eoeeatete
‘ ae Bea
wt rr hie
j a eee Bead
SG itecaenene
oe
ome 8
8 Gant ab an Ae eR
Pe Pe ee eee
te eet BRB Beth @
o-5~ © ete
OR GeO Rat eB he &
6 r@ -4~ LS
an
“>
11604)
&
Sie
ae
aot
Sad peel
rotate rae
mtaen
et oe
-> >=
ta ohne 88 Fe wt
ena wt heh byte BO nd oH ~
Ce ae Bene ot Oe ~9~ A
pron mmr te pelt De
Coed ah oe ,
~ dn
ae O-
=e
—&. =~
ae
+> on
Cee ed
Be re Pet
ee ee Ors.
.
J
Sie rer
*
(ota,
eS
a
toy
pal PO
eee ee ee
— Gyo
a
<6 Bowes
‘a5
2-4-8 8 wt 8 ee ee”
*
9 a oat
praes
if a=
“. e
re eee
ere ok Ee
Sn we Om AD
ee ee ee eee
sean eee
re ee)
GO. Fae 8 ode
Reh mee
pera et)
P-te
Fe Gs
ee rt
Seetocne
an%
lt te
oor)
ern, eed ees a
bo oy ee
2
r-
-* ~tn nt 004 =
a a bah eh ty Mee oe
9 Qo 0 eo BO be eh -“*
ee ee
ee eae
2 woe
Oe FMS FH
Se et
° ea%ee ~ Oe
0. By BPwH - 4 wt -8
tm BO etm OB
Pate OO 8 6
ere rey ee)
Fat Ime
sos
ee ek eae
+ etm - ee ro.
= ee VS tssee nm © ee Pe
ee te Et dake
+268 ae we
eo tnt® wot
—~ eee Se ee ee ed
ovis
f+ ete aes
et oh wo
--*-« -
—- a- ee
et Pt bela ieed
2 #9 978 8
hee He *
ote ete ve
4) ver Vn
Fete
Sis
ob OR
ae
> Pate hot Eee Bre
eal
wwe ent Os
res pp at ?
ee rd
P ete ome
ehotat
ar
ee et ee
SAcnatods ~~ a
rere bse ht”)
Pe eee eee
ee ee
"~
asa
va 3-@
ee hake ie ned
ae
ne
espe Bie
» 6.72 4
ae 7 '
=a
Wot <a ae Rate
ah Neg one AO Fed nee ee AO
Oona Orbe a 4
Sat rem tage 2
© eee
8. Oe
ed dle
< oo n e e
ree ee ee ee ee
ee ee eT a. Pad
anme
leet
= One eo
ee Pee
*
eee er ey eet
7 #6O.. cororte #
-”
-? 09 6m ho
ete ® vet
_
1%
b. Peed aha ®
Reb Behe BeBe GH nid te
ee ee
eR whetrtetes
a5
= Bae.
= 4A oe
ogarere:
tsa
Peree ee)
Fak eter
Ryde Ree es
teh
*
4
ne
3s
baw bad noe
eee enw a bas
er ees oe) Oe en
ere ee Se ee ee ee
te 8
Do ee
JOURN AL
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
VOL. XXXVI.
TAR. -L
Nos. I. to IlI.—1867.
EDITED BY
THE PHILOLOGICAL SECRETARY.
—s
“Tt will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men
of science in different parts of Asia, will commit their observations to writing,
and send them to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. It will languish, if such
communications shall be long intermspeeth>-gad it will die away, if they shall
Sir Wm. Jones,
CALCUTTA:
PRINTED BY C. B. LEWIS, BAPTIST MISSION PRESS,
1868.
CONTENTS.
~~ ee
No. I.
(Published 1lth July, 1867.)
The Initial Coinage of Bengal.—By Epwarp Tnomas, Esq.....
Notes on the Jumma Masjid of Etawah.—By C. Horn, Esq ,
Tiron da tit psc deny duhbess deed sucsabi bavi éanisvesss
Translation of an act ese copied in the temple of Nakhon
Vat, or the City of Monasteries, near the capital of ancient
M@ambodia.—By Dr. A. Basrtan,...........ccccrocecessseovscs
IT ADCOLLISOIGG, .. fos isco nse s see cedecctcssbSveoreceerectsossecces
No. II.
(Published 1st November, 1867.)
Notes on Sirajuddauléh and the town of Murshidabad, taken
from a Persian Manuscript of the Tarikh-i-Manctri.—
SUEPEe OLOGHMANN, FiGQ:, Me. Aeon oui l cen ecasseseccencces
Notes on Buddhist Remains near Mynpoorie.—By C. Horne,
INL BEN dated Cy cee sr bas i eo
Notes on the Carvings on the Buddhist Rail-posts at Buddha
Gayé.—By C. Horne, Esq., B. C. S., ,
The Pegu Pagoda.—By Capt. H. A. uae Daniy. Gerke
missioner of Rangoon, .........
The Antiquities of Bagerhat. se ae frais tise
Depnty Magistrate and Deputy Collector of Maunbhoom,
On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets in Roman Charac-
ter.— By F. S. Growsz, Esq., M. A. Oxon., B.C. S.,......
Page
85
105
107
109
118
136
lv Contents.
No. TLE
(Published 1st May, 1868.)
On the Arabic Element in Official Hindustani.—No. 2, By
J: Buames, Esg., B.C. Stes. ei Secs vse nco03 Vee
Remarks on some ancient Hindu Ruins in the Garhwal
Bhatur.—By Lieutenant Ayrton Putuan, Assistant Sur-
veyor, Great Trigonometrical Survey, .........cee.cseceseeree
Notes on ancient Remains in the Mainpuri District.—By
C.. Hoan, Baqi: Bois By sdtaeedviutealades ayombeeaene
Literary Intelligence,.......sesecsee sees sia nib'e vcurnleisutlanie iat adee alate Gita
LIST OF PLATES.
I. Bengal Goins .ficu5 stems Ps sseinesemaaetnedte reat oduaesss/eacumeeen
LL. Bengal -Coms,: -vcassivdaas Srerteeee tte acai cones se eee
III. Plan and Detail Drawings of Siitale Masjid. Ktawah, ...
IV. Carvings:on Buddhist Rail=postay ... .0.cg.--csessntes sso ese
IVa Do. do. do. DG. -a5 sexy om << 0a idee
Ne Do. do. do. dO. »..taccchpaveceenee
VI. Views of Karimganj and Thakura mounds,............ 2.000
MIT.“ Amjand Carvings, .., .6<scins sees) sy acdc enser aereee ves eee
WILL. Nonaig Carvings, ......sasqic ast Sasies ves olor > teennee enn
ee Wrulsitin’ Carvings, avec ssacn atte Seaae so eee ee = one one
A. Karauld Carvings: (se :ccucetinis ss ce +c iscus veecentacynss eae
Page
145
39
58
74
107
107
107
165
163
166
168
171
i il
INDEX TO PART I.
’Adzam Shah, Coins of, _... pa dep
-_—_—’s debased Bengal Coins,
Abul Fazl’s account of value of gold in Akbar’s time,
Aitabi, weight of an,
Ahabala Sanhita,
Akbar, Value of gold i in the time of,
Alé-uddin A’li Shah, Coins of,
Alé-uddin Muhammad, Coins of,
, Do-kani of,
, Hasht-kani of,
——-,, Shash kani of,
Altamash’s first Coins, Tankah, i
new Coinage, Value of,
= Sikkah,
Amirchand, Double dealings of Clive with,
Amojdha, Mahardja,
Anjani, Ruins in,
Antiquities of Bagerhat,
Apastambha Dharma Siitra, Notice of,
Aphangtirat, Anecdote of Prince,
Apollophanes, Coin of, ,
Arabic chosen by the people, a
-- elements in official Hindustani, re
Arabic, Sacred language to the Converts, _
Arabicized dialect of the Courts,.., buss
Arabs, founders of the Urdu,
Ariendakima, Reign of,
Arimathiya or Phra Sian- Metray,,
Asanli, Ruins in, ...
Assay of Koch Behar Coins,
Asubodha Vyakarana,
Asvalayana Srauta Sutra, Completion of,
Attanagaluvansa of Ceylon,
Ava dynasty of Hanthawadie, oes
’Azimabad, M, Las’ flight to, .., ite
nal Index.
Page
Baber’s account of Shia and Nukra Tankah, ee <i) 2
Bagerhat, Antiquities of, oa poe wcdoct kee
—, Derivation of the word, ive én 0 oe
— ’ inscriptions, “ae pea (es PAGO
—, Tehsildar of, ... ae ace oy 127
Bahadir Shah, Coins of, ot. 99 ae! Oe
raised the seanflard of Bengal Coins, oo ee
Bastian, Dr. A, on the Nakhon vat Inscription, oe aes
Beames, J. Esq, on the Arabic Klements in Official Hindustani, 145
Bengal, Capital of, ; Wars. =
, Coinage in, oe
———,, Coinage introduced by the Mahommedans ii 1D, ee
—-— debased by Bahadur Shah, it Wigs tbh
Coins, standard raised, ... vhe ie eerie ay >
, Copper Coins of, ... vee sod pe |
, Kaudi or shell currency in, at see OMS
——., ’ Currency of, on --. peg) a
* Barliest Copper Coins a # ee & ake GQ
ee, ’ Governors of, ee i at 80. 31
’ Initial Coinage ie as whe Hi nll 1
’ Mints, List of, a. Ha gl Fan #5
Behn (The) Sumame of Kambodia, ieee a |
Bhagavat, Phra-Phakana Kambodian name for, or Aon OH
Bhavishya Purana, ... + a a BAL IG
Bhojpuri dialect, eas eee ees paes 055;
Bhrigu sanhita, 2 5an ty 9
Black Tankahs ie Muhammad bia Tughlak, 13
Blochmann, H. Ksq., on i ud-daulah aaa the town of Mar-
shidaébad, ... wee g.3 5) Os
Two Rrcutiees « on Metre a Rhyme, wn Ha
Boddhisatva, Phra-Photisat, ... PP e ae (i
The Holy, ... Be rn gr EG
Brahma, Phra-Phrom the Kambodian, ey TT hen. ey f
Brown, Capt. H. A., on the Peeu Pagoda, +o =) 199
Buddha Gaya Rail- -posts, Buddhist origin of the, —_—_.,, eS POT
=e Phra-Phuttha, ... arts ee
Sri Ariya or Arimathiya the future, iy
Statue ‘of, ; eee TG
Buddhist Carvings on the Patuhs Gay4 Railposts, Be DRT
ornaments of the Etawah Temple, ud Bar 7k
-————— remains at Mainpuri, ... ie ue we. 105
Buhler’s Digest of the Hindu Law, ... ae BB
Burman dynasty, ... se oe Pee ERS
Burmese Pagoda, Sacred Chronicle of the, | a a. “109
Burrisal guns heard at ee a! ay eSB
Bustiis, Value of, ee
Bysack, Babu Gouradasa, on the Antiquities of Bagerhat, if2°426
Tndex.
Capital of Bengal,
Catalogue of Vernacular Publications,
Chahir-deva, Coins of, _... “wh me
Chandananagara, Bombardment of,
Chandakausika, Drama of,., ss
Chhatika consisting of six takas of 145 | grains each ,
Chital currency of pees; *
of Firtz,
Chugal, Weight of a,
Chulamani chaitya, Phra-chedi, the, ; .
Clive, Col. Correspondence of, with Siraj- -ud-daul: ih,
Coinage introduced by the Mahommedans in Beng: il
--— Medallic, of Muhammad Bakhtiar,
——--- of Ilias Shah,
--- of Sonargdon, ts
Coins (first) struck by the English i in India,
——- found near Gosain Marai, -
—- List of Delhi,
—-- of Azam Shah,
——. of ’Alé-ud-din "Ali Shah,
——- of ’Ala-ud-din Muhammad,
—-— of Altamash,
——- of Apollophanes,
—-— of Bahadur Shah,
——- of Chahir-deva,
—-— of Delhi mixed with those of the Koch Behar Mint,
—-— of Eucratides,
- of Fakr-ud-din Mubarik Shah,
——- of Firuz and Kaikaiis, ;
- of Ghids-ud-din Agar Shah bin ead, ar Shah,
- of Ikhtidr-ud-din Ghazi Shah,
- of Jalélat-ud-din Riaiah,
—- of Kaikaiis,
- of Koch Behar assayed,
- of Lakhnauti, wage
- of Maharaja Amojdha, ms
- Muhammad-bin-Sham, ...
——-- of Muhammad-bin-Toghlak, ...
- of Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah,
———- of Riziah,
—-— of hahéln ud-din ‘Bagorah Shih,
—-— of Shams-ud-din Firtz, toe ees
——- of Shams-ud-din [has Shah,
—-— of Sikandar, ah
- of Sikandarbin Tas,
——- Purity of imperial, ..
—- selected for Col. C. S, Guthrie,
97, 43
58, 62
vill Index.
Coins, Silver found in Koch Behar,
Copper Coin, Karshapana a, $04 dl itt BE
-—_—_—_——-- of Bengal, #4 a
Currency of Bengal, SE
D’ Alwis, Thandie of the ‘Attanagaluvansa by, Sus
Dhar makosha, ie rs
Dattaka Siromani, Notice of,
Dehli Coins, List ‘of, “.
Jee ee ee those of Koch Behar mint,
horseman device of Prithvi raja,
Digest of Hindu Law, _...
Do-kéni of ’Alé-ud-din Muhammad,
Dravidian origin of the term Kani,
English Coins first struck in Bengal,
Ktawah, Date of the Temple of,
Kucratides, Gold Coin of, oe *"
Europe, Sivaism i in,
Fakr-ud-din Mubérak Shah, “Coin of; «...
Fatah-Namah or Medallic Coinage ot Muhammad Bakhtiar,
Figures 108 and 13 in Scandinavia, sip
Firuz and Kaikaiis, Purity of coins ‘of,
Fort William built, .
Foucaux’s Translation of Sakuntalé,
Ganes’a, Figure of, in Mandhal, .
Garhwil Bhatur, Hindu ruins in,
Garga Sanhita,
Gaudama’s ear deposited i in hws Hmawdaw temple, wy
Gaudama, Relics of, a ee sat
Gaudama’s visit to Hanthawadie,
Gaura-Sarshapa, Weight of a,
Geography, Sanskrit Works on,
Ghids-ud-din, ’Aazam Shahbin Sikandar Shah, Coins oft:
Gold and silver, Ratios of, in Akbar’s time, :
Gosain Murrai, Coins found near,
Growse, F. 8. Bsq., on the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets in in
Rea characters, ie wet
Gulpeb-devi, Figure of,
- and Vishnu, ‘Identity of, SS
Guthrie, Col. C. S., Goins selected for,
Hanthawadie, Abeedaee of, As
-- List-of Kings and Governors of,
-- Thirty-two cities of, ae owe
Hashtkani of ’Ala-ud-din Muhammad,..
Hawkin’s ratios of gold and silver in J ahangir’ S time, Sat
Hientharaza, Reign of, ... ;
Hindi is native to the soil, fis uae
Se
walla, Muhammadan Coinage of Delhi with Bull and
Index. 1X
Page
Hindu dynasty of Nuddeah pee by Muhammad Bakhtiar
Khilji, eT : 4
Hindu Law, Buhler ‘aod West’s Digest of, aS wie 2.
Hindu origin of the Etawah Masjid, Mek caamvei ul ve
Hindu ruins in Garhwaél Bhatur, 3 i. ew Bh
Holmboe, Professor C., on Bivaighy? in Europe, 4. cf RSH
on Sculptures on a rock in Scandinavia, eee BET
a on Horse sacrifice in Scandinavia, »% Riad ge
— on Gold rings for taking oaths, .., elalaae
on the Figures 108 and 13, . = PFD
Horne, C. Esq., on aicieal remains in Mainpuri District,.. 10) 1987
— — Notes on the Buddha Gaya Rail-posts, 017
—__—__ Notes on the Jumma Masjid of Ktawah, vier ¥4
— Notes on the Buddhist remains in Mainpuri, we 105
Horse sacrifice in Scandinavia, fe. 1.818
Husain, Mourning for, in Murshid4bad, + gies SO
Ibn-Batuta’ s account of relative values of gold’ and silver in
India, AL Jo..— dd
Ikhtiar- tt din Altamash revolts against Rizidh, wr BR
— —- Ghazi Shah, Coin of, =x 3, 54
Tléhi or Lal Jalali, Weight of an, we ue a Ae
lids Shah, Coinage of, AS! shoertt) “gett oa
Imémbéra built by Sir4j- ud- daulah, at eis ssecnay
In, the restorer of the venerable Phra, the vs Tihs
Tndian alphabets, Transliteration of the, bike we bes
-- Philology, Publication of, a sic chee
Inscriptions from Bagerhat, 4 sit Nick?
-- at Nakhon vat, aus Fe dit Subl 124O
Ishta Purana,.. ide eee 6 i 3
Jafar promises to fight for ‘Siraj ud- daulah, 91
Jaganmohan Tarkalankara’s editions of Chandakausika and -
Venisanhara, is a22 atG
‘Jehangir, Value of gold in ‘the time Ab oe a0 Wl .ivie BB
Jelalat-ud-din Riziah, Coin of, bes haste
Jumma Masjid of Etawah, Notes on the, bie of Lomi
Jungdes Kumara, ce ee i va) EBT
Jasrau village, Ruins at, ae ae Pg Fe
Kaikéiis, Coins of, ; oe veer ~ AQ
-- and Firuz, Purity of coins ak rr Lith sed
Kani, Dravidian origin of the term, ... fig eas
or the large Tankah, oe wet Kt LO
Karaian, Relative value oi silver Sad gold in in, he A, ete
Karauli, Ruins at, ... eh bad wee AGO: Lee
Karazon, Value of silver in, aa aes ochnhh iA.
Karinda of Raja Prithvi Sinha, ... nt eel 28s LOT
Karimganj, Ruins at, .. ae ate lon 71 64
Karsha, Meaning of the word, Ae. ove ade by ese 2L
x Index.
Page
Karshapana, ... a 19, i 4
Kaudi or shell currency in “Bengal, ies oie (thane
Khan Jahan, tehsildar of Bagerhat, 51 cat 2 ee
Khemisvara, author of Chandakausika, st 09S
Khwajah Kiser, Hazarat, Fireworks in a of, eT Baas
Koch Behar Coins, Assay of, 2 se iy /Ghe
—. Silver coins found i in, id AP asa
Kracheh, Scented powder of, is ct ee
Krshnala, Weight of a, Me} wt Sn
Kuntesvara Raja, capital of, 2
Kutb-ud-din Aibek, left as a Viceroy by Muhammad bin Sham, a
Lakhnauti, Capital of Bengal transferred to,. ea <
_-- Coins of, a0 i 80
Las, M., takes refuge at the Murshidabid court, caer oe
Law, Digest of Hindu, My - sate eee Pee
Liksha, Weight of a, rie pes eS
List of "Bengal Mints, i tt ive ww. 98
—- of Delhi Coins,... oak ene cn teed t eee
—-— of Pathan Sultans, ... ma G23 ode |\om
—- of Rangoon Kings, - a See 2
Luni Sat, Stone slabs in, ... ae oe 4.66
Madhavikosha, 232 id layhz. “he
Mahathala and Tsoolathala conveyed relics of Gaudama, 0 AES
Mainpuri, Ancient remains in, ... uy ee) aT
-———— Buddhist remains, Notes on the, i ee hOG
Malain, Ruins at, ... aE see. 3s See
Mandhal, carved fioure of a bull i rs ae rae ve. LSS
Manu’s system of Weights, » -28
Marco Polo’s account of relative value of gold. ‘and silver in
Karaion,; 9)... of ue wi. . 14
Martaban (The dynasty,) ast ... 121, 124
Moslem faith, tracts of country connected to, — eas FO2
Masha, Weight of a,.. e i oy ile
Mien, Value of gold in, oo he ie bate ido
Hing (The) oi et a nat egg e
int of Bengal, List of, aie 7 (ti ehun Be
, Mudzamabad, ae ae Ad «Boviiet
——, ’ Sateaon, site a a Lou hee Be
——, Shahr Nan, eR ak ss sayG0
—, Sonargaon, . eae tee ree.) oie 03 3
Miran mpdees Siraj- “ade daulah, ae Je% .. 94
Mir J’aafar’s treasury inspected,.. f 95
Mishkal, Value of a, determined from the recorded w eight ‘of
Baber’s diamond, 7
Mitra, Babu Rajendralala, appointed to select coins from the
Koch Behar trove, ee .. ee
Muhar, or Adl- Guthki, Weight of ins ae athe AI
— Index. xl
Page
Muhammad Bakhtidér Khilji expels the Hindu a of Nud-
dea d
‘ -___. Jésim Khan captures Sirdj- ad- daulah, L 94
— bin-Sham appoints Kutb-uddin Aibek peuten alissimo
in Delhi,
—- bin- Toghlak, Coins of, itt = uit ae
— Toghlak, Tankah of, Ls Fe Hi eshes, BD
Muhammadan rule in Pegu, ‘ iv oe b>
Muharram celebration in Murshidabad, Jat aud
Mulnam, Weight of a, Ta ise tid” wwe
Murshidabad described, an te Fe i.,1/ 96
— Notes on, sii ia Te igen
Nakhon-vat inscription, Wee i= te 316
Nang Phrakavali, Anecdote of the restoration of, Gi ky eH eee
Narayana, or Phra Naray, .. wv, yeaa
Nisir-ud-din Muhammad Shah, Coins of, Kea sem (wl do) OE
Navagrahas, Figures of the, ifs wi 162
Neakkhasen, Nagsena or Ni agarjana, vit ay iO
Niphon, Prayer to lead all beings to the road to, wih doe ~ 0)
Nuddea, Hindu dynasty expelled from, ae eet) ten
Nonaira, Ruins at, ¥: ... 165
Obituary of Premachanda Tar kavagis’a a, oa i [ide ee
—- Ramanirayana Vidy aratna, Sa ake ce
Pagén Governors of Hanthawadie, ave fh? betes
Pagoda, The Pegu, sa ab ver 109
, The Shwe Hmamdaw, ei wes Ge vawAOD
Pandya King of Ceylon, eas sit Jib 0
Panduwala, Lingam at, a nas ital OG
Parasara Saihita, a re el BIA
- P&téliput, King Athawaka’s return to, wa iris
Pathan Sultans of Hindustan, List of, iv awh ceihyeee
Persian founders of the Urdu, aye ... 148
Pegu governed by a Muhammadan Captain, uel gt fry emer dees
Pegu or Pago or Hanthawadie, ir eee tf
Pegu Pagoda, the, be saat St hOP
Phra-Chedi Chulamani the Holy Chaitya, 4: adie
Phra Naray or Narayana, sik a pe ee
Phra-Phakana or Bhagavat, ie ds Ba 8O
Phra-Photisat, the holy Boddhistva, iy 70 guaeteato
Phra-Phutsakam or Visvakarma, & pa0y// OR
Phra-Phuttha Rub, the statue of Buddha... scraper Pewee A
Phra-Sian- Metray, oak die,
Plassey, Events before and after the battle of, ce“ Asxo, OG
Precious Metals, Relative rate of exchange of, ad aay, fh
Premachénda Tar kavagis’a, Obituary of, 84
Prithvi Raja’s, Bull and Horseman device retained in “Dehii-
walas,... Pe
xll Index.
Page
Prithvi Raja, Karinda of, . sic: [ L6T
Pullan, Lieutenant, on Hindu ruins in “Gurhw al Bhatar,. fo 54
Purana of thirty- two ratis, Bie -! 1a
Qasimbazér plundered, snd He doen. ~-89
Rajasarshapa, Weight of a, Ed is, tE2e
Rajmahal, S’iraj- ud-daulah’s flight to,. as Lone 08
Rakshasha (Sack), Anecdote of the, <i9.. id ov -82
Raéméanérayana, Obituary notice of Pandita, si ied vlijese {peal
Rangoon Kings, List of, ... he bie rege |
—, Township of, vk edt iss. 180
Rati, Determination of the valne of a, : es dale hb
Rings of gold for taking oaths, *A a wr 148
Riziah, Coins of, ... ‘ th ines! 1B
Riziéh captivated by Governor of Tiberhind, kee Lee
Rukn-ud-din Kaikaiis, es iif ood tes br O
Bak (ihe), ...., fhe eid aay |
Sakuntala of Kalidasa, Foucaux’ S, . MSY. Oe
Sakya Muni, Faith of, debased by superstition, ee ca 360
invoked in Nakhon-Vat inscription, veo Dea a
Sangabodhi, Chronicles of, Ne sor eb
Sanskrit not heard in camp of the Elori, at ... 149
Satgumbaj of Bagerhat, seg i woh echoes
Satgdéon, Mint of: eee ny set vas ---60
Scandinavia, Sculptures on arock in, ... ie bees LY
Gold rings for taking oaths in, % ss gt
—— Numbers 108-13 in, -. ‘ge re
Sivaism in, aE we gc.) LBS
Horse sacrifice in, is pee vx! FS
‘Sculptures in Scandinavia, a & en ks f
Shahab-ud-din Bagorah Shah, Coin of, dy, sot Sheet! TE
Shahr Nan, Mint of, in Pe: 42° 50
Shamala and Weimala founded Hanthawadie, 6s Oe LO
Shams-ud-din Firuz, Coins of, ys aue EY fake
——-— [lids Shah, Coin of, Ae Oe
Shams-i Siraj’s account of Firuzshéh’s coinage, © sa ws. eee
Shiahs, (The) in Murshidabad, ... 43 wis | Ske
Shash Kani of ’Al4-ud-din Muhammad, | Kui
Sher Shah’s introduction of the names of the Tienes in the
coinage of India, ... Ss,
Shwe Hmawdaw, te of Seles dediented 2 the service of, ise ot
Shwe Hmawdaw, Pagoda,.. ae ahs MAO
Sikandar-bin-Tlias, Coin wae See re vit 58, 62
Sihansah, Weight ofa, ... ie =a Sera T
Sikandar’s coinage, vs o. sth ainda
Sikkah of Altamash, : seit uae Jae
Siraj-ud-daulah murdered, | es oe Ps
- Notes on, ... oo ce ee FBD
Index. Xi
Page
Siraj-ud-daulah treacherously given up to the Governor of Raj-
mahal, Wr ¢ 128 30s
Sinaprastha, The magic of the stones, oi ry sss ft
Sivaism in Europe, ... be i & rr LBL
Siva, worship of in Europe, re ut ... 178
Sonargaon, Coinage of, a ae wera AD
—_——_—. -, Mint Of, tas ie sss-- 81.
Srauta Sutra of Asvalayana, completion of the, we) weve 84
Suvarna, Sixteen mashas make a, kee ant oe hd
Suta Saihita, Ke ne ay LG
Syrian founders of the Urdu, vee eve 4S
Tagore family of Calcutta, Pirdli stain of the, ne <7 182
Tabungkram, Prayer for the people of, he gol abtlyiohl
Taittiriya Sanhité, Publication of the, . bios be OE
Talaing dynasty, .. -% Be Si
Tankah, Black and White, ae ini mye
, Coins of Altamash, ip ae EP RS
, Derivation of the term, a ive acl tee
, of Muhammad Toghlak, 20
Tarénath Vachaspati, author of Tulddana Puddhati and Asubo-
dha Vyakarana, aa Ben wale
Tarikh-i-Mancuri, Dedication of, aa on 8 weaken
Tarikh-i-Manciiri of Sayyid A’li,. RK “an see
Tarikh-i-Mancuri, Style of, Ses -" pie AS
Tartar founders of the Urdu, ... ods Ne LO
Tavernier’s account of value of gold, ... a=. seeped |
Temple of Etawah, Date of the, ... ae Re ge 4
Temple in Garhwal, “es wink ivi vay LA
Thakura, Ruins at, NES 35
Thamaing or Sacred Chronicle of Birmese Pagoda, . i ive CUS
Thomas, EK. Esq., on the Initial Coinage of Bengal, ia ie
Tietha the last of the Hanthawadie race, = Znoll
Tonghu dynasty of peace, a ihe
Rules of, nae cK ae) hee
Trasarenu, Measure of a, et is Pl eA
Terraneau, treachery of M., ms se Be
Transliteration of the Indian Alphabets, ous iets SLED
Tuladana Paddhati, # oe sie SLY
Turks founders of the Urdu, ane | os ... 148
Urdu, Founders of the, Ks ide: jxped 48
Urdu ‘Language, Imperfections of ‘the, oP are ... 146
Vedas, Traihet, Kambodian name of the three, ies i. Uk
Venisahhara, Drama of, ca x ie DOMME LD
Vernacular Publications, Catalogue of,.. Be ... 143
Vishnu and Gulpibdevi, "Tdentity of, ie m8 bap 158
Visvakarma or Phra-Phutsakam, ane me. se te”
Waroonee, Reign of,... 4? ry Riarhnp aon LO
X1V Index,
Weeniala Kooma, Reign of,
Weight of a Chigal, =e
— Gaura Sarshapa,__...
—— an Tlahi or Lal Jalali,
————— Krrshnala,
————._ — Liksha, = ve
—_———___— Mashé,... du
——-- an Aftabi,...
-- a Muhar,
-- Rajasarshapa,
-- a Sihansah,
-- Yava,
Weights, Manu’s System of,
West, Digest of Hindu Law,
Wilford, Gol. Notices of Sanskrit Works on Geography, vet
eee
JOURNAL
OF THE
ASTATIC SOCIETY.
ene
Part I—HISTORY, LITERATURE, &e.
OPP PPP I ents
No. I.—1867.
PRARAAAAAAAAALAAAAI AAA AAA
The Initial Coinage of Bengal—By Evwarv Tuomas, Esq.
[ Received December 5th, 1866. Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Asia-
tic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. ii, p. I. N. 8. ]
Towards the end of August, 1863, an unusually large hoard of
coins, numbering in all no less than 13,500 pieces of silver, was
found in the Protected State of Kooch Behar, in Northern Bengal,
the contents of which were consigned, in the ordinary payment
of revenue, to the Imperial Treasury in Calcutta. Advantage was
wisely sought to be taken of the possible archeological interest
of such a discovery, in selections directed to be made from the
‘general bulk to enrich the medal cabinets of the local Mint and the
Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. The task of selection, and
with it of inevitably final rejection, was entrusted to Babu Rajendra
L4l Mitra—an experienced scholar in many branches of Sanskrit litera-
ture, and who, in the absence of more practised Numismatists, cou-
rageously encountered the novel study and impromptu exposition of
Semitic Paleography as practically developed in his own native land
six centuries ago. The Babu, after having assiduously completed his
selections for the Government,* was considerate enough to devote
himself to renewed and more critical examinations of this mass of
coined metal, with a view to secure for Colonel C. S. Guthrie (late of
the Bengal Engineers), any examples of importance that might have
escaped his earlier investigations. The result has been that more
than a thousand additional specimens have been rescued from the
* J, A. S, Bengal, 1864, p. 480.
2 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
Presidency Mint crucibles, and now contribute the leading materials
for the subjoined monograph.
An autumnal fall of a river bank, not far removed from the tradi-
tional capital of Kunteswar Raja, a king of mark in provincial
annals,* disclosed to modern eyes the hidden treasure of some credu-
lous mortal who, in olden time, entrusted his wealth to the keeping of”
an alluvial soil, carefully stored and secured in brass vessels specially
constructed for the purpose, but destined to contribute undesignedly
to an alien inheritance, and a disentombment at a period much pos-
terior to that contemplated by its depositor. This accumulation, so
singular in its numerical amount, is not the less remarkable in the
details of its component elements—whether as regards the, so to say,
newness and sharpness of outline of the majority of the pieces them-
selves, the peculiarly local character of the whole collection, or its
extremely limited range in point of time. It may be said to embrace
compactly the records of ten kings, ten mint cities, and to represent
107 years of the annals of the country. The date of its inhumation
may be fixed, almost with precision, towards the end of the eighth
century A. H., or the fourteenth century a.p. A very limited pro-
portion of the entire aggregation was contributed by external curren-
cies, and the imperial metropolis of Dehli alone intervenes to disturb
the purely indigenous issues, and that merely to the extent of less
than 150 out of the 13,500 otherwise unmixed produce of Bengal
Mints.}
The exclusively home characteristics of the great majority of the
collection are enlivened by the occasional intrusion of mementoes of
* Col. J. C. Haughton, to whom we are mainly indebted for the knowledge of this
trouvaille, has been so obliging as to furnish me with some interesting details
of the site of discovery and illustrations of the neighbouring localities.
Col. Haughton writes :—‘‘ The place where the coin was found is about three
miles 8. W. of Deenhatta, not far from the Temple of Kunteswaree (or Komit-
Eswaree) on the banks of the river Dhurla. Near to this temple is a place
called Gosain Moraee, a short distance from which are the ruins of Kuntesur
Raja’s capital, called Kunteswaree-Pat, consisting of a mound of considerable
extent, which has been surrounded with several ditches and walls, which are
again protected at the distance of a mile or two by enormous mounds of nearly
100 feet high. The brass vessels, in which the treasure was deposited, were
ordinary brass lotahs, to which the top or lip had not been fixed, but in lieu
thereof the vessels were covered by canister tops, secured by an iron spike
passing from side to side.”
+ I wish to explain the reservations I make in thus stating this total below
that given in Rajendra Lal’s list of 150 coins of seven Dehli kings (J. A. S. B.,
—
1867.] -The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 38
imperial re-assertions, and numismatic contributions from other inde-
pendent sources aid in the casual illustration of the varying political
conditions of the province, and of the relations maintained from time
to time between the too-independent governors of a distant principali-
ty and their lege suzerains at Dehli.
Muhammadan writers have incidentally preserved a record of the
fact, that on the first entry of their armies into Bengal, they found an
exclusive cowrze or shell currency, assisted possibly by bullion in the
larger payments, but associated with no coined money of any descrip-
tion ;* a heritage of primitive barter, indeed, which survived undis-
September, 1864, p. 481). In the first place, I greatly mistrust the reading of
the sixth king’s title. Muhammad bin Tughlak was called Fukhrud-din Janah
in his youth only ; on his first mission to the Dakhin in 721 aA. u., the higher
title of Ulugh Khaw was conferred upon him by his father, but from the date
of his accession to the throne of Hindustan, he contented himself with the use
of his simple name and patronymic; no longer the “ glory of the faith,’ he
was the far more humble Gwoy| ols eat , or the conventional
BU) Unwe (9 oale+} (Zia-i-Barni., Calcutta edit., p. 196), both of which
were so persistently copied by the independent Bengal Sultans, Certainly no
such title as oJ} _y=” occurs on ay of the specimens of the Kooch Bahdr
collection, that the Babu has selected for Col. Guthrie, with the exception of
those bearing the names of Fakr-ud-din Mubdérak Shih,
The second question of the altogether improbable intrusion of coins of
Muhammad Adil Shih (“new type”) I must meet ina more direct way, by
assigning the supposed examples of his money to the potentate from whose mints
they really came, that is, [khitiv-ud-din GuAzi SuAu (No, 7, infra), giving a
difference in the age of the two kings, as far as their epochs affect the probable
date of the concealment of this trouvaille, of more than two centuries (753 a.u.
against 960 a.H.).¢ The Babu has himself discovered his early error of making
Shams-ud-din Firtiz, one of the Dehlt Pathdns (as reported in the local news-
papers), and transferred him, in the printed proceedings in the Asiatic Society
of Bengal, to an anomalous position at the end of the Bengal Pathans (p, 483),
while omitting to deduct him from the total number of “ eight Dehli Pathans,”
which reckoning has been allowed to stand at p.480, In the matter of date,
we are not informed why this king should be assigned to a,b. 1491, instead of to
the true 1320 a.D. which history claims for him.
* Minh4j-ul-Seraj, who was resident in Lakhnauti in a.u. 641, writes
comely) Ute Geert 845 ob who af SoS yp 2 lis
Tabakat-i-Nasiri, p. 149, Calcutta printed edition (1864). Ibn Batutah gives
an account of the collection of the cowrie shells in the Maldive Islands, from
whence they were exported to Bengal in exchange for rice; the gradational
quantities and values are detailed as follows ; xls. — 100 cowries. Jls— 700:
@ The title of Mohammed bin Toghlak on the specimens in the Society’s
cabinet is 4k) Usr00 aes dats! | and the coin which was first taken for that
of Adil Shah has on it” Ikhtiar uddin Ghazi Shah,—Ep,
q The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
turbed in many of the out-lying districts up to the early part of the
present century. The consistent adherence of the people to this simple
medium of exchange, goes far to explain an enigma recently adverted
to* in my paper on the identity of Krananda as ‘to the general ab-
sence of all specimens of money of high antiquity within certain limits
vorthward of the seaboard, and may serve to reconcile the anomaly of
conterminous nationalities appearing in such different degrees of
advancement when tried by similar isolated tests of local habitudes.
For the rest, the arms of Islam clearly brought with them into
Bengal what modern civilization deems a fiscal necessity—a scheme
of national coinage; and the present enquiry is concerned to determine
when and in what form the conquerors applied the theory and prac-
tice they themselves as yet but imperfectly realized.
When Muhammad bin Sam had so far consolidated his early suc-
cesses in India, into a design of permanent occupancy, leaving a
viceroy and generalissimo in Dehli, in the person of Kutb-ud-din
Aibek, while his own court was still held at Ghazni, the scattered
subordinate commanders each sought to extend the frontiers of the
faith beyond the limits already acquired ; in pursuance of this accepted
mission, Muhammad Bakhtiar Khilji, Sipahsdlar in Oude, in a. u. 599,
pushed his forces southward, and expelled, with but little effort, the
ancient Hindu dynasty of Nuddeah, superseding that city as the
capital, and transferring the future metropolis of Bengal to the prox-
imate site of Lakhnauti, where he ruled undisturbed by higher
authority, till his own career was prematurely cut short in a. u. 602.
w 9
os —=12,000. 54.J—=100,000, four busts were estimated as worth one gold
dindr ; but the rate of exchange varied considerably, so that occasionally a
dindr would purchase as many as twelve busts, or twelve lakhs of cowries!
(French edit., iv., p. 121. lLee’s Translation, p. 178.) Sir Henry Elliot men-
tions that “ in India, in 1740, a rupee exchanged for 2,400 cowries; in 1756,
for 2,560 cowries ; and (1845) as many as 6,500 could be obtained for a rupee.”
—Glossary of Indian Terms, p. 373. They were estimated in the currency
scheme of 1833 at 6,400 per rupee.—Prinsep’s U. T., p. 2. Major Rennell,
who was in Silhet in 1767-8, speaking of the cowrie money, remarks: “I
found no other currency of any kind in the country ; and upon an occasion,
when an increase in the revenue of the province was enforced, several boat loads
(not less than 50 tons each) were collected and sent down the Burrampooter to
Dacca.” As late as 1801 the revenues of the British district of Silhet “were
collected in cowries, which was also the general medium of all pecuniary trans-
actions, and a considerable expense was then incurred by Government in effect-
ing their conversion intw bullion.’—Hamilton’s Hindostan, London, 1820, i,
p-. 195. *J.R.A.S., vol.i., N.S., p. 473-4,
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 5
Considering the then existing time-honoured system of valuations by
shells,—which would certainly not invite a hasty issue of coin,—
Muhammad Bakhtiar’s acknowledged subordination to Kutb-ud-din,
who, so far as can be seen, uttered no money in his own name, it may
fairly be inferred that if a single piece was produced, it formed a
part only of an occasional, or special, Medallic mintage constituting a
sort of numismatic Fatah-némah, or assertion and declaration of
conquest and supremacy alone, and designedly avoiding any needless
interference with the fixed trade by adventitious monetary complica-
tions, which so unprogressive a race as the Hindus would naturally
be slow to appreciate.
Similar motives may be taken to have prevailed in the north, where
the least possible change was made in the established currency of the
country, extending, indeed, toa mere substitution of names in the
vernacular character on the coin, which was allowed to retain the
typical ‘‘ Bull and Horseman’”’ device of Prithvi Raja and his prede-
cessors. The pieces themselves, designated from their place of mint-
age Dehli-walas,* were composed of a mixture of silver and copper in
intentionally graduated proportions, but of the one fixed weight of
thirty-two ratis, or the measure of the old Purdna of silver of Manu’s
day. Progressive modifications were effected in the types and legends
of these coins, but no systematic reconstruction of the circulating
media took place until the reign of Altamsh ; who, however, left the
existing currencies undisturbed, as the basis for the introduction of the
larger and more valuable and exclusively silver &49 popularly known
in after times as the Zankah,f a standard which may also be supposed
* The name is written JI iets in Kutb-ud-din Aibek’s inscription on
the mosque at Dehli, (Prinsep’s Essays, i. 327). The Taj-ul-Madsir and
other native authorities give the word as J Jrlos, Hasan Nizami, the author
of the former work, mentions that Kubachah, ruler of Sind, sent his son with an
offering of 100 laks of Dehli-wals to Altamsh, and no less than 500 1aks of the
same description of coin were eventually found in Kubachah’s treasury, many of
which were probably struck in his own mints. (See Ariana Antiqua, pl. xx.,
fig. 19; J.A.S.B., iv., pl. 37, figs. 28, 29, 47; and Prinsep’s Essays, i., pl. xxvi.,
figs. 28, 29, 47.)
+ Erskine derives this name from the Chagatai Tirki word, tang, “ white.”
(History of India under Baber. London, 1854, vol. i. p. 546). Vullers gives a
tenuis, suff. 3). Ibn Batutah carefilly preserves the “speed as KEG,
different and clearly preferable derivation in &£3 (fort. ex. Ts , KS
8. Za and cy.
6 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
to have followed traditional weights in the contents assigned to it, as
the 96 rati-piece modern ideas would identify with the Yolah : or it
may possibly have been originated as a new 100 rati coin, a decimal
innovation on the primitive Hindu reckoning by fours, a point which
remains to be determined by the correct ascertainment of the normal
weight of the rati, which is still a debated question. My own results,
obtained from comparative Numismatic data of various ages, point to
1.75 grains,* while General Cunningham adheres to the higher
figures of 1.8229 grains.t
* J. A. S. Bengal, 1865, p. 25, and Numismatic Chronicle. Vol iv., N. 8. p,
131, March, 1864.
+ General Cunningham’s deductions are founded on the following estimates :
—‘I have been collecting materials for the same subject [Indian Weights] for
nearly twenty years, and I have made many curious discoveries. Iseethat Mr.
Thomas quotes Sir William Jones as fixing the weight of the Kvishnala, or
Rati seed, at 15 grain; but I am satisfied that this is a simple misprint of
Jones’s manuscript for 1 2 or 1°833 grain, which is as nearly as possible the
average weight of thousands of seeds which I have tested. The great unit of
medizeval and modern times is the taka of not less than 145 grains, of which six
make the chha-tdéka, or chhatak, equal to 870 grains, or nearly two ounces; and
100 make the sataka, or ser, the derivation being sat-tdka, or 100 tdkas. For
convenience I have taken, in all my calculations, the rati seed at 1°8229 grain.
Then 80 ratis or 145°832 was the weight of the tangka of copper, and also of the
golden swarna, which multiplied by six gives 874.99 grains, or exactly two
ounces for the chha-tdka or chhatak,’—J. A. 8. Bengal, 1865, page 46.
Mr. N.S. Maskelyne, of the Mineral Department, British Museum, who, some
timeago, entered into an elaborate series of comparisons of Oriental weights, with
a view to determine the identity of one of our most celebrated Indian diamonds,
has been so obliging as to draw up for me the following memorandum, exhibiting
the bearing of an entirely independent set of data upon the question under review,
the true weight of the Indian Rat?. The value of this contribution in itself,
and the difficulty of doing justice to it in an abstract, must plead my excuse for
printing it in extenso in this place :—
I shall confine my answer to your question about the rati to the estimate of it,
as derived from the Mishkal. The other channel of enquiry, that namely of
Hindoo metrology and numismatics, is too complicated, and so far as I have
been able to follow it, too unsatisfactory in its results, to justify my urging any
arguments derived from it, Indeed, the oscillations in the currencies, and our
knowing so few very fine coins of reigns before Shir Shah, of critical value, make
this branch of the subject almost unapproachable to one who is not an Oriental
scholar. I would premise, however, that I do not believe very accurate results
are to be obtained solely from the weights of coins, except in the few cases where,
asin the coius of Akbar, or of Abd-el-Malek ben Merwan, we have some literary
statements about them. Nor can you getany result from weighing carob beans
to determine the carat, or abrus seeds to determine the rati, 1 weighed, long
ago, hundreds of ratis, that Dr. Daubeny lent me, with an average of 1.694
troy grains. Sir William Jones found, I believe, one of 1.318, and Professor
Wilson, | think, another value again, They vary according to the soil and climate
they are grown in, and the time and atmosphere they have been kept in.
My investigation of the rati originated in a desire to determine whether the
diamond, now the Queen’s, was the same that Baber records as having been
given to Humaytn at the taking of Agra, after the battle of Paniput, and which
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. . 7
However, these silver coins of Altamsh, let their primary static
ideal have been based upon a duplication of the dirhams of Ghazni,
had once belonged to Ala-ed-din (Khilji). I also was led to suppose that the
diamond Tavernier saw at the Court of Aurungzebe was the same, and that he
had confounded it with one that Meer Jumla gave to Shah Jehan, and that had
been recently found at Golconda, I would here observe that Tavernier’s weights
can be very little trusted ; I can give you my reasons for this assertion, if 7 you
wish for them,
Baber, in his memoirs, says the weight of Humayiin’s diamond was about 8
mishkals, In his description of India, he gives the following ratios of the
weights in use there :—
8 ratis = 1 mashah,
ae ea $204, = 1 Tang (Tank).
BO oye ae 1B yy = = os 1 mishkal.
ee a5 A2 ap n= ~ ee = 1 Tola.
Jewels and precious stones being estimated by the tang. Furthermore he states
14 tolas=1 sir, 40 sirs—= 1 man etc. Thus, then, the 8 mishkils would be
320 ratis.
Tavernier says the diamond he saw weighed 319} ratis, The Koh-i-Nir, in
1851 (and, I believe, in Baber’s day also), weighed 589.5 grains troy. ‘The
theory that it was Ala-ed din’s diamond, would demand—
a mishkal (8) weight of 73.7 grains.
a tola (32) io 176.85 “45
a tank (10) 3 68:95" -.,
amiasha (40) 14.745 5,
a rati (320 of 8 to ‘the masha) 1.8425 ,,
ek. (240 of 6 S ) 2.533" ,,
Now, as to the mishkél—the Mahommadan writers speak of it as not having
altered from the days of the Prophet. Doubtless, it has been a pretty perma-
nent weight, and very likely, in Makrizi’s time, was but slightly various in
different ‘places. At present, the following table represents the different mishkals,
so far as I have been able to ascertain them.
The gold and silver mishkal of Bassorah = 13 dirham.. = 72 grains,
The ,, » mussal or mishkal of Canin oon ee 75 ‘miscals
= 100 mahmonudias = 5136 grains)... . fh ——'y ol | la
The gold and silver miscal of Mocha = 24 « car ats = — =2r}s vakya
(of 480 grains, nearly) .. Me hel es la] gia
That of Bushire = 735 of a maund of 53784 BOING! cvcanccasetipes = Cael | 5
The metical of Aleppo and ane BAe Sole: Att ely err inka csi
mee si of Trigolkt ....... eas Poe = eas
In Persian, the demi mishkil ; =; xb00 of the batman of Chessay
(of 8871 grains) ......... acne = 73.96 ;,
The taurid batman and mishkAl— half the above . ...
The mishkal corresponding to the (3) dirham used for gold ‘and
silver, in Persia ..... . ee eed, nee cas
The abbasi corresponding to 1 mishkal, “Marsden says Pees 0 Samer
The modern debased mishkal of Bokhara. = Dee ee el
Baber, in speaking of the mishkal, may either mean his own Bokharan mishkal,
or, aS seems more probable, the current mishkal as existing at that time in India,
in short, the “Indian or Syrian mishkal” of the Mahommadan writers—which
was the Greek mishkal + 2 kirats. The modern debased mishkél of Bokhara
we may leave out of our comparisons. Itis surely a degraded weight in a
country that has undergone an eclipse.
The old “ Greek Dinar” is of course the Byzant, or solidus aureus—the
denarius of Byzantium. It was nominally coined 72 to the Roman lb. The
Byzantian Roman Jb, in the British Museum weighs 4995 grains, so the solidus
8 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
or, as is more probable, elaborated out of the elements of ancient
was nomminally coined at 69.4 grains. It veally issued from the mint ata
maximum weight of 68 (a very few of the most finely preserved coins reaching
this amount). Now taking Makrizi’s statement that the mishk4l was 24 kirats,
and that of the Ayin-i-Akberi that the Greek mishkal was 2 kirats less than this ;
we find the weight of the mishkal =68+88—74,18 grains troy. Again, Mak-
rizi mentions that Abdel-malek-ben-Merwah coined dinars and dirhams in the
ratios of 213 kirats: 15 kirats. Now this Caliph’s gold coins in the British Mu.
seum (in a very fine state of preservation), weigh 66.5 grains, and his silver, also
well preserved, 44.5. Taking the former as coined at 67, we have the ratio :
Dinar: Dirham= 212: 15= 67: 46.2,
Which latter gives a probable weight for the dirham as originally coined. (In
Makrizi’s time the ratio was dinar : dirham = 10: 7 = 21,75: 15.22 ; or supposing
the gold coin unchanged at 67, the silver dirham would become 46.88). Then,
as the ratio of the dinar (or gold mishkal) to the mishkal weight = 213: 24, we
have for the mishkaél weight a value of 73.93 grains.
These two values, thus severally adduced from different data—viz., 74.18 and
73.93—sufficiently nearly accord to justify, I think, our striking the balance
between them, and declaring of the ancient mishkal—(“ the Syrian or Indian
mishkal”’) to have been very nearly 74. grains, Hence the kirats would be 3.133
grains, troy. The modern carat varies from 3.15; the modern Indian carat to
3.28, the old French carat (made this probably to be an aliquot part of the old
French ounce). The English carat = 3.168; the Hamburgh= 3.176, and the
Portuguese = 3.171.
The above value of the mishkal accords extremely well with my theory about
the diamond.
That the ‘‘ Greek Dinar’ of Makrizi was the Sassanian gold is not at all
likely, although the silver dirham was, no doubt, originally derived from the
Sassanian drachma. Of the few gold pieces of Sassanian coinage, the one in the
Museum, of Ardashir L., weighs now 65.5, and could not have been coined at
less than 66.5 grains—which would give a mishkal of 72,04, But under the
Sassanidee, the gold coinage was quite exceptional, and was not large enough to
have formed the basis of the monetary system of the Caliphs, which was
professedly founded on Greek coins, cwrrent.
As to the Bokharan mishkal of Baber’s time, how are we to arrive at it ?
You—and if you can’t, who can P—are able to make little firm ground out of the
weights of Sassanian, or Ghasnavid coins—nor will the coins of the Ayubite,
Mamluke and Mamluke Bahrite Caliphs (of which I have weighed scores),
give any much more reliable units on which to base the history of the progress
of change in the mishkal, The limits of its variation in modern times seem
to have lain between 74.5 and 72 troy grains ; I believe 74 as a near as possible its
true original weight, the weight of the Syrian and of the Indian mishkal, This
would give the rati on the goldsmith’s standard of 8 to the masha, and 49 to the
mishkal, as 1.85 grains, and the limits of this rati would be 1.862 and 1.80,
The value of the jeweller’s rati (6 to the mashi) would be for the 74 grain
mishkal 2.47 grains, and its limits would be 2,483 and 2.40,
That Baber’s and Humayin’s now worn and dilapidated coins of 71 and 71.5
grains were mishkals, is not improbable; but they certainly were not coined at
less than 74 grains,
Without entering into the Indian numismatical question, I may remind you of
Tuglak’s coin of 174 grains (one in the British Museum = 172.25), probably
coined at 175 or 176; a fair weight of issue for a coin nominally of some 177 or
178 grains. These coins, I believe, you consider to represent the tola, A tola
of 177.6 would accord on the ratios of Baber’s table with a mishkal of 74 grains,
Iam strongly tempted to enter further into this question of the ponderary
systems of India, but I am warned by your own able papers of the difficulties
in the path of one who deals only in translations and in the weight of coins,
24th Novy., 1865,
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 9
Indian Metrology—may be quoted in their surviving integrity of
weight and design, as having furnished the prototypes of a long line
of sequent Dehli mintages, and thus contributing the manifest intro-
ductory model of all Bengal coinages.*
The artistic merits of the produce of the southern mints, though
Superior in the early copies to the crude introductory issues of Al-
tamsh, seldom compete with the contemporary design or execution of
the Dehli die-cutters, and soon merge into their own provincialisms,
which are progressively exaggerated in the repetition, until, at last,
what with the imperfection of the model, the progressive conventiona-
* There three are varieties of Altamsh’s silver coinage, all showing more or
less the imperfection of the training of the Indian artists in the reproduction of
the official alphabet of their conquerors. The designs of these pieces were clear-
ly taken from the old Ghaznf model of Muhammad bin S4m’s Dirhams and
Dinars, and the indeterminate form of the device itself would seem to indicate
that they mark the initial effort of the new Muhammadan silver currency which
so soon fixed itself into one unvarying type, and retained its crude and unim-
proved lettering for upwards of a century, till Muhammad bin Tughlak inangu-
rated his reign by the issue of those choice specimens of the Moneyer’s art
which stand without compeers in the Dehli series.
No. 1, Silver. . Size, vii.; weight, 162.5. Supposed to have been struck on
the receipt of the recognition of the Khalif of Baghdad in 626 a. H,
Obverse: square area, with double lines, within a circle,
Legend, «lJ Sy.) das”? A} at) Y
Reverse: Square area, with double lines, within a circle.
Legend, Wyo gad] phvo}_prriboae| alos SEs ig
No, 2, Silver. Size, viii.; weight, 168.5. Date, 630 a. H.
Obverse : Square area, with double lines,
Legend, erty Lio} pee be VI wa beJ}
crrboyed) yyol yo wllbat) Coby) liet} ie
Reverse: Circular area,
Legend, yaisuned| aly Susy des” &U Vy at} Y \
wte get pve!
Margin, &J} (d2 wy
Mr, Bayley notices the occasional change of the name of the piges to the
generic &%mJ{ as well as the ignorant substitution of &l ye Us _prbanad| for
the Khalif’s true title. J, A. 8. B., 1862, p. 207. Col. Guthrie’s coin (Type
No. 2) discloses a similar error. °
Legend, C0 ge) |_ peal _parhoal! abel! des us?
Margin, L295] 352 Ce
No. 3, Silver. Size, viii.; weight, 163.5 gr. : :
Obverse, as No. 2, but the square area is enclosed in a circle.
Reverse : Square area enclosed within a circle, identical with the obverse
design.
2
10 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
lism of the designers, and the ignorance and crude mechanical imita-
tion of the engravers, their legends become mere semblances of intelli-
gible writing, and, as the plates will show, like Persian shckastah,
easy to read when one can divine what is intended, but for anything
like precision in obscure and nearly obliterated margins, a very un-
trustworthy basis for the search after exact results.
The different mints each followed its own traditions, and the school
of art stood generally at a higher level in the eastern section of the
kingdom, especially when Sonargaon was held by its own independent
rulers. The lowest scale of die execution, exemplified in the present
series, was reserved for the capital of the united provinces under the
kingship of Sikandar (No. 23 infra). The numismatic innovations
of Muhammad bin Tughlak, were felt and copied in the south, espe-
cially in the reproduction of the titular legends, but his own coins
struck at the ‘‘ city’”—he would not call it capital—of Lakhnauti,
evince the haste and carelessness of a temporary sojourn, and still
worse, the hand of a local artist, all which short-comings may be
forgiven to a monarch who in his own imperial metropolis had raised
the standard of the beauties of Arabic writing, as applied to coin
legends, to a position it had never before attained, and which later
improved appliances have seldom succeeded in equalling.
The Bengal Sultans, mere imitators at first, were original in their
later developments of coin illumination, and the issues of the fully
independent kings exhibit a commendable variety of patterns in the
die devices, damaged and restricted, however, in the general effect by
the pervading coarseness and imperfection of the forms of the letters,
Then, again, the tenor of the inscriptions is usually of independent
conception, especially in the refusal to adopt the ever recurring
kalimah, and in the suggestive mutations of titles assigned to the
lieutenants of the prophet on earth, whose names they did not care to
learn. So also was their elaboration of the titular adjuncts of the
four Imams uninfluenced by northern formula; many of which con-
ventionalisms survived for centuries, till Shir Shah, in the chances of
conquest, incorporated them into the coinage of Hindustan, during the
exile of the temporarily vanquished Humaytn.
The standard of the Bengal coinage was necessarily, like the pieces
themselves, a mere imitation of imperial mint quantities, and the
1867. ] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 11
early issues will be seen to follow closely upon the proper amount
in weight contemplated in the Dehli prototypes ; but one of the curious
results the Kooch Behar collective find determines is, that though the
first kings on the list clearly put forth money of full measure, their
pieces were, in most cases, subjected toa well understood Indian
process of boring-out, or reduction to the exact weight to which we
must suppose subsequent kings lowered the legal standard of their
money, so that, although some of the silver pieces of Kai Katis and
Firtiz have escaped the debaser’s eye, and preserve the completeness of
their original issue denomination, the great majority of the older
coins have been brought down to the subsequent local standard of
166 grains, at which figure, in troy grains, the bulk of the hoard
ranges ; or, in more marked terms, 166 grains is the precise weight of
the majority of the very latest and best preserved specimens, which
must have been consigned to their recent place of concealment when
very fresh from mints but little removed from the residence of the
accumulator of the treasure, and be held to represent coin which
could scarcely have changed hands.
The intrinsic value of the money of these sovereigns follows next in
the order of the enquiry. This department of fiscal administration
might naturally have been expected to have been subject to but limited
check or control, when regulated by the uncertain processes of
Oriental metallurgy; but, in practice, it will be seen that some of the
native Mint-masters were able to secure a very high standard of
purity, and, what is more remarkable, to maintain a singularly uniform
scale in the rate of alloy. In the case of the imperial coins subjected
to assay in Calcutta, specimens spreading over, and in so far, represen-
ting a sequent eighty years of the issues of the northern metropolis,
vary only to the extent of six grains in the thousand, or 0.6 per cent.
As the Dehli coinage proves superior, in point of weight, to the sou-
thern standard, so also does it retain a higher degree of purity; the
990and 996 of silver to the test total of 1,000 grains, sinks, in the earliest
examples of the Bengal mintages, to 989, from which figures it expe-
riences a temporary rise, in possibly exceptional cases, under Bahadur
Shah, who may be supposed to have brought down, with his reinstitu-
ted honours and the coined treasure so lavishly bestowed upon him by
Muhammad bin Tughlak, on his restoration to the government of
12 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
Sonargaon, certain implied responsibilities for the equity and fulness
of his currencies ; while in the subsequent irregularly descending scale,
Azam Shah’s officials arrived at the most unblushing effort of debase-
ment, in the reduction of silver to 962 grains. Among other unex-
pected items for which the aid of modern science may be credited, is
the support which the intrinsic contents of the erroneously-classed coins
of Adil Shéh under native interpretation, lend to the correctness of
the revised attribution of the pieces themselves suggested by the criti-
cal terms of their own legends, in the manifest identity of their assay
touch with the associate coins of the lower empire of India.
Colonel Guthrie has furnished me with the following data, concern-
ing the assay of the various coins composing the Kooch Bahar
hoard :—‘‘ When the Bengal Asiatic Society made their selection of
coins from the trove, they set apart four of each description for the
Mint, two being for special assay, two for the Mint collection. The
result of the assay was as follows (1,000 represents absolute purity) :”
DEHLI COINS. BENGAL COINS.
1. Balban (a. H. 664) ... 990 and 996
1. Shams-ud-din Firuz.........-- 989
2. Kai Kobad (a.H, 685) 990 and 996 2. Bahadur Shah ...... 988 and 993
3. Ghids-ud-din Tughlak (a. H. 720) 3.. Mub4rak, Sh&h.:...tecs7edges 0s 97
990. 4, [lids Shah (1st type) 989; (2nd)
4, Adil Shéh [i.e. Ghdzf Shéh of 982; (3rd) 988,
5. Sikandar Shah (return lost).
6. Azam Shah (1st type) 981; (2nd)
989; (8rd) 962; (4th) 977;
(5th) 985.
Bengal, a.H. 751] 989.
A question that has frequently puzzled both Oriental and European
commentators on the history of India, has been the intrinsic value of
the current coin at the various epochs referred to, so that the most
exact numerical specifications conveyed but a vague notion of the
sterling sum contemplated in the recital by any given author. Numis-
matists have been for long past in a position to assert that the Dehli
Tankah contained absolutely 173 grains, which would presuppose a
theoretical issue weight of 174 or 175 grains, and a touch of nearly
pure silver; but assuming this specific coin to have been a white or
real “ Tankah of Silver” (8,3 &%3) a doubt necessarily remained as to
what was to be understood by the alternative black Tankah (sly. 4S),
Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, in his Tabakat-i-Akbari, seems to assign the
introduction of these black Tankahs to Muhammad bin Tughlak, who
notoriously depreciated the currency to a large extent, before he re-
a
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 13
sorted to the extreme measure of a forced currency, though it may be
‘doubted whether any such depreciation would have been thought of,
even if there had been time to effect the conversion, at the very com-
mencement of his reign, to which period Nizam-ud-din attributes the
issue of these pieces, in the apparent desire of explaining the bare
possibility of the possession of such numerical amounts as are stated to
have been squandered in largesses by the newly-enthroned monarch,
However, the real debasement of the coin need not have extended much
beyond the point indicated by the superficial aspect of his own Bengal
mintages, and Azam Shah’s coins of the same locality probably exceed
that accusatory measure of debasement ; while, on the other. hand,
Muhammad bin Tughlak, on reverting to specie currencies, after his
futile trial of copper tokens, seems to have aimed at a restoration of
the ancient purity of metal in his metropolitan issues, as I can quote
a coin of his produced by the Dehli Mint in a. a. 734, which has
every outward appearance of the component elements of unalloyed
silver, and equally retains the fair average weight of 168 grains.*
All these evidences would seem to imply that the Bengal ratio of
purity was intentionally lower, and that a very slight addition to the
recognised alloy would bring the local issues fairly within the cate-
gory of black Tankahs. Such a supposition of the inferiority of the
coinages of the southern kingdom appears to be curiously illustrated
by Baber’s mentioning that, in a. uo. 932, a portion of the revenues of
the district of Tirhit, a sort of border-land of his kingdom, which did
not extend over Bengal, was payable in Zankah Nukrah, and the
larger remainder in Tankah Sidh,; an exceptional association of cur-
* This coin is similar, but not identical in its legends with the gold piece,
No, 84, of 736 a. H., p.50 Pathén Sultdns. The following are the inscriptions ;
Obverse— 1 prod pl 9 ied | a ly
Reverse— aia woes” dee oS? 7
Margin— Kslyrrac 9 Es ey! Kiva theo! 1 o2-
+ Baber has left an interesting account of the revenues of his newly-acquired
kingdom in India, as estimated after the battle of Panipat, in a. H. 932, to the
effect that “the countries from Bhira to Bahar which are now under my domi-
nion yield a revenue of 52 krores”? of Tankahs. In the detail of the returns
from different provinces, Tirhtit is noticed as Tribute (Khidmatana) of the
Tirhiiti Rajah 250,000 tankah nikrah, and 2,750,000 tankah sidh. William
Erskine, History of India under Baber and Humayun, London, 1804, vol, i., p.
540, See also Leyden’s Memoirs of Baber, London, 1826, p. 334,
14 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
rencies in a given locality, which can scarcely be explained in a more
simple and reasonable manner than by assuming the lower description
of the conventional estimate piece to have been concurrent with a
better description of the same coin, constituting the prevailing and
authorized revenue standard of the northern portions of the conquer-
ing Moghul’s Indian dominions.
Another important element of all currency questions is the relative
rate of exchange of the precious metals inter se. And this isa divi-
sion of the enquiry of- peculiar significance at the present moment,
when Her Majesty’s Government are under pressure by the European
interest to introduce gold as a legal tender at a fixed and permanent
rate, or, in effect, to supersede the existing silver standard, the single
and incontestable measure of value, in which all modern obligations
have been contracted, and a metal, whose present market price is, in
all human probability, less liable to be affected by over production
than that of gold: the bullion value of which latter had already begun
to decline in the Bazars of India, simultaneously with the arrival of
the first fruits of Australian mining.
If the contemplated authoritative revolution in the established cur-
rency had to be applied to a fully civilized people, there might be
less objection to this premature experiment; but to disturb the deal-
ings of an empire, peopled by races of extreme fixity of ideas, to give
advantages to the crafty few, to the detriment of the mass of the un-
lettered population, is scarcely justified by the exigencies of British
trade, and India’s well-wishers may fairly advance a mild protest
against hasty legislation, and claim for a subject and but little under-
stood Nationality, some consideration before the ruling power forces on
their unprepared minds the advanced commercial tenets of the cities of
London and Liverpool.
The ordinary rate of exchange of silver against gold in Marco Polo’s
time (1271-91 a. p.),* may be inferred to have been eight to one;
* The Province of Karalan. ‘* For money they employ the white porcelain
shell found in the sea, and these they also wear as ornaments about their necks.
Highty of the shells are equal in value to a saggio of silver, or two Venetian
groats, and eight saggi of good silver to one of pure gold.” Chap. xxxix,
The Province of Karazan, “Gold is found in the rivers, both in small
particles and in lumps ; and there are also veins of it in the mountains. In
consequence of the large quantity obtained, they give a saggio of gold for six
saggi of silver. They likewise use the before-mentioned porcelain shells in
currency, which, however, are not found in this part of the world, but are
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 15
though exceptional cases are mentioned in localities within the reach of
Indian traders, where the ratios of six to one and five to one severally
obtained.
Ibn Batutah, in the middle of the fourteenth century, when
he was, so to say, resident and domesticated in India, reports the
relative values of the metals as eight to one.*
brought from India,”—Chap. xl.; also Pinkerton (London, 1811), vol. vii., 143.
The Province of Karpanpan. “The currency of this country is gold by
weight, and also the porcelain shells. An ounce of gold is exchanged for five
ounces of silver, and a saggio of gold for five saggi of silver; there being no
silver mines in this country, but much gold; and consequently the merchants
who import silver obtain a large profit.” Chap. xli.
The Kingdom of Mien (Ava). “You then reach a spacious plain [at the
foot of the Yunnan range], whereon, three days in every week, a number of
people assemble, many of whom come down from the neighbouring mountains,
bringing their gold to be exchanged for silver, which the merchants who repair
thither from distant countries carry with them for this purpose; and one
saggio of gold is given for five of silver.’ Chap. xliii, Travels of Marco Polo,
by W. Marsden, London, 1818 ; and Bohn’s Edition, 1854.
#28 slop Aaloy Ub, Gye 9 kee leSi gael O29 elas pl euly
FZ arty peek ° ,
iv. 10, Sl gwe § RU ‘ead sow ly proto 3 pho &ls » ste) bya}
“ J’ai vu vendre le riz, dans les marchés de ce pays [ Bengale], sur le pied de
vingt-cing rithl de Dihly pour un dinar d’argent: celui-ci vaut huit drachmes,
et leur drachme équivaut absolument 4 la drachme d’argent.” (iv, 210.)
The difficulty of arriving at any thoroughly satisfactory interpretation of
theocbscure Arabic text, as it now stands, may be frankly admitted, nor do I
seek to alter or amend the French translation, further than to offer a very
simple explanation of what probably the author really designed to convey in
the general tenor of the passage in question. It was a crude but established
custom among the early Muhammadan occupying conquerors of India, to issue
gold and silver coins of equal weights, indentical fabric, and analogous central
legends ; hence, whenever, as in the present instance, the word Dindr is used
in apposition with and contrast to the secondary term Dérham, the one primd
facie implies gold, the other silver ; and there can be little doubt but that the
original design of the text was to specify that one gold piece of a given weight
passed in situ for eight silver pieces in similar form and of slightly greater
bulk. It is possible that the term Déndr may in process of time have come to
stand for a conventional measure of value, like the “ pound sterling,” suscep-
tible by common consent of being liquidated in the due equivalent of silver;
but this concession need not affect the direct contrast between the Dinar and
Dirhams so obviously marked in the case in point,
Ibn Batutah, in an earlier part of his work (iii. 426), [Lee’s edition is imper-
fect at this portion, p. 149] gives us the comparative Delhi rate of exchange—
of which he had unpleasant personal experiences: he relates that he was
directed to be paid (55,000 +- 12,000 =) 67,000 pieces of sonie well understood
currency, neither the name or the metal of which is defined, but which may
legitimately be taken to have been ‘Silver Tankahs,”’ and in satisfaction of
this amount, deducting the established one-tenth for Dastir¢, which left a
reduced total of 60,300, he received 6,233 gold tankahs. Under this scale of
payment the gold must have borne a rate of exchange of one to 9.67 of silver,
or very nearly one to 10, a proportion which might be supposed to clash with
the one to eight of the more southern kingdom, but the existing state of the
currencies of the two localities afford a striking illustration of the consistency
16 The Initval Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
The Emperor Akbar’s minister, Abiél Fazl, has left an official
record of the value of gold in the second half of the sixteenth century,
at which period the price was on therise, so that the mints were
issuing gold coin in the relation of one to 9.4 of silver. But a re-
markable advance must have taken place about this time, as in the
second moiety of the seventeenth century, Tavernier* found gold
exchanging against fourteen times its weight of silver, from which
point it gradually advanced to one to fifteen, a rate it maintained
when the Hast India Company re-modelled the coinage in 1833.+
of the African observer’s appreciation of money values in either case, His
special patron, Muhammad bin Tughlak, Emperor of Dehli, had, from his first
elevation to the throne, evinced a tendency to tamper with the currency,
departing very early in his reign from the traditional equality of weights of
gold and silver coins; he re-modelled both forms and relative proportions,
introducing pieces of 200 grains of gold, styled on their surfaces dénars, and
silver coins of 140 grains, designated as adalis, in supersession of the ancient
equable tankahs, both of gold and silver, extant examples of which in either
metal come up to about 174 grains, More important for the present issue is
the practical result, that, from the very commencement, Muhammad Tughlak’s
silver money is invariably of a lower standard than that of his predecessors,
whether this refers to the early continuation of the full silver tankah, or to his
own newly devised 140 grain piece, a mere reproduction of the time-honoured
local weight, which the Aryan races found current in the land some twenty-
five centuries before this Moslem revival; but in either case, this payment to
Ibn Batutah seems to have been made after the Sultan had organised and
abandoned that imaginary phase of perfection in the royal art of depreciating
the circulating media, by the entire supercession of the precious metals, and
following the ideal of a paper currency, the substitution of a copper simula-
crum of each and every piece in the order of its degree from the Déndr to the
lowest coin in the realm, the values being authoritatively designated on the
surface of each. This forced currency held its own, more or less successfully,
from 730 to 733, when it came to its simple and self-developed end. Taking
the probable date of this payment as 742-3 a. H. (Ibn B. vi., p. 4, and vol. iii., p.
xxii.), it may be assumed that the 174 (or 175) grain old gold tankah, which
had heretofore stood at the equitable exchange of one to eight tankah’s of good
silver, came necessarily, in the depreciation of the new silver coins, to be
worth ten or more of the later issues. Pathan Sultans, p. 53).
* “ All the gold and silver which is brought into the territories of the Great
Mogul is refined to the highest perfection before it be coimed into money.”—
Tavernier, London Edition, 1677, p. 2. “The roupie of gold weighs two
drams and a half, and eleven grains, and is valued in the country at 14
roupies of silver.’—Page 2. “ But to return to our roupies of gold, you must
take notice that they are not so current among the merchants. For one of
them is not worth above fourteen roupies,’ The traveller then goes on to
relate his doleful personal experiences, of how, when he elected to be paid for
his goods in gold,“ the king’s uncle ” forced him to receive the gold rupee at
the rate of fourteen and a half silver rupees, whereby he lost no less than 3428
rupees on the transaction, Sir James Stewart, writing in 1772, also estimates
the conventional proportionate value of silver to gold, as fourteen to one—
“The Principles of Money applied to the present state of the Coin of Bengal.”
Calcutta, 1772. ;
+ Prinsep’s Useful Tables, pp. 5, 72, 79,
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. i7
Afterwards, with prospering times, the metal ran up occasionally to
fabulous premiums, to fall again ignominiously when Californian and
Australian discoveries made it common in the land.
I revert for the moment to a more formal recapitulation of the
computations, which serve to establish the ratios of gold and silver in
Alkbar’s time.
Abil Fazl’s figured returns give the following results :-—
First.—Chugal, weight in gold Tolah 3, Masha 0, Rati 54=30
Rs. of 113 Mashas each: 549,84: : 172.530 (5175.0) : 1: : 9.4118.
Second.— Aftébi, gold, weight 7. 1, m. 2, x. 43=12 Rs.: 218.90
>: 172.5 & 12 (2070.0): 1: : 9.4563.
Third.—Llahi, or Lal Jalali, also Mufanni, gold, weight m. 12, r.
1710 Rs. : 183-28 : : 1725 & 10 (1725:0) : 1: : 9-4118.
38 A.—The larger piece, the Sihansah, in value 100 Lal Jalilis,
gives an identical return. Weight in gold, tv. 101, wm. 9, rR. 7 =
1000 Rs. : 18328: : : 172,500 (172°5 x 100 « 10): 1: : 9-4118.
Fourth.—Adl.-Gutkah, or Muhar, also called Mahrabi, gold, weight
11 Mashas=9 Rs. : 165: : 172°59 (1552°5): 1: : 9:40909.
4 A.—The higher proportions specified under the piece of 100
round Muhars, produce a similar result. Weight in gold, 7. 91, m.
$==900 Rs. : 16500 : : 155250: (172'5 x 100 x 9): 1:: 9°40.
These sums are based upon the ordinary Tolah of 180 gr., Masha
of 15, and Rati of 1:875 grs. The question of corresponding values
in the English scale need not affect the accuracy of comparisons
founded upon the conventional measure by which both metals were
estimated.
I have given more prominence to the above calculations, and even
tested anew my earlier returns by the independent totals afforded
by the larger sums now inserted, because the obvious result of gold
being to silver as one to 9°4, has been called in question by an official
of the Calcutta Mint (a Dr. Shekleton), who, however, while unable
either to correct my data, or to produce any possible evidence against
my conclusions, ventures to affirm, that “94 to one is a relative
value of gold to silver, which never could really have existed,”*
Nevertheless, here is a series of comparative weights and values,
furnished by the highest authority of the day, and each and all pro-
* Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, 1504, p. 517.
ee
18 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 5,
duce returns absolutely identical up to the first place of decimals.
My original estimates were sketched and published at Dehli, in 1851,
where I had access to the best MSS., to the most comprehensive
range of antiquarian relics, and at command the most intelligent oral
testimony in the land. When reprinting Prinsep’s “ Useful Tables”
(London, 1858), I had occasion to quote these calculations, and was
able to fortify them, had it been needed, by the precisely analogous
results obtained by Colonel W. Anderson, who had tried Abul Fazl’s
figures, from a different point of view, and for altogether independent
purposes.* But if there were the faintest reason for doubting so
moderate rate as one to 9°4, the whole discussion might be set at rest
by Abtl Fazl’s own statement as translated into English in 1783
when, in concluding a very elaborate review of the profit and loss of
refining gold, for the purpose of coinage, he concludes, and the process
“leaves a remainder of about one-half a tolah of gold, the value of
which is four rupees.”+ It may be as well that I should add, that
some of my totals differ from those to be found in Gladwin’s transla-
tion of the original Persian text.{ I do not recapitulate the several
divergencies, but it is necessary to prove the justice of one, at least,
of my emendations. Gladwin’s MSS. gave the rupee at 114 mdshas,
(i. p. 84). The more carefully collated Dehli texts showed the real
weight to be 11°5 mdshas, a static fact of some importance, which is
curiously susceptible of proof from Gladwin’s own data: at page 46
of his Calcutta edition, a sum is given of the refining charges and
profits, as understood by the mints of those days, wherein 989 tolas,
9 mashas of impure silver is stated to be reduced by 14 7.9 um. 1 R.
in refining, and a further 4 r. 10 m. 3 R. in manipulation, leaving
11641 médshas of silver (989. 9. 0. — 14. 9. 1. — 4. 10. 3. =
11641) which is officially announced as ordinarily coined into 1012
rupees, (1012 x& 115=11638) giving, as nearly as may be, the
essential 114 mashas, which the translated text should have preserved
in its earlier passages.
Richard Hawkins, who was at Agra in a. pv. 1609-11, during the
reion of Jahangir, has left a notice of certain accumulated treasures
of that prince which he was permitted to behold, and amongst the
rest he specifies, “In primis, of Seraffins Ecberi, which be ten rupias
* U.T., Vol. ii, p. 32. + Gladwin, i.44, + 4to., Calcutta, 1783.
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 19
apiece ;”’ to this passage is added in a marginal note, that, “a tole is
a rupia challany [current] of silver, and ten of these toles are of the
value of one of gold.”* This evidence might at first sight seem to
militate against the conclusion arrived at from the official returns
above summarized, but the value of gold was clearly on the rise, and
one of the aims of Akbar’s legislation on metallic exchanges, which
had necessarily been disturbed by progressive modifications in the
relative values of the precious metals, was manifestly to secure an
authoritative even reckoning by tens and hundreds. The old round
muhar, (No. 4 of the above list) represented the inconvenient sum of
nine rupees, or 360 ddms ; by raising the weight of the piece to the
higher total given under No. 3, the gold clahé was made equivalent
to ten rupees, or in fiscal reckoning to 400 dams. Similarly, in the
case of the silver coin, the old rupee passed for 39 ddms, in the
new currency a value of 40 ddms was secured, not by an increase of
weight, but by the declared and doubtlessly achieved higher standard
of the metal employed, aided by the advantage that contemporary
mintages so readily secured in India.
The subdivisions of the standard silver Tankah, as well as the
relative exchange ratios of silver and copper in their subordinate
denominations, claim a passing notice. Though Bengal proper pro-
bably remained satisfied with its lower currency of cowries, supple-
mented by the occasional intervention of copper, for some time after
the introduction of gold and silver money, yet as the earliest copper
coins of that kingdom must have been based upon and, in the first
instance, supplied by Dehli mintages, the Imperial practice comes
properly within the range of the local division of the general enquiry.
It has been seen that Minhaj-ul-Siréj, in comparing the circulating
media of Hindustan and Bengal, speaks of the currency of the former
as composed of Chitals, a name which is seemingly used by himself
and succeeding authors in the generic sense for money, as if these
pieces continued to constitute the popular standard both in theory
and practice, notwithstanding the introduction of the more imposing
tankahs of gold and silver. Up to this time it has not been possible
satisfactorily to demonstrate the actual value of the coin in question ;
in some cases indirect evidence would seem to bring its intrinsic
worth down to a very low point, while at times the money calcula-
* Purchas’ Travels, folio, 1625-26, i. 217.
20 , The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 3,
tions for large sums, in which its name alone is used, appear to invest
it with a metrical position far beyond the subordinate exchanges of
mere bazar traffic.
In the details of the ‘ prices-current”’ in the reign of Alé-ud-din
Muhammad, as well as in the relation of certain monetary re-adjust-
ments made by Firtiz Shah III., the name of the Chital is constantly
associated in the definition of comparative values. with another sub-
division entitled the Kaui, which may now be pronounced with some
certainty to have been the ;; of the original Zankuh, of 175 grains,
and A, of the new silver coin of 140 grains, introduced by Muhammad
bin Tughlak. The temporary forced currency of this Sultan neces-
sitated in itself the positive announcement of the names and autho-
ritative equivalents of each representative piece, and this abnormal
practice contributes many items towards the elucidation of the quan-
titative constitution of the real currency of the day, which these
copper tokens were designed to replace. In illustration of this point,
[ insert a woodcut and description of a brass coin, which was put
forth to pass for the value of the silver piece of 140 grains, to whose
official weight it is seemingly suggestively approximated.
> Brass; weight, 132 grs.; a. uw. 731; Common.
"12 wy Obverse.— yledael 882 95399 yo of sla SSIS Odd» g0,
A Gk Oo=” Struck (lit. sealed), a tankah of fifty
kénis in the reign of the servant, hopeful (of mercy);
Muhammad Taghlak.
Reverse.—Area, elt O29 lela) elbl Gre ures Jt. “He who
t
obeys the king, truly he obeys God.”*
Margin, €4 gw eed yt Slo shied, slf w=’ yy. At the
capital Daulat-dbad, year? 731.
In addition to this 50 kdni-piece may be quoted extant specimens
of this Sultan’s forced issues, bearing the definitive names
TEYs% of “ hastkdni” (8 kanis). ‘ Shash-kani.” (6 kénis) and
a . . . .
263 Do-kdni (2 kanis.) An obverse of the latter is given in the
ee margin. The reverse has the unadorned name of (48 o=*,
* In other examples of the forced currency, he exhorts his subjects in more
urgent terms to submit to the Almighty, as represented in the person of the
ruling monarch, and to adopt, in effect, the bad money he covers with texts from
the Kurén—the “ Obey God and obey the Prophet and those in authority
among you,” and “ Sovereignty is not conferred upon every man,” but “ some”
are placed over “ others’—were unneeded on his coinage of pure metal,
1867. | The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 21
Next in order, may be quoted historical evidence of Firiz Shah’s
fiscal re-organizations, in the course of which mention is made of
pre-existing pieces of 48, 25, 24, 12, 10, 8, and 6 kanis, the lowest
denomination called by that name; afterwards the narrative goes on
to explain that, in addition to the ordinary Chital piece already in
use, Firiz Shah originated, for the benefit of the poorer classes of his
subjects, subdivisional 3 Chital and + Chital pieces.
As the spoken languages of the Peninsula enables ns to restore the
true meaning to the misinterpreted Sanskrit karsha,* so the Dravidian
tongues readily explain the term kanz, which finds no place in Aryan
vocabularies, but which was incorporated into the’ vernaculars of
Hindustén, during the southward migrations of the Scythic tribes,
In Telugu, kéni means 7;, or one quarter of a sixteenth” (Brown).
In Canarese 1, (Reeve), and in Tamil J, (Winslow). Wilson’s
Glossary gives “‘ Kani, corruptly, Cawney. Tel. Tam. Karn. 5, or
sometimes gly.”’>
The term kdnz, in addition to its preferable meaning of 3), was, as
we see, also used for the fraction .4, but its application in the former
sense to the ruling integer in the present instance, seems to be con-
clusively settled by the relative proportions assigned to the modified
tankah of Muhammad bin Tughlak, when compared with the normal
weight of the earlier coin (: 64:: 175: 50:: 136°718).
The method in which the subdivisional currency was arranged,
consisted, as has already been stated, of an admixture of the two
metals, silver and copper, in intentionally varying proportions in
pieces of identical weight, shape and device ; so that the traders in
each case had to judge by the eye and hand of the intrinsic value of
the coin presented to them. To European notions this system would
imply endless doubt and uncertainty, but under the practised vision
aud delicate perceptive powers of touch, with which the natives of
India are endowed, but little difficulty seems to have been experi-
enced; and I myself can testify to the accuracy of the verdicts pro-
nounced by the experienced men of Delhi, whose instinctive estimates
were tested repeatedly by absolute assay. I published many of these
* Num. Chron. iv. 58; J. A. S, B. xxxib. 266.
+ There is a coin called a “ Do-gani or Doodee,” still quoted in tho Madras
Almanacks.
22 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 3,
results, some years ago, in the Numismatic Chronicle,* where the
curious in these matters may trace many of the gradational pieces
of the kdnis above enumerated. As some further experiments in
reference to the intrinsic values of these coins were made, at my in-
stance, in the Calcutta Mint, I subjoin a table of the authoritative
results, which sufficiently confirms the previous less exhaustive assays
by the native process.
LIST OF DEHLI COINS,
Composed of Silver and Copper in varying proportions, forwarded for
examination by Edward Thomas, Esq., C. S., 10th June, 1853. —
olan Reference to Numbers No. of Weight | Dwts. Fine
est Pe Nae of Coins in Coins in in Silver per
7, Be *¢ Pathan Sultans.” Parcel. Grains. tb. in each.
1 716 Mubarak Shah. No. 66. 1 53.22 5.375
2 726 | Muhammad bin Tughlak. it 55.15 13.300
No. 91.
3 895 | Sikandar Bahlol. No. 168. cf 143.438 1,900
4 | 896 os i 4-1 142.163 2.025
spill ta i fl 1 | 142936 | 1,925
. ‘ a i 1 138.913 1.615
i “ a % 1 140.088 2.200
5 | 898 5 ye 1 141.500 1.5625
6 | 900 “i if 2-1 140.800 2.6000
> ” »” » 1 127.600 3.0125
7 | 908 35 ff 1 143.100 4.650
8 | 904 Fi i 3-1 142 500 5.624
us 907 as +s 3-1 143.250 15.5
E A sf ‘ i 141150 | 160
° t i 4 jl 139.900 16.0
9 |. 905 ‘. ne i 144.500 17.5
10 | 909 “4 1 141.500 | 15.0
11 | 910 - if 1 140 200 15.0
12 | 912 . x 2-1 142.500 12.0
7 . ii ss 1 135.500 15.0
13 | 918 i Rs 2-1 132.250 | 150
: : 4 a 1 140.750 15.0
ia | oie is 3 4-1 140.000 15.0
a a c i 1 138.500 15.5
Ci s ) a 1 141.000 16.5
9 » » » 1 140.500 16.0
15 | 918 As 4 A 138 250 10.0
” ” ” ” 1 133.250 10.0
» ” » » 1 139.750 9.0
%9 » » 9 1 125.000 8.0
16 | 919 ‘A i 32] 135.250 32.0
” oy) ” 39 1 137.250 80
u 137.500 8.0
* Vol. xv, 1852, p. 121, et seq.
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 23
The Institutes of Manu have preserved a record, reproduced in the
subjoined table, of the various weights in use, some centuries before
Christ,* and among other things explain, that the values of gold
and copper were calculated by a different metric scheme, to that
applied to silver. A larger number of Ratis went to the Masha in
the former, and the progression of numbers commenced with a five
(5 X 16), while the silver estimates were founded on the simple arith-
metic of fowrs (2 X 16), which constituted so special a characteristic
of India’s home civilization. Still, the two sets of tables, starting
from independent bases, were very early assimilated and adapted to
each other in the advancing totals, so that the 320 ratis constituting
the satamdna of the quarternary multiplication, is created in the
third line by the use of a ten, and the quasi exotic scheme corrects
its independent elements by multiplylng by /owr,; and produces a
similar total in the contents of the Pala or Nishka. The second lines
of the tables are severally filled in with the aggregate numbers, 32
and 80, and as the duplication of the former, or 64, has been seen to
* Manu. viii. 131.—‘ Those names of copper, silver, and gold (weights)
which are commonly used among men for the purpose of worldly business,
I will now comprehensively explain, 132.—The very small mote which may be
discerned in a sunbeam passing through a lattice is the first of quantities,
and men call it a trasarenu. 133.—Hight of those trasarenus are supposed
equal in weight to one minute poppy-seed (liksha), three of those seeds
are equal to one black mustard-seed (rajasarshapa), and three of these last to a
white mustard-seed (gawra-sarshapa), 134,—Six white mustard-seeds ar equal
to a middle-sized barley-corn (yava), three such barley-corns to one krshnala
[raktika], five krshnalas of gold are ane mdsha, and sixteen such mdshas one
suvarna, 135,—Four suwvarnas make a pala, ten palas a dharana, but two
krshnalas weighed together are considered as one silver mashaka. 136.—
Sixteen of those mashakas are a silver dharana or purdna, but a copper karsha
is known to be a pana or karshapana. 137.—Ten dharanas of silver are known
by the name of a satamdna, and the weight of four suvarnas has also the appella-
tion of a wishka.” These statements may be tabulated thus as the
ANCIENT INDIAN SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS.
SILVER.
Z2ratis = 1 masha
$2 = aaa BI dharana,
or purana,
as | 6 160',, — FW 2. 1 satamdéna.
GOLD.
5ratis — 1. masha,
Pee 16) == 1 suvarna.
1 pala, or
320 ” —— 64 ” = 4, 3 = \ at
a, =— 640 ,. = “40 7 = tow = 1 dharana
COPPER.
80 ratis = 1 karshapana.
24 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 3,
do duty in the case, the probability of the use of the 160 naturally
suggests itself in connexion with the theoretical organization of the
copper coinage.
In proceeding to test the relations of the minor and subordinate
currencies, the cardinal point to be determined is, the exchangeable
value of copper as against silver. It has been affirmed by Cole-
brooke,* that the ratio stood in Manu’s time at 64 to 1: accepting
the correctness of this estimate, which has, I believe, remained un-
challenged, and supposing the rate to have remained practically but
little affected up to the Muhammadan conquest, the 175 grains of
silver of Altamsh’s new coinage would be equivalent in metallic
value to 11,200 grains of copper. The ancient copper kdrshdpana
is recognised and defined as 80 ratis in weight, so that under
the above conditions, and calculating the rati at 1.75 grains, each
karshdépana was equal to 140 grains, and eighty of these, under the
same calculations, give a return of 11,200 grains. Without at present
advancing any more definite proposition, or quoting dubious coincidences
it may be as_ well to test these preliminary results by the Numismatic
data Firiz Shah’s Mints have left as an heritage behind him. Among
the incidents quoted regarding that monarch’s monetary innovations
he is stated to have introduced, for the first time, half and quarter
Chitals. On the occasion of a very elaborate revision of my mono-
graph on the Pathan Sultans of Dehli, while residing under the very
shadow of so many of their memorial edifices, acquired and described,
among others, two specimens of the money of this king, which seemed
to be closely identifiable with his Utopian productions of new and
infinitesimal subdivisions of the leading copper coinage, in his express-
ed desire of securing for the poorest of the poor, the fractional change
they might be entitled to in the most limited purchases.t These
coins responded singularly in their mutual proportions, and contri-
buted in the form of once current money, definitive weights in copper
amounting severally to 84.5 and 17.8 grains, from which a very low
estimate. was deduced of 34.8 and 17.4, as a normal official standard.
* As, Res. v. 95.
+ Shams-i-Siraj, in his work entitled the Térikh-i-Firaiz Shahi, gives the
following incidents regarding Firiiz Shah’s coinages :—
a. F an . & £7
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 25
Ii the 34.8 grain of the first of these be multiplied by 160, it will
give a return of 5568.0 grains, and accepting
this trial piece, conditionally, as Firtiz’s novel
half-Chital,* it will be seen to furnish a general
total of 11136 grains for the copper equivalent of 3 Chital of Firiz.
the 175 grains of silver contained in the old Tankah, and confirms the
range of the Chital at 69.6 grains, or only .4 short of the full contents
tradition would assign it, as the unchanged half kdrshdpana of primitive
SONNE Cer it aye yd 2 yn) Sake yl
entid y Sie Buy shy a aellig gy oyoy eo) edit
39 28 859 A bs5I99.9 2S Slee yg omar BSN » Gm pug of
Crbal Goss? tlds nd Wye Uha Cy go, Bdd, Kida
G> ayaa eel Ho So yo sot OMI ST Boy 540 eres
come WHE det jt wilds syleY 51 ania tii 5,43
wt we sil als yy Aisa oy Sle éloo joy OUS wd
: bas 2 Z : : 2
OL stip SL wt oldS8ty Ely S! ot ggd ASIy jfodleyy
SI Some 8 ctl we OS tb Oya wh! 51 gyy els
lle Csphtiva 9 Ql Who S509 Ey! Oo of SL Ody de Le?
I AF yoy Wlo,d gldjy ar wlalew o245 yb Cla Qt
Road 8K 13) oS kan Eby peg OhyS sgt 1) aS Uns a
The original and unique MS., from which the above passage is extracted, is in
the possession of the Nawab Zia-ud-din of Lohard, in the Dehli territory.
* I once supposed these two coins to be whole and half Chitals, instead of the
half and quarter pieces now adopted.
+ It may be as well to state distinctly that the most complete affirmation of
} the numismatic existence of a Chital of a given weight and value, supported even
by all anterior written testimony, in no wise detracts from the subsequent and
independent use of the name for the purposes of account, a confusion which per-
chance may have arisen from the traditional permanency of the term itself, which
in either case might eventually have been used to represent higher or lower
values than that which originally belonged to it. Zia-i-Barni at one moment
seems to employ the term as a fractional fiftieth of the Tankah, while in other
} parts of the same or similar documents he quotes a total of “ sixty Chitals,”
and in his statement of progressive advances of price, mentions the rise from
twenty Chitals to halfa Tankah. Ferishtah following, with but vague know-
ledge, declares that fifty Chitals constituted the Tankah ; while Abiil Fazl, who
had real information on these matters as understood in his own day, asserts
that the dém was divided ‘in account” into twenty-five Chitals, (See Suppt.
Pathan Sultans, p. 31; N.C. xv. 156; Ferishtah, p. 299; Gladwin A, A., I., p.
36.) Then again there seems to have been some direct association between
Chitals and Kdnis, as General Cunningham has published a coin which he as
yet has only partially deciphered, bearing the word &Li= on the one side, and
ost [5%] on the other. J. A. 8, B., 1862, p. 425,
26 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
ages.t To pass to the opposite extreme for a test of the copper ex-
change rate, it is found that when Shir Shah reorganised the northern
coinage of Hindustan, by the lights of his southern experience, and
Swept away all dubious combinations of metals, reducing the copper
Standard to its severe chemical element; his Mint statistics show
that the 178 grains of silver, constituting his revised Tankah, ex-
changed against 40 ddms, or double chitals of copper, of an ascertained
quadrupled weight of 323.5 grains each, producing in all a total of
12,940 grains of the latter metal, as the equivalent of 178 grains of
silver, or in the ratio of 72.69 to 1; though, even in the altered
weights and modified proportions, still retaining inherent traces of the
old scheme of fours, inthe half dém of 80, and the quarter ddm of 160
to the new “ Rupee.”
It remains to discover upon what principles the new silver coinage of
Altamsh was based. That copper was the ruling standard by which
the relative values of the more precious metals were determined, there
can scarcely be a doubt. The estimate by Panas of the ancient Law-
giver, the constant reckoning by Chitals of the early Muhammadan
intruders, down to the revenue assessments of Akbar, all of which
were calculated in copper coin, sufticiently establish the permanency
of the local custom, and the intrinsic contents of Altamsh’s Szkkah
or &28 of 174 or 175 grains, must primarily have been regulated by
the silver equivalent of a given number of Chitals. Had the old silver
Purdna been still in vogue, the new coin might have been supposed
to have been based upon their weights and values; three of which
Puranas would have answered to an approximate total of 96 ratis;
but although the weight of the old coin had been preserved in the
more modern Dehli-wdlas, the metallic value of the current pieces had
been so reduced, that from 16 to 24 would probably have been re-
quired to meet the exchange against the original silver Zankah ; on
the other hand, although the number of 96 ratis does not occur in the
ancient tables, the combination of the inconvenient number of three
Puranas into one piece, is by no means opposed to Vedic ideas; and
there can be no question but that the traditional 96 ratis, of whatever
origination, is constant in the modern tolah ; but, as I have said before,
the question whether the new coin was designed to constitute an even
one hundred rati-piece, which, in process of time, by wear or inten-
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. | 27
tional lowering of standard weights, came to settle down to the 96 rati
tolah, remains to be proved by the determination of the decimals in
troy-grains, which ought to be assigned to the normal ratz.
I now proceed to notice the historical bearings of the coins of the
Bengal series.
Any general revision of a special subject, coincident with the dis-
covery of an unusually large amount of new illustrative materials, owes
a first tribute to previous commentators—whose range of identifica-
tion may chance to have been circumscribed by more limited archxo-
logical data, the application of which may equally have been narrowed
by the inaccessibility of written history, heretofore confined, as in the
present instance, to original Oriental MSS., or the partial transcripts
and translations incidentally made known to the European world.
At the head of the list of modern contributors must be placed, in
point of time, M. Reinaud, who, so long ago as 1823, deciphered and
described several types of the Bengal Mintages, commencing with
those of Ilias Shah (No. viii. of this series).* Closely following
appeared Marsden’s elaborate work, which, among other novelties,
displayed a well-sustained sequence of Bengal coins, with correspond-
ing engravings, still wnequalled, though in point of antiquity pro-
ducing nothing earlier than the issues of the same Ilias Shih, who
had inaugurated the newly-asserted independence of the southern
monarchy, with such a wealth of coinages.t Next in order must be
cited a paper, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, by Mr.
Laidlay, which added materially to the numismatic records of the
local sovereigns, though still remaining deficient in the development
of memorials of the more purely introductory history of the king-
dom.t I myself, in the course of the publication of the Imperial
Coins of the Pathaén Sultans of Dehli,§ had occasion to notice two
pieces of Bahadur Shah, one of which proved of considerable interest,
and likewise coins of both Shams-ud-din Firtz, and Mubarak Shah,
whose defective marginal legends, however, defeated any conclusive
assignment to their original producers. |
* Journal Asiatique, Paris, vol. iii., p. 272.
+ Numismata Orientalia, London, 1825, pp. 561-585.
{ Vol. xv, (1846), p. 323. i :
§ Wertheimer, London, 1847, pp. 37, 42,82, and Supplement printed at Delhi
in 1851, p. 15. See also Numismatic Chronicle, vol. ix., pp, 176, 181; vol. x.,
p. 153; and vol, xv. p. 124,
28 ~The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1
The chronicles of a subordinate and, in those days, but little ac-
cessible country were too often neglected by the national historians
at the Court of Dehli, even if their means of information as to the
course of local events had not necessarily been more or less imperiect.
Two striking exceptions to the ordinary rule fortuitously occur, at
conjunctions specially bearing upon the present enquiry, in the
narratives of Minh4j-ul-Siraj, Juzjani, and the ‘“ Travels of Ibn Batu-
tah,” the former of whom accompanied Tughén Khan to Lakhnauti,
in a. a. 640,* where he resided for about two years. The Arab from
Tangiers,t on his way round to China, as ambassador on the part
of Muhammad bin Tughlak, found himself in Eastern Bengal at
the inconvenient moment when Fakhr-ud-din Mubarak was in a
state of undisguised revolt against the emperor, to whom they jointly
owed allegiance; but this did not interfere with his practical spirit of
enquiry, or his placing on record a most graphic description of the
existing civilization and politics of the kingdom, and further compiling
a singularly fresh and independent account (derived clearly from
vivd voce statements) of the immediately preceding dynastic
changes to which the province had been subjected. So that,
in effect, Ibn Batutah, with his merely incidental observations, has
done more for the elucidation of the obscurities of the indigenous
* The Tabakat-i-Nasiri of Abi Umar Minhaj-ud-din bin Sirdj-ud-din, Juzjani,
has been printed. and published in the Persian series of the Bibliotheca Indica,
under the auspices of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta, 1864, pp. 453.)
The chapters on Indian and Central Asian affairs, with which the author was
more or less personally conversant, have alone been reproduced, The usual
Oriental commencement with the history of the world, the rise of Muham-
madanism, etc., being mere compilations from secondary sources, have been very
properly excluded from this edition. A full notice of the original work will be
found in Mr. Morley’s Catalogue of the MSS. of the R. A. S., p. 17 (London,
1854), Several other works of native historians, bearing upon the subject of this
paper, have also been made accessible to the public i in a printed form in the same
‘collection, among which may be noted the Tarikh-i-Firiz Shahi (the third king of
the name in the Dehli list), by Zia-i-Barni (Calcutta, 1862, pp. 602), and the
Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh of Abd ul Kadir, Buddimi (Calcutta, 1865, pp. 407).
‘The editors have unadvisedly, I think, omitted the early portions of the original
relating to India, and commence the publication with the accession of Akbar,
An outline of the entire contents of the work will be found in Sir H., Elliot’s
Historians of India (Calcutta, 1849, p. 305).
+ An English version of Ibn Batutah’s Travels (taken from an abridged text),
by Dr. 8. Lee, was published in the series of the Oriental Translation Fund in
1829 (1 vol., “Ato , London). A new and very complete edition of his entire —
Arabic Text, with a French Translation, chiefly the work of the late M. C.
Defrémery, has been issued within the last ‘few years by the Société Asiatique of
Sd (4 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1853-1858),
4
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 29
history of the period represented by the earlier coins of the Kooch
Bahér hoard, than all the native authors combined, to whose writings
we at present have access.
The merits of these authors may or may not appear upon the surface
in the subsequent pages, as it is only in doubtful or difficult cases that
their aid may chance to be invoked, but for the obscure series of the
first Governors of Bengal, the one stands alone; and for the space of
time intervening between the provincial obscuration of Nasir-ud-din
Mahmid, the unambitious son of Balban, to the revival of public in-
terest in Bengal, consequent upon the subjection and capture of a
rebel Vassal by Ghids-ud-din Tughlak Shah, the chance traveller
describes more effectively the political mutations and varying mo-
narchical successions than the professed historiographers treating ex-
clusively of the annals of their own land. 3
The following list of Local Governors has been compiled, the early
portion from the precise statements of Minhaj-ul-Siraj, the latter part
from the casual notices of Bengal, to be found in Zid-i-Barni, who
professed to continue the history of India from the latest date reached
by the former author, or from a.m. 658 to 753, being a period of 95
years, covering the reigns of eleven kings. The last-named work was
finally completed in a.u. 758.
The arrangement of the names and dates of accession of the chiefs
will be found to depart occasionally from the details given by Stew-
art,* in his excellent History of Bengal, but I have designedly sought
to draw my materials independently from the original authorities,
whom he was perhaps in a less favourable position for consulting than
the student of the present day.
* The History of Bengal, by Charles Stewart. London, 1813. 4to,
30 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
GOVERNORS OF BENGAL.
SION. NAMES OF GOVERNORS, REMARKS,
a RE =| First Muhammadan conqueror of
600 1. ase ar a Bengal, under Kutb-ud-din of Dehli-
WL yb oa? dI155 ‘Succeeds to the local government
: after the death of Muhammad
Ss: Bakhtiar.
605 3. Wl dp hs Epos | silc Nominated to the government by
Y wis Kutb-ud-din, on whose decease in
ss A.H. 607, he assumes independ-
“
or)
S
bo
iw)
f at + ence,*
608 4. were or | chan Commandant at Deokdt, establishes
gels wylalee ) us his power and assumes royal honors.
He submits to Altamsh in 4.x. 622,
( eyo || but almost immediately commences
an active revolt, whichis put an
end to in his capture by Nasir-ud-
din Mahmid, the eldest son of Al-
. tamsh, in a.H. 624,
624 5. upd gos” ero pel Nasir-ud-din had been appointed by
Ace eae his father Governor of Oudh, in
Cee we A.H, 623, from whence he ad-
vanced. against Hisam ud-din in
624, and recovered the kingdom of
Bengal, where he remained as subs
king till his death early in 626
6 cst> eo silc |After temporary disturbances in the
E aca province, Altamsh, having restored
order in A.H, 627, designated Ala-
ud din Jani to the charge of Ben-
627
gal.
7 hat tod] Chase [Nominated to Bengal on the dismissal
. i. eee of Al4-ud-din Jani (date not given),
ws ylzy Dies in 631 a.H.
* Minh4j-ul-Siraj, who treats of the history of his own and immediately pre-
ceding times, introduces the reigns of the more powerful sovereigns with a full
list of the Court notabilities, forming a sort of Almanach de Gotha of Muham-
madan India. These lists embrace the various branches of the Royal Family,
Ministers, Judges, and Governors of Provinces. The following names of the
bsle’s or military administrators of Bengal, which appear in the official returns,
may serve to check or confirm the imperfect data obtained from the casual
notices of local history to be met with in the general narrative of the events of
the Empire at large. There is this discrimination, however, to be made that
these imperial nominations were often merely titular, while the effective ex-
ecutive was in other and independent hands:
Under Altamsh, 4.H. 607-633.
sol) yoly? dex”? eos | lah Shh re J Nhe
Under Nasir-ud-din Mahmid, A.H, 644-664.
cegigQ Ello glallab Yeh G2! 56 1 Elle
© By g sagt bho wlpad ya ped pa ebledt
3,59 hig) elle wis ele yd gid cos] Gla pad) Malt
1867. ] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 31
GOVERNORS OF BENGAL—continued.
ACCES-.
SION NAMES OF GOVERNORS. REMARKS,
A. H,
631 8. wleb rb eno ps Pledges his allegiance to Riziyh on
ls her elevation in A. H. 634; continues
oe in the Government till 642 A. #.,
when he surrenders the kingdom to
No. 9. (Minhaj-ul-Sirdj, the his-
torian, was at his court at this
latter period.
642 | 9. whys wis > eM lyo5 Obtains possession of Lakhnanti on
the 5th Zul Kaad, a, H. 642—dies
in 644.
10, 2552 wrod! jbisy Dates uncertain. First appointed
: E during the reign of Nasir-ud-din
wa J J rb Mahmid of Dehli. He seems to
have been a powerful ruler and a
daring commander, and finally met
his death in his retreat from an
over-venturesome expedition into
Kamrip. He had previously as-
sumed independence under the title
of WI Snare wlblew,
656 | LL. ape Gyo Jala Appointed in a, H. 656. ( wlrelis
isle Slo subsequently in temporary posses-
Sue sion).
A Kiel cas ppicslie Recognised, on receipt of his tribu-
657 oe ss RE eee tary presents at head-quarters, in
‘Le ' the early part of A. H. 657.
13. we 1 oped} 6 Obtains a momentary advantage over
657 eae is re Gs. No. 12 in his absence from his
ey Capital ; eventually taken prisoner
14 Le a 4, ae and superseded by No. 12. _ ;
‘ WA wAw)| de Son of No. 12.* On the accession 0
659 a" ‘i 2 ) Balban in A. H. 664, he forwards
i elephants and tribute to Dehli.
676? i. J eb eo] Graze | Appointed by Balban.f He after-
wards asserts his independence,
and assumes the title of
Balban sends armies against him
without success, and at last pro-
ceeds in person to Bengal. Finally,
Toghral is surprised and killed.
Nols (& {,43 | Second son of Balban, installed with
spd | pro ys
681 | 16. wb af = royal honors.
ges”
% 7{4-i-Barni in one place, page 53, calls him wy'S wy doe yf yams wl eS) 9
and again, at page 66, Kg Odi wa 3 Ly! a wid wileo! oo”
+ Zié-iBarni, pp. 82-92.
32 The Initial Covnage of Bengal. [No. 1
r]
As I have such frequent occasion to quote the names of the Kings
of the Imperial Dynasty of Dehli, I annex for facility of reference a
full list of these Sovereigns.
LIST OF THE PATHAN SULTANS OF HINDUSTAN,
(DEHLI).
DATE OF
eee ees a) Bae NAMES OF SULTANS,
Avie
589 i Muiz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam (Ist Dynasty.)
602 2 Kutb-ud-din Aibek.
607 3 Aram Shah.
607 4 Shams-ud-din Altamsh.
633 5 Rukn-ud-din Firiz Shah I,
634 6 Sultén Riziah.
637 vf Muiz-ud-din Bahram Shah.
639 8 Alé-ud-din Masatid Shah.
644, 9 Nasir-ud-din Mahmud.
664 10 Ghids-ud-din Balban.
685 1l Muiz-ud-din Kaikubad.
€88 12 Jalal-ud-din Firaz Shah II., Khiljt (2nd Dynasty).
695 13 Rukn-ud-din Ibrahim.
695 14 Ald-ud-din Muhammad Shah,
715 15 Shahab-ud-din Umar.
"16 16 Kutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah I,
790 17 Nasir-ud-din Khusrti.
720 18 Ghias-ud-din Tughlak Shah (8rd years
795 19 Muhammad bin Tughlak.
159 20 Firaz Shah IIL, bin Salar Rajab.
790 21 | Tughlak Shéh II.
791 22 Abtibakr Shah.
793 23 Muhammad Shah bin Firiz Shah,
795 24 Sikandar Shah,
795 25 Mahmid Shah bin Muhammad Shah (Timir, 800).
797 26 Nusrat Shah, Interregrwm, Mahmid restored, 802.
815 PAP | Daulat Khan Lodi,
817 28 Khizr Khan Syud (4th Dynasty).
824 29 Mnuiz-ud-din-Mubarak Shah IT,
839 30 Muhammad Shah bin Farid Shah,
849 aL ?Adlam Shah.
854 32 Bahldl Lédi (5th Dynasty).
894 33 Sikandar bin Bahlol.
923 34 Ibrahim bin Sikandar (Baber, 930 a.H.)
937 35 Muhammad Humaytn, Moghul.
946 36 Farid-ud-din Shir Shah, Afghdn.
952 37 Isl4m Shah.
960 38 Muhammad ’Aadil Shah.
961 39 Ibrahim Sir.
962 40 Sikandar Shah (Humayan, 962 a.n.)
ee
The unenlivened Chronicles of the Local Governors of Bengal enter
upon a more interesting phase, in the nomination of Nasir-ud-din
1867. ] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 33
Mahmiid, the son of the Emperor Balban, who subsequently came
to prefer the easy dignity of Viceroy, in the more even climate of the
south, in derogation of his birth-right’s higher honours, and the
attendant dangers of Imperialism at Dehli. One of the most touch-
ing chapters of Indian history is contributed by the incidents of this
monarch’s meeting with his own arrogant son, Muiz-ud-din: Kaiku-
bad, who had succeeded to the superior dignities abjured by the
father.* They then met as nominal Vassal and Suzerain, but little
unequal in power, and each occupying independent and preparedly
hostile camps, on the ordinary route between their respective capitals.
Oriental etiquette, and more reasonable distrust, for a time delayed
the interview, in which, at last, nature was destined to re-assert its
laws, and to reconcile even conflicting royal interests, by subduing,
for the moment, the coarse vices of the son in the presence of the
tempered virtues of the father. .Repeated amicable conferences, how-
ever, merely resulted in each returning on his way, with but little
change in the relative political position of either; and the compara-
tively obscure repose of Nasir-ud-din Mahmtid remained undisturbed,
while other successors filled his son’s throne at Dehli. The more
immediate question bearing upon the attribution of the earliest coins
in the Kooch Bahar treasure, is exactly how long did Nasir-ud-din
continue to live and reign. 4Zid-i-Barni,t and those who follow his
ill-digested history, affirm that he retained his provincial kingship
till 699 a.u., when he divested himself of all symbols of royalty in
the mere dread of the confessedly overwhelming power of Ala-ud-
din Muhammad Shah, to be, however, reinstated by that Sultan;
and, finally, it is asserted that Nasir-ud-din was still in existence,
and once again reinvested with the full insignia of a king, by ugha
Shah, in a.n. 724.
Ibn Batutah, a higher authority in proximity of time, and obvi-
ously more intimate with the purely indigenous history, states that
Nasir-ud-din, on his ruturn from his interview with his son, reigned
some years («4\) ,f an expression which is scarcely compatible with
* Zi4-i-Barni, p. 142 ; Ibn Batutah, iii., p. 178; Lee’s Translation, p. 117;
and (yorwJ \Wly3 of Amir Khusri, Dehlivé.
{ Printed edition, p. 451; Budauni MS. ; Ferishtah (Brig pode eo #08).
{ French edition, iii, p. 179, and xiii, Dr. Lee’s edie “two years,” p. 118,
ig an error.
5
34 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
the idea of a nearly continuous rule of ‘ forty-three solar years,” and
a decease in a.H. 725, as adopted by Stewart :* a prolongation of
administrative functions indeed altogether inconsistent with the direct
evidence of the dates on the money of Kai Kais, or the parallel proof
of Shams-ud-din’s exercise of the functions of sovereignty in 702
A.H., associated as they are with the uncontested historical and nu-
mismatic demonstration of the succession of one grandson, Shahab-ud-
din, whose ejection from his inherited section of the kingdom by his
more powerful brother, Bahadur, formed so prominent a ground for
imperial interference in the affairs of Bengal. There facts are each and
all too well ascertained to leave any doubt that the authors who make
Nasir-ud-din’s reign extend to 725 must be in error; the source of the
mistake seems as simple as it is obvious, the mere omission of the son’s
name as preceding that of the father, in Persian MS. writing, or simple
ignorance of the order of local successions, would account for the whole
difficulty. And, asis obvious, [bn Batutah’s own personal knowledge;
and possibly correct autograph version, reproduced independently in
other lands, have not saved later transcripts of his work from analo-
gous imperfections.}
But there are other and more direct internal evidences in the texts
of the Indian authors, of confusion and imperfect knowledge in the
relation of the incidents attendant upon the re-settlement of Bengal
by Alé-ud-din a.H. 699, where it is stated that ‘‘a chief, named
Bahadur Khan,” was at this time appointed to “ the eastern districts
of Bengal,”t with the object of dividing the province, and thus
rendering its rulers ‘‘ more subservient to the Court of Dehli.” It is
highly improbable, had Nasir-ud-din been living at the epoch in ques-
tion, that a grandson of his should have been selected for such a
charge to the supercession of his own father, Shams-ud-din, or in
priority to the son of that father, Shah4b-ud-din, who was the elder ©
or perhaps better-born brother of Bahadur, each of whom, Ibn Batutah
* Stewart's Bengal, p. 80.
+ Ex. gr., Bahadur is made the son of Nasir-ud-din, at p. 179, vol. iii., instead
of the grandson, which the text at p. 210, vol. iii., and p. 213, vol. iv., affirms him
to have been. Lee’s MS. authorities again, in omitting the intermediate name of
Nasir-ud-din, skip a generation, and ante-date Shams-ud-din (Firaz) in consti-
tuting him a son of Ghias-ud-din Balban (p. 128).
} Ferishtah, Briggs, i., p. 406; Stewart, p. 79.
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 35
certifies, in turn succeeded to royal honours in the old capital of
Bengal. f
Having completed this simple outline of the historical data, I now
proceed to describe the coins in their due order; first on the list in
priority of time is a piece which I can only doubtfully assign to
Bengal, and whose individual appropriation, moreover, must remain
to a certain extent inconclusive. The coin itself will be seen to bear
the hereditary name of the first Moslem Conqueror of India, Mahmid
of Ghazni, and the oft-revived title of the founder of the dynasty,
Nasir-ud-din Subuktagin, a conjunction of royal designation already
seen to have been applied to a succession of Pathan princes, whose
intitulation followed antecedent conventionalisms.
Nasir-ud-din. Mahmiad Shah.
No. 1.
Silver. Size, viii, Weight, 163.1 grs. Unique, British Museum.
Oxy. Rev.
phe cy ebeed} :
pled Oee (6
exity Lio pl :
“peel AU praidamenlt
al Lnsio self
vlblew Gy gle
Margin, illegible.
Phe incidental details of the legends restrict the assignment of this
piece to one of two individuals, the eldest or the youngest son of
Altamsh, the latter of whom was authoritatively designated by the
like name and title on the decease of his brother, in 626 a.u.* The
* awe! gf wits pl Ssyhy beilig. dye” wn] ob pdlat wy lal
Tabakat Nisiri, p. 181; youty,S Cepns? digo c) el 9 rh p. 201.
36 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
citation of the formula, “ during the reign of (the Khalif) Al Mos-
tansir billah,” on the reverse, limits the final period of the issue of
the coin, not exactly to the 5th month of the year au. 640, when
that Pontiff died, but with clear precision to a.u. 641, when the
knowledge of his death was officially declared by the substitution of a
new name in the Mintages of the capital of Hindustan.*
This younger son was destined eventually to succeed to the throne
of his father at Dehli, in 644 a.n., after the intervening reigns of
Rukn-ud-din Firiz Shah, Riziah, Muiz-ud-din Bahrém Shah, and
Alé-ud-din Masatid Shah, in all, however, extending only over a
space of eleven years, posterior to the death of Altamsh. The second
Mahmud, must, under these conditions, have been but of tender years,
and though, at this conjuncture, promoted to the titular honours of
an elder brother, not in any position to exercise authority in his own
person, and less likely to have had medallic tribute paid to him by his
father, should. such have been the origin of the exceptional specimen
under review. To the first-born Nasir-ud-din Mahmtd, no such
objections apply; he was very early invested by his sire with the
administration of the important government of Hansi, and in 623
A.H., advanced to the higher charge of the dependencies of Oudh, from
which quwasz. frontier, he was called upon to proceed against Hisém-
ud-din Avaz, (No. 4 in the list of Governors, supra), who had already
achieved a very complete independence in the province of Bengal.
Here, his arms were fortuitously, but not the less effectually, success-
ful, so that he had honours thrust upon him even to the Red Um-
brella, and its attendant dignities,t whatever the exact measure of
these may have been. Under such triumphant coincidences, it is
possible that the universal favourite, the still loyal heir-apparent,
may have placed his own name on the coinage, without designed
offence, especially as at this time Moslem Mints were only beginning
to adapt themselves to their early naturalization on Indian soil, and
when the conqueror’s camps carried with them the simple machinery,
and equally ready adepts, for converting bullion plunder on the instant
into the official money of a general, or his liege sovereign. Altamsh’s
* Pathan Sultans of Dehli, coin No, 33, p. 22.
+ His title is usually limited by Minh4j-ul-Sirdj to slo pp. 177, 181, 201;
but.on one occasion wlhlw crops out incidentally in the Court list where, in
his place among the sons of the Emperor Altamsh, he is so designated, p. 178.
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 37
own circulating media were only in process of crude development at
this period, and had scarcely risen superior to the purely Hindu cur-
rencies it had served the purpose of his predecessors to leave virtually
intact: his own strange 7%irké name,* and that of many of his suc-
cessors, continued to figure in the Nagari letters of the subject races
on the surfaces of the mixed silver and copper coins of indigenous
origin, at times commemorative of imperfectly achieved conquests,
and the limited ascendancy implied in the retention of the joint names
of the conqueror and the momentarily subject monarch ;+ while the
Sultan’s own trial-pieces, in silver, were indeterminate in their design
and legends, as well as utterly barbarous in their graphic execution.
Had the coin under review followed the usual phraseology and
paleography of the Imperial Nasir-ud-din Mahmid’s Mint legends,
it might have been imagined that an ancient and obsolete reverse
had been, by hazard, associated with a new obverse. But the obverse
inscription in the present instance differs from the latter Dehli no-
menclature in the addition of the word Shdh after the name of Jah-
mud,t and contrasts as singularly in the forms of the letters, and the
* This name I have, as a general rule, retained in the form accepted as the
conventional English orthography—Altamsh. The correct rendering of the
original is still an open question, but the more trustworthy authors reproduce the
designation as ( seit) |, atranscription supported in a measure by the repetition
of the third letter in the Knufic dies, and made authoritative, in as far as local
pronunciation is concerned, by the Hindi correlative version of fefafatafa
(Pathan Sultans, Coin No. 14), The inscription on the Kurs M1nAr, at Dehli,
has er eilit which accards with the Arabic numismatic rendering on the
reverses of the Hindi Coins now cited, :
See also ‘Taj-ul-Maasir, Alitimish: Wasaf, Alitmish, and at times Lr atit
Badauni, Ailtitimish.
Elliot’s Historians of India, p. 111.
+ See coins of Chahir deva,
Obverse. Bull, Legend: zaract a aqadicatfeta |
_ Reverse. Horseman. Legend: ¥{ qIee ea |
— Pathan Sultans, No. 15; Ariana Antiqua, pl. xix. 16. 31,34; Prinsep’s Essays,
i, 333, pl. xxvi. 81; Minhaj-ul-Siraj, pp. 215, 240; Tod’s Rajasthan, u. 401;
and J. A. S. Bengal, 1865, p. 126.
t So, in written history, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, the Emperor, is called byhisown
special biographer, wlewJ} Gy des” wrt ys Lod} yl peel wlblas
(pp. 9, 177, 178, 201, etc.) which isin contrast to the nominal adjunct so constant
with his predecessors, Firiz Shah, Bahram Shah, Masaid Shah. On one occasion
only does the additional Shah appear in a substituted list of Altamsh’a Court
(p. 178), where the text gives—1l. Sultén Nasir-ud-din * * 2. Sultan Nasir-
ud-din Mahmtid; and at the end, after the name of Rukn-ud-din Firtz Shah,
comes “ Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah.” |
38 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
insertion of the short vowels with the more deferred issues, as it, on
the other hand, closely identifies itself in these marked peculiarities
with the initial dies of Altamsh and the closely sequent coinages of
Riziah, two of which latter are now known to be the produce of the
Lakhnauti Mint.
RIZIAH.
The earliest coins that can be definitely attributed to a Bengal
mint, are those of the celebrated Queen Regnant of Muhammadan |
India—Riziah, the daughter of Altamsh. The ministers at her
father’s court were scandalized at the preference it was proposed to
extend to a daughter, in supercession of the claims of adult male heirs
to the throne; but the Sultan justified his selection, alike on account
of the demerits of his sons, and the gifts and acquirements of his
daughter, who had been brought up under the unusual advantages of
freedom from the seclusion enjoined for females by the more severe
custom of ordinary Moslem households, aided by the advantages in-
cident to the exalted position occupied by her mother as the leading
and independently-domiciled wife. After the brief reign of Rukn-ud-
din Firtiz, extending over less than seven months—who freely ex-
emplified by his misconduct his father’s prophetic reproach—Riziah
succeeded in establishing her supremacy in the city of Dehli (4. n.
734), and Eastern eyes witnessed the singular spectacle of an unveiled
and diademed Queen—the first in India—directing the hosts of Islam,
under the canopy of the immemorial regal seat on an elephant.
Riziah’s early inauguration was attended with no inconsiderable dan- —
ger and difficulty, arising from the organised military resources of the
various governors of provinces, who hesitated in conceding their
allegiance. Eventually, however, to use the expression of Minhaj-
ul-Siraj, quiet was established throughout the empire, and Riziah’s
sway was acknowledged from ‘ Daibal to Lakhnauti.” In a.u. 737,
the Empress proceeded in person to quell an outbreak on the part of
Ikhtiar-ud-din Alttimiah, Governor of Tiberhind; but was taken
captive in the engagement that ensued, and, possibly with scant cere-
mony, introduced into the harem of the conqueror, who shortly
afterwards advanced upon Dehli in the hope of recovering the so-
vereignty, to which he had thus acquired an adventitious claim; but
\
vu
BENGAL COFNS
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 39
his army was in turn defeated, and himself and Riziah met their
deaths near Kaithal in the month of Rabi-al-Awal, a.u. 738. *
The contemporary biographer in his official lists styles this queen
wd] ky) wlbhJ, a title which she affects on the ordinary copper
coins,t but on the silver money she adopts the designation of Udy
wi |
Jaldlat-ud-din. Riziah.
Corn No. 2.
Laknauti, a.u. ?
Silver. Size, vii. Weight, 168 grs. Plate I., figure 1.
Type, Obverse, the whole surface is occupied by the legend.
Reverse, circuler area, enclosing a double-lined square,
Narrow margin.
Osvy. Rev.
peed wbbland}
pled RYT i?
wiMly boy Via me)
9?! _posened|
weld! Gse) ey &&lo
Eyes
Erteyel! jaro! 3,40
Reverse Margin, * * di (.3,i6L) Kaa) do * *
(See also a similar coin from the Laknauti Mint, Plate i., fig.
27, page 19. Coins of the Pathan Sultans of Hindustan.
* Tabakat Nasiri, pp. 183, 185, 251. See also Ibn Batutah, iii. pp. 167, 168.
+ Pathan Sultans, Nos. 28, 29.
{ It would seem from the orthography adopted in this earliest record of the
name of Laknauti ( ert) ) that the original Semitic transcription was designed
to follow the classical derivation of Lakshmanavatt (SAUNA), which was
soon, however, adapted to the more colloquial Luchhman (woes ) by the addi-
tion of an h after the k, as ee 3 in which form it appears under the first local
Sultans (coin No.3, etc.). Minh4j-ul-Sirdj relates its elevation to the rank of the
capital in supercession of Nuddeah by Muhammad Bakhtfar in the following terms:
Gh* bate 2 aS bile fredleo gf his? ose? oye
wale Shelly cot Ig aS ety dg IAG
Printed edit. p, 151. The same author, at p. 162, gives a full account of the
remarkable size, progress, and general topography of the city as existing in 641
A.H. on the occasion of his own visit.
It is difficult to say when the name of the city was changed to Gaur, a denomi-
nation which is never made use of by the older authorities, Abul Fazl says,
40 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
I.—RUKN-UD-DIN KAI KAU’S.
The full and satisfactory identification of the king who ruled under
the designation of Kats has yet to be accomplished. Rajendraléla
Mitra has suggested a notion that Nasir-ud-din Mahmid, the son of
Balban, so often mentioned in this article, sought, as local ruler of
Bengal, “to continue his allegiance to his grandson Kaimurs [momen-
tarily king of Dehli], even after his deposition, and possibly after his
death,’’* by retaining his name on the public money. I should be
disposed to seek a less complicated explanation of the numismatic
evidences. Kai Katis’ date, tested by the examples of his mintages in
the Kooch Bahar hoard, is limited, in range of time, to five years
(691-695 a.u.);+ a latitude might be taken beyond the ascertained
units, which are somewhat indeterminate in their tracings, and have
equally suffered from abrasion, on the exposed margins of the coins,
but the ninety and the six hundred can scarcely be contested. If we
examine the political state of India at this period, we find that Hin-
dustan was abnormally quiet under the feeble rule of Jalal-ud-din
Firiz (687-696 a.n.): Ald-ud-din’s conquests in the Dakhin could
have but little affected Bengal, so that any changes that may have
taken place in the latter kingdom were probably due to succes-
sional or revolutionary causes arising within its own limits. We can
scarcely build up a theory of an access of vigour and assumption of
fe Formerly it was called Lucknouty, and sometimes Gour’” (A.A. ii. p. 11) ; while
Budauni gives a ridiculous version of the origin of the designation as being
derived from (oye. He writes cele le 9 oleae jase? one y
Aelita 9 dF Cwldo yg pied yg dalwo Bale otyy [BF
ols eb jp 45 y ) 440 49 phos et pls. The obvious imperfection
of the critical philology of the derivation, however, debars its reception, as does
the caustic alternative of 5 145 —‘‘ grave,” which the often deserted site, under the
Speedy action of water and a semi-tropical vegetation, may have deservedly earn-
ed for it. But it is quite legitimate to infer that as 3jt~ was the ancient name
for central Bengal (Wilson, Glossary, sub voce; Albirtini, quoted J. R. A. S.i.,
ale 8., p. 471), and go intimately associated with the tribal divisions of the
indigenous Brahmans, that the designation originated in the popular appli-
cation of the name of the country to its own metropolis, and that the town
continued to be called Gawr in vernacular Speech in spite of the new names
so frequently bestowed upon it by its alien lords,
a Jour, As. Soc, Beng., 1864, p 508.
+ Rajendra Lala says, “the units one and three are perfectly clear.” Col.
Guthrie’s three coins are imperfect in the word for the unit. I observe traces of
a fowr on two specimens ; and I read, with some certainty, 695 on another,
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 41
independence by Nasir-ud-din himself; nor is it probable that, in such
a case, he would have changed both his title and his name. Besides,
the array of title on the coins in the triple succession of Sultdns is
altogether inconsistent with his actual origin. Though he was the
son of one emperor of Dehli, and the father of another, he could
scarcely ignore the rise of the former from a state of slavery, or
conceal the fact that Balban himself never pretended to have been the
offspring of a king. The two alternatives remain, of either supposing
that Nasir-ud-din died before 691 a.u., a question discussed elsewhere,
or to conclude that his son Rukn-ud-din Kai Kats temporarily as-
sumed kingship during the lifetime of his father,* and that his
limited reign and local ebscurity saved his memory from the com-
ments of history. I fully endorse Rajendra Lil’s suggestion that Kai
Kaas would have been likely to be selected as a name for one of a
family who took so many of their designations from Persian heroic
ages, and the elaborate intitulation adopted by that prince, on his
coins, of the “‘son and grandson of a Sultan,” favours such an identi-
fication.; It will be seen that, although the cpening terms of his
obverse legends follow the conventional and unvarying mint phraseo-
* The following is the genealogical tree, according to Ibn Batutah. See vol.
iii, pp. 174-5, 179, 210, 462 ; vol. iv., p. 212.
dso”? en ol Ouge| wis
$$$
[ rlSa5 2] HM ped ghdas Guoli 520
. |
WI slbs jole Quo sls WHAT ob eH olgd
+ The name of the son of Kai Kobad, who was elevated to the throne of Dehli
on the death of his father, is variously given by Oriental writers as Shams-ud-din
Ge pogaS and, gla - Budéuni and the Mirat-ul-Alm (MS.) give Kai Kaus,
but the majority of authors prefer the Kaiomurs. Zita-i-Barni does not state the
name of the boy, but mentions a son of Altamsh, in the previous generation, as
having been called Kaiomwrs (printed ed. p. 126).
6
42 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [N 6:1,
logy in the useof wlhlJ}, the (reigning) Sultan, yet after his own
proper name he styles himself merely wlblw, and seemingly desired
to strengthen his position by the insertion of the regal titles of his
father and grandfather; though there is so far room for questioning
this supposition in the fact that the father had fallen short of supreme
power, and was only doubtfully authorized to call himself Sultan,
while in strictness the Imperial Balban should have been designated
the Sultdn (past regnant); but on the other hand, Nasir-ud-din had
been so long virtually a king in the south, that the complimentary
use of the term was quite within heraldic licence; and it is to be
remarked, that a similar omission of the supreme prefix oecurs in
Naswr-ud-din Mahmid Shah's coin (No. 1), which, if correctly attri-
buted, would prove the legitimacy* of the optional use of one or the
other form.
These are avowedly mere speculations; but when it is considered
how much attention was paid in India, in those days, to every vary-
ing shade and degree of honorary rank, how much importance was
attached to even the colours of official umbrellas,+ and other, to us,
minor observances, it cannot but be felt that these subordinate indica-
tions may chance to prove of material aid in illustrating doubtful
interpretations.
Kai Kaus.
No. 3.
Lakhnauti, a.n. ‘ 691, 693,”t and 694-695.
Silver. Size, vii. Weight, 168 grs. Very rare. Plate I. figs 2
Type, as in the previous coins,
* The Bengal Mints, after the initial uncertainty, soon settle th
to follow the established Dehli models. In the hee it will be fei heNta
was taken by all those sovereigns who could boast of a Royal descent, to define
the fact upon their coins. Bahram Shah, Masatid Shah, Nasir-ud-din “Mahmid
bin Altamsh, and Ibrahim bin Firdz all entitle themselves wlblid wy Bal-
ban, Kai Kubad, Jalal-ud-din Firtz, and the great Al4-ud-din Muh 4
have to be content with their own seleaciaesca wlbleJ} ee
t OdAw Sy slimy Us) Salou pe Kas g Minh4j-ul-Sirdj, P; 263 34
wasls yk Sy Wyler ¢ tas! ditto, p. 181, a.H. 625,
t+ Babu Rajendralala Mitr tices f i is ki i
t ] ala Mitra notices four coins of this kine with
and 693. Journ. As Soc. Bengal, 1864, p. 579. He was i ny
mint as Sundrgaon. Of Col. Guthrie’s three specim isti
en 7 ‘
of the name of Lakhnauti, - nn heer ea
;
;
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 43)
Ov. | Rev.
. eos!
Hy Wt OS
prasione!|
crdicgell al
whl, yt whale oy
II—SHAMS-UD-DI'N FI’RUZ.
Whatever may have been the actual date of Nasir-ud-din’s decease
or political obscuration, we tread upon more firm ground in the con-
joint testimony of the coins and the historical reminiscences of Ibn
Batutah, in the assurance that his son, Shams-ud-din Firtiz, was in
full possession of power in Western Bengal at the time of Muhammad
bin Tughlak’s abortive revolt against his own father, in 722-3. a.u.*
The African traveller incidentally mentions that to the court of this
southern monarch fled the nobles who had engaged in the contem-
plated treason, which originated in the camp of the army of the
Dakhin, of which the imperial heir was commander. Professedly
written history is altogether at fault in establishing the existence
or illustrating the reign of this sovereign; and even Ibn Batutahf
* As this passage presents no particular difficulty, beyond the difference of the
texts from which English and French translators have drawn.their inspiration, I
merely annex the rendering given in the amended Paris edition, vol: iii., p. 210,
“Les autres émirs s’enfuirent prés du Sultan Chems eddin, fils du sultan Nacir-
eddin, fils du sultan Ghiydth eddin Balaban, et se fixérent isa cour... Les émirs
fueitifs séjournérent prés dw sultan Chems eddin. Dans::la suite, celui-ci
mourut, léguant le tréne a son fils Chihab eddin.. Ce prince succéda 4 son pére;
mais son frére cadet, Ghiyath eddin Behadotr Bourah (ce dernier mot signifie,
dans la langue indienne le noir), le vanquit, sempara du royaume, et tua son
frére Kothloii Khan, ainsi que la plupart de ses autres fréres. Deux de ceux-ci,
le sultan Chihdb eddin, et Nasir eddin, s’enfuirent prés de Toghlok, qui se mit
en marche avec eux, afin de combattre le fratricide. Illaissa dans son royaume
son fils Mohammed en qualité de vice-roi, et s’avanga en hate vers le pays de
Lacnaouty. Il s’em rendit maitre, fit prisonnier soe sultan GhiyAth eddin Beha-
doir et reprit avec ce captif le chemin de sa capitale.” See also Lee’s Translation,
e928.
‘ + Ibn Batutah in the following extract tells us: so much about the real history
of Bengal at, and previous to his own visit, that I quote the Arabic text in
extenso ; I feel it is the more necessary to reproduce the original version on this
occasion, as Dr, Lee’s translation is altogether deficient in any reference to the
passage, which was clearly wanting in the MSS. at his disposal.
-~-
44. The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
does little more than place upon record the affiliation, elevation, and
decease of Shams-ud-din, whose own coins alone furnish the addition-
al item of his regal name of Firdz; and in their marginal records
Ladi, a) URS aad (. ioe ie wo! 520 a, ee) a ent
GS Sy By US Phe Epon! slat Lay i use el
eno Uren aust ws ty w! e, (gs she iid cs)! “gles yoJ J
35>! alo ole wl cst! wo wlgc Sx} it? iy wl ust
wot elas wlhlJb enol wed _paidels By 7 gol eyo! elas
Ele byl das? Si SULT a Lael 9! yale Sat, sya ree
33% cls Coty SF gia alls ae aSis Elle aywldy of ihe
ae 945 “te este lyXlo = celpbasly Son]! BLiRd at [go odlatt
hs sthy wt gS rend we a csl9® 9% ego pol cla lent
alu wil’ fils oe ee cys say KASQS} oonth WIL ASiwwlg
Sys 3,3) x) 3 SS) ode le godt p=? ler aglty sli
ol os Ul csht gle (ic tel lgas hal I old wole {Sly
Vol. iv. p. 212, Paris edition. da3 &3_25
TRANSLATION.
C’est le Sultan Fakhr eddin, surnommé Fakreh, qui est un souverain dis-
tingué, aimant les étrangers, surtout les fakirs et les ome La royauté de ce
pays a appartenu au Sultan Nassir eddin, fils du Sultan Ghiyath ed din Balban,
et dont le fils, Mo’izz eddin, fat investi de lasouveraineté aDihly. Nassir eddin
se mit en marche pour combattre ce fils; ils se rencontrérent sur les bords du
fleuve, et leur entrevue fut appelée la rencontre des deux astres heureux. Nous
avons déja raconté cela, et comment Nassir eddin abandonna Vempire & son fils
et retourna dans le Bengale. Ily séjourna jusqu’a sa mort, et eut pour succes-
seur son (autre) fils, Chams eddin, qui, apres son trépas, fut lui-méme remplacé
par son fils, Chihab eddin, lequel fut vaincu par son frére, Ghiydth eddin
Béhaddour Botr. Chihéb eddin demanda du secours au Sultan Ghiydth eddin
Toghlok, qui lui en accorda, et fit prisonnier Béhédour Boir. Celui-ci fut
ensuite relaché par le fils de Toghlok, Mohammed, aprés son avénement, 4 con-
dition de partager avec lui la royauté du Bengale; mais il se révolta contre lui,
et Mohammad lui fit la guerre jusqu’a ce qu’il letudt. Ilnomma alors gouver-
neur de ce pays un de ses beaux-fréres, que les troupes massacrérent. ’Aly Chah,
qui se trouvait alors dans le pays de Lacnaouty, s’ empara de la royauté du
Bengale. Quand Fakhr eddin vit que la puissance royale était sortie de la
famille du Sultan Nassir eddin, dont il était un des affranchis (ou elients), il se
révolta & Sodeéwaén et dans le Bengale, et se déclara indépendant, Une violente
inimitié survint entre lui et’ Aly Chah. Lorsqu’arrivaient le temps de l’hiver et la
saison des pluies, Fakhr eddin faisait une incursion sur le pays de Lacnaouty, au
moyen du flenve, sur leqnel il était puissant. Mais quand revenaient les jours ou
il ne tombe pas de pluie,’ Aly Chah fondait sur le Bengale par la voie de terre, &
cause de la puissance qu’il avait sur celle-ci.
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 45
establish the fact of his possession of Lukhnauti during the period
embraced between the years 702-722, and (at some moment) of
his ownership the Eastern Province of Bengal represented by the mint
of Sonaérgaon. A subordinate incident is developed in the legends
of the coins, that he felt himself sufficiently firm in his own power to
discard the supererogatory adjuncts of descent or relationship, and
relied upon the simple affirmation of his own position as wlblJ1,
Shams-ud-din. Firiz Shah.
No. 4.
Lakhnauti, a.n. 702,* 715, (Col. Bush), 720, 722.
Silver. Size, vii. Weight, 168.4 grs, Very rare. Plate L, fig. 3.
Type as above.
Ony. Rev.
peed welt}
: et — I
he pratim—e}
BLS 5539 peo!) 531
Erdiese!! p20]
wlbld}
Margin, [ d:leryo ] a wryps Kw 55 pas! aside uae
No. 5.
Sondrgaon, a.m. ?
Silver. Size, vii. Weight, 168 grs. Unique.
Type as above.
IIl.—SHAHAB-UD-DI'N. BUGHRAH SHAH.
Neither history, incidental biography, nor numismatic remains
avail to do more than prove the elevation, as they seem to indicate
the brief and uneventful rule, of Shahab-ud-din, the son of Shams-ud-
din Firtiz, and grandson of the once recognised heir-apparent of
Balban.
* See also Pathén Sultans of Hindiist4n, p. 37, coin dated 702 a.u. This
coin was published by me in 1848. I then read the date as 7024.H. TI was not
at the time unversed in the decipherment of Arabic numbers, and probably from
the very difficulty of placing the piece itself, [ may the more rely upon the accu-
racy of my original interpretation. I mention this fact, as | am at present un-
able to refer to the coin itself, ;
46 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
The singularly limited number of the coins of this prince, confined
—if Calcutta selections be not at fault*—to three examples amid
the 13,500 accumulated specimens of the currencies of other kings
of the land over which he temporarily held sway, sufficiently mark
his status in the general list of the potentates of the century in which
he lived. No date or place of mintage is preserved on his extant
money, and the single additional item supplied by their aid is his
personal or proper name, which “appears on their surfaces as 80% ;
a crude outline which might suggest a doubt as to the conclusiveness
of the transcription of 8, now confidently adopted as expressing an
optional rendering of the grandfather’s title of wWS!,*,7 a name
which was even further distorted from the Turki original by the
conversion of the medial ) r into the vernacular cerebral S or 5 = d.
For the rest, the pieces themselves, under the mechanical test, in
their make, the forms of their letters, and the tenor of their legends,
evidently follow closely upon Shams-ud-din’s mintages, and as clearly
precede the money of the same locality, issued by Ghids-ad-din
Bahédur Shah who in 724 a. uw. drove this, his own brother, Shahab-
ud-din to take refuge with Ghids-ud-din Tughlak Shah. Bahddur’s
career has yet to be told in connexion with his own coins; but to
dispose of Shahab-ud-din,{ as far as the exercise of his Mint preroga-
tives are concerned, he seems to have been lost to fame, from the
* The name of this king does not appear in any of Rajendralal’s lists.
+ The ancient name of WU Ld | ty gesb of Bokhara notoriety in 350 A. H.
(Frehn Recensio Numoram Muhammadanorum, pp. 139, 593, 578), was sub-
jected to strange mutations on Indian soil. My authority for the substitution of
the final § in place of the vowel { is derived from Ibn Batutah, who uniformly
writes the word with an x (iii, 231, 5, 293.) Ferishtah (text, p, 131) has Lyd,
whence Stewart's Bagora (p. 74). Dow gave the name as Kera, and Briggs as
Kurra (i, pp. 265, 270, etc.).
t Those who delight in interesting coincidences might see, in this name of —
Shabab-ud-din, a most tempting opportunity for associating him witha really —
important record by the Indigénes themselves, inscribed on a stone slab in the
fort of Chunar, setting forth their victory over a “ Malik’ Shahab-ud-din,
quoted as acting under Mehammad bin Tughlak, in Samvat 1390 (a. H. 734) ;
but I confess I do not myself encourage the identification, Chunar is certainly
not out of the range of access from Bengal; but other men of mark may have
filled this command, and the name of the fortress itself is never heard of in
reference to the affairs of the kingdom of Lakhnauti, in those early days, though
the main road of communication between the two capitals of the north and the
south took its course through Budaun or Kanauj and Jaunpore, The inscription —
is otherwise well worthy of further examination, in as far as it concerns the
history of imperial influence upon proximate localities ; and as such I transcribe
1867. ] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 47
date when he was absorbed with an associate fugitive brother (Nasir-
ud-din) under the wgis of the Emperor of Dehli.
Shahdb-ud-dim. Bughrah Shah.
No. 6.
Mint, ?
Silver. Size, vii. Weight, 168.5 grs. Two coins only, Col,
Guthrie. Plate L., fig. 4.
both the text and Dr. Mills’ translation of the brief passages which may chance
to illustrate the general subject.
Verse 5:
Feralas suaqaasaewel |
= ~ ~ ~ A-
Scat fal faawajtar areata Batlaty: |
“ By Mvunammap, lord of the hostile Yavanas SHAuAg-up-DiN and the rest,
thongh an enemy, was SairAsa, the treasure of benignity, employed as prime
minister.”
Verse 11:
WaT (eee wrzafe wy at GUMS aAUC-
Waa aas aes laut aa I
*‘ Samvat 1390, in the month of Bhadra, fifth day of the waning moon, on
Thursday, was the kingdom set free from Maik SHAHAB-UD-DiN, acting under
the protecting favour of SarrAsa Deva aforesaid.”
—See Journal As. Soc. Bengal, vol. v., 1836, p. 341).
