nukampin6. 

Wetsap’hd (or Wessaphé) sanamat’hd. 
Nata Katsak’ hapa Sind.”’ 

[| Narasinhi protects on the N. E.—ZJdid. | 

“May Kakdsandho [the 1st Buddha] whose place is every where, 
prove also propitious to all the spells. 


606 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [ Dec. 


“May T. Yhipp’ha Macara also shield us by powerful spells, and so 
may Raja Naga—encircle me with his folds and protect me, and let 
Saranang come too and Parit aid also.” 

Then come invocations for the expulsion of national sprites such as 
the Phi Mon, who are the cause of diseases and possess men, the Phi 
Chalong or guardian genii of mines and excavations, and to whom I 
have every reason to believe human sacrifices were made before Bud- 
dhism humanised the Hindu-Chinese, or Mahometanism struck down 
the bloody altars of Siva, next the spirits of women who have died in 
child-birth. Then philters and charms are to be guarded against, espe- 
cially those prepared out of materials procured in cemetries, and also 
lightning and other dangers, and against unmarried persons beyond the 
age of twenty-two years. 

Early marriage is so inculcated in Siam that bachelorism after the 
above age is considered to harbour something devilish about it, and is 
to be suspected ! 

Save us likewise from childless people and dreamers. 

‘May we be aided by Chinnasi and by Sena Barami and Dhamma 
Barami and by 

Budd@’hd. 
D’hammo. 
Sangho. 

Saribut. 

Buddha Banlang. 

May Buddha’s influence under the following attributes prevail :— 
Sila uppa barami. | 
Sila baramattha barami. 
Dhamma ditto. 
Dhamma uppa ditto. 
Ditto baramatha ditto. 


Nik’ham barami. 
Panya ditto. 
Wiriya ditto. 
Khanthi ditto. 
Sach’cha ditto. 
Athithan ditto. 
Metta ditto. 


Ubekha ditto. 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 607 


_ May Buddha’s influence also avert the mischief arising from the spirits 
of persons who have died a violent death [because such having died in 
a passion they seek revenge], and from those sprites which hover about 
the makers of coffins, and door-frames and windows, and flit around 
all classes of artificers and painters, such people disturbing the spirits 
pervading matter, the elements, &c. and requiring to make ablutions to 
drive them away ; also the mischiefs produced by the genii of the woods, 
wells, springs, ditches, and reservoirs, or which follow stage-performers 
or diggers of hidden treasure.” 

I may here remark that the Siamese are inveterate seekers for con- 
cealed treasure, and that so degenerate have the priests become, that 
they often set the example. Of this I have had many proofs, and a 
Siamese who had been a Bhiku or Priest, when he saw me excavating 
an old ruin, told me as a great secret how to find the treasure he be- 
lieved I was in search of. Alluding to a book called Tamra Kritsana, 
lé lai theng, lé len ré pré t’hat—he described such treasure as of three 
kinds. First, that concealed in the areas of temples [to dig for which 
is death by the Siamese law, at least where such temples have not been 
-deserted|]. The second kind is that which has been buried by chari- 
table persons for the use of those who can find it. The third is that 
derived from the transmutation of the baser into the precious metals, 
earths and other substances. This last study, or search for the Philo- 
sopher’s stone, is in great vogue in Siam. | 

The simple and innocent owl has not here escaped anathematizing, 
as being of fearful omen to those over whose house it hoots. 

May Patt’ha Muttaré [another title of Buddha] approaching the East 
or Barap’ha, render efficacious this spell. 

«Patt hamang b’hint’hukang chatang thetiyang thantha méwa 
chettayang p’hetcha kanchéwa chattut’?hang angkhosa b’hawang pancha 
sirisang chatang nataré hoti sambhawo.” [Sakra guards the East, 
As. Res. vol. vi.| Brahmani protect me on the east riding on a swan, 
[As. Res. vol. vii. p. 83.] 

May Buddha or Rewatto propitiously occupying the Akhane or south- 
east, also assist me with this spell. 

{Narayani protects on the S. E.—Jérd.) 

‘Samp’ hutdd’hé att’ ha wisancha t’hewat’ha sancha sahatsaké pancha 
sata sahassani nama mi sirisa ahang tesang dhammancha sanghancha 

4.4 


608 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [Dec. 


at’hadaré ninama mi sri sanghéng nama mara nub’ hawe mahantawé, 
sapp’hé uppat’hawé aneka antaraé yani piwinat santé asesato.”’ 

May Kassiyapa [Buddha] entering the portal of the south, prove pro- 
pitious with this spell. [Maheswari riding ona bull protects on the 
south, Ibid. | 

Trini singhé—the three lions. Sattha nakhé—the seven elephants. 
Pancha Phichanu name wacha—the five ministers of Indra. Chatu 
thewa—four Devatas. Cha watsa (wassa) Raja—the six kings. Pancha 
Indra—the five Indras. Mahit thika Eka Yaksha—the Rakhsha. 
Nawa thewa—the nine Devos. Pancha Brahma or (Phrahma of Siam) 
—the five Brahmas. Sahabadi T’hawé Raja—the two princes. Attha 
Arahanta—the eight Arahans. Pansha P’hutt’ho—the five Buddhas. 

May Sumangkhald [another title of Buddha] in the portal of the south- 
west, assist me with this spell. Chamunda protects in the S. W. [Idid.] 

Siromé Buddha t’ hewancha lalaté Brahma t’ hewda hant’hayé t’ hannarai 
nayakan t’hewa hatt’hat’hepéparang surapat’hé powissonu kanchewé 
sapp’ ha kama pasitt’hémi. 

May Buddha Sikkhi, another title of Buddha, seated in the west, aid 
me in this spell. [Caumari riding on a peacock protect me on the west. 
Ibid). 

Faber considers the eight gods of Egypt to be the Octaod, as repre- 
senting the poetic family, or Archites* spell. 

Chatturd. 

Nauwa mo. 

Thamé ché. 

Tri nik’ ha. 

Pancha. 

Sattha. 

Attha. 

Eka. 

Cho. 

Sapp hachai winasanti Buddha. 


Buddha received the Buddhist creed from the following deified mor- — 


tals :—Satakhiriyakk’ho, Asurinthé for Rah, I think], Maha Raja of 
the heaven, Maha Rajika, Sakkotatha or Indra. Maha Brahma, he 
with four faces. 


* Faber’s Cabirt. 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 609 


The creed runs thus—Buddhang pachhakhami, D’hammang. pachha- 
khami, Sanghang pachhakhami. Buddha—the Word—the Hierarchy. 

The Vedas were venerated in human shapes because orally delivered 
[A. R.] The brahmans who have in later times gone to Siam continu- 
ed to instil into many there the belief that [their, the brahman] Trivi- 
krama, and Buddha are the same, alleging that the latter, in guise of an 
ascetic obtained a boon from a king of Jumbo Dwipa, as much ground as 
he could compass in three strides, so he compassed the world and thus 
got the sovereignty, but refused to retain it. 

A prominent feature of Buddhism is the veneration of relics. 

Some years ago a Siamese priest who had gone to Ceylon to procure 
relics, arrived at Penang from Siam, bearing the Emperor’s order to the 
priests to erect a relic temple, or Chaittya, there, and deposit part of the 
relics in it. There are now two principal ones and one inferior Chaittya 
on the Island. 

The inquirer into the origin of Buddhism is in a great measure 
relieved from the necessity of classifying gods and goddesses, ad infini- 
tum almost. There is only one real type which he has to trace out, 
through its corruptions. 

Buddha it is said, declared that the relics or S’arira were for the vul- 
gar only (meaning the relics of former Buddhas).* But although he 
certainly did not manifest any particular anxiety as some western heroes 
did regarding the disposal of his body after his death, the omission must 
have been owing also in some degree to his being aware that his relics 
would be worshipped, since the enshrining of those of his predecessors 
was a rule or dogma of the religion he preached. 

The following is from a Siamese version of a Pali work, entitled “ An 
account of the death of Buddha and the distribution of the relics.”’ 

* Let all praise and glory be ascribed to the mighty and holy Buddho, 
who when he was on the eve of entering the divine state of Nivan was 
reclining upon a stone couch shaded by the meeting branches of two 
sacred (Bo) trees near to the country of Kosinaraké, the abode of peace 
and delight. 

“Tn the year of the little snake Maseng [sappo sang wachcharo] in the 
sixth month, on Tuesday, at the golden dawn of day, did Phra Chinnast 
Ta title of Buddha] disappear from the earth and rest in Nirvana. 


* T. R.A. S. Volusib 
4°23 


610 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [Dec. 


‘«¢ The relics which this divine personage left behind him out of com- 
passion for mankind were in number and quantity as follows :— 

First. Seven large bones, namely, two collar bones, the lower jaw- 
bone, and four canine teeth. The right collar bone was taken to Ceylon 
in B. C. 307, and the right canine tooth was preserved for a long time in 
the capital of the Devos (Mahawanso). 

Secondly. Of smaller bones there were sixteen thanan or dona mea- 
sures.* 

All of these remained after the body of Buddha had been consumed 
by the fire which proceeded from it. 

They were afterwards separated into portions. The first portion of 
the small bones, about the size of split peas, comprised five thanan of the 
Siamese [dona of the Pali] or measures, and resembled gold of the ninth 
touch. 

The second, about the size of rice grains bruised, and vying in lustre 
with the adamant, amounted to six measures. The third portion, of the 
size of mustard seed, amounted to five measures. 

These relics were all conveyed away by Garuda, by mankind, and by 
the Devattas residing in the heavenly mansions. 

The first mentioned relics [in whole or in part] were thus disposed of : 

First. The right bone was secured in a holy Phra Chedi (or Dagoba) 
in the country Khant’haratt’ha wisai, or im Pali, as the Siamese priest 
gave it to me, Khantara wisayé (Candahar I suppose). 

Secondly. The left collar bone was conveyed to Sawanna, and there 
enshrined. This appears to be the Sawanna pabbato or golden mountain. 

Thirdly. One of the upper canine teeth on the right side was taken 
to Dauwadungsa Sawan, or in Pali, Tawatinsa se patit-thi-tang, one of 
the heavens of the Buddhists, the capital of the Devos by the Mahawanso:> 
and enshrined in a T’hupani (or Sthoupa). 

Fourthly. The lower canine tooth of the right side was carried to 
Sihala t?hipaké, or Ceylon. 


* The limbs of Osiris were burned and parted into fourteen pieces,and were then 
dispersed all over the world (Wilford and other writers). I am not perfectly cer- 
tain that this osteology is correctly given. 

+ Not being quite sure to what part of the body these two bones belonged, and 
having no clue to their proper names, I have left them unnamed, the rest are named. 
as given to me by my Siamese assistant. ~ 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 611 


Fifthly. A canine tooth of the left side, was enshrined at Gand’ hare 
wisayé. 

In the Mahawanso of Ceylon this country is thus noticed, ‘‘ Gand’ héra 
and Kasmira’” near the “‘ Naga King.’’* 

Sixthly. One of the left lower teeth was deposited ina Fane at 
Nag hapurt. 

The sixteen measures of bones before described were divided into 
three sorts, and distributed throughout eight different regions of Jambu 
Dwip, in the proportions of two measures to each. These were pro- 
bably the pre-eminently Buddhist countries at the period. In B. C. 
157, according to the Ceylonese Mahawanso,} there were priests from 
14 places in India, who attended the building of the Maha Thupo, 
namely, Rajagaha, Isipattana, atemple near Béardnest, Jelo Wiharo 
(near Sawathipura) Mahawanno Wiharo of Wesali. The Ghosita 
temple of Kosambia, Ujeni temple, Asdko temple of Pupphapura, Kas- 
mira, Pallawabhago, Allassada, the capital of the Yona country (q. 
Bactria). The Uttania temple in Winjha, Bodhimando, Wannawaso, 
and lastly from the Kelaso Wiharo. But are we sure that the whole 
of these fourteen countries were Buddhized during Gotama’s life ?—In 
the list of countries visited by Buddha given by me [T. R. A. 8. 1831, 
Vol. III.] the following, which are here named, do not appear, unless 
names be confounded. 

Anlakapaké, Ramakhamo (or gamo), Wet’hatipaké, Weya Képale, Pan- 
chala [q. Punjab], Kosali, Mithila, Wideha, Indraprestha, Braéhman’s 
Town [q. trans-Himalayan], Kiri Khandahara Wisayé, Naghapuri; 
Pataliputra. Itis true that im the list alluded to Buddha, like Hercules, 
is said to have visited the four quarters of the world. It should seem 
that Buddha did not visit Kandahar. This if proved might show that 
Buddhism had not travelled east or S. EK. by that route. But we must 
I fancy deem it as more probable from its distance from Buddha’s birth- 
place, and from having thus so early after his death obtained relics, 
that it had been essentially a Buddhist country, in the days of Kassa- 
pho Buddha. Indeed it seems to me that all which we possess regard- 
ing the Buddhism of India pomts towards the N. EH. from Sakya’s 
birth-place as the quarter whence it emanated. 


* Turnour’s Translation of the Mahawanso, 171. 
f+ Turnour’s Mahawanso, 15, 16, et seq. 


612 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [ Dec. 


Ist. To Rajak’haha (or Rajagriha in Behar) ; (92 Bese Pali) also 
Rajagaha. 
The Pali or Bali from the Milint’ha, 


sy 2nd. Wesali, { Yampuré. 
eDESUT SHE: } =e 


This might be Visala or Oujem, but more probably it was Wisali, the 
capital of the Wajji, the country of the Lichchawi Rajas, mentioned 
in the Mahawanso.* 


Y 
3rd. HeFEISEV Kabiulaphat or Kapilla Watthi (Saming). This 
Co 


appears to have been the birth-place of Buddha, where his father Sud- 
dhodano reigned. Supposed, observes Turnour, to be in the neigh- 
bourhood of Hurdwar in India, and to have derived its name from 
Kapillo, the name of Gotama in a former existence. It is elsewhere 
noticed asa place called Kapilavastu, N. of Gurruckpore, near upon 
the Rapti river, where it issues from the hills.+ The Siamese say it lies 
close to the Chinese frontier. In the Mahawanso this country is named 
Kapilawatthapura. 

This is the Burmese Kapila pyé over which reigned Ichada and his 
line. 

Ath. HEU MY SH Anlakapaké may be the Alawipura of the 


Mahawanso, (p. 181). 

Sth. 996589965 Ramak’ham. 

This would seem to be Raémagamd of the Mahawansot a town on 
the Ganges, for in this work, I find it thus noticed :— 

«The pre-eminent priest the Thero Maha Kassapo, being endowed 
with the foresight of divination in order that he might be prepared 
for the extensive requisition which would be made (at a future period) 
by the monarch Dhammasoko for relics (by application) to king Ajata- 
sattu, caused a great enshrinement of relics to be celebrated with every 
sacred solemnity in the neighbourhood of Rajagaha; and he transferred 
the other seven donas of relics (thither), but being cognizant of the 
wish of the divine teacher (Buddha) he did not remove the ‘ dona’ 
deposited at Rdjagémo.” This temple was afterwards destroyed by the 
inroad of the Ganges, (Mahawanso.) 


* Turnour’s Mahawanso, p. 73. 
t+ Turnour’s Mahawanso, (Index,) p. 11. t bid. p. 184-5, 


i2-: - 2. r 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 613 


6th. E5Qasseai Wet’hat’hipaké. 

7th. Pe eae SPSS Pawaiyaka or Wéyaképale. 

This appears to be the Pawananagara of the Mahawanso, (p. 181.) 
8th. & BRINN Kosinnarai, Kusiaraké. The Burmese Kusawady 


m my list of Burman kings, may have been Kusinagara, or rather 
the city of Hurdwar, which Mr. Turnour observes is supposed to have 
been the place where Goutama Buddha died. Buddha however died 
at Kusinara, wherever that city lay. In the |Mahawanso this country 
is written Kisinanagara,* (p. 181.) 

In the Siamese Milin just alluded to, and having several of the fea- 
tures of a Paurana, are some accounts of the relics, which I shall 
extract. 

From the Milin Relics. 


CID WIE, Relics of Buddha and their size. 
*) 1 
ee) 
BERMID AWAD IV AD OENESD AND? UNI 
Co g q 4 
Mahahanta pancha nali b’hinna mutta suwanna wanna. ' 
Y vy V 
&5 PA PSI RIG AT ANE RV a Desens" ana 
matjima chanali b’hinna khantala p’halika wanna pab’ha. 
v 
4 DBNIDCNWID WIGS SEIMURID Ang 
2 oc 4 


uthaka pansha nali chasapha matta phikula wanna. 


HEVES IEDM 
q - 
Chaturo d’ hat? ha 
y AN) 
USMIEIMVINEUVEIGS ’ CHCSHE VR QS SHLSID™ 
a 5 ates | ) 2 + 
y Ww Y 
UE TUNG EU 6 HNC LISH VEIN" 
EMITS 6 DISELY HE Hi 
AN) 
WEMIIANISDHSE SIDI QS 2IGWV* 
. a a 


Then follow the eight countries into which the relics were distributed, 
as already described, the names agreeing. 


614 


A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 


[ Dec. 


Next we have a list of durations and whence derived. 


$0783, or 18 D’hato. 
SH WAED. coer arene Chako d’hato. 
seein; Ly Nidan x Sota ditto. 
QIN . Ghana ditto. 
esq bean pr aR Chiwa ditto. 
wi1855 On eee Thaya ditto. 
TES a Re ae 2 Rupa or roop ditto. 
B55 Bue Sat’ha ditto. 
Biss ict cute oe K’hant’ha ditto. 
85 segs diets oven: Rasa ditto. 
EBWIVO . Dho tha-pha ditto. 
+4 

OMSOMAN ae, Cha ko wi. 

= 
GESIEISONAN . Sota wi. 
ass DECRIAN Ghana wi. 
Dscpaman Be a: Chiwa-ha. 
SAISHSCNIAN wo... Kaya wi. 


a 
Serna 


> sae Manav. 


The dress and effects of Buddha were thus distributed within Jumbo 
Dwip. 


I 


His sash or vest to Pataliputra. 


2. His bathing dress to Panchala (Panchal Desa). 


Oo & © 


mana khamé. 


. His drmking cup to Kosali. 
. Aranicha or flint and steel, to Mithila. 
. Weéthéhé parisawanang widéha. 
6. 


His cloth strainer to Wideha. 


Wasi suchi gharanchapi Int’hapat’hé patitt’hita. His sewing ap- 
paratus to Indraprestha. 
7. Upahanang kunchi kancha t’hawiké yancha sapp’ haso usira Brah- 


His slippers and his key (to the temple of Cloacina) to 


a brahman’s town (trans-Himalayan ’). 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 615 


8. Pachatharana mang kuté. Lanka Thipé (Dwipé), pattanchapi. 
His cloth or mat for sitting on, to Magadha, and his begging pot te 
Lanka. 

9. B’hatd’ha nakarécha chiwarang, Kurunak’haré nisit *hanang. His ~ 
upper dress, or chewon, to the Kuru country. 

In the ‘ Ratana Kalapa’ are the following notices :—The body of Bud- 
dha was burned on Monday and Tuesday, or the 6th and 7th days of 
_ the 6th month, year of the little snake. The relics were divided on 
Thursday onthe 8th of the moon’s increase, in the 7th month of the year 
little snake. The relics will be all collected again upon Wednesday to 
Friday on the 15th of the increase, to lst and 2d of the decrease in 
the 6th month in the rat year, and they will be finally collected in 
Nivana (D’hatu Nivana) from Tuesday to Wednesday, the 6th to the 
7th of the increase, in the 6th month in the year rat. The relics will be 
first collected and enshrined in a Cheti in Lanka, when all the Devos 
and Nagas and Brahmans will be present, and they will return to Maha 
Bodi Mandapa, where Buddha first became a Buddha. Here this holy 
one will again appear refulgent, and the whole universe will be illumed. 
by his splendour. The deities of the heavens will assemble and utter 
praises, exclaiming now the time of Buddha has expired, now we shall 
no longer see him, now has his religion ceased. A fire will then burst 
forth from Buddha’s body and the flames will ascend to the Brahmé 
léké. But there will be no more relics. 

Ajatasattu Raja protected the faith four months after Buddha enter- 
ed Nivana, one hundred years after Buddha (B. C. 443) Kalaséka 
Raja, son of Ststaga, became the protector of the faith. 

In the year of Buddha 437 (B. C. 106) Wajjagamini (I suppose he 
may be the Wattagamini of the Mahawanso) appointed Buddhadatta to 
be chief of the sacerdotal order, at a place called Tissa Maha Wihar, 
where he had collected 1000 priests. 

“It was at this period that they first began to write the history and 
dogmas of Buddha, a labour which occupied (these priests) one year. 

A. B. 953. (A. D. 410.)—Mahanamo directed Buddha G’hdsa to put 
the Pali Sihala Att’hakatha and Tika into the Magadha language in 
order to preserve the same in Jumbo Dwip. (This date and the cir- 
cumstances closely accord with the account of Buddha Ghdsa in the 
Mahawanso). 


616 A few. Gleanings in Buddhism. [Dec. 


A. B. 1587. (A. D. 1044.)—Parrakoum Bahti Raja and the Theré 
Kassapa convocated 1000 priests and got them to translate into the 
Magadha language the Trai Pikok. 

A. B. 855 (A. D. 312) Buddha’s tooth was conveyed to Lanka. 
In the Mahawanso this is reported to have happened in the 9th year 
of the reign of the Ceylonese sovereign Tirimeghawanno, who as- 
cended the throne in 845, A. B., so that the difference is only ten 
years betwixt the two accounts. : 

A. B. 433. (B. C. 110).—The Panchama Sangayanai was compiled 
or written by order of Wajjagamini or Wattagamini. I do not find this 
mentioned in the Mahawanso. 

A. B. 1000, (A. D. 457.)—In this year Anurudha arrived at Lanké 
[q. from the Indian continent] and having had all the sacred books 
copied he shipped them on board of two vessels and returned. 

This Milin is, I think, the same as an Indian work which I have seen 
quoted as the Milinda Raja. This one in my possession is headed 


ESes #& Milithara, and Milintha Raja, is stated to have been the 
grandson of Punarathewa (Deva), who was (king) of Sagala nagara. 
He built a Degoba on the banks of the Ganges. I believe that it contains 
chapters on subjects not usually found in Pauranas. But its general 
purport appears to me to support the statement given in the Asiatic 
Researches* that the writings of the heretical sects of Hindus | meaning 
I suppose Buddhists] exhibit quotations from the Vedas, or they might 
have been quotations from books directly received or brought from Persia. 
However, as the book is chiefly in the form of dialogues betwixt a king, 
Milintha Raja, anda priest (of Buddha), it is most likely that they 
are the same as the Milinda Raja describes. If I can meet with a 
Siamese priest sufficiently learned in the Pali to be a scholastic guide, 
I may perhaps be able hereafter to include this im an abstract or cata- 
logue of the Pali works in my possession, and those which I may yet 
procure, for at present I have neither a grammar (excepting portions of 
a Pali one untranslated) nor a dictionary to assist me. But the Veda 
called Caushitacit contains two dialogues betwixt Indra and Ratardama, 
and another in which Ajatasattu, king of Kasi (and a Buddhist) com- 
municates divine knowledge to a priest named Balasi. 


* AY ie vol. Vili. p--- + Ibid, vol—. p—. 


1848. | A few Gleanings in Buddhism. 617 


My copy is evidently an abridged one, for in many places the titles 
and heads of chapters, and their sub-divisions, only, are given, yet it 
contais 150 folio pages. The introduction to it informs us that “ the 
Mili (n) thara contains one thousand and one Ihat’ha or chapters.” 

Raja Milin is further therein stated to, have flourished in the period 
of Kassyapé Buddhé, or the third Buddha, Sakya’s immediate predeces- 
sor. His preceptor was Naghaséna a [Buddhist] priest. At this time 
he was son of Athitcha Wangsa, king of Sakhalaé or Sagala Nagara. 
The youth had many angry discussions with his tutor, who was over- 
rigorous in his discipline. Both died in the usual course of nature, and 
were born again. 

In the year 500 of the Era of Buddho (B. C. 43) Milin was born 
again, as king of Sak’hala. Nagaséna was likewise born again, but 
many years later than Milm, and in time became an officiating priest 
(of Buddha) and at this latter period Milin had reached a rather ad- 
vanced stage of life. 

This priest is further known under the titles 
~ Wirasena, { Ationg papang nakarotiti nak’ho. 
| Senti sayanti été nawat’ha pachat’hikachanati seno. 

and Nak’ho chaso senochati nakhaseno. 

Sihadsena, { Sila khand’ha thihi thara titi t’ hero. 

Milin and Nakhasené had asecond time left the earth, when a learned 
priest named Maha Pitaka Chula bhaya thera composed this Book, 
(Milinthara,) purporting to be dialogues betwixt Milin and his said 


Surdsena, 


preceptor. 

The priest it is added, was considered to have had the best of the 
argument owing to his former metempsychological abode ae been 
in one of the heavens. 

When king Milinthara (last) i eb the fame of his learning 
alarmed the priesthood [Buddhist] who could not brook arival. From 
this we might infer that Milmtha was not a Buddhist. With this feel- 
sng one of the Arahanta who resided on the hill Yok’hintara, one of the 
seven hills of Meru, hurried off to the heaven of Indra, or Tavatinsa, and 
besought Nakhaséna, who was then a Devata, to visit (or revisit) the 
earth in order to dash the spiritual arrogance of Raja Milintha. These 
Arahanta were 80,000 in number, and their chief was named Assak’ hutta 
Thero (before alluded to). 

4m 2 


618 A few Gleanings in Buddhism. [Dec. 


Nakhasena, who was residing then in the resplendent palace Ketumti 
Wechayantapasat, in the western quarter (of the heaven), condescended 
to veil himself in a human shape to save the priesthood from the dis- 
grace of being worsted in argument by a person not of their own order 
(the priesthood). Nakhasena’s lineage was as follows :— 

1. His paternal grandfather Séna Brahmana. 

. Ditto ditto mother Séni Brahmani. 

. His maternal grandfather T’hona Brahmana. 
. Ditto grandmother Sénant’?ha Brahmani. 

. His father was Sonutta Brahmana. 

. His mother Sontttari Brahmani. 

His first residence was called Konlak’hamma, or Donagama, and when 
he became a priest he resided at the temples and monastery of Esaso- 


a oO & & LH 


karama, in the country of Patalibutta (Pataliputra). His spiritual guide 
was the learned Rohana Therd, with whom he remained for seven years 
and ten months; after he had attained to the rank of an officiating 
B’hikkhu or priest. His piety and knowledge of sacred things then 
entitled him to be Soda, or one who lives in the world unattracted or 
corrupted by its frivolous enjoyments or pursuits, and unaffected by its 
moral vicissitudes. He met Raja Milintha at the abode of the priest 
Ayuban, who had an immense number of followers of his religion. 

Raja Milintha’s geneology is thus detailed :-— 

His paternal grandfather, Punara-t’ hewa. 

His maternal ditto, Narab’ho K’ hawana. 

His paternal grandmother, Wichitawi. 

His maternal ditto, Sunant’ha. 

His father At-hichcha Wangsa (of the race of the sun). 

His mother Chant’ha T’hewi (of the divine Lunar race). 

His consort was Akk’na Mahesi Int’ha T’hewi. 

King Milintha derived much of his knowledge from the sacred books 
called 1st, Buddha Wuchana, regarding the great saviour, and contain- 
ing 404 sections or volumes, and from 2d the Winaya pancha chatthicha 
sattati thawi, satta sutté, abhi dhadmmé nawa sathi chattari chattu 
sattayo (q. the Vinac.) 


sie 


1848.] The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. 619 


The abbreviated names of the 28 Buddhas who were anterior to the 
fie Buddhas (including Mettiya who is yet to come) :— 
° Y¥ 
as 65 MO S Crna by! 65? Hi 


Tang Me Sa Thi Ko Sa So Re Soe RUN 


y Zchivy y 
Bg ag ss Bb & 8 H SH A BS FD 


wo 1 
Pa Na Pa So So Pi A Tha Si Ti Pu Wi 


Y 
BS 6 HM 67 MH 8 


Si We Thu P’ho Ka Pho 


Buddhas. 
EV SS FP & % & 8 
Na Ma Na A Na Ka Na 


Si BB “Ba Ws 
ZA vi eA 


Ka Ka A N& A N& A Ka Ang 

Females or the Wives of Buddhas. 