A subordinate but still more Open inquiry also suggests itself in connexion with
the mention of Shahab-ud-dim in 734 4. u., as to whether, amid the strange con-
fusion of names and titles, the “ Kadr Khan,” who is noticed by Ferishtah under
the original designation of Malik Bidar Khilji, may not, perchance, have been the
identical Shahab-ud-din Bughrah, reinstated as simple governor in Lakhnauti, as
his brother Bahadur was restored to power in Sondrgaon, I am aware that this is
treacherous ground to venture upon; but sucha supposition is not without other
incidental support, especially in Ibn Batutah’s passage (original, iii. 214, quoted
at p 48), where Kadr Khan is spoken of as if he had been in effect the last scion
of the family of Nasir-ud-din Mahmid Bughrah,
The original passages in Ferishtah are as follows (i. p. 237) :—
cel pol sb oye syF Glbd wld pod |) Ges jlony Me
wt Ty 5 sh $y ytd (16 Pe 244). ghey gh (H,igS) ¢ tes} O72 BOB CH y9
eo wl ple? eb93 jj! Oo coins eS ee She ly gl 4&5 wi yas
Oa Geko he Wyld ALES 1) WIR pod 4 oy yy 2 UKY
- See also Briggs’ Translation, i. pp. 412, 423-
The Tarikh Mubarak Shahi has the name in manifest mistranscription as Bandar.
IL SQ cles} y of WIA od Gel ais elle y
A difficulty necessarily suggests itselfin regard to the tribe of K hiljt, but the
use of the name in its non-etlinic sense might readily be explained by the old
subordination of the Bengal family to the Khilji dynasty of Firiz, or the
Specially Khilji serial succession of the earlier governors of Bengal.
48 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
Type as usual.
Osv. Rev.
e— Bed Pes, (mee 1 el awyf
emf» Wot &he Perino
gla poke eed gat ey—Bhoget| pro!
wlblue Ett w bl
Margin, (remainder illegible) —Siddoy6
IV.—_ BAHADUR SHAH.
The single point in the biography of Bahadur Shah, which remains
at all obscure, is the date of his first attaining power. Ibn Batutah
records with sufficient distinctness, that he conquered and set aside
his regnant brother Shahdb-ud-din, sometime prior to Ghids-ud-din
Tughlak’s reassertion of the ancient suzerainty of Dehli over the
lightly-held allegiance of Bengal, and his eventual carrying away
captive the offending Bahadur, who was, however, soon to be released,
and restored with added honours,* by Muhammad bin Tughlak,
almost immediately on his own accession. Indian home-authors, who
so rarely refer to the affairs of the Gangetic delta, give vague intima-
tions of the first appointment of Bahadur to Eastern Bengal by ’Ala-
ud-din Muhammad in a. u. 799,} assigning to him an inconceivable
interval of placid repose until a. u. 717, when he is stated to have
broken out into the turbulent self-assertion for which he was after-
wards so celebrated.
The two statements are certainly at variance, but Ibn Batutah’s
is the most readily reconcilable with probabilities, and the demands
of the up to this time legible dates on the coins which Bahadur put
into circulation in Bengal. I might have some doubt as to the
conclusiveness of the reading of the date 710 on his money in the
Kooch Bahar trowvaille, but I have none as to the clear expression
of aH. 711 and 712, though the singular break occurring between
712 (or 714) and 720 suggests a suspicion of an originally imperfect
Tabakat-i-Akbari, gly 9! ole yd Sy yg Bye 30 ORs
See also Zia-i-Barni, printed edit. p. 461.
{ Stewart, p. 75. Ferishtah (Briggs) i, 406,
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 49
die-rendering of the »“© = 10 for wy © = 20;* which would bring
the corrected range of Bahddur’s dates to 720-724; but even these
figures leave something to be reconciled in reference to their asgo-
ciate place of mintage, for in 720-722, his father, Shams-ud din
Firtz, was clearly in possession of the already commemorated “ Lakh-
naute ; but such an anomaly might be explained by the supposition
that Bahadur, in the earlier days, used the name of Lakhnauti as a
geographical expression for a portion of the dominions ordinarily
administered from that capital. Undoubtedly the first appearance of
the contrasted designation of the Eastern capital “‘ Sonérgaon”’ occurs on
a coin of his father; but even this sign of discrimination of urban
issues would not be altogether opposed to a continuance by Bahadur
of the loose usage of Camp Mints, of naming the metropolis as the
general term for the division at large, or inconsistent with the
subsidiary legitimate employment of the designation of the province
on a coinage effected anywhere within its own boundaries,—either
of which simple causes may have prevailed, and been utilized with
a new motive, if any covert ulterior meaning might be designed, as
implying that Bahadur himself had special successional or other
claims to the metropolitan districts.
Tughlak Shah’s intervention in the affairs of Bengal seems to have
originated in an appeal on the part of the ejected Shahab-ud-din
against the usurpation of his brother Bahadur. The result of the
Imperial expedition to the South was the defeat, capture, and
transport to Dehli of Bahadur Shah; but among the first acts of the
new Sultén, Muhammad bin Tughlak, was the release and re-installa-
tion of the offender, showing clearly. that he was something more
than an ordinary local governor, transferable at will, and that possibly
the interests of the father and son, in their newly-established dynastic
rank, and the confessed insubordination of the latter, were indepen-
dently advocated by the opposing members of the royal line of
Bengal, whose family tree could show so much more ancient a series
of regal successions than their parvenu Suzerains, whose elevation
dated scarce five years back. One of the most interesting illustrations
* Among more critical Arabic scholars than the Bengal Mint Masters ever
affected to be, this point would have been easily determined by the insertion
or omission of the conjunction va, which, as a rule, is required to couple the
units and the twenties, but is not used with the writs and tens.
7
50 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
of the present series is contributed by coin No. 9, in the legends of
which Bahadur acknowledges the supremacy of Muhammad bin
Tughlak over Eastern Bengal during a.u. 628.* The subjection
seems, however, to have been of brief duration, as sometime in or
after the year a.H. 730 Bahadur appears to have reverted to an
independent coinage, in a new capital called after his own title
Ghiaspir (coin No. 8), and in 4.4. 733 Muhammad bin Tughlak is
found issuing his own coin in Bengal, and Bahadur, defeated and put
to death, contributed an example to insurgent governors in his own
skin, which was stuffed and paraded through the provinces of the
empire.
iv. Bahadur Shah.
No. 7.
Lakhnanti, a. a. 710?, 711, 712, 7-3, 7-4,+ break, 720, 721, 722.
Silver. Size, vii. to viii. Weight, ordinarily, 166 grs.; one
example is as high as 167.5 grs. Rare, é
Osy. Rey.
pe Weellaln! alod
209 bod} ae
BLE oly Ratt gat
Margin, Ks le sreng os | Kine cig ty pe? KAQ Sa Lyd
* Ibn Batutah gives the following additional particulars of Bahadur’s rein-
stallation :—“ Il [Muhammad bin Tughlak] lui fit de nombreux cadeaux en
argent, chevaux, éléphants, et le renvoya dans son royaume. I] expédia avee
lui le fils de son frére, Ibré4him Khan; il couvint avec Behadour Botrah qv ils
posséderaient le dit royaume par égales moitiés; que leurs noms figureraient
ensemble sur les monnaies ; que la priére serait faite en leur nom commun, et
que Ghiydth eddin enverrait son fils Mohammed dit Berbath (Lb 7), comme
étage prés du souverain de l’Inde, Ghiydth eddin partit, et observa toutes les
promesses qu'il avait faites; seulement il n’envoya pas son fils, comme il avait
été stipulé. Il prétendit que ce dernier s’y était refusé, et, dans son discours,
il blessa les convenances. Le souverain de l’Inde fit marcher au secours du
fils de son frére, Ibrahim Khan, des troupes dont le commandant était Doldji
altatiry ((¢ bd | = 9). Elles combattirent Ghiydth eddin et le tuérent ; elles
le dépouillérent de sa peau, qu’on rembourra de paille, et qu’on promena ensuite ~
dans les provinces.’—Vol, iii. p. 316,
+ The dates 7-3, 7-4, may perchance be obliterated records of 723 and 724.
I have placed them among the lower figures, but I have no sanction for
retaining them in that position.
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 51
No. 8.
Second Mint, Ghidsptir. Date, 730.
' Gilver. Size, vii. Weight, 166 and 164.5 grs. Very rare. Two
‘coins. Col. Guthrie. Plate L., fig. 5.
Margin, # Qpidb din yikes arad Kia «
tv. Bahadur Shah,
as Vassal wnder Muhammad bin Tughlak.
No. 9.
Sondrgaon, a.u. 728.
Silver. Weight, 140 grs. Unique. Dehli Archeological Society,
Obverse, 8% yolys ibe gt Eri yg Ll Lhe were w lbh}
wed ot wi bl
Reverse, Area, gle Glad oy oo? AUL G51,J1 0b G3
Margin, ily erme 9 Cpt yAhe 9 wles Bw gilf Woo Byadar? Bet) yoo
Muhammad bin Tughlak Shah, Emperor of Hindustan,
(in his own name) after the re-conquest of Bengal.
No. 10.
Lakhnauti, a.a. 733.
Silver. Small coins. Size, v. to v}. Weight of well-preserved
coins, 168.5 grs. Five specimens, Col. Guthrie. Plate L, fig. 6.
Osy. Rey.
oS al
ig O—al =| &_ UY at ¥
i eae, © lea
BL GIS Gy} dee? SU} Sow)
<a
Reverse, Margin, .
Kilgndw y uns GMS dive sie ppty KAM 49% yd
If the place of mintage of these imperial coins had been illegible,
I should almost have been prepared, on the strength of the pecu-
liarity of the forms of the letters, to have assigned their execution
to a Bengal artist. The original model for the type of coinage may
be seen in fig. 90, page 54, Pathan Sultans, The late Mr. G. Free-
ling, of the Bengal C.S., has left on record his acquisition of a gold
piece of the same design (from the Dehli Mint) dated a.m. 725,
52 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
V.—FAKHR-UD-DIN. MUBARAK SHAH.
On the departure of Muhammad bin Tughlak from Bengal, Tatar
Khan, honorarily entitled Bahrém Khan, an adopted son of Ghias-
ud-din Tughlak, seems to have been left in charge of the provinces
included in the government of Sonargaon, while the Lakhnauti
division of the kingdom of Bengal was entrusted to Kadr Khan.
On the death of Bahram Khan,* which is stated to have taken place
in 739—but may probably have to be antedated to 737—Fakhr-ud-
din Mubarak, his Sildhddr, took possession of the government, and
proclaimed his independence. He was in the first instance defeated
by the troops sent against him from Lakhnauti, but finally succeeded
in maintaining his authority, and, as the coins prove, in retaining his
hold on Sondrgaon and its dependencies throughout the nine years,
from 741 to 750 a.u., comparatively undisturbed. The history of
the period is confused, and the dates given by the native authors
prove of little value;t+ but the coins establish the fact that in 751
another ruler, designated I[khtidr-td-din Ghazi Shah, presided over
the Mints of Eastern Bengal.
vy. Fakhr-ud-din. Mubarak Shah.
No. 11.
Son4rgaon, A.H. 737,—TAl, 742, 748, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749,
. 750.
Silver. Size, vi. to viz. Weight, 166.0 grs. Unique.
Plate I, fig. 7.
Osv. Rey.
peed w!— blond} a) eats pase
Gls iol = |
JS eae
xLES lao Rat! os) :
> BP ge LS Wy 4° _g ed |
tices |
Margin,
* Nizam-ud-din Ahmad says, Mubarak killed Bahr4m Khén; while Abul Fazl
affirms that Mubarak put Kadr Khan to death.—Ayin-i-Akbari, ii. 21,
+ Ferishtah, Briggs, i. pp. 412-413 ; iv. 828. Stewart, pp. 80-83.
1867. ] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 53
The above specimen is unique in date, and varies in the opening ©
legend of the reverse from the less rare coins of later years, which
commence with 4@b| (03%
VI._—’ALA-UD-DIN. ’ALY SHAH.
’Ali Shah, whom Muhammadan writers, by a strange jumble, have
endowed with the surname of his adversary Mubarak, and ordinarily
refer to as ‘’Ali Mubarak,’’+ assumed kingship on the death of
Kadr Khan, Muhammad Tughlak’s representative at Lakhnauti,
entitling himself ’Alé-ud-din. The more important incidents of his
reign are confined to his hostilities with his rival, Fakhr-ud-din
Mubarak of Sondrgaon, who possessed advantages in his maritime
resources, while the rivers remained navigable for large vessels during
the rainy season, but which were more than counterbalanced by Ali
Shah’s power on land, which availed him for the greater part of the
year, and which finally enabled him to establish his undisputed rule
in the Western provinces.
His coins exhibit dates ranging from 742 to 746 a.n., and bear
the impress of the new mint of the metropolis, Firizabad, an evidence
of a change in the royal residence, which clearly implies something
more than a mere removal to a new site proximate to the old Lakh-
nauti, whose name is henceforth lost sight of, and may be taken to
indicate a strategetic transfer of the court to the safer and less exposed
locality of the future capital, Pandua.t ’Ali Shah is stated to have
been assassinated by his foster brother, Haji Tlias.§
’Ald-ud-din. ’Ali Shah.
No. 12.
Firtizabad, 742, 744, 745, 746.
Silver. Size, vid. Weight, 166.7 grs. Rare. Plate I. fig. 8,
Type as usual.
* See also an engraving of his coin (dated 750) Pathan Sultans, fig, 151 and
age 82.
4 Badan MS. Ferishtah, iv. 329. Stewart, p. 82. Ayin-i-Akbari, ii. 21.
{ Stewart, speaking of Firtz’s advance against Ilias, says, “the Emperor
advanced to a place now called Feroseporeabad, where he pitched his camp
and commenced the operations of the siege of Pundua,” p.84. Thereisa Mahal
| Firdézptr in Sircor Tandah, noticed in the Ayin-i-Akbari, ii. p. 2. See also
| the note from Shams-i-Siraj, quoted below (p. 61), under the notice of Ilids
Shah’s reign.
§ Stewart, p. 83,
54. The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
Osv. Rev.
_ bed w lbh 255] yriSoo
eto}g iol} sdle Keyes)
glinals hb) Iyl ols eee yl wiles
wl bland} WAX go) 0}
Margin,
VIT.—IKHTIAR.UD-DIN. GHAZT SHAH.
At the period of this king’s accession to the sovereignty of Sonar-
gaon ina. H. 750 or 751, we lose the aid of our most trustworthy
recorder of the annals of Bengal during his own time. The conclu-
sion of Ibn Batutah’s narrative leaves Fakhr-ud-din Mubarak still
in power, while the native authorities are clearly at fault in their
arrangement .of dates and events, and altogether silent as to any
change in the succession in Hastern Bengal, except in their allusions
to the more than problematical capture of Fakhr-ud-din and his
execution by ’Ali Mubdérak in 743 a.n., with the final accession of
Ilias “ one year and five months afterwards,’’* 7
The numismatic testimony would seem to show that Mubarak
was succeeded by his own son, as the Ul Sultdn bin Ul Sultan may
be taken to imply. The immediately consecutive dates, and the
absolute identity of the fabric of the coins, as well as the retention
of the style of Right-hand of the Khalifat on the reverse, alike
connect the two princes; while the cessation of the issues of Ghazi
in A.H. 703, would seem to point to the gradual spread of the power
of the latter, which is stated to have been at its zenith just before
Firdz IIL. assailed him in his newly consolidated monarchy in 754.f
* Stewart, p. 83.
+ Shams-i-Siraj, speaking on hearsay, affirms that Shams-ud-din Ilias captured
and slew Fakhr-ud-din after Firaz III.’s first expedition into Bengal,
and that the main object of the latter’s second invasion of that province
was for the purpose of reasserting the rights of Zafar Khan, the son-in-law
of Fakhr-ud-din (who had fled for protection to Dehli), to the kingdom of
Eastern Bengal. It is asserted that although Firiz succeeded in obtaining
this concession from Sikandar, who, in the interval, had succeeded to his
father’s throne, Zafar Khan himself was wise enough to decline the dangerous
|
Shah simultaneously with -the acquisition of Sondrgaon by Ilias, ~
|
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 55
Ikhtidr-ud-din, Ghazi Shah.
No. 13.
Sonargaon, a.H. 751-753.
Silver. Size, vi. Weight, 166 grs. Very rare indeed. Three
coins, Col. Guthrie. Plate I. fig. 9.
Osv. Rev.
pbs wlblidt
Kale) Bree
edly Wot ist ania
. ban 4 ! 20
gliby jE Ob It yt siiichia
spall oJ
talon ci jesbbalon hdl
Margin,
Byleames urteod 9 oda] Kin silf lin fila Fda! J) sd oy
VIL—SHAMS-UD-DIN. ILIAS SHAH.
The modern application of old coins divides itself into two branches
—the suggestive development of obscure tradition, and the enlarge-
ment and critical revision of accepted history. The transition point
between these archxological functions, in the present series, declares
itself in the accession of Ilias Shah, the first recognised and effectively
independent Moslem Sultan of Bengal, the annals of whose reign
have been so often imperfectly reproduced in prefatory introductions
to the relation of the magnificent future his successors were destined
to achieve as holders of the interests and the commercial prosperity
of the Delta of the Ganges, to whose heritage, indeed, England
owes its effective ownership of the continent of India at the present
day.
proximity to so powerful a rival monarch, and to return in the suite of the
| Sultan. The Bengal troops, under Zafar Khan, subsequently distinguished them-
selves in an opposite quarter of India, near Tattah, and their commander was
eventually left in charge of Guzrat.—Shams-i-Siraj, book ii, cap. 9, ete.—
| See also Journal Archeological Society of Dehli (Major Lewis’s abstract
| translation), 1849, p. 15.
| The Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (dedicated to Mubarak II.), the concluding
| date of which is 838 a.u., also declares that Haji Ilias killed Fakhr-ud-din in
741 a.u, This last date is a manifest error; as is also, probably, the omission,
by both authors, of the words son of before the name of Fakhr-ud-din,
56 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
The compiler of the English version of the early history of
Bengal* adopts the conclusion that Haji Ilt4s first obtained power
on the assassination of “ ’Ali Mubarak” in 745-6, but the previous
rectification of the independent personality and status of the two
individuals thus singularly absorbed into one, will prepare the reader
for the corrections involved, though not, perhaps, for the apparent
anomalies the coins disclose. Medallic testimony would seem to
indicate a long waging of hostile interests between the real ’Ali
Shih and Haji Ilias, before the latter attained his final local
triumph; for although Ilfds is seen to have coined money in Firtizabad
in 740 a.n., the chance seems to have been denied him in 741;
and in 742 his adversary, ’Ali Shah, isfound in full possession
of the mint in question. The Kooch Bahar hoard reveals no coin of
either party dated 743, but in 744 the two again compete for owner-
ship, which ’Ali Shah for the time being continues through 745 into
746, when the annual series is taken up and carried on successively
for an uninterrupted twelve years by his more favoured opponent. It
is needless to speculate on the varying course of these individual
triumphs; suffice it to say, that the increasing power of the ruler of
Pandua, in 754, excited the Emperor Firiz III, to proceed against
him in all the pomp and following of an Oriental suzerain, resulting
only in the confession of weakness, conveniently attributed to
the periodical flooding of the country;—which effectively laid
* Stewart, p. 83.
+ Stewart felt a difficulty about the right position of Akddlah, the real point
of attack, and a place of considerable importance in the local history of Bengal.
The following is Zia-i-Barni’s description of the place, taken from the concluding
peo of his history on the occasion of Firiz Shah’s (IIL.) invasion of Bengal
in A.H. :—
mel OT wf Seb Ely Ff sySiy Krg5) creel (garde oll Mast,
sou ¢ eo fy ddg 3 9 dF wyes’ KISS] whs ae! Kim es Sb y
P, 588, printed edit. oy SI OS| 3 b=! 4 [oy by ly
Rennell gives another Akdallah north of Dacca. ‘‘ Map of Hindoostan,”
In the following passage Shams-i-Siraj desires to make it appear that Ffrig
III. gave his own name to the city of Pandua; but, as we have seen that the
designation was applied to the new capital either in 740 or 742—that is, long
before Firaz became king of Dehli, it will be preferable to conclude that the
mame was originally bestowed in honour of the Shams-ud-din Firtz of Bengal, o
the present series. The quotation is otherwise of value, as it establishes, beyond
a doubt, the true position of the new metropolis :—
BLE jy pad ryder aliy bd Alo WT yo Oday Hid yo (ald jy )
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 57
the foundation of the ultimate independence of Bengal. A monarchy
which was destined so to grow in power and material wealth as to be
competent, indirectly, in the person of Shir Shah, to recover for the
old Muhammadan interest the cherished capitals of the north, and to
eject from Hindustan the Moghuls who too hastily boasted of an easily-
achieved conquest of the country “ from Bhira to Bahar.”
Shams-ud-din. Tliés Shah.
No. 14.
Firizabad, a. u. 740, 744, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 754, 755,
756, 757, 758.
Silver. Size, vii. Weight, selected specimens, 168.0 gts.; ordinary
weights, 166.0 grs. :
‘Type No. 1. The old Dehli pattern.
Obverse, Square area,
Reverse, Square area, within a circle.
Osv. Rev.
co obi" aay
wneiy Lied! Gand et
crt 2bolt gt
ceybobent| gle
Margin,
Kslesrw y upimod 9 Ql Sis sblig ob} us? KS} Kah) 50 me yd
Type No.1. Variety A. Silver. Size, vii. Weight, 166 grs.
Obverse, Lettered surface.
Reverse, Small circle, area.
No. 15.
Firizabad, a, a. 758.
Type No.2. Broad coin. Size, ix. Weight of the best and selected
: specimens, 166.0 grs. only.
Obverse, Plain lettered surface.
Reverse, Circular area, with narrow margin.
yy G kx! 1 updos
wd xe) Hl
Y MiO51 lB jypad Ylbhe wg dialed LT jy9 ed aU g oloitys
3x2 OT (hence) # # @ # obT Syy4? b t902 pe% 9 5S co dye olf
BpddY Tyo LT jy pad g Aas 5 ye
From the original MS, in the possession of Zia ud-din Khan of Lohari,
8
58 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
Legends, both obverse and reverse as in No. 1 type.
Marginal legend,
Rilezaee 9 dead 9 wled Sine olitgnyd Ryda! Sud] g1d8 oye
The Kooch Bahar trove must have been rich in this type of coin,
and of the particular year a. H. 758, as out of 109 specimens in Col.
Guthrie’s collection, there is no single example of any other date.
No. 16.
Sonérgaon, a. u. 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758.
Type No. 3. Size, vii. Present weight, 166 grs. after the obvious
reduction by boring out. Plate IL, fig. 10.
Obverse, Square area.
Reverse, Circular area, with broad margin,
Oxy. Rey.
ols | epledend}
wots Lod} ued ele yo Sow
“1 cei .
elt prbed! yl ale wrtZ
wyladent] gle wrdiese!l pio!
Margin,
IX.—SIKANDAR BIN ILIAS.
This king—the second only in the still incomplete assertion of
local independence of allegiance to the throne of Dehli—exhibits in
the material wealth of his national coinage the striking progress
incident to comparative freedom and identity of home interests, which
may be achieved, almost on the instant, by the denizens of a commer-
cial centre so fayoured by nature as the Delta of the Ganges.
Tried by such a test, few statistical returns could present more
effectively the contrast disclosed in the Kooch Bahar treasure between
the accumulated produce of the Bengal Mints, representing a century.
and a quarter’s limited activity, attended with all the advantages
of a diffused circulation, but under a subordinate government, as
compared with the overwhelming array of coins bearing the impress
of asingle unfettered monarch, whose money was, in effect, new
from the dies. To numismatists the enhanced proportion will b
BENGAL COINS
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bergat. 59
more significantly shown by a reference to the additional number
of Mint-cities, the singular variety of new types produced, and above
all, by the sustained series and corroborating repetitions of annual
dates. It is under the latter aspect alone that I have now to com-
ment on the history of a reign already sufficiently told in other pages.
Sikandar Shéh placidly succeeded his father towards the end of 759
A.u., and the coins of the period sufficiently support the date of such
a transfer of power, in the final year 758 recorded on the issues of the
father, though proof of the accession of the son is less marked, as
the seeming anomaly obtained—under the conjoint efforts of father
and son to achieve release from thraldom to a distant suzerain—of a
concession to the son of much independent power, and, coincidently,
the right to coin money in his own name, whether in his own camps
or in his father’s royal cities, Though some of the earlier designed
coins give evidence of due humility in titular phraseology, the same
simplicity is adhered to, in continuous mintages, long after the
removal of any possible impediments or restrictions to the adoption
of comparatively exalted titles; though in the more independent
governmental mintages of 758 a.m. (No. 21) the phere! wlbluJ} is affect-
ed even during the life-time of the father, and, after his own accession,
higher assumptions, and a more definite approach towards personal
hierarchical honors, are discovered in the metropolitan issues of 766-
780 (No. 22), while special service against the infidels seems to be
implied in the novel intitulation of &U| jac¥}_,aJ) “ The conqueror of
the enemies of God,” on the Firtizabad money of 769 a.n. (No. 23),
But the most interesting details furnished by Sikandar’s coins are
those which illustrate the geographical distribution of the chief seats
of government. Unlike the Northern Moslems, who, in the difficulty
of moving the Eastern hosts—conventionally deemed essential to an
Imperial progress—over the imperfect highways of Hindustan, con-
fined themselves ordinarily to one fixed metropolis, the kings of
Bengal enjoyed facilities of river communication almost unprecedented :
their various capitals, situated within easy distance of one another,
were at all times accessible by water,—a differently constructed
State barge secured at any season free approach to the seaboard
cities of the Great Ganges or the towns on the narrow channels of
the western streams. These frequent regal visitations are incidentally
60 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
recorded on the coinage of the day, by the insertion of the prefix
of usy2= to the name of the selected residence, which term colloquial-
ly marked the presence of royalty within the limits of the favoured
fiscal division. |
Sikandar’s mint cities were five in number—No. 2, Firdzdbdd ; 3,
Satgaon ; and 4, Shahr Nau, in Western Bengal; with 5, Sondrgaon ;
and 6, Muazamibdd, in the Eastern division of the province.
2. The first-named mint, in addition to the preferential Hazrat,*
is styled variously Baldat and sy pyar | 805 “ fortified city,” a speci-
fication which probably refers to the separate though closely proxi-
mate citadel of Akddlah, so celebrated in the military annals of the
time (coin No. 26). %
3. Satgaon is distinguished by the prefix of Kose (Atrium) a term
which, in India, came to be conventionally used for a tract or geogra-
phical division of country,+ a sense which would well accord with its
application to Satgaon, as the third circle of government of Bengal
proper.t In the subsequent reign of Aazam the mint specification
is more directly brought into association with the town itself in the
a ad
seemingly more definite localization involved in the word &a5§
4, Shahr Nau, I suppose to have been the intitulation of the new
city founded near the site of the old Lakhnauti:|| it is variously
denominated as the simple ’Arsat or 3)p+%+4| ioe (populous, richly
Pa 94
* 5 yom “ Presentia, Majestas ; urbs, in qua est regis sedes.”
+ ws) jo O ye in Pergian, means “ surface of the earth,” Sir Henry Elliot
remarks, “The words used before Akbar’s time to represent tracts of country
larger than a Pergunnah were (oa , és , Bore , lo , eu, and ela5|
— Glossary of Indian Terms, sub voc “ Circar.” |
{ Zia-i-Barni, in introducing his narrative of Tughlak Shah’s expedition to
Bengal (A. H. 724), speaks of that province as consisting of the three divisions —
“ Lakhnauti, Sunargaon, and Satgaon” (p. 450, printed edit.),
The Ayin-i-Akbari, in the xvi. cent. A. D. thus refers to Satgaon, “ There are
two emporiums a mile distant from each other; one called Satgaon, and the
other Hoogly with its dependencies; both of which are in the possession of
the Europeans.”—Gladwin, ii. p. 15. See also Rennell, p. 57. Stewart’s
Bengal, pp. 186, 240, 248, 330.
§ From Ww25 “ amputavit:’ hence &xes “oppidum, vel potior, preecipua
pars oppidorum.”
|| The decipherment of the name of this mint (as Col. Yule reminds me)
determines for medieval geography the contested site of Nicold Conti’s
Cernove. The Venetian traveller in the East in the early part of the fifteenth
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 61
cultivated),.* This progressively less appropriate name may be sup-
posed to have merged into the official Jannatabad, which follows in
Mint sequence.
5. Sandrgaon, as a rule, retains its ancient discriminative designa-
tion of Ula 34>, a title which it eventually had to cede to its rival
Muazamabad.
6. Muazamabad. There is no definite authority for the determi-
nation of the site of this city, which, however, seems to have been
founded by Sikandar about 758-759 a. m., when his own coins record
that. he himself assumed the title of ¢-&*J!, without trenching upon
the superlative weed usually reserved for the reigning monarch.
I conclude that there was a gradual migration from the ancient Sonar-
gaon to the new city, which grew in importance from the govern-
mental centre implied in the ob} ebro eats) (No. 19) of 760 a. u., to
the sblbaorbest| fob, “the great city of Muazamabad” (No. 18) of
about 780 a. u., till, on the disappearance of the name of Sonargaon
century is recorded to have said that ‘* he entered the month of the river Ganges,
and, sailing up it, at the end of fifteen days he came to a large and wealthy
city called Cernove ....... On both banks of the stream there are most charming
villas and plantations and gardens. ...... Having departed hence, he sailed up
the river Ganges for the space of three months, leaving behind him four
very famous cities, and landed at an extremely powerful city called Maarazia.
. having spent thirteen days ‘on an expedition to some mountains to the
eastward, in search of carbuncles’.. he , returned to the city of Cernove,
and thence proceeded to Buffetania.’ ’__The travels of Nicol6 Conti, Hakluyt
Society, London, pp. 10, 11.
See also Purchas, vol. v. p. 508; and Murray’s Travels in Asié,'3 nm. 11.
There are also many interesting details regarding the geography of Bengal,
and a very full and lucid summary of the history of the period, to be found in
“Da Asia de Joaode Barros” (Lisbon, 1777, vol. iv. [viii.], p. 465 et seq.). At
the period of the treaty of Alfonso de Mello with, “ El Rey Mamud de Bengala’”
(the king whom Shir Shah eventually overcame) the name of Shahr Nau had
merged into the old provincial designation of Gawr, which is described as “a
principal Cidade deste Reino he chamada Gow/o, situada nas correntes do Gan-
ge, e dizem ter de comprido tres leguas, das nossas, e duzentos mil vizinhos,”
(p. 458). Satigam makes a prominent figure on the map, and Sornagam is
located on a large island within the Delta, the main stream dividing it from
Daca, which is placed on the opposite or left bank of the estuary.
More modern accounts of the old city may be found in Purchas, i. 579 ;
Churchill, viii. 54; also Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan, London,
1788, ‘P: 55. Stewart, p. 44, and ina special work entitled ‘“‘ The Ruins of
Gour,” illustrated with maps, plans, and engravings of the numerous Muham-
madan edifices extant in 1817, by H. Creighton, Ato., London, Black, Parbury
and Allen. See also Elliot’s Glossary of Indian Terms, sub voce, Gour Brahmin.
* The adjective (derived from ye Coluit) will admit of other meanings, a
if understood as applying to a town, might signify “ well built,” locally Pakka.
62 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
from the marginal records of the general currency, the new metropolis
appropriates to itself the immemorial Ui %,a= of Eastern Bengal
(No. 32 A.)
With a view to keep these brief geographical notices under one
heading, I advert for the moment to No, 7, Ghiaspur, of which locality
I have been able to discover no trace ; and likewise anticipate the due
order of the examination of Aizem Shah’s mint cities in referring to
the sole remaining name of Jannatdbad, an epithet which is erroneous-
ly stated to have been given by Humiytn to the re-edified Lakhnauti,*
but which is here seen to have been in use a century and a half be-
fore the Moghuls made their way into Bengal.
The single item remaining to be mentioned in regard to Aazam’s
mints is the substitution of the word 425 in lieu of Sob} as the prefix
to Firtiz4bad (No. 35), in parallel progress towards centralization with
the Mint phraseology adopted in the case of Satgaon.
Sikandar Shah bin Ilias Shah.
No: 17,
Firazabad, a. u. 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 758, 759, 760.
Type No. 1. Ordinary simple obverse, with reverse circular are
a and margin.
Osv. Rev.
a oles)
Bho Coldt cyl are os
wlblund} wemyl
Margin,
Ealerrw gy uymed 9 CI ius alt jyyad salt C9 Sad] QR] dd Gd
* Ayin-i-Akbari, ii. p, 11; Stewart’s Bengal, 124, Bengal itself was called
ww : .
odd | dtm, “The Paradise of Regions.’ Ibn Batutah, iv. p. 210, says the
Persians called Bengal Ky BSS) o yg, “fe qui signifie,” en arabe, “un enfer
rempli de biens.” Marsden, Num. Orient. p. 578, gives a coin of ’Al4-ud-din
Husain Shah, of a. H. 917, purporting to have been struck at “ Jannatabad.”
+t 4 “regio ;” also “oppidum.” The plurals are said to vary, in correspond-
2 AO
ence with the independent meanings, as yd and wiak
a
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 63
No. 18.
Sondrgaon, a. H. 756, 757, 759, 760, 763.
Type No. 2. Theusual lettered obverse with circular area and
margin reverse.
Osv. Rev.
ws oalee)
wey! nwe B25 Updos
cela ww?! gle yOiKnw al ols aly
wlelant} sls Brses red]
Margin,
Bslyrioe 9 spi Ke Pigs Jia § pac? KSmS} xd wy
No. 19.
Muazamabad, a. u. 760, 761, 763, 764. Plate II. fig. 12.
Variety A.
Margin,
Siler scythe y (oda! dio gli! pro aald| Sel! sd Gys
No. 20.
Firtizabad, a. u. 764,
Variety B.
No. 21.
Sonfrgaon, a. u. 758, 759.
Type No. 3. As usual.
Osv. Rev.
gla X< &Qa15 wie?
UG «UJ
Us cel wl et xs
lal} wrhzell
- Margin, as usual.
No. 22.
Firtzabad, a.n. 765, 766, 770, 771, 772, 773, 776, 779, 780.
Type No. 4. Coarse coins, badly formed letters, Obverse, aumnple
lettered surface. Reverse, circular area.
64 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
Gee: Rev.
$ abc
joddwe OOS A
wire]
eld wat sla és ally ola
wlbLnt| xls
Margin, &yleraseg criss Shoo bl 3g .a9 wr prdcr! Sead) sho
; No. 23.
Firazabad, a. a. 769.
Silver. Size, vii. Weight, 166 ers. Very rare. Plate II. fig. 11,
Type No. 5. Similar design to type 1.
Osv. Rev.
ssl) 5.1 poli]
gle diSvo | Bi Gyro
wl yibleJ alas
wiblJ| aU) fac
Margin,
#9 Lydhew 9 Gud Siew glif jy 49 sol) os SKee)] BO) 5% Gyd
No. 24.
Satgaon, a.u. 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 788. Plate IL. fig. 18.
Type No. 6. Obverse, a quadrated scalloped shield, with open
bosses on the margin containing the names of the “ four friends,” the
intermediate spaces being filled in partially with the king’s titles.
Reverse, hexagonal star-shaped lozenge, with exterior marginal
legend.*
* The pattern legend of this mint-die seems to have been taken from oral
I
data, as it is engraved as &lJ} acy ,alaJ} instead of the more critical &U] {ao
I
éJJ} ,0l2J/The increased facilities of intercourse by sea probably aided ‘thecol-
loquial knowledge of Arabic in the estuaries of Bengal ; while the learned of Dehli
had to rely more upon books and occasional teachers. Ibn Batutah tells us, that
Muhammad bin Tughlak, though pretending to speak Arabic, did not distinguish
himself in the act, while Haj Ilf4s must himself have performed the pilgrimage
to Mecca.
1867. ] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 65
: Osv. Rev.
i Wyse?
_pl_yols by &Q1S
BLS wld oil
wlll
GU ola Cyd gad!
asda
Obverse Margin,
us plete yee hy! saab sala} yl Joli plas eloy!
Reverse Margin,
Bilpaiae y ea) 9 Sal Khe giliw dope 63 SSylagl| ASul] 338 Cyd
No. 25.
Shahr Nau, a. u. 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786 Plate IL. fig, 14.
Type No. 7. Obverse, a simple octagon, with four circlets in the
margin containing the names of the four friends of the Prophet, the
rest of the exergue being filled in with the king’s own titles.
Reverse,a diamond-shaped area with the crossed lines prolonged
to the edge of the piece; the lines are slightly scalloped outwards
to form an ornamental field. |
Osvy. Rev.
xls jadideo G25 wie?
- Obverse Margin,
otise)) 5a] wee y)| ML, iy iste wlars yee Sagat
Reverse Margin, renin
Bilaxson g cytiled 9 coil) Sve 93 ppb droge (63 Tyla) Bal] ybO Cyd
‘ The name of the mint is imperfectly expressed on even the best
specimens, and great latitude has been permitted in the omission or
| insertion of entire words in the reverse marginal legend,
ike Variety A. differs merely in the pattern of the reverse area, which
is ornamented with double instead of single scallops.
La New: 2is.
Firdzabad, a. u. 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789,
(Uo Ton.
Type No. 8. Obverse, circular area, with a board margin divided
9
66 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
by circlets enclosing the names of the four friends of the Prophet,
the intermediate spaces being filled in with their titles.
Reverse, octagonal rose scalloped lozenge, with narrow margin.
Obverse,
wlhladt sld Colt oat sl& ydiSow oalse| yt wey oasis Ply
Margin,
pled cche padi wlebe Bale) yee bed Spit
Reverse,
asodla da urretaned| 9 cdlaw * we Wize! yA ol Sashes) wars
Margin,
Kalparee 9 cpriled dine obliga Kang | Koly (3 ATylaed} SKS} $2 Gps
No. 27. ;
Satgaon, a. H. 780.
Variety A. Reverse Margin,
etc. Peco 3 pore) Kuo »f 3 aS lad} SSrmd| ROD Wo
-.
No. 28, ;
Muazamabad (the great city), a.H.?
Variety B. Mint, ob! pbso pbs.J) Sols
No. 29.
Shahr Nau, a. u. 781.
Variety C. Mint, Gales y dat din 5 4 Byerell doe
No. 30.
Col. Guthrie has a gold piece of type No. 8, size vii. and a half,
weighing 158 grains. The coin is inferior in execution to the ordinary
silver money. The letters are badly formed, and the marginal legend
is altogether obliterated.f
' No. 31.
Firtizabad, a. u. 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787.
Type No. 9. Obverse, circular area, with a broad margin, broken
* M. Reinaud interpreted the word as W,£, Defensor (Journal Asiatique, 1823,
p. 272), in which he is followed by Marsde® (ii. p. 567). Sayud Ahmad again, in
his transcript of ’Ala-ud-din’s Inscription of 710 a. H., reproduces the title as.
witme ty Inet 5, which, in effect, carries a nearly identical meaning
(Asar-ul-sunadid, p. 58),
+ The only other Bengal gold coins I am at present able to refer to are a well-
preserved piece of Jdldl-ud lin Fatah Shah bin Mahmud (dated a. H. 890), now
in the possession of Colonel Guthrie, weighing 161.4 grains, and a coin in the B, M.
assigned to ’Ala-ud- din Husain (a, H, 905- 9217) which weighs 159.5 grains,
1867. ] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 67
by small shields containing the names of the four companions of the
Prophet ; the intermediate spaces are filled in with titles which
occasionally pertain to the king, but at times exclusively belong to
the Iméms.*
Reverse, hexagonal field ; narrow margin.
Osy. Rev.
b2Sa phe?
otlee} 5 il
ae Urge] | yao} G aly
| Fae | ape: Se, |
wll! gtd pimoily 6 w>
Wao Je
Obverse Margin,
( ske ) wert ori ( olete ) GLI (9 ) Bed! (Sxi ) plod!
Reverse Margin,
Ki lyrrwe g eriles y Seam Chae SUI jg 53 sols a 8S lao BSmd | §d2 wy
X.—A’AZAM SHAH.
The accession of Ghids-ud-din Aazam Shih was disgraced by rebellion
against his own father and coincident open war, in the course of which
Sikandar fell in a general action between his own and his son’s troops.
Native historians are more than ordinarily obscure in the narration of
these incidents, and the dates relied upon are singularly untrust-
worthy, when brought to the test of numismatic facts, Aazam’s initial
revolt is admitted to have gained force chiefly in Hastern Bengal, where
his coinage substantially proves his administrative supremacy, whether
as nominally subordinate or covertly resistant to paternal authority,
dating from 772 a. u.,—an increase of power seems to be associated
with the mint record of a hold over Satgaon in 790 a. H., and a real
or pretended occupancy of a portion of the territory of Pandua in
791, though the final eclipse of the royal titles of the father is delayed
till 792 a. n+
= Py! in many instances is replaced by ashe Ig419, while pbred| follows
the name of whic .
+ Stewart supposes that Sikandar met his death in 769 a,H (p. 89); and an
even more patent error places the decease of A’azam in 775 a. oH. (p. 93), The
Tabakat-i-Akbari, which devotes a special section to the history of Bengal, implies
an amiable and undisturbed succession in this instance,
68 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
Ghids-ud-din Aazam Shah, bin Sikandar Shah.
No. 32.
Muazamabad, a. nw. 772, 775, 776.
Silver. Size, viiid. Weight, 166 grs. Plate II. fig. 16.
Type No. 1. Obverse, square area occupying nearly the whole
suiface of the coin, as in the old Dehli pattern.
Reverse, scalloped lozenge, forming an eight-pointed but contracted
star.
Orpv. Rev.
wed yt] OMY day 04
3 edb d pel
exo} 9 Laat) Bhe
a8. (tage
sla plas) 2bJ! a! met
essese| pel
wile o-
Obverse Margin: On the upper edge, »%49:!; on the left, »#©; in
consecutive reading at the foot, wuss; and on the right, (©
Reverse Margin, ia
Kilyarrw 9 uyatio 9 wyled die SL B20 Faby 69 aSylagt] Ahad) gdo
- Variety A. In one instance Uda cs yadicst! supplies the place of
Bol (9.
There is a doubt about the reading of the word (45 “ being humble ;”
the wae “ Oculus” of Marsden would certainly be preferable in point
of sense, but the forms of the letters of the word scarcely justify such a
rendering, unless we admit of an unusual degree of even Bengali im-
perfection in the fashioning these dies.
On two examples of this mintage én silver, the marginal legend bears —
the words ylyoJ| 332 in clearly cut letters; but I imagine this seem-
ing anomaly to have arisen from a fortuitous use of the dies for gold
coins, which, in device, were identical with those employed for the —
silver money.
No. 33.
Jannatabad, a. uw. 790.
Variety A. Similar obverse with circular reverse.
Mint. 9 pdt Khao ol Kia
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal. 69
Rev. . Osv.
No. 34.
Type No. 2. There is a subordinate class of coins, following the
devices of Type No.1 (in size vii. and upwards), struck from less
expanded dies, and generally of very inferior execution in the outlin-
ing of the letters. These are also from the mint of Muazamabad, and
are dated in bungled and almost illegible words 20 silesy {ler ps,
LS U5 404! , U3 43 ,—which may be designed to stand for 770 odd,
778, 780, and 781 respectively.
No. 35.
Firtizabad, a. nw. 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799.
Type No. 3. Size, viii. to viii. Weight, 166 grs. Plate II. fig. 15,
Obverse, scalloped diamond field ; broad margin.
Reverse, circular area.
Osv. Rev.
Liod} vulys pat_yol
glngbs| Urtelenell s
wld} 8S old
Obverse Margin, wey! Sed} oni lds o250/) peed wy blind
Reverse Margin,
Kylyzaw 9 Gydtod 9 CMS Kine SLi5g pa? Aarads KLIP 8
The Reverse marginal records vary in the prefix to the name of the
mint from the Kasbah above given, §,4= (,9 and BS baad] Byrom “
being occasionally used.
No. 36.
Satgdon, a. uw. 795, 798.
Variety A.
70 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
No. 37.
Satgaon, a. H. 790, 795, 796.
Type No. 4. Obverse, area, a square, with a looped semicircle at
each of the sides, forming a kind of amalgamation of the margin with
the central device.
Reverse, area, a four-pointed star-shaped lozenge; the outside spaces
being filled in with the marginal legend.
Osv. Rey.
St ot!
erty Liat) ale 6
ens eptelomed|
so
oe len
meet tte! 931
whl} yld Erde ged! sol
sre)
2
Reverse Margin,
No. 88.
Type No. 5. Size, v. Weight, 166 grains.
Obverse, lettered surface.
Reverse, circular area; narrow margin.
Osy. | Rev.
(a3 od 1 & (xc
all) out
sibel! 931 noi s
&iSyy a) Sd
slings}
Margin? @ oa] die ghi.b20
The singular orthography adopted in the rendering of the term
Abdallah, and the substitution of an initial | alzfin lieu of the gram- —
matical a ain, affords another instance of the ignorance of the local
mint officials, and their tendency to reproduce the approximate sounds
of words, without regard to the true powers of the letters employed.
A vacant space in the final setting up of this article invites me to
extend it so far as to notice a limited series of coins which have hitherto
1867.] The Initial Coinage of Bengal: 71
been erroneously associated with the mintages of Bengal proper,—lL
allude to the money of Taj-ud-din Firtiz, whose date has, in like
manner, been misapprehended by Marsden (p. 575), and by Mr.
Laidlay, who follows hisinterpretation (J. A. 8S. B. xv. p. 330). The
subjoined examples will show that the supposed date of 897 a. n. should
be 807; and the consecutive numbers on the different coins now cited
establish the fact that the potentate whose name they bear reigned at
least from 804 to 823, having a capital entitled Hajiabad, which may with
sufficient reason be identified with the Hajipur of modern nomenclature.
The introductory piece A. seems to have been issued by Téj-ud-din’s
predecessor, and their several mintages alike depart from the ordinary
style of Bengal coinages in the phraseology and finished execution of
the Arabic legends, as well as in the weights of their currencies, which
approximate closely to the full Dehli standard, in contrast to the re-
duced southern range of 166 grains.
A. Silver, Size, viid. Weight, 165 grs. Unique. A. H. 797.
Osy. Rev.
oO! (iy Ae Fe
ao polit !
lal peed ge! meee
wes} od
VdV
B. Silver. Size from vif to vilit. Weight, 168 grs,, the full and
sustained weight of several specimens.
Osv. Rev.
wy Lalee Lol} a
ee Sa wells
Acie
Obverse, lettered surface.
Reverse, square area, with imperfect marginal records, usually con-
sisting of ch bala w,as? —,< with the figured dates at the foot, rang-
72 The Initial Coinage of Bengal. [No. 1,
ing onwards from 804 to 807 [Marsden], 810, 813, 814, 818, 819, 820,
822, and 823 a. H. :
. These coins are chiefly from the collection of the late Sir R. Jenkins,
but have now passed into Colonel Guthrie’s possession.
Among other rare and unpublished coins, having more or less con-
nexion with the progress of events in Bengal, I may call attention to
the subjoined piece of Shir Shah (C.), which seems to mark his final)
triumph over Humaytn in 946 a. u. and his own assumption of imperial
honours in Hindustén. The gold coin (D.) is of interest, as exhibiting:
the model from whence Akbar derived one of his types of money, which
Oriental authors would have us believe were altogether of his special
origination, even as they attribute so many of Shir Shah’s other ad+
mirable fiscal and revenue organizations to his Moghul successor. In
coin E. we follow the spread of Shir Shah’s power northwards to the
ancient capital of the Pathans, and. the piece F’. illustrates the reten-
tion of the family sway over the other extreme of the old dominion. |
C. Silver. Size, vit. Weight, 163 grs. <A. H. 946. Well executed
Western characters.
Obverse, eM 9 Lt O28 Greryll OUD Oye! Solel} wel]
Reverse, qic 5, dllblee &Sleo &UI oA wlblos sl& ads ,2bot) 5!
D. Gold. Square coin. Weight, 1683 grs. Unique. (R. J.
Brassey, Hisq.).
Obverse, the Kalimah.
Reverse, Slo aU) A ylble glo jad
At the foot, Fac are.
HK. Silver, Size, vii. Weight, 168 grs. Dehli. <A. H. 948.
Obverse, Square area. SU! ym dos” all ai Y
Margin, the names and titles of the four Iméms,
Reverse, Square area, Slo SUI MA glO aS wloll| qe,
At the foot, WaT are
Margin, shes yes ows # x
F. Silver. Size, viii, Weight, ? Satgdon, a. H. 951 (from the col-
lection of the late G. H. Freeling, Bengal CS.)
Circular area, 9 a%to aU) old wiles glad sad Gut gld odles!
sa Syl cshst y sills
Mar sin,
101 9 \Siww yd Bt Ceara QS pbs oat Golly Lod} J ile
ee ee ee ee Se CO ae Cn en STE PRE nae
73
‘HV O06) ‘UBqg Wezey “x ****** *;puquyeuULr"g ‘ON JUITT "HV O&Y ‘WVTg npeyeg ‘arse +s ss randsemTy *Z ‘ON FA
IS CLL vee vee eee Ss = S6L°"°°* O6L 66," T6L oes eee ee st eeeeee ee TBS UVZeV Use
P9L—09L | ToL 9c4 | 984°°—184 ' peL "Oss | B64" 084 te ee ae eee IBpPULHLY “XI
= aime ecZ"" eeveee ech eee tee see tee eg5°0""<"" ORL eee ove eee Pe deccaalabea 0) SBI] *TIIA
A
_ _— ear "4" Voy eee ove ae ore eee eee eee tee eee eee soo net eerace yes 1zeyy TIA
Bengal.
ae in ose ore eee eee eee eee eee p Aaaainecia 7A eee oee eee ei la aha 55 WV. ON
of
|
|
Sc ocL 04 Tr" oe 70) vee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee vee vee evuseTMT yerequyl “A
<2)
= pe eee vee eee eee eee eee ere eee eee eee seg vee ( fyasuny) yo you wg PoUUnYynyy
S SzZ yo1y bn, 9
a) _ — powwnyny “apuy “AI toe eee oe eee eee eee eee 2oL"0cL"* eee "TL OLS seaeenees qeqs inpeyegd “AL
3 dist =. eee eee ere eee eee wee ee eae eee eee eee eee eee seaeee * ulp-pn qeqeysg "III
is — — *worssassod ur eee eee eee eee eee eee bee Aid Hamman A AY see eeeres UIp-pu-sumeys "Il
)
& ss qua eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee c69°"* *2°°9°T69 *H'YV see tOt ova eee eee Snes Ivy IE
‘ppqayurezenyy | "wor Suvuog ‘nen Tqeyg | ‘woRSyeg ‘pyqeanany ‘qneuyyey
‘9 ‘g ‘g % -
SPOS UGEEE Mer 25 Se Ca Soe as A ae a ee eee a
"SENIW TIVONGAG
1867.]
10
74 Notes on the Jumma Masjid. [No. 1,
Notes on the Jumma Masjid of Etawah.—By C. Hornz, Esq.
[Received 5th April, 1866.]
Proceeding south from Humeganj at Etawah through the cutting
leading to the Jumna, one observes on one’s right hand (Z. e. east),
crowning an isolated mound, an old mosque. By those accustomed
to the originally converted mosques of an early period, and as seen
at Jaunpur and Benares, this may be at once recognized to have been
altered from an ancient Hindu or a Buddhist structure by the process
so well described by Fergusson in his Handbook of Architecture
p. 81, vol. 1.—The style of the screen before the dome is the same
as that at Jaunpur,* whilst the round buttresses at the back, and
the coeval ornamentation, fix the period of its conversion.
On enquiring from some of the more intelligent, I found the age
of the temple to be popularly reported to be coeval with that of
Etawah city. Thus %6;—=5 x 6x1 x 400 x 1 = 413 which
being deducted from 1282 Hijra (new expiring) leaves 809, which
deducted from 1866 A. D. leaves 997 A. D. which may very pro-
bably represent the real date of the Hindu erection.
As is often the case, there may have been a former temple, but
the material, black kunkur, does not shew age well; whilst the granite-
pillars have been altered and partially carved at different periods.
Mr. Hume of Etawah tells me he is about to publish a complete
description of it with engravings; I therefore submit these notes
merely as the means of drawing attention to the building, which, taken
in connection with other ancient remains, is worthy of a visit.
The main portion of the building is of black kunkur; although
there are fragments of blue granite boulders in the walls, and portions
of at least 10 granite columns of varying lengths. The average
length of them is 5-6 with a thickness of 8 inches; but one at the
gate, where it is used as an architrave, exceeds 7 feet. There are also
plain pillars of red and light coloured sandstone.
I could not, in my short visit, ascertain whence the granite columns
had been brought. They have, many of them, been cut in half, so that
they now stand about 8’-3" in height ; whilst one from which the carving
* Atallah, Jumma Masjid and other mosques.
_ JOURNAL AS; SOC. XXXV PT.
JUMMA MUSJID
ETAWAH
Ones
aeL ii ? t
ia a [ ie =z eee I |
PLAN
Scale one inc = 40 feet
—
DETAIL DRAWINGS.
Granite Boake oe plas ine
Ond a
7 ates over principal
—— ———————
LAA A / A GAG IN) )
aos J re Cheyate brackel
SS
_— ea
——
Ss
—
fapial
On Hunkur blocks built
into wall at back of dome
Ornamen nh at
springs of shatt
of pillar at the
gate.
CAPITAL AT GATE,
ROUGH ELEVATION OF THE SCREEN
scale
mat to
—————
S BLACK W CF LITHRS CALS
Plate, TIT
rromented in the same style
NOTE Ten ot these granite columns more or less o
Sourles
—
2 atcle =} foot
sien Pome
et Weta oe
ban alta ug
eee
5 _ bn
ite
es at
,
bse
ab ote a russ 03! op |
¥ i eae : i Siyy aaa }
tees Pm Pears les 4 aya
bee 3 ¥ ¥
if ' S Lara! ao " ‘oe
\ es ne why
1867.] Notes on the Jumma Masjid. 75
has been chiselled is used as an architrave in a rude chapel, Others
are doubtless plaistered over in the walls.
The screen is 47 feet in height and a little less in width. The
general depth of the building, of which a plan to scale is appended,
(vide Plate III.) is 20 feet interiorly, the centre portion, on which the
Mussulman dome is built, being a few feet more. The block of granite,
perhaps 5 feet by 14, let into the front of the screen—and figured by
me—is very curious. It is undoubtedly of great antiquity, and bears
the usual Buddhist character of ornamentation as found in this neigh-
bourhood. It at once attracts attention by being altogether out of place.
Only one of the “ Kangura” or pinriacles remains in the building,
but they doubtless extended across to the screen, the small portions
of wall where the plaister has hath; shew the well known scroll
denticulated pattern.
Over the south chapel, right across the centre, has been constructed
an arched chamber, 20 feet by 20, and perhaps 18 feet high. The roof
of this has been moulded with pieces of nodular kunkur set in lime,
which alone appears to keep it together. The effect is most singular ;
facing as it does to the Hast, it would seem that originally there had
been a cloister, the four rude chapels consisting of 16 pillars each, with
a larger chapel in the centre for the image. As, however, the whole
was rebuilt by the Mussulmans some 480 to 450 years since, the only
archeologcial interest which attaches to the spot is, that it was un-
doubtedly once a Buddhist site.
In the court-yard, now enclosed by a mean brick wall, is a small
chaitya, 9 feet square, covering a Mussulman tomb, where four plain
pillars support a flat roof with eave-stones of red sandstone projecting
2 feet on each side. The stones composing this evidently came from
Agra from the same quarries* which furnished the Rajé’s Secundra
gardens. I have drawn one of the capitals which is of the old Patan
somewhat altered.
On the road between Etawah and Mynpoorie, several villages built
on high “ kheras” or mounds attracted my notice. I hope to explore
them and send you the results, if any there be.
* Tautpur Village, Sahender Pergunnah, Agra Zillah,
LLYIPPPPIPYYIVY YIU LUIYLY SIs
76 Translation of an Inscription [No. 1,
Translation of an Inscription copied im the temple of Nakhon Vat
or the City of Monasteries, near the capital of ancient Kambodia.
—By Dr, A. Bastian.
[Received 16th January, 1867.]
The magnificent monuments of Kambodia give testimony of a by-
gone civilisation, whose origin remains shrouded in mystery. Their
history will be read by the stone-sculptures which cover the walls
and portray the nations anciently inhabiting the country, their
costumes, manners and customs. ‘There is, besides, scattered over the
ruins, a not inconsiderable number of inscriptions to be found,
which are written in an antiquated kind of Pali character, and, when
deciphered, may assist to obtain the right clue. The following
inscription is a more modern one in Kambodian letters, and was
copied inside the great temple at Nakhon Vat.
Sapphamasadu: Glory to the holy ones. In the year, which
counts 1623 in the era, the year of the dragon, the third month, on
a Thursday, in concordance with the Gatha, which are written in
Pali, in the metrum of Phrohma-Kit, on the Phra-Phuttha Rub (the
statue of Buddha,) I humbly offer up flowers to Bhagavat, who sits in
meditation to observe the precepts (Sila), in the reflecting posture and
undisturbed by the attacks of man (Mara or Satan), on the handsome
seat of the Lotus (Phuttang). I offer up to the Pharabat (the holy
footstep) of highest excellence. JI bend down and raise hands in
supplication at the feet of the Lord. I worship in my mind the three
jewels (Ratana-trai), laying down flowers and areca on the throne-seat
(banlang), which, elegantly ornamented by sculptures, is overhung in
fourteen folds with the Baldachin of four kinds of clothes, beautiful
all over in perfection, and the whole shining in brilliant splendour,
as a cover of Phra-Photisat (the holy Bodhisatwa), who sits motionless
in the posture of continual meditation. I present offerings to Sakhya-
Muni, the Lord of glory, who has preached the true law for guiding
all beings on the heavenly road. I do homage under the holy
footstep. I worship and adore, raising the hands in supplication before
the Lords of religion, the five Buddhas, the three gems: in humble
piety I invoke them, devoutly I pray. I offer myself in holy love,
never forgetting. I fix my mind, the whole of my mind and soul, on
1867. ] copied in the temple of Nakhon Vat. 17
the Phra-Chedi (the holy Chaitya or Pagoda) Chulamani* (the
precious diadem of hair) in Traidungsa (Daodungsa or the heaven of
setting stars), encircled by the shephada (Devada), whom I reveren-
tially bear on my head. I offer up and bow down before (the figure
of) Phra-Patima in his golden abode, the Lord of the three praises,
the refuge of all beings. I present offerings to the Phra-Phuttha
Rub in the Phra-Sathub (Dagoba) of the Phra-Chedi (Pagoda), the
Prasat (palace) of the Vihan (monastery). I present myself in
offerings of humble service,—I present myself wholly and entirely.
Having done worshipping, having finished the offerings, I pray to
become perfect in wisdom, to know all kinds of sciences without error
and mistake, after having been born in the next existence for seven
years. When I shall have accomplished all knowledge of letters,
I pray that I may become well versed in the Trai-Pidok, that I may
be able to answer every one’s questions, to solve all riddles proposed,
that I may know the Trai-Phet (three Vedas) and the Sinlaprasta
(the magic of the stones). May I be blessed to meet Pra Sijahn
(Sri-Ariya or Arimathiya, the future Buddha) in the next existence.
May I be surrounded by numberless attendants ; if 11,110 follow, it
will be enough. MayTI be so shiningly beautiful, as to move all
hearts, like those women, who having taken holy orders, shall be
reborn relucent of radiant beauty, in recompense for their pious deeds,
and by virtue thereof. May I become great and mighty, of such
power, that even Phra-Phrohm (Brahma) could never put any
obstacles in my way. And when the circle of transmigrations leads
me to be reborn again in a new existence, I pray, that I may become
Buddha, and attain the holy law, pervading all existence,—that I may
become equal to the perfected ones in the world.
Now in regard to these people here, who are called respectively
Ming, Behn, Sok by their surnames, they desire to become handsome
and delicate in figure, of such a shape, as it makes women beloved.
This prayer I put in, on behalf of the aforesaid persons of the village
Tabungkram. And two of them, Ming and Behn, have still another
| wish in their heart, namely : to become rich in honours and dignities,
beautiful like painted pictures. May they, on leaving the present
_ existence, which is an imperfect and unsatisfactory one to them, may
* Built by Indra over Gautama’s hair, which he cut off with his sword,
78 ~ Translation of an Inscription [No. 1,
they hereafter be reborn as brothers, and may the sinful consequences
which lave separated them, be exhausted, so that they will remain
together and united always, and that ultimate death shall take them
away simultaneously at one and the same day with their wives.
May there be no grief, no sorrow then, as now oppresses them, now
in the present existence, when the bones of mother and child are
buried under a Phra-Chedi, which is erected above them, as a meri-
torious work. May mother and child remain united in the next
existence.
And furthermore, there is a person here, called Im, who has restored
a venerable Phra (idol), which had fallen in ruins, and lay there all
cut to pieces. It had broken its neck; its hands and feet were lost.
He built it up anew, he mended it, he made it handsome and pretty.
It was covered with gold, it was surrounded by other Phra, 137 in
number. All these figures, great and small, were clothed in a twofold
set of garments; they had their praises written upon them. And
after that, meritorious works were performed in the Phra-Chedi,
which also had been rebuilt and embellished. Jor five ordinations
the expenses were paid, and a Phra of gold was placed in remembrance.
A great deal of money has been expended, the monks have been
loaded with presents, a Vihan and a preaching-hall have been
adorned, a priest was helped on in his consecrations, a slave was
liberated, and all the other works of merits cannot be counted : they
are too numerous. How often alms have been given is beyond
recollection ; times innumerable presents were brought to the priests,
And these priests, after having received their presents, have vouchsafed
pardon for all faults committed, have promised indemnity from all
misfortunes. I pray to the Lord, that happiness may be in store for
me, and that in the coming existence I may enjoy my blissful state,
without being pestered by people who are envious of it. May I go
through the future existences, free of calamities, full of wisdom and
knowledge. May no sickness befall me. May I happily live, joined
to my wife and my children, and attain a high and serene age, not
knowing mishaps. May the evil consequences of former sins not
reach me, may I never be oppressed by poverty. May I remain
liberated from hell for ever. May my thoughts, now small and narrow,
expand in the next existence, that I may understand the precepts
1867. ] copied in the temple of Nakhon Vut. 79
(sila) well and thoroughly, that I may never break them, nor commit
trespasses. May wisdom be with me always. May I never be-in want
of relations; nay, may I be blessed with many of them. May I possess
plenty of servants. May no slanders pollute me. May I never doa
stupid thing. May I speak kindly and softly to every one I chance
to meet. May I be preserved from dealings with fools. May I never
be born poor and indigent, but only in rich and noble families, May I
well understand my business). May my memory be a good one.
May nothing frightful happen to me. May nobody hate me. May
the punishments, awaiting for sinful deeds of former vices, not hurt
me. In speaking to nobles and monks, may my words be right and
proper. Should animals be killed unknowingly, may I be pardoned.
May there be an end of grief and sorrow. May I depart life,
surrounded by my friends, not abandoned and alone. May the sins
I might have committed in the present existence, not call for retribu-
tion in the next one. May I never be tempted to treat great men
and learned teachers in an insolent and impudent manner. I beg
pardon for all errors I might be guilty against the holy priesthood,
Phra-Phuttha, Phra-Thamr (Dhamma), I beg pardon for all my
faults. I beg pardon for any breach of the precepts. I beg pardon
for rudeness and roughness of mind. I beg pardon, if ever I have
fostered revenge. I beg pardon for lies I have spoken. May I be
prosperous in every existence, and always meet with people of rank
and dignity. Ibeg pardon for all errors, committed in words or in
acts. May I be secured against evil and misfortunes in my next
existences. May there be no terror, no fear and trembling. May
never aristocratic tyrants bully me. May I never be threatened by
enemies in any of the existences to come. May I not suffer
complaints in the next existence, neither baldness nor elephantiasis.
May no sores or ulcers disfigure my body. May I not be ugly. I beg
pardon, if I have allowed to be tempted by bad inclinations. May
evil never come upon me, neither now nor in future. May I always
enjoy handsome women. May nothing bad cross my way. When
this existence shall be finished, may there never be any more sorrow,
may I roll in undisturbed bliss. May the sinful consequences of former
deeds, may the torments threatening therefrom, be delayed and put
off. May Ibe re-born handsome and fine. May I never be imprisoned,
80 Translation of an inscription [No. 1,
never be bound nor fettered. As it is said in the verses of Phromakut
‘Hao kha ti di,” and in the Pali, raising my hands, I pray for
wisdom. I, a person, to whom they have given the name Xai, I
pray, that all evils of old and of the past may be finished, that I may
be renewed to preach the words of the Lord in the next existence, to
lead all beings on the road to Niphan. May I enjoy blessedness
countless numbers of years in the existences to come, and then,
performing works of merit with virtuous mind, may I attain to Phra-
Sian-Metray (Arimathia). May I be pervaded by benevolence all
over, may I showa charitable disposition continually, till the beating
of the heart shall cease. As long as blood and eyes remain, may I
accomplish good works, May I always be ofa joyful mind, resembling
Phra-Vixa-Thon* (Chea-tor) and always give alms to the Pret
(Pretas), feeding them with blood and flesh. May the Shephada
Kowand keep account of all the alms I give. May Phrohm likewise
see them and be attentive to keep account. May I receive plenty of
joy and felicity, in recompense for these alms. May it please one of
the Shephadas to throw down a heavenly sword, because I ardently
wish to cut my flesh and skin, to give it in alms piecemeal, to feed
the Pret, that they may be satiated and get enough of it. May
Phra-Phakava (Bhagavat) and Phra Thamr also know about all these
virtuous deeds. May I become like Phra Siahn. I present flowers to
Bhagavat and worship in offering them. May I know thoroughly all
rules and precepts, like the Upaxa (the ordainer of novices). May
I become guide to the beings, my contemporaries; may I be a leader
to them in the Lord’s religion, during my future existence. The
present existence is an imperfect one, my frailties cause me to deviate
from the road of truth; I pray for greater perfection in the next
existence ; I pray for wisdom, so as to penetrate all things, so as to
surpass all other men; I pray for wisdom sufficient to solve all
difficulties, for wisdom, equal to that of Neakkhasen (Nagasena or
Nagarjuna), who with ease and without hesitation explained the
questions and riddles put to him by Krom-Malin (Milinda). May
the good works of former existences help me on to be re-born in a
lucky state. May the Shephada come to my assistance and favour me.
May I become benevolent, good-natured and liberal, free of avarice,
* Alchymists adore him, as the possessor of the magic stone, consisting of
solid mercury, which is supposed to convert base metals into gold.
1867.] copied in the temple of Nakhon Vat. 81
may I feel disposed to give alms, to do virtuous and meritorious
works incessantly. And furthermore I pray particularly to possess
that special wisdom vouchsafed to Taminsheah when still in the
state of man, that wisdom which enabled him to solve all the
problems invented by Nonthea-Sack in Nirupai, when, overcome by
the prince of meritorious glory, he was made his slave and inspired
by fear, and followed him as his servant, Thus he became the prince
Apangtirat ; and then a prince called on the Lord Viroxar, who at com-
mand received the name of Manang-Tack, because he used coarse and
repulsive words, and did not know to speak properly by reason of his
having beeu a garrulous and talkative fellow in one of his former
existences. May I obtain a virtuous mind like Phra-Demiah (Temi),*
who patiently bore all the trials his father put him to, I pray to
obtain wisdom equal to that of Phra-Kala when born as Mahosot,
whose wisdom, surpassing the wisdom of everybody else, being
equalled by none, overcame Phra-Chulani. May I give alms, rich
alms and freely, in the same spirit as Phra-Mund, as Phra Vetsandon
and his lady (Nang) Matsi who faithfully followed him, equal to
Nang Nontha, being born of the same mothers, children of the same
parents in the course of different existences. And with great beauty
were they gifted, and boundless knowledge was their share, till they
entered heaven, in which I also pray to be received. Separated from
my beloved ones in this gad existence, I hopefully wish to remain
united to them, when reborn in my next existence, whether as animal
or asman. May I always be surrounded by truthful friends. May
I always possess my children and relations. May I always see before
me those good women, Nang Pus and Nang Behn, and then these
men here, Sues and Pho and Im and Png. I wish in my prayers to
be endowed with mighty power and authority, to be learned in magic
arts, well versed in them like unto Phra Isor, who called back to
* The Buddhists distinguish the lesser existences, 550 in number, from the
es . ones, of which they count 50. The former contain the framework of
shose fables, which in various compilations have travelled far and wide through
western nations. Of the greater existences, in which the Bodhisatwa has taken
human form, the ten of the Thosse-Xat are especially venerated and the most
holy one is the last Tataka, that of Phra Vetsandon, as immediately preceding
the incarnation of the Buddha, These ten existences begin with the history
of Temi, a pious child, who, when still in the cradle, imposed on himself
ascetic penances, 7
11
82 -- ‘Translation of an Inscription - [No. I
?
life Nang Phakavadi, reviving her (by the ceremony of Xub).* May
my fame spread about in eminent renown like that of Phra Noray
(Narayana or Vishnu), who, coming down from heaven (ravan), was
born in the state of man as Phra-Ram (Rama) and subjected the
Sack (Rakshasa) of Langka, walking through the air like Phra Tsun
in Kailésa. And then I wish to become a king and to get crowned,
and to have nine handsome ladies as queens on my side, and to reign
one hundred thousand years. And furthermore I pray for great
strength and for beauty like that possessed by Phra Chan (Chandra or
the moon) in times of old. May I possess prowess and a valiant heart,
like Phra-Ram, the celestial one. I pray for wisdom to understand
the Sinlaprasat, to know the whole of the military arts and warlike
exercises like the exalted Phra-Ram, to be expert like him in
archery. When this existence will be finished, may I be re-born the
son of a king. May I ascend to heaven like Phra Ketsamalea,t May
I be favoured by Phra-Ta (Tadra). May he give orders to Phra-
Phutsakam (Visvakarma) to build for me also a royal residence of
unparalleled splendour on the edges of the forest. May my voice be a
melodious one like that of the bird Karavek. May my wisdom
expand. May I know all things and everything. May I become rich
in silver and gold, in gems and precious stones. May I have abundance
in clothes, in carpets, in pillows and dresses. May my retinue be
formed by handsome ladies, graceful in figure and soft and delicate of
colour, with legs of the shape of the Talaket flower. May I understand
the whole sense of the Trai-Pidock.t May I, always revelling in favour-
able breezes, in the twinkling of the eye, hit the right to be safe,
May I never lose my knowledge, should even my body shuddering —
tremble in fear, May my friends be one hundred one thousand in
* The magic art of Xub, which revives by sprinkling with enchanted
water, is taught in the high’ academy of Takkasila (Taxasila) ; and it is an,
always recurring trait in the Indo-chinese romances, that young princes or the
sons of wealthy Sethi travel to that famous city, to pass there some years as
students. Another, but more dangerous method, in which fire takes the place —
of water, is known to the Rasi or Rischi, the hermits of the forest, The last
king of Nokhon Tom, whom they offer ed to cure of leprosy, lost his life during —
the | process.
{ Phra-Ketsamalea (the head crowned with garlands) is the reputed founder
of the splendid temple of Nakhon Vat. The legend makes him to be a son of ©
Indra, and relates that his heavenly father sent Visacarma, the architect of the
gods, to build on earth a palace after the model of that 1 in which the angels
pass their joyful lives,
{ The Buddhistic Scriptures are contained in the three parts of the Pitaka,
the Abhidhamma, the Vinaya and the Siatra. “2
+]
eres, =
1867.] copied in the temple of Nakhon Vat. 83
number. MayI remain undisturbed in unceasing bliss. May youths,
male and female, of handsome appearance, attend on me, 100,000 in
number, singing melodiously in sweet voices. May I possess wealth
in elephants, horses, buffaloes and oxen of the best kind, elegant
carriages and swift boats, to use them in going abroad. I would
be pleased if each of my followers carried a glittering sword, and,
when they close up in procession, they should solemnly walk like
Putpala, Thus it is becoming. May I be favoured with magnificent
palaces, nine of them, all covered with gold. Let them have high
towering spires* rising above, glittering with jewels; let them be
surrounded by colonnades, winding in three circles ; let them be
engraved everywhere with sculptures. On each gate have placed the
Dragon king (Phaya Nokh),—place him on each step of the stairs to
guard them. There must be adjoined three dwelling-houses, hand-
somely and finely got up. The roof must ascend in three terraces,
above each other, and all embellished with splendid ornaments. The
round houses also may shine in splendid ornaments. A stable for
elephants has to be built, nice and clean. Let there be halls on both
sides of the lake, one at the right, the other one at the left, and have
them decorated with garlands of the Champa-flowers, exhaling a
sweet perfume, like the scented powder of Kracheh. That is all.
eee
Lirerary INTELLIGENCE.
Professor J. G. Biihler of the Elphinstone College, Bombay, and R.
West, Hsq. C. 8. Acting Judge of Canara, have just brought out the
First Book of.“ a Digest of Hindu Law,” from the replies of the Castris
in the several courts of the Bombay Presidency. The volume before
us contains a large mass of responsa prudentum in a variety of practical
eases regarding the Hindu Law of inheritance as current in Bombay.
It has been published under the auspicesofthe Bombay Government, and
will prove a useful book of reference to lawyers. In the Introduction
the editors have given an interesting account of the ancient Smritis.
- The Government of Bombay has sanctioned the publication of an
edition of the Apastamba Dharma Sutra with the Tika of Hara
Datta. The work will: be carried through the press under the
editorship of Dr. G. Bihler.
* The description of the wished for palace is taken fromthe example of that
one in which the inscription was hung up, viz, the temple of Nakhon Vat.
+
84 Literary Intelligence.
A new translation of the Sakuntala of K4lidasa, by Professor Foucaux
of the French Academy, has just been published in Paris. The work
has been got up in imitation of Professor Williams’s excellent edition
of the same work, and is intended to popularise among French readers
that master-piece of the Indian Drama.
The publication of the Taittiriya Sanhita of the Black Yajur
Veda has once again been brought to a stop. Dr. Roer, who first
undertook this work, left India on account of ill-health after publish-
ing only five fasciculi. On his return to this country, press of
official duties prevented his resuming the task, and it was therefore
made over to Mr. H. B. Cowell. That gentleman succeeded in
the course of three years to publish fourteen hundred pages, when
il] health obliged him to retire from India. Pandita Ramandrdyana
Vidydratna, who succeeded him and brought out the first fasci-
culus of the 5rd volume, died in May last, after a protracted
illness of six months. He was a Sanskrit scholar of a high
order, and was earnestly devoted to the ancient literature of his
country. He published several Bengali books, and edited, for the
Bibliotheca Indica, the Vedanta Sutras with the Commentary of
Sankara, and the Srauta Stura of Aswaldyana.
We have to record the death of another Sanskrit scholar of great
eminence; Pandita Premachandra Tarkavagica died at Benares on the
14th of April last. He was Professor of Rhetoric in the Sanskrit College
of Calcutta for over thirty years, and was esteemed as the most pro-
found scholar of his time. He was the only Bengali Pandita who had
made the Prakrita language a subject of critical study. Among hig
works may be noticed the commentary on the great epic of Kavirdja,
the Rdghava pandaviya, every verse of which had to be explained so as
to form once a history of the race of Raghu and once that of the Pan-
davas. His commentaries on the first half of the Nacshada Charita, and
those on the Sakuntald, the Uttararéma Charita, the Anarghardghava,
the Chdétupushpdnjali, the Mukunda-muktdvali, the Saptasati-sdra,
and the 8th chapter of the Kumdrasambhava are well known. For
the Bibliotheca Indica he edited ‘the Kavyddarga of Cri Dandin with
an original commentary. He hag left unpublished a Sanskrit Dictionary,
_and four Cantos of a poetical life of Salivahana, from whom dates the
Caka era of India.
= a i i
JOURNAL
OF THE
Pete LIC SOCTETY,
—»—
Part IL—HISTORY, LITERATURE, &e.
—— a eeeeeeeeese™
No. II.—1867.
Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshidabdd, taken from
a Persian Manuscript of the Tdrikh « Mangirt.— Ly H. Buocumann,
Esq., M. A.
[Received 21st December, 1866. |
About two months ago, a copy of the above work was forwarded to
me for examination by the Philological Committee of our Society.
The book had only lately been handed over to the Rev. James Long
by the Nawab Nazir Sayyidi Darab ’Ali Khan Bahadur of Murshidabad,
for transmission to the Asiatic Society in London. The author is
a Shi’ah of the name of Sayyid ’Ali, a friend of the Nawab Nazir, and
evidently a man of erudition. He seems also'to have received some
support and encouragement from Major G. Hall Macgrigor, C. B.,
political agent at Murshidabad in 1842.
' The book is dedicated to the Nawab Sayyid Mancar Ali Khan
Bahadur Nucrat Jang with the following remark :
oy zhe cs! raf _y9v0 wot SISD ys Mas ja Fane) wel»
eS J pee uss) b $63 wf Gl oot bic) y ie dale +"
t
# peo % * ee Jr5 Agate do aS
. ” 17] re o . ~~!
f * oly 5 Wty cs! ur psilesle 55 Sty AS = 51 wh Ston bles
oe Wis cy! 3 * J pete Jl 3 iste! & | dle ory es Facey fax) 5 ying (a) ; a as
+ C5)g-avo eu ows
12 :
86 Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. (No. 2,
“ Although this contemptible gift resembles the present of the ant
that brought the leg of a locust to Sulaiman (blessings be upon him !),
or the drop of water which a cloud carried towards the ocean of
’Omdn—yet insignificant people in their heart’s anguish have hoped,
and hope still, that it will find a place of acceptance with those who
shed their lustre over sceptre and crown.
It’s but a locust’s leg which I can bring,
O act like Sulaiman, most noble king! -
My only object and my highest aim
Is that this gift may your acceptance claim.
T have given to this book the title of Tartkh «1 Mangurt.”
The book itself is a compilation made from Farishtah, the Siyar i —
Mutaakharin, the Riydsz ussalatin, &., but it contains also some
original matter obtained from the inhabitants of Murshidébad. I have
extracted the greater part, at least the more important items, of that
which is new, and have added some extracts regarding the celebration
of the Muharram in Murshidabad and a short description of the raft
of Khiszr.
As the author has used Vansittart’s memoirs for the events after
the death of Sirajuddaulah, it would be useless to give extracts. Nor
are the other chapters of the book of much interest. The author
commences with Noah and the kings of the descendants of Him,
from whom the Hindoos originated, and then gives a short account —
of the kings of Delhi. A short geographical sketch of Bengal,
Bahar and Orissa follows, as also a chronicle of Murshidabad. After
mentioning the Hindoo princes who reigned in Bengal, he gives
a brief history of the Governors and Nawabs of Bengal up to
Siréjuddaulah. The last chapters contain a list of the Nawab Nazims_
from Mir Muhammad Ja’far to the present time, and of their children —
and servants; a description of their palace and the houses which —
they built, and of those which are now in ‘ruins from want of A
repairs; and also some notes regarding their genealogy which is i
traced to Husain—subjects of interest for the Nawabs only.
Those who feel a particular interest in the following extracts,
may compare them with Orme’s History of the Military Transac-_
tions of the British, Vol. II, p. 139, Mill’s British India (8rd edit.)
Vol. IIL, p. 160, and Thornton’s British India, Vol, I, p. 218.
1867.] Notes on Stirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. ‘a
In the beginning of 1757, Colonel Clive wrote a letter to Siraj-
‘uddaulah complaining of the Nawéb’s duplicity in still favouring
the French, intimating at the same time his design of attacking
Chandernagore. On the 10th March, Sirdjuddaulah sent an answer,
stating that he was sorry to hear complaints, Without alluding
to Clive’s intention of attacking Chandernagore, he advised him
to do whatever he thought best. The author says:
odce BaF Wlnrwil > Ly Syl? wijlal yydo 5) Joos? IT US »
ty o> whe 0? wymdy SS! 9 iS dalle Sure she BI yd
5S BAS Asi S aS y20 wo &E)81 9 & aS 5 ySd0 drad oJ ae
a 599900 rym Keys S405 Gy! pe wee OY oS wele® 5! lls
jpSde dyai G wijhe 24) 5 anf a Soria six y eles wom
SLSISS ZG : Fem 95 Sh, bas , oy S50) dg mr 1) y WS | 70 Wose a
Boasts 9 pylx0 sly wt ute? w! lope jt cs pre = ao
wild Or # ooo) is” ' jorke y aw Krn25 of pe wrdeo Cpt jo yee
bot! ylrdend 59 cobwyb 9 dl y ve » w'> 2 | ite ic S Soy
Mi, OB B94 tpt KS! pO Caw y 5! Ges ¥ le fare ves SS Oss S
392 BUSI yaw yo os, etneanes fy BAS Was FS Kaos cyl ne fate
Bly whaeg did yo bs) 90 3 wleo} wt G wl zy 3&3 Gres csloks 51 aS
os" whys jt cS cg galyS pf AST Ue” oy! eke * O95) S50
poo 3 Lal hast 3 uti 92 Sham pas By ol OF" &S cyt
BLSISS 995 eo? Caen 9 Shy oo url» dy 75 Bent Sorig iF 5! 534
wrsly J yi L “eins a} 5 9 ‘ee cis SFT 5h wily wad woals Jai, § oy
by i eye yy 9 pie PO p23) goEO 3!) whey wile lee
do SI) ces sy 9 * eal dO) at tf SiS} Ki23 93 bal
Gy pls piwo gy # oT a4 Grek BIS LE OZ SI y99 5b pol
ws! Iola: aga” usty & shod yyS wr! Lees dy 75 Ne) 2 clos lad 9 oe
esl? Sd5 Unola a5 5 3! SAS Sage cla ans os why (eth pad
By * line y 3 O94 809} el Bd Ur o9> ws Jo3 wo93 59 Lv &S Spteydy |
* gins 59 cures 9 oy Jes io) Soe | Ber.) UAL wg Eaiv =. > yt
88 Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. [No. 2, ©
of ee eo ae ZA os ” “ . « ry
plains Bayly yo gf Ome jay Ode O89 # age) 8 95S coy) GK
*% Wal Sie Bays &Qe ly Rye &S Oe pyie0 * oidsh wl yi9T LPIB3I 907 |
Lat a &5 woe 8h ots gles! a Woe 3! Ulandyendl 9S 9 KOR)
a “4 ” ve > .
OX dSyoJ| cle oly ejele so0J SLT yt O92 wd _phtoged hte Y Senso
a ma w . K one = °
Cty? 4S shy chee Totyd Grb 51 KU a sypivo olf oly 51 es? y
w, “ . ge 5
a
# Sl os So wore 9 Sgs Sr 9 ey yg Cry
“Col. Clive, taking this as a permission to attack the French,
moved his land-army to Chandernagore, while Admiral Watson
sailed with his ships to the same place. Col. Clive shewed great energy.
But as the French Governor saw that the complete subjugation of
the place would depend upon the operations of the navy, he caused ©
a number of ships to be sunk in the river, with the view of impeding
the progress of the Admiral, leaving a small passage only unobstructed.
With the exception of a few French officers, no one knew that 7
such a passage existed. But as the star of the English was in
the ascendant, and the unavailing fortunes of the French were
beginning to set, the complicated knot unravelled itself in the hands
of the English. But if Fortune had not favoured the English, not
even exertions such as had never been witnessed as yet in India,
would have enabled Col. Clive to take possession of Chander-
nagore. A French officer, of the name of Terraneau, who knew the
secret of the passage left in the river, was for some reasons dissatisfied
with M. Renault, the then Governor of Chandernagore. Forgetting ©
the obligations under which he lay to his own nation, he went to |
Col. Clive and informed him of the existence of the passage. ~
Col. Clive and Admiral Watson were thus* enabled to bring the
ships safely before Chandernagore, and took it after a bombardment _
of nine days. | '
* This would materially alter the eulogium of the following passage taken
from Sir John Malcolm’s Life of Clive, Vol. I, p. 192, “ Few naval engagements —
have excited more admiration, and even at the present time, when the river is”
so much better known, the success with which the largest vessels of this fleet —
were navigated to Chandernagore, and laid alongside the batteries of that
settlement, is a subject of wonder.” .
1867.] Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. 89
“The French factory in Qasimbazar was, immediately after, taken
and plundered.
“Mr. Terraneau, who in consequence of this treachery became
infamous and ‘blackfaced,’ received from the English a large sum
as a reward for his ingratitude. He sent a part of the money home
to his old and infirm father, who however returned it, when he heard
the disgraceful behaviour of his son. Mr. Terraneau felt much
mortified at this. Shame ‘seized the hem of his garment,’ he shut
himself up ; after a few days his body was found hanging, at the gate
of his house, suspended by means of a towel. It was plain that he
had committed suicide,
‘The French being driven. away from Chandernagore, took refuge
in Murshidébad. Monsieur Las,* their leader, became an attendant
at the Court of the Nawab, for whom he fitted out a detachment
known by the name of Telinga. To this the English objected,
declaring that according to his agreement, the Nawab was to consider
their enemies as_ his.”
A long correspondence ensued, as the Nawab maintained, that
there was no breach of faith in employing a few fugitives as attendants,
At last some of the enemies of M. Las gained the day, and the
Nawab advised him to 0 to ’Azimabad and hold himself ready
there, should he want him. M. las objected to this, trying to
convince the Nawab, that after his departure certain false courtiers
would call in the English; but in vain. The Nawab again promised
to call him in case of need, hoping that he would be ready to come
at his call. M. Las considering a future meeting impossible, went
at last of his own free will to ’Azimabad. ‘‘ Col. Clive was thus
successful in this affair also.” é
It was at this time, says the author, that Col. Clive urged
the Nawab, to permit the English to build a Fort and to establish
a mint, projects which they had desired to carry out for the last
sixty years. Without recording a formal permission, he states, that
the present Fort William was commenced by Clive in the course
of the same year (1757), and that 20 millions of rupees were
expended in its construction. The author says—
* In all English histories of India known to me, his name is misspelt Mr.
Law. The transliteration of Monsieur, yt 90 Moosheer, is characteristic,
“
90 Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. [No. 2,
Kine ax ds | S990 Slat aS ee 3 B53 seer ly59 chals erTy S
&S 58 Ne Crwadd ev Se doe) en AW sls? , ORD 9 Id Ss
aaif oy aS yoga) piers lice SalS rst OBL Sty) p95 9.9 Odd a ae
% we! a=] os” ms wang dio oled_S1 of =~ 7? wel
“ Clive built Fort William in such a manner that, according e the
opinion of the English, it would be impossible to take it, even if
the whole of Hindéstén united should fight against it.” Regarding
the mint, he says—
OrO2H 9 10 EL Oe Gf prsiy gut cyinag did 509 wl St & K5&us ar 3
wet dSy} Ey Keegade Blbols i Sao yd Was # O8 09; Wd y sist,
ae OLS 4 « 5p) WIL! 3 Cs 5 Fol AUS ys WT Goyld j1 dude ce
Sus cslehyy0 ko MAL Boys gly ILS wy dy wy Gacy AA “ mesh
iby lee aly apd aol Ku Yay eS ady GIB ol ‘oolel &
csly 9 Sw co! slBoly lle sla Eve Lif rll slo so # 8a} Hye
* ole cola wy Cnog did
“The first English coin was struck on the 19th August, 1757.
Although the coins were struck in the name of the Emperor of Hindt-—
stan, a new method of preparing them, by means of a mould, reminded
people of the English. It may be that the coins were at first struck
without a mould, according to the custom of the land,* but a change took
place in the course of time. Now they have struck coins with the
likeness of their own King, William IV. But coins continued long
to be issued at their mint in the name of Shah ’Alam, the Indian
Emperor ‘ without hand and foot.’ ” |
The events before and after the battle of Plassey are described
as follows :
A few letters written by girfjuddatlah to M. Bussy, in the Dekhan,
had been intercepted by the English, and Sirajuddaulah was openly
accused of breach of faith. ‘‘ The wrath of the Nawab at the
crooked dealings and slow but steady advance of these foreigners
increased daily.” Mr. Watts, the English resident at Murshidabad,
was threatened. The Nawab went so far, as to tear up before him —
* V. Ain i Akbarf, the 8th Ain.
te
1867.] Notes on Sirajuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd., 91
a letter, which Col. Clive had written to him. Soon after, however,
from fear of his false courtiers and want of confidence in his own
army, he tried to pacify Mr. Watts by a khil’at, and wrote an excuse
to Clive. But the Colonel had already determined to commence hosti-
lities, and readily joined a conspiracy headed by Mir Muhammad
Ja’far to dethrone Siréjuddaulah. According to the author, the
conspiracy was planned by Mir Muhammad Ja’far, Amin Chand
Raura* and Khwajah Vazier, but according to the Siyar ul Mutaa-
kharin by Mir Muhammad Ja’far, Rajah Dilabh Ram and Jagat
Séth, who had each their representatives in Calcutta, Amin Chand
being merely Ja’far’s vakeel. Khéthi Begum, a daughter of Mahabat _
Jang likewise assisted Mir Muhammad Ja’far. Clive treated with
the conspirators through Mr. Watts.
The author then gives a description of Clive’s double-dealings with
Amin Chand, as given in all histories of Bengal.
Early in June 1757 Clive left Calcutta, reached on the 17th the
small town of Katwa, south of Plassey, and took possession of the
fort of that place. But neither did Mir Muhammad Ja’far join him,
as he expected, nor did Clive receive even a line from the conspirators.
Doubtful what to do, he wrote to the Council at Calcutta, who
advised him to return. But Clive preferred to march on, On the
21st June, 4 o’clock p. m. he left Katwa, crossed the Hooghly and
pitched his tents, on the morning of the 23rd, in the fields of Plassey.
The Nawab’s army was now in sight.. Mir Muhammad Ja’far stil]
remained silent. A cannonade commenced, The English attacked
the tents of Sirajuddaulah, but were vigorously opposed by Mir
Madan,} one of the Nawab’s faithful amirs. About 12 o’clock Mir
Madan was struck by a cannon ball and carried to Sirdjuddaulah’s
tent, where he died. The fighting was however continued, Jarnélit{
Mohun Lal having taken Mir Madan’s place. But nothing decisive
was done. Afraid of a conspiracy, Sirajuddaulah sent for Ja’far, who.
had not taken any part in thé fight. After the most earnest solici-
tations on the part of the Nawab, Jafar promised to fight the next
* Generally called Omichund.
+ Called Moodeem Khan in Thornton, Vol. I. p. 240 and Moodeen Khan at
p. 242.
{ Jarnéli (7. e. general) was a name given to him,
*
92 Notes on Sérdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. [No. 2,
day, on condition that Mohun Lal should be at once ordered to with-
draw from the fight. Sirajuddaulah agreed, and Mohun Lal returned
to his tents. But no sooner did the troops see that their general had
left the field, than they became hopeless and began to flee. Before
evening the army of the Nawab had dispersed. ‘‘ This is the battle,
in which India was lost for the Islam.” Before the battle commenced,
Amin Chand appears to have informed Clive, that there would be
a show of resistance merely. Hence, when Clive saw the determined
fighting under Mir Madan and Mohun Lal, he was annoyed and
accused Amin Chand of treachery, but had to accept the excuse, that
.neither Mir Madan nor Mohun Lal belonged to the conspiracy.
w
Siréjuddaulah seeing his army dispersed, mounted a swift camel (8}4-),
and after travelling the whole night, accompanied by 2000 horsemen,
reached Murshidébad at 8 o’clock a. m. the next morning (24th
June, 1757). He called his chief officers, but all refused to come,
even his father-in-law. The state of things being altered, he did not
think it advisable to remain in Murshidabad. Having placed a few
faithful servants on carriages, he collected as much gold and as many
jewels as he could, and left Murshidabad at 3 o’clock a. mM. At
Bhagwangéla he took boats and sailed up the river towards Rd4jmahal,
where he was to meet M. Las. The meeting was, however, not to
take place, for M. Las had been delayed through a want of pune-
tuality on the part of his native servants, “a misfortune frequently
experienced in Hindustan.”
ra . Z Zt : ww,
= whe sa dan? $y oo Ys 3 oe ek rdw? l=f Our y
Sou) cs yt 55S oh. Kat plat worsiley pts Say soo] er SaaS Sry oS
eh So} ely I P98 Ori “ens (5L83) 3 * Ges wails] Rac cro 3)!
3! Glasto, Kin loo Gia ty gl Soy 9 UP) 3 Bradlee y csyhT se 0 yo? O39 :
AIR 9! @2, 5) |) Aga gly Sbls Joyo Kuyiy Aus st # op: songs
ee a FS 2G es Bios aaa % igs eres JU=” ey ste! i: wit
aisl ak S259 we5! O94 3OAw) ago} ele iit Jo ees a Sex” 20
lao] pod ly ly 9! SOrAww y Soo! ele ne Rien | oom cytes ee 5?
*
1867.] Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. 93
WIS pols dos” y40 Kod yds soley Byad cn! I ydlgn_y OR) a= 5 * gy iis ,$
3! Ne wt! Csias KIQD Ely &F wloy,0 get? lb ayo! cle 9 ® sue
wel ais f wiles sled a axe asi aS so 5! a, ate, ANIL Coo
sb fat yes BSS 1) 91 yw Onde! A Coogan Lol yd gyi cgiphs a5 Oy dK
So ti@ ua jae Qa Jem TIE gle Gale Gye wyte # HayT
Bays oaivo SLU, Ki ile? SLS[OaLL yd 3 by gf 8dghe SI ,0I] af yam
ous) en. ie wil pl o5! com So & dy 55 9! dis wlalys o9> cs BS) 5 3
Som5 oy Upos Kin lo So F392 aS ast ab bay soe=* af
WU y Shay cs Slic outs 5! ¢ 39) BOS <i 8S (syidy LI) 9! ihe L
pact el tonne oy JUS) stl hn thes gi tm
rr ByyF wydR0 el Ly g my co Sadie ag e onf yo alas sp
fesled es WiSREAS bo 025, {iP Kod 123 ot « slo of -
KA IOs whi S09 92 Ny! GA? Ws eo hi on # alee ales os
ghfawyo dal jt Gydet a5 ee 3d Yj! Ox alias histatins’ fae
(sh O82 9 @ OMAl.e Wd Kia culo Fado yy ew byy Gb ol
sits 55 Boy9T 2S 1) yo cl os Joly? we cele i os
ddI! cle al Bs * Sane S l=? cds? cso &) y subs w'> 5! BOs
me iehy ' aS: Kine Jixe slo ST 9 3! we 2 72 B40 See 9 fiw Eh
Ct # OW Rly gira y
“ When Sirdjuddaulah had reached Rajmahal, he left the ship, as
his wife and children were starving. With the view of procuring food,
he entered the hut of a faqeer and asked him for assistance. It
happened that Sirajuddaulah had inflicted some time ago a punish-
ment upon this very dervish on account of some crime, and had
besides disgraced him by having given the order to shave off his
beard and mustachios, The dervish hated him still, and having
recognized the Nawab by his manners, feigned compassion and tried
to soothe him. After making preparations to cook some khichari
(1) This should be w.alaw, The writer wished, however, to have a rhyme
for gla! . The meaning of walw in Hind., is adulation, humiliation.—The
phrase te | 555 Wydo in the next sentence is not Persian either,
13
a
94 Notes on Sirdjuddaulah-and the town of Murshiddbad. [No. 2,
for him, the dervish ran to the Governor of Rajmahal and gave
information. In the mean time Mir Muhammad Qasim Khan, a
relation of Mir Muhammad.Ja’far, had arrived in search of Sirajud-
daulah, and having obtained the desired information, seized with the
aid of his men the boats of the fugitive and captured Sirajuddaulah
with his companions. All the jewels and the money fell into his
hands. Thus was Siréjuddaulah in the power of men, to whom,
a-week ago, he might have refused admission. He conjured them to
take all-he had, but to spare his life and-let him escape. But in vain.
‘On his arrival as a prisoner in Murshidébad, Miran, known as Sadiq
?Ali Khan, the son of Mir Muhammad Ja’far, gave orders, that he
should be brought before him, and confined him in a dark and narrow
yoom of the palace. Miran desired his companions to kill him, but no
one came forward to do the black deed. At last a man was found of the
name of Muhammadi Bég, who had been under obligations to Mahabat
Jang, the Nawdb’s grandfather, and had married a woman, whom
either the grandmother or the mother of Sirajuddaulah had brought
up. In consequence of this marriage he held an honorable position.
When this man came to Siraéjuddaulah’s room, the wretched prisoner
made all sorts of excuses, and reminded him of the obligations under
which he lay. But the cruel wretch, the second Yazid, would not
listen, struck him with the sword and killed him.”
‘By Miran’s order the body was thrown on an elephant and carried
about openly throughout the whole town, but was afterwards buried
in the grave of Mahabat Jang in Khushbagh, west of the palace of
Murshidabad, near the river. Some time afterwards Mahdi Ali Khan,
Siréjuddaulah’s younger brother, was captured and tortured to death.
He lies buried by the side of his brother.
“‘ Sirajuddaulah had reigned for one year and four months, and was
killed in the end of the month of Shawwal 1170 A. H.”
Regarding the installation of Mir Ja’far the author says—
spt wlille pine odetype by saa S yale y she Gals is
o& slTo%,0 JSts BO 9) Sided Lg dd Jal oliSjlr0 i wy? jy
seul gh'Clal s sd whlaye See sonny wyle| yaks fan doe" pr0 9
mpd diwold 5 eye Whe sg woals AS dle yy cays Sd90) tom Ly
1867. ] Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshidabdd. 95
ub WI 93! ‘sedi eNde 5 OWES awl, Dhaene 5) ais ,S pier dee” a
OR) & Ob yw plea dex” ie Kms Sy! 3 oe 3 in FAN) wleiye Gis
w2St jt Ko 24s aS NS f sles pe dex” “ oo oll
WIS i> Sty Bing ja nis LS “stile (yh dy w! x20 Me ely y
Arete y » SSL 95S 99 5! OU} Cagte Sty) 9 stl 5! O82} cree eats f
pam O45? 10 IF SF 99 Wipe Ue* yo rs Kir5s w! cslg 85 cal
Me Lyi 5! Le'F yg edly ght” g1 Cthio'y wlya aie als Usi,5 51
Yl g AD Dos? p01 T AT gg 9,5 Sued HI AF whee 9 WIT BA
oad die pol Grily # Say ppU wel AS ody O'e Alyy Sy
wad ued jf d2l} Sle} why 6F GphS Gy die el BS] yom awd) wld jf
SF eea99 Blolae (yi! Ylw $0 51 OY A dig pl) DLL ooh style Ary,
wed yy wr wis y ented ANen) &A4 9) si gis rw) 9 dy uh
* Boye) i3 yro o> Joe Us 970 3 law Jo SAd9) el a ho 5£
7 o Pa
“After the victory Col. Clive met with Mir Muhammad
Jafar. They congratulated each. other and went together to Mur-
shidabid. On their arrival at the palace, the nobles of the city and
the Government officials were called to a darbér. Col. Clive took
Mir Ja’far’s hand and led him to the Masnad. At the same time
salutes were fired to indicate the transfer of the stbahs of Bengal,
Bahar, and Orissa, to Mir Ja’far. After the darbar, the new Nawab,
Col. Clive with a few Englishmen, the Diwin Ram Chand, and
Nab Kishn, the Colonel’s munshi, inspected the treasury, where
asum of more than 20 millions of rupees, in silver and gold, was
found,
“Tt is also well known that besides this treasury there existed
another in the Harem, which fact Mir Muhammad Ja’far concealed
from Col. Clive, at the instigation of the diw4n. and Clive’s munshi.
The value of the gold and silver articles and of the jewels found
there was not less than 80 millions ofrupees. The whole was divided
among Mir Ja’far, Rim. Chand, Amir Bég and Nab Kishn. This
transaction is indeed very probable, as Ram Chand left a fortune of
12} millions of rupees at his death, ten years later; whilst Nab
Kishn could afford to pay 900,000 rupees on the occasion of the death
-
96 Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbad. [No. 2,
of his mother. Yet both men were in receipt of only 60 rupees per
month at the time of the division.”
Then follows an account of the money paid to the Company and
the troops, as also of the “ consideration” paid to the civil authorities
and to Col. Clive. The author gives also the agreement made
between the English and Mir Muhammad Ja’far, which he confesses
to have taken from the memoirs of Nawdb Shams uddaulah, Anglice
Mr. Vansittart. The agreement* is the same as given in “ The
Treatises, Engagements, Sunnuds. Calcutta 1862, Vol. - p. EY
Notes on Murshidabdd, ée.
The description given of the town of Murshidabad contains nothing
new or interesting. The short history which the author gives,
may be found in the Ardish i Mahfil (ed. Lees, p. 114) and in
Thornton’s Gazetteer of India. But the following extracts are perhaps
of interest. )
w 2,1 ely wig! clas j1 rw! Bay? belol esos Kaist 5
clo IS (say she (gat! Liye Soy) Big eure ld dee! GML O25
Nyy GY whe labo Why dy0 9 Sale pled aia s bhislh 66 Zia
ant gf ai tS uke are dS iby) aly # Oi Udy gyi
KA de! ery? &F yjzb clot we jo * Wy S why lex Ih! oes oki s
0 Digg aye gh BF IE gins Sy SE 3 aS ade Ons pal BF oy
. Zz A ww w A
godegSa0 p® wlyAio 9 Sel weber Cyd! Cetge clove wrbdedi el, ishie
¢
* Articles 6 and 7 mention compensations payable to Hindoos and ‘ Muham-
madans.’ The “ Treatises, Engagements, Sunnuds, Calcutta 1862” has instead the
reading “ Gentoosand Musulmans,” It appears that the English in India at the
time of Sirdjuddaulah, used the terms “ Moors and Gentoos for Muhammadans
and Hindus.” Even Orme uses these terms, although he objects to them, on
the score of their incorrectness, recommending Musulmams for Moors. Gentes
is Portuguese and the same as Gentiles, heathens. Perhaps it may be of interest
to mention here a few other differences in usage. Thus the word Siibah was
employed for Sibahdar. The word Himalaya was unknown and Indian Caucasus
used instead of it. Peon had the meaning of irregular infantry. Murshidabad
was spelt and pronounced Muwadavedd (the vulgar still pronounce it Mukshidabad
or Muksidahad); we find also Oriza for Orissa, Morattoes for Mahrattas
Pitan for Pathan, phirmaund for firman, Schah for Shah, Jehanquir for
Jehangir, Industan for Hindustan, Helebds for Ilahbas, now called Allahahad
&c. &c. Ido not know, whether the word Muxadayad is a corruption of
Makheticdébdd, the old name of Murshidabéd. ais ae
1867.] Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshidabdd. 97
Aye ns tf rice bg wits byw of Vdly whlso jae nest
ils iii sh om es i Kun 30 ee Whe Sy) (byt oils, Jo baie
al} (iad oly * oeut layas Wu) aS eek usels y use Kiad y
> oe wish oly JY Jd 9 Gyan os wLF ye jy 9 4 n=? 09
Wow af ab pity Gl oly wlio y2 w'lo sees Slee 5
. en! SAIL 5 @ souy! Sows ys wlolas esi) Es pS as csly? 39059
#9 ls b td 9 Oindvo lela wi ur 30 aS i. Sy lad jt we wy lilse
Ss J9 Opts Oy tg oS) Coles pe si jo # oiidye (,0
2 BSL wa #53 glad! Aird she o eubly t cape) OE? ity
estilo yo © oy oh 4959 G51 ey shores Wy pliyto
39.9 Mylo wealh pag wll Lee 8 Gh sty) 90 99 Cirle Giles
ye ra urs ste rane 9s SYS Colt y dawyd idan) (iF fe ar
bie
bt 2 clay? 9 tthe ds ooo 4 OSI XyyF was $2) iste Ug yh
(> ee lane 3 Sows rae y Ld paras ly 3d HS, 4 oso) ea wie oe
# Sol S29 Why d94) Col?
* Among the old buildings was the Imambarah built by Sirajud-
daulah, the grandson of ’Ali Vardi Khan. It had been built with
care and reverence, Muhammadan workmen alone having been employed
in the work, and Hindoos excluded. The Nawab laid the first brick
with his own hand and put lime over it, after which the workmen
commenced. In the midst of the Imambarah, a piece of ground,
called Madinah, was dug, to the depth of a man, which was filled
with holy earth z. e. earth from Karbala. The author of the Riydsz
* An adjective of By Thus of 3,g— S10 yaw ACs the adjectives are written
$54> bso yas Vullers (Pers. Dict. I. p. 605) spells 55> without a hamzah,
as he does not understand the words of the Bahar i’ Ajam.
+ The word is 9 93 and the |, is the Woo csk. Johnson gives a word
Hes 503 namidt which Vullers ane a p. 1852 of his Dictionary. There is,
however, no such word, A similar mistake is the word cshtnvo given by
Vullers, p. 1183. He says the ¢¢ is suffix, but itis the woay col as in
ue! and users we? and us?
{ The dictionaries give only BOA5 rAd,
98 Notes on Strdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. [No. 2,
ussalétin and others have written encomiums on the beauty of
this building. On all four sides were rooms. On the east were
vestibules lying within other vestibules facing towards the west, —
with a pulpit, and a place set aside for an assembly room [wherein —
the elegies on Husain are read]. There were similar vestibules facing
towards the east in the western part of the building, in which were
nearly a hundred flags and the sacred coffins made of silver, gold, glass
and wood. During the Muharram the Qoran was here chaunted
day and night, and at fixed times during the other months. North
and south of the building were vestibules of the same kind containing ~
out-offices for the illuminations &c., where hundreds of workmen kept
themselves in readiness [during the Muharram] to illuminate the —
place. The verandahs of the second story contained screens of mica,
behind which the lamps hung. On the screens themselves were —
pictures of men and animals and flowers which looked wonderful
when illuminated. All kinds of chandeliers, in large numbers, were
in the vestibules, as also diwargirs, lalahs and mardangis.* The
whole building was illuminated. In the northern and southern ©
vestibules were two representations of the Burdq [the horse on which |
the prophet ascended to heaven], each with a human face and a
peacock’s tail. The length of the tails reached to the roof of the
house. Well polished shields and china or silver plates were fitted .
into the feathers of the tail, to represent the round spots in the
feathers of a peacock. Polished swords, Karaulis [a kind of short
swords] and daggers were placed round these shields wonderfully
arranged, and hundreds of wax candles gave the whole a striking
appearance.” |
This old Imaémbérah was burnt to the ground in 1253 A. H. during —
a grand display of fireworks, ‘‘in the twinkling of an eye.” A new
one was built up, according to the plan of the former and at a cost
of six lakhs of rupees, by the Nawab Mangcir ’Ali. Its date (1264
A. TI.) was expressed by the letters of the words 44,5 &<3) (the grove
of Karbal4). Whilst the edifice was building, the workmen received
* Our Hindustani Dictionaries do not give these words. Diwargir or
Diwalgir is a lamp resembling our carriage lamps, three sides being made of
elass, one of metal. Lalah (pr. tulip) is a lamp with one or more round shade
Mardangt is the Hindustani word for our Argand lamps,
1867.] Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd. 99
their food in addition to their wages, and also, when the building was
finished, a present of a double shawl and a handkerchief. ‘ At that
time you could see shawls in every lane of Murshidabad.”’
Regarding the Muharram festivities a author says :—
¢5)! O82 33 4 ste ely Co pane US « wt dvo Pe Jets onieere are Jo
¢ oaely ing lew wr! Gs JIA &S rnd ShlS e En oiiloyo wolrs pl ly
Sols 9 SIS os tyT #358 goats yg wl Cooly who Sy ane! zlise 5
pox ake S551 9 * MKS 8 gUamst Binh )T tr dus 90 9 wry) ele cw 9
ly 5? WI By >5 ced 9 SOI! yd fay 9 83 ,20 oo Bo 9d Cpdyd “ails
oa. w y . Z 4
Sy 0 Xo] CHIE y5 blix 5} cpt Swe 99 rw! Rey Bla 5] 9 x dLds0
dKvo oye) & cols S355 Cane} ac laire} wale eur * OS 5 — csylolys
er? wit wane} yg d20 ale 51 5 e dinlyine 5,20 Pa wl > bs 50 Chae § &S
&S cy 9 &si2.5 She £5 (oD 9 Ad pete yg ite pee ist siikve 33,3
Che Jy) Pees aw! ALES (ted al=” 5 jo * XL wy J oad 9 X95
acr eel lat Syd5 JS 9 # sa wl 39 poo x cyt wlesye
wipddsbsy wldaits wlymdndg) 9 wip sda sy Sa Ode &S erry og!) is® &
# dS} ajdle wlyd Aedly
“As in Murshidabad the Shi’ahs are, by the blessing of God, the
reigning sect, the mourning for Husain and the making of ta’ziahs
form a most important part of the divine worship. No house is
destitute of this spiritual blessing. Ifa man is poor, he will put
a few lamps in a separate part of his hut, called the place of vows,
and put up some flags. At a fixed time the women and children
of the house chaunt a few couplets of elegies and mourning hymns,
Say a prayer and then perform the Shéwan [%. e. they weep for
Husain and beat their heads and breasts].
“Tf a man is of the middle class, he joins with two or three of his
neighbours. They perform the ta’ziah in common. If a man is well
to do, the mourning ceremonies are performed on a grander scale, and
a few “vreciters” are appointed. Very rich people go still further
and distribute sweetmeats, sherbat, coffee berries and roasted coriander-
seeds, So in every quarter of the town. Night and day people are
100 = Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbdd, [No 2;
engaged in these works of charity. At the “thresholds” of the
Nazim and his relations, there is something more. They have among
their attendants reciters of elegies, describers of the grave of Husain,
couplet singers, Khutbah readers and historians.”
The imémbarah presents a grand spectacle during the Muharram.
Food is daily distributed to the believers. In the evening there are
fireworks and illuminations. On one day the Nawab also comes. After
alighting from his palki at the southern gate, he is conducted inside,
and takes his seat on a black carpet, over which a white embroidered
coverlet is spread; for a black carpet is used on this particular
occasion instead ofa bolster. THlegies are again recited, after which
sherbat and spices are handed round. Thousands of people are
admitted, but only such as come with either a turban or a pagri.*
Gor Goo Yel s obitpetey bd a5 o!Sy YA Aabye way! alle y
_yRirrmnds sols 5! es osPa 7S 9 ct a wT SLeI 3 sz ele! 1d ByyS S355 9
Bide) alhis Say> J yo ty 6 bs, » dle WAST Ss a aS Lott isk # — 2
ee) Bd>5 3) S43) wl Sse 3 Os 48” ly ee Shs # SNo omy yd
Wns 95 72 9 sage 2 bal uae ha m2 2 * Wy “ Sls
yus!ove woe’, 45 oNiee Soap pe | Ly (gras y fe. ‘Ul O23 age
By 95 Oka ‘edi Tone Sas J=* Jo 39 # or us? alt aS ym wis! pede
ae *& Ki fais ot sa ori Dp» XS Bs yd is? pyhe he
Safes y? Se 8 | es 3! yi pools ee (54% sdb i
wladle rte s ln} (sls is y) 9 eb * Od 53 4s” wis § 5b elo} Je 2
. =, e ° ° “ alee "
&b, wis 554 elt pia gets € dy cs” W25 3 ya Sle 99,9 aa
J3+20 home Geb 5 as} ly eels wy 5) ou; oe us” WB tid cle Kas g ord os
(yeas cnali=®!, Uy do lLawwe wh} werd 2 wil » @ MLSs us” esaye ,
* In the original ylides ly Soles
+ So according to the MS. But the anther means the Hindustani ust
Imay remark here that the Arabic a [the name of the 12th — is
1867.] Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshidébdd. 101
9 # dbl, (0 eal 59 9 5) jabs Say) Loe wleky aS oiw ne
Ne he 9 hf pe SUplel yo “Ly 72 GATS iI ple pet port
3 Ayre ah pllaly jet del » SU dle stem sola 5 Abd: |
ge Smale ylre pie 1 lil Kal» oiled (go crclens Bas 0
diyox0,3 1) elles sple UT wooly: 3 de Srwolyyitle ayy as po gol
ByyF 99 Gryyd dbiclQs Gyie rene 9 ra) cil af yio0 as eis! s
Solas ly Cros Diz!95 yy-dm 5s dig pO ame] BS y Ej lao “Kal5 3) wh! pF
Soauy (=hy , Divle yo erclew asso 4 i ie a es pe Bye
GB thro 9 « aijloys_.0 tay BASIS yes gd) Cayyd FONTS Lytle j led
Dydd (50 Gor pape 15% ES sibel 59 jy Wyo # OUT pe lB y seg do
Bard wlbo Leja 5 # ayer etm Wyler y LQ LOjKg pao 5) lab plait ,
SUS 8 Sal jolt wl Che Ghlo com 560 O's) foley: bys
‘ % rao! jyho rte” slo 5% ayo Bai? 9 sidle tpT coolthe gyde
“ Hlegiac verses are also sung in Bengali by singers called Bhathiydl.
They sit in the Imambarah and round about the building, arranged in
troops of 15 or 20. One of them who can read, has in his hand an
elegy written in Bengali characters. He reads out a verse, which
the others repeat with him in chorus. At the end of each verse they
exclaim Hy! strike their chests with both hands and then the thighs,
Some strike also the ground with their feet at the same moment,
the sound of which motion produces a most saddening effect.
“ For the harem of the Begums likewise some reciters are appointed
and the chaunting continues here also to the 10th day of the Muhar-
ram. Couplets are sung and flags carried about in procession.
* “On the 6th day of the Muharram, 7. ¢. the 7th night [as the
Muhammadans like the Jews commence the day at 6 o’clock Pp. m.],
the Méhndé of Haszrat Qasim* (blessings be upon him!) is brought
from the Nizim’s palace and carried in procession to the imambarah
* The day before a marriage a plate full of méhndi or hena is carried in
procession from the house of the bride to the house of the bridegroom who
stains his hands with it. The carrying about of this red dye is called in
Hind. mehndi uthdndé and in Persian hindbandt. The Shiahs perform this
ceremony during the Muharram also, in remembrance of Qasim, who the day
after his marriage [7, e. when the méhndi procession had been performed] was
slain at Karbala with his father Husain,
14
102 Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbad. [No. 2,
with great pomp and illuminations. <A. body of infantry and cavalry
march in procession before the méhndi, the Nawab and attendants
follow, and elegies are chaunted.
“On the 7th day the Imémbirah is turned into a harem and the
Begums attend. They put fetters on the Nawab, according to custom,
and a chain round his neck. Hundreds of women, high and low,
receive presents on this occasion, as the Begums distribute thousands
of rupees, in order to fulfil certain vows.
“‘ On the 8th day the flags are carried from the palace. The Nawab
accompanies them, barefooted and walking slowly, with pensive mien
and great dignity, whilst tears unceasingly flow from his august eye.
“On the 10th day, called ’Ashira, before sunrise, the flags and
the coffins are carried to Améniganj, a place about 2 kés from the
palace, where the coffins are buried. The Nawab again walks bare-
footed in the procession, and, having arrived at the burial-place,
orders elegies to be chaunted. The prayer appointed for this day is
then read. About noon the Nawab returns to his palace. The others
do not return before the evening. The gathering of the people in
Améaniganj is very great; for all kinds of food are distributed there
to the poor and the inhabitants in general. Besides there is in
Améaniganj a place resembling Kerbala, laid out, from pious motives,
by the Nawéb Nazir Sayyidi Darab ’Ali. A meeting is held there on
the Ynd Thursday of every month.
‘“¢ As the relatives of a dead person prepare a dinner 40 days after
his death, a large public dinner is also prepared in the Imémbarah, 40
days after the end of the Muharram festivities, 7. e. on the 20th day
of the month of Gafar.”
I may remark that the above ceremonies are purely Shi’ah. Hdu-
cated Sunnis abhor them, but low Sunnis take a part both in the
Shi’ah, and also in Hindoo festivities, all over India. The Shi’ahs in
Calcutta have a house near Manicktollah, where they celebrate the
10th day of the Muharram by carrying flags about. Hlegies are also
sung and the shéwanis performed. The house, which is called
Karbala, is let during the year, but the tenants have to leave it
during the Muharram.
Ttake this opportunity to correct aprevalent error, which even
many of our lexicographers have made, viz. that the ta’ziahs are
1 1867.] Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshidabdd. 108
carried about in remembrance of the death of Hasan and Husain,
‘But it is in commemoration of the death in battle of Husain and his
}iamily only. Hasan had died a year before Husain of poison, Nor
do the Shi’ahs exclaim in their lamentations “‘ Hasan Husain!” but
“ Husain, Husain!” or “ya Husain! merely.
_ As a custom peculiar to Murshidabad, the author mentions a grand
fannual display of fireworks and a feast given by the Nawab on the
last Thursday of the month of Bhadén, to which the English gentry
f Berhampore are generally invited.
A large raft of 100 cubits square is made of plantain trees and |
bamboos and covered with mud. Inthe midst of the raft a small
ortress is built, to the walls of which all kinds of fireworks are
titached. At the order of the Nawadb, the raft is launched (bhasdn4)
and steered to the other side of the river, when the fireworks are let
off. The whole is done to the honour and glory of Haszrat Khwajah
Khiszr, (may blessings be upon him),
r Smaller rafts (hind. béra) are put on the tanks by Muhammadans
fof the lower classes all over Bengal on every Thursday during the
}month of Bhadoén. The simplest ones consist of joined pieces of
Di mboos or plantain trees, with a few sweetmeats and a small lamp
|placed on them, They are made in order to discharge vows.
I do not know the origin of this custom, nor the area over which
} tt extends. It is in all probability of Hindoo origin, But it reminds
Ime of an attribute of Khiszr as the guide of wanderers, who loose
their way in the darkness of the night. Indeed one must have seen
the darkness of a night in Bengal during the month of Bhadén, to
know what darkness really is.
Notes on the style of the book.
‘The writer succeeds in expressing his ideas clearly ; awkward
| sentences occur seldom.
The style of the book is Hindustani-Persian, 2, e. Persian words
arranged according to the genius of the Hindustani language, The
ral failings of all Indian writers in Persian, from Abuliaszl down-
104 Notes on Sirdjuddaulah and the town of Murshiddbid. [No. 2,
S &c. The apodosis (*1}s) is generally introduced by words like
cst2 Cydyt, Oly y, 5a u:9 de. which corresponds to Hindustani
correlative adverbs as > and |4, »> and_53 &c. Many phrases are
purely Hindustani, e. g. slo Wosor GO 45 cowl Gye 9 Cet ly
“the building is remarkable, so that it has aconnection with seeing,”’ i. e:
‘you must see the building to comprehend its beauty,” or as one would.
say in Hindustani (,2Ugs, s5dle we ig%s you must see it, in order to.
judge. WHS 545 for the Persian wo,5 545 is the Hindustani 4a5y jlo,
The phrase Wd41o 59 Cgd¢ive for Epi La is Hindustani for b'g5| ceagixe,
The phrase (gle (Sole 3,© Wyte is Hind. for Golersss,n0 0,10, The
author uses also many Hindustani words quite cibabieslgs & ge
Wty SA pojpe K&wogs for Wlys KAY 0 Lak 99. I was astonished to find
the following monstrosity in nies chapter on Murshidabad J p20 A) 9
ESBS yd OF Coy Ww F51p) Col RAS 4ST Wooley slo ys &F 8555 Lalo WLLL
SEROwe GLb oy
“It was also the custom of the former Nawdbs to send in the
month of August for those government boats which were at Dacca.’ §
The most learned Persian scholar, unacquainted with Hindustani,
would mot know what to make of the 4&5 befcre (ghtS, It is very |
good Hindustani* and stands for »>. l (4S is Indian usage fo
Lgai&S, Hindustani authors also insist upon writing slosb for slaoly,
as oly has an obscene meaning (V. Bahar i ’Ajam). ~ls4l is a curiousyy
Arabic plural of the Persian 55, ‘‘ The phrase” &3, 20 Colas} “« plun- |
dered things” is a serious blunder. It looks as if the author had made
a participle of the noun wyl¢ mistaking the = for a radical,
The handwriting of the MS, is a bad Shikastah.
* gol rte ere ASLOS WIGS 5 Gyno draw wysles,
OPN ANAS NASP PRP PS Ad NPI LP AP PP PD AP APA ol OP
1867.] Notes on Buddhist Remains. 105
Notes on Buddhist Remains near Mynpoorie.—By C. Horne, Esq.
B. Ge 8.
[Received, October 30th, 1866. ]
At a distance of from 10 to 25 miles to the south of Mynpoorie
extends of line of high Kheras, distant 3 or 4 miles apart.
On each of these, in ancient time, was some large building, but owing
to their general transformation, some hundred years since, at a time
of anarchy, into square mud forts, traces of these ancient buildings are
hard to find.
In my former notes relative to Kerouli, Maloun and Kaénemganj,
I recorded evident traces of Buddhist buildings of probably the 3rd
or 4th century A. D., but in the mounds recently visited, I have not
been so successful.
Leaving Bijaniganj canal station, opposite to which isa village
perched on a high mound with its usual jheel around, created by the
excavation of earth to form the said mound which I could not visit,
I proceeded to Tukrow (canal station), nearly west for 64 miles.
Three miles from there, still going west, I arrived at Bhawanti, a
village similar to that just spoken of and probably worthy of a visit—
‘put the sun forbad my examining it, and I pushed on to Ktirhat—
which is a mound of great extent, with a very large jheel almost
enclosing it.
Here the fort arrangement had been carried out, as shewn in Fig. 1 ;
but I was fortunate in finding some very ancient solid brick blocks
‘cut into ornamental patterns with a tool. (Fig. 2.) This block
‘was burnt in one piece and was of very fine texture.
4 Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
i - 14 inch.
106
72" thick.
From Khurrah to Soj is only 2 or 3 miles. Soj is a mound of vast
extent with a very large square mud fort rising 40 feet on its crest,
and an immense jheel stretching away {from its base. Near the jheel
is an arrangement of old kunkur blocks 16’ & 10’—being 5 courses
4’—9" in height, with many blocks lying around, amongst which I
identified the centre block of a Jain ceiling as per fig. 5 in the margin.
9/8"
Buddhist Remains near Mynpoorie. [No. 2, ©
The next illustration was a finial
corner ornament. (Hig. 3.) The cutting
TE” was very sharply done, and I found
fragments of many other such bricks.
Fine kunkur blocks are rare here, and stone
is quite unknown, hence the use of brick.
There was, however, one small column shaft in
fine kunkur (Fig. 4) which shewed the trace of
a small building, probably early Hindoo.
There were also heaps of fragments of small
kinriaros or cherubs, such as are seen around
later statues of Buddha, as well as 2 pairs of
feet, with one or two round faces with. very
large ear-rings, so that I think that this village
4
would repay a careful search.
This from its size would indicate a
building of small size; but kunkur is
a formation which does not readily
indicate age.
T also noticed, set up as a sacred post,
a kunkur ornament jp being a large
finial, the same as found at Ma-
loun. <A portion of a statue of
Buddha, being from the waist to the
feet, also occurred, but I was much
disappointed at finding so little that
was really ancient, |
JOURNAL AS’ soc: XXXVI. PI.
W.
gs ow tops of rail posts al Buddha Gay
wv
Carver
T. BlaK & 0. Luhrs: cal:
Marea ye
\ Deeg. Mees
PLATE
igerganane Sry Ye
= | 3
IOURNAL AS: Soc: XXXVL PI PLATE Iv?
. © 5 4 4
Carvings on Rail Posts at buddha Gaya
Steen
é “i
Drawn on’ Stoné at the Cov scheot al’ Art Cateuta by Mamekhu Chucun Ghosc Studcrt
VU Shak EOF MNS tat
a
~
.
r >
fe v
a P d - .
=F : ,
ie
ae Rs : : 2
. ¥ . fi = .
, Pipe (et => 3 ; .
Ps : »” j < is sa t a 5 : : ~— .
" : et i> 2-= Dept p si ae Sai ae )
. a ‘ s i ' re A : 7 2 c “>
Lena , - x .; “- ; 7 = ™, ‘ - 4 Pie —S
f . , 4 , } - ~—s ,. r = i =
= et ; j j J 7 es Ch “y-
‘ \ N ay a ,/ i \ ee = ae a}, 3
. ‘ ’ a
se > ' } “ ‘ sd * Cnw, : °' J : : ?
—— . o ~~ Ya Nate i 4 ‘ . )
_ { < ~ — Fi 4 , ‘ : -
y
‘
“
”
AnD
’
3
:
if
j
*
e
uy
*
iva »
j
eater ceo cre
en ae SE aE
ten, i:
4
GOYA. :
Sraderee .
pe : i Ti 2? vis = : ie i 2
bee Pete
son tall posts ab Buddha
< an SS
. 3 “ 7
‘ BY mS $
S 3 oa j =
- os we M S
s s 2 :
S Z s
: =
= Z 2 ~s
S) a
5 : | :
S ; 9
3 N
Ss -
fe"
| a
SW. g :
Zz z ~
Z ~~ Ss
bs f
2 YOova ioe
+ : = ! F
“ee : ; 5 ;
: : bY > =
x ra) & : *
: : PER = $ >
: “4 ' ~» s
D bd o : ; x = 2
OES) 3
< s " : :
> mee :
we = ;
: N
; Ss
i .
: =
J
1867.) Buddhist Carvings at Budh Gayd. _ 107
+ Saman ig about 21 miles west of Soj, ona mound, with a jheel,
ad is entirely built in the said mound. It is the residence of
Sullyan Sing, agent for the Rajah of Mynpoorie, and might repay
ime Visit.
_« Proceeding still further west, we came to Kishni, on the metalled
‘oad from Futtyghur to Etawah. Here was one large mound covered
with buildings in occupation, and so nearly inaccessible archxo-
ogically ; and a smaller mound from which I was told large square
ricks were excavated. I found here a heap of broken Hindoo
eities, but not a trace of Buddhist remains.
Near Kirhul I also saw a round mound from which they said
rge bricks were taken, but neither at Kishni nor at Kurhal did I see
an ancient brick either lying about or built into any structure.
The oldest coins I could get were some copper ones of the Delhi
ings, but I have no doubt but that Hindoo punch coins are some-
t mes found. This line of country is worth carefully exploring, and
as a road from Kurhal to Kishni is in course of construction, others
vill find it an easier matter than I did.
»
BN otes on the Carvings on the Buddhist Rail-posts at Budh Gayd.
oa By C. Horne, Esq. C. 8.
In submitting to the Society the accompanying drawings of the
: remarkable of the carvings on the Buddhist rail-posts at Budh
: Jay 4, some from the court-yard of the mahant, but chiefly from the
tle temple by the tower, I would beg to draw attention to some
f them—
Puarz, No. IV. Firsily.—The boat scene, almost identical with
@ one figured by Cunningham in the Bhilsa Topes.
Secondly.—The rest -of the upper portion is of the same sheet, all
them copies, doubtless of Buddhist rails, pillars, and buildings.
we find the round and pointed arch, but this argues nothing,
nm we remember that there were imitations of wood work and of
ch and bamboos as in the cave of the rock temples of Barabur
lose by,
108 Buddhist Carvings at Budh Gayd. [No. 2,
Thirdly.—The central compartments are curious, but need little
remark. At first I took them for astronomical emblems as signs of —
the zodiac, but I do not think they are.
Fourthly.—The lower ornament is nearly the same in all.
Memo.—Although drawn one over the other—it does not follow —
that the identical three were upon one and the same rail-post.
Prats No. V.—The figure shewn as No. 2, to the left, is rather —
unusual. It wants all the refinement of Buddha, and does not, I think,
represent him.—There is another such figure let into the wall, as you —
enter the lower room in the great tower on the right hand, inside the
doorway. The fifth sketch puzzled me. It is perhaps intended to
represent a good trick. To the extreme left is, what I believe to
be, the only remnant yet found in Benares of a Buddhist rail. It is”
much defaced, and obliterated with dirt and ghee, and stands nearly |
opposite to the door of the golden temple on the left hand of the ©
street.
The demon face to the extreme left of the centre one much resem-~
bles the Sarnath demon face; whilst the cornice is very bold, free, ~
and handsome. The single demon face inside the brick tower, left, |
above the floor of the highest chamber, must have been built in, when
the tower was built, and I should not assign any great age to it. |
The portion of the Singhdsan or idol shrine drawn nearly to scale, -
and which shews the holes into which were set the fastenings of the |
metal covering, is very curious. It exactly corresponds in style to |
the whole of the exterior plaistering of the great tower, and in the ©
event of the arches having been declared to be coeval with the tower, ©
rebuilt, interiorly arched, and wholly plaistered at or about 500 A. D—s
the date of Amara Sinha, when the original Buddhist railing included
both the Bo tree and the tower. |
In conclusion, I may remark, that although my drawings are i
defective, yet the original carvings are ere rude, and clearly betoken
their early execution,
Oe ess enn,
ANS Ee meh anaes
ai tea as
1867.] The Pegu Pagoda. 109
The Pegu Pagoda.—By Capt. H. A. Brownn, Deputy Commissioner
of Rangoon.
[Received Nov. 28th, 1866. Read 5th Dec. 1866. |
Every ancient Pagoda in Burmah has its Thamaing or “ sacred
chronicle,” giving an account of the relics or quasi-relics which it was
built to enshrine, the names of the kings, rulers or other distinguished
personages by whom it was erected or has since been repaired or
embellished, in short its history from its foundation down to a_ recent
time.. The commencement of those chronicles is of a more or less
mythical character; the founding of each particular pagoda being
connected, if possible, by its historian with some event in the life of
Gaudama, who is fabled to have visited these regions after he became
a Buddha. Some gleams of real history may be detected even in the
mythical portions of the narratives, but later on the chronicles are
truthful contributions to the history of the period. To disunite some
of these from the obscurity of the Hpoongyee’s book-chests, and give
acompendious description of their contents, will not be an uninterest-
ing task, and the results may be useful to the author who will some
day write “‘ The History of Burmah,”’ as well as interesting to the
general reader. .
One of the most ancient and famous among the Pagodas of Burmah
is the graceful structure known as the Shwé Hmawdaw © AIC 99 cots
at the town called, by Europeans, Pegu, and by Burmans, Pago Clest
or Paigoo One, but formerly known as Hanthawadie 09000003 ;
Which, since the decline of Thatoon D066} twelve centuries ago,
has been the capital of the Talaing nationality.
Hanthawadie is derived from the ‘‘ Hantha’”’ (Goose or Brahminee
| Duck), the national bird of the Talaings. Concerning the manner in
which this bird came to be selected by the Talaings as their emblem,
* The name “ Pago” appears to be of Burmese not Talaing derivation. It is
Said to be a corruption of “ Paikho” ods or Beau-thief, from some old legend
connected with the place.
__ The name of the pagoda “ Hmawdaw” is a corruption of the Talaing -
Hpot-daw which is interpreted in Burmese as “ Bhoorabyan,” a “ winged” or
flying Bhoora.
15
110 The Pegu Pagoda. [No. 2,
the following fable is narrated. When Gaudama, in the eighth year
after he became a Buddha, was on a preaching tour in these parts, he
passed by the hill on which Hanthawadie was afterwards built, and
there seeing two “ Hanthas,” which with joined wings paid him
obeisance, he foretold that 1116 years after his death, there would be
built on that spot a town which would become the capital of a race
of monarchs and an important city. As he foretold, so it came to
pass. -On this site, which is just outside the eastern wall of the
present town, the original founders of the Talaing kingdom of Pegu,
Thamala and Wiemala, built the old city of Hanthawadie, about 573 —
A.D. The district, which took its name from the capital town,
contained at its most floursihing period 32 cities or townships, and
included the eastern half of the present district of Rangoon, with
parts of Toungoo and Shwegyeen. The following are the names of
the thirty-two cities.
1. Dengmai; 2. Zarayboon; 3. Hmawbyo; 4. Lagwonbyeng; ©
5, Akharaing; 6. Ma-oo; 7. Ramanago; 8. Ramawatie; 9. Hmaw- |
bee; 10. Hlaing; 11. Hpoungleng; 12. Htandawgyee; 13.7
Deedwot; 14. Zeta; 15. Zoungdoo; 16. Hpa-aing; 17. Merengzaya —
18. Tagnabhoung ; 19. Meng-raihla; 20. Kawlieya; 21. Zaingana- |
ing. ; |
The whole of these twenty-one townships are within the limits |
of the present district of Rangoon, and the names may all, with the
exception.of Nos. 1, 2, 8, 6, 7, 8, 18, 14,16, 18 and 19, be found i in
the Map of Pegu. Those which are not now traceable among the
existing towns or divisions of the district, were situated as follows :
No. 1. Dengmai, on the bank of the Sittang river, south east from
Pegu. No. 2. Zarayboon, now known as Zwaiboon, in the same
neighbourhood. No. 8. Hmawbyo, doubtful. No. 6. Ma-oo, part
of Akharaing. No. 7. Ramanago, the present town of Rangoon.
No. 8. Ramawatie, the country round the present town of Rangoon.
No. 13, Deedwot, north of Pegu. No. 14, Zeta, north of Pegu.
No 16, Hpa-aing, on the bank of the Irrawady, opposite to Danoobyoo.
This division existed up to the annexation of Pegu, when the circle
of Hpa-aing was amalgamated with that of Tagay. No. 18, Tagna-
bhoung, between Hmawbee and Hlaing. No. 19, Mengrai-hla, next
to Tagnabhoung.
1867.] The Pegu Pagoda. LY
The following are the cities which lie within the limits of the
present district of Shwegyeen.. No. 22, Koukmaw; No. 23, Ban-myo ;
No. 24, Doontsaran; No. 25, Kyeekya; No. 26, Tsittoung (Sit-
tang); No. 27, Atha; No. 28, Ywongzaleng; and the remainder
which are in the district of Toungoo, are—No. 29, Toonkhan, No. 30,
Rainwari, No. 31, Baingta, No. 32, Wenghpyaing.
Below is a table shewing the names of the kings by whom these
towns were founded and the dates assigned to the reigns of the kings.
Name of City. Name of King. Date of Reign.
By. 2s. ie
Koukmow. Thamala, ve A 1152
Banmyo. Ditto.
Doontsaran, Ditto.
Kyeekya. Ditto.
Tsittoung. Wiemala. 526 1164
Dengmai: Ditto.
Zaray boon, Ditto.
Atha. Ditto.
Hmawbyo. Mahiemoora 550 1188
Ariendaraza,
Lagwonbyeng,. Ditto.
Akharaing. Hientharaza 557 1195
Ma-oo. Ditto.
Ramanago. Poonnarickha, 697 1335
Ramawatie. Ditto.
Hmawbee. Ditto.
Hlaing. Ditto.
' Hpoungleng. Tietharaza 712 1350
Htandawegyee, Byeenya-oo: 731 1369
Deedwot. Ditto:
Zeta Ditto.
Zoungdoo. Ditto.
Hpa-aing. Ditto.
Doonkhan. Ditto.
Rainwai. Ditto.
Merengzaya. Ditto.
Tagnabhoung. Ditto.
12 The Pegu Pagoda. [No. 2.
?
Mengraihia. Ditto.
Kawlieya. Razadhicrit. 743 1381
Baingta. Ditto.
‘Wenghpyaing. Queen Beenya daw San 850 1488
Shang tsaw-boo.
Gwon-zaleng. Dhammatsedee. 864 1502
Zainganaing. Thoo-sheng-taga Riwot pie 901 1539*
The dates in the above table are those given in the ‘‘ Thamaing”
of the Shwé Hmawdaw, but it is clear that in this particular, 7. e. as
regards dates, the chronicle is altogether wrong. The year 1116 of
the religious era, in which year Pegu is said to have been founded,
corresponds with the year 493 of king Thamoondarie’s Era (573 A. D.)
but the chronicle gives the year 514 of the present secular era as the
date of this occurrence A. D. 1152. This makes a difference of 579
years in the date of Thamala’s reign.
The Shwe-Hmawdaw, like many other pagodas, is said to have been
built in order to enshrine two of Gaudama’s hairs. The legend
relates that in the sixth year after Gaudama had obtained omniscience
* There are five different eras known in Burmese Chronology. They are as
follows :—
1st.—The Kawza era which, after lasting 8650 years, was abolished by Bhodaw
Eentsana, grandfather of Gaudama, in B. CO, 691.
_” 2nd.—Bhodaw Eentsana’s era, which lasted 148 years only, until Gaudama’s
death, B. C. 548.
8rd —King Ayatathat’s or the penadas era. This lasted 624 years, until
A.'D.. 82.
Ath —King Thamoondarie’s era. In 82 A. D. Thamoondarie, king of Prome,
superseded the Religious era, as far as secular purposes were concerned, by his
own era which he established from the 622nd year of the Religious era, A. D.
80. This era lasted 562 years, until 643 A. D.
5th.—Pagantsaw Rahan’s or Pooppatsaw Rahan’s era. In 642 A. D. this
king of Pegu abolished the Prome era and established his own, making it
commence from the year 560 of the former era, This era has now reached its
1228th year.
Another era, but little used, known as Gnyoung Mangtara’s era, which lasted
798 years, was synchronous with a portion of the present era.
According to Burmese computation, therefore, the following number of years
have elapsed since the death of Gaudama :—
Vata Mates) MTA: VY CATS. swa's sia ios wacteinaeee clas aeealane weet Ci2i ins Pere a Oo
Whoomoondarie’s Hira, ......<.1..%.sgecseoee hie aeewa nce sesocace= a: eee 560
Pooppatsaw Rahan’s Hra,..............+ Bi ce eissib tite she eek eas «sos Silene 1227
Total 2,409
Which fixes the date of that occurrence, viz. the death of Gaudama, in 543
B.C,
1867.) The Pegu Pagoda. 113
(about 582 B. C.) whilst he was tarrying in the Makkoola Hill near
the source of the Thalwon (Gwon-zaleng) river, he was visited by two
pilgrims from Zoungdoo* named Mahathala and Tsoolathala, the sons
of Pientaka, a wealthy merchant of that town, The brothers made
many offerings. Gaudama, being desirous of requiting them, and at
the same time of establishing his religion in their country, shook his
head, and presented to the brothers two hairs which adhered to his
hands, directing them to enshrine the same on the Thoodathana-
Myeng-theeta Hill which lay to the west of the Hanthawadie Hill.
The two brothers being ignorant of the locality of these hills, Gaudama
described them as surrounded by the sea, from which they had but
lately emerged, and promised that they should be pointed out by the
Nats and Brahmas. Gaudama then prophesied that in the 1116th year
of his religion, and the year 514 of the secular era, two brothers, named
Thamala and Wiemala, would found the city of Hanthawadie to the east
of the Thoodathana-Myeng-theeta Hill, and that his religion would
flourish there.
The two brothers, Mahathala and Tsoolathala, then took ship and
conveyed the sacred relics, enclosed in a casket provided for the
purpose by the Thagya king of their native town, where they were
received with great rejoicing. After holding high festival for seven
months and seven days, they proceeded to obey the instructions they
had received, by enshrining the relics on the Thoodathana Hill,
Guided by the miraculous power of the Nats and Brahmas, they speedily
arrived at the spot, and then they prayed that an omen might be given
if that was indeed the very place. In answer to their prayers, the
great earth shook. This not only supplied the desired information,
but called down a host of Nats and Brahmas from the upper regions
to take part in the enshrinement of the relics. By them the shrine
was thus prepared. Atthe bottom of a pit ten cubits square was
laid a slab of pearly white marble, set with diamonds. A similar slab,
set with emeralds, was prepared to cover the mouth of the pit. In
| the centre of the bottom slab the Thagya king placed a golden
cradle, round which were ranged images of the chief disciples of
Gaudama, each holding a golden bouquet. These disciples were
Thaicapootra, Mawgalan, Theeree Maha Maya, Theeree Thoodaw-
* A place which still exists upon the Pegu river, about 20 miles above Pegu.
114 The Pegu Pagoda. [No. 2,
dana, Gathawdara, Khema, Oopawon, Rahoola and Ananda. The
sacred relics were then conducted with great pomp from Zoungdoo
tothe Hill, the distance, two Yooyanas (24 miles), being travelled —
in fourteen days. The casket containing the hairs was then placed
on the cradle, and high festival was held around the shrine. Besides
the images of the chief disciples, those of the following persons
also were placed in the shine ; Mahathala and Tsoolathala, the disciples
Anooroodha, Mahakathapa, Ooroowelakathapa, Oopalie-pagnya, Isa-
weggie, the king of the Brahmas and his four wives. The several
positions occupied by these images are all carefully described in the
legend. Countless offerings were then made, the Thagya king giving
ten billions of gold, each of his four queens forty thousand of silver,
Pientaka one thousand of gold, Mahathala and Tsoolathala one
thousand and eighty of silver, and so on. The Thagya king then
placed certain Nats to guard the shrine, and a structure of stone and
brick, 50 cubits high and 250 cubits in circumference, was erected over
it. This took place in the year 119, Bhodaw Hentsana’a era, 572
B..C., on Saturday the Ist of the waxing of the month of Tagoo.
Then follows a list of the people dedicated by the Rulers of Zoungdoo,
Thamandaraya and his queen Thoobhattadewee, to the service of the
Shwe Hmawdaw, and the extent of the land which was declared to
belong to the shrine. The land was as follows,—to a distance of 100
“Tas”? (1,050 feet) to the east of the Pagoda, 100 “ Tas” to the
north, 100 “‘ Tas” to the west, and 50 “ Tas” to the south. This
would comprise an area of about 310 acres. :
Here ends the first chapter of the mythical portion of the legend,
from which no real information can be gleaned, except perhaps that
there was a town at Zoungdoo before Hanthawadie was founded.
We have not yet, however, got out of the mythical period. Our
chronicler next attempts to connect the Pagoda with the celebrated
revival of religion which took place in the reign of the great Athawka |
of Patalipoot inthe commencement of the 3rd century of the Christian
era. The legend states that in the 218th year of the religious and
the 327th of the secular era* there was not a single worshippe
of Pagodas or relics in the country. Cities had declined from their
* Another mistake in chronology. There is no secular era known, the 327 i
year of which corresponds with 218 of the religious era,
1867.] The Pegu Pagoda. 115
former greatness, and the temples had fallen into ruins, when the
king of the great country of Patalipoot named Athawka Dhamma
Raja invited the Rahandas Mawgaliopootta, Fictha and Oobhara to
the third council, and under their guidance searched for sacred relics
wherever they were to be found. The Rahandas pointed out the
places where the holy hairs and other relics were reposing in the
country of Hanthawadie ; seven Tsedees were cleared of the trees and
weeds, with which they were overgrown, and were ornamented with
golden Htees by the piously disposed monarch. These Tsedees were
the Dagoon, the Kyaik-dewa, the Kyaik-thamwonhan, the Shwe
Hmawdaw, the Makaw, the Kyaik-Khouk and the Kyaik-tanoo. All
these, with the exception of the Shwe Dagoon (Rangoon), are in
the neighhourhood of the town of Pegu.
A number of persons were also devoted by king Athawka to be the
attendants or servitors of these Pagodas.
A complete list of them is given—ninety men were assigned to the
Shwe Hmawdaw and twenty-five to the Shwe Dagoon. Altogether five
hundred men were devoted to the seven Pagodas. Of these two
hundred were from the west of the Sittang river, and the remainder
were Mogoung Shens. Lands also were dedicated to the use of these
Pagodas.
The extent of the lands is carefully described in the legend. The
land which was assigned to the Shwe Hmawdaw was the same which
had been given before by king Thamandaraza of Zoungdoo. The lands
assigned to the Shwe Dagoon were more extensive. Their boundaries
are thus described. On the east the Thabyoo Khyoung, on the
north the Zoung-Khyoung, on the west the Myoung Mya Pagoda,
on the south the river.
King Athawka then returned to Patalipoot.* After the episode of
king Athawka, there is a hiatus of nearly 900 years in the chronicle,
and we arrive then at the historical period.
* The first introduction of Buddhism into India extra Gangem dates from
the time of Athawka. After the 3rd council had completed their labors and
reduced Buddhism to its present form by the compilation of the Beetagat or
scriptures, missionaries were deputed to all the neighbouring countries to
spread the knowledge of the faith. Two of them, Potera and Thawna, arrived
in the Talaing country of Thatoon, whence their religion spread over Burmah.
It is doubtful whether, at the time of their arrival, the Talaings had yet
occupied the country to the west of the Sittang River,
116 The Pegu Pagoda. [No. 2,
In the year 1116 of the religious and 514 of the 8rd era* the
Thagya king established the brothers Thamala and Wiemala as rulers
over the country of Hanthawadie. They found the Shwe Hmawdaw
still in existence. In 523 king Thamala, perceiving that the “‘ Htee”
(chatta or canopy) of the Pagoda was bent and inclining towards the
south-west, was filled with religious fear, and raised the Pagoda from
its original height of 50 to 54 cubits, crowned it with a new golden
Htee, and dedicated 25 families of Engdaret to its service.
In 526 Thamala died, and his brother Wiemala Koomma reigned
alone. He added 5 cubits to the height of Shwe Hmawdaw, making
it 59 cubits in all, gilded it, and gave it a new golden Htee. He also
erected nine others Tsedees, the names of which are given, and
dedicated five families of Tadaugyan to the perpetual service of the
Shwe Hmawdaw.
Wiemala reigned alone 17 years and died in 543. He was succeeded by
his nephew, Thamala’s son, named Athakoomma. He also was a pious
prince, and being desirous of surpassing the meritorious works performed
by his uncle, added 6 cubits more to the height of the Shwe Hmaw-
daw, and built seven other Tsedees, the names of which are given,
all of which he gilded, and crowned with golden Htees. After reign-
ing seven years, he died in 550.
He was succeeded by his son Ariendaraza or Arienda koomma.
Seven months after this prince came to the throne, he observed that
the Htee of the Shwe Hmawdaw was inclining towards the north-
west. On this he ordered his chief noble Thoorathiedie at once
to repair and embellish the holy structure. This was done, and seven
more cubits were added to the height of the Pagoda, making it 73
cubits high. Thoorathiedhia’s son erected another Pagoda, also 73
cubits high, to the north of the Shwe Hmawdaw, which Pagoda is
still known by the name of the “ Nobleman’s Son’s Pagoda.”’ Arien-
daraza, who was well versed in the laws of kings and replete with
the eighteen kinds of knowledge, was desirous of emulating the
* By the 3rd era the writer means the 3rd era after Gaudama. i. e. the present
one. As before remarked, there is no secular era of which the 514th year cor-
responds with the 1116th year,of the religious era. As far as the chronicle shews,
therefore, it is doubtful whether Pegu was founded by Thamala and Wiemala
in 573, A. D. or in 1152, A. D. In the text, to avoid confusion, the dates only
of the secular era mentioned by the chronicler, will be given.
1867.] The Pegu Pagoda. 117
- meritorious works of his predecessors, and therefore having associated
with himself his queen Kethanee and his chief noble and ministers,
erected the Pagoda called Kyaik-depazan, to the service of which
they dedicated Gua Tsaukha and seven families. The king also
“dedicated forty-seven families to the service of the Shwe Hmaw-
daw.
Ariendaraza reigned seven years, and died in 557. His son Hientha-
raza or Mahiengtharaza succeeded him. During his reign a particular
storm occurred, which blew off the Htee of Shwe Hmawdaw, as well
as the upper portion of the Pagoda itself. All were seized with
fear. The king had the damages repaired and a new jewelled Htee
constructed. The Pagoda was raised three cubitsymore, making its
height 75 cubits. Four families of Htwonkalaing were dedicated to
the Pagoda, and the village of Htwonkalaing given to them for their
subsistence,
_. Hientharaza reigned 17 years, and died in 573. On his death there
‘Was an interregnum of 17 days, during which time the chief
Hpoongyee managed the temporal affairs of the kingdom, until
Giendraza ascended the throne. The chronicle does not state what
relation this king bore to his predecessors, Three months after his
accession to the throne, he repaired the west face surrounding wall of
the Shwe Hmawdaw. This king was wise and powerful, well versed.
in the ten laws of kings, was possessed of the three kinds of strength,
knew the four stratagems, and was full of the four laws of charity.
| He erected the Kyaikpadaing Pagoda, an elegant structure on the top
| of an eminence about 8 miles south of Pegu. Concerning the erec-
| tion of this Pagoda the chronicle relates that when the king was
| making a progress through the country, he learnt from ancient records
| that three holy hairs had been deposited by the Hermit Gandawadee
in the Thoowonna Hill, and a cairn of stones was placed over them.
| Finding a heap of stones on the south-west extremity of this Hill, he
concluded that this must be the very spot where the three hairs had
| been deposited, and accordingly he erected over it a Tsedee 87 cubits
| high, gilded the structure, and crowned it with a golden Htee. He
| appointed nine families of Htwonmai to be its servitors, and dedicated.
| to it the land immediately around, within the following limits; on
| the east 400 “Tas,” on the north 200 ‘“ Tas,” on the west 300
15
118 The Pegu Pagoda. [No. 2,
“Tas,” on the south 400 “Tas.” After this the king raised the ©
Shwe Hmawdaw 5 cubits more, making it 80 cubits high, and dedi-
cated to it three more famalies of Moonetkarie. The Pagodas, monas-
_teries and other religious works erected by this monarch are innumer-
able, and all men are exhorted to follow his example.
In this style the chronicler goes on, giving a minute history of the
additions to the repairs and embellishments of the Shwe Hmawdaw
under each succeeding monarch, down to Badoon Meng, the Burman
king who built the city of Amarapoora, 1143 B. H.=1781 A. D.
He gives, likewise, a complete list of the other meritorious works,
building of Pagodas, monasteries, &c. by which the reigns of these
kings were distinguished.
As the recital of these works, however veracious it may be, is
somewhat tedious and uninteresting, except to a pious Boodhist, it will |
be omitted in the present narrative. The names of the kings with the
dates of their accession will be given in a tabular form, and the more
remarkable events only, which are mentioned in the Thamaing, will
be noticed in the text.
The ninth monarch, Kawarieka, is said to have been a more powerful
monarch than his predecessors, and to have received on this account
tribute, which may be interpreted presents, from the kings of Siam,
Thatoon, Ceylon, China and Pagaw. The same is related of his son
Pecutsalaraza. This king, Pecutsalaraza, established the Karanee
monastery, about two miles west of Pegu, where there is still a
‘““Thein” or Buddhist consistory built of masonry, some wooden
monasteries, and a small stone-henge, an interesting relic of the original
establishment. This consists of a number of granite pillars about”
eight feet high, planted on the ground, and covered with inscriptions” |
in the square Pali character. Many of them, thick and massive as
they are, have been broken and thrown down, and the inscription —
partially effaced. The copy of what remains, fills a small closely |}
written volume, the contents of which I have not yet been able to go. |
through. The 12th king, Anooramaraza, signalized his reign by |
procuring a holy tooth-relic from Theeree-dhamma-thawka, the prince t
of Thatoon. This he enshrined in the Shwe Hmawdaw.
The 17th king, Tietha, is notorious in Talaing history as having
for a time abjured the Buddhist faith, and made great havoc among.
1867. ] The Pegu Pagoda, 119
its temples. The pious chronicler, however, says nothing about this,
but enumerates the good works which he performed after his recon-
version.
With this king, the chronicle states, “‘ the race of Hanthawadie kings
became extinct, and the king of Pagan appointed Akhamamwon to rule
over Pegu. Three months after his arrival at Pegu, this Viceroy
attempted to shake off the yoke of the Pagan king, anda general
named Narapadie was sent to subdue him. In this he succeeded, and
Akhamamwon was killed. Lekhaya was then appointed Governor of
Pegu, but was recalled three months after his arrival. Talabya was
appointed to succeed him. A month after his arrival in Pegu this
Governor also revolted, and sent to ask assistance from Warooree, the
powerful king of Martaban. Warooree came to assist him with an
army of 40,000 men. The Pagan king sent down a General named
Theehapade with an army of 50,000 men, 1,000 war boats, 1,000
elephants and 5,000 horses. A great battle was fought at Ma-oo
in which the Pagan army was worsted, and fled back to Pagan.
Talabya professed the utmost gratitude to his ally, but was secretly
jealous of, and laid a plan to destroy, him. He invited Warooree to
tarry for a few days at Pegu. Warooree’s army dispersed to seek their
subsistence in the neighbourhood, and Talabya was proceeding to carry
out his nefarious design, when Warooree became acquainted with the
danger of his position, Having prayed that the ten modes of punish-
ment might fall on the head of the violator of the ten laws of friend-
ship, Warooree mounted his elephant, and with 20 followers prepared
to meet Talabya. The two monarchs attacked each other on their
elephants. Warooree ran his spear throngh Talabya, who fell dead from
his seat. Thus Hanthawadie became a conquered province of Martaban,
and paid tribute to Warooree.*
* In the A. S. Journal No. 76, April, 1838, I find a copy of an inscription
on a bell found at Arakan (the translation by the way which is given in the
Journal is very incorrect) which inscription appears to relate to the story of
Warooree and Talabya, though their names are not mentioned. In this the
date of Warooree’s victory over the Pagan king is given as 1913 of the religious
era,—1370 A. D.,i. e. 16 years later than the date given in the Shwe Hmawdaw
Thamaing. The translator in the Journal has cut off the first figure in the date,
adding ‘““we suppose the 1 to be an accidental stroke,” and has taken it to
mean 913 of the present era A. D. 1645, which is a mistake. The inscription
states that this bell was cast in 984 of the present era A. D, 1622, long after
Warooree’s time. The bell was probably cast in Arakan, and not brought thi-
ther from Pegu.
120 The Pegu Pagoda. [No. 2,
Warooree was succeeded by Pagnya-Oo, who transferred the seat of
government from Martaban to Pegu. The chronicler has here again
been guilty of a chronological mistake. He states that Pagnya-Oo
reigned 16 years in Martaban and 19 in Pegu, altogether 35 years, and
yet he makes the date of his accession 731 and of his death 7438; thus
allowing a period of 12 years only for his reign. This king appears
to have done more to extend his dominions than any of his predecessors
on the throne of Hanthawadie—vide the list of cities founded, already
given.
Pagnya-Oo was succeeded by his son Razadhicrit who was one of
the most powerful monarchs who ever reigned in Pegu; Arakan and
China are said to have paid him tribute, and the chronicle gives an
interesting account of his relations with Ceylon.
Pandooya,* the king of that island, sent him his daughter Thamoot-
tadewee, with a fleet of seven ships and a holy tooth-relic. This was
enshrined in the Shwe Hmawdaw.
King Razadhicrit reigned 40 years.
In the reign of Byeenya-rau-khaik, who flourished A. D. 1427
about, the Shwe Dagoon Pagoda. of Rangoon is mentioned for the first
time in the historical period by the chronicler of the Shwe Hmawdaw.
It is said that having been damaged by a storm, the Pagoda was
* This name cannot be identified with any of the names of the kings of Ceylon
as given in Turnour’s Mahawanso. The only name atall like itis that of the
139th king, Pandita Prakrama, who flourished about 1319 A. D. In Turnonr’s
Epitome, the following instances of communication between Burnrah and Ceylon
are mentioned. A. D. 1071, Anurudha, king of Arakan, sent learned priests to
Ceylon. A. D. 1592, Wemala Dharm, king of Ceylon, brought learned priests
from Arakan. In 1153 A. D. the Ceylon king is said to have sent an expedition
to “ Arramana” to chastise the king of that country for having committed acts
of violence on Singhalese subjects, and having intercepted ships conveying some
princesses from Ceylon to the continent. In 1186 also a Pali letter was written
to the king of Arramana soliciting him to send learned priests to Ceylon. Is
not this Arramana the same as Ramagnya, the Pali name of a portion of Pegu ?
In Tennent’s Ceylon it is stated that when the Holy Tooth Relie of Ceylon was
seized by the Portuguese, in 1560, “the sovereign of Pegu, who had previously
“dispatched annual embassies to offer homage at its shrine, sent in anxious
«haste to redeem it by exchange of treasures and political services,’ an offer
which, through the influence of the priests, was declined. Again in !566, the
king of Pegu having been told by the astvonomers that he was to wed a Singhalese
princess, sent to demand her, The king unfortunately happened to have no
daughter, but the daughter of one of his ministers was palmed off upon the
‘Pegu monarch as a princess, and at the same time a counterfeit tooth was sent
to Pegu as the genuine tooth-relic, which had in fact been destroyed by the
Portuguese. .
1867.] The Pegu Pagoda. 121
repaired by king Byeenya-rau-khaik. This king reigned 30 years.*
His son and successor Byeenya-kharo is said to have been a very
just monarch, and several instances are given of the inflexibly strict
manner in which he administered justice. In A. D. 1388 a female
sovereign, queen Beengnya-daw or Byeengnya-daw Shengtsawboo
reigned in Pegu. She-was 58 years old when she came to the throne.
After residing seven years in Hanthawadie, she left her son in charge
of that town, and removed her court to Dagoon (Rangoon). She built
a place to the south-west of the Shwe Tshaudaw (Shwe Dagoon), and
dedicated lands within the following limits to the service of the Pagoda.
On the east Kyaik-kanet, on the south Kyaik-kanoot, on the west
Kyaik-myoungmya, and on the north Kyaik-mo-rap,f
The queen was succeeded by her son-in-law Dhamma-tsedee who
built another capital to the west of the original town of Hanthawadie.
This king received a present of 100,000 paving-stones from Ceylon.
With half of these he paved the court of the Shwe Dagoon, and used —
the other half for a similar purpose at the Shwe Hmawdaw.
- P =
= a
The twelfth king of the Martaban dynasty was conquered by the great
Toungnoo king Tabeng-shwe-htee, of whom the chronicler records
nothing, except that he kept the Shwe Hmawdaw in good order, and
performed other meritorious works. ;
He was succeeded by Thamaing-daw-rwot-kalie whose lineage is
not specified, but he was probably a descendant of the Martaban race
of kings. His reign is memorable, from his having been the last
monarch who added to the height of the Shwe Hmawdaw. Subsequent
monarchs repaired it and gave new Htees, but none of them added to
the building itself. Thamangdaw raised it six cubits, making its
height altogether 205 cubits=324 feet about. At this height it has
remained ever since, being a few feet higher than the Shwe Dagoon of
Rangoon.
Thamangdaw was dethroned by another celebrated Toungnoo
monarch, known as ‘Tsheng-hbyoo-mya-sheng (Lord of many white
elephants). This king removed his capital to Pegu, and built the
* In the A. S. Journal No. 5 of 1859, Col. A. P. Phayre, in his account of the
Shwe Dagoon Pagoda, states: “It was not until the reign af Ban-gya-rau, in
808, that anything was done to restore the Shwe Dagoon.” “ Ban-gya” should
have been written Bangya or Bangnya, pronounced “ Beenga.”
+ Kyaik is the Burmanized form of a Talaing word “kyat,” meaning a
Pagoda.
122 The Pegu Pagoda. [No. 2,
present walled city of Pegu, to the west of the former town of Hantha-
wadie, and nearer the river. The power of this king was great. Ceylon
paid him tribute and Siam sent princesses. He built the Maha-tsedee
Pagoda, a huge pile of brick and laterite, about two miles to the west
of Pegu, near the Karanee monastery. This, if completed, would have
rivalled the Shwe Hmawdaw in size, but it appears never to have been
finished, though the king dedicated 31 families from Twante in Dallah
to its service. ‘This is the first occasion on which the Dallah division
of the present Rangoon district, which lies to the west of the Rangoon
river, is mentioned by the chronicler.
This part of the country appears to have been colonised by an
independent race of Talaings, and not to have formed part of the
original country of Hanthawadie.
After the death of Nau-kya-bhooreng, in A. D. 1624, a ‘‘ Koola Pathee
kappeetan’’ (literally a western foreigner Musalman captain) ruled
Pegu from Thanlyeng or Syriam. He, no doubt, was a Portuguese. The
chronicle states ‘‘ he was a heretic, and for 12 years searched for
“‘ Pagodas to destroy them. Religion perished in Ramangnya, and
“‘ sood works were no longer performed. The Htee and the Tshap-
‘‘thwa-hpoo* of the Shwe Hmawdaw were pulled down and taken to
‘Syriam. But the people of Hanthawadie, at the instigation of the
“ Rahans Telatseng and Engamoot, madea new Tshap-thwa-hpoo of
**150 viss of gold of the Pagoda.”
When the Ava king heard of the conduct of the Kappeetan, he
sent an army of 10,000 men under Meng-rai-kyaw-tswa against him ;
the Kappeetan fled, and was drowned when crossing the river to
Dallah. The Ava king, whose name is not given, then ruled in Han-
thawadie. He appears to have resided in Hanthawadie. :
The fifth king of this dynasty, Meng-rai-kyaw-goung, dedicated
190 families of Pada in Syriam, who had rebelled against his authority,
to the service of the Shwe Hmawdaw, and assigned three villages for
their support. :
The seventh king reigned in Ava, and made Hanthawadie over to a
governor Guatha Oung, who oppressed the people and was killed in a —
rebellion, The next governor also was killed by a rebel named
* The spike above the Htee, so called from its resemblance to the flower of
the screw-pine.
1867. ] The Pegu Pagoda. 123
Tsheng-kya-sheng of Tharet-oke, who set himself up as king with the
title of Boodha-kethee Tsheng-kya-sheng. In this king’s reign, it is
recorded the white foreigners appeared in Pegu.
This king is said to have removed to Laboon in Zimmay, and to
have been succeeded by Gui-khaing who was deposed by his minister
Kanaikhaing, who was anointed king with the title of Bya-maing-
dee-razadie-patie. This king’s son, Byeeaguyadalla, appears hardly to
have commenced his reign when the Talaings were finally subjugated
by the great Burman conquerer Aloung Bhoora—-whose approach, the
chronicler says, was heralded by a violent storm and earthquake, by
which the upper part of the Shwe Hmawdaw was thrown down. After
subduing the provinces of Dhaway (Tavoy), Byiet (Mergui), Taneng-
tharee (Tenasserim), Taraw Byat-bhic and Dwarawadee, Aloung
Bhoora died on the 13th increase of Nayoon 1122 (A. D. 1760) at the
village of Lawa-mye-byahma.
With the seventh king of this dynasty, Bhadoon-meng, who ascended
the throne A.D. 1771, the Thamaing of the Shwe Hmawdaw concludes.
The Bhadoon-meng built a new capital, Amarapura, and was anointed
in 1773, with the lengthy title of Theeree-pawara-wiezara-nanda-
rathtarie-bhawana-tietya-tiepatie-pandita-maha-Dhamma-razadhieraza.
Tn his reign the shwe Hmawdaw was repaired, and a new Htee made
under the supervision of the Governor of Hanthawadie. Here ends
the chronicle of the Shwe Hmawdaw.
Kings and Governors of Hanthawdie according to the Hmawdaw
| Thamaing.
Names, Dates of Accession,
| B. EK. pale 3
Seeewamals, ... yee > OL 1152
2 Wiemala, or Wiemala Koomma,... 526 1164
3 Athakoomma, Ban . O43 1181
4 Ariendaraza or Mahiemoorarien-
daraza, Waid baie veal DOU 1188
® Hientharaza, ... ys Palen Piedad 1195
6 Giendaraza, ... is geareol4 1212
7 Mieggadiepa, ... het Zit 8-586 1224
8 Giezzawievararaza, ... ston OOD 1239
9 Kawarieka, a ae Reno le 1249
124 The Pegu Pagoda. [No. 2,
10 Peentsalaraza, iJ SAO 2G
11 Attatharaza, Ke te Ea SS 1274
12 Anooramaraza, me 115 GSE 1289
13 Mieggadiepagnay, ie Oot G68 1301
14 Eggathamandaraza, ... «. O13 1311
15 Qopalaraza, bs ah eee GED 1323
16 Poonnaricka, xe a 2 OST 1335
17 Tietharaza, tsi oo SOG LD 1350
Governors appointed from Pagan.
1 Akhamamwon, sian’, <p otpe RE waren Le
2 Narapadie, iat IES) «sited a ht s
.3.. Lekhaya,... wi re =
4 Talabya, Sof Pe ee ee 2
The Martaban Dynasty.
1 Waroocree, ... oie oe, see 1354
2 Pagnya-Oo, he vase et ee 1369
3 Razadhicrit,* cate hae es 1381
4 Dhammaraza or Pagnya- -dhamma-
raza, ie dus ROME W575: 1421
5 Byeenya-ran-khaik, sie act LO 1427
6 Byeenya-kharo, ae van, SOL 1459
7 Byeen-kyan-daw,... ae ik 1485
8 Tamawadaw or Liet-mwot-daw-ta-
mawdaw, ... ae . Sa0 1488
9 enone or Pitaverll ne Sheng- | )
tsaw-boo, ate sen iiech LOmO 1488 a female so-
| on vereign.
10 Dhammatsedee or Dhamma-tsekya- |
tsedee, oils oS cou as Eee THE
11 Hattirazaor Byeenya-ran piaechiets 878 1516
12 <Atie-raw-raza or Taga-rwot-pie,... 901 1539
Toungoo king.
1 Tabengshwe-htee.. sions pancetta ae les
* If Pagnya-Oo reigned 35 years, Razadhicrit’s accession will be 766 B. am a |
or 1404 A .D. ;
1867. ] The Pegu Pagoda.
| el
moe Aor WD -m oO
m 0 b>
Ooo Po bd =
Dynasty not specified,
Thamamgdaw-rwot kalie, rise O80
Tsheng-hbyoo-mya-sheng, ... ... 942
Nan-kya-bhooreng, ... Pr 2)
A Koola Pathee Kappeetan, ... 986
Ava Dynasty.
A king, name not given, ... ... 998
Meng-Rai-dieppa, wi ii, @hOLS
Thato-maha-dhamma-raza,... ... 1013
Nankya Engwa Bhooreng, ..» 1033
Meng-Rai-kyaw Goung, ... ... 1055
Engwa-Bhooreng, aT ..» LO70
1568
1580
1609
1624
1636
1651
1651
1671
1693
1708
Governors appointed by Ava kings.
Gna-Tha-Oung, fs wee LO99
Meng-Rai-Oung, ...
”?
Talaing kings.
Boodha-kethee-tsheng-kya-sheng, 1102
Gnakhaing, ... oul jod 4L08
Bya-maingdee-razadie-patie, ... 1108
Byeengnya Dalla, nb atest BLO
Burman Dgnasty.
Aloung Bhoora, ... iit feos 2120
His son’s name not given, sap (L122
Tsaleng-myo-tsa-meng, .». 1125
Tshengoo-tsa, ... wow rele 8.
Hpoung-ga-tsa, wai ... 1148
Bhadoon meng, .., ssauhing GLAS
16
1737
125
126. On the Antiquities of Bdgerhat. [No. 2,
On the Antiquities of Bagerhdt.—By Babu Gourvass Bysacx, Deputy
Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Manbhoom.
[Received 29th March, 1867, Read 1st May, 1867.]
The Delta of the Ganges offers few localities of interest to the an-
tiquarian. An alluvial plain, intersected by a number of mighty
and ever-shifting rivers, there is not a spot on it, which can arrest the
attention of the traveller by ever so poor a display of the remains of
human art of a former age; no hoary temple of the ancient Hindu
rajas,—no majestic palace buried under the dust and vegetation of
centuries,—no baronial castle where the Aryan held revelry, when the
Moslem had not yet set his feet on this land,—rewards the search of the
inquirer. Nothing meets his eyes that proclaims of ancient civiliza-
tion, and well may he question if ever any scion of the solar or the
lunar race dwelt amid the people of Bengal. Even history does not
afford many names of places in lower Bengal of truly ancient times.
Sagar Island, it is true, was known some two thousand years ago, but
not as a royal city or a flourishing port, but only as the abode ofa
hermit. Nuddea was the capital of the Sena Rajas when Bakhtiar
Khiliji invaded this country, but the Bhagirathi has since so often
shifted her course, and so completely washed away every vestige of the
lofty halls and the proud battlements which owned the descendants of —
Adis’tiva for their lords, that it is impossible now to determine its —
exact locale. Of other places in the Delta, the history is equally un-
certain and unsatisfactory.
But if we know not enough and have no relic of ancient Hindu
cities in the Gangetic Delta, there are not wanting in it nooks and
corners which, without pretending to any time-honored antiquity,
may afford materials not altogether uninteresting. The little town of ©
Bagerhat is one of them; and to a few remains of its former greatness
I wish to draw the attention of the readers of the Journal, in the
following pages.
The town of Bagerhat is situated on the bank of the Bhairab, a
sluggish stream, 50 miles, as the crow flies, to the south east of Jessore.
According to the Revenue Survey maps, the latitude of the place is
22° 40' 10" N., longitude 89° 49’ 50’ KE. When it was first founded,
it is impossible now to tell, but it was a place of some note more than
ee
_
1867.) On the Antiquities of Bdgerhat. 127
four hundred years ago; for I find that about that time one Khdn
Jahan alias Khanja Ally, a chief of great piety and liberality, who was
rusticated from the court of Delhi, was sent to this place to hold the
post of a tehsildar. Many fine buildings and stately mosques were
erected under his auspices, and the place was in every respect greatly
improved. What was its name then, I cannot now ascertain ; the in-
scriptions that I have examined to find it out, being altogether silent
on the subject. Its present name is but of yesterday. It was given
to it long after its glories had passed away, and its history forgotten.
A deserted village on the outskirts of the Sunderbunds, its humble
inhabitants needed but the aid of a poor bi-weekly fair to supply their
wants;that fair was, and is still, held on a raised spot on the river-
bank where once stood the pleasure ground of Khan Jahan, The
illiterate dealers and pedlars who frequented it to sell their goods
called it the ‘oarden fair,’ Bdger hdt, and the name was adopted by
Government when, in May, 1863, it was made the head quarters of a
magisterial sub-division. —
_ From the few traces still visible I believe the garden must have,
at one time, included an area of about 200 biggahs. On one
side of it there was, until recently, a dirty putrifying tank over-
grown with jungle, which in olden times must have been a plea-
sant sheet of water; and onthe other a mound, probably the debris
of what once was a summer house. Traces of metalled footpaths
are met with at different places, as also the remains of a high
road, 30 feet broad, made of well-burnt bricks placed on edge, which,
it is said, formerly extended from this place to Chittagong.
Three miles to the west of the garden, there is a large tank, over
a hundred biggahs square, noted for its sweet water and a number of
tame crocodiles. I had no opportunity to ascertain its size, but
judging from the impression its sight produced on me and from memory,
I believe it is fully as large as the Pala Diggi near Murshidabad
and nearly as large as the Mahipal Diggi in Dinagepur. Babu Guru
hurn Doss, Deputy Magistrate of Jangipur, in a letter published
‘in the Society’s Proceedings for October 1862, says that “it must be
| im size equal to, if not larger than, that in the Dilkosh Baug of the
Raja of Burdwan.” But as the tank under notice has silted up and
its water has receded much from the original banks, it is not easy
128 On the Antiquities of Bagerhdt. [No. 2,
to ascertain its original size. In the height of the dry season in April
last the sheet of water measured 1,560 feet square. Its excavation is
popularly ascribed to Khanja Ally. It is said that that chief, being
very much troubled .from want of good potable water, obtained
the sanction of the king of Gour, and caused this tank to be ex-
cavated ; and that when he found its water to be brackish, improved it
considerably by pouring in it a large quantity of mercury, which, it
is said, is a most efficacious antidote to brackishness. This story,
however, is not sufficiently romantic to please the simple people of
the district, and a sheet of sweet water in a place noted for its saline
soil being an uncommon wonder, another has been set in currency for
their edification. According to it, when the tank had been dug to a
great depth, the workmen came to a perfect temple, with its doors
closed from within, which no efforts of theirs could unlock. Mes-
sage was therefore sent to Khanja Ally, who, mounted on a swift horse,
approached the temple, and struck it with his wand. Anon flew open —
the doors, and he beheld, within, a Fakir seated at his ease before a.
lively fire, and smoking his hukka. Khanja Ally saluted him and_
asked his blessing, to secure a tank full of good water. The Fakir
said that he had built the temple on the banks of the Bhairab as a
place of retirement, and had just roused himself from a protracted me-
ditation to collect food for a meal. He little thought that during his
state of abstraction so much earth had accumulated over his temple as
to admit of a deep tank being excavated. However since it was so, good
water would immediately be produced, but Khanja Ally should fly for
life, or the rising spring would drown him. Nor was the latter unpro-
vided for such a contingency. His horse was the swiftest on earth, and
it bore him through the water to dry land in a twinkling. This Ey
story suggests the idea, that when the tank was excavated, traces of a hel
building were found in its bed; and considering the frequency with —
which old bricks and broken pottery are met with in the Sunderbunds, ©
such an idea would be by no means unreasonable. .
I have said above that the tank is noted for its tame crocodiles, and
well it may be, for nowhere else have I met with a more wonderful j |
instance of the influence which the human mind can exert over the
saurian. Upwards of twenty monsters, from 10 to 20 feet long, may
here be seen rising and sinking in the water with the docility of a child, vi
—1867.] On the Antiquities of Bagerhat. 129
at the beck of a puny miserable-looking Fakir who could not resist a
rap from the tail of the smallest of them. They are fed with live
fowls and kids, and they unhesitatingly come close by dry land to
receive them. Meat is offered to them on the palm of the hand,
which they quietly take away, without ever snapping at the hands
themselves. Little children play about on the bank without any
risk ; and men, women and children bathe in the tank without ever
having to repent of their temerity.
Some time ago a rumour was brought to the notice of Govern-
ment that infanticide was committed in this part of the Sunderbunds,
and I was directed to make an inquiry. But I found it was unfound-
ed; the fact appeared to be that the simple people of the district
believe that these crocodiles can bless young ladies to come into an
interesting condition, and their blessings are sure to bear fruit. Ac-
cordingly many young women repair to this place to bathe in the
sacred water of the tank, and implore the blessing of the saurian
monsters. They offer them fowls and kids; then paint a human
figure with red lead on a stone pillar in the neighbourhood, and, em-
bracing it, vow to give away to the crocodiles the first fruit of their
blessings, This vow is never broken, the firstborn is invariably
brought to the tank, and when, at the call of the Fakirs, the crocodiles
rise to the surface, the child is thrown on the water’s edge with words
implying a presentation. But it is taken up immediately after, and
borne home amid the rejoicings of the family. I could find no proof
to shew that any child had ever suffered from this exposure.
_ Parents whose children die early also often seek the blessings of
these crocodiles, by exposing their infants on the bank of the lake.
There is another source whence has arisen the notoriety of Bager-
hat as a place for infanticide. The Fakirs and Sanydsis who live
in the adjacent part of the Sunderbunds, have a high reputation for
supernatural powers in healing the sick; hence, whenever a child is
afflicted with any uncommon or mortal malady, or born with any
permanent infirmity, such as dumbness, deafness, or blindness, and
frequently when medicines have failed (and the pharmacopwia of
}an ordinary native village, which embraces only a few simples, is
130 On the Antiquities of Badgerhat. [No. 2,
superstitious race. Parents from different parts of Jéssore, Pubna,
Farridpur and Backerganj repair to this place, and occasionally
leave their children with the Fakirs, in the hope of their taking pity
on the sufferers, and curing their afflictions. This is generally a ©
temporary arrangement, and the little ones are taken home as soon
as they are cured, and often long before, if the hope of recovery be-
come faint or fail. Rarely one out of several sons is, in fulfilment —
of a vow, dedicated to the service of religion, to be brought up amongst —
the Fakirs; but never is a child abandoned in the tank, or in the q
neighbouring jungle, with a view to destruction. ' ;
Close by and to the north of the tank there is a large tomb which ~
holds in its centre the mortal remains of Khan Jahan. It is built
of remarkably well-burnt bricks of a large size, and strengthened by —
stone boulders in some of the piers. In style it differs little from simi- |
lar structures in other parts of Bengal—a square of 45 feet, having |
a central hall along the whole length, and connected with two side aisles ~ :
by open archways. ‘Tlie exterior has an arched doorway on each side,
the north being closed. The height is 47 feet to the top of the ~
dome, which is a well proportioned structure, somewhat pointed at ~
the top, and seated on acollar high enough to raise it above the line |
of the cornice without itself being offensively prominent.
The plastering of the building has peeled off in many places, but
from what remains it is evident that the bnilder was perfectly familiar
with the art by which the masons of Delhi of that time gave a marble-_ é
like smoothness and polish to chunam work. The steps round the grave © 3
are inlaid with encaustic tiles of various colours, the richness of which |
has withstood the wear and tear of four hundred years without any
serious damage. Some of the tiles are hexagons 4 inches across, while ©
others are squares of 64 inches each side. The substance of the latter
is a white stone ware, and the enamelling on it is of a character
which makes me suspect these tiles to have been imported from China,
The former are of red earth, and the glazing and designs on them are
of inferior execution. Their counterparts are commonly met with
in Pathan buildings in Gour and elsewhere. The art of making these
tiles has now been lost to the natives; the only remains of it are to
be met with among the potters of Murshidabad and Birbhtim,
who apply a glazing of some consistency in blue, green and white,
1867. ] On the Antiquities of Bagerhit. ~ 131
on the kalkis or tobacco-bowls of ordinary Mahomedan hukkas, as
also on a common musical instrument called the bayan.
The grave of Khan Jahan is placed in the middle of the hall, and
is covered by a large slab of pure white Jeypur marble, raised on
three masonry steps inlaid with encaustic tiles. It was erected in the
year of Hijira 863 = A. D. 1458,—just 409 years ago. According to
popular belief, the tomb was built in the lifetime and at the expense
of the Khan, who departed this life on the night of Wednesday the
26th of Jilhijja z.e¢. about the end of March or the beginning of
April. The epitaph is in Arabic, inscribed in golden letters, and, like
most epitaphs, is brimful of nauseating praise (vide Appendix A),
but the Khan in popular estimation was not unworthy of it. In his
lifetime he was reckoned a saint, and to this day he is worshipped as
such by Hindus and Mahomedans alike. Flowers are strewn over
his grave every day by the attendant Fakirs, and pilgrims from
various parts of eastern Bengal come all round the year to offer to it
their salutations. On the full moon of Chaitra, supposed to be the
anniversary of the Khan’s death, a grand mela is held near the tomb,
when over ten thousand people assemble to commemorate his piety
and sanctity.
_ On the sides of the grave-stone, there are four different inscriptions,
copies of which [also annex (Appendixes B to E). Three quotations
from the Koran are also given, but these I did not deem worth copying.
The only available article of interest in the building was an old curi-
ously-carved Koran-stand, which I brought away for deposit in the
| museum of the Asiatic Society; as the stand was never used by
anybody, the sacrilegious hands I put on it, will, I fancy, cause no
inconvenience to the faithful.
| In the side-aisles there are three or four graves, but without
inscriptions, and the attendants could give no reliable account of the
people whose bodies rest in them.
The tomb is situated in a large quadrangle surrounded by a masonry
wall. Within this enclosure there are several graves, but of no historical
or artistic importance. There is, however, a small cenotaph on the
north side which is worthy of a short notice. If is of modest size
and no architectural pretension; but it was built by a zealot, one
| Mohammed Taer alias Pir Ally by name, whose religious fervour forced
182 On the Antiquities of Bdagerhdt. [No. 2, -
the conversion of many a Hindu to the Mahomedan faith. Himself a
renegade from the religion of his Hindu forefathers, he acquired a
high reputation for sanctity, and maintained it by a strict observance
of the ordinances of his adopted religion.
According to tradition he was sent for to Delhi, and for some reason
or other, there beheaded by order of the emperor. He is said to have
once heard from a Brahmin of high caste and great influence, one
Narandraéyana Raya, that ‘‘ smelling was half eating,’’ whereupon he
caused some cooked meat to be brought to his presence. The Brahman
by his side perceived the smell, and immediately covered his nose with
his cloth; but it was too late, the wily Mahomedan urged that by his
own shewing he had “ half eaten,” and must therefore cease to be of the’
orthodox creed. He was accordingly outcasted, and his descendants to
this day are known as Pirdlis or Pir Ally Brahmans. Puerile as the
story is, it is worthy of note that all the Piralis of Bengal trace their
original seat to Jessore, and no Pirali is to be met with in the eastern
or the northern districts. One of the ancestors of the present Tagore
family of Calcutta first associated with Naranarayana, and he and his
descendants have ever since been called Piralis. Such Kayasthas as
associated with these degraded and proscribed Brahmans, were sub-
jected to the same penalty, and are to this day known by the name of
the wicked Pir. Their number, however, is very limited, and they are
met with in no other district except in Jessore.
Three miles to the south-west of this tomb, there is a magnificent
mosque, commonly known by the name of Sdtgumbaz, or the mosque
of 60 domes. It is an open arcaded structure, formed of massive walls -
six feet thick, and having on the top 77 small domes supported on
sixty pillars. The ground plan is an oblong of 144 feet by 96,
divided into seven aisles by six rows of pillars. The foundation and
the domes are of brick; while of the pillars some are of brick, and —
others of stone. Like all other Mahomedan mosques in India, the —
Sdtgumbaz has its front to the east, thereby enabling the faithful to pray 4
with their faces towards the K’Aba at Mecca. The number of archways e .
on this side is 11, of which the second and the tenth are closed with | |
masonry, the same arrangement obtains on the opposite wall, the
Mulla’s pulpit being placed by the side of the central archway. On the
north and the south fagades there are 14 arches, 7 on each side, the
1867.] On the Antiquities of Bayerhat. 133
height being 15 feet to the point of the arch. The building is flanked by
four massive towers which rise above the line of the domes. Two of them
enclose winding staircases ; that tothe south-east being very dark and
steep, while the one on the north-east is well lighted and easy of ascent.
The people call the former Andhdr Manik and the latter Raushan
Manik. Altogether the building has a grand and imposing appearance,
and even in a more favoured locality than Bagerhat would command
admiration, and be reckoned as an object worthy of notice. It was
evidenly intended for a jummah masjid or Friday mosque.
The only other object which has been associated with the memory
of Khanjé Ally and which demands a passing notice, is a physical
phenomenon of some interest. It is a dull roaring sound, as of the
booming of distant cannonade, which is said to be fired by aerial
“hands in honour of Khanjé Ally. At Bagerhat, those sounds are heard
at all times of the year ; particularly when the weather is calm and the
sky clear. It is most distinct during a lull after a storm or a heavy
shower of rain. At Burrisal they are equally prominent, and noticed
with great curiosity. Various theories have been hazarded to account
for the phenomenon. Mr. Pellew, the superintendent of survey at
Burrisal, in a letter to me, says—
*‘ What you allude to must be the ‘ Burrisal guns,’ which are heard
all over south Jessore and Backerganj, at least in the neighbourhood
of the Baleswar. They are distinctly heard at Burrisal. I have never
heard them myself west of Morellganj. My own idea is, that they are
perhaps the sound of heavy surf. My reasons for supposing this (of
course I am by no means certain) are as follows. The noise exactly re-
sembles the sound of surf as heard often by me at Pooree under certain
circumstances, viz. when, on account of a cessation of the south-west
monsoon, the swell rises to an unusual height before breaking, and
then breaks simultaneously for perhaps a length of three miles of coast.
I have often been woke from my sleep by the thunder of these waves,
when breaking inthis manner. As regards the succession of 10 or 11
reports, we all know that waves generally break successively along a
_ beach, and at the distance the listener is from the sea these would
appear equally Joud.
“2nd. Reason. The further south I go, the louder the reports are,
and the more unequal in power(this I have not tested quite sufficiently).
i:
134 On the Antiquities of Bdagerhdt. [No. 2,
“8rd. There is a story (to which you allude) of a Collector sending
down people in a boat to find out about its whereabouts, who heard
the noise always to their south, till they reached the Hupanpetis, and
were compelled by the weather and sea to return.
“Ath, The general belief in natives that they are not marriage
guns.
“5th. The dissimilarity between the sound and that of marriage
guns, noticed by all who hear them. |
“6th. The fact that sound would be conveyed very far by the south-
west monsoon along the surface of the large rivers of Backerganj. |
They are generally heard in a lull after a squall, at least I think so,
just when the surf breaks most regularly and simultaneously, I am
sorry I have no more certainty to give you.”
The cause above assigned to the sounds by Mr. Pellew may be the
right one, but the reasons he has adduced, plausible as they are, do not
seem to be conclusive. It may fairly be argued that had the sound —
been produced by the surf, they would have been noticed near the -
seashore, wherever there is a low beach. Such, however, is not the
_case. I have nowhere read of such sounds in books, and never heard
them anywhere beyond the mouths of the Ganges.
At Balasore, which is only seven miles from the Bay, they are never
noticed. Mr. Pellew says that a sound similar to the “‘ marriage guns”
of Burrisal is heard at Pooree, which is occasioned by the breaking of
the swell on the beach, during a certain time; but it is not a constant
occurrence. During my stay for more than two months at Basdebpur,
a village five miles from the sea between Bhadrak and Soroh, I never
heard a report of the kind, though the surf rises and breaks on the
beach with equal or perhaps more violence, during all seasons. Even |}
at places near to Bagerhat, or in other parts of the Sunderbuns jj
equally distant from the shore of pers bay, the noise is not —
the foot of ie Gaiters hills,
I had an opportunity of going down as far as “ Tiger’s Point,” and a
I carefully watched the phenomenon, but I did not notice that the
sounds became louder and louder as my boat drifted down from —
-Morellganj to the mouth of the Huranghaté. This would lead to the
4
1867.) On the Antiquities of Bdgerhdt. 135
"inference that the swell of the sea was not the cause of the sounds,
and it is possible that they may be due to some subterranean or
voleanie agency, the nature of which we have not the means now to
ascertain. It is one, however, which is well worthy the attention of
scientific men.
APPENDICES.
A.
Pitre is GEO. Gijl,) 9050. 729
| LaxraJ} as) Adis)
2
Wy, sv a, w
dye ody ae OMI Kad aise
fy, P
a? 4999
® ote! e webs 9g RS ode! eHoSt St sl tal Galee Steen
!
tt Wits Go Wh Rly Keay} ale ola Wl U relma y elle IU
Ssleiled 9 cyakeo g Call ding BLO Gy pthc g
Bit
2,7 Zon ie is oe ao
“| on
C.
i $, cs :
sls larly slis (ewe gly 1S US! lasoJt
D;
head! abe whe wld pbs wet ix) 2's) ew? SS lye Kady) xda
7 oO ae “ = % te 4 5 .
2 urthesy Sols Kine Bei53 yo wishes Sw a SI bY= Ups)
” ‘ *
Hi.
GE Yee Ga oye] olay Cot Ouyf oly
we ghwble dleas CgeSe? (4008 amd v0
@? Cy
* o> wr ged rE so Uae] weds S39 eet
SAO
186 On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets. [No. 2,
On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets in the Roman Character.
—By F. 8. Growss, MU. A. Oxon, B. C.S.
[Received 5th January, 1867. |
The question of transliteration has been so fully discussed at recent
meetings of this Society, that a paper which attempted to revive the
subject would probably meet with scant consideration. I am also
myself of opinion that the theory has been discussed more than
enough, and only wish on the present occasion to state briefly a plain | |
matter of fact, and make a practical suggestion.
It is impossible for any one, however imbued with phonetic
prejudices, to deny that all European philologists and oriental
scholars have, by mutual consent, adopted a uniform system of re- |
presenting Indian alphabets in Roman characters, which varies only
in some few and unimportant particulars. As to the vowels, there is
at the present day no dispute at all; for that intensely insular
peculiarity of denoting the simple sounds of 2 and wu by the awkward
combinations of double e and double o is now quite obsolete in the
literary world. Ihave not seen any recent oriental work from the
French press, and therefore cannot tell whether their practice of
representing w by ow has been abandoned or not; but this at allevents
is a feature which is not likely to be imitated by English writers.
As to the consonants, there are some few, but very few, points which
are still left open: thus the palatal sibilant is generally denoted in _
England by s with a stroke over or dot below it, while continental —
scholars prefer the symbol ¢; again the compound which English —
scholars represent by ksh is on the continent represented occasionally
by x, more frequently by csch, which latter is not likely to find many
advocates out of Germany. Thus too in the Persian alphabet, the
Arabic kdf is sometimes denoted by g, but more usually by & with a
dot under it ; and the final consonant he is sometimes expressed by the
vowel a alone, sometimes by ah. Butit is really unnecessary for us to
regard these minor discrepancies, since they do not appear in what
may be called our natural authorities. For I suppose it will be ad-
mitted that Forbes’s is the standard dictionary for modern Hindu-
stani; while the last complete Sanskrit dictionary is Prof. Benfey’s,
published in London during the year 1866, and the greatest work
ever yet undertaken for the elucidation of that language is the
1867.] On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets. 137
gigantic cyclopedia of Dr. Goldstiicker, which, if ever completed, will
most assuredly be universally accepted as the standard authority on
all points of Sanskrit learning. In these three works, by three different
authors, we find one uniform system of transliteration without a single
point of difference, except as regards one solitary letter, viz. the palatal
sibilant. This, Forbes, in accordance with modern pronunciation,
represents by sh, while Benfey denotes it by ¢ and Goldstiicker by s’.
It appears to me that since we have such authorities as these, our
course is plain ; for who is to establish rules of orthography, if lexico-
graphers are not? I therefore think that the recent discussions on
the subject by this Society are to be regretted,* since they had a
tendency to re-open a question which had virtually been long settled,
and, by ignoring an established fact, to throw a check in the way of
educational progress.
That many and serious inconveniences result from the want of
system that now prevails in India on this matter is undeniable, and a
remedy is daily becoming more urgently required. For many registers
of native names have now to be kept in Roman characters, and the
whole object of alphabetical arrangement is frustrated so long as it
remains uncertain whether amit is to be looked for under letter a or
_ letter w, and whether a person spells his name as Devi-din or Dabi-deen.
And this difficulty is one entirely of our own creation ; for although
in English, where the orthography of proper names is altogether
| arbitrary, it is quite possible for a highly educated man, in writing
| down a list of persons from dictation, to mis-spell every word, ina
catalogue of Hindu names there is no such danger. Lvery personal
appellation is also a literary term, witha definite meaning and
invariable form; and therefore any one, having a very moderate
acquaintance with Indian history and mythology, would be competent
to write a long list of names with unerring precision; and there is no
excuse for the carelessness which makes an array of the names and
titles of native gentlemen in the Government Gazette look like a roll-
call of South Sea savages. It will be found that almost all names
resolve themselves into one of the following categories: Ist, and most
common ofall, the name of some popular hero or divinity standing
* The object of the discussions here referred to, was to determine whether
_ European technical terms should be translated or transliterated into the Indian
vernaculars.—ED,
138 On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets. [No. 2,
simply by itself, as Lakshman, Baladeva; 2nd, a similar name with
the addition of some word denoting ‘disciple’ or ‘ by the favour of,’
as Bhagawan-das, Ram-sahéy, Hanuman-Prasad, Gauri-datt; 3rd,
some one of the thousand epithets appropriated to the leading charac-
ters of the Hindu Pantheon, as Niranjan, the unimpassioned ;
Chakrapdni, the discus-holder; Bansi-dhar, the flute-player, 7. e.
Krishna; 4th, the name of some one of the appliances of ritual
worship, as Tulsi, Salagrdm, Vibhuti; 5th, some word expressing
beauty or other excellent quality, as Nawal, Sundar, Kirat ; 6th, some
heroic or honorific title as Randhir, “ the staunch in fight,” correspon-
ding to the Homeric “ meneptolemus;” Kharagjit, the conquering
swordsman ; Mahabali, the greatly valiant ; Anup, the incomparable ;
7th, the name of some precious material, as Hira, a diamond ; Moti,
a pearl; Kanchan, gold; 8th and strangest of all, some affectionate
diminutive, as Nek Ram, a little Ram; Chhote Lal, a little dear, ‘
Nanku, a darling. In the village patois, it is true, many of these
names ordinarily appear in a very corrupt form, but even these corrup-
tions are reducible to the following simple rule, viz. that the first
syllable of the word only be retained unimpaired, and an open vowel
substituted for the whole of the termination; thus Kalyan becomes —
Kalu, Bhagiratha, Bhagi, and Nayanasukh, Nainu. But these diminu- é
tives correspond simply to our English Bob, Dick and Tom, and have
no right to be included in a formal catalogue of names. The enforce-
ment of a correct system of transliteration would naturally be opposed
by all who are too indolent to acquire a rational knowledge of the
language, or who choose to diversify their style by the simple
expedient of spelling the same word two or three different ways in
one paragraph; but the present slovenly system, or want of system, is
not only a practical inconvenience, but is also a disgrace to an educated —
government. ;
But, it may be urged, perfect precision is no doubt desirable in
scientific treatises, but would be pedantic in ordinary writing. Now
can any parallel be found to such a state of things as this argument
supposes? Every language has recognized laws of spelling, which
the uneducated classes in practice frequently transgress; but has any
government on that account determined to class itself amongst the
illiterate, and to relegate orthography to the professedly learned ?
a
«
‘
*
1867.] On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets. 139
The Government of India stands alone in this extraordinary patronage
of a barbarous nomenclature which excites the ridicule of every
European scholar.
In one of the recent discussions on the subject, I remember that
Dr. Lees gave a very good illustration of the results of this lax mode
of spelling, quoting several Indian words from a 17th century
traveller, which were so much disguised by their Roman garb, that
identification was impossible. But by a curious perversion of logic,
the speaker proceeded to argue the inexpediency of transliteration at
all; whereas the illustration only showed the evil of not having a
definite standard : for if each Indian letter had its acknowledged Roman
equivalent, every word would be as intelligible in its Roman as in
its Indian form. I would therefore suggest that the Asiatic Society
should print in a tabular form the Roman, Nagari and Persian
alphabets* as arranged by the eminent lexicographers abovenamed
and approved by Prof. Max Miller, the greatest of modern philolo-
gists; and that this table should be occasionally appended to the
Nos. of the Society’s Proceedings, and every writer expected to modify
his phonetic vagaries accordingly, It certainly does not appear
unreasonable to require that the contributors to a scientific and
literary journal should master the first rudiments of orthography,
before they proceed to discuss abstruse questions of philosophy and
| literary history ; and a writer who appears in print under the auspices
| of a learned Society should feel it as strange to put down chatta poker
| for chhatra pokhar as to spell “ umbrella,” wmbreller. I think too that,
| if a more frequent reference to a Dictionary were rendered necessary,
| articles would not be forwarded for publication in such a very crude
| state asis now sometimes the case. Thus in the last No. of the
| Philological Journal, the same distinguished officer, who writes chatta
| poker and Machowa and Cuchowa for Matsya and Kachchhapa, begins
| his paper with a lengthy speculation about ‘“‘a race called variously
| Serap, Serab, Serak, Srdwaka, who were probably the earliest Aryan
colonists,”’ and another race called Bhumij, without apparently any
idea, at the time of writing, that Srawaka is the ordinary Sanskrit name
| for a Jain or Buddhist, and that the literal meaning of Bhumij is the
earth-born, Autochthones, Aborigines. The identity of the Jain and
* This has already been done,—Ep,
140 On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets. [No. 2,
Srawaka is in a confused manner indicated before the conclusion of the
article, but without recognizing the fact that the name (literally
“a hearer”) indicates a purely religious distinction, and that it does
not imply a difference of race any more than the term “ Roman
Catholic” implies an Italian by descent.
I may here incidentally observe that in this district (Mainpuri) the
Jains, who form a considerable item in the population, are known
popularly only by the name of Saraugis, which also is clearly a corrup- |
tion of the same word Sraéwaka. Their habits and customs are of
course the same as those described by Col. Dalton.
If my suggestion as above were adopted by the Society, the same
principle would be consistently carried out in compiling the list of
members with their places of residence, where we should no longer
see Babu alternating with Baboo (the latter invariably suggesting the
loss of a final ) and the first step might be taken towards the correc-
tion of our present barbarous local nomenclature. Our maps are no
doubt admirable as results of engineering skill, but in a literary point of
view, they are ridiculous,—a large proportion of local names, especially
Hindi words, being utterly distorted from the original form. Thus
for instance, I have never yet seen a map where the common village
name Kushalpur was not spelt with an initial Persian kh, as if i
were a derivative of kAhush ; and yet it might be supposed that if}
any Hindi word were to be allowed to retain its identity, it would _
be the name of a district so famous in ancient legend as Kos’ala,
which had Ayodhya for its capital, and gave a name to the mother of
the national hero Rama. Upon this point I cannot do better than
quote the words of the late Prof. Wilson, who, describing Indian _
maps as miserably defective in their nomenclature, says, ‘‘ None of
our surveyors or geographers have been oriental scholars. It may be
doubted if any of them have been conversant with the spoken language
of the country. They have consequently put down names at random, —
according to their own inaccurate appreciation of sounds, carelessly,
vulgarly and corruptly uttered; and their maps of India are crowded
with appellations which bear no similitude either to past or present i
denominations. There is scarcely a name in our maps, that does not
afford proof of extreme indifference to accuracy, and of an incorrectness
in estimating sounds which is in some degree perhaps a national
1867.] On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets, 141
defect.”” It may be necessary to take with some modification, at the
present day, the above severe reflections on the ignorance of our
surveying officers; but whatever their knowledge, it is evident that
they have not had sufficient courage to deviate from the traditional
groove of barbarism. To initiate a reform in this direction, is an
undertaking well worthy the highest efforts of the Asiatic Society.
But the whole question has been treated so often, that there is no
occasion for further words; it only remains for some definite action to
be taken.
On the other hand, equal carelessness and neglect of philological
principles are displayed in the ordinary modes of representing English
words in Nagari characters: thus the names of the four months
September, October, November, and December are frequently so spelt
in Hindi translations, as quite to obscure the fact that they are iden-
tically the same as the vernacular Saptami, Ashtami, Navami, Dasami.
It has also become a uniform practice to represent the English ¢ on
all occasions by the letter @; thus ignoring the fact that in the
English alphabet the one symbol does double duty, and our pronun-
ciation of it varies, though perhaps unconsciously, in different words,
accordingly as it has a murdhanya or simply dental power. For
instance, the name Victoria is, so far as my experience goes, invariably
written with the 2, though most incorrectly so; for both in meaning
and derivation, it corresponds precisely to the common appellation
Vijay, the 7 by an invariable rule becoming & before dental t ; while &
with murdhanya ¢ is an impossible compound, and a short vowel would
have to be introduced between the two consonants, before they could
be pronounced. Indeed Her Majesty may reasonably complain of the
injurious treatment she receives here in India: for not only is her
name misspelt, but her royal title also is most grossly misrepresented.
The crafty Musalman, whoever he was, who first suggested the pre-
posterous expression mdlikd mw’ dzzam, must, when he found it adopted,
have chuckled immensely over the indignity he was passing on the
Queen of the unbelievers. Fortunately, the phrase is so thoroughly
| outlandish, that it practically conveys no meaning in this country ;
though any Arab chief who heard it would derive from it a strangely
| derogatory idea of the Empress of India. I remember reading an
article, which appeared in England about a year ago, taking this phrase
142 On the Transliteration of Indian Alphabets. [No. 2, q
as an illustration of our special linguistic clumsiness, as contrasted |
with Russian tact, and pointing out the considerable advantage which
they thus enjoyed over us in impressing the oriental imagination. —
For my own part, Iam quite unable to see any valid reason why the
well-known and dignified word pddshdh should not be used, at least —
on all ordinary occasions, where no reference is made to the sex of the
sovereign, as in the superscripture of service letters, or the wording of
legal documents.
As change of circumstances, or the development of European ideas,
involves an occasional necessity for enlarging the vernacular nomen- —
clature, I would suggest that this coinage of words, hitherto charac-
terised by the most signal failures, should be transferred from the
Government mint to the care of the Asiatic Society, and that a
Philological Committee should be allowed to express their opinion
before any new issue was definitely stamped and authoritatively
circulated. The last new word that has been forced down the throats _
of the people is numdish-gah, the principal result at present of the —
fashionable exhibition epidemic. It is a compound, for which it would
be perfectly useless to look in any Hindustani Dictionary, and in fact
has never had any existence in the country. As yet its use is”
exclusively confined to the Munshi class, who, in order to define its
meaning, invariably prefix the word mela, and I believe consider it
only the Government synonym for a tamdsha of any kind, in the
same way as strika is the Government expression for what every one
in his senses calls chori. Thus, during the grand Darbar at Agra, I
had petitions from mukhtdrs, explaining their clients’ absence on the
ground that they had gone to the ‘‘ Agra numaish-géh.” With the
people at large the word meld appears to answer every necessary
purpose ; or if greater precision is desired, sarkdri meld is employed. —
And although some more adequate expression might no doubt be
evolved by a due exercise of the critical faculty, I consider this i |
indigenous product is at all events better than the official exotic, |}
Several other subjects suggest themselves for animadversion, but my
remarks have extended far beyond the limit I originally intended, and
some of the points already noticed may appear too minute to deserve
serious attention. Yet, if philology is worth studying at all, it is
certainly worth while to recognize its rules in practice.
= .
aan
ET eee
18 67.] Literary Intelligence. 145
Literary AnD MiscettANngous INTELLIGENCE.
A catalogue of the Vernacular Publications of the Bombay Presi-
dency has just been brought out by Sir Alexander Grant, Director of
Public Instruction, Bombay. It embraces the names of 1679 books
of which 175 are in Sanscrit, 660 in Marhatti, 628 in Guzrati, 49
in Canarese, and 43 in Sindhi. Of Zend books there are 4, and of
Pehlevi 1, being the Pehlevi version of the Zendavesta. Prefixed to
the catalogue are two interesting essays by Professor F. Kielhorn
and Mr. M. G, Randde, on its Sanskrit and Marathi portions.
Mr, J. Beames has just published a short introduction to the study
of Indian Philology, with a map shewing the distritution of Indian
languages. It is intended to be a guide to those “ who, having no
knowledge of Linguistic Science, wish to record and preserve dialects
of obscure and uncivilised tribes with whom they may come into
contact ; or any of the countless local peculiarities of the leading Indian
languages which may be spoken in their neighbourhood.”
The following is an Extract from a letter from Major General
A. Cunningham to Colonel C. 8. Guthrie, on a large gold Eucratides
lately brought to England.
“But what is a double gold-mohur compared to the great gold
Eucratides which has just been brought from Bokhara by Aga
Zebalun Bokhari? It is 24 inches in diameter, and weighs ten staters,
or eleven guineas? It has the usual helmeted head on one side, with
the horsemen and inscription on the reverse. The owner has refused
700£ for it. It is genuine—and beats all the Greek coins hitherto
discovered.
“‘T have three specimens of a new Greek King, Apollophanes, and
‘some rude coins of Strato with the title of Philopator, which is
translated priyapitd, lover of his father. Please tell Grote of these
Bactrian novelties.”
nt
JOURNAL
: OF THE
“ASIATIC SOCIETY.
ie Parr L.—HISTORY, LITERATURE, é&e.
No. ITI.—1867.
[> On the Arabic Element in Official Hindustani-—No. 2. By
i? J. Beames, Esq., B. C. 8S.
[ Received 23rd J uly, 1866. ]
“Tf Hindustani, adopted by us as the future general language of
| Thdia, is to be a language and not a jargon, it must become so by
| means of its alliance with Persian, the speech which all Indian Maho-
medans have at their heart, and use as the feeder, or channel of other
feeders, for all their abstract thought, their politics, science, and
| poetry.”* |
This extract serves as a fitting text to the subject which it is my
aim to illustrate. In a former paper I gave an outline of some argu-
ments in favour of the present Arabicized dialect of our courts, and as
the little literature which the language possesses is written in the
same style, the following remarks may be considered as applica-
ble to the literary style also. In the present I propose to review
the assertions of the upholders of the opposite opinion, which
may briefly, and I trust fairly, be stated thus:—In writing or
-* Quarterly Review No. 2384, page 517 on “ Vambéry’s Travels in Central
Asia,”
18
146 On the Arabic Element in Official Hindustant. [ No. 33m
speaking Hindustani, if you have two words to choose between, one
Hindi or Sanskrit, and the other Persian or Arabic, it is better and
less artificial to use the former; and the Arabic and Persian words
already in use in Urdu are for the most part wrongly used, and are
often very corrupt forms of the genuine words. There are thus two
arguments: the first, a political; the second, scientific. I will
examine the political or historical argument first. But I must premise
that I consider the whole question as one for the student rather than
the statesman. Dr. Fallon, a vigorous partizan of the Hindi school,
writes, somewhat complacently, thus:* ‘‘ The Urdu language needs
direction ; but the natives have neither taste nor learning for such
a work. The task must be performed by European scholars, and the
Government of the country.” I would ask the author whether, in
all the range of his comprehensive reading, he has ever met with an
instance of a language having been created or guided by foreign
scholars, or licked into shape by a Government. Is language, like law,
a political creation? Does it not rather grow up in the homes of the
people? Is it not hewn out of their rough untutored conceptions ?
Does not its value consist in its spontaneous and unconscious growth ?
Are not its very irregularities and errors, proofs of the want of design
that attends its formation ?
Or again, can a stranger guide the native mother in choosing how
to talk to her child? If it be difficult for foreigners to influence a
language in a country where women enjoy the same freedom as men,
how much more hopeless is the task in a country like this, where the
mothers of the people are inaccessible and invisible ? ’
No, we cannot influence the speech of this people; they have formed —
it for themselves; they have, before we came on the scene, chosen
Arabic and rejected Hindi. It is not true to say that they prefer
Hindi, and that we have forced on them Arabic. It is not correct to
say that pedantic munshis have created for the use of the European
officer a dialect unknown to the majority of the people, and the use
of which severs him from them, and gives the keys of communication —
into the hands of a single class. The use of Arabic and Persian
words pervades every class. I, and many other officers, know that
* English-Hindustani Law and Commercial Dictionary by S. W. Fallon, In-
troductory Dissertation, p. xviii. ad fin, ra
1867.) On the Arabie Element in Official Hindustani. 147
when we go alone and unattended into a native village, we can con-
verse readily with the commonest people; and I have found the
Arabicized style, which I, from deliberate preference, always employ,
quite intelligible to the ryot and the bunnia. This people formed
their own language, and we may rest assured they will continue to
develop it in that direction which they feel to be best. It is true
that Hindi is the speech of the lower classes, but how many Arabic
words have invaded even the lowest Hindi, because the national
feeling has adopted Arabic as a sign of cultivation. The scholar may
lament that it is so, Just as some scholars lament the disuse of Saxon
words in English, but the lamentations of the scholar do not hinder
the progress of the language.
“Hindi is more native to the soil, and lies closer to the hearts of
the people than Arabic or Persian, and its use is therefore preferable
to that of the last named languages.” ‘This is the political argument
of the Hindi school. Dr. Fallon* puts it thus: ‘“ Hosts of Persian
and Arabic words have been introduced by natives of the country (the
italics are mine) who affect a foreign tongue, and make transfers in
the mass out of worthless books imperiectly understood. The true
‘vernacular is overwhelmed, thrust aside, and scornfully ignored.”
| And again, ‘“‘ The vocabulary of the Indian Courts of Judicature is not
| absolutely without a few Hindi phrases. Still, a very large propor-
| tion of good Hindi is systematically excluded by ignorance or bad
| taste, or, worse still, from corrupt design. Words which are conti-
Hinslly in the mouths of the people, the current speech in which men
in town and country buy and sell and transact business, the mother-
tongue of the peasantry and indeed of the great bulk of the nation is
repudiated for a foreign, high-sounding phraseology. But a people’s
vocabulary is not so to be set aside. The few have seldom yet suc-
ceeded in substituting their language for the language of the many.
Beaten off from the courts and public offices, native Hindi still lives
in the busy mart, and in the familiarities of social and domestic life.
In the pithy sayings, proverbs, and national songs of the country,
dwells a spirit and an influence beside which the foreign and less
familiar speech seems feeble and flat. These Hindi phrases have
deep roots in the habits and associations of the people. They come
* Dissertation pp. xii, xiii,
148 On the Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. —[No. 3,
home to the feelings and the understanding of the highest and the
lowest. They possess a living power, universality and force of expres-
sion, which can never belong to the Arabic and Persian platitudes
that are thrust in their place.” j
Now all this is very good and very eloquent, but it rests on false as-
sumptions. It assumes that what is true of some classes of the population
is true of the whole. It puts aside entirely all the rank and education
of the country—it puts the peasant on a pedestal, and requests us to
accept the barbarous and antiquated jargon that falls from his lips as
the model of our speech, and as the vehicle for the expression of
intricate philosophical argument, close legal reasoning, delicate and
refined discussion on art, science and politics. .
A second erroneous assumption is, that we have to thank our law
courts for the abundance of Persian and Arabic terms in use in Hin-
dustani. The fact, however is, that our native clerks use nine-tenths
of these words, simply because they have been used for five centuries
past as legal terms, and use has conferred on them a conventional
meaning, which no other words possess. The native press, in discuss
ing matters of a purely unofficial character, uses the same phraseology.
The style of Abul Fazl and the Sih Nasr-i Zahuri is the model of all
native composition. And this arises not from pedantry or affectation ;
the reasons of it are to be sought, first, in the circumstances in which
the early Musulman invaders found themselves; and, secondly, in the
constitution of native society from those times to this. :
Who, then, were the founders of the Urdu language? They
were a mass of Turks, Tartars, Persians, Arabs, and Syrians; with
whom were amalgamated many of the middle and lower classes of
Hindus; principally, perhaps, the adventurous trader, who goes any-
where to gain money, and the idle scum who are always attracted by
an army. If we further ask what were the materials from which this
heterogeneous mass could compound a lingua franca, we find,
indigenous dialects, Sanskrit and Hindi; of extraneous ones, Arabi¢
and Persian, and various Turkish dialects. They had to introduce
a new religion, a new government ; systems of policy and ogi
new to India; rules of etiquette; the social habits and refinements 0
a town life; new articles of clothing, furniture and luxury ; philosom_
phical ole ; terms to express new processes in the mechanical arts.
~
Poe a
1867. ] On the Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. 149
To what source should they turn for words to express these ideas ?
The Brahmin and the Rajput stood aloof from the casteless strangers.
Sanskrit therefore was probably very little heard in the camps of the
Ghori or the Khilji, and still less in those of Timur or Baber.
Words of Sanskrit origin, but more or less mutilated, were heard
from the lips of the lower classes, who also used a vast number of
Hindi words, 7. e. words either of Sanskrit origin or not, but so far
altered from their original as to become new words.*
Let us now go through some of the words which we may suppose
offered themselves to the invaders as native terms to express their
new ideas, and I think it will be seen that none of these words were
really available.
In the first place the new religion was Islam. To express the
religious duties of that pugnacious creed in anything but Arabic was
profanation not to be thought of. Hence the introduction of masjid,
namdz, rozd, kitéb, td, and the words of this class were unavailable, for
even putting aside the profanation, words of Sanskrit origin could not
express, because they did not contain, the requisite ideas. If any one
doubts this, let him think how far the Sanskrit and Hindi words
written below represent the Arabic or Persian.
Masjid Sanskrit—mandiram, devdlayam ;
. Hindi—dewala, math, mandar, shiwdla, thakurbdra.
Namdz S. prarthand, nivedanam ;
, H. pwd, path.
Rod S. upavdsa, wpdsanam, abhojanam, langhanam ;
% H. wpdas, langhan.
Kitab S. pustakam, grantham ;
4 H. pothi, pustak.
2. 'Id S. parvea, utsava, ydtra ;
« H. parab, tyohdr or tehwar.
_ Now it is at once evident that the adoption of any of these words,
deeply tinctured with the hues of the Brahminical creed, would at
once have been fatal to the genius of Mahomedanism. These Sanskrit
words therefore retained their place in the language with reference to
* An example will make the distinction clearer: Rdjd I should call a Sanskrit
word, because it retains its form unaltered ; bilawhand I call a Hindi word
| because its connection with the Sanskrit avilamba is, though undoubted, yet
not at first sight apparent.
os
150 On the Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. [No. 3,
the belief of the Hindu, while for the new Muslim population, the’
purely Muslim words were retained; and as nothing was displaced to ~
make way for them, they were a clear gain to the language, enabling —
it to keep pace with the new religious development of the nation at
large. Secondly, words relating to the government of the country.
The mass of little kingdoms each headed by its petty rdjd, a puppet
whose strings were pulled by his Brahmin ministers, was to give way
to the rule of one supreme “ father-king,’’ padshdh ;* who should
parcel out his dominions into satrapies or swbds ; and these powerful
satraps again would divide their provinces into districts; and the
rulers of districts would portion them out into counties, and so on,
Divisions of caste were to be ignored, all men were free and equal, on
condition of paying their taxes duly. The sovereign acknowledged
himself to be under no obligation towards his subjects. He was_
an absolute despot whose business was to rule, as his people’s was to
obey. He was, however, expected to be accessible to the meanest of
his subjects at certain times, and on the whole to do justice, though
after a somewhat random fashion. How utterly inapplicable to such
a system and to such a ruler would be the Sanskrit title of raja ;
what a crowd of ideas and memories of another order of things would -
such a title bring with it. Would it not lower the great “ father-
king’ to the level of the petty knights he had just destroyed? But
the word rad, though inapplicable to the sovereign, was not discarded ;
it remained as the title of a high order of nobility, as it is to this day,
and the Persian terms indicative of sovereignty are therefore positive
additions to the language. |
It is unnecessary to go in detail through the long list of words
relating to government introduced by the invaders. It is evident
that a people’s language can have no words for ideas or things which ~
do not exist in the country. Hspecially was this the case in India. —
Excluded from all but the scantiest commerce with the outer world,
India had long believed herself to contain the whole of the inhabited
earth, or at least to be the centre and greatest part of it. Like China
in the present day, India thought herself ‘the central flowery land,”
and had but dim notions of certain ‘“ outside barbarians” who led a _
miserable life on the confines of space. When the new era of a vigor- f
* Lassume Padshdh to be “ pidr-shah,” father-king, like Ataubeg or Abimelech.
1867. ] On the Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. 151
ous civilization and progress dawned on her, she was unprepared to
meet it. Her religion, laws, customs and language shrivelled up at
once, and slunk into holes and corners, and the statues of her gods
which had loomed grand and terrible in the twilight of Brahminism,
looked poor, feeble scarecrows in the full blaze of el Islam. The conquer-
ors were but little disposed to adopt the language of the conquered race,
but even had they been so, that language afforded them no materials
in which to clothe their ideas. Necessity stept in to aid inclination,
and the result was a language full of imported words.
“But,” it may be urged, “no one objects to a certain number of
Arabic and Persian words; many of them are necessary, some even
indispensable, to the people: all we object to is the indiscriminate
introduction of words which are not necessary, and for which the early
Mahomedan invaders are not responsible.” I might answer this, by
asking the Hindi school to tell me how they know at what date any
given word first made its appearance in India? On what grounds do
they assert that the simpler and shorter Arabic words were introduced
first, and the longer and more complicated ones later? There exists
no regular Urdu literature by which we can, as in English, mark the
exact epoch of the introduction of a word. And this brings me to
my second argument, that, namely, derived from the constitution of
native society, during all the years in which the Urdu language has
been growing, up to the present time.
The conquerors were essentially one nation, though composed of
very mixed elements. If they had adopted the language of the con-
quered, in a few generations they would have become scarcely in-
telligible to one another. In the present day an inhabitant of the
Punjab just manages to make himself intelligible to a man of Patna
by virtue of those few words which are now common to all Indian
dialects, namely those of Persian origin, and the Hindi verbs and
particles which have, thanks to the Mahomedans, become familiar all
over the country. At the time of the first invasions hond was not .
used over a wider area than bhd, pds than bhire, uské than okerd or
| wakd. As the country was split up into a number of petty kingdoms,
so was the language into a mass of dialects. Hindi was not one but
many, and so itis to this day. The service which the Mahomedans
| rendered to India, consisted in their taking one of these many dialects
152 On the Arabic Klement in Official Hindustani. [No. 3,
and making it the vehicle of their Persian and Arabic, and thus dis-
tributing it all over India. The Hindustani or Urdu language is —
%.
therefore, from one point of view, not Persian grafted on Indian, but
Indian inserted into Persian. The movement began from above and —
was imitated by the lower classes. ia
At an early period of the invasion, large tracts of country were
converted to the Muslim faith. All the Punjab west of the Chinab,
and a great deal east of that river; all the chief towns in the valley —
of the Ganges, and many villages in all parts of the country were —
largely converted ; and the conversion went on for centuries, and has
not yet ceased. To all these converts Arabic became a sacred tongue,
and as such lay and lies as near the hearts of this section of the ®
people as Hindi. Speak to a Mahomedan rustic in Hindi, he under-
stands you and talks to you in the same; but speak to him in Urdu, ‘
and he will press into his service every word he knows of Arabic and |
Persian, to show you that though, through accident of birth, he can :
only speak a few words of those honored and sacred tongues, he is yet r
not quite without knowledge of them. The rustic father sends his —
son to school to the village pedagogue, to learn what? not Hindi, |
but Arabic and Persian. And then we are told that these languages a
do not lie near the hearts of the people! Why, I believe if the votes |
of the whole Mahomedan population could be taken, an overwhelming |
majority of them would prefer to abandon Hindustani altogether and
make Persian the language of the land.
Among the higher classes in towns, who form the most intelligent
and cultivated portion of the population, there can be no question —
whether Urdu or Hindi is most popular. It is in the towns that we i
find the stronghold of the Musulman, and consequently of Arabicized 4
Urdu. But on what grounds we are asked to set aside the towns- |
people and all the Mahomedan rural population, together with all
cultivated Hindus who try to talk as much Urdu as possible, I do not
_ see. Native society has been for five centuries so thoroughly leavened _
with the language of the Mogul invader, and the invader has so
thoroughly made himself at home in India, and has so successfully
maintained the claim of his composite dialect to express the progress
and intelligence of the country, that all classes aspire to use it as a
sign of good breeding and cultivation,
1867. ] On the Arabic Element in Official Hindustani. 153
The language, to quote Dr. Fallon once more, ‘‘ in which men buy
and sell and transact business” is not Hindi; it is Urdu. If man and
ser and chitdnk are Hindi, kimat and nirakh, mal, saudd, and sauddgar,
jins, rakm, bazdy, and dukdn are Persian. If hdt is Hindi, ganj is
Persian. Sarak, bail, and gdri are Hindi, but pul, sardé and manzil
are Persian. And so it runs through all the scenes of common Indian
life ; you hear everywhere simple Persian words as frequently as Hindi
in the mouths of all classes of the people. I appeal to the experience
of all who know well the rural districts of this country for confirma-
tion of this assertion.
We may then safely state that to the higher classes throughout the
country, to the Mahomedan rustic, to the townsmen in all districts,
Urdu is as familiar and as well known; nay, more familiar, than pure
unadulterated Hindi. It remains only to discuss the question as
regards the Hindu peasant. And it is in this connection that the
want of uniformity between the various Hindi dialects requires to be
brought out in a stronger light. Hindi is not one, but many. If we
follow the advice of our purists, and try to talk and write only pure
Hindi, we abandon the possibility of retaining one universally intelli-
gible language and fall back into a chaos of a dozen or more different
dialects. In advocating the use of Hindi in preference to Arabicized
| Urdu, Dr. Fallon’s school mean by Hindi those portions of Urdu
| which are of Indian origin ; they mean the dialect which uses wuh, ych,
askd, uskd ; which says hond, hotd, hud, karnd, kiyd ; that dialect which
has been incorporated into Urdu: the Hindi, in short, of Delhi and
Muttra. But ten miles from Delhi itself I have heard wékd for uskd,
ydkd for iskd. If we are to reject such forms as these and use only
the Delhi Hindi, we, are quite as far from reaching the heads and
hearts of the mass of the population as ever. The great Bhojpuri
| dialect, for instance, is spoken throghout eastern Oudh, Gorackpur,
| Benares, Shahabad, Sarun and Tirhit, and is more unlike the Delhi
Hindi than Dutch is unlike English. I would ask a Delhi or upper
Doab rustic to interpret the following from the evidence given in
court in a dacoity case by a peasant of Champaran. “ Okerd dwére
gardhdé sumtin, sagare log dhdwalan, tin dic sau jana gamelan, ghare
4 samdgelan, sagard dhan, chépd, lota, dhdn, chdwal sdthi lit lelan, dheri
| toralan, phin niksalan, dru mushdl bhig delan, te bhdgalan, thom @&
P'shddwa chahet gelin, t'ekho chor pakardil gel.”
19
154 Ancient Hindu Ruins in Garhwal. [No. 3,
This is pretty simple, especially when written down clearly on
paper, but when heard from the mouth of the witness, mumbled and —
half pronounced and spoken with the rapidity of a steam-engine, it is
not so easily caught. It means: ‘“‘ We heard a noise at his house.
Every one ran [there]. There two hundred men were collected.
They entered the house. They looted all the property, platters, lotas,
rice [of three sorts]; didn, [unhusked]; chdéwul, [husked]; sdthi [a —
species of Bhadai rice]. They broke the granary ; then they came
out, threw away their torches and fled. Then I and Parshad pursued,
and one thief was caught.”
Does Dr. Fallon wish us to fall back on this dialect, for instance, —
with the certainty that by using it we render ourselves unintelligible —
to one-half of India? or are we to use some other dialect, unintelligi-
ble to this half? Or again is each Englishman to use the dialect of
the district where he finds himself, and have to learn-a new dialect at |
each change of station ? |
If in reply I am told that the language meant by Hindi is the dia-—
lect of hat and hud, karta and kiydé ; and not that of bhé and bhdil, —
karat and karalan,* nor that of che and child ;+ nor that of hindd
and hoyd ;{ nor that of cho, cha and chi ;§ and that a certain amount
of necessary Persian words is allowable, I would ask where are we to
draw the line in Hindi between what is classical and what is provin-
cial, and in Urdu between what Arabic words are allowable and what
are not ?
Sitti NNN.
Remarks on some ancient Hindu Ruins in the Garhwdal Bhdtur.—By 3
Lieutenant Ayrron Puan, Assistant Surveyor, Great Trigono- —
metrical Survey. | N
[Received 6th June, 1867.] -
&
While engaged in surveying a portion of the dense forest that skits
the foot of the Himalayas between Garhwal and Rohilcund, I dis-_
covered a very remarkable temple and a number of carved slabs
scattered through the jungle. ‘These ruins have hitherto escaped
notice, owing to the dense jungle in which they lie hidden. The
* Bhojpuri. * Tirhtt. { Panjabi.
§ Rajputana and Harrowti. a
1 67.] Ancient Hindu Ruins in Garhawal. 155
admirable preservation in which the temple still is, and the beauty
of the carving on it, and the surrounding fragments, have induced me
to make sketches of the most remarkable portions. I send herewith
zincographs* from my sketches, trusting that with the following brief
account, they may prove interesting to the Asiatic Society.
In January last, while in the Chandipahér Sevéliks and near the
site of an ancient but now ruined village called Mandhal, almost six
“miles east of Hurdwar, I found among the grass the carved figure of
a Bull; following up my discovery I came upon a small temple of
exquisite carving and design, the figures on the frieze in fine alto-
-relievo and the whole arrangement of the facade perfect.
~ Round the temple, which was eight feet in height and six or eight
feet square, were scattered a number of carved slabs, a group of
wrestlers, Ganesh with his elephant head, and some gods under
eanopies so very Buddhist, as to remind me of “ Sakya Thubha” on
the drawings of the monks of Zauskar and Ladakh.
The temple itself stands on a platform or “ chabutara,” twenty feet
square, and at each side is a trench or drain which was probably intended
to carry off the water, and leave the flat square dry for worshippers.
Beautifully executed heads terminate the trench at the four corners :
on the south a woman’s head and bust, at the west a lion, at the
“north a ram; the east corner is broken and defaced. These heads in
| form and execution brought to my mind most vividly ‘ the Gargoyles”
| on the gothic Cathedrals of Europe.
| 4 Scattered about were two or three large capitals and shafts of pillars,
| “evidently belonging to a building of far larger dimensions than the
small one now standing. ‘The frieze and doorway faces the south;
‘the northern door is much plainer, but I would draw attention to
one of the pillars shewing a stay wnder a tree which is identical
“with the stag and tree on a silver coin found by me two years
‘ago near Betrut in the Saharanpur district, and attributed to the
Maharaja Amojdha ; the coin is now in the possession of Babu
Rajendraléla Mitra of Calcutta. Inside the temple lies a square carved
| Slab, cracked by a fall, bearing a fine three-headed deity. This
| three-headed god occurs on most of the slabs throughout the
| Terai, and is conspicuous on the lingam found near Lal Dhang.
* These zincographs may be seen in the Library of the Asiatic Society. Eb.
156 Ancient Hindu Ruins in Garhwal. [No. 3,
Whether the stag and tree, common alike to temple and coin, gives
a clue to the builders; whether it suggests a stream of Hindu civili-
zation driven by persecution into the untrodden forests of the Terai,
like ‘the pilgrim fathers,’ seeking in the wilderness quiet to
worship God after the fashion of their ancestors; or whether it may
perhaps go to prove that in time past the deadly fever-smitten Terai
was not deadly, but a cultivated country filled with villages and
inhabitants ;—these points I leave for antiquarians to decide.
About eight miles further east in the Luni Sot, a narrow stony
ravine running down from the Himalayas, I found some more slabs,
one with’ a beautiful female head, and two or three large pillar
shafts and cornice-mouldings, similar to those at Mandhal. After a
long search I could find nothing further ; but an old Brahmin who had
a cattle “‘ got”? in the ravine, told me that twenty years ago several
fine figures, slabs, &c. were carried away to Jayapur and Gwalior by
wood-cutters from Central India.
Four miles further east, Icame on the ruins or rather indications
of acity (the place is now known as Paénduwala) near the police
jungle chauki of Lall Dhang. Here after an houv’s search I at length
lighted on the object of my visit ; I found the ground beneath the tall
tiger grass and tangled bamboos covered for a couple of square miles
with heaps of small oblong red bricks, interspersed with carved slabs
of stone; but the most singular and beautiful relic was the last to
reward my search; this was a stone “lingam” of most exquisite
work, half buried in the ground, but when excavated, standing three
feet high and carved on three sides.
Forty or fifty small chirags were turned up by my servants,
while excavating the “lingam.” The people at Laéll Dhang told
a similar story to the Brahmin at Luni of figures and slabs
that had been carted away to the plains at different times. At
Panduwala I observed three or four evident indications of founda-
tions of houses, and in one place a half-choked canal of good
stone work, which had brought water doubtless to the people of the
buried city from the cool hollows of the Bijinagar ‘“ Sot.” A large
stone, six feet in circumference by three in diameter, also lay
near the foundation of one of the houses of bygone Panduwala. At
Mawakot, a Boksar village in the Terai, eighteen miles east of
1867.] On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. 157
Panduwala, I found some more slabs, some of the three-headed
divinity and one bearing a very curious figure. An old Brahmin,
a resident of the village, told me that it represented ‘‘ Jangdeo
Kumar.” The mailed figure with his armed supporters seemed
almost an ancient gothic knight, but the curious tracery of fishes
surrounding the warrior, somewhat destroyed the illusion. I found
nothing more worth recording during my stay in the Terai, but
I came on continued indications of what once had been: here a
chipped and broken cornice near a cattle “‘ Got.’”’ stuck up on end by
the ignorant Paharis as a “ Deotd,” there a great slab of hewn stone
lying alone among a clump of bamboos in the middle of the forest.
That these remains extend through the whole length of the
Rohilcund and Kumaon Terai, I should think there is little doubt.
I was told that at Ramnagar in the Kumaon Terai, there were
some very fine slabs and carved stones, but I was unable to make my
way there,
My remarks on these interesting relics are of necessity meagre, but
I hope that my drawings may induce some of the antiquarians of the
Society to throw some light on these ruins in the wilderness. I can
find no mention of these ruins in Batten’s work on Gurhwél and
Kumaon, although that writer mentions the Dwarahath frieze and
carvings in Kumaon. I believe I am the first Kuropean who has seen
the Mandhal temple, or indeed any of these ruins, as none of the dis-
trict or forest officers had ever heard of their existence, until I men-
tioned them.
Notes on ancient Remains in the Mainpurt District.—By
C. Horne, Esq. B.C. S.
[Received 8th June, 1867. ]
Asauli.—This large village is within two miles of Mainpuri to the
north east and can be best approached by the old cemetery, from
which it is perhaps three-fourths of a mile distant.
158 On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. [No. 3,
Crossing an ‘tsar’ plain, and passing through the village of
Sikandarpur, you see the village of Asauli picturesquely perched
on its mound, which rises some forty feet from the level of the plain.
At one end is a large native brick house used by the Raja of Main-
puri during the mutiny, whilst at the other (the east) are swelling
mounds covered with trees. But ere you can reach the said village,
you have to goa long way round to avoid the extensive sheets of water
which environ it on three sides, and which have been caused by the
earth excavated therefrom to raise the mound.
Entering by the east, one at once notices a large heap of stones,
&c. on a small mound, and here one naturally looks for the Buddhist
temple or “ chaitya’”’ which certainly faced the rising sun.
Nor is one disappointed, for amidst the mass stands a stone with
adeity thereon carved, now called by the villagers “ Gulpib-Debi.”
This is represented in the rough sketch given below; it is held by
»
i
me to represent ‘“‘ Vishnu,” the supplanter of Buddh in this instance.
This slab may, however, have formed part of the temple, and have —
been placed to the right or left of the entrance, as in the later
Buddhist temple many Hindu deities were admitted. The carving
about the figure is very rich and characteristic of the period I would
assign to it, viz. circa 500 a. D,
1867. ] On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. 159
_ The large squared blocks of kankar forming the original founda-
tion are, many of them, still in situ—and the building will appear
to have been of some size and of the usual crucial
form. The length of the cross is not easily ascer-
tained. <A single cornice block will, however, give —>
some clue tothe size of the structure as it measured
34” deep by 20” wide.
Several heads of Buddh, carved in the conventional style, were lying
about ; whilst two niche ornaments revealed him sitting in contem-
plation, and several lintel stones two feet ten inches in length, shewed
that the sanctuary had been richly carved. There were remains of
sundry cruciform capitals, and of single and double bases for pillars as
well as of the pillars themselves, but the most curious piece of carving
to be seen there was a long slab of kankar, a basement moulding
which I have figured below. It will be observed that it consists
entirely of elephants seen fronting one. It measured eight feet one:
inch, and in this space there were five elephants. Another portion
_ of the same basement moulding was found in the village, as also
that of a frieze of demon faces which may possibly have formed
part of another building.
a 4 Amongst the ornamental carvings were several settings of “ viraj”’
160 On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. [No. 3,
or jewel shewn in the margin ; whilst the
over-branching vase does not fail to assert
its prominent place.
There were also remains of statues of
both male and female figures nearly nude,
with elaborate waist-belts; but these
appeared to me to belong to a time when
the sensuous Jains were supplanting the
Buddhists.
It is very curious to trace on these
stones records how the purer faith of
S’ékya Muni mingled and became in-
corporated with and debased by the
grosser superstitions of S’iva and Vishnu
—to see how the pure and, so to speak,
classical severity of rendering of the
human form gave way to the sensuality
; of engrafted creeds—how S’akya him-
self became adorned, needed clothing to cover him, instead of that
wondrous veil of drapery generally indicated by merely the faintest
waist-line or mark across the thigh, and required “ tika” marks and
tiara, how the forms of his attendant female devotees bent and twisted
themselves with their distended busts, and how, in truth, the small spark
of light S’ékya had revived died out. Again, wandering about the |
village, one finds everywhere traces of carvings on blocks of stone built
into walls. See below. These much resemble those at Malaun which
I have before described.
Some are like the figures at Mathura and Bhilsa ; whilst I could not
find that any Hindu temple had ever taken the place of the original
Buddhist or Jain structure, in which, as afore-noted, it is probable
that some of the Hindu Pantheon had found a place, |
— >. tile
1867. ] On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. 161
The mound is of great extent, running nearly east and west. It is
perhaps half a mile long and of about the same width, and in former
times there probably stood a large Vihar or convent on its western
end, where it is highest.
Near this were lying six large stones very richly carved and in good
preservation. The carvings upon them appeared to be metaphorical
representations of the seasons. They are said to have been dug out
from near where they are now lying some years since, and the stones
(sandstone) appear quite fresh.
On one, five feet in length, S’akya is seated on a tortoise. Two
devotees kneeling, hand or offer vessels ; whilst
from his head springs a tree, going off into scrolls
in the bends of which are lotus blossoms. On
two or three stand little elephants, and on the
others there are “ chakwaé chakwi’’ or Brahmani
ducks billing and cooing, or sitting alone preening
their feathers.
On either side is a panel, much defaced, but upon which “ kinnars””
or cherubs may yet be seen, and again beyond these on either side are
162 On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. [No. 3,
amatory groups—very Jain—viz. to the left a man playing a tom-tom
with a woman holding her hands over his head; to the right a man’s
hand on his‘heart vowing devotion, whilst the woman is scorning him.
On another large stone, half of which is wanting, is Buddha rested
in the middle, the ‘‘ Navagraha’” or nine planets right and left, with the
sun and moon on either hand closing the series. This stone is clearly
early Hindu.
I append an outline of a portion of another carving which appears
allegorical, although I am unable to make it out.
T also send an outline of a pilaster found by me at
Bichaman on the Grand Trunk Road about six
miles distant. Besides being of unusual design, —
it is pierced with a large round hole, and may
| possibly have formed part of a railing like that
i found at Mathura.
The bricks about the village were not large, and
I imagine that in early times, the use of squared
ree) - eo
— ~> >
SSssssss :
= SSS
SSSSQ8H
: >
——
kankar blocks for religious edifices was universal
in places where stone is not found. The carvings
above described were on sandstone which may have
been brought from Agra or elsewhere. It is,
however, clear from what I have above noted that
Asauli is worthy of a visit by any passing Archexo-
logist.
Jounnar, AS: soc:XXXVIP]T A wp unn, PLATE VII
DGG ff pW
Cul tx block Kan bear, 2/6 uk.
Ny.
WN? 2.
vs Sfitht lL
While LC «
fev é 4 Fe
4
A %
Capeha L of 4 Sseare wolemn, GD y
Ne 4
Crd
WnRawmenwtal Cane,
WS
WWE
bony Law ge capeha le buy Gf Colaren? |
wi" +
heel Sr ers ony ow Way
(Van clu torne )
Alana
a Bt — io Pee:
fal Bg mins oe Lt, Se %
- ee ot er rete. ond ote, :
eee
= >
—--
‘ ¢ a. ay ae y
ae ee } ; Ny in ee SRE S ee BYE iy
y os Gh eae a ce, ?
Ree on
~
rk aD MSS perme s Sr “yen saree er nde itl
4 J
ee Lats ‘
7 owe or.
« eww - t des te ee ee ’
am 6 ASM hana, aR! nals
Fe <3
j | ®,
7. a
prs ; .
‘ . ui 2 .
es
rf ,
as
Mes ice ;
7 » “. =
ks * Mit
” ,
1 5 had
2 ¥ aA
: FR
: é y
\ ?
y f
ay
if
os SW *
Tet ig Pe |
Yee irs
cat, ape
‘
‘ é
>= + ee a cliteeiet aeaaties taeda ee
4 be a Pi Ae lace Te le
: 4 he
t rr = 3
-Aiofon = ie ;
; ~ ; £ Z
. = \
" >» oe eros f
ed j a {enna ehh theta abe kt
| . ,
r
+
ge ema
eee ae
BAD thy es
iawn. ae
~
ee
~
sateen ee
—_
, Xs
|
a)
5
“i!
wy
‘e
Pa
4
ee
1867.] On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. 163
Anjam. About three miles north of Mainpuri in the cross-road
eading to Hta lies this village, and the road to it is cut through the
base of the large khera or mound which attracts the attention of the
Archxologist. To the left (in west) for a very large ext nt is low
marshy land caused by the extensive scooping off of the surface earth
or the purpose of raising the mound to the right, on which, in very
early times, stood Buddhist or Hindu buildings.
At present the summit is occupied by a small mud fort surrounded
_ by a trench, which I was told was thrown up in Lord Lake’s
| time by the Nawab of Lucknow, whose authority was acknowledged
here.
Close by and still upon the crest of the mound which is of great
extent, appears a heap of stones, and this upon closer examination,
proves to have been a Buddhist “ chaitya’ or outlying chapel to a
large building.
The basement would appear to be in siti, and stands in the
middle of what was once an enclosure of 24 by 18 paces in extent,
its longest face being toward the south. The foundation of the
enclosure wall has been dug out to the extent of several’ feet, which
reveals the fact that the whole of this part of the mound consists
See
of brickwork laid in mud and the bricks being from 14” to 15’
x 10” < 22” in size.
The ‘‘ chaitya’”’ was constructed of kankar blocks; although some
small portions were of Delhi sandstone. The remains, however, scat-
tered through the village, shew that there must once have been a very
large building here with columns of considerable diameter; and from
their character, I am inclined to assign a date coeval with the decline
of Buddhism. «
The sheet of illustrations herewith sent, (Plate VII.) shews that the
line of Rakshas’ or demon heads, bears the character of the Buddh Gaya
restorations and of many found at Benares and Jaunpur (figured in the
Journal) presumed by me to belong to the same period (Fig. 1). The
original cruciform capitals (Figs. 2 and 3) and chessboard (‘ diaper’
of Col. Yule) pattern, Fig. 4, betoken great antiquity, whilst the find-
_ ing in one place of the eight feet of cornice would seem to indicate a
% larger ‘‘ Sinhdsan” or idol throne for the figure of Buddha than could
have been placed in the little “ chaitya.”
—
164 On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. [No. 3,
The Hindus would seem to have adopted the said chaitya, for I
found three broken ‘“‘nandies” or bulls and three slabs covered with
Krishnas in relief. The carved stone corner of a lintel, Fig. 7, might
have belonged to the chapel, and a small clasped hand found in the
spot was probably that of one of the “‘ Kinnaras” or angelic cherubs,
such as are generally placed around the figure of Buddha. Very many
stones were found covered with,what I believe to be, early Hindu cutting,
(Fig. 10,) whilst the band of carving Fig. 4 is of a very early type.
I hold therefore that there are good grounds for believing that there
was once a Buddhist institution (a Vihara probably) on the spot with
its outlying chapel, which latter was appropriated by the Hindus, for
the worship of first, Siva, then Krishna and then—allowed to go to
ruin. The drain-stone from the Lingam, shaped out of an old block,
is still there projecting over the original step; although the emblem
of Siva has departed, and no reverence would seem to be paid to the
spot by the present villagers, whose zamindar kindly sent me one of
the finest of the carved stones, (Fig. 11,) without any objection.
Karimganj, About five and a half miles north of Mainpuri, towards
Kta upon the cross road stand the large village of Karimganj. Appro-
aching it from the north, a large mound, a short distance from the road,
attracts attention and appears worthy of investigation.
This mound, which is of very great extent, being at base 530 by
330 paces, and which has been formed in ancient times by the heaping
of the surface earth brought from a long distance, stands between forty
and fifty feet above the level of the country, and upon its crest has
been erected in more recent times a mud fort. The level of the general
raised surface being taken at ten feet, this fort rises yet thirty feet above
that, and presents a very picturesque aspect in its decay. (Plate VI.)
Three sketches and a plan accompany to give an idea of the above.
The whole mound is strewed with broken pottery, which is account-
ed for by the fact that a village used to stand upon it, but has since
been removed leaving only these “‘ traces. The khera’”’ or mound is call-
ed by the villagers ‘‘ Khan Bahadur ka Khera,” and this would appear
to have been the name of the petty chief who, subordinate to the
Nawab of Fatehgarh, built the mud fort in the time of Lord Lake.
T examined the mound most carefully ; but could not find anything
in situ, except a few bricks and these of no unusual size. The fort
‘
gounnal. as: soe. AXAVI.PI. PLATE VI.
Karimg an}
ree - OE esra> —
PAC Qin Ph. South mY
La x 4
» ee tha Novel a ifn
Uppar
Tew Vaer
eee Poe.
ie ‘
. eo 4 cs Section 4 Nha.
CUS is bery (Os
p“"9
a 8
iene penn aa aR
1867.] On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. 165
is composed, as before stated, of surface (here “ saltpetre’’) earth.
Hence the mass of mud is gradually disappearing, being dug out and
taken away by the villagers to manure their poppy crops, and thus
in the course of time the whole of the upper mound will be levelled.
But, although there are no remains “in situ,” there are plenty
around the large well-mouths and scattered throughout the village,
and I subjoin a small sheet of illustrations (Plate VII.) to shew that
there must have been in later Buddhist or early Hindu times, a
building of some pretensions on this spot. Here too I observed for
the first time, kankar blocks, with the main lines of the carving sunk
deeply in them, and the whole face of the stone covered with fine lime
plaister which was admirably moulded. ;
The patterns thus produced abounded in curved lines, an illustra-
tion of which is given in Fig. 8; they resemble those used in the
temple at Malaun (distant perhaps twelve miles) and in the ‘ chaitya”’
at Anjani, two or three miles distant.
The whole country appears covered with kheras, upon which many
of the villages are built, and my own house here stands on one. So
that I hope to ‘discover many more sites of ancient buildings, the
remains of a very thickly populated Buddhist state,
Thékurd. Leaving Karimganj to the west and proceeding due
east over the large “ jhil” or marsh and some barren sand hills for
about 1? miles, one comes to Thakura village, on the farther side
of which, under some noble trees are the remains of an early Hindu
temple.
These remains, some illustrations of which accompany, (Plate VL.)
are curious principally as shewing how the Hindus adopted the
Buddhist forms of ornament, and gradually changed them until the
ancient style was lost or blended with the more corrupt modern
one.
The material used throughout appears to have been block kankar,
which is a most intractable stone, being much like asolid sponge, and
the people deserve great credit for the way in which they have worked
it. It is I believe softer when first dug than it afterwards becomes.
q The people of this village were very ignorant, and as they had a
_ lurking reverence for the stones I brought none away.
The drawings on the plate may be thus described.
ee
166 On the Antiquities of Mainpurt. [ No. 3,
Fig. 1 is the small enclosed shrine, built with squared kankar
blocks.
Fig. 2 is a more recent capital.
Fig. 3 is a very singular capital, fora round pillar 11 inches in _
diameter, in which the ancient cruciform shape is retained.
Fig. 4 is an odd ornament, curious but ineffective. It must have
been placed over a window.
Fig. 5 is an extremely handsome ornament of the same kind for —
placing over a window or niche.
Fig. 6 is a portion of the ornament always found in the projecting
faces of old Hindu temples, the form of the capitals is singular, whilst —
the “ viraja” or jewel of Buddha thus set, has become a flower, subse-
quently often used in ornamentation.
Fig. 7 is a portion of a similar ornament. The form of the capital
resembles some seen at the cave temples, and is essentially Buddhist
in design.
Nonaird. This large and ancient village stands on a very extensive
mound which rises from the plain to a height of about 40 feet. It is
pethaps 14 miles north of the Grand Trunk Road, and about the
same distance from the Police Post and Canal Chauki of Dhanahar,
and nine miles from Mainpuri.
The name savours of “ salt,”” and we find that until quite recently,
from very ancient times, there was a large saltpetre manufactory at —
this place. Doubtless salt was also formerly made, and hence the —
name from “nim,” salt and “nonaira,” salt-maker. Although the
mound is so extensive, there is no marsh or “ jhil” around the vil-
lage. It would seem to have silted up, and the lands are now
watered by a branch of the Ganges canal.
On the eastern spur of the mound, I, as usual, found the traces of the —
foundations of an ancient religious building ; whilst to the north stands —
the fort, in the construction of which have doubtless been employed
most of its materials, as remains of heavy cornices were seen crop- Bs
ping out of the foundations.
Enough, however, remained to shew that there had been a small
(Plate VIII.) and would draw attention to Fig. 1, which represents the _
boar incarnation of Vishnu, or the “ Varaha-avatar.”” He is accompanied e
Buddhist “ chaitya” witha Jain ceiling. I subjoin a few drawings, —
———— ae
Pirate Vib
gow. XXXV CPI
4
N onwra
OW arrow
q JOURNAL AS:
Need,
; Vorakha & KMarahe.
| ws
ft Ti
i
1) A
pera!
: j i
f y
y y
ESS
ar
\ Y
Y
i
aS OE ioe Gy : Keon: ea SARAION
t he P:
Ss 4
Pinan oe rae
¢ ate oe i -
; oy
1867.] On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. 167
by the “sakti” or female energy—his wife “‘ Varahi;” and I observe
that Moor in the original edition of his Hindoo Pantheon has a very
similar figure on plate 6.
Figure 2 shews the centre boss of the Jain ceiling, whilst Figure 3,
gives the details of an architrave of the most ancient type.
Figure 4 is curious, as shewing how the same plan of eaves-stones
was adopted over the small windows, cut in imitation of wood, as found
by me at Saidpur, Juanpur and Benares.
Figures 5 and 6 are also representations of very rough and ancient
- carvings.
| Figure 7 represent the projecting entablature, of which I found
_ several portions, and which is very finely finished.
Figure 8 shews a portion of the original shrine. It is extremely
worn, although the kankar in which it is cut, is of the hardest
description.
Figure 9 has also been originally well cut ; but the wear of centuries
has almost levelled the high relief in which it was executed.
Figure 10 shews a detail which, taken in connection with two
_ pillars found, proves that there was a smaller under shrine.
Figure 11 is another instance of bricks carved with a tool.
I was not able to find any large square bricks, commonly called
“ Buddhist,’ but many occurred of an unusual form, and the Kérinda
of Raja Prithvi Sing, the zamindar of the village has kindly sent me
one, which is at the service of the Asiatic Society, and which mea-
sures 12?” «& 9” x 4”. The ornament represented in Figure 11 was
ut from such a brick, but the art of cutting and shaping bricks would
seem to have been now entirely lost in the village.
_ In spite of their thickness, these bricks are beautifully burnt, and
each one is marked on one side. The lines with which they are
marked appear to have been made with the three fingers of the right
hi nd, having been very carefully drawn across the brick when first
moulded. Amongst more modern (yet ancient) bricks I have often
seen the mark, made with the finger. This I believe to have been as a
charm, and to have roughly represented the trident. This mark also
_ Occurs as a mason’s mark on marble at Agra, in buildings of the time
of Shah Jahan and Akbar.
I am not aware of similarly ornamental bricks having been else-
168 On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. [No.
where noticed, or described ; although I may here add that I found
one carved into a capital at Sarnath, which may be seen by the curious
at the Museum, Queen’s College, Benares.
Midldin. When driving on the Grand Trunk Road on my way to
Eta, and 13 miles east from that place, I unexpectedly came upon an old
temple, and as I have not met with any account of the same, I made a
few notes and drawings which may perhaps prove of interest to some,
and which I therefore annex. ‘The first thing which attracted my
notice, was the size and regularity of the kankar blocks with which
the temple had been built.
They varied from 3’ 6’ to 4’ & 7” x 9”, and appear to have been
freely used by the officers of the Grand Trunk Road for bridge build-
ing, for many miles of road. Jaswant Singh, the old Thakur zamin-
dar of the place, told me that a certain “ Conolly Sahib” had taken
the road right through the temple, entirely clearing away the southern
arm of the cross, in which ancient form, the erection had been con-
structed, and used Government vans at night to transport blocks
of kankar, carved and plain, for his works ; whilst the “ oldest in-
habitants’ who professed to have remembered the occurrence, added—
“The kaidis (prisoners’) backs were broken by their weight,” and
a third put in, “‘ Nay, but they were killed outright !”
This is merely mentioned, to shew the need of some officer to see
to the preservation of old ruins; for the zamindar offered me as
many stones asI might require, and did not es to mind their
removal.
But to resume my account. The only portion of the original
foundation that I could find laid bare, was built with large bricks
14’ or 15’ & 8" & 23” and was 52” in thickness, with a buttress
extending 9 feet. The facing of the superstructure, was originally
composed of the large blocks of kunkur formerly alluded_ to, and vera
little other stone appears to have been used.
In Figure, No. 14, a specimen of the basement moulding is give
This is about 1 foot in depth, and is of the most ancient ty
Sundry traces of Hindu restoration of an ancient Buddhist chaitya
apparent ; amongst others, a large lintel stone (of Agra (?) sandstone
with the peculiar frog-like crushed figures at either end, so often
seen in modern Hindu temples at Benares and elsewhere. This stone
JOURNAL AS: soc: XXXVIPI. PLATE YX.
Malan .
es 2 rr
Kevecc lt uc i
TD
vf! {.
Blac es) Jasrde
Irrnamen& oN fh. face % pp wec4ions.
ci ho gens,
, —— — —
— =e
SAnx wry ruck Orvien
& Arm +
ty Pole
s Tpreae
| gh ons
cma
eae
BE wr
et ae
- orange
Pee
a
ee
~
_
ver
iz
Q ait : ie - ee - - “
PAG be rr, ha a Cn eh EID: IS wt arvana ot — ae anes wen so A
+ ale a oT Ml ea aR ie he te a : a
4 A ; hk ai ’ x
‘ 7 -
hihi
Fn
‘ : he Pret . : ra
te Dh 4 a a
ta ge 2 ; ye fas .e
Tg ‘ ras}
te ; re? t
‘
Ye:
Hn
hj
a Pen d —
ey taal mere man «hae nee + aya «Wl
nn ici he ce ne len
Ae ‘
et oe
rs
x if
y 1
y +4
p "
; at eg
|
li
a }
iP:
+
I a
} i
1867. ] On the Antiquities of Mainpurt. 169
is fully 6 feet in length. There were lying about, both in the temple
and near a bridge three miles nearer Eta, by the road side, many cut
blocks of kankar.
One of them, figured as No. 10, bore traces of great antiquity, and
reminded me of some faces similarly arranged, which I had drawn at
Benares: the type is a universal one.
Many fragments of cornice were also lying there, all indicating a large
building. Two of these are shewn drawn to scale in Figures 3 and 4.
Ornamental details, figures 2 and 12 indicate the date of the work,
the former being very bold and effective; whilst the latter, in spite
of the rough grain of the kankar, looks very rich.
Moulding, No. 13 is ornamented with the old denticulated pattern,
and has a good effect.
Figure 11, shews two tigers, more modern in their design.
From the above it will be seen that the details of ornamentation
were very rich, in spite of the uncompromising nature of the material,
viz. porous block kankar.
The temple was built upon a slight mound raised with earth, dug
from the neighbouring marsh, now nearly filled up by the annually
drifting sand of this part of the country. The temple covered a
space of about 75 feet square.
The form would appear to have been oblong. I was able to
recover two of the pillars, which had been originally used. It will
be seen by figures 8 and 9, that they were of a very simple and
F early style.
The base figures in both and the central portion in each is eight-
sided. The upper recessed portion in Figure 9 has, however, only six
sides. These pillars may have formed part of the same building; for
we often find different patterns employed in one edifice.
a
_ Figure 7 represents an eaves-stone cut in imitation of wood
work. It probably covered some small door or upper light, and, as
before remarked, resembles those found at Jaunpur (Pair Daruba
ee
:
and Atala mosque) and Rajghat, Benares. The figure of a sitting
Buddha isstill onthe spot to point out who were the founders,
although there are also several Hindu deities present in effigy on
sundry slabs of stone, to attest the subsequent appropriation.
Around the niches once oceupied by figures of Buddha are handsome
21
170 On the Antiquities of Maimpuri. [No. 3,
ornaments one of which, (32 inches by 24 inches) has been figured
by me as No. 15. There were many others of the same character.
We now come tothe rcof. Of the central slab of this Buddhist (or
as Fergusson would call it ‘‘ Jain’’) ceiling, I was fortunate enough ~
to find three portions, one of which has been figured as No. 5; it is
drawn to scale, from which it will be perceived that the central
rose lotus blossom must have been 5’ 4” in diameter. This would
give a central chamber vault of at least 11 feet, or with the cornice
12 feet. The massiveness of the long slabs of block kankar, must
have been very great; but they were not sufficiently strong to bear
the weight of a large pipal tree, which now stands upon this spot,
and which doubtless helped much to cause the ruin.
Arrived at the exterior of the roof, we find a strange pinnacle, of a
form new to me, one in which the form of the vase is not abandoned, .
but very well adapted. Vide figure 1.
There were also built into the walls around, the remains of three
kalasas, each of 8 feet diameter, which, doubtless, at a subsequent
period, capped portions of the edifice.” I also observed the fragment
of avery singular capital (figure not numbered) which would seem
to have been used in the building. An emblem of S’iva has been
erected in the centre of a wretched enclosure on the site, and the said
enclosure is generally kept clean; but except by the women, much
sanctity does not seem to obtain for the place. It is, however, the
scene of many a festive “‘ mela” or fair, held at regular intervals, and
for the convenience of visitors at which, the kankar blocks have
been much scattered and rebuilt into small walls. The temple was
undoubtedly of Buddhist origin, and belonged probably to the fifth
or sixth century aiter Christ. Of course, it was impossible to find
any mason marks, as these could not be well cut on kankar blocks
There was no inscription that I could discover, whilst my search for
coins in the village produced nothing.
These notes may prove the more valuable, as it is probable that i
a short time not a trace will remain of this ancient ruin,
Karauli.— At the suggestion of General Cunningham, I drove ove
to Karauli, which is about 11 miles north of Mainpuri, and upon
the Grand Trunk Road from Allahabad to Delhi, being 240 miles
from the latter place.
JOURNAL AS: Soc: XXXVI. PT PLATE. X.
ay gee oe ae
Seen a. >
eS es
‘
DOD
+s ee NE NR
‘
’
.
;
Rie |
; | “ aii i
Beas / Stil aa
ee
~
Be tad eat on a
— SN, SR LCP BBB! ot yy |
aa SS TSS AAAZ
—--—---._I
4fé le fined
x eh +e ; a
eee
1867.] On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. 171
There is a magnificent grove, at the road side, of gigantic tamarind
and other trees, under which are scattered some Muhammadan tombs,
' and there are traces everywhere of this town having once flourished
under the Musalman emperors, of whose coins I obtained three
or four, as well as two of the nail-headed character. These latter
abound in these parts. A thorough search through the town shewed
no traces of very ancient buildings in situ, although the old fort
mound, now being levelled and converted into a ‘“ ganj’”’ or market
place, may have been the site of one. I, however, marked about
80 stones, 7. e. block kankar and sandstone, which had once formed
parts of a Buddhist erection, and all of which appeared to me to
have been brought from Malatin about eight miles distant. I have
figured some of these. Of No. 1, I found two portions; the rest of
7 the cornice being at Malatin, and a band of the same pattern adorns
. one of the faces of the great tope at Sarnath, and has been figured in
_ the “‘ Researches” of the Asiatic Society by General Cunningham.
| Figure 2 is commonly to be found carved at the Atala mosque,
_ Jaunpur, and on very early capitals.
The forms shewn in Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7 indicate great antiquity.
There are similar ones at Malatin and at many other places. The
basement moulding Fig. 8 is very bold, massive and effective, and also
of a very early date. )
Figure 9 is very singular; but there may be doubts as to its age.
Cornice, Figure 3, needs no special remark.
Many of these stones were found built into the gateway of a new
sarai; some were seen near the Old Fort or walls; whilst others
were used to form the mouths of wells.
_ Fragments of three kalasas, of a similar size as those found at Malain,
vere also discovered; so that the conclusion I arrived at was, that no
building of any note in Buddhist times, had existed in Karauli, but
that these remains had been plundered from Malatin, which would
seem to have been used as a quarry for many years past. I find this
di strict to be dotted over with high mounds of great antiquity, many
of which produce stones as herein illustrated; I hope to examine
more of them.
- This fact, however, shews one that caution must be exercised in
Statements as to whence stones have been taken; for there may have
172 On the Antiquities of Mainpurt. [No. 3,
been many small shrines or ‘‘ chaityas”’ in connection with monasteries
on mounds, which latter may have been built of bricks, which said
bricks, which is commonly the case here, have been annexed and
used by the surrounding villages.
I can, I am sorry to say, obtain no written notice of these mounds,
and they are far beyond the range of oral tradition. A collection of
the best of these carved stones might be made here by Government
at a very little expense; but no one in these parts appears interested
in the subject.
Jusrau, visited February 13th, 1866. About two miles west of
Anjani village, described in a former paper, lies the village of Jusrau.
It forms part of the titular Raja of Mainpuri’s zamindari or estate,
and has, I have little doubt, been plundered of its best archeological
remains in the shape of pillars and capitals by former residents of
Mainpuri, from which it is scarcely three miles distant. The last
attempt would, however, seem to have secured immunity for the
future from these spoliations.
The ‘oldest inhabitant,” a grey-haired Brahman, informed me
gravely, pointing as he spoke to a large block of kankar which had
once formed part of the ancient Buddhist shrine at this place, that —
the Raja had sent for this to be used in building; that he had laden }
it on a two-bullock cart ; but that the cart had broken down and the ~
bullocks been drowned whilst crossing the river Isan, not very |
distant, in the sacrilegious attempt to remove it. He added that the
fresh cart and bullocks then sent by the Raja brought it back with |
ease, and restored it to the spot where I then saw it. So alarmed
are the villagers, that they will not use the smallest, plainest stone —
for any purpose, and in proof of their sincerity, they shewed me their
great need of a good well, saying that they were too poor to burn
bricks for it, yet they dared not use the blocks lying about in
profusion. And this was the more curious, as the remains about to
be described, are thoroughly Buddhist, and not at all Brahminical
in their character, whereas the village is a Brahman one. :
The cart track leaves the high road from Mainpuri to Eta,
shortly after the 4th mile, and crosses a sandy expanse, now
covered with crops of barley, &c. until it terminates in the village.
To the east of this are remains of what had been formerly two village
1867.] On the Antiquities of Mampuri. 173
Buddhist shrines, and these were all the buildings to be traced. These
are both 50 feet by 30 feet, measured outside, and Plans Nos. 1 and 2
sufficiently explain them. Each has a raised platform 19 by 12 feet,
built of well-cut kankar blocks without cement, and quite plain.
These must originally have risen from 5 to 6 feet, from the terrace
in which they stand; for even now in one place the finished upper
work is of that height, whilst in others, rubbish has accumulated.
On these raised platforms were probably originally built open chaityas
as at Bakariyé Kund. The remains of kalasas or dome caps, of
5 feet in diameter, such as could crown a “ Vimana” of 30 or 40 feet
in height, evidence large buildings; whilst the finding of several
projecting face ornaments enabled me at once to state with certainty
the original form of the building. See Figures 4, 5 and 9.
The present residents of the village call the ruins by the name of
Jagat Devi’s temple, and they tell me that at the Holi festival,
a great “mela” or fair is held here, when offerings of ghi and rice
are made to the Devi, who is neither more nor less than our old
friend “ S’aékya Muni” or Buddha. The local name merely means
‘<The deity of the locality.”
Buddha is to be found sitting in every niche in the sculpture, and
there is, besides, the two small figures, one of which does duty
for Jagat Devi, (Figure 5,) and another very well carved, some
4 feet in height, of which I give a rough representation, Figure
8. Nearly all the Buddhist ruins about here, would seem to belong
to the time of the decay of the purer faith, and these are no
exceptions ; for we find the ornaments of the projecting faces to have
_ deen the same at Anjani, Karimganj, Karauli and Malatn. Vide
Figures 4 and 5.
Here I saw for the first time on kankar, what I believe to be
‘a kind of mason’s mark: Figure 11. The carving of the large
Buddha is very well executed; but the head has been knocked off
‘and replaced minus part of the neck; and the two upper groups of
_ © Kinnaras,” or cherubs, are altogether broken away. The two tigers
under the lotus, are the same as those I saw at Malatin; the animals
are something between a pig and a bear. The forms of these I saw
in Behar, and also on a stone in Benares opposite to the Golden
Temple.
174 On the Antiquities of Mainpuri. [No. 3,
To the right at base is the figure, supposed by Mr. Sherring and
me to be “ Surya,” the sun, and figured amongst the remains from
Bhitéri in the Society’s Journal, Vol. XXXIV. Part I. plate xvii..
The lotus or glory around the head, is finely cut in relief, as is also
the canopy. There were no traces of large bricks, but all seems to
have been built of kankar blocks. In all this village, I saw no trace
of the worship of S’iva, and truly, all fell down before, although
many openly laughed at this their Unknown goddess, “‘ Jagat Devi,”
the fear of whom was moreover shewn by their not daring to touch
a stone of her former temple.
Additional note on Karauli.—Since recording the foregoing notes,
T have had several opportunities of examining ancient carved stones at
Karauli. Chaudhari Lachhman Sidh is constructing a tank in steps,
the entire facing of which, consisting of squared kankar blocks, is
composed of the remains of some very large and handsome Buddhist
buildings, which, contrary to the opinion heretofore expressed by me,
existed on the spot.
These blocks, in number several thousands, were found when level- —
ling the mound or ‘“ khera” for the purpose of laying out a large
market. I subjoin a plate (x) of some of the more remarkable, which
need little explanation. There were besides, large and handsome —
mouldings and specimens of nearly all the carved ornamental bands in
use in this class of buildings. As usual, however, there had been a
reconstruction ; for I found two huge blocks of kankar with the tigers
‘“‘couchant”’ placed one on either side of the doorway; whilst originally
they had been joined and formed the basement for a large figure of ©
Buddha. k
The drawing No. 1, Plate X., represents what was probably at the ;
back of the shrine, and resembles other portions found at Noner and
elsewhere. It is very complete and curious. No one can say what may
have been built into the tank-facing, but this is one of many instances in
which valuable carvings have been lost. A few slabs were secured by 5
me for a local museum, should such ever be established in Mainpuri. —
At the village of Rasema, where is a large and ancient khera, —
I saw remains of a small building, similar to some of those described
a
1867.] Literary Intelligence. 175
in these notes. This village is about two miles south of Karauli, and I
here secured a curious vase-shaped pinnacle which well denoted the
period of its construction.
Literary INTELLIGENCE.
A very useful handy-book on the Hindu law of adoption has just been
published under the patronage of Honorable Prasanna Kumar Tagore,
C. 8. I. It is entitled the Dattaka-Siromani, and contains the substance
of all the leading treatises on the subject, including the Dattaka-
mimansa, the Dattaka-chandrikd, the D. nirnaya, the D. Darpana, the
D. Didhiti, the D. Kaumudi, the Dattaka Siddhdnta manjaré, as also
of an apocryphal treatise named the Dattaka Tilaka. The work has
been compiled with great care and judgment by Professor Bharata-
chandra S’iromani of the Sanskrit College of Calcutta, who has also
supplied, at the end of each chapter, an excellent summary of its
subject.
Anglo-Pali literature has received an important accession in an
_ English translation of the Attanagalluvansa of Ceylon, by James
: d’Alwis. Though professedly a history of the Temple or vihara of
$ Attanagalla, it contains the chronicles of King Sangabodhi, who
reigned in the middle of the 8rd century A. D. In an elaborate
_ preface the translator has discussed a number of interesting questions
regarding the Singhalese Chronicles of the Mahavansa and the Dipa-
wansa, and of translations of particular passages in them by Turnour
“and others.
' The Librarian of the Sanskrit College of Calcutta, Pandita Jagan-
“mohan Tarkalankara, has brought out an edition of the play of Chanda
Kausika of Khemisvara. The author. flourished in the court of
F Mahipala Deva of Gour, and his work therefore is about 900
“years old. By a curious mistake the editor, confounding an epithet
With a proper name, says in his preface that the work was written for
he entertainment of a king of the name of Kartika who flourished
between four hundred and athousand years ago. The subject of the
book is the preéminence of truthfulness as illustrated by the story
of Visvamitra and king Harischandra. The Tamil version of this
176 Literary Intelligence. [No. 3,
work is well known under the name of Arichandra, of which an —
excellent English translation was, a short time ago, published in
England by Mr. Matukumara Svami of the Ceylon Legislative Council.
The same editor has also published a new and very carefully revised
edition of the Venisanhara of Bhatta Nardyana, with a new commentary.
The learned professor Jayanarayana Tarkélaikara, to whom Sanskrit
scholars are indebted for several excellent commentaries on ancient
Sanskrit authors, has lately presented to the public a very useful little
digest, named Pudariha-tattvasdra, containing an epitome of the Philo-
sophy of Kapila and Kanada. The book will prove a great help to the
students of philosophy in the Sanskrit colleges of Calcutta and Benares.
An original treatise on the mode of performing the ceremony of —
weighing one-self against gold, silver and other articles intended for
presentation to Brahmans, T%ldddna-paddhati, and a new grammar of the
Sanskrit language (Aswbodham Vydkaranam), have been brought out —
by the indefatigable Professor Téraénatha Tarkavdchaspati of the
Sanskrit College. The former will prove useful to those who have
especial faith in, and the means to perform, the interesting ceremony
of which it treats, but we doubt very much if the latter is likely
to supersede the excellent compendium of Varadaraja, the Laghu
Kaumudi.
To the Persian scholar, we have to recommend a small volume con-
taining two small treatises on Metre and Rhyme, the ’Ardz of Saifi, —
and the Kdfiah of Jami, very carefully edited by the learned Shemitist,
Professor H. Blochmann.
In three old letters found in the archives of the Asiatic Society, —
the late Colonel Wilford announced to. Mr. Edward Colebrooke, the
discovery of certain Sanskrit MSS. on geography, of which no notice ©
has since been met with, and which seem not to be known to Sanskrit —
scholars. The works named are, 1, Bhavishya Purdna of 60,000 slokas.
The Purana of that name, according to the Vishnu Purana, should con- 5
tain only 14,000 slokas. In the commentary on the second work on our i
list Jayasinha, “‘ who often speaks or is made to speak in the first person, z
says that he had in vain sent people all over India to procure it; he —
ascertained that it was not to be found, and supposed it no longer axial ;
however near Allahabad he heard that it was in Zrina guru Desa or
Tibet, in the possession of Juéni guru, and that he got a copy from
1867. ] Literary Intelligence. 177
him.” 2nd Dharma Kosha, of 700,000 s’lokas, compiled by order of
Jayasinha Raja of Jayapur, who is said to have “sent the author to
perambulate the Gangetic provinces. He was furnished with a Machiles-
wara or compass, and a water clock which as he advanced shewed the
coss and its parts.” 3rd, Bhrigu Sahitd, “between 40 and 50,000
s lokas, all on geography.” 4th, Garga Samhitd, “certainly about 24
lakhs of s‘lokas.” 5th, Mddhavi Kosha, “entirely on geography. It
consists of 10,000 leaves or above nine lakhs of s’lokas. It requires
three men, or at least two very strong ones, to carry it. It is divided
into 56 books describing the Chhapan Desa of India.” 6th, Ishta
Purdna, “ compiled by order of Mana Sing for the illustration of the
geography of the Purénas—about 24 lacks of s’lokas.” 7th, Ahabala
Sanhitd, “ of 56 Sections relating to the 56 grand divisions of India.”
8th, Suita sanhitd. 9th, Pardsara Saihitd, “both on geography.”
Wilford possessed MSS. of most of these, and it would be of interest
if they could now be traced.
The following are extracts from three letters lately received from
Professor Holmboe of Christiania, giving the results of his recent
researches into Indo-Scandinavian antiquities. The first is an abstract
of a memoir on some figures sculptured on a rock in Scandinavia,
which will be found interesting to Indian Archeologists :—
“Depuis un temps immémorial on voit sur les rocs prés de la
mer aux cotes de Suéde et de Norvége un grand nombre de figures
sculptées, représentant des navires, des roues, des voitures, des
hommes armés, des chevaux, des cavaliers, des souliers, &c. Elles
‘se trouvent ordinairement groupées ensemble, ce qui a motivé quelques
archéologues & les prendre pour des tableaux executés en mémoire
de batailles, particuliérement par mer. Mais il est constaté, que les
figures, qui forment une groupe, ne sont pas contemporaines, mais
fabriquées a différentes époques. Le navire ou bateau sont des symboles
ordinaires de la métempsychose en Orient, et les mémes symboles se
trouvent parfois sur des pierres sépulcrales dans le Nord. M. H. sup-
pose donc que ces figures sculptees sur les rocs y sont placées en mémoire
de personnes décédées, et que le choix des figures depend ou du gout des
parents survivants, ou de la position, sociale du défunt, ou de quelque
événement important de sa vie. Quant aux autres figures, les souliers, les
voitures, les chevaux @&c. l’auteur renvoie le lecteur & la croyance des
178 Literary Intelligence. [No. 3,
payens, que le défunt devait passer par des chemins obstrués par des
épines et d’autres difficultés, 4 cause desquelles on avait dans le Nord
la coutume de lier des souliers sous les plantes des pieds des morts, On
peut done envisager les souliers, les chevaux et les voitures comme
symboles de leur voyage & Valhal. Enfin M. H. émet Vopinion que
les petites voitures de bronze qu’on a découvertes en Allemagne
et en Suéde, une fois du moins dans un tertre sépulcrale, ont servi &
des cérémonies funéraires emblématiques symbolicant le départ de la
vie terrestre. Les mémoires sont illustres d’une planche et de beaucoup
de tailles en bois.” .
The Professor gives the following brief notice of an essay of his on
the sacrifice of the Horse among the Scandinavians :—
“ On lit dans les anciennes Sagas ou histoires de la Norvége que
plusieurs hommes consacraient des chevaux au dieu Frey, et au com- ;
mencement de chaque année on sacrifiait des chevaux et en mangeait la
viande. Mais dans une Saga Islandaise, dite Vatsdelasaga, il est raconté,
qu’ unhomme nommé Hrafnkel avait un Freyfux, c.& d. un cheval
consacré & Frey, et qu’ il avait défendu chaqu’un d’y monter sous peine de
mort. Néanmoins un de ses serfs le monta, et fut puni de mort. L’auteur_
compare cet événement aux effets de la consécration des chevaux chez
les anciens Indiens et chez les Kalmuks et les Mongoles actuels, -
Chez ces peuples il était et est défendu sous des sevéres peines de monter
les chevaux consacrés,”’
The next two memoirs of his noticed by the Professor are on certain’
gold rings on which the ancient Scandinavians took oaths. In the
first of these —
‘Yauteur attire l’attention aux anneaux, sur lesquels les Scandina-
ves aux temps du paganisme portaient la main en prétant serment+
Plusieurs de ces anneaux ont été trouvés dans la terre est sont conservés |
dans les musées du Nord. Is sont faits d’une barre d’or, courbée en —
forme d’un anneau oval dont les bouts, qui sont un peu plus larges que la
partie intermédiaire, ne se touchant pas, mais laissant une petite ouver-
ture entre eux. Pour prouver, que la maniére susdite de préter ser 4‘
ment tire son origine de l’Orient, M. H. donne sur la 1 re planche
les dessins de 4 anneaux, un de Norvége, un de |’Angleterre, un de
Bretagne, et un de Persépolis. Les trois premiers sont d’or, le quatrié 5
me se trouve parmi les sculptures de Peréspolis; le dernier ressemble
> 1867.) Literary Intelligence. 179
tout & fait celui de Bretagne, oi on voit dang la grande procession
sacrificale des hommes portant en mains levées de tels anneaux. Puisque
les sacrifices et la jurisdiction étaient ordinairement réunis dans les
grandes assemblées des peuples payens, les anneaux & serment défendent
leur place dans la procession sacrificale. A la lre, pl. on voit aussi le
dessin d’une monnaie celtique, dont l’avers présente un homme
portant en main un anneau de la forme susdite (symbole de la
jurisdiction), et sur le revers un animal et un couteau dessous (symbole
du sacrifice), L’auteur émet ensuite lopinion, que les sculptures
Sassanides en Perse du on voit deux personnes portant couronne, dont
Pune présente un anneau et l’autre pose sa main la-dessus, représentant
le chef des Mages, le grand-mobed, qui regoit le serment du roi, qui
vient de monter surle throne. les planches 2, 3 et 4 donnent les
dessins de trois des sculptures sus-nommées. A la fin l’auteur donne
une liste des poids de 87 anneaux d’or & serment, pour mettre les
lecteurs en état de juger, si les fabricants, comme quelques archéologues
ont pensé, eurent eu le dessein de leur donner un certain poids corres-
pondant avec les poids convenus ou non; l’auteur en doute.
“Dans le second mémoire M. H. defend son interprétation des
sculptures Sassanides contre un savant Danois, M. Miller, qui
pense, que le symbole du serment ne consiste pas dans l’anneau, mais
dans le poing que le roi tient devant la bouche (v. pl. 1 et 2de M. H.).
L’auteur objecte contre cette opinion que sur plusieurs sculptures on voit
des personnes avec le poing devant la bouche se trouvant derniére les
_ personnages principaux et méme tournant le dos envers eux.
_ The following is the substance of a paper by the learned Professor
on the numbers 108 and 13 :—
Chez les ame aussi bien que chez les Bouddhistes autre part, le
- posseder un pouvoir magique, et son emploi est trés repandu ow il est
question de cérémonies religieuses. eur Roudrakshas ou chapelets
sontiennent partout 108 globules ou corails. Déja au 3me siécle
avant notre ére le puissant monarque Asoka fit reciter 108 pridres &
consécration d’ un Tope, et environ 100 ans plus tard le roi
_Dhutthagamini de Ceylan fit employer plusieurs articles au nombre
de 108, lorsque le grand Tope, Mahathupa, fut bati. Plusieurs
temples de l’Inde contiennent 108 Lingas ou symboles du dieu
180 Literary Intelligence. [No. 3,
Civa. La veuve du Raja Tilouka Chandra fit batir 108 temples
pour le culte de Giva, et on y placa 108 Lingas et 108 images du
boeuf sacré. Dans quelques réglements il est préscrit dese promener
108 fois autour de Vimage des dieu. L’auteur émét la conjecture
que l’influence du méme nombre s’est fait sentir dans l’emploi du
nombre 540, qui selon le rapport de l’ancienne Edda fut le nombre ©
des portes de Valhal, la demeure d’Odin, le supréme dieu des
Scandinaves; car 540 = 5 X 108, et le nombre 5 a aussi joui
de la renommée d’un nombre merveilleux. Si nous resolvons le nombre
108 dans ses éléments, nous aurons 2 kK 2 * 3 X 38 X 3, et Ia
somme de ces eléments est 18. Or le nombre 108 une fois reconnu
sacré, la somme de ces éléments ne doit pas avoir trouvé difficile
d’acquérir le méme crédit. Les Bouddhistes de Népal enseignent,
qu’il y a 13 bhuwanas ou demeures aprés la mort pour les vrais
croyants, et par. conséquent ils construisent sur leurs batiments ©
sacrés des tours, ayant 18 étages. Dans une légende Tibétaine on
trouve la déscription d’une contrée ravissante, ot il croissaient trois
fois treize (sic) sortes de fleurs, et 108 sortes de plantes odoriferantes,
et qui étaiént arrosées par 108 sources. Lesdevins de la Chine se
servent d’ une baguette divinateuse divisée en 13 paliers. .
Une confiance égale dans le nombre 13 se découvre en Scandinavie
dans l’emploi de 13 pierres placées debout formant des circles, qui
marquent les places ot des reliques de personnes d’importance ont
été enterrées. Quoique ce nombre n’est pas l’ordinaire, il est cepen-
dant remarquable qu’ on le trouve assez souvent. LL ’auteur cite entre
autres par ex. une paroisse en Norvége, ou il restent encore trois
tels circles de 13 pierres chaqu’un.
Concernant la raison de choisir le nombre 108 l’auteur propose
diverses hypothéses, parmi lesquelles il trouve celle la plus vraisem-
blable que le choix est dérivé de quelques idées astrologiques ou astro-
nomiques. L’ancien astronome Varaha ayant calculé la précession
du point €quinoxia! du printemps, crut avoir trouvé, qu’ il procéde
pendant 3,000 ans vers l’Orient, parcourant 27° du zodiaque, retourne —
ensuite ver l’Occident, passant 54° du méme, et enfin retourne vers lon
point de départ par 27°, ayant fait en tout un passage de 108°. as
La dérivation du nombre des portes de Valhal, la demeure du diew
supreme des Scandinaves, d’un nombre sacré (5 X 108) a son
wae
1867. | Literary Intelligence. 18]
analogue dans la dérivation du nombres des portes de la demeure du
dieu supréme des Kalmuques et des Mongoles, dont le nombre 169
Gage $305<¢° 13. |
The following is the substance of a very interesting memoir
affording curious traces of the worship of S’iva in Europe in former
times :—
Pour se fournir de matériaux & une comparaison entre les traces
de Civaisme en Hurope (hors la Grace et l’'Italie) et les idées Indiennes
sur Giva ou Rudra, l’auteur donne d’abord un court apercu des
qualités de ce dieu. Comme point de départ pour la comparaison il cite
un mémoire de M. Ganjal, sur une idole Gauloise appelée Ruth
(inséré dans les Mémoires de la Socicté Royale des Antiquaires de
France T. IX p. 61 fig. v.) dans lequel il prouve qui les deux anciennes
villes Rode (dite Ruthero par les Romains) et Rouen (dite Rotomagus)
derivent leurs noms d’ une idole nommée Ruth ou Roth qui avait été
adorée par les habitans des villes et des environs, et dans le culte de la-
quelle les débauches jouaient le rdle prédominant. M. Ganjal tire de la
la conclusion que Ruth fut la méme divinité que Roudra ou Civa des
Indiens.
M. Holmboe donne ensuite une liste de noms propres de villes et
d’autres places en Europe, qui éveillent l’idée d’une derivation de
Roudra, p. e. Rhoden, Rodenacher, Rodenberg, Rodenthin, Rottenburg,
Rottenfels, Rhode, Ruhte, Ratheborg &. en Allemagne; et Rutland,
Ruthwel, Ruthin en Angleterre; Rot, Rotholet, Rotnoe en Norvége.
Comme dans |’Inde Rudra, & la téte des Maroutes (les vents), est la
_ personification de l’ouragan, ainsi en Europe l’ouragan est personifié par
un chasseur farotiche (en Hannover appelé Rodo) courant dans lair,
-suivi d’un grand cortége. En Norvége et en Suede on a trouvé un
nombre de Lingas (symbole ordinaire de Giva), une fois debout sur
un tumulus, une fois dans la chambre sépulcrale d’un autre tumulus,
‘et plusieurs fois autre part. Ils sont fabriqués de marbre ou d’une
autre pierre blanchatre. Le musée de Bergen conserve quatre de
| €es piéces (voyez les tailles en bois aux pages 24, 25, et 26). Dans une
ancienne loi ecclésiastique de Norvége on rencontre une expression,
qui jusqu’ici n’a pas été comprise, c’est le mot Rot, qui se trouve
dans une énumeration d’articles payens que la loi défend d’avoir
dans les maisons, comme sorcier, idole, &c. L’auteur suppose que Rot
182 Literary Intelligence.
a été le nom du linga, emprunté de Roudra. Il cite d’une ancienne ~
védaction de Vhistoire du roi Saint Olaf, qui introduisit le Christia- —
nisme en Norvége, un récit d’une famille payenne demeurant dans la
province NordJand, qui adorait le linga d’ un cheval, qu’ on avait
tué, mais dont on avait conservé le veretrum. es soirs cette piece
passait de main en main non seulement parmi les personnes de la
famille, mais encore parmi les hétes qui pussent étre presents, cha-
qu’une récitait un verset en délivrant l’idole & une autre. L’auteur
pense que c’est la forme du linga qui a été imitée par quelques urnes —
sépulcrales, qui ont été découvertes dans les celles de plusieurs —
tumuli, car elles sont cylindriques et arrondies au fond, (voyez p. 33, —
ou une de Norvége, une d’Angletere et une de l’Inde sont dessinées). —
Plusieurs de ces urnes sont ornées de figures émoulées en forme d’o
vales. Le musée de l'Université de Christiania en posséde quatre
ornées respectives de 13, de 39 (8 X 13), de 14 (2 X 7) et de 21
(3 X 7) ovales, or les nombres sacrés de 13 et de 7 entraient dans
tous ces nombres,—preuve qu’on les a destinés & un usage religieux, —
et que les ovales peut-étre aussi désignent les ceufs, étant symboles de —
meétempsychose ;—une doctrine, dont on trouve aussi des traces en
Scandinavie. La méme idée parait étre symbolisée par les pierres en
forme d’ceufs, dont on a trouvé des exemplaires aussi bien dans les
celles de topes de l’Afghanistan, que dans celles des tumuli de Scan-—
dinavie. M. H. renvoie ensuite & un mémoire, qu'il publia en
1859 sur le type de plusieurs bractées d’ or, dont les musées du Nord
conservent un nombre considérable, deterrés parfois de tumuli payens. -
Il y a démontré que le type représente Giva sur le dos du beeuf sacré
(Nandi). Preuves, que le culte Indien du bceuf a penetré dans la
Scandinavie sont des légendes de vaches sacrées, qu’adoraient un roi
de Norvége nommé Augvald et un roi de Suéde, appelé Eustein Beli.
Augvald étant mort, ces reliques furent deposés dans un tumulus, et sa_|
vache dans un autre & cété de celui du roi; et en Danemark on a au ~
milieu d’ un tumulus trouvé le squelette d’ un boeuf. Un nombre sie
considérable de traces du Civaisme prouve évidemment, que le culte de —
Civa ou Roudra a été trés répandu en Europe au temps du paganisme. —
LLLLLPLPPPPLOPLPPPYPYIYIDPIF LY"
Loan at VN ei rcep pete
-O UV RN Ah
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL.
VOL. XXXVI.
Fanl IL
Nos. I. to IIJ.—1867. ;
EDITED BY
THE NATURAL HISTORY SECRETARY.
Nm te en
_ “Tt will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men
of science in different parts of Asia, will commit their observations to writing,
and send them to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. It will languish, if such
communications shall be long intermitted ; and it will die away, if they shall
entirely cease.
| Sir Wu. Jones,
— oe
CALCUTTA :
PRINTED BY C. B. LEWIS, BAPTIST MISSION PRESS,
1868.
¥
7
CONTENTS.
—= iam
No. I.
(Published 17th August, 1867.)
ExPERIMENTAL InvusTIGATIoNs connected with the supply’ of
water from the Hooghly to Catcurra, Part II., being
Supplementary Observations. By Davin Watpin, Esq.
canine, Mga rdue sales ala doa «nao sedi h<sdamtinnsiy
Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains,
a geological paper by Axtpert M. Vercuern, Hsq. M. D.,
Bengal. Medical Service, with a note on the-fossils by
M. Epovarp pe Vernevuizt, Membre de |’Académie des
eorences, Paris. Pt. II. .....2...... He Sande tnr eet Arete:
Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VIII. List of Estuary
shells collected in the delta of the IRawapy in Puau, with
descriptions of the new species. By Wuxram T. Buay-
yorp, A. KR. 8. M., F. G.S., Cor. Mem. Z. 8S. &., ......
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
in the months of March and April, 1866, ., ...............
No. II.
(Published 1st November, 1867.)
“On the Jungle products used as articles of food by the Inhabit-
y ants of the districts of Manbhoom and Haz: iribagh.—By
a V. Batt, Esq., B. A., Geological Survey of Tatlin. E
enn, the Western Himalaya ‘and the Afghan Mountains.
— _ Ageological paper, by Aubert M. Vurcuere, Hse , M. D.,
Bengal Medical Service, with a note on the fossils by
— OM. Enovarp ve Vernevit, Membre de |’Académie des
:: PR Ua, Sila SSS tc <? acs 04 cae ganenace’s
Experrmey tar INVESTIGATIONS Bi ly with the supply of
> water to Calcutta, Part III. By D. Watom, Use, F.C.S8.,
Mo or ase a PECN GR) oes cee pew nene ese es
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
_ made at the Surveyor General’s Office in May, 1866,......
Page
XVil
83
115
XXXill
Iv Contents.
No. ITI.
(Published 3rd February, 1868.)
On the Reproductive Functional Relations of several Species
and Varieties of Verbasca.—By Joun Scort, Esq., Curator
of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Calcutta, ........
Contributions towards a history of Panonta Expr: McLelland,— —
By Captain R. ‘C. BeavineC. MZ. S. &c., oes
Zoological Notes.—By Wruaram T. BLANFORD, E.G S., Cor.
Mem. 7. 5. Lions sch. eee ete ce teats ook » da «occ meee
, a
Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains
Geological paper.—By Abert M. Vercuers, Esq. M. D,
Bengal Medical Service; with a note on the fossils by M.
Epovarp bE Verrnevit, Membre de |’Académie des
Sciences, Paris, ......
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observa-
eer ee eres eee
tions made at the Surveyor General’s Office in June, July,
. xli—xlix
and August, 1866, .......cseseeesesceeceeanresereree vee
Page
148
175
189
201
=o
a
JOURNAL
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY.
—_ @—
Part Il —PHYSICAL SCIENCE. .
LLL
No, I.—1867.
ExrerimentaL Investiaations connected with the supply of water
from the Hooghly to Caucurta, Part IT, being Supplementary
Observations ; by Davin Waupre, Esq. F.C. S. de.
[Received 28th September, 1866.]
In the preceding remarks I have directed attention to the discre-
pancies between my own results as to the quantity of organic matter
~ by weight in the Hooghly water and those given in Dr. Macnamara’s
- Report, and I have also made some pointed observations on the very
doubtful accuracy and unsatisfactory nature of the results generally
given by chemists respecting organic matter in waters, except some of
the most recent. For though I have found that the process detailed
in the previous part of my paper is older than I then supposed, having
_ been recommended by Mr. Dugald Campbell in 1856 as suggested by
R Dr. Clark,* and that an analogous plan was given by Abel and Bloxam
t in 1854,+ though imperfect, yet these plans seem either to have been
‘little known, or neglected, or imperfectly carried out. Some analysts
indeed of later date do not even attempt to estimate the amount of
"organic matter at all, apparently despairing of reliable results. But
_ the process given, I believe, yields the most trustworthy results
hitherto obtainable, if properly performed.
: * Journ, Chem. Soc. Vol. IX. 1856, p. 51.
+ Handbook of Chemistry, 1804.
, rH
2 Mr Waldie’s investigations connected [No. 1,
But if the estimation of the organic matter in waters is to be of any
value at all as a means of judging of their salubrity, it is essential that
it should be done accurately. If it is to be a fundamental datum
on which Municipalities are to choose or reject certain waters for the
supply of large towns, that sanitary boards are to draw conclusions
from as to the healthiness of certain localities for the residence of
troops or other collections of human beings, and on which medical
men and hygeists are to reason respecting the origin of disease or the
maintenance of health, it is unnecessary to say that it ought to be
ascertained in a reliable manner.