Y Y y ° 
Be TOSS eR ay é 
U Mi A Mi Ma Phi Su Tang 
4 Be ee BOS 

he be be 
A So N& Pho Thang So Na A 


Some Account of the Battle Pield of Alexander and Porus, by Capt. 
James Apsott, Bengal Artilery—Assistant to the President at 
Lahore, and Boundary Commissioner, Hazara District. 


WueEn Alexander, encamped upon the western bank of the Hydas- 
pes, justly dreading to land his cavalry in face of a long line of ele- 
phants, decided upon crossing at a pomt higher up the stream, he disco- 
vered a suitable spot in a woody promontory of the western bank, 
opposite to a small woody island in the river. Leaving therefore Crate- 
rus with a small column in his standing camp at Jelum to mask the 
movement, he, in the darkness of a night-storm, aided by the uproar of 
the elephants, conveyed to the promontory the flower of his army ; and 


620 The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. [Dec. 


reaching with them the Island (probably by boat, for it was the season 
of the monsoon) speedily wafted them across the second channel, and 
supposed the Hydaspes to be passed. But what was his mortification on 
discovering that they had but gained a second and larger island, around 
which, considering the force of the swollen torrent, there could be little 
hope of timely towing the boats. 

At length, however, out of hope, (for such good fortune in such a 
river, at such a season and after such a storm, was marvellous) they 
discovered a ford, through which the Phalanx waded breast-deep and 
gained the eastern bank. It is probable that the dawn broke as they 
reached the larger island, for the alarm was then given, and Porus has- 
tened from his camp opposite the present Jelum to give him battle. 
They met upon a level plain of firm sand; the chariots, elephants and 
infantry of Porus, opposed to the Companion cavalry and to the Mace- 
donian Phalanx. The result was the signal triumph of Alexander and 
the surrender of his gallant foe. 

Now, in glancing the eye over the accompanying chart of the river, 
we perceive one singular advantage in Alexander’s position, viz. that 
he commanded the chord of an are in his flank movement; whilst his 
adversary had to follow the curve. Accordingly, the spot selected by 
Alexander is about 10 miles from his camp by a level road; whereas 
it is about 19 miles from the camp of Porus. The river is at this 
moment so exactly as described by Alexander’s historian, that the map 
might seem rather an ancient than a modern production. The only chan- 
nel which can be forded during the monsoon is that which I have de- 
signated Alexander’s channel. The bottom is of massive boulders 
of quartz firmly imbedded. The soil around is a very firm stratum of 
mingled sand and clay. In fact, the river Jelum, bursting here from 
its prison of rock upon the open valley, has inevitably diffused its waters 
by numerous channels, none of which, owing to the solid substratum of 
boulders can be deepened beyond a certain level, and whatsoever alter- 
ations have occurred in the course of the river since first projected upon 
the valley, arise from the efforts of the water to find the lowest level of 
this pavement, from which they were originally deflected by the solid 
cliff on the western bank opposite the fort of Mungla. The firmness 
of the soil and the shelter from wind afforded by the height on either 
side prevent any considerable deposit of sand in the older channels, 


1848. | The Batile Field of Alexander and Porus. 621 


which remain naked and sharply defined as when first grooved in the 
soil, and never entirely lose their office of conduits to the waters. 

Nearly all the fifty* islands of the Hydaspes are cultivated. Several 
are thickly inhabited. But the Tamarisk springs rapidly upon the 
fallow, forming in three or four years cover sufficient to screen at night 
the passage of a hostile armament. The length of several of the islands 
is very considerable. That which I suppose to be the larger island of 
Alexander+ is about 6 miles in length by an average breadth of half a 
mile. It is cultivated like the mainland: and no one from the level 
plain of the western side could conjecture it to be an island. 

A glance at the map will assure us that from time immemorial there 
has been but one ferry to the Hydaspes between Mungla and Jelum, 
and that this ferry must ever have been near its present site at Pindi. 
Alexander could not have been two days at Jelum without discovering 
that the river above that point was full of islands,t and he would natur- 
ally have sought a passage near the ferry, because, at that season none 
of the numerous channels could be supposed fordable. But as the ferry 
itself would certainly be (as indeed he found it) watched by a hostile 
force, he would have made the crossing at sufficient distance to escape 
their opposition. 

Now if we suppose both the old and the new channels to be occupied 
during the monsoon, as at this day, we shall have opposite the promon- 
tory at Bhoonna, a cluster of four small islands,—or if we suppose the 
minuter channels to be recent, we shall have a smgle island in their 
stead. The island immediately abreast could not be reached awing to 
the power of the current; the boats would therefore thread the small 
channel (a) and come to at the easternmost island of the group ; which 
if covered, as at this day with Tamarisk, would effectually cover the 
passage. From thence, on the arrival of the rear-guard, they would put 
off for what they would naturally suppose to be the mainland, being the 
land of the established ferry. They would land in the parallel of the 
village Seem, and would quickly discover that they had reached only a 


* Between Mungla and Jelum the number of islands is fifty. Below Jelum there 
are many more. 

+ Marked in the map (b). 

t In one of those islands a contest was maintained between the adventurous 
spirits of Alexander’s and Porus’ camps, (see Quintus Curtius.) 3 


622 The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. [Dec. 


very large island. Around this, they could not have towed the boats 
in time to escape opposition. 

The channel intervening between them and the shore is that marked 
Alexander’s channel. It is the only channel of the Jelum fordable dur- 
ing the rams. The map will assure any one familiar with the phenomena 
of rivers that its depth is lessenmg every year. And accordingly, it is now 
only knee-deep during the monsoon. But as the Jelum is more effected 
by the melted snow of the mountains than by the rain, it is at the mo- 
ment of writing this* about a foot deeper than during the monsoon. 

Now it is a fact with which every military man should acquaint him- 
self, that barring accidental holes, the outermost curvatures in the 
sinuosities of a river are deepest, the imnermeost, the point of least depth. 
And it follows, that between any two windings there exists a ridge or 
shallow, diagonally connecting the two inner curves. It is therefore 
probable that the ford was opposite Sirwali. 

But be this as it may, there can be no question, that this is the chan- 
nel across which the Macedonian army waded, breast-deep, on that 
eventful morning. In the course then of 2175 years, the western chan- 
nels of the Hydaspes have been enlarged just sufficiently to drain off 
one half of the water flowing by the easternmost channel. This appears 
to me an important fact, as offering a standard so much needed by 
the Antiquary and Geologist for decyphering the handwriting of time. 

Allowing, then, that Alexander effected his landing somewhere near 
Sirwali, the camp of Porus, which must have been opposite Jelum, was 
distant from the landing-place about 19 miles; a considerable detour 
being necessary to avoid the quicksands of the Sookaytur. The bed 
of the Sookaytur, a level plain of sand a mile in width, and dry except- 
ing during the monsoon, interposed at the distance of 9 miles from the 
camp of Porus, and at the same distance from the landing-place. But 
this level plain, which might otherwise answer the deseription of the 
battle-field, is a torrent after heavy rain, and is so full of quicksands as 
to be unsuited to military operations. As therefore, Alexander could 
scarcely have completed his landing before noon, and, as by that time 
Porus must have been six hours advertized of the movement ; allowing 
for the unreadiness to stir of an Indian army, it is probable that they 
met in the latitude of the village Pubral; a plain of firm sand stiffened 


* April 1848. 


*Sungur 


Jattles ® 


| 
Puaulypost of ‘ih As 


echehynin 


Kida 
° 


To Bobtase 
ay center 
Trion AAA 


Stren, 


Feace or mies 
2 ‘ ‘ « ' A vidoe 


AS. 


a 


wm 


Ngee 


if 


~ psy 


1848. | The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. 623 


with clay, bounded on the 8. west by the Hydaspes, and by a range of 
low hills and ravines on the N. east, the interval being about 5 miles. 

Had Porus but been aware, wherein consisted the peculiar strength 
of his adversary, wherein the peculiar feebleness of his own array, 
the narrowness of this battle field might have been turned by him to 
good account ; his right resting upon the quicksands of the Sookaytur 
opposite Alibeg, and his left upon the Jelum. But it was the encounter 
of military genius practised in the tactics of eastern foes, with the 
valor which knew but of one mode of combat. 

As I rode upon an elephant over the whole of this haunted ground, 
splashing across the numberless channels of the crystal Hydaspes, the 
whole tragedy seemed once more to be enacting around me. ‘The 
perilous transit of the cavalry, across the swollen and turbid gulf, in the 
ponderous boats of the country amid the darkness and the thunders of 
an equinoctial storm. Their formation in the stern silence of perfect 
discipline. Their sudden mortifying check, as they found a wide, deep 
and tumultuous current still separating them from the eastern bank ; 
the galloping of horsemen hither and thither to ascertain at once the 
length of the island and the practicability of fording; their dismay 
when they found the island almost interminable ; their sudden dis- 
covery of a ford breast-deep through a current of portentous power, 
the plunge of the iron clad Companion cavalry and steady stride of 
the Macedonian Phalanx, hand linked in hand, through the foaming 
torrent ; the splash, the scramble up the farther bank and instant 
reconstruction of their veteran Battalia ; the stern joy of the young 
conqueror, as he finds thet nature ceases to oppose him, and that there 
remains but the encounter with fellow-men. 

Meanwhile, fiery with haste the horsemen of the Powarr are dashing 
toward the camp of their Raja, and suddenly drawing rein before the 
guarded enclosure, exclaim breathless, “The men,—the iron-men have 
crost.”’ 

Then the mighty camp is one scene of confusion and of life: war- 
riors snatching up their arms; horsemen saddling their war-steeds or 
yoking the courser to the chariot of battle; the elephant caparisoned 
in his iron panoply, surmounted by the castle, filled with bowmen or 
hurlers of the winged dart; the half drest food relinquished, the half 
formed lustration abandoned, the half-breathed prayer cut short ; whilst 

4 N 


624 The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. [ Dec. 


to the sound of the shrilly conch the ranks are rapidly arrayed. And 
now in one dense, deep mass, the host advances to battle. The cavalry 
leads the van, throwing out videttes on either hand. The war chariots 


follow and then the infantry: and lastly, the ponderous elephant, with , 


long, but slow and cautious strides heaves onward his portentous, battle- 
mented bulk ; as if the very towers aud castles of the sultry east had 
mustered in life to arrest the invader. Onward rolls the vast tide, 
heavy with destruction, carefully and warily they cross the treacherous 
sands of the Sookaytur. The elephant sounds the footing with his 
trunk and judges of the ground by the echo of that hollow organ. 
They have past the sands, they are nearmg the Hydaspes. Their van 
is halted. Doubtless the enemy is in sight. No! it is only their 
corps of observation flying in disorder and dismay: and he who led 
them shall return no more. The sight inspires the needful caution. 
The host proceeds more slowly and in better array. The cavalry falls 
back upon the flanks. The elephants are advanced beyond the infan- 
try, which leaves intervals for their retreat. And now a distant gleam 
of steel betrays the presence of the invaders, and the Indian host is 
halted in the plain, the left resting almost on the Hydaspes, the right 
some furlongs from the hills. Why does not the noble Powarr dimi- 
nish the intervals to a span. He counts upon them im either case for 
the manceuvres of his cavalry. He little knows how terrible a cavalry 
is opposed to his own light horse. Could he but connect with his 
Phalanx of elephants the hills and the river’s brink he might yet be 
winner of the fight: for the terror of the invader is the companion 
horse, and they could never face the array of elephants. 

Scarcely is the Indian army in position, when the few, but iron 
squadrons of the invader are at hand. They form, they pause. Their 
young leader, conspicuous for his lofty crest: and costly arms, and the 
coal black charger which bounds beneath him, reconnoitres the position 
from flank to flank. Then, like a whirlwind burst upon the devoted 
wings of the Indian the iron clad Macedonian chivalry : horse and man 
inspired with the same uncontrollable ardor and with an energy impos- 
sible to the exhausted children of the sun. Like the sound of fire 
amid the forest is the crash, the burst, the turmoil of those strong sons 


of battle as the raaks go down before them, as the helmet is cleft and ~ 


the mail is riven and the spear is shivered upon their iron flanks. In 


1848. | The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. 625 


vain does the gallant Raja bear down with all his force to crush or to 
sweep into the river by the weight and terror of his elephants and the 
shock of his chariots the destroyers of his broken ranks. For now the 
Macedonian Phalanx advances and a storm of arrows, of stones and of 
winged javelins rains upon the timid elephant, or rolls his guider in the 
dust. Frantic with terror and with pain, the huge monsters reel round 
upon their master’s ranks and spread confusion and dismay. Then rages 
the tumult of the battle. The light reed arrows of the Indian archer 
rebound shattered from the plated mail of the Greek. That steady, 
self-possest, never wavering mass of broad shields and brazen helmets 
and long protruded pikes, never hurrying ever advancing wins, step by 
step, its gory way. Death is busy in their ranks but makes no chasm 
there, for the ready files still-close together, self-supported and support- 
ing, whilst over their heads and from either flank the archers and 
slingers pour their murderous hail. 

Meanwhile the battle rages upon the Indian left. Czenus with his 
cavalry has past round the right flank of the Indians and driven before 
him in confusion the succour sent to the other wing. The cavalry that 
waits to be attacked is lost, and what chance has the timid light-armed 
horseman of the Indian with men whose souls are fire, their swords 
sledge hammers, their tunics of tempered steel. The broken and dis- 
ordered horse are driven pell mell upon the frantic elephants and upen 
the wavering foot. The chariots whose power is velocity are destroyed 
without a blow. The whole dense host of the Powarr abandons the 
field in the panic of flight. 

Porus alone maintains the contest. His elephant still wades through 
the sea of life and death, trampling, destroying, affrighting as he 
moves. The Tarkhaili chief is sent to summon him. His answer 
is a winged shaft. Meroo* is more successful. He represents the 
hopelessness of prolonged resistance, he points to his scattered army, he 
assures the Raja of honourable terms. ‘Then, the two brave foes meet 
face to face : the successful robber and the patriot whose heroism is vain. 
And the robber, whose heart revolts from the iniquity his ambition has 
» devised, soothes the noble spirit whom, without provocation, he has 
wronged. 

Such were the scenes which crowded upon my mind’s eye, as for 


* Meroo is still a common name in Huzara. 


Aim 2 


626 The Battle Field of Aleaander and Porus. [Dec. 


two successive days, from daybreak until evening, I was wading through 
the crystal waters of the Hydaspes and sketching the topography 
of the Battle Field. For it happens that the boundary of the Sikh 
and mountain kingdoms meet upon this most interesting line, and the 
inhabitants are either side have inherited all the rancour which ani- 
mated the combatants here in Alexander’s day: so that every island 
is contested, and an accurate plan was essential to enable me to adjudi- 
cate the claims. 

The scene itself is quite worthy of the stirring memories with which 
it is associated. The Hydaspes, bursting from the mountains, sweeps 
around the castle-crowned cliff of Mungla: and exulting in its escape 
from the prison of the rock, spreads wide its waters over the fertile 
valley, forming some fifty smiling islands, cultivated and often inha- 
bited. Its waters gushmg over a bed of white Quartz Boulders, 
form by turns, rapid, pool and shallow, each of which has its own 
peculiar and lovely tint. The shallows ripple in the most liquid of 
azure, the rapids pass into a delicate crysolite, as they hurry together, 
entangling the eye and the heart in their ceaseless whirl: the pools 
engulph those glad dancing waters without addition to their stilly 
depths, without alleviation to their sombre blue by accession of those 
sparklers of the deep. 

As we gaze up the glittering, living pavement of crysolite and sap- 
phire, frmged on either hand by the lively green of the willow, other 
hues are brought into direct contrast with our foreground. The dis- 
tant greens of the graceful Beere and Seesoo, clumped over the Field 
of Battle, the purple of the successive ranges of mountains of Jup- 
pall, and the mighty barrier snow-clad from base to summit, which 
walls in the loveliest and most unblest of valleys, itself relieved upon 
the bosom of the azure sky. To Alexander, first arrived from the 
wretched, ravine-worn waste of Potowar, the scene must have offered 
happy promise of the land he so coveted to possess. I describe it, as 
it appears in the winter. At other seasons, but one channel can be 
forded by the elephant. 

To this description I may add, that the Taxiles of the Historian 
is without doubt the Tarkhaili clan,* still inheriting a portion of their 

* The personal name of Taxiles was Oomphis. Taxiles was the family name. 


Khaun i Zemaun Khaun is the present head of the house, to which I lately was 
permitted to restore their ancestral possessions. 


1848. | The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. 627 


old possessions, viz. the mountain ridge of Gundgurh,* on the left 
bank of the Indus and about 30 miles above Atok. The Affacini have 
no doubt long since been identified with the Eusafzyes, who still inha- 
bit the country they then possessed. The long sought rock Aornos towers 
high above all the neighbourmg mountains, its foot washed by the 
broad flood of the Indus; the wide plains of the Affacini spread below 
it on the south, their inaccessible valleys on the east and west, its 
sides covered with dense forests of mountain pine. Its numberless 
and perennial fountains, the support of the tillage of the mountain 
skirts ; its inexhaustible pastures, the sustenance of myriads of cattle of 
the Affacini; its forests and fastnesses, the refuge of all the outlaws for 
hundreds of miles around ; its summit, furrowed by a hundred ploughs ; 
its skirts by perhaps eight hundred more; a mountain almost with- 
out parallel in the world, and too faithfully described to be mistaken. 
There was formerly a fort upon the crest of this mountain, but its 
very name is lost, although traces of the walls remain, agreeing exactly, 
if my informant correctly describes them, with the site of Aornos. 
Professor Wilson has shown that Aornos may be merely the Greek 
rendering of the Sanscrit word Awur, a fortification. The use of this 
word is retained only in ancient sites, and the greater number of these 
have lost it, in the neighbourhood of the Affacini; Kote being sub- 
stituted, and every old castle whose name is lost being called Kawfur 
Kote, or the castle of the heathens. Upon the crest of Moha Bunn 
(a name embracing a whole district comprised by the trunk and rami- 
fications of this mountain, and harboring some ten thousand matchlock- 
men) Nadir Shah, the Alexander of Persia, encamped his army, as the 
only means of reducing to order the lawless Affacini. The mountain 
is a long isolated ridge not less I think in length at summit than 5 
miles. The height is upwards of 7000 feet above the sea’s level, or 
5000 above that of the Indus. The length at base must be upwards 
of 12 miles. At the very summit is a small square Tumulus appa- 
rently from 50 to 100 feet high and scarped with precipices. This may 
have been the site of the celebrated fortress—Bunn signifies in the 
language of the country both a forest and a pool, and Maha Bunn 


* This mountain, no thanks to the successor of Taxiles, has been my refuge since 


the mutiny of the Sikh army, and I despatch this packet therefrom. The Mush- 


wanis of Srikote are the truest and bravest race in the Punjab. 


628 The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. [Dxc. 


means probably the mighty forest, a name well deserved, as standing in 
the naked plains of the Eusafzyes. 

I would not give in to the notion that any thing is exaggerated* by 
the Greek historians. Such an idea would, I think, lead us astray. 
Their history, like their sculpture, emanates from a mental organization 
most critically balanced. The same severity of taste which caused them 
to discard whatever was superfluous in architecture, whatever was be- 
yond the perfect law of proportion in nature, seems to have dictated 
a close adherence to truth in their histories, as the secret of historical 
symmetry. So far as my own observation extends, (and I have wan- 
dered over a large portion of Alexander’s track) the difficulties are 
actually underrated: the descriptions so truthful that on visiting the 
scene, the dramatis persone seem to confront us, and that wonderful 
series of conquests seems but the work of yesterday. 

The Maha Bunn agrees to the minutest particular with the descrip- 
tion of Aornos, standing on the right bank of the Indus, feathered with 
forests, watered by perennial springs. Its summit, a plateau capable 
of holding the camp of a Persian army, and of employing a hundred 
ploughs ; its pastures, the support of innumerable cattle ; its forests and 
fastnesses the refuge of the Affacini of the plains and of fugitives from 
Ahisara and Taxila; its height, gigantic and pre-eminent: its posi- 
tion sufficiently near to annoy Alexander’s columns ; its inhabitants to 
this day unconquered, paying neither allegiance nor tribute to any man. 
Khubul, a large village washed by the waters of the Indus, is still a noted 
hotel for fugitives trom Peshawur and Huzara; so that I was obliged 
some months ago to blockade it. 

The Taxila of history is supposed by Captain Cunningham to be 
the present Tukht purri or Trukh purri, 6 miles westward of Manuk- 
yala. This old site is adjacent to Rabaht, the cemetery of the eastern 
or Dhangulli branch of the Gukka family, and subsequently the seat of 
a subdivision of that tribe. The name long ago struck me: but there 
are some difficulties attending the identification. Taxila was the place 
selected by Alexander for recruiting the strength of his army. It was 
also the capital of Taxiles. Now the Tarkhaili have no tradition of 


* The breadth of the Hydaspes at Bukephalia appears to me very correctly esti- 
mated by Quintus Curtius as four stadia or half a mile, he is speaking of its state 
during the monsoon. 


1848. | The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. 629 


ever having held lands so far eastward. Tukht purri also is in a bare 
uninviting country, far from the Indus, where all Alexander’s prepara- 
tions were progressing, viz.: the structure of boats to be carried to the 
Jelum. Hussun Ubdul appears to me a more probable locality. Its 
ancient name I have vainly endeavoured to discover. But it must have 
been an important place very early, on account of the abundance of its 
water, and of its lymg upon the main road between India and Afghan- 
istan. It is also an hereditary appanage of the Tarkhaili wrested 
from them by the Sikhs within a few years ; is the boast of the country 
for its water, its groves and its salubrious atmosphere: is close to the 
rich plains of Chuch and the fertile valley of Huzara, and sufficiently 
near the Indus for communication with the Board of works established 
there. Tukht or Trukh purri is said to signify the disjected rock ; a 
probable interpretation; the last spine of the sandstone formation jut- 
ting up there through the plain m a remarkable manner, accompanied 
by several enormous disjected masses of Tufa. 

On the Maha Bunn the Ivy must, I think, grow in abundance, as 
I have found it at much lower elevations in Huzara, and Mt. Mcerus 
must be looked for amongst the subordinate hills of Maha Bunn. The 
wild olive forms one of the principal forest trees in Khaunpoor (of 
Huzara). Waving over sites from which we turn up Grecian relics, it 
has often occurred to me that it may have been transplanted hither 
from Attica. 

I may perhaps be accused of extravagance in fancying I can trace the 
course of the Macedonian conquerer in a singular custom prevalent 
throughout that tract. On the approach of a Chief or Governor, the 
women run together and sing poems in his praise. The chaunt is 
every where the same: but it is not often easy to catch the words. 
When I have succeeded, I have found them to consist in repetitions of 
**the conquering Raja, victorious in battle!’ Grecian habits sit ill upon 
Hindu persons. The obligation to be bashful, imposed by eastern 
decorum, struggling with a determination to maintain a privilege not al- 
ways agreeable to their Lords, drives the women together in clusters, 
with faces to the centre: whilst the display of untidy linen and the 
ravages of time upon such faces as are visible, are dangerous to a 
reader of Macbeth. Nevertheless the custom is decidedly derived from 
the followers of Bacchus or of Alexander. On first entering Kote, one 


630 The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. [Dec. 


of the towns of Huzara, at a time when the appearance of a British 
Officer was a welcome sight, I observed two old crones upon a housetop, 
hiding their faces in one another’s rags, whilst one of them beat either 
a tambourine or a parchment sieve and both screamed in chorus. Here, 
on the Hydaspes, the villages near Alexander’s crossing are dangerous of 
approach owing to this custom, as it is made an excuse for demanding a 
douceur. In Huzara it is a spontaneous tribute of respect. 

This paper, excepting a few corrections, was written in April last up- 
on the Hydaspes, previous to the appearance of Captain A. Cunning- 
ham’s interesting correspondence in the February number of the Jour- 
nal of the Asiatic Society. It was detained owing to some errors in the 
measurements of my native surveyors, and subsequently by the disturbed 
state of the Punjab. Whenever my opinion may differ from that of so 
distinguished an antiquary, it is offered with hesitation. Had his leisure 
allowed him to visit the Maha Bunn, I think he would agree with me that 
it is the only mountain upon the Indus answering to Arrian’s description 
of Aornos. And that if it be not the identical mountain, the site must be 
sought for upon the Loondi river. This would reconcile the difficulty 
arising from Quintus Curtius’ statement of 16 marches from Ekbolima 
to Atok. From Umb, at the foot of Maha Bunn to Atok, not above 8 
marches intervene. As, however, neither Arrian, nor Quintus Curtius had 
seen the country they describe, and as both wrote long after the events 
they record, their itineraries are not very certain guides, and accordingly 
Quintus Curtius brings Alexander to Niczea previous to the capture of 
Aornos, whilst Arrian reverses the order of events. Quintus Curtius on 
the other hand brings Alexander to Ekbolima after the capture of 
Aornos, whilst Arrian states that he took part there to reduce the rock. 

Aornos is always styled by Arrian 7 7«tpa, the Rock, and certamly the 
sense of the historian would seem to apply this term to the mountain 
upon which the Fort was built. Such a term would scarcely have suit- 
ed the Maha Bunn, which is essentially a mountain and not a rock, 
albeit scarped at summit with precipices. But on the other hand, it is 
difficult to imagine any mere rock answering to the description of the 
historian as abounding in fountains, springs and forests, with arable land 
for a thousand ploughs and pastures for the hundreds of thousands of 
cattle of the plains. Such are the attributes of a mountain and not of 
a rock. I therefore infer that Aornos is a name applicable only to the 


1848. | . The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. 631 


castle itself and its basement rock. The ruined castle of the Maha 
Bunn appears to have been sited upon a square, rock some 50 or 60 feet 
high, springing from the table summit, scarped to eastward with tre- 
mendous precipices, having a ravine to the north and an inferior 
mound beyond it, and being protected on the other quarters by its own 
precipitous sides. 

Bearing in mind that the Macedonians, themselves mountaieers, 
were fresh from the conquest of a land abounding in the loftiest and 
most rugged mountains, and from the storm of several mountain strong- 
holds, I should hesitate to allow that they could have mistaken a hill 
of one thousand feet, for a mountain of four thousand. The Maha 
Bunn, by a rude triangulation of bearings, and a ruder observation 
with the sextant, I made upwards of 5,000 feet higher than the river 
at its base. Arrian reckons the height of Aornos at 11 stadia or 4125 
feet above the plain. And this altitude, if measured at all, must have 
been computed by means of instruments far ruder than mine. The 
great and pre-eminent attitude of the mountain is all we can elicit from 
the reading. There is no mountain comparable with the Maha Bunn 
upon the right bank of the Indus within twenty miles farther north, a 
distance too great for the circumstances narrated. Opposite Maha Bunn, 
and across the Indus, is a rocky curb to the valley, called Durbund, the 
only site in this neighbourhood to which I have ever heard the name 
of Alexander attached. The attack upon Aornos appears to me to 
have occurred in April or May; for the passage of the Hydaspes was 
effected in July and from Aornos to the Hydaspes, are about 20 short 
marches. Owing to the great heat of the plains, the Maha Bunn, 
retains its snow only one third of the period usual to mountains of 
similar altitude, distant from the plains. By the end of March’ or 
earlier the snow is melted from its summit. 

Capt. Cunningham’s identification of the Dumtour district with the 
Urasa of Indian history is the more happy, that he does not seem to 
have been aware, that it still retains the name Aorush. But he would 
probably not have supposed it the Varsa Regio of Pliny, had he been 
aware that the huge table mountain of sandstone upon the right bank 
of the Hydaspes about 35 miles above Dhangulli is to this day called 
Nurr Varsova, a name which at once arrests the attention by its iden- 


tity with that of the Polish capital. The Sutti however of this Var- 
40 


632 The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. [Dec. 


sova bear not the slightest resemblance to the Sarmati of the Polish 
Varsova. Their origin is uncertain. They call themselves aborigines 
and are undoubtedly one of the oldest tribes hereabouts. It was from 
the pine forests of Varsova that Alexander must have constructed the 
celebrated fleet by which he wafted his army to the mouths of the 
Indus. 

These observations are offered with deference to the able and accom- 
plished officer with whose conjectures I have sometimes presumed to 
differ. They are presented as the suggestions of a Pioneer who has 
been over ground which Capt. Cunningham’s leisure did not admit of 
his visiting, and are insisted upon only so far as they recommend them- 
selves to his judgment. . 