In the case of my own results, differing so widely from those referred
to, the question occurs, is there no way of accounting for them or
reconciling them? One cause has been suggested to me independent
of correctness of method of analysis or of accuracy in its execution,
namely the age of the water when examined, that is the length of
time which had elapsed since the water was taken from its source.
High chemical authority has been adduced for the necessity of setting
about the analysis with the least possible delay, on account of the
chemical changes which the water would undergo by keeping, which
would result in a diminution of the quantity of organic matter —
present. The validity of the caution I am not disposed to deny, neither —
am I prepared to deny that in my own operations this point was not —
always sufficiently attended to, Indeed it had not particularly
attracted my attention; except as regards gaseous constituents the
point had not been particularly noticed either in text-books or
monographs I had seen, and the consideration that the organic matter
collected by rivers had already been freely exposed to decomposing
agencies, so that probably what remained was not readily decomposible,
confirmed as this was by my own observations while operating, led
me not to attach much importance to it. Still it appeared that there
might be a change of considerable amount shortly after collection
which had passed unnoticed, while afterwards the water remained less
liable to change. A small change, experiment shewed, did occur —
speedily, but the present question did not refer to a small change but
to a large one, and it was desirable if possible to ascertain to what
amount it might extend. The question principally concerned the
waters of the hot season and of the rainy season.
1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 3
So far as general observation could go, having been engaged in
collecting and examining the river water from 1st May to 14th June
for the purpose of ascertaining the amount of tidal contamination,
I had abundant opportunities of judging of the physical characteristics
of the water and observed nothing particular except a comparatively
slight, somewhat fetid smell, which contrasted distinctly with the very
decidedly worse smell of the water after the rains had come on, and
of which the personal use of the river water gave me a vivid illustra-
tion. Other differences I have already noticed in the earlier part of
the communication, all suggesting the greater proportion of organic
matter in the water of the rainy season, at least in the earlier part of
it. Moreover looking to the absolute weight of organic matter, I had
only found even in the worst of the tanks, when their water was low
and putrid, four or five grains in 100,000 fluid grains of water, equal
to rather less than three or four grains per gallon ; while the river
water at any season was much superior to these in smell and colour,
even during the rains, that is after the mud had settled.
Yet as these observations might not be sufficiently precise, experi-
ments were instituted to endeavour to determine the question. The
oxidation of the organic matter by permanganate of potash offered
the readiest and easiest way of examination, and was applied to
various samples of water, more particularly to determine the rapidity
of change after collection. And it did indicate a rapid change even
in course of a day or two, indeed the greatest amount of change took
place within the first 24 hours. But it has already been pointed
out that this test indicates the proportion only of certain kinds of
organic matter, and gives no information as to the total amount. It
“may even indicate more oxidizable matter after the amount by weight
of organic matter has diminished, as was really the case in some of
the experiments made. This will be seen in the case of the mixtures
‘in the succeeding table, in which the proportion of oxidizable matter
diminished for the first few days, and then increased decidedly,
vaiterwards diminishing again. In No. 8 mixture it increased to a
large extent up to time of writing this, and no doubt would diminish
aiterwards. The great extent of change in this case is accompanied
by a great diminution in weight.
The question at issue, however, was the amount by weight of
4 Mr. Waldie’s investiyations connected [Nov
organic matter present. It was impossible of course to get the hot
season water in its original condition, but experiments could be made
with river and tank water, and with mixtures intended to imitate the
real or supposed peculiarities of hot season water. These could be
examined to ascertain the amount of change produced on them by
keeping. Accordingly experiments were made the results of which
are exhibited in the following table.
For 100,000 fl. grains W.
Date of collection Date of Hept. Organic matter. Oxygen reqd.
or preparation. Grams. Grains.
Calcutta Sewage Water,
13th Sept. 1866, 13th Sept. 2.300
14th 2.040
15th 21.80
17th 1.470
27th 10.75
Mixtures of River Water with Sewage.
. e 1 ay
No. 1, containing }th Sewage.
10th September. 10th Sept. 5.44 535
11th 480
15th 422
24th 3.63
25th 624
*2nd October, | 203
No. 2, containing ;1,th Sewage. :
11th September. 11th Sept. 245
12th 2.18
15th 163
24th 1.88
25th 441
*2nd October, 209
No. 3, containing $ Sewage and 3 Barn. Tank Water.
18th September. 18th Sept. 6.05 420
26th 2.65 1725
*2nd October. 1.938
* Tutroduced after date of paper,
'
.
F
:
‘
1867. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 5
For 100,000 fl. grains W.
Date of collection Date of Hept. Organic matter. Oxygen reqd.
or preparation. Grains. Grains.
Cornwallis Square Tank W.
14th May, 1866. June 5.15
21st May, .209
20th June, 4.40
11th August, 155
6th September, 4.37
Baranagar Tank W.
15th September. 15th Sept. 350
17th 2.38
29th 2.16 .256
*2nd October, 228
Dalhousie Square Tank,
18th September. 19th Sept. 1.59 100
29th + L809 070
River Water.
8th August. | 17th August, 1.08
25th Sept. 1.01
18th September. 18th 085
cleared by 19th 1.69 044
Acid 29th, more than tT 1.36 046
The Mixtures were composed of river water of the hot season three
or four months old and of recent river water with a little Salt Lake
water, No. 3 containing also Tank water; with these were mixed the
Specified proportions of sewage water which had been collected on 8th
September, and, as tried on the 9th, contained 27.33 grains organic
matter in 100,000 fl. grains.
It will be observed that in the organic matters oxidised by the per-
‘manganate of potash there is a distinct diminution early, even by the
lapse of asingle day, as indicated by the smaller quantity of oxygen
* Introduced after date of paper.
_ + Evidently an error of Expt. The organic matter could not increase.
{~ Exp. fauity. Hnough of Carb, Soda had not been used, Result could not
have been less, but probably would have been greater, had it been correct,
a6 Mr. Waldie’s investigations connected [Noids
required subsequently ; afterwards the diminution is slower, or in
some cases even an increased quantity of oxygen may be required»
from changes taking place in the water causing the production of a
larger quantity of readily oxidisable matter. This therefore gives no
indication of the weight or actual quantity of organic matter present.
The weight of organic matter ascertained by experiment however,
indicates in some casesa rather rapid diminution at first. But this
is only to a small amount, except inthe case of highly decomposable or
putrefying liquids, such as sewage or mixtures containing much sewage.
Calculation will show that the loss of weight of organic matter in
mixtures Nos. 1 and 2 is less than would have been sustained by the
constituent proportion of sewage water in them. In No.3 probably
the vegetable matter of the Tank water added caused the more rapid
and extensive decomposition.
The loss of weight in the mixture No. 3 is 3.4 grains in 8 days,
being fully more than half of the original amount; in Nos. 1 and 2
it is only only 1.8 grains and 0.3 grain respectively.
But the river water at no time could contain anything like the
proportion of sewage that these mixtures did, such as one-fiith, one-
eighth or even one-twelfth of sewage, the smell alone of such mixtures
makes the supposition quite inadmissable ; besides a comparison of the
size of the river with the amount of drainage of the town would show
that such a proportion was quite impossible. The amount of liquid
discharged by the drains compared with the volume of water in so
large a river must be insignificant.
But instead of citing results of my own, which if incorrect may be ©
supposed to be all equally incorrect, it may carry more weight to quote
the results of others. The older determinations of organic matter are
generally of no value whatever, and I shall refer only to the most
recent and trustworthy. I have already quoted Dr. Frankland’s results
with the London waters, but as all these are of water filtered for
distribution they may be considered not quite comparable. Another
example I shall adduce from the paper of Lawes and Gilbert
in the Journal of the Chemical Society already quoted. They give
tables of the composition of the Rugby sewage from May 1862
to October 1863, shewing that it contains in solution from 7.6 to
8.35 grains per gallon, and also a statement of the amount in the River
1867. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 7
Wandle before receiving the Croydon sewage which is 1.44 grains per
gallon, and after receiving it which is 2.08 grains per gallon.
According to this the estimates of organic matter to the extent of 8 or
10 grains per gallon in the Hooghly water during May and June shew
that it contains fully more than the liquid part of the Rugby sewage,
and this in a tropical country.
I do not wish it to be understood that I maintain the perfect accuracy
of my own results. The oversight in not examining the samples speedily
enough after collection must be admitted, though from all that I have
been able to learn from the experiments instituted for the purpose, the
error cannot be a great one. ‘There was no great delay in examining
the water of the hot season,—about ten or twelve days, and this
caused by the time and attention taken up in examining the influence
of the tides in numerous samples. There was greater delay with
the water of the rainy season, probably about a month with the first
samples in July, about a week or 10 days with those of August.
This was caused by waiting for the settlement of the very finely
divided clay, the presence of which was very unfavourable to the
accurate estimation of the organic matter. Recently I have found
that the addition of a small quantity of hydrochloric acid causes the
mud to settle so rapidly that the water may be filtered clear in course
of afew hours: solution of potash or soda and milk of lime do the
same, but the water cleared by these reagents seems to contain a
different proportion of organic matter than that cleared by simple
subsidence. It is of less importance, as the question at present is not
respecting the water of the rainy season. The samples of December
and February water circumstances prevented me from proceeding with,
“and they were preserved in stoppered bottles and probably not much
done with them till April. The results are consequently more
doubtful, though I do not suppose that they are very wide of the
truth. As the season advances, should circumstances admit of it,
“Tshall not fail to repeat the analyses, in order to get unobjectionable
results. 7
The observations made during the last month enable me to adda
little to my former statements respecting the effect of the change of
Seasons on the river water. The increase of organic matter from the
rains seems to be chiefly of the more soluble and putrescible kinds ; as
Cea
* .
8 Mr. Waldie’s investigations. [No. I,
the season has advanced, the fetid smell has materially diminished.
This is indeed to have been expected: the soil has been washed —
comparatively clean, and there is less of such matter to wash away.
The only possible way in which my results as to the small quantity
of organic matter in the water of the hot season (supposing there is no
great error in the analysis) can be reconciled with the results of those
analyses that give it as equal to 8 or 10 grains per gallon, would be to
suppose that the water at that season contains a large quantity of
organic matter having no very offensive smell, but capable of very rapid
decomposition, so that about Zth to °,th of it would be lost during the
first two weeks. Without sgtaees the possibility ofthis, I can only
say that I know of nothing that makes it probable that such is the
case, while I have already given reasons for believing that no such
state of matters exists. Further observation and experiment can
alone decide the question beyond doubt; while I may remark that
if such be the case, it will be a fact well worth noticing and establish- —
ing. :
It may also be observed, that as in the case of supplying towns the —
water must always be stored for a time in tanks or reservoirs, it is a
point of some importance to note the changes which it undergoes by
keeping in these circumstances. Ihave made some observations in the
course of these enquiries suggestive of further investigations on this”
subject, and which may also have a bearing on the purification and
preservation of such waters, a subject which has lately been occupying
much attention in England. Itis obviously a possible thing that one
water may be putrefying but its putrescibility nearly exhausted, while
another may be highly putrescible, and yet its actual putrefaction may
be only about to commence. As regards the preservation of waters
too, it is one thing to keep them in stoppered bottles, and another
thing to keep them in tanks. It seems to me questionable if the A
improve in tanks as they do in glass bottles. It is by following out
such inquiries that advance in knowledge of such subjects is attain
and in the present case the activity of chemical changes produced by 2
the high temperature and the regularity of the seasons are in
small degree favourable for carrying them to a successful result.
—
al |
vv
ET , — ae fliies
Orne
~ sala
BN
vino te
the Author
Preliminary
GEOLOGICAL MAP
of
Tie)
TheWesten HIMALAYAN anuine APGHAN Mountains ‘ <i“
lige Moat Mh Hoechhoxs
Hengal Matical Service
Seal One Inch = 16 nutes
Jurusio (elite)
Urriacasa {8
urs fly will the Dy 1 | +
ae ankelinal
Seclione
Tisaits Paths aynd [rssen fisten 42 ple
Recent ( Od Iisesstring & Keshrniry
Bd, Mod ant all: [Sulphur Bores}
foe ndeteriinink Triste yp frre
Saliferiare, Cipprtme Dele Semitene |
|
Vireenctane Banslf-
Aiypgtatead he a=}
7
ii
1867.] Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir. 9
Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a geologi-
cal paper by Ausurt M. Vercur're, Esq., M.D Bengal Medical
Service, with a note on the fossils by M. Enovuarp pz VERNUEIL,
Membre de V Académie des Sciences, Paris.
(Continued from page 203, of No. III. 1866.)
~Cuaprer I1l.—Cwrsory Survey of the several chains of the Western
Himalaya, the Afghan mountains and their dependencies. Preli-
minary geological mapping of the Western Himalayan and Afghan
Ranges.
59. It is intended, in this chapter, to give, in as few words as
possible, an idea of the general geology of the several portions of the
Western Himalaya, the Afghan mountains and their respective de-
pendencies. In doing so, I have availed myself of all sources of in-
formation which have been opened to. me; I have, however, been
sadly in want of the help of a more extended library, and I have
“never seen some excellent works which would have much improved
this chapter, if they could have been consulted. I need there-
fore hardly say that it is a most superficial of surveys; but I hope
nevertheless that it may be found to contain a few interesting obser-
vations and some new matter yet unpnblished, Such asit is, it
will enable us to sketch at least the first preliminaries of a geological
7 ‘mapping of the Himalayan and Afghan Ranges; and also to attempt,
‘in the last chapter, to draw the history of the mightiest mountainous
mass of our globe.
y By reference to the map and and to the long Section (Sect. @) it be-
comes evident that the Himalayas are a succession of more or less
regularly parallel chains, having a general N. W. to S. E. direction.
Between the chains are situated valleys which are elevated above the
Sea in proportion as one nears the centre of the mountainous mass:
thus the Rawul Pindie plateau, between the Salt Range and the Sub-
Himalayan hills, is about 1700 feet high; Poonch valley, between the
Sub-Himalaya and the Pir Punjal chain, is under 4000 feet ; Kashmir
between the Pir Punjal and the next chain (called in the map Ser and
Merchain), is above 5000; Ladak between the Ser and Mer chain and the
Kailas chain is 10,000 to 11,000; Nubra and the valley of the Shayok,
2
10 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of K ash, [No. 1,
between the Kailas and Korakoram chains is a plateau nearly 15,000
feet high. It is probable that on the other side of the Korakoram
chain the elevation diminishes and that the Aksai chain and the valley
of the Yarkandkash river, between the Korakoram and Kuen-Luen
chains, are about 10,000 feet high ; beyond the Kuen-Luen is the
province of Kotan which has been satisfactorily determined by its
vegetation to be no more than 5000 feet high.
We have therefore a series of steps rising from the plains of the
Punjab to the high plateau of Little Thibet, and descending from
Little Thibet towards Turkish China. These steps are supported
by parallel chains or walls which tower by some thousands of feet above
the plateaux which they support. These chains offer a considerable
impediment to the flow of rivers towards the plains, and most rivers
have a considerable course parallel to the direction of the chains,
before they can find a gap to pass through.
The Afghan mountains present the same arrangement as the Hima-
layas ; the direction is from the N. E.toS. W. the direction of parallel
chains is less well marked than in the Himalaya, but this is probably
due to the little which is correctly known of the topography of
these mountains. The plateaux are similarly graduating: Bunnoo
being about 1200 feet above the see, Kabul 7000 feet, Kaffiristan
higher, whilst the plateau of Koonduz, on the other side of the Hin-
doo Koosh, slopes gradually towards the west. This arrangement by
plateaux is the same as is seen in the Andes with their high central
chain and their plateau between that chain and the Cordilleras.
From the hypothesis, advanced in the next chapter, of the manner
the Himalayan and Afghan mountains were upheaved, we will deduct
which of the lower hills belong to the Afghan and which to the
Himalayan mass, and I will therefore not discuss this subject here, as it
would but lead to useless repetitions. I shall begin with the hills
which one first meets crossing out of the alluvial plain of the Punjab,
as he travels north from Mooltan ; and I shall take the parallel regions
of the Himalaya one after the other, noticing as I go on whatever
little I know of the geology of the Afghan mountains in the same
latitude. ;
60. In latitude 32°10’, longitude 70° 50’ to 71° 20’ rises the
double chain of the Kafir Kote range or Rotta Roh and the Sheikh
1867.] _ the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 11
Bodeen range. A small valley, the Paniala valley, separates the Rotta
Roh range from the Sheikh Bodeen range, and the direction of
both small chains is from the N. H. to the 8. W. as far as the highest
summit of Sheikh Bodeen, whence westwardly the Rotta Roh alto-
gether disappears, and the Sheikh Bodeen range is continued by a
small and low ridge of hillocks directed towards the W. N. W. and
supporting the plateau of Bunnoo. (See map.)
The Rotta Roh is mostly composed of carboniferous limestone.
The Zeawan bed is well developed, but extraordinarily disturbed; it
is a yellowish rock, often very sandy. It forms the base of the hills
on the EK. and S. EK.
Dr. A. Fleming sent home some fossils from Kafir Kote, which were
ascertained by M. de Verneuil to belong to the following species :—
Productus cora (D’ Orb.) ; Productus costatus (Sow.).
Productus Humboldti, (D’ Orb.) Spirvfer 2
Dentalium ingens, (DeKonig).
All the species of which I have given drawings in PI. I, III,
and V, were found in the Rotta Roh limestone, with the exception
of the Spirifer like S. trigonalis.* Several species of corals, either not
found at all or very rare in Kashmir, were found abundantly in the
lower beds of the Rotta Roh; but altogether the fauna of the Zea-
wan bedin Kashmir and in the Rotta Roh is so very similar, that it
can be called identical.
The limestone rests} on a quartzite rather peculiar in some locali-
ties. It is composed of opaque white quartz in which are imbedded
plates of pearly white mica half an inch wide; these plates of mica
are arranged in tufts; there are also some irregular nodules or granules
of black augite (?) quite lustreless (see fig. 74, pl. [X). There can be
* A distinct species of Sp., according to Mr. de Verneuil.
7 I failed to find the bed of quartzite in situ; my examination was much
more superficial than I could wish. But itis hardly to be wondered at that
the quartzite beds are not found in situ, if we consider the wonderful state of
eonfusion the beds are in. The limestone is in an extremely shivered condition,
having been thrown into stray arch-like anticlinals separated by numerous
faults, The shivering of the beds often goes so far that it is difficult to ascer-
tain the dip and strike of the beds. In such convulsions as those which must
have taken place in these hills, the brittle and fragile beds of quartzite must
have been entirely broken, and are therefore not to be seen in situ at their out-
crops, but are only indicated by the fragments into which they were reduced,
In several localities the ground is covered with angular pieces of quartzite,
either with mica as described in the text, or plain and opaque.
12 - Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
no doubt that this micaceous quartzite represents the bed‘ of quartzite
which we have seen invariably underlying the Zeeawan bed in Kash-
mir. The beds of volcanic ash which it probably covers are not
exposed in the Kafir Kote Range.
The Zeeawan bed of limestone is capped by very extensive and
thick. beds of Weean limestone rich in goniatites, in mussel-like
anthracosie, in Aviculo-pectens and other characteristic fossils. I
found some blocks of the sandy limestone in which the anthracosia,
solenopsis and A. pectens are generally found, containing one speci-
men of Productus semireticulatus, several Athyris subtilita (Hall) and
A. Royssw (L. W.), and also the P. Bolivicutis (D’Orb.) mixed up with
the anthracosie and A. pectens, a mixture of Zeeawan and Weean
fossils which I never saw in Kashmir. Some very large bivalves of
which debris had been found in Kashmir and resembling an aviculoid
inequilateral pecten were also found; the transverse diameter is 74
inches. Fine nautilides and spines of cidaris six inches long were
also found. In the Rottah Roh the difference between the Zeeawan
and Weean beds is not everywhere so well marked as it is in Kashmir,
as I have just exemplified; generally, however, the assemblage of
fossils given in the plates as characteristic of the beds is the same as
it is in Kashmir.
In the northernmost end of the Rottah Roh, the Zeeawan bed does
not appear, and is only represented near Kumdul by a few small
mounds of debris rising through the sandy plain close to the foot of
the hill, As we travel south and approach the Kafir Kote river, the
Zeeawan bed appears under the Weean, and can be traced without in-
terruption as far asthe southern end of the hill a few miles from
Paniala. It is impossible to give the dip and strike of the Zeeawan
bed, as not a hundred yards of it keeps the same direction; the
broken fragments of the bed are more like packed ice in the polar
‘seas than like courses of rock ina hill. The Weean bed above is
much less disturbed, except the deepest beds which rest immediately on
the Zeeawan; it dips generally N. W. with a very trifling angle
varying from 20° to 8° or 9° with the horizon; occasionally the dip
becomes W. and even S. W.
I have not seen any beds in the Rottah Roh similar to the Kothair
bed of Kashmir.
- i ar
one
1867. ] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 13
At the northern end of the Rottah Roh, the carboniferous lime-
stone is immediately covered in by a Miocene sandstone and con-
glomerate. <A little further south, some beds of reddish limestone
and some sandstones, grey and bituminous, are either the top of the
carboniferous or possibly Permian or Triassic beds. The fossils are
very scarce and mere debris. The sandstone contains thin layers
of a shale which is full of carbonized remains of plants, and from the
sandstone, near the shale, a black bitumen oozes out. It is a mineral
pitch or impure petroleum ; the quantity is insignificant.
As we continue to travel south and west, we find the Weean bed
forming the top of the hill the whole way; with here and there
patches of gypseous marls, red marl, grey sandstone and variegated
thin-bedded non-fossiliferous limestone, or rather dolomite, which are
in all probability Triassic, but which will require much more careful
study than I have been able to give them, before they can be satis-
factorily classed. I believe them identical to the red marl and gypsum
of the Saliferian formation of the Salt Range. Close to the village of
Paniala these supposed Triassic beds are well developed, and from them
issue some saline hot springs. Near Gunga, at the other (northern)
extremity of the little Range, a patch of these same gypseous
sandstones and marl appear at the end of a fault in the carboni-
ferous limestone, and from these supposed Triassic beds two or three
small hot and saline springs issue. It is a remarkable fact that
everywhere in the Himalaya and in the hills of the Punjab, where
these gypseous marls, red marls, sandstones and dolomites appear
well developed, they are generally accompanied by saline springs,
usually hot.
At the northern extremity of the Rottah Roh, over the village
of Kundul, we have seen that the Weean limestone forms the bulk of
the hill. Under it, at one place, is found a feldspathose sandstone
invaded by tortuous veins of quartzite; it has acted powerfully on
the limestone near it, this being much metamorphosed, cellular,
traversed in all directions by thick bands of crystalline carbonate
of lime, and all fossils being obliterated or changed into a lump of
spar. The feldspathose sand has the appearance of having been
forced between the broken ends of the beds of limestone which is
thrown into an anticlinal ; it is generally white, occasionally coloured
14 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. I,
red in patches; it is not stratified, but mammilated, globular,
irregular, and branching like a dyke. This intrusion of a feldspathose
solution or paste took place before the final upheaval of the Himalayas,
as there is evidence that some of the beds have been redisturbed by
this upheaval, and as the Miocene conglomerate which ‘partially fills
the fault is unconformable to the limestone. A full description of
this locality would be complicated, and I have no intention of giving
here such a description. I merely want to point out that we have
here Weean beds disturbed and baked by a geyserian action, similar
to that which we have seen at Ishlamabad and at the Manus Bal.
61. The Sheikh Bodeen Range is mostly composed of miocené
sandstone, clay and conglomerate. These beds are thrown into an
anticlinal, the south-eastern and southern slopes dipping to the
S. E., and the S. and the north-western and northern slopes dipping
N. W. and N. One can see, from the top of the highest summit,
that deeper rocks have endeavoured to push their way through the
miocene, the beds of sandstone and conglomerate being arranged in
semi-theatres on both sides of the points where an underground mass
has endeavoured to break through. But everywhere these under-—
ground masses have failed to find a way to the surface except at one
point, viz., the Sheikh Bodeen summit, in the centre of the Range.
This summit is 4604 feet above the level of the sea, whilst the
Miocene range does not reach higher than 2800 feet and is generally
very much lower. There is evidence that the Miocene was at one
Horizontal appearance of the Miocene beds, Sheikh Bodeen range.
time much higher and reached to within 8 or 900 feet of the summit of
Sheikh Bodeen. But the friable sandstone and loose conglomerate
disintegrate very quickly, whilst the limestones of Sheikh Bodeen
suminits decay but slowly ; hence the Miocene portions of the Range
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 15
have become low hills, whilst Sheikh Bodeen summit has nearly
retained its original height, and appears therefore to stand now as an
isolated summit in the middle of insignificant, low, barren and
crumpling sandstone and conglomerate hillocks.
Sheikh Bodeen hill (not range) is mostly composed of Jurassic
limestone, excessively shattered from having been thrown into a
succession of very sharp anticlinals. The anticlinals are separated by
faults which run from W. 8. W. to H. N. KE. The following diagram
sections are from the N. N. W. to the S. S. E.
Sections V and VI General Map.
The section in the distance is about a mile north of the section
through Sheikh Bodeen Hill. Jurassic limestone is at least 800 feet
thick ; it is rich in fossils which are, however, seldom well preserved.
The lower beds contain Belemnites, Ostreea, Rhynchonelle and
Terebratule in great abundance, especially in and near some ferrugi-
nous sandy beds. Shaly beds are full of petrified branches of trees,
The limestone is sandy and impure; along the great cliff facing the
8. S. E. and formed by the removal of half the arch of an anticlinal
(see section, marked cliff) some very fine specimens of ripple-marking
are exhibited on a large scale. Ammonites are also found, but very
much broken. Cartophyllides and an Astrea are the commonest corals,
Two or three species of Pholadomya are tolerably abundant. In the
uppermost beds I have found a Nerinea, very likely the N. Brun-
trutana (Thuma) of the coralline. In both the lower and upper beds
the mineral characters appear to be identical, and many species of
fossils are common to both, especially Rhynchonellae, of which no less
| than ten species are abundant. In the lower beds | have found eight
| species of Verebratule with short loops, or true Terebratule. The
| Belemnites are three or four species, of which a thick one like the
B. sulcatus, a grooved species like the B. canaliculatus, and a hastate
species like the B. hastatus are the most abundant. Gasteropods are
extremely abundant insome beds, most especially a species of dcteonina ;
a few encrinite stems were found, but no heads.
i i al i, ae el
pe aa
[No. 1,
aS
ZS PA
snosostmoqieg DY
qyney AL MeS qinez = - [MBF qmaey gymey = |gMF
ass
Dr Verchere on the Geology of Kashmir,
“qouyo
“qui0} uBsepog US
16
MNN
Nvalv1d
OONNNS
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 17
From this fauna it appears therefore that the limestone of Sheikh
Bodeen* is equivalent to the Oxfordian formation of England, and that
the uppermost beds are contemporary to the English Coral Rag or
rather to the Calcaire a Néimaes of the Zena. We shall see presently
in the country of the Wuzeerees, beds which are, in all probability,
the equivalent of the Coral Rag. Some of the Oolitic shells collected
by Dr. Gerard in Spiti are represented in Dr. Royle’s Illustrations of
the Botany and other branches of the Natural History of the Hima-
layan mountains ; the drawings are by T. Sowerby and are remarkably
good. The form numbered 17 in Royle’s plates and described as an
Arca or Cucullea is found at Sheikh Bodeen; the Rhynchonelle 20
and 21, described as Terebratule or Atrype, are common at Sheikh
Bodeen ; the two species of Ammonites, figs. 22 and 24, are also found
at Sheikh Bodeen, as well as the two species of Belemnites represented
figs. 25 and 26 and fig. 27. The fig. 23, called a Delthyris, has also
been found at Sheikh Bodeen, I believe, but I do not possess a
specimen of it.
The Rhynchonella represented by Royle and which is common at
Sheikh Bodeen, has also been found in Rukshen by Captain Austen.
The Jurassic limestone of Sheikh Bodeen rests in variegated
dolomitic limestone without fossils (?), red marls, gypseous dark marls,
and feldspathose white sandstone extremely friable ; and this formation
appears identical to the Sualiferian formation of the Salt Range.
From these lower beds issue a few small springs of brine, and it is,
probable that masses of salt exist here and there in the mazrl, as it
does in the Salt Range, but nowhere does the salt crop out, Some
beds of massive gypsum occur on the southern side of the hill near
its base, but are not extensive. The Oolitic and Saliferian formations
conform in all their folds, faults and twistings most perfectly, but
‘there isa slight nonconformity between the Saliferian and Qolitic
| beds and the Miocene sandstone and conglomerate. The Saliferian and
Oolitic formations had been upheaved to some extent before the Miocene
began to be deposited, as boulders of gypsum and Oolitic limestone are
found in the Miocene conglomerate in company with boulders of
\voleanic rocks, of nummulitic limestone, of carboniferous limestone,
and with rolled Productt brought from the Bilote Range. But the
- *® A few fossils of Sheikh Bodeen are sketched at Plate XI. figs. 2 to 6.
3
18 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
hills formed by the first upheaval were so low, and their beds pro-
bably so near the horizontal position, that the non-conformity of these
beds and of the Miocene beds is not now very apparent, both sets of
beds having been redisturbed to a great extent by the final great
upheaval of the Himalayan mountains.
62. In the country of the Wuzeerees, lat. N. 32° 15’ to 32° 45’
and Long. H. 69° 45’ to 70° 15’, we find the continuation towards
the north of the Soolimanee Range to be formed of a chain of
mountains of which the Pir Gul (11,583) and the Shewy Dhur
(10,998) are the highest summits. 'Phese high summits were not
ascended by the expeditionary force against the Mosood Wuzeerees in
1860, but the army marched along the fine plateau of Rusmuk
(7,000 ft.) which skirts the main chain; and by collecting the pebbles
of the torrents which descend from these high peaks I was enabled to
estimate to a certain extent the mineral nature of the central ridge.
These pebbles were all volcanic, trappean and metamorphic, and none —
of a granitic nature were found. The following specimens of rocks
were collected in ravines descending directly from the Shewy Dhur:
basalt, having the appearance of hard jet; it is divided by joints and —
by innumerable cracks filled with carbonate of lime. It fuses quietly
before the blow-pipe into a black bead. Some. varieties do not shew
the cracks filled with carbonate of lime, but are schistose in appearance, —
and the joints, which are large, are lined by quartzite, Half inch
thick plates of volcanic ash, composed of a central layer of a pale
dirty-greenish and compact mineral, and external layers of a brownish
granular substance. The central layer fuses very easily before the |
blow-pipe, boiling up into a swollen and blistered surface ; it has the
appearance of tremolite, the outer layer appears to be a mixture of
tremolite with grains of augite; the augite here and there forms
little masses, and these fuse partially, the assay becoming studded with
minute dark globules. Hornblende rock with grey mica. The paste
appears to be an intimate mixture of felspar and hornblende, and is
invaded by irregular and small plates of grey mica; the rock is
divided by a series of well-marked joints, an inch apart. An augitie
porphyry; the paste is perfectly black and apparently composed of
chatoyant augite; it is invaded by closely set and minute prismati¢
erystals of dull white albite ; it is more like a porphyritic lava than
like a true prophyry.
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 19
A metamorphosed micaceous limestone, schistose, the foliation being
extremely wavy. It has the appearance of a thin-bedded micaceous
and calcareous shale which had been both crumpled and highly meta-
morphosed. It is nearly entirely composed of exfoliating mica
imbedded into grey bands of magnesian(?) carbonate of lime, which
effervesces feebly, and other bands of white felspar. The felspar
forms bands by itself, a quarter of an inch thick and free of mica,
The rock exhibits a foliation or stratification which is thin-bedded and
wavy. Greenish, soapy, spotted chlorite schist. Jaspery flint, bluish
and transparent, with veins and patches brownish and opaque, and
occasionally threads of milk-white quartz. Quartzite with well
formed crystals, six-sided prisms, at one end terminated by a six-sided
pyramid.
These rocks are therefore mostly volcanic; the four last are, how-
ever, metamorphic, and such rocks are not seen in Kashmir; but they
are extensively developed in the most northern portion of the Hima-
laya, as in Skardo, Zaskar, &e.
63. Between the range ofthe Pir Gul and Shewy Dhur and the
plains of the Derajat, is a thick belt of low hills which are nearly
entirely made up of nummulitic limestone, slate and shales, and of
Miocene sandstone and conglomerate. At Palusseen, however, (see
map) under the nummulitic limestone is discovered a rock of a very
hard and dirty appearance and not forming beds, but huge masses of
flesh-coloured limestone which are imbedded either in a grey sandstone
or in the lower beds of the nummulitic limestone. These masses are
most evidently old coral reefs, once rising from the bottom of the sea
and ultimately covered by sand and calcareous mud; they are a
confused agglomeration of corals of many species, imbedding shells, but
unfortunately neither corals nor shells are in a good state of preser-
vation. I am not sufficiently familiar with the forms of the Coral-Rag
| of England to say whether this bed is its representative in India, but it
| isnot unlikely to belong to secondary strata, for the following reasons.*
1. It is situated under the sandstone, which generally forms the base
of the nummulitic formation. 2. It does not contain any of the
* A coral reef formation, apparently closely analogous both in lithologic
characters and mode of occurrence, occurs at the base of the Ootatoor division
of the cretaceous rocks in Trichinopoly. See Mem, Geological Survey, Vol. IV,
et, pp. 52-72.— Fd.
20 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
fossils found in the nummulitic limestone above. 3. It appears
much disturbed and dislocated by local movements, whilst the num-
mulitic limestone is to be seen in regular, though much tilted-up
beds above it. 4. It rests immediately over beds of red marl and
gypsum which are always found, in the Punjab, where Oolitic beds
occur much disturbed. 5. Some of the corals appear identical with
some species found near Maree on the Indus, in a limestone containing
the same fossils as those of Sheikh Bodeen which is decidedly an
Oolite.
I have therefore, in consideration of these reasons coloured these beds
as Oolitic, but there is a doubt about it. The country was so dan- —
gerous at the time we were encamped at Palusseen, that I could
collect but very few fossils, and I have not yet had the good luck to —
discover a similar bed in British territory.
These coral reefs reappear in many places in the diaasitey of the
Wuzeerees: at the entrance of the plateau of Rushmuk a great
quantity of this bed was again seen, but the rock was different, though
the fossils were identical; the limestone was extremely impure, full —
of small rounded grains of gravel, and so much invaded by iron that it~
is often quite brown, and often also spotted by the iron forming litle
dark nodules in the mass.
Again, near the hot spring of Sir-Oba, similar beds were seen
resting on red marl, with here and there masses of gypsum. This _
gypsum is opaque, white and compact, and contains a great number
of crystals of quartz, very fine in their form, and terminated at both
ends by a six-sided pyramid. The same crystals occur at Maree and
Kalabag in the gypsum which accompanies the rock-salt of these
localities, and are there collected and sold to natives as ornaments,
under the name of Kalabag diamonds. |
One of the members of the nummulitic genus in the Wuzeeree Hills
requires notice on account of its economical value. ‘The Wuzeeree
iron is obtained by the smelting of a brown shale, extremely rich in
brown hematite; the beds of the shale are situated under the num-
mulitic limestone, and seem to replace the extensive beds of slate, with
nummulites, seen in other localities. The quantity of the ore is
enormous, whole ridges being formed of it. It is not quarried, as far
as I could discover, but merely broken off the surface of the beds. It
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountacns. 21
is first roasted, and becomes black and highly magnetic. It is then
worked either with nummulitic limestone or pieces of the coral-reefs
and smelted with charcoal in small furnaces identical to those seen in
Kashmir. I found at Mackeen a house with two of these furnaces and
heaps of charcoal, of iron-ore and of limestone, evidently collected for
smelting, and I could thus identify the ore used by the Wuzeerees,
though no information was to be obtained from the people. I have
had, since, pieces of ore brought to me, at Bunnoo, by the Wuzeerees
engaged in trade and who bring the pig-iron to the plains for sale, and
it is exactly the same ore which I had seen at Mackeen, and which I
had observed in situ as one of the members of the nummulitic for-
mation. This shale is heavy, generally covered with a rusty powder;
it varies in colour from reddish-brown to nearly black; it soils the
hand, it is not calcareous, and the richest parts of it have a tendency
to form concretions, or at least to assume a sort of concentric slaty
cleavage. It is only smelted to a paste, not to a fluid, and is refined
by hammering. The iron produced is soft and fine-grained, but apt
to exfoliate, a defect which is evidently the result of the metal being
half worn-out by the extensive hammering to which it is submitted.
The carboniferous limestone was found in situ in Wuziristan. But
that such rocks do exist in the hills between the British border and
round the central chain of the Afghan mountains, is proved by the
boulders in the rivers which drain those countries. Major Vicarey
found boulders of limestone containing carboniferous fossils in the
streams near Peshawur; Dr. Fleming found “ Prodwetus-limestone” in
the ravines which drain the Solimanee chain towards the east; and I
have found in the bed of the Korum, a torrent which drains the
southern slopes of the Sufed Koh, boulders of a black limestone contain-
ing Productus cora and P. Humboldtit.
64. In the Salt Range the carboniferous limestone is well developed
and attains, according to Dr. A. Fleming, a thickness of 1,800
feet. It begins near Noorpoor in Long. H. 72° 30’, as a thin bed,
which increases as it goes towards the west, and attains its maximum
of development near Vurcha, in Long. 72°. It decreases again
towards the Indus, and is not seen at all near Maree and Kalabag;
but on the right bank of the river it reappears about six miles west
oi Kalabag, and is continued in the Chichalee range and the northern
52 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
end of the Speen or Lowa Gur. It appears to be identical, in fossils —
and in lithological characters, to the limestone of Kashmir. Dr. A.
Fleming does not mention its ever resting on quartzite or volcanic ash,
but supposes on the contrary that it rests on the Saliferian formation,
which he, in consequence of this view, calls Devonian. Whatever
little of the carboniferous limestone of the Salt Range I have myself
seen, is too much disturbed to allow me to form an opinion; I cer- —
tainly never saw any quartzite underlying the limestone in the Salt
Range; but such quartzite exists in the Rottah Roh, and itis evident
that the Rottah Roh carboniferous limestone, and that of the Salt
Range are one and the same sheet of deposit, broken and separated by
convulsions of a posterior age. This, however, does not prove much —
either way.
The long controversy about the age of the salt and gypsum in the —
Alps bids fair to be repeated in the Punjab. The Saliferian of the
Salt Range has already been placed by successive observers in nearly
every formation from the Devonian to the Miocene! In the Alps, geo-
logists appear to have once become desperate at the fight, and M.
Sismonda published in the Comptes rendus de l’ Académie des Sciences”
3 Paris (Vol. III. p. 113) the somewhat startling hypothesis that 4
‘in the Alps the shells of the Lias lived at the same time as the
carboniferous plants’ !!!... It is not a little curious resemblance _
that in the Maurieune, in Savoy, (the great field of contention,) the
gypsum, quartzite, marl, &c., are much disturbed by local foldings and
bendings, and appear to be placed under the carboniferous rocks (terrain
howiller). Fortunately a thin, but very persistent and well-char-
acterised bed, the Infra-lias, has enabled the geologists who have
best studied this locality, to fix the position of the red marl, red and |
green shale, quartzite, gypsum, &c., in the Trias, and to show that the
apparently inferior position of these Triassic layers was due to such
great disturbances and reversions of strata as one may reasonably
expect to have accompanied the surging up of mountains like the Alps.
Less fortunate or less industrious than they of Europe, we have not
yet found the Jnfra-lias in India, and we have not therefore got hold
of the thread which led so successfully the Swiss and French geologists
to a true understanding of the Alpine Saliferian.
I wish that I could have determined satisfactorily the age of the
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 23
salt of the Punjab, before forwarding this paper to the Society; but I
see at present but little chance of my being able to visit again and
study the Salt Range within a reasonable time. My own impression,
from what I have seen, is that the Saliferian of the Punjab is Triassic
or Permian.
This Saliferian formation, (whatever its age may be,) plays a very
important part in the economy of Upper India, and may possibly be
made a great deal more of than at present. It gives a supply of salt
which pays to the State a handsome revenue ; it has been the original
source of the Reh or Kullur of the soil, an impure and effervescing
mixture of saltpetre, of soda and chloride of sodium, which renders
fields barren and thus causes very serious losses to that same revenue.
There can be little doubt that it contains some at least of the numer-
ous minerals discovered in the Russian salt mines of Stassfust-Anhalt,
and it is very possible that it will one day give some fertilizing material
which will more than repay the loss caused by the Reh. It is a fine
field for research, and only wants work bestowed upon it to yield
-yaluable results.
4 Any one who has visited the Saliferian of the Punjab must have
been struck by the much disturbed state of the beds, These appear
as if they had been raised into a succession of small cones or
“ boursoufflures,” and suggests at first sight the idea of the Saliferian
having been at some time or another violently dislocated by eruptive
gases and sublimated minerals. This is so marked in some localities
that Dr. A. Fleming advances, as a possible hypothesis, that the salt
‘may be of volcanic origin. But the stratification is generally so well
| defined (the courses of salt being separated by thin layers of red marl
or of cellular gypsum) that we cannot regard the salt as intrusive ;
‘it is decidedly sedimentary. That the disposition of the salt gypsum,
| bipyramidal quartz crystals, &c., &c., took place under the influence
of heat, due probably to hot springs, is prétty certain. For Charpeutin
and de Beaumont have shewn that the gypsum was first deposited as
anhydrite, and this anhydrite must of necessity have been precipited
from hot solutions; neither do we see how sea water could deposit
gypsum, unless submitted to a high temperature ; whilst, high tem-
‘perature being admitted, the precipitation of gypsum becomes easily
jexplained, if we remember Mr. David Forbes’s observation in Peru:
24 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1
“The quantity of sulphates and more especially of sulphate of lime, —
‘‘ included invariably in these deposits, might, at first sight, appear to —
“the observer too great to suppose it due only to the evaporation of ;
“the sea-water ; but I believe that this impression will be dissipated
‘when he sees the enormous amount of gypsum removed in the form :
“of hard white cakes or sedimentary crust, from the boilers of the ‘
‘large distilling machines in use along this arid coast, for producing |
*‘ from the water of the sea a supply of fresh water for the maintenance
“ of the inhabitants, beasts of burden, and even the locomotive engines
“ of the railways along the coast. It appears not necessary to suppose, —
“as has been put forth, that the sulphates present have been forme
*‘ by volcanic exhalations acting upon the bed of salt.”* What induces
us readily to admit of the existence of very numerous and extensive hot
springs during the Triassic epoch in the Punjab is, that even now-a-days)
the Saliferian formation is remarkable for the great number of hot
Springs it contains ; indeed hardly a hot spring in the Punjab and the |
Himalaya is to be found unconnected with the Saliferian, and wheneve
we find Saliferian beds, we generally also find hot springs. This ig
true of the Salt Range, of the Rottah Roh, of Kangra,+ of Rukshu in
Thibet, &. We may therefore conclude from these remarks that the
salt, gypsum, &c., is sedimentary, though deposited under peculiar
circumstances, viz., the presence and influence of hot springs. How
then to account for the very disturbed state of the Saliferian beds, for
these limited, local, fragmentary disturbances which give to the beds
so elastic an appearance? Two ordinary causes appear to me
sufficient to account for this: one is the transformation of the
anhydrite into gypsum by absorption of water, a phenomenon which
continues to take place now-a-days. This absorption of water and
the consequent increase of volume of the gypsum brought about the
swelling up of the beds in cones and “ boursoufflures.” Then the
* “The Geology of Bolivia and Peru,” by David Forbes, with notes on fossils,
by Professor Huxley and J. W. Saller, Esq., published by Taylor and Francis,
Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, 1861, communicated to Geological Society in 1860.
+ The saline springs of the Towala Mookhi and of Kangra- basa, in Kangra,
issue from Saliferian ranges immediately covered by Miocene beds. Mr.
Marcadieu has found that the water of these springs contains Iodine, in addi-
tion to the usual saline matter of the springs of the Saliferian formation in
Upper India. Vide Report, No. 84, by M, Marcadieu. Sketches of Corre-
spondence, Punjab, 1860. K.
¥867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 25
second cause of disturbance began to act: the beds of salt are often
dissolved and removed by water infiltrating through cracks in the
rocks; a cavity is thus formed under the vault of rocks which covered
in the salt and one day the vault falls in.
This process is to be seen now-a-days in actual existence, on a
small scale, in the hillock of Maree on the Indus.
Thus, from the swelling of the gypsum by its transformation from
anhydrite to. common gypsum, and from. the falling in of the vaults
formed by this swelling, the beds of the Saliferian formation in the
Punjab have a most broken and turned-over appearance.
Add to this. that these beds have participated in the convulsions
produced by the great final upheaval of the Himalaya, and you will
have no difficulty in understanding how difficult it is to make out
with certainty the stratography of these rocks, and how it is that the
Saliferian appears here and there inferior to the Palzozoic beds. Before
quitting the Saliferian formation, let us notice that the beds of it
appear to have suffered. very great denudation. We can easily un-
derstand. that the red marl was very easily denuded, when we see how
it crumbles into a powdery, friable, fluid earth, after a few days
exposure to the atmosphere. It is on account of this denudation, on
account of the very considerable amount of material which this for-
mation gave to the Miocene and to the alluvium deposits of Upper
India, that the presence of Reh or Kullur in the soil. of the Punjab
and the North-West Provinces is to be credited to the Saliferian. I
shall say # few words about this again, when we explain how the
Miocene was made up, in the next chapter.
As. there is yet such. incertitude about the age of the salt, I have
| ealled the formation “‘ Saliferian,’’ without entering it on the Map as
belonging either to the Paleozoic or to the Mezozoic epoch.*
The carboniferous limestone is covered in, north of Vurcha, by. an
Qolitic formation. of trifling. thickness and containing Oxfordian forms.
* I have purposely avoided insisting on the mineral characters of the
Saliferian formation of India, as it is now-a-days the fashion to undervalue
| very much. these characters ;, but it may be as well.to remember that in the
Salt Range we have beds of gypsum fall of rock-erystals of a bipyramidal
shape; that the layers of gypsum are separated by calcareo-magnesian bands,
| haying a cellular disposition (Cargneule of the Swiss, Rankwacke of the
Germans) and that the salt is accompanied by a bright red marl without
fossils. These several characters are found in the Triassic salt and gypsum of
Switzerland, of Savoy and of Spain, and, I believe, in no other formation,
4,
26 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
As the carboniferous limestone thins out in approaching the Indus,
the Oolitic formation increases in importance and forms much dis-
turbed hills, all the way from Moosa Khel to Kalabag. It is con-
tinued west of the Indus in the Chichalee Range and the northern
end of the Speen Ghur; a little above Moola Khel it disappears
under the alluvial, and does not reappear till Sheikh Bodeen, where,
as we have seen, it attains a considerable thickness.
65. The salt and gypsum is continued on the west side of the
Indus, in the hilly country of the Kuttuks, but it is there much
covered by tertiary clays and sandstones. It crops out near Bahadoor
Khel and along the course of the Teeree Towe. At the first named
place the Saliferian forms an anticlinal arch ; the salt, above fifty feet
thick, is the lowest bed seen, and is very regularly stratified ; above
it is a thin bed of red marl, another of grey sandstone, also thin ; then
gypsum, about twenty-five to thirty feet thick; then a thin band of
a limestone with minute debris of fossils, and which resembles
lithologically the Oolitic bed of Kalabag and Maree on the Indus; _
then the dark, brown, sandstone which often forms the base of the —
nummulitic formation; some coarse and crumbling shales without —
fossils ; and finally, a bed of limestone rich in nummulites, volutes, ‘
veneridae, &c., and about ten to twelve feet thick. This is at last
covered by the marly lumpy clayey beds of Miocene. A fault running —
approximately W. EH. through the Soordak Pass, has caused an up-
throw of the beds on its southern side, and there the nummulitic
limestone, much tilted up, forms a pretty high hill.
Along the Teeree Towe the Saliferian is immediately covered by
Tertiary. As far as Lachee the rocks seen are Miocene sandstone, clay
and conglomerates ; thence to Peshawur the country is entirely covered
by nummulitic limestone and shale, and the Miocene sandstone is only
seen here and there in small detached beds and patches, which are
evidently the remains of layers which have been mostly removed by
denudation.
66. North of the Salt Range we have also a great extent of
Tertiaries, Nummulitic limestone, shale and sandstone first covers
in the secondary layers in the western portion of the range, but rests
directly on the salt marl and gypsum in the eastern half of it. It
attains a great thickness, where well developed, (4500 feet,) and forms
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 27
the summits of nearly all the highest hills of the Salt Range. Itis
continued to within two miles of Maree on the Indus where it thins
out, but reappears near Kalabag, and is very well developed in the
Chichalee Range and in the Speen Ghar. Near the Indus, all the
beds of the Salt Range, excepting the Saliferian marl itself and the
secondary strata where much locally disturbed, dip towards the N. EH.
On the western bank of the Indus, that is in the Chichalee Hills and
the Speen Ghur, the dip is W. N. W. or N. W. This last dip is gene-
rally that of all the strata of the Kuttuk hills.
The nummulitic formation appears in the Salt Range as a thick
belt which, beginning at the Mount Tilla near Jheelum, is continued
to near Maree on the Indus, where it disappears for a little space, but
reappears on the other side of the river, and is to be seen forming the
bulk of the Speen Ghur to near Esokhel. The formation keeps a
remarkably similar aspect the whole way. It is, from below upwards,
composed* of — 1. Sandstone often coloured by iron, but generally
dirty white or pale grey, 2. Very arenacious, thin bedded or lumpy
limestone, with gasteropods, few and small nummulites and innumer-
able debris of oysters or gryphex. 3. Shales of various colours, with
: beds of lignite and of alum carbonaceous shales. The alum shales
are only developed where the lignite is situated close to the Saliferian
_ formation, afid appear to be patches of lignite metamorphosed. 4.
Argillaceous limestone, full of large nummulites, chama, cardita,
crassatella, ostroea, many gasteropods, very large echinodermata, Wc.,
&c. 5. Shales often replaced by a clay-slate containing nummulites.
The shales contain sometimes lignite and Rol (alum-shale), but the
seams are made less well defined than in the lower shales. 6. Argilla-
ceous limestone, extremely white in some places and containing the
same fossils as layer 4; in the eastern portion of the Range it
contains flints; it is often foetid. 7, Chert, hard limestone, weather-
ing rough and pitted; pale yellow or flesh-colour, brittle and
* Occasionally a bed of white soft fragile limestone is seen to form the base
of the nummulitic formation. It is characterized by a planorbis which is
tolerably abundant ; but it contains neither nummulites nor any other fossil.
Tt is found in lenticular beds of little extent, and rarely more than two or three
feet thick. It suggests to the mind beds formed in pools or creeks among
Sandy islands and promontories at the mouth of a river. Whenever it occurs,
I have found in the nummulitic limestone above it a great number of teeth
and bones of fishes (sharks).
28 Dr. Verchére on the Geology. of Kashmir, [No. 1,
splintery. Shells fewer, nummulites small, but very abundant,
especially the N. variolaria, whilst the flat and irregular N. pushd —
and N. levigata, so abundant in beds 4 and 6, are not to be found
here, or are at least rare. A nummulite about the size of the NV. pushi,
but thicker, is, however, found pretty abundantly, though not in
swarms like the NV. variolaria. A ribbed cardita is the only bivalve
which appears tolerably abundant.
67. Resting on the nummulitic formation of the Salt Range are
thick beds of Miocene sandstone, clay and conglomerate. I have
described in chapter I. how these sandstones form a great plateau —
between the Salt Range and the foot of the Maree Hill, and indicated
that thay may be considered as the upper Miocene Bed, whilst the
Maree Hills and the whole of the mountains between the Jheelum
and the Pir Punjal chain are to be regarded as lower Miocene. The —
upper bed is rich in mammalian fossils, and is identical to the
Sewalik formation. The lower bed is devoid of fossils,* containing
only afew debris of plants, rootlets, small stems aud occasionally
small niduses of lignite. The upper Miocene has probably been a
great deal denuded ; remains of the bed are, however, to be seen in”
the valley of Poonch; they are there rich in very well preserved
fossils, teeth of elephants being common and very perfect.
68. The sandstones and conglomerates just mentioned form a
great belt from the HE. N. EH. to the W.S. W. (see Map) and to the
north of it appears another belt, having a similar direction and com-
posed of nummulitic limestone and slate. It begins in Hazara in
Lat. 34°, and forms all the superficial covering of the Hazara moun-
tains as far as the Sirun river and as high north as Mausera, being about
thirty miles in width as the crow flies. It proceeds from N. H. to 8. W.
towards Attock, keeping the same width and extending in that
district from the Indus to Janika Serai. Crossing the Indus, it forms
the whole of the Akora Kuttuck and Afreedee hills between Peshawur
and Kohat, extending about sixteen miles south of Kohat. It has |
been followed as far as longitude E. 70°. The beds of this nummu-
litic formation have a general dip to the N. W. A similar
* It is said that one or two bones have been fouud in the lower Miocene, but
this is doubtful; if they exist, they are at any rate very rare. Mr. Medlicott
has pointed out a non-conformity between the lower and upper Miocene; he
makes three beds of the formation,
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 29
nummulitic tract follows the foot of the Himalayan ranges along the
southern versant of the Pir Punjal chain and its continuation to the
S. EH. It begins in the valley of Poonch; it is seen north of Rajaori,
and the pebbles of the streams near Rajaori are often nummulitic
limestone, though the parent-beds have not yet been discovered. I
cannot say whether nummulitic beds are to be seen to the north of
Tummoo, Basaoli, and Noorpoor or in Kangra, but they appear near
Subathoo in long. 77° lat. 31°, and have further been just discovered
by Captain G. Austen on the east of the Ganges in Kumaoon.
But this nummulitic along the foot of the Himalaya is either
much denuded or much covered up by Miocene, and does not make
such a show on the surface as the other belt which follows the
direction of the Afghan mountains.
To the north of these zones of nummulite we meet the volcanic
hills, which I have described in the first chapter.
69. The stratum of nummulite in Hazara, occasionally broken
through, or faulted or denuded sufficiently to allow of older rocks
making their appearance.
At the northern end of Mount Sirbun near Abbottabad, carboni-
ferous limestone resting on volcanic rocks is quarried for building
purposes. The limestone belongs to the Weean and Kothair groups
and is thin-bedded, arenaceous, marly and occasionally conglomeratic.
Tt is of considerable thickness and immediately covered in by lime-
stone, the lower beds of which are so poor in fossils that it is im-
possible to identify them, the upper being nummulitic.
The following is a section near the small village of Sheikh Wandie,
from EK. to W.
bee
re
iS)
Zi
Kael
Dr. Verchéere on the Geology of Kashmir,
30
*eo8 O74 yo 10 AQT 94
aAoqe "I OOLF Inoqe Aoyyea pegerjzoqqy oy} Jo [Aor]
Ae
Us";
a cs
a
te S ij
i Wy
py,
per er — eee een~ yf
orpueM FUS
mnqIIg
(dey ferouoy JO “TTA u0TJ00Q)
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 31
Section of the Northern extremity of Mount Sirbun, near Abbottabad,
from E. to W. bearing S. (not drawn to scale.)
1. Very compact and very hard Cornean rock, composed of a paste of white
feldspar and grey hornstone in intimate combination, The joints and exposed
surfaces are smooth and have a quartzy glimmering, In the paste there is
often a partial separation of white feldspar in spots of a dull white colour.
Splinters of the white spots can be rounded on their edges before the blow-
pipe, but the grey paste of the rock appears to be more refractory, though
there is certainly a softening of the mineral compound and a slight smoothing
of sharp edges after long exposure to heat. It is a bed of very considerable
_ thickness, stratified and much jointed.
2. White quartzite in a brecciated state, the pieces being recemented
together by a grey feldspathose paste. It appears asif the bed had been
broken after its formation and the fragments reunited by a feldspathose paste.
= a
—— nee
7
8. Very heavy, chocolate-coloured, clay-stone, with bands of quartzite.
4, Indurated clay, with round nodules, the size of a bean, of a black
mineral having the lustre of jet, whitening to a milk-white colour before the
blow-pipe, and finally melting with difficulty on thin edges; it belongs probably
to the hypersthene group, The clay itself is grey, smooth and meagre.
5. Chloritic clay; grey, very smooth and soft to the touch ; hardness of
slate. It is full of ninute round grains of a semi-transparent mineral, grey
like the clay, but a little darker. The clay becomes white and meagre before
the blow-pipe ; it is unaffected by muriatic acid, and does not form a pasty
mass with water, either before or after grilling.
6. Limestone, at first extremely arenaceous and argillaceous, and presenting
particles of dirty blue and brown colour. It becomes gradually conglomeratic
and at the same time thin-bedded, the layers being made of layers of pebbles
of limestone cemented by a calcareous sandy cement; the top of the layer
appears to have been worn flat by the action of the waves, before the deposit
of the next stratum took place, the pebbles appearing as sections on the surface
of the bed. The next layer is a muddy limestone containing a few flat athyris,
remarkable especially for three internal raised lines or ribs proceeding from the
beak as far as the middle of the valve. But these shells are in avery bad
State of preservation. This layer is only two feet thick, and is succeeded by
another equally thin and containing numerous debris of gasteropods and
corals. Then comes a black, sometimes blue-black limestone, extremely foetid.
The bluer portions are crossed by white lines intersecting each other in all
directions and containing only debris of fossils.
The limestone forms altogether a bed of about thirty feet, when it is cut by
afault which causes it to be repeated, and a succession of faults directed
W.N.W.to E. S. HE. keeps the same limestone on the surface for more than
half a mile, it becomes finally covered by nummulitic limestone,
32 Dr. Verchéere on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1, |
This Mount Sirbun forms the left side of the Abbottabad valley. Following
the slopes of this hill, we find beds of quartzite, similar to No. 2 of the above — :
section, reappearing three or four times in short anticlinals ; above it are beds ;
of limestone containing a few fossils, principally casts of gasteropods. This
limestone is often strongly oolitic in structure, but presents also the very
unusual appearance of resembling beds of travertin which had been entombed —
in a calcareous mud after their formation, so that the cavities of the travertin
have become filled up with a limestone less hard than the original deposit. I
have usually regarded these beds as fresh-water origin near a low coast, and
referred them, in a general and provisional way, to the Jurassic ; of course
this is doubtful.
70. On the lower road from Marree to Abbottabad, near the
village of Sayd Kote, great disturbances are observed, and rocks of
a geyserian nature make their appearance about half way between
Sayd Kote and the Dowr river. They are principally a chocolate- _
coloured sandstone, becoming coated by weathering on the suriace as
well as in the joints, with a shining dark incrustation. It is much
jointed and breaks in prismatic blocks. A great quantity of dark
poulders of this rock may be seen in the bed of the river Dowr. It
- appears to be similar to some variety of dust-rock or sandy ash or
earthy ash seen in Kashmir. It is capped by a bed of quartzite com
posed of large, opaque, angular grains of quartz, jammed together and
cemented by a feldspathose white paste of which there is very little,
Angular grains of black augite are sparingly disseminated in the rock, ©
Under the brown sandstone is seen a thick bed of crumbling cla: ,
slate, very dark and foliated. This is. the lowest bed seen. These
three beds, viz., slate, sandstone and quartzite conform together in
their dip. and are capped by a patchy limestone of doubtful age, and
interbedded with grey soft slate. There is. much kunkur near the
locality.
At Sayd Kote the limestones are wonderfully disturbed : beds
having the appearance of Kothair limestone and containing a great
number of gasteropods and cyathophyllides are seen repeatedly, as the
road crosses. nearly perpendicular beds. which are much faulted.
Numumulitic limestone appears to cover in directly the carboniferous (2)
beds ?? }
Again on the upper road from Murree to-Abbottabad, at the bottom
of the ravine under Doonga Gully, volcanic or rather geyserian rocks
are to be seen. They consist of a very white and ‘friable rock com-
=*%
A
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 33
posed of acicular minute crystals of albite easily fusible before the
blow-pipe and pressed and entangled together; there does not appear
to be any cement to bind the small crystals together; the rock has a
coarsely saccharine aspect and can easily be crumbled between the
fingers. It rises in vertical and contorted bands, from half an inch to
two and a half feet thick, amongst sands and disintegrated shales. It
assumes very many remarkable colours, being sometimes flesh-coloured
or reddish, and at other places azure-blue ; its general colour is, how-
_ ever, snow-white ; where it is blue, the shales near it are of the same
colour. It is interbedded with thin beds of tufaceous limestone which
have probably found their way there by infiltration. It is covered in
by arubanneous and dark slate, much disturbed, extremely cleaved
and jointed and falling into small angular pieces. This slate appears
similar to that seen near Syad Kote, and the feldspathose rock is
intrusive. These two rocks are at the bottom of the ravine, ona
fault, and form a little mound by themselves. There are no rocks
| to be seen in immediate relation to them, and the beds of the sides of
| the ravine appear to be entirely nummulitic.
| From the examples given of volcanic rocks in Hazara, it seems
| evident that that district has participated in the great volcanic
| accumulation which preceded the carboniferous epoch, and that it has
‘also been disturbed at a later date by intrusive volcanic action of a
' local and geyserian character.
71. Of Chumba, Kulu aud Kunawar, districts which occupy the
| Billy tracts south of the extension of the Pir Punjal chain towards
. the Sutlej, I know nothing.
72. Kashmiris continued to the south-east by the highlands of
|Lahul and Spiti which are situated in the same Himalayan parallel,
\yiz., between the Pir Punjal chain or parallel and that of the Ser
‘and Mer. Spiti has been pretty often visited by geologists, and we
know that carboniferous and Jurassic fossils were brought thence by
Dr. Gerard. Liassic fossils have also been found there. As for
jerystalline rocks, M. Marcadieu mentions much granite, and Captain
|W. E. Hay, granite penetrated by huge veins of ter-sulphuret of
jantimony and “other metals.’’ Gypsum is reported as extremely
abundant in Spiti, forming, it is said, whole mountains; and here I
| 9)
34 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, No. 1,
would mention again that several hot springs are found in close
a
,
7
¢
vicinity to these gypseous beds.
But I must draw back here, and leave the ground to Dr. Stoliczka
who has been for some time studying the geology of Spiti with great
Seema
care and is preparing a work on the subject. Dr. Stoliczka has found
in Spiti rocks of the following ages: Silurian, Carboniferous, —
Triassic (?), Liassic, Oolitic and Cretaceous. I have said before that q
most of the fossils from Spiti represented in Dr. Royle’s Illustrations, 7
are to be found in the Jurassic rocks of Sheikh Bodeen. '
73. The great chain of Ser and Mer (calied by Capt. R. Strachey, ~
between the Sutlej and the Kali, the chain of Snowy Peaks, and by
Cunningham, the western Himalaya or central chain of the Himalaya) ;
granite, gneiss, and other rocks of the plutonic and metamorphi¢ q
groups. From the Nanga Parbat (26,629 ft.) to near the Sojji La
pass, (11,300 ft.) the range is, I believe, mostly granite ; it is traversed
by the road of Skardo vid Guzais, and Mr. Drew informs me that the
range, (which here forms the southern boundary of the Deosai plain) —
appears to be, as far as I have been able to ascertain, made up .
is “chiefly granite, partly schist.”” The plain of Deosai is a singular
plain or steppe entirely covered with debris and loose stones; it is
tolerably flat, considering how it is situated, and has perhaps once
been the bed of a gigantic glacier. It is surrounded by granitio:
mountains on the southern and western sides; the north end is—
sagen
bounded by mountains of schist and slate, and the pera side is closed |
in by granitic hills which gradually pass, over Drass and Kurgy]l, inf
volcanic rocks. |
Ii we cross the Ser and Mer chain by the Sojji La, from Kashmir
into Drass, we find near Baltal, a village on the Kashmir versant of
the pass, that the carboniferous limestone ceases and is succeeded by
beds of yery coarse and micaceous slaty shales, often very sandy and
always very thin-bedded. The specimens I possess of this rock show
it to be identical with the sandstone and sandy coarse shales seen in
the Zebawan and there interbedded with ash, agglomerate and slate.
This rock goes on to nearly the top of the pass, where it becomes a
dark and hard slate, having a metamorphic appearance. Then lime-
stone reappears and is seen as far as Drass; it rests the whole way,
as far as can be seen, on volcanic rocks and azoic slate. It is pro
i ale
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 35
bably continuous, through Sooroo, with beds of limestone seen between
Moolbek and Khurbu.
_I do not know what sort of rock forms the summit of the Kun Non
or Ser and Mer Peaks (23,407 ft.) but their north-eastern slope and spurs -
are composed of gneiss and schist ; these metamorphic rocks extend
as far as the Sojji La, where they are graduating into beds of the
coarse slaty shales described above; on the north of the road it is
continued by beds of slate and of sandstone extremely micaceous and
resting on mica-schists, of which some specimens effervesce powerfully
with acids. Beds of metamorphic white marble are also seen, but
the great bulk of the mountains between Tillail and the Deosai is
made up of granite, shist and mica-slate.
_ Following the great chain to the 8. K. we find it crossed by several
passes of which the Bara Lacha (16,505 ft.) and the Parung la (18,794
ft.) ave the most celebrated and frequented. Mr. Marcadieu describes
these passes as being principally through granitic rocks; but unfor-
tunately Mr. Marcadieu does not seem to have enjoyed much his
visit to these “ belles horrewrs” and he gives us little geological infor-
| mation, but many complaints, about these “‘ delights of Satan,” as he
ealls the mountains.
| South-east of the Sutlej, the chain continues to be mostly granitic. It
| is studded with noble peaks, Porgyul (22,700, ft.) Baldang (21,400 ft.)
| Kamet (25,000) and Nanda Devi (25,700, ft.) all of them made up of
| granite, eneiss, and schist. But I must refer the reader to Captain
| R. Strachey’s paper “‘ on the geology of part of the Himalaya moun-
tains,”’* for the mountains south-east of the Sutlej.
74. Having crossed the Ser and Mer Parallel, we find ourselves in
the great trough between this chain and that of the Kailas peak
\Q@which I shall call for convenience sake the Kailas chain) and we
| dy hardly call this trough a valley, considering that it is a plateau
from 10 to 12,000 feet high above the level of the sea; and yet it is
a valley between the two_ great parallels which tower over it by some
10,000 feet more. It comprises the districts of Deosai, Soroo and
|Drass, Ladak proper, Zanskar, Rukshu and in the S. H. the great
plateau of Tibet through which runs the Sutlej and inhabited by the
This last or south-eastern portion of the trough is toler-
* Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, June, 18951,
36 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
ably flat, only a small volcanic peak rising here and there, detached
and isolated, through the thick horizontal bone-beds of sandstone and
conglomerate which fill up the valley.* But in the other districts, —
the trough is nearly entirely filled up by vast mountains, which ©
oceupy in the parallel valley of Ladak the same position as the
catenated chains we have described in Kashmir do in the parallel —
valley of Kashmir; the chain formed by these mountains has been ~
called by Colonel Cunningham the “‘ Pso Moreri’” chain, and has been
raised to the position of one of the great parallel chains of the Hima- :
Taya, but it will best suit our purpose to consider it as an inter-
parallel mass of mountains.
Deosai has been described already. Drass and Kurghyl are covered —
with volcanic rocks into which the granite of Deosai gradually passes. —
Mr. Drew tells me that he found near Kurgyl a rock composed ex-"
elusively of mica and felspar, graduating into granite. Some *
specimens FI possess from Tashgam, half way between Drass and —
Kurgyl, are composed of a dark green hornblende which fuses with —
difficulty and swelling a little before the blow-pipe. Felspar is not
conspicuous, but is probably intimately combined with the horn- _
blende. But rocks undoubtedly volcanic are also seen, such as green~ |
stone and amygdaloid. A considerable bed of Hmestone reposes on
the volcanic rocks and appears to be the continuation of the bed seen
near Drass. Ido not know the age of this limestone. The Drass—
bed contains fossils which are, I believe, carboniferous, and I have
coloured the bed now under consideration, carboniferous, assuming.
the continuity of the two beds to be true. i
Of the mass of hills traversed by the road from Kurgyl to Le
I know very little indeed. They are said to consist mostly of slaty
rocks capped here and there by conglomerates and grits.
As we near the valley of the Indus in Ladak proper, near the
village Kulsi, interesting beds appear. Resting on a hornblende rock
or trap is a series of slate, light coloured limestone, conglomerate
with rolled boulders of the same limestone, sandstone, shales and
dark purple indicated clays. The dip is not very great and the
several beds appear to conform together. The whole valley of the
* Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, page 306.
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 37
Upper Indus from Kulsi to Nodmo (and probably further east) ap-
pears to be excavated in this formation and the river flows in a fault
of it or more probably in the centre of a denuded anticlinal.* The
series of rocks (series of Upper Indus Valley) rest, on the North,
against the granite of the Kilas Range. Captain G. Austen,
to whom I owe these details, estimates it to be at least 3,000 feet
thick, and mentions also its appearance in Rodok at the North of the
Pang Kong Cho, resting there unconformably on slate. In the
limestone layer of this series (about 150 feet thick or more) Captain .
Austen found a few fossils which he was kind enough to show me.
They were very ill-preserved and fragmentary, but appeared to
resemble some forms*found in the Kothair bed in Kashmir ; some
eyathophyllides are certainly not to be distinguished from those
represented at figures 56 and 57, Plate VII. Another fossil was
supposed to be the radical end of a Calamite. To complicate matters,
the fossils were declared by paleontologists at home to be cretaceous.
The specimens are so bad, that I apprehend that this determination
must have rested entirely on the one fossil which I took for a Cala-
mite, and which was regarded, I suppose, as a Hippurite. My
own impression is, that the limestone is identical with the Kothair
bed of Kashmir, and therefore either the uppermost layer of the car-
boniferous or perhaps the lowest of the Triassic.
Above this Upper Indus series come the nearly horizontal grits
and coarse sandstones which form the flats called in Ladak Chang
Tang and Rang. The non-conformity between the Indus Series and
the Chang Tang beds is not conspicuous, as that dips at a very low
angle and these are nearly horizontal. There is also, I believe, a
great similarity of lithological character between the two formations,
one being merely the resettlement of the other. I conceive that
some difficulty may be experienced occasionally to decide where one
formation ends and the other begins. A few mammalian bones have
been found in the Chang-tang sandstone, and there is but little doubt
that this bed is similar to the sandstone and conglomerate of the
Great Thibet plateau to the north of the Niti Pass. These high
horizontal plateaux of conglomerate and sandstone are also observed
_ * A very great number of rivers in the Himalaya run part of their course
in the centre of a denuded anticlinal.
38 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1a
in the Afghan mountains, where they are called in Pooshtoo :
Ragzhie. I have examined some of these ragzhies, of which the ~
plateau of Rushmuk in Waziristan is a good example at an elevation
of 7,000 fect, and I feel satisfied of their fluvio-lacustrine origin —
and of their age being posterior to the final upheaval of the Hima-
laya and Afghan mountains.*
Zaskar and Rukshu or Rupshu are interesting districts, on account —
of their lakes, numerous hot springs and borax mines. The country
is an elevated labyrinth of mountains and valleys, having a mean
height of 15,600 feet. The principal peaks are the Korsok Too ~
(above 20,000 feet) and the Napko Gondo ; but there are great many
other nameless peaks ; the passes are all a good deal above 17,000 :
feet. In Zaskar we find a great mass of gneiss and schist which —
appears to be the eastern extension of similar rocks which begin in”
Sirti, and, after entering largely in the formation of the mountains
of the highland of Zaskar, are prolonged eastward into Rukshu, where
they graduate into beds of metamorphic slate on which rest fossili-
ferous rocks, The gneiss, schist, slate and limestone are all stratified -
and conformable together, and they all dip towards the 8. S. W. —
The limestone appears to be the continuation of the bed of limestone
seen in Siru reposing on the gneiss and schist of the foot of the Ser
and Mer peaks. =
The occurrence of fossils in Rukshu had been noticed by several —
travellers, but little was satisfactorily known, and to Captain @
Austen is therefore due the credit of having first brought trustworthy _
fossils from Rukshu, and to him I am indebted for the following 4
details :— —
Two of the valleys of Rukshu are the Tso Moreri valley and the |
Pang-po-loomba ; they are separated one from the other by the —
ridge of the Korsok Tso, composed of granitoid rocks and of gneiss
and schist. From the Pang-po-loomba (valley) one passes into th -
valley of the T'sa Rup (iver) by the Pang-po-la (pass), towards
Zaskar. This Pang-po-loomba (valley) and Pang-po-la (pass) ae
the localities where fossiliferous beds have been noticed. The |
* Col. R. Strachey appears inclined to regard these horizontal beds of the”
Great Thibet plateau as contemporary of the Siwalik alle and a sea-formation, —
I believe that both hypotheses are untenable. =
1867.) the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 39
whole bottom of the valley is uneven and its southern portion is
formed by beds of limestone in which both Captain Austen and Mr.
Mareadieu found carboniferous fossils (No. 1.) At the foot of the
‘Pang-po-la the carboniferous becomes covered by a muddy sandstone
(No. 2) which is, however, not seen in situ on the northern slope of
Ne
{ T 25) ‘fy ry :
= oy = NO AV AND '
wt SOT N22 OER Te VAD E :
: BS N22 SOCAN Ren 8 AY
PANGPO LOOMBS RE US i es 4 IPSS
renee oe \ Pg SS LF
' Section across the Pang-po-loomba (valley) and Pang-po-la (pass) in Rakshu
from a sketch by Captain Godwin Austen (approximate).
the Pang Po, but of which numerous debris fill the ravines. Above
this sandstone is found Jurassic limestone (No.3), all the way to
the top of the pass, full of Belemnites, Ammonites, Rhynchonellz
and Terebratule. One of the Rhynchonelle collected there by Captain
Austen appears identical with a form very common in the middle
| Oolite of Sheikh Bodeen in the Punjab.
| Having crossed the top of the pass and descending towards the
|Tsa Rup (river), the same bed of muddy sandstone (apparently)
| again crops out. It is there interbedded with thin beds of impure
/ limestone, and in these beds were discovered a great many Belemnites
| in fine state of preservation. Mr. R. A. C. Austen, to whom the
| fossils of these parts were forwarded, pronounced some of them to be
. Tvassic, but I do not know whether these liassic forms came from
the muddy sandstone bed or from beds inferior to it.
~ On the other side of the valley of the Tsa Rup, some beds of lime-
|stone, much folded and bent, again appear, but they showed no
fossils and their age is therefore unknown ; they rest against beds of
slate much up-tilted and apparently unconformable to the limestone.
At the back of the slate is the great massof the Ser and Mer
| chain, attaining immense height and crossed by passes above 16,500
feet high. .
75. The Tso Moreri is the largest of many salt lakes which form
jone of the features of Rukshu. Itis 14 miles long and more than
| 15,000 feet above the sea. Its water is very salt and bitter, though
| Mr, Marcadieu affirms that it contains only one part of saline matter
40 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [ No. ia
in 10,000 parts of water ; the saline matter is sulphate of soda and —
sulphate of lime. Another lake, the Karso-Talao, about 6 miles
long, is reported by the same gentleman to contain a great deal of
chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda, with a little carbonate of —
lime and carbonate of soda. These two lakes are said to be sur-
rounded by mountains of crystalline rocks, principally mica-schists —
and granite. But one of the most interesting subjects connected _
with the geology of Rukshu is the existence of borax in the valley
of Puga. The manner in which it occurs as an efflorescence is too
well known to require description here, but one cannot but regret
that Mr. Marcadieu’s report is not more geological ; indeed it can
only be regarded as chemical, and the geology of the district is still
a work to be done. I have never visited Puga, but, from the
several descriptions of it I have read, I am satisfied that the borax _
borax collected at Puga shows it to contain, besides borax, sulphate |
of soda, sulphate of lime, chloride of sodium and carbonate of soda,
These impurities are precisely the composition of the Kullur salt
of the plains of the Punjab and of the saline matter of many hot
springs and salt lakes of the Himalaya and the Salt Range, and it
appears to me evident enough that the lacustrine mud which fills”
up the bottom of the Puga valley, is similar to the alluvial deposit _
of the Punjab. Boracic acid, which probably once rose freely to
the surface of a small lake and was deposited in an uncombined state,
is now arrested by the bed of lacustrine mud which fills up the |
fumarole and combines with some of the salts of soda. It appears”
therefore much to be regretted that an attempt was not made to |
ground is the bottom of a dried up lake. The analysis of impure
estimate the thickness of the lacustrine deposit and that a few wells |
were not sunk into the borax ground and the waters and gases
which might have been collected in these wells carefully examined ;
possibly such researches and experiments might have led the way
to an increase of the present supply, and to a system of collecting the
borax or boracic acid sufficiently pure not to require refining.
76. In Ladak, Rukshu, Sooroo and Zaskar, no fossils were ever
found, as far as I know, older than those of the carboniferous forma-
tion. But if we follow the great valley, between the Kailas Range
and the Ser and Mer chain towards the 8. H. we find, on the other
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 41
side of the Sutlej, great beds of limestone rich in Silurian fogsils.*
Mr. Salter has recognized the following genera among Captain
Strachey’s fossils :—
Cheirdrus. Strophomena. Cyrtoceras. Cheetetes.
Lichas. Orthis. Litnites. Crinoid Stems, &e.
Asaphus. Leptcena. Tentaculites,
— Calyméne. Lingula. Murchisonia,
Illeenus, Orthoceras. Ptilodictya.
Mr. Salter, M. Barrande and M. de Verneuil, who saw some of the
fossils collected by Colonel Strachey, agree that they indicate beds
of Lower Silurian. We shall see that beds of Silurian also exists in
the huge mountdins to the north of Skardo and near the Mustak
Pass in the Korakoram chain.
But let us first relate what Colonel R. Strachey found in the high
ranges south of the Sutlej.
The Silurian above mentioned rests on beds of slate without fossils,
and this slate rests on schists, mica-schists and other rocks of the
metamorphic group. Then above the Silurian limestone, some beds
of carboniferous must exist, though they were not found in situ
by the explorer ; Producti, Athyris Royssicv and other well known
fossils were found in loose boulders near the Niti Pass. I believe
also that some of the shells placed by Colonel Strachey and Mr. Salter
in other groups belong really to the carboniferous ; such is the
Chonetes placed by Colonel Strachey in the Mushelkalk, but trans-
ferred to the carboniferous by Mr. Salter; the Ptilodictya Fenea
(Salter), the narrow variety, which I have found in carboniferous
beds in Kashmir ; (it was naturally placed with the Silurian fossils
by Mr Salter, on account of the Ptilodictya having been found as
yet only in Silurian beds in Europe and America) ; the Spirifer
Stracheyii, (Salter) placed among the Triassic fossils by Mr. Salter,
and which is common enough in the Weean bed of carboniferous
limestone in Kashmir; and lastly the Spirzfer Rajah (Spir. Keilhaviz,
* On the geology of part of the Himalaya and Tibet, by Capt. R. Strachey,
Bengal Engineers, F. G. S. in Proceedings Geological Society for June 1851,
-also ‘‘ Paleontology of Niti in the Northern Himalaya, being descriptions and
figures of the Palzeozoi and Secondary fossils collected by Colonel R. Strachey
R. E.” “ Descriptions by T. W. Salter, F. G. 8., A. L, 8. and H. T. Blanford,
A. R.S. M., F. G. S.—Caleutta 1865.”
6
42 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
Von Buch), which has been removed from the Trias by Dr. Oldham,
and declared to belong to beds anterior to that epoch.
There is therefore a strong probability that both the Zeeawan
bed (Productus semireticulatus, Athyris Royssii &c.) and the Weean
bed (Spir. {. Stracheyii, Spir. Keilhavit) exist in the ranges near the
Niti Pass, but have been much denuded and broken in loose frag-
ments along the section followed by Colonel R. Strachey.
Then comes what Colonel Strachey supposed to be Muschelkalk,
and which Mr. Salter refers to the Keuper and Hallstadt bed of the
Upper Trias. J cannot refrain from expressing a suspicion that a
few of the shells referred to these beds do not really belong to them,
and that fossils of various ages have been mixed, either from collect-
ing them, without due care being paid to the stratain which they
were respectively found, or from careless packing. There is such
a great likeness between the figures of some of the Triassic Am- |
monites of Mr. Salter and those of the carboniferous ceratites of
M. DeKoninck,* (see Ammonites Blanfordii, Salter, nov. sp. and
Ceratites Lyelluanus, Dekon. nov. sp.) that one finds it difficult to
decide between these two great authorities. The species of am-
monites figured in the Paleontology of Niti have nearly all the
ceratite-like sutures usual in triassic ammonites in Europe, and
therefore much resemble deKoninck’s ceratites. |
It may be advanced, on the other side, that M. DeKoninck’s
eeratites belong to triassic beds; but these ceratites are to be
seen in the Rotta Roh associated to some of the fossils which I
have given as characteristic of my Weean bed of the carboniferous
m Kashmir and the Punjab ; and a portion at least of this Weean
bed would have then to be made over to the Trias. Unfortunate-
ly for this view, the mixture of Weean and Zeeawan fossils in
some layers of the Rottah Roh (described in para. 60 of this
paper), does not allow us to make the Weean anything but car-
boniferous, unless we are prepared to regard the Prod. semi-reticu-
latus, the A. Royssw, the A. Sadtilita and other such essentially
* “* Description of some fossils from India, discovered by Dr, A. Fleming, of
Edinburgh.” By Dr, L. de Koninck, F. M. C. S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in the University of Liege—Journal Geological Society of London,
Vol, x pee ;
1867.) the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 43
carboniferous fossils as occasional inhabitants of the Trias!!! It
we are prepared to stretch the point so far, we may as well give
up at once all idea of successive fauna.
I have, since writing the above, found in the Rottah Roh, some
beds containing a few fossils which appear Permian. I have not
yet had time to examine the fossils with care; but should they
prove Permian or Saliférian (St. Cassian),—and I have little doubt
that they will be found to belong to either one or the other of
these formations,—the presence of patches of such a bed on the top
of the carboniferous would explain away, in a great measure, the
difficulties I have now been considering.
I have said before that I believe the Saliferian of Upper India
to belong to the Paikilitic formation, but that it has been found
impossible as yet to demonstrate that such is the case. The dis-
covery of one or two fossils may settle the question, if they were
forms thoroughly well known as characteristic of the Indian Trias.
The study of the fossiliferous Triassic beds in India is therefore of
the greatest interest ; but much care is required lest the mixture
of Paleozoic and secondary types should take place in our pack-
ing boxes and not in nature, and we thus become accustomed to
regard, as characteristic of the Trias, shells which really belong
either to the carboniferous, or to the Lias and QOolite.
To Colonel R. Strachey, however, is due the honor of having
first discovered fossiliferous Triassic beds in the Himalaya; and
we may hope that much light will be thrown on the Indian fossils
of that age by Dr. Stoliczka, in his expected work on the Geology
of Spiti.
Over the beds last described, Colonel Strachey found Jurassic
beds ; but the relation between the Triassic and Jurassic beds
could not be ascertained, owing to a great fault running parallel to
the general N. W.—S. E. direction of the Himalayan ranges. The
section exposed by this great fault is at least 5,000 or 6,000 feet in
thickness, but the difficulties of the route prevented Colonel Strachey
from examining it from top to bottom; the lowest beds were not
examined. The lowest which were examined gave forms which Pro-
fessor HE. Forbes was inclined to identify with fossils which occur
im the fuller’s earth and cornbrash of England. No Liassic forms
| were discovered.
dt Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1
These inferior oolitic beds are capped by dark coloured shales
containing belemnites and ammonites, and referred by Professor
KE. Forbes to the age of the Oxford clay. These shales are there-
fore the representatives of the several Jurassic beds we have already
seen in several parts of the Himalaya and of the Punjab.
The oolitic beds are covered by grits, shales and limestone of
unknown age, and finally by the great horizontal bed of what
Colonel Strachey considers to be miocene (Siwalik) sandstones and
conglomerates. I have said before that the identity of these sand-
stones, grits and conglomerates to the Siwalik formation is far from
established, and that there are more reasons for considering them
pleistocene, than for assuming them to be coeval with the deposition
of the Sub-Himalayan tertiaries.
77. The Kilas Chain is of less elevation than the Ser and Mer, —
and its peaks are neither so numerous, nor so well known or so re- —
markable for their enormous mantles of snow. The principal sum-
mit is the Kailas (or Tise) peak, which rises to 22,000 feet above :.
the sea, in longitude 81° 18’, and is therefore far to the S. E. of our
Western Himalaya. As it is, however, the only well known peak of —
the Chain, I have called the whole chain from its name.
The Kilas chain begins near Mount Haramash, N. of Astor and —
N. W. of Baltistan, and is traversed near Skardo by the Shigar river —
which cuts a passage across the range. The summit, Mashkulla,
(16,919) towers over the alluvial plain of Skardo, Shigar and Kuardo.
This mountain is mostly granite ; its spurs show a great deal of
metamorphic slate at a high angle of dip; and the little hill close to_
Skardo, evidently an off-shoot of the Mashkulla, is composed of an-
imperfect shist. All along the deft bank of the Shigar river, schists
of various sorts, especially mica-schists, and micaceous slates, together —
with metamorphic marbles, form the great wall of mountains that
bound the Shigar valley to the N. E. Following the road which —
leads from Shigar to the Thale valley, by the Thalé la (pass) Captain —
G. Austen discovered some beds of limestone, resting on the mica-
slate, and I have coloured that bed of limestone Silurian in the Map.
My reason for believing it to be Silurian is its proximity to
limestone beds of similar appearance and position at the Mashabroom,
and there, I believe, decidedly Silurian ; and also the fact that the
,
,
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 45
discoverer of the bed found there a few fragments of fossils which
he regarded as Paleozoic, though different from any of the carboni-
ferous forms which we found together in Kashmir. There is there-
fore presumption that this bed is Silurian, though of course it is
merely a presumption. I have also assumed that a bed of limestone,
seen to the South of Skardo, between that town and the Deosai
(plain), is Silurian. We shall see the bed discovered at the Masha-
broom, when we describe the Karakoram Chain,
From Skardo towards the 8. E., the Kilas Chain appears to be
nothing but a great granitic wall, along the foot of which runs the
Indus. Near Lé in Ladak the range is crossed by the Digor La
(pass), the road going through a succession of granitic rocks.
78. Between the Kilas and Karakoram Chains, we find the
tugged district of northern Baltistan, the valleys of Saltoro, Nubra
Shayokh and the Chinese province of Rodok. In the country of
the Baltis, the Kilas and Korakoram Chains approach each other
to within about 45 miles, as the crow flies, from range to range ;
whilst on the contrary the chains diverge as we proceed towards
the S. E., the Korakoram chain having apparently a less south-
ward direction that the other parallels of the Himalaya. In northern
Baltistan, consequently, we find the country covered with mountains,
cut with deep narrow valleys and mantled with immense glaciers ;*
in Radok on the contrary high plateaux are abundant, and form to
|the north of the Pang Chong Tso (lake) and Pang Chong La (pass)
\considerable plains, 14,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea, arid and rain-
less, often not presenting a shrub for several marclies; high deserts
on which roam a thin population of nomade Turkomans who graze
Shawl-wool goats on the scarce and far-between Aghil or grassy
vales of these inhospitable regions.
There is no doubt that these high plateaux are similar in origin,
age, and appearance tothe great Thibet plateau through which runs
he Sutlej, to the north of the Niti pass, and described by Colonel
oR. Strachey; and also to the Chang Tang and Rong plateaux of
‘\Ladak. All these high plateaux present a horizontal stratification ;
* “ On the Glaciers of the Mustakh Range,” by Captain H. G. Austen,
F. BR. G.S., &c., read before the Royal Geographical Society, London, on the
lth January, 1364.
46 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
and it appears therefore impossible to regard them otherwise than
as accumulations of debris washed from the ranges into the great
troughs between these ranges, and therefore posterior to the great
final upheaval of the Himalayas.
Very little is known of the nature ofthe rocks forming the ridges,
ranges and spurs in Saltoro, Nuha and Shayokh. Dr. Thomson,*
on native information (Izzet Ullah), tells us that the rocks of the
Shayokh and Nuha valleys are in great part primitive limestone,
“‘ The limestone continues towards Rodok and the water of the Pang
Gong Tso (lake) hold a sufficient quantity of lime to form a cal-
eareous deposit which cements the pebbles together in patches of
concrete at the bottom of the lake.” The water of the Pang Chong
Tso is sufficiently brackish not to be fit for drink, and it has a bitter-
ness probably due to sulphates of Soda and of Magnesia. From the
exainination of a specimen of the calcacerous incrustation which is
formed on the shore of the lake, I found that Magnesia is about as
abundant as lime.
An extremely pretty species of Limnea or rather Physa once lived
in the lake, and dead shells of it are abundantly found in the band
of tufaceous deposit, a few feet above the present level of the water,
These shells no longer exist in the lake (Austen). They have pro-
bably been destroyed by the diminution and concentration of the
brackish water.
General Cunningham informs ust that the rocks of all the high
ranges and peaks of Rodok are granite and gneiss, and this appears
to be highly probable. Metamorphic rocks also abound; the
mountains near the Pang Chong Tso containing a great deal of
mica-schists ; and crystalline marble is also found on the shore of the
lake, apparently in immediate contact with granitoid rocks.
In the northern portion of Rodok some hot springs exist in a
locality called Chong Chin Mo ; there water deposits largely a grey
tufa which is composed of carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime and
sulphate of soda. Such tufa is common near the warm springs of
the saliferian in the Punjab. Its composition is also that of the
saline impurities of the brackish lake of Tso Moreri in Rukshu, and
* “ Ladak,” by General Cunningham, R. E.
t “ Ladak,” by General Cunningham, R, E,
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 47
of the efflorescence which accompanies the borax at Puga. From
the extensive beds of gypsum and impure salt found in Rukshu, little
doubt can be entertained that the saliferian is there well developed,
and by analogy it is to be presumed that the same formation is
also to be seen in Rodok. Borax is said to be exported from Reodok
in large clean crystals, but I do not know whence they are obtained ;
that it does come from Rodok appears however pretty certain; and
that is another resemblance with Rukshu, and another reason for
believing that the saliferian is probably well developed in Rodok, and
is there accompanied by hot springs and fumaroles exhaling boracic
acid.
I have never seen any fossil which had been brought from Rodok,
Shayokh or Nuba; it is impossible therefore to say to what age
_ belong the beds of limestone mentioned by Dr. Thomson. The beds
are called ‘‘ primitive limestone ;”’ but as Jacquemont, Vigne, Thom-
gon and others speak sometimes of fossiliferous limestone (such as the
| Manus Bal limestone in Kashmir) as “ primitive,” it is difficult to
know for certain what is meant by that somewhat antiquated term.
79. The Korakoram Chain is a range of very great extent, begin-
/ ning at the Pamer Steppes and reaching to the 8. E. as far as the
centre of Thibet in longitude E. 94° and as low as latitude N. 30°.
| The plateau near its south-western slope is from 15,000 to 17,000 feet
| high, and is an arid tract of horizontal alluvian covered with loose
| stones and supporting very little vegetation ; more to the north it is
a labyrinth of wild valleys. Near the Mashabroom mountain (above
__ 26,000 feet) the soil of the valleys between the spurs is to a great
extent covered by glaciers ; where not so covered, it is often an
| indurated clay strewed with debris of pale limestone a good deal
- worn and weathered, and with globular cystidee in very great
abundance. Mr. Ryall, of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, gave
me one of the pieces of limestone and some of the fossils. The lime-
_ stone is an argillaceous dolomitic limestone, pale yellowish brown, with
a few patches pale blue, weathering like frosted glass, and resembling
agood deal of the rocks of the Weean and Kothair groups of
carboniferous limestone. The spheronites, however, point to a silurian
epoch, these echinoderms having not been found as yet in formations
posterior to the Wenlock limestone,
|
‘tl
48 Dr. Vercnére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 1,
The spheronites of the Mashabroom are probably a new species ;
they were found in considerable variety, from the size of a small ]
walnut to that of a large orange ; the largest were perfectly round and 2
polished like a cricket ball, without warts, spines or facettes, pierced :
by numerous pores. Some of the smaller have the stems scarcely visible —
(fi. 6, Pl. VIII), and are covered either with large tracts set well 4
apart or with smaller ones set closer ; some spines are depressed —
or lenticular; all are pierced by innumerable pores, none shows traces” |
of polygonal plates; mouth not to be seen in any of the specimens I
have examined. (See figs. 5, and 6, pl. VIII and plate IX fig. 1.) The
discoverer, not being a geologist, did not look for other fossils: the |
cystidez were so numerous and so curious in appearance, that they
gave quite a peculiar aspect to the ground.
The Mashabroom is stratified to its very summit, the beds being
limestone and shales, dipping towards the S., at a moderate angle, —
This stratification is so well marked, that it can be distinctly noticed —
from a long way off. These sedimentary beds repose on metamor- |
phic layers of mica-schist and gneiss. The limestone is extremely
rich in magnesia, principally towards the base of the bed, where it.
passes into Steatite in patches (Austen). Some of the Serpentine
and Jade (compact Tremolite) brought to Srinuggur and there
worked into ornamental articles by the stone-cutters of that city,
come, I believe, from the neighbourhood of the Mustak Range and
of Mashabroom, though the greater quantity is supposed to be derived
from the Yarkandkass valley and the Kuen-Luen Chain in Khota |
There can be little doubt that the limestone of the Mashabroom is
the parent bed of the cystidew found in the valley between two of
the spurs of that mountain ; and at least a portion of the limestone
of Mashabroom is Silurian, _
The following sketch-section embodies the. information kindly
given me by Mr. Ryall and Captain G. Austen. ‘ed
the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 49
great summits of the Korakoram Chain, from S. to N, bearing W.
1, granite; 2, gneiss and mica-
schist ; 3, sandy shales and coarse
slate without fossils; 4, pale dolo-
mitic limestone containing patches of
Steatite; 5, pale ochre-coloured lime-
stone, the probable parent rock of the
Spheronites found at the foot of the
mountain.
To the north of the great glacier
Baltoro is that portion of the Kora-
koram Range known as the Mustakh
and crossed by the Mustakh Pass at
an elevation of 18,400 fect. The
whole 8. Western face of this Mus-
takh is covered by enormous glaciers
through which the rocky spurs of
the mountains rise like islands and
promontories. These rocks Captain
Godwin-Austen found to be lime-
stone dipping to the N. E., but he
failed to find fossils in it, though he
noticed traces and fragments of orga-
nisms. It is so very probable that
these beds are a continuation of the
limestone of the Masha Brum, that I
have not hesitated to colour them in
the map as Silurian. Of course, this
requires confirmation. les ci,
the difficulties of reaching even the
foot of these gigantic mountains are
nearly insurmountable.
80. I could not get any informa-
-tion on the nature of the rocks form-
ing the remainder of the Korakoram
Chain. The few Kuropean travellers
who ever saw the chain, agree, I
believe, in representing it as being
mostly composed of granite.
¢
30 Dr. Verchére-on the Geology of Kashmir. [No. 1,
On the other side of the chain we find, between it and the next —
parallel, viz. the Kuen-Luen Chain, the valley of the Yarkandkash
(river), which extends from the Korakoram or Yarkand pass to
Tashgurkhan, and the Akzai Chin or White Desert, which is con-
tinued towards the 8. E., nobody knows how far. The valley of
the Yarkand river and the Akzai Chin are separated one from the
other by a low ridge of mountains similar to the masses of mountains —
found between the other great chains of the Himalaya. All we know
of the valley of the Yarkandkash is that some mines of rock-salt
occur there, and that both in the beds of the Yarkandkash and Kara-
kash and in the the ravines of the neighbourhood, some pebbles are |
collected and used for cheap jewellery ; and these pebbles are either
quartzy stones or rocks decidedly volcanic. There is apparently
some analogy between these mountains and those of the centre of
Rupshu and of Ladak. The Akzai plain is also very similar to the
countries just mentioned, in at least the one character of being an
elevated, rainless desert, spotted with small lakes, some fresh, and
others salt. ¥
It is superfluous to say that I know nothing of the Geology of the |
Yarkandkash and Karakash valleys and of the Aksai Chin ; neither
is there anything known of the formation of the Kuen Luen or
Piryukh Chain, except that it is reported to contain valuable copper
and gold mines. Another small chain or range, half way between
the Kuen Luen and Yarkand seems to be the last parallel of the
Himalaya. Yarkand is supposed to be in latitude N. 38° and abou t
5000 feet above the sea. From the top of the Korakoram pass te
iStindaitrons country.
(To be continued. )
1867.]' Contributions to Indian Malacology. D1
Contributions to Indian Malacology, No. VIII. List of Estwary shells
collected in the delta of the Irawapy, in Peau, with descriptions
of the new species. By Wiuutam T. Buanrorp, A. R. 8. ., F. G4. S.;
Cor, Mem. Z. S. &c.
[Received 14th November, 1866. ]
& short visit to Calcutta, and access to various works on conchology
which have, for some years past, been beyond my reach, have enabled me
to prepare the following list of the species of mollusca collected by
‘me in the Pegu-delta during the early portion of 1862. In March
‘and April of that year, whilst engaged in the Geological Survey of
‘the country south of Bassein, I was compelled to traverse the net «
work of creeks which intersect the Irawaddy delta in every direction,
and, in so doing, I had many opportunities of searching for the various
| mollusea inhabiting the channels of brackish and salt water.
| The western portion of the Irawady delta south of Bassein is of .
| peculiar character. Instead of the endless alluvial flat which is usually
alone met with near the mouth of large rivers, the country is frequently
| mndulating, and even, in places, hilly ; the hills being surrounded by
| plains of alluvial soil intersected by: tidal channels. Rock not
| unfrequently occurs in these creeks, and affords-a habitat for many
| mollusca which are not met with in the usual muddy flats.
- The Bassein river itself, one of the numerous mouths of the
| Trawady, like the Mutlah and other great channels of the Ganges
, delta, is at present rather an, arm of the sea than a river; as it
| receives no fresh water directly from the Irawady except during the
Height of the rains. In the cold: weather the water is perfectly salt
| for many miles above the mouth, and marine animals abound. Thus
| for many days; during the time I was traversing the neighbourhood,
| the water swarmed with Meduse. The volume of fresh water which
| pours into the Bassein river can at no time be very large, for the mollus-
| ca which inhabit the southern side of Negrais Island, some distance
within the mouth of the river, are typically marine, comprising species
| of Parmophorus, Triforis, Trochus, Chama, &c., and not including any
of the usual estuary forms Asseminia, Amphibola, Neritina, &c., whilst
jat Poorian Point and Pagoda Point, the two headlands which form.
52 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1
?
the entrance to the Bassein river, precisely the same mollusca occur as
along the Arakan coast near Cape Negrais.* At the mouths of those —
channels by which the mass of fresh water poured down by the Trawady
reaches the sea, I do not think that any typically marine animals are ~
met with, nor could they exist, for, in the height of the rains, I have
found the water outside the mouth of the Rangoon river perfectly ;
fresh and drinkable, and yet this is only a minor channel compared
to the Chinabuckeer and the neighbouring branches, down which the
great bulk of the water pours. |
To the greater saltness of the Bassein river I attribute the presence _
of the numerous marine types mentioned in the following list. It 4
will be seen that a few distinctly marine species were met with ; the
number, however, was small. ‘There are also in the list two or three
genera, forms of which do not appear to have been hitherto found in~
estuaries, e. g. Teetura, Sphena, Scalaria ; whilst, on the other hand,
the genus Scaphula had previously only been met with in fresh water, —
The fauna and flora of the Irawady delta appear to be twofold.- —
Farther from the sea, where the water is more or less brackish, the |
creeks are mostly narrow and deep, with steep banks, which are |
covered at high water, and bordered by an unbroken belt of salt
swamp, in which grow high trees, chiefly of Brugweerca gymnorhiza 2
The views along the creeks, with their borders of dense high fores a
are often of great beauty. ‘This belt of salt swamp and high trees
varies much in breadth, from a few yards to half a mile or more; inside |
it are either open plains, which, if uncultivated, are covered with hig ‘ |
grass, or else rises, usually of gravel, occasionally of rock, which a @
covered with jungle.
The mollusks of this tract comprise Neritina depressa, N. obtusa and
N. Smitha ; the species of Tectwra, Modiola, Martesia and Sphenia
named in the following list are met with wherever rocks occur
Scophula is found under stones, Auricula and Cyrena inhabit the salt |
swamp. Tevredo perforates the dead trees. Neritina cornucopia is
principally met with in this region, but is also found lower down i
* Amongst others, I found species of Doliwm, Ricinula, Ranetla, &e.
ob regret that my want of knowledge of botany and the paucity of the cba
vations I was able to make upon the zoology, prevent me from entering fully
into this subject. I can merely point out the fact that a distinction exists between
the fauna and flora of the delta nearer to the coast, and that found forthe in-
land, and illustrate it in the single instance of the mollusca.
. ’
~ 1867.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 53
estuaries : Littorina melanostoma also occasionally occurs, but its home
is nearer the sea.
Lower down where the creeks are broader, the belt of salt swamp
is narrower in general, and a broad shelving muddy shore succeeds,
the upper portion covered by a thick forest of Avicensia, while lower
down Nipa palms frequently occur. The beauty of the wide creeks is
greatly enhanced by the broad fringe of the bright green Avicensia,
over the tops of which the summits of hills, covered with dense green
forest, are frequently visible.* On the sloping muddy shore species
of Potamides, Assueminia, Amphibola, Plecotrema, Haminea, Stenothyra ;
Arca granosa, Nassa planicostata, and Columbella Duclosiana are to
be met with. On the stems of the Nipa and on the mangrove bushes
Neritina crepidularia and N, cornucopia, Littorina melanostoma and
ZL. scabra are found in abundance.
_ Ihave only included in the present list those shells from the Bas-
‘sein river which are found above Negrais Island, for the reasons al-
ready stated. I regret that the list is not more perfect, and that Iam
obliged to leave a few specimens undetermined. On the other hand
the majority have been carefully compared, and the names quoted
may, I think, in most cases, be relied upon. Immediately after
leaving Pegu, I was in England for a few months ; and owing to the
Kindness of the late Mr. 8. P. Woodward, of Mr. Arthur Adams, and
especially of the late Mr. Hugh Cuming, who allowed me to compare
my shells with the original types in his unrivalled cabinet, I was
enabled to determine, not merely my estuary collections, but also a
much more numerous series of marine species from the Arakan coast,
‘in a manner which would have been simply impossible in India,
Unfortunately, during the years which have elapsed since these shells
Were compared, a few have been mislaid or lost during constant tra-
yelling in various parts of India. Still I hope that this list may have
some value as a contribution to our knowledge both of the geographi-
eal distribution and of the habitats of mollusca. Several of the species
named, and some of the genera have, so far as I am aware, never before
: * So great is the height of the trees fringing the upper creeks, and so com-
pletely do they shut out “all the surr ounding country, that I was working amongst
them for several days in iguorance of ‘the existence of hills near ly” £000 feet
high within 15 or 20 miles of me,
D4 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. I,
been shewn to inhabit the estuaries of India or Burma. Our estuary —
lists have hitherto been almost as imperfect as our catalogues of marine
species; almost all that is known of the molluscan inhabitants of our —
deltas being due to the labours of Mr. Benson, who has described many —
of the forms found in the Ganges.
It is, of course, highly improbable that the present list is nearly —
complete. Only a very small portion of the Irawadi delta was ex- |
amined, and that imperfectly. Still the number of species is consider-
able, and probably includes all those which are most abundant. A few
forms since found by Mr. Theobald and Mr. Fedden will be noted in
their place. '
The classification employed is mainly that of Messrs. H. and A.
Adams, in the Genera of Recent Mollusca. I have not, however, fol-
lowed those authors in employing the obscure and forgotten generie
terms of Klein, Montfort and others I have only deviated from their
arrangement in one essential particular, viz., the transfer of Assemuna
from the vicinity of Helv, from which it differs in every point of
structure, to that of Luttorina, to which it is closely allied. If it be
objected that Asseminia is as closely related to Cyclostoma as it is to
Inttorina, I can only suggest that Cyclostoma be: also relegated. to }
same position in the neighbourhood of Lettoriea. ta
Class GASTEROPODA.
Sub-class- PRosoBRANOCHIATAs.
Family BUCCINIDZ..
No. 1, Nassa planicostata, A. Adams..
Estuary of the Bassein river, creeping upon mud between tidemarks: j
Scarce..
No. 2, Purpura bitubercularis, Lam.
Not common. Found in the lower part of the delta, with the next j
species.
Family MITRIDA.
No. 3, Columbella Ducloziana, Sow.
amongst stones with mud. The specimens were unusually fine. EF
also met with this shell on the mud fats of Ramri Island, coast oF
cp
Avakan. 7 a.
Or
Or
1867. ] Contributions to Indian Malacology.
Family SCALARIADA (Scalide, H. and A. Adams.)
No. 4, Scalaria, sp.
A minute species, apparently new. As I possess but a solitary
specimen, which is not in the best possible order, I hesitate to de-
scribe it. It is one of the smallest forms known, measuring only 3
millimetres in length. It was found under stones in the Myittaya
creek, ‘“
Family CERITHIID&.
No. 5, Cerithium (Vertagus) obeliscus, Born.
A single specimen was found at Port Dalhousie.
No. 6, Potamides (Tympanotonos) alatus, Phil.
No. 7, Potamides (Tympanotonos) euriptera, A. Ad.
Both this and the last species are met with abundantly on mud
between tide marks, not far from the sea. They also occur on the sea
coast where it is muddy.
No. 8, Potamides (Telescopium) fuscus, Chemn.
~ Common on mud between tidemarks, where the water is completely
salt.
Besides the above, a species of Cerithidea has been found by Mr.
Theobald in the estuaries of Burma. I did not meet with it.
Family LITTORINID AQ,
No. 9, Littorina melanostoma, Gray.
Very abundant upon “‘ mangrove”’ trees, close to high water mark.
| No. 10, L. scabra, L.
Occurs with the last, which appears to pass into it. Two varieties
| of this form occur, one more coarsely sculptured and more stoutly
keeled than the other.
| No. 11, L. zic-zac, Chemn.
Syn. JZ. wndulata, Gray.
Eris species is frequently found on the sea coast, especially near
Mouths of rivers. In the estuary of the Bassein river, it occurs to-
gether with true estuarine forms. It is met with on stones and dead
wood, close to high water mark.
Family ASSIMINTID Ai.
No 12, Assiminia rubella, W. Blanf. pl. IT. fig. 11. 12.
A small roundly ovate, dull red species, which occurs abundantly
56 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1, |
near Port Dalhousie, on mud between tidemarks. It is a characteristic —
Assiminia, though much shorter and rounder than the Bengal species
A. Francesie, Gray, and belonging in fact to a different section of the
genus. It is closely allied to some Singapore species and also to A,
marginata, Leith, which inhabits Bombay, but may be distinguished
from all by the double marginal impressed line below the suture.
The animal is deep red, with a black spot upon each of the lobes”
into which the proboscis is divided. The eyes are at the top of the
short tentacles.
Family RISSOIDA,
IRAVADIA, n. &.
Testa imperforata, turrita, spiraliter costata, solida, eprdermide tecta :
apertura ovata, integra, antice obsolete effusa ; peristomate recto, extus
variciformi-incrassato, intus dilatato.
Ammal ? Operculum ?
Shell imperforate, turrited, spirally ribbed, rather thick, covered
with an epidermis. Aperture ovate, without a canal, slightly effusa
in front; peristome straight, not sinuate, with an external varix, and
slightly expanded within. Animal and operculum unknown,
No. 13, Iravadia ornata, n. sp. Pl. II. fig. 13. 14.
Testa turrita, decollata, subcylindrica, (junior elongato-conica),
solida, spiraliter costata, inter costas confertim verticaliter costulata, sub
epidernude olivaced vel ferrugined albida. Anfr. superst. 3-4, rotun=
dati, supert tribus, penultimus quatuor, ultimus sea costis spiralibus
ornate, hoc guata aperturam paulo ascendente. Apertura sub-verticalis,
elliptica, intus alba, (in testd juniori postice angulata), antice subangu- —
lata et wm test& adultd obsolete effusa, im gwnore subcanaliculata ; j
peristoma extus incrassatum, nodoso-variciforme, nodis costis sprralibus
congruentibus, intus via expansum. Operc. ? =|
Long. 44, diam. 24 mill.
Shell turrited, decollated (the young shell elongately conical,) thick, —
spirally ridged, with close vertical costulation between the ridges, —
white, with a brownish or olive epidermis. Whorls apparently about
6, when perfect, but only 3 or 4 remain in all the specimens collected;
body whorl with 6 spiral ribs, of which 4 only appear on the penul-
timate whorl, and 8 on the upper whorls, the lower ribs being cou
cealed. On all the upper whorls the 2nd and 5rd ridges are the
i
:
1867.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 57
strongest. Those near the suture, both above and below, are less strong-
ly marked, and are occasionally obsolete. On the last whorl the up-
permost ridge near the suture is alone fainter than the others. The
body whorl ascends a little towards the aperture, which is subvertical
and nearly elliptical. The anterior canaliculation is obsolete in the
adult, but it is well marked in the young shell. Peristome much
thickened, externally variciform, the varix being nodose in consequence
of the spiral ribs of the body whorl being continuous upon it. In
young specimens the lip is grooved inside, the grooves corresponding
to the external ribbing, and slight remains of this grooving may be
traced in the adult shell.
I had at first classed this shell as a &issoina on account of the
obsolete canal, although it differs in essential characters from any
species of that genus. I am indebted to my friend Dr. Stoliczka for
calling my attention to the great distinctions which exist between the
present form and £&zssoona, and some of which equally serve to dis-
tinguish it from. &zssoa and all other genera of the group. Iravadia
differs from Rissooma in possessing an epidermis, in having spiral
sculpture, in the peristome neither being sinuate above, nor projecting
below, and in the columellar margin being simply curved in front and
not excavated. From Ressoait is distinguished also by its epidermis and
sculpture, by the obsolete channel in front of the aperture, which, in
young specimens, is quite as distinct as-in Azssovna, and by the ab-
sence of any tendency to the columellar tooth or fold, which is so con-
spicuous in the typical species of the genus. The characters of the
sculpture, epidermis, and aperture serve equally to separate the
present form from Alvania, Onoba, Ceratia and other genera of
Rissoide : Hydrobia and Amnicola alone have an epidermis, but both
are smooth shells without a variciform peristome.
It is unfortunate that no specimen of the operculum has been pre-
served. The few shells found were collected during a hurried journey
ina boat. The species was only met with at one spot, under stones,
amongst some rocks in a creek. leading into. the Myittaya, a branch of
the Bassein river. Several specimens were obtained, but when an
opportunity was afforded of examining them at leisure, the opercula
had disappeared. In the absence of the operculum, I should be dis-
posed to consider the genus as more nearly allied to Ressovna than to
8
58 Contributions to Indian Malacology, [No. 1,
any other, and such naturalists as may refuse generic rank to Iravadia,
may perhaps best class it as a subgenus or section of that genus. It
may have affinities with a curious species from Peru (Ressoma sulce-
fera, Trosc.) figured by Schwarz von Mohrenstern in his monograph of
Rissoina in the Denksch. k. k. Akad. Wien, xix, 182, Taf. 10, fig. 83,
and the differences between which and all other Rzssoine are pointed
out by that author. |
The curious little shell dredged by Mr. A. Adams in the seas of
Japan and described by him as Vanesza sulcatina in the Annals and
Magazine of Natural History for 1861, Ser. 3, vol. viii, p. 242, may
also possibly have some affinities with Jravadia.
No. 14, Stenothyra monilifera, Bens. PI. II, fig. 15.
I found two specimens of this species at Port Dalhousie in the
Bassein river. The type was first obtained by Mr. Theobald at Mer-
gui and Rangoon, and the shell has since been found in Cochin China.
As the species does not appear to have been figured, I add an illustra-
tion of it.
Family NERITINIDA,
No. 15, Neritina Peguensis, n. sp. Pl. I. fig. 1—16.
Testa globosa, oblique ovalis, solida, confertim oblique subsinuate —
rugata, interdum spinigera, -epidermide fusco-olivaced, minute flavo-
punctulatad, aliquando maculis oblongis subcurvatis flavis infra sutu-
ram ornatd, vel fasciis subobsoletis spiralibus circumdatd, induta, sub
eprdermide cerulea vel rubella, albido-maculata. Spira via exserta, —
plerumque erosa, sutura elevato-compressa. Anfr. circa 8, supert pla-—
nulato-concavi, ultemus superne ad sutwram appressus, supra peripheri- :
am aut carinatus, spinisque distantibus munitus, vel obsolete angulatus,
subtus rotundatus. Apertura intus lactea ; peristoma semiovale, area
columellart planulaté, luteold v. sordide albidd, minute denticulatd, —
plicd unicd majort intrante supramediand munitd, antice edentatd,
Operc. extus planum, albidum, margine externd nigra, intus rubrum.
Maj. diam. 19, min. 15, alt. 19 mill. Hab. in rivulo ad Promon-
torium Negrais,
Var. minor testé magis rotundatd, spinis omnino carentibus, fig.
138—16. Maj. diam. 14, min. 11, alt, 15 mill.
flab. ad Portwm Dalhousie,
1867.] Contributions to Indian Malacology, 59
Shell globose, obliquely oval, solid, closely obliquely and rather
sinuously wrinkled, sometimes bearing spines, covered with a dark
epidermis. Colour generally dark olive with minute yellow specks,
occasionally with oblong splashes of yellow below the suture; these
generally curve backwards, and are sometimes, but rarely, of large size.
Some shells are surrounded more or less obsoletely with yellow bands.
Beneath the epidermis the shell is pink or bluish spotted with white.
Young specimens are frequently pink, with yellow specks, in front of
each of which is a black streak like a shadow. The spire is barely
exserted, apex obtuse, and generally eroded, the erosion extending
frequently down the spire, and often a portion of the outer surface of
the last whorl itself is wanting ; suture raised, compressed. Whorls 3,
the upper ones frequently wanting, but when present, flattened or sub-
concave. Last whorl concave and compressed against the suture above,
then either carinate above the periphery and bearing short subdistant
spines, or else obtusely, more or less obsoletely angulate. Below it is
always rounded. Aperture milky within, peristome semioval, columellar
area flat, yellow or dirty white, minutely denticulate, except in front,
and having a prominent re-entering tooth just above the middle.
Operculum pinkish white outside, exterior margin black, red inside.
The nearest ally to this form with which I am acquainted in N,
_ obscurata, Recluz, which has a more expanded mouth, and more deep-
ly emarginate columellar area, the whorls appear also rather different-
ly shaped above.
The present species is eminently variable. The type occurred in abun-
dance close to the beach in a small stream which descends from the
hills close to Cape Negrais; specimens were especially abundant in a
brackish pool at the beach, spinous and spineless shells occurred mixed
together, and the presence or absence of spines is evidently of no im-
portance. The spineless variety from Port Dalhousie was found in the
salt water of the Bassein river, abounding along the strand between
tide marks.
_ To illustrate the variation of this species, several specimens have
been figured,
Specimens collected by Mr. Theobald in Arakan illustrate the gra-
dual passage, by absolutely insensible gradations, of this form, into the
very distinct N. retzfera, Bens. of the Ganges delta,
60 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1,
No. 16, ‘Neritina obtusa, Benson.
Scarce, I obtained two specimens on limestone rock at Thaman-
dewa in the Bassein river,
No. 17, Neritina Smithii Gray.
Less common than in the estuary of the Ganges.
I have another species of Neritina belonging to the typical section
from the estuary of a small stream running into the sea just north of
Cape Negrais. I have been unable to identify it with any known
Species, and it may possibly be new.*
No. 18, Neritina (Dostia) depressa, Benson, pl. I, fig. 17,18, 19.
There are specimens of this shell amongst my Irawaddy collections: _
I think they are from Rangoon. The species is generally found in
fresh or slightly brackish water, while Neritina crepidularia and N.
cornucopea are chiefly met with nearer ‘the sea, where the water is
more salt. In Bombay Island, however, I have met with N. depressa
on the sea shore.
No., 19, Neritina (Dostia) crepidularia, Less. Pl. I. fig. 20, 21, 22.
This shell and the next are found rather abundantly upon trees
growing in places covered by water at each tide, and especially upon
Nipa palms. WN. crepidularia frequently occurs upon the sea shore, as
well as in estuaries.
No. 20, Neritina (Dostia) cornucopia, Benson, pl. I. fig. 23, 24, 25.
Locally abundant. The shells found by me in Pegu differ slightly
from the type, which is scarce in the Hoogly at Calcutta. In the
latter, the apex of the shell is very nearly in the same plane as the ~
edge of the peristome, sometimes actually so and touching it. In Pegu
specimens, the peristome is free from the apex. The difference is very
trifling, and there is slight variation in this character in specimens from
the same river. In other respects, the shells appear to agree excel-
lently.
I learned from Mr. Benson some years since that Neritina melano-
stoma, Troschel, is identical with N. cornucopia, the latter name having
priority.+ The figures of the former in Philippi’s Abbildungen
* Further examination shews it to be one of the forms already referred to
as intermediate between N. Peguensis and N. retifera, B. It is smooth like the
latter.
+ N. melanostoma was published in Wiegman’s Archiv for 1837, p. 1793
N. cornucopia was described by Mr, Benson in this Journal for 1836.
Vol. V. p. 748.
1867.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 61
are poor, but the specimens were from Bengal, and they present
no essential difference from immature shells of cornucopia, so Mr.
Benson is doubtless correct. Reeve in Conch. Icon. quotes N.
melanostoma as a synonym of N. crepidularia and ignores N. cornu-
copia altogether. Von Martens (Malakoz. Blatter, 1863, X, 127.)
“shews that the colour of the columella and lip is sometimes white
and sometimes black in several Neritine of the Dostia section.
' The fact very probably is, that we have in this case an example of
a phenomenon not uncommon in the animal kingdom. Two distinct
races spring up side by side, arising from one type, and in the original
locality do not change their form, but although they breed truly, they
are only distinguishable by some slight constant distinction. As both,
however, migrate into distant regions, the difference becomes greater,
and at length both become so diverse, that no question can remain as
| to their being in common natural history talk, “ distinct species.”
| Thus while Neritina cornucopia and N, depressa, inhabiting the Ganges
| delta, are scarcely distinguishable from each other by any more im-
| portant character than the colour of the aperture, the same shells in
| Pegu have varied so much, that each differs from the other at least as
| much as it does from their congener NV. crepidularia. In other places
| the race representing N. cornucopia may be perfectly undistinguish-
able from N. crepidularia, as appears to have been observed by v.
. Martens in Singapore. It is highly probable that the origin of species
/ through variation takes place in space as well as in time. More ob-
Servations on this question are desirable.
Figures of the three forms occurring in the Pegu delta are added.
; Family PALUDINIDAi?
| No. 21, Larina? Burmana, n. sp. PI. I, fig. 1.
| Testa ovato-globosa, imperforata, tenuis, castanea, striatula, nitidula.
Spira conoidea, apice erosula, sutura valde impressa. Anfr. 5, rotunda-
| ti, sensim descendentes, ultimus tumidus, subtus rotundatus. Apertura
ve obliqua, subelliptica, superne angulata ; peristoma rectum, tenue,
marginibus callo tenut junctis, columellari expansd. 2? Operc. corneum.
| Long. 11, diam. 8 mill. Apertura TE mill. longa, 6 lata.
| Shell ovately globose, imperforate, thin, translucent, smooth, brown-
ish, homy. Spire conoidal, apex eroded, suture deep. Whorls 5
t (perhaps more in adult specimens), rounded, obsoletely striated, regu-
———
ver
62 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1,
larly descending, the last tumid, rounded beneath. Aperture nearly
vertical, subelliptical, angulate above. Peristome thin, straight, mar-
gins united by thin callus, columellar margin narrowly expanded.
The operculum of this peculiar species was unfortunately lost, and
the animal was not observed. In the hurry of travelling, the speci-
mens were placed in a box and forgotten, until the fleshy portions”
were too much decayed for examination. About half a dozen individuals
were found under stones in the Myittaya creek, in the same place which
yielded Iravadia ornata and other forms.
Mr. A. Adams, who very kindly aided me in determining some of the
species contained in my Pegu collections, suggested that this shell
might possibly be a second species of the genus Larina, established by —
him for an Australian shell, the animal of which also is unknown. In
appearance this shell somewhat resembles a Lymnea. It is not impos-
sible that it may have affinities with Amphibola. I have a distinct
impression that the shells possessed a horny operculum, or [ should
have been disposed to class them in the Velutinde.
Family TECTURIDA,
No. 22, Tectura fluviatilis, n. sp. Pl. II, fig. 2, 3, 4.
Testa depresso-conica, rotundato-ovalis, tenuis, epidermide fusco-
olivaced induta, lineis radiantibus, strisque confertis minutis concentra
cis decussata, intus ceruleo albida, interdum fascid concentricd lacted,
vel etiam omnino hoc colore versus marginem saturata, ad apicem
ferruginea. Apex subcentralis, erosa.
Major diam. 214 min. 20 alt. 6
20 ) 17 ) oF
9 14 2? 12 oP) 4
Shell much depressed, conical, subcircularly oval, thin, covered with
9
avery dark olive epidermis, always eroded at the apex, marked with
fine radiating raised lines and with close and minute concentric striz
of growth; inside the shell is bluish white, sometimes with one or
more milky concentric bands, or the whole interior is milky, except
the apex which is invariably ferruginous, the area so coloured having
some correspondence to the amount of external erosion, and the |
colour being evidently due to a deposition of shell inside to protect
the animal as the external portion is corroded away.
This species is found on rocks, rarely on trunks of trees, in many of
1867.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 63
the creeks near high water mark, in brackish water. It was not met
with near the sea, where the water was very salt.
The foot is large, filling the cavity of the shell, muzzle broad, ten-
tacles long and fine, mouth not notched beneath. It does not appear
to keep to one place and form a hole for itself like some Patella, but
it is very sluggish in its movements.
, Sub-class OpistHoBRANCHIATA,
Family BULLIDAL.
No. 23, Haminea tenera, A. Ad.
Not common. In Bombay this species abounds upon mud flats,
The animal is red.
Sub-class PuLMoNIFERA,
x Family AURICULIDA.
No. 24, Auricula Jude, L.
_ This species is completely blind, as has been noticed by von Martens
eber die Landschnecken der Molukken, Malakoz. Blatter; 1863,
¥. 126) and as is shewn in Eydoux’s drawing copied in Mrs. Gray’s
iollusca. ‘The same is the case with all other species of the same
roup which I have examined. In some instances, e. g. the Bombay
pecies, which has received, I believe, a MS. name from Mr, Benson,
he eyes may be detected beneath the skin by looking very carefully.
(Von Martens observed this in one instance in A. Jude.) Such
yes can, however, be of but little use as percipient points to the ani-
als. There is, however, one group of true Awricule, typified by A.
| subwla, Quoy and Gaimard, in which the eyes are normally developed,
| the same as in Melampus, Cassidula, and other Awriculide. A small
. pe ies of this type inhabits Bombay. The forms belonging to this
| ub-division appear also distinguished by a more elevated spire.
Further observations are, however, necessary before a division of the
\ yenus can be proposed on these grounds, as there appears great proba-
| Di ‘ity that the two forms pass into each other.
| i found specimens of A. Jude alive under the bark of dead trees,
on muddy banks of creeks, in places overflowed by the tide. Unques-
tionably, so far as my experience goes, none of the Eastern Awriculide
(Auricula, Cassidula, Melampus, Pythia, Plecotrema) are land shells,
all are met with in places overflowed by salt or brackish water at
every tide. They are in fact true estuary shells.
‘
64 Contributions to Indian Malacology, [No. 1,
Some of the specimens of this species collected by me shew an al-
most complete passage into A. dactylus Pfeiffer, as described and figur-
ed in Novitates Conchologice I, 15, pl. V. fig. 15.16. This species
is stated by Mr. Theobald to be found at Mergui (J. A,S. B.
for 1857, xxvi. 253.)
No. 25, Auricula nitidula, n. sp. Pl. II. fig. 5, 6.
Testa non rimata, subfusiformi oblonga, solida, nitidula, sub epider-
mide olivaced alba, lineis impressis confertis verticalibus minutissime
rugata, alus spiralibus granulato-decussata, sculpturd infra suturam
magus impressd. Spira conoidea, apice eroso, sutura impressa. Anfr.
5 convexi, ultumus vie descendens, 2 longitudinis subequans, basi ro-
tundatus. Apertura verticalis, plice parietales 2, supera parva, profun-—
da, alia obliqua, plica columellaris haud valida, diagonalis : perist.
crassum, marginibus callo tenui gunctis, dextro superne via sinuato, in=
tus callo elevato incrassato.
Long. 28, diam. 124 mill. Apertura c. perist. 19 mill. longa, intus
5 lata.
Shell not rimate, subfusiformly oblong, solid, smooth, having a
greasy lustre, white, epidermis olive, covered with minute granula-
tions produced by the intersection of vertical and spiral impressed lines,
both very close and the former sinuous, the sculpture being most
strongly marked below the suture. Spire conoidal, apex eroded, suture
impressed. Whorls 5 convex, the last nearly 2 of the. whole length,
scarcely descending, rounded at the base. Aperture vertical with 2
parietal plice, the upper one small, far inside; the lower strong,
oblique; columellar plica moderate in size, diagonal; the peristome
thick, the margins united by a thin callus which is somewhat ex-
panded upon the penultimate whorl, the right margin scarcely sinu-
ate above, and thickened inside.
This species which is found very rarely with the last, exactly re-
sembles it in general form, but has rounded whorls and finer sculpture,
besides being of much smaller size. The animal is white, while that
of A. Jude is mottled. A. nitidula somewhat resembles A. Chinensis
Pfr. which, however, is much less attenuate below, and differs in the
form of the aperture, &c.
But two or three specimens of this form were met with. In Mr.
Theobald’s lists of Burmese shells, A. glans, Bens. is mentioned. I can
AT =a
1867.) Contributions to Indian Malacology. 65
find no description of this species, and cannot therefore say if it be the
present form or not.
No. 26, Plecotrema Cumingiana, n. sp. PI. II. fig. 16.
| Testa subrimata, subelliptico-ovata, solida, punctis impressis crebris,
lineas spirales confertas formantibus, striisque increment: obliquis ornata,
ferrugineo-fusca, Spira conoidea, lateribus vix convexiusculis, apice
erosa, sutura levi lineart. Anfr. 4 superst., supert planulati, vix
discret, sulcis spiralibus punctatis 4 notati, ultimus ad peripheriam sub-
mgulatus, subtus compressiusculus. Apertura vix obliqua, plicis parie-
bus 2, superiort brevi obliqua, alteraé intrante, extus bifidd, plicd
solumellari subobliqua ; peristoma rectum, pone limbum acutum intus
callosum, margine deatro tridentato. .
Long. 5, diam. 3 mill. Apert. 34 mill. longa.
Shell subrimate, subelliptically ovate, solid, marked with close spiral
ines, formed of thickly set punctiform impressions, and with oblique
trie of growth ; reddish brown in colour. Spire conoidal, the sides
arely convex, apex eroded, suture flat. Whorls 4 remaining, the
pper flat, scarcely distinguishable, marked with 4 spiral dotted lines,
e last whorl subangulate at the periphery, somewhat compressed
slow. Aperture very slightly oblique, with two parietal folds, the
pper short, oblique, the lower re-entering, externally bifid, the colu-
ellar fold sub-oblique ; peristome straight, margin sharp, but inside the
larp edge thickened and bearing 3 teeth within the right margin.
This species was rather scarce, crawling on mud in company with
ssiminea rubella. It is distinguished from its allies, P. striata, Phi-
ppi, and P. punctostriata, H. and A. Adams, by its low spire and
inute sculpture. In naming it after the late Mr. Hugh Cuming,
adopt the only means in my power of acknowledging my obligations
that gentleman for the very liberal manner in which he allowed
e access to his collections, for the purpose of comparing and identi-
ing my Pegu shells.
Besides the above Awriculide, I have received a Pythia which ap-
ars to be a variety of P. trigona, Troschel, from Mr. Theobald and
% fedden, who both met with it on the Arakan coast, not far north
Cape Negrais. It is singular that I did not meet with species of
) ther Cassidula or Melampus, as I have reason to believe that both
} inhabit the Irawadi delta or its immediate vicinity. Mr. Theobald
| has sent me Cussidula aurisfelis, Brug. from Arakan.
*
ny
9
pe
+t
roa
r]
66 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1
Family AMPHIBOLIDA.
No. 27, Amphibola Burmana, n. sp. PI. II, fig. 7—10.
Testa aperte wmbilicata, naticordea, tenuiuscula, castanea, periom-
phalo plerumque saturatiori, nitidula, subsinuate striatula, infra sutu-
ram dense peroblique striata, lined und elevatd spirali, interdum obso-
letd, swperne haud procul a suturé signata. Spira conoidea, apice via
obtusa, sutura profunda. Anfr. 4 rotundati, ultimus tumidus. Aper-
tura ovata, superne recte angulata ; peristoma vix interruptum, breviter
adnatum, tenue, marginibus approximatis, callo tenui junctis, dextrali
superne sinuata, basalt recta, columellari breviter reflexo, wmbilicum
partim tegente. Operculum corneum, paucisprrale, nucleo basalt,
sinistro.
Alt. 10, diam. 94 mill., apertura T} longa, 5} lata.
Shell openly umbilicated, naticoid, rather thin, orange-brown, dark-
er around the umbilicus, smooth, marked with subsinuate lines of
growth, closely and very obliquely striated just below the suture, with —
a single raised spiral line, which is sometimes obsolete, on the upper
portion of each whorl. Spire conoidal, apex subacute, suture deep,
Whorls 4, rounded, the last swollen. Aperture ovate, rectangulate”
above; peristome scarcely interrupted, free, except for a very short
lent from the last whorl, thin, margins closely approximate, united
by thin callus, right margin rather deeply sinuate above, basal straight,
columellar turned back near the umbilicus, which it partly conceals,
Operculum horny, paucispiral, nucleus basal, sinistral.
This is, I believe, the first instance in which the presence of Am=
phibola has been indicated in the Indian or Burmese seas or estuaries 3
nevertheless, it is very common. I found, in Mr. Cuming’s collection,
specimens of the same form as that above described, which were
collected in Malacca by Dr. Traill, and a smaller form, scarcely separa
as a race from the above, abounds in Bombay harbour.
The present species is nearly allied to A. fragilis, Quoy and Gaimard,
but is thinner, with a lower spire. It was found abundantly crawling
on mud, between tidemarks, in company with Asseminea rubella and
Plecotrema Cumingiana. The animal was difficult to make out, as it
consisted of an indistinct translucent mass. There were no tentacles,
and the eyes were on very short lobate pedicels. The animal differs”
considerably from the figure of that of Amp. fragilis, as copied from
Quoy and Gaimard by both Adams and Mrs. Gray.
—1867.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. 67
: Class CONCHIFERA.
/ Family PHOLADIDA,
No. 28, Martesia fiuminalis, n. sp. PI. III, fig. 1, 2, 3.
Testa ovata-conica, valde inequilateralis, antice hemispherica, postice
sensim acuminata, extremitate membranacea, albidd, tenuis, Valve
margines epidermide crassa, coriaced indute, pagina antica jus-
ta cardinem eostulis confertissimis, sinuatis, concentricis, lineisque
adiatis elevatis decussantibus pulchre ornata, subtus glabra, postica
concentrice striata. Callum trilobato-peltatum, medio divisum, Valvula
dorsalis rudimentaria, cornea,
Lat. 124, long. 6, alt. 53 mill.
Shell ovately conical, white, thin, inequilateral, anterior extremity
hemispherical, posterior regularly acuminate and membranaceous at
‘the extreme end. Valves near the edges covered with a thick coriace-
ous epidermis, which in places, and especially towards the posterior
extremity, extends beyond the margin and forms a membranaceous
fringe, uniting the valves more or less. Hach valve is divided into two
parts by a line passing obliquely from the hinge to the ventral margin
and inclined slightly backwards ; in front of this line the shell near
the hinge is decussated with very close sinuate concentric and subdistant
adiating costulation ; near the ventral margin it is smooth. Behind
the oblique line the valves are concentrically striated, more or less in-
listinctly. The callus covering the hinges is trilobate and divided by
a fissure in the centre; dorsal valve rudimentary, horny, commencing
t some distance from the hinge, increasing in breadth backwards, but
ery narrow throughout.
This species appears most nearly allied to IL. rivicola, Sow., which
as found perforating floating logs in a river in Borneo, The pre-
ent species is blunter and shorter, and W.-rivicola is destitute of the
culpture on the anterior portion of the valves.
MM. fluminalis was found boring in soft argillaceous sandstone, in
reeks far from the sea, where the water was brackish. The external
tifice in the stone is very minute, and must have been made by the
hell when very young. Inside, the burrow exactly fits the shell, so that
he only possible motion is rotation upon the longest axis of the shell.
‘The epidermis appears normally to cover the posterior subdivisio
| 0 { the valves, but it is always deficient, except towards the margins,
im:
v
68 Contributions to Indian Malacology. [No. 1
Zz
No. 29, Teredo ? sp.
All the dead trees in creeks in the Irawady delta are perforated
throughout by a species of Teredo (?) I either omitted to take speci-
mens, or else have lost them since, and I can now find none to which to
refer. It is possible that this shell may be the Teredo thoracites of
Dr. Gould,* described in Vol. VI, of the Proceedings Boston Society
of Natural History, and on which he subsequently, in Vol. VIII, pro-
posed to found the subgenus Calobates, characterized by the “ pallettes”
(stylets) being “stilt shaped, bony.”’ Dr. Gould’s specimens were
from Tavoy, but he does not mention if they were fluviatile or
marine.
Family CORBULIDZ&.
No. 30, Sphenia perversa, n. sp. Pl. IIL. fig. 4, 5, 6.
Testa oblongo-ovata, parum inequivalvis, valvd dextraé majori,
‘tenuiuscula, alba, concentrice irregulariter striata, antice rotundata,
postice acuminata, demum transverse truncata, ad extremitatem epider-_
mide coriaced, rugata induta ; margo dorsalis subrecta, ventralis antice
convexa, postice via concavad. Processus cardinalis valve sinistre ( non
deatre) elongato-lamelliformis. A
Lat. 11, long. 6, alt. 4 mill. “
Shell oblong, slightly inequivalve, broadest at the umbo, somewhiil
acuminate posteriorly, and very much more so in young specimens;
thin, white, irregularly striated, the posterior end covered with a thick
coriaceous epidermis which is vertically furrowed. In the young
shell the epidermis covers all the shell except the beaks; it is thin
except along the dorsal and posterior margins, where it is thick and
vertically suleated. The dorsal margin is nearly straight, the ven-
tral rounded in front and slightly concave behind in old shells, straight
or nearly so in young specimens. There is a lamelliform process im
the hinge of the left valve, in front of the cartilage.
This shell was met with in burrows in stone, apparently the holes
of Martesia which had perished, at least they did not appear to have
been formed by the present species. It was met with ata considerable
‘distance from the sea, in company with Martesia fluminalis.
In every respect, except the position of the lamellar tooth in the hinge
of the left valve instead of the right, the shell appears to be a true”
* Otia Conchologica pp, 222, 241,
1867.]
Sphenia. I scarcely think that the exceptional character justifies the
creation of a new genus, as the characters of the animal unfortunately
were not noted. The practice of establishing genera for single species
on insufficient grounds is so objectionable, that it will be better to.
err in the opposite direction. When the animal has been examined,
should it shew distinctions from Sphenia, it will be easy to propose
a new generic or subgeneric appellation.
No. 31, Corbula, sp.
_ A-single valve of a very thin species of Corbula was found on mud
bove Port Dalhousie.
Contributions to Indian Malacology. 69
Family TELLINIDZ,
No. 32, Sanguinolaria diphos, L.
This shell lives at a depth of about 4 feet in the mud. I found it
ibundantly in a marsh overflowed by every tide and where I should
never have suspected its existence, had not my Burmese coolies point-
sd it out and shewn me how to capture specimens. Burmese, being
mnivorous beings, are far better acquainted with the hiding places of,
ious animals than the natives of India are; amongst other dainties
ey eat Sanguinolaria, and the process for catching them which they
hewed me was ingenious. The first thing was to cut a very thin
lip of bamboo, about 5 feet long and not more than } inch in diame-
ar, and to make a small barb at the end. ‘This they thrust down all
1e small holes in the mud, many of which corresponded to the si-
hons of the Sanguinolarie below. Now and then the bamboo went
rough a Sanguinolaria, as he lay vertically with his valves open below
1° mud; of course the bivalve immediately closed his valves upon
Sie der, and was ignominiously dragged out by the bamboo, his
it being aided by digging when he approached the surface. The
ly objection to the plan is, that most of the specimens are slightly
ured, as the shell closes with such force upon the bamboo as to break
e thin ends of the valves. Some specimens were brought up in
rich the bamboo had been absolutely thrust down the siphon, thus
rally impaling the Sanguinolaria, The siphons are of great length,
a Beiterstiy exceeding the shell.
| No . 33, Macoma ala, Hanley.
| No. 34, Scrobicularia angulata, Chem.
i find both the above shells recorded in my list. IT cannot now come
70 Contributions to Indian Malacology. | [No. 1,
across the specimens, and I am under the impression that they were
found dead in salt water marshes on the Arakan coast, and not in the -
delta, but they are both so common in all Indian estuaries, that it is
equally probable that I found them in the Bassein river.
Family VENERIDA,
No. 35, Chione Ceylonensis, Sow.
I have mislaid my notes as to the exact locality of this species SP
T think it was found at Dalhousie. Ina backwater on the Arakan
coast, I found an allied, but undescribed species of the same genus.
No. 36, Artemis, sp.
Of this I have a single immature specimen. It may be the young
of A. excisa, Chem. but has not the sculpture of that species, nor its
angulate posterior slope.
Family CYRENIDZ. e
No. 37, Cyrena Bengalensis, Lam. ;
Mangrove and other salt water swamps along the edges of creeks, —
amongst roots of trees and brushwood, common. j
I am inclined to refer the shells I obtained to the above form, of
which I suspect some others since described are merely varieties.
Cyrene vary greatly with age, besides being eminently variable in
form. Thus some of my specimens exactly agree with C. uroidl
Desh., but I cannot help believing that they are merely immature
specimens of the thicker form which I refer to C. Bengalensis. :
Family MYTILIDAi,
No. 38, Mytilus smaragdinus, Chem. +
Found in creeks below low water mark. I do not think it is gene-
rally known that the flesh of this species is very delicious. Some
were brought to me along with a quantity of oysters, and the Bur-_
mese told me that the mussels were the better eating of the two.
Not having much faith in Burmese palates, I preserved the shells and
threw away the soft parts of the Mytili ; but as a trial, I had two or
three cooked with the oysters. I found that the Burmese were quite
right, though the oysters were by no means unpalatable.
No. 39, Modiola emarginata, Bens.
A dwarf variety of this species occurs in salt water creeks.
Family ARCID. :
No. 40, Arca (Anomalocardia) granosa, L.
This very common species was only found at one spot i in the Bas-
scin river, It was living in mud close to the surface, under stones and
iy
1867.] Contributions to Indian Malacology. | 71
roots of plants. The same species abounds in mud, amongst stones,
in Bombay harbour, and is collected for food by the natives.
No. 41, Scaphula delte, n. sp. PI. IIL, fig. 7-10.
Testa tumida, perelongato-rhomboidea, sub epidermide crassd, fuscé,
postice radiatim liraté albida, lineis minutis elevatis confertissimis
decussata, ante carinam costd unica latd, planulatd, aliquando obsoletd, a
natibus ad marginem decurrente, munita, intus cerulescens, antice rotun-
data, postice oblique truncata, margine ventrali antice convexd, postice via
concaviusculd (teste junioris recté). Carina perelevata, acuta, valvas
paginas duas dividens, unticd tumidd, posticd concavd. Area
mitida, sub lente striatula, ligamento rhombeo solum antice induta.
Dentes cardinales postici breves, obliqui, ab extremitate remotiusculi,
— Lat. 10 long 84 alt. 64.
» 8 , 8 » Oe
Shell very tumid, elongately rhomboidal, (the ventral and dorsal
aargins being parallel as in 9. celox) covered with a thick, dark epi-
dermis, which is rather rough and radiately ribbed behind the keel.
Beneath the epidermis the shell is white, and decussately very minutely
sculptured, one flat broad rib, scarcely raised, and occasionally obsolete
n old’ specimens, passing from the umbones to the margin just in front
4 the keel. This is scarcely distinguishable until the epidermis is
removed. The valves are bluish within, rounded in front, obliquely
truncated at the posterior margin; the ventral margin is convex an-
eriorly, subconcave posteriorly, being straight for the greater part of
$ course in young shells, but’ becoming slightly concave, at the spot
where the byssus passes out, in old specimens. The keel is very high
. id d sharp, separating the valves into two subdivisions, the anterior of
] hich i is tumid, the posterior concave. The area is polished and stria-
ad rather obliquely, the ligament diamond-shaped and covering only
he anterior portion, about $ to } the length, of the area. The hinge
seth are oblique, but less so than in either S. celow or S. pinna, and
posterior teeth are much farther from the extremity of the shell
han in either of those species.
‘The great distinction between this species and the other two pre-
iously described is in the far greater tumidity of the valves, which
re nearly twice as broad in their diameter from side to side (of the
| close valves) as they are from the dorsal to the ventral margin.
The proportion of the two diameters in the present species averages
|
:
t
4
|
72 Contributions to Indian Malacology.
about 12: 7. In S. celox it is 12: 102 andin S. pinna 12:93.* The
last named species is of a totally distinct form, being much wider
posteriorly than in front, so that it is sub-trigonal in shape instead of
rhomboidal. Its posterior hinge teeth, also, are near the extremity,
and so oblique as to be almost parillel to the hinge line, while in its
smooth, thin epidermis, marked concentric sculpture, and convex
posterior subdivision of the valves, it differs widely from S. delte.
The ligament of S. pinna covers a greater proportion of the length of
the area, (about 2,) than does that of S. delée. It is much narrower
in proportion to its length, as is indeed the entire area, corresponding
to the smaller tumidity of the valves. S. celox approaches more near-
ly to the present species, but is thinner and much less tumid, has its ©
posterior hinge teeth more oblique and nearer to the extremity, and
differs widely in sculpture.
S. delte was found under stones in creeks, adhering by a byssus. It
was not met with near the sea. It is the first species of the genus —
that has been found in brackish water, both of the forms described by —
Mr. Benson being from large rivers far above the influence of the tide. a
Mr. Benson mentions the occasional occurrence of a raised rib in~
front of the keel in S. celow. I have several specimens, which I received
from Mr. Theobald, shewing this peculiarity. It differs entirely from
the flattened subobsolete rib of S. delte. 4
Figures of all 3 species are added to illustrate the difference —
them. 4
Family ANOMIAIDA. ,
No. 42, Anomia, sp.
The specimens of this shell have unfortunately been mislaid. L
only obtained two or three specimens, and it is extremely difficult to
eget
make out the species of this genus. :
FE
No. 43, Anomia (Ainigma) senigmatica, Chem. f
Occasionally found adhering to stumps of trees in salt water oa
| Family OSTREID A. :
No. 44, Ostrea, sp. (? 2 sp.) ;
A large form occurs in the creeks below low water mark. A
smaller kind is met with between tide marks in mangrove swamps and —
creeks, attached to wood or stones. I unfortunately omitted to take
specimens of either. 5
* Measured from authentic specimens of each species,
JOURNAL
OF THE
me ATIC SOCLETY:
es
Pant IL—PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
No. II.—1867.
the Jungle products used as articles of food by the Inhabitants
of the districts of Manbhoom and Hazaribagh.
By V. Ball, Esq. B. A.
Geological Survey of India,
Tt is perhaps not generally known that throughout Manbhoom
and Hazaribagh, as well as in many of the adjoining districts a
considerable number of the poorer classes of the people depend solely
pon the jungle to supply them with the means of subsistence for
om two to three months of every year. In time of famine the
jumber so dependent is of course greatly increased.
In some of the more jungly parts of these districts, where the
; Itivation round the villages is very limited and deficient, nearly the
‘whole of the inhabitants who have survived the past famine, can have
\% ad little else but the roots and fruits of the surrounding jungle upon
| which to subsist. While passing through some of these villages last
| season, I was told that but few deaths had occurred in them.
an those, who residing in the centre of cultivation, have no jungle
sadily accessible. Were a census to be taken, it would probably be
10 1.
74 On Jungle Products used as articles of food. [No. 2,
found that the relative proportion of deserted houses and villages, the
result of the famine, to those still inhabited, would be much greater in
the open, cultivated parts of the district than in the densest jungles,
Indeed the jungles may be regarded to a certain extent asthe saving
of the lower races of the population; did they not afford nutritious
food in abundance, the result of a famine like that of 1866-7, would
probably be not merely decimation, but utter depopulation through-
out extended areas.
It is not to be supposed that even those who are in the habit of using
this description of food regularly, for a greater or less portion of every
year, regard it as in any degree an equivalent to rice. Many have
spoken to me of eating Mhowa, which is by far the best of these
products, as being only better than suffering from absolute famine, and —
they always consider themselves legitimate objects of charity, when ©
they can say they are living on it alone.
The list which is appended to this paper, includes nearly 80
distinct species of plants which furnish articles of food. Owing — ¢
to the difficulty of identifying the fragmentary specimens which were >
all that I could in some instances obtain, it has been impossible to ~
make it fully complete. I believe, however, nothing of importance has —
been omitted.
To 8. Kurz, Esq. curator of the Herbarium in the Botanic igardensyl
I am indebted for considerable assistance which has enabled me to.
szaaes nish ahaecrekdt seat
bring forward this paper sooner and in a more correct form tha iH
would have been otherwise possible.
The species mentioned are of course of varying importance, some
being merely edible, and in a few cases injurious if eaten in large
quantities ; while others, as the howd, Sdl, Bier, Bur, Pipdl, Sing géird,
Chehir, various roots of the species of Dioscorea, and many of the
varieties of Sag (leaves) may be considered as bond jide staple a
of food. ag
Bassta Latiroria, Roxb. Mhowa, H. & B.
The Mhowa is found in Bombay and Bengal; those who have
not visited the more remote portions of one or other of these presiden-
cies, can hardly realize the importance of this tree as a source of food
: 1867.] On Jungle Products used as articles of food, 75
to the poorer classes of the natives, more especially to such improvi-
dent races as the Bheels, Coles and Sonthals.
- In the districts of Manbhoom and Hazaribagh, Mhowa groves
as well as stray trees in the jungle are on the whole abundant. All
the trees, with the exception of a few in the neighbourhood of roads,
are the property of the zemindars, and are rented out by them at
prices varying chiefly with the bazaar nirik or price of rice.
As the crop of Mhowa approaches ripeness, the corollas, becoming
fleshy and turgid with secreted juices, gradually loosen their adhesion
_to the calyx and fall to the ground in a snowy shower. The duty of
collecting the fallen blossoms is chiefly performed by women and
children’; at dawn they may be seen leaving their villages with
empty baskets, and a supply of water for the day’s use.
Before the crop has commenced to fall, they take the precaution to
burn away the grass and leaves at the foot of the tree, so that none of
the blossoms may be hidden when they fall. The gleaners generally
remain under the trees all day, alternately sleeping and collecting the
erop; the male members of the family, visiting the trees once or twice
luring the day, bear off the produce in banghys.
It often happens that the people who collect come from a consider-
able distance, in which case they erect with the branches of Sdl a
temporary encampment of huts in which they live until the crop is
ll gathered in. In front of each of these huts a piece of ground is
made quite smooth and hard, for the purpose of spreading out the
crop to dry.
When perfectly dry, the blossoms have a reddish brown colour, and
n size they have lost three-fourths of their original dimensions and
bout half their original weight. It is the custom with some of the
é tives, before spreading them out to dry, to pull off the little ring of
c liaceous lobes which crowns the fleshy corolla.
Tt is very difficulty to collect trustworthy statistics regarding the
| amount of yield of the Mhowa trees. I have been told, and it has been
| “repeated to me several times, that a first class tree will yield as much
| as thirty cutcha maunds of 12 chittacks to the seer, or about $th of a
| ton; in other words, an average daily fall of two maunds is said to
| continue for 15 days. This estimate I believe is more than double
i. vhat it ought to be, .
76 On Jungle Products used as articles of food. [No. 2,
The rent of the trees varies much with the abundance of them in
the district, the quality of the previous rice crop, and various other
circumstances affecting the demand and supply. In parts of Hazari-
bagh, I have known ten small trees to be let for a rupee, while a fine
large one would sometimes alone bring that amount. In Manbhoom
I have been pointed out trees for which a sum of from two to three
rupees was charged, but I have also heard of trees being hired in the
same district for four annas.
As do the trees, so the saved crop varies much in price, the limits
being, as far as I can make out, from 2 to 8 maunds for the rupee; but
when, as is perhaps most frequently the case, the exchange is in kind,
the mahajuns only give a small quantity of salt and three or four
seers of rice for a maund of Mhowa. In parts of Manbhoom, I have
been told that during the famine, the price of Mhowa was from 12
to 20 seers for the rupee.
Two maunds of JZhowa are stated by some to furnish a months’ food
to a family consisting of a father, mother and three children. It is, ©
however, seldom eaten alone, being much more frequently mixed with —
the seeds of Sa/, Suorua rozpusta, Roxb., or with some of the leaves of —
the plants mentioned in the accompanying list which are collectively :
called Sdg. The cooking is performed as follows. The Sdl seeds,
having been previously well dried in the sun, are roasted and then |
boiled alone; the Zhowa flowers are then also boiled, and the water |
is thrown away ; so far having been cooked separately, they are then
mixed and re-heated, sometimes a small quantity of rice is added. It
is the custom to cook but once in a day, and each member of thes
family helps himself whenever he feels hungry.
When fresh, the MZhowa has a peculiar luscious taste with an odour |
somewhat suggestive of mice; when dried, it possesses some resem-
blance to the inferior kinds of figs. Cooking renders it vapid and_
utterly devoid of flavour. On distillation the newly dried flowers yield
an highly intoxicating spirit called dard; this, before being sold, is
diluted with ten times its quantity of water, and is then sold at the
rate of two pice for about a quart.
Considering the really useful nature of this tree, it would be most
desirable that whenever new lines of road are being made through
any of the districts in which it thrives, it should be planted on either
: 1867.] On Jungle Products used as articles of food. vf
side, so that the poorest might avail themselves of the crop without
having to pay rent to a zemindar or landlord.
If the yield of an average tree amount to 6 maunds, that is to say,
enough to supply a small family with food for three months, there can
be no question of the immense amount of food which in time of
famine a row of trees planted along a road passing through the
country would afford. Although the natives rigorously protect such
trees as exist, [ am not aware that they do anything to increase the
number.
_ Snore rosusta, Roxb. Sdl, H. GB.
Under the head of Mhowa, the seed of this tree has already been
alluded to. Where possible, the Whowa and Sal are mixed in the manner
above described, but in some places even Mhowa is not to be obtained,
so that the Sa/ seeds are roasted and eaten alone. With many of the
Sonthals, Sal is probably a regular article of food, and not merely a
“ dernier ressort” to be used in such a year as 1866-7.
Ficus Inpica, Roxb. Bur, B. & H.—F. rexiatosa, Linn, Pipal
B. & H.
The figs of both these species especially those of the former
e eaten every year by the poorer classes of natives. In one
place last year I observed a number of wretched half-starved ill-
clothed women and children, with a few still more wretched men,
' picking up the figs which had fallen from a banyan tree: they did
not even knock the fruit off the tree, but were become so poor-spirited
by hunger, that they were contented to collect the windfalls.
_ Yuzyruvs sususa, Linn. Bier, B. & H.
The fruit of this tree though not at all to be compared in importance
with Mhowa as an article of food, is nevertheless much used in
| ‘y arts of these districts where JZhowa is not abundant ; it may frequently
be seen spread out to dry on the roofs of cottages. There are two
| va leties at least of Bier ; one is a small bush with the appearance of
| which few who have travelled in India can fail to be familiar; the
other is from the same original stock, but has been vastly improved by
| cultivation and is always found near villages.
| This fruit is sold in the bazaars, and when not quite ripe, has the
| pleasant acidity of an apple.
78 On Jungle Products used as articles of food. [No. 2,
_ Bavurnta Vautn, W.& A. Chehur B. & H.
The pods of this gigantic creeper which, passing from tree to tree,
forms the festoons peculiar to tropical jungle scenery, are most:
eagerly sought for by the natives, so much so, indeed, that it was
with difficulty that I succeeded in obtaining botanical specimens.
They are plucked just before they become ripe; so that in order to
open them, it is necessary to place them in a fire; on being sufficiently
heated, they open with a loud report, and the carpels at once twist
into curls which no amount of pressure can remove. The seeds are
easily detached and are eaten at once.
Trapa BIsPINosA, Roxb. & T. quaprispinosa, Roxb. Sznghdrd,
B. & H. Punboje, Sonth. 4
Both these species of Singhdrd are well known to many Europeans, —
With the natives they form a favourite article of food. I have frequently ©
seen from 20 to 30 persons, men, women and children groping in a half
dried up tank for Singhdrd, Paludinas, and small sluggish fish, which |
latter are caught by dragging on shore the weed in with they lie ©
concealed. From the produce of a morning’s collection of these Z
miscellaneous substances a tarkdrt is made, which is perhaps the only ;
food upon which a family have to subsist for the day. xz
. In drawing up the following list, two systems of arrangement were —
possible, either to enumerate the species under their respective natural —
orders, or under headings indicating the part of the plant used ; this —
latter form has been adopted, as it renders the list more accessible
to those not familiar with botanical terms, The order in which the
species are arranged is approximately that of their relative importance, —
On Jungle Products used as articles of food. 79
-1867.]
“qnLag
qoSaey yonut & spark Ayorrva poyearyno Y *poioj§ pue poltp ST
‘ediiun wey poryord fedta woyA AVea oyvo gina yy
“OUIIR] JO SOUTI} UI Mayvo puB wve4s Aq potorjoS Spoas f UMOTY
]joM paz jo sn £ ejsunf oy} ur pA punog AT[BUOISvOD0 OL],
*SUBUZE UI plOs pue poqooT[oo FINAT
(‘saoMopy eg)
‘aoyb Ioy oyNASQNS BSB POSN SI YOITA [Io us pots spoes oy}
pus ‘Az1oavos JO SOUT} UI UoyYvo PUL UNS OY} UL poLtp ST 4MAy OY,
‘]eg Jo osoy} sv AvM OUTS OT} UL UO}Ve Spoog
‘JoqAoYS OYVUL 0 posn spoos OY} WooAjod aeJWEde[
‘asn odojoq ANOG OJUL punods
sourtjouros ATquqoid o1@ PU [VOUT JO 4.108 B SV PasN SI} JO Spoog
‘SpUOW[e JO o9N4IYSqUs B SB POs Spoog
“MOLJBVOTXO}
-ur sonpoad 03 pres ore AqtyUUND OAISSeOXO UT WO4VO JI S[OULIOY
‘pozPBAly[ND SoUTIJOLOG
‘punoj oro Jods oT} 0} 9SOTO
uojywo pue poysvor Apjuonboeay o10uL ynq ‘podojs sourtJoWog
“pMoYyus JO
SIOMOP potap oyg ILM dn portog Auonbesy osowd ynq “ouo[e
uojvo pur poysvor ATjeuOIsvodO { sjeyqUog oeYyy Aq posn Yon]T
*SyIVULO IY
“pr
"pt
"PI
“PE
“‘pMOUH
"SLINU
d
“edosUeg,
Me Le
“PT
‘Pp!
‘raeysnpuryy
"aod,
"RAlVULy
‘uy
“etd 40 19d
‘VMOU 10 [NOP
6
‘ooppng wnjooyy
‘Iyep4opung
“"Iqox-pueg
“ULEpEE
‘elog JO Breer gy
¢ Poumeyy
“eSSULV
‘oosn yy
“apqegy
‘TTeoueg
swnry “equtal snyddzrz,
‘sdag “edoptouvi serpuodg
WNT “BOIPUT VLOFLSUR]T
“quoyy “el[Osi4ye, VIaBUBYOU
“quoy *erfostye] BISSeg
*aqenok}Vo OSBIIYTO A
“PIM “vansoroeds WiniqvUn{O N
"WWT “e[DISY BISSBD
wg “ay ‘staer[Io vuoaIN Ty
‘wut “eddeyeQ ——
"qvoy ‘eolLoT[og I[BUIULIO],
“on. (BOA Ties ——
*yooH, “eytanad —-——
"9 ‘"@ “SyeOLIqQuaL BUNON IL
‘vy AM “HUA BlUTgneg
‘quoy “eysnqor BoLoy gy
ee
“SOULE NT
i
‘saaag
On Jungle Products used as articles of food.
80
radia ATyooz10d wos ydeoxe ‘pry
‘sol yord Suryeut 10y posy
‘QUOSULIISe YeTMOULOS JIMA
‘sorytquBnh osiv] ut poysodxe pu peg
‘sXe
1eq40 ur poredoad osye ore qnq “oqroys Suryeum 1z0y posn Aporyo
*SIVZVqQ OY} UL P[OS puv poqooT[Oo st ymAy
"pooy ourosojoym AroA v ystuang Loy, | 2
‘syue} oy} Jo oulos ul SorMyuenb osuey, ut ofqvanooid ory] J
‘moryearqino Aq yuowmoAoadu yon Jo ajqedvo st
“SOO pues sTYq4
-aog yserood AoA oy} Aq Agrorvos Jo oUTY UI UO}ywO YON oy
97seq av} APY SIS B SurAVY 4rnayz youl [[VUS Y
d
"PE
*eLOSTNOPL
“PE
Be
“BIRYSULY
*BUOLIG Sy
d
"pI
“pr
d
"rox? W
d
“BIlOg
' "[eyeg ro [yor
*enyoreg
"BINGO
"TTez-1ae gq
"TEQU YT
"eID YUV-YSvg
‘IeVqjuay, 10 [e49 7,
‘T2449
pees
*O0.1B-OYOY
*Ipuoy-INYC]L
G
“‘pouey 10 puoo sy
“UnUIe Pr
s Q
Pryyours
Io juyd-1ueg
-Wog 40 BoULNAN yy
‘tyo| ‘anuo00g
*edrg
“Ing
G
Eas
"quo “eyetnormed oqo kang
“WUT “wuMIpreoeue sndxeormed
‘wwyT ‘LoueTs sdosnurtyy
“WWT “eqesoLIVA eluIyneg
‘uMyT “eorquie suyyuelAqg
“quoy “eyovrydeyeo
‘quoy “epides eninoo‘y,q7
‘mMoT unpeJodvoop tunIsuely
‘WWT “BoIpuy SsnpULeUe y,
“wuT “anjueydeye eru0.19,7
“MOQ) ‘SOTOULIV TT OLS 7E7
‘quoy ‘stueptuvos xe[Q
*quoy ‘stz0gdosa1qure
“wo *eyd{nosxe
*quoy ‘uojAxouvjoyy sorkdsorg
‘WoT “eusjoquer eruecngy
*quoy “esourdstapenb —-—
‘quoy “esoutdstq ede.y,
‘WUYT ‘Sepueled essLIBg
"quoy eyeLeuULo,.s —-—
"WWT “eSOIsItet —-—
"quoy “Bolpuy snoLy
"UnrT “esosnd
“tue “erjdougy snydAzrz,
SS ee eee] ee
*SYIVWUOY
*PanUrjuoo—s7 2nd T
‘TUeIsnpuUryL
‘I[Vouog
"SOTA NT
$1
é “joey Jo vAyy “ug *y ‘vanfoqoid mmu0Séjog
é "eyjnMpang ‘uuvy ‘epidstq sooovmuedg
é "BULIqX) ‘wwT “ejnS1eds oSsny{[OjT
: d "ed[ny e1ing "wg “ay Sumnotuepsog ——== —————
"8q.19 d *edjny e104 ae
: é 10 = BIdaANuT}e FT "Hg “Ay “UINOIPUT VULSEPOYOIIy, \
3 é ‘TgOuO.IRg ‘ug “Wy SSI[ISSAS BVIOYAULUIOI[V
2 é "el Ue yy ‘wut ‘snsourds —-__
S d "eMC ‘WWT ‘SIPLIIA snyUeIeULy
¥ “pr ‘gusng ‘wmuvy “eyerpostapenb vorisxe yg
= “eyz ur) ‘ *[oorULy ‘WUYT “BYe[NOTULOD SITVXO
S$ ys "BINYCIO n ‘dg BISSeO
8 *00.18-OYOY
s | d Io BIMpeyg 3 qeoy ‘suepueos xXe1O
; ‘tsoduoim “IBULOY] 3 basin ‘goundand erurgneg
3 he Ae A 1 “Oo aA ‘IeyUIy, Io [n4oy, WUT “eotpuy SupULIvUTR Y,
= | “TRC *rpoueg ‘quo “epides e1y1n00eL
3 "PS *BoqUury) "undo “el[IquLesoys -
S L "pt "eqn “My, ‘UnApuBIp BUIsOpIjay
2 ; (bog) saavary
Ry
S “*ueyeo ATpeuOTsK090 spod Sunof puv suemeyg \"pt "suing “quoy “esopuoly vojng
> ‘S9LLIND O[GBIBSIA LO ‘S2.1My4107 UL POS ‘pr “guyoqeg wu] “eyeSouaea erurgaeg
Ss ‘gedna ou 10F
= Spuneur g 03 dn sisas OT WoI SOLmeA OOLIG ‘Spoes 2DY YILAL
© = peyooo Ajjeioues sy “qorsystp oy} ynoysnoig} pesu ATeatsuozxy "eMOU PL "eg MOUTT 10 [OPT “quo “erfOFIVe] VISSER,
: *SUMMOT IT
= é *eqony-e[9 I, "7 £ uM ‘stpweas era1n009
33 *u93ve ore 4IMIy odtiun pu edi 430g é "eSns|[Vy yey had paren ClALIe yy
ra d ie © , Ph es BI[[OMSOg
[No. 2,
On Jungle Products used as articles of food.
82
‘Moy [njosu v our dn punoss Sureq jo ofqedvo ore osou, {
r
|
-U94x9 O1e PUB JUOUIIIYNU o[qvsopIsuOD YstuINy Sy00I exo,
“£iguno0d9 oy} Jnoysnoay} posn ATOATs
*sulo}S punoIs1opun puy
(‘oSes) u194}s8 JO 1011040]
L
‘sqyooys Suno x
*SH[BIS JV]
‘JJosqt que{d oY} Jo you ‘uLe4s oT} Jo eSOy} Ov WATS
‘uoyeo ere Sjyooys sunod puv We4s Jo oseg
SOUVU OATFVU OT,
*SyTRULOY
r
|
*squey] 4 |
ts
7 f.
“PE
“eLOSUvg
¢
*SLOOY
OWIIY
‘redo yy
‘SNELG
“equyoue yy
‘DEG ee
"MOT
“NSO ST
‘ooppug wNnpoop,
"1yU04) )
‘oupuo yy |
eore-eypuq
eo[e-e[oq
eo[e-osue g
“exo fin xT
DES
can{ey-Asunp
fet
“Tryae yy
e100 O
‘dnanyq
-eouqeyd
"*BULLO FT
20g
oes.
"TueysnpuryL | “1[R0UOg
"panurjuUog—"SHAVE'T
795 3
era
> *e = 7 ee ot Seer eee eh >
¢ dg ‘snoresy —
¢ "dg ‘1e3sv0n
ddg ‘emnoimg
_ ¢ Snpunyoa snsodfkyg
‘quvoy ‘toosfy sndatog
‘PIM Swansoroeds waniqunje Ny
d ‘sdg ‘eoroosorqy
0M ‘Stre~nsueipend STATA
‘uuy ‘sngory veaydurd yy
‘yong ‘syneoe x1meyg
*quoy “eqoIt4s esnqueg
‘2uny ‘urnsseidep uodzeosjog
¢ ‘dg svonory
‘uuvT ‘sueded enorssne
‘YT ‘MM “euisstovuey vruepsieyy
é ‘dg ‘sojeduesstg
oyoy Sumnazonbiyue ersBo0[0g
“SOUIB NT
1867.] Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, 33
Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a—
A Geological paper, by
Albert M. Verchere, Esq. M. D.
Bengal Medical Service, with a note on the fossils by
M. Edouard de Verneuil,
Membre de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris.
(Continued from page 50, of No. IIT. 1867.)
Cuarter 1V.—General Remarks, Geognostic History, and Conclusion.
_ 81. In the preceding chapters I have often insisted on the
| parallelism of the several chains of the Himalaya; this parallelism is at
once evident by reference to the map. Between the great parallels, we
have seen that smaller, catenated chains make their appearance, filling
up, as it were, with their spurs and branches, the great troughs
aed by the principal parallel ridges. All the peaks and sinuosities
of these catenated chains appear to present the same arrangement, viz.
highly crystalline and porphyritic variety of volcanic rock, passing
gradually into others less crystalline, such as Trachyte, Felstone and
Greenstone, and finally covered by ash, cinders, agglomerate, Jaterite,
and compact azoic slate: these beds of ejecta, together with their
interstratified layers of slate and sandstone, are all conformable to the
fossiliferous strata by which they are covered, and have behaved like
those at the final upheaval of the great system. But the more crystalline
to have been displaced laterally in any way to the same extent as the
ratified layers; they rather seem to have been upheaved from
underground as a solid mass, breaking through the beds of superficial
rap and of volcanic ejecta. A similar disposition is likewise usual
‘Mm granitic mountains, the granite supporting gneiss, schist, me-
tamorphic slate and marble, and these being covered by fossiliferous
_ To explain the cause of this arrangement, let us consider what
is the section of a volcano, as far as it is known at present
from a study of active and extinct ones. We have under the surface. of
the country, in which the volcano occurs, enormous masses of trachyte,
becoming more and more crystalline and prophyritic as we proceed
deeper, and probably passing gradually into granite. In some
84 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2, /
volcanoes this mass is perhaps upheaved during their activity, but
what is upheaved above ground is certainly but a small proportion of
what remains underneath. This mass is covered by the materials
which have flowed out and have spread themselves on the surface, either
under the sea or in the open air. <A great deal of this fluid material —
does never reach the surface, but finds its way into the cracks and fis-
sures of the trachyte and porphyry. The portion which flows on the
surface, whether in the air or under water is a lava; on the top of and
interbedded with the lavas, scorie, ashes, cinders, dust, broken rocks
and mud, thrown into the air or into the sea by volcanic discharges,
are arranged in gentle slopes on the sides of the volcanoes and in flat
strata further off. Now, let us suppose that the volcanic activity
becomes dormant or ceases: we shall have under the spot where the
volcano once broke out, great masses of melted and metamorphosed
matter solidifying into various sorts of trappean rocks, while on the
surface, stratified and fossiliferous beds will be deposited on the top of
the lava and ashes. Should then the whole district be submitted to
an expansive force acting from within outwards, this force will be first
and most intensely felt by the great mass of underground porphyry
and trachyte, which will be forced up and break through what-_
ever covers it; the beds of basalt and amygdaloid through which it
is forced, will be displaced and thrown aside or on their flank, drag-
ging with them the stratified beds of cinders and fossiliferous strata.
If instead of one volcano, we have many, situated not very far
apart, we shall have the superficial rocks thrown into endless confusion
by the upheaval of the many masses of porphyry and trachyte,
which once formed their bases. The surging up of these masses:
of crystalline rock will of course diminish very materially the space
occupied by the lavas, the cinders and the fossiliferous rocks at the
time of their deposition ; and these have therefore no other alternative
but to be broken in pieces, and these pieces to be raised more or less
towards a vertical position, according to the quantity of rocks to be
packed in a given space. ‘Thus, for example, near the Kaj Nag range,
we have vast deposits of felstone well hemmed in, on the south, by an-
enormous thickness of passive tertiaries. When the huge mass of
porphyry of the centre of this system of mountains received its last
upheaval, it took possession of a great extent of ground formerly
1867. } the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 85
covered by the felstone ; and this in its turn did its best to push the
tertiaries further south, but this it only partially succeeded in doing;
and as there was much felstone and little room for it, the bed broke
into pieces and these pieces became packed edgeways.
82. Granite may be considered as the solidified matter of a voleano
seated so far from the surface of the earth, that it never broke through
its covering while the minerals were in a fluid or viscid state. It is
_ the remains of a “ blind volcano.” Humboldt has described volcanic
_ action, ‘‘ the reaction of the interior of the earth on the external crust.”
_ This crust has to be broken through to allow of the escape of some of
the internal matter; where the earth’s crust resists the upward
i —_—
a
_ pressure, no crater is formed, no true volcano appears; but the melted
matter remains imprisoned under the crust, and there gradually
; solidifies under great pressure. The solidification will necessarily be
_ made more slow at a great depth, than it would be near the surface
_ and near a rent which allows of the evaporation of the intermolecular
Brater to take place; and it is the slowness of the cooling, the
_ pressure sustained during the period of cooling, and the retention of
intermolecular water and gases which cause the melted minerals to
_ erystallise as granite and not as porphyry, greenstone or basalt.
_ 83. In regard to their geographical disposition, volcanoes can be
classified into “central” and “ linear.’’ The “ central’”’ are those which
_ arise by themselves and appear not to be connected with any other
_ voleano; the ‘‘ linear” are several outlets arranged along a probable
- fissure in the earth’s crust, and the fissure is often parallel to one or
“many other fissures similarly indicated by a line of volcanoes; or
two fissures may cut one another obliquely, as we see in the Eine
“Islands.
84. Applying the above general remarks to the volcanic rocks of
— Gashmir, we first notice that previous to the carboniferous epoch, there
existed linear volcanoes arranged in a direction parallel to the
present general direction of the Himalaya, viz. N. W. and S. E.; these
volcanoes are now represented by the summits of Kaj-Nag and of the
Kistwar and Badrawar and the peaks of the catenated chains of Cash-
mir. These volcanoes vary much in importance, but no doubt can
be entertained of their general great activity, if we remember the
‘engrmous amount of ejecta which they have thrown out. The well
86 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,
stratified arrangement of these ejected materials, especially those which
are ejected in a loose and fragmentary condition, the amygdaloidal
nature of nearly all the ash-rocks and some of the slates, and the
existence of these slates interstratified with the volcanic rocks, justify
the idea that some of the volcanoes were islands and others subaqueous
craters, in a sea of moderate depth, and it requires no great effort of
the mind to picture to ourselves an archipelago of fire-emitting islands
in the Silurian sea.
At what time the volcanoes first out broke out, it is not at present
possible to determine; they appear to have subsided at the beginning
of the Carboniferous epoch ; and though phenomena related to volcanic —
power, in the most general acceptance of that term, were not wanting —
during and after the Carboniferous epoch, yet it is certain, as far as :
we at present know, that no regular volcano ever existed in the }
western Himalaya after the great Silurian volcanoes had become
extinct. ;
85. It has been remarked in many parts of the world that, when a —
volanic district is, after the extinction of all craters, so disturbed that —
fissures are formed in the crust of the earth, these fissures do not pass
through the old volcanic accumulations, but rather at a little distance 4
from them. This has been explained by supposing that the masses of :
porphyry, trachyte and other once melted rocks,which have been ej ected
in the original volcanic fissures and amongst the rocks near this fissure, —
have so much strengthened the crust of the earth in the site of that
fissure, that a new fracture takes place anywhere rather than across or —
along the old crack. If instead of one old crack we have many parallel
cracks, the new fissures will then naturally take a direction parallel to
the old fissures and will be situated between them. This has been the
case in the Himalayas, and the great lines of fracture which were formed
at the last upheaval, are none of them along the catenated volcanic
chains, but between and parallel to these chains. But the catenated
chains or lines of linear Silurian volcanoes determined the direction of
the great lines of fracture which were formed at the last upheaval. We
see therefore in the Himalayas great lines of fracture running N. W. and
S. E., these fractures present a downthrow on the 8. W. and the
beds of rocks north-east of them form the great parallel chains of the
Himalaya. The general dip of all these chains, and indeed of all the
=
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 87
great beds of rock in these mountains, is towards the N. E. ; an explana-
tion of the cause of this dip will be given hereafter.
86. We have said that granite may be considered as the consoli-
dated materials of ‘‘ blind volcanoes ;” that is, the cooled down masses
of fluid or viscid matter propelled by internal tension towards the
_ surface of the globe, but not with a force sufficient to overcome the
_ resistance offered by the earth’s crust. The soundness of this hypothesis
_ appears supported by the metamorphic influence of granite over im-
-mense tracts of country: the conversion of shales, limestone, and sand-
stones and other rocks into gneiss, schist, marble and quartzite can only
_ be explained either by supposing these shales, limestones, and sandstones
to have been plunged deep into the bowels of the earth, there to be me-
tamorphosed,—or else to have been the lid, covering and keeping under
waves of fluid mineral matter. Now, the first supposition necessitates
the assumption of very great disturbances of the earth’s crust, of such
disturbances as we cannot conceive or imagine by the analogy of any-
thing we now see in the rocks of the surface of the globe. Neither is
the idea of superficial stratified beds being plunged to a great depth
- into the earth, agreeable to the universal observation of a forcing-out
I ‘power acting from the centre to the surface. The other supposition
does not present the above-named objections: immense masses of
melted matter may have approached sufficiently near the surface to
have imparted great and continued heat to the deepest stratified beds,
and may have underlaid great tracts of country, without disturbing, to
: a very great extent, the position of the strata which they metamor-
_ phosed. Hence do we find beds of gneiss, schist and marble retaining
"great regularity of stratification for very many miles; so much so,
that it has been possible to classify these metamorphic rocks in regularly
‘superposed formations, and to ascertain non-conformity between these
‘beds, proving beyond a doubt their successive deposition.* It is
‘Impossible to understand how these beds could have preserved their
relations, overa great extent of country, if it had been submitted, at one
time, to a ‘ bouleversement”’ so terrific and complete as to have plunged
them under the solid crust of the earth, and, at another time, to the
great upheaval necessary to bring them up again to the surface.
* The great example of this is Sir W. lLogan’s Laurentian formations in
Canada,
88 Dr. Verchéve on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,
It is hardly necessary to add that the rolling of this great wave of
melted minerals, under a certain part of the earth’s crust, would set all
the deep-seated waters to boil, would sublimate certain metals and
elements, and that steam at a great heat, and occasionally impregnated
with various vapours, would add its metamorphic influence to that of
the heat disengaged from the molten granite underneath, and would
here and their percolate and alter certain distant beds which would
have otherwise escaped metamorphosis.
It has been advanced that steam alone was sufficient to account for
the metamorphism; tome it appears inadequate to the work, when we
come to consider the extensive beds of metamorphic rocks seen in
several parts of the world. No Geyser, ever so hot, has yet been —
reported to have changed shales in its vicinity into gneiss or crystalline
schists, though, I admit, the influence is often evident enough in beds
of limestone. On the other hand, we know that dykes of greenstone,
of basalt, or of amygdaloid have often converted sandstone into horn- —
stone or quartzite, and slate clay into flinty-state or jasper. It appears
therefore evident, that heat is one of the most powerful, if not the
principal agent of metamorphism; it appears also necessary that the
heat should be long sustained to produce such a great extent of metamor-
phosed beds as those we are considering, and that it should be equally —
and uniformly distributed. It does not appear likely that this persistent —
and uniform heat was supplied by bursts of vapours, nor indeed have we —
any analogy in the present days of large tracts of country being sensibly -
modified by the permeation of steam. The slow cooling of a mass of
molten mineral under pressure would be admirably adapted to the work |
of metamorphosing the superincumbent crust, over several hundred
YY Cow ae pri
square miles of country.
If the hypothesis advanced just now be accepted, we have no
difficulty in understanding the graduating of granite into volcani¢
rocks ; it is indeed what we would naturally expect to see, wherever
subsequent upheavals have exposed extensive granitic and trappeal
regions,
To facilitate the application of these remarks to the Himelajl
mountains, let us make a theoretical section from the south-west to
the north-east across the Silurian Archipelego of Kashmir and the
sea to the north-east of it. : }
89
“IIUMYSsey JO oSvjodiqory uwersn[ig oy} sso10e "| 'N 94} OF “MA ‘SG OY} AO UOIJOOY [VoTYoLO0T J,
NY .
a mo
‘3 TERS). CANES “ornssy “arussy "ounssy ‘omnssy = “USS.
~
=> . ’ 1 , ;
S oe :
S =, rg Bie | EMG T es og Mm ae ad ED
auf Se 1 RR RE Aix ee FF ek ee eR BRET OS a wigsclil aS PARA We regimes cope are
= ae hale ee Oe ; Rie ee ROH ge wy PF ® Ma Pen A ete ae a ——S Dae
3 ~ ig -% doar oe D
m— is ae EE oh ~ - my 7 y
— wr ke ts ‘ ‘ : ; : ij Sgngwas Nv ATS
J . 2 rus rT lad
be Swans Sees i 2 aypnnd
me v OHa “7 ' a . Mf i Ven i 2 ' Vv H a
- ' § 3 4 WU % Hy , '
be ~ ‘ atl An ad ywoaos’.’; *vava Vi ww oa = AS
‘ ¥ Se a5 1 ' E oo
: | NIHD bYZAY S)! : H ' ' =
= H ' : H sma
= : : ‘ \ | §
BS
S iS a al A wa is a
= *
- ae Se 2 a 3 : S
\ Q =
= =a 5 ° = = if é.
> 2. 8 © = & ou —
= P 5 5 Q Q ;
: = = ps =
Ss 5. z 5 ze. a
EB a E . 3
. _e
= B
~
>
a
A
~
"
.
U
+
.
‘
al
7
.
1867]
90 Dir. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,
This theoretical section shows us a succession of volcanic islands or
maritime or sub-aqueous volcanoes of which the base is amass of
melted matter, destined to solidify as porphyry, trachyte and other
volcanic rocks, whilst the melted materials situated further from the
vents are to solidify as granite. Over the granite, we find the crust
more or less intact, though metamorphosed into gneiss, schist and
marble; over the porphyries and trachytes we find that it has —
been removed and torn up by the ejecting power of the melted
mass making its way to the vents. Over and between the volcanoes,
we find a very thick bed of ashes, broken stones, agglomerates
and lavas. Over the granite we find, after the gneiss and schists,
stratified deposits of Silurian shales and limestone. After the —
extinction of the volcanoes, we find the whole sea-bottom covered
with the fragments of animals of the Carboniferous period ; and thus —
“do we see in Kashmir the Carboniferous limestone resting confor-
mably on the volcanic rocks, and not disturbed by their intrusion. !
Of course many changes, oscillations, denudations and depositions —
took place between the extinction of the Silurian volcanoes and the d
great final upheaval of the Himalayas; but these changes do not
appear to have been on a sufficiently grand scale to have affected, to ~
any great degree, the lithological features of the earth’s crust, in the
portion of the globe we are considering, At the final upheaval, a
series of new fissures were formed and are represented in the diagram ~
above, and the position assumed by the several slices, between these
fissures, is represented by the dotted outline. There are many more
parallel fissures, I have no doubt, but they did not cause a great up-
throw of one of their edges, and have therefore little to do with the
general configuration of the Himalayas,
The position of the fissures, between the old volcanic lines, and not on
them, has produced the phenomenon that nearly all the highest peaks”
of the Himalaya are not situated on the chain to which they belong,
but a little distance from it. The fissures, taking place in the weakest
parts of the crust, followed the old valleys between the lines of volcanoes,
and the yolcanic masses are therefore superior to the chain formed by
the edge of the fissure by the height these volcanic masses originally
possessed. It is also reasonable to admit that the movement of up-
heaval was more powerlully felt by huge masses of prophyry, trachyte,
(1867.] =the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 91
granite, gneiss, &c., which cannot be easily compressed or folded, than
by the flat beds of dusts, slates, lavas, ashes and fossiliferous rocks.
87. Glancing now at the Afghan mountains, we find that their
chains have a steady direction from the north-east to the south-west.
We find also that, as far as has been ascertained, the dip is invariably
N. W. or W. N. W.; that is, presents the same phenomenon as in
the Himalaya, of the beds of rock rising towards the plains of India.
This dip is that of all the rocks of the trans-Indus districts; it is that
of the beds in Verziristan, and of most of the nummulitic strata
in Hazara, and indeed, wherever it has been possible to examine
it, it has been found to be north-westerly. Wecannot therefore refuse
to admit, that the strike of the Afghan mountains meets the strike of
the Himalayas, and the dip of the latter being North-easterly and.
that of the former North-westerly, we are justified in-concluding, that
the whole of these huge mountains forms one and the same system of
upheaval ; that a tremendous dome or swell did surge up in the region
of our Silurian volcanic archipelagoes, and that the Himalayas on one
side and the Afghan mountains on the other are faulted slopes of a
gigantic oblique anticlinal !
_ A true anticlinal it cannot be called; it is more properly the result
f an incalculable force pressing outwardly the crust of the earth and
ndeavouring to raise it into a dome ; and as such a dome could neither
be raised nor settled down again without much fracturing of the crust
f the earth, the lines of fracture followed the direction of the old
roleanic lines, and on one side ran N. W.—S. E. (Himalayas) and on
he other N. W.—S. E. (Afghan mountains).
No good explanation has yet been advanced of the general N. EH.
ip of the Himalaya; none has even been attempted of the N. W.
ip of the Afghan mountains. By placing the axis of the dome
etween these two masses of mountains, and considering these moun-
gins as the opposite jambs of an oblique anticlinal, the singular dip
f both is satisfactorily explained. .
88. PI. XI. is intended to give an idea of the great fissures of the —
At han-Himalayan system of mountains,
92 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No, 2,
We must not forget that the fissures went through portions of the
crust, having a much greater power of resistance in some places than
in others, being here brittle, there tenacious, here rigid and there easily —
bent; and we must not expect too much regularity in the fissures,
but be prepared for occasional deviations from the general direction, |
The Miocene beds, which present the greatest uniformity of formation,
have everywhere the most regular strike, in spite of their numerous —
foldings and faults; the great beds of felstone are also tolerably
regular in their general dip, and so are the great beds of Carboniferous —
limestone in Kashmir, though of course the smaller beds, especially —
those close against high summits, have a local dip and strike. The
interminable masses of metamorphic schists, described by travellers in —
several parts of the Himalayas, have also a steady N. EH. dip, and —
Captain R. Strachey tells us that in that portion of the Himalayas which —
he examined, the N. E. dip was the general one. On the Afghan i
side of the oblique anticlinal the Miocene again presents the greatest —
regularity, and the Nummulitic formation nearly equals it ; the dip of
both these formations is very steadily towards the N. W. rd
Another cause which has no doubt contributed to break the uni-—
formity of the parallelism of the chains is the pressure, in some places, |
of such enormous accumulations of volcanic porphyry as we see at the
Kaj-Nag and in Kistwar and Badrawar. These centres of volcanic
tock appear to have been very huge; they were undoubtedly solidified
long before they became upheaved, as they were formed during the
Silurian epoch, and did not receive their upheaval until the Tertiary
period had been nearly run out. They were, therefore, raised up
bodily as solid masses, and they had been too huge to arrange themselves —
in the general parallelism of the fissures. I have represented them in
the plate as huge centres of volcanic action, regarding them as too
enormous to be displaced by even the force which has uplifted the
great dome of the Afghan-Himalayan system; they were merely
forced up. The Sufed Koh and the Koh-i-Baba in the Afghan mouns
tains occupy a similar position in relation to the parallel chains; the
first named is probably a volcanic mass, and I have assumed that the
other is likewise a porphyry centre. It is probable that certain
tar
granite masses have acted in a like manner; but it would be of little
profit to speculate about those masses, knowing at present nothing
positive regarding them.
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains, 93
The fissures just described being once formed, we have no difficulty -
in understanding how the slices of crust between them were compelled
to remain in an oblique position, viz. dipping N. E.and N. W.
espectively, when the settlement took place, if we remember, that a
great deal of granite, lignite, porphyry, trachyte, &c. buried under the
surface before the upheaval, had now been forced up and occupied
; great portion of the room; unable to find space enough to resume a
horizontal position, these bands of the earth’s crust became impacted
n the position we now see them.
89. Coming down from the high regions of the Himalaya and of
the Afghan mountains to the Salt Range and the hills of the district
of Bunnoo, we notice the interesting phenomenon of the tilting up of
the angular extremity of the piece of crust that had been broken off,
getween the converging fissures of the Sub-Himalaya and the Sub-
Afghan hills. This crop-fracture is just such as we see near the
joint of an angular piece of a window-pane which has been starred
ra blow. The dip of the Salt Range and the Bunnoo hills is
msequently disposed in a somewhat converging manner, such as is
1 icated by the arrows in Pl. XI.; the crop fracture is not a straight
@; it is a succession of segments of a circle, and the dip of each
ment is converging more or less towards the centre of its circle.
‘It is, however, possible that this breaking of the tip of the triangular
ce of crust is only apparent, and that the segmentary and converging
p of the beds may be due toa complexity of resultant forces, at the
e where the N. W. and N. W. dips meet.
To the south of the Salt Range extend the vast plains of the Punjab,
’ eer and Marwar, covered mostly with clay and sand, often a desert
ithout a hill or even a mound to relieve the monotony, and with
mdly a pebble to be found for some hundreds of miles. So far south
Lat N. 27° these great plains extend without a break, and then
@ find the volcanic rocks of Central India, supporting here and there
beds of sandstone with mammalian bones* similar to those which are
well developed in the Sub-Himalaya and Sub-Afghan ranges.
Whether the whole, a portion, or none of the volcanic rocks of Central
J are contemporaneous to those of the Himalaya, I know not,
ia
F Bones of extinct mammals have been found -in the Valley of the Nerbudda,
| Bo uth of Lat, N. 21°, no Miocene has ever been found,
}
\
)
94 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, — [No. 2,
-though it is highly probable that some at least belong to the same
epoch. I think it would be a most interesting point to study,
whether the Central Indian “Mountains participated in the great
upheaval of the Afghan-Himalayan system, and to what extent they
did so. Such a subject is not, however, to be discussed here, en Z|
passant. We must know more of what is buried under the alluvial
sands and clays of the Punjab and the desert of Ajmeer, before we can .
decide on the relations of the Himalaya and Central Indian Mountains.
The study of the Miocene beds appears the most likely sort of research it
to lead to interesting results. Could we once show satisfactorily
that the plains of Northern India have been one day, and that notlong
ago (geologically speaking) a rugged country covered with Miocene
hillocks and ridges, we should soon get ‘an insight into the participa-
tion of the Central Indian Mountains in the great Afghan-Himalayan
upheaval, and also into the nature of the soils and sub-soils of ©
Upper India. |
90. Let us now endeavour to sketch a geognostic history of the
Afghan-Himalayan system of mountains, in accordance with the
observations and hypotheses recorded in this paper.*
In the days of the Silurian epoch, the centre of Asia may be assum- .
ed to have been a sea uniting the Arctic to the Indian Ocean. In
the middle of this sea, an archipelago of volcanic islands and subaqueous |
volcanoes existed, displaying great activity and ejecting into the sea |
an immense quantity of matter. .
The position of these volcanoes and subaqueous vents is now
represented by the porphyritic masses of Kaj-Nag, of Kistwar and
Badrawar, by the summits of the catenated chains of Kashmi a
&c., &c. The volcanoes were linear in their arrangement; one line,
that of Kaj-Nag, Badrawar and Kistwar being continued far towards
the south-east ; and it is probable that the peaks of Chor, of Dodatoli
and others in the same districts, are volcanic peaks on the same
fissure, Another line or rather series of lines is that of the catenated
chains in Kashmir, with a probable S. E. extension in the range
of mountains which separate Lahool from Chumba. Another line
again is that of Drass and Karghyl, at the back of the Ser and Mer
* A few unavoidable repetitions which occur in this portion of the paper wil,
I hope, be excused,
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains. 95
chain, and which is continued far towards the S. E., forming numerous
and considerable volcanic mountains which appear as islands and
_promontories above the flat plain of the great Thibet plateau, through
which the Sutlej runs.
- These lines or fissures had a direction N. W.—S. E. and were
all parallel, but the activity of the volcanoes was not the same
on all the lines or in different parts of each line. Thus, in the line of
Kaj-Nag and Badrawar, Chor and Dodatoli, the north-western end of
the line is eminently distinguished and marked by very numerous and
very long volcanoes, whilst the eastern one only gave passage to a few
vents separated from each other by considerable intervals. On the
other hand, (on another line) in Ladak, the volcanoes appear to have
been small and few, whilst the eastern ends of the fissures appear to
have been marked with many volcanoes of great size and activity.
No volcanoes appear to have existed in that portion of the Silurian
sea, where we now have the high mountains of Kailas and Karokoram;
mt where the Kuen Luen chain was at a later age to appear, it
ems, that one or two lines of linear volcanoes did exist at the begin-
ing of the Paleozoic epoch.
How long, how many thousands of years these volcanoes kept at
heir work, it is impossible even to guess. Their activity was immense,
id it appears that in the waters which bathed the shores of the volcanic
rchipelago, too many outlets kept continually pouring out hot ejecta
nd noxious vapours to have allowed life to be present. We have seen
at there is considerable evidence of the sea-bottom having been
equently heated enough to become cellular and amygdaloidal, and a
ference to the section of the Tukt-i Suliman in Kashmir will, T think,
leave little doubt of the frequency, the violence and the abundance
the discharges of lava, of lapilli, of ashes, and of hot liquid mud.
We therefore find no Silurian fossils in Kashmir, and the slates and
sandstones which are interbedded with the volcanic ejecta are complete-
ily deprived of fossils. This want of organic life did not, however,
/ aifect those portions of the sea which were sufficiently distant from the
\ sub aqueous craters and volcanic islands to escape the destructive effects
| of ejected materials; and we find, therefore, in the Karokoram chain
jand also in the Himalaya, between the Sutlej and the Kali, large beds
jof Silurian rocks with the usual fossils, These rocks are, as we have
96 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,
seen, slates and shales which have until now proved azoic, but covered —
in by limestone rich in forms of the older Paleozoic period.
I need hardly say that the azoic slates, shales and sandstones which —
are interbedded with the ashes and amygdaloids in Kashmir are of —
Silurian date; if we wish, therefore, to colour a map of Kashmir —
solely in regard to the age of the rocks, we should have to colour —
all the ashes, slates, &c. Silurian. As the volcanic ejecta much
predominate in quantity over the azoic slates and sandstone, I have —
not coloured the mass solely by age, but rather in view of the nature —
of the rocks. |
But the Himalayan lines of insular voleanoes were not the only —
ones in that portion of the Silurian sea which we are considering ; i
a
other linear volcanoes were directed from the N. E. to the S. W. —
in the longitudes and latitudes where we now find the great
Afghan mountains. We know very little of these mountains:
we have seen, however, that volcanic rocks of a granitoid appear
ance form the ranges of hills between Yeusofzaie and Bonneyr, and ~
that clinkstone, granular and porphyritic, is quarried at Jellalabad,
Dr. Bellew also tells us that he noticed volcanic rocks amongst th
southern spurs of the Sufed Koh.* He also mentions that sharp :
earthquakes are frequent in the valley of the Korum, and it is re- |
ported by the Povindas who trade through the Gulwaira Pass, that_
a city situated at the back of the Suliman chains has been destroy od
by a terrific earthquake. I need not point out the usual relation of
severe earthquakes with accumulations of volcanic porphyries, im
countries where no active volcanoes have been known to exist for
several geological ages past. Then we have seen that the summits
of the main chain of mountains, in the Vuzeeri country, are mostly
‘a
composed of volcanic rocks; but the greatest amount of evidence is
* After crossing the hill-pass of Hazrah-Shutur-Gardan, the road lies 7
a gorge, and astream or rivulet flows to the westward; in the bed of this riva
pebbles of porphyry, hornblende and = el (?) were seen; the surface of
soil was also covered with similar pebbles... ..Near the top of the Shingha
Kothul, the volcanic rocks were again seen: “Dr. ‘Bellew says: ‘The surf
was strewed with great blocks and fragments of porphyry and syenite,
the latter was of various shades, from yellowish-or een to greenish- -brown,
and its fragments shone with a vitreous lustre and broke with a similar frac-
ture.” Chapter It. Narrative of a Mission to Kandahar. The above descrip-
tion of syenite does not look much like syenite, it is nearly certain that the
rock observed was a hypersthene rock, RF
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 97
derived from the boulders brought down by torrents and from those
formerly carried down and now imbedded in the Miocene conglo-
merates which fringe the base of the Afghan mountains. These
boulders and pebbles are mostly greenstone, felstone, trachyte, and
porphyry identical with the Himalayan hornblende rock; and that
peculiar variety of amygdaloidal greenstone, pierced with gas-vents,
which has been described at No, 4 of the section of the Tukt-i-Suliman
in Kashmir, para. 18, occurs in great abundance. (See also Pl. x.
figs. 1. 1c.)
_ There can be, therefore, no possible doubt that the Afghan mountains
were at the Silurian epoch an archipelago of volcanic islands and
subaqueous volcanoes ; indeed, they were merely another group of the
same great archipelago ; but the fissures or lines on which the vents
were situated had a direction N. E., 8. W.
_ Towards the end of the older Paleozoic epoch, the volcanoes appear
have subsided in violence, and allowed the waters of the neighbour-
g sea to cool. They did not do so, however, until they had ejected
much lava, scorie, lapilli, ashes, and debris of the inside of the
marth that a great bar, a bar going from the North-west to the
uth-east and studded with the island-cones of half extinguished
leanoes, had been formed across the sea. A similar bar was
produced by the Afghan group of volcanoes, directed N. E., 8. W. and
| two bars formed a gigantic V, with the angle pointing to
the north, On these bars the sea was shallow; neither was it likely
io be very. deep between the two branches of the V. The end of the
great activity of the volcanoes appears to have been marked by the
breaking out of a great number of fumaroles or hot springs, depositing
an immense quantity of silica, and forming thick beds of quartzite, some-
times pure and clear as glass, sometimes white and opaque as porcelain,
We must not forget also, that all analogy points to a general rising
of the sea bottom at the north-east of the Himalayan volcanic bar,
not as a break, but as a gradual and slow upheaval of the earth’s
erust under the pressure of viscid granite.
But even these last efforts of the great volcanoes, these bursts of
| vapours and hot waters, became rare and intermittent, and animals
made their appearance in the creeks and bays of the sea between the
‘islands. It was then the dawn of the Carboniferous epoch, and all
13
a
98 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,
over the great bars of volcanic debris a calcareous mud was deposited,
teeming with the remains of animals, with the glimmering shells of
the Product, with large flat Orthide, and innumerable Bryozoa and
numerous HLncrinites which grew luxuriantly on the half chalky, half
clayey, foetid bottom of well protected island seas, gulfs and channels.
And so it went on for years and years, until the sea became too shallow
for Producti and Orthide to live in, and too easily disturbed to its
very bottom to suit the delicate Bryozoa. These animals retired to
greater depths on either side of the great bar, and in their stead
appeared small Cuculle, globular Terebratule, with here and there,
on sandy banks, colonies of large Cardinie or Anthracosie, gibbose
and smooth Aviculo-pectens, or radiated ones of great size. In calm
waters, flat and large species of Gonzatites basked in the sun in company
with small Orthoceratide and large species of Bellerophon. Karthquakes
were, however, frequent and terrible, raising and depressing large
tracts of sea-bottom, folding and undulating the newly formed beds of
limestone, so that most of the shells are found broken, and many of
them are deformed to a wonderful extent.
Many changes occurred in the sea: clay and sand had been brougiil
down in large quantities from the volcanic islands, and many of the
creeks and inland seas were turned into swamps. Long shelving
coast-lines extended from island to island, and many groups of the
great archipelago were probably united by a low land into larger
insular countries. The genera Cucullea, Cardinia and Aviculo-pecten,
and small Brachiopoda disappeared; and in their stead myriads of
Gasteropoda, especially the Pyramidellide, living with numerous corals,
made their appearance. As the islands joined more and more into larger
dry lands, and approached nearer to a long strip of land supporting
numerous peaks of extinct volcanoes, the rain-fall increased more
and more, sand, mud and gravel accumulated in thicker beds at the
mouth of the mountain torrents which now became rivers, and on the
swampy shores forests of calamites and other trees grew up, whilst,
out at sea, the mollusks and other animals continued to thrive at various
depths, according to their kind. What has now become of these forests
of calamites? Have they been buried in sands by oscillations of the
coast and converted into coal? If they have, has the coal been denuded
at a subsequent period ? or has some portion of it escaped removal and
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 99
does it now lie concealed under newer formations? There is no doubt
that great denudation has taken place repeatedly in the Himalaya and
‘subordinate hills; yet basins nicely protected by eruptive or metamor-
phic rocks, bottoms of valleys or down-thrown beds might have escaped
‘removal. Not a trace of true coal has yet been found in the Himalayas,
the Punjab or the Afghan mountains, excepting (geologically speak.
ing) the few grains of coal which fill in the cellular tissue of the
lepidodendron-like plants described in para, 43, as having been found.
in one of the layers of the Wean group. This is not very encourag-
ing; but any person who has observed what athick mantle the
Miocene sandstones and the old and new alluvia form over the older
formations, would not expect to find coal cropping out ina conspicuous
manner. If coal does exist, it will be one day discoyered, no doubt ;
‘but the discovery will be made by patient and careful study, and not
by digging at random with a pickaxe wherever something black is
‘observed. It may be said with truth that the means hitherto employed,
by Government or persons interested in the search for coal, have been
‘such that not the smallest reasonable chance of success could be anti-
Cipated.* But all this is foreign to our subject.
- 91. The end of the Paleozoic epoch or beginning of the Secondary
period was marked by new volcanic action, trifling indeed, if we
‘compare it to the intensity of volcanic power displayed during the
Silurian time, but yet highly interesting. I allude to these local out-
bursts of hot vapours, gases and waters, charged with several minerals,
which have taken place in many distant places of the Himalayas
and their dependencies. The action is geyserian rather than volcanic,
as no true volcanic rocks, that is, no lava, no scoriz and no ash appear
to have been discharged by these vents. The existence of this force
is mostly manifested by the metamorphism it has caused in some of
the upper beds of the Carboniferous limestone, and by the peculiar
‘Way it twisted rocks, then soft, in a manner which appears now
incomprehensible, and totally abnormal to the surrounding layers.
Tn some localities, however, it seems that the waters, erupting through
the calcareous mud, were so rich in felspars, that this crystallised in
_*This remark applies only to the Punjab and the mountainous districts
studied in this paper.
100 Dr, Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, | [No. 2,
minute crystals which now form a sort of intrusive band of a friable —
incoherent rock. ,
When this geyserian action subsided, the Paleozoic animals had
died out.
92. I now enter upon debatable ground. I have said before, that
the salt, gypsum and red marl of the Salt Range—and I need hardly
say the gypsum and red marl of Spiti, the gypsum of Rukshu
(and that of Rodok ?), and most probably the salt of the Yarkandkash
valley, and also that of the Lataband mountains in Badakshan, all
belong to the same epoch and have probably a common origin.
I have said before that, this Saliferian formation has been placed by
Dr. A. Fleming in the Devonian. Dr. Jameson makes it superior to
the Carboniferous ; Major Vicary and M. Marcadieu believed it to be
Miocene or Pliocene; some will have it volcanic, others sedimentary ;_
but nobody gives a good and well defined section of the relations
of this formation to the rocks above and below it.* This is much to
be regretted, and I will not increase the confusion by discussing here
the reasons which make me believe that the salt and gypsum of the
Himalayas belong to the Trias or the Permian. My opportunities -
of observing the Saliferian formation have been few and of short
duration, and I have no good section to give in support of my opinion,
I shall therefore refer the reader to the note to para. 64, and proceed
with the next formation. yi
93. Whatever had taken place beeween the end of the Carboni-
ferous epoch and the beginning of the Jurassic, it appears tolerably
evident that the Jurassic sea bathed the shores of a long strip of
land or succession of large islands, very similar to those which the
Carboniferous sea had bounded. The Jurassic sea does not appear to
have been much deeper than the Carboniferous one had been ; the same
impurity of the limestone is noticed, the same admixture of sand and
clay with the calcareous matter, the same rarity of clean drifted sands,
the same prevalence of thin-bedding, false-bedding and continual
* Dr. A. Fleming gives some sections in his Report on the structure of the
Salt Range; but only two of these show the relations of the salt marl to the
Carboniferous limestone, and in one, sect. No. VIII., a number of more or less
theoretical faults are introduced which, if placed at the base of the mountain
limestone escapements, would then make this rock inferior to the salt. Another
section, No. VII. shows an anticlinal across a ravine, and then the salt marl
appears indeed to be placed under the Carboniferous limestone,
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains. 101
change of the nature and weight of materials. All these conditions, and
the frequency of ripple marks, indicate a shallow sea easily influenced
by heavy outpours of muddy waters from the land. The thickness of the
Jurassic rocks vary veries much, and the extent of the beds is limited
_ to very small areas, compared to those of the Carboniferous. This is
probably due to the deposition taking place in creeks of a deeply
indented coast, and in great part to the oscillations of the land and sea
bottom, causing in some localities repeated denudation of materials
newly deposited, and in others a steady sinking and consequent thick-
ness of formation. The fossils being frequently much deformed, is a
good evidence of these oscillations having taken place.
The Jurassic beds have always been considered conformable to the
Carboniferous. I am inclined to believe that this conformity is only
apparent. The dip of both formations is generally great, seldom
under an average of 45°. In such highly up-tilted beds, a difference
of a few degrees is not easily appreciated, unless a careful measurement
is taken, and I fancy that most writers have been satisfied with an
_ approximation. However this may be, there is no doubt that the
‘Jurassic limestone presents, in very many places, indeed in most,
the appearance of having sustained very sharp local upheavals,
goon after the end of the Secondary period, but of little extent ;
‘and here again we find the salt, gypsum and red marl always
underlying these sharp and dome-like anticlinals. We remember how
Sheikh Bodeen is thrown into a succession of short, gothic, arch-like
anticlinals; and that under the Jurassic beds the Saliferian are to be
geen, perfectly conformable to the limestone and following it in all its
oscillations. At Maree on the Indus, a similar appearance occurs :
thick masses of salt, gypsum with bi-pyramidal crystals, quartz,
ted marl and magnesian mud stone more or less cellular, support
‘avery sharp anticlinal of Jurassic limestone; and the Saliferian and
Jurassic are conformable not only in general dip, but in all the details
of the fold. Moreover, both the Silurian and Jurassic dip S.
@ or8 degrees H.) and N. (2 or 3 degrees W.) on both sides
of the anticlinal dip, which are not the usual ones of the other rocks of
that portion of the Salt Range, the Nummulitic and the Miocene dip-
ping N. E.
Whether these local upheavals are merely due to the swelling of
102 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,
the gypseous beds from the change of anhydrite into common gypsum
by absorption of water, is more than I can say. The Saliferian beds
would naturally break, dislocate and lift up the superincumbent
Jurassic when swelling itself into undulations. We should thus obtain
undulated beds of Saliferian and Jurassic. Let such undulated layers
be submitted to the lateral pressure which must have accompanied the
great upheaval of the Afghan-Himalayan system, and we have the
undulations folded into arches and sharp bends. ?
The Saliferian and Jurassic have been very much denuded, their
debris being extremely abundant in some beds of conglomerate and
sandstone of the Miocene, especially on the western side of the
Indus, in the districts of Kohat and Bunnoo.
94. There are but few traces of the deposits which may have
taken place between the Oolite and the Nummulitic, and I have never
myself seen any cretaceous rocks in the western Himalaya* or the
Afghan mountains, neither have I found any pebbles with cretaceous —
fossils in the conglomerates of the Miocene, From the development —
of considerable vegetation in the shales near the base of the Nummulitic —
formation, it is evident that a steady rising of the land went on during —
the time of the upper Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and with such
a rising we would naturally associate the great denudation of the
Jurassic beds, soon after their deposition. Little doubt can be
entertained that during the Cretaceous period, the Himalayan and
Afghan islands had become united into a continent of considerable
extent, traversed by chains of extinct volcanic ridges, and therefore
receiving an abundant rain-fall which caused great denudation. We
know how quickly volcanic mountains decay, when once they have
ceased to receive fresh supply of ejecta. I believe that the cretaceous
beds which have been found in and near the Himalaya are very
limited in extent, even more so than the Jurassic beds. The small
horizontal area of these Secondary heds contrasts widely with the great
superficial extent of the Carboniferous, the Nummulitic and Miocene
formations ; and yet when they do occur, the Jurassic beds at least
have considerable power. A continent with a deeply indented coast
appears to be indicated by these peculiarities of the Secondary beds. —
* Dr. Stoliczka has found Cretaceous rocks in the mountains of Spiti
Editor's note,
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains. 103
95. The Nummulitic epoch must have been a long one, if we can
judge by the thickness of its deposits. There does not appear to have
been any violent volcanic action, nor any great and sudden movement
during the period, but there was a great deal of very slow and
probably imperceptible oscillation, Thus we first find the base of
the Nummulitic to be generally a sandstone without fossils,* this
is gradually impregnated with calcareous matter, becoming a sandy,
very impure limestone, full of shallow water fossils and containing
only a few very small species of Nummulites. This has been therefore
a period of slow and trifling sinking of the land, and it is probable
that the sea never covered it by more than a few feet. Then the
oscillation went the other way, and the land appeared again, and was
covered by forests. Another slow sinking brought on a fresh incursion
of the sea, which soon covered the forests (lignite) with a layer of
limestone, full of large Nummulites and other shells. The depth of
the sea was greater than before the growth of the forests, but it
probably did not much exceed 20 fathoms. Another movement upwards
again exposed the land, and again forests grew and formed thin seams
of lignite. Again the land sank and the sea covered in the lignite-beds
with calcareous mud. At first the depth was trifling, little exceeding
20 fathoms, but the sinking continued to the end of the Nummulitic
period, and the limestone assumes more and more the appearance of a
deep-sea formation as we get higher up the series. It is, however
improbable that the volcanic mountains of the great bars of the
Himalaya and Afghan mountains were ever covered by the Num-
‘mulitic sea, as no nummulite has ever been found amongst the
central chains ;}+ but that sea filled up the whole of the space between
the arms of the great everted V formed by the Himalayan and the
Aighan chains, and probably also bathed the outside shores of the arms
of the V. This slow, gradual and long continued sinking of the
land, during the deposition of the Upper Nummulitic formation,
accounts for the appearance of no great depth in rocks which have
* Sometimes a fragile limestone with Planorbis, and probably fresh-water.
See note to para. 66, chap. iii.
_}~ Dr. T. Thomson reported having observed Nummulitic Limestone in Little
Thibet at an elevation of 16,500 feet. But I much doubt the accuracy
of the observation, and cannot heip imagining that the Thibet nummulites are,
like those of Manus Bal, weathered encrinite rings. See “ Introduction,”
page vu,
104 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashinir, [No. 2,
a very considerable thickness ; the sinking was, however, greater than
the amount of deposit could compensate, and the rocks have therefore
the appearance of a tolerably deep sea formation at the top of the
Nummulitic series. Then again, we have a long and steady rising of
the land, and in consequence a great denudation going on, a denuda-
tion which has caused the removal of a great deal of the N ummulitic
formation, in localities where sea-currents, high-tides and other un-
favourable circumstances assisted in the work of destruction. It ig
curious to notice on the top of the Nummulitic limestone, how the
surface of the rock has been broken by the waves ; how the fragments
have been rolled and rubbed and then glued together again. This
appearance is always seen as a bed of transition between the Num-_
mulitic and the Miocene. A considerable time must have elapsed
between the end of the deposition of the bed and the breaking —
up of it, as we must allow time for its solidification, But at any rate,
here, at the beginning of the Miocene epoch, we had the Nummulitic
limestone forming a nearly horizontal and far-reaching sea-coast,
covered with a very thin sheet of water, rolling and polishing pebbles.
But this conglomeratic layer is thin, and we very soon see a large |
quantity of mud and sand, and pebbles of far distant rocks, bong
TT iioemys Pen fam liad
down to the sea.
96. let us consider the kind of map we have at the beginning of. 4
the Miocene epoch, and we will have no difficulty in understanding —
the formation of the Miocene sandstone and conglomerates of the Sub-
Himalayan and Sub-Afghan chains. We have an immense expanse
of sea, north of the tropic of Capricorn, between the latitudes 90° W.
and 90° E., for, in these days, the Andes had not yet surged up and —
most of South America was under water, as well as nearly the whole of
Africa, Arabia, Persia and India. There were probably groups of islands
where these continents now stand, but the immense, dry, thirsty.
plains and plateaux of these countries were then under the sea,
There was therefore no impediment to the regular play of the Trade
Winds, no monsoons or winds deviated by the rarifying power of arid
deserts, but especially no chains of mountains to dry the 8S. H.
trade-winds before their arrival at the equator, and their ascending
to become upper currents with a direction to the N. EH. At the
tropic of Cancer, these winds, still charged with the whole of the
1867, the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains. 105
humidity they had sucked from the sea in the Southern Hemisphere,
descend again and become under or lower currents, keeping their
N. E. direction.* Before proceeding far, these winds meet a couple
the south, and on these ranges they poured such a quantity of rain
that a denudation began to take place to an amount nowhere else
exemplified. The only approach to this rain-fall is that now observed
* ranges of mountains forming a great everted V, opening to
s
in Patagonia, a high country which happens to be situated in the
Southern Himisphere, somewhat in a position analogous to that of
the Himalaya in the Northern Hemisphere during the Miocene epoch.
Tr Patagonia ‘“ Captain King found the astonishing rain-fall of
“nearly thirteen feet (151 inches) in forty-one days; and Mr.
. « Darwin reports, that the surface water of the sea, along this part of
“the South American coast, is sometimes quite fresh, from the vast
7 quantity of rain that falls.’’+
__ Weare now therefore prepared to anticipate a formation composed
of coarse debris of the older mountains, washed down by violent
iorrents ; we understand how it is that the waters of the sea lost their
saltness, and that marine shells deserted these regions, and are therefore
; not to be found as fossils, or are at any rate excessively rare. The
continual and violent rushing of streams, charged with mud and
boulders, did not allow of the development of fluviatile animals; and thus
: we find the lower Miocene a mass of clay, sand and large boulders, in
ded considerably false-bedded and totally free of fossils, with the excep-
tion, in a few protected localities, of some bulrushes imbedded in salt.
t These torrents occasionally tore up forests from the mountain sides in
| their headlong course, and thus it is that we find here and there
| small niduses of semi-carbonized wood, interred in the sandstone. The
ic ne sses of conglomerate, accumulated in certain places, are of tremendous
| ‘ ize, and probably mark the exit from the hills of the principal torrents
| of the Miocene Himalaya. The deposit of this coarse debris of the
old volcanic chain and of the several deposits which had become
grad ually accumulated round it, attains a thickness of no less than
5,000 feet, and probably in some places much more. This mass of
+ See for a general explanation of the routes of the winds and the causes
which alter these routes, the work of Captain Maury, L. L. D., U.S. N. entitled,
| “The Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology.”
| + Maury’s Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorolgy. Page 129.
14
106 Dr. Verehére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2; 2
clay, sand and boulders could not fail to convert the sea, which we
have seen was shallow, into dry land, and thus we have this overlap-
ping of the Upper Micoene on the edge of the Lower which is represented
at para. 11. The Lower Miocene was itself exposed to the denudating
influence of the rain, and boulders of Lower Miocene sandstone are
common in the Upper Miocene.
The Upper Miocene appears to have been altogether a fresh- water
formation; I mean, an accumulation of materials brought down by” /
rivers of large size, which, in all probability, wandered through the flat —
plains of the lower Miocene, and extended in deltas and marshes and ;
creeks, just as the Ganges and the Indus are observed to do now-a- —
days. We may fairly imagine these Miocene tracts to have resembled 7
elosely a modern Indian plain traversed by large inundating rivers— qd
a thick jungle of high grass and small trees for the elephant, the
mastodon, the monkey. and a host of other animals to dwell in, and on i
the sides of the large meandering rivers, wastes of sand and clay, shallow ]
pools and quicksands for the delight of the crocodiles, the tortoises and ~
the hippopotamus. On sands left dry by changes in the course of the
rivers, or piled up in undulating hillocks by the winds, grew thinl |
{
and shelter the camel, the giraffe, and innumerable deer of various”
planted trees, such as we now see in the sandy tracts of Scinde, to feed
species; and on intermediate lands, good pasture supported the hon
the ox and sivatherium. |
In the districts of Rawul Pindee, of Jheelum, of Bunnoo, of Kohala 4
the Upper Miocene has a thickness of more than 2,000 feet ; but
in the Rajaori and Poonch provinces of the Maharajah of Jamie -
kingdom, the bed attains a much greater thickness. .
Any one who travels through the plains of the Punjab will:
notice the great quantity of cows, of oxen and horses seen loose 0
the sand near every village, and will remark at the same time, that
when a stream has cut through the sand and thus exposed a sectioll
not a bone is seen buried under the surface. If, however, he comes
to a marsh, such as the one near Guriwall, in Bunnoo, he will
observe that the bones will remain perfectly: preserved in the
thick mud, saturated with kullwr,* which forms the bottom of the
* Impure Sulphate of soda, with a little carbonate of soda and chloride of
sodium, which impregnates, more or less, nearly the whole of the soil of the Pun-
jab, and effloresces on the surface after rain or ir rigation.
1867.) the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 107
“marsh. Now this kullur appears to have existed in the soil of
_the Upper Miocene, as the sandstones of that age are often covered
with an efflorescence of that salt; and, indeed, that now seen in
‘the alluvium is derived from the disintegrating, decaying and
“washing away of the Miocene beds. The fossil bones are always
found either in a dark clay-stone, which has a bitter taste when
applied to the tongue, or in a light-coloured sandy claystone. It
is therefore highly probable that the existence of a marsh or swamp
‘is necessary to the preservation of bones and their fossilification. This
‘accounts for the bones being found in beds of limited extent, whilst
‘for many miles not one is to be discovered; but it also brings
additional evidence that the Upper Miocene was deposited as a growing
delta, similar to the Sunderbunds of the Ganges and to the creeks of
a he mouths of the Indus.
What a singular landscape this belt of land must have presented !
we remember that at least seven different species of elephants
f
| roamed in these jungles, some much larger than the living one, and
with tusks nine feet and a half long; that the dinotherium had a skull
. hree feet and nine inches in length; that the mastodon was 17 feet
Tong from the tail to the end of the tusks; that the sivatherium was a
} gigantic four-horned antelope-like animal; that the crocodiles were
auch larger than they are at present, and that the tortoises had a shell
ZZ
TY
“Measuring 20 feet across; we may wonder indeed at the strange
ap pearance which the jungles must have presented ! |
Thave called this fossilifeyous formation Upper Miocene. In placing
‘it in the Miocene, I have adopted the general opinion of geologists,
“but it may be Pliocenic and not Miocenic. I have not succeeded yet
in discovering shells in these beds, and without shells it is impossible
| to fix with certainty the age of the formation.
| I have forgotten to notice, that during the whole of the Miocene
| epoch there was a slow and steady sinking of the land.. This sinking
| allowed of the accumulation of materials to the great thickness I have
| indicated, but unlike that which took place during the Hocene period,
| it was not sufficient to keep the country under the sea, the quantity
of sand and clay and boulders, deposited by the rivers, being more than
adequate to compensate for the sinking. The country, however, by
| the sinking was kept to a very little height above the sea level, and
eB
108 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,
the inundations of great rivers added continually to the thickness of
the deposit.
97. There is no evidence of any violent action having taken place
during the Eocene and Miocene epochs. There had been risings
and sinkings of the whole country, but these were imperceptible to
the senses, and were probably not more active than the same pheno- —
mena which ‘now occur in many parts of the world, unknown to the —
inhabitants. The belt of flat land had increased to a good breadth,
and the coast had become sufficiently distant from the mountains to —
enable the animals to live in peace and plenty, away from the storms —
and torrents of the hills, when the whole of the portion of the
earth we have been considering was raised into an immense vault, by
the forcing up of granite assisted by gases. When the gases con~
densed or escaped, the arch settled down by fracturing its sides, and —
these faulted sides of the arch are now, what we call the Himalayas
and the Afghan chains of mountains. .
When the settle-down began to take place, and the sides of the arch
or ens were being broken, the direction of the linear siete of ;
mountains towering to the sky. |
It is not necessary to enter here into all the details of the complica-
tions which the masses of porphyry, trachyte, granite and other
rocks, which had been cooling ever since the middle of the Palzozoié
epoch, caused in the upheaval of the Afghan-Himalayan vault and in
its settle-down. These details have already been sufficiently indicated
in paras. 81 to 87. But I will insist on the effect of these masses
being forced up like wedges through the rocks which covered them,
and by their filling up a great deal of the space once occupied ie
these covering rocks, they compelled these last to be either folded or
broken into pieces and packed edgeways. oY
It is not necessary to imagine that the top of the vault was raised
to the same height as we now see the great peaks of the Himalayas.
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 109
In the settle-down, the parallel zones, into which the sides of the vault
were broken, would naturally assume an angle of dip much greater
than was that of the vault previous to its fracture, as the sides of the
yault, in coming down again, would be submitted to considerable
pressure, and therefore much redressed. It is not unlikely, therefore,
that it is the effect of this pressure which has caused, in many mountains
_of the Himalayas, the appearance of younger rocks dipping under older,
of felstone under porphyry, of schist and gneiss under granite.
The geologist must naturally expect to find a great many com-
plications amongst these immense mountains. The view I have
endeavoured to explain is a general one, and will, I hope, be better
substantiated when we know more of the countries of the Afghan-
Himalayan system. With a little thought, I entertain a hope that
the geologist, in finding apparent contradictions to what I have
advanced, will always be enabled to discover the cause of the com-
plication, at first apparently irreconcileable to my hypothesis.
_ There is one more remark to be made. The direction of the
Silurian linear volcanoes of the Himalaya not being parallel to that
of the Afghan chains, we have not a true anticlinal, but an oblique one.
At the northern end of the axis of this oblique anticlinal, we have
therefore a pressing of the sides one against the other, whilst at the
southern end, we havea wide divergence of the ridges : at the northern
nd of the axis, we have the chains abutting one against the other, and
_ thus supported at a great height ; at the southern end we have the
‘entral beds unsupported and sunk down very low when the settle-
lown took place; hence the high plateau of Pamer at one end and
he low plains of India at the other. Again, when the Himalayan slope
f the anticlinal was settling down, many of the great masses of por-
hyry, schist and gneiss resisted the general tendency to dip N. E., and
jaused a local fault to take place. This fault acted as the axis of
m anticlinal for the locality immediately surrounding the mass of
‘porphyry, schist or gneiss ; and we find therefore such huge masses as-
“suming the dip of the western branch of the Afghan-Himalayan
| anticlinal, or dipping N. W. Hence, the singular phenomenon,
long ago noticed by Captain R. Strachey, that some of the great peaks
| of the Himalayas dip N. W., whilst all the beds round them dip
N. BE. It is also this same obliquity of the anticlinal which has
110 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmur, [No. 2,
caused these numerous transverse faults observed in the Himalaya,
which have a general direction from N. toS., and with the beds
crushed one against the other at the northern end, whilst the fault
gapes at the southern extremity. |
All these phenomena, and several others which strike the naturalist
as he travels through these mountains, appear to me to prove without a
doubt, that the upheaving force was not applied at one certain point or —
along one certain axis, but that the whole country, now covered —
by the Afghan and the Himalayan mountains, was forced up into
an immense dome or arch, which broke along certain lines determined
by pre-existing volcanic zones, and settled into an oblique anticlinal,
of which the slopes are sliced by a succession of parallel faults.*
98. It isa question of considerable interest to determine, with
some precision, the epoch at which the great and last upheaval of the
Himalaya occurred. We know that it was after the great mammals
had become developed ; and the extraordinary number of mammalian —
species found in the Sewalik hills would naturally induce one to
consider a portion at least of what I have called the Upper Miocene as —
older Pliocene. The Aralo-Caspian formation or steppe limestone, a
brackish water deposit, has been placed by Murchison and DeVerneuil
in the older Pliocene ; and one cannot help thinking that these shallow
but immense inland or inter-insular seas must have existed previous to _
the final upheaval of the great mountains of Central Asia, and that it —
is indeed movements connected with this final upheaval, which have
dried up the steppe-limestone and reduced these great seas to their
present dimensions. i
On the other hand, we have seen, that there exist in Thibet and i =
* The hypothesis (advanced, I believe, by Professor Ansted in his “ Ancien
World’) that the rising of Central Asia caused a depression in the Indian Ocean; —
marked by the coral islands of the Lacadives, the Maldives, the great Chago
bank and some others, is ingenious; the depression, however, requires provi
by actual observations. .
| 1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 111
could have been uplifted from under the sea to an elevation of 15,000
feet,” without losing its horizontality, whilst not only the beds on
which the ‘‘ true sea-bottom”’ rested, but the probable contemporaneous
_ beds of the Sewaliks (according to Captain Strachey’s hypothesis only,)
i a all I a I od -
are dipping N. E. at a high-angle. Captain H. Strachey describes
_thesame bed, where it extends into Ladak, as old alluvium, and men-
tions its containing fossil bones of extinct mammals, Captain God-
win Austen calls these beds, in Ladak, Rodok and Skardo, a fluviatile
deposit. The bed is not limited to the belt of country situated
between the Ser and Mer (Snowy Peak Range) chain and the Kailas
chain. It is well developed in Rodok, near the Pang Chong Lake
_ and up to the foot of the Korakoram chain, and it is very probable
that the great Desert of Aksai Chin is a similar bed. I have said, in
‘another place, that 1 believe these horizontal beds to be identical to
the Ragzaier or elevated plateaux of the Afghan mountains. How
were they. formed ?
|
L |
i
bs
:
In order to answer this question, let us consider what was the
physical topography of the Himalayas soon after their final upheaval.
There was not much difference in the configuration of the great ocean
etween the tropics; if we are to believe the geologists who have
studied the Andes, these mountains had not yet appeared; the great
lains of Africa, Arabia, Persia and India, were still under water; the
pountains of the Indian peninsula may have appeared (and aia pro-
ably appear at the time of the Himalaya’s last upheaval) but were
eparated from the Himalaya by a considerable sheet of water; the
eat inland sea now represented by the desert of Gobi was not yet
‘dry,—in short, there was little cause to diminish the humidity of the
vinds which blew from the south, and there was nothing to change
their old direction. But the Himalayan and Afghan mountains
| were very different from what they had been. Instead of low
| ranges with volcanic peaks which did not probably soar above 5,000 or
| 60¢ ) feet, we have now an immense wall, some hundred miles broad
b 25,000 feet high, with deep longitudinal valleys offering no
mit and much embarrassed by detached rocks and debris. The
% midity of the winds which produced the tremendous rains of the
| Miocene period was now deposited as snow. Huge glaciers appeared
| and filled the longitudinal valleys, and the rivers which ran from them
112 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 2,
began to deposit a sediment which, in time, formed the great flat —
plateau of Thibet, Rodok, Aksai Chin, &c. &e. Thus we see the .
altered physical conditions which were brought about by the difference
of elevation of the Himalaya, before and after its final upheaval. —
Before the upheaval, the humidity was collected as rain, and the ~ |
mountain debris was washed to the coast by boisterous torrents; but
after the upheaval, the humidity was collected as snow, and the
mountain debris was quietly collected in the great valleys, under the
cover of glaciers.* . |
All the while, a different action was going on in the outer or low
Sub-Himalayan ranges. There the humidity continued to fall as rain
and great denudation was the result. The same process of land
gaining over the sea, which I have described at the Miocene epoch,
began to form the plains of India; this process is still in operation
now-a-days, but necessarily its power diminishes in intensity as the
sea-coast becomes more distant from the hills and the course of rivers
becomes longer. It is the process which is now anxiously watched
by the pilots of the Hooghly, and which no engineering skill can
avert: the sandbanks advance in the sea, the river-bed fills up, more
dry land appears and what was yesterday a dangerous shallow out at
sea, to-day is the shore of the delta, and to-morrow will be far inland.
As the plains of India extended, the rain-fall ‘of the Himalaya
diminished. Even if we suppose the humidity of the *winds to have
been the same as before, we must deduct from the Himalayan rain-fall
the amount of rain which fell in the plains. But we know that the
humidity of the rains had also become less; the Andes had surged —
Africa, Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were gradually appearing
above the waters, and instead of the trade winds, the monsoons were
snow-fall on the Himalayas, and the glaciers began to decrease and t0
expose a great deal of the plateau on which they had gradually raise
themselves. It is easy to understand how this decrease of snow-fall
* The fillmg up of the great parallel valleys of the Himalayas by
mud and boulders, under the cover of the glaciers, is analogous to the fillir
The glaciers of the Himalaya, soon after the great upheaval, were too huge and
too general to haye had a ploughing and scouring action on the yalleys. :
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afyhan Mountains, 113
must have been very gradual, if we keep in mind what brought on
that decrease ; and as the glaciers retreated, animals advanced and
soon populated the high plateau of the Himalaya. These animals
have left their remains interred in the clayey grits of these elevated
lands, It may appear strange that elephants once lived at such a great
height, and in a climate so cold, but the osseous remains found in the
elevated plateau of Mexico belong to true elephants of extinct
species,* and the Siberian mammoth which was covered by a warm fur,
lived on the leaves of conifers and roamed over the ice-drift. There is
therefore no doubt that these animals had a great plasticity of organism,
and could adapt themselves to very extreme climates.
The mammals discovered in the plateau of Thibet and Lada all
belong to extinct species. On the other hand, all the shells which I
have been able to collect in the old alluvium found near the foot of
the Sub- Himalaya belong to living species, and it is therefore most
probable that the older alluvium of the plains of India, and the high
plateau of the Himalayas belong to the post-pliocene epoch.
_ From the above considerations, and the present state of our know-
ledge, it appears that the Afghan and Himalayan mountains suffered
their last upheaval during the pliocene period.
99.—The description of the deposition of beds subsequently to the
great upheaval has been given incidentally in the preceding paragraph ;
the glaciers began to melt, great lakes were formed in several localities.
The Kashmir valley is a good example, Rukshu is another, and so is
Abbottabad valley. These lakes at first fed large rivers, and both lakes
nd rivers had a considerable power in carrying mud, sand and boulders,
and thus raising their beds by several hundred feet ; but as the water-
fall diminished, the lakes and rivers diminished sd and the rivers
soon began to cut for themselves deep ravine-like beds in the middle
of their ancient bottoms, leaving on each side a great river-terrace.
_ Before the rivers had lost their great volume, however, and while
they filled the whole of their original beds, they floated icebergs of
suificient dimensions to carry blocks of stone of great size. The Salt-
Range for a time intercepted the free passage of the waters towards the
south and a shallow lake filled the whole country between it and the
* Cosmos, Otte’s translation, Vol. I. page 280,
15
od
114 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. -2,
Munee Range.* On this lake floated the icebergs brought down by
the rivers, drifting gradually to the south, and finally grounding near the —
Salt-Range or averted by it. Thus we see between Jubbee and Nikkee ©
large erratic blocks, being porphyry, resting on the top of the old alluvi-
um; and we find similar but smaller blocks imbedded in horizontal taluses
of debris which have been piled up in horizontal layers against the hills »
of Maree on the Indus, These blocks are not water-worn, but present
either flattened or scratched surfaces; the ground all over that
district is covered with boulders of porphyry, greenstone, felstone, We.
but these boulders are well rounded and are easily traced to dis-
integrated beds of Miocene conglomerate. ‘The erratic blocks are very
different in appearance, and have the striking, or somewhat odd and
déplacé aspect peculiar to erratics. One of them, three miles south ~
of the village of Thrapp, measures 6 feet 4 inches by 7 feet 4 inches —
and 5 feet. There are four or five smaller blocks near it, but none
are rolled; they are all of the gneissoid porphyry of the Kaj-Nag. —
The largest presents the very singular appearance of having its
ee eS
ee a
Li 6 ei ee
te 3
greatest flat surface (not vertical) marked with a number of cup-like $
holes of various size, from 6 inches across to the size of a walnut, and —
from 11 to 2inches deep. There are from 70 to 75 of these cups. _
They resemble wide rounded holes or cups, as water would make by
dropping. Whether these cups are a glacial effect, or have been made
by arace of men for some unknown purpose, is, what I am unable to ‘s
decide. I am inclined to the first hypothesis.
Erratic blocks near Thrapp.
100. The oldest indications of Man having become an —
* The damming of the water behind the Salt Range and the Chitta Rang®
was the cause of that thick deposit of silty mud now cut by ravines, which ha®
been the source of so much difficulty and expense in making the creat Trunk
Road between Jheelum and Attok. A similar damming occurred in the Huneepor
valley and several other localities, but to a less degree,
ae
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 115
of the Himalayas is, at present found in the Upper Lacustrine deposit
_ of Kashmir (see note to para. 44). This deposit contains a very great
. many fragments of pottery, bones of goats, and pieces of charred wood. It
is much older than the Buddhist ruins of Avantipoor, and attests the
_ presence of man in the valley during the period which elapsed between
the first and the second lake, The Buddhist ruins were not built
. until after the second lake had been drained. But though we may
i call the race of men who lived in Kashmir before the second lake
q Beistorically ancient, they cannot be considered so geologically: a
_ cowry has been found* in the deposit, and this evidence of a currency
b indicates at once an amount of civilization and trade far removed from
_ the state of the primitive races.
; (To be continued. )
f
| Experimental Investigations connected with the supply of water to
Calcutta, Part II,
By D. Waldie, Esq.,
F.C. S. &c.
(Continued from page 8.)
[Received 1st March, 1867. |
The present communication is intended to give an account of the
; ults obtained in prosecuting the investigations indicated by the
title, the first of which have already appeared in this Journal. To
ome of the results given in the original paper objections were raised,
“hich were examined in a subsequent article, entitled, “‘ Supplementary
Y servations, &ec.,”’ these being founded on experiments made during
the month of ieainacttias last. Since that time the enquiry has been
a with the view of more fully examining these objections, of
Supplying certain deficiencies, of correcting some errors, clearing up
Some obscurities, and generally rendering the enquiry more complete.
| SI propose also to endeavour to correct some misapprehensions which
seem to have arisen, and indicate points of importance which do not
'
| & ,
~ * The cowry was discovered by Captain Godwin-Austen while we were ex-
amining these lacustrine beds together, I saw Captain Austen dig it out of
| the clay with his penkuile.
116 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2,
appear to have attracted the attention that was due to them. I shall
also draw my own conclusions from my results, stating at the same time
with what amount of confidence they are made.
Inorganic constituents,
Tn the original communication, on account of an unforeseen and
unexpected source of error which vitiated some of the results and —
therefore rendered the series incomplete, only a general view of the H
relative proportions of alkaline and earthly salts at the different Z
seasons, taken from the tables in Dr. Macnamara’s Report, was given.
It may be of interest to state the nature of the source of error, then —
only hinted at. It occurred in the case of the waters of December ;
and February, greater part of which had been kept in green glass 1
stoppered bottles till the month of April, which, on analysis, gave ‘
results so peculiar as to excite surprise. The same peculiarities were
found in some of the analyses of the river water of August, in even ;
a more marked degree. After not a little perplexity and trouble, —
it was ascertained that this arose from the action of the water on the _
glass, dissolving the glass in such proportion as altogether to vitiate :
the result as regards the proper constituents of the water; it having” |
been ascertained that the silica, the alkalies, and the lime of the glass
were all added in notable proportion to the constituents of the water. —
It was the very large proportion of the silica obtained that first drew
attention to the subject. Not being specially connected with the
object of this paper, it is not necessary to notice it more particularly —
than to observe that there can be little doubt, but that it is duei -
great part to the increased activity given to the solvent action of the
water by the high temperature of the climate, though indeed it occurs
red to a sufficiently decided degree even during the coolest months.
There is probably little doubt that this circumstance has in many cases
introduced error into water analyses unobserved. The analyses, in
the present case so vitiated, were rejected and new ones instituted as
the season gave opportunity. .
For the purpose of comparison, the most complete plan would be,
to ascertain the amount of each basic and acid constituent and state
these in detail. A very general, or rather the general plan hitherto
followed by chemists, has been to allot the acids and bases to each
1867. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 117
other, it may be by some conventional plan or according to some
favourite theory, and represent them in the state of neutral salts.
And as each chemist may follow his own particular plan, the same
analysis may be represented in very different ways. As it is simply
_ impossible to say in what way the acids and bases are united to one
another in solution, it is very much better to state them separately ;
and I was glad to find that Professor Dr. W. A. Miller expressed the
same opinion in his paper formerly referred to. But for general
purposes a full statement of each constituent is unnecessary, and when
numerous samples have to be examined, is very laborious. It is
generally sufficient to classify them, or select a few of the most
_ important and characteristic constituents or properties. In the case of
the mineral constituents, their total amount, the quantity of chlorine
or of sulphuric acid, the proportion of earthy salts, that is, of lime and
_ magnesia to the alkaline salts, are, singly or together, all more or less
suitable according to the nature of the water to be examined. The
4 soap test formerly noticed is a very favourite method, from the ease of
“its execution. I have applied it in some cases, though the nature of
my enquiries led me generally to have recourse to other methods.
- The following table gives a view of the constitution of the river
water at the various seasons, classified in a way that seems to me very
Suitable for comparing different samples. The principal mineral
constituents are the alkalies, potash and soda, and the earthy, lime and
| “Magnesia,—soda being the most abundant alkali, and lime the principal
rthy constituent. These bases are combined with carbonic acid in
much the larger proportion, and in smaller proportion with hydro-
| chloric acid, sulphuric acid and perhaps organic acids. The carbonates
| oflime and magnesia are kept in solution by excess of carbonic acid,
and when the water is boiled or evaporated to dry dryness, by far the
‘greater part, indeed all except a very little of the lime and magnesia,
are separated insoluble. These remarks apply to the river water
oper; during the hot season, when tidal influence prevails, the
Eonstitnents of seawater make their appearance; then sulphuric acid
is increased a little and magnesia still more; and hydrochloric acid
| and soda (or chlorine and sodium as common salt) are largely increased
_ in quantity.
118 Mr, Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2,
Taste I. . For 100,000 fluid grains,
Total | Alkaline|{ Earthy
River Waters of Mineral | salts as | salts as | Silica.
salts. - |Chlorides.|carbonates
ot as
= rae
9th June,Chandernagore, above }
tidal influence, Ebb,) 17.04 4,29 14.69 | 2.53
14th June, at Baranagar, Ebb,| 30.00 13.96 15.10 | 4.00
Flood,| 124.10 | 112.30 34.25 | 3.70
6th July, | Ebbl 1263] 208| 5.20 |*4.49
Sistiansail, 1865, Ebb, 1.50 TIE Tt24
21st August, 1866, Ebb,| 14.10 1.70 |. 6.60 | *5.60
19th November, Ebb,| 15.40 2.01 12.62 | 1.50
9th January, 1867, Kbb,| 24.15
pits Mig asighig Flood,| 25.35
Sih ithdaer: Ebb] 24.95] 4.22 | 20.45 | 2.16
In Table I. the alkalies are exhibited as if they were allin the state
of hydrochlorates of potash and soda, or more correctly chlorides of
potassium and sodium, chloride of sodium or common salt being the
best type of such compounds, and the one most familiar to us, and
practically most important. The earths are exhibited as if they were
all in the state of carbonates of lime and magnesia, these compounds
being also the most familiar ones. By this arrangement, the relative
proportion of these constituents at different seasons can be easily
compared. Iam not aware that this plan has been used before, bu
it seems to me a good one, par POeep when combined with the
results given in Table IT.
* Silica mixed with more or less clay,
1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 119
Tasre II. For 100,000 fluid grains.
a Hardness, pone
River Waters of equal to grains of bg phe
Carbonate of Lime. of sodium.
‘ Total | Permnt.
2ist August, Ebb, 7.8 «2.9 1.58
10th November, Flood, 9.6 1.79
19th November, Ebb, 12.7 1.4 95
9th January, Ebb, 18.4 2.1 2.63
2am Flood, 22.0 4.97
bb,
80th January, ; aoe 18.5 25) 1.28
is ie Surface, 20.7 Ly 3.40
20th February, Kbb., 20.3 5.63
., + Flood, 21.6 2.6) 11.48
2nd May, 1866, Ebb, 20.0 2.14, AS. 0
aie Flood| 31.4 | 55.50
_ This table shews the indications of the soap test already noticed
in the first paper. The total hardness is the effect produced on soap
2, all the salts of lime and magnesia present, and all the carbonic acid
and silica ; the permanent hardness is that left after boiling, and is pro-
duced chiefly by the lime and magnesia not separated in the inso-
Tuble state, but still remaining in solution. Another column exhibits
4 proportion of Chlorine calculated as if it were all in the state of
chloride of sodium or common salt. The chlorine is in small quan-
tity except when tidal influence prevails.
_ So far as regards mineral constituents, the water of the Hooghly at
Galcutta varies greatly according to the season. Compared with the
waters supplying London, the solid contents during the rainy season
are much smaller, and the total hardness much less ; and even in
January and February, these are somewhat under those of the London
waters. As regards permanent hardness, the Hooghly water is very
decidedly superior to the London waters probably all the year round,
‘except possibly during the hot season at flood tide, though that latter
t is at present somewhat uncertain. But the temporary hardness
is easily removable ; and for economical use, except during flood tide
z It mnst be remembered that these results are for 100,000 grains water.
‘For an Imp. gallon of 70,000 grains multiply by 7 and move the decimal point
ne place to the left,
120 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2,
of the hot season, as regards mineral constituents, the product of the —
Hooghly may be considered very good water. It will be compared —
with the Calcutta tank waters afterwards.
Organic constituents.
The attempt made by experiments with artificial mixtures to ¥
imitate the composition of the waters of the hot season, and ascertain — .
the probable amount of change in the organic matter by keeping, as —
narrated in Part II. “‘ Supplementary Observations,” was not continued,
partly because all the circumstances of the case could not be imitated,
and partly because the plan did not seem to be considered satisfactory
to those who objected to the correctness of my results in this particular.
It appeared to be better to continue the observations, taking care to
avoid delay inthe process for estimating the organic matter more
particularly. Besides, recently the objections to the correctness of my
results have been in a great measure withdrawn,* and it is hardly
necessary for me to do anything more in the way of directly answering
objections, as it was never my object to criticise the labours of others,
but simply to state my own, carefully obtained by methods of procedure
the most correct and reliable known, up to the present time.
In the original paper I considered the various methods of ascertain:
ing the nature and amount of organic matter in water, and discussed
their several merits ; and a few further remarks will now be made on
the same subjects. The amount of organic matter by weight came
first in order, but I shall at present postpone it, until the plan of oxida
tion by permanganate of potash has been noticed.
This plan has come greatly into favour, chiefly I suppose from its
facility of application, a very valuable recommendation, provided its
other merits be assured. In the original paper I gave it a qualified and
guarded approval; the result of numerous experiments made since —
“injurious in their effects upon those who drink the water.”
Dr, Miller’s remark. Others “ believe’ that the most pernicious are
* Indian Medical Gazette, Calcutta, 1st January, 1867, p. 14.
—-1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 121
4 am ;
those that are most easily oxidized. These, it appears to me, are rather
weak grounds on which to found the preference which is at present given
to this ‘mode of estimating the degree of organic impurity in water.
Others speak of it as indicating the amount of putridity in the water,
_and this, in my opinion, comes nearer the truth. By this I understand
that the amount of oxygen required is in proportion to the amount of
certain products of the putrefactive fermentation of the organic matter. |
in the water. ‘This, however, as Dr. Frankland has stated,* furnishes
no indication of the amount of organic matter actually present in the
water. The offensive smell and other properties of these products
make it more than probable that they are injurious to health ; but
even then it is not certain that there may not be other constituents,
‘equally or even more injurious, but more difficult of oxidation.
Nor is it even certain that these products of putrefaction are the only
substances which are readily oxidized by the permanganate.
ia Moreover, a portion of these products are evidently of a very
“unstable character and quickly disappear, or at least lose their power of
deoxidizing the permanganate. This was first brought particularly
to my attention by the objections raised to my determinations of
organic matter in the original paper, and has been noticed in the
supplementary observations. Since then, 1 have made numerous
bservations on this point, and give a few selected ones by way of
lustration. The details of the mode of observation are given in the
ori
riginal paper,
* Chemical News, March 23, 1866,
16
122 Mr, Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2,
Taste IIT.
Oxygen
Time of trial. req. for
100,000
grs.
River water of 5th October, 1866, Ebb grains.
tide, cleared by a little hydrochloric
acid and filtered, 5th October, 1430 |
7th .0440
R. W. of 10th October, Flood, filtered,| 10th October, 1210
1th bs 0860
R. W. of 10th Nov. Flood, filtered, 10th November, 1210 @
12th 0860 |
R. W. of 19th Nov. Ebb, Surface, ...| 19th, 4 hour old, 1390 —
OL nvigs 0357 —
23rd sy, 0332
10th, 1 hour old, 0640 —
20th ,, 0320 ©
Dorde dids 0345 —
R. W. 15th Feb. 1867, Flood, .| 15th, 2 hours old, 1125
16th, 28 hours old, 0410 —
Dalhousie Sq. Tank W. of 9th Oct.1866,| 9th, 3 hours old, 1425
. 10th, 16 hours old 0860
2nd November, 0430
General’s Tank, of 6th Feb. 1867, ...| 7th, 3 hours old,
7th, 26 hours old,
Baranagar Tank, of Ist Oct. 1866, ...| Ist October,
2nd
Ditto, of 15th Feb. 1867, .| 15th, 1 hour old,
16th, 25 hours old,
i
P|
This table exhibits very plainly the rapid diminution of the amount :
of oxygen required, by keeping even for one day, and the more gradual
diminution afterwards. I have not observed that any notice has been |
taken of this circumstance by the English chemists. Dr. Macnamara
first directed my attention to it, and since then I have not only made
many observations of the fact, but have also made experiments as 4
the cause. The analyses of the London waters published month ly
are of the waters supplied by the water companies, therefore,
probably two or three days old. It is evident that in the recent
water, there must be substances possessing active deoxidizing pr ‘operties,
which speedily undergo certain changes by which they lose these
a
:
7.
1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 123
properties. I have paid some attention to the subject, but am not at
present prepared to discuss it. It will be matter for further examina-
tion.
At present, however, it has been brought forward to justify so far the
comparatively unfavourable opinion I have expressed, of the value of
the permanganate process as a guide to enable us to judge of the
quality of a water as respects its salubrity. I could bring forward
other reasons and adduce experiments, but as I do not intend to apply
the method to the matters under investigation in this paper, only one
other instance as an additional reason for rejecting it will be adduced.
I shall extract two or three numbers from the preceding table and
_ place beside them a few others of waters from other sources,-namely,
from the Cireular canal which connects the river at the northern
extremity of the town with the Salt Water Lake. This Circular canal
_ receives much the greater part of the sewerage of Calcutta. Reference
will again be made to it and to the Salt Water Lake. Dalhousie Square
Tank is filled from the river and the water is considered good;
General’s Tank is filled by the rains and is generally said to be the
best drinking water in Calcutta.
i Taste IV.
: Oxygen reqd.
t for 100,000
{ grains.
“Dalhousie Square Tank Water of 9th
October, 1866, 16 hours old, .0860
-General’s Tank Water of 6th Februar y 3 hours old, 2830
= 1867, 26 hours old, 1155
“Circular Canal Water of 23rd Novem-
ber, 1866, ., 20 hours old, .0832
Ditto ‘ot 20th February, 1867, ...| 16 hours old, 0680
‘Salt Water Lake water, flowing from
‘ Canal, 14th February, 1867, ...| 20 hours old, .1780
|*Salt Water Lake of 18th February,
from Canal at Dhappa, 19 hours old, 1475
From the Marsh, baer} ho sbours old, .1690
_ In his report on the London waters to the Chemical Society on
“March 13th, 1866,* Dr. Frankland is stated to have expressed surprise
that the soft water supply from Loch Katr ne required more of the
permanganate than any of the waters of th: Metropolitan districts,
“but here is something more surprising still. The water of the Canal
* Chemical News of 23rd March, 1866,
124 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2,
which receives the greater part of the sewerage of Caleutta requires
less oxygen to destroy the products of putrefaction than the best tank
waters of Calcutta ; and the water of the salt marsh to the east of the
town, called the Salt Water Lake, requires only about as much as that
of General’s Tank of the same age; for taking the rate of improvement
between 3 hours and 26 hours, General’s Tank water at 19 hours old
would require .1626 grain oxygen. Results like these have led me
to set but a small value on this favourite process, and induced me to
turn to others promising more trustworthy indications.
The fundamental point with respect to the organic matter is the
same as that connected with any other constituent, namely, its propor-
tion by weight, ascertained as accurately as practicable. The method
of doing this has already been detailed in the first paper, and I have
only to repeat that, with a fine balance, patience, and care, it gives fairly
satisfactory results. Attention to details is advisable to procure
uniform results. Of the ordinary river or tank waters, I usually
evaporate from 10,000 to 40,000 grains, according to the kind of water, —
contriving so as to have 4 to 6 grains of dry residue, beside 3 grains
of dry Carbonate of Soda* added to the water, when put to evaporate. -
At one time I did not use the soda for some kinds of water, as”
unnecessary, but now I use it always. It makes the results more
accurately comparable. These quantities are sufficiently large for the
crucible, which holds conveniently about 200 grains of carbonic acid
water, but requires to be twice or thrice filled up. <A larger crucible |
would be more convenient, in which case once might do.
The river water of the cold season of 1865-66 had been kept over
have a in the ‘“ Supplementary Observations,” given reason a : 2
believing that the delay of from 9 to 16 days in making these }
determinations, in the case of the hot season waters, cannot have been
productive af any serious error. Additional reasons will be given for
this opinion presently. There is greater doubt respecting the July and
* Dr, Parkes in his “ Practical Hygiene’? recommends 30 grains Carb. a
Soda! This is surely a misprint. He also recommends to restore the carbonic
acid lost by ignition by adding solution of carbonic acid or carbonate of ammonia,
This is a mistake: the results by carbonate of ammonia are totally wrong.
1867. ] with the swpply of water to Calcutta. 125
August waters, which stood in most cases about five weeks, to allow the
fine clay to settle. This is a special case and will require further
remark ; but at present, as I wish to present a view of the whole, they
will be taken as they are in the construction of the following table.
Many more determinations of organic matter were made, particularly
of the waters of the rainy season, but these were made for special
purposes and with various modifications of the process, so that they
were not comparable. Only those are given in the table which were
made by the plan already specified, and so far as this is concerned,
they are therefore comparable. These variations in plan were chiefly
tried in September and October, and so unfortunately no results for
these months can be introduced into the table. But as an illustration
of these variations, I may instance the case of the water of 6th October,
which, cleared by Hydrochloric acid, gave 1.05 grains, and cleared by
sol. potash, gave 3.22 grains organic in 100,000 grains of water. The
addition of a little of either of these causes the mud to settle, and
admits of filtering the water clear in course of afew hours. But as
‘there is much organic matter adhering to or combined with the clay
or other earthy matter of the mud, the acid or alkali acts upon this and
brings it into solution.
q Taste V.
‘Shewing the amount of Organic matter by weight Ebb. Flood.
rT in 100,000 grains of the Hooghly water. Grains, Grains,
| 6th July, 1866, Neap, Surface, ... .80
| 8th August, Neap, Surface & Deep, ... .84
| 21st August, Neap, Deep; .... .86
| 10th Memvemiber, 1806, Spring, ..cccapecsensenescpecsesene 1.28
| 19th Ditto eg es Deep it: °*) gf
\' = PRN Pe ee Surface, ... 1.28
la th January, 1857, Spring, ae a ee a oe ad) Be 1.50
| 30th Ditto, fs, OP ee re ieee A (ne 5
gs ¥ Ste ase tunengecs’ Suriace, ... 1:28
) b : Average,... .99 1.89
Od May, 1866, RN REC Acan gra. vwsaesevarscat 2.70
80th Ditto, rm, COON. PA 90 2.60
‘Mth June, SPIE wes vdcath siz here Ges Owaiden 90... 2.29
PEVOEIEES hy aiuinins verde vee’ rebienekte Waka" iho 0)
126 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2, @
With reference to this table, a few remarks may be made. The
yainy season waters were taken during Neap tides at ebb. Probably
they would not have differed much, though they had been taken at 7
spring tide during flood. Special remarks will be made on these —
afterwards.
The numbers attached to the waters of November and January,
shew that the surface water contains more organic impurity than the —
deep, and that there is a very decided excess of this during flood tide
as compared with ebb.
The May and June waters are the old ones,—open to future
emendation as to quantity of organic matter. But even these indicate
a still larger excess of organic matter during flood tide. And com- —
paratively small though the amount of organic matter be, compared
with those hitherto generally received, they shew the influence of the
tides in bringing up organic matter, as has not been shewn before.
T have already observed that the opposition, with which my state-
ments as to the small amounts of organic matter originally met with,
has been now in a great measure withdrawn ; yet it may be desirable
to make a few observations on the subject. Having regard to
the delay in examining the waters of the cold and hot seasons
I abandoned those in which the water had stood from two to four
months, (the cold season samples); but did not think that the delay of
from nine to sixteen days would materially affect the correctness of
the results from the hot season waters. Reasons have already been —
given in the Supplementary Observations for this, to some probably —
not sufficiently conclusive, so I shall in the first place give the results
of the examination of another class of waters, which may have so ne
bearing on the subject. These are the waters of the Salt Water La ke
and of the Circular Canal. : q i
The Salt Water Lake is a large salt marsh of about one-third of the
degree of saltness of sea water, about two miles to the eastward of
the boundary of the town. From Hntally, near the Circular Road, a
canal proceeds eastwards towards it, called the Baliaghatta Canal. / |
northern extremity of the town, and in its course, enclosing all the
northern part of the town, at length joins the Entally branch. These
1867, ] with the supply of water to Calcutta... 127
Canals, I am informed by the town surveyor, Mr. Rowe, receive by far
the largest proportion of the sewerage of Calcutta, the course of
drainage, except for a narrow space along the river, being towards
the east, or from the river towards the lake; so to these sources of
supply I went for specimens of impure water. The Canal water flows
eastward or westward according to the relative height of tide in the
Hooghly or Bidyadurrea with which it communicates, The follow-
ing table gives the results of the examinations.
Taste VI.
For 100,000 fl. grs, filtered water.
Salt Water Lake and Circular canal. Total solid} Organic
matter. matter,
grains. grains,
Water flowing from the Circular Canal at
Chitpore bridge into the river on 14th Feb-
_ ruary, 1867, Neap tide, ebbing commenced. 471.70 15.30
Water from Baliaghatta canal at mares Toll
- House, 18th February, 1867, : 489.50 6.00
Water from the Marsh taken at same time; dis 525.00 6.50
From Circular canal at junction with the
Entally canal, water flowing from the river
» 24th November, 1866. Filtered, 40.40 *1.75
% ” Ditto, 2.48
Cleared by per-chloride of iron and filtered, ... 42.60 2.51
Ditto, 2.58
From Circular canal at bridge on Dum-Dum
road, full tide, 20th February, 1867, a 32.95 1.78
From the mouth of the canal at same time, bi 34.90 1.53
- The most remarkable thing exhibited by the table is the small
quantity of organic matter in these waters. The excess in the case of
the 14th February water, was, there can be little doubt, owing to the
water having traversed the whole length of the circular canal, passing
| over its putrid mud and carrying with it the sewerage from the
| Mumerous drains which enter it. The small quantity of organic
matter in the filthy looking water of the marsh, full of gelatinous
* Probably some unobserved error in this case,
128 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2;
looking rank vegetation, is very striking. I got in June last
year 20 grains organic in 100,000; but besides that I doubted the
correctness of the result, considering it perhaps over-estimated, the
difference of season must be taken into account.* Besides this is
a strongly saline marsh. The comparatively small quantity in the
canal water is also remarkable, and shews how difficult it is to
increase greatly the amount in the comparatively pure water of the
downward flowing stream.f
And here it may be well to consider the amount of organic matter
which the river can receive from the sewerage of Calcutta. First, we
have to consider the amount of water carried by the Hooghly, for the |
data for which I have to acknowledge my obligations to Mr. Leonard. —
He estimates that at the lowest season, the river, through its tributary _
affluents, receives only about 2,000 cubic feet per second, but 8 or
10,000 cubic feet more by percolation from its banks, or say from all —
sources 10,000 cubic feet of water per second, equal to 8€4,000,000
cubic feet per day. Mr. Clark, in his report on the water supply,
proposes to distribute 6,000,000 gallons per day or even ultimately
12,000,000 gallons. Now let us take the highest of these quantities;
at a rough estimate this is about 2,000,000 cubic feet, and its
proportion to the volume of the river water is as 2 to 864 or 53, part. —
The greatest amount of organic matter I found in the filthiest ditch in
Calcutta at its worst in June was about 24 grains per gallon. Now sup-
posing all this large quantity of water was daily poured into the Hooghly
in the state of sewerage of this degree of concentration, it would be
only z3y part of 24 grains of organic matter to each gallon of river
water or about .05 to .06 grain per gallon. Even supposing that
the amount of water carried by the river has been over-estimated,
and that it amounts to only one-half or one-fourth of the quantity
stated above, the proportion of organic matter added by the sewerage —
would not exceed one-fourth of a grain per gallon at most, during |
the hot season. .
* Dr. Parkes states that 12 to 40 or 50 grains per gallon is not uncommon.
It would be necessary to know how such results were obtained, before admit- —
ting them. 4
+ Probably if the water of the canal, instead of having been collected at full
tide, had been taken when the river water was beginning to flow into
canal, it would have contained more organic matter. An attempt indeed 1
made to get such water two days before (18th Febr mae but the proper time
was not hit, .
1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta, 129
It is unnecessary at present to say more respecting the quantity of
organic matter in the Hooghly water néar Calcutta. It does not
.
appear to exceed two grains per gallon even in the most unfavourable
. circumstances of season and tide, and during ebb tide is only about
half that or less. Dr. Parkes says that it should not exceed one and
ahali grain per gallon in drinking waters, and the London authorities
_ seem to be endeavouring to reduce it almost to nothing. In view of
_ the difficulty of judging of its nature, it is desirable to have as little
_of it as possible.
In the original paper I have discussed the nature of the organic
matter, and have not now much to add. The season of the year since
that communication is the least favourable to the examination of the
impurities in the water, as during these months—October to February
- all the waters are at their purest. I formerly expressed an opinion
onthe amount of ammonia being probably a good indication of the
_ impurity of a water, and gave reasons for it. The following are the
results of some examinations of the river water, during these months,
for ammonia.
Fr ‘Taste VIL.
Showing proportion of Ammonia in 100,000 fl. grs. of water.
™ grains.
18th September, 1866, River Water, ... .......c.ccsessesee0.e. 0620
10th November, 1866, Flood tide,...........00.... 0. givavistt. .0065
9th January, 1867, Ebb,......... ie lbatins RES nue AT «a, .0160
' = OGY che. idlieugs tps bl Lees Ses 0145
Zend January, 1867, Shore, ........,...ceeseecscees Pe ot hs .0260
— 80th January, 1867, Ebb, : HNIMP TENT ud. GRasik .0090
Surface...) lceeet es .0160
February, 1867, Circular canal at mouth, ........ we ) 0170
at 3rd bridge, ............ .0190
8 a February, 1867, Salt Water Lake Marsh , toi OREO
i ; The quantities are small, yet consistent esis aia the previous
‘Observations. Reference may be made to them in remarks that
; But the Ammonia is not the only thing to look to in connection with
| Organic matter. As formerly observed, there are the products of
| oxidation of nitrogenised matter, including that of ammonia itself,
17
130 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2,
namely, nitric and nitrous acids, and there are nitrogenised substances
in progress of decomposition, as well as non-nitrogenous substances,
usually called vegetable, carbohydrates, and hydrocarbons more or
less oxidised. Reasons have been given in the first paper for not
attaching very much importance to the estimation of nitric acid, yet
the enquiry is interesting, to account for the destruction of the
nitrogenised matter. If the nitrogen is oxidised, it ought to be found —
as nitric or nitrous acid, unless it be supposed that it escapes in ©
some gaseous form. ‘Time has not permitted me to investigate this —
subject, but the few trials I have made for the detection of nitric
acid have not been at all successful,—possibly it may be for want of
sufficient care. On the other hand, the test recommended for nitrous
acid,—Price’s test by starch, acid, and Iodide of Potassium, at once
gives indications of that acid. But unfortunately it equally has given
me free indications in the distilled water used, though means have
been taken carefully to free the water and all the re-agents employed —
from it. At present I can give no explanation of these difficulties :
the point is reserved for enquiry.
The most difficult part of the subject is the estimation of the nature
of that more fixed portion of the organic matter which has undergone
comparatively little change. The determination of the amount of
nitrogen in this is one mode of examining it: I have not at present
attempted this, as the waters have during the last four months been
in the least favourable condition for such examination, and my time
has been occupied with other parts of the enquiry. But I can only
confirm what was before stated, that the organic matter evidently
varies considerably in its nature: that of the rainy season resembles
more that contained in tank waters; that of the dry season is more
like that contained in sea water. The former evidently contains
more matter of vegetable origin, but so far as I have been able to
form a judgment, this only partially accounts for the difference. re
But before proceeding to discuss these points, it may be better to
have the whole of the data before us, by including the composition of
the tank waters as well as of the river water. In the first paper
one table exhibited some of the principal characteristics: now,
additional information can be given. It will be exhibited by the ;
following tables, ,
1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 131
Taste VIII. 7
Tank and well waters. For 100,000 fluid grains.
Orga- | Uxige: |
Date of col-| Solid | nic (eq. t/Ammo-
lecting. | matter. |matter.oxidise.| nia.
e . . | .
grains. 3ralns. | gralns grains.
General’s Tank, ........} 7th Oct. 9.83 | 2.11
24th Jan. | 9.05 | 1.59 017
Monohur Doss’ Tank,...) 9th Oct. | 12.80 | 1.95
25th Jan. | 12.33 | 1.24 .026
Dalhousie Sq. Tank, ...) 9th Oct. | 20.30 | 1.90
Qist Jan. | 25.38 | 2.33 O44
Ramdhone Ghose’s Tank,| 18th Feb. | 66.25 | 4.62
Baranagur Tank,......... 15th Feb. | 46.00 | 4.05 045
Well, .........] 22d Feb. |105.25 | 4.56
Nyan Chund Dutt’s
Pane Tank, .......... 22d Dec. | 72.50 | 6.25 | .316
Re sd ccs cei 22d Dec. ; 97.00 | 5.20 | .060
Blaquiere’s Tank, ...... 16th Dec. | 107.20 | 8.00 | .172
Manictollah Well, ...... 16th Dec. | 187.20 | 12.90 | .200
Puttureaghat St.Well.,...| 8th Dec. | 158.01 | 9.23 | .281 | .660
Nimtollah Street Well,...| 8th Dec. | 278.60 | 21.23 | .882 | .700
River water from street
MEMEDOMOE, oo ..ccusscssoee 16th Dec. | 20.80 | 1.80 | .102
The first three are well known tanks referred to in my first paper ;
Ramdhone Ghose’s Tank, Jaun Bazar, is that also noticed there,* near
| Mr. Dall’s school, the water of which has since become much cleaner,
| and the Baranagar Tank is also that referred to there, the well being
| an old one on my own premises.
As to the remainder, some explanation is necessary. I was
requested by the Municipal authorities in December last to examine
‘some waters in the northern part of the town, with reference to a pro-
posed public tank to be excavated there, and the results are included
in the table. Of these Nyan Chund Dutt’s Lane Tank and Well and
Blaquiere’s Tank are old sources of supply; the three latter “ wells”
were simply holes dug in the ground 8 or 9 feet deep to collect water
for examination: the water from the aqueduct was supplied at my
request for comparison. ;
_ Another table will exhibit a few more points for comparison,
* Called Dhurrumtollah Tank by mistake,
132 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2,
-Taste IX,
Tank and well waters. For 100,000 gr. water.
Hardness. — | Chlorine
Equal to that from} calc. as
Carbonate of Lime,| Chloride
in grains. ofSodium.
Total sib
nent.
General’s Tank of 18th Feb. 1867,...... 6.4 2.1
Ramdhone Ghose’s Tank of 18th Feb., 29.9 15.1 28.66 —
Baranagar Well of 22nd Feb. ............ 70.4 12.3 45.40
Nyan Chund Dutt’s Lane Tank, ...... 33.7 2.9 40.10
Well, iQ. 69.7 17.1 | °44.30
Bhaguniere’s Tank iG... i. Satine ops otek ss- 51.1 14.5 31.60
Manictollah Well, .... ....... boned 68.1 6.1 58.50
Puttureaghat Street Well, ......... ..... 53.3.,-. 11.0} 53.10
Nimtollah Street Well, 2... .....sc00...) 127.5 24.0 | 111.20
River water of street aqueduct,......... 19.7 2.1 1.73
And to get a full insight into the nature of such waters, a complete
analysis was made of two of them, of which this is the result for
100,000 fluid grains of water.
Taste X.
Puttureaghat | Nimtollah
Street Well. Well.
grains. — grains,
Potash, 6 cse- oepesiond sngae es - thsee dS iae er - 30 49 34.77
OU ders tote ta ces accieee te bans «eile aeeees al 31.35 35.33
WETNESS Ree gawd Coe. aE aaah eae es ate e eee 14.00 31.20
Magnesia, ...-0. . Si ites Bape nen seas 8.76 22.80
(al oF ime ves pastenyare «cub - dateacdeleselepwas «te 32.30 67.81
DM pHUTC Seve eye can ge cane stele 1.84 13.20
Phosphonic acidy auc. Mi ocenteurs: ease eres
Siti la: one eee cope: videos see tantey ee 7.00 4.80
Carbonic acid by difference, (including
errors of avalysis,). 0b ai sisics cinsuimeb'ok 23.03. 4 |) 47.46" 7m
148.77 257.37
Orpamie! mathe). PAs fede be 9.23 21.23
158 278.6 a
ee
Nitric Acid, ......c.cccseesesceeses eee] none detected. |small quantity.
867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 133
Phosphoric acid: very distinct indications of in both.
This was also found in smaller quantity in the other four of these
raters, and in still smaller quantity in the water of the aqueduct.
The relative proportions of these constituents, so different from those
f ordinary spring or even river waters, point clearly to their origin.
e large quantity of alkaline salts, compared with those of Lime and
Magnesia, and the large proportion of Potash and of organic matter,
icate that they are derived from the decomposition of vegetable
nd animal substances: the phosphoric acid and perhaps the chlorine
sing more particularly characteristic of their animal origin. In fact,
is the composition of sewage water, and differs from some other
alyses of English town sewage* most remarkably in the large
roportion of potash present, no doubt the product of the vegetable
od of the mass of the population. It is indeed simply sewage water,
sprived in great part of its bad smell by filtering through the earth.
id the partial analyses of the other tanks and wells (except the
e first tanks of the table) indicate that the waters all partake
yre or less of the same character, and contrast strikingly with the
perior purity and different characteristics of the river water during
. i season.
ve large quantity of Ammonia as exhibited by Table VIIL. in the
Pvilers fully analysed is also very striking.
Now to return to the consideration of the organic matter which has
dergone comparatively little change, and for the proper examination
which we have no very ready or suitable chemical processes : the best
ans of judging of its nature and properties have already been
cussed in my first paper. These are, chiefly, the general appearance
‘smell of the residue obtained by evaporating the water, the
I on burning, and the estimation of the amount of nitrogen by
7 Soda lime process. This last, for reasons already stated, I have not
lie d. But I may observe again, that these bad tank waters more
mble the river water of the rains than of the hot season, in the
earance and properties of their organic contents. No doubt this
is in part from the larger proportion of matter of vegetable
wes and Gilbert, Journal of Chem. Soe. Ser. 2, Vol. IV. p. 118 for 1866.
eport on Sewage of Towns quoted in Parkes’s, Manual of Practical
ene, 2nd edition, 1866, p. 325,
é
#
134 Mr, Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 25
nature; non-nitrogenised matter. It appears to me, however, that H
there is a tendency generally to make too much of this distinction —
between matter of vegetable and of animal origin, it being often”
spoken of as if the organic matter were of little importance, if it could —
be shown to be vegetable matter. Now it may be admitted that
most probably water tinged by peaty matter consisting of the ordinary
humous class of acids and salts, may be not at all even injurious to
health, and that water flowing over or percolating through the soil
of mountainous districts or others bare of vegetation, where there is
little herbage and much earth or rock, may be very pleasant and
wholesome. But citing such cases is only evading the question,
It does not follow that water draining off cultivated fields or dense
jungle, or flowing between banks covered with luxuriant and rank
vegetation, will be equally harmless. Putrefying animal matter is very
offensive, but putrefying green vegetable matter, though not s
disgusting in idea, is scarcely less offensive. Nor, be it remembered
are the poisonous properties very much dependent or connected with
a disgusting taste or smell, and the most powerful poisons come fron
the vegetable kingdom.
In my first communication, the oxidising action of the atmospheri¢
air dissolved in river water was brought forward as a powerful agency
for purifying the water. And though Dr. Frankland’s results wer
quoted as strikingly illustrating it in respect to the Thames “waters,
yet such observations are by nomeans new. And it must again be /
observed that the high temperature of the climate will materially
assist this action. No doubt it assists putrefaction, fermentation also :
and in some cases this may take place in a river, when its course from
any cause is rendered very slow. But in the case of the Hoog ily
the tides cannot fail to act beneficially; twice every day dammi
back the water and again retreating, enabling the river to flow w
increased velocity, increasing the motion amongst its waters a
constantly changing the surfaces exposed to the air. This is j
one of those agencies that escape general observation: it does not
that animal life is preserved in the waters no less than in the ordina )
atmosphere.
1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 135
The organic matter remaining in the mother liquors, after having
as well as practicable crystallised out or otherwise removed the
3 nineral saline constituents, is, in the case of the hot season river water,
of a pale brownish yellow colour, with a comparatively faint, somewhat
‘urinous smell; that from the tanks and river water of the rains is of
‘a darker brown colour and a more excrementitious smell: a smell, in
i, Similar to that of Guana. So far as sensible properties go, the
atter is the more disagreeable, and according to the results of
periment mentioned in the first paper, probably at least equally
litrogenised. At present it would be difficult to speak more positively
2 the subject.
In my first paper, and more particularly in the abstract of it
rnished for the proceedings of the Society, I made some remarks in
onnection with some of the tanks which my own observations will
not bear out. This was the result of haste and inadvertence, which
ll now be corrected. Some of the best tanks, General’s Tank more
articularly, are probably equal to the river water in purity at some
zasons, and superior to it at others, Tank water deteriorates during
the hot season from putrefactive fermentation ; the river water proper
aproves from oxidation, but near Calcutta deteriorates from sewerage
nd tidal water. Tank water improves during the rains by dilution
ith rain water, and the animal and vegetable life in it preserves the
oper balance, removes decaying matters, and prevents putrefaction to
y great extent: at least, this is the case in good tanks. General’s
nk seems a well kept aquarium; it abounds in animal life: though
| water has often a slightly putrid flavour, this is easily removed by
posure, But even the water of that tank is not, in my opinion,
in freedom from organic impurity to the river water proper,
cen during the dry season at ebb tide.
4 General Conclusions.
Before closing this communication, it may be well to make a few
neral remarks as to the conclusions to be drawn from the data
obtained. It must have been observed that there is some uncertainty
q mected with the subject of the organic matter. Persevering enquiry
may in time enable us to remove much of this uncertainty, but at
Lilet we can only draw conclusions from the most certain grounds
‘ | ve possess, Probably all will agree that it is advisable to get
Bl
136 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2; |
drinking water containing as small a quantity of organic matter as
possible, and more particularly as small a proportion as possible of
that which is of recent origin. If, this being kept in mind, we take
up the question which seems to have been considered of greatest
practical importance by the Calcutta community, namely, can the
supply be safely taken from the river at Cossipore? we can scarcely
answer it in the affirmative. My results, as has been pointed out,
show that there is a very distinct increase in the quantity of organic
matter in flood over ebb tide, even during the cold, but still more
during the hot season. How far this may be due to the proximity of
Calcutta, could only be ascertained from extended observations ; but
as the town must supply a considerable quantity of putrefying and
putrefiable matter and that of recent origin, in the absence of evidence
indicating the contrary, it would be desirable to avoid taking it from
that locality. What is the smallest distance up the river at which
this source of contamination is not appreciable, is a point that could k
determined only by observations during the hot season in various
circumstances and places. But it is evident enough that the furthe
up we go, the more certain are we to avoid this source of contamination
But though this is an important question, it is not. the only one
it seems to have occupied almost exclusively the attention of the
portion of the community who have taken an interest in i
subject, while another, and in my opinion an equally important
one, has scarcely if at all been noticed; and that is, what is te
be done with the muddy water of the rainy season? If we look
to the amount of putrefying matter as indicated by the permanga-
nate test, or even as observed by the senses, the water, for the first |
two months at least of the rains, is worse than the flood tide
water of the hot season; if we look to the two as we have them, each
with its suspended mud, the rainy season water is greatly the wor
If we consider the quantity of organic matter actually dissolved in the
water, probably the hot season water contains most, though this at
present is not quite certain, and it is also somewhat doubtful if it be
so bad in quality as in the rainy season water. Of all points in the
enquiry, this is the one involving the greatest doubt and difficulty,
and I should feel it quite impossible to give a decided opinion on it,
without again examining the water during that season. And what.
1867. ] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 137
makes this point of chief importance is this, that though the town
contamination may be avoided by going up the river, this cannot. ©
That flood waters (that is, floods produced by rain fall) are most
impure, as regards organic matter, is now a recognised fact in England.
It is by no means a new observation. In the Report on the Metropo-
litan Water Supply by Messrs. Graham, Miller and Hofmann, presented
_ to the Secretary for the Home Department in June [851], this
_ point is repeatedly noticed and the remedy for it discussed, though
- from the nature of their remarks it is evident that the amount of
finely suspended mud, and the degree of its putridity, have probably
been much smaller than those of the Hooghly water in the rains.
It must be remembered that while in England there are numerous
_ small floods, here we have but one large flood in the year, washing
- down the accumulated refuse of seven or eight months. It is true
_ that the large quantity of rain dilutes the muddy mixture, and, so
far as matter in actual solution is concerned, improves the water.
Still we have it loaded with mud, part of that in a very fine state
of suspension, very slow in settling, and which cannot be separated
by any ordinary filtration. And as the finely suspended clay
_ contains organic matter, putrid or putrefiable, the water must be
‘deprived of it to be rendered fit for use.
The subject has engaged the attention of the Engineer to the
_ Justices, and in his Report on the works for the supply of water
. to Calcutta, he details the plan for meeting the difficulty alluded to.
He admits the difficulty, for the says, para. 28, ‘“‘ The muddy character
of the water to be dealt with is an unusual feature in works of this
description and necessitates peculiar aud special arrangements being
provided.’’ Let us see what these are.
| of to the filter, after passing through which it is conveyed to covered
reservoirs for storage, whence it is to be distributed as required.
| The filter is composed of sand and gravel, and also, according to
| Mr. Clark’s original proposal, a layer of “ Spencer’s magnetic carbide.”
The object of this is to purify the water from organic matter, and
| it is also said that it removes the suspended matter.
| But so far as Ican gather from the Report, Mr. Clark seems to
18
138 Mr. Waldie’s Investigatrons connected [No. 2,
consider that the settling of the muddy water of the rains for 36
hours will put the water on an equality with that of the rest of
the year as to the rapidity with which it will pass through the
filter, and, I suppose, with or without the magnetic carbide, will
supply it in an unobjectionable state. At least I cannot find in the
Report any provision made in addition to this for the special case
of the muddy waters of the rains, or a single arrangement made to
provide against any difficulty in this case.
My own observations on the waters of the rainy season are not at —
all in favour of the success of this scheme. On the contrary, Ihave ©
experienced the greatest difficulty in getting the water freed from the
finely suspended matter by either subsidence or filtration. After
standing to settle for several weeks, it still contained much of this ;
finely suspended clay, from which it could not be freed by filtration in —
the ordinary way. It seems therefore to be impossible to avoid the ©
conclusion that through the ordinary sand filter the water will pass
little changed; or if by any modification it be made effectual, it will”
pass with such extreme slowness as altogether to interrupt the
ordinary supply of the water. And if it pass in its muddy state into
deep covered reservoirs provided for it, daily it will deposit a portion
of its mud, which will be daily more or less stirred up by the new flow
of water into the reservoir, a state of matters which appears to be
very well adapted to maintain the water in the state in which it
entered, or even to tend to make it worse. Whether the water of this
season then will be ina fit state for storage, after thirty-six hours
settling and the short time longer necessary for its passing though the
filter and being conveyed to the reservoirs, is a question deservin of
serious consideration. My own observations lead me greatly to doubt
it. It would be rather a serious error, if these fears should turn o it
to be well founded ; for not only would the water be offensive during
= |
the rainy season, but, unless the reservoirs were cleaned out, would
continue to be so. And in the plan there appears no arrangement
for cleaning them, and no facilities for doing so. 3
There are other and effectual plans for speedily separating the i
suspended mud from the water, and rendering it easy to be filte o(
perfectly transparent. These are by chemical precipitants, to som |
1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 139
common use. These have been observed sometimes to increase the
quantity of organic matter in solution, but this is probably from
imperfect knowledge of the proper way to apply them, rather than
essential to their operation.
This enquiry into the water of the Hooghly was commenced, as
formerly stated, without any reference to the water supply of Calcutta,
but simply as an investigation interesting in a scientific point of
view. For even in the single point of the organic matter there is
room for the expenditure of much labour and research. It is difficult
and not very promising, but persevering enquiry often brings much
of interest out of unpromising subjects. The high temperature of the
country increases the energy of chemical action, and the comparative
regularity of the seasons favours the simplicity of its operation; and
thus a country like India affords a field well adapted for the study of
the influence of chemical changes on the phenomena of nature. Many
of these changes may not be very obvious to those unaccustomed to
study them, but they are not the less real on that account, and
not the less powerful in their operation on the world around us.
16th September 1867.
_ Since writing the above, the enquiry has been continued, with the
iew of settling one or two points left in some degree of uncertainty.
These were the amount of organic matter in the river water during
the hot season and during the rains. The first of these was the point
mn which the greatest doubt was felt by many as to the correctness
f the results given in my first paper, though little shared in by
n} seli: the second was the point on which my own opinion was
nost undecided. The experimental results will be given in the tables,
nd comments and explanations will follow.
140 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2,
Taste XI.
For 100,000 grains.
Hot season. Total solid Organic
contents. matter.
River water of 20th May, 1867,
Sy AIG. ale earn wea: 55.60 .90
Ebb, 16.45 .75
Ditto of 6th June, spring, Flood, 50-1 1.70
General’s Tank of 10th June, 10.74 2.40
Dalhousie Sq. Tank of 10th June, 41.35 2.58
Rainy Season.
River Water of 13th July, purified by
perchloride of iron, 1.22
Ditto by ditto in smaller proportion, 63
Ditto settled 8 days and syphoned off, again
settled 8 days, 12.07 1
Ditto settled and sand filtered continuously |
with new water daily till 26th, then 1.06
settled till 18th August, 5
River Water of 16th August, Flood, 10.71 74
Ditto of 24th August, Ebb, ~- 10°25 1.10
The experiments on the hot season waters were made to decide the
question involved in the objection raised to my first results, namely,
that the organic matter had been decomposed and lost by the delay
(of from ten to fourteen days) in proceeding to the evaporation.
In the present cases the water was evaporated on the next day after
collection. The result shews only from .90 to 1.70 grains organic
matter in 100,000 grains of water taken at flood tide of the highes a
spring tides of the season ; less indeed than I had obtained in 1866,
Many other experiments have shown me that there is very little
much saline matter as the river does at this season. The only thing
that undergoes rapid change is the deoxidising power of the water as _
shewn by the permanganate test, but this does not appreciably affect 4
the weight of the organic matter. ‘—
1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 141
One thing is to be noticed in connection with these, namely, that
the amount of saline contents is very decidedly smaller than it was in
the corresponding season of 1866. This may possibly have arisen
from the correct time of full flood not having been caught, but if so,
this must have happened on both occasions: and moreover the
quantity of saline matter at Ebb tide is also much smaller than in
1866. It appears to me more probable that the river water has
contained less saline matter this year. It would be difficult to give
an opinion as to the cause of this: besides, the observations were not
. sufficiently numerous to draw conclusions from with certainty.
| The results of the examination of the river water of the rainy
season confirm those I have already given in Table III. of the first
paper and in Table V. of this. The absolute amount of organic
matter is somewhat less than in the waters of the hot season, but, in
‘proportion to the mineral constituents, very much greater. It isto be
observed that the waters which were simply settled, or even sand-
filtered, still contained clay: the water, clarified by a little sesqui-
chloride of iron, does not give the correct amount of saline matter,
therefore in the table this is omitted in these cases, but it was only
by such means that the water could be got clear and free from clay,
at the beginning of the rains, without delay. The two samples thus
clarified were evaporated next day after collection, the others after
greater delay.
_ The waters were also examined for ammonia by the process given
in the first paper : the results are exhibited in the following table.
Taste XII.
Shewing quantity of ammonia in 100,000 fl. grains water.
Hot Season.
ra Grains.
‘River water of 13th May, Neap tide ........... ...Hbb, 0350
e . Flood, .0240
20th MIS Sd... pe dasil as Aasainonineararan's ve waits all, .0090
| ae Flood, .0155
Pemrdtine, Spring tide..........sccssrovereceseserecescsers Flood, .0190
AVOREES 3 ct hans hb chev ean La 0205
?
142 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations connected [No. 2
General's Dank water! \. .ivelee. RR er a ee .0385
Dalhousie Sq. Tank water, ...........ececececes vee oe SRT 2 20268
Racny Season.
River water of 10th July,:.0..0.. 0424... indi eos < MORRO
i ssi lay ol cibleubyie, At ohit satel. ee. at Ludi. LORE 1 .0810
‘ 4» ie Ob Adaeusigh mone AIR), 2a .0380
9 ry) 99 24th August, woever eovcvncsece oceescecia. weseen .0140
Average,...... .0392
These results exhibit great variations in the proportion of ammonia,
and recent investigations throw some doubt on the trustworthiness of
the method employed; besides, it is confessedly an imperfect indication |
of the amount of nitrogenous matter: nevertheless, so far as they go,
they are confirmatory of those already given in table IV. of Part I.
The waters of the rainy season yield more ammonia than do those
of the hot season, and the tank waters, even the best of them,
yield more thanthe river water. And the previous table also shews
that General’s Tank,—probably the best of the tanks, or at least
one of the best, contains more organic matter than the river water;
and the results given connected with Dalhousie Square Tank confirm
the opinion expressed before, that the river water rather deteriorates
by storage in tanks.
I do not mean to say that these results, as to the quantity of
organic matter and the proportion of nitrogenous matter, prove with
certainty that the river water is at least equal, if not superior, to
even the best of the tank waters; but they are the best means of
judging which chemical analysis affords of the quality of water for
drinking purposes, and, in the absence of equally good evidence to the
contrary, the results lead to such conclusions.
Only in one point have I to say something in modification of the
results of previous examination, and that is connected with the water
of the rainy season. In the previous pages I have spoken strongly
of the putrid flavour of the river water of the rains, particularly of ©
the early part of the season. This respected the year 1866. In the H
present year, however, I have not found this putrid flavour, or at least i
‘
—-1867.] with the supply of water to Calcutta. 143
| only to a comparatively very slight degree. At first I was inclined
‘to attribute this difference to some local or accidental cause which
had led me into a mistake as to the general character, but after
further observation and consideration, I do not think that this is the
explanation, but that the water is really different in this respect, this
season, from what it was last. For not only has the putrid smell been
absent, but the mud has been easier to separate from_the water; the
‘particles are not so fine, or at least not so glutinous, and it has not
been so difficult to filter clear as it was last year at the corresponding
periods ; and the quantity of organic vegetable matter produced on
standing in bottles has been decidedly less than it was last year.
Indeed the river water of the rainy season of 1865 gave much more
vegetable growth than that of either of the two succeeding years.
Moreover the water of the river did not become muddy nearly so
‘speedily after the setting in of the rains as it did last year: this was
noticed particularly, as the muddy water was watched for. Neither
after it had become muddy, did it exercise nearly so strong a deoxida-
ting power on permanganate of potash as it did last year: only about
one-third of the power; and this is a good indication of putridity.
These facts, to which may be added the greater purity of the
water of the hot season of this year, seem to indicate some general
cause producing the variation. Both 1865 and 1866 were years
of deficient rainfall, 62.40 and 60.32 inches; while the year preceding,
865, was one of large rainfall, there having been 84.22 inches
n 1864. This perhaps may have some connection with the points
joticed. The peculiarity is worth attention in the future,
The subject of water analysis, in connection with hygiene, has
ately occupied much attention in London. Dr. Frankland has
Xpressed opinions respecting the small value of the oxidation test by
ermanganate, in accordance with my own and on additional grounds,
md also proposed a fuller examination of the nitrogenous constitu-
nts as the most important guide. Miles Messrs. Wanklin, Chapman
and Miles Smith have also proposed some new methods for determining
the nitrogenous constituents. The details of these plans, however, have
| ‘not yet been published, or at least have not yet come under my
| no ice. The subject is also under experiment by myself, and will have
| further attention.
144 Mr. Waldie’s Investigations.
To sum up, it may be observed, that these extended enquiries, ©
though leaving many points yet imperfect, still go to confirm the
general conclusions arrived at in my first communication, favorable
to the water of the Hooghly, compared either with the Calcutta Tank
waters or the present London waters. I may repeat what I then said;
“* Such are the conclusions I have arrived at, some of them unexpected
even to myself, and which may be disputed by others.” And I may
add, that they can only be properly controverted by evidence of the
incorrectness of the experimental results from which these conclusions
have been drawn.
JOURNAL
PASIATIC SOCIETY.
| ny ee
Part IL—PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
LP LLL LLL Lt E
No. IIJ.—1867.
On the Reproductive Functional Relations of several Species and
Varieties of Verbasca.
By John Scott, Esq.,
Curator of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Calcutta.
- In this paper, I purpose giving an account of a numerous and carefully
_ performed series of experiments on the hybrid and cross-unions of several
| ‘Species and varieties of Verbasca, with the view of illustrating those
functional relations, or differences existing between the results of unions
_ of distinct species on the one hand, with those of different varieties of
‘the same species on the other. I believe, the generally accepted view
of naturalists on this point is, that a certain degree of sterility
always results from the union of distinct species in their first hybrid
| oduce, and that their progeny are absolutely infertile one with
| F nother; while in the cross-unions of varieties of a species, the ferti-
- lity is in no respect affected in the first cross, and the progeny are, in
“every case, perfectly fertile, one with another. These relative differ-
‘ences, then, in the products of hybridism and mongrelism are
| strongly maintained to be decisively demarcative of the factors, in-
cluded under the terms “species” and “ varieties,” affording, so to
Speak, an unequivocal analysis, whereby nature’s original and immu-
19
hie
146 On the Reproductive Functional — [No. 3,
|
4
table units—species—may at once be discriminated from those diverged
forms—varieties—to which they have given rise, and with which,
from the important structural differences they frequently assume, they
might be hopelessly confounded. Such, at least, is the opinion of
those naturalists who regard species as the result of distinct creative
acts. On the other hand, those naturalists who believe in derivative
hypotheses, and look upon all existing organisms as the genealogical
connections of other and earlier kinds, entertain the directly opposite
view, and maintain that no such essential differences as those above
stated exist between the results of hybridism and mongrelism ; though
they readily admit a difference in degree. This point has been ably
and philosophically discussed by Mr. Darwin, who, after a careful and
impartial examination of all the evidence he could collate, considers
himself justified in concluding, that “first crosses between forms
known to be varieties, or sufficiently alike to be considered as varieties,
and their mongrel offspring, are very generally, but not, as is so often
falsely stated, universally fertile......... consequently that neither —
fertility nor sterility afford any clear distinction between species and
varieties; but that the evidence from this source graduates away, and
is doubtful in the same degree, as is the evidence derived from other —
constitutional and structural differences.’’* 7 3
Though Mr. Darwin thus clearly anticipates an essential accordance 4
between the result of hybridism and mongrelism, it is to be observed i
that the extreme paucity of experimental observations on the latter er
phenomena prevents his illustrating the subject so fully and satisfac- ”
torily as its importance demands. The want of such observations, —
and the importance of their bearing on that theory of the ‘origin —
of species” proposed by Mr. Darwin, has been frequently and strongly
insisted on by Professor Huxley. Thus in his “ Kssay on Man’s |
Place in Nature,” p. 106, we find the following remarks: ‘‘ Our —
acceptance of the Darwinian hypothesis must be provisional so long —
as one link in the chain of evidence is wanting, and so long as all the
animals and plants certainly produced by selective breeding from a
common stock are fertile, and their progeny are fertile one with another,
that link will be wanting.” Again in his Lectures on our knowledge of
the cause of the phenomena of organic nature, Lecture VI. p. 147, after
* Darwin’s “ Origin of Species,” 3rd Hdition, pp. 271 and 300,
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 147
discussing the obligations of a hypothesis, he remarks, that “‘ Mr. Darwin,
in order to place his views beyond the reach of all possible doubt, ought
to be able to demonstrate the possibility of developing from a particular
stock, by selective breeding, two forms which should either be unable
_ to cross one with another, or whose cross-bred offspring should be
infertile with one another,” ........“‘ Now it is admitted on all hands
that at present so far as experiments have gone, it has not been found
possible to produce their complete physiological divergence by selective
breeding.......... If it should be proved, not only that this has not been
done, but that it could not be done, I hold that Mr. Darwin’s
hypothesis would be utterly shattered.” Professor Huxley, however,
~
though thus strongly insisting upon the absence of facts showing that
any degree of sterility has resulted from the crossing of varieties
_ known to have originated from a common stock, states that he does
not know a single fact which would justify the assertion that such
sterility could not be produced by proper experiment, expressing his
_ belief that it may and will be produced.