I see that in the map of that prince of topographers, Arrowsmith, 
whose delineation of the features of the Punjaub is beyond all praise, 
one of the Swant mountains is designated Aornos: but I know not 
upon what authority :—whilst i other maps a Nicetta (quzere the long 
sought Nicoea), appears upon the Loondi R. 

The rivers Kooner and Loondi may, indeed, by a certain latitude of 
interpretation, be called the springs of the Indus, and the people of 
Bajoor (the Bezira besieged by Alexander), would naturally retreat to 
the Swant mountains. 

But it appears to me necessary to the consistency of the narrative, 
that Aornos should be sited upon the Indus, and I think it quite im- 
possible that so famous a retreat of the turbulent Affacini as the Maha 
Bunn should have been passed unnoticed by Arrian. 

I must however observe, that people of Bajore assure me there is a 
mountain upon the spot indicated by Arrowsmith’s map, of the follow- 
ing description. It stands upon the right bank of the river Loondi. 
It is girdled to the south and east with stupendous cliffs, which give it 
the aspect rather of a castle* than of a mountain. Its summit is the 
abode of the Siah-posh Kawfurs, who maintain such vigilant watch, 
that no stranger can enter without their permission. It is quite unas- 
sailable and forms the principal path of communication between Bajore 
and the Siah-posh Kawfur country. There is also another mountain of 
not less altitude than the Maha Bunn, standing about 20 miles to the 


* Terreeque motu coactum absistere—says Quintus Curtius, was the popular tra- 
dition of Aornos. 


1848. | The Battle Field of Alexander and Porus. — 633 


north-west of the latter, extremely precipitous and apparently isolated, 
but not I think of extent sufficient to agree with Arrian’s description. 
It is called Elum and stands upon the limit of the Maha bunn and 
Sohaut districts. A subardimate summit of the Maha Bunn overhangs 
Khubl on the west bank of the Indus. It is about 2000 feet higher 
than the river Indus, peaked at summit, extremely steep and covered 
with forest. Its name is Aonj which the Greeks would probably write 
Aornos, but there is no record of its ever having been crowned with a 
fort, though the remains of a temple are there. The position of Rani 
ka Kote was pointed out to me. It is one of the inferior processes of 
the Maha Bunn. There is not a doubt that the sculpture of which 
fragments remain is Indo-Greek. At the foot of the Maha Bunn on the 
western brink of the Indus, and at the highest point accessible to an army 
is the celebrated castle of Umb, the stronghold of the late Poynda Khan 
and now of his son Jehandad Khan. Mr. Vigne thinks this the Umbo- 
lima of Arrian which Quintus Curtius writes Ekbolima: but although 
the position agrees sufficiently well with that of the historian, I have 
vainly endeavored to discover any rock or village in the neighbourhood 
called Balimah. Such a rock exists on the western bank of the Jelum, 
above Dhangulli. It is crowned with a castle or rather Tower, in which 
Chuttur Singh is said to have deposited his wives. Those who have seen 
Nicetta assure me there is no hill in the neighbourhood of more than 
500 feet altitude. 
The disturbed state of the country has for the present put a stop to 
personal research: but I hope the roads will soon again be open. 


J. ABBOTT. 
P.S. We must look to the Pushtoo names of places with regard 


to their identification with those mentioned by the Greek historians. 
Thus Peyshawur is to this day called Peykawur, in Pushtoo, i. e. by 
the Eusafzyes and establishes the right long acknowledged to be the 
Peukelaotes of Arrian. 


ior 2 


634 Route from Kathmandu to Darjeling. [Dec. 


Route from Kdthmdndt, the capital of Népdl, to Darjeling in Sikim, 
interspersed with remarks on the people and country, by B. H. 
Hopeson, Lsq. 


lst Stage to Choukét, East, 7+ cos. 


Proceeding via Mangal, which is within a } mile of the city, we came 
to Nangsal, at the like distance from Mangal. Both are petty suburban 
Néwar villages. Thence to Deopatan, distant 3 cos, a large pakka* 
village inhabited by Néwars. Thence to Thémi, 14 cos. Thémi is a 
considerable pakka town of Néwars, and is famous for its pottery. ‘Thence 
to Bhatgéon, distant one cos; Bhatgaon is a large handsome Néwar 
town situated near the eastern end of the valley of Népal, and is said to 
contain 12000 houses. Its palace, temples and tanks are very striking 
structures. Thence to Saéngd, 2 cos. This bridge-like place stands on 
a low ridge separating the great valley of Népal proper from the sub- 
ordinate valley of Banépa. It isa small place, but the houses are all 
pakka, as usual with the Néwars. Thence to Banépa, one cos. Ban¢pa 
is a small pakka town inhabited by Néwars, and situated in the vale of 
the same name. Thence to Khanarpit, one cos. It is a nice little 
Néwar village, situated near the point where the dales of Banépa and 
Panouti blend with each other. Thence to Choukot, + cos, ascending 
a low ridge and quitting the level country thus far traversed, and all of 
which is highly cultivated, yielding autumn crops of rice and spring 
ones of wheat. 


2Qnd Stage to Kdldpdni, East, 6 cos. 


Ascend the large ridge of Batasia and come to the mountain village 
of Philbaéri, which is somewhat less than one cos from Kalapani. 
Thence along the ridge 2} cos to Syémpati, another small village of 
Parbatias. Thence to Saléncho, one cos. Salancho isa third small hill 
village, and it overlooks the glen of Kashi Khand on the left. Thence 
to Kanpur, a Parbattia village, close to which is the halting place, at a 
tank called Kalapani, distant from Mithya Kot 1; cos. 


* Pakka here means built of burnt bricks. This word and its correlative Kachcha 
are most convenient terms for which I know no English equivalents. 


~* 


1848. | Route from Kathmandi to Darjeling. 635 


3rd Stage to Jhanga jholi, South Hast, 63 cos. 

This stage runs along the same ridge of Batdsia. But it is here called 
Ténnal. Half a cos to the hill village of Bohatia, and another half 
cos to that of Gimti, both inhabited by Murmis. Thence } cos to 
Pokri, another similar village of Mirmis. Thence to Chapa Khar, 
about # cos, a fourth Murmi village. Thence to Gaércha, another ham- 
let of Murmis, distant from the last rather less than 2 cos ; + cos more 
brings one to the descent into the Biasi or vale of Dimja, on the banks 
of the Rési and Stn Cosi. The Bidsi is low, hot and malarious, but 
fertile in rice, triangular in shape, and about a mile in greatest width. 
The Bar, Pipal, Sémal and Khair trees* grow here, and large Dhanéses 
(Buceros Homrai) are seen eating the fruit of the Pipal. The Sin 
Cosi at Dimja flows freely over a wide bed of sand, and is about 40 
yards broad and one foot deep. This river, if the Milanchi be regarded 
as its remotest feeder—arises from the eastern side of Gosainthan, the 
great snowy peak overlooking the valley of Népal, and is the first of 
the ‘‘ seven Cosi” (sapt Cosi) of the Népalese. Others contend that the 
true Sin Cosi is that which arises at Kalingchok east of Kuti.¢ There 
are several upper feeders of the Sin Cosi which form a delta, of per- 
haps 30 cos either way, between Milanchi, Kalingchok and Dallalghat, 
where the feeders are all united. From Dumja, which lies a little below 
Dallalghat, proceed along the right bank of the river Sin Cosito Jhan- 
ga-jholi, by the rugged glen of the river 2 cos, the road impeded by 
huge masses of rock lying half in the water. 

Ath Stage to Sital-pati, Hast, 4 cos. 

Leaving the river on the left you ascend the ridge of Sidhak and 
travel along its side, far from the top, to the village of Dharma, inha- 
bited by Mirmis. It is 14 cos from Jhanga-jholi. Thence half cos to 
Jhampar, a village of Murmis. Thence descending again to the bed of 
the San Cési you proceed along the right bank for one cos to Chayanpur- 
phédi, or the base of the Chayanpur range. Thence an ascent of one 
eos to the top of Chayanptir where stands the Powa or small Dharam- 
sila of Sital-pati, the halting place, and which is close to the village of 
Choupur. 

* The occurrence of the Indian figs, cotton tree, and acacia, so far within the 


mountains, shows that the Bidsis, wherever situated, havea tropical climate. See on. 


{ See annexed Memorandum and sketch Map. 


636 Route from Kathmandu to Darjeling. [Dec. 


5th Stage to Indng, East, 6 cos. 

Two cos along the heights of Chayanpur bring you to the confluence 
of the Tamba Cési and Stin Cosi, where the united rivers, of nearly equal 
size before their junction, are passed at Séliaghat, a little below the 
Sangam or junction. The Tamba Cési, or second Cosi of the Népilese, 
has its source at the base of Phallak, a Himélayan peak situated some 
ten cos perhaps east of the Kuti pass, which is on the great eastern 
high road from Kathméndé to Lassa. From Séliaghdt the road makes 
a rapid ascent of one cos to the high level or plateau of Gumounia, one 
cos along which conducts you to Bhalaiyo, which is only another name 
for the same plateau. From Bhalaiyo-danra, one cos to Bétiani village, 
still along the plateau. Thence one cos along the same high level 
to the halting place or Lidng-liang which is a large village well inhabited 
chiefly by Néwars. Some Parbatias also dwell there, and there is plenty 
of cultivation and water on the flat top of this low ridge, which is neither 
mountain nor plain.* The rice called Touli by the Néwars grows well, 
and wheat, and generally all the field and garden produce of the valley 
of Népal. 

6th Stage to Narkatia, South East, 44 cos. 

One and half cos along the plateau of Liéng-liang, you come to Bhir- 
pani, having the Dapcha and Manthali glens on the left, by which there 
is another road, used chiefly in the cold season. Thence at half a cos 
you descend slightly to Wadi Khola, a small hill stream, and passing it 
make the great ascent of Hiliapani and reach Lamagaon after one cos of 
climbing. Close to the village of Lamagion is another called Sali, 
inhabited by Parbatias.t Thence one cos to the Likhti Khdla, a slight 
descent. Thence a small ascent to Bhali-danra or the Bear’s ridge, half 
a cos along which brings you to the village of Nigdlia or Narkatia, the 
halting place. The Likhu Khola is the third Cosi of the Népalese. It 
is a large unfordable river which is crossed by a bridge, but is smaller 
than the Sin Cosi or Tamba Cosi. It comes nearly due south from the 
snows at Khali Mingali, and forms one of the seven chief feeders of the 
great Cosi. 

7th Stage to Baj-bisounia, East, 3 cos. 

Still along the Bear’s ridge { cos to the small village of Lachia, and 

another half cos to the village of Chipli. Thence quit the ridge and 


* See note at stage the ninth. ‘f For tribes of Népal, see Journal for Dec. 1847. 


1848. | Route from Kéthmdndi to Darjeling. 637 


by a slight descent reach Phédi Khola, at 14 cos. Phédi Khila is a 
small feeder of the Molang. Pass the stream and ascending slightly for 
one cos reach the halting place which is a village of good size, where 
plenty of provisions may be had. 


8th Stage to Bingnam Két, East, 4 cos. 

Along the same low ridge to the village of Sailiani, close to which you 
come successively to the villages of Chilounia and Pokhalia and Aisialu, 
all within the compass of less than one cos. Beyond Aisiali, 14 cos, is 
a small pond, the water of which, though not rising from rock, never 
fails. Its name is Dhimilopani, and on its left runs the ridge of Tharia- 
dénra and Katonjia village; on its right, the Bhanda ridge and the 
village of Jaljalia. Beyond Dhimilopani commence a descent of some- 
what less than a half cos leading to the Molang or Morang Khola, before 
named. Cross the Khdla and ascend one cos to Bingnam Kot, a large 
village and residence of the rural authority, having the smaller village 
of Bari on its right. 


9th Stage to Chirkhu, East, 6 cos. 

After one cos of descent reach the Lipia Khéla, which stream you 
cross at once and ascend the Lipia-danra or ridge, travelling along 
which you soon come to Okal-dhiinga, a village of Brahmans and Khas. 
Thence to Jy4-miria, another village close by on the right. Thence 
going a cos you reach Charkhi-danra, merely another name for the 
Lipia ridge. Descending slightly and advancing one cos you come to 
Rimyjatar, a celebrated and extensive pasture tract, where the Gurting 
tribe feed large flocks of sheep (Ovis Bariadl.)* Thence 23 cos of 
slight descent to Dhanswar, the head village of the rural arrondissement, 
where the Dwaria, or deputy of Rankésar Khatri, who holds the village 
in private property, resides. Had the village belonged to the first, 
would have been called, as the Dwaria’s abode, not Dhanswar but Kot. 


_ * The more general character of Tars is described in the sequel. This one must 

be very unusually lofty and cool, else neither Garangs nor their sheep could dwell 
in it. Itis probably only a cold weather place of resort. Otherwise it must be 
5 to 6000 feet high, like the plateau of Liang, spoken of at stage 5. Both are excep- 
tional features of the country, which nevertheless with all its precipitousness, has 
more numerous, diverse and extensive level tracts than is commonly supposed. 


638 Route from Kithméndu to Darjeling. | Dec. 


10th Stage to Hichika, East, 6 cos. 

After half a cos of descent we arrived at Thotnia Khola, a hill torrent 
which joins the Did Cosi about 3 miles ahead. Proceeded down the 
rugged stony glen of the Thotnia to the junction, which is reached at 
Rasua ghat. ‘Thence down the right bank of the Diid Cosi for 2 cos 
to Katahar Bidsi, where the river, which had thus far run through a 
narrow glen incumbered with boulders, has a wider space on either bank, 
capable of cultivation and yielding fine crops of wet rice, but hot and 
malarious. This sort of tract is what is called in the Parbatia language 
a Bidsi. Katahar Bidsi belongs to brahmans, who dwell on the heights 
above. The road leads down the Bidsi, which is above half a cos wide, 
for more than one cos, and then ascends the ridge of Kuvindia for one 
cos to the halting place or Hachika, which is a village inhabited by 
Kirdntis, whose country of Kirant is bounded on the west by the Dud 
Cési, and begins on this route where the Dhanswar estate ends. The 
Artin is the eastern boundary of Kirant. The Did Cosi is the fourth 
great feeder of the Maha Cési, which latter enters the plains as one river 
at Varaha Kshétra above Nathpur in Purneah. We have already passed 
three of these great tributaries or the Stin Cosi, the Tamba Cosi, and the 
Likhi Cosi. The remaining ones are three, or the Artin Cosi, Bardin 
Cési and Tamor Cosi.* Thus there are seven in all: and eastern Népal, 
or the country between the great valley and Sikim, is called Sapt Cousika, 
or region of the seven Cosis, from beg watered by these seven great 
tributaries of the Mahé Cési. Kiraént and Limbiudn are subdivisions of 
the Sapt Cousika, so called from the tribes respectively inhabiting them ; 
the Kirantis dwelling from the Did Cési to the Artin; and the Limbus 
from the Ardn to the Tamdér. The country between the great valley 
and the Did Cési is not so especially designated after the tribes inha- 
biting it. But the Néwars and Murmis of Népal proper are the chief 
races dwelling there. Of all these tribes the Néwars are by much the 
most advanced in civilization. They have letters and literature, and are 
well skilled in the useful and fine arts. Their agriculture is unrivalled ; 
their towns, temples and images of the gods, are beautiful for materials 
and workmanship ; and they are a steady, industrious people equally 
skilled in handicrafts, commerce and the culture of the earth. The 
rest of the highland tribes or people are fickle, lazy races, who have no 


* See Memorandum at the end of the Itinerary and annexed Sketch. 


Se ss ere 


1848. | Route from Kathmandu to Darjeling. 639 


letters or literature, no towns, no temples nor images of the Gods, no 
commerce, no handicrafts. All dwell in small rude villages or hamlets. 
Some are fixed, others migratory, cultivators perpetually changing their 
abodes as soon as they have raised a crop or two amid the ashes of the 
burnt forest. And some, again, prefer the rearing of sheep to agricul- 
ture, with which latter they seldom meddle. Such are the Gurdngs, 
whose vast flocks of sheep constitute all their wealth. The Murmis 
and Magars are fixed cultivators; the Kirantis and Limbis, for the 
most part, migratory ones: and the Lepchas of Sikim still more com- 
pletely so. The more you go eastward the more the several tribes 
resemble the Bhotias of Tibet, whose religion and manners prevail 
greatly among all the tribes east of the valley of Népal, though most of 
them have a rude priesthood and religion of their own, independent of 
the Lamas. 
11th Stage to Sélmd, South East, 3 cos. 

Leaving Hachika, which is itself lofty, you ascend for 2 cos through 
heavy forest by a bad road exceedingly steep to the Kiranti village of 
Dorpa, which is situated just over the brow of the vast hill of Hachika, 
the opposite side of which however is far less steep. Going half a cos 
along the shoulder of the hill you then descend for half a cos to the 
village of Sdlma, the halting place. 

12th Stage to Lamakhu, East, 24 cos. 

An easy descent of one cos leads to Lapché Khdla, a small stream, 
which crossed you ascend the ridge of Lamakhu via Gwaling, a Kirdnti 
village situated near its base. Thence the acclivity of the hill is steep 
all the way to the halting place, which is about half way to the hill top, 
and 14. cos from Gwaling. Lamakhu is a Kiranti village like Gwaling 
but smaller. 

13th Stage to Khika Macchd, East, 4 cos. 

Descend half a cos to the Sapsi Khola, a petty stream, which how- 
ever the Kiradntis esteem sacred. Cross it and commence ascending the 
great mountain Ty4m Kya. Climb for one cos by a bad road to the 
village of Khawa, and another cos equally severe to Chékhéva bhanjing, 
or the ridge, and then make an easy descent of one and half cos to 
Khika maccha, the halting place. It is a village of Kirantis in which 
a mint for coining copper is established by the Durbar of Népal. The 
workmen are Banras (Bandyas) of the valley of Népal, of whom there 

| 4 P 


640 Route from Kathmandi to Darjeling. [Drc. 


may be 50 or 60. There is also a Taksari or mint master, and a squad 
of 25 soldiers under a jemadar. 
14th Stage to Jinikhésdng, Hast, 5 cos. ) 

After a cos of tolerably easy travelling you come to Jukya Khola, a 
petty stream, which passed, you arrive in half a mile at Pakri, a village 
situated at the base of the Khokan ridge. Thence slightly descending 
for half a,cos reach Pikhid Khdla. Cross it and ascend the hill of 
Bhaktani for one cos and reach Murkiahulak, a post station of the Go- 
vernment close to the 66th mile* stone of the great military road lead- 
ing from Kathmandu nearly to the frontier. Thence a descent of one 
cos to the Khésing Khola, one of the innumerable small mountain 
streams. Cross the Khdla and ascend the ridge of Thaklia for half a 
cos to Banskim and Powagaon, two small conjunct villages of Kirantis. 
Thence along the ridge of Khésang for 11 cos to Jinikhesing, a large 
Kiranti village, the head of which is Balbhadra Rai, and whence there 
is a very fine view of the snows. 

15th Stage to Jarai tér, South East, 51 cos. 

Descending slightly for 1} cos reach Yakui village, and then descend- 
ing more abruptly for one cos, come to the Ghongaria Khila, a small 
stream. Cross it and proceed along the nearly level base of the Yaku 
ridge for two cos and a half, to Jarai tar, a large village mhabited by 
Kirantis, Khas and braéhmans, and situated at the opening of an exten- 
sive and cultivated flat running along the right bank of the Arun river, 
and raised some 30 or 40 cubits above the level of its bed. Such an 
elevated flat is called in the Khas tongue a Tar, whereas a low flat or 
one on the level of the river is termed a Bidsi. Every great river has 
here and there Tars or Bidsis, or both.+ ars, from being raised are 

* The route gives 61. The difference of 5 cos is owing to the travellers making 
an occasional short-cut, for they kept, generally, the great military highway. 

tT It is remarkable how universally this phoenomenon of high and low levels of 
the land, indicating change in the relative heights of the land and water, prevails 
wherever obvious sedimentary deposits are found in definite locations. Herbert and 
Hutton in their reports of the geology of the Western sub-Himalayas, perpetually 
speak of the phoenomenon as occurring in the mountains, and, according to Her- 
bert, also in the Dans and even Bhaver; and Darwin (Naturalist’s Journal) con- 
stantly records it in the course of his long survey of South America from Rio 
Janeiro to the north point of Chili. 

The same thing is very observable in the great valley of Népal, whose whole 
surface is almost equally divided into high and low levels, though the operating 


1848. | Route from Kathmandi to Darjeling. 641 


usually too dry for rice, but some can be well irrigated from the adja- 
cent mountain, and then they will produce rice as well as Biasis. If 
not constantly irrigable, wheat, barley, millets, pulse and cotton are 
grown inthem. The elevation of Tars is too iconsiderable to exempt 
them from malaria, though they are usually rather more wholesome 
than the lower and often swampy Bidasis. Jarai tar is an extensive one, 
being 13 cos wide, and, as is said, several miles long, following the 
river. The soil is red but fertile, and the whole of it is under culti- 
vation. The village is large for the mountains, and has some 50 to 60 
houses, some of which are pakka, as a caravansery here called Dharam- 
sala or Powa, and one or two more. The site of the village is higher 
than the rest of the Tar. The Pinus longifolia abounds in Jarai tar and 
peacocks are very numerous. Also jungle fowl* and Kaliches (Gallo- 
phasis melanoleucos). 
16th Stage to Pikharibis, South East, 24 cos. 

Proceeding half a cos you come to the ferry of the Artin, which is a 
large river rismg in Bhot, passing the Himéchal above Hathia, and 
forming the main branch of the great Cdsi. It is also the conterminal 
limit of Kirént and Limbiidn. It is passed at Liguaghaét by boat, and 
is there very rapid and deep, and some 30 to 40 yards wide. Thence 
down the left bank of the Artin for 1 cos to Méngm{, a village inhabit- 
ed by Kirdantis and Limbs, being on the common frontier of both tribes. 
Thence quitting the Artin you reach the Mangmaé Khola in j cos, and 
crossing it proceed half a cos along the mountain side (manjh) to Ghorli 
Kharak, which is the name of a small village, and also of a celebrated 
iron mine, the workers of which dwell above the line of road. A vast 
quantity of fine iron is procured. This mine, like all others in Nepal, 
cause must here have been modified in its action, as indeed is perpetually the 
case in different localities. The high and low levels of Tar and Biasi, I consider 
to represent the pristine and present beds of the rivers, whose constant erosion has 
during ages created this difference of level, often amounting to 150 or 200 feet. 
The low level of the valley of Népal I consider to have been suddenly scooped out 
when the waters of the pristine lake (for such the valley was) escaped in one tre- 
mendous rush under the action of an earthquake, which rent the containing rock 
and let off the waters at once.—(See accompanying sketch.) 

* From these indications, which are altogether exceptional as regards the moun- 
tains, it may be confidently stated that Jarai tar is not more than 1500 feet above 


the sea. 


ey te 


642 Route from Kithmandi to Darjeling. | Dec. 


is the property of the government. Iron and copper abound in Népal. 
Most of the iron is consumed in the magazines for the army or other- 
wise within the country. But a deal of the copper is exported and 
forms a good part of the pice currency of the plains on this side the 
Ganges. The Nepalese are very military. Khas, Maghar, Guring 
and even brahmans, except those of the priesthood, constantly wear 
sidearms of home manufacture ; and the large army of the State is 
furnished with muskets, swords, and Khiukris from native ore. Thus 
much iron is consumed, so that none is exported, at least none in the 
unwrought state, possibly because from defective smelting the ore be- 
comes hardened by the accession of fumes of charcoal, and is thus ren- 
dered unfit for those uses to which soft iron is applied. From Ghorhk 
Kharak, an ascent of quarter cos to Pakharibas, the halting place, which 
is a Girtng village, large but scattered, according to the wont of that 
tribe. 
17th Stage to Dhankita, South Hast, 23 cos. 

After a severe ascent of acés and half a wide flat-topped mountain is 
gained, whence there is a fine view of the plains, and on the top of which 
is a small lake, very deep, and about half a cos im circumference. Its 
name is Hilia, and the water is clear and sweet. Thence a steep descent 
of one cos brings you to Dhankita, distant from Kathmandu 78 stand- 
ard* cos by the great military road, as recorded on the mile-stone at 
Dhankita. Dhankiuta is the largest and most important place in Kast- 
ern Népal, and the head-quarters of the civil and military administra- 
tor of all the country east of the Did Cdsit to the Sikim frontier, 
excepting only what is under the inferior and subordinate officer 
stationed at Ilam, who has a separate district bounded towards Dhan- 
kita by the Tamor river. Bijayptr, Chayanpir, Ménjh-Kiraént and 
a great part of the Limbuan are subject to Dhankita, where usually 
resides a Kaji or Minister of the first rank, who likewise commands the 
troops stationed there. After defraying the local expenses, he remits 
annually nine lakhs of revenue to Kathmandu. Towards the plains 


* The itinerary gives 713 cos. The difference has been explained in a prior note. 
The standard cos of Népal is equal to 24 English miles. 

tT The central administration extends to the Did Cési. See essay on the laws 
and legal administration of Népal in the Transactions of the Society, Vol. 17, and 
Journal of Royal Asiatic Society. 


1848. | Route from Kathmindi to Darjeling. 643 


the jurisdiction of Dhankiita extends over the old Bijaypur principality, 
and towards the hills, over the country of the Kirants and Limbus. 
But both the latter tribes are poor at once and impatient of control, so 
that the Nepal Government is content with a lax general submission 
and a light revenue levied and paid through the Rais or native heads 
of those tribes. And this is the reason why only nine lakhs are remit- 
ted from Dhankita to Kaéthmaéndai. The present Governor of Dhan- 
kita is a colonel, and brother to the Premier Jang Bahadur Konwar. 
There is a cantonment,a powder manufactory,a parade ground at 
Dhankita, where the Sri Jang regiment, 500 strong, is now stationed. 
The place owes its origin to the Gorkali dynasty, and is therefore recent ; 
but it is growing fast into a town, the pakka houses being already nu- 
merous, and the tradesmen and craftsmen abundant, active and skilful. 
Provisions are plentiful and cheap, and the workers in Kansa (mixed 
metal) are celebrated for the excellence of their commodities, many of 
which find sale so far off as Kathmandt. The Kirantis and Limbis, 
who constituted the soldiery or militia of the former Bijoyptr state, 
pay to the Ghorka Government annually in lieu of all other taxes and 
claims, 7} rupees per house or family. The houses or families are 
large, so that each can cultivate a great extent of ground. But how 
much (or little) soever they may raise, each family is free on payment 
of the annual fixed assessment, which the Rais above noticed collect 
and deliver. The Rais also administer Police and Justice among their 
own people in all ordinary cases. Capital crimes are referred to the 
governor of Dhankuta, who must have the Durbar’s sanction for every 
sentence of death or confiscation. Dhanktita overlooks Bijoyptir, the 
old capital of the Eastern Makwani or Bijaypir Principality, which 
stands on the skirts of the Tarai of Morang, but within the hills; and 
no part of the low lands (Madhés) is subject to the Governor of Dhan- 
kita. The Madhés is administered by Stbahs, of whom there are 
seven for the whole.* 
18th Stage to Bhainsia tar, south east, 6 cos. 

A sharp descent of one cos brmgs you to the banks of the Tamor, 
which is alarge river, though less than the Arun. It is never fordable 
and is crossed in boats. It is very deep, rapid, but not clear, and about 


* The 7 zillahs of the Nepalese lowlands, which extend from the Arrah to the 
Mechi, are Morang, Saptari, Mahotari, Rotahat, Bara, Parsa and Chitwan. 


644 Route from Kéthmindi to Darjeling. [Dec. 


30 cubits wide between the hot weather banks. This is the seventh 
and last of the great feeders of the Cési, which it joins at Tirbéni, a 
holy place of pilgrimage, so called from its being the point of union of 
the three rivers, Tamér, Arin and Stin Cési.* The Tamér rises from 
the Western aspect of Kang chang jinga. We crossed the Tamér in a 
boat, and then proceeded half a cos down its left bank. Thence, quitting 
the river, you skirt the base of the Madi hill for one cos to the Tan- 
khuda nadi, a small hill stream. Cross it to Mamag4 tar, and then 
travel through this fine extensive flat for two cos. The whole is culti- 
vable, and the most part cultivated by Dénwars and Manjhis, and it is 
situated on the banks of the Tamér, to which the winding of the road 
again brings you. Quitting the Tar you advance a quarter of a cos to 
the Rasua Khdla, which forded, you proceed along the base of the Télia 
ridge for 1} cos to another Tirbéni and place of pilgrimage, where the 
Cherwa and Télia rivers join the Tamor at Cherwa ghat. A great fair 
is annually held at Cherwa, to which traders go even from Kathmandt. 
Thence proceeding a } cos you reach the halting place or Bhainsia tar. 
The tar may be 3 cos wide and one cos long. It is very hot and mala- 
rious, and is inhabited by the Manjhi tribe. 
19th Stage to Lakshmipir, HE. N. £. 5 cos. 