Considering then the as yet positively equivocal nature of the
relations between the phenomena of hybridism and mongrelism,
together with its important bearings on the converse theories which
‘now divide the scientific world, I trust the reader will bear with me,
while giving a somewhat detailed statement of my own experiments
on the above phenomena. I venture to premise that they show pretty
a
clearly the relative claims of the two views now held by naturalists
on our acceptance, and illustrate also one or two other points of high
‘interest in theoretical natural science. First, for the union of V.
a
enicewm vars. rosewm and album and V. nigrum.
a ' mH i
4 se 3 5. i cal-
+ eee culation.
, Sp) ee
Taste 1.—Results of Pure and Mixed Unions} % | 'S | g | $
of Verbascum phoniceum, var. rosewm and] = BIS ISs
album; and V. nigrum. aol 2| Flog] 2
(<>) = =~ op = = 3
- 4]. 8 niso| 3s QD
f) Om! @ co | D rs
.ee [ov rob) oe Q, Oo
4 Sees ih buck oe aS ae ae
A Ohba? ais Hh G2
——— ese ne SS ne ee es ee
No.
1. Verbascum pheniceum by pollen of J.
phenicewmn roseun, 10 8 | 193] 24 | 20 | 483
2. V.pheniceum, roseum by pollen of a
phoeniceum, 12 9 | 306] 34 | 20 | 680
culation.
TaBLE 1, (Contd.)—Results of Pure and Mixed
Unions of Verbascum pheniceum, var. rosewm
148 On the Reproductive Functional [ No. 3,
By cal-
3
EE Ee
No. of flowers ferti-
Capsules produced.
Average of seeds per
Seeds produced.
and album; and V. nigrum. <| 34
ro m{ :
gz 8/214
ae o| & | @
oO R
3. V.pheniceum, by eer of V. pheni- ;
ceum, album, 6 120} 20 | 20
a oY; phoeniceum, album by pollen of V.
pheniceum, .| 16 | 11 | 287| 26 | 20
5. V. pheniceum, album by pollen of 7.
pheniceum, roseum, sf oe 4 | 116} 29 | 20
6. V.phenicewm, rosewn by pollen ofek:
pheniceum, album, Me ES 8) : ery ee
av. Hs MON by pollen of V. nigrum, ..| LO} 3 1° Spas 7°26
8. V. phenicewm, album ae pollen of VJ.
NIGrTUM, 00 he 6 | 110} 18 | 20
94) VV: pheniceum, voseum "by pollen of V.
nigrum, ... = -f 10). 7 (OT sia 20
10. V. phenicewm, by own ‘pollen, di ws] oO OT ez ets
ll. V. pheniceum, rosewm by own pollen, ...| 18 (Um Hes
12. V. phenicewm, album by own pollen, ack. ts Ub ee
The following descriptive notice of the plants in Tab. 1, will show —
their close morphological relations, First, V. pheeniceum ; stem somewhat
downy, simple, producing upwards a racemose panicle. Leaves i
crenate, oblong-ovate, nearly glabrous above, deep green. Radical |
subcordate, ovately-acuminate, petiolate. Upper cauline crenulated, _
semi-amplexicaul. Bracteas lanceolate. Raceme elongated. Flowers
lax, solitary ; pedicels longer than the bracteas. Corolla purplish- violet, ¥
beset with violet hairs at its base. Stamens ; filaments of the three
shorter stamens covered with long glandular purplish hairs, these ri
the two longer naked, except on the upper side, where there are a few
similarly characterised hairs. Anthers of the three longer stamens —
nearly circular, and covered with purple and white glandulose hairs, |
these of the shorter stamens, reniform and nearly naked. Pollem
copper-coloured. Second, V. phceniceum, rosewm differs from the abuve-
only in the less elongated raceme aud the rose-coloured flowers. Third,
V. pheeniceum, album is of a more robust habit than the other two.
1867. | Relations of Verbasea. 149
Radical leaves ovate-lanceolate, light green. Flowers white and
rather larger than the others, with a few whitish glandulose hairs
near the base of petals. J%laments and form of anthers similar to
these of V. phcenicewm, but beset with white instead of purple,
glandular hairs. Pollen similarly copper-coloured in each.
Thus, judging from the characters of these three forms alone, there
can be no doubt as to their being other than conspecific. In addition
to this I may add, on the authority of Mr. Stirling of Edinburgh,
that they have been raised from pure seed of the V. phen-
ceum, the rose-coloured variety frequently appearing amongst the
A
seedlings of V. pheenicewm, the white presenting itself more rarely.
In the first part of Tab. 1, the number of flowers fertilised, and
the simple results are shown, and in the right hand, for the sake of
;
4
}
,
r
comparison, the calculated produce of the number of seeds from 20
capsules of each is given.* If we compare the results, we see that
reciprocal unions may be effected becween the V. phanicewm and
varieties, with one exception, viz., V. pheniceum, roseum, by pollen of
V. phoenicewm, album, in which case 1 have found that though the
pollen tubes are abundantly developed and freely penetrate the stigmatic
tissues, the capsules nevertheless drop prematurely. The goodness,
however, of both the male and female elements of the above varieties
_is nevertheless shown by their reciprocal unions with V. phenicewm.
Ihe individual potency of the respective sexual elements of these
varieties, in their reciprocal relations, is clearly shown; whereas by
those experiments given in the three last lines of the table, in which the
“stigmas of each variety were covered by their own good pollen, no
unions were effected, each proving utterly self-sterile !
This absolute, or conditional, sterility of the three varieties of V.
pheeniceum, when treated by their own good pollen, led me to examine
~_ * From Mr. Darwin’s suggestion in “ The Origin of species” that the decreased
fertility of mixed unions, as compared with that of the pure unions, might possi-
bly be increased by the fact, that for perfectly satisfactory results, castration is
Necessary in the cross-unions; whereas in the latter, in pure unions, this not
ng necessary, we may have indiscriminate comparisons, of the two results
ugh clearly castration may have a direct sterilising influence. In view of
s prudent suggestion, I took the precaution to castrate every flower both of
the pure and mixed unions, from which I intended to draw results. The sole
exception to this is that givenin the first line of Table 2 of V. phenicewm
as I was unable to get any of the plants under me to produce seed by their own
_ pollen. Whatever be the effects of castration then on the fertility of the plants so
treated, in the present cases, all having undergone it, the results will be mutual,
150 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3,
into the apparent cause, as in certain cases we find it arising from the
non-emission or non-penetration of the pollen tubes ; the pollen through
some mysterious cause being thus utterly impotent on its own stigma.
Theresults of my present examination will, I trust, be found of sufficient
interest to permit ofmy stating them here. They areas follows: first, I
applied the pollen of each of the three varieties, reciprocally, to their
stigmas; on dissecting these, I foundthem abundantly permeated
by pollen tubes, many of which I distinctly traced into the ovary.
Secondly, I fertilised several flowers in each variety, with its own
pollen; on examining the stigmas of a few of these flowers, I found
that many of the pollen grains had emitted tubes, but comparatively
few had penetrated the stigmatic tissue, and of these still fewer —
permeated the conducting tissues of the styles. Several of the latter,
however, I traced into the vascular bundles of the placenta, the ~
pistillary cords, and in one or two instances, I believe that I detected — .
them in the nucleus of the ovule. Nevertheless we have seen that,
though these pollen tubes are developed, they most ineffectively
perform their deputed function, inasmuch as not one of these matured
even a single ovary! I have here to observe, however, that these |
pollen tubes do not seem utterly void of the fecundative influence, as
many of the ovaries did undergo a certain degree of development ; and
on examination of these, as they dropped off, I found that the ovules
also had undergone a partial and variable degree of development. In ~
general, the fleshy albuminous envelope of the embryo was largely
developed, whereas the embryo had undergone a very slight develop- _
ment, judging from a comparison of other good seeds of a similar stage,
not at all proportionate to the size attained by the albuminous parts. In q
neatly all the embryos which came under my observation, the develop- —
ment had ceased ere they exhibited any distinct separation of parts ; 1
few only had reached that stage in which the axial and lateral —
projections were visible. ¥ 3
We thus see, that whatever be the real cause of the inveterate self-
sterility of the three varieties of the V. pheeniceum, it does not arise,
as has been shown in other cases, from the non-emission of the pollen ;
tubes. In these, as I have elsewhere noticed it, in certain individual
plants of different species of Oncidia, Maxillaria, and Passiflore, —
sterility apparently results from some slight differentiation of the male
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 151
element with respect to its own female element. I have also to remark,
that the ultimate conditional sterility of these plants is not, relatively
considered, an absolute but a graduated quantum; this is shown
by the different degrees of development the embryos had undergone,
thus illustrating a most interesting, though as yet imperfectly known
fact, namely, that the male element, even though reaching the female
element, may nevertheless fail to communicate that amount of vital
stimulus necessary to the complete development of the embryo.
Furthermore, I may in passing briefly refer to the perfect parallelism
between these phenomena, and those occasionally observed in hybridi-
sation, at least in the zoological kingdom, for unfortunately we are as
yet nearly void of information on this point in the vegetable kingdom,
hybridists having, in most instances, satisfied themselves by attending
to the ultimate results, without troubling themselves to examine into
the nature or degree of embryonic sterilisation. From the published
papers of the Hon’ble and Rev. W. Herbert, we find, as might
indeed be expected, that this point did not escape observation: thus
in one case he remarks, “‘ It has, I believe, not been duly considered, that
the fecundation of the ovules is not a simple, but a complicated process,
There seems to me to be three or four several processes: viz., the
“quickening of the capsule of the fruit, of the outer coats of the seed
- of the internal parts or kernel, and lastly, the quickening of the
ill ......It is further to be observed,” he continues, ‘‘that there
isfrequently an imperfect hybrid fertilisation, which can give life, but
sustain it well. I obtained much good seed from Hibiscus palustris
D H. speciosus, and sowed a little each year till it was all gone, the
plants always sprouted, but I saved only one to the third leaf, and it
perished then.”
~ To recur, however, to the above parallelism, of which we have here
additional and important illustrations: it has been stated by Mr. Darwin*
| on the authority of Mr. Hewitt, that in the hybridisation of gallinaceous
| birds a frequent cause of sterility in jirst crosses is the early death
| of the embryo. Again Mr. Salter records similar results from
| his experiments on the fertility cnter se of several hybrid Galli, thus
concluding, ‘the one striking point of these experiments (which I
| believe has never been noticed before) is that a large proportion of
* loc. cit. p. 286,
+ Nat, Hist. Rev. 1863, p. 276.
152 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3,”
these eggs from hybrid birds breeding inter se have failed to produce
young, not from absolute sterility, but sterility in degree, from an
amount of vitalization insufficient to carry out the whole result of
reproduction, in which the young individual has been completed,
leaving it with vital resistance insufficient to maintain life and cope
with common and customary external influences.’”’ And thus in those
curious cases of sterility of structurally hermaphrodite organisms, —
whose sexual elements have become differentiated with respect to their
mutual fertile conjunctions, so in the phenomena of sterility from
hybridism, we find, as Mr. Salter well remarks, with respect to the
relations of hybridism and parthenogenesis, “that the sterility is not
absolute but in degree, and that the stimulus, whatever it may be,
which starts the embryonic changes is feeble and imperfect rather
than wholly wanting.”’
I have now shown that a regular more or less early embryonic abortion
results from the self-fertilisation of certain individual plants of V.
phoeniceum and vars. rosewm, and album ; whereas by their reciprocal
fertilisation, highly fertile unions may in general be effected. By again
consulting Table 1, however, it will be seen that besides a reciprocal
fertilisation, these three plants are also susceptible of fertilisation by
pollen of other species. Thus in lines 7, 8,9, of Table 1, the male
elements is also similarly shown by each effectively fertilising the
female element of the V. lychnitis, lutea. Again, we have fuller illus-
trations of these curious sexual phenomena in Table 2, in which one —
of the above plants, V. phonicewm, yields a varying degree of fertility —
lutea and alba ; Lychnitis lutea and ovalifolia. These are indeed —
remarkable physiological revelations. How strange that an individual
plant could be fertilised by the pollen of five distinct species, and yet
not by its own good pollen: how singular also, as shown above, to see
three hermaphrodite individuals incapable of self-fertilisation, yet
having each sexual element reciprocally meeting and fertilising the
opposite elements of other species. Thus, for example, the male
element of V. phenicewm and vars. rosewm and album fertilise the
female element of V.lychnitis, while the female elements of the three
1867.] | Relations of Verbasca. 153
former are also susceptible of fertilisation by the male element of V,
nigrum. The full explanation of these curious and complicated sexual
relations, I leave for more sagacious and ingenious investigators, and
simply confine myself to remarking on the apparent support that these
and more especially those other cases which I have communicated to
the Linnean Society,* on the fertilisation of certain species of Passiflore,
-—in which I showed that individual plants perfectly self-sterile readily
effected reciprocal unions with other similarly characterised individuals
of the same species—give to that view which Mr. Darwin has propounded
regarding the existence of a law in nature necessitating ‘‘ an occasional
cross with another individual, or, that no hermaphrodite fertilises itself
for a perpetuity of generations,” but “that some unknown great good
is derived from the union of individuals which have been kept distinct
for many generations.” +
In the following table, the results of the pure unions of V.
: phoeniceum given on the first line are taken from capsules on a
specimen in the Hdinburgh University Herbarium, as I have not yet
been successful in getting good capsules from any of the plants which I
_ have had an opportunity to experiment upon by their own pollen. The
_ other plants of V. phenicewm and varieties mentioned in the table are the
; same as those from which I had the results given in Table 1. Indeed,
‘. . . .
_ one or two instances, the same experiments are re-stated, with a
a
view to show more clearly the relative degrees of sterility resulting
.
rom the crossing of undoubted varieties of a species on the one hand,
ith those from the hybridisation of distinct species on the other.
‘3 [9 3 |By calcu-
5 oH $ lation.
om : . Dn ® o the
TastE 2.-—Pure and Mixed Unions} |3 4\se &% |comparative
of Verbascum phenicewm and a 5 3 apt 3 fertility of
pp Yar. as g Feo (asia 5 % S| 2 |the different
€ = .
; GOtomt este elo unions.
& = = . oO © qo 2 G
( SFIS T] 6 fe Me BI 6
AAG A o| G
| A
oO.
| 1. Verbascwn pheniceum L.
© (wild plant naturally ferti-
; ’
lised), ie | se | 4 | 142] 86 | 20 | 710|1000
* © Journal Linn. Soc.” Vol, 8. p. 197. + Orchid Fertilisation, pp. 1—860,.
20
154 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3,
‘= 19 @ |By calcu-
& 5, 7 lation
wiamae % =
Tanne 2. Contd.— Pure and Mixed| 3 5 = a . eis
Unions of Verbascwm phenicewm Bae + ai eae S | fertility of |
a cS) o .| 2 A is,
and var. as 9 jc} 2 |ecle 2] @ |the different
‘Ce 6 cS ao me a unions.
2 4 oS|C @ ;
Stoo) 6 tb Ola =e
A |G A id O14
No.
2. V. phoeniceum, rosea, by ‘
pollen of V. phenicewm L.,} 12 9 | 306! 34 | 20°} 680} . 957.7
3. V. pheniceum,- alba, by
pollen of V. phenicewm, ‘
rosea, 7 | 5") 154) 31 120 [ere 867.6
4. V. phenicewn, alba by pollen .
of V. phenicewn, 16 | 11 | 287] 26 | 20 } 522] .. | 735.2
5 V. pheniceum, by pollen of
V. phenicewm, rosea, 4 £0 8 | 193] 24 | 20 | 483] .. 680.3
6. V. pheniceum by pollen of «
V. phenicewn, alba, | 16 6 | 120) 20 | 20 | 400] .. 563.4
7. %V. pheiwicewm by pollen of -
V. ferrugineum, Andr., 12 7 | 148] 21 | 20 |} 423] .. 595.8
8. V. phenicewm by pollen of - =
V. blattaria, lutea L.,. ..| 12 | 7 | 112] 16 | 20 | 320] .. | 450.7%
9. V. pheniceum by pollen of a
V. blattaria, alba, a a2 4, 54) 13 | 20 | 270! .. 380.2
10. V. phenicewm by pollen of
V. lychnitis Witea, L., ...| 12 | 8 | 102] 13 | 20 | 255 359.1 3
ll. V. pheniceum by poieaixe of
V. ovalifolium, ... 12 | 5 43! .8. 1 20] 1721... | 242.2
/
In addition to the simple and calculated results given on Table i:
I have, in the above, given at the right hand, for the sake of compari-
son, the calculated product from an assumed 1,000 seeds of the pure
unions relatively to those yielded by the cross and hybrid unions.
By a further comparative study of these results, we find that the
fertility of the pure unions of V. phenicewm, relatively to that of its
cross-unions with the white and rose-coloured varieties, is, in the —
least differentiated or most highly fertile unions, viz., V. phoenicewm,
vosea by pollen of V. pheniceuwm, as 100: 95; whereas in the
least fertile unions, V. phenicewm by pollen of V. phcenicewm, alba,
the proportions are as 100: 56. The average fertility of the jive
cross-unions given in the table, relatively to the pure unions given in
the first line, is as 100 : 75; so that the pure unions thus exceed im
fertility the cross-unions, in nearly the proportions of 4:8. Again
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 155
by a similar comparative study of the relative fertility of the pure
unions of V. phenicewm and the different hybrid unions given in the
Table, we find that the highest degree of fertility results from the union
of V. ferruginewm (which perhaps is correctly regarded by De Candolle
and others as a mere variety of V. phenicewm) with V. pheeniceum, the
proportions of the pure to the hybrid unions being as 100: 59, in
favour of the former. The lowest degree of fertility results from the
unions of V. ovalifoliwm, with V. phanicewm, the proportion of the
pure to the hybrid-unions in this case being as 100 : 24.) Lastly
the average fertility of the five hybrid unions given in the latter lines
of the Table, relatively to the pure unions of V. phanicewm, is nearly
as 100 : 40, or as 2.5 seeds of the pure unions to one of the hybrid
unions. Thus, the relative differences in the degree of sterilisation
resulting from the hybridisation of distinct species, and that from the
cross-impregnation of varieties of a species, relatively in either case to
the pure unions, is in the former as 2.5 : 1, and in the latter as 4 : 3,
3 |9 3 By calcn-
S&S |o 2 lation. Th
n e
. . Oo 5 .
Taste 8.—Pure and Mixed Unions} Z |-3 a les 4 |comparative
of V. lychnitis, L. var. albaj= |2 | 3B U° 2 Z | fertility of
as 9. & .|53| 2 los. g| & |the different
‘3B \'s S 6S |fn/° al unions.
a ° . io) :
SaI/S tT] 6 EAI Bs
‘= A ie ZA \l4 o| A
No
1. Verbascum lychnitis, var.
alba of gardens, by own
pollen, ee if
2. V. lychnitis, alba, by pollen
; of V. lychnitis, lutea, L., 8 | 8 | 274) 34 | 20
3. V. lychnitis, alba, by pollen
of V. thapsus, L, var. alba,
of gardens, rs "
4, V.lychnitis, alba, by pollen
of V. phenicewm, L. var.
alba of gardens, se Bob) A) dish 28
685| .. | 822.3
10} 5 | 98} 20 | 20] 392] .. | 470.5
6 | 6 | 250) 42 | 20 833} 1000
20
a | 678.2
156 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3,
| 806.1
ll. V. lychnitis, hiker by pollen a
589.6
Cola Ou ue OU
Sigal cs rd By calcu-
& 5 ® lation.
el ee So cew rs esr
TaBLE 4.—Pure and Mixed Unions| = 2 3S ee Bis ro par eee ay
of V. lychnitis, lutea, L.as @ |g .|S6] 8 2 Pe Mie ab) aeeeent
63 6 S roe Ansa 3 6 unions.
Sails S16 |2F)54) 5
sa a ta- tS Zi
No.
1. V. lychnitis, lutea, L. by own
pollen, 6.| 6 | 226] 38 | 20 | 753/1000
2. V. lychnitis lutea by pollen Q
of V. lychivitis, alba, 8 | 7 | 249] 36 | 20 | 711] .. | 944.2
3. V. lychnitss, lutea by pollen ;
of V. phenicewm, L., 5 3 75| 25 | 20 | 500 664.0
4. V. lychmtis, lutea by pollen
of V. pheniceum, L. var. :
alba of gardens, 5 | 3] 63] 21 | 20 | 420] .. | 557.7
BY, lychnitis, lutea by pollen ;
of V. phenicewm, L. var. _
alba of gardens, 5} 2) 371.18 | 20} 370) .. | 491.35 8
6. V. lychnitis, lutea by pollen
of V. blattuia, L. var. alba a
of gardens, 8 4, 85| 21 | 20 | 425] .. 564.4
7. V. lychnitis, lutea by pollen A
of V. blattaria, lutea, L., 8| 5 | 97] 19 | 20 | 388] .. | 515.20
8. V. lychnitis, lutea by pollen a
of V. thapsus, lutea, L., ..| 10 7.1 123] 18 | 20 f eee... 466.1
9. V. lychnitis, lutea by pollen
of V. thapsus, L. var. alba -
of gardens, es soi] LO 75| 15 | 20 | 300) .. | 398.475
10. V. lychnitis, lutea by pollen .
of V. nigrum, L., 10 182} 30 | 20 | 607] ..
of V. virgatum, With., ..] 10 111} 22 | 20 |} 444
12. V. lychnitis, lutea by pollen F
of V. thapsiforme, Schrad, .| 8 52) 17 | 20 | 347 460.8
In Table 3 we have first the results of the pure unions of V.—
lychnitis, alba, and by comparing them with those resulting from fer-
tilisation with the pollen of V. lychnitis, lutea, we find that the latter
cross-unions undergo the proportionately decreased fertility of 100 : 82.
By the hybrid-unions of V. lychnitis, alba, with the pollen of V.
pheniceum, alba, a slightly higher degree of sterilisation results ; the
proportion in this case being as 82 : 67, relatively to 100 produced
by the pure unions of V. lychnatis, alba. The highest degree of
sterilisation in this Table results from the union of V. lychnitis,
alba, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba, the proportion of the pure to
the hybrid unions being here as 100 : 47.
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 157
The results of my experiments on the yellow variety of V. lychnitis
are given in Table 4. By a comparative examination of this Table,we have
the following general results: first, the fertility of the pure unions of
V. lychnitis, lutea exceeds that resulting from the cross-unions of
the latter with pollen of V. lychnitis, alba, in the proportion of
100 : 94. The degree of sterilisation induced by these unions, though
less than that resulting from the converse unions given in Table 3, is
nevertheless sufficient to show a sterilising influence in the conjunctions
of varieties of a species, characterised only by those, systematically
considered, trifling differences in colour—the one being white, the other
yellow. Secondly we have the results of unions of similarly and
dissimilarly coloured forms of distinct species, with V. lychnitis, lutea.
‘Thus the pollen of V. phenicewm, with purplish coloured flowers,
applied to the stigmas of V. lychnitis, lutea, gives an average fertility
of 66; the pollen of the white variety V. pheniceum, alba, gives an
average of 55; while that of the rose-coloured variety is productive of
the highest degree of sterilisation, giving only 49—relatively to 100,
‘the produce of V. lychnitis, lutea by its own pollen. Mr. Darwin, on
the authority of Gartner, states in his “ Origin of Species,” that similarly
coloured varieties of distinct species are more fertile when crossed than
are the dissimilarly coloured varieties of the same species. The parti-
“cular illustration of this point will be found in a subsequent part of this
“paper ; I will here merely state that, in the above unions, the degrees of
fertility are by no means regulated by the colour affinities. Thus, we
have first yellow and violet, then yellow and white, and lastly yellow
‘and rose yielding a successively decreased fertility ; whereas, judging by
the colour affinities, the arrangement ought to have been, beginning
with the most fertile, yellow first with white, then with rose, and lastly
With violet. Secondly, with pollen of the V. blattaria, vars. alba and
lutea, we see, that the V. lychnitis, lutea yields the higher degree of
fertility with the former: V. lychnitis, lutea, yielding with pollen of
V. blattaria, alba, 56, and with that of V. blattaria, lutea, 51, relatively
to 100, the product of fertilisation with its own pollen. Thirdly, in the
unions of V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of the yellow and white varieties
of V. thapsus, we find that unions of the similarly coloured flowers are
the more fertile. V.lychnitis, lutea, yielding with pollen of V. thapsus,
lutea, 46, and with the pollen of V. thapsus, alba, 39, relatively to 100,
158 On the Reproductive Functional [ No. 3,
the results of fertilisation with its own pollen. Fourthly, in accordance
with recognised systematic affinities, we find the following descending
scale of sterilisation resulting from the unions of V. nugrum, V. virgatum
and V. thapsiforme with the V. lychnitis. Thus with the pollen of —
V. mgrum, the average fertility of V. lychnitis, lutea, is 80, with
that of V. virgatum 58, and-with that of V. thapsiforme 46, rela-
tively, in each instance, to 100, the product of fertilisation by its
own pollen. A similar accordance is observable between the functional
and systematical relations of V. blattéarva and V. thapsus with the
V. lychnitis. In the unions, however, of V. phoenicewm and varieties —
with the V. lychnitis, no such accordance is observable, The different
unions vary greatly in the degree of fertility inter se, and judging |
indeed by the relative functional potency of the pollen of the three
varieties on the stigmas of V. lychnitis, the different results are —
comparable with those from distinct species, and would cause their —
interpolation into systematically considered false positions, showing
us that the functional and systematic affinities of the species of a
genus are by no means strictly co-ordinated.
aL ES). 4H)
“ld
§
as
ro } 4 =|By calcu- a
& A 3 Teens
nee a Ke sate Tho a
TABLE 5.—Pure and Mixed Unions] # [3 — < | i \comparative |
of Verbascum blattaria, L.var|= |4 | 3 oo S | fertility of—
alba of gardens. ee rs 2 | et v3 © the differenti
6 3 Seles |Ss/le|s unions.
SS]ST] 6 [ERIS I s
4 |4 Zid o| G
No. | |
1. Verbascwm blattaria, L. var.
alba of gardens by own
pollen, #3 - | 8 | 8 | 488] 55 | 20 |1095)1000
2. V. blattaria, alba by pollen
of V. blattaria, lutea,L., ..| 6 | 5 | 217] 48 | 20 | 868] ... | 79267
3. V. blattaria, alba by pollen
of V. thapsus, lutea, L., 6a a2 36| 18 | 20 {| 360]... | S2aum
4, YV. blattaria, alba by pollen
of V. thapsus, L. var. alba .
of gardens, re 6| 4] 95] 24 | 20 | 475) ... | 483.7
5. V. blattaria, alba by pollen
of V. lychnitis, lutea L., ..| 8 5 65| 13 | 20 | 260] ... | 2387.4
6. V. blattaria, alba by pollen
of V. lychnitis, L. var. alba
of gardens, ge {| 6] 4 |. 79} 20 } 20 | 395 360.7
ne a ee
1867. ] Relations of Verbasca. 159
3 9 3 By calcu-
2 a 2 lation.
nm
Bike obuuerd ome
zn 6.—Pure and Mixed Unions] = Z s ie o ee
awe " late lutea, ti y © 2 | S rd D 1» = a 3 fertaby. OF
aS Fa 3 a a © |%3 @ 2 the different
° oy) By oe BS S ! 2 ° unions,
r= S c ) b 5
a i ba
No.
1. Verbascwm Obdlattaria, Wwtea,
L. by own pollen, . 8 | 7 | 354! 50 | 20 |1011/1000
2. V. blattaria, lutea by pollen
of V. blattwria, alba of gar- .
dens, 6 | 3 | 147| 49 | 20 | 980] ... | 969.3
3. V. blattaria, lutea by pollen ‘
of V. thapsus, lutea, L., 6 | 4 | 103) 26 | 20 | 515| ... | 509.4
4. V. blattaria, lutea by pollen
of V. thapsus, alba of gar- :
dens, .. 6{ 21] 62] 31 | 20 | 620) ... | 613.2
5. V. blattaria, lutea by pollen 5
of V. lychnitis, lutea, L., 8 4 81} 20 | 20 | 405] ... | 410.4
6. V blattaria, lutea by pollen
of V. lychnitis, alba of rie ,
dens, .. ae 8 1 23| 23 | 20 | 460] ... | 454.8
The results of experiments on the V. blattaria, varieties lutea and alba,
are given in the above Tables : they comprise 12 unions between the
white and yellow varieties of three species, Let us briefly compare
the results of their reciprocal unions. First, the fertility of V. blattaria,
alba, when fertilised by its own pollen. undergoes the highly propor-
_tionate sterilisation of 98 : 78 when fertilised with the pollen of the
_ yellow variety—V. blattaria, lutea. In the converse case, the sterilis-
‘ing influence of the cross relatively to the pure unions of these forms is
much decreased, the pure union of V. blattaria, lutea, yielding more
seed in the proportions of 90 : 88 than from its cross-union with the
white variety—V. blattaria, alba. Secondly, as to the hybrid unions
with the pollens of the yellow and white varieties of V.thapsus. In
| these the pollen of the white variety is the more potent. Thus V.
Vlatturia, alba, fertilised by pollen of V. thapsus, alba, affords an
average fertility of 43, whereas by that of V. thapsus, lutea, the
produce is reduced to 32, relatively in both cases to 100, the average
fertility of V. blattarva, alba, when fertilised by its own pollen. By the
union of the yellow and white varieties of V. thapsus with the yellow
variety of V. blattaria, we see that the relative differences in the
160 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3,
potency of the two pollens on the stigmas of V. blattaria, lutea,
are much less than those we have above noticed when JV. blattaria
alba is used as female ; and also that the potency of the two pollens
is greater on the stigmas of the yellow than those of the white variety
of V. blattarva lutea ; and again that the white variety of V. thapsus
is more fertile than the yellow, in their respective unions with the
V. blattaria, alba. Thus V. blattarva, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba,
gives an average fertility of 61; by pollen of V. thapsus, lutea, 50,
relatively to 90, the product of fertilisation by its own pollen. Lastly, —
we have the different unions of the two pollens of the white and
yellow V. lychnitis on the stigmas of the yellow and white varieties
of V. blattaria. In these unions we see first that with V. blattaria, alba
as female, the pollen of the white variety exceeds that of the yellow
in the proportion of 36:23; secondly, with the V. blattaria,
lutea, as female, the pollen of the white variety is again singularly
enough the more fertile, exceeding that of the yellow variety, in
the proportion of 45:41. Thirdly, we find that here also the yellow —
variety of V. blattaria yields a higher degree of fertility,—taking the
Vite me Fear
if
conjoint products of the two unions with the pollen respectively of
V. thapsus, lutea and alba,—than the white variety of V. blattarca when .
similarly treated, the proportions being as 70 of the V. blattarva to a
of the V. blattaria, alba, or nearly as 3 : 2.
This leads me to notice a curious fact prominently brought before q
us in the above Table, whatever may be its real signification, ee
that the yellow varieties of V. lychnitis and blattaria, though yielding
a higher grade of fertility to the pollen of the white and ‘a
varieties of distinct species than do the respective white varieti
of the above species when similarly fertilised, are nevertheless lea
productive of seed than the white, when both are fertilised with their
own pollen. This will be seen by consulting the following a
arrangement, in which I have given a reduced approximate of the
relative fertility of the different unions, selecting from the hybrid
unions in each instance only the most fertile. iB
1. V. lychnitis, alba, by own pollen is as 83 : 75 of V. lychnitis,
lutea, by its own pollen. a
2. V. lychnites, alba, by pollen of V. lychnitis, lutea, is as 68 : s
of V. lychnitis, lulea, by pollen of V. lychnites, alba.
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 161
3. V. lychnitis, alba, by pollen V. thapsus, alba, is as 39:30 of
V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba.
4, V. lychnitis, alba, by pollen of V. pheenicewm, alba as 56 : 42
of V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. pheniceum, alba.
5. V. blattaria, alba, by its own pollen, is as 98 : 90 of V. blattarza,
lutea by its own pollen.
6. V. blattaria, lutea, by pollen of V. blattaria, alba is as 96 : 79
of V. blattarva, alba, by pollen of V. blattarva, lutea.
7. V. blattaria, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba, as 61 : 43 of
_V. blattaria, alba, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba.
8. V. blattaria, lutea by pollen of V. lychnitis, alba, as 45 : 36 of
V, blattaria, alba, by pollen of V. lychnitis, alba.
_ Wethus see, from the eight pure, cross, and hybrid unions of V. blat-
taria albaand lutea given in the above comparative table, that though
the white variety exceeds in fertility the yellow variety, when both
are fertilised by their own pollen, the yellow variety, inthe mixed unions,
“is in every case more highly fertile than the white. In the different
“anions of V. lychnitis, alba and lutea, there is some little discordance,
this, however, is confined to the hybrid unions which are as yet very
insufficiently illustrated, as may be seen by consulting Tables 3 and 4,
In the case of the pure and cross unions, we see, as in those of V.
blatiaria, that in the pure wnions the white variety, and in the cross
‘anions the yellow variety is the more fertile.
I know not whether this concordance is casual or otherwise, but I
was so forcibly struck with it in the comparative study of my Tables,
"that I have thus ventured a special statement. I have been more
especially induced to notice it also from its evidently bearing and
illustrating, as I am inclined to think, that view of Mr. Darwin, (loc.
eit.) respecting the good derived from cross fertilisation ; inasmuch as
we see that the yellow and original, or normally coloured, form of the
Species is less fertile than the white or derivative form in the pure
‘amions, whereas in general, in the mixed unions, the yellow variety
_ felatively exceeds the white in the degree of fertility. Any how, the
mere fact of such variations occurring, whether or not they have any
bearing on other points of theoretical natural science, seems to me
worth noticing, as affording an additional link to that broken chain of
21
162 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3,
evidence which is said to disjoin the serial continuity of the phe- _
nomena of mongrelism and hybridism.
m tS 3 |By calenu-
3 a, $ lation.
meer er The
TaBLE 7.—Pure and Mixed Unions| £ |= Fig Oe a |comparatival
of Verbascum thapsus, Wtea,|e |\4 | 5 7 B S | fertility of
ae. SH .[53| 2 |o8|u 3] @ |the different —
6 213 9] Ss Ss ca S unions.
SSlot] 6 [Pale Sl
ra Zz |< EI Zi
No.
1. Verbascum thapsus, lutea, L., |
by own pollen, . 8 8 | 920} 115] 20 |2300);1000
2. V. thapsus, lutea by pollen
of V. thapsus var. alba of a
gardens, 4 |. 2 | 218] 109} 20 |2180} ... 947.8 3
3. V. thapsus, lutea by pollen ”
of V. lychnitis, lutea, L., 6| 1 | 54] 54] 20 |1080{ ... | 465g 4
4. V. thapsus, lutea by pollen =|
of V. lychnitis, var. alba of -
gardens, 6 | 3 | 187| 62) 20 |1246] ... | 541.7%
5. V. thapsus, luten by pollen a
of V. nigrum, L., 10 | 4 | 275|> 69| 20 |1375| ... | 59zm
6. V. thapsus, lutea by pollen “e.
of V. pyramidatum, Beib., 10 6 | 3741 62] 20 11246] ... | 540m
7. V. thapsus, lutea by pollen 5%
of V. thapsiforme, Schrad,| 10 8 ied 51| 20 |1020] ... | 443.25 |
8. V. thapsus, lutea by pollen a
of V. virgatwm, With., . | 10 5 | 222) 44) 20 | 888] ... 386.0 a
9. YV.thapsus, lutea by pollen
of V. blattaria, lutea L., ..| 8 3
= 33| 20 | 63l ... | 288.9
|
In Table 7 we have several unions of the yellow variety of al
thapsus. If we compare these results, we see that the fertility of the
V. thapsus, lutea, by its cross-unions with the V. thapsus, alba, 18
decreased in the proportions of 94 relatively to 100, the product of
fertilisation by its own pollen. We also seea great difference in the
degrees of potency of the two pollens of the white and yellow variety
of V. lychwtis on the stigmas of the yellow variety of V. thapsus 5
the pollen of. V. lychnitis, alba, exceeding in its fertilising influence
that of V. lychnites, lutea, in the proportion of 54:46. Judging
from the results of the seven hybrid unions given in this Table, we
also see how little the recognised systematic affinities of species guide
us in pronouncing a priort as to the degree of fertility of their several
unions. For example V. thapsiforme, V. virgatwm and V. blattaria, |
|
|
wt
_:1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 163
though much more closely allied to the V. thapsus than the others
given in Table, are nevertheless least effective in their conjunctive
fertility with the latter species. Furthermore, we see by those unions
of V, thapsus, lutea, as female, with the yellow and white varieties of
V. lychnitis, and of V. pyramidatum ; that though the pollen of V.
pyramidatum is equally potent on the stigma of V. thapsus lutea, as
is that of V. lychnitis, alba, there is nevertheless a considerable decrease
in the proportionate fertility of the unions with V. lychnitis, lutea.
Hence, as we have before shown it to be with the varieties of V.
_ phenicewm, and judging by the physiological test, the V. pyramidatum
would interpolate itself between these slightly different and undoubted
varieties of a species. 4
In the foregoing Tables, then, I have given nearly all the re-
ne tg SP
‘sults of my experiments in the unions of Verbasca. Before
on
considering the nature of the evidence they afford us as to the rela-
tionship of mongrelism and hybridism, I will briefly attempt to show
how far these results accord with those of Gartner, who has also
largely experimented on these plants. I may premise, however, that
as my experiments are much less numerous than Gartner’s, compris-
ing some 57 distinct unions, in which 527 flowers were artificially
3 fertilised,—whereas, as will be seen beneath, Gartner subjected no
s than 1085 flowers to experiment,—they would induce very
different conclusions, in certain points, to those arrived at by that
eareful experimentalist. I readily acknowledge therefore the higher
aim of the latter to a provisional acceptance, until further experiments
show more conclusively their relative correctness. I have also
notice a cause of some little discordance in such a compara-
9 ive examination as that which I am about to institute; name-
ly, that I have given in every case the average number of seeds
‘produced both by pure and mixed unions, whereas Gartner gives the
average number of seeds in the pure unions only, taking in each case
the maximum or highest number produced by a single capsule in the
iid unions. I was not aware of this peculiarity in Gartner’s deduc-
- tions when I counted the seeds in my own experiments, otherwise, I
Should have drawn them up for the sake of comparison on a similar
basis ; even though I consider it a less fair method than that which
T have adopted, in all such cases as the present, in which the ovaries
164 On the Reproductive Functional | [No. 3,
contain an indefinite number of ovules. And this the more especially
if, as inmy own experiments, castration and artificial impregnation be
performed in both pure and mixed unions. In drawing comparisons
between wnceastrated pure unions, and castrated mixed unions, the
average of the former, with the maxemum of the latter would certainly
be the fairer method, as affording a complement for the sterilising
influence of castration.
For the following digest of Gartner’s experiments I have to thank
Mr. Darwin, who kindly sent it to me from his yet unpublished MS.
illustrations of these phenomena: ‘To show the scale on which
Gartner worked, I may state that, in the genus Verbascum, he crossed no ~
less than 1085 flowe#s and counted their seed, and recorded the results. Hl
Now in two of his works he distinctly asserts that similarly coloured
varieties of V. lychnitis and V. blattaria are more fertile together than
when differently coloured varieties of the same species are crossed.
But Gartner chiefly relied on the crosses which he made between the
yellow and white varieties of these two species and nine other distinct
species, and he asserts that the white-flowering species yielded more _
seed than did the yellow-flowered varieties when crossed with thesame
white varieties of these two-flowered species, and so conversely with —
the yellow flowering varieties with the yellow species. The general _
results may be seen in his Table. In one case he gives the following
details; the white Verbascum lychnitis naturally fertilised with its .
own pollen had on an average in 12 capsules 96 good seeds : 20 flowers
artificially fertilised with the pollen of its yellow variety gave as the 4
maximum 89 good seeds. I should have thought that this slight 4
difference might have been wholly due to the evil effects of castration; —
but Gartner shows that the white variety of V. lychnitis, fertilised S|
the pollen of the white and yellow varieties of V. blattarva, in both of —
which cases there must have been previous castration, bore seeds to”
the white variety in the proportion of 62, to 43 when pollen of the r
yellow variety was used.” q
First then, in regard to the greater fertility of the unions of simi-
larily coloured varieties, relatively to that of the unions of dissimilarly_
coloured varieties of the same species. To these phenomena I will apply
in the subsequent parts of this paper the following terms: ‘ Homo-
chromatic” to the unions of similarly coloured varieties, and ‘ hetero-
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 165
chromatic’ to those in which dissimilarly coloured varieties are united
In the following table we will at once see the comparative fertility
of these different unions given in the previous ones.
RELATIVE FERTILITY OF THE HomocuRoMATIC AND HerrerRocHROMATIC
Unions.
1. V. pheeniceum by its own pollen, , , . 1000
_ 2. V. pheenicewm, rosea, by pollen of V. phaenicewm, ... 958
3. V. phoeniceum, alba, by pollen of V. pheniceum, rosea, 867
4. V. pheniceum, alba, by pollen of V. pheenicewm,. ... 735
5. V. pheeniceum, by pollen of V. phcenicewm, rosea, . ... 680
6. V. phenicewm, by pollen of V. pheenicewm, alba, ... 563
1. V. lychnitis, alba, by pollen of V. lychnitis, lutea, ... 822
8. V. lychniits, lutea, by pollen of V. lychnitis, alba,. ... 944
9. V. blattaria, alba, by pollen of V. blattaria, lutea, .., 792
‘10. V. blattaria, lutea, by pollen of V. blattaria, alba, ... 969
AL. V. thapsus, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba, . .. 947
Here the comparative fertility is shown by calculation from
the number of seeds produced by 20 assumed capsules of both
unions. The various cross-unions of V. pheenicewm and its varieties
‘are in each case to be considered relatively to the assumed results
of the pure unions of V. pheniceum given in Table 2, these
plants experimented upon being individually self-sterile as shown in
Table 1. The unions, on the other hand, of V. lychnitis, blattaria,
and thapsus, with their respective varieties, are each to be considered
Telatively to the 1000 seeds produced by the pure union of that
Variety given as female. Now in all the above heterochromatic
unions, as compared with the homochromatic, we have the clearest
evidence of reduced fertility. Thus, taking the 10 heterochromatic
| unions given, and comparing them with a similiar number of homo-
| chromatic unions, we find that the average proportion in which the
former exceeds the latter, is as‘05 to -23. On again confining
ourselves to those species alone which have the yellow and white
varieties, and keeping the unions of white as P with yellow ¢,
distinct from those of yellow as P with white as @, we find that
the cross-unions with white as female are to the pure unions of the
latter as ‘04 to ‘28; and in those cross-unions with yellow as female,
166 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3,
the proportions are as °23 to ‘29, relatively to the pure unions —
of the latter. Thus, in whatever way we proceed, the general
results are the same, testifying to the highly remarkable fact
announced by Gartner, that varieties of a species, characterised by
no other differences than that of colour, are occasionally so differen-
tiated functionally, that the cross-unions, as compared with the
fertility of the pure unions, invariably indicate a certain degree of
sterilisation !
In connection with this higher relative fertility of homochromatic
to that of heterochromatic unions, as limited to the crossing of varieties
of a single species, I will venture to add that this law not only holds, —
but, as I believe, extends to and regulates the functional relations in ~
accordance with the relative colour affinities of the varieties crossed. —
Thus for the sake of illustration, we may take the three primary
colours of the cyanic series, namely, blue, violet, and red. Now —
beginning with red, we know that greater physiological changes -
must take place in the minute anatomy of the petals of an origi-
nally red-coloured flower to give the impression of blue than,
that of violet. Hence we might suspect that a species presenting
varieties characterised by such differences in colour, would like-
wise afford different degrees of fertility in their conjunctive func-
tional relations, the blue and red yielding less fertile unions,
than the violet and red; while the violet holding an intermediate
colour position between these, might be equally as fertile in its unions
with the blue as the red variety. In practical illustration of these ye-
lations, we may take the results of the various unions of V. pheenicewm
and varieties given in Table 1. Thus the V. phenicewm with pur —
plish-violet flowers yields more seeds when fertilised by the pollen —
of the rose-coloured variety, than by that of the white variety, in the
proportion of 5 to 4. Again the white variety of V. pheenice mm
average per capsule is 26, that is as 9 to 8, in favour of the unions {
of the rose and white varieties. We see here evident co-relations be-
tween the degrees of fertility and the colour affinities of these plants in
their respective sexual unions, and I venture to look for more marked
differences in these respects, had we as subjects of experiment,
| :.
¥
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 167
varieties of a species presenting three, or at least two, of the primary
colours with intermediate shades irrespective of the white. The latter
being rather unsatisfactory from its similar relations to the primary
colours, though in such instances as the above of the purplish-violet,
rose and white, in which we have secondary colours forming inter-
mediate steps between the primary and white, by a gradual dilution
of the colouring principle, we find that the white, agreeably to the
above views, form less fertile conjunctions with the violet than the
rose-coloured flowers. Before passing from this point of my subject,
I will now only add that I have thought these indications of a tangi-
ble law, co-relating and regulating the sexual functions of varieties
_when crossed—dim though they as yet undoubtedly are— worth notic-
“ing, as we are as yet in utter ignorance of anything lke definite or
“specific laws in these phenomena, the results being considered as most
Beapricious and uncertain,
4 Girtner’s second proposition is, that in the hybridism of differ-
ently coloured varieties of distinct species of Verbasca, the con-
junctions of the similarly coloured flowers are more fertile than these
of dissimilarly coloured flowers. For example Girtner shows* that
on the calculation of V. lychnitis, fl. alba, yielding with its own pollen
‘ 000 seeds, it yields when fertilised with the pollen of V. blattaria
“fl. alba, 0.622 seeds, and with that of V. blattaria, fl. lutea, only 0.438,
80 that the similarly coloured unions of these species are more fertile
than the dissimilarly coloured unions in the proportion of 8 to2. Let
now see then in how far this law of the differences in the fertility
E f the homochromatic relatively to the heterochromatic unions, is
borne out in the case of my own experiments as given in the preced-
‘ing Tables. And here again, for the sake of clearness, and facility of
‘reference, I will restate them in a tabular form, and show as clearly
4 possible the differences in the relative fertility of the homochromatic
‘and the heterochromatic unions, in each case, by making calculations
trom an assumed 100 seeds produced by the more fertile of the two
| Mhions compared. ‘The results may be conveniently arranged under
three heads; thus, first, the heterochromatic unions, or those in
| which the unions of differently coloured flowers are the more fertile:
second, the homochromatic unions, or those in which similarly colour-
* Versuche iiber die Bastarderzeugunj, 1849, section 216.
168 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3, .
ed flowers are the more fertile: and lastly, the irregular unions in —
which no relations are observed between the degree of fertility and
affinity of colours.
A. 1.—Heterocuromatic union, the More fertile.
1. V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. blattaria, alba, . 100
2. V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. blattaria, lutea, . ,, to 91
3. V. blattaria, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba, . 100
4, V. blattaria, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus, lutea, . ,, to 83
5. V. blattaria, lutea, by pollen of V. lychnitis, alba, . 100
6. V. blattaria, lutea, by pollen of V. lychnitis, lutea, . ,, to 88
7. V. thapsus, lutea, by pollen of V. lychnitis, alba, . 100 |
8. V. thapsus, lutea, by pollen of V. lychnitis, lutea, . 4, to 87
B. 2.—Homocuromatic unions, the More fertile.
1. V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus, lutea, . 100
2. V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba, . ,, to 85
3. V. blattaria, alba, by pollen of V. thapsus, alba, . 100
4, V. blattaria, alba, by pollen of V. thapsus, lutea, . ,, to 76
5. V. blattaria, alba, by pollen of V. lychnitis, alba, . 100 2
6. V. blattaria, alba, by pollen of V. lychnitis, lutea, . ,, to 66
C. 8.—Dereree or FERTILITY AND AFFINITY OF CoLoUR
IRREGULAR.
1. V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. pheenicewm, . 100
2. V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. phoenicewm, >» to 3
)
8. V.lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. pheeniceum, _ » pa
In A. and B. of the above comparative tables, I have at-—
ranged those unions in which a certain regularity is observed be-
4
:
tween the colour relationship and the degree of fertility. Now, by —
comparing the 14 unions therein given, we find that the heterochro-
matic unions are, in the greater number of cases, more fertile, viz., as
8 to 6, than the homochromatic unions, and that this higher fertili |
in every case, results from those unions in which the yellow variety —
of the species is treated as female. Again that the average p o>
portion of the four heterochromatic to the four converse homochromati¢
unions in the first of the above tables is nearly as 7 to 6 m
favour of the former. In B. 2 of the tabulated results, we see in one
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 169
instance the homochromatice unions with yellow as female exceed in
fertility the converse heterochromatic union; but in the other cases
_ given in lines 3 and 5, this higher fertility of the homochromatic unions
is yielded by the white variety ; the relative proportions of these being
much more marked than in the above cases of the heterochromatic
union with the yellow variety as female, viz., as 4 to 3, whereas, as we
‘ have seen, in the heterochromatic, A. 1, the proportions are as 7 to 6.
Ih further illustrations of this point we see in B. 2 that the yellow
homochromatic union of V. lychnitis, lutea, by pollen of V. thapsus,
pees, relatively to the heterochromatic unions of the former with
pollen of V. thapsus, alba, is nearly as 5 to 4, so that we here again
_ Bee fe in the heterochromatic and homochromatic unions in A 1)
@ more intimate approximation between the products of these two
unions, than occurs in the other cognate unions of B. 2, in which
the white variety is the more fertile.
| These curious relations, however, as I have already shown, are
| rtly explained by the fact,—though we can only dimly see why it
should be so,—that in the pure unions of the white and yellow
arieties of the above mentioned species, the white, in every case,
yields more seed than the yellow; whereas in the cross-unions the
yellow variety in general is the more productive. But, it may
asked, how is the greater potency of the pollen of the white variety
‘felatively to that of the yellow variety, as shown in the above
tables to be accounted for? Does it really imply that the female
: lement of the yellow variety yet retains its normal or original
potency, the male element alone having become absolutely less potent,
as compared with the male element of the white variety. This
hypothesis, analogieally considered, does not seem to me at all
Improbable. I think we have clearly seen by the comparative results
oi the pure and mixed unions of the yellow variety with those of the
white, that the pure unions of the yellow do not yield a degree of
fertility at all proportionate to that of the like unions of the white
variety, as judged by the relative fertility of their cross-unions; and
that accordingly this would seem to be due to an acquired ee
in the generative powers of the yellow variety. In noticing this
/ point in a former part of,my paper, I treated it as if both sexual
j elements had undergone a similar decrease in their generative powers ;
22
176 On the Reproductive Functional [No. 3,
but we here see that it is more particularly, if not altogether
confined to the male element. Now, as the results of hybridisation —
show that the pollen is more susceptible to the concomitant sterilising —
action of hybridism than the female element, may we not suppose —
that the debilitating effect of continued self-impregnation will also
manifest itself more quickly in the male than in the female element,
and thus afford an explanation of the decreased sexual powers of the
male, as compared with the female element, in the yellow varieties of
the above species of Verbasca furthermore, showing us that as it
has been a slowly acquired quality, so will it be in its elimination and
regainment of its pristine vigour.
The relations of the several reciprocal unions in the above
tables is another point which we must briefly consider, as having
most important bearings on the subject of our present enquiry. A
hasty examination suffices to show that these are much complica-
ted. Thus V. lychinitis, lutea, in its two unions with the white and
yellow varieties of V. blattaria, the heterochromatic unions are the
more fertile ; whereas in its two unions with the white and yellow
varieties of V. thapsus, we find it yields the more fertile by
a homochromatic union. Again V. blattaria, lutea, in its four
distinct unions with the white and yellow varieties of V. thapsus
and V. lychmtis, yields the higher degree of fertility im the hete-
rochromatic unions, while the V. blattaria in its similar unions wit 1
the white and yellow varieties of V. thapsus and lychnatis is,
singularly enough, more highly fertile in the homochromatic than the
heterochromatic unions. Lastly the V. thapsus, lutea, yields more
seed by its heterochromatic unions with pollen of the V. lychnitis,
alba, than by its homochromatic unions with the V. lychnitis, lutea ;
whereas in the converse unions we have seen that the V. lychnitis
lutea, is more fertile in the homochromatic unions with V. thapsus,
lutea, than in the heterochromatic unions with V. thapsus, alba! |
The tabulated experiments given in C. 3, afford another source of
complexity to the question under examination, inasmuch as they are
quite irregular in the relative degree of fertility produced by
the affinity of colour. Thus by the three unions of V. lychnit
lutea, with pollen of the three varieties of V. phoenicewm, the
most highly fertile is that in which V.. lychnitis, lutea, is treat
1867.] Relations of Verbasca. 171
_ ed with pollen of the purplish violet, or normal form, the average
in this being 25 seeds per capsule; then follows the unions with
pollen of the white variety, the average of seeds being in these 21
seeds per capsule ; and lastly in the unions with the variety with rose-
coloured flowers, the fertility of V. lychnitis, lutea, is reduced to
_ the low average of 18 seeds per capsule. Thus judging by the degrees
‘ of fertility, we clearly see that the natural functional co-relations of
these plants in place of being regulated by their respective colour
affinities, arrange themselves in an entirely independent and opposite
‘scale ; the extremes in the scale of colour given, viz., the purplish-
violet with yellow, manifesting the nearest functional co-relation.
_ Again as a further complication we find that the white and yellow unions,
_ —the most closely allied of the colours mentioned,—hold a medial
position between the purplish violet and rose. How obviously futile
then, we may well remark, would our @ priori conclusions have been,
_as to the degrees of fertility of the above unions, on a presumed
coordination between colour and function in the phenomena of
hybridism !
_ It would thus appear from the results given in the foregoing tables
that in the hybridisation of varieties of distinct species characterised
by differences of colour alone, no definite relations whatever can be
‘observed between the affinities of colour, and the degrees of fertility,
_ but.that in these cases as in the reciprocal hybridisation of pure
Species, the relative fecundity is a most variable and unpredicable
juantum. This view seems to me to be further supported by the
results of my experiments on the reciprocal hybridisation of the di-
| n 1orphic species of Primule* in which I showed that the laws of dimor-
phism were limited in their action to the unions of the two forms of a
8I ecies ; the heteromorphic and homomorphic unions of distinct species
| | proving irregularly the more fertile. From considering the important
q unctional co-relations of the two forms of dimorphic species, and their
trifling morphological characteristics, together with the specifically
| limited extent of their operations, we have less reason to be surprised,
: similarly limited relationship should ultimately prove to regulate
degree of fertility of those unions of differently coloured varieties
| of a species as in Verbascum and analogous cases. Indeed, judging
7 * Linn. Soc. Jour. Vol. 8, p. 78.
172 On the Re-productive Functional [No. 3,
from my previous remarks on the co-relations between the degree of
fertility and affinity of colour in the crossing of varieties of a species,
together with the results of the hybridising differently coloured varie-
ties of distinct species, this law seems clearly indicated, that the
relative degree of fertility of the cross unions between the differently
coloured varieties of certain species is inversely proportionate to the
less or more mediate colour affinities of these unions. Further that
this law does not extend to, or regulate the hybrid unions of differ-
ently coloured varieties of distinct species, but is strictly limited in
its operations to those unions of varieties of a single species. Such
at least is the conclusion which my own experiments would induce ~
me to hold, but seeing that they are so directly opposed to the results
of Gartner’s large experience, I would rather avoid at present any-—
thing like definite or positive conclusions, until subsequent experi-
ment affords usa crucial array of data. a
Tn conclusion, I will now by a cursory retrospect of the above de-—
tails, re-state a few of the more important points, which elucidate the
mooted relations between the phenomena of the hybridisation of a species
and the mongrelism of the varieties of a species. First then in hybridism
we see on the calculation of V. lychnitis yielding with its
own pollen 100 seeds, it yields upon fertilisation with pollen of
V. nigrum 80 seeds, by the pollen of V. virgatum 58 seeds, by.
that of V. pheniceum 66 seeds and by that of V. thapsiforme 46
seeds. In the unions of varieties of a species, with these of other
species we find differences in the sexual powers, so that the pollen of
the one variety of a species is less potent than that of the other
on the stigmas of the same variety of another species. Thus Va
of V. blattaria, the pollen of variety alba is more potent on the
stigma of V. lychnitis than that of variety lutea, whereas in the
converse unions of these forms, we find that the pollen of V.
| Ga Relations of Verbasca. 173
_ lychnitis is more potent on the stigmas of V. blattaria, lutea, than
_ that on those of the variety alba, in the proportion of 40 to 26.
Secondly, in mongrelism, we also find variabilities in the relative
sexual powers of varieties of a species, by differences in the degrees
_ of fertility resulting from their simple and reciprocal unions. Thus
on the calculation of V. phanicewm, yielding 100 seeds by ferti-
_ lisation by its own pollen, it yields with that of the variety rosea 68
_ seeds, and by that of the variety alba, 56 seeds, or nearly as 5 to 3.
In the reciprocal unions of these varieties, we also find variabilities in
their converse sexual powers. For example, in the reciprocal unions
of V. phenicewm and varieties, the potency of the pollen of rosea
relatively to that of alba on the stigmas of the normal form is nearly
as 5 to 4; whereas the pollen of the latter on the stigmas of rosea and
alba is as 4 to 3. This difference in the reciprocal sexual powers of
varieties when crossed is so regulated however by colour affinities, that
: unlike the irregular and indefinite results of the reciprocal unions of
varieties of distinct species, judging by my own experience, we see
that the pollen of rosea is more potent on the stigmas of the normal
form than these of alba and so conversely, the pollen of the normal
form is more potent on the stigmas Of rosea than on those of alba. In
‘those cases, however, in which colour differences do not come into
play the pollen of one variety, relatively to that of another variety
of the same species is so differentiated with respect to their
reciprocal stigmatic relations that the grade of fertility of the pure
unions of these varieties does not at all correspond with that of the
~ cross unions. For example, in the pure unions of varieties lutea and
alba of V. blatturia, the fertility of the latter exceeds that of the
former in about the proportions of 12 to 11; whereas in their converse
u nions, Jutea exceeds alba in the higher proportions of 6 to 5! Thus
i in the inter-crossing of varieties of a species, as in the inter-crossing
‘of varieties of distinct species, there are converse variabilities in the
_ Feciprocal sexual powers of their respective elements.
As the facts stand then, it appears to me that in the first crosses of
& jhe varieties of certain species, as in the first hybrid crosses of distinct
_ Species, a variable degree of sterilisation results, and again, that the
relative sterilising influence is as highly intensified in the crossing of
‘undoubted varieties of certain species, as it is in the hybridising of
174 On the Reproductive Functional Relations of Verbasca. [No. 38,
several undoubtedly distinct species. There is also a parallelism
between the results of reciprocal hybridisation of varieties of distinct —
species, on the one hand with those of the reciprocal inter-crossing of —
varieties of a single species onthe other. The sole difference in the
two lines at least is merely as to the degree of extension; species re-
lative to species occupying a higher point in the divergingly extended
line, than do the varieties of a species relatively to each other, and
accordingly yielding in general more intensified results, harmoniously
testifying to the truth of Mr. Darwin’s remark that sterility is simply —
a superinduced quality due to incidental differences in the reproduc- |
tive system....Asin the varieties of a species, however, we find that the
relative amount of physiological divergence,—as judged by the fertility —
of their reciprocal conjunctions,—is by no means regularly or definitely 1
co-ordinated with their morphological ; so in the hybridisation of the
different species of a genus, the most distinct morphologically are |
often found to be most nearly allied in their physiological charac-
teristics, and thus there being no necessary co-ordination of these
characteristics we can readily understand how the sterility of the first |
crosses of varieties of a species may, and occasionally does, exceed that
of well-marked and undoubtedly distinct species.
1867.] Capt. R. C. Beavan on Panolia Eldi. 175
Contributions towards a history of Panotta Expr; MeLelland.
By Captain R. C. Beavan, C. M. Z. 8. &c.
The published accounts of this comparatively rare species of deer
are scattered through back numbers of various scientific periodicals
and proceedings of Societies, some of which are out of print, and
not easily procured. I have therefore brought together nearly all
_ that has been previously written on the subject, and added much
information on the manners and habits of the species procured during
a recent visit to its haunts in Burmah.
- Panousa Expt. The Sungnai.
Nondescript Deer, McLelland, Calcutta Journ. N. H. Vol. I. p. 501,
‘ PS SETI.
Cervus Eidi, Guthrie, (Calcutta Journ. N. H. Vol. II. p. 405,
> Pr. SIT.
‘ C. lyratus, Schinz. Syn. Mam. II 395.
C. dimorphe, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, Vol. XII. p. 897.
C. smithi, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 45.
Panolia acuticornis, Gray, List Mamm. B. M. 180.
Panolia platycercos, Gray. List fiamm. B. M. 181, adult; Cat.
Osteol. B. M. 66.
Cervus (Rusa) frontalis, McLelland, Calcutta Journ. N. H. III. p.
401, Pl. XIII. Sundevall, Pecora, 132.
Panolia Eldi, (The Sungnai), Gray. Cat. Hodgson Coll. B. M. 34;
Osteol. B. M. 66: Knowsley Menag. Cat. Mam. in Museum
As. Soc. Bengal, Blyth, 1863, p. 149.
Native names, Sungnai, apud Guthrie and Blyth: Sungraéé apud
_Eld: Thamyn of Burmah.
_ Hab. Pegu, northward to the valley of Munipore : Siam : and prox-
imate portion of the Malayan Peninsula, (Kedda) Mergui, (B/yth.)
;: The first notice we have of this deer, was published in 1841,* and
~ entitled— Indication of a dakaadige species of Deer by John
| ie eliand. is
| “Captain Guthrie of the Bengal Engineers, employed in the con-
‘struction of a road from the valley of Cachar to Monypore, procured the
horns of a deer whose lower, or basal antler descends in the axis of the
pk im SS a PRE
* Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. Vol. I. p. 501, Pl, XII,
176 Capt. R. C. Beavan on Panolia Eldi. [No. 3,
beam, rather as an extension of the horn itself than as a mere shoot.
The horn may be compared to the segment of a circle, the burr, or
root from which both limbs extend, being placed on the outer circum-
ference. The beam is round, and terminates by a fork, as in the
Rusa deer. The lower prolongation of the horn beneath the burr
may also be said to terminate in a fork, for on the left horn, about
two inches below the root, there is a small snag directed forward. In
illustration of this notice, a figure of the horns is given at pl. 12.”
Captain Eld, one of the principal assistants to the Commissioner
of Assam, who had been previously attached to the British Residency
in Muneypore, having had his attention called to the notice and the
figure alluded to, soon after wrote an interesting letter on the subject, —
which affords the first general information hitherto received relative
to the habits and character of this interesting species. His description
is as follows:* ‘‘I observe mention made of a new description of
Deer, said to exist between Munipore and Cachar; some specimens
of the horns of which were procured in the latter place by Captain
Guthrie. From the drawing, it is evident to me that the Deer alluded
to is of the kind originally discovered by myself in the valley of
-Munipore in the beginning of 1838, and several pairs of the antlers
of which were given by me to Captain Guthrie in the same year, —
‘I had intended at the time to send a description of the animal to one —
of the Journals, but was told that a similar Deer was to be found in
the north-western jungles. As this, however, does not appear to be
the case, I now forward you a correct drawing of a pair of the horns
in my possession, together with a short account of the animal &e.
you are welcome to make use of in any way you wits
“The Sungraéé, as it is called by the natives, or large Deer a
Munipore, is only to be found in the valley of that state, but neither —
in Cachar, nor the Kubo valley, nor in any of the Naga hills surround= — :
ing Munipore. Its favourite haunts are the low grass and swan
round the edge of the Logta, (lake) at the western end of the valley,
and the marshy ground at the foot of the hills. It is gregarious in
its habits, and after the annual grass burning, I have frequently seen
herds of two and three hundred. The colour of the males from the
month of November, till about the end of May, is of a dark brown,
* Calcutta Journal Natural History, Vol. II. p. 415.
Sas?
1867. ] Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldi. 177
nearly approaching to black, and their bodies are covered down to the
knee-joints with thick shaggy coats, resembling split whalebone, of
four to eight inches in length.
“ The hair about the neck is very thick, and just like a horse’s mane,
and the appearance the stag presents when roused, with his shaggy
mane standing on end, coupled with the strong smell which at this
season proceeds from their bodies, perceptible at 40 and 50 yards
distance, is so formidable, that I have known the boldest ele-
phant refuse to approach them. In June the stags commence shed-
ding their horns, and the new ones have nearly attained their full size
by the end of November, but are in perfection in February and March;
about this time also (June) they change their coats, which lose
their whalebone texture, and become of a beautiful glossy chesnut co-
our, and about half an inch in length. The contour of their pecu-
‘liarly small heads, and the perfect symmetry of their forms, di-
‘vested of their long bristly coats, are now fully developed, and at
_ this season they are, in my opinion, the most beautiful and graceful of
the Deer species. The height of the full grown stags averages about
eleven and a half hands, and that of the does three or four inches less,
“The colour of the latter is always the $ame—a bright bay, but more
glossy during the rains than at any other time. The principal dis-
tinction between the Swngraéé and others of the Deer species consists
im the peculiar shape of the lower antlers, which, instead of breaking
off at an angle where they are set on the head, preserve the continuity
‘of curve downwards, and project over the eyes of the animal, which
‘they nearly hide, their semicircular shape giving the Deer, when at
gaze or in motion, the appearance of having too distinct pairs, the
‘one inclining forwards and the other backwards. The generality of the
stags have from six to ten branches or snags, but I have killed very
old ones, with no less than sixteen clearly defined branches.
“Tt would bea great object gained, could any live specimens be pro-
cured for transmission to Europe, but it would I fear be attended
With much difficulty. I have known several instances of the fawns
being caught and thriving well for months, but at about a year old,
they invariably pined away and died; nor have I known or heard of
a single instance of one having arrived at maturity, this too in their
native climate ; and I therefore think the chances of one surviving a
23
178 Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldt. [No. 3,
voyage home but small. I have written to a friend in the valley to
send me a complete skeleton of one with the skin &c., and he has
kindly promised to do so if he can succeed in procuring one; but says
he can hold me out but slender hopes, as the Deer now seem to bear
a charmed life, and roam about unpersecuted by anybody.”
The next detailed description of this deer was given by Dr.
McLelland in 1842,* and I quote his remarks nearly in full.
‘Although differing considerably in the form of the horns from ,
any of the Rusa deer, still the general form, the colour, the
mane, and the Asiatic habitation of the species, seem to refer it to
the Rusa group, of which it forms one of the most unique and eee
%
£
examples. i
“‘ The form of the skull agrees more with that of Corse hippelaphus q
than with that of any other species that I can refer it to, but the 9
nasal and intermaxillary bones, as well as the muzzle generally, seem
to be somewhat mere prolonged and compressed, and though the face 4
is broad and flat between the eyes, the forehead is compressed, and
the head as well as the muzzle narrow, and the profile nearly straight,
but with a short prominent ridge commencing on the forehead, and-
extending between the horns. There are two canine teeth, not much —
developed, in the upper jaw of both sexes, and the suborbital sinuses .
are large.
“The horns are large and directed backwards, and obliquely out
wards without ascending from the burr : they are then curved gr oy ool
upwards and outwards, and terminate in a point directed forward. fs
single small antler extends obliquely inward from the upper third of
the horn; this antler in young individuals appears to form a fork with
the summit, but in the adult it is placed about six or seven inches
from the top point of the horn, and is more or less developed according
to age; in the adult, and particularly in aged individuals, an imper=
fect nodular spine extends from the base of this antler towards the
point of the horn, with several irregular blunt snags arising from it,
forming an incomplete kind of crown. The brow antler advances
directly forward from the burr, and bending upwards and onwards,
terminates in a point which, if prolonged, would meet the summit of |
the horn, and thus complete an almost perfect circle.
* Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist., Vol. IIT. p, 401, Pl. XIII. XIV.
1867.] Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldi, 179
A single little snag sometimes shoots out promiscuously from the
base of one or other horn, more frequently from that of the brow
antler.
“The length of the horn following the curve is three feet, and that
of the brow antler twenty inches. The circumference of the horn is
five and a half inches, that of the brow antler five inches, and both
_ together form one extended and uniform curve of four feet and seven
inches; the horns spreading laterally from each other to a distance of
three feet, and then approaching at their bases to an inch or an inch
and a half.
} “ The body in its general symmetry is light, the limbs slender but
strong, the hoofs long, black, and pointed; the head is carried erect ;
the tail short and conspicuous in the summer dress, but only appear-
ing as a short tuft in the thick winter coat.
“ The coat is thick and dense in winter, longer and coarser on the
neck than on other parts, forming a thick but undefined mane of
‘straight, harsh, and coarse hair, five or six inches long in the winter,
put in summer the mane is more defined. From the withers the hair
becomes shorter, diminishing towards¢the tail, which in summer is
thinly clad, though in winter it is covered with a dense clothing of
hair, in common with all the upper -parts of the body. On the face,
the muzzle, the limbs, and the external ears, the hair is short, close,
and compact ; on the lower surface of the chest it is coarse and short ; it
is thin, lengthy, and fine on the under-parts of the belly. The inner
parts of the thighs and upper and inner parts of the forelegs are also
“The colowr changes from yellowish brown in summer to a brownish
g eyin winter: during summer, brownish grey prevails on the face
anc neck, becoming yellowish brown on the upper parts of the body,
the backs of the ears, and the upper and outer part of the limbs and
the muzzle. The belly, the inner parts of the thighs and the forelegs,
the under parts of the lower jaw, the hips, the tail, and adjoining parts
| of the rump, are white in summer, but the rump and upper parts
the tail partake of the colours of the upper parts of the body in
winter. The lower parts of the limbs are light grey, the same also
prevails irregularly round the eyes, and corners of the mouth and nose,
and lengthy tufts of light grey hair cover the inner surface of the ears,’
180 Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldi. [No. 3,
'
!
|
Mr. Blyth, as noticed above, considers the Cervus dimorphe of
Hodgson to be identical with the species under notice; but that the .
horns of the individuals figured by the latter are abnormal, on ac- '
count of their being developed in captivity. Had not Mr. Hodgson ;
mentioned, (as quoted hereafter,) that his animal was three years old —
and the horns perfect, I should have been inclined to have considered
it as bearing its first year’s horns.
Burmah.
Lieut.-Colonel Blake kindly furnished me with the following _
account: ‘‘ As regards the exact localities of the ThamynIcanonly say
where I have found them and where not. As far as I know, they do not
occur to the south of Moulmein, but from within a short distance of
Thabyoo point, the south-western headland of the Martaban district,
to Sittang, bounded to the eastward by the forest line, they are found —
The following information was obtained during a recent visit to
in large herds. |
‘“‘ Again, on the opposite side of the Sittang river, to the south andl
west of Pegu, they are also found in large numbers. How far they
extend in a westerly and northerly direction, from the mouth of the
Rangoon river, and in the Bassein district, I do not know, but
have heard that they are common even as high up as Munipore.
‘“‘FHrom Pegu to the north they are found in very small parties, the
ground not suiting them, until you cross the ‘‘ Koon” creek or river, —
the separating boundary between the Martaban and Thoungoo visto
and from this to within a few miles of Thoungoo they occur in large
herds. a
“‘ Sometimes the plains or open spaces between the Eng* forests will
be covered with them, and three or four hundred may be seen at one
time. Under these circumstances they are shy and very difficult of ap-
proach. Strange to say, that although the ground appears quite as
favourable for them, I have never seen a single one to the eastward
of the Sittang river north of Sittang. From the above, you will see
that they are gregarious in their habits. During the night, and early
morning and evening, they frequent the plains, and where the forest
jungle is not distant, they retire into it during the heat of the day.
* Dipterocarpus grandifolia, Wallich ; Wood oil Tree, Mason’s Burmah, one
1860, p. 493.
1867.] Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldi. 181
“ Their food, I imagine, consists of grass. I cannot call to mind
having seen more than one fawn with its mother.
“The colour of the young, as well as that of the females, is what is
termed light fawn colour (light rufous?) The males are sometimes
of the same, and sometimes as dark as the male of the Sambur, Rusa
hippelaphus. 1 know not if any change takes place in their coats with
the change of seasons.”
Colonel D. Brown, Officiating Commissioner at Moulmein, has
noticed them to range along both banks of the Irrawaddy, on the
proper right bank up to Meanoung, and on the left bank as far as
Meaday, on the British frontier, N. Lat 19° 40’ KE. Long. 95° 20’
(approximately). He has also observed them as plentiful at Theeg-
- wen, near Bassein, a few at Padoung opposite Prome, and to be more
sparsely scattered through the Therrawaddy district.
For most of the following information I am indebted to the courtesy
of J. Davis, Esq., Superintendent of Police in the Martaban District,
an Officer well known for his intimate acquaintance with the Burmese
language ; hence his services as interpreter were invaluble when Bur-
mese and Karen Shikarees had to be questioned.
_ Pioneered by him, early in October last, I visited the haunts of
the Thamyn near Thatore (a town about 40 miles N. W. of Moulmein),
and although, owing to the dense nature of the vegetation covering the
plains at that time of year, I was only able to see a few scattered
_ females and young of the second year, yet the insight thus afforded into
_ their habits and economy more than repaid me for the severe attack
of illness I subsequently incurred by exposure to the heat and wet.
_ This plain of Yengyaing was then, owing to the recent and heavy
falls of rain, one large swamp. Nearly the whole of its unbroken
extent, which embraces an area of 14 miles in length with an average
breadth of 10, could be traversed in a small canoe, except here
and there, where mud and vegetation combined obliged one to resort
to a very unpleasant system of half wading in water, and half stick-
ing in deep slime. A continuation of this plain, broken up by belts
of jungle, extends for several hundreds of miles up the Burmese coast,
and has evidently been formed by the gradual retirement of the sea,
which at.one time doubtless dashed its waves against the Martaban
and other continuous ranges of laterite hills. It is now, at Yengyaing,
182 Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldi, [No. 3,
some eight to ten miles distant from the hills, and seems to be still
retiring, since the water along the coast of this gulf of Martaban
is very shallow and studded with sandbanks. For the primary
cause of this we may doubtless look to the immense amount
of silt deposit brought down by the waters of the Salween, Beeling,
Sittang and Rangoon rivers, all of which discharge themselves into
the gulf of Martaban. As the sea retires, a belt of mangrove jungle
about a mile in width appears to travel with it, thus enclosing the
plain with a barrier of vegetation on one side and the mountains on the
other. This strip of mangrove jungle gives cover to numberless hog-
deer, tiger, leopard and pig, but is never entered by the Zhamyn,
except where somewhat open; nor on the other side do they ever
attempt to penetrate into the mountains. The plain is intersected by
numerous tidal creeks which in the hot weather, when deprived of
water from the hills, appear to dry up toa great extent, and those
still open at that time of year contain no admixture of fresh water, so
that it is evident, that for two, if not three, months in the year, the
Thamyn must be entirely deprived of fresh water, whilst during the
rainy season, for six months at least, they may be said to live in water.
It appears wonderful how they can manage to exist in such ex-
tremes of heat and wet. With the exception of a few stunted |
trees, and a fringe of hibiscus bushes along the creeks, the plain |
is covered with nothing but grasses and paddy, of which latter both
the wild and cultivated varieties are abundant : owing, however, to the |
paucity of the population and the consequent demand for labour in —
this immediate neighbourhood, perhaps only one fourth of the whole :
avea is under cultivation for paddy : this crop succeeds here admirably,
and the grain forms one of the staple articles of export from Moul- —
mein and other Burmese ports. The remaining three fourths are ~
covered with the indigenous uncultivated plants which, in seasons
of scarcity, are reaped and used for food. This tract of country forms
a vast grazing ground both for the Zhamyn, and for large herds of
tame buffaloes which are during the rains pastured here by the —
Karens, but withdrawn into the heavy jungles near the hills, when,
in April and May, the whole of the vegetation on the plain becomes
parched up, or is devoured by jungle fires. At the time of my visit
vast flocks of waders and other water-birds were arriving from the |
1867. ] Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldi. 183
north, and the creeks were filled with pelicans of several species;
whilst the mud flats absolutely swarmed -with stints, sandpipers,
egrets, and especially the rosy tantalus. Here and there, stalking
gravely amongst the flowering paddy, might be seen pairs of the Sarus
crane, (Grus antigone), or a troop of adjutants, both of which breed in
the neighbourhood. Occasionally the rarer Javanese adjutant was met
with, and the Jabiru stork, Mycteria australis,
_ The rutting season commences in the middle of March and lasts
throughout April, to the middle of May.
_ he female gestates nearly seven months, and brings forth her
; young in October and November, amongst the jungle paddy which is
then flowering or in seed, and at its greatest height. The sexes
_ begin to breed at about 18 months old and the female has only a single
young one at a time, which frequently stays with its mother until
; the second year.* Females have only four teats. In colour they are much
like the female Sambur, but perhaps a little lighter. The young are
at first spotted or menilled, but this disappears‘with age. The females
are hornless. In the second year the young males first begin to
acquire horns which are perfectly developed in March, and shed in
the middle of the rainy season, that is about September.f After
two years they get two tines, and when about seven years old are in
greater Thamyn, are to be found in the same herds, distinguishable
‘only by difference of size in horns, and colour; but this of course is
to be accounted for by the individual distinctions common to all
taces of animals.
_ The average weight of the male is from fifty to sixty vis,} that of a
female forty vis.
Four men can carry a male with ease, when disembowelled and
“quartered.§
8 The mother will breed a second time in 18 months after bringing forth, so
that the young of two seasons are not unfrequently seen with their parents.
. t As noticed above by Blyth in Major Tickell’s specimen at Moulmein.
_ The colour of a full grown buck is dark brown, especially about the back and
neck, with underparts lighter. As far as I can ascertain there is no trace of a
Mane, and the texture of the coat varies considerably with the seasons; more
exact information on these points is however needed.
{ A vis is equal to 140 tolahs.
§ As noticed by Blyth, the Burmese always quarter deer with the skin on.
ae Karens, however, will not eat the meat, because they think it will breed
cholera,
184 Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldi. [ No. 3,
The male averages 3? feet in height at the shoulder. The female is '
a little less : the very largest males do not exceed 43 feet. The a
is much liked by the Burmese, and always finds a ready sale in the —
neighbouring villages. It is rarely brought into Moulmein. In the
country the wholesale price of a doe is Rupees 3, and that of a buck
Rs. 4,* which is of course less than the usual retail bazar rate.
The flesh is said to smell a little about the end of March when the ~
weather is very hot, but about November and December it is in goog ,
condition for the table.
Their habitat and range, according to Mr. Davis, are asfollows: In ;
the Martaban District they inhabit exclusively the open grassy plains
between the sea and the mountains. In the Pegu plains they are
perhaps more abundant than in any other part of Burmah ; next to them
the Yengyaing plain in Martaban produces most ; near Rangoon they
are found in the Dallah plain. About Pegu and Yengyaing they are
found in herds from fifty to an hundred in the month of March, but
when hunted, they congregrate much more, and as many as two hun.
dred may then be seen together. In habits they are essentially gre.
AE PEA
garious, and associate with no other species, although hog deer abound
in the grass and jungle along the edges of the plain; nor will they
allow the tame buffaloes to come nearer to them than about 100
yards. In ‘habits they are very wary and difficult of: approach, espe:
cially the males; they are also very timid, and easily startled. The
males, however, when wounded and brought to bay with dogs, get very
savage, and charge vigorously. On being disturbed, they invariably
make for the open, instead of resorting to the heavy jungles like hog —
PR a Rc ig MM al ne
deer and Sambur. In fact, the Zhamyn is essentially a plain loving —
species, and although it will frequent tolerably open tree jungle, for —
the sake of its shade, will never venture into any composed of dense
or matted underwood 2. e., bush jungle in contradistinction to “ tree
jungle.” Indeed I was credibly informed of a large stag which, bei
driven into a corner of the plain last year, by herd boys, with pariah
dogs, and finding no means of escape, took refuge in heavy jungle
where its horns got entangled in a hibiscus bush, and so was actually”
captured alive. Its captors, however, soon put an end to its existence
with a sharp dhar.
Py
>.
* The prices quoted are what a shikarry expects usually to realize,
1867.] Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia Eldi. 185
When first startled, their pace is great. They commence by giving
ee or four large bounds like the axis or spotted deer, and afterwards
ettle down into a long trot, which they will keep up for six or seven
niles on end where frequently disturbed. This is when the vegetation
yn the plain is comparatively short. In the rains they do not go far
be ore they find a hiding place in the long paddy. Their powers of
ping are highly developed. On the Yengyaing plain alone there
we at the present time about a thousand head, on the Thatong plain, a
ttle further to the north west, perhaps a hundred head only, which go
out in small herds of seven and eight. At Yengyaing the annual
amber killed amounts to about forty-five, including those bagged by
Juropeans, and about five natives gain their livelihood in that place,
most entirely by the sale of the flesh. They are least gregarious in
1e rainy weather, the females have mostly then retired in twos and
wees into quiet spots, and the herds are altogether more scattered,
i ing to the increased density of the vegetation. They feed during both
and night, chiefly however in the early morning and evening, their
od consisting principally of the jungle paddy. During the night they
loa great deal of damage to the cultivated variety, treading down
gre than they eat. They also feed on grass, and on the leaves of two
nele trees called in Burmese the ‘ Keay’’ and the “ Thamey,” the
cientific appellations of which Lam unable to resolve.* Ina tamed
ate they will eat plantain leaves.
‘The call of the female, uttered when disturbed, is a short barking
runt, that of the males is louder and more prolonged. It is most
quently heard in the rutting season, during which period the males
e frequent and severe battles; a pair have been known to have
er n captured whilst so engaged, with their antlers interlocked.
«1 lately had a stag Panolia in confinement for many months. It was put
t every day among capital pasture, but invariably abstained from eating it.
tried it with a number of trees and found that it eat quickly the leaves of
cus Venosa, religiosa and indica, and that the tender shoots and leaves of bam-
S were its special favourite. It was kept close to a tank in which convol-
s reptans was growing lnxuriantly, and it was accustomed daily betimes to
ina in the water up to its middle, and feed on the leaves of this plant also.
did not appear, however, to be so "fond of the water as the nearly affined bara
’ j ha, Rucervus Duvaucellii. A male of the latter species in my possession, in the
ot season, used to spend the greater part of the day lying in the water. Its
d also apparently differs from that of the thamyn, for it browsed on commen
ture, and while in the water fed on the long straggling grass Seersia Bonin |
litor.)
24
184 Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia eldi. [No. 3,
The male averages 3? feet in height at the shoulder. The female is —
a little less : the very largest males do not exceed 43 feet. The flesh
is much liked by the Burmese, and always finds a ready sale in the —
neighbouring villages. It is rarely brought into Moulmein. In the
country the wholesale price of a doe is Rupees 3, and that of a buck
Rs. 4,* which is of course less than the usual retail bazar rate. |
The flesh is said to smell a little about the end of March when the —
weather is very hot, but about November and December it isin good
condition for the table. 4
Their habitat and range, according to Mr. Davis, are asfollows: In
the Martaban District they inhabit exclusively the open grassy plains
between the sea and the mountains. In the Pegu plains they are
perhaps more abundant than in any other part of Burmah ; next to them
the Yengyaing plain in Martaban produces most ; near Rangoon they
are found in the Dallah plain. About Pegu and Yengyaing they are
found in herds from fifty to an hundred in the month of March, but
when hunted, they congregrate much more, and as many as two hun-
dred may then be seen together. In habits they are essentially gre=
garious, and associate with no other species, although hog deer abount
in the grass and jungle along the edges of the plain; nor will they
allow the tame buffaloes to come nearer to them than about 100
yards. In ‘habits they are very wary and difficult of: approach, espe
cially the males; they are also very timid, and easily startled. The
males, however, when wounded and brought to bay with dogs, get very
savage, and charge vigorously. On being disturbed, they invariably ;
make for the open, instead of resorting to the heavy jungles like hog —
deer and Sambur. In fact, the Zhamyn is essentially a plain loving q
species, and although it will frequent tolerably open tree jungle, for
the sake of its shade, will never venture into any composed of dens -
or matted underwood z. e., bush jungle in contradistinction to “ tree
jungle.” Indeed I was credibly informed of a large stag which, being
driven into a corner of the plain last year, by herd boys, with pariah
dogs, and finding no means of escape, took refuge in heavy jungle
where its horns got entangled in a hibiscus bush, and so was call
captured alive. Its captors, however, soon put an end to its existence
with a sharp dhar. a
* The prices quoted are what a shikarry expects usually to realize,
f
“iy :
!
- ff
:
I
:
+
. i
a
4
om
1867.] Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia Eldi. 185
~ When first startled, their pace is great. They commence by giving
2 or four large bounds like the axis or spotted deer, and afterwards
le down into a long trot, which they will keep up for six or seven
les on end where frequently disturbed. This is when the vegetation
m the plain is comparatively short. In the rains they do not go far
before they find a hiding place in the long paddy. Their powers of
saping are highly developed. On the Yengyaing plain alone there
at the present time about a thousand head, on the Thatong plain, a
tle further to the north west, perhaps a hundred head only, which go
i out in small herds of seven and eight. At Yengyaing the annual
amber killed amounts to about forty-five, including those bagged by
uropeans, and about five natives gain their livelihood in that place,
Imost entirely by the sale of the flesh. They are least gregarious in
e rainy weather, the females have mostly then retired in twos and
wees into quiet spots, and the herds are altogether more scattered,
wing to the increased density of the vegetation. They feed during both
and night, chiefly however in the early morning and evening, their
ood consisting principally of the jungle paddy. During the night they
0a great deal of damage to the cultivated variety, treading down
ore than they eat. They also feed on grass, and on the leaves of two
mgle trees called in Burmese the ‘ Keay’’ and the “ Thamey,” the
sientific appellations of which Iam unable to resolve.* Ina tamed
ate they will eat plantain leaves.
The call of the female, uttered when disturbed, is a short barking
unt, that of the males is louder and more prolonged. It is most
quently heard in the rutting season, during which period the males
we frequent and severe battles; a pair have been known to have
er | captured whilst so engaged, with their antlers interlocked.
1 lately had a stag Panolia in confinement for many months. It was put
every day among capital pasture, but invariably abstained from eating it.
ed it with a number of trees and found that it eat quickly the leaves of
einosa, religiosa and indica, and that the tender shoots and leaves of bam-
8 were its special favourite. It was kept close to a tank in which convol-
is reptams was growing lnxuriantly, and it was accustomed daily betimes to
and in the water up to its middle, and feed on the leaves of this plant also.
Bel id not appear, however, to be so "fond of the water as the nearly affined bara
ut, Rucervus Duvaucellii, A male of the latter species in my possession, in the
‘ ason, used to spend the greater part of the day lying in the water. Its
d also apparently differs from that of the thamyn, for it browsed on commen
Ere, and while in the water fed on the long straggling grass Seersia heen re
24
188 Captain R. C. Beavan on Panolia Eldi. [No. 3,
for the Zoological Society of London.* Major Tickell had one
alive for some time in Moulmein, but it was eventually killed by
pariah dogs which got into its enclosures at night. My informant, the
shikarree, tells me that he had one also tame some years since; he
caught it when about three months old, fed it on milk at first, and
afterwards on grass and plantain leaves, and, after a short time, it be-
came so tame that it would follow its owner about, and never attempt
to leave the dwellings of man; after an interval of two years, it got a
small pair of horns shaped like those of the adult, but much smaller.
Finally, like most pets, it met with an untimely end, being stolen and
killed for food by rapacious Burmese officials. From this the species
appear to be capable of easy domestication, although it is said by some
invariably to pine away and die after capture. The horns of the species
are of large size, and are kept by the natives for making handles for
sickles. The small ones are of no value, and are either thrown away or
cut up and used as pegs.
As to medicinal qualities, when a buffaloe is bitten by a snake, the
horn of the thamyn ground to powder is mixed with a solution of the ©
leaves of the “‘ Yekazoon” (Ipomeea. sp. or convolvulus,) and given in-
ternally, as it is said to cure the bitten animal immediately. No other
part of the beast appears to be used medicinally, and the above men-—
tioned nostram is of no avail for the human race. |
In conclusion, there is one point to which I wish to —— especial ©
attention, as one on which our information at present is very limited.
It is not known for certain whether the thamyn, in its first year, has
horns without the brow antler, or whether they are the same as those ©
of adult individuals, but smaller and with fewer tynes. The pros and
cons on either side of the question are I find about equal. It remains
for those who have the opportunity of rearing the young animal in
captivity, or of shooting a young one, to prove which is the right view
of the case.
* T have since heard that Col. Phayre has one at the present time alive at |
Rangoon, and Mr. Grote one at Alipore, supposed to be the young of this
gpecies.
A fine full grown stag which I received for Col. Phayre is now in the Zoolo-
gical Soc. Gardens, Tandon. —Hditor.
1867.] Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. 189
Zoological Notes.
By William T. Blanford, F. G. S.
Cor. Mem. Z. S. Lon.
[Received 10th June, 1867.] .
The following notes refer chiefly to the distribution of various
animals in India and Burma, and to the habits of afew species.
There is much in them which is probably not new, more especially
with regard to the habits of animals. Still the subject is so interest-
ing, and so little studied by naturalists for want of opportunity, that I
trust these few remarks may have some interest. All the facts noted
vare from personal observation, except where the contrary is stated.
1. The Lion in India, Mr. Blyth, about 2 years since, called atten-
_ tion to the circumstance that lions had been recently met with in parts
of India in which the animal had been supposed to be extinct. Since
. _ that time, one or two other localities have been added to the list of those
- in which lions have been met with. A paragraph went the round of
_ the newspapers rather more than a year ago, in 1866, to the effect
_ that a lion had been killed near Rewah. An account of the death of
‘this animal was given in the new Oriental Sporting Magazine; and
{ again in “ Land and Water,” for December 8th, 1866, Captain Le
| ~ Mesurier described the locality and gave the dimensions of the skin.
. _ The animal was killed by Messrs. Lovell and Kelsey, of the Jubbulpoor
aiinay staff: it was a fine male with a full mane.
the stretched skin were the following :
rx)
The dimensions of
ee a Pa
as
ae
in.
From tip of nose to end of tail,........... 9.8
Ditto to insertion of tail, ..... .......00.0. 6 10
Ditto to hinder end of mane, ........... 3 6
Across skin from fore toe to fore toe, ... 6 11
So that the animal, when alive, probably measured rather less than
9 feet from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, measured as
- tigers usually are, that is, by carrying a tape from the nose over the
head and along the middle of the back.
Vv
The mane is specially mentioned as very full, the longest hairs
being about eleven inches in length, the colour yellow sandy, except
‘on the crown of the head, along the crest, and across the shoulders,
where a blackish shade prevailed, the hairs being white, black and
190 Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. [No. 3,
yellow, in about equal proportions. The ears were black on the E
outside, and the tip of the tail was also black; the lower tip white.
From the dark colour of a portion of the hair, there can be little
doubt that this was not an aged animal, although, from the fully —
developed mane, it must have been mature, and not a young lion.
The spot where it was killed was near the 80th milestone, on the
railway from Allahabad to Jubbulpoor.
Iam indebted to Mr. Grote for a note from Captain Le Mesurier —
confirming the above particulars, and adding the following, also ;
mentioned in the letter published in “‘ Land and Water.”
‘Some few years ago Mr. Court, who is now Commissioner of —
Allahabad, and a very good sportsman, disturbed two lions on the ©
rocky plain near Sheorajptr, twenty-five miles west of Allahabad, —
when he was stalking antelope.”’ g
“Two years ago (1864) Mr. Arratoon of the Police shot at and 4
wounded a lion very near Sheorajpur, and eventually, with native help,
stoned him to death, as he had no spare ammunition. Some of the
members of my staff saw the skin, and got the story, nearly as I
relate it, from Mr. Arratoon, who still holds a police appointment :
somewhere in the N. W. Provinces.” .
The last authenticated appearances of an animal now verging on >.
extinction in Central India are, I think, sufficiently worth preserving
to demand a record. The Sheorajpur lion is, I believe, the furthest to
the eastward yet known as having been killed in the present century.
Col. Torrens also has written to Mr. Grote to say that lions still _
occur about Lalatpur, between Jhansi and Saugor.
A few lions appear to be killed every year about Gwalior and
Goona, but the animal is scarce, and, being eagerly sought after by
some of the keenest sportsmen in India, it is rapidly becoming scarcer.
In the hot weather of 1866 no less than 9 lions were shot by one
party in the neighbourhood of Kota in Rajpootana. My information
is derived directly from one of the sportsmen, Major Baigire. Of one of
these Rajpootana lions I have seen a coloured drawing, taken imme-
diately after death by an excellent artist. The mane was very fine
and well developed, although the beast was killed in the hot weather,
when the mane, like the rest of the fur, is doubtless thinner than in
the winter.
1867.] Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. 191
_ From a native I learn that in a recent beat in Rajpootana (some-
where on the neighbourhood of Kota), no less than 10 lions were
turned out. If this story be true, and I think I have heard of similar
large gatherings amongst African lions, this animal occasionally collects
in much larger numbers than tigers do. At the same time I do not
place much faith in the story. The largest number of tigers of which
I ever heard as being found together was six. These were full grown
animals, Five I have several times heard of. In such cases all are
one family, the old tiger and tigress and their full grown progeny.
A tigress not unfrequently has 3 or 4 cubs (I have known the latter
number of fceti to be taken from the body of a slain animal) but they
rarely, I suspect, all attain to muturity.
The lion seems still to exist in 3 isolated parts of Central and
Western India, omitting its occasional occurrence in Bundelkund,
These are (1) from near Gwalior to Kotah. (2) Around Deesa and
mount Aboo, and thence southwards nearly to Ahmedabad and (8) in
‘part of Kattiawar, in the jungles known as the Gheer, It is possible
that isolated examples may yet remain in others of its original haunts,
_I may add that the opinion expressed by Mr. Blyth (Cat. Mam, in
Mus. As. Soc.) of the inferiority in size of the lion to the tiger is
quite borne out by all I have heard on the subject. Major Baigire,
‘one of the best known tiger hunters of Western India, who has also
killed more than one lion, told me that the muscular development of
the latter animal, as displayed in the skinned carcase, is decidedly less
than that of the former.
2. The hunting leopard, Felis (cynalurus) jubatus. Blyth, in his
eatalogue, gives the range of this animal in India as confined to the west
and south. It is found throughout the greater portion if not the whole
of the Central Provinces, though everywhere scarce, and I have seen.
the skin of a specimen killed near Deogurh in the Sonthal perguunahs,
and brought to that station by a shikaree. I think it will be found to
exist, here and there, almost throughout the Peninsula. In Cutch it
is said to be the only large feline existing, but I cannot speak positively
on this subject.
3. The wild dog. Cuon rutilans, Pallas.
The ordinary prey of these animals, who, as is well known, hunt
in packs, is the sambar (Rusa Aristotelis, Cuv.), the chital or spotted
192 Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes, [No. 3,
deer (axzs maculatus Gray), and the wild pig. But they attack higher
game. I have heard a perfectly authenticated account of their destroy-
ing a young gaur (Bos gaurus), and I myself found the fresh carcase
of a full grown (tame) buffalo which had been killed by them. This
was in the jungles east of Baroda. Nowa buffalo is not an easy
beast to kill; very few tigers will attack an adult. It struck me
that the teeth of a wild dog would scarcely suffice to tear the enormously —
thick skin of the throat of their prey : and on examining the carcase
I found scarcely the mark of a tooth on the neck and throat, although
there were many about the muzzle. The animal had evidently been.
killed by tearing out its intestines, a portion of the pack meantime
holding the animal by hanging on, in bull dog style, to his muzzle |
and forequarters. I suspect that they kill all large animals in the
same way; a young sambur, which I saw on the Nilgiris, had
apparently been killed in this manner. I have heard from natives, 3
too, that this is their mode of attacking tigers. That they do attack
and kill tigers is so universally stated in India, in every place where
the wild dog is found, from the Himalayas to the extreme south, that
Ido not think its truth can be doubted, startling as the assertion
appears. Yet, singularly enough, they never attack men: at least I
never heard of their doing so, The wolf, which, although larger, is
proportionately their inferior in strength and speed, and which rarely, |
and in India, I think, never, collects into packs as large as those of 4
Cuon rutilans, not unfrequently attacks men, though I believe he e
rarely attacks an animal of the size of a full grown sambur. ho
RuMINANTIA. -
4, The gaur and gayal. Bos gaurus, Smith, and Bos pontalis,” |
Lambert. I had the unusual advantage last year, and at an interval of
2 months, of seeing five adult examples of both these magnificent bovine’
species alive. The gaur were wild in the jungles of Nimar, the gayals’ _
were the magnificent tame specimens procured by Dr. J. Anderson for’
the Zoological Society, and living for some time in the Botanical
gardens at Calentta. There could be little question of the purity of
breed of the latter; although far more tame and gentle than most
domestic cattle, their symmetry and the regularity of their colouring
were those of wild animals. ‘?
There is, at the first sight, a remarkable resemblance between these
two races. The massive proportions, thick horns, short legs, immense
1867.] Mr. W. I’. Blanford’s Zoological Notes, 198
depth of body, the dorsal ridge terminating abruptly about half way
down the back, the general colouring, are all characters common to
both, But one or two differences are immediately perceived, and
_ others become conspicuous on closer examination. The most remark-
able of course are the comparatively straight and wide-spreading
_ horns and the enormously developed dewlap of the gayal, as contrasted
with the sharply curved horns and absence of any dewlap in the gaur,
and the shorter tail of the former. But if Dr. Anderson’s specimens
are fair examples of the gayal, they shew that there are several minor
distinctions between the two. In the gayals the head is shorter and,
IL think, altogether smaller than in the gaur, and the dorsal ridge is
not quiteso high. In the adult bull gayal in Calcutta, the skin of
the back and sides is almost naked, as in the buffaloes of the plains of
‘India; this I have never seen in the gaur. The legs below the knees
too, which in the gaur are dirty white, are, in these gayals, dirty
yellow. The female gayal is darker in colour than the cow gaurs
which I have seen, but as the latter vary considerably in tint, the
former may possibly do the same.
Ihave seen a good deal of the gaur in the Satpoora hills during the
ust few years, It there inhabits the peculiar thin jungles which
cover the trap rocks of Central and Western India. These jungles, as
is well known, consist of tolerably open spaces of thick grass 3 to 5
feet in height, with small scattered trees. This grass is burnt at the
md of the cold weather over the greater portion of the country. In
“Yavines and along the banks of streams the jungle is thicker, but
Isewhere there are few places where the trees are an impediment to
iding. The gaur feeds in these plains in the morning and evening,
inking in the evening, or at night, and retreating during the day
ither to a shady ravine, or, during the hot weather, at least, to the
NE of a high hill, the most breezy spot being apparently chosen,
q respective of shade. So far as I have observed, the gaur, like the
4q i bur, never remainsin the vicinity of water, or drinks, during the
| heat of the day.*
1a The ferocity of the gaur has been, I think, greatly overstated. I
= never heard of but one well authenticated instance of an
wounded animal attacking man, though the bulls, like those of all
* The spotted deer, on the other hand, almost invariably does so. The sém-
ties, I believe, only drink at night,
25
large bovines, are undoubtedly dangerous in the rutting season. In
general, the gaur is a timid and rather stupid animal, not very sharp
of sight, though, like all ruminants and, indeed, all wild mammals,
gifted with strong powers of scent.
IT have never seen a herd of more than 16, and ten to twelve is a
more common number, the herd comprising one or two adult bulls
only, the remainder being cows and calves. The bulls remain apart ;
either solitary, or in parties of two or three. But I have heard both
194 Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. [No. 3,
:
from Huropeans and natives of much larger gatherings having been
seen. These are doubtless formed by the union of many herds, and
this habit of collecting, at particular seasons, in very large numbers,
appears common to most ruminants which habitually live in herds,
Thus I have seen, in April, at least 150 spotted deer (Axis maculatus)
together, and I have heard of far larger numbers collecting in the hot
season, and I have recently heard of similar assemblages of the
barasingha (Rucervus Duvaucelli). 4
The cows of the gaur, as I have already mentioned, vary consider-
ably in colour, being usually some shade of brown, approaching dun.
Some, in Nimar and the Satpoora hills at all events, are of a very red
tinge, in some cases approaching closely to the deep red so common
in European cattle,—the colour also, I believe, of the cow Banting,
Bos sondaicus. Iam inclined to think that the colour is redder in :
the cold season than in the hot weather. The usual tinge in the hot
season at least is a much duller brown, nearly the colour of the Nilgiri
buffaloes. From what I have heard, the tint of these Nimar animals
may be lighter than that of the cows in the Western Ghats and
southern India, a circumstance probably connected with the much —
greater exposure to the sun which they must undergo in the thin |
trap jungles, and also partly, perhaps, accounted for by that tendency’
which appears to exist in most wild animals to approximate, in thei ch
colour, the general hue of their habitat. This is, of course, much —
lighter in a tract mainly covered by grass, which is dried and of the —
colour of straw for 7 months of the year, than in the depth of i
evergreen forests of Malabar and the Western Ghats.
The size of the gaur, great as it is, is often, I suspect, exaggerated:
by unfair measurement. Instead of measuring the true height, as is r
done with horses, the length from the forefoot to the end of the spinal
es
1867.] Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. 195
ridge is substituted. A great addition to the height is also easily
made by pulling out the foreleg as the animal lies, and by measuring
from the toe instead of from the heel, especially if the cord be curved
a little over the side. Another plan I have lately heard of is to
stretch a tape from one forefoot to the other over the back, and to
take half the resulting length as the height. When it is remembered
that the measurements are made by sportsmen, not by naturalists, it
_ will easily be understood that all should be taken ewm grano and that
many may be rejected altogether. My own impression is that it is
as rare to find a gaur exceeding about 17} hands (5 ft. 10 in.) as it is
_ to meet witha tiger above 10 feet in length. Larger animals do
- undoubtedly exist, but they are rare, and it is, I think, doubtful if
- 20 hands (6 ft. 8 in.) is ever reached. To judge from all the horns
I have seen, the gaur of no part of India proper attains a larger size
than in the Satpoora hills.
The gaur is called ran pado in Goozerat and ran hila by the Bheels
_ of Kandesh, both words, like the name commonly used throughout
Central and Southern India, ran or jungli byns, meaning wild buffalo,
which is just as absurd, as the term Jzson applied by Anglo-Indians.
Ihave even heard the name arna, which of course means the wild
buffalo, applied to the gaur; and the correct name is rarely used, in
Central India at least, except in the neighbourhood of districts where
= =e
— wild buffaloes occur.
5. The wild buffalo, Bos (Bubalus) buffelus.
think Blyth is in error in restricting the range of the aboriginally
wild buffalo to the Ganges valley and Assam. (Cat. Mam. As. Soe.
p. 163). Wild buffaloes are completely unknown throughout Western
and Southern India, but they are common on the east coast, to some
istance south of Cuttack at least, and throughout the jungles of
“Mandla, Raipur and Sumbalpir, extending west as far as the Wein a
Gunga and Pranhita, and south to the Godavery; a few herds may
| occur beyond these limits, but they are very rare. My information is
derived partly from my own observation, partly from various sportsmen
who have seen and killed the animal in these districts; and I have
myself seen the spoils. All that I have seen belong to the B. spetroceros
race of Hodgson, with horns curving from the base. My reasons for
thinking all these animals aboriginally wild, and and not feral, are—
Ist, the perfect symmetry and immense size of their horns. 2nd, the
196 Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. [No. 3,
fact that the tract inhabited by them is contiguous to the area, Lower
Bengal and Assam, inhabited by the undoubtedly wildrace. 8rd, the
circumstance that precisely the area mentioned comprises the range of
other animals also restricted, in India proper, to Bengal and the
neighbourhood; e. g. Rucervus duvaucellii and Gallus ferrugineus,
concerning the distribution of which I shall have something further
to say presently.
6. The four-horned antelope (Letracerus quadricornis.)
This species is especially abundant in the trappean districts of
Western India, it is one of the commonest wild animals in Nimar,
Malwa, Khandeish, the western part of the Nerbudda valley, and —
throughout the Taptee valley. It is also common along the Western
Ghats and in the Konkan about Bombay. It lives in jungle, and is
generally to be found near water. It is comparatively a solitary animal, —
and I have never seen more than four together, the two parents and ~
their young. For along time I was inclined to look upon the
animals with only the posterior pair of horns developed as a distinct —
race, with lighter coloured fur, and lam by no means satisfied that.
there is not a distinction to be drawn. The two horned specimens, in
the country I have mentioned above, are quite as numerous as the
four horned, and although they are fully adult, I have failed to find a
trace of the cores belonging to the anterior pair of horns on the skull 5
a specimen with all four horns fully developed and pointed is rare, -
generally the anterior horns are mere knobs.
Mr. Blyth is, I think, in error in his catalogue of the Mammalia in
Mus. As. Soc. p. 166, in applying the name Chikara to this animal.
The Chikara or Chinkara (the latter being the correct name, but the m
is nasal and very little sounded) is the name which I have heard
universally applied to the Indian gazelle, Antelope bennettii, Sykes. The
4-horned antelope is called Chousingha in Hindee, as stated by Mr
Blyth ; it is known by the Mahrattas as ‘‘ Benkara’ and by the Bheels
of Guzerat as Bokra or Phokra. 4
7. The Indian antelope and gazelle. (Antilope bezoartica, Ald
and A. Bennettii, Sykes). Both of these animals can exist without
water. The antelope abounds on the strip of sand separating the
only fresh water is obtained from one or two deep wells. The strip is .
about 80 miles long. I have been assured by so many people that —
1867.] Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. 197
antelopes do drink in places, that I cannot absolutely assert that they
do not, although I suspect their visits to the edges of streams and
tanks are rather for the purpose of feeding on the green grass growing
there than for drinking. As regards the Chinkara or Indian gazelle,
I quite believe that it never drinks. Ihave seen it in the deserts of
Sindh* in places where the only water for 20 miles around was procured
from wells; and in places in Western and Central India where, in the
hot weather, the only water is obtained from small pools remaining in
the beds of streams, and around which the tracks of almost every
animal in the forest may be seen, I never yet saw the very peculiarly
formed tracks of the gazelle, although it frequently abounded in the
neighbourhood. The four horned antelope, on the other hand, drinks
habitually. Ihave seen it doing so, and its tracks are constantly to
be found at water holes. The Nylgai drinks, but not, I think,
habitually, except in the hot weather.
8. The Bara Singha, Rucervus Duvaucellit. For some remarks on
the geographical distribution of this species see further on, under the
jungle fowl. The localities given by Mr. Blyth} are Upper Bengal ;
valley of Nepal; Assam; Nerbudda territory; Hastern Sunderbuns.
“This list requires slight modification, The animal occurs, though
‘scarce, in Beerbhoom, and I believe, here and there throughout the
Chota-Nagpoor country, Sirgooja and Chutteesgurh, and it abounds
~ in Bustar, as I have lately learned from Captain Glasfurd, the Deputy
Commissioner of Sironcha. It is to be found about Umarkantak, the
~ gource of the Nerbudda, and in Mundla, but with one exception, to
be presently noticed, not further to the west, and it is unknown
throughout the greater portion of the Nerbudda valley. Generally
the limits of its range are very nearly those which I have indicated
for the wild buffalo.
d PAcHYDERMATA.
9. The Indian wild pigs. Sws scropha ?
Mr. Blyth has pointed out (J. A. 8. B. XXIX, 105) distinctions in
he form of the skulls of wild pigs in India, but he has not referred to
| ™* The Sindh species may be distinct.
_ + Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatic Society, Th
| localities given by Mr. Blyth are in general thoroughly trustworthy, so far as my
| @xperience goes. Iam therefore the more anxious to correct them where any
improvement is possible, a task only practicable to those who like myself have
had Opportunities for extensive travelling in India,
198 Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. [No. 8,
differences in colour. Now I have seen whole herds (or sounders) of
wild pigs which were brown in colour, irrespective of size or sex, and —
other herds in the same region, all the members of which were black.
Large hogs are usually black, becoming grizzled with age, but I have
seen a large solitary hog of the brown species, which had been just
killed by a friend, and it was the same colour as the smaller animals.
The brown race, so far as my observations extend, is never found
except in bush or forest jungle, the black pigs are the common wild
hog of the plains, but are also frequently met with in forest. These
may be accidental varieties, but it is equally probable that the
dfference in colour is connected with other distinctions. I can,
however, only point out the question as one for enquiry.
RovENTIA.
10. The Burmese bamboo rat, Rhizomys castaneus, Blyth.—In —
the Catalogue of mammalia in Mus. As. Soe. the locality of a specimen
received from me is erroneously entered as South Arakan. The speci-
men was killed by me at Prome in Pegu. The distinction is
important, as the fauna of S. Arakan, and of Arakan generally, is”
very different from that of Upper Pegu, though many species, like the
present, are common to both.
Crracza. |
11. The freshwater dolphins of India and Burma (Platanista).
It is well kaown that species of Platanista—whether the same or
distinct,is less clearly ascertained, occur in the Ganges and Brahmapittra
and in the Indus. It is less generally known that a species abounds ©
in the Irrawadi. I have seen them in various parts of that river from
near the mouth to nearly 100 miles above Ava, and I was told by
natives that they are to be met with as far to the north as Bamo, the
Burmese frontier. I was, however, never able to obtain a specimen.
The species is very likely to differ from that of the Ganges. :
I cannot say if these animals are found in any other Burmese io
certain that in India they are only found in the ee Brabmap stall
and Indus, and their tributaries. I can speak pretty certainly of the
non-existence in the Brahmini, Mahanadi (of Cuttack), Godavery, —
Taptee and Nerbudda, and I never heard of their occurrence in the
Krishna or Cauvery.
1867.] Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. 199
AVEs.
12. Geographical distribution of the red and Sonnerat jungle fowls,
Gallus ferrugincus, Gm., and G. sonneratii, Tem.
I regret very much having been the means of misleading Dr. Jerdon
as to the distribution of the red jungle fowl. I had been told by two
different observers that they had seen and shot jungle fowl exactly
like the common barn door fowl in and near the Rajpihla hills, and a
third had assured me that he had seen specimens of two different
kinds of jungle fowl from the same neighbourhood.
I have now been through the Rajpihla hills and the western
Satpooras pretty thoroughly, and I am convinced that the only jungle
fowl inhabiting those ranges is Gallus sonneratii. This species is also
found north of the Nerbudda, in the jungles east of Baroda, and
around Chota Oodipoor, but how far it extends to the north and north-
- west I cannot say. It is not improbably to be found in the Aruvelli
; range and perhaps about Mount Aboo. It occurs throughout the
- Satpoora hills, north of Kandesh, and indeed throughout the Taptee
valley. Further south I have recently shot it in the jungles just east
of Chanda.
Jerdon mentions its occurrence at Pachmurri, where, however, I
learn from Lieut. J. Forsyth that G. ferrugineus also occurs. I am
- indebted to Lieut. Forsyth for the following most singular fact with
_ teference to the limits of the latter species. He tells me that it is
_ precisely conterminous in the hills south of the Nerbudda with the
_ Bara Singha, Rucervus Duvaucellii, and the Sal tree, Shorea robusta.
The western limits of the great belt of Sal forest which covers so large
a portion of Hastern India is in the Mundla district, and there bara
-singha and red jungle fowl also occur. The sdlis not found in Western
: India ; but there is one spot in the Deinwa valley, just under
-Pachmuarri, where a patch of sal forest occurs, and there, and there
only, the red jungle fowl and the bara singha are met with, although
the nearest spot to the eastward where the three again recur is 150
“miles off. Lieut. Forsyth adds that the two kinds of jungle fowl meet
onthe plateau at Pachmurri and he has shot both there. When in
charge of the forests, he has traversed the whole of the jungle tracts
south of the Nerbudda, and can speak positively as to the above very
curious circumstance. It would be very interesting to ascertain
200 Mr. W. T. Blanford’s Zoological Notes. [No. 3,
whether any other animals or plants have a similar distribution. The
only hypothesis which appears to account for the existence of an
isolated colony of eastern forms like this is to suppose that, like a
geological outlier they were formerly connected with the present main
range, and that they existed throughout the intervening area in which
they are now no larger found.
To the south, the range of the bara singha and red jungle fowl
appears again to coincide with that of the sal tree. I have mentioned
above the occurrence of the bara singha in Bustar, where Jerdon
found both kinds of jungle fowl together, and where the sal tree is
also met with. Gallus ferrugineus does appear to reach the Godavery
further east, as [heard one crowing not long since in the gorge through
which the river runs about 50 miles above Rajahmundry.
13. Distribution of the black and painted partridges, F'rancolinus
vulgaris, Stephens, and F’, pictus Jerd. and Selby.
Jerdon, Birds of India, pp. 559, 562, leaves the relative distribution —
of these two species to the west somewhat undefined. I haye only —
seen or heard of F. vulgaris in Sind. F. pictus abounds throughout -
eastern Guzerat near Baroda and Surat, and I believe, extends —
throughout Kattiawar. It also occurs, though less commonly, in
Cutch, where I have seen it. 3
REPTILIA.
The garial (Gavialis gangeticus.)
This crocodile is generally supposed be confined to the Ganges and
Brahmapttra with their tributaries. It is found algo in one other river
running into the Bay of Bengal, the Mahanadi of Cuttack. It does.
not, however, appear to range further south and is unknown in the
Godavery. It is wanting inthe Nerbudda and other rivers which fall
into the sea on the west coast.* It is also unknown in Burma,
* Ihave been recently informed on good authority that it exists in the
Indus. Epiror,
1867.] Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir. 201
Kashmir, the Western Himalaya and the Afghan Mountains, a
Geological paper, by
Albert M. Verchere, Esq. M. D.
Bengal Medical Service, with a note on the fossils by
M, Edouard de Verneuil,
Membre de l’ Académie des Sciences, Paris,
(Continued from page 115, of No. IT. 1867.)
In April 1864, I sent a box of fossils, mostly from Kashmir, to
Professor Faire, of Geneva. M. Faire kindly forwarded these to M.
EK. J. de Vernueil, who was good enough to examine them carefully,
and to write a most interesting note, of which a translation is now
given.
' Some of the fossils represented in the Plates were not sent to Pro-
fessor Faire, and some which were sent, are not figured here; the
“numbers at the head of some of the paragraphs of M. de Vernueil’s
“note refer to the fossils represented in the Plates.
“Note on the fossils forwarded by Mr. Vercuere, by M. Epovarp vz
Vernuzit, Member of the Academie des Sciences, kc. ce.
The largest of the two specimens sent, of which the matrix is a
dark brown limestone, belongs to the Productus Semvreticulatus,
(Martin), one of the most characteristic species of the carboniferous lime-
Stone, in Europe, in Russia and in America. This species has been
: brought from the south of the Oural, and Mr, Tchihatcheff has found
it in Siberia in the Altai mountains.
' Aspecimen of Productus costatus (Sowerby). This is a species
scarcer than the preceding. The specimen from India shows well the
characters of the species such as they are figured by Sowerby, whilst
those from Missouri, figured by M. de Konnick, do not possess the
large and thick ribs which characterise the original species. The Pro-
ductus costatus, first found in England, does not exist in Continental
| Hurope, except in Russia where I found it in the government of Toula.
ome Russian authors mention it from the government of Tiver and
of Kalonga.
Productus Humboldti (D’Orbigny). This species is very like P,
Granulosus (Phillips) and P. Hebertd (Vernueil, Bull. Soc. Geolog. de
26
202 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,
France, Vol. XII. p. 1180). It is distinguished from this by its well
marked sinus, and its fine and numerous spines strewed without order on
the surface and not forming concentric series. The’ P. Humboldti is
mentioned by Keyserling as having been found by him in the car-
boniferous limestone of the Soiwa, an affluent of the river Petchora
on the western slope of the north of the Oural. Mr. Davidson has
thought proper to make a new species which he calls P. Purdoni (on
some Carboniferous Brachiopoda collected in India by A. Fleming and
W. Purdon in 1848 and 1852, Quarterly Journal of the Geol. Soc. of
London, Pl. 2 fig. 5, 1862) based on specimens similar to those under
examination, and which came from Chederoo and Moosakhel (Salt —
Range, A. M. V.). He gives a drawing, under the name of P. Hum-
boldtt, of a species on which the spines are fewer and confusedly
arranged in quincunces, and of which the sinus is very slight and only
visible near the front of the shell. I would regard this rather as the P.
pustulosus.
Productus Cora, (D’Orbigny). Two good specimens possessing well —
the characters of the species.—Discovered first in the Bolivian plateau
by D’Orbigny. This species is one of the most characteristic of the car-—
boniferous limestone in England, in Belgium, in Spain and in Russia.
At the time I found it in the last named country D’Orbigny had but —
just described it ; I did not know his work, and, as this shell varies much, — ;
I had made thd species of it under the names of P. Tenuistriatus and ll
P. Neflediwi. It is found on both slopes of the Oural, and also in the |
white carboniferous limestone of the plains of Russia at Sterbita-_
mak on the river Oka, and in the carboniferous region of Douety.
Finally it is also mentioned in North America. It has therefore
great geological range. :
Four specimens of Productus. That in the black limestone and ~
brought from Kashmir is the P. Flemingii or Longispmmus or
Lobatus (three names of the same animal). It is one of these Pro-
ducta largely distributed on the globe. It has been found on the |
Mississipi in the state of Ohio and in Kentucky. It exists in Eng-
jand, in Spain, andin Belgium. Messrs. Keyserling and Murchison and
I have found it in the governments of Tiver, Kalonga, on the Doueta |
as well as on the river Belaja near the glacial sea. The speci- |
mens from the white limestone of the Kafir-Kote are a distinct ©
et)
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 203
variety, remarkable for a pretty considerable number of tubular
spines, and by the large size of its longitudinal strie, which are
often well marked.
Four specimens of a small species which differs from the P.
Longispinus or lobatus by the want of lobes and of a sinus on
the middle of the greater valve. It is perhaps the P. Aculeatus,
(Martin), but the specimens are not good enough to be determined
rigorously.
Very small specimens of Productus which are perhaps the young
of the P. longispinus or of P. Boliviensis, (D’Orbigny), of which
Keyserling found a valve in the carboniferous limestone of the
basin of the Petchora (government of Archangel). It is characterised
by well detached ears.
Two specimens of Athyris, without the test and too imperfect to
allow of their being determined (TVerebratula Subtilita, Halls ?)
Four specimens of a species of Athyris which is perhaps new. It
belongs to the class of Terebratulae with concentric striz and internal
- spires, called by D’Orbigny Spirigera and by M’Coy Athyris (a name,
let us remark, which means the reverse of what exists, since, instead of
being imperforate, these species have a round hole on the beak).
_ This species from Kashmir approaches the A. Ambigua, (Sowerby), and
_ the A. Globulosa, (Phoill.), but it is more transverse and the beak is
_ more detached and sharper. It may be called A. Buddhista, as proposed
7 by Mr. Verchere. The A. Ambigua is found in Russia in the carboni-
_ ferous limestone, but is rare there, whilst it is common in England.
Two specimens, of which one is perhaps a variety of the 7’. Swbtc-
lita, (Hall*) or the 7’. Subtilita jtself. The other appears to me to be
“an Athyris Royssii, (Vernueil), discovered by myself in the carbonifer-
s limestone of Belgium. When this species is well preserved, the
a “hl is seen to be covered by a pilose investment or coating, consisting
of very fine spines continuing the lines of growth. The specimen I
possess presents traces of this structure in the shape of a pubescence
of very fine hairs.
Three specimens in a bad state of preservation, which are probably
merely varieties of the A. Roysi.
* The a Subtilita is a species of Hall, found in the carboniferous
of the Great Salt Lake in America, Mr. Davidson mentions it from India.
204 . . Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmir, [No. 3,
One more specimen of the same species.
Two specimens of a Terebratula which is probably new, but the
specimens are not good enough to be determined.
Six specimens of a Spirifer which appears to me to be new. At
first sight one would take it for the S. Z’rigonalis, (Martin), but it
differs from it by the narrowness of the sinus, and by the want of folds
in that part which most commonly shows some of them, more or less
well marked, in the Sp. Zrigonalis. The narrowness of the sinus re-
minds one of the S. JZosquensis, of Russia.
Spiriferina nearly allied to the S. Octoplicata, (Sow.), and still more,
to the Sp. Cristata of the Zechstein, two species which Mr. Davidson
unites into one. This author figures the S. Octoplicata among the
fossils of India. The specimen, which is marked No. I6, has narrower
ribs and broader furrows than the specimens figured by Davidson.
On another are admirably well seen the granulations peculiar to the
genus Spiriferina of the lias, and to the Permian and Carboniferous |
species under notice. Pl. I. fig. 2, a, b, c, d.
Great Cardinia, perhaps new. PI. VI. fig. 2.
Two specimens of Cardinia bearing a distant likeness to the C. Ovalis
(Martin,) C. Uniformis of the Carboniferous of England and also to
the C. Listerti Unio (Sowerby,) of the Lias. > |
M. de Koninck has figured a shell very similar to this under the /
name of Solenopsis imbricata, (Descrip. of new fossils from India, dis-.
covered by A. Fleming, by de Koninck, Quart. Journal of the Geol.,
Soc. vol. 19 Pl. IV fig. 3.) obtained from the carboniferous limestone,
of Varcho, (Vurcha, Salt Range, Punjab. 4. WZ. V.) |
Aviculo-Pecten dissimilis (Pecten id., Fleming), This. specimen
reminds one of the Pectea Ellipticus, (Phillips), which is found in the
Carboniferous of Russia. ra
Azinus, sp. nova. This shells resembles much the Axinus obscu
(vernus) Sow. Geol. Transac. vol. V. pl. 38.
Fenestella Sykest, Koninck, Quart. Journ. vol. 19, pl. 1. fig.,
Fenestella megastoma, Koninck, Quart. Journ vol. 19, pl. I.
Fenestella. Undetermined. PI. V. fig. 1.
A very pretty species which Ido not know. Perhaps the Finca,
el
7
Busan
1867.) the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountans. 205
lavria multangularis (Postlock), It is to be regretted that the surface is
not seen and that the branches are split in two.
Luthostrotion floriforme, Flem. a common enough species in Russia
in the carboniferous ; found also in England.
Michelinia or Beawmontia. Ill preserved specimen.
Phyllopora cribellum, Konnick, Quart. Journ. vol. 19. pl. I fig. 2.
List of species which have been identified from the specimens sent
by Mr. Verchere.
1. Productus Semireticulatus, Martin.
2. ml Costatus, Sow.
3 . Humboldtii, D’ Orbig.
4 * Cora, D’Orbig.
5, ™ Flemingti, Sow. = P. Longispinus and P, Lobatus,
Vernueil.
Aculeatus, Sow.
_ Boliviensis, D’Orbign.
‘ * Royssit, Verneuil.
0. J Terebratula Subtilita, Hall.
11. Spirifer Vercherit, Verneuil (new species, nearly allied to the
{ S. Trigonalis, Martin, but distinct).
12. Spiriferina Octoplicata, Sow.
138. Cardinia ovalis? Martin.
;
6
7.
8. Athyris ambigua? Sow. (perhaps Sp. hova).
9
1
14, Solenopsis imbricata, Konn,
15. Aviculo-pecten dissimilis, Flem.
16. Awinus, Sp. nova (nearly allied to. A. Obscwrus of the Gechstein)
Z. 17. Fenestella Sykesiz, Konn.
} p18. » Megastoma, Konn.
| 19. Vineularia multangularis ? Postlock.
20. Lithostrotion floriforme, Flem.
21. Phyllopora cribellum, Konn.
Remarks. .
| | Several notes on fossils collected in India have been published lately ;
the fossils were forwarded by Messrs. Fleming and W. Purdon and
more recently by Captain Godwin-Austen. These publications are Ist,
Dayidson’s Memoir “On some Carboniferous Brachiopoda collected in
206 Dr. Verchére on the Geology of Kashmr, [No. 3,
India by A. Fleming and W. Purdon, Quart. Journal, vol. XVIII. p. 25;
2 plates. 2nd, Description of some fossils from India discovered by J.
Fleming, by Dr. L. de Koninck, Quart. Journ. vol. XIX. with 8 plates
on which are figured among others some very curious goniatites. 3rd,
Geological notes on part of the N. W. Himalayas, by Capt. Godwin-
Austen, with notes of fossils by T. Davidson, R. Etheridge and P.
Woodward. It is only an abstract of the memoir, without plates,
Capt. Godwin-Austen followed the Carboniferous limestone along
the foot of the mountains at the north of the valley of Kashmir
as far as Ishmalabad.* ‘The carboniferous series is, according to
Capt. G. Austen, as follows, from the highest to the lowest. Ist
Layers with goniatites more or less analogous to the ceratites of the
Musckelhalk. These layers are the highest of the carboniferous
formation. 2nd. Below is found a compact limestone poor in fossils ;
8rd, argillaceous series; 4th, limestone rich in fossils, Productus, &c.
5th quartzite.
As early as 1850, Sir Roderick Murchison had shown me some of fr
the fossils sent by Mr. Fleming, and I had identified the P. Cora, —
costatus, Flemingi, the <Athyris Roysii, Orthis crensistria, &e.
Quart. Journ. vol. 7, p. 39. At the same epoch Dr. Falconer and 7
Major Vicary had announced the existence of paleozoic fossils in ‘
the mountains which separate British India from Kabul, as remarked
by Sir R. Murchison, Quart. Journ. vol. VII. p. 38. In 1852, Mr.
A. Fleming published his observations on the Salt Range in several —
letters addressed to Sir R. Murchison, Quart Journ. vol. IX. p. 189.
All the fossils collected by Mr. Fleming, Mr. Purdon, Captain
G. Austen and Dr. Verchere belong to the carboniferous formation.
Captain Strachey alone has proved the existence of more ancient rocks
(in a palzontological point of view.) He sent to London a series
of fossils collected in the mountains, from 17 to 18000 feet above
the sea, which separate Thibet from the British provinces of Kumaon
and Garhwal. I have identified among these fossils some Asaphus,
* Capt.Gordon-Austen and myself visited the localities referred to in the
geological notes, during a tour we made together in the autumn of 1863. We
thought at one time of writing a memoir in collaboration, but having been senb-
to the extremes of India, we arranged our notes separately. A. M. Vag
+ In the present paper are figured a few Cystoids which are in all probabi-
lity Silurian, see Pl, VIII. fig. 61 and 62,
© 4 eee eel!
1867.] the Western Himalaya and Afghan Mountains. 207
Lychas, Illenus, Cheirurus, Orthoceras, &c. all characteristic of the
Lower Silurian. In the upper part of the beds Captain Strachey
found goniatites, ceratites and even ammonites, which remind one
much of the Trias. So far, therefore, two of the four great divisions
of the Palezzoic formation have become well known in the Himalaya,
viz. the Silurian and the Carboniferous. The Devonian will be
found also, for we have received from a Missionary travelling in
China three species of Brachiopoda characteristic of the Upper
Devonian rocks, among others the TZerebratula Cuboides. These
fossils have been presented this year to the Académie de Sciences
de Paris. Mr. Davidson has also figured and described, as received
from China, brachiopoda which also are characteristic of the Devonian,
among other the Spirifer, Verneuil. The discovery and determina-
tion of the Devonian in the Himalaya requires attention and research.
I have further to remark how great is the analogy between
India and Russia; I have found in this last country most of the
species which Mr. Verchere has found in the Himalaya. Russia,
the Oural and the Altai, are connecting links between England and
India.
In terminating this note, we wish to observe that if, according
to Mr. Verchere, the coal measures, (which should be superior to
the carboniferous limestone), are wanting in India, this want is
one more resemblance with Russia, for in all the carboniferous
zone which extends from Moscow to Archangel the carboniferous
limestone is never covered in by coal measures. There has been
a slow upheaving motion of the ground, which has raised the
strata above the sea-level, without, however, otherwise disturbing
them, at the epoch when in other countries, the coal was being
deposited. It is in the south of Russia only (the Douetz), and in a
few localities on the western slope of the Oural, that coal measure
deposits are to be found.
(Signed) Kp. DE VERNEUIL.
Paris, 21st Nov., 1864.
PLP LPL LL LLL LLL LSS LLL LLL OA
208 uf A ppendia. | [No. 3,
APPENDIX.
FOSSILS.
SILURIAN.
Spheronites sp. Pl. VIIT. fig 5.
Perfectly globular ; covered with small rounded warts sharply
defined. The whole shell, between the warts, is pierced with minute
pores. No trace of plates ; no mouth nor stalk-scar visible.
Found in the rocky plains at the foot of the Masha Brum, Kora-
koram Chain. |
Spheronites sp. Pl. VIII. fig 6.
Proposed name of a new species: S. Ryalli, Verch.
Globular. Large warts well set apart and not very sharply defined.
The whole shell is covered with pores. No mouth. A stalk-stem —
very conspicuous. | 7
From the same locality as the preceding. Name proposed in —
honour of Mr. Ryall, Gt. Trig. Survey, who discovered the shell.
Spheronites sp. Pl. IX. fig. 1. |
Depressed. No warts or spines ; no plates or traces of plates, no
stalk-scar. The whole surface pierced by minute pores.
Same locality.
CARBONIFEROUS.
Zeuwan Beds.
CEPHALOPODA.
Nautilus Flemingianus, DeKon. .
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XIX. Part I, No. 73, p. 15-—
Pl. VIII. fig. 2. A fragment of this shell was found at Zeawan,
Kashmir. {
Nautilus Favranus, Verch., n. sp.
A very large globular antihee eleven inches across the mouth.
Perfectly smooth and inornate. Siphon large and central, formed by 7
a series of dilatations, giving it a beaded appearance.
Rotta Roh in the Punjab.
Orthoceras sp.
1867. | Appendix. 209
Zowoor and Zeawan in Kashmir.
GASTEROPODA.
Macrocheilus Avellanoides, DeKon.
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XIX. No. 78, p. 10. Pl. IIL
fig. 4, Rotta Roh.
Dentalium Herculeum, DeKon.
Op. Cit. p. 8. Pl. IV. figs. 10, 11 & 12. Several specimens
were found in the Rotta Roh, but none in Kashmir.
Trochus sp.
Some large specimens of Trochus, four inches across, were found at
the Rotta Roh, Punjab.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Anomia Lawrenciana, DeKon.
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XIX. p. 6. Pl. IV. figs. 7, 8 & 9.
Found in the Rotta Roh, but not in Kashmir.
__ Bracwropopa.,
Lerebratula sacculus, Martin.
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XXII. p. 40. PI.IL fig. 1.
Found at Zeawan Zowoor and Barus, Kashmir.
Remark, A few other species of true Terebratule were found in
the Zeawan group of Carboniferous limestone, but Iam unable to
identify them at present.
_ Spirifer Verchert, de Vernewil, new sp. Pl. I. figs. 1, 1a.
See M. de Vernueil’s note.
Barus in Kashmir. It has been found in Spiti.
{ Spirifer striatus, Martin.
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XVIII, No. 69, p. 28. Pl. I.
- figs. 9 and 10.
+ Several fragments were found at Zeawan and Zovwoor, and complete
Specimens in the Rotta Roh.
— Spirifer Moosakhelensis, David.
) Op. Cit. p. 28. Pl. IL. fig. v. .
This shell is extremely abundant at Zeawan, but was always found
infragments. Itis also common at the Rotta Roh.
_ After comparing numerous specimens of the last two species, in
various states of weathering, I must express my impression that the
§. Moosakhelensis is only a variety of the S. striatus, in which the
27
210 A ppendin. [No. 38,
concentric lamin (which do exist in the striatus) have become
exaggerated. All stages of transition are to be observed in a mode-
rately large series.
Spirifer Rajah, Strachey [Syn. S. Keilhavia Buch ? |
Paleont. of Niti, page 59.
Fragments found at Zeawan and Barus,
Spirifer, spec. nor. ? Pl, IIL. figs. 1 & la.
Hinge-line straight and much longer than the greatest width of the
shell. Umbones prominent above the hinge-line ; hinge-area not
seen. Six or seven irregular ribs radiate from the umbo to the margin
in a wavy manner. Fine ornamental raised lines (coarser on the
larger than on the smaller valve) radiate likewise in a wavy manner.
Shell flat. It varies a great deal in shape and size, but is always
very flat, so much so that it has somewhat the appearance of such
shell as the Strophomena grandis of the Silurian. It may possibly be,
like the precedent, a variety of the S. Keilhaviz,
Found at Zeawan in Kashmir and at the Rotta Roh.
Spiriferina octoplicata (Sow.), var. Transversa ( Verch.)
Pl. I. figs. 2, 2a, 26, 2c, and 2d, a
Specimens like a, are not common at all; but fragments of the
shell such as are represented at 6, are innumerable in the browr
shale of Zeawan. Found also in the limestone of Kafir Kote in the
Rotta Roh, but it is thererare. This shell seems to vary wonderfully,
from the narrow forms figured by Davidson, (Journal Geological
Society, Vol. XVIII. Pl. I. figs. 11 and 14,) to the very transverse
variety represented here, a
Athyris sp. (Ath. subtilita. Hall), Pl. IL. figs. 1 and 1a.
This species varies considerably, especially as to size, but is easih
recognized by the overlapping of the upper edge of the lines of
growth, so that the shell looks as if made up of several layers laid on
over the other, like the many capes of a coachman’s cloak, |
Found at Zowoor in Kashmir, in lenticular beds where it appears t
be gregarious. Also in the Rotta Roh and Salt Range.
Athyris Buddhista, Verch., n. sp. Pl. II. figs. 2, 2a, and 20.
It has flat, expanded sides on each side of a well marked sinus ¢
the larger valve and sharp fold of the lesser. The beak terminates 1
a point, occasionally pierced by a small foramen but generally
s
2
:
-,.
-1867.] Appendix. 211
“imperforate. The spiral oral arms appear to fill nearly the whole of
the shell, leaving only a small hour-glass-shaped space in the centre.
This shell varies a good deal, some specimens being much more
transverse than others, some being very flat and others less so. It
was a gregarious animal found now accumulated in lenticular beds.
Zeawan and Zowoor. The name proposed is derived from the first
few specimens which were found having been discovered in blocks of
stone of a Buddhist ruin.
_ Athyris sp. probably A. Royssir, (1 Eveillé) Pl. IL. fig. 3-3.
Less transverse than the preceding and ornamented with fine and
¢ osely set concentric lines of growth strongly marked. Foramen
generally obliterated. Imprints showing the fringe-like expansion
round the margin are very common in the brown shale of Zeawan.
The shellis abundant in all the localities where the Zeawan bed has
been observed in Kashmir and the Punjab.
Remark, Several other species of Athyris were discovered at
Zeawan, Zowoor and Barus, some having the general facies of our figs.
2 and 8 and being probably varieties of the A. Royssv. Others with
the umbo-marginal diameter longer than the transverse and being
probably narrow varieties of the A. swbtilita. Others again have the
general facies of the 7’. Digona, and others the carinated appear-
mee of the Ath. Navicula (Sow).
| Retzia radialis (Phill), var. grandicosta ( Davids. )
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XVIII. p. 28. Pl. I. fig. 5.
Very frequently met with at Zeawan and Zowoor, and also in the
totta Roh.
Streptorynchus crenistria, Phill, var. robustus.
»Op. cit. p. 30. Pl. I. fig. 16.
‘This shell attains a very large size in Kashmir and in the Punjab,
pecimens five inches in tranvserse diameter not being rare. Fragments
f this shell, and young shells, swarm at Zeawan and in some beds in
he Rotta Roh.
Orthis resupinata, Martin.
Op’ cit. page 31. Pl. I. fig. 15.
Abundant in the brown shale of Zeawan, Kashmir.
_ Orthis sp. Pl. ITI. fig. 8.
A cast of an Orthis belonging to the type of the Orthis plicatulla
212 Appendix. [No. 3,
(Hall) of the Silurian. It has six ribs, not very conspicuous, and two
well-marked lines of growth; and is ornamented with fine radiating
strie. Only one specimen was found at Zeawan.
Remark. An immense number of small, or perhaps young,
Orthiside occur in the ferruginous dark shale of Zeawan, in some
places so abundantly that they cause the shale to exfoliate like a
disintegrating mica-schist. The shells are, however, so thin and
brittle that imprints alone can be procured.
Strophomena analoga (Phill.) ? Pl. I. fig. 4.
There is, I think, little doubt of this shell being Phillip’s species.
The shell is raised in irregular concentric furrows and ridges, and
is ornamented by fine radiating strie. Both valves are nearly flat ;
the umbones are hardly marked ; the hinge is linear and nearly as
long as the greatest diameter of the shell. These Indian specimens
are very large, above four inches across. :
Seldom found entire in Kashmir; but even pieces of it are
conspicuous and easily recognized. Good specimens were obtained
from the Rotta Roh in the Punjab.
Strophomena ? sp. Pl, IT. fig. 2.
An internal cast only. Found at Zeawan in Kashmir.
Productus costatus (Sow.)
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XVIIL. p. 31. Pl. I. figs. 20, 21.
Numerous specimens of this well known species were found at
Yeawan and Zowoor in Kashmir, and in the Rotta Roh and Salt
Range.
Productus semireticulatus (Martin.)
Op. Cit. p. 21.
It varies considerably, some specimens being very transverse. —
The Kashmir and Punjab specimens are usually very large and often
deformed by pressure. ‘
Zeawan, Zowoor, Barus. Rotta Roh, Salt Range. ya
Productus cora (d’ Orbigny.) .
Found abundantly every where in the Zeawan group.
Productus Humboldti (D’ Orb.) .
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XVIII. p. 32. Pl. IL. fig. 6.
Large specimens found at Zeawan and smaller ones at Barus.
Also in the Salt Range and Rotta Roh, Punjab. es
1867.] Appendix. 213
Productus Purdoni (Davids).
Op. Cit. p. 31. Pl. II. fig. 5.
Zeawan in Kashmir and Rotta Roh in the Punjab. In a series of
specimens of P. Humboldii and P. Purdon, it is quite impossible to
decide where one species ends and the other begins.
Productus Flemingu (d’ Orb.)
Syn. P. longispinus (de Vern) and P, lobatus (de Vern.)
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XVIII. p. 31. Pl. L. fig. 19.
Davidson’s figure does not show the enrolled and horn-like ears so
well defined in our specimens.
M. de Vernueil regards the Rotta Roh specimens as a well defined
variety ; see his note.
Found at Zeawan and Zowoor and in the Rotta Roh.
Productus Boliviensis (d’Orb.) and P. aculeatus ? (Martin),
See M. de Vernueil’s Note.
Found at Zowoor and Zeawan in Kashmir,
Strophalosia ? Arachnoidea,) Verch.) n. sp. Pl. IV. figs. 1, la, 16.
The specimen of the larger valve is from the Rotta Roh and the
other two from Zeawan in Kashmir ; they may be different shells.
- The larger valve resembles the Productus Purdoni, but the spines are
fewer, better defined and less slanting towards the margin. The other
two specimens are remarkable for the excessive length of the thread-
like spines and for some complications in the hinge.
_ Crustacna.
Eurypterus ? Limulus ? sp. Pl. V. fig. 4.
_ Claw of a Crustacean, belonging apparently to one or the other of
the two genera above. It was found on a slab which had been worn
+ _ by running water, so that a horizontal section of the claw is produced.
The same slab was full of Athyris Buddhista (Verch.), Productus
Flemingii (D’Orb.). P. Aculeatus, Fenestella Sykes (deKon.) and
Vincularia Multangularis (Patlock).
_ The tegument is smooth and pierced by pores, which are seen
‘vertically sected on the margins of the claw, and appear like dots
where the tegument is not worn off. The tegument forms septa in
the upper mandibule, but none in the lower. The ends of the
-mtmandibules are hooked. There are no traces of teeth on the internal
margin of the claw. No other part of the animal could be found,
214 Appendix. [No. 3,
Kashmir.
Remark. Another crustacean has been found abundantly in the
Carboniferous of the Himalaya. It is a Z’relobite, with the rings sharp
and rib-like. Though common, it has not been found good enough
for identification and figure.
Zeawan, Banda and Barus in Kashmir. Also Rotta Roh and Salt
Range in the Punjab.
EcHINODERMATA.
Cidaris Forbesiana, (deK6n). |
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XIX. No. 73, p. 4. Pl. IV. figs.
1 and 2.
Rotta Roh, but not in Kashmir. There are several species or
varieties. 7
These cidarides will have, I think, to be made into a new genus
when better known. They appear to have been borne on long thin
branching stalks. The body has not been found yet, but I have found —
hecagonal plates with an articulation cup in the centre, spines four
inches long, and stalks of considerable length.
Crinoid stems were found in enormous quantity in all the layers
of the Zeawan bed. Sometimes the rock is nothing but a mass of ©
rings pressed together. In the Rotta Roh I found a great number of -
an Encrinus, cup-shaped and nearly a foot in height, belonging
apparently to a new genus. I cannot describe it at present. It—
supports a multitude of minute arms and fingers, the debris of which
form a glaring-white rock, very conspicuous as one of the layers of the
Zeawan bed in the Punjab.
Bryozoa.
Tenestella Sykesw, (deKon.) Pl. IV. bis. figs. 1, a. 6. ¢. d.
Journal I. Geological Society, Vol. XIX. p. 5. Pl. 1 fig. 1.
The colony forms a wavy leaf. The openings of the cells cover
the whole surface of the longitudinal bars without assuming a linear
arrangement ; the transverse bars are barren of cells. The cells are
arranged in bundles imbedded in sockets of the support, so thata
vertical section along one of the longitudinal bars shows a succession
of little cups or sockets, in each of which are collected from six to
eight elongated cells, disposed fan-like. The calcareous support 4
between the sockets is massive. b
1867. ] Appendia, 215
This Bryozoon is extraordinarily abundant in the Zeawan bed.
The colonies are often packed one over the other like dead leaves, and
I have counted seven and eight colonies in a piece of shale not an inch
thick,
Fenestella Megastoma, (deKon). Pl. IV. bis. fig. 2, a. b. ¢. d.
Op. Cit. Vol. XEX. p. 5. Pl. II. fig. 3.
The shape of the colony was not seen. The openings of the cells
cover the longitudinal bars, without assuming a linear arrangement.
The bars are rounded on the cell-bearing side and are angular on the
barren surface. They are hollow or tubular, and the cells are ar-
ranged over the roof of the tube, like bricks in an arch, and are not
connected in bundles and contained in sockets as in the Fen. Sykesii.
Fenestella, sp. Pl..V. fig. 1.
Shape of colony not seen, but generally very flat and wavy. The
oscules, which are small, are somewhat quadrangular. It is found
mostly as an imprint. Disposition of the cells not seen.