A quarter cos of slight ascent brings you to the Nawa Khila, a 
moderate-sized stream, which is ascended for 3 cos by a very bad road 
that crosses the bouldery bed of the river many times. Thence quit- 
ting the Khdla you commence the severe ascent of Lakshmi chiria, 
which is climbed incessantly till you reach the halting place near the 
hill top. Lakshmiptir is a large and flourishing village of Limbis, 
where men and goods abound, and the climate is fine and the water 
cold—a great relief after the burning Tars recently traversed. 

20th Stage to 'bhing, East, 3 cos. 

After a slight descent of 14 cos you come to Pokharia Khola, a small 
stream which is at once crossed. ‘Thence a slight ascent of one cos up 
the ridge of Nangi, along the top of which another half cos brings you 
to the halting place, which is a Khas village of large size. 


* Of the seven Césis, the Tamba and Likhi are lost in the Stn Cosi, and the 
Barin in the Ardn, the latter, far above the route. Tirbéni is immediately above 
Baraha Kshetra before noticed, as the point where, or close to which, the united 
Cosis issue into the plains. 


1848. | Route from Kathmindt to Darjeling. 645 


21st Stage to Khindrdng, East, 4 cos. 

A slight ascent of { cos to the village of Muléi, inhabited by Khas. 
Thence a great descent of one cos to Kokalia Bidsi, or the Magpie’s 
glen, which is watered by the Déo mai, a small stream. Cross it and 
ascend the ridge of Timkya a short way, and then skirting along its 
waist (mdnjh) for 1; cos come to the Léwa Khola, another of the 
innumerable streamlets of the hills. Cross it and proceed for 14 cos 
along the base of the ridge of Khandrang to the village of the same 
name, which is the halting place and a small village of brahmans. 

22nd Stage to lim, East, 5 cos. 

Descend the Khandrang ridge for half a cos and come toa small 
stream called the Ratia Khdla. Cross it and then make a severe ascent 
of one cos up tothe ridge of Gdlakharak, whence Karphok, the great 
ridge dividing Nepal from Sikim, is visible. Thence an equally difficult 
descent of 1 cos to the Tlam Khdla, a small stream. Thence, crossing 
the stream, make the severe ascent of Tilkiani ridge for 14 cos. Thence 
skirt along the side of the hill (manjh) for 1 cos to the halting place 
or Tlam, which is a small fort designed to guard the eastern frontier of 
Népaél. The Chatelain is a Captain and has 100 soldiers under him, 
with 8 artillerymen and one cannon of small calibre. This officer is 
also the civil authority of the arrondisement and raises the extraordi- 
nary revenues thereof to meet the local expenses, sending the balance, 
if any, to Kathmandi, The land revenue is wholly assigned to his troops 
in pay. 

23rd Stage to Gédhak, East, 2 cos. 

After asteep descent of one cos you come to the Jogmai or Mai 
river, a small stream, which passed, you commence the steep ascent of 
Gédhak, and continue ascending to the halting place, which is a small 
village of brahmans half way up the hill. 

24th Stage to Siddhi, North-East, 3 cos. 

Detained much by rain to-day and yesterday, and therefore made 
short marches. Leaving Godhak ascended by a very bad road loaded 
with dense vegetation for 1; cos to Karphdék chouki, a frontier Gor- 
khali post, where 8 soldiers always reside. Thence one cos along the 
ridge or Lékh to Siding, which is but another name for the ridge. 
Thence a slight descent of one cos to the Siddhi Khdla, a small stream, 
on the banks of which we halted on account of the rain. 


646 Memorandum relative to the seven Cdsis of Népial. | Dec. 


25th Stage to the English Chouki, N. E. 7% cos. 

Crossed the Siddhi stream and proceeded 13 cos of slight ascent and 
skirting the mountain bases to Thaplia. Thence half a cos of descent 
to the small streamlet of Séchideu. Thence a quarter cos over low 
hills to the Méchi river. The Méchi is the present boundary of Népal 
and Sikim. It isa small stream which rises in the Singalélah ridge, a 
spur of Karphok. Crossed it and ascended the hill of Nagri, by a 
very bad road and severe ascent of 14 cos to the top. Thence a severe 
descent of one cos to the smaller Rangbhang Khdla, a streamlet merely. 
Thence along the glen to the great Rangbhang, distant one cos. Thence 
a steep ascent of one cos to Nagri Kéot, an old fort in rums. Thence 
a painful descent of 4 cos to the Balason river. It is a moderate sized 
stream, larger than the Méchi. Thence half a cos of rather uneven 
travelling to the halting place. 

26th Stage to Darjeling, North, 4 cos. 

A severe ascent of one cos, and then an easy half cos along a ridge, 
brought us to the Company’s high road, along which we travelled for 23 
cos to Jellapahar and Herbert hill at Darjeling. 

Total cos 109. 
At 23 miles per cos=miles 254. 


Notre.—The Nepalese standard cos is equal to 24 English miles, and the travellers 
had this standard to refer to along a great part of their way, asbeing coincident gener- 
ally with the measured military road several times adverted to on the route. Hence 
their distances from stage to stage may be perfectly relied on, though in the details 
of each stage the same accuracy cannot be expected. 


Memorandum relative to the seven Cdsis of Népal, by B. H. 
Tlopeson, Esq. 


The enumeration of the seven Cosis by the Itinerists is doubtless the 
accredited one, and what I have myself often heard at Kathmandu. 
Nevertheless names are not always applied in strict correspondence with 
things in geography. Witness the neglected Jahnavi, the true and 
transnivean source of the Ganges! Now, if we are to estimate the 
seven chief feeders of the great Cosi according to the length of their 


1848. | Memorandum relative to the seven Césis of Népal. 647 


courses, or their effect on the physiognomy of the country, the enumer- 
ation ought seemingly to be as follows :— 
Ist. The Milamchi. 
2nd. The Bhotia Cosi. 
3rd. The Tamba Cosi. 
4th. The Likhi Cosi. 
5th. The Did Cosi. 
6th. The Artin. 
7th. The Tamér. 
This list omits the Bartin of the usual enumeration, and substitutes 
the Bhotia Cosi for the Sin Cési: and not without Nepalese authority 
for both changes, for it is very generally allowed that the Bartin hardly 
belongs to the Sub-Himalayas, and that Sin Cési is rather the name of 
the general receptacle of the Cosis till joined by the Artin, than that of 
a separate Cosi. The following remarks on each river will make this 


Local series beginning from the 
West. 


apparent. 

Ist. The Milamchi rises above the Bhotia village of that name, and 
at or near to the eastern base of Gosainthan, the great snowy peak 
overlooking the valley of Népal. From the snows the Milamchi has a 
south-eastern course of probably 60 miles to Dallal ghat. It is joined 
from the west by the Sindhu, the Tand, and the Chak, and from the 
north and north-east by the Indravati, the Balamphiand the Jhéri. The 
three former are petty streams; but the three latter are considerable 
ones, one of them rismg in the snowy region, and another having two 
subordinate affluents. The Indravati comes from the Hemachal at 
Panch pokri and flows nearly due south into the Milamchi below [él- 
mii. The Balamphi and Jhari have only sub-Himilayan sources, 
situated south-east of Panch pokri, but they have longer independent 
courses than the Indravati before they unite, after which they presently 
join the Milamchi not far above the confluence of the Chak. The 
subordinate feeders of the Balamphi above adverted to, are the Boksia 
and Lipsia. They have short parallel courses W. 8. W. into their 
parent stream. Thus the Milamchi isa notable river, and it is the more 
so as forming very distinctly the western boundary of the basin of the 
reat Cosi, of which the equally distinct eastern limit is the Timér. 

Qnd. The Bhotia Cédsi has its sources at Deodhinga, a vast Hima- 
layan peak situated some 60 or 70 miles east of Gosainthan and a little 

4aQ 


648 Memorandum relative to the seven Césis of Népdl. | Dec. 


north and east of the Kiiti pass, being probably the nameless peak 
which Colonel Waugh conjectures may rival Kangchéngjinga in 
height. The river flows from the base of Deodhinga past the town of 
Kati, and has a 8. West direction from Kuti to Dallal ghat, where it 
joins the Milamchi after a course about as long as the Milamchi’s,—the 
two rivers, of nearly equal size, forming a deltic basin. In about its 
mid-course the Bhotia Cési is jomed by the Sun Cosi from Kélingchok. 
But Kalingchok is no part of the true Hemiachal, nor is the stream 
thence flowing equal to that coming from the snows at Deo dhinga. 
Consequently the name Bhotia Cosi should prevail over that of Sin Cési 
as the designation of one of the separate seven Cosis, and the name 
Stin Cosi be reserved for the general receptacle, within the mduntains 
as far east as Tirbéni. The Bhotia Cési is joined at Listi by the Jam 
Khdla, whilst from the Ménga ridge another feeder is supplied to it, 
much lower down or below the confluence of the Stn Cosi, from the 
east. But as the Milamchi below the junction of the Balamphi and 
J hari is often called the Indraévati vel Indhani, so the Bhotia Cosi below 
the junction of the Sin Cosi is frequently styled by the latter name, 
which others again with more reason confine to the more general con- 
fluence below Dallél ghat. There no doubt the name Stn Cosi beging 
to be well applied, it being universally the designation of the great 
receptacle of waters running W. and EH. from Dumja to Tirbéni. At 
Dinja, which is only a few miles south of Dallilghat, the San Cos; 
receives a considerable affluent from the west. This affluent is called 
the Rosi. It rises on the external skirts of the great valley under the 
names Biyabar and Panouti, from the respective dales watered by the 
two steamlets. } 

3rd. The Taémba Cési. It rises at Phallak in the snowy region, about 
two journies east and a little north of Kalingchok, or the fount of the 
upper and pseudo Sin Cosi. The Tamba Cosi’s course from Phallak 
to Sélaghat, where it falls into the receptacle, is nearly south, and as 
far as I know it has only one considerable affluent, which is the Khimti. 
The Khimti rises in the Jiri ridge and flowing nearly south, parallel to 
the Tamba Cosi, jos the latter in its mid-course at Chisapéni. 

4th. The Likhi. This river is less than the Tamba Cosi and seems 
to rise somewhat beneath the snows, though its place of origin at Khali 
Mungali is said to be a ridge connected therewith. Its course is still 
more directly south than that of the Tamba Cosi, to which however its 


1848. | Memorandum relative to the seven Césis of Népal. 649 


general direction is very parallel. I know but one of its feeders, the 
Khani, which comes from the Chaplu ridge on the east of the main river. 

5th. The Did Cosi. It is a large stream, larger even than the Tam- 
ba Cosi, though inferior to the Arin or Tamor. It rises amid the per- 
petual snows, but at what exact spot I do not know, and it has a 
southern course to the Sin Cosi at Rasua. Its feeders are numerous. 
But I know only those near Rasua, which are the Thotia and the Sisnia 
on the west, and the Rao on the east. 

6th. The Arin or Artin Cosi. It is the largest by much of the 
whole, and consequently the main source of the Maha Cosi, having 
several feeders in Tibet, one from Darra on the north, another from 
Tingri on the west, and a third from the east from a lake. The Arin 
is not only the greatest of the Cosis but of all the Sub-himalayan rivers, 
if the Karnali be not its equal. None other can compete with it. The 
Barin, often reckoned a separate Cosi, is a mere feeder of the Artin and 
joins it so high up that there is little propriety in admitting the Bartin 
as a member of the Sapt Kosi. The Barun is lost in the Artin in the 
Alpine region, at Hatia, the great mart for the barter trade of the Cis 
and transniveans by the very accessible pass of the Arin. Lower down 
the Arin receives many tributaries—from the west, the Salpa and 
Tkhua—from the east, the Sawai, the Héngwa, the Pilwa, the Ligua, 
and the Mamaga. Its course on this side the Himalaya is generally 
north and south; but in Tibet it spreads to the west and east also, 
covering and draining a deal of ground there. 

7th. The Tamédr Cosi. The Tamor also is a very fine river, inferior 
only to the Aran. It is alleged to have more than one trans-himalayan 
source. It passes the snows at Walling chung, or arises there from 
the snows. Its course from Walling to the general juaction at Tirbéui 
is south-west, and it receives many afiluents on the way, as the Walling, 
the Chang, the Yangm4, the Méwa, the Kabaili, the Khawa, the Nhabo, 
the Tankhua, the Telid, the Nava, the Chérwa, the Kokaya. 

To this appendical memorandum on the Cosis I subjoin a sketch 
of the several primary feeders of the so called Sin Cosi, made from my 
own observations as well as enquiries. I have no personal knowledge 
of the rest of the “ Sapt Cousika.”’ Indeed no European has yet set 
foot in this region save myself on the western, and Dr. Hooker on the 
eastern, margin. We may shortly expect much information from Dr, 
Hi. as to the latter, or the skirt confining with Sikim. 


650 On the Chéping and Kisinda tribes of Népdl. [Dec. 


On the Chépdng and Kistnda tribes of Népal, by B. H. Honeson, Esq. 


Amid the dense forests of the central region of Népal, to the west- 
ward of the great valley, dwell, im scanty numbers and nearly in a state 
of nature, two broken tribes having no apparent affinity with the civi- 
lized races of that country, and seeming like the fragments of an earlier 
population. 

“They toil not, neither do they spin;’’ they pay no taxes, acknow- 
ledge no allegiance, but, living entirely upon wild fruits and the produce 
of the chase, are wont to say that the Rajah is Lord of the cultivated 
country as they are of the unredeemed waste. They have bows and 
arrows, of which the iron arrow-heads are procured from their neigh- 
bours, but almost no other implement of civilization, and it is im the 
very skilful snaring of the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air 
that all their little mtelligence is manifested. 

Boughs torn from trees and laid dexterously together constitute their 
only houses, the sites of which they are perpetually shifting according 
to the exigencies or fancies of the hour. In short, they are altogether 
as near to what is usually called the state of nature as any thing in 
human shape can well be, especially the Kustndas, for the Chépangs are 
a few degrees above their confreres, and are beginning to hold some 
slight intercourse with civilized beings and to adopt the most simple of 
their arts and habits. It is due, however, to these rude foresters to say 
that, though they stand wholly aloof from society, they are not actively 
offensive against it, and that neither the Government nor individuals 
tax them with any aggressions against the wealth they despise or the 
comforts and conveniences they have no conception of the value of. 

They are, in fact, not noxious but helpless, not vicious but aimless, but 
morally and intellectually, so that no one could without distress behold 
their careless unconscious inaptitude. It is interesting to have opportunity 
to observe a tribe so circumstanced and characterised as the Chépangs, 
and I am decidedly of opinion that their wretched condition, physical 
and moral, is the result, xo¢ of inherent defect, but of that savage fero- 
city of stronger races which broke to pieces and outlawed both the 
Chépang and the Kistinda tribes during the ferocious ethnic struggles 
of days long gone by, when tribe met tribe in internecal strife contend- 
ing for the possession of that soil they knew not how to fructify! Nor 


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1848. | On the Chéping and Ktsinda tribes of Népdl. 651 


is there any lack of reasonable presumptions in favour of this idea, in 
reference to the Chépangs at least; for the still traceable affiliation of 
this people (as we shall soon see), not less than the extant state of their 
language, demonstrates their once having known a condition far supe- 
rior to their present one or to any that has been their’s for ages. 

That the primitive man was a savage has always appeared to me an 
unfounded assumption ; whereas that broken tribes deteriorate lament- 
ably we have several well founded instances in Africa.* Quitting how- 
ever these speculations I proceed with my narrative. During a long 
residence in Nepal, I never could gain the least access to the Kusindas, 
though aided by all the authority of the Durbar: but, so aided, I once 
‘in the course of an ostensible shooting excursion persuaded some Ché- 
pangs to let me see and converse with them for 3 or 4 days through the 
medium of some Gtrtings of their acquaintance. On that occasion I 
obtained the accompanying ample specimen of their language ; and, 
whilst they were doling forth the words to my interpreters, I was en- 
abled to study and to sketch the characteristic traits of their forms and 
faces.t Compared with the mountaineers among whom they are found 
the Chépangs are a slight but not actually deformed race, though their 
large bellies and their legs indicate strongly the precarious amount and 
innutritious quality of their food. In height they are scarcely below 
the standard of the tribes around them{}—who however are notoriously 
short of stature—but in colour they are very decidedly darker or of a 
nigrescent brown. They have elongated (fore and aft) heads, protu- 
berant large mouths, low narrow foreheads, large cheek-bones, flat faces, 
and small eyes. But the protuberance of the mouth does not amount 
to prognathous deformity, nor has the small suspicious eye much, if 
any thing, of the Mongolian obliqueness of direction or set in the head. 
Having frequently questioned the Durbar whilst resident at Kéthmandii 
as to the relations and origin of the Chépangs and Kustindas, I was 
invariably answered that no one could give the least account of them, 
but that they were generally supposed to be autochthones, or primitive 
inhabitants of the country. For a long time such also was my own 
opinion, based chiefly upon their physical characteristics as above noted 


* Prich. Phys. Hist. Vol. II. passim. Scott’s exquisite Novels throw much 
light on this subject. 

f See the accompanying outline, which is remarkably faithful and significant. 

¢ Magar, Murmi, Khas, Girang, Néwar. 


652 On the Chéping and Kisinda tribes of Népdl. [ Dec. 


and upon the absence of all traceable lingual or other affinity with the 
tribes around them. So that I took the Chépangs, the Kusindas and 
the Haiyus, a third tribe, remarkably resembling the two former in posi- 
tion and appearance—to be fragments of an original hill population 
prior to the present Tibetan original inhabitants of these mountains ; 
and to be of Tamulian extraction, from their great resemblance of form 
and colour to the Aborigines of the plains, particularly the Kdls. It 
did not for several years occur to me to look for lingual affinities beyond 
the proximate tribes, nor was I, save by dint of observation made, fully 
aware that the Mongolian type of mankind belongs not only to the races 
of known northern pedigree, such as the mass of the sub-Himdalayan 
population,* but equally so to all the Aborigines of the plains, at least 
to all those of central India. Having of late however become domi- 
ciled much to the eastward of Kathmanda, and having had more leisure 
for systematic and extended researches, those attributes of the general 
subject which had previously perplexed me were no longer hindrances 
to me in the investigation of any particular race or people. I now saw 
in the Mongolian features of the Chépangs a mark equally reconcileable 
with Tamulian or Tibetan affinities; in their dark colour and slender 
frame, characteristics at first sight indeed rather Tamulian than Tibetan, 
but such as might, even in a Tibetan race, be accounted for by the 
extreme privations to which the Chépangs had for ages been subject ; 
and in their physical attributes taken altogether I perceived that I had 
to deal with a test of affinity too nice and dubious to afford a solution 
of the question of origin. I therefore tured to the other or lingual 
test ; and, pursuing this branch of the inquiry, I found that with the 
southern Aborigines there was not a vestige of connexion, whilst to my 
surprise I confess, I discovered in the lustyt+ Lhdopas of Bhitan the 
unquestionable origin and stock of the far removed, and physically very 
differently characterised, Chépangs! This lingual demonstration of 
identity of origin, I have for the reader’s convenience selected and 
set apart as an Appendix to the vocabulary of the Chépang language ; 
and. I apprehend that all persons conversant with ethnological enquiries 
will see in the not mere resemblance but identity of thirty words of 
prime use and necessity extracted from so limited a field of comparison 


* See Journal for December last. 1 date their transit of the Himalaya from 
Tibet fully 1200 years back. 
+ See the subjoined note at the end. 


ee eee eee eee 


1848. | On the Chéping and Kisinda tribes of Népil. 653 


as was available for me to glean from, a sufficient proof of the asserted 
connexion and derivation of the Chépangs, notwithstanding all objec- 
tions derivable from distance, dissolution of intercourse and physical 
nonconformity. But observe, the last item of difference is, as already 
intimated, not essential but contingent, for both Lhopa and Chépang 
are marked with the same essential Mongolian stamp, whilst the dete- 
riorations of vigour and of colour in the Chépangs, though striking, are 
no more than natural, nay inevitable, consequences of the miserable 
condition of dispersion and out-lawry to which the Chépangs have beeu 
subject for ages anterior to all record or tradition. And again, with 
regard. to local disseveration, it should be well noted, in the first place, 
that by how much the Chépangs are and have long been removed from 
Bhutan, by so much exactly do conformities of language demonstrate 
identity of origin, because those conformities cannot be explained by 
that necessary contact with neighbours to which the Chépang language 
owes of course, such Hindi, Parbatia and Newar terms as the vocabu- 
lary exhibits ; and, in the second place we must recollect that though 
it be true that 300 miles of very inaccessible country divide the seat 
of the Chépangs from Bhitan, and moreover that no intercourse there- 
with has been held by the Chépangs for time out of mind, still im those 
days when tribes and nations were, so to speak, in their transitional 
state, it is well known that the tides of mankind flowed and ebbed with 
a force and intensity comparable to nothing in recent times, and capable 
of explaining far more extraordinary phcenomena than the disruption of 
the Chépangs, and their being hurried away, like one of the erratic 
boulders of geologists, far from the seat of the bulk of their race and 
people. Indeed, the geological agents of dislocation in the days of 
pristme physical commotion may throw some light, in the way of ana- 
logy, upon the ethnological ones during the formative eras of society ; 
and, though we have no record or tradition of a Lhépa conquest or in- 
cursion extending westward so far as, or even towards, the great valley 
of Nepal, we may reasonably presume that some special clan or sept of 
the Bhutanese was ejected by an ethnic cataclysm from the bosom of 
that nation and driven westward under the ban of its own community 
alike, and of those with which it came in contact in its miserable migra- 
tion, for misfortune wins not fellowship. : 

The lapse of a few generations will probably see the total extinction 
of the Chépangs and Kustindas, and therefore I apprehend that the 


654 On the Chéping and Kisinda tribes of Népal. [Dec. 


traces now saved from oblivion of these singularly cireumstanced and 
characterised tribes, now for the first time named to Europeans, will be 
deemed very precious by all real students of ethnology. Their origin, 
condition and character are, in truth, ethnic facts of high value, as 
proving how tribes may be dislocated and deteriorated during the great 
transitional eras of society. 


Addendum on Bhitdn. 

Lhé is the native name for Bhutan, and Lhépa and Dukpa (written 
Brikpa) are native names for an inhabitant of Bhiutan—whereof the 
former is the territorial, the latter, the religious, designation. In other 
words, a Lhdpa is one belonging to the country of Bhutan, and a 
Dukpa (recté Brikpa), a follower of that form of Lamaism which pre- 
vails in Bhiitan, and which has become equally distinctive with the local 
designation for an inhabitant of the country, since the people of Bhot or 
Tibet were converted to the new or Gélikpa form of that faith. Bhi- 
tin is a Sanscrit word, and is correctly Bhutant, or ‘ the end of Bhot’ 
(inclusively), the brahmans like the natives, deeming the Cisnavian re_ 
gion an integral part of Tibet, which it is ethnographically, though by 
no means geographically. Had Klaproth and Ritter been aware that 
Lhé is Bhitén, and Lhépa4 an inhabitant of Bhatan, we should not 
have had their maps disfigured by a variety of imaginary regions placed 
Kast of Bhitén and termed Lokabadja, &c. a sheer variorum series of 
lingual error resting on the single local name Lhé and its derivatives of 
a personal kind, as correctly and incorrectly gathered by them. Origi- 
nally some Bengili rendered Lhé by the, to him, familiar word Lék (re- 
gio) ; and then, being unaware that the Tibetan affix ba vel pa means 
belonging to, inhabitant of, he subjoined to the ba his own equivalent of 
ja (born of) and thus was deduced Klaproth’s furthest error (I omit 
others short of this one) of Lokabadja. To trace an error to its source 
is the best way to prevent its repetition, an aphorism I add, lest any per- 
son should suppose me wanting in respect for the eminent persons whose 
mistake I have pointed out. Klaproth was possibly misled by Hastings’ 
letters to and from Téshilingba.* But he and Ritter are fairly charge- 
able with constant creation of new regions out of mere synonyma! I 
could give a dozen of instances from their splendid maps. 

* See Turner’s Embassy and native account of Bhutan, in the Society’s Transac- 


tions. 


1848. ] 


English. 


The world 
God 

Man 
Woman 
Quadruped 
Bird 

Insect 

Fish 

Fire 

Air 

Earth 

Clay, plastic 
Water 
Light, lux 
The Sun 
The Moon 
The Stars 
A mountain 
A plain 

A river 

A ferry 

A boat 

A bridge 
Husband 
Wife 
Father 
Mother 
Brother 
Sister 
Grand-father 
Grand-mother 
Uncle 
Aunt 

Child 

Boy 

Girl 
Kinsfolk 
Strangefolk 


Evening 
To-day 
Yesterday 
To-morrow 
A week 

A fortnight 
A month 
A yearft 
Summer 


* Nyam is the Sun, which is no doubt worshipped, and 


terms. 


Chépang. 

Caret, 
*Myam Ding 
Pursi 

Miri 

Sya 

M6a 

Pling 

Gna T 

Mi T 

Maré 

S4a T 

Sa lena 

Ti 

Angha 
Nyam T 
Lamé T 
Kar T 

Rias T 
Dani 
Ghoro 
Titachaparna ? (fold) 
Caret 

Ta 

Palam 
Malam 

Pa 

Ma 

Hou 


Hou dhiang 


Ché 

Cho riang 
Laikwo 
Saing 

Nyi Gni T 
Ya 

Wago 
Syawa 
Nyam rama 
Ten 

Yon 

Syang 
Caret 
Bakha yatla 
Yatla 
Yatang 
Lhapa 


English. 
Winter 
The rains 
Grain 


Rice, unhusked 


Rice, husked 
Wheat 
Barleyt 
Plantain 
Pear 
Tobacco 
Pepper 

Red pepper 
Garlick 

Oil 

A tree 

A leaf 

A. flower 

A fruit 
Wood 

Fuel 

Grass 
Straw 

Bran 

A horse 

An ox 

A bull 

A cow 

A buffalo 
A dog 

A cat 

A monkey 
A jackal 

A tiger 

A leopard 
A bear 

A goat 

A sheep 

A hare 

A hog, pig 
An elephant 
A deer 

A rat 

A mouse 

A manis 

A fowl (gallus) 
Its egg 

A pigeon 

A crow 

A sparrow 
A lark 

A partridge 


+ The separate 12 months and 7 days have no names, 
t No other grain named but wheat and rice. 


On the Chéping and Kisinda tribes of Népil. 655 


Vocabulary of the language of the Chéping. 


Chépang. 
Namjing 
Nyamwa 
Yam 
Yang 
Chit 
Kan 
Caret 
Maisé 
Pasai 
Mingo 
Marich H 
Raksai 
Bin 
Saté 
Sing-tak T 
Lé T 
R6 
Chai 
Sying T 
Jharo sying 
Caret 
Won 
Rok 
Sérang 
Shya 
You shya 
M6 shya 
Misha T 
Kui T 
Caret 
Yukh 
Karja 
Ja 
Mayo ja 
Yom 
Micha 
Caret 
Caret 
Piak T 
Kisi N 
Kasya 
Yu 
Mayo yu 
Chang jing 
Wa 
Wa-kim 
Bak-wa 
Kawa 
Yurkinwa 
Baja wa 


Tithara H 
hence the identity of 


656 On the Chépdng and Kisinda tribes of Népit. [Dec. 
English. Chépang. English. Chépang. 

A quail Umba-wa Cord, thin Rhim 

A kite or hawk Mo-wa Thread Mayo rhim 

A fly Yang Needle Gyap 

A bee Tamba Pen Ré syang 

The human body Mha Ink Hildang 

The head Tolong Sovereign Rajah H 

The hair Min Subject Parja H 

The face Khén Citizen Beérang moy 

The forehead Jyél Countryman, rustic B6 moy 

The eye Mik T Soldier Gal moy 

The nose Gné Nyé Villager Désing moy 

The mouth Mothong Priest Jhakri 

The chin Kam-tyé Physician Chimé 

The ear N6 T Druggist O’sa yilong 

The arm Krat Master Sing chopo 

The hand Kutpa Servant Mayo ? (small) 

The leg Dom Slave Grang 

The foot Caret Cultivator Kamin chara 

The belly Takh Cowherd Gothéla H 

Bone Rhus T Carpenter Sing kami N 

Blood Wi Blacksmith Kami N 

Blood-vessel S6 Weaver Naik yousa 

A house Kyim T Spinner Rhim rhousa 

A door Kharék Taylor Rupsa 

A stone Bang Basket-maker Grang kiéni 

A brick Caret Currier Pin raipo 

A temple Ding thani Tanner Pin lai 

An idol Simta Cotton-dresser Rhim rhowan 

Dinner Amijia Tron Phalam P 

A dish Lo Copper Tamba H 

A plate Mila Lead Sisa H 

Flesh Mai Gold Liang 

Bread Lang Silver Rapa H 

Vegetables Kyang Rain Nydéng wa 

Honey Tam Frost Chépa 

Wax Main P Snow Rapang 

Milk Gniuti Ice Chépa 

Gheu Gheu H Fog Khasi 

Cloth Nai Lightning Marang 

Clothes, apparel Nai Thunder Marang mira 

Bed clothes Lou A storm Marhti 

Upper vest Doura A road Liam T 

Lower vest Samba A path Mayo liam 

Shoe Panai P A spring (water) Tishakwé 

Stocking Docha P Trade Yinlang 

Wool, raw Min Capital Ras 

Cotton, ditto Kapas H Interest Ché 

Hemp, ditto Kyou Coin Tanka H 

Bow Lui Robbery Latilang 

Arrow Lah T Theft Ditto 

Ax Warhé Murder Jénsatang 

Spade, hoe Taik Rape Kityalang 

Plough You sing Cultivated field Bla 

Loom Caret City or town Bérang 

Knife Phia ghal Village Dési N 

Brush, broom Phék Horn Rong T 

Basket Tokorong Ivory Laik 

Rope, thick Ra A still Kati pong 


1848. } On the Chépang and Kisinda tribes of Népdl. 657 
English. Chépang. English. Chépang. 
Beer Han Stupid Waiva chil 
Spirits Rakshi P Honest Waba pina 
The senses Caret Dishonest Waba pilo 
Touching Dina ? Great Bronto 
Smelling * Gnama ? Small Maito, Mayo ~ 
Seeing Yorsa ? Heavy Lito 
Hearing Saisa ? Light, levis Caret 
Tasting Yangsa ?* Black Galto 
Hunger Ring White Bhamto 
Thirst Kidp Green Phelto 
Disease Rog H Blue Galto 
Medicine O’sa N Red Dito 
Fever Aimang Yellow Yerpo 
Dysentery Boarling Sweet Nimto 
Small-pox Brom Sour Nimlo 
Fear Rai Straight Dhimto 
Hope Aphroé Crooked Déngto 
Love Mharlang Hot Dhato 
Hate Ghrim nang Cold Yestho 
Grief, sorrow Manbharang Dark Caret 
Joy Yang nang Light, luminous Takto 
One Ya-zho Great Bronto 
Two Nhi-zho T Greater Mhak talto 
Three Sam-zho T Greatest Mhak talto 
Four Ploi-zho Small Maito 
Five Piima-zho Smaller Cholam 
Six Krak-zho Sinallest Cholam 
Seven Chana-zho To stand Chimsa 
Eight Prap-zho To fall Chonsa 
Nine Takt-zho To walk Whasa 
Ten Gyib-zho To run Kisa 
Half Bakha To climb Jyaksat 
The whole Yagar To question Hotsa 
Some, any Caret To answer Dyengniksa 
Many Jhé To request Bajhinang ?* 
None Doémanalo To refuse Bainanglo ? 
Near Lokt6 To fight Kaichinang 
Par Dyangté To kiss Chopchinang 
Blind Mikchangna To laugh Nhisa 
Lame Domtonga To cry Rhiasa 
Dumb No6sa chal To eat Jhichang 
Deaf Nésa mal To drink Tamchang 
Clean Bhangto To talk Nhochang 
Dirty Galto To be silent Ashimanga ? 
Strong Jokto To shit Yéshang 
Weak Joklo To piss Chiachang 
Good Pito To ascend Jyakchang* 
Bad Pilo To descend Susyang 
Ugly Pilo To cut Palchinang 
Handsome Dyangto To break Tléschang 
Young Dyang mai To join, unite Chéchang 
Old Burha H To jump Jyeschang 
Clever Chimo To sit down Muchang 


* Sal think is the infinitive sign, and ang the participial. And one or other 
should appear uniformly here. 

{ Ifas I suppose, Sa be the infinitival sign there must be error and the rather 
that all the verbs should have one form. Ang | think is the participial sign, 


4 R 2 


658 On the Chéping and Kisinda tribes of Népil. {Drc. 


English, 
To stand up 
To sleep 
To wake 
To give 
To take 
To lend 
To borrow 
To buy 
To sell 
To exchange 
To live 
To die 
To reap 
To sow 
To thresh 
To winnow 


Chépang. | English. Chépang. 
Chingsa To write Résa 
Yémsa To read Brésa 
Tyoksa To sing Mansa 
Biisa T To dance Syaksa 
Lisa T To lie down Kontimisa 
Baisa To get up Caret 
Lisa To tell a falsehood Hekaktang 
Yingsa To see Chéwang ? 
Yinlangalsa To hear Saiyang ?* 
Gyésa To taste Lyémsa 
Caret To smell Namsa 
Caret To touch Dimsa 
Rasa To count Théngsa 
Warsa To measure Krisa 
Rhapsa To remember Mhardangsa 
Krapsa To forget Mhoiyangsa 


N. B.—T postfixed indicates a Tibetan etymon for the word, H a Hindi origin, P 
a Parbatia or Khas, and N a Néwar, ditto. It was not in my power to do more 
than collect vocables. I could not ascertain structure: but comparing all the words 
I conceive the anomalies of the verbs may be set right by assuming Sa to be the 
infinitival sign, and ang, varied to chang, yang and nang, the participial one.— 


Ben: 


List of Chépdng words derived from the Tibetan language and especi- 


English. 
Eye 
Sun 
Sky 
Ear 
Mountain 
Star 
Free 
Wood 
Leaf 
Salt 
Road 
House 
Moon 
Bone 
Fire 
Arrow 
Dog 
Buffalo 
Day 
Earth 
Fish 
Hog 
Horn 
Two 
Three 
Give 
Take 


ally the Bhutanese dialect of tt. 


Tibetan. Lhopa. Chépang. 

Mig uy Mik 
Nyima Nyim Nyam 
Namkhah Nam Nam 

os N6 Navé 
Ri Rong Rias 
Karma Kam Kar 
Jon-shing Shing Sing-tak 

a Shing Sing 
Lo-ma . Lé 
Tsa Chha Chhé 
Lam Lam Liam 
Khyim Khim Kyim 
Lavo ap Lamé 
Raspa - Rhus 
Mé Mi Mi 
Dah Dah Lah 
Khyi Khi Kui 
Mahi S Meshi Misha 

“¢ Nyim Nyi 

9? Sa Sa 
Nya Gna Gna 
Phag Phag Piak 
Ra Rong Rong 
Nyis Nyi Nhi-zhot 
Sim Sam Sam-zho 
Buih Bin Bai 
Lan Ling Li 


* These should be Chésa and Saisa I apprehend. 
+ Zho is a emunerative servile affix like Thampa in the decimal series of Tibetan. 


1848.} Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabie Astronomy. 659 


A passage from Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabic Astronomy ; 
by A. SPRENGER. Communicated by HW. M. Exxiot, Esq. Foreign 
Secretary to Govt. of India. 


We find in Arabic two sets of names for stars and constellations. 
Some are purely Arabic, like (#siwlis (the Bear), others are tran- 
scribed or translated from the Greek, as ws (the Bear), and Cy9\8a3 a 
corruption of c#)\%§ (Cepheus). In the same manner we find two 
totally distinct systems. In one (the purely Arabic) we find names for 
southern stars which are visible only in Arabia and not in Greece or 
Babylonia ; the ecliptic is divided into twenty-eight parts, and not into 
twelve, and, consistently, the year has twenty-eight solar months ; many 
stars have names of which the Greeks have not taken notice, and they 
are grouped into constellations ina manner different from that of the 
Greeks. This system of astronomy rests solely on observation without 
calculation or generalization. 

Greek astronomy seems to have been first introduced among the 
Arabs by Khalid b. Yazyd, who flourished towards the end of the first 
century of the Hijrah; he had several books translated from the Greek 
into Arabic, and was in possession of a celestial globe which had been 
made by Ptolemy ;* and so rapidly did this science take root and spread 
among the followers of Muhammed, that the Moors in Spain were, as 
early as the ninth century after Christ, the instructors of their northern 
neighbours. We find in the writings of the venerable Bede the words 
Alidada saz! and Almajest shes) | which bear witness to the Arabic 
origin of part of his astronomical knowledge. Ever since the time of 
Khalid, systematical writers on astronomy follow exclusively the Greek 
system, whilst encyclopcedic authors mix the two without much discri- 
mination. The chapter of Ibn Qotaybah on astronomy, though the 
tendency of the author is philology, is therefore very valuable; for he 
carefully excluded every Greek ingredient from it with the exception 


* Kifty’s Bibl. Philosophorum, the account of this (or globe) is in Casiri II. 417, 
but not complete: the psssage ought to run 

gpadz beg Lait wySs (y3 Lo) Gy ussen Wo [Alo t3g &s gla Cy Oye Grotla 
Brwo Cphonecn 9 (compare the MSS. copy of Kifty in the Lib. of Paris). 


660 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katil’ on Arabie Astronomy. [Dec. 


perhaps of the names of the signs of the Zodiac, with which the Arabs 
were probably acquainted long before Muhammed. 

The object of [bn Qotaybah’s* book called the Writer’s Manual, 
wi}; Gol or according to others GiSisiy!, is merely to explain 
the words and terms which occur in the poems, proverbs, &c. of 
ancient Bedouin poets, we can not therefore expect complete explana- 
tions. To supply what I can, I have added some extracts from the 
Mabdhi al Fikr of Wat-wat %\,£9 of which I believe, there is no copy 
in Europe, the extracts from this book however must be received with 
some caution, for the author is not always critical, and the MSS. not 
always correct ; but the extracts from Ibn Qotaybah may be completely 
relied upon, and they will be found copied under the respective heads 
in the Qamius and Cifdh and translated in Freytag’s Dict. Arab. Lat. 


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g "9 
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My 


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wel, fall y ih PP SET Glas ae 


Lge Spo ads hs od] yt ) hve Wyte Ras se od] Jj Ane y 


S Died Avo 278, 


1848.| Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Kitibl’ on Arabic Astronomy. 661 
a w 
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SS SEL yoBl) QV ISM pysh Uetend g WI 51g M yl pty Copel y 
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662 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Kétil? on Arabie Astronomy. [Drc. 
bier yl gel bile dT wptudae gl ey) guy 9 ho CSS 
spel, Jas a= spe id phe 6 dy bw GU say Coal 
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1848.} Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabie Astronomy. 663 
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si Lleall » GL yk) Culp bree y coY Hla Capa 


us she ev SS 5 GAME pe STs Spill ey wail) elle yc 
4s 


664 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katil’ on Arabie Astronomy. [Dxc. 
sd lye ye elas SAG IS od AY oe 
bert ty Fh i 79 (eae et ne us Des ey 
dN) jad &ys SF pod Ue g dos? gil JU, dolar yi) 
SSE > y Slat ay 35 Coa] Coss» Sale ell gi py 
Uae ely Gente! seal] pad oly y ds all Utd ely 
day 3) gyod cally BAU y Cpiad Yde dey) aU he ycle Us ps0 
vba 5 (>) 3 esas) wolial] wy? 9 yeditel) Lor, 95,9] 
goa Aad ypc: ue gis] Uma eole 3 2d WS,S 
we 198 558) , yeild aby es : a Ue rf 388 Jie] Us ye ans 
ust’ banal] dad Wpomd delel] 5 olds} Stem) RIS Srcdiawe 
2 wight Reds CeS 6s l=) soar oe I) Staal] BL A135 . 
Bpciis) 5 Ssilosll tomeS ly} jaye da Jpe 3) Baul)» as” y 
eel AALS gly! lymnad) 4 AW YK LS aro ied BE Syel Loe 

Leal y jhe =| BL) gm 4 yt) es) ali us) Lak 

Lab yy! gS) 4 Arabia dhe thi) ples wc ly JW Oe 

dso Uo dhe tht] ghee! eri) yale SU Yad s aby pil ask 

a)» ylpsal] Uptomd dele] 4 plb ash bapa d3 yyleis y 

she da!) US Sey Coy) BSUS 4 Royo) py) BS etd 

ade ood) y=" 5b us Geel s wabytill yx aul 62 5 


Sau} Spel else ped alc BMS Mbp Bigs coed BS eal 4y5] 


1848.] Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Kitib’ on Arabie Astronomy. 66 
wt sytie Bas $8 Shem 9 Gebel Dey Se es? Gye] 
eS IF pelill JF Coybady 43 6 las! 81,5 GSD) po a yily toned 16 
wf? Py dyer Salat ye lay le lal GK aye oye lag! 
CS a GI) AS atic jay jc dale y dsilosll S101 
ps cola y dgines) ally 0 es gs sy, ye] OS)) ehom us! 
Sry Aiyy ays 9 Sahn] ath ye seit us? Wy) 5 yds yd 
Bier al Cob, tl Ete pen eli Rigen! Ae 
Big6l) Jol gle elle: pul) 4» colhy pail) Gas Soe) Jal cole 
YUE yr She get Coe? oy hey Gey! EB 
sue tse) Jal Yaems Glave coh gS Cans] 5 eS,5 
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BAL] daw Khel) 9 (a5 53 dh yg yell be phy ede dey) Spike 
she dius ¢ lal] daw y ploy!) daw y alll daw 4 —Klol} daw ; 
323 opel sly cab eho Ass IS ute USS Whe dew IS 
Slo) p42 Live vil jie y mesg sdy5 Eda ive usrs els 
te aF ab LoS ctl pedicel) Lely Walaaill 5 Cayall LaSa_gi 
whe 5 s>z , es LSyhivoll 9 ho; us? Jas ass us? 

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Ag y 


D 


666 Ibn Qotaybal’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabie Astronomy. |Derc. 
- hg P ico SeMtd  iehc w 
pws Lf ies us) mis USD kendS Lolow y Ay} ad) baal) 9S 
# ld Cs! slab) , kG 5 stl) 

“*On the heaven, stars, seasons, and winds.’ —** All which is above 
you is called sama (heaven); therefore the roof of the tent is called 
sama, and a cloud is called samé. It is said in the Qoran, “ We have 
sent from the sama, i. e. from the cloud blessed water.” Falak (sphere) 
is the name for the orbit of such stars as it contains. It is said in the 
Qoran ‘They all swim in a falak.’ The name falak has been chosen 
(to designate a sphere of the heaven) on account of its round shape ; 
for you say the falkah (ball) of the spindle, you also say the breast of 
a woman became falak (round). 

A sphere has two opposite holes; one in the south and one in the 
north.—The milkyway is called majarrah because it looks like a beam 
(supporting a vault) ; it is also called the sharaj (fissure) of heaven and 
the gate of heaven. The singular of bortj (signs of the Zodiac) is 
burj ; it means fortress or castle (German, Burg) ; in this sense the word 
is used in the Qoran; ‘If you are in strong boruj (fortresses).’? The 
names of the signs of the Zodiac are: the ram, bull, transit, crab, lion, 
ear of corn, balance, scorpion, bow, goat, the water-basket, and the fish. 

There are twenty-eight mansions of the moon. The moon is every 
day of the month in another mansion. It is said in the Qoran we 
have appointed for the moon mansions until she returns to her former 
place.” The Bedouins were of opinion that the term “ anwa” (heliacal 
settings), is exclusively applied to the mansions of the moon; and they 
called them the stars of occupation, for the moon occupies every night 
another mansion. 

The year has four seasons: the autumn is now called (by the Arabs 
settled out of their native country) Kharyf; but the Bedouins called it 
Raby (fresh grass), for in that season falls the first rain. It is called 
Kharyf, because people cut their crops in that season. It begins when 
the sun enters Libra. The sun passes during this season through 
the following mansions of the moon: ghafr (occultation), zobany, iklyl 
(crown), galb (heart), shawlah (the curvature of a tail when raised), 
na dyim (the ostriches), baldah (fissure). 

Winter begins when the sun enters into the sign of Capricorn. He 
passes through the following mansions of the moon in this season: sa’d 


1848.] Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabic Astronomy. 667 


al-dzabih (the butchering luck), sa’d bola’ (the devouring luck), sa’d 
al-so’lid (the luck of lucks), sa’d al-akhbiyah faragh al-dalw al-moqad- 
dam (the foremost trough of the bucket), faragh al-dalw al-mowakh- 
khar (the hindmost trough of the bucket). 

Spring was called cayf by the ancient Arabs, and Raby by the latter 
Arabs who had settled in cities. It begins when the sun enters into 
the sign of the Aries. Its mansions are: shara¢an (the two signs or 
marks), botazn (the small belly), thorayya (multitude, i. e. Pleiades), 
dabrén or dabarén (Hyades), haq’ah (the race-course), han’ah (the 
curvature), and dzira (the forearm). 

Summer was formerly called qaytz by the Bedouins, and is now called 
cayf by the towns-people. Its lunar mansions are: nathrah (the back 
of the nose, the stars are on the nose of the lion), ¢arf (the eye, viz. of 
the sign of the lion), jabhah (the forehead), zobrah (the lion’s mane 
between his shoulders), carfah (returning), ’awwé (the barker or dog), 
sinsak. 

Nawé6 (heliacal setting), means that one of those stars sets (heliacally) 
in the west, whilst another rises (heliacally) in the east. The term 
naw6, which means rising, is used in this instance (for setting), because 
the setting of one of the mansions of the moon is always accompanied 
by the rising of another; some say that nawd means both rising and 
setting. One of the mansions of the moon sets (heliacally) and ano- 
ther one rises every thirteen days. The twenty-eight mansions make 
therefore their revolution once a year. If at the setting of a mansion 
of the moon a change of the weather took place, the Arabs used to 
ascribe it to the setting mansion, and they thought that it continued to 
influence the weather until the next mansion would set (the setting 
mansion, it must be recollected, proceeds towards coming in conjunc- 
tion with the sun). If a mansion of the moon set and brought no 
rain it was called “empty.” 

Sirar or Sirar (occultation), is a term for the last night of the (lunar) 
month, for the moon becomes invisible, sometimes one and sometimes 
two nights. Bara (salvation), is equally the name of the last day of 
the month, for the moon escapes from the sun ; mohaq (destruction), is 
the name for the last three days of the (natural) month, for the moon 
perishes durmg them. Naf/yrah (having the throat cut), is also a 
name for the last day of the month, for the coming month cuts the 


668 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabic Astronomy. {Dec. 


throat of the going. The first three days after the moon has become 
visible she is called hilal, and the remaining days of the month the 
moon is called qamar. The thirteenth night of the month is called 
the night of equation, the fourteenth night is called the night of 
haste (full moon), for she hurries to overtake the sun before he sets 
and seems to drive him away. Some say that the word badr is to be 
taken in the meaning of ‘completion or fulness’ for the moon is then 
full, you use the word in this sense in calling a purse of 10,000 
dirhams badrah, and in calling a full large eye badrah. Every three 
nights of the month had, with the Bedouins, a separate name. The 
first three were called ghorar, plur. ghorah, which means the first of 
any thing. The next three nights (4th, Sth, 6th) are called superero- 
gations, the next three are called ninth, for the last of this three nights 
is the ninth of the lunar month ; the next three are called tenth, from 
the first night of the set; and the next three (14th, 15th, and 16th) 
are called white on account of the silvery light of the moon, during 
these three nights, and the next three nights (17th, 18th, and 19th) 
dora’ the regular form would be dor,’ for the first halfis dark and the 
other half is moonlight ; you call a sheep dar’a if the head and neck is 
black and the rest of the body white. The next three nights (20th, 
21st, 22d) are called dark, the next three (23d, 24th, 25th) are called 
black, dadiy, because they are a remmant, and the last three nights 
are called destruction, for the moon perishes. 

The sun and moon have two orients and two occidents. It is there- 
fore said in the Koran “ God is the Lord of the two easts, and of the 
two wests.”” One is the place where the sun rises and sets in summer, 
and the other where it rises and sets in winter. The exact place of the 
east of winter is the point of the horizon where the sun rises in the 
shortest day of the year, and the east of summer is the point of the 
horizon where the sun rises in the longest day of the year. The other 
risings and settings of the sun are between these two extremes; the 
words (orients and occidents) are used in the plural in the Koran. 

A star is called najm because it rises. You say of a tooth najama, 
i.e. it comes forth. You also say a star najama, i. e. it rises; a star 
is also called ¢ériq, for it lights at night. You say of aman who comes 
to hue at night taraqa, in this sense, says the poctess, Hind b. (bint?) 
‘otbah: We are the daughters of a ¢ariqg, we walk on carpets. She 


1848.| Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Kétib’ on Arabic Astronomy. 669 


means to say our father is a star in nobility and height of position. 
“What do you know of the meaning of ¢ariq? it is a bright star.” 

The moon is called qamar because she is white ; aqgmar means white 5 
you say of the night itis qamraif it is light. There are two dawns, 
the first is also called the tail of the wolf, it is the false dawn and 
resemble a wolf’s tail, because it is narrow and does not spread; the 
second is the true dawn which spreads, this is the red of the morning. 
The sun is called glowing for he glows like fire. The morning is hence 


called the morning of the glowing, (i. e. sun.) The highest part of the 
sun, which first rises above the horizon is called the horn of the sun. 
His sides are called hawajib ; iyah is the light of the sun; halah means 
the halo of the moon. 

There are four cardinal winds: the north wind which comes from 
Sham (left); or from the right if you are in the ’Iraq and place your 
face towards the giblah. If the north wind is hot in summer it is 
called trying. The opposite wind is called south wind. The east wind 
comes from whence the sun rises, and the west wind comes from the 
opposite direction. A wind which comes from between two cardinal 
points is called declinating. 

A. large star is called dorriyy without a hamzah (pearly). Abi Mu- 
hammed says if you pronounce the word dorriyy with a hamzah and 
say doriy, it means a star which rises over you. 

By the jady (polar star) through which you ascertain where the 
qiblah is, the jady of the ursa minor is meant. The ursa minor is close 
to the ursa major and resembles it; four stars are called na’gh (bier) 
and the other three are called banat (daughters). The first two of the 
four are called farqadin (the two calves), the last of the banat is called 
jady (polar star, literally, he-goat)—Soha is an obscure star in the 
larger Bear on which people exercise their eyesight, and hence the say- 
ing: I show her the soha (talks on subtilities) and she shows me the 
moon. Fakka (languor) is a round constellation (Corona borealis) 
behind the Arcturus the common people (ammah, and not ghilmah, 
as Freytag seems to have read) call it the poor man’s cup. Before 
Arcturus is the simak rémih, (1. e. the simak armed with a spear ;) it is 
called armed with a spear because there is a star before it which is 
called spear. The unarmed simak (Spica virginis) is between the 
southern and northern stars. The setting vulture consists of three 


670 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabic Astronomy. [|Derc. 


stars disposed like a julha (i. e. a fire-place consisting of three stones 
‘placed like a horse-shoe) ; opposite is the flymg vulture which consists 
of three stars inaline. The former is called the sitting vulture, for 
two of its stars are considered as its wings; and it is conceived that the 
vulture has shut its wings like a bird that sits down. The latter is 
called the flying vulture, for two stars are considered as expanded wings, 
resembling those of a flying bird. The common people call this con- 
stellation the balance.—The tattooed hand is the open hand of the 
Pleiades. This constellation has another hand which is called the cut 
hand and which is below the sharatén. The ’ayyugq is on the right 
(south) side of the milkyway, behind it are three clear stars called 
marks. The lowest star of the ’ayytq is called the foot of the ’ayytq. 
Canopus is a red isolated star, as it is near the horizon it appears 
always twinkling. The poet says “I see a board from the Canopus 
which when it rises towards the end of the night, resembles a twinkling 
eye. This is a southern star, a man who faces in the ’Iraq the qiblah 
sees it to his left. It is visible in all Arabia but it is not visible in 
Armenia. The Bear sets in Aden but never sets in Armenia. You see 
the Canopus about ten days sooner in the Hijaz than in the *Iraq. The 
heart of the Scorpion rises in the country of Rabadzah (which is four 
days journey from Madynah) three days sooner than the vulture, but 
at Kidfah the vulture rises before the heart of the Scorpion by seven 
days. On the track and behind the two feet of Canopus are large white 
stars, which are not visible in *Ir4éq, and which are called Ayar in the 
Hijiz. Two constellations are called shi’rah (canis), one is called the 
shi’ré of setting over (the river), (i. e. canis major), and is in the Gemi- 
ni, the other is called the shiva with sore eyes (canis mimor). The canis 
major and minor have each a star called mirjam. 

Ten stars are called sad (luck); four of them are among the 
mansions of the moon, and have been mentioned ; the remaining six are : 
luck of the second grass, luck of the king, luck of the chickens, luck 
of the hero, luck of the distinguished, luck of the rain. Every one of 
these sa’d consists of two stars which are apparently one cubit from 
each other. They are regular, and these stars and the mansions of the 
moon are well known, and frequently mentioned by the ancient Arabic 
poets. 

The Khonnas (retrograde) mentioned in the Qoran, is said to mean, 


1848.| Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Kati’ on Arabic Astronomy. 671 


Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury, they have this name, 
because they move through the zodiac and mansions, like the sun and 
moon, but then they return; when you see one at the end of the zodiac 
it returns to the beginning. They are also called konnas, for they con- 
ceal themselves like “ gazelles in their dens.”’ 

The word nawé, helical setting of a mansion of the moon, (plur. 
anwa,) is of frequent occurrence in Arabic authors, and several of them 
have written monographies on the anwa, to which the changes of the 
weather were ascribed, as with us to the quarters of the moon; yet 
this term seems to have escaped the diligence of Ideler, and its 
meaning has baffled the learning of Richardson and Freytag; the 
former explains it : “setting in the west (as a star) in the twilight, ano- 
ther one rising in the east.” A passage from Watw4t, which bears on 
the meaning of this term, may therefore be useful. 

The mansions of the moon alternately watch each other. The term 
watching is employed, because one indicates the rise of another, as if 
one was waiting the setting of its fellow before it rises. The reason is 
this. The mansions are divided into two sets (or halves) as we have 
said, viz. the southern, which comprizes fourteen mansions, and the 
northern, which comprizes the same number. When the first mansion 
of the southern half rises, the first mansion of the northern sets. 
The first mansion of the northern set is the sharatén, and the first 
mansion of the southern set is the ghafr. When the sharaZan rises 
the ghafr sets, and so on until the simak rises, which is the last mansion 
of the northern set, and which alternates with the Ait (fish): the one 
sets when the other rises the second morning. Rising and setting are 
not to be taken in the usual meaning, or rising from the horizon ; for in 
this sense, the mansions of the moon rise and set every twenty-four 
hours. The meaning is this. When the sun approaches to a fixed 
star or planet, he hides it and it is not visible to the eye of the observer ; 
a star is therefore visible only at night and not at day time, and being 
im occultation is as much as being not on the sky. The star remains 
invisible until it is sufficiently distant from the sun; it can first be seen 
at dawn, for the light of the sun (not of the stars as the MSS. has it) 
is then weak and does not overpower the light of the stars; the star 
of the rising mansion can therefore be seen in the east in the morning. 
This is the meaning of the term “the rise of a mansion.”’ Its watch- 

4T 


672 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Kdtibl’ on Arabic Astronomy. [Drc. 


man becomes at the same time invisible, and this is the meaning of the 
term “it sets.” Fourteen mansions are constantly visible in the hemi- 
sphere of the heaven which is above the earth, the other fourteen 
mansions are concealed under the earth, in the other half of the heaven. 
To every two and one third mansion corresponds our sign of the 
zodiac. The mansions of the shara¢én, bo¢ayu and one third of the 
thorayyé correspona to Aries, &c. 


usa] > 83 y)] use 3 Wars eres Ons J je ychd 9 
tesa!) y drole Lye é hel \ en! 52 &5K yl é ztb a3 ene 
9g) be ean Lie ds LS uso? pandas A J jad | y) 5 KK3 eS 
BJ pol] enwlb Jats WS sade we pnd y Wie pide deny! 
ade eo) wy” 3) és Jad] Lens y ccihes] esl ws” us) JI 
Ales Os ax) C. sad] pool] Js! 5 0 “isl agi] end] J! * 
alt) dl Sls lime, bal Whe Gul re WU yive 
BS jiv0 ler AZ) 5 a ight 50) sii 4a). 9 Shaul) BS je 
\ycglbh 3 Ke ylis we Yeats “8, a0) aa te Leta yf 9 “a 

ws al , er ahs \J doa9° aaSh; wh AAS Le art 9 G3) oy é 
dky J) ten | Ken wy” eS S we ey, 3 Ja) rod] a sh 
Wh ee Jes opt BLT Ute Ue BARA) y BS yuu 4S he") 5 
ob Cl WK Sas Yl dy al dae alad Bo IY Qn 
G8 

ANY WSS 3 jas W ye wl 4S Was: Jha nai] AAC ere) 
gp bg W Shige Lanne yy E5190) 552 WE ps] @ lb Jy! 
Se SS, Lar Fi) gi 8 GS) Coy eS # 

Bay pS Uy c ¥y ke 2g BAAS ne] uK3 us? eo 5 dc lb |, 
Kas} 2.03 us? Tau! V4) coo rac) ay So etl a J 
#« SMell A) agi) 108 5 ied Pe byl] ey ee ; 


1848.] Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Kétil’ on Arabic Astronomy. 673 


It seems that the mansions of the moon must be considered as a 
division of the ecliptic by which the progress of the sun through the 
vastness of the heavens is measured, and the time of its annual 
revolution divided into twenty-eight parts or solar months. The motion 
of the moon has furnished this division. From the observation of the 
same stars from which the Arabs learned what solar month of the year 
was, they could also learn the date of the lunar month and even the 
hour of the night. The lunar mansions were the almanac and dial of 
the illiterate children of the desert, and they are probably their own 
invention. Asa more precise knowledge of them may be of historical 
interest, I insert here another passage of Waéwat (Lib. I. cap. 3) on 
the subject :— 


«As the Arabs (Bedouins) had no knowledge of the results which 
the ancients had obtained by their observations of the fixed stars, and 
as they were not acquainted with the stars which might enable them to 
define the seasons of the year and to fix the time, they observed certain 
stars and attempted to ascertain by experience to what extent the heli- 
acal setting of every star was true or deceptive (in predicting the wea- 
ther), and what influence the stars exercise on the temperament and 
constitution of man when they rise or set. They did not however 
attend to the signs of the zodiac in their observations, but they divided 
the sphere of the fixed stars into a number of parts, equal to the number 
of days of a revolution of the moon, that is to say into twenty-eight. 
They looked for a sign to mark the distance which the moon passes in 
twenty-four hours; and called it “‘stage’’ (mansion). They began 
with the two stars in the horn of Aries, called sharafan, then they 
looked out for another star by which to might mark the distance which 
the moon goes in 24 hours, starting from the shara¢an, and this star is 
bofayn. After the bo¢ayn comes the tharayy4, &c. It is the Arabs 
who gave names to these stars without reference to the division or signs 
of the Zodiac, thus the haq’ah is one of the stars marking the limit 
of a mansion of the moon, yet it is not in the Zodiac but in Orion. 
The term mansion is taken by exact writers in the meaning of a portion 
of the heavenly sphere equal to one-fourth of one-seventh, i. e. one 
twenty-eighth of the circumference. It is not more than this, for the 
moon, in her mean course arrives on the 29th day at the spot from 
which she started. Mansion means originally the respective are and not 

47 2 


674 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabic Astronomy. [Derc. 


the star, for the stars are only the limits which divide one mansion from 
another, but these were called after the stars, and now the names of ohe 
stars are applied to the respective mansions. Every mansion has 13- 


TTS 


days, for this is the result if you divide 3654, the number of days of 
the solar year by 28. The almanack of the mansions is calculated by 
the solar year, for their apparition (read ‘%)5-& instead of l®)yb) is con- 
nected with the solar year. Every mansion has therefore thirteen days 
or degrees. But the solar year is one day and one fourth of a day 
longer than this period (i. e. 28x13 days), therefore one day is 
added to the last mansion, which is called jabhat. To make up for the 
remaining fourth, a day is intercalated every four years in the mansion 
of the jabhah. The sharatan are considered the first mansion, for they 
are in Aries, which is the first sign of the Zodiac.” 

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gle! } eda) ‘ae Jub 53 anes },8 Ke yen ws ec! este) oe ) KiNG! 

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Cw 
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PTS ol Lally SA no spe yeytc 5 apiled ayo 5 pm gy 


Y St 


Biles Bad y Sol) dass? Bho dy Coal) wage!) Od cpyitl 5 


1848.] Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib? on Arabic Astronomy. 675 
wf Hue Hpi y pI ode ude Js) eles) Lops yyy pie y 
LSS g Upbe MS hs 583 ade eS 1,6) bail» Sd) 6 I Lael 
pees Bas easly we Bie MS y Lyle ele 5 Ll} arom Jans 
tet tee A] he age ete pd cabal 5 eye erway) y Lops 
Cred Abd om WW) dgunodt) Riad) Crround 13) Si) O05 
eae i te Mh ea a ay J Ue Ge’, 
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WS bsg Cpoddl I deny uy lala) , on oy) Ranadll 
Spc wl 6m a) Log phe LM pie JS Jao US p03] 
BAL JS gle sys) yo nas Le prom » CK = yd Ue days 
Lays begs 5S cpa piienll y Hailed!) JUST aly} sLaRi) dey Lege phe 
cae Eps gb g Kiel! A) pil CU) Updal] Cod Lege Jas? 
Ua aye) cle dyzi Ley slo glo athe a )) gad opt wy 

oa) os GI osb Wl JUs) slat ae Weil, $6 del 
dla] aye coal] Cetud) USS O39 <9 pil aye ail : J) Jas] i, 
«3 3) Jos!) ae 


In the following account of every mansion of the moon I follow the 
same author, but abridge his text :— 

«© Fourteen mansions are northern and called the left mansions, and as 
many are southern and called the right. When the northern mansions 
rise (heliacally) the night is longer than the day, and when the southern 
ones rise the day is longer than the night. The moon either makes 
her daily stages in the respective mansion or a little before or behind 
it (but in the same line), or out of the line of the mansions to the north 
or south. 

1. Sharatdn or shartin (dual), sing. sharé or sharat, pl. ashra¢, which 
means signs whedle, Also called the horn (<4 I would observe that 
this and most other pure Arabic terms of returning are obsolete in their 
common acceptation, or perhaps belong to a dialect, which forms but 
a slight ingredient into the written language) being, according to those 


676 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katil’ on Arabic Astronomy. ([Dec. 


who paint the constellations, in the horns of Aries. The shara¢an are 

two bright stars, not far asunder north and south ; not far from the 

southern is another and smaller star, which is sometimes added to the 

preceding two. The setting of the shara¢an portends luck. The Arabs 

say 

Wf CRI939 lbs dt wy pass 9 wlopl Yokel wlbyitt (sic) alb 151 
Who AS pk! why wl ya | wales, 

“When the shara¢aén rise (set?), day and night are equal, the 
country becomes green, the teeth stand opposite each other (’), neigh- 
bours make presents to each other, and the poor man may spend the 
night wherever he likes.” 

2. Botayn (the small belly) the diminutive is used because there is a 
star in the fish called belly (batn). Three stars resembling a horse- 
shoe, somewhat less in magnitude than the sharatan. Those who make 
drawings of the constellations place them in the belly of Aries. 

3. Thorayy4 (Pleiades) ; six small stars; ignorant people believe 
that there are seven, they are close together and look like sparks. 
Some say there are twelve, but it would require the eye of Muhammed 
to see them. This constellation is called al-najm (the star) in the same 
manner as Venus is called al-kawkab (the star) par excellence. The 
Pleiades are also called the fat sheep’s tail ex)! &J!; most times the 
moon does not go into the Pleaides but into Lhyqah &&ya/! (straits) 
which is the name of two small stars between the Pleiades and 
Aldabaran. This is considered as the best and most lucky nawé by 
the Arabs, and occurs therefore frequently in their poetry. (The rhymes 
of the Bedouins on this and some other mansions are so much disfigured 
by errors that they could not be transcribed here). 

4. Dabaranis a bright red star, before it (east of it) is a group of many 
stars, of which two stars are nearer to dabaran than the rest. These 
are called the two dogs wlJS of the dabaran ; and the rest its booty 
&eais (elas its flock of sheep?) or its camels (43. The two Bedouin 
proverbs : “more faithful than dabarén wll wz Co)="leye s!), 2 
and ‘‘more treacherous than the Pleiades (wl, My sos)” are owing 
to the constancy with which the latter follow the former, who is his 
‘ois love. The Bi pik is also called peel Jb and c= sigh and 
ad csale and come) and yl ers and Gael, It is of the first 
magnitude. 


1848.] Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Kati? on Arabie Astronomy. 677 


5. Haq’ah (race-course, Cp y#!! (4) w 955 8,10) three small nebular 
stars called the jalha (fire-place of three stones disposed like a horse- 
shoe). 

6. Han’ah (curved), five stars resembling a club with a hook at the 
top called bs! 500, Three form a straight line. The third is called the 
bow of the Gemini hr | (#95, the fifth is turned back (forms the hook) 
by about one space towards the south. Astronomers place the han’ah 
m the foot of the gemini; some call it the bow of the gemini, with 
which they shoot at the arm of the lion, and give to it eight stars 
which have the shape of a bow, and of which the two stars which form 
the han’ah in its more limited sense, form the place where it is held. 
Others say the han’ah consists of two stars which are very close to 
each other, and the northern of which is brighter and called the pearl, 
jo and the southern is called wlse/!. Sometimes the moon takes up 
her quarters in three stars called gist |, which are opposite the han’ah. 
Here the moon crosses the northern galaxy. 

7. Dzir@ (arm), two stars, one bright the other dark, distant from 
each other the length of a horse-whip. ‘There are several small stars 
between them called the nails 863!. This is the southern of the two 
arms of a lion and also called &2,s% (shut), the other arm is called 
&L ns (expand), they are like each other. Astronomers place the 
latter in the canis minor. The Bedouins say 
lymld Gydyhy clad oyV Eg led! y 6 UN Cpmadl) eryme elo al bial 

cell y slaby eds 3 IS; 

«When the dzird’ rises the sun takes off her veil, the coal is lighted 
‘on earth, everywhere shines the mirage, and the gazelles and hons go 
into their dens.” 

8. Nathrah is a nebula resembling a portion of a cloud. Astro- 
nomers place it into the hut of the crab. This star is called nathrah 
(bridge of the nose), because on either side there are two small stars 
called the nostrils of the lion, and before them is his forehead 4gss, 
Some however say that this mansion is mouth of the lion o#Jl”s some 
call it the 8U. 

9. Tarf (the eye of the lion), two small stars close to each other, be- 
fore them are six small stars called by the Bedouins yl! (traveller ; 
this is probably an error instead of 8%) eye-laghes) ; two of these stars 


678 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katil’ on Arabie Astronomy. [Dxc. 


stand symetrically with the eyes, the other are before them. The Arabs 
make nearly as much of this mansion as they make of the Pleiades. 

10. Jabhah (the forehead of the lion), three bright stars, the mid- 
dling one is farthest to the east, they form therefore a triangle with long 
sides and a short base. South of them is a bright very red _ star called 
the heart of the lion ow! G8. The astronomers place this mansion 
in the shoulder of Leo. The naw6 of this mansion causes high 
winds. 

11. Zobrah, also called wy! and wltp=/ and oI! Gye, two 
bright stars two cubits asunder east and west, extending along the 
equator. They are called haraéthaén (incisions in the bow to receive 
the string) because they look like holes in the heaven. Below these two 
stars are nine lesser ones called hair_y»**, These eleven stars together 
are compared with the mane on the back of the lion and called zobrah. 
The Arabs say wlas> ef ds) wt yes} ee ls|—‘when the hardthan 
rise the small dates of the Hijaz are eaten.” 


12. Cirfah, a bright star, it is considered to be the 53 of the lion, 
which is explained to Wx! ley ; close and almost connected with this 
star are seven very small stars. This mansion is called cirfah, for when 
it rises with the dawn (in March) the heat returns, and when it sets, the 


cold ; it is therefore said to be the gate of time. Astronomers place it 
on the tail of Leo. 


13. ’Awwa five bright stars having the figure of (J from north to 
south ; four of them are in a line and one turn up. This mansion is 
also called the buttocks of the lion ow3!(5)9. The Bedouins also 
likened it to a dog who goes behind the lion. Astronomers place it im 
the breast of Virgo. 

14. The unarmed simak (Spica virginis) is a bright bluish star. On 
its side is another bright star called the simak, with a spear (Arcturus), 
for it has a small star in front considered to be its spear. Both simaks 
are of the first magnitude. The unarmed simak is towards the south of 
the armed, .~!,/i Siw. The name simak (a thing with which another 
thing is raised) has been given to these two stars, because they are near 
the zenith. The astronomers place the simak in the Spica, 4°; some 
times the moon takes up his mansion in four stars in front of the unarmed 
simak, called ow! y=°, (buttocks of the lion) or Slaw! op (seat of 


1848.] Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabie Astronomy. — 679 


the simak). This mansion is between the southern and northern 
mansions. } 

15. Ghafr—three very small stars on a curved line ; astronomers place 
them between the thighs of Leo. Prophets are born at the nawé of 
this mansion, which takes place in April. 

16. Zobaniyan—two bright stars; astronomers place them in the 
scales of Libra. They are the length of a man asunder. The Arabs 
say: Liga d&sd.0 css USy Ula wlae 65S JaNidoa sj! alb Js! 

““When the zobany rises, time assumes a new shape ‘for every one 
that has eyes, and easy for every animal.” 

17. Iklyl (crown), three stars about one cubit asunder, behind the 
ghafr. They are like a crown upon Scorpio. They are with astro- 
nomers on the beam of Libra. The Arabs say: Ukls Yj ab 15 
ode dyc3 S21 yet 9 Jf yo male, “When the crown rises 
on male animals in heat and rivers dry up.”’ 

18. Qalb—a red bright twinkling star, near two small stars, called 
kali U3f4) (the vein and artery which issue from the heart) by the 
Bedouins. Astronomers place this star in the heart of the Scorpion. 
There are four constellations which are called heart 45, first the heart 
of the scorpion, simply called the heart, which has just been mentioned ; 
second &xeud ws, third sl ws, fourth dw | wld, 

19. Shawlah ; several stars in a curved line resembling the raised tail 
of a Scorpion, among these are two small stars close together like a 
double star; one of them is called by the Bedouins %»! and the other 
&+= ; close behind them is another star called e294. Some people say 
the moon does not enter the shawlah but remains before it. Some- 
times she takes up her mansions in the »'%§, which is between the qalb 
and shawlah, and consists of six white stars in a curved line. 

20. Na’ ayim—eight stars, the four southern of them are bright, and. 
form an irregular square, and are called %3)!9, this is the station of the 
moon. Waridah means sheep; or cattle going to drink water, and this 
name has been given to these stars because they are close to the milky-way, 
which is likened to a river. The other four stars are called Sola! ela! 
(i. e. returned from drinking water), because they are some distance 
from the milkyway. Astronomers place the waridah in the hand of 


Sagittarius, with which he pulls the bow. 
4u 


680 Ibn Qotaybah’s Adab al Katib’ on Arabie Astronomy. [Dxc. 


21. Baldah—a round fissure in the heaven without astar. Baldah 
means in the Bedouin dialect a fissure in the ground, (o;3t Gyo &ey9. 
This fissure is surrounded by six small stars resembling a bow ; some 
people call them. (>of (ostrich’s nest), for not far from it are other 
stars called (ya. (exes) by the Bedoums. The moon sometimes makes 
her stage in the odda. Astronomers place the baldah in the forehead 
of Sagittarius. 

22. So’tid, (luck,) so called because they bring rain. .There are 
four sa’d: 1st.—Sa’d dzdbih—two small stars less than a cubit asunder 
north and south. Astronomers place it into the horn of Capricorn. 

23. 2d. Sa’d bola’—two stars as far asunder as the above mentioned. 
Astronomers place it in the heel of Aquarius. The epithet devouring 
is given to this constellation, because at its nawé the rivers and wells 
being full the earth devours its own water. 

24. 3d. Sa’d al-so’tid (luck of lucks). According to some, two stars, as 
the above, and according to others three, one is bright, the others smaller. 
Astronomers represent them in the breast of Aquarius. Sometimes 
the moon makes her stage in the 3,SIJ! dau! ; the Bedouins say: 
cstda d97-20 US yilaiily ge US pOd! yg agpele US SIS gyre deme ab [5 
a gy US “ When the sa’d al-so’tid rises, all which is frozen melts, and 
trees and shrubs come to life again.” 

25. 4th.—Sa’d al-akhbiyah. Some are of opinion that this mansion is 
marked by one star which is surrounded by three others. The latter form 
atriangle, and are the tent 4s, of the former star, which is considered to 
be the sa’d. Others considered the central star as the pole of the tent. 
Astronomers place this mansion on the eastern shoulder of Aquarius. 

26. Farazh al-mogaddam, also called farazh al-awwal and farazh 
al-a’la—two bright stars apparently about five cubits asunder. Astro- 
nomers place it into the northern hip of the horse. 

27. Farazh al-mowakhkhar, also called the second or lower (i. e. 
southern) farazh or dalw. Two stars resembling the preceding ; one is 
north and the other is south. Astronomers place them in the hind 
quarter of the horse. The moon sometimes stops short and takes up 
her mansion in the middle of the ¢.3!y5, and sometimes in the Wa ifoly, 

Zr at, ce sy! |, also called sls .»—consists of eighteen small stars which 
have the shape of a fish, whose head is towards the north and the tail 
towards the south. To the east of this is a star of the first magnitude 


} 
q 
a 
' 
M 
4 
a 
‘ 


1848. ] Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 681 


called the navel, Sy, or heart, oJ5, or belly «4: of the fish SemJ!, or 
wy sys ; Sometimes the moon takes up her mansion in the lesser fish, which 
is farther to the north of the greater fish. These two constellations 
resemble each other, but the lesser fish is broader and shorter than the 
greater. Another (the star) of them rises at the same time in the 
east. Naw0, means rising with a weight ; some say that nawé means also 
setting, and that this is one of those words which have opposite mean- 
ings. The sun is in every one of the mansions of the moon 13 days, 
and after he has passed through them he returns into the first. If a 
change of weather takes place when one of these stars sets and another 
rises, the Arabs ascribe it to the star thorayya, dabran, haq’ah, 
han’ah or dzira’. Summer is called qaytz by the Bedouins and cayf 
by towns-people, it begins when the sun enters into the Crab. The 
stars of the mansions of the moon are—nathrah, arf, jabhah, zobrah, 
carfah, ’awwa and simak. 

The meaning of naw6 (plur. anwa) is that one of these iii acid 
stars sets in the west in the morning. 


Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. By Captain Tuomas 
Hurron, F. G.S8. 


(Continued from No. 193, for July 1848.) 


No. 21.—* Psilorhinus occipitalis.” (Blyth, J. A. 8. XV, 27). 
« Pica erythrorhyncha.’ (Gould’s Century.) 
“ Psilorhinus albicapillus.’ (Blyth, nestling plumage.) 

This species occurs at Mussooree throughout the year, collecting into 
small parties of 4 to 6 during winter. It breeds at an elevation of 
5,000 feet in May and June, making a loose nest of twigs externally, 
lined with roots. 

The eggs are from 3 to 5, of a dull greenish ash-grey, blotched and 
speckled with brown dashes, confluent at the larger end. Diameter 
1,4, 12 inches. The ends nearly equal in size. The nest is built on 
trees, eee ites high up ; at others about 8 or 10 feet from the ground. 

The “ Psilorhinus albicapillus’ of Mr, Blyth, is nothing more than 
the nestling of this species, as I have fully ascertained this season by 

4u 2 


682 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [Dec. 


robbing several nests,—the plumage of the young birds agreeing exactly 
with his published description. 


No. 22.— Dendrocitta sinensis.” (Gray.) 
Crypsirina sinensis. (Hodg. Gray.) 
Pica sinensis. (Gray.) 
Corvus sinensis. (Daud.) 


Occurs abundantly about 5,000 feet during summer ; more sparingly 
at greater elevations,—and in the winter it leaves the mountains for the 
Doon. It breeds in May, on the 27th of which month I took one nest 
with 3 eggs and another with 3 young ones. The nest is like that of 
Psilorhinus occipitalis, being composed externally of twigs and lined 
with finer materials, according to the situation,—one nest taken in a 
deep glen by the side of a stream was lined with the long fibrous leaves 
of “ mare’s tail”? which grew abundantly by the water’s edge ; another 
taken much higher on the hill side and away from the water, was lined 
with tendrils and fine roots. The nest is placed rather low, generally 
about 8 or 10 feet from the ground, sometimes at the extremity of a 
horizontal branch, sometimes in the forks of young bushy oaks. The 
egos somewhat resemble those of the foregoing species, but are paler 
and less spotted, being of a dull greenish ash, with brown blotches and 
spots somewhat thickly clustered at the larger end. Diameter 1 2 x 
13 inches. Shape ordinary. 


No. 23.— Geocichla citrina.” (Blyth.) 
Petrocossyphus citrinus. (Gray’s Cat.) 
Turdus citrinus. (Uath.) 
P. pelodes. (Hodg.) young. 


Arrives at an elevation of 5,000 feet about the end of May and re- 
turns to the plains in autumn ; it breeds in June, placing the nest in 
the forky branches of lofty trees, such as oaks and wild cherry ; exter- 
nally it is sometimes composed of coarse dry grasses somewhat neatly 
interwoven on the sides,—but hanging down in long straggling ends 
from the bottom. Within this is a layer of green moss and another of 
fine dry woody stalks of small plants and a scanty lining at the bottom 
of fine roots. The eggs are 3 to 4 in number, pale greenish freckled 


Se oo 


1848. } Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 683 


with rufous; the spots of that colour confluent and forming a patch at 
the larger end. Diameter 1 =; x 1% inches. Somewhat gibbous at 
the larger end. 

No. 24.—* Geocichla unicolor.” 

Turdus unicolor. (Tickell & Gould.) 
Petrocincla homochroa. (HWodg. Gray.) 
Petrocossyphus unicolor. (Gray’s Cat.) 

This bird arrives in the hills up to 7,000 feet, and probably higher, 
about the end of March, the first being heard this year (1848), on the 
26th of that month, at 5,000 feet. Every morning and evening it may 
be heard far and near, pouring forth a short but pleasing song from the 
very summits of the forest trees. It is a summer visitor only, returning 
to the plains in early autumn. It breeds in May and June, laying 3 or 
4 eggs of a dull greenish white, freckled, blotched and spotted with 
rufous, sometimes closely,—sometimes widely distributed. 

The nest is neatly made of green moss and roots, lined with finer 
roots, and placed usually against the body of the tree, from whence 
spring one or two twigs ;—sometimes placed upon the broad surface of 
a thick horizontal branch, or on a projecting knob. The diameter of 
ego—l1 1. x 13 inches, varying a little. Shape sometimes ordinary 
ovate; at others more rounded at the smaller end. When shot, the 
crop usually contained the half-ripe berries of a species of laurel (L. 
lanceolatus ?) 

The following is the description of a male, shot while singing on the 
topmost branch of an oak tree (Quercus incana.) 

Bill yellow, as also the rim of the eyelid, gape, inside of mouth and 
the legs.—Ivis brown.—Length 9 inches. Wing from bend 4 inches. 
Above uniform pale slate-grey ;—throat, breast, and sides ash co- 
lour, the former palest and nearly white on the chin. Belly and under 
tail coverts pure white; under wing coverts bright ferruginous. Nails 
yellow, length of bill to gape 1 2; mches. Tarse 1 =, inches. 

Female. Bill wax-yellow with dusky about the nostrils; legs and 
feet wax-yellow; Iris brown; length 9 inches ;—wing from bend 4% 
inches ; bill to gape 1 ;4; inches—to forehead % inches. Above uni- 
form dark ashy-gray; chin and throat pale cinereous, bordered by a 
dark stripe descending from the base of lower mandible, between which 
the feathers are longitudinally dashed with dark centres; breast and 


684 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. | Dec. 


sides ashy tinged with fulvous ; belly, vent and lower tail-coverts white ; 
under-wing coverts bright ferruginous ; ear-coverts ashy with pale shafts.* 

The nestling is above like the female, but beneath the throat and 
chin are purer white in some ;—in others with a rufous tinge, but no 
spots between the stripes descending from the base of lower mandible, 
and the breast much spotted with brown ;—scapularies and greater 
wing-coverts tipped with triangular fulvous spots ascending through the 
shafts of the feathers. This during the summer months is one of the 
commonest birds in the hills, especially about 5,000 feet, where their 
nests are numerous. 

No. 25.—* Myophonus Temminchii.’ (Vigors. Gould.) 

M. metallicus. (Hodg.) 

On the 16th June, I took two nests of this bird, each containing 
3 eggs,—and another one containing three nearly fledged young ones. 
The nest bears a strong resemblance to that of the Geocichle above no- 
ticed, but is much more solid, being composed of a thick bed of green 
moss externally, lined first with long black fibrous lichens, and then 
with fine roots. Externally the nest is 3} inches deep, but within only 
23 inches ; the diameter about 43 inches, and the thickness of the outer 
or exposed side is 2 ins. 

The eggs are 3 in number, of a greenish ashy, freckled with minute 
roseate specks, which become confluent and form a patch at the larger end; 
shape ordinarily, and rather gracefully, ovate ; diameter 1 5 x4 in. 

The elevation at which the nests were found was from 4,000 to 4,500 
ft., but the bird is common, except during the breeding season, at all 
elevations up to the snows, and in the winter it extends its range down 
into the Doon. In the breeding season it is found chiefly in the glens, 
in the retired depths of which it constructs its nest ;—it never, like the 
Thrushes and Geocichle, builds in trees or bushes, but selects some 
high towering and almost inaccessible rock forming the side of a deep 
glen, on the projecting ledges of which, or in the holes from which small 
boulders have fallen; it constructs its nest, and where, unless when as- 
sailed by man, it rears its young in safety, secure alike from the howling 
blast and the attacks of wild animals. It is known to the natives by 
the name of “ Kuljet,’ and to Europeans as the “ Hill Black bird.” 

* The female of this race is utterly undistinguishable from that of G. dissimilis, 
nobis, J. A. S., XVI, 144.—E. B. 


1848. ] Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 685 


The situation in which the nest is placed is quite unlike that of any 
other of our Hill Thrushes with which I am acquainted, and the habits 
of the bird render it far more deserving of the name of Petrocossyphus 
or “ Rock blackbird,” than those to which, in the Catalogue of Mr. 
Hodgson’s Collection, Mr. Gray has assigned that name. Indeed, as 
applied to the two preceding species, it is altogether a misnomer, for 
they are, in the first place,—not Blackbirds or Merule, as the Greek 


word. ‘‘ Cossyphus’? imples,—and in the second place, they are not 


Rock lovers at all, but true forest birds, building in trees and taking 
their food upon the ground, where they find it in berries and insects 
among the withered leaves which they expertly turn over with their 
beaks, and hence the reason why the beak is almost invariably clotted 
with mud or other dirt. I have never seen these Geocichle except in 
woods,—whereas “‘ Myophonus Temminckir” is as often found in open 
rocky spots on the skirts of the forest, as among the woods, loving to 
jump upon some stone or rocky pinnacle, from whence he sends forth 
a sort of choking chattering song, if such it can be called,—or with an 
up jerk of the tail, hops away with a loud musical whistle, very much 
after the manner of the British Blackbird (M. vulgaris).* On the 
southern side of the range at Jerrepanee, elevation about 5,000 ft. the 
forest is open and scattered among immense bare blocks of stone ;—on 
the northern side of the same range, the forest is dense and contains 
much underwood. It is remarkable that while the Geocichle above 
noticed, are strictly confined to the close forest tracts of the northern 
side,—Petrocossyphus cinclorhynchus (Gray’s Cat.) affects the rocky 
southern forest; I have however occasionally seen the latter on the 
northern side also, but I cannot call to mind a single instance in which 
I have seen either Geocichla citrina or G. unicolor on the southern 
side. This fact will at once show how little applicable to the latter 
birds is Mr. Gray’s name of Petrocossyphus. Myr. Gray may possibly 
reply to my criticism by asking—“‘ what's in a name? To which I 
must respond that in natural history, as with man, a good name is most 
important, and ought as much as possible to convey some idea of habits, 


* The sweet songster to which Mr. Vigne alludes, as being heard by him, was 
not this bird, whose song, if such it can be called, is nothing but a subdued grating 
chatter, as if singing to itself; the song heard by Mr. Vigne was that of Merula 
boulboul, by far the sweetest songster in the Hills. 


686 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [Drc. 


manners, or markings, so as to assist the naturalist not only in the 
identification of species, but also lead him to the places where he might 
expect to find them. But who would ever dream of seeking in the 
forest’s gloom for birds whose name pointed to the fact of their de- 
lighting in rocky situations? Yet, if misled by the generic name Pe- 
trocossyphus, the naturalist should venture to some rock-bestudded 
mountain in search of the species “‘ cztrinus’ and “ unicolor’’—he 
would have nothing but his trouble as his reward, for those species are 
procurable only amidst the boughs and thickets of the forest. 
No. 26.—* Copsychus saularis,’ (L.) 
Gryllivora intermedia, Swainson. 
Dahila docilis, Hodgson. 
Arrives on the hills up to 5,000 ft. and perhaps higher, in the be- 
ginning of April. It returns to the Doon and plains im early autumn. 


It breeds in May, on the 19th of which month I took a nest from a — 


bank by the road side; it was composed of green mosses and lined with 
very fine roots. Eggs 4; carneous cream colour. Somewhat blistered 
at the larger end. Diameter 12 x 7° ms. 

This species delights to sit on the topmost branches of a tree, gene- 
rally selecting some dry and leafless branch, from whence it utters a 
pleasing song, which is replied to by another individual at no great dis- 
tance; when on the ground it hops with the wings half open or droop- 
ing, and at each hop it stops to spread and flirt the tail. 

No. 27.—* Stoparola melanops.”’ (Blyth.) 

Niltava? melanops. (Gray’s Cat.) 
Muscicapa melanops. (Vigors. Gould.) 

This is a common species throughout the mountains up to about 
12,000 ft. durmg summer, arriving about the beginning of March. It 
breeds in May and June, making a neat nest of green moss in holes 
of trees, in stumps, and in the holes of banks by the road side. The 
eggs are 3 to 4 in number, dull white with faint rufous specks at the 
larger end and somewhat inclined to form a ring. 

The bird has a pleasing song. Gould figures this species very faultily, 
—as the black of the lores does not pass beyond the eye, as he repre- 
sents it, and the under tail coverts instead of being uniform pale green- 
ish, are dull blue green, each feather apically barred with dull white. 
In the winter it leaves Mussooree. 


cits het 


1848. | Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 687 


No. 28.—“ Cyornis rubeculoides.’ (Blyth.) 
Niltava rubeculoides. (Hodg.) 
Phenicura rubeculoides. (Vigors.) 
Chataris brevipes. (Hodg.) 

Arrives in the neighbourhood of Mussooree in April, and breeds in 
June, on the 13th of which month I took a nest from a hole in a bank 
by the road side in a retired and unfrequented situation: I afterwards 
found another nest in a hole of a rock, also in a retired spot. The 
elevation was about 5,000 ft. Externally the nest is composed of green 
moss, and lined with black fibrous lichens like hair. The eggs are 4 in 
number, of a dull and pale olive green, faintly or indistinctly clouded 
with dull rufous or clay colour. Diameter 12% 5% ins. The male has 
avery pleasing song which he warbles forth from the midst of some 
thick bush, seldom exposing itself to view, like. Stoparola melanops, 
_ which delights to perch upon some high exposed twig. 

No. 29.—Sibia capistrata. (Hodg.)* 

Remains at an elevation of 7,000 ft. throughout the year, but I never 
saw it under 6,500 ft. ;—its loud ringing note of ¢ittéreé—tittéreé 
twééyd, quickly repeated, may constantly be heard on wooded banks 
during summer. It breeds at Mussooree in May, making a neat nest 
of coarse dry grasses as a foundation, covered laterally with green moss 
and wool, and lined with fine roots. The number of eggs I did not 
ascertain, as the nest was destroyed when only one had been deposited, 
but the colour is pale bluish white freckled with rufous. The nest was 
placed on a branch of a plum tree in the botanical garden at Mussooree. 

No. 30.—‘‘ Dicrurus longicaudatus.”’ (A. Hay.) 

This species, the only one that visits Mussooree, arrives from the 
Doon about the middle of March and retires again about September. 
It is abundant during the summer months, and breeds from the latter 
end of April till the middle of June, making a very neat nest, which is 
placed in the bifurcation of a horizontal branch of some tall tree, usually 
oak trees ; it is constructed of grey lichens gathered from the trees, and 
fine seed-stalks of grasses, firmly and neatly interwoven ; with the latter 
it is also usually lined, although sometimes a black fibrous lichen is 
used ;—externally the materials are kept compactly together, by being 
plastered over with spiders’ webs. It it altogether a light and elegant 


“* Cinclosoma capistratum, Vigors, v. Sibia nigriceps, Hodgson.—E. B. 
4x 


688 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. {Dec. 


nest. The shape is circular, somewhat shallow and diameter within 3 
inches. The eggs are 3 to 4,—generally the latter number, and so 
variable in colour and distribution of spots, that until I had shot several 
specimens and compared them narrowly, I was inclined to think we had 
more than one species of Dicrurus here. I am however now fully con- 
vinced that these variable eggs belong to the same species. Sometimes 
they are dull white with brick red spots openly disposed in form of a 
rude ring at the larger end ; at other times the spots are rufescent claret 
with duller indistinct ones appearing through the shell ;—others are of 
a deep carneous hue, clouded and coarsely blotched with deep rufescent 
claret ; while again some are faint carneous with large irregular blotches 
of rufous clay with duller ones beneath the shell. Diameter varying 
from 1 x 14;—to 14 x 44 mms. 

No. 31.—‘‘ Campephaga fimbriata.”’ (Temm.) 

Campephaga lugubris. (Gray’s Cat.) 
Ceblephyris lugubris. (Sundevall.) 
Volvocivora melaschistos. (Hodg. Gray.) 
Graucalus maculosus. (McClelland.) 

This too is a mere summer visitor in the hills, arriving up to 7,000 
ft. about the end of March, and breeding early in May. The nest 
is small and shallow, placed as in the last in the bifurcation of a 
horizontal bough of some tall oak tree, and always high up; it is com- 
posed externally almost entirely of grey lichens picked from the tree, 
and lined with bits of very fine roots or thin stalks of leaves. Seen 
from beneath the tree, the nest appears like a bunch of moss or lichens, 
and the smallness and frailty would lead one to suppose it meapable of 
holding two young birds of such size. Externally the nest is compactly 
held together by being thickly plastered over with cobwebs. The eggs 
are two in number, of a dull grey green closely and in parts confluently 
dashed with streaks of dusky brown. Diameter +3 x 43 ins. 

The bird has a plaintive note which it repeatedly utters while search- 
ing through a tree, after the manner of Collurio Hardwickii, for insects. 

No. 32.—“ Abrornis schisticeps. (Hodg.) 

Culicipeta schisticeps. (Gray’s Cat.) 
Phyllopneuste xanthoschistos. (Hodg.) 

A common species at 5,000 ft. and commences building in March. 

A pair of these birds selected a thick China rose bush trained against 


1848. | Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 689 


the side of the house, and had completed the nest and laid one egg, 
when a rat destroyed it. I subsequently took two other nestsin May, 
both placed on the ground in holes in the side of a bank by the road 
side. Inform the nest isa ball with a ronnd lateral entrance and is 
composed externally of dried grasses and green moss, lined with bits of 
wool, cotton, feathers, thread and hair. In one I recognized more than 
one lock of my own child’s hair, which had been cut not long before, 
and had been appropriated by the bird. The eggs are 3 in number 
and pure white. Diameter 12 x 4, ins. 

No. 33.—‘* Cryptolopha cinereocapilla.”’ (Vieillot.) 

Cryptolopha ceylonensis. (Strick.) 
C. poiocephala. (Swain.) 
Platyrhynchus ceylonensis. (Swain.) 

I took a nest of this species on the 18th April in a deep and thickly 
wooded glen at an elevation of about 4,500 ft. It was placed against 
the moss-covered trunk of a large tree, growing by the side of a moun- 
tain stream, and was neatly and beautifully constructed of green moss 
fixed in the shape of a watch-pocket at the head of a bed, to the mosses 
of the tree, (with which it was completely blended,) by numerous threads 
of spiders’ webs. The lining was of the finest grass stalks, no thicker 
than horsehair,—and beneath the body of the nest depended a long 
bunch of mosses fastened to the tree with spiders’ webs, and serving 
as a support or cushion on which the nest rested securely. Within 
this beautifully constructed fabric were 4 small eggs of a dull white 
colour, with a faint olive tinge and minutely spotted with pale greenish 
brown, and having a broad and well defined ring of the same, near the 
larger end. The eggs were set hard. Diameter 9, x 38; ins. Shape 
bluntly ovate. 

No. 34.—“ Parus erythrocephalus.”  (Vig.) 

Common at Mussooree and in the hills generally throughout the 
year. It breeds in April and May. The situation chosen is various, 
as one taken in the former month at Mussooree, 7,000 ft., was placed. 
on the side of a bank among overhanging coarse grass ; while another 
taken in the latter month at 5,000 ft., was built among the same ivy 
twining round a tree, and at least 14 feet from the ground. It is in 
shape a round ball with a small lateral entrance, and is composed of 
green mosses warmly lined with feathers. The eggs are 5 in number, 

a a 


690 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [Dec. 


white with pinkish tinge, and sparingly sprinkled with lilac spots or 
specks, and having a well defined lilac ring at the large end. Diameter 
is X ys Ins. 

No. 35.— Parus wanthogenys.’ (Vig.) 

Common in the hills throughout the year. It breeds in April, in 
which month a nest containing 4 partly fledged young ones was found 
at 5,000 ft. ; it was constructed of moss, hair and feathers and placed 
at the bottom of a deep hole in a stump at the foot of an oak tree; the 
colour of the eggs. was not ascertained. 

No. 36.—* Acrocephalus montanus.’’ (Gray’s Cat.) 

Salicaria arundinacea? (Hodg. Gray.) 

This species arrives in the hills up to 7,000 ft. at least, in April, 
when it is very common, and appears in pairs with something of the 
manner of Phylloscopus. The note is a sharp “ tchik-tchih,” resem- 
bling the sound omitted by a flint and steel. It disappears by the end 
of May, in which month they breed, but owing to the high winds and 
strong weather experienced in that month in 1848, many nests were left 
incompleted, and the birds must have departed without breeding. One 
nest which I took on the 6th May, was a round ball with lateral en- 
trance ; placed in a thick barberry bush growing at the side of a deep 
and sheltered ditch; it was composed of coarse dry grasses externally 
and lined with finer grass. Eggs 3, and pearl white, with minute scat- 
tered specks of rufous, chiefly at the large end; diameter 1% x 5% ims. 
(The high winds which prevailed in May, destroyed an incredible num- 
ber of the nests of various Doves, Treron sphenura, Garrulus lanceo~ 
datus, &c.) 

No. 37.— Zosterops palpebrosus.” (Temm.) 

Z. annulosus. (Swain.) 

Motacilla madagascariensis. (Gm.) 
Sylvia madagascariensis. (Lin. Lath.) 
Motacilla maderaspatana. (Lin.) 
Sylvia palpebrosa. (Tem.) 

S. leucops. (Vieillot.) 

S. annulosa. (Swain.) 

Zosterops maderaspatana. (Gray’s Cat.) 

These beautiful little birds are exceedingly common at about 5,000 
ft. during summer, but I never saw them much higher. They arrive 


1848. | Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 691 


from the plains about the middle of April, on the 17th of which month 
I saw a pair commence building in a thick bush of Hybiscus? and on 
the 27th of the same month the nest contained 3 small eggs, hard set. 
I subsequently took a second from a similar bush, and several from the 
drooping branches of oak trees, to the twigs of which they were fas- 
tened. It is not placed on a branch, but is suspended between two 
thin twigs, to which it is fastened by floss silk torn from the cocoons of 
“* Bombyx Hutton’ (Westwood) and by a few slender fibres of the 
bark of trees or hair, according to circumstances. So slight and so 
fragile is the little oval cup, that it is astonishing the mere weight of the 
parent bird does not bring it to the ground; and yet within it three 
young ones will often safely outride a gale, that will bring the weightier 
- nests of Jays and Thrushes to the ground. Of seven nests now before 
me, four are composed externally of little bits of green moss, cotton, 
seed down, and the silk of the wild mulberry moth torn from the co- 
coons, with which last material moreover, the others appear to be bound 
together ; within, the lining of two is of the long hairs of the Yak’s tail 
(Bison piephagus) two of which died on the estate where these nests 
were found; and the third is lined with black human hair ; the other 
three are formed of somewhat different materials, two being externally 
composed of fine grass stalks, seed down and shreds of bark, so fine as 
to resemble tow; one is lined with seed down and black fibrous lichens 
resembling hair; another is lined with fine grass, and a third with a 
thick coating of pure white silky seed down. In all the seven, the 
materials of the two sides are wound round the twigs, between which 
they are suspended like a cradle, and the shape is an ovate cup about 
the size of half a hen’s egg split longitudinally. The diameter and 
depth are respectively 2 x 7; and 13 ms. The eggs usually 3 in num- 
ber, of a very pale whitish green; diameter ,% x 75; ins. The young 
continue with the old birds for some time after leaving the nest, and are 
often mixed up with the flocks of Parus erythrocephalus. They appear 
to feed greedily upon the small black berries of a species of Rhamnus 
common in these localities. They depart for the Doon about the end of 
October. 


No. 38.—‘* Orthotomus longicauda.” (Gm.) 
O. Bennettii. (Sykes.) 
O. suthorius, v. ruficapillus, v. spheenura. (Hodg. Gray.) 


692 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [Dec. 


Motacilla longicauda. (Gm.) 

M. sutoria. (Gm.) 

Sylvia guzuratta. (Lath.) 

O. lingoo. (Sykes) young. 

O. sepium. (Skyes) young apud Blyth. 
O. sphenurus. (Swain.) 

Sylvia ruficapilla. (Hutton.) 

It is very evident from the accounts given both by Mr. Hodgson and 
Captain Tickell, of the colour of the eggs of supposed O. longicauda, 
that there must either be more than one species confounded under that 
name, or that they have erroneously attributed to it the eggs of some 
other species. In the J. A. 8. No. 22, for Oct. 1833, I described the 
nest and eggs of true O. dongicauda, under the name of Sylvia rufica- 
pilla, and similar nests and eggs agreeing in every respect have since 
fallen under my observation ; in all of these the nest was composed of 
cotton, wool, vegetable fibre and horsehair, formed im the shape of a 
deep cup or purse enclosed between two long leaves, the edges of which 
were sewed to the sides of the nest ina manner to support it, by threads 
spun by the bird ;—the eggs are 3 to 4, of a white colour, sprinkled 
with small specks, chiefly at the larger end, of rufous or tawny. Captain 
Tickell gives the eggs “‘ pale greenish blue, with irregular patches, espe- 
cially towards the larger end, resembling dried stains of blood, and 
irregular broken lines scratched round, forming a zone near the large 
end.’ These cannot be the eggs of O. longicauda, any more than the 
“unspotted verditer blue eggs’ mentioned by Mr. Hodgson, P. Z. 8. 
1845. p. 29. 

The true O. longicauda occurs in the Doon along the southern base 
of the mountains, but does not ascend even in summer. 

(Note.—I fear that in many instances Capt. Tickell has trusted solely 
to native information, in which case the chances are he has often been 
deceived ;—I have noted no nest that I did not either take myself, or 
examine before I allowed it to be touched.) 

No. 39.—‘* Drymoica criniger.’ (Hodg.) 

Suya criniger. (Hodg.) 

This little bird appears on the hills at about 5,000 ft.in May. A 
nest taken much lower down on 22nd June was composed of grasses 
neatly interwoven in the shape of an ovate ball, the smaller end upper- 


1848. | Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. 693 


most and forming the mouth or entrance ; it was lined first with cottony 
seed down and then with fine grass stalks ; it was:suspended among high 
grass and contained 5 beautiful little eggs of a carneous white colour, 
thickly freckled with deep rufous, and with a darkish confluent ring of 
the same at the large end—Diameter 14 %,',ins.—I have seen this spe- 
cies as high as 7,000 ft. in October. It delights to sit on the summit 
of tall grass or even of an oak, from whence it pours forth a loud and 
long continued grating note, like the filing of a saw. 

No. 40.—‘ Pyrgita indica.’ (Jard. Selb.) 

This, if really distinct from the European Sparrow, does not appear to 
be a common bird on the heights,—nor is it nearly so common at 5,000 
ft. as itisim the Doon; yet it cannot be called scarce. It breeds in 
the caves of buildings and in bushes, making a loose slovenly nest of a 
round form with lateral entrance ; it is of large size and constructed chief- 
ly of dry grasses or hay externally, and plentifully lined with feathers, 
bits of cotton and wool. The eggs are pale ash colour, moderately 
sprinkled with specks and dashes of neutral tint, clustering rather thick- 
ly at the large end. Diameter +2 x {9 ins. Eggs usually about 6 in 
number. Breeds several times in the year. 

No. 41.—‘“ Francolinus vulgaris.’ (Steph.) 

This is a common bird in the Doon, and by no means rare in warm 
cultivated valleys far in the hills ; it breeds in the hills in June ; and a 
nest taken hy a friend on whose accuracy I can rely, and who shot the 
old bird, contained 6 eggs of a dull greenish white colour ; the egg ap- 
pears very large for the size of the bird, and tapers very suddenly to the 
smaller end ; diameter 13 x 13, ins. 

There is no preparation of a nest, the eggs being deposited on the 
bare ground. Called ‘‘ Kala-teetur’’ by the natives. 

No. 42. ‘“ Luplocomus albocristatus.” (Vigors.) 

This species, the “‘ Kalich”’ of the hill men, is found in the hills at all 
seasons, and is common at every elevation up to the snows. It breeds 
in May and June. In the latter month I found a nest, by the side of a 
small water course, composed merely of a few dead leaves and some dry 
grasses, which had very probably been accumulated by the wind and 
tempted the bird to deposit her eggs upon them, The spot was con 
cealed by large overhanging ferns, and contained the shells of 8 eggs of 
a sullied or faint brownish-white like some hens’ eggs; the tops of all 


694 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. [Dec. 


were neatly cut off as if by a knife, showing that the young ones had 
escaped, and singular enough I had the day before captured the whole 
brood, but knowing the almost impossibility of rearing them, had allow- 
ed them again to go free. The diameter of the egg is 2 X 1,% ins. 

In Mr. Gray’s Catalogue of the Collection presented to the British 
Museum by Mr. Hodgson, this and Phasianus Hamiltonii are given as 
synonymes of Gallophasis leucomelanos. In this there appears to be 
some degree of error, for the species are distinct. Mr. Blyth in episto- 
ld, writes that ‘‘ there are’ 4 true races and 2 hybrids. Of the former, 
one is albocristatus ; crest rarely very white, the white on the rump 
always well developed, and found exclusively westward of Nipal. Me- 
lanotus (Blyth), has black crest, and no white on rump; common at 
Darjeeling ; and the Nepalese /eucomelanos is certainly a cross between 
these two. Cuvieri of Assam, Sylhet, &c. has white on rump, but under- 
parts wholly shining black; and this has produced a mixed race with 
lineatus of Arracan.’’* If such be the case, the name of leucomelanos, 
belonging only to a hybrid, and not to a true species, must give place 
to Gould’s name of albocristatus. Phasianus Hamilton of Gray’s 
Ill. Ind. Zool. looks very like an immature male of the present species, 
but being from Nipal, is probably an immature hybrid. In the neigh- 
bourhood of Mussooree and Simla, we have only Huplocomus (Gallopha- 
sis) albocristatus (verus) the others all occurring more to the eastward, 
as correctly observed by Mr. Blyth. The long white crest is seldom or 
perhaps never found except in fully mature birds, it being generally of a 
dirty or dusky hue like that figured in Gould’s Century ; every place 
however is now so thoroughly poached over by native shikarrees, that an 
old white-crested bird is extremely rare. 


No. 43.— Pucrasia macrolopha.” (Gray’s Cat.) 
Phasianus pucrasse. (Gray. Griff. An. King.) 
Gallophasis pucrasia. (Hodg. Gray.) 


For the eggs of this species I am also indebted to a friend who took 
them in June from the ground, where there was no other symptom of a 
nest than a slight scratching away of the leaves and grass. The eggs 
were 5 in number, of a sandy brown, sprinkled over with specks, and 


* Since the above was written, I have seen the series of specimens of these birds 
preserved in the Society’s museum, and fully concur in Mr. Blyth’s opinion. 


1848.) Notes on the Nidificaiion of Indian Birds. 695 


large spots and blotches of deep red brown resembling dried blood. 
The diameter was 2,/; % 134; ins. Shape ordinary, and altogether a 
very close miniature of the egg of Lophophorus Impeyanus. This bird 
occurs in the hills at all seasons, from Mussooree to the snows, and bears 
several names, such as “* Plass’’ at Simla, “‘ Koklass’’ at Mussooree, and 
* Pocrass’”’ farther to the eastward. 
No. 44.—“ Phasianus Wallichi.” 

Lophophorus Wallichii. (Hardw.) 

Phasianus Stacei. (Vigors.) 

This beautiful species is likewise truly a hill bird, being found at all 
seasons. Its egg is pure white and of the ordinary shape, but the 
number not ascertained. It is known as the “ Cheer,” and “ Bun- 
cheel.” 

No. 45.—** Lophophorus Impeyanus.” 

Phasianus Impeyanus. (Lath.) 
L. refulgens. (Temm.) 

These birds do not occur so low down as Mussooree, but are found in 
abundance on the next range; in days of yore they were found at 
Simla, but civilization has of late years banished them to the less dis- 
turbed localities. It makes no nest, but lays its eggs on the ground ; the 
number not satisfactorily ascertained, as one nest contained 3 and ano- 
ther 4 eggs of a pale brown or sandy hue, thickly sprinkled over with 
reddish brown spots and dashes. 

The diameter 24 % 112 ins. Shape ordinary. Called “ Monaul.” 

No. 46.— Tragopan Hastings.’ (Vigors). 

A pair of these birds kept im confinement produced 2 eggs in June, 
both of which were destroyed by the male; the colour was pale rufous 
brown like what are usually termed in this country (India) “ game hen’s 
egos.” These birds are only found on the loftier hills along the con- 
fines of the snow. They lived contentedly in confinement and became ex- 
ceedingly tame. In the catalogue above referred to, Mr. Gray gives 
Satyra melanocephala of Hardwicke’s Ill. Inc. Zool. Plates 46, 47, 48. 
as synonymous with Gould’s Tragopan Hastingsi. This is again errone- 
ous, for the plates quoted, unless intended as caricatures, can never re- 
present 7. Hastingsii in any state of plumage. Plate 46. gives what 
is termed “the adult male” and although agreeing pretty well in other 
respects with 7. MHastingsit, it is represented with “ ochreous yellow 

4 y 


696 Notes on the Nidification of Indian Birds. {Dec. 


wattles’’ whereas in living specimens of the latter species, the wattles 
are of a bright metallic ultramarine blue ; those on the head are usually 
concealed beneath the feathers, and are only occasionally exserted when 
the bird is excited, but never erected as represented in plate 46. Again 
Plate 47 represents no phase of plumage of 7. Hastingsii, while Plate 
48, purporting to be a female, is in all probability the young male of 
some other species,—but is assuredly not the female of 7. Hastingsii, 
which is correctly figured by Gould in his Century of Himalayan Birds ; 
a comparison of his plate with that of Mr. Gray’s Ill. Ind. Zool. will, I 
think, be sufficient to convince any one of the total distinctness of the 
birds represented. I therefore reject Gray’s Synonymes zx foto, and 
retain 7. Hastingsii as an undoubtedly good species, peculiar to the 
snowy regions of the North Western Himalaya; while Satyra melano- 
cephala, if it be a species at all, must be sought for farther to the Hast- 
ward of the range.* At Simla called “ Jahjee ;’” at Mussooree “ Jwire ;”’ 
by Europeans the “ drgus Pheasant.” 


* We doubt altogether the existence of more than two Himalayan species of this 
genus, Hastingsii in the N. W., and cornutus in the S. W. A third existsin the 
Chinese Temminckii ; and fine specimens of all are in the Society’s Museum.—E, B. 


See ee eee ee ee Se 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ASTATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, 


For DrecemsBer, 1848. 


The usual monthly meeting was held at the Society’s House on 
Wednesday evening, 6th December. 

The Hon’ble the President in the chair. 

The minutes of proceedings of the November meeting were read, and 
the accounts and vouchers for November submitted. 

The following.gentlemen, duly proposed and seconded at the Novem- 
ber meeting, were ballotted for and unanimously elected :— 

T. A. Anstruther, Esq. Madras, C. 8S. 

Rev. J. Richards, Chaplain, Madras Establishment. 

Wm. Macintosh, Esq. was proposed by Mr. Alex. Mitchell, seconded 
by Rev. J. Long, as a candidate for election at the January meeting. 

Letters were read— 

From Dr. Jameson, withdrawing his name from the list of members 
in consequence of an application made to Mr. Jameson, by the Librarian, 
for a book supposed to have been in his possession. 

From F. J. Halliday, Esq. Officiating Secretary to Govt. of India, 
Home Department, dated 25th November, transmitting a list received 
from Capt. Kittoe, of the pieces of sculpture presented by Government, 
as recorded in the Proceedings of last meeting. 

| List. 

1. Large erect figure of Sakhya, with kneeling attendant. 

2. Large erect figure with six arms, holding the attributes of Brahma. 

3. Large seated figure of Buddha on lion and elephant throne, with a figure 
of a female dancing on a prostrate Gunesha ; height 5 ft. 

4. Large seated figure of Buddha ; 4 ft. 

5. Six-armed figure seated ; same attributes as No. 2; height 3 ft. 

6. Erect figure of Buddha and attendants ; 3 ft. 

4y¥ 2 


698 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Dec. 


7. Female figure of Pudmavati, or Mahamaya on lion throne, inscription ; 
3 ft. 
8. A very elegant erect figure, 2’ 6”. 
9. A small Buddha seated; 2 ft. 
10. An erect (female) figure, two attendants, with inscription—* Sri Bal- 
chundra,” 1’ 10”. 
11. A Budhiswata or prince, 1’ 8”. 
12. Small four-armed male figure, 8”° 
13. A small figure of Budhiswut with inscription ; 2.’ 
14. A remarkable fragment of a figure of a fat man seated on lotus-stool ; 3. 
15. Figure representing the Nirvan or death of Sakhya, beneath the two 
trees, with his disciples lamenting, and heavenly musicians playing. 
16. Fragment of a beautiful miniature Chaitya (not sent). 
17. Ditto of a Chaitya figure of Budhiswatus and inscriptions (not sent). 
18. Shiva and Parbutti; the Siva has six arms ; from the Chaitya at Poonaha. 
19. Siva and Parbutti and ten Avatars, from the Chaitya ditto. 
20. A Guryogh in two pieces; in shape of a monster with a trunk. 
21. A seated figure of Buddha in two pieces with attendant figures ; 3’. 
22. A large erect figure of Sakhya with royal umbrella, attendants ; 4’ 6”. 
23. A broken figure with six arms; in two pieces. 
24. Seated Buddha on lion throne; 3’ 6”. 
25. Large figure (erect) of Mahamaya; 6 ft. 
26. A small pillar. 
27. Seven small Chaityas. 
(Sd.) M. Krrros, Capt. 
Archeological Enquirer. 
(True Copy) 
Frep. Jas. HALLIDAY, 
Offg. Secy to the Govt. of India. 


From H. A. Harland, Esq. M. D. Genl. Secretary Honkong Branch 
of Royal Asiatic Society, forwarding a copy of the Transactions of the 
Society for the past year. 

From the Secretary Roval Asiatic Society, London, dated Ist Sept., 
calling for payment of subscription to the Oriental Translation Fund for 
1847-48, (£21.) Payment directed accordingly. 

From Henry Vincent Bayley, Esq. dated London, August 19th, 
requesting co-operation in the preparation of a revised edition of his 
Bengal and Agra Gazetteer. The Librarian was directed to afford the 
information required. 


1848.] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 699 


From Dr. Campbell, Darjeeling, communicated by the Hon’ble the 
President, giving a summary report of Dr. Hooker’s progress in the 
eastern Himalaya. 

From Dr. Campbell, forwarding, with a chart, a note on some of the 
results of Colonel Waugh’s operations in the Great Trigonometrical 
Survey of the Himalaya near Darjeeling. 

From B. H. Hodgson, Esq. Darjeeling, forwarding a paper entitled 
‘Anatomy of Ailurus, Porcula, and Stylocerus, with sundry emenda- 
tory notes.’ 

From the same, on the Aborigines of India. 

From Capt. Newbold, Madras Army, forwarding notes on the rocks 
of the Mokattam Chain and of the eastern desert of Egypt, by Heke- 
kyan Bey, Honorary Member Asiatic Society. 

The Secretary then read the following extracts from a Report from 
Oriental Section :— 


To Dr. W. B. O’SHavucunsssy, Secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 


Dated Asiatic Society, the 2nd Dec. 1848. 

Str,—By direction of the Oriental Section I have the honour to acknow- 
ledge the receipt of your letter, dated the 6th ult., requesting the opinion 
of the Section on several subjects of reference. 

1. With regard to Mr. Keenig’s books, I submitted a report to the Section, 
on the strength of which I recommended the immediate purchase and 
despatch of the books asked for by Mr. Koenig, the money to be gradually 
repaid by the sale of Mr. Keoenig’s publications. The Section, however, are 
against the purchases alluded to, without receiving further explanation as to 
the source whence the expenditure on behalf of Mr. Koenig is to be defrayed, 
or some certainty that the Society will not be a loser by the measure. Nor 
do they think that the Society are at all called on to act in the matter. At 
any rate they wish the case to be submitted to a general meeting of the 
Society. 

Among Mr. Keenig’s books, there are some of great value, which ought to 
be in the library of every Oriental scholar, for instance: ‘“ Westergaard’s 
Radices Sancrit,’’ “‘ Koregarten’s Pancha Tantra,” ‘“ Boethlink’s Panini,” 
* Lassen’s Indian Antiquities,” etce., and I have no doubt that the books will 
sell soon, if their prices be reduced. I submit for the approval of the Sec- 
tion and the Council a list at reduced prices. 

2. The Section have not expressed their opinion about the arrangement of 
the sculptures, referred to in Mr, Bushby’s letter. 


700 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [ Dec. 


3. The Section approve of the reduction in the prices of the Society’s 
books, and submit a list recommending a still greater reduction of the prices. 

4. The Section approve of the proposition to publish the Kamanduk 
Niti Sha’stra, in the Oriental Journal. 

5. The Section would recommend the Society to subscribe to at least 20 
copies of Mr. Corcoran’s work. _ 

6. The Section consider Mr. Laidlay’s translation of Fa Hian, with its 
numerous original notes, a valuable addition to Oriental Literature, and 
recommend to subscribe to at least 30 copies. 

7. I take this opportunity to invite the attention of the Society to a work 
of the highest importance for Oriental literature, viz. Lassen’s ‘‘ Indische 
Alterthumskunde” (Indian Antiquities). It is of a very comprehensive cha- 
racter, embracing the political, religious and social history of India. In fact 
it contains the result of the previous researches in India, and is founded on 
the most diligent study of the various branches of Hindu literature, monu- 
ments, inscriptions, etc. as well as on the information of the adjacent nations 
and of travellersin India. The work is dedicated to the Asiatic Society in 
very flattermg terms. I add a translation of the dedication for the inform- 
ation of the Society. 

8. The books and original enclosures are herewith returned. 

I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Your most obedient servant, 
E. Rorr, 
Secy. Oriental Section of Asiatic Society. 


To the Secretary Asiatic Society. 

Srr,—I beg leave to bring to the notice of the Asiatic Society a rare and 
interesting manuscript lately received from Capt. Kittoe, and respectfully 
suggest, if it shall meet with the approbation of the Oriental Section, to 
publish it in the ‘ Bibliotheca Indica.’ 

The work is entitled the “ Polity of Kdamandaoki” (avaala aifante) 
and was composed about the end of the fourth century before Christ, by a 
disciple of the celebrated minister—Vishnugupta. It treats of the duties of 
man as a member of society ; of the principles and form of civil government 
as prevalent amongst the Hindus; of the rights and privileges of kings and 
ministers : of the art of fortification; of the principles of military tactics ;— 
in short, of all the branches of political science, which engaged the attention 
of Hindu statesmen at the time of Chandragupta. It is perhaps the only 
work of its kind that is known to exist, and considered with reference to the 
state of civilization in India about the time of Alexander’s expedition, pos- 
sesses a strong claim upon the attention of the Society. 


1848. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 701 


It comprises twenty chapters, which together with an English version, and 
notes, would occupy about 120 pages of the Oriental Journal. 
I am, Sir 
Your obedient Servant, 
RAJENDRALAL MITTRA. 
Asiatic Society, lst Nov. 1848. 


To the Secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 


Str,—Being of opinion that the sale of the Society’s Oriental Publications 
would be greatly promoted if the enclosed reduced scale of prices were 
adopted, I beg to submit it to you for your approbation and recommendation 
to the Society. 

I am, Sir, 
Your obedient servant, 
RAJENDRALAL MITTRA. 
Asiatie Society, 25th Oct. 1848. 


Names of Books. Present Proposed Proposed 

; price. reduction. price. 
Mahabharata, an Epic Poem, 4 vols.4to. Rs. 40 8 BD, 
Index to ditto, 4 vols. 4to. 6 2 4 
Naishada Churita, or adventures of Nala Raja, l vol. 8vo. 6 2 4 
Susruta, 2 vols. 8vo.; vol. I. pp. 368 ; vol. II. 562 pp. 8 2 6 
Harivansa, 1 vol. 4to. 563 pages. 5 1 4 
Rajatarangini, 1 vol. 4to. pp. 440. 5 1 4 
Fatawe Alamgiri, 6 vols. 4to. 48 none 48 
Inaya, 3 vols. 4to. 24 none 24 
Khazunat ul Ilm, a Treatise on Mathematics, 1 vol. 4to. 

pp. 694, 8 4 4 
Jawame ul Ilm ul Riazi, | vol. 4to. with 11 plates, pp. 

168, 4 1-8 2-8 
Anisul Mosharrahin, 1 vol 4to. pp. 541. 5 2 3 
Sharaya ul Islam, 1 vol. 4to. pp. 641. 8 3 5 
Istallahat e Sufia, 1 vol. 8vo. pp. 168. 5 3 2 
Tarikh e Nadiri, 1 vol. 4to. pp. 386. 8 4 4 
Tibetan Grammar, | vol 4to. 256 pages, 8 2 6 
Tibetan Dictionary, 1 vol. 4to. 373 pages, 10 8 2 


Much discussion having ensued on the presentation of this report, 
regarding the purchase of the books required for Mr. Keenig— 

It was proposed by W. Seton Karr, Esq. seconded by Capt. Latter, 
and agreed unanimously, 


702 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Drc. 


“That in the case now before the Society, Mr. Koenig has a right 
to expect that the books furnished to him in March, 1847, be for- 
warded, and that the Society do procure and despatch them accord- 
ingly as soon as possible, but also that for the future the Society 
do abstain from disbursing or pledging itself to disburse sums in the 
purchase of works not published by the Society, for individuals in 
Europe, which sums are only to be prospectively repaid by the sale of 
works received from such individuals, the Society not considering them- 
selves in the light of purchasing agent for any parties.” 

The other recommendations of the Section were unanimously agreed 
to, as well as a subscription for 100 copies of Mr. Laidlay’s version of 
the travels of Fa Hian. 

The Hon’ble the President then brought to the notice of the Society 
the loss they had sustained in the death of their distinguished Honor- 
ary Member, Mr. David Hiram Williams, and proposed the following 
resolution, which was unanimously agreed to :— 

‘* Resolved, that the Society ‘desires to record its sense of the loss 
which this Society, as well as the public service, has sustained by the 
premature death of Davip Hiram WiuuiAMs, Esq., the Superintend- 
ent of the Geological Survey, and an Honorary member of the Asiatic 
Society of Bengal.”’ 

‘* Resolved, that the above resolution be communicated by the Secre- 
tary to Mr. Williams’ family.” 

The Curators and Librarian having submitted their usual reports, the 
meeting adjourned to January, 1849. 


(Signed) W. B. O’SHavuGunessy, 


Secretary. 


Report of the Curator Musuem Economic Geology for the month of November. 


Geology and Mineralogy.—I can do but little more this month than record 
what has been received, having but just restored this department of the 
Musuem to some order. 

From Captain H. L. Thuillier—Deputy Surveyor General. Eight Coloured 
Lithographic Impressions of Captain Sherwill’s Geological Map of Zillah 
Monghyr and Bhaugulpore. 

W. Bracken, Esq. C. S.—A specimen of Fibrous Gypsum from America. 

I have put into the form of a paper for the Journal my notice of the mag- 
nificent mass of Meteoric Iron now exhibited, which is the gift of our indefa- 


1848. | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 703 


tigable associate and contributor Capt. Sherwill, B. N. I. and refer our readers 
to that paper for full details of the examination of it. 

Economic Geology.—¥rom the late D. H. Williams, Esq. Company’s Geo- 
logist, we have received specimens of two new beds of Coal, the exact locality 
of which is not given, but the one is stated to be from a new locality 15 or 20 
miles to the south-east of Hazareebagh, and the other from two new beds in 
the Damooda Coal field ; and specimens of Iron ore, also from the Hazareebagh 
and Burdwan districts. 

From Messrs. Jardine, Skinner and Co. a specimen of Coal from New- 
eastle, N. S. Wales, from which part of the world we hitherto had no spe- 
cimens for comparison if required. 

From J. Homfray, Esq. some small but highly curious specimens of the 
Ball Coal from the Seetarampore Colliery in Burdwan, of all sizes, from that 
of a walnut to a small Cheshire cheese. Mr. Homfray has also presented the 
Museum with another splendid specimen, which appears to be the carbonised 
and flattened stem of a tree, the first tree stem, I think, of any kind, which 
has been found in the Coal in this country. 

Mr. Homfray’s letter is as follows :— 

My pear Mr. Pippineron,—I have now the pleasure to send you some 
specimens of the ‘“‘ Boulders of Coal’ from a new Colliery opened upon the same 
vein of Coal as that to which my printed notice refers. The largest boulder 
I think very unique, and some of the small ones still more so, but you will 
observe that in some pieces I have sent there are 2 small boulders or nodules 
close to each other, and imbedded in the circumjacent Coal remarkably—the 
boulders having their concentric layers of Coal, whilst the masses in which 
they are imbeded has the layers horizontally disposed. 

There is one specimen which has the appearance of the stem of a tree, 
as though it had been cut across. The layers of Coal are also concentric, 
just similar to those in the stems of trees—this specimen was originally about 
3 feetin height, but broke across in its carriage from the Colliery to this place. 
I am still very undecided what to say about the formation of the balls, the 
manner in which they originally increased by additional coats of carbonaceous 
matter, or, if you please, Coal. About 175 feet above the Coal vein are found 
the Ironstone measures 43 feet in thickness, and having several veins of Iron- 
stone, some of which are what we call ball Ironstone. In my survey of the Pa- 
lamow Coal July 1837) recorded in the Coal Committee’s Report, (page 159, | 
and section, p. 162,) the Ironstone thence alluded to contains beautiful “ Ball 
Ironstone,” and in page 163 you will see the allusion to the existence of peb- 
bles and rounded conglomerates in the sandstone overlymg one of the veins 
of Coal. Imention these to call your attention to the fact of its having been 

4Z 


704 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. [Drc. 


now eleven years under notice. I had occasion to send home some copies of 
my printed Coal Survey reports to Glamorganshire, and it has been the means 
of arousing attention to the same circumstances as to Boulders of Coal being 
found in veins of Coal which have horizontal layers. An old acquaintance, 
Mr. Benson of Swansea, an extensive Coal Miner and Copper Smelter, at 
the late meeting of the British Association, read a paper on the Boulder 
Coal found in a vein of Coal. I send you the paper, which is interesting 
enough, but I must not be deprived of my priority of its public notification, 
which now stands as recorded in the Society’s Journal, as well as in my 
printed reports of 1842. 

I beg you to take care of the paper, not having any other Copy, and request 
you to return it as soon as you conveniently can. 

lst Nov. 1848. 

Your’s truly, 
J. Homrray. 


P. S. It may be interesting to some persons to know that the locality of 
this new Colliery whence these Boulders are taken, is situated Jess than one 
mile from the site of the oldest Colliery im that district opened by Mr. Heatly 
near Aytura village, and upon the same vein. 


“ The following is an extract from Mr. Benson’s paper.” 


“Mr. Benson next read a communication on a boulder of Cannel Coal 
found in a vein of common bituminous Coal. 

About ten years since, Mr. Logan noticed the frequent coal and iron 
stone conglomerates occurring in the sandstones of the Town Hill, near Swan- 
sea. His attention was first awakened to the subject from the discovery of 
an undoubted boulder of Cannel Coal above the seam of common bitumi- 
nous coal, called the Five-feet Rock Vein, at Penclawdd. The series of coal 
measures included in the Pennant rock are easily traceable throughout the 
South Wales Coal field, from the greater hardness of their sandstone, and 
their elevation as a nearly continuous range of hills. It would appear that 
whilst the sandstones and slabs of the coal measures below the Pennant 
rocks have been deposited or formed in comparatively quiet water the sand- 
stones of the Pennant series contain frequent conglomerates of coal and 
ironstones, drifted plants, and occasionally small boulders of granite, with 
other proofs of drift to a considerable extent having occurred during the 
period of their formation. Bivalve shells are also found in considerable mass- 
es in the shales below the Pennant group, both on the north and south out- 
crop, evidently showing that they now repose unmoved from their original 
beds, whilst the only shells I have yet seen on the Pennant were at a short 


a 


1848. ] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 705 


distance ftom the Penclawdd seam, which is one of the lowest in that series. 
During the present year another boulder of cannel coal, was discovered in 
the Penclawdd seam, which the workman who found it positively affirms to 
have been in the vein of bituminous coal. The boulder is 13 inches long, 
7 wide, and 3 thick, one corner having been broken off after it had become 
rounded by attrition, probably a short time prior to its arrival at the spot 
in which it was found; a siliceous cement has coated a part of the surface of 
this fracture, has filled the cavity caused by another fracture and also attach- 
es a piece of rock to the boulder. The Penclawdd five feet vein, is about 300 
yards in geological position below the quarries of the Town Hill sandstone, 
and throughout this depth there would appear to be frequent instances of 
drift and false beds of coal: in some specimens the pebbles of the older or 
drift coal having from their greater hardness, penetrated into and distorted 
the drift plants, which have since become coated with the newer coal. One 
or two other pieces of cannel coal have been found at Penclawdd, but as 
these were discovered in the heap of bituminous coal, after it had been raised 
to the surface, and from exposure to the air had heated, and slacked, they 
may have originally formed parts of large boulders, and their present angular 
form is no certain proof of their having been derived from other beds in the 
immediate locality. In the subjacent measures of the South Wales coal 
field, some seams associated with regular seams of cannel coal are known to 
exist about 700 yards below the Penclawdd vein, and laying conformably with 
it. In alluding to the boulder he discovered Mr. Logan remarks: 

“To suppose that the boulder is derived from the lower seams, after they had 
been indurated, converted, and crystallized, would, it is apprehended, be carry- 
ing the age of the whole deposit to the extent that has never yet been conceived 
and is perhaps inadmissible for it is not easy to account for any mode in which 
a fragment of them, without a disturbance of the stratification, which yet exhi- 
bits none of a requisite order, could be displaced and conveyed to the newer 
beds whilst forming. It is therefore, safer to refer the boulder to some anterior 
deposit of coal, perhaps no longer in existence.* To attempt to determine 
whether these boulders of cannel coal are derived from the lower measures, 
or from some anterior deposit, I have not been able to collect sufficient data, 
but some pieces of the top stone of the Penclawdd vein may be interesting, 
as they show that a conglomerate of small pebbles of ironstone, apparently 
identical in quality with the large deposits of ironstone of the lower mea- 
sures, has been deposited within a few inches of the top of the Penclawdd vein 
of coal. If the boulders have been derived from the lower veins of the 


* See Journal for January, p. 60, in which, with reference to our Indian Ball Coal, 
the same view is expressed.—H. P. 


706 Proceedings of the Asiatic Society. 


series, they may probably have been supplied from partial destruction of the 
lower measures at the south-west corner of the basin, previous to the forma- 
tion of the veins included in the Pennant series of sandstones. It may have. 
occurred, that during the gradual subsidence of the land beneath the estuary 
or basin in which the successive strata of coal, sand, and shale have been 
deposited, communication between such basin and the larger seas have been 
formed or enlarged, and that the detritus of the lower measures, thus exposed 
to the action of the sea, has from time to time supplied the boulders and drift 
during the formation of the Pennant series. The greater coarseness of the 
Pennant sandstones, and the frequent conglomerates and marks of drift, infer 
that these deposits have occurred frequently under the action of the rough 
sea, rather than of the quiet lake, and if the boulders of granite should, upon 
examination, be found to be equivalent to that of Pembrokeshire, it would 
rather point to the line of drift. The destruction of a portion of the lower 
beds before the deposit of the higher, might, as I have ventured to suggest, 
have been effected without disturbing the conformity of the lower and Pen- 
nant measures on the existing portions of the coal field. The question whe- 
ther a large portion of the coal measures has or has not been cut off by the 
anticlinal line of Cefu Bryn, would not affect the suggestion ; as this upheav- 
ing of the old red sandstone equally distorts the higher and lower measures, 
and probably occurred when the present coal field was again raised above the 
level of the waters. Butif the suggestion is admitted as deserving of further 
enquiry, namely, that these boulders are derived from the lower veins of the 
same coal field, the inference (and a question of considerable interest it is) 
would follow, that sufficient time has elapsed between the deposit of each 
vein to allow the perfect crystallization and formation of the vein below 
it. It also yields information interesting with reference to the ascertaming 
of the manner of the formation of the coal; as it would infer, that the ma- 
terial of which, in this instance, the bituminons vein was formed, was origin- 
_ ally too soft and yielding, notwithstanding its present hardness and density, 
to fracture the boulder during the period of pressure necessary for its forma- 
tion, and also that the chemical agents acting, or escaping during the formation 
of the bituminous coal, do not appear to have in any way affected the cannel 
coal deposited within it.” 

It will be noted that Mr. Benson speaks of boulders of Cannel Coal, which 
renders these facts still more extraordinary. I have not been able to examine 
our boulders, yet having some other researches on hand which are not yet 
completed. 

H. PIDDINGTON. 


PAID AAVIIIIIIII 


— = °  —_———a - — 
7 } eral’s O Cale: he Month of Dec., 184 
a Meteorological Register hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of Dec., 1848. 
99 9 o. Di ; ss iation 2° 2: ast. . Dip. 27 
: at. 22° 33/28". 33 N. Long. 88° 23' 42”. 84 East, Mag. Variation 2° 28’ 36” East. Mag. Dip. 27° 4 A 
v7 
serra num Press iy 3 | 
Observations made at sunrise. Maximum Pressure observed at 9h. 50m. Observations made at apparent noon, Obsérrations made ut 2h. 40m. p. m. Minimum Pressure observed at 4p. m. Observations made at sunset. ae ea EE |Rain Gaugenl 
5 Aymiperttarey) | {fvind! & Temperature. | Wind. & Tenperature. | Wind. Temperature. | Wind. 2 Temperature. | Wind, | =| Elevations, 
& ‘Temperature, Wind. 2 5 SS a 35 
2 F § : Z “ 3 & eI FS z 2 = | Feet.| Feot,| | 
z = : z = s : g 2 3 5 : = = = 3 5 r cea He Et 
g : 5 2 ra ale a 3/8 Paes a el 3 7 |ca a 5 5 a 5 ; |3 
ae 2 | 3 Elena gi See Meai este Sil sil) sg: PPS PER realli 2 eae 2 Balas ; ’ i: 
eel e|s 3 z a | sai) 3 S |eel2l/<\5) S SESE aise 2 - alesis 2 2/2|¢ 5 g Be 
26 ja |< 3 s ie) | rorlline 2 3 A Ee tee iS 3 3 b2) 2/38 |e) 38 2 Se 3 car | ea € els =| 
fies 3 3 = | 4 | eel! 3 z e2/2\/2/= 2 z PAS || aul eA & alec & ls FI 3] é a\2 
e2|2|2 g & Sle | Sas 4 calls els £ a \olls [te [a 3 5 [5 5 ellie Ee a|& 
elo = ° Tnolies ° Inches} © [2 | 2 a calle 7 © (inchs 
4 4 s.W. |Clear, 60. W.N.W, Clear. 30,082] 82.2] Blt | 68 Cumuli. a 67 Clear. 163 Clear. 833 oral. 1 
Clear. no) 74: 8.2 IN. W.. |Cloudy. x . WLAN. W,|Cumulo strnti, | 29.998) 79-3) 78.9 | 66. Cloudy. 78: Cloudy. iba ‘Cloudy. 423 1050) 2 
Cioutys i 6710 |N.N, W.[Clear, ‘ h Cumule strau, | .975| 81-2) 60.2 | 66.1 (Curwulo stent. Gurmula strat. 75. Clear, 823 | 108.21 ss 3 
‘Giro cums pales Posie eaa etree y NUN.W.\Cumulo strat. | 928) 81.9| 00.7 | 67. (Cumnulo strats, Cumulo stratn, 764 Cumuto stratl, | 829 ronal 3° | tL pla 
Sumulie 
tj Clear, A 2 N.N.W.Cumulo strati, | .971 800 | Gr. Sumulo strati. |Cumuti. i Cirri. 820 | 72.8 | 63.5 iol) a 5 
soars , r Ch 3 Cumuli. 30,002 1 | 67.8 Cumuli. Clear. ut Clear, B41 | 73.6 | 649 \105.0 rm 6 
Peo re . Ww. i Hi Fi ,|Cumulis 29,982 -Cumuli. ‘Clear. 7 Clear, 83.8 | 73.4 | 63.0 |107,5) , 8 
cirri. 
\Cirrie 909 Cumalo. 80.5 Cirri. 942} 78,9 | 77. Cirri. aia | 74.2] 64,0 |lo72) |. 9 
Foggy. " | fj ; “ |Curnulo strati. (Cumulo strat, 80.8 |Curnuli. 976) 79.3 | 77. Clear. 84.8 | 75.0 | 65.2 |108. fo 
Cirn. | 07 .|Cumulo strati. Cumulo strati. ee 998) 79.2 Clear. Bi3 | 75.7 | 67.0 |107 Be u 
Cirrojesralis ‘31 “Clear. Clears al 378) 19.7 Clear, 84.2 | 75.3 | 663 |ion7| | = | fia 
089 (Cummulo strati. Curnulo atrati. B04 Cumulo strat. aah aaa | 74.8) 65,7 |105.7] .. ia 
29,992 Clear. Cumulo strat. 80.8 Cumuli. Clear. 63.4 | 73.2) 63,0 |107.5| *. i 
1973. Clear. iClear. 79.3 | 65 -W.|Clear. (Clear. Bas | 72.5 | 625 |1oK0, °° 15 
3e7 Cloudy. Cumulis 80,1 | 674 Wis. W.|Cleur, Girro cumuli, | 283 | 73.5 | 63.7 jiosal [2 | 2 | ite 
991 | ‘Clear, OU Cumuli. 20.8 Cumuli. Camuli, 3.6 | 75.0 | 664 |1048) ,, . falir 
Clear. 1206 Clear. 19.3 y,|Clear. |Clear, 42.7 | 73.0 | 632 liosal < 18 
Cumulo strati. | 833 (Cumulo strati. 80.7 Cumulo strat. Cumulo strat, | 84,8 | 74.3 | 63,8 |100.0) 19 
Cloudy, ff i 8 |N. rf i 5 Cloudy, 815 ‘Cloudy. 79.8 Cumuli. Cumulostrat. | 628 | 77.9 | 72.9 )1004) 37 20 
; 4 8 | 76. . |Clenr. 929 ‘Cumuli. Clear. 948) 164 81.0 | 73.4 | 65.7 |102,6) .. an 
‘Clear. ‘ ‘ 6 re A  W,|Cumulo, 30,024 Clear. Clear. sei) || Pan 78.1 | 695 | 60.9 | gaa) 2) 2a 
E/Cumuli. 6 25 \N i a A "Clear. 098 jel Clear. 130,094 | 72.5 17.0 | 679] 587 | 960, :; | 3. | ies 
eal fo ro "9 f ; : E 0 |N. Cumuli. Ou ‘\Cumulis Clear. 090) 74.3 78.0 | 69.1 | 60,2 | 964) 2. | 1. | [ae 
‘alm. . . 
y.W. |Cumuli. span} 795) 18-4 | 66.0 “Curauli. 75 
Clear. ‘ iy ‘017| 80) 19.0 | 66.5 Clears 78.2 
Clear. B15) 806 | 68.3 Clear. 80.3 
814 403 | 67.9 79.0 758 | GE} 
80,086 | 79.6 | Tt | 6S | ome _. TK _#O.MWmo@.® u4J———s—sSsei6 
a a eee 30017 69,6 70.2 63.0 29,9099 75,5 149 63.7 29.995 173 16.4 64.5 99,981 16.7 752 639 29.938 Tl 728 63.7 BE. eo (0,00 05 


‘These Observations have been made for the most part, with a supply of new and firstrate Instruments received into the Observatory, by orders of the Bengal Government ; a breldescription of the Instruments seems necessary, 


Fe oo a ae ee a foatrauest by Newinun, damuewe of the tube 0.504 Inches, The following is the comparause showing of this Instrument aod those Marvedars which were in use at the Observatory prior to Ist of June, 1844. (Barometer by Troughton used prior to the 1st of June, 184. 


Observations reduced to 2° Fahrenheit. 
Ditto rs 3 iri » 0514 Ditto. 


} Dito. Ditto Col, Everest used from Ist of June to Bist of August, 1844. Dito ... Ditto « 


No. 62 Standard Burometer by Newman used from lat of September, 1B44...66 Dxtto « Ditto 
2od,—The Thermometer is n Standard Tastrument by Newman, on metal Scale nnd gridunted to ¥ of a degree, No, 86...- Diltovsee Ditto ss+e-r Ditto. «-esfroin Sd of April, 1847. Dito « Ditto « 20,607 


Fae ar Ei ae yy angls degree aivutons, ie difreace Vewween staadand Thermometer eal dry Thermometer of his Tostrumentis -84\the Temperature of the dry Bulb is taken from the Standard ‘Thermoner, aud in 'eventof te quantsy motu, Jew pai OF drjaks, being rayired, iw uucewary the difrence averted Lo, 
a rm ‘ > 
aie ken nto eal ‘Thermometer by Newman, ‘The difference between these instruments, and the Standard Thermometer is - 0.7 for the former and 0.28 forthe late 


5th.—Tho Temperature shewo in Columa a7 of a Vhermometer, in sun's rays, acquired by means of @ Newman's Maximum thermometer having a black bulb.—tbe above Lastreseats, excepting the Thermometer placed in the sun's rays, ure fixed atabove 4} feet from the ground, to a post, in a thickly chopprred house, and nre freely exposed to the airaod sheltered from any influence 
= ; i j ; 
of Solurrelections sieht ofthe Surface ofthe Mercury inthe Cistera of the Sundard Barometer inthe Observatory altsched to the Surveyor General's Ofice above bé Mean Level ofthe Sea, having been deluced from a Series of Te Observations taken from a Register kept at Kyd's Dock Yard, the result is recorded for genera information. 


Feet. [om Fall of Rain in each Month of 1848. 
eee 8,98 | Jam oo May, + 6,22) September, H. L. THUILLIER, Carrars, 
2555, aa AB s# } Oeisberr ‘ Officiating Deputy Surceyor General, 

In charge Surveyor General's Office. 


‘des in the Months of February aod March, above the Zero of Gauge at Kyd's Dock Yard, Calcutta, 
Fe er ernest ihe Zera of Tide Gauge at Ayd's Dock Yard, and the Standard Barometer atthe Olservatory, « 


Height of Standard Barometer above the Level of the Sea,... 


0.41 | July, = 17.50 | November, 
18.21 VSI] August, vss 9.22] December, 


Total fall of rain 58.69 


_ L a Ditto for Jey, TasBaey — EE 


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stdietteht 
oe 

i 


. 
f 
a) 


sc. 
sts 
nes 


iA = 
oo rere