Very abundant at Zeawan, Zowoor, Banda, in Kashmir and also in
the Rotta Roh.
Vincularia Multangularis, (Portlock) ? Pl. IV. bis., figs. 3, a. b. ¢. d.
' See M. de Vernueil’s note.
; The colony has a moss-like appearance, The cells are arranged all
_ round a calcareous support, and inclined forwards.
This Bryozoon is extremely abundant in the Zeawan bed, the
_ branches extending in all directions but never anastomosing ; their
division is nearly always dichotomous. I have seen colonies cover
~ more than a square foot of rock with their ramifications,
Disteichia ?? (Sharpe). Pl. V. fig. 2,
Iam unable to refer it to any genus which I know, unless to the
| genus Disteichia (Sharpe). It is found at Zeawan, but is there rare ;
| in the Rotta Roh it is very common. The layers of cells accumulate
| Acanthocladia, sp. Pl. V. fig. 3.
e The colony has the aspect of a fern. The central stem throws out
| branches at regular intervals, and at a certain fixed angle, and these
branches throughout younger branches. Both stem and_ branches
| support short spines like leaflets. The disposition of the cells was not
seen, as only imprints of this animal were found,
216 Appendix, [No. 3,
Found near Banda in Kashmir.
Phyllopora ? Cribellwm (deKon).
Journal, Geological Society, Vol. XIX. p. 6. Pl. I. fig. 2.
Fragments are not scarce in the Rotta Roh, but it was not found in
the Kashmir beds.
Retepora Lepida, (deKon).
Op oC. p. "6 PIE. Be. 5:
Several fragments found at Zeawan and in the Rotta Roh.
Remark. A. few other species, not yet satisfactorily determined,
were found in this group.
ANTHOZOA.
Inthostrotion Florvforme, (Flem.).
Beautiful specimens are to be obtained near Bilote in the Rotta Roh.
Not found in Kashmir.
Lithostrotion Irregulare, (Phill.) ?
A Lithostrotion which is this species, or a very near ally, is very —
common in the RottaRoh. The calyces are long, rounded, irregular
cylinders, more or less vermiform in appearance and varying consider- :
ably in size in various specimens, but always of nearly the same size in
each individual colony.
Very small fragments only were seen in Kashmir, but in the Rotta_
Roh colonies of this coral attain to great size, forming masses of rock
several feet across, and many tons in weight.
Alveohites Septosa, (Flem.) ?
Journal Geological Society, Vol. XIX. p. 4. Pl. IT. fig. 1.
It often forms shapeless masses, the centre of which is converted
into flint. —
Zeawan in Kashmir and Bilote in the Rotta Roh.
Michelina, sp.
Rotta Roh. Never found in Kashmir. S
Remark. The abundance of corals in the lowest beds of the Zeawan
division of the Carboniferous at the Rotta Roh is sometimes” a
astonishing. In Kashmir they are rather scarce. We have a few 3
specimens not yet determined. a
Piscgs. =
Saurichthys ? .
Teeth of fishes, large for the genus to which they pies: to
1867.] Appendix. 217
belong, were found in Kashmir and in the Rotta Roh. They are
conical, but compressed so that the section is an oval; they are
strongly striated or rather grooved the whole length. The largest i
about three quarters of an inch long.
Wean Beds.
CEPHALOPODA.
Goniatites Gangeticus, (deKon.)
Journal Geological Society, Vol. XIX. p. 14. Pl. V. fig. 2.
Thad thought at first that this Goniatites was more like G,
Henslowi, Sow. ; but better specimens, which I have since procured,
leave little doubt that the species found was DeKoninck’s shell. Some
of the species from the Rotta Roh are much larger than DelConinck’s
figure, and some are elliptical.
Found near Banda in Kashmir and near Gung and Oomurkhel in
the Rotta Roh.
Goniatites Curvicostatus, (Verch.), nov. sp. ?
The species is well characterized by curved ribs, rather coarse and
irregular. The suture is like that of the G. Gangeticus. Only one
_ specimen, from near Gung ; not good enough to be figured.
Remark. Several indeterminable Goniatites were found near Banda,
and at Barus in Kashmir.
Nautilus Olitellarius, (Sow.) ?
Fragments very like this species were found near Gung, Two or three
other species, indeterminable, were found in the Goniatite-bed in
Kashmir and at the Rotta Roh.
Orthoceras, sp.
A small species, about two inches long and a third of an inch thick,
was found in the limestone with Gonatites Gangeticus near Gung.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA,
Solenopsis Imbricata, (deKon.)
Journal Geological Society, Vol. XIX. p. 8, PL IV. fig. 8.
Found at Koonmoo and in the hills near Mutton and at the Manus
Bal, in Kashmir. Also in the Rotta Roh. Good specimens were
procured from blocks not in situ, near Bij-Behara in Kashmir.
Solenopsis, sp. vel var, nov. Pl, VI. fig. 1, Similar to the preceding
28
218 Appendix. [No. 3,
but longer ; the anterior end is narrower than the posterior extremity,
whilst in the S. Imbricata both ends are nearly equal. The imbrica-
tion of the lines of growth is strongly defined.
Found with the preceding.
Cardinia, sp. (C. Himalayana, Verch. nov. sp.) Pl. VI. fig. 2.—
(Anthracosia, King.) ? ?
The lines of growth are deeply impressed and imbricated, and the
shell bulges a little between these lines. The hinge was not seen.
Animals gregarious ; their shells occur heaped together in patches.
Manus Bal, Koonmoo, Mutton ?, Rotta Roh.
Cardinia, sp. (Cardinia Ovalis, Martin,) P|, VI. fig. 3.—(Anthracosia
King.) ?
A species more elongated than the preceding. Lines of growth
similarly disposed. Found with the preceding.
Cucullea, sp. Pl. VI. fig. 4.
A gregarious small shell, sometimes so abundant that it forms
masses of rock by itself. Lines of growth well defined, especially near
the margin. Hinge not seen. It is perhaps the young of some larger |
shell.
Found at Wean, Koonmoo and Ishmalabad in Kashmir and in the
Rotta Roh in the Punjab.
Pecten, sp. Pl. IV. fig. 5.
Small shell, perfectly smooth with the exception of a few aos of
growth, It is ornamented with painted dark lines, which radiate from
the beak to the circumference, increasing in width as they approach
the margin. The convexity is very small, and the ears small.
Only one-valve specimens were ever found, through the shell is
tolerably common in the reddish limestone of Koonmoo in Kashmir. |
Found also in the Rotta Roh?
Aviculo-pecten Dissmilis, (Flem.)
See M. de Vernueil’s note. .
This and the following Aviculo-pectens are apparently identical :
with the group of animals represented in England by the A.-Pecten — }
Arenaceus. They were gregarious and all lived together, and are now |
found in a sandy somewhat friable limestone, in lenticular beds which =
are evidently the remains of sandbanks near the shore. i
Our specimens of A,-Peoten Dissimilis are oval in shape, the
1867. ] Appendix. 219
umbo-marginal diameter being the longest. The shell was at first
very gibbose, but after the second line of growth it is much less so.
Four sunken lines of growth are well marked, Ears small and trans-
versely striated. Shell nearly equilateral, beak prominent.
The cast shows two deep pits, corresponding on the inside of the
shell to two tubercles. These pits are more than half way down
the valve. The cast is covered with shallow irregular fossee which
correspond to small bosses inside the shell, and are probably due to the
presence of pearly matter. There are traces of an epithelium.
Found at Koonmooh, Rotta Roh.
Aviculo-pecten, sp. (A-pecten Ovatus, Verch.) Pl. VI. fig. 6a, and 6b.
A small specimen, quite smooth. Outline elliptical; convexity
_ trifling; ears meeting above the beak into a straight line.
The inside of the valve shows (0) two strong lateral ridges proceeding
from the beak, and terminating about two-thirds down the valve in
well defined tubercles. The hinge presents two short rounded ridges
_ or teeth proceeding from the beak for about a quarter of an inch, when
_ they also terminate in minute tubercles.
Aviculo-pecten, sp. (A. pecten Ranus, Verch.,) Pl. VI. fig. 7 and 7a,
‘ Outline sub-circular ; shell very flat ; ears irregular. The whole
_ valve is covered with fine radiate striw, and with thin lines of growth.
_ Shell thin. Internal cast not found. It is perhaps the P. Crenisteria
(de Koninck.)
Aviculo-pecten Circularis, Verch., Pl. VII. fig. la. and 1b.
Outline of shell sub-circular, rather transverse. Shell moderately
‘eonvex ; concentric strie faintly seen. Lines of growth irregular and
‘unconspicuous. The cast (b) presents two deep pits which are
continued by a groove towards the beak, corresponding on the inside
of the shell to two muscular tubercles and ridges. The ridge is
uch more defined posteriorly than anteriorly. Lines of growth
Baiscncty marked on the cast ? No pearl fossee. It may be a variety of
_P. Ellipticus (Phill.) 2? 3
4 Aviculo-pecten, sp. Pl. VII. fig. 2a & 2b.
Outline pyriform, umbo-marginal diameter the longest. Moderatly
gibbose ; beak much incurved and somewhat imbedded in the ears,
which meet above it in a straight line.
The cast only was found. It shows two strongly marked lines of
growth well set apart. No pearl-fossx on cast.
990 Appendix. [No. 3,
The inside of the shell, (6) shows two ridges proceeding from the
beak but not terminating in tubercles (at least not on one side; the
other side was not seen). Two small teeth in the hinge terminate by
minute tubercles. Beak grooved by a canal or foramen. Inside of
ears concave.
Aviculo-pecten Testudo, Verch. Pl. VII. fig. 8 and 3a.
Shell pyriform, umbo-marginal diameter longest. | Extremely
gibbose. Beak pointed; ears meeting above ina straight line. A
few concentric striz. Lines of growth unconspicuous, excepting one
near the margin.
A viculo-pecten Gibbosus Verch. Pl. VII. fig. 4 and 4a.
Outline sub-circular, transverse. Shell enormously gibbose, es-
pecially as far as the second line of growth. Shell inornate. Lines of
growth shallow and confused. Ears meeting in a line above the beak.
Shell thick.
Remark. These Aviculo-Pectens were found in Kashmir in the
Wean groups only ; but in the Rotta Roh they have been found here
and there mixed with shells of the Zeawan group, such as P. Semoreti- _
culatus, A, Subtilita.
Axinus, nov. spec. conf. A. Obscurus.
See M. de Vernueil’s note.
Found with the Aviculo-Pectens.
BRacHIoPoDa.
Spirtferina Stracheyit, (Salter.)
Paleontology of Niti, page 72, Pl. IX. fig. 13.
This shell is not rare in the Wean group near Koonmooo; in some —
beds it swarms in company with a small Terebratula. We have two
varieties, one like Mr. Salter’s figure and another higher and narrower .,
Some specimens show plainly to the naked eye the punctate structure
of the shell. Pa
Post-Scoriptum. Productus Levis, (David.) T. Geol. Soe. Vol,
XXII. p. 44, Pl. XI. fig. 16, and Spirifera Barusiensis, (David), Op.
Cit. p. 42, Pl. XI. fig. 7. . g
Both these shells are oe in the ay cae cee near a 4a
ticus. I have not found them in the Zeawan group, except at a
Rotta Roh in the mixed beds. er
1867.] Appendix. 221
Trias (Mippie anp Upper.)
Kothar Beds.
In the text I considered provisionally the Kothair group as either
the uppormost layer of the Carboniferous, or else Permian or Triasic.
I had no fossils then to decide the point. During the time which has
elapsed between my first sending in this paper and its publication I have
found, in breaking up some rocks from the Kothair bed in Kashmir,
a Globosus with Ceratite-like sutures; and I have discovered in the
Rottah Roh, in beds corresponding to the Kashmir bed, a few shells
which do not leave a doubt of this group being Triasic.
CEPHALOPODA.
Ammonites, sp. conf. A. Gaytani (Klip.)
Paleont. of Niti, p. 65, Pl. TIT. fig. 4.
Our specimen is a little more than half an inch across, and very
globose. It shows well two or three of the sutures which are identical
with Mr. Salter’s figure.
_ From the Upper Bed, near Banda in Kashmir.
Ceratites Semi-partitus (Gaillardot.)
- A very good and nearly complete specimen was found in the Rotta
Roh, in a pale limestone which forms a high cliff above the much
disturbed Carboniferous. The shell is slightly elliptical. The suture
is exactly like that represented in Pictet’s Traite de Paldéontologie.
It has some resemblance to M. de Konninck’s Ceratites Lyellianus or
more still to his C. Lawrencianus, but the suture differs. Cliffs above
-Kotela and Oomurkhel, Rotta Roh.
_ Remark. I have but little doubt that several of the Ceratites
described by Mr. de Koninck (from Dr. A. Fleming’s collection), as
obtained from Carboniferous beds with Spirifers and Producti, had
| their situs in those cliffs or similar ones, and had dropped and become
‘mixed with the much broken up and fragmentary rocks of the Zeawan
and Wean groups below.
Ceratites Nodosus (Sow.) ?
On a slab of reddish calcareous sandstone from the Alged Wan,
Rotta Roh, a shell, which has all the characters of this species, is to
be seen in company with the Posidonomya to be hereafter described,
with fragments of bone and what appears to be a tooth of Lepidotus (?)
222, Appendiz. [No. 3,
GASTEROPODA.
Natica, sp.
Like N. Subglobulosa (K1.) Pal. Niti, p. 68, Pl. VIIL. fig. 12.
Only sections and outlines were seen on the weathered surface of
rocks. Very abundant in the upper beds at Banda and at Kothair
in Kashmir.
Macrocheilus, sp.
Sections and outlines of a shell of this genus are very abundant at
Sono Murg and Kothair.
Nerinea, sp. ?
Small shells with a raised spot in the centre of each half-whorl.
Pyranidella or Loxonema ?
Several specimens of this fine Pyramidella were seen on the
weathered surface of the sandy limestone of the patch of Kothair rock
near Koonmoo.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Posidonia conf. P. Minuta,
Minute shells of this genus, with well-marked concentric stria, were
found in the sandstone containing the C. Nodosus. Algerd Wan,
Rotta Roh.
Outlines of small bivalves are very abundant on the weathered —
surface of the rocks at Sono Murg and Kothair, but the shells cannot _
be extracted.
EcuINnoDERMATA.
Pentacrinites, sp.? Pl. VIII. fig. 1.
Starry rings of Encrinite stems are very abundant in most of the 5
arenaceous limestone of the Wean groups, and also in the rocks of the —
Kothair groups at Sono Murg and Kothair in Kashmir. |
ANTHOZOA.
Cyathophyllum, sp.
Abundant on the weathered surface of Kothair-rocks.
Cyathophyllum, sp.
Same remark as above.
Cyathophyllun, sp. 4%
Generally found as figured at (a). Found as represented at (0)
near Martand, Kashmir. ¥
Remark. Several small species of corals were seen in the Kothair — 4
limestone in Kashmir, but in a very bad state of preservation. x
*
yu
>
a
bS
bo
Go
1867. ] Appendix.
Li1as (LOWER.)
CEPHALOPODA.
Ammonites Tubar (Strachey.)
Pl. Niti, p. 82, Pl 20 fig. 2 a—e and PI. 21 figs. 1 a—e.
Three good specimens of this shell showing well all the characters
and the suture, as represented by Mr. Blanford.
From a muddy and sandy brown bed, very sparingly calcareous, in
the Chichali pass near Kalabagh, Punjab.
Ammonites, sp.
Pal. Niti, Pl. 19 fig. 3 a, 6 and ¢.
The figure in the Paleontology of Niti is exactly like our shell ;
it is not described in the text and not named. It resembles a little
the A. Striatulus (Sow.).—Found in the same bed as the preceding.
Belemnites, sp.
_ A coarse species when full-grown, with a well marked front sulcus,
and often a back one also. The section is ovai.
_ From the same bed as above in Chichali and from some brown
:
“sandstones under the Oolite at the foot of Sheikh Bodeen near Tora
Obo.
Post-Scrrptum. I find this species described and figured by Mr.
“Stoliczka, (Sections across Himal., Mem. Geol. Surv. of India, Vol. V.
Part 1, fig. 78, Pl. VIII. fig. 1-4,) under the name of B. Bisulcatus
(Stol.) from the lower Lias of Spiti.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Gryphea Arcuata (Lam.)
Some specimens, from the Chichali pass and the same bed as the
Ammonites, belong certainly to this well-known species.
Astarte, sp.
A very circular Astarte from the same bed, Chichali.
| Oourte (OxFoRDIAN).
_ CEpHatopopa.
_ Ammonites Biplex, Sow.
Journal Asiat. Soc. No. 2, 1863, p. 129, Pl. IL, fig. 5 and PI. III.
figs. 4 and 5.
— Ammonites Strigilis, Blanford. |
Op. Cit. p. 126, Pl. III figs. 1 and la.
Five fragments showing well the single ribs bending forwards.
224 A ppendiz. [No. 3,
Ammonites Triplicatus, Sow.
Pal. of Niti, p. 80, Pl. 18 fig. 1.
Ammonites Scriptus (Strachey).
Pal.-of Niti,—p? 81g: PIA16) fign2
Ammonites Guttatus (Strach.)
Op. Cit. p. 79, Pl. 13, fig. 2.
Ammonites Wallachu, (Gray.) |
Op. Cit. p. 84, Pl. 15, fig. 1 and Pl. 19, figs. 1 and 2.
All these Ammonites are from the Inferior limestone bed of Shaikh
Bodeen in the Punjab.
Belemnites Suleatus, Miller.
Journal Asiat. Soc. p. 125, PL. 1, fig. 1.
Very abundant in the Ammonite bed at Shaikh Bodeen. Rarer in
the beds above.
Belemnites Canaliculatus, Sch.
This is perhaps a variety or a younger shell of the above. Found
in the same beds.
Remark. One or two more species of Belemnities were found with ;
the preceding at Shaikh Bodeen.
GASTEROPODA,
Acteonina, sp.
In all beds, Shaikh Bodeen.
Turbo, sp. and Scolvostoma, sp. hs
Both in Ammonite-bed, Shaikh Bodeen.
Natica, sp.
Same locality.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. ¥
Pecten Arcuatus, Sow. ?
Not unlike P. Comatus, Munster, (Pal. Niti, Pl. 22, fig. 9). It is
more strongly ribbed than Salter’s figure of the P. Comatus and it i
flatter, thus answering perfectly the description of the P. Arcuatus.
Ammonite-bed, Shaikh Bodeen.
Hinnites Tubulipora, Verch., n. sp.
Like Spondylus weiss. Goldf., but the ribs of our spesies
are much coarser, fewer, and more foliated and the tubular po are
larger, more in number, and rather lamellar.
It is not rare in the Ammonite-bed, Shaikh Bodeen.
ed aes ee
1867. ] Appendix. 225
Homomya (Pholadomya) sp.
We have three species of Pholadomya without rays from Shaikh
Bodeen. |
Pholadomya (Ph. Semireticulata, Verch. nov. sp.) Pl. IX. fig. 2.
This pretty shell is mostly found asacast. It is not rare in the
Oxfordian bed and extends to the Corallian above.
Pholadomya (Ph. Quinque-costata, Verch., nov. sp.) Pl. IX. figs.
3 and 3a.
Ammonite bed, Shaikh Bodeen.
Plagiostoma sp. conf. P. Consobrina (D’ Orb.)
Ammonite-bed, Shaikh Bodeen.
Ostreea Gregarea, (Sow.)
Several specimens found near the Ammonite-bed, Shaikh Bodeen.
Ostreea Marshii, (Sow.) ?
Same bed as above.
Ostreea Flabelloides, (Desh.) ?
Fragments similar to Pal. of Niti, Pl. 22, fig. 1, found in the Am-
monite-bed, Shaikh Bodeen.
Ostrea conf. O. Deltoidea, (Sow.) ?
The only difference between our specimens and the figures of this
species is that our Ostraea have the muscular impression very strongly
marked, forming a regular pit with a ridge round it.—From the same
bed as the above.
Ostreea like O. Nana, (Sow.)
In nearly all the beds, Shaikh Bodeen.
- Ostrea sp.
A large flat circular oyster, very common in some of the lowest
Oolitic beds at Shaikh Bodeen.
BRacHIopopDA,
Terebratula Globata, Sow., Pl. IX. fig. 4.
Extremely abundant in the Ammonite-bed and in all the beds near
it, at Shaikh Bodeen. - It varies considerably.
Post-Scriptum. The 7. Gregaria, Suess, (Memoirs of Geol. Surv.
of India, Vol. V. Part I. page 68, and 7’. Tibetensis, David, (Journ.
Geol. Soc, Vol. XXII. p. 37, Pl. I. fig. 11—14, appear to be the same
Species,
Lerebratula Bodeenensis, Verch., nov. sp. or var. ; Pl, IX. figs.6 and 6a.
29
— —_ — o<“
|
|
|
.
.
226 Appendix. [No. 3,
It is very perfectly oval and varies but little in shape. It has, in
most specimens, neither sinus or folds, and the line of junction of the
valves forms a nearly perfect curve in front. In a few specimens there
is a very trifling undulation of thisline.. The absence of sinus and
fold distinguishes from the 7’. Globata ; it is also a smaller shell, but
yet may be only a variety of it. Found with the above.
Terebratula Carinata, Lam.
Pal, of Niti, p..99;,PL ZU. fig’ 5.
Our specimens are much more like the 7. Carinata than the figure
in Pal. of Niti. It varies considerably, but the shallow sinus is always
well marked. Our specimens are larger than the Niti ones.
Shaikh Bodeen, with the other Terebratule.,
Terebratula Numsmalis, Lam.
Op. Cit.p..99, Pl. 21, fig. 4.
Several specimens showing well the depressed aspect of the front of
the greater valve, and the well-marked concentric lines of growth.
Ammonite-bed, Shaikh Bodeen.
Remark. Two or three specimens not yet identified were found in
the same beds, together with a Waldheimza rather globular and of the
type of W. Impressa, Bach, of the Oxford clay.
Rhynchonella, sp. (R. Concinna, Sow.?) Pl. IX. figs. 5, 5a. and db.
See also Pal. of Niti, Pl. 21, fig. 8.
It has generally, but not always, the sinus better marked than in
the Niti figure. Very common at Shaikh Bodeen in nearly all the
beds. ) |
Remark. Six other species of Rhynchonella have been found at
Shaikh Bodeen, but are not yet satisfactorily determined.
Bryozoa.
Lischara Asiatica, Verch. n. sp. 2
A fenestella-like Eschara, appearing in large flat and undulated —
plates on the surface of the rocks. In the Ammonite-bed, Shaikh .
Bodeen.
Among the corals, a Fungia somewhat like the Fungia Coronula, —
Goldf., but too much worn to be identified, and a Meandrina like WM. vel e
Comoseris Vermicularts (Kidw and Haime), were found in the Am- —
monite bed at Shaikh Bodeen. |
“Re ee gi NINES TP
1867. ] Appendix. 227
Oottte (CoRALLIAN.)
CEPHALOPODA.
Belemnites Canaliculatus, (Sch.)
Upper Bed, Shaikh Bodeen and Mari-on-Indus, Salt Range.
GASTEROPODA.
Nerinea conf. N. Goodhalliz., (Fitton.)
Fragments and sections of this shell are very common in the upper
beds at Shaikh Bodeen. The section of the whorls is precisely similar
to the figure in Lyell’s Elements, p. 304.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Astarte Scalaria, (Roemer.) ? ? vel A. Lamellosa, (Roem.)
An Astarte with lamellous concentric lines, referred to the species
above from description only, as I have never seen a specimen or a
figure of these species.
Upper beds, Shaikh Bodeen.
ANTHOZOA.
Thamnastrea sp.
Upper bed, Shaikh Bodeen and near Palusseen, Wuziristan.
Thamnastrea sp.
A minute species found with the preceding at Shaikh Bodeen.
Tsastroea sp.
Much like the 7. Oblongata (Edw. and Haime.)
Upper beds, Shaikh Bodeen.
Tsastreea sp. |
Another species from Mari-on-the-Indus.
Thecosmilia Annularis (Edw. and Haime.)
Upper bed, Shaikh Bodeen and Mari-on-Indus.
Meandrina sp. ¥
Mari-on-Indus.
Eunomia sp.
Mari-on-Indus.
Rhizangia sp.
Mari-on-Indus.
Areacis sp.
Wuziristan.
Loboceenia sp.
228 Appendix. [No. 8,
A very pretty, spreading specimen from Wuziristan.
Turbinolia sp, ?
From Palussen, Wuziristan.
Rock SpxcrMEns.
Pl. X. figs. 1 and la.
Amygdaloidal greenstone with gas-vents branching through the
mass. Abundant in the Zebanwan in Kashmir. Found also amongst
the rolled stones of the torrents which drain the Afghan mountains.
Pl. X. figs. 2 and 2a.
Trachyte with starry crystals of dull white albite for which I have
proposed the name of Soolimanite. From the Tukht-i-Sulaiman in
Kashmir.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
ia age
Spirifer Vercheri, (de Verneuil), n.s. Natural size.
Spiriferina Octoplicata (Sow.) Var. Transversa, (Verch.), natural size.
Pas,
Athyris sp. (A. Subtilita, Hall,)—natural size.
Athyris Buddhista, (Verch.), nov. sp.—natural size.
Athyris, probably A. Royssit, (L’ Eveillé)—natural size.
Strophomena Analoga, (Phill.) ?—half natural size.
Pi. 2.
Spirifer sp. ? (Var. of S. Keilhavii, (Buch.) ?—natural size.
Strophomena sp. ?—natural size.
Orthis sp.—natural size.
; PLTy.
Strophalosia ? Arachnoidea, (Verch.), n. sp.—natural size.
Fenestella Sykesii (DeKon).
Henestella Megastoma (DeKon).
Vincwlaria Multangulari, (Portlock).
Py:
fenestella sp.—natural size.
Disteichia ? ? sp.—natural size.
Acanthocladia sp.—natural size.
Lurypterus vel Limulus ? sp.—natural size.
1867.] Appendix. 229
Pl. VI.
Solenopsis sp.—natural size.
: Cardinia Himalayana, (Verch.), n. sp.—natural size.
Cardinia Ovalis, Martin), ?—natural size.
Cuculleea ? sp.—natural size.
Pecten sp.—natural size.
Aviculo-pecten sp. (A. pecten Ovatus Verch.)—natural size.
Aviculo-pecten sp. (A pecten Planus, Verch.)—natural size.
i> ¥al.
Aviculo-pecten Circularis, (Verch.)—natural size.
Aviculo-pecten sp.—natural size.
Aviculo-pecten Testudo, (Verch.)—natural size.
Aviculo-pecten Gibbosus, (Verch.)—natural size.
Pl. VEEL
Pentacrinite ? sp.—natural size.
Cyathophyllum sp.—natural size.
Cyathophyllwm sp.—natural size.
Cyathophyllum sp.—natural size.
Spheeronites sp.—natural size. /
Spheronites Ryallii, (Verch.), nov. sp.—natural size.
PL IX.
_ Spheronites sp.—natural size.
_ Pholadomya Sesquireticulata, (Verch.), nov. sp.—natural size.
_ Pholadomya Quinque-costata (Verch.), nov. sp. natural size.
Terebratula Globata, (Sow.)—natural size.
Rhynchonella Concinna, (Sow.) ?—natural size.
_Terebratula Bodeenensis, (Verch.), sp. vel var. nov.—natural size.
Amygdaloid with gas-vents---natural size.
_ Soolimanite.
Jow XXX VI. Part: IL Pi: 1.
ie :
are adnat del.
’
Jou! XXX V1. Part: U1. Ph: Il.
Lan nes
ted at the Surv™ Gener als Office Calcutta March 1867, J
1
\he
el.
rehire adnat di
:
I].
1 Pane
a
é
oul XXXVI. Part.
i
he Surv® General's Office Calcutta,March 1867.
.
0
YY
¥
. /
wh
5 s
5
fe
ro
ao
7g
: aby
; ra
SSPE
etre tees
NaS cae
i;
i
’
“te een
rehire ad nat del.
TR a ene a a Se. = eee a
Jou XXXVI. Part J.P1-V.
Tt SEP + tke,
read nat del.
Joul XXXVI. Part. Il. PL VL
Printed at the Surv? Gener al’s Office Celeutta March 1867
Joul XXXVI. Part. If. Pl: Vi
f Verchive adnat ae
ene
=|
| aa!
ae
ca
Ay rt
bo wo
aa ras
Fs a.
fa
uy , &
: =
S 3
>< 8
>< 3
a 2
a
° S
Re ” So
<7)
3
a
2
S
o
& o
S fa:
‘ p
ry
ve)
oY)
S
R
>!
®
Pp
a2
pa
w
Sy
co
ro
, w
S
. i? @
: . s}- oe
7. ~~ 2 = %
= —- AR et — Sag ll ig ts ye a
»
.XVI.-Part.
Joni X
ul. PE TX.
*
. Prnted at the Surv? General's Office Calcutta, March , 1867.
\
Verehir adnet das.
Printed at the Surv! General's Office Cal
G
1
4
t
ta March
=)
we
xr: As: Suc: Bengal. Vol MEXVAL. Fr: i.
Tre fn Shells Plate 1.
)
aac
4 SS
rstia. ) crep.aularia,
ie, 1-j2 Neritma reguensis W Elan Pie
: Re gh 7 (Destia } cormucopia, B
B 17719 N. ( Lostia) depress:
/
Jour:As:Sec: Peng
17,
Larina Burmana, W.R).nat. size
; 2-4, Tectura fluviatilis WE). DS » 13,14 drawadia ornata /W.BI De?
4-6, Auricula nitidula , WB ia te » + 4+, Stenothyru momiifera,Bens, D°
[ins + 16, Plecotrema Cumingian'a ,W.Bl. D?
7=J0, Amphibola Burmana,W.B1.
1, Vol: XXXVI. Peli
Srawauv Shells, late Lf.
ai,v
is, ,
o* 16
o &
- ¥
iv)
£ c
a -
y o
> "
Fig Il, 12,
Assiminia rubella, W.Bl enlarged 3 diams
P).XUI
Jour: As: Sou: Bengal, Vol: XXXVI, Pel. Pl. XIV.
Trawady Shells, Plate I.
1
Fig: 1-3, Martesia fluminalis, W. Bl. enlarged? diams. Fig. 7-10, Scaphula delts ,W.B) enlargea 2 dams.
4, Sphenia perversa, Weel. adult) DS = 4, uI=33, S.pimna, Bens, AD Ire
Sees, iD younger, D® i 14-15, S. celox, Bens, 1
”
”
i)
INDEX TO PART IT.
ali Eifaene
— Acanthocladia, sp. ‘ :
Afghan Mountains, geology of,
_ Ajmeer, plains of, z mae
. Alveolites septosé (Flem. )? Fe
Ammonia in Hooghly water, ... ee JB)
_ Ammonites sp. conf. A. Gaytani (Klip.)
_ Amphibola Burmana (W. T. Blanford,) n. sp.
— Anomia sp.
7 (Enigma) anigmatica (Chem. Wii wo
Lawrenciana (de Konn.) _..
Anthozoa, list of fossil, in the Kothair beds (Trias),
_ Aralo-Caspian formation,
Arca (Anomalo-cardia) gr andosa (L Dias
_ Artemis sp..
Assiminia rubella (W. 7. Blanford),
Astarte scalaria vel lamellosa (Roem), ...
Athyris, sp. (Terebratula subtilita, Halls)? ...
Buddista ee h. A
Royssir ?..
Auricula Jude (li),
-- nitidula (W. i Blanford,) 1 n. Sp.
Aviculo-pecten sp.
sp. (A. ovatus, Verchere),
sp. (A. ranus, Verchere),
— —————- circularis, (Verchere), ... sf
dissimalis, (Flem.), et
gibbosus, (Verchere), a
- Testudo, (Verchere),
——— —____.
N
bagh and Manbhoom, E
Baranagar, river water of,.. vat
tank water of,
well water of,
assa latifolia (Roxb.) flowers of, used as food,
—_————
Oolite at Shaikh Bodeen, &c.,
—— Zeawan beds (Carboniferous), .. 216
Antilope bezoartica, and A. Bennettii, Mr. W. 'T. Blanford on, 196
| Bauhinia Wahlii (W. and A.) seeds of, used as food, ...
26-28%
204, 218
Axinus sp. nov. conf. A. obscurus (Sow., A. schizodus, King) 204, 220
Ball, V. Esq. B. A., on jungle products used as food in Hazari-
” 5, $22, 131
Das Index..
Beavan, Captain R. C., contributions towards a history of
Panolia Edi, ee ae ae ze
Belemmtes fossil, at Shaikh Bodeen, 33; . 224,
Bier (Zizyphus Srijuba L) fruit of, used as food,
Blanford, W. T., Esq.,, contributions to Indian 1 Malacology,
- Zoological Notes,. 3
Blacquire’s tank, Calcutta, water of, ee 131;
Bos (Bubalus) buffellus, Mr. W. T. Blanford o OBS ts ee
Bos gaurus and B. pontalis, Ms. WF. Blanford on, i
Brachiopoda, fossil, in Oolite at Shaikh Bodeen, ... be.
- Wean ditto, . Aa Nie.
—-——-———- Zeawan beds, os obs ioe
Bryczoa, fossil, in Oolite at Shaikh ‘Bodeen,
———_——— -—_ ——_——- Zeawan beds, 5
Buffalo, the wild (Bos buffelus) Mr. W. T. Blanford Omy tL nse
Bunnoo, hills of,
Bur (Ficus indica) fruit of, used as food, )
Carboniferous epoch, in Kashmir and Western Himalaya, .
Cardinia sp. (ovalis, Martin? Anthracosia, King?) ... 204,
Cardinia Himalayana (Verchere) n. sp. ? ra se
Central India, volcanic rocks of, 533
Cephalopoda, ‘fossil, in Kothair eds, (Trias), .
Lower Lias of Spiti and Shaikh Bodeen,
Oolite of Shaikh Bodeen, ... eae
Wean beds (Carboniferous), oat Looe
Zeawan ditto,
Ceratites semipartitus (Gaillardot,) ...
-- curvicostatus (Sow.) ? vee see bes
Cerithium (Ver tagus) obeliscus (Born.), Ay. wea oe
Chandernagore, river water of, ... see
Chehur (Bauhinia Valhir) seeds of, used as food, ae
Chione Ceylonensis, (Sow.)
ey
eee ees @ec
Chor peak, Himalayas, probably volcanic, Res be 1.94,
Cidaris Horbesiana (de Konn.) 33% bot —
Circular canal, Calcutta, water of, ... se 28,
Coal, not found in Punjab, Kashinir; or Afghanistan,
Colour, influence of, in modifying the fertility of crosses be-
tween species and varieties, ;
Columbella Ducloziana (Sow. ), oe
Coral Rag of England, rocks in Derajat resembling, CON ae Ly, ae
Coral Reefs, traces of, in Derajat, wa =
Corbula sp.
Cornwallis Square, Tank (« ‘Hadua Pukhar”) water of,
Cretaceous period in Western Himalayas, Kashmir, &c.,
Crustacea, fossil, in Zeawan beds, is
Cuculleca sp.
Cuon rutilans (Pallas), Mr, W. T. Blantord Oa, 0.5
Index, 233
Page
Cynailurus (Felis) jubatus Mr. W. T. Blanford on, ... «.. 191
Cyrena Bengalensis (Lam.),_ . Bis 70
Dalhousie Square Tank (“ Lall Diggi, ) Calcutta, water of,
5, 13, 122, 140, 142
Dentalium herculewm (de Konn.) ... * ancl! ‘wae
Disteichia ? ? (Sharpe), ey 1s apy ip ae
Dodatoli peak, probably voleanic, is . 94, 95
Dog, the wild (Cuon rutilans, Pallas) Mr. W. T. Blanford o on, 191
Echinodermata, fossil, in Kothair beds (Trias), ... ae 222
——_---———- Zeawan beds (Carboniferous,).., ... 214
Hrratic blocks in the Salt Range, me dai 118, 114
Eurypterus?? ... ” vee ise 213
Eschara Asiatica (Verchere) new sp. wag ci el
Felis (Cynailurus) gubatus, Mr. W. T. Blanford APs i a8 191
Fenestella Sykesi (de Konn.) 4. megastoma (de Konn. ) and
F. sp.? «. 204, 214, 215
Ficus indica (Roxb.) and F ‘religiosa (L) fruit Sho used as
food, 77
Flowers used as food in Hazar ibagh and Manbhoom, 81
Food, jungle products used as, in Hazaribagh and Manbhoom,
Mr. V. Ball on, 73
Fossils forwarded by Dr, Verchere, “M. de Vernueil’s note on, 201
Francolinus vulgaris and F. pictus, Mr, W. T. Blanford on
distribution of, .. re 200
Fruits used as food in Hazaribagh and Manbhoom, et gears 79
Fungi ditto ditto, .. 82
Gallus ferrugineus (Gm.) and G. Sonner attit, “My. W. T.
Blanford on, ... pie 199
Gasteropoda, fossil, in Kothair bed (Trias), se io wr BES
a at Shaikh Bodeen, ... 225, 227
— in Zeawan beds (Carboniferous), «ein Zep
_ Gaur, (Bos gawrus) Mr. W. T. Blanford on, ... ses) Sp acit percaenae
Gavialis gangeticus ditto ditto, pai sae) 200
— Gayal (Gos pontalis) ditto ditto, ... eos 192
~ General’s Tank, Calcutta, water of, ne 135, 140, 141
— Geology of Kashmir, the Western Himalayas, and the Aigh: an
mountains, Dr. A. M. Verchere on, ee a 83, 201
Geysers, ... at ale ra ...88, 99
Glaciers of the Himalayas, ip. ah FL
Goniatites curvicostatus (Verchere) n n. oe and G@. Gangeticus
_ (de Konn.) ep ous , ie Bast AMT
_ Granite, how formed, a “is a eciyle-t 85
i Borriwal marsh near ’Bunnoo, 2% ae Ae sear ek
_ Harminea tenera (A. Adams), aoe ves steht ap 63
Hazara, Geology of, sis a 29
Hazaribagh, jungle ‘products used as food i BBs ‘sist ves .
se 73
_ Himalayas, Western,... a ie aN 9, 91, 96
934 Index.
Page
Homochromatic and Heterochromatic Unions, relative fertility 4
of, in Verbascum, oa Se Se ED
Inorganic constituents of the Hooghly water, io ine op
Tron ore of Waziristan, .. ately vans 20
Travadia (W.-T. Blanford,). new genus, I. or nata, ak SH 56
Trawady, estuary shells in the Delta of, W. T. Blanford on, 51
Jungle products used as articles of food in Hazaribagh and
Manbhoom, Mr. V. Ball on, oh 73
Jurassic period i in Kashmir and the West Himalayas a AS Rie
Kailas mountain chain, geology of, a 2 ~ AT; 195
Kaj Nag mountain range, Kashmir, at 84, 85, 92. 99
Karakorum mountain chain, Geology of, AT, 95
Kashmir, Western Himalayas and Afghan mountains, Dr. A.
M. Verchere on the Geology of, aoe 8, 83, 201
Kashmir, Volcanic rocks of, a is x 85
Kishtawar and Badrawar, ... oa ae 95, 82, 94
Koh-i-Baba, mountain range, as ove ise 92
Kothair beds, (Trias) fossils in, ee an ail me
Kuen Luen mountain chain, ae wee 95
“‘ Kullur,” saline efflorescence, . ay a BY aD
Lakes, former, in the Himalayas, iat Seis eee
Lamellibr anchiata, fossil, in the Kothair beds (Trias), - 222
—— Lower Lias of the Punjab
frontier, ay cea ae
CO eed by ear etiesicy Bodeen, cate ee
——_—__ —_——__—_. — —-—.. Wean beds, ... ee el
a vn beds, = Se) ee
Larina.?. Burmana, (W. T. Blanford,) n. sp. ... heete Sees 61
Leaves used as food in Hazaribagh and Manbhoom, oa 81
Leopard, the hunting (felis jubatus) W. T. Blanford iS. Se
Lignite of the Punjab, formation CL See ae. Ie
Teinalus.? Me eA og SA a eee ab
Lion, the, in India, W..t. Bite; one ee ee
Lithostr otion flor iforme (Flem.). Z. tr regulare (Phill.) 205) 2h
Littorina melanostoma ere L. scabra oy ) L. ziczac (Chet ) 55
Loch Katrine, water of, is 123
Macoma ala, (Hanley), wee oe seer ees 69
Macrochelus Avellanoides (de Konn.) ... . can 222
Malacology, Indian, Mr. W. T. Blanford’ 8 contributions to, 51
Man, earliest frees of, in Kashmir, em =, Ti
Maniktollah Well, Calcutta, water of, oie 481, 132
Mari on the Indus, ans oh 101, 114
Martesia fulminalis (W. T. Blanford ms Spe. io pi 67
Marwar, plains of, s 93
_ Masha Brum mountain, geology of, Gath: section) — es Pe 48
Manbhoom, jungle products used as food in,
Maurieune, Savoy, age of rocks in, ... ee soe * 80s 22
a
a
fh
"Hire
Index. 235
Page
McLelland, Dr. J., on Panolia Eldi, ut PRL
Meteorological observations made at the Surveyo or General’s
Office, Calcutta ; ; abstracts. of the, Se spre
Mhawa (Bassa latifolia) flowers of, used as food, ts =a 74
Michelinasp. ... * an ve —216 28
Michelia or Beaumontia? * da «0 BOS
Miocene epoch in. Kashmir and the West Himalayas, aa dope
Modiola emarginata, (Bens.) ... ‘ dat oui 70
Monohur Dass’s Tank, Calcutta, water of, + pot ede toe
Mytilus smaragdinus (Chemn. ) evr 8 eve és 70
Nassa planicosta (A, Adams), ui dat dad tnpat 54
Nautilus clittelarius (Sow.)? .. 217
— Flemingianus (de Konn. es N. Favranus # (Vereh: rs n. °P 208
Neritina cornucopia (Bens.), 59
-- crepidularia (Less.) ... out oh ie 59
- (Dostia) depressa (Bens.) . ah SASS 59
- obtusa (Bens.) ont Ae 59
- Pequensis (W. T. Blanford) n. sp. des sO) ae 58
- Smithii (Gray), oO va NE 59
Nimtollah St. Well, Calcutta, water of, : wor lah 182
Nummulitice epoch 4 in Kashmir and West Himalayas, sehO) 1G
limestone, .. seihD 2 BG, BS
Nyan Chund Dutt’s lane Tank, Calcutta, water 8354 131, 132
oo Bote ,5 Well ditto ditto, ia 13}, 132
Organic matter in Hooghly water, ... a eae re
——_—_ -———. water, modes of estimating, coe aro 206
Orthis resupinata (Martin), O. - ats vk ie! ‘veuew SE
Orthoceras sp. ms wn oy 208, 217
Ostrea sp. duds 72
Ostrea, various species, found at Shaikh Bodeen, osas Py i
Paleozoic epoch in Kashmir and West Himalayas, Poa ee 97
Panolia Eldi (Gray) Captain R. C. Beavan on, ... Heke SIRES
Patagonia, rainfall in, ... eae ay ease TOS
Pecten sp. . 218
Permanganate of Potash as a test for organic matter in water,
Dr. Waldie on, ou at cal Mee HLEZO
Phyllopora oribellum (de Konn.) He 205, 216
Pig, the Indian wild, Mr. W. T. Blanfotds on, HME Lo 295
Pipal (Ficus religiosa) fruit of, used as food, 4% TF
Platanista, Mr. W. T. Blanford on the distribution ‘of, ponies”) ! 98
© Plectotrema Cumming giana (W. T. Blanford,) n. sp. ee 65
< nates (Tympanotonos) alatus, (Phil.) ... aay Ss 55
-eurtpeta (A. Ad.) >... i: Aen DD
(Lelescopium) Pee, ( (Chemn.) at PPL 5D
cits Boliviensis (D’Orb.) or aculeatus, a 208, 213
cora (D’Orb.), ... be vas 202, 206, 212
Bee Oe ccetatue (Sow.);>+ os. ove BOT (2022
236 Index.
Se Fleming (D’Orb.), longispinus, or Frac 202, 208,
Humboltii (D’Orb.), a. a bei yp SOL,
——-—— levis (Davidson), ... bhi Si ;
——-—— Purdonii (Davidson), ... ody oS 202,
. semireticulatus (Martin), ... dee 201,
Punjab, plains of the, ... mo we. 15 BB,
Punjobe (Singhara) nuts, used as ‘food, ri =e a
Purifying Hooghly water, Mr. Clark’s ‘plan for,
Purpura bitubercularis (Lam.) sae al FP
Puthurea Ghat St., Calcutta, Well at, tha Pentre tte
Ram Dhon Ghose’s Tank, Calcutta water of, ... 131,
Retepora lepida (de Konn.), aes
Retzia radialis (Phil.) var. grandicosta (David),
Rhizomys castaneus (Blyth) Mr. W. T. Blanford on, aeV.3
River water, Calcutta, analysis of, us 4,122, 131,
Rock specimens described by Dr. Verchere, ao Be
Roots used as food in Hazaribagh and Manbhoom,
Rotta Roh, mountain range, geology of,
Rucervus Duvaucellii (Gray) Mr. W. T. Blanford on,
Rukshu, geology of, Hee
Sal (Shorea robusta) seeds of, used as s food, wd cia
Saliferian formation, wae eS fe ash Cee,
Salt lakes in Rukshu, bbs se ast
Salt Range, es hee bas oe RES ae
—-- erratic blocks in, . dee ees 11, 31,
a limestone, ... Die see WWitersink
Salt water lake, Calcutta, water of, nae oye wa
Sanguinolaria diphos ve “a 4 ni a ahh
Sauricthys ? = _ soe oa
Scalaria sp. or
Scaphula delte (W. T. Blanford,) n. Spe.
Scott, John, Hsq., on reproductive relations of different varieties
of V erbascum, ame oe
Scrobicularia angulata (Chemn.) dik
Secondary period in Kashmir and West Himalayas,
Seeds used as food in Hazaribagh and Manbhoom,
Ser and Mer mountain chain, ; ea
Sewage water, Calcutta, analysis of, = coe
Sewalik Hills, ae sire vee das ews bien
Shaikh Bodeen Mountain, ry B 14,
Shorea robusta (Roxb.) Sal, seeds of, used as cad =
Silurian Archipelago of Kashmir, section of, set ae
- epoch in Kashmir and West Himalayas, am oe
Singhara nuts, used as food, bi. cae Seay ome
Sirbun Mountain, Abbottabad,.. dat aes ns
Sir-Oba, hot spring of, ... re, oo. seas ame
Solenopsis imbricata, (de Konn.), cn or 204,
Index.
Soolimanite (Verchere), ... ae
Spheronites sp. S. Ryallit (Verchere) n. sp.
Sphenia perversa, (W. T. Blanford,) n. sp.
Spirifer Moosakhelensis (David.) ,
- Rajah (Strachey), * wiv
- Striatus (Martin), ... aes eee
- Vercheri (Vernueil) n. sp. soe
Spirirfera Barussensis (David,)
Spiriferina octoplicata (Sow.) var. transversa (Verch.)
—_- Stracheyii (Salter), ... a
Spiti, ...
Stenothyra monilifera (Benson), a
Streptorhynchus crenistria (Phill.) var. robustus,
Strophalosia ? Arachnoidea (Verch.) un. sp.
Strophonema analoga (Phill.) ?
Sufed Koh (Speen Ghur) mountain range,
———w
Sungnai (Guth. and Blyth) or Sungraéé (Eld),
Sus scropha, the Indian wild pig, Mr. W. T. Blanford on,
Tectura flwwiatilis (W. 'T. Blanford,) n. sp. se.
Terebratula Bodeenensis (Verchere) n. sp.
globata,
sacculus (Martin), ...
subtilita Apia
Ber ado sp. .
Tetracerus quadri icornis Mr. W. T. Blanford on,
Thamyn of Burmah (Panolia Eldi),
Thrapp, in the Salt range, erratic blocks near,
Trapa bispinosa and quadri ispinosa an ) fruit of,
Trochus sp.
Tukht-i- -Sulaimén, Kashmir,
Verbascum phaniceum, characters of,
..92, 96
a
Verbascum, Mr. Scott on the Repr oductive Functional Relations
of several species and varieties of,
Verchere, Dr. A. M., on the Geology of Kashmir, the Western
Himalayas, and the Aighan mountains,
Dr. A. M. Verchere,
Vincularia ‘multangularé is (Portlock),
9, 83, 201
Verneuil, M. Edouard de, note on the fossils forwarded by
.. 205, 215
Waldie, D. Esq., F. C. S., Experimental Investigations « con-
nected with the supply of water to ees
Wandle River, water of, ... Se
Water supply of to Calcutta, Mr. D. Waldie on,
Wean Beds, a
Wells in Calcutta, water of, ae
Waziristan, Mountains of, wasnt ane as
Yengyaing, plain of, . vie re ane
Zeawan, (Limestone) bed, aah ve
Liz yphus jujuba (i.) fruit of, used as s food,
he he, _ iii
a He Rien TOMAR (i
wig or 4 mo wh ye, # et Davie eo re ail Sanit
ke ( " U
SL , . s4~ i chat a4 bet nn eT, bry
y ny ‘ + ods ‘apg o a 7
u Sia r 298 ey ER taal a doen. n mit satsae =! “><
ot) Ak r aie oe ‘e
q wager “ate eu aie seo! wee oe eke Pe .
; 6) ~ Usps? Peigully fee ieee mirtsl pyouge Af Alsat
¥ east ie a ep Teak aT pe
an ae Si «boda ve saree.
“Ve LE Sess emer ee eee wa, sn8 8 Se wt
mh he ame dau ‘ a of ston oth
URE ere eri er ere SY wits
| S aii) , ste . iy ff Pettit Oy ye
ara ¢) A
1 P| a a wae wee i ‘ 1 Ws
2 if i ae , ae oat RGM
ha ee si ; fe pe ‘ >
5 ly, ; < 7 ae, or a : 7 { or h z ete (tf < tay eith, iplta
ee pe! ah ae Al Nee a ae : i
Pa sans QR Brot jal tL. 0 ea BA ae, ie pi
; ae : i . pr : =e bi ae | 2 i As
m MP ie ty) eco ha (itn he li Pena
. 7 k: , 5 ‘ i»
* oye . ++ Ae a ‘ i
) r ‘
a a0? sie Wl the eee a gan i 4 s: K''®
i eT : P ne ;
, wine ee see eee \ Chri } *
i ; ally CM a fe a aie! es iw ef } aya
¢ ~
fe, ev alee i A a . 7
q ve i ey ;
ait ine re elt ieee? i awe ¢ iff o) rebel iss
: cyl ons 9 ( iy) =e) OR %. } ett
ay yt | : ] these: a Ty ae Pi at
Ay SEL CAROME ) EDR Daa j bat by" rt
t j N Mt
y a ean ene - « }
a : i Ar Pate ; it
= ; ¥, ‘
: te ‘ ba
1 \ ) f i t
pie & } w ey Sees i "’ f i,
\ ae | = I,
fs a r
bh f ‘ j ru} aa ‘ ; ir ?
j a
ety hee 4 \ 4 ' ; ‘
\ * om, i ’ — e fi
Ce) See % i ih my | i 5
4
iy / > )
7 i | 7 f f
ry . | rh, mee | ae eae D
+ ” ;
= Bins i nif ]
h beat i ' rts Me {
1 : : exe
5 ’ 4 f ! 4
may ‘ i, ; ; yy i ai) tk ‘ ish
oh
LY i ee ae ’ ’ ' tt
" A ta i *
Ali oh > i , t
het Mls ay rota tu} Nebie ¥ d ea
1 -
“| il } 4 = ee Wa
et he - Loe= 1d 7 ‘0 rota aa 4
' vi) > }
i i Ww .
: v $e ae
A oa i reel. thal ee aay ue sats 7m Atte
‘ f . ‘4 rely a
any, phen ak oa, alidal ¥e ree Ie aiadoula a
; " re ce “f; ——s » } Ps J
if, | . 7 Pca ae
4 yo wae { feral n ene we Cee ae i uy
Bl : : 1 i re % t
. ' ‘ a r i be i
a ’ ual ;
m ‘ ae Wa 4 oe A Crank Cisse
- | a rt Sain iA p
‘ Chay t Oe Toe PST hse vB sii
ae - ' r’
‘ Ci
el Aa) Bi etepeal® ad eae mere f A .
. ye a= jhAt
‘ ; die HN See)
& , { a .
5 a
¥ o ¥
. ant ee
A,
4 » a
\ a) *
i
. Ms '
? P| { 7 Vg y ' x : i
ERRATA in Dr. Verchere’s Paper on the Geology of Kashmir and
the Western Himalayas.
(Only those errors which change the meaning of a sentence, or
- render the name of a locality or fossil impossible to recognize, have
been noticed here.)
Page Line
92 9
100 8
101 1
103 20
103° last
120 :
133 10
162 12
169 23
174 2
185 33 & 37
186,1,9,12Ge.
PART II. 1866.
For
fossil
quartz like rock crystals
map
(Sect G).
intricated
Insert after igneous
rocks
sp. nora
Pl. VIII.
Fig. 3.
very similar to
Arkbal
Arkbal
PART II. 1867.
For
Aksai chain
Crossing
See Pl. IX.
Boliricutes
a Neimas
Zena
dirty
The
salpetre, of soda,
Russian
disposition
Charpentin
Sketches
elastic
Tummoo
of
vales
Verziristan
Read
theories.
quartz and rock crystals.
mass.
The section is not given,
imbricated,
and sedimentary rocks,
Sp. nova,
PLsVI.
Fig. 2.
viz. the.
Archibal.
Archibal,
Read
Aksai chin.
Cropping.
Plate not given.
Boliviensis.
a Nérinees.
Jura.
cherty.
No
omit round.
sulphate of soda,
Prussian.
deposition.
Charpentier.
Selections.
volcanic.
Jummoo,
LO;
oases.
Waziristan.
24 0
Page Tine
91 26
93 5
93 D5
95 10
101 34
105 25
106 29
114 i
114 3
114 18
201 y
203 15
203 25
203 29
204 43
204 20
205 17
206 _— last
207 13
214 28
214 28
215 5
215 19
219 19
219 oT
220 1
222 30
929, of
229 34
22,7 21,22, 24
298 30,31, 82
229 28
Errata.
For
the other N. W.—S. E.
lignite
N. W.—N. W.
long
anticlinal dip, which
salt
cows, of :
Munee Range
averted.
(not vertical)
Faire
sp. hova)
Pl. VIIL. fig. 62 & 63
Verneuil
Tenestella
Aviculo Pect Ranus
b
b
Tsastroea
Read
the other N. E.—S. W.
sienite,
N. W.—N. E.
large.
anticlinal dips which
silt.
bones. of
Murree Range.
arrested.
(now vertical).
Favre.
add P1.II. fig. 2,
add Pl. II. fig. 1
add Pl. II. fig. 3
add Pl I. fig. a
nas PL VEE “fig.
. nova). -«
Pi. VILL. fig.5 & 6 & PL.
IX. fig. 1
Vernewillt.
Fenestella.
Omit Pl. IV. bis fig. 1,
a, b, c, d,
Omit Pl. iv. bis fig. 2,
ad, be:
Omit Pl. TY. bis fig. 3,
a,b, e, a:
Aviculo Pecten Planus.
(1a).
(2a).
add Pl. VIII. fig. 2.
add Pl. VII fig. 3.
add Pl. VIII. fig. 4, &
. 4a.
LIsastroa.
Omit Fenestella Sykesii.
,, Henestella megastoma.
», Vincularia Multangu-
laris
add Pl, X.
& 2b.
la.
3a
&
Qa
&
& Ba.
13 & 16.
3,
PL LOEL_PLPLOOOOOOOOLOOOLOLO_EOE__EO_E_ EEO
Meteorological Observations. 1
. ; |
| Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
‘ taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
: on the month of January 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
<5 2
2 g Range of the Barometer | @# (Range of the Tempera-
Bee during the day. as ture during the day.
“D rey e4 g
Date. om & Q A :
soo | Max. | Min. | Dif. | $3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.
Si » @ | = —
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) ) Co) )
Z 30.047 | 30.106 | 29.999 0.107 68.1 78.9 ag.6| 19.1
2 103 167 | 30.060 107 68.6 78.4 60.0 , 18.4
3 -130 195 068 127 69.3 79.8 61.3 | 18.5
4, 129 .209 O30 129 68.8 78.2 60.6.| 17.6
5 122 .198 060 .138 68.3 77.9 60.2 | 17.7
6 -O85 159 035 124 69.8 79.5 GELS | ly.7
7 063 4d O10 A3L 70.3 80.2 62.4 | 17.8
8 29.997 075 | 29.950 125 67.2 73.0 63.6 9.4
9 30-039 LT .969 148 68.2 74.0 64.0 | 10.0
10 134 .209 | 30.074 136 67.0 75.6 59.0 | 16.6
11 +154 .248 O85 .163 66.3 75.0 58.0 | 17.0
12 O90 158 .020 138 65.0 72.6 58.4 | 14.2
13 “O32 104 | 29.959 145 65.1 74.0 58.0 | 16.0
14 O12 | ~— .089 958 131 65.9 75.0 57.6 | 17.4
15 033 103 O07 126 68.3 79.2 58.2 | 21.0
16 O13 088 952 136 70.7 80.5 64.2 | 16.3
17 013 O91 964 127 70.8 79.8 63.4 | 16.4
18 O19 137 .993 144. 69.3 78.6 60.8 | 17.8
19 O77 144 | 30.016 128 70.1 80.0 63.0 | 17.0
20 O47 130 | 29.971 59 69.6 80.7 60.2 | 20.5
21 -O06 087 945 142 71.9 82.4: 65.8 | 16.6
— 22 29.994, .069 924) .145 72.2 83.2 63.0 | 20.2
23 994 .033 886 | .147 74.3 82.8 67.0 | 15.8
24 -938 OLE .8389 122 74.9 83.0 69.0 | 14.0
25 958 .O40 .910 130 75.4 83.2 70.4} 12.8
; 26 30-043 114 961 153 70.8 76.2 66.6 | ° 9.6
27 073 .153 | 30.021 132 66.2 75.2 59.0 | 16.2
28 O81 .163 .027 136 64.3 74.4 55.2 | 19.2
29 036 108 | 29.975 133 65.7 AO) 56.0 | 21.0
— 30 035 | ° .127 .968 .159 67.9 79.5 57.6 | 21.9
31 004 .L03 ‘G42 > | 16H 70.2 81.3 60.2 | 21.1
——
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
* comme abet Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
the day.
il Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
an the month of January 1867. |
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
~
a = 3 e S 5s SS a] om.
Boop 2a A 2 a8 jones | ose
fe 4 o 23 > °o wee |. =|
- > = cot ‘O'S eR la
fe 5 E 5 = = Sa | O28 oo
Date.| © 2 "s eS: ii ze “ah 2 ae | - Bs
se)2)3l4.| ds | 28 ees |be
P22) | 6s | 83 | ES | see) so8
a5 Sl 5 as Ba 58 = as fc)
oA ay 5 toon! SF Cs Se S SoH
a A};o}A = aden a
oO ce) Oo ) Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr.
1 62.7 5.4 | 58.4 Lad 0.496 5.47 2.08 0.73
2 63.4 5.2 | 59.2 9.4 509 63 O4, 73
3 63.5 5.8 | 58.9 10.4 504 6 27 71
4 62.8 6.3 | 57.5 11.3 481 ol AO 69
5 * 62.6 5.7 | 58.0 10.3 489 40 20 71
6 64.3 §. | 59.9 9.9 521 13 22 72
7 65.3 5.0 | 61.3 9.0 546 6.01 07 74
8 64.8 2.4 | 62.9 4.3 576 08 0.97 87
=) 64.9 3.3 | 62.3 5.9 565 23 1°35 82
10 62.1 4.9 | 58.2 8.8 493 5.45 85 75
11 60.3 6.0 | 55.5 10.8 450 4.99 2.16 70
12 58.7 6.3 | 53.7 11.3 423 by | 16 69
13 58.9 6.2 | 53.9 Uh Py) 426 74 15 69
44 59.9 6.0 | 55.1 10.8 444, 93 13 70
165 63.7 4.6 | 60.0 8.3 523 5.78 1.82 76
16 65.5 §.2 | 61.3 9.4 046 6.01 2.17 74
$7 63.1 Zl i Spo 13.9 472 5.17 3.03 63
18 60.9 8.4 | 54.2 lat 431 4.74 09 61
19 63.1 7.0 | 57.5 12.6 A481 5.29 2.74 66
20 62.4 7.2 | 56.6 13.0 467 14 76 63
21 66.7 5.2 | 62.5 9.4 568 6.24 24 74
22 64.6 7.6 | 58.5} 13.7 498 5.44 3.11 64
23 69.4 4.9 | 66.0 8.3 638 6.97 2.15 76
24 6 3.3 | 69.3 5.6 ye 7.74 1.54 83
25 70.2 5.2 | 66.6 8.8 651 08 2.35 75
26 63.0 7.8 | 56.8 14.0 470 5.16 3.04 63
27 58.3 439\.); 62.0 14.2 400 4.43 2.69 62
28 56.9 7.4 | 50.2 14.1 376 19 3 62
29 58.5 7.2 | 52.7 13.0: 409 00 47 65
30 60.2 7.7 | 54.0 13.9 428 A2 Jo .63
dl | 63.0 7.2 | 67.2 13.0 476 5.23 82 65 @
| |
“All the H ygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological Observations. ill
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Caleutta,
on the month of January 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
+
| 68 Range of the Barometer
28; for each hour during
. Pe = the month.
Hour. = Eo.
: ee ® | Max. | Min. | Dif
as
]
! Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
30.158 | 29.937 | 0.221
151 922 .229
142 913 .229
134 -906 .228
.126 .899 227
146 -912 234
.169 928 .241
194, 943 .251
225 -968 .257
248 -989 .259
.241 | 30.011 .230
217 | 29.990 227
173 -969 204
134 945 .189
.110 -910 -200
093 .893 -200
088 -886 -202
.103 .889 .214
126 911 215
134 -920 214
.163 940 .223
.166 -949 217
173 961 212
‘l62| 951] .211
=. | Range of the Tempera-
es ture for each hour
2 during the month.
LS eae a gue
a ye
$= Max. | Min. | Diff.
| |
) o 0 0
65.6 73.0 59.4 | 13.6
65.0 72.5 58.6 | 13.9
64.3 72.2 | 58.0/| 14.2
63.7 71.8 57.4 | 14.4
63.2 rig 57.0 | 14.7
12.6 71.6 56.6 | 15.0
62.0 71.2 56.2 | 15.0
61.6 70.5 55.2 | 16.3
63.6 70.4 58.0 | 12.4
67.1 72.4 61.2 | 11.2
70.4 75.5 66.1 9.4
73.2 78.0 65.8 | 12.2
75.3 80.0 67.9 | 12.1
76.6 | 81.4 | 68.0 | 13.4
eid 82.9 a).8>}, 1b2
78.3 83.2 72.6 | 10.6
76.7 81.8 71.4 | 10.4
75.2 $1.0 70.0 | 11.0
72.8 79.0 68.0 | 11.0
70.8 78.2 | 66.2 | 12.0
69.4 76.4 63.4 | 13.0
68.3 75.4 | 62.8 | 12.6
67.3 74.4 61.8 | 12.6
66.4 73.6 61.0 | 12.6
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the month. |
A
Zz
iV Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
om the month of January 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)
1g
ra a +5 ce Be See. 8-2 s
E ey x Ad | "8 | Be
a Be) ga) te z pS eee eS
oS ~ = S Bee “Oe et eS oe
ee |) ee) 8 |
Hour. i 2 3 3 = a "eh © = 2 a | a be
ES | 3) 25| 3. 184 | eo eee
as 5 | Ag a ata ey tye ee
a 5 by = ae a & ac |oes | sig
= S| > S RAY > {a | SPS | gos
= ‘<fee Reni = = = aie cea aa
Co) ty) ) Oo Inches..| -T. gro) Tage
Mid-
night.| 62.0 3.6 | 59.1 6.5 | 0.508 5.63 1.37. | 0.80
1 61.5 3.5 | 58.7 6.3 501 5 30 81
2 61.1 3.2 | 58.2 6.1 493 AS 24, 82
3 60.6 3.1| 57.8 5.9 486 41. 18 82
4 60.3 2.9 | 57.7 5.5 485 39 10 83
5 59.8 2.8 | 57.3 5.3 478 34 03 84
6 59.5 0.5i| (B79 4.8 476 32° Ges 85 &
7 59.2 2.4 | 57.0 4.6 473 29 .88 86
8 60.4 3.2 | 57.5 6.1 481 36 1.21 82
9 62.1 5.0 | 58.1 9.0-| .491 43 .89 74
10 Bis 3637 6.7 | 58.3 | 12.1 404 43 2.67 67
11 64.7 8.51) 57:99 | 15.3 488 33 3.49 60
Noon.| 65.3 | 10.0] 58.3} 17.0 A094 37 4.03 57
1 65.7 | 10.9| 58.1] 18.5 AOL 32 5 55
9 65.9 | 11.8 | 57.6 | 20.1 483 22 .88 52
3 65.9 ‘ata! B72" | ote A76 14 | 5.14 50
4 65.4. | 11.3] 57.5 | ~ 19.2 481 92 | 4.58 53
5 65.4, 9.8] 58.5 | 16.7 498 4] 3.96 58
6 65.7 7.11 60.0] 12.8 523 72 2.99 66
7 65.3 5.5 | 60.9 9.9 539 .92 28 72
8 64.5 4.9 | 60.6 8.8 534. 87 1.99 75
9 63.7 4.6 | 60.0 8.3 523 78 .82 76
10 63.2 4.1 | 59.9 7.4 521 TT 60 78
11 62.7 8.7 | 59.7 6.7 518 74 43 80
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. —
Meteorological Observations. v
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
; taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta;
in the month of January 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
Max. Solar
radiation.
119°0
139.0
130.4
129.2
135.0
136.0
142.0
137.0
136.0
137.0
137.0
139.4
yfoggyat6to7 P.M.
Slightly fogey
seatd. \_i to 6
BS: sd | 2.8
eS 5 _ Prevailing Py
& ~ =| direction of the ‘4, | General aspect of the Sky.
ee. a8
Inches | lb
Su8 We &:S8. S. E. Clear.
BSW is& N. H. Clear. Foggy from 8 to 11 p. Mm.
N.N. E. & E. Clear. Boggy from 7 to 11 P.M.
E. N. E. & N. by W. Clear. Slight]
Dr W 2 ei, NE. Chieliy clear.
from 8 toll Pp. M.
S. by E. & 8. W. Clear. Slightly foggy from mid-
night to 9 a. M.
S. by E. & S. Clear to 11] a. m.,
p. M., clear afterwards. Foggy
from 5 to 8 a. m. Lightning to
W. at ll Pp. m.
0.48 IN. by W.&N.N. E. Overcast to noon, scatd. \Wi to
N. by W. & N. E.
N. N.E. & W.N.W.
BY. de Be OT. We
N.N.W.& W.byN.
W. by N.
W.
& W.
& W. Re W.
SW.
S5.W.& N. W.
W.&N.. W.
N. by W.&W. by S.
N.W. &S. by W.
W. by S. & N.W.
N. W. & variable.
6p. M., clear afterwards. Rain
at 3,4,&74.M., foggy at 7
& 8 Pp. M.
Overcast to 8 a. m., scattered
clouds to 5 p. M, clear after-
wards. Foggy from 7 to 11 P.
M.
Clearto 104. mM, scatd. “ito 3
p. M, Clear afterwards. Slight-
ly foggy at midnight & 1 a.m.
Chiefly clear.
Clear.
Clear. Foggy from 9 to 11 p. Mm.
Clear. Foggy from midnight to
4a. M.
Chiefly clear. Foggy from 5 to 7
A. M.
Clear to 9 4. m. seatd. \ito5
p. M, Clear afterwards. Foggy
from 4 to 9 a. mM. & from 7 to
1] Pp. M.
Ciear. Slightly foggy from mid-
pee to 64. mu & trom 8 to 11
Chief y “clear. Slightly foggy at
7&8P.M.
Clouds of different kinds to 6 Pp.
M, clear aiterwards. Foggy
from 4 to 8 a. M.
Clear.
Clear to 44. mM, seatd. \Wito 11
A. M., clear afterwards.
v1
Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of January 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &ce.
Max. Solar
radiation.
Date.
bo
tw
ee
Eo
°
23 | 137.0
24 | 140.0
25 | 141.0
26 | 123.0
27 | 134.0
28 | 144.0
29 | 136.0
30 | 138.0
31 | 138.0
e
=
o aa 2S
Soames] Prevailing 2 iS
Ss @ = . .
ob a5 direction of the | Hr
al (5 é ae)
Bad Wind. 2
Pa B
=
=)
Se:
ee
©
RM
N. by E. & variable.
W. by S.
S.&8. W. & E.
0.01 |N.N. W.& variable.
0.06 |N. E. & E. by S
N.N.W.&N. W.
N.N. W. & N. W
N.W.& N.N. W
N.W. & N.N.W
S. by W. & variable
.
. .
r
. .
General aspect of the Sky.
Clear to noon, scattd. clouds
afterwards, Lightning to S.
W. at 8 p.m. Slight rain at 33
P. M.
Clear. Foggy at 7 a.m. & at9&
Op. M.
Clear to 9 a. m, scattd. clouds
afterwards. Slightly foggy
from 1 to9a.m.& at 8&9
P. M.
Light clouds to 8 a. M. \i to
6 p.m. Light clouds after-
wards. Foggy from 1 to 3 a.
M. Thin rain at 4&5 a. M.
Light clouds to 1p. m, clear af-
terwards, Rain at 1 Pp. mM.
Clear. Foggy at 10 & 11 P. M.
lear.
Clear. Slightly foggy at 11 P.M.
lear.
Clear to3 a. M., \Witol P. M.,
clear afterwards.
v
eee
Mi Cirri, —i Strati,>i
i Cirvro.eumuli.__.._
Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,—i Nimbi,
eee Loe |
Meteorological Observations. vii
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the
month of January 1867.
Monrtuty Rest tts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 30.048
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. a. on the 11th ... 30.248
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 Pp. mM. on the 23rd _—..._ 29.886
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month i ... 0.362
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures _... eh ph »«. 80,126
Ditto ditto Min. ditto , re ... 29.989
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... w. 0.136
oO
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month ~~), 69.0
Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 1st 22nd & 25th =... 83.2
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 28th is i- | ee
Extreme range of the Temperature oe the month we be: s) Jane
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. aes ix +o,
Ditto ditto Min. itto, ” $f 36Ts
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. ote 4 LF
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... 63.1
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 5.9
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month ra 58.4
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 10.6
akow
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., as aia”, 0-496
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month us ww. 5.46
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.30
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.70
Inches.
Rained 4 days,—Max. fall of rain eons 24 hours pe Pe 0.48
Total amount of rain during the month f 0.55
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month __, ap 0.53
Prevailing direction of the Wind... ... N.W.&N. “by W.
Viil
‘ULTS.
SS
c
I ee
icular wind was blowing, it rained.
3
is
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Jan. 1867.
eS
ae
by
i
2
ia)
2B
aK)
se
=
D
®
wD
S
Los)
3
oS
S
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorol
articular wind blew, together with the number of days on
v
en hour any
Tables shewing the number of days on which at a giv
jw Aas
which at the same hour, when any part
“HO WI y|
“MAqNI
Wo wre yy
Meteorological Observations.
A NRT NAA TM SMM MARNTAUMATWTON MD
“MNUN
“UO ULesT
SHAHN Aid w ANNAN TATMMNANN
1
~
= =
Se
m0 co) Urey
‘MN M
I MN NS AN MWTWMmRORDSOWOr-OM
N 4 AON 4
Pee ice
“N AQ" AA
|
AN Ae RANA ANS NAA
i
“UO UTC EY
“MM!
NNANNAANNA NAN STRANI MNAMNA TRA TAA
"UO ULE sy
ooo] ee | NANN MO MAN
ANAN
AN AN
DNNANNANTRANAN See Ses
“M'S ‘S|
ANS aa Sam NMN MM
"UO UleyT|
8 es ee
| mo ure,
eee ae
4 UO Uley
MESES
ANA it
1-0 WLR yy
|-H 'S S|
uo Urey,
ea)
FO ures] |
ome
;UO ULB YY)
= Ce oe OO
ig Aq or
A UO UtBYy
y uM
ve
I
Uo WLeyy
pal ON
;°tO Urey
wal
‘moO Tle
Kl “NI "N
“UO Uley
aN N
re ao
NO rc ro <i SoM N rs mNA RA eS eel
inott
HO Hin1wiNOrnNAAAaAMAN ee
fat Aq oN
; WO Wey
“AT
“AMO F,
ANN ANNAN R ARS AS
Lime
ANAS aaa NO oS
eS
Meteorological Observations. ix
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
. taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
; in the month of February 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
——— ee ——— a ae ae
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
a /
fe § _ | Range of the Barometer = # (Range of the Tempera-
gee during the day. a ture during the day.
a 5 3 a
Date.| = 3 4 | . 5 |
ge | Max. | Min. | Dif. | 22 | Max. | Min. | Diff
i ' { | { ar
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) | ) ) te)
1 29.995 | 30.063 | 29.934 0.129 719 | 80.2 64.8 | 15.4
2 30.035 098 983 115 69.3 78.0 61.4 , 16.6
3 039} .121| .978| .143| 68.9 | 80.0 | 55.8 | 242
4 .040 118 .989 129 70.1 81.0 60.4 | 20.6
5 -003 .109 -909 .200 71.6 83.4 60.8 | 22.6
6 29.955 OAL 902 139 69.2 75.6 64.0 | 11.6
7 .982 .058 932 126 69.5 | 76.8 64.0 | 12.8
8 30.006 085 965 120 | 69.2 78.6 60.4 | 18.2
9 O10 O91 -966 125 71.2 80.6 62.6 | 18.0
10 29.962 043 884 159 73.6 82.4: 67.6 | 14.8
11 two | 29:979 864 115 75.5 84.6 70.0 | 14.6
12 897 977 848 129 | 74.4 83.8 | 66.0 | 17.8
13 .848 .908 773 135 75.3 81.6 71.2 | 10.4
=«+(14 970 | 30.063 .888 175 74.2 83.0 68.0 | 15.0
15 30.009 O96 952 144, 71.3 81.6 62.2 | 19.4
16 29.963 052 889 “163 70.4 79.8 60.8 | 19.0
17 921 003 856 147 71.3 82.0 60.2 | 21.8
18 918 | 29.995 867 128 73.2 | 84.8 63.0 | 21.8
19 922 998 .866 132, 76.2 | 866 | 69.0 | 17.6
20 897 964 815 .149 78.8 83.4 72.8 | 15.6
21 .927 | 30.020 .859 161 76.4 83.6 wa.8-| 11.8
22 -985 .066 .940 126 72.4 81.8 63.2 | 18.6
23 .968 O47 .889 158 73.2 84.4 64.6 | 19.8
624 .989 .055 928 127 74.0 82.8 67.4 | 15.4
25 | 30.027 .105 .962 143 | 74.2 84.0 | 65.0 | 19.0
26 29.973 .050 893 157 76.2 87.4 68.4 | 19.0
27 .940 022 891 131 78.3 88.6 70.2 | 18.4
28 945 .023 871 152 78.1 88.4, 69.2 | 19.2
__ The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
: ee ometer Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
the day. ;
x | Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor Geueral’s Office, Calcutta,
au the month of February 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—/( Continued.)
‘ - ° — Ss . we oes ge
Bled | eo) Sahehet ts
Sd ee es | EO ee ea
it © : > & G4 42 ‘mo Sa
e = E 3 °° Sry So} See
FQ S S = 2 ee + Eee oe
Dabe. '' “aye re A . ae "eb. © | ee a ih et as
— 2 eS o a Cr SHS | poe
es | 2) 8°| 84 -| Ss | ES eee =e
chai aa oF ae rea] ay 2 a 33 =| q es
Ss bs = | bony ees oS 4, | eS eres
= 3 © A = BY ne
ea | A CO | A = = < =
cn | oO oO o | Inches.) Togr. | Tage
1 | - 66.4 5.5 | 62.0 9.9 | 0.559 | 6.13 2.35 0.72
2 60.4, 8.91 53.3 16.0 | A18 4.61 3.22 59
3 | 60.9 8.0 | 54.5 | 14.4 435 80 2.94 62
A) | 62:8 734 57.0 | 184 AT3 5.20 .83 65
5 | 643 7.3 S95 |) 434. | Sates 45 95 65
6 | 64.9 4.3) Ghd | 279 | |. ee Sie 1.75 78
7 65.0 | 4.5 | 614 | 482 | 248 | Lae BA oy
8 | 63.7 5.6 | 508.1 | 2001) dent 1 eas 2.18 72
9 | 65.6 5.6 | 61.1) 10.1 543 .96 "B34, 72,
10 68.6 5.0 | 65.1 8.5 619 | 6.77 16 76
1) 69.4 6.1) 65.1] 10.4 .619 75 cil wal
12 67.2 7.2| 62.2! 122 563 14, 3.01 67
13 71.9 3.41 69.5 5.8 es | 8 1.61 83
$4 0.659 8.5 | 597 | 145 | 18 5.65 3.44 62
he 1 162.0 9.3 | 54.6 |. 16.7 | 437 | 4.79 5A 58
16 | 60.9 05 1 Sees (oP bes ~) eee 50 b7
14 (| B16 OF | 5385) CMR | 2485 66 67 56
73 © 64.8 6A)! 6S | 154 | 2 ol eee 46 61
19 71.6 4.6 | 684) 978 | .690 | 7.50 2.16 78
20 73.4, 5A] 696. |. #020) 7 Grey: | | Rage .68 Th
D1 69.5 6.9 | 64.7} 11.7 | > 611 | 664 3.08 .68
29:1 0.68.1 | 10:3) 639 |. 185 1 ee |: key 93 5A
23) i w466.2 7.0 | 60.6} 12.6 | .5384 | 5.82 .00 .66
24 | 65.8 6.2 iGO.) 980. | ieee. ee 31 63
a5 | & 64.7 O51) 580 | Fee | sage 33 76 59
26 | 5:9) 66.2 | 10.0 | | .642 |.) 6.98 2.68 739
27 || 638.8 O41) 62.31 7-160) 41 tees at 4.17 59
28 iL 67:6 | 10S 15602) "179 | 527 570. | pe 56
| ; | |
| | | |
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological. Observations. xi
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly. Meteorological Observations
| taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
am the month of February 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
OR Range of the Barometer | a. ‘Range of the Tempera-
ae for each hour during | mS ture for each hour
-) : = the month. 3 during the month.
o
4nd HO 2.
| Hour. = Be | ag | |
ASN | op 5 - | 1:
ghee | Max. | Min. | Diff. ee Max. | Min. | Diff.
i —
‘ ad | = |
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. |
:.
ae |
]
:
:
°
=)
So
°
:
night.| 29.969 | 30.047 | 29.863 | 0.184 69.1 74.8 | 64.7 | 10.1
z 961 033 858 175 68.7 75.0 63.4 | 11.6
2 951 027 846 A8L 68.1 74.6 62.8 | 11.8
3 943 025 834 191 67.4 74.0 62.4 | 11.6
A .937 023 823 200 | 66.7 73.2 60.0 | 13.2
5 948 .030 832 198 66.1 72.8 59.6 | 13.2
6. 964, 050 840 .210 65.6 73.0 59.2 | 13.8
7 984. 068 854) .214 65.4 72.8 55.8 | 17.0
—~8 30.007 .O87 878 .209 67.9 75.5 61.4 | 14.1
9 033 a8 905 213 71.2 78.6 65.5 | 13.1
10 O44 121 908 .213 74.6 81.2 66.0 | 15.2
11 033 108 896 .212 77.4 84.1 69.8 | 14.3
Noon. 006 078 .869 .209 79.5 | 85.4) 72.0, | 12.8
m1 29.974 .048 .836 .212 81.1 87.6 va.) 13.8
2 944 020 -809 ah 81.8 88.4 75.6 | 12.8
3 922 | 29.999 785 214 82.5 88.4 44.7 | 13.7
A. 911 | 30.000 13 227 81.9 88.6 74.2 | 14.4
5 il |, 29.998 795 .203 80.6 87.8 74.0 | 13.8
6 .920 993 .818 175 77.6 83.5 72.0 | 11.5
7 .932 | 30.008 826 .182 75.2 81.0 70.8 | 10.2
8 954 035 855 .180 73.5 79.0 69.2 9.8
9 .970 055 871 184 72.3 78.0 68.4 9.6
10 980 067 874 193 Gia 7G:7 67.4 9.3
Al 974, 055 873 182 _ 70.2 75.8 66.2 9.6
{
The Mean Height of the. Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
‘ Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the month.
xi Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
im the month of February 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
‘ : | S| ee | an ee
H 45 ed ae ra) i 6-6. Bs
s ae calles 3 pad | eee 4 ee
Be | a) | Be ES Gees
cS : 2 S Se | SHE | Soe
E Se al te =~ ss |eeel cea
Hour. Fa = A = ts a os oz
2 2 = 2 a. S58 | eg | wea F
|EFei28 |. 6°02. | Be | eS see
Pee | @ | E| 88) ge | go |eee| gee §
= “a = 3 = mPa .
oO = Ps = Ps OS D S van 7s oS ® ° 7
| = 2 E04 = £8 TH 5 oS @
| qi A};o] A = a ee = |
|
o ) 0) oo) Inches. | Tyrie, “Tee ;
Mid-
night.| 65.1 4.0 | 61.9 7.2 0.557 6.14 1.64 0.794
E 64.7 4.0 | 61.5 hie 550 .07 .62 79
2 64.3 3.8 | 61.3 6.8 546 03 52 80
3 63.8 3.6 | 60.9 6.5 539 5.96 43 81
4, 63.4 3.3 | 60.8 5.9 537 95 .28 82
5) 63.0 5.11) O0eo 5.6 532 .90 .20 83
6 62.6 3.0 | 60.2 5.4 527 .85 mE ) 84
7 62.5 2.9 | 60.2 5.2 527 85 .LO 84
8 63.8 4.1 | 60.5 74 532 .89 .62 78
9 65.1 6.1 |} 602 11.0 527 18 2.52 70
10 66.0 8.6 | 60.0 14.6 523 69 3.51 62
Jin 67.0 10.4 | 59.7 177 518 61 4.40 56
Noon.| 67.5 12.0 | 59.1 20.4 508 AB 5.18 51
i 68.1 13.0 | 59.0 22.1 506 AA 13 49
2 68.3 13.5 | 58.8 23.0 503 9 6.01 47
3 68.3 14.2 | 58.4 24.1 496 ol 30 46
4A 68.4 13.5 | 58.9 23.0 504 Al .03 47
5 68.1 12.5 | 59.3 21.3 511 50 5.51 50
6 68.2 9.4 | 61.6 16.0 552 97 4.10 59
if 68.1 Pele, Beal 12.1 580 6.31 3.06 67
8 67.3 6.2 | 63.0 10.5 578 ol 2.59 71
{ 66.8 5.5 | 62.4 9.9 567 .20 08 72
10 66.3 4.8 | 62.5 8.6 568 24 04 75
it 65.8 4.4, | 62.3 7.9 565 21 1.84 77
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
P K/
:,
i.
Meteorological Observations.
Xi
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
an the month of February 1867,
Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.
Max. Solar
radiation.
127.5
123.5
120.0
0.58
0.12
Prevailing
direction of the
Wind.
. & variable.
SN ha N. W.
K. by N.
K. N. E. & variable.
S. 8S. E. & variable.
N.N.W.&N. W.
WN. AW: & NE.
S. & W.S. W.
NNE.&NE&N.byE.
ee Ei de WN. WW
W.N.W & variable.
Z
= a
Max. Pres-
isure of Wind.
|
o
General aspect of the Sky.
Chiefly clear.
Clear.
Clear.
Clear.
Clear.
Clear to 5 a. mM. Scattered Wi
to 5 p. mM. Overcast after-
wards. Lightning at 9 & 10
p. M. Thunder at 10 Pp. m.
Rain at 85 a.m.73& 10P. m.
Seattered clouds to Noon.
Clear afterwards.
Clear. Slightly foggy at7 & 8
P. M.
Clear.
Scatd. \i & \-i to 5 a. M., scat-
tered \Wi to 4 P.M, clear
afterwards.
Clear to 5 a. Mm. Thin clouds to
8 a. M., clear afterwards.
Slightly foggy at 8 & 9 P.M.
Clear. Slightly foggy at 7 & 8
Clear. to 44. mM. Seatd. ~i to 8
p.M., Clear afterwards. Foggy
at6& 7 a. M.
Clear to 5 a. M., seattered i
to 9 a. M., clear afterwards.
Clear. Slightly foggy from 8 to
Ph pe,
Clear.
Clear.
Clear.
Clear to 4.4. mM. Thin clouds to
8 a.M., scatd. “ito 4. P. M.
Clear afterwards. Foggy from
6to 9a. M.
Clear to 3 a. M., scattered “i
afterwards. Lightning at 7 &
10 p.m. Thunder at 10 P.M.
Rain at 103 P. mM.
\ni to 10 a. m. clear afterwards
Clear. Slightly foggy at 9 & 10
P. M.
Slightly foggy at 7 p.m.
XIV Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
an the month of February 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather. &c.
ee ay [ere
Se ese Prevailing | oe
Mo i|sea ; ; ie
61 aie =| direction of the ae | General aspect of the Sky.
Ee gq Wind. cE: |
bas mei os salle saat ~ a!
| o |Inches ib 4
23 | 122.5 | 0.12 | Variable. .... |Clear to 1 p. m. clouds of differ-
| ent kinds afterwards. Light-
| ning at 7 & 8 p. m.. Thunder
| at 8 p.M. Rain from 65 to 8
P. M.
24| 121.5; ... |Variable. Clouds of different kinds to 4
A. M., clear to 11 a. M. \i to
6 p. M., clear afterwards.
25 | 180.0} .... |W. by N. & variable Clear.
26| 128.0; ... SW&SSW&WSW Clear to 3.4. m. Thin clouds to
11 «a. m., clear afterwards.
Slightly foggy from 4 to 7
: A. M.
27 \ 130.04... . | Woos. Wieder w.| Clear.
28 | 128.0) «oe |W. | Clear.
| f :
| :
a
se i: fect. SR ile ti it
.: is | ihe
tar z 4 . . . . . re ‘ é 5 . A 2
ee Cirri, oes Strati, i Cumuli,\—i Cirro-strati, ~-i Cumulo strati,~-i Nimbi,
1 Cirro cumuli.
_
Meleorological Observations. XV
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the
month of Kebruary 1867.
Monruty ReEsvtts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.966
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 4. m. on the 3rd ... 80.121
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4p. M. on the 13th ... 29.773
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month fs ... 0.348
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures _... es oh ... 380.045
Ditto ditto Min. ditto ; om ... 29.908
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ..., ... 0.142
oo)
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month _.. sat Lit, Ser oee
Max. Temperature occurred at 4p. M. on the 27 7th bt ..¥ SRS
Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the ard Bi: , a RGS..S
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month a ot oe
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. a sp 2) eee
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, % ay Boe
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month., Pie ye,
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month... 65.9
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 7.2
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month 60.1
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed n mean Dew- -point . 13.0
Whee.
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., ite ».. 0.525
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month ee
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 3.05
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.65
Inches.
Rained 3 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ea af 0.58
Total amount of rain during the month fe 0.82
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month _.. i. ne 0.76
Prevailing direction of the Wind... We N. : N , W. & bt a
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Feb. 1867.
Monruziy ReEsvtts.
particular wind blew, together with the number of days on
ular wind was blowing, it rained.
‘uO Urey] |
VM Aq NT
“UO ULE yy
Meteorological Observations.
‘MANN
re AMOANNNAA AOA eS AANA
"dO Ue yy
| iN
"uO UIRyy|
‘MN M
SHANAHAN MAMNAMMNMAMAN RA A
re moot YD SR OSH OD 2 2 SO 1D rt
“UO ULBYT
ecu
NANA ANNANAAAA
| wo ureyy|
aarti
MO OE:
Aq MM
‘UO ULB)
MS’ M)
‘uo ULeY
"UO ULB
“NA “q| 3
Noo YO re =
NAS
‘MS S)
AN NI O OD <I 1d OD
‘HO UIT
M 4g “QI
aN AAR
‘UO UIRy
S$
=
Se HN ANA AeA ae eHN NT AN
| uo ureyT|
‘g 4q‘9
‘UO WIR
Ss
"HO Uieyy |
"aS
j UO Uivy
/-mO Wie |
js Aq“
| mo uTesT|
which at the same hour, when any partic
| “uo ures
ia Na
| Wo WrexyT
| cust NE
| WO Urey
‘a NN
“10 Urey
aT]
= OO rr rt GQ rt
er rt
toa | Naine
———
SS SN
Arn TAA MD AH foen MC). Ml cee: lee ll een oe te ee a
maNMANNNAN OMS OG 1 You oe le mo oO res
BAON MANNA NN GS Yee <I en fl oon Bl | saoaoHnN
pa Aq “NT
| 2O Urey
N
Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any
ANA Ae
“ILO F{! t
Meteorological Observations. XVil
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Mletecrological Observations
: taken at the Surveyor Genueral’s Office, Calcutta,
an the month of Murch 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34° East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
. Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
ty > |
i g _ | dange of the Barometer | ~ # |Range of the Tempera-
Bee during the day. | As | ture during the day.
3 Pay | pee DAL Ee ste
Date. oo | A a | | |
ao° | Max. | Min. | Diff. | 3 | Max. | Min. | Diff
wes | SH |
i}. a (
: Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. o ) ) ve)
ui 29.889 | 29.971 | 29.809 0.162 78.7 | 90.0 70.0 | 20.0
2 856 913 812 101 SLO. 1 O04 | F8G%. 168
3 .883 9403 8238 at 81.4 |- 942 | 73.4 | 20.8
4 925 998 853 142 81.2 92.0° | 7a2'| Tes
5 .897 983 | 493 AYO 80.8 92.0 | 72.6 | 19.4
6 mea} 808| .743| .165| 79:6 | 89.0 | 72.8:| 16.2
7 819 898 773 125 | 80:9 ' 90.0 | 73.6 | 16.4
8 922 | 30.012 833 179 SS | 87.6 | 74.9'|- 12.7
9 | 30.000 O80 909 AE | 796 | 89.0 | 73.6 | 16.4
10 29.994 O61 .923 138 48.5 | 88.0 72.0 | 16.0
il .955 O32 S884 148 78.4 | 87.0 | 70.4 | 16.6
42 935 003 865 138 80.2 | 90.6 69.6 | 21.0
13 891 | 29.954 815 139 80.4 | 88.8 74.0 | 14.8
14 -909 .969 854 115 Sie |. Sh. 74.4 | 17.3
«i415 .918 .990 834 .156 aan. | °* 92.8 fa-0 | F926
Pa6 846 925 781 144 $1.1 92.4; 71.4 | 21.0
S17 .856 927 191 136 $3.4 | 94.0 | 74.4 | 19.6
6:18 856 O41 779 162 So | Shae VO TeO" |. 164.
19 876 957 774 183, 80.5 | 92.6 | 73.0| 19.6
20 843 921 190 168 : 79.2 | 88.2 72.4 | 15.8
21 800 858 725 tea)| 80.8) | ~90.8' © 72.8"| 18:0
22 .816 897 720 172 | 82.4 | 92.0 feo |. 18:2
23 897 .983 .829 154} 803 | 90.0 | 73.6 | 16.4
Wie) (“Sea |~ -843-) 186. | 79.8. | 98.0) | 742 | 147
.898 975 .838 137 tao} * BEi8 Eee) 1e8
.887 961 .825 136 81.0 90.4 72.2 | 18.2
905 957 OM oh ody, 79.9 91.2 71:8 | 19.4
944 | 30.050 .876 A174 78.6 88.6 69.4 | 19.2
.960 O74 .O99 175 78.0 86.4 71:4 | 15.0
921 .002 .855 147 75.1 81.2 69.4 | 1s
.867 | 29.963 199 164 78.5 89.4 68.6 | 20.8
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
il enomeier Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
le day. : .
XViil Meteorological Observatione.
Abstract of the Resulls of the Wonrly Meteorological Observations
duken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Culeulta,
au the mouth of March 1867.
Daily Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Coulinued.)
' P : le a 5 as oe i ae rh
a 60] Bod. Beeline ees: Pee
2 e | os |R | - a. |fas | sso
Fe --4 fob) H eo tn 2 f ey 4 A
= 2 P BS} ‘S5 | Ce-b- ee
S S ee BIS: : fs |e oa| OS ep
Daier| ea | eR” Ae a 3 to | eel pees
ee | | 8 | a. | ee) 2a |) eee
go ey 5 (sa cen] s 2 — oe app
Se can) = ray a f eos | Sh io) R=
pee sy MH io) Say fo ay 5S WA am oO CTO
= Q O Q a = | <i =
fe) ) oO Inches. | T.-gr.> Tear
rt 71.0 7.7 |\ 664 | IB.1 |. 0.639 6.82 3.59 0.66 . |
2 74.2 6.8.) 68Ac| TE. | ie 1. ieee AT 69 |
3 73.0 8.4.) 67.b |. 14.3 661 12 4.15 63
4 A983 [o.9 | G78 | Ta | bye | occ 65
5 Oh G1} Go.8:| | 16:5 623 | 6.71 | 4:36 GL
6 | 72.7. | 6.9 |-67.9 |) 17 | . 670-1728 ee 69
7 73.4 CO G8 TES 688° | eee 46 65
8 7.9 9.4 | 64.3) 16.0 603 6.50 4.41 6) @
9 74.2 5A TO, . Qe 136.1. 796 2°74, TA
10 72.4 6.4 | 67.6] 10.9 672 23 3.07 70
11 7.1 8.3 | -6hay) lad 693 6.53 73 63
12 rea 85 | Gave| LES ‘One| | eee 4.07 63
1a Fe, 6.2) FE | 18S E788) le eee 75
dA 75.3 6.5) 70g Tal TAA 0 | 3.40 70
15 73.8 SB uO at alate 634 | 7.34 4.13 64
16 71.8 Y.5.). 650 13.8 623 6.71 46 .60
Ay 74.5 8.8 | 63.4 15.0 699 7.39 57 62
18 73.8 7:6 686.|° 12.9 | ~692 AS 3.82 65
19 | 736 |.69/] 638| 117 | 699 | 62 | 46 69
2) 72.9 6:3 E68 oe | bee 692 A8 08 WE!
21 75.5 ny (ome?) ae 8.30 2.77 Wey
22 783.1 a AG ems 8 Org 268. | | em 3.37 a4
23 74.1 6.2 "160.8 | 10 | Cee. eee | a6} vee
24 7A. ign baer le 8.0 158 8.2) 2.39 Wie
25 iB: Oe | Opie 8.8 71d 7.74 4 Wi)
23 72.9 Ss | 67.2 13.8 604 14 4.0U 64
27 7.3 9.6 | 63.6 | 16.3 yD) 6.36 42 597
23 69.5 Od) Gaal 15.4 03) .26 12 .6O
2) 69.6 8.4) 63.7 14.3 oul Al 3.78 .63
3) 67.5 7.0 | 62.3 12.8 095 15 9 66
31 PO sos 8.4} 64.2 14.3 OIL OJ 85 63
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
—— =
ae
a ES eee
Meteorological Observations. xix
Abstract of the Results of the Tlourly Meteorological Observations
tuken at the Surveyor Geueral’s Office, Caleulla,
tw the mouth of March 1867.
Hourly Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Wygrometrical elements
dependent. thereon.
Sa fange of the Parometer 2. | Range of the Tempera-
=e. for cach hour during os 9 ture for each hour
oS the month. mE dur.ng the month.
! Ee EN Saeed ng yee oe
Hour.) 5 25° | 5 :
gan Max. | Min. | Dif. | $3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.
a | ao
|
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. r) Oo Oo °
Mid- |
night.| 29.901 | 39.003 | 29.806 | 0.197 | 75.8 | 788 | 71.4| 74
1 B91 | 29.996 BOW 196 75.2 70.2 ol TIO) We
2 .882 .992 194 198 74.8 77.8 70.2 7.6
3 .873 9388 783 208 74.2 77.4 69.8 7.6
4 .869 979 7198 204 73.6 774A 69.3 8.1
5 88) | 90s | 72) Bot | 732 | 76.8 | 63.6] 82
6 896 | 30.007 806 201 72.8 76.6 68.7 7.9
7 915 025 817 | .208 73.3 78.2 | 69.5} 8.7
8 943 O54 .837 217 76.2 $1.8 WV TRO .8
9 962 078 B54 224 79.0 84.6 74.2 | 10.4
10 .966 O80 .858 .222 82.1 86.6 78.0 8.5
11 055 257 844 | .223 81.6 89.2 78.8 | 10.4
Noon. 931 .036 .830 -206 86.8 99.6 foo 1 11.0
l .899 O04 Yo 209 838.3 92.0 80.2 | 11.8
2 868 | 29.969 759 | .220 89.0 93.4 | 81.2) 12.2
3 843 942 oe .205 89.6 94.0 81.2 | 12.8
4 .832 923 525 .198 89.3 94.2 79.9 | 14.3
5 .832 931 72d 206 87.4 92.2 Te0 | 17.2
6 842 .938 29 .209 84.0 88.2 16.0 | 12.2
7 859 .969 #55 | :214 81.7 86.0 | 75.4 | 10.6
8 881 | 30.081 Paes 254 79.8 84.2 73.6 | 20.6
9 .904 .025 798 227 78.4 §2.4 v3.0 9.4
10 916 .0d3 821 237 77.2 80.0 72.0 8.0
11 .907 .032 815 217 76.2 79.5 “1.8 uk
The Mean Height of the Barometer. as likewise the Dry and Wet Eulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the severak
hous; during the month.
xx Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of March 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements.
dependent thereon.—(Conlinued.)
A
A; 3 . = . Ct gy ed, ae
2 oe Peak ‘S oo | 28a)
a= k om Q = » o) eS
= siete ie Pas. 2 eS | eres St
ao) 5) : cm) 5 fo 45 =e = ' om ane
ra > S - Si oO 9° os ee |e OF gate
a Bla cle 2 2& |Pee| e388
Hour.) 2 | 8) | 2 | 3 e eo | 22 | 2 rec
ee | 8 | 2) Be | ee. | See ee
SS b, eS bd So ac | &E | sia
Oe a, 5 uA <b ea Og rat o) Se
Srl Ab Oot Oo le ey be Ble ete eae
) oO ) oO Inches. |. T.,2r> |, Eee
Mid-
night.) 71.9 3.9 | 69.2 6.6 | 0.708 7.70 1.84 | 0.81
E 71.8 3.4 | 69.4 5.8 Bg a .60 .83
2 71.5 id | Ole 5.6 708 12 54 .83
3 vee) 2.9.) 69.3 4:9 Ra 16 BA .85
4 71.0 2.6 | 69.2 4.4 7038 75 tee |... BF
5 70.7 2.5 | 68.7 4.5 697 61 21 .86
6 70.4, 2.4] 68.5 4.3 .692 59 12 87
7 70.6 2.7'|. GSA 4.9 .690 5A .30 .85
8 77.9 | 43 | 68.9 7.3 701 63 2.08 79
9 73.0 6.0 | 68.8 | 10.2 .699 56 94 72
10 TSF oe G77 27 4.24, 63
ft 73.9 | 10.7 | 66.4 | 18.2 646 6.91 5.48 | 56
Noon.| 74.3 | 12.5 | 66.8 | 20.0 655 27 6.24, 53
aa Th.6 187) Gora | 2109 646 | 85 95 50
2 74.6 | 14.4 | 66.0 | 23.0 .638 75 7:33 48
S TAS WUE GbMe | 24 .626 .62 We: 4654
4 (43 295.0 | Gadi | 2420 623 .60 61 46
5 74.0 | 13.4} 66.0} 21.4 .638 78 6.67. 50 @
6 fod (805-660) 17.9 640 84, 5.33 56 4
‘4 13.2 85 | 672 14.5 664 FAS 4.24, <3 3
8 72.6 @o G8.) 1x 677 30. | 3:36. | ; 6am
9 72.5 5.9 | 68.4) 10.0 .690 AT 2:84. | | oa
10 721 6.1 | 68.6 8.7 .692 ou AA | /6 a
eel ji 4.3 | 68.9 7.3 701 63 .O3 1? a
cose
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
ra 2
Meteorological Observations. XXL
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Caleutla,
wm the month of March 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &ce.
y . |oe ao
of [ead Prevailing iS
4 al = & : 5 direction of the AE General aspect of the Sky.
= as jas & Wind. ee
aie” |S: | re
an eae SIS9
0 |Inches lb
Pee... 8.8. W. & N. W. Clear. Foggy from 4 to 8 a. m.
2 | 127.5 8.8. W. & variable. Clear to 1. p. m. Seatd. ‘i to 6
p.M. Clear atterwards. Slight-
ly foggy ati & 64. mM.
3 | 130.0 'S. S. W. & variable. Clear.
4} 131.0 | ee ee & Baw. Clear.
5 | 131.0 S.& 8.8. W. Clear to 5 a. mM. Seatd. Ni to 7
p. M., clear afterwards.
6 | 124.4 . |S: W. & 8. by W. Clear to 10 4. mw. Seatd. \i after-
wards. Lightning to N. at 9
P. M.
7|130.0| <°*: |Variable. Clear to 6 a. mM. Seatd. \Wi to
noon. Scatd. ‘ito 5 Pp. a;
clear afterwards.
8/1270; ... |W. by 8. & E. by S. Clear to 2 a. m. Seatd. Wi &\i
to 5. M. P., clear afterwards.
9/131.0; 0.10 |S. S. E. & variable. Clear to 5 p. mM. Scatd. “i to 5
Pp. M. Overcast afterwards.
Lightning at 7,8 & 11 p. Mm,
Thunder at 8 vp. mw. Light rain
from 7 to 10 p. mM.
30/129.5; ... |N. W. & variable. Clear to 2 a. mu. Scatd. \Wi to 8
Pp. M. Overeast afterwards.
Lightning. Thunder, & slight
rainat9&10p. Mm.
J1/129.4; ... |S.S. W. &W.S. W. 1 to 6 a. M. Scatd. \Wi after.
wards.
12/132.0; ... |W.byS. & variable. Clear to 11 a.m., clouds of dif-
ferent kinds aiterwards.
13| 122.0) ... |S. by W.&S. S. W. Scatd. “ito3 Pp. m. Scatd. vi
to 6 rp. M., clear afterwards.
Slightly foggy at6 &7 a.m.
14; 130.0; ... |S. &S8S.S. W. Scatd. “i to 5 a. m. Seatd Wi
to 10 a. m. Scatd. \i after-
' wards.
15 |.132.6 | 0.02 |S. S. W. Clear to 5 vp. m. Overcast after-
wards. High wind at 8 & 9
p. M. Slight rain at 9 p. mu.
ie Stal age. We Clear nearly the whole day.
eh? ic ae Se Scatd. \_i to 3 a. m., clear
; afterwards.
jt. Siar Nn Ay: are el Scatd. \i nearly the whole day.
FSP erianie i (Seas Ne Scatd. \i to 9 a. m. Clear to 3
p. M. “ iafterwards. Thunder
at 6&7 p. y. Lightning from
6 to 8 pv. m. Slight rain at 7
P. M.
XXxli Meteorological Observations:
Abstract of the Results of the Tlourly Meteorological Observations
duken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calculla,
an the mouth of Murch \867.
Solar Radiation. Weather. &e.
Prevailing
direction of the General aspect of the Sky.
Wind.
Max. Solar
radiation.
Ground.
Date.
tain Guage J
t.2. in. above
| Max. Pres-
— ? Waid
—|sure of Wind.
20) 0.01 |S. 8S. E. & variable.; =... |Overcast to 5 a. m. Seatd. 71
afterwards. Lightning to EH
at 9 p. M. Light rain at 25 a.
um. & 55 P. M.
_S. W. & variable. Seatd \i-to 4 4. mM. Seatd. ~i
afterwards.
22.) 137 6) )-0114: |S. S:4k..&.S8) W. Seatd. -ito 5 p. mM. Overcast
afterwards. High wind at 8
& lip. w. Lightning at 7 &
8p. vu. Rain at 8,10 & 11 p.m.
2 1 127 Onl oe ; N. W.&S. Thin clouds to 8 a. M. Wi to 5
Pp. M. Seatd. \i afterwards.
24 128:0 |) 1.45 iN. W ade iN. NS EB. \i to 5 a. M. “1 & i to7 P. M.
\~_i afterwards. High wind.
Lightning & Thunder at 4 P.
i y wu. Rain at 4 & 5 P. M.
20 W222 iy de. NOW dea Seatd. \i to 3 a. Mm. Overeast to
7 a. M. Wito Ss Bom. clear
afterwards.
203) 32:0!) oe... WIS. WV tote: by W.. “Near to 6 a. M. Scatd. \i to 1
p._M. Seatd. \.P aes boa,
clear afterwards. Lightning
i to W. at 10 & ll Pp. M.
27 | 127.5 | 0.15 | Varriable. Seatd. ~ito 5 a. mM. Seatd \G to
2 p.m. Overcast afterwards.
High wind from 8 to 1] Pp. M.
Lightning from 1 to 3 a. M.
& at 10 ep. um. Thunder at 7 &
10 p.m. Rain from 5 to 7 P.M.
& at 10 & 11 P. M.
bo
—
_—
bo
i)
S
(oD
28 | 124.5 W.N.W.& variable Chiefly \t
29 | 14906 IN. ao Nyy: Clear to 5 a. mM. “i tod P. M.,
clear afterwards.
BO 1196 |. IN. ING Ws Clear to 5 a. M. Seatd. \i to9
a. mM. Overeast afterwards.
Slight rain at 4&5 P.M. %
OL P1260 foie ISS& Se W’. Clear. >
t
Teen cee oo EER Eee
7 Cupp? 4 ay bs ks ° . . ; L! . : . . Gate et
Pile Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, « i Camulo strati,~i Nimbi,
4 Cirro cuuauli. .
Meteorological Observations. XXL
Aistract of the Resulls of the lourly Meteorological Observations
tuken at the Surveyor Geuerul’s Office, Calcutta, in the
month of Murch 1867.
Montury Resvtts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.894
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. at. on the 9th 30.080
Min. height of the Barometer oceurredat 4&5 p.a. on the 2. st &22nd 29.725
Katreme range of the Barometer during the menth z ;... O35
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... a cae ... 29.970
Ditto ditto Min. ditto ‘ey as ... 29.821
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month .., «.. 0.149
Oo
+
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month _ ... oe 1% WS
Max. Temperature occurred at 4 pe. Mw. on the 3rd 94.2
Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. M. on the 31st 68.6
Extreme vange of the Vemperature during the month 25.6
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature . 89.9
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, é 42.5
Mean daily range of the Temperature duri ng the month.. 17.4
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month... 72.7
Mean Dry Bulb Therinometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 7.4
Computed Mean Dew-point for the mouth :: C7.5
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 12.6
eee
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month ... = me Ag.
Troy grain
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month ‘ bic) Somes
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 8.61
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.67
Inches.
Rained 9 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours a a, 1.15
Total amount of rain during the month aie & Laz
Total amount of rain imtlieate d by the Gauge att fachied to the ancmo-
meter during the month a ss bi 1.26
Prevailing direction of the W ind. oF, ae Be S.&8.S. W.
“‘SR1V
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Feb. 1867.
Monraty REsuuts.
1ONS
cal Observat
v
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog
Meteorological Observations.
‘uO URI
, [MAGN
we f {=
) "UO ULBY ie
Rn s ie = Se rio ao mo mot
Ie "AA NUN
ro "UO UIey ee eB
an j ee NAVNMDMNMANANDAHDAADSOWAOAAMAAS
3 MN - Gaia
lol
§ “uo ULey
N San ers re mi OonN ret
g “MN M
= ‘dO UL
4 : to mes Sass ANNA ce
ge [Ntsq Aa
ee Wo ULBY
3 manta © 4 i aAN AN AAAS = =
pe
é é | uo urey
© .o pat mt at od ot FDO OO CUNO OO 4
aS 47 AA)
©. | ao uley =
Cu. es _
ot) Ge as oa NAH WADNHAOA AAAAN
EE J -uo uiey a
=e ALG) St OMNIA OGIAIAODAHOWSA ANN
seg LO Wie gy ea
= © AR "a: St FID TID NN SAM AO MII NNANNO OHIO ~~ OH
as Pa. a ee 2
tre | do ule
SAS cote (ieoiailian, T : ag
ee M Aq ‘sy Sa NNN Ss aN re re on ee ON fe LON ON AP)
S Sho
‘S.J uo urey ANS
a Reo ee ISTO FS C9 GD SH ODD HAD OD A OD NOD SHAG OD GY GO GO
SU Sah (tae
bas "UO Ute}
Ale “a Aq “a Aq “g a AANANRS rm — AOS
e [aoe [as]
Z » | uo mley] ay
ae aS es ‘g) oF SHNANMAAM SAH ARAM sy)
& = | -uo ULB YY =
a A soe
_— re & aN ol
one ah Ԥ re NMA A Lon | rei esic
S44 00 UGE re
2805)
SS ina 4 NAN mid ely
a iY Y
a i
© » | Go uey M4
ae S| oes + : a
- : or - Sq “i
Es Gg Aa on ¥
= » | uO ules 5
ae SEE Poe fe ee: 7
7 Mores a | Lee Nome | masN ass ir
> |
cS 3 f ‘uo av 2
igo} | Pa u
Spr Kg og — ae 44. 4
Ci N i
oS bea wey
BE
& ig "AT “Of (ml i (=| os
E ‘GO WRT
fe| ma re fo aes Leal are
é py de
—
4 “uo mo
re re rst re aon rae
= a NO
= “ILO a
© es ya
5 pop &Q NT ae a 4 4 a4 —_
2 ‘Uo WiBy a a
= AT Sea ANANAANH AN SANAAN
= -
cc
“Ino
Ae
=F
Meteorological Observations. XXV
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of April 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Chet
x B _ | Range of the Barometer = = Range of the Tempera-
ges during the day. a ture during the day.
soc fe
Date. | & E . | re 3
s 2° | Max. | Min. | Dif. | $3 | Max. | Min. | Dif.
mew a SiH
i]
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. o oO re) °
| 29.795 | 29.883 | 29.718 0.165 82.4 95.2 73.0 | 22.2
2 743 819 674 145 84.6 96.6 75.2 , 21.4
3 72 818 .650 .168 85.6 98.0 75.8 | 22.2
4 725 .802 .670 132 85.5 96.8 76.3 | 20.5
6 .702 104 .639 115 87.4 101.2 71.8 | 23.4
6 .746 815 .698 aa 88.7 102.5 77.6 | 24.9
7 769 .868 706 162 88.0 98.5 80.0 | 18.5
8 770 .852 710 142 86.3 98.0 77.2 | 20.8
9 197 885 723 162 86.3 97.9 77.4 | 20.5
10 815 .886 126 -160 82.9 97.4 19.8 | 21.6
11 802 872 7120 152 81.0 93.0 71.4 | 21.6
12 846 .936 178 .158 Gra. |). 20 74.0 | 17.0
13 .895 954, 810 144 80.1 88.0 73.4 | 14.6
14 799 Sl .696 .185 82.8 92.8 73.4 | 19.4
15 769 .839 712 127 85.3 95.8 78.2 | 17.6
16 .803 919 740 179 84.0 92.7 76.2 | 16.5
17 898 | .962 .829 134 79.7 88.4 71.2 \' 172
18° 895 .969 821 148 | 82.1 92.2 TO | 17.2
19 852 942 .760 182 84.5 96.6 74:5 | 22.1
20 187 .858 114 144 | 85.8 97.4 76.4 | 21.0
21 742, .802 .698 104 84.1 97.8 77.4 | 20.4
22 .786 845 694, Pa 3 84.6 95.6 76.4 | 19.2
23 821 901 149 «ABZ 85.1 94..6 76.0 | 18.6
24 TTF .830 .675 155 85.4 93.6 78.6 | 15.0
25 Revd .827 .694, «Lao 85.2 93.6 79.5 | 14.1
26 .8d1 .930 756 174 84.6 91.8 7a.%, || La-0
27 847 915 G67 148 85.9 97.0 76.6 | 20.4
28 780 .868 .706 .162 87.5 97.4 79.6 | 17.8
29 748 .829 .668 i Bh 89.2 99.6 81.2 | 18.4
30 734 .803 .657 -L46 89.6 99.4, 81.4 | 18.0
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
es Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
the day.
= eo
KXV1 Meteorological Observations. .
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
on the month of Aprid 1867. |
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
a4
‘ See a fe % fe Se ease f
E Soli 8 at 2 as | 258 )/ bee
H Ee ea 2 Ss | S8s) e773
= = e ° GH +2 | a os
Fe 5 5 2 ay of | 2 Be 1 SS
Dat a. 2 as = we =i = 5 a oA. 9
ate. ae o +e ap.© eae 285
o ® 2 ro ae) aes "> 2 ou + Boek
ES = £ Ee Sie 5S | BB | @og
q aa) = aes Bae FS | S2e)/7 8
as = ‘5 dS fa | sad | sis
CE en | pa | ee o,.\/ SS | cae
a Ae ia, Gages = Seid law =
9) co) ) ) Inches.')-T. gr: |) Tiger
1 74.2 8.2 | 68.5] 13.9 | 0.692 7.44 4.17 0.64
2 74.6 10.0 | 67.6 17.0 .672 Ris) 5.20 58
8 |. 75.7 | 9.9} 68.8] 16.8 | .699 45 BL 58
4 76.0 9.5 | 69.3 16.2 feb 08 14 .60
5) 76.8 10.6 | 70.4 17.0 736 82 .63 .58
6 77.2 15) (038 18.4, TBA 9 6.17 56
7 75.6 12.4 | 68.2 19.8 .686 28 40 53
8 73.2 13.1 | 64.0 | 22.3 597 6.36 .66 49
9 74.8 1S | -OGe a LOSE 653 94 ‘08 53
10 72.5 10.4 | 65.2 Li 621 .66 5.13 57
11 13.7 7.3 | 68.6 12.4 695 | 7.49 3.65 67
12 75.0 6.8 | 70.25 16 Jaa 86 Od .69
13 73.6 6.5 | 69.0 LE LOA 09 .20 40
14 74.7 3:1 | 69.0 13.8 04 4 4.21 64
15 78.3 7.0 | 73.4 11g er 8.66 2.98 .69
16 73.6 10-4 | 66.00) “LEZ. 644. 6.89 5.28 57
A7 72.0 taf | 66.6 13.1 651 7.02 3.70 .66
18 74,4 id 8) 60.8 Tool 04 56 98 .66
19 74.9 9.6 | 68.2 16.3 .686 oA 5.01 59
20 70.4 10.4 | 68.1 al 684 28 ay) yf
21 75.2 8.9 | 69.0 15.1 704 83 4.68 .62
22 75.5 9.1) 69.1 16.5 706 3 .86 61
23 Ae ne ty Wf laa age MO) 13.1 178 8.28 29 66.
24 79.0 6.4 | 74.5 LOz9 .840 98 3.70 71
25 78.8 6.4) 74.3 10:9 835 BS .69 41
26 78.6 6.0 | 74.4 10.2 .838 OF AZ 12
27 78.4 Le. | fort 12.8 .803 56 4.31 67
8 79.5 8.0 | 74.7 12.8 .846 007 50 .67
29 79.8 9.4; 74.2 15.0 .832 82 5.34 62
3 80.7 8.9 | 75.4) 14.2 865 9.17 16 64
¢
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological Observations. XXVIt
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of April 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
63 Range of the Barometer -—- i | Range of the Tempera-
a8 : for each hour during 8 | ture for each hour
"eno S the month. <i | during the month.
ES ee at a
Hour.) = Eo | RE |
ee | Max. | Min. | Diff. | £5 | Max. | Min. | Diff.
a3 | 36
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Oo Oo Oo re)
Mid-
night.| 29.802 | 29.949 | 29.721 | 0.228 79.6 84.6 | 74.6 | 10.0
1 .793 .939 Bri 3 | .228 79.1 84.4 73.8 | 10.6
2 .781 .923 705 .218 78.6 83.7 7a.0 | 10:7
3 774 .916 .687 | .229 780 83.0 72.8 | 10.2
4 .769 900 .675 225 77.5 82.0 71.4 | 10.6
5 .783 895 680 | .215 77.0 81.5 71.4} 10.1
6 .801 915 709 | .206 76.9, 81.4 | 71.2 | 10.2
7 824 955 418 237 738.5 82.6 73.5 9.1
8 .847 960 741 .219 82.0 87.0 76.0 | 11.0
9 862 .969 749 .220 85.3 90.4 78.6 | 11.8
10 864 964: 754 | 210 88.3 93.6 81.6 | 12.0
11 854 .963 748 215 90.5 96.2 | 81.8 | 14.4
Noon. 832 954 127 227 92.6 98.3 | 83.5 | 14.8
1 .803 923 .691 .232 94.2 100.4 86.4 | 14.0
2 173 892 .670 222 95.1 102.0 87.4 | 14.6
3 744 | 860 .653 .207 95.0 | 102.5 86.6 | 15.9
4 .730 .835 .649 .186 93.8 102.0 87.4 | 14.6
5 .726 .829 .639 .199 91.2 100.6 79.0 | 21.6
6 734 838 657 181 88.4 96.8 | 77.4 | 19.4
7 751 854 .668 186 86.2 92.6 78.8 | 13.8
8 775 873 .691 182 84.0 89.9 14.0 | T29
9 797 900 .710 .190 82.7 88.6 76.6 | 12.0
10 .807 .930 724 .206 81.6 86.0 75.8 | 10.2
li 804 .936 723 213 80.6 85.4 75.8 2G
ane ene ee RE Le MR ae,
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the mouth.
XxVill Meteorological Observations,
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutia,
in the month of April 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—( Continued)
cas t i]
ae ae Oe merecemite sa
a=| +e oO = eS i a
Bi glow. | a) i 2 tes | gee iae
= pol ne a1 ie 2 6S | S58 |} Sa3
5 ie be te : 2e |B SS | eBs
Hour. 3 ear RB = S ra ley S s o ae am
eee A = = a. | SS |@, 87 SEs
eS 2 | s a: | Be | ES | Seer ooe
se | eo] pe | ge 1-22 [eee lees
© eo < @,° o me oS o 4 .o
oy) ) ) ) Inches,,| 'T..e7..79 Tages
Mid-
night.| 749 | 4.7 | 76 | > 80).| 0.968 |. say | “SR Ome
Cee aa cae eae oe ey 33 20 79
2 yates. adie sts | Seas = ies 28 10 80
Sd bP Hee | eae: | | eee: | eee 33 | 1.86 82
410 74.2 Psy pies | | ab 773 38 66 84
6 |) 2 74.0 lia. | "Aieg |. > sae 773 AO 9 85
GN 78.9 ARG8.0 | Rae |e ee, | Cael 37 49 85
874.7 G88 | 92. | |) Gains) | age 38 97 81
G2. 76.0- 1) G20) Bias |. 122”). aaa 2s | 329 72
9 19 76.6 | 0881 708) 15.0.| 484 | 78h |) ae 62
LO FEO | De’ Ores) Ris i? | jageo 76 | 6.04 56
1g Hh eynO5 713.5 68.9) 626 || ror 40 | iia 50
Noon.| 77.2 | 15.4] 68.0| 246 | .681 16 | 8.47 AG
Eo G7.5 1 G67 26ers | 26%, | 2590 03 | 9.33 AB
2 is 97.6 i PRS | Grew | 280. | | set 7 -eee 87 Al
O hiry.7 eS heals’ .2eare |. Bae 96 78 AQ
4 |. 4782 | 15.6 | 68:8) 25.0; .699 | 7133 | 8:66 45
6 | 97.3 |) 18.9'1> 6910 | 22:2 | | 706 42 | 7.60 49
6 |676.9 | 41.6 1-70.0.| 18.4.) 797 74+ | gee 56
h. eeie.8 Ne Aull FONS |) 160. | _aFae 79 | 520 60
(8 (eH? (a8) nO | deer) | wae 97 | 4.20 66
9: |. #66") GL 90. |) Teak) a 95: | 3:77 68
10: 4.75.4 Gey gio k Oss oc) ckeer tl VganO 2A a
13 || 75.2) See |) 4 OA Ree 15 | 2.86 74
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
s
Meteorological Observations. XX1X
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of April 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.
— a) :
8: |e6 be
2 & are = Prevailing & =
-| .@ 16 ¢5| direction of the -s. | General aspect of the Sky.
B\ 23 |gad| Wind. ae
Al AF ie a
o |inches Ib |
1 |) 127.5 . |S.S. WwW. & S. W. 1.4 |Clear.
2 | 129.0 S. by W. & S.S. W.| 2.7 |Chiefly clear. Lightning to 8 &
| S E at8 p. m.
3 | 130.0 S.W.&S8.8S.E. | 1.2 |Clear.
4 | 134.8 S.S.E.&8.8.W.| 1.4 |Chiefly clear.
5 | 132.8 S.S. W.&S8.S.E.| 1.4 |Clear.
6 | 134.0 N.W. & variable. | 0.4 |Chiefly clear.
7 | 134.0 W. & variable. 3.2 \Clear to 7 a. m. Stratoni to 11
| a. M. Scatd. \\i afterwards.
8/132°2; ... |Variable. 2.7 ‘Scatd \i to6 a. m. Seatd. Wi
afterwards.
9/|132.5) ... |S. W. & variable. 0.5 |Clear to 4.4. m. Seatd. \i to 8
A. M. Seatd. \Wi afterwads.
Lightning to W.& N.at9 &
10 p. M.
10 | 180.0; 0.04 |E.S. E. & variable.| 22.0 |Clear to 4 4. m. Stratoni to 4 Pp.
M. Overcast afterwards, high
wind & slight rain ati & 6
p. M. Thunder at 6 & 7 P. M.
Lightning to Sat 7 & 8 P. M.
11/125.0; 0.05 |S.S.W.&S.&S.S.E.| 4.4 ito 4a. m., clear to 10a. m.
Scatd. >i to 5 p. mM. Overcast
to 8 p. M., clear afterwards.
Thunder, Lightning & slight
rain at 6 & 7 p.m. High wind
at lip. M.
12/126.0| ... IS. E.&S.S. W. 2.6 |Clear to 7 a. M. Scatd. \Wi to 7
P. M. Overcast afterwards.
Light rain at 45 & 9 P. M.
13 | 122.0} ... |S. W.& variable. 0.2 \ito6 a. m. Stratoni to 10 a. .
Seatd. \wito 3 p. mM. Scatd.
“i afterwards.
14/ 126.0; ... |S. S.E.& N. W. 0.3 iClear to 9 a. M. Seatd. i to 5
p. M., clear afterwards.
15|126.0); ... |S. W.&S. 1.4 |Seuds from S to 8 a. m. Clouds
of different kinds afterwards.
16|129.9| ... |Variable. 5.3 |\Scatd. \i to 7 a. mM. Seatd. \Wi
afterwards. High wind at 93
P.M.
17 | 125.0| 0.13 |S. W. & variable 10.0 |Overcast to 6 a.m. Seatd. \ni to
5 p. M., clear afterwards.
High wind at 25 a. m. Rain
at 1&3 a. M.
BS | 1278.) 5.0! (Sa >, Wd, Sal. 2.0 |\~i nearly the whole day. Light
rain at 63 P. M.
19|129.0| ° |S. W.& W.S. W. 0.7 |Clear nearly the whole day.
XXX
Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Resnits of the [Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
an the month of April 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather. &e.
Date.
21
22
26
27
28
29
30
Max. Solar
radiation.
direction of the
Ground.
| Kain Guage 1
ft. 2 in. above
General aspect of the Sky.
130.5
116.0
130.0
130.4
132.0
130.0
—
bh
j=
ie)
=a
fae)
fn
iS. WY go EN
0.05 |S. W.& W. S. W..
S.S. HE. & 8S. E.
TM
ue
CR TR
OWNS Sas. Sai
.S. W. & variable.
8: We 5. W.
|
\ni to 2 a. M., clear to 10 4a. mM.
Scatd. \Wi to 7 Pp. M., clear
afterwards. Light rain at 6
P. M.
Clear to2 Pp. m., clouds of dif-
ferentkinds afterwards. High
wind at 45 p. m., Shght ram
at5 & OP. M.
\ni to 4a. w., clear to 3 P. M.
i afterwards. Lightning to
N. E. from 7 to 9 Pp. mM.
Scatd. \Wi to 6 a. Mm. Seatd. ni
to 7 p.M., clear afterwards.
Light rain at 55 P. M.
Chiefly clear. High wind &
fightning at 8 & 9 P. M.
Clear to 4 a.m. Scatd.\ni to 2 P.
M.\~i alterwards.High wind
from 7} to Noon & at 8 P. M.
Thunder at 3 vp. m. Lightning
to W. at 8 P. M.
Seatd. \Wi & i to 7 a. mM. Stra-
toni to 4 Pe. m. \.i afterwards.
High wind & Light rain at.
93 P. M.
Chiefly clear.
Clear to 6 a. m. Seatd. ‘\i to 5
p. M., clear afterwards.
Clear to 2 4. mM. Scatd. \i to 10
A. M. Scatd.\,i to’# -2.: M;
clear afterwards.
\i to lp. uw. Seatd. “ito 6 P.
M., clear afterwards.
yi Cirri, —i Strati,>i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~1 Nimbi,
i Cirro cumuli.
Meteorological Observations. XXX
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta, in the
month of April 1867.
MontTuiy ReEsvtts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.793
Max. Bett ° of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. 4. on the 18th ... 29.969
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 5 p. M.on the 5th ... 29.639
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month a ... 0.330
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... +7 Me ... 29.869
Ditto ditto Min. ditto a ... 29.719
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... .. 0.150
)
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month __... ee ... 84.9
Max. Temperature occurred at 3p. M. on the 6th +f .. 102.5
Min. Temperature occurred at 6 4. m. on the 17th Me hag ee
Extreme vange of the ‘Temperature during the month Sis doce ‘yee
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. 43 - +. Sag
Ditto — ditto Min. ditto, ’ a5 3708
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. tn sIZ
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month... 76.0
- Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 8.9
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month 69.8
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed 1 mean Dew- -point . 15.1
Miudhiae
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., oun ea. 0.722
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month f, m. 228
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation |.. 4.78
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.62
Inches.
Rained 10 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours oa we 0.13
Total amount of rain during the month ee 0.27
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month _. iw 0.21
Prevailing direction of the Wind... ... us _8.W.& 8.8. W.
Xxx
cal Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of April 1867.
MontHiy RESULTS.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorologi
Tables shbwites the number of da
articular wind blew, together with the number of days on
lar wind was poe it rained.
fo)
=
a
gs
Ss
or
of
4s
5
Pact
on =
Sis
Ss
ste
ao
2 o
=e
aos!
q ”
og
an
Peis
ae]
&
=
-q
E
"m0 UII]
“M Aq" NT
“uo ULG YH)
‘M "NUN
‘UO WIR
ae
“NT AQ" AA
‘HO Urey
“M
‘uO UleYy
"HO WRT
“UO UlLBY
Meteorological Observations.
— = Nw NO Aes ol acc
4
mo Gt eon A at SS NN acs
aso Saas nNmanNw —
La |
Sass ON MN TMNW AMM aa nsN ce
re
"MS
‘WO ULbY
MSS
‘UO ULB
‘uo ULey
“°C
‘UO ULB
"a Aq *g
“Uo UTRY
“mM 44°95)
1D 20 DD 19 6 SSD Od WD SD OD 'C1S © tsa
eS
ae
AHNAAN SAM SS = aN
Si
Om atON OANNANAA NS ee an
“T'S 'S
"UO WRT
“TS
WO UIVY
ea
Le,
“HO ULB
“uo Uley
ONT
“TO Wey
A BARS
‘UO UIB}T
TN N
“UO TIBI
“a AQ “NT
‘UO U1B37
me
‘INO FF} i
‘m0 ue yy |
‘a kq -|
‘UO WLBT
+ ae NSE O10
DONT AMANR A ae
Awana as
1
i!
rN OD Wn 6 & © OD oN 3 FO 6 kr DO
10
wl
an
Meteorological Observations. XXXill
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Ofive, Calcutta,
iu the mouth of May 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 31” East.
Ss
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 fect.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygromcetrical elements
dependent thereon.
om ) bs |
be ae, | :
a Range of the Barometer = & (Range of the Tempera-
ot = = during the day. Ase | ture during the day.
Ee eo Re |
‘ cena“! pt a0 SM Fe ee aoe ae ea 5
= me = | j ao | |
a o* Max. Min. | Diff. == . Max. | Min. | Diff.
ose : = { |
> ery ! ‘et aie |
Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
Inches. | oO ra) oO | re)
29.803 | 29.649
834 | ol
29.735
0.154 88.3 | 99.8 78.3
750
|
|
1 who,
2 | | ,
3 758 834 | .678 156 | 87.6 99.0 | 78.0 | 21.0
4 2d 802 | 636 166 89.6 100.6 | 82.2 | 18.4
5 681 746 589 | 157 | 90.2 | 103.9 | 81.0 | 22.9
6 .676 .740 605 | .135 | 89.0 | 100.2 | 81.0 | 19.2
7 653 717 581 | 136| 88.4 .' 97.4 | 81.0 | 16.4
8 661 737.) 675 162 | 88.0 97.6 | 81.2 | 16.4
9 .636 692 | 564 | 128 | 88.0 96.0 | 82.2 | 13.8
10 725 £825 653 17s. }:. . S23 95.0 | 80.8 | 14.2
11 773 .838 692 146| 81.7 | 94.5 | 76.61 17.9
12 741| .802| .671| .131 | 769 | 79.3 | 760] 33
13 674 729 | .608 rat| 782 86.4 | 72.5 | 13.9
14 .680 732 .623 .109| 81.5 | 900 | 746! 15.4
15 681 745 611 134 | 85.6 | 940 | 77.41 1¢6
16 .660 720 608 pie lt as 88.4 | 80.2) 39
17 .674 729 601 .128 86.1 | 96.4 77.8 | 18.6
18 .660 715 589 126 | 89.5 | 101.0 | 81.2! 198
19 .638 719 545 | 174) 88.8 99.2 | 89.0 | 199
20 644 .696 589 107 89.2 | 98.8 81.0 | 17.8
21 | 668| 730! 599| 131| 893 | 986 | 82.6) 160
22 641 704 | 536} 9.168 | 87.7 98.4 | 81.0 | 17.4
23 579 632 | .507 125| 876 | 95.4 | 81.2] 149
24 561 613 489 | 124/ 90.0 99.0 | 83.0 | 16.0
25 488} 6411 419 | 22! 915 | 99.0 | 86.9] 130
26 433 A8l B74 107 | 92.5 | 102.2 | 86.0] 16.2
27 Ad il 401 110| 92.5 | 106.0 | 85.5 | 30.5
28 494, 552 407 145 62.2 103.8 86.0 | 17.8
29 529 585 4A] 144 | 91.6 | 100.7 | 85.4! 15.3
30 B55 614 A69 145 | 89.5 99.2 | 81.0] 189
31 593 642 507 135 | 88.4 | 101.6 | 81.2} 90.4
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
ee onsier Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
ay.
XXXIV Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of May 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
! ; . ml = : Sa ys a
Sahubal BE) Bauclicey oil eigen
i= = is) oO Boy a ~S $ ta =
= o o - ° on 2 H an 3
= © > & Se | So B | aS
A é 2 % 28 Eos | Coe
Date) ) Ghee Anca clea | re = So |e | Ses
— = 3 =e of OB | Seo |] #8
Pala | Ee} es | fe | eo | seu
age bp | & bay s os |\See | eae
= es O A = oh =
) ! |
i) ) | ) | ) Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr.
1 | 77.0 | 113] 702] 181 | 0.732 | 7.76 | 6.04 | 0.56
2 FE 1 | AO | FRO TE 8.23 5.53 60
3 782 | 94] 72.61 15.0 | .790 40 12 62
4, 81.2 8.4| 76.2] 13.4 887 9.41 4.92 66
5 79.6 1/106 | 73:2! 17.0 | 806 8.52 6.07 58
6 | 80.8 | 82! 75.9 | 13.1 | 879 | 9.32 | 4.76 66
7 81.4 70 | 772“ T2 91.6 73 ll 70
8 80.4, 7.6 | 75.8] 12.2 .876 a 37 68
9 81.7 G3.) 7707). OME .937 .96 3°72 73
10 80.2 71! 75.9! 11.4 879 36 4.05 70
11 74,4 7.3 | 69.31 12.4 711 7.64 3.73 67
12 73.7 3.2 | 71.5 5.4, 763 8.30 1.56 84,
13 74.5 347 | 7I9 6.3 773 38 87 82
14, 76.6 4.9 | 73.2 8.3 .806 | 68 2.63 77
15 79.6 6.0! 75.4] 10.2 865 9.24 3.52 72
16 79.9 3.5 | 77.4 6.0 | .922 | .89 2.07 83
17 79.2 6.9 | 74.4 | 11.7 | .838 8.93 4,02 68
18 79.9 Gi6| 7at-| 154. | 1830 | 80 5.49 62
19 80.1 87 | 74.9" 13°9 851 |! 9.02 4.98 64
20 80.0 9.2 | 74.5 | 14.7 840 8.90 5.26 63
21 81.5 78 | 76.8} 19.5 905 9.57 4.64 67
22 81.3 6.4! 77.51 102 925 84, 3.72 73
93 81.5 6.1 | 77.8 9.8 934 93 59 73
24 83.3 6:7 | 79:31. 10:7 979 | 10.36 4.14, 71
25 86.0 5.5 | 82.7 8.8 | 1.090 | 11.51 3.64 76
26 85.9 6.6 | 81.9] 10.6 063 | > We 4,40 72
27 85.4 wa | Shit (ee 037. | 10.92 .67 70
28 75.3 6.9 | 81.2] 11.0 040 .96 49 71
29 84.1 75 | 79.91 12.0 | 0.989 A3 76 69
30 81.8 pe lye o} 19.3 916 9.71 58 68
31 80.3 8.1 | 75.4 13.0 865 KS 66 66
| j
i «* - 3
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Tl i,
tg epee of A
Meteorological Observations. XXXV
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
m the month of May 1867.
Hourly Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
|
63 Range of the Barometer =< Pe Range of the Tempera-
£8 . for each hour during me ture for each hour
ae 4 the month. 2 | during the month during the month.
= - ——= 4
Hour.) 5 e = / as) = |
e823 Max. | Min. | Diff. | 32 | Max. “Min, |~Diff.
as ae a tt Pret ac
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Oo Oo |
Mid- | | |
night.| 29.650 | 29.802 | 29. aes 0.367 83.0 | 87.8 | 76.0} 11.8
1 641] .785| 434 | 351 | 82.7 | 87.6 | 75.4) 12.2
2 .632 761 419) .342 | 82.2 | 87.4 | 74.5) 12.9
3 624 | .758 AB | 343, | 81.9 | . 87.2 | 73.6| 13.6
4 622} .760| .422| .338 | 81.7 | 86.8 | 72.6 | 14.2
5 .636 770| .4386| .334 | 813 | 86.6 | 72.5} 14.1
6 .650 775 443 | 332 81.3 | 86.6 | 73.0| 13.6
7 667 793 439 | 854 | 82.5 87.3 | 73.6 | 13.7
8 .685 820} .463 | .357 85.5 | 89.8 | 74.0 | 15.8
9 .697 .834, | 481 | .353 88.1 93.0 | 74.3 | 18.7
10 ‘696 | .831| .471/ .360 | 90.6 | 96.2 | 75.7 | 20.5
il 685} 822 | 477 | 345 | 92.7 | 98.7 77.0 | 21.7
fied
Noon.| .670| .801 462 | .339 94.5 | 101.2) .|.77.4 | 23.8
1 646| .775| .440| .335 | 95.5 | 103.0 | 77.0 | 26.0
2 619 742 414 | .328 | 96.5 | 105.6 | 77.7 | 27.9
3. 594 | .705 .398 | .307 | 96.6 | 106.0 | 77.8 | 28.2
4, 572 692 280, | 342] 96. | 10A-6 7.29.3 | 24.3
5 5670 | .713 375 | .388 | 94.0 | 103.9 | 79.2 | 24.7
6 589 736 | .374| .362 | 90.3 | 98.0 | 76.2] 21.8
7 .606 778 | .393| .885 | 87.8 | 95.4 | 77.0] 18.4
8 627 801 415 | .386- | 86.5 | 92.0 | 76.6 | 15.4
9 .648 .836 433 | .403 | 85.3 | 90.6 | 76.4| 14.2
10 659 | .838| .450] .388 | 845 | 888 | 76.6] 11.9
ll 655 | .820| .443| .877.| 83.6 | 884 | 76.6} 11.8
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours, during the month.
EXxv1 Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta, :
m the month of May 1867. :
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrieal elements |
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
5 Pl BS) Ye uate eH | 88a | 8s
oe onl © O = + ° 25
a S| @.| ae 8 Ss | aos | me.
=) ) >) S Ga 45> om = = ra ai
a es Fs > = o 6 Sa es Oe
FA Mae: eee 2 8 |BEg | 938
HRP Wwe |e aah oe 3 pe | 89 | & eit
= Shap oe ~~ —
Ee |s |S). | ea | es | soe ee
Bee |) eS | ee | eo e SRS) sea
foe |e | ee | oe | 2S eee
{ 1 (ae o ad
a Aoi. o | Rotate re ails tae a
|
ft) oy) ° oor |) Inckesot: "Fae: | Toge
Mid-
night. 79.1 | 89) 76.4) 66 | 0803 | 9.58 | 224 | O81
Oe ee ns ke 8 .887 52 .20 81
2 | 789 | 33/766) 56 | 899 65 | 1.89 84
Bi 78.@) ORO. Few | at .905 73 71 85
4 | ‘789 | 28) -76.9'| . 4:8 | :908 76 61 .86
5, SS NOS | AO) | aa | ere 81 43 87
6 7sgy NOM) ea) a ae 87 37 .88
79:5 WABO) Tea Ba 922 | 91 3 185
Be e072) 148 (eee. eh) gig: | (ie | 290 17
oF) “Shoe 1 S69 | 77s! 1120 | 913 | 70 | 402 71
19 2888} 288 | Fob) 444 896 | 48 -| 628 64
11 81.8 10.9) 75.3.) 17.4 862 08 6.60 58
Noon.| 82.0 | 12.5] 74.5 | 20.0 s40..| 8.81 | 798 53
1 92:3 1/9312 | yaa) 21H 838 7 | Sa 52
B5 a R14 | A Fae) BONG 824, .60 88 49
Bk Sep, [Nadia 764 2210 817 52 | 9.00 49
ae Seo7 TRIG | 73.9 21:8 824, 61 | 8.47 50
5: | 819 | 12.1.) °-74.6| 19.4 843 85° | 7.42 54
6) gos) 06 cad? | 152 957: | 9.06-| 55 62
7) ego ie Rene a6! 12.8 871 25: | 4.35 68
8'| S80: POG Tea 103 890 50 | 3.60 73
9: |) S76 er iegae 9 O77 871 29 35 74
10 | 79.6 | 49] 762] 83 887 51 | 2.84 77
1} 798k age Teg 890 55 AS 79-4
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. :
Sais te
2 , 2 =
ae?
Meteorological Observations. XXXVli
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of May 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
re od --
& tee. - bis / 2s
ae is aS Prevailing Pa
. 3 \65 22! direction of the |< | General aspect of the Sky.
a Sg pe & Wind. = oe
a ee aE
— 4)
o {inches ib
1 | 133.5 ote's S.S.W. & S. W. Ge ised taG Uk in, Sikttd Gee
3p. mM. Stratoni afterwards.
Lightning at 9 P. M.
9/1 129.4) ... |S. W. 4.0 |Clear to 5 a. M. Seatd. \Wi to 5
Pp. M. Overcast afterwards.
High wind at 6 p. mM. Thunder
& Lightning from 7 to 9p. M.
Slight rain at 9 Pp. M.
So) 1586\-... W.&S. W. 1.4 Clear to 5 a. mM. Seatd. \.i to 7
Pp. M., clear afterwards.
4|132.0; ... iS.S.W.&S8S.S.E.| 1.2 |Clear to3 a. mu. Seatd. \i tol
Pp. M. \i & “i afterwards.
Slight rain at 43 p. M.
6/183.7| ... |S. W. & variable. 5.0 |Clear to 1 p. m. Seatd. 71 to 6
p. M., clear afterwards. High
wind at 5 Pp. M.
6\190.0; ... |S: S:W.& S&S. 2.4 Clear nearly the whole day.
High wind at 6} p. M.
7\|127.6; «: |S.S.W.&S. 3.56 |Scatd \i to3 a.m. Clear to 7
Pp. M. Overcast afterwards.
Lightning to N at 8 Pp. M.
High wind & slight rain at
95 P. M.
g|/1275| ... |S.S.E.&S8.S.W.| 3.2 \Overcast to 54:-m. Scuds to
10 4.m., Clear to 5 P. M.,
Scatd. \Wi afterwards.
9/127.8; ... S.S.E.&S8.S.W.} 4.6 |Clear to3 a. um. ~i & Wi after-
wards. High wind from 8 to
El A.M.
10 | 128.0} 0.08 |S. E. & S. W. 2.9 |\wi nearly the whole day. Rain
at 122 a. a.
: ee ., ASSP Es & Ns E. 4.8 |\Clear to 4 4. mM. \Wito 104. mM.
“1 & wito 4 Pp. Mm. Overcast
afterwards. Thunder at noon,
1 &5p.mM. Lightning at 1&7
p. M. Slight rain at 123 a. M.
: High wind at 125 a. M.
ot’... 0.04 |S. E. 0.3 |Stratoni to 7 a. mu. Overcast af-
terwards. Light rain from 8
A.M. to3Pep.m.&atl0O&11
. Pp. M.
13 | 121.0} 0.52 |S. E. & variable. ... (Overcast to 10 a. m. Seatd. i
afterwards. Rain from mid-
| night to4a.m.&at7 &8a.M.
14/124.0} ... IN. N.W.& N. W.| ... [Clouds of different kinds to 9 a
M. Wi &—ito 1 p. M. Scatd.
Ai afterwards. y
0 a aa a
XXXVI
Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations.
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of May 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &ce.
=a © ] ro =
= g ep ze . P ie H Dn f=.
38 P38 rd _ Prevailing Bis
< ae S < =| direction of the - a General aspect of the Sky.
o£ as} oir
BS) 8s pend Wind. or
Ala” ees ad
o |Inches th |
15/1314) ... |E. by N. & N. E. 0.2 (Clear to 3 a.'m. Stratoni to 7
A. M. Scatd. 7i afterwards
16 0.28 | Variable. 3.9 iClear to 3 4. m. Scatd. \i to 7
A. M. “1 to 5 Pp. M. Overcast
afterwards. Rain & high
| wind at 1] a. M.
17 | 128.6 S.W.& S. 1.5 |\Witonoon. Secatd. ~ito 6 P. M.
Clear afterwards.
18 | 133.0 S. W.&N. N. W. 0.2 \Clear to 10 a. mM. Seatd. “i to 2
Pp. M., clear afterwards.
19 | 131.4 W.&S. 0.2 iClear to 7 a. M. Seatd. ™i to 5
P. M., clear afterwards.
20 | 131.0 W. by S. & E.S.E] 0.4 (ores to 10 a m. Scatd. “i to 6
Pp. mM. Seatd. \i afterwards.
21 | 137.8 S. by E.&S. 0.2 |Scatd.\~i to 2 a.m. Clear to 6 a.
mM. Scatd. “i to 5 P. M., clear
| afterwards.
22 0.45 'S.S.E.& E.S.E.! 6.5 |Scatd. \Wi to 3 Pp. Mm. Wi after-
| wards. Thunder & Rain at 6
| Pp. mM. High wind at 53 P. M.
93 | 124.5 \H.S.E. & E.N. E.| 0.5 |Stratoni to 7 «a. m. Seatd. i
| | to2 p.m. Seatds \i & 41
afterwards.
24, | 129.0 S. E.& 8.58. E. 3.0 |Stratoni to 2 4. mM. \ito 1] a.
M. Scatd. “i to 6 Pp. M., clear
afterwards.
25 | 129.5 S.S. W. & S. 1.7 |Clear to 2 4. mu. Seuds from S
to 7 a.m. Seatd. clouds to 8 P.
M. Clear afterwards.
96 | 131.0 8S. &8.S. E. 2.8 |Stratoni to 9 a. mM. Szatd. \Wi to
2 p.M. Scatd. “ito 6 Pp. M. clear
afterwards.
27 | 135.0 S.&S8. 8. E. 3.1 |Scatd \wito8 am. clearafterwards
28 | 133.0 S.S.E.& S. 2.5 \Clear to 3.4. M. Seuds from S to
6 a. mM. clear to 5 p.m. Strato-
ni afterwards.
29 | 131.0 S..5; B 3.0 |Stratoni nearly the whole day.
30 | 133.0 S.S.E.&S8 3.3 |Scatd. \.i to 9 a. M. Scatd “i
afterwards. High wind at 6 ?
p. M. Lightning to N at7&8
Pp. M,
31} 131.0; 1.09 | Variable 14.9 |Clear to 7 a. M. Scatd. “ito 5 p.
m. Overcast to 8 p.M. Stratoni
afterwards. High wind at 6 P.
m. Rain from 6 to 8 P.M.
\ 1 Cirri, —i Strati,>i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~ i Cumulo strati,~i Nimbi,
i Cirro cuuuli. mr SS
‘Meteorological Observations. XXxix
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
im the month of May 1867.
Monrsyuy ReEsvtts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. .». 29.639
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 Pp. m.onthe llth ... 29.838
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 6 P.M. on the 26th ... 29.374
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month ia . 0.464
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures _... i pin ». 29.702
Ditto ditto Min. ditto “f ... 29.563
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... 5. 0.198
Ce)
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month nl Acc Bolen
Max. Temperature occurred at 3 p. M. on the 27th uh A.. OGG
Min. Temperature occurred at 5 a. mM. on the 13th 72.5
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month 33.5
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. 97.4
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, bie 80.7
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. 16.7
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... 80.4
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 7.3
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month f 76.0
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 11.7
anes
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month ..., = ». 0.882
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month 3. wae
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 4.19
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.69
Inches,
Rained 10 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours ook ods 1.09
Total amount of rain during the month A. 2.46
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month _.. Ae 2.33
Prevailing direction of the Wind... 2 'S., 8.8. E.&8. 8. W.
A,
ical Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of May 1867.
Montauy Resorts.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog
with the number of days on
d.
d blew, together
in
er of days on which at a given hour any particular w
Tables shewing the numb
lar wind was blowing, it raine
which at the
same hour, when any particu
Meteorological Observations.
"m0 UIEy)
“Ww Aq * NC
"dO Uiey
uO ULB
AN
“UO ULByy
"AANA
‘Oy
"NT AQ" MA
“uo ULB YT
(ANNAN
Ss ase SN
i
MmAANN SS
aA RAR MNHNN A A AA ee
“AACS
Po ULeyYy
OR: iia ee be
"UO UBT
“MAG ‘S
‘uo ULB
ae
"UO ULE yy]
“a 4q ‘sg
“UO ULB
1
wan
cm]
QB HID 6 OD BW OO HOD 19 10 10 NO) SH 1 6 10 SS OS
|
GFIMANRMNANNN fam OC) aN NA ANN
rt
“| re
‘HS S$
Mig Sry SWI AWOON mt AIAI SM NI SID SO SD CO 26
UO Ue
“UO Ue
“a Sn
"UO ULBYT|
"g fa “9
"mO ULRAT
“UO UlBY
“ar fq “y
do Ulex
‘HON CH
‘HO WIRY
aN
‘UO Ue
NN
“uO Uley
“ay Aq *NT
“UO We}
“NT.
“INO FFI §
Seq oe Sse | se
Nm OI1wWd FOwWO A A WNANMMAAwMWMNHWwW
‘a es
aN Hee N =n
|
Set NS
AAI MN MING
I
1
Ls I oo re
HNO Hip Or DDO r4 PN OO Fin Or OOD Ort
ae ase
Mid
night
Noon.
NNAIANAA ON
— 20d dose A) eee aiaie
Meteorological Observations. xi
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of June 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
i
oa
ie 8 _ | Range of the Barometer = L ‘Range of the Tempera-
gs during the day. fa: | ture during the day.
oom i
Date. | & Bo | | e z
¢2° | Max. | Min. | Diff. | $3 | Max. | Min. | Dif.
Ss ~ 8 | — a)
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Oo ) Oo )
1 29.589 | 29.654 | 29.513 0.141 89.1 98.8 81.0 | 17.8
2 587 654 521 133 90.3 99.6 83.6 16.0
3 612 .696 507 .189 87.3 98.0 78.5 | 19.5
4 .586 .653 515 .138 88.3 98.5 108) 18.7
5 054 615 496 119 90.2 97.4 84.4 | 13.0
6 539 586 467 119 88.9 99.2 79.4 | 19.8
7 648 .756 55d 20] 80.5 86.0 73.8 | 12.2
8 647 701 573 .128 83.5 91.2 78.0 | 13.2
9 .638 .699 564 135 84.5 92.8 78.5 | 14.3
10 .656 .730 582 148 86.5 95.0 79.6 | 15.4
11 .658 722 589 133 83.9 | 92.0 81.2 | 10.8
12 .616 .665 550 DS 86.1 94.5 S08. | 13.7
13 -609 .639 563 O76 84.1 90.4 81.2 9.2
14 .629 .669 583 .O86 82.4, 88.0 80.0 8.0
15 647 684) .600 O84 82.3 87.2 80.2 7.0
16 621 .686 543 143 82.5 87.0 80.0 7.0
17 506 594, 419 175 83.7 90.0 79.8 | 10.2
18 400 455 325 .130 83.8 87.2 80.2 7.0
19 391 446 346 100 85.3 91.2 | 81.4 9.8
20 437 521 AOL .120 84.3 89.0 81.4 7.6
21 - 532 593 480 113 82.3 86.0 80.5 5.5
22 .569 .609 529 .080 81.4, 85.4 78.0 7.4
23 585 .632 532 .L00 84.4 90.4: 81.0 9.4
24 579 .629 525 104 86.0 92.0 82.4 9.6
— 26 634 707 .589 118 85.9 92.3 83.0 9.3
26 657 .696 596 .LOO 83.7 88.6 80.0 8.6
27— 584 .661 507 154 85.0 | 92.2 81.6 | 10.6
28 494, 541 413 128 84.6 93.0 78.8 | 14.2
29 497 561 ALL .150 83.8 92.2 790 | 132
30> .576 .626 .536 .090 81.5 | 4.6
84.6 | 80.0 |
|
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
ase Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
ithe day.
rt
xii Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,
im the mouth of June 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.) |
ca
: . as Se S Ps Ser gy os eae is
Bice ogbenl Bo]. Rosin et of cian ae ae
EY ie fo) ry oO Se a "se | ~ wee
Fe o i aed op 2 fy an =|
oa © > B=) 2 | gee | ee
= = Ee fo) ° = ee oad = Oo 2 4p
= 3 nl oe iS Be |F Sa | oes
Date.| *. ;: 3 A r oa "eh.© Ho | #28 os
22 (8 | Bo) 8.) 29°) 2a ee
Pel 2|2| as | 2s | BS | feels o8
(S) 4 : = x= 6S i Ss
fal) Bo ) peel SFL 8s | eee ae
= Br ee eae = a7 | =
0 Oo oI Inches. | T.:gr. | Tisgr
1 82.9 6.2 | 79.2 9:9 0.976 10.35 BY hf 0.73
2 83.8 69 | 79.9 10.4 998 06 4.07 72
“3 79.7 7.5 | 75.1 12.2 857 9.12 .29 68
4 81.0 7.3 | 76.6 ey 8? A 26 69
fn) 84.1 6.1 | 80.4 9.8 1.014 10.72 3.87 74
6 81.6 7-0 \etiee Be 0.916 9.71 4.33 69
7 75.9 4.6 | 72.7 7.8 792 8.54 2.44 78
w8 78.9 4.6 | 75.7 7.8 873 9.36 64 78
9 79.4 5.1 | 75.8 8.7 876 37 "98 76
10 80.1 6.4 | 76.5 10.2 890 00 3.60 73
11 50.6 5.3 | 76.9 9.0 908 .68 19 75
12 80.8 es Bae or | 9.0 913 74 21 75
13 89.3 S28 1) ie 6.5 928 93 2.28 81
14, (ys) 25.) (8.2 4.3 943 10.14 1.47 87
15 80.3 2.0 | 78.9 3.4 967 AL 17 90
16 80.2 2.3 | 78.6 3.9 958 30 34 89
17 80.9 2.8 | 78.9 4.8 © 967 37 70 86
18 81.2 2.6 | 79.4 4A .983 4 56 87
19 81.2 4.1 | 78.3 7.0 949 14 2.50 .80
20 80.5 a8 .|: 77.8 6.5 934 9:99 .29 81
21 79.7 2.6.) 719 4.4 937 10.08 1.50 t 38%
22 79.2 Bee TT 3.7 931 .02 25 . 89
23 80.9 3.5 | 78.4 6.0 952 19 2.12 83
24 82.3 Bt || LOS 6.3 .992 59 3 9] 82
25 82.4) ab 1: 79.9 6.0 a08 .65 .22 83
26 81.4 BD \ 2d ee 3.9 995 .66 1.41 88
27 Sh.7 3.3 | 79.4 5.6 -983 AQ 2.04 84
28 80.6 4.0 | 77.8 6.8 934 9.99 40 81
29 80.5 3.3 | 78.2 5.6 .946 10.13 1.97 84
30 80.0 1s allen’) 2.6 .967 Ad 0.90 92
31
Meteorologicai Observations. xiii
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutta,
in the month of June 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
63 Range of the Barometer ea Range of the Tempera-
ae for each hour during as ture for each hour
a = = the month. e during the month.
Hour. a Ba Ag |
N i
eco | Max. | Min. | Diff. | 32 | Max. | Min. | Dif.
ag am |
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. o ° ° Oo
Mid-
night.| 29.587 | 29.693 | 29.394 | 0.299 82.4, 87.5 79.6 7.9
1 577 675 379 296 82.1 87.0 79.2 7.8
2 368 | .661| .373| (288 | 819 | 870 | 79.0 | 8.0
3 ‘562| .657| .865| .292 | 816 | 87.0 | 788| 82
4, 561 .668 360 308 81.4, 87.0 78.4 8.6
5 576 .689 370 319 81.1 87.0 78.2 | 8.8
6 589 703 383 320 81.3 86.8 78.0) 8.8
7 602 | .721| .398| .323 | 823 | 884 | 78.0) 10.4
8 614 .730 A038 327 84.2 89.6 77.0 | 12.6
9 623 756 401 35d 86.4 91.8 74.0 | 17.8
10 621 .736 ALO 326 87.6 94.2 73.8 | 20.4
11 .608 .696 AOA, 292 88.5 96.2 74.4 | 21.8
Noon. 593 684 .396 | .288 89.3 | 97.6 | 75.6 | 22.0
1 572 .670 383 287 89.9 98.6 79.8 | 18.8
2 549 .679 365 314 89.8 99.6 80.0 | 19.6
3 5384 .649 44 305 89.7 99.4 80.0 | 19.4
4 522 625 325 B90 89.1 99.2 89.8 | 18.4
5 522 .620 335 285 87.8 97.2 81.6 | 15.6
6 535 620 340 280 85.8 93.6 81.4 | 12.2
7 552 639 356 283 84.3 91.0 | 80.0 | 11.0
8 571 664: 372 292 83.5 89.0 79.4 9.6
9 589 .681 388 .293 83.1 88.0 79.4 8.6
10 .§00 686 405 281 82.7 87.8 78.8 9.0
ll 593 .672 399 273 82.5 87.8 79.4: 8.4
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the month.
Meteorological Observations.
xliv
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of June 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
‘£m Sutoq uo
~ernyes ojo;dutoo ‘A41p
“TWIN }{ JO voisep Uva],
MOTJBANYes oyaTdu09
io} poamber mode,
JO WYS10M [CUOHIPPY
"IIV JO YOO} oIquy v UI
smode A JO 4YSt0 AA UBT
“mmodz A
JO o010F OSL UOT
OE
May sa0qe qing Lacy
‘yutog meq poynduoy
40 \\ oA0ge qmng tcp
*10JOULOUL
JUL WOE 99M WHO,
Hour.
—— | ~
=)
EWADDTOOAOANMONMN AHODaOMMOA OOM
BHRHRARRQH RRA RSSSRRNZeeRH
o
kb © by 10 SHE © 20 16 FS =f (© © 10 QI =H 20 St SO RS
SIAAASSR SASS SPSAIASCAPSRSS
al GN on ~ OOO st ;
Freak DM OO AIO 10 DS P19 0 CO ir)
ROARS SRR aas SSSARRSHSSAA
-) for) oa e a-eay S C
MOODOOODMRMANA es Hh o> © oO Hh ib armar)
SHS Sb to ow MD SSSSRSRSSS3S
O> O> Od Od. O> D2 Ss Od G2 Gd S> OD O2 S23 Od Od D2 D2 OS} G2 GD G3. Gd
Ree 8) ee eee Dee) ee et ee Oy 8 4 ae, ee OMS ate een ete nets ile” alel 7-6
SPR) 8 pie PN TAS Ee PUP Ee eye ee Pale oa eerie! eae Ere meets! Mile Rela mia tg > talh ts
CPs) ee Cae Ce ee ek Cl Sn i ii aie S
DDOWDDAOnm~DOODHOMmwM~E
Peewee eee eee
6 Hod ONIN 06
Iw bee bebe Dee ROS eee Re
1D HAN © © OO OD Hrd rs
ota iss yea eis my) 8, Ve shy Ce) Me
ON AAA tm N OO 190
Oy ae a UN el a tanner te
——— |
Oi XO AN FO OO 10 D
a eon Ad ee OE. en . Kee re . Vee ae. ee ea
AAIDGDAaIQanocsa as
meme em ike he DO DH OH DW BW
NANNANHROSOSGS
COODOODODOOOOSDE
|
|
HAO FIimIomwoad- MOAI FID ORD ROK
ae oe
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological Observations, xlv
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the mouth of June 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
Wwe 2
a= g ro “7: OG ert
96 |as Prevailing 7
“ig & 5 direction of the a General aspect of the Sky.
S\aelecg| Wa | eS
S..
o {Inches | tb
1} 130 o| S. & variable. 0.6 |Clear to 4. 4. m. Seatd. ~i to 11
| A. M. clear afterwards.
211000; ... (8.8. E. 1.0 |Clear to 8 a. m. Scatd. ~i to 5
p. M. Clear afterwards. Light-
ning to N. W. at 1l. p.m.
3 | 127.0; 0.20 |S. S. E. & variable.| 4.0 Scatd. clouds to 9a. m. Scatd.
\ni to 6 p. M. Overcast after-
wards. High wind at 2 a. m. &
7p. M. Lightning to N. W. at
midnight. Rain at 75 P. M.
a. ne |S OS. S.-W. 2.0 Overcast to 4 a. Mm. Clear to 2
p.M. Scatd.\ni to 7 p. M. Clear
afterwards. [P. M.
6/ 133.0; ... |S.& 8.8. W. 5.5 \Chiefly clear. High wind at 10
6| 125.0} 0.26 |S. S. W.&S. 10.0 |Clear to 4 a.m. Scatd. “i to 6p.
M. Overcast afterwards. High
wind at Noon & from 63 to 10
p. M. Rain from 7 to 9 Pp. M.
7|114.0! 0.32 |Variable. ... (Overcast to 2 p.m. “i & Wi
afterwards. High wind at 3
A.M. Rain from 8 to 10 4. Mm.
0.94 |S. E. & E. S. E. 2.0 |Stratoni to 4 a. mM. Seatd. mi
to 5 p. M. Clouds of different
kinds afterwards. Thunder at
6&7 p.m.Lightning to N. W.
at 9p.M. Rain at 7 a.m. & 6p.m.
E. & 8S. E. 3.8 ‘Clear to 8 a. mM. Scatd. ~i to 6
p. M. Clear afterwards. High
wind at 53 Pp. M.
S.S.E.& E. by 8.| 9.9 |Clear to 7 a. ™. Scatd. “ito 6 p.
M., clear afterwards.
E., E. 8S. E.&S.E.} 1.0 |Clear to 7 a. mu. Seatd. “i to 11
A.M. Seatd. Wi afterwards.
Slight rain at 1p. m.
S. E., E. &E. 8. E.| 1.2 |Clear to 5 a. m. Scatd. ~i to 1
P. M. \_ito 7 Pp. m. \vi after-
wards. Thin rain at 43 P. M.
as? ... 0.06 |E. & E. S. E. 4.8 \Clear to 7 a. M. \W_i to 1 P. M.
Overcast to 8 p.M. Scatd. \i
afterwards. High wind at 2
p. M. Light rain at 103 a. M.-
14! ... | 0.66 |H,E. byN.&variable| 0.2 |Scatd. \i to 9 a. M. Overcast to
6 p. mM. Stratoni to 9 Pp. m.
Seatd. \i afterwards. Thun-
der at 1 & 4p. m. Rain at 64
a. M. & from1l1ga.M.to4p.M,
as 0.23 |S. E. & E. ... |Seatd \i to 6 4.M. Overcast to 6
p.M.Stratoni afterwards. Rain
; ; at95 a. mM. & from 2 to4g P.M.
8 | 125°0
9 | 126.2
10 | 127.0
11 | 126.6
A
12 | 130.0
xivi Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of June 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
= : es Ns 1S
“3 § Sy 2 | Prevailing g 2
.| ,. 8 Ics 2 2] direction of the ana General aspect of the Sky.
= Mrs acs o MO p Kg
8) Ss lead Wind. S ©
_| © |Enches| | bb |
LEiyh 2 POLIS: SS ae .... |Stratoni to 2 a. m. Overcast to
10 a. m. Clouds of different
kinds afterwards. Rain at 3, 4,
9 & 104.™.
17 | 125.2| 0.12 | Variable. _.., |Seatd. \i to 3 4. m. 71 to Noon
Overcast to 4p. M. \_i after-
wards. Rain from | to 3 P. M.
199 45, 0.14 | Variable. ... |Seatd. \ito 7 a. Mm. Overcast
; afterwards. Rain at 10 4. M.
43 & 105 P.M.
19 | 113.5| 0.06 |E.S. E. & 8. E. 0.5 wito5 a.m. 71 &\Witod P.M.
Clear afterwards. Slight rain
at midnight 1a. um. & 15 P.M.
20 | 128.0] 0.04 |S. E. & E. N. E. 3.4 |Stratoni to 5 a. m. Overcast to 3
: p. M. Scatd. ~i afterwards.
Light rain at 6 a. mu. 3, 4, 73
& 95 P.M.
Et .. |S. S. E.& variable. 1.6 |Scatd.i to 4.4. mu. Stratoni to 4
: Pp. M. Wi afterwards. Slight
rain at 74 & 103 a. M.
22/ ... | 1.10 |S,S.S.E.&8.S.W. 1.5 |Overcast nearly the whole day.
Rain from midnight to 10 a.
m. at Noon, 7 ana 8 Pp. M.
PB alae 0.06 |S. 8. W.&S. byW.| 1.9 |Clouds of different kinds. Rain
at 55 P. M.
24,|124.0| ... IS. W.&S.S. W. 0.4 |\Nito 7 a. m. Stratoni to 7 P. M.,
-clear afterwards.
25/1340) ... |S. &S, S. W. 0.3 |Scatd. “i to 9 a. M. Overcast
to 8p. M. Stratoni afterwards
Light rain at 5 & 63 P. M.
26 | "O26 71S. a. Were Se 4.6 |Overcast nearly the whole day.
High wind at 53 Pp. M. Rain at
13,72 & 104. u., & from 6 to
8 P.M.
27 | 124.0! 0.37 |S,S. W. & S.S. W.| 1.0 |Stratoni to 5 a. ™. Seatd. “i to Ke.
2 p.m. Stratoni afterwards. ~
Rain at 34 & 7 P. M.
28|118.0| 0.24 |/S.S. W. & W.S.W.| 1.0 \Wito 44. m. Stratoni to 4p. M.
Overcast afterwards. Rain
from 5 to 10 Pp. M.
29 1B. 0.69 | Variable. _., |Seatd. Wi to 7 a. M. “ito 2 P. M.
Overcast to 8 Pp. M. Clear
| afterwards. Rain at 4 P. M,
SU ae 0.14 |S. E. & 8.8. E. 1.05 iClear to 44. u.. Wi to 10 4, M.
Overcast aiterwards. Ram
| from 11 a. M. to 3 P. M.
\ 1 Cirri, —i Strati,7i Cumuli,\—i Cirro-strati, ~.i Cumulo strati,~~ Nimbi,
“™) Cirre cumuli. :
*Fell since 2 p. M. of the 15th
Meteorological Observations. xlvii
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutia,
in the month of June 1867.
Monruty REsvtrs.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.576
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. ut. on the 7th 4, 29.756
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 p.m.on the 18th ... 29.325
Extreme vange of the Barometer during the month Ee -. 0.431
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures _... a ef ... 29.636
Ditto ditto Min. ditto 1 f. 20.618
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month .., a. % O.'8g
te)
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month 84.9
Max. ‘Temperature occurred at 2 Pp. M. on the 2nd 99.6
Min. Temperature occurred at 10 a. M. on the 7th 73.8
Extreme range of the Temperature ag the month 25.8
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. 91.7
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, me 80.2
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. 11.5
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... | 80.7
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 4.2
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month ‘- iS io hia
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . (ie
Feit
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., dale we 0.934
Troy grain.
Mean Wei eh of Vapour for the month 4. 29,09
Additional Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.50
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.80
Inches.
Rained 23 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours Hi ae 1.10
Total amount of rain during the month Be 6.12
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month
Prevailing direction of the UE eae §. B.S. SW. & S.
xlvul
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of June 1867.
wn
Sal
4
5
MD
3
AS
a
4
3
&
4
86
—
is)
3
w
wD
eo)
ay
3
S
8
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog
articular wind blew, together with the number of days on
cular wind was blowing, it rained.
my p
which at the same hour, when any parti
Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour a
"U0 UIeIY
“MAq’N
‘uo UlB yy)
“M'N'N
‘uo Ue
“MUN M
“uO UIeYy
|
"NAQ* MA
"uO UleY
"M
‘dO Ue
‘g Aq "MA
“UO UIey,
“AAS MY:
‘uo Ley
_ TS
‘HO ULBY
MSS
UO UIByT
Av aq"
‘uo ULey
'$
"UO ULeyy
WT kq S
“UO UB
ic es
UO WIRY
oS
“TO Wey
ic ict
‘uo ULey
"g Aq -F
‘UO ULeIT
ici
‘HO Urey
‘Uo ULey
‘a ON
"HO Uleyy
oh No
"HO UleyY]
‘a oO N
‘do Uley
"a Ag “NT
uo Uley
“N
‘Ino}y|
Meteorological Observations.
i
di)
Ih
SAAN OM * — re
el = Axes
Sa MANNA TINA TFWM AMAA Aw
re [on een ON | lS! — Ane
NA NMW1II NM M1 Bio Ke AODMDADMAKNMIIOMMAN
ae = _—
AMON RAN AMON SS
aol ie
SAAN N SS
N
OANA ANN MAIN 19H 6 O10 ee
ae
cam) Ca Une Cos bY er,
|
———
ANNTANAAAN
rm
ri Loe OP | re re re
al 4 4
DW FARHAN AMAWAMAADDOWMONO
N FA ANNAN 4 4
ANAM AOROATAIMRERHWAMHIO GH
a ge Bvt
NMMNAMNMMAMANNNANMAAANANAN
Le | eer
AVTNANASN
a FNM 4S ANAS
AN
AA wWwoARKRKRMWAANAMAMAAAN
i
—————
NX
AWAAAS rs]
St gy eo ib Om OOO SUM c win Ob eee
Sep hae) ae
| '
Calcutta
TGA Meuiny LLL monthly Aeacliregs ( Aedivced to 32° Fah) andl Tha rrcsn, eacy warecoternd of
TOL DD DL Surveyor Lennali Cfpece: for tat, 10-Years 1966/ bs
i
tits
)
|
Ayr ey |
tt ett
e+etit il
ere a a
te tee tt
CEE Se
4etttrt
A Tyeyeraren)
i++
i++
l++
+4
trl
prrvpadd
R
s
N
.
S
S
“4
SP SW AHRS
ee
ete) till
#*#t 10
+tt
+
Guam, Ce eer tet Ue
Fetttoyeril4
ee ee
Photolithographea at the Surveyor General's Office,
Calcutta, June 1363.
i
‘
i
‘
spon vradlicipa vem bale v
° My ew
uur oy EE
SS ed
November
a
Mreseserss onNsizsa sores woMieseae7es WONiry 6
October
wee
=%
September
NB The Readings are Reduced to te Standard temperature of S2* Far
US OFFICE CALCUTTA.
Ange
Tay
AS REGISTERED AT THE SURVEYOR GENERALS OFFICE CALCUTTA.
MradesczeewoNsas¢sovevemMses sere amnNszsese7ssmuMizseg o7 sa e0Nie34 sera swiMizsase7srwanizs (3 a7 88 wil
AS REGISTERED AT THE SURVEYOR GENERA’
i
ees
AND OF NEAN RAIN FALL.
TABLE OF BAROMETRIC CURVES FOR EACH MONTH OF THE YEAR, FROM 1855 TO
TA 30N12
TABLE OF HYGROMETRIG CURVES FOR EACH MONTH OF THE YEAR, FROM 1855 TO 1864-
resets swMi 25456
NB The Rendings are Reduced to the Standard temperature of 32° Fahr
se7ss wie
February
January
dp etnabs si
1 pa? | <
_
¢ i
Meteorological Observations, | xlix
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of July 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Cit ‘
28 | Range of the Barometer = # |Range of the Tempera-
2 Be during the day. ae ture during the day.
‘o 2 by
Date. | Bo | B =
g2% | Max. | Min. | Dif. | $3 | Max. | Min. | Dif.
Si ~ o = EH
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. re) o oO o
1 29.591 | 29.631 | 29.524 0.107 82.8 89.4, 80.0 9.4
2 553 .608 489 .119 81.1 87.2 78.2 9.0
3 .548 .627 498 .129 W771 79.4 74.8 4.6
4 .656 .708 594 114 81.6 88.6 76.0 | 12.6
6 701 .740 .650 .090 83.2 87.2 80.2 7.0
6 .706 .748 .634 .114 84.6 91.2 81.4 9.8
7 .681 Jol .636 .095 84.2 ' 87.5 79.6 7.9
8 675 | .722|/ .619| .103| 832 | 886 | 79.0] 9.6
9 .684, .730 .625 .L05 83.1 88.0 79.0 9.0
10 .666 .708 .605 .L03 84.1 89.3 80.4 8.9
ll .645 .690 .579 <ELl 84.5 90.2 82.0 8.2
ls” .666 715 .597 .118 85.2 90.0 81.4 8.6
13 .610 .663 525 .138 86.4 91.6 82.0 9.6
14 .537 .599 .458 141 86.0 | 93.5 | 81.4) 12.1
15 .482 .536 .401 .135 87.3 93.7 83.0 | 10.7
16 451 494, 375 .119 86.7 92.4, 83.0 9.4
17 436 .486 .388 .098 85.1 90.2 82.0 8.2
18 .482 .525 .430 .095 84.5 89.4 81.7 ey
19 .490 641 422 119 84.0 88.4 80.5 7.9
20 436 481 .370 ah 84.7 90.2 82.2 8.0
21 .396 444 314 .130 85.5 91.2 81.4 9.8
22 465 536 .385 161 81.7 86.0 79.6 6.4
23 .613 657 457 .L00 83.5 87.2 80.4 6.8
24, 501 544 447 .097 83.9 | 88.5 81.2 7.3
25 494, 537 449 .088 82.6 86.0 81.0 5.0
26 O21 559 .476 .083 83.0 87.8 80.6 7.2
27 .623 .667 453 114 83.8 . 88.6 80.0 8.6
28 487 534 419 115 83.2 . 86.0 81.2 4.8
29 485 661 .426 .135 81.7 85.0 78.5 6.5
30 584, 641 .026 115 82.1 87.5 78.4 9.1
9:2
31 598 .650 546 104 82.9 88.2 79.0 |
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Lo idan Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
the day.
i “Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Culcutta,
an the month of July 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elemente
dependent thereon.—(Continwed.)
4 4 - Cy 5 . a be '
5 2/82 S ga | = 8 | Bee
a = 5 3 Su | Boe | Sas
2 o ry 5 - o ap 2 8 =) © |
= | 2]. | 8 | 8 | 33.) oes
Fa 5 Be de 2 SS |F FS | ot
Date. 45 a <j i=) 3 ao oH. 2 & H oO “4 =)
—_- == 3 =e Sy cae SHeo.| 2087
Fe i. | 2) 24 | Be UES Saas
sal] los | ge | g¢ |aee| see
S| Ae ie S| ae a
fe) fy) Oo ty) Inches..| Tingr.: | “aes
] 80.7 2.1 | .Goee 3.6 0.976 10.48 1:27 0.89
2 79.7 1.4) Fz 2.4, 961 37 0.80 93
3 75.9 1:2) fel 20 807 9.30 .62 94
4, 78.7 2.9 | 76.7 4.9 902 70 1.64 86
5 80.6 2.6 | 78.8 4.4, .964 | 10.38 53 87
6 81.3 3:3 | -7H0 Bio .970 aay f 2.02 84
"4 81.5 2.7''| 79s6 4.6 989 58 1.66 .86
8 80.6 2.6 87a8 4.4 964 36 53 87
9 79.8 3.3 |. 775 5.6 925 9.92 94, 84
10 80.9 3.2: 1787 5.4 961 | 10.31 .90 84
11 81.5 3.0 | 79.4 5.1 .983 51 84 85
12 82.0 a.2: |“ FOs8 5.4 995 64 .97 84
13 82.4. 4.0 | 79.6 6.8 989 5A 2.52 81
14 82.2 3.8 | 79.5 6.5 .986 bl 40 81
15 82.9 4.4 | 80.3 70 | LOL 76 65 .80
16 81.9 4.8 | 79.0 ed 0.970 53 .85 78
17 81.1 4.0 | 78.3 6.8 949 14 43 81
18 81.2 3.3 | 78.9 5.6 .967 BA OL 84
19 81.2 2.8 {99.8 4.8 976 A5 1.72 .86
20 81.6 3.1 | 79.4 5.3 .983 51 91 85
21 81.6 3.9 | 78.9 6.6 .967 32 2.40 81
32) 79,4, 2.3 | 77.8 3.9 O34 .05 1.32 .88
23 80.9 2.6 1) ged 4.4 973 45 55 87
24 81.1 28 | eo 4.8 973 42 71 86
25 80.6 2.0 | 79.2 3.4, .976 50 18 90
26 80.0 3.0. RIO 5.1 .937 .08 76 85
27 80.6. Ie io) Fea 5.4, 952 21 .89 84
28 80.4, 2.8 | 78.4 4.8 952 ell .68 .86
29 79.6 Bale eral 3.6 943 14 .23 89
30 80.1 ae alee ect 3.4 961 35 16 .90
31 80.8 DA} 2798 3.6 979 51 .28 89
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constanta.
Meteorological Observations, li
Abstract of the Results of the Ilourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the mouth of July 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Ss °| Range of the Barometer =. | Range of the Tempera
358 .; fer each hour during aS ture for each hour
ce = the month. 2 during the month.
G ae baal
Hour.| © Eo. = E
S23 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | $2 | Max. | Min. | Diff
as ae
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ra) 0 ra) o
Mid-
might.) 29.572 | 29.718 29.393 | 0.328 81.9 84.7 77.2 7.5
1 562 715 093 22 81.8 84.4 76.4 8.0
2 553 711 085 326 81.6 84.2 76.0 8.2
oo 545 05 399 306 81.4 83.6 76.3 7.3
4 539 02 ALL 391 81.2 83.4 | 76.0 | .7.4
5 549 114 A406 308 81.0 83.4 | 76.0 7.4
6 560 726 413 313 81.1 83.6 76.2 7.4
ey 677 \ .745| .416| .929 | 819 | 847 | 77.9) 68
8 587 745 436 309 82.9 86.4 77.8 8.6
9 596 748 443 £305 84.1 88.5 78.3 | 10.2
10 596 A3 439 04 85.3 89.4 77.4 | 12.0
mnt .590 447 416 dal 86.4 91.2 77.8 | 13.4
Noon. 577 726 A404 322 87.0 91.8 76.8 | 15.0
1 557 695 .383 312 87.3 92.8 76.0 | 16.8
ee 535 .679 .369 310 87.1 93.7 74.8 | 18.9
3 518 .678 302 326 86.5 93.2 75.8 | 17.4
4 .506 .659 14 34d 86.1 92.8 75.8 | 17.0
a) 504 .650 316 334 $5.4...|> 91.32.) 76.2 | “Taek
6 515 670 a2 338 84.1 90.6 76.4 | 14.2
ee 534 .689 307 332 83.4 87.6 76.6 | 11.0
8 500 704 .368 336 83.0 85.4 | 76.6 8.8
9 573 el 387 332 82.7 85.8 77.0 8.8
10 586 735 405 339 82.4) 85.6 77.0 8.6
dl 77.4 7.6
581 32 2399 333 82.0 85.0
a
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
- bours. during the month.
li Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
im the month of July 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
ht of Vapo
e foot of air
ght of
Hour.
complete satura-
tion being unity
Mean Wet Bulb The
mometer
Computed Dew Point
Vapour required for
Mean degree of Humi-
complete saturation
dity,
Mean Elastic force of
g
Dry Bulb above Dew
Vapour
Dry Bulb above Wet
Point
in a Cubi
Mean Wei
Additional Wei
°
°
°
Inches. |. T. gr. | T. gr
0.970 | 10.44 1.00 0.91
967 4] 0.99 91
967 4] 93 92
961 35 92 92
958 32 89 92
958 34 80 93
967 43 74 93
964 38 1.06 91
970 42 37 88
970 40 81 85
964 29 2.35 81
967 30 76 79
UE CD DNS ee ee et
POOWDWRADANN
STANT ST ST sae sass
WODOMDMDMMDMAMS
OWOOCWDOAANDOOO
NT O> OF 09 GD DO DD DO DD NO bY NO
AHH OH DE OIWNTO CO
pat bes
Noon.| 82.0 5.0 | 79.0 8.0 .970 33 .96 18
1 82.0 5.3 | 78.8 8.5 964 25 3.16 76
2 82.1 5.0 | 79.1 8.0 973 36 2.97 78
3 81.7 4.8 | 78.8 ak .964 27 83 78
4 81.6 4.5 | 78.4 i's 952 15 .80 78
5 81.1 4.3 | 78.1 7.3 943 .08 .60 .80
6 80.9 3.2 | 78.7 5.4 .961 ol 1.90 84
7 80.6 2.8 | 78.6 4.8 . .958 .28 .68 86
8 80.5 2.5 | 78.7 4.3 .961 33 49 87
9 80.4: 2.3 | 78.8 3.9 | .964 36 36 88
10 80.3 2.1 | 78.8 3.6 964 36 .25 89
ii 80.1 1.91) 78.8 3.2
964 .38 09 91
1
eee
Ct
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological Observations. lik
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
in the month of July 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.
eine =
> o mM
3 8 28 v Prevailing Bs S
MS tthe & dj 3 direction of the «. | General aspect of the Sky.
2) 83 lace ind. =e
AS" (s); = 3
Se R
o |Inches! Ib
= ee 0.09 |S.S. W. & variable.| 3.7 |Stratoni to 8 a. M. -i to 1 p.m.
Stratoni afterwards. Thun-
der at 3 Pp. M., slight rain at
§&10s;a.m.1,3& 4p. m.
High wind at 23 p. m.
$V. 3: 1.37 |S. S.W. &S. W. 1.0 (Clear to 4a.m.Stratoni to 8 a.m.
Overcastafterwards.Rainfrom
lto4p.m. & at8 &10} Pp. m.
3S) <.. 1° 8:98 [W. 8. W. 12.0 Overcast. High wind at 2} & 74
4. M. Lightning at 1 a. Mm.
Rain whole day.
4 | 119.0 | *1.68 |S.S. E. 1.0 |Overcast to 6 a.m. “i & “i to
6 pv. m. Clear afterwards.
; Rain from midnight to 6 a. m.
6)... | 0.05 |IS.& 8S. S. W. + |Stratoni to 10 a. m. i after-
wards, slight rain at midnight
& at 95 P.M.
6/119.5| 0.21 |S.S.W.&S. W. 5.0 \Clear to 5 a. M. “ito3 P.M.
Overcast afterwards. Thun-
der at 4p. m. Rain at 4 & 5
Pp. M. High wind at 42 p. m.
7! ... | 0.75 |S. 8. W. 1.1 \Overcast nearly the whole day.
Rain at 11 p. .
s| .. | 0.65 |S. W.&S.8. W. 1.0 |Overeast nearly the whole day.
Rain at 6 p.m. & from 9 to
ll Pp. M.
9/ 129.0! 0.23 18.8. W. &S. 3.8 Overcast to 5 a. mM. \ni to 7 P. M.
Overcast afterwards. High
wind at 82 p.m. Rain at mid-
nightl} am&from8} toll pm
BS ot _3.W.&S8. W. 0.7 |Overcast to 10 4. M., clouds of
” Bie . different kinds afterwards.
11 | 122.0! ... |S.S. W. 1.0 \)\~i to 6 a. Mm. \Witolla.m.
Overcast to 5 p. m., clouds of
different kinds afterwards.
12) 126'4| 0.05 }W.S.W.&S.S.W.| 9-2 |Overcast to 5 a. M. \Wi to 9 a.m
-ito2 pm Overcast afterwards
Slight rain froml to 4 4. Mm.
13/126.5| ... |S.&S.S.W. we |Wito7 a. M. nito3 P. M., stra-
toni to 7 Pp. M. \wiafterwards.
14| 125.0} 1.02 |S. S. W. & variable} 2-9 |Scuds from §, to 8 a. m., scatd.
“ito 4p. mM. Overcast after-
wards. Rain from 5 to 7. p. M.
15/116.0| 0.03 |S. & S. E. 0.8 |Stratoni to 5 a. M. \ito 84. M.
niafterwards. Rain at 3}P.M.
-16/)128.0| ... JE. N.E. & E. 1.2 |Nito64.M. “i& Witod P. M.
Nu afterwards.
*F'el] since 4p. M. of the 3rd to 6 a. M. of the 4th
liv Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the [Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Culeutta, |
an the month of July 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.
eae oS
o8 85 Prevailing 4s
ees eer a ee ¥
$s ss = 5 < 5 direction of the rie General aspect of the Sky.
& 5 s No Wind. = z
ee 2 Sale RD
‘ o |Inehes ib
17! 104.0| 0.08 |E. & E. S. E. 4.2 \Stratoni to 104. mM. ~ito4 Pp. m.
\i to 8 p. M., stratoni after-
wards. Brisk gale at 17 P. M.
Rain at ll a.m. noon &5p. Mm.
Cog eos? 0.19 |E.S. E. & 8.8. E. 5.7 |Stratoni tonoon “i &\Wiafter-
wards. High wind at 103 a.
m. Rain from 10 a. m., to2 P.
M., & at 63 & 11 P. mM.
AO He 0.25 |S. 8. E. & S. E. ... |\ito 3am Overcast to 94 M\.-i
to 2 pm \Wi to 5 PM\_i after-
wards. Rain from 4 to 734M.
203/°129.0" 3.0 1S2 Sik. ... |Stratoni to 7a. M. “i& stratoni
afterwards.
21/ 128.0! 0.04 |E. & variable. 0.8 |Scatd. ~i to 6 Pp. mM. Overcast
afterwards. Light rain at 2 a.
u.2$,34 p.m.& from8 to 11P.m.
> 0.26 |S, W.&S.S. W. 6.4 |Overcast tol Pp. M. “ito 7 P.M.
| Clear afterwards. High wind
from 10 a. M. to noon. Rain
from midnight to 3 a.m. &
from 8 a. M. to noon.
23; ... | 0.20 |S. W,S8.&S.by E.| 0.2 |\Wito2amOvercast. to noon\niaf-
terwards. Rainat3,6,11&noon
24)... 0.12 |S. by E,S.&8.8.W.) 0.2 ito 7 p. m., clear afterwards.
Rain from6}to9am. Kat 125au
25/ 113.0] 0.24 |S. & 8. S. W. 0.2 |Scatd, clouds to 8 a. m. Over-
cast to 3 Pp. M, scatd., clouds
to 7 p.m. clear afterwards.
: Rain after intervals.
26 | 124.0; 0.60 /S.S. W. & variable.) ... |\wi to noon. Overcast to 5 P.
mM. Seatd. ‘1 afterwards.
Rain from 2} to 5 P. M.
Qik bi. 0.11 |S. W. & W. S. W. 1.5 |Seatd. \_i to 2 a. mu. clear to 6
A. m. Overcast afterwards.
Lightning to N at 8 p.m.Rain
at 3 p.m. & from7 to 9 P. M.
28 0.05 |S. W.& 5S. S. W. 0.3 |Overcast. Rain at 8 & 9 a. uM.
29 1.68 |S. W.& 8S. 8S. W. 0.4 |Overcast.Rain from 73 a. M. to
lp. um. & from 6 to 10 P. mM.
30]... 0.23 |S. & S. by E. .... |Overeast to noon~i to 8 P. M.\i
afterwards. Lightning to N W
at 8p.m. Rain trom 35to8am.
Bl, Soc 1.38 8. & 8.8. W. 1.6 [Clear to 3 a.u. Stratoni to 9 A.
mu.Overcast to 6 P.M. Stratoni
afterwards.Thunder & Light-
ning at 24 p.w. Rain at 104.
mM. & from2t9 6P.M _
\ i Cirri, —i Strati,>i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~ Numbi,
“i Cirro cumuli. |
Meteorological Observations. lv
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of July 1867.
Montuty REsvutts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. v.. 29.557
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. at. on the 6th ... 29.748
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 p.m. on the 21st , 29.314
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month = .. 0.434
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... va oe ... 29.607
Ditto ditto Min. ditto ; ¥ ... 29.494
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... . O.115
fo)
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month - 83.7
Max. ‘Temperature occurred at 2 p. m. on the 15th 93.7
Min. Temperature occurred at 2 Pp. m. on the 3rd 74.8
Extreme range of the ‘Temperature during the month 18.9
Mean of the daily Max. 'emperature .. 88.6
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, 80.3
8.3
Mean daily range of the ‘cia, tap etd the month..
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... 80.7
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 3.0
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month 78.6
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed 1 mean Dew- -point . 5.1
: Enoki,
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., sas ss O.0me
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month sg O28
Additional wink of Vapour required for complete saturation a. 3 bao
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.85
——SS
Inches.
Rained 26 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours sain cs 3.98
Total amount of rain during the month . 15.44
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month __.. 13.54
cet direction of the Wind... _... Ҥ. 8. W,S.W.&S.
lvi Meteorological Observations.
"UO ULB
“M4Aq'N
‘uO ULB
"“M'N'N
‘UO ULeyy
"uO Uley
“Nr Aq* AA
UO UlByYy
Rees.
‘HO UlBY
‘Gg Aq MM
‘UO UIBYy
aA Sse qe qn Anne onss N | oe I a |
M'S'M as, ot oy Ne a
"uO UTey Sa nNnan a ackon far) SEN asa ae aS eS MOAN N
“MS BON GD ES 5 OO ENS ee ee
re re ae ri a Lae!
it rained.
‘TO uley are es re aS es re - es aN es
Tag!) 2S DODODRRRODHDAATHROWONDHORON
M ‘S'S ot =
wind blew, together with the number of days on
‘do Uley i
Mages) = SNAAAR Aaa NASM AG Soa
“UO WB AANA = on =
lar wind was blowing,
‘uo ULey i “itis
. ; ZT oe OO ee ee | Sn enn ssl NS OD <I OD GN =
a Aq ‘g) &
S
"HO UIeY go re Lo rea OO oat
re
“agg ‘S169 16 FARRAR AAAS SANS
Monrtuiy Resvtrs.
h at a given hour any particular
‘HO UIey ~
. . : G lt
ee
“MO ULey
‘g Aq “7
‘uO UIexT
“HL
"mo UIey
“hy £q = i NAN rm re = =
=
1¢
ical Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutia, in the month of July 1867.
aA ONS ANNANAR AOS
re
which at the same hour, when any particu
"UO Uley .
. . . AANMN OAS Se N re el cs Fl ae Ora |
Ne ee ee eee
= eS)
a AN AN
‘HO WIR}
"oN
m6 6) Ulery
“A "NN
“uo ULeyy
“a Aq “NT
‘uO Uley
Tables shewing the number of days on wh
mN Find oO & DO DD
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog
10
; Meteorological Observations. lvit
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
iu the month of August 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Hast.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Rat
= 3 _ | Range of the Barometer = # |Range of the Tempera-
aa during the day. #) + ture during the day.
‘SO ne
Date. = Bo A A
Bg “| Max. Min. Diff. = .5 Max. | Min. | Diff.
= eS Sm
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Oo oO fe) | ts)
1 | 29.581 | 29.628 | 29.523 | 0.105] 83.0 | 89.5 | 80.0| 9.5
2 .618 .667 576 O91 83.6 83.5 80.2 8.3
3 633 676 | .571.| 105 | 82.7. | 987.0 | 80.0 | 7.0
4, 639 | #691 .586 105 82.8 85.3 80.0 6.8
5 634 .691 508 loa 83.3 89.7 80.4 9.3
6 O91 .639 537 102 83.3 83.6 79.5 oe
< O74 .622 510 112 84.7 89.0 81.0 8.0
8 576 .622 O18 104 82.5 85.5 | 80.0 6.5
9° .625 .687 TA 113 82.5 89.4 78.0 | 11.4
10 -630 .69L 0909 132 83.6 89.5 80.0 9.5
al 5d7 O99 459 140 84.0 88.0 81.0 7.0
12 527 5382 432 150 83.7 83.3 80.5°|. 8.3
13 077 .635 529 106 81.9 83.0 79.2 8.8
14 040 .616 473 143 79.0 80.8 77.5 3.3
15 .500 538 A443 095 78.2 8.0 76.5 3.5
16 572 .656 .OU9 147 19.0 §2.2 76.3 5.9
17 .663 714 .616 .098 81.9 85.5 78.5 7.9
18 675 32 .613 -A19 83.6 | 87.1 SL. 5.4
19 .608 .656 O17 139 82.5 87.2 79.8 7.4
20 599 G11 | A495 eG 80.5 S20 | 749 A.6
21- 570 G34 11 123 81.8 85.6 78.4 8.2
22 .636 691 589 .102 82.5 85.0 8U.5 5.0
23 .6538 OA 595 109 84.4 89.3 81.4 ia
24, 661 733 604 Age |. Siz 83.6 770 6.6
25 .622 .668 | 093 "115 81.6 85.5 78.0 8.5
26 .640 .696 583 AES 83.4 87.5 79.8 7.7
27 .658 790 .600 100 84.9 90.0 81.0 9.0
28 672 126 .G09 eee 84.9 90.d 81.0 9.5
29 .G56 718 562 156 85.9 90.0 81.5 8.5
30 592 .653 O09 144 85.8 91.6 82.0 9.6
31 505 .628 A87 141 85.8 91.4 82.0 9.4
|
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived, from the hourly observatious, made during ©
the day.
lv Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of August 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)
‘ 5 SH =| -* Set ys A 4B
Sivek eens : 2.5.4 Seay eee
Sioa eer Ban 8 | Ss |aue|e2s
2 © = & oe. | ee! Ss
A Say en ae A ss |eee | Se
Date. zi F: ir A ii 3 “Sb 2 He | 2 A's
oo 3 2 Ss mS aut oO rQ
Fe |3|2| 23 |e | ee |oee)ecs
ado ay oS = ee = = = S| q Bg
S 5 El ad by se o* | See ese
> A oS a = pone Bh =
|
) ) ) fo) Inches. |. T..gr.") "ee
1] 80.1 220i" | Ae 4.9 0.943 10.12 1.70 0.86
2 80.2 ee ee a 5.8 934 Ol 2.02 83
3 3 Nahe ye eee WA) 4.8 .937 06 1.66 86
4, 79.9 20 |, Lica 4.9 .937 .06 .69 86
5 | 80.3 3.0 | 78.2 5.1 946 15 78 85
6 80.7 2.6 | 78.9 4.4 | .967 39 5A 87
i 80.9 3.8 | 78.2 C.. Ss | he a 2.31 81
8 79.7 DS Caer 4.8 omg ee 1.64 86
9 | 796 | 29| 776] 49 | .998 | 9.97 ‘67 86
10 80.6 3.0 | 78.5 5.1 955 | 10.25 Wie 85
BI 80.8 3.2 | 78.6 5.4 .958 28 .89 85
12 80.3 3.4 | 77.9 5.8 937 .O4 2.03 83
13 79.4 25 1 776 4.3 928 9.99 1.45 87
14, 77.8 LO lierO 2.0 910 185 0.65 94,
15 hie 1} Ofve76 5 a hee 896 iol. O44 95
16 77.5 1.5 | 76.4 2.6 893 66 84 92
17, 79.5 2 A477 8 4.1 934 | 10.05 1.39 88
18 81.2 2.4 | 79.5 4.1 986 57 AG 88
19 80.4 a e739 3.6 967 39 25 89
20 78.8 7 -\ir Biee 2.9 928 01 0.97 91
21 79.3 25.1 975 4.3 925 9.96 1.44 87
22 80.0 gies 4.3 946 | 10.17 AT 87
23 81.3 211.791 5.3 973 42 89 85
24, 80.2 eo) Zoek 2.6 973 AT 0.90 92
25 79.4 ae 3.7 937 08 1.26 83
26 80.2 3.2 | 78.0 5.4 940 .09 87 84
27 81.3 3.6 | 78.8 6.1 964, 31 2.18 83
28 81.5 2 Al goer 5.8 973 AO .09 83
29 81.2 5 te ho) 6.5 955 21 32 82
30 81.0 4.8 | 77.6 8.2 928 9.91 92 17
31 81.4. 4.4] 78.3 75 949 | 10.12 71 79
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich C onstants.
—
Meteorological Observations. lix
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the mouth of August 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
68 Range of the Barometer = . |Range of the Tempera-
= 8 = for each hour during a 8 ture for each hour
= aa the month. = during the month.
Hour. © a4 Ag
asa =
eico | Max. | Min. | Diff. | &8 | Max. | Min. | Dif
ag |: as |
| |
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. oo) o ) )
Mid-
night.) 29.626 | 29.698 | 29.523 | 0.175 81.3 83.5 | 78.8 | 4.7
1 .615 690 O19 171 81.9 83.6 77.0 6.6
2 605 .678 509 | .169 80.8 83.6 | 76.8 | 6.8
3 595 670 505 | .165 80.6 83.5 | 76.5 | 7.0
4 590 .688 496 .192 80.4 83.5 76.5 7.0
5 598 694 .490 .204, 80.1 83.5 76.3 7.2
6 .610 .698 A493 .205 80.2 83.4 76.6 6.8
7 .623 704 509 195 80.9 83.0 76.8 6.2
8 641 724 519 .205 81.9 85.5 77.0 8.5
9 .652 132 529 .203 83.3 87.0 FL0 9.2
10 683 733 533 200 84.8 87.5 77.0 | 10.5
ll 641 720 023 | .197 85.4 89.4 | 77.0 | 12.4
Noon. .626 704, 506 .198 86.1 90.0 78.2 | 11.8
1 2605 .682 488 194, 86.0 91.5 78.4 | 13.1
2 582 .659 A473 .186 85.9 91.4 78.5 | 12.9
3 O61 .639 450 .189 85.4 91.6 78.0 | 13.6
4 548 627 432 195 85.4 90.8 78.6 | 11.9
5 548 .618 445 173 84.5 88.8 79.5 9.3
6 561 627 452 175 83.7 88.0 79.6 8.4
7 579 .658 478 177 82.8 86.0 79.5 6.5
8 603 .682 500 182 82.3 88.5 78.5 7.0
9 .623 697 510 .187 82.0 85.0 77.6 7.4
10 638 712 .536 176 81.8 84.4 78.2 6.2
ll 635 712 530 182 81.6 84.0 77.9 6.1
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the month.
ly. Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
im the month of August 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
: . : . = SS ey im
E S| ae ‘S eH | °Sa) 8s
b | 2 e Bede
= = < A 2 -S ass ose
= © © S oe See
2 Bo) ied le = 2s | eee oe4
eS l2|2|2. |e [es /eeetees
o far = fea ~ 5 KS) Fat Oo roe —)
= = i. te a A, ds = Bs Bag
eg RIES Hes 5,8 7 | So sees
S AiO | A alt VSI a eee
0 Oo Co) o Inches..| Tengran Tigre
Mid-
night.| 79.7 1.6 | 78.6) 2.7 | 0.958 | 10.32 | 092 | 0.92
sel 79.5 1.5 | 78.4| 2.6 .952 25 .89 .92
2 | 970.3 OM Bi gee | ) Bee .946 19 .88 .92
PI ee a RS ee .952 27 74 .93
4, |: 90.2 Sh 2 ae Oe |. | ae 27 67 94
5 | O00 ERO) eee ||) ae .946 2) .63 94
6 | 794 Poa | ae 1.9 .949 24 64 94
Me Oe 3 1.4| 78.5 | 24 | .955 31 79 .93
8 | 70.8 ye ees) |. ae 949 20 | 1.24 .89
9 | 80.3 3.0) fee > be .946 15 78 185
10 || 80.8 |~A0).780] 638 .940 05 | BAL 81
Ld, i) (Bled el Aad ged 7.3 | 943 .08 .60 .80
Noon.} 81.0 | 5.1] 774| 87 922 | 9.88 | 3.12 76
1 S12 PAS ieres ee 934, 97 | 2.94 77
22) i} 2 4.8. FRI | (82 931 94 .93 7
3. | 80.8: AG i onees) tee 928 91 77 78
A 4° 81.0) (PA eeree. || Yop 937 | 10.00 68 79
5 80.6 | 3.9] 77.9] 6.6 937 .02 33 81
6. || RO SIN ba er 6.0 931 9.98 09 83
i 80.0 | 29]| 780} 48 940 | 10.09 | 1.66 86
8 15798 1 tee | eo | ae 940 AL 47 87
9 79.8 E22 | ABS) ay 949 20 27 89
10} -3O,% 3) goat NaS nin | eee 946 Bi 23 89
LL |). We lee ae ese a8 946 19 15 90
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological Observations. }xi
& stract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of August 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
fH i S ' "S
3 [82.3 2.4
Z & a 3 Prevailing & =
g| us loess direction of the -a. | General aspect of the Sky.
S| as lanl Wind. ie
Ale* pe | = a
o |Inchesi lb
3 126.0) 0.71 |S. & W. 2.9 |Stratoni to 8 a.m. “ito 3 P.M.
Overcast to 8p. M. \.-i af-
terwards. Rain at2& 5p. M.
2/ 120.0} 0.22 |S. by E.&8.8.E.| ... [Scatd.\i & -i to6 p. m. Scatd.
\_i afterwards. Rain from 114
A.M. to 1 P. M.
3/120.5| 0.79 |S.S.E&E. 0.6 |Clear to 4 a. M. Seatd. ~ito 11
A.-M. Stratoni to 6 P. M.,
clear afterwards. Rain from
103 to noon & at 3 P. M.
4| 120.0; 0.29 |S.E.&S8.S. E. .. |Clear to 5 a.m. Scatd. -1 &\i
toll a. m., clouds of diffe-
rent kinds afterwards. Thun-
der at 1} p.m. Rain at 114
a. M. 23 & 6 P. M.
6422.2 0.52, |S. S..E. 0.5 |Stratoni fo 5 a. M. 71 to 1 P.M.
Overcast to 4P.M. -ito8
p. M., clear afterwards. Rain
at2 &3 Pp. M.
Dib i>:. 1.96 \S..5.E. & S: W. ... |Overcast nearly the whole day.
Thunder at 6 a. Mm. Rain at 2
; a.M. & from 4 to 7 a. M.
miize2) .. |S: S.E.&S.8. W.| °° (|Clear to 5 a. m. Scatd. \i to 1l
A. m., clouds of different
kinds afterwards.
| nn 2), |S. 8.22 & & 8.W.).... > \Stratom to 34. mw. “1 to‘noon.
Overcast to 4 P. M. \_i after-
wards.Slightrain at9&10P.M.
9| 133°0| 0.46 |S. byW,S. &S.byE.) ... |Scatd. i to 5 a. m. Overcast
' tol10 a.m. ~iafterwards.Rain
from 63 to9 a.M. & at 45P.M.
40) 131.0) ... |S. &8. 8. E. ... |Seatd. \i & “i nearly the
whole day.
11 | 129.4] 0.11 |S. & S. by E. 0.2 |Scatd.\i to 5 a.M.7i to 3 pM Vi
afterwards. Rain at 125 a. M.
12/ 121.4) 0.14 |E.S.E. & E. 5.6 |Scatd. \.i to 10 4. m. Scatd. “i
to5p.m., clouds of different
kinds afterwards. High wind
at 7i p.m. Rain at 13 & lla.
mM. 2 & from 43 to 7 P. M.
13 | 123.0) 0.40 |E.S. E. & E. by S. | - 1.2 Stratoni t to 44.m. Overcast to 9
A.M. “itol p. m. Overcast
afterwards.Rain after intervals.
14/ °* | 0.82 |E.S. EB, 8. E.& 8S. ... |Overeast nearly the whole day.
Rain from midnight to 55 P.
M. & at 95 P. M. [day.
1 4.64 |W.& 8. W. 1.4 Overcast. Rain nearly the whole
General aspect of the Sky.
Overcast. High wind at 93 a. M,
Rain after intervals.
Overcast to 10 4. m. Seatd. \ni
afterwards. Rainat1,2,&4am.
\ni to 3 a. M. Overcast to 3 P. m.
\i to 7 p. M. Seatd. i after-
wards.Slight rainat45 &63 am
\ni to 7 a. M. “i to noon. Over-
cast & \w_i afterwards. Thun-
der at2 p.m. Rain at 103 a.
M. & 43 P.M.
\ni to 6 4. mM. Overcast after-
wards. Light rain at 9 a. m.,
from lla. m. to 3 P.M. &
from 9 to 11 P. M.
Overcast to 6 a. M. Scatd. >i to
7 p.m. Clear afterwards. Rain
at midnight 1,3 & 44. m.
Scatd. “i & \_i to 3 a.M. Scatd.
“~ito2p.M. i & Wi to 6
p.M., clear afterwards. Slight
rain at6 & lla. M.
Scatd. \i to 8 4. M. 7i to 3 P.
M. Seatd. clouds afterwards.
Thunder at 33 p.m. Lightning
to W. at 8 P. M.
Stratoni to 2 a. M. Overcast to
7 p.m. Scatd. clouds after-
wards. High wind at 63 4.M.
Thunder from 7 to 104. ™.
Lightning at-8 & 9 a.m. Rain
from 7 to noon & at 2 PM.
Overcast to 10 A. mM. 41 to 3 P.M.
\ni to 6 P. M., clear afterwards.
Rain from midnight to4 & at
8 A. M.
Stratonito64.m.~ito7 p.m. clear
afterwards. Rain at 53,9 &
123 a. M.
Clear to 4.4. um. Wi to 74. M.Ni
& “ito 7p. clear afterwards
Clear to 2 a.m Scatd. clouds to
4 a. uw. \Wite7 a: Mevte @
P.M., Clear afterwards. Light-
ning at 10 & 11 P. w. Shght
at 4 & 83 Pp. M.
Clear to 7 a. M. “i afterwards.
Clear tod a. mM. \1 & “ito7 PM.
clear afterwards.
lx Meteorological Observations.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.—( Continued.)
oe =
Sa psy Prevailing oF
Pea) ee : : AY =
6) ga =| direction of the a5
» “eee ‘
Bg me Wind. S :
o \Inches th
1675 20) |) 2668: Sein 3.7
17 | 120.0 | 0.26 |S. S.W.,S. W. &S.| 0.5
18 | 119.6 S.S.E. & 8S.
19) 2. | O20+E Ss We & S.8..E:
20; ... | 0.19 |W.S.W. & S. S.W.
21| 134.8| 0.16 |S. by E,SSE& SW.
22 | 132.0) .. |S. &'S.8. E.
23 | 130.5 8S, 8. W.&S8. 8. W.
24/ ... | 3.40 |\S.by E,S.&2WS.W.| 4.6
| 0.48 |N.W,S.W.&S. S.E
26| 134.4 | 0.20 |S.S.E,SSW&SbyW] 0.4
27 | 127.0 S. & S. by W 0.2
28 | 126.0 8.&8.8. E. 0.2
29'132.4"" 7. 8 Sk St S: BH.
30 | 137.0) ... |S. & 8S. by W.
31 | 127.0 S. by W.& 8S. S. E
Clear to 5 a.m. “i to 9 p.m. clear
afterwards.
\ i Cirri, —i Strati,>i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~ Nimbi,
“i Cirro eumuli.
Meteorological Observations. lxin
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of August 1867.
Montaty Rxsvtts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.607
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 4. M.on the 24th —... 29.733
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 p.m. onthe 12th ... 29.432
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month aa ‘hagas
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures _... on ode ... 29.661
Ditto ditto Min. ditto te .. 29.542
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month .., cen: OR LES
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month .
Max. Temperature occurred at 3 Pp. M. on the 30th
Min. ‘Temperature occurred at 5 a. M. on the 16th
Extreme range of the Temperature ri the month
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature ..
Ditto ditto Min. Bits) <x.
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month..
SIH WTO
Hs ede an
> WT oo WG
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... 80.1
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 2.7
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month i » Fe ,2
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 4.6
‘hates
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month ... cas . 0.946
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month 6. AB
Additional piega tof Vapour required for complete saturation ... 1.60
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.86
Inches.
Rained 24 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours sis se 4.64,
Total amount of rain during the month . = SSG
Total amount of rain indicated by the ee attached to the anemo-
meter during the month _.. 17.09
Prevailing direction of the Wind.. res '§.8.E.,S. &S. 8. W.
lxiv
ical Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Augt. 1867.
Montuiy Resvutts.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorolog
articular wind blew, together with the number of days on
given hour any p
Tables shewing the number of days on which at a
when any particular wind was blowing. it rained.
which at the same hour.
Meteorological Observations.
“THO UIT!
“Hf
‘UO MLR
EG
“UO WRIT
aN a
“Wo Tey
HN
"uO Wie yy
“oN N
m0 8) ULBYT
“a AQ “NT
"uo WIRY
“NT
*ATLO
"UO TIBI
“MA Aq° NT
"HO UBT
“MONON
> 5 as ss eee ee
1
"dO WLBT
“M "NM
"UO ULBY Zi
aT =O =
NAqQ*M
“MO ULRYT Ss — Sse eae re
“M. Sa eS MANN eS ae sq ane
‘UO UleyYy Sie
fe ia eae ae
G Aq “AA
‘UO ULBy La ae a MeN _ ee
Brat = AA MOINNWANS HR AO OR ARR
MS’ M
A 5 NANASVMA He OWANAHAMAWANS =
M “S|
‘LO ULE yy | ma NI ae No NN aA NA
SR oe Dae ANNA 20 10 1D AN OH eM RO IR MH OS O10 10 TS OS OO
“MSS!
‘do T1e xT] ARR re
Bee Wr nat NANO A110 Sa N VNR O AS OAR DD
iM Aq’!
‘UO ULB Ti , N AeA yj
Sore ee TM DADA DHHST NDMTOMFRN TODAS
“uo ULB yy) Peat aan a eee
: ta, 2 moo 4 nats AMD NNMWMAMDRSO
a Aq ‘g) & ;
‘UO ULRAT| SO RO re = Aa:
TT aa Bat BOM OOH OR RRO OWSOMORMDODOO
"UO TBI | 7, re ma eo Sse“ mmN
a ae AMOR NH FNNMMMANNMNMMM NAA
"UO WIRTZ al se Sp eae a
Rc ae a NAN SAI NMANNMAI NAN DSN = Sa NN
"THO ULBYY Ge i
es La | lem | oI — re
oN W120 Or OD Oe4 aN 6 FI Ok OOO
ae a
Meteorological Observations. Ixv
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
| taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of September 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Cpe
hs 8 | Range of the Barometer = s+ |Range of the Tempera-
ee during the day. - Fas | ture during the day.
Cite E§
Date.| 3 0 Ae
aoc? | Max. | Min. | Dif. | £3 | Max. | Min. | Dif.
si re) = H
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) ) Ce) )
1 29.577 | 29.636 | 29.489 0.147 86.8 92.5 82.8 9.7
2 588 .632 543 089 84.0 88.6 81.5 i
3 .619 .670 574 O96 82.5 88.9 79.8 9.1
4 648 .708 581 127 82.3 88.0 79.9 8.1
5 673 734 614 .120 80.6 84.3 78.5 5.8
6 711 171 661 110 80.1 82.5 78.0 4.5
7 .710 794 .640 154 83.4 88.5 79.0 9.5
8 .686 758 601 157 84.3 89.5 80.0 9.5
9 635 701 549 152 85.2 90.8 80.9 9.9
10 .630 695 009 136 86.0 92.0 81.5 | 10.6
eG .659 722 552 170 86.0 89.6 82.0 7.6
12 675 731 .606 125 86.4 92.5 81.9 | 10.6
13 .635 .691 575 116 84.7 92.2 81.5 | 10.7
14 550 617 455 .162 85.2 92.4 | 81.5 | 10.9
15 480 537 413 124 81.6 86.6 78.5 8.0
16 425 A491 343 148 80.8 84.6 78.5 6.1
17 467 551 374 Ai 81.5 84.5 79.8 | 4.7
18 561 .628 505 123 82.0 86.6 79.5 7.1
19 .612 .676 565 ld 83.2 86.0 80.0 6.0
20 .630 .672 591 081 81.5 86.5 77.4 ort
21 653 il .605 .L06 79.8 83.0 FEOo} GIO
22 .682 745 .638 107 79.8 85.0 76.0 9.0
23 720 al .661 .120 81.8 88.2 760.1 TG
24 735 804 .665 139 83.6 88.6 72-6) 1020
25 .688 750 601 "149 85.2 90.7 80.5 | 10.2
26 .663 11 O91 .120 86.3 O17 82.0 OF
27 714 .786 .660 126 85.4 92.0 80.0 | 12.0
28 172 840 ALO 121 83.4 90.7 80.5 | 10.2
29 193 848 Bits ET 81.8 85.5 79.8 5.7
30 799 844, 764) .O80 79.1 81.5 78.0 3.0
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
ee Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
the day.
Ixvi Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
in the month of September 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
_ +
4 : 43 E 6 54H | 68d |-s4
Ai fig | BS] Bovod seg oh ie NT Sa
H - a 2 bo | eos] me a
2 © = & 4 | Geet oie
2 6 E 3 é yee = Sta | o2-ap
Date. zi 3 A = s on e 2 3 e*8
22) }28 (So) Qual 26M) San) see es
Pela |e | ae | 22 | BS | gee) sc
Se oR p oe pope fo Sols Se eee
| = A o) A = =a | =
Oo fo) ) Oo Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr.
1 82.2 4.6 | 79.4 7.4 0.983 10.47 2.47 0.79
2 81.0 30 1 760 5.1 967 37 1.80 85
3 80.0 2.5 | 78.2 4.3 946 Bh ag 47 87
4, 80.0 2.3 | 78.4 3.9 952 23 30 88
5 78.6 2.0 1) 97-2 3.4 .916 9.89 12 .90
6 78.9 £2). 78k 2.0 943 10.18 0.66 94
7 80.1 3.3.| 77.8 |. 5.6 .934 OL 1.95 .84
8 80.7 3.6 | 78.2 6.1 .946 13 2.15 83
9 80.6 4.6 | 77.4 7.8 922 9.85 ‘76 78
10 81.4 4.6 | 78.2 7.8 .946 10.09 82 78:
11 81.6 4.4 | 78.5 7.5 955: 18 73 475.
12 81.9 4.5 | 78.7 oi 961 24 82 78
13 81.1 3.6 | 78.6 6.1 .958 .26 16 83.
14 82.3 2.9 | 80.3 A.9- 1.011 .80: E8L- .86
15 79.7 1.9 | 78.4 3.2 0.952 25 .O9: .90
16 79.3 1.5 | 78.2 2.6 .946 19 0.88 92.
17 80.2 1.3 | 79.3 2.2 979 55 76 93
18 80.4 E.6 | 79.3 at 979 53 94 92
19 81.4 1.8 | 80.1 3.1 1.005 “id 1.12 “OE
20 79.7 1.8 | 78.4 3.1: | 0.952 25 .06 OL
21 78.5 3 | 77.6 2.2 .928 .03 0.72 .93
22 774A 2.4 | 75.7 4.1 .873 9.43 1.32 .88
23 78.8 3.0} T6.7 5.1 .902 .70 .70 85
24, 80.8 2.8 | 78:8 4.8 .964 10.34 .69 .86
25 81.7 3.5 | 79.2 6.0 .976 43 2.18 .83.
26 82.6 ot ||. 80:0 6.3 1.001 1.68 34 .82
27 81.4 4.0 | 78.6 6.8 0.958 .23 45 81
28 80.1 So | 77.8 5.6 934 OF: 1.95. 84
29 79.1 7 faa aa 4.6 .916 9.85 5d .86
30 77.8 LS cle GG.3 2.2 .908 _ 82 0.71 93
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. |
Meteorological Observations. ixvii
\ Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
wm the month of September 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
63 Range of the Barometer < . |Range of the Tempera-
=o. for each hour during o 8 ture for each hour
ae) Z
= g = the month. a during the month.
Hour.| & a 4 “
s°423 | Max. | Min. | Diff. | $2 | Max. | Min. | Diff.
as am
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Ce) fo) Co) )
Mid-
night.| 29.658 | 29.792 | 29.450 | 0.342 81.5 84.5 | 77.0) 7.5
- .646 179 432 | .347 81.3 i ie A ea
2 .635 773 All | .362 81.0 84.0 | 76.5 | 7.5
3 625 764 394 | .370 80.7 83.8 | 76.5 | 73
4 .622 .769 374 395 80.5 83.4 76.4 7.0
5 .631 7A 392 382 80.4 84.2 76.4 7.8
6 .648 787 412 375 80.4: 84.0 76.0 8.0
7 664 .800 443 307 81.0 84.5 76.0 8.5
8 .685 836 477 309 82.3 85.7 76.8 8.9
9 .700 845 A491 B04 84.1 87.7 78.4 9.3
me, 701 846 ATA, 372 85.0 89.3 79.0 | 10.3
11 .689-| — .848 450 | .398 85.6 90.0 | 78.5 | 11.5
Noon. .666 813 395 .418 86.5 91.5 78.0 | 13.5
642 S811 398 413 86.8 92.2 78.0 | 14.2
.618 on 376 421 86.7 92.5 Vie (leo
598 40 .362 A415 85.9 92.5 78.5 | 14.0
.590 773 343 430 85.7 92.2 78.5 | 13.7
592 173 04 419 85.9 92.0 78.7 | 13.3
.608 787 378 409 83.7 89.0 79.0 | 10.0
.627 .800 398 408 83.1 88.0 79.0 9.0
.650 811 408 403 82.6 86.2 790 7.2
668 | 821 Al4 407 82.2 86.0 78.0 8.0
.678 833 .420 413 82.0 85.8 77.5 8.3
674 827 432 395 81.6 85.4: 76.4 9.0
=
SoM Oak wNe
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the month.
Ixvill Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
im the month of September 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
r
3s | # E - 6H |SSal3e8
Bib | Boy BR onfetg pag | Aaa
P |EFl/e&|8 | 8 | es | Ses leee
a 2 : 2 & Be | SHR |e os
5 5 © ° x +2 2 = et a8 5
Fipar, | ae) |e als = me | _ 2% 5B op
=) 3 i om oe o an
ei, g)|8|)8. | as | es | ose | S83
po = AS S ~ Pe tied SAR
a § Sai ca 4 texe ao | 83. | ye aoe
sa} ek | 8 | ko | Se | Gs | ses | ges
= a ee wen = = a | =
fy) oy) ty) Oo Inches. |, T. gr. |. T. gr
Mid-
night.| 79.7 | 1.8] 784] 3.1 | 0.952 | 1025 | 1.06 | 0.91
1 | 796) lo d74-784e | 2:9 952 25 | 0.99 91
2 | 79.5 | 15| 784| 2.6 952 25 89 92
3 | 793 | 14] 783) 24 | .949 24, 80 93
4 | JO ed vee | oe 949 24, 74 93
5. | 99,0' 1; 14 | 78.08 25) 940 15 79 93
6 | 791-138) 7824 | 22 946 21 23 93
7 | 99066 |6 dele |) 98.65] | 24) ~ L958 34 80 93
S| 80:3) 20) 7894 | aac! \967 Ale | Lae 90
9 | 808 | 33] 785] 5.6 955 23 | +.98 84,
10 | 814 | 36] 789] 61 967 34 | 2.19 83
11. | Sahl Melee } 70 955 21 55 80
Noon.| 81.6 | 49] 78.7) 7.8-| .961 24 86 78
1.4) S17 1 peel 7ege ) 82 958 21 | 3.00 77
Z| Bie bi] aoeek [Velen oS 943 04 14 76
3:| 810. | 440 1 f7Gurn Ss 928 | 9.91 | 2.96 77
Aix |, (B10 ap Ada Fane || Siae) \ Loat 94 86 78
By}, SOU )| Ge Tea. 4 78 931 96 57 80
6 |: 806 | Sa] 784e 6.3 952 | 10.21 | 1.86 85
7) | BOs. | ay Se Veen o Adee! tot 33 53 87
8 80.3 2:31) 78:7 3.9 961 30 35 88
9 | 80.2 | 2.0] 788| 34 | .964 38 16 90
10» |, -80.0-)|- “2,00/'°78.6'1" 134 +1 4958 BQ 15 90
11 il | Yeaeu) aie 3.2 952 25 09 90
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. —
Meteorological Observations. Ixix
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
im the month of September 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
= aa £ ‘ ae:
Sd [i203 im eq
es |S'sa _ Prevailing ce
-| .@ (6 _45| direction of the "a, | General aspect of the Sky.
oes thine OH Wind MO
@| Ss Sad Bey ae
Ala ee a
o |Inches tb
Pirate) 4... |o. & E.N. E. edt | \i to 6 A.M. ito 7 p. M., clear
afterwards. Slightrainat 43P. M.
Die) 0.15, |5., E. & K..by §. 0.3 | Scatd. clouds to 4.4. mu. \i to
94. M., overcast to 7 P.M., clear
afterwards. Thunder at 113 4.M.
Rain at 10 & ll a.m. &at 45 &
53 P. M.
4 ae 0.96 |E. N. E. & S. E. 3.0 | \Witod a. M., overcast after-
wards. High wind at 1; P. M.
Thunder at 83 4.M. &15P. mM.
Lightning at 15 p.m. Rain at 83
a.M. & from 13 to 33 P. M.
ree 0.49 |IK., S. E. & S. W. Sat Clear to 24. M.Stratoni to 6 4.
| mu. \i to 1] a. M. “i to 2 P. M.
overcast to 6 Pp. M. \ni after-
wards. Rain at 115 a. m., from
3 to6 p.m. & at 105 p.m.
5 0.12 |S. by E. 0.6 | Clear to 44.m.Stratoni to 4 Pp.
M. “iafterwards. Rain at8 a.m.
6 1.03. |S..S. 7 Overcast to5P.M. Stratoni af-
terwards.Rainfrom2a.M.tolpm.
7 | 134.0} 0.10 |S. W.& S. 8S. W. 0.1 Stratoni to 104: M. 7ito5 Pp.
M.\ni afterwards.Rain at 44. M.
8
9
toa) i...) (5.5. W.& 8. W. “ “i nearly the whole day.
oo; .. \|s.S..W,& 8. W. ag Clear to 7 a.M. “ito7 P. M.,
clear afterwards.
10 bie)... |S.5. W.& S. W. .- Clear to 6 a. M. %i to 6 P.M.,
clear afterwards.
PERC Te ~ iss W.&S8. E. ‘a “i &\itol0a. mM. Stratoni
afterwards.
12/131.0| ... |S. by E.&S.S. E. 0.2 | Stratoni to 5 a.m. ito 3P.M.,
clouds of different kinds after-
wards. Lightning at 7 &8 P. M.
Slight rain at 6 Pp. M.
13 | 129.5] 0.89 |S.S. E. & S. E. 4.0 | Clear to 6 a. M.,~ito 2 P. M.,
overcast to 5 Pp. M., clouds of
different kinds afterwards.High
wind at 22 p. m. Lightning to
W. at 7 pe. M. Rain from 23 to
4 Pp. M.
14| 125.0] 2.05 IN. E.& W. by N. | 69] Ni to 5 a.m. niafterwards.
High wind & rain at 25 & 103
p.m. Lightning to Kat 10 p.m.
Thunder at 104 P. M.
1D it give. 0.54 |K. N. HE. & N. E. 0.4} Overcast nearly the whole
day. Lightning to W from mid-
night to 2a. m. Thunder at 1 A.
m. Rain from 8 to 8 a. M. and
at 3, 4 and 8 Pp. M.
lxx
Meteorological Observations.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.— Continued.)
Max. Solar
radiation.
23
24
25
26
27
134.0
130.5
28 | 132.0
29
30
+o 68
o “4° ng
DE rg Prevailing O°
=} = g di : cde
bas rection of the a5
Aa ob Wind. = 2
Pq a
Inches tb
0.84 |N. E, E.&E. by S.| 1.0
0.36 |S. E. &E.S. E. 0.2
0.52 |S. E. & 8.8. E. BY
0.70 |S. W. & S. by E.
0.91 |W. 8S. W. &S. 3.1
1.79 |W.N.W.&W. byN 1.6
1.29 |W. &W.S. W. 1.2
0.11 |S. W.,8. & 8. 8. E
caay [eS Bly dp 09. Le
8.& 8. W
S. W.& W.S. W;
0.05 18. 8. W288) HH. | “0
8.8. E. &E.N. E.
0.07 IN. E. & E.S.E. 1.0
1.0
0.73 |E.N.E. & E.
General aspect of the Sky.
Overcast nearly the whole
day. Rain at 6 & 8a. mM. & from
103 4.mM.to4P.M. Kat7 P.M.
Stratoni to 11 a. M., overcast-
afterwards. Rain at 5,6 & 12
‘A.M. & at 11 P.M.
Overcast to 4P. M., clouds of
different kinds afterwards.
Thunder at 103 a. m. Lightning
to S at 8 p.m. Rain at midnight,
3&lla.m.&at1,23 & 7 P.M.
Overcast to 10 A. M., stratoni
to 6P.M. \w_i afterwards. Rain
at midnight & 33 A. M.
ai & \ito8 a. M., stratoni to
noon., overcast to6P. M., \w_i
afterwards. High wind, thun-
der & Lightning at 3°P. mM.
Rain from 2 to 6 P. M.
Overcast. Rain after intervals.
Overcast to 11 a. u. Wi to6
Pp. u., clear to8 P. M., overcast
afterwards. Rain from 2 to 8
A.M. &from9toll P. mu,
Overcast to 64. Mm. \nitolla.
MN\i &7i afterwards.Lightning
toW at llp.m.Rain at2&3 a. uw.
Clearto2a.m. “ito4p. m.,
clear afterwards. Slight rain at
103 4. M.
Cearto4a. M. Wito7a.M. ri
to 5 p. w., clear afterwards.
Slight rain at 1 p. mu.
Clear to 7 4. M.°1 to 6 A.M,
clear afterwards.
Clear to 6 a. mM. “ito 5 P.u.,
overcast afterwards Thunder at
45 P.M. & from 7 to 9 p.u.Light-
ning at7 P.M. Light rain at
4% P.M.
\Wito 44. M, \Wi to 10 a. wu.
i tol Pp. w.\n_ito 4 P. M. over-
cast afterwards. Slight rain at
53 & OP. M.
Clear to 5 A.M “i to 9 a.m,
overcast to 7 P.M. \i after-
wards. Lightning to S from 8
to ll p.u. Rain at 75 &104.m.
Clear to 5 a.m., overcast to8P.
M., clear afterwards. Rain at 84.
u. & from 114. Mu. to 4 P. uM.
\1 Cipri, — i Strati,~i Cumuli,—i Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~ Nimbi,
“i Virro cumuli.
Meteorological Observations. Ixxi
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of September 1867.
Montuiy REsvtts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. .. 29.645
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 11 a. ut. on the ‘20th ... 29.848
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 4 p.m.on the 16th .. 29.343
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month ai ... 0.505
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... en of ... 29.708
Ditto ditto Min. ditto ave .. 29.582
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month .., jos. OLS
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month
Max. Temperature occurred at 2 &3 Pp. M.on the Ist & 12th...
Min. Temperature occurred at 6 & 7 a. M. on the 22nd
Extreme range of the Temperature mene the month
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature ..
Ditto ditto Min. ditto, .. Bi
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. is
“TIO ATO CO
WOWRAAWW 6
BQH AONH
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... 80.3
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 2.8
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month 78.3
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 4.8
“ass
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .,., ser vv. 0.949
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month ive BOTS
Additional Wei ght of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 1.68
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.86
Inches.
Rained 25 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours avi ape 2.05
Total amount of rain during the month 4. CASO
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the ,anemo-
meter during the month _.. se 12 ae
Prevailing direction of the Winds at “8. W.& 8.8. EL
Ixxii ~ Meteorological Observations.
UO UIE]
‘MA AQ N
‘HO ULey
"MA" NN
‘moO Urey (al i i) =a re
"MA “NI bia ese Ceahiie =
I
di
1
il
1
‘LO uley = “eo
MN M
"UO ULey ai
“NAG Aa rr PX ies oo i oe
AANNAA AS i
1
° ec Ssaesasann re mal
KM.
‘UO UIey
a ee ar aan
g Aq “AA
‘uO WIRY SsqgnNnn |e ae |
‘M'S'M
kc) ee ah ee rn ST
“MQ 0D $90 20 00 SGD ONG ODD DI I OO HD
Ch ii oe
“AN St < QO OO Fig Frid HFA AAMAANANMAA TA AAA OH
"UO ULB
‘MA Aq '§
‘uO UleIyT a, = ar
gq) WS om aAaaS = AMAANAMAG
‘mo ULey ta eo N Ne eo ce
“q kq:g) LN ABH MAAN AWMANAAN ANMAMAAAN
"UO WIV ee See es AN ON re re re
a 'g'g| oo 44 AMMA BWHANOMHMAWARROCS
"HO ULB aes N fan) [|
HQ] A AAD HD SGN 1 V1 09 9D OD
Ai
1
1
1
1
4 Cs es BL oe | SN
cular wind blew, together with the number of days on
wind was blowing, it rained.
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in the month of Sept. 1867.
Monrtuiy RE&suUtts.
tOns
"HO WIRY ce re re N
0 . ° eS lO i Le OC) De LO oon NX
lObservat
‘UO ULVYy a “4
‘g fq a: 8 ro =. i ir ANAS
at HANAN ARAHMAHAAAAAMOCHAAAN
which at the same hour, when any particular
Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any parti
NH Figo re OOaOre
ae
7 ro 5
anor a SC SCC CE Sie
nig
Noon.
3
S
“=
=
SS
S
S
Ss
S
3 —_—————
Ss ‘HO ULeyyT as
. . AIA aren La re La eit
> N Aq “yf
by a “oe ANAAAMNAAM MAMMA NAMA AANA
8 ‘moO Uley Aaa i re re
s ry OAT ANA tAOee Fe HMMA AAA AAS
SS caies’ B
ea “uO UleIy ie
> “—r * kr “ike ae
= aN “N
Re ‘UO ule
8 ‘a Aq ‘NT
a “UO ULB
S Ria a =
8
8
S
~w
La)
N
Meteorological Observations. Ixxin
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
tn the month of October 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Se |
bs & _ | Range of the Barometer | A + |Range of the Tempera-
ee ‘during the day. | bs 7s | ture during the day.
sO P> &
Date. Bo a ia ees 3 | |
soo | Max. | Min. | Dif | $8 | Max. | Min. | Diff.
b= a) / Phy Bam p eee | so | 5 ee es
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) | ) Ce)
}
1 | 29.818 | 29.879 | 29.767 | 0.112] 81.5 aha | 78.01 98
2 .850 911 .799 112 | 83.0 86.5 | 79.2' 10.3
3B .879 941 | 821 120 |} 84.0 89.5 | 80.2) 9.3
4 874 942 793 149 | 83.4 88.5. | 77 te
5 861 924 .809 115 | 82.8 88.0 | 78.0 | 10.0
6 852 912 794 118 | 83.9 89.4 | 80.6} 8.8
7 852 913 796 117 | 83.4 | 888 | 78.5} 10.3
8 852 .906 802 104 | 83.8 90.0 | 79.0 | 11.0
9 .876 .950 .789 161| 83.9 | 89.3 | 79.7] 9.6
10 874 947 799 148 | 84.2 89.5 | 79.5 | 10.0
11 847 895 .802 093°} 82.8-; 90.0 | 78.5 | 11.5
12 825 872 755 428 | Ga) Sos. | eee hPa
13 .859 929 S811 Tis |. $29 89.0 | 78.5 | 10.5
14 .890 .953 841 142 | 83.4 88.7 | 79.2) 9.5
15 911 972 1851 121} 83.1 | 888 | 77.9 | 10.9
16 .916 | 30.008 .836 |) See 87.0 | 76.2 | 10.8
17 875 | 29.944 817 J 7 81.5 | 88.5 | 75.0 | 13.5
1s .862 902 | — .803 099 | 811 | 87.0 |-78.0| 90
19 | .908 .956 .870 O86 2771. | S705. r5mM.| At
20 934 .999 .886 113 | 78.4 84.6 | 75.7 | 8.9
21 .880 957 .800 157 |, 80.8 86.7. | 76.0 | 10.7
27) «844 | 897 767 130) 80.9 | 85.5 | 78.0) “75
23 .880 959 816 143:| 82.8 88.4 | 78.5 | 9.9
24 936 | 994. .870 124) 81.3 86.0 | 77.0| 9.0
25 .939 | 30.005 .887 "118 | 79.3 83:64 | 77.0) “G6
26 909 | 29.977 1842 135 | 79.7 $5.0 | 76.5 |, 8.5
27 914 981 .865 116 | 79.4 85.0 | 74.5 | 10,5
28 912 .982 865 Sle | 5 7818 85.4 | 72.5 | 12:9
29 916 .979 875 104| 764 | 84.5 | 69.5 | 15.0
30 .895 945 1848 097 | 76.9.| 83.5 | 69.5 | 140
31 .836 881 779 102 fe | ee 73.1 TA.7 (76.67) | AI
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
tide Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
the day
{xxiv Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of October 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)
14
és Bi sSae ie 6 BH | SS |-as.
& |e |8/8 | 3 | Be soe eee
= aw : z eS | mee hog
= So See ty ba < ‘3S | 382 | ss
FQ 2 = Re #2 | — oes a8
Date. e S A ie = aD,2 Ko) #8 6d.
ei |3]38|4, | 88 | 68 | eee) ese
o +=) as = mt
af | a] & | 8a |) 28) 2° |S
¢8 |p| el pe } #2]: 82) en ee
= A o) a = Aaah ee =
o 0 ro) 0 Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr.
1) 797 | 18] 7844 3.1 | 0.952 | 1025 | 1.06 | o9%
2 | 806 | 24] 789) 41 | .967 39 43 88
Bf) tr gs | oe ee | ae 42 75 86
4 1907 Bor aa | 6.3 913 9.80 | 2.16 82
5 | 795 | 33|772| 56 | 916 83 | 1.92 84
6 | 79.9 4:0) PRA | 6.8 913° | }—378 2.35 81
7 | 79.4 | 4.0 1).766 | 6.8 | .899 63 <7: “eee 81
8 | 782 | 56| 743] 9.5 | .835 | 8.94 | 3.16 74
eh Ds Arcam amc "6 ae a a ele 67 ‘46 72
10 |.°783 425.9] 9491 nO | “e832 1) ee 33 73
11 | 72.9.1 "49 | ya 18 1) Sedo 1 ola 4s eee 17
122 | 733 | 50] 748} 8.5 | 849 09 84 76
13 | Yes” Ree le geriels ae: decceer 19 60 78
14 | 77.9 | 55| 740, 94 | 827 | 8.88 | 3.08 74,
FT ee hea) Or eae ee ee ene 24 62 70
16 | 744 | 68) 696) 16) 717 | 7.71 50 69
17 | 748 | 67| 701! 14 | 729 85 46 69
Ig | 778 | 3.3] 75.5) 5.6 | 868 | 9.35 | 1.82 84,
19 | ¥62 |809') aoe |) a | om Ade | 0.48 95
20 | 76.4 || 20) Bao a |. ged 25 | 1.06 90
| 77.4 1 84 50 | 5.8 | 854 20 ‘87 83
22 | 782 | 2.7| 763! 46 | .890 59 1 86
23° | 783 | at Mesa) Gaon alge 19 | 2.56 78
24 | ree Use| easel ee” Loree 13 ‘ll 81
2 | 72 | 21) 757) 36 | 873 42-1 1A6 89
26 | 762 | 3.5|737| 60 | .819 | 885 ‘87 83
27 | a3 11 | 769 | “eer | Fad 03 | 2.59 76
28 | 71.6 |) 9.0 Gee) 209 | lel | eed | Tae 68
29 | 692 | 72) 642) 129 1° 601 | Sens 19 67
30 | 69.4 7.5} 64.1 \° 128 4 B99. F aso 36 .66
BE WFR [Le] 706] 25 lo dd ally Blas Grae 92
| |
{
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological Observations. Ixxyv
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
an the month of October 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Range of the Tempera-
S38 Range of the Barometer = :
Es. for each hour during as ture for each hour
fae = the month. 3 during the month.
Hour.| 5 co A 3
a3 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | @3 | Max. | Min. | Diff.
ad = be
|
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. en wa ee a
Mid-
night.| 29.883 | 29.949 | 29.813 | 0.136 78.9 82.6 73.0 9.6
1 873 940 795 145 78.5 82.2 72.5 9.7
-2 .865 .935 790 145 78.1 82.0 72.4 9.6
3 .858 934 .783 151 779 81.6 71:3.| 10.3
4 .857 929 802 Ae 77.6 81.5 70.5 | 11.0
5 872 .938 815 123 77.4 81.3 70.0 | 11.3
6 .889 951 821 .130 77.2 81.0 69.5 | 11.5
7 .905 974 .840 134 78.1 81.5 70.6 | 10.9
8 924 .998 855 143 80.6 84.0 74.0 | 10.0
,.. 937 | 30.008 .862 146 82.6 86.8 74.7 | 12.1
10 .939 003 .860 143 83.9 87.2 74.5 | 12.7
11 921 | 29.981 842 .139 85.1 88.0 74.4 | 13.6
Noon. .899 .965 .833 132 85.3 89°4, 73.4 | 16.0
1 871 .937 -808 129 85.3 90.0 73.0 | 17.0
2 847 912 176 136 85.4 89.5 73.0 | 16.5
3 .830 _ .892 755 137 85.6 90.0 73.0 | 17.0
4 .828 887 767 120 84.9 89.6 72.4 | 17.2
5 832 901 173 128 84.2 89.0 72.2 | 16.8
6 847 921 .782 139 82.3 86.6 71.6 | 15.0
7 .863 .919 793 126 81.3 85.0 71.0 | 14.0
8 882 .939 811 128 80.6 84.5 {0.8° | Ip.7
9 .896 .950 B41 .LO9 79.9 84.0 .| 71.0 | 13.0
10 .903 .959 843 116 79.4 83.5 71.0 | 12.5
11 .896 955 845 110 79.0 82.8 70.6 | 12.2
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the month.
Ixxvi Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
in the month of October 1867.
Hourly Means, &e. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)
1 ue | B ‘ | <L ee att, =
4 ; 43 Cet | :
: 2 Babe : aa | 8 | 8B
Bu ade | go | 8 S | es | beg laee
2 3) cb) ) Ss “FS ie es G4 gy
FE: See ide ine 2s |2ee| 38
Hour. = c= _ cat | 5 , 2 SF EE ep
D 3 3 io. i.e |e
Ei |2|2 | 3. | es | ee | foe pees
@ = Minny dl = ae Re 2
ag A a | Aa | a8 d Boe ee a
eo | p | oe) pe | ae | So: tes eee
J a 5 om ke si-F | ao Sj yos
) ) oo) ) Inches.| T. gr. | T. gr
Mid-
night.| 76.6 2.3 | 75.0 3:9 0.854, 9.24 1.23 0.88
~ 41 76.4 2.1} 74.9 3.6 851 21 14 89
2 76.2 Lo | 7A0 3.2 851 22 .0O 90
3 76.0 1.9) 74.7 3.2 846 AT 0.99 90
4, Lo.0 1.7 | 74.7 2.9 746 Bi .90 91
5 75.7 1.7 | 74.5 2.9 840 12 .89 91
6 75.7 1.5 | 74.6 2.6 843 14 81 92
7 76.4 7 |, fos 2.9 860 ol oe 91
8 TE:2 3.4.) 74.8 5.8 849 15 1.86 83
9 77.6 5.0 | 74.1 8.5 830 8.91 2.77 76
10 77.6 6.3 | 73.2 10.7 806 65 3.50 71
oo 77.8 Goal T2d 12.4 792 47 4.10 67
Noon.| 77.6 i i aL ye: 781 O08 ol 66
1 471A 7-0.) Fig 13.4 773 .26 30) 65
a 177A 8.0 | FAs 13.6 pre ay AT 65
oa A 17.5 S11 FES 13.8 771 21 55 64
7A, 17.4 %.5 |, 72k 12.8 778 ol 18 67
‘ 5 77.4 6.8 | 72:6 11.6 790 45 3.79 69
6 VL.o 5.0 | 73.8 8.5 822 82 2.76 76
ey Tit 4.2 | 74.2 Vpsie 832 .96 .28 80
8 77.0 3.6 | 74:0 6.1 840 9.07 1.94; 82
9 76.8 3.1 | 74.6 5.3 843 Sa if 67 85
10 foals 2.7 | 74.8 4.6 849 aly, 45 86
11 76.5 2.5 | 74.7 4.3 846 16 34 87
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological Observations. Ixxvii
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of October 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
Date.
Max. Solar
radiation.
131.0
124.0
130.8
132.6
128.4
128.0
125.0
128.5
129.8
127.4
126.0
125.5
120.0
‘Rain Guage |
|
Prevailing
direction of the
Wind.
General aspect of the Sky.
Ground.
ft. 2 in. above
Max. Pres-
sure of Wind.
Inches | Ib
0.81 |S. by E. & variable.| 0.2 | citonoon. Overcast to 3 P.
mM. Clouds of different kinds af-
terwards. Rain at 1 & 2p. mv.
S. by E. & 8. i Clear to5 a. mM. \Witoll a. wu.
-~ito8 p.m. Clear afterwards.
Thunder at 25 ve. u. Slight rain
at 5 P. M.
Ss. & S. 8. W. sl Clear to 7 a. M. “ito 7 P. wu.
Overcast afterwards. Lightning
from 8 to 10 Pp. M.
S..SAW. & variable. 3.7 | \Wwitoda.m. \Wito 1 pe. wy.
Clouds of different kinds after-
wards. High wind at 9 p.m.
Lightning trom 7 to 9p.m.Slight
rain at 9 P. M.
Clear to 4 4. m. \Wi to noon.
“i afterwards. Lightning at 8 &
ll ep. mM. Thunder & slight rain
at 25 P. M.
Clear to 5 a. M. “ito 5 P. m.
Clouds of different kinds after-
wards.
i &\ito 84.M. “i afterwards.
Clear to ll a.m. “ito 4p. Mm.
Clear afterwards.
Clear to 6 a. M. \Wi to3 P.M.
i to 8 p. M. Clear afterwards;
Clear to 9 A. M. “i to 5 Pp. M.
Clear afterwards.
a. ar Clear to 8. a.m. ci afterwards.
Variable. aay Nan dnt Nem GOe9> A. a. 1 tee
P.M. Vito’ P.M. “iafterwards.
N.N. W. hs Naoto 8. se ER Sisto 4p a:
Clouds of different kinds after-
5 wards.
IN. E..& Be NSE Clear to 2 a. m. Wi to6 A. M.
i to 5 p. M. Clear afterwards.
EK. N. KE. & N.E. Clear to 10 a. uw. Mito 3 Pp. M.
\ afterwards.
EK. N.E. ee Clear nearly the whole day.
Slightly foggy at 10 &11 p.m.
NGS IN ys Clear to 10 a. mM. \ito 6 P. M.
Clear afterwards.
Oa eeN. ae ie Nea £0 7 aes Or te 11k ae
Overeast afterwards. Light rain
-lat noon & 1 p. uM. & from 9 to 11
Ptors
8. Wid 8.8, W:-
IS. 5S. W.& S. W.
W.S. W,& SS. E.
N.W.& W.N. W.
Ne Wi dts IN. Ww.
N.E. & E.N. E.
Ixxvill Meteorological Observations.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.—/( Continued.)
$i. oes i
Se ws Prevailing Es
= 3
< ne & < direction of the | 45 | General aspect of the Sky.
2| - . HO
2 | SE fea Wind. S8
we o |Inches ib
LDR 2.43) |N.. Be. 1.0 | Overcast. Thunder at 23 Pp. mu.
Rain from midnight to 5 a.m.
& from 10 a. mM. to 6 P. M.
20 | 119.4 | 2.06 |E. & variable. 0.6 | Overcast to8 a.m. Wi & “i
to 1 p. M. Overcast afterwards.
Rain at midnight, 2 & 43 a. w.,
2p.m., & from 4 to 9 P. M.
126.6 | -. ON Ae WS WW lr \n_i & \i to 3 A. M. Overcast
A as ‘to6a.mMu. Yitol Pp. mM. “i tod
p. M., clear afterwards.
131-7 (OI SO We variable . x: \ni to 6 a. M. M1tol Pp. mM. Wi
to 6 p. m., clear afterwards.
Slight rain at noon.
129.5) ... |S.W. & B.S. E. Ae Ai to 4P.M., clear afterwards.
129.0} .... |N.N. E. & variable.| 2.0] Clear to5 a. M. 71 to7 P.M.,
: clear afterwards.
.. | O73 INVE.&N.NVE. | ... | Clear to6a. m. “ito 10 a.m.
Overcast to 2 Pp. mM. Clouds of
| different kinds to 8 Pp. M., clear
| afterwards. Thunder at 123 a.
M. Rain at 10 4.u. & from noon
to 2 Pp. wu.
124.0; ... |N. by W.& variable}... Clear to 4 4. w.\ni to 9 a. M.
i to 5 p. m.Clear afterwards..
Slightly foggy from 9 to 11 p.m.
125.0 |... UN. by Wed N byH. .... Clear to 11 a.m. “i to 8 P.M.
Clear afterwards. Foggy from
midnight to 4 a. M. Bi
L252 ee dN. ie LN cee — Clear to 1 a. mM, -ito4a. M.
Clear to 10 a. M. ~ito6P. m.
Clear afterwards.
125.45 s.. INE IN che Clear to 5 a. M. \i to 5 P. M.
Clear afterwards.
123:2)\ .... “IN. None NE, ae Clear to5a.mM.\ito3 P.M,
\ni & \_i afterwards.
2.31 (EB. N. Ba& N.E: 1.3] Wito 24. m. Overcast after-
wards. Rain from 3 a. m. to lL
P. M.
30
3]
\ i Cirri, —i Strati,~i Cumuli,Wi Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati,~— Nimbi,
wi Cirro cumuli.
Meteorological Observations. Ixxix
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
im the month of October 1867.
Monrtruty ReEsvutts.
Inches
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ... 29.880
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 9 a. a. on the 16th ... 30.008
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 3 p.m.on the 12th ... 29.755
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month be ... 0.253
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... aes cf .. 29.942
Ditto ditto Min. ditto ze. ... 29.821
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month .., ns) GaLee,
°
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month __.. to + Ole
Max. Temperature occurred at 1 & 3 p. M.on the 8th & 11th... ii
Min. Temperature occurred at 6 a. M. on the 29th & 30th . iL» 2s
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month ne a ae
Mean of the daily Max. Tem png i i ... $68
Ditto ditto Min. tto, inva (Gem
Mean raed range of the Temperature during the month.. Le 9.9
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month ... 76.9
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 4.3
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month % 73.9
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew-point. .. 7.3
ee
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., ue .. 0.824
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month , As. OS
Additional eg ht of Vapour required for complete saturation i. 22.38
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.79
Inches.
Rained 10 days,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours a ep 2.43
Total amount of rain during the month | * Bae
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month __. 8.01
Prevailing direction of the Wind... a “N.E.& E.N. EL
[xxx
r.
Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind blew, together with the number of days on
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations taken at the Surveyor General's Office.Calcutta, in the month of Oct. 1867.
Montuty Resvtrs.
which at the same hour, when any particular wind was blowing, it rained.
| As Aq‘
} Uo Urey
| “WO ULey
| “WO UleyT
} UO ULE yy
| uo Urey
| oO Urey
iN kq We
‘UO ULE
pa NW
| HN
| uo uresy
eh ONDE INT
hat Aq “Ny
more) eh
Meteorological Observations.
‘UO UII |
"M 4AQq "NT
"UO UB}
ee er eS ee ee er
“MONT
HO ULB
“MON
‘UO TLE
Cn eee eee eee ao NIMANWIANNAIAA
"MN M
a4 = —
NAN AHMAMIANMANAN RANA A
a
Sqn ee ee ON Be OD |
"UO ULBY
"NAG" AA
‘HO ULB YT
"M
ho ea
g &q “MA
"MO Urey |
re
M'S'M
"mO Ul
"MS
‘HO eal
‘M.S ‘S|
“WO Ue
“UO ULeYy
‘'§
“gq 4q “9
‘a's 's
"HO ULB
cm
“OH
9 ka ot
mi)
‘UO UIey
"UO UIRIY
. Ng
‘m0 yy]
re
NQ
SAAT NANMOAAA SS MMNAINMNAA So
re
NINA NCA MAAS oN
ao! |
AON MIAN
re
ap)
GO GO GI GN ra mel aANA ANMAN MOANA
i
|
Loma
ANNA 1 OO 4
SS
Aware
oN
rd Ta a) ish ie!
re ey)
OO rs Lm SS St rt rer GG
SHG OS SF FSIS CO tr OY Ne
tal all iS tie i! tole Lat | =
LD 1D 1D 1D LC Bx GD CO 6 20 OD SH MA HOO DIN I WN
ae
mH BId 1D 1D1d NAN NAA AAAAG
ON
GN MSN wool NN re Co aa
rN GO Fada oe OD Oe
‘ ae
o_o
Meteorological Observations. Ixxxi
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of November 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” East.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Chey
i § _ | Range of the Barometer = # |Range of the Tempera-
mes during the day. ne _ ture during the day.
5 ee ES
Date.| = BQ | Ag ‘
=e ; ae a 8 ti ;
s 2), | Max. | Min. | Diff. S 4 Max. | Min. | Diff.
si ~~ @ oa oS )
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) | ) ) )
1 29.728 | 29.870 | 29.220 0.650 70.1 | G1.7 68.0 3.7
2 561 923 | 28.544 1.379 13.2 79.5 69.5 , 10.0
3 975 | 30.039 | 29.894 0.145 77.5 82.5 Tha) Ik
4 | 30.017 O84 983 101 78.1 83.4 73.0 | 10.4
5. 007 .087 947. 140 76.5 82.0 72.0 | 10.0
6. | 29.980 .056 .928 .128 74.8 80.7 G26 | M1
7. | 30.012 .083 964 119 73.9 , 80.2 67.5 | 12.7
8. 041 105 .986 119 74.0 79.8 68.9 | 11.8
9 046 .O91 .980 Bs 75.4 | 81.4 71,0 | 10.4
10. O11 .063 951 112 74.7 76.0 72.5 3.0
$3. | 29.039 004 868. .136 75.) 81.0 72.0 9.0
12. 925 | 29.978 881 097 74.4 774 71.8 5.6
13, .993 | 30.053 931 122 74.8 78.8 71.0 7.8
14, .999 O72 933 | 139 76.3 81.9 72.5 9.4
15. 932 | 29.990 .856 134 75.0 80.3 70:0 | 198
* 2G. .931 .981 879. 102 Jaa. |) \#2.0 68.0 | 11.0
17. .987 | 30.055 942 | 113 13.0) | (81.6 66.4 | 15.2
18. | 30.063 125 | 30.018 107 75.0 | 822 68:5 | 18:7
19 .087 153 043 | 110, 75.4 i 82.0 69.5 | 22.5
20. .067 124 021 - .L03 74.38). \ 805 | GR | TRB
21. .064: 124 00 4. .120 74.6; | 82.0 | 69:0 | 180
22. 083 142 O31 | dali 74.3 | 81.4 68.0 | 13.4
23. 148 .216 104 112 74.4) | »83.0 67.4 | 15.6
24. 158 £231 100. . kok 73.9 81.4 68.2 | 13.2
25 | Ae .187 048 | "139 72.9% | (80:0 67.0 | 13.0
26. 111 178 O64, | Aga 72.1 79.5 65.5 | 14.0
27. bal .228 102); | 126 72.40 | 79.8 | 66.0 | 13.8
28 . 189 217 083. 134 (49 78.4 66.0 | 12.4
29. 133 208 072). 133 7D 79.2. | 64.5 | 14.7
30. 138 218 O82 133 69.9 76.7 63.5 | 13.2
i
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means-are derived,-from the hourly observations, made during
the day.
4xxxu Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
mm the month of November 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements .
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
+
f Fe ee 6 SH | SSG l-as.
A jase. 2] Ata gt 5) Sal eee
fo 5) B ae mes | x © =
ie ie be eters = S38 | SEE | y8
"a { fo) © = io) a og oO
aa 3 = 2 ee (ESS | ona
Date. antes e a 3 = Bp A} © | 3
2 9 2 ro = iets "3.9 BH | SOR
Pe |e | a | ag | Be | BS | See) 3 8
ao ay Gi q =| Hea aes
& 3 aie ee i CCW ce
= a o fas = a | =
° 0 ) o Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr
1 69.2 0.9 | 68.5 1.6 | 0.692 7.62 | 0.41 | 0.95
2 70.7 2.5 | 68.7 4.5 .697 61 1.21 86
3 73.3 42 | 704 71 .736 99 2.05 80
4 73.5 4.6 | 70.3 7.8 734 95 27 78
& 70.8 5.7 | 66.8 9.7 | .665 11 64 73
6 68.3 6.5. | VES?) “Bae 591 | 6.45 81 70
7 66.8 71 | 648) 4g 555 06 95 67
8 68.6 5.4 | 64.8 9.2 613 71 33 74
9 72.0 3.4} 69.6 5.8 717 7.81 1°62 83
10 73.5 12 | aoe 2.0 792 8.65 0.58. 94,
11 73.0 2.5 | 71.2 4.3 .756 23 1.23 87
12 72.5 HO! e7itt2 3.2 .756 25 0.90 90
13 72.8 9.0 | 71.4 3.4 761 30 .96 90
14 73.6 7) Fa 4.6 .768 35 1.34 86
15 70.3 4.7 | 67.0 8.0 .659 7.18 9.13 77
16 66.8 6.0 | 62.0! 10.8 B59 6.11 60 70
Bye |: 267.1 6.2 | 621] 11.2 561 13 7 69
18 69.1 5.9 | 65.0/ 10.0 617 73 58. 72
19 69.3 6.1 | 65.0] 10.4 617 73 .70 71
20 68.1 6.2 | 63.8] 10.5 593 46 66 71
21 68.8 5.8 | 64.7 9.9 611 66 BA 72
22 68.3 6.0} 641} 10.2 599 54 58 72
23 68.0 6.7 | 63.3] 11.4 584 37 .86 69
D4 68.0 5.9 | 63.9] 10.0 595 50 51 72
25 66.5 64 | 61.4} 115 548 5.99 74 69
26 64.8 73 | 6907 13h 506 54 99 65 4
27 65.1 73 | 5003%\. dae. |. 26m 59 3.01 65 ‘
28 64.9 70! SOBs) ae 1+ 61 ee 2.89 66
29 64.4 6.6 | 59.1) 119 | 508 | “5 68 68
30 62.2 77) Be). 1a a.
j
aM AI Pan tas
fi: SBP a ii hap he ca | |
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.: ,
Meteorological Observations. Ixxxhii
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of November 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
63 Range of the Barometer | 4 Range of the Tempera-
28. for each hour during as ture for each hour
Pe a the month. me during the month.
Hour.| ey A E
g63 | Max. | Min. | Dif. | £3 | Max. | Min. | Diff
Ss. ae
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. i aa! oO o
Mid-
night.| 30.002 | 30.176 | 28.954 | 1.222 71.6 78.8 | 67.2 | JL¢
1 29.985 .163 .693 470 71.2 78.0 66.4 | 11.6
2 971 149 544 605 70.7 77.5 65.6 | 11.9
3. .963 139 554 585 70.2 76.0 65.5 | 10.5
4, 974 146 892 254 69.6 74.8 65.2 9.6
5 30.006 157 | 29.429 | 0.728 69.3 74.8 64.8 | 10.0
6 .022 yg) -588 583 69.1 74.6 63.9 | 10.7
7 044 191 -666 525 69.4 73.8 63.5 | 10.3
8 .069 216 124 492 72.2 76.0 66.8 9.2
9 .086 .229 762 467 74.6 78.5 69.6 8.9
10 .087 231 788 443 76.5 79.5 70.4 9.1
11 068 .208 788 | .420 77.9 81.5 | 70.5 | 11.0
Noon. .042 176 -786 .390 78.7 82°5 70.5 | 12.0
1 .012 148 755 393 79.3 82.7 71.4 |.11.3
2 29.990 123 122 401 79.7 83.4 / a a
3 .979 111 706 | .405 79.6 82.5 | 71.5 | 11.0
4 .978 106 -690 416 78.5 81.8 71.4 | 10.4
6 .989 i? -708 409 fico. GS 1.6 71.0} 10.5
6 30.002 .136 .669 467 75.8 81.0 71.0 | 10.0
7 .018 160 625 535 74.7 81.0 70.5 | 10.5
a.. .033 Begs 595 .576 73.8 80.5 69.5 | 11.0
9 041 189 538 651 73.1 80.2 68.5 | LEY
a .036 199 A424 Wg) ie 80.0 67.0 | 13.0
2.1
|
2029. 186 .220 .966 | 79.5 66.5 | 13.0
|
| Ee)
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
ermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the month.
Ixxxiv Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
in the month of November 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
; | Boot] tet es aud
Se ee a ol uate | eae
= eS oy mo 8 SS | eee.
2 o © 5 he NS) “- 4 = ran mee
Bo | Be ba) Be be
Hour. = fs ¥ 3 | 3 ae ae BE oe
| oe | 2 a | ci | s, a wee
BE /4|2)4. | de | 82 | bsbi ees
[ae R= oa uy el fee a= b= = See: B.S ge
| ss Poh. & Be | jae fa | ots | &se
| = alo at Sr ea
fe) | 0) oe) Inches. | Tops) 2 eee:
Mid-
night.| 68.7 2.9 | 66.4 5.2 | 0.646 7.10 1.30 0.85
ee 68.4 2.8 | 66.2 5.0 | .642 .05 25 .85
2 68.0 2.7 | 65.8 4.9 634 6.97 21 .85
3 67.6 2.6 | 65.5 4.7 .628 91. 14 .86
A 67.2 2.4 | 65.3 4.3 623. 87 .03 87
5 67.0 2.3 | 60.2 4.1 621 | 85. 0.98 .88
6 67.0 2.1 | 65.3 3.8 .623 .87 91 .88
74 67.0 2.4 | 65.1 AS» | *.618). 83 1.03 87
8 68.5 3.7 | 65.5 6.7. | .628 .88 67 | 81
9 69.2 5.4. | 65.4 9:2) .626 | 82. 2.38 . WE
10: 69.9 66), 6o.5 |) 11.2 .623 18 97 70
11 70.2 1h) 64:8 13.1 .613 65 3.51 .66
Noon. 70.1 8.6 | 64.1 14.6 599 AZ 94, 62
1 70.2 9.1 | 63.8 15.5 9S 40 4.19 60
2 70.2 9.5 | 63.5 16.2 .588 04 38 | 59
3 69.9 9.7 | 63.1 16@,,| 580, 25 | 44, 59
A 69.6 8.9 | 63.4 1Gay f 086 30 .02 61
5 70.0 7.5 | 64.7 12.8 160: 625, 3.42 66
6 70.2 5.6 | 66.3 os 644 7.01 2.53 74
zi! 70.0 4.7 | 66.7 8.0 .653 4d 12 77
8 69.7 4.1 | 66.8 7.0 .655 1G. , 1.82 80
9 69.4 3.7 | 66.4 6.7 .646 OF ©. 72 80
10 69.2 3.3 | 66.6 5.9 .651 12 51 83
11 68.8 3.3 | 66.2 5.9 642 03 59 82
ral
SS i i. on be Le ae a.
All the Hy grometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants..5
Meteorological Observations.
IxxxvV.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations .
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of November 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
Date.
—
16
17
Max. Solar
radiation.
= @
121.0
110.0
116.2
Prevailing
direction of the
Wind.
Kain Guage 1]
ft. 2 in. above
| Ground.
Max. Pres-
sure of Wind.
General aspect of the Sky.
Inches
112 |E.N. E.& N.N.E.
*2.74 \vane broken
aA
‘ely. FF
N.
0.90 |E.
0.09 IN. & N.N. E.
N.& N. by E.
N.& iN. NoW.
N.N.W.& RW.
Variable.
S.S.W. &W:S aa
*By Anemometer gauge.
= Gt
Overcast. High wind from 2 to
7 a. M. Gale from 6 to 11 P. m.
Rain at 2, 3,7,8,11 & noon &
from 5 to 11 Pp. M.
Overcast to 1 Pp. m., \Wi to 8 P.
M., clear afterwards. Heavy
driving rain from midnight to
4 a.m. Drizzled from 5 to 10 a.
M. Foggy at 7 & 8 p.m.A cyclone
passed over Calcutta.
Clear tol a. m.,\_ito5 a. M.,
“ito 4p. M., clear afterwards;
Slightly foggy at4 &5 a.m.
Clear to 7 aA. M., \Wito 6 P.M.,
clear afterwards. Foggy from 1
to5a.M. & from 7 to 11 Pp. m.
Clear. Foggy from midnight
to 3 a. M.
Clear.
Clear. Slightly foggy from 7
to 11 Pp. m.
Clear to5 a. M., \1 to6 P.M.,
clear to 9 p. M., \ni afterwards.
Slightly foggy from midnight
to 2a. M.
\1 to 2 a.m., stratoni to noon;
clouds of different kinds to 7 P.
M., stratoni,afterwards.
Stratoni to 5 a. M., overcast
afterwards. Rain fron 6 a. M. to
9P. M.
Overcast to 7 A. M., \Wi after-
wards. Light rain at 5 & 6 a. M.
\nl to 5 A. M., overcast to 4 P.
M., Wi afterwards. Slight rain
from 1la.m.tol p.m. & at 4P.M.
Seuds from N. to 44. M., Wi
to7 p. M., clear afterwards. Light
rain at 23 P. M.
Overcast to 10 a. M.,~i after-
wards.
Clear to 1 a. M., Aito7 P.M.,
clear afterwards. Foggy atl & 2
A. M.
\ni to 4a.M., clear afterwards.
Slightly foggy at7 & 8 P. wu.
Clear.” °
Ixxxvi Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of November 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
as Tee
ag 8 = Prevailing iS i
¢ he & E 5 direction of the pee General aspect of the Sky.
Sas @ (ean : = es
Q = os s 3 >) | Wind. si z
o |Inches ib
LSS ELSIE 4 ae Clear to 11 a-M., “ito 3 P.m.,
\ni afterwards.
BIO 19; ao (S55. Gn. aK Clear to 7 4. M., “i to 7 P.M.,
clear afterwards.
20) 120.0} ... IN. N.E.& N.E. ei \_i to 2a.m., clear to 10 a.m.,
“i to 5 p. M., clear afterwards.
CL WAS0nie i077) N it Clear to 10 a. M., “ito5P.M.,
clear afterwards.
22; 122.0) ... IN. & N.E, eke Clear to 7 a. M., \ito104.m™.,
“ito5p.M., clear afterwards.
Foggy from 8 to 10 p. mM.
23/;116.0; ... IN. ae Clear to noon, ~ito6P. m.,
\i afterwards. Foggy from 4 to
7a.M. & from8to ll P. mM. ~
249911720) 1. 2 NE a Clear to5 a. M., \i & 71 to 6
P. m., clear afterwards. _
2) LLG). Ne NE a Clear toll a.m., >i to 5 P.M.,
clear afterwards.
26 a woe UN, Bae IN. WY. = Clear to 8 a. mi, \i &71 to &
P. M., Clear afterwards.
27|117.5| ... IN. &N.N. E. er Clear to 6 a.M., \itol04. m,
; “i to 6 p. m. clear afterwards.
28/1155; 1... IN,&N.N. W. nes Clear to 6 a.m., \i to 10 4. Mm.
Stratoni tol p.m., ii& >itod
p. M., Clear afterwards. —_—_—
29; 114.0! ... lvariable 3 ... | Clearto 5 a. m., \i to6 P. w.,
2 clear afterwards.Slightly foggy
: from 8 to 11 Pp. mu.
BOPAIEO. | a GNI oe sas Clear to 5 a.m., ito SP. M.,
clear afterwards. Slightly foggy
at midnight & from 5 to 7 a.M.
‘ i Cirri, —i Strati,i Cunuli, i Cirro-strati, hes Cumulo strati, ~i Ni rie =
“i Cirro cumuli. Lo intbi,
Meteorological Observations. Ixxxvil
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of November 1867.
MontHiy REsvLts.
Inches
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. ,.. 80.018
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 a. m.onthe24th .,. 30.231
Min. height of the Barometer occurred at 2.4. M.onthe 2nd... 28.644
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month ee os JOSE
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures __..., wt A ... 30.096
Ditto ditto Min. ditto ee ... 29.915
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month... +.) SE
; o
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month __... ei Pegs
Max. Temperature occurred at 2 Pp. mM. on the 4th :. . 83.4
‘Min. Temperature occurred at 7 a. M. on the 30th i a
Extreme range of the Temperature es the month a 4c aS
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature . 3 — iv? ao
Ditto ditto Mun. iL 52 sor OO
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month.. dae ee
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month 69.0
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 5.1
Comp ated Mean Dew-point for the month 65.4
ite Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 8.7
Sehod
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .,, sas ve =0.626
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month 3. 36.82
Additional eight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.25.
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.75
Inches.
‘Rained 6 days,—Max. fall of rain nes 24 hours a te e274
Total amount of rain during the month . 4.85
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month a 36 ie a)
Prevailing direction of the Wind... ... N.&N. N E
Ixxxvill
nN
©
or
“tn0e
ES io)
= mn
a)
together with the number of da
>
d was blowing, it rained.
Montuiuy RESULTS.
vations taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Caleutta, in the month of N
Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind blew,
which at the same hour, when any particular win
4
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Obser
‘Meteorological Observations.
‘UO ULB
‘UO ULB yy
"M NN
‘uo UleyYy
ae NLT
‘UO ULB
“MN AA
‘dO ULB
"NT Aq* AA
‘uO ULB
"MA
‘UO UleyT
'g Aq "MA
‘TO UlByT
‘M'S'M
"UO ULB
"MS
"uO ULBY|
"MS's
‘UO UIBIT
"mM 4q‘g
Oe
Eo.
“UO ULB
‘aA Aq ‘g
"UO TLR
"HS 'S
‘UO ULB YT
"A'S
"Wo ULeYy
“7S
"UO ULBY
"g Aq oat
"UO UlRyyT
wel
‘uo ULBYT
"NT Ag ‘7
"mo UleyT|
‘A NCA
"UO Ulex
ac "Ny rs
‘UO UIBIT
"AN ON
“UO UIBYy
“aT AQ NT
"uO UB]
"NT
oO. .
AND NNMAAM GDH
ase = toe NN HD =o SIN
1
\No.of days
il
ON
1
1
—
al | SS
SAMRAT NNANMANAAAA TS AS
a = —
Con A cee Ol oe I oe ee nO’ ee ce Saeed
re Loa
ia le lati etl
Aa
As
io] oe eee aaeateS
CO < OSFION GO NI 10 FO OD Wea Aa eS
ae ae
Sm MRR MMRWMOMARTANAN
Tes) RO) CO SH RD O> ACD GB) Sd: Od Bpei6O Bm COG BIC2 GD te aT GC DST ae
(a!
—
ge) 55) A
“Moy ee ee oe mA OO Fd CO I HD SD
fan)
Noon.
wa
“a
Meteorological Observations. Ixxxix }
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta,
in the month of December 1867.
Latitude 22° 33’ 1” North. Longitude 88° 20’ 34” Fast.
Height of the Cistern of the Standard Barometer above the sea level, 18.11 feet.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
Cy
oe 8 _ | Range of the Barometer = = Range of the Tempera-
aes during the day. As ture during the day.
5s Pa
Date. | © E a Ag
= ; aS
ao°, | Max. Min. Diff. Sc Max. | Min. | Diff.
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) a) ) oe)
1 30.125 | 30.201 | 30.071 0.130 69.4 76.5 63.6 | 12.9
2 092 163 024 139 70.9 78.2 64.0 , 14.2
3 .100 173 039 134 71.0 77.5 65.2 | 12.3
4 120 193 066 127 71.5 78.2 65.0 | 13.2
5 LOL 189 046 143 70.0 77.6 63.4 | 14.2
6 047 115 | 29.987 128 68.9 77.0 Gib 9) Te:5
7 021 .O88 961 127 68.9 ry A 63.0 | 14.1
8 048 .125 | 30.003 122 67.0 75.0 69.5 | 14.5
9 058 124 OOL 123 66.5 76.0 58.5 | 17.5
10 O83 173 O29 144 66.4 74.2 ag.0"') TS.2
11 .068 .163 O13 150 64.7 72.5 57.5 | 15.0
12 .056 131 O05 126 65.3 74.8 58.0 | 16.8
13 O75 .165 O14 151 67.3 75.5 Ao.8 | La?
14 062 Log 010 129 66.7 73.2 Gib) TR
15 057 110 | 29.997 113 67.7 75.0 61.0 | 14.0
16 102 .180 | 30.046 134 67.4) 74.6 60.0 | 14.6
17 .108 .169 057 ees 69.1 78.2 62.0 | 16.2
18 093 173 022 151 68.7 76.5 61.5 | 15.0
19 .082 148 022 126 68.3 77.0 60.5 | 16.5
20 .057 126 | 29.992 134 67.7 75.8 60.2 | 15.6
21 042 109 .986 123 67.0 7d.4 60.0 | 15.4
22 057 .138 .998 .140 66.8 160.2 59.2 | 17.5
23 .099 177 | 30.046 131 66.9 75.2 60.0 | 15.2
24 .110 .182 045 137 66.6 75.5 59.0 | 16.5
25 O74 151 .032 Bole) 66.3 73.5 60.5 | 13.0
26 058 .138 .003 135 67.8 76.4 60.0 | 16.4
27 O55 121 O11 pa 09 70.1 78.2 62.0 | 16.2
28 .082 L538 025 128 69.6 78.0 62.5 | 15.5
29 85 | 157 025 132 68.1 75.5 61.4 | 14.1
30 .096 .180 030 .150 66.8 74.7 60.0 | 14.7
31 .082 144 O17 127 66.0 73.4 58.5 | 14.9
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
ap eel Means are derived, from the hourly observations, made during
the day.
Ke Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
tn the month of December 1867.
Daily Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.—/(Continued.)
=
Bs) fussy | B21 Busine Sh | cee een ee
ot = 3 i o Ee se | 8 a
eat i cy = > Sar a3 s | i a
re o = ao ey 2 : has, =| 25 = =
5 Saas one : £8 |e ee | S20
Dobe eee |. ca al tee ae = "Eh 2 faen| 2 as
oo 2 a2 2 Cs; ‘Oo ,2 aut an Or
Es 2 5 Ee fl > s | Soe | eo
q aia E Fo. 3, | eee be
aS = o = 3 = 2 — = ax So
eae bs = PAY & > og | ores |e
= St Sos ae = a7 |< =
) ) Co) oy) Inches. | :'T. er. | “Eonar
1 63.1 6.3 | 58.1 11.3 0.491 5.41 2.45 0.69
2 65.8 5.1 | 61.7 9.2 54 6.08 15 74
3 65.3 5.7 | 60.7 10.3 .536 5.88 od a.
A 64.5 7.0 | 58.9 12.6 504 52 .86 .66
5 63.0 7.0 | 57.4 12.6 480 27 73 -66
6 63.0 &.9 | 38.3 10.6 A94 44, .30 10
7 61.8 ZL |) O64 12.8 459 .O6 .68 .65
8 59.6 7.4 | 53.7 13.3 423 4.69 61 64,
5) 59.3 4.2 | 53.5 13.0 421 67 52 65
10 58.7 ff 0) Gene 13.9 - 407 51 .66 63
11 57 4 Z.3 | OL.6 13.1 04. 38 AZ 64
12 59.3 6.0 | 54.5 10.8 435 83 LO 70
13 61.4 5.9 | 56.7 10.6 A69 5.17 .20 70:
14 * 61.8 4:97 \ oF.9 8.8 A88 a9 1.84 1d
15 61.8 5.9 | 57.1 10.6 AZd 24 2.22 70:
16 62.4) 5.0 | 58.4 9.0 496 48: 1.91 74
17 63.3. 5.8 | 58.7 10.4 OL 3 2.20 wel
18 63.1 5.6 | 58.6 10.1 499° |, 61 18 12
19 62.6 5.7 | 58.0 10.3 489 |. AO 20 hal
20 61.4 6.3 | 56.4 11.3 464 12 a4 .69
21 60.1 6.9 | 54.6 12.4, 437 A,.84, 46 .66
22 60.5 6.3 | 55.5 IL3 .450 ao 27 .69
23 61.0 5.9 | 56.3 10.6 462 ad hy nr Og
24 60.2 6.4 | 55.1 11.5 444: 4.92 29 .68
25 60.6 5.7 | 56.0 10.3 458 5.08 Ee Gi
26 61.8 6.0: | 87,0 10.8 473 22 .26 70
27 64.4 5.7 | 59.8 10.3 520 wa 32 71
28 63.0 6.6 | 57.7 11.9 485 oo 7 .68
29 62.1 6.0 | 57.3 10.8 478 27 28 ean
30 60.7 ° 61) 55.8 dl. OF 455 04 22 .69
31
All the Hygrometrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants.
Meteorological Observations. xel
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of December 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elements
dependent thereon.
oe Range of the Barometer . |Range of the Tempera-
= 5. for each hour during a 8 ture for each hour
we a the month. Re during the month.
feD) [ om)
Hour.) © eS 4 2
S33 | Max. | Min. | Diff. | §2- | Max. | Min. | Dif.
ak ok
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. ) co) ) )
Mid-
night.} 30.080 | 30.134 | 30.024 | 0.110 64.6 68.3 60.5 7.8
1 O74 125 022 .103 64.0 68.0 | 59.5 8.5
2 .965 113 012 101 63.4 67.2 59.0 8.2
3 057 101 | 29.999 .102 62.9 66.5 58.8 V7
A .053 .106 | 30.000 .LO6 62.3 66.5 58.7 7.8
5 .062 110 O11 .OS9 61.8 66.4 58.2 8.2
6 .080 134 .027 107 61.2 65.2 57.5 oy
7 101 151 O44 107 61.0 65.5 57.5 8.0
8 130 «476 069 .LO7 65.9 69.2 60.0 9.2 °
9 147 .196 .087 .109 67.2 71.8 62.5 9.3
10 147 .201 .088 3. 70.1 74.5 65.5 9.0
11 130 176 073 .103 72.5 76.3 69.3 7.0
Noon. 097 144 042 .162 74.0 76°8 71.2 5.6
1 .062 «LIS | 29.998 115 (poet 78.2 72.0 6.2
2 .039 .085 976 .109 75.6 78.2 71.0 7.2
3 024, .083 .968 115 75.7 78.2 72.0 6.2
4A .022 071 .961 pd) 74.5 eke 71.5 6.2
5 031 .080 .970 .110 13.3 16.3 70.5 5.8
6 044 097 .987 .110 71.0 74.5 67.0 7.5
7 .060 113 | 30.007 .106 69.3 73.0 65.0 8.0
8 .O76 129 025 104 68.2 72.0 64.4) 7.6
9 .O86 Lad .037 100 67.0 71.5 63.0 8.5
10 .092 147 042 105 66.1 70.5 61.8 8.7
il .087 140 .030 110 65.3 70.0 61.0 9.0
The Mean Height of the Barometer, as likewise the Dry and Wet Bulb
Thermometer Means are derived from the observations made at the several
hours during the month,
xcli Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Caleutta,
im the month of December 1867.
Hourly Means, &c. of the Observations and of the Hygrometrical elemen ts
dependent thereon.—(Continued.)
iy
4 a 3 Cy eae ‘6 Sie dea FS
g ah Bae S aca | 7a | 88
Sj | | a | ON ES | ee
2 © ) iS) “a 42 "© ey ae Sele te
- Eo) BAS Ee ss |Eze| S33
Hour. = ie 3 8 =e ot: a © A np
o So . ‘O'S 3S © an
ES | | S-| 3. bes ee) eee
ag FA a | Fle d 3, e = Bremer
SO bb =I ao SR a 8 oO 3 = Sf a
a 4 ° a AY 5 > = T> Sl wos
= A oO A = =" < ete
) ) Ce) Inches. | T. gr. | T. gr.
Mid-
night. 60.9 a7 | HS 6.7 0.488 5.41 LSet 0.80:
1 60.4. 3.6 | 57.2 6.8 476 29 .36 .80
2 60.0 3.4 | 56.9 6.5 472 20 28 .80
3 59.5 3.4 | 56.4 6.5 464 Ag; .26 .80
4, 59.0 aed. |) Seo 6.3 .458 Ba 19 81
5 58.7* 3.1 | 55.9 5.9 456 .LO at 82
6 58.3 29 |). 5a7 ae} 453 .07 .03 .83
Z 58.3 OT | 55.9 Sul .456 Ba ia 0.95 84
8 61.6 4.3 | 58.2 Til 493 AB 1.60 ik
9 61.3 5.9 | 65.6 10.6 467 .16 2.19 .70
10 62.5 7.6 | 56.4 V3.7 464 .09 94 .63
11 63.1 9.4 | 55.6 16.9 A452 A.95 3.68 yf
Noon.| 63.5 10.5 | 56.1 17.9 459 5.01 4.03 00
1 63.7 a AR) Bat: 19.4 A53 4.94, .40 573,
2 64.1 11.5 | 56.0 19.6 458 97 aS | .o2
3 63.9 Las, | M5526 20.1 A52 92 09 bet.
A 63.7 10.8 | 56.1 18.4 .459 5.08 17 5d.
5 63.8 9.5.| 56.2 |. 17.1 AGL .03 3.81 ate!
6 64.0 7.0 | 58.4 12.6 496 way 2.82 .66
a 63.8 5.5 | 59.4 9.9 013 64 Ag 12
8 63.2 5.0 | 59.2 9.0 009 63 1.95 74
Q 62.7 A.3 | 59.3 He oll .65 .65 iE
10 62.0 Al | si8r7 7.4 001 .06 54, 78
14: 61.4: 3.9 | 58.3 7.0 494, A8 © 45 79
ee eee
All the Hygronietrical elements are computed by the Greenwich Constants. i.
Meteorological Observations.
x¢elll
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
© ow Seanwe-> ws. | Date.
ame _
loan o
—
bo
Max. Solar
radiation.
taken at the Surveyor Generals Office, Calcutta,
in the month of December 1867.
ft. 2 in. above
‘Rain Guage 1
_ Ground.
B\
- © |
Aes =H
7)
ZR
o
N.N. W. &N. W.
N.
.
direction of the
a A 2 eae ae
Solar Radiation, Weather, &e.
Prevailing
Wind.
Max. Pres-
sure of Wind
~
A
Re
A
et
wards.
& N
& N. by W. ahs Clear
General aspect of the Sky.
\i & Ni to 6 P. M., clear after-
Clear to 10 a. m., “ito5p.
M., clear afterwards.
F Chiefly clear.
Pe eh Pe Chiefly clear.
Clear. Slightly foggy at mid-
night & from 7 to 11 Pp. M.
Clear. Foggy at midnight & 1
A. M., & from 8 to 1l P.M.
Clear. Foggy at midnight & 1
A. M., & from 8 to 10 Pp. M.
Clear. Slightly foggy from 8
to ll Pp. m.
Clear to 7 4. M., -i to 104.M.,
clear afterwards. Slightly foggy
at midnight. & 1 a. m.
Clear to 5 a. m., thin \i to 6
p.M., clear afterwards. Foggy
from 8 toll p.m.
~a&N. W, 38 Clear to 5 mM.,.ito3P. m.,
\_1 to 6 p. m., clear afterwards.
Foggy from midnight to7 a. M.,
& from 7 to 10 Pp. m.
Ni to ll a. w., “i & Ni after-
wards.
Ni & \Wi to 6 p.M., clear after-
wards.
Scatd. “i to 6 a. m., clear to
1]1 a.m., “ito 3 Pp. m., clear af-
terwards. Foggy at 9 p. M.
W.&N. ne Clear to noon, ~ito5 P. M., «
clear afterwards.
\ni to 2 a.m., clear to 11 a.m.,
& N. N.E.
i to 2p. m., clear afterwards.
Clear nearly the whole day.
Clear.
Clear.
Clear
Clear. Slightly foggy .at 11
P. M.
Clear.
Slightly foggy from
midnight to 6 a. m., & trom 8 to
1 Br Me:
Clear.
XC1V Meteorological Observations.
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
mm the month of December 1867.
Solar Radiation, Weather, &c.
ad 25 eae | ee:
3 8 qray Prevailing 4] fe
S 4.8 & <= =| direction of the fe
~ co) Sid Sexy
s a8 Aad Wind. S
A| A" ee =f
o |Inches
25) eld De | vee IND
26.) 11184 shea ie
D7 TIO iN.
28 | 113.05) D238 ieee.
29) 111:0|.... IN. B.
30 | T11.5,/ 1 Ger ale
31 N.
General aspect of the Sky.
\i to 5 aA. M., \i & \ni to 6 P.
M., clear afterwards. Light rain
at 13 P. M.
Clear to noon, \i & ito 5
p. M., clear afterwards. Slightly
_ foggy from 8 to 11 P.M.
Clear. Slightly foggy at mid-
2 night & 1 a. M.
Chiefly clear.
Chiefly clear.
Chiefly clear. Slightly foggy
at 7 & 8PM. -
Clear to noon, “i to 5 P. M.,
clear afterwards. Foggy from 7
to 1l P. M.
\ 1 Cirri, —i Strati,>i Cumuli,ci Cirro-strati, ~i Cumulo strati, ~i Nimbi,
“i Cirro cumuli.
Meteorological Observations. XeV
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorological Observations
| taken at the Surveyor General’s Office, Calcutta,
in the month of December 1867.
Montuty REsvtts.
Inches.
Mean height of the Barometer for the month.. a ty BO-O08
Max. height of the Barometer occurred at 10 4. at. onthe Ist ... 30.201
Min. height of the Barometer occurredat 4P.M.onthe 7th ... 29.961
Extreme range of the Barometer during the month ast ... 0.240
Mean of the daily Max. Pressures... 5x en v 80.152
Ditto ditto Min. ditto Sas ... 30.020
Mean daily range of the Barometer during the month ... a pO ae
to)
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer for the month _. , », CH
Max. Temperature occurred at 2 p. M. on the and, “Ath, 17th & 27th 78.2
Min. Temperature occurred at 6 & 7 A. mM. on the lth +0 : |, Bf8
Extreme range of the Temperature during the month z7 aa Oe
Mean of the daily Max. Temperature .. ¥ vis vee. eee
Ditto —_ ditto Min. ditto, i va.5, oe
Mean daily range of the Temperature during the month,, as 2s
Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer for the month... 61.7
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above Mean Wet Bulb Thermometer 6.2
Computed Mean Dew-point for the month ban oe
Mean Dry Bulb Thermometer above computed mean Dew- -point . 12
ped
Mean Elastic force of Vapour for the month .., edt ... 0.469
Troy grain.
Mean Weight of Vapour for the month a. eeeln
Additional ‘Weight of Vapour required for complete saturation ... 2.34
Mean degree of humidity for the month, complete saturation being unity 0.69
Inches.
Drizzled 1 day,—Max. fall of rain during 24 hours a aA Nil
Total amount of rain during the month : Nil
Total amount of rain indicated by the Gauge attached to the anemo-
meter during the month se oe Se bf , Nil
Prevailing direction of the Wind... ... ~ N. & iN We
Xevl
MontuHiy REsvULTS.
cal Observations taken at the SurveyorGeneral’s Office, Calcutta, in the month of Dec. 1867.
Tables shewing the number of days on which at a given hour any particular wind blew, together with the number of days on
Abstract of the Results of the Hourly Meteorologi
which at the same hour, when any particular wind was blowing, it rained.
"UO UIT
“M 4° NI
“uo ULE
“M'N'N
‘UO ULB
AN, NS
‘UO ULB YT
“MNT AA
‘UO ULB
"MN AQ* AA
‘uO ULB
"M
‘UO ULB
Gg Aq "MA
‘HO ULB
MSM
‘UO ULB
"Ma
See
MS's
‘MO ULB}T
M kq 7a
‘uo UleYy
7
“TLO ULeY
‘a Aq ‘g
UO WIRY
Sus
WO WIRY
‘HS
UO WIR
‘AS CW
“UO ULB
‘HO UIRT
20L|
‘UO WIRY
"aT Aq
‘UO UBT
“HON CH
‘MO UIey
"AN
"WO WIV
‘A NN
"UO U1ByT
“a Aq *N
‘UO WIR}
Nl
Tad 4
‘MOF i
No.of days
Pe) ia} al
eS eS
Meteorological Observations.
oN aN N
HOO 10 6 10 G2 GD CO 10 ON ae
OID AAM OOM MOMAOAINA GS
sh al
eS
HMO ANWUAA TTT
re
‘on
MRM nRNANTANAAN
AAA NAAN TS
ee
ae! tet
eat
Minh hehe
ak ha ihe : ah ye
a :
av " at Py ¥
i
+ aS path?
, is
Sa VW :
(Wisi tise Viges
ie hs ;
ce te <
f ’ +» ‘ r ‘
. at
cr? * j F
ad Pu
a J J }. : <
i Design
tk A
eX.
y 7
;
j
' 4
3
‘se
7 7
7s A
w aS 3
d , ie:
roe
m
, ¢
4
& <
F
se Ree
4 “ a\ :
1 Bl wie vy
7. :
7 " "y te
a ; Fa
é
as f si
il a a
'
7 ‘
ae r
i >
3 *
. : '
.
x },
4
ov Py
ae i
‘ mS ;
P
, aes?
i on
PY
Sur
, a
exh P
4
+ _
2
é
“a
: ke
Mm Pn
«*
rm,
,
P +
ni . ay
=
dH
:
ke t
;
‘
{ , T
§ ow
esa tone
Torn
Laas
=9-G=8 58
ot nb
“he
rare be ee
tow ese ee 20-4
a8 é
pcana—
eneee
oe a8) 0-008 7S O>
er es-a oS,
ee
aan riod
ae -%
a
<¢
neat
Tot.
Pat
aT ae
Sam w- rnere
mary ere
«
one
aeu-e-4<0>
orem 4 OSes
“9 ae =o -b-4-8—a>"
ert tt
ee es
beret ys ted dha
ck ea ee a=
peg -e-
ray ie
-ae8
a on
<2 24 oom
a ‘ r
* =o. ; Pi
- ST) ‘
eamasese >
eens
ee
ane
ete
erg
eos
ere
a -
O~ eo ~e
—
or)
ee
<a eae
“*
en
=
2
end woot
ag een
etas. 5-5
oo = ~
ears arent eet
gg eer erne=
“* ws?
heed
a-e=8
-_
—
vas
oe
——
parrenction & Fed
=~ e~
- ee an
eet
tent Ga tee
moe
arene
—-3 8
a a
arm’
.
gree
’
1
=> J
ee
i-~ @-4 &-%-9%
oe = eee
er 7 :
were Pht
=a ee
>-e—"
Petts yee Sartre
Bad a6 8h oe ems ere
ne geet bea’ heme ee » ra red
eee Ook ok =a at ~~ &
he
Agee te
a a ss Sa
ore
=a
anu
ene
+-4—
ig e2eug®
a = he
<@
+<a'> 4
‘
ee state
ad
=9;02
~,
aga gee
g veh egres
tte te baled
totawesn sem
lisesee
pagr@cgsaoes
*
Se beeen
aca
rie betets
aise
$55
ers
seers
--2~ to ae
- = ee
ae
L5G het tty
eT Pit re tt Pad
~ 4 a ©
ee thet
~e>aew
=e ee
ad
" -
bs s-a7@ Stee
b Zinscese ¥>-e-@
{aay a Ge"
reelrr te ba
a - 2-8 -e
—
+=e-84 ~a= 9-4
=e oe —o>4-0—e
o.* 2 S
= 28
a=
=o=
boa 92
tye
we
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